CYCLOPAEDIA: 
 
 OR, AN 
 
 UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY 
 
 O F 
 
 ARTS AND SCIENCES; 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 AN EXPLICATION OF THE TERMS, AND AN ACCOUNT OF 
 THE THINGS SIGNIFIED THEREBY, 
 
 I N T H E 
 
 SEVERAL ARTS, BOTH LIBERAL AND MECHANICAL; 
 
 AND THE 
 
 SEVERAL SCIENCES, HUMAN AND DIVINE: 
 The Figures, Kinds, Properties, Productions, Preparations, and Ufesof Things 
 
 Natural and Artificial: 
 The Rife, Progrefs, and State of Things 
 ECCLESIASTICAL, CIVIL, MILITARY, AND COMMERCIAL: 
 With the feveral Syftems, Se£ts, Opinions, &c. among 
 
 PHILOSOPHERS, 
 DIVINES, 
 
 MATHEMATICIANS, 
 
 PHYSICIANS, 
 A N T I QJJ ARIES, 
 CRITICS, &c. 
 
 The whole intended as a Courfe of antient and modern Learning. 
 
 Extrafted from the belt Authors, Dictionaries, Journals, Memoirs, Tranfa£tions, 
 Ephemerides, &*c. in feveral Languages. 
 
 By E. CHAMBERS, F. R. S. 
 
 Floriferis ut apes i?i faltibus o?nnia libant, 
 Omnia nos — ■ Loceet. 
 
 THE SIXTH EDITION, 
 
 CORRECTED and AMENDED. 
 
 IN TWO VOLUMES. 
 VOL. II. 
 
 LONDON: 
 Printed for W. Innys, J. and P. Knapton, S. Birt, D. Browne, T. Longman, 
 R. Hett, C. Hitch, J. Hodges, T. Shuckburgh, A. Mili ,r, J. and 
 J.Rivington, J. Ward, M. Senex, and the Executors of J. Darby. 
 
 M.DCC.L. 
 
CYCL OP <y£ D I A: 
 
 OR, AN 
 
 UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY 
 
 O F 
 
 ARTS AND SCIENCES. 
 
 LAB 
 
 LE Z, a femi-vowel, or liquid; making the eleventh 
 letter of the alphabet. 
 The / has a fweet found, and is pronounced by ap- 
 £ plying the tongue to the palate. 
 Pafett obferves, that / was frequently ufed among the an- 
 tients for b ; as in dlliba for cibilU : for a 1 ; as, altpe, for *#- 
 /e: for c; as maft'/a for w»iiVa : for n y as, arw7/a for ar- 
 vina, belle for bene, colligo for conligo : for r j as, fratetius or 
 frater-i lahtrotm for baratrones : for/; as ana/le, of a/n and 
 tesfunit equilio for equifio : for / ; as eqidfelis for equifetis, The- 
 lis for 7Mx, Sec B, T, 6V. 
 
 The double // is a modern contrivance, and was neVet* ufed 
 among antient Roman authors : they wrote aliurn not allium, 
 macelum not macellum^ polucere not pollucere. 
 The double // of the Greeks was ibmetimes changed by the 
 Romans into //, as in «aaop4i 9 /alio; oARfe-, alius 2 <pt-jAs* 
 folium: rhas alfo been turned into two // j as, /«'ra, ilia \ fa- 
 rare, fatullare, &c. and / into at or xill ; as a/a, axilla ; ma- 
 /a, maxilla ; velum, vexillum ; d was alfo ufed for l\ n for 
 two //, and r for one /. See R, tfrc 
 
 L is alfo frequently ufed inftead of d, as in Ulyffes, from the 
 Greek ojtwm, in the ^Eolic dialed e**##*c. Thus alfo for 
 dautia, we fay fatfM ; for dacruma, lacrymts, &c. See D. 
 There are feveral people, for inftance, the Chinefe in Afia, 
 the Iiinois in America, t$c. who cannot pronounce the r, but 
 always change it into /. Thus, when any of them have been 
 baptized by the name of Petrus, Frandfcus, Stc. they always 
 pronounce it Petlns, Flandfais, Sec, See R, 
 The Spaniards and WeHh ufually double the / at the begin- 
 ning ot a word, which founds nearly the fame with our hi 
 or/. - • • 
 
 The figure of our / we borrowed from the Latins, they 
 from the Gretb, and they again from the Hebrews, whofe 
 lamed is much like our /, excepting that the angle is fome- 
 wliat more acute. 
 L was alfo a numeral letter among the antients, and is ftill fo 
 in the Roman cyphering, fignifying fifty ; according to the 
 verfe, 
 
 Sfo'tttauies L dews mimero deftgnat babendss. 
 
 When a dafh was added at top L, it flood for fifty theufand 
 L was ufed for fifty, as being half a C, which fignified a hun- 
 dred, and was formerly written thus E, which, according 
 to Fafquier, makes two LL, the one upright, the other in- 
 verted. 
 
 The French louis d'ors have a crofs on them COtffilHne 
 of eight L's interwoven, and difpofed in form of a crofs! 
 bee Louis. 
 
 The epocha's on Greek medals are ufually written with the 
 antient iamda, L ; which, according to the tradition of the 
 ant.quanes, ftands for A****]*, a poetical word, unknown 
 in common fpeech, fignifying anno, and which, it is probable, 
 wa* more ufed in Egypt than Greece. 
 LA UARUM, the banner, or ftandard born before the Ro- 
 man emperors in the wsra. 
 Vol. JJ. 
 
 LAB 
 
 The labarum confided of a long lance, with a naff atopj 
 croffing it at right angles ; from which hung a rich ftrcaincri 
 of a purple colour, adorned with precious ftone*. 
 Till the time of Conftantine it had an eagle painted on it, 
 but that emperor, in lieu thereof, added a crofs with a cypher 
 exprefling the name of Jefus. 
 
 Conftantine ch^f" '■f.y of the braveft men in his guards td 
 u t „ ] L un their moulders, each in his turn. — Eufebius tells 
 us, that in the battle againft Maxentius, the perfon who 
 bore it being fatigued, gave it to another, and that he had no 
 iooner parted with it, but he was killed j all the ftrokes he 
 received while the labarum was in his charge, not bein<* able 
 to wound him.— The author adds, he had this miracle' from 
 the emperor's mouth. 
 
 This ftandard the Romans took from the Germans, Daca?. 
 Sarmata:, Pannonians, tic. whom they had overcome. 
 The name labarum * was not known before the time of Con- 
 ftantine ; but the ftandard itfelf, in the form we have defcribed 
 it, abatn.g the fymbols of Chri.tianitv, was ufed by all the 
 preceding emperors. 
 
 * Some derive the word from hhr, as if this rimmed their la- 
 bours ,- fome from „.»«6„, reverence, picry ; „ : l,e„ from 
 X.ata,,,,, to take ; and others from lp oil s . 
 IhsUarum, has afforded very ample matter for cfilicifm, 
 and has been difcourfed of by Fuller, Alciatus, Cuias, Gv- 
 raldus, Lipiius, Meurfius, Voffius, Hoffman, Valois, Du 
 Cange, c^f. 
 
 L ABtL, a long, thin brafs ruler, with a fmall fight a t one 
 end, and a centre hole at the other ; commonly ufed with at»lt- 
 gent line on the edgeof a circumferentor, to take altitudes, &c 
 
 Label, inlaw, is a narrow flip of paper, or parchment, affix- 
 ed to a deed or writing, i„ order to hold the appending fe.il _ 
 Any paper annexed by way of addition, or explication, to 
 any will or teftament, is alfo called a lablt, or codicil. See 
 Codicil. 
 
 Label, i„ heraldry, a kind of addition to the arms of a young- 
 er brother, cfpecially a fecond, to diftinguifii him from the 
 rirft or eldcft. = 
 The label is cfteemed the mod: honourable of all differences 1 
 and is formed by a fillet ufually placed in the middle, and 
 along the chief of the coat, without touching its extremities, 
 its breadth ought to be a ninth part of the chief. 
 It is adorned with pendants fomewhat like the drops under 
 the trighphs in the Doric freeze. — When there are above 
 three pendants, the number mnil be fpecified in blazoning. 
 There are fometimes fix. 
 
 LABIA, in anatomy. See the article L1P9. 
 
 Depnffor Labiorom. ) g , Depressor. . 
 
 Elevator Labiorum. f bee thL 3rt ' cle \ Elevator. ■ 
 
 LABIAL, a term in the French law, ufed in the fame fenfi 
 with oral. See Oral. 
 
 Labial Utters, among grammarians, are thofe whofe pronun- 
 ciation is chiefly effected by the motion of the lips. Sen 
 Letter. r 
 By which they ifand contradiftinguifiied from balatal, dents', 
 guttural, &c. letters. See Paiatal, Guttural, &c 
 
 5 P P Labia* 
 
Labial Offers, are fuch as arc only made by word of mouth, 
 or even by writing, where there is no valuable conhderation : 
 In courts of equity thcfe are not regarded. 
 
 LABIATE Flowers, from the word labium, a lip, is a term 
 applied hv herbalifts to fuch flowers as have one or two hps, 
 fome of which reprefent a kind of helmet or monks hood. 
 See Flower. . 
 
 LABORATORY, orELABORATORV, thechymiits woik- 
 houfe; or the place where they perform their operations; where 
 their furnaces are built, their veflcls kept, Etff. 
 In general, the term laboratory is applied to any place, where 
 phyfical experiments, and operations in pharmacy, chymiftry, 
 pyrotechnia, E?e, are performed. 
 
 Laboratory of an hofpital, is a place where the chymical, 
 &c, remedies are made up. 
 
 Laboratory, in a camp, is the tent where the fireworkers 
 and bombardcers prepare their works, drive their fufees, fix 
 their fhells, and carcafl'es, make quick match, &c. 
 
 LABYRINTH, aabtpinoox, among the antients, 
 was a large and intricate edifice cut out into various ifles, and 
 meanders, running into each other, fo as to render it diffi- 
 cult to get out of it. 
 
 There is mention made of four celebrated labyrinths a- 
 mong the antients, ranked by Pliny in the number of the 
 wonders of the world ; VtZ. the Cretan, Egyptian, Ltmnian, 
 and Italian. 
 
 That of Crete is the moll famed ; it was built by Dicdalus; 
 and it was hence that Thefcua made his efcape by means ot 
 Ariadne's clue. 
 
 That of Egypt, according to Pliny, was the oldeft of all, and 
 was fu Willing in his time, after having flood 3600 years. He 
 fays it was built by king Petefucus, or Tithoes, but Herodotus 
 makes it the work of feveral kings : It flood on the banks of 
 the lake Myris, and confuted of twelve palaces, and 1500 a- 
 partmcnts : Mela fays, ter mille domes. 
 
 That of Lemnos was fupportcd by columns of wonderful 
 beauty, there were fomc remains of it at the time when Pliny 
 wrute. — That of Italy, was built by Porlenna king of Hetru- 
 ria, for his tomb. 
 Labyrinth, in anatomy, denotes the fecond cavity of 
 the internal car, which is formed or excavated out of the 
 os petrofum ; and is thus called, as having (event! windings 
 in it. 
 
 This cavity is divided into three parts; the firft called the 
 w/iilmlum of the labyrinth, bec-mfe it leads into the other 
 two. The fecond comprehends three canals bent icmieir- 
 cularly, and thence called femicircular canals, placed on 
 one Ude of the veftibulum, towards the back of the head. 
 The third called the cochlea, is fituate on the other 
 
 fide. 
 
 Dr. Vieuflens obfervea that the bone out of which the la- 
 byrinth is dug, is white, hard, and very compact ; that the 
 ethereal matter of founds laden with impreffions ftriking a- 
 Cninft its fide, mav lofe little or nothing of its motion, but 
 communicate it entire to the nerves of the ear. See Hear- 
 ing, Sound, tffc. 
 
 LAC Luna* See the article Mineral Agaric. 
 
 LACCA, or gumLAC, a fort of gum, or refill, hard, red, brit- 
 tle, clear and tranfparcnt, brought from Malabar, Bengal, 
 and Pegu, and ufed in dying fcarlet, and in painting, mak- 
 ing fealing wax, &c. 
 
 Authors differ as to the production of this curious drug. F. 
 Tachard, who was on the ipot, tells us, that a kind of little 
 ants fixing themfelves on the branches of feveral trees, leave 
 behind them a reddifh moifture, which lying expofed to the 
 p.ir and fun, hardens in five or fix days time, and becomes 
 lacca. — Some imagine that it is not the production of the ants, 
 but a juice which they draw out of the tree, by making lit- 
 tle incifions in it ; and others fay that the trees where the 
 lacca is found, do yield a gum ; but that it is of a very diffe- 
 1 rent nature from the lacca. 
 The ants they tell us, act. here in quality of bees, and 
 the lacca is their wax. They work at it eight months 
 in the year, and the reft of . the time lie by hecaufe of the 
 rains. 
 
 Lemcry having examined the gum lacca chymically, judges 
 it to be a mean mixture between a gum and a refin, and 
 more abundant in fait than oil. 
 
 To prepare the lacca for ufe in dying, they firft feparatc it 
 from the branches to which it adheres, pound it in a mor- 
 tar, and throw it into boiling water ; and when the water is 
 well dyed, they pour on frefh, till fuch time as it will 
 tinge no more. Part of the water thus tinged is evaporated 
 in the fun ; after which the thickened tincture is ftrained 
 through a linnen cloth. 
 
 M. (Jeotfroy, examining the gum lacca, found it to be a 
 kind of comb, fuch as the bees, and fome other infects, arc 
 accuftomed to make. Upon breaking it into pieces, it ap- 
 peai'd divided into a great number of alveoli, or little cells 
 Of an uniform figure, and which he thinks plainly fhew that 
 it never ouzed from trees. Thefe cells are not mere excre- 
 ments, as fome imagine, but are intended for fomething to 
 be depofited in them. And accordingly are found to contain 
 
 3 
 
 little bodies, which the firft ohfervers took for the wino-s or 
 other parts of the infects that produced the lacca. — Thefe 
 little bodies are of a beautiful red colour ; and when broke, 
 make a powder as fine as cochincel. It is moft probable, 
 thefe cells are deftined to lodge the young brood, as thofe 
 of the bees, and that thefe little carcafles are the embryo's 
 of infects, or perhaps their (kins. 
 
 There are feveral forts of lacca ; that mentioned in the laft 
 paragraph is the natural ; when it is prepared, as in the former, 
 thofe kinds of dry cells are not feen.- — M. Geoftroy reckons 
 fix or feven different kinds ; befides which, there are feve- 
 ral partes ufed by the painters, that go by this name, or by 
 that of laque. This gum boiled in water with acids, makes 
 a beautiful red dye. 
 Artificial Lacca, or Laque, is alfo a name given to a co- 
 loured fubftance, drawn from feveral flowers ; as the yellow 
 from the flower of the juniper, the red from the poppy, and 
 the blue from the iris or violet. 
 
 The tinctures of thefe flowers are extracted by digefting 
 them feveral times in aqua vita?, or by boiling them over 
 a ftove-fire in a lixivium of pot-afhes and alum. 
 An Artificial lacca is alfo made of Brazilc wood boiled in a 
 lixivium of the branches of the vine, adding a little cochi- 
 neel, turmeric, calcined alum, and arfenic incorporated with 
 the bones of the cuttle-fifti pulverized, and made up into 
 little cakes, and dried. 
 
 If it be to be very red, they add the juice of citron to it ; 
 
 to make it brown, they add oil of tartar. 
 
 Dove-coloured or columbine lacca, is made with brazilc 
 
 of Fernambuc fteeped in diftilled vinegar for the fpace of 
 
 a month, and mixed with alum incorporated in cuttle-fith 
 
 bone. 
 
 LACERNA, a thick coarfc fort of military garment worn by 
 the antients. 
 
 The lacerna was a kind of cloke of woollen, only ufed by 
 the men ; who wore it over the toga, and when that was 
 not on, over the tunica. — It was at firft very fhort, but 
 growing popular in the Roman army, it was foon length- 
 ened. 
 
 The lacerna was fearce known in Rome till the time of 
 the civil wars and the triumvirate ; then indeed it came into 
 fafhion, for the foldiers being, then frequently in the city, or 
 at the city-gates, the fight became familiar to the citizens, 
 and they fell into the ufe cf it; infomuch that it became 
 the common drefs of the knights and fenators, till the time 
 or Vulentinian and Theodofius, when the fenators were pro- 
 hibited the wearing of it in the city. 
 
 The lacerna appears to have been much the fame with the 
 chlatnys and birn/r. 
 
 Martial mentiuns lacerna of ten thoufand fefferces price. 
 LACHRYMAL, or Lacrvmal Gland, in anatomy, a 
 finall oblong gland fituate above the eye, near the little can- 
 thus, whence proceed two or three fmall ducts, which open- 
 ing on the inward furface of the eye-lid, filtrate a fcrolity 
 ferving to moifteJl the ball of the eye, and facilitate its 
 motion. 
 
 Near ibe larger angle is alfo a little eminence, in form of a 
 caruncle, which fome have taken for another glandula la- 
 chrymalis, but by miftake ; this being no more than the du- 
 plicature of the inner membrane of the eye-lids. 
 On the fame fide, near the lefler angle, are two little perfo- 
 rations, called puntla lachry?nalia. 
 
 On the fame fide is alfo a fmall bone, one of thofe of the 
 upper jaw, fometimes called os lachrymale, but more ufually 
 os unguis- 
 
 Fijlula Lachrymalis, is a fiftula in the larger angle of the 
 eye. 
 
 It ufually happens after an abfeefs formed in the facculus la- 
 chrymalis, by means of the ferofity lodged there ; which 
 being retained too long, becomes acrimonious, and occafions 
 an ulcer, which frequently degenerates into a fiftula. 
 Saccules Lachrymalis. See Sacculus, and Lachry- 
 
 M A LI A. 
 
 Lachrymalia, or Lacrymalia PunSIa, in anatomy, 
 two little apertures in the great angle of each eye, into 
 which an aqueo-faline pellucid humour, fecreted from the 
 blood by the glandula lachrymalis, is conveyed, and thenca 
 carried off by the lachrymal canals into a little hag called 
 facculus lachrymalis, in the canal of the nofe ; whence, by a 
 pipe always open it is carried into the cavity of the nofe 
 immediately under the lower os fpongiofum. 
 Hence appears the reafon why people, in crying, run at the 
 nofe. 
 
 This humour feparated by the glandula lachrymalis, fcrves to 
 moiften and lubricate the ball of the eye, and prevent any 
 hurtful attrition : when it is fecreted in any great quantity, 
 fo as to overflow the eye-lids, it is called tears. See Tears. 
 LACHRYMATORIES, or Lacrymatories, were 
 antiently fmall glafs or earthen veffels, wherein the tears of 
 the weeping friends that furvived were repofited, and buried 
 with the afnes and urns of the dead. 
 Some of thefe are ftill feen in the cabinets of the curious. 
 
 LACO- 
 
LAD 
 
 LACONIC Style. J See lhcarticIe 5STv 1E . 
 
 Laconica Scytak. $ I Scytala. 
 
 LACONISM, aakhnismoe, a fliort, pithy, fententlous 
 fpeech, in the manner of the Lacedaemonians, who were re- 
 markable for the clofenefs and concifenefs of their way of de- 
 livering themfelves. 
 
 LACRYMAL. See the article Lachrymal. 
 
 LACTATION, the a£t of giving fuck. 
 
 The word is a!fo applied to the time during which the mother 
 doth that office to her young. 
 
 LACTEALS, or Lacteal Feins, a kind of long {lender 
 tubes, for the conveyance of the chyle from the inteftines to 
 the common refervatory. 
 
 They appear to have been known to Hippocrates, Erafiftra- 
 tus, and Galen ; but were firft duly defcribed and published 
 by AfeHtUS, an Italian phyfician in 1622, and called lafteal, 
 from the liquor they contain, which refembles milk, Vid. 
 Dotigl. BibL Anat. p. 236. Ed. 1 7 34. Their coats are fo 
 thin as to be invifible, except when diftended with chyle, or 
 Iympha. — They arife from all the parts of the fmall guts, and 
 as they run from the fides of the guts to the glands in the me- 
 fentery, unite and form larger branches, called vena laelea 
 pr'tmi generis. — The mouths of thefc laeleals, which are open 
 into the cavity of the guts, from whence they receive the 
 chyle, are fo fmall, as not to be fecn by the beft microfcope. 
 It was neceffary they fhould be fmaller than the fineft arteries 
 in the body, that nothing might enter to flop the circulation 
 of the blood. 
 
 The fame extremity of the laeleals has likewife a communi- 
 cation with the capillary arteries of the guts, by which they 
 receive a Iympha that dilutes, and propels the chyle for- 
 wards, and waflies the laeleals and glands, that they might 
 not fur, and be obflrucled by the chyle's fraying in them 
 upon faffing. 
 
 The other extremity of the laeleals difcliarges the chyle Into 
 the veficular cells of the glands difperfed up and down the 
 mefentery : And from thofe arife other laeleals, of a larger 
 fize, which carry the chyle immediatly into the receptaculum 
 chyli, and thefe are called laSlca fecundi generis. 
 The latleal veins have valves at proper diftances, whicll hin- 
 der the chyle from returning back into the inteftines. 
 It is ftill doubted, whether or no the inteftina craffa have any 
 laeleals or not. The impoffibility of human difle&ion proper 
 for fuch an enquiry, gives no room either to affirm or deny. 
 But the contents of the thick inteftines feem not likely to 
 afford much chvle, and therefore if there be any laeleals, it is 
 probable they are very few. 
 
 In brutes, if di fleeted at a rcafonable time after feeding, as two 
 or three hours, the heleah appear very tumid and white ; and 
 if wounded, the chyle flows plentifully from them. But if 
 infpefted when the ftonuch of the animal has lain fome time 
 empty, they appear like lymphatics, vifible indeed, but filled 
 with a transparent liquor. 
 
 That the latfeals have a communication with the cavities of 
 the inteftines, is evidently demonftrate^ by their contents, the 
 chyle; but how their pores arc difpofed to receive it, has not 
 yet been difcovered ; nor is there any way known whereby 
 to fill the laelmls from the cavities of the guts after death. It 
 is probable then, their entrance into the gut is oblique, ftnee 
 neither wi, id nor liquors can pafs from thence. As it is found 
 thefe pores can only receive any thing in their living ftate 
 we may be allowed to imagine, that it is the periftaltjc mo- 
 tion of the guts whicli difpoies them in that ftate to receive 
 the chyle. And this may be done by means of the circular 
 and longitudinal fibres of the inteftines ftill applying the inter- 
 nal coats of the guts to their contents, by which means its 
 pores abforb the chyle from the excrementitious part. 
 
 LACTARY Column. See the article Column. 
 
 LACTEA Via, the milky way. See the article Ga- 
 laxy. 
 
 LACTIEERI TubuS. Sec the article Tubult. 
 
 LACUNA, among anatomifb, certain excretory canals in 
 the genital parts of women. — See Tab. Juat. (Sphmcb) fie 
 11. lift. II. r iJS ' 
 
 Between the Heflfy fibres of the ureters, and the membrane of 
 the vagina, is found a whitifh glandulous body, about a finger 
 thick, running round the neck of the bladder, having a great 
 number of excretory du£ts, which de Graef calls lacuna, and 
 which terminate in the lower part of the orifice of the womb • 
 conveying thither a flimy matter, that mixes with the feed of 
 the male. 
 
 LACUNAR, in architecture, an arched roof, or ciclin^; 
 more cfpecially the planking, or flooring over portico's, or 
 piazza's. 
 
 L A D A N U M, or L a B d A n u m, in pharmacy, a gummous, 
 r or a refinous matter, ouzing out of the leaves Of a fhrub 
 called cijfus ladanifera which is very common in the 
 hot countries of the Levant, and whereof there are various 
 kinds. 
 
 Diofcorides fays, they gather the ladanum by means of goats, 
 which brouzingon the leaves of this fhrub , return to the 
 liable with their beards loaded with a fat fubftancc, which 
 
 L A K 
 
 the peafants rake off, with a kind of combs made for that 
 purpofe. This matter they thus collect into lumps, and, as 
 it is mixed with the goats hair, and other impurities, call it 
 ladanum in the beard, or natural ladanum. — Others are faid 
 to draw cords over the leaves, and other parts of the fhrub ; 
 and fcraping off what had ftuck to the cords, they make 
 up the ladanum into little balls. 
 
 Tournefort allures us, that the common way of gathering the 
 ladanum at this time is, by brufhing it off the leaves with a 
 fort of whip, compofed of many lafhes, or ftraps : after it 
 is fcraped off the ftraps, they make it into cakes of different 
 fizes. 
 
 Ladanum is ufed in phyfic, to foften, digeft, deterge, attenuate, 
 and refolve. That which is brittle, of an aili colour, fwect 
 fcented, tfe, is the beft. 
 
 Pietro della Valle tells us, he was informed by the Indians, 
 that ladanum is formed like dew, and falls from heaven like 
 manna ; that it is gathered on the leaves of a plant a palm and 
 a half high; that, after ga:herin2;, they boil it* by winch 
 means it becomes foft, like wax. 
 Liquid Ladanum, more properlv called cleat; or purified la - 
 dantirn, is a preparation of the natural ladanum, by melting 
 and purifying it from the hairs, <jfc. 
 
 This hardend is fometimes fold for a fort of black amber greafe. 
 LADING. Seethe article Bill of Lading. 
 LADY of the ThiJHe. 1 „ t Thistle. 
 Presentation of sarLADY. J CC f Presentation. 
 LAGAN*, or L agon, in our ancient fea laws, fhip wrecked 
 
 goods, left by the fea, lying on the land, either alhore, or 
 
 out at fea. 
 
 * The word teems formed from the Saxon le-tan, or lujw, 
 jacci-e, to lie. — Though others deduce it from the Latin //- 
 gare, to bind ; arid iuppofe it to denote goods tied together 
 with a buoy, or the like, to hinder their finking to the 
 bottom, that they may be found again. 
 Lagan, is ufually joined with jetfon, and flat/an. See Jetson, 
 and Elotson. 
 
 LAGOPHTHALMIA*, AirO*0AAMTA J a difeafe 
 of the eye-lids, when the upper lid is fo contracted, that the 
 eye cannot be quite fhut, but remains open even in the time 
 of fleep, 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek m/hc, hare, and ef 9afy*©-i 
 eye : this being the property of the eyes of hares. 
 LAICA Vt removenda. See the article Vr. 
 LAID w dm surviai. See the article Metal. 
 LAIR, or Layer, in gardening. Seethe article Layer. 
 Lair, Layr, or Layer, among fportfmcn, denotes a place 
 
 where deer harbour by dav. 
 Lair, or Layr of a Deer, is the impreffion which the beaft 
 
 has made on the grafs, and ground, where he has lain down, 
 
 or rcpofed. 
 
 Lair, among hufbandmen, alfo denotes a place, where cattle 
 ufually reft, under fome flicker ; the ground being enriched 
 by their dung. 
 
 LAKE, a collection of ftanding water, inclofed in the cavity 
 of fome inland place, of a coniiderable extent, and depth. 
 According to fome authors, thole only arc properly called lakes, 
 which receive and emit rivers. 
 
 Lakes, however, may be divided into four kinds ; 1° Such as 
 neither emit nor receive rivers. 2 0 . Such as emit rivers 
 without receiving any. 3°. Such as receive, without erriittim' 
 any. 4P. Such as both receive, and emit rivers. 
 Of the firft kind, fome arc perennial, others temporary • the 
 temporary owe theit origin, moft of them, to rain, and to 
 the cavity, or depreffion of the place where they are lodged* 
 In the Indies they make artificial lakes, which they wall a - 
 bout, to catch the rain in wet feafons, and prefcrve it for 
 their ufe in the dry ones— There are feveral of this kind 
 of lakes, formed alfo by the inundations of the fea and rivers 
 particularly the Nile and Niger ; which, when they retire 
 within their banks, leave floods of water, which the inhabi- 
 tants take care to inclofe, to ferve as a magazine for the en- 
 fuing months. 
 
 The generation of perennial lakes may be alfo referred to rain, 
 where the cavity is fodeep as to receive a quantity in winter, 
 more than the heat of the fun will be able to exhale in rum- 
 mer; though it is probable many of thefe lakes have their fprings 
 at bottom, by which they are alfo continually fupplicd.— To this 
 clafs may be _ referred the furloughs, i. c, terreus lacus 
 or Iand-&£«, in Ireland, which are lakes one part of the year, 
 ami the reft fmooth fields : At the bottom of thefe turloughs 
 are found holes, through which the water fprings in winter, and 
 finks towards fummer. 
 
 The fecond fpecies of lakes, which emit, without receiving 
 rivers, is very numerous ; they owe their origin to fprings, 
 the cavities where the fprfhg is found not being able to con- 
 tain all the waters it yields. See Spring. 
 The third kind, viz. thofe which receive rivers without 
 emitting any, apparently owe their origin to thofe rivers 
 which in their progrefs from their fource falling into fome 
 ample cavity, are collected together, and form a lake of 
 fuch dimenfions, as may lofe as much by exhalation as it con- 
 tinually 
 
L A M 
 
 tinually receives from its fprings; or to a river's flowing on 
 a foft fpingy foil, which imbibes the water, and tranfmits it 
 fo the neighbouring grounds.— The number of thefe is but 
 fmall. , . 
 
 Of the fourth fpecies, which both receive and emit rivers, 
 we reckon three kinds ; as the quantity of water they emit 
 is greater, equal, or lefs than that they receive. If the quan- 
 tity they emit be greater, it is plain they muft have a fpring 
 at the bottomj if left, there muft be fome fubterraneous 
 duels, or canals, or elfe the earth muft be fpongy; if it be 
 equal, we gather, that they have neither any hidden fprings, 
 nor canals,— Of thefe lakes we have a great number, and 
 thefe very confiderable ones. 
 
 The generality of lakes confift of frefh waters, as moft of 
 thofe which are fupplied either from fome fpring, far from 
 the fea, or a river, or from the rain : fome few of fait water, 
 as thofe produced by the inundation of the fea, or by its im- 
 miffion through fome duct of the earth, or that have fait 
 fprings at bottom. 
 
 Dr. Halley is of opinion, that all great perennial lakes are 
 faline, either in a greater or lefs degree; and that this faltnefs 
 increafes with time ; and on this foundation, he propofes a me- 
 thod for determining the age of the world. 
 The large lakes, wherewith the northern regions abound, 
 ' ferve for very good purpofes, inafmuch as the warm vapours 
 arifing from them, ferve for a defehfativc againft the pinching 
 cold of thofe climates.— To this it is owing, that Ireland, 
 Scotland, &c. are lels affected with frofts than much warmer 
 countries. 
 
 Lake, among painters, tfff. See the article Lacca. 
 LAMA, or Lamas, the title of an order of priefts among 
 
 the weftern Tartars, on the frontiers of China ; who are 
 
 held in great veneration. 
 
 They Have a grand lama, who is their high-prieft, and who 
 is the fecond perfon in the kingdom, being the next in autho- 
 rity to the king. He receives homage, and adoration, not 
 only from the people, hut from the neighbouring kings ; none 
 of whom are ever Enthroned, without fending ambafladors to 
 him to obtain his benediction. 
 
 The lama's are extremely fuperftitious, and are remarkably 
 addicted to magic. 
 LAMB. See thearticlePASCAL Lamb. 
 
 LAMBATIVES, or rather Lamritives, a form of me- 
 dicine to he licked off the end of a liquorice-ftick. 
 Lambatives amount to the fame witli Hn&us's. khocfo , and 
 eclegma' s. 
 
 LAMBDOIDES, aambaoeiaht, in anatomy, an epi- 
 thet applied to the third proper future of the cranium, in 
 regard itrcfembles the form of a Greek lambda. See Su- 
 
 ' "ture'. "' " i * , 
 
 For the fame rcafon it is fometimcs called ypf hides, as bearing 
 fome rcfembkmce to a Greek Y, ypfiloa. See Ypsi- 
 
 J.OIDES. . . 
 
 LAMELLA*, little, thin plates, or lamina, whereof the 
 fcales, and fhclls of fifties, (Jc. arc compofed. 
 
 * The word is a derivative of lamina ; and Jignifies as much as 
 
 Utile lamha. 
 
 LAM1 'Ej AAMiAl, among the ancients, a kind of daemons, 
 or evil fpirits, who, under the form of beautiful women, are 
 faid to have devoured children. 
 
 'Horace makes mention of them in his Art of Poetry. — Some 
 /.uthors call them lamee, a laniando. — Philoftratus fays, they 
 are alfo called larva, or lemures, as if they were all the fame 
 thiiw. — Bochart will have the word to be Phoenician, and 
 derives it from Oft 1 ? to devour ; allcdging, that the fable of the 
 lamia: came from Libya. 
 
 LAMIN/E, in phyfiology, thin plates, or tables, whereof any 
 thin"- confifts : particularly the human Ik nil, which are two, 
 the one laid over the other. 
 
 L AM MAS-DAY, the firft of Auguft ; fo called, as fome 
 will have it, becaufe lambs then grow out of fcafon, as being 
 too big. Others derive it from a Saxon word, fignifying 
 leaf-mafs, becaufe on that day our fore-fathers made an offer- 
 ing of bread made with new wheat. 
 
 On this day, the tenants who formerly held lands of the ca- 
 thedral church in York, were bound by their tenure to bring 
 a lamb .alive into the church at high mafs. 
 LAMP, AAMIlAE, a fort of luminary, confiding of oil dif- 
 pofed with a wick in a proper veftel for burning, 
 The ufe of lighted lamps in churches, and places of devo- 
 tion, is very ancient. — In the city of Fez is a mofque, 
 wherein are nine hundred brazen lamps burning every night. 
 — In Turkey, ;ili the illuminations are made only with lamps. 
 — Polydore Vergil afcribes the firft invention of lamps to the 
 Egyptians ; and Herodotus defcribes a feaft of lamps held an- 
 nually in Egypt. 
 
 Kircher fhews the manner of preparing lamps, which fhall 
 diffufe a light io difpofed, as to make the faces of thofe pre- 
 fent appear black, blue, red, or of any other colour. 
 There has been a great difpute among the learned, about the 
 fepukhral lamps of the ancients : fome maintain, they had the 
 fecret of making lamps that were mextinguifhable, alledging 
 
 LAM 
 
 feveral that had been found burning, at the opening of tombs* 
 fifteen or fixtcen hundred years old. But others treat thefe 
 relations as fables; and others think that the lamps which 
 before were extinguifhed, took light afrefh, upon the admiffion 
 of frefh air. 
 
 Dr. Plott, however, is of opinion, fuch perpetual lamps are 
 things practicable, and has himfclf made fome propofals of this 
 kind. The linum afbeff inum, bethinks, may do pretty well 
 for the wick, and that' the naphta, or liquid bitumen, conftant- 
 ly (bringing into fome of the coal mines, would anfwer for the 
 Oil. • '• -;• 
 
 If the afbeftos will not make a perpetual wick, he thinks 
 there is no matter in the world that will; and argues, that 
 the tradition of fuch lamps muft be fabulous, or ell'e that they 
 made them without wicks. 
 
 Such a lamp he thinks it poffible to make of the bitumen 
 fpringing into the coal mines at Pitchford in Shropfhirc ; 
 which, he fays, like other liquid bitumens, will burn without a 
 wick. 
 
 Thofe lamps that kindle on the immimon of frefh air, the 
 fame author thinks might be imitated by incloftng fome of 
 the liquid phofphorus in the recipient of an air-pump ; which, 
 under thofe circumitances, will not fhine at all ; but on let- 
 ting in the air into the recipient, there will pofHbly, fays he, 
 appear as good a perpetual lamp, as fome that have been 
 found in the fepulchres of the ancients. 
 Cardan's Lamp, is a contrivance of an author of that name, 
 which furnifhes itfelf with its own oil. 
 
 It confifts of a little column of brafs, tin, or the like, well 
 cloied every where, excepting a fmail aperture at bottom, 
 in the middle of a little gullet, or canal, where the wick is 
 placed. 
 
 Here the oil cannot get out, but in proportion as it fpends, 
 and fo opens the paffage of that little aperture. 
 This kind of lamp was in much ufe fome years ago; but it 
 has feveral inconveniences ; fuch as that the air gets into it by 
 ffarts and gluts; and that when the air in the cavity comes 
 to be much rarefied by heat, it drives out too much oil, fu> 
 as fometlmes to extinguifh the lamp. 
 
 Dr. Hook, and Mr. Boyle, have invented other lamps, that 
 have all the conveniences of Cardan's without the inconve- 
 niences. — See fome improvements in the doctrine of lamps^ 
 under Mirror. 
 Lamp Black. ~% f Black. 
 
 Cw/^Lamp. F g ^ - k ) Cul. 
 
 Enamelling by Lamp. f 6CC me t E K A M E L L I N* C« 
 
 Fire of a Lamp. J (.FlRE. 
 
 LAMPADARY, Lampadarius, an officer in the an- 
 cient church of Conftantinople ; whole bufinels was to fee the 
 church well lighted, and to bear a taper before the emperor, 
 the emprefs, and the patriarch, when they went to church, 
 or in proceffion. 
 
 The taper born by the lampadary before the emperor, was 
 incompafled with diverfe circles of gold , in manner of 
 crowns; thofe held before the emprefs, and patriarch, had 
 but one. — It feems they were of emblematical ufe, and were 
 intended to keep thofe great perfons in mind, that their light 
 was to illumine thofe underneath them. 
 
 There were alfo lampadaries in the emperor's palaces ; and 
 others inthehoufes of the grandees: at firft, the privilege of 
 having a lampadary, or torch-bearer, was only granted to 
 the principal officers of the crown, and the chief magiftrates ; 
 but afterwards the emperor allowed it to other inferior officers, 
 as qucftors, trcafurers, &c. 
 
 Together with the taper, they bore before the magiftrates 
 the emperor's image, cr'c. And it is very probable, it was 
 on account of this image, that they were firft: permitted to 
 have a lampadary. 
 LAMPAS, a kind of fiery meteor, refembling a burning lamp, 
 
 hence alfo denominated fax ardens. See Meteor. 
 Lampas, or Lampers, a kind of fwelling in the palate of a 
 horfe; fo called, becaufe it is cured by burning with a lamp, 
 or an hot iron. 
 
 The lampas is an inflammation, or tumor, in the roof of a 
 horfe 's mouth, behind the nippers of the upper jaw. — It 
 arifes from abundance of blood reforting to the firft furrow 
 of the mouth, near the fore teeth, which caufes that furrow to 
 fwell as high as his gatherers : It hinders the bead's feeding, 
 and makes him let his meat fall, half chewed, out of his 
 mouth again. 
 
 The lampas is a natural infirmity, which every horfe has, 
 firft or laft, and which every fmith can cure. 
 LAMPETIANS, Lampetiani, a feet of ancient 
 heretics, who fell in with fome of the opinions of the 
 Aerians. 
 
 TfiL'ir founder, Lampttius, is faid to have been one of the 
 chiefs of the Marcionites. They condemned all kind of vows, 
 particularly that<;f obedience, as inconfiftent with the liberty 
 of the fons of God. 
 LAMPROPHORUS, an appellation anciently given to the 
 Neophytes, during the feven days that fuccceded their baptifm. 
 In the ceremony of baptifm, the new Chriftian was clothed 
 3 jfc with 
 
LAN 
 
 LAN 
 
 with a white robe, which he wore for the week following 
 and was thence called la?nprcphorus, which fignifies zperfon 
 ■wearing a Jhining garnunt; from >>a^jrfi>f, fhining, and?"f«, 
 I carry. 
 
 The Greeks alfo gave this name to the day of the rcfurrec- 
 tion, in regard their houfes were adorned and illuminated on 
 that day with an infinite number ot torches, as a lymbol of 
 the light which that myftcry diffufed in the world. 
 
 LAN.^ Petra. See the article Petra. 
 
 LANCE, Lancea, a fpcar; an often live weapon, bore by 
 the antient cavaliers, in form of a half pike. 
 The lance confilled of three parts, the fliaft, or handle, the 
 wings, and the dart. — Pliny attributes the invention of 
 lances to the iEtolians. But Varro, and Aulus Gellius fay, 
 the word lance is Spanifh; whence others conclude the ufe 
 of this weapon was borrowed by the people of Italy from the 
 Spaniards. — Diodorus Siculus derives it from the Gaulifti, 
 and Feftus from the Greek, which fignifies the fame. 
 
 LANCETI, a name given by the antient laws of England 
 to a kind of vafials, who were obliged to work for the lord 
 one day in a week, from Michaelmas to Autumn, either with 
 fork, fpade,* or flail, at the option of the lord. 
 
 LANCETTE, a fine, fmall, chirurgeon's knife; {freight- 
 pointed, and two edged; ufed in opening veins, fcfe. See 
 Phlebotomy. 
 
 LAND, in a general fenfe. Seethe articles Soil, Earth, 
 
 Fardel ofh AH D. 
 
 Oxgang of Land. 
 PIow-Lakd. 
 7ff?v/-LAND. 
 Toak j/Land. 
 Arable Land. 
 Champion Lands. 
 1//>-Land. 
 // W-Lands. 
 CW^c/j-Land. 
 Cbarter-L.A'SD. 
 CW*-Lands. 
 Fabric-L ands. 
 Fo//:-Lant>. 
 Forelet-hAUD. 
 Glebe-hAND. 
 Tenement ary^, a nd s . 
 T/mw-Lands. 
 
 -fVe-LAND. 
 Jdead~L,AtiD. 
 
 Vh-Land. 
 Lay the Land. 
 Burning of Land. 
 Holding Land in Peer 
 Land Army. 
 Land Roads. 
 
 Land Tclefcope. j 
 LAN DAN, in phyfiology, 
 
 f Fardel. 
 Oxgang" 
 Plow -land. 
 YARD-land 
 Yoak of land. 
 Arable. 
 Champion. 
 Vp-land. 
 WooD-lands. 
 Catch-W. 
 
 CHAaTER-W. 
 Conn-lands. 
 FABRic-lands. 
 )-See*> FoiK-land. 
 Fore l E t. 
 GhEBE-land. 
 Tenementary, 
 Thane-/Wi. 
 FoRE-land. 
 HzAD-land. 
 Jv-land. 
 Lay. 
 ; Burning. 
 j Peerage. 
 
 Army. 
 ) Road. 
 ^Telescope. 
 the article Sago. 
 
 LAND-CHEAP", an antient cuftomary fine, paid either in 
 cattle, or money, upon the alienating or felling of land in cer- 
 tain manors, or within the liberty of certain boroughs. 
 At Maiden in Effex, a payment is frill made of 13c/. in every 
 mark of the purchafe-money, for lands and houfes fold in that 
 town; which is called land-cheap. 
 
 LAND-FALL, is a fea term, iignifying to fall in with the 
 land. 
 
 Good Land-fall, is when a fhip makes, or fees the land as 
 
 fhe expected, according to her reckoning. — The contrary is 
 
 called a bad land-fall. 
 LAND-GABLE, an antient term for a tax, or rent ilTuing 
 
 out of a land; anfwering to what we now call ground-rent 
 LAND-LOCKED, a fhip is faid to ride land-locked, when 
 
 fhe is furrounded with land; that is, is at anchor in a place 
 
 .vhere there is no point open 
 
 to the fea, fo that fhe is fafe 
 
 from the violence of winds, and tides. 
 LANDSKIP, or Landschape, the view, or profpect of 
 
 a country, extended as far as the eye will carry. 
 Landskits, in painting, are pieces reprefenting fome cham- 
 paign, or rural fubjecT:, as hills, vales, rivers, and country 
 houfes, where human figures are only introduced as accidents, 
 or circumftances. 
 
 Land/hip painting is efteemed one of the lowcft branches of 
 
 painting. 
 
 See Painting. 
 
 LANGREL SHOT, is a fort of fhot fometimes ufed at fea, 
 made of two bars of iron, with a joint, or fhackle, in the 
 middle ; by which means it can be fhortencd, and fo put the 
 better into the gun; and at each end there is a half bullet, 
 either of lead, or iron. 
 
 This fhot, when difcharsed, flies out expanded, and fo docs 
 mote execution among the enemies rigging, 6V. 
 LANGUAGE, a fet of words which any people have 
 agreed upon, whereby to communicate their thoughts to each 
 other. 
 
 The firft principles of all languages, F. Buffier obferves, 
 may be reduced to exprcflions, iignifying, firft, The fubjtct 
 fpoke of. Secondly, The thing affirmed ot it. Thirdly, 1 he 
 V01.U. 
 
 circumftances of the one and the other. But as each, language 
 has its particular ways of denoting each of thefe, a language is 
 only to be looked on as an aii'enibiage of cxpre (lions, which 
 chance or caprice lias eftablifhed among a certain people; juft 
 as we look on the mode of dreHing, (ffc. — It is uiage and 
 cuftom is the rule of a language, and thefe hold their empire 
 independent of rcafon, or any other caufe: nor has reafon 
 any thing to do in language, unlefs to ftudy or teach it, fuch 
 as it is: Here then commences grammar; a juft plan of which, 
 fuppofes a language already introduced by ufe; and without 
 pretending to alter or amend a tittle, onlv furnifhes. reflec- 
 tions, called rules, to which the manners of fpeaking ufed in 
 that language may be reduced; which aii'enibiage of reflections, 
 is what we call the grammar of that language. — This re- 
 mark may obviate an abufe introduced among grammarians, 
 who are ever crying out, * Ufage is, in this point, oppofite to 
 ' grammar; or the language here frees itfelf from die rules of 
 * grammar, tirY. 
 
 It is chance then to which we owe ufage, and ufage that makes 
 the rules and meafurcs of slanguage. Ufage, indeed, is fome- 
 what dubious, and may be divided into good and bad: If it be 
 afked, Wherein the difference between thefe lies? it is in 
 this; that the one is better eftablifhed, or authorized, than 
 the other: and if it be afked, Wherein that differenccof au- 
 thority confirts? it is anfwered, That in dead Lu;guages, 
 that which makes the good ufage is the writings of the beft 
 authors in that language: and if it be further qucftioned, 
 Which are the beft? thofe are allowed fuch, who wrote when 
 that ftate was in its greateft glory. Thus the age of Au- 
 guftus, being the moft diftinguiflicd by great men, who then 
 flourifticd, we call that good Latin which is conformable to 
 tlie manners of fpeaking ufed by aut'iors who wrote within fifty 
 years before, and fifty after the reign of that emperor. — As 
 to living languages, the good ufage, or mode, is that which 
 obtains among the moft eminent perfons, whether as to qua- 
 lity, and authority, or as to learning, and the reputation of 
 writing well. 
 
 With this view it is that M. Vaugelas defines ufage of a 
 language, the manner of fpeaking ufed by the fuundeft or beft 
 part of the court, conformably to the manner of writing among 
 the beft part of the authors of t ! ie time. — But this definition, 
 how judicious foever, may occaii jn infinite doubt; for which 
 is to be deemed the beft part of the court, and of the writers ? 
 Each party, doubtlefs, thinks itfelf the beft. — F. Buffier, 
 therefore, very juftly, inftead of the beft part, fubilitutes the 
 greateft part, which brings the matter nearer to a certainty; 
 the moft numerous part being fomethmg fixed, and palpable, 
 wliere^H the moft found part may be infenlible, or arbitrary. 
 There is found a conftant refemblance between the genius or 
 natural complexion of each people, and the language they 
 Ipcak. — Thus the Greeks, a polite, but voluptuous nation, 
 had a language perfectly fuitable, full of delicacy and fweet- 
 nefs. — The Romans, who feemed only born to command, 
 had a language noble, nervous, and auguft; and their de- 
 fcendants, the Italians, are funk into foftnefs, and effemina- 
 cy, which is as vihble in their language, as in their manners.— 
 l'hc language of the Spaniards is full of that gravity, and 
 haughtinefs of air, which make the diftinguifhing character of 
 that'people. — The French, who have a world of vivacity, 
 have a language that runs extremely brifk and lively.— 
 And the Englilh, who are naturally blunt, thoughtful, and of 
 few words, have a language exceedingly ftiort, concife, and 
 fententious. 
 
 Tlx divcrfiiy of Lancu ages is generally allowed to have taken 
 its rife from the confufion at the building the tower of Babe], 
 both by Jews, Chriftians, and Mahometans : but the manner 
 in which this diverfity was effected, is ftill in difpute among 
 the learned. — The queftion is, Whether God only expunged 
 the remembrance of the fignification of terms in thofb 
 who built the tower? or, Whether he immediately infpired 
 them with new words? Scaliger holds, that they only forgot 
 the meaning of the words, and named one thing inftead of 
 another; though all indifferently fpoke the Hebrew tongue. 
 — Nor does Cafaubon allow, that they immediately fpoke 
 different languages : the confufion ot tongues he think, might 
 be very well effected, without introducing a multiplicity 
 of languages. See Ziegra de confujhnc L'mguarum Babylonica 
 ad Genef. XI. 
 
 As to the point of antiquity and priority among languages, 
 that too has been extremely controverted. — Herodotus tells 
 us, that in the difpute between the Egyptians and Phrygians 
 about the antiquity of their languages, Pfammetichus, king 
 of Egypt, ordered two children to be brought up, with ex- 
 prefs prohibition not to have one word pronounced before them, 
 but to leave nature to fpeak of herfelt; and the firft word 
 they fpoke happened to be beccos, which, in the Phrygian lan~ 
 guage, fignifies bread. The Egyptians, however, were not 
 convinced with this proof. — The Arabs difpute the point of 
 antiquity with the Hebrews: but the Jews, jealous, even to 
 excels, of the honour of their nation, pofitively infift on it, 
 that the Hebrew tongue, fuch as it is found in the holy fcrip- 
 tures, is the primitive language, and that fpoken by the firft: 
 man. 
 
 5 Q.q Others 
 
L A N 
 
 L A N 
 
 Others maintain, that the language fpokcrt by Adam is loft, 
 and that the Hebrew, Ch-Idce, and Arabic, are only dialects 
 of that original tongue. So far are they from giving the pri- 
 ority to the Hebrew, that they maintain Abraham fpoke 
 Chaldee before he paded the Euphrates; and that lie firft 
 learned the Hebrew in the land of Canaan: fo that this was 
 Tiot a fpecial language confecrated to the people of God, but 
 was originally the language of the Canaanites. 
 M. Je Clerc is of opinion, the Hebrew is far inferior to the 
 Greek both in copioufnefs, elegancy, and pcrfpicuity ; it is 
 dry and deftitute of ornaments, infomuch that wanting ex- 
 preffiopts to vary the phrafe, the fame periods arc perpetually 
 returning. — The Rabbins fay, it is fo pure and chafte, that it 
 has no proper names for the parts of generation, nor for thofe 
 by which the excrements are difcharged. See Hebrew. 
 The Arabic is held the moil copious of all languages; being 
 faid to have 300 different words to exprefs a lion, and no lefs 
 than 1200 for a fword. 
 
 Languages are in general divided into — original or mother 
 tongues; as the Hebrew, and Arabic, in the Eaft, the Teu- 
 tonic, and Sclavonic in the Weft. 
 
 Secondary, or derivative LanguaSOSS) which are thofe formed 
 out of a mixture of fcveral others, as Latin, French, &c. 
 Kircher will have the Cophtic a mother tongue, independent 
 of all others. 
 
 Du Jon maintains the Gothic a primitive language, and the 
 mother of all the Teutonic tongues; that is, of all thufe fpoke 
 in the North. 
 
 Some add the Bafque, or Bifcavan, and Bas Briton, to the 
 number of mother tongues, imagining them to have been thofe 
 of the antient Celtae, or Gauls. 
 Learned, ox dead Languages, arc thofe which only fubfift 
 in books, and which muft be learned by the rules of gram- 
 mar; as the Greek, Hebrew, Syriac, and Chaldee. Seethe 
 articles Heerew, Greek, (sc. 
 
 Raimond Lully follicked the eftablifhment of the ftudy of the 
 learned language; a long time, in the thirteenth and four- 
 teenth Centuries. At length, in the year 1312, pope Cle- 
 ment, and the council of Vicnne, appointed, that in the court 
 of Rome, and in the univcrfities of Paris, Oxford, Bologna, 
 and Salamanca, there ftiould be inftituted profeffors of each, 
 who mould have falarics from the respective courts. — The 
 monks, however, vigoroufly oppofed the fpreading of thefe 
 {Indies; and with fo much fuccefs that Erafmus tells us, in 
 his time Grace nojfe fi:fpe£tum, HsbraUe prope hereticum. 
 Living Languages, are thofe ftiil (poke in fome country, or 
 other; and which may be learned by conversation. — The 
 moll popular among thefe are the French, Italian, Sp.-mifh, 
 and Engliih : which fee under their refpecfive names, Eng- 
 lish, French, Italian, tjrV. 
 
 The Spaniards feed) to place the noblenefs and gravity of 
 their language, in the number of fyllables, and the fwelling 
 of words ; and fpeak lefs to be underftood, than to be admir- 
 ed. Their terms are big, and fonorous, their exprcflions 
 haughty, and boifterous, and pomp ami oftentation run through 
 all they fay : their language cannot paint a thought to the 
 life; it always magnifies it, frequently diftorts it; and does 
 nothing, if it do not exceed nature. 
 
 The Italian tongue does not (well up things to that degree, 
 but it adorns, and cmbellifTics them more; yet thefe orna- 
 ments, and cmbelliftiments, are not real beauties. — The Ita- 
 lian expreffions, thus rich and brilliant, are like thofe faces 
 covered with patch and paint, which make a fine Ihow; but 
 the finery is all deceit. 
 
 The French language (as fome of their authors exprefs them- 
 felves) is fimplc, without lownefs ; bold, without indecency ; 
 elegant, and florid, without afKctation ; harmonious without 
 fwelling; majeftic, without pride ; delicate, without foftnefs ; 
 and ftrong, without roughnefs.. — T'hough, as to the points 
 of ftrcn<;th, and majefty, the French muft give way to the 
 Endifh; which, in thefe, as well as in copioufnefs, exceeds 
 moft of the living languages; as far as it comes behind fome 
 of them in finoothnef's and delicacy. 
 
 Of all the modern languages, the French is generally allowed 
 to be the moft clear and lit for philofophical and critical fub- 
 jcc~ts; the chafteft and moft referved in its diflion; the moft 
 judicious and fevere in its ornaments. — Of all others, the 
 Englifti is faid to be the moft honeft, open, and undefigninir, ; 
 it will not bear double meanings, nor can it palliate, or hide 
 nonfenfe: bad fenfe, and good Englifti, being things incon- 
 fiftent. With all its fublimity, it is gay and pleafant on oc- 
 cafion; but its gaiety is ftill moderated, and reftrained bv 
 goodfenfe; it hates cxcefTive ornaments ; and, for the greater 
 Simplicity, would almoft chufe, as fome fay of the French, 
 to go naked it never drefies more than decorum and necefli- 
 ty require. 
 
 The Spanifti refembles thofe rivers whofe waters are always 
 fwelling, and always muddy, and turbulent ; that never keep 
 long within their channel, but are ever overflowing, and 
 their overflowings ever noily, and precipitate. — The Italian 
 is like thofe pleafmg rivulets that purl agreeably among the 
 Itones, and glide in meanders through meadows full of flowers 
 —The French refembles gnc of thofe beautiful fireajos that 
 
 always run brifkly; but, at the fame time, fmootbly, and 
 equally ; without much noife, or much depth. — The Enir- 
 liih, like the Nile, prcferves a majefty even in its abundance ; 
 its waters roll rapidly notwithstanding their depth; it never 
 roars, but when its banks are too narrow; nor overflows, 
 without enriching the foil. 
 
 The Latin is the common mother of the three former; but 
 the daughters have very different genius's, and inclinations.— 
 The Spanifti, a haughty dame, that piques herfelf on her 
 quality, and loves excefs, and extravagancy in every thing. 
 The Italian, a coquette, full of fine airs; always appeaffng 
 drefied, and taking all occafions of .(hewing her finery: to 
 be admired being all flie aims at. The French, an eafy 
 prude, that has her fliare of modefty, and difcretion; but, 
 on occafion, can lay them both afide. — The Englifti is of a 
 more mafculine temperament: it is not only of a different 
 family from the others, but appears of a different fex too : 
 its virtues are thofe of a man: indeed, it is the product of a 
 colder climate, and a rougher people ; and its features may 
 be fomewhat coarfer than thofe of its neighbours, but its fa- 
 culties are more extenfive, its condudt more ingenuous, and 
 its views more noble. 
 
 Ennius, and Cecrops, are celebrated for their knowledge of 
 many languages. Mithridates, king of Pontus, it is faid' un- 
 derftood twenty two tongues, which was the number of diffe- 
 rent people over whom he commanded ; and thofe languages he 
 knew fo well, that he was able to harangue each of his 
 people in their own tongue. It was a faying of Charles 
 the fifth, 4 That fo many languages as a man underftands, 
 ' fo many times he is man.' Sultan Solimnn's interpreter 
 fpoke perfectly well feventeen different languages. But among 
 the moderns, none have been more remarkable in this way, 
 than Poftellus^ who, befides a perfect knowledge of all the 
 dead languages, was fo well acquainted with the living:, that 
 it is laid he could have made the tour of the globe, without 
 the ufe of an interpreter. 
 
 Bibliander has written of the analogy, and proportion of !an~ 
 guages and letters, De ratione commUni linguarum, in 151S. 
 Gefner, of the difference of languages, in 1572. Lazius 
 publilhed an Introduction to the learning of the politer lan- 
 guages, in a common method, in 1548. Megillier, a fchemc 
 of lorty different languages, and different dialccis, fpecimens 
 of each whereof he gives in the Lord's-praycr, in 1593. 
 De Recoles, in his addition to the -world of Davtti, has pub- 
 lifhed the Pater-noftcr in all the languages fpoken among 
 Chriftians; and Mr. Chamberlayne has lately propofed to do 
 the fame in 100 languages, a fpecimen of which has been 
 already publiftied. Albericus Gent il is wrote of the mixture 
 of languages, in 1603. And farther Reigner's difcourfe on 
 etymologies, is a work of the fame kind. In 1613, Durct 
 publiftied a treafure of the hiftory of all the languages in the 
 umverfe: Guichart has a treatife of the etymological har- 
 mony of languages, publifhed in 1619. Brerewood has given 
 us curious enquiries into the diverfities of languages, anoTreii- 
 gions, publiftied in 1635. 
 Language, is alfo iifcd in the order of Malta, for nation. 
 The knights of Malta are divided into eight languages \ 
 three whereof are for France, viz. the language of Pro- 
 vence, of Auvergne, and of France; two for Spain, thofe 
 of Caftile, and Arragon; the other three are the languages of 
 Italy, England, and Germany. 
 
 Each of thefe languages has its chief, who prefides in auem- 
 blies of the language to which he belongs. Sec Malta, 
 
 Frank Language, K , . . ( Frank 
 
 Helleniflie Language. l See thc «*H Hellenistic. 
 
 LANGUED, Langue', in heraldry, is applied to fuch 
 animals whofe tongues appear out of their mouths; being of 
 a colour different from that of the body of the animal. ° 
 
 LANGUOR,' in medicine, fignifies a faintnefs, or relax- 
 ation of the members arifing either from a want, or decay of 
 fpirits, through indfgeftion, or too much exercifc; or from 
 an additional weight of fluids, caufed by a diminution of the 
 excretion by the common difcharges. 
 
 LANIGEROUS, anything that bears wool. See Wool. 
 ■ — Hence, 
 
 Lanigerous, or Lanuginous Trees, among herbalifts, are 
 thofe trees that bear a woolly, downy fubftance; as, thc 
 black, white, and trembling poplars, ofiers, and willows of 
 all forts. 
 
 LANTERN*, or Lanthorn, a cover for a luminarv, 
 made of fome tranfparent matter; ferving to tranfmit the 
 light, and, at the fame time, to fkreen it from the wind, and 
 rain. 
 
 * The word is derived from the French lantern, and that from 
 the Latin latei na, of lateo, lam hidden ; eo quod lucem hahtat 
 interim claufam, in regard the light is hidden within, 'ay 
 Ifidore, and Lambin. But according to Pezron, Interna comes 
 from the Celtic latern; and according [o Salmnfius, laniirn 
 comes from lata, of fero, in regard it bears a l-irnj:, or a 
 light. 
 
 Epicletus's lantern is laid to have been fold for 3000 
 drachms. That of Diogenes wa» held in great- veneration 
 
 among 
 
LAP 
 
 among the ancient? ; and that-of Judas is frill preferved ih 
 the trcafury of S. Denys, as a very curious piece of antiquity. 
 Lanterns are made of glafs, horn, paper, &c. formerly, they 
 were made of the horn of a wild buJI, called urus ; which 
 when cut into thin laminae, Pliny tells us, was very tranf- 
 parent. 
 
 Dark Lantern, is a lantern with onlv one opening, or litrht, 
 which, too, may be clofed up, when the light is to be entirely 
 hid ; and may be prcfented to the perfon one would fee, with- 
 out being perceived one's fe!f. 
 
 The ancients had their dark lanterns, but they differed from 
 ours ; they were covered with four fkins, one on each fide, 
 or light, three whereof were black, and only the fourth trans- 
 parent. — Cafiubon, who gives us the defcription, took it 
 from a manufcript of Julius Frontinus. 
 
 Thefe wereprincipally ufed in their armies, when they were 
 to march privately off from their enemies in the night-thfte'. 
 Feaji o/"Lanterns, inChina, is a celebrated feaft held on the 
 fifteenth day of the firft month ; and is fo called from the infi- 
 nite number of lanterns hungoutof thehoufes, and in the ftreets ; 
 which, it is faid, is not lefs than two hundred millions : in- 
 ibmuch, that it rather appears a fit of madnefs, than of feaftinc 
 On this day are expofed lanterns of all prices, whereof fome 
 are faid to coft 2000 crowns. — Some of their grandees re 
 trench fomewhat every day, out of their table, out of thei 
 drefs, equipage, &c. to appear the more magnificent in lan- 
 terns. They arc adorned with gilding, fculpture, painting, 
 japanning, tsV. and as to their fize, it is extravagant; fome 
 are from 25 to 30 foot diameter : they rcprefent halls, and 
 chambers, and two or three fuch machines together 
 would make handfome houfes ; fo that in China they are able 
 to eat, lodge, receive vifits, have balls, and act plays in a 
 lantern. 
 
 To illumine them, they fhould have bonfires; but as that 
 would be inconvenient, they content themfelvcs with light- 
 ing up in them an infinite number of torches , or lamps ; 
 which, at a diftance, have a beautiful efFect. — In thefe they 
 exhibit various kinds of fhews to divert the people. 
 Befides thefe enormous lanterns , there is a multitude of 
 other fmaller : thefe ufually confift of fix faces or lights, 
 each about four feet high, and one and a half broad, framed 
 in wood finely gilt and adorned ; over thefe they ftretch a 
 fine tranfparent filk curioufly painted with flowers, trees, 
 and fometimcs human figures : the painting is very extraor- 
 dinary, and the colours extremely bright ; and when the 
 torches are lighted, they appear highly beautiful, and fur- 
 prizing. 
 
 Lantern, in architecture, denotes a kind of little dome railed 
 over a large one, or over the roof of a building, to give light, 
 and to ferve for an acroter to finifh the building. See 
 Cupola. 
 
 Lantern is alfo ufed for a fquare cage of timber, with glafs 
 in it, placed over the ridge of a corridor, or a gallery between 
 two rows of fhops to illuminate them ; as that in the Royal. 
 Exchange, London. 
 
 ^(VLamern, in optics, the name cf a machine, which 
 in the dark reprcfents various images, and fpectres oh a wall, 
 or other white furface, fo odd and furprizing, that thofe who 
 are not in the fecret, think them the effect of magic. See 
 Magic. 
 
 LANUGINOUS. See the article Lanigerous. 
 
 LANUGO, in botany, dawn ; that foft, hairy, or woolly 
 covering, which grows on the leaves, ftalks, or fruit of di- 
 vers plants. 
 
 Such is that found on the leaves of the rofe campion, and on 
 
 the fruit of the peach-tree. 
 LAPIDARY, Lapidarius, an artificer, who cuts preci 
 
 ous ftones. 
 
 The art of cutting precious ftones is verv ancient; but, like 
 other arts, its original was very imperfect : the French have 
 fucceeded in it the belt ; and the lap/varies of Paris, who 
 have been a corporation lince the year 1290, have carried 
 efpecially the cutting of diamonds called brilliants, to its laft 
 perfection. 
 
 There are various machines ufed in the cutting of precious 
 ftones, according to the quality of the matter to be cut : the 
 diamond, which is extremely hard is cut and formed on a 
 wheel of foft free], turned by a kind of mill, with diamond 
 duft tempered in oil of olives ; and this ferves to polilh them, 
 as well as to cut them. 
 
 Oriental rubies, I'.iopbires, and topazes, arc cut and formed on 
 a copper wheel, with oil of olives, and diamond duft : they 
 are afterwards polilhed on another copper wheel with tripoly 
 and water. 
 
 Emeralds, hyacinths, ametbyfts, garnets, agats, and other 
 ftones lefs hard, are cut on a leaden wheel, with emery and 
 water, and polilhed on a pewter wheel with tripoly. 
 Turquois, of the old and new rock, lapis, girafol, and opal, 
 are cut and polifhed on a wooden wheel with tripoly. 
 Lapidary i s alfo ufed for a virtuofo fkilled in the nature, 
 kinds, off. of precious ftones ; or a merchant who deals in 
 them. 
 
 LA R 
 
 In which fenfe, the prefent great mogul is faid to be orie of 
 the grcateft lapidaries in the world. 
 Lapidary Style, denotes the ffyle proper for monumental or 
 other inferiptions. 
 
 This is a kind of medium between profe and verfe; the je^ 
 june and the brilliant are here equally to be avoided. Cicero 
 has prefcribed the rules of it ; Accedat oportet oratio varia vtbe- 
 mens, plena fpiritus. Omnium fententiarum gravitate, omni- 
 um verborum ponderibus ejl uUndum. 
 
 1 he lapidary Jlyle, which was loft with the ancient monu- 
 ments, has been retrieved, at the beginning of this age, by 
 count Emanuel Teforo ; It is now ufed various ways at the 
 beginning of books; and even tpiftles dedicatory are com-= 
 poled in it, whereof we have no example anions the anci- 
 ents. 
 
 LAPIDESCENT, anything which has the faculty of pe- 
 trifying, or turning bodies to a ftony nature. 
 Naturahfts fpeak of a lapidefcent principle, a lapidefeent fpi- 
 rit, lapidefcent juice, &c. 
 Lapidescent Waters or Springs, are fuch as having ftony 
 particles difToIved, and fwimming in them, do depoiite the 
 fame on wood, leaves, and other bodies immerged therein) 
 which being incruftcd herewith, are commonly miftaken for 
 petrifactions. 
 
 LA PID I F IC A T I O N, in chemiftry, an operation where- 
 by any fubftance is converted into a fort of ftone. 
 This is done by difTolving a metal, for inftance in a corro- 
 fivefpirit or menftruum, and afterwards reducing that difiblu- 
 tion into the confiftence of a ftone. 
 
 Lapidification is practifed in metals, fixed falts, and falts of 
 plants. 
 
 The terra is alfo ufed for the making of artificial ftones. 
 LAPIS, in the general fenfe. See the article Stone. 
 Lapis AJbeJhs. 1 f Asbestos. 
 
 Lapis Calaminaris. > See the articles Calamine. 
 Lapis Dentalis. 3 . (.Diintalis. 
 
 Lapis Jnfernalis, a cauftic ftone prepared various ways } fome- 
 times of ftrong foap-lees evaporated to a drinefs, and the re- 
 mainder kept in a glafs well flopped from the air. 
 Sometimes it is made of calcined vitriol, tartar, and fal ar- 
 moniac, and boiled in quick-lime water to a ftrong lixivium 3 
 thenftrained and evaporated till dry. 
 La^is Judaicus. See the article Judaicus. 
 Lapis Lazuli. See the article Lazuli. 
 
 Lapis Medicaments/us, or the medicinal ftone ; is a cornpofif 'on 
 of l'och alum, litharge, colcothar of vitriol, Armenian bole 
 
 and vinegar; boiled to the confiftence of a hard ftone It 
 
 is ufed to fatten the teeth, prcferve the gums, heal ami dry 
 up ulcers and wounds, and is ufed in injections, and in com' 
 pofitions for fore eyes. 
 Lapis Specularit. See the article Specularis. 
 LAPSARII. See Infralapsarii, Subiapsarii. and 
 
 SUPRALAPSARII. 
 
 LAPSE, a (lip, or omiffion of a patron to prefent a clerk to a 
 benefice within fix months of its being void; in which cafe 
 the benefice is faid to be in lapfe, or lapfed, and the riaht of 
 prefentation devolved to the ordinary. 
 L A QU E A R I U S *, a kind of athlela among the ancients, 
 who in one hand held a layutus, i. e. a fort of fnare, where' 
 with to embarrafsand intanglehis antagonift, and in the other 
 a poinard to ftab him. 
 
 T a^tiStc*"" 11 C ° m " fr ° m ,he La "" '•"!"""■ * rna ™. or irooj*. 
 -LAt^UEUS, in furgery, a mm or fnan; or a kind of li- 
 gature fo contrived, that when ftretched by any weight or 
 the like, it draws up clofe. ° 
 Its ufe is to extend broken or disjointed bones to keep them 
 in their places,' when they are fer, and to bind the pans clofe 
 together. 
 
 LAR-BOARD, the left-hand fide of a (hip when you ftand 
 
 with your face toward the head. 
 LARCENY *, in law, is a theft of perfonal goods, or chat- 
 tels in the owner's abfence. See Theft. 
 
 * The word tomes from the French Itrdn, and that from the 
 Latin latracinium, theft. 
 In refpea of the things ftolen, larceny is either mat, or 
 fmall. 
 
 Great Larceny, is when the things ftolen, though feverallv, 
 exceed the value of lid. 
 
 Petty Larceny, is when the goods ftolen, exceed not the va- 
 lue of 12 d. 
 
 Civilian? define larceny, a fraudulent fubtrafiion of another 
 man's property, with defign to appropriate it without the. 
 owner's leave. 
 
 When it is done by force, it is called a rohbery. 
 By the Roman law, the penalty of fimple and fecret larceny 
 was the returning it twofold ; and of manifejl larceny, four- 
 fold : manifejl larceny, was where the criminal was taken in 
 the U&; fimple, where he was not. The Lacedemonians 
 never punifhed larceny, provided the perfon was not causht 
 in the fact; but, on the contrary, it was applauded as a mark 
 of dexterity and addrefs.— The Orcadians are faid to ho- 
 nour it at this day ; infomuch that at their public feafts their 
 2 youth 
 
LAR 
 
 youth are not differed to drink, if they have not performed 
 fomething remarkable in that way.— Sonnus tells us, that in 
 Sardinia there was a fountain that had the vertue of diicover- 
 ing a perfon that had committed larceny. 
 
 LARENTINALIA, in antiquity, a feaft held among the 
 Romans on the 23d day of September ; by fome fuppofed to 
 have been in honour of the Lares, but by others, with more 
 probability, in honour of Acca Laurentia ; and to have been 
 the fame with laurenialia. 
 
 LARES, among the ancients, a kind of domeftic genii, or 
 divinities, worfhipped in houfes, and efteemcd the guardians 
 and protectors of families ; fuppofed to refide more immedi- 
 ately in the chimney-corner. 
 
 Plutarch diftinguifties good and evil lares, as he had before 
 done good and evil genii. 
 
 There were alfo fome public, others private lares. 
 Apulcius tells us the domeftic lares were no more than the 
 fouls of departed perfons, who had lived well, and difcharged 
 the duties of their ftation ; whereas thofe who had done other- 
 wife, were vagabonds, wandering about and frightening peo- 
 ple, called larva and lemures. See Lemures. 
 The lares were alfo called penates, and were worfhipped un- 
 der the figures of little marmouiets, or images of wax, filver, 
 or earthen ware. 
 
 The public lares were alfo called compitahs, from compitum, 
 a crofs-way ; and viales, from via, a way, or public road ; 
 as being placed at the meetings of roads, and in the high- 
 ways, and efteemed the patrons and protectors of travel- 
 lers. 
 
 Their private lares took care of particular houfes and fami- 
 lies : thefe they alfo called prajlites, from pradto ; 
 
 Shiodprajlant ocnlis omnia tuta fuis. Ovid. Faft. 
 They gave the name urbani, i. c. lares of cities, to thofe 
 who had cities under their care ; and bofti&i, to thofe who 
 were to keep their enemies off.— There were alfo lares of 
 the country, called ntrales, as appears by feveral antique in- 
 fer iptions. 
 
 The lares were alfo genial gods, and were fuppofed to take 
 care oi children from their birth. It is for this reafon, that 
 when Macrobius tells us the Egyptians had four gods who 
 prefided over the births of children, viz. the genius, fortune, 
 love, and necejjity, called prtcjlites, fome interpret him as if 
 lie had faid the Egyptians had lares ; but there was a world 
 of difference between the lares of the Romans, and the pra?- 
 ititcs of the Egyptians. 
 
 The ancients differ extremely about the origin of the lares. 
 Varro and Macrobius fay that they were the children of 
 Mania ; Ovid makes them the iffue of Mercius, and the naiad 
 Lara, whom Lactantius and Aufonius call Larunda ; Apuleius 
 affuresus they were the pofterity of the Lemures; Nigridius, 
 according to Arnobius, made them fometimes the guardians 
 and protectors of houfes, and fometimes the fame with the 
 Curetes of Samothracia, which the Greeks call Idcsi daclyli. 
 Nor was Varro more confiftent in his opinion of thefe gods ; 
 fometimes making them the manes of heroes, and fometimes 
 gods of the air. 
 
 T. Tatius, king of the Sabincs, was the firft who built a 
 temple to the lares. The chimney and fire-place in the 
 houfe were particularly confecrated to them. 
 Tertullian tells us, the cuftom of worfhipping the lares arofe 
 from this, that they anciently interred their dead in their 
 houfes ; whence the credulous people took occafion to ima- 
 gine their fouls continued there alfo, and proceeded to pay 
 them divine honours.— To this it may be added, that the 
 cuftom being afterwards introduced of burying in the high- 
 ways, they might hence take occafion to regard them as gods 
 of the highways. 
 
 The victim offered to the lares, in the public facrifices, was 
 a hog: In private, they offered them wine, incenfe, a crown 
 of wool, and a little of what was left at the table. — They 
 alfo crowned them with flowers, particularly the violet, myr- 
 tle, and rofemary. Their fymbol was a dog, which was 
 ufually reprefented by their fide, on account of its fidelity, 
 and the fervice it does to man, in watching his houfe. 
 They were fometimes alfo reprefented as clothed in a dog's 
 ' ts fkin. 
 
 See further on the tares, in Arnobius, Lactantius, Auguftin 
 De Chit. Natalis Comes, Lambin on Plant. Aulul. and on 
 Hor. Cafaubon on Sucton. Sic. 
 
 The pantheons, or images reprcfenting feveral gods at once, 
 were alfo called lares. — Harpocratcs was one of thefe. 
 
 LARGE, a fea-term. Seethe article Veering. 
 
 Large Minion. Seethe article Minion. 
 
 LARMIER, in architecture, a flat, fquare, maffive member 
 of the cornice, between the cymatium and the ovolo ; fo 
 called from its ufe, which is to difperfe the water, and cau(i 
 it to fall at a diftaiicj from the wall, drop by drop, or, as i: 
 were, by tears ; larmc, in French, fignifying a tear. — See 
 Tab. Architect, fig. 9. fig. 24. lit. d. fig. 28. lit. fi. 
 The larmier is alfo called corona; anil in Englilh, the drip. 
 
 L A R 
 
 LAR YNGOTOMIA*, an incifion into the trachea, or 
 wind-pipe between two of its annuli, or rings in order to 
 give paflage for the breath, when there is danger of fuffbca- 
 tion, from a fquinancy, or the like. 
 
 * The word is Greek AafL-yfrhptx ; formed of Xetpif^, ar.d 
 
 TffMW, /(CO, I CUt. 
 
 Laryngotomy is the the fame with wliat is otherwife called bran- 
 chotomy. 
 
 Dr. Mufgravc obferves, that In all medicine there is not one 
 method that works fo great a change, for the better, in fo 
 fhortatime. However, it is feldcm practifed, in regard that 
 gap which appears on the cutting a throat, (the divided parts 
 being then drawn towards their more fixed ends) together 
 with the great efflux of blood, when the jugulars and carotid 
 arteries are alfo wounded, create in moft men a dread of the 
 operation, and make many believe all wounds of the trachea 
 mortal. The fame author makes no fcruple, however, to 
 fay, that it ought to be practifed in quinzies, and other dangers 
 of fuffocation from caufes of a like nature with them ; from 
 an extraordinary cure which he himfelf had wrought in this 
 way. 
 
 LARYNX, aaptth, in anatomy, the upper part, or bead 
 of the trachea, lying below the root of the tongue, and be- 
 fore the pharynx. 
 
 The larvnx is one of the organs of refpiration, and the prin- 
 cipal inftriiment of voice. 
 
 Its body is almoft wholly cartilaginous, and it is to be con- 
 ftantly open to give room for the air to pafs and repafs. Its 
 figure is circular, though it jets out a little before, and is a lit- 
 tle flatted behind, left it mould incommode the ccfophagus, 
 whereon it is placed. 
 
 The larynx is of different diameters, according to the different 
 ages; in young people it is narrow, whence their voice comes 
 to be acute ; in thofe more advanced in years, it is more 
 ample, which occafions their voice to be ftrongcr and deeper. 
 In men it is bigger than in women, for which reafon mens 
 voice is more grave than that of women. 
 
 It appears the lefs in women, in regard the glands fituate 
 at the bottom of the larynx, are bigger in women than in 
 men. 
 
 The larynx moves at the time of deglutition : when the 
 cefophagus is lowered for the reception of the food, the la- 
 rynx raifes itfelf to comprefs it, and facilitate its defcent. 
 There are five kinds of parts belonging to the larynx, viz. 
 cartilages, mafcles, membranes, nerves, and glands.- — Its 
 cartilages are the thyroides, cricoides, aryta?noides, glottis, 
 and epiglottis, by means of which it can eafily dilate and 
 contract, fhut and open itfelf. Thefe form the whole body 
 of the larynx, and grow dry and harden, in proportion as 
 the perfon grows old, when the larynx fometimes appears 
 as if it were bony. 
 
 The biggeft of thefe is the thyroides or fcutiformls, this guards 
 the forepart, and has its name from fome fuppofed refem- 
 blance that it bears to a fhlcld. It is of a concavo-convex 
 fquare figure, the hollow part being inward, and the gibbous 
 outward, having a little prominence in the middle called 
 pomum Adami, as if fome of the forbidden fruit had ftuck in 
 Adam's throat, and occafioned that fwclling. 
 The fecond is called cricoides, or annularis, from its refem- 
 blance to a ring which the Turks put on their thumb for 
 the drawing of their bows. The fore part of this is very 
 narrow, coming under the other cartilage, but behind it is 
 broad, thick, and ftrong, being, as it were, the bafts of all 
 the others. 
 
 The thirth and fourth are called aryteenoides, or guttales, from 
 the figure of an ewer, which thefe two together fomewhat 
 refemble. At the juncturejpf thefe th :re is a little cleft, or 
 chink, in form of a little tongue, and for that reafon called 
 glottis, or lingula. Through this chink the air defcends into 
 the Uings, and the pituitous matter ejected by coughing, in ca- 
 tarrhs, is let out. It ferves alfo for modulating the voice, and 
 is imitated in flutes and the pipes of organs. 
 Over the glottis lies a fifth cartilage called the epiglottis, which 
 is very thin and foft, and in non-adults almolf membranous, 
 concave on the under fide, and convex on the upper: It de- 
 fends the entrance of the larynx, and hinders the liquids, which 
 in drinking flip over it into the refophagus, from falling into 
 the trachea. 
 
 The larynx has feven pair of mufcles, which ferve to move 
 its feveral cartilages, and to contract or dilate them at plea- 
 fure ; two pair of them are common, the other five proper : 
 the proper arc thofe which have both their origination and 
 infertion in the larynx ; the common have only their infer - 
 tion there. 
 
 Of the former kind are the cricothyroides which moves the 
 fcutiform cartilage ; the crico-arytsenoides pofticus, which 
 ferves , by its contraction, to draw the arytamoides cartilage 
 and to open the rima. The third is the artysenoides ; whfch 
 ferves to bring the two cartilages of that name together, and 
 to fhut the rima. The fourth is the crico-artyasnoides late- 
 rale, and the fifth the thyreo-arytxnoides, which fhuts the 
 larynx, 
 
 2 The 
 
L A T 
 
 The common mufcles are the fternothyroides, which ferve to 
 draw down the tbyroide cartilage, and the hyothyroides, which 
 lift up that cartilage. 
 
 The larynx has but two membranes, the one external, which 
 is a continuation of that which covers the trachea; the other 
 internal, which is the fame that lines the whole mouth. 
 It receives two branches of nerves from the recurrents, and 
 js moiftened by four large glands, two fituate above, called ton- 
 fth; and two underneath, called thyroidetu. See Tonsil, 
 
 &£. 
 
 The larynx is of very confiderable ufe, not only in forming and 
 modulating the voice, by the different apertures of its rima, or 
 chink, but alfo in comprefimg the lungs to a greater or lefs 
 degree, by the air: for if the internal diameter of the larynx 
 had been equal to that of the trachea, the lungs could then 
 have undergone little or no comprcflion at all; nor, confe- 
 quently, without the larynx could we have reaped any advan- 
 tage from breathing, in regard the air would not have refifted 
 that force wherewith it is driven out in expiration, nor confe- 
 quently, could the comprefiion have been made in the lungs, 
 which is found ncceffary for the comminution of the globules 
 of the blood, and the mixing of the two fluids, air and blood, 
 together. 
 
 For the action of the larynx in found, fee Glottis, and 
 Sound; fee alfo Epiglottis, Trachea, &c. 
 LASH, or Lace, in the fea language, fignifies to bind, or 
 make faji. 
 
 Lajlnng is chiefly ufed for binding up to the fhip's fide, muf- 
 kets, butts of water or beer, or pieces of timber to make 
 fpare top-mafts. 
 
 Lashers, are properly thofe ropes only which bind faft the 
 tackles, and the breeches of the ordnance, when they are 
 haled, or made faft: within board. 
 
 L ASKING, a fea term, for going large, or veering. See 
 Veering. 
 
 LASSITUDE, among phyficians, expreffes that wearinefs, 
 or heavinefs of members, that proceeds from a diftempered ftate 
 of body, and not from exercife; either from an increafe of 
 bulk, a diminution of proper evacuation, or too great a con- 
 fumption of that fluid which is neceffary to maintain the force 
 and fpring of the folids, as in fevers and convulfions; or from 
 a vitiated fecretion of that juice, whereby the fibres are not 
 fupplied either in due quantity or quality. 
 The remedy, in the iirft cafe, is evacuation: in the latter 
 a proper diet, or fuch alterative medicines as influence fuch 
 fecretion. 
 
 LAST, or Lest, in general, fignifies the burden or load of a 
 fhip. 
 
 Last, is alfo ufed for a certain weight and meafure, which is 
 various in various countries; though in the general, the lajl 
 is eftimated at four thoufand pounds weight. See Weight. 
 A lajl of cod-fifh, white herrings, meal, and afhes for foap, is 
 twelve barrels: Of corn, or rape-feed, ten quarters: Of gun- 
 powder, twenty four barrels, or 2400 pounds weight: Of red 
 herrings, twenty cades: Of hides twelve dozen: Of leather, 
 twenty dickers : Of pitch, or tar, fourteen barrels: Of wool 
 twelve facks: Of ftock-fifh, a thoufand: Of flax, or feathers, 
 1700 pounds weight. 
 
 Last Heir, is he to whom lands come by efcheat, for want of 
 lawful heirs; which, in many cafes, is the lord whereof they 
 held, but in others the king. 
 
 fcfri£ j Se= the article „ 
 LASTAGE, or Lestage, according to Raftal, is a duty 
 
 exacted in fome fairs and markets, for carrying things bought 
 
 where one will. 
 
 Lastage, according to another author, is properly that cuf- 
 
 tom which is paid for wares fold by the lajl. 
 
 In a law of Ric. II. laftage is taken for the ballaft or for ladin^ 
 
 of a fhip. See Ballast, Cffr. 
 Lastage, is fometimcs alfo ufed for garbage, rubbifh, or fuch 
 
 filth. 
 
 LATE Flowers. Seethe article Flowers. 
 
 LATENT Acids. Seethe article Acid. 
 
 LATERAL. See Colltateral, Multilateral, 
 and Quadrilateral. 
 
 Lateral Equation, in algebra, denotes a fimple equation ; or 
 an equation whofe root is only of one dimenfion. See Equa- 
 tion. 
 
 Lateral Palfy. ? „ , . , c p U(;Y 
 
 Lateral OpiLion. \ Se = *= «**> | L™'to M y. 
 
 Lateralis Rectus Capitis. See the article Rectus. 
 
 LATERAN, was originally the proper name of a man, 
 whence it defended to an antient palace in Rome, and to the 
 buildings fince erefted in its place; particularly a church cal- 
 led S. John ofLatiran, which is the principal fee of the pope- 
 dom. 
 
 Councils of the Lateran, are thofe held in the bafilica of the 
 
 Lateran: Ot thefe there have been five, held 
 
 m 1 123, 1139, 
 
 1179, 1215, and 1 5 1 3. 
 Canons Regular of the Congregation of the Lateran, is a con- 
 gregation of regular canons, whereof that church is the prin- 
 cipal place, or leat. 
 Vol. IL 
 
 LAI 1 
 
 It is pretended, there has been an uninterrupted fucceffiofl of 
 clerks, living in community from the time of the apoftles ; and 
 that a number of thefe were eftablifhed in the Lateran in the 
 time of Conflantine. But the canons were not introduced 
 till the time of Leo I. and thefe held the church 800 years, 
 till the reign of Boniface, who took it from them, and placed 
 ftcular canons in their room: 150 years after, the regulars 
 were reinftated. 
 
 A LATERE, a Latin term, ufed to denote the qualification 
 of cardinals whom the pope fends as legates into foreign courts; 
 who are called cardinals a latere, as being his holinefs's coun- 
 fellors in ordinary, and affiffants. 
 
 The guards of princes were heretofore called laterones, becaufe 
 always attending at their fides a latere. 
 
 Du Cange, in his Glojfary, fays, there were anticntly counts 
 a latere, and monitors a latere. 
 LATH*, in building, along, thin, narrow flip of wood, nail- 
 ed on the rafters of a roof, in order to fuftain the covering. 
 * Thefe are what Feftus calls ambrices; in otiier Latin writers 
 they are denominated templa ; and bv Gregory of Tours, liga- 
 ture. 
 
 Laths are divided into three kinds, with regard to the different 
 woods they are made of, viz. heart of oak laths, fap laths, and 
 deal laths : The two laft are ufed only for cieling and partition- 
 ing, and the firft only for tyling.— Laths are alfo diftinguifhed, 
 with regard to their length, into five foot, four foot, and 
 three foot laths: though the ftatute allows but of two lengths, 
 •viz. thofe of five foot and of three, each of which are to be 
 an inch and half in breadth, and half an inch in thicknefs. 
 LATHE, or Leathe, a very ufeful engine for the turning 
 of wood, ivory, metals, and other materials. 
 The invention of the lathe is very antient: Diodorus Siculus 
 fays, the firft who ufed it was a g'randfon of Dxdalus, named 
 Talus. Pliny afcribes it to Theodore of Samos, and men- 
 tions one Thericlis, who rendered himfeif very famous by his 
 dexterity in managing the lathe. 
 
 With this inftrument the antients turned all kinds of vafes, 
 many whereof they enriched with elegant figures and orna- 
 ments in baflb relievo. Thus Virgil. 
 
 Lenta ambus torno facili fuperaddita vitis. 
 The Greek and Latin authors make frequent mention of the 
 lathe ; and Cicero calls the workmen who ufed it, vnfiularii. 
 It was a proverb among the antients, to fay a thing wai 
 formed in the lathe, to exprefs its delicacy and juftnefs. 
 The lathi is compofcJ of two wooden cheeks, or fides, paral- 
 lel to the horizon, having a groove or opening between; per- 
 pendicular to thefe, are two other pieces, called puppets, made 
 to Aide between the cheeks, and to be fixed down at any 
 point at pleafure. 3 
 Thefe have two points, between which the piece to be turn- 
 ed is fuftained; the piece is turned round, backwards and for- 
 wards, by means of a firing put round it, and faftned above 
 to the end of a pliable pole, and underneath to a tredle or 
 board moved with the foot. There is alfo a reft which bears 
 up the tool, and keeps it fteady. 
 
 As it is the ufe and application of this inflrument that makes 
 the grcatcft part of the art of turning, we refer the particular 
 defcnption thereoi, as well as the manner of applying it in 
 various works, to that head. See Turning. 
 Lathe, in law. See the article Leth. 
 
 L ATTAR, a feaft or ceremony inftituted by Tarquinius Su- 
 perbus, in honour of Jupiter Latiaris, or Latialis. 
 Tarquin, having made a treaty of alliance with the Latins, 
 propofed, in order for perpetuating it, to ere& a common tem- 
 ple, where all the allies, the Romans, Latins, Hernici, Volfci, 
 Wc. fhould afTemble themfelves every year, hold a kind ot" 
 fair, exchange merchandizes, feaft, facrifice, and make merry 
 together. — Such was the inftitution of the latiar. 
 The founder only appointed one day for this feaft; the firft 
 confuls added another to it, upon concluding the peace with 
 the Latins; and a tin rd was added, after the people who had 
 retired to the Mons Sacer were returned to Rome, and a 
 fourth after appeafing the fedition raifed on occafion of thi 
 confulate, in which the people would needs have a fliare. 
 Thefe four days were called the Latin fcrla, and every th ng 
 done during the courfe of thefe feris, as feafts, facrifices! 
 offerings, tffc. were called latiares. 
 
 LATICXAVIUM, oi-Latus-Clavus, aearment of di- 
 itm£tion and dignity among the Romans ; contradiftinguifh a 
 from the angujlichrjium. 
 
 The lati-clavium was a kind of tunic, or long coat, faced with 
 one, or two flips of purple, applied lengthwife to the two fides 
 of the tunic. 
 
 In the latus-clavus thefe flips were pretty broad, and in the 
 anguftus-clavus narrower; though there is nothing about which 
 the learned differ more, than the difference between thofe two 
 habits. 
 
 There were buttons let on the latus-clavus, which apoeared 
 like the heads of large nails; whence fome think it took its 
 name. 
 
 The fenators, praetors, and the chief magiftrates of colonies 
 and municipal cities, had a right to wear it. The robe cal- 
 led prartexta, was wore over the latus-clavus. When the 
 5 R r prxtor 
 
L A T 
 
 I 
 
 prastor pronounced fentence of death, he put oft* the pra?texta, 
 but retained the latus-clavus. 
 LATIN, a dead language, firft fpoken in Latium, and after- 
 wards at Rome; and ftill ufed in the Romifli church, and 
 among men of letters. 
 
 Some authors rank the Latin among the number of original 
 languages, but by miftake; it is formed principally from the 
 Greek, and particularly from the i*£olic dialed of that tongue; 
 though it has a great number of words which it borrowed 
 from the languages of the Etrufci, Ofci, and other antient 
 people of Italy j and foreign commerce and wars, in cburfe 
 of time, added a great many more. 
 
 The Latin is a ftrong, robuft language, perfectly fuitablc to 
 the character of the people who Jpokc it. We have, Hill, 
 works of every kind, admirably well written in Latin, though 
 there are an infinite number loft. The Latin is more figura- 
 tive than the Englifh, lefs pliant than the French, lefs copi- 
 ous than the Greek, lefs pompous than the Spanifh, lefs deli- 
 cate than the Italian, but clofer and more nervous than any of 
 them. 
 
 For a while, the Latin tongue was confined almoft wholly 
 within the walls of Rome; nor would the Romans allow the 
 common ufe of it to their neighbours, or to the nations they 
 fubdued. — Cicero obferved, that, even in his time, Greek 
 was ufed almoft among every people, but the Latin only con- 
 fined to a very narrow compafs ; Gnsca leguntur in omnibus 
 fere gentibus, Latina fuis fiuibus exigms fane continentur. By 
 degrees they were brought to grant the ufe of it as a favour; 
 and in time became fcnfible of the neceffity there was of its 
 being generally underftood, for the conveniency of commerce ; 
 and accordingly ufed their utmoft endeavours, that all the na- 
 tions fubject to their empire, fliould be united by one common 
 language: fo that at length they impofed that as a law, which 
 they had before granted as a favour. 
 
 After the tranflation of the feat of the empire from Rome to 
 Conftantinople, the emperors of the eaft, being always defi- 
 rous of retaining the title of Roman emperors, appointed the 
 Latin to be ftill retained in ufe, both in their refcripts and 
 edicts, as appears by the conftitutions of the eaftern emperors, 
 collected in the Theodofian Code: But at length the emperors 
 neglecting the empire of the weft, abandoned all care of the 
 Latin tongue, and allowed their judges to pafs fentence in 
 Greek; and accordingly, we find the emperor Juftinian's 
 Novels are compofed in Greek. 
 
 Charlemagne coming to the empire of the weft, appointed the 
 law proceedings in fovereign courts to be made in Latin t and 
 the notaries were to draw their acts and inftruments in the 
 fame tongue: This practice continued a long time through a 
 great part of Europe, but at length it gave way, and the French 
 took place of the Latin, not only in France, but in fome 
 meafure in England too; and the reafon given for it was, 
 that abundance of difficulties arofe about the underftanding of 
 Latin terms. 
 
 1 be Latin, however, was prodigioufly degenerated and cor- 
 rupted, ere it came to be laid afide. The incurfions of the 
 Goths and Vandals into Italy, brought an inundation of fo- 
 reign words and phrafes into it; infomuch that Valla and 
 Naude call BoethhlS the laft Latin author. But that was not 
 all; when it once got into the courts ofjuftice, it was ftill 
 worfc handled ; till at laft being introduced amongft the monks, 
 and become the common language of mifTals and breviaries, it 
 was debauched to that degree, that it was almoft become fcan- 
 dalous to ufe it. 
 
 In this condition it was found at the time of the Reforma- 
 tion; when Vfves, Erafmus, &e, began to open the way for 
 its recovery; fincc wliich' time, monkifh latinity has been 
 declining, and all endeavours have been ufed to retrieve the 
 pure language of the Auguftan age. 
 
 It was faid of cardinal Bembo, that lie would never read the 
 Breviary, for fear of corrupting his fine Latin. 
 Latin Church, is a term ufed for the Romifti or weftern 
 church, by way of oppofition to the Greek church. See 
 Church, and Greek. 
 
 Latin Bibles. 1 ~ . . . (Bible, 
 t />t n r the article < „ 
 
 Latin Chamber. S \ Character. 
 
 LATISSIMUS Dorfi, in anatomy, a mufcle fo called from 
 its fhape covering almoft the whole back. 
 
 It has a thin, broad, tendinous beginning, which comes from 
 the pofterior part of the fpine of the ilium, from the fuperior 
 fpmes of the os facrum, from all the (pines of the vertebra; of 
 the loins, and from the feven lower of the thorax; it panes 
 by the inferior angle of the fcapula, from which fome of its 
 flefliy fibres fometimes arife, and is inferted with the teres 
 major, by a ftrong and broad tendon, with which it pulls the 
 arm downwards. 
 
 It is alfo called ani fcaiptsr, becaufe it carries the arm to the 
 anus— See Tab. Amu (Myol.) fig. 6. n, 28. 
 LATITAT*, a writ, whereby all men in perfona! actions are 
 called originally to the King's Bench. 
 
 • It has this name, as fuppofing the defendant lurks. lies hid 
 and cannot be found in the county of Middlefex, to be taken 
 by bdi ; but is gone to fome other county, to the flieriff 
 whereof this writ is directed. 
 
 L A T 
 
 LATITUDE, Latitudo, in geography, the diftance of 
 a place from the equator; or an arch of the meridian inter- 
 cepted between the zenith of the place and the equator. 
 
 Hence, latitude is either northern or jouthern, according as 
 the place whofe latitude is (poke of, is on this, or that fide, 
 of the equator. — Thus London is faid to be in 51 degrees, 
 32 minutes, northern latitude. 
 
 Circles parallel to the equator are called parallels of latitude, 
 becaufe they fhew the latitudes of places by their interfeflion 
 with the meridian. 
 
 If through the poles of the world we conceive innumerable 
 great circles drawn, thefe are called feamdaries of the equa- 
 tor; and by their help, the polition of every point, either 
 on earth, or in the heavens, with regard to the equinoctial 
 (that is, the latitude of any point) is determined. See Secon- 
 dary. 
 
 One of thefe fecondaries palling through any place on the 
 earth's furface, is called the meridian of that place, and on it 
 the latitude of that place is meafured. See Meridian. 
 The latitude of a place, and the elevation of the pole of that 
 place above the horizon, are terms ufed indifferently for each 
 other, in regard the latitude and the elevation of the pole are 
 always equal. 
 
 This will appear fmmTab. Geography, fig. 5.— where the 
 circle HZQ_reprefents the meridian, HO the horizon, JECQ 
 the equator, Z the zenith, and P the pole. 
 Here, the latitude of the place, or its diftance from the equa- 
 tor, is the arch ZJE, and the elevation of the pole, or its 
 diftance from the horizon, the arch PO.— Now the arch 
 VJE between the pole and the equator, is a quadrant of a 
 circle, and the arch ZO, from the zenith to the horizon, is 
 hkewife a quadrant. Therefore the two arches, PTE and 
 ZO, muft be equal; and taking away the arch ZP, which 
 is common to both, there will remain the arch ZJE, equal to 
 the arch PO ; that is, the latitude of the place equal to the 
 pole above the horizon. 
 
 Hence we have a method of mcafuring the circumference of 
 the earth, or of determining the quantity of a degree on its 
 furface : for by going direSly northward or fotithward, till 
 the pole be elevated one degree more or lefs, and then mea- 
 funng that interval accurately, we (hall have the number of 
 miles in a degree of a great circle of the earth's globe. 
 The knowledge of the latitude of the place is of the utmoft 
 confequence, both in geography, navigation and aftronomy- 
 1 he method! of determining it, both at fea and land, are as 
 
 The altitude of the pole, it ha* been already fhewn, is alwavs 
 equal to the latitude; for which reafon the latitude might be 
 belt found by obferving the pole's heighth: But in regard that 
 the pole is only a mathematical point, and no ways to be 
 obferyed by our fenfes, its heighth cannot be determined in 
 the lame manner as that of the fun and ftars, EsV. for which 
 reafon, another manner has been contrived. 
 In order to this, a meridian line is firft drawn; the method 
 ot doing which, fee under the word Meridia n. 
 Place a quadrant on this line, fo as its plane may be in the 
 plane of the meridian; then take fome ftar near the pole 
 v.gr. the pole (tar, which never fets, and obferve both its 
 greateft and Ieaft altitude. 
 
 Let the greateft, v.gr. be SO, (Tab. Geography, fig. 3nd 
 t he eaft , O; the half of which P S or P f ducted irorn 
 the greateft altitude S O, or added to the lead , O, will E ive 
 P O, the altitude of the pole above the horizon, which is equal 
 to the latitude of the place. 4 
 The latitude may alfo be found, by having the fun's, or a 
 ftars declination, and meridian altitude, taken with a qua- 
 drant or nftrolabe. — The method is this : 
 Obferve the meridian diftance of the fun from the vertex or 
 zenith, which is always the complement of his meridian alti- 
 tude, and add to this the fun's declination, when the fun and 
 the place are on the fame fide the equator, or fubtracl the de 
 dilution when they are on different fides : the fum in the 
 former cafe, and the difference in the latter, will be the lati- 
 tude required. But when the declination of the fun is Greater 
 than the latitude of the place, which is known from the fun's 
 being nearer to the elevated pole than the vertex of the place 
 is, as it frequently happens in the torrid zone; then the diffe- 
 rence between the full's declination, and his zenith diftance 
 is the latitude of the place. "inance, 
 
 If the fun, or ftar, have no declination, but move in the eoui 
 noftlal that day, then the elevation of the equator will be 
 equal to his meridian altitude, and confequently his meridian 
 altitude is the complement of the latitude to 90. 
 This latter method is beft accommodated to the ufes of navi 
 gation as being practicable at fea; but the former method 
 preferable at land. 
 
 Latitude, in aftronomy, is the diftance of a ftar or planet 
 from the ecliptic. v 
 Or, it is an arch of a great circle, T S (Tab. JJnn. fir. 11. 
 n. 2.) intercepted between the centre of the far S, and the 
 ecliptic £ L; and perpendicular thereto. 
 
 Through 
 
L A T 
 
 L A U 
 
 Through the poles of the ecliptic are fuppofed to pafs an in- 
 definite number of great circles, cutting the ecliptic at right 
 angles, called circles of latitude, or fecondaries of the ecliptic : 
 By means of which, every ftar and point of the heavens is 
 reduced to the ecliptic, and has its place in regard thereto 
 determined ; the latitude of a ftar being an arch of one of 
 thefe fecondaries, intercepted between that ffar and the point 
 where it interfects the ecliptic. 
 
 In which the latitude differs from the declination, which is 
 the diftance of a ftar from the equator towards one of the 
 poles of the world. 
 
 So that the geographical latitude b the fame thing with the 
 aftronomical declination, and the aftronomical latitude a quite 
 different thing. 
 
 The latitude of a planet is an angle, as P T R, (Tab. Aflro- 
 norny^ fig. 26.) under which a planet's diffance from the eclip- 
 tic P R is feen on the earth. 
 
 The fun never has any latitude, but the planets have: for 
 which reafon, in the common fphere the zodiac has forne 
 breadth. — The ancients only allowed fix degrees on each fide 
 the ecliptic, but the moderns have extended it to nine. 
 According to the obfervation of fome of the modern aftro- 
 nomers, the grcateft latitude of the planets is not always the 
 fame ; but Venus never exceeds 9 degrees northern latitude ; 
 Mercury 5 degrees ; the Moon in her quadrant with the Sun 
 5 degrees; Saturn 2 degrees, 50 minutes; Jupiter one- degree, 
 50 minutes; Mars 7 degrees, 31 minutes. 
 When they have no latitude, they are faid to be in the nodes 
 of the ecliptic, or in the interferon of their orbit with that 
 of the fun; and in this fituation it is that they eclipfe, or 
 are eclipfed by the fun. 
 
 Circle j/Latitude, is a great circle, M S T n 
 through the poles of the ecliptic. See Circle. 
 
 North afcending Latitude of the moon, is when ffie proceeds 
 from the afcending node towards her northern limit, or 
 greateft elongation. 
 
 North dejeending^ Latitude, is when the moon returns from 
 her northern limit to the afcending node. 
 
 South dcfcendlng Latitude, is when ihe proceeds from the 
 defcending node to her fouthern limit. 
 
 South amending Latitude, is when fhe returns from her 
 fouthern limit to her afcending node. 
 
 And the fame holds good of the other planets. See Ascend- 
 ing, and Descending. 
 Heliocentric Latitude of a planet, is its diftance from the 
 eliptic, fuch as it is feen from the fun. 
 
 This, when the planet comes to the fame point of its orbit, 
 is always the fame, and unchangeable. 
 Geocentric Latitude of a planet, is the diftance of the planet 
 from the ecliptic, as it is feen from the earth. 
 This, though the planet be in the fame point of its orbit, yet 
 is not conftantly the fame, but alters according to the por- 
 tion of the earth, in refpect to the planet. See Heliocen- 
 tric, and Geocentric. 
 
 Dr. Hallcy has fome confide rat ions in the PhilofophicalTranf- 
 aflions, which make it probable, the latitudes of fome of the 
 principal fixed ftars, particularly Palilicium, Sirius, and Arc- 
 turus, alter in time ; whence it may be argued, the reft like- 
 wife alter, though the variation may be lefs confpicuous in 
 thefe, by reafon they arc fuppofed at a greater diftance from 
 us. 
 
 Parallax a/Latitude. 5 c + u» 1 S Parallax. 
 
 ^■^Vlatitude.I Scc the artlde i Refraction. 
 
 LATITUDINARIAN, among divines, fignifies a mo- 
 derate per/on, not ovcr-clofely tied to any particular religious 
 opinions, but who thinks there is a breadth, or latitude, in 
 the road to heaven ; which may admit people of different per- 
 fuafions. 
 
 LATOMIA*, aatomia, properly fignifies a quarry, or 
 place whence ftones are dug. See Quarry. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek jitfj, ltone, and rittts, T Cut. 
 Thefe were anciently ufed as goals for criminals. — Diony- 
 fius had a place of this kind dug in a rock near Syracufe, 
 where an infinite number of people were fhut up. Cicero 
 reproaches Verres with iir. onioning Roman citizens in lato- 
 mia ; fo that iutotnia became a general name for a prifon, 
 and the prifoners inclofed in them were called latomarii. 
 
 ( L ATRIA, AATPjiiA, in theology, a religious worfhip due 
 only to God. 
 
 The Romanifts fay, ( They honour God with the worfhip 
 c otjatriay and the faints with the worfhip of dulia :' but 
 the terms, however diftinct, are ufually confounded. 
 The worfhip of 'atria, befides its inner characters, has its 
 external marks to diftinguilh it; the principal whereof is 
 facrifice, which cannot be offered to any other but God 
 himfelf , as being a folemn acknowledgment , or recog- 
 nition of the fovercignty of God, and our dependence on 
 him. 
 
 M. Daille feems to own, that fome of the fathers of the 
 fourth century allowed the diftuiction between ktrla and 
 dulia. 
 
 in conies, the fame with parameter. Se< 
 
 LATUS reclum 
 Parameter. 
 
 Latus tranfverfum of the hyperbola, is a right line inter- 
 cepted between the vertices of the two oppofite fections ; or 
 that part of the common axis, which is between the vertices 
 of the upper and lower cone. 
 
 Such is the line ED, (Tab. Conicsi fig. I.) where alfo D d„ 
 and E e, may be the parameters, or latus reclums belonging to 
 the two oppofite fections, DLRO, and OEOR. 
 To this latus tranfverfum anfwers the longcft diameter in the 
 ellipfis ; which Apollonius calls the tranfverfe axis, or di- 
 ameter. 1 j ■ 1 
 Latus primarium, is a right line belonging to a conic fection, 
 drawn through the vertex of the fection of the cone, and 
 within it ; as the line EE, or D D, in the figure above re- 
 ferred to. 
 
 LAVATORY, orLAVADERo, a name given to certain 
 places in Chili, and Peru, where gold is got out of earth by 
 warning, 
 
 M. Frezier gives us the following defcription of the lavatories 
 of Chili : they dig deep into the earth, in fuch places as they 
 have reafon to expect gold in; and in order to facilitate this 
 digging, they turn a ftream of water upon the fpot, loofening the 
 earth as much as poffible all the time, that the current may 
 have the greater effect, and tear up the earth more ftrongly. 
 When they are got to the earth they want, they turn off the 
 ftream, and dig dry. 
 
 The earth that they now get, is carried on mules, and dif- 
 charged into a bafon, made fomewhat in the manner of a 
 fmith's bellows ; into which a little rivulet of water runs 
 with a great deal of rapidity, diflblving the parts of the earth, 
 and carrying every thing away with it, excepting the par- 
 ticles of gold, which, by their great weight, precipitate to 
 the bottom of the bafon, and mix with a fine black fand, 
 where they are almoft as much hidden, as they were before 
 in the earth. 
 
 Sometimes, they find very confiderable pieces in lavatories? 
 particularly fome pieces of twenty four ounces each. — There 
 are feveral lavatories, where they find thefe pepitas, or pieces of 
 virgin gold, of a prodigious fize. Among othcrs,they tell of one 
 that weighed 512 ounces, bought by the count de la Mon- 
 cloa, viceroy of Peru. 
 
 Nine or ten leagues to the eaft of Coquimbo, are the lava- 
 tories of Andacoll, the gold whereof is twenty three carats 
 fine. — Their work, here, always turns to great profit, ex- 
 cepting when the water fails them. — The natives maintain, 
 that the earth is creative, (creatrix) that is, it produces gold 
 continually; becaufe, after having been wafhed fixty or 
 eighty years, they find it impregnated afrcfh, and draw al- 
 moft as much out of it as at firft. 
 LAUDANUM, a name given by the chymifts to certain 
 preparations, chiefly extracts, of opium; by reafon of their 
 excellent qualities : as who fhould f.y, laudandum, from lau- 
 dare, to praife. 
 
 We have divers kinds of laudanum-, as Sydenham's liquid 
 laudanum, tartarized liquid laudanum, Sec. 
 LAUDS, Laudes, the fecond part of the ordinary office 
 of the Breviary, faid after mattins ; though heretofore it end- 
 ed the office of the night. 
 
 The laudes confift principally of pfalms, hymns, lsc. whence 
 they took their name : from laus, laudis, praife. 
 LAUGHTER, an action, or paffion peculiar to man. 
 
 Authors attribute laughter to the fifth pair of nerves, which 
 fending branches to the eye, ear, lips, tongue, palate, and 
 mufcles of the cheek, parts of the mouth, praecordia, i$c. 
 there hence arifes a fympathy, or confent, between all thefe 
 parts ; fo that when one of them is acted upon , the others 
 arc proportionally affected. 
 
 Hence, a favoury thing feen, or fmelt, affects the glands, and 
 parts of the mouth ; a thing feen, or heard, that is fhameful, 
 affects the cheeks with bhifhes : on the contrary, if it plcafe 
 and tickle the fancy, it affects the pnecordia, and mufcles of 
 the mouth and face with laughter ; if it caufe fadnefs and me- 
 lancholy, it likewife affects the pracordia, and demonftrates 
 itfelf by caufing the glands of the eyes to emit tears. 
 Dr. Will is accounts for the pleafure of kiffing from the fame 
 caufe, the branches of this fifth pair being fpread to the lips, 
 the prrccordia, and the genital parts ; whence ariies a fympa- 
 thy between thofe parts. 
 LAUNCH, in the fea phrafe, is to put cut : thus they fay, 
 launch the fhip ; that is, put her out of the dock, or out of the 
 key, &c. 
 
 LAURA *, a name given to the rcfidences of the ancient 
 monks. See Monk. 
 
 * The word is orginally Greek ^^a, where it primarily fig- 
 nifies •village, ftrtet, or hamlet. 
 Authors cannot agree about the difference between a laura 
 and a monaftery : fome pretend, that a laura was a monaftery 
 wherein there lived, at leaff a thoufand monks; but this is 
 in no wife credible. The more natural opinion is, that the 
 ancient monafteries were the fame with the modern, confift- 
 1 ■ »>£ 
 
LAW 
 
 ine of large buildings, divided into halls, chapels, and cells 
 poflctlcd by the monks, each of whom had his apartment j 
 but the laura were a kind of villages, whereof, each feveral 
 houfe was inhabited by one or two feveral monks at the 
 molt: fo that the houfes of the chartreux feem, in fome 
 meafure, to reprefent the ancient laura, and thofe of the 
 other monks, proper monafteries. 
 
 The term laura was only underftood of the religious places 
 in Egypt, and the Eaft, where their houfes flood apart from 
 each other, and were not joined by any common cloifter, the 
 monks that inhabited them only meeting in public once a 
 week. 
 
 LAUREATION, a term in the Scottifh univcrfitics uied 
 for the aft of taking up the degree of a mailer of arts, to 
 which the Undents are admitted after four years ftudy in the 
 univerfity. 
 
 LAURENCE— Canons of S. Laurence, an order of regular 
 canons, fo called from the monaftry of S. Laurence d'Oulx 
 inDauphine. 
 
 This congregation is (aid to have been founded by S. Benedict. 
 It was deftroyed by the Vandals, and continued uninhabited 
 till the middle of the eleventh century. In 1057, Odo, 
 count of Savoy, gave it to one Gerard, and his canons. 
 This donation was confirmed in 1065, by Cunibert, bilhop 
 of Turin, who added to it above forty other churches. By 
 which means a very confidcrable congregation was formed, to 
 whom the fiicceeding popes, and counts of Savoy, granted a 
 great many privileges. 
 
 It had thirty priories ; the chief, who is the prior of the con 
 gregation, hears the title of provoft, and exercifes a fpintual 
 jurifdiction throughout his provottfhip. 
 LAURENTALIA*, or Lar ent al i a, called alfo Ai- 
 rtntmalia, laurentales, and larentale, ; feafts celebrated among 
 the Romans on the tenth of the calends of January 
 twenty third of December, in memory of Acca Laurentia, 
 wife of the fhepherd Fautlulus, and nurfe of Romulus and 
 Remus. 
 
 * Acer Laurentia, from whom the fok-mnity took its name 
 is repretented as no lefs remarkable for the beauty of he 
 perfon, than her lafcivioufncfs : on account of which, Oil 
 was nick.named by her neighbours, hpa, Ihe wolt ; which 
 is faid to have given rile to the tradition of Romulus and 
 Remus being fucklcd bv a wolf.— She afterwards married a 
 very rich man, who brought her great wealth; which, at 
 her death, ihe left to the Roman people i in coiifidcration 
 whereof they performed her thtfe honours : though others 
 reprefent the fealt as held in honour of Jupiter L ituris. _ 
 LAW* a command, or precept, coming from fome fuperior 
 authority, which an inferior is obliged to obey ; or, more 
 nronerly, la* is a command, or mandate of fome perfon 
 or power, whofe precept carries with it the reafon of 
 
 ^ThTword is formed from the Sason U* 1.,., which fig- 
 
 nifies the fame. c 
 Thus, the comman Is of God, with refpeft to men, of a city 
 with reject to the citizens, and umvcrfally of all powerful 
 beings, in refpea to thofe who cannot refill, are called their 
 
 . The nature of aiw< will be moft clearly discovered, by 
 fhewin- wherein it differs from eo-jenanl, counfel, and ngtt 
 ore,m°y; with all which it is frequently confounded. The 
 Terence between a counfel and a W *#■ N >><* 
 mined from the difference between counfel and command. A 
 counfel is a precept, wherein the reafon of obedience is taken 
 from the thing itfclf prefcribed 
 
 wherein the reafon of obedience . .. 
 
 prefcriber ; for we cannot properly fay, Jie vole, fie jui 
 unlefs Jtet pro ratione 
 
 LAW 
 
 command is a precept, 
 .ends on the will of the 
 
 laluv.tas. Butfince in laws we do not 
 
 Xy for the fake of the thing itfelf, but for the fake of the 
 ncrfon who prefcribes it, a law is not properly a counfel, but 
 a command. A law comes from a perfon who hasji power 
 
 over" thofe" whom he commands ; a counfel from him who 
 has no fuch power. To do what is enjoined by a law, is an 
 La of duty; what by a counfel, an ad of choice, or free- 
 ■ unfel is directed to his advantage who receives it, 
 A counfel only takes effect over 
 
 11. A cou 
 
 a 'law to his who gives it, 
 
 thofe who are willing; a law, over thofe that are unwilling. 
 J-Mv the authority of the councilor is taken away at the 
 difcretiori ofhimtowhom the counfel is gwen ; but the au- 
 thority of the legiilator is not taken away at the difcretion 
 of him on whom the law is impofed. 
 
 Law is always confounded with covenant, by thofe who take 
 laws to be nothing elfe but S^H", or forms of hv.ng 
 determined by the confent of mankind : among whom is Ari- 
 ftotlc who defines a law, * A declaration determined by the 
 < common confent of a city, mewing in what manner things 
 * are to be done;' which is not fo much the definition of a 
 law as of a civil law: nor yet properly of a civil law; fur 
 this common confent is no more than a mutual covenant, 
 which does not oblige any perfon, and confequently is not 
 any law, till fome fupreme power be conftituted with a power 
 to compel, and to make it penal to tranfgrefs it. Here then 
 the covenant is confounded with the law, which leads into I 
 abfurdities ; for a covenant is a promife ; a latv, a command, 
 3 
 
 In a covenant it is faid, / will ds \ in a law -do: By * cove- 
 nant we are obliged, {that is, we muft perform according to 
 our promife) by a lazv we are preferved under that obligation, 
 (that is, we are forced to perform, for fear of the puniihment 
 awarded by it;) a covenant obliges by itfet, a law preferves 
 the obligation by force. In a covenant, therefore, we corifi- 
 der what is to be done ere we be obliged to do it j in a law 
 we are obliged to do, in the firft place, and what is to be dpnc 
 is determined afterwards. 
 
 Law is confounded with right or equity, by thofe who per- 
 fift in doing what is permitted by the divine law, though 
 prohibited by the laws of the country. What is prohibited 
 by the divine laiv, cannot be permitted by the civil law; nor 
 what is commanded by the divine l&rv, be prohibited by 'the 
 civil law ; but what is permitted by the divine law, may, 
 notwithstanding, be prohibited by the civil law: for the^in- 
 ferior laws have a power of retraining the liberty left -the 
 fuperior laws, though they cannot enlarge it. Now right 
 or equity is a natural liberty, not conftituted by hnus, but 
 free of them ; for take away laws, and liberty is compleat. 
 This liberty is firft reftrained by the natural and the divine 
 law, the reft reftrained by the civil laws; and what remain.; 
 unreftrained by the civil law, may be again reftrained by the 
 con ft it ut ions of particular cities, and focieties. There is a 
 great difference, therefore, between law and right, lex & jus ; 
 for law is a chain, but right, a liberty ; and they differ as 
 two contraries. 
 
 Law may be divided, with refpect to its different authors, in- 
 to divine, and hitman. 
 
 Divine Law may be confidered as twofold, with refpeet to the 
 two different manners in which God notifies his will to man, 
 viz. natural, (or moral) and pofitive. 
 
 NaturalLAW, is that which he has made known to all man- 
 kind, by that innate light, called natural reafon. 
 
 Pofitive Lav/, is that which he has revealed by his prophets ; 
 as thofe laws delivered to the jews, relating to the divine 
 worfhip, and polity, which may be called divino-civil laws t 
 as being peculiarly directed to that people, — Again, 
 Natural law maybe divided into that natural /oiy of men, 
 which, in a peculiar fenfe, is called the Law of nature .--and 
 the natural law of countries, commonly called the Law of 
 nations— The precepts are the fame in both thefe : butbecaufe, 
 when focieties are once inftituted, certain perfonal properties 
 become vefted in men ; that laic, which, when we fpeak of 
 the duties of men feverally, we call the natural law ; . whcii 
 transferred to cities, or countries, wc call the law of moti- 
 ons, pfril 1 / " r-^tJVl T &tOt' ('iliyttS 
 
 M. Regis fays, that the laws of nature are the dictates of 
 right reafon, which teach every man how he is to ufe his 
 natural right; and the laws of nations, the dictates, in like 
 manner, of right reafon, which teach every ftate how to act 
 and behave themfelves towards others. 
 
 Human Laws are all civil. See the article Civil. 
 
 For, according to Hobbes, the ftate of man, out of fociety, 
 is a ftate of war ; wherein, no one being fubject to another, 
 there can be no other law befides the dictates of natural rea- 
 fon, which is the divine law. f,^ 
 
 Civil Laws maybe divided, with regard to the difference of 
 their fubjett matter, into facred, and Jlrular. 
 
 Sacred Laws, are thofe that relate to religion; that is, to the 
 ceremonies and worfhip of the Deity, and which are not pre- 
 fcribed by any pofitive divine law. 
 
 Seca/rtr Laws, are thofe that relate to property, &c. common- 
 ly called by the name civil. — Further, 
 
 Civil laws, confidered with regard to the two offices of the 
 leciflator, viz. to judge, and to compel, may be divided into 
 two branches ; the one diflrthut'tvc, the other vindictive, ami 
 ■penal. , 
 Diflrilfutive'LAV.', is that by which every man has his right; 
 or, it is that which conftitutes the rules and me;>fures of 
 things, whereby we know what belongs to us, and what to 
 others ; fo as we may not difturb or interrupt others in the 
 enjoyment of their own, nor be interrupted by themj and 
 what each man may lawfully do, or not do. 
 Vinditlive Law, is that branch by which the punifhments to 
 be inflicted on thofe who violate the laws, are determined. 
 The diftributive, and vindictive, are not two fpecies of laws » 
 but two parts of the fame law. For if a law fay no more 
 than * Whatever you catch in your net, in the fca, fhall be 
 * yours,' it is in vain; for though another take from yoi* 
 what you have caught, it is (till yours ; in regard, in the ftate 
 of nature, where all things are common, yours and another's 
 are the fame thing. So that what the law defines to be 
 yours, was yours before that law , and will be yours after it, 
 though poffeffed by another. — A law, therefore, is but an 
 empty found, unlefs it determine the thing to be yours in 
 fuch a fenfe-, as to forbid every body elfe from diJturbing you 
 in the poffeffion of it. But fuch prohibition will be vain, 
 unlefs there be a penalty annexed to it. — A law, therefore, 
 muft contain both thefc parts, that which prohibits, and that 
 which punilhcs. 'The firft whereof, which is called dijlribu- 
 tive, is prohibitory, and fpeaks to all : the latter, called vin- 
 dictive, ox per.al} iV mandatory, and fpca.vi only to the public 
 
 officers. 
 
LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 •fficers. Whence it follows, that to all civil laws there is 
 annexed a penalty, either implicitly, or explicitly : and where 
 that punifhment is not afcertained, either by writing, or by 
 example, it is f ppofed to be arbitrary, and to depend on the 
 pleafure of the legiilatorj for that is no law which may be 
 violated impune. 
 
 Chil laws, confidered with regard to the different manners 
 
 of promulgating them, are of two kinds; Jcrtpta: and Hen- 
 
 fcriptes, or written, and unwritten. 
 Written Laws, are thofe which require either the voice, or 
 
 fome other fign of the legiflator's will, to become laws. 
 Unwritten Laws, are fuch as need no other promulgation be- 
 
 ftdes the voice of nature, or natural reafon; of which kind 
 
 are all natural laws. 
 
 Hence it appears, that though the natural laws be defcribed 
 In the writings of the philofophers, they are not therefore to 
 be called written laws. Nor are the writings of lawyers, laws, 
 for want of the fupreme authority: nor the refponfa pruden- 
 tum, or opinions of judges, /am, excepting fo far as they 
 are allowed by the fupreme power to pafs into ufe; and then 
 they are called leges fcriptes, written laws; not becaufe of 
 their ufe, but becaufe of the will of the fupreme power, which 
 is argued from their palling into ufe. 
 
 The firft principle, or law of nature, according to Hobbcs, 
 is felf-prefervation. — Thomafius will have it to be our own 
 happinefs, which falls in at laft with the fentiment of Hobbc-s. 
 Pufrendorff maintains it to be fociality.— Valentine Alberti, 
 the belief that we are the image of God. — Henry and Samuel 
 Cocceius, the will of God.— Grotius, right reafon.— Vel- 
 themius, the intrinfic decency, or turpitude of actions. — Stri- 
 mefius and Janus, that we are to love God, ourfelves, and our 
 neighbour. 
 
 Law is alfo applied to the feveral policies of (rates and people, 
 or the maxims and rules they have agreed upon, or received 
 from their magistrates, whereby to live in peace and mutual 
 focicty. 
 
 The laws of the twelve tables, were the antient laws of the 
 Romans, for which the Decemviri were fent into Greece, 
 and which ferved them for the ground-work of all their jurif- 
 prudence. 
 
 The celebrated laws of the more modern days, are thofe of 
 the AngH, theWerini, orThuringi; of the Boii, or Bavari- 
 ansj thofe of the Burgundi, Germans, Danes, and Nor- 
 wegians ; of the Franks, the Frifons, the Lumbards, the 
 Gothic laws, the Martian, or Mercian law; the laws of the 
 Saxons, Scots, Sicilians, Vifigoths; the laws of Oleron, the 
 Molmutin law, and the Salic law. 
 Law, Lex, among the firft Romans, properly fignified an ordi- 
 nance of the people, made at therequeft of a magiftrate, par- 
 ticularly a conful. 
 
 Thefe ordinances differed from the plebifcita, and fenatus- 
 confulta, and even from other ordinances made at the requeft 
 of any other magistrate belide a conful, though thofe too bore 
 the name of laws. 
 
 Thus, though Aquilius and Falcidius were only tribunes 
 when they made their requeft, yet we frill fay, the Jquilian 
 law, the Fa/cid.an la v t &c. 
 
 The feveral laws of the Romans are diftinguifhed, i". By 
 the name of him at whofe requeft they were palled; as the 
 Cornelian law, the Julian law, &c— 2 ". By the matter or 
 fuhject of the law; and hence came the terms Tejlamentary 
 laws., Judiciary laws, Agrarian lazus, &c. 
 3" 1 . Sometimes, by the crimes againft which they were made; 
 for tnfjbin.ee, the laws touching poifoning, parricides, Sec. the 
 laws of concujfton, peculate, &c. 
 
 The Codex and Authentic a, are the laws, and conftitutions 
 of the Roman emperors; and the Digeft is a compilation, made 
 by the emperor Juftinian's order, of the feveral opinions, and 
 judgments of the moft learned in the Roman law; to which 
 lie gave the fancHon of laws, as appears by _the epiffle pre- 
 fixed to the work: and it is this that properly conftitutes the 
 Roman law. 
 
 The lex talionis, or law of like for like, is the moft antient, 
 and equitable law in the world, It was obferved by the He- 
 brews. 
 
 Law of England, conflfts of three parts: i 3 . The common 
 law, which is the moft antient, and general law of the realm, 
 See Common'. 
 
 2°. Statutes, or ails of parliament — 3°. Particular cuftoms, 
 See Statute, Custom, &e. 
 
 The common law of England, is derived from the Englifh, 
 Saxons, and Danes, and was anriently divided into three 
 parts, viz. the Menian law, the Ifejl-Saxon law, and the 
 Danijh law. 
 
 Thofe called Mercian laws, are commonly faid to have been 
 compofed by Mania, queen of the Britons, from whom 
 there was a province called provincia Merciorum.—NLzny laws 
 were alfo publifhed by Etheldred, king of Kent, and by king 
 Ina. and Offa; but Alfred, who fubdued the whole king- 
 dom, having reviled all the laws of his predeceffors, retainer 
 thofe which he thought proper, and aboliihed the reft: whence 
 
 V O L. II 
 
 he is called Anglicarv.m legum conditor; and thefe laws were 
 called IVfJlfexcnelaga. 
 
 But the kingd om being afterwards fubdued by the Danesj 
 they introduced another law, called Danelaga, by which 
 their people were governed : And they being afterwards de- 
 ftroyed, Edward the confuflor, out of the former laws, com- 
 pofed that which we now call the common law; for which 
 reafon he is called by our hiftorians, Anglicarum legum rejlitu- 
 tdr, 
 
 Thefe laws were only general cuftcms obferved through the 
 nation, and for that reafon tbev were called common; and per- 
 haps, alfo, becaufe leges omnibus in commune reddidit, to be ob- 
 ferved by all, with fuch amendments as were afterwards to be 
 made. 
 
 William the conqueror did not enact many new k/t, but he 
 confirmed the old, viz. S. Edward's laws; and abrogated 
 none that any way concerned compositions, or mulds of de- 
 linquents. 
 
 The comma;? law is alfo called lex von fcripta (not but that 
 we have moft of them written in the old Norman dialect, but) 
 becaufe it cannot be made by charter, or parliament; for thofe 
 are always matters of record, whereas cuftoms are only mat- 
 ters of fact, and are no where but in the memory of the peo- 
 ple, and of all laws muft be the beft for the Englifh : for the 
 written laws, made by king and parliament, are impofed up- 
 on the Subjects before any probation, or trial whether they 
 are beneficial to the nation, or agreeable to the nature of the 
 people, except where they are firft made temporary, and for 
 their experienced ufefulnefs afterwards made perpetual ; but 
 cuftoms bind not tnl they have been tried and approved time 
 out of mind. 
 
 Bcfides the common law of England in general, there are in 
 feveral parts of it certain cuftoms and common ufages, which 
 have the torce of common law among thofe people to whofe 
 property they belong; as, borough Englijh, a cuftom fo called 
 as not being in ufe out of England; where the youngeft fun, 
 or, for want of fons, the youngeft brother, is to inherit; the 
 eldeft being fuppofed to have learnt the father's trade, and 
 the youngeft to be the leaft able to fliift for himfclf. 
 Where the common law is Silent, there we have Jlaiute laws* 
 made by the feveral kings of England, with the advice and 
 content of both houfes of parliament. 
 
 Befidcs thefe, we make ufe of the civil and canon laws in eccle- 
 fiaftical courts. 
 
 We have alfo ?nilitary or martial law, in ufe among the fbl- 
 diery in time of war; and forejl law, for the regulation of 
 forefts. Sec Martial, and Forest. 
 Law has alfo a more fpecial Signification, whercirr it is taken 
 for that which is lawful with us, and not clfewhere; as 
 4 Tenant by the court cfy of England.' 
 
 Thus we alfo fay, to wage law (vadiare legem) and to mohf 
 ox do law (facere legem). See Wage, and Make. 
 When an adion of debt is brought againft one upon fome 
 fecret agreement or contract, the defendant may wa<re his law 
 if hepleuf.-s; that is, he may fwear, and certain perfons with 
 him, that he owe;, the plaintiff nothing : but this is only allowed 
 in cafe of the piaintifPs want of evidence, and when he cannot 
 prove his furmife by any deed, or open act. 
 When one wages his law, he fhall bring with him fo many 
 of his neighbours as the court fhall affigo, (Sir Edward Coke 
 fays, eleven) to fwear with him, that they believe, in their 
 confei. ;nces, he hath fworn truly; and thefe, in our law, arc 
 called compurgators; by the feudifts, facramentales. 
 The officer, to make oath, is called the wager of law; and 
 when it is accomplifhed, it is called the making or doing of 
 law. This cuftom is faid to have obtained, formerly, amona 
 the Egyptians. * 
 
 AJfignce by Law. 
 Covenant of Law, 
 Frank Law. 
 Intendment o/"Law, 
 Poining's Law. 
 Releafe in Law. 
 Salic Law. 
 Suit in Law. 
 Sumptuary Law. 
 Surrender in Law. 
 5/-Laws. 
 Cock-pit Laws. 
 Laws of the Stage. 
 
 Law of Arms, is that law which gives precepts how rightly to 
 proclaim war, to make and obferve leagues, to attack th* 
 enemy, and to punifh offenders in the camp. 
 
 Law of Marque, a law by which thofe who are driven tp 
 make ufe of it, take the goods, or fhipping of the party that 
 has done them wrong, and of whom they cannot get ordinary 
 juihee, Whenever they can take them within their own bound' 
 or precincts. * 
 
 Laws ofM.lmutius. 7 s c Molmutin Laws. 
 
 Laws cf OUron. i ax m - m,<;le I o utM , 
 
 sSf Law 
 
 f Assignee. 
 Covenant. 
 Frank.. 
 Intendment. 
 
 POVNING. 
 
 Release. 
 Salic. 
 Suit. 
 
 I Sumptuary* 
 Surrender. 
 I By-law, 
 Cockpit. 
 [Stage. 
 
LAW 
 
 Law of the Staple, the fame with Law Merchant. . . j 
 Law Merchant? a fummary fort of law, originally differing' 
 from the common latv, though now adopted and become a part 
 of the laws of the kingdom; one point of it confifts in this,! 
 that if there be two joint merchants of wares, and one of thenr 
 dies, his executor {hall have the moiety : which is not allowed 
 in the'eafeof others, not merchants. 
 Law Spiritual, is the ecclefiaftical or canon law, allowed and 
 authorized in this realm; fo far as it is not againft the com-' 
 . mon law, nor againft the ftatutcs and cuftoms of the kingdom. 
 And according to fuch ecclefiaftical laws, the ordinary and 
 other ecclefiaftical judges do proceed in cafes within their cog- 
 nizance. ' 
 
 Law is alfo ufed figuratively, in fpeaking of the rules, or order 
 wherein any thing is performed. 
 
 Thus we fay, the laws of motion, the laws of mechanics, 
 the laws of fluids, the laws of chance, of a game, fife. — Laws 
 of friction, of refiftance, of defcent of bodies, &c. Laws of 
 elafticity, rarefaction, reflection, refraction, fcfr. all which 
 fee under their proper heads. 
 
 LAWFUL. See the article Unl AWFUL. 
 
 Lawful Naam. See the article Naam. 
 
 L AWING of Dogs, a phrafeufed in our antient law-writers. 
 Thus, maftiffs muft be lowed every three years} Crompton 
 Jurifd. fol. 163. that is, three claws of the fore foot (hall be 
 cut off" by the fkin, or the ball of the fore foot cut out. 
 
 LAWLESS Court, a court held on Kings-hill, at Rochford 
 in Eflex, every Wednefday morning next after Michaelmas- 
 day, at cock-crowing ; at which court they whifper, and 
 have no candle, nor any pen and ink, but a coal : he that 
 owes fuit or fervice there, forfeits double his rent every hour 
 he is miffing. 
 
 This court is called lawlefs, becaufe held at an unlawful hour, 
 or, perhaps, quia dicta fine lege, becaufe opened without any 
 form. It is mentioned by Camden, who fays, this fervile 
 attendance was impofed on the tenants, for confpiring at the 
 like unfeafonable time to raife a commotion. 
 
 Lawless Man, Exlex. See the article Outlaw. 
 
 LAXATIVE, in medicine, is ufed to fignify a loofe ftate, 
 or difpofition of the body ; fo as to go frequently to ftool. 
 
 Laxatives, or Laxative Medicines, are fuch as promote 
 this difpofition, which they do by fome fmooth, foftenina 
 quality, taking away the tenfity of the fibres, and facilitat° 
 ing the paifage of the contents of the inteftinal tube, through 
 it } for which reafon all oily fubftances come under this clafs,° 
 
 LAXIOR Toga. See the article Toca. 
 
 LAY, the name of a kind of antient poefy, or poem amono- 
 the French; confiding of very fhort verfes. 
 There were two forts of lays, the great, and the little. 
 
 Greater Lay, was a poem confining of twelve couplets of ver- 
 fes, of different mcafures. 
 
 Little Lay, was a poem confiding of fixteen or twenty verfes, 
 divided into four couplets. 
 
 Thefe lays were the lyric poetry of the old French poets, 
 who were imitated by fome among the Englifh. They were 
 principally ufed on melancholly fubjefts, and are faid to have 
 been formed on the model of the trochaic verfes of the Greek 
 and Latin tragedies. 
 
 Father Mourgues gives us an extraordinary inftance of one of 
 thefe antient lays, in his treatife of French poetry : 
 
 Sur I'appuis du monde 
 
 £hee faut il qu'on fonde 
 
 ffefpoirf 
 Cette tner profonde, 
 En debris feconde 
 Fait voir 
 
 Calme au matin, Vonde 
 Et Forage y gronde 
 
 J»' pi Le J"' r - 
 Lay the land, a fea phrafe, ufed for failing in fight of land 
 
 In fuch cafes they fay, they have laid the land '; and if another 
 
 point of land exclude the fight of the former, thev fav the, 
 
 have Jhut the jirft land in. ' V ' " 
 
 LAY-Land, in husbandry, denotes fallow ground, which lies 
 
 tintilled. See Fallow, and Ploughing. 
 LAt-Brelher, among the Romanifts, a pious, but illiterate per- 
 
 fon, who devotes himfelf, in fome convent, to the fervice of 
 
 the religious. 
 
 The lay-brother wears a habit different from that of the reli- 
 gious, nor ever enters into the choir, or the chapter He is 
 not in any orders, nor does he make any vow, excepting of 
 conltancy and obedience. 
 Lav -Brother, is alfo ufed for an illiterate religious, who takes 
 care of fome of the temporal concerns of the convent, as the 
 kitchen, the gate, C3V. 
 
 Thefe lay-brothers make the three vows of religion 
 In the nunneries are alfo lay-Jijiers, who Sever enter the 
 choir, fife, and who are only retained for the fervice of the 
 convent. 
 
 L A Z 
 
 The inlritution of lay-brothers began in the eleventh century. 
 The perfons on whom this title was conferred, were fuch as 
 were too ignorant to become clerks, and who therefore ap- 
 plied themfelves wholly to bodily labour. It feems to have 
 taken its rife from hence, that the laity in thofe days had not, 
 for the generality, the leaft tincture o'f learning; whence alfo 
 thofe came to be called clerks, by way of diitinction, who had 
 ftudied a little, and were able to read. 
 hAY-Canons. ~j , Canon. 
 
 lll'r T'?'"' > %S the article \ Community. 
 Lay -Corporation. ( j Corporation. 
 
 Lav -Patronage. J (.Patronage. 
 
 hAYS-fide. I . . 5 SlDE-W 
 
 Vaunt-LAY. r Sce the ^ lde 1 Vaunt-/,;, 
 
 LAYER, in hufbandry, and gardening, a young tender moot 
 or twig of a plant, not far from the ground, which is bent 
 down, and feveral joints or knots of it buried three or four 
 inches under ground: the other part ftiil remaining united 
 with the parent tree: till having ftruck root below, it is cut 
 and feparated from the reft, and produces a new plant. 
 
 LAYMAN, a perfon not engaged in any order of ecclefiaf- 
 tics. 
 
 Layman, among painters, a little ftatue or model, either of 
 wax or wood, whofe joints are fo made, that it may be put 
 into any attitude, or pofture: its chief ufe is for the caftW, 
 and adjuft ing draperies, for the clothing of figures. 
 Some call it, after the French, manequin, q. d. a little man. 
 
 LAZARETTO, or Lazar-house, a public buildina in 
 manner of an hofpital, for the reception of poor fick. ° 
 
 Lazaretto, in fome countries, is an edifice appointed for 
 perfons coming from places fufpecfed of the plague, to perform 
 quarantain in. 
 
 This is ufually a large building, at a diftance from any city 
 whofe apartments ftand detached from each other, &c. where 
 llnps are unladen, and their crew is laid up for forty days, 
 more or lefs, according to the time and place of their 
 departure. 
 
 S. LAZARUS, or Lazaro, a military'order, inftituted at 
 Jerufalem by the Chriftians of the Weft, when they became 
 mailers of the holy land, whofe bufmefs was to receive pil- 
 grims under their care, guard them on the roads, and defend 
 them from the infults of the Mahometans. 
 Some fay, this order was inftituted in 1 1 19. Pope Alexan- 
 
 c Cr A IV ' ^ onfirmcti !' a bul1 "> "55. giving it the rule of 
 S. Auguftin. 
 
 The knights of this order being driven out of the holy 
 land, part of them retired into France, and were cfrablifhed 
 there under Louis III. who beftowed on them the countrv 
 of Boigny near Orleans. Innocent VIII. fupprefied the order 
 of S. Lazaro in Italy in ,490, or rather he united it to that of 
 Malta. Leo X. re-eftablifhed it in Italy in the beginning of 
 the fixteenth century In ,572, Gregory XIII. united it in 
 Savoy to that of S. Maurice, juft inftituted by duke Emi 
 nuel Philibert. ■ 
 In France, this order was united to that of N. D of Mount 
 Carmel 111 160S, and had fome new advantages conferred 
 on it by the late king Louis XIV. The knights of S Laza- 
 rus are allowed to marry, and yet have penfions upon benefi- 
 
 Fathers of S. Lazarus, called alfo Lazarites, a 
 
 given to certain regular clerks of a congregation inftituted in 
 France, in the feventeenth century, by M. Vincenr 
 They take the denomination from a houfe in the Fauxbour* 
 of Pans. They have a femmary in Paris, called, The [emf 
 nary desbens enfans. The vows they make arc fimple, and 
 on occahon may be difpenfed withal. ■- 
 LAZULI.— Lapis Lazuli, a fort of precious ftofle, of a 
 blue colour, veined and fpottcd with white, and yellow 
 This is the fame with what Ls otherwife called azure ftone 
 by the antlents cyaneus, and cecruleum : by Mefue, the /ferry 
 ftone; and by Pliny, and many of the antients, fapphirus 
 Of the lapis lazuli is prepared the fine pigment called 'ultra 
 marine. 
 
 To be good, it fhould be able to refill fire and fmoke- anil 
 come out of them with new Iuftre.— It is found in mines 
 of gold, hlver, and copper, as alfo in quarries of marble- which 
 lait is that generally in ufe. 
 
 Naturahfts diftinguifh three kinds of lapis lazuli: The firff 
 called of the old rock, which is pure, fmooth, a fine blue with 
 beautiful yellow ftreaks like veins of gold, which yet are fre- 
 quently no more than veins of pyrites — The fecond called 
 that of the 11™ rock, is debafed by a mixture of common ftoncs ■ 
 its colour is weaker, and its price lower: thefe two kinds are 
 brought from Perfia and Siam.— The third kind is brought from 
 the mountains of Auvergne. This is mixed with the common 
 rock whence it is dug ; it is of a pale blue, and is fprinkled 
 with greemfh fpots, with veins of pyrites. This when fuffi- 
 ciently charged with fpots of green, is often fold for the Arme- 
 nian ftone. 
 
 The lapis lazuli is of fome ufe, in medicine} they prepare it by 
 
 *■ -^dddning 
 
LEA 
 
 cining and warning it feveral times ; which done, it makes 
 an ingredient in the famous confection of alkermes. Some- 
 times, in fpite of all its lotions, it continues to be purgative, 
 by reafon of the vitriolic matter it contains. See Supplement, 
 article Lazuli Lapis. 
 LE Aoy U jut ) See d]e ^.^ Le Roy 
 
 Le Jioys aavijera. 1 
 
 LEA.D, a coarfe, heavy, impure metal, of all others the 
 fofteit and moft fufible, when purified ; called by the chy- 
 ; mills latum. ^ 1 , }k V 
 
 Thole who have made an analyfis of lend, find it to contain 
 a little mercury, fome fulphur, and a great deal of bitumi- 
 nous earth. 
 
 Lead is found in various countries, but it abounds particularly 
 in England. It is found, too, in feveral kinds of foils, and 
 ftoncs, fome whereof, belides, contain gold, fomc filver, 
 others tin, &c. 
 
 It is melted in a furnace provided for that purpofe, with a 
 ftrong coal-fire upon it ; as it melts, it runs through a canal 
 on one fide ; leaving the earth, ftone, and fcoria, with the 
 allies of the coals. 
 
 It is purified by fkimming it ere cold, and throwing fuet 
 and other fat bodies into it. 
 
 Lead is found of a lighter, or deeper colour, according as it 
 is more or lefs purified; though fome make a difference in the 
 colour of the ore, always efteeming that moft which is the 
 whitcft. 
 
 Some very able natural ifts obferve, that the weight of had 
 increafes on long keeping, either in the open air, or under 
 ground. — Mr. Boyle obferves this particularly of the lead of 
 churches, which, he fays, frequently grows both in bulk and 
 weight, fo as to become too ponderous for the timber that 
 before fuftained it; which fome account for from the impurity, 
 heterogeneity, and loofe texture of its parts, by means where- 
 of the particles of the air getting admiffion within its pores, 
 are attracted, and eafily affimilated to it. But others, who 
 rely wholly on experience, abfolutely deny the fact, as alfo 
 that it is reproduced in mines before exhauftcd, by letting 
 them lie lone; open to the air ; which others affert. 
 Lead is a metal of much ufe ; it eafily melts, and mixes 
 with gold, filver, and copper, and communicates, as they 
 talk, its humidity to them ; but not being able to endure the 
 violence of the fire which they undergo, it retires, and car- 
 ries with it all that was heterogeneous in them ; fo as neither 
 gold nor filver are refined without lead. See Refining. 
 To which it may be added, that the coarfer kind of precious 
 ftones, heated in lead, are faid to be thereby rendered much more 
 brilliant. 
 
 Lead is much ufed in building, particularly for covering, gut- 
 ters, pipes, and in glafs- windows. For which ufes, it is either 
 caff into meets in a mold, or milled ; which laft, fome have 
 pretended, is the leaft ferviceable, not only on account of its 
 thinnefs, but alfo becaufe it is fo exceedingly ftretched in 
 milling ; that when it comes to He in the hot fun, it is apt to 
 fhrink and crack, and' confequently will not keep out the 
 water : But this appears to be a fuggeftion without grounds. 
 Fid. Bayl. Build. Dicl. Suppl. in voc. 
 
 The lead ufed by glaziers is firft call into (lender rods, twelve 
 or fourten inches long, called cartel ; and thefc being after- 
 wards drawn through their vice, come to have a groove on 
 either fide for the panes of glafs ; and this they call turned 
 lead. 
 
 The method of paleing or foldering had for fitting on of im- 
 hofied figures, EirV. is by placing the part whereon the figure 
 is to be paled, horizontal, and ftrewing on it fome pulverif- 
 cd rofin ; under this they place a chaifing-difli of coals, till 
 fuch time as the rofin becomes reddifh, and rifes in pimples ; 
 then apply the figure, and rub fome foft folder into the join- 
 ing : when this is done, the figure will be paled on, and as 
 firm as if it had been call: on it. 
 
 Borrichius afTerts, that lead reverberated into minium, con- 
 verted into glafs, reduced into cerufs, or burnt into litharge, 
 immediately refunies its original figure, upon the dexterous 
 application of a lixivial fait. 
 Leaq-Wj — Mr. Glanville obferves, that the fmoke of the 
 lead-zvorks at Mendip in Somerfetfhire is a prodigious annoy- 
 ance, and fubjecls both the workmen, and the cattle that graze 
 about them, to a mortal difeafe. The trees that grow near 
 them have their tops burnt, and their leaves and outfides dif- 
 colourcd and fcorcbed. 
 
 When the h ad ore is dug out, they beat it fmall, then warn 
 it clean in a running ftream, and fift it in iron rudders. Their 
 hearth or furnace is made of the clay or fire-Hone ; this they 
 fet in the ground, and on it build their fire, which they light 
 with charcoal, continuing it with young oaken gads, blown 
 with bellows, work'd by mens treading on them. After the firc'is 
 lighted, and the fire-place hot, they throw their had ore on 
 the wood, which melts down into the furnace, and then with 
 an iron ladle they take it out, and upon fand caft it into 
 what form they pleafe. 
 
 The mine-men fometimes find the vein run up into the 
 roots of tree% and yet dn not obferve any difference between 1 
 thofe anJ other trees. When the mine is neRf the furfaces 
 
 LEA 
 
 the grafs is fometimes found yellow. They make no account 
 of the virgula divinatoriaj yet fay, that when a mine is 
 open, they may guefs by it how far the vein will lead: The 
 ore runs fometimes in a vein, fometimes difperfed in banks ; 
 it lies many times between rocks ; fome of it is harder, others 
 milder; fometimes they have branched ore in the fp ar i a " 
 bout the ore is (par and caulk ; and another fubftance, which 
 they call crootes. See Supplement : article PLUMBUM. 
 For the manufaSiurc of 'Lead, fee the article Plumbery. 
 
 There are various preparations' of lead-, fcrving for various 
 purpofes : 
 
 Lead Duft, is a preparation ufed by the potters; made by 
 throwing charcoal duft into melted lead, and ftirring them a 
 long time together ; to feparatc die coal again, they only wafh 
 
 it in water, and dry it afrem Its ufe is to give a varniih 
 
 and glofs to their works. 
 
 Burnt Lead, plumbum uftum, isachymical preparation ufed in 
 medicine, made of plates of lead melted in a pot with ful- 
 phur, and reduced by fire into a brown powder. 
 
 JVhite Lead, ufed by painters, is only thin plates of had 
 folved with vinegar, 
 
 Litharge of gold or filver, is only the burnt lead ufed in purify- 
 ing other metals. 
 
 Red Lead, a preparation or mineral had calcined, and rubi- 
 fied ; ufed by painters, potters, and furgeons. See Minium. 
 By help of chyniiflry, there are alfo drawn from lead, falls, 
 balfams, oils, vinegar, a magiftery, &c. difguifed under the 
 name of fat urn, to am ufe the ignorant. 
 
 Salt, or Sugar of Lead, Saccbarum f&turni, is an eflential fait 
 of vinegar, incorporated with the proper fubftance of lead or 
 cerufs diiloived in fpirit of vinegar. 
 
 Balfam of Lead, or Saturn, is an oil drawn from the fait of 
 lead by diftillation, after having dillblvcd it in fpirit of tur- 
 pentine. 
 
 Magiftery of Lead, is the calx of had purified and fubtilized. 
 
 It is made of had difTolved in aqua fortis, pouring a filtrated 
 
 fait water into it; whence refults a magiftery extremely 
 
 white, which when foftencd by feveral lotions, is mixed 
 
 with pomatums for the face and complexion. 
 Black Lead, is a kind of mineral of a black colour, but foft 
 
 and mining, found chiefly in England , and appearing to 
 be nothing clfe but a peculiar talky earth. It is much ufed 
 
 for pencils, or crayons for defigning,— It is not to be melted 
 
 like the common lead. 
 Effay of Lead. ~j CEsSAY. 
 
 Refining of Lead. > See the article < Refining. 
 
 Cajling of Lead on Cloth. J t Casting. 
 
 Lead Nails. See the article Nails. 
 
 Leaden Bullet moulds. See the article Moulds. 
 
 LEAF, a part of a plant, ordinarily very thin and flat, grow- 
 ing in the fpring, and ufually falling off in autumn. See Plant. 
 There are fome plants without leaves, as truffles and mufh- 
 rooms. 
 
 As to the ftructure of haves, Dr. Grew obferves, that their 
 fibres never ftand on the ftalk in an even line, but always 
 in an angular or circular pofture, and their vafcular fibres or 
 threads are 3, 5, or 7. The reafon of which pofition is for 
 their more erect growth, and the greater ftrength of the leaf. 
 Another obfervable in the fibres of haves, is their orderly 
 pofition ; fo as in fome to take in an eighth part of a circle, 
 as in mallows ; in fome a tenth, but in moft a twelfth. 
 The fame author obferves fix feveral parts intended by na- 
 ture for the prcfervation of gems ; viz. leaves, furfoils, in- 
 terfiles, ftalks of leaves, hoods, and mantlings that cover 
 them. 
 
 The fkin or coat of the haves is no more than that of the 1 
 branches extended, as gold, by beating, is reduced into leaves. 
 — In the gem, the haves are folded, fometimes in two, and 
 fometimes in feveral plaits, fomewhat after the manner of a 
 fan. If the leaves be too thick to plait commodioufly in two, 
 and to be ranged againft each other ; or if they be in too 
 fmall a number, and their fibres too delicate, inflead of be- 
 ing plaited, they are rolled up, and form either a fingle roll, 
 as the haves of the mountain cowflip, which are thick ; or 
 two rolls, which begin at each extremity of the leaf, and 
 meet in the middle. — There are alfo fome plants whofe 
 haves form three rolls, as fern ; feveral leaves are covered 
 with hair of feveral figures, thofe of lavender and the olive-tree 
 have hairs refembling ftars. See Lanugo. 
 Botanifts confider the haves of plants, with regard to their 
 ftrudture, furface, figure, confiftcnce, edges, iituation and 
 fize- — With regard to their ftructure, haves are either fin- 
 gle, as thofe of the apple-tree, pear-tree, &c. or dsuble, as 
 thofe of angelica, parfley, (3c. 
 
 With regard to their furface, leaves are either fiat, as the 
 nummularia, afarum, origany, androfi-emum, brionia cana- 
 denfis, (Sc. or hollow, as thofe of the onion and afphodelj 
 or thick and folid as feveral kinds of kali, and houfe-leeks. 
 With regard to their confidence, haves are either thin 
 and fine, as thofe of S. John's-wort, and dog's grafs ; or 
 thick and grofs as thofe of portulaca ; or fiejhy, as thofe of 
 feveral kinds of houfe-leeks ; or woolly* as thofe of the mul- 
 lein. 
 
 With 
 
LEA 
 
 With regard to their verge, or edges, leaves are either cut 
 
 /lightly, as fome fpecies of geum, and cannabis ; or deep, 
 as trefoil, &c. 
 
 With regard to their fituatlon, leaves are either alternate, 
 that is, ranged alternately, as the hounds tongue ; or oppofite 
 to each other, as the pbillyrca, or ftellated as in the rubia. 
 With regard to their hze, leaves are either very big, as thofe 
 of the colocafia, and fphondylium ; moderate, as thofe of 
 the fig-tree ; [mall, as thofe of the apple-tree, pear-tree, 
 peach-tree ; or very [mall, as thofe of mille-pertuis, or S. 
 John's wort. 
 
 Jmw.al Leaves. "1 f Annual. 
 
 Crenated Leaves. | | Crenated. 
 
 Dijfimilar Leaves, j j Dissimilar. 
 
 ProcumbentLE aves. J*Sce the article-^ Procumeent. 
 Segment Leaves. | | Segment. 
 
 Seminal Leaves. j j Seminal. 
 
 fernal Leaves. J lVernal. 
 Lea f, is alfo applied to the fineff. and moll: beautiful parts of 
 flowers, more properly called petals. 
 
 It is true, all flowers have not leaves or petals, and it is fome- 
 times difficult to determine which is to be called the leaves, 
 and which the calyx of the fame flower. 
 
 To prevent confounding the leaves of the flower with thofe 
 of the reft of the plant; the former are called by botanifis 
 peiala, the latter folia. 
 Leaves, in architecture, are an ornament of the Corinthian 
 capital, and thence borrowed into the Compofite ; confifting 
 in the reprefentation of a double row of leaves covering the 
 vafe, tympanum, or neck of the column. 
 Thefe leaves are ufually formed in imitation of thofe of the 
 acanthus j fometimes of thofe of olive, and fometimes of lau- 
 . rel. . . 
 
 The leaves are divided; each making three ranges of letter, 
 and are bent, atop ? one third of their heighth.— See Tab. 
 Archit, fig. 30. lit. CC. 
 Leaf-&LW, See the article Silver. 
 
 LEAGUE,* an extent of ground, confidered lengthwife; 
 ferving to meafure the diftances of one place from another ; 
 and containing more or lefs geometrical paces, according to 
 the different u/ages and cuftoms of countries. 
 
 * The word comes from Utte'a, or lettga, an ancient Gaulifh 
 - word, for an itinerary meafure, and adopted in that fenfe by 
 
 the Romans. — Some derive the word Uuea from JNte**-, 
 white ; ill regard the Gauls, in imitation of the Romans, mark- 
 ed the fpaces and diitances of their roads with white ftones. 
 A fea league is ufually reckoned 3000 geometrical paces, or 
 three Englifh miles: the large leagues of France, are ufually 
 3000, and in fome places 3500 paces ; the mean or com- 
 mon league is 2400 paces, and the little league 2000. Cho- 
 rier obferves, that the ancient Gaulifh leagues were but 1500 
 paces. 
 
 The Spanifh leagues are larger than the French, 17 Spanifh 
 leagues make a degree, or 20 French leagues or 69 ^ Englifh 
 ftatute miles. The leagues of Germany and Holland contain 
 four geographical miles each. 
 
 The Perfian leagues are nearly the fame with the Spanifh ; 
 that is, each is equivalent to four Italian miles ; which 
 comes pretty near to what Herodotus mentions of the para- 
 fanga, an ancient meafure among the Perfians, containing 
 thirty ftadia ; eight whereof, according to Strabo, make a 
 mile. 
 
 The Perfians mark their leagues by trees, as the ancient Ro- 
 mans did by ftones, lapides ; for which reafon they are alfo 
 called agagy a Turkifh word GgnifViryj tree. — In Japan, the 
 league conlirts of 1800 fathoms. — Thefe are all diilinguilhcd 
 by little hillocks, raifed on purpofe by the road fide. See 
 the leagues of moft countries, reduced to the Roman foot, 
 under the word Mile. 
 League* alfo denotes an alliance, or confederacy between 
 princes, and ftates, for their mutual aid, either in attacking 
 fome common enemy, or in defending themfL-lves. 
 
 * The word comes from llga j which, in the corrupt Latin, was 
 ufed for a confederacy : Qua qun cum alio ligatur. 
 
 ■There have been feveral holy leagues entered into by the 
 Chriftians, againft the Saracens and infidels; called alfo cru- 
 fado's, or croifades. 
 <flje League, by way of eminence, denotes that famous one 
 on foot in France, from the year 1576, to 1593. Its intent 
 was to prevent the fucceflion of Henry IV. who was of the 
 Reformed religion, to the crown; and it ended with his ab- 
 juration of that faith. 
 
 The leaguers, or confederates, were of three kinds : the zea- 
 lous leaguers aimed at the utter deftru&ion, not only of the 
 Huguenots, but alfo of the miniftry. The Spanijh leaguers 
 had principally in view the transferring the crown of France 
 to the king of Spain, or the infanta his daughter. The mo- 
 derate leaguers aimed only at the extirpation of Calvinifm 
 without any alteration of the government. 
 LEAKAGE, the ftate of a velTel that Uaksi that is, lets 
 water^ or other liquid ouze in or out. 
 
 LEE 
 
 Leakage alfo denotes an allowance of 12 per cent, to mer- 
 chants importing wine, out of the cuftoms thereof ; and of 
 2 barrels in 22 of ale to brewers, (sc. out of the excifc. 
 LEAP, and Step. See the article Step. 
 LEAP-YEAR *, the fame with biffextile. See Bi ssextile. 
 
 It is thus called, by reafon, in the common year, any fixed 
 day of the month charges fucceffivcJy one day of the week ; 
 but, in ihz leap year, it (kip? or leaps over one day. 
 1 he common year laath 365 days in it, but the leap-year 
 366 days; and in this cafe February hath 29 days; which, 
 in the common year, hath but 28. 
 To find the leap-year, the rule is, 
 
 Divide by 4, what's left Jhall be, 
 For leap-year o,for pajl, 1, 2, or 3. 
 For example; Is the year 1720 a leap year, or a common 
 year ? 
 
 . .4) i? 20 (43° 
 
 1 here is 0 remainder, fo that it is leap-year. 
 LEASE, in law, a demife, or letting of lands, tenements, or 
 hereditaments unto another for life, term of years, or at will, 
 for a rent referved. 
 
 A leafe is either written, called an indenture, deed poll, or 
 leafe in writing ; or by word of mouth, called leafe parol. 
 See Parol. 
 
 The party who lets a leafe, is called the lejfor ; and the party 
 to whom it is let, the lejfee. 
 LEASH, or Le ashe among fportfmen, denotes three crea- 
 tures of any kind ; but chiefly greyhounds, foxes, bucks, and 
 hares. 
 
 We fay, a leajh of greyhounds, a couple and a half of 
 hounds. 
 
 LEATHER -.M'//;. 7 q . (Mill. 
 Le ather-^ \ See the article \ ^ and Money. 
 LEAVE and take. See the article Take. 
 LEAVEN*, any thing that will make a body fwell, and fer* 
 ment. 
 
 Tiie word is formed from the French levain, which fignines 
 the fame, of the verb lever, or Latin, levari, to rife. 
 Beer, ale, wine, and cyder only work by means of the lea- 
 ven in them. — Sour pafte, barm, rennet, tifc. are leavens 
 "fed in baking bread, brewing beer, making checfc, &c. 
 LEAVER. See the article Lever. 
 
 LECTICARIUS, an officer in the Greek church, whofo 
 bufinefs it was to bear off the bodies of thofe who died, and 
 to bury them. — Thefe were otherwife denominated decani 
 and c opiates. 
 
 The Romans had two kinds oUeclicarii, different from thofo 
 of the Greeks, and who anfwered nearly to the office of our 
 chairmen. 
 
 LECTISTERNIUM, a religious ceremony among the 
 ancient Romans ; being a feftival prepared, and folemnly fcrv- 
 ed up in a temple. 
 
 And becaufe, according to the cuftoms of thofe times, they 
 placed beds around the tables, and fet the ftatues of the gods 
 on thofe beds, in the fame manner as men fat at meals ; they 
 called the folemnity ledijhrnium, from leclus, bed, and Jler- 
 nere, of Jlerno, to fp read, prepare. 
 In this ceremony the Epulones prefided. See Epulo. 
 Cafaubon has obferved from a pafiage in the fcholiaff. of 
 Pindar, that the Greeks had alfo a fort of lecliflcrnium in 
 ufe. 
 
 Livy obferves, that the firit kaiflemium fecn in Rome, was 
 that which held fur eight days fucceflively, in honour of Apol- 
 lo, Latona, Diana, Hercules, Mercury, and Neptune; on 
 occafion of a contagious difeafe which killed almoft all their 
 cattle, in the year of F.ome 354 ; though Valerius Maximus 
 mentions one before that. 
 .LECTURES. See the article B oyle'j Lectures. 
 LEDGER. See the article Book. 
 
 LEE, a term varioufly ufed at fea ; though its general ufe be 
 to figuify the part towards, or oppofite to the wind. — Thus 
 the 
 
 LEE-Shore, is that on which the wind blows; fo that to be un- 
 der the lee of the fhore, is to be clofe under the weather- 
 Ihore, or under wind. 
 
 A Lee the Helm, fignifies, put the helm to the lee-ward fide of 
 theihip. 
 
 Take care of the Lee Hatch, is a word of command to the man 
 at the helm, to take care that the Ihip do not go to the lee- 
 ward of her courfe. 
 
 hzE-ward Ship, is one mat is not faft by the wind, or which 
 doth not fail fo near the wind, nor make fo good way as fhc 
 fiiould. 
 
 To lay a Ship by the Lee, or to come up by the Lee, is to bring 
 her fo, that ail her fails may lie flat^againit her mails and 
 fhrouds, and that the wind may come right upon her broad- 
 fide. 
 
 Lee-wcv, or Le E-ward-way of a Ship, is the angle made* by 
 the line on which the fhip fhould run according to her courfe j 
 or the point of the compafs fleered upon, and the real line of 
 the Jhip's way. 
 
 All (hips are apt to make fome Ur-way ; fo that in calling up 
 1 the 
 
LEG 
 
 the log-board, fomething muft be allowed for lee-way. 
 
 • The ordinary rules are theft : 
 
 i°. If the (hip be up^n a wind, allow one point for he-way. 
 2°. If the wind blow hard, fo that you are forced to take in 
 one top-fail, allow two points for lee-way, 3 0 . If it blow 
 fo hard, that both top-fails muft be taken in, and the fea 
 runs high, allow three points for he-way. 4 0 . If her Jfore-fail 
 being furled, (he try under a main-fail, or minzcn, (he 
 will make her way four points before the beam. ^ . If (he 
 try with a main-fail only, (he will make her way near three- 
 points before tlie beam. But, 6\ If under a mix-zen only, 
 (he will make her way about two points before the beam. 
 7 0 . If (he he a hull, with all her fails furled, (he will make 
 her way one point before the beam. 
 
 LEER Furnace. See the article Furnace. 
 
 LEES*, the grofleft and thickeft parts of wine, oil, and 
 other liquors ; or the fediment found at the bottom of the 
 velTel. 
 
 * The word comes from the French, lie, and that either from 
 limus, mud, or from Lyeus, one of the furnames of B.icch,us ; 
 or according to Du Lange, from lia, a corrupt Latin word, 
 fignifying the fame. 
 
 A kind of Pot-afh called cineres clavellati is made with the 
 lees of wine burnt, and prepared, ufed by dyers, £9V. which 
 ought to be remembered by people troubled with the 
 ftone, &c. 
 
 The vinegar-makers make a great trade of the lees of wine 
 dried, and made into cakes, after having fqueezed out the 
 remains of the liquor in prefTes. See Supplement: article 
 Lees. 
 
 L E E T, L e t a, a court held by the lord of a manor ; 
 though, in reality, it is the king's court, in whofe manor 
 foever it is held ; by reafon the authority thereof belongs 
 originally to the crown, and is derived thence to other per- 
 
 ' fons. ' ' .." 1 " i™ 1 - 
 
 A court leet, is a court of record, and inquires of all offences 
 under hkh-treafon ; though it cannot punilh many, but muft 
 certify them to the juftice of afiize. 
 
 LEFT Hand. See the article Hand. 
 
 LEG, Crus. See the article Legs. 
 
 LEGACY, Legatum, in the civil law, a donation by 
 teftament ; anfwering to what in common law is called a 
 
 demlfc. 
 
 Legacy is ufually defined fome particular thing given by 
 laft will, and teftament; for that if a man thus difpofe, or 
 transfer his whole eftate on another, it is called harcdi- 
 tas ; and he to whom it is given, is called hares,— Though, 
 in common law, the diftin&ion is this ; that he to whom all 
 a man's lands, and hereditaments defcend by right of blood, 
 is hares natus ; the other, to whom it is bequeathed, is called 
 hares facjus. iitimiimj 
 
 Legacy, in an ccclefiaftical fenfe, was a foul-feat, a bequeft 
 to the church, or accuftomed mortuary : which was to hold 
 good, even though the teftament itfelf were declared null, 1 
 and invalid. ! 
 
 LEGAL Column. "1 r Column. 
 
 Leg a:. O&aufc). { «> f , . , J Oeconomy. 
 
 Legal Station. ( Sce the artlde ) Subrogation. 
 
 Legal tthbrtige. J L Tutorage. 
 
 LEGAL IS Homo, in law a perfon who ftands rectus in 
 curia, not out-Iawed, nor excommunicated, nor defamed. 
 And in this fenfe are thofe words fo often ufed probi, tS* le- 
 gates homines. 
 
 Hence all legality is taken for the condition of fuch a man. 
 LEGATE*, a prelate, whom the pope fends as ambaffador 
 to any fovereign prince. 
 
 * The term Ugaie comes from that of legatat, which V.trro 
 derives iiom legere, to cliufe ; and others from legare, dele- 
 gare, to fend, or delegate. If irqui/art. 
 
 There are three kinds of legates, viz. legates a latere, legates 
 de latere, and legates by office, or legati natt. 
 Of thefe, the mod confiderable are the legates a latere ; fuch 
 are thofe whom the pope comrniffions to take his place in 
 councils ; who are thus called, in regard, the pope never 
 gives this office to any but his greateft favourites,, and con- 
 fidents, who are always at his fide, a latere ; that is, to 
 the cardinals. 
 
 A legate a latere, may confer benefices without mandate, le- 
 gitimate baftards to hold offices, and has a crofc carried before 
 him, as the enfign of his authority. 
 
 The legates de latere, are thofe who are not cardinals, but 
 arc yet intrufted with an apoftolical legation. 
 Legates by office, ./^art" nati, are thofe who have not any 
 particular legation given them; but who, by virtue of their 
 dignity, and place in the church, become legates. Such are 
 the archbiftiops of Rheims and Aries. — But the authority 
 of thefe legates is much inferior to that of the legates a 
 latere. ■ ' . < >. - . 
 
 The power of a legate is fometimes alfo given without the 
 title ; fome of the nuntio's are invefted with it. ... 
 Court «f the Legate. See the article Court. 
 
 LEG 
 
 LE G ATI S Tenemcntis. See the article Tenement!-;. 
 LEGATORY, or Legatary, a term ufed in (peaking 
 of the government of the antient Romans : Auguftua 
 divided the provinces of the empire into cunfular, legatory, 
 and prefidia!. 
 
 Legatory Provinces were thofe whereof the emperor himfclf 
 was governor, but where he did not refidc, but adminiftred 
 affairs by his lieutenant, or legatus. 
 LEGAT US, among the Romans, a military officer, who 
 commanded as deputy of the chief general. 
 Of thefe there were divers kinds, viz. a legatus in the army 
 under the imperator, or general, anfwering to our lieutenant- 
 general ; and a. legatus in the provinces, under the proconfuf, 
 or governor. 
 
 When any confiderable perfon, among the Roman citizens, 
 had occafion to pafs through any of the provinces, the fe- 
 natc gave him the title of hgatus ; that is, of envoy from 
 the fenate, to the end he might be received with die greater 
 refpect ; and that the cities and towns, through which lie 
 travelled, might defray his expences. — This they called a 
 free legation, libera legatio ; in regard the perfon was not 
 incumbered with any truft, and might lay it afidc as foon as 
 he pleafed. 
 
 LEGEND, Legenda, was originally a book ufed in the 
 old Romifti churches, containing the leilons that were to be 
 read in divine fervice. 
 
 Hence alfo the lives of faints, and martyrs came to be cal- 
 led legends ; becaufe chapters were read out of them at mat- 
 tins, and in the refectories of the religious houfes. 
 Golden Legend, is a collection of the lives of the faints,. com- 
 piled by James de Varafe, better known by his Latin name 
 of 'J. de Voragine, vicar-general of the Dominicans, and a(- 
 wards archbiihop of Genoa, who died in 1298. 
 It was received into the church with a world cf applaufc, 
 which it maintained for 200 years ; but, in efr'ec\ it is fo full 
 of ridiculous and romantic accounts, that the Romanifts 
 themfelves are now generally afliamed of it. — The word 
 legend itfelf is, on that account, come into diiYcputc. 
 Legend is alfo ufed by authors to fignify the words, or letters 
 engraven about the margins, &c. of coins. 
 Thus the legend of a French crown is, Sit nomen domini be~ 
 nediclum ; that of a moidore, In hoc Jigno vinces : on thofe 
 of the laft emperors of Conftant'mople, we find Jefcs Cbrif- 
 tus Bafileus Bafdeon, IHS XPS NIK A, Je/us Cbrif-,* 
 tus vincit. 
 
 Legend is alfo applied to the inscription of medals, which 
 ferve to explain the figures, or devices thereof. 
 In ftricr.nefs, the legend differs from the infcrfytlon ; tins laft 
 properly fignifying words placed on the reverie of a medal, 
 in lieu of figures. 
 
 It feems as if the anticnts had intended their mcduls mould 
 ferve both as images, and as emblems ; the one fur tlie com- 
 mon people, and the other for perfons oi tarte and parts : 
 the images to reprefent the faces of princes ; and emblems to 
 reprefent their virtues, and great actions ; fo that !he fegend 
 is to be looked on as the foul of the medal, and the figure^ i.i 
 I the body. 
 
 Every medal has properly two legends ; that on the front, 
 and that on the revcrfe. The flrft, for the generality, ferves 
 only to diftinguifh the perfon by his name, titles, offices, &c, 
 the latter is intended to exprefs his noble and virtuous fenti- 
 ments, his good deeds, and the advantages" the public has 
 reaped by him. — This, however, does not hold univerfally ; 
 for fometimes we find the titles fliared between both fidc^, 
 and fometimes alfo the legend. 
 
 In the medals of cities, and provinces, as the head is ufually 
 the genius of the place, or, at leaft fome deity adored there ; 
 the legend is the name of the city, province, or deity, or of 
 both together ; and the revcrfe, is fome fymbol of the city, &c. 
 frequently without a legend ; (bmetimes, with that of one of 
 its maglftrates. 
 
 The'ordinary fubjecis of legends, are the virtues of princes, 
 the honours they have received, confecrations, fignal events, 
 public monuments, deities, public vows, privileges, &e, 
 Legends, and inferiptions of medals, are either in Latin, or 
 Greek. — The Greek character, confiding of majufcule, or 
 capital letters, appears uniform on all the medals ; no change, 
 or alteration being found in confronting the feveral char^J ters ; 
 though, it is certain, there was in the ordinary ufe, and pro- 
 nunciation. — All we obfeive on medals, is fometimes a mix- 
 ture of Greek and Latin letters. — .The character was preferv.d 
 in all its beauty, tiil the time of Gallienus. 
 From the time of Conftantine, and ior the fpace of 5C0) 
 years, the Latin tongue was alone ufed in the legends of me- 
 dals, even in thofe (truck at Conftantinop'.e. — Michael be- 
 gun the firft, whofe legend was in Greek ; and from hii 
 time the language, as well as the characters, began to alter 
 for the worfe. 
 
 LEGION *, a kind of regiment, or body of forces, of a 
 number whereof the Roman armies were chiefly compufed. 
 * Thcword comes from the Laiin, Ugere, to chute ; urcaule, 
 when the Icgiam were raifed. tliey m.ide choice of fuch ot 
 their youth, as were the molt proper to bear arms. 
 
 5 Tt The 
 
LEG 
 
 L E M 
 
 The number of foldicrs, and officers, whereof the legion con- 
 fifted, was different at different times : but it is impoffible to 
 determine the precife time, and manner of their alteration. 
 — In the time of Romulus, each legion contained 3000 foot, 
 and 300 equites, or horfe : thefe were divided into three 
 bodies, which made as many orders of battle. — Each body 
 confifted of ten companies, or manipuies, ranged at fome di- 
 ftance from each other, though in the fame front — Each 
 body had two general officers to command it, called tribunes ; 
 and each manipule, two centurions. 
 
 Under the confuls, the legion confifted of 4000 men, who 
 made four bodies, commanded by a conful, or one of his lieu- 
 tenants ; and each legion had its fhare of cavalry, which was 
 from two to three hundred horfe. 
 
 Afterwards, in the tin e of Marius, thefe four divifions of 
 the legion were united into one, and augmented ; and cohorts 
 were appointed from five to fix hundred men, each under 
 the command of a tribune. — Each cohort confifted of three 
 companies or manipuies, each manipule of two centuries, 
 and the legion was divided into ten cohorts, who made as 
 many diftmcf. battalions, difpofed in three lines ; fo that the 
 legion, then, confifted of five or fix thoufand men. 
 Ifidore tells us, that the legion confifted of fix thoufand men, 
 and was divided into fixty centuries, thirty manipuies, twelve 
 cohorts, and two hundred troops. — According to the French 
 academy, the legion confifted of fix thoufand foot, and feven 
 hundred twenty five horfe. 
 
 The legions were, by far, the moft confiderable part of the 
 Roman army ; their number, in the time of Auguftus, was 
 thirty three ; they were compofed wholly of Roman citizens. 
 — The allies formed a body of auxiliary forces. 
 The ftandard bore by the legions was various : at firft, a 
 wolf, in honour of that which fuckled Romulus ; afterwards 
 a hog, by rcafon, fays Feftus, war is only undertaken with 
 a view to peace, which was concluded by facrificing a hog. 
 Sometimes, they bore the minotaur, to remind their general 
 that their defigns were to be kept fecret, and inaccefiible as 
 the minotaur in the labyrinth. — They alfo bore a horfe, a 
 boar, C3V. — P" n y tc " s us, that Marius was the firft who 
 changed all thefe ftandards into eagles. 
 Square Legion, Legio quadrate, w!iS a legion confifting cf 
 4000 men. 
 
 Do?/ie//iaiS LeGIONUM. } fDoMESTICUS. 
 
 Thundering Legion. j (.Thundering. 
 LEGISLATOR, Law-g'rjer ; he who frames the laws of 
 a kingdom, or ftate founded by him. 
 
 The principal antient legijlators are — Mofes, legijlator of 
 the Hebrews ; Mercurius Trifmegiftus, and Bocchyris, of 
 the Egyptians ; Italus, of the Oenotrians ; Thcfeus, Draco, 
 and Solon, of the Athenians ; Zoroafter of the Baclxians ; 
 Charondas, of the Cappadocians ; and Charon das, or Phaleas, 
 of the Carthaginians ; Androdamas, of the Chalcidians; Eudox- 
 us of the Cnidians ; Phido, of the Corinthians ; Minos, of 
 the Cretans; Pythagoras, of the Crotoniates, and moft of 
 the cities of Gratia Major; Parmenides, and Zcno, of Elea 
 in Lucania; Zamolxis, of the Gcta: ; Phoroncus, of the 
 Greeks ; Bacchus, of the Indians ; Saturn of Italy ; Maca- 
 rius, of the ifle of Lcfbos ; Zaleucus, of the Locrians ; Ni- 
 codorus Athleta, of the city of Mutina ; Hippodamia, of 
 Miletus ; Charondas, of Rheggio ; Lycurgus, of the Lace- 
 demonians ; Archytas, of Tarcntum ; Philolaus of the 
 Thebans, 
 
 At Rome, the people were in a great meafure their own le- 
 gijlators ; though Solon may be faid, in fome fenfe, to have 
 been their legijlator, in regard the Decemviri, who were cre- 
 ated for the making of laws, borrowed a great number from 
 thofe of Solon. 
 
 LEGITIMATE Delivery. J ^ (Delivery. 
 
 Legitimate Tertian. S \ Fever. 
 
 LEGITIMATION, an a£t by which natural, or 
 illegitimate children are rendered legitimate. See Bas- 
 tard, &c. 
 
 By the French law, the father and mother, by marrying, 
 render theic- children, begotten before marriage, legitimate; 
 and this is called legitimatio per fubfequens matrimonium. 
 The right of legitimation, was a thing unknown to princes 
 till the time of Conftantine ; but, fince his time, has been 
 exercifed by moft of them. The Greek emperors invented 
 fevcral kinds of legitimation. 
 
 Anaftafius put it in the power of the father to legitimate his 
 natural children, by a bare adoption, provided he had no le- 
 gitimate children. — But Juftin by his conftitution, and Ju- 
 itinian, by his Novel 74, aboliflied this legitimation, as fear- 
 ing the too eafy accefs to legitimation fhould encourage con- 
 cubinage. 
 
 In lieu of this, he eftablifhed a way of legitimation by the 
 emperor's letters.— This rendered baftards capable of attain- 
 ing to honours, and even of fucceeding to inheritances, pro- 
 vided the perfons were legitimated with the confent of their 
 father and mother; which is agreeable to the canon law. 
 LEGS, the lower extremes of the bodies of moft: animals, 
 ie-ving them for fupport and motion. Sec Animal, and 
 Extreme. 
 
 Some anatomifts divide the foot of man into three parts, vl % 
 
 the thigh, the leg, and the lefi'cr foot. See Foot. 
 
 In the leg, there are two confiderable bones; the one called 
 
 the" great fociL; or tibia; the other the little facile, or 
 
 fibula. 
 
 The legs and feet of the feveral animals, Mr. Derham 
 obferves, are exactly conformable to the pofture, make, nay, 
 to the motion and exercifes of thofe animals. In fume they 
 are made for ftrength only, in others for agility and fwiftnds ; 
 in fome for walking and running, in ethers for fwimminrr, 
 in others for digging, and in others for flying. In fome more 
 lax, and weak, for traverfing the plain land; in others ftiff, 
 and rigid, for ice and precipices. In fome, fhod with tough 
 and hard hoofs, fome whole, fome cleft. In fome the feet 
 are compofed of toes, fome fhort, for only going, others lone;, 
 to fupply the place of hands; fome are armed with talons, to 
 catch and tear their prey ; and fome with fhort nails, to confirm 
 their fteps in running and walking. 
 
 In birds, the legs are curved, for their eafy perching, rooft- 
 ing, and reft, as alfo to help them on the wing "in taking 
 their flight, and to be therein commodioufly tucked up to 
 the body, fo as not to obftiucf. their flight. In fome, they 
 are long, for wading, isc. 
 
 Legs of a Triangle, — when one fide of a triangle is taken as a 
 bafe, the other two are called legs. See Triangle. 
 
 JrchedLiGs. I c Arched. 
 
 Hyperbolic Legs. >See the article^ Hyperbolic. 
 
 Compajfes of three Legs. 3 t Compasses. 
 
 LEGUMEN, Legume, is applied, by botanifts, to beans, 
 peas, vetches, &c. otherwife called pulfe. 
 Some will have them thus culled, in regard they are gathered 
 with the hand; by which they are diftinguifhed from corn, 
 &c. which are mowed, or reaped: eo quod ?mnu kgatur, & 
 non fecatur. 
 
 Yet the antient writers on hufbandry confider corn, and even 
 turnips, and all grains, and roots for family ufc, 'are legitr 
 tntna. 
 
 LEGUMINOUS, an appellation given to thofe plants 
 which yield legumes, or pulfe. 
 
 Of this kind are moft plants which grow in pods, as beans, 
 peas, &c. 
 
 Ray ranks all plants as leguminous, which have a papiliona- 
 ceous or butter-rly-likc flower. 
 
 Leguminous Flowers. See the article Flower. 
 
 LEMMA, ahm ma, in mathematics, denotes a previous pro- 
 pofition, laid down in order to clear the way for fome follow- 
 ing demonftration; and prefixed either to theorems, in order 
 to render their demonftration lcfs ptrplexed, and intricate; or 
 to problems, to muke their refolutiua more cafy, and fhort. 
 Thus, to prove a pyramid one third of a prifm, or paulklcpi- 
 pid of the fame bafe and hei^hth with it ; the demonftration 
 whereof in the ordinary way, is difficult, and troubfofome ; 
 this lemma may be premjfed, which is proved in the ruks of 
 progreffion; that the fum of the feries of the fuuares, in 
 numbers in arithmetical progreffion, beginning from 0, and 
 going on J, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, &c. is always fubtriple of the 
 fum of as many terms equal to the grcateft; or is always one 
 third of the greater}, term multiplied by the number of terms. 
 Thus, to find the inflection of a curve line, this lemma is 
 firft premifed; that a tangent may be drawn to the °rven 
 curve, in a given point. 
 
 So, in phyfics, to the demonftration of moft propositions, 
 fuch lemmata as thefe are neceffary firft to be allowed ; that 
 there is no penetration of dimenfions; that all matter is divi- 
 fible; and the like. — As alfo in the theory of medicine, that 
 where the blood circulates, there is life, &c. 
 LEMNI AN Earth, Terra Lemni a, a medicinal, aftrino-ent 
 fort of earth, of a fatty confiftence, and reddifh, white, oryel- 
 lowifh colour; ufed in the fame cafes as bole. 
 It has its name from the ifland of Lcmnos, whence it is chief- 
 ly brought. 
 
 They form it into round cakes, and imprefs a feal upon it; 
 whence it is alfo called, terra figillata. See Supplement : article 
 Lemnia Terra. 
 LEMONADE, a drink prepared of water, fugar, and citron, 
 or lemon juice. 
 
 This factitious liquor is fo popular in Paris, that it has oiven 
 its name to a new eftablifticd company, called Iemcnadier°s 
 LEMURES, in antiquity, fprites or hobgoblins; reftlefs 
 ghofts of departed perfons, who return to terrify and torment 
 the living. 
 
 Thefe are the fame with larva:, which the ancients imagined 
 to wander round the world, to frighten good people, and 
 plague the bad.— For which reafon, at Rome they fnd 
 lemuria, or feafts inftitutcd to appeafe the manes of the 
 defunct. 
 
 Apuleius explains the antient notion of manes thus: The 
 fouls of men releafed from the bands of the body, and freed 
 from performing their bodily functions, become a kind cf 
 
 demons, or genii, formerly called lemures. Of thefe 
 
 kmures, thofe that were kind to their families, were called 
 lares familiares; but thofe who, for their crimes, were con- 
 demned to winder continually, without meeting with any 
 
LEN 
 
 LEN 
 
 place of reft, and terrified good men, and hurt the bad, are 
 
 vulgarly called larva. 
 
 An antient commentator on Horace mentions, that the Ro- 
 mans wrote lemures for remures ; which Iaft word was form- 
 ed from Remus, who was killed by his brother Romulus, 
 and who returned to earth to torment him. 
 But Apuleius obferves, that in the antient Latin tongue le- 
 mur** hgnifies the foul of a man feparated from the body by 
 death. 
 
 LEMURIA, or Lemuralia, a feaft folemmzed at Rome 
 on the ninth of May, to pacify the manes of the dead, or in 
 honour of the lemures. 
 
 The inftitudon of this feaft is afcribed to Romulus, who, to 
 rid himfelf of the phantom of his brother Remus (whom he 
 had ordered to be murdered) appearing always before him, 
 ordained a feaft called after his name remuna, or lemtiria. 
 In the lemuria they offered facrificcs for three nights toge- 
 ther; during which time all the temples of the gods were ftiut 
 up, nor were any marriages permitted. — There were a world 
 of ceremonies in this feaft, chiefly intended to exorcife the 
 lemures-, and prevent their appearing, or giving any distur- 
 bance to the living. 
 
 LENIS Spiritus, in profody. Seethe article Spirit. 
 
 LENITIVE, in phyfic, fomctimcs denotes a foftening, refo- 
 lutive remedy, that moiftens the parts difeafed, and diilipates 
 any iharp humour collected there. 
 
 Lenitive, is more frequently ufed for laxative. See Laxa- 
 tive. 
 
 Lenitive Electuary, is more peculiarly ufed for a gentle purging 
 cf electuary, compofed of fena, polypody, coriander feeds, 
 Cji"c. fo called, in regard it purges eafiiy, and by refolv- 
 ing. 
 
 LENS, & dioptrics, properly fignifies a fmall, roundifh glafs, of 
 the iigure of a lentil; but is extended to any optic glafs, not 
 very thick, which either collects the rays of light into a point, 
 in their paffage through it, or difperfes them farther apart, 
 according to the laws of refraction. 
 
 Lens's have various figures ; that is, are terminated by vari- 
 ous furfaces, from which rhey acquire various names. Some 
 are plane on one fide, and convex on the other; others con- 
 vex on both fides; both which are ordinarily called convex 
 lens's: though, when we fpeak accurately, the former are 
 called plano-convex — Again, fome are plane on one fide, 
 and concave on the other ; and others art: concave on both 
 fides, which are both ufually ranked among the concave 
 lens's; though, when diftinguifhed, the former is called a 
 plano-concave — Others, again, are concave on one fide, and 
 convex on the other ; which are called convexo-concave, or 
 concavo-convex lens's, according as the one or the other fur- 
 face is more curve, or a portion of a lefs fphere. 
 It is to be here obferved, that in every lens terminated in any 
 of the forcmentioned manners, a right line perpendicular to 
 
 the two furfaces is called the axis of the lens. Which axis 
 
 when both furfaces arc fpherical, pallcs through both their 
 centres ; but if one of them be plane, it falls perpendicularly 
 upon that, and goes through the centre of the other. See 
 Axis. 
 
 A lens, one of whofe furfaces is convex, and the other con- 
 cave, is called a tnenifcus; the properties of which, fee under 
 Meniscus. 
 
 See alfo the Theory of Lens's demonjlrated under Refrac- 
 tion; and the application thereof, under Microscope, 
 Telescope, Burning-Glass, and Focus. 
 Some confine lens's within the diameter of five or fix lines 
 and will have fuch as exceed that diameter called lenticular 
 gklf'S-: 1, ,n t • t»m\ , *U 
 
 Lens's arc diftinguifhed, with regard to the manner of their 
 preparation, into ground, and bloiun. 
 Btown Lens's, are little globules of glafs, melted in the flame 
 of a lamp, or taper. 
 
 But the figure of thefe is feldom exact; befidcs, that the 
 fmoke of the lamp cleaves to the furface in mcltin^: on both 
 which accounts, they come fhort of the cleamefs of thofe 
 that are ground, or turned and polifhed in the lathe, in little 
 copper bafons, or difhes — The fecret is now found of mak- 
 ing thefe exqi'iiitely fmall, fo as fome of them do not exceed, 
 in diameter, the fixth part of a line, which arc found to mag- 
 nify objects feveral millions of times. 
 Manner of grinding Lens's. — A little piece of copper is cement- 
 ed to the end of the arbor of a lathe, and turned, till it form 
 
 adifh, or bafon of the diameter of the lens rcqui-ed. Then 
 
 a piece of" clear glafs is cemented on one of it* flat fides, to 
 the end of a little maundrcl, with black Spanifh wax; and 
 thus ground, on the fide not cemented, on a erindftone, with 
 vvater, till it have nearly acquired a convex figure.— It is 
 finuned in the lathe, by turning it in the bafon, with fine 
 wet land, or gntt-ftone. The gritt muft be often re- 
 pented frefh, till the lens appear very round ; when it is come 
 to t ut point, they ceafe to take any frefh ftone, but con- 
 tinue to turn it in the bafon, till the remains of the fand be 
 become fo fine as to have polifhed it.— This they perceive 
 wnen, upon wiping it, the image of the window of the 
 
 place is feeri painted on its furface; if it docs ffot, it is Wet* 
 ted in water without any fand, and turned till it have got a 
 polifh.— The bafon is then covered, within fide, with two 
 or three folds of linen, and the polifh finifhed with putty, or 
 tripoly of Venice fteeped in water. — It is known to be per- 
 fectly polifhed, when, viewing it with a magnifier, there ap- 
 pear no feratches of the fand. — The cement is then broke 
 off, and the fide polifhed cemented, to work and grind the 
 other, as before, till the edges of the lens be become fharp, 
 and it be perfectly polifhed on either fide.- — When, finifhed, 
 it is warned in fpirit of wine, to take oft" all remains of the 
 wax. 
 
 Fur convex Lens's, the laws of their refraction, and their ef- 
 fects depending thereon, are as follow. — 1°. A ray of light, 
 E G, near the axis, (Tab. Optics, fig. i.) and parallel there- 
 to, ftriking on the plane furface of a plano-convex tens, di- 
 rectly oppofite to the luminous body, after refraction concurs 
 with the axis in the puint F: and if C be the centre of the 
 convexity, C F will be to F L, that is, the diflance of the 
 centre from the point of concourfe, or focus, will be to the 
 diftance of the centre in the convex furface, in the ratio of 
 the refraction. 
 
 For the plane furface being directly oppofed to the luminous 
 body, the ray E G is perpendicular to A B, r.nd therefore will 
 pafs unrefracted to H : thus it ftrikes on A H B, It ill paralkl 
 to the axis; and therefore coming out of a denfer medium in- 
 to a rarer, it will meet with the axis of the lens in F; and fo, 
 as that C F will he to F L in the ratio of the fine of the re- 
 fracted angle to the fine of the angle of inclination: as will 
 be demonftrated under the head Rei-r action. 
 If then the refraction be out of a glafs lens into air CF; 
 E L ; : 3 : 2, and therefore F h~ i C L. That is, paral- 
 lel rays, near the axis, will concur with it at the diltance 
 of the diameter. — Again, if the refraction were out of a 
 water lens, i. e. out of a plano-convex lens filled with wa- 
 ter, C F : E L : : 4 : 3, and therefore F L=3 CL; e. 
 parallel lavs, near the axis, will concur with it at the diftance 
 of half the diameter. So that if a lighted candle be placed 
 in the focus of a plano-convex lens, that is, in the point F, 
 diftant from the furface of the lens ALB, by the length of 
 the diametur; and from the furfiice of the water lens, by half 
 the diameter, its rays, after refraction, wili become paral- 
 lel. 
 
 BP, If the ray K I, (Tab. Optics, fig. 2.) near the axis of a 
 plano-convex lens, and parallel thereto, ftrike on its convex 
 furface A H B, after a double refraction, it will meet the 
 axis in F; fo as that H G will be to G C, and G F to F H, 
 in the ratio of the refraction. 
 
 For the ray K. I, parallel to the axis E G, by virtue of the 
 firft refraction in I, will tend to the point G, fo as G H 
 will be to G C in the ratio of the fine of the angle of incli- 
 nation to the fine of the re!racted angles: therefore, by virtue 
 of the fecond refraction in L, it will concur with the axis in 
 F; foasGD will be to F D in the ratio of the fine of the 
 retracted angle, to the fine of the angle of inclination. See 
 Refraction. 
 
 So that the femidiametcr, and thicknefs of the plano-convex 
 lens, with the ratio of refraction being given, hence arifes a 
 method of determining the focus of parallel rays ftriking on 
 the convex furface. For, 
 
 Hence, if the lens be glafs, F D=2 C H— \ HD. So 
 that if two thirds of the thicknefs of the lens be inconfide- 
 rable (as in practice it ufually happens) parallel rays meet with 
 the axis at the diftance of the diameter from the lens, even 
 when they ftrike on the convex furface. 
 
 So that as to the place of the focus, it is the fame thin-r 
 whether the plane furface, or the convex one, be turned to a 
 luminary of parallel rays; though it appears, both from ex- 
 perience, and trigonometrical emulations, that there are more 
 rays united in a lefs fpace, if the convex furface, than if the 
 plane one be turned towards the fun. 
 
 If the lens were full of water, F D = 3 C H | HD. 
 
 Wherefore if ^ H D be inc&nfidcrable, F D=3 C Ht or if 
 i HD be inconfiderable, F H=3 C H. Parallel, and near 
 rays, therefore, are united at the diftance of half the diame- 
 ter, if the refraction be in water, even when the convex 
 furface is oppofed to the luminous body. Hence, alfo, arifes 
 a method of determining the focus of parallel rays ftriking 
 on a lens convex on both fides, the two femidiameters, and 
 the thicknefs of the lens, being given. 
 
 On thefe principles is founded the ftructure of refracting 
 burning-glaftes, the fun's light, and heat, being exceedingly 
 augmented in the focus of a lens, whether convex or 
 plano-convex; fince the rays falling parallel to the axis of 
 the lens, are reduced into a much narrower compafs; fo that 
 it is no wonder they burn fome bodies, melt others, and 
 produce other extraordinary phenomena. See Burninc- 
 Glass. 
 
 3°. If a luminous body be placed in a focus behind a lens, 
 whether plano-convex, or convex on both fides; or whe- 
 ther equally, or unequally, the ravs, alter refraction, become 
 parallel. 
 
 Hence, 
 
L E N 
 
 L E N 
 
 Hence, by moans of a convex lens, or a little gl<rfs bubble 
 full of water, a very intenfe light may be projected to a vaft 
 diftance. 
 
 And this furnifhes us with the ftructure of a lamp, or lan- 
 tern, to project an intenfc light to an immenfe diitance: 
 for a lens, convex on both fides, being placed oppofite to a 
 concave minor, if in the common focus of both be placed a 
 lighted candle, or wick, the rays reflected back from the mir- 
 ror to the Um will be parallel to each other; and after refrac- 
 tion will converge, till they concur to the diftance of thefemi- 
 diameter, after which they will again diverge. — But the 
 candle being likewife in the focus of the lens, the rays it 
 throws on the lens will be parallel : and therefore a very 
 intenfe light meeting with another equally intenfe, at 
 the diftance of the diameter from the lens, the light will 
 be furprizing: and though it afterwards decreafe, yet the 
 parallel and diverging rays going a long way together, it 
 will be very great at a very great diftance. Lanterns of 
 this kind are of confiderable fervice in the night-time to 
 difcover remote objects, and are ufed, with fuccefs, by 
 fowlers and fifhermen, to gather their prey together, in order 
 to take them. 
 
 If it be required to have the light, at the fame time, tranf- 
 mitted to feveral places, as through feveral ftreets, fcf*. the 
 number of lens's ami mirrors is to be encreafed. 
 If the luminous bodv, placed in the focus, be of a larger ex- 
 tent, the rays flowing from points fenfibly diftant from each 
 other, cannot be parallel; but they will conftitute feveral - 
 trains, or parcels of rays, parallel to each other. 
 3 J - The images of objects, oppofed in any manner to a con- 
 vex lens, are exhibited, invcrtedly, in its focus. 
 Hence, if a paper be applied to a convex lens, (cfpecially in 
 a dark room) at the diftance of its focus, the images of ob- 
 jects ftiining upon it, will be reprefented diftinctly, and in 
 tiieir natural colours, thereon: nor is the focus of the fun's 
 rays any thing elfe, in effect, but the image of the fun. — 
 Hence, in folar eclipfts, the fun's image, eclipfed as it is, 
 may be burnt by a large lens on a board, tsc. a very enter- 
 taining phenomenon ! 
 
 Hence alfo, if a convex lens, of any kind, be expofed both to 
 nearer and remoter objects, and a paper at the fame time be 
 applied, fo as to receive the images of objects diftinctly, the 
 diftance of the focus from the lens, and thence the diameter 
 of the convexity, may be determined. 
 
 4°. If a concave mirror be fo placed, as that an inverted 
 image, formed by refraction through a lens, he found between 
 the centre and the focus, or even beyond the centre, it will 
 again be inverted by reflection, and fo appear erect in the fiift 
 cafe beyond the centre; and in the latter, between the centre 
 and the focus. On thefe principles is built the camera obfeura. 
 See Camera olfiura. 
 
 5°. The diameter of the image of an object delineated beyond 
 a convex lens, is to the object itfLlf in the ratio of the diftance 
 of the image to that of the object. 
 
 Since then the image of a remoter object is lefs diftant from 
 the le?is than that "of the nearer, the image of the more re- 
 mote will be lefs than that of the nearer. And becaufe the 
 diftance of the image from the lens is greater, if the lens be a 
 fegmentofa greater fphere than of a lefs; hence the image 
 will be greater in the former cafe than in the latter. The 
 image therefore wilt be of fuch a magnitude, as it would be 
 of, were the object to fhine into a dark room through a little 
 hole upon a wall, atthe fame diftance from theholc, at which 
 the focus is from the his.— When an object is lefs diftant 
 from a lens than the focus of parallel rays, the diftance of 
 the image is greater than that of the object, otherwife, the 
 diftance of the image is lefs than that of the object; in the 
 former cafe, therefore, the image is greater than the object, 
 in the latter, lefs. 
 
 If the images be made greater than the objects, they will not 
 appear diftinctly; becaufe in that cafe there are fewer rays 
 which meet after refraction in the fame point; whence it 
 happens, that rays proceeding from different points of an ob- 
 ject, terminate in the fame point of an image, which is the 
 caufe of confufion. — Hence it appears, that the fame aper- 
 ture of a lens may not be admitted in every cafe, if we would 
 keep off the rays which produce confufion. However, though 
 the image is then more dirtinct, when no rays are admitted 
 but thofe near the a^is, yet for want of rays the image is apt 
 to be dim, 
 
 6°. If the eye be placed in the focus of a convex lens, an ob- 
 ject viewed through it appears erect, and enlarged in the ratio 
 of the diftance of the object from the eye, to that of the eye 
 from the lens, if it be near ; but infinitely, if remote. 
 for eoncave Lens's, their laws are as follow. — 1°. If parallel 
 rays ftrike on a plano-concave lens K. L, and FC be to F B 
 in the ratio of refraction, the rays will diverge from the axis, 
 and the point of divergency, or difperfion, called the virtual 
 focus, will be F. See Tab. Optics, fig. 3. 
 For the ray HI, parallel to the axis, is perpend icul tar to K L, 
 and will therefore pafs unrcfracted to E. Wherefore, F C 
 being to F B in the ratio of refraction, F will be the virtual 
 focus. 
 
 If then the lens be glafs, F B=2 B C; i.-e. the virtual focus 
 F will be diftant from the lens fC L by the fpace of the diame- 
 ter 2 B C. 
 
 If the refraction be in water, F B:n3 B C; u e. the virtual 
 focus F will be diftant from the fens IC L a diameter and a 
 half 3 BC. 
 
 2°. If the ray A E, parallel to the axis F P, ftrike on a lens 
 concave on both fides; and both F C be to F B, and I P to 
 P H in the ratio of refraction; and F P : P H : : F B : B G; 
 G will be the point of dilpcrlion, or the virtual focus. See 
 Tab. Optics, fig. 4. 
 
 If therefore the refraction be in a glafs lens, the fums of the 
 femi -diameters CB and HI, will be to the diameter of the 
 concavity of either, 2 H I, as the femidiameter of the other 
 CB, to the diftance of the virtual focus from the lens 
 
 B G. 
 
 Hence, the fun's rays ftriking on a concave hns, their fight, 
 after refraction, will be conlider^bly weakened; fo that the 
 effect of concave lens's is oppofite to that of the convex ones. 
 3 0 . An object viewed through a concave lens, appears crtct, 
 and diminiftied in a ratio compounded of the ratio's of tlio 
 fpace in the axis, between the point of incidence, and the 
 point to which an oblique ray would pafs without refraction, 
 to the fpace in the axis between the eye and the middle of the 
 object; and the fpace in the fame axis between the eye and 
 the point of incidence, to the fpace between the middle of 
 the object and the point the oblique ray would pafs to with- 
 out refraction. 
 
 Though the properties of lens's have been here confidcred 
 principally with regard to rays falling near the axis, and paral- 
 lel thereto ; yet the reafoning will be eafily transferred to 
 rays remoter from the axis, and falling in any direction. — 
 Thus we may fay univerfally, that in a convex lens, all paral- 
 lel rays become converging, and concur in a focus; that 
 diverging rays either become lefs diverging, or run parallel, 
 or converge; and that converging rays converge the more: 
 All which alterations are more fenfible in oblique rays, than in 
 perpendicular ones, by reafon the angles of incidence in that 
 cafe are greater. 
 
 In concave lens's all parallel rays become diverging, and all 
 diverging rays diverge more; converging rays either converge 
 lefs, or become parallel, or go out diverging , all which things 
 hold of oblique as well as direct rays, but more fenfibly in the 
 firft. 
 
 Lens, or Lenticula, was alfo the name of a kind of weight 
 among the Romans; being the hundred and eighth part of a 
 dr :i chm; equal to a grain and a half. 
 
 LENT, ^huidragrfi/mt, a lime of mortification, during the 
 fpace of forty days, wherein Chriftians are enjoined to raft, 
 in commemoration of our Savioui's miraculous felting fo long 
 in the defcrt, and by way of preparation for the feaft.of 
 Eafter. 
 
 In the antient Latin church, Lent only confided of thirty-fix 
 days. In the ninth century, to come fbmcwhat neater to the 
 miracle, feveral took upon them to add four days more; which 
 in time became a general practice; though the church of 
 Milan is faid ftill to take up with the antient thirty-fix. 
 According to S. Jerom, S. Leo, S. Auguftine, and others, 
 Lent mult have been inftituted by the apoftles. — Their way 
 of reafoning is thus: Whatever is generally received through- 
 out the whole church, and whofe inftitution we do not hud 
 in any council, mull be eftcemed to have been eftabliihed by 
 the apoftles. — Now fuch, they fay, isthefaftof Lent.' Its 
 inftitution is not fpoke of in any council; but many of the 
 antient councils, particularly that of Nice, that of Laudieca, 
 ts'c. and fome of the oldefr. fathers, particularly Tertullian, 
 fpeak of it as a thing of fome ftanding. 
 
 The Reformed, generally, hold Lent to be a fuperftitioiis 
 inftitution, fct on foot by fome vain enthufiafts, who durft 
 undertake to ape the miracles of Jefus Chrift ; as, in effect, it 
 appears to have been from a paf'age of Ireneus, quoted by 
 Eufebius. 
 
 Some will have it to have been firft inftituted by pope Tc!.'- 
 fphorus, in the fecond century: othtrs, who own that there 
 was a kind of abftinence obferved in the antient church before 
 Eafter, yet contend that it was entirely voluntary, and was 
 never enjoined by any law, till the third century. 
 There was fome difference between the practice of tlie Greek 
 and Latin churches as to the bufinefs of Lent; the Greeks 
 beginning it a week fooner, but at the fame time allowing 
 more days of intermiffion than the Latins: thofe who field "it 
 feven weeks, did not faft on Saturdayr, as thofe who' obferved 
 it but fix did. 
 
 The antient Latin monks had three Lents ; the grand Lent 
 before Eafter; another before Chriftmis, called the Ler.t of 
 S. Martin; and a third after Whitlunday, called the Lent of 
 S. John Baptijl ; each of which confiftcd of forty days! 
 The Greeks, befides that before Eafter, obferved four others ; 
 that of the Apojlles, of the Ajfumpthn, of Chrijhncs, and <_.f 
 the Transfiguration: but they reduced each of them to the 
 fpace of feven days. — The Jacobites added a i\i'rh, which 
 they call the repentance of Nineveh; and the Maronites a 
 fixth, called the exaltation of the holy crsfs. 
 
LEO 
 
 LEP 
 
 By the ninth canon, of the eighth council of Toledo it is 
 ordained, * That if any perfons, without evident neceflity. 
 
 * eat flefh in Lent, they ftiall be deprived the ufe of it all the 
 
 * reft of the year. 
 
 The forty days in Lent, fay fome, are obferved in remem- 
 brance of the forty days wherein the world was drowned; or, 
 as others fay, of the forty years wherein the Jews wandered 
 inthedefert; others, of the forty days allowed Nineveh for 
 repentance; others, of the forty ftripes by which malefactors 
 were to be corrected; or, the forty days fafted by Mofes at 
 the receiving of the law; or, the forty days faffed by Elias; 
 or finally, the forty days faffed by our Saviour. 
 -LENTIGO, a cutaneous diforder, popularly called freckh 
 See Freckles. 
 
 Lentigo, is alfo ufed by Dr. Quincy for a brown, fcaly, or 
 
 fcurfy eruption upon the fkin ; fuch, efpecially, as is common to 
 
 women in the time of child-bearing. 
 LENTISCUS, the wood of an evergreen tree of the fame 
 
 name, of fome ufe in phyfic; it is aftringent and fortifying, 
 
 and is much ufed for tooth-picks. 
 
 Jt contains a kind of gum, or refin, which is maftic ; the 
 fame with the incenfe of Pcrfia, fo highly commended by 
 Strabo. 
 
 The lentifcus has nearly the fame properties with the 'foun- 
 ders; but it has more of the turpentine in it, and fometimes 
 paffes by urine. 
 LEO, Lion, the fifth of the twelve figns of the zodiac. 
 The ftars in the conftellation Led in Ptolomy's catalogue are 
 32, in Tycho's 37, in the Britannic catalogue 94; the names, 
 places, longitudes, latitudes, and magnitudes whereof, are a: 
 follow. 
 
 Names and Situations of the Stars. 
 
 That in the noltrils SI 
 In the foremoft toe of the fouth.foref. 
 
 In the aperture of the month 
 
 In third toe of the northern forefoot 
 
 Northern and following in the claw 
 
 Following in fouthern forefoot 
 
 In the preceding knee. 
 South, of three in the head 
 
 Middle one of the head 
 
 20 
 
 North, in the head 
 Juft before the heart 
 
 In the following knee 
 South, of three in the neck 
 In the breaft below the heart 
 The lion's heart, called alfo Regulat 
 
 30 
 
 North, in the neck 
 
 35 
 
 Middle and hibfeq. in the neck 
 
 Preceding and leffer 
 Precceding of three in the belly 
 In the axilla 
 
 Informis 40th of Urfa Maj. Tych. S\ 
 Foremoft of two over the back 
 
 In the middle of the back. 
 
 5° 
 
 North, of three in the belly 
 South, and fubfeq. in the belly 
 Subfeq. over the back. 
 
 Vol. II, 
 
 Longkudel Latitude 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o ' " 
 
 0 * " 
 
 
 
 10 57 28 
 
 1° ?3 5 
 
 
 r 
 
 •r 
 
 17 12 57 
 
 6 35 2" 
 
 ■ 
 
 5 
 
 17 29 46 
 
 
 i 
 
 6 
 
 13 32 13 
 
 7512; 
 
 s 
 
 4 
 
 17 ig 44 
 
 3 11 2! 
 
 s 
 
 4 
 
 17 50 1 
 
 4 4" '2 
 
 
 6 
 
 17 14 26 
 
 0 1 52 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 14 21 5 
 
 9 55 4 8 
 
 
 6 
 
 20 0 3 
 
 & 59 47 
 
 ! 
 
 
 14 24 14 
 
 10 41 9 
 
 N 
 
 7 ! 8 
 
 14 45 14 
 
 11 23 26 
 
 . 
 
 7 
 
 ■ 9 S G 8 
 
 3 46 5° 
 
 
 
 13 42 32 
 
 1521 t 
 
 ft 
 
 y 
 
 ig 10 4 
 
 0 19 3 
 
 :■. 
 
 6 
 
 16 22 16 
 
 9 41 4 
 
 N 
 
 3 
 
 20 30 28 
 
 ' 33 23 
 
 s 
 
 
 20 49 20 
 
 1 42 1 1 
 
 
 7 
 
 18 7 32 
 
 7 32 5 8 
 
 \ 
 
 5 
 
 2131 z 
 
 1 9 33 
 
 s 
 
 
 '7 27 35 
 
 10 45 1 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 17 6 26 
 
 12 19 29 
 
 14 
 
 3 4 
 
 23 49 32 
 
 3 25 39 
 
 s 
 
 7 
 
 22 3- 5 
 
 2 37 58 
 
 N 
 
 7 
 
 23 0 52 
 
 0 1 25 
 
 N 
 
 4 5 
 
 24 24 12 
 
 3 5' 45 
 
 S 
 
 7 9 
 
 2449 4 
 
 356 18 
 
 S 
 
 '4 
 
 33 34 2 4 
 
 4 5° 2C 
 
 N 
 
 3 4 
 
 26 s 36 
 
 1 26 1 5 
 
 S 
 
 5 
 t 
 
 2531 20 
 
 0 26 38 
 
 N 
 
 24.44 ° 
 
 4 8 45 
 
 N 
 
 7 
 
 25 45 10 
 
 2 1 10 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 23 11 12 
 
 " 55 37 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 13 13 41 
 
 11 50 13 
 
 N 
 
 3 
 
 26 46 1 
 
 248 1 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 23 30 52 
 
 11 37 1 3 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 2 5 22 2J 
 
 8 26 51 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 2 S "5 5 
 
 8 47 2 7 
 
 ft 
 
 2 
 
 27 29 23 
 
 4 2 4 54 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 0 47 10 
 
 3 2° M 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 0 30 39 
 
 1 2 27 
 
 
 5 6 
 
 0 42 4; 
 
 058 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 0 7 5» 
 
 4 33 27 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 2 3 40 
 
 0 7 48 
 
 N 
 
 4 
 
 3 2 4 5 
 
 1 52 27 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 2 49 25 
 
 0 16 IC 
 
 S 
 
 7 
 
 2430 58 
 
 21 37 1 
 
 N 
 
 3 
 
 0 53 30 
 
 7 ° 2 > 
 
 N 
 
 6 7 
 
 =7 49 "4 
 
 16 49 4 
 
 N 
 
 6 5 
 
 29 9 15 
 
 ■3 5<5 4' 
 
 N 
 
 5 
 
 1 30 14 
 
 10 r 4 52 
 
 N 
 
 b 
 
 3 '9 2 ' 
 
 5 54 '.' 
 
 \ 
 
 6 
 
 5 21 19 
 
 247 4c 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 110 2 1 
 
 16 28 4c 
 
 N 
 
 4 5 
 
 10 34 32 
 
 5 39 57 
 
 
 6 5 
 
 8 33 35 
 
 035 42 
 
 
 U 7 
 
 AfojftfJ and Situations of the Stars. 
 
 South, of three under the belly 
 Middle under the belly 
 Preceding in the loins 
 
 North, of three under the belly 
 
 65 
 
 A bright one following in the loins 
 
 South, in the hip 
 North, in the hip. 
 
 70 
 
 That over the bright one in the loins 
 North, of two in the thigh 
 That before the hmdraoft claw. 
 
 In the ham 
 South, in the thie 
 
 More fouth. as in the leg 
 
 South, in the nail of the hind-foot 
 
 North, in the nail of the hind foot 
 go 
 
 That over the tail 
 In the extremity of the tail 
 That following the tail Tip 
 
 Cor Leonis, Lion's Hearty a fixed ftar of the firfr 
 
 Lbnghud 
 
 Latitude 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ig 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 4^ 37 
 
 5 54 3 
 
 | 
 
 7 
 
 10 55 34 
 
 2 31 5 > 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 9 4° 53 
 
 0 13 iG 
 
 s 
 
 5 
 
 4 1 I X 
 
 4 3' 0 
 
 ' 2 S3 37 
 
 N 
 
 S 
 
 13 13 40 
 
 3 3 1 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 1 3 42 ii 
 
 5 34 35 
 
 s 
 
 
 IO 12 g 
 
 1 20 21 
 
 N 
 
 4 5 
 
 4 23 3o 
 
 16 16 29 N 
 
 6 
 
 12 43 44 
 
 3 26 11S 
 
 
 
 6 24 8 
 
 a 
 
 
 4 4 50 
 
 '7 35 S4 
 
 N 
 IN 
 
 
 6 57 21 
 
 1+ 19 4 
 
 N 
 
 2 3 
 
 '5 4 59 
 
 4 38 53 
 
 S 
 
 ; 6 
 
 9 5 3 1 
 
 9 39 5° 
 
 N 
 
 3 
 
 8 20 34 
 
 n 35 5 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 6813 
 
 16 46 2 
 
 „ 
 
 5 
 
 10 18 7 
 
 7 51 41 
 
 
 5 
 
 17 10 19 
 
 7 39 5 
 
 & 
 
 4 
 
 'S 3' 35 
 
 2 22 53 
 
 
 6 
 
 '5 35 '9 
 
 2 33 21 
 
 < 
 
 7 
 
 14 22 35 
 
 1 4° 53 
 
 N 
 
 t 5 
 
 13 12 58 
 
 6 5 to 
 
 
 4 
 
 1651 53 
 
 2 16 55 
 
 
 ! 6 6 
 
 ' 5 57 5 
 
 0 0 35 
 
 N 
 
 
 1114 i 
 
 11 4i 39 
 
 N 
 
 7 
 
 16 27 
 
 0 18 5 
 
 
 7 8 
 
 :6 S3 27 
 
 0 32 7 
 
 
 8 
 
 711 2 
 
 0 34 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 12 34 IO 
 
 11 89 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 i I 31 15 
 
 13 56 16 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 20 313 
 
 5 42 22 
 
 S 
 
 4 5 
 
 '3 2 9 *7 
 
 10 23 53 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 18 35 u 
 
 0 16 g 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 13 641 
 
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 tude in the fign Leo: called alfo Regains, Bafilicus, &c. 
 LEONINE, in poetry, is applied to a kind of vcrf es which 
 rime at every hemiftic, the middle always chiming to the 
 end. 
 
 In this kind of verfe we find feveral anticnt hymns, epigrams, 
 prophecies, &c. — For inftance, Muretus fpeaking of the poe- 
 try of Lorenzo Gambara of BrelTe, fays, 
 
 Brixia, w/?Vatis merdofa volumina fatis. 
 
 Nan funt «s/?rates tergere digna nates. 
 The following one is from the fchool of Salernum : 
 
 Ut vitcs poenam de potibus indite ccenam. 
 The origin of the word is fomewhat obfeurej Pafquier derives 
 it from one Leoninus, or Leonius, who excelled in this way, 
 and dedicated feveral pieces to pope Alexander III. Others 
 derive it from pope Leo; and others from the beaft called 
 lion, by reafon it is theloftieft of all vetfes. 
 M. Fauchet makes the leonine rime the fame with what the 
 French call the rich, and we the double rime, i. e. where two 
 fyllables have the fame orthography, accentation, and pro- 
 nunciation with two others. 
 LEONTICA, feafts or facrifices celebrated among the anti- 
 ents, in honour of the fun. 
 
 They were called leontica, and the priefts who officiated at 
 them leones, in regard they reprefented the fun under the figure 
 of a lion radiant, bearing a tiara, and griping in his two fore 
 paws the horns of a bull, who ft ruggled with him in vain to dif- 
 engage himfelf. 
 
 The critics are extremely divided aboutthis feaft; fome will 
 have it anniverfary, and to have made its return not in a folar, 
 but a lunar year; but others hold its return more frequent, and 
 give inftances where the period was not above two hundred 
 and twenty days. 
 
 The ceremony was fometimes alfo called Mithriaca, Mithras 
 being the name of the fun among the antient Perfians. 
 There was always a man facrificed at thefc feafts till the time 
 of Hadrian, who prohibited it by a law. Commodus intro- 
 duced the cuftom afrefh, after whofe time it was again ex- 
 ploded. 
 
 LEPIDOIDES*, or Lepidoeides, in anatomv, a name 
 of the fquammous or fcaly future of the cranium. 
 
 ; formed of >.im f , fcale, and 
 
 « The word is Greek, U* 
 tth&, form, figure. 
 
 LEPROSY*, Lepra, afoul, cutaneous difeafe, appearing 
 in dry, white, thin, fcurfy fcabs, either over the whole body, 
 5 V u or 
 
LEP 
 
 or only fome part of it; and ufually attended with a vehe- 
 ment itching, and other pains. 
 * The word is derived from the Greek Jua-ga, which GgnifieS 
 the fame; and that from fame, fquamma, fcale. 
 The leprofy feems to arife from a great obftru£Kon of perfpira- 
 tion; whereby the thin, faline humours, are thrown off from 
 the blood, and detained by the denfity and clofenefs of the 
 cuticula. 
 
 This diftemper has been much more frequent in former times 
 than it is at prefent, and much more in the hot countries of 
 the eaft, particularly among the Jews, than among us; per- 
 haps by reafon the falts which, by the appointment of nature, 
 are to be eliminated through the pores of the (km, along with 
 the rccrementitious ferum their proper vehicle, are, in hot 
 countries, conveved in greater plenty to the furface of the 
 body, than in thefe northern regions they ordinarily are; and 
 flicking in their paflage in the thin dry membrane of the cuti- 
 cle, the aqueous parts, which are their vehicle, flip away from 
 them by infenfible evaporation, and leave them there to cor- 
 rode and fret it, till at length, through the quantity fo gather- 
 ed, the membrane becomes dry, brittle, and white, which is 
 the caufe of that defquammation, or falling away in white 
 fcales: that whitenefs, as well as the britdenefs, proceeding 
 merely from the quantity of thefe falts, which are themfelves 
 white; and when the moifture is drawn from them, being acu- 
 leated, and having jnfmuated themfelves into the pores of the 
 cuticle, diffolve the continuity of it by their points and edges, 
 which thus mortified and broken, is apt on the leaft friction, 
 to fall off, as abovementioned. 
 
 The antients diftinguifhed two kinds of leprofy, viz. the lepra 
 Gracorum, and lepra Arabum: though the two feem only to 
 have differed in degree; the fymptoms of the Grecian being 
 further heightened and aggravated in the Arabian. 
 Lepra Arabum, is the fame with what is otherwife called ele- 
 pbautiafis, by reafon in this the patient's fkin is rough and 
 wrinkled like an elephant's hide. 
 
 In the lepra Arabum, the fkin is befet with a dry fcabby cruft. 
 As in the former cafe the falts, being left deftitute of their hu- 
 midity, are not fo active, and therefore affe£t only the cuticle; 
 in the latter cafe thefe falts, with their vehicle, crowding falter 
 than they can be evaporated through the pores of the fkin 
 (being ftill in fiuore, and fo more cauftic) corrode deeper, and 
 cat not only the cuticle, but the excretory veffels, and furface 
 of the fkin itfelf, which thereby fpews out a liquor fomewhat 
 thicker than ufual; which when the thinneft and moft aque- 
 ous parts are evaporated, are condenfed into that cruft or fcab 
 which is the diftinguifhing character of this difeafe. 
 Galen defines the lepra, an effufion of thick diforderly blood, 
 that corrupts the whole habit of the body. Avicenna calls it 
 an univerfal cancer. 
 
 The lepra always begins within-fide, a long time before it 
 appears without -fide : It was frequent in Europe in the Xth 
 and Xlth centuries, but feemsat prefent almoft extinct; unlefs 
 we allow the venereal difeafe to be the fame with the lepra, as 
 was the opinion, among many others, of the learned Pitcairn, 
 and as has been lately endeavoured to be proved by Mr. Bec- 
 ket, in a difcourfe exprefly on the fubjecl: in the PbilofopbUal 
 Tranfafiions. 
 
 The fymptoms of the antient lepra, as laid down by Galen, 
 Arctteus, Pontanus, yEgineta, Cardan, Varanda, Gordon, 
 Pharseus, and others, are as follow: The patient's voice is 
 hoarfe, and comes rather through the nofe than the mouth; 
 the blood is full of little white fhining bodies, like (rains of 
 millet, which upon filtration feparate themfelves from it; the 
 ferum is fcabious, and deftitute of its natural humidity, info- 
 much that fait applied to it does not diffolve; it is io dry, that 
 vinegar poured on it boils; and is fo ftrongly bound together 
 by little imperceptible threads, that calcined lead thrown into 
 it fwi ms. The face refembles a coal half extinfr, unctuous 
 fhining, and bloated, with frequent hard knobs, green at bot- 
 tom, and white at top. The hair is fhort, ftiff, and brinded 
 and not to be torn of? without bringing away fome of the rot- 
 ten flefh to which it adheres; if it grows again, cither on the 
 head or chin, it is always white. Athwart the forehead run 
 large wrinkles, or furrows, from one temple to the other; 
 the eyes are red and inflamed, and fhinc like thofe of a cat • the 
 ears fwollcn and red, eaten with ulcers towards the bottom 
 and encompaffed with little glands; the nofe funk, becaufe of 
 the rotting of the cartilage; the tongue dry and black, fwol- 
 len, ulcerated, divided with furrows, and fpotted with trains 
 of white: the fkin covered with ulcers, that die and revive 
 on each other, or with white fpots or fcales like a ftfh; it is 
 rough and infenfible, and when cut, inftead of bluod, 'yields 
 a famous liquor. It arrives in time to fuch a degree of infen- 
 fibility, that the wrift, feet, or even the large tendon, may be 
 pierced with a needle, without the patient's feeling any pain 
 At lad the nofe, fingers, toes, and even privy members fali 
 off entire, and by a death peculiar to each of them, anticipate 
 that of the patient. It is added, that the body is fo hot that 
 a frefh apple held in the hand for an hour, will be dried and 
 wrinkled, as if expofed to the fun for a week. 
 Matthew Prior fays, that in Chrillcndom there were fifteen 
 thoufand hofpitals tor lepers; but the difeafe having been dif- 
 
 LET 
 
 continued for two hundred years, the revenues of thofe hofpi- 
 tals were abuled, and perfons feigned themfelves lepers, to be 
 entitled to the provifion ; which occafioned their regulation 
 in fome countries, and their entire fuppreffion in others. 
 In France, they were united to the order of the religious of 
 S. Lazarus and mount Carmel in 1664, and the adminiftra- 
 tion of them given to the knights of that order. See Laza- 
 rus. In England they have been converted to other pur- 
 pofes. 
 
 Formerly the caiifes of lifers were committed to the ecelefia- 
 ftical tribunals; and it was prohibited to profecute a leper 
 before a lay-judge, in regard they were under the protection 
 of the church, which feparated them from the reft of the peo- 
 ple by a ceremony ftill to be feen in the antient rituals. 
 As to the cure, that which proved effeaual in thofe fouthern 
 countries, is found to fail among us, where the ftrongeft 
 medicaments, and the moft powerful mercurials, are neccuary. 
 Bathing is judged to be of good ufe in the lepra. Dogs and 
 hares are faid to be fubject to this difeafe. Among the Indians 
 a white man is defpifed, this paffing with them for the mark 
 of a leper. 
 
 LEPUS, the Hare, a conftellation of the fouthern hemifphere; 
 whole ftars in Ptolomey's catalogue are 12, in that of Tycho 
 13, in the Britannic catalogue 19; the names, places, longi- 
 tudes, latitudes, and magnitudes whereof are as follow. 
 
 ¥. Longitude Latitude % 
 Names and Situations of the Stare, p Souih 
 
 In the preceding anterior foot 
 North, in the preceding ear 
 South, of the fame ear 
 Againlt the knee 
 
 South, of the following car 
 North, of the following ear 
 
 That under the belly 
 
 10 
 
 In the middle of the body 
 
 Preced.and fouth.in the poller, foot 
 In the loins 
 
 North, and fubfeq. in pollerior foot 
 Preceding in the tail 
 Subfequcnt in the tail. 
 
 6 44 2 45 zo 17 6 
 
 7 4s 6 4S o if 4 
 11 27 zc 34 4s 39 ; 
 11 35 a- JS 5 o 25 ; 
 
 4 3; 3; S z8 4 5- 
 
 13 z 7 47 36 13 59 45 
 
 ■3 4° 3 Z 35 23 10 56 
 
 '4 34 5 2 37 3 4 Z 6 
 
 15 21 25 13 57 24 3 
 
 16 18 14 44 6 50 6 
 
 ■ 7 44; ti 62I 3 
 
 19 15 o 45 46 6 6 
 
 20 36 20 45 49 58 4 3 
 
 21 39 5 2 i 8 >> 3° 4 
 
 22 51 9 44 17 19 4 3 
 
 24 33 48 37 39 z 7 4 
 2 7 is '3 39 S7 3! 6 
 27 37 34 38 24 26 4 
 SJ- 28 o 50 4Z 3S ! 23 4 
 L,E ROY le -vent, a form of words by which the royal affent is 
 ligmfied by the clerk of the parliament to public bills: to pri- 
 vate bills this affent is exprefled by foil fait comme il ell de fire. 
 bee Royal. 
 
 Lc Roy /™,/,™ — By thefe words to a bill, prefented to the 
 king by his parliament, are underftood his abfolute denial of 
 that bill in a mote civil way; and the bill thereby becomes 
 wholly null and void. See Parliament. 
 
 LESBIAN Cymatitnn. See the article Cymatium 
 
 LESSER Bar mis. "| TBaron. 
 
 Lesser Bear. | | Bear. 
 
 Lesser Centaury. \ | Centaury. 
 
 Lesser Cireleaf a Sphere. ). See< Circle. 
 
 Lesser enharmonical Dicfts. j j Diesis. 
 
 Lesser Excommunication. \ j Excommunication. 
 
 irSn?™ 1 '^ J LHexachord. ' 
 
 JjtbbUR, and Lessee. See the article Lease 
 
 ^JHARGY*, ahsapeia, in medicine, a difeafe con- 
 fining of a profound drowfinefs or flecpinefs, wherein the pati 
 ent can icarce be awaked; or, if awaked, he remains fti'pid 
 formcrfleep " mem0ry ' * nd f KkMl y again into his 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek M,, oblivion, and *,U 
 numbnefs, lazinefs. 5 ' 
 
 The lethargy is ufually accompanied with a fever and delirium 
 Boerbaave makes the lethargy a gentle apoplexy arifing from 
 the fame caufes, and to be known and cured in the fame man- 
 Some authors diftinguifh the lethargy from the cams, in that 
 this latter is without a fever, or at moft is preceded with a vio- 
 lent .one; whereas the lethargy is attended with a (low one 
 Melius ranges the lethargy in the number of acute difeafes the 
 patient ufually dying on the feventh day. A lethargy frequently 
 lucceeds a frenzy. ^1 / 
 
 LETHE, Leth, or Lathe, a mcafure or portion of lands 
 making one of the antient divifions of England. 
 King Alfred divided England into counties, as it {lands at 
 prelent; thofe counties he fubdivided into hundreds or tithing* 
 1 he hundred was a divifion, wherein were an hundred offi- 
 cers to fecure the peace; the lithe or lathe comprehended three 
 or four of thefe hundreds. 
 Lethe was alfo the jurifdiftion of a vifcount; orakindofaffize, 
 held once a year in each village, about Michaelmas.— Whe- 
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LET 
 
 ufed in conveying their thoughts to each other in fpeech. 
 Letter is byfome defined, a fimple uncompounded found of the 
 voice, that cannot be fubdivided into any more fimple, and 
 generally marked with a particular character. 
 But it muff, be owned, that ftricTtly fpeaking a letter is not 
 the found itfelf, but rather the fign of a found ; for ■yrap/*a, 
 litcra, is derived from ytygxppaH, of Yf*P*> } to write, and 
 litem is formed from litus, the participle of Ihiere, to 
 fmear, or mark: whence obliterare fignifies to blot out. 
 Where afign or character does not exprefs a found entirely fim- 
 ple, but one rcfolvible intofeveral, it is not fo properly a letter 
 as an abbreviation, containing in itfelf as many letters as its 
 power does fimple founds. This is evident in the Latin fcf, 
 and the Greek |, ^, r, (ffc. which are compofed of,?/, k s, 
 xa, err, fete 
 
 On the contrary, a fimple found, though expreffed by feveral 
 characters, is yet to be efteemed one letter ; for th, ph, are 
 fingle letters^ as much as <p, 6, and f. 
 
 The letters F, G, H, K, Q, X, Y, Z, were unknown to 
 the ancient Romans, as is proved by Daufquius in his Ortho- 
 graphy, where he traces the origin of the feveral letters. See 
 F, G, H, &c. 
 
 Grammarians diftinguifh letters into vowels and confonants ; 
 
 L E t 
 
 into mutes, diphthongs, liquids, and characleri/lics. 
 
 The Hebrews divide their letters into guttural, as ci, h, ch, gn^ 
 
 aleph, he, chaph, bun; dental, as z, Is, r, zain, tfadc, refh; 
 
 labial, as b, m, it, p, bcth, mem, vau, phe ; lingual, or 
 
 thofe chiefly formed by the tongue, as d, t, I, n, daleth, tau, 
 
 lamed, nun ; and palatal, as g, i, c, k, ghimel, jod; caph, 
 
 koph. 
 
 Printers diftinguifh their letters into capital, majufcule, initial, 
 or upper cafe letters, which ferve for the titles of books, pro- 
 per names, &c. And minufcule, /mall, or under cafe letters : 
 which are again divided, according to their fize, into pearl, 
 nonpareil, pica, great canon, Ice— They have alfo their flou- 
 rifhcd letters, engraven on wood or metal, which take place 
 of the illumined letters of the ancient mamifcripts. 
 There are letters of various fizes, or bodies ; each of which, 
 again, are fometimes cart with the Roman, fometimes an Ita- 
 lic, and fometimes an Englifh, or Black letter face. There 
 are alfo bodies with Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, the mufc 
 face, &c. 
 
 The moll ufual fizes, or bodies, with their proportions, are 
 fhewn and exemplified in the following table; where it is to 
 be ohferved, that the verfe anfwering to each is compofed in 
 the refpective fize or letter; 
 
 Njtipartil. 
 Small Pica. 
 
 Pica. 
 
 EngHJh. 
 
 Great Primer. 
 Trouble Pica. 
 
 Two lined 
 
 Whith when He knew, ma tt[r cur feeble beirte, 
 
 Emboli will! bale, and bitter biting grrer. 
 
 Which love had launched with his deadly darts ; 
 
 With wounding words, and terms of foul reprief, 
 
 He pluck'd from us all hope of due relief, 
 
 That erfl; us held in love of ling'ring life. 
 
 The hopelefs, heartlefs 'gan the cunning thief 
 
 Perfuade to die to ftint all further ftrife ; 
 
 To me he lent this rope, to him a rufty knife 
 
 With which fad inftrument of hafty death. 
 
 That woful lover lothing 
 
 Englifi. 
 
 Great 
 
 Canon) longer 
 
 life. 
 
 The above fizes were all caft In the foundery of M. W, 
 Caflon : a perfon who, though not bred to the art of letter- 
 founding, has by dint of genius arrived, at an excellency in 
 It unknown before in England, and which even furpaffus any 
 the kind done in Hollandj or elfewhere, 
 
 A fet or fount of any of thefe fizes, includes current letters, 
 capitals, numeral figures, points, fpaces, C3"V. See Fount. 
 Letters make the firft part or elements of grammar ; an afTem- 
 blage of thcfe compofe fyllables, of thofe words, and of thefe 
 fentences. 
 
 The alphabet of every language confifts of a certain number of 
 thefe letters, which ought each to have a different found, fi- 
 gure, and fignification. 
 
 As the difference of articulate founds was intended to exprefs 
 the different ideas of the mind, fo one letter was originally 
 intended to fignify only one found, and not, as at prefent, to 
 exprefs fometimes one found, and fometimes another ; which 
 practice has brought a great deal of confufion into the languages, 
 and rendered the learning of the modern tongues infinitely more 
 difficult than it would otherwife have been. This confidera- 
 tion, together with the poverty of all the known alphabets, 
 and their want of fome letters to exprefs certain founds by, 
 has occaftoned feveral attempts towards an univerfal alphabet, 
 to contain an enumeration of all fuch fmgle founds or letters 
 as are ufed in any language. A thing of very confiderable 
 ufe; a fpecimen of which is given us by Mr. Lodwick, in 
 the Philofophical Tranfatliom. 
 
 According to Crinitus, Mofes invented the Hebrew letters 
 Abraham the Syriac andChaldee; the Phoenicians thofe of At- 
 tica, brought into Greece by Cadmus, and thence by the Pe- 
 lafgians into Italy ; Nicoftrata the Latin ; Ifis the Egyptian ; 
 and L'ulfilas thofe of the Goths. 
 
 Yet as to the firft letters, what they were, who firft invented 
 them, and among what people they were firft in ufe, there 
 is ftill room to doubt ; however, fetting afide conje&ures, and 
 prejudice, the bufinefs of antiquity feems to lie between the 
 Egyptians and Chinefe. — Philo attributes the firft invention 
 of letters to Abraham ; Jofephus, S. Irenxus, and others, to 
 Enoch ; Bibliander, to Adam; Eufebius, Clement Alexan- 
 dras, Corn. Agrippa, to Mofes j Pomponius Mela, 
 
 Herodian, Rufus Feflus, Pliny, Lucan, t$c. to the Phoeni- 
 cians ; S. Cyprian, to Saturn; Tacitus, to the Egyptians- 
 and fome to the Ethiopians. 
 
 The Egyptian mummies, and obelifks, prove a great antiqui- 
 ty on the fide of the hieroglyphics ; but if the Chinefe chro- 
 nology may be credited, their characters are vaftly more ancient 
 than thofe of the Egyptians— The Chinefe make Fohi, the 
 firft of their kings, the inventer of their letters, and compute 
 him to have lived 2950 years before Chrift. During all which 
 time, they pretend to have certain and written accounts in 
 their books.— If this holds true, their chara&er muft be 
 older than Mofes by 1400 years, and even prior to Menes, 
 the firft king of Egypt, by 500 years : fo that the Chinefe 
 letters appear to be the moft ancient of that kind ; and the 
 book Tekim, faid to be written by Fohi, the moft ancient 
 book. 
 
 But as Chini is fo remote, and had fo little communication 
 with thcfe parts of the world, we may reafonably make an- 
 other enquiry into the original of letters in the hither parts 
 of Afia, Egypt, and Europe— Here, indeed, the Egyptians 
 feem to have the beft title— It is more than probable, from 
 the obelifks, fcTf, that their hieroglyphics were the firft man- 
 ner of writing, and the original characters in thefe parts, as 
 being prior to Mofes ; and were made, at leaft in great meafure, 
 while the Ifraelitcs were flaves among them, and" confequently 
 not well qualified for inventions fo very curious, and judi- 
 cious. 
 
 Whether Cadmus, and the Phoenicians learnt letters from the 
 Egyptians, or from their nearer neighbours of Judiea, and Sa- 
 maria, is a queftion ; fince fome of the books of the Old Te- 
 ftament, being written in letters, is more likely to have given 
 them the hint, than the hieroglyphics of" Egypt. — But when, 
 or wherefoever the Phoenicians learnt this art, it is generally 
 agreed, that Cadmus, the fon of Agenor, firft brought let- 
 ters to Greece ; whence, in the following ages, they fpread 
 over the reft of Europe. 
 
 Rudbecs, who in his Athmtka claims the glory of all inven- 
 tions, from all other nations, for the Swedes, maintains that 
 the lonians had letters before Cadmus; that at the time of 
 the fiege of Troy, the Greeks had but 16 letters, whereas 
 
 the 
 
LET 
 
 the Phoenicians had 22 : whence he concludes, that it was 
 not either Cadmus, or the Phoenicians, who taught this art to 
 
 the Greeks. But, in regard the ancient northern nations 
 
 had juft 16 Utters, like the Greeks, he concludes the Greeks 
 muft either have taught them to the people of the North, or 
 have learnt them of them. — But becaufe the form and make 
 of the Runic Utters is more artlefs, and coarfe, than that of 
 the Greek letters, he concludes that thefe laft muft be de- 
 rived from the former ; taking it as a principle, that thofe 
 who derive any thing from another, polifh and improve it. 
 — He even allerts, that by the golden apples which Hercules 
 was obliged to fteal, muft be underftood the letters in ufe 
 among the Hyperboreans. 
 
 There are few things on which there has been fo much writ- 
 ten , as on the original Hebrew letters ; Origen , Eufe- 
 bius Csefarienfis, S. Jerom, fete, have made it the fubject of 
 their enquiry. If they do not always go back to the begin- 
 ning of the world, and the origin of letters, it is at leaft en- 
 quired, what were the characters made ufe of by Mofes to 
 tranfmit the law to pofterity, or thofe ufed by the other hi- 
 ftoi ians, and prophets of the Old Tellament, or even thofe 
 ufed by the Hebrews before the Babylonian captivity ? — With 
 regard to which, there are three principal opinions : fome 
 imagine the ancient Hebrew letter the fame with that now 
 jnuie; of this opinion are feveral doctors of the talmud, Pof- 
 tellus, Buxtorf, ts'c. — The fecond opinion is, of thofe who 
 believe the Samaritan letter the more ancient ; which is now 
 the more common opinion, as without doubt it is the elder : 
 feveral Mifchnic and Gemaric doctors, many of the rabbins, 
 and fathers, Origen, Jerom, Eufebius, Beda, Genebrard, 
 Ramban, Bellanninc, Scaliger, Drufius, Capella, Bibhander, 
 Brcrewood, Montanus, Walton, the two Vollius's, Bochart, 
 and Bernard, are all of this opinion. — The third is, that from 
 the beginning there were two Hebrew characters ; the one fa- 
 cred, the other profane ; which is the opinion of Azarias, 
 R. de Bartenora, Poftel, Buxtorf, Conringius, &c. — But 
 this diftinction of two kinds of characters fecms a mere chi- 
 mera. — See P. Souciet on the Samaritan medals, where he 
 proves, that the letters in the inferiptiom of thofe medals, are 
 the genuine, original Hebrew characters. — See alfo the articles 
 Samaritan, and Hebrew. 
 
 The art of joining letters to form words, and of combining 
 the one and the other an infinite number of different ways, 
 is a fecret unknown to the Chinefe. Inftead of the alphabe- 
 tical Utters, they at firft, like the Egyptians, ufed hierogly- 
 phics : they painted rather than wrote ; ftriving, by the natu- 
 ral image of things drawn on paper, to exprefs and commu- 
 nicate their ides to one another. To write a bird, they were 
 obliged to paint its figure; and to fignify a forcft, they drew 
 a great number of trees. A circle ferved for the fun, and a 
 crefcent for the moon. — But this manner of writing was 
 not only very incommodious, hut alfo very imperfect. For, 
 befides that they could but exprefs their thoughts by halves, 
 even that little they could exprefs, was but very imperfectly 
 delivered ; and it was fcarce polliblc not to be frequently de- 
 ceived in it. — Further, they were under a ncceffity of writ- 
 ing large volumes to fay very little matters, in regard their 
 pictures took up a great deal of room. — To remedy thefe 
 inconvcniencics, they changed, by little and little, their man- 
 ner of writing, making it more hmple, though lefs natural. 
 They even invented ieveral characters, to exprefs things that 
 did not come within the reach of painting to reprefent ; as 
 voice, fmell, thoughts, paflions, and a thoufand other objects 
 that have no body, or figure. — From feveral fimple ftrokes, 
 they afterwards framed others more compound ; and in this 
 manner multiplied the letters and characters to infinity, con- 
 triving one or more for every word. 
 
 This multitude of letters feems the fource of that ignorance 
 which we find among the Chinefe. Their whole lives being 
 fpent in learning their Utters, they have no time to apply 
 themfelvcs to the ftudy of things, but think themfelves very 
 learned when they are able to read. — There are fcarce any of 
 them that know all their letters : they think it is a great pro- 
 grefs they have made, when, after forty or fifty years hard 
 ftudy, they arc able to underftand fifteen or twenty thoufand. 
 — But the generality of their learned men come fhort of this : 
 father le Compte is of opinion, that the greateft doctor among 
 them never underftood half of their Utters well ; for the whole 
 number he reckons eighty thoufand. — This is a prodigious 
 inconvenience to foreigners, of which the miffionaries in that 
 country make loud complaints. 
 
 Among the Chinefe Utters, there are fome now almoft wore 
 
 out of ufe, and only preferred out of refpeet to antiquity. 
 
 There is a fecond clafs much lefs ancient than the former 
 only ufed in public inferiptions. — A third, much more regular 
 and beautiful, ufed in printing, and even in ordinary writing. 
 — However, as the ftrokes are to be diftinctly formed, they 
 cannot be wrote with any expedition. — For this reafon, they 
 have invented a fourth kind, where the ftrokes being clofer, 
 and lefs diftant from each other, allow them to be writ with 
 more eafe and readinefs. And this they call the running letter . 
 The Americans had no letters before the difcovery of that 
 3 
 
 LEV 
 
 country by the Spaniards. — The Acaanibas engrave their me- 
 morable events and epocha's on ftoncs, and metals : their 
 fongs fupply the reft. — In Peru, and Chili, to keep an account 
 of their goods and chatties, and to preferve the memory of 
 their particular affairs, the Indians have recourfc to certain 
 knots of wool; which, by th<j variety of their colours, and 
 ties, ferve inftead of characters and writing. The knowledge 
 of thefe knots, which they callquipos, is one of their great fci- 
 ences; but which is always kept as a fecret, and never revealed 
 to the children, till the fathers think themfelves at the end of 
 their days. 
 
 Double Letter. 
 Final Letter. 
 Guttural Letter. 
 Labial Letter. 
 Letter Foundery. 
 
 Double. 
 Final. 
 Guttural. 
 }>See-( Labial. 
 
 Foundery. 
 
 L E t t e K- Founders Furnace. | I Furna„- 
 Isf-TTZR- Founders Mould. J (_Mould. 
 Numeral Letters, are thofe ufed inftead of ciphers, to exprefs 
 numbers. 
 
 The Roman numerals are, C, D, I, L, M, V, X; which 
 are all formed by defcribing a circle, and drawing two lines 
 through it, crofting each other at right angles in the centre. 
 See Character. 
 
 Dominical Letter. \ c . ( Dominical. 
 
 AWWLetter. \ SeetheartIcIe I Nundinal. 
 
 Letter is alfo a writing addrefled, and fent to one. See 
 Epistle. 
 
 Letter of Attorney, a writing authorizing an attorney to do 
 fome legal act m our ftead; as, to give feifin of lands, to re- 
 ceive debts, to i'ue a third perfon, CSV. 
 
 Letter of Credit, among merchants, a Utter which a mer- 
 chant or banker directs to his correi pond cut abroad, oidcrrng 
 him to credit the bearer as far as a certain ftim. Sec Cre- 
 dit. 
 
 Letter of Exchange. See Bill, and Exchange. 
 
 Letter of Licence, in trade, is an inftrument, or writing 
 granted to a man who has failed, or broke, figned and (baled, 
 by his creditors ; which Utter ufually gives a longer time for 
 payment : W that the debtor having fuch an afTurancc, may 
 go about his bufmefs without fearing an arrcft. w-X 
 
 Letters of Mart, ox Marque, are letters under the privy- 
 feal, granted to the king's fubjects; impowering them to 
 take, by force of arms, what was formerly taken from them 
 by the fubjects of fome other ftate, contrary to the law or" 
 mart. 
 
 Letters Patent, or Overt, are writings fealed with the great 
 feal of England, whereby a man is authorized to do, or en- 
 joy any thing, which, of irimfelf, he could not do. 
 They are fo called, by reafon of their form; as being open, 
 with the feal affixed, ready to be ihewn for the confirmation 
 of the authority given by them. 
 
 Common perfons may grant letters patent ; but they are ra- 
 ther called patents, than Utters patent ; yet, for diftinction, 
 thofe granted by the king are fometimes called letters patent 
 royal. 
 
 Letters patent conclude with tefle meipfo ; charters, with bits 
 tejlibus. See Patent. 
 Letters of Rcfpite, letters iflued out by a prince, in favour 
 of honeft, unfortunate debtors againft two rigorous creditors, 
 whereby payment is delayed for a certain term. 
 The ufe of thefe letters is very ancient : Caftiodorus obferves, 
 they were in ufe in the time of Theodoric, king of the 
 Goths; others will have them introduced towards the end 
 of the eleventh century, by pope Urban II. in favour of 
 thofe who went on the croifades. 
 
 They are ftill in ufe in France, and fome other countries : 
 and take their name a refpirando, becaufe they give the debtor 
 a breathing while. 
 
 Circular Letters. ~) ["Circular. 
 
 Dimiffory Letters. | [ Dimissory. 
 
 Monitory Letters. )-See the article "\ Monitory. 
 
 Pacific Letters. j j Pacific. 
 
 Pa/cbal Letters. J LPaschal. 
 
 LETTERED, Letrados, Literati. See Lite- 
 rati. 
 
 LEVANDIS tnilitum Expenfis. See the article ExpeNsis. 
 LEVANT, in geography, iignifies any country fituate to- the 
 
 eaft of us, or the eaftcrn fide of any continent or country, 
 
 or that on which the fun rifes. 
 Levant, in matters of commerce, &c. is generally rtftraincd 
 
 to the Mediterranean fea ; or, rather, to the country on the 
 
 eaftern part of it. 
 
 Hence, our trade thither is called the Levant trade; and a 
 
 wind that blows from thence, out of the Strcights-mouth, is 
 
 called a Levant wind. 
 Levant Meafures. \ „ C Measure. 
 
 Bole of the Lev ant. i See the article f Bole. 
 Levant and touchant, in law, is, when cattle have been fo 
 
 long in another man's ground, that they have lain down, and 
 
 rifen again to feed. 
 LEVARI Facias 2 a writ directed to the fheriff for levying a 
 
 fum 
 
LEV 
 
 fum of money on a man's lands and tenements, who has for-j 
 
 feited his recognizance, t 
 LEV ATIO Arietum. See the article Arietum. 
 LEVATOR.-* an epithet which anatomifts give to feveral 
 
 unities* whofe ufe is to raife* or lift up the parts to which 
 
 they belong. 
 
 There we levators of the eve-lids, of the omoplate, of the 
 anus, of the fcapula, fcfr.— See Tab. Awt. (Myol.) fig. 2. 
 
 «. 2. . ' ' ." , 
 
 LEVATUM. See Terris, H Catalis tentis ultra de- 
 
 bitu?n. 
 
 LEUCOMA*, in phync, a little white fpot on the cornea 
 of the eye, called by' the Latins albugo. 
 
 * The word H Grtxk, XivM.ufA.ee, from tottteh white. 
 
 It is occafioned by a humour gathered in this membrane ; or 
 by the fear following a wound, or by an ulcer in this part, 
 as fometimes happens in the fmall-pox. 
 LEUCOPHLEGMATIA*, a kind of dropfy, other- 
 wife called anafarca. 
 
 * The word is Greek, 7uvx-o<p*tyu.<*1n* , formed from Mux©-, 
 white, and (pUypz, pituita phlegm. 
 
 The kucophlegmatia confifts in a tumour, or bloating ot the 
 whole outer furface of the body, or fome of its parts ; white 
 and foft, eafily giving way to the touch, and preferving the 
 impreffion made by the finger for fome time. 
 It may either be owing to fome diforder of the blood ; 
 which, in this difeafe, is of a pale colour, vifcid, and cold ; 
 or, to an aqueous humour extravafated, and [gathered toge- 
 ther in the mufcles, and the pores of the (kin- See Supplement : 
 article Hydrops. 
 LEVEL*, an inftrument, wherewith to draw a line parallel 
 to the horizon, and continue it out at pleafure ; and by this 
 means to find the true level, or the difference of afcent or 
 defcent, between feveral places, for conveying water, drain- 
 ing fens, Eifrv, .'.>• . 
 
 * The word con.es from the Latin, libella, the cro:s beam that 
 forms the brachia of a balance ; which, to be jult, mult fland 
 
 horizontally. . 
 
 There arc feveral inflrum^nts of different contrivance, and 
 matter, invented for the perfection of levelling; all of which, 
 for the practice, may be reduced to thefe that follow. 
 Air Level, that which mews the line of level, by means of 
 a bubble of air inclofed with fome liquor in a glafs tube of 
 an indeterminate length and thicknefs, whofe two ends are 
 fcakd hermetically ; that is are clofed with the glafs itfelf, 
 by heating it with the flame of a lamp, till it become foft and 
 tractable.— When the bubble of air fixes itfelf at a certain 
 mark, made exaaiy in the middle of the tube, the plane, or 
 ruler wherein it is fixed, is level. When it is not level, the 
 bubble will rife to one end. ' ' ' . 
 
 This glafs tube may be fet in another of brafs, having an 
 aperture in the middle, whence the bubble of air may be ob- 
 
 Thc liquor wherewith the tube is filled, is ordinarily either 
 oil of tartar, or aqua fecunda; thofe not being fo liable to 
 freeze, as common water, nor to rarefaction and condenfa- 
 tlon, as fpirit of wine is. 
 
 The invention of this inftrument is afcribed to M. Theve 
 
 Air Level, with Sights, is an improvement on that Iaft de 
 feribed : which, by the addition of more apparatus, becomes 
 more commodious, and exact. 
 
 It confifts of an air level, (Tab. Surveying, fig. 4.) about 
 eight inches long, and feven or eight inches in diameter, fet 
 ilia brafs tube, with an aperture in the middle. The tubes 
 are carried in a ftron'g ftreight ruler, afoot long, at whofe 
 ends are fixed two fights exactly perpendicular to the tubes, 
 and of an equal heighth, having a fquare hole, formed by 
 two fillets of brafs, croffmg each other at right angles, in the 
 middle whereof is drilled a very little hole ; through which, 
 a point on a level with the inftrument is defcried. — The brafs 
 tube is fattened on the ruler by means of two fcrews ; one 
 whereof, marked 4, ferves to raife or deprefs the tube at plea- 
 fure, for bririfing it towards a level. The top of the ball and 
 fockct, is riveted "to a little ruler that fprings ; one end where- 
 of is fattened with fcrews to the great ruler, and the other end 
 has a fcrew 5, fcrving to raife and deprefs the inftrument; 
 when nearly level. 
 
 This inftrument is yet lefs commodious than the following 
 one ; becaufe, though the holes be ever fo fmall, yet they 
 will ftill take in too great a fpace to determine the point of 
 
 /i-zv/precifely. 
 
 Air Level, 'with Tele/cope Sights. — This Ifiwirf, rcprefented in 
 Tab. Surveying, fig. 5. is like the laft ; with this difference, 
 that inftead of plain fights, it carries a telefcope, to deter- 
 mine cxactlv a point of /(Wat a good diftance. 
 The telefcope is in a little brafs tube, about 15 inches long, 
 faftened on the fame rule as the level. — At the end of th< 
 tube of the telefcope, marked 1, enters the little tube r, car 
 rvingthe eye-glafs, and a hair horizontally placed in the fo- 
 cus of the objecf-glafs 2 ; which little tube may be drawn 
 out, or pufhed into the great one, for adjufting the telefcope to 
 different fights. — At the other end of the telefcope is 
 Vol. II. 
 
 LEV 
 
 placed the objea-glafs : the fcrew 3, is for railing or lower- 
 ing the little fork carrying the hair, and miking it agree 
 with the bubble of air, when the inftrument is level ; and 
 the fcrew 4, is for making the bubble of air agree with the 
 telefcope — The whole is fitted to a bail and focket. 
 M. Huygens is faid to have been the inventor of this fall j 
 which has this advantage, that it may be invented, by turn- 
 ing the ruler and telefcope half round : and if then the hair 
 cut the fame point that it did before the turn, it is a proof 
 the operation is juft. 
 
 It may be obferved, that one may add a telefcope to any 
 kind of level, by applying it upon, or parallel to the bale, or 
 ruler, when there is occafion to take the level of remote ob- 
 jects. 
 
 Fm-Level. See the article Foor-Level. 
 
 Artillery FoiX-Level, is in form of a fouare, having its two 
 legs or branches of an equal length ; at a juncture whereof 
 is a little hole, whence hangs a thread and plummet, playing 
 on a perpendicular line in the midde of the quadrant : it is 
 frequently divided into 90 degrees, or rather into twice 45 
 degrees from the middle. See Fig. 6. lit. I. 
 This inftrument may be ufed on other occafions, by placing 
 the ends of its two branches on a plane ; for when the thread 
 plays perpendicularly over the middle divilion of the quadrant, 
 that plane is ailuredly level. 
 
 To ufe it in gunnery, place the two ends on the piece of ar- 
 tillery, which you may rife to any propofed heighth by 
 means of the plummet, whofe thread will give the degree a- 
 bove the level. ■ : 
 
 Carpenters and Paviers Level, confifts of a long ruler, m 
 the middle whereof is fitted, at right angles, another forne- 
 what bigger, at the top of which is faftened a line with a 
 plummet"; which, when it hangs over a fiducial line at 
 right angles with the bafc, fliews that the faid bale is ho- 
 rizontal. „ 
 This and the mafons level, though very common, are ettecmed 
 the beft for the practice of building, though the operations 
 by them can only be fhort. 
 
 Gunners Level, for levelling cannons and mortars, is an in- 
 ftrument, rcprefented Tab. Surveying, Jig. 8. conhfting of a 
 triangular brafs plate about four inches high, at the bottom 
 of which is a portion of a circle divided into 45°; which 
 number is fufficicnt for the higheft elevation of cannons and 
 mortars, and for giving fhot the greateft range. On the 
 center of this fegment of a circle is fcrewed a piece of brals, 
 by means whereof it may be fixed or moved at pleafure. 
 The end of this piece of brafs is made fo, as to ferve for a 
 plummet and index, in order to fhew the different degrees of 
 elevation of pieces of artillery. — This inftrument has alfo a 
 brafs foot to fet upon cannon or mortars, fo as when thofe 
 pieces are horizontal, the whole inftrument will be perpendi- 
 cular. 
 
 The ufe of this level is obvious ; and confifts in placing the 
 foot thereof on the piece to be elevated ; in fuch manner as 
 that the point of the plummet may fall on the proper degree : 
 this is what they call levelling the piece. 
 
 Mafons Level, is compofed of three rules, fo joined as to 
 form an ifofceles reclangle, fomewhat like a Roman A; at 
 the vertex whereof is fattened a thread, from which hangs^ a 
 plummet, which pafles over a fiducial line marked in the 
 middle of the bafe, when the thing to which the level is ap- 
 plied is horizontal ■, but declines from the mark, when the 
 thing is lower on one fide than the other. 
 
 Plumb, or Pendulum Level, that which fhews the horizontal 
 line, by means of another line perpendicular to that defcribed 
 by its plummet or pendulum. 
 
 This inftrument, rcprefented Tab. Surveying, Jig. 6. confifts 
 of two legs, or branches, joined together at right angles ; 
 whereof that which carries the thread and plummet, is about 
 a foot and a half long. This thread is hung towards the top 
 of the branch, at the point 2. The middle of the branch 
 where the thread panes, is hollow, that fo it may hang free 
 every where but towards the bottom, where there is a little 
 blade of filver, whereon is drawn a line perpendicular to the 
 telefcope.— The faid cavity is covered by two pieces of brafs, 
 making, as it were, a kind of cafe, left the wind fhould agi- 
 tate the thread ; for which reafon the filver blade is covered 
 with a glafs, G, to the end that it may be feen when the 
 thread and plummet play upon the perpendicular.— The te- 
 lefcope I, is faftened to'the other branch, or leg of the in- 
 ftrument, and is about two foot long ; having a hair placed 
 horizontally acrofs the focus of the objefl-glafs, which de- 
 termines the point of level, when the firing and plummer 
 hang againft the line on the filver blade. 
 All the accuracy of this inftrument depends on the telefcope's 
 being fitted at right angles to the perpendicular.— It has a 
 ball and fockct, by which it is faftened to its foot, and is faid 
 to have been the invention of M. Picard. 
 Rejletling Level, is that made by means of a pretty long fur- 
 face of water, reprefenting the fame object inverted, which 
 we fee erect by the eye ; fo that the point where thofe two 
 objeefs appear to meet, is in a level with the place where the 
 5 X x 
 
 furfao 
 
LEV 
 
 furface of water is found.— This is the invention of M. 
 Mariotte. 
 
 There is alfo another reflecting levels confifting of a mirror 
 of fteel, or the like, well poliftied, and placed a little hefore 
 the object-glafs of a telefcopc fufpended perpendicularly. — 
 This mirror muft make an angle of 45 degrees with the te- 
 Iefcope ; in which cafe, the perpendicular line of the faid tele- 
 fcope is converted into an horizontal line; winch is the lame 
 with the line of level. The invention of this is owing to M. 
 Caflini. 
 
 IVater Level, that which fhews the horizontal line by means 
 of a furface of water, or other liquid : founded on this prin- 
 ciple, that water always naturally places itfelf level. 
 The moft fimple is made of a long wooden trough, or ca- 
 nal, whofe fides are parallel to its bale ; fo that being equally 
 filled with water, the furface thereof fhews the line of level. — 
 This is the chorobates of the ancients, defcribed by Vitruvius, 
 Lib. VIII. c. 6. 
 
 This fort of level is alfo made with two cups fitted to the 
 two ends of a pipe three or four foot long, about an inch in 
 diameter; by means whereof the water communicates from 
 the one to the other cup : and this pipe being moveable on its 
 ftand, by means of a ball and fockct, when the two cups be- 
 come equally full of water, their two furfaces mark the line 
 of level. 
 
 This inftrument, inftead of cups, may alfo be made with two 
 fhort cylinders of glafs, three or four inches long, faftened to 
 each extreme of the pipe with wax, or maftic. Into the pipe 
 is filled fome common or coloured water, which fhews itfelf 
 through the cylinders, by means whereof the line of level is 
 determined ; the heighth of the water, with refpedt to the 
 center of the earth, being always the fame in both cylinders. 
 This level though very funple, is yet very commodious for 
 levelling fmall diftances. 
 Level of M. Huygens's Invention confifts of a telefcope, a, 
 (Tab. Surveying, Jig. 7.) in form of a cylinder ; going through 
 a ferril, in which it is faftened by the middle. — This ferril 
 has two flat branches, b b, one above, and the other below ; 
 at the ends whereof are faftened little moving pieces, which 
 carry two rings, by one of which the telefcope is iufpended 
 to a hook at the end of the fcrew 3 ; and by the other, a 
 pretty heavy weight is fufpended, in order to keep the tele- 
 fcope in equilibrio. — This weight hangs in the box 5, which 
 is almoft filled with linfeed oil, oil of wallnuts, or other mat- 
 ter that will not eafily coagulate, for more aptly fettling the 
 balance of the weight and telefcopc. — The inftrument car- 
 ries two telefcopes clofe and very parallel to each other, the 
 eye-glafs of the one being againft the object-glafs of the other, 
 that one may fee each way without turning the level.— in 
 the focus of the objcdf-glafs of each telefcope, muft a little hair 
 be ftrained horizontally, to be raifed and lowered as occafion 
 requires, by a little fcew. — If the tube of the telefcope be 
 not found level, when fufpended, a ferril, or ring 4, is put on 
 it, and is to be Aid along till it fixes to a AW. -"-The hook on 
 which the inftrument is hung, is fixed to a flat wooden crofs ; 
 at the ends of each arm whereof there is a hook, ferving to 
 keep the telefcopc from to® much agitation in uftng, or in 
 carriage. To the faid flat crofs is applied another hollow 
 crofs, that ferves as a cafe for the inftrument ; hut the two 
 ends are left open, that the telefcope may be fecured from 
 the weather, and always in a condition to ufe. The foot of 
 this inftrument is a round brafs plate, to which arc faftened 
 three brafs ferrils, moveable by means of joints, wherein are 
 put ftaves : and on this foot is placed the box. 
 L E VELLING, the art or act of finding a line parallel to 
 the horizon, at one or more ftations, in order to determine 
 the height of one place with refpecf to another ; for the lay- 
 ing grounds even, regulating defcents, draining moraffes, con- 
 ducting waters, tsff. 
 
 One place is faid to be higher than another, or out of level with 
 it when it is more remote from the center of the earth ; 
 and a line equally diftant from the centre of it in all its 
 points, is called the line of true level : whence, becaufe the 
 earth is round, that line muft be a curve, and make a part 
 of the earth's circumference, or an arch concentrical with it, 
 as the Hne*BCFG, Tab. Surveying, jig. 9. all the points 
 whereof are equally diftant from the center of the earth A. 
 But the line of fight, which the operations of levels give, is a 
 tangent, or a right line perpendicular to the femidiameter of 
 the'earth ; one extreme of which tangent being the point of 
 contact, the other will be that of a fecant drawn from the center 
 of the earth; and the point which determines it, will be above 
 the furface of the earth, and of the true level, as much as 
 that fecant exceeds the radius, or femediamctcr of the earth. 
 This extremity of the tangent is faid to be in the apparent 
 level; as being that given by the fight; but is eafily reduced 
 to the true level, becaufe we know, by trigonometry, how 
 much each fecant exceeds the radius; and becaufe, by mca- 
 iuring, we have difcovered the precife length of that radius. 
 —It was for want of the knowledge of this, that the ancients 
 v/ere not able to reduce the apparent level to the true one; 
 and accordingly to prevent falling into an error never /*- 
 
 LEV 
 
 veiled above 20 feet at once, where fuch reduction was Hot 
 neceflary. 
 
 By the table fince made, it appears, that at the diftance of 
 100 yards the apparent level is raifed above the true one 
 about one third of a line : fo that the ancients* in this re- 
 fpecT:, were more fcrupulous than needed.— By means of this 
 reduction, we arc now able to level diftances of one or two 
 miles, at a fingle operation, wliich the ancients could not do 
 in lefs than 300. 
 
 The operation of levelling is as follows : Suppofe the heighth 
 of the point A, (Tab. Surveying, fig. io.J on the top of a 
 mountain, above that of the point B, and at the foot thereof; 
 required : — Place the level about the middle diftance, be^ 
 tween the two points, as in D, and ftafTs in A and B, and 
 let there be perfons inftructed with fignals for railing and 
 lowering on the faid ftaffs, little marks of paftcboard^ or 
 other matter. The level being placed horizontally by the 
 bubble, &c. look towards the ftaff A E, and caufe the mark 
 fo railed, or lowered, till the middle, upper edge, or o- 
 ther moft confpicuous part appear in the vifual ray. Then 
 meafuring exacily the perpendicular heighth of the point A, 
 above die point E, which fuppcfe 6 feet 4 inches, fet that 
 down in your book : then turn the level horizontally about, 
 that the eye-glais of the telefcope may be ftifl next the eye 
 when you look the other way, (if you have only plain lights, 
 the inftrument need not be turned) and caufe the perfon at 
 the ftaff B to raife or lower his mark, till fome confpicuous 
 part of it fall in the vifual ray, as at C ; then meafure the 
 perpendicular heighth of C above B, which fuppofe 16 feet, 
 16 inches; fet this alfo down in the book above the other 
 number of the lirft obfervation ; fubftract the one from the 
 other, the remainder will be 10 feet 4 inches, which is the 
 difference of level between A and E, or the heighth of the 
 point A above the point B. 
 
 Note, If the point D, where the inftrument is fixed, be in 
 the middle between the two points A and B, there will be 
 no neceftity for reducing the apparent level to the true level ; 
 the vifual ray, in that cafe, being raifed equally above the true 
 level. 
 
 If it be further required to know whether there be a fuffi- 
 cient defcent for conveying water from the fpring A, to the 
 point B, Tab. Surveying, Jig. n. — Here, in regard the dif- 
 tance from A to B is confiderable, it is required that fe- 
 veral operations be made. Having then chofen a proper place 
 for the firft ftation, as at I, fet up a ftaff in the point A, 
 near the fpiing with a proper mark to Hide up and down 
 the ftaff, as L ; and meafure the diftance from A to I, which 
 fuppofe 2000 yards. Then the level being adjufted in the 
 point I, let the mark L be raifed and lowered till fuch time 
 as you fpy fome confpicuous part of it through the telefcope, 
 or fights of the level, and meafure the heighth A L, which 
 fuppofe 13 foot 5 inches. But in regard the diftance A I is 
 2000 yards, you muft have recourfj to your table for a re- 
 duction, fubftracting 11 inches, which will leave the heighth 
 A L, 12 feet 6 inches; and this note down in your book. 
 Now turn the level horizontally about, fo as the cyc-glafs of 
 the telefcope may be towards the ftaff at A; and iixmg up 
 another ftaff at H, caufe the mark G to be moved up and 
 down, till you fpy fome confpicuous part through the tele- 
 fcope, or fights. Meafure the heighth H G, which fuppofe 
 6 yards, 4 feet, 2 inches. Meafure iikewife the diftance of 
 the points I H, which fuppofe 1300 yards; for which dif- 
 tance according to the table 4 inches 8 lines muft be fub- 
 ftradted from the heighth H G, which confequently will but 
 leave 6 yards, 3 feet, 9 inches, 4 lines, to be taken down 
 in your book. 
 
 This d one, remove the level forwards to fome other emi- 
 nence, as E, whence the ftaff H may be viewed; as alfo 
 another ftaff" at D, near the place whither the water is to be con- 
 veyed. The level being again adjufted in the point E, look 
 back to the ftaff H; and managing the mark as before, the 
 vifual ray will give the point F. Meafure the heighth H F, 
 which fuppofe 1 1 feet, 6 inches. Meafure Iikewife the dif- 
 tance H E, which fuppofe 1000 yards; for which diftance 
 the table gives 2 inches, 9 lines of abatement; which bein<r 
 taken from the heighth H F, there will remain 11 feet, 3 
 inches, 3 lines, which enter in your book. Laftly turning 
 the level to look at the next ftaff D, the vifual ray' will give 
 the point D. Meafure the heighth of D from the ground, 
 which fuppofe 8 feet, 3 inches. Meafure alfo the diftance 
 from the ftation E to B , which fuppofe 900 yards ; for 
 which diftance the table gives 2 inches, 3 lines of abate- 
 ment ; which being taken from the heighth B D, there will 
 remain 8 feet, 9 lines, which enter as before. 
 For the manner of entering down obfervations in your book, 
 obferve that when a proper place or ftation for the level, 
 between the two points, lias been pitched upon, you muft 
 write down the two heighths obferved at that ftation, in two 
 different columns , viz. under the firft column , thofe ob- 
 ferved in looking through the telefcope when the eye was 
 from the fpring,- or towards the point, which we may call 
 back-fights \ and under the fecond column, thofe obferved 
 
 when 
 
LEV 
 
 when the eye was next the fisiflgj which we call fire-fights, 
 in the manner following : 
 
 LEV 
 
 Back- fights. 
 
 foot. inch. line. 
 Firft heiehth * , 
 
 corrected S 12 : 6 : ° 
 Third height ir : 3 : 3 
 
 Fore-fights. 
 
 foot. inch. line. 
 Second he ighth 21 : 09 : 4 
 Fourth heidith 8 : 00 : 0 
 
 23 : 9 : 
 
 Having fummed up the hcighths of each column feparately 
 fubftract the teller from the greater, the remainder will hi 
 the difference of level between the points A and B; as in this 
 example, 
 
 feet. inch. line. 
 29 : 10 : 01 
 2 3 : 09 : 03 
 6 : 00 : jo — The difference of heighth, or le- 
 vel, between the points A and B. 
 
 If the diftance of the two points be required, add all the dif- 
 tances meaiured, together; and dividing the difference of 
 heighth by the yards of the diftances, for each 200 yards you 
 will have a defcent of about 2 inches, 9 lines. 
 Dr. Halley fuggefb a new method of levelling, which has been 
 put in practice by fome of the French acad emy : this is per- 
 formed wholly by means of the barometer, in which the 
 mercury is found to be fufpended to fo much the k-fs heighth, 
 as the place is further remote from the center of the earth. — 
 Hence it follows, that the different heighths of the mercury, 
 in two places, give the difference of level. 
 Mr. Derham, from fome obfervations he made at the top 
 and bottom of the Monument, found that the mercury fell 
 one tenth of an inch at every 82 feet of perpendicular afcent, 
 when the mercury was at 30 inches. — Dr. Halley allows of 
 one tenth of an inch for every 30 yards ; which, confidering 
 how accurately the barometers are now made, an inch in 
 fome oi them being divided into an hundred or more parts, 
 all very fenfible, he thinks this method fufficiently exaft to 
 take the levels for the conveyance of water, and lefs liable 
 to errors than the common levels. 
 
 The fame author found a difference of three inches eight 
 tenths, between the heighth of the mercury, at the top and 
 bottom of Snowden hill in Wales. 
 
 For the common occafion of levelling to be performed with- 
 out much apparatus of inftruments, time, or trouble, the fol- 
 lowing method may ferve. — Set a pole upright in a fprins.. 
 pond, river, or other place whence water is to be brought, 
 and mark how many feet, and inches , are above water, — 
 Then fet up another pole, of equal length with the other 
 in the place to which the water is to come. Place the cen 
 ter of a quadrant on the top of this laft pole, the plummet 
 hanging free; fpy through the fights the top of the pole that 
 is in the water , and if the thraad cuts any degree of the 
 quadrant, the water may be conveyed by a pipe laid in the 
 earth.— -If you cannot fee from one extreme to the othen 
 the operation may be repeated in tire manner already di- 
 rected. 
 
 Levelling Staves, are inftruments ufed in levelling, ferving 
 to carry the marks to be obferved, and at the fame time to 
 meafure the heighths of thofc marks from the ground, 
 They ufually confift each of two long fquare wooden rulers, 
 made to Hide over one another, and divided into feet, inches, 
 
 &V. ■■; 
 
 LEVER*, or Leaver, in mechanics, an inflexible right 
 line, fupported, in a finale point, on a fulcrum or prop; and 
 ufed for the raffing of weights : being either void of weight 
 itfelf, or, at leaft, having fuch a weight as may be commo- 
 dioufly counter-balanced. 
 
 * The word is formed of the French levier, which llgnifies the 
 lamp, formed of the verb lever, or Latin levare, to raife. 
 The lever is the fecond, or, as others will have it, the firft 
 of thofe called mechanical powers, or fimple machines, as be- 
 ing, of all others, the moll fimple ; and is chiefly applied for 
 railing weights to fmall heighths. 
 
 In a uver there are three things confidcrcd: The weight to 
 be railed, or fuftained, as O, (Tab. Mechanics, fig. 1.) — 
 The power by which it is to be raifed, or fuftained, as B. 
 And the fulcrum, or prop D, whereon the lever is fuftained, 
 or rather, on which it moves round, the fulcrum remaining 
 fixed. 
 
 Levers are of three kinds : Sometimes, the fulcrum is placed 
 between the weight and the power, as in fig. 1. this we call 
 a lever of the firft kind. Sometimes, the weight is between 
 the fulcrum and the power ; which is called a lever of the fe- 
 cond kind, as mfig- 2. And fometimes, the power acts be- 
 tween the weight and the fulcrum, as fig. 3. which is the le- 
 ver of the third kind. 
 
 The power of the lever is founded on the following theorem, 
 viz, 1 That the fpace, or arch defcribed by each point of a 
 * lever, and confequently the velocity of each point of a lever, 
 « is as its diftance from die fulcrum, or prop.' 
 
 From hence it follows, that the action of a power, and th<* 
 refiftancc of the weight, increafe in proportion to their dif- 
 tance from the fulcrum. 
 
 And hence alfo it follows, that a power will be able lo M~ 
 fain a weight, if the diftance of the .point in the lever, to 
 which it is applied, be to the diftance of the weight, us the 
 weight to the intenfity of the power ; wliicli, if ^it be ever 
 fo little increafed, muff raife the weight. See this do&rrnc 
 demonftrated under the word Mechamc Powers; and fur- 
 ther illuftrated under the word Balance: between which, 
 and the lever, there is a great analogy ; a lever of the firft: 
 kind being a fort of ftilyard to raife' weights. See Stil- 
 YARD. 
 
 The power and action of the /tWwill be fully illuftrated by 
 the following proportions. 
 
 I - If the power applied to a lever, of any kind, fuftain a 
 weight, the power is to the weight in a reciprocal ratio of their 
 diftanccsfrom the fulcrum. 
 
 This is the converi'e of that demonftrated under the head 
 Mechanic Potuers^ 
 
 2\ The weight of a lever of the firft or fecond kind AB, fig. 1. 
 the diftance of the center of gravity from the fulcrum C V^ 
 and the_ diftances of the weight, and the power AC and 
 CB, being all given; to find the power that will fufbin it. 
 — Suppofe the lever void of gravity, but in lieu thereof a 
 weight hung at V; if then AC be made to CV, as the 
 gravity of the lever to a fourth number, we ftial] have ths 
 weight which the lever is able to fuftain ; and this fubftracted 
 from the given weight, the remainder will be the weight to 
 be fuftained by the power. Let C B then be to C A, as 
 the remaining weight to a fourth weight; and we fhall have 
 the power to be applied in B, in order to fuftain the given 
 weight with the given lever. 
 
 3 3 . The gravity of a lever of the firft or fecond kind A B, 
 the diftance of its center of gravity from the fulcrum C V, 
 the diftances of the power, and the weight B C and C A* 
 being all given; to find the weight to be fuftained. — Find 
 the part of the weight fuftained by the lever alone, as in the 
 former problem : in the fame manner find the other part of 
 the weight, which the power applied in B is able to fuffatn : 
 add the two numbers together, and the fum is the weight re- 
 quired. 
 
 4 0 . The gravity, and center of gravity F, of a lever of the 
 fecond kind CB, with the weight G, its diftance from the 
 fulcrum CA, and from the power C B, being given; td 
 find the power capable to fuftain the weight.— Suppofe the 
 lever void of gravity, but in lieu thereof a weight equal there- 
 to hung in F, the powbr required to fuftain the lever alone ; 
 then find the power requifite to fuftain the given wciErhtG* 
 add the powers together, and the fum will be the power re- 
 quired. 
 
 5". If a power applied to a lever of any kind lift a weight- 
 ing fpace of the firft is to that of the laft, as is this laft to a 
 power able to fuftain the fame weight; whence it follows 
 that the gain of force is always attended with the lofs of time* 
 and vice verfa. ' 
 LEVERET, among fportfmcn, a young hare in the firft 
 year of its age. 
 
 LEVIGATION, the reduction of hard and ponderous bodies* 
 as coral, tutty, precious ftoncs, csV. into a fine, fubtile pow- 
 der; by grinding them with water upon porphyry, or the 
 like, as painters do their colours. 
 
 Levigation is much ukd in pharmacy, and chymiftry ; but 
 unlefs the grinding inftruments be extremely hard, they will 
 wear away, fo as fometimes to double the weight of the me- 
 dicine thus managed. 
 LEVITE*, an inferior kind of miniffer in the Jewifh ta- 
 bernacle, and temple, who had the care and management of 
 the facrcd utenfils. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, tofcj the root of which 
 is the name Levi, which was given to chat patriarch by his 
 mother Leah, from the Hebrew TTTJ lavab, to be tied or 
 united ; Leah hoping, by the birth of this ion, to be more 
 clofely linked to her hufband Jacob. 
 The levites, in the Jewifh church, were an order inferior to 
 the priefts ; and anfwered, in fome meafure,. to deacons in 
 the Chriftian church. 
 
 The levites of the old law had no fettled lands allotted them 
 for their maintenance, but lived chiefly of the offering made 
 to God.— They were diftributed through all the = tribes 
 each of which gave fome of their cities to the levites, with 
 grounds in their neighbourhood for the fubliftence of their 
 flocks.— According to the numeration made by Solomon 
 from the age of twenty,- there were thirty eight thoufand U \ 
 vites capable of ferving : twenty four thoufand of thefe ho 
 appoincd for the daily miniftry under the priefts; fix thou- 
 fand to be inferior judges in the cities, and to decide matters 
 relating to religion, and of no great confequence totheftate- 
 four thoufand to be door-keepers, and to take take care of the 
 riches of the temple ; and the reft to do the office of chan- 
 ters, or lingers. 
 
 LEVITY, the privation, or want of weight in any body, when 
 3 compared 
 
L I B 
 
 Compared with another that is heavier. 
 
 In which fenfe, levity ftands oppofed to gravity. , 
 The fchools maintain, that there is fuch a thing as pojitme 
 and abfilute levity, and impute to this the rife or emer- 
 gency of bodies lighter in fpecie than the fluids wherein they 
 
 But we find by experience, that all bodies tend towards the 
 earth, fome flower, and fome fetter, in all fluids or mediums, 
 
 whether water, air, ifc Thus, cork is only faid to be lighter 
 
 than gold ; becaufe, under equal dimenfions, the gold will link 
 in, and the cork fwim upon water. 
 
 Archimedes has demonftrated, that a folid body will float any 
 where in a fluid of the fame fpecific gravity, and that a lighter 
 body will keep above a heavier.— The reafon is, that of 
 bodies falling towards the earth, thofe which have a like 
 number of equal parts, have equal gravity; fince the gra- 
 vity of the whole, is the fum of the gravity of all its parts. 
 —Now two bodies have an equal number of equal parts, if 
 under the feme dimenfions there be no intervals deftitute of 
 matter ; whence it follows, that as no portion of matter is fo 
 fmall, but that the body wherein it is contained may be whol- 
 ly divided into parts equally fmall, there can be no reafon 
 for the defcent of thefc, which will not equally hold for the 
 defcertt of that. 
 
 Hence it may be concluded, that thofe bodies which do not 
 equally gravitate under the fame dimenfions, do not contain 
 equal portions of matter ; and therefore when we fee, that a 
 cube of gold fubfides in water, at the fame time that an equal 
 bulk of cork fwims upon it, it is evident that the gold 
 inuft have a greater number of equal parts of matter, un- 
 der the fame bulk, than the cork , or the cork inuft have 
 a greater number of vacuities than the gold ; and that there 
 are alfo in the water a greater number of vacuities, than in 
 cold. . 
 Hence, we have a clear idea both of denfity, or gravity, and 
 of levity ; and know, that the latter cannot, in a ftrift fenfe, 
 be accounted any thing pofitive, but only a mere negation, or 
 abfence of body, which determines that body to be lighter than 
 another which contains more matter. 
 
 Dr. Hooke, it is true, feems to maintain fomething like a 
 pofitive levity : which, if we miftake not, is what he means 
 by the term levitatian ; viz. a property of bodies directly 
 contrary to that of gravitation towards the fun. 
 This, bethinks, he has difcovered in the ftrcams of (even] 
 comets ; which, though they had a defcent from the nucleus 
 of the comet towards the fun, yet they quickly returned, 
 and went oppofite to the fun, and that to a prodigious extent. 
 In eftecr, where the power of gravitation ceafes, it fhould 
 fecm fome fuch contrary force does begin ; whereof we 
 have inftanccs in the phenomena of attraction. — This is 
 whar Sir Ifaac Newton calls the vis repellent, and appears to 
 be one of the laws of nature ; without which, it would 
 be hard to account for rarefaction, and fome other appear- 
 ances. 
 
 Paracentric Solicitation cf Levity. See Paracentric. 
 LEVY, Levare, in law, fignifies to gather, or celled : as, 
 
 to levy money, to levy troops, tsf c. 
 Levy fometimes alfo denotes to ereft, or fet up : as, to levy a 
 
 m\\\.—Levy alfo fignifies to raife, or caft up ; as to levy a 
 
 ditch. im, i ytM\ i 
 
 LEX, Law. See the article Law. 
 
 Lex amilfa, or legem amittere, in law, is underitood of an in- 
 famous perjured pcrfon, who is faid to lofe his law, or, as 
 Bra8on has it, nan eft ulterius digrtus lege. See I N F A- 
 
 Lex Juelicialis, is properly purgatio per juckaum fern ; ISBte- 
 
 times called fi&ply iw&Vm»b. See Judicium. 
 Lex Sacramentalis , purgatio per facramentum. See Oath, 
 
 and Purgation. 
 Iex See the article Talio. 
 
 Lex Terra; the law and cuftom of the land ; by which 
 ' name it is diftinguifheJ from the civil law. See Common 
 
 Law. ; ... 
 
 Legem Terra amittere. See the article Amittere. 
 LEXICON *, aehikon, the fame with diclionary. 
 
 * The word is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of Greek dictionaries : 
 it is derived from the Greek word, diflion ; of I 
 
 LIBATION, Libatio, a ceremony in the heathen facri 
 fices wherein the prieft fpilt fome wine, milk, or other li- 
 quor, in honour of the deity to whom thefacrifice was of- 
 fered, after having firft tafted it himfelf. 
 
 Alexander is faid to have faenficed a bull ts Neptune ; and 
 for an offering to the fea-gods, to have thrown the golden vcflels 
 ufed for the libation, into the fea. 
 
 Libations were alfo in life under the law of Mofes, being en- 
 joined by God in Exodus xxix, and Numbers xv. 
 LIBEL, Famofus Lieellus, a writing containing in- 
 juries, reproaches, or accufations againft the honour, and 
 reputation of any perfon, particularly of a fuperior, or go- 
 vernor. ... r 
 Platina is of opinion, that a writing, how injurious loever it 
 
 LI B 
 
 is, cannot be called a libel, if the author's name be to it- 
 Libellers, among the ancient Romans, were punifhed with 
 death, but in aitertimes they were only whipped. Auguftus 
 ranked famojos libellos, defamatory libels, among the crimes 
 leefee mojtfiatis, of high treafon. — F. Baldwin has publifhed 
 a comment on the imperial laws againft libels. Scandalous 
 pictures arc reckoned amongft libels. 
 
 A libel, the lawyers fay, may be either in [criptis, or fine 
 /criptis: in /criptis, when a writing is cornpofed, or publilhed 
 to another's difgrace, which may be done either verbis, out 
 cantilenii ; as, where this is malicioufly repeated, or fung in 
 the prefence of others : or elfe traditione, when the libel, or 
 any copy of it, is delivered out to fcandalize the party. 
 A libel fine /criptis, may be two fold. i\ Plcluris, as to 
 paint the party in fhameful , or ignominious manner : or, 
 2°. Sigris, as to fix a gallows, or other ignominious figns, 
 at the door of the party, or elfewhere. 
 
 The punifhment of libelling in England, is putting the cri- 
 minal in the pillory, whipping, fining, 
 Libel alfo fignifies the original declaration of any action in 
 the civil law. 
 
 LIBELLATICI, an ancient kind of apoflates from Chri- 
 ftianity, under the pcrfecution of Decius ; who, to prevent 
 their being obliged to renounce the fait!?, and facrihee to idols 
 in public, made application to the magiftratjs, and abjured their 
 faith in private ; obtaining certificates of them, either by in- 
 treaty or by money * j by which they were atteifed to have 
 complied with the orders of the emperor, and were thereby 
 fheltered from any further moleftation, on account of their 
 religion. 
 
 * Thefe certificates were called libel/i; whence the people, 
 who obtained them, came to be denominated libellalici. 
 
 Others, particularly the centuriators of Magdebourg, are of 
 opinion, that the Hbellatici were only fuch as fed the magi- 
 ftrates with money, to fcreen them from pcrfecution, and 
 from being obliged to renounce Chriftianity. 
 M. Tillemont retains fomewhat of each opinion ; he thinks 
 the libellatici applying themfelves to the magistrates, bought 
 ofF the facrificing and abjuration, and obtained letters by 
 which they were declared to have renounced Chrift, and fa- 
 crificed to idols, though, in effect, they had done neither. 
 LIBERAL* Arts, are fuch as depend more on the labour of 
 the mind, than on that of the hand; or, that confift more in 
 fpeculation, than operation ; and have a greater regard to 
 amufement and curiofity, than to neceflity. 
 
 * The word comes trom the Latin lu eralis ; winch, among 
 Romans, fignitied a pcrfon who Wi;s not a lUve, and whofe 
 wili, of coniecpience, was not checked by die command of any 
 mailer. 
 
 Such are grammar, rhetoric, painting, fculpture, architecture, 
 mufic, &c. — The liberal arts ufed formerly to be fummed 
 up in the following Latin verfe : 
 
 Lingua, Tropus, Ratio, Numerus, Tonus, Angulus, AJlra. 
 And the ?nechanical arts, which, however, are innumerable , 
 under this : 
 
 Rus, Nemus, Arrna, Faber, I ' ulnerci, Lana, Rates. 
 LIBERALIA, feafts celebrated by the ancient Romans, in 
 honour of Liber, or Bacchus : the fame with thoie which the 
 Greeks called Dionyjia, and Dimyfiaca. 
 
 They took their name from liber, i. e. free ; a title conferred 
 on Bacchus, in memory of the liberty or freedom which he 
 granted to the people of Bceotia ; or perhaps becaufe wine, 
 whereof he was the reputed deity, delivers men from care, 
 and fets their minds at eafe and freedom. — Varro derives the 
 name of this ieaft from liber, confidered as a noun adjective, 
 and fignifyingy>-fe ; becaufe the priefts were free from their 
 function, and eafed of all care during the time of the liberalia. 
 For, in effect, it was the old women who officiated in the 
 ceremonies and facrifices of thefe feafts. 
 
 LIBERANDIS Terris. See the article Terris. 
 
 LIBERI Tauri Libertas. See the article Tauri. 
 
 LIBERIA, a feaft held among the Romans on the day where- 
 on their children laid afidc their juvenile habits, and afiumed 
 the robe called toga libera. 
 
 The liberia were kept on the fixtcenth of the calends of 
 April ; that is on the feventeenth of March. 
 
 LIBER TATES Anglia Cujhdes. See Custodes. 
 
 LIBERTUS, or Libertinus, among the Romans, a freed 
 man ; or a perfon fet free from a legal fervitude. 
 Thefe ftill retained fome mark of their ancient ftate : He 
 who made a (lave free, having a right of patronage over the 
 Ubertus: fo that if the latter failed of fhewing due refpect 
 to his patron, he was reftored to his fervitude ; and if the 
 Ubertus died without children, his patron was his heir. See 
 Slave. 
 
 LIBERTINES, Libertini, a religious feet which arofe 
 in the year 1525; whofe principal tenets were, That there is 
 but one only fpirit, which is that of God ; who is difTufed 
 througli all things ; who is and lives in all creatures ; that our 
 fouls are nothing but tin's fpirit of God : That the foul dies 
 with the body ; that fin is a mere chimsera, and only fubfifts 
 3 'n 
 
L I B 
 
 ; in opinion, for that it is God that does all, both good and 
 evil ; that paradifc is a dream, and hell a phantom invented 
 by prieifs, and religion a Irate-trick to keep men in awe; that 
 fpiritual regeneration only confifts in ftining the remorfe of 
 confeience ; repentance, in avowing to have done no evil ; and 
 thai it is lawful, and even expedient, to diffemble in matters of 
 religion. 
 
 To thefe they added horrible blafphemies againft Jefus Chrift ; 
 faying, he was nothing but a mere je ne fcai quoi, compofed 
 of the fpirit of God, and of the opinion of men. 
 Thefe maxims occafioned their being called Libertines; and the 
 word has been ufed in an ill fenfe ever fince. 
 The Libcrtini fpread principally in Holland and Brabant. Their 
 leaders were one Quintin, a Picard, and another calied Cho- 
 pin, who joined with him, and became his difeiple. 
 LIBERTY, Libert AS, is ufually underftood of that ilate 
 wherein a man a£rs freely ; or that power by which he deter- 
 mines himfelf voluntarily either to good or evil, to this thine 
 or that. 
 
 In which fenfe liberty amounts to the fame with freedom, and 
 fends oppofed to neccffity. 
 
 Liberty may be defined, an affive indifference of the will, to 
 will, or not to will any thing. 
 
 Moll of the fchoolmen confound liberty and the will together, 
 and make one definition ferve for both. They diftinguilh 
 liberty into a great many kinds ; as, 
 Liberty of Contrariety, Contrarietath, which is a freedom of 
 doing two things not only different, but contrary to each 
 other. 
 
 Liberty of Contradiclion, a power either of doing a thin<*, or 
 letting it alone. 
 
 Jefus Chrift had not the liberty of contrariety, with regard to 
 good and evil, for he could not do evil : but he had a liberty 
 of contradiction with regard to good. 
 
 Next Liberty, Proxima, is a full, abfolute freedom of doino- 
 any thing. a 
 
 Remote Liberty, is a liberty that comprehends a natural power, 
 though embarrafl'ed with ohftacles, which it is in our power to 
 remove and to attain to a next liberty. 
 
 Thus he who has not the aftual grace neceffary for fulfilling 
 his duty, but has yet the aaual grace of prayer, has a next li- 
 berty with regard to prayer, and a remote liberty with regard 
 to his duty. 
 
 Cicero defines liberty, the power of living after a man's own 
 wiih, without any caufe or impediment to oblige him to do 
 one thing rather than another. 
 
 F. Malebranche gives us a flill more philofophical definition : 
 The will he defines to be that imprellion, or natural motion, 
 which inclines towards good in the general ; and by liberty he 
 underfands, that power which the mind has of determining 
 this general impreflion towards fuch objects as pleafe us ; and 
 fo of directing our general inclinations to fome particular 
 things. 
 
 Whence it is eafy to perceive, that though all natural inclina- 
 tions be voluntary, yet they are not all free; not, we mean, 
 with a liberty of indifference, which includes a power of wil- 
 ling, or not willing; or of willing quite the contrary to that 
 which our natural inclinations lead us to. 
 For, though it is voluntarily and freely that we love good in 
 general, it being abfurd to fuppofe we mould love any thing 
 without the will, or that the will can ever be conftrained ; 
 yet we do not love it freely (in the fenfe juft laid down) becaufe 
 it is not in the power of the will not to defire to be happy. 
 It muff be obferved, however, that the mind, confidered as 
 determined towards good in general, cannot divert its motion 
 to any particular good, unlefs the fame mind, confidered as 
 capable of ideas, have fome knowledge of that particular ^ood : 
 That is, in plainer terms, the will is a blind power, that can- 
 not direfl itfeif to any thing but what the underftandimr re- 
 prefents to it : So that the power which the will has to deter- 
 mine its impreflion towards general good, or its natural incli- 
 nations, varioufly, confifts in the power it has to command 
 the underfending to reprefent fome particular good. 
 Thus, a perfon, for infence, reprefents fome dignity to him- 
 felf as a good to be wifhed for; immediately the will defires 
 this good ; that is, the impreflion which the mind continually 
 receives towards good in general, determines it to this dignity. 
 But as that dignity is not the univerfal good, nor is conceived 
 clearly and diftinflly as fuch by the mind (for the mind can- 
 not conceive a thing clearly which is not) the impreflion we 
 have towards good in general, is not entirely exhaufted by 
 that particular good ; the mind has an inclination to go fur- 
 ther; it does not love that dignity neceffarily or invincibly, 
 and in this refpect is free. 
 
 Now, its liberty confifts in this, that not being fully convinced 
 that this good contains in it all the good it is capable of enjoy- 
 ing, it may fufpend its judgment and its defire. 
 1 he cafe is nearly the fame with regard to the knowledge of 
 truth : we love this, as we do the enjoyment of good, by a 
 natural impreflion ; which impreflion is not invincible in the 
 latter, excepting evidence be full, and our knowledge of the 
 object complex. We have the fame liberty in our felfe iude- 
 Vol. II. 
 
 L I B 
 
 [ar appetites. 
 
 ' JUDG- 
 
 ments, that we have in our irregulm 
 ment, and Wiel. 
 The doctrine ofPclagius, with regard to liberty, is built on 
 philofophy, which docs not allow\is to have loll our original 
 liberty of doing good. 
 
 Lieesty of Confeience, a right or power of making p.-ofaf- 
 iion of any religion, or ol fcrvi„ g God in any manner that a 
 man fees fit. '■ " ' . 
 
 This feems to be a natural right; it is vigorouflv opnofej bv 
 the generality of the Romanfts, and even by 'many of the 
 Reformed, though it feems as if the reformation 'couid fcarce 
 fubfili without it. See Toleration, and Persecution 
 
 LIBRA, Balance, one of the mechanical powers. See Ba- 
 lance. ' fpBa 
 
 Libra, is alfo one of the twelve figns of the zodiac; cxa£Uy 
 oppofite to Aries ; fo called, becaufe when the fun is in' this 
 fign, at the autumnal equinox, the days and nights are equal, 
 as if weighed in a balance. 
 
 Stars in the conjiellai'ion Libra. 
 
 Names and Situations of the Stars, 
 
 Preced. in fouth. fcale 
 Bright flar of fouth! fcale 
 
 Firft north, of fouth. fcale 
 Second 
 
 That preced. in north, fcale 
 South, of inform, preced. below fcales 
 l 5 
 
 Firth fouth. following fcale 
 Second 
 
 North, of inform, preced. below fcale; 
 
 In north, foot of Lupus 
 Northern fcale 
 
 Second following fouth. fcale 
 Another 
 
 *i 
 
 Next after north, kale 
 
 Third following fouth. fcale 
 3° 
 
 Following in north, fcale 
 Preced. under north, fcale' 
 
 Nor, of 2 inform, follow. bel. fcales,t 
 35 [or before feet of fouth. 
 
 Fourth of follow, fouth. fcale 
 Second below north, fcale 
 4° 
 
 Lift follow, fouth. fcale 
 Follow, below north, fcale 
 South, of follow, north, fcale 
 
 Midd. of thofe follow, north, fcale 
 North, of the fame fl 
 
 \u q' 5r , , . . puu-nu, oorrowed from 
 
 the Sicilians, who called it /itra } a,1 e «. 
 
 The libra was divided into twelve unci*, or ounces earn! 
 to about ten ounces and a half of our weight. 
 The divifions of the libra were, the uncial one twelfth - tht- 
 fextans, oncfixth; the quadrant, one fourth; the triens' one 
 third; the quincunx, five ounces; the femis, fix; the feltu^ 
 feven; the A,* eight; the dodrans, nine; the dextail ten 
 the deunx, eleven; laftly, the as weighed twelve ounces or 
 one libra. * Ui 
 
 The Roman libra was ufed in France for the proportions of 
 their com, till the time of Charlemagne, or perh™ tin V 
 of Philip I. in ,c 93 ; their fob beingfo proportioned, £ 
 twenty of them were equal to the libra. 
 
 By degrees, it became a term of account, and everything of 
 the value of twentv fob, was called a livrt S 
 The Romans had alfo a coin called libra, equal to twentv 
 denarn : though Scahger will have it, that libra was et Z 
 among them, a term of account, not a coin. 
 
 * Y i Libra 
 
 1 ■ A 
 E.OH ji itude 
 
 Latitude 
 
 
 o / <' 
 lo 52 46 
 
 0 - » 
 9 1 22 
 
 S 
 
 1 1 43 1 r 
 
 8 43 9 
 
 S 
 
 4 10 ;o 
 
 17 721 
 
 N 
 
 9 S 1 43 
 
 2 3 54 
 
 N 
 
 10 42 55 
 
 4 2 
 
 ; s 
 
 1 0 46 40 
 
 02251 
 
 N 
 
 6 41 09 
 
 13 30 17 
 
 :. 
 
 14 2 47 
 
 7 37 33 
 
 s 
 
 IO 22 31 
 
 4 34 3 s 
 
 N 
 
 10 48 OO 
 
 5122/ 
 
 N 
 
 Si 50 18 
 
 12 00 48 
 
 N 
 
 11 3 19 
 
 5 33 4 s 
 
 N 
 
 11 13 38 
 
 5 37 '5 
 
 N 
 
 10 ;S 34 
 
 » 1634 
 
 N 
 
 22 31 
 
 7 35 5^ 
 
 s 
 
 8 1742 
 
 IS 34 16 
 
 N 
 
 14 28 1 
 
 ■ 13 +3 
 
 N 
 
 14 34 16 
 
 1 1 32 
 
 N 
 
 16 41 43 
 
 1 48 23 
 
 S 
 
 10 54 30 
 
 1 35 58 
 
 S 
 
 16 42 5 
 
 
 
 20 40 13 
 
 11 27 t 
 
 8 
 
 15 240 
 
 8 3145 
 
 N 
 
 17 36 48 
 
 2 4946 
 
 N 
 
 ,7 58 3 6 
 
 3 22 18 
 
 N 
 
 '7 1 43 
 
 8 ; 44 
 
 N 
 
 '9 3S 30 
 
 2 8 17 
 
 N 
 
 20 2 23 
 
 1 40 27 
 
 N 
 
 20 7 46 
 
 2 23 22 
 
 N 
 
 zo 42 5 
 
 2 1639 
 
 N 
 
 J 3 44 54 
 
 8 30 16 
 
 ■ : 
 
 19 19 41 
 
 S 5650 
 
 N 
 
 19 12 14 
 
 9 48 13 
 
 N 
 
 20 48 5 3 
 
 4 25 27 
 
 N 
 
 24 16 22 
 
 8 28 9 
 
 S 
 
 25 1 17 
 
 9 5850 
 
 s 
 
 22 39 CO 
 
 0 14 7 
 
 N 
 
 24 1 60 
 
 4 5 57 
 
 S 
 
 23 27 00 
 
 0 1 54 
 
 N 
 
 23 2 38 
 
 4 2 52 
 
 1 
 
 26 9 40 
 
 0 7 50 
 
 N 
 
 n 33 4 
 
 3 30 4 
 
 .\ 
 
 ;6 4 4 
 
 6 7 48 
 
 N 
 
 '7 4 53 
 
 4 4 20 
 
 N 
 
 2 5 3= 29 
 
 12 00 q 
 
 N 
 
 26 58 43 
 
 9 16 29 
 
 - 
 
 z « 35 7 
 
 io 54 3<( 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 6 
 4 5 
 5 
 b 
 
 2 i 
 6 
 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 
 5 6 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 4 S 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 6 
 4 
 6 
 
 7 
 4 
 
 ■ 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 + 
 
 6 
 7 
 7 
 4 
 
 «! 
 3 4 
 4 
 
L I B 
 
 L 1 E 
 
 Libra Pen/a, in our law books, denotes a pound of money in 
 weight. 
 
 It was ufual, in former days, not only to tell the monev, 
 but to weigh it; in regard many cities, lords, and bifhops, 
 having their mints, coined money, and often very bad too: 
 for which reafon, though the pound confifted of twenty mil- 
 lings, they always weighed it. 
 
 LTBRARII, among the antients, were a fort of copifts, 
 who tranfcribed in beautiful, or, at leaft, legible characters, 
 what had been wrote by the notarii in notes, and abbrevia- 
 tures. ... *»-•*' 
 
 LIBRARY, an edifice, or, apartment deftined for the placing 
 of books; or the books thcmfelves lodged therein. See Book. 
 Some authors refer the origin of libraries to the Hebrews; 
 and obferve, that the care thefe took for the prefervation of 
 their facred books, and the memory of what concerned the acti- 
 ons of their anceftors, became an example to other nations, 
 particularly to the Egyptians. Ofmanduas, king of Egypt;, is 
 faid to have taken the hint firft; who, according to Dio- 
 dorus, had a library built in his palace, with this infeription 
 over the door, Tt/xflS Iastymw Nor were the Ptolemys, who 
 reigned in the fame country, lefs curious, and magnificent in 
 books. 
 
 The fcripture alfo fpeaks of a library of the kings of Pcrfia, 
 Efdras v. 17. vi. 1, which fomc imagine to have confifted of 
 the hifforians of that nation, and of memoirs of the affairs of 
 ftate; but, in effect, it appears rather to have been a depofi- 
 tory of laws, charters, and ordinances of the kings, — The 
 Hebrew text calls it the houfe of treafures, and afterwards the 
 houfe of the rolls, where the treafures were laid up. — We may, 
 with more juftice, call that a library, mentioned inthefecond 
 of EfHras to have been built by Nehemiah, and in which were 
 prefurved the books of the prophets, and of David, and the 
 letters of their kings. 
 
 The firft who erected a library at Athens, was the tyrant 
 Pififtratus; and yet Strabo refers the honour of it to Ariflo- 
 tlc. That of Piiiftratus was tranfportcd by Xerxes into Perfia, 
 and was afterwards brought back by Seleucus Nicanor to Athens. 
 Long after, it was plundered by Sylla, and re-eftablifhcd by 
 Hadrian. — Plutarch fays, that, under Eumenes, there was a 
 library at Pergamus, containing 200,000 books. — Tyran- 
 nian, a celebrated grammarian, cotemporary with Pompey, 
 had a library of 3000 volumes. — That of Ptolemy Philadul- 
 phus, according to A. Gcllius, contained 700,000, all in rolls, 
 burnt by Casfar's foldiers.— Conffantine, and his fuccefibrs, 
 erected a magnificent one at Conftantinople; which in the 
 eighth century, contained 300,000 volumes, all burnt by 
 order of Leo Ifaurus: and, among the reft, one wherein the 
 Iliad, and Odyjjee were written in letters of gold, on the guts 
 of a ferpent. 
 
 The moft celebrated libraries of antient Rome, were the 
 Ulpian, and the Palatin. They alfo boaft much of the 
 libraries of Paulus jEmilius, who conquered Perfius ; of Luci- 
 lius Lucullus, of AiiniusPollio, Atticus, Julius Severus, Do- 
 mitian, Serenus, Pamphi'lus Martyr, and the emperors Gor- 
 dian and Trajan. 
 
 Antiently, every large church had its library; as appears by 
 the writings of S. Jerom, Anaftafius, and others. Pope Ni- 
 cholas laid the firft foundation of that of the Vatican, in 
 1450. It was deftroyed by the conftable Bourbon, in the 
 facking of Rome, and reffored by pope Sextus V. and has been 
 confiderably enriched with the ruins of that of Heidelberg, 
 plundered by count Tilly in 1622. 
 
 One of the moft compleat libraries in Europe, was faid to be 
 that erected at Florence by Cofmo de Medicis; over the gate 
 whereof is wrote, labor abfque labore. Though it is now ex- 
 ceeded by that of the French king; begun by Francis I. aug- 
 mented by cardinal Richlieu, and complcated by M. Colbert. 
 The emperor's library at Vienna, according to Lambecius, 
 confifts of 80000 volumes, and 15940 curious medals. 
 The Bodleian library at Oxford, built on the foundation of 
 that of duke Humphry, exceeds that of any univerfity in Eu- 
 rope, and even thofe of all the fovereigns of Europe, except 
 the emperor's and French king's, which are each of them 
 older by a hundred years.— It was firft opened in 1602, and 
 has fin ce found a great number of benefactors; particularly 
 Sir Rob. Cotton, Sir H. Savil, archhifliop Laud, SirKenelm 
 Digby, Mr. Allen, Dr. Pocock, Mr. Selden, and others. The 
 Vatican, the Medicean, that of Beffarion at Venice, and thofe 
 juft mentioned, exceed the Bodleian in Greek manufcripts; 
 which yet out-does them all in oriental manufcripts. 
 As to printed books, the Ambrofian at Milan, and that of 
 Woltembuttle, are two of the moft famous, and yet both infe- 
 rior to the Bodleian. 
 
 The Cotton library confifts wholly of manufcripts, particu- 
 larly of fuch as relate to the hiftory and antiquities of Eng- 
 land; which, as they are now bound, make about 1000 vo- 
 lumes. 
 
 LIBRATA Terra, a portion of ground containing four ox- 
 gangs, and every oxgang thirteen acres. 
 With us, it is fo much land as is yearly worth 20j. In 
 Henry the third's time, he that had quhuletim libratas terra, 
 was to receive the order of knighthood. 
 
 3 
 
 Some fay, that as money is divided into pounds, fhillings, pence; 
 and farthings, the fame degrees are to be obferved in the divi- 
 fion of lands; and therefore, as quadrans lignifies a farthing, 
 fo quadrantata is the fourth part of an acre; obolata an half; 
 denariata, a whole acre; folidata^ 12 acres; and librata^ 20 
 times 12 acres; /. e. 240 acres. 
 LIBRATION, in aftronomy, an apparent irregularity in 
 the motion of the moon, by which fhe feems to librate, or 
 waver about her own axis; fometimes, from the caft to the 
 weft; and fometimes, from the weft to the eaft. See Moon. 
 Hence it is, that fome parts in the moon's weftern limb, 
 or margin, at one time, recede from the centre of the difk; 
 and at another, move towards it : by which means, fome of 
 thofe parts, which were before vifible, fet and hide thcmfelves 
 in the inrifible fide of the moon, and afterwards become again 
 confpicuous. 
 
 This Vibration of the moon is owing to her equable rota- 
 tion round her own axis, and her unequal motion in the pe- 
 rimeter of her orbit. For if the moon moved in a circle, 
 whofe centre coincided with the centre of the earth, and 
 turned round its axis in the precife time of its period round 
 the earth; the plane of the fame lunar meridian would always 
 pafs through the earth, and the fame face of the moon would 
 be conftantly and exactly turned towards us. But fince the 
 real motion of the moon is in an cllipfis, in whofe focus is the 
 earth, and the motion of the moon about the earth is equable; 
 or, which is the lame thing, every meridian of the moon, by 
 the rotation, defcribes angles proportional to the times: the 
 plane of no one meridian will conftantly pafs through the earth. 
 Libration of the Earthy is that motion, whereby the earth 
 is fo retained in its orbit, as that its axis continues conftantly 
 parallel to the axis of the world. 
 
 This, Copernicus calls the motion of libration; and may be 
 illuftrated thus: Suppofe a globe, with its axis parallel to that 
 of the earth, painted on the flag of a mall, moveable on its 
 axis, and conftantly driven by an eaft wind, while it fails 
 round an ifland; it is evident, the painted globe will be fo 
 librated, as that its axis will be parallel to that of the world, 
 in every fituation of the fhip. 
 LICENCE, Licentia, in law, a power or authority given 
 to another to do fome lawful act. 
 
 A licence is a perfonal power, and cannot be transferred to an- 
 other : though a licence may be granted to a man and his 
 afligns. 
 
 Licence is alfo ufed in the civil law, for a permlffion, or 
 leave granted by a fuperior. 
 
 Juftinian appointed four years to be fpent in the ftudy of the 
 law; after which, thofe who had difcharged this obligation, 
 Were faid to have licence, or pcrmiffion to retire from ftudy. 
 
 Licence is alfo applied to the letters, or certificates taken out 
 in univerfities, whether in law, phyfic, or divinity. 
 Licence, in the Sorbonnc, denotes a period of two years, which 
 the batchclors are obliged to pafs in affifting at acts, and dif- 
 puting in them, to qualify themfclves for being admitted doc- 
 tors. See Degree. 
 
 Letter ^/"License. Seethe article Letter. 
 
 Licence to arife, in law, Licentia furgendi, is a liberty, 
 or fpace of time given by the court to a tenant, who is effoin- 
 ed de malo lecli in a real action, to rife out of his bed and go 
 about his bufiriefs. 
 
 Licences, in painting, are the liberties which the painter takes 
 in difpenfing with the rules of perfpedtivc, and the other laws 
 of his art. 
 
 Poetical Licence, is the liberty which poets claim of difpenfing 
 with the ordinary rules of grammar. 
 
 Antiently, poets had much greater licences than are now al- 
 lowed. — The Greeks, by having recourfc to the fcveral dia- 
 lects of their tongue, could lengthen out a word if it were 
 too fhort, or retrench fomething from it if it were too long. 
 — The old poets did what they pleafed with their language, 
 and fuhjectcd it not only to all their neceffities, but their ca- 
 prices too. 
 
 Et data Romanis venia cfl indigna poetis. 
 But thefe became ridiculous in courfe of time; and the poets 
 are now dcfpoiled of moft of their antient privileges. 
 LICENC1ATE, or Licentiate, he who'has obtained 
 the degree of a licence. 
 
 Moft of the officers of judicature in Spain, are known by no 
 other name than that of licentiates. — To pafs licendate in the 
 common law, civil law, or phyfic, they muft have ftudied 
 feven years; in divinity, ten. 
 Licentiate among us, is ufually underftood of a phyfician, 
 who has a. licence to practice, granted him by the college of 
 phyficians, or by the bifhop of thediocefe. 
 A perfon pradtifing phyfic without fuch licence, in cafe his 
 patient dies under his hands, is guilty of felony in the eye of 
 the law. 
 
 LICHEN, AE'XHN a cutaneous diftemper, otherwife called 
 impetigo. See Impetigo. 
 
 LIE, or Lye under tbefea. — The failors fay, a fhip lies under 
 the fea, when, her helm being made faft a-lee, fhe lies fo 
 a-hull, that the fea breaks upon her bow, or broad-fide. 
 
 LIEGE, 
 
L I F 
 
 LIEGE*, Ligius, properly fignifics a tw^i/, who holds a 
 kind of fee, that binds him in a clofer obligation to his lord 
 than other people. 
 
 * The term leems to be derived from the French Uer t to bind ; 
 in regard of a ceremony ufed in rendering faith, or homage, 
 which was by locking the vaffai's thumb, or his hand, in that 
 of the lord, to Jhew that he was faft bound by his oath of. 
 fidelity. — Cujas, Vigenere, and Bignoii, chufe rathr r to 
 derive the word from the fame fource with leadis, or ieodi, 
 loyal, faithful. — But Du Gauge falls in with the opinion of 
 thofe who derive it from /iri, a kind of vaifals, fo firmly at- 
 tached to their lord, on account of lands or fees held of him; 
 that they were obliged to do him . all manner of c fervicc, as if 
 they were his domelfcs. He adds, this was formerly exiled 
 litgium fcr<vitium, and the perlbti Utge. — la this fenfe, the 
 word is ufed kg. Edzu. cap. zg. fud&tfub tutela regis Ugea dc- 
 bent ejfe ; that is, wholly under his protection. 
 
 By liege homage, the vaflal was obliged to ferve his lord to- 
 wards all, and againft all, excepting his father. — In which 
 fenfe, the word was ufed in oppofiiion to ftmple homage; 
 which laft, only obliged the valTal to pay the rights, and ac- 
 cuftomed dues to his lord; and not to bear arms againft the 
 emperor, prince, or other fuperior lord: fo that a liege man 
 was a perfon wholly devoted to his lord, and entirely under 
 his command *. 
 
 * Omnibus, dsV. Reginaldus rex Infularum, falutem. Sciatis 
 quod deveni bono ligeus domini regis Anglite fobanms, cantra 
 omnes mart ales quamdiu uixtra, £# inde ei fidelitatem iff facra- 
 mmtum pra-fiiti, tiff. M. S. penes W. Dugdale. 
 
 But it muft be obferved, there were formerly two kinds of 
 liege homage : the one, by which the vaflal was obliged to 
 ferve his lord, againft all, without exception, even of his fove- 
 reign; the other, by which he was to ferve him againft all, 
 except fuch other lords as he had formerly owed lie 
 
 In our old flatutes, lieges, and liege people, are terms peculiar- 
 ly appropriated to the king's fubjeets ; as being liges, ligi, or 
 ligati, obliged to pay allegiance to him; 8 Hen. VI. 14. Hen. 
 VIII. erV. though private perfons had their lieges too *. 
 
 * Reiwldus Dei gratia abbas Ramefia, prapojuo c3* bominibus 
 de Branc(ftre i 13 omnibus uicinis Francis i$ Anglis, jalutim 
 Sciatis me dcdijfe terram XJlfe, in depedene (bodie d,pM ) 
 buie Bofeiino i$ uxori ejus A/fniar—ea conditione qilod efeCii 
 
 Jint homines liges. Lib. Ramef. 
 
 Liege Vajfalagc. See the article Vassalage. 
 LIBNTERY*, aeintepia, i n phyftc, a kind of Ioofe- 
 
 nefs, wherein the food panes fo fuddenly through the ftomach 
 and guts, as to be tlirown out by ftool, with little or no alte- 
 ration. 
 
 * The antients were of opinion, that the lier.tery was owing to the 
 too great fmoothncls, and flipperiiidii of the infiue of the in- 
 teltines, by which they Jet the food (lip off before it was di- 
 geiled: and hence they gave it this name, which is formed 
 from fmooth, poliiru-d, and f*?f£o>, intelline. 
 
 The lientery is generally owing either to a defect in the fer- 
 ment of the ftomach, or to a relaxation of the pylorus, at- 
 tended with fo brifk an irritation of the fibres of the fto- 
 mach, that inftead of retaining the aliment, it lets it pafs. 
 
 Excefs of drinking fumetimes occafions this difcafe, by relax- 
 ing the ftomach, and efpecially the pylorus, too immode- 
 rately. 
 
 LIEUTENANT, locum tenens, a deputy, or officer, who 
 holds the place of a fuperior, and difcharges that function in 
 his abfence, which he ought to exercife in perfon. 
 Of thefc, fome arc civil; as lords lieutenants of kingdoms, 
 who are the king's viceroys, and govern in his ftead ; and 
 lords lieutenants or counties. 
 
 But the term is moft frequent among military men, amon" 
 whom there is a variety of lieutenants. — As, 
 Lieutenant General, a great officer, the next in rank to 
 the general of an army; who, in battle, commands one of 
 the lines, or wings; a detachment in a march, or a flyino- 
 camp.— Alfo, a quarter at a fiege, or one of the attacks— 
 when it is his day of duty. 
 
 In France, they have alfo lieutenant-generals of their naval 
 forces, who command immediately under the admirals. 
 In Holland they have a lieutenant-adjtiiral, which is the fame 
 with what we call a vice-admiral. 
 
 sLievteh f\*ir-Gcnera! of the Ordnance, is he who has the 
 charge of the artillery, batteries, fJc. under the mafter ge- 
 neral, orin his abfence. See Ordnance. 
 
 Lieut enant -Colonel of Foot, is the fecond officer in a regi- 
 ment ; he commands in the abfence of the colonel, and in bat- 
 tle takes poft at his colonel's left. 
 
 The dragoons have alfo a lieutenant-colonel; but the horfe 
 have not, properly, any; the firft captain of the regiment fup- 
 plies the office. r 
 
 Lieute n an t-Co/iw/ of horfe, being; only the firft captain of 
 the regmient; who commands in the abfence of the colonel, 
 taking place of all the other captains. 
 
 Captain Lieutenant. See the article Captain. 
 
 LIFE, Vita, is a very ambiguous term— For both God, and I 
 man, and a foul, and an animal, and a plant, arc laid to 
 live: yet there is not any thing common to all thefe, btfide 1 
 
 L I F 
 
 i kind of aflivc exigence; which, however, isofvay' diffe- 
 rent kinds. See Animal, and Vegetable. 
 Life, then, in the general, exprefles a kind of ailive, operative 
 exigence; and is therefore conceived to connft in motion.— 
 But, particularly, 
 Life of Body, Vila Corporis, confifts in an uninterrupted mo- 
 tion therein.— A body, therefore, faid to be thing, muft 
 confift of various parts or members, both internal and exter- ' 
 naL fo framed, and put together, as to conftitute one whole. 
 And thefe members muft be moved, and warmed by fome 
 fluid fubftance, permeating the whole frame; by which heat 
 and motion, the vital function* ale to be performed.— Such 
 are nutrition, generation, local motion, Stc. 
 Life of Mind, Vita Mentis, is held by the Cartcfians, to 
 confift in a perpetual cogitation, or uninterrupted courfe of 
 thinking; which Teems likewlfe to have been Ariftotle's 
 meaning, when he calls the foul .to*,,:,; which his inter- 
 preters call anus ; thinking being the only proper aft of the 
 mind. 
 
 But Mr. Locke endeavours to refute this principle. See 
 Thinking, and Soul. 
 
 Life of Man, Vita hominis, confifts in a continued commu- 
 nication of body and mind; or in operations, to which both 
 the motions of the body, and ideas of the mind contribute, 
 ihus, e. gr. the mind now thinking offomething, on occa- 
 sion of that thought, there arifes a certain motion in the 
 body —And now, again, the body moves firft, which motion 
 is followed by fome thought of the mind. 
 In fuch alternate or reciprocal operation, does the life of man 
 confift; confidcred as he is a compound of body and mind, 
 oee oensation, and Motion. 
 
 Life, is more particularly ufed for the duration of an animal's 
 being; or, the fpace of time that pafles between its birth and 
 death. ,,. 
 
 Life, is alfo ufed for the constitution ; or, that principle of 
 heat, and motion, which animates bodies, and makes them 
 perceive, adt, and grow. 
 
 In which fenfe, life, is divided into animal, fenfitive, and w- 
 
 tettivg. " 
 Life, in a medical fenfe, is defined, the circulation of the blood 
 
 eee Circulation. 
 Prolongation of Life, is made by lord Bacon one of the three 
 
 branches of medicine; the other two relating to the preferva- 
 
 tion of health, and the cure of difcafes. 
 
 The theory of prolonging lifl he numbers amonrr the defid- 
 rata.— Some means, or indications that fecm to" lead to it 
 ne lays down as follows. 
 
 Things are preferved in two manners; either in their iden- 
 tity, or by reparation. In their identit,, as a fly or ant in 
 amber; a flower, or fruit, or wood, in a confervatcry of fnow- 
 adeadcarcafs in balfams.-By reparation, as a flame or a 
 mechanical engine, ts-c.-To attain to the prolong, ion of 
 
 mull be ' ) 'Tf and the human body 
 
 mult be preferved both as inanimates, as flame, and as mecha- 
 nical inftruments are preferved. mecna- 
 Hence arife three intentions for the prolonmtion of life ■ 
 
 Tn S'Z f ° f h conrumption ' f r °p" 4«3L and 
 
 e by linTf '? S'T •°' d - Conrum l ltio " !s 
 foirl Td of 1 de P re,,at !°"i * depredation of the innate 
 
 pint, and a depredation of the ambient air.— Thefe may 
 be each prevented two ways; either by rendering thofe agents 
 
 of the body) lefs liable to be preyed on.-The fpirit w 11 be 
 
 by the ufe of opiates, grief, (fo or its quantity diminifhej as in 
 fpare and monaftic diets; or its motion calmed, ,, id enefs 
 nd tranquillity. The ambient air becomes lefs pre d tort 
 
 imals n e c hEated ty - T ° f * e C " n - » in 
 75f T'lT*'"' and an ^horets cells; or be 
 
 Wrds JiZ *? f y '. aS b I 3 dC,,fC ' kin ' thc fathcrs ° f 
 birds,^ aIKi thc f f mh and u aromatics 
 
 on eirhe e r S h th l b " dy L are I™ Ms ^ to b = S*« 
 ™, cirher by making them harder, or more moift and I oily - 
 
 x ei'? aS h y r ™«^P d i«. living in the cold, robu'ft 
 exercifes, and fome mineral baths: moifter, as by thc ufe of 
 L /'l^- abftainin E f™-"falts and acids j and efpe- 
 cially by fuel, a mixture of drink, as conf.fts wholly of fine 
 lubtde particles, without any acrimony or acidity. ' 
 Reparation ,s performed by means of aliment: alimentation 
 is promoted four ways; by the concoction of the vifcera, fo 
 =f to extrude the aliment, by exciting the exterior parts to 
 Me attraction of the aliment, as in proper exercifes and frica 
 ions and fome undions and baths; by the preparation of 
 the food itfdf, fo as it may more eafily infinuate itfelf, and 
 in fome meafure, anticipate the digeftion; as in various ways' 
 ot areffing meats, mixing drinks, fermenting breads, and re- 
 Oucing the virtues of thefe three into one; by promoting the 
 aa of aflirnilation itfelf, as in feafonable fleep, fome extern-1 
 application, feV—The renovation of what begins teZ 
 ow, is performed two ways; by the inteneration of the ha- 
 bit of the body, as in the ufe of emollients, emplafters, unc- 
 tions, tfc. of fuch a nature, as do not extraft, butimprefs; 
 
 or 
 
L I G 
 
 L I G 
 
 or by purging off the old juices, and fubftituting frefh ones ; 
 as in fcafonable evacuations, attenuating diets, &c. 
 The fame author adds thefe three axioms: that the prolonga- 
 tion of life is to be expected rather from fome ftated cBets, 
 than either from any ordinary regimen, or any extraordinary 
 medicines; more from operating on the fpirits, and mollify- 
 in" - the parts, than from the manner of feeding: and this 
 mollifying of the parts without, is to be performed by 
 confubftantiah, impriments, and occludents. See Longe- 
 vity. 
 
 LIGAMENT, in its general fenfe, denotes any thing that 
 tie? or binds one part to another. 
 
 In which fenfe the antients applied the word to membranes, 
 ikin, flefh, veins, and arteries; as being common liga- 
 ments. 
 
 Ligament, in its more proper fignification, denotes a white, 
 tough, folid, inflexible part, fcrving to inclofc, and keep to- 
 gether the junctures of the body. 
 
 It has no confpicuous cavities; nor has it any lerife, left it 
 ihould fuffer on the moving of the bones. It is found very 
 different, according' to the different parts where it is ufed. It 
 is harder than a membrane, vet fofter than a cartilage: its 
 principal ufe is to gird and ftrengthen the junctures, to pre- 
 vent the diflocation of the bones, and even to fatten them 
 together, when they have no articulation. — It alfo ferves as 
 a covering to the tendons, to feparate them from the mufcles, 
 and to hold up the fufpended entrails, left their weight fhouJd 
 throw them down. — Such are the ligaments of the liver, the 
 bladder, and matrix. 
 
 Ligaments are of different fubftances ; fome hard, others foft, 
 membranous, nervous, and cartilaginous; as alfo of diffe- 
 rent figures, and fituations ; fome arife from bones*, others 
 from cartilages, and others from membranes. 
 The ligament is held the moft tcrreftriai of all the parts of 
 the body, after the bone and cartilage; being cold, dry, hard, 
 and infenfible, like them. 
 
 The principal ligaments of the body, are the cartilaginous 
 ligar.ents, which bind the four bones of the metacarpus with 
 the carpus. 
 
 The ligaments of the fpine arc very ftrong, being fitted to 
 the articulations of the vertebra, to prevent their luxation 
 in violent motions. — They are of two kinds; the one thick 
 and fibrous, in form df a crefcent, which bind them both at 
 top and bottom; and the others membranous, ferving to faf- 
 ten them the more fecurcly. 
 
 The ligaments of the liver arc two in number; the ftrfL, cal- 
 led ligamcntum fufpenforium, holds it fufpended to the dia- 
 phragm, penetrating into the fubflance of the liver, to hold 
 it the more firmly; the latter is larger, but more lax; it 
 comes from the external coat of tlie liver, and is fattened 
 to the cartilago xiphoides. — Some add a third, which is 
 formed out of the umbilical vencis; which, in adults, dry up, 
 and become a ligament. 
 
 There are two ligaments belonging to the tongue; one which 
 fattens it, by its roou, to the os hyoides ; and another larger, 
 inferted into the middle and inferior part; this bit is c:illed the 
 frenum, nr bridle of the tongue. — There are alfo ligaments 
 belonging to the fpleen. 
 
 The penis has a ftrong ligament, called fufpenforium penis, 
 from its office in holding up the penis to the oila pubis; it 
 arifes from the fore-parts of thofe bones, and is fattened to the 
 upper part of the corpora cavernofa penis: it has another 
 ligament, which fattens the prepuce to the glans. 
 The uterus has four ligaments, two of them called lata, or 
 broad; and two rotunda, or round, from their figure: the 
 broad ligaments are membranous, and arife from the proceffes of 
 the peritonaeum, and are fattened to the lateral parts of the 
 bottom of the uterus, and ferve to prevent it from falling 
 down upon the neck, as fometimes happens, when thefe liga- 
 ments arc too much relaxed. 
 
 The round ligaments arife from the fides of the womb, at the 
 place where the tubas fallopianai are joined to it. At their 
 rirft rife tbey are broad ; but, by degrees, as they recede far- 
 ther from the womb, grow round and fmooth; and, as the 
 iperinatic vcfiels do in men, pafs betwixt the duplicature of 
 the peritoneum, and fo out of the- abdomen, through the 
 foramina of the oblique and tranfverfe mufcles of the abdo- 
 men, and running obliquely on the os pubis, terminate under 
 the fat of the clitoris. — By the palfages of thefe ligaments, 
 women, and girls efpecially, are expofed to inguinal ruptures, 
 as men are by the palfages of the fpermatic veflels. 
 The fubftance of the broad ligaments is membranous, loofe, 
 and foft; whence fome have compared them to the wings of 
 a batt, and called them ala vefpertilionmn. — The round liga- 
 ments are of a firmer texture, and confift of a double mem- 
 brane, wrapping up in it veins, arteries, nerves, and Iymphie- 
 dufts, and both thefe and the former have been fometimes 
 taken for mufcles. — By thefe ligaments the uterus is kept fo 
 tight, that no violence of internal flatus, or humours, can raifc 
 it above its place.— Sec Tab. Anat. (Splanch.) pg. 9. lit. b. b. 
 Jig. 11. Ht. i. i. &c. 
 LIG AMENTUM Annulare. Sec Annular, and Wrist. 
 Liu amentum Glieire. SeeCiUAR? Ligammium. 
 
 LIGATURE, in chirurgery, any thing tied about a part of 
 the body : more efpecially a bandage, or fillet of cloth, or 
 linnen, ferving to bind the arm, and facilitate the operation 
 of bleeding. 
 
 Ligature, LigatuRA, or Ligatio, denotes alfo the art, 
 or manner of difpofing, and applying bandages for the clofing 
 of wounds, and performing many of the operations of chirur- 
 gery. . - ■ 
 Ligature, among myftic divines, fignifies a total fufpenfion 
 of the fuperior faculties, or intellectual powers of the foul. — 
 They pretend, that when the foul is arrived at a perfect: con- 
 templation, fhc remains deprived of all her operations, and 
 ceafes to act, in order to be more ready, and prepared to 
 receive the impnlfe and communications of divine grace. — 
 This paffive ftate of thefe contemplative people they call their 
 ligature. 
 
 Ligature, is alfo ufed to fignify a kind of bandage, cr fillet, 
 tied round the neck, arm, leg, or other part of the bod tea 
 of men or beafts, to divert, or drive off fome difeafe, acci- 
 dent, &c. 
 
 Ligature, is alfo ufed for a ftate of impotency, in refpect to 
 venery, pretended to be caufed by fome charm, or witch- 
 craft. 
 
 Kcmpfer tells us of an uncommon kind of ligature, or knot- 
 ting, in ufe among the people of Maffacar, Java, Malaia, 
 Siam, t&c* — By this charm, or fpell, a man binds up a wo- 
 man, and a woman a man, fo as to put it out of their 
 powur to have to do with any other perfon; the man being 
 thereby rendered impotent to any other woman, and all other 
 men impotent with refpect to the woman. 
 Some of their pliilofophers pretend, that this ligature may be 
 effected by the fhuttins; of a lock, the drawing of a knur, 
 or the flicking of a knife in the wall, at the point of time 
 wherein the prieft is joining a couple together; and that a 
 ligature, thus effected, may be diifoiyeq, by the fpoufe's 
 urining through a ring. — This piece of fuperftition is f.ud to 
 obtain alfo among the Chriftians of the Eaft. 
 The fame author tells us, that during the ceremony of mar- 
 riage in RufTia, he obferved an old fellow lurking behind the 
 church-door, and mumbling over a firing of words, and at 
 the fame time cutting a long rod, which he held under his 
 arm, into pieces; which, it fcems, is a common practice at 
 the marriages of great perfons, and done with deiign to elude 
 and counterwork any other perfon, that might poflibly be 
 inducing the ligature. 
 
 The fecrct of inducing a ligature, is delivered by the fame 
 author, as he was taught it on die fpot, by one of their 
 adepts; which, being a curiofity, we fhall not fcruplc to add 
 in his own words; not daring to make it fpeak Englifh. — 
 PuAla amafium, vel conjux maritum ligaturus, abjlerget a 
 concubitus a£lu, priapum, indufio — ut ftminis quantum po- 
 tejl exciptet. Hoc probe convolutum fub limine domus fuce in 
 tcrram jepeliat. Ibi quamdiu fepultum rcliquerit, tamdiu ejus 
 baft a in nuU'ius praterquam fui (fafcinantis) fervitium obe- 
 diet, & pruts ab hoe nexu nan Uberabhur quam ex elaujho Umi- 
 nis tiberetnr ipfum iinteum, Vice verfa, vtr lecli fociam ligatu- 
 rus, menjlruatam ab eo Iinteum ccmburit; ex cineribus cum 
 propria urina fubaHis, efformato ftguram priapi, vel, ft cinercs 
 icuncultc fingendes non Jujftciant, eofdem fubigito cum parte 
 terra quam recens perminxerit. Formatam iconem caute exftc- 
 cato, ficcamque ajfervato loco ftcco, ne humorem contrahat. 
 Quamdiu ftefervaveris, omnes artus dumad fcopum ficiee col- 
 Ibnaverint, momenta contabefcent ; Ipft vera domlnus. — Jbru- 
 num hunc juum prius humcelato, quamdiu ftc ?na?/ebit, tamdiu 
 fufpenfo nexu priapus ipft parebit, quin & alios quotquot farmina 
 properantes admiferit. 
 
 M. Marfhal mentions another ridiculous form of ligature, which 
 he received from a bramin at Indoftan : * If, fays he, the little 
 
 * worm in the wood lukerara kara, be cut into two, and 
 1 the one part ftirs, and the other not; if the ftirring; part 
 
 * be bruifed, and given with half a beetle to a man, and the 
 
 * other half to a woman, the charm will keep each from ever 
 
 * having to do with any other perfon.' Philofoph. TranfcS:. 
 'M.°a6§. J J 
 
 Ligatures, among printers, are types confifting of two 
 letters, or characters joined together, asf,ft,f. 
 The old editions of Greek authors, are extremely full of liga- 
 the ligatures of Stephens are, by much, the moft 
 
 tares ; 
 beautiful. 
 
 Some editions have been lately printed without any ligatures 
 at all ; and there was a defign to explode than quite out of 
 printing. Had this fucceeded, the fineft antient editions 
 would, in time, have grown ufelefs; and the reading of old 
 manufcripts would have been rendered almoft impracticable to 
 the learned themfelves. 
 LIGHT, that fenfation occafioned in the mind, by the view 
 of luminous bodies ; or that property in bodies, whereby tbey 
 are fitted to excite thofe fenfations in us. See Sensa- 
 tion. 
 
 Light is alfo ufed to denote a certain aefion of the luminous 
 body, on a medium between it and tie eye; by means 
 whereof, fome ftippofe the one to act on the other. 
 This they call fcamdaty, or derivative light; to diflin^uifii 
 
 3 :i " ! •' it 
 
L I G 
 
 L I G 
 
 it from that of luminous bodies ; which is called primary, or 
 innate. . ■ i .. 
 
 Aiiftotle explains the natur- of light, by fuppofing fame 
 bodies to be tranfparent, as air, water, ice, fffc, but fince, 
 in the night-time, we do not fee any thing through thofe 
 bodies, he" fays, they arc only tranfparent potentially ; where- 
 as, in the day, they become really and actually tranfparent : 
 and fince it is' light alone that can reduce that power into 
 act, he defines light to be the a£t of a tranfparent body, 
 coniidered as fuch. — He adds, that tight is not fire, nor is 
 it any thing bodily radiating from the luminous body, and 
 tranfmitted through the tranfparent one j but the mere pre- 
 fence of fire, or fome other luminous body, at the tranfpa- 
 rent one. 
 
 This is Ariftotle's doctrine of light, which his followers 
 miftaking, hare foifted on him another, very different ; 
 making light and colours, to be qualities of the luminous and 
 coloured bodies themfelves, and, in all refpects, like thofe 
 fenfations which they occafion in us : adding, that things 
 lucid, or coloured, could not produce any fenfations in us, 
 unlcfs they had foOMthing fimilar in themfelves, fince nihil 
 dat quod in fe non habet. 
 
 But the fophil'm is apparent ; for we find, that a needle, in 
 pricking the flefh, gives us pain, which no body ever ima- 
 gined to exift in the needle. — But that it is not neceffary 
 there fhould be anv fimilitude between the quality of the ob- 
 ject, and the fenfation it produces, appears ftill more evident 
 from a glafs prifm, which is found to exhibit blue, yellow, 
 red, and other colours extremely vivid; and yet no body 
 will fay there is any thing in the glafs prifm like to thofe fen- 
 fations. 
 
 T lie Cartefians have refined confiderably on this notion ; and 
 own that light, as'it exifts in the luminous body, is nothing 
 but a power or faculty of exciting in us a very clear and 
 vivid fenfation ; adding, that what is required to the percep- 
 tion of light, is, that we be fo formed, as to be capable of 
 fuch fenfations ; that in the hidden pores of tranfparent bodies, 
 there be a certain fublile matter, which, by reafon of its ex- 
 ceeding fmallnefs, may penetrate even glafs, and yet be 
 ftrong enough to fliake certain capillaments at the bottom of 
 the eye; and, laftly, chat this matter be impelled by the lu- 
 minous body, fo as to move the organ of fight. 
 Primary light, therefore, they fay, confifts in a certain mo- 
 tion of the particles of the luminous body, whereby they are 
 enabled to propel, every way, the materia fubtilis, lodged in 
 the pores of tranfparent bodies; and fecundary or derivative 
 light, in a conatus to motion, or an inclination of that mat- 
 ter, to recede from the centre of the luminous body in 
 right lines. 
 
 Father Malebranche explains the nature of light, from a fup- 
 pofed analogy between it and found ; the latter, it is allow- 
 ed, is produced by the vibrations of the infenfible parts of the 
 fonorous body: which vibrations, if they be greater or lefs, 
 that is, if they run through greater or lefs arches of the fame 
 circle, are fKll performed in the fame time, and the founds 
 produced by them, only differ in a greater or lefs degree of 
 itrengrh ; but it there he a greater number of vibrations, in 
 the fame time, in one fonorous body, than in another, thefe 
 hcing c'mfer, become of a different kind: and thus their 
 founds alfo differ, forming what wc call different tones, or 
 notes ; the quick vibrations forming the acute, and the flower 
 the grave notes. 
 
 Thus he fuppofes it to be with light, and colours: all the 
 parts of a luminous body are in a rapid motion, which, by 
 very quick pulfes, is constantly comprefling the fubtile matter 
 between the luminous body, and the eye, and excites vibra- 
 tions of prellion. — As thefe vibrations are greater, the body 
 appears more luminous ; and as they are more quick, or 
 more flow, the body is of this, or that colour. 
 This hypothetic, how ingenious foever, is now defcrvedly 
 dif:arded, fmce the great difcovcries made by Sir Ifaac New- 
 ton, on the nature of light, — The primary light they talk 
 of, wc now know, confifts wholly in a certain motion ot 
 the particles of the lucid body, whereby they do not propel 
 any fictitious matter, fuppofed to be lodged in the hidden 
 pores of tranfparent bodies; but throw off, from the lumi- 
 nous body, certain very fmall particles, which are emitted 
 every way with great force : and the fecundary, or deriva- 
 tive light confifts not in a conatus, but a real motion of 
 thefe particles, receding every way from the luminous body, 
 in right line?, and that with an incredible velocity. 
 For if light confifted in a mere preffion, or pulfe, it would 
 he propagated to all diftances, in the fame inftant of time; 
 the contrary of which appears, from the phenomena of the 
 eclipfes cf Jupiter's fatellites, whofe immerfions, as the earth 
 approaches towards Jupiter, are found to anticipate fomc- 
 what on the true time, and to commence fooner ; and a- 
 gain, as the earth retires from Jupiter, their immerfions, whicl 
 alone in that cafe can be obferved, happen later and later, or 
 lofe time: deviating thus, very conliderably on cither tide, 
 from the true time marked by the tables. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 This was firfl obferved by M. Roemcr, and fince by Other 
 aftronomers ; the reafon of which is not owing to any ec- 
 centricity ; but does apparently follow from this, that the 
 light of the fun, reflected from the fatellites, has further to 
 travel, ere it reaches the eye, in the one cafe, than in the 
 other, by a fpace equal to the diameter of the earth's annual 
 orbit. 
 
 Light therefore, like other real bodies, docs not move in- 
 fiantaneoufly, but in time. — Sir Ifaac Newton has ihewn, 
 paft contradiction, that the light of die fun is near feven 
 minutes in its pallage to the earth, w hich is die fpace of 
 70,000,000 miles ; a velocity 10,000,000 times greater than 
 that, wherewith a ball flies out of the mouth of a can- 
 non. 
 
 further, if light were not a body, hut confifted in a mere 
 preffion, or pulfion, it would never be propagated in right 
 lines, but would be continually inflected ad umbram. Thus 
 Sir Ifaac Newton, * A preffure on a fluid medium ( i. e. a 
 
 * motion propagated by fuch a medium, beyond any obftacle, 
 ' which impedes any part of its motion, cannot be propa- 
 
 * gated in right lines, but will be always inflecting and dif- 
 ' fufing itfelf every way, to the quiefcent medium beyond 
 4 that obftacle. — The power of gravity tends downwards, 
 4 but the preflure of water rifing from it, tends every way 
 
 * with an equable force, and is propagated with equal eafe, 
 4 and equal strength in curves, as in ftraight lines — .Waves, 
 4 on the furface of the water, gliding by the extremes of 
 4 any very large obftacle, inflect, and dilate themfelves, ftill 
 1 diftuhng, gradually, into the quiefcent water beyond that 
 4 obftacle. — The waves, pulfes, or vibrations of the air, 
 ' wherein found confifts, are manifeftly inflected, though 
 ' not fo confiderably as the waves of water ; and founds are 
 ' propagated with equal eafe, through crooked tubes, and 
 4 through ftraight lines ; but light was never known to move 
 ' in any curve, nor to inflect itfelf ad umbram.' — The rays 
 of light, therefore, are fmall eorpufcles, emitted with ex- 
 ceeding celerity from the luminous body. — As to the force 
 wherewith thefe eorpufcles are emitted, fo as to enable them 
 to move at the inconceivable rate of 10,000,000 miles in a 
 minute ; hear the fame great author : 4 Among bodies of the 
 
 * fame kind and virtue, by how much any one is (mailer, by 
 4 fo much is its attractive power greater in proportion to its 
 
 * bulk. This power we find ltrongcr in fmall magnets, 
 1 than in large ones, regard being had to the difference of 
 4 their weights ; and the reafon is, that the particles of 
 
 * fmall magnets being nearer each other, more eafily unite 
 4 their forces intimately together, and act conjunctly. ■ 
 
 * For the fame reafon the rays of light, being of all other 
 
 * bodies the molt minute, it may be expected, that their at- 
 
 * tractive powers fhould be, of all others, the ftronffeft; 
 4 and how itrong in effect they arc, may be gathered from 
 ' the following rules : the attraction of a ray of light, ac- 
 ' cording to the quantity of its matter, is, to the gravity 
 
 * which any projected body has, according, likewife, to the 
 1 quantity of its matter, m a ratio, compounded of the velo- 
 1 city of the ray of light, to the velocity of that projected 
 4 body, and of the bending, or curvature of the line, which 
 4 the ray defcribes in the place of refraction, to the bending 
 4 of the curvature, defcribed by that projected body; pro- 
 4 vided, however, the inclination of the ray to the refracting 
 4 furface, be the fame with that of the projected body to the 
 4 horizon. From which proportion I gather, that the at- 
 4 traction of the rays of light, is above 1,000,000,000,000,000 
 
 * times greater, than the gravity of bodies on the furface of 
 4 the earth, in proportion to the quantity of matter in each, 
 4 if the light pafs from the fun to the earth in the fpace of 
 4 feven minutes. But now, as in algebra, where affirmative 
 4 quantities ceafc, there negative ones begin ; fo in mecha- 
 
 * nics, where attraction ceafes, there the repelling power 
 4 muft fucceed : Therefore a ray of light, as foon as it is 
 4 caft off from the luminous body, by the vibrating motion 
 4 of its parts, and is got out of the fphere of its attrac- 
 4 tion, is propelled with an immenfe velocity.' 
 
 The wonderful divifibihty of the parts of matter, is no 
 where more apparent, than in the minutenefs of the particles 
 of light : Dr. Nicwentiit has computed, that an inch of 
 candle, when converted to light, becomes divided into 
 269617040 parts, with 40 ciphers annexed ; at which rate, 
 there muft ifluc out of it, when burrjing, 418,660, with 39 
 cyphers more, particles in the fecond of a minute; vaflly 
 more than a thoufand times a thoufand million times the 
 number of fands the whole earth can contain ; reckoning 
 10 inches to one foot, and that 100 fands are equal to one 
 inch. See Rclig. Philof. Vol. III. p. 858. 
 The expanfion, or extenfion of any portion of light, is in- 
 conceivable ; Dr. Hook fhews, it is as unlimited as the uni- 
 verfe ; proving it from the immenfe diftance of fome of the 
 fixed ftars, the light whereof becomes fenfible to the eye, by 
 means of a telefeope ; nor, adds he, is it only the great bo- 
 dies of the fun or ftars, that are thus able to difperfe their 
 light through the vait expanfe of the univerfe; but the fmal- 
 
L I G 
 
 L I G 
 
 left fpark of a lucid body muft do the fame, even the 
 fmalleft globule, ftruck from a fteel by a flint. 
 Dr. s'Gravefand afierts, a lucid body to be that, which emits, 
 or gives fire a motion in right lines; 'and makes the diffe- 
 rence between light and heat, to confift in this, That to pro- 
 duce the former, the fiery particles muft enter the eye, in a 
 rectilinear motion, which is not required in the latter : On 
 the contrary, an irregular motion feems more proper for it, 
 as appears from the rays coming directly from the fun, to the 
 tops of mountains, which have not near that effect with 
 thofe in the valley, agitated with an irregular motion, by 
 feveral reflections. 
 
 Whether or no there be always light, where there is fire, 
 is difputed among authors ; as alfo, whether or no there be 
 any luminous body without heat; heat bting a motion that 
 may be infinitely diminifhed, and light a matter that may be 
 infinitely rare : to which we may add, that no heat is fenfible 
 to us, unlefs it be more intenfe than that of our organs of 
 fenfe. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton obferves, that bodies, and light, act mu- 
 tually on one another; bodies on fight, in emitting, reflecting, 
 refracting, and inflecting it; and light on bodies, by heating 
 them, and putting their parts into a vibrating motion, where- 
 in heat principally confifts. For all fixed bodies, he obferves, 
 when heated beyond a certain degree, do emit light, and 
 thine ; which mining, tsV. appears to be owing to the vi- 
 brating motion of their parts; and all bodies, abounding in 
 earthy and fulphurous particles, if fufficiently agitated, emit 
 light, which way focver that acitation be effected. — Thus 
 fea-watcr mines in a ftorm, quick-iilver when fhaken in va- 
 cuo, cats, or horfes, when rubbed in the dark ; and wood, 
 nfh, and flefh, when putrefied. 
 
 The late Mr. Hawkfbce has furnifhed us with a great variety 
 of inftances of the artificial production of light, by theattn- 
 -tton of bodies naturally not luminous; as of amber rubbed 
 on woollen cloth in vacuo, of glafs on woollen, of glais on 
 glafs, of oifter-fhells on woollen, and of woollen on woollen, 
 all in vacuo. 
 
 On the feveral experiments hereof, he makes the following 
 reflections : That different forts of bodies afford remark- 
 ably different kinds of light, different both in colour and 
 in force : That the effects of an attrition are various, accord- 
 ing to the different preparations and managements of the bo- 
 dies that are to endure it; and that bodies which have yield- 
 ed a particular light, may be brought by friction to yield no 
 more of that light. 
 
 M. Bernoulli found by experiment, that mercury amalgamat- 
 ed with tin, and rubbed on glafs, produced a conliderable 
 light in the air ; that gold rubbed on glafs did it frill in a 
 greater degree : but that, of all others, the molt exquiiite 
 light was that produced by the attrition of a diamond ; being 
 equally vivid with that of a burning coal brifkly agitated with 
 the bellows. 
 
 Mr. Boyle tells us of a piece of finning rotten wood, which 
 upon exhaufting the air from it, was extinguifhed ; but upon 
 its re-admiflion, itemed to come to lite ag;:in, and flionc as 
 before : being, no doubt, a real flame, and, like other flames, 
 not to be preferved without air. 
 
 f That the particles of light are attracted by thofe of other 
 bodies,' is evident from innumerable experiments. — This 
 phenomenon was firft obferved by Sir Ifaac Newton, who 
 found by repeated trials, that the rays of light in their paf- 
 fage near the edges of bodies, whether opake or tranfparent, 
 as pieces of metals, the edges of knives, broken glaffes, iSc. 
 arc diverted out of the right lines, and always inflected or 
 bent towards thofe bodies. 
 
 This action of bodies on light, is found to exert itfelf at a 
 fenfible diftance, though it always increafes as the diftance is 
 diminifhed ; as appears very fenfibly in the paflage of a ray 
 between the edges of two thin planes at different apertures ; 
 in which there is fomcthing very peculiar ; the attraction 
 of one edge being incrcafed as the other is broucht neater 
 it. — The rays of light in their pafTage out of glafs into va- 
 cuum, are not only inflected towards the glafs, but if they 
 fall too obliquely, they will revert back again to the glafs, and 
 be totally reflected. 
 
 The caufe of which reflection cannot he attributed to any 
 refiftance of the vacuum, but muft be uuirely owing to feme 
 force or power in th; glafs, which attracts or draws back the 
 rays as they were paffing into the vacuum. — And this ap- 
 pears farther from hence, that if you wet the pofterior furface 
 of the glafs with water, oil, jioney, or a folution of quick- 
 filver, then the rays which would otherwife have been re- 
 flected, will pafs into and through that liquor : which fhews 
 that the rays are not reflected till they come to that pofterior 
 furface of the glafs, nor even till they begin to go out of it ; 
 for if at their going out they fall into any of the forefaid me- 
 diums, they will not then be reflected, but perfift in their 
 former courfe, the attraction of the glafs being in this cafe 
 counterbalanced by that of the liquor. 
 From this mutual attraction between the particles of light and 
 
 other bodies, arife two other grand phenomena, which we 
 call the rejieflion and refraftion of light : We know that the 
 determination of a body in motion is changed by the inter- 
 polition of another body in its way : thus light impinging on 
 the furface of folid bodies, fhould be turned out of itstrourfc, 
 and beaten back or reflected, fo as like other falling bodies to 
 make the angle of its reflections equal to that of incidence. — 
 This it is found by experience light does ; and yet the caufe 
 of this effect is different from that juft now afligned : the rays 
 of light are not reflected by fluking on the very parts of the 
 reflecting bodies, but by fome power equably diffufeaV 
 throughout the whole furface of the body, whereby it acts 
 on the light, either attracting or repelling it, without con- 
 tact ■ by which fame power, in other circumftances, the rays, 
 are refracted ; and by which alfo, the rays are firft emitted 
 from the luminous body; as is abundantly proved by great 
 variety of arguments, by Sir Ifaac Newton. 
 That great author puts it palt doubt, that all thofe rays which 
 are reflected, though they approach the body infinitely near, 
 yet never touch it; and that thofe which do rea!ly ftrike on 
 the folid parts of bodies, adhere to them,, and are as it were 
 extinguifhed and loft. 
 
 If it be afked, how it happens, fince we afcribe the reflection 
 of the rays to the action of the whole furface of the body 
 without contact ; how, I fay, it happens that all the rays are 
 not reflected from every furface, but while fome are reflected, 
 othert pafs through and are refracted ? The anfwer given by 
 Sir Ifaac Newton is as follows : — Every ray of light, in its 
 paflage through any refracting furface, is put into a certain 
 tranfient conftitution or itate, which in the progrefs of the 
 ray returns at equal intervals, and difpofes the ray at every 
 return to be eafily tranfmitted through the next refracting 
 furface, and between the returns to be eafily reflected by it": 
 whidi alternation of reflection and tranfmiflion appears to be 
 propagated from every furface, and to ail diftances. What 
 kind of action or difpofition this is, and whether it confift in 
 a circulating or vibrating motion of the ray or the medium, 
 or fomewhat elfe, he does not enquire ; but aliuwu thofe who 
 are fond of hypcthefes to fuppofe that the rays of light, by 
 impinging on any reflecting or refracting furface, excite vi- 
 brations in the reflecting or refracting medium, and by 
 that means agitatethe folid parts of the body. Thefevibrations, 
 thus propagated in the medium, move falter than the rays, fo 
 as to overtake them ; and when any ray is in that part of the 
 vibration which confpires with its motion, its velocity is in- 
 crcafed, fo that it eaiiiy breaks through a refracting furface : 
 but when it is in a contrary part of the vibration,, which im- 
 pedes its motion, it is eafily reflected ; and confequcntly, that 
 every ray is fucceifivcly djipofed to be eafily refleacd or tranf- 
 mitted by every vibration which overtakes it. The returns 
 of which d jfpofition of any ray to be reflected, he calls fits of 
 eafy rcftcR'ton; and thofe of its difpofition to be tranfmitted, 
 he calls fits of eafy tranf .ijfian ; and the fpace between the 
 returns, the internal of the fits. — The rcafon, then, why the 
 furface of all thick traiifparent bodies reflect part of the light 
 incident on them, and refract the reft, is, that ibme rays at 
 their incidence are in fits of eafy reflection, and others of 
 eafy tranfmiflion. 
 For the Properties of Refiefied Light, fee REFLECTION, 
 
 Mirror, csV. 
 
 Further, a ray of light pafling out of one medium into an- 
 other of different denfity, and in its pafla 2 e making an ob- 
 lique angle with the furface that feparates the mediums, will 
 be refracted, or turned out of its right line; by reafon the 
 rays_ are more ftrongly attracted by a denfer than by a rarer 
 medium. 
 
 That thefc rays are not refined by ftriking on the folid 
 parts of bodies, but without any contact, by that fame force 
 wherewith they are emitted and reflected, exerting itfelf dif- 
 ferently in different circumftances, is proved in °great mea- 
 fure by the fame arguments which demonftrate reflection to 
 be performed without contact. 
 JV. the Properties, &c. of Refracled Light, fee Refrac- 
 tion, Len.s is'c. 
 
 In ifland cryftal is obferved a kind of double refraction, very 
 different from what we find in any other body : the rays that 
 fall obliquely being not only difperfed, with a double refrac- 
 tion in one and the fame furface, but even the perpendicular 
 rays themfclvts are moil of them divided into two beams, by 
 means of the fame double refraction ; which beams are of the 
 fame colour with the incident beams, and are equal in de- 
 gree of light, at leaft, nearly, to each other : whence the great 
 philofophcr fo often cittd, takes occafion to fufpect that there 
 are in light fome other original properties befides thofe hither- 
 to defcribed; and particularly, that the rays have different 
 fides, endued with fevc-ral original properties. 
 For, of thefe refractions, the one is performed in the ufual 
 manner, i.e. the fine of incidence is to that of refraction as 
 5 is to 3 ; and the other in an unufual manner : and yet the 
 fame ray is refracted fometimes in the one manner, and fume- 
 times in the other, according to the various pofitions which 
 
 its 
 
L 1 G 
 
 its feveral fides have, in respect of the cryftal. Thefe difpo- 
 fitions, he Shews, muft have exifted originally in the rays, 
 without having undergone any alterations in that rctpect, by 
 the cryftal. 
 
 Every ray of light therefore has two oppofite fides, the one 
 originally endued with a property whereon its unufual 
 refraction depends, and the other not endued with that pro- 
 perty. 
 
 Sir Ifiac Newton having obferved the vividly coloured image 
 projected on the wall of a darkned room, by the fun-beams 
 tranfmitted through a prifm, to be five times as long as broad; 
 fetting himfelf to enquire into the reafon of this difproportion, 
 was led from other experiments to the experimentum crucis; 
 whence he difcovered the caufe of the phenomenon to be, 
 that fome of the rays of light were more refracted than others, 
 and therefore exhibited feveral images of the fun under the 
 appearance of one, extended lengthwife. 
 
 Thence he proceeded to conclude, that light itfclf is a hetero- 
 geneous mixture of rays differently refrangible: and hence he 
 diftinguifhes light into two kinds, viz. that whofe rays are 
 equally refrangible, which he v calls homogeneal, fimilar, or uni- 
 form light; and that whofe rays are unequally refrangible, 
 which he calls heterogeneal light. 
 
 There are but three affections of light, wherein he obferved 
 its rays to differ, viz. refrangibility, re flexibility, and colour; 
 and thofc rays which agree in refrangibility, agree alfo in the 
 other two: whence they may be well defined homogeneal, 
 though in fome other respects they may poifibly be heteroge- 
 neal. 
 
 Again, the colours exhibited by homogeneal light, he calls, 
 homogeneal colours; and thofe produced by heterogeneal light, 
 heterogeneal colours. — Thefe definitions laid down, he ad- 
 vances feveral propofitions. 
 
 As, firff, That the fun's light confifts of rays differing by 
 indefinite degrees of refrangibility. Secondly, That rays, 
 which differ in refiar.gibi'.itv, when parted from one another, 
 do proportionably differ in the colours which they exhibit. 
 Thirdly, That there arc as many fimple and homogeneal 
 colours, as degrees of refransjbility, for to every degree of 
 refrangibility belongs a different colour. Fourthly, White - 
 nefs, in all refpects like that of the fun's immediate light, 
 and of the ufual objects of our fenfes, cannot be compounded 
 of fimple colours, without an indefinite variety of them; 
 for to fuch a compofition there arc required rays endued 
 with all the indefinite degrees of refrangibility, which infer 
 as many fimple colours. Fifthly, the rays of light do not 
 act on one another in paffing through the fame medium. 
 Sixthly, The rays of light do not fuffer any alteration of 
 their qualities from refraction, nor from the adjacent quief- 
 cent medium. Seventhly, There can no homogeneal co- 
 lours be produced out of light by refraction, which are not 
 commixed in it before; fince refraction, as was before ob- 
 ferved, changes not the qualities of the rays, but only feparates 
 thofe which have divers qualities, by means of their different 
 refrangibility. Eighthly, The fun's light is an aggregate of 
 homogeneal colours ; whence homogeneal colours may be cal- 
 led primitive, or original. 
 
 We have already obferved that the rays of light are compof- 
 ed of diffimilar or heterogeneous parts ; fome of them being 
 in all probability greater, others lefs. Now the fmaller the 
 parts are, by fo much the more refrangible they are, i, e. 
 they are fo much the more eafily diverted out of their redti- 
 linear courfe; and thofe parts which differ in refrangibility, 
 ( confequently in bulk ) he has alfo obferved, differ in 
 colour. 
 
 Hence arifes the whole theory of colours: Thofe parts, 
 v. gr. which are the nioft refrangible, constitute violet co- 
 lour; that is, the moft minute particles of light, when fe- 
 parately impelled on the organ, do there excite the Shorteft 
 vibrations in the retina, which are thence communicated bv 
 the folid part of the optic nerve in the brain, and excite in 
 us the fenfation of violet colour, the dimmeft, and moft lan- 
 guid of all colours: and thofe particles, on the contrary, 
 which are the leafr refrangible, constitute a ray of a red co- 
 lour; i. e. the greatest particles of light, excite the longeft 
 vibrations in the retina, and fo convey the fenfation of a 
 red colour, as being the moft bright and vivid of all others. 
 The other particles being diftinguifhed into little rays, accord- 
 ing to their respective magnitudes and degrees of refrangibili- 
 ty, excite intermediate vibrations, and fo occafion fenfations 
 of the intermediate colours; in like manner as the vibrations 
 of the air, according to their different magnitudes, excite fen - 
 fations of different founds. — The colours then of thefe little 
 rays, not being any adventitious modifications of them, bu: 
 connate, primitive, and neceffary properties, resulting, in all 
 probability, from their different magnitudes, muft be perpe- 
 tual, and immutable, not to be altered by any reflection, 
 refraction, or other fubfequent modification. 
 
 For the doclrine of the colours of Light, fee Colour. 
 
 For the manner in w l n,k Ligh i -.jfctls our fenfes, and how it 
 contributes to vifisn, fee Vision. 
 
 L I M 
 
 Light is alfo ufed, to Signify the difpofition of objects, with 
 regard to the receiving of light. 
 
 Thus we fay, a painting is feen in its proper light, when its 
 fituation, with regard to the liglrt, is the fame with that (ol 
 which it was painted. 
 
 Lights aboard Ships. See the article Signals. 
 
 Lights, in architecture, denote doors, windows^ and other 
 places through which the air, and light have a paffage. 
 In the pantheon, all the light comes from on high; it has no 
 lights but in the dome. See Pantheon. 
 
 Lights, in painting, are thofe parts of a piece, which are 
 illuminated, or, that lie open to the luminary by which the 
 piece is fuppofed to be enlightened ; and which, for this rea- 
 fon, are painted in bright vivid colours. 
 In this fenfe, light is oppofed to fhadovj. 
 
 Light is alfo ufed, for the luminous body that emits it.— 
 There are various kinds of lights; general lights, as the air; 
 particular lights, as a fire, a candle, and even the fun. 
 Different lights, have very different effects on a picture, and 
 occafion a difference in the management of every part. — A 
 great deal therefore depends on the painter's chufing a proper 
 light for his piece to be illuminated by, and a great deal more, 
 in the conduct of the lights and fhadows, when the luminary 
 is pitched upon. 
 
 The strength and relievo of a figure, as well as its graccful- 
 nefs, depends entirely on the management of the lights, and 
 the joining of thofe to the fhadows. 
 
 The light a figure receives, is either direct, or reflected, to 
 each of which, special regard muft be had. — The doctrine 
 of lights, and fhadows, makes that part of painting, called 
 clair-obfeure. 
 LlCHT-Houfe. See the article Pharos. 
 
 LlGHT-Horfe, an antient term in our Englifh cuftoms, fig- 
 nifying an ordinary cavalier, or horseman lightly armed, 
 and fo as to enter a corps, or regiment; in opposition tu the 
 men at arms, who were heavily accoutred, and armed at all 
 points. 
 
 Light Species. See thearticle Species. 
 
 LIGHTER, a large broad boat, or floating vefiel, which goes 
 with fails, and oars; common on the river Thames; where 
 it is ufed for the carriage of timber, coals, ballaft, &c. 
 Lighters arc of feveral kinds ; as, 
 
 A ballaft gin, A clofe lighter, A kiele, 
 
 A camel, A hoy, An open lighten 
 
 LIGHTNESS. See the article Levity. 
 
 EIGNE A Caffia. See the article Cassia. 
 
 LIGNUM Aloes, or wood of Aloes, f f Aloes. 
 
 Lignum Balfami. > Sees Balsam. 
 
 Lignum Cajfas. J C Cassia. 
 
 Quantities, in algebra, are thofe which are expreffed by 
 the fame letters, under the fame powjr, or equally repeated in 
 each quantity. 
 
 Thus 2 b, and 3 b; and <)ff, and 3 f f, are like quantities-^ 
 but 2 b, and %vb\ and qff, and 2/ ff* are unlike ones, 
 becaufe the quantities have not every where the fame dimen- 
 sions, nor are the letters equally repeated. 
 Like Signs, or Symbols, in algebra, are when both are affirma- 
 tive, or both negative. 
 
 If one be affirmative, and the other negative, they are unlike 
 figns. 
 
 Thus -\-64d, and-j-5^, have like figns; but-f-g f, and 
 — 7 f, have unlike figns, 
 Like Figures, in geometry, are fuch as have their angles equal, 
 and the fides about thofe equal angles proportional. Sc.; Fi- 
 gure. 
 
 Like Arches^ in the projection of the fphere in piano, are parts 
 of letter circles, containing an equal number of degrees with 
 the corresponding arches of greater ones. 
 
 Like folid Figures, ingeometry, are fuch as are contained under 
 like planes, equal in number. 
 
 LIMB, Limbus, the outermoft border, or graduated 
 edge of an aftrolabe, quadrant, or the like mathematical instru- 
 ment. 
 
 The word is alfo ufed for the primitive circle in any projec- 
 tion of the fphere in piano. 
 Limb, alfo Signifies the outermoft border, or edge of the fun or 
 moon, when the middle or difc is hid in an eclipfe of either 
 luminary. 
 
 Astronomers obferve the lower and the upper limb of the 
 fun, in order to find its true heighth, which is that of its 
 centre. 
 
 Limb is alfo ufed among botanists for the outer edge, or border 
 of plants, their leaves, and flowers, 
 
 LIMBECK. Seethe article Alf.mbic. 
 
 LIMBUS, or Limb, is a term in the RomiSh theology, ufed 
 for that place where the patriarchs are fuppofed to have waited 
 for the redemption of mankind, and where they imagine our 
 Saviour continued from the time of his death, to that of his 
 resurrection. 
 
 Du Cange fay;, the fathers called this place Umbus, n quod ft 
 limbus infer-nmrn, as being the margin or frontier of the other 
 world. 
 
 3 Limbus 
 
L I M 
 
 Limbus, is alfo ufed by Catholics for the place deftined to 
 receive the fouls of Infants, who die without baptifm ; who 
 have not deTerved H#H as dying in innocence; nor yet 
 are worthy of heaven, bccaufe of the imputation of original 
 fin. 
 
 LIME, calx of flow, a white, fort, fn;.blc fubftance, pre- 
 pared of ftone, marble, chalk, or fome other ftony fubftance, by 
 burning in a kiln. 
 
 The great ufe of Ume is in the compofition of mortar for 
 building; the fire taking away all its humidity, and opening 
 its pores, fo that it becomes eafily reducible to powder, and 
 mifcible with fond, 
 Quick Lime* is that fuch as it comes out of the kiln, or fur- 
 nace. 
 
 Slaked VlME, is that diluted, or drenched in water, and re- 
 ferved for the making of mortar. 
 
 The beft lime, is that made of the hardeft, firmcft, and 
 whiteft ftones ; and which is flaked at its coming out of the 
 Furnace. 1 ,mf,v 
 
 Sir H. Wot ton looks on it as a great error in the Englifh, to 
 make lime as they do, ofrefufc, and fluff without any choice; 
 ■whereas the Italians, at this day, and much more the ancients, 
 burnt their firmcft ftones, and even fragments of marble, 
 where it was plentiful; which, in time, became almoft 
 marble again for its hardnefs, as appears in their ftanding thea- 
 tres, tsV. 
 
 We have two kinds of Ume in common ufe in England; the 
 one made of hard ftone, the other of a foft, calcarious, or 
 chalky ftone ; whereof the former is much the ftrongeft. — ■ 
 That made of foft ftone, or chalk, is fitteft for plaiftering of 
 ceilings and walls within doors ; and that made of hard ftones, 
 for buildings, and for plaifterings without doors. 
 Good lime may alfo be made of mill ftone, not coarfe and 
 fandy, but rine and greafy ; as alfo of all kinds of flints; 
 though it is hard to burn them, unlefs in a reverberatory fur- 
 nace, as being apt to run to glafs. 
 
 DicufTant recommends Ume made of fea-fhells as the befl ; but 
 Goldman finds fault with it, as being impatient of moifture, 
 and therefore eafily peeling off from the outfides of walls : it 
 is however, the common Ume ufed in the Indies. 
 Before the ftones be thrown into the kiln, they are to be broke 
 in pieces ; otherwife the air contained in their cavities, too 
 much expanded by the heat, makes them fly with fo much 
 violence, as to damage the kiln,- — According to Alberti, and 
 Palladio, Ume will not be fuffkiently burnt in left than fixty 
 hours intenfe heat. 
 
 The marks of a well-burnt Ume, according to Alberti, are, 
 that its weight be to that of the ftone in a fefquialterate pro- 
 portion ; that it be white, light, and fonorous ; that when 
 flaked, it ftick to the fides of the veffel. — To which Boeckler 
 adds, that when flaked it fend forth a copious thick fmokc ; 
 and DieufTant, that it need a great deal of water to flake it. 
 To preferve lime feveral years, flake, and work it up ; dig a 
 pit under ground, into which let it pafs through a hole open 
 at the bottom of the veffel. As foon as the pit is full, cover 
 it up with fand, to prevent its drying; thus keeping it moift 
 till it be ufed. — Boeckler gives another method ; Cover a 
 ftratum of lime two or three foot high with another of fand of 
 the like heighth ; pour on water enough to flake the lime, 
 but not to reduce it to duft after flaking. If the fand cleave 
 into chinks, as the fmoke afcends, cover them up, fo as no 
 vent may be given thereto. — This lime, he adds, kept ten or 
 twelve years, will be like glue; and will, further, be of par- 
 ticular ufe in painting on walls, as being no way prejudicial to 
 the colours. See Mortar. 
 
 Lime is much ufed by tanners, fkinners, EsV. in the prepara- 
 tion of tiieir leather. 
 
 It is alfo of fome medicinal ufe; being applied externally in 
 deficcativc, and epulotic medicines. 
 liIME-PPater is faid to be an excellent remedy, taken inter- 
 nally : M. Burlet has an ample account of its effects, in the 
 ' French Memoirs, chiefly from his own experience. But, he 
 obferves, it fucceeded much better in Holland, C5c. than in 
 France, — It is a powerful alterant, and like a pure alka- 
 line water, fitted to blunt and deftroy acid ferments, which 
 are the principles of all ohftruetions and the caufe of moft 
 chronic difeafes. — Its principal ufe is, in cachexies, green- 
 fickncfs, dropfy , fcurvy, obftrui5tions of the liver, fpleen, 
 ts'c. 
 
 It is made, by pouring fix pounds of hot water on one of 
 quick-lime, leaving them to foak, and macerate for the fpace 
 of twenty four hours. 
 ZiiU-E-Stoae, lapis cal.arius, is a ftone, of a coarfe grain, which 
 being burnt in a kiln, makes an ingredient in mortar, plaifter, 
 t3V. 
 
 Bird-LiME. See the article Bird-lime. 
 
 LIMITATION of affile, in law, is a certain time fet down 
 by the ftatute, wherein a man mult alledge himfelf, or his 
 anceftors to have been feized of lands fued for by writ of 
 aflize : otherwife he cannot maintain his action. 
 
 LIMITED Problem, is that which admits but of one (blu- 
 
 L I N 
 
 tion, or which can only be folved one way : as to make a 
 circlepafs through three points given, not lying in a right 
 line ; to defcribe an equilateral triangle on a line given, eye. 
 See Problem, and Determinate. 
 
 LIMITROPHOUS Column. See the article Column. 
 
 LIMITS of a Planet, its grcatcft excurfions, or diftances from 
 the ecliptic. See Planet. 
 
 LIMNING, the art of painting in water-colours. 
 In which fenfc, limning ftands contradiftinguifhed from faint- 
 ing, properly fo called, which is done in oil-colours. 
 Limning is much the more ancient kind of painting. Till a 
 Flemifh painter, one John van Eyck, better known by the 
 name of John of Bruges, 'found out the art of painting in 
 oil, the painters all painted in water, and in frefco, both on 
 their walls, on wooden boards, and elfewhere. — When they 
 made ufe of boards, they ufually glued a fine linen cloth 
 over them, to prevent their opening ; then laid on a ground 
 of white ; and laftly, they mixed up their colours with water 
 and fee, or with water and yolks of eggs, well beaten with 
 the branches of a fig-tree, the juice whereof, thus mixed 
 with the eggs; and with this mixture they painted their 
 pieces. 
 
 In limning, all the ufual colours are proper enough, except- 
 ing the white made of lime, which is only ufed in frefco. But 
 the azure, and ultramarine, muft always be mixed up with 
 fize, or with gum, in regard the yolks of eggs give yellow 
 colours a grcenifh tincture. But there are always applied 
 two lays of hot fize ere the colours, mixed even with fize, 
 are laid on : the compofition made with eggs, and the juice 
 of the fig-tree, being only ufed for touching up and finifhing, 
 and to prevent the necefiity of having a fire always at hand 
 to keep the fize hot; yet it is certain, that the fize-colours 
 hold the belt, and are accordingly always ufed in cartoons, 
 fjjV. — This fize is made of fhrcds of thin leather, or of parch- 
 ment. 
 
 To limn on linen, they chufe that which is old, half worn, 
 and clofe. — This they cover with white lead, or a fine plai- 
 fter beaten up with fize ; which, once dry, they go over it 
 with a layer of the fame fize. 
 
 The colours are all ground in water, each by itfelf; and in 
 proportion, as they arc required in working, are diluted with 
 fize-water. — If the yolks of eggs are defired, they dilute 
 them with a liquor made of equal quantities of common water 
 and vinegar, with the yolk, white, and fhcll of an egg, and 
 the ends of the little branches of a fig-tree cut finally all well 
 beaten together in an earthen pan. 
 
 If it be defired to varnifh the piece when finifhed, they go 
 over it with the white of an egg well beaten, and then with 
 varnifh. — This, however, is only to preferve it from the 
 wet : for the great advantage of limning confffrs in its being 
 without glofs ; in regard all its colours, thus void of luftrc, 
 may be fcen in all kinds of lights ; which colours in oil, or co- 
 vered with varnifh cannot. 
 
 LINCOLNSHIRE Plough. See the article Plouch. 
 
 LINCTUS, a form of medicine, the fame as lambative la- 
 hock, anii eclegmn. See Lambative. 
 
 LINE, in geometry, a quantity extended in length only, 
 without either breadth or thicknefs. 
 
 A line is luppofcd to be formed by the flux or motion of a 
 point. 
 
 There are two kinds of lines, viz. right lines, and curve 
 lines. 
 
 If the point A move towards B, (Tab. Geometry, fig. i.) by 
 its motion it defcribes a line; and this, if the point go the 
 nearcft way towards B, will be a right or ftreight line, whofe 
 definition therefore is the neareft or fhorteit diitancc between 
 any two points, or a line all whofe points tend the fame 
 way. — If the point go any way about, as in one of the 
 lines A C B, or A c B, it will trace out either a crooked line, 
 as the upper A cB ; or elfe two or more ftreight ones, as in 
 the lower A C B. 
 
 Right Lines are all of the fome fpecies ; but curves are of an 
 infinite number of different fpecies. — We may conceive as. 
 many as there are different compound motions, or as many 
 as there may be different ratio's between their ordinatcs and 
 abfeiffes. 
 
 Curve Lines, are ufually divided into geometrical, and mecha- 
 nical. | > ' 
 
 Geometrical Lines, are thofe which may be found exactly, and 
 fecurely, in all their points. 
 
 Mechanical L I N E s are thofe, fome or all of whofe points 
 are not to be found precifely , but only tentatively or 
 nearly. 
 
 Agreeably hereto, Des Cartes and his followers define geo- 
 metrical lines thofe which may be exprcfied by an algebraic 
 equation of a determinate degree. — Which equation is alfo 
 called locus. 
 
 The fame perfons define ?nechan:cal lines, thofe which can- 
 not be exprefied by an equation of a determinate degree. 
 Others, confidering that thofe called by Des Cartes mechani- 
 cal lines, notwithftanding their not being; of a determinate 
 degree, are not lefs precife. and exact, and confequently not 
 
 lefe 
 
L I N 
 
 lefs geometrical titan the others; it being this precifion which 
 constitutes the geometricity of the line; For this reafon, they 
 chufe rather to call thofe tines which are reducible to a de- 
 terminate degree, algebraical lines ; and thofe which are not 
 ' tranfendenial lines. 
 
 Lines axe alfo divided into thofe of the firji order, fecond order, 
 third order, &c. See Curve. 
 
 Lines, confidered as to their pofittons, are either parallel, per- 
 pendicular^ or oblique: the confirmation and properties of each 
 whereof, fee Under Parallel, Perpendicular, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Euclid's fecond book treats moftly of lines, and of the effects 
 of their being divided, and again multiplied into one ano- 
 ther. 
 
 Clrndar Lines. "] PCircular. 
 
 Converging Lines. 
 Diverging Lines. 
 Generating Line. 
 Helifpberical Line. 
 Hyperbolic Line. 
 Logljllc Line. 
 Normal LiIhe. 
 
 Prsportlonal Lines, 
 pcrtles, Szc. See Pi 
 Quadrature Li nes. 
 Reciprocal Lines. 
 Robervallan LlNES. 
 Vertical Line. 
 Meafure of a Line. 
 Line, in geography. 
 
 Converging; 
 
 Diverging. 
 
 , -Generating. 
 ^See the art.cle< Helispherical . 
 
 Hyperbolic. 
 Logistic. 
 Normal. 
 
 the manner of conflrucllng them, their pro- 
 loroRTlONAL Lines. 
 ~) f Quadrature. 
 
 [ Reciprocal. 
 )>Sec the articled Robervalian, 
 
 | Vertical. 
 j (^Measure, 
 j and navigation, is ufed by way of emi- 
 nence for the equator, or equinoctial line. 
 The line in the heavens, is a circle defcribed by the fun in 
 his courfe on the 2ill day of March, and the 21ft of Sep- 
 tember. — The line on the earth, is an imaginary circle, an- 
 fwering to that in the heavens. — It divides the earth, from 
 eaft to weft, into two equal parts, and is at an equal diftance 
 from the two poles; fo that thofe who live under the line, 
 have the poles always in their horizon. 
 The latitudes commence from the line. 
 
 The teamen ufe to chriften their frefh men, and paffengers, 
 the firft time they cut the line. 
 Line of the Jpfides, in aftronomy, is the line which joins the 
 apfides ; or it is the greater axis of the orbit of a planet. 
 Sec Apsides. 
 
 Fiducial Line, the 'line or ruler which paiTes through the mid- 
 dle of an aftrolabe, or the like inftrument; and on which 
 the fights are fitted : otherwife called alhidade, index, dtop- 
 tra, and medicHnlum. 
 
 Horizontal Line, a line parallel to the horizon. See Hori- 
 zon. 
 
 Ifbchronalfjivz. 1 c t j Isochronal. 
 
 i, . .. T J-bee the article 1 ■* ^ 
 Meridiem Line. \ (Meridian. 
 
 Line of the Nodes, in aftronomy, is the line which joins the 
 nodes of the orbit of a planet ; or the common fedtion of the 
 plane of the orbit with the plane of the ecliptic. 
 
 Geometrical Line, in perfpective, is a right line drawn in any 
 manner on the geometrical plane. 
 
 Trnv/iVm/LiNE, or fundamental line, in perfpective, is aright 
 line, wherein the geometrical plane, and that of the picture, 
 or draught, mterfedt one another. 
 
 Such is the line N I, {Tab. Perfpecllve, fig. 12.) formed by 
 
 the interfection of the geometrical plane L M, and the per- 
 
 fpedtive plane, H L. 
 Line of the Front, in perfpective, is any right line parallel to 
 
 the tcrreftrial line. 
 Vertical Line, is the common fedtion of the vertical, and of 
 
 the draught. 
 
 V'tfual Line, is the line, or ray, imagined to pafs from the ob- 
 ject to the eye. 
 
 Line of Station, in perfpective, according to fome writers, is 
 the common fedtion of the vertical and geometrical planes. 
 Others mean by it, the perpendicular heighth of the eye above 
 the geometrical plane; others, a line drawn on that plane, 
 and perpendicular to the line expreifing the hcighth of the 
 
 Objective Line, in perfpective, is any line drawn on the geo- 
 metrical plane, whofc representation is lbught for in the 
 draught, or picture. 
 
 Line of Dljlance. See the article Distance, 
 
 Horizontal Line, in dialling;, is the common fedtion of the 
 horizon, and the dial plane. See Horizontal. 
 
 Horary Lines, or Hour lines, are the common interferons 
 of the hour circles of the fphere, with the plane of the dial. 
 See Horary, and Hour Lint's. 
 
 Sufyjylar Line, is that line on which the ftvle or cock of a 
 dial is erected, and is the representation of fuch an hour 
 circle, as is perpendicular to the plane of that dial. 
 
 Equinoctial Line, in dialling, is the common interfection of 
 the equinoctial, and the plane of the dial. 
 
 Contingent Line. See the article Co\ - t intent. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 L I N 
 
 4? 
 
 Dialling. 
 See the article Meridian. 
 
 Dialling LlNES. 
 Meridian Line. 
 
 Vertical \ji<$K. 3 ( VERTICAL. 
 
 Line of A'lcafurrs, is ufed by Oughtred to denote the diameter 
 of the primitive circle in the projection of the iphe.-e in pia- 
 no, or that line in which the diameter of any circie to be pro- 
 jected falls. 
 
 In the ftereographic projection of the fphere in piano, the line 
 of mcafures is that line in which the plane of a great circle, 
 perpendicular to the plane of the projection, and that oblique 
 circle which is to be projected, interfedts the plane of the 
 projection ; or it is the common fedtion of a plane, paffing 
 through the eye-point, and the centre of the primitive; and 
 at right angles to any oblique circle, which is to be pro- 
 jected, and in which the centre and pole of fuch circle will be 
 found. 
 
 Line of Direction , in mechanics, is that wherein a body 
 either actually moves, or would move if it were not hin- 
 dered. 
 
 The term is alfo ufed to fignify the line that pafles through 
 the centre of gravity of the heavy body to the centre of the 
 earth; which muft alfo pafs through the fulcrum, or fupp^rt 
 of the heavy body ; without which it would fall. 
 Line of Gravitation of an heavy Body, is a tine drawn through 
 its centre of gravity, and according to which it tends down- 
 wards. 
 
 Line of the fwiftcjl Defcentef an heavy Body, is a tint where- 
 in the body will fall the fwifteft from one point to anuc 1 
 or, it is that curve which a body would defcribe in its de> 
 fcent , if it moved the fwifteft poffiblc. 
 Line of a Projectile. See the article Projectile-. 
 Lines on the plain Scale, are the line of chords, line of fines, 
 line of tangents, line of fecants, line of femi-tangents, line 
 of leagues. — The conftrudtion and application whereof, fee 
 under the word Scale, Sailing, isc. 
 Lines on Gwiter's Scale, are the line of numbers, line of ar- 
 tificial fines, line of artificial tangents, line of artificial verfed 
 fines, line of artificial fines of rhumbs, line of artificial tan- 
 gents of the meridian line, arid line of equal parts. The con- 
 ftrudtion and application whereof, fee under the word Gun- 
 TER'j Scale. 
 
 Lines of the Seclor, arc the line of equal parts, or line of lines ; 
 line of chords, line of fines, line of tangents, line of fecants 
 tine of polygons, line of numbers, tine of hours, line of lati- 
 tudes, tine of meridians, line of metals, tine of folids, line of 
 planes. The conftrudtion and ufe whereof, fee under the 
 Word Sector, 
 
 Line, in fortification, is fometimes taken for a ditch, border- 
 ed with its parapet ; and fometimes for a row of gabions or 
 facks of earth, extended lengthwife on the ground, to ferve as a 
 flicker againft the enemies fire. 
 
 When the trenches were carried on within thirty paces of 
 the glacis, they drew two lines, one on the right, and the 
 other on the left, for a place of arms. 
 Fundamental Line, is the firft line drawn for the plan of a 
 
 place, and which fhews its area. 
 Capital Line, is that which is drawn from the point where 
 
 the two demi-gorges meet, to the point of the baftion. 
 Central Line, is that drawn from the angle of the centre, to 
 
 that of the baftion. 
 Line of Defence, is that which reprcfents the courfe or flight 
 of the bullet of any fort of fire-arms, more efpecially of a 
 mufket-ball, from the place where the mufketecr muft ftand 
 to fcour, and defend the face of the baltion. 
 LisEof Defence ficbant, is that drawn from the angle of the 
 curtin to that of the oppofite baftion; without touching the 
 face of the baftion. 
 
 This muft never exceed 800 feet, which they reckon the 
 diftance at which a mufket-ball will do execution. 
 Line of Defence razant, is that drawn from the point of the 
 baftion along the face, till it come to the curtin; and fhews 
 how much of the curtin will clear or fcour the face. 
 1 his is alfo called the line of defence Jlrlngent, or flanking. 
 Line of Approach, or Attack, fignifies the work which the bc- 
 fiegers carry on under covert, to ga-in the moat, and the body 
 of the place. 
 
 Line of Clrcumvatlatlon, is a line or trench cut by the be- 
 fiegers, within cannon-fhot of the place, which ranges 
 round their camp, and fecures its quarters againft any relief 
 to be brought the befieged. 
 Line of Contravallation, is a ditch bordered with a parapet 
 which ferves to cover the beficgers on the fide of the place, 
 and to ftop the fallies of the garrifon. 
 Lines of Communication, are thofe which run from one work 
 to another. — See Tab. Fortif fig. 21. n. 2. 2. Sec. fee alfo 
 Communication. — But 
 ThehiKE cf Communication, more efpecially fo called, is a con- 
 tinued trench, with which a circumvallan'on, or contravalla- 
 tion is furrounded ; and which maintains a communication 
 with all its forts, redoubts, and tenailles. 
 
 5 A » a Line 
 
LIN 
 
 Use of the Safe, is a right line, which joins the points of the 
 two neareft baftjons. . , , . , n 
 
 To Line a work, fignifies to face it, chiefly with brick or ftone : 
 e. gr. to ftrengthen a rampart with a firm wall, or to encom- 
 pafs a parapet or moat with good turf, fcff. 
 
 Line in the art of war, is underftood of the difpofition of an 
 army, ranged in order of battle ; with the front extended as 
 far as may he, that it may not be flanked. 
 An army ufually confifts of three lines; the firjl is the front, 
 van, or advance guard ; the main body forms the fecond, in 
 which is the general's poft; the third is a referved body, or 
 rear guard. 
 
 It is a rule, to leave 150 paces diftance between the firft line 
 and the fecond, and twice as much between the fccond and 
 third, to give room for rallying. 
 
 Line, or "Lithe, of battle, is alto applied to the difpofition of 
 a fleet on the day of engagement ; on which occafion, the 
 veflels are ufually drawn up, as much as poflible, in a ftraight 
 uhe, as well to gain and keep the advantage of the wind, as 
 to run the fame board. 
 
 Ship of the Line, is a vefTel large enough to be drawn up in 
 the line, and to have a place in a fea-tight. See Ship. 
 
 Line of Demarcation, or Alexandrian Line, is a meridian paf- 
 fin"- over the mouth of the river Maragnon, and by the 
 capes of Houmas and Malabrigo ; fo called from pope Alex- 
 ander VI. who, to end the difputcs between the crowns of 
 Caffile and Portugal, about their boundaries, in 1493, drew 
 an imaginary line on the globe, which was to terminate the 
 pretenfions of each. By which partition, the Eaft-Indies fell 
 to the lot of the Portugucfe ; and the Weft-Indies, then new- 
 ly difcovercd, to the Caftilians. 
 
 Bowling-L I N E . ~| fBoWLING. 
 
 Bunt-L 1 n e. Bun t -Lines. 
 
 Crane- Lines. 1 Cran e - Lines. 
 
 Ar/ytf-LlNE S .! See (h ; , FuRLiNG-i™. 
 
 Zsj>--Line. j j LoG-Line, 
 
 Riit-L 1 N E s . R A T-Line . 
 
 Rhumb-LitiE. Rhumb-ZiV. 
 
 Water-L 1 N E . J LWat e K-Line. 
 
 Line, in fencing, is that part of the body directly oppofite to 
 the enemy, wherein the moulders, the right arm, and the 
 fword ought always to be found; and wherein are alfo to be 
 placed the two feet, at the diftance of 18 inches from each 
 other. 
 
 In this fenfc, a man is faid to be in his line, to go out of his 
 line, &c. 
 
 Line, in genealogy is a feries or fucceflion of relations in 
 various degrees, all defcending from the fame common 
 
 father. 
 
 Direti Like, is that which goes from father to fon ; which is 
 the order of afcendants and defcendants. Sec Direct. 
 
 Collateral Line, is the order of thofe who defcend from fome 
 common father related to the former, but out of the line of 
 afcendants, and defcendants. — In this are placed uncles, 
 aunts, coufins, nephews, csV. 
 
 Line alfo denotes a fmall French meafurc, containing the 
 12th part of an inch, or 144th part of a foot. See Inch, 
 C3V. 
 
 The geometricians, notwithstanding its fmallnefs, conceive 
 
 the line fubdivided into fix points. 
 
 The French line anfwers to the Englifh barley-corn. 
 
 Angling Line, "j ( Angling, and Flote. 
 
 Gauge Lihe. (r. t - . J Gauge. 
 
 di j t sbec the article-, u 
 
 PlumbLiKE. \ ) Plumb. 
 
 Rear Line. J I-Rear. 
 
 iVbite Line, in printing. 7 See ^ article J White. 
 
 Line, hnum, in agriculture, CS*. 1 I r l ax. 
 
 L I N E A * Alba in anatomy, the concoiirfe of the tendons 
 of the oblique and tranfverfe mufcles of the abdomen ; di- 
 viding the abdomen in two, in the middle. 
 
 * ft is called Ihiea, line, as being ftraight ; and alba, from its 
 colour, which is white. 
 The lima alba receives a twig of a nerve from the intercof- 
 tals in each of its digitations or indenting?, which are viiible 
 to the eye, in lean perfons efpecially. 
 
 Linea Mediana. See the article Mediana. 
 
 LINEAL mg-Xs* the article 5 Descent. 
 
 Lineal txegejis. J [Exegesis. 
 
 LINEAMENT, a fine ftxoke or line obferved in the face, 
 and forming the delicacy thereof ; being that which preferves 
 the refemblance, and occafions the relation of Ukenefs or un- 
 likencfs to any other face. 
 
 It is by thefe, that phyfiognomifts pretend to judge of the 
 
 temper and manners of people. 
 Lineament is alfo ufed by the painters for the out-line of a 
 
 face. See Contour. 
 LINE AN S Ptmftum. Sec the article Punctual 
 LINEAR Problem, in mathematics, is that which may 
 
 be folved geometrically, by the interferon of two right 
 
 lines, 
 
 E. gr. To meafure an inacceflible heighth by the means of 
 two unequal flicks, 6V, 
 
 L I N 
 
 Bleaching of Ll 
 LINGOT, or Ingot. 
 LINGUA, in anatomy. 
 LINGUA Frcnnum. j 
 Linguae Medietas. 
 
 See the artcil 
 
 This is alfo called a ftmple problem, and is capable but of one 
 folution. See Problem. 
 Linear Nmnbers, are fuch as have relation to length only. 
 See Number. 
 
 Such, e. gr. is a number which rcprefents one fide of a plane 
 figure. If the plane figure be a Jquare, the linear number is 
 called a root. 
 LINED Moat. See the article Moat. 
 LLNEN-AfiV/j. I (Mill, 
 IVhite Linen. ^See the article \ White. 
 
 Linen. J t Bleaching. 
 
 See the article Ingot. 
 See the article Tongue. 
 
 Fr^num. 
 Medietas. 
 
 LINIMENT*, Linimentum, a form of" external medi- 
 cine, made of uniStuous fubftances, ufed to rub on any dif- 
 tempercd part. 
 
 * The word comes from the Latin Unbe, to anoint gently. 
 The liniment is of a mean confidence, between an oil and an 
 unguent. 
 
 The ufc of liniments is to foften afperltics of the fkin, moiften 
 parts that need humectation, refolvc the humours that afflict 
 the patient, and give him pain. — There are various kinds of 
 liniments ufed, according to the various occafions. 
 LINSEED, or Line-Seed, a fort of grain which enters 
 the compolltion of feveral medicines, and yields, by expref- 
 fion, an oil, that has molt of the qualities of nut-oil, and is 
 accordingly fometimes ufed in lieu thereof in painting, and 
 to burn. 
 
 That drawn without the afliftance of fire, is of much eftecm 
 in medicine, and fuppofed good in the cure of cattarhs, 
 coughs, afthma's, and other difeafes of the breaft, is'c. 
 
 LI N S TO C K, a fhort ftaff of wood, about three foot long, 
 having at one end a piece of iron divided into two branches, 
 each of which has a notch to hold a piece of match, and a 
 fcrew to faften it there; the other end being alfo mod with 
 iron, and pointed, to ftick into the ground. — It is ufed by 
 the gunners in firins; cannon. 
 
 LINTEL, in architecture, the piece of timber which lies 
 horizontally over door-pofts, and window-jaums ; as well to 
 bear the thicknefs of the wall over it, as bind the lides of the 
 walls together. 
 
 LINUM Catharticum, or mountain-fax, a medicinal plant, 
 much ufed by the common people ; hiring a rough harfh puree, 
 and powerful detergent, an and evacuator of vilcid and watery 
 humours from the moft remote lodgments ; which makes 
 fome fond of it in rheumatifms ; but it is only fit for robult 
 confti tut ions. 
 
 LlNUM Vivum, or Incombujlibile, a foffile, ftony fubftance, of 
 a whitifh colour and woolly texture, feparabie into threads 
 or filaments, capable of being fpun, and wove into a fort of 
 cloth, which will endure the fire without confuminLr. 
 This is the fame with what is otherwifc called lapis amian- 
 thus, or ajbrjlos ; fometimes, falamav.der* s -wool, alfo linum fof- 
 file, linum Indicum, Creticum, Cyprium, &c. . 
 As to the art of managing this mineral, and of fpinning and 
 
 weaving it, &th the accounts we have are various. Si°-- 
 
 nior Caftagnata, fuperintendant of fome mines in Italy, gives 
 us the art of reducing it either into a very white fkin or a 
 very white paper either of which refifts the moft violent 
 fire. 
 
 Marco Polo, the Venetian, gives us the manufacture of the 
 hnum, found in the province of Chinchinthcias in Tartary, 
 from one Curficar a Turk, fuperintendant of the mines of 
 that country, as follows. — The lanuginous mineral, being 
 firft dried in the fun, is then pounded in a brafs mortar, and 
 the earthy part feparated from the woolly, which is after- 
 wards well wafhed from filth; being thus' purged, it is fpun 
 into thread like other wool, and after wove into cloth 
 which, if foul or fpotted, they clcanfe, he fays, by throwing 
 it into the fire for an hour's time, whence it comes out un- 
 hurt as white as fnow: Which very method, according to 
 the account given us by Strabo, feems to have been ufed 
 in ordering the Cretan amianthus ; with this addition, that 
 after it was pounded, and the earthy part feparated from the 
 woolly, he fays it was combed ; and fo does Agricola. 
 Signior Campani, after deferring four forts of the linum 
 whereof he had fpecimens in his mufeurn-j the firft fent him 
 from Corfu, the fecond from Seftri di Ponente, the third 
 coarfer and darker than the reft, and the fourth from the 
 Pyreneans; and after obferving, that though he kept it three 
 weeks in a glafs-houfe fire, yet he found it° unaltered, though 
 it could not preferve a ftick, wrapped in it, from the fire : he 
 proceeds to fhew the manner of fpinning it, and making it 
 into cloth, which he effected thus He firft laid the ftone 
 in water, if warm the better, for fome time to foak ; then 
 opened and divided it with his hands that the earthy parts 
 might fall out of it, which are whitifh like chaik, and fcrve 
 to bind the thready parts together. This makes the water 
 thick, and milky. That operation he repeated fix or feven 
 
L I P 
 
 times, with frefh water, opening and fqueezing it again, and 
 again till all the heterogeneous parts were warned out, and 
 then the flax-like parts were collected, and laid in a fieve to 
 dry. 
 
 As to the fpinning, he firft fhews a method difcovered to 
 him, which is thus. — Lay the linum, cleanfed as before, 
 between two cards, fuch as they card wool withal, where let 
 it be gently carded, and then clapped in between the cards, 
 fo that fomcofitmay hangout of the Tides; then lay the 
 cards fair, on a table, or bench; take a fmall reel, made with 
 a little hook at the end, and a part to turn it by, fo that it 
 may be eaiily turned round. This reel muft be wound over 
 with white thread : then having a fmall veflel of oil ready, 
 with which the fore-finger and thumb are conftantly to be 
 kept wet, both to preferve the ikin from the corrofive quality 
 of the (tone, and to render the filaments thereof more foft and 
 pliant; by continuing to twift about the thread on the reel 
 in the afbeftos hanging out of the cards, fomc of the latter 
 will be worked up together in it; and, by little and little, 
 the thread may, with care, be woven into a ccarfe fort of 
 cloth; and, by putting it into the fire, the thread and oil 
 will be burnt away, and the "mcombuftiblc cloth remain. 
 But finding this way, of uniting the ftonc with the thread, 
 very tedious, inftead of the thread, he put fome flax on a 
 difraff, and, by taking three or four filaments of the afbe- 
 ftos, and mixing them with the flax, he found they might be 
 eafily twiired together, and the thread thus made much more 
 durable and ftrong; fo that there is no need of carding, which 
 rather breaks the filaments, than does any good : only open 
 and feparate the filaments after warning, on a table, and take 
 them up with the flax, which is fufficient. 
 As to the making of paper, he fays, in the warning of the 
 ftone there will remain ieveral fhort pieces in the bottom of 
 the water, of which paper may be made in the common me- 
 thod. 
 
 He concludes with the beft way of preferving the cloth, or 
 any thing made of the linen, which, by reafon of its excef- 
 fivc drynefs, is very apt to break and twift; and it confifts 
 in keeping it always well oiled, which is the only prefervative 
 —-When the cloth is put in the fire, the oil burns off, and 
 the cloth comes out white and purified. See fupplement: arti- 
 cle Asbestus, and Linum Inconchustibile. 
 
 LIONCELES, in heraldry, a term for lions, when there 
 are more than two of them born in any coat of arms, and no 
 ordinary between them. 
 
 LIPOTHYMI A*, or Lipopsychi A, in medicine, a fiid- 
 den diminution, or failure of animal and vital actions; other- 
 wife called a jwoamng, or deUquittm. 
 
 * The word lip9thytr.ia comes from the Greek "Knita, etefieia, and 
 3tfi&-, animus ; and lipopfyehia from A-ittw, and \ \.<yr,, the foul. 
 
 In the Ijpathynua the pulfe is very faint; the fenfes, both in- 
 ternal and external, and the animal motions, hoth voluntary 
 and natural, extremely weakened, and the refpiration fcarce 
 vifible. 
 
 The ordinary caufes of the lypothymia, are great lofles of 
 blood, exceffive evacuations, immoderate exercife, grofs hot 
 air, fuch as that in the midft of crowds of people, difV. 
 
 LIPPITUDO, isufedby Cclfus, for a difeafe of the eyes, 
 other wife called ophthalmia. See Ophthalmia. 
 
 LirptTUDo, is alfo ufed by modern writers, for a difordcr po- 
 pularly called blear-eyed; arifing from a decay of the natural 
 moifture of the eyes, which then feel dry, and appear red and 
 angry. See Sclerophthalmia. 
 
 LIPS, Lalia, the edge, or exterior part of the mouth; or 
 that mufculous extremity, which ihuts and covers the mouth, 
 both above and below. 
 
 The hps, befides the common integuments, confift of two 
 parts, the exterior, hard, and mufculous; the interior, foft, 
 ipungy, and glandulous, covered with a fine membrane, the 
 tore and protuberant parts of which are red, and called prola- 
 bla. — Authors generally content themfelves, with calling the 
 fubftancc of this part, Ipungy ; but, in reality, it is glandu- 
 lous, as appears by the fcrophulous, and cancerous humours 
 to which it is fubje£t.— The mufcles, of which the outer 
 parts of the lips confift, are either common to them with other 
 parts, or proper - t the common are the third pair of the nofe, 
 the fubcutancous, and the buccinator. 
 
 The lips have fix pair of mufcles peculiarly belonging to them, 
 and an odd one; of thefe, three are peculiar to the upper and 
 under lip, the other three, and the (ingle one, are common to 
 both lips: the peculiar are, the attattens labionun fuperius, de- 
 triment labioruminferuis, attollens labiorum inferius; the three 
 common pair are, the zygomatiats, the depreffor labiorum, the 
 attollens labiorum; and the odd one, orbicularis; which fee. 
 All thefe parts are ferved with blood, by fome branches of 
 the carotids, which the veins Carry back to the external ju- 
 gulars—! heir nerves come from the fifth, fixth, and eighth 
 pair of the head, and fome from the par acceilorium. The 
 hps have a great fharc in the adion offpeech, and are of good 
 ule in taking m the food, ftCf. & 
 Lips is alfo applied to the two extreme part, of the pudendum 
 muhebre; between which is the rima, or fifiure of the part 
 Ihefeare more peculiarly called labia pudendi\ being foft. 
 
 3 
 
 L I S 
 
 oblong bodies; of a peculiar fubftance, not found in any other 
 
 part of thebody. 
 Lips arc alfo ufed, to fignify the two edges of a Wound. 
 LIQUEFACTION, an operation, by which a folid body 
 
 is reduced into a liquid ; or the action of fire or heat, on fat, 
 
 and other fufible bodies, which puts their parts into a mutual 
 
 intcftine motion. 
 
 The liquefaaim of wax, 6fi, is performed by a moderate 
 heat; that offal tartari, by the mere moifture of the air: 
 all falls liquify ; fand, mixed with alkalies, becomes liquified 
 by a reverberatory fire, in the making of glal's. Sec Glass. 
 In fpeaking of metals, inftead of liquefaclion, we ordinarily 
 ufe the word fufion. 
 
 LIQUET, See the article Non Liquet^ 
 
 LIQUID, a body which has the property of fluidity; and 
 behdes that, a peculiar quality of wetting other bodies im- 
 merged in it, arifing from fome configuration of its particles, 
 which difpofes them to adhere to the furfaces of bodies con- 
 tiguous to them. 
 
 Den/ity of Liquins.-) f Density. 
 
 Liquid Amber. I Amber, and Balsam. 
 
 LlQUID CoilfeitS. I I CoNFECTS. 
 
 Liquid Laudanum. j>Sce^ Laudanum. 
 Liquid Wtafimt. I j Measure. 
 Liquid Stora.v. j | Storax. 
 Liquid Sulphur, j (^Sulphur. 
 
 Liquid, among grammarians, is a name applied to certain con- 
 fonants oppofed to mutest. 
 
 L, m, n, and r, are liquid!. See L, M, N, &c. 
 
 LIQUIDATE an acliou. See thearticle Action. 
 
 LIQUIDATION, the aft of reducing, and afcertaining, 
 either fome duoious difputable fum, or the refpedtive preten- 
 fions, which two perfons may have to the fame fum. 
 
 LIQUOR. See thearticle Drink, Fluid, &c. 
 
 Stygian Liquors. ) g c Stygian Liquors. 
 
 C/earmgef Liquors, j DtC me aimlc \ Clearing. 
 
 LIQUORICE, Liquoritia, called 2X0 glycyrrhiza, and 
 radix duleis, a fwcet tailed mot, of confidcrable ufe in medicine, 
 againft coughs, and other dfforders of the breaft and luncs. The 
 plant which bears it, is cultivated in divers parts oflfngland, 
 particularly about Pontefracr in Yorkshire; and in fome pro- 
 vinces of France, Spain, Germany, and Mufcovyj and elpecially 
 in Perfia, where it thrives better than any where elfe; there 
 being fome on the banks of the Carafu, Kc'nki, and Kerniarpa, 
 whofe roots are thicker than the arm; and whofe juice, m 
 refpefi of ftrcngth, virtue, CSV. "is greatly preferable to others. 
 The root of the liquorice plant runs, or fpreads a great way in 
 the ground, and emerging into air from place to place produces 
 fo many new Hems, or plants, few of which rile above five feet 
 high. Its leaves are thick, green, fhininrr, roumlifh, and 
 glutinous; its (lowers red, like the hyacinth; and its feed con- 
 tained in roundifh pods. 
 
 In the culture, care muft be taken to have a warm, lin-hf, 
 rich foil, or to amend it with manure: they plant it in trench- 
 es, three fpits deep, in February, and March, ufually in 
 rows, at a foot diftance from each other. — The parts chofe for 
 this purpofe, are fcts from the top of the plant, or the very 
 top of the root; or elfe the runners that fpread from the maf- 
 tcr-root.— In moift weather the branches may alfo be flipped 
 and planted. 
 
 The roots are taken up aboutNovcmber, or December, after they 
 have flood three fummers in the ground; for then the liquo- 
 rice weighs moft, and will keep with lets lofs: not hut that 
 there is a continual diminution in this refpeft, from the firft. 
 taking it up. 
 
 New, green liquorice mould be chofe fmooth, and even, about 
 the thicknefs of the middle finger, ruddy without, yellowilh 
 within, eafy to cut, and of an agreeable fmcll. 
 This root being boiled a long time in water, till the fluid has 
 got a deep, yellow tincture; and the water, at length evapo- 
 rated over a moderate fire; there remains a black, folid' fedi- 
 ment, which we alfo call liquorice, or liquorice juice, or fcme- 
 timcs Spauijh juice. 
 
 Chufe it black without fide, and of a mining black within; 
 
 eafy to break, and of an agreeable tafte The whitifh, and 
 
 yellowilh liquorice juices are good for nought; being ufually no 
 other than compofitions of fugar, ftarch, a little gum traga- 
 canth, and liquorice powder. 
 
 The native liquorice juice is very fweet upon the palate, even 
 more than fugar, or honey; and is yet accounted a great 
 quencher of third; on which account Galen prefcribes it in 
 dropfies. It is very balfamic, and detergent; infomuch that 
 there is fcarce any medicinal competition for difeafes of the 
 breaft, but it is an ingredient in. 
 LIST*, in the manufactures, denotes the border of a fluff, or 
 that which bounds its width on each fide. 
 
 * Da Cange derives the word from Hem, which, in the age of 
 corrupt Latin, wis ufed lor the inclofures of fields, and dtie. 
 as being anciently made with cordi interlaced; or from Ufa 
 quia empum cluuj.-ianl injlar lijlarum pami ; as inclofine the 
 groand alter the manner that a lijl dues a piece of cloth. 
 
 All cloths, and fluffs of filk, wool, or cotton, have li/i, ■ 
 li/ls contribute to the goodnefs of the fluff, and further ierve 
 
L I T 
 
 L I T 
 
 to Shew their quality; which has given occafion to feveral 
 regulations relating to their matter, colour, work, dSV. 
 List is alfo ufed, to fignifv the- inclofed field, or ground where- 
 in theantient knights held their jufts.and combats. 
 It was fo called, as being hemmed round with pales, barriers, 
 or ftakes, as with a lift. 
 
 Some of thefe were double, one for each cavalier ; which kept 
 them apart, fo that they could not come nearer each other, 
 than a fpear's length. See Turnament, and Duel. 
 List, Listel, or Listello, in architecture, called alfo 
 dnSture, fillet, fquarc, and reglet; is a little Square moulding 
 ferving to crown, or accompany larger mouldings j and, on 
 occafion, to Separate the flirtings of columns. 
 LISTEN IN G, according to Renault, this confifts in extending, 
 or bracing the tympanum of the ear, and putting it into fuch 
 a condition, as that it fhall be the more affected by any tre- 
 mulous motion of the external air. See Ear. 
 Listening Trumpet, See the article Trumpet. 
 LITANY*, an old church term, applied to the proceflions, 
 prayers, and fupplications ufed for appealing the wrath of God, 
 averting his judgments, or procuring his mercies. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, \,1a.y iia , Supplication ; of 
 ?.i1a*Euu, I beleech. — Pezion would go further, and derive 
 the \i1t>iAa.i, or X(D-ffsf*a(, of the Greeks, from the Celtic ///, 
 feaft, Solemnity. 
 
 Ecclefiaftic authors, and the Roman order, by the word 
 litany, ufually mean the people who compofe the proceflion. 
 and aflift at it; and Du Cange obferves, that the word anti- 
 ently Signified procefiion. See ^Procession. 
 Simeon of Theffalonica mentions, that in the antient lita- 
 nies, the people went out of the church, to denote the fall of 
 Adam; and returned into it again, to fhew the return of: 
 pious foul to God, by repentance. 
 
 On occafion of a plague that ravaged Rome, in the year 590. 
 pope Gregory appointed a litany, or proceflion, confining of 
 feven bands, or companies, who, marching from the feveral 
 churches of the city, met at 8. Mary Major"— The firft com- 
 pany confiflcd of the clergy ; the fecond of abbots, with theL 
 monks; the third of abbdVes, with their nuns; the fourth of 
 children; the fifth, of laymen; the fixth, of widows; and 
 the feventh, of married women. — And from this general 
 proceflion, that of S. Mark, called the grand litany, is judged 
 to have taken its rife. 
 Litany, in a modern fenfe, denotes a form of prayer, fung 
 or faid in churches; confuting of feveral periods, or arti- 
 cles; at the end of each whereof is an invocation in the fame 
 terms. 
 
 LITERAL Akehra. 7 c , . . f Alcebra 
 Literal Charter. J Sec the art,cle j Character 
 LITERALIS Calculus. Sec the article Calculus 
 LITE R AR Y Crithifm. See the article Criticism. 
 LITERATI, Letrados, lettered, an epithet given to fuch 
 
 pcrfons among the Chinefe, as are able to read, and write 
 
 their language. 
 
 The literati alone, are capable of being made mandarins. 
 Literati, is alfo the name of a particular feci, cither in re- 
 ligion, philofophy, or politics; confifting principally of the 
 learned men of that country : among whom it is called Ju- 
 kiao, i. e. learned. 
 
 It had its rife in the year of Chrift 1400; when the emperor, 
 to awaken the native affection of the people for knowledge, 
 which had been quite banifhed by the preceding civil wars 
 among them, and to ftir up emulation among the manda- 
 rins, chofe out forty two of the ableft among their do&ors, 
 
 * to whom he gave a commifiion to compofe a body of doctrine, 
 agreeable to that of the antients, which was then become the 
 rule or Standard of the learned — The delegates applied them- 
 felvcs to the bufmefs, with a world of attention; but fome 
 . fancied them rather to have wrefted the doctrine of the anti- 
 
 - ents » to lliake ic confift with theirs, than to have built up theirs 
 on the model of the anticnts. 
 
 They fpeak of the Deity, as if it were no more than mere 
 nature, or the natural power or virtue that produces, d'ifpo- 
 fes, and prelerves the Several parts of the univerfe. It is, fay 
 they, a pure, perfect principle, without beginning or end- 
 it is the Source of a!i things, the eflence of every beintr; and 
 that which determines it to be what it is. — They make God 
 the foul of the world ; they fay, he is diffufed throughout all mat- 
 ter, and produces all the changes that happen there. In Short 
 it is not eafy to determine, whether they refolve God into 
 "K3 °V lft nature into God; for they aferibe to it many 
 of thole things which we attribute to God. 
 This doctrine, in lieu of the idolatry that prevailed before, 
 Introduced a refined kind of atheiim.-The work being com- 
 pofed by fo many perfons of learning and parts, and approved 
 by the emperor h.mfelf, wa * received with infinite aopfaide by 
 all the people.— Many were pleafed with it, in regard, it 
 feemed to Subvert all religion: others approved it, becaufe 
 he little rel.g.on that it left them, could not give them much 
 trouble—And thus was formed the fi& of the Literati; 
 winch confifts of the mamUners, and adherents to this doc- 
 
 The court, the mandarins, and the perfons of fortune and 
 quality, &c. are generally retainers to it; but a great part of 
 the common people ftill hold to their worfhip of idols. 
 The literati freely tolerate the Mahometans, becaufe they 
 adore, with them, the King of heaven, and Author of na- 
 ture; but they bear a perfect averfion to all forts of idolaters 
 among them; and it was once refolved to extirpate them. 
 But the diforder this would have occafioned in the empire, 
 prevented it: they now content themfelves with condemning 
 them, in general, as herefies; which they do folemnly every 
 year at Pekin. 
 
 LITHARGE*, a metalline fubftance, formed of the fpume 
 of lead; ufed in the compofition of plaifters, to give them a 
 due confiftence. 
 
 * The word is Greek, fa&«f/vgG*, compofed of Ai9©-, a Hone, 
 and wjj'i/f©', filver. 
 
 Some authors fpeak of two kinds of litharge, the one natural, 
 the other artificial. 
 Natural Litharge, they fay is amineral,fomctimes found in lead 
 mines, reddifh, fcaly, brittle, and Somewhat refemhling white 
 lead. — This litharge is fo exceeding rare, that the Shops fell 
 none but the 
 
 Artificial Litharge; which is of two kinds, viz. that of gold, 
 and that of /river; or rather it is the fame, with this difference, 
 that the one has undergone a greater degree of fire than the 
 other. 
 
 Indeed naturalifts are not over-well agreed what the artificial 
 litharge is: Some confider it as a metallic fcum, raifed on the 
 furface of lead, when melted ; after having ferved to purify 
 gold, Silver, or copper. 
 
 Others confider it as a metallic foot, or fmoke, arifing from 
 thofe metals mixed with the lead ufed in purifying them ; 
 which Sticking to the top of the chimnies of furnaces, is there 
 formed in a kind of Scales. 
 
 Laftly, others confider it as the lead itfelf, ufed in refining 
 of thofe metals, and efpecially copper; which laft opinion 
 appears the moft credible; and the rather on account of the 
 great quantities of thefe litharges brought from Poland, Swe- 
 den, and Denmark; where copper mines are much more fre- 
 quent, than thofe of gold and Silver. — The droffy or ree're- 
 mentitious parts, fixing to the fides of the teft, arc the litharge; 
 and according to the degree of calcination, become of divers 
 Shades of a red colour. The deep is called litharge of gold, 
 and the paler, litharge of filver. 
 
 Litharges are deficcatiye, deterfive, and cooling; they make 
 the confiftence of feveral plaifters.— The potters me them 
 to give a beautiful glofs to their ware; and they are alfo ufed 
 by painters, dyers, Skinners, and gUficrs. When mixed with 
 wine, they give, it a bright fpritely colour, but render it ex- 
 tremely unwholfomc. 
 
 LITHIASIS, AiBiAnv in pIiyflC) the ^ Q q{ ^ 
 ltone. See Stone, and Calculus. 
 
 L1THOCOLLA* or Lithocollum, a cement ufed 
 by the lapidaries, to fatten their precious ftones, in order for 
 cutting them. 
 
 * gVue W ° rd COmeS fl ° m GrCCk M"*> flone ' and 
 
 It is compofed of refin and brick-duft.-For diamonds, they 
 ufe melted lead, putting them into it before it be quite cold. 
 t or other cements they mix marble-duft with flroncr glue* 
 and to fatten their Sparks, add the white of an eg? and 
 pitch. &Es 
 
 tfrESR&ftS&S: &e artide MINERAL AGAR.C. 
 
 Ll rHON IHRIPTICS*, medicines proper ,o difiolvc 
 the ftone in the bladder, and kidneys. See Calculus, and 
 
 Stone. . 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek j.,6®., Ilone and 3...WI.. 
 I break. E ' 
 
 LITHOTOMY, an operation in chirurgcrv, performed 
 upon a human body, in order to extract the ftone out of the 
 bladder. 
 
 This is performed three feveral ways, viz. by the [mall at- 
 pahttttt, the grail apparatus, and the high apparatus 
 
 h \ hl '!\ 1? j T y CUtth, S t,,roi 'S l1 the pwioseum near the future, 
 on the left fide, alter the ftone, hy the fingers of the operator, 
 has been brought to that part—This is called cutting up m th, 
 gr,pe; but this is almoft difufcd, by reafon it fubjefls the patient 
 to great hazards and Inconveniencies. 
 
 In the great apparatus, which is that ordinarily praflifed 
 after the patient is conveniently placed and bound the ope- 
 rator introduces a proper inftrument, through the urinary 
 paliagu into the bladder, in order to fearch for the ftone; 
 which being found, that inftrument is withdrawn, and ano- 
 ther grooved one is introduced the fame way; which bulging 
 in the pennxum, ferves to direfl the knife to the neck of 
 the bladder. After the incifion, a third inftrument is thruft 
 into the aperture, till it join the former that was laft intro- 
 duced through the urinary paftage, at which time that is with- 
 drawn, whdft this remains to guide the forceps direftly into 
 the bladder, to bring away the ftone— This way is called 
 cutting upon the jtaff. 
 
 The third method; called alfo the high operation, firft praaifed 
 by Pet. Franco, has been fince defcribed, and rtrenuoully 
 1 pleaded 
 
-L I T 
 
 L 1 V 
 
 pleaded for by a chirurg'ical writer, RoiTct, but it foon fell 
 into oblivion ; from which it was only recalled about the 
 year 1719, by Mr. Douglas, a Surgeon of London, who 
 collecting what frittered hints he could find relating to it, 
 and improving them with his own obfervations, paved the 
 way for its being brought into regular ufe, which before 
 it never had been. — He was foon followed by Mr. Chc- 
 felden, and fome others. Of 31 patients cut by them in 
 this manner, in a few years 25 recovered. — It is true, 
 Mr. Chefelden has fince quitted this method for the lateral 
 operation. — Of late years, the French have begun to a- 
 dopt the high operation ; and M. Morand, a Surgeon of 
 Paris, has wrote a book on the fubject, chiefly taken from 
 the Englifh writers. See Hljl. Acad. R. Scien. an. 1728. 
 p. 36, feqq. 
 
 The manner of proceeding herein, is this: After the bladJer 
 is injected with a fumcient quantity of warm water, and 
 the patient conveniently placed, the operator flowly makes 
 an incifion above the os pubis, along tlie linea alba, till he 
 gets fight of the bladder, into which he directly plunges his 
 knife, and afterwards draws out the ftone. 
 The advantages attending this method, are, That it is per- 
 formed in a very fhort time ; that the wound eafily heals ; 
 that the dilaceration of parts frequent in the other ways, is 
 prevented; and that there is no danger of the incontinentia 
 urina:. — On the other hand, it is thought to be chiefly 
 practicable upon young pcrfons, and fuch as are lean ; the 
 wound in old and fat perfons being apt to mortify : moreo- 
 ver, if the operator be not very cautious, he may eafily let 
 out the inteftines. 
 
 To thefe may be added the lateral operation, invented by 
 Frcrc Jaques, a religious of the third order of S. Francis, 
 towards the elofe of the lafl century, and practifed by him 
 with great reputation in the Franchc Comte. But this re- 
 putation it loft again at Paris ; which, however, did not 
 hinder M. Rau, anatomy profeffor at Leyden, from un- 
 dertaking to rectify what was amifs in it : in which he 
 fucceeded, infomuch that the method is now known by 
 his name, which has taken place of that of the fifft in- 
 ventor. See Hljl. Acad. R. Sc'ten. an. 1699, p. 34, item, 
 an. 1728, p. 38. 
 LI FTER *, LeBka, a kind of vehicle born upon lhafts » 
 anticntly cfteemed the moft eafy and genteel way of car- 
 riage. 
 
 * Du Cange derives the word from the barbarous Latin 
 UOttia, itraw or bedding for beafts — Others will ra- 
 ther have it come from uffus, bed, there being ordinarily 
 a. quilt and a pillow to a Utter ; m the fame manner as 
 to a bed. 
 
 Pliny calls the Utter the traveller's chamber : it was much in 
 ufe among the Romans, among whom it was born by flaves, 
 kept for that purpofe ; as it (till continues to be in the Eaft. 
 The Roman Ltlka, made to be born by four men, was 
 called tetrapkorum ; that born by fix, hexapharutn ; and that 
 born by eight, eclaphorum. 
 
 The invention of litters, according to Cicero, was owing 
 to the kings of Bithynia ; in the time of Tiberius they 
 were grown very frequent at Rome ; at. appears from Seneca ; 
 and even fl.ives thcmfelves were born in them, though never 
 by more than two perfons, whereas men of quality had fix 
 or eight. 
 
 LITTLE Balram. "i CBairam. 
 Little Capjhm. ^Seethe articles Capstan. 
 
 Little map. J CMass. 
 
 LITTORAL Shells, among writers of natural hiftory, 
 
 are fuch fca-fhells as are always found near the fhores, 
 
 and never far oft" in the deep. 
 
 Thofe which are found in the bottom of the fea, remote 
 from the more, are called pelagian. 
 LITURGY*, denotes all the ceremonies in general, be- 
 longing to divine fervice. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek ^MTH^yia, fervice, public 
 miniilry ; formed of Tiut©-, public, and i^yci, work. 
 
 In a more reftraincd fignification, liturgy is ufed among the 
 Romanifts to fignify the mafs ; and among us the common- 
 prayer. 
 
 All who have written on liturgies agree, that, in the primi- 
 tive days, divine fervice was exceedingly fimple, only clog- 
 ged with a very few ceremonies, and confifting of but a fmall 
 number of prayers ; but, by degrees, they increafed the num- 
 ber of external ceremonies, and added new prayers, to make 
 the office look more awful and venerable to the people. At 
 length things were carried to fuch a pitch, that a reflation 
 became necenary ; and it was found proper to put the fer- 
 vice, and the manner of performing it, into writino- ; and 
 this was what they called a liturgy. 
 
 Liturgies have been different at different times, and in dif- 
 ferent countries. — We have the liturgy of S. Chryfoftom. 
 that of S. Peter, of S. James, the liturgy of S. Bafil, the 
 Armenian liturgy^ the liturgy of the Maronites, 0 f the Coph- 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 - t&, the Roman liturgy, the Galilean liturgy, the EngHili 
 liturgy, the Ambrofiin liturgy, the Spanifh and African li- 
 turgies, Sec. 
 
 LITUS iri medicine, the fame as lini/m-ht. See Lini- 
 ment. 
 
 L I T U U S, among medalifts, the ftaff ufed by the augurs, 
 made in form of a crozier. 
 
 We frequently fee it on medals, along with other pontifical 
 inftruments. — Allium Gellius fays, it was blggel 1 in the place 
 where it was crooked, than elfewhere. 
 LI V F. R *, a large, glandulous vifcus, of a red fanguine co- 
 lour, fituated immediately under the diaphragm, in the riaht 
 hypochondrium, which it almoft fills ; and thence ftretchmg 
 itfelf over the right fide of the ftomach, towards the left hy- 
 pochondrium, it reaches behind the cartilago enfif rath, grow- 
 ing gradually thinner and narrower : It fcrves to purify the 
 .mafs of blood, by making a ficrctHm of the bilious humour 
 it contains — See Tab." Anat. (Splauch.) fg. 1. lit. a. b. 
 Jig. 3. lit. k. ( Angeiol.) jig. jL. lit. a £ e, &c. Jig, 5. 
 
 * Plato and other of ihe ant.ents, fix the principle of love in the 
 liver; whence the Latin proverb, Cagit amarejecur : and in 
 this fenfe Horace frequently ufes the word, as when he fays, 
 Si ttn tre jecur quarts Idoneum. — The Greeks, from its con- 
 cave figure, called it £m*n vauhed, t'u!peiid;d ; the Latins call 
 it jecur, q. d.juxta cor, as being near the heart. The French 
 call it /bye, from foyer, focus, or lire place ; agreeable to the 
 doctrine of the antients, who believed the blood to be boiled 
 and prepared in it. — ErafutraUs, at fir£t, called it parenchyma, 
 i. e. tjfufion, or tr.afs of blood: and Hippocrates, by way of 
 eminence, frequently calls it the hypochondrium. 
 The upper part of the liver is convex^ and perfectly fmocth : 
 the under is concave, and fomewhat more uneven, having four 
 large fillures ; one, through which the umbilical ligament 
 palles ; a fecond on the left fide, receiving the pylorus, and 
 the beginning of the duodenum; a third on the right fide, 
 near the margin, in which the gall-bladder is lodged ; and the 
 lait in the upper part, affording a puffage to the vena cava, 
 Itsfi gure is fomewhat approaching to round, with thin edges, 
 not altogether even, hut notched in fome places. Its mag- 
 nitude is various in different fuhjects, according to the propor- 
 tion of the body ; though in a foetus, or very young animal, it 
 is always larger, in proportion, than in adults.-— In dogs and 
 other animals of the quadruped kind, it is divided into feve- 
 ral diftinct lobes, but in men it is generally continued ; hav- 
 ing one fmall protuberance, which fome account a little 
 lobe. — It is fometimes, however, obferved in men to have 
 been divided into two or three lobes. 
 
 The U-jcr is connected to feveral parrs, but efpecially to the 
 diaphragm, to which it is fattened by a broad, thin, but ftrong 
 femicircular ligament, called the ftfpenfory ligament, derived 
 from the common capfula of the porta and gall ducts. . 
 The continuity of this ligament being interrupted by the 
 perforation of the vena cava, has given occafion to fome ana- 
 tomifts to divide it into two. — It is likewife, by another 
 ftrong ligament, which has its original from the external coat 
 of the liver, or, which amounts to the fame, from the peri- 
 toneum, tied to the cartilago xiphoides ; and by a third, 
 which is formed out of the umbilical veficls, which m adults 
 dry up, and become a ligament, it is connected to the ten- 
 dons of the abdominal mufclcs in the linea alba at the navel. 
 -—Thefe feveral ligaments ferve to keep it in its due filia- 
 tion : befides which, it has fome other connections by the 
 blood- veffels. 
 
 The liver has a motion, though not proper to itfelf, but de- 
 pending on that of the diaphragm ; to which being very 
 firmly connected, it muft needs obey its motion ; and in ex- 
 piration be drawn up, and in infpiration be let down again. 
 
 It is covered with a thin fmooth membrane, derived from the 
 peritonaeum, which may be feparated from the fubftance of the 
 liver, though not without fome danger of laceration. — • 
 The fubftance of the liver is vafcular and glandulous ; which 
 latter part is very {bit and friable, and pretty eafily fcraped 
 off from the veflels, to which the glands every way adhere, as 
 it were in bunches ; which has made the anatomifts call the 
 confiderable ones, the internal lobes of the Hver. 
 The glands adhering thus to the veflels, and conftituting thofe 
 lobes, are wrapped up together in proper membranes; whence 
 this appearance of diftindt lobes.— Every one of thefe glands, 
 according to Malpighi, is compofed of fix unequal fides, or 
 faces. They are all clothed with their proper membranes, 
 and have each an excretory duct ; feveral of which joining 
 together, form little trunks, which run all along with the 
 branches of the porta ; and thefe again uniting, form longer 
 trunks, which are alwavs found full of bile, and conftitute 
 the porus bilarius; which being difixibuted all over the liver, 
 receives in the foregoing manner, the bile ; which is fepa- 
 rated by thefe glands, and terminating in the meatus hepati- 
 cus, and in the ductus communis, at length di!char°-es the 
 bile into the duodenum. 
 
 Befides this difcharge by the porus bilarius, which is fuppofed 
 to he the great one, the liver alfo delivers part of its bile 
 into the gall-bladder, by a duct, called the cyji-hepaiic duff, 
 firit difcovered by Dr. GlilTon ; by means whereof, there h 
 5 B b b an 
 
L I V 
 
 LOB 
 
 an immediate communication between the poms bllarius and 
 the gall-bladder ; a particular tlefcription of which laft part, fee 
 under the words Gall, Cyst-Hepatic, £jf<e. 
 Befides thefe gall-veffels, which are peculiar to the liver, it 
 abounds with blood -veffels, efpecially veins ; whereof the por- 
 ta and cava are difieminated through the whole fubftance of 
 it. — And here it is particularly remarkable of the porta, 
 that after the manner of arteries, it moots itfelf from a 
 trunk into branches ; and being at laft loft in capillaries, de- 
 livers the blood into the cava, by which it is immediately 
 reconveyed to the heart. 
 
 The porta is formed out of the concurrence of divers veins, 
 which, meeting together, make one of the moft cojrifiderable 
 venous trunks of the body, as to its bulk ; though contrary 
 to the courfe of other veins, it runs not far in a trunk, but 
 is foon diftributed again by ramifications into the liver. 
 The blood conveyed into the liver by the porta, after the 
 manner of the arteries, is received again, after having been 
 purged of its bile in the glands of the inter, into innumerabli 
 Veins, which empty themfclves into the cava, and are vul- 
 garly, though improperly, called branches of the cava; but 
 they ought to be efteemcd the proper blood-veflels of the lilh 
 as the emu! gents are of the kidneys ; and which, as all the 
 reft do, except the pulmonary vein, empty themfelves into 
 the cava ; the common channel by which the blood returns 
 to the heart. 
 
 The arteries, which are called the hepatic, come from the right 
 fcranch of the cosliac. — Dr. GliiTon thinks the porta does fo 
 much the office of an artery, that no more arteries are ncceffary 
 than thofe which furnilh nourifhment to the membranes and 
 capfula ; but Dr. Drake judges they ferve for the nourifhment 
 of the whole part. — Thefe arteries are much bigger in men, 
 than in other animals. — Mr. Cowper had fevcral preparations, 
 wherein the ftcm of each hepatic artery was as large as a 
 goofe-quill, and the branches in the liver, every where equal 
 in magnitude to thofe of the porus bilarius, which they ac- 
 company. — Dr. Drake conjectures, that in this vifcus in a hu- 
 man body, a larger ftream, and dirccicr impetus of arterious 
 blood is required to drive on the venous, becaufe of the erect 
 pofture, than in animals of an horizontal pofition of body, 
 .lor which reafon borfes, csV. though of much larger fize, 
 and having much bigger livers, have thefe arteries much final - 
 lerthan men; and not only fo, but curled like the ten-rils 
 of a vine, to break the impetus, which, in that pofture, is not 
 fo neceffary as in the eredt. 
 The liver has its nerves from the hepatic plexus, formed on 
 the right hypochondrium by the branches of the intercoftal, 
 which wrapping themfelves about the arteriesj make a fort of 
 net-work ; and after fpreading themfelves on the membrane 
 and furface, difappear. — The lymphxdo£ls are numerous, 
 though not eafdy difcernible in human fiibjeiSs, for want of 
 live diflecrnns ; but in other animals that may be diflected alive, 
 they become very confpicuous, by applying a ligature to the 
 porta and the bilary duel. — Far the ufe of the LiVER. in tht 
 fecretion of bile, fee Bile. 
 
 Liver of antimony. See the article Antimony. 
 
 LIVERY, properly fignifies a colour, to which a perfon 
 has fome particular fancy, and by which he chufes to di- 
 ftinguifh himfelf or his retainers, from others. 
 Liveries are ufually taken from fancy, or continued in fami- 
 lies by fucceflion. — The antient cavaliers, at their turna- 
 ments, diftiuguifhed themfelves by wearing the liveries of 
 their miftreffes : Thus people of quality make their domeftics 
 wear their livery. 
 
 Father Meneftrier, in his trcatife of Carroufals, has given a 
 very ample account of the mixtures of colours in liveries. 
 Dion tells us, that Oenomaus was the firft who invented 
 green and blue colours for the troops which, in the circus, 
 were to reprefent land and fea-fights. 
 
 The Romtfh church has alfo her fevcral colours and liveries; 
 white, for confelTors and virgins, and in times of rejoicing; 
 black, for the dead ; red, for the apoftlcs and martyrs j blue 
 or violet, for penitents ; and green, in times of hope. 
 Formerly great men gave liveries to fever a!, who were not 
 of their family or fervants, to engage them in their quarrels 
 for that year ; but this was prohibited by the ftatute r Hen. 
 IV. and no man, of whatever condition, was allowed to give 
 any livery, but to his domeftic officers, and council learned 
 in the law. 
 
 Livery, in law, alfo denotes the delivery of poffeffion, to 
 thofe tenants which held of the king in capite, or by knights 
 fervice. See Possession. 
 
 Livery, is alfo ufed for the writ, which lies for an heir to ob- 
 tain the polTeffion, or feifin of his lands at the king's hands. 
 
 Livery of Seifm, is a delivery of poffeffion of land or tene- 
 ments, or things corporeal, to him who hath right, or pro- 
 bability of right to them. 
 
 Livery of Seifm, is a ceremony ufed in the common law in 
 conveyance of lands, tenements, csV. where an eftate in fee 
 Ample, fee-tail, or other freehold, {hall pafs j and is a tefti 
 momal of the willing departing of him who makes the livery 
 from the thing whereof the livery is made, as well as of a 
 
 willing acceptance by the other party, of all that whereof 
 the nrft has divefted himfelf. 
 
 Antiently, there were a pair of gloves, a ring, knife, an ear of 
 wheat, zfi, delivered in fign of livery and feifin. 
 The ufual manner of livery of feifin is thus. — If it be in 
 the open field where is no houfe -nor building, and if the eftate 
 pafs by deed, one openly reads it, or declares the effect of it; 
 and after that is fealed, the vender takes it in his hand, with 
 a clod of earth, or a twig or bough, which he delivers to 
 the vendee, in the name of poffeffion, or feifin, according 
 to the purport of the deed. — If there be a houfe or building on 
 the land, the ceremony is to be done at the door of it, none 
 being then left within ; and the ring of the door is delivered 
 to the vendee, who enters alone, fhuts the door, and prefenily 
 opens it again. — If it be a houfe without land or ground, 
 the livery is made, and poffeffion given, by delivery of the 
 ring of the door and deed only ; and where it is without 
 deed, either of lands or tenements, there the party declares 
 by word of mouth, before witnefles, the eftate he parts with, 
 and then delivers feifin, or poffeffion as aforefaid : in which 
 cafe the land pafl.es as well as by deed, by virtue of the livery 
 of feifin. 
 
 LIVES. See Annuity, and Policy of Infurance, 
 L I V R E *, a French money of account, confifting of twenty 
 fols ; each fol containing twelve deniers. 
 
 * The origin of the word is fefch.-d hence, that antiently the 
 Roman libra, or pound, was the lhindard by which the French 
 money was regulated ; twenty iols being made equal to the 
 libra — By degrees the libra became a term of account, fo 
 that any coin juft worth twenty fols was a livre, or libra i 
 and fince the time of Charlemagne, all contracts have been 
 made on the foot of this imaginary coin ; though the fols 
 hnve frequently charged their Weight and alloy. 
 The livre is of two kinds, Tournois, and Parifis. 
 Livre Tournois, as above, contains twenty fols Tournois, and 
 
 each fol twelve deniers Tournois. 
 Livre Parifis., is twenty fols Parifis, each fol Parifis Worth 
 twelve deniers Parifis, or fifteen deniers Tournois. So that 
 a Uvre Parifis, is equivalent to twenty five fols Tournois : 
 the word Parifis being ufed in oppofition to Tournois, by 
 rtafon <jf the rate of money, which was one fourth higher 
 at Paris, than at Tours. 
 
 One penny fterling was equal to thirteen and a half deniers 
 Tournois: fo that the Engjjfli pound fterling, was equal to 
 thirteen livres, fix fols, eight deniers of French money ; while 
 the exchange was on the foot of fifty four pence fterling, to 
 a French crown of fixty fols Tournois ; which was the late 
 par between England and France:— -But at prefent, the 
 French crown is but equal to 27 d. £ fterling, on which foot- 
 ing the livre is but equivalent to 10 d. \ fterling. 
 There have fince been pieces of gold ftruck of" twenty fols 
 value, and under Henry III. in 1575, fpecies of filvcr c £ 
 like value : Both the one and the other were called francs 
 and thus the imaginary coin became real. * 
 It appears that the Romans alfo had a kind of money which 
 they called libra, or libella ; which was the tenth part of 
 their denarius ; fo called, becaufe equivalent to an as; which 
 at firft, weighed a libra, or pound of copper. — ScahVer 
 adds, that they ufed libra as a term of account, not as a 
 coin : Libra erat colleclio nmmimrum, nan nummus 
 
 LIXIVIOUS, Lixivial, or Lixiviate, in chymiftry, 
 is underftood of falts extradted from burnt vegetables bv 
 lotion. 0 J 
 
 Lixivious falts, are the fixed falts of plants, tiff, extrafted 
 by calcining the plants, or reducing them to allies; and 
 afterwards making a lixivium of thofe afhes with water 
 Mr. Boyle obferves, that the difference between lix'mous and 
 urinous falts, confifts in this, that the former change the 
 diifolution of fubhmate in common water into a yellow co- 
 lour, which the latter do not. See Alkali. 
 
 LIXIVIUM, Lye, a liquor made by the infufion of wood- 
 afhes ; and which is more or lefs pungent and penetrating as 
 it is more or lefs impregnated with falts, and fiery particles 
 abounding therein. 
 
 What is left after the evaporation of fucb a liquor, is called 
 a hxivious fait ; fuch as all thofe are, which are made by in- 
 cineration. 
 
 Lixivhims are of notable ufe, not only in medicine but alfa 
 in bleaching, fugar-works, i$c. See Bleaching, Sugar 
 and Pot-ashes. 
 
 LOAD a Mortar. \ c 
 
 Training a Load. S See : 
 
 LOADSTONE. See Magnet, and Direction, 
 
 LOAM, or Lome, the common fiiperfcial earth ; confiftinw 
 of clay, with a fmall admixture of fand in it. See Earth* 
 and Clay. * 
 The word, it muff be obferved, is ufed with great uncertain- 
 ty ; by fome authors, for the black mother earth, called 
 mould; by others, for a reddifh earth ufed in making bricks. 
 See Supplement : article Loam. 
 
 Loam is alfo ufed for a fort of mortar made of this laft earth, 
 by tempering it with mud, water, ftraw, cjrV. 
 
 LOBBY. See the article An tich ameer, 
 
 LOBE, 
 
 article j^ 0RTAR - 
 
 t i RAINING. 
 
LOG 
 
 LOG 
 
 LOBE, AOBOE, amongft anatomifts, is applied to each of the 
 two parts whereof the lungs confift. 
 
 This reparation into lobes, is of ufe in dilating the lungs, 
 by earning them to receive more air, and preventing their 
 being too much fqueezed , when the back is bent. — tor 
 this reafon it is that beafts, which are always inclining to- 
 wards the earth, have more lobes in their lungs than men : 
 even their liver is divided into lobes, whereas that of man is 
 continued. See Tab. Anat. (Splanch.) fig. 14. lit. dd, &c. 
 fee alfo Liver. 
 
 Lobe is alfo ufed for the tip of the ear ; which is more fat and 
 fiefhy than any other part thereof. 
 
 Du Laurent fays , that the word lobe, in this laft fenfe, 
 comes from the Greek Jwfiwj to (name, or be afhamed : this 
 part of the ear being faid to blufh, when the perlbn is afliam- 
 ed. 
 
 Lobe is alfo ufed infpeaking of fruits and grains. 
 
 Thus the bean contifts of two equal parts, called lobes, which 
 compofe the body thereof, and are encompafied with the outer 
 fkin. — And all other grains, even the fmalleft, are divided, 
 like the bean, into two lobes, or equal parts ; as Dr. Grew 
 has fhewn in his Anatomy of Plants. 
 
 LOBULE, Lobellus, in anatomy, a little lobe. 
 
 Each lobe of the lungs is divided into feveral leffcr lobes, or 
 lobules, which are fattened on each fide, to the largeft bran- 
 ches of the trachea. — Each lobule conilils of a great number of 
 little round veficles, which have all a communication with 
 one another.— It is into thefe veficles that the air enters, 
 by the trachea in mfpiration ; ftill quitting them again in 
 expiration. See Tab. Anat. {Splamh.) fig. 14. lit. ff, 
 &c. 
 
 LOCAL, fomething fuppofed to be tied, or annexed to fome 
 particular place. 
 
 Thus, in law, a thing is faid to be local, i. e. annexed, or 
 fixed to the freehold.— An action of trefpafs for battery, C5V . 
 is tranfitory, not local; that is, it is not neceifary, that the 
 place where battery was committed, fhoilld be fet down as 
 material in the declaration ; or if it be fet down, the defen- 
 dant cannot travcrfe it by faying, he did not commit the 
 battery in the place mentioned 111 the declaration, and fo 
 avoid the action. 
 Chsfe Local. See the article Chose. 
 
 Local Cujhms, are thofe peculiar to fome lcrdfhip, or other 
 diftrict, and not agreeable to the general cuftoms of the coun- 
 try. See Custom. 
 
 Trejpajs Local. See the article Trespass. 
 
 Local Problem, in mathematics, is fuch an one, as is capablc 
 ef an infinite number of different folutions ; by reafon the 
 point, that is to fcJvp it, may be indifferently taken within a 
 certain extent ; c. gr. any where in fuch a line, within filch 
 a plane figure, &c. which is called a geometrical locus. 
 A local problem may be either fimple, as when the point 
 fought is in a right line ; plans, as when the point fought is 
 in the circumference of a circle; folid, as when the point re- 
 quired is in the circumference of a conic feet ion ; or furfolid, 
 as when the point is in the perimeter of a line of a higher 
 kind, as the geometers call it. 
 
 Local, or artificial Memory. Sec the article Memory. 
 
 Local Colours, in painting, are fuch as are natural and proper 
 for each particular object in a picture. 
 
 They are fo called, to diftinguifh them from the clair ob- 
 fcure, which confifts wholly of black and white. 
 
 Local Motion. See the article Motion. 
 
 LOCATION, in the civil law, an act by which any thing 
 is let out, on rent. 
 
 The fecond title of the nineteenth book of the Digcft, is on 
 the fubject of location and conduction. — Location and cm* 
 duBion are relative terms, and are ufed as well for the action 
 of him that lets, as for that of him who takes on that let- 
 ting. 
 
 Tacit Location, is, when the perfon who takes, continues 
 on the premifes beyond the term of his leafe ; which, by tin 
 civil law he is allowed to do, at leaft for the fpace of a year 
 on the fame terms. 
 LOCH*, orLoHOCK, in pharmacy, a compofition of a mid- 
 die confidence between a fyrup and a foft electuary; chiefly 
 ufed for difcafes of the lungs. 
 * The word is originally Arabic ; but continues ftill in ufe among 
 the apothecaries. 
 
 The Latins call it linclus, and the Greeks M&tfjjue, by rea- 
 fon the manner of taking it is licking. 
 LOCHIA, or Loches, aoxia, the evacuations confequcnt 
 on the delivery of a woman in child-bed. 
 As foon as the uterus is eafed of its load, its fibre?, as alfo thofe 
 of the peritonaeum, the mufcles of the abdomen, csV. which 
 have been extremely diftended during the laft period of gefta- 
 jion, begin to contract themfelvcs, and their veflels ; particu- 
 larly the uterus, which by this means expels the blood amaf- 
 Jhd in it. — At nrft pure blood is evacuated, and in confider- 
 able quantities ; afterwards it is diluted, and comes out more 
 fparingly ; at length it becomes vifcid, pale, £?V.— Thefe 
 ajc caBcd the loches. 
 
 LOCIS Commmibus. See thearticle Communibus. 
 
 LOCK, a little inftrumcnt ufed for the (hutting and fasten- 
 ing of doors, chefts, fcV. only to be opened by a key. 
 1 he lock is reckoned the mafter-piece in fmithery ; a great 
 deal of art and delicacy being required in contriving and va- 
 rying the wards, fprings, hobs, c?c. and adjuliing them to 
 the places where they are to be ufed, and to the various occafi- 
 ons of ufmg them. 
 
 From the various ftrudture of locks, accommodated to their 
 different intentions , they acquire various names. — Tho'.e 
 placed on outer doors are called jhck-locks \ thofe on cham- 
 ber doors, Jfring-locks ; thofe on trunks, trttv.k- locks, pad"" 
 locks-, &c. 
 
 Of thefe, the jpring-lock is the moft confidcrable, both for 
 its frequency, and the curiofity of its ftructure. — Its principal 
 parts are, the main-plate, the cover-plate, and the pin-hole : 
 to the main-plate belong the key-hole, top-hook, cruis- wards, 
 bolt-toe or bolt-nab, drawback fpring tumbler, pin of the 
 tumbler, and the ftaplcs ; to the cover-plate belong the pin, 
 main-ward, crofs-ward, ftep-ward, or uap-ward ; to the pin- 
 hole belong the hook-ward, main crofs-ward, fliank, the pot 
 or bread, bow-ward, and bit. 
 
 LOCULAMENTUM, in botany, denotes a cell, or par- 
 tition in a feed-pod, for the feed of a plant. See Seedi 
 In fome plants, we only find one loculamentum in a pod \ in 
 others two, three, or more. 
 
 LOCUS, Place, in a general fenfe. Sec the article Place. 
 
 Locus Geometricus denotes a line, by which a local or inde- 
 terminate problem is folved. Sec Local Problem, and 
 Geometrical. 
 
 A hens is a line, any point of which may equally Tolve an 
 indeterminate problem. 
 
 This, if a right line fufEce for the conftructiori of the equa- 
 tion, it called hem ad rettuift; if a circle, locus ad circutum^ 
 if a parabola, locus ad parabolvm\ if an ellipfis, locus ad cl- 
 Hpfin; and fo of the reft of the conic fections. 
 The loci of fuch equations as are right lines, or circles, tha 
 ancients called plain loci ; and of thofe that are pajaboles, hy- 
 perboles, csV. folid loci. 
 
 Wolfius, and other moderns, divide the loci more commodi- 
 oufly into orders, according to the number of dimenhons* to 
 which the indeterminate quantities rife. — Thus, it will 
 be a locus of the fi^'Jl order, if the equation x— ay:c. A locus 
 of the fecond or quadrate order, if a x, or ) z — tf 1 — x % ± 
 &V. A locus of the third or cubic order, if ' j>3==w*#, or 
 y5=M **— 3, &c. 
 
 The better to conceive the nature of the locus, Jtippoft two 
 unknown and variable right lines A P, P M, (Tab. A.ialyfis, 
 fig- 2Q> 30.) making any given angle A P M with each other ; 
 the one whereof, as A P, we call x, having a fixed origin iri 
 the point A, and extending itfelf indefinitely along a right 
 line given in pofition ; the other P M, which we call_y, con- 
 tinually changing Its pofition, but always parallel to itfelf. 
 An equation only containing thefe two unknown quantities 
 * and y, mixed with known ones, Which cxprciili, the rela- 
 tion of every variable quantity A P (x) to its correfpondent. 
 variable quantity P M (y) : the line patting through the extre- 
 mities of all the values of y, i, e. through all the points M, 
 is called a geometrical locus, In general, and the locus of that 
 equation in particular. 
 
 All equations, whofe loci are of the firjl order, maybe re- 
 duced to fome one of the four following formula's : 
 
 bx 
 
 bx 
 
 3 y=^_ 
 
 bx 
 
 4-y= c — ■ 
 
 Where the unknown quantity y is fuppofed always to be freed 
 from fractions, and the fraction that multiplies the other un- 
 known quantity x, to be reduced to this expreflion t. j 
 all the known terms to this a 
 
 The locus of the firft formula being already determined • To 
 
 find that of the fecond, y— — \* C ; in the line AP, (fig, tyA 
 
 tike A B=a , and draw B E=£ , A D=k , parallel to 
 P M. On the fame lide A P, draw the line A E of an in- 
 definite length towards E, and the indefinite (height line If M 
 parallel to AE. I fay the line D M is the locus of the 
 aforefaid equation, or formula; for ifthelincMP be drawn 
 from any point M thereof parallel to A Q, the triangles 
 ABE, APF, will be fimilar : and therefore AB Q) ■ 
 
 BE(i)::AP(z): P Y~ a ; and confequently P M. (^ 
 
 =PF(^)+FM(,). 
 
 proceed 
 
 To find the locus of the third form, fcj 
 
 thus: Affume AB=za, (fig. 32.) and draw the right lines 
 BEb=, AD=f, parallel to PM, the one on one fide AP- 
 and the other on the other fide : and through the points A, E* 
 draw the right line A E of an indefinite length towards E, and 
 through the point D, the line D M parallel to AE; I fay, 
 
LOG 
 
 the indefinite right line G M fhall be the hcus fought j for we 
 
 fhall have always PM f»=P F ( j J-F M r. 
 
 Laftly, to find the locus of the fourth formula, yzzc 
 
 in AT (fig. 33-) tafce AB=(7, and draw BE=i, AD=r* 
 parallel to P M, the one on one fide A P, and the other on 
 the other fide ; and through the points A, E, draw the line 
 AE indefinitely towards E, and through the point D draw 
 the line D M parallel to A E. I fay D G fhall be the locus 
 fought; for if the line IVt P be drawn from any point M 
 thereof, parallel to A Q, then we (halt have always P M (y) 
 
 =FM(0 — PF (-)* 
 
 Hence it appears, that all the loci of the/ry? degree are ftraight 
 lines, which may be eafiiy found, becaufe all their equations 
 may be reduced to fome one of the foregoing formula's. 
 All loci of the fecond degree are conic lections, viz. either the 
 parabola, the circle, ellipfis, or hyperbola; if an equation 
 therefore be given, whofe locus is of the fecond degree, and it 
 be required to draw the conic fection, which is the locus there- 
 of; firft draw a parabola, ellipfis, and hyperbola; fo, as that 
 the equations cxprefiing the natures thereof, may be as com- 
 pound as poflible : in order to get general equations, or for- 
 mula's, by examining the peculiar properties whereof we 
 may know which of thefe formula's the given equation ought 
 to have regard to ; that is, which of the conic fedtions will 
 be the locus of the propofed equation. — This known, com- 
 pare all the terms of the propofed equation with the terms of 
 the general formula of that conic fi-dtion, which you have 
 found will be the locus of the given equation ; by which 
 means you will find how to draw the fection which is the 
 locus of the equation given. 
 
 For example; let AP (*), PM (y), be unknown, and va- 
 riable ftraight lines, (fig. 34.) and let m, n, p, r, s, be given 
 right lines : In the line A P take A Beam, and draw B E 
 A D— r, parallel to PM; and through the point A 
 drawAE^c, and through the point D, the indefinite right 
 line DG parallel to A E. In D G take DC=i, and 
 with C G, as a diameter, having its ordinates parallel to P M, 
 and the line C H—p, as the parameter, defcribe a parabola 
 C M : then the portion thereof, included in the angle PAD, 
 will be the locus of the following general formula. 
 
 For if from any point M of that portion there be drawn 
 the rieht line MP, making any angle A P M with 
 M P i "the triangles ABE, A P F, fhall be fimilar ; there- 
 fore A B {m) •: AE (e) : : A P (*) : AF or DG ='■£. 
 And A B ( m ) : B E («) : : A P (*) : P F ss££ And con- 
 fidently G M or P M — P F— F G =y—?— r , 
 
 andCG orDG-DC = -- s. But from the na- 
 
 , m 
 
 hire of the parabola GM = CG X CH; which equation 
 •will become that of -the general formula, by putting the lite- 
 ral values of thofe lines. 
 
 ASSMB ; >f through the fixed point A you draw the indefinite 
 right line A CL([%* 35-) parallel to P M, and you take A B 
 
 ■=///, and draw B E=» ^parallel to AP, and through the 
 determinate points A, E, the line AE=*; and if in AP 
 you take ADnr, and draw the indefinite ftraight line DG 
 parallel to A E, and take DC=:i: this being done, if with 
 the diameter C G, whofe etretinates are parallel to AP, and 
 
 ■ parameter the line CH=£, you defcribe a parabola C M ; 
 the portion of this parabola contained in the angle BAP fhall 
 ■be the locus of this fecond equation, or formula. 
 
 x x——y x-^-'—yy—z >■ x<\- Z -^ y+ r r=o. I 
 m mm ' m 
 
 1 6 11. f rfi .... - . 
 
 For if the line M Q_ be drawn from any point M, therein, 
 parallel to AP: then will AB (a): AE : : A Q_or 
 
 PM(»:AFor DG — ^. And AB (m) : BE (») :: 
 A Q_{y) : Q_F = And therefore G M or Q,M- 
 Q_F — FG= a-— ^~r; and C G or D G— D C 
 — '-' — j. And fo by the common property of the para- 
 bola, you will have the aforegoing fecond equation, orformula. 
 So likewife may be found general equations, or formula's to 
 the other conic fedtiorw. 
 
 Now if it be required to draw the parabola, which we find 
 tobc the locus of this propofed equation yy — 2 ay— b x -{- 
 cc—o; compare every term of the firft formula with the 
 terms of the equation, becaufe y y in both is without frac- 
 tions; and then will —iza, becaufe the redtangle xy not 
 
 LOG 
 
 being in the propofed equation, the faid rectangle may be 
 efteemed as multiplied by 0 ; whence nz=.o, and m~e ; be- 
 caufe the line AE falling in A B, that is, inAP in the con- 
 ftruction of the formula, the points B, E, docoinde. There- 
 fore, deftroying all the terms adfe£ed with - in the formula, 
 
 and fubftituting m for e, we fiiaii get y y — % ry — px + rr 
 ~{-ps—o. Again, by compaiiiig the correspondent terms 
 
 — 2 ry, and — si ay, as alfo — p x, and s— b x, we have 
 r=r.a, and p=zb; and cor, paring the terms wherein are nei- 
 ther of the unknown, quantities x, y, wc get r r -}- p j~ 
 ff, and fubftituting a and b for r and p, then will s — 
 
 — ^ aa , which is a negative expreffton when a is greater than 
 c, as is here fuppofed. There is no need of comparing the 
 firft terms^j and yy, becaufe they are the very fame. Now 
 the values of «, r, p, s, being thus found, the fought locus 
 may be conftructed by means of the conftrudtion of the for- 
 mula, and after the following; manner. 
 
 Becaufe B E («)= e, (fig 36.} the points B, E, do coincide, 
 and the line A E falls in A P ; therefore through the fixed 
 point A draw the line AD {r) = a parallel to PM, and 
 draw D G parallel to A P, in which take DCr — ^ — 
 
 — fj then with D G,' as a diameter, whofe ordinates are 
 right lines parallel to PM, and parameter the line C H (p) 
 = defcribe a parabola: I fay, the two portions OMM, 
 RMS, therefore, contained in the angle PAO, formed by 
 the line A P, and the line A O drawn parallel to PM, will 
 be the locus of the given equation, as is eafiiy proved. If in 
 a given equation, whofe locus is a parabola, x x without a 
 fraction ; then the terms of the fecond formula muft be com- 
 pared with thofe of the given equation. 
 
 Thus much for the method of conftrucling the loci of equa- 
 tions which are conic fedtions. If, now, an equation, whofe 
 locus is a conic fedtion, be given ; and the particular fection 
 whereof it is the locus, be required : 
 
 All the terms of the given equation being brought over to 
 one fide, fo that the other be equal to o, there will be twu 
 cafes. 
 
 Cafe 1. When the rectangle x yh not in the given equation. 
 l°. If either yy or x x be in the fame equation, the locus 
 will be a parabola. 2°. If both * x and y y are in the equa- 
 tion with the fame figns, the locus will be an ellipfis, or a 
 circle. 3 0 . If x x and yy have different figns, the locus will 
 bean hyperbola, or the oppofite fcdtiuns regarding their dia- 
 meters. 
 
 Cafe 2. When the redtangle x y is in the given equation, 
 i". If neither of the fquarcs x x or yy, or only one of them, 
 be in the fame, the locus of it will be an hyperbola between 
 the afymptotes. 1°. Jf yy and x x be therein, having diffe- 
 rent figns, the locu<; will be an hyperbola, regarding its dia- 
 meters. 3°. If both the fquares # a- and _y y are in the equa- 
 tion, having the fame figns you muft free the Jquaie yy 
 from fractions ; and then the locus will be a hyperbola, when 
 the fquare of \ the fraction multiplying x y, is equal to the 
 fradtion multiplying x x; an ellipfis, or circle, when the fame 
 is lefs; and an hyperbola, or the oppufite fedtions, regarding 
 thcirdiamettrs, when greater. 
 LOCUSTS, is ufed by botanifts for the tender extremities 
 of the branches of trees; fuch as, it is fuppofed, John the 
 baptift fed on in the wildernefs. 
 
 Some aifo ufcdlocujla; for the beards, and pendulous feeds of oa'..?, 
 and of the gramina paniculata ; to which the name is given 
 on account of their figure, which fomething refemblcs thiit of 
 alocuft. 
 
 LODESMAN, or Locman, a pilot eftablifhed for conduct- 
 ing vefTcls in and out of harbours, or up and down navigable 
 rivers. See Pilot. 
 
 LODGMENT, in military affairs, fometimes denotes an 
 incampment made by an army. 
 
 Lodgment is more frequently ufed for a work caff up by the 
 befiegcrs, during their approaches, in fome dangerous poft, 
 which they have gained, and where it is abfolutely neceffary 
 to fecure themfelves againft the enemies fire ; as in a covert- 
 way, in a breach, the bottom of a moat, or any other part 
 gained from the befieged. 
 
 Lodgments are made by cafting up earth, or by gabions, or 
 palifades, wool-packs, fafcines, mantelets, or any thing ca- 
 pable of covering foldiers in the place they have gained, and 
 are determined to keep. 
 
 LOG, a fea term, fignifying a final! piece of timber of a tri- 
 angular figure, on board a fhip ; into one end whereo .a con- 
 venient quantity of lead is caft, to make it fwim upright in 
 the water : the other end being faftened to the 
 
 LoG-Liue, a little cord, or line fattened to one end of the log, 
 and wound round a reel, fixed for that purpofe in the gallery 
 of the fhip. 
 
 This line, from the diftance of about ten fathom off the log, 
 has certain knots or divifions, which ought to be at leaft 50 
 foot from each other : though it is the common practice at 
 fea, not to have them above 42 feet aiunder. 
 
 3 . The 
 
LOG 
 
 The ufe of the log and line, is to keep account, and make 
 an eftiiiiate of the Ihip's way, or diftancc run j which is done 
 by obfeiving the length of line unwound in half a minute's 
 time, told by a half-minute glafs ; for fo many knots as run 
 out in that time, fo many miles the fhip fails in an hour. 
 Thus, if there be four knots veered out in half a minute, the 
 lhip is computed to run four miles an hour. 
 To heave the Log, as they call it, they throw it into the wa- 
 ter, letting it run till it comes without the eddy of the (hip's 
 wake; then one holding a half-minute glafs, turns it upjuft 
 as the firft knot turns off the reel (though fome turn the glafs 
 as foon as the log touches the water.) As foon as the glals is 
 out, the reel is flopped, and the knots run off are told, and 
 their parts eftimated. 
 
 The log ought to be heaved every hour, or every two 
 hours. 
 
 The log is a very precarious way of computing, and muft 
 always be corrected by experience and good fenfc, there 
 being a great deal of uncertainty, both in the heaving of it, 
 in the courfe of the currents, and in the ftrength of the 
 wind, which feldom keeps the fame tenor for two hours 
 together; whicji is the interval, between the times of ufmg 
 the hg, in Ihort voyages, though in longer ones they heave 
 it every hour. Yet is this a much more exact way of computing, 
 than any other in ufe; much preferable certainly to that of 
 the Spaniards and Portuguefc, who guefs at the ihip's way, 
 by the running «f the froth, or water by the (hip's fide ; 
 or to that of the Dutch, who ufe to heave a chip over-board, 
 and to number the paces they walk on the deck, while 
 the fhip fwims between any two marks, or bulk heads on the 
 fide. 
 
 'LoG-Board, is a table divided into four or five columns, where- 
 on are marked the reckoning of every day ; from whence 
 they are entered into the log-book or traverfe book, ruled 
 and columned juft as the leg-board is: whence it may be 
 tranferibed into the journals, and how much the fhip gains 
 in her courfe, be eftimated daily. 
 
 In the firfL column of the log-board is entered the hour of 
 the day, from i to i : in the fecond, the rhumb, or the 
 direction of the vefTel, with regard to the points of the com- 
 pafs: In die third, the number of knots run oft" the reel each 
 time of heaving the log: in the fourth, the wind that blows 
 and in the fifth, obfervations made of the weather, variation 
 of the compafs, IS p. 
 LOGARITHMIC, or Logariihmical, relating to loga- 
 rithms. 
 
 Thus we fay, logarithmic, arithmetic, curve, line, fcale, 
 ■ fpiral. See Arithmetic, toV. 
 
 LOGARITHMS*, the indices of the ratio's of numbers 
 one to another; or, a feries of artificial numbers proceeding in 
 arithmetical proportion, correfponding to as many others pro- 
 ceeding in geometrical proportion j contrived for the eaiing 
 and expediting of calculation. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek X&y©-, ratio, and fiflp,©-, 
 number ; q. d. ratio of numbers. 
 
 Logarithms have been ufually defined numerorum proportio- 
 nalium aquidiffcrentes comites; but this definition Dr. Halley 
 and Stifelius think deficient, and more accurately define them, 
 the indices or exponents of the ratio's of numbers; ratio being 
 conlidcred as a quantity fui generis, beginning from the ratio 
 of equality, or i to iz=o; and being affirmative when the 
 ratio is increafing, and negative when it is decreafing. 
 The nature and genius of logarithms will be eafily conceived, 
 from what follows : — A feries of quantities increafing or de- 
 creafing according to the fame ratio, is called a geometrical 
 ftogrejfton; e. gr. [. 2. 4. 8. 16. 32. &e. A feries of 
 quantities increaiing or decreafing, according to the fame dif- 
 ference, is called an arithmetical progrej/ion ; e. gr. 3. 6. 9. 12. 
 15. 18. 24. Now, if underneath the numbers proceeding in 
 a geometrical ratio, be added as many of thofe proceeding in 
 the arithmetical one; thefe laft are Called the logarithms of 
 the nrft. 
 
 Suppofe, e. gr. two progreffions : 
 
 Geomet. 1. 2. 4. 8. 16. 32. 64. 128. 256. 512. 
 Arithmet. o. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 
 
 Logarithms. 
 
 O will be the logarithm of the firft term, viz. 1 ; 5, of the 
 6th, 32; 7 the logarithm of the 8th, 128, &c. 
 The doctrine and ufe of logarithms, may be conceived from 
 the following proportions. 
 
 1°. If the logarithm of unity he o, the logarithm of the fac- 
 tum or producl will be equal to the fum of the logarithms of the 
 faclors. — For as unity is to one of the factors, fo is the 
 other factor to the product. So that the logarithm of the 
 product, is a fourth equidifferent term to the logarithm of 
 unity, and thofe of the factors: but the logarithm of unity 
 being 0, the fum of the logarithms of the factors muft be the 
 logarithm of the factum, or product, q. e. d. 
 Hence, fince the factors of a fquare are equal to each other, 
 /. e. a fquare is the factum or product of its root multiplied 
 Vol. II. 
 
 LOG 
 
 into itfelf; the logarithm of the fquare will be double the loga- 
 rithm of the root. 
 
 In the fame manner it appears, that the logarithm of the cube 
 is triple; of the biquadiate, quadruple; of the fifth power, 
 quintuple; ofthcfixth, fextuple, C3V; of the logarithm of the 
 root* 
 
 Unity, therefore, is to the exponent of the power, as the 
 logarithm of the root to the logarithm of the power. 
 So that the logarithm of the power is had, if the logarithms of 
 the root be multiplied by its exponent; and the logarithm of 
 the root is had, if the logarithm of the power be divided by- 
 its exponent. 
 
 And hence we derive one of the great ufes of logarithms, which 
 is to expedite and facilitate the bufinefs of multiplication, and 
 extraction of roots; the former of which is here performed by 
 mere addition, and the latter by multiplication. — Thus 3, the 
 fum of the logarithms 1 and 2, is the logarithm of 8, the 
 product of 2 and 4. — In like manner 7, the fum of the loga- 
 rithms 2 and 5, is the logarithm of 128, the product of 
 4 and 32. — Again, 3, the logarithm of the fquare root 8, 
 is half the logarithm of fix, the fquare root of 64; and 2, 
 the logarithm of the cube root 4, is fubrriple the logarithm 6 
 of the cube root 64. , 
 2°. If the logarithm, of unity he o y the logarithm of the quo- 
 tient will be equal to the difference of the logarithms of the di- 
 vifor and dividend. — For as the divifor is to the dividend, 
 fo is unity to the quotient; therefore the logarithm of the 
 quotient is a fourth equidifferent number to the logarithms of. 
 the divifor, the dividend, and the logarithm of unity. The 
 logarithm of unity, therefore, being 0, the difference of the 
 logarithm of the divifor, and that of the dividend, is the loga- 
 rithm of the quotient, q. e. d. 
 
 Hence appears another great advantage of logarithms, viz. 
 their expediting the bufinefs of divilion, and performing it by 
 a bare fubftraction. E. gr. 2, the difference between 7 and 
 5, is the logarithm of the quotient 4, out of 128 by 32. In 
 like manner, 5, the difference between 8 and 3, is the loga- 
 rithm of the quotient 32, out of 25b by 8. 
 An example or two will render the uie of logarithms in mul- 
 tiplication, divifion, &c, obvious. 
 
 Num. Log 
 Multiply 68 1.83250 
 by 12-J-J. 07918 
 
 816 2.9116S 
 
 9 °-954*4 
 9 0.9 424 
 
 Sq. 81 2)1.90848(0. 9542475*. R. 
 
 um. 
 
 Log. 
 
 816 
 
 2.91 168 
 
 12 
 
 1.079 1 S 
 
 68 
 
 1.83250 
 
 9 
 
 0.95424 
 
 9 
 
 0.95424 
 
 9 
 
 0.95424 
 
 Sq. ; 
 
 Cube 729 3)2.f>6272( 0.9542+ 
 Cube R, 
 
 The properties of logarithms hl&erto mentioned, and their vari- 
 ous ufes, are taken notice of by Stifelius: but they come all far 
 ITiort of the ufe of logarithms in trigonometry, firft difcovered 
 by the lord Napier. 
 
 To find the logarithm of any number, and to conJlruR 9 ca- 
 non of logarithms for natural numbers.— 1°. Eecaufe i. 10. 
 100. 1000. 10000. tdt. conftitute a geometrical progrcfTion, 
 their logarithms may be taken at pleafure: to be able, then 
 to exprefs the logarithms of the intermediate numbers by de- 
 cimal fractions, take o.oooocooo, 1. 00000000, 2.00000000 
 3.00000000, 4.00000000, &c. — 2°. It is mamfeft, that 
 for thofe numbers which are not contained in the fcale of 
 geometrical progreflion, the juit logarithms cannot be had : 
 yet may they be had fo near the truth, that, as to matters of 
 
 ufe, they mall be altogether as good as if ftrictly juff. To 
 
 make this appear, fuppofe the logarithm of the number 9 
 were required: between 1. 0000000 and io.oooooco, find a 
 mean proportional, and between their logarithms 0.00000000 
 and 1. 00000000 an equidifferent mean, which will be the 
 logarithm thereof; that is, of a number exceeding three by 
 tb!s5 7 .^o-.:> and therefore far remote from nine. Between 
 3 and 10, therefore find another mean proportional, which 
 may come fomewhat nearer 9; and between 10 and this 
 mean another ftill; and fo on between the numbers next 
 above and next underneath 9, till at laft you arrive at 
 9 t eSSwyei which not being one millionth part from 9, 
 its logarithm may, without any fenfible error, be taken for 
 that of 9 itfelf. Seeking then in each cafe for the loga- 
 rithms of the mean proportionals, you will at laft have 
 O.954251, which is exceedingly near the true logarithm of 
 9.— '3°. If in like manner yuu find mean proportionals be- 
 tween 1. 0000000 and 3.1622777, and aflign convenient lo- 
 garithms to each, you will at length have the logarithm of 
 the number 2, and fo of the reft.— 4 0 . There "needs not 
 however, be fo much pains taken in inveffigating the loga- 
 rithms of all numbers; fince thofe that coniift of aliquot 
 parts beingdivided,and others mutually multiplying each other 
 heir logarithms are eafily found. — Thus if the Isgarith.-n 
 5 C c c 
 
LOG 
 
 of the number 9 be bifle&ed, we (hall have the logarithm 
 O.4771212.5 of the. number 3. 
 
 The indicfe or ctooflauacs of logarithms, cnrrclpond to 
 the denominative part of the natural numbers, as the other 
 ' member of the logarithm does, to the denominative part of 
 the number: (. the index {hews the denomination, or 
 place of the laft (or left hand) figure of the number, and con- 
 fequently of all the reft. — Thus 0, affixed to a logarithm-, 
 denotes tlic laft figure of the number, to which the logarithm 
 anfwers, to be nothing diftant ft. e. is ih) the place of units. 
 The index 1 fhews the laft figure of its number to be diftant 
 1 place from the place of units, i. e. to he in the place of 
 tens, and confequcntly the number itfelf to be either 10, or 
 fbme number between that and 100, and fo of the other in- 
 dices. — Hence all numbers, which have the fame denomi- 
 native, but not the fame numerative parts, as all numbers 
 from 1 to 10, from 10 to 100, &c. will have logarithms, 
 whofe indices are the fame, but the other members diflerent. 
 Again, all numbers which have the fame numerative, but 
 not denominative part., will have different indices; but the 
 reft of the logarithms the fame. — If a number be purely deci- 
 mal, to its logarithm is affixed a negative index, mewing the 
 diftance of its firft fignificative figure, from the place of 
 units. — Thus the logarithm of the decimal, 256 is 1.43824, 
 of the decimal, 0256 is 2.40824, lsc. 
 
 The firft canon of logarithms for natural numbers, from I 
 to 20000, and from goooo to 100000, was conftructed by 
 Hen. Briggs, with the approbation of the inventor, the lord 
 Napier, and the manner of conftructing them fhewn. — The 
 chafm between 20000 and goooo, was filled up by Adrian 
 Ulach, — In the common tables we have only a canon from 
 I to 10000. — There are various other methods of con- 
 structing logarithms, by Dr. Halley, Mr. Cotes, Dr. Brook 
 Taylor, £sV. which the reader may find in the Philojophical 
 Tranfaclions. 
 
 To find the logarithm for a number gi'eater than any in the 
 common canon, hut lefs than 10000000. — Cut off four fi- 
 gures on the left of the given number, and feek the loga- 
 rithm in the table; add as many units to the index, as there 
 are figures remaining on the right; fubftract the logarithm 
 found from that next following it, in the table: then, as the 
 difference of numbers in the canon, is to the tabular diftance 
 of the logarithms anfwering to them, fo are the remaining 
 figures of the given number to the logarithmic difference; 
 which if it be added to the logarithm before found, the fum 
 will be the logarithm required. Suppofe, v. gr. the logarithm 
 of the number 92375 required. Cut off the four figures 9237, 
 and to the character iftic of the logarithm correfponding to 
 them, add an unit; then, 
 
 From the logarith. of the numb. 9238=3.9655780 
 Subftract. logarithm numb. 9237=3.9655309 
 
 Remains tabular difference 
 10— 471— 5 
 5) 2 1 
 
 -Juol .. 90S u!.T)o,.J . 
 
 Now to the logarithm ■ 4-9655309 
 
 Add the difference found 1 — ■ 235 
 
 The fum is the logarithm rcquired- 
 
 -+-9 6 55544 
 
 To find the logarithm of a fraclion. — Subftradt the logarithm 
 of the numerator, from that of the denominator, and to the 
 remainder prefix the fign of fubftraction.— -Thus luppole it 
 required to find the logarithm of the fraction J , y 
 Logarithm of 7=0.8450980 
 Logarithm of 3=0.4771213 
 
 Logarithm of 4=0-3679767 • 
 The realbn of the rule is, That a fraction being the quo- 
 tient of the denominator divided by the numerator; its loga- 
 rithm muft be the difference of the logarithms of thofe two; 
 fo that the numerator being fubflracted from the denomi- 
 nator, the difference becomes negative. — StifeHus obferved, 
 that the logarithms of a proper fraction, muft always be nega- 
 tive, if that of unity be o; which is evident, a fraction being 
 lefs than one. 
 
 For an improper fraclion, v. gr. -?, its numerator being 
 ircater than its denominator, its logarithm is had, by fub- 
 ftraclin"- the logarithm of the latter, from that of die former. 
 The logarithm of 9=0.9542425 
 Logarithm of 5=0.6989700 
 
 Logarithm -5=0.2552725 
 In the fame manner may a logarithm of a mixt number, as 
 3 * be found, it being firlt reduced into an improper fraction 
 •oV* - 
 To find the number correfponding to a logarithm greater than 
 any in the table. — Firlt from the given logarithm, fubftract 
 the hgarithm of 10, or 100, or 1000, or 10000, till you 
 have a logarithm that will come within the compafs of the 
 table; find the number correfponding to this, and multiply 
 it by io, or 100, or icoo, or iqooo, the product is the 
 number required. 
 
 LOG 
 
 Suppofe, for infhncc, the number correfponding td the loga- 
 rithm 7.7589982 be required; fubftradt the logarithm of the 
 number 10000, which is 4.0000000, from 7.589982; the 
 remainder is 3.7589982, the number conx-iponding to which 
 ' s 574 1 tVc, this multiplied by 10000, the product is 
 57411100, the number required. 
 
 To find the number correfponding to a negative logaritlim. 
 —To the given negative logarithm, add the laft kgaritlnn of 
 the table, or that of the number 10000; /'. e. fubftract the 
 firft from the fecond, and find the number correfponding to 
 the remainder; this will be the numerator of the fraction, 
 whofe denominator will be 10000; v. gr. fuppofe it be re- 
 quired to find the fraction correfponding to the negative loga- 
 rithm 0.3679767, fubftract this from 
 
 The remainder is 3-6320233, the number cor- 
 refponding to which is 4285 the fraction fought there- 
 fore is T *^ Q -5. — The reafon of the rule is, that as a frac- 
 tion is the quotient, arifing on the divifion of the numera- 
 tor by the denominator, unity will be to the fraction, as the 
 denominator to the numerator; but as unity is to the fracti- 
 on correfponding to the given negative logarithm, fo is 10000 
 to the number correfponding to the remainder; therefore if 
 10000 be taken for the denominator, the number will be the 
 numerator of the fraction required. 
 
 To find a fourth proportional to three given numbers. — Add 
 the logarithm of the fecond to that of the third, and from 
 the fum fubftract the logarithm of the firft; the remainder is 
 the logarithm of the fourth required. E. gr. let the given 
 numbers be 4. 68. and 3. 
 
 Logarithm 68=1.8325089 
 L ogarithm 3=0.4771213 
 
 Sum=2. 3096302 
 Logarithm 4=0.6020600 
 
 Logarithm required 1-7075732 
 
 The number in the tables correfponding to which is 51.— 
 This problem is of the utmolt ufe in trigonometry. See 
 Triangle, and Trigonometry. 
 LOGIC*, the art of thinking juftly; or of making a right 
 ufe of our rational faculties, in defining, dividing and reafon. - 
 
 tag. 
 
 * J h r e W r rd " Greck > ^y'**' derived from J\ oy ©., firma, 
 difcourfc; in regard, thinking is only an inward, mental 
 diicourfc, wherein the mind converfes with itfdf. 
 
 Logic is alfo fometimes called dialetlica; and fometimes the 
 canonical art, as being a canon, or rule, for directing us in 
 our reafonings. 
 
 As, in order to think aright, it is neceffary that we appre- 
 hend, judge, diicourfe, and dilpofe or methodize rightly: 
 hence apprehcnfion, judgment, difcourfe, and method^ be- 
 come the four fundamental articles of this art; and it is from 
 our refleaions on thofe operations of the mind, that logic is 
 or ought to be wholly drawn. 
 
 Lord Bacon divides logic into four branches, according to the 
 ends propofed in each: for a man reafons, either to find what 
 he fecks, or to judge of what he finds, or to retain what he 
 judges, or to teach what he retains; whence arife fo many 
 arts of rcafoning, viz. the art of inanition, or invention; 
 the art of examining, or judgment; the art of preferring, or 
 of memory j and the art of elocution, or delivering. 
 Logic having been extremely abufed, is now in fomc difreputc 
 The fchools have fo clogged it with barbarous terms and- 
 phrafes, and have run it out fo much into dry, ufelcfs fub 
 tilties, that it feems rather intended to exercife the mind in 
 wrangling and difputation, than to affift it in thinking juftl- 
 Jt is true, in its original, it was rather intended as the art of 
 cavilling, than of reafoning; the Greeks, among whom it 
 had its rife, being a people who piqued themfelves mightily 
 upon their being able to talk ex tempore, and to argue by 
 turns, on either fide the qu eft ion.— Hence their dialectic! 
 to be always furnifhcd with arms for fuch rencounters, invent' 
 ed afet of words and terms, rather than rules and reafons 
 fitted for the ufes of contention and dilpute. 
 Logic, then, was only an art of words, which frequently had 
 no meaumg, but ferved well enough to hide ignorance inftead of 
 improvmg knowledge; to baffle reafon inftead of zBfliw it - 
 and to confound the truth, inftead of clearing it.— Much of 
 that heap of words, and rules, which we have borrowed from 
 the old logic, is of little ufe in life; and is fo far out of the 
 common ufage, that the mind does not attend to them with- 
 out trouble; and finding nothing in them to reward its atten 
 tion, it foon difcharges itfelf, andlofes all ideas it had conceived 
 of them. 
 
 But logic difengaged from the jargon of the fchools, and re- 
 duced into a clear and intelligible method, is the art of con 
 ducting the underftandmg in the knowledge of things, an d 
 the diicovery of truth, . . 
 
 r From 
 
L O I 
 
 From its proper ufe wc gain feveral very confideraMe advan- 
 tages; for i°. The confideration of rules, incites the mind 
 to a clofcr attention and application in thinking; fo that We 
 hereby become aflurcd that we make the heft ufe of our fa- 
 culties. 2°. We hereby, more eafily, and accurately difco- 
 ver, and point out the errors and defers in our reafonin^; 
 for the common light of reafon, unaiTifted by logic, frequently 
 obferves an argumentation to be faulty, without being able to 
 determine wherein the precife failure confifts— 3°. By thefe 
 refledions on the order and manner of the operations of the 
 mind, we are brought to a more juft and compleat know- 
 ledge of the nature of our own undcrftanding. See Soul, 
 and Understanding. 
 
 logical concrete. / r *jj . , j concrete 
 
 L O N 
 
 LOGICAL Concrete. 1 ~ , ., ( 
 Logical Part. ) bce *c article i 
 
 7*r3? n ** url ' 3 1 Part. 
 
 LOGISTA, the title of an officer at Athens, whofe bufinefs 
 was to receive, and pafs the accounts of magiftrates, when 
 they came out of their office. 
 
 The logijlee were in number ten : they were elected by lot ; 
 and had ten euthyni, or auditors of accounts under them. 
 LOGISTIC, or Logarithmic /hid, a curve fo called, from 
 its properties and ufes, in conftruaing and explaining the na- 
 ture of logarithms. 
 
 If the right line A X, (Tab. Analyfis, fig. 37.) be divided into 
 any number of equal parts, and to the" points of thofe divi- 
 fions A, P, p, &c. be drawn lines continually proportional, 
 the points N, M, m, &c. form the hgijiic, or logarithmic 
 line, or curve. 
 
 Here the Abfciflcs A P, A />, &c. arc the logarithms of the 
 femiordinates P M, p m y &c. 
 
 Hence, if A P = x, A p=v, P M=v, p m—x, and their 
 logarithms y and x = ly and / z; x will be = / y, and v— 
 I x, confequcntly x : v = I y : 1 x, that is, the denominators 
 of the ratio's A N : P M, and A N : p m, are to one another, 
 as the abfciflis A P and A p. 
 
 Hence it follows, that there may be infinite other hgijiic lines 
 invented, provided x m : v m : : ly : I x, that any of the roots 
 or powers, may be the logarithms of the femiordinates. 
 The hgijhc will never concur with the axis, except at an in- 
 unite diltance, fo that A X is its afymptote. 
 $mirature of the Logistic. See the article Quadra- 
 ture. 
 
 Logistic, or logarithmic Spiral, a line whofe conftruaion is 
 as loilows.— Divide the quadrant of a circle into any number 
 ot equal parts, in the points P, p, p, &c. (Tab. Analyfis, 
 
 C M, C m, C m, &c. continually proportional, the points 
 M, m, m, &c. form the hgijiic fpiral. 
 
 The arches therefore A P, A p, &c. are the logarithms of the 
 ordinates CM,C m, &c. whence alfo it follows, that there 
 may be infinite hgijiic fpirals. 
 LOGISTICA, or Logistical Arithmetic, a denomina- 
 tion fometimes g,vcn to the arithmetic of fexagcfimal fracti- 
 ons, ufed by aftronomers in their calculations. 
 It was fo called from a Greek treatife of one Bailaamus Mo- 
 nachus, who wrote about fexagefimal multiplication very ac- 
 curately, and entitled his book AJW* This author Vof- 
 lius places about the year i 3 ;c, but he miftakes the work for a 
 treatile of algebra. 
 
 Shakerly, in his Tabula: Britannic*, has a table of logarithms 
 adapted to fexagefimal fraflions, which therefore he calls 
 logjheal logarithms; and the expeditious arithmetic of them 
 which is by this means obtained, and by which all the trouble 
 oi multiplication and divilion is faved, he calls logijlical arith- 
 
 LOGOGRIPHUS*, a kind of fymbol, or riddle, propof- 
 edto ftudents for then (olution, in order to excrcife and im- 
 prove the mind. 
 
 * I 1 " "ST* comtsfrom Greek difcourfe, and 
 
 orypn®*, net. /■f'y^. 
 
 The hgogriphus ufually confifts in fome equivocal allimon 
 or mutilation ot words, which, literally taken, fignify fome- 
 thing different from the thing intended by it; fo that it is a 
 kind ot medium, between a rebus, and proper ami-mia. See 
 
 KEBL'S, l3c. 0 
 
 In anotner place, the tame author defines hgogriphu to be an 
 *n,gma, which, under one name or word, wilf b 'carva r ous 
 meanings, by adding or retrenching fome part of tl-Thk 
 kind ot xnigmas « well known to the Arab , amont who, 
 ^rc authors who treat expreflv of it. ' h ° m 
 
 t nm. , &cthe article Loch. 
 
 LLUNS, Litmbi, in anatomv, that naif 'nFt-Tj.t,„J c . , 
 reins, properly , h , Wcr ofrij^f i ilt^ttct^com 
 
 fcealloSpiNE, and Vertebra. m ' 
 
 LOLLARDS*, a religious fea which arote in Germany, 
 about the beginning of the fourteenth century; fo called 
 from Its author Walter Lollard, who began to dogmatize in 
 
 * The monk of C anICTb „ry derives the origin of the word M- 
 lard among us l,„ ra UUum, .ore, a j irthe Here the 
 
 tares low., . 1, Curia's vineyard.-Abelly f.,y s , that .he word 
 /»/W l,gn,nes;M,> 4 G^, from the German ««, to praife 
 ?u Lo ', ii bmuk UUa '-< 1 ' imployed thcmfelves 
 
 ,11 travelling, about from place to place, linging pfalms and 
 
 Lollard, and his followers, rejefted the facrifice of the mafs 
 extreme una,on, and penances for fin ; arguing that Chrift's 
 fork-rings were fufficicnt. He is likcwife fai.i to have fet 
 al.de baptilm, as a thing of no effect ; and repentance, as not 
 abfolutclyiKcellary, b'c— Lollard was burnt aiive at Colosrne 
 in 1322^ 6 ' 
 
 In England the followers of Wickliff were called, by way of 
 reproach, Lollards, from fome affinity there was between feme 
 of their tenets; though others arc of opinion, that the Englifh 
 Lollards came from Germany. 
 
 They were folemnly condemned by the archbilhop of Can- 
 terbury, and the council of Oxford. 
 LONG irat, i„ grammar, feV. a mark which fhews that 
 the voice is to ftay fome time on the vowel which it is placed 
 over. • v 
 
 Its figure is thus (-), 
 Long Boat, is the Iargeft and ftrongeft boat belonging to a 
 top, thatcanbehoifteda-boardofher. See Boat. 
 Its ufe ,s to bring any goods, provifions, &c. to, or from 
 the ilnp; or, on occaf.on, to land men any where, and par- 
 ticularly to weigh the anchor. 
 Long^W. 7 r Long Hand. 
 
 Long Mea/ure. I See < Measure. 
 
 Loso Mufiles, in anatomy. 3 { Longus 
 LONGEVITY, length of life. See L:fe, and Age. 
 ilroitttne different longevities of men in the beginning of the 
 world, after the flood, and in thefe ages, M. IDerham 
 draws a good argument, for the intcrpofition of a divine pro- 
 vidence. r 
 Immediately after the creation, when the world was to be peo- 
 pled by one man and woman, the ordinary age was qoo years 
 and upwards—Immediately after the flood, when there 
 were three perions to ftock the world, their age was cut 
 lhorter and none of thofe patriarchs, but Shem, arrived at 
 
 \ ,° nd CCn , tur >' we find none that "ached 
 240. in the third, none but Terah that came to 200 years- 
 the world at leaft a part of it, by that time being f/ weli 
 peopled, that they had hull, cities, Ld were cantonea outmto 
 diftan nations—By degrees, as the number of people in- 
 creafed, to^J^vit, dmndledj till it came down a/length 
 to . 70 or 80 years: and there it flood, and has continued to 
 fland, ever hnce the time of Mofes.-This is found a good 
 medium, and by means hereof the world is neither oW 
 
 eqXce 0 : " CPt '°° ^ * ^ « k ^ \ W 
 ThM the common duration of man's life has been the fame 
 n al ages fince the world was peopled, is plain both from 
 acred, and p rofa „ c hlJIOry . To pafe ^ m 
 
 to Si, and was accounted an old man; and the inftanccs of 
 hng^'ty produced by Pl,„ y , L . j. c. 4 8. as very cxtraordl- 
 
 nSeuS m °n 0t D ? Cn ; bc matchcd innrodemhiftories; 
 particularly ,„ Dr. Plotfs Nat. Hijl. of Oxf. and Staff 
 
 p7rfon 0n wh° therS 'd hC ,dlS ° f ^*™sVthelt 
 Pa r wh f T " P ' 00 ° ^ arS! to % nothia g ^ old 
 
 "i"%yw * both of Ireland, who each execed- 
 
 L °ffibTe Il f"d Yt J* m ° f mCafuri "S hoth ac- 
 
 ccffible, as roads, ig,, mi inacceffible, as arms of the lea, 
 
 tr! g°"° mc "'>'. i*« a dependant on 
 Smetr>, & m: ""' er M altimCtr>_ ' P' a " imetr >-' 
 
 The art of longimetry, fee under the names of the inftruments 
 rSrV eS'™' 1 '' Theodolite, Chain, Uc. 
 LONGISSIMUS Dor/i, is a mufcle of the back, which 
 at its beginning, ,s not to be dillinguiihed from the facro-Ium- 
 oans; anling with it from the hinder part of the os ilium 
 and os facrum, and the firfl vertebra of the loins. 
 It runs upwards along the whole traa of the back and is 
 connefted by tendons to each tranfverfe procels inks wav 
 and ends fometimes in the firfl vertebra of the back and 
 fometimesin the firfl of the neck, and, as fome authors fay 
 reaches now and then to the proccflus nummularis of the 03 
 petrofum. a 
 In conjunction with fome others, this helps to keep the body 
 
 Longissimus OaJi. Sec Osliquus Superior. 
 LONGITUDE of , he Earthh fometimes ufed to denote 
 . its extent from weft to eaft; according ,0 the direftion of the 
 
 By 
 
LON 
 
 By which k ftands contradiftinguifhed from htitude of the 
 . Jrth, which denotes its extent from one pole to the other. 
 Longitude of a Star, in aftronomy is an arch of the eclip- 
 tic, counted from the beginning of Aries, to the place where 
 a ftar's circle of longitude cuts the ecliptic. . 
 The longitude of a ftar, as S, (Tab. AJlronom h fig. 14. ". 2.) is 
 an arch of the ecliptic E L, comprehended between the begin- 
 ning of Aries, and the circle of longitude T M, drawn through 
 the centre of the ftar S. . 
 Longitude ftands in the fame relation to the ecliptic, that right 
 afcenfon does to the equator. 
 
 In which fenfe, the longitude of a ftar amounts to much the 
 fame as the ftar's place in the ecliptic, reckoned from the be- 
 ginning of Aries; which to find, feePlACE of the Sun or 
 
 StajL' v t,? J^^i aJ'.,|4tor'*, ^r* ^ ' v • oil 
 
 Lon'CITUDE of the Sim or a Star, from the next equinoctial 
 point, is the number of degrees and minutes they are from 
 the beginning of Aries or Libra, either before or after them; 
 which can never be more than an 180 degrees. 
 hoKClTVDZefaplaccm geography, is its diftancc from 
 fome firft meridian ; or an arch of the equator, intercepted 
 between the meridian of the place, and the firft meridian. 
 Longitude, in navigation, is the diftance of a ftnp or place, 
 caft or weft, from another, counted in degrees of the equator. 
 If this diftancc be counted in leagues or miles, or in degrees 
 of the meridian, and not in thofe proper to the parallel of la- 
 titude, it is ufually called departure. 
 
 To difcovcr an exact method of rinding the longitude at tea, 
 is a problem that has extremely perplexed the mathematicians 
 oftjlefe two laft ages; and for the folution whereof, great 
 reward? have been publickly offered by the Englifti, French, 
 Dutch, and other nations : this being the only thing wanting 
 to render navigation pcrfefl. Various are the attempts that 
 authors have made for this purpofe, and various the methods 
 they have propofed ; but ftill without fuccefs ; all their fchemes 
 beino- found either falfe, precarious, impracticable, or in fome 
 way "or other defeaivc : fo that the palm is ftill unafcer- 
 -tained, : -. . i ■ '"■ — 
 
 What mod of them aim at, is a method of . determining the 
 difference of time between any two points on the earth : for, 
 everv 1 5 decrees of the equator anfwering to an hour, t. e. 
 one degree to 4 minutes of time, and one minute of a degree 
 to 15 feconds of time; the difference of time being known, 
 and turned into degrees, will give the longitude, and vice 
 
 This', fome have pretended to effefl by clocks, watches, and 
 other automata ; but always in vain ; no time-keeper, ex- 
 cepting a pendulum (which cannot be applied at fea) being 
 fufficicntly fure and exaft for the purpofe. See Fodu- 
 
 Othcrs, with more probability, and to better purpofe, fearch 
 for a means to find the longitude in the heavens : for, if the 
 exact times of any celeftial appearance be known for two 
 places, the difference of thofe times gives that of the longitude 
 of thofe places.— Now in the ephemerides, we have the mo- 
 tions of the planets, and the times of all the celeftial phseno- 
 mcna, as the beginning and ending of eclipfes, conjunaions 
 of the moon with other planets, its entrance into the eclip- 
 tic, tsc. accurately calculated for fome one place. There- 
 fore if the hour and minute be known, wherein any of the 
 fame phenomena are obferved in an unknown place, the dif- 
 ference between the hour and minute, of that place, and that 
 other to which the tables are calculated, and confequently the 
 difference of their meridians, and their longitude from each 
 other, are known alfo. 
 
 Now the difficulty heie does not confift in the exact finding 
 of the time, which is cafily had from the fun's altitude or 
 azimuth ; but the deleft lies in the paucity of proper appear- 
 ances, capable of being thus obferved : for all flow motions 
 (v. gr. that of Saturn) are at once excluded ; as fhewing 
 but little difference in a confiderable fpace of time; and it 
 bein^ here required, that the phenomenon be fenfibly varied 
 in two minutes time, an error of two minutes in time pro- 
 ducing another of thirty miles in the longitude. — Now there 
 are no phsenomena in the heavens that have thefe requifites, 
 excepting the feveral ftages of an eclipfe of the moon ; her 
 longitude, or place in the zodiac; her diftance from the fixed 
 ftars, or appulfe to them ; her ingrefs into the ecliptic, or the 
 points of her orbit, where that cuts the ecliptic ; and the con- 
 junflion, diftance, and eclipfes of Jupiter's fatellites — Of 
 each of which in their order. • 
 
 I 3 . The method by the eclipfes of the moon, is very eafy, 
 and fufficiently accurate, were there but eclipfes every night. 
 
 . At the moment wherein we fee the beginning or middle 
 
 of a lunar eclipfe by a telefcope, we have nothing to do but 
 take the altitude or azimuth of fome fixed ftar, from which 
 the hour and minute are eafily found ; or without the alti- 
 tude, if the ftar be in the meridian.' — This hour and minute, 
 therefore, thus found, and compared with that expreiled in 
 the tables, gives the longitude. 
 
 2°. The moon's place in the zodiac, is a phenomenon more 
 frequent than that of her eclipfes ; but then tire obfervation 
 
 LON 
 
 thereof is difficult, and the calculus intricate and perplexed, by 
 reafon of two parallaxes ; fo that it is fcarce practicable to 
 any tolerable degree of accuracy. — Indeed, by waiting till 
 the moon comes into the meridian of the place, and then 
 taking the altitude of fome remarkable ftar, (the altitude be- 
 ing fuppofed to be firft known) from this altitude, and the 
 latitude, we fhall be able to find the time pretty accurately ; 
 though it will be better to do it by fome ftar in the meridian. 
 — Now, the time being found, it will be eafy to find what 
 point of the ecliptic is then in the meridian, or mid-heaven. 
 — Thus we mail have the moon's place in the zodiac, cor-- 
 refponding to the time of our place.— Then in the epheme- 
 ris, we find what hour it is in the meridian of the epheme- 
 ris, when the moon is in that part of the zodiac : thus we 
 fhall have the hour and minute of the two places for the 
 fame time ; the difference of which, will give the difference 
 of longitude, 
 
 3 0 . In regard there are many times when the moon cannot 
 be obferved in the meridian, there is therefore another ftill 
 more frequent phenomenon from which the longitude is 
 fought, viz. the moon's appulfe, and recefs from the fixed, 
 ftars : for from thence the moon's true place may be invefti- 
 gated for the ^iven time of obfervation. — But this method, 
 by reafon of the parallaxes, and the folution of oblique fphc- 
 rical triangles and the various cafes, is fo very difficult and 
 perplexed, that mariners will fcarce be able to make ufe of 
 it j nor does it feem neceffary here to give the praxis thereof. 
 Thofe, however, who are difpofed to ufe it, will find very 
 great help in it from a ftarry zodiac, publifhed under the di- 
 rection of Dr. Halley, containing all the ftars to which the 
 moon's appulfe can be obferved. 
 
 4 0 . To find the longitude by the moon's ingrefs into the 
 ecliptic, obferve the moment of that ingrefs : then, in the 
 ephemeris, fee what hour it is in the meridian of the ephe- 
 merls, when that ingrefs happens.— The difference between 
 thefe times, gives the difference of longitude. See Moon. 
 5^. The phenomena of Jupiter's fatellites arc generally pre- 
 ferred to thofe of the moon, for finding the longitude; by rea- 
 fon the former are lefs liable to parallaxes, and do, further, 
 afford a very commodious obfurvation, in every fituation of 
 that. plaaet above the horizon. — Their motion is very fwift, 
 and muft be calculated for every hour ; and for that reafon they 
 are not found in the common ephemerides, but are had clfewhere. 
 Now, to find the kngitude by means of thefe fatellites ; with 
 a good telefcope, obferve a conjunction of two of them, or 
 of one of them with Jupiter, or any other the like appear- 
 ance j and, at the fame time, find the. hour and minute from 
 the meridian altitude of fome ftar; then confulting tables of 
 the fatellites, obferve the hour and minute wherein fuch ap- 
 pearance happens in the meridian of the place to which the 
 tables are calculated. — The difference of time, as before* 
 will give the longitude. 
 
 All methods which depend on the phenomena of the heavens 
 having this one defect, that they cannot be obferved at all 
 times ; and being, befides difficult of application at fea, by 
 reafon of the motion of the flupj there are fome, who, leav- 
 ing the moon, and the fatellites, have recourfe to clocks, 
 and other automata : which, could they be made perfectly 
 juft and regular, fo as to move with the fun, without either 
 gaining or lofing, and without being affected with the change 
 of air, and of climates, the longitude would be had with all 
 the eafe and accuracy imaginable ; nothing more being re- 
 quired but to fet the machine by the fun at the time of de- 
 parture ; and when the longitude of any place is defired, to 
 find the hour and minute from the heavens, (which is done 
 at night by the ftars, and in the day by the fun ;) for the 
 difference between the time, thus obferved, and that of the 
 machine, gives the longitude,— But no fuch machine fi3s been 
 yet difcovered : wherefore recourfe has been it ii i further had 
 to other methods. 
 
 Mr. Whifton and Mr. Ditton have propofed a method of de- 
 termining the longitude, by the flafh and report of great guns. 
 —Sounds, it is known, move pretty equably in ail their 
 ftages, whatever the fonorous body be that occaiions them, or 
 whatever the medium that conveys them. ]f then a mortar or 
 great gun be exploded at a place whofe longiuide is known, 
 the difference between the time wherein die flafh (which, 
 moves, as it were, inftantaneoufly) is feen, and the found, 
 which moves at the rate of four feconds in r. mile,, is heard, 
 will give the diftance of thofe places from each other; whence, 
 if their latitudes be known, the difference of longitude will be 
 Hkewife known. 
 
 Again, if the hour and minute of the explofion be known, 
 (for the place where it is made) by obferving the hour and 
 minute from the fun or ftars, at the place whofe longitude is 
 required ; the difference between thofe times, will give the 
 difference of longitude. 
 
 Again, if the faid mortar be loaden with an iron fhell full 
 of combuflible matter, and pofited perpendicularly, it will 
 carry the fame a mile high, which will be feen near a hun- 
 dred miles ; if therefore neither the found fhould hg heard, 
 northeflafti feen, the diftance of any remote place from the 
 * 3 place 
 
L O N 
 
 LOR 
 
 place of thfi mortar, may be determined from the altitude of 
 the ihell above the horizon of the place unknown : and the 
 diftance and latitudes known, the longitude is ealily found. 
 According to this fchemc, it was propofed to have fuch mor- 
 tars fixed at proper diftances, and at known ftations, on all 
 the frequented coafte, iflands, capes, bV. and to be exploded 
 at certain hours, for the obfervation of mariners. 
 This method, though good in the theory, yet is found ufe- 
 lefs in the practice; as being extremely troublefome, and yet 
 precarious. — It fuppofes that founds may be heard forty, 
 fifty; or lixty miles; of which, it is true, we have inftances, 
 but they are very rare; and, ordinarily, the report of a can- 
 non is not heard above half fo far; and fometimes much lefs. 
 —It fuppofes-, again, found to move always with equal velo- 
 city; whereas, in fact, its velocity is increafed ordiminifhed 
 as it moves with or againft the wind.— It fuppofes, again, the 
 itrength of powder uniform; and that the fame quantity car- 
 ries the fame range; the contrary whereof is known to every 
 gunner.— We fay nothing of thick cloudy nights, when no 
 lights can be feen ; nor of ftormy nights, when no found can 
 be heard; even at inconfiden'.ble diftances. 
 go. We have another method of finding the Idngttudt, propofed 
 by the fame Mr. Whifton, vmc. by the inclinatory, or dip- 
 ping-needle: which fee under the article Dipping-AW/*. 
 
 Angle of Longitude. 1 f Angle. 
 
 Argument of Longitude, j I Argument. 
 
 Circles of Longitude. / g Circle. 
 
 Degree of Longitude. [ J Degree. 
 
 Paralhxof Longitude, f | Parallax:. 
 
 Refraction of Longitude. J LRefractioN. 
 
 Longitude of Motion, is ufed by Dr. Wallis for the mca- 
 fure of motion, eftimated according to the line of dircaion ; 
 on which principle, longitude of motion is the diftance, or 
 length, which the centre of any moving body runs through, 
 as it moves on in a right line. 
 
 The fame author calls the meafure of any motion, eftimated 
 according to the line of direction of the vis motrix, the alti- 
 tude of it. 
 
 Bellini alfo ufes the terms longitude? and altitude in the fame 
 fenfe, in many places of his writings, which an ordinary rea- 
 der rinds hard to underftand, for want of this interpretation. 
 By altitude alfo in his nineteenth propofition de febribus, be 
 means the thicknefs ofthevifcid matter in the biood-vcflcls ; 
 or the greateft length a vifcid particle is extended irlto, from 
 the fide of the canal to its axis. 
 LONGITUDINAL, in anntomr, is ufed to fignify fomc 
 part, or member extended in length, or poftted length- 
 
 Thc membranes which compofe the vciTels, arc woven out 
 of two kinds of fibres, the one longitudinal, the other circu- 
 lar, cutting the longitudinal at right angles. 
 The longitudinal fibres are tendinous and elafhc; the circular, 
 mufculous and motrices, like fphincters. 
 LONGUS, Long, an epithet given by anatomifts, to a 
 great number of mufcles, hereby contradiftinguifhed from 
 brews. 
 
 The fecond extenfor of the carpus is called longus, in com- 
 parifon of the third extenfor, which is called brevis, Qiort. 
 The kngia has its origin in the bottom of the humerus, and 
 lying along the radius, pafles underneath the ligamentum 
 annulare, and is inferted into the carpus. 
 
 The fecond of the flexors of the neck is alfo called the 
 fag** or lengus colli? and fometimes rectus. — It has its 
 origin in the lateral part of the body of the four upper ver- 
 tchrse of the back, and is inferred into the body of the four 
 vertebrae of the neck, and fometimes into the occiput: this, 
 in conjunction with the fcalenum, bends the neck. 
 The third of the fix mufcles of the elbow, or arm, which is 
 the firft of its extenfors, is alfo called longus, as being the 
 joffgeft of the extenfors.— It has its origin on the upper fide 
 of the omoplate, near the neck, and defcending by the hind 
 part of the arm, is inferted into the olecranum by a ftrong 
 aponeurofis, which is common to it and the fecond and third 
 extenfor of the arm. 
 
 The fecond mufele of the thumb, which is the firft of its 
 extenders, is alfo cahed longus, as being longer than another 
 extenfor of the fame thumb, called brevis. The lo/igus 
 proceeds from the upper and external part of the bone of the 
 elbow, and, riling over the radius is inferted, by a forked 
 tendon, into the fecond bone of die thumb, which it ex- 
 tends. ^T^rtCrflVb.' " 
 One of the four mufcles of the radius is alfo called the 
 longus. — This is the firft of the two fupinators, and has its 
 origin three or four fingers breadth above the outer apophyh-- 
 of the humerus, whence running along the radius, it is in- 
 ferted into the inner parts of its lower apophyiis. — It is called 
 longus with regard to the other fupinator, which is called. 
 brev'ts. — Thefe two mufcles ferve to turn the radius, fo as 
 the palm of the hand looks upwards; which makes the fupi- 
 nation. 
 
 The firft of the abduct irs of the leg is alfo called the longus, 
 or longus ti'-ice, and bears tiiis title more jultiy than any of 
 ■Vol II. 
 
 the others, as being the Iongeft mufclc in the whole body. — 1 
 It is alfo denuminatcdy^/atr/ji, on account of its bearing fame 
 refemblance to a [fafcia) fwathc; and fartorius, or tayloA 
 mufclc, becaufe it ferves to bend the legs inward, as the tay'-' 
 lors ufc to have them when at work. See Tab. Anat. (Miol.) 
 ' fig. I. n.40. fig. 2. n. |8. • 
 
 Longus Cubiti, is a mufele, which, with others, extends the 
 cubitus. — It arifes from the inferior eofta of the fcapula, nigh 
 its neck, and pafling betwixt the two round muicles, defcends 
 on the back fide of thehumerus; where it joins with the bre- 
 vis, and brachials externus. 
 
 LOOF, or, as it is ufually pronounced^ Luff, a term ufed 
 in conding of a fhip. — Thus, 
 
 Loof up, is to bid the ftcerfman keep dearer to the wind. 
 
 Loof into an Harbour? is to fail into it clofe by the wind. 
 
 To fpring the Loof, or Luff, is when a fhip that was going 
 large before the wind, is brought clofe by the wind. 
 When a fhip fails on a wind, that is, on a quarter-wind, 
 they fay to the ftcerfman, keep your luff! vier no more t 
 keep her tol touch the wind! have a care of the lee-latch! 
 All which words fignify much the fame thing, and hid the' 
 man at helm to keep the fhip near the wind. 
 
 Loof of a Ship, denotes that part of her aloft, which lies juft 
 before the chels-trees. 
 
 Hence, the guns which lie here are called loof-pieces. 
 LOOKING-G/i?/}, a plain glafs fpeculum, or mirror, which 
 being impervious to the light, reflects its rays, and fo exhibits 
 the images of objects placed before it. 
 
 The theory of looking-glajfes, and the laws whereby they 
 give the appearances of bodies, fee under Mirruur. 
 The manner of grinding unci preparing J^ooKlNC-glafies, is as 
 follows: — A plate of glafs is fixed to a horizontal table, and 
 to another letter table is fixed another plate, over the hind 
 part of which is added a box loaded with {tones, and other 
 weights. — Over the firft plate isiprinkled fine far.d and water, 
 in a fufHcicnt quantity, for the grinding, and the fecond or 
 lefs plate is laid on it, and thus worked this and that way, till 
 each has planed the other's furfacc. — As they begin to grow 
 fmoothcr, finer fand is ufed, and at laft powder of fmalt.— 
 Being thus fitted for polifhing, a wooden parallelepiped, lined 
 with tripoh earth, or burnt tin, tempered with water, is laid 
 on the plate, and worked to and again, till the glais have got 
 a perfect politure. 
 
 It is found extremely difficult to. bring the glafs to an exacT 
 plainnefs. Hevelius judges more art required to bring glafs 
 to a perfect: plane, than to a fphere. — r'or poiifhing large 
 plates of glafs, they have a machine for the purpofe. 
 The plates being polifhcd, a thin blotting paper is fpread on a 
 table, and fprinklcd with fine chalk; and this done, over the 
 paper is hud a thin lamina, or leaf of tin, on which is poured 
 mercury, which is to be equally diftributed over the leaf, with 
 a hare's foot, or cotton. Over the leaf is laid a clean paper, 
 and over that the glafs plate. — With the left hand the glafs- 
 platc is prefled down, and with the right the paper is gently 
 drawn out; which done, the plate is covered with a thicker 
 paper, and loaden with a greater weight, that the fuperfluous 
 mercury may be driven out, and the tin adhere more clofely to 
 the glafs. When it is dried, the weight is removed, and the 
 looking-glafs is compleat. 
 
 Some ufe an ounce of mercury with half an ounce of marca- 
 fite, melted by the fire; and left the mercury evaporate in 
 fmoke, pour it into cold water; and when cold, fqueeze it 
 through a cloth or leather. Some alfo add a quarter of an 
 ounce of lead and tin to the marcafite, that the glafs may dry 
 the fooner. See Foliating. 
 LQOM, the weaver's frame; a machine whereby fevcral 
 diftintSt threads are wove into one piece. 
 
 Looms are of Various ftructurcs, accommodated to the various 
 kinds of materials to be wove, and the various manner of weav- 
 ing them; viz. for woollens, filks, linens, cottons, cloths of 
 gold; and other works, as tapeftry, ribbands, ftockings, Erfc. 
 divers of which will be found under their proper heads. See 
 Weaving. 
 
 Z/c/r-LooM; inlaw. See the article HziR-Loom. 
 LOOP-//5//J, in the fea language, are holes made in the 
 
 coamings of the hatches of a fhip, to fire mufkets through in a 
 
 clofe fight. 
 LOOSE Style. Sec the article Style. 
 LOOSENED. See the article UooF-loofened. 
 LORD*, a title of honour attributed to thofe who arc noble, 
 
 either by birth, or creation; and vefted with the dignity of a 
 
 baron. 
 
 * The word is of Saxon origin, and primarily denotes a bread- 
 giver, alludi,ig to the hofpicality of our antient nobles : It is 
 formed, according to Cambden, from hlapoji 1 *, afterwards 
 written lopepo ; a compound ot hUp, bread, and pojvs, to 
 fupply, afford. 
 
 In this fenfe, lord amounts to the fame with peer of the realm, 
 lord of parliament. 
 Lord is alfo applied to thofe fo called by the courtefy of Eng- 
 land; as all fons of a duke, or marquis; and the eldeft fon 
 of an earl. 
 
 5 D d J Lozb 
 
LOR 
 
 Lord is alio an appellation given to divers perfons honourable 
 
 by o'ffice; as lord chief juftice, lord chancellor, lord of the 
 
 treafury, admiralty, &c. 
 Lord is alfo a title fometimes given to an inferior perfon who 
 
 has a fee, and confequently the homage of tenants within hi: 
 
 manor. . 
 
 For by his tenants he is called lardy and in fome places, for 
 diftinftion fake, land-lord. 
 
 It is in this laft hgnification that the word lord is principally 
 ufed in our law-books ; where it is divided into lord para- 
 mount, and lordmefn. 
 Lord Mesn, is he that is owner of a manor, and by virtue 
 thereof hath tenants holding of him in fee, and by copy of 
 court-roll; and yet holds himfelf of a fuperior lord called 
 lord paramount. 
 
 We alfo read of very lord, and very tenant. See Very. 
 Very Lord, is he who is immediate lord to his tenant; and 
 
 very tenant, he who holds immediately of that lord. 
 
 So that where there is lord paramount, lord mem, and tenant; 
 
 the lord paramount is not very lord to the tenant. 
 Lord High-admiral of England, is one of the great officers 
 
 of the crown, whofe trull and honour is fo great, that it has 
 
 feldom been given, excepting to fome of the king's younger 
 
 fons, or near kinfmen. 
 
 To him is, by the king, intruftcd the management of all 
 maritime affairs, as well in refpedt of jurifdicTrion, as protec- 
 tion ; with the government of the Rritifh navy; and a power 
 to decide all controverfies, and caufes maritime, as well civil 
 as criminal; fuch as happen cither on our own coafts, or 
 beyond fea, among his majefty's fubje£ts. 
 
 To him alfo belong fuch wrecks and prizes, as are called 
 lagan, jstfon, and fiotfon; that is, goods lying in the fea 
 floating, or caft on more, excepting in fuch royalties as are 
 granted to other lords of manors, 0c, with all great fifties, 
 called royal fiflj, except whales and fturgeon ; a fhare of prizes 
 in time of war, and the goods of pirates and felons con- 
 demned. 
 
 The lord high admiral has under him many officers of high 
 and iow condition \ fome at fea, others at land; fome of a 
 military, others of a civil capacity: fome judicial, others 
 minifterial. 
 
 In his court, called the court of admiralty, all proceffes iflue 
 in his name, not the king's, as they do in all other courts ; 
 fo that the dominion and jurifdicfion of the fea, may juftly 
 be ftiled another commonwealth, or kingdom apart, and the 
 lord high admiral, the viceroy of the maritime kingdom. 
 He hath under him a lieutenant, who is judge of the admi- 
 ralty, commonly a doctor of the civil law) the proceedings 
 in this court, in all civil matters, being according to the 
 civil law: but in criminal matters, they proceed by a fpecial 
 commiiTion from the fecretary, according to the laws of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Lord Privy Seal, has his office by patent : before the thirtieth 
 of Henry VIII. lie was, generally, an ecclcfiaftic ; fince 
 which, the office has been ufually conferred on temporal peers, 
 above the degree of barons. 
 
 The lord privy-feal receiving a warrant from the fignct 
 office, iffues the privy-feal, which is an authority to the lord 
 chancellor to pafs the great feal, where the nature of the grant 
 requires the great feal. — But privy-fcals for money begin in the 
 treafury, from whence the rlrft warrant iffues, counterfigncd 
 by the lord treafurer. — On the lord privy feal are attendant 
 four clerks, who have two deputies to act for them. 
 Lord Steward of the King's Houjbold, is the principal officer 
 for the civil government of the king's fervants below Hairs; 
 ovpr the officers of which he has jurifdidbion. 
 He is conrtituted by the delivery of the white ftaff, which is 
 cfteemed his commiffion. — By virtue of his office, without 
 any other commiffion, he judges of all offences committed 
 within the court, or the verge thereof, and gives judgment 
 according to their fevcral deferts. 
 
 At the death of the fovereign, he breaks his itaff over the 
 grave in which the royal corps is depoiited, and thereby dis- 
 charges all the officers under his power. 
 
 Lord Advocate. *) c i • , ( Ad' 
 
 Lord High frtafirer. S See thc art,ck ' { Tr 
 
 Lord Chamberlain of the Houlhold. 7 n 
 
 ■ , Jt J Seed* 
 
 Advocate, 
 reasurer. 
 
 AMBERLAIN. 
 
 1 C Chancel 
 { See < Bed-Cha 
 J CTreasur 
 
 LLOR. 
 MBER. 
 
 Lord Great Chamberlain of England. 
 
 Lord High Chancellor of England. 
 Lords of the Bed-chamber. 
 Lords of the Treafury. 
 
 koRDS-Lhutcnants of Counties, are officers of great diitinaion 
 appointed by thc king for the managing the ftanding militia of 
 the county, and all military matters therein. 
 They are generally of the principal nobility, and of the belt 
 intereft of the county: they are to form the militia in cafe of 
 a rebellion, fcfc. and march at the head of them, as the kin- 
 ihall direct. 
 
 They have the power of commiffioning colonels, majors, 
 «mm> »nd fuMtern officers; alfo t5 pre fait the kiiw 
 
 3 
 
 LOW 
 
 with the names of, deputy-lieutenants; who are to be lblcfted 
 from the bell gentry in the county, and aft in the abfencc 
 of the lords-lieutenants. 
 
 Subfervient to the lords-lieutenants, and deputy-lieutenants, 
 are thejuftices of peace; who, according to the order they 
 receive from them, are to iflue out warrants to the high and 
 petty-conffables, tic. for military fcrvice, &c. 
 
 LOT, in a law fenfe. See the article Scot. 
 
 LOTION, Lotio, popularly called wajb; denotes a form 
 or medicine made up of liquid matters, chiefly ufed for beau- 
 tifying the (kin, and clcanling it from thofe deformities which 
 a diftempercd blood fometimes throws on it; or rather, which 
 are occafioned by a preternatural fecretion. For, generally 
 fpeaking, thofe diftempers of the (kin, which are accounted 
 figus of a foul blood, proceed from the natural falts thrown 
 off by the cutaneous glands, which ought to be wafhed 
 away through the kidneys ; fo that inftcad of fwectners, which 
 are ufually prefcribed on thefe occafions, Dr. Quincy thinks 
 the urinary difcharge Ihould be promoted, or that of thc fkin 
 rectified by proper lotions, or ointments and frictions. 
 
 Lotion alfo denotes a remedy, holding a medium between a 
 fomentation and a bath. 
 
 There are refrefhing and fomnifcrous lotions for feverifli per- 
 fons, made of leaves, flowers and roots boiled, wherewith 
 the feet and hands of the patient are wafhed ; and after warn- 
 ing, wrapped up in linen fleeped in the fame decoction till 
 dry. 
 
 There are lotions alfo for the head and hair, made of thc afh.es 
 of vine-twigs. 
 
 Lotion of tlx Pbilofephers, in chymiffry, is a cohobatiort 
 which nature makes of what is raifed up, and afterwards tails 
 back again to the bottom of the veilel. 
 
 Lotion, in pharmacy, denotes a preparation of medicines, by 
 warning them in fome liquid, either made very light, fo as 
 to take away only the dregs; or fharp, fo as to" penetrate 
 them, in order to clear them of fome fait, or corrofive fpirit, 
 as is done to antimony, precipitates, magifteries, (Sc. or in- 
 tended to take away fome foulnefs, or other ill quality; or to 
 communicate fome good one. 
 
 LOTTERY, a kind of game at hazard, wherein feveral 
 lots of merchandize, or funis of money, are depofited as pri- 
 zes, for the beneht of the fortunate. 
 
 The defign of lotteries, and the manner of drawing them 
 are too well known among us to need a defcription I they 
 are very frequent in England and Holland, where they can- 
 not be fet on foot without the permiflion of the ma,4rate 
 -In France too, there have been feveral lotteries in favour of 
 their hofpitals. 
 
 M. le Clerk has compofed a treatife of lotteries, wherein is 
 ftewn what is laudable, and what blameable in the r ,2 
 Gregono Let, has alfo a book on the fubject of Im^L. 
 1'ather Meneftrier has a treatife on the fame, publifl ed Z 
 l 7 co; where he thews their origin, and trfe among the Ro- 
 mans -He dillinguifhes feveral kind of lotteries, and takes 
 occafion to fpeak of chances, and refolves feveral cafes of con! 
 fcience relating thereto. 
 
 Pk7mfcuvlt. }■ See the article. I ^ lEASUEI . and Pain. 
 
 ' * L AT ONJC. 
 
 LOUIS Lewi, Louis d'or, or Lewidore, a French 
 I!\ f ",\ ftluck * ' 6 4°, under the reign of Loui XIII 
 and which has now a conliderable currency 
 ***" d '' rs > at rirft, were valued at ten livres 
 ven, and at length at twelve and fourteen. ' In the Titter' eml 
 of the re^n of Louis XIV. they were rife,, to twen, and 1 
 the begnm.ngof that of Louis XV. to thirtv and I 'J, r. ' 
 
 livres, afterwards at ele- 
 
 nay forty and upwards; with this d^ 
 l^Jt was augment in X £ 
 
 ^ZT thCptlCe ' Whidl > in the *ig», was never 
 
 On one fide of the coin is the king's head feen, with his 
 name; and on the other, a crofs compofed of eight L' can 
 toned w,th crowns. The legend is, Chrijlus ret at 
 mperat.-The reverfe has been frequently 7 charged at' ore 
 gj^jt bears a hand of juftice crofled iL fakfer,' wit'h a" 
 
 There are alfo white Louis's, or Louis ir„ r <,.„, r 
 .,0 others of f,«y fobs apiece, J^^^JS** 
 us, French crowns, half crowns, &c among 
 On the one fide of thefe is the king ; s head, and on the other 
 %Ir h W W,t1 ' * iS k ^ J > SttnomenDo^itZ 
 
 nght.— The k,ng ,s their grand mafter.— There are in it 
 c,ght great crofle^ and twenty four commanders 1 The 
 number ol kn.ghts ,s not limited. At the time rf thr.V ;„« 
 tution, the king charged his revenue wkhTf f "hfee 
 
 L U dk„tht° f ° rthe Penfi °" S ° f thc 
 
 LOW Airs, ui horfemanfliip. See the article Airs. 
 
 Low 
 
LUC 
 
 Is 
 
 r Flank. 
 
 isphere. 
 
 Exchequer. 
 
 Ocean. 
 
 Dial. 
 
 Flag. 
 
 Region. 
 
 Low Flank, in fortification, 
 LovV Hcmifphere. 
 Low Mafi. 
 
 Lo w Style. J 
 
 Lo w-Bellers, in our ftatute-books, are perfons who go in the 
 night-time with a light and a bell ; by the fight and noife 
 whereof, birds fitting on the ground become ftupefied, and fo 
 are covered with a net and taken. 
 
 Lower Exchequer. -» 
 
 Lower Ocean. / 
 
 Lower polar Dial. SSeethe article 
 
 Lowering the Flag. \ 
 
 LOWEST Region. J 
 
 LOXODROMIC Table. See the article Table. 
 
 LOXODROMICS, the art or method of oblique fail- 
 ing, by the loxodromy, or rhumb. See Sailing, and 
 Rhumb. 
 
 LOXODROMY*, Loxodromia, the line which a Ihip 
 defi:rioes in failing on the fame collateral rhumb. See 
 Rhumb. 
 
 * Tiie word is Greek, formed of tajtfe oblique, and Vmus, 
 
 courfe. 
 
 The loxodromy, called alfo the loxodromic line, cuts all the 
 meridians in the fame angle, called the loxodromic angle. See 
 Angle. 
 
 LOZENGE*, or Lozange, a kind of parallelogram, or 
 quadrilateral figure, confiding of four equal and parallel lines, 
 or fides, whofe angles arc not right, hut whereof two oppo- 
 fite ones are acute, and the other twoobtufe; the diftance 
 between the two obtule ones being, always equal to the length 
 of one fide. - 
 
 * Scaliger derives the word lozenge from lmrtntkk\ this figtm 
 refembling, in fome refpeifb, tSidt of a burd-iof. 
 
 In geometry, it is ordinarily called rhombus ; and when the 
 fides are unequal, rhomboides. 
 Lozenge, in heraldry, is a rhombus, or figure of equal fides, 
 hut unequal angles : refembling a quarry of glafs in our old 
 windows ; placed erect, point-ways.— See Tab. Herald, fig. 69. 
 It is in this figure that all unmarried gentlewomen and wi- 
 dows bear their coats of arms ; becaufe, as fome lay, it was 
 the figure of the Amazonian ftiield ; or, as others, becaufe it 
 is the ancient figure of the fpindle. 
 
 The lozenge differs from the fufil, in that the latter is nar- 
 rower in die middle, and not fo Iharp at the ends. See 
 Fusil. 
 
 Lozenge is alfo a form of medicine, made into fmall pieces, 
 to be held or chewed in the mouth, til! they arc melted 
 there : the fame with what are othcrwife called trochifd, 
 
 troches. 
 
 LUCARIA *, an ancient feaft celebrated by the Romans. — 
 Sext. Pompeius obferves, that the Lucaria were folemnized in 
 the wood, where the Romans, "defeated and purfued by the 
 Gauis, retired and concealed themfclves. 
 
 * The word, according to Fellus, and Sext. Pompeius, conu-s 
 from Incus, a grove, or wood. — Varro derives it from lace, the 
 ablative of the word lux, light and liberty. — But the former 
 etymology feems the more natural. 
 
 It was held in the month of July, in memory of the afylum 
 they found in that wood, which was between the Tyber and 
 the road called Via falaria. 
 LUClANISTS, or Lucanists, a religious feci:, fo called 
 from Lucianus, or Lucanus, a heretic of the fecond century; 
 being a difciple of Marcion ; whofe errors he followed; add- 
 ing fome new ones to them. 
 
 Epiphanius fays, he abandoned Marcion; teaching that 
 people ought not to marry, for fear of enriching the Crea- 
 tor : and yet other authors mention that he held this er- 
 ror in common with Maricon, and other Gnoftics. — He 
 denied the immortality of the foul ; aliening it to be mate- 
 ria], nw: H*yWiuJfl «uwi*--« 
 There was another fe.fr. of Lucianijis, who appeared fome 
 time after the Arians. — They taught, that the Father had 
 been a Father always, and that he had the name even before 
 he begot the Son ; as having in him the power, or faculty of 
 generation : and in this manner they accounted for the eter- 
 nity of the Son. 
 
 LUCID Intervals^ the fits of lunatics, or maniacs, wherein 
 the phreirzy leaves them in poiTeffion of their reafon. 
 It is laid, lunatics are capable of making a will in their lucid 
 intervals. 
 
 LUCIDA Cironz, a fixed ftar, of the fecond magnitude, in 
 the northern crown. See Corona Borealis. 
 
 Lucida Lyra, a blight ftar, of the firft magnitude, in the 
 conftellation Lyra. See Lyra. 
 
 LUCIDUM Septum. See the article Septum. 
 
 LUCIFERIANS, a religious feft, who adhered to 
 the fchifm of Lucifer biftiop of Caghari, in the fourth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 S. Auguftine feems to intimate, that they believed the foul 
 tranfmitted to the children from their fathers. — Theodoret 
 fays that Lucifer was the author of a new error. — The 
 Ludferiani increafed mightily in Gaul, Spain, Egypt, &c, — 
 
 L U N 
 
 The occafionof the fchifm was, that Lucifer would not al- 
 low any adts he had done to be abolifhed.— There were but 
 two Luafermn bifhops, l, ut a great numbcr of iefts and 
 
 deacons.— The Lmftritm, bore a peculiar averfion to the 
 A nans. 
 LUDI C 
 Ludi 
 
 LUDICROUS Games. Seethe article Game? 
 LUES, in a general fenie, is ufed for 
 
 kind. 
 Lues. 
 
 fE&W the article 'CmcENsEs. 
 riorales. ) I1-lorai.es. 
 
 difeafe of any 
 
 a a more particular fenfe, is reftrained to contagious and 
 peltilential difeafes. ° 
 Lues, in the more common and modern ufe of the word, 
 efpecially when joined with gallka, or KM is reflraincd 
 only to the Frcndi pox. See Venereal Dijeafc. 
 LIT F, a fea term, the fame with htfi See Loof. 
 LULLY'j Art. Sec the article Art. 
 
 LUMBAGO, pains about the loins, and the fmall of the 
 hack; fuch as precede ague-fits and fevers. 
 They arife commonly from fullncfs, and acrimony ; in com- 
 mon with a difpofition to yawning, fhuddering, and erratic 
 pains in other parts ; and go off with evacuation, generally by 
 fweat, and other critical difcharges of fevers. 
 
 LUMBAL Gltmds. ■ „ . ( Gland 
 
 Lumbal AW,. J** the art.de ) 
 
 LOMBARU, an epithet given to thofe branches of the 
 aorta, which carry the blood to the mufclcs of the loins. 
 
 L L m b a c 1 s, is alfo applied to certain veins, which brine 
 back the blood from the loins into the trunk of the vena 
 cava. 
 
 There is alfo a mufcle of the thigh which bears this name. 
 See Psoas. 
 
 LU MBR1C AL», L u m b r ic a l 1 s, an appellation given 
 to four mufclcs of the hand, and as many of the feet, which 
 act as adducents of the lingers, and toes. 
 
 * The word is formed Irom hmb .raj, worm ; on account of 
 their figure, and ftnallnels, whicn give, them a refei..blmce 
 10 worms —On which account, they are alfo called virmi- 
 culan; r ■ 
 
 Lumbricales Matius, are mufcles of the hands, com- 
 monly fuppofed to be nothing but branches of the tendons 
 of the perforans, which go to the infide of the firft h,.ne on 
 each linger, and are fuppofed to contribute to the variety-of 
 : >ga diverfion to the direfl 
 
 motions with the fr- 
 actions of the other mufcles ; 
 
 nl, far 
 
 - out <>»ply> mey w: 
 draw the ringers towards the thumb.— Though Mr. Cown. 
 obferves, that feme of them have diilinfl origins; and ftu- 
 pcfts that the reft may have fo too, and therefore makes them 
 diftinct mufcles. 
 
 Lumbricales Pedis, are mufcles of the foot, which arife, 
 as in the hand, one from each tendon of the perforans 
 or profundus, and go to the infide of each of die leller 
 toes. 
 
 LUMINOSA Simka. See the article SsMita. 
 
 LUMINOUS Cotum*. \ - „ . , i Columk 
 
 Lum.nous Fire. \ See the j Ynl 
 
 LUNA, in aftronomy, the moon. See the article Moon. 
 
 Luna, in the jargon of the chymifts, fignifiesyuW ; fo called 
 from the fuppofed influence of the moon theteupon. 
 The medicinal vertues of this metal, Dr. Quincy fays, are 
 none at all, until it have undergone very elaborate prepara- 
 tions. See Silver. 
 
 Cry/lals u/Luna. / ~ , C Crystat 
 
 /'v4//luna. ! fe 
 
 LUNALE Bexoardicum. See the article Bezoardicum 
 LUNAR, fomething belonging to the moon. Sec Moon. 
 Lunar periodical Months, confift each of twenty feven days,fevcn 
 
 hours and a few minutes. 
 Lunar jymdical Months, confift of twenty nine days, twelve 
 
 hours,, and three quarters of an hour. 
 Lunar Years, confift of three hundred and fifty four days, or 
 
 twelve fynodka! months. 
 
 In the firft ages, the year ufed by all nations was lunar : the 
 variety of courfe being more frequent in this planet, and of 
 confequence more confpicuous, and better known to men 
 than thofe of any others. — The Romans regulated their 
 year, in part, by the moon, even till the time of Julius Ca^far. 
 The Jews too had their lunar months. — Some rabbins pre- 
 tend, that the lunar month did not commence till the mo- 
 ment the moon began to appear ; and that there was a law 
 which obliged the perfon who difcovcred her firft, to go and 
 inform the fanhedrin thereof. — Upon which the prefident 
 folcmnly pronounced the month begun, and notice was given 
 of it to the people by fires lighted on the tops of mountains. 
 But this looks fomewhat chimerical. 
 Lunar Dial. "j tDial. 
 
 Lunar Eclipfe L ^ article} J; CL,PSE - 
 Lunar Horojccpe. ( I Horoscope. 
 
 Lunar Fai'iboiu. J t Rainbow. 
 
 LUNATIC 
 
LU N 
 
 LUP 
 
 LUNATIC, Lunaticus, a perfon affected, or governed 
 by the moon. — Hence, epileptics were anciently called luna- 
 tic!, in regard the paroxyfms of that difeafe feem to be re- 
 gulated by the changes of the moon. 
 
 Mad people are ft ill called lunatics, from an ancient opinion, 
 that they are much influenced by that planet. — A much 
 founder philofophy hath taught us, that there is fomething in 
 it; but not in the manner the ancients imagined; nor other- 
 wife than what the moon has in common with other heavenly 
 bodies, occafioning various alterations in the gravity of our 
 atmofpherc, and thereby affecting human bodies. 
 LUNATION, the period or fpace of time between one new 
 moon and another. 
 
 Lunation is alfo called fynodical month ; confiftins; of 2Q 
 days, 12 hours, and three quarters of an hour. See Month, 
 &c. 
 
 At the end of i g years the fame lunations always return, on 
 the fame day ; but not at the fame precife time of the day ; 
 there being a difference of one hour, 27 minutes, and 33 fe- 
 conds : wherein the ancients were niiftaken, taking the ufe 
 of the golden number to be more fure and infallible than 
 ! it is. ■ »Vf'' 1 V ' " ' - '' 
 
 It has been found fince, that in 312 years and a half, the 
 lunations gain a day on the beginning of the month; fo that 
 when they came to reform the calendar, the lunations happen- 
 ed in the heavens, four or five days fooner than was fhewn 
 by the golden number. — To remedy which, we now make 
 ufe of the perpetual cycle of epaets, 
 
 Wc take 19 epadts, which anfwer to a cycle of 19 years; 
 and when at the end of 300 years the moon has gained a day, 
 we take 19 other epadts : which is alfo done, when by the 
 omiffion of an intercalary day, which happens three times in 
 400 years, the calendar is adj lifted to the fun. 
 Care is taken that the index of the epaets muff, never be 
 changed, excepting at the conclufion of a century, when 
 there is occafton for it, on account of the mctemptofis, or 
 proemptofis ; that is, of the lunar or folar equation. — ■ 
 When the biflextile or intercalary day IS fupprefied without 
 a lunar equation, the next following, or luwcr index is taken, 
 as was done in 1700. — When there is a lunar equation, 
 without fupprefling the biflextile, the next preceding, or 
 higher index is taken ; as will be done in 2400. — When 
 there is bath an equation, and a (upprefEon, as in 1800; or 
 neither the one nor the other, as in 2000 ; the fame index is 
 retained. See Ep act. 
 LUNE, Lunula, in geometry, a plane in form of a cref- 
 fbent, or half-moon ; terminated by the circumference of two 
 circles, that interfedt each other within. 
 
 Though the quadrature of the entire circle was never yet ef- 
 fected, yet geometricians have found out the fquarcs of many 
 of its parts. — The firfl partial quadrature was that of the 
 lunula, given by Hippocrates of Scio, who, of a fhipwrecked 
 merchant, commenced geometrician. See Circle, and 
 Quadrature. 
 
 Let A E B (Tab. Geometry, fig. 8.) be a femicide, and 
 GC=GB ; with the radius J-i C defcribe a quadrant AFB; 
 then will AEBFA be Hippocrates's lane. 
 And fince BO=2 GB a , the quadrant AG BC will be 
 equal to the femicirclc AEB; taking away therefore from 
 each the common fegment AF'BGA; AEBFA=to the 
 triangle A C B=G B*. 
 
 Lune, in fortification. See the article Demi-Lum. 
 
 LUNETTE, in fortification, an enveloped counterguard, or 
 elevation of earth, made in the middle of the fofs, before the 
 curtin, about five fathom in breadth. 
 
 Lunettes are ufually made in ditches full of water, and ferve 
 to the fame purpofe as faufl'ebrays, to difpute the pafiaae of 
 the ditch. 
 
 The hatftte confifts of two faces, which form a re-entering 
 angle; and its- terreplein being only twelve feet wide, is a 
 little raifed above the level of the water ; having a parapet 
 three fathom thick. 
 
 LUNGS, a part of the human body, compofed of veffels, and 
 membranous veficles ; ferving for refpiration. 
 The lungs are connected, above, to the fauces, by means of 
 the trachea ; and below, to the vertebras of the thorax ; and 
 
 to the fternum and diaphragma, by means of the pleura. 
 
 They are divided into two great lobes, by the mcdiaftinum 
 and thofe again into others leffer ; the right fometimcs into 
 ihrce or four, by means of fome fiffurcs running from the 
 fore to the back edge. — The great lobes, when inflated, re- 
 ferable each of them a horfe's hoof in figure, but together they 
 are liker an ox's inverted. — See Tab. Jnat. (Splancl).) fig. 12. 
 
 - it. 1 1. fig. 14. . 
 
 The fubftancc of the lungs is membranous, confirming chiefly 
 of innumerable cells or veficles; which feem to be nothing but 
 expanfionsofthe membranes of the bronchia, to which^thev 
 hang like grapes in duffers ; fo that by blowing into one of 
 the branches of the bronchia, thofe cells or veficles belonging 
 to it arc blown up; the reff, which do not, remaining ftifl 
 flaccid and unaltered. See Bronchia. 
 
 Thefe clufters of Veficles, or cells, are called the internal h 
 bules; by which name they are diftinguiihed from the leffer 
 lobes fpoken of. — They are feparated from one another by 
 interftices, which receive the vefiels ; and are filled up with 
 membranes propagated from the lobules, and lying fome pa- 
 rallel, fome angular. — Thefe lobules difcover and difpkiy 
 thcmfelves very exactly, if the larger trunks of the bronchia 
 belaid open, and the leffer blown into; by which mean;, 
 every lobule belonging to that branch will be inflated, and rife* 
 very diffinctly, and fhew its extent. 
 
 The whole fubftancc of the lungs is covered With a common 
 memhrane, which is divifible into two coats ; the outer thin, 
 fmooth, and nervous; the inner fomevvhat thicker and rough- 
 er* confifting mortly of the extremities of vefiels and veficles, 
 through the imprefiion of which it is pitted, and refemblc;, 
 in fome meafure, a honey-comb, — Some affirm, that in this 
 coat are abundance of perforations or pores, fo difpofed, that 
 they readily imbibe any humidity from the cavity of the tho- 
 rax, but fuffer nothing to cfcape into it : but this feems little 
 more than fancy. 
 
 The vefiels of the lungs are the bronchia, the pulmonary 
 and bronchial arteries and veins, nerves and lymphatics. — Of 
 thefe vefiels fome are proper, and fome common, in reipect 
 of the fcrvice they are of to the reft of the body. — The 
 common are the bronchia, the pulmonary artery and vein, 
 the nerves and lymphatics; the proper arc the bronchial ar- 
 tery and vein. 
 
 Dr. Willis, contrary to the common opinion, afcribes to the 
 lungs a great number of nerves, which come from the trunk 
 of the par vagum; and which, being diftributed through 
 the fubftancc of the lungs, embrace the acrious and fanguiferOus 
 vefiels. He alio afferts, that the veficula? have mufculous 
 fibres, to enable them to exert a greater contractive force in 
 expiration ; though others deny any fiich fibres. — Diemcr- 
 broeck obferves, that the veficles admit not only of air, but 
 alfo of other groffer matters ; and inffanccs two althmatic per- 
 fons which he opened; the one a ftone-cutter, the veficukc 
 ofwhofe lungs were fo ftufYed with duft, that, in cutting, 
 his knife went as if through a heap of fand ; and the other a 
 feather-driver, in whom the veficles were full of the fine 
 duft, or down of feathers. See Asthma. 
 
 Polypus of the Lungs. See the article Polypus. 
 
 LUNISOLAR, in aftronomy and chronology, denotes fome- 
 thing compofed of the revolution of the fun, and of that of 
 the moon. 
 
 Lunisolar Tear, is a period of years made by multiplying the 
 cycle of the moon, which is ninteen, by that of the fun, 
 which is twenty eight ; the product of which is five hundred 
 thirty two; in which lpace of time, thofe two luminaries re- 
 turn to the fame points. 
 
 LUNULAR Angles. See the article Angle. 
 
 LUPERCALIA *, feafts inftituted in ancient Rome, in ho- 
 nour of the god Pan. 
 
 * The word comes from Lupercal, ihe name of a place under 
 the Pahnne mountain, where [he facrifices were performed. 
 The luperealia were celebrated on the fifteenth of the calends 
 of March, that is, on the fifteenth of February, or, as Ovid 
 obferves, on the third day after the ides. They are fuppofed 
 to have been cftablifhed by Evander. 
 
 On the morning of this feaff, the Iuperci, or prieffs of Pan, 
 ran naked through the ftrcets of Rome, ftriking the married 
 women they met on the hands and belly, with a thong, or 
 ffrap of goat's leather , which was held an omen promifing 
 them fecundity, and happy deliveries. See Luperci. 
 1 he reafon of this indecent cuftom, in celebrating the hper- 
 eal'ta, took its rife from Romulus and Remus ; for while 
 they were aflifting at this feaff, a body of robbers, taking 
 hold of the occafion, plundered them of their flocks. Upon 
 this the two brothers, and all the youth that were with them, 
 throwing off their clothes, to be the more expedite, purfued 
 the thieves, and recovered their prey. — This fucceeded fa 
 well, that thenceforward this ceremony became a part of the 
 lupercalia. 
 
 This feaff was abolifhcd in the time of Auguftus, but it was 
 afterwards reffored, and continued to the time of the emperor 
 Anaftafius. — Baronius fays, it was aboiifhed by the pope, i'i 
 496. 
 
 LUPERCI, a name given to the pricfts of the god Pan', 
 
 The luperci were the moft 'ancient order of priells in Rome; 
 they were divided into two colleges, or companies, the out; 
 called FabU, and the other J^jiintilii. To thefe Cxfar added 
 a third, which he called Julii. 
 
 Suetonius mentions the inffitution of this new college of lu- 
 perci, as a thing that rendered Csfar more odious than he 
 was; however, it appears from the fame pafiage of Sueto- 
 nius, that this new company was not inftituted by C;efar, nor 
 in honour of Pan, but by fome friends of Cxfar, and in ho- 
 nour of himfelf. 
 
 LUPI Crepitus. See the article Crepitus. 
 
 Ccntaurus cum LUPO. See the article Centaurits. 
 
 LUPT; 
 
L U S 
 
 L U S 
 
 LUPUS, Wolf, in aftronomy, a fouthern conftellation, 
 
 confuting of nineteen ftars. See Centaur. 
 LURE*, in falconry, a piece of red leather cut in form of a 
 
 bird, with two wings, ftuck with feathers; and fometimes 
 
 baited with a piece of flefli: wherewith to reclaim, or call 
 
 back a hawk. 
 
 * The word comes from the French leurre, which fignifie; 
 the fame; formed, according to Skinner, from the Anglo- 
 Saxon, Iceura, traitor; or, according to Tripaud, from hora, 
 craftinefs. 
 
 LUSTER, or Lustre, glofs, or brightnefs appearing 
 on any thing ; particularly on manufactures of filk, wool, or 
 
 fluff. 
 
 Lustre is alfo ufed for a certain composition, or manner of 
 giving that glofs, or brilliance. 
 
 The lujire of filks, in which their chief beauty confifts, is 
 given them by warning in foap, then clear water, and dip- 
 ping them in alum-water cold. 
 
 The luftte of black taffety is given by double-brewed beer, 
 boiled with orange or lemon juice ; that of coloured taffeties 
 with water of gourds, diftiiled in an alembic. 
 Curriers give a lujire, or glofs to their leather, feveral ways, 
 according to the colour to be illuftrated. — For blacks, the 
 filft lujire is with juice of barberries; the fecond with gum 
 arabic, ale, vinegar, and Flanders glue boiled together: for 
 coloured leathers, they ufe the white of an egg beaten in 
 water: Morocco's have their lujire from juice of barberries, 
 and lemon or orange. 
 
 For hats, the lujire is frequently given with common water, 
 fometimes a little black dye is added. — The fame lujire 
 ferves fkinners, except that in white furs they never ufe any 
 black dye.— For very black furs, they fometimes prepare a 
 lujire of galls, copperas, Roman alum, ox's marrow, and 
 other ingredients. 
 
 The lujire is given to cloths and mohairs, by preffing them 
 under the calendar. See Calendar, and Pressing. 
 LUSTRAL, an epithet applied by the antients, to the water 
 ufed in their ceremonies, to Sprinkle and purify the peo- 
 ple. 
 
 From them the Romanics have borrowed the holy water ufed 
 in their churches. 
 
 Lustral D*y, Dies Lustricus, that whereon the illuftra- 
 tions were performed for a child, and its name given j which 
 was ufually the ninth day from the birth of a boy, and the 
 eighth from that of a girl. Though others performed the 
 ceremony on the laft day of that week wherein the child 
 was born, and others on the filth day from its birth. 
 Over this feaft-day the goddefs Nundina was fuppofed to 
 nreftde, the midwives, nurfes, and domeftics handed the 
 child backwards and forwards, around a fire burning on 
 the altars of the gods, after which they fprinkled it with 
 water. The old women mixed faliva and duft with the 
 water.— The whole ended with a Sumptuous entertain- 
 ment, i Jo ilij-' JU. • l i j r ■■■■ ■-■fljU' 1 ir. 
 
 LUSTRATION, Expiation; Sacrifices, or ceremonies, by 
 which the Romans purified their cities, fields, armies, or 
 people defiled by any crime, or impurity. 
 Some of their lujhaliom were public, others private. 
 There were three fpecics, or manners of performing lujlra- 
 tion; viz. by fire and Sulphur; by water; and by air; which 
 laft was done by fanning and agitating the air round the 
 thing to be purified. 
 
 There was alfo a peculiar kind of lujlration for young chil- 
 dren. 
 
 Lomicr has a volume exprefs on the lujlrations of the antients: 
 Joh. Lomeieri Zutphanenfis Epi?ncr.ides, five de veterum gtn- 
 tilium Lujl rati ambus; firft printed at Utrecht in 1681, and 
 fince, with additions, in 1702. 4°. f- 
 All perfons, flavcs only excepted, he fhews, were minifters 
 of fome fort of lujlration. — When any one died, the houfe 
 was to be Swept after a particular manner, by way of puri- 
 fication: the prieft threw water on new married people, with 
 the like intention.— To purify themfelves, people would 
 even fometimes run naked through the ftreets; fuch was 
 their extravagance. And, as if fancy was not fertile enough 
 in inventing modes of lujlration, they even ufed enchantments 
 to raife the dead, in order to get instructions what they muff 
 do to purge themfelves of their fins. Add, that they fre- 
 quently railed the opinion of the fanctity of their expiations 
 by fictitious miracles. 
 
 The birds, fay they, practife lujlration, both by warning 
 themfelves, and throwing water on their neft. The hen 
 takes ftraw, and ufes it to purify her chickens. — There 
 was fcarce any action, at the beginning and end of which 
 the gentiles did not' perform fome ceremony to cleanfc them- 
 felves, and appeale the gods. When they had no animals 
 to facrifice, they made the figure of the bead they would 
 offer in dough, metal, or other matter; and thus facrificed 
 in effigy. 
 
 Some expiations were performed in the water; for which rea- 
 fon certain fountains and rivers were in great reputation : 
 Vol. II. 
 
 others were performed in the air. — A certain heathen calif - 
 ed himfclf to be ferioufiy fifted in a neve, as we now 
 fift corn: another hung himfelfi by a cord, and was toiled 
 backwards and forwards: another fhut his eyes, and fet 
 himfelf blindfold to - find out a nofegay tied to a cord : others 
 played at fee-faw, as a more efficacious way of appealing the 
 gods. 
 
 Fire was much ufed for expiation : Sometimes the penitents 
 werecaft into the fire; at others, they were only broug'it to 
 the flame, or fmoke. 
 
 It was common on thefe occafions, to fhed human blood : 
 The pri efts of Cybele, Belona, and Baal, made cruel inci- 
 fions on themfelves. — Erectheus, king of Attica, facrificed 
 his daughter to Profcrpina. Several had their throats cut at 
 Rome, to obtain the emperor's health from the gods. Thofe 
 who commanded armies, offered one of their foldiers to 
 appeafe the anger of the god;, ; that he alone might fuffer all 
 the wrath the army deferved. 
 
 All forts of perfumes and odoriferous herbs, had place in 
 lujlration. — -The egg was much uled among them, as being 
 the fymbol of the four elements : its fhcll, they fay, repre- 
 fents the earth; the yolk, a globe of fire; the white, refembjes 
 the water; and befides it has a Spirit, they fey, which repre- 
 fents the air. For this reafon it is, that the bon/a's, or Indian 
 priefts, believe to this day that the world came out of an egg. 
 — There is fcarce any pot-herb, pulfe, tree, mineral, or 
 metal, which they did not offer the gods by way of expia- 
 tion: Nor did thev forget milk, bread, wine, or hojiev: what 
 is more, they made ufe of the very Spittle, and urine. 
 The poets had feigned that the gods purified themfelves, and 
 they did not omit to purify their ftatucs. — They made a 
 lujlration for children, the eighth day after their birth. — 
 When a man who had been raliely reputed dead, returned 
 home, he was not to enter his houfe by the door. — It was 
 a fettled cuftom to offer no expiation for thofe who were 
 hanged by order of |uftice; or that were killed by thunder. 
 Neither did they offer any for thofe who were drowned in 
 the fea ; it being the common opinion, that their fouls perill- 
 ed with their bodies. And hence it was, that perfons in dan- 
 ger of fhipwreck fometimes thruft their Swords through their 
 bodies, that they might not die in the fea; where they 
 thought their foul, which they fuppofed to be a flame, would 
 be totally cxtinguifhed. 
 
 The moft celebrated expiatory facrifice was the hecatomb, 
 when thev offered an hundred beafts; though they commonly 
 did not offer fu many, but contented themfelves with killing 
 twenty five; but thofe being quadrupeds, their feet came to 
 an hundred. 
 
 Lujlrations, and luftratory facrifices were not only performed 
 for men, but alfo for temples, altars, theatres, trees, foun- 
 tains, rivers, fheep, fields and villages. When the Arval bro- 
 thers offered a victim for the fields, their facrifice was called 
 ambervalia. 
 
 Cities were all to be purified, from time to time; Some 
 walked the victim round their walls, and then (lew him.— 
 The Athenians facrificed two men, one for the men of their 
 city, and the other for the women. The Corinthians facri- 
 ficed the children of Medea Co; though the poets fay, Medea 
 killed them herfelf. The Romans performed the ceremony 
 of purifying their city every fifth year; whence the name 
 of lujlrum, was given to the fpace of five years. 
 Divers of the expiations were auftere: fome faffed; others 
 abffained from all fenfual pleafures: fome, as the priefts of 
 Cybele, caftrated themfelves; others, that they might live 
 chafte, eat rue, or lay under the branches of a Shrub called 
 agnus cajlus. See Agnus Cajlus. 
 
 T. he poftures of the penitents were different, according to the 
 different facrifices: They fometimes joined prayers to the 
 Solemnity; at other times, a public confeffion of fins was 
 made.- — The Indians, when thev facrificed to Hercules, called 
 him a thoufand reproachful names > and thought they incurred his 
 anger, if any refpectful term come out of t'leir mouth. 
 The priefts changed their habits, according to the ceremo- 
 nies to be performed : white, purple, and black, were the 
 moft ufual colours. They had their heads always covered, 
 and long hair, except in the facrifipes of Saturn, Hercules, 
 Honour, and a few others: only the priefts of Ills were fha- 
 ven, becaufe that goddefs underwent the fame operation, after 
 the death of her hufband Ofiris. — In fome ceremonies the 
 priefts were fhod, in others bare-foot: the poets exprefs the 
 former by the word vinculo. They had no girdles; nay, 
 they durft not pronounce the word ivy, becaufe ivy cleaves to 
 every thing. — -In the facrifices of Venus, and the Moon, 
 every one took the habit of the contrary fex. — Every thing 
 was to be done by odd numbers; becaufe they looked on an 
 even number which may be equally divided, as the fymbol 
 of mortality and destruction. The odd number was with 
 them holy: 'hence Neptune's trident, Cerhcrtis's three heads, 
 and Jupiter's thunder-dart, with three points. 
 They caft into the river, or at leaft out of the city, the ani- 
 mals, or other things that had ferved for a tuflration, or facri- 
 fice of atonement; and thought themfelves threatened with 
 fome great misfortune, when by chance they trod upon them 
 5 E e e —At 
 
LUT 
 
 L U T 
 
 —At Marfeilles, they took cnre to feed a poor man for feme 
 time; after which, they charged him with all the fins of the 
 country, and drove him away: Thofe of Leucade fattened 
 a number of birds to a man charged with their fins, and in 
 that condition caft him headlong from a high tower; and if 
 the birds hindered his being killed, they drove him out of the 
 country. 
 
 Part of thefe ceremonies were abolifhcd by the emperor Con- 
 ftantine, and his fucccflbrs; the reft fubJifted till the Gothic 
 kings were mailers of Rome, under whom they expired; ex- 
 cept that feveral of them were adopted by the popes, and 
 brought into the church, where they make a figure to this 
 day: witnefs the numerous confecrations, benedictions, ex- 
 orcifms, ablutions, fprinklings, proceffions, feafts, &c. ftill 
 in ufe in the Romifii church. 
 LUSTRUM*, a term ufed by the Romans, to fignify a 
 fpace of five years. 
 
 * Varro derives the word from lua, to pay ; becaufe at the 
 beginning of every fifth year, they paid the cenfus, or tri- 
 bute impofed by the cenfors; whole authority, at their firft 
 inlUtUtion, was continued them for five years; chough after- 
 wards it was abridged to one. — Others rather derive the 
 word from lufirare, to make a review; becaufe once in five 
 years the cenibrs reviewed the army. 
 
 Lustrum was alfo a ceremony, or facrifice ufed by the Ro- 
 mans, after numbering their people once in five years. See 
 Lustration. 
 
 LUTE, Lutum, in chymifhy, a compofition of certain 
 tenacious fubftances, wherewith to clofe the apertures, and 
 junctures of veffels in diftillation, C5V. 
 
 Under lute is comprehended any fort of cement, or plaifter, 
 ufed either in the conftruCtion of furnaces, er in fitting to 
 them veifels of glafs, or earth, that are to refift a very violent 
 fire. — Some Lutes are made of flower and water; others, of 
 quick-lime and whites of eggs; others of iron filings, brick - 
 duft, and linfeed oil; others, of potter's earth, river fand, 
 horfes dung, powder of broken pots, caput mortuum of vi- 
 triol, drofs of iron, beaten glafs, flocks of wool mixed with 
 fait water or bullock's blood. 
 
 The lute ufed by Lcmery, was only two parts of fand, and 
 one of cb.y, tempered together in water; which does very 
 well for joining the nofes of retorts, and their receivers in 
 diftilling of volatile ipirits, isr. 
 
 In diftilling by the alembic, or vefica, or copper body, with 
 its head or Terpentine, a wet bladder ferves very well to lute 
 the junctures of the veffels; but for the diftillation of corro- 
 five fpirits, as alfo to flop the cracks of glafles, &c. the fol- 
 lowing compofition is recommended, viz. ftarch boiled, or 
 fifti-glue diffolvcd in fpirit of wine, with flower of fulphur, 
 maftic, and lime flacked in milk. See Supplement: article 
 Lute. 
 
 Lute*, a mufical inftrument of the firing-kind; which had 
 antiently but five rows of firings; though in courfe of time 
 four, five, or fix more have been added. 
 
 * Some derive tlie word from the German laule, which figni- 
 fies the fame; or from lauten /mart. — Sciliger and Bo chart 
 derive it from the Arabic, alland. 
 
 The lute confifts of four principal parts: the table; the body 
 or belly, which has nine or ten fides; the neck, which has 
 nine or ten ftops or divifions marked with firings; and the 
 head orcrofs, wherein are fcrews, for railing or lowering the 
 firings to the proper tone. — In the middle of the table is a 
 rofe, or pafTage for the found. There is alfo a bridge that the 
 Airings are fattened to, and a piece of ivory between the head 
 and the neck, to which the other extremity of the firings are 
 fitted. In playing, the firings are ft ruck with the right hand, 
 and with the left the ftops are prcfled. 
 
 The htes of Bologna are efteemcd the beft; on account of 
 the wood, which is faid to have an uncommon difpofition for 
 producing a fweet found. — The theorbo is an improvement 
 on the common lute. 
 Temperament of the Lute, denotes the alteration requifite to be 
 made in the intervals, both with regard to concords, and dif- 
 cords, in order to render them more juft on that inftrument. 
 /fnbi-l-iUTE. Seethe article Archileuto. 
 Tbeorbo-hu te. See the article Theorbo. 
 LUTHERANISM, the fentiments of Dr. Martin Luther,, 
 and his followers, with regard to religion. 
 Lutbcranifm had, its rife in the 16th century: its author was 
 born at Eifleben in Thuringia, in 14.83. — After his ftudies, he 
 entered himfelf among the Auguftines; andini5i2, took the 
 cap of a doctor in theology, in the univerfity of Wirtemberg. 
 In 1516, he attacked the fchool divinity in feveral thefes. — 
 In 1517, Leo X. having ordered indulgences to be difpenfed 
 to thofe who fiiould contribute towards the building of S. Pe- 
 ter's church at Rome, he gave a commiffion thereof to the 
 . Dominicans. — The Auguftines thinking they had a title to 
 it before any body el fe, John Staupitz, their commilTary-ge- 
 neral, appointed Luther to preach againft thofe difpenfers of 
 indulgences. Sec Indulgence. 
 
 Luther acquitted himfelf, in a manner, that perhaps the com 
 miflary had not imagined: from the preachers of indulgences 
 
 he proceeded to indulgences thcmfelves, and inveighed very 
 warmly, both againft the one and the other. 
 At firft he only advanced ambiguous propofitions; but being 
 engaged in difpute about them, lie maintained them openly, 
 and without referve; infumuch, that in 1520 he was folemn'ly 
 condemned and excommunicated by the pope. — But nei- 
 ther the pope's thunder, nor the condemnation of feveral 
 univcrfiues, could make any imprefiion of terror upon him; 
 but he continued preaching, writing and difputing, not againft 
 indulgences only, but againft feveral other corruptions which 
 then prevailed in the church. 
 
 The character of the man, the ftrength of his arguments, 
 and the weaknefs of his adverfarics caufe, foon procured him 
 a number of followers. — And thus it was that Lutheranifm 
 was formed; the adherents whereto were called Lutherans, 
 from Lutherus, a name which has a Greek turn, and which 
 he aflumed in lieu of his family name, Letter, or La ntber ; 
 it being the cuftom of thofe days, for men of learning to 
 give thcmfelves Greek names: witnefs Erafmus, Melanchthon, 
 Buccr, c5V. 
 
 I" r 5 2 3> Luther quitted the habit of a religious, and in 
 J524, married; after having been a happy inftrument of re- 
 forming a great part of Germany, under the protection of 
 George duke of Saxony.— He died at his native place, in 
 1546. 
 
 The firft who received Lutheranifm, were the people of 
 Mansfeld, and the Saxons: it was preached at Kreichfaw, in 
 1 52 1. —It was received at Gofiar, Roftock, Riga in Livo- 
 nia, Rentling, and at Hall in Suabia, atAugfburg, Hamburg, 
 and Treptow in Pomerania, in 1522. — In^Pruflia, in 1523; 
 at Einbech in the dutchy of Lunenburg, at Nuremberg, and 
 Breflaw, in 1525— In Hcfie, in 1526; at Aldenburg, Straf- 
 burg, and Brunfwick, in 1528; atGottingen, Lemgou, and 
 Lunenburg, in 1530; at Munfter, and Paderborn in Weft- 
 phalia, in 1532; at Ethlingen, and Ulm, in 1533; in the 
 dutchy of Grubenhagen, at Hanover, and in Pomerania, in 
 1534; in the dutchy of Wirtemberg, in 1535; at Cothus, 
 in the lower Luface, in 1537; in the county of Lippe, in 
 1538; in the electorate of Brandenburg, at Bremen, Hall 
 in Saxony, Leipfic in Miftlia, and at Quedienburg, in 1539; 
 at Embden in Eaft-Frifeland, Hailbron, Halberftadt, and 
 Magdeburg, in 1540; in the palatinate of the dutchy of 
 Newburg, at Regenfburg, and Wifmar, in 1542; at Bux- 
 tende, Hildefheim, and at Ofnaburg, in 1543; in the lower 
 Palatinate, in 1546; in Mechlemburg, in 1552; in the 
 Marrjuifatc of Durlach, and that of Hochbere, in 1556; in 
 the county of Bentheim, in 1564; at Ha?uenaw, and in the 
 lower marquifate of Baden, in 1568; and in the dutchy of 
 Magdeburg, in 1570. Jovet, T. I. p. 460, feq. 
 Lutheranifm has undergone fome alterations fince the time of 
 Its founder— Luther rejected the epiftle of S. James, as in- 
 conhftcnt with the do&rinc of S. Paul, in relation to iuftifi- 
 cation; he alfo fet afidc the Apocalypfe; both which are now 
 received as canonical, in the Lutheran church. 
 Luther reduced the number of facraments to two, viz. bap- 
 tifm,and the cucharift; but he believed the impanation, or con- 
 fubftantiation: that is, that the matter of the bread and wine 
 remain with the body and blood of Chrift; and it is in this 
 article, that the main difference between the Lutheran and 
 Englilh churches confifts. 
 
 Luther maintained the mafs to be no facrifice; he exploded the 
 adoration of the hoft, auricular confeffion, meritorious works, 
 indulgences, purgatory, the worfhip of images, tsc. which 
 had been introduced in the corrupt times of the Romifh church. 
 He alfo oppnfed the doctrine of free-will; maintained prede- 
 itination, allerted that we are neceffitated in all we do, that 
 all our adtions done in a Irate of fin, and even the virtues 
 themfclve;;, of heathens, are crimes; that we are only jufti- 
 fied by the imputation of the merits and fatistaction of Chrift. 
 He alfo oppoled the fallings in the Romifh church, monafti- 
 cal vows, the celibate of the clergy, &c. 
 
 Some authors reckon thirty nine different feels, which at 
 different times have fprung up among the Lutherans, viz. 
 the _ Antinomians, Samofatenfes, Inferani, Antidiaphori/ls, 
 Antifwenkfeidians, Antiofiandrians, Anticalvinijls, Layers on 
 of _ bands _ , Biffacramentales , Trijacramentales , Majoritcs , 
 Adiaphorijls , ^uadrifacramentales , Luther o-calvinifls , An- 
 metes, Mediofiandrians, Confeffionijls firm and wavering, 
 Sweiikfeldians, Onandrians, titanoandrians, Antijlancarians, 
 Zuinglians fimple, Zuinglians fsgnificative, Carlojladiam, 
 Eyargic Tropijls, Arrahonarii fpiritual, Siwefeldians, Serve- 
 tifts, Davidics, or Davidi Georgians, Mennonhes^ &c. Jovet 
 T. I. P . 475 . J 
 LU THE RAN S, a feci ofproteftants who profefs Lutheranifm, 
 or adhere to the doctrine and tenets of Luther. 
 The Lutherans, of all Proteftants, are thofe who differ 
 leaft from the Romifh church. — They are divided into fe- 
 veral feels; the principal whereof are recited in the follow- 
 ing articles, and in their proper places in the courfe of this 
 book. 
 
 Moderate Lutheran, one who foftens or mitigates Luther's 
 
 ' doctrine; 
 
LUX 
 
 doarine ; or follows the doarine of Luther thus mitigated. 
 — Melanchthon was the firft of this fe&. 
 
 is* Lutheran, is an appellation given to thofe who com- 
 plied with the Interim, and who formed three different par- 
 ties ; that of Melanchthon, Pacius, or Pfeffinger, and that of 
 the univerfity of Leipfic, and the divines of Franconia. 
 
 Rigid Lutheran, one who frill maintains the antient Luthe- 
 ranifm of Luther, and the firft Lutherans. 
 As to the articles of predeffination, and grace, the Luthe- 
 rans are no longer rigid. — The head of the rigid Lutherans 
 was Flaccius Illyricus, the chief of the four authors of the 
 Ecdefiajlical Hijhry divided into Centuries ; known under the 
 name of Magdeburg Centuries, or Centuriators. — This man 
 could not bear the leaft alteration to be made in Luther's 
 doarine. 
 
 Luthero-Calvinist, one who holds the opinions of Cal- 
 vin, together with thofe of Luther ; fo far as they are capa- 
 ble of fubfiiting together. 
 
 Lu t h ero-Osi an d R i a n, one who blends together the doarine 
 of Luther, and that of Lucas Ofiander. 
 
 Luthero-Papist, an appellation given to thofe Lutherans who 
 excommunicated the Sacramentarians. 
 
 Luthero-Zuinglian, one who jumbles together the opinions 
 of Luther and Zuinglius. 
 
 Martin Bucer, of Scheleftadt in Alface, who, from a domini- 
 can, by a twofold apoftafy, as the Romanifts call it, became 
 a Lutheran, was the head of the Luthero-Zuinglians ; whofe 
 tenets were not fo much a mixture of Luihcranifm and Zuing- 
 Uanifm : — But what rather entitled them to the appellation 
 was, that they formed a fociety, who agreed to tolerate and 
 bear with each other's opinions. 
 LUTHERN *, a kind of window over the cornice, in the 
 roof of a building; Handing perpendicularly over the naked 
 of the wall ; and ferving to illuminate the upper ftory. 
 
 * The word comes from the French, iucarne, of the Latin, 
 lucerna, light, or lantern. 
 
 The French architects diftinguifh thefe into various kinds 
 according to their various forms ; as fquare, femidrcular, bulls 
 eyes, fiat arches, Flemijh lut herns, &c 
 LUTUM Sapienties, is the hermetical feal ; made by meltino- 
 the end of a glafs veflel by a lamp, and twilling it up with a 
 pair of pliers. 
 
 XUXATION *, Luxatio, in medicine and furgery, the 
 flipping of the head of a bone from its proper receptacle into 
 another place; whereby the natural motion of the joint is de- 
 flroyed. 
 
 * The word is Latin, formed from luxare, to loofen. 
 Luxation is the fame with what is otherwife called dijlocat'ion ; 
 being the difplacing of a bone, or rather the disjointing of two 
 bones, articulated together for the motion of the part. 
 Luxations are either violent, proceeding from fome external 
 caufe; as falls, ftrains, blows, leaps, extenfions, &c. — Or 
 gentle, arifing from internal caufesj as a natural laxitv of the 
 ligaments, a fluxion of humours, or gradual colleaion thereof 
 between the joints, tffc. 
 
 Luxation, properly, has place only amongft bones whofe Struc- 
 ture determines them to a manifeft motion, fuch are all thofe 
 united by diarthrohs ; thofe articulated by fynarthrofis, where 
 there is no manifeft motion, are indeed fubjea to fraaure, 
 caries, exoftofis, &c. but not to luxation. See Diarthro- 
 sis, &c. 
 
 Luxations, again, are either perfect, or i/nperfecl. 
 
 Perfecl, or compleat Luxation, ehapqphma, is that where 
 the head of a bone is aaually ftarted out of the cavity of an- 
 other. — This is known by a tumour, or protuberance, formed 
 by the head of the feparated bone, which raifes up the fkin, 
 and mulcular flefh above its natural level in the part not de- 
 ftined to receive it; and a hollownefs or finking in the place 
 
 from whence it is fr.arr.ed, perceivable by the touch. It is 
 
 alfo attended with great pain, a total abolition of motion, 
 and a {hortening of the limb. 
 
 Imperfect, or partial Luxation, n apapgphma, called alfo 
 jubluxation, is where the motion is only much impaired, the 
 joint weakened, and a deformity perceivable in it, when com- 
 pared with the oppofite part, which is found This is other- 
 wile called a Jlrain, when it proceeds from an external caufe ; 
 or, fimply, a relaxation, when from an internal one. 
 A luxation is faid to be fimple, when it has no other accident 
 or injury accompanying it — complicated, when it is attended 
 With a wound, inflammation, fraaure, or the like. 
 The cure of a luxation, is by a fpeedy reduaion of the diflo- 
 cated member to its natural place. — To this are neceffary, 
 i°. Extenfion, which a luxated as well as fractured 
 member requires ; as well on account of the contraaion of 
 the tendons, as that the head of the bone may more direaiy 
 be intruded into its feat. — This extenfion is made either 
 by the hands alone, which is called modus palaftricus, becaufe, 
 among wreftlers, diflocated members ufe to be reduced after 
 this manner ; or by ligatures, or towels ; or by inftruments, or 
 great machines, when the luxation is difficult, and inveterate. 
 2°. After extenfion, follows the intruding of the joint into 
 the natural cavity ; which, likewife, may either be effeacd by 
 the hands only, or by the heel, (as when the head of the os 
 
 L Y M 
 
 humeri is fallen into the arm-pit) or by means of ladders, 
 doors, peftbs, „ r Hippocrattfl inltrument, called a ,,b e . 1 
 ieM r 7 °y way of iiftinffion from 
 
 ro ft' ' S J Ca " Bl1 "'l""^ 1 ' becauf<! Performed by 
 
 large inftruments, and machine, but now altogether out of rfe. 
 Gourmehnus to thefe adds .„e.™, the very^a of reducing 
 
 tU" 1 1,"",° ' tS J OWn F' ace ' Which is t0 b <= k ™»<> >>y the 
 found ufoally heard, and from the ufe and motion of the 
 reduced joint. 
 
 Laftly becaufe on account of the laxity of the tendons, iSc. 
 the reduced bone cannot remain in its natural poflBoh, it is 
 neceflary yet further to apply compreffes and bandage S by 
 whole means the articulation is prefcrved fafe, till the W 
 tents may acquire their ufual ftrength of elalticity and af- 
 unction. 
 
 LYCANTHROPY *, .TKArarnnu, a fpecies of 
 
 madnefs, wherein thofe affefled run, in the night time, howl- 
 ing about the fields like wolves ; and fometimes bite and fnarl 
 like dogs : whence the difeafe is alfo called by the antients. 
 cynanthrophy. ' 
 
 " The word is formed of the Greek x„«. c , wolf, and «,8 t »- 
 jrc,-, q, d. nan-wolf 
 
 Lycanthropy is alfo ufed by fome to exprefs an imaginary me- 
 tamorphoiis of a man into a wolf, by magic power; wherein 
 the perrons affeftcd feem not only to themfelves in the form 
 of wolves, but to others. 
 LYCEUM, atkeion, the name of a celebrated fchool, 
 fophy 7 * AthcnS ' where Ariftotle explained his philo- 
 
 The place was compofed of portico's, and trees planted in the 
 quincunx form, where the philofophers difputed walking 
 Hence, pbiiofiphy of the tyctlm is ufed, to iignify the philo- 
 sophy of Ariftotle, or the peripatetic philofophy. 
 Suidas obrerves, that the lyctum took its name from its hav- 
 ing been originally a temple of Apoilo Lycms ; cr rather, a 
 portico, or gallery built by Lycus, fon of Apollo : but others 
 
 r S^nV 1 to have bccn built V Pihftratus, or Pericles. 
 
 L Y C. O C T O N ON. See the article Aconite. 
 
 L YD I AN Mod,. See the article Mode. 
 
 i-^CiMOS, attmoe. See the article Hiccup. 
 
 ; M {.H, LYMPH A, in anatomy, a thin tranfparent humour, 
 lomethmg like water ; fecreted from the ferum of the blood 
 in all parts of the body, and returned to the blood a- 
 gain, by proper duels of its own, called lymphatics; and (up. 
 pored, by fome, to be the immediate matter of nutrition 
 It the ly,„ph be chymically examined, it will be found to 
 contain a great deal of volatile, but no fixed Lit, fome 
 phlegm, fome lulphur, and a little earth 
 
 tinn U f^ 0f ! y "' ph ™ y be Pthered from the confidera- 
 t.on of the parts into which it difcharges itfelf.— That which 
 comes from the head, neck, and arms, is thrown into ihe 
 jugular and fubclavian veins. — All the lymphatics, which the 
 parts in the cavity or the thorax fond out, empty themfeives 
 into the thoracic duel; and the lympha from ail the reft of 
 me body, flows to the common receptacle : fo that there can 
 be no doubt but that its chief ufe is to dilute, and perfecl 
 
 T V \Jtfi ' " m ' Xes with the blood ' 
 
 LYMPHATICS, or Lvmph^educts, a fort of fine, 
 fmall tranfparent vefTels, generally arifing from the glands, 
 and conveying back to the blood a tranfparent liquor called 
 lymph or lympha. 
 
 Thefe, though not fo vifible as the other vefTels, becaufe of 
 their minutenefs, and tranfparency, are, however, exiftcnt in 
 all parts of the body; but the difficulty 0 r finding them, 
 has prevented their being defcribed in many parts 
 The lymphatics are contracted at fmall and unequal diftanccs 
 by tv.'o oppofite femi-lunar valves, which permit the lymph 
 to pafs through them towards the heart; but ihut, like flood- 
 gates, upon its returning. 
 
 They arife in ail parts of the body, but after what mann-r 
 needs no great difputc; for without doubt, all the liquors in 
 the body, excepting the chyle, are feparated from the blood 
 Ml the fine capdlary vefTels, by a different pipe from the com- 
 mon channel in which the reft of the blood moves • but 
 whether this pipe be long or ffiort, whether it be vifible or in- 
 viiible, it is {till a gland, whilft it fuffers fome part of the 
 blood to pafs through it ; denying a paflage to the reft. 
 Now, the glands which feparate the lymph muft be of the 
 {mailed kind, for they are invifible to the fined microfcope ; 
 but their excretory dufls, the lymphatic vefTels unite with 
 one another, and grow larger, as they approach the heart : 
 yet they do not open into one common' channel, as the 
 veins do ; for fometimes we find two, or three, or more 
 lymphatics, running by one another ; which only communi- 
 cate by fhort intermediate duels, and which unite, and imme- 
 diately divide again — In their progrefs, they always touch at 
 one or two conglobate or veficular glands, into which they 
 
 dffcharge themftlves of their lympha Sometimes the whole 
 
 lymphatic opens, at fcveral places, into the gland ; and fome- 
 times it fends in only two or three branches, whilf the main 
 trunk partes oyer, and joins the lymphatics which arife from 
 the oppofite fides of the gland, exporting again their lympha 
 to their common receptacle. 
 
 The 
 
LYR 
 
 The glands of the abdomen, which receive the lymphatics 
 from all its parts, as likewife from the lower extremities, are 
 the glanduUe inguinales, facne, Uiacse, lumbarcs, mefente- 
 ricx, and hepatica: ; all which fend out new lymphatics, 
 which pour their contents into the receptaculum chyli ; as 
 thofe of the cheft, head, and arms do into the ductus tho- 
 racicus, jugular and fubclavian veins. 
 
 Thefe glands are round and fmooth bodies, about the bignefs 
 of a hazlc nut, bigger or lefl'er, according to the number of 
 lymphatics they receive — Their fubftance is membranous, 
 and their whole bulk divided into little cells, which receive 
 the lymph from the lymphatics j and are therefore improerly 
 called glands, becaufc they feparate no liquor from the blood. 
 It is true, that their exporting lymphatics, communicating 
 with their arteries, do receive a lymph from them ; but this 
 is done without the help of conglobate glands ; as the lacteal 
 veins do with the capillary arteries of the guts : the chief ufe 
 of their vehicular bodies feems to be, that the flow-moving 
 lympha may receive a greater velocity from the elaftic con- 
 traction of their membranous cells, as well as from the new 
 lymph immediately derived from the arteries. See Gland. 
 LYRA, a conftellation in the northern hemifphere. 
 
 The number of its ftars in Ptolemy's and Tycho's catalogues 
 are io, in tht Britannic catalogue 19 ; the names, places, 
 longitudes, latitudes, and magnitudes whereof, are as follow : 
 
 Stars in the conftellation Lyra, cr Vultur Cadens. 
 
 Names and Situations of the Stars. a 
 
 South. in the preced. wing of the Vult. Vf 
 North, of the fame 
 Lucida in the fhell called Lyra 
 Bright ftar the moli nor. of the adjacent 
 Another contiguous. 
 
 South of thefe 
 Contiguous alfo to this 
 
 [lyre 
 
 Sou. of the prcced. in the jugiim oi the 
 North, of the preced. in thejugum 
 
 10 
 
 Prcced. in the root of either horn 
 Subfeq. of the fame 
 North, of thofe that foil, in thejugum 
 South, of the fame 
 
 Longitude 
 
 Latitude 
 
 2 
 
 
 North. 
 
 
 3 35 39 
 
 59 
 
 2 4 
 
 4z 
 
 5 
 
 5 55 '9 
 
 6z 
 
 46 
 
 40 
 
 6 
 
 10 57 18 
 
 61 
 6z 
 
 45 
 
 3" 
 
 1 
 
 '+ '7 42 
 
 26 
 
 °5 
 
 5 
 
 '4 "7 '7 
 
 62 
 
 
 31 
 
 6 
 
 ■3 46 55 
 
 60 
 
 '3 
 
 >> 
 
 5 
 
 >3 47 29 
 
 60 
 
 2Z 
 
 !( 
 
 7 
 
 14 19 4Z 
 
 55 
 
 2(J 
 
 48 
 
 6 
 
 14 "7 S 8 
 
 55 
 
 13 
 
 5 s 
 
 6 5 
 
 14 35 30 
 
 56 
 
 OI 
 
 *S 
 
 3 
 
 17 03 51 
 
 59 
 
 26 
 
 3! 
 
 3 4 
 
 17 21 39 
 
 59 
 
 21 
 
 S^ 
 
 4 
 
 17 37 00 
 
 55 
 
 <?3 
 
 
 3 
 
 '7 S3 36 
 
 54 
 
 28 
 
 
 6 
 
 20 35 18 
 
 54 
 
 33 
 
 02 
 
 6 
 
 21 54 08 
 
 S« 
 
 03 
 
 44 
 
 6 
 
 2' 43 39 
 
 53 
 
 09 
 
 02 
 
 6 
 
 2; 46 19 
 
 60 
 
 42 
 
 55 
 
 5 
 
 26 14 11 
 
 59 
 
 36 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 In the middle of the body 
 
 In the eaflern part of the fhell 
 South, of the fame 
 
 LYRiE Lucida. See the article Lucida. 
 
 LYRE, Lyra, a ftringed inftrument much ufed among the 
 antients ; faid to have been invented by Mercury, on occafion 
 of his finding a dead ihell-fifh, called by the Greeks, chelone, 
 and Latins, teftudo, left on an inundation of the Nile ; of the 
 ihell whereof he formed his lyre ; mounting it with feven 
 firings, according to Lucian, and adding a kind of jugum to 
 it, to ftretch or loofen the firings. 
 
 Boetius relates the opinion of fome, who fay, that Mercury's 
 lyre had but four firings, in imitation of the mundane mufic 
 of the four elements. — Diodorus Siculus fays it had but three 
 firings, in imitation of the three feafons of the year; which 
 were all the Greeks counted, viz. fpring, fummer, and win- 
 ter.— Nicomachus, Horace, Lucian, and others, make it have 
 feven firings, in imitation of the feven planets. 
 This three, four, or feven ftringed inftrument, they fay Mer- 
 cury gave to Orpheus ; who being torn to pieces by the Bac- 
 chantes, the lyre was hung up by the Lefbians in Apollo's tem- 
 ple. — Others fay, Pythagoras found it in fome temple in Egypt, 
 and added an eighth firing. — Nicomachus fays, that when Or- 
 pheus waskilled this lyre was caft into the fea, and thrown up 
 at AntiiTa, a city of Lefbos; where the fifliermen finding it, 
 gave it to Terpander; who carried it into Egypt, and cal- 
 led himfelf tbe mveiiwr,— The feven firings were diatoriically 
 
 L Y S 
 
 difpofed, by tones, and femi-tones; and Pythagoras's eighth 
 firing made up the octave. 
 
 Mr. Barnes, in the prolegomena to his edition of Anacreon, 
 has an enquiry into the antiquity and rtructure of the lyre; of 
 which he makes Jubal the firfi inventor. For the feveral 
 changes this inftrument underwent, by the addition of new 
 firings, he obferves, that according to Diodorus it had ori- 
 ginally only three ; whence it was called -r^x^c. After- 
 wards, it had feven things ; as appears from Homer, Pindar, 
 Horace, Virgil, C5V. Feftus Avienus gives the lyre of Or- 
 pheus nine ftrings. David mentions an inftrument of that 
 fort ftrung with ten, in pfalterio dechachordo. 1 imothcus of 
 Miletus added four to the old feven, which made eleven. 
 Jofephus, in his Jewijh Antiquities^ makes mention of one 
 with twelve ftrings ; to which were afterwards added fix o- 
 thers, which made eighteen in all. — Anacreon himfelf fays, 
 p. 253. of Mr* Barnes's edition, canto viginti totis chcrdis. — 
 For the modern lyre, or Welfh harp, confiding of forty 
 ftrings, it is fufficiently known. 
 
 From the lyre, which all agree to be the firff inftrument of the 
 ftringed kind in Greece, therearofean infinite number of others, 
 differing in fhape, and number of firings; as the pfalterium, 
 trigon, fambucus, pectis, maggauis, barbiton, teftudo, (the two 
 laif ufed promifcuoufly, by Horace, with the lyre and cithara) 
 epigonium, fimmic'ium, and pandura ; which were all ftruck 
 with the hand, or a plectrum. See Psaltery, Sambuca, 
 Magadis, Barbiton, and Cithara. 
 
 Lyre, among painters, ftatuaries, &c. is an attribute of Apollo, 
 and the muTes. See Attribute. 
 
 LYRIC, fomething fung, or played on the lyre or harp. See 
 Lyre. 
 
 Lyric is more particularly applied to the antient odes, and 
 ftanza's ; which anfwer to our airs, or fangs, and may be 
 played on inftruments, 
 
 The antients were great admirers of lyrick verfe s ; which name, 
 Mr. Barnes obferves, they gave to fuch verfes as were lung to 
 
 the lyre. 
 
 This fpecies of poetry was originally employed in celebrat- 
 ing the praifes of gods and heroes ; though it was afterwards 
 introduced into feaits, and public diverfions : it is a miftakc 
 to imagine Anacreon, as the Greeks do, the author of it ; 
 fince it appears from icripture to have been in ufe above a 
 thoufand years before that poet. — Mr. Barnes fhows how 
 unjuft it is to exclude heroic fubjeets and actions from this fore 
 of verfe, lyric poetry being capable of all the elevation and 
 fublimity fuch fubjeets require ; which he confirms by the 
 example of Alcaeus, Stefichorus, Anacreon, and Horace, and 
 by his own cflay, A triumphal Ode inferibed to the duke of 
 Marlborough., at the bead of this edition : he concludes with 
 the hiftory of lyric potfy, and of thofe antients who excelled 
 in it. 
 
 The character i flic of lyric poetry, which did inguifhes it from 
 all others, is fwectnefs. — As gravity rules in heroic verfe j 
 Jimplicity, in paftoral ; tendernefs, and foftnefs, in elegy ; jljarp- 
 nejs, and poignancy, in fatyr ; mirth, in comedy ; the pathe- 
 tic, in tragedy; and the point, in epigram ; fo in the lyric, 
 the poet applies himfelt wholly to footh the minds of men, by 
 the fweetnefs and variety of the verfe, and the delicacy of 
 the words, and thoughts ; the agreeablenefs of the num- 
 bers, and the defcription of things moft pleahng in their 
 own nature. 
 
 L YSIARCHA, an antient kind of magiftrate, being the 
 pontiff of Lycia, or fuperintendant of the facred games of 
 that province. 
 
 Strabo obferves, that the lyftarcha was created in a council, 
 confifting of the deputies of twenty three cities ; that is, of 
 all the cities in the province : fome of which cities had three 
 voices, others two, and others but one. 
 
 Cardinal Norris fays, that the lyftarcha preftded in matters 
 of religion ; in effect, the lyftarcha was nearly the fame with 
 the afiarcha, and fyriarcha ; who though they were all the 
 heads of the councils, or ftates of thofe provinces, yet were 
 they eftablifhd principally to take care of the games and feafts 
 celebrated in honour of the gods, whofe priefts they were, 
 inaugurated at the fame time that they were created lyfiarcha, 
 fyriarcha y or aftarcba* 
 
 M. 
 
M. 
 
 MAC 
 
 A liquid confonant, and the twelfth letter in the 
 alphabet. 
 
 It is pronounced by finking the upper lip againft th 
 ^ lower; in which the pronunciation of this letter 
 agrees with that of b : the only difference between 
 the two conlifting in a little motion made in the nofe in pro- 
 nouncing AI, and not in b : whence it happens, that thofe who 
 have taken cold, for M ordinarily pronounce b; the nofe, in 
 that cafe, being difabled from making the neceffary motion. 
 Quintilian obferves, that the M fometimes ends Latin words, 
 but never Greek ones ; the Greeks always changing it in that 
 cafe into n, for the fake of the better found. 
 M is alfo a numeral letter, and among the antients was ufed for 
 a thoufand ; according to the vcrfe, 
 
 M caput ejl numeri quern famus milk tenere. 
 When a dafh is added at the top of it, as m ; itfignifies a thou- 
 fand times a thoufand. 
 M, in aftronomical tables, and other things of that kind, is ufed 
 for Meridional or fouthern ; and fometimes for Meridian, or 
 mid-day. 
 
 M, in medicinal prefcription, is frequently ufed to fignify a ma- 
 niple, or handful. 
 
 M is fometimes alfo put at the end of a recipe, for mifce, mingle ; 
 or for ?nixtura, a mixture. Thus, m. f. julapium fignifies, 
 mix and make a julap. 
 
 M, in law, the brand or ftigma of a perfon convicted of man- 
 slaughter, and admitted to the benefit of his clergy.— It is to 
 be burnt on the brawn of bis left thumb. 
 
 MACARONIC, or Macaroni an *, a kind of burlefque po- 
 etry ; confifting of a jumble of words of different languages, 
 with words of the vulgar tongue latinized, and Latin word:, 
 modernized. 
 
 * Maccr.vone, among the Italians, as lias been obferved by Carlius 
 Rhodiginus, /ignilies a coarfc clownifli man ; and becaufe this 
 kind of poetry, being patclfd out of feveral languages, and full 
 of extravagant words, is not fo polite and fmooth as thofe of 
 Virgil, tifV. the Italians, among whom it had its rife, gave it 
 the name of Mnccaronian or Maccaronic poetry. Others choofc 
 to derive it a Macaronibus, from Macaroons, a kind of confec- 
 tion made of meal not boulted, fweet-almonds, fugar, and the 
 whites of eggs; accounted a great dainty among the country- 
 people in Italy ; which, from their being compofed of various 
 ingredients occafion'd this kind of poetry, which confifts of 
 Latin, Italian, Spaniili, French, EngliJh, CifV. to be called by 
 their name. 
 
 For an inftance ; a bold fellow, in the Macaronic ftile, fays ; 
 
 Enfilavi omna Scadrones & Regimandss, &c. 
 For another example : 
 
 Archeros pijloliferos furiamque manantum, 
 Et grandem efmeutam qua; inopinum facia ruella eft : 
 Toxinumque alto troublantcm corda clochero, &c. 
 Theoph. Eolingius, a Bencdictin monk of Mantua, was the 
 firft who invented, or at leaft cultivated, this kind of verfe : 
 For tho' we have a Macaronea Ariminenfis in a very old letter, 
 beginning, Eft Author Typhis Leonicus atque Paranfus ; yet it 
 feems to have been the work of Guarinus Capellus Sarfinas, 
 who in I lie year 1526 printed fix books of Macaronic poetry, 
 in Cabrinum Gagamogis Regan: but as both thefe came out 
 after the firft edition of Folmgius, which was publifhed under 
 the name of Merlinus Coccajus in 1520 ; fo were they like- 
 wife much inferior to his both in the ftyle, invention, and epi- 
 fodes, wherewith he has enriched the hiftory of Baldus ; which 
 
 make the fubject of his poem. The famous Rabelais firft 
 
 transferred the Macaronic ftyle out of the Italian vcrfe into 
 French profe, and on the model thereof formed fome of the 
 belt tliin2^ in his Pantagruel. 
 
 Merlin Coccajus met with fo much fuccefs in his new wav, 
 that he compofed another book partly in Macaronic ftyle, called 
 // Chats del tri per una ; but with very different fuccefs. After 
 this, appeared in Italy, A'lacaronica de fyndicatit, y condemna- 
 tion!: doelsris Samfonis Lcmbi, a low performance ; and Alaca- 
 ronis Forza, an excellent one, by Stefonio a Jefuit. In 1620, 
 Iiajani publifhed a Car navalc Tabula Macaronea. The laft Ita- 
 lian who wrote in this way, was C:tfar Urfinius, to whom we 
 mve the Capricia Aflacaromca magijlri Stopini poet<£ Pouzancn- 
 
 fn, printed in 1636. 
 1 he firft who fucceeded in the Macarinit ftile among the 
 French was Antonius de Arena Provenfalh de Bragardiffima Villa 
 tic Soleriis, in two poems, which he has left us, de Arte Dan- 
 
 jatidi, &T de Guerra Neapolitana Romana Eif Gcnitenji. He was 
 followed by another lawyer, who wrote Hijloria bravijfma 
 Car oil V. Imperat. a Provincialibus payfanis triumphantcr fu- 
 
 'gati. Some time after, Remi Bdleau, among his other French 
 poefies, printed Diclamcn mrtrificum de hello Hugmatico, & 
 rujlicorum figUamine ad forfaits; a piece much valued. This 
 Vol. II. . 
 
 MAC 
 
 was fucceeded by Cacafanga Rcifzro Suijfo Lanfquenetorum per M. 
 y. B. Liclnardum Recatolicatum Spaliporcimim poeiam; to which 
 StephenTabouret returned an anfwer in the fameftrain. Laftly, 
 John Edward de Monin entered the lifts, and left us inter tere- 
 tifmata fua carmen arenaicum de quorundam nugigerulorum piaf- 
 fa infupportabili. The Recitus veritabilis fupcr terrib'di efmeuta 
 paifanarum ds Rucllio, is one .of the heft pieces of this kind. 
 We have little in Englifh in the Macaroni an way; indeed 
 fcarce any thing, except fome little loofe pieces collected in 
 Camden's remains: which is no difcredit to our authors : for 
 one may fay of fuch pieces in general, 
 Turpe efl dijfciles habere nugas t 
 Et jlultus labor eji ineptiarum. 
 But the Germans and Netherlanders have had their Macaronic 
 poets ; witnefs the Ccrtamen cathoHcum cum Calvinijlis, of one 
 Martinius Hamconius Frifius, which contains about twelve 
 hundred verfes, all the wordswhereof begin with the letter C. 
 
 MACE, Macis, a medicinal bark, or rind of a fruit, bein^ the 
 fecond of the 3 coats, which cover the nutmeg, See Nu t m EG. 
 It is of an aftringent and drying nature, and is ufed as a cor- 
 rector in cardiac and cathartic compofitions. 
 
 MACEDONIANS. See the article Semiarian. 
 
 MACERATION, in pharmacy, the operation of diffolving a 
 folid body by means of water, or fome other liquor. 
 In this fenfe, the word amounts to much the fame with lique- 
 faction or liquation. See Liquefaction. 
 
 Maceration is alfo ufed for the infufing a body in any men- 
 ftruous fluid, in order to a folution of its principles, whether 
 with or without fire. 
 
 In which fenfe Maceration amounts to much the fame with 
 Digejiion. 
 
 Others rcftrain Aiaceration to that particular kind of di^eftion 
 which is performed in thick fubftances, as when, having mix- 
 ed rofes with fat to make Unguent. Rofatum, the mixture is 
 expofed for fome days to the fun, that the virtue of the rofes 
 may be the better communicated to the fat. 
 MACHINE, Machina*, in the general, fignifies any thintr 
 that ferves to augment, or to regulate moving powers : or it is 
 any body deftmed to produce motion, fo as to fave either time 
 or force. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, y-vyaw, Machine, In-vention 
 
 Art. And hence, in ftrictnefs, a Machine is fomething that 
 
 confifts more in art and invention, that in the ftren<nh and fo- 
 lidity of the materials ; and for this reafon it is that the invent- 
 ors of Machines are called Ingenious. 
 
 Simple Machines are thofe otherwife called mechanical powers. 
 There are fix fimple Machines, to which all others may be re- 
 duced; viz. the balance, lever, wheel, pulley, wedge, and 
 fcrew. For the doctrine of which, fee Balance,' Le- 
 ver, &c. 
 
 Compound Machine is that which is compofed of feveral fimple 
 ones combined together. 
 
 The number of compound Machines is now almoft infinite ■ 
 and yet the antients fecm to have out-done the moderns in this 
 refpecT: ; their Machines of war, architecture, &c» being de- 
 fcribed as vaftly fuperior to ours. 
 Archiieclouieal Machine, is an affcmblage of pieces of wood fo 
 difpofed, as that, by means of ropes and pulleys, a fmall num- 
 ber of men may raife vaft loads, and lay them in their places. 
 Such are cranes, fsV. 
 
 'Tis hard to conceive what fort of Machines the antients muft 
 have ufed to raife thofe immenfe ftones found in fome of the 
 antique buildings. 
 
 Hydraulic, or #W>--Machine, is either ufed to fignify a fim- 
 ple Machine, ferving to conduct or raife water ; as a fluice 
 pump, &c. or feveral of thefe acting together, to produce fome 
 extraordinary effect ; as the 
 
 Machine of Marly, the primum mobile whereof is an arm of 
 the river Seine, which, by its ftream, turns feveral large 
 wheels, which work the handles, and thefe with piftons raife 
 the water into the pumps, and with other piftons force it up 
 in pipes aga'mft the afcent of a hill to a refervoir in a ftone 
 tower, 62 fathom higher than the river ; fufficiently to fupply 
 Verfailles with a conftant ftream of 200 inches. 
 
 Military Machines, among the antients, were of three kinds - 
 the firft ferving to launch arrows, as the fcorpion ; or javelins 
 as the catapulta; or ftones, as the balifta ; or fiery darts, as 
 the pyrabolus.: the fecond ferving to beat down walls, as the 
 battering ram and terebra : and the third to flieker thofe who 
 approached the enemies wall ; as the tortoife or teftudo the 
 vinea, and the towers of wood. See Scorpion, Aries, &c. 
 The Machines of IVar now in ufe, confift in artillery, bombs, 
 petards, &c. 
 
 Machine, in dramatic poetry, is when the poet brings fome 
 6 A dlvi- 
 
 / 
 
MAC 
 
 MAC 
 
 divinity or fupernatural being upon the ftage \ to perform 
 fome exploit, or folve fome difficulty out of the reach of hu- 
 man power. . . ... 
 
 The Machines of the drama are gods, angels, ghofts, Off. 
 They are' fo called from the Machines or contrivances by 
 which they are rcprefented upon the ftage, and afterwards re- 
 moved again. 
 
 Hence, the ufe of the word Machine has alfo paffed into the 
 epic poem ; though the reafon of its name be there wanting. 
 It denotes, in both cafes, the intervention orminiflry of fome 
 divinity : but as the occafion of Machines, in the one and the 
 other, are fomewhat different, the rules and laws of manage- 
 jng them are different likewife. 
 
 The antient dramatic poets never brought any Machine on 
 the ftage, but where there was an abfolute neceffity for the 
 prefence of a god ; and they were generally laughed at for fuf- 
 fering thcmfelves to be reduced to fuch a neceffity. Accord- 
 ingly, AriftetU lays it down as an cxprefs law, that the unra- 
 velling of the piece mould arife from the fable itfelf, and not 
 from any foreign Machine, as in the Medea. Horace is fome- 
 thing lefs fevere, and contents himfelf with faying, that the 
 gods mould never appear, unlefs where the nodus, or knot, 
 worthy of their prefence ; Nec deus inter/it, nifi dignus vindi 
 ncdus—Inciderit . 
 But 'tis quite otherwife with the epopea ; in that there mull be 
 Machines every-where, and in every part. Homer and Virgil 
 do nothing without them. Petronius, with his ufual fire, 
 maintains, that the poet fhould deal more with the gods than 
 with men ; that he fhould every-where leave marks of his pro 
 phetic raptures, and of the divine fury that pofTeffes him ; that 
 his thoughts fhould be all full of fables, that is, of allegories 
 and figures: In fine, he will have a poem diftinguifhed from 
 an hiftory in all its parts ; not fo much by the verfes, as by 
 that poetical fury, which it expreffeS itfelf wholly by allego- 
 ries ; and does nothing but by Machines, or the miniftry of 
 the gods. 
 
 A poet, therefore, muff leave it to the hiftorian to fay, that a 
 fleet was difper fed by a ftorm, and driven to foreign fhores ; 
 and mufl himfelf fay, with Virgil, that Juno went to feek Ma- 
 ins, and that this god, at her requeft, turned the winds loofe 
 
 againft the Trojans. He mult leave the hiftorian to write, 
 
 that a young prince behaved himfelf with a great deal of pru- 
 dence and difcretion on all occafions ; and muff lay, with Ho- 
 mer, that Minerva led him by the hand in all his cnterprizes. 
 
 Let an hiftorian fay, that Agamemnon, quarrelling with 
 Achilles, hath a mind to fhew him, though miftakenly, that he 
 can take Troy without his afliftance. The poet muft fay, 
 that Thetis, piqued at the affront her fon had received, flies 
 up to heaven, there to demand vengeance of Jupiter ; and that 
 this god, to fatiafy her, fends the god Somnus, or Sleep, to 
 Agamemnon, to deceive him, and make him believe, that he 
 ftiall take Troy that day. 
 
 It is thus that the epic poets ufed Machines in all parts of their 
 works; in the Iliad, Odyffee, and iEneid, the proportion 
 mentions them ; the invocation is addreffed to them ; and the 
 narration is full of them : they are the caufes of actions ; they 
 
 make the knots ; and at laft they unravel them. This laft 
 
 circumftance is what Ariftotle forbids in the drama ; but it is 
 what Homer and Virgil have both pra&ifed in the Epopea. 
 Thus Minerva fights for Ulyffes againft Penelope's lovers ; 
 helps him to deftrov them ; and, the next day, herfelf makes 
 the peace between Ulyfles and the Ithacans ; which clofes the 
 Odyffee. 
 
 The ufe of Machines, in the epic poem, is, on fome ac- 
 counts, intirely oppofite to what Horace prefcribes for the 
 theatre. In tragedy, that critic will never have them ufed 
 without an abfolute neceffity ; whereas, in the Epopea, they 
 fhould never be ufed, but where they may be as well let alone ; 
 and where the action appears as if it did not neceffarily require 
 them. How many gods and Machines does Virgil implore to 
 raife the ftorm that drives ./Eneas into Carthage ? which yet 
 might eaftly have happened in the ordinary courfe of nature ! 
 Machines, in the epic poem, therefore, are not contrivances 
 of the poet, to recover himfelf after he has made a falle ftep 
 nor to folve any difficult*- peculiar to fome part of the poem ; 
 but it is the prefence of a divinity, and fome fupernatural and 
 extraordinary action, which the poet inferts in moft of the 
 incidents of his work, to render it more majeftic and admire- 
 able, and to train up his readers to piety and virtue. This 
 mixture fhould always be fo managed, as that the Machines 
 may be retrenched, without retrenching any thing from the 
 action. 
 
 As to the manner, in which the MatJmes are to a£t; it may 
 be obferved, that, in the old mythology, there are gods both 
 good, bad, and indifferent ; and that our paffions may be con- 
 verted into fo many allegorical divinities: fo that every thing, 
 both good and bad in a poem, may be attributed to thefe 
 
 Machines, and may be tranfacled by them. They don't, 
 
 however, always act in the fame manner ; fometimes they aft 
 without appearing, and by fimple infpirations, which have no- 
 thing in them extraordinary or miraculous; as when we fay 
 the devil fuggefted fitch a thought, fijV, The fecond manner 
 
 of ailing is intirely miraculous; as when a divinity prefents 
 itfelf vifible before men, fo as to be known by them ; or 
 when they difguife themfelves under fome human form with- 
 out difcovering themfelves. The third manner partakes of 
 each of the two, and confifts in oracles, dreams, and extraor- 
 dinary infpirations : all which Boffu calls Demi Machines. 
 All thefe manners ought to be fo managed, as to carry a ve- 
 rifimilitude ; and though verifimilitude be of a vaft extent in 
 Machines, as being founded on the divine power ; yet it has. 
 its bounds. 
 
 Horace propofes three kinds of machines for the ftage ; the 
 nrft is a god vifibly prcfent among the actors, which, he fays, 
 fhould never be introduced but on a great occafion. The 
 fecond contains more incredible and extraordinary Machines - t 
 as the metamorpbofis of Progne into a fwallow, or of Cadmus 
 into a ferpent : and even thefe Machines he dees not abfolute- 
 ly condemn, or exclude them out of the poem, but only 
 out of the fcene, and the fight of the fpectators : they are not to 
 be reprcfented, he fays; but they may be recited. The third 
 kind of Machines is absolutely abfurd , and he rejects it intirely: 
 the inftance he gives, is that of a child taken alive out of the 
 belly of a monftfer that had devoured it. The other two man- 
 ners are allowed indifferently in the Epnpea ; and without that 
 diftinff ion of Horace, which only fuits the ftage ; it being in 
 the drama alone, that a difference may be made between 
 what paffes in the fcene, or the fight ofthe fhe£tators,and what 
 behind the curtain. 
 MACROCEPHALUS*, MAKP0KE*AAO2, denotes a perfon 
 with an head larger or longer than the common fize. See 
 Head. 
 
 * The word is compounded of the Greek p.ctx%& great, and 
 Hito&kn head. 
 
 MACROCOSM *, MAKP0K0SM05, denotes the great world j 
 that is, the univerfe. 
 
 * The word is compounded of the Greek ^UMtptik long, large, 
 and wffft®-', world. 
 
 In which fenfe it ftands contra-diftinguiflied from microcofm, a 
 term ufed to exprefs man. 
 MACUL7E, in aftronomy, dark fpots appearing on the luminous 
 faces of the fun, moon, and even fome of the planets. 
 In which fenfe Macules ftand contra-diilinguifiied homfaeula: 
 See Facul-S . 
 
 Solar Maculje are dark fpots, of an irregular, changeable 
 figure, obferved in the face of the fun, firft taken notice of by 
 Scheiner 1611. and afterwards accurately obferved by Gali- 
 leus, Hevelius, Mr. Flamftead, Caffini, Kirch, (3'c. 
 Many of thefe Macula appear to confift of heterogenous parts; 
 whereof the darker and more denfe are called by Hevelius, 
 nuclei, and are incompaffed, as it were, with atmofpheres, 
 fomewhat rarer and lefs obfeure ; but the figure both of the 
 
 nuclei and intire Macules arc variable. In 1644. Hevelius 
 
 obferved 2 fnndl thin Macula, which, in two days time, grew 
 to ten times its bulk ; appearing withal much darker, and 
 with a larger nucleus ; and fuch Hidden mutations are fre- 
 quent. The nucleus, lie obferved, began to fail fenfibly be- 
 fore the fpot difappeared, and that, ere it quite vanifhed, it 
 broke into four, which, in two days, again re-united. Suine 
 Macules have lafted 2, 3, 10, 15, 20, 30, but feldom 40 days ; 
 tho' Kirchius obferved one in 168 1 , whic h remained from April 
 26th to the 17th of July. — The fpots move over the fun's difk 
 with a motion fomewhat flacker near the limb than near the 
 centre : that obferved by Kirch was 'twelve days vifible on 
 the fun's difk ; for fifteen days more it lay behind it, it being 
 the ufual rule to return to the limb whence they departed in 
 27, fometimes in 28 days. 
 
 Laftly, it muft be obferved, that the Macula contract them- 
 felves nearer the limb, and, in the middle of the difk, appear 
 much larger ; thofe often running into out- in the difk, which, 
 in the limb, wtre feparate : that many of them arife in the 
 middle of the difk, and many difappear in the fame ; and that 
 none of them are obferved to deviate from their path near the 
 horizon ; whereas Hevelius, obfervmg Mercury in the fun 
 near the horizon, found him too low, being thruft 27 fe- 
 conds beneath his former path. 
 
 From thefe phenomena we collect, i°. that,, fince Mercury's 
 depreftion below his path arifes from his parallax, the Macules^, 
 having no parallax from the fun, are nearer him than that pla- 
 net : — but, fince they are hid behind the fun three days longer 
 than they are in the hemiiphere vifible to us, it follows alfo, 
 that they do not adhere to the furface of the fun, but are at 
 fome diftance from it. 
 
 2°. That, fince they arife and difappear in the middle of the 
 fun's difk, and undergo various alterations with regard both 
 to bulk, figure, and denfity, they muft be formed de novo, 
 and again diffolved about the fun ; and that they are therefore, 
 in all probability, a kind offolar clouds, formed out of its ex- 
 halations. 
 
 3 0 . Since then the folar exhalations rife over his body, and 
 are fufpended at a certain height from it, it appears, from the 
 laws of hydroftatics, that the fun muft be encompaffed with 
 fome fluid to drive thofe exhalations upwards ; which fluid 
 muft be denfer as it is lower, and rarer as higher, like our 
 
 atmofphere ; 
 
MAG 
 
 MAG 
 
 atmofphere . And fince tile Macules difiblve and difappcar in 
 the very middle of the fun's difk, the matter thereof, i. e. the 
 folar exhalations, muft fail back again to the fun ; whence 
 there muft arife changes in the fun's atmofphere, and confe- 
 qucntly in the fun itfelf. 
 
 4°. Since the revolution of the Macula round the fun is very 
 regular ; and fince their diftance from the fun is very fmall ; 
 it is not properly the Macules that move round the fun, but 
 it is himfclf, together with his atmofphere, wherein the Ma- 
 cula fwim, that, in the fpace of 27 days, moves round his 
 own axis; and hence it is, that the Macula, being viewed 
 obliquely near the limb, appear narrow and oblong. 
 5°. Since the fun appears with a circular difk in every fituation, 
 his figure, as to fenfe, muft be fpherical. 
 MADDER, a red, bitter root of a plant, called by botanifts, 
 Rubia Tinclorum, much ufed by dyers to give a ftrong and rich 
 red colour. 
 
 It has its ufes alfo in medicine, being found of fervice in ob- 
 ftructions of the vifcera, and cachectic conftitutions ; and is 
 generally made up in form of decoctions, diet-drinks, and 
 medicated ales. See Supplement, Article Rubia. 
 
 MADNESS, Mania, in medicine. See Mania. 
 
 MADR1ER, in the military art, a thick plank, fometimes 
 armed with iron plates, having a cavity fufficient to receive 
 the mouth of a petard when charged ; with which it is applied 
 againft a gate, or other body defigned to be broken down. See 
 Petard. 
 
 Madrier alfo denotes a long and broad plank, ufed for fup- 
 porting the earth in mining, carrying on faps, making capo- 
 niers, galleries, and the like. 
 
 There are alfo Madriers lined with tin, and covered with 
 earth ; ferving as defences againft artificial fires, in lodgments, 
 tsc. where there is need of being covered over head. 
 MADRIGAL*, in the modern Italian, Spanifh, and French 
 poetry, denotes a little amorous piece, containing a certain 
 number of free unequal verfes, not tied either to the fcrupulous 
 regularity of a fonnet, or the fubtlety of an epigram ; but 
 confuting of fome tender, and delicate, yet fimple thought, 
 fuitably exprefted, 
 
 * Menage derives the word from Ma-idra, which, in Latin and 
 Greek, fignifies a fheepfold ; imagining it to have been origi- 
 nally a kind of paitoral or fhepherd's fong ; whence the Italians 
 formed their Madrigale, and we Madrigal. Others rather 
 chofe to derive the word from Madrugar, which, in the Spanifh, 
 fignifies to rife in the morning; the Madrigals being formerly 
 fling early in the morning, by thofe who had a mind to fere- 
 nade their miftreffes. 
 The Madrigal, according to M. le Brun, is an epigram with- 
 out any thing very brifli and fprightly in its fall or clofe : 
 fomething very tender and gallant is ufually the fubject of it : 
 and a certain beautiful, noble, yet cbafte, iimplicity, forms 
 its character. 
 
 The Madrigal is ufually looked on as the fhorteft of all the 
 lefl'er kinds of poems, except the epigram. It may confift of 
 fewer verfes than either the fonnet or roundelay. There is 
 no other rule regarded in mingling the rhimes, and verfes of 
 different kinds, but the fancy and convenience of the author. 
 This poem, however, really allows of lels licence than many 
 others ; whether we regard the rhime, the meafures, or the 
 purity of expreffion. 
 MAGAS, Magadis, the name of a mufical inftrument in ufe 
 among the antients. 
 
 There were two kinds of Magades; the one a firing- inftru- 
 ment, the invention whereof is afcribed by fome to Sappho ; 
 by others to the Lydians ; and by fome to Timotheus of 
 Miletus. 
 
 The otherwas a kind of flute, which, at the fame time, yielded 
 very high and very low notes. — The former kind was, at leaft, 
 much improved by Timotheus of Miletus, who is faid to have 
 been impeached of a crime ; for that, by increafing the num- 
 ber of chords, he fpoiled and difc-redited the antient mufic. 
 
 MAGAZINE, in the military art, a place in fortified towns, 
 where all forts of ftores are kept, and where carpenters, wheel- 
 wrights, fmiths, are employed in making things needful 
 to furnifh out the train of artillery. 
 
 MAGDALEN. Religious of St. Magdalen, is a denomi- 
 nation given to divers communities of nuns, confifring gene- 
 rally of penitent courtezans ; fometimes alfo called Magda- 
 lanettes. 
 
 Such are thofe at Metz, eftablifhed in 1452 ; thofe at Pan's in 
 1492; thofe at Naples, firfr eftablifhed in 1324, and endow- 
 ed by queen Sancha, to ferve as a retreat for public courte- 
 zans, who fhould quit the trade, and betake themfelves to re- 
 pentance ; and thofe ot Rouen and Bourdeaux, which had their 
 original among thofe of Paris. 
 
 In each of thefe monaftcries there are three kinds of perfons 
 and congregations : the iirft confiffs of thofe who are admitted 
 To make vows ; and thefe bear the name of St. Magdalen : the 
 congregation of St. Martha is the fecond, and is compofed of 
 thofe whom it is not judged proper to admit to vows : finally, 
 the congregation of St. Lazarus is compofed of fuch as are 
 detained there by force. 
 
 The Religious of St. Magdalen at Rome were eftablifhed by 
 
 pope Leo X. Clement VIII. fettled a revenue on them, and 
 further appointed, that the effects of all public proltitutes, dy- 
 ing inteftate, fhould fall to them; and that the telUments of 
 the reft fhould be invalid, unlefs they bequeathed a portion of 
 their effects, which was to be at leaft a fifth part, to them. 
 MAGI, or Magians *, a title which the antient Perfians gave' 
 to their wife-men or philofophers. 
 
 * The learned are in great perplexity about the original of the 
 word Magus, Mtty * . Plato, Xenophon, Herodotus, Strabo, 
 C3"V. derive it from the Perfian language, in which it fignified a 
 prieft, or perfon appointed to officiate in holy things, as druid 
 among the Gauls, gymnofophljl among the Indians, and Le-vite 
 among the Hebrews. Others derive it from the Greek jj.zyci<, 
 great; which, they fay, being borrowed of the Greeks by the 
 Perfians,was returned in the form of uaytx; ; butVoifius, with 
 more probability, brings ir from the Hebrew r~|Jil baga, to 
 meditate ; whence O'JiHD maagbitn, in Latin meditabundi, 
 q. d. people additltd to meditation. 
 Magi^ among the Perfians, anfwered to <ro$ot, or ©fAo^w, 
 among the Greeks, fapientcs among the Latins, druids among 
 the Gauls, gymmfophifls among the Indians, and prophets or 
 prie/ls among the Egyptians. 
 
 The antient Magi, according to Ariftotle and Laertius, were 
 the fole authors and confervators of the Perfian philofophy ; and 
 the philofophy principally cultivated among them was theo- 
 logy, and politics, they being alwavs efteemsd as the inter- 
 preters of all laws, both divine and human ; on which account 
 they were wonderfully revered by the peopie.-^Hence Cicero 
 obferves, that none were admitted to the crown of Perfia, but 
 fuch as were well inftructed in the dilcipline of the Magi, 
 who taught lixo-i\ix.a, and fhewed princes how to go- 
 vern. 
 
 Plato, Apuleius, Laertius, and others agree, that the philo- 
 fophy of the Magi related principally to the worfhip of the 
 gods : they were the perfons who were to offer prayers, fup- 
 plications, and facrifices, as if the gods would be heard by 
 them alone. 
 
 But, according to Lucian, Suidas, &c. this theology, or wor- 
 fhip of the gods, as it was called, about which the Magi were 
 employed, was little more than the diabolical art of divination : 
 fo that {/.ayrtt^ ftrictly taken, was the art of divination. 
 Porphyry defines the Magi well : Cicero calls them divina 
 fapientes, ds" hi iifdem minijlrantes ; adding, that the word Ma- 
 gus implied as much in the Perfian tongue. — Thefe people, 
 fays he, are held in fuch veneration among the Perfians, that 
 Darius, the fon of Hyftafpes, among other things, had it en- 
 graven on his monument, that he was the mafter of the 
 Magi. 
 
 Philo- Judieus defcribes the Magi to be diligent inquirers into 
 nature, out of the love they bear to truth ; and who, fetting 
 themfelves apart from other thines, contemplate the divine; 
 virtues the more clearly, and initiate others in the fame my- 
 fteries. 
 
 Their defcendents, the modern Magi, or fire-worfhippers, 
 are divided into three clafTes ; whereof the firft and molt 
 learned neither eat nor kill animals, but adhere to the old 
 inft itution of abitaining from living creatures. The Magi of 
 the fecond clafs refrain only from tame animals: nor do the 
 Iaft kill all indifferently ; it being the firm and diftinguifhing 
 dogma of them all, tup i/.<iTi</.-\.vyjdGiv tiva.t, that there is a 
 tranfmigration of fouls. See METEMPSYCHOSIS. 
 To intimate the fimiluude between animals and men, they 
 ufe to call the latter by the name of the former: thus, their 
 fellow-priefts they called lions, the pricfteffes lioneffes, the 
 fervants crows, C3V. 
 MAGIC, Magia, MArEIfl, in its antient fen fe, the fcience, 
 or difcipline and doctrine of the Magi, or wife-men of 
 Perfia. 
 
 The origin of Magic, and the Magi, is afcribed to Zoroafter : 
 Salmafius derives the very name from Zoroafter, who, he fays, 
 was furnamed Mog, whence Magus.. Others, inftead of make- 
 ing him the author of the Perfian philofophy, make him only 
 the reftorer and improver thereof; alleging, that many of 
 the Perfian rites, in ufe among the Magi, were borrowed 
 from the Zabii among the Chaldeans, who agreed in many 
 things with the Magi of the Perfians; whence fome make 
 the name Magus common to both the Chaldasans and Perfians. 
 Thus Plutarch mentions, that Zoroafter inftituted Magi 
 among the Chaldarans ; in imitation whereof the Perfians had 
 theirs too. 
 
 Magic, in a more modern fenfe, is a fcience which teaches to 
 perform wonderful and furprifing effects. 
 
 The word Magic originally carried with it a very innocent, 
 nay, a very laudable, meaning, being ufed purely tofignify the 
 ftudy of wifdom, and the more fublime parts ot knowlege; but, 
 in regard the antient Magi engaged themfelves in aftrology, 
 divination, forcery, &c. the term Magic in time became 
 odious, and was only ufed to fignify an unlawful and diabo- 
 lical kind of fcience, depending on the affiftance of the devil, 
 and departed fouls. 
 
 If any wonder how fo vain and deceitful a fcience fhould gain 
 fo much credit and authority over mens minds, Pliny gives 
 the reafon of it. 'Tis, fays he, becaufe it has poffeffed itfelf 
 
 of 
 
MAG 
 
 MAG 
 
 of three fciences of the moft efteem among men, taking 
 from each alt that is great and marvellous in it. Nobody 
 doubts but it had its firft origin in medicine ; and that it 
 infinuated itfelf into the minds or the people, under pretence 
 of affording extraordinary remedies. To thefe fine promifes 
 it added every thing in religion that is pompous and fplendid, 
 and that appears calculated to blind and captivate mankind. 
 And, Iaftly, it mingled judiciary aftrology with the reft, per- 
 fuading people, curious of futurity, that it faw every thing to 
 come in the heavens. Agrippa divides Magic into three kinds ; 
 Natural, Cekjlial, and Ceremonial, or Super/iitious. 
 
 Natural Magic is no more than the application of natural act- 
 ive caufes to paffive tilings or fubjects ; by means whereof ma- 
 ny furprifing, but yet natural, effects are produced. 
 Baptifta Porta has a treatife of natural Magic, or of fecrets for 
 performing very extraordinary things by natural caufes. The 
 natural Magic of the Chaldseans was nothing but the know- 
 lege of the powers of fimples and minerals. The Alagic, 
 which they called Thettrgta, confided wholly in the knowlege 
 of the ceremonies to be obferved in the worfhip of the gods, 
 in order to be acceptable to them. By virtue of thefe cere- 
 monies, they believed, they could converfe with fpiritual be- 
 ings, and cure difeafes. 
 
 Cekjlial Magic borders nearly on judiciary aftrology : it attri- 
 butes to fpirits a kind of rule or dominion over the planets ; 
 and to the planets a dominion over men ; and, on thofe prin- 
 ciples, builds a ridiculous kind of fyftem. 
 
 Super/iitious or Geot'tc Magic confifts in the invocation of devils. 
 Its effects are ufually evil and wicked, tho' very ftrange, and 
 feemingly furpaffing the powers of nature ; they are fuppofed 
 to be produced by virtue of fame compact , either tacit or exprefs, 
 with evil fpirits : but the truth is, thefe fuppofed compacts have 
 not the power that is ufually imagined ; nor do they produce 
 half thofe effects ordinarily afcribed to them. 
 Naude has publifhed an apology for all the great men fufpedf- 
 ed of Magic. — Agrippa fays, that the words ufed by thofe in 
 compact with the devil, to invoke him, and to fuccced in 
 what they undertake, are, Dies, mies, jefquet, benedoefet, dou 
 vima, enitemaus. There are an hundred other fuperftitious for- 
 mulas of words prefcribed for the fame occafion, compofed at 
 pleafure, or gathered from feveral different languages, or 
 patched from the Hebrew, or formed in imitation of it. 
 
 MAGIC Lantern, an optic machine, by means whereof little 
 painted images are reprefented on an oppofite wall of a dark 
 room, magnified to any bignels at pleafure. 
 
 Covjlruflion of the Magic Lantern. Suppofe ABCD 
 
 (Tab. Optics, Fig. 10, ) a common tin lantern, to which 
 is added a tube to draw out, FG. In H is fixed a metallic 
 concave fpeculum of a foot diameter at moft, or four inches 
 at leaft ; or, in lieu thereof, near the extremity of the tube, 
 there mufl be placed a convex lens, confifting of a fegment of a 
 fmall fphere, its diameter not exceeding a few inches. In the 
 focus of the concave fpeculum, or lens, is placed a lamp L ; 
 within the tube, where it is foldcred to the fide of the lantern, 
 is placed a fmall lens, convex on both fides, being a portion of 
 a fmall fphere, having its focus about the diftance of three 
 inches. The extreme part of the tube KM is fquare, and 
 has an aperture quite thro', fo as to receive an oblong frame, 
 NO, pailed into it : in this frame are round holes an inch or 
 two in diameter. According to the bignefs of thefe holes, are 
 drawn circles on a plain thin glafs ; and in thefe circles are 
 painted any figures or images at pleafure, with tranfparcnt 
 water-colours. Thefe images, fitted into the frame, and 
 placed invertedly, at a little diftance from the focus of the 
 lens I, will be projected on an oppofite white wall of a dark 
 room, prodigiQufly magnified, in all their colours, and an erect 
 fituation. 
 
 Or thus : Every thing being managed as in the former; 
 
 into the Aiding tube FG, infert another convex lens K, the 
 fegment of a fphere fomewhat larger than I. Now, if the 
 picture be brought nearer to I than the diftance of the focus, 
 diverging rays will be propagated as if they proceeded from P : 
 wherefore, if the lens K. be fo placed, as that P is very near 
 its focus, the image will be exhibited on the wall exceedingly 
 magnified. 
 
 Theory of the Magic Lantern. The lamp being placed in 
 
 the focus of the concave fpeculum, or any convex glafs, the 
 rays will be propagated parallel to each other, and the image 
 will be ftrongly illumined, and will therefore emit a great 
 number of rays upon the Jens I. But, being fuppofed to be 
 placed near the lens I, the inverted image of the picture in- 
 verted mult be formed on the oppofite wall, exceedingly 
 magnified after its refraction thro' the lens ; and it will be 
 ftill the more magnified, as the lens is a fegment of a lefs 
 fphere, and as the picture is placed nearer the focus of the 
 lens : in a dark place, therefore, the picture will be reprefented 
 prodigiouily large, and extremely vivid. 
 
 To heighten the light, fpecula are preferred to lenfes ; the 
 focus of a fpeculum being nearer than that of a lens. 
 De Chales orders the diameter of the lens I to be two, four, 
 or five digits, and in a fubduble proportion to the other K. ; 
 j\ e. if I be five digits K muft be io ; and the diameter of 
 
 the fpeculum, according to the fame, is to be two digit?. 
 Zahuius choofes to have the diameter of I ^ % of a foot, and 
 that of K one foot and f , tyc. 
 
 Little animals being included in the Magic Lantern, in the 
 manner obferved in ipeaking of the microfcopej or any little 
 tranfparcnt objects fattened to a fiice of talc or glafs, and fub- 
 ftituted inftead of images, the Afagic Lantern will become a 
 microfcope. 
 
 MAGIC Square, a fquare figure formed of a feries of numbers 
 in arithmetical proportion, fo difpofed in parallel and equal 
 ranks, as that the fums of each row, taken either perpendi- 
 cularly, horizontally, or diagonally, are equal. 
 The feveral numbers which compofe any fquare number (for 
 inftance, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, tffc. to 25 inclufive, which compoie 
 the fquare number 25) being difpofed after each other in a 
 fquare figure of 25 cells, each in its cell ; if then you change 
 the order of thefe numbers, and difpofe them in the cells in 
 fuch manner, as that the five numbers, which fill an horizon- 
 tal rank of cells, being added together, fhall make the fame 
 ium with the five numbers in any other rank of cells, whether 
 horizontal or vertical, and even the fame number, with the five 
 in each of the two diagonal ranks ; this difpofition of numbers 
 is called a Magic Square, in oppofition to the former difpofition, 
 which is called a Nature! Square. See the figures following : 
 
 Natural Square, Magic Square. 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 = 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 2 
 
 '3 
 
 14 
 
 '5 
 
 
 ■5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 *3 
 
 "7 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 ■9 
 
 20 
 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 2 1 
 
 '9 
 
 »3 
 
 One would imagine, that thefe Magic Squares had that name 
 given them, in regard this property of all their ranks, which, 
 taken anyway, make always the fame fum, appeared extremely 
 furprifing, especially in certain ignorant ages, when mathe- 
 matics pailed for Magic. But there is a great deal of reafon 
 to fufpect, that thefe fquares merited their name ftill further 
 by the fuperftitious operations they were employed in, as the 
 conftruetion of talilmans, Esfa. for, according to the child- 
 ifh philofopby of thofe days, which attributed virtues to num- 
 bers, what virtues might not be expected from numbers fo 
 wonderful ? 
 
 However, what was at firft the vain practice of makers of 
 talifmans and conjurers, has fince become the fubject of a 
 ferious refearch among mathematicians ; not that they imagine 
 it will lead them to any thing of folid ufe or advantage. Magic 
 Squares favour too much of their original to be of much ufe ; 
 but only as 'tis a kind of play, where the difficulty makes the 
 merit, and it may chance to produce fome new views of num- 
 bers, which mathematicians will not lofe the occafion of. 
 Email. Mofchopulus, a Greek author of no great antiquity, is 
 the firft that appears to have fpoken of Magic Squares; and, 
 by the age wherein he lived, there is reafon to imagine he did 
 not look on them merely as a mathematician. However, he 
 has left us fome rules for their conftruetion. In the trea- 
 tife of Cor. Agrippa, fo much accufed of Afagic, we find the 
 fquares of feven numbers ; viz. from three to nine inclufive, 
 diipofed magically ; and it muff, not be fuppofed, that thofe 
 feven numbers were preferred to all the others without fome 
 very good reafon. In effect, 'tis becaufe their fquares, accord- 
 ing to the fyftem of Agrippa, and his followers, are planetary. 
 The fquare of 3, for inftance, belongs to Saturn, that of 4 
 to Jupiter, that of 5 to Mars, that of 6 to the Sun, that of 7 
 to Venus, that of 8 to Mercury, and that of 9 to the Moon. 
 M. Bachet applied himfelf to the ftudy of A'fagic Squares, on 
 the hint he had taken from the planetary fquares of Agrippa ; 
 as being unacquainted with the work of Mofchopulus, which 
 is only in manufcript in the French king's library ; and, with- 
 out the afliftance of any other author, he found out a new 
 method for thofe fquares whofe root is uneven ; for inftance 
 25, 49, tsc. but he could not make any thing of thofe whofe 
 root is even. 
 
 After ,iim came M. Frenicle, who took the fame fubject in 
 hand. A certain great algebraift was of opinion, that whereas 
 the fixteen numbers, which compofe the fquare, might be dif- 
 pofed 20922789888000 different ways in a natural fquare (as 
 from the rules of combination ,'tis certain they may) they 
 could not be difpofed in a Afagic Square above fixteen different 
 ways. But M. Frenicle fhewed, that they might be thus 
 difpofed 878 different ways ; whence it appears how much his 
 method exceeds the former, which only yielded the 55th part 
 of Magic Squares of that of M. Frenicle. 
 
 To this inquiry he thought fit to add a difficulty, that had 
 j not yet been confidered : the Magic Square of 7, for inftance, 
 being conftructed, and its 49 cells filled, if the two horizon- 
 tal ranks of cells, and, at the fame time, the two vertical 
 I J ones, 
 
MAG 
 
 MAG 
 
 ones, the moft remote from the middle, be retrenched, that 
 is, if the whole border or circumference of the fquare be 
 taken away ; there will remain a fquare, whofe root will be 5, 
 and which will only confift of twentv-five cells. -Now it is not 
 at all furprifing, that the fquare fhould be no longer magical* in 
 regard the ranks of the large one were not intended to make 
 the fame fum, excepting when taken ir.tire with all the feven 
 numbers that fill their feven cells ; fo that being mutilated 
 each of two cells, and having loft two of their Numbers, it may 
 be well expected, that their remainders will not any longer 
 make the fame fum. But M. Freniclc would not befatisfied, 
 unlefs when the circumference or border of the Magic Square 
 was taken away, and even any circumference at pleafure, or 
 in fine, feveral circumferences at once, the remaining fquare 
 were ftill magical; which laft condition, no doubt, mad 
 thefe Squares vaftly more magical than ever. 
 Again, he inverted that condition, and required that any cir- 
 cumference taken at pleafure, or even feveral circumferences, 
 fhould be infeparable from the fquare ; that is, that it fhould 
 ceafe to be magical when they were removed, and yet continue 
 Magical after the removal of any of the reft. M. Frenicle, 
 however, gives no general demonftration of his methods, and 
 frequently ibems to have no other guide but his groping. 
 J Tis true, his book was not publifhcd by himfelf, nor did it 
 appear till after his death, viz, in 1693. 
 In 1703, M. Poignard, Canon ot Brunels, publifhed a trea- 
 tife of fublime Magic Squares. Before him there had been 
 no Magic Squares made but for feries's of natural numbers 
 that formed a fquare ; but M. Poignard made two very con- 
 fiderahle improvements ; i<>. Inftcadof taking all the numbers 
 that fill a fquare, for inftance, the thirty-fix fucceflive numbers, 
 which would fill all the ceils of a natural fquare whofe fide 
 is 6, he only takes as many fucceflive numbers as there are 
 units in the fide of the fquare, which in this cafe are fix ; and 
 thefe fix numbers alone he difpofes in fuch manner, in the 
 thirty-fix cells, that none of them are repeated twice in the 
 fame rank, whether it be horizontal, vertical, or diagonal : 
 whence it follows, that all the ranks, taken all the ways 
 poffiblc, mull always make the fame fum, which M. Poig- 
 nard calls repeated progreflion. 2°. Inftead of being confined 
 to take thefe numbers according to the fries and fucceflion 
 of the natural numbers, that is, in an arithmetical progref- 
 fion, he takes them likewife in a geometrical progreflion, and 
 
 even in an harmonical progreflion. But with thefe two laft 
 
 progreffions the Magic muft nccefiarilv be different from what 
 it was : In the fquares, filled with numbers in geometrical pro- 
 greflion, it confifrs in this, t';at the products of all the ranks 
 are equal, and in the harmonica! progreffion, the numbers of 
 all the ranks continually follow that progreflion : he makes 
 fquares ot each of thefe three progreffions repeated. 
 This book of M. Poignard gave occafion toM. de la Hire to 
 turn his thoughts the fame way, which he did with fuch fuc- 
 cefs, that he feems to have well nigh completed the theory 
 
 of Magic Squares He firft confiders uneven Squares : all his 
 
 predecefibrs on the fubjeer having found the construction of 
 even ones by much the mod difficult ; for which reafon M. dc 
 la Hire referves thofe for the laft. This excefs of difficulty 
 may arife partly from hence, that the m mbers are taken in 
 arithmetical progreffion. Now in that progreflion, if the 
 number of terms be uneven, that in the middle has fome pro- 
 perties, which may be of fervice ; for inftance, being multi- 
 plied by the number of terms in the progreffion, the product: 
 is equal to the fum of all the terms. 
 
 M. dc la Hire propofes a general method for uneven fquares, 
 which has fome fimritude with the theory of compound mo- 
 tions, fo ufeful and fertile in mechanics. As that confifts in 
 decompounding motions, audrefolving them into others more 
 fimple, fodoes M. de la Hire's method confift in refolving the 
 fquare that is to be conftructcd, into two limple and primitive 
 fquares. It muft be owned, however, it is not quite fo eafv 
 to conceive thofe two fimple and primitive fquares in the com- 
 pound or perfect fquare, as in an oblique motion to imagine a 
 parallel and perpendicular one. 
 
 fauppof'e a fquare of cells, whole root is uneven ; for inftance 7, 
 and that its forty-ninecellsarc to be filled magically with num- 
 bers, for inftance. the firft 7. M. de la Hire, on the one 
 fide, takes the firft feven numbers, beginning with unity, and 
 ending with the root 7 ; and on the other, 7, and all its mul- 
 tiples to 49 exclulively ; and as thefe only make fix numbers, 
 he adds o, which makes this an arithmetical progreflion o' 
 feyen terms as well as the other, o. 7. 14. 21. 28. 35. 42. 
 This done, with the firft progreffion repeated, he fills the 
 fquare of the root 7 magically. 1 " In order to this, he write* 
 in the firft feven cells of the firft horizontal rank, the feven 
 numbers propofed, in what order he pleafes, for that is abfo- 
 lutely indifferent; and it is proper to obfervc here, that thofe 
 feven numbersmay be ranged in 5040 different manners in the 
 fame rank, i he order in which they are placed in the firft 
 horizontal rank, be it what it will, is that which determine:, 
 their order 111 all the reft For the fecond horizontal rank, he 
 places in its firft cell, either the third, the fourth, the fifth 
 or the fixrh number, from the firft number of the firft rank ; 
 and after that writes the fix others in the order as they follow 
 Vol. II. 
 
 For the third horizontal r?nk, he obfen es the fame method with 
 regard to the fecond, that he obferved ii< the fecond with regard 
 to the firft, and fo of the reft. For inftance, fir pofe the firft 
 horizontal rank filled with the fi.ven numbers in their natural 
 order, 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7 the fecond honzomal rank may either 
 commence with 3, with 4, with 5, or with 6 • but in this inftance 
 it commences with 3, the third rank therefore muft commence 
 with 5, 'he fourth with 7, the fifth 
 with 2. thefixth ith 4 ,andthefe- 
 venth with 6. The com mencement 
 of the ranks which follow the firft 
 being thus determined, the other 
 numbers, as w have already ob- 
 ferved, muft be written down in the 
 order wherein they ftand in thefirft 
 going on to 5, 6, and 7, and re- 
 turning to 1, 2, dsV.till every num- 
 ber in the firft rank be found in 
 every rank underneath, according 
 totheorderarbitrarilypitchedupon 
 at firft:. By this means it is evident, 
 that nonumber whatever can be repeated twice in thefame rank ; 
 and by confequence that the f evC n numbers I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 
 being in each rank, they muff 0 f neceifity make thefame fum. 
 It appears, from this example., that thearr.mgemcnt of the num- 
 bers m the firft rank being chofen at pleafure, the other ranks 
 may be continued m four different manners ; and fince the firft 
 rank may have 5040 different arrangements, there are no lefs 
 than 20 1 60 different manners of conftru&ing the Magic Sanare 
 of feven numbers repeated. 
 
 [ 1 
 
 z 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 
 z 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 1 2 
 
 3 4 
 
 1 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 z 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 -1 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 t 
 
 
 _f 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 _7_ 
 
 The oiUei of the numbers in thefirl 1 lank being determined j if 
 in beginning with the fecond rank, the fecond number 2, or the 
 laft number 7, fhould be pitched upon ; in one of thofe cafesone 
 of the diagonal ranks would have the fame number conftantly 
 repeated ; and, m the other cafe, the other diagonal would have 
 it repeated ; of confequence therefore, either the one or the 
 other diagonal would be falfe, unlefs the num 1 er repeated feven 
 times mould happen to be 4 ; for four times feven is equal to the 
 fum of 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6,7 : and, in general, in every fquare con- 
 fifting of an uneven number of terms, in arithmetical pro- 
 greflion, one of the diagonals would be falfe according to thofe 
 two conltructions, 'inlcfs the term, always repeated in that 
 diagonal, were the middle term of the progreffion. 
 It is not however at all neceflary to take the terms in an arith- 
 metical progreflion ; for, according to this method, one may 
 c-onftmft a Magic Square of any numbers at.pleafure, whether 
 they be according to any certain progreffion or not. If they 
 be m an arithmetical progiffiion, it will be proper, out of the 
 general method, to except thole two conftructions, which pro- 
 duce a continual repetition of the fame term, in one of the 
 two diagonals ; and only to take in the cafe, wherein that repe- 
 tition would prevent the diagonal from being juft. Which 
 cafe being abfolutely difregarded, when we conpured that the 
 fquare of 7 might have 20160 different conftruaions ; it is 
 evident, that by taking that cafe in, it muft have vafily more. 
 To begin the fecond rank with any other number befides the 
 fecond and the laft, muft not however be looked on as an uni- 
 verfal rule. It holds good for the fquare of 7, but if the fquare 
 of 9, for inftance, were to be conftrufled, and the fourth 
 figure of the firft horizontal rank were pitched on for the firft 
 ot the fecond, the confequence would be, that the fifth and 
 eighth horizontal ranks would likewife commence with the 
 fame number, which would therefore be repeated three times 
 in the fame vertical rank, and occafion other repetitions in all 
 the reft. The general rule therefore muft be conceived thus: 
 Let the number in the firft rank pitched on, for the com- 
 mencement of the fecond, have fuch an exponent of its quo- 
 ta, that is, let the order of its place be fuch, as that if an unit 
 be taken from it, the remainder will not be any iuft quota part 
 of the root of the fquare ; that is, cannot divide it equally. 
 If, for example, in the fquare of 7, the third number of the 
 firft horizontal rank be pitched on for the firft of the fecond, 
 fuch conftrucfion will be juft ; becaufe the exponent of the 
 place of that number, viz. 3, fubftracling 1, that is, 2, cannot 
 divide 7. Thus alfo mieht the fourth number of the fame 
 firft rank be chofen, becaufe 4 — I, viz. 3, cannot divide j % 
 and for the fame reafon the fifth or fixth number might be 
 taken : But in the fquare of 9, the fourth number of the firft 
 rank muft not be taken, becaufe 4 — 1, viz. 3, does divide g. 
 The reafon of this rule will appear very evidently, by con£ 
 6 B derm* 
 
MAG 
 
 MAG 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 ! 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 z 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 r 
 
 I 
 
 z 
 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 fleeing in what manner the returns of the fame numbers do or 
 do not happen, taking them always in the fame manner in any 
 given fcries. And hence it follows, that the fewer divifions 
 the root of any fquare to be conftrucfed has, the more differ- 
 ent manners of conftriich'ng it there are; and that the prime 
 numbers, that is, thofe which have no divifions, as 5, 7, n, 
 13, &c. are thofe whofe fquares will admit of the moft varia- 
 tions in proportion to their quantities. 
 
 The fquares conftrufled , according to this method, have fome 
 particular properties not required in the problem : For the num- 
 bers that compofe any rank parallel to one of the two diago- 
 nals, are ranged in the fame order with the numbers that com- 
 pofe the diagonal, to which they are parallel. And as any rank 
 parallel to a diagonal muft neceflarily be fhorter, and have fewer 
 cells than the diagonal itfelf, by adding to it the correfponding 
 parallel which has the number of cells' by which the other falls 
 ihortof thediagonat; thenumbcrsof thofe two parallels, placed, 
 as it were, end toend, ftill fol- 
 lowthefameorderwith thofe 
 of the diagonal : befides,that 
 their fums arelikewifeequal; 
 fo that they are magical on 
 another account. 
 Inftead of the fquares, which 
 we have hitherto formed by 
 horizontal ranks, one might 
 alio form them by vertical 
 ones; the cafe is the fame in 
 both. 
 
 All we have hitherto faid re 
 gards only the fir ft primitive 
 fquare,whofenumbers,in the 
 propofed example, were 1 
 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7; here ftill re 
 mains the fecond primitive 
 whofe numbers arco, 7, 14, 
 21, 28, 35, 42. M. de la 
 Hire proceeds in the fame 
 manner here as in the former; 
 and thismaylikewifebecon- 
 ftrucfed in 20160 different 
 manners, as containing the 
 fame number of terms with 
 the firft. Its conftrucfion be- 
 ing made,and of confequence 
 Slits ranks making the fame 
 
 , fum, it is evident, that if we 
 
 bring the two mto one, by adding together the numbers of the 
 two correfponding cells of the two fquares, that is, the two 
 numbers of the firft of each, the two numbers of the fecond, 
 of the third (* and difpofe them in the forty-nine correfpond 
 ing cells of a third fquare; it will likewife be magical, in re- 
 gard its rank formed by the addition of equal fums to equal 
 fums, muft of neceffity be equal among themfelves. All that 
 remams in doubt is, whether or no, by the addition of the cor- 
 refpomung ce s of the two firft fquares, all the cells of the 
 third wdl be filled m fuch manner, as that each not only con- 
 tain one of the numbers of the progreffion from 1 to 40, but 
 al fo that this number be different from that of any of the reft 
 which >s the end and defign of ihe whole operation. 
 As to this, ,t muft be obferved, that if in the conftrucT.on of the 
 teQT&Prtmittve Squart, care has been taken in the commence- 
 ment ot the fecond horizontal rank, to obferve an order with re- 
 gard to the firft different from what was obferved in the conftru- 
 aionofthe firft fquare; for inftance, if the fecond rank of th ( 
 
 Second Primitive, 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 '4 
 
 21 
 
 zS 
 
 35 
 
 42 
 
 2 I 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 4* 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 ■4 
 
 + - 
 
 
 7 
 
 '4 
 
 2 1 
 
 28 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '4 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 42 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 35 
 
 4* 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 ■4 
 
 21 
 
 zS 
 
 7 
 
 ■4 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 42 
 
 0 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 4 = 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 '4 
 
 Z I 
 
 Per/iff Square. 
 
 firft fquare began with tin 
 third term of the firft rank 
 and the fecond rank of the fe- 
 cond fquare commence with 
 the fourth of the firft rank, 
 as in the example it actually 
 does; each number of the 
 firft fquare may be combined 
 once, and only once, by ad- 
 dition with all the numbers of 
 the fecond. And as the num- 
 bers of the firft are here 1, 2, 
 3>4>5> 6>7> an d thofe of the 
 fecond o, 7, 14,21,28, 35, 
 42, by combining; them in 
 this manner we have all the numbers in the progreffionTom 
 
 Perfect Magic Square propofed. 
 
 The neceffity of conftruffing the two Primitive Saaares in , 
 different manner, does not at all hinder but that each of The 
 t°' h h ° COn ™«!°ns "f*. one may be combined w „ all Z 
 
 gg. of & j 5£ S"JSjf £ 
 
 fivftB Sjuer, which here confifts of the L numbers of he 
 ,0,60 feve/ai »^t^fe^ot« 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 ■7 
 
 25 
 
 53 
 
 41 
 
 4<> 
 
 24 
 
 ? 2 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 47 
 
 6 
 
 H 
 
 '5 
 
 z 3 
 
 3' 
 
 39 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 3 1 
 
 3S 
 
 46 
 
 5 
 
 '3 
 
 37 
 
 47 
 
 4 
 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 2 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 ■9 
 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 46 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 come vaftly fliort of exprefTing all the poftiblc conrtructions o. 
 a perfect Magic Square of the forty-nine firft numbers. 
 As to the Even Squares, heconftrudts them like the Uneven ones, 
 by two Primitive Squares ; but the conftruclion of Primitives is 
 different in the general, and may be fo a great number of ways : 
 and thofe general differences admitof a great number of particu- 
 lar variations, which giveas many different conftru&ions for the 
 fame even fquare. It fcarce feems poftiblc to determine exact! v, 
 either how many general differences there may be between the 
 conftrucfion of the primitive fquares of an even fquare and an 
 uneven one; nor how many particular variations each general 
 difference may admit of : and of confequence wcare (till far from 
 being able to determine the number of different conftructions of 
 all thofe that may be made by the primitive fquares. 
 
 MAGISTER, Master, a title frequently found in old Wri- 
 tings; noting the perfon who bore it to'have attained fome 
 degree of eminency in fcientia al'tqua, prmjertim in literaria. 
 In old times, thofe we now call Dottsrs. were called Marillri 
 or Mafters. iy 
 
 MAGISTERY, Magiste rium, in Chymiftry^ a very fine 
 powder made by folution and precipitation ; or; a precipitate 
 of fome folution made by a fait, or other body, which breaks 
 the force of the diflblvent. 
 
 Magistery of Bifmuth is a fine powder, made by diflblving 
 bifmuth in fpirit of nitre, and pouring on it fait water, which 
 precipitates the Magiftery to the bottom. 
 
 Maoisterv of Lead is a fine powder, made by diflilving fac- 
 charum faturni in diftilled vinegar, and then precipitating it 
 with oil of tartar per deliquium. 
 
 Magistery is alfo ufed in fpeaking of refins, or the refinous 
 extract of fcammony, jalap, turbith, Igc. which are made 
 by drawing a tinflure from the matter in fpirit of wine, and 
 precipitating it with water. 
 
 Mr. Boyle takes the proper notion of a Magiftery to confift 
 in a preparation of a body, whereby it is wholly, or at lead 
 in great meafure, by means of fome extraneous additament, 
 converted into a body of a different kind : as when iron or 
 copper is turned into cryflals of Mars and Venus. 
 MAGMA, MArMA, among Chymifts, tSc. the dregs or re- 
 crement of a Compofition, remaining after all the more fluid 
 parts are exprefs'd. 
 MAGNA Jrteria, the fame with Aorta. See Aorta. 
 MAGNA Charta *, the Great Charter of liberties of England 
 granted in the ninth year of Henry the third, and confirmed 
 by Edward the firft. 
 
 • The reafon of its being termed magna or great, Is cither becaufe 
 of the excellency of the laws and liberties therein contained • or 
 ™ t !" re was ai,other charter, called Charta de firreSa 
 eitablnhed with It, which was the leiler of the two; or elfe 
 uecaufe it contained more than any other charters; or in re- 
 gard ot the wars and troubles in the obtaining of Iti or of the 
 great and remarkable folcmnity m the denouncing excom- 
 munications agamft the infringers of it. 
 Magna Charta may befaid to derive its origin from king Edward 
 the confeffor who granted divers liberties and privileges both 
 civil and ecclefiafhcal by charter: The fame with fome others 
 were alio granted and confirmed by king Henry I. by a cele- 
 brated great charter now loll His fuccellors king Stephen, king 
 Hen, y II. and king John, confirmed or re-enafled the fume ; but 
 that laft prince violating his charter, the barons took up arms 
 and bis reign ended in blood. Henry III. who fucccedcd him 
 after having procured an inquifition to bemade by twelve men i, 
 each county, what the liberties of England were in the time of 
 Henry 1. granted anew charter, being the prefent AW, Charta; 
 which he feveral times confirmed, and as often broke a...;,, - till 
 in the thirty-feventh year of his reign, he came to WeSminfter- 
 ha 1 ; where ,n the prefence of the nobility and bifiiops, with 
 lighted candles m their hands, Magna Charta was read , the kin,, 
 all the while laying Ins hand on his brealf , and at laft folemnl? 
 fweanng faithfully and inviolably toobferveall ihe things therein 
 contained, as he was a man, a chriilian, a foldier, and a kin.r 
 1 hen the bifhops extinguished their candles, throwing then! 
 
 tanel| g wb Und ' let h; »> b = extinguilhed and flink 
 
 in hell who violates this charter. 
 
 J^Magaa Charta is the bafis of the Englilh laws and liberties. 
 It was thought to be fo beneficial to the fubjecl, and a law o fo 
 
 VkZ'S C0 ™ P l rif0n ° f . tht "' C whlch wcre (°™™lY in ule! 
 hat king Henry, for the granting it, had the fifteenth penny of al 
 the moveable goods both temporal and fpiritual.-Sir Edward 
 
 MAGNET, Ma ones*, Uadfion, ; a fort of fermgi 
 ftone, in weight and colour refembhng ,ron ore. 
 hard and heavy; endued with divers extraord 
 attraetr— 
 
 jnous 
 and very 
 mary properties, 
 
 directive, inclinatory, &c 
 
 is a,fo ""«i !■»/» mracUm, from Heraclea a city 
 of Magnefia, a port of the antient Lydia, where S w' 
 been « f„a„ d , and from which ^ jZn l^ffi f„ J 
 rakenitsname. Thoughother, derivethe word 4ml eph e d 
 named Magrin, who hVfl difcovered itwkh the ,,„° of h s crook 
 on mount Ida. It is alfo called lapi, „u,Uu,, by reafon of is 
 
MAG 
 
 MAG 
 
 The Magnet is indeed a true iron ore, and is ufually found in 1 
 iron mines, and fometimes in very larire pieces, half Magnet, 
 half common ore. Its colour is different, according to the 
 different countries it is brought from. Norman obferves, 
 that the beft are thofe brought from China and Bengal, which 
 are of an irony or fanguine colour ; thofe of Arabia are reddifh, 
 thofe of Macedonia blackifti ; and thofe of Hungary, Germa- 
 ny, England, &c. the colour of un wrought iron. Neither 
 its figure nor bulk are determined, but it is found of all forms 
 and iizes. See Supplement, article M acnes. 
 The antients reckoned five kinds of Magnets, different in co- 
 lour and virtue : theEthiopic, Magnefian, Bceoiic, Alexan- 
 drian, and Natolian. They alio took it to be of two kinds, 
 male and female: but the chief ufe they made of it was in 
 medicine ; efpecially for the cure of burns, and defluxions on 
 
 the eyes. The moderns, more happy, take it to conduct 
 
 them in their voyages. 
 
 The molt diftinguifhing properties of the Magnet "arej That it 
 attrads iron, and that it points to the poles of the world ; and in 
 other circumftances alfo dips or inclines to a point beneath the 
 horizon, directly under the pole; and that it communicates 
 thefe properties by touch, to iron. — On which foundation are 
 built the mariners needles ; both the horizontal, and the inclina- 
 tory, or dipping needles. See Ne edle, Dipping, &e. 
 
 The attractive power of the Mac; et was known to the antients, 
 and is mentioned even by Plato and Euripides, who Call it the 
 Herculean Stone; becaufe it commands iron, which fubdues 
 every thing elfe : But the knowlege of its directive power, 
 whereby it difpofes its poles along the meridian of every place, 
 and occafions needles, pieces of iron, csV. touched with it, to 
 point nearly north and fouth, is of a much later date : though 
 the exact time of itsdifiovcry, and the difcoverer himfelf, are 
 yet in the,dark. The firft tidings we hear of it, are in 1260, 
 when Marco Polo the Venetian is Lid by fome to have intro- 
 duced the mariners compafs ; though not as an invention of 
 his own, but as derived from the Cbinefe, who are faid to have 
 had the ufe of it long before : though fome imagine, that the 
 Chinefe before that had borrowed it from the Europeans. 
 Flavio de Gioia a Neapolitan, who lived in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, js theperlbn ufually fuppofed to have the beft title to the 
 difcovery : And yet Sir G. Wheeler mentions, that he had 
 feen a book of aftronomy much older, which fpokc of the 
 ufe of the needle ; though not as applied to the ufes of navi- 
 gation, but of aftronomy. And in Guyot de Provins, an old 
 French poet, who wrote about the year 1 1 So, there is exprefs 
 mention made of the Load/lone, and the compafs; and their 
 ufe in navigation is obliqueiy hinted at. 
 
 Tlx variation of the Magnet, or its declination from the pole, 
 was firft difcovered by Seb. Cabot, a Venetian, in 1500 ; and 
 the variation of that variation by Mr. Gellibrand, an En°-|ifli- 
 man, about the year 1625. 
 
 Laftly, The dip or inclination of the needle, when at liberty 
 to play vertically, to a point beneath the horizon, was firft 
 difcovered by another of our countrymen, Mr. R. Norman, 
 about the year 1576. See the article Dipping Needle. 
 Phenomena of the Magnet. i°. In every Magnet there are 
 two poles, one whereof points northward, the other fouth - 
 ward ; and if the Magnet be divided into ever f'o many pieces, 
 the two poles will be found in each piece. 2 0 . Thefe poles, 
 in different parts of the globe, are differently inclined towards 
 a point under the horizon. 30. Thefe poles, though contra- 
 ry to one another, do help mutually towards the Magnet's, at- 
 traction and fufpenfion of iron. 40. If two Magnets be fphe- 
 rical, one will turn or conform itfelf to the other, fo as either 
 of them would do to the earth ; and after they have fo con- 
 formed or turned themfelves, they will endeavour to approach 
 or join each other; but if placed in a contrary pofition, they 
 will avoid each other. 5°. If a Magnet be cut through the 
 axis, the parts or fegmcnts of the ftone, which before were 
 joined, will now avoid and fly each other. 6°. If the Mag- 
 net be cut by a fection perpendicular to its axis, the two points, 
 which before were conjoined, will become contrary poles ; 
 one in one, the other in the other fcgment. y°. Iron receive, 
 virtue from the Magnet by application to it, or barely from an 
 approach near it, though it do not touch it ; and the iron re- 
 ceives this virtue varioufly, according to the parts of the ftone 
 it is made to touch, or even but to approach to. 8°. If an 
 oblong piece of iron be any way applied to the ftone, it re- 
 ceives virtue from it, only as to its length. 9 0 . The Magnet 
 lofcs none of its own virtue by communicating any to the iron ; 
 and this virtue it can communicate to the iron very fpeedily ; 
 though the longer the iron touches or joins the ftone, the lon- 
 ger will its communicated virtue remain in it ; and a better 
 Magnet will communicate more of it, and fooner, than one 
 not fo good. io°. Steel receives virtue from the Magnet better 
 than iron. 11°. A needle touched by a Magnet will turn its 
 ends the fame way towards the poles of the world, as the Mag- 
 net itfelf docs. 120, Neither Loadjlone nor needles touched by 
 it do conform their poles exactly to thofe of the world, but have 
 ufually fome variation from them : and this variation is differ- 
 ent in divers places, and at divers times in the fame place. 
 130. A Loadjlone will take up much more iron when armed 
 
 2 
 
 or capp'd, than it can when naked. And though an iron ring 
 or key be fufpended by the Loadjlone, yet the magnetical par- 
 ticles do not hinder that ring or key from turning round any 
 way, either to the right or left. 14.0. The force of a Loadjlone 
 may be varioufly increafed or lefiened by the various appl ! cation 
 of iron, or another Loadjlone to it. i 5 °. A ftrong Magnet at 
 the leaft diifance from a lefter or a. weaker, cannot draw to it 
 a piece of iron adhering actually to fuch letter or weaker ftone J 
 but if it come to touch it, it can draw it from the other : But 
 a weaker Magnet, or even a little piece of iron, can draw away 
 or ftparate a piece of iron contiguous to a greater or Oronger 
 Lcadjlone. 16°. In thefe northern parts of the world, the 
 fouth pole of a Loadjlone will raife up more iron than the north 
 pole. 1 7 0 . A plate of iron only, but no other body mter- 
 pofed, can impede the operation of the Loadjlone, either 
 as to its attractive or directive quality. Mr. l.'oyle found this 
 true in glaffes fealed hermetically ; and glafs is a body as im- 
 pervious, as moft are, to any effluvia. 1 8°. The power or vir- 
 tue of a Loadjlone may be impaired by lying long in a wrong 
 pofition, as alio by ruft, wet, &c. and it may be qunc deftroyed 
 by fire. 19 0 . A piece of iron wire, well touched, will, upon 
 being bent round in a ring, or coyled round on a ftick, &c. 
 generally, quite lofe its directive virtue; but it will always have 
 it much diminiihed : and yet if the whole length of the wire 
 were not intirely bent, fo that the ends of it, though but for 
 the length of one tenth of an inch, were left ftrait, the virtue 
 will not be deftroyeri in thofe parts; though it will in all the 
 reft. This was firft obferved by Men". Grimaldi and de la 
 H ire ; and is confirmed by the experiments of Mr. Durham , 
 who adds further, that though coyling or bending the wire as 
 above, would always deftroy its virtue by day, yet it would 
 not do it in the evening. zo e . The fpherc of the activity of 
 Magnets is greater and lefs at different times : in particular, 
 that referved in the rcpofitory of the Royal Society will keep a 
 key or other body fufpended to another, fometimes, at the 
 height of eight or ten feet ; and at others, not above four feet. 
 To which we may add, that the variation of the magnetical 
 needle from the meridian varies at various times of the day ; 
 as appears from fome experiments of Mr. Graham, bee 
 Variation.. 21°. By twifting a piece of wire touched with 
 a Magnet, its virtue is exceedingly chminifhed, and fori etimes 
 fo difordered and confufed, that in fome parts it will attract, 
 and in others repel ; and even in fome places, one fide ot the 
 wire fecms to be attra£ted, and the other tide repell'd, by one 
 and the fame pole of the ftone. 22°. A piece of wire that 
 has been touched, being fplit or cleft in two, the poles are 
 fometimes changed ; as in a cleft Magnet ; the north becom- 
 ing the fouth, and the fuuth the north : And yet fometimes 
 one half of the wire will retain its former poles, and the other 
 half will have them changed. To which it may be added, that 
 laying one or other fide of the half uppernioft, cauics a great 
 alteration in its tendency or averfion to the poles of the Mag- 
 net. 23 0 . A wire being touched from end to end with the 
 fame pole of the Magnet, the end whereat you begin will 
 always turn contrary to the pole which touched it: If it be 
 again touched the fame way w ith the other pole of the Mag- 
 net, it will then be turned the contrary way. 24". If a piece 
 of wire be touched in the middle with only one pole of the 
 Magnet, without moving it backwards or forwards ; in that 
 place will be the pole of the wire, and the two ends will be 
 the other pole. 25°. If a Magnet be heated red-hot ; and 
 again cooled either with its fouth pole towards the north in a 
 horizontal pofition, or with its fouth pole downwards in a per- 
 pendicular pofition ; its poles will be changed. 26 0 . Mr. Boyle 
 (to whom we are indebted for the following magnetical pheno- 
 mena) found he could prefently change the poles of a fmall 
 fragment of a Loadjlone, by applying them to the oppofite 
 vigorous ones of a large Magnet. 27 0 . Hard iron tools well 
 tempered, when heated by a brifk attrition, as filing, turning, 
 C5V. will, while warm, attract thin filings or chips of iron, 
 fteel, CSV. though not when cold ; though there are not wanting 
 fome inftances of their retaining the virtue when quite cold. 
 28°. The iron bars of windows, E3V. which have a long time 
 ftood in an erect pofition, grovv permanently magnetical; the 
 lower ends of fuch bars being the north pole, and the upper 
 the fouthern. 29 0 . A bar of iron that has not ftood long in 
 an erect pofture, if it be only held perpendicularly, will be- 
 come magnetical ; and its lower end the north pole ; as appears 
 from its attracting the fouth pole of a needle : but then this 
 virtue is tranfitnt, and, by inverting the b.ir, the poles will Ihift 
 their places. In order therefore to render the quality perma- 
 nent in an iron bar, it muft continue a long time in a proper 
 pofition. But the fire wilt produce the effect in a fhort time: 
 for as it will immediately deprive a Loadjlone of its attractive 
 virtue ; fo, it foon gives a verticity to a bar of iron, if, being 
 heated red-hot, it be cooled in an erect pofture, or directly 
 north and fouth. Nay, tongs and pokers, by being often heat- 
 ed and (et to coo! again in a pofture nearly erect, have frequently 
 gained this magnetical property. 3c 0 . Mr. Boyle found, that 
 by heating a piece of Englilh oker red hot, and placing it to 
 cool in a proper pofture, it manifeftly acquired a rr.agnetic vir- 
 tue. And an excellent Magnet of the fame ingenious Gentle- 
 man'^ 
 
MAG 
 
 MAG 
 
 man's, having lain neara year in an inconvenient port Lire, had 
 it's virtue furprifingly impaired ; as if it had been injured by 
 fire. 310. A needle well touched, it is well known, will 
 point north and fouth : if it have one contrary touch of the 
 fame ftone, it will be deprived of its faculty ; and by another 
 fuch touch it will have its poles quite changed. 32°. If a bar 
 of iron have gained a verticity by being heated red-hot, and 
 'cooled again, north and fouth, and then hammered at the 
 two ends ; its virtue will be deftroyed by two or three imart 
 blows on the middle. 33°, By drawing the back of a knife, 
 or long piece of fteel wire, CsV. leifurely over the pole of a 
 Load/lone; earning the motion from the middle of the (tone 
 to the pole; the knife or wire will accordingly attract one 
 end of a needle: but if the knife or wire be palled from the 
 faid pole to the middle of the ftone, it will repel that end of 
 the needle which in the other cafe it attracts. 34°. Either a 
 Magnet or a piece of iron being laid on a piece of cork, fo as 
 to fwim freely in water; it will he found, that which foever 
 ©f the two is held in the hand, the other will be drawn to it: 
 fo that iron attracts the Magnet as much as it is attracted by 
 it; adlion and re-action being always equal. In this experi- 
 ment, if the Magnet be fet afloat, it will direct its two poles 
 to the poles of the world. 35 0 . A knife, &c touch'd with 
 a Magnet, acquires a greater or lefs degree of virtue, according 
 to the part it is touched on. It receives the ftrongeft touch, 
 when it is drawn leifurely from the handle towards the'point 
 over one of the poles : and if the fame knife thus touched, and 
 thus in pofleffion of a flrong attractive power, be retouched in 
 a contrary direction, viz by drawing it from the point to- 
 wards the handle over the fame pole, it immediately lofes all its 
 virtue. Laftly, a Magnet acts with equal force in vacuo, and 
 in the open air. — See farther under the article Magnetism. 
 Arjen'tcal Magnet, in chymiftry, Mack es ArfenicaUs, de- 
 notes a mixture of equal parts of arfenic, fulphur, and anti- 
 mony, melted together over the fire, and condenfed in man- 
 ner of a ftone. 
 
 It is a very gentle cauftic, and was firft Invented by An^elus 
 
 Sala. It has its name Magnet, becaufc being worn during 
 
 malignant difeafes, it is fuppofed to preferve the wearer from 
 infection, by a ?r.agnctical power. 
 MAGNETISM, Magnetismus, that quality or conftitu- 
 tion of a body, and its pores, whereby it is rendered magne- 
 t:\aly or a Magnet. 
 
 Magnet if n is found to be a tranfient power, capable of being 
 produced and deftrojed again. 
 The laws of MagKetism are laid down by Mr. Whifton in 
 the following proportions. — jo. The Loadjtone has both an 
 attractive and a directive power united together ; whereas iron 
 touched by it lias only the former ; f. i. the Magnet not only 
 attracts needles or filings of ftcel, but directs them to certain 
 different angles, with refpect to its own fuiface and axis: 
 whereas iron, touched with it, does little or nothing more than 
 attract them ; ftill fuffering them to lie along or ftand perpen- 
 dicular to its furface and edges in all places ; without any fuch 
 fpecial direction. 
 
 2°. Neither the ftrongeft nor the largeft Magnets give a better 
 directive touch to needles, than thofe of a lefs fizc or virtue : to 
 which it may be added, that whereas there are two qualities in 
 all .Magnets, an attractive and a directive one; neither of them 
 depend on, or are any argument of the ftrength of the other. 
 3 0 . The attractive power of'Magtteti and of iron, will greatly 
 increafe or diminifh the weight of needles on the balance; 
 nay, it will overcome that weight, and fuftain other additional 
 weights too: while the directive power has a much fmallcr 
 effect. Gailendus indeed, as well as Merfennus and Dr. 
 Gilbert, maintain it has none at all ; but by miftakc ; for Mr. 
 Whifton found from repeated trials on large needles, that after 
 the touch they weighed lefs than before. One of 4584^ grains 
 loft 2 J grains by the touch; and another of 65726 grains 
 weight, no lefs than 14 grains. 
 ■ 4 0 . It is probable, that iron confifh almoft wholly of the at- 
 tractive particles ; and the Magnet of the attractive and di- 
 rective together ; mixed probably with other heterogeneous 
 matter; as having never been purged by the fire, which iron 
 has: And hence may arife the reafon why iron, after it has 
 been touched, will lift up much greater weights than the 
 Load/tone that touched it. 
 
 5°. The quantity and direction of magnetic powers, commu- 
 nicated to needles, is not properly, after fuch communication, 
 owing to the Magnet which gave the touch; but to the good- 
 nefs of the flee! that receives it, and to the ftrength and pofi- 
 tion of the tcrreftrial Loadjtone, whofe influence alone thofe 
 needles are afterwards fubjedt to, and directed by : fo that all 
 luch needles, if good, move with the fame ftrength, and point 
 to the fame angle; what Load/lone foever (provided it be good) 
 they have been excited by. Nor does the touch fecm to do 
 much more in magnetical, than attrition does in electrical cafes; 
 ;'. e. it ferves to rub off feme obftructing particles, that adhere to 
 (he furface of the fteel, and open the pores of the bodies touch- 
 ed, and fomake way for the entrance and exit of fuch effluvia as 
 ocrahon or afflft the powers we are fpeaking of. Hence Mr. 
 Whifton takes cccafton to obferve, that the directive power 
 
 of the Loadjtone feems to be mechanical ; and to be derived 
 from magnetic effluvia, circulating continually' round it. 
 6°. The abfolute attractive power of different armed Load ft ones 
 is, ceteris paribus, according to the quantity, not of their 
 diameters or fobdkies, but of the furfaces of the Loadjlones; 
 or in a duplicate proportion of their diameters. 
 7 0 . The power of good Magnets unarmed, not fenfibly dif- 
 ferent in ftrength, firmlar in figure and pofition, but unequal 
 in magnitude, is fometiines a little greater, fometimcs a little 
 lefs, than in the proportion of their tirnilar diameters. 
 8. The Loadjhne attracts needles that have been touched, and 
 others that have not been touched, with equal force, at dl- 
 ftances unequal, viz. where the diltances are to one another 
 as 5 to 2. 
 
 9 0 . Both poles of a Loadjtone equally attract needles, till they 
 be, tho' roughly, touched ; then it is, and then only, that 
 one pole begins to attract one end, and repel the other: tho* 
 the repelling pole will ftill attract upon contact, nay at very 
 fmall diltances, not with ft an ding. 
 
 10°. The attractive power of Lcadftoncs, in their fimilar pofi- 
 tiorj to, but different diftances from magnetic needles, is in the 
 fcfquidnplicate proportion of thediftances of their furfaces from 
 their needles reciprocally; or as the mean proportionals between 
 the fquarcs and the cubes of thofe diftances reciprocally ; or as 
 the fquare roots of the fifth powers of thofe diftances recipro- 
 cally. Thus the magnetic power of attraction, at twice the 
 diftancc from the furface of the Load/lone, is between a filth 
 and fixth part of that power at the firft diftance. At thrice 
 the diftance the power is between the fifteenth and fixteenth 
 part, at four times the diftance the power is thirty-two times 
 as fmall, and at fix times the diftance eighty-eight times as 
 fmall. Where it is to be noted, that the diftances are not 
 taken, as in the laws of gravity, from the centre; but from 
 the furfice; all experience affuring us, that the magnetic power 
 refides chiefly, if not wholly, in the furfaces of the Loadjl 'ones 
 and iron ; without any particular relation to any centre at all. 
 The proportion here laid down was determine i by Mr. AVhif- 
 ton, from a great number of experiments of Mr. Haukibee, 
 Dr. Brook Taylor, and himfelf. The force they meafured 
 by the chords of thofe arcs, by which the Magnet, at fcveral 
 diftances, draws the needle out of its natural direction, to 
 which chords (as he has demonftrated) it is ever proportional. 
 The numbers in fome of their moft accurate trials he gives us 
 in the following table, fetting down half the chords, or the 
 fines of half thofe arches of declination, as the true meafurea 
 of the power of Mugnetifm. 
 
 Diftances in Degrees of Sines of 2 Rat. fefqui- 
 
 inchts. inclination. arcs. dupl. 
 20 2 , -i 75 4 66 
 
 j 4 5 4 34g . 2l6 
 
 *3£ 6 523 _ I70 
 
 12$ 8 bqj 138 
 
 Hi , — — , o y ? t IQ5 
 
 lot 12 — 1045 87 
 
 9; 14 . 1219 70 
 
 An inclinatory, or dipping-needle, of fix inches radius, 
 and of a prifmatic or cylindric figure, when it ofcillates alung 
 the magnetic meridian, performs there every mean vibration 
 in about b" or 36c/"; and every fmall ofcillation in about 
 5 aj or 330"''; and the fame kind of needle, four feet lonir, 
 makes every mean ofcillation in about 24", and every fmall 
 one in about 22". 
 
 12°. The intire power of Magnet; fm in this country, as it 
 affects needles a foot long, is to that of gravity nearly as 1 to 
 300 ; and as it affects needles four feet long, as 1 to 600. 
 r 3 0 ', The quantity of magnetic power accelerating the fame 
 dipping-needle, as it ofcillates in different vertical' planes, is 
 ever as the co-fines of the angles made by thofe planes, and 
 the magnetic meridian, taken on the horizon. 
 Thus if we would eftimate the quantity of forces in the hori- 
 zontal and vertical fituations of needle's at London; we fhall 
 find that the latter, in needles a foot long, is, to the intire 
 force along the magnetic meridian, as 9b to ioo ; and in 
 needles four feet long, as 9667 to 10000: whereas in the 
 former, the intire force in needles a foot long, is as 28 to 
 too; and in thofe four feet long, as 2569 to iocoo. Whence 
 it follow;, that the power by which horizontal needles are 
 governed in thefe parts of the world, is but one quarter of the 
 power by which the dipping-needle is moved. 
 Hence alfo, fince the horizontal needle is moved only by a 
 part of the power which moves the dipping-needle; and that 
 it only points to a certain piace in the horizon, becaufe that 
 place is the neareft its original tendency of any its fituation 
 will allow it to tend to; whenever the dipping-needle ftands 
 exactly perpendicular to the horizon, the horizontal needle 
 will not refpect one point of the compafs more than another, 
 but will wheel about every way uncertainly. 
 14°. The time of ofcillation and vibration, both in dipping 
 and horizontal needles equally good, is as their length direct- 
 ly ; and the actual velocity of their points along tfieir arcs is 
 always equal. 
 
 Hence 
 
MAG 
 
 MAG 
 
 Hence magnetic needles are, ctsteris paribus, ftill better the 
 longer they are ; and that in the fame proportion with their 
 length. 
 
 I5°- The earth, on which we live, includes within it a vaft 
 fpherical Magnet, concentrical thereto, having its own poles, 
 meridians, equator, and parallels ; and all much of the fame 
 general nature with thofe of fmal! terrelU, or fpherical Load- 
 Jiones, in the pofieflion of the curious among us. 
 i6°. The power of a good terrella, or a fpherical Loadjione, as 
 it affedfs a needle a fuot long, is equal to the magnetic power of 
 that internal Loadjione about two and an half, or three diame- 
 ters off filch Load/lane. From which confideration, the quan- 
 tity of magnetic attraction, at all diftances from the internal 
 Loadjione, for needles a foot long, may be determined ; and 
 trom the fame confideration it appears, that the diameter of 
 this internal Loadftonc is about eleven hundred and fifty miles. 
 To which we may add, that, in regard Sir Ifaac Newton has 
 den-.onltr.itcd, that the power of gravity diminifhes within the 
 earth, and is leffer there than at its furface, nearly in the pro- 
 portion of its greater nearnefs to the centre, the magnetic pow- 
 er, at two thoufand nine hundred miles diftance from us, and 
 nearly one thoufand and fixty from the earth's centre, which 
 is of the power of gravity here, will be fomewhat greater 
 than the power of gravity there : Which limit is worthy our 
 attention, gravity being ftronger than Magnetijm on the one 
 fide of it, and weaker on the other; we mean, as it affects 
 needles of one foot diameter. At that limit, therefore, at leaft 
 near the magnetic poles, iron a foot long will be twice as heavy, 
 and fall twice as faft, as any other natural body; viz. by the 
 union of thole two equal powers, gravity and Magnetifm ; and 
 of confequence, above that limit, fuch an iron will be lefs 
 than twice as heavy, below it more than twice as heavy, as any 
 other natural body. 
 
 170. The earth's internal Loadjione is not fixed to our upper 
 parts, but is moveable with refpedr thereto, and actually re- 
 volves on the earth's axis from eaft to weft in a certain lon» pe 
 nod of time ; as appears, beyond contradiflion, from the con 
 ftant variation of the horizontal needle weftward, as well as 
 the regular increafe of inclination of the dipping needle. 
 The only way to render this motion, i. e. the variation pof- 
 fible and intelligible (to ufe Dr. Halley's words) is to fuppofe 
 it to turn about the center of a globe, having its centre 01 
 gravity fixed and immoveable in the fame common centre of 
 the earth. This moveable internal furface muft likewife be 
 loofe, and detached from the external parts of the globe, which 
 may be reckoned the fhell, and the other the nucleus, or innei 
 globe, included within it, with a fluid medium between. Now, 
 from the variation's moving weftw-irds, it is plain, that the 
 forefaid nucleus has not prccifely attained the fame degree o' 
 velocity with the exterior parts in their diurnal revolution 
 but fo nearly equals it, that, in three hundred and fixty-Hvi 
 revolves, the difference is fcarce fenfible, and muff probably 
 have arifen from hence, that the impulfe, whereby the diurnal 
 motion was impreffed on the earth, was given to the external 
 parts, and thence communicated to the internal. 
 18 0 . This internal Magnet has one central pole northwards, 
 in the nature of the poles of our common Loadjloncs ; but its 
 fouthern pole appears not to be central, but rather circular, 
 and that at a great diftance from the fouthern pole of thi 
 earth. 
 
 19°. The northern magnetic pole is now fituate about the lati- 
 tude of 76 degrees f ; /'. «. 13 degrees i from the north pole 
 of the earth, and about 30 degrees eaftward from the meridian 
 of London. 
 
 200. The fouthern magnetic circular pole has its centre, or 
 central pole, nearly in the parallel of 60 degrees ; and, in a 
 meridian palling along the eaft coaft of Borneo, about 1 1 7 de- 
 grees eaftward of London. Its radius is alfo an arc of a great 
 circle of about 44 degrees. 
 
 21°. The refpective motion of the internal Magnet, or the ve- 
 locity, v. g. of its north-pole, appears to be 27 deg. 0 min. 
 in 144 years, i. e. upwards of one degree in five years ; fo that 
 it makes an intire revolution in 1920 years. 
 Hence, as the number of degrees in tire upper earth's diurnal 
 revolution is to the number of days in the revolution of the 
 internal Magnet, i. e. as I is to 700000, fo is the refpeftive 
 motion of this Magnet from eaft to weft to the real motion 
 of the upper earth trom weft to eaft ; or, to fpeak ftrictly, fo 
 is the difference of their motions from weft to eaft to the intire 
 motion of the upper earth the fame way. This external fixed 
 earth has therefore communicated almoft all its motion already 
 to the internal Magnet, and can communicate no more than 
 this difference of their motion, and that only in an infinite 
 term of years ; or, in other words, this real internal motion 
 can never be the feven hundred thoufand th part Twitter than it 
 is at prefent. This internal motion, therefore, began with 
 the commencement of the diurnal motion of the upper earrh ; 
 and has g'.ne on Hill fafter and farter by the communication of 
 that motion through the intermed ate fluid. Since, therefore, 
 action and te-afl...n are equal, and tend to contrary parts, 
 this internal Loadjione, thus accelerated by the upper part, 
 niuft have all along retarded that upper eartii, and made the 
 Vol. II. 
 
 diurnal rotation dill (lower and flower. This acceleration 
 on one fide, and retardation on the other, muft have been 
 very great at the firft beginning of the diurnal motion, when 
 the difference of their motion was equal to the intire morion 
 itfelt, and muft have been diminifhing ever fince. To which 
 caufe is probably owing that acceleration of the moon's m .,tion 
 with refpeft to that of the earth, fince the time of the old 
 aftronomers, firft taken notice of by Dr. Halley, and em- 
 braced by Sir Ifaac Newton. And the fame confideration 
 Teems to fuggeft a method for determining the age of the 
 world ; for, were the proportions of the quantity of matter in 
 the upper earth to the internal Magnet, with the tenacity of 
 the intermediate fluid, tSc. known, one might go back from the 
 known difference of their velocity now, and find thofe differ- 
 ences and quantities of motion themfelves, i priori, in all paft 
 ages ; or, were the velocity of the firft diurnal rotation of the 
 upper earth known, we might geometrically determine, a 
 priori, how long ago that rotation began, or how antient our 
 earth is. 
 
 22°. The variation of magnetic needles from the azimuth of 
 the meridians of the internal Magnet is derived from the dif- 
 ference of the flrength of the feveral parts of the internal Mag- 
 net's, furface ; which as it is only to be known by experience, 
 that variation cannot be determined beforehand, unlefs where 
 there arc good accounts how much it had formerly been ; it 
 being probable, that it returns round, and will be the fame 
 in any year of the next revolution of the internal Mag- 
 net, that it has been in the like year of any former re- 
 volution, or will itfelf have a revolution in about 1020 
 years. , ; ' 
 
 230. The two fixed magnetic poles in our upper earth, firft 
 introduced by Dr. Halley, as neceffary to fulvc the irregu- 
 laris of the variation of the horizontal-needle from the me- 
 ridians of the moveable internal Magnet, feem not to have 
 any juft foundation in nature, the like irregularities being 
 found in the common ttrrttU, or fpherical Loadjlones, and 
 being beft accounted for from the compofition of the Magnets, 
 which are found fo have parts of different degrees of purity, 
 ftrength, and perfeflion ; fo that, where the parts are 
 weaker than ordinary, the ftronger neighbouring parts pre- 
 vail, and draw the needle that way: not but Dr. Gilbert's 
 notion of prominent and depreffed parts on Magnets may have 
 fome room, and be allowed to contribute fomewhat to fuch 
 variations. 
 
 For the caufes of Ma one tism, or the manner in which thefe 
 phenomena of the Magnet are produced, we have yet no hy- 
 pothec's that will f.tisfaaorily account for them Plutarch 
 
 tells us, the Magnet allots iron, by emitting fome fpiritual 
 effluvia, whereby the contiguous air being opened and driven 
 on either fide, does again drive that contiguous to it; and thus 
 the aflion being communicated round, the iron is thereby pro- 
 truded : but this is conttadiaed by the equally vigorous aBion 
 
 of the Loadjione in vacuo, and in the open air. Others of 
 
 the anticnts afcribe the aaion of the Magnet to a foul that ani- 
 mates it ; and others to I know not what fympathy between 
 the effluvia of the iron and thofe of the Magnet. 
 An opinion that has much prevailed among the moderns is 
 that of Des Cartes, maintained by Malebranche, Rohaulr, Re- 
 gis, &c. and even admitted and confirmed by Mr. Boyle 
 Uc. In this it is fuppofed, that there is continually flowing' 
 from the poles of the world, a fubtle, impalpable, and invifible 
 matter, chanelled or ftriated : which matter circulating round 
 the earth, in the plains of the meridians, re-enters at the pole 
 oppofite to that trom which it ifl'ued, and partes again thro' 
 the poles parallel to its axis : that the Magnet has two poles 
 anfwerable to thofe of the earth; and that out of thefe there 
 illues a matter like that juft mentioned : and that this matter 
 entering in at one ot the poles, gives the impulfe whereby iron 
 tends to the Magnet, and produces what we call attraction 
 -—Now, befides the magnetical matter re-enterin» the poles 
 ot the Magnet, there is always a certain quantity thereof cir- 
 culating round the Magnet, compofing a kind of vortex about 
 "■ . . f P acc wherein this matter moves, is the fphere of 
 aaivity of the Magnet, within which its attraftive faculty is 
 confined. 
 
 As to its direaive faculty, or the inclination of a needle touched 
 with it to the poles of the world, and its dip to a point be- 
 neath the horizon, they follow from the fame principle ; fince, 
 were the Magnet or needle to have any other fituation, the 
 magnetic matter would ftrike on its other furface in vain ; and, 
 not being able to get admiffion, would, by degrees, change 
 its fituation, till fuch time as its pores correfponded to the 
 courle of the magnetical matter ; which fituation having once 
 acquired, it would ccafe to move, the magnetical matter then 
 cealing to difturb it. 
 
 The form or effence of a Magnet therefore is fuppofed to con- 
 lift in its being perforated by an infinite number of parallel 
 pores ; fome whereof are difpofed to admit the ftriated matter 
 Irom the north pnle ot the world, others that of the fouth : 
 hence the north and fouth poles of the Magnet. 
 M. Hartfocker maintains, that the Magnet is no more than 
 a common (tone, full of an infinite number of hollow prifms, 
 6 C which! 
 
MAG 
 
 M A H 
 
 which, by the diurnal motion of the earth, are ranged parallel 
 to each other, and nearly parallel to the axis of the earth. 
 Thefe prifms have their cavities filled with an extremely lubtle 
 matter, which, by the diurnal motion of the earth, is palled 
 from prifm to prifm ; thus, making a circulation, and return- 
 ing into the prifms where it firft began. From thefe principles 
 he deduces all the phenomena of the Magnet ; and M. Andry 
 does the fame, from the doctrine of alkali and acid. 
 For the directive power of the Magnet, Mr. Whifton, from 
 the firft, fecond, third, t$c. laws of Magnetifm, inclines to 
 think it mechanical ; and afcribes it to magnetic effluvia circu- 
 lating continually round the Load/lone ; of which circulations, 
 he thinks, there arc evident indications in magnetic experi- 
 ments ; as Mr. Boyle thinks there are of the Magneti[m or 
 magnetic effluvia of the earth ; though thefe effluvia were never 
 yet rendered fenfible, as electric effluvia begin to be. — But the 
 attractive power Mr. Whifton thinks intirely immechanica], 
 as the power of gravity is ; not being able to devife any fuch 
 motion of a fubtle fluid belonging to the Load/lone, as will ac- 
 count for the attractive power in the ft-fqui duplicate proportion 
 of the diftances reciprocally ; though if he could, yet would 
 that be no more than to remove the immediate power of the 
 Supreme Being one ftcp further ; the laft refort of all mechani- 
 cal principles whatever being into the immechanical power 
 and efficiency of the Deity, 
 Magnetism is alfo ufed, by fome chemifts, to fignify a cer- 
 tain virtue, whereby one thing becomes affected at the fame 
 time with another, either in the fame or in a different manner. 
 This amounts to the fame with what they otherwife call fym- 
 pathy. See Sympathy. 
 MAGNETICAL Amplitude, an arch of the horizon, contained 
 between the fun, at his rifing and fetting, and theeaftor weft 
 point of the compafs. See Amplitude. 
 Magnetical Azimuth. See the article Azimuth. 
 MAGNIFYING, among philofophcrs, is chiefly ufed in fpeak- 
 ing of mlcrofcopes, which are faid to magnify objects, that is, 
 to make them appear bigger than they really are ; though, in 
 reality, they do not, nor cannot, magnify any object, but only 
 fhew it nearer, and difcover more of its parts, than before 
 were taken notice of. 
 Magnifying Glass, in optics, denotes a little fpherical convex 
 lens; which, in tranfmitting (he rays of light, inflects them 
 fo, as that the parallel ones become converging, and thofe 
 which were diverging become parallel ; by means whereof, 
 objects viewed through them appear larger than when viewed 
 by the naked eye. See Microscope. 
 MAGNITUDE- any thing that has parts without (or extra to) 
 parts connected together by fome common term. 
 Magnitude is any thing locally extended, or continued ; or 
 thit has feveral dimenfions. 
 
 The origin of all Magnitude is a point, which, though void 
 of parts itfelf, yet its flux forms a line, the flux of that a fur- 
 face, and of that a body. 
 
 Magnitude amounts to much the fame with what is otherwife 
 called quantity. 
 
 Literal Magnitude denotes a Magnitude expreffed by let- 
 ters. 
 
 Numerical Magnitude is that expreffed by numbers. 
 Broken Magnitude denotes a fraction. 
 Complex Magnitude is that formed by multiplication. 
 Incommensurable Magnitude is that which has no proportion 
 to unity. 
 
 Apparent Magnitude of a body, in optics, is that meafured 
 by the optic or vifual angle, intercepted between rays drawn 
 from its extremes to the centre of the pupil of the eye. 
 It is one of the fundamental maxims in this fcrence, that what- 
 ever things are feen under the fame or equal angles, appear 
 equal ; and vice verfa. 
 
 The apparent Magnitudes of an object at different diftances 
 are in a ratio lefs than that of their diftances reciprocally. 
 The apparent Magnitudes of the two great luminaries the fun 
 and moon, at riling and fetting, are a phenomenon that has 
 extremely embarafied the modern philofophers. According 
 to the ordinary laws of vifion, they fhould appear the leaft 
 when nearcft the horizon, as being then far theft diftant from 
 the eye ; and yet we find the contrary to be true in fact. — 
 Ptolemy, in his Almgeft. 1. i.e. 3. has afcribed this appear- 
 ance to a refraction of the rays by vapours, which actually 
 inlargc the angle under which the moon appears ; juft as the 
 angle is inlarged by which an object is feen from under water : 
 And his commentator Theon explains diftindtly how the di- 
 lation of the angle in the object immerfed in water is caufed. 
 ■ But it was afterwards difcovered, that there is no alter- 
 ation in the angle : upon which, another folution was ftarted 
 by the Arab Alhazen ; and followed and improved by Vitel- 
 lio, Kepler, Peckham, Rog. Bacon, and others. According 
 to Alhazen, the fight apprehends the furface of the heavens 
 as flar, and judges of the flars as it would of ordinary vifibie 
 objects extended upon a wide plain ; that the eye fees them 
 under equal angles, but withal perceives a difference in their 
 diftances, and (on account of the femidiameter of the earth, 
 which is interpofed in one cafe, and not in the other) that it 
 
 is hence induced to judge thofe which appear more remote 
 to be greater. See Robin's Remarks on Smith's Optics. Des 
 Cartes, and from him Dr. Wallis, and moft other authors, 
 account for the appearance of a different diftancc under the 
 fame angle, from the long feries of objects interpofed between 
 the eye and the extremity of the feofebje horizon, which makes 
 us imagine it more remote than when in the meridian, where 
 the eye fees nothing in the way between the object and itfelf. 
 This idea of a great diftance makes us imagine the luminary 
 the bigger ; for any object being feen under any certain angle, 
 and believed, at the fame time, very remote, wc naturally 
 judge it muff be very large, to appear under fuch an angle at 
 fuch a diftance. And thus a pure judgment of the mind makes 
 us fee the fun or the moon bigger in the horizon than in the 
 meridian ; notwitliftanding their images painted on the retina 
 are really lefs in the former fituation than the latter. 
 This hypothefis F. Gouye deftroys, by obferving, that the 
 narrower and more confined the fenfible horizon is, the greater 
 does the fun or moon appear; the contrary of which ought to 
 happen on the principle kid down. 
 
 Gaffendus is of opinion, that the pupil of the eye, which is 
 alwavs more open as the place is more dark ; being more foin 
 the morning and evening than at other times, by reafon the 
 earth is covered with grofs vapours ; and beiides, being obliged 
 to pafs through a longer column or feries of vapours to reach 
 the horizon, the image of the luminary enters the eye at a 
 greater angle, and is really painted there larger at the former 
 times than the latter. 
 
 In anfwer to which, it may be faid, that, notwithftanding 
 this dilatation of the pupil, occafioned by the obfeurity, if the 
 moon be viewed through a little pin-hole made in a paper, flic 
 appears lefs when in the horizon, than in the meridian. 
 F. Gouye, finding both the conjectures falfe, advances a third, 
 which is, that, when the luminaries are in the horizon, the 
 neighbourhood of the earth, and the grofs vapours wherewith 
 they then appear inveloped, have the fame effect with regard 
 to us, as a wall, or other denfe body, placed behind a co- 
 lumn ; which, in that cafe, appears bigger than when infulate, 
 and incompaffed on all fides with an illumined air. — Further, 
 it is obferved, that a column, when fluted, appears bigger 
 than before, when it was plain ; the flutes being fo many 
 particular objects, which, by their multitude, occafion the 
 mind to imagine the whole object, whereof they are com- 
 pofed, of a larger extent. — The fame thing may be faid of 
 the feveral objects feen towards the horizon, to which the fun 
 or moon correfpond at their rifing and fetting. — And hence it 
 is, that they appear larger ftill, when they rife or fet between 
 trees ; the narrow, yet diftinct, intervals whereof have the 
 fame effect with regard to the apparent diameter of the lumi- 
 nary, as a greater number of flutes with regard to the fliaft of 
 a column. 
 
 MAGOPHONIA *, the name of a fcaft among the antient 
 Perfians, held in memory of the expulfion of the magians. 
 
 * The word is formed from M&y<&, magus, and y.vi;, flaugh- 
 ter. 
 
 The magus Smerdis having ufurped the throne of Pcrfia, upon 
 the death of Cambyfes, 521 years before Jcfus Chrift, feven 
 of the principal lords of the court confpired to drive him out 
 of it. Their defign was executed with goodfuccefs; Smerdis, 
 and his brother, another magus, called Pitizhhcs, werekilled. 
 Upon which, the people alfo rofe, and put all the magi to the 
 fword ; infomuch that there would not one have cfcaped, had 
 not night come upon them. Darius, fon of Hyftafpes, was 
 then elected king: and, in memory of this mafiacre of the 
 magi, a feaft was inftituted, fays Herodotus, called Mago- 
 phonia. 
 
 MAHIM, Mahem, Maihem, or Mayhem *, in law, 2 
 Maim, or corporal hurt, whereby a man lofeth the ufe of anv 
 member, that is, or may be, of defence to him in battle ; a;t 
 the eye, hand, foot, fcalp of the head, fore-tooth, or, as fome 
 fav, a finger, or toe. 
 
 * The word comes from the French, Mchaln, of Mcbnigner, to 
 mutilate : The canoiiilts call it mcmbri mutilittio ; and all agree, 
 it coniifts in the lofs of a member, or of the ufe thereof. 
 
 If any one fhall, of malice, or forethought, cut or difable any 
 limb or member of another pcrfon, with intention in fo doing 
 to maim, or disfigure him, it is felony without benefit of 
 clergy ; and, when the cafe is difficult to judge whether it be 
 Z Ma him, or not, the judges commonly view the party wound- 
 ed, and fometimes take the opinion of chirurgeons. 
 MAHOMETANISM, or Mahometism, the fyftcm of reli- 
 gion broached by Mahomet, and ftill adhered to by his fol- 
 lowers. 
 
 Mahometanifm is embraced by the Turks, Perfians, and feveral 
 nations among the Africans, and many among the Eaft-In- 
 dians. 
 
 The fyftem of Mahometanifm is contained in the Koran, com- 
 monly called the Alcoran. 
 
 The firft and chief article of the Aiahomttan creed is, that 
 there is no other god but God ; which they have from the alco- 
 ran, where thefe words are repeated incefTantly : There is no 
 ether god but him- Teur God is tbi only God. I am God, and 
 
 there 
 
MAI 
 
 MAI 
 
 there is no other God but me- This grand axiom of their the- 
 ology feems to have been taken from the Jews, who were con- 
 tinually rehearfing thofe words of Deuteronomy, Hear, O If- 
 rael, the Lord our God is One. 
 
 For this reafon, the Mahometans account all fuch as own any 
 thing of number in the divinity, to be infidels or idolaters. 
 And accordingly, one of the firft leflbns they teach their chil- 
 dren is, That God is neither male nor female, and confe- 
 quently can have no children. 
 
 The fecond article of Mahometanifm confifts in this, That Ma- 
 homet was fent from God. By which they exclude all other re- 
 ligions ; under pretence that their prophet was the laft and 
 greateft of all the prophets that God would ever fend ; and that 
 as the Jewifh religion ceafed with the coming of the Meffiah, 
 fa likewife the Chriftian religion was to be abrogated with the 
 coming of Mahomet. Not but that they own Mofes and Je- 
 fus Chrift to have been great prophets ; but Mahomet they 
 hold to be The Prophet, by way of excellence ; and the para- 
 clet or comforter promifed in fcripture. 
 
 Thefe are the two fundamentals of Mahometanifm ; fo that 
 when any is to make profeffion of that faith, they content 
 themfelves with his rehearfmg thefe words, There is no other god 
 hut God, and Mahomet is his envoy or prophet. 
 To thefe ankles the Mahometans have added that of bathing or 
 purification, in imitation of the Jews. And fuch an opinion 
 have they of thefe purifications, th.it it is purely on that accouni 
 they feem to have retained the practice of circumcifion. For 
 they pretend, with the Jews, that, if the leafr part of the body 
 remained unwarned, the bathing is of no effect:. Hence they 
 £nd themfelves under a neceifity of being circumcifed, that the 
 part covered by the prepuce may alfo have its fhare in the lo- 
 tion. 
 
 Prayer is alfo one of the things to which the Mahometans are 
 obliged ; and they always are to perform it five limes a dav, to 
 diftinguilh themfelves from the Jews, who only do it thrice. 
 Some of their periods or hours of prayer they hold to be necef- 
 fary, and of divine obligation ; others they eftecm convenient 
 and prudential. That at nine a~clock in the morning, they do 
 not efteem neceflary ; but thofe atnoon and in the afternoon are 
 held to be jure divino. They are obliged to obferve an infinity 
 of things in order to be heard. If they fpeak or fmile in pray- 
 ing, they fay their prayers are vain : and it is the fame thing 
 if they weep, unlefs it be with the thought of paradife or hell. 
 In many of their prayers they ufe beads. 
 
 The Alahometans believe, with the Chriftians and Jews, a re- 
 furreclion of the dead ; They hold, that, ere that time, an 
 jfnti-Mahomet will come ; and that Jefus Chrift will defceud 
 from heaven to kill him, and to eftablifh Mahometanifm. To 
 which they add a great many more chimxras, relating to Gog 
 and Magog ; and the beaft that is to come out of Mecca. The 
 mountains, they fay, are to fly in the air like birds, and at lall 
 the heavens will melt, and drop down upon the earth. They 
 add however, that, fome time after. God will renew and re- 
 effablifh the earth ; that then the dead will be raifed,C3V. See 
 further under Alcoran. 
 MAIDEN, an edged inftrument ufed in fome countries, parti- 
 cularly Scotland, for the beiicading of criminals. 
 The Maiden is a broad piece of iron, of a foot fquare, fharp 
 on the lower part, and loaded above with lead, fo as fcarce to 
 be lifted : At the time of execution, it is pulled up to the top 
 of a narrow wooden frame ten foot high, with a groove on 
 
 each fide for the Maiden to Hide in. The prifoner's neck 
 
 being faftencd to a bar underneath, on a fign given, the Mai 
 den is let loofe, and the head in an inftant fcparated from th< 
 body. 
 
 MAJESTY, Majestas * , a title or quality given to kings . 
 and which frequently ferves as an appellation to diftino-uifh 
 them by. 
 
 * The word feems compofed of the two Latin words, major, 
 greater, and fiatus. Hate. 
 The emperor is called, His Csefarian or Imperial Majejly ; the 
 king of Spain, his Catholic Majejly ; the king of France, his 
 moft Chriftian Majejly ; the king of Great-Britain, his Bri- 
 tannic Majejly, &c. Some have alfo extended this title to the 
 popes. 
 
 Pafquier obferves, that our forefathers ufed this quality ex- 
 ceeding fparingly ; and that - the frequent ufe of the word, 
 which now obtains, had not its beginning before the reign of 
 their Henry II. He inftances fcveral letters of St. Gregory, 
 who, writing to king Thcodorct and Theodoric, only compli- 
 ments them with Excellency. See Excellency. 
 Till the time of Charles V. the king of Spain had no title but 
 that of Higbncfs : And before our king Henry VIII. the kings 
 of England were only addrefled under the titles of Grace, and 
 Highnefs. 
 
 At the peace of Munfter, there was a great conteft between 
 the minifters of the emperor and thofe of France : The firft 
 would not allow the title of Serenity to the king of France, 
 and the latter would not give that of Majejly to the emperor. 
 At lait it was agreed, ■ that, whenever the French king mould 
 write with his own hand to the emperor, he mould give him 
 the title of Imperil Majejly ; and reciprocally, when the em- 
 
 peror mould write to the king, he fliould give him that of 
 Royal Majejly. 
 
 Under the Roman republic, the title Majejly, Majeflat, be- 
 longed to the whole body of the people, and to the principal 
 magiftrates ; fo that to diminifh or wound the Majejly of the 
 commonwealth, was to be wanting in refpect to the ftate, or 
 
 to its minifters. But the power afterwards paffing into the 
 
 hands of a fingle perfon, the appellation of Majejly was tranf- 
 ferred to the emperor, and the imperial family. Pliny com- 
 pliments Trajan on his being contented with the title of'Great- 
 nefs ; and fpeaks very invidioufly on thofe who arK-eted that of 
 Majefly. And yet Majejly feems to be the modefteft and jufteft 
 title that can be attributed to fovereigns, fmce it fignifies no 
 more at bottom, than the royalty or fovereign power. 
 MAIL, Maille, is primarily applied to the mafhes or holes in 
 net-work. 
 
 Coat s/'Mail is a piece of defenfive armour, made of iron wire 
 interwoven net-wife : called alfo a habergeon. See Haber- 
 geon. 
 
 Antiently they alfo wore fhirts of Mail under the waiftcoat, to 
 
 ferve as a defence againft fwords and poniards. We alfo read 
 
 of gloves of Mail. 
 Mail, or Mall, alfo fignifies around ring of iron; whence 
 
 the play of pall-mall, from palla, a ball, and mailk, the round 
 
 ring through which it is to pafs. 
 MAILED implies a thing fpeckled, or full of fpeck? ; as the 
 
 feathers of hawks, partridges, &c. or the furs of fome wild 
 
 hearts. 
 
 MAIN-MORTE, a term in fome antient cuftoms, ftill obtain- 
 ing in Burgundy, fignifying a right which the lord has, on the 
 death of the chief of a family that is Mainmortable , of taking 
 the beft moveable in the houfe ; or, in default of that, the right 
 hand of the deceafed was offered him, in token that he could 
 ferve him no longer. See Mcrt-main. 
 
 MAINOUR, Manour, or Mein^r, in law, fignifies the 
 thing that a thief takes away, or fteals. 
 
 Thus, to be taken with Mainour, is to be taken with the 
 
 thing ftolen about him. If the defendant were taken with 
 
 the Alainour, and fo carried to court, in antient times they 
 would arraign him on the Mainour, without any appeal or 
 indictment. 
 
 MAINPRISE *, in law, the taking or receiving a man into friend- 
 ly cuftodv, who otherwife might be committed to prifon; up- 
 on fecurity given for his forth-coming at a day afligned. 
 
 * The word is compounded of the French Main, hand, and fris, 
 or prim, taken. 
 
 They who thus undertake for any one, are called Mainpernors, 
 becaufe they receive the perfon into their hands ; whence alfo 
 comes the word Mainpernable, denoting the perfon who may 
 be thus bailed. 
 
 Manwood makes a great difference between bail and Main- 
 prife: he that is mainprifed is already faid to be at Urge after 
 the day he is fet to Alainprife till the day of h s appearance ; 
 but it is q.uite otherwife where a man is let to bail to four or 
 two men, by the lord juftice in eyre of the foreft, or any other 
 judge, until a certain day ; for there he is always accounted by 
 the law to be in their ward and cuftody for the time; and 
 they may, if they pleafe, keep him in prifon all that time So 
 that he who is bailed is not fuppofed to be at large, or at his 
 own liberty; whereas, under Mainprife, a man is fuppofed to 
 go at large, and is not liable to be confined by his fureties or 
 Mainpernors. See Bail. 
 
 The author of the Mirror ofjujlice fays, that pledges are thofe 
 who bail, or redeem any thing but the body of a man ; and 
 Mainpernors thofe who free the body : on which footing, pledges 
 belong properly to real and mixed actions, and Mainpernors* to 
 perfonal. 
 
 MAINTENANCE, Manutenentia *, inlaw, and unlaw- 
 ful maintaining, or upholding a caufe, or fmt between others ; 
 either by word, writing, countenance, or deed. 
 
 * The word is metaphorically taken from the fuccouring a young 
 child, that learns to go by one's hand; bet it is ufed in the evil 
 part in fome of our rlatutes. 
 
 When a man's act in this kind is efteemed Maintenance, and 
 when not, fee Brooks and Kitchen. See alfo Barrator. 
 There lies a writ againft a Maintainer, called a Writ of Main- 
 tenance. 
 
 MAJOR, in the art of war, "a name given to fcveral officers of 
 different qualities, and functions. — Thus, 
 
 MAjoR-General is a general officer who receives the general's 
 orders, and delivers them out to the Majors of brigades, with 
 whom he concerts what troops are to mount the guard, what 
 to go on parties, and what to form detachments, or to be fent 
 on convoys, &V, 
 
 It is his bufinefs alfo to view the ground to incamp on, and do 
 other fervices ; he is fubordinate to the general, and lieutenant- 
 general, and the next commanding officer to them. 
 
 Major of a brigade, either of horfe or foot, is he who receives 
 orders, and the word, from the major-general, and gives them 
 to the particular majors of each regiment. 
 
 Major of a regiment is an officer, whofe bufinefs is, to convey 
 all orders to the regiment, to draw it up, and exercife it ; to fee 
 2 it 
 
M A L 
 
 M A L 
 
 it march in good order, to look to its quarters, and to rally it, 
 if it happen to be broke in an engagement, &c. 
 The Major is the only officer of a regiment of foot, who is 
 allowed to be on hotfeback in time of fervice ; but he always 
 rides, that he may fpeedily get from place to place, as occa- 
 fion requires. 
 
 Major of a regiment of horfe is the firft captain of the regiment ; 
 
 and commands in the abfence of the colonel. 
 7"jjzy«- Major is the third officer in order in a garrifon, being 
 
 next to the deputy-governor. 
 
 He ought to underftand fortification, and hath charge of the 
 guards, rounds, patrols, and centinels. 
 
 There are alfo Aids-Major, Drums-Major, and other officers; 
 fo called by reafun of fume feniority or prerogative that they 
 have over the reft. 
 Major, in law, a perfon who is of age to manage his own af- 
 fairs. See Age. 
 
 By the civil law, a man is not a Major till the age of twenty- 
 five years ; in England, he is a Major at twenty-one, and in 
 Normandy at twenty. 
 Major, in logic, is underftood of the firft propofition of a re- 
 gular fyllogifm. ' 
 
 It is called Major, becaufe it has a more extenfive fenfe than 
 the minor propofition, as containing the principal term. See 
 Proposition. 
 
 Major and Minor, in mufic, are applied to concords which 
 differ from each other by a femi-tone. 
 There are Major and minor thirds, &c. 
 
 Major tone is the difference between the fifth and fourth ; and 
 Major femi-tone the difference between the Major fourth and 
 the third. The Major tone fuipaflcs the minor by a comma. 
 See Tone. 
 
 MAJOR-DOMO, an Italian term, frequently ufed to fignify 
 a fteward, or mafter of the houfhold. 
 
 The title of Major-Domo was formerly given in the courts of 
 princes to three different kinds of officers, i. To him who 
 took care of what related to the prince's table, or eating, other- 
 Wife called eleater, prtsfeftus men/a, architriclinus, dap'tfer, 
 and princeps coquorum. 2. Major-Domo was alfo applied to the 
 ftcwaidof thehoufnold. 3. The title of Major-Domo was alfo 
 given to the chief minifter, or him to whom the prince deputed 
 the adminiftration of his affairs, foreign and domtftic, relating 
 
 to war as well as peace. Inftances of Major- Domes in the 
 
 two firft fenfes are frequent, both in the Enghlh, French, and 
 Norman affairs. 
 MAKE, inlaw, fignifies to perform, and execute. 
 
 Thus, to make his law, is to perform that law to which a m,m 
 had formerly bound himfelf ; v. gr. to clear himfelf of action 
 commenced againft him by his own oath, and the oath of his 
 neighbours. 
 
 So, to make fervices, or cuftoms, is nothing elfe but to per- 
 form what belongs to them. 
 MALACIA, MAAAKIA*, a difeafe confuting in a depraved 
 appetite, wherein the patient covets and longs for fome parti- 
 cular kind of food with extraordinary earneftnefs, and eats it 
 to excels. 
 
 * The word feems derived from the Greek uaha-mx, foft ; too 
 lax a tone of the flomach being generally the occafion of indi- 
 geftion, and of thefe imufual cravings. 
 
 Many authors confound this affe&ion with another called pica, 
 which conlitts in a depravation of appetite leading the patient 
 to covet things unnatural and abfurd, as lime, coals, &c. See 
 Pica. 
 
 The Malae'ia feems to ar'ifc from an evil difpofition of the men- 
 ftruumin the ftomacb ; or from fome defect in the imagination, 
 which determines it to fome one thing rather than another. 
 See Supplement, Article MaLACIA. 
 MALANDERS, Malandria, a difeafe in horfes, fo called 
 from the Italian, Malandare, to go ill. 
 
 It confifts in certain ulcerous chaps, or chinks, appearing on 
 the infide of the fore-legs, juft againfl the bending of the knee, 
 which void a red, (harp, and pungent humour. 
 
 MALE, the fex which has the parts of generation without-fide, 
 and which has ordinarily the pre-eminence over the other. 
 In this fenfe Male ftands oppofed to female. 
 For the proportion of Males to females, fee Marriace. 
 
 MALEBRANCHISM, the doctrine or felitiments of father 
 Malebranche, a pr'ieft of the oratory of France. 
 Malebranchifm is in a great meafure the fame with Cartefianifm. 
 It mutt be owned however, that though F. Malebranche thought 
 the fame with Des Cartes, yet he does not fo properly feem to 
 have followed him, as to have met with him. 
 Malebranchifm is contained in the Recherche de la verite ; and 
 to give a general notion of it, we need only repeat what M. 
 Fontenelle fays of that work. The Inquiry after truth, fays 
 he, is full of God : God is the only agent, and that too, in 
 the ftiicteft fenfe. All power of ailing, all actions belong im- 
 mediately to him. Second caufes are 110 caufes. They are 
 only occafiom that determine the adlion of God $ or occafional 
 caufes. 
 
 F. Malehramhe, however, does not here lay down his fyftcm 
 intire, with regard to reliaion, or rather the manner in which 
 he would reconcile religion to his fyftem of philofophy : That 
 he referved for his Entretiens chretiens, printed in 1677, where 
 he proves the exiftence of a God, the corruption of human 
 nature by original fin, and the neceffity of a mediator, and of 
 grace. 
 
 Malebranchifm, notwithfianding, appears to many perfons hot 
 only ill grounded, but even dangerous and deflructive to reli- 
 gion : and it has accordingly been vigorotifly oppofed by many 
 zealous French authors. The firft was M. Foucher. After 
 him came M. Arnaud ; and in 17 15, (the year F. Malebranche 
 died) F. du Tertre, a Jefuit, publifhed an ample confutation 
 
 ('as he imagines) of his whole fyftem, That part which 
 
 relates to our feeing all things in God, has been anfwered by 
 Mr. Locke. 
 
 MALEDICTION, Mai.fdictio, in law, a curfe ufualiy 
 annexed to donations of lands, £jrY. to churches, and religious 
 houfes ; imprecating the moft direful punifhments on thofe 
 who fhould infringe them. 
 
 MALIGNANT, in medicine, that quality in a difeafe which 
 renders it more than ordinarily dangerous, and difficult of 
 cure. 
 
 Malignant is generally applied to fuch fevers as are epidemical, 
 or infectious, and are attended with fpots and eruptions of va- 
 rious kinds. 
 
 MALLEABLE, fomething hard and ductile, and that may be 
 beaten, forged, and extended under the hammer without 
 breaking. ','*"' , 
 
 All metals axe Malleable, excepting quick-filver ; but gold is 
 fo in the greateft degree of all. The chymifts have long fought 
 the fixation of Mercury, or to render it Malleable. See Me r- 
 CURY. 
 
 It is a popular error, that ever the art of making glafs Mallea- 
 ble was known ; its nature is incapable of it. For it it were 
 ductile, its pores would not be oppofite to each other, and of 
 confequence it would not be tranfparent; fo that its principal 
 critcriim would be loft. 
 MALLEOLUS, a procefs in the lower part of the leg, jufi 
 above the foot. 
 
 There is one internal, and another external Malleolus. 
 The internal Malleolus is an eminence of the tibia ; the exter- 
 nal of the fibula : the two together form the ancle.— See Tab. 
 anat. (offcol.) fig. 3. n. 23. 
 
 MALLET, a large kind of hammer, made of wood ; much 
 ufed by artificers who work with a chiftel, as fculptors, mafon=, 
 and ftone-cutters, whofe Mallet is ordinarily round ; and by 
 carpenters, joiners, E5V. who ufe it fquare. See Hammer. 
 
 MALLEUS, in anatomy, denotes one of the bones of the ear ; 
 fo called from its refemblance to a hammer, or mallet ; firft 
 difcovered, as fome aflert, by Alexander Achilhnus : though 
 others have miftakenly attributed it to Jac. Carpenfis. Vid. 
 Douglas Bibl. Anat. p. 48. See alfo Ear. 
 
 MALMSEY, or Malvasy, a rich lufcious kind of wine 
 brought from Greece or Candia ; fo called from Malvafia, a 
 city in Peloponnefus, the antient Epidaurus, whence this cele- 
 brated liquor was firft brought. 
 
 That brought from Candia is now cftecmed the belt. 
 
 Malmsey, otMalvoisy, is alfo the name of a kind of muf- 
 cadine wine brought from Provence. 
 
 MALT denotes barley cured, or prepared to fit it for making a 
 potable liquor, under the denomination of beer or ale. 
 The manner of making Malt, Sir Robert Murray defcribes as 
 
 follows : Take good barley newly threfhed, ferr. put ar^out 
 
 fix Englifh quarters in a ftone trough full of water, where let 
 it ffecp till the water be of a bright rcddifh colour ; which will 
 be in about three days, more or lefs, according to the moift- 
 ure or drynefs, and the fmallnefs or hignefs of the grain, and 
 
 the feafon of the year, or the temperature of the weather. 
 
 In fummer, Malt never makes well ; hi winter, it requires 
 longer fteepinj than in fpring or autumn. It may be known 
 when it is iieeped enough, by other marks befides the colour of 
 the water ; as by the exceflive fwelling of the grain, if it be 
 over-fteeped, and by too much foftnefs ; being, when it is in 
 a right temper, like the barley prepared to make broth of. 
 When it is fufficiently fteeped, take it out of the trough, and 
 lay it on heaps, to let the water drain from it ; then after two 
 or three hours turn it over with a (coop, and lay it in a new 
 heap, about twenty or twenty-four inches deep. 
 This is called the coming heap, in the right management where- 
 of lies the principal (kill. In this heap it may lie forty hours, 
 more or lefs, according to the forementic.ned qualities of the 
 grain, &c. before it come to the right temper of Malt ; which 
 that it may do equally, is the principal thing defired. 
 While it lies in this heap, it muft be carefully looked to, after 
 the firft fifteen or fixteen hours ; for about that time the grains 
 begin to put forth roots : which when they have equally 
 and fully done, the Malt muft within an hour after be turn- 
 ed over with a fcoop ; otherwife the grains will begin to put 
 forth the blade or fpire alfo, which muft by all means be 
 prevented. If all the Malt do not come equally, but that 
 
M A L 
 
 M A L 
 
 Which lies in the middle, being warmeft, come the fooneft : 
 turn it, fo that the out mo ft may lie inmoli ; and thus manage 
 it till it be all alike. 
 
 As foon as the Malt is fufficiently come, turn it over, and 
 fpread it to a depth not exceeding five or fix inches ; and, by 
 that time it is all fpread out, begin and turn it over and over 
 again three or four times. Afterwards, turn it over in like 
 manner once in four or five hours, making the heap deeper by 
 degrees; and continue fo to do for the fpacc of forty-eight 
 hours at leaft. — This frequent turning it over cools, dries, and 
 deadens the grain, whereby it becomes mellow, melts eafily 
 in brewing, and feparates intirely from the hufk. 
 Then throw up the Mali into an heap, as high as you can, 
 where let it lie, till it grow as hot as your hand can endure it. 
 This ufually comes to pafs in about thirty hours. — This per- 
 fects the fwcetnefs and mellownefs of the Malt. 
 After it is fufficiently heated, throw it abroad to cool, and turn 
 it over again about fix or eight hours after, and then lay it 
 on a kiln with hair-cloth or wire fpread under it ; where, af- 
 ter one fire, which muft laft for twenty-four hours, give it 
 another more flow, and afterwards, if need be, a third ; for, if 
 the Malt be not throughly dried, it cannot be well ground, 
 neither will it diffblve well in the brewing; but the ale it 
 makes will be red, bitter, and unfit to keep. 
 The beft fewel for drying it is peat or turf; the next is charcoal. 
 If there be not enough of one kind, burn the beft firft ; for 
 that gives the ftrongeft impreflion. — Indeed, the beft and moft 
 natural method of drying it is in the fun, in the months of 
 April and May. This yields the paleft, the moft wholfome, 
 and the fincft liquor. However this be, take care the Malt 
 be not fmoaked in the drying. — As to the complexion or co- 
 lour of Malt, the white is accounted the beft, becaufe the 
 moft natural. 
 
 For the manner of preparing liquors of Malt, fee Brewing. 
 Malt Liquors have different names, as well as different virtues, 
 properties, and ufes, both from the different manners of pre- 
 paring the Malt, whence they are diftinguiftied into pale and 
 brovjn, and from the different manners of preparing or brew- 
 ing the Liquors themfelves : whence they are divided into beer 
 and ah, Jirmg and fmall, new and eld. 
 
 Malt drinks are either pale or brown, as the Malt is more or 
 lefs dried on the kiln ; that, which is the /lender eft dried, ting- 
 ing the Jiquor leaft in brewing, and therefore being called pale : 
 whereas that higher dried, and as it were roafted, makes it of 
 an higher colour. — A mixture of both thefe makes an amber 
 colour ; whence feveral of thefe Liquors take their name. 
 Now, it is certain the pale Malt has moft of the natural grain 
 in it, and is therefore the moft nourifhing ; but, for the fame 
 reafon, it requires a ftronger conftitution to digeft it. Thofe 
 who drink much of it, are ufually fat and fieek in their bloom ; 
 but are often cut off' with fudden fevers ; or, if they avoid this, 
 jhey fall early into a diftempcred old age. 
 The brown Malt makes a drink much lefs vifcid, and fitter 
 to pafs the feveral /trainers of the body ; but, if very ftrong, it 
 may lead on to the fame inconveniencics with the pale ; tho' 
 a fingle debauch wears off much more eafily in the brown. 
 Dr. Qiiincy obferves, that the heft pale Malt Liquors are thofe 
 brewed wilh hard waters, as thofe of fprings and wells, in re- 
 gard the mineral particles, wheiewith thefe waters are impreg- 
 nated, help to prevent the cohefions of thofe drawn from the 
 grain, and enable them to pafs the proper fecretions the bet- 
 ter; as the vifcid particles of the grain do likewife defend thefe 
 
 from doing the mifchief thev might otherwife occafion 
 
 But foftcr waters, as rain and river waters, fcem beft fuited 
 to draw out the fub/tance of high-dried Malts, which retain 
 many fiery particles in their contexture, and are therefore beft 
 loft in a fmooth vehicle. 
 
 For the differences in the preparations of Malt Liquors, they 
 coniift chiefly in the ufe of hops, as in beer j or in their omif- 
 iion, as in ale. 
 
 The difference made by hops is beft difcovered from the 
 nature and qualities of the hops themfelves : thefe are known 
 to be a fubtle grateful bitter ; in their competition, therefore, 
 with this Liquor, they add fomewhat of an alkaline nature, 
 
 i. e. particles that are fublime, active, and rigid Bv which 
 
 means, the ropy, vifcid parts of the Malt are more divided and 
 fubtilized, and are therefore not only rendered more eafy of 
 digeft ion and fecretion in the body, but alfo, while in the Li- 
 qior, they prevent it from running into fuch cohefions as would 
 make it ropy, vapid, and four. 
 
 lor want of this, in unhopped drinks, that clammy fweetnefs, 
 which they retain alter working, foon turns them acid, and 
 unfit for ufe; which happens fooner or later, in proportion to 
 the ftrength they receive from the Malt, and the comminu- 
 tion that has undergone by fermentation. 
 
 It is a common opinion, that ale is more diuretic than beer, 
 that is, unhopped liquor more than that with hops in it : 
 which may hold in fome conftitutions, in regard ale being 
 more fmooth, foftening, and relaxing, where urine is to be 
 promoted by inlargmg the paffage, as in thin, dry conftitutions, 
 
 this is the moft likely to effect it. But, where thc.promot- 
 
 ing of urine is 10 be done by attenuating and breaking the 
 Vol. II. ° b | 
 
 juices, and rendering them more fluid, it is certainly beft an- 
 fwered by thofe drinks which arc well hopped. 
 As to the difpute, whether or no hops tend to breed the /tone ; 
 it is too long to enter upon here. Qyincy is of opinion, 
 there is but little reafon for the affirmative iide of the queftion ; 
 and, in the general, makes no fcruple to fay, that, for one 
 conftitution damaged by beer, there are numbers fpoiled by ale. 
 — This laft manifeftjy fouls the glands, ftuffs the vefl'els with 
 flime and vifcidity, makes the body unwieldy and corpulent, 
 and paves the way for cachexies, jaundice, afthmas, and at 
 
 laft incurable dropfics. The urinary paffages, alfo, which 
 
 it is fuppofed to clear, will, in time, be filled by it with dough 
 and matter of as ill confequence as gravel. 
 The different ftrengths of Malt Liquors alfo make their effects 
 different. — The ftronger they are, the more vifcid parts they 
 carry into the blood ; and though the fpirituous parts make 
 thefe imperceptible at firft, yet, when thofe are evaporated, 
 which will be in a few hours, the other will be fenfibly felt 
 by pains in the head, naufeoufnefs at the ftomach, and lafli- 
 tude or liftle/lhefs to motion. — This, thofe are the moft fen- 
 fible of, who have experienced the extremes of drinking thefe 
 Liquors, and wines ; for a debauch of wine they find much 
 fooner wore off, and they are much more lively and brifk af- 
 terwards, than after fuddling Malt Liquors, whofe vifcid re- 
 mains will be long ere they are ftiaken off. 
 Malt Liquors therefore are, in general, the more wholfome for 
 being fmall ; i. e. of fuch a ftrength as is able to carry a fmul! 
 degree of warmth into the ftomach, but not fo great as to pre- 
 vent their being proper diluters of the necefiary food. Indeed, 
 in robuft people, or thofe who labour hard, the vifcidities of 
 the drink may be broken into convenient nounfhment ; but, 
 in pcrfonsof another habit and way of living, they ferve rather 
 to promote obftructions and ill humours. 
 
 The age of Malt Liquors is the laft thing by which they are 
 rendered more or lefs wholfome. — Age fcems to do nearly the 
 fame thing as hops ; for thofe Liquors which are longeft kept, 
 are certainly leaft vifcid ; age breaking the vifcid parts, and, 
 by degrees, rendering them fmaller, and fitter for fecretion. 
 But this is always determined according to their ftrength ; in 
 proportion to which, they will fooner or later come to their full 
 perfection, as well as decay ; for, when ale or beer is kept till 
 its particles are broken and comminuted as far as they are ca- 
 pable, then it is that they are beft ; and, beyond this, they will 
 be continually on the decay, till the finer fpirits are intirely 
 efcaped, and the remainder becomes vapid and four. 
 MALTA. — Knights sfMALTA, an order of military religious, 
 who have borne various other names; as, Hofpitallers of St. 
 John of Jerufalem, Knights of St. John, Knights of Rhodes, 
 order of Malta, religion of Malta, &c. 
 About the year 1048, fome Neapolitan merchants founded a 
 church after the Latin rite at Jerufalem, giving it the name of 
 Santa Maria della Latina. They alfo founded a monaftery 
 of religious after the order of St. Bennet, for the reception 
 of pilgrims; and afterwards an hofpital near the monaftery, 
 to take care of the difeafed, under the direction of a matter or 
 rector, to be nominated by the abbot of Santa Maria della La- 
 tina. Befides which, they alfo built a chapel in honour of St. 
 John Baptift. 
 
 In 1099, Godfrey of Bulloign, having taken JeruHdem, en- 
 dowed this hofpital with fomedemefnes which he had in France; 
 and others imitating his liberality, the revenues of the hofpital 
 became considerably augmented. Upon this, Gerhard Torn 
 their rector, in concert with the Hofpitallers, refolved to fepa- 
 rate from the abbot and religious of Santa Maria, and to form 
 a diftinct congregation, under the name and protection of 
 St. John Baptift ; and hence it was, that they had the name 
 of Hofpitallers, or Brothers of St. John of Jerufalem. 
 Pope Pafcha! II. by a bull in the year 1113, confirmed the 
 donations made to this hofpital, which he fettled under the 
 protection of the holy fee ; ordering, that the rectors, after 
 Gerhard's death, fhould be chofen by the Hofpitallers. Ray- 
 mond de Puy, Gerhard's fucceffor, took the title of Aiafler : 
 and he gave a rule to the Hofpitallers, which was approved bv 
 
 Calixtus II. in 1 120. Such was the firft rife of the order of 
 
 Malta. 
 
 Their firft grand mafter, finding the revenues of the hofpital 
 vaftly to exceed what was nece/fary for the entertainment of 
 poor pilgrims and difeafed perfons, refolved to employ the fur- 
 plus againft the infidels ; and, with this view, he offered him- 
 felf to the king of Jerufalem. 
 
 He divided his Hofpitallers into three claffes : the firft confuted 
 of nobles, whom he deftined to the profeffion of arms, for 
 the defence of the faith, and the protection of pilgrims ; the 
 fecond confifted of priefts or chaplains, who were to fay mafs ; 
 and the third of fervitors, who were not noble, but were alfo 
 
 appointed for the war. He alfo regulated the manner of 
 
 admitting knights brothers; and had the whole confirmed by 
 pope Innocent ; who gave them for arms a white crofs in a 
 field argent ; which continues ftill the ftandard of this order. 
 After the lofs of Jerufalem, they retired firft to Margath, then 
 to Acre, which they defended very vigoroufly in 1290. Af- 
 ter the intire lofs of the Holy Land, they withdrew to Cy- 
 6 D prus, 
 
M A L 
 
 M A N 
 
 prus, where king Henry of Luftgnan, whom they had followed 
 thither, gave them the city of Limiflbn. —Here they continued 
 18 years; when, taking; the ifland of Rhodes from the Sara- 
 cens in 1308, they fettled there. And now it was that they 
 firft took the name of Knights, viz. Knights of Rhodes. 
 Andronicus, emperor of Conftantmople, granted to their grand 
 mutter, Fulk de Villaret, the inveftiture of this order ; and the 
 donation was confirmed by pope Clement. The year follow- 
 ing, with the affiftance of Amadeus TV. duke of Savoy, they 
 defended themfelves, and their ifland, againtt an army of Sa- 
 racens. In 1480, their grand mafter d' Aubufibn made a vi- 
 gorous defence againtt Mahomet II. and preferved the ifland, 
 in fpight of a formidable army which befieged it for the fpace 
 of three months. But, in 1522, it was attacked by Soli- 
 man with an army of three hundred thoufand men, and taken 
 by him, after having been in the pofleflion of the Knights 213 
 years. 
 
 After this lofs, the grand matter and knights retired firft into 
 the ifle of Candia. Some time after, pope Clement VII. gave 
 them Viterbo. Laftly, Charles V. in 1530, gave them the 
 ifland of Malta, which they ftill hold ; and hence they come 
 by the appellation of Knights of Malta ; though their proper 
 name is that of Knights of the order of St. Jvhn ofjerufalm ; 
 and their grand matter, among his other titles, ft ill retains 
 that of majler of the ho/pita! sf St. John, and guardian of the 
 p*or of our Saviour fcfus Chrijl. 
 
 The order of Malta have no other dominions befides their 
 ifland, and fome other little places in the neighbourhood, the 
 chief whereof are Goza and Comino. 
 
 The government is both monarchical and ariftocratical, the 
 grand matter being the fovereign, and the chapter the fenate. 
 
 It is monarchical with regard to the inhabitants of Malta, 
 
 and the ifles adjacent, and even with regard to the Knights in 
 every thing relating to the ftatutes and rule of their order ; and 
 it is ariftocratical with regard to the decifion of any important 
 affairs, which are not to be difpatched, but by the grand ma- 
 tter and the chapter. 
 
 There are two councils; the one ordinary, compofed of the 
 grand mafter as chief, and the grand crofles ; the other com- 
 plete, confifting of the grand matter, the grand crofles, and 
 the two fenior knights of" each language. 
 
 By the languages of Malta are meant the ieveral nations where- 
 of the order is compofed. Of thefe there are eight, viz. 
 
 Provence, Auvergne, France, Italy, Arragon, Germany, 
 Caftile, and England. 
 
 The pillar (as he is called) of the language of Provence is the 
 grand commander of the order ; he of Auvergne the grand 
 marfbal ; he of France the grand Flofpitaler ; he of Italy the 
 grand admiral ; he of Arragon grand confervator, or draper, as 
 he was antiently called ; the pi liar of the language of Germany 
 is grand bayliff ; and he of Caftile grand chancellor : the lan- 
 guage of England, which has been extinct fince the time of 
 the reformation under king Henry VIII. had for its pillar or 
 chief the grand turcopolier, or colonel of the cavalry. The lan- 
 guage of Provence is the firft, on account of Raimond de Puy, 
 their firft grand mafter, who was a Provencial. 
 In each language there are feveral grand priories, and capital 
 bailiages. To each language belongs an hall, where the Knights 
 cat, and hold their ordinary aflemblies. Each grand prior has 
 a number of commanderies. 
 
 The commanderies are either magifterial, or elfe by right, or, 
 finally, by favour. The magifterial are thofe annexed to the 
 grand mafterfhip, whereof there is one in each grand priory ; 
 Commanderies by right are thofe which come by right of feni- 
 ority ; their feniority is computed from the time of their ad- 
 miffion ; but they mutt firft have lived five years at Malta., 
 and have made four caravannes, or cruifing voyages, on the 
 Turks and Corfairs : Commanderies by favour are thofe which 
 the grand matter, or the grand priors, have a right of confer- 
 ring ; one of thefe they confer every five years on whom they 
 pleafe. 
 
 The noble Knights are called Knights by right ; and none but 
 
 thefe can be bailiffs, grand priors, or grand mafters. 
 
 Knights by favour are thofe, who, not being noble of themfelves, 
 are raifed on account of fome great exploit, or fome notable 
 fervice, into the rank of nobles. 
 
 The fervitors, or ferving-brothers, are of two kinds; i°. The 
 fervitors of war, whofe functions arc the fame with thofe of 
 the Knights. 2°. The fervitors of religion, wiiofe whole bu- 
 finefs is to fing the praifes of God in the conventual church, 
 and to officiate each in his turn as chaplain on board the veflels 
 and gallies of the order. 
 
 The brothers of obedience are priefts, who, without being 
 obliged to go to Malta, take the habit of the order, make the 
 vows, and attach themfelves to the fervice of fome of the 
 churches of the order, under the command of a grand prior, 
 or commander, to whom they pay obedience. 
 The Knights oi majority are thofe who, according to the fla- 
 
 tutes, are admitted at fixtccn years of age. The Knights 
 
 of minority are thofe who are admitted from the time of their 
 birth; which, however, cannot be done, without a difpenfa- 
 tion from the pope. 
 2 
 
 The chaplains can only be admitted regularly from ten to fif- 
 teen years of age; after fifteen, they mutt have a brief from 
 the pope ; till fifteen, the grand matter's letter is fufficient. 
 Thefe are called diacos, and mutt: give proof of their being 
 born of creditable families. 
 
 For the proofs of nobility to be made before the admiflion of 
 Knights, in the languase of Germany, they go back fix gene- 
 rations ; in the reft, it is fufficient to go back to the great- 
 grandfather on the father's or mother's fide. 
 All the Knights, after their profeffion, are obliged to wear a 
 white crofs, or ftar with eight points, over the cloak or coat 
 on the left-fide ; which is the proper habit of the order, the 
 golden crofs being only an ornament. 
 
 There are alfo female Hofpitalers of the order of St. John of 
 Jerufalem, fometimes alfo called Chevalier effes, or She-Knights^ 
 of equal antiquity with the Knights themielves ; whofe bufi- 
 nefs was to take care of the women-pilgrims, in an hofpital 
 apart horn that of the men. 
 MALTHA, MAA0H, in antiquity, denotes any cement, or 
 glutinous body, which has the facultv of binding things to- 
 gether. 
 
 Anticnt writers make mention of divers forts of Aialtha, na- 
 tive and factitious : one of the latter much in ufe was com- 
 pofed of pitch, wax, platter, and greafe. 
 
 Another kind, wherewith the Romans plaftered and whitened 
 the. infides of their aqueducts, was made of lime flacked in 
 wine, incorporated with melted pitch, and frefh figs. 
 Natural Maltha is a kind of bitumen, wherewith the Afiatics 
 
 plafter their walls. When this is once let on fire, water 
 
 will not quench it ; but ferves rather to make it burn more 
 fiercely. 
 
 MAMALUKES, Mammelukes, or Mammalucks *, the 
 name of a dynafty, which reigned a confiderable time in 
 Egypt. 
 
 * The word comes from regere, imperare, the Arabic parti- 
 ciple paliive whereof is "il^OD Mamluc, which fignifies fubjetf, 
 or one under the dominion of another. Scaliger holds, that 
 the word is Arabic ; but that it properly fignifies fomething 
 bought with money; but others will have it iignify any thing 
 acquired, either as prize or purchafe. 
 
 The Mamaluhes were originally Turkifh and Circaflian flaves, 
 bought of the Tartars by Melicfaleh, to the number of a thou- 
 fand ; whom he bred up to arms, and raifed fome to the prin- 
 cipal offices of the empire. They kiiled fultan Moadam in 
 
 1250, being affronted at his concluding a treaty with his pri- 
 foner St. Louis, without their privity. This Moadam was 
 the laft fultan of the Ajoubites ; to whom iucceeded the Ma- 
 maluhes, the firft of whom was fultan Azeddin, or Mouz, Ibec, 
 the Turcoman. 
 
 Others fay, that the Mamaluhes were ordinarily chofen from 
 among the Chriftian flaves, and that they were the fame tiling, 
 in great meafure, with the janizaries among the Turks. They 
 never married. The firft are laid to have been'brought from 
 Circaffia ; and fome add, that they firft began to be talked of 
 about the year 869. 
 
 MAMM/E. See the article Breasts. 
 
 MAMM^iANjE. Vide Alimentary. 
 
 MAMMIFORM, Mammiformis, in anatomy, a name gi- 
 ven to two apophyfes of the bone in the back part of the fkull ; 
 fo called from their refembling a breaft. 
 
 MAMMILLARY, Mammill aris, in anatomy, an epithet 
 given to two little protuberances, fomewhat refembling the 
 nipples of the breaft, found under the fore-ventricles of the 
 
 brain, and fuppofed to be the organs of fmelling. See Tab, 
 
 Anat. (ofteol.) fig. 7. n. 3. fig. 13. let. d, 
 Thefe are called apophyfes Mammillares. 
 
 There is alfo a mufcle called Mammillaris, or Majtoides, ferv- 
 ing to ftoop the head. 
 MANAGE, or Manege *, an academy, or place for learning 
 to ride the great horfe ; as well as for breaking horfes to the 
 proper motions and actions. 
 
 * The word is borrowed from the French Manage, and that from 
 the Italian Maneggio, or, fome will have it, a manu agenda, 
 from afting with the hand. 
 
 In every Manage is a centre, or a place deftined for vaulting 
 round a pillar ; a courfe or career for running the ring ; and, 
 on the fide, are pillars, between which are placed the horfes 
 intended for high airs. 
 
 Manage is alfo ufed for the cxercife itfelf, either of the horfe, 
 or the rider. See Horsemanship. 
 
 MANCIPLE, Manceps, in old authors, denotes a caterer. 
 There was antiently an officer in the Temple called by this 
 name : he is now called the tteward ; and both name and office 
 is ftill retained m the colleges in both univerfities. 
 
 MANDAMUS, a writ iffuing out of the court of king's 
 bench, fent by the king to the head of fome corporation, 
 commanding them to admit or rertorc a perfon into his place 
 or office. 
 
 Mandamus was alfo a charge to the ftierifF, to take into tiic 
 king's hands all the lands and tenements of the king's widow, 
 who, againtt her oath formerly given, married without the 
 king's confenL 
 
 MAN- 
 
MAN 
 
 MAN 
 
 MANDARIN *, a name given by the Portuguefe to the nobi- j 
 iity and magiftracy of the eaftern countries, efpecially to thofe j 
 of China. 
 
 * The word Mandarin is unknown in this fenfe among the Chi- \ 
 nefe, who in lieu thereof call their grandees and magiflrates . 
 £>uan, ox££uan-fu, q. d. fervant or minifter of a prince. 
 There are in China nine orders of Mandarins \ or nine de- 
 grees of nobility ; which have as many different animals for 
 
 their characteriftics. The firft is diftinguiflied by a crane, 
 
 the fecond by a lion, the third by an eagle, the fourth by a 
 peacock, &c. 
 
 There are in all thirty-two or thirty-three thoufand Manda- 
 rins in China, There are Mandarins of letters, and Manda- 
 rins of arms ; both the one and the other of which pafs feveral 
 examinations : befides civil mandarins, or thofe of juftice. 
 Since the time that the Tartars have rendered themfelves ma- 
 ilers of China, moftofthe tribunals, or courts of juftice, fjV. 
 inftead of one Mandarin for a prefident, have two ; the one 
 a Tartar, the other a Chinefe. 
 
 The Mandarinate is not hereditary, nor are any raifed to it 
 but men of letters. 
 Mandarin is alfo a name which the Chinefe give to the learned 
 language of the country. 
 
 Belides the proper and peculiar language of each nation and 
 province, they have one common to all the learned men in 
 the empire; and which is that in China which the Latin is in 
 Europe. This they call the Mandarin tongue, or the lan- 
 guage of the court. Their public officers, as notaries, 
 
 lawyers, judges, and chief magiftrates, all write and fpeak the 
 Mandarin. 
 
 MANDATE, Mandatum, in the canon law, denotes a re- 
 script of the pope, by which he commands fome ordinary, col- 
 lator, or prefenter, to put the perfon there nominated in pof- 
 fefiion of the firft benefice vacant in his collation. 
 An apoftolical Mandate for the provilion of benefices, is a 
 monitorial and comminatory letter from the pope to a bifhop, 
 by which he is in joined to provide a fubfiftence for thofe who 
 have been ordained by him, or His piedeceffors, from the ton- 
 lure to facred orders inclufivcly; and to allow them this fub- 
 fiftence till they be provided of a benefice. This practice was 
 occafioned by the bifhops formerly laying hands on great num- 
 bers, and afterwards abandoning them to mifery and want. 
 At firft the popes only gave monitory Mandates, which were 
 no more than Simple prayers and requefts, that did not bind 
 the ordinary ; afterwards they gave prectrptory Mandates, 
 which did not annul the provifions of the ordinary ; at laft they 
 fet up executory Mandates, by which the provifions made by 
 the ordinary, in prejudice of the Mandate, were declared null ; 
 and the executor of the Mandate, in default of the ordinary, 
 conferred the benefice on the mandatory ; but the pope's power 
 in i Ailing thefe Mandates is now very much reftrained. 
 
 MANDIBULA, the jaw. See Maxilla. Hence 
 
 Mandibulares, or manducatorii mufculi. See Masseters. 
 
 MANDIL, or Mandril, the name of a kind of cap or turban 
 worn by the Perfians. 
 
 The Mandil is formed, by firft wrapping round the head a 
 piece of fine white linen five or fix ells lung ; over this they 
 wrap, in the fame manner, a piece of filk of the fame length, 
 and oftentimes of great value. — i — To nuke the Mandil gen- 
 teel, care muft be taken, that, in wrapping the lilk, it be fo 
 managed, as that the feveral colours found in the feveral folds 
 make a kind of waves, fomewhat like what we fee in marbled 
 paper. 
 
 This drefs is extremely majeftic, but at the fame time very 
 heavy : It ferves either as a fhelter to the head from cold, or 
 as a fcreen from the excefiive heat of the fun ; it is faid, that a 
 a blow of a cutlafs will not penetrate it, — In rainy weather they 
 cover it up with a kind of cafe or hood, made of red cloth. 
 The mode of the Mandil has been altered of late : during the 
 time of Scbah-Abbas II. it was round at top; in the time 
 of Schah-Soliman, they brought one end of the filk out of 
 the middle of the Mandil over the head ; and, laftly, in the 
 reign of SchahTIuiTcin, the end of the filk, in lieu of its be- 
 ing gathered as before, was plaited in manner of a rofe ; and 
 this the Perfians account extremely graceful, and ufe it to this 
 day. 
 
 MANDRAGORA, or Mandracoras, Mandrake, a 
 medicinal plant, which makes a principal ingredient in the 
 unguentum populneum. 
 
 There are two kinds of Mandragora : the male and the female ; 
 each bearing a kind of apples : thofe of the male, as;well as 
 the leaves, roots, is'e. being twice as large as thofe of the fe- 
 male ; but the juice of each is a narcotic potion, equally violent. 
 Naturalifts tell ftrange itories of this plant ; but, fetting afide 
 its foporiterous virtue, the modern bntanilts will icarce warrant 
 any of them, not even that human figure ordinarily afcribed to 
 its roots, efpecially lince the difcovery of the artifice of Charle- 
 tan's in fafhioning it, to furprife the credulity of the people. 
 See Supplement, Article MandRAGORA. 
 
 Chinefe Mandragoras is the plant ginfcne;. See Ginseng. 
 
 MANDREL, a kind of wooden pullv, making a member of the 
 turner's lathe. 
 
 Of thefe there are feveral kinds j as 
 Flat Mandrels, which have three or more little pegs or points 
 
 near the verge, and are ufed for turning flat boards on. 
 Pin Mandrels, which have a Ions wooden fhank to fit into a 
 
 round hole made in the work to be turned. 
 //j//)tu Mandrels, which are hollow of themfelves, and ufed 
 
 for turning hollow work. 
 Screw Mandrels, for turning fcrews, fefV. 
 MANDUCATION, the a aion of chewing, otherwife called 
 
 Majlication. 
 
 Manducation is a term feldom ufed but in fpeaking of the eu- 
 charift. — The Catholics maintain a real Manducation of the 
 body of Chrift ; the Reformed, on the contrary, take this 
 Manducation to be only figurative, and by faith. — St. Auguftine 
 calls it Spiritual Manducation. 
 
 MANEQU1N, among painters. See Layman. 
 
 MANES, a poetical term, fignifying the fhades, or fouls of the 
 deceafed. 
 
 The heathens ufed a world of ceremonies and facrifices to ap- 
 peafe the Manes of thofe who died without burial. See Le- 
 isures and Lemuria. 
 Dii Manes were the fame wlxhbifcri, or the infernal gods, who 
 tormented men; and to thefe the heathens offered facrifices, 
 to a ft wage their indignation. 
 
 The heathen theology is a little obfeure with regard to thefe 
 gods Manes. Some hold, that they were the fouls of the dead ; 
 others, that they were the genii of men ; which laft opinion 
 fuits beft with the etymology of the word. 
 The heathens, 'tis pretty evident, ufed the word Manes in 
 feveral fenfes ; fo that it fomctimes fignified the ghofts 
 of the departed, and fometimes the infernal or fubterrane- 
 ous deities, and in general all divinities that prefided over 
 tombs. 
 
 The evocation of the Manes of the dead fecms to have been 
 very frequent among the Theflalians ; but it was exprefly pro- 
 hibited by the Romans. 
 MANIA, in medicine, Madness; a vehement kind of deliri- 
 um, without a fever. 
 
 The caufe of the Mania is thus accounted for by Qnincy. 
 
 As often as the fpecics of tilings, wherewith we have been 
 
 acquainted, arc hurried together, we may be faid to dream ; 
 and thence in fleep thefe (pedes are added with other things, 
 and varioufly compounded, from the manifold repercuffions of 
 the animal fpirit, which arife from the caufe producing fleep, 
 and preffing the nerves, fo as to revert the fluctuation of their 
 juice. A delirium is therefore the dream of waking perfons, 
 wherein ideas are excited without order or coherence, and the 
 animal fpirits are driven into irregular fluctuations. 
 It then the caufe inducing a delirium be of that nature, that it 
 can excite ideas or motions of a confiderabie impetus, without 
 any regularity or order, fuch a delirium will be attended with 
 boldnefs or rage, and violent motions of the body ; that is, a 
 Mania will be produced. 
 
 Now it is plain, that all the known caufes of this diftemper 
 give a greater difpofition to the blood for motion, and render it 
 fiuxile, but not confiftent, and uniformly thick enough ; and 
 therefore that theydifpofe perfons likewife to continued fevers, 
 fince they occafion the blood to be thrown out of the heart with 
 an increafed force, unlefs fome othercaufe intervenes, whereby 
 the efficacies of thefe are interrupted in difpufing the blood 
 into febrile motions ; and the blood is fo difpoied, as often as 
 it can be rarefied into its minuteft parts ; that is, fo uniformly 
 rarefied, that it can eafily, with any force by the motion re- 
 ceived from the heart, go into parts divifible at the occur- 
 fions of thofe orifices, into which it ought to be diftributed: 
 for then the cohefion of the parts, which can be but very 
 fmall, will not be any obftru£lion to the increafe and propa- 
 gation of the blood's velocity. But if it happen that the effi- 
 cient caufe, or the heart, throws the blood with a greater 
 force, or that the blood can be more eafily propelled in any 
 given time, it will occafion, at the fame time, that fome parts 
 of the blood will be more nearly united, fo as to form mole- 
 cular, confifting of cohering particles ; which moleculse Will 
 cohere to one another, and not fo eafily obey the direction of 
 the heart's propelling force. The blood hereupon cannot be 
 uniformly rarefied, nor enter fo eafily into the fmall orifices of 
 the veffels, and fo foon travel through them ; and therefore 
 there will no fever arife, but a delirium without a fever, where- 
 in the heat of the blood will be greater, and the prcfTure in the 
 brain uncertain : whence uncertain recuifions of the fpirits, 
 inordinate undulations, confufed vibrations of the nerves, and 
 a remarkable energy of imagination ; whence will proceed au- 
 dacity and paflion beyond meafure. It is a difeafe very hard 
 
 to cure, and is generally found to baffle the phyfician. See 
 Supplement, Article Mania. 
 MANICHEES, or Manicheans, Manichjei, a fe£t of 
 antient heretics, who aflerted two principles; fo called from 
 their author Alanes, or Manicheus, a Perfian by nation. 
 This herefy had its firft rife about the year 277, and fpread it- 
 felf principally in Arabia, Egypt, and Africa. St. Epiphanius, 
 who treats of it at large, obferves, that the true name of this 
 
 herefiarch 
 
MAN 
 
 MAN 
 
 licrefurch was Cubricus ; and that he changed it for Manes, 
 which in the Perfian or Babyloniih language fignifies veflel. A 
 rich widow, whofc fervant he had been, dying without ifTue, 
 Jcf't him ftore of wealtli ; after which he aflumed the title of 
 the apoftle or envoy of Jefus Chrift. 
 
 He eftablifhed two principles, viz. a good and an evil one : 
 The firft, which he called Light, did nothing but good ; and 
 
 the fecond, which he called Darkncfs, nothing but evil. 
 
 This philoibphy is very antient ; and Plutarch treats of it at 
 large in his His and Ofiris. 
 
 Our fouls, according to Manes, were made by the good prin- 
 ciple, and our bodies by the evil one ; thofe two principles 
 being, according to him, co-eternal, and independent of each 
 other. He borrowed many things from the antient Gnofiics ; 
 on which account many authors confider the Manicbeans as a 
 branch of the Gnofiics. 
 
 In truth, the Manhhean doctrine was a fyftem of philofophy, 
 rather than of religion. They made ufe of amulets, in imi- 
 tation of the Bafilidians ; and are faid to have made profeffion 
 of aftronomy and aftrology. They denied that Jefus Chrift 
 affurried a true human body, and maintained it was only ima- 
 ginary. They pretended that the law of Mofes did not come 
 from God, or the good principle, but from the evil one; and 
 that for this reafon it was abrogated. They abftained intirely 
 from eating the flelh of any animal ; following herein the doc- 
 trine of the antient Pythagoreans, The reft of their errors 
 
 may be feen in St. Epiphanius and St. Auguftine ; which laft, 
 having been of their fe£t, may be prefumed to have been tho- 
 roughly acquainted with them. 
 
 Though the Manichces profefled to receive the books of the 
 New Teftament, yet, in effect, they only took fo much of 
 them as fuited with their own opinions. They firft formed to 
 themfelves a certain idea or fcheme of Chriftianity ; and to 
 this adjufted the writings of the apoftles ; pretending that what- 
 ever was inconfiftcnt with this, had been foifted into the New 
 
 Teftament by later writers, who were half- Jews. On the 
 
 other hand, they made fables and apocryphal books pafs for 
 apoitolical writings ; and even are fufpected to have forged 
 feveral others, the better to maintain their errors. St. Epi- 
 phanius gives a catalogue of feveral pieces publifhcd by Manes, 
 and adds extracts out of fome of them. 
 
 Manes was not contented with the quality of Apoftle of Jefus 
 Chrift, but he alfo aflumed that of the Paraclet, whom Chrift had 
 prqmifed to fend. He left feveral difciples, and among others, 
 Addas, Thomas, and Hermas. Thefe he fent, in his life-time, 
 
 into feveral provinces to preach his doctrine. Manes having 
 
 undertaken to cure the king of Perfia's fon, and not fucceed- 
 ing, was clapt into prifon upon the young prince's death ; 
 whence he made his efcape ; but he was apprehended foon af- 
 ter, and burnt alive. 
 
 Towards the middle of the twelfth century the feet of Mani- 
 chees took a new face, onoccafion of one Conftantine, an Ar- 
 menian, and an adherer to it ; who took upon him to fupprefs 
 the reading of all other books befides the evangclifts and the 
 cpiftles of St. Paul, which he explained in fuch manner, as to 
 make them contain a new fyftem of Manicheifm. He intirely 
 difcarded all the writings of his predeceflbrs ; rejected the chi- 
 mera's of the Valentinians and their thirty Moos ; the fable of 
 Manes, with regard to the origin of rain, which he made to 
 be the fweat of a young man in hot purfuit after a maid ; and 
 other dreams ; but fiill retained the impurities of Baiilides. In 
 this manner he reformed Manicheifm, infomuch that his fol- 
 lowers made no fcruple of anathematizing Scythian, Buddas, 
 and even Manes himfelf ; Conftantine being now their great 
 apoftle. After he had feduced an infinite number of people, 
 he was at laft ftoned bv order of the emperor. 
 MANICORDION * , 'a mufical inftrument, in form of a fpi- 
 net. 
 
 * Da Cange derives the word from Momeherd, on a fuppofition 
 this inftrument has but one chord : but he is miftaken ; it has 
 fifty, or more. 
 
 Its firings are covered with pieces of fcarlet cloth, to deaden, 
 as well as foften, the found ; whence it is alfo called the dumb 
 Spinett, and is much ufed in nunneries for the religious to learn 
 to play on; fo as not to difturb the filence of the dormitory. 
 
 Scaliger makes the Manicord more antient than the fpi- 
 
 net or harpfichord. 
 
 MANIFESTO, an apology, or public declaration in writing 
 made by a prince, fhewing his intentions in any enterprizej 
 the motives that induced him to it, and the reafons on which 
 his right and pretentions are founded. 
 
 MANILLE, or Menille, in commerce, one of the principal 
 commodities carried by the Europeans to the coafts of Africa, 
 to traffic with the negroes in exchange for flaves. It is a large 
 brafsring, in form of a bracelet, either flat or round, plain or 
 mgraven ; which the natives ufed to deck themfelves withal 
 putting them on the fmall of the leg, and the thick of the arm 
 above the elbow. 
 
 The better fort among the Negroes wear filver and gold Ma- 
 miles ; but thefe are of their own manufacture ; moft of the 
 money they receive for their other merchandizes being melted 
 
 MANIPULATION, a term ufed in the mine.;, to fignify the man- 
 ner of digging the filver, Uc . out of the earth. SceSiLvER. 
 MANIPULUS, Manipule*, among the Romans, was a lit- 
 tle body of infantry, which, in the time of Romulus, confirt- 
 ed of an hundred men ; and in the time of the confuls, and 
 firft C;efars, of two hundred. 
 * The word properly fignif.es an handful ; and, according to feme 
 authors, was firft given to the handful of hay which they bore at 
 the end of a pole, to diilinguiili themfelves by, before the cuftom 
 was introduced of bearing an eagle for their eniign ; and hence 
 alfo the phrafe, an handful of men. But Vegetius, Modeiius, 
 and Varro, give other etymologies of the word : The laft de- 
 rives it from mantis, a little body of men following the fame 
 ftandard. According to the former, this corps was called Ma- 
 mpulus, becaufe they fought hand in hand, or all together : Con ■ 
 tubernium autem Mamfului vocubatur ab to, quod toy unSti mam- 
 bus pariter dimicabant . 
 Each Manipule had two centurions, or captains, called rnani- 
 pularii, to command it ; one whereof was lieutenant to the 
 
 other. Each cohort was divided into three Manipules, and 
 
 each Manipule into two centuries. 
 
 AulusGellius quotes an old author, one Cincius, who lived in 
 the time of Hannibal (whofe prifoner he was), and who, wri- 
 ting on the art of war, obferves, that then each legion confift- 
 ed of fixty centuries, of thirty Manipules, and of ten co- 
 horts. And again, Varro and Vegetius mention it as the 
 
 leaft divifion in the army, only confifting of the tenth part of 
 a century ; and Spartian adds, that it contained no more than 
 ten men. This fhews, that the Manipulus was not always 
 the fame thing. 
 
 Manipulus is alfo an ecclefiaftical ornament, worn by the 
 priefts, deacons, and fubdeacons in the Romi/h church. It 
 confifts of a little fillet in form of a ftole, three or four inches 
 broad, and made of the fame fluff with the chafuble ; fignify- 
 ing and reprefenting an handkerchief, which the priefts in the 
 primitive church wore on the arm, to wipe off the tears they 
 
 were continually fliedding for the fins of the people. There 
 
 frill remains a mark of this ufage in a prayer rehearfed by thofe 
 who wear it ; Met car Domine, portare Manipulum fletus ts' 
 dolor is. 
 
 The Greeks and Maronites wear two Alan/pules, one on each 
 arm. 
 
 Manipulus, in phyfic, denotes a meafure, or fixed quantity of 
 herbs, or leaves, viz. an handful ; or fo much as the whole hand 
 can grafp: It is generally marked in prefcriptioii with M. 
 
 MANNA, in pharmacy, a medicinal drug, of great ufe in the 
 modern practice, as a gentle purgative, and cleanfer of the 
 firft paffages. 
 
 Manna is a white fweet juice oozing from the branches and 
 leaves of a kind of afh-tree, chiefly in Calabria, during the 
 heats of fummer. 
 
 Manna has been commonly held a kind of melaerium, or honey- 
 dew, which, falling in the night, gathers on certain trees, and 
 even on rocks, and on the earth ftfelf; where it hardens with 
 the fun. But what refutes this opinion is, that fuch dews melt in 
 the fun ; whereas Manna whitens and hardens in it. Add, that 
 fuch dews are only found on the tops and extremes of the leaves ; 
 whereas Manna is chiefly found to lodge near the trunks of the 
 branches: and that the honey-dew falls only on trees open to 
 the air ; whereas Manna is found on trees which are under co- 
 ver ; as was experienced by Dr. Cornelius, who gathered Manna 
 from branches covered on purpofe with cloth ; andLobel affaires 
 us, that Manna had been gathered from branches of the afh, 
 which had been thrown the day before into a cellar. It is much 
 more rational to rank Manna amongft the number or gums, 
 which, exuding from the juice of the tree, and mixing with fome 
 faline particles of the air, is condenfed into thofe flakes in 
 which we fee it. 
 
 The Italians gather three kinds of Manna : — Manna di corps, 
 which oozes fpontaneoufly from the branches of the tree in the 
 
 month of July. Manna forzata, or forzatella, which is 
 
 not gathered till Auguft, after an incifion of the tree, when 
 
 the flux of the firft has ceafed Manna difronda, which 
 
 ifTues of itfelf, in little drops, like a kind of fweat, from the 
 nervous part of the leaves of the afh, and gathers into grains 
 about the bignefs of thofe of wheat, which are hardened by the 
 fun in Auguft. The leaves are frequently found fo loadenwith 
 thefe grains, that they feem covered with fnow. 
 Manna is a gentle and fafe purge ; and is alfo ufed in broths : 
 Altimarus, a phyfician of Naples, has written a treatife ex- 
 
 prefly upon It ; and Donzelli another Manna, though 
 
 accounted a kind of honey, purges the bile ; whereas common 
 honey increafes it. Formerly the Sytian Manna was in the moft 
 repute, but now it gives way to the Calabrian. Fuchfius obferves 
 that the peafants of mount Libanus eat Manna ordinarily, as 
 others do honey. At Mexico they are faid to have a Manna, 
 which they eat as we do cheefe. 
 
 The Manna moft efteemed is that in flakes ; which many take 
 to be factitious, and the work of the Jews at Ecchorn ; but it 
 is certainly natural: And what gives it this figure is, that they 
 put draws and flips of wood in the incifions, along which the 
 Aianna gliding, is condenfed as it comes out, and afTumes this 
 form. See Supplement, Article Manna. 
 
 Manna, 
 
MAN 
 
 Man 
 
 Man ma i's alfo a fcripture-term, fignifying a miraculous kind 
 of food which fell from heaven for the fupDort of the Ifraelites 
 in their paflage through the wildernefs : being in form of cori- 
 ander-feeds ; its colour like that of bdellium, and its tafte like 
 
 honey. 
 
 They called it Mama, either from the Hebrew word, manah, a 
 gift, to intimate its being a gift from heaven ; or from minnah, 
 which fignifies to prepare, becaufe the Manna came to them 
 ready fur eating, and needed no preparation but gathering ; or 
 from the Egyptian word, Man, what is it ? which laft etymo- 
 logy fecms the more probable, in regard the fcripture takes 
 notice of the furprize they were under when they firft faw this 
 new food defcend. 
 
 Salroafius, however, prefers another : According to him, the 
 Arabs and Chaldeans ufed the word Man to fignify a kind of 
 dew or honey that fell on the trees, and was gathered in grear 
 abundance on mount Libanus. On whichfooting the Ifraelites 
 did not ufe the term Manna out of furprize, but becaufe they 
 found this food fall with the dew, in the fame manner as the 
 honey-dew fo well known to them under the name of Man, 
 Salmafius adds, that the Manna of the Ifraelites was in reality 
 no other than that honey, or dew condenfed ; and that the 
 one and the other were the fame with the wild honey wherewith 
 St. John was fed in the wildernefs. So that the miracle did not 
 coniift in the formation of any new fubftance in favour of the 
 Ifraelites ; but in the punctual manner in which it was dilpenfed 
 by providence for the fuftenance of fo vaft a multitude. 
 MANNER, in painting, tiff, expreffes that particular character 
 obfervable in the works of painters, poe ts, and other artifb, 
 by which their pencil, hand, or ftyle, are diftinguifhed. 
 The curious in pictures know the Manners of the painters ; and 
 diilinguifh readily between the Manners of Rubens, Titian, 
 and Da Vinci ; between the antient, and the new Manner the 
 fame painter ; and between the Flemifli, and the Italian Man- 
 ner. 
 
 Manner is ufed with refpect both to the invention, the defign, 
 and the colouring. T'he Manner of Michael Angelo, or Ra- 
 phael, may even be known in their fcholars. Thus we fay, 
 fuch a piece is of Raphael's fchool, tsV. 
 MANNERS, in poetry, denote the inclinations, genius, and hu- 
 mour, which the poet gives to his perfons, and whereby he di- 
 ftinguifhes his characters. 
 
 Ariftotle defines Manners, to he that which difcovers the incli- 
 nation of him whofpeaks, and fhews what he will refolvcupon, 
 or what reject, before he has actually determined : whence he 
 concludes, that Manners have not place always, and in all 
 kinds of difcourfes. 
 
 One inftance will make this definition clear. In the firft book 
 of Virgil, ./Eneas is reprefented extremely pious, and deter- 
 mined to execute the will of the gods at all adventures. In the 
 fourth book, he has a difficult choice propofed ; being engaged 
 on the one hand, out of a principle of love, gratitude, and 
 honour, not to quit Dido ; and having, on the other hand, an 
 cxprefs order from the gods to depart for Italy. Now, be- 
 fore it appears on which fide he has determined, what he has 
 before faid, fbould fhew his will and inclinations, and which 
 
 part he will take. And thofe preceding difcourfes, which 
 
 difcover his future refolution, make what we call the poetical 
 Manners. 
 
 Thofe make it pad doubt he will abandon Dido, to obey the 
 gods : this he does in effect : and the Manners therefore are 
 good, and well-conducted. — Had he difobeyedtheorders of Jupi- 
 ter, to ftay with Dido, the Manners had been ill; in regard 
 they would have foretold a refolution contrary to what he was 
 
 really to take. But had there been nothing to make us 
 
 forefee any refolution of ./Eneas at all, neither that which he 
 actually took, nor the contrary * in that cafe there had been no 
 Manners at all. 
 
 It is the Manners, as before obferved, that diflinguifh the cha- 
 racters: and, unlcfs the Manners be well exprcfied, we fhall 
 never be acquainted with the perfons at all ; nor, confequently, 
 fhall we be either terrified with forefeeing their dangers, nor 
 melted into pity by feeing their fufferings. 
 
 The Manners ihould have four qualities ; they ftiould be good, 
 like, fuitablc, and equal. 
 
 The Manners arc good, when they are well marked or expreffed ; I 
 that is, when the difcourfe of the perfons makes us clearly and 
 diftinctly fee their inclinations, and what good or evil refolu- 
 
 tions they will take. Likenefs of Manners only relates to 
 
 known and pul lic perfons, whofe characters are in hiftory, 
 with which the poetic characters muft agree ; that is, the poet 
 muft not give a perfon any quality contrary to any of thofe 
 which hiftory has already given him. And here it may be ob- 
 ferved, that the evil qualities given to princes and great men, 
 ought to be omitted by the poets, if they be contrary to the 
 character of a prince, &e. but the virtues oppolite to thofe 
 known vices ought not to be impofed, as by making him ge- 
 nerous and liberal in the poem, who was avaritious in the hi- 
 ftory. 
 
 The Manners muft likewife be fuitable; that is, they muft be 
 agreeable to the age, fex, rank, climate, and condition of the 
 perfon that has them. Horace obferves, Intererit tnultum Da- 
 V o l. II. 
 
 vufne hqudtur an hero; — Again, the Manners muft be equal; 
 that is, they muft be conftant, or confiftent through the whole 
 character ; or the variety or inequality of the Manners, as in 
 nature, fo in the drama, muft be equal. The fearful muft 
 never be brave, nor the brave timorous ; the avaritious muft ne- 
 ver be liberal, nor vice verfa. In this part, Shakefpear's Man- 
 tiers are admirable. 
 
 Befides thefe four qualities above-mentioned, there is a fifth ef- 
 fential to their beauty j which is, that they be neceflary ; that 
 is, that no vicious quality, or inclination, be given to any po- 
 etic perfon, unlefs it appear to be ablblutely neceffary, or re- 
 quifite to the carrying on of the action. 
 MANOMETER, or Manoscope *, an inftrument to fhew, 
 or meafure, the alterations in the rarity or denfity of the 
 air. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek (t/WKi rams, and u;7p a( / 
 menfura, £3V. ' * 
 
 The Manometer differs from the barometer in this, that the 
 latter only meafures the weight of the atmofphere, or of the 
 column of air over it ; but the former the denfity of the air in 
 which it is found : which denfity depends not only on the weight 
 
 of the atmofphere, but alfo on the action of heat and cold, ts'c. 
 
 Authors, however, generally confound the two together; and 
 Mr. Boyle himfelf gives us a very good Manometer of his con- 
 trivance, under the title of a Jlatical barometer ; the ftructure 
 whereof fee under the word Barometer. 
 MANOR, or Mannor *, an antient lordfhip, or royalty; con- 
 fifting of demefnes and fervices, and of a court-baron, as inci- 
 dent thereto. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French Manoir a manfion-houfe ; 
 and that from the Latin, Manere, to remain, or dwell, as being 
 the lord's ufual place of refidence. 
 
 Manor is the fame with what was formerly called baronia, ba- 
 rony. 
 
 A Manor is a kind of noble fee granted out partly to tenants 
 for certain fervices to be performed, and partly referved to the 
 ufe of the lord's family, with jurifdiction over his tenant for 
 the lands or eftat.es held of him. 
 
 F or the original of Manors, we are told there was antiently 
 
 a ceitain compafs of ground, granted by the king to fome 
 man of worth, for him and his heirs to dwell upon, and to 
 exercife fome jurifdiction, more or lefs, within that circuit, fuch 
 as he thought good to grant : but performing, withal, fuch fer- 
 vices, and paying fuch yearly rent, as by this grant was requi- 
 red. Now, the lord afterwards, parcelling the fame to other 
 meaner men, received rent and fervices from them, and by that 
 means, as lie became tenant to the king, the inferiors became 
 tenants to him. 
 
 But at this time a Manor rather fignifies a jurifdiction, and roy- 
 alty incorporeal, than the land and fuit : For a man may now 
 have a Manor in grofs, e. the right and intereft of a court- 
 baron, with the perquifites, and another enjoy every foot of 
 land belonging to it. 
 
 A Manor may be compounded of divers things, as of an houfe, 
 arable land, pafture, meadow, wood, rent, advowfon, court- 
 baron, &c. And this ought to be, by long continuance of 
 time, beyond man's memory. 
 
 It is held by fome, that a Manor cannot now be made, fince 
 a court-baron cannot be made ; and without a court-baron and 
 at leaft two fuitors, there can be no Manor. 
 MANSE, Mansus, Mansa, or Mansum *, in antient law- 
 books, denotes an houfe, or habitation ; either with or without 
 land. 
 
 * The word is formed a Manendi, abiding; as being the place 
 of dwelling or refidence. 
 
 CapitalMANSE, Manfum capitate, denotes the manor-houfe, or 
 lord's court. 
 
 Mansus Presbyter!, is a parfonage, or vicarage-houfe, for the 
 incumbent to refide in. 
 
 This was originally, and ftill remains, an eifential part of the 
 endowment of a parifh- church, together with the glebe and 
 tythes. It is fometimes called Preslyterium. 
 
 MANSION, Mansio, a dwelling-houfe or habitation, efperi- 
 ally in the country. 
 
 Mansion is more particularly ufed for the lord's chief dwelling- 
 houfe within his fee, which is otherwife called the capital mef- 
 fuage, or chief tnanor place. 
 
 Mansio, or Ma nsus, was fometimes alfo ufed in the fame fenfc 
 with hide ; that is, for as much land as one plough could till in a 
 year. See Hide. 
 
 MAN-SLAUGHTER, Homicide ; the unlawful killing a 
 man, without any prepenfed malice. 
 
 As, when two perfons who before meant no harm to one an- 
 other, falling out on fome hidden occafion, the one kills the 
 other. 
 
 Man-jlaughter differs from murder, as not being done with fore- 
 going malice; and from chance-medley, becaufe it hath a pre- 
 sent intent to kill. — ■ — It is efteemed felony, but admitted to 
 the benefit of the clergy, for the firft time. 
 By a law of king Canutus, if a man is killed openly and pre- 
 6 E meditatedly. 
 
M A N 
 
 MAP 
 
 mcditatedly, the murderer fhall be committed to the relations 
 of the deceafed : but if, on his tryal, the fact be proved, but 
 not to have been wilful, the bifliop is to judge him. 
 MANSORII Mufuli, the fame with majfiUrs. See Masse- 
 
 ■TF.R. ' r 1 ' r 
 
 MANTELETS, in war, a kind of moveable p;irapets made or 
 planks about three inches thick, nailed one over another, to 
 the height of almoft fix feet, generally cated with tin, and fet 
 upon little wheels ; fo that in a fiege, they may be driven be- 
 fore the pioneers, and ferve as blinds, to flicker them from the 
 enemy's fmali fhot. 
 
 There are alfo other forts of Mantelets, covered on the top, 
 whereof the miners make ufe, to approach the walls of a 
 
 town, or cattle. See Tab. Fcrtif.fig. ij. 
 
 It appears from Vegetius, that thefe were in ufe among the 
 antients, under the name of vinea; ; but they were built (lighter, 
 and much larger than ours, being eight or nine feet high, as 
 many broad, and fifteen long : They were defended by a 
 double covering, the one of boards, the other of fagots, with 
 the ribs of ofiers, and were cafed without with fkins fteeped 
 in water, to prevent fire. 
 MANTLE, or Mantle-/w, in architecture, is the lower part 
 of a chimney; or that piece of timber which is laid acrofs the 
 jaumbs, and fuftains the compattiment of the chimney-piece. 
 , See Chimney. 
 
 MANTLE, or Mantling, in heraldry, that appearance of 
 folding of cloth, flourifning, or drapery, that is in any at- 
 chievement, drawn about the coat of arms. 
 It is fuppofed originally to have been the reprefentation of a 
 Mantle, or military habit worn by antient cavaliers over their 
 armour to prcferve it from ruft ; or as others hold, a fhort co- 
 vering only worn over the helmet; which in after-times was 
 lengthened, and made to hang from the helmet below the whole 
 ihicld. See Tab. Herald, jig. 29. 
 
 The Mantle is always faid in blazon to be doubled, that is, 
 lined throughout with one of the furs, as ermin, pean, vairy, 
 Is'c. Sec Coat. 
 
 Mantle is likewife a term ufed in falconry. -They fay, the 
 
 hawk mantles, that is, fprcads her wings after her legs. 
 
 MANUCAPTIO, in law, a writ which lies for a man, who, 
 being taken on fufpicion of felony, and offering fufficient bail 
 for his appearance, is refilled to be admitted thereto by the fhe- 
 rifV, or other having power to let to mainprife. 
 
 MANUDUCTOR *, a name given to an antient officer in the 
 church, who, from the middle of the choir where he was 
 placed, gave the fignal for the chorifters to fing, and marked 
 . the mcafure, beat time, and regulated the mufic. 
 
 * The Greeks called him Mejkcfom, becaufe feated in Hie middle 
 of ihe choir : But in the Latin church, he was called Mamiduelur, 
 from mantis and duco, I lead ; becaufe he led and guided the 
 choir by the motions and gelture of the hand. 
 
 MANUFACTURE *, a place where feveral artifts and work- 
 men sre employed in the lame kind of work ; or make a com- 
 modity of the fame kind. 
 
 * The word comes from the Latin, ManufaHus, q. d. made with 
 hands. 
 
 Manufacture is alfo popularly ufed to fignify the work itfelf ; 
 and by cxtenfion, the like work carried on independently in 
 different parts of a country. 
 
 In this fenfe, we fay the woollen Manufacture, fdk Manu- 
 faclure, velvet Manufacture, tapeftry Manufacture, mulling 
 Manufacture, &c. Manufacture of hats, ftockings, is'c. 
 MANUMISSION, Manumissio *, an aft whereby a Have, 
 or villain, is fet at liberty, or let out of bondage. 
 
 * The word comes from the Latin mantis, hand, and mitt ere, to 
 fend; quia Jerviti mittebatur extra maiium,fcu fat eft at tin domini 
 
 Some authors define Matmrniffton an aft by which a lord en- 
 franchifes his tenants, who till that time had been his vafials, 
 and in a ftate of Jlavery, inconfiitent with the fanftity of the 
 Chriflian faith. 
 
 Among the Romans, the Manumiffton of flaves was per- 
 formed three feveral ways. 1°. When, with his matter's 
 confent, a flave iiad bis name entered in the cenfus, or 
 public regillcr, of the citizens. 2°. When the flave was 
 led before the praztor, and that rmgiftrate laid his wand, 
 called I'indicta, on his head. 3^. When the mafter gave 
 the flave his freedom by his teftament. — . — Servius Tullus 
 is faid to have firft fet on foot the firft manner ; and P. 
 Valerius Publicola the fecond : A particular account is given of 
 the third in the Injlitutcs of Juftinian. 
 
 It was not ncceflary, that the prartor fhculd he on his tri- 
 bunal to perform the ceremony of Manumiffton .- he did 
 it any-where indifferently, in his houfe, in the ftreet, in 
 going to bathe, £jrV. He laid the rod on the flave's head, 
 pronouncing thefe words. Dies ram libcrum ejfe time Pttt- 
 ritum ; I declare him a freeman after the manner of the Ro- 
 mans. This done, he gave the rod to the liftor, who (truck 
 the flave with it on the head, and afterwards with his Hand 
 • on his face and back : And the notary, or fcribe, entered the 
 name of the new-freed man in the regitter, with the reafons of 
 his Manumiffton, 
 
 The flave had likewife his head Ihaved, and a cup given him 
 by his mafter, as a token of freedom. Tertullian adds, that 
 he had then alfo a third name given him : If this were fo, 
 three names were not a token of nobility, but of freedom. 
 The emperor Conftaminc ordered the Manumiffton at Rome to 
 be performed in the churches. 
 
 Of Manumiffton there have alfo been various forms in England : 
 In the time of the conqueror, villains were manumitted by the 
 matter's delivering them by the right hand to the vifcount in full 
 court, fhewing them the door, giving them a lance, and a 
 fword, and proclaiming them free. 
 
 Others were manumitted by charter. There was alfo 
 
 an implicit Manumijjion ; as when the lord made an obli- 
 gation for payment of money to the bondman at a certain 
 day; or fued him, where he might enter without fuit; and 
 the like. 
 
 MANURING of ground^ the application of a matter proper for 
 meliorating the foil, and rendering it more fertile. 
 The matters ufed for Manure are various in various countries : 
 The moft ordinary are dung, lime, and marl. 
 In fome parts of England and Ireland they ufe fea-fhells, 
 as thofe of cockles, periwinkles, &c. which are found to 
 agree well with boggy, heathy, clayey, wet or ttifF land ; 
 as they feem to give it a kind of ferment, as barm does 
 to bread, opening and loofening the clods, and by that 
 means , making way for the roots to penetrate, and the 
 
 moitture to enter into the fibres of them. This kind 
 
 of Manure continues a long time before its effects are ex- 
 hausted ; whereas lime, &c. fpend themfelves at once. 
 The fhells being hard, melt away very flowly, fo that 
 the operation needs not be repeated for twenty or thirty 
 years. 
 
 In the weft of England, they manure their land with a brack- 
 ifh fca-fand ; which Dr. Bury obferves, quickens dead land : 
 fo that what would otherwife be the barrenneft part of that 
 country, is now the richeft. Sea-falt, he obferves, is too 
 ftrong and aftive of itfelf, and that it does beft when mingled 
 with loam. Glauber orders the mixture to be made up and 
 burnt like bricks, and then applied. 
 
 In fome countries they burn the furface of their hcithy 
 ground, inftead of manuring it. This others think but ill 
 hufbandry, inafmuch as it impoveri flies it ; and by destroying; 
 the fap of the earth, and roots of the grafs, and other vege- 
 tables, renders it ufelefs for feveral years after the third, when 
 it is plowed. 
 
 Dr. Jackfon obferves, that all the ground about Nantwich, 
 where fait or brine is fplit, is, when dug up, an excellent 
 Manure for grazing ground ; and even brick?, thoroughly im- 
 pregnated with it, diflblvc and fertilize land very confide rably. 
 Dr. Beal fays, it is a common obfervation of gardeners, and 
 fkilful hufbandmen, that frott and (how improve and fertilize 
 the land both more fpeedily and more effectually than the in- 
 fluence and warmth of the fun. 
 
 Dr. Lifter tells us, that in fome parts of the north -rid inn- 
 of Yorkfhire the foil is fandy, and the people manure it 
 with clay. The foil, with any other Manure, bears no- 
 thing but rye ; but with clay, it bears oats, barlev, ts\\ 
 This clay Manuring will, by certain experience, lal't forty- 
 five years in the ground ere it need be repeated. 
 The bogs in Ireland are faid to be beft improved by fandy, 
 or other gravelly Manures. See Supplement, Article Ma- 
 nure. 
 
 MANUSCRIPT, a book, or paper, written with the hand. 
 By which it frauds oppofed to a printed book, or paper. 
 A Manufript h ufually denoted by the two letters MS, and in 
 the plural by MSS, or MMSS. What makes public libra- 
 ries valuable, is the number of antient Manrtfripts repofited in 
 them. 
 
 MANVVORTH, in old law-books, denotes the price or value 
 of a man's head. 
 
 In antient times, every man, according to his degree, was 
 rated at a certain price ; according to which, fatisfaftion was 
 made to his lord, if any one killed him. 
 MANZEL. See the article Caravansera. 
 MAP, a plain figure, reprefenting the furface of the earth, or a 
 part thereof, according to the laws of perfpeftive. 
 A Map is a projection of the furface of the globe, or a part 
 thereof, on a plane furface ; reprefenting the forms and dimen- 
 sions of the feveral countries and rivers ; with the fituations of 
 cities, mountains, and other places. 
 Maps are either univerfal, or particular. 
 Univerfal Maps are thofe which exhibit the whole furface of the 
 
 earth; or the two hemifpheres. 
 Particular Maps are thofe which exhibit fome particular region, 
 or part thereof. 
 
 Each kind are frequently called Geographical., or Land- 
 Maps, in contra-diftinftion to Hydrographical, or Sea-Maps, 
 reprefenting only the feas and fea-coafts ; and properly called 
 Charts. 
 
 There are three qualifications required in a Map. i°. That all 
 places have their juft Situation with regard to the chief circles 
 of the earth, as the equator, parallels, meridians, &c. becaufe 
 
 on 
 
MAP 
 
 MAP 
 
 on theft depend manv properties of regions, as well as celeftial 
 phenomena. 2 0 . That the magnitudes of the feveral countries 
 have the fame proportion as on the furface of the earth. 
 3". That the feveral places have the fame diftance and fituatton 
 with regard to each other, as on the earth itfelf. 
 For the Antohl if Maps, and the laws of projeflion, fee 
 
 Perspective, and Projection if the Sphere The appli- 
 
 cation thtrcif, in the cinjlrucliin if Maps, is as follows. 
 Cinjlrucliin of a Map, the eye being placed in the axis.— Suppofe 
 y. g. the northern hemifphcre to be reprefented with the ey< 
 in a point of the axis, v.gt the fouth pole: For the plane, 
 whereon the reprefentation is to be made, we take the plane of 
 the equator, and from ail the points of the furface of the 
 northern bemifphere, conceive lines palling through the plane 
 to the eye ; which points, connedfed together, conftitute th 
 Map required. 
 
 In this cafe, the equator will be the limit of the projeaion ; 
 the pole, the centre. The meridians will be right lines paffirig 
 from the pole to the equator : the parallels of latitude, fgc. 
 circles concentric with the equator ; and all the other circles, 
 and arches ot circles, as the horizon, vertical circles, C3V. 
 ecliptic, lie. conceived in that hemifphcre, will be ellipfes, 
 or arches of ellipfes. 
 
 The better to apprehend the projection of the circles on the 
 plane, conceive a radiant cone, whofe vertex is the eye, its 
 bafe the circle to be reprefented, and its fides the rays paflimr 
 between the circle and the eye. Suppofe this cone cut by the 
 plane. It is obvious, that, according to the various polition 
 of the cone, there will be a different fedion, and confequently 
 a different line of reprefentation. 
 
 For the application of this doclrine in pratlice : In a plane 
 
 v.g. a paper, lake the middle point P (Tab. geography, fig. 2.) 
 for the pole; and from this, as a centre, defcribe a circle of 
 the intended bignefs of your Map, to reprefent the equator. 
 
 hefe tw ° ma )' be pitched on at pleafure, and from thefe all 
 the other points and circles are to be determined. Divide the 
 equator into 3 6c°, and drawing right lines from the centre to 
 the beginning of each degree, thefe will be meridians; where- 
 ol that drawn to the beginning of the firlt degree, we fuppofe 
 the firft meridian. * 
 For the parallels.— There arc four quadrants of the equator ; 
 the iirfl, 0,90 ; thefecond, 90,180; thethird, i8o,2-.o; the 
 fourth, 270,0 ; which, for the better diftinftion, we will note 
 with the- letters AB, BC, CD, DE. Taking one of thefe, 
 v. g. ilL, from the feveral degrees thereof, as alfo from 230, 
 30', and 66", 30' thereof, draw occult right lines to the point 
 D, marking where thefe lines cut the femidiametcr B PC ; and 
 from P, as a centre, defcribe arches paffing through the fever ,1 
 
 points in PC Thefe arches will be parallels of latitude 
 
 The parallel at 230 30', will be the tropic of Cancer, and that 
 at 660 j,,', the arctic circle. The meridians and parallels 
 thus defenbed, from a table of longitudes and latitudes lay 
 down the places ; reckoning the longitude of each place cm the 
 equator, commencing at the firft meridian, and proceeding tc 
 the meridian of the place ; and for the latitude of the place 
 choofing a parallel of the fame latitude : the point where thi 
 meridian and parallel interfefl, reprefents the place : and in 
 t ie fame manner all the other places may be determined, till 
 the Map be complete. 
 
 For the ecliptic, half of which comes in this hemifph 
 
 , . - ... una iiciiumiicie ; we 
 
 have obferved, that ,t makes an ellipfis ; fo that the points 
 through which it panes are to be found. The firft point, or 
 that wherein the echptic cuts the equator, is the fame with that 
 wherein the firft meridian cuts the equator, which is therefore 
 thftinguiflicd by the fig,, of Aries : the laft point of this half el- 
 Jipns, or the other interfeaioii of the equator, and ecliptic viz 
 the end of Virgo, will be in the oppafite point of the equator, 
 vz. at i8c°. 1 he middle point of the ellipfis is that wherein 
 the meridian 90 cuts the tropic of Cancer. Thus we have 
 three point, of the ecliptic determined: for the reft viz for 
 and 15" of Taurus, an d 150 of Gemini, 1° 0 iUo, ,0 of 
 Virgo, tne declinations of thofe points from the equator muft 
 be taken from a table, and let off in the Map. See Decli- 
 nation, CSV. r 
 Thus wheie the meridian of ,3" cuts the parallel of ,0, that 
 point will be ,5" degrees of Aries. Where the meridian 27 = 
 cuts tne parallel, , will be the firft deeree of Taurus ; and 
 (o ot the reft. Thefe points bein» all joined by a curve line 
 will be a portion of an ellipfis reprefenting the ecliptic 
 Mg rof this projection have the firft qualification above re- 
 mfim li but they are defective in the fecond : the furface being 
 c ached further as ,t approaches nearer the equator. For the 
 thud, they are ftill further out. 
 
 onr-'u r i h ° d SK? a ' moft *• whole ™ th be reprefented in 
 one Map placng the eye, v. ? . in the antaraic pole, and af- 
 firming for the plane of projection that of feme circle ' 
 •• -. the antaraic circli 
 
 the former projeaion, but to continue the meridian, draw pa 
 rahels on the other fide of the equator, and complete the eclio- 
 
 ■Nothing is here required befide 
 
 , . mm tuiniJiCie 11 ie eel in 
 
 t,c ; bur tins diftorrs too much for practice. 
 
 hls V™}^™ ■ * all others the eafieft; hut that, where the 
 eye is placed in the phce of the equator, is preferred for ufc. 
 
 fcis, in effect, of the latter kind that Maps are ordinarily made 
 I he former are added to them, in fmal!, by way of funple- 
 ment, to reprefent the intermediate fpaces left between the two 
 hemifpheres.— further, as the Htuation of the ecliptic, with 
 regard to the earth, is continually changing ; ftrictly fpeakin^, 
 it has no place on the earth's furface ; but is ufed to be reprefent- 
 ed according to its fituation fome certain moment; viz. fo as 
 the beginning of Aries and Libra may be in the interfe&ions of 
 the firft meridian and equator. 
 
 Conftruftion of Maps, with the eye in the plane of the equator. 
 
 This method of projection, though more difficult, is yet much 
 jufter, more natural, and more commodious, than the former. 
 To conceive it, we fuppofe the furface of the earth cut into 
 two hemifpheres by the intire periphery of the firft meridian 
 each of which hemifpheres we reprefent in a diftinct Map. 
 The eye is placed in the point of the equator gc° diftant from 
 the firft meridian ; and for the tranfparent plane, wherein the 
 reprefentation is to be, we take the plane of the firft meridian. 
 In this projection, the equator is a right line, and the meridian 
 0,0° diftant from the firft, is alfo a right line; but the other 
 meridians, and all the parallels of the equator, are arches of 
 circles, and the ecliptic is an ellipfis. 
 
 The method is thus. From a point E, as a centre, (fi?. 3.) 
 defcribe a circle according to the intended bignefs of the Map. 
 This reprefents the firft meridian, and is oppofite ; for, draw- 
 ing the diameter BD, there arife two femicircles, the one 
 whereof BAD is the firft meridian, the other BCD its oppo- 
 site, or the meridian of 180 0 . This diameter BD reprefents 
 the meridian of 90 degrees, whereof the point B is the arctic 
 pole, and the point D the antarctic. The diameter AC, per- 
 pendicular to that BD, is the equator. Divide the quadrants 
 AB, BC, CD, DA, each into go degrees ; and to find the 
 arches of the meridians and parallels, proceed thus. Divide 
 the equator into its degrees, viz. 180 (as being indeed only 
 half the equator} ; through thefe fevera! divifions, and the 
 two poles, defcribe arches of circles, reprefenting meridians, 
 as B 1 D, B 2 D, & c. — How to find centres for defcribinf 
 thofe arches, fee under the word Circle. Indeed, the 
 operation will be both more eafy and accurate, if performed by 
 a canon of tangents. 
 
 To defcribe the parallels, the meridian BD muft be in like 
 manner divided into 180 degrees; then through each of thefe 
 divifions, and the correfponding divifions of the quadrants 
 AB, CBj defcribe arches of circles. Thus fhall we have 
 parallel? of all degrees, with tropics, polars, and meridians. 
 The ecliptic may be defigned two ways ; for its fituation over 
 the earth may either be fuch, as that its interfection with the 
 equator may be over the place A ; in which cafe, the projeaion 
 of its femicircles, from the firft degree of Cancer, to the firft 
 of Capricorn, will be a ftrait line, to be determined by num- 
 bering 23 0 30' from A towards B, and from the extreme of 
 that numeration drawing a diameter through E ; which line 
 will be half the ecliptic in this fituation, and may be divided, 
 as before, into degrees, to which the numbers, figns, arc 
 
 to be affixed.- But if the ecliptic be fo placed^ as that its 
 
 interfection with the equator is over the place A, in the firft 
 meridian, its projection in that cafe will be a fegment of an el- 
 lipfis; whereof two of the points are A, C; athlrd that where- 
 in the meridian go cuts the tropic of Cancer The other 
 
 points muft be determined in the manner laid down above, 
 viz. by taking the declinations and right afcenfions of 15° of 
 Aries, i° of Taurus, 15 0 of Gemini, &c. For where the 
 parallels, according to their feveral degrees of declination, cut 
 the meridians, taken according to the feveral right afcenfions - 
 thofe points of interferon are the points of the 150 of Aries 
 &c. A curve line therefore being drawn, thefe will give the 
 projection of the ecliptic. 
 
 Nothing then remains to complete the Map, but to take the 
 longitudes and latitudes of places from a table; and to fet 
 them off on the Map, as was directed under the former 
 method. 
 
 In this projection the whole furface of the earth may be repre- 
 fented in one Map; if inftead of the plane of the firft meridi- 
 an, fome other plane parallel to it, but very near the eye, be 
 taken; for by this means the intire parallels and meridians 
 will be defcribed. — But as this diftorts the face of the earth too 
 much, it is feldom ufed ; and we rather make the two hemi- 
 fpheres in two diftinct tables. 
 
 One great advantage in this projection is, that it reprefents the 
 longitudes and latitudes of places, their diftance from the pole 
 and from the equator, almoft the fame as they really are on 
 the earth. — Its inconveniencies are, that it makes the degrees 
 of the equator unequal ; being the greater as they are nearer the 
 firft meridian DA B, or its oppofite BCD ; and for this rcafon 
 equal tracts of the earth are reprefented unequal; which defect 
 may be in fome meafure remedied, by removing the eye far 
 from the earth. And, laftly, the diftances of places, and 
 fituation with regard to each other, cannot be well determined 
 in Maps of this projection. 
 Conjlruflion of Maps an the plane of the horizon, or wherein any 
 given place fhall be the centre, or middle. — Suppofe, for in- 
 ftance, it is defired to have London the centre of the Map. 
 
 Its 
 
MAP 
 
 M A R 
 
 Its latitude we will fuppofe to be 5 1 degrees, 32 minutes. 
 The eye is placed In the nadir, 7 he tranfparent table is the 
 plane of the horizon, en- fome other plane, it" it is dcfircd to 
 repra&tlt more than an h era ifphcre.— Take then the point £. 
 
 4.) for London ; and from this, as a centre, defcribc the 
 circle A BCD to reprefent the horizon, which you are then 
 r.,' divide into four quadrants, and each of thefe into 90 degrees. 
 I ct the diameter BD be the meridian, B the northern quarter, 
 D the fouthern; the line of equinoflial eafi and weft fhews the 
 firft vertical, A the weft, C the caftj or a place go degrees 
 from the zenith in the firft vertical. All the verticals are re- 
 prcfentcd by right lines drawn from the centre E to the feve- 
 tal decrees of the horizon. Divide BD into 1S0 degrees, as 
 in tbe^former methods; the point in EB reprefenting 51 deg. 
 32 min. of the arch BC, will be the projection of the north 
 pole, which note with the letter P. The point in E D re- 
 prefenting 51 deg. 32 min. of the arch DC (reckoning from 
 C towards D), will be the projection of the inter feet ion of the 
 equator and meridian of London* which note with the letter 
 Qj and from this, towards F, -write the numbers of the de- 
 crees, 1, 2, 3, As alfo from Q, towards D, and from 
 B towards P, viz. 5T, 52, 53, flfnfi 
 
 Then taking the correl ponding points of equal degrees, viz. 99 
 and 99, 88 and 88, &c, about thofe, as diameters, defcribe 
 circles, which will reprefent parallels, or circles of latitude, 
 with the equator, tropics, and polar circles. For the meridi- 
 ans, firft defcribe a circle through the three points A, P, C. 
 This will reprefent the meridian 90 degrees from London. 
 Let its centre be M in BD (continued to the point N, 
 which reprefents the fouth pole), PN being the diameter; 
 through M draw a parallel to AC, viz. FH, continued each 
 way to K and L. Divide the circle PHNF into 360 degrees, 
 and from the point P draw right lines to the feveral degrees, 
 cutting KFHL; through the feveral points of interferon, 
 and the two poles P, N, as through three given points, de- 
 fcribc circles reprefenting all the meridians. The centres for 
 describing the arches will be in the fame KL, as being the 
 fame that" are found by the former interferon ; but are to be 
 taken with this caution, that for the meridian next BDN to- 
 wards A, the moft remote centre towards L, be taken for 
 the fecond, the fecond from this, tsV. — The circles of longi- 
 tude and latitude thus drawn, infert the places from a table as 
 has been before directed. 
 Ccnjlrutlion j/Maps on the planeof the meridian. This pro- 
 jection is taught by Ptolemy, and recommended by him as 
 proper for that part of the earth then known. In this, the 
 equator and parallels are arches of circles, and the meridians 
 arches of ellipfes ; the eye hanging over the plane of that me- 
 ridian which partes over the middle of the inhabited world.— 
 But in regard the defcription of thefe ellipfes is fomewhat per- 
 plexing, and becaufe this method feems calculated only for a 
 part of the earth, it is not now ufed. 
 
 There is a fecond method fomething a-kin to it, which repre- 
 fents the circles of latitude by right lines, and the meridians by 
 arches of ellipfes ; as muft be the cafe, if lines be conceived 
 to fall from the feveral points of each hemifphcre, perpendicu- 
 larly on the plane of the firft meridian, and the eye be fup- 
 pofed at an infinite diftarece from the earth 5 fo that all the rays 
 emitted from the places of the earth to it, may be accounted 
 parallels, as well as perpendiculars to the plane of the firft 
 meridian. 
 
 UteSiMnear Maps are thofe wherein both the meridians and pa- 
 rallels are reprcfentcd by right lines, which by the Iaws_ of 
 eerfpe&tve is importable ; in regard there can no fuch pofition 
 be aligned the eye and the plane, as that the circles both of 
 longitude and latitude (hall be right lines. 
 In the firft method above laid down, the meridians are right 
 lines, but the parallels are circles : in the fifth, the parallels are 
 right lines, and the meridians ellipfes. In all other perfpective 
 methods, both kinds of circles are curve: one method indeed 
 muft be excepted, wherein the meridians are right lines, and 
 -the parallels hyperbola's ; as when the eye is placed in the cen- 
 tre of the earth, and the plane, through which it is viewed, is 
 parallel to the firft meridian : but this method is rather pretty 
 than ufefuU. _ _ f 
 
 RecliUnear Maps are chiefly ufed in navigation, to facilitate 
 the cftimation of the fhip's way. See Chart. 
 
 Conjlrutlion of particular Maps. Particular Maps of large 
 
 trafls, as Europe, Afia, Africa, and America, are projected 
 after the fame manner as general ones ; only let it be obferved, 
 -that for different parts, different methods may be chofen. 
 Africa and America, for inftance, in regard the equator paffes 
 through them, cannot be conveniently projected by the firft 
 method, but much better by the fecond. Europe and Afia 
 arc moft conveniently rcpreiented by the third ; and the polar 
 parts, or the frigid zones, by the firft. 
 
 To begin then, draw a right line on your plane or paper, for 
 the meridian of the plane over which the eye is conceived to 
 hang, and divide it into degrees, as before, which will be de- 
 grees of latitude. Then from the tables take the latitude of 
 . the two parallels, which terminate each extreme. The degrees 
 of thefe latitudes are to be noted in the meridian; and through 
 
 them draw perpendiculars, bounding the Map towards north 
 and fouth. This done, meridians and parallels are to be 
 drawn to the feveral degrees, and the places to be inferted, till 
 the Map is complete. 
 
 For particular Maps oflefs extent. — In Maps of fmaller portions 
 of the earth, the geographers take another method. Firft, a 
 tranfverfe line is drawn at the bottom of the plane, to repre- 
 fent the latitude, wherein the fouthcrmoft part of the country 
 to be exhibited terminates. In this line, fo many equal parts 
 arc taken, as that country is extended tfl longitude. On the 
 middle of this fame line erect a perpendicular, having fo many 
 parts as there are degrees of latitude between the northern and 
 fouthern limits of the country. How big thefe parts are to be, 
 may be determined by the proportion of a degree of a great 
 circle to a degree of the parallel reprefented by the tranfverfe 
 line at bottom. Through the other extreme of this perpendi- 
 cular, draw another. perpendicular, or a parallel to the line at 
 bottom, in which are to be feen as many degrees of longitude, 
 as in the lower line, and thefe too, equal to thofe other, unlefs 
 the latitudes happen to be remote from each other, or from the 
 equator. But if the Ioweft parallel be at aconfiderable diftance 
 from the equinoctial, or if the latitude of the northern limit go 
 much beyond that of the fouthern ; the parts or degrees of the 
 upper line muft not be equal to thofe of the lower, but lefs, 
 and that according to the proportion which a degree of the 
 more northern parallel has to a degree of the more fouthern. 
 After parts have been thus determined, both on the upper and 
 lower line, for the degrees of longitude; right lines muft be 
 drawn through the beginning and end of the fame number, 
 which lines reprefent meridians: then, through the feveral 
 degrees of the perpendicular erected on the middle of the firft 
 tranfverfe line, draw lines parallel to that tranfverfe line. Thefe 
 will reprefent parallels of latitude. Laftly, at the points where- 
 in the meridians of longitude and the parallels of latitude con- 
 cur, infert the places from a table, as before directed. 
 
 For Maps of provinces, or final I tracts, as pariflies, manors, csV* 
 we ufe another method, more fure and accurate than any of 
 the former. In this, the angles of pofition, or the bearings 
 of the feveral places, with regard to one another, are deter- 
 mined by proper inftruments, and transferred to paper. — This 
 conftitutes an art apart, called furveying. See Surveying. 
 
 The ufe of Maps is obvious from their conftruction. _ The de- 
 grees of the meridians and parallels ftiew the longitudes and 
 latitudes of places, and the fcale of miles annexed, their di- 
 ftances ; the fituation of places, with regard to each other, aa 
 well as to the cardinal points, appears by infpection, the top 
 of the Map being always the north, the bottom the fouth, the 
 right-hand the caft, and the left the weft; unlefs the compafs, 
 ufually annexed, ftiew the contrary. 
 
 MAPPARIUS, an officer among the Romans, who in the pub- 
 lic games, as thofe of the circus and of the gladiators, gave the 
 fignal for their beginning, by throwing an handkerchief ( Map- 
 pa ) which he had before received from the emperor, conful, 
 prxtor, or other fupremc officer then prefent. 
 
 MARASMUS, MAP ASM 02* j in medicine; an extreme wafting, 
 or confumption of the whole body. 
 
 * The word is Greek, being derived from the verb (Atfcttttiv, to 
 waile. 
 
 A Marafmus is an extreme degree of atrophy ; as a hectic fever 
 is an extreme degree of Marafmus. See Supplement, Article 
 Marasmus. 
 
 MARAVEDI*, a little Spanifh copper coin, worth fomewhat 
 more than a French denier, or half a farthing Englifh. 
 
 * The word is Arabic, and took its rife from the Almoravider, a 
 dynalty of Moors, who pafling out of Africa into Spain, impofed 
 their own name on this coin, which by corruption was after- 
 wards changed into Mara-uedi. Mention is made of it in the 
 
 decretals, as well as other Latin writers, under the name of 
 Marabitim. 
 
 The Spaniards always count by Maravedis, both in com- 
 merce, and in their finances, though the coin itfelf is no 
 longer current among them. — Sixty-three Maravcdis are equi- 
 valent to a rial of filver: fo that the piafter, or piece of eight 
 rials, contains five hundred and four; and the piffole of four 
 pieces of eight, two thoufand and fixtcen Maravedis, 
 This fmalnefs of the coin produces vaft numbers in the Spa- 
 nifh accounts and calculation; infomuch that a ftranger or 
 correfpondent would think himfclf indebted feveral millions for 
 a commodity that cofts but a few pounds. 
 In the laws of Spain, we meet with feveral kinds of Mara- 
 vedis ; Alphonfine Maravedis, white Maravedis, Maravedis 
 of good money, Maravedis Combrcnos, black Maravedis, and 
 old Maravedis. — When we find Maravedis alone, and without 
 any addition, it is to be underftood of thofe mentioned above. 
 The reft were different in value, finenefs of metal, time, 
 Mariana afferts, that this coin is older than the Moors ; that 
 it came from the Goths ; that it was antiently equal to a third 
 part of the rial, and confequently of twelve times the value of 
 the prefent Maravedi. Under Alphonfus XL the Maravedi 
 was feventeen times, under Henry II. ten times, and under 
 Henry HI. five times, and under John II, two times and a 
 half the value of the prefent Maravdi. 
 
MAR 
 
 MAR 
 
 MARBLE, Marmor *, a precious kind of ftone found in great 
 niaffes,anddugoutof pits or quarries ; being of a conftitution fo 
 hard and compact, and a grain fo fine, as readily to take a beau' 
 titul polifh ; much ufed in ornaments of buildings, as columns 
 ftatues, altars, tombs, chimney-pieces, tables, and the like. 
 • The word comes from the French Marbre, and that from the 
 Latin Marmor, of the Greek (tuffjuufur, to lfnne, or glitter. 
 
 There are an infinite number of different kinds of Marble, and 
 they are ufually denominated either from their colour, their age, 
 their country, their grain, their degree of hardnefs, their wci»ht. 
 or their defects : fome are of one fimple colour, as white or 
 black, others ftreaked or variegated with ftains, clouds, waves 
 veins, ijc. but almoft all are opake, excepting the white, which, 
 when cut into thin fUces, becomes tranfparent. 
 Some, under the genus of Marble, comprehend alfo porphyry, 
 ferpentine, granite, alab:ifter, l$c. 
 Antient Marbles are thofe, wnofe quarries are loft, or inac- 
 ccifible to us, and whereof we have only fome wrought pieces 
 remaining. 
 
 Modern Marbles are thofe, wbofe quarries are ftill open, and 
 out ot which blucks continue to be dug. 
 
 African Marble is ufually either of a reddifh brown, ftreaked 
 with veins of white ; or of a carnation, wilh veins of green, 
 
 Englifh white Marble is often veined with red. 
 
 Derby/hire Marble is varioufly clouded and diverfified with 
 white and brown, and has entrochi in \x.,i3c. 
 
 Marble of Auvergne in France, is of a pale red, miogfcd with 
 violet, green, and yellow. 
 
 Marble of Brabanr.on in Hainault, is black, veined with white. 
 
 Marble of Breffi in Italy, is yellow, with fpots of white. 
 
 Brocatella Marble is mingled with little fhades of Ifabella, yel- 
 low, pale, and grey. It comes from Tortofa in Spain, where 
 it is dug out of an ancient quarry. There is alfo another kind 
 of antient Brocatella dug near Adi ianople. 
 
 Marble of Carrara, on the coafts of Genoa, is very white, 
 and the fitteft of all others for works of fculpture. ' 
 
 Marble of Champagne, refembles the Brocatella, being mixed 
 with blue, in round {tains like partridges eyes. 
 
 Cipolllno, or Cipollin Marble, the true Egyptian Marble, is 
 of a foa-green colour, mixed with large waves or clouds of 
 white or pale green— Scamozzi takes this to be the fame with 
 that which the antients called Augufium W Ttbcrium marmor ; 
 becaufe difcovered in Egypt in the times of Augultus and Ti- 
 berius. 
 
 Marble of Dinan, near Liege, is of a pure black, very beau- 
 tiful, and very common. 
 
 Marble of Guachenet, near Dinan, is of a reddifh brown, with 
 white fpots and veins. 
 
 Marble of Languedoc, is of a vivid red, with large white veins 
 or ftains, and is very common ; there is fome, whofe white 
 which borders pretty much on the blue, but tin's is of lefs value. 
 
 Lumachello Marble, is fo called, becaufe mingled with fpots, 
 brown, black, and white, formed of periwinkle fhells petri- 
 fied in it. — This is antient, and its quarry is loft. 
 
 Marble of Margoffa, in the Milaneze, has a white ground 
 with brownifti veins, refembling the colour of iron-ruft. This 
 is very common, and extremely hard. 
 
 Marble of Lavee, in Maine, has a black ground, with little 
 narrow veins of white ; there is another kind of it red, with 
 veins of a dirty white. 
 
 Marble of Namur is black, like that of Dinan, but lefs beau- 
 tiful, as inclining a little to the blue, and travcrfed with little 
 ftreaks of grey. — This is very common, and is frequently ufed 
 in paving. 
 
 Parian Marble is antique, and much celebrated in authors ; 
 it is of a beautiful white : the greateft part of the Grecian fta- 
 tues were made of it. Varro calls it Lychnitcs, becaufe the 
 workmen dug it out of the quarry by lamp-light. 
 
 Marble of Porta Santa, at Rome called Sema, is mingled with 
 large clouds and veins of red, yellow, and grey. 
 
 Portor MaRBLB has a black ground, with clouds and veins of 
 yellow. It is dug out of the foot of the Alps towards Carrara. 
 
 Marble of Ranee, in Hainault, is of a dirty red, mixed with 
 blue and white clouds and veins: this is pretty common, but 
 is different in degree of beauty. 
 
 Marble of Way is of a deep red, mixed with other colours; 
 each piece whereof feems cemented on to the reft. 
 
 Marble of Sicily is a brownifti red, ftained with oblong fquarcs 
 of white and Ifabella, like ftriped taffaty. The antient has 
 very vivid colours, and the modern comes pretty near it. 
 
 Marble of Signam, in the Pyreneans, is ordinarily of a greenifti 
 brown, with red ftains; though this is fomewhat various in its 
 colours. 
 
 Marble of Then, near Namur in Liege, is a pure black, foft, 
 
 kind, and cafy to work, and receives a more beautiful polifh 
 
 than thofe of Namur and Dinan. 
 Marble Bigh Nero, or black-grey, is antique. 
 mttt-vjM Marble has large veins, with grey and blue ftains 
 
 on a white ground. It comes from Carrara. 
 mite Marble, that dug out of the Pyreneans on the fide of 
 
 Kuyonne, is inferior to that of Carrara, its grain being coarfor, 
 
 and Alining, like a kind of fait. It is fomething like the an- 
 tient white Greek Marble, whereof their ftatues were made; 
 but is not fo hard or beautiful. 
 
 Antient black and white Marble is now very rare, its quarries 
 being intirely loft; it is divided between a pure white and a 
 bright black in lamina. 
 
 Blue Turquin Marble is mixed with a dirty kind of white, and 
 comes from the coaft of Genoa. 
 
 Marble Fior di Perfua, comes from Italy. It confifts of red 
 and white ftains, fomewhat yellowifti. 
 
 Yellow Marble is a kind of yellow Ifabella without veins; it is 
 antique, and now very rare. 
 
 Black Antique Marble is of a pure black, without ftains, and 
 fofter than the modern black. There was fome of it brought 
 from Greece, called Marmor Luculleum ; but this was not fo 
 much prized as that which the Egyptians brought from Ethi- 
 opia, approaching to an iron colour, and called Bafaltcs, or 
 the touch-ftone, becaufe it ferved them for the trial of metals. 
 See Basaltes. 
 
 White and black Marble has a pure black ground, with fome 
 very white veins. 
 
 Marele called Occhio di pavone, or peacock's eye, is mingled 
 with red, white, and bluifh clouds, fomewhat refembling'the 
 eyes at the end of a peacock's tail. 
 
 Green Marble antique, is a mixture of grafs-green, and black, 
 in clouds of unequal forms and bigneffes ; and is very rare, the 
 quarries being loft. 
 
 Common Modern Green Marble, improperly called Egyptian, 
 is brought from Carrara, on the coaft of Genoa ; it is of a deep 
 green fpotted with grey. 
 
 Rigid Marele, is that which, being too hard, works with 
 difficulty, and is liable to fplinter, as the black of Namur. 
 
 Fibrous Marble, is that full of threads or filaments. 
 
 Brittle Marble, is that which crumbles under the inftrument, 
 as the white Greek Marble, and that of the Pyreneans, &c. 
 
 Ter racy Marble, that which has foft places in it, which muft 
 be filled up with cement, as that of Languedoc. 
 There are two defects frequent in Marbles, which augment the 
 difficulty in cutting and polifhing them. The one, what they 
 fometimes call nails, anfwering to the knots in wood ; the 
 other, called emeril, is a mixture of mundick or other minerals, 
 forming black ftains in the Marble. The knots are common 
 to all Marbles : the emeril is peculiar to the white. 
 
 Artificial Marbles. Theftucco whereof they make ftatues, 
 
 bufts, bafto- relievo's, and other ornaments of architeaure, ought 
 to be Marble pulverized, mixed in a certain proportion with 
 plafter; the whole well fifted, worked up with water and 
 ufed like common plafter. See Stucco. 
 There is alfo a kind of artificial Marble made of the flaky fo- 
 lenites, or a tranfparent ftone, refembling plafter; which be- 
 comes very hard, receives a tolerable polifh, and may deceive 
 a good eye. This kind of felenites refembles Mufoovy talc 
 There is another fort of artificial Marble formed by corrofive 
 tinaures, winch, penetrating into white Marble, to the depth 
 of a line, or more, imitate the various colours of other dearer 
 Marbles. 
 
 polifhed Marble is that which, being well rubbed with free- 
 ftone, and afterwards with pumice-ftone, is at laft polifhed 
 with emery, if the Marble be of feveral colours, and with 
 calcined tin, if it be white. In Italy they polifh with a piece 
 of lead and emery. 
 
 There are various ways of polifhing Marble. Some lay three 
 or four blocks in a row, and with another, fixed to a broad 
 beetle, and an handle fixed at oblique angles, with fand and 
 water between, work the upper ftone backwards and forwards 
 on the lower ones, till the ftrokes of the faw are worn off; 
 after which they polifh them with emery and putty 
 i atller Kircher fhews the manner of applying colours on Mar- 
 ble, to as to make them penetrate its whole fubftance ■ info- 
 much that ,f the Marble be flit into feveral parallel tables or 
 flabs the fame figure will be found on each, that was painted 
 on the firft. v 
 Spots of oil ftain white Marble, fo as they cannot be taken 
 out. bee Supplement, Article Marmor. 
 Arundel Marbles, Marmora Arundetlana, or the Oxford 
 Marbles, are antient ffones, whereon is inferibed a chronicle 
 of the city of Athens, ingraven in capital letters in the ifland 
 ot faros one of the Cyclades, 263 years before Jefus Chrift. 
 i hey take the name from Thomas earl of Arundel, who pro- 
 cured them out of the eaft, or from Henry his grandfon, who 
 
 prefented them to the univerfity of Oxford An account 
 
 of all their inferiptions was publifhed in 1676 by Dr Pii- 
 deaux. 
 
 MARBLFD, fomething veined, or clouded, refembling marble 
 Marbled paper is a paper ftained with various clouds and fhades ' 
 refembling, in fome meafure, the divers veins of marble ; the 
 method of making which, fee under Paper ' 
 
 MARBLING, the art or aft of painting or difpofing colours in 
 
 iuch a manner, as that they may reprefent Marble Thus 
 
 we marble books, paper, wood, Ife. See Paper 
 
 Marbling ofheti, among binders, denotes the fprinkling over 
 the cover of a book with black, by means of a black pencil 
 6 F firuck 
 
MAR 
 
 MAR 
 
 ftruck gently againft the finger, or on a flick held for that pur- 
 pofe. 
 
 Marbling is not ufed, except for books bound in calf; after 
 it is finifhed, the cover is glazed over with beaten whites of 
 eggs, and then fmoothed with a polifhing-iron. 
 They alfo marble books on the edges; but in this Marbling 
 there is no black ufed; but, in lieu thereof, red, blue, fitfa 
 See Eook> Binding: 
 MARCASITE, Marcasita, a fort of metallic mineral, fup- 
 pofed by many to be the feed or firft matter of metals. 
 On this principle, there fhould be as many different Marcajites 
 as metals ; which is alfo faid to be true in effect, the name be- 
 ing applied by fome to every mineral body that has metallic 
 particles in its compofition ; though not enough to make it 
 worth working : in which cafe it would be called ore. 
 There are only three kinds in the (hops, which are called 
 Marcafite of gold, of filver, and of copper ; though fome re 
 pute the loadftone to be a Marcafite of iron ; bifmuth, Mar- 
 cafite oi~ tin ; and zink, or fpelter, Marcafite of lead : but this 
 we leave to the chymifts. 
 
 Marcafite of gold is found in little balls or nodules about the 
 bignefs of nuts, nearly round, heavy, of a brown colour with- 
 out. Marcafite of filver is like that of gold, only paler colour- 
 ed : within the colour differs much, the one having a gold co- 
 lour, and the other a filver colour, both mining and brilliant. 
 The Marcafite of copper is about the bignefs of a fmall apple, 
 round or oblong, brown without, yellow and ftriated within, 
 brilliant and fhining. 
 
 Marcajites are found in mines of metals ; they all contain ful- 
 phur, and a vitriolic fait, efpecially that of copper : fome of 
 them alfo contain antimony and bifmuth. See Supplement, Ar- 
 ticle Marcasita. 
 MARCELLIANISM, the doctrines and opinions of the Mar- 
 cellians, a feet of antient heretics ; fo called from Marcellus of 
 Ancyra, their leader, who was accufed of reviving the errors 
 of Sabellius. 
 
 Some, however, are of opinion, that Marcellus was orthodox, 
 and that it was his enemies the Arians, who fathered their er- 
 rors upon him. St. Epiphanius obfeivcs, that there was a 
 
 great deal of difpute with regard to the real tenets of Marcellus; 
 but that as to his followers, it is evident they did not own 
 the three hypoftafes : fo that MarcelHanifm is no imaginary 
 herefy. 
 
 MARCGRAVE, or Margrave *, a kind of dignity in Ger- 
 many, anfwering to our marquis. 
 
 * The word is derived from the German Marcbe, or March, which 
 fignifies a frontier; and Graffe, count, governor; Mangroves 
 being originally governors of cities lying on the frontiers of a 
 country or ftate. 
 
 MARCH, Martius, the third month of the year, according 
 to the common way of computing. 
 
 Among the Romans, March was the firft month ; and, in fome 
 ecclefiaftical computations, that order is ft ill preferved ; as par- 
 ticularly in reckoning the number of years from the incarnation 
 of our Saviour ; which is done from the 25th of March. 
 In England, March, properly fpeaking, is the firft month in 
 order; the new year commencing from the 25th ; though, in 
 complaifance to the cuftoms of our neighbours, we ufually rank 
 it as the third ; but, in this refpect, we fpeak one way, and 
 write another. 
 
 Till the year 1564, the French reckoned the beginning of 
 their year from Eafter ; fo that there were two months of 
 March in one year, one of which they called March before 
 Eajler, and the other March after Eajler. And, when Eafter 
 fell within the month of March, the beginning of the month 
 was in one year, and the end in another. 
 It was Romulus who divided the year into months ; to the 
 firft of which he gave the name of his fuppofed father Mars. 
 Ovid, however, obferves, that the people of Italy had the 
 month of March before Romulus's time ; but that they placed 
 it very differently, fome making it the third, fome the fourth, 
 fome the fifth, and others the tenth month of theyear. 
 In this month it was that the Romans facrificed to Anna Per- 
 enna; that they began their comitia ; that they adjudged their 
 public farms and lcafes ; that the miftreffes ferved the flaves and 
 ("ervants at table, as the matters did in the Saturnalia ; and that 
 the veftals renewed the facred fire. 
 
 The month of March was always under the protection of Mi- 
 nerva, and always confifted of thirty-one days. -The an- 
 
 tients held it an unhappy month for marriage, as well as the 
 month of May. 
 
 MARCHET, or Marchetta, a pecuniary fine antiently 
 paid by the tenant to his lord, for the marriage of one of the 
 tenant's daughters. 
 
 This cuftom obtained, with fome difference, throughout all 
 England and Wales, as alfo in Scotland ; and it ftill continues 
 
 to obtain in fome places. .According to the cuftom of the 
 
 manor of Dinover in Carmarthenfhire, every tenant, at the 
 marriage of fan daughter, pays ten millings to the lord ; which 
 m the Untifh language, is called Gwabr-Merchsd, i. e. Maid's- 
 ree. bee Amabyr, 
 
 In Scotland, and the north parts of England, the cuftom was, 
 for the lord to lie the firft night with the bride of his tenant : 
 but this ufage was abrogated by king Malcolm III. at the in- 
 ftance of his queen; and, inftead thereof, a mark was paid by 
 the bridegroom to the lord. Whence it is called Marcheta 
 mulierls. 
 
 MARCIONITES, or Marcionists, Mar cionist JE, a very 
 antient and popular feet of heretics, who, in the time of St. 
 Epiphanius, were fpread over Italy, Egypt, Pa]a?ftine, Syria, 
 Arabia, Perfia, and other countries; they were thus denomi- 
 nated from their author Marcion. 
 
 Mar dsn was of Pontus, the fon of a bifhop, and at firft made 
 profeifion of the monaftical life ; but, having had a criminal 
 affair with a maid, he was excommunicated by his own father, 
 who would never admit him again into the communion of the 
 church, not even on his repentance. On this he abandoned 
 his own country, and retired to Rome, where he began to 
 broach his doctrines. 
 
 He laid down two principles, the one good, the other evil : 
 he denied the real birth, incarnation, and pafiion of Jefus 
 Chrift, and held them to be all apparent only. He taught two 
 Chrifts : one who had been fent by an unknown God for the 
 falvation of all the world ; another, whom the Creator would 
 one day fend to re-eftablifh the Jews. He denied the refur- 
 rection of the body ; and allowed none to be baptized, but 
 thofe who preferved their continence; but thefe he granted 
 might be baptized three times. 
 
 In many things he followed the fentiments of the heretic Cer- 
 don, and rejected the law and the prophets. He pretended, 
 the gofpel had been corrupted by falfe prophets, and allowed 
 none of the evangelifts but St. Luke, whom alfo he altered in 
 many places, as well as the epiftles of St. Paul, a great many 
 things in which he threw out. In his own copy of St. Luke, 
 he threw out the two firft chapters intire. 
 MARCITES, Marcit^:, a feet of heretics in the fecond cen- 
 tury, who alfo called themfelves the Perfecli, and made pro- 
 feftion of doing every thing with a great deal of liberty, and 
 without any fear. 
 
 This doctrine they borrowed from Simon Magus, who, how- 
 ever, was not their chief ; for they were called Marcites from 
 one Marcus, who conferred the priefthood, and the adminiftra- 
 tion of the facraments, on women. 
 MARCOSIANS, an antient feet in the church ; making a branch 
 of the Gnoftics. See Gnostic. 
 
 St. Irenaeus fpeaks at large of the leader of this feet, Marcus^ 
 who, it feems, was reputed a great magician. He relates feveral 
 things touching the prayers and invocation of the antient Gno- 
 ftics and Marcofiam, wherein we find the traces of the antient 
 Jewifh cabbala on the letters of the alphabet, and their pro- 
 perties, as well as on the myfteries of numbers, which the 
 Jews and Gnoftics had borrowed from the philofophy of Plato 
 and Pythagoras. 
 
 Marcus was an Egyptian, and there it was that he became ac- 
 quainted with magic : To impofe more eafily on his followers, 
 he made ufe of certain Hebrew, or ratherChaldee words, much 
 ufed by the inchanters of thofe times. 
 
 The Marcofiam had a great number of apocryphal books, which 
 they held for canonical, and of the fame authority with ours. 
 Out of thefe they picked feveral idle fables, touching the in- 
 fancy of Jefus Chrift, which they put off for true hiftories. 
 Many of thefe fables are ftill in ufe and credit among the 
 Greek monks. 
 
 MARGARITA. See the article Pearls. 
 
 MARK, in matters of commerce and manufacture, a certain 
 character ftruck, 01 impreffed on various kinds of commodi- 
 ties, either to fhew the place where they were made, and the 
 perfons who made them ; or to witnefs they have been viewed 
 and examined by the officers or magiftrates charged with the 
 infpection of that manufacture; or laftly, to fhew the duties 
 impofed thereon have been regularly acquitted. 
 Thus are cloths, leathers, cutlery-ware, paper, plate, weights, 
 meafures, k$e. to be. marked. 
 
 Mark, in horfemanfhip. 
 
 MARK, is alfo a particular fign or character, known only to the 
 trader who pitches on it ; whereby, being fixed to any com- 
 modity, he recollects the price it coft him. 
 Thefe Marks, otherwife called tiumercs, are taken according to 
 the fancy of thofe who ufe them ; but ordinarily, they are chofen 
 from among the letters of the alphabet, each having a relation 
 
 to fome particular number of figures. They are of fo much 
 
 ufe in trade, that the reader will not take itamifs, if we infer t 
 a little table, to ferve as a model for their conftruction. 
 
 A|hi|C|DjE|FlG|H|IjK|L|M 
 
 ° I 1 I 2 I 3 I 4 | 5 I 6 I 7 I 8 1 9 | 10 1 20 
 
 One example will give the whole ufe of this table. Suppofe, 
 v. g. I would put on a piece of fluff, that it coft 37 s. 6d. per 
 ell. I put an M for 20 s. an L for 10 s. anH for 7 s. and a 
 G for 6 d. So that the feveral letters wrote after each other 
 (obferving always to feparate (hillings from pounds, and from 
 4 pence, 
 
MAR 
 
 MAR 
 
 pence, by points) will make this Mart M. LH. G equal to 
 37 s. 6 d. 
 
 Note, the Mart may be diverfified infinitely, by adding other 
 figures to the letters in lieu of thefe. 
 
 Letters of Mark. See the article Marque. 
 
 Mark, in a monaflic fenfe. — Canons of St. Mark, a congre- 
 gation of regular canons, founded at Mantua by Albert Spi- 
 nola a prieft, towards the end of the twelfth century. 
 Spinola made a rule for them, which was approved, correfled, 
 and confirmed by feveral fucceeding popes. About the year 
 14.50, they were reformed, and followed only the rule of St 
 Auguftin. 
 
 This congregation, which at firft confided of eighteen or twenty 
 houfes of men, and of feme for women, fituate in Lombardy 
 and the Hate of Venice, having flourifhed for the fpace of four 
 hundred years, it declined by little and little, and was at length 
 reduced to two convents ; and, in 1584, that of St. Mart at 
 Mantua, which was the chief, was given, with the content of 
 pope Gregory XIII. to the Camaldulians ; and fo the congre 
 gation became extincj. See Camaldulian. 
 Knights of St. Mark, an order of knighthood in the republic of 
 Venice, under the proteflion of St. Mart the evangelift. 
 The arms of the order are, a lion winged gules, with this de 
 vice, Pax titi, Marce evangelifta. This order is never con 
 ferred but on thofe who have done fignal tervices to the com 
 monwealth. 
 
 Mark, or Marc, alfo denotes a weight u fed in feveral dates 
 of Europe, and for feveral commodities, efpecially gold and 
 filver in France. 
 
 The Mart is divided into eight ounces, or fixty-four drachms 
 or an hundred and ninety-two deniers or penny-weights, or a: 
 hundred and fixty efterlins, or three hundred mailles, or ft 
 hundred and forty fclins, or four thoufand fix hundred and eieh 
 grains. 
 
 In Holland, the Marc weight is alfo called troy-wei«ht and is 
 
 equal to that of France. When gold and filver are fold by 
 
 the Marc, it is divided into twenty-four carats, the carat into 
 eight penny-weights, the penny-weight into twenty-four grams 
 and the grain into twenty-four primes. See Caract 
 Mark is alfo ufed among us for a money of account ; and in 
 fome other countries for a coin. 
 
 The Englifh Mart is two-thirds of a pound fterling, orrjj 
 ird. and Matthew Paris obferves, it was of the fame value- ' 
 1 1 94. Ihe antient Saxons called the Marc, Mamas, or 
 Mancufa, and Mean; among them it was equivalent to thirty 
 pence, 1. e. to feven (hillings and fix-pence of our money. 
 The Mart-Lais, or Lubet Mart, ufed at Hambourg, is alfo 
 a money of account, equal to one- third of the rixdollar, or to 
 
 the French livre. Each Mart is divided into fixteen fol 
 
 lubs. 
 
 Mart- Luis, or danfeh, is alfo a Danifh coin, equal to fixteen 
 fols-lubs, or twenty French fols. 
 
 Laftly, Mart is a copper-coin in Sweden, equal to two-pence 
 farthing fterling. It is divided into eight rouftiqs, and each 
 roudiq into two alleveures. 
 
 The Swediih filver Mart is a money of account, equal to three 
 copper Marts ; though fome make it a real coin. 
 MARKET *, a public place in a city or town, where prov 
 lions are expofed to fale. 
 
 • The word is formed from the French Marchi, which Bonifies 
 the fame. 0 
 
 Market is alfo ufed for a liberty or privilege, either by grant or 
 prefcription, whereby a town is enabled to keep a Martet. 
 Eraiton obferves, that one Martet ought to be diftant from a 
 others at leaft fix miles and an half, and a third of an half. 
 In former times, it was cuftoniary to have moft fairs and Mar- 
 lets kept on Sundays, and in the church-yard ; fo that matters 
 of bufinefs and devotion were traiiMed all under one ; which 
 cuftom, though prohibited by feveral kings, was yet held ui 
 till the reign of king Henry the fixth, when it was effeau 
 
 ally fuppreffed. In many places they are flill kept in th 
 
 church-yard. 
 
 MARLE », Marga, a kind of dry, foft, fertile earth, harlh 
 to the touch, ufed to be caft on land, to make it more fruit- 
 ful. 
 
 * The word comes from the antient Celtic Marga, mentioned by 
 Pliny : it was afterwards called Margila. 
 There are feveral forts of Marie, of different colours and qua- 
 lities ; the princ.pal are white and red. Too much Marie 
 thrown on the earth, is found to burn it. Marie is alfo ol 
 u e ,n making lime, and is burnt like other done. Sec Sut- 
 plemmt, Articles Marca WMarle. ' 
 MARMALADE, a confeflion made of the juice or pulp of 
 lome fruit, as plums, apricots, quinces, ISc. boiled with 
 fugar into a confidence. 
 
 The Marmalade of quinces is the mod frequent : it is ftib- 
 
 ^S&S - gratcful t0 ,hc ftomach - 
 MARONITES, a tea of eadern Chridians, who follow the 
 Syrian rite, and are fubjeft ,0 the pope ; theit principal habi- 
 tation being on mount Libanus. 
 
 The learned ate divided about their origin and founder. Morin 
 and cardtnal Bona take Maromt, for the name of a tea, as well 
 
 as Nedorian and Jacobite. But the Maronites themfelves pre- 
 tend, they ate defcended from one Maron, an orthodox, who 
 lived in the beginning of the fifth century, and whofe life is 
 written by Theodorer. And the Jefuit Sacchini is of the fame 
 opinion : he thinks, that they never feparated from the catho- 
 lic church ; and adds, that what has given occafion to their 
 being judged in a fchifm, is their re-union with the Romilh 
 church, which fome take for a return to the catholic faith. 
 The former opinion is founded on the tedimonies of Euty- 
 chius, James de Vitri, and feveral others, who exprefly aflert 
 the Maronites to have been formerly a part of the Monothelite 
 Jacobites. According to their account, Maron, whom the 
 Maronites qualify a faint, was in truth an heretic. Towatds 
 the year 1182, Aimeri, third Latin patriarch of Antioch, uni- 
 ted the Maronites to that church. From that time they have 
 ufed the mitre, ring, crofier, and other of the Latin epifcopa- 
 ha s but their fervice is dill performed in the Chaldee lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Faudus Nairon, a Maronite fettled at Rome, has publifhed an 
 apology for Maron, and the red of his nation. His tenet is, 
 that they really took their name from the Maron who lived 
 about the year 400, and of whom mention is made in Chryfo- 
 dom, Theodorer, and the Menologium of the Greeks. He 
 adds, that the difciples of this Maron fpread themfelves through- 
 out all Syria ; that they built feveral monafteries, and, among 
 others, one that bore the name of their leader ; that all the 
 Syrians, who were not tainted with herefy, took refuge among 
 them ; and that, for this reafon, the heretics of thofe times 
 called them Maronites. 
 
 1 he Maronites have a patriarch, who refides in the monadery 
 of Cannubin on mount Libanus, and affumes the title of pa- 
 triarch of Antioch. He is defied by the clergy and the peo- 
 ple, according to the antient cudom ; but, fince their re-union 
 with the church of Rome, he is obliged to have a bull of con- 
 firmation from the pope. He keeps a perpetual celibate, as 
 
 well as the red of the bifhops his fuffragans : for the red of 
 the ecclefiafiics, they are allowed to marry before ordination ; 
 
 and yet the monadic life is in great edeem among them. 
 
 I heir monks are of the order of St. Antony, and live in the 
 mod obfeure places in the mountains, far from the commerce 
 of the world. 
 
 As to their faith, they agree in the main with the red of the 
 Ealtern church. Their prieds do not fay mafs fingly ; but all 
 fay it together, danding round the altar. They communicate 
 in unleavened bread ; and the laity have hitherto pattook in 
 both kinds, though the praflice of communicating in one has 
 of late been getting footing, baying been introduced by little 
 and httle — In 1 Lent they eat nothing, unlefs it be two or three 
 rous fu """fing: their other fadings are very nume- 
 
 MAROTIC Style, in the French poetry, denotes a peculiarly 
 gay, Pleafant, yet fimple and natural manner of writine intro- 
 duced by Clement Marot, and fince imitated by other authors 
 but with mod fuccefs by Voiture and De la Fontaine 
 
 he difference between the Mamie and the burlefque ftyle is 
 mits ff^f '■ f T" C r keS a choice ' the bu 'We ad- 
 h its noblenefs , and, where tts own age will not furnifh na- 
 ural expreffions, ,t borrows them from former times—The 
 latter ,s low and groveling, and borrows falfe and fulfome or- 
 naments from the croud, which people of fade defpife The 
 one refigns itftlf , 0 m , U re ; but examines fird of all, whether 
 th e obj efis fhe prefents be fit for its paintings, and takes nothing 
 but what carries with it fomewhat of delicacy and mirth ; ,hf 
 other runs headlong into buffoonry, and affefls every thing that 
 MARom agant ^ dgroteft " ue - See Burlesqjje, S 
 
 countrt L < VI P arl,a , mCnt ' whereb * tbe [ " h 3^ of °nc 
 reafon' y f '"i™ 1 " 1 rep ' ifa ' S °" thofe of another ; by 
 reafon application has been made for redrefs to the government 
 whereto the aggreflor belongs, three times w.thouf effect 
 
 They are fe C aI Ied f [hc Genmll ^ fcn*, frontier , as 
 
 , } J ' '°""f" m " "'" n " fi° /Mia tra,f- 
 
 f' b 'i<"J"f"['"'l: as being a right of palling the limits 
 Re' "Ts a °° 1>r "" :e ' d °'° g ° M ' S ftlf j" ftice - See 
 
 MA r?^, ETRY ' In ' la ' d w ° ri '■ a curious iind of work, com- 
 poled of pieces of hard fine wood of different colours, fadened, 
 in thin dices, on a ground, and fometimes enriched with other 
 matters, as tortoife-fhell, ivory, tin, and brafs. 
 1 here is another kind of Marquetry made, indead of wood 
 ot glalies of various colours; and a third, where nothing but 
 precious dones, and the riched marbles, are ufed • but thefe 
 are more properly called mofaic work. See Mosaic. 
 The art of inlaying is very antient, and is fuppofed 'to have 
 pafled from the Ead to the Weft, as one of the fpoils brought 
 t>y the Romans from Alia. Indeed it was then but a fimple 
 thing: nor did it arrive at any tolerable perfeaion, till the fif- 
 teenth century, among the Italians. It teems, finally, to have 
 French "* t,1C fcventeenth cen «"y. among the 
 
 Till John of Verona, a cotemporary with Raphael, the fineft 
 
 Works 
 
MAR 
 
 MAR 
 
 works of this kind were only black and white, which are what 
 we now call Morefco's ;■ but that religious, who had a genius 
 for painting, ftained his woods with dyes, or boiled oils, which 
 penetrated 'them. But he went no further than the reprefent- 
 in" buildings and perfpectives, which require no great variety 
 ofco!ours.° Thofe who fucceeded him, not only improved on 
 the invention of dying the woods, byafecretwhich they found 
 of burning them without confuming, which fervcd exceedingly 
 well for the (hadows ; but they had alfo the advantage ot a 
 number of fine new woods of naturally bright colours, by the 
 difcovery of America.— With thefe affiftances, the art is now 
 capable of imitating any thing; whence fome call it the art of 
 painting in wood. 
 
 The ground whereon the pieces are to be arranged and glued, 
 is ordinarily of oak or fir well dried ; and, to prevent warping, 
 it is compofed of feveral pieces glued together. The wood to 
 be u fed, being reduced into leaves of the thickncfs of a line, is 
 either ftained with fome colour, or made black for fhadow ; 
 which fome effea by putting it in fand extremely heated over 
 the fire ; others by fteeping it in lime-water and fubhmate ; and 
 others, in oil of fulphur.— Thus coloured, the contours of the 
 pieces are formed, according to the parts of the delign they 
 are to reprcfent. 
 
 The laft is the moft difficult part of Marquetry, and thai 
 wherein moft patience and attention are required. The two 
 chief inftruments ufed herein are the faw and the vice ; the 
 one to hold the matters to be formed ; the other to take off 
 
 from the extremes, according to occafion. The vice is of 
 
 wood, having one of its chaps fixed, the other moveable, and is 
 opened and fhut by the foot, by means of a cord fattened to 
 a treadle. Its ftructure is very ingenious, yet fimple enough, and 
 will be eafily conceived from the figure. Tab. Mifcdtany, fig. i . 
 The leaves to be formed (for there are frequently three or tour 
 of the fame kind formed together) are put within the chaps of 
 the vice, after being glued on the outermoft part of the defign, 
 whofe profile they are to follow ; then the workman, preffing 
 the treadle, and thus holding faft the piece, with his faw runs 
 
 over all the out-lines of the defign. By thus joining and 
 
 forming three or four pieces together, they not only gain time, 
 but the matter is likewife the better enabled to fuftain the ef- 
 fort of the faw ; which, how delicate foever it may be, and 
 how lightly foever the workman may conduct it, without fuch 
 a precaution, would be apt to raife fplinters, to the ruin of the 
 beauty of the work. 
 
 When the work is to confift of one fingle kind of wood, or 
 of tor to ife- (hell, on a copper or tin ground, or vice verfa, they 
 only form two leaves on one another, i, e. a leaf of metal, 
 and a leaf of wood or (hell : this they call fawing in counter- 
 parts ; for, by filling the vacuities of one of the leaves by the 
 pieces coming out of the other, the metal may ferve as a 
 ground to the wood, and the wood to the metal. 
 All the pieces, thus formed with the faw, are marked, to 
 know them again ; and the fhadow being given in the manner 
 already mentioned, they vaneer or faften each in its place on the 
 common ground ; ufing for that purpofe the beft Englifh glue. 
 The whole is then put in a prefs to dry, planed over, and po- 
 lifhed with the (kin of the fea-dog, wax, and fhave-grafs, as 
 in fimple Faneering ; with this difference, however, that, in 
 Marquetry,, the fine branches, and feveral of the more deli- 
 cate parts of the figures, are touched up and finifhed with a 
 graver. 
 
 It is the cabinet-makers, joiners, and toy-men, among us, who 
 work in Marquetry ; and it is the enamellers and Hone-cutters, 
 who deal in niofaic work: the inftruments ufed in the former 
 are moftly the fame with thofe ufed by the ebonifts. See 
 Ebony. 
 
 MARQUIS, or Marquess *, Marchio, a title given to a 
 perfon in pofleffion of a considerable demefne erected into a 
 Marquifate by letters patent ; holding a middle place between 
 the dignity of a duke, and that of an earl or count. 
 
 * The word, according to fome authors, comes from the Marco- 
 mantu, an antient people, who inhabited the inarches of Bran- 
 denburg. Others derive it from the German March, limit; and 
 
 others from Marcifia, which, in the Celtic language, fignified 
 a wing of cavalry. Nicod derives it from the corrupt Greek 
 vou.a.%/jd., province. Alciat and Fauchet bring it from Mark, 
 horfe, taking a Marquis to be properly an officer of horfe. Me- 
 nage derives it from Marca, frontier; and Selden, Krantzius, 
 and Hottoman, do the fame. Laftly, Fafquier fetches Marquis 
 from the old French Marche, limit, or from Marchir, to con- 
 fine ; the guard of the frontiers being committed to them. 
 
 Marquejfes were antiently governors of frontier cities or pro- 
 vinces, called Marches. — In Germany they are called Marc 
 graves. 
 
 Marquis is originally a French title : the Romans were unac- 
 quainted with it. In the Notkia Imperii they are called Comi- 
 tes limitanei. The firft time we hear of Afarquijps, Marchiones, 
 is under Charlemaign, who created governors in Gafcony un- 
 der this denomination. 
 
 Alciat has ftarted a qucftion, Whether a Marquis or count 
 fhould have the precedence ? To decide it, he goes back to 
 the antient function of counts ; and obferves, that counts, who 
 are governors of provinces, are above Marquejfes, who are only 
 governors of frontiers; and that Marquejjes, who are govern- 
 ors of frontier-cities, are above thofe counts, who are governors 
 of fmall towns. He adds, that, in confequence of this diflinc- 
 tion, the book of fiefs fometimes places Marquejfa above 
 counts, and fometimes counts above Marquejfes. 
 Froifiart obferves, that the Mar qui fate of Julicrs was erected 
 into a county : but now-a-days, neither Marquejfes nor counts 
 are any longer governors ; and, as they are mere titles of ho- 
 nour, the counts make no temple of refigning the precedency. 
 King Richard the fecond was the hrft who introduced the dig- 
 nity of Marquis among us, by creating Robert de Vere earl of 
 Oxford, Marquefs of Dublin : but this was a title without 
 office; the frontiers being governed by lords marchers 
 MARRIAGE, a civil and religious contract, whereby a man is 
 joined and united to a woman, for the ends of procreation. 
 The effence of Marriage confifts in the mutual confent of the 
 parties. Marriage is part of the law of nations, and is in ufe 
 among all people. The Romanifts account it a facrament. 
 The woman, with all her moveable goods, immediately upon 
 Marriage, paffes wholly in paiejiatem vir't, into the power and 
 difpofal of the hulband. 
 
 In Germany, they have a kind of Marriage called morganatic, 
 wherein a man of quality contracting with a woman of infe- 
 rior rank, he gives her the left hand in lieu of the right, and 
 ftipulates in the contract, that the wife Ihall continue in her 
 former rank or condition, and that the children born of them 
 (hall be of the fame ; fo that they become baftards as to mat- 
 ters of inheritance, though they are legitimate in effect. They 
 cannot bear the name or arms of the family. 
 None but princes, and great lords of Germany, are allowed 
 this kind of Marriage. — The univcrfities of Leipfic and Jena 
 have declared againlt the validity of fuch contracts; maintain- 
 ing, that they cannot prejudice the children, efpeciaily when 
 the empcror*s confent intervenes in the Marriage. 
 The Turks have three kinds of Marriages, and three forts of 
 wives ; legitimate, wives in kebin^ and Jlaves, They marry 
 the firft, hire the fecond, and buy the third. 
 The Roman laws fpeak of fecond Marriages in very hard and 
 odious terms. Matrc jam fectittdis nuptiis funejfata, L. 3. C. de 
 fee. nuptiis. By thefe laws it was enacted, that the effects of 
 the hufband or wife deceafed (hould pafs over to the children, 
 if the furvivor fhould marry a fecond time. By the law Hac 
 edidali, Cod. de fee. nupt. the furvivor, upon marrying a 
 fecond time, could not give the perfon he married a portion 
 more than equal to that of each of the children. In the primi- 
 tive church, the refpect to chaftity was carried fo high, that a 
 fecond Marriage was accounted no other than a lawful whore- 
 dom, or a fpecies of bigamy ; and there are fome antient ca- 
 nons, which forbid the ecclefiaftics from being prefent at fe- 
 cond Marriages. 
 
 For the proportions which Marriages bear to births, and births 
 to burials, in feveral parts of Europe, Mr. Derham gives us 
 the following table. 
 
 Names of Places. 
 
 England in general ------- 
 
 London - - ------ 
 
 Hantihire, from 1569 to 1658 - - 
 Tiverton in Devon, from 1656 to 1664. 
 Cranbrook in Kent, 1560 to 1649 
 Aynho in Northamp. for 118 years 
 Upminfter in Eilex, for 100 years - - - 
 Frankfort on the Maine in 169; - - - 
 Old, Middle, and Lower Marck, in 1698 
 Dominions of Ele£t. of Brandenb. 1698 - 
 Breflaw in Silefia, from 16S7 to 91 - - 
 Paris in 1670, 1671, 1672 - - - 
 
 Marriages to 
 
 Births to Bu 
 
 Births, as 
 
 rials, as 
 
 I to 4.63 
 
 1.12 to 1 
 
 1 to 4 
 
 1 to 1.1 
 
 1 to 4 
 
 i.z to 1 
 
 1 to 3.7 
 
 1.26 to 1 
 
 1 to 3.9 
 
 1 6 to 1 
 
 1 to 6 
 
 1.6 to I 
 
 1 to 4.6 
 
 1.8 to 1 
 
 1 to 3.7 
 
 i.z to 1 
 
 1 to 3.7 
 
 1.9 to I 
 
 1 to 3 7, 
 
 1 5 to r 
 
 
 1.6 to 1 
 
 1 to 4.7 
 
 1.6 to 1 
 
 From 
 
MAR 
 
 MAR 
 
 From which table it appears, that Marriages, one with an- 
 other, do each produce about four births, both in England, 
 and other parts of Europe. And, by Mr. King's computation, 
 about one in an hundred and four perfons marry ; the number 
 of people in England being eftimated at five millions and an 
 half, whereof about forty-one thoufand annually ?narry. 
 Major Graunt and Mr. King difagree in the proportions be- 
 tween males and females, the latter making ten males to thir- 
 teen females in London ; in other cities and towns, and in the 
 villages and hamlets, an hundred males to ninety-nine females. 
 But major Graunt, both from the London and country bills, 
 computes, that there arc in England fourteen males to thirteen 
 females; whence he juftly infers, that the Chriftian religion, 
 prohibiting polygamy, is more agreeable to the law of nature 
 than Mahometanifm, and others that allow it. 
 This proportion of males to females Mr. Derbam thinks pretty 
 
 juft, being agreeable to what he had obferved himfelf. In 
 
 the hundred years, for inftance, of his own parifli regifter of 
 Upminfler, though the burials of males and females were nearly 
 equal, being fix hundred and thirty-three males, and fix hun- 
 dred and twenty-three females, in all that time; yet there were 
 baptized feven hundred and nine males, and but fix hundred 
 and feventy-five females, which is 13 females to 13.'/ males. 
 From which inequality it appears, that cue man ought to have 
 but one wife ; and yet that every woman, without polygamy, 
 may have an hufband ; this furplufage of males above females 
 being fpent in the fupplies of war, the feas, tfc. from which 
 the women are exempt. 
 
 That this is a work of providence, and not of chance, is well 
 made out by the very laws of chance, by Dr. Arbuthnot, who 
 iuppofes Thomas to lay againft John, that, for eighty-two years 
 iunning, more males fhall be born than females; and, giving 
 all allowances in the computation to Thomas's fide, he makes 
 the odds againft Thomas, that it does not fo happen, to be 
 near five millions of millions of millions of millions to one; 
 but for ages of ages, according to the world's age, to be near 
 an infinite number to one. 
 Marriage, Maritacium, in law, fignifies not only the 
 lawful joining of man and wife, but alfo the right of bellowing 
 a ward, or a widow, in Marriage; as well as the land given 
 in Marriage. 
 
 Duty c/Mareiace is a term ufed in fome antlcnt cuftoms, 
 fignifying an obligation on women to marry. 
 To underftand this, it muft be obferved, that old maids, and 
 widows about fixty, who held fees in body, or were charged 
 with any perfonal or military fervices, were antiently obliged 
 to marry, to render thole fervices to the lord by their huf- 
 bands, or to indemnify the lord for what they could not do 
 in perfon. And this was called Duty or Service of Mar- 
 riage. 
 
 MARROQUIN, vulgarly MoRocco-Z^r/wr. See Morocco. 
 MARROW, a foft oleaginous fubftance contained in the cavities 
 of the bones. 
 
 All the bones of the body, which have any confiderable thick- 
 nefs, have either a large cavity, or elfe they are fpongious, and 
 full of little cells ; in both the one and the other is an oleagi- 
 nous fubftance, called Alarrow, contained in proper veficles or 
 membranes, which open into one another. 
 In the larger bones, this fine oil, by the gentle heat of the body, 
 is exhaled through the pores of its fmall bladders, and enters 
 fome narrow paflages, which lead to certain fine canals exca- 
 vated in the fubftance of the bone, according to its length ; and 
 from thefe other crofs pafTages (not directly oppofite to the 
 former, left they fhould weaken the bone too much in one 
 place) carry the Marrow ftill farther into more longitudinary 
 canals placed nearer the furface of the bone. All this contri- 
 vance is, that the Marrow may, in all parts, fupple the fibres 
 of the bones, and render them lefs apt to break. 
 The antients imagined, that Marroiv ferved for nourifliment 
 to the bones ; but later obfervations have found blood-veflels 
 in the bones : fo that it appears the bones are nourilhed in the 
 fame manner as the other parts of the body. Befides, we find 
 many bones which grow, and yet have no Marrow in them ; 
 witnefs the horns of deer, Iobfters claws, cifr. 
 MARS, in aftronomy, one of the five planets, and of the three 
 fuperior ones; its place being between the Sun and Jupi- 
 ter. 
 
 Its character is Its mean diftance from th? fun is 1524 of 
 thofe parts, whereof the diftance of the in;, from the earth is 
 1000 ; its excentricity 141. The inclination of its orbit, that 
 is, the angle formed by the plane of its orbit with the plane of 
 the ecliptic, 1 degree 52 minutes. The periodical time, in 
 which it makes its revolution round the fun, is 686 days, 2,3 
 hours ; and its revolution about its own axis is performed in 
 24 hours, 40 minutes. 
 
 For the diameter of Alars, fee Diameter, and Semi-dia- 
 meter. — For its denfity, fee Density. — For the force of 
 gravity on its furface, fee Gravity. 
 
 Its parallax, according to Dr. Hook and Mr. Flamftead, is 
 fcarce 30 feconds. 
 
 In the acronical rifing of this planet, that is, when it is in op- 
 pofition to the fun, it is found twice as near the earth as the 
 Vol. II. 
 
 fun ; which is a phenomenon that extremely difcredited the 
 Ptolemaic hypothefis. 
 
 Dr. Hook, in 1665, obferved feveral fpots in Mars, which 
 having a motion, he concluded the planet to turn round its 
 centre. In 1666, M. Caffini obferved feveral fpots in the 
 two faces or hemifpheres of Mars, which, by continuing his 
 different obfervations very diligently, he found to move by little 
 and little from eaft to weft, and to return, in the fpace of 24 
 hours, 4(3 < minutes, to their former fituation. — Whence both 
 the motion and period, or natural day, of that planet, were 
 determined. 
 
 Mars always appears with a ruddy, troubled light; whence 
 we conclude it is incompafled with a thick, cloudy atmofphere, 
 which, by difturbing the rays of light in their paffage and re- 
 paflage through it, occafion that appearance. 
 Mars, having his light from the fun, and revolving round it, 
 has an increale and decreafe like the moon. It may alfo be ob- 
 ferved almoft bifected, when in its quadratures with the fun 
 or in his perigseon ; but never is fecn corniculated or falcated 
 as the inferior planets. 
 
 This planet's diftance from the fun is to the diftance of the 
 earth and fun, as l£ to I : fo that a man, placed in Alars, 
 would fee the fun's diameterlefs by one third than it appears to 
 us, and confequently the degree of light and heat, which Mars 
 receives from the fun, is lefs by one third than that received 
 
 by the earth. This proportion, however, will admit of a 
 
 fenfible variation, on account of the great excentricity of this 
 planet. 
 
 Though the period or year of this planet, as has been already 
 obferved, is nearly twice as long as ours, and his natural day, 
 or the time in which the fun appears above his horizon (fetting 
 afide the confideration of twilight) is almoft every-where equal 
 to his night ; yet it appears, that, in one and the fame place 
 on his furface, there will be but very little variety of feafons, 
 or fcarce any difference of fummer and winter : and the rcafon 
 is, that the axis of his diurnal rotation is nearly at right ano-Ies 
 with the plane of his orbit. It will be found, notwithftandino-, 
 that places fituate in different latitudes, that is, at different di- 
 ftances from his equator, will have very different degrees of 
 heat, on account of the different inclination of the fun's ravs 
 to the horizon ; as it is with us, when the fun is in the equi- 
 noxes. 
 
 From this confideration, Dr. Gregory endeavours to account 
 for the appearance of the fafcix in Alars ; which are certain 
 fwathes or fillets feen in this planet, and pofitcd parallel to Ins 
 equator: for, as among us, the fame climate has, at different 
 feafons, very unequal degrees of heat ; but, as in Man it is 
 otherwife, the fame parallel having always a pretty equable de- 
 gree of heat, it follows, that thefe fpots may probably be formed 
 in Mars, or in his atmofphere, as mow and clouds are in ours • 
 viz. by the conftant different intentions of heat and cold in the 
 different parallels ; and fo come to be extended in circles or 
 belts parallel to his equator, or the circle of his diurnal revolu- 
 tion. And this fame principle may, perhaps, folve the phe- 
 nomenon of Jupiter's belts ; that planet, like Alars, having 
 a perpetual equinox. 
 
 Befides the ruddy colour of Alars, we have another argument 
 of his being incompafled with an atmofphere ; and it is this : 
 that, when any of the fixed ftars are feen near his body, they 
 appear extremely obfeured , and almoft extinct. If this be the 
 cafe, an eye placed in Mars would fcarce ever fee Mercury, 
 uhlels, perhaps, in the fun at the time of conjunction, when 
 Mercury panes over his difk, as he fometimes appears to us in 
 form of a fpot. A fpectator in Alars will fee Venus about the 
 fame diftance from the fun, as Mercury appears to us ; and the 
 earth about the fame diftance from the fun, that to us Venus 
 appears. And, when the earth is found in conjunction with, 
 and very near, the fun, he will fee in Mars the earth appear 
 horned or falcated, and its attendant the moon of the fame 
 figure, and, at its utmoft diftance from the earth, not above 
 15 minutes of a degree. 
 Mars, among chymifts, fignifies iron; becaufe imagined to be 
 under the influence of that planet. See Iron. 
 Phyfical writers hold iron preferable, for all medicinal purpofes, 
 to fteel, which is only a more hardened, compact iron, made 
 fo by art ; whereby it is rendered more unfit to yield thole prin- 
 ciples or parts in preparation, which the phyfician requires to 
 be drawn out. Sec Steel. 
 Crocus Martis, ruft of iron. See Crocus Alartis. 
 Cryjlals a/Mars. See the article Crystal. 
 Tree of Mars, arbor Alartis. See Arbor. 
 Ga/nes of Mars were combats inftituted at Rome in honour of 
 the god Alars. 
 
 They were held twice in the year ; once in the Circus, on 
 the 4th of the ides of May ; and a fecond time on the ift of 
 Auguft. Thefe latter were eftablifhed fome time after the 
 other, in memory of the dedication of the temple of Alars on 
 that day. Thefe games confifted in courfes of horfes, and 
 combats with wild beafts. Germanicus is laid to have killed 
 two hundred lions in the circus on thefe occafions. See Field 
 of Mars. 
 
 6 G MARSHAL, 
 
MAR 
 
 MAR 
 
 MARSHAL*, or Mareschal, Marescallus, primarily 
 denotes an officer, who has the care or the command of 
 horfes. 
 
 * Nicod derives the word from Polmarchus, matter of the camp ; 
 Matthew Paris from Martii Senefcallus. In the old Gaulifh lan- 
 guage, March ftgnified horfe ; whence Marechal might fignify 
 him who commanded the cavalry. Spelman, Skinner, and Me- 
 nage, derive it from the German Mac; Marre, a mare, or even 
 an horfe, and Schalk, fervant : which makes fome imagine the 
 title was firft given to farriers, or thofe who fhoed and bled 
 horfes, and that, in fucceffion of time, it paffed to thofe who 
 commanded them. Pafquier makes four feveral derivations for 
 the four feveral kinds of Marjbah in ufe among the French ; 
 •viz. Marjhah of France, Marjbah de camp, MarJhaU de hgis, or 
 quarter-matters, and farriers, who are alfo called by the name 
 of Marjhah, The third he derives from March or Marchir, 
 to mark, limit; and the lail from Maire, mafter, and Chal, 
 horfe. 
 
 ^/■Marshal of England is one of the great officers of the 
 crown, who takes cognizance of a!! matters touching honour 
 and arms, determines contracts relating to deeds of arms out of 
 the realm upon land, and matters concerning war within the 
 realm, which cannot be determined by common law, in which 
 he ufually proceeds according to the civil law. This office is 
 hereditary, having been for many ages in the houfe of Norfolk. 
 It is difcharged by deputy, on account of the religion of the 
 duke of Norfolk, hereditary Earl-Marjhal, which renders him 
 incapable of administrating it in perfon. See Earl. 
 The Earl-Marjlial had antiently feveral courts under him ; but 
 he hath now only the Marjhalfea, where he may fit in judgment 
 againft criminals offending within the verge of the court. 
 
 Kmght-M aushal, or Marshal of the king's houfe, is an offi- 
 cer, who fe bu fine fs, according to l*leta, is to execute the com- 
 mands and decrees of the lord-fteward, and to have the cuftody 
 
 of prifoners committed by the court of verge. Under him 
 
 are fix Marfial's men, who are properly the king's bayliffs, 
 and arreft in the verge of the court, when a warrant is backed 
 by the board of green- cloth. The court where caufes of this 
 kind, between man and man, are tried, is called the Marjlml- 
 fea, and is under the Knight- Mar foal. 
 There are fome other inferior officers of this name ; as 
 
 Marshal of the juftices in eyre ; 
 
 Marshal of the king's bench, who .has cuftody of the prifon 
 called the king's bench in Southwark. 
 
 In Fleta mention is alfo made of a Marfljal of the Exchequer; 
 to whom the court commits the cuftody of the king's debtors, 
 
 ■ fcff. 
 
 Marshal, or Mareschal, of France, is the higheft dignity 
 or preferment in the French armies. The dignity oiMarJhal is 
 now for life, though, at its firft inftitution, it was otherwife. 
 They were then only the king's firft ecuyers under the conftable, 
 but in time they became the conftable's lieutenants in the com- 
 mand of the army, the conftable himfelf being then become 
 captain-general. At firft they were but two in number, and 
 their allowance was but 500 livres per annum in time of war, 
 and nothing in time of peace. But, in the reign of Francis the 
 firft, their number was increafed to five. Since him it has 
 been various : the late king increafed it at pleafure ; and it is 
 now eleven. Their office at firft was to marfoal the army un- 
 der the conftable, and to command in his abfence. 
 They did then what the Marjhah de camp do now ; to which 
 Jaft they have given their title, and the leaft considerable part 
 of their authority. 
 
 The firft Marjhal does the office of conftable in an affembly of 
 the Marjhah. 
 
 A'i-MARSHAL. ~% f Arch. 
 
 67^-Marshal. £ See the article \ Clerk. 
 
 ProvoJ?-M arsh at,, j t Provost. 
 
 MARSHALLING a coat, in heraldry, fignifies the due and 
 proper joining of feveral coats of arms belonging to diftincf fami- 
 lies in one and the fame fhield or efcutcheon ; together with 
 their ornaments, parts, and appurtenances. 
 
 MART.' Letters of Mart. See Letters. 
 
 MART IAL is fometimes ufed to exprefs preparations of iron, or 
 fucli as are impregnated therewith ; as the Martial regulus 
 of antimony, 6°f. 
 
 Martiale Bezoardicum. See Bezoardicum. 
 
 Martial Law is the law of war, depending upon the arbitra- 
 ry but juft power and pleafure of the king, or his lieutenants. 
 The king, though in times of peace he makes no laws, but by 
 common confent in parliament ; yet, in war, he ufes abfolute 
 power over the foldiery: — though even this power hath been 
 vetted, of late years, in the king, or his generals of the army, 
 bya£t of parliament, and under particular reftricfions too. 
 
 Martii Campus. See the articles Campus, and Field. 
 
 MARTINGALE, a thong of leather fattened at one end to 
 the girths under the belly of an horfe, and at the other end 
 to the nofeband, to hinder him from rearing, or toffing up his 
 head. 
 
 MARTINS Sr. Martin'j cope. See Cope. 
 
 MARTLET, in heraldry, a little bird reprefented without feet, 
 and properly alfo without a beak. 
 
 It is ufed as a difference or mark of diftinaion of a younger 
 
 brother; fome fay, more peculiarly of the fourth bi other, or 
 family. 
 
 MARTYR *, a perfon who flitters torments, and even death, 
 in defence of the truth of the gofpel. 
 
 • The word is Greek, [j-ctpTuv, and properly fignifies a witnefs. 
 It is applied, by way of eminence, to thofe who fuffer in wit- 
 nefs of the truth of the gofpel. 
 Antiently thofe, who were banifhed for the faith, were called 
 Martyrs, and alfo thofe who perilhed in the holy wars. In 
 the time of St. Auguftin, the title of Martyr was given to 
 confeflbrs, or thofe who were tortured for the faith, without 
 lofing their lives.' — It is Tertullian's thought in his apologetic ; 
 Plures ejfdmur, quoties metimur ; femen ecclefia: ejl fanguis Chri- 
 Jlianus. 
 
 St. Stephen is called the Profo-Martyr, or firft Martyr. 
 
 Nineteen thoufand feven hundred are computed to have flitter- 
 ed Martyrdom with St. Ircnieus at Lions, under the empire of 
 Sevcrus. Six thoufand fix hundred and fixty-fix foldiers of 
 the Theban legion are faid to have been martyred in Gaul. 
 Father Papebroch reckons fixteen thoufand Abyffinian Mar- 
 tyrs, and an hundred and fifty thoufand others under Dioclefian 
 alone. 
 
 Mr. Dodwell endeavours to prove, in a differtation exprefs, 
 that the number of Martyrs who fuffered under the Roman em- 
 perors, was very moderate ; alleging, that thofe we have ac- 
 counts of in the fathers, come within a very fmall compafs ; 
 and that, excepting Nero and Domitian, the reft of the em- 
 perors made fcarce any. — F. Ruinart, on the contrary, endea- 
 vours to prove, that the catalogue of Martyrs is not at all fwel- 
 led j that the carnage was immenfe under the firft emperors, 
 and efpeciallyin the time of Dioclefian. — F. Papebrocb, in his 
 -Ada fan£torum, alfo makes the number of Martyrs infinite. 
 Scarce any faith or religion but pretends to its Martyrs. Ma- 
 hometans, heathens, idolaters, &c. all have their Martyrs. 
 In the antient church, the act s, fufferings, and deaths, of the 
 Martyrs, were preferved with a world of care ; and yet, not- 
 withstanding all this diligence, we have but very little left of 
 them. Eufebius indeed compofed a martyrology; but it never 
 reached down to us ; and thofe fince compiled are extremely 
 fufpedfed. 
 
 /Era ^Martyrs is an sera followed in Egypt and Abyffinia, 
 and which even the Mahometans, fince their becoming mafters 
 of Egypt, frequently obferve. It is fixed to the beginning of 
 the perfecu tion of Dioclefian, A. D. 302 or 3^3' 
 The sera of Martyrs is alfo called the rera of Dioclefian. 
 
 MARTYROLOGY*, a regifter or catalogue of martyrs. See 
 Martyr. 
 
 <* The word comes from the Greek /xa.fTvt>, witnefs, and Kiyw t 
 dico, I fpeak, or K'.yu, cottigo, I gather. 
 A Martyrology, properly fpeaking, fhould contain no more 
 than the name, place, and day of martyrdom, of each faint ; 
 but the term is frequently extended to the hiftories of martyrs. 
 The cuftom of collecting Martyrologies is borrowed from the 
 heathens, who inlerted the names of their heroes into their 
 Eajli, to preferve to pofterity the memory and example of their 
 noble acf ions, Baronius gives pope Clement the credit of be- 
 ing the firft who introduced the cuftom of collecting the adfs 
 of the martyrs. 
 
 7 he Martyrology of Eufebius of Casfarea was the moft celebra- 
 ted in the antient church : it was tranflated into Latin by St. 
 
 Jerom j but the learned agree, that it is not now extant. 
 
 That attributed to Beda in the eighth century is of very doubt- 
 ful authority ; the names of feveral faints being there found, 
 who did not live till after the time of Beda. — The ninth cen- 
 tury was very fertile in Martyrologies. Then appeared that of 
 Florus, fub-deacon of the church at Lions, who, however, 
 only filled up the chafrns in Beda. This was publifhed about 
 the year 830 ; and was followed by that of W^aldenburtus, 
 monk of the diocefe of Treves, written in verfe about the year 
 848 ; and this by that of Ufuard, a French monk, and written 
 by command of Charles the Bald, in 875 ; which laft is the 
 Martyrology now ordinarily ufed in the Romifh church. That 
 of Rabanus Maurus is an improvement on Beda and Florus, 
 written about the year 845 : that of Notker, monk of St. Gal, 
 was written about the year 894. 
 
 The Martyrology of Ado, monk of Ferrieres in the diocefe of 
 Treves, afterwards archbifbop of Vienne, is a defcendent of 
 the Roman, if we may fo call it ; for Du Sollier gives its ge- 
 nealogy thus : the Martyrology of St. Jerom is the great Roman 
 Martyrology ; from this was made the little Roman one printed 
 by Rofweyd. Of this little Roman Martyrology was formed that 
 of Beda, augmented by Florus. Ado compiled his in the year 
 858. The Martyrology of Nevclon, monk of Corbie, written 
 about the year 1089, is little more than an abridgment of that 
 of Ado. Father Kircher alfo makes mention of a Coptic Mar- 
 tyrology, preferved by the Maronites at Rome. 
 We have alfo feveral proteftant Martyrologies, containing the 
 fufferings of the reformed under the papifts ; viz. an Englifh 
 Martyrology, by J. Fox ; with others by Clark, Bray, &c. 
 Martyrology is alfo ufed in the Romifh Church for a 
 roll or regifter kept in the veftry of each church, contain- 
 ing the names of all the faints and martyrs, both of the 
 4 univerfal 
 
MAS 
 
 MAS 
 
 univerfal church, and of the particular ones of that city, or 
 monaftery. 
 
 Martyrology, is alfo applied to the painted or written cata- 
 logues in the Romifh churches, containing the foundations, 
 obits, prayers, and mattes, to be faid each day. 
 
 MARY. Knights of St. Mary, is a name by which feveral 
 
 orders of knighthood are diffinguifbed, — As, St. Mary of the 
 thiftle. See Thistle. St. Mary of the conception. See Con- 
 ception. St. Mary of the elephant. See Elephant. St. 
 Mary ana' Jefus. St. Mary of Loretto. St. Mary of mount 
 Carmel. See CarMel. St. Mary of the Teutonics. See Teu- 
 tonic, £sV. 
 
 MASBOTR/EI * , or Mesbothjei, the name of a feci:, or 
 rather of two feels ; for Eufebius, or rather Hegefippus, whom 
 he cites, makes mention of two different fe&s of Mafbothaans. 
 The firft was one of the feven feels that arofe out of Judaifm, 
 and proved very troublefome to the church : the other was one 
 of the feven Jewifh feels before the coming of Jefus Chrift. 
 * The word is derived from the Hebrew J"|3Sy Scbabat, to reft 
 or repofe, and fignifies idle, eafy, indolent people. Eufebius 
 fpeaks of them, as if they had been fo called from one Masbo- 
 thesis, their chief; bat it is much more probable, that their name 
 is Hebrew, or at leaft Chaldaic, fignifying the fame thing with 
 a Sabbatarian in our language, that is, one who makes profef- 
 fion of keping fabbath. 
 
 Valefms will not allow the two fcfls to be confounded together : 
 the laft being a feci of Jews before, or at leaft cotemnorary 
 with Chrift; and the former a feci of heretics defcendeti from 
 them. Rufinus dilfinguiflies them in their names : thejewifh 
 
 feiSl he calls Masbuthasi, and the heretics Masbuthxani. 
 
 The Masbuthasans were a branch of the Simonians. 
 MASCLE, or Macle, in heraldry, a bearing in form of a lo- 
 zenge, and voided of the field, that is, its inner part being 
 cut out. — See Tab. Herald, fig. 34. 
 
 He bears gules a chevron ermin between three Mafcks argent 
 by the name of Bellgrave. 
 
 According to Guillim, the Mafcle reprefents the mafli of a net 
 
 and is an honourable bearing. It only differs from a lozem 
 
 by being voided. 
 MASCULINE, fomething belonging to the male, or the ftron»er 
 
 of the two fexes, 
 Masculine, is more ordinarily ufed in grammar to fignify the 
 
 firft and wortbieft of the genders of nouns. 
 
 The Mafeuline gender is that which belongs to the male kind 
 
 or fomething analogous to it. 
 
 Moft fubftantives are ranged under the heads of Mafeuline or 
 feminine. — —This, in fome cafes, is done with a ihew of 
 reafon, but in others it is merely arbitrary ; and, for that reafon, 
 is found to vary according to the languages, and even accord- 
 ing to the words introduced from one language into anothi 
 —Thus the names of trees are generally feminine in Lati 
 and Mafeuline in the French. 
 
 Farther, the genders of the fame word are fometimes varied in 
 the fame language. Thus alvus, according to Prifcian, was an- 
 tiently Mafeuline, but is now become feminine. And navire, : 
 fhip, in French, was antiently feminine, but is now Mafeuline. 
 Masculine rime, in the French poetry, is that made with i 
 word which has a ftrong, open, and accented pronunciation ; 
 as all words have, excepting thofe which have an e feminine in 
 their laft fyllable. 
 
 For inftance, amiur and jour, mart and fart, are Mafeuline 
 rimes ; — and pere and mere, gloire and memaire, arc feminine. 
 Hence alfo verfes ending with a Mafeuline rime, are called Maf- 
 euline verfes, and thofe ending with a feminine rime, feminine 
 verfes. 
 
 It is now a rule eftablifhcd among the French poets, never to 
 ufe above two Mafeuline, or two feminine verfes fucceffively 
 except in the loafer kinds of poetry. ' 
 Marot was the firft who introduced this mixture of Mafeuline 
 and feminine verfes ; and Ronfard was the firft who praftifed 
 it with fuccefs. The Mafeuline verfes, in French, mould al- 
 ways have a fyllable lefs than the feminine ones. 
 
 Masculine Signs. Aftrologers divide the figns, tic. into 
 
 Mafeuline and feminine • by reafon of their qualities, which are 
 either active and hot, or cold, accounted Mafeuline; or paf- 
 five, dry, and moift, which are feminine. 
 On this principle they call the Sun, Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars 
 Mafeuline: and the Moon and Venus, feminine. Mercury' 
 they fuppofe, partakes of the two. Among the figns, Aries' 
 Libra, Gemini, Leo, Sagittarius, and Aquarius, are faid to be 
 Mafeuline; Cancer, Capricornus, Taurus, Virgo, Scorpio 
 and Pifces, are feminine. 0 ' 
 
 MASK, or Masque. See the article Masoje. 
 
 MASON*, a perfon employed ufually under the direction of 
 an archttea, in the raifing of a ftone-building. 
 * The word 
 
 fignifying houfe ; hence Mafou is a perfon who makes Mass, that 
 is, homes. In the corrupt Latin, a Mafias was called magifier 
 comacinits, which Lindenbroecb derives from Comacina, an 
 ifland in Romania, where, in the time of the Lombards, the 
 beft architects were found. 
 
 The chief bufmefs of a Mafin is to prepare the morter, raife 
 the walls from the foundation to the top, with the neceffary 
 retreats and perpendiculars, form the vaults, and employ the 
 
 ftones as delivered to him 
 When the ftones are large 
 
 the bufmefs of h 
 
 -ewmg or cutting 
 
 them belongs to the [tone-cutters ; though thefe are frequently 
 
 confounded with the Mafans. The ornaments of fculpture 
 
 are performed by carvers in ftone, or fcuiptors The tools 
 
 or implements principally ufed by Mafans are, the fquare, level, 
 plumb-line, bevel, compafs, hammer, duffel, mallet, faw' 
 trowel, tie. 
 
 Befides the common inflruments ufed in the hand, they have 
 Iifcewiie machines for the railing of great burdens, the con- 
 dufling of large ftones, tic. The principal of thefe are the 
 lever, wheel, pully, tie. 
 Free, or Accepted Masons, a very ancient fociety, or body of 
 men, fo called either from fome extraordinary knowlctre of 
 mafonry or building, which they are (uppofed to'be mailers of, 
 or becaufe the firft founders of the fociety were perfons of that 
 profeffion. 
 
 They are now very confiderable both for numbers and cha- 
 raSer: being found in every country in Europe, and confin- 
 ing principally of perfons of merit and confideration. As to 
 antiquity, they lay claim to a {landing of fome thoufand years ; 
 and, it is faid, can trace up their original as early as the build- 
 ing of Solomon's temple. 
 
 What the end of their inftitution is, feems ftill, in fome mea- 
 fure, a fecret; though fo much of it as is known appears lau- 
 dable enough, as it tends to promote friendlhip, fociety, mu- 
 tual affiflance, and good fellowfhip. 
 
 The brothers of this family are laid to be poffeffed of a great 
 number of fecrets, which have been religioufly obferved from 
 
 age to age Be their other virtues therefore what they will, 
 
 it is plain they are mafters of one in a very great degree viz. 
 fecrecy. 
 
 MASONRY, a branch of architeflure, confiding in the art of 
 hewing or fquaring ftones, and cutting them level, and per- 
 pendicular, for the ufes of buildinf. 
 Masonry, in a more limited fenfe of the word, is the art of 
 adembling and joining ftones together with morter. 
 Hence there arife as many different kinds of Mafonry, as there 
 are different forms and manners of laying or joining the ftones. 
 Vitruvius makes mention of feven kinds of Mafonry akA amon» 
 the antients ; three of hewed ftone, viz. that in form of a net 
 that m binding, and that called the Greek Mafonry ■ and three 
 of unhewed ftones, viz. that of an equal courfe, that of an un- 
 equal courfe, and that filled up in the middle. The feventh was 
 a compoimon of all the reft See Tab. Arcbitea. fir 11 
 
 tO ig. JS ' i' 
 
 Net Masonry, called by Vittuvius, reticulatum, from its re- 
 femblancc of the maflies of a net, confifts of ftones fquared in 
 their courfes, and fo difpofed, as that their joints go obliquely 
 and the diagonals are, the one perpendicular, and the other 
 level. This is the moft agreeable Mafonry to the eye j but it 
 
 is very apt to crack. See fig. 13. 
 
 Bound Masonry, inferta, is that wherein the ftones were 
 placed one over another, like tiles ; the joints of the beds beino- 
 level, and the mounters perpendicular. So that the joint that 
 mounts and feparates two ftones, always falls directly over the 
 
 middle of the ftone below. This is lefs beautiful than the 
 
 net-work ; but it is more folid and durable.— See fig ic 
 Greek Masonry, according to Vitruvius, is that where after 
 we have laid two ftones, each of which makes a courfe an- 
 other is laid at the end, which makes two courfes ■ and the 
 fame order is obferved throughout the building.— This may be 
 called double binding, in regard the binding is not only of ftones 
 of the fame courfe with one another, but Iifcewife of one courfe 
 with another courfe.— See fig. 14. 
 Masonry by equal courfes, by the antients called ifadomnm, differs 
 in nothing from the bound Mafonry, but only in this, that its 
 ftones are not hewn. — See fig. 16. 
 Masonry by unequal courfes, called pfcudifodemum, is alfo made 
 of unhewed ftones, and laid in bound work : but then they are 
 not of the fame thicknefs, nor is there any equality obferved, 
 excepting in the feveral courfes ; the courfes themfelves being 
 
 unequal to each other See fig. 17. 
 
 Masonry filled up in the middle, called by the antients emplctlon 
 is likewife made of unhewed ftone, and by courfes ■ but the 
 ftones are only fet in order as to the courfes, the middle beinrr 
 filled up with ftones thrown in at random among the morter° 
 — See fig. 18. 
 
 Compound Masonry is of Vitruvius's propofing ; fo called, as be- 
 ing formed of all the reft. In this, the courfes are of hewed 
 ftone, and the middle, being left void, is filled up with mor- 
 ter and pebbles thrown in together. After this, the ftones of 
 one courfe arc bound to thofe of another courfe, with cramp- 
 irons faftcned with melted lead. — See fig. ig. 
 
 AU 
 
 word comes from the French Macon, which fignifies the 
 
 a machimft, ir, regard thefe artificers are obliged to ufe machine 
 for r*«J,. Du Cange derives it from Maeeria, a name gi 
 yen to the long fence-walls whichinclofe vineyards.&V. i„ which 
 Mafias are fuppofed to have been firft employed ■ Mafon ,11 Ma 
 eenarum conJIruSor. M. Huet derives it from Ma,, an old word 
 
MAS 
 
 MAS 
 
 All the kinds of Mafonry now in ufe may be reduced to thefc 
 five, viz. Bound Mafonry; that of Brick-work, where the bo- 
 dies and prqje£tures of the ftones inclofe fquare fpaces or pa- 
 nels fflV. fet with bricks: That de motion, or of fmall work, 
 where the courfcs are equal, well fquared, and their edges or 
 beds rufticated : and That where the courfgs are unequal-, and 
 that filled up in the middle with little ftones and morter. 
 Masonry, is fometimes alfo ufed in a more general and un- 
 limited fenfe ; fo as, befides proper Mafonry, to include the 
 hewing or fawing of larger ftones to fit them for building, pro- 
 perly called Stone-cutting ; and the carving of the ornaments on 
 the members and mouldings, properly called fculpture. 
 MASQUE, or Mask, a cover for the face, contrived with aper- 
 tures for the eyes and mouth; originally worn chiefly by wo- 
 men of condition, either to preferve their complexion from the 
 weather, or out of modefty, to prevent their being known. 
 Poppsa, wife of Nero, is faid to be the firft inventer of the 
 Mafque ; which (he did to guard her complexion from the 
 fun and weather, as being the moft delicate woman, with regard 
 
 to her perfon, that has been known. Brantome obferves, 
 
 that the common ufe of Mafquti was not introduced till to- 
 wards the end of the fixteenth century. 
 Masque, is alfo ufed to fignify any thing ufed to cover the face, 
 and prevent a perfon's being known. 
 
 The penitents of Lions and Avignon hide their faces with large 
 white veils, which ferve them for Mafques. 
 Masque, in architecture, is applied to certain pieces of fculpture, 
 reprefenting fome hideous forms, grotefque, or fatyr's faces, 
 &c. ufed to fill up and adorn vacant places, as in freezes, the 
 pannels of doors, keys of arches, &c. but particularly in grot- 
 toes. 
 
 MASQUERADE * , or Mascarade, an affembly of peffons 
 mafked, ordifguifed; meeting to dance, and divert themfeives. 
 This is now much in ufe with us, and has been long a very com- 
 mon practice abroad, efpecially in carnival time. 
 
 * The word comes from the Italian Mafcarata, and that from 
 the Arabic Mafcdra, which fignifies raillery, buffoonry. 
 
 MASS, Massa, in mechanics, the matter of any body cohering 
 with it, i.e. moving and gravitating along with it. 
 In this fenfe, Mafs is diftinguifhed from bulk, or volume, 
 which is the expanfion of a body in length, breadth, and thick- 
 nefs. 
 
 The Mafs of any body is rightly eftimated by its weight. And 
 the Majfes of two bodies of the fame weight are in a reciprocal 
 ratio of their bulks. See Matter. 
 MASS*, or Messe, Missa, in a religious fenfe, denotes the 
 office, or public prayers made in the Romifh church, at the 
 celebration of the eucharift. 
 
 * Nicod, after Baronius, obferves, that the word comes from the 
 Hebrew, Mijfacb, oblatum ; or from the Latin Mijfa, Miffbrum ; 
 becaufe, in the former times, the catechumens and excommuni- 
 cated were fent out of the church, when the deacon faid, lie, 
 mi fa eft, after fermon, and the reading of the epiftle and gofpel ; 
 they not being allowed to aflift at the confecration. Menage 
 derives the word from Mijpo, difmiffing : others from Mija, 
 miffion, fending; becaufe, in the Mafs, the prayers of men on 
 earth are fent up to heaven. 
 
 Romifh divines define the Mafs, an oblation made to God, 
 wherein, by the change of a fenfible object by virtue of a di- 
 vine inftitution, the fovereign dominion of God over all things 
 is acknowleged. 
 
 This they eftecm the greateft and moft auguft ceremony in ufe 
 in the church j as being the facrifice of the new law, wherein 
 the body and blood of Jefus Chrift are offered up to God. 
 They are divided about the queftion, Whether or no it be pro- 
 per or allowable for the fame perfon to celebrate Mafs feveral 
 times in one day ? having the authority of pope Leo in his let- 
 ter to Diofcoms for the affirmative fide of the queftion, and that 
 of feveral of the councils for the negative. 
 There are a great variety of Majfes in the Romifh church ; the 
 thing acquiring new titles, and appellations, according to the 
 different rites, intentions, and manners, in which itis perform- 
 ed, as well as other circumftances. — Thus they have an 
 
 Ambrofian Mass, celebrated according to the rite of St. Ambrofe ; 
 particularly ufed in Milan. 
 
 Engltjh Mass, was the form which antiently obtained in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Galltcan Mass, is the rite that formerly obtained in the churches 
 
 of France. 
 
 Greek Mass, is that rehearfed according to the Greek rites, in the 
 
 Greek language, and by Greek priefts. 
 Latin Mass, is that ufed in the Latin church, in the Latin 
 
 tongue, and according to the rites of the Latin church. 
 High Mass, called alfo Grand Mass, is that fung by the cho- 
 
 rifters, and celebrated with the affritance of a deacon and fub- 
 
 deacon. 
 
 Low Mass, is that wherein the prayers are all barely rehearfed 
 without any finging, and performed without much ceremony, 
 or the affiftance of any deacon and fubdeacon. 
 
 Mass of the Beata, or our lady, is that offered to God by the 
 means, and through the intercefiion, of the virgin. 
 
 Beau Mass, is a Mafs rehearfed every day, at which the ladies 
 
 and Beau-monde of the place attend. This is alfo called the 
 
 perfumed Mafs. 
 
 Common Mass, or Mass of the community, in a monaftery, ia 
 
 that celebrated at certain hours, whereat the whole body affifts. 
 Mass of the Holy Ghofl, is that celebrated at the beginning of any 
 folemnity, or cburch-afiembly, commencing with an invo- 
 cation of the Holy Ghofl. 
 Holiday Mass, is that wherein certain prayers, or leflons, are 
 
 read fuitable to the day. 
 Mass of Judgment, was that wherein a perfon cleared himfelf of 
 
 any calumny, by fome proof agreed upon. 
 Mass for the death of our enemies, was a form that obtained a long 
 time in Spain; but it was at length abolifhed, as inconfiftent 
 with Chriftian charity. 
 Mass of the dead, or requiem, is that performed at the requeft 
 of the deceafed : the introit whereof begins with Requiem.--- — 
 In the thirteenth century it was the cuftom, before criminals 
 were carried out to execution, to make them attend at a Mafs 
 of the dead, rehearfed for the repofe of their fouls. 
 Parijh Mass, ox Great Mass, is that which the parfon is obliged 
 
 to rehearfe to bis parifhioners on Sundays and holidays. 
 Little Mass is that faid at private altars with lefs ceremony. 
 
 The firft Mafs is that faid at break of day. 
 Mass of a faint, is that wherein God is invoked by the intercef- 
 fion of fome faint. 
 
 Thus there are alfo Maffes of apoftles, martyrs, pontiffs, vir- 
 gins, c?V. 
 
 Mass of fcrutiny, was formerly rehearfed at the examination of 
 catechumens, when inquiry was made as to their difpofition for 
 baptifm. 
 
 Dry Mass, is that where there is no confecration ; as that, ac- 
 cording to Durandus, where the prieft cannot confecrate, by 
 reafon of his having faid Mafs before on the fame day : or it is 
 that ufed by the candidates of the priefthood , in order to their be- 
 coming acquainted with the ceremonies ; as Eckius will have it. 
 Votive Mass, is an extraordinary Mafs, befides that of the day, 
 
 rehearfed on fome extraordinary occafion. 
 CW/e-MAss. ■j f Candle-wi.-t/j. 
 
 Childer-Wl ass. tSee the articled Childer-zms/j. 
 Chrifi-MAss. J C Christ -mafs, 
 
 Masses, in painting, denote thofe parts of a picture which con- 
 tain great lights, or great fliadoWs. See Clairobscure. 
 When it is almoft dark, we only fee the Maffes of a picture ; 
 i. t. the places of the greateft lights and fhadows. 
 MASSALIANS, Massaliani, certain fectaries, fo called from 
 a Hebrew word fignifying prayer ; it being their diftinguifhing 
 tenet, that a man is to be continually in prayer. 
 The Greeks call them Euchita? si^/tcu, which in their lan- 
 guage fignified the fame thing. 
 
 St. Epiphanius diflinguifhes two kinds of Maffalians, the an- 
 tient and the later. 
 
 The antient, according to him, were neither- Jews, Chriftians, 
 nor Samaritans, but pure Gentiles ; who, owning feveral gods, 
 adored onlyone,wbom they called Almighty. They had oratories 
 like our churches, where they ufed to meet, to pray, and fing 
 hymns in honour of God ; their oratories being finely illumi- 
 nated with lamps and flambeaux. This defcription of St. 
 
 Epiphanius comes fo near the practice of the Effeni, thatScali- 
 ger thinks the two fects ought not by any means to be diftin- 
 guiftied. 
 
 For the later Maffalians, who were by profeflion Chriftians, 
 their rife was not till about the time of St. Epiphanius. Their 
 doctrine was, that prayer alone was fufficicnt to falvation. — 
 Many monks, who loved a life of lazinefs, and were averfe 
 to labour, at times, joined thefe Maffalians. 
 MASSETER, in anatomy, a triangular two-headed mufcle, 
 which furrounds the lower jaw, and helps to pull it upwards in 
 eating. See Maxilla. 
 
 The Majptcr is thick and fhort, ariling from the Zygoma, 
 and from the firft bone of the upper jaw ; and is inferted into 
 the lower ed"e of the lower jaw, from its external angle to its 
 middle. Its fibres run in three directions ; thofe from the Zy- 
 ooma obliquely to the middle of the jaw, and thofe from the 
 upper bone of the firft jaw crofs the former, and run to the 
 an^le of the lower jaw ; and the fibres that are in its middle, 
 run perpendicularly from their origin to their infertion. — See 
 Tab. anat. (myol.) fig. I. n. II. fig. 6. n. 6. fig. 7. n. 3. 
 MASSIVE, fomething heavy and folid ; a term ufed in oppofi- 
 tion to tendernefs and delicacy. 
 
 Thus we fay, a building is too maffroe, that is, its walls are 
 too thick ; a wall is maffive, that is, the lights and openings 
 are too fmall in proportion. 
 
 Majfive column, is that which is too fhort for the order whofe 
 capital it bears. 
 
 MASSORA, a term in the Jewifh theology, fignifying a work 
 on the bible, performed by feveral learned rabbins, to fecure it 
 from any alterations which might otherwife happen ; and to 
 ferve, according to their expreflion, as a hedge to the law. 
 Buxtorf defines the Maffora a critic on the Hebrew text, con- 
 trived by the antient Jewifh doctors, in which they have num- 
 bered the verfes, words, and letters of the text, and marked all 
 the variations of it, , 
 
MAS 
 
 MAS 
 
 The text of the facred books, it is to be obferved, was ori- 
 ginally written without any breaks, or dtvifions into chapters 
 or verfes, or even Into words : fo that a whole book, in the 
 antient manner, was but one continued word; of this kind 
 we have {till feveral antient manufcripts both Greek and Latin. 
 In regard therefore the facred writings had undergone an infi- 
 nite number of alterations, whence various readings had arifen ; 
 and the original was become much mangled, and difguifed ; 
 the Jews had recourfc to a canon, which they judge infallible, 
 to fix and afcertain the reading of the Hebrew text : and this 
 rule they call Maffora, tradition ; as if this critique were no- 
 thing but a tradition, which they had received from their 
 forefathers. 
 
 According to EliasLevita, they were the Jews of a famous fchool 
 at Tiberias, who compofed, or at leaft began the Maffora, 
 whence they are called Majoretes, and Majjhretic dotlors. 
 Aben Efra makes them the authors of the points and accents 
 in the Hebrew text, as we now find it, and which fervc 
 for vowels. 
 
 The Arabs have done the fame thing by their alcoran, that 
 the Mafjbretes have done to the bible : nor do the Jews denv 
 their having borrowed this expedient from the Arabs, who firft 
 put it in practice in the fevenrh century. 
 
 There is a great, and a little Maffora, printed at Venice, and 
 
 at Bafil, with the Hebrew text in a different character. 
 
 Buxtorf has written a Mafforetic commentary, which he calls 
 Tiberias. 
 
 MASSORETES, Jewilh doctors, authors of the Maflbra. Sec 
 
 M ASSORA. 
 
 MAST of a foreft, the fruit of that Genus of trees, called 
 Glandiferous, or Maft-bcaring ; as beech, oak, chefnut, &c. 
 Mast *, in navigation, a large pole, or long piece of round 
 wood, raifed in vefieJs, for the yards and fails to be fattened 
 to, in order to their receiving the wind neceflary for naviga- 
 tion. ' [ 
 * The word Maft fignifies the fame thing in French, High-Dutch, 
 Flemifn, and Engliih : The Italians ufe the word alkro, and 
 the Spaniards Majlil. 
 In large vefTels, the number of Mafis is four : Their names 
 are, the Main Maft, the Fore- Maft, the Mi-z.cn- Ma/?, and 
 the Boltfprit. To which fome add a fifth, viz. a Counter- 
 Mizcn. 
 
 Main-M'fi is the chief Maft, ftanding upright in the middle, 
 or wafte of the veflel ; it bears the main-yard and main- fail. 
 Fore-Mnft is between the Main-Mafl and the head. 
 Mizen-Maft^ is between the Main- Maft and the ftern 
 The Boltfprit lies under the beak, in the prow, or head of the 
 fhip. 
 
 The Counter- Arizen, in large vefTels and sallions, is in the 
 
 {tern. See 7^. Ship. fig. i. n. r, 19, 38, 81. 
 
 We alfo ufe the word Majl to fignify thofe divifions, or 
 additional pieces in the- Mafts, placed over one another. 
 The Main- Ma//, ;:nd Fore-M.ft, have each of them two, 
 viz. the Main- Majl, A4ain-Top- Maft, Main-Gallant -Mali ■ 
 the Fore- Maft, Fore-Top- Maft, Fore-Top-Gallant- Maft, 
 And the Mizen-Maft has one, viz. the Mizen-Top-Maft. 
 For the proportion of Mafts, Sir H. Manwaring gives thefe 
 rules : Whatever the breadth of a fhip be in feet, multiply * 
 of that breadth by 3, the product is the length of her main- 
 Muft in feet. Thus if a fhip be 30 feet at the midfhip-beam, 
 f of 30 is 24; therefore that fhip's Main-Maft muft be 24. 
 yards, or 72 feet in length. Then for its bignefs, he allows 
 an inch to every yard in length, and therefore this Maft muft 
 be 24 inches through, or thick. The Fore-Maft of a fhip muft 
 be | of the length of the Main- Maft, that is, in this cafe, 
 19 yards and thick or through it muft be near 20 inches! 
 The Boltfprit is always the fame length and bignefs with the 
 Fore-Maft ; and the Mizen-Maft muft be jufthalf the length 
 of the Main-Maft, and half as thick. 
 
 Hcd of a Mast. 1 f Heel. 
 
 Jury-M.Asr. > See the article < Jury. 
 
 Spring a Mast, j t Spring. 
 
 MASTER, a title given to feveral officers, and perfons of autho- 
 rity ; and command particularly, to the chiefs of the orders 
 of knighthood, &fr. 
 
 Thus we fay, the grand Mafter of Malta, of St. Lazarus, of 
 the golden fleece, of the free mafons, csV. 
 
 Master, Magister, was a title frequent amon<r the Ro- 
 mans : They had their Mafter of the people, ° Magifter 
 
 populi, who was the dictator. Mafter of the cavalry, 
 
 Magifter equitum, who held the fecond poll in an army 
 
 after the dictator. Under the later emperors, there 
 
 were alfo Mafters of the infantry, Magiftrl peditum. 
 
 A Mafter of the cenfus, Magifter cenfus, who had no- 
 thing of the charge of a cenfor, or fubcenfor, as the name 
 fi-cms to intimate; but was the fame with the Pratpofitus 
 frumentariorum. 
 
 Master of the militia, Magifter militia, was an officer in the 
 lower emrnre, created, as it is faid, by Dioclefian, who had 
 the infpe^Hoii and government of all the forces, with power to 
 punifh, &c. fomewhat like a conftable of France. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 At firft there were two of thefe officers inftituted ; the one for 
 the infantry, and the other for the cavalry : but the two were 
 united into one under Conftantine. Afterwards, as their power 
 was increafed, fo was their number alfo; and there was one 
 appointed for the court, another for Thrace, another for the 
 Eaft, and another for Illyria. They were afterwards called 
 Comitcs, counts, and Clarijftmi. 7tieir power was only a 
 branch of that of the Prarfcclus prectorii, who by that means 
 became a civil officer. 
 
 Master of arms, Magifter armortmi, was an officer or compt- 
 roller under the Mafter of the militia. 
 
 Master of the offices, Magifter officiorum, had the fuperintend- 
 ance of all the officers of the court. He w,is alfo called 
 Magifter officii palatini, fimply Magifter, and his poft Ma' 
 gifteria. 
 
 This officer was the fame in the weftern empire with the Cu- 
 
 ropalates in the eaftern. 
 Master, in fine, in the Roman hiftory and laws, is ufed for 
 
 every officer, who is the chief of his kind ; and has others of 
 
 the fame fpecies, or that have the fame functions, under him. 
 
 ■ — — In Latin, Magifter, and oftentimes Proximv.s-, or Primi- 
 
 cerius. See Primicerius. 
 Master of the armory is an officer who has the care and over- 
 
 fight of his majefty's arms, and armory. See Arms, and 
 
 Armory. 
 
 Master of Arts, the firft degree taken up in foreign univer- 
 fities, but the fecond in ours ; candidates not being admitted 
 to it till they have lludied in the univerfity feven years. See 
 Degre E. 
 
 Master of the Ceremonies, is an officer inftituted by king James 
 the firft, for the more folemn and honourable reception of am- 
 bafTadors, and Grangers of quality, whom he introduces into 
 the prefence. 
 
 The badge of his office is a gold chain and medal, having on 
 one fide an. emblem of peace, with king James's motto ; and 
 on the reverfe the emblem of war, with Dieri & man droit. 
 He is always fuppofed to be a perfon of good addrefs, and 
 a imfter of languages : He is conftantly attending at court, and 
 hath under him an afiiflant Mafter., or deputy, who holds his 
 pbice during the king's pleafure. 
 
 There is alfo a third officer, called Marjhal of the Ceremonies, 
 whofe bufinefs is to receive and diftribute the Mafier's orders, 
 or the deputy's, for the fexvice ; but without their order he can 
 
 do nothing. This is in the king's gift. 
 
 Masters of Chancery are ufually chofen out of the barrifters of 
 the common law, and fit in chancery, or at the rolls, as alliit- 
 ants to the lord chancellor, and mafter of the rolls. 
 To them is alfo committed interlocutory reports, (rating of ac- 
 counts, taxing cofts, &c. And fometimes, by way of refe- 
 rence, they are impowered to make a final determination of 
 caufes. 
 
 They have, time out of mind, had the honour to fit in the 
 lords houfe, though they have neither writs, nor patent to im- 
 powcr them ; but they are received as affiftants to the lord 
 chancellor, and mafter of the rolls. They had antiently the 
 care of infpecting all writs of fummons, which is now per- 
 formed by the clerk of the petty-bag. When any mefiage is 
 fent from the lords to the commons, it is carried by the Mafters 
 of Chancery. Before them alfo affidavits are made, and deeds 
 and recognizances acknowleged. 
 
 Befides thefe, who may be called Mafters of Chancery ordi- 
 nary (being twelve in number, whereof the mafter of the 
 rolls is reputed the chief), there arc alfo Mafters of Chancery 
 extraordinary, appointed to act in the feveral counties of 
 England beyond ten miles diftance from London, by taking 
 affidavits, recognizances, dSY, for the eafe of the fuitors of 
 the court. 
 
 Master of the court of Wards and Liveries was the chief officer 
 and judge of that court, who kept the feal of it, and was 
 named and affigned by the king. 
 
 But this court, and all its officers, members, power, and ap- 
 purtenances, are taken away by a flatute made 12 Car. II. 
 c. 24. See Ward, 
 Master of the Faculties, an officer under the archbifhop of Can- 
 terbury, who grants licences and difpenfations : he is men- 
 tioned in the ftatutc 22, 23 Car. II. See the article Fa- 
 culty. 
 
 MASTER-Gaflwre/EnglanJ. See the article Gunner. 
 
 Master of the Horfe, a great officer of the crown, to whom 13 
 committed the charge of ordering and difpofing all matters re- 
 lating to the king's flablcs, races, and breed of horfes, as he 
 had antiently of al! the pofts in England. 
 
 He hath a power of commanding the equerries, and all the 
 other officers and tradefmen employed in the king's ftables ; to 
 all which he gives, by his warrant to the avener, the oath of 
 allegiance, &c. for the faithful difcharge of their duty. He 
 has the peculiar privilege of mak-ng ufe of any horfes, paces, 
 or footmen, belonging to the king':; ftables ; fo that his coache-., 
 horfes, and attendants, are the king's, and have the king's 
 arms and liveries. 
 Master of the HsuJho'J is an officer under the lord-fteward of 
 6 H the 
 
MAS 
 
 MAT 
 
 the houfhold, and in the king's gift : His bufinefs Is to furvey 
 the accounts of the houfhold. 
 
 Antiently the lord-fteward himfelf was called Grand Majler 
 of the Houjhold. \ * «. L 
 
 Master of the Jeivel-bouft is an officer of the king s houfhold, 
 who has charge of all the gold and filver plate ufed at the 
 Icing's table, or at that of any officer attending the court; and 
 of aH plate remaining in the tower of London ; as alfo of chains 
 and loofe jewels, not fixed to any garment. 
 Master of the Mint, was antiently the title of him who is now 
 called Warden of the Mint ; whofe" office is to receivethe filver 
 and bullion, which comes to the mint to be coined, and to 
 take care thereof. See Mint. 
 Master of the Ordnance, a great officer, to whofe care all the 
 
 king's ordnance and artillery is committed. 
 Master of the Revels, an officer, whofe bufinefs is to order 
 all things relating to the performance of plays, mafks, balls, 
 l$c. at court. Formerly he had alfo a jurii'diction of grant- 
 ing licences to all who travel to act plays, puppet-fhews. 
 or°thc like diverfions : neither could any new play be acted 
 at either of the two houfes, till it had paffed his perufat 
 and licence. But thefe powers were afterwards much abridg- 
 ed, not to fav annihilated, by a ftatute for regulating play- 
 houfes, till the licenfing plays by the lord -chamberlain was late 
 ly eftablifbed. 
 Master of the Robes. See the article Roees. 
 Master of the Rolls, a patent-officer (or life; who has tin 
 cuftody of the rolls and patents which pafs the great feal, and 
 of the records of the chancery. 
 
 In the abfence of the lord chancellor, or keeper, he alfo fits as 
 judge in the court of chancery ; and is, by Sir Edward Coke ; 
 
 called his offjlant. 
 
 At other times he hears caufes in the rolls chapel, and makes 
 orders and decrees. —He is alfo the firft of the matters of chan- 
 cery, and hath their afliftance at the rolls : but all hearings 
 before him are appealable to the lord- chancellor. 
 He hath alfo his writ of fummons to parliament, and fits next 
 to the lord chief juftice of England, on the fecond woolpack, 
 He hath the keeping of the parliament-rolls, and has the roll: 
 houfe for his habitation ; as alfo the cuftody of all charters, 
 patents, commiffions, deeds, and recognizances, which, bein^ 
 made of rolls of parchment, gave rife to the name, Antiently 
 he was called Clerk of the Rolls. 
 
 In his gift are the fix clerks in chancery, the examiners, three 
 clerks of the petty-bag, and the fix clerks of the rolls chapel 
 where the rolls arc kept. SeeRoLLS, Clerk, £*rY. 
 Master tf a Ship, an officer, to whom is committed the di 
 rection ot a merchant-veffel ; who commands it in chief, am 
 is charged with the merchandizes aboard. 
 In the Mediterranean, the Majler is frequently called Patron 
 and in long voyages Captain. 
 
 It is the proprietor of the veffei that appoints the Majler ; an< 
 it is the Majler who provides the equipage, hire; the pilots 
 failors, C3V. — The mailer is obliged to keep a regifter of thi 
 fcamen and officers, the terms of their contract, the receipt: 
 and payments, and, in general, of every thing relating to hi: 
 commiffion. 
 
 Master of the Temple. — The founder of the order of the Tern 
 plars, arid all his fucceftbrs, were called Magni Tempi! Ma- 
 gijhi; and ever fince the diffolution of the order, the fpiritua 
 guide and director of the houfe 'is called by that name. See 
 Temple, Templar. 
 
 Masters/" the Wardrobe, an office in the lord-chamberlain' 
 diftrict, who has the direction of all the royal robes ; as thofe 
 of the coronation, St. George's feaft, and the parliament' 
 robes : as well as of the wearing apparel, collar of Si's, Georj 
 and garter, t£c. 
 
 He has alio the charge and cuftody of all former kings and 
 queens robes, remaining in the Tower; all hangings, bed- 
 ding, £9*c. for the king's houfe ; and the charge and delivery 
 of velvet and fcarlet allowed for liveries. 
 He has under him a clerk of the robes, and wardrobe-kcepi 
 a yeoman, Cite See Wardrobe. 
 
 Barghcr-M aster. ~i f Burgher. 
 
 F/a.'-Master ?■ See the article -s Fire 
 
 .^W(77-/;T-MasTER. J t 
 
 MASTER-Jreh. See the article Arch 
 
 MASTER-Fautt. See the article Vault. 
 
 MASTER-PIECE, an exquifite, or extraordinary work or per 
 formance, in any art or fcience. 
 
 Master-piece, Chef a" ceuvre, is particularly ufed among tin 
 French, for a work, which thofe who afpire to be admitted 
 mafter in any art or trade, are to perform in prefence of 
 matters or jurands of that company, by way of fpecimen 
 their capacity. 
 
 The Majler-piece of a carpenter, is a rampant curve of a ftai 
 cafe, the fpiral well adjuiled with the defcent : That of ajoiner. 
 a flat-bottom cheft, or a door-cafe, or a mantle-tree : That 
 a tiler, a luthern well conducted in the fourchette, with a ridgi 
 That of a plumber, a little cittern cul de lampe : That of 
 g!az ; er, a pair of compartiments of glaffes of feveral coloui 
 hollowed, incruftated : That of paviours, a rofe in a free-ftone 
 
 Quarter. 
 
 or flint-pavement : That of a cordwainer, a turn-up fhoe, Gtff. 
 MASTIC*, or Mastick, MASTIXH, a clear and fweet refinous 
 gum, ifTuing from the trunk and large branches of the A'lajiic- 
 tree, or lentifcus, either without, or with, indfion. 
 
 * It has its name Majilc from majlicare, to chew, by reafon of its 
 being continually chewed by the Turks, especially the women. 
 Majlic is temperate in heat, and of a dry, binding quality ; fo 
 that it ftrens-thens the ftomach, flays vomiting, flops fluxes of 
 blood, and ^tickling coughs and catarrhs. It ftrengthens the 
 reins, and is a good cleanfer, and is for that reafon prefcribed 
 in feminal weakneffes. 
 
 The jewellers mix Majlic with turpentine and ivory black, 
 and lay it under their diamonds, to give them a luftre. 
 Majlic is chiefly the product of Chio : The trees that yield it 
 are there cultivated with as much care as the vines. It brings 
 in a revenue of eighty thoufand ducats per annum to the grand 
 fignior. — There is alfo a kind of Mafic brought from Egypt, 
 which ferves to fophifticate camphor. The gum Majlic 
 is in fmall granules, and white, if good ; though age makes it 
 turn yellowifh. 
 
 MASTICATION, Masticatio, in medicine, the action of 
 chewing; or of agitating the folid parts of our food between 
 the teeth, by means of the motion of the jaws, the tongue, 
 and the lips ; whereby it is broken into fmall pieces, impregna- 
 ted with faliva, and fo fitted for deglutition, and a more eafy 
 digeftion in the ftomach. 
 
 The mixture of faliva with the food is of abfolute neceffity ; 
 for the faliva, imbibed within the parts of it, diflolves the fa Its 
 hid in them ; and, by fo doing, prepares the food for fermen- 
 tation in the ftomach. The food therefore has the beginning 
 of its digeftion from the faliva, and its conclufion from the 
 ferment in the ftomach. 
 MAST1CATORIES, Masticatoria, in medicine, are fuch 
 remedies as arc taken in at the mouth, and chewed ; in order 
 to promote the evacuation of the falival humour ■ as tobacco, 
 ginger, pepper, fage, rofemary, thyme, maftic, &c. 
 MASTOIDES*, Ma:>TOEIAH:>, in anatomy, the fame with 
 Mammillaris. 
 
 • The word comes from the Greek y.&r&; nipple, dug, and itf&; 
 imago, figure. 
 
 Mastoides is applied to fuch proceffes in the body, as have the 
 appearance of breaits or dugs ; arifing from a broad bafis, and 
 terminating in an obtufe top. 
 Mastoides is fomctimcs alfo applied to thofe mufclcs which 
 ftoop the head ; proceeding from the neck-bone and breaft- 
 bone, and terminating in the procefs mammiformis. 
 MATCH, a kind of rope flightly twifted, and prepared to re- 
 tain fire, for the ufes of artillery, mines, fire- works, &c. 
 It is made of hempen tow, fpun on the wheel like cord, but 
 very flack ; and is compofed of three twifts, which are after- 
 wards again covered with tow ; fo that the twifts do not ap- 
 pear : laftly, it is boiled in lees of old wines ; whence its 
 colour. — This, when once lighted at the end, burns on gra- 
 dually and regularly, without ever going out, till the whole 
 be confumed. 
 
 Since fufces have been introduced in lieu of Mnt:hAock muf- 
 kets, the confumption of Match has been much lefs confidera- 
 ble than before. 
 
 MATER Tenuis, or PwMater. See Meninces, and Via. 
 Mater Dura. See alfo Meninces, and Dura. 
 MATERIA, Matter. See the article Matter. 
 Materia fuhtilis denotes a fine fubtile matter, which the Car- 
 tefians fuppofe to pervade and penetrate, freely, the pores of 
 all bodies, and to fill up all their pores, fo as not to leave the 
 leaft vacuity or interftice between them. 
 
 This machine they have recourfe to, to fupport the doctrine of 
 an abfolute plenum, and to make it confiftent with the phxno- 
 mena of motion, csV. and accordingly they make it act and move 
 at pleafure ; but in vain : for were there any fuch matter, in 
 order for it to be able to fill up the vacuities of other bodies, 
 it muft, itfelf, be entirely void of any, i. c. it mutt be 
 perfectly folid, vaftly more folid than gold, and therefore 
 more ponderous, and refift vaftly more : which is incon- 
 fittent with phenomena. See Vacuum and Plenum. 
 Yet Sir Ifaac Newton allows of the exiftence of a fubtile 
 Matter, or medium, vaftly finer than air, penetrating the 
 clofeft bodies, and contributing to the production of many of 
 the phenomena of nature. — The exiftence of fuch a mat- 
 ter he argues from the experiment of two thermometers, which 
 being inclofed in glafs veflels, 1 one of\hem exhaufted of its 
 1 air, and both carried from a cold to a warm place, the ther- 
 
 * mometer in vacuo grows warm, and rifes, almoft as foon as 
 
 * that in the air ; and if returned into the cold place, both 
 
 * cool and fall about the fame. — Hence, fays he, is not the 
 ' heat of the warm room conveyed through the vacuum by the 
 
 * vibrations of a much fubtiler medium than air, which re- 
 
 * mained in vacuo, after the exhauftion of the air ? And is not 
 ' this medium the fame with that whereby light is refracted, 
 
 * reflected, HSc*J 
 MATERIAL denotes fomething compofed of matter. See 
 
 Matter. 
 
 In 
 
MAT 
 
 MAT 
 
 In which fcnfe the word ftands oppofed to immaterial. See 
 Immaterial. 
 
 The Epicureans, Spinofifts, f&c, own no other hut material 
 fubftances : See Substance. Among caufes, fomc are ma- 
 teria/, others are formal : See Cause. 
 
 Material caufeb, having no underftanding or liberty, mttft 
 always act in the fame manner, when under the fime cir- 
 cumftances. Philofophers and divines difpute, whether or no 
 there be any material forms really diftinct from matter? See 
 Form. The Valentinians formerly applied the term material 
 to all people but thofe of their own feet ; aflertins, that their 
 
 fouls perifhed with their bodies. Thus alfo the Stoics 
 
 maintained, that none but the fouls of their wife men furvived 
 the body. 
 
 Material Circle. See the article Circle. 
 
 Material Objetl. See the article Object. 
 
 MATERIALISTS, a feci: in the antient church, compofed of 
 perfons, who, being prepoflefTed with that maxim in the 
 antient philofophy, Ex nihilo nihil fit, Out of nothing nothing 
 tan arife, had recourfe to an eternal matter, on which 
 they fuppofed God wrought in the creation ; inftead of ad- 
 mitting God alone as the fole caufc of the exiftence of all 
 things. 
 
 T'ertullian vigoroufly oppnfes the doctrine of the Material- 
 ijls, in his treatife againft Hermogcnes, who was one of their 
 number. 
 
 MATHEMATICAL Points. See the article Point. 
 MATHEMATICS *, the fcience of quantity ; or a fcience 
 
 that confiders magnitudes either as computable, or meafure- 
 
 able. 
 
 * The word In its original, |«<t(Jw, fignifies difripline, oxfeiaee, 
 in the general ; and feems to have been applied to the doftrine 
 of quantity, eithcr'by way of eminence, or by reafon, this having 
 the Mart of all other fciences, the reft took, their common name 
 therefrom." 
 
 For the origin of the Mathematics, Jofephus dates it before the 
 flood, and makes the Ions of Set!) oblervcrs of the courfe and 
 order of the heavenly bodies : he adds, that to perpetuate their 
 difcoveries, and fecurc theft from the injuries cither of a delude, 
 or a conflagration, they had them engraven on two pillars, 
 the one of ftone, the other of brick ; the former of which, he 
 fays, was ftanding in Syria in his days. 
 
 The firft who cultivated Mathematics after the flood, were the 
 Affyrians and Chaldseans j from whom, the fame Jofephus adds, 
 they were carried by Abraham to the Egyptians ; who proved 
 fuch notable proficients, that Ariftotle makes no fcruple to fix 
 the firft rife of Mathematics among them. From Egypt, five 
 hundred cightv-four years before Chrift, they paffed into 
 Greece through the bands ot Thales, who, having learnt 
 geometry of the Egyptian priefls, taught it in his own coun- 
 try. After Thales, comes Pythagoras ; who among other 
 mathematical arts, paid a peculiar regard to arithmetic ; 
 fetching the greateft part of his philofophy from numbers: 
 He was the firft, as Laertius tells us, who abftracied geo- 
 metry from matter ; and to him we owe the doctrine of 
 incommcni arable magnitude, and the five regular bodies, 
 befides the firft principles of mufic and aftronomy. Pytha- 
 goras was fuccceded by Anaxagoras, Oenopides, Brifo, An- 
 tipho, and Hippocrates of Scio ; who all applied thcmfelves 
 particularly to the quadrature of the cir6+e, the duplicature of 
 the cube, CSV. but the laft with moft fuccefs : This laft is alfo 
 mentioned by Proclus, as the firft who compiled elements of 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Dcmocritus excelled in Mathematics as well as phvfics ; though 
 none of his works in either kind are extant: the deftruetion 
 of which fome authors lay at Ariftotle's door. The next 
 in order is Plato, who not only improved geometry, but in- 
 troduced it into phyfics, and fo laid the foundation of a folid 
 
 philofophy. Out of his fchool proceeded a croud of 
 
 Mathematicians. Proclus mentions thirteen of note; amono- 
 whom was Leodamus, who improved the analyfis firft in- 
 vented by Plato ; Thea^tetus, who wrote elements ; and 
 Archytas, who has the credit of being the firft who applied 
 Mathematics to real ufe in life. Thefe were fucceeded by 
 Neocles and Theon, the laft of whom contributed to the ele- 
 ments. Eudoxus excelled in arithmetic and geometry, and 
 was the firft founder of a fyftem of aftronomy. Menechmus 
 invented the conic factions, and Theudius and Hcrmotimus 
 improved the elements. 
 
 For Ariftotle, his works are fo ftored with Mathematics, that 
 Elancanus compiled a whole book of them : Out of his fchool 
 came Eudemus and Theophraftus ; the firft of whom wrote 
 of numbers, geometry, and invifible lines; the latter a ma- 
 thematical hiftory. ToArifteus, Ilidorus, and Hypficles, we 
 owe the books of fulids ; which, with the other books of ele- 
 ments, were improved, collected and methodized by Euclid, 
 who died 284 years before Chrift. 
 
 An hundred years after Euclid, came Eratofthenes and Ar- 
 chimedes. Cotemporary with the latter was Cofton, a 
 geometrician and aftronomer. Soon after came Apollonius 
 Pergreus ; whofe conies are ft ill extant. To him are like- 
 
 wife afcribed the fourteenth and fifteenth books of Euclid* 
 which are faid to have been contracted from Hypficles. Hip- 
 parchus and Menclaus wrote on the fubtenfes in a circle, the 
 latter alfo on fphcrical triangles: Theodofms's three books 
 of fpherics are ftill extant. All thefe, Mcnelaus excepted, 
 lived before Chrift. 
 
 A, D. 70. Ptolemy of Alexandria was born j the prince of 
 aftronomers, and no mean geometrician: he was fucceeded by 
 the philofopher Plutarch, of whom we have ftill extant fome 
 mathematical problems. After him came Eutocius, who com- 
 mented 011 Archimedes, and occafionally mentions the inven- 
 tions of Philo, Diodes, Nicomedes, Sporus, and Heron, on 
 the duplicature of the cube. To Ctefcbes of Alexandria we 
 owe our pumps ; and Gemimis, who came foon after, is pre- 
 ferred by Proclus to Euclid himfelf. 
 
 Diophantus of Alexandria was a great mafter of numbers, and 
 the firft inventor of algebra : and among others of the antients, 
 Nicomachus is celebrated for his arithmetical, geometrical, 
 and mufical works ; Serenus, for his books on the fection of the 
 cylinder; Proclus, for his comments on Euclid; and Thcoil 
 has the credit among fome, of being author of the books of 
 Elements afcribed to Euclid. The laft to be named among the 
 antients, is Pappus of Alexandria, who flourifhed A. D. 400. 
 and is celebrated for his books of mathematical collections ftil! 
 extant. 
 
 See the progrefs of each branch of Mathematics, with the au- 
 thors who have wrote on it, under the refpective heads ; as 
 Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy, iife. 
 Mathematics are diftinguifhed, with regard to their end, into 
 
 Speculative Mathematics, which reft in the bare contempla- 
 tion of the properties of things ; and 
 
 Practical Mathematics, which apply the knowlegc of thofe 
 properties to fome ufes in life. 
 
 With regard to their object, Mathematics are divided into pure 
 or ahjlratl; and mixed. 
 
 Pure Mathematics confider quantity abftractedly, and 
 without any relation to matter or bodies. 
 
 Mixed Mathematics confider quantity, as fubfifting in mate- 
 rial being: — e. gr. length in a road, breadth in a river, height 
 in a ftar, or the like. 
 
 Pure Mathematics, again, either confider quantity as difcrcte, 
 and fo computable, as arithmetic ; or as concrete, or conti- 
 cd, and fo mealurable, as Geometry and trigonometry. 
 Mixed Mathematics are very cxtenfive, and are diftingvifhed 
 by various names, as the fubjects they confider, and the \iewa 
 wherein people take them, vary; it being fuilicient deter- 
 mine an art to be a branch of mixed Mathematics, that pure 
 Mathematics are applicable thereto, /. e. that it may be ex- 
 plained and demonftrated from the principles of arithmetic and 
 geometry. Such are 
 
 Mechanics, which confider motion, or the laws of moving 
 bodies. Hydroftatics, which confider the laws of fluids, or 
 of bodies gravitating in fluids. — Pneumatics, the air, with 
 regard to the laws and menfuration thereof. — Hydraulics, 
 the motion of fluids. — Optic, direct light or vifion. — Ca- 
 toptrics, reflected vifion. — Dioptrics, refracted vifion. — 
 Perfpectlvc, the images of objects, in order to delineate 
 or reprefent them. — Aftronomy, the univerfc, and the 
 phenomena of the heavens. — Geography, the earth, both 
 as in itfelf, and in its affections. — Hydrography, the fea, 
 principally as navigable. — Chronology, time, with resard 
 to the meafuring and d i ft in gu idling thereof. — Gnomonics, 
 or Dialling, ftradows, in order for determining the hour 
 of the day. — Pvrotechny, artificial fires, with regard both 
 to diverfion, and to the ufes of war. — Military architecture, 
 the ftrength of places, with regard ro their defence againft 
 an enemy. — Civil architecture (now become a branch of 
 Mathematics) or buildings. — -Mufic, founds, and their effects 
 on the ear. 
 
 For the elements of each of thefe, fee the refpective heads : 
 and for an accurate fyftem of all the parts above-men- 
 tioned (Mufic alone excepted) orderly digeffed, and clearly 
 demonftrated, fee the excellent Wolfius's Ehmcnta mathefeos 
 univerfes. 
 
 MATHURINS. See the article Trinitarians. 
 
 MATRASS, MatRacium, or Bolt-head, a glafs veffel, 
 ufed by chymifts in digeftions and other operations. 
 The Matrafs is made in form of a bottle, fomcwhat bellied 
 in the] middle, with a long narrow neck : it is coated with 
 earth, when it is to be placed on a very hot fire. And 
 when it is required it mould be flopped very clofe, they feal it 
 hermetically. 
 
 MATRICE, or Matrix. See the article Matrix. 
 
 Matrice, or Matrix, in dying, is applied to the five fimple 
 colours, whence all the reft are derived or compofed. Thefe 
 are, the black, white,- blue, red, and yellow or root colour. 
 See Dying. 
 
 Matrices, or Matrix's, ufed by the letter-founders, are 
 thofe little pieces of copper or brafs, at one end whereof are 
 engraven, dent wife, or en creux y the feveral characters ufed 
 in the compofing of books. 
 
 Each character, virgula, and even each point, in a difcourfe, 
 
 has 
 
MAT 
 
 MAT 
 
 fas to feveral Matrix, and of confequence its feveral puncheon ] 
 to ftrike it. They are the engravers on metal that cut or grave 
 the Matrices. 
 
 When types are to be caft, the Matrice is fattened to the end 
 of a mould, fo difpofed, as that when the metal is poured on 
 it, it may fall into the creux or cavity of the Matrice, and take 
 the figure and impreffion thereof. See Zef/fr-FoUNDER Y. 
 
 Matrices, ufed in coining, are pieces of fteel in form of dyes: 
 whereon are engraven the feveral figures, arms, characters, 
 legends, &fr. wherewith the fpecies are to be ftamped. 
 The engraving is performed with feveral puncheons, which, 
 being formed in relievo, or prominent, when ft ruck on the 
 metal, make an indented impreffion, which the French call 
 en creux. See the manner hereof under Engraving on Jlecl. 
 See alfo Coining. 
 
 MATRICULA, a regifter kept of the admifiion of officers, and 
 perfons entered into any body, or ibciety, whereof a lift is 
 made. 
 
 Among; ecclefiaftical authors, we find mention made of two 
 kinds of Matriculas: the one containing a lift of the ecclefi- 
 aftics, called Mairicula dericorum: the other of the poor (un- 
 fitted at the expence of the church, called Matrkula pau- 
 perism. 
 
 Matricula was alfo applied to a kind of atms-houfe, where 
 the poor were provided for. It had certain revenues appropri- 
 ated to it, and was ufually built near the church; whence the 
 name was alfo frequently given to the church itfelf. 
 MATRIX *, in anatomy, the ivnnb ; or that part of the female 
 of any kind, wherein the foetus is conceived, and nourifned 
 till the time of its delivery. 
 
 * The antient Greeks called the Matrix, fWTpfj from fwrntp, 
 mother; whence diforders of the womb are ftill frequently 
 called fts of the mother. They alfo called it titfrtpa, as being 
 the laft of the entrails, by its fituation. Sometimes they alfo 
 called it $v<rf, or natura \ and vulva, from •vot-vo, to fold or 
 envelope, or irom valvre^ doors. 
 
 Plato and Pythagoras took the Matrix for a diilinfl: animal 
 within another. P. ^Egincta obferves, that the Matrix may 
 be taken away from a woman, without her death ; and that 
 there have been inltances of people, who have lived a long time 
 after the lofs of the Matrix. Rhails and Partus obferve, that 
 fome perfons have been cured of difeafo, by having the Matrix 
 extirpated. In 1669. a child was produced at the French 
 academy, which had been conceived out of the Matrix, and 
 which neverthelds had grown to the length of fix inches; and 
 many inftances of a like kind have been met with fince. The 
 .Fallopian tube, in thefe cafes, is ufually the place where the 
 fcetus is lodged. 
 
 The Matrix in women is fituate in the pelvis, or capacity of 
 the hypogaftrium, between the urinary bladder and the in- 
 teftinum rectum, and reaches as far as the flanks: it is fur- 
 rounded and defended by very ftrong bones; before, by the 
 os pubis; behind, by the facrum ; on each fide, by the ilium 
 and ifchium. It is in figure fome what like a flat Balk, or 
 dried pear. In women with child it expands, and receives 
 different forms, according to the different times and circum- 
 ftauces of eeltation. It has feveral coats, arteries, veins, 
 nerves, and ligaments ; and is interwoven with feveral different 
 kinds of fibres. 
 
 Anatomifts divide the Matrix into the fundus, and cervix; a 
 broad part, and a neck. It is in extent, from the extremity 
 of the one to that of the other, about three inches in length ; 
 its breadth at the fundus is about two and a half, and its thick- 
 nefs two. It has hut one cavity, unlcls we diftinguifh between 
 the cavity of the u crus, and that of its neck. This is very final], 
 fcarce fufficient to contain a garden-bean. At the bottom or 
 neck, towards the fundus, it grows very narrow in virgins; 
 the extremity of it is called the ofculum internum. In pregnant 
 women it opens, more efpecially towards the time of delivery. 
 The other and lower orifice of the neck, towards the vagina, 
 called ofculum externum, is a little prominent, refembling, in 
 fome meafure, the glans of the virile organ. — See Tab, anal, 
 (/plane.) fig. 9. 'i 
 The fubftance of the Matrix is membranous and carnous : it 
 confifts of three tunics; or according to fome, who deny that 
 name to the middle fubftance, of two only. The external tu- 
 nic, called alfo communis, is derived from the peritonaeum, and 
 confifts of two lamella; ; the exterior of which is pretty fmooth, 
 the interior rugged and uneven : This membrane invefts the 
 whole Matrix, and connects it to the inteftinum reclum, blad- 
 der, £3*f. The middle tunic is very thick, and compofed of 
 ftrong fibres varioufly difpofed : fome think it contributes to 
 the exclufion of the fcetus. though others imagine, it ferves 
 only to recover the tone of the part, after any violent diften- 
 tion. The inner tunic is nervous. 
 
 The Matrix is connected by its neck to the vagina; behind, 
 by its outward common membrane ; and before, by the fame 
 to the bladder : its fides are tied to other parts ; but the fundus 
 is left loofe, that it may expand and dilate more freely. Its 
 ligaments are four, two of which are called bread, and two 
 round, from their figure. The broad ligaments are membra- 
 nous, loofe, and fort ; whence they have been compared by 
 fome to the wings of bats, and called ales vefpertilimimi, The 
 
 ] round ligaments are of a firmer texture, and confift of a dou- 
 ble membrane, wrapped up in its arteries, veins, nerves, and 
 Iympheducls. The blood- vefiels, both in thefe and the round 
 ligaments, make a great part of what is called their fubjianee. 
 Thefe, as well as the others, ferve to keep the womb in a right 
 pofirion ; and are very liable to be injured by unfkilful mid- 
 wives. 
 
 On each fide of the fundus of the womb, arifes a duel:, which 
 opens into the womb with afmall orifice; hut in its progreis 
 inlarges, and towards the end is contracted again : at the end 
 next the ovaria, which is at liberty, it expands again into a 
 kind of foliage fringed round ; which expansion Fallopius, the 
 firft difcoverer, imagined like the end of a trumpet; whence 
 he called the whole duel, tuba. It confifts of a double mem- 
 brane. Both veins and arteries are very numerous in thefe 
 tubes, efpecially the latter, which, by various ramifications 
 and contorfions, make the main fubftance of them. Dr. 
 Wharton gives them valves ; but the other anatomifts difallow 
 that. See Fallopian Tube. 
 Suffocation of the Matrix. See Suffocation". 
 Speculum Matricis. See the article Speculum, 
 Matrix is alfo applied to places proper for the generation of 
 vegetables, minerals, and metals. 
 
 Thus the earth is the Matrix wherein feeds fprout ; and marca- 
 fitcs are by many conlidcred as the Matrixes of metals. 
 Matrix is alfo applied figuratively to feveral things, wherein 
 there appears a kind of generation ; and where certain things 
 feem to acquire a new being, or at leaft a new manner of being. 
 Of which kind are the moulds wherein the printers types or 
 letters are caft, and thole ufed in (hiking money and medals 
 in coining. 
 
 MATRON, Matrona, among the Romans, fignified a mar- 
 ried woman, and fometimes alio the mother of a family. 
 There was, however, fome difference between Matrona, and 
 matcr-familias. Servius fays, that fome imagined the difference 
 to lie in this, that Matrona was a woman who had one child, 
 and mater-f ami 'lias, fhe that had feveral. But others, parti- 
 cularly Aulus Gellius, take the name Matrona to belong to a 
 married woman, whether ftie had any children or no; the 
 hope and expectation of having them, being enough to war- 
 rant the title of mother, Matrona: and for this reafon it is, 
 that marriage is called matrimony. This opinion is fiipported 
 by Nonius. 
 
 MATRONALIA, feafts of the Roman ladies, or rather ma- 
 trons, celebrated on the calends of March, in honour of the 
 god Mar s . 
 
 No men living in celibate were allowed to aflift at the feaft. 
 MATROSSES, foldiers in the train of artillery, next below the 
 gunners ; their duty is to affift the gunners in traverfing, fpung- 
 ing, loading, and firing of guns, &c. See Artillery, (sc. 
 They carry fire-locks, and march along with the ftore-wag- 
 gons, both as a guard, and to help in cafe a waggon fhonld 
 break down. 
 MATTADORE. See the article Ombre. 
 MATTER, Materia, Body; or an extended, folid, divifiblc, 
 moveable, and paffive fubftance, the firft principle of all na- 
 tura! things, from the various arrangements and combinations 
 whereof all bodies are formed. 
 
 Ariftotle makes three principles, Matter, form, and privation: 
 which laft the Cartcfians throw out of the number; and others, 
 the two laft. >; 
 
 The properties of Matter we are pretty well acquainted with, 
 and can reafon about its divifibility, fohdity, c5V. (See Divi- 
 sibility, &c.) But the efience thereof, or the fubjecl where- 
 in thefe properties refide, or their lubftratum, is ftiil a myftery. 
 Ariflotle fpeaks very darkly on the fubjecl, defining Matter to 
 be nec quid, nec quantum, nec quale, nor any certain determi- 
 nate tiling at all ; which many of his followers interpret fo, as 
 to believe, that Matter does not at all exift. The Cartefians 
 make the efience of Matter to confift in extenfion} arguing, 
 that fince the properties above-mentioned are all that are eff'en- 
 tial to Matter, fome of them muft constitute its efience: and 
 fince extenfion is conceived prior to all the reft, and is that, 
 without which none of the reft can be conceived, extenfion is 
 that which constitutes the efience of Matter. — But the conclu- 
 fion, here, is unjuft ; for on this principle, the exiftencc of 
 Matter, according to Dr. Clarke, would have the faireft title 
 : to conftitute its efience, the exijhre being conceived prior to all 
 
 properties, and even to extenfion, 
 r Since then the word extenfion appears to go further, and to be 
 ) more general than Matter ; that impenetrable folidity, which 
 
 1 is efi'ential to all Matter, and to Matter alone, and from which 
 all its properties manifestly flow, may, with more propriety, 
 be called the effence of Matter. 
 
 , Again, if extenfion were the efience of Matter, and {a Matter 
 
 2 and fpace the fame thing; itwould follow, t\ntMatter is infinite 
 s and eternal, that it is a necefiary being, and could neither be 
 s created nor annihilated; which is abfurd. Befides, it appears 
 
 3 both from the nature of gravity, the motions of comets, the 
 vibrations of pendulums, (3c. that fpace is not Matter: and 
 
 / therefore it is not extenfive, but folid, impenetrable extenfion, 
 e which has a power of refilling, that conftitutes Matter. 
 
 Many 
 
MAT 
 
 MAT 
 
 Many among the old philofophers maintained the eternity of 
 Matter, out of which they fuppofed all things to be formed by 
 the hands of nature ; as being unable to conceive how any 
 thing fhould be formed out of nothing. Plato maintained, that 
 Matter had exiftcd eternally, and concurred with God in the 
 production of all things, as a paffive principle, or a kind of 
 collateral caufe. 
 
 Matter and form, the two fimple and original principles of all 
 things, according to the antients, compofed fome fimple na- 
 tures, which they called elements ; out of the various com- 
 binations whereof all natural things were afterwards com- 
 pofed. 
 
 Dr. Woodward feems of an opinion not very unlike this ; viz. 
 That Matter is originally and really very different, being at its 
 firffc creation divided into feveral ranks, fers, or kinds, of cor- 
 pufcles, differing in fubftance, gravity, hardnefs, flexibility, 
 figure, fize, ESfc. from the various compofures and combina- 
 tions of which, he thinks, arife all the varieties in bodies, as 
 
 to colour, hardnefs, gravity, taftes, &c. But Sir Ifaac 
 
 Newton takes all thofe differences to refult from the various 
 arrangements of the fame Matter ; which he judges to be ho- 
 mogeneous and uniform in all bodies. 
 
 Betides the properties of Matter hitherto known, Sir Ifaac 
 Newton has difcovered a new one ; viz. * That of attraction, 
 
 * or that every particle of Matter has an attractive power, or 
 
 * a tendency towards every other particle ; which power is 
 
 * ftrongeit in the point of contact, and fuddenly decreafes, in- 
 
 * fomuch that it acts no more at the leaft fenfible diftance, 
 6 and, at a greater diltance, is converted into a repellent force, 
 6 whereby the parts fly from each other.' On this principle of 
 attraction, he accounts for the cohefion of the particles of 
 bodies, which is otherwife inexplicable. 
 
 For he takes occafion to obferve, 4 That all bodies feem to be 
 
 * compounded of bard particles, even light itfelf, and all 
 
 * other the moft volatile of fluids ; infomuch as hardnefs may 
 
 * be efteemcd a property of all incompounded Mattery at leaft, 
 
 * the hardnefs of Matter ftands on as good a footing as that 
 
 * of its impenetrability ; all the bodies we know of being 
 
 * either hard themfelves, or capable of being hardened. Now, 
 4 if compound bodies be fo hard, as we find fome of them, 
 ' and yet if they are very porous, and confift of parts which 
 
 * are only laid together, the fimple particles, which are void 
 c of pores, and were never yet divided, muft be much harder. 
 
 * Now, fuch hard particles, being heaped together, can fcarce 
 
 * touch one another in more than a few points ; and therefore 
 ' they muft be feparable with much lefs force than is requifite 
 « to break a folid particle, whofe parts touch in all the fpace, 
 
 * without any pores or interftices [to weaken their cohefion. 
 
 * How then mould fuch very hard particles, only laid toge- 
 
 * ther, and touching only in a few points, ftick together, and 
 e that fo firmly as they do, without the affiftance of fome- 
 e thing that caufes them to be attracted or preflcd towards 
 
 * each other V 
 
 The fame great author obferves further, 4 That the fmalleft 
 1 particles may cohere by the ftrongeft attractions, and com- 
 
 * pofe bigger particles of weaker virtue ; and many of thefe 
 c may cohere, and compofe ftill bigger particles, whofe virtue 
 
 * is ftill weaker, and fo on for divers fucceffions, until the 
 
 * progreffion end in the bjggcft particles ; on which the opera- 
 
 * tions in chymiftry, and the colours of natural bodies, depend, 
 ' and which, by cohering, compofe bodies of a fenfible mag- 
 
 * nitude. If the body is compact, and bends or yields inward 
 ' to preffion, without any Aiding of its parts, it is bard, 
 4 and elajlic ; returning to its figure with a force arifing from 
 
 * the mutual attraction of its parts. If the parts Aide from 
 4 one another, the body is malleable or foft. If they Aip eaiily, 
 
 * and are of a fit fize to be agitated by heat, and the natural 
 ' heat is great enough to keep them in agitation, the body is 
 
 * fluid ; and, if it be apt to ftick to things, it is humid. And 
 ' the drops of every fluid afreet a round figure by the mutual 
 ' attraction of their parts, as the globe of the earth and fea 
 
 * affects a round figure, by the mutual attraction of gravity 
 1 of its parts.' 
 
 Again, 1 Since metals, diffolvcd in acids, attract but a fmall 
 
 * quantity of the acid, their attractive force reaches but to a 
 
 * fmall diftance. Now, as in algebra, where affirmative qu an- 
 
 * titiesceafe, there negative ones begin ; fo in mechanics, where 
 
 * attraction ccafes, there a repulfive virtue muft fucceed. That 
 6 there really is fuch a virtue, feems to follow from the re- 
 
 * flexions and inflexions of the rays of light; the rays beins 
 
 * repelled by bodies in both thefe cafes, without the immediate 
 
 * contact of the reflecting or inflecting body. The fame thin"- 
 4 feems alio to follow from the emiffion of light ; a ray, as 
 « foon as fhaken off from a fliining body by the vibrating mo- 
 
 * tion of the parts of the body, and got beyond the reach of 
 
 < attraction, being driven away with exceeding great velocity : 
 
 * for that force, which is fufficient to turn it back in reflexion, 
 « may be fufficient to emit it. It feems alfo to follow from 
 
 * the production of air and vapour ; the particles, when thev 
 
 * are fhaken off from the body by heat or fermentation, fo 
 ■ foon as they are beyond the reach of the attraction of the 
 
 < body, receding from it, and alfo from one another, with 
 Vol. a 
 
 ' great ftrength, and keeping at a diflance, fo as fometimes to 
 
 * take up above a million of times more fpace than they did 
 ( before in the form of a denfe body. Which vaft contraction 
 4 and expanfion feems unintelligible, by feigning the particles 
 
 * of air to be fpringy and ramous, or rolled up dike hoops, or 
 4 by any other means than a repulfive power. The particles of 
 
 * fluids, which do not cohere too fli ongly, and are of fuch a 
 
 * fmalnefs, as renders them moft fufceptible of thofe agitations 
 4 which keep liquors in a fluor, are more eafiiy feparated and 
 4 rarefied into vapour, i. e. in the language of the chymifts, 
 
 * they are volatile; rarefying with an eafy heat, and condenf- 
 
 * ing again with cold. But thofe which are groffer, and fo are 
 
 * lefs fufceptible of agitation, or which cohere by a ftronger 
 e attraction, are not feparated without a ftronger heat, or per- 
 4 haps not without fermentation. And thefe lair are the bodies 
 4 which chymiffs call fixed; and yet thefe, being rarefied by 
 ( fermentation, become true permanent air ; thofe particles 
 4 receding with the greatcft force, and being moft difficultly 
 
 * brought together, which, upon contact, cohere the moft 
 ' ftrongly. And becaufe the particles of permanent air are 
 4 groffer, and arife from denfer fubftances, than thofe of va- 
 4 pours ; thence it is, that true air is more ponderous than va- 
 
 * pour ; and that a moift atmofphere is lighter than a dry one, 
 4 quantity for quantity. From the fame repelling power it 
 4 feems to be, that flies walk upon the water without wetting 
 
 * their feet; and that the object-glaffes of long telefcopes lie 
 4 upon one another without touching; and that dry powders 
 4 are difficultly made to touch one another fo as to ftick toge- 
 4 ther, unlefs by melting them, or wetting them with water, 
 
 * which, by exhaling, may bring them together; and that 
 4 two polifhed marbles, jwhich by immediate contact ftick toge- 
 4 ther, are yet difficultly brought fo clofe together, as to ftick.' 
 He further obferves, 4 That, all things conlidered, it feems 
 4 probable, God, in the beginning, formed Matter in folid, 
 4 maffy, hard, impenetrable, move-able particles, of fuch fizes, 
 ' figures, and with fuch other properties, and in fuch propor- 
 
 * tion to fpace, as moft conduced to the end for which he form- 
 4 ed them ; and that thefe primitive particles, being folid, are 
 4 incomparably harder than any porous bodies compounded of 
 4 them ; even fo very hard, as never to wear, and break in 
 4 pieces : no ordinary power being able to divide, what God 
 4 himfelf made one in the full creation. While the particles 
 
 * continue intire, they may compofe bodies of one and the 
 
 * fame nature and texture in all ages; but fhould they wear 
 4 away, or break in pieces, the nature of things depending on 
 4 them would be changed. Water and earth, compofed of 
 4 old worn particles, and fragments of particles, would not be 
 4 of the fame nature and texture now, with water and earth 
 4 compofed of intire particles in the beginning. And therefore, 
 1 that nature may be lairing, the changes of corporeal things 
 4 are to be placed only in the various feparations, and new alio- 
 4 ciations and motions of thefe permanent particles; com- 
 4 pound bodies being apt to break, not in the midft of folid 
 4 particles, but where thofe particles are laid together, and 
 4 touch in a few points.' 
 
 It feems farther, 4 That thefe particles have not only a vis 
 4 inertia, accompanied with fuch paffive laws of motion as 
 4 naturally refult from that force, but alfo that they are moved 
 4 by certain active principles, fuch as is that of gravity, and 
 4 that which caufeth fci mentation, and the cohefion of bodies. 
 4 Thefe principles are to be confidered not as occult qualities, 
 4 fuppofed to refult from the fpecific forms of things, but as 
 ' general laws of nature, by which the things themfelves are 
 4 formed ; their truth appearing to us by phenomena, though 
 4 their caufes are not yet difcovered.* 
 
 Hobbcs, Spinofa, &c. maintain all the beings in the univerfe 
 to be material, and their differences to arife from their differ- 
 ent modifications, motions, &t, Thus A4atter extremely fub- 
 til, and in a brifk motion, they conceive, may think; and fo 
 they exclude all fpirits out of the world. 
 
 Dr. Berkley, on the contrary, argues againft the exiftence of 
 Matter itfelf ; and endeavours to prove, that it is a mere ens 
 rationis ; and has no exiftence out of the mind : 4 Thus, fays 
 ' he, that neither our thoughts, paffions, nor ideas, formed by 
 4 the imagination, exift without the mind, is evident ; norisit 
 ' lefs evident, that the various fenfations or ideas imprinted on 
 4 the fenfe, however blended or combined together (that is, 
 4 whatever objects they compofe), cannot exift otherwife, than 
 4 as in a mind perceiving them. This no man can doubt of, that 
 4 attends to what is meant by the term exift, when applied to 
 4 fenfible things. Thus I fay, the table I write on exifts, i.e. 
 4 I fee and feel it ; and if I were out of my ftudy, I fhould fay 
 
 * it exifted ; meaning thereby, that, if I were in my former 
 4 fituation, I fhould fee and feel it as before. Again, I fay 
 4 there was odour, i, e. I fmelt it ; a found, t, e. it was heard ; 
 4 a colour or touch, i". e. it was perceived by fight or touch. 
 4 This is the utmoft that can be meant by fuch expreffions ; 
 4 for as to the abfolute exiftence of any unthinking being, di- 
 ' ftinct from its being perceived, it is a chimsera. Their ejfe is 
 
 * percipi ; nor is it pofiible they fhould have any exiftence out 
 4 of the minds that perceive them. Again, what are hills and 
 
 * trees, Es7. but things perceived by fenfe ; and what do we 
 
 6 1 * perceive, 
 
MAX 
 
 MAY 
 
 e perceive, but our own ideas of fenfations; and can any one 
 1 of thefe,' or any combination of them, exift unperceived ? 
 1 What are light and colours, heat and cold, extenfton and 
 
 * figure but fo many fenfations, ideas, or impreffions on the 
 
 * fenfe ?' And is it poffible, even in thought, to frparate thefe 
 ' from perception ? It is next to felf-evident therefore, that all 
 
 * the choir of heaven, and furniture of the earth, in a word, all 
 ' the bodies that compofe the fyftem of the world, have not 
 « any fubfiftence out of a mind ; their efife is nothing more 
 « than their being perceived : and therefore, as long as they 
 4 do not exift in me, ;'. e. are not perceived by me, nor any 
 
 * other created fpirit, they have no fhadow of exiftencc at all, 
 
 * unlefs, perhaps, in the mind of fome eternal fpirit. It ap- 
 
 * pears therefore, with the light of an axiom, that there is 
 « not any other fubftance, but fpirit, t&tf 
 
 Mtherial Matter. ) T/Etherial. 
 Subtile Matter. >See the article j Materia Subtilts. 
 Quantity s/Matter. J (Quantity. 
 Matter of Deed fignifies a truth to be proved, though not by 
 
 any record ! by which it ftands contra-diftinguifhed from 
 Matter of Record, which is that which may be proved by fome 
 
 record. 
 
 If a man be fued to an exigent during the time he was m the 
 king's wars, this is Matter in deed, and not Matter of record ; 
 and therefore he that will allege this for himfelf, muft come 
 before the fcire facias or execution be awarded againft him : 
 for, after that, nothing will ferve but Matter of record; that 
 is, fome error upon the procefs appearing upon record. 
 
 Foreign Matter. See the article Foreign. 
 
 MATTINS *, the firft part in the daily fervice of the Romifh 
 church. 
 
 * The word comes from the Italian Mattim, or the French Ma- 
 tin, morning. 
 
 Mattins are fometimes held early in the morning, fometimes 
 at midnight, and fometimes the even before. And infirm peo- 
 ple, even^in monafteries, are difpenfed from attending Mattim. 
 MATULAM.— Hydrops ad Matulam. See the article Hy- 
 drops. 
 
 MATURANTIA, in medicine, &c. ripeners; or fuch things 
 as promote maturation. See Suppuration. 
 
 MATURATION, in pharmacy, a preparation of fruits, or 
 other fimples, gathered before their Maturity^ to fit them to 
 be eaten, or for other ufes. See Fruit, tsV. 
 
 MAUNCH, the figure of an antient fleeve of a coat, fo called 
 by the heralds ; and is borne in many gentlemens efcutcheons : 
 as in the earl of Huntingdon's. — See Tab. Herald, fig. 40. 
 
 MAUNDY, or Maundey Tlmrfday, Dies Mandati, the 
 Tlmrfday before Eafter ; fo called from the French Monde, i. e. 
 fportula, it being a cuftom on that day to give a largefs or 
 bounty to certain poor men, whofe feet the king formerly 
 Wafted, as a mark of humility, and in obedience to the com- 
 mand of Chrift. 
 
 MAUSOLEUM *, a magnificent tomb, or funeral monument, 
 decorated with architecture and fculpture, and inferibed with 
 an epitaph ; erectid in honour of fome emperor, prince, or 
 other illuftrious perfon. 
 
 * The word comes from M.mfolus, the name of a king of Caria, to 
 whom Artemifia, his widow, ercfted a moll ftately monument, 
 that has fince been numbered among the wonders of the world ; 
 calling it, from his name, Maufoleum. See Monument. 
 
 Mausoleum is alfo ufed tofignify the decoration of a fictitious 
 
 tomb, or catafalcha, in a funeral pomp. 
 MAW. See Abomasus. 
 
 MAXILL/E, in anatomy, the jaws ; or thofe parts of an ani- 
 mal, wherein the teeth are fet, and which ferve for mafticating 
 the food. 
 
 The Maxilla are two in number, and are denominated, from 
 their fituation, fuperior, and inferior. 
 Maxilla fuperior, or the upper jaw, is immoveable in man, 
 and all other animals we know of j excepting parrots, croco- 
 diles, and the acus vulgaris, or gar-fifh. Vide Ray Synopf. 
 
 Pifc. p. 109. 
 
 It confifts of eleven bones, joined to each other per harmomam; 
 five difpofed on each fide, and one in the middle. Their names 
 are the zygoma, os maxiliare, os unguis, os nafi, os palati, and 
 vomer. See Zygoma, ESftf. In this jaw are alveoli or fockets 
 for fixteen teeth. — See Tab. anat. (ojleol.) fig. I. lit. d. 
 Maxilla inferior, or the lower jaw, only confifts of two bones, 
 which unite in the middle of the chin, by the intervention of 
 a cartilage, which hardens as the child grows ; and at length, 
 about the age of feven years, becoming bony, joins the two 
 
 bones into a continued one, refembling the Greek v. See 
 
 Tab. anat. ( ojleol.) fig. 1 . lit. e. 
 
 It confifts of two tables, betwixt which is a fpongy fubftance, 
 in children medullary. The fore-part is {hallow, juft fuffi- 
 cient to afford fockets for fixteen teeth. It has two proceffes, 
 the corone and condyloides (which fee) ; four holes or foramina 
 for the paffage of veffels, and five pair of proper mufcles, viz, 
 the croupbytes or temporal, the maffeter, biventer or digaftri- 
 
 Cus, pterygoideus ihtermis, and pterygoideus extcrnus. See 
 each in its place. 
 
 MAXILLARY Gland, Maxillaris Glandula, a confiderable 
 gland of the conglomerate kind, fituate on the iniide, under 
 the lower jaw-bone, near the mufculus digafiricus. 
 It difcharges itfelf by feverai brandies of ducts, which form 
 one trunk, that paflcs under mylohyoideus, and meets with 
 the Maxillary gland of the other fide within the fore-teeth of 
 the lower jaw, having diftinft orifices, with a papilla on each 
 fide the fraenum linguae. See Gland, and Mouth. 
 
 MAXIM denotes an eftablifhed propofuion or principle. 
 
 In which fenfe it amounts to much the fame with axiom. See 
 Axiom. 
 
 Maxims ate a kind of proportions, which have paffed for prin- 
 ciples of fcience ; and which, being felf-evident, have been 
 by fome fuppofed innate. 
 MAXIMUM, in mathematics, denotes the greateft quantity at- 
 tainable in any given cafe. 
 
 By which it Hands oppofed to minimum. See Minimum. 
 Methodus de Maximis & Minimis, a method fo called, in ufe 
 among mathematicians, whereby they arrive at the greateft or 
 leaft poffible quantity attainable in any cafe. 
 If the fetni-ordinates of any curve continually increafe or de- 
 creafe to fome certain term, which once pafled, they begin 
 again to increafe or decreafe, the method whereby their Max- 
 ima 6f minima, i. e. their greateft and leaft ftates are determined, 
 is called the method de Maximis & minimis ; which, it is true, 
 may be ufed to determine other quantities that increafe or de- 
 creafe to any certain term ; but then they muft always be rc- 
 prefented by the ftmi-ordinates of curves. 
 If a flowing quantity in an equation be propofed to be deter- 
 mined to any extreme value — The rule is : having put the equa- 
 tion into fluxions, let the fluxion of that quantity (whofe ex- 
 treme value is fought) be fuppofed=o; by this means, all 
 thofe members of the equation, in which it is found, will va- 
 nifh, and the remaining ones will give the determination of the 
 Maximum or minimum defircd. 
 
 The reafon of the rule is, that every Maximum or minimum 
 is, in its own nature, a ftable quantity : to determine there- 
 fore any flowing quantity to a Maximum or minimum, is to 
 make it (inftead of a flowing) a permanent one ; but the fluxion 
 of a permanent quantity is equal to nothing. — This we fhall 
 iliuftrate by an example or two. 
 
 To determine the greateft or leaft applicate in an algebraic 
 curve. Since, in curves that have a Maximum and a minimum, 
 the tangent TM {Tab. analyf. fig. 4. and fig. 26.) degenerates 
 at length into D E, and becomes parallel to the axis, and fo the 
 perpendicular MH coincides with the greateft or leaft applicate 
 CG ; in the cafe of Maximum and minimum, the fub- tangent 
 TP becomes infinite, and the fub-normal PH equal to no- 
 thing : but PH-=ydy : dx. If thenydy : dx=^o; we fhall 
 finddy—o; and becaufe of P T=y dx : dy=oa (the note 
 of infinity) dx=zco . 
 
 It is poffible for the tangent H G (fig. 5.) to lie directly againft 
 the femi-ordinate G C ; in which cafe, the fub-tangent PT is 
 equal to nothing, and the fub-normal PH is infinite. But PT 
 =ydx : dy=o; therefore if ydx : dy = o, we fhall have 
 dx = o; or becaufe of PH==y dy : dx~ 00, we find dy= cc. 
 Both dx and y being, in refpect of dy, infinitefimals. From 
 the equation of the curve therefore we are to find the value of 
 dy, which is to be made equal either to nothing, or to in- 
 finity, that we may have the value of the abfeifs, to which 
 the greateft applicate is co-ordinate. 
 
 To cut a right line A B (fig. 6.) in fuch a manner in D, that 
 the rectangle A D and D'B fhall be the greateft that can pof- 
 fibly be thus conftructed. Let AB-a, AD = x ; then will 
 DB=a — v; confequently AD. DB=ax — x x fome Maxi- 
 mum; and hence its differential will be equal to nothing, as 
 being conceived at a circle, to which 
 a x — xx—yy. 
 
 Wherefore adx — 2 xdx-=2.y dy— o 
 
 a — 2 o 
 
 The line A B therefore is to be cut into two equal parts ; and 
 the fquare is the greateft of all rectangles, whofe altitudes and 
 bafes, taken together, are equal to each other. 
 MAY *, Maius, the fifth month in the year, reckoning from 
 our firft or January ; and the third, counting the year to begin 
 with March, as the Romans antiently did. 
 
 * It was called Maius by Romulus, in refpeft to the fenators and 
 nobles of his city, who were named Mnjorfs ; as the following 
 month, was called Junius, in honour of the youth of Rome, in 
 henorem Jumersm, who fcrved him in the year : though others 
 will have it to have been thus called from Maia, the mother of 
 Mercury, to whom they offered facrifice on the firft day of it ; 
 and Papias derives it from Mudius, eo quod tunc terra madeat. 
 
 In this month the fun enters Gemini, and the plants of the 
 earth in general begin to flower. 
 
M E A 
 
 The month of May was under the protection of Apollo ; and 
 in it alfo they kept the feftival of Bona Dea, that of the gob- 
 lins, called Lemuria ; and the ceremony of regifugium^ or the 
 cxpulfionof the kings. See Lemuria, Utc. 
 The vulgar have a great opinion of the virtues of May-dew, and 
 i$%-butter. 
 
 The month of May has ever been efteemed favourable to love ; 
 and yet the antients, as well as many of the moderns, look on 
 it as an unhappy month for marriage. The original reafon may 
 perhaps be referred to thefeaftof the Lemures, which was held in 
 it. Ovid alludes to this in the fifth of his Fafti, when he fays, 
 Nec vidua ttsdis eadcm, nec virginis apta 
 
 Temporal qua nupfit, non diuturna fuit : 
 Hac quoque de caufa^ fi te proverbia tangunt^ 
 Menfe malum Maio nubere valgus ait. 
 MAYHEM. See the article Mahim. 
 Jppeal of Mayhem. See the article Appeal. 
 MAYL, in falconry, fignifies to pinion the wings of a hawk. 
 See Hawk. 
 
 MAYOR*, or Major, the chief magiftrate or governor in 
 the cities, and moll corporation- towns of England ; chofen an- 
 nually by his peers out of the number of the aldermen. See 
 Alderman. 
 
 * The word, according to Verftegan, comes from the antient Eng- 
 lifh, ma'ier, able, potent, of the verb may, orcan. 
 The Mayor of the place is the king's lieutenant, and with the 
 aldermen and common-council, can make laws, called Bylaivs, 
 for the government of the place. He has alfo the authority of 
 a kind of judge, to determine matters, and to mitigate the ri- 
 gour of the law. 
 
 King Richard I. A. D. 1189, firft changed the bailiffs of Lon- 
 don into Mayors ; by whofe example others were afterwards 
 appointed. 
 
 Mayor's Court, See the article Court. 
 MEAD, a wholefomc, agreeable liquor, prepared of honey and 
 water. 
 
 One of the bed methods of preparing Mead is as follows ; 
 
 Into twelve gallons of water, flip the win tcs of fix eggs ; mix- 
 ing thefe well together, and to the mixture adding twenty 
 pounds of honey. Let the liquor boil an hour, and, when boiled, 
 add cinnamon, ginger, cloves, mace, and a little rofemary. As 
 foon as it is cold, put a fpoonful of yell: to it, and tun it up, 
 keeping the veflel filled as it works ; when it has done working 
 flop it up clofe ; and, when fine, bottle it off for ufe. 
 
 MEAN, the Middle, between two extremes. 
 
 Thus we fay, the mean motion of a planet ; its mean difhnce, 
 &e. meaning a motion or diftance, which as far exceeds the 
 leaft diftance or motion, as it is exceeded by the treated. 
 
 Mean, in logic. See the article Medium, 
 
 Mean proportion. See Extreme proportion. 
 
 Mean time. See the article Time-. 
 
 Mean axis, in optics. See the article Axis. 
 
 Me an diameter, in gauging. See Diameter. 
 
 Mean, inlaw, refers either to time, or dignity. — Thus in the 
 firft fenfe we fay, his a<flion was mean betwixt the diffeifin 
 made to him, and his recovery ; i.e. in the interim. 
 In the fecond fenfc, we fay, there is lord Mean, or Mefne, that 
 is, a lord of a manor, who has tenants that hold of him, yet 
 himfelf holds of the king. 
 
 MEASLES, MorhilU, in medicine, a cutaneous difeafe, con- 
 fiding in a general appearance of eruptions, not tending to fup- 
 puration ; accompanied with a fever. 
 
 This diltempcr feems to bear a great affinity to the fmall-pox ; 
 the fymptoms being in many refpects the fame, the caufe near- 
 ly the fam«, and the regimen and cure not much different. 
 The eruptions ufually appear about the fourth day, like flea- 
 bites, over the whole body ; but thicker and redder, and with 
 greater inflammation, than thofe of the fmall-pox, and vanlfl) 
 in four or fixdays after appearance ; being, when at the height, 
 noj krgM than pins heads. 
 
 The Aleajles is a difeafe more troublefome than dangerous; tho' 
 it often inclines to confumptions, by a cough which it leaves be- 
 hind. See Supplement, Article MorbILLI, 
 MEASNE. See the article Mesne. 
 
 MEASURE, Mensura, in geometry, denotes any certain 
 quantity aflumed as one, or unity, to which the ratio of other 
 homogeneous or fimilar quantities is exprefled. 
 This definition is fome what more agreeable to practice than 
 that of Euclid, who defines Meafure a quantity, which beino 
 
 repeated any number of times, becomes equal to another. - 
 
 Which only anfwers to the idea of an arithmetical Meafure, 
 or quota-part. 
 
 Measure of an angle, is an arch, defcribed from the vertex a 
 (Tab.Geomet.fig. io.) in anv place between its legs ; as at d f. 
 Hence, angles are diftinguifhed by the ratio of the arches, de- 
 fcribed from the vertex, between the legs, to the peripheries 
 Angles then are diftinguifhed by thofe arches ; and the arches 
 are diftinguifhed by their ratio to the periphery— Thus the 
 angle la c is faid to be of fo many degrees, as there are in the 
 arch f d. See Angle. 
 
 Mi asvre of a figure, or plane-furface, is a fquare, whofe fide 
 is one inch, foot, yard, or fome other determinate length. 
 
 M E A 
 
 Among geometricians, it is ufually a rod, called z fquare roj, 
 divided into ten fquare feet, and the fquare feet into (quart di- 
 gits. — Hence fquare Meafure,. 
 Measure of a line is any right line taken at pleafure, and con- 
 fidered as unity. 
 
 The modern geometricians ufe a decempeda, or rod, divided 
 mto ten equal parts, called /,„. The feet they fubdivide into 
 ten digits, thedigit into ten lines, &c. 
 
 This decimal diyifion of the Mrnfun was firft introduced by 
 Stevinus, probably from the example of Regiomontanus. The 
 index or charafler of the decempeda; he made o, that of feet r 
 of digits 2, of lines 3, &e. which, in regard the Meafure was 
 lubdivided in a decuple ratio, ivere the logarithms of the divi- 
 fion. Bayer, in lieu of thefe, exprefi'ed the logarithms by the 
 Roman charaflers ; v. gr. 5 perches, 4 feet, 3 digits and 
 2 lines, he exprefled thus ; 5 », 4', 3", 2 "<. I t is f„ quemly 
 molt commodious to feparatc the integers, or rods, from the 
 fraflions by a point; thus, inftcad of 5", 4', 3", 2"', to write 
 5.432. ^ F. Noel obferves, that, among the L'hincfe, the deci- 
 mal divifion obtains in their common Meafurts, and even in 
 their weights. 
 
 Line s/Measures. See the article Line. 
 
 Measure of the mafs, or quantity of matter, in mechanics, is its 
 weight ; it being apparent, that all the matter which coheres 
 and moves with a body, gravitates with it : and it being found 
 by experiment that the gravities of homogeneal bodies are in 
 proportion to their bulks ; hence, while the mafs continues the 
 fame, the weight will be the fame, whatever figure it put on : 
 its abfoluic weight, we mean ; for, as to its fpecific weight, it 
 varies as the quantity of furface varies. See Weight. 
 
 Measure of a Number, in arithmetic, is fuch a number as di- 
 vides another, without leaving any fraflion ; thus 9 is a Mea- 
 fure of 27. 
 
 Measure of a folid is a cube, whofe fide is one inch, foot, yard, 
 or other determined length. 
 
 Among geometricians, it is fometimes a rod or perch, called a 
 
 cubic perch ; divided into cubic feet, digits, tjfr Hence cubic 
 
 Meafure,, or Meafure, of capacity. See Cube, and Timber. 
 Measure of velocity, in mechanics, is the fpace paffed over by 
 a moving body in anv given time. 
 
 To meafure a velocity, therefore, the fpace mill be divided 
 into as many equal parts, as the time is conceived to be divided 
 into. The quantity of fpace anfwering to fuch an article of 
 time is the Meafure of the velocity. 
 Measure, in a legal, commercial', and popular fenfe, denotes 
 a certain quantity or proportion of any thing bought, fold, va- 
 lued, or the like. 
 
 Meafure,, then, are various, according to the various kinds 
 and dimenfions of the things mcafured. Hence arife 
 lineal or longitudinal Measures for lines, or lengths- 
 Square Measures for areas, or fuperficies: and 
 Solid or cubic Measures for bodies, and their capacities 
 
 All which again are very different in different countries, and in 
 different ages, and even many of them for different commodi- 
 ties. Whence arife other divifions of <tW/?,V and foreign Mea- 
 fure, anient and modern ones, dry and liquid Meafure,, &c 
 The bufinefs of Meafure, has been fo confufedlv and imper- 
 fefl y delivered by Engl.fli writers, that the reader will not be 
 dilpleafed with the pains we have here taken to difembroil and 
 fupply it. -Under this head he will find enumerated the various, 
 general, ftanding Meafure,, long, fquare, and cubic, now or 
 heretofore in ufe, with their proportions and redutfions ■ for 
 particulars, he mull be contented to be referred to the parti- 
 cular heads ; as Foot, Dig,t, Eli, Tun, Gallon Bu- 
 shel, Perch, League, Furlong, Esf c 
 Long Measures or Measures ,/ application.— The Emliti 
 Standard Long Measure, for commerce, or that whereby the 
 quantities of things are ordinarily eftimated in the way of trade 
 IS the yard ; containing three Englifh fee, ; equal to three Pan's 
 feet , inch r) of an inch ; or J of a Paris ell.-I, s divifions 
 are the foot, fpan, palm, inch, and barley-corn, which fee 
 under their refpeflive heads. Its multiples are the pace, fa- 
 thom pole, furlong, and mile. The proportions thefe feye- 
 rally bear to each other will be exprefled in a table for the pur- 
 pofe — Ajfay of Meafure,. See Assa Y. 
 The French Standard Measure, for commerce, is the aune or 
 ell, containing 3 Paris feet, 7 inches, 8 lines ; or I yard, — 
 Enghfh ; the Paris foot royal exceeding the Emrlilh by -JiJ. 
 parts, as in one of the following tables. This ell is divided 
 two ways; viz. into halves, thirds, fixths, and twelfths; and 
 into quarters, half-quarters, and fixteenlhs. 
 This ell holds throughout the greateft part of France; except- 
 ing at Troyes in Champagne ; at Arc in the Barroi's ; and in 
 fome partsof Picardy and Burgundy, where the ell only contains 
 two feet, five inches, one line ; in Bretagne, where it contains 
 four feet, two inches, eleven lines ; and at St. Genoux in 
 Berry, where it exceeds the Paris ell by eight lines. See Ell. 
 But in Languedoc, particularly at Marfcilles, Montpelie'r, 
 Thouloufe in Provence, and in Guienne, they meafure by the 
 canna, which at Touloufe and in Guienne contains five Paris 
 feet, five inches, and fix lines ; or one Paris ell and an half 
 But at Montpeher, and throughout the lower Languedoc, as 
 2 ° alfo 
 
M E A 
 
 M E A 
 
 alfo irt ProVence and Avignon, and even Dauphinc, the canna 
 is fix feet and nine lines ; or one Paris ell and two thirds. See 
 
 Canna. r , 
 
 The Standard Measure in Holla nd, Flanders, Sweden, a good 
 part of Germany, many of the hans-towns, at Dantzick, and 
 Hamburg ; and at Geneva, Frankfort, &c. is likewife the ell : 
 But the ell, in all tbefe places, differs from the Paris ell. In 
 Holland, it contains one Paris foot eleven lines, or four fe- 
 venths of the Paris ell. The Flanders ell contains two feet, 
 one inch, five lines, and half a line ; or feven twelfths of the 
 Paris ell. The ell of Germany, Brabant, tSc. is equal to that 
 of Flanders. 
 
 The Italian Measure is the bracchio, brace, or fathom: this 
 obtains in the ftates of Modena, Venice, Florence, Lucca, 
 Milan, Mantua, Bologna, &c. but is of different lengths. At 
 Venice, it contains one Paris foot, eleven inches, three lines; 
 or eight fifteenths of the Paris ell. At Bologna, Modena, and 
 Mantua, the brace is the fame as at Venice. At Lucca, it 
 contains one Paris foot, nine inches, ten lines ; or half a Paris 
 ell. At Florence, it contains one foot, nine inches, four lines ; 
 or forty-nine hundredths of a Paris ell. At Milan, the brace 
 for meafuring of filks is one Paris foot, feven inches, four lines ; 
 or four ninths of a Paris til : That for woollen cloths is the 
 fame with the ell of Holland. Laflly, at Bergama, the brace 
 is one foot, feven inches, fix lines ; or five ninths of a Paris ell. 
 The ufual Meafure at Naples, however, is the canna, contain- 
 ing fix feet, ten inches, and two lines ; or one Paris ell, and 
 fifteen feventeenths. 
 
 The Spanift Measure is the vara, or yard, in fome places call- 
 ed the barra; containing feventeen twenty-fourths of the Paris 
 ell. — But the Meafure in Caftile and Valencia is the pan, fpan, 
 or palm ; which is ufed, together with the canna, at Genoa. 
 
 In Afragbn, the vara is equal to a Paris ell and an half ; or 
 
 five feet, five inches, fix lines. 
 The Portuguese Measure is the cavedos, containing two feet, 
 
 eleven lines ; or four fevenchs of a Paris ell ; and the vara, an 
 
 hundred and fix whereof make an hundred Paris ells. 
 Tiie Piedmontefe Measure is the ras, containing one Paris foot, 
 
 nine inches, ten lines ; or half a Paris ell. 
 
 In Sicily, their Meafure is the canna; the fame with that of 
 
 Naples. 
 
 The Mufcovite Measures are the cubit, equal to one Paris 
 foot, four inches, two lines ; and the arcin, two whereof are 
 equal to three cubits. 
 
 The Turkijh and Levant Measure are the picq, containing two 
 feet, two inches, and two lines ; or three fifths of the Paris 
 ell. — The Chinele Meafure, the cobre ; ten whereof are equal 
 to three Paris ells. — In Perfia, and fome parts of the Indies, 
 the gueze, whereof there are two kinds ; the royai gueze, call- 
 ed alfo ihe gueze monhelfer, containing two Paris feet, ten in- 
 ches, eleven lines, or four fifths of the Paris ell ; and the fhorter 
 gueze, called limply gueze, only two thirds of the former. — 
 At Goa and Ormuz, the Meafure is the vara, the fame with 
 that of the Poitugueze, having been introduced by them.. — In 
 Pegu, and fome other parts of the Indies, the cando or candi, 
 equal to the ell of Venice. — At Goa, and other parts, they ufe 
 a larger cando, equal to feventeen Dutch ells ; exceeding that 
 of Babel and Ballbra by ^ per centum, and the vara by 6^. — 
 In Siam, they ufe the ken, fhort of three Paris feet by one 
 inch. The ken contains two foks, the fok two keubs, the 
 kcub twelve nious, or inches ; the niou to be equal to eight 
 grains of rice, ;'. e, to about nine lines. — At Camboia, they 
 ufe the hafter ; in Japan, the tatam ; and the fpan on fome of 
 the coafts of Guiney. 
 
 EnglifhLong Measures, or Measures of Application. 
 Inch 
 
 Palm 
 
 36 
 
 60 
 7 ? - 
 
 24 
 66 
 
 7920 2640 
 63360 2 1 1 20 
 
 Span 
 
 880 
 
 7°4Q 
 
 Foot 
 
 5280 
 
 Cubit 
 
 Yard 
 
 
 
 1 3 
 
 Pace 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Fathom 
 
 5t 
 
 
 
 Pole 
 
 i 220 
 
 132 
 
 1 10 
 
 4° 
 
 1760 
 
 1056 
 
 880 
 
 220 
 
 Furlong 
 
 Mile 
 
 Scripture Long Measures. 
 Digit 
 
 I Palm 
 
 24 
 
 '44 
 192 
 
 1920 
 
 36 
 
 48 
 
 48O 
 
 Spa 
 
 Cubit — 
 2 {Fathom 
 
 16 
 
 160 
 
 Ezekiel's reed ' 
 
 Arabian pole — — 1 ' 
 ~~| Schcenus, meafuring-line 
 
 Engl. Feet. 
 
 Inch. Deci 
 
 0 
 
 0,912 
 
 
 3.648 
 
 . ■ 0 
 
 10,944 
 
 
 9,888 
 
 7 
 
 3>55 2 
 
 10 
 
 11,328 
 
 _ 14 
 
 7,104 
 
 — 145 
 
 11,04 
 
 Grecian Long Measures reduced to EngUJb. 
 Daftylus, digit 
 
 Doron, dochme 
 Lichas 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 9600 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 2400 
 
 9i 
 
 960 
 
 76800' 19200] 7680 
 
 Orthodoron 
 
 Spitha 
 
 872TT 
 
 .me ■ ' 
 
 Pous, foot 
 
 Pygme, cubit 
 
 Engl. Paces. Feet. Inch. Dec. 
 
 o o o,7554ts 
 
 o 0 3,02i8f 
 
 o o 7,554 6 f 
 
 o o 8,3101^ 
 
 o o 9,0656^ 
 
 i o 1 0,0875 
 
 800 
 
 ^16400 4800 
 
 600 
 
 Jj- 
 
 133i 
 
 Pygon — • " 
 ~~ Pecus, cubit larger 
 ^Orgya, pace 
 
 4266- 
 
 3840 
 
 4 oo lioolAutl furlong 100 
 
 3~Ioo 8oo| 8 |Milion, mile 805 
 
 6,13125 
 
 0,525 
 
 4.5, 
 
 ■ P 
 
 Jtwijh 
 
M E A 
 
 ME A 
 
 Ji-jjijhLong or Itine rary Measures. 
 
 Cubit 
 
 q6oi 
 
 Eng. Miles. Paces. Feet. Dec. 
 ° o 1,824. 
 
 a day's journey 
 
 o 145 
 
 0 729 
 
 1 403 
 
 + "53 
 
 33 '7* 
 
 4,6 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.0 
 4.o 
 
 Roman Long Measures reduced to Englijb. 
 
 Digitus tranfverfus — — — • 
 
 Palmus minor 
 
 Pes 
 
 7500 
 60000 1 20000 
 
 S 
 
 "oT; - 
 
 Palm i pes 
 
 it 
 
 Engl. Paces. Feet. Inch. Dec, 
 
 ■— o o °>7*5k 
 
 o 0 0,967 
 
 o o 2,901 
 
 o o 11,604 
 
 0 1 
 
 5 1 5,4.06 
 
 +.6} 
 
 2 
 
 Partus 
 
 
 125 
 
 2000 
 
 1000 
 
 ".Miliare 067 
 
 5»°« 
 10.02 
 
 ^Proportions of the Long Measures of fever al Nations to the Englifi foot, by Mr. Greaves. 
 
 TL™ V~*A:tU iT-i«,Jtf,4 Cant Kolnrr A'...'.J^J :„ t „ 1 .1 mi , ., . . 
 
 The Englifh fhndard foot being divided into rooo equal parts, th< 
 
 other Meafures will have the proportions to it, which follow 
 The Englifh foot, from the ftandard in Guildhall 
 The Paris royal foot, in the Chatelet — 
 The Rhinland foot, of Sncllius — 
 
 The Greek foot . ~~ 
 
 The Roman foot, on the monument of Coflutius 
 The Roman foot, on the monument of Statilius 
 The Roman foot, of ViHalpandus, taken from the 
 Congius of Vefpafian . 
 
 1 000 
 1068 
 '°33 
 loo7 T V 
 
 967 
 97^ 
 
 The Venetian foot 
 The ell of Antwerp 
 The ell of Amfterdam 
 The ell of Leyden 
 The canna of Naples 
 
 986 
 1162 
 2283 
 
 r 2 68 
 2260 
 
 6880 
 
 The vara of Almeria and Gibraltar in Spain 
 The braccio of Florence — — . 
 
 The palm of Genoa ■ — _ 
 The common braccio of Sienna — 
 The braccio of Sienna for linen — 
 The palm of the architects at Rome, whereof X 
 
 make the canna of the fame architects _ 
 The palm of the braccio of the merchants and wea- 
 vers at Rome; from a marble in the capitol, with 
 this infeription, CVRANTE LV POETO 
 The large pique of the Turks at Conftantinoplc to 
 The fmall pique of the Turks at Conftantinople is 
 the larger as 3 1 to 32 
 
 The arifh of Perfia — 
 
 The derah or cubit of the Egyptians 
 
 2700 
 1913 
 
 815 
 
 1Z4.2 
 
 1974 
 
 «95i 
 2200 
 
 1824 
 
 Proportions of feveral Long Measures to each other, by M. Ttcard. 
 
 The Rhinland or Leyden foot ( t 2 whereof make the 
 
 Rhinhnd perch) fuppofed — 
 The Englifti foot — — 
 
 The Paris foot — — 
 
 The Amlterdam foot, from that of Leyden, by 
 
 Snellius — — ■ 
 
 The Dam'fh foot (two whereof make the Danifti ell 
 The S'.vedifh foot ■ — — 
 The Bruflels foot — _ 
 
 The Dantjic foot, from Hevelius's Selenographia 
 
 The Lyons toot, by M. Auzout , 
 
 The Bologna foot, by the fame — 
 The braccie of Florence, by the fame, and father 
 
 Merfenne ■ — 
 
 The palm of the architects at Rome, according to 
 
 696 
 675* 
 720 
 
 629 
 
 7°l-,5 
 
 65SJ 
 
 6091 
 
 636 
 
 7S7f 
 
 843 
 
 1290 
 
 49+} 
 
 6S7i 
 6c Si 
 
 the obfervatiom of Meff. Picard and Auzout 
 The Roman foot in the capito], examined by MeiT. 
 
 Picard and Auzout 6-~ or 6ci 
 
 The fame from the Greek foot - J 6cz 
 
 From the vineyard Mattei — , 
 
 From the palm — 
 
 From the pavement of the Pantheon, fuppofed to 
 
 contain 10 Roman feet — 
 
 From a flip of marble in the fame pavement, fuppofed 
 
 to contain 3 Roman feet — i 
 
 From the pyramid of Ceftius, fuppofed to contain 95 
 
 Roman feet — 
 
 From the diameters of the columns in the arch of Sep- 
 
 655 
 
 65O 
 
 653 i 
 
 timius Se' 
 From 
 
 6 53i 
 
 Spare or Superficial Measures.— Englifi fquarc or fuperficial 
 Meajures are raifed from the yard of 36 inches, multiplied in- 
 to itfelf ; and this producing 1 296 fquare inches in the fquare 
 yard, the divifions of this are fquare feet and inches ; and the 
 
 a flip of porphyry in the pavement of the Pantheon 65 
 
 multiples, poles, roods, and acres ; as in the table 
 French fouure Meafures are regulated by . a fquare lines in the 
 mch fquare; 12 inches in the foot, 22 feet in the ocrch, and 
 100 perches in the arpent or acre. 
 
 Englifi Square Measures. 
 
 Feet 
 
 9 
 
 2 S 
 
 272J 
 
 '° S 9° 12, o 
 
 43^60 4840 
 
 Paces 
 
 10,89 
 
 1743,6 
 
 Poles 
 
 _$o_ I Rood 
 160 
 
 I A era 
 
 Grecian fquare Mafurc, were the plethron, or acre, bvl 
 
 Vol' 0 !!'''' 11 ' 1 ' 4 H ' by othcrs "n^ fe « \ audi 
 
 aroura, the half of the plethron. The aroura 
 tians was the fquare of 1 00 cubits. 
 6 K 
 
 of the Fgyp- 
 
 Rontan 
 
M E A 
 
 M E A 
 
 Roman Square-Ms asur.es reduced to Engliflj. 
 
 The integer was a jugerum or acre, which they divided like the libra, or as ; 
 Jugerum contained 
 
 Square Feet. Scruples. Engl.Roods.Sq.Poles.Sq.Feet. 
 
 As 
 
 28800 
 
 288 
 
 z 
 
 lS 
 
 250,05 
 
 Deunx 1 
 
 26400 
 
 264 
 
 
 
 183,85 
 
 Dextans 1 
 
 24000 
 
 240 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 117,64 
 
 Dodrans ■ 
 
 2 1 600 
 
 216 
 
 1 
 
 3 + 
 
 S",4* 
 
 Ees 1 
 
 19200 
 
 192 
 
 1 
 
 ?5 
 
 2 57>4« 
 
 Septunx 
 
 "16800 
 
 168 
 
 
 17 
 
 191,25 
 
 Semis 
 
 14400 
 
 H+ 
 
 1 
 
 09 
 
 125,05 
 
 Quincunx- 
 
 r 2000 
 
 1 20 
 
 1 
 
 01 
 
 58,82 
 
 Triens ■ 
 
 9600 
 
 96 
 
 0 
 
 3 2 
 
 264,85 
 
 Quadrans — ■ 
 
 7200 
 
 7 Z 
 
 0 
 
 24 
 
 198,64 
 
 Sextans 
 
 4800 
 
 +s 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 >3 2 >43 
 
 Uncia 
 
 2400 
 
 H 
 
 0 
 
 oS 
 
 66,21 
 
 C«£/WMeasures, orMfi asures of capacity for liquids. .—Eng- 
 Hjh liquid Meajures, were originally raifed from troy-weight ; 
 it. being enacted by fevera] ftatutes, that eight pounds troy of 
 wheat, gathered from the middle of the ear, and well dried, 
 fhould weigh a gallon of w'mc-Aleafure ; the di villous and mul- 
 tiples whereof were to form the other Mcafurcs : At the fame 
 time it was alfo ordered, that there fhould be but- one liquid 
 Meafure in the kingdom : yet cuftom has prevailed, and there 
 having been introduced a new weight, viz. the avoirdupois, we 
 have now a fecond ftandard gallon adjufted thereto, and 
 therefore exceeding the former in the proportion of the 
 avoirdupois-weight to troy- weight. —From this latter ftandard 
 are raifed two feveral Meafurts y the one for ale, the other for 
 beer. 
 
 Thefealed gallon at Guildhall, which is the ftandard for wines, 
 fpirits, oils, fcfe. is fuppofed to contain z'jl cubic inches ; and 
 on this fuppofitran, the other Mcafurcs raifed therefrom, will 
 contain as in the following tables ; yet, by a&ual experiment 
 made in 1 6 S 3 , before the lord mayor and the commiffioners of 
 cxeife, this gallon was only found to contain 214 cubic inches : 
 It was howevcr.agrced to continue the common fuppofed con- 
 tents of 231 cubic inches; fo that all computations ftand on 
 their old footing.: — :Hence,asi2 is 10231, fo is to 281 if 
 the cubic inches in the ale gallon : but in eftecl the ale quart 
 contains 70 £ cubic inches ; on which principle, the ale and beer 
 gallon will be .282 cubic inches. 
 
 The feveral divifions and multiples of thefe Meajures, and their 
 proportions, are exhibited in the tables underneath. 
 French Liquid Measures. At Paris, and in a great part of the 
 kingdom, the Meafures, to begin with the fmalleft, are, the 
 pofibn, which contains fix cubic inches ; two poftbns make 
 the demi-feptier; two demi-feptiers, the feptier or chopine ; 
 two chopines, a pint ; two pints, the quart or pot ; four 
 quarts, the gallon, or feptier of eftimation , and thirty-fix 
 feptiers, the mukl, which is fubdivided into two demi-muids, 
 four quarter-miiids, and eight hatf-quarter-muids. From the 
 quart are likewife raifed the Aleafures ufed in other parts, 
 as the queue ufed in Orleans, Blob, wf. containing a Paris 
 muid and an half, or four hundred and twenty pints ; the 
 tun ufed at Bayonne and Bourdeaux, confiding of four bariques, 
 and equal to three Paris muids ; at Orleans, to two ; fo that the 
 firft tun contains eight buudred and fixty-rour pints, and the 
 fecond five hundred and feventy-fix. See Tun. The demi- 
 queue, ufed in Champagne, ninety-fix quarts ; the pipe, ufed 
 in Anjou and Poi&ou, containing two buflfards, equal to two 
 demi-queues of Orleans, &c. or a muid and an half of Paris, 
 or four hundred and thirty-two pints. The millerolle ufed in 
 Provence, containing fixty-fix Paris pints; and the poincon 
 ufed at Nantes, in Touraine, and the BlefTbis, equal to half the 
 Orleans tun. The poincon ufed at Paris is the fame with the 
 demi- queue. 
 
 Dutch Liquid Measures. At Amfterdam, their Meafures* to 
 begin w ith the diminutions, are, niengles, or bottles, equal to 
 French pots, and containing two pounds, tour ounces, marc, 
 of an ordinary liquor. The mengle is divided into two pints, 
 four half-pints, eight muffles, fixteen half-mufties, &c. Seven 
 hundred and feventy mcngles make their tun. The viertel, or 
 quarter, confifls of five mcngles, and one fixth of a mengle. 
 The wine viertel is juft fix mengles. The ftekan, or ftekai- 
 men, contains fixteen mengles. The anker contains two 
 ftekans; and four ankers, the awn. For oils they ufe the tun, 
 which contains fix awms, or ahms; equal to fixteen hundred 
 Paris pints. 
 
 Spanijb Liquid Measures arc, the bota, containing between 
 thirty-fix and thirty- (even Dutch ftekans, holding about a 
 tbounnd weight. The bota confifts of thirty arrobas, each 
 
 weighing twenty-eight pounds. Each arroba is again divided 
 into eight azumbres, and the azumbre into four quarts. The 
 pipe confifts of eighteen arrobas. 
 
 Portuguefc Liquid Measures are botas, almudes, cavadas, quar- 
 tas ; and for oil, alqueirs or cantars. The Portuguefe bota is 
 fomewhat fmaller than the Spanifh ; the latter being equal to 
 thirty-fix or thirty-feven ftekans, and the former only to 
 twenty-five or twenty-fix. The quartas is one fourth of the 
 cavadas. The cavadas, or cavado, is the fame with the Dutch 
 mengle. Six cavadas make an alquier, and two alquiers one 
 almude, or almond ; twenty-fix almudes, a bota. 
 
 Italian liquid Measures; at Rome, are the boccale, or pot, 
 containing a little more than a Paris pint. Seven boccales and 
 a half make the rubbo ; and thirteen rubbos and a half, the 
 brenta ; fo that the brenta contains ninety-fix boccales. — At 
 Florence, the ftaro or flaio, containing three bariles, and the 
 barile twenty-fix fiafcos or flafks, which are nearly equal to 
 Paris pints.— At Verona, they ufe the bafia, fixteen whereof 
 make a brenta ; the brenta contains ninety-fix boccales, or 
 thirteen rubhos and a half. — At Venice, the amphora, contain- 
 ing two bottes ; the botte, four bigoncios ; the bigoncio, four 
 quarts; the quart, four tifchaufFeras, The Venetian botte is 
 again divided into moftachios, feventy-fix whereof make the 
 amphora.. — At Ferrara, the maftilly, containing eight fechios. 
 1 — In Iftria, fechios ; fix whereof make the urna. In Calabria, 
 and Apulia, pignatolis, equal to French pints ; thirty-two p!g- 
 natolis make the ftaro or ftaio; and ten rtaros, the fahna. 
 
 German liquid Measures. The fuder is ufed almoft throughout 
 all Germany, but with fomc difference in its length, as well as 
 its fubdivifions. The fuder is fuppofed the load of a cart 
 with two horfes. Two fuders and a half make the roedcr ; 
 fix awns, the fuder ; twenty fcrtels, the awm ; and four 
 maffems, or maafies, the ferte] : fb that the roeder contains one 
 thoufand two hundred maafies, the fuder fuur hundred and 
 eighty, the awm eighty, and the fertel forty-one, — At Nurem- 
 berg, the divifion of the fuder is into twelve fteemers, and 
 the heemer into fixty-four maaffes. — At Vienna, they divide 
 the fuder into thirty-two beemers, the heemer into thirty-two 
 achtelings, and the achteling into four filitins. The awm, 
 there, is eighty maafies; the fertel, called alio fchrewc, four 
 maafies; and the driclinck twenty- four hecmers. — At Aufbourg, 
 the fuder is divided into eight jez ; the jez into two muids, or 
 twelve befons ; the befon into eight maafies, which makes feven 
 hundred fixty-eight maaffes in the fuder, as in that of Nu- 
 remberg. — At Heidelberg, the fuder is divided into ten awms ; 
 the awn into twelve vertels; and the vertel into four maafies. — 
 In Wirtemberg, the fuder is divided into fix awms ; the awm 
 into fixteen yunes ; the yunc into ten maafies. 
 
 Liquid Me asures on the coajls of Barhary. At Tripoli, EsV. 
 they ufe the rotolo, or rotoli ; thirty-two whereof make the 
 matuli. — AtTunis, forty-two of the rotoli of Tripoli make 
 a matara, or mataro ; and the other places on the fame coaft 
 ufe nearly the fame Mcafures. — It may be here obferved, that 
 mod. if not all the caftern nations, with whom the Europeans 
 traffick, have not any fuch thing as Aleafures of capacity, whe- 
 ther for things liquid or dry ; but that they fell every thing, 
 even liquors, by the weight. We may, however, rank among 
 the number of liquid Menfures^ the cocos and canan of Siam. 
 The firft are the cocos-fhtlls cleared of their kernel. And fince 
 thefe are not all of the fame capacity, they meafure them with 
 cauris, or little fhells found in the Maldives ; which alfo ferve 
 for money in fome ftates of the Indies. Some cocos hold a 
 thoufand cauris, and fome only five hundred. Above the co- 
 cos is the canan, a little Meafure ufed in the fame country, 
 and calkd by the Portuguefe, choup ; holding about a Paris 
 quart. 
 
 EngHjh 
 
M E A 
 
 M E A 
 
 Englijh- Measures of capacity for liquidsl 
 Wine-tAz as ure. 
 
 Solid inches 
 
 28} 
 
 Pint 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23! 
 
 8 
 
 Gallon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4158 
 
 .44 
 
 18 
 
 Rundiet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 72767 
 
 252 
 
 3"i 
 
 i4. 
 
 Barrel 
 
 
 
 
 
 9702 
 
 336 
 
 42 
 
 2j 
 
 1 j 
 
 Tierce 
 
 
 
 
 '4553 
 
 5°4 
 
 63 
 
 3l 
 
 2 
 
 1} 
 
 Hogthead 
 
 
 192-9 
 
 672 
 
 84 
 
 4j 
 
 2f 
 
 2 
 
 *3 
 
 Punchion 
 
 29106 
 
 100S 
 
 126 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Z 
 
 
 Butt 
 
 582 12 
 
 20r6 
 
 252 
 
 ■4 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 ^-Measure. 
 
 Pints 
 
 8 
 
 Gall. 
 
 
 
 "o7 
 
 8 Firlc. 
 
 
 
 128 
 
 16 j 2 
 
 Kild. 
 
 
 256 
 
 32 4 
 
 2 
 
 Barrel 
 
 !'2 
 
 6i 1 8 
 
 4 
 
 
 Beer-M.EAsvRE. 
 
 Pint) 
 
 8 
 
 Gall. 
 
 
 72 
 
 9 Firk. 
 
 
 14+ 
 
 
 Kild. 
 
 288 
 
 36 1 4 
 
 - 2 
 
 S76 
 
 72 1 8 
 
 4 
 
 Barrel 
 
 I Hoglhead 
 
 Attic Measures of capacity for liquids, reduced to the Englijh tm'»f-Meafure. 
 
 Cochilarion ■ — _ „ , _ 
 
 Cheme « — . 
 
 ' j Pints. Sol. Inch. Dec. 
 
 2 J 
 
 1^ 
 
 Myftron 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 2 
 
 Concha 
 
 10 
 
 5. 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 •5 
 
 
 6- 
 
 3 
 
 60 
 
 3' 
 
 z 4 
 
 
 120 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 720 
 
 360 
 
 288 
 
 144 
 
 8640 
 
 4320 
 
 3456 
 
 1728 
 
 Cyathus 
 
 S64 
 
 Oxubaphon 
 
 Cotyle 
 
 S76 
 
 J44_ 
 
 Xeftes, fextary 
 
 Chos, congius ■ 
 — tMmetetj 
 2 jamphora ' 
 
 0 
 
 T35 
 
 °.°35 6 A 
 
 0 
 
 TfJ 
 
 0,0712* 
 
 0 
 
 44 
 
 0,089^7 
 
 0 
 
 i 
 34 
 
 0,178*4 
 
 0 
 
 JL 
 
 o,35 6 ir 
 
 □ 
 
 1 
 
 o»S35i 
 
 0 
 
 i 
 
 2,141! 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 4.283 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 25,698 
 
 io 
 
 a 
 
 19,626 
 
 Roman Measures of capacity for liquids, reduced to the Englijh i«7«-Meafure. 
 
 Ligula - 1 _ 
 
 : Cyathus ■ . , t . 
 
 Gall. Pints. Sol. Inch. Dec. 
 
 46080 
 
 576 
 
 Acetabulum 
 
 Quartarii 
 
 7680 
 
 192 
 
 3 3 + 
 
 3840 
 
 Hemina 
 
 9 6 
 
 19 20 960 
 
 Congius 
 
 160 
 
 40 
 
 Amphora •— 
 20 I Culeus 
 
 Jemjb Measures of capacity for lipids, reduced to the Englijh w/jw-Meafure. 
 
 Caph . . , 
 
 Log . _ 
 
 Cab 
 
 t8o 
 
 Bath, epha 
 
 Coron, choma 
 
 0 
 
 °A 
 
 °. 1 1 7 1* 
 
 0 
 
 o# 
 
 0.469? 
 
 0 
 
 °r 
 
 0,7047. 
 
 0 
 
 °k 
 
 1,409 
 
 0 
 
 °* 
 
 2,8 18 
 
 0 
 
 
 ' 5. 6 3S 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 4.94« 
 
 3 
 
 4i 
 
 5.33 
 
 7 
 
 
 10,66 
 
 ■43 
 
 3 
 
 11,095 
 
 Gall. 
 
 Pints. Sol. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 0 
 
 °r 
 
 0,177 
 
 0 
 
 °* 
 
 0,211 
 
 0 
 
 is 
 
 0,844 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2.S33 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 f.067 
 
 7 
 
 
 '5.2 
 
 75 
 
 s 
 
 *6aj 
 
 Cubica 
 
M E A 
 
 M E A 
 
 Culkat Measures sf capacity for things dry. — Englrfti dry or cam 
 Measures arc mifed from the Winchefter gallon'; which 
 contains 272* folid inches, ami is to hold of pure running or rain- 
 water, nine pounds thirteen ounces. This feems to ftand on 
 the foot of the old wine gallon, of 224 cubic inches ; 12 being 
 to as 224 to 272;. Yet by an a£t of parliament, 
 
 made 1697. it is decreed, that a round bufht l, eighteen inches 
 and an half wide, and eight deep, is a legal Winchefter bufhel. 
 But fuch a veflel will only hold zi;o 42 cubic inches ; confe- 
 quenlly the g.illon will contain 268* cubic inches. The divi- 
 hons and multiples areas in the table following. 
 French dry Measures arc the litron, bufhel, minor, mine, fep- 
 tier, muid, and tun. The litron is divided into two demi- 
 litrons, and four quarter litrons, and contains thirty-fix cubic 
 inches of Pans. By ordonnance, the litron is to be three in- 
 ches and an half high ; and three inches ten lines broad. The 
 litron for fait is larger, and is divided into two halves, four 
 quarters, eight demi-quartcrs, and fixteen mefurettes.— The 
 French rufhel is different in different jun&£tioB?«, At. Pans 
 it is divided intodemi-buftiels ; each denai- bufhel into two quarts; 
 the quart into two half-quarts ; and the half-quart into two li- 
 trons: fu that the bufhel contains fixteen litrons. By ordon- 
 nance, the Paris bufhel is to lie eight inches, two lines and an half 
 high ; and ten inches broad, or in diameter, withln-fide. The mi- 
 not OTnfifis of three buflwlsj the mine of two minots, or fix 
 bufbefe ; the feptier of two mines, or twelve bufhel.;; and the 
 muid of twelve feptiers, or an hundred forty-four bufhels. Tin 
 hf/htl far cut is eftimated double that of any other grain ; fo 
 that there pi twenty-four bufhels to make the feptier," and two 
 hundred eighty-eight to make the muid. It is divided into 
 four picntins ; the picotin containing two quarts, or four li- 
 trons. 7lie htjhd for [alt is divided "into two half-bufhels, four 
 quarters, eight half-quarters, and fixteen litrons i four bufhels 
 make a minot, fixteen a feptier, and an hundred ninety-two a 
 muid. The bttjhelfSr wdA is divided into halves, quarters, and 
 half-quarters. Bight bufhels make the minot, fixteen a mine ; 
 twenty mines, or three hundred and twenty bufhels, the muid 
 For Mfitr, twelve bufhels make a fac, and thirty-fix facs a 
 muid. For lime, three bufiu-ls make a minot, and forty-eight 
 mulcts a muid — The minot is, by ordonnance, to be' eleven 
 niches nine lines high; and fourteen inches eight lines in 
 cnameter. The minot is compofed of three bufhels, or fixteen 
 litrons ; four minots make a feptier, and fortv-eight a muid. 
 — The French mine is no real veflel, but an e'ftimation of fe- 
 veral others. At Paris, the mine contains fix bufhels, and 
 t»enry-four make the muid. At Rouen, the mine is four bufh- 
 cls ; and at Dieppe, eighteen mines make a Paris muid. See 
 MuiD.^The feptier differs in different places: At Paris it con- 
 tains two mines, or eight bufhels ; and twelve feptiers the muid. 
 At Rouen, the feptier contains two mines, or twelve bufhels. 
 Twelve feptiers make a muid at Rouen, as well as at Paris ; 
 but twelve of the latter are equal to fourteen of the former. 
 At Toulon, the feptier contains a mine and an half; three of 
 which mines make the feptier of Paris. See Sf.ptier. — .The 
 muid, or muy, of Paris, confifts of twelve feptiers; and is di- 
 vided into mines, minots, bufhels, &c. That for oats is double 
 
 that lor other grain ; i.e. contains twice the number of bufhels. 
 AtOrleana, the muid is divided into mines; but thofe mines 
 only contain two Paris feptiers and an half. In f ime places thev 
 life the tun in lieu of the muid ; particularly at Nantes, where it 
 contains ten feptiers of fixteen bufhels each, and weighs about 
 three thoufnml three hundred pounds. Three of thefe tuns make 
 twenty-eight Prtiift! feptiers. At Roche!, bV. the tun contains 
 forty-two "bufhels, and weighs two p,.-r crnt. lefs than that ol Nantes. 
 At Brcft, it contains twenty bufhels, is equal to ten Pjris feptiers, 
 and weighs abou. two thoufand two hundred and forty pounds. 
 See Tun. 
 
 Dutch, Sivcd'tft, Poli/Jj, Pn/JJlcin, and Mufcovitc dry Measures. 
 In the'e places they eftimate their dry things on the foot of the 
 kjtyleji) kth,ox kchti fo called, according ro the various pro- 
 nunciations of the people who ufe it.— In Holland, the laft is 
 equal to nineteen Paris feptiers, or thirty-eight Bourdeaux bufh- 
 els, and weighs about four thoufand five hundred fixty pounds ; 
 the laft they divide into twenty-feven mudes, and the mude into 
 four fchepek — In Poland, the laft is forty Bomdeaux bufhels 
 and weighs about four thoufand eight hundred Paris pounds. — ■ 
 In Prutfia, the laft is an hundred thirty-three Paris feptiers.— 
 In Sweden and Mufcovy, thev mc.tfure by the great and little 
 laft j the firft containing twelve barrels, and the fecond half as 
 many. See Last. — In Mufcovy, they likewife ufe the cheftbrd, 
 which is different in various places : that of Archangel is equal 
 to three Rouen bufnels. 
 
 Italian dry Measures. At Venice, Leghorn, and Lucca, they 
 eftimate their dry things on the foot of the flaro or fhio ; the 
 ftaro of Leghorn weighs fifty-four pounds : an hundred and 
 twelve ftaros, and (even -eighths, arc equal to the Amfterdam 
 laft. — At Lucca, an hundred and nineteen ftarcs make the laft 
 of Amftcrdam — The Venetian ftaro weighs an hundred twentj- 
 eight Paris pounds : rhe ftaro is divided into four quarters. 
 Thirty-five ftaros, and one-fifrh, or an hundred and forty quar- 
 ters, and four-fifths, make the laft of Amfterdam. — At Naples 
 and other parts, they ufe the tornolo, or tomalo, equal to one- 
 third of the Paris feptier. Thirty-fix tornoh and an half make 
 the carro; and a carro and an half, or fifty-four tomoli, make 
 the laft of Amfterdam. — At Palern.o, fixteen tomoli make the 
 falma; and four mondili. the tornolo. Ten falmas and three 
 fevenths, or an hundred and feventy one tomoli and three-fe- 
 venths, make the laft of Amfterdam. 
 
 Fkmi/h dry Measures. At Antwerp, &c. they meafure bv the 
 viertel ; thirty-two and an half whereof make nineteen Paris 
 feptiers. — At Hambourgh, the fchcffll ; fc ninety whereof make 
 nineteen Paris feptiers. 
 
 Spanijb and Portugucfe dry Measures. At Cadiz, Bilboa, and 
 St. Sebaftian, they ufe the fancsia, twenty-three whereof make 
 the Nantes, or Roche! tun, or nine Paris feptiers and an half- 
 tho' the Bdboa fanega is fomewhat lareer, infomuch that twenty- 
 one fanegas make a Nantes tun.— At Seville, & c , they ufe the 
 anagoras, containing a little more than the Paris mine; thirty-fix 
 anagros make nineteen Paris feptiers— At Bayonne, & c . the con- 
 cha ; thirty whereof are equal to nine Paris fep'iers and an half— 
 At Lisbon, the alqueir, a very ("mall Meafure, two hundred and 
 forty whereof make nineteen Paris feptiers, Gxty the Lisbon muid 
 
 F-ngllfh dry or cam Measures. 
 
 Solid inches 
 
 3+0 
 
 Tint 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 Gallon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 344i 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 Peck 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. 7 8 
 
 64 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 Bnfhel 
 
 
 
 
 
 T4=4 
 
 128 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 Strike 
 
 
 
 
 
 2) -6 
 
 3 2 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 
 Carnock 
 
 or cooru 
 
 
 5"2 
 
 64 
 
 3* 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Seam or quarter 
 
 
 5072 
 
 384 
 
 192 
 
 48 
 
 H 
 
 1 2 
 
 6 
 
 Way 
 
 
 ,-120 
 
 640 
 
 320 
 
 So 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 12 | Lafl 
 
 Jewijb dry Measures reduced la Englifh. 
 
 Gachal 
 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 Cab 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gomor 
 
 
 120 
 
 6 
 
 3! 
 
 Scab. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *c 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 Epha 
 
 1800 
 
 90 
 
 5° 
 
 '! 
 
 5 
 
 3600 
 
 I So 
 
 100 
 
 30 
 
 10 j 
 
 Pecks. Gall. Pints. 
 
 3 
 16 
 
 So!. Inch. 
 0,031 
 
 0,073 
 
 1,211 
 4,036 
 12,107 
 
 25,;oo 
 
 1 8,969 
 
 Jttie 
 
 h. - ** 
 
M E A 
 
 M E A 
 
 Attic dry Measures reduced to Englijh: 
 
 Cochliarion — — 
 
 10 
 
 Cyath 
 
 US 
 
 
 
 
 
 'S 
 
 If 
 
 Oxubaphon 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 Cotyl 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 1 20 
 
 I z 
 
 8 
 
 z 
 
 Xeftes, fextary — — 
 
 
 180 
 
 18 
 
 1 z 
 
 3 
 
 if 
 
 Choinix — — 
 
 
 8640 
 
 864 
 
 J7°" 
 
 144 
 
 7Z 
 
 48 ^Medimnus — 
 
 
 Roman dry Measures reduced to Englijh. 
 
 Ligula ■ — — 
 
 Cyatbus — — 
 
 48 
 
 768 
 
 96 
 
 Acetabulum 
 Hemii 
 
 64 
 
 Sextarius — 
 Semimod. 
 z 1 Modiu. 
 
 16 
 
 Pecks. 
 0 
 
 Gall. 
 0 
 
 Pints. Sol. Inch. 
 
 ii? 0,276^ 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 n 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 » 6 »579 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 33.158 
 
 
 0 
 
 pi 
 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 ... x'h$°* 
 
 Pecks. 
 0 
 
 Gall. 
 0 
 
 P. ; nts. 
 
 Sol. Inch. Dec. 
 0,0 r 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 °>°4 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 °T 
 
 0,06 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 of 
 
 0,24 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 o,43 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 O 
 
 SM 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7,68 
 
 The ufual Measure of wood for firing is the cord; four feet 
 high, as many broad, and eight long ; this is divided into two 
 half cords, called ways, and by the French, membrures, from 
 the pieces ftuck upright to bound them ; or v oyes, as beino- 
 fuppofed half a waggon load. 
 
 The Measure for horfes is the hand, or handful; which by 
 the ftatute contains four inches. 
 
 sure is alfo ufed to fignify the cadence and time obferved 
 in poetry, dancing, and mufic, to render them regular and 
 agreeable. 
 
 The different Meafures or metres, in poetry, are the different 
 manners of ordering and combining the quantities, or the long 
 and fhort fyllables. Thus hexameter, pentameter, iambic, 
 fapphic verfes, rjrV. confift of different Meafures. 
 In Englifh verfes, the Meafures are extremely various and ar- 
 bitrary, every poet being at liberty to introduce any new form 
 
 that he pleafes. The moff ufual are, the heroic, generally 
 
 confifting of five long, and five fhort (fyllables ; and verfes of 
 four feet ; and of three feet, and a caefura or fingle fyllable. 
 The antients, by varioufly combining and tranfpofing their 
 quantities, made a vaft variety of different Meafures. Of 
 words, or rather feet, of two fyllables, they formed a fpondee, 
 confifting of two long fyllables ; a pyrrhic, of two fhort fylla- 
 bles ; a trochee, of a long and a fhort fyllable ; and an iambic, 
 of a fhort and a long fyllable. 
 
 Of their feet of three fyllables, they formed a mololfus, confut- 
 ing of three long fyllables; a tribrach, of three fhort fyllables; 
 adacfyl, of one long, and two fhort fyllables; and an anapasft, 
 of two fhort and one long fyllable. 
 
 The Greek poets contrived a hundred and twenty-four differ- 
 ent combinations or Meafures, under as many different names, 
 from feet of two fyllables to thofe of fix. 
 Measure, in mufic, the interval, or fpace of time, which the 
 perfon who beats time takes between the raifing and failing of 
 his hand or foot, in order to condufl the movement, fometimes 
 quicker, and fometimes flower, according to the kind of mu- 
 iic, or the fubjecf. that is fung or played. 
 The Meafure is that which regulates 1 the time we are to dwell 
 on each note. 
 
 The ordinary or common Meafure is one fecond, or fixtieth 
 part of a minute, which is nearly the fpace between the beats 
 of the pulfe or heart; the fyftole, or contraaion of the heart, 
 anfwenng to the elevation of the hand ; and its diaftole, or 
 dilatation, to the letting it fall. The Meafure ufually takes 
 up the fpace that a pendulum, gf two feet and an half long, 
 employs m making a fwing or vibration. The Meafure is re- 
 gulated according to the different quality or value of the notes 
 in the piece; by which the time that each note is to take up 
 is exprefs'd. The femi-breve, for inftance, holds one rile' 
 and one fall ; and this is called the Meafure, or while Meafure ■ 
 
 fomctmietlhe MnftrtvMti or timtxttt; the minim, one rife, 
 or one fall; and the crotchet, half a rife, or half a fall 
 there being four crotchets in a full Meafure. 
 Binary or double Measure is that wherein the rife and fall of 
 the hand are equal. 
 Vol.. Ji. 
 
 ternary or triple Measure is that wherein the fall is doubls 
 to the rife; or where two minims are played during a fall, and 
 but one in a rife. To this purpofe, the number 3 is placed at 
 the beginning of the lines, when the Meafure is imended to be 
 triple; and a C, when the Meafure is to be common or dou- 
 ble. This rifing and falling of the hands was called by the 
 Greeks ap?/,- and <t'.its. St. Auguftine calls it plaufus, and the 
 Spaniards eompas. See Arsis and Thesis. 
 
 MEASURING, Mensuration, defined geometrically, is the 
 affuming any certain quantity, and expreffing the proportion 
 of other fimilar quantities to the fame. 
 
 Measuring, defined popularly, is the ufing a certain known 
 meafure, and determining thereby the precife extent, quan- 
 tity, or capacity of anything. 
 
 Meafuring, in thcgeneral, makes thepraflical part of geometry; 
 fee Geometry. From the various fubjeas whereon it is 
 employed, it acquires various names, and conflitutes various arts. 
 Thus 
 
 Measuring of lines, or quantities of one dimenfion, we call 
 Lengimetry (See Longime try)— and when thofe lines arc 
 not extended parallel to the horizon, altlmetry (See Alti- 
 metryJ. — When the different altitudes of the two ex- 
 tremes of the line are alone regarded, we call it level- 
 ing. 
 
 Measuring of fuperfi.ies, or quantities of two dimenfions, is 
 varioufly denominated, according to its fubjeas : when con- 
 verfant about lands, it is called geodafia, or furveying : in 
 other cafes, it is called fimply Meafuring. 
 The inflruments ufed arc the ten-foot rod, chain, compafs, 
 circumferentor, tjfc. 
 
 Measuring of foliis, or quantities of three dimenfions, we 
 cMJttreomctry; where it is converfant about the capacities 
 of veflek, or the liquors they contain particularly, gauging 
 the inftruments for this are the gauging-rod, Hiding-rule, 
 
 From the definition of Meafuring, where the Meafure is ex- 
 prefs'd to be fimilar or homogeneous to, 1. e. of the fame 
 kind with the thing meafured ; it is evident, that in the firft 
 cale, or m quantities of one dimenfion, the Meafure mufi be a 
 hnc ; m the fecond, a fuperficies ; and in the third, a folid.— 
 bor a line, v. gr. cannot meafure a furface ; to meafure, being 
 no more than to apply the known quantity to the unknown, 
 till the two become equal. Now a furface has breadth, and a 
 line has none : and if one line have no breadth, two or an hun- 
 dred have none. A line, therefore, can never be applied fo 
 often to a furface, as to be equal to it, /. e. to meafure it.— 
 And from the like reafoning it is evident, a fuperficies, which 
 has no depth,' cannot become equal to, i. e. cannot meafure, a 
 folid, which has. 
 
 While a line continues fuch, it may be meafured by any part 
 of itfelf : but when the line begins to flow, and to generate a 
 new dimenfion, the Meafure muff keep pace, and flow too ; 
 '• e. as the one commences fuperficies, the other muff do fo 
 too. Thus we come to have fquare Meafures, and eulic Mea- 
 fures. 
 
 6 L Hence 
 
M E C 
 
 M E C 
 
 meuy or pneumatics, oec Aero.metry, CSV. 
 
 /TEAT, Cibus. ~\ C Food. 
 
 ^reffing of Meats. I c . . , J Dressing. 
 
 ^Meats. f See the articles < x „ opHAOM 
 
 ^Meats, J L White. 
 
 Hence we fee why the Meafure of a circle is an arch, or part 
 of the circle ; for a right line can only touch a circle in one 
 point, but the periphery of a circle confifts of infinite points. 
 The right linetherefore, to meafure the circle, muft be applied 
 infinite times, which is impoffible. — Again, the right line only 
 touches the circle in a mathematical point; which has no 
 parts or dimenlions, and has confequcntly no magnitude ; but 
 a thing that has no magnitude or dimenfions, bears no propor- 
 tion to another, that has ; and cannot therefore meafure it. — 
 Hence we fee the reafon of the divifion of circles into 360 parts 
 or arches, called degrees. See Arch, Circle, and Degree. 
 Measuring of triangles, or from three given fides or angles, to 
 determine all the reft, is called trigonometry. See Trigono- 
 metry. 
 
 Measuring of the air, its preffure, fpring, &c. is called aero- 
 
 metry or pneumatics. See Aerometry, tjfi 
 MEAT, Cibus. -) f Food. 
 
 D, 
 D> 
 Wh 
 
 MEATUS auditorius, the entrance of the ear ; this is a cartila- 
 ginous fubftance, irregularly divided with ilefhv membranous 
 interpositions in feveral parts of it, not unlike the bronchi in 
 the lungs, only that the flefhy fibres are here thicker. The 
 inner part, or that next the brain, is bony. It is lined through- 
 out with a thin membrane, derived from the fkin, which is 
 continued on the membrana tympani, where it becomes thin 
 ner.- — See Tab. Anat. (ofieol.) fig. 13. lit. f. 
 From the beginning of the Meatus, almoft half-way, arife a 
 great numbers of fmall hairs, at whofe roots iffucs the ear-wax : 
 which is intangled in thofe hairs, the better to break the im- 
 petus of the external air, and prevent its too fuddenly rufliing 
 in on the membrana tympani. 
 Meatus cyfUcus, a bilary duct, about the bignefs of a goofe- 
 quill, which, at about two inches diftance from the gall-bladder, 
 is joined to the meatus hepaticus ; and thefe together form 
 the ductus communis. See Bile. 
 Meatus urinarius, or urinary paffage, in women, is very 
 Ihort, lined internally with a very thin membrane ; next to 
 which is a coat of a white fubftance. Through this coat, from 
 fome lacuna.- in it, pafs feveral ducts, which convey a limpid 
 glutinous matter, ferving to anoint the extremity of the ure- 
 thra. — ScsTab. Anat. (fplanch.) fig. 9. lit. r. fig. 11. lit. k. 
 MECHANICS, Mechanic A, MHXANIKH,amixed mathema- 
 tical fcienrc, which confiders motion and moving powers, their 
 nature and laws, with the effects thereof, in machines, &c. 
 Thai: part of Mechanics which confiders the motion of bodies 
 arifing from gravity, is by fome called jlatics — in diftinetion 
 from that part which confiders the mechanical powers, and 
 their application, and which is properly called Mechanics, See 
 Mechanic Powers. 
 Mechanical, fomething that relates to Mechanics-, orisipgu- 
 lated by the nature and laws of motion. 
 
 In which fenfe we fay, mechanical powers, mechanical pro- 
 perties or affections, mechanical principles, reafoning, know- 
 ledge, csV. 
 
 Mechanical affections are fuch properties in matter, as refult 
 
 from their figure, bulk, and motion. 
 Mechanical caufes arc thofe founded on fuch affections. 
 Mechanical flutions are accounts of things on the fame prin- 
 "* ciples. 
 
 Mechanical philofophy is the fame with what we otherwife 
 call the corptifcidar philofophy ; viz. that which explains the 
 phenomena of nature, and the operations of corporeal things, 
 on the principles of Mechanics, viz. the motion, gravity, fi- 
 gure, arrangement, difpofition, greatnefs or fmalnefs of the 
 parts which compofc natural bodies. See Corpuscle, 
 
 Mechanical powers, denote the fix fimple machines ; to 
 which all others, how complex foever, are reducible, and of 
 the aflemblage whereof they arc all compounded. 
 The Mechanical powers are the balance, lever, wheel, pully, 
 wedge, andferew; which fee under their proper heads. 
 They may, however, be all reduced to one, viz. the Lever. 
 The principle whereon they depend, is the fame in all, and 
 may be conceived from what follows. 
 
 The momentum, impetus, or quantity of motion of any body, 
 is the factum of its velocity (or the fpace it moves in a given 
 time) multiplied into its mafs. Hence it follows, that two 
 unequal bodies will have equal moments, if the lines they de- 
 fcribe be in a reciprocal ratio of their maffes. — Thus, if two 
 bodies, fattened to the extremities of a balance or lever, be 
 in a reciprocal ratio of their diftances from the fixed point ; 
 when they move, the lines they defcrihe will he in a recipro- 
 cal ratio of their maffes. 
 
 E. gr. If the body A (Tab. Mechanics, fig. 6.) be triple the 
 body B, and each of them be fo fixed to the extremities of a 
 lever A B, whofe fulcrum, or fixed point is C, as that the 
 diftance of B C be triple the diftance C A ; the lever cannot 
 be inclined on either fide, but the fpace B E, paffed over by the 
 lefs body, will be triple the fpace A D, paffed over by the great 
 one. So that their motions or moments will be equal, and 
 the two bodies in jequilibrio. 
 
 Hence that noble challenge of Archimedes, datls virihus, datum 
 pondus movere ; for as the diftance C B may be increafed in- 
 finitely, the power or moment of A may be increafed infinitely. 
 ■ — So that the whole of Mechanics is reduced to the following 
 problem. , . 
 
 Any body, as A, txi'tth Its velocity C, .and alfo any other body, as 
 B, being given ; to find the velocity neceffary to make the moment, 
 or quantity of motion, in B, equal to the msment of A, the given 
 body. — Here, fince the moment of any body is equal to the 
 rectangle under the velocity, and the quantity of matter; as 
 B : A : : C : to a fourth term, which will be c, the celerity 
 proper to B, to make its moment equal to that of A. Where- 
 fore in any machine or engine, if the velocity of the power be 
 made to the velocity of the weight, reciprocally as the weight 
 is to the power; fuch power will always fuftain, or, if the 
 power be a little increafed, it will move the weight. 
 Let, for inftance, A B be a lever, whole fulcrum is at C, and 
 let it be moved into the pofition a C b — Here, the velocity of 
 any point in the lever is as the diftance from the centre. F'or 
 let the point A defcribe the arch A a, and the point B the arch 
 Bb ; then thefe arches will be the (paces defcribed by the two 
 motions : but fince the motions are both made in the fame time, 
 the fpaces will be as the velocities. But it is plain, the arches 
 A a and B b will be to one another, as their radii A C and A B, 
 becaufe the fectors A C a, 2nd BC-b, arejfimilar: wherefore 
 the velocities of the points A and B are as their diftances from 
 the centre C. 
 
 Now, if any powers be applied to the ends of the lever A and 
 B, in order to raife its arms up and .down; their force will be 
 expounded by the perpendiculars Sa, and,£N; which, beinf 
 as the right fines of the former aftfhes, b B and a A, will be to 
 one another alfo as the radii A C and CB ;, wherefore the velo- 
 cities of the powers are alfo as their durances from the centre. 
 And fince the moment of any body. is as its weight, or gravi- 
 tating force, and its velocity, conjunctly ; if different powers or 
 weights be applied to the lever, their moments will always be 
 as the weights and the diftances from the centre conjunctly. — 
 Wherefore, if to the fame lever there be two powers or weights 
 applied reciprocally proportional to their diltanccs from the 
 centre, their moments will be equal ; and if they act contrarily, 
 as in the cafe of a ftilliard, the lever will remain in an hori- 
 zontal pofition, or the balance will be in ^equilibrio, — And 
 thus it is eafy to conceive how the weight of one pound may 
 be made to equi-balance a thoufand, is'c. 
 
 Hence alfo it is plain, that the force of the power is not at all 
 increafed by engines ; only the velocity of the weight in either 
 lifting or drawing is fo diminifhed by the application of the 
 inftrument, as that the moment of the weight is not greater 
 than the force of the power. — Thus, for inftance ; if any 
 force can raife a pound weight with a given velocity, it is im> 
 poflible by any engine to effect, that the fame power ihal] raife 
 two pound weight, with the fame velocity : but by an engine 
 it may be made to raife two pound wei»ht, with half the ve- 
 locity ; or 10000 times the weight with of the former 
 velocity. 
 
 Mechanical is alfo applied to a kind of reafoning, which of 
 late has got great ground, both in phyfics and medicine ; thus 
 denominated, as being conformable to what is ufed in the con- 
 trivance, and accounting for the properties and operations of 
 machines. 
 
 This manner of thinking and arguing, Dr. Quincy infifts, is 
 the r e fult of rightly ftudying the powers of an human mind, 
 and the wavs by which it is only fitted to get acquaintance with 
 material beings : for confidering an animal body as a compo- 
 fition out of the fame matter, from which all other bodies are 
 formed, and to have all thofe properties which concern a 
 phylician's regard, only by virtue of its peculiar make and 
 construct urc ; it naturally leads a perfon to confidcr the feveral 
 parts, according to their figures, contexture, and ufe ; either 
 as wheels, pullies, wedges, levers, fcrews, chords, canals, ci- 
 fterns, ftrainers, or the like ; and throughout the whole of 
 fuch inquiries, to keep the mind clofe in view of the figures, 
 magnitudes, and mechanical powers of every part or movement ; 
 juft in the fame manner, as is ufed in inquiring Into the mo- 
 tions and properties of any other machine. For which pur- 
 pofe it is frequently found helpful to defign, or picture out in 
 diagrams, wbatfoever is under confideration, as it is cuftomary 
 in common geometrical demonstrations. 
 
 The knowlege obtained by this procedure is called Mecha- 
 nical knowlege. 
 
 Mechanical is alfo ufed in mathematics, to signify a confiruc- 
 tion or proof of fome problem, not done in an accurate and 
 geometrical manner, but coarfely and unartfully, or by the 
 afTiftance of instruments ; as are moft problems relating to the 
 duplicature of the cube, and the quadrature of the circle. 
 
 Mechanical arts. See the article Arts. 
 
 Mechanical curve, a term ufed by Des Cartes for a curve 
 which cannot be defined by any algebraic equation. — By which 
 it ftands contradiftinguiftied from algebraic or geometrical 
 curves. 
 
 M Leibnitz and fome others, in lieu of mechanical curves, call 
 them tranfcendcntal curves, aud dtffent from Des Cartes, in ex- 
 cluding 
 
MED 
 
 MED 
 
 eluding them out of geometry. Leibnitz has even found a new 
 kind of tranfcendental equations, whereby thefe curves arc de- 
 fined : they arc of an indefinite nature j that is, they do not 
 continue conftantly the fame in all points of the curve ; in op- 
 pofition to algebraic curves which do. See Transcenden- 
 tal, arid Curve. 
 
 Mechanism of the barometer. See the article Barometer. 
 
 Mechanism of the double microfcope, &c. See Microscope. 
 
 MECHOACAN, Mechoacanna, called alfo while jalap, 
 white rhubarb, and American fcammony ; a medicinal root, 
 taking its name from a province of New Spain, from whence 
 it is brought. 
 
 Mechoacan was known and ufed as a purgative before ialap, 
 though the latter is now in more general ufe, as being found 
 more efficacious. Yet Mechoacan is the milder and more »en 
 tie of tile two, and on that account is preferable. 
 The feat of its aflion is chiefly in the extreme parts, for whicl 
 reafon it is accounted good in arthritic pains. It has the advan 
 tage of needing no preparation or corrective ; aniof purging ii 
 its own proper fubitance, as it grows. 
 
 M. Boulduc found by analyfing it, that it contains twelve times 
 as much fait as refin ; but neither the faline nor refinous extract 
 purge fo freely as the fubftancc, even though taken in larger 
 tlofes ; nor do they even purge fo eafily. 
 In the choice of Mechoacan, prefer thofe pieces which are the 
 browneft within, and whole fublfance is the clofeft, and moil 
 compact. 
 
 MECONIUM *, MHKfiNlON, in pharmacy, is the juice of the 
 poppy, drawn by inciiion, and dried. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek puhm, poppy. 
 Meconium differs from opium, in that this firft 0u7.es out fpon- 
 taneoufly after an inciiion made in the heads of the poppies, 
 whereas the other is drawn by violence both from the heads 
 and leaves, and even from the whole plant bruifed and preffed 
 together. 
 
 Meconium is alfo a black thick excrement, gathered in the in- 
 teftines of a child during the time of geftation. 
 In colour and confidence, it refembles pulp of caflia. It is 
 alfo thought to referable meconium, or juice of poppy, whence 
 it takes its name. 
 
 MEDAL*, Medalia, afmall figure, or piece of metal, in 
 form of a coin, deftined to preferve to pofterity the portrait of 
 feme great man, or the memory of fome illuftrious action. 
 
 * Scaligcr derives the word from the Arabic, Metbalia a coin 
 whereon is imprefs'd the figure of a human head. Menage and 
 Vollius rather derive it from Metal/am. Du Cange obferves 
 that the obolus was antiently called Medalia, quaft Medietas 
 numui, as being half of another coin. 
 
 The parts of a Medal are the two fides j one whereof is called 
 the face, or head ; the other the reverfe. 
 On each fide is the area or field, which makes the middle of 
 the Medal; the rim or border; and the exergum, which is 
 beneath the ground whereon the figures reprefentcd are placed 
 On the two fides are diftinguifhed the type, and the inferip- 
 tmn or legend. The type or device is the figure reprcfented ; 
 the legend is the writing, efpecially that around the Medal ■ 
 though, in the Greek Medals, the infeription is frequently 
 in the area. What we find in the exergum, is frequently 
 110 more than fome initial letters, whofe meaninx we are 
 ufually unacquainted withal ; though fometimes, too, thev 
 contain epochas, or words that may be accounted an in- 
 feription. 
 
 Some authors imagine, that the antient Medals were ufed for 
 money. M. Patin has a chapter exprefs to prove, that they 
 had all a fixed regular price in payments ; not excepting even 
 the medallions, r . Joubert is of the fame opinion, Others 
 on the contrary, maintain, that we have no real money of the 
 antients ; and that the Medals we now have, never had any 
 court as coins. Between thefe two extremes, there is a me- 
 dium, which appears by much more reafonable than either of 
 them. See Money. 
 
 Medals are divided into antientaud modern, 
 
 Antient Medals are either of the higher or lower antiquity — 
 I he former clafs confllis of luch as were ftruck before the end 
 of the third century. The latter of filch as were ftruck be- 
 tween the third and ninth centuries. 
 
 Modern Medals are thofe ftruck within thefe few hundred 
 years. See Coin. 
 
 Among the antient Medals fome are Greek, others Roman 
 -1 he Greek Medals are the moft antient. That people 
 fauckMeM, in all the three metals with fuch exquifite art 
 as the Romans could never come up to. The Greek Medals 
 even X ?; accu , rac X. and a delicacy that exprefles 
 
 ei en the mufcles and veins ; and it muft be own'd, goes infi- 
 nitely beyond any thing of the Romans. 6 
 There are alfo Hebrew Medals, and Punic, Gothic, and Arabic 
 Medals, wluch make new claffes i„ the antient and modern 
 
 Cmfrhr Medals are fo called, to diftinguifli them from the im- 
 perial , not that they were ftruck by order of the confuls, but 
 becaufe in thofe times the republic was governed by conful . 
 Of thefe, father Joubert reckons about fifty or fixty of cold ■ 
 
 two hundred and fifty of copper ; and near a thoufand of fil- 
 ver — Goltzius has defcribed them in a chronological order 
 according to theFalli confiilares ; and Urfinus has difpofedthem 
 genealogically, according to the order of the Roman families. 
 M. Patin has codeded an intire feries of them, in the fame 
 order with Urfinus ; and only computes one thoufand thirty- 
 feven confulars, which relate to one hundred feventy-ei»ht 
 Roman families. M. Vaillant, and M. Morel, each prorm- 
 fed a new edition of the confular Medals. M. Vaillant kept 
 his word, and his book was printed before he died, in three vo- 
 lumes, folio. 
 
 The confular Medals arc certainly the moft antient Medals of 
 the Romans : and yet thofe of copper and filvcr do not go 
 beyond the four hundred eighty- fourth year of Rome ; nor 
 thofe of gold beyond the year five hundred forty-fixth. If any 
 are produced of an older date, they are condemned as fpurious. 
 Among the Imperial Medals, we diftinguifh between the upper 
 and the lower empire : the upper empire commenced under 
 Julius Caefar, and ended about the year of Jefus Chrift two 
 hundred and fixty : The lower empire comprehends near one 
 thoufand two hundred years, viz. till the taking of Conftan- 
 tinople — It is the cuftom, however, to account all the im- 
 perial Medals, till the time of the Palaeologi, among the an- 
 tique ; and yet we have no imperial Medals, of any confidera- 
 ble beauty, later than the time of Heraclius, who died in 641. 
 After the time of Phocas and Heraclius, Italy became a prey 
 to the Barbarians ; fo that the monuments we have remaining 
 of thofe two emperors, finifh the fet or feries of imperial M?- 
 dajn—l o thefe arc added the Medals of the lower empire, and of 
 the Greek emperors ; whereof a feries may be made as low as 
 our time, taking in the modern ones.— M. Patin has made an 
 ample collection of the imperial Medals till the time of Hera- 
 clius. 
 
 The Gothic Medals make part of the imperial ones : they 
 are fo called, as having been ftruck in the times of the Goths, 
 and in the declenfion of the empire ; and favouring of the igno- 
 rance, and barbarity of the age. 
 As to modern Medals, they are fuch as have been ftruck in 
 Europe, fmce the ufurpation of the Goths has been extinit ; 
 and fculpture and engraving nave begun to re-flourifh.— The 
 firft was that of the famous reformer John rlufs in 141 5. If 
 
 any pretend to be more antient, they are fpurious In France 
 
 there were none ftruck with the king's effiey before the reign 
 ol Charles VII. D 
 The fludy of modern Medals is fo much the more ufeful as 
 they afford more light than the antient, and mark the times 
 and confluences of events more precifelv ; whereas the inferip- 
 tions of the antient Medals are very mort and fimple and 
 generally they are without any date.— Add to this, that the 
 antient Medals are extremely liable to be counterfeited by rea- 
 fon of the confiderable price they bear. But in the modern 
 there is not near that danger of being impofed upon. 
 There are few true Hebrew Medals : thofe which we fee of the 
 heads of MoTes, and Jefus Chnft, are fpurious and modern 
 We have a few fhekels of copper and filver, with Hebrew or 
 Samaritan legends j but none of gold ; though there is mention 
 
 made of one 111 the king of Denmark's cabinet F Souciet 
 
 has a differtation on the Hebrew Medals, commonly called Sa- 
 maritan Medals where he diftinguifhes accurately between 
 the genuine and the fpurious, and fhews, rhat they are true He- 
 brew coins ftruck by the Jews, but on the model of the an- 
 tients ; and that they were current before the Babylonifh caD- 
 tivity. ' v 
 
 Singular Medals, in the popular fenfe, are fuch as are not found 
 in the cabinets of rhe curious, and are only met with by chance - 
 but in the finder finfe they are fuch, whereof there is not above 
 
 Medal. When a Medal exceeds the value of ten or twelve 
 piltoles, it is worth what the owner pleafes. The Pefcen 
 5"" Niger, and Pertinax, are very rare in all metals. The 
 Didius Juhanus is hardly found any where, but in large copper 
 Carteron, a Dutchman, and fome others, have mad? mills ori 
 purpofe to ftrike Medals that never were, as thofe of Cicero, 
 Virgil, Priam, &c. * 
 Greet Medals are fuch as have either the heads of Greek em- 
 perors, or Greek inferiptions. 
 Falfe or fpurious Medals are thofe counterfeited, and put off 
 
 for antique, when they are not. 
 Mutilated MeOAts, are thofe that are not intire, or are much 
 deraced. 
 
 Redintegrated Medals, are thofe wherein we find the letters 
 Rejl which fhew that they have been reftored by the emperors. 
 Dipt Medals, are ftruck of pure copper, and afterwards filver'd'. 
 — This is a contrivance that the curious have frequent recourfe' 
 to, in order to compleat their filver fets. 
 Covered or plaited Medals, are thofe which have only a thin 
 filver leaf over the copper, but which are ftruck fo artfully, 
 that the cheat does not appear, without cutting them ■ thefe 
 are the leaif fufpeefed. 
 Grained or indented Medals, are thofe, whofe edges are cut or 
 notched like teeth, which is a fign of purity and antiquity. They 
 are common among the confulars, but we have none later than 
 
 Auguftus. 
 
MED 
 
 MED 
 
 Auguftus. There are feveral of them, however, among thofe 
 of the kings of Syria. 
 
 Medals tountermarked are thofe which have marks cut either 
 on the fide of the head, or of the reverfe — .Thefe counter- 
 marks ferve to denote the change of their value ; and this kind 
 is much inquired for by the curious. There are alfo 
 
 Caji Medals, are thofe which are not ftruck, but caff in a 
 mould. 
 
 Medals without reverfe. See the article Reverse. 
 
 Medals have been ftruck in three kinds of metals, which 
 make three feveral fets, or feries's in the cabinets of the curious. 
 That of gold is the leaft numerous, as not confiding of above 
 one thoufand, or twelve hundred, of the imperial ; that of 
 filver may contain about three thoufand imperial; and that of 
 brafs or copper, of the three feveral fizes, viz, the great, the 
 middle, and the frnall, confifts of fix or feven thoufand, all 
 imperial. 
 
 It is not either the metal, or the fize, which makes a Medal 
 valuable ; but the fcarcity of the head, or of the reverfe, or 
 the legend. — Some Medals are common in gold, which yet are 
 very rare in copper ; and others very rare in filver, which in 
 copper and gold are very common. The reverfe is fometimes 
 common, where the head is fingular ; and fome heads are 
 common, whofe reverfes are very fcarce. 
 
 There are alfo Medals very fcarce in fome fets, and yet very 
 common in others : for inftance, there is no Antonia in the 
 fets of large copper, and the middle copper is forced to fupply 
 its place. The Otho is very rare in all the copper fets, and yet 
 common in the filver ones. Otho's, of the large copper, at e 
 held at an immenfe price ; and thofe of the middle copper at 
 forty or fifty piftoles. And the Gordians Afric are rated near 
 as high. Singular Medals are invaluable. 
 M. Vaillant has collected all the Medals ftruck by the Roman 
 colonies ; F. Hardouin thofe of the Greek and Latin cities ; 
 F. Noris thofe of Syria. — M. Morel alfo undertook an univerfal 
 hiftory of Medals, and promifed cuts of twenty-five thoufand. 
 He ranges them under four clafTes : the fiift contains the 
 Medals of kings, cities, and people, which have neither the 
 name nor image of the Roman emperors : the fecond con- 
 tains the confular Medals ; the third the imperial Medals ; 
 and the fourth, the Hebrew, Punic, Parthian, French, Spa- 
 nifh, Gothic, and Arabic. — He begins with the imperial, and 
 brings them down as low as Heraclius. He places the Latin, 
 in order, before the Greek. 
 
 Ad. Occo, a German phyfician, and count Mczzabarba, have 
 endeavoured to range the Medals in a chronological order ; but 
 that is impracticable. For in many of the imperial Medals 
 there is no mark either of the confulate, or of the year of the 
 reign ; and fince Gallienus, there are few of the Roman im- 
 perial Medals that hear the leaft footfteps of chronology. 
 The moft noted Medalifts, or authors on Medals, are Antonius 
 Auguftinus, Wolf. Lazius, Ful, Urfinus, a learned antiquary, 
 JEneas Vicus, Hubcr Goltzius, a famous graver, Oifelius, 
 Seguin, Occo, Triftan, Sirmond, Vaillant, Patin, Noris, 
 Spanheim, Hardouin, Morel, joubert, Mczzabarba, Beger, fcY. 
 For the manner of ftrildng Medals, fee the article Coining. 
 
 jfcademy of Medals. See the article Academy. 
 
 Repairing a Medal. See the article Repair. 
 
 Rejlitntion of Medals. See the article Restitution. 
 
 Votive Medals. See the article Votive. 
 
 MEDALLION *, or Medauon, a Medal of extraordinary 
 bignefs. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French Medaillov, or Italian Me- 
 daglion which fignify the fame, and which were originally form- 
 ed from Mctallioncs, a name by which thefe pieces are frequently 
 called in antient Latin writers. 
 Medallions are ordinarily a kind of Medals which princes ufe to 
 prefent, as a token of honour or efteem ; for which reafon the 
 Romans called them vujjilia. 
 
 Medallions were never any current coins, as medals probably 
 were : they were ftruck purely to ferve as public monuments, 
 or to make prefents of. 
 
 There cannot be any fet made of them, even though the me- 
 tals and fizes fhould bejoined promifcuoufly. The beft cabinets 
 do not contain above four or five hundred ; though M. Morel 
 judges them to be above a thoufand. 
 
 "Authors vary about the time when they firft began to be ftruck. 
 Some antiquaries will have it under the empire of Theodofius : 
 but this muft be a miftake ; for there were fome ftruck even in 
 the upper empire : witnefs a Nero, a Trajan, and an Alexan- 
 der Severus, ftill extant. — Medallions of gold are very rare, as 
 alfo thofe of a large copper. 
 
 Medallions are diftinguifhed from medals by the volume, that 
 is, by the thicknefs, and compafs ; as well as by the largenefs 
 and relievo of the head. 
 MEDIAL alligation. See Alligation. 
 
 MEDIANA, the name of a vein, or little veffel, made by the 
 union of the cephalic and bafilic, in the bend of the elbow. 
 It is not a particular vein, or a third vein of the arm, as fome 
 authors imagine; but merely a branch of the bafilica ; which, 
 running into the inner part of the elbow, unites with the ce- 
 phalica, and forms a common vein, called Msdiana.; and by 
 
 the Arabs, the black vein. — See Tab. Anat. (angeiol.) fig. 6. 
 
 lit. p. 
 
 Mediana linea, a line or feam running down the middle of the 
 tongue, and dividing it into two equal parts j though not fo 
 effectually, but that the blood-veiTels of the one fide communi- 
 cate with thofe of the other. See Tongue. 
 
 Columnts Medianje, in Vitruvius, are the columns in the mid- 
 dle of a portico ; whofe intercolumnation is to be larger than 
 thofe of the angular columns. 
 
 MEDIASTINA, the name of a vein of the mediaftinum. 
 
 MEDIASTINUM, in anatomy, a double membrane, formed 
 by a duplicature of the pleura; ferving to divide the thorax, 
 and the lungs, into two parts ; and to fuftain the vifcera, and 
 prevent their falling from one fide of the thorax to the other. 
 See Thorax. 
 
 It proceeds from the fternum, and, pafling ftrait down through 
 the middle of the thorax to the vertebrae, divides its cavity in- 
 to two. It contains the heart between its two lamellze, and it 
 affords a paflage to the vena cava, the oefophagus, and the 
 ftomachic nerves. The membranes of the Medio jlinum are 
 finer and thinner than the pleura, and have a little fat. It re- 
 ceives branches of veins and nerves from the mamillary and 
 diaphragmatic, particularly, one called Mediajlina : its nerves 
 come from the ftomachic : it has alfo fome lymphatics, which 
 open into the thoracic duct. 
 
 The Mediajlinum divides the thorax longitudinally into two 
 parts ; and by means of it one lobe of the lungs may officiate, 
 if the other be hindered by a wound on the other fide. Some- 
 times there is a matter contained betwixt its membranes, im- 
 mediately under the fternum, which may occafion the tapping 
 of this place. 
 
 Mediastinum cerebri, the fame with feptum tranfuerfum. See 
 Septum, 
 
 MEDIATE, or Intermediate, a term of relation to two 
 extremes, applied to a third, which is in the middle between 
 them. See Mean, and Medium. 
 
 Sublfance is a genus with regard to man ; but between the two 
 there are other mediate genus's, as bodv and animal. 
 Mediate ftands oppofed to immediate. Thus when we fav, that 
 God and man concur to the production of man ; God is the 
 Mediate caufe, man the immediate. — It is a popular queftion 
 in theology, whether the Holy Ghofl convert a finner mediately 
 or immediately ? 
 Mediate modes. lea, *: r I Modes. 
 
 MEDICAMENTOSA /^j J !*e the article J Lapis> 
 MEDICINAL boars, are thofe parts of the day fuppofed moft 
 proper to take medicines in. 
 
 Of which there are ufually reckoned four viz. in the 
 morning faffing, about an hour before dinner, about four 
 hours after dinner, and going to bed ; but, in acute cafes, 
 the times are to be governed by the fymptoms and ag- 
 gravation of the diftemper : without regard to any Medi- 
 cinal hours. 
 
 Medicinal waters. See the article Water. 
 
 MEDICINALIS faceuhis. See the article Sacculus. 
 
 MEDICINE, Medicina, the art of healing. 
 
 Medicine, popularly called phyfte, confifts, according to Boer- 
 haave, in the knowlege of thofe things, by whofe applica- 
 tion lite is either preferved found and healthy, or, when difor- 
 dered, is again reftored to its priftine healthinefs. 
 Galen defines Medicine, the art of prefcrving prefent health, and 
 of retrieving it when loft ; Hippocrates, the addition of what 
 is wanting, and the retrenchment of what is redundant: and 
 Herophilus, the knowlege of things good, indifferent, and ill, 
 with regard to health. 
 
 Medicine muft have been nearly coeval with the world. The 
 injuries and viciffitudes of the air, the nature and qualities of 
 foods, the violence of external bodies, the actions of life, and 
 laffly, the fabric of the human compages, muft have rendered 
 difeafes almoft as old as mankind : and the prefence of a dif- 
 eafe, as it brings with it a painful fenfation, or the lofs per- 
 haps of the ufe of a limb, does, by a neceflary mechanical 
 impulfe, both in brutes and men, compel the difeafed to feek 
 for help, and to apply remedies, cither by mere experiment, 
 or by inftindt, and fpontaneous appetite. — Hence arofe the art 
 of Medicine ; which, in this fenfe, has been always, every- 
 where, among mankind. 
 
 Antient hiftories and fables tell us, that, in a little time from 
 the flood, medicine was fo well cultivated by the Aflyrians, Ba- 
 bylonians, Chaldeans, and Magi, that they were able to re- 
 move prefent difeafes, and prevent future ones. — Hence it paffed 
 into Egypt, Libya Cyrenaica, and Crotona ; and thence into 
 Greece, where it flourifhed, principally in the iflands of Cni- 
 dus, Rhodes, and Cos, and in Epidaurus. 
 The firff foundations of the art were laid by chance, natural 
 inftinct, and events unforefeen : thefe were improved by the 
 memory of the fuccefs of former experiments ; by writing 
 down difeafes, their remedies, and events, on columns, paint- 
 ings, and the walls of their temples ; by expofing the fick 
 in the markets and public ways, that thofe who paffed by, 
 might inquire into the difeafe, and communicate a remedy, if 
 they knew any; and laffly, by analogy, or reafoning, from a 
 
 comparifon 
 
MED 
 
 companion of things already obferved, with things prefent and 
 things to come. 
 
 The art at length received a much greater degree of perfection, 
 by the appointing of phyficians; fome for the cure of particu- 
 lar difeafes, and others for difeafes in general; by an accurate 
 obfervation of the difeafe, and its fymptoms ; and by an exact 
 defcription of the remedy, and its ufe: immediately, upon 
 which, it got among the priefts, and at length was confined to 
 particular families ; defending, by way of inheritance, from 
 father to fon : which, again, proved a great bar to its progrefs. 
 The extifpicy, or infpefl.ng the entrails of beads, ufed by the 
 priefts ; the cuftom of embalming dead carcafes, and even 
 butchery itfelf, promoted the knowledge of the human fabric, 
 and of the caufes both of health, difeafes, and death. 
 Laftly the diflecling of live animals for philofophical purpofes, 
 diftinct narratives of the caufe, rife, increafe, crifis, declenfion, 
 end, and effect of difeafes, and the knowledge of Medicines, 
 their choice, preparation, application, powers, and events, 
 ieemed to have almoft brought the art to its perfection. 
 Hippocrates, who was cotemporary with Democritus, and per- 
 fectly acquainted with every thing then difcovered, and be 
 fides, furniftled with a great number of obfervations of his 
 own ; collecting into one all that was valuable and ufeful ; com- 
 piled a body of Greek Medicine ; and was the firft who de- 
 ferved the title of a true pbyfician : for, being a mafter of the 
 t i^*, experience, as well as of analogy and reafon, and withal 
 well verfed in a pure philofophy, he, firft, made phyfic ratio- 
 nal ; and laid the foundation of the dogmatical Medicine, which 
 has ever fince obtained. 
 
 What Hippocrates had done, continued a long time facred and 
 unaltered, and was the ftanding practice of many ages ; at 
 length Aretasus the Cappadocian digefted it into a more order- 
 ly body : whence, in various places, at various times, and by 
 various hands, particularly the Alexandrian fchool, it was fur- 
 ther altered and improved, till at length it came into the hands 
 of Claud. Galen ; who, collecting the fcattered parts, di»eftincr 
 thofe which were confufed, and explaining every thing °by the 
 rigid doctrines of the peripatetics, did both a great" deal of 
 fervice, and a great deal of injury, to the noble art; he 
 being the firft who introduced the doctrine of the elements 
 the cardinal qualities, and their degrees, the four humours' 
 (s'e. into Medicine : and on thefe he made the whole art to 
 depend. 
 
 After the fixth century, the arts were not only extincniifhed 
 almoft all memory of them was loft, till the ninth; frornwhich 
 to the thirteenth, Medicine was vigoroufly cultivated by the 
 Arabs in Afra, Africa, and Spain: who, applying themfelves 
 particularly to the ftudy of the materia medica, and its prepa- 
 rations, and to the operations of chirurgery,- rendered both 
 more juft and more copious at the fame time. And yet Galen's 
 errors became now more predominant than ever. 
 At length, however, they were purged out and exploded by 
 two different means ; principally indeed by the reftoration of 
 the pure difcipline of Hippocrates in France ; and then alfo by 
 the experiments and difcoveries of chymifts and anatomifts; 
 till at length the immortal Harvev, overturning, by his demon- 
 ftrations, the whole theory of the antienls, laid a new and cer- 
 tain balls of the fcience. Since his time, Medicine is become 
 free from the tyranny of any fed, and is improved by fure 
 diicoveries in anatomy, chymiftry, phyfics, botany, mecha- 
 nics, fife. 
 
 Hence it appears, that the art originally confided folely in the 
 faithful colleaing of obfervations ; and that, a lon'J- time after 
 they began to inquire, and difpute, and form theories • the firft 
 part has ever continued the fame ; but the latter has been al- 
 ways mutable. 
 
 For the feveral feBs that have arofe in Medicine, fee Empiric 
 Dogmatic, Galenist, Chymist, Paracelsist' 
 and Hermetical. 
 
 Medicine is divided into five principal branches. The firft 
 confiders the human body, its parts and fibric, life and health 
 and the effefts following from them : this is called phyftelegy. 
 the datlrme of the animal cceonomy, or of the ufe of the pans 
 and its objects, now enumerated, are called res naturales, 01 
 things according to nature. 
 
 The fecond branch confiders the difeafes of the human body 
 their differences, caufes, and effects ; and is called Pathology 
 as it confiders the difeafes ; /Etiology, as it inquires into their 
 caufes ; Nefology, when it examines' their differences; and laft- 
 ly, Symptomatology, when it explains their effects. The ob- 
 
 jefls of this part are called res prasternaturales, or beyond na- 
 ture. 
 
 The third branch confiders the figns or fymptoms, and hou 
 to appy them to ufe; fo as to judge, both in a found and i 
 difeaied body, what will be the degree, order, and effefl, ol 
 the health, or the difeafe : This , 5 ca ]l ed Semeietica .— Its 
 objeds are things both natural, non-natural, and preternatural, 
 the fourth branch confiders the remedies, and their ufe. 
 whereby life maybe prefervedd ; whence it is called Hygiene. 
 Its objefls are what we luridly call Non-natural 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 MED 
 
 Laftly, The fifth furnilb.es the materia medica, its prepara- 
 tion, and manner of exhibition, fo as to reftore health, and 
 remove difeafes; and is called therapeutica, comprehending 
 n, P*'f"" a! ' Pf ""~»"'">'tica, Cbirurgiea, and Jatriea. 
 Umical Medicine, Medkina clinica. See Clinica 
 OareflmnMjDiclSE,) . , , 1 Char aptm! 
 
 PandeOs of Medicine. J See the article f p™^™* 3 - 
 MEDICINES or Medicaments, denote any natural fub- 
 ftances, applied to a human body, in order to anfwer fome in- 
 tention ot cure. 
 
 Medicines are diftinguifbed, with regard to the manner of their 
 application, into internal and external. 
 Internal Medicines are thofe taken in at the mouth 
 External, or topical Medicines are thofe applied outwardly to 
 any particular part. ' 
 With regard to the different manner of their operation Medi- 
 cines are diftmguifhed into agglutinanis. alterants, Jlomatics 
 ajlringents, evaeuants, incarnatives, fpecifics, &c. * 
 A general idea of the manner wherein Medicines operate on a 
 human body, as explained by the feet of mechanical phyfici- 
 ans, may be conceived from what follows. 
 
 A few different forts of particles, varioufly combined, will 
 produce a great variety of fluids ; fome may have one fort fome 
 two, fome three or more. If we fuppofe only five different 
 torts of particles in the blood, and call them a, b, c d e ■ 
 their feveral combinations, without varying the proportions in 
 which they are mixed, will be thefe following : but whether 
 more or lefs, need not be determined. 
 
 ah: a c: ad: ae : 
 be : b d : be : cd: 
 c e: d e : abe : a d c: 
 abd: abe: ace: a de: 
 bde: b de: be e: de c: 
 abed: abce: acde: aide: bede: abede. 
 
 No theory of fecretion has hitherto been able to give any tore 
 table account of the operation of fuch Medicines, as promote 
 an evacuation. _ For if the humours be equally mixed with 
 the blood, that is, if the blood be in every part of the body the 
 fame, and ,ts particles be not mote apt to form certain hu- 
 mours in fome certain parts of the body, than in others • or 
 if they be not forced, by the power of fome Medicine' to 
 form fuch humours ; then the quantities of humour, feparated 
 in equal times, will always be as the velocity of the blood • 
 but the velocity of the blood is feldom doubled by any Medicine' 
 and never tripled by the moil acute fever. The quantity of the 
 humour, however, drawn off by evacuating Medicines is often 
 twenty times greater than the natural quantity ; and 'therefore 
 upon luppofitlun that the humours are every-where equally mix- 
 ed with the blood, the operation of evacuating Medicines can 
 never be accounted for. 
 
 Though this argument have the ffrength of a demonftration, 
 yet there are fome who explain the operation of purgative and 
 other evacuating Med.ctnes, by a ftimulating faculty; ^"l 
 by the fluggifh juices are not only forced out? but the obftrucl 
 ed canals opened, and the motion of the blood quickened 
 But though fuch a power be allowed, it would rem! I t „ £ 
 explained why certain Medicines do only fti mulatc ce ° a £ 
 glands? For ,t ,s evident that evacuating Adieines have ome 
 other power, befides the freezing out ftagnant juices ; becaufe 
 when they are all fqueezed out, they itill evacuate as much if 
 they be repeated, as they did before : as is plain, by o^nuin ' 
 a fal.vation for many days. 2 o. We cannot f ppo^e th l 
 all bodies have every where, and at all times iuicrs ft,L„ 
 but thefe Medicines conftamly produce rte Xcts 1 g ' 
 lefs, at all times. £ If theVffels be fuppofed The obftruct' 
 ed, an evacuating Med.eine could but double the quanuty f 
 was evacuated, before it was taken. + o If rtJTwV • 
 operate only thefe ways, then in a healthful bod ^ 
 were no obftruclions, they would have no effeel fat a l e Tf 
 the removing obftructions were the caufe of a greater quantity 
 evacuated, then the evacuation mould dill continue in ^ ^ 
 egreethan before the oblivion was remoy = wh ,. ™ in 
 fact, we conftamly find it lefs, as the M,di-L \ ' r? 
 6°. Though a Medicine, by ftimula ing a vS£ ' "° I 
 the motion of the fluid in that veffel y ct „""* 
 the quantity of fluid running through it i Tr '"^ f 
 time; becaufe it quickens the mo Tn of he Tid T ? 
 contracting the veffel : and therefore the fade 'the uid sta Z 
 to run through the veffel, the lefs fluid does the orifice of tt 
 veffel admit ; and confequently, after the veffel is contrafled by 
 
 being gre*" g ' feCrCti °" "* te M > 
 
 That a ftimulus caufes the part on which it ads to mt , n 
 is matter of fact ; and alfo that purgative M*& ° Q fl ™ at 
 he bowels; but it may perhaps be likewife faid, they ft "u e 
 
 of blood iS fent to the glands" of the ^™ 
 
 granted ■> 
 
MED 
 
 MED 
 
 granted ; but not that it is the principal aftion of purgative 
 Medicines ; becaufe that, by the fame force, a greater quantity I 
 of blood is fent to all the other glands of the body, whofe fluids 
 are not, however, fenfibly increafed ; and the glands of the in- j 
 teftines receive a lefs quantity, in proportion, than any others, | 
 becaufe they cannot be fo much dilated by the greater force of 
 the blood, as others, which are not fo much ftlmulated by the 
 Medicine. , , 
 
 There are others, who will have evacuating Medicines endued 
 with fin attenuating quality, by which they diffolve all the co- 
 hefions of the panicles of the blood, and fo fet the ieveral 
 humours at liberty, to pafs through their proper glands : but if 
 thefe Medicines have a power univerfally to diffolve all the co- 
 hefions of the blood, then every evacuating Medicine would 
 equally and indifferently increafe the quantity of every fecretion. 
 Mercury would as conftantly purge as falivate, and nitre pro- 
 mote perforation, as well as urine ; but this is repugnant to 
 experience. If the/ have a power to diffolve certain cohefions, 
 and not others ; this is but letting certain particles at : liberty to 
 pafs through their proper glands, which were not fo before : 
 and is a preparing the humours, in order to increafe the quan- 
 tity of fecretion. Evacuating Medicines muft therefore have a 
 power to affect fume particles, and not others; that is, to re- 
 pel fome, and attract, retain, and alter others ; and this is 
 what mav be affirmed to be in all Medicines, and is what a 
 thoufand chymical experiments demonftrate. 
 The feveral humours then being formed, by the different co- 
 hefion of the particles of blood, the quantity of an humour Je- 
 creted by any gland muft be in a proportion compounded of 
 the proportion that the number of the particles cohering in 
 fuch a manner as is proper to conftitute the humour which 
 paffes through the gland, bears to the mats of bl.od ; and of 
 the proportion of the quantit;. of blood that arrives at the 
 gland. And hence it follows, that where there is a Ipternil- 
 nate quantity of a certain humour to be feparated, the number 
 of particles that are proper to compofe the fecreted liquor, 
 muft be reciprocal!- proportional to the quantity of the blood 
 that arrives at the gland: and therefore, if the quantity of the 
 fecretion is to be increafed, the number of particles muft be in- 
 creafed; if the fecretion is to be leffened, the number of par-! 
 tides, proper for fuch a fecretion, muft be leffened in the fame; 
 proportion. 
 
 Medicines, therefore, which can alter the cohefions and com- 
 binations of the particles, ma> either increafe or diminifh the 
 quantity of any fecretion. Thus, fuppofe the humour, which 
 partes through the glands of the inteftines, to be compofed of 
 three or four feveral furls of particles ; that Medicine, which 
 will eafilv cohere to thofe particles, and, by cohering, increafe 
 their mutual attractions, fo as thev mav unite in greater num- 
 bers at, or before they arrive at the inteftines, than the ; would 
 have done, if the Medicine had not been given, muft ncceffanly 
 increafe the quantity of humour which paffes through the glands 
 of the inteftines ; if the quantity of blood which arrives at the 
 glands, be not diminifhed in the fame proportion, as the num- 
 ber of particles is increafed.— After the fame manner do diure- 
 tics, fudorifics, and Medicines which promote all other fecre- 
 tions, operate. . 
 Why increafing the quantity of fome fecretions lhould dimi- 
 nifh that of others, is not eafy to explain on any other lout : 
 for if the blood be equally mixed, in every part of the body, 
 with all the humours which arc feparated from it ; that is, if 
 the mixture of the blood be every-where alike, fo that every 
 humour bears the fame proportion to the reft of the arterial 
 blood, in one part of the bod v, that it does in another ; and 
 if ever y humour has its own proper gland, through which it is 
 feparated: then what is feparated by one gland, is not fubtract- 
 ed from another ; and confequently does not diminifh the quan 
 tity of humour which flows to this other, but does indeed ra- 
 ther increafe the quantity of this other fecretion : for the more 
 any one humour is carried off, the greater proportion any other 
 remaining in the blood, bears to the remaining blood : And 
 therefore the more any one fecretion is increafed, the more all 
 the reft lhould be increafed likewife. But if all the humours 
 be compofed by a combination of a few different forts of 
 particles, then the more apt tbefe particles are to run into any 
 one fort of combination, the lefs all other combinations muft 
 be fo : and confequently the increafing any one fecretion muft 
 neceffarily diminifh the quantity of all others ; but moft efpe- 
 cially of that, which has the moft of the fame fore of particles, 
 See Secretion, Humour, dsV. 
 
 Capital Medicines. See the article Capital. 
 
 Chakjik Medicines. See the article Chalastic. 
 
 Hypochondriacal Medicines. See Hypochondriacal. 
 
 Hyfteric Medicines. See the article Hysteric. 
 
 MEDIETAS lingua, an inqueft impaneled, whereof the one 
 halt" confifts of natives or denizens, the other of aliens. 
 It is ufed in pleas, wherein the one party is a ftranger, and the 
 other a denizen. — Solomon de Stanford, a Jew, in the time 
 of Edward I. had a caufe tried before the fheriff of Norwich, 
 by a jury of fex probos & legales homines^ & fix legates JudeSos de 
 
 c'witate Norvici. See Jury. 
 4 
 
 MEDITATION, an act by which we confider any thing clofely, 
 or wherein the foul is employed in the fearch or confideratioa 
 of any truth. 
 
 In our religion, it is ufed to fignify a confederation of the myfte- 
 ries, and grand truths, of the Chriftian faith. 
 Myftic divines make a great difference between Meditation and 
 contemplation : The former confifts in difcurfive ads of the 
 foul, confidering methodically, and with attention, the myfte- 
 ries of faith, and the precepts of morality ; and :s performed 
 by reflections and reafonings, which leave behind them mani- 
 feft impreffions in the brain. — The pure contemplative have no 
 need of Meditation, as feeing all tilings in God at a glance, 
 and without any reflection. 
 
 When a man, therefore, has once quitted Meditation, and 
 is arrived at contemplation, he returns no more ; and, ac- 
 cording to Alvarez, never refumes the oar of Meditation, ex- 
 cept when the wind of contemplation is too weak to fill his 
 fails. 
 
 MEDITERRANEAN, fomething inclofed within land ; or that 
 
 is remote from the ocean. 
 Mediterra ns an is more particularly ufed to fignify that large 
 lea, which flows between the continents of Europe and Africa ; 
 entring by the ftreights of Gibraltar, and reaching into Alia, 
 as far as the Euxine lea, and the Palus Ma:otis. 
 The Mediterranean was amiently called the Grecian tea, and 
 the Great Sea. It is now cantoned out into feveral divifkuis, 
 which bear feveral names. To the weft of Italy it is called 
 the Ligujlic or Tufcan Sea; near Venice, the ..driatic ; to- 
 wards Greece, the Ionic and /tgean ; between the Helkfpont and 
 the Bofporus, the IP bite Sea, m being very lafe ; and be)ond, 
 the Black Sea t its navigation being dangerous. — The Arabs call 
 the Mediterranean Sea the chamber-pot, by reafon, it ieems, of 
 its refembling the figure of fuch a vefiel. 
 MEDITULLIUM is ufed by anatomifts for that foongy fub- 
 rtancc between the two plates of the cranium, and in the m- 
 terftices of all laminated bones. 
 MEDIUM, a Latin term, fignifying middle, or mean. See 
 Mean. 
 
 Medium, in logic, or Medium of a fyllogifm, called alfo the 
 mean, or middle term, by the Italians, mezzo termino ; is an 
 ^roument, reafon, or conlideration, for wmch we affirm, ur 
 deny any thing : Or it is the caufe, why the greater extreme 
 is attributed to, or denied of the lefs, in the concluiion. 
 Thus, in the fyllogifm, ' Every good thing is to be dcfired ; 
 * but all virtue is good; therefore all virtue is to be delire.l 
 The term good is the medium ; virtue the lefs extreme, and to 
 be defired the greater. 
 
 It is called medium, as being a kind of mediator betweui the 
 fubject and predicate ; or by reafon the extremes are 10 dil- 
 pofed as to affirm, or deny, by means hereof. — Some cjII it ar- 
 gitmentum tertium, a third argument ; and others fimply ar- 
 gumentum, as being the caufe why we aflent to the conclu- 
 fion. 
 
 Mediums, or middle terms, are the things principally fought 
 for, in diicourfing ; fo that the invention of M'tmums makes 
 the moft eflential part of logic. But the rules commonly given 
 by logicians for that purpole, are mere impertinences. — Jn ef- 
 fect, no fuch rules can be given : Nor have we any way of 
 coming at fuch Mediums or reafons, but by a clofe attention to 
 clear ideas. 
 
 Medium, in arithmetic, or an arithmetical Medium, or mean, 
 called in the Schools lVjedium rei, is that which is equally diftant 
 from each extreme; or which exceeds the leffer txtreme, as 
 much as it is exceeded by the greater, in relpect of quantity, 
 not of proportion. 
 
 Thus nine is a Medium between fix and twelve. 
 Geometrical Medium, or mean, called in the fchools Medium 
 perfontz, is that where the fame ratio is preferved between the 
 firft and fecond, as between the fecond and third terms ; or 
 that which exceeds in the fame ratio, or quota of itfelf, as it 
 is exceeded. 
 
 Thus fix is a geometrical Medium between four and nine. See 
 geometrical Proportion. 
 
 This is the Medium which virtue is fuppofed to obferve ; whence 
 fome call it Medium quoad nos, as having a view to circum- 
 ftances, times, places, perfons, (ffc. Dilrributive juftice ob- 
 ferves a geometrical Medium ; commutative juftice, an arith- 
 metical one. 
 
 Medium partidpationis, in the fchools, is that fa id to be com- 
 pounded of the two extremes. — Thus, man, who is partly 
 body, partly mind, is a Medium by participation of t'^e two 
 extremes ; fo, is warmth the Medium of heat and cold, fcrV. 
 Medium negationis, or remotionis, is that, from which both ex- 
 tremes are derived ; or, it is a fubj_ct capable of receiving 
 both extremes, and yet not neceflarity poffefled of either. 
 In which latter fenfe, the will is a mean with refpe£l to virtue 
 and vice ; and the underftanding, with refpect to knowledge 
 and ignorance. 
 
 Medium quod, or Medium fuppefiti, is fomewhat between the 
 agent and patient, which receives the action of the one, ere it 
 arrive at the other. 
 
 In 
 
MED 
 
 MED 
 
 In this fenfe, air is a Medium between the fire, and the hand 
 heated thereby. 
 
 Medium quo, is the form, or faculty, whereby an agent pro- 
 duces an effect : in which fenfe, heat is faid to be the Medium 
 or mean, whereby fire acts on the hand. 
 
 Medium fub quo, is that which renders the power to act, com- 
 plete, in genera] ; without determining it to any particular 
 object: in which fenfe, light is the Medium under which the 
 eye perceives any colour. 
 
 Medium in quo, is that, by inflection whereof, a power is 
 produced in any thing, of knowing or perceiving another : 
 Such is a fpeculum. as it (hews an object ; an image, as it re- 
 prefents the leality, &c. 
 
 Medium, in mechanical philofophy, is that fpace or region, 
 through which a body pafles in its motion towards any 
 point. 
 
 Thus xther is fuppofvd to be the Afedium, wherein the hea- 
 venly bodies move. Air the Afedium wherein bodies move 
 near our earth. And water is the Medium in which fifties 
 live and move. And ghfs is alfo a Medium of light, as it af- 
 fords it a free pafTage. 
 
 That denfity or confidence in the parts of the Medium, where- 
 by the motion of bodies in it is retarded, is called the re/ijl- 
 ance of the Medium ; which, together with the force of gravity, 
 is the caufe of the ceflation of motion of pivjeetiles. 
 Subtile or ethereal Medium. —Sir If. Newton makes it probable, 
 that, befide the particular aereal Medium, wherein we live and 
 breathe, there is another more univcrfal one, which he calls 
 an atbtreal Medium ; vaftly more rare, fubtile, elaftic, and 
 active, than air ; and by that means freely permeating the pores 
 and interftic.es of all other Mediums, and diffufing itfelf 
 through the whole creation: and by the intervention hereof 
 he thinks it is, that moft of the great phenomena of nature 
 are effected. 
 
 This Medium he feems to have recourfe to, as the firft and 
 moll rtnmte phyficat fpring ; and the ultimate of all natural 
 caufes. By the vibrations of this Medium, he takes heat to 
 be propagated from lucid bodies ; and the intenfenefs of heat 
 increafed and preferved in hot bodies, and from them communi- 
 cated to cold ones. 
 
 By this Medium he takes light to be reflected, inflected, re- 
 fracted, and put alternately in fits of eafy reflection and tranf- 
 mifTion ; which effects he alfo elfewhere afcrihes to the power of 
 attraction : fo that this Medium appears the fource and caufe 
 even of attraction. 
 
 Again, tliis Medium being much rarer within the heavenly 
 bodies, than in the heavenly fpaces ; and growing denfer, as 
 it recedes further from them ; he fuppofes the caufe of the gra- 
 vitation of thefe bodies towards each other, and of the parts to- 
 wards the bodies. 
 
 Again, from the vibrations of this fiime Medium, excited in 
 the bottom of the eye by the rays of light, and thence propa- 
 gated through the capillamcnts of the optic nerves into the fen- 
 fory, he t.-.kes vifion to be performed ; and fo hearing, from 
 the' vibrations of this or (bme other Medium, excited in the 
 auditory nerves by the tremors of the air, and propagated 
 through the capillamcnts of thofe nerves into the fenfory : and 
 thus of the other fenfes. 
 
 And again, he conceives mufcular motion to be performed by 
 the vibra:ions of the fame Medium, excited in the brain at the 
 command of the will, and thence propagated through the ca- 
 pillaments of the nerves into the mufcles ; and thus contracting 
 and dilating them. 
 
 The elaftic force of this Medium, he (hews, muff be prodi- 
 gious. Light moves at the rate of 70,000,000 miles in about 
 feven minutes: yet the vibrations and pulfes of this Afedium, to 
 caufe tlie fits of eafy reflexion, and eafy tranfmiffion, muff be 
 fwifter than light, which is yet 700,000 times fwifter than 
 found. The elaftic force of this Afedium, therefore, in pro- 
 portion to its denfitv, muft be above 490,000,000,000 times 
 greater than the elaftic force of the air, in proportion to its 
 denfity; ihe velocities and pulfes of the elaftic Mediums being 
 in a fub-duplicate ratio of the elaflicities, and the rarities of the 
 Mediuim-, taken together. And thus may the vibrations of 
 this Medium be conceived as the c ufe alfo of the elafiicity of 
 bodies. 
 
 Further, the particles of this Afedium being fuppofed Infinitely 
 fmall, even fmaller than thofe of light ; if they be likewife 
 fuppufed, like our air, to have a repelling power, whereby 
 they recede from each other, the fmalnels of the particles may 
 exceedingly contribute to the increafe of the repelling power, I 
 and confequently to that of the clafticity and rarity of the 
 Medium, and fo fit it for the free tranfmiflion of light, and 
 the free motions of the heavenly bodies. — In this Afedium may 
 the planets and comets roll without any confiderable refift- 
 ance. If it be 700,000 times more elaftic, and as many I 
 times rarer, than air ; its refiftance will be above 600,000,000 
 times lefs than that of water: a refiftance that would make 
 no fenfible alteration in the motion of the planets in ten thou- 
 fand years. 
 
 And is, not fuch a Medium better difpofed for the heavenly rr,o- 
 
 1 tions, than that of the Cartefians, which fills all fpace ade- 
 quately, and without leaving pores; and is vaffly denfer than 
 gold ; and therefore muft refift more ? 
 1 If any aft; how a Medium can be fo rare, let him tell how the 
 air, in the upper regions of the atmofphere, can be above an 
 hundred thoufand times rarer than gold ; how an elearical bo- 
 r dy can, by friction, emit an exhalation fo rare and fubtile, yet 
 ; fo potent, as, though its emiirmn occafions no fenfible altera- 
 tion in the weight of the body, yet it fhall be diffufed through 
 5 a fphere of two foot in diameter, and carry up leaf-copper, 
 or leaf-gold, at the difhmcc of a foot from the electrical bo- 
 dy ; or how the effluvia of a magnet can be fo fubtile, as 
 to pafs a plate of glafs without any refiftance or diminution of 
 force; yet fo potent, as to turn a magnetic needle beyond the 
 glafs. 
 
 That the heavens are not filled with any other, but fuch a 
 fubtile sethereal Afedium, is evident from phenomena: whence 
 e!fe are Hide hfting and regular motions of the planets and co- 
 mets, in ail manner of enurfes and directions? And how are 
 fuch motions confident with that refiftance, which muft refult 
 from that denfe, fluid Afedium, wherewith the Cartefians fill 
 the heavens? 
 
 The refiftance of fluid Mediums arifes partly from the cohefion 
 of the parts of the Medium, and partly from the vis inertia: 
 of matter. The firft, in a fpbeiical body, is nearly as the 
 diameter, or, at moft, as the factum of the diameter, and the 
 velocity of the body. The latter is as the fquare of that fac- 
 tum. Thus are the two kinds of refinance diftinguifhed in 
 any Medium ; and, being diftinguifhed, it will be found, that 
 almoft ail the refiftance of bodies, moving in ordinary fluids, 
 arifes from the the vis inertise. That part which arifes from 
 the tenacity of the Medium, may be diminifhed, by dividing 
 the matter into fmaller parts, and making thofe more fmooth 
 and flippery : hut the other will ftill be proportional to the 
 denfity of the matter, and cannot be diminifhed any other 
 way, but by a diminution of the fame. 
 
 Thus the refiftance of fluid Mediums is nearly proportional to 
 their denfities ; and thus the air we breathe, being about nine 
 hundred times lighter than water, muft refift about nine hun- 
 dred times lefs than water: as, in effect, the fame author has 
 found it does by experiments on pendulums. Bodies moving 
 in quick-Hlver, water, or air, do not appear to meet with any 
 other refiftance, but what arifes from the denfity and tenacity 
 of thofe fluids ; which they muft, were their pores filled with 
 a denfe and fubtile fluid. 
 
 Hear, it is found, diminifhes the tenacity of bodies very much ; 
 yet does it not decreafe the refiftance of water, fenfibly. The 
 refiftance of water, therefore, arifes chieflv from its vis iner- 
 tia; ; conffqucntly, if the heavers were as d .life as water, or 
 as quick-filver, they would not refift muc'i lefs : if abfnlutely 
 denfe, without any vacuum, be the particles never fo Jubtile 
 and fluid, they would refift: much more than quick- fllver. A 
 folid globe, in fuch a Medium, would lofe above h,df its mo- 
 tion, while it moves thrice the length of its own diameter ; 
 and a globe not perfectly folid, fuch as the planets, would lofe 
 more. 
 
 To make way therefore for the lafting motions of the planets 
 and comets, the heavens muft be empty of all matter, except, 
 perhaps, fome very fine effluvia, from the atmofpheres of the 
 earth, planets, and comets; and fome fuch ethereal Medium 
 as we have defcribed. — A denfe fluid can fcrve for no purpofe, 
 in the heavens, but to difturb the ecleftial motions, and make 
 the frame of nature languifti ; and in the pores of bodies, it 
 can only ferve to check the vibrating motion of their parts, 
 wherein their heat and activity confifts. Such a Medium, there- 
 fore, unlefs we had fome evidence of its exiftence, muft be given 
 up ; and that given up, the hypoihefis of light's confifting in a 
 preffion falls alfo to the ground. 
 Medium feptum. See the article Septum. 
 MEDIUS venter, in anatomy, denotes the breaft: or thorax. 
 Gluteus Medius. See the article Gluteus. 
 MEDLEY. See the article Chance medley. 
 MEDULLA ojfium, or Marrow of the bones, is a fbft fatty fub- 
 ftance, placed in the cavities or pores of divers bones. See 
 Marrow. 
 
 The Medulla is inclofed in a membrane ; and is devoid of 
 fenfe : it is red in the greater cavities, white in the lefi, and foft 
 and fucculent in fpungy bones. 
 
 From this is fecreted the medullary oil. See Medullary 
 oil. ' 
 Medulla cerebri and cerebelli denotes the wMte fbft part of 
 the brain and cerebellum, covered on the outfide with the cor- 
 tical fubftance, which is of a more dark or afhy colour. — See 
 the origin, ftructure, and ufe thereof, under Brain, and Ce- 
 rebellum. 
 
 Medulla oblongata is the medullary part of the brain and ce- 
 rebullum, joined in one ; the fore-part of it coming from the 
 brain, and the hind-part from the cerebellum. — See Tab. anal. 
 (ofteol.) fig. 5 . litt. dd. 
 
 It lies on the bafis of the fkull, and is continued through the 
 great perforation thereof into the hollow of the vertebras of 
 
 the 
 
MED 
 
 the neck, back, and loins : though only fo much of it retains 
 the name oblongata, as is included within the fkull. After its 
 exit thence, it is diftinguifhed by the name of Medulla fpi- 
 nails. 
 
 The fubftance of the Medulla oblongata being only an ag- 
 gregate of thofe of the brain and cerebellum, muft, like 
 them, be purely fibrous or nervous, and only an aflem- 
 blage of minute tubes for the conveyance of the animal fpi- 
 rits. It arifes, as it were, from four roots ; whereof the two 
 largeft fpring from the brain, and are called crura : the 
 two leffer from the cerebellum, which Dr. Willis calls pe- 
 dunculi. 
 
 Upon inverting it, the firft: thing that appears upon its trunk, 
 is a protuberance, fomewhat like a ring, and for that rea^ 
 fon called protuberantia annularis. Then fullow ten pair of 
 nerves, which have their origin here, and are hence fent _to 
 the feveral parts of the body. Immediately under the firft 
 pair, or the olfactories, appear two fmall arteries, or branches 
 of the carotides. The fecond pair, or optics, being cut oft, 
 there appears the infundibulum, which ends in the grandu a 
 pituitaria, and on each fide, the carotid arteries enter the fkull. 
 In the lateral ventricles of the Medulla are two prominences 
 on each fide, the one pair called corpora flriata, from the ap- 
 pearance of ftripes, or nervous fibres, within them ; their 
 outer fubftance being cortical or ghndulcus, like the reft or 
 the furface of the brain, though not fo deep. Eetwixt the 
 corpora ftriata is a broad thin production of the Medulla, 
 called fornix ; and underneath them lie two other promi- 
 nences, called thalami nervorum optkornm. On either fide of 
 thefe is a plexus of blcod-veflels, called plexus choroides. And 
 under the fornix t narrow aperture, called the ri?na, which 
 lets into the infundibulum ; which is a paffage from the third 
 ventricle to the glandula pituitaria, through the Medulla of 
 the brain ; being lined with the pia mater. Under this, in 
 the finus called fella equina, or turcica, upon the os cribrofum, 
 is the glandula pituitaria ; which is furrounded with a plexus 
 of veflHs, called rete mirabile, only vifible in brutes. On 
 the hind-part of the third ventricle is a fmall foramen, called 
 anus, leading to the fourth ventricle of the cerebellum : at 
 the orifice of this is feated a fmall gland, which, from its 
 fancied refemblance to a pine-apple, is called conarium, or 
 glandula pinealis ; where Des Cartes and his followers, ima- 
 gine the feat of the foul to be. On the backside of the Me- 
 dulla oblongata, near the cerebellum, are four protuberances, 
 whereof the upper and larger are called nates, the under and 
 leffer tejles. Between thefe and the proceffes of the cerebel- 
 lum, is the fourth ventricle, from its figure called calamus fcr'i- 
 ptorius. On the Medulla oblongata, near its extremity, are 
 four other prominences, two on each fide ; called corpora pyra- 
 midalia, and olivariu. See Olivaria. 
 Medui la. fpinalis, or the fpinal Marrow, is a continuation 
 of the Medulla oblongata, or medullary part of the brain, with- 
 out the fkull. 
 
 It confifts, as the brain does, of two parts, a white or me- 
 dullary, and a cineritious or glandulous one ; the former with- 
 out, and the other within. The fubftance of the exterior 
 part is much the fame with that of the corpus callofum, only 
 fomewhat tougher, and more fibrous : which difference be- 
 comes the more aprarent, as it defcends the lower: by rea- 
 fon of tiie ftreightnefs of the cavity, which growing gradually 
 more narrow, preffes the medullary fibres clofer together, and 
 renders them more compact, and gathers them into more 
 diftinct fafciculi, till having defcended the whole tract of the ; 
 fpina, they end in the cauda equina, It is the origin of moft ■ 
 of the nerves of the trunk of the body : it fends out thirty 
 pair on each fide to the limbs, the great cavities, and other 
 parts ; which are nothing but fafciculi of medullary fibres, co- 
 vered with their proper membranes. 
 
 The fpinal Marrow is generally faid to be covered with four 
 coats : The firft, or external one, is a ftrong nervous liga- 
 ment, which ties the vertebras together, to the infide of which 
 it firmly adheres. The fecond is a production of the dura 
 mater ; it is exceedingly ftrong, and ferves to defend the 
 fpinal Marrow from any hurt from the flexures of the ver- 
 tebra. , ■ 'J 
 The third is a production of the aryta?noides, and is a thin 
 pellucid membrane, lying between the dura and pia mater, or 
 the fecond and fourth membranes of the Medulla. This mem- 
 brane gives a coat to the nerves that go out of the fpina, which 
 is the inner membrane of the nerves, as the dura mater gives 
 the outer. The fourth coat is a continuation of the pia mater, 
 and is an extremely thin, fine, tranfparent membrane ; ftrittly 
 embracing the whole fubftance of the Medulla, dividing it in 
 the middle into two tracts, and making, as it were, two co- 
 lumns of it.— Sec Tab. Anat, (ofteol.) fig. 6. 
 MEDULLARY oil is no more than the finer and more fub- 
 tile parts of the Medulla, or marrow of the bones. See Ma r- 
 row, anil Oi l. 
 
 This, Dr. Havers obferves, panes not into the bones through 
 duels, but by fmall pores formed into veficles or glandules, 
 which are conglomerated into diflina lobules, contained in 
 
 MEL 
 
 feveral membranes invefting the whole marrow; all which 
 veficles or bags are propagated from the outward coat of the 
 arteries ; and by thefe it paffes from one to another, till it ar- 
 rives at the fides, or extreme parts of the bone. That part 
 of it which is fupplied to the interftices of the joints, goes into 
 them by paffages, penetrating through the bone into thofe 
 cavities, and formed for that end. The ufe of this oil is either 
 common to all the bones, whofe temper it preferves, and 
 keeps from being too brittle ; or more peculiarly to the joints, 
 where it is very ferviceable, i°. To lubricate the bones at their 
 extremities, that they may move more eafily and free. 2°. To 
 keep the ends of the articulated bones from growing hot 
 with motion. 3 0 . To preferve the joints from wearing by 
 attrition, and rubbing one againft another. And 4°. To pre- 
 ferve the ligaments of the joints from drynefs and rigidity, 
 and to iubricate thofe parts which Aide upon the bones, and 
 keep the cartilages whicli are joined to them, flexible. 
 MEETER. See "the article Metre. 
 MEGADOMEST1CUS. See Domestic. 
 MEGALENSIA *, or Megalesia, in antiquity, folemn 
 feafts celebrated among the Romans on the 12th of April, in 
 honour of the great mother of the gods, that is, Cybele or 
 Rbea ; wherein were fports or combats held before the temple 
 of that goddefs. 
 
 * They were called Megalenfia, from the Greek p.i>-«A;:, great ; 
 Cybele being accounted the great goddefs. 
 
 MET miferere. See the article Miserere. 
 MEINOUR. See the article Mainour. 
 MELA, a chirurgeon's inftrument, called alfo fpeculum, and by 
 the vulgar, a. probe. See Probe. 
 
 Its ufe'is to probe ulcers, or draw a ftone out of the penis: 
 its form is various, according to the ufe it is intended for. 
 See Speculum. 
 MELANCHOLY *, in medicine, a low kind of delirium, with- 
 ' out a fever ; ufually attended with fear, heavinefs, and forrow, 
 without an apparent occafion. 
 
 * The word is Greek, Uihety^Ma, formed from (Mh*{, black; 
 and yjthu, bile. 
 
 The antients attributed this difeafe to black and cloudy fpirits, 
 arifing as vapours from a redundant atrabilary humour. 
 Some of the moderns afcribe it to the irregular motion of the 
 fpirits, and their acid conftitution ; and others, who feem to 
 know it better, to too heavy and vifcid a blood, which per- 
 mits not a fufficiency of fpirits to be feparated in the brain, to 
 animate and invigorate the nerves and mufcles : laftly, others 
 attribute it to a drynefs of the meninges of the brain. 
 This difeafe is varied an infinite number of ways, according 
 to the temperament and ideas of the perfon affected with it. It 
 is a fpecies of madneis, and only differs from a downright ma- 
 nia in degree. See Mania. 
 MELANOGOGUES *, MEAANOrnr a, are fuch Medicines 
 as are furpofed particularly to purge off atra bilis or black 
 choler. 
 
 * The word is formed from ^«r, tiiger, black ; and Aye, duco, 
 to lead, or draw. 
 
 But there is no fuch fpecies of choler now regarded, and con- 
 fequently this diftinction of evacuants is but little ufed. 
 MELASSES. See the article Molossf.s. 
 
 MELCHITES, a religious feet in the Levant, who fcarce differ 
 from the Greeks in any thing relating either to faith, or wor- 
 fhip ; only that they do not fpeak the Greek language. 
 The word, in the original Syriac, fignifies royalijls, and was 
 formerly applied by the catholics to the heretics who refufed 
 to fubmit to the decifions of the council of Chalcedon : inti- 
 mating by this appellation, that they were of the religion of 
 the emperor. 
 
 Thofe now called Melchites are fuch people, as, inhabiting 
 among the Syrians, Cophtas, or Egyptians, and other Levan- 
 tine nations, follow the opinions of the Greeks, though no 
 Greeks themfelves : and it is for this reafon that Gabriel Sio- 
 nita calls them indifferently by the names of Greeks, and Mel- 
 chites. 
 
 The fame author obferves, that they are fprcad through all the 
 Levant ; that they deny purgatory ; and are declared enemies 
 to the pope and his primacy. — For the reft, they fall in with 
 the Greeks, both as to articles of faith, and difcipline. 
 They have tranflated the Greek euchologium, and other books 
 of that kind, into Arabic ; and have the canons of councils in 
 the fame language. To thofe of the council of Nice they have 
 added new canons, commonly called the Arabic canons ; which 
 are likewife received by the Jacobites and Maronites : though 
 moft of the learned look on them as fpurious. 
 MELCHIZEDECHIANS, or Melchisedeki ans, antient 
 fectaries, fo called, becaufe they raifed Mglchizedec above all 
 creatures, and even above Jefus Chrift. 
 
 The 
 
MEM 
 
 MEM 
 
 "the author of this feet was oneTheodotus : whence the Mel- 
 chtzedechians became more commonly known by the name of 
 Theodotians ; all the difference between thofe, and the ftrift 
 Theodotians, confuting in that particular article relating to Mel- 
 chixedech \ who, according to them, was the great and fu- 
 premeVirtue. 
 
 MELICERIS, MEAIKHPIH, a tumour or abfeefs inclofed in a 
 cyftis ; confiding of matter not unlike honey : whence its name. 
 The Meliceris is otherwife called atheroma- — It gathers without 
 pain, and gives way upon prefTure, but returns again : it is to 
 be cured by warm difcutients. See Atheroma. 
 
 MELISMATICO ftylo. See the article Style. 
 
 MELITITES, MKAITITHS, a greyifh (lone, which, when pul- 
 verized, yields with water a milky liquor, of a tafte fomewhat 
 like honey: whence it takes its name. 
 
 It is found in mines of metals, and feems to partake pretty 
 
 much of the nature of lead ; having a fweetnefs fomewhat like 
 
 that of the fal faturni, but much fainter. 
 
 It only differs from the galaftite, in that it is milder to the tafte. 
 
 See Galactites. The antients ufed it in inflammations of 
 
 the eyes, and to dry ulcers. See Supplement, Article Meli- 
 
 tites. 
 
 MELIUS inquirendum, a writ which lieth for a fecond inquiry to 
 be made of what Sands and tenements a man died fdfed, where 
 partiality is fufpefted upon the writ called Diem claufit extre- 
 mum. 
 
 MELODY*, MEAflfAlA, in mufic, is the agreeable effect of 
 different mufical founds, ranged or difpofed in a proper fuc- 
 ceffion. 
 
 * The word is compounded of the Greek trthi, honey ; and 
 Tinging. 
 
 Melody is the effect only of one fingle part, voice, or inftru- 
 ment; by which it is diftinguifhed from harmony ; though, in 
 common fpeech, thefe two are frequently confounded. 
 Harmony is properly the agreeable refult of the union of two 
 or more concording mufical founds heard in confonance, i.e. at 
 one and the fame time ; fo that harmony is the effect of two 
 parts at leaft ; As therefore a continued fucceffion of mufical 
 founds produces Melody, fo does a continued combination of 
 thefe produce harmony. 
 
 Though the term Melody be chiefly applicable to the treble, 
 as the treble is chiefly diftinguifhed by its air ; yet fo far as the 
 bafs may be made airy, and to fmg well, it may be alfo pro- 
 perly faid to be melodious. Of the twelve harmonica! intervals 
 of mufical founds, diftinguifhed by the names of fecond lejfer, 
 fecond greater ; third lefter, third greater ; fourth ; falfe fifth, 
 fifth; fixth lejfer i fixth greater ; feventh leffer, feventh greater; 
 and O&ave ; all Melody as well as harmony, are compofed : 
 for the octaves of each of thefe are but replications of the fame 
 found ; and whatever is (aid of any or all ot thefe founds, is 
 to be underftood alfo of their octaves. 
 
 For the rules a/Melody, fee the article Composition. 
 
 MELT. See the article MlLT. 
 
 MELTING-fiv. U , C Fire. 
 
 o sti/ t See the article t 
 
 Surveyor <?f Melting. J { Melting. 
 
 MEMBERS, in anatomy> the exterior parts, arifing from the 
 
 trunk or body of an animal, like the boughs from the trunk 
 
 of a tree. 
 
 In which fenfe, Members, membra, amount to much the fame 
 with limbs, artus : Though fome make a difference between 
 the two ; reftraining Members more immediately to the fleftiy 
 parts which cover the limbs, and artus to the bones and nerves. 
 Phyficians divide the body into three regions or venters ; the 
 head, the brcaft, and the lower ventricle; and the extremities, 
 which are the Members. 
 
 Each Member and portion of the body was antiently devoted 
 to fome divinity : the head to Jupiter, the brcaft to Neptune, 
 the navel to Mars, the ear to Memory, the forehead to the 
 Genius, the right-hand to Faith or Fidelity, the knees to Mer- 
 cy, the eye-brows, again, to Jupiter, the eyes to Cupid, or, 
 according to others, to Minerva, the hind-part of the right ear 
 to Nemefis, the back to Pluto, the reins to Venus, the feet to 
 Mercury, the heels and foals of the feet to Thetis, and the 
 fingers to Minerva. 
 
 Member, in architecture, denotes any part ofa building; as a 
 frieze, cornich, or the like. 
 
 Member is fometimes alfo ufed for moulding. See Moulding. 
 
 Member, in grammar, is applied to the parts of a period, or 
 fentence. 
 
 MEMBERED, or Memered, in heraldry, is where the legs 
 or feet of an eagle, griffin, or other bird, are of a different 
 colour from the reft of the body 
 
 MEMBRANA, in anatomy. 
 
 Memerana communis mufcuUi uu 
 
 Memskana propria m^-- > Ses -{Membrane 
 
 '/' 
 
 MeMBEAKA -) |-Adiposa 
 
 Me 
 Me 
 
 Membrana tympani. \ I Tympanum, and For am en 
 M 
 
 Vol. 11, 
 
 l ui me Ltuuy. 
 
 natomy. -» r 
 
 ""f7 W t See \b 
 mujculorum. C 1 
 
 is vafculorum. J L 
 
 MEMBRANE, Membrana, in anatomy, a fimilar pari 
 of an animal body ; being a thin, white, flexible, expanded 
 fkin, formed of feveral forts of fibres interwoven together, 
 and ferving to cover or wrap up certain parts of the 
 body. 
 
 The Membranes of the body are various; and varioufly de- 
 nominated : .Such are the periofteum, p'leura, pericar- 
 dium, peritonaeum, &c. which fee under their proper articles. 
 Such alfo are, the Adipofa, Carnofa, and Niclitating. 
 Thofe Membranes which ferve as integuments or covers of 
 veffels, are called coats or tunics ; and tfiofe which cover the 
 brain, are, by a peculiar name, called meninges. 
 The fibres of Membranes give them an elafticity, whereby 
 they can contract, and clofely grafp the parfs they contain ; 
 arid their nervous fibres give them alfo an exquifite fenfe, which 
 is the caufe of their contractions. They can therefore fcarce- 
 ly fuffer the fharpnefs of medicines, and they are difficultly 
 united, when wounded. In their texture, there is a num- 
 ber of fmall glands, which feparate an humour, fit for moift- 
 ening the parts they contain. By reafon of the thinnefs and 
 tranfparency of the Membranes, the ramifications of the blood- 
 veffels are more apparently feen in them, than in any other 
 part of the body : here the innumerable divifions, windings 
 and turnings, ferpentine progreffions, and frequent inofcu- 
 lations, not only of veins and arteries together, but alfo of 
 veins with veins, and arteries with arteries, make a moft agree- 
 able embroidery, and delicate net-work, covering the whole 
 Alcmbrane. 
 
 The ufe of the Membranes is to cover and wrap up the parts, 
 and ftrengthen them ; to fave them from external injuries ; 
 to preferve the natural heat ; to join one part to another ; to 
 fuftain fmall veffels, and the nerves which run through their 
 duplicatures ; to ftop the returning of the humours in their 
 veffels, as the valves ftop the returning of the blood in the 
 veins and heart ; of the chyle in the thoracic duct ; and of the 
 lympha in the lymphatic veffels. 
 
 Anatomifts generally affert, that there is a Membrana com- 
 munis mufculorum, or Membrane common Go all the Mufcles ; 
 being led into that miftake by the aponeurofis of feveral ; 
 whereas, upon ftricter obfervation, there is no fuch thing to 
 be found. 
 
 The Membrana propria mufculorum is that which imme- 
 diately covers all and every one of the fibres of a mufcle, and 
 is clofely tacked to them. There is another common Mem- 
 brane, called Membrana communis vafculorum ; which is a 
 thin Membrane, accompanying almoft ail the veffels of the 
 body. 
 
 All thefe Membranes receive veins, arteries, and nerves, from 
 the parts which are neareft to them. 
 
 Membranes of the eyes. 1 c , . , C Eye. 
 
 MEMBRANOSA armilla. \ See the artlcle { Armilla. 
 
 MEMBRANOSUS, in anatomy, a mufcle of the leg, fo call- 
 ed, from its large membranous expanfion inclofing all the muf- 
 cles of the triba and the tarfus ; whence it is alfo called faf- 
 
 cia lata. See Tab. Anat. (Myol.) fig. 2. n. 34. fig, j, n , 
 
 48. fig. 6. «. 34. 
 
 It hath a fharp flefhy beginning from the fore-part of the fpine 
 of the os ilium ; but it fobri becomes membranous, and covers 
 almoft all the mufcles of the thigh and leg, down to the foot, 
 where it joins with the ligameritum annulare; and in its action 
 turns the leg outwards. 
 
 MEMBRED. See the article Membereij. 
 
 MEME.— Jgp eft Meme. See the article Que. 
 
 MEMOIRS, or Memorials, a term now much in ufe for 
 hiftories compofed by perfons who had fome fhare or con- 
 cern in the tranfacfions they relate, or who were eye-wit- 
 neffes of them ; anfwering to what the Latins called com- 
 mentarii. 
 
 The French are great dealers in this way of writing, and have 
 an infinite number of books of Memoirs, containing, for the 
 generality, the lives, aft ions, intrigues, amours, csV. of the 
 writers. 
 
 Memoirs is alfo ufed for a journal of the acts and proceedings 
 of a fociety ; or a collection of the matters debated, tranfacted, 
 t$c. therein.— Such are the Memoirs of the royal academy of 
 fciences, 
 
 MEMORY, mnhmh, a power, or faculty of the mind, where- 
 by it retains or recollects the fimple ideas or images of things 
 we have feen, imagined, underftood, tiff. See Soul, Power, 
 Faculty, fcff. 
 
 Of all the faculties, there is none harder to account for, or 
 that has perplexed philofophers more, than the Memory. Some 
 will have it a mere organ, as the eye, ear, fcfc — Dr. Hook 
 in an Efthy towards a mechanical account of Memory, makes it 
 to coniift in a ftock of ideas or images, formed occafionallv by 
 the mind, out of the fine parts of the brain, and difpofed or 
 laid by in order. 
 
 Des Cartes and his followers maintain, That the animal fpi- 
 rits, exciting a motion in the moft delicate fibres of the 
 brain, leave a kind of traces or footfteps, which occafion our 
 remembrance. Hence it happens, that, by palling feveral times 
 6 N over 
 
MEM 
 
 MEN 
 
 over the fame things, the fpirits, becoming accuftomed to the 
 Came paffages, leave them open, and Co make their way with- 
 out any effort or labour ; and in this confifts the eafe where- 
 with we recollect fuch ideas. Thus wine is found to fharpen 
 the Memory, in regard the fpirits of the wine put the animal 
 fpirits in motion, and agitate the fibres of the brain more 
 brifkly. 
 
 Father Malebranche expreffes his notion of Memory thus : e It 
 
 * being granted, that all our different perceptions are owing 
 
 * to changes happening in the fibres of the principal part of 
 « the brain, wherein the foul more immediately refides, the 
 
 * nature of the Memory is obvious : for as the leaves of a tree, 
 
 * that have been folded for fome time in a certain manner, 
 ' prefcrve a facility or difpofition to be folded again in the 
 
 * fame manner ; fo the fibres of the brain, having once re- 
 « ceived certain impreffions by the courfe of the animal fpirits, 
 
 * and by the action of objects, preferve, for fome time, a fa- 
 
 * cility to receive the fame difpofition. Now it is in this fa- 
 1 cility that Memory confifts; for we think the fame things, 
 
 * when the brain receives the fame difpofitions. 
 
 * Further, as the animal fpirits act fometimes more brifkly, 
 
 ■ and fometimes more languidly, on the fubftance of the 
 
 * brain ; and as fenfible objects make much deeper, and more 
 
 * lading impreffions, than the imagination alone ; it is eafy, 
 
 * on this fcheme, to conceive why we do not remember all 
 
 * things alike : why a thing, for inftance, feen twice, is re- 
 ' prefented more vividly to the mind, than another feen but 
 
 * once : and why things that have been feen, are ufually re- 
 
 * membred more diftinctly, than thofe that have been only 
 
 * imagined, &c. 
 
 * Old men are defective in Memory, and cannot learn any- 
 
 * thing without much difficulty, becaufe they want animal 
 
 * fpirits to make new traces, and becaufe the fibres of the brain 
 ' are become too hard to receive, or too moift to retain, fuch 
 
 * impreffions. For the fame reafon, thofe who learn with the 
 
 * greateft eafe, forget the fooneft ; in regard when the fibres 
 
 * arc foft and flexible, objects make a flight impreffion, which 
 
 * the continual courfe of animal fpirits eafily wears off. On 
 
 * the contrary, the fibres of thofe who learn flowly, being lefs 
 
 * flexible, and lefs fubject to be fhaken, the traces are more 
 
 * deeply engraven, and laft the longer. 
 
 ' From all which obfervations it follows, that the Memory is 
 
 ■ abfolutcly dependent on the body ; being impaired or ftrength- 
 
 * ened, according to the changes that befal the body ; a 
 
 * fall, the tranfports of a fever, &c. being frequently found 
 
 * to erafe or blot out all the traces, to bear away all the ideas, 
 ' and to caufe an univerfal forget fulnefs.' 
 
 The chief difficulty that clogs this doctrine of Memory is, to 
 conceive how fuch an infinite number of things, as the head is 
 ftored withal, fhould be ranged in fo much order in the Me- 
 mory, as that the one fhould not efface the other ; and how, 
 in fuch a prodigious afll-mblage of traces impreffed on the 
 brain, the animal fpirits fhould awake precifely thofe which 
 the mind has occafion for ! 
 
 Seneca fays of himfelf, that, by the mere effort of his natural 
 Memory, he was able to repeat two thou fund words upon once 
 hearing them, each in its order ; though they had no depend- 
 ence or connexion on each other. After which he mentions 
 a friend of his, Portius Latro, who retained in his memory all 
 the declamations he had ever fpoken, and never found his Me- 
 mory fail him, even in a fingle word. He alfo mentions Cy- 
 neas, embaflador to the Ramans from king Pyrrhus, who, in 
 one day, had fo well learnt the names of his fpectators, that 
 thenext he faluted the whole fenatc, and all the populace af- 
 fcmbled, each by his name, Pliny fays, that Cyrus knew 
 every foldier in his army by name ; and L. Scipio, all the peo- 
 ple of Rome. Charmidas, or rather Carneades, when re- 
 quired, it is faid, would repeat any volume found in the li- 
 braries, as readily as if he were reading. — Dr. Wallis tells us, 
 that, without the afliftance of pen and ink, or any-thingequi- 
 valcnt, he was able in the dark, by mere force of Memory, to 
 perform arithmetical operations, as multiplication, divifion, 
 extraction of roots, fife, to forty places. Particularly, that, 
 in February 167 1-2, at the rc que ft of a foreigner ('by night, in 
 bed) he propofed to himfelf a number of fifty-three places, and 
 found its fquare root to twenty-feven places; and, without 
 ever writing down the number, dictated it from his Memory, 
 at his next vifit, twenty days afterwards. 
 Local or artificial Memory is an art or invention, by means 
 whereof the Memory is fuppofed to be aided, ftrengthened, and 
 inlarged. 
 
 This art fecms to confift in nothing elfe but a certain method 
 of coupling or afibciating the ideas of things to be rcmembred, 
 with the ideas of other things, already difpofed orderly in the 
 mind, or that are before the eyes. — It is of an old ffanding, 
 having been practifed by manv of the antient orators ; fome 
 whereof are faid to have made ufe of paintings, images, and 
 emblems on this occafion : though others contented them- 
 fclvcs with the parts, members, ornaments, furniture, ' and 
 other circuinftonces of the place where they were to fpeak. 
 Muretus tells us, that a young man of Corfica pretending to 
 de' wonders this way, Mwrctus put him to the trial : and upon 
 
 dictating to him two or three thoufand words, fumeGrcc!:, 
 fome Latin, fome Barbarous ; all without any relation to each 
 other, and the greateft. part without any meaning at all ; the 
 artift immediately, and without any helitation, or the le:.ft 
 ftumbhng or difplacing, repeated thi:m all, from ftrif. to laft, 
 in the fame order wherein they had been dictated ; and this 
 done, beginning where he ended, he reputed them ali back- 
 wards, from latt to firft. Adding, that this was but a flight 
 effay of his Memory; and that he would undertake to repeat 
 thirty-fix thoufand words in the fame manner. 
 The truth is, this art fcems better calculated for retaining things 
 without any coherence or dependence on oneanoilicr, as mere 
 words or founds,- Wc. than for things where realon or judg- 
 ment are any way required. 
 
 Raim. Lully took fo much pains with it, that it now goes by 
 his name, being called Lully' s art. 
 MEMPHITES, or lapis Memphiticus, a fort of ftone men- 
 tioned by Diofcorides, Pliny, and other natural hiftorians ; 
 fuppofed to be found in Egypt not far from the city of Cairo, 
 the antient Memphis ; whence its name. 
 
 The property it is famed for is, that, being pulverized, and 
 fmearcd on any part of the body to be cut off, it deadens it fo, 
 as that the patient fhall perceive no pain, they fay, from the 
 operation. See Supplement, Article Memphites. 
 
 M E N . — Midjhipmen. " \ 
 
 MooI-Men. \ 
 
 Port-MEN. I 
 
 .<^/?-Men. J See the article 
 
 7W/w-Men. 
 ^ry-MEN. 
 
 MENANDRIANS, the moft antient branch of Gnoftics ; thus 
 called from Menander their chief, a difciple of Simon Magus, 
 and himfelf a reputed magician. 
 
 He taught, that no pcrfun could be faved, unlefs he were bap- 
 tized in his name ; and he conferred a peculiar fort of baptil'm, 
 which would render thofe who received it immortal in the 
 next world. St. Irenseus reprefents him, as pretending to be, 
 that Firft Virtue hitherto unknown to the world, and to have 
 been fent by the apgels for the falvation of all mankind. 
 He took upon him, fays St. Fpiphanius, ha;r. 2". to be greater 
 than his mafter ; which contradicts Theodoret, who makes 
 Menander a fubordinate Virtue to Simon Magus, the great Vir- 
 tue of all. See Si mon FANS. 
 MENDICANTS, beggars ; a term applied to feveral orders of 
 religious, who live on alms, and go a begging from door to door. 
 There are four antient orders, which pafs principally by the 
 name of the four Mendicants : thefe are, the Carmelites, Ja- 
 cobines, Francifcans, and Anguftins, 
 
 Among the number of Mendicants are alfo ranked the Capu- 
 chins, Recollect?, Minims, and others, who are branches or 
 derivations from the former. 
 
 The Mendicants, at their firft eftablifhment, w r ere rendered 
 capable of having any revenues. The multitude of Mendicants 
 is now a heavy tax on tlie people.. 
 
 MEN1AN column- See the article Column. 
 
 MENINGES, MHMIThS, in anatomy, the coats, or mem- 
 branes, wherewith the brain is inverted. See Brain. 
 The Arabs call them mothers ; whence we alfo ufually call 
 them in Latin the pia and dura mater. See Pia, and Dura 
 mater. 
 
 There are two Meninges, external and internal j called meninx 
 craffa, and tenuis. 
 
 Craffa Meninx, or dura mater, is the externa! one, and the 
 grofleft. It lies immediately under the cranium, and covers 
 the whole fubftance of the brain, and the fpinal marrow, and 
 affords a coat to the trunks of the larger nerves. See Nerve, 
 &'c. It is connected on the upper part to the pcriofteum by 
 means of fibres, and on the under fide to the pia mater by the 
 branches of the finus's, and by the arteries and nerves. It 
 confifts of two lefler coats or membranes, which fome have 
 taken for two dura maters ; the exterior, hard ; and the inner, 
 more fmooth, foft, and moift. It defcends double- between the 
 two bemjfoherea of the brain, which it divides as deep as the 
 corpus callofum ; and, by reafon of its curvature, occafioned 
 by the convexity of the brain in that part, is called falx, from 
 its refemblance to a fickle. See Falx. It likewife inlinuatts 
 itfelf between the brain and cerebellum, and fo prevents the 
 brain from lying top hard on the cerebellum. In the dupli- 
 cates thereof, are feveral cavities called finus's, which are a 
 fort of venous canals fervmg for the conveyance of the blood. 
 Of thefe there are four confiderable ones, viz. the longitudi- 
 nales and lateralis. 
 
 Meninx tenuis, or pia mater, lies under the dura mater, im- 
 mediately under the brain. It is a fine thin membrane ad- 
 hering fo clofely, and infinuating itfelf in fuch a manner into 
 all the folds and anfractuous parts of the brain, that it is fcarce 
 to be feparated from it. This membrane covers the whole 
 brain, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata ; and ferves, toge- 
 ther with the other, for the defence of the brain, and the fup- 
 port of itsveffels. 
 
 Between the two, lies another fine tranfparent membrane, 
 2 called 
 
MEN 
 
 called aracbnmdes ; but the bed anatomids take this for no 
 more than the external lamina of the pia mater. 
 MENIPPEAN, fatyra Menippea, a kind of fatyr confiding 
 of profe and verfe intermixed. 
 
 It is thus called from Menippus, a Cynic philofopher, who 
 
 delighted in compoiing fatyrical letters, USc In imitation of 
 
 him, Varro alfo wrote fatyrs under the title of fatyra: Menif- 
 fea: whence this fort of compofition is alfo denominated 
 Varranian fatyr. 
 
 Among the moderns, there is a famous piece under this title, 
 firft publifhed in 1594, againft the chiefs of the league, called 
 alfo the catbalicon of Spain. It is efteemed a matter-piece for 
 the time. See Catholicon. 
 MENISCUS, in optics, a glafs or lens, concave on one fide, 
 and convex on the other; fometimes alfo called lunula. See 
 .Lens, and Optic glafs. 
 
 In a Menifcus, if the diameter of the convexity be equal to that 
 of the concavity, a tay, falling parallel to the axis, will conti- 
 nue parallel thereto after refraaion. 
 
 Such a Menifcus, therefore, will neither collefl nor difperfj 
 the rays ; and is therefore of no ufe in dioptrics. 
 To find the focus of a Menifcus, the rule is, As the difference 
 of the femi-diameters of the convexity and concavity is to the 
 femi-diameter of the convexity ; fo is the diameter of the con- 
 cavity to the didance of the focus from the MmUms. Hence, 
 if the femi-diameter of the concavity be triple'' the firm-dia- 
 meter of the convexity, the diftance of the focus from the 
 Memfcus will be equal to the femi-diameter : and therefore 
 the Memfcus will be equivalent to a lens equally convex on 
 either tide. 
 
 Again ; if the femi-diameter of the concavity be double that 
 of the convexity, the diftance of the focus will be equal to the 
 diameter : and therefore the Menifcus will be equivalent to a 
 plano-convex lens. 
 
 If the femi-diameter of the concavity be quintuple that of the 
 convexity, the Memfcus will be equivalent to a fphere. 
 ihe femt-diameter, therefore, of the convexity being given ■ 
 that of the concavity required to remove the focus to any given 
 ddtance from the Memfcus, is eafily found 
 MENNON1TES, a feci in ,he United Provinces, in mod re 
 fpects the fame with thofe in other places called anabapiifls. 
 1 hey had their rife in 1496, in a village in Friezcland : their 
 founder was one Mention, who undertook to reform the reli 
 gion of the antient anabaptifts, and to throw out all their en 
 thufiafm touching the new kingdom of Chrift, tsfc 
 The Mennonites hold, that there is no original fin ; that the firft 
 man was not created juft ; that, in fpeaking of the father, foil, 
 and holy ghoft, we muft not ufe the word perfin, nor that of 
 trinity; that Jefus Chrift did not take his flefh from tfie fub 
 ffance of his mother, but from the efl'ence of the father ; or 
 that the word of the father became man ; that he brought it 
 from heaven ; or that we do not know whence he had it 
 and that the union of the divine and human nature was h 
 effected, as that the divine was tendered vifible, and liable to 
 death. 
 
 'Ihe Mennonites teach farther, that Chriftians ate not allowed 
 to (wear ; to exercife any civil magiftrature ; nor to ufe the 
 (word, not even for the punifhment of criminals. They add 
 that mimfters ot the word are not permitted to teceive any 
 wages for their work ; that they muft not baptize little Chi], 
 dren ; and that the fouls of men, after death, reft in an un- 
 known place till the day of judgment. 
 
 The Mcnnmltes arc (ukdivided into divers feds ; whereof the 
 two principal are, the Mennonites of Friezeland, and thofe of 
 r landers. 
 
 The latter exercife a very ftrifl church-difcipline, and excom- 
 municate perfons for the flighted offence ; nor do they hold it 
 lawful to have any fociety or communication with thofe ex- 
 communicated.— Thofe of Friezeland, on the contrary re- 
 ceive into their communion fuch as arc excommunicated by 
 , ' he ° tncrs .;., w1k "« <hey have been called Jlcrcorarii, and i„r- 
 bsrijta. 1 heir difcipline is very remifs. 
 
 They recommend an univerfal toleration of religions very 
 earneftly, and receive all kinds of perfons into their aft'emblies 
 provided they be of good morals, and believe the fcripsure to 
 be the word of God ; however divided they may be as to the 
 particular articles of faith. 
 
 Though the Mennonijls ufually pafs for a fc& of anabaptifts, vet 
 M.Herman Schin, a Menntmte miniftcr, who has publifhed 
 their hiftory and apology, maintains, that they are not anaba- 
 ptifts, euher in principle, or by origin. He owns they baptize 
 none but adults ; but then, neither do they re-baptize any who 
 had received it in their childhood. They fpeak with a area t 
 deal of prudence and referve as to the extraordinary operation- 
 ol the holy lp lr „ , and are {„ f, om , he fanaticifm of , he M 
 MiaoapWh. N 1 people are more fubmiffive to maeiftrates, or 
 carry paffive obedience farther than thev. Far from rebellion 
 tney condemn rien the moft juft war, £jf. 
 MENOLOGY *, Menolocium, in the Greek church, is 
 much the fame with martyrdom, or calendar, in tile Latin 
 
 M E N 
 
 ' dircoaTie rd COmesfrom At Greek > f™> "n°Ml>. and 
 
 The Greek Menologium is divided into the feveral months in 
 the year ; and contains an abridgment of the lives of the 
 faints, with a. bare commemoration of the names of fuel, 
 whofe lives were never written. The Greeks have various 
 Mcnologm ; and the Romans tax them with infertioe divers 
 heretics ,n their Menolepe, as faints. Baillet treats of (hem 
 at large. 
 
 . MENS/E damcjlicus. See the article Domesticus 
 
 ; MENSAL1A, Mensa,, fuch per^or'^ as were 
 
 formerly united to the tables of religious houfes ; and therefore 
 1 by canonifts called menfal benefices. See Parsonage and 
 i Benefice. * 
 i MENSES * Catamenia, in medicine, the monthly evacua- 
 ; tions from the uterus of women not with child, or not eivimr 
 
 luck. ° o 
 
 ' They are fo called from mafis, month, the period wherein 
 they return. They are alfo called/Wrr, ,■»,/„, s.- c . 
 
 The Mcnfes make one of the moft curious and difficult pheno- 
 mena in the whole human body; for the explanation where- 
 of many hypothefes have been framed ; though the matter is 
 yet fcarcely afcertained. 
 
 It is generally agreed by all, that the neceflty women are un- 
 der for feme extraordinary fupply to compenfate the expence 
 and fupport ihem during the time of geftation, was the final 
 reafon why tins redundance at othet times was given them 
 Hut this is all (hey agree in. Some, not content with this 
 occahon alone, will have ihe menjlruous blood offend in quality 
 more than quantity ; which they argue from the pain it gives 
 many womenin the evacuation. They add alfo, that its malignity 
 is fo great, that it excoriates the pans of men by mere caiHafl : 
 that the breath of a menjlruous woman will give a permanent 
 ftain to ivory, or a looking-glafs ; that a little of the blood 
 dropped on any vegetable, blafts, or renders it fterile ■ that' 
 if a pregnant woman be defiled with the Menfes of another wo' 
 man, flie mifcarries ; that, if a dog taftes them, he runs mad 
 and grows epileptic: all which, with many more fables of the 
 fame kind, though related by great authors, Dr. Drake reieds 
 as too ridiculous to need a refutation. * 
 Others afcribe this effca to an imaginary dominion of the 
 moon over tne bodies of women — This was formerly the pre- 
 vailing opinion; though the fmalleft reflection would have 
 fhewn the weaknefs of it : for, had this purgation been oivin- 
 to the influence of the moon, all women, of the fame age and 
 temperament, would have found it at the fame periods and re- 
 volutions of the moon, i. e. at the fame time : which all ex 
 penence (hews to be falfe. 
 
 There are two other opinions, which carry with them great 
 probability, and are argued with a great deal of ftren»th and 
 reafon. In both winch, the quality of the blood is allowed to 
 be innocent ; but they ftill differ about the reafon of its iffue. 
 — I he former is that of Dr. Bohn and Dr. Freind, who main- 
 tain this flux to be the re-felt ofa plethora, or plenitude ; and 
 to be evacuated only for relief againft the quantity 
 Dr. Freind, who has maintained the caufe of a plethora with 
 the greateft ftiength and clearnefs, fuppofes, that this plethora 
 arifcs from a coacervation in the blood-vefl'els of a fuperfluity 
 of aliment which, he thinks, remains over and above what 
 is expended by the ordinary ways; and that women have this 
 plethora, and not men becaufe their bodies are more humid, 
 and their veffel-, cfpecially the extremities of them, more len- 
 der, and their manner of living generally more inaaive than 
 that of men; and that thefe things concurring are the occa 
 f.on that women do not ptrfpire fufficienth/to carry off the 
 fupeifluous alimentary parts, till they be accumulated in fech 
 quantity as to diftend the veffels, and force their way throueh 
 the capillary arteries of the uterus. It is feppofed to happen to 
 women more than the females of other fpecies, which have the 
 fame parts becaufe of the erect pofture of the former, and the 
 vagina, and other canals, being perpendicular to ihe horizon • 
 fo that the preflure of the blood is direBed towards their ori' 
 hces i whereas ,n brutes, they are parallel to the horizon, and 
 the preffure wholly is on the fides of thofe veffels The dif 
 charge, he thinks, happens in this part rather than in any 
 other, as being more favoured by the ftruBure of the veffels - 
 the arteries being very numerous, and the veins finuous and' 
 winding, and therefore more apt to retard the impetus of the 
 blood ; and confequently, in a plethoric cafe, to occafion the 
 rupture of the extremities of the veffels, which may laft till 
 by a fufficient difcharge, the veffels are eafed of their over- 
 load. 
 
 This is the fubftance of Dr. Freind's theory ; from whence he 
 very mechanically, and very philofcphically, accounts for the 
 funptoms. 
 
 To his argument, why women have Menfes rather than men 
 we may add from Boerhaave, that, in the former, the 05 fa' 
 crum is wider, and (lands farther out, and the os cocevgis far 
 ther in ; the offa innominata wider, and farther aparr 'and the 
 lowed of them, as well as the lower eminences of the os pubis 
 farther outwards than in the latter. Hence, in women the 
 latitude or expanfion about thefe bones, and the capaciry of 
 the pelvis, is vaflly great in proportion to thofe of men ; and 
 
MEN 
 
 MEN 
 
 yet, in a woman not pregnant, there is not much to fill this 
 expanfe. Again, the fore-fide of the thorax is fmoother in 
 women than in men, and the blood -veflels, lymphatics, adipofe, 
 and nervous veflels, membranes, and fibres, are much laxer in 
 women than in men : whence all their cavities, cells, veflfcls, 
 life, are more eafily replenifhed, and the humours aggregated 
 in them j befides, that they are found to perfpirelefs than men, 
 and to arrive much fooner at their maturity, or^jcpi of increafe. 
 To which he adds the confideration of the foft pulpous texture 
 of the uterus, and the vail number of veins and arteries it is 
 filled withal. 
 
 Hence, an healthy maid, being arrived at her growth, begins 
 to prepare more nutriment than is required for the fupport of 
 the body ; which, as there is not to be any farther accretion, 
 muft, of neceflity, fill the veflels, and efpecially thofe of the 
 uterus and breafts, they being the leaft: compreffed. Thefe 
 will be dilated more than the others ; Whence the lateral va- 
 fcules evacuating their humour into the cavity of the uterus, 
 it will be filled, and extended. Hence a pain, heat, and hea- 
 vinefs, will be felt about the loins, pubes, We, the veffels of 
 the uterus at the fame time will be fo dilated, as to emit blood 
 into the cavity of the uterus, and its mouth will be lubricated 
 and loofened, and blood iffue out. As thequantity of blood is di_ 
 minifhed, the veflels will belefs prefled, and will contract tbem- 
 felves again clofer, fo as again to retain the blood, and let pafs 
 the grofler part of die fcrum ; till at length only the ufual ferum 
 panes. Again, there are more humours prepared, which are 
 more eafily lodged in veflels once dilated ; and hence the Mm- 
 fes go and return at various periods in various perfons. 
 This hypothefis, however plaufible, is oppofed by Dr. Drake, 
 who maintains, that there is no fuch repletion, or, at leaft, 
 that it is not neceffary to menftruation ; arguing, that, if the 
 Menfes were owing to a plethora fo accumulated, the fym- 
 ptoms would arife gradually, and the heavinefs, ftiffhefs, and 
 ina&ivitv, neceffary fymptoms of a plethora, would be feltlong 
 before the period were completed, and women would begin to 
 be heavy and indifpofed foon after evacuation, and the fym- 
 ptoms would increafe daily : which is contrary to all expe- 
 rience ; many women, who have them regularly and eafily, 
 having no warning, nor any other rule to prevent an indecent 
 furpnze, than the meafure of the time ; in which, fome that 
 have nipped, have been put to confufion and fhifts, no-ways 
 confiftent with the notice a plethoric body would give. He 
 adds, that, even in thofe who are difficultly purged this way, 
 the fymptoms, though very vexatious and tedious, do not make 
 fuch regular approaches, as a gradual accumulation ncccfla- 
 tily requires. If we confider what violent fymptoms come on 
 in an hour, we fhall be extremely puzzled to find the mighty 
 icceffiun of matter, which fhould, in an hour or a day's time, 
 make fuch great alterations. According to the hypothecs, 
 the laft hour contributes no more than the firft, and, of con- 
 lcquence, the alteration fhould not be greater in the one than 
 the other ; fetting afide the bare eruption. 
 This is the fubftance of what is argued againft Dr. Freind's 
 theory ; which, it muft be owned, notwithstanding thefe ob- 
 jecTions, is ftill the mod rational and confillent that has yet 
 been advanced. 
 
 Thofe who oppofe it, give into the doctrine of fermentation, 
 arid maintain the evacuation of blood in thofe parts to be the 
 efTe£t of an eftvrvefcence or ebullition of the blood. This opi- 
 nion has been maintained by many, particularly by Dr. Cbarle- 
 ton, Bale, De Graaf, and Drake ; the two firft of whom fuppofe 
 a ferment peculiar to the women, which produces this flux, 
 and affe£ts that part only, or at leaft principally. Dr. Graaf, 
 lefs particular in his notion, only fuppofes an effervefcence of 
 the blood raifed by fome ferment, without affigning how it 
 ac~ts, or what it is. The fudden turgefcence of the blood 
 occafioned them all to think, that it arofe from fomething till 
 then extraneous to the blood, and led them to the parts prin- 
 cipally affc&ed to leek for an imaginary ferment, which no 
 anatomical inquiry could ever fhew, or find any receptacle for, 
 nor any reafoning neceflarily infer. Again, that heat, which 
 frequently accompanies this turgefcence, led them to think the 
 cafe more than a plethora, and that there was fome extraordi- 
 nary inteftine motion at that time. 
 
 Dr. Drake improves on the doctrine of a ferment ; and con- 
 tends, not only that it is neceffary there fhould be a ferment, 
 but a receptacle alfo for this ferment; concluding, from the 
 fuddennefs and violence of the fymptoms, that a great quantity 
 muft be conveyed into the blood in a fhort time, and confe- 
 quently, that it muft have been ready gathered in f ime re- 
 ceptacle, where, while it was lodged, its action was re- 
 trained. But he goes farther ftill, and pretends to afcertain 
 the place, bfc. both of the one and the other, making the gall- 
 bladder to be the receptacle, and the bile the ferment. This 
 liquor he thinks Wei] adapted to raife a fermentation in the 
 blood, when difebarged into it in a quantity ; and, as it is 
 contained in a. receptacle that does not admit of a continual 
 iflue, it may He there rcfervc-d, till, in a certain period of time, 
 the bhdder becoming turgid and full, through the compref- 
 fion of the incuuibtnt vifecra, it emits the gall ; which,by 
 
 the way of the la&eals, infinuating itfelf into the blood, mat 
 raife that effervefcence, which occafions the aperture of the 
 uterine arteries. 
 
 To confirm this, he alleges, that perfons of a bilious cnnftl- 
 tution have the Menfes either more plentifully, or more fre- 
 quently, than others ; and that diftcmpers, manifeftly bilious, 
 are attended with fymptoms refembling thofe of women la- 
 bouring under difficult menftruation. If it be objected, that; 
 on this foot, men fhould have Menfes, as well as women, he 
 anfwers, that men do not abound in bile fo much as women ; 
 the pores of the former being more opcn,and carrying ofTmore 
 of the ferous part of the blood, which is the vehicle of all the 
 other humours i and confequently a greater part of each is dis- 
 charged through them than in women, wherein the Superfluity 
 muft either continue to circulate with the blood, or be ga- 
 thered in proper receptacles ; which is the cafe in the bile. 
 The fame reafon he gives why menftruation mould not be in 
 brutes; the pores of thefe being manifeftly more open than 
 thofe of women, as appears from the quantity of hair which 
 they bear ; for the vegetation whereof, a large cavity, and a 
 wider aperture of the glands, is necefiary, than where no fuch 
 thing is produced : yet there is fome difference between the 
 males and females even among thefe, fome of the latter having 
 their Menfes, though not fo often, nor in the fame form and 
 quantity, as women. 
 
 He adds, that the feveral phenomena of the Menfes, whether 
 in a natural, a regular, or difeafed cafe, flow naturally and 
 readily from this hypothefis ; and that whatever may be ac- 
 counted for from a plethora, or from any particular ferment, 
 may, without any Itraining, be applied to this. 
 The root of black hellebore, and fteel, are the principal reme- 
 dies for obftruflions of the Menfes : the former is almoft infal- 
 lible, and in many cafes where the latter is not only ineffec- 
 tual, but improper, as in plethoric habits; for, with fuch, 
 fteel will fometimes raife hyfteric commotions, convulfions, 
 and a kind of uterine furor ; whereas hellebore thins the blood, 
 and difpofes it for a difdiarge, without making it more impe- 
 tuous ; fo that th"' both provoke the Menfes, yet they do it 
 bv different ways; fteel by increafing the blood's velocity, 
 and giving it a greater moment againft the uterine arteries ; 
 and hellebore by dividing it, and rendering it mere fluid. See 
 Supplement, Article Menses. 
 
 MENSIS. 7 t Month. 
 
 Meksis chym'uus. > SeeS Menstruum. 
 
 Mensjs vetitus. } CKence month. 
 
 MENSTRUAL, or Menstruous, a term in medicine, ap- 
 plied to the blood which flows from women in their ordinary 
 monthly purgations. 
 
 The menftrual blood is the excefs or redundance of the blood 
 in the body. It may be defined an excrement ferving for the 
 formation, as well as nutrition, of the fcetus in the womb, and 
 which, at other times, is evacuated monthly. 
 Of all animals, there are none befides women, and perhaps apes, 
 
 which have their regular menfirual purgations. Hippocrates 
 
 fays, that the menjhual blood gnaws and tears the earth like 
 vinegar. Pliny and Columella add, that it burns herbs, kills 
 plants, tarnifties looking glafles ; and that dogs which tafle it, 
 run mad. But this is all fabulous ; it being certain, that this 
 blood is the fame with that in the veins and arteries. 
 By the Jewifh law, a woman was unclean while the menftraal 
 blood flowed : and the man who touched her, or the move- 
 ables (he had touched, was declared unclean. Levit. c. xv. 
 
 Menstrual epafis. \ Se£ $ Epact. 
 
 Menstrual longitude of the moon, J ( Argument. 
 
 MENSTRUUM*, Solvent, or Dissolvent, in chymift- 
 ry, any liquor that will diflolve, that is, feparate the parts of 
 hard bodies. 
 
 * The term takes its rife from this, that fome chymifts pretend the 
 complete diiiblution of a mixed body cannot be effected in ief* 
 than forty days ; which period they call a phi hfophical month. 
 Aqua regalis is a Menflruum for gold ; aqua fortis, and (pint of _ 
 nitre, for moft other metals ; and common water for falts, &c. 
 Menjiruum is properly defined a body, which, being applied 
 to, or intermixed with another, does fo diflolve it, as that all 
 the diiluiving parts float among the parts diflolved, and fo di- 
 vides it into its minutcft parts, as that the parts of the diffbl- 
 vent are intermixed with thofe of the body diflolved. — Whence 
 it appears, that every Alenftruum, in diflblving a body, is like- 
 wife diflolved itfelf ; fo as, with the body it diifolves, to make 
 up one body. A knife therefore divides bread ; but is not on 
 that account a Menjlruum, as it does not conftitute one body 
 wiih the bread: but water boiled with the bread is a Men- 
 Jlruum with regard to the bread, as it only makes up one body 
 therewith. 
 
 Menstruums may be divided into twoclafles; the fn ft confifts- 
 of fuch as are fluid ; the fecond of fuch as are folid ; that is, they 
 are either actually divided, or they muft be fo ere they a£r. 
 
 Fluid Menstruums arc water, dew, oils, faline and acid fpirits, 
 alkali, falts, £sV. 
 
 Solid Menstruums are fuch as muft be made fluid ere they 
 will diflolve ; fuch are moft falts, nitre, vitriol, &c. 
 
 All 
 
MEN 
 
 M E R 
 
 All menjlruums, at the time they a£l as fuch, that is$ at the 
 time they are diffolving, a£t as fluids ; whether fuch menjiruum 
 be a fluid, or a folid. Thus, e. gr. filver is a menjiruum with 
 regard to gold ; for if you take an ounce of filver, melt it in 
 the fire, and add a grain of gold, all the parts of the filver 
 will intermix themfelves with the parts of the gold ; fo as that 
 the gold and filver, which before were feparate, now make but 
 one mafs. — But gold and filver are only menjlruums as they are 
 diifolved by the fire; i". e. as they are rendered fluid. 
 As fo the aflion of Mewstrvvms, Sir Ifaac Newton accounts for 
 it from theacids wherewith they are impregnated. The particles 
 of acids are found to be endued with a ftrong attractive force, 
 wherein their activity confifls, arid by virtue whereof they dif- 
 folve bodies. Thefe acids he fuppofes of a middle nature be- 
 tween water and hard bodies, and to attract both. By this 
 attraction they gather together about the particles of bodies, 
 whether metallic, flony, or the like, and adhere to them very 
 elofe, fo as fcarce to be feparable from them by diffillation, or 
 fublimation. Thus flrongly attracted, and gathered together 
 on all fides, they raife, disjoin, and fhake afunder the parti- 
 
 ■ cles of bodies, /. e. they diffolve them ; and by the attractive 
 power whereby they rufh again ft the particles of the bodies, 
 they move the fluid, and fo excite heat, fhaking fome of the 
 particles to that degree, as to convert them into air, and fo 
 generating bubbles. See Acid. 
 
 Dr. Keil gives us the theory or foundation of the action of 
 menjlruums, in the following propofitions. 
 i°. Two corpufcles mny be placed fo near each other, with- 
 out touching, as that the force wherewith they attract: each 
 other, ftiall eafily exceed that of their gravity. 
 2°. If a corpufcle placed in a fluid be every way equally attract- 
 ed by the ambient particles, the corpufcle will not be put in 
 any motion ; but if it be attracted more by fome of the parti- 
 
 ■ cles than by others, it will then tend towards that quarter 
 where the Littraclion is the ftrongcft : and the motion thus pro- 
 duced will be correfpondent to the inequality of the attraction ; 
 that is, if the inequality be great, the motion will be fo ; and, 
 if little, little. 
 
 30. Corpufcles fwimming in a fluid, and attracting each other 
 more than the interpofed particles of the fluid ; thofe particles 
 of the fluid will be driven afide, and the corpufcles approach 
 each other with a force equal to the excefs of their mutual at- 
 traction, beyond the attraction of the particles of the fluid. 
 4°. If a body be placed in a fluid, whofe parts attract the par- 
 ticles of the fluid more ftrongly than thofe particles are attract- 
 ed by one another, and if in the body there be feveral pores 
 pervious to the particles of thofe fluids, the fluid will prefemly 
 diffufe itfelf through the pores ; and if the connexion of the 
 parts in that body be not fo ftrong, as that it may be exceeded 
 by the impetus of the particles milling together, the immcrfed 
 body will undergo a diflblution. 
 
 Hence, for a menjiruum to he fit to diffolve a given body, there 
 are three tilings required, jo. That the parts of the body at- 
 tract the panicles of the mcnjlruwn more flrongly than thofe 
 are attracted by each other. 2°. That the body have pores 
 adequate and pervious to the particles of the menjiruum. 3°. 
 That the cohefion of the parts of the body be not fo ffrong 
 but that it may be torn afunder by the impetus of the particles 
 milling together. Hence alfo it follows, that the particles 
 which conffitute fpirit of wine, are more ftrongly attracted 
 by each other, than by thofe of a faline body immerged in 
 
 Hence we fee the reafons of the different effects of different 
 menjlruums ; why fome bodies, for inftance, metals, diffolve in 
 a faline menjiruum ; others again, as refin, in a fulphureous 
 one, &c. particularly why filver difTolves in aqua fortis, and 
 gold only in aqua regalis ; all the varieties whereof are account- 
 able for, from the different degrees of cohefion, i. e. of attra- 
 ction in the parts of the body to be diffolved, the different dia- 
 meters and figures of its pores, the different degrees of attra- 
 , ctlon in the menjiruum, and the different diameters and figures 
 of its parts. 
 
 Suppofe, e. gr. the attraction of gold to that of filver to be as 
 a to b \ and of filver to aqua fortis as b to d ; but that of aqua 
 fortis to aqua regia as d to e ; let f fignify the magnitude of 
 particles in aqua fottis, and r thofe in aqua regia ; e the cohe- 
 fion of gold, and g the cohefion of filver : if the diameters of 
 the particles / be greater than the diameters of the pores of 
 gold, they can never diffol ve the g old, let their attraaive force 
 be ever fo ftrong. But if b—fxa be greater than g, then the 
 filver will yield to the menjiruum whofe particles are f, and lefs 
 than the pores of the filver ; and if b — tw be lefs than g, the 
 filver will never diflblve in the menjiruum, the particles where- 
 of are r, and the attraaive force /. But if a—exr be greater 
 than c, the menjiruum made up of the particles r, and whofe 
 attradive force is e, will be able to penetrate and diffolve the 
 gold. 
 
 How a menftruum may fufpend bodies much heavier than itfelf, 
 which very often happens, may be conceived by confiderinti, 
 that the parts of no fluid can be fo eafilv feparated, but they 
 will a little refill, or retard the defcent of any heavy bodits 
 •Vol. 0. 
 
 through them ; and that this refinance is, caierts paribus, ftiH 
 proportionable to the furface of the defending bodies : but the 
 furfaces of the bodies do by no means increafej or decreafe, in 
 the fame proportion as their folid ities do ; for the fafidity in- 
 creafes as the cube, but the furface only as the fquare of the di- 
 ameter. Small bodies, therefore, will have much larger fur- 
 faces, in proportion to their folid contents, than lareer bodies 
 will ; and confequehtly, when exceedingly diminilhed, may 
 eafily be buoyed up in the liquor. 
 Menstruum, in pharmacy, chiefly denotes a body that will 
 extrafl the virtues of ingredients by infufion, decoaion, or the 
 like. See Extract, Infusion, and Decoction. 
 Menstruum peracutum is a name given by Mr. Boyle to a 
 menftruum he extraaed from bread only, that would prey on 
 bodies more compaa than many hard minerals, nay, even on 
 
 glafs, and do many things that aqua fortis would not do 
 
 With this he drew tinctures not only from crude corals, but 
 alfo from the lapis hematites, and granates, nay, from diamonds 
 and rubies. 
 
 MENSURATION, the aa or art of meafuring. See Mea- 
 suring. 
 
 MENTAL, fomething that relates, or is reftrained, to the ope- 
 ration of the underitanding. 
 
 Thus, a mental prayer is fuch a one as is made merely in the 
 mind, without pronouncing one word of it. 
 Afito^/reftrvatibhs are the refuge of hypocrites. See Reser- 
 vation-. 
 
 MENTUM, in anatomy, the lower part of the face, beneath 
 
 the mouth ; which we otherwife diftinguifh by the name of 
 
 chin. See Face. 
 MEPHITIS, or M e phitic a l exhalation,, denotes a poifonous and 
 
 noxious fleam iffuing out of the earth, and chiefly from a ful- 
 
 phurous principle. 
 
 The nioft remarkable exhalation of this kind is that in the 
 Grotta del Cane near Puzzoli, about two miles from Naples, 
 in Italy ; the fleam of which kills dogs, or other animals, 
 when brought within its reach : a very curious account of 
 which, and the manner of its efficacy, is given by Dr. Mead, in 
 his eflay on poifons. See Supplement, articleExHALATloNS. 
 
 MER. — Oufler le Mer. See the article Ouster. 
 
 MERCATOR's chart, or ■ projection, is a Tea-chart, orprojeaion 
 of the furface of the earth in piano, wherein the meridians, pa- 
 rallels, and rhumb-lines, are all reprefented by ftrait lines ; th= 
 meridians being likewife parallel ; though their degrees are not 
 equal, but are continually inlarged as they approach nearer the 
 pole, in the fame proportion as the parallel circles on the globe 
 decreafe as they approach the pole ; that is, in the ratio of the 
 radius to the fine complement of the latitude. 
 For the conftruclion, ufe, advantages, tsfc. hereof, fczMer- 
 cator's Chart. 
 
 MERCAToR's/^Vw^is that performed loxodromically, by means 
 of Mercatoris. charts. See Mercaior's Sailing. 
 
 MERCHANDICE, or Mercantile ^/^rt, the funftion 
 of a merchant ; or the art, method, &c. of excrcifing a whole- 
 fale commerce. 
 
 The mercantile profeffion is efteemed noble, and independent. 
 In France, by two arrets of Louis XIV. the one of 1669. 
 the other of 1701. the nobility are allowed to trade, both bv 
 land and fea, without derogating from their nobility : and we 
 have frequent inftances of merchants ennobled in that country, 
 in regard of the utility of their commerce, and the manufac- 
 tures they have fet up. In Bretagne, even a retail trade does 
 not derogate from nobility. 
 
 When the nobles of that province are difpofed for commerce, 
 they let their nobility fleep ; that is, they do not lofe it, but 
 only ceafe to enjoy the privileges of their noblefs while their 
 commerce continues, and re-afTume it, on their giving over 
 trade, without any letters or inftrument of re-habilitation. 
 In republics trading is Hill more valued; but no- where more 
 than in England, where the younger fons and brothers of the 
 beft families are frequently bred up to merchandice. Add to 
 this, that many of the Italian princes are the principal mer- 
 chants of their ftates ; and think it no difcredit to make their 
 palaces ferve as wareboufes : and that many of the kin^s of 
 Afia, and mofl of thofe of the coaft of Africa and Gumey, traf- 
 fics with the Europeans, fometimes by their minifters, and 
 fometimes in perfon. 
 
 The principal qualifications requifite for the profeflion of a mer- 
 chant^ are, 1. To know how to keep books finale or double, viz, 
 journals, ledgers, and 'Others. 2. To draw invoices, commas, 
 charter-parties, policiesof affurance, bills of exchange, letters mif- 
 five, 6f c. 3. To know the relation between the money, weights, 
 and meafures, offeveral countries. 4. To know the places where 
 the feveral kinds of merchandice are manufaaured, in what man- 
 ner made, what the materials compofed of, and whence • the 
 preparation the materials require before they are wrought ; and 
 the merchnndices afterwards. 5. The lengths and breadths of 
 ftufts, as filks, wools, hairs, linens, fcfV. the reeulations of the 
 places where they are manufaaured, and their different prices at 
 different feafons. 6. The dying, and the ingredients for the 
 formation of the different colours. 7. The merchandices that 
 abound, or are more rare, in one country than another ; their 
 
 6 O 
 
 kind s 
 
M E R 
 
 M E R 
 
 kinds and qualities ; and the manner of trafficking in them to 
 the beft advantage, whether by land, by fea, or rivers. 8. The 
 commodities permitted or prohibited, both for the import and 
 export of a ftate. 9. The price of exchange, according to 
 the courfe of fcveral places, and what it is that raifes or lowers 
 it. 10. Theduties to be paid, both at the import and export 
 of wares, according to the ufage of the place, the tarifs, regu- 
 lations, &e. II. The manner of packing, bailing, and tun- 
 ning Merchandiccs, to keep them either in magazines, or in 
 voyages, &c. 12. On what terms a merchant-vefiel may be 
 freighted and infured. 13. The goodnefs and value of every 
 thing requifite for the conftruction or refitting of vefl'els, the 
 prices of Woods, cordage, mafts, anchors, fails, and other neccf- 
 faries. 14. The wages ordinarily given captains, officers, and 
 failots; and the manner of contracting with them. 15. The 
 foreign languages, which may be reduced to three principal 
 ones, ViSl. the Spanifh, ufed almoft through all the eaft, parti- 
 cularly on the coaft of Africa, from the Canaries to the Cape 
 of Good Hope; the Italian, ufed throughout the coafts ot the 
 Mediterranean, and many places of the Levant ; and the Teu- 
 tonic or German, ufed throughout moft countries of the north. 
 16. The confular jurifprudence, the laws, cuftoms, compa- 
 nies, colonies, chambers of infurance, confulates in the feve- 
 ral countries ; and, in general, all the ordinances, regulations, 
 and policies, relating to commerce. 
 
 MERCHANT, a perfun who carries on merchandice, or fuf- 
 tains the mercantile profeffion. See Merchandice. 
 
 Merchant*^. See Ship. 
 
 Law Merchant. •> r Law. 
 
 AeM Merchant. C See J Statute. 
 
 Tenant perjiatute Merchant. } £ Tenant. 
 
 MERCHENLAGE, the law of the Mercians. See Law. 
 
 MERCURE galant. Sec the article Galant. 
 
 MERCURIAL, fomething that confifts of, or bears a relation 
 to, Mercury, or quick-filver. 
 
 We fay alfo, a mercurial perfon, to denote a pcrfon of a brifk, 
 volatile complexion ; fuch perlbns being fuppofed by aftrologers 
 to be under the more immediate influence of the planet Mer- 
 cury, We fay, mercurial fumes, mercurial fpirits, &c. with 
 reference to the mineral Mercury. 
 
 Mercurial medicines. _ Mercurials. 
 
 Mercurial phofphorus. J T Phosphorus. 
 
 Mercurial jalivatioti. I See) Salivation. 
 
 Mercurial thermometer. f \ Thermometer. 
 
 Mercurial unguents, friclions^c. 1 I Salivation. 
 
 Mercurial waters. J LWater. 
 
 MERCURIALS, medicines compofed, or prepared, of Mer- 
 cury, or quick-filver. See Mercury. 
 
 The principal of the clafs of Mercurials are, mercurius albus, 
 or white precipitate of mercury ; fweet and corrofive fublimate 
 of mercury; calomel; artificial cinnabar; turbith mineral; 
 prince's powder ; xthiops mineral, E5V. See each under its 
 proper article. 
 
 The medicinal efficacy of mercury depends on its extreme di- 
 vifibility, and the finenefs of its particles, and 011 their gravity, 
 or weight. By means of the firft, it finds a pall'age into the 
 * inmoft recedes of the animal ftructure, and, when properly 
 guarded, does not exert itfelf till it comes in the remotelt 
 fcencs of action ; where moft other medicines either do not 
 arrive, or at leaft not till their force is rebated. — This pro- 
 perty it has in common with camphor. 
 
 By the latter, it is enabled to make ftill more confiderable al- 
 terations in the animal ceconomy, by rendering the fluids thin- 
 ner, and breaking open the fecretory pafiages : and this effect 
 it has in common with chalybeats. 
 
 It may be added, that the fame property whereby it becomes fo 
 powerful a deobftruent, indicates, that it is to be avoided in 
 hectics, and all cafes where the conftitution is drawn low by 
 too profufe evacuations; in regard Mercurials tend to keep up 
 or increafe the excefs of impetus in the fluids, and that over- 
 capacity in the fecretory orifices, wherein the defect of fuch a 
 conftitution feems to confift. 
 MERCURY, 3 , in aftronomy, the fmalleft of the inferior pla- 
 nets, and the neareft the fun. 
 
 The mean diftance of Mercury from the fun is to that of our 
 earth from the fun as 387 to 1000 ; its excentrictty 8 degrees. 
 The inclination of its orbit, that is, the angle formed by the 
 plane of its orbit with the plane of the ecliptic, is 6 degrees 52 
 minutes; its diameter to that pf the earth as 3 to 4 : and 
 therefore the globe of Mercury will be to that of the earth as 
 2 to 5. 
 
 According to Sir Kmc Newton, the heat and light of the fun 
 on the furface of Mercury are feven times as intenfe as on the 
 furface of the earth in the middle of fummcr : which, as he 
 found by experiments made for that purpofc by a thermome- 
 ter, is fufficient to make water boil. Such a degree of heat 
 therefore muft render Mercury uninhabitable to creatures of 
 our conftitution. And if bodies on its furface be not inflamed, 
 and fet on fire, it muft be becnufe their degree of denfity is 
 proportionably greater than that of fuch bodies is with us. 
 The revolution of Mercury round the fun, or his year, is per- 
 formed in eighty- feven days, twenty-three hours; his diurnal 
 
 revolution, or the length of his day, is not yet determined 5 
 nor is it certain whether he has fuch a motion round his own 
 axis, or not. 
 
 What variety of weather or feafons it may be liable to, we are 
 ftill alfo at a lofs ; as not knowing the inclination of his axis to 
 the plane of his orbit. The force of gravity on the furface of 
 Mercury is feven times as ftrong as on the furface of the 
 earth. Its denfity, and confequently the gravitation of bodies 
 towards the centre, cannot be accurately determined ; but no 
 doubt it muft exceed that of our earth, by reafon of the ex- 
 cefs of heat there. 
 
 Mercury changes its phafes, like the moon, according to its 
 fevcral pofitions with regard to the fun and earth. It ap- 
 pears full, in its fuperior conjunctions with the fun, becaufe 
 we can fee the whole illuminated hemifphere : but, in its 
 lower conjunction, we only fee the obfeure or unillumined 
 hemifphere : in his approach towards the fun, his light is fal- 
 cated or horned. 
 
 The fituation of this planet proves evidently, that the hypo- 
 thefis of Ptolemy is falfe: fur Mercury is forne times obferved 
 betwixt the earth and fun ; and fometimes beyond the fun. 
 But the earth is never found between Mercury and the fun ; 
 which however muft happen, if the fpheres of all the planets 
 incompafled the earth, as a centre, according to the Ptolemaic 
 fcheme. 
 
 The diameter of the fun, viewed from Mercury, would appear 
 three times as big as it appears on our earth ; that planet bein^ 
 thrice as near him as we are ; and therefore the fun's dilk would 
 appear feven times as large as to us. 
 
 Mercury's greateft diftance from the fun, with regard to us, ne- 
 ver exceeds twenty-eight degrees ; whence it is feldom vifible, 
 being commonly either loft in the fun's light, or, when the 
 moft remote from the fun, in the crepufculum. The beft 
 obfervations of this planet are thofe made when it is feen on 
 the fun's difk; for, in its lower conjunction, it paftes before 
 the fun like a little fpot, eclipfing a fmall part of his body, on- 
 ly obfervable wiih a telefcope. The firft obfervation of this 
 kind was that of Gaffendi in 1632. See Transit. 
 To an inhabitant of Mercury, the folar fpots will appear to 
 traverfe his difk fometimes in a right line from eaft to weft, 
 and fometimes elliptically. As the other five planets are above 
 Mercury, their phenomena will be nearly the fame there, as 
 with us. Venus and the earth, when in oppofition to the 
 fun, will fhine with full orbs, and afford a noble light to that 
 planet. 
 
 Mercury, in chymiftry and natural hiftory, denotes a fluid, 
 mineral matter, perfectly refembling filver in fufion. See 
 Mineral. 
 
 Mercury is known under a great number of denominations : 
 the common name among the antients was hydrargyrum, q. d. 
 water of filver. The moderns commonly call it AJercury, from 
 fume fuppofed relation it bears to the planet of that name. In 
 Englifii it is popularly called qukk-felver, from its appearance. 
 Many of the chymifts call it Proteus, from the variety of forms, 
 colours, &c. it paftes through in their preparations. 
 Naturalifts are divided what clafs of foflils to range Mercury 
 under; fome make it a metal ; others a femi-metal ; and others 
 an imperfect metal. 
 
 Boerhaave obferves, that it is very improperly called a metal, 
 inafmuch as it has not all the characters of fuch a body ; nor 
 fcarce anything in common with the other metals, except 
 weight, and fimilarity of parts : thus, for example, it is nei- 
 ther diffolvable by fire, nor malleable, nor fixed. In effect, 
 it feems to conftitute a peculiar clafs of foflils ; and is rather 
 the mother or bafis of all metals, than a metal itfelf. 
 Perfect metals, according to M. Homberg, &c. are nothing 
 but pure Mercury, whofe little particles arc penetrated on all 
 fides, and filled with the matter of light, which unites and 
 binds them together into a mafs, fo that the parts of fluid Mer- 
 cury, which are fuppofed to be little folid globes, in their me- 
 tallification are rendered rough and uneven, being pierced on all 
 fides, and having their pores or perforations filled with the mat- 
 ter of light. By fuch means they lofe their firft conformation, 
 and the politureor fmoothnefs of their fuifaces, which is one of 
 the principal caufes of the fluidity of Mercury. 
 The chymifts make Mercury one of their hypoftatical principles: 
 nor, as M. Homberg obferves, that it anfwers the character 
 of a principle, which is that, whofe fubftance cannot be ana- 
 lyfed, or reduced into matters more fimple ; but becaufe the 
 analyfis has not yet been difcovered : though it is poffible it 
 may hereafter, there being little doubt but that Mercury is a 
 compound. This is the more probable, in regard Mercury may 
 be deftroved ; which never happens to fimple bodies. The man- 
 ner of deftroying Mercury is, firft, by changing it into a perfect 
 metal, by introducing a fufficient quantity of light within its 
 fubftance ; and then expoling this metal to a burning-glafs, 
 where, in a little time, it evaporates almoft wholly into fmoke, 
 leaving nothing behind but a light earthy duff. 
 Characters or properties of Mercury are, firft, That of all 
 bodies it is the heavieft, after gold ; and ftill the purer it is, 
 the heavier : nay, fome of the philofophers even hold, that 
 M/rcury, well purged of all its fulphur, would be heavier than 
 4 gold 
 
M E R 
 
 M E R 
 
 gold itfelf. The ordinary proportion between them is that of 
 fourteen to nineteen. If any Mercury be found to weigh more 
 than according to this ratio, it may be fafely concluded to have 
 gold in it. 
 
 The fecond character of Mercury is, To be of all bodies the 
 moft fluid ; that is, its parts feparate, and recede from each 
 other, by the fmalleft force. — Confequently, of all bodies it is 
 that whofe parts cohere the leaft, or are the leaft tenacious ; 
 and therefore of all others it is the leaft ductile and malleable. 
 The parts of water do not divide fo readily as thofe of quick- 
 filver ; and the parts of oil much !efs : there is a certain te- 
 nacity even in the parts of fpirit of wine, which rcfifts fepara- 
 tion ; but there is fcarce any cohefion at all in the parts of 
 Mercury. 
 
 The third property of Mercury, which, indeed, depends on 
 the fecond, is, That of all bodies it is divifible into the mi- 
 nuteft parts. — Thus, being expofed to the fire, it refolves into 
 a fume fcarce perceivable to the eye ; but, in whatever man- 
 ner it be divided, it ftill retains its nature, and is the fame 
 fpecific fluid. For the vapours of diftilled or volatilized Mer- 
 cury, received in water, or on moift leather, or the like, be- 
 come pure Mercury ; and if Mercury be mixed with other bo- 
 dies, in order to fix it (for it is fcarce fixable of itfelf), it is 
 eafily feparable from them again by fire, and reducible into 
 pure Mercury as before. 
 
 The fourth character is, To be extremely volatile, being con- 
 vertible into a fume even by a fand-heat. In effect, it does 
 not fuftain the fire long enough either to boil, or to ignite- 
 Though it mull be added, if the fire beat firft very gentle, 
 and increafe by eafy degrees, it may be retained therein a pretty 
 long time, and be fixed fo at length as to become ignited in the 
 crucible, as we learn from fome very tedious experiments 
 made at Paris. 
 
 The gilders are but too well acquainted with the vapours of 
 Mercury, which frequently render them epileptic and paraly- 
 tic, and fomet hues falivate them 5 being of fo penetrating a 
 nature as to take away any fcinhous tumours, though very apt 
 to reach and deftrby the nobler parts. 
 
 The fifth property of Mercury is, that it eafily enters, and 
 intimately adheres to gold, lefs eafily to other metals, with 
 difficulty to copper, and fcarce at all to iron. See Amal- 
 gamation. 
 
 Indeed we have heard much among the adepts about making 
 an amalgama with Mercury and iron ; but the experiment 
 would never fuccced with that indutlrious chymift Dr. Boer- 
 haave. It is poffible there may be fome way of binding thofe 
 two bodies together ; and no doubt an amalgama might be 
 made, if a large quantity of gold were added to the iron ; but 
 then, if the compound were beaten into duft in water, the 
 iron would wafh away, and the gold remain. On this account 
 it is, that fuch as have occalion to handle quick-filver, always 
 make choice of iron inftrumcnts for that purpofe. We have 
 known women, in a falivation, to have their ear-rings grow 
 white and foft with the effluvia of the Mercury ; and hence the 
 gilders, to lay gold on any other body, diffolvc it in hot A'lercury ; I 
 which done, they apply the folution on the body to be gilt, fup- 
 pofe filver ; then letting it over the coals, the Mercury flies 
 away, and leaves the gold adhering like a cruft to the filver. 
 Laftlv, rubbing this ctuft with lapis haematites, the filver is gilt. 
 The fixth character is, That, of all fluids, it is tbecoldeft, and 
 the hottelr, fuppoling the circum fiances the fame. 
 Boerhaave fhews, that fire is equally diffufed through all bodies; 
 and that there is in reality the fame degree thereof in Mercury, 
 as in fptrit of wine ; and yet, if you try with your finger, Mer- 
 cury in the cold is much colder, and over the fame fire con- 
 fiderably hotter, than this fpirit. This property depends on 
 the great Weight of Mercury : for the heat and cold of all bo- 
 dies is, ceteris paribus, as their weights. Now, Mercury being 
 fourteen times heavier than water ; if both of them be expofed 
 in a winter's night to the fame cold, the Mercury muff be fo 
 much colder than water, as it is heavier. So, alfo, if they be 
 both applied to the fame degree of heat, while the water becomes 
 warm, the Mercury will be hot enough to burn the hands. 
 The feventh property is, That it is diffoluble by almoft all acids, 
 and unites itfelf with them; at leaft with all foiEl acids. Thus 
 it is diffolved in oil of vitriol, fpirit of fulphur per campanam, 
 fpirit of nitre, and aqua.regia. 
 
 It is prepared with oil of vitriol, into turbith mineral ; with 
 fpirit ot fulphur, into cinnabar ; and with aqua regia, or fpirit of 
 fea-falt or fal-gemma, into corrofive fublimate. 
 Only vinegar does not diffolve it ; and hence we are furnifhed 
 with a method of detecting the frauds of druggifts, &c. who 
 make a practice of fo phi fti eating quick-filver with lead. Do 
 but take a mortar, and rub the Mercury, with vinegar therein ; 
 if the vinegar grow fweetifh, it is a proof there is a mixture of 
 lead : if copper have been mixed with the Mercury, it will turn 
 greenifh, or bluifh ; if there be no adulteration, the Mercury 
 and vinegar will both remain as before. 
 
 The eighth property is, That it is the moft ilmple of all bodies, 
 next after gold : accordingly, we find it the fame in all its * 
 parts, fo far as our obfervation goes. If a fingle grain of Mer- 
 cury be diffolved in fpirit of nitre, a proportionable part of the 
 
 grain will be diftxibuted into every minute particle of the men- 
 itruum ; and by diluting the whole with an ounce of aqua fly- 
 gia, the whole grain of Mercury will be revived. Had we the 
 Mercury of the philofophers, called alfo vital Mercury, Mer- 
 cury of metals, &c. fo much talked of; it is aflerted, it would 
 be ftill vaftly fimpler than gold : f or from gold we can fome- 
 times feparate Mercury, and fometimes fulphur; but, from pure 
 Mercury, nothing befide itfelf can be obtained. 
 The ninth property of Mercury is, Not to be in anv meafure 
 acrid in its native ftate; for it fhews no acrimony to the tafte, 
 nor does it corrode any body ; and if a carcafe were to be bu- 
 ried in quick-filver, it might doubtlefs remain there without 
 being any way hurt. 
 
 The extraordinary effects, however, it produces in the body, 
 have given people a notion of its being acrid. But the cafe is, 
 that, when received into the blood, it acts by its weight and 
 velocity; whence it tears and deftroys the vefiels, and thus 
 occafions thofe great alterations, which lead the chymifts into 
 their miftakes. 
 
 In effect, all its medicinal operations are to be accounted for 
 from the properties already enumerated. 
 Mines (/"Mercury/ — The chief are thofe of Hungary, Spain, 
 Friuli, and Peru. The greateft part of our quick-filver is 
 brought us from Friuli, where there are abundance of mines 
 belonging to the emperor, tho* now mortgaged to the Dutch. 
 It is found under three feveral forms. 1. In ruddy glebes or 
 clods, called cinnabar. 1. In hard ftony glebes, or a mineral 
 fubftance of a faffrpn, and fometimes a bhckifh colour. 3. It 
 is alfo found pure : for, upon opening holes in the beds of 
 ftones, £z?c. there fometimes gufhes a vein or ftrearn of pure 
 Mercury, called virgin Mercury. 
 
 This laft fort is moft valued : Paracelfus and Bafil Valentine 
 prefer it far to any other fort, for chymical operations. Dr. 
 Brown affures us, in his travels, that, inquiring of one of the 
 directors of the quick-filver mines, wherein the difference be- 
 tween this and common A'lercury confifted ; he was anfwered, 
 that virgin Mercury, mixed and amalgamated with gold, renders 
 the fulphur of the gold volatile : but this has been feveral times 
 tried without fuccefs. 
 Method of procuring or feparat'mg Mfrcury from the ore or earth. 
 — They firft grind trie mineral glebe into powder; this done, 
 they pour a great quantity of water upon it, ftirring and work- 
 ing the whole brifkly about till the water become exceeding 
 thick and turbid. This W3ter having ftood till it be fettled, 
 - they pour it off, and fupply its place with frefh, which they 
 ftir and work as before. This they repeat, and continue to 
 do, till the water at length comes away perfectly clear ; then, 
 all remaining at the bottom of the veffel is Mercury, and other 
 metalline matter- 
 To this Mercury, &c, they add the fcoria of iron, putting the 
 whole in large iron retorts, and fo diftilling it ; by which means 
 all the heterogeneous, metallic, and ftony part, is feparated 
 therefrom ; and the Mercury procured pure. 
 As to the Mercury in cinnabar, they do not find it worth 
 while to diftil, and get it out; cinnabar felling at too hi^h a 
 price alone. 
 
 The mlferable people, condemned or hired to work in thefe 
 mines, all die in a little time. They are firft: affected with 
 tremors, and proceed to falivate; then their teeth drop out, 
 and they are feized with pains all over, efpecially in their 
 bones, which the Mercury penetrates : and thus they die. 
 In Spain, the melting and exhaling of the mineral is performed 
 with more care, and with an engine contrived for that purpofe. 
 As to the ftony matter wherewith the Mercury is mixed, that 
 of Spain is red, and fpeckled with black and white; and fo 
 hard, that it is not to be broken up without gunpowder. In 
 Hungary it is frequently alfo an hard (tone, but ordinarily a 
 reddifh earth. In Friuli, there is a foft earth, where the vir- 
 gin quick-filver is found ; and a hard ftone, which yields alfo 
 the common Mercury. 
 
 The ore of the mine of Idica, one of thofe belonging toFriu!i,is 
 fo rich, that it yields always half quick-filver, fometimes two 
 thirds. 
 
 Theoreofthemineof Juan Cabelaca, inPeru,is ftill more con- 
 fiderable ; the earth is of a whitifh red, like bricks halt-burnt; it 
 is firft broken, then expoled to the fire, by fpreading it on a layer 
 of common earth, wherewith the grate of an earthen furface 
 is covered ; under which is lighted a little fire of an herb, call- 
 ed by the Spaniards Uho : which is of that neceffity in thefe 
 works, that the cutting it is prohibited for the fpace of twenty 
 leagues round. In proportion as the mineral heats, the Mer~ 
 cury rifes volatized into fmoke ; which fmoke, finding no vent 
 thro' the c.ipital of the furnace, which is txactly luted; efcapes 
 thro' a hole made for that purpofe, communicating with feve- 
 ral earthen cucurbites fitted within one another. The water 
 at the bottom of each cucurbite condenfing the fmoke, the 
 quick-filver precipitates, and is taken out, when the operation 
 is over. In this procel's, there are three things remarkable. 
 The firft, that the further the cucurbites are from the furnace, 
 the more they are filled with quick-filver. The fecond, that 
 they all grow fo hot, that they would break, were thev not 
 fpnnkled from time to time with water. Thirdly, that the 
 
 work- 
 
MER 
 
 ME R 
 
 workmen employed never hold it long, but become paralytic, 
 and die hectic. A common precaution they ufe, is to hold 
 a piece of gold in the mouth, to imbibe the effluvia, and in- 
 tercept their paflage into the body. Dr. Pope tells us of one 1 
 he few in the mines of Friuli, who in half a year's time was 
 fo impregnated with the metal, that on putting a piece of I 
 brafs in his mouth, or even rubbing it in his fingers, it would 
 turn white as filver. 
 
 The method of purifying Mercury is, by warning it ftveral 
 times in vinegar, wherein common fait hath been diffolved ; or 
 by palling and repaffing it frequently through a chamois fkin. 
 Am. Parous tells us, that the beft way is to make a dog fwal- 
 low a pound at a time, and afterwards to feparate it from the 
 excrements, and wafh it in vinegar. 
 
 The ufis of Mercury are very confiderable, as in gilding, 
 making looking-glafles, in refining gold, Efc. See each under 
 its head. 
 
 But efpecially' in medicine, and particularly for the cure of 
 the venereal difeafe, raifing falivations, and on other oc- 
 cafions. 
 
 The preparations of Mercury are very various ; this metal 
 making one of the moft confiderable articles in the chymical 
 pharmacy. The moft common preparations are, 
 
 'White precipitate of Mercury, ME-&c\imvspra:cipitatus alius. 
 This is compounded of crude Mercury driven over from fea-felt 
 in a retort, or revived from common cinnabar, and diffolved 
 in aqua fortis ; then a brine prepared of fpring- water and fea- 
 fak is filtred through a cap-paper, and the frilution of Mercury 
 dropped gradually into this brine, whence there is a white pow- 
 der precipitated, which is to be wafhed from all its acrimony 
 with fome iimple diftilled water, or warm fpring-water, and 
 afterwards dried. 
 
 This is the common precipitate of the fhops, ufually called 
 ■white precipitate.— -lis operation is moftly by ftool, fometimes 
 by vomit ; and it will felivatc, if ordered accordingly. It is 
 frequently mixed with pomatums for the itch, and other 
 foulnefles of the fkin ; for which purpofe, it is ncceffary 
 at the feme time to keep the body laxative, and to take fomc- 
 thing inwardly to take hold of the mercurial principles, and 
 prevent their raifing a falivation, which they may otherwife 
 do. 
 
 Corrofivt fublimate a/" Mercury, Mehcurivs fubliniatus cor- 
 roftvus, is a compofition of vitriol calcined to a rednefs, 
 common felt, and purified nitre, with crude Mercury cleanf- 
 cd by (training through a leather, all rubbed together in a 
 mortar, till the felts are reduced into powder, and not theleafb 
 globule of Mercury appears. The mixture is then put into a 
 matrafs, and that fet in a furnace with a fand-heat, under 
 which a fire being kept to its greateft height for twelve or fif- 
 teen hours, the Mercury will be fublimed, and flick to the top 
 of the vefiel. 
 
 This fublimatc is a violent efcharotic, and eats away proud 
 flefh ; half a dram of it, difiblved in a pound of lime-water, 
 turns it yellow, which is then called phagedenic water j it is.' 
 ufed to wafh ulcers, and tetterous eruptions. 
 Sweet fublimate of Mercury, Mercurius fubUmatus duleis, 
 or aquila alia, is a compofition of the preceding corroftve fub- 
 limate with crude Mercury, ground together till no Mercury 
 appear, and then put into a bolt-head, well-flopped, and fet in' 
 a fand-heat, with a gentle fire, for the fpace of two hours;! 
 which heat is to be then increafed for three hours longer, and,! 
 laftly, made very ftrong, for as much more. When this is| 
 cold, the glafs is broken, and the fublimate feparated from the 
 light flowers at top, and the duft at bottom. — This is then 
 powdered afrefh, and the operation repeated in the fame man- 
 ner three times. 
 
 If it be further repeated, to a fixth time, it is called ca- 
 lomel. 
 
 Fixing of Mercury. See Fixation, and Philosopher's 
 {lone. 
 
 Mercury, or Mercury of bodies, is alfo ufed by chymifls to 
 denote the third of the principles ; or elements of natural bodies, 
 called alfo fpirit. 
 
 In this fenfe, Mercury is defined the moft fubtile, light, volatile, 
 penetrating, and active part of all bodies. See Spirit. 
 Mercury of metals, or of the philofopbers, is a pure, fluid fub- 
 ftance in form of common running Mercury, faid to be found in 
 all metals, and capable of being extracted from the fame. 
 The notion of Mercury of metals is founded on the common 
 fyftem of the chymifts, That Mercury or quick-filver is the 
 bafts or matter of all metals ; and that metals are only Mer- 
 cury fixed by a certainfulphur. 
 
 Mr. Boyle' allures us, he had a way of drawing a true run- 
 ning Mercury, or quiek-fdver, from antimony. 
 
 Animated Mercury is quick-filver impregnated with fome fub- 
 tile and fpirituous particles ;.fo as to render it capable of grow- 
 ing hot, when mingled with gold. 
 
 Mercury alfo ferves as a title for books, and papers of news ; 
 fo called from the heathen deity Mercury, fuppofed the mefien- 
 ger of the gods. 
 
 Thus we have monthly Meraerics ; and the French have a 
 
 galant MeYc-ury, &c. 
 
 In a like fenfe, Mercury is alfo figuratively applied to perfons 
 who make it their bufinefs to collect news, or to run about and 
 diftribute it. 
 
 Mercury, in heraldry, denotes the purple colour in the coats 
 
 of fovereign princes. 
 Mercury is fometimes alfo ufed for the Torricellian experiment, 
 or barometer. 
 
 Though Mercury be not ordinarily fuftained in a tube above 
 the height of twenty-eight or twenty-nine inches ; yet 
 M. Huygens has found, that Mercury well purged, and in a 
 clofe ftill place, will be fuftained to the height of feventy-two 
 inches ; which is a phenomenon the philofophers are ail at a 
 lofs to account for. 
 MERIDIAN, inaftronomy, a great circle of the fphere, paffing 
 through the zenith, nadir, and poles of the world ; and divi- 
 ding the fphere into two hemifpheres, the one eaftern, and the 
 other weftem. 
 
 Or, the meridian is a vertical circle, as A Z B N (tab. 
 a/Iron. fig. 6.) paffing through the poles of the world, P 
 
 and Q. 
 
 It is called meridian, from the Latin meridiet, noon, or mid- 
 day, by reafon when the fun is in this circle, it is noon in thofc 
 places lituate under it. 
 Meridian, in geography, is a great circle, asPAQ_D (tab. 
 geography, fig. !■) paffing through the poles of the earthP and 
 Q_; and any given place at Z. So that the plane of the tcr- 
 reftrial meridian is in the plane of the celeftial one. 
 Hence, i. As the meridian invefts the whole earth, there are 
 feveral places fituated under the feme meridian. And, z. As 
 it is noon-tide whenever the centre of the fun is in the meridian 
 of the heavens ; and as the meridian of the earth is in the plane 
 of the former ; it follows, that it is noon, at the fame time, 
 in all places fituate under the feme meridian. 3. There are as 
 many meridians on the earth, as there are points conceived in 
 the equator. In effect, the meridians always change, as you 
 change the longitude of the place ; and may be feid to be in- 
 finite ; each feveral place from eaft to weft having its feveral 
 meridian. 
 
 Firjl Meridian is that from which the reft are accounted, 
 reckoning from weft to eaft. — The firir. meridian is the be- 
 ginning of longitude. 
 
 The fixing of a fir ft meridian is a matter merely arbitrary ; and 
 hence different perfons, nations, and ages, have fixed it differ- 
 ently ; whence fome confufion has arifen in geography. The 
 rule among the antients was to make it pafs through the place 
 fartheft to the weft that was known. But the moderns know- 
 ing, that there is no fuch place in the earth as can be efleemed 
 the moft wefterly, the way of computing the longitudes of 
 places from one fixed point is much laid afide. 
 Ptolemy aflumed the meridian that paffrs through the fartheft 
 of the Canary Iflands as his firft meridian ; that being the moft 
 weitern place of the world then known. After him, as more 
 countries were difcovered in that quarter, the firft meridian 
 was removed farther off. Some fixed it to the ilhud of St. Ni- 
 colas, near Cape Verd ; Hondius to the ifle of Sr. James ; 
 others to the iflaud Del Corvo, one of the Azores. The lateft 
 geographers, particularly the Dutch, have pitched on the Pike 
 of TenerifT ; others on the ifle of Palm, another of the Cana- 
 ries ; and, laftly, the French, by command of their king, on 
 the iffend of Fero, another of the Canaries. 
 But, without much regard to any of thefe rules, our geogra- 
 phers and map-makers frequently aiiumc the meridian of the 
 place where they live, or the capital of their country, for a firft 
 meridian j and thence reckon the longitudes of their [daces. 
 The aftronomers in their calculations ufually chufe the meri- 
 dian of the place where their obfervations are made, for their 
 firft meridian; as Ptolemy at Alexandria; Tycho Brahe at 
 Uranibourg; Riccioli at Bologna ; Mr. Flamiteed at the royal 
 obfervatory at Greenwich ; and the French at the obfervatory 
 at Paris. 
 
 In the PhihfophicalTranfatlions, there is a fuggeftion, that the 
 meridians vary, in time. — This feems very probable, from the 
 old meridian-line in the church of St. Petronio at Bologna, 
 which is found to vary no lefs than eight degrees from the true 
 meridian of the place at this time ; and from that of Fycho at 
 Uranibourg, which M. Picart obferves, varies eighteen minutes 
 from the modern meridian. If there be any thing of truth in 
 this hint, Dr. Wallis fays, the change muft arife from a change 
 i of the terreftrial poles (here on earth, of the earth's diurnal 
 ; motion), not of their painting to this or that nf the fixed ftars : 
 for if the poles of the diurnal motion remain fixed to the fame 
 place on the earth, the meridians, which pais through thefe 
 poles, muft remain the fame. 
 
 But the notion of the changes of the meridian feems over-, 
 thrown by an obfurvation of M. Chiizelles, of the French 
 academy of fciences, who, when in Egypt, found that the 
 four fides of a pyramid built three thoufand years ago ftill 
 looked very exactly to the four cardinal points. A pofition 
 which can never be looked upon as' fortuitous ! 
 Meridians/" a globe, or fphere, is the brazen circle, in which 
 1 the globe hangs and turns. See Globe. 
 
 It is divided into four nineties, or three hundred and fixty de- 
 ■ gfees, 
 
M E R 
 
 M E R 
 
 grecs, beginning at tlic equinocf ial : on if, each way, from the 
 equinoctial, on the celeftial globes, is counted the fouth and 
 north declination of the fun or ftars : and on the terreftriai 
 globe, the latitude of places north or fouth. There are two 
 points on this circle, called the poles ; and a diameter, continued 
 from thence through the centre of either globe, is called the 
 axis; of the earth or heavens, on which they are fuppofed to 
 turn round. 
 
 On the terreftriai globes there are ufually thirty-fix meridians 
 drawn ; one through every tenth degree of the equator, or 
 through every tenth degree of Jongitude. 
 
 The ufes of this circle are, to fet the globes to any particular 
 latitude ; to fiiew the fun's or a flat's inclination, rightafccii- 
 fion, greateft altitude, £sV. 
 Meiudtan Hue, an arch, or part, of the meridian of a place ; 
 terminated, each way, by the horizon. 
 
 Or, a meridian line is the interferon of the plane of the me- 
 ridian of the place, with the plane of the horizon ; vulgarly 
 called a north and fouth line-, becaufe its direction is from one 
 pole towards the other. 
 
 The ufe of a meridian line in aftronomv, geography, dialling, 
 Cjftf. is very great; and on its cxadnefs all depends : whence 
 infinite pains have been taken by divers aftronomers to have 
 it to the laft precifion. — M. Cau'ini has dift inguifhed himfelf 
 hy a meridian line drawn on the pavement in the church of 
 St. Pctronio at Bologna, the larger!: and mod accurate in the 
 world. In the roof of this church, a thoufand inches above 
 the pavement, is a little hole, through which the fun's image, 
 when in the meridian, falling upon the line, marks his progrefs 
 all the year. When finifhed, fid, Cafnni, by a public writing, 
 informed the mathematicians of Europe, ot a new oracle ot 
 Apoilo, or the fun, eftablifiud in a temple, which might be 
 conluked with incite confidence as to all difficulties in aftto- 
 nomy. 
 
 To draw a Meridian line. — Knowing the fouth quarter 
 pretty nearly, obferve the altitude K£ (Tab. Jjhor.omy, 
 fig* o\J of fomc ftar on the eaftern fide thereof not far from 
 the meridian H Z R N. Then, keeping the quadrant firm 
 on its axis, fo as the plumbet may ftill cut the fame de- 
 gree, only directing it to the weltern fide of the meridian, 
 wait till you find the ftar has the fame altitude as before, f e. 
 Laftly, Bifect the angle E C e formed by the intcrfection of 
 the two planes wherein the quadrant is placed at the time, of 
 the two obfervations, by the light line H R. This H R is a 
 meridian line. 
 
 Or thus ; On an horizontal plane, from the fame centre C 
 (Fig-q-) defcribe feveral arches of circles B A, ha, cjV. And 
 on the fame centre C erei5t a ftyle or gnomon perpendicular to 
 theplaneACB, afoot or half afootlong. About the twenty- 
 firft of June, between the hours of nine and eleven in the 
 morning, and between one and three afternoon, obferve the 
 points, jj, b, is'c. A, o, wherein the fhadow of the flyle ter- 
 minates. Bifed the arches A B, a b, ESCf. in D, d, &t. If 
 then the fame right line D E bifedt all the arches A B, a b, 
 &c. it will be the meridian line fought. 
 
 In regard the extremity of the fliadow is fomewhat hard to de- 
 termine, it is belt to have the ftyle fiat a- top, and to. drill a 
 iittle hole, noting the lucid fpet projected by it on the arches 
 A B and ab, inftead of the extremity of the fhadow. Other- 
 wife, the circles may be made with yellow, inftead of black, 
 
 Several authors have invented particular infiruments and me- 
 thods for the defcribing of meridian lines, or rather for deter- 
 mining equal altitudes of the fun in the eaftern and weftern 
 parts of the heavens; as Mr. Grey, Mr. Derharn, ts'c. in the 
 Philofophieal tranfaaions. But as the former of the methods 
 above, delivered fuffices for aftronomica) obfervations, and the 
 Litter for more ordinary occafions, we fhall forbear to give any 
 defcriptions thereof. 
 
 From what has been fliewn, it is evident, that whenever the 
 fhadow of the ftyle covers the meridian live, the centre of the 
 fun is in the meridian; 2nd therefore it is then ncon.-^-And 
 hence the ufe of a meridian line in adjufling the motion of 
 clocks, tie. to the fun. 
 
 "Hence alfo, if the meridian line be bife&ed by a right line O V, 
 drawn perpendicularly through the point C; O V will be the 
 interne" '.ion of the meridian, and firft vertical ; and, confe- 
 quently, O will .hew the eaft point, and V the weft. 
 Laftly, if a ftyle be erected perpendicularly in any other 
 horizontal plane, and a fignal be given when the fhadow 
 ol the ftyle covers the meridian line drawn in another plane, 
 noting the apex or extremity of the ihadow projected by 
 the flyle, a line drawn from that point through that where- 
 in the (iyle is raifed will be .a meridian line. See Meridian" 
 altitude. 
 
 Mei»diab line, on a dial, is a right line anting from the 
 interferon of the meridian of the place with the plane of the 
 dial. 
 
 This is the line of twelve o' clock ; and from hence the divifion 
 of the hour-line begins. 
 Jlfr.gnetLal Meridian, is a great circle parting through or by 
 the magnet ica! poles ; to which the m.ignetic needle, or needle 
 Vol. II. 
 
 of the mariners compafi;, if not otherwife hindred, conforms 
 itfclf. 
 
 Meridian altitude of the fun or flars, is, their altitude when in 
 the meridian of the place where they are obferved. See Alti- 
 tude. 
 
 The meridian altitude may be defined an arch of a great 
 circle perpendicular to the horizon, and comprehended be- 
 tween the hcrizon and the ftar then in the meridian of the 
 place. 
 
 To take the Meridian altitude of the flars. — Aftronomers 
 make two principal kinds of obfervations of the ftars ; the one 
 when they are in the meridian, and the other when in vertical 
 circles. 
 
 For meridian obfervations ; there arc two inftruments principally 
 ufed, the quadrant and gnomon. 
 
 To take the meridian altitude with a quad.rant : if the pofition of 
 the meridian be known, and the plane of an aftronomical qua- 
 drant he placed in the meridian line by means of the plumb- lino 
 fulpended at the centre; the meridian altitudes of the ftars, 
 which are the principal obfervations whereon the whole ait of 
 aflronomy is founded, may eafily be determined. 
 The meridian altitude of a ftar may likewife be had by means 
 of a pendulum-clock, if the exact time of the ftar'.- pafiagc by 
 the meridian be known. Now it mult be obferved, that ftais 
 have the fame altitude for a minute before and after their pott- 
 age by the meridian, if they be not in or near the zenith. 
 But if they be, their altitudes mufi be tnken every minute when 
 they are near the meridian ; and then their greateft altitudes 
 will be the meridian altitudes fought. 
 
 As to the manner of ohfervine, it is found very difficult to place 
 the vane of the quadrant in the meridian exactly enough to take 
 Che meridian altitude of a ftar ; for unleis there be a convenient 
 place, and a wall where the quadrant may he firmly fbftcfled in. 
 the plane of the meridian, which is not eafily ha.:, we {hall not 
 have the true pofition of the meridian proper to oUerve the-ftsrs. 
 It will he much eafier therefore, on feveral accounts, to life the 
 portable quadrant, by which the altitude of the ftar may be ob- 
 ferved a little before its paffage over the meridian every minute 
 till its greaieft altitude be found. Here though we have not 
 the true pofition of the meridian by this means, yet we have the 
 apparent meridian altitude of the Itar. 
 
 Though this method, in the general, be vcrv 2;cod, anc free 
 of any fenfible error, yet in cafe a ftar paffe-. by the meridian 
 near the zenith, it proves fomewhat defective : lor in thefe kind 
 of obfervations, the inconvenient fituation of the ohferver, the 
 variation of the ftar's azimuth feveral degrees in a little time, 
 the alteration of the inftrument, and the difficulty cf replacing 
 it vertically, will prevent the obfervations from being mace 
 oftencr than in every four minutes. But in each minute the 
 altitude varies about fifteen minutes of a degree, fo that there 
 will be the difference of a degree in the ft.;r's altitude between 
 each obfervation. In fuch cafes, therefore, it wiil be better 
 to have the true pofition of the meridian, cr the exact time 
 wherein the ftar paifes the meridian, in order either 10 place 
 the inftrument in the meridian, or to obferve the altitude of die 
 ftar the moment it partes the meridian. 
 
 To- find the Meridian altitude of the fun, &c. — by a gnomon. 
 See Gnomon. — By other means, fee Altitude. 
 
 MERIDIANI *, in antiquity, is a name which the Romans gave 
 to a kind of gladiators, who entered the arena about nnon, after 
 the betliarii, who fought in the morning againft beafts, had 
 finifhed. See Gladiator. 
 
 * They were thus called from Meridies, i. e. noon, the time when 
 they exhibited their fhews. 
 The Meridiani were a fort of artlcfs combatants, who fought 
 man with man, fword in hand. Hence Seneca takes occafion 
 to obferve, that the combats of the morning were full of hu- 
 manity, compared with thofe which followed. 
 
 MERIDIONAL dijlanee, in navigation, the fame with departure, 
 or eafting and welting; beingthe difference of longitude between 
 1 the meridian, under which the fhip now is, and any other meri- 
 dian, which fhe was under before. 
 
 Meridional parts, miles, or minutes, in navigation, are the 
 parts, by which the yneridians in a Mcrcator's chart do increafe, 
 as the parallels of latitude decreafe. See Chart. 
 The co-fine of the latitude of any place being equal to the 
 radius or femidiameter of that parallel, therefore in the true 
 fea-ehart, or nautical planifphere, this radius being the radius 
 of thecquinodtial, cr whole fine of ninety degrees, the meridional 
 parts at each degree of latitude muft increafe as the feonts of 
 the arch contained between that latitude and the equinoctial do 
 decreafe. 
 
 The tables therefore of meridional parts in books of navigation 
 are to be made by a continual addition of feomis, calculated in 
 fome books (as in Sir Jonas Moor's tables) for every d gree and 
 minute of latitude ; and thefe wilt fervc, either to make or grar 
 duate a Mercator's chart, or to work the Mercator's failing. 
 To ufe them, you muft enur the table, with the degree of 
 latitude at the head, and with the minute on the firrt column 
 towards the left-hand ; and in the angle of meeting j ou will 
 ^have the meridional parts. 
 Having the latitudes of two places, to find the meridional milt!, 
 ,6P or 
 
M E S 
 
 M E S 
 
 or minutes between them : confider whether the places be, one 
 under the equinoctial, and the other wide thereof : or the one 
 on the one fide the equinoctial, and the other on the other ; 
 or whether thev both lie on the fame fide. 
 If one place lie under the equator, the meridional minute, next 
 under the degree of latitude of the other place, is the meridional 
 difference of latitude, or latitude inlarged. _ ' 
 
 If one be in north, and the other in fouth latitude ; the meridi- 
 onal minutes, correfponding to the two latitudes added together, 
 give the meridional minutes between them. 
 Both places lying towards the fame pole ; fubtraet the ntttm- 
 onal parts anfweringto the lefs latitude from thofe of the greater: 
 the remainder gives the meridional minutes. 
 
 MERIT, in theology, is ufed to fignify the moral goodnefs of 
 the actions of men, and the reward due to them. 
 The Romifh fchoolmcn diftinguifh two kinds of merit towards 
 God : the one of eongmity, [he other of eondignity. 
 
 Merit- of eongmity is, when there is no jutt proportion between 
 the action, and the reward ; but he who beftows the reward, 
 fupplies by his goodnefs or liberality, what was wanting in the 
 action. — Such is the merit of a fon towards his father : but this 
 is only merit in an improper fenfe. 
 
 Merit of eondignity is, when there Is an abfolutc equality, and 
 a juft eftiniation between the action, and the reward : a3 in the 
 wages of a workman. 
 
 Thofe ofthft reformed religion difclaim all merit of eondignity 
 tcwarJs God : even their befl works, they own, do not merit 
 at his hands. — Hence the doctrine of condign merits makes one 
 of the great articles of controverfy between the Romifh and 
 reformed churches. 
 
 MERLON *, in fortification, that part of the parapet which lies 
 betwixt two cmbrafures. 
 
 * The word comes from mrrula, or merla, which in the corrupt 
 Latin was ufed for a battlement. 
 It is ufiially from eight to nine feet long on the fide of the can- 
 non, and fix on the"fide of the field ; and about fix feet high, 
 and eighteen thick. 
 
 MERMAID, or Merman, a fea-creature frequently talked of, 
 and fuppofed half human, and half a fifh. 
 However natiiralifis may doubt of the reality of mermen, or 
 mermaids, if we might believe particular writers, there feems 
 tcftimony enough to eftablifh it. In the year 1 187. as Larry 
 informs us, fuch a monfter was fifhed up in the county of 
 Suffolk, and kept by the governor for fix months. It bore fo 
 near a conformity with man, that nothing feemed wanting to it 
 befides fpecch. One day it took the opportunity of making its 
 efcape, and plunging into the fea, and was never more heard 
 of. Hijl, eP Ar.gleterre, P. I. p. 403. 
 
 In the year 1430. we are told that after a huge tempeft, which 
 broke down the dykes in Holland, and made way for the fea into 
 the meadows, C5V. fome girls of the town of Edam in VVeft- 
 Erifeland, going in a boat to milk their cows, perceived a mer- 
 7«rt/Vembarraficd in the mud, with a very little water. They 
 took it into their boat, and brought it with then* to Edam, drefi- 
 ed it in womens apparel, and taught it to fpin. It fed like one 
 of them, but could never be brought to offer at fpecch. Some 
 time afterwards it was brought to Hacrlcm, where it lived for 
 lome years, though ftill (hewing an inclination to the water. 
 Parival relates, that they had given it fame notion of a deity, 
 and that ft made its reverences very devoutly whenever it palT- 
 fed by a crucifix. Deliccs d' Hnllande. 
 
 In the year 1560. near the ifiand of Manar, on the weftern 
 coaft of the ifiand of Ceylon, fome fiihermeii are faid to have 
 brought up, at one draught of a net, feven mermen and maids ; of 
 which, feveral Jefuits, and among the reft, F. Hen. Henriques, 
 ard Dimas Eofques, phyfician to the viceroy of Goa, are faid 
 to have been witneffes. And it is added, that the phyfician, 
 who examined them with a great deal of care, and made dif- 
 fe&ions thereof, aflcrted, that all the parts, both internal and 
 external, were found perfectly conformable to thofe of men- 
 See the Hijl. de la compagnie de Jefus, P. II. T. IV. N°. 276. 
 where the relation is given at length. 
 
 We have another account as well attefted of a merman, near the 
 great rock called Diamond, on the coaft of Martinico. The 
 perfons who faw it, gave in a precife description of it before a 
 notary. They affirmed that they f.iw it wipe its hand over its 
 face, and even heard it blow its nofe. 
 
 Another creature of the fame fpecies was caught in the Baltic, 
 in the year 15 31. and fent as a prefent to Sigifmund king of 
 Poland, with whom it lived three days, and was feen by all the 
 court. And another very young one Was talcen near Rocca de 
 Sintra, as related by D.nnian Goes. 
 
 The king of Portugal, and the grand matter of the order of St. 
 
 James, are faid to have had afuitat law to determine which party 
 
 thefe monfter^ belonged to. See Supplement, article Syren 
 MKRO mottt. See the article Ex ?nero. 
 MERSION. See Immersion, and Emersion. 
 MERUIT.— Quantum Meruit. Sec Quantum. 
 MESAR^EUM, MFXAPAION, in anatomy, the fame with me- 
 
 fenterium. See Mesentery. 
 Mesarjecm is alfb ufed, in a more reftrained ferfe, for a part oj 
 
 divifion of the mefentery ; being that fattened to the fmall guts 
 
 See Mesentery. 
 
 That part of the mefentery which is fattened to the thick gut?, 
 is called mefocolon. See Mesocolon. 
 MESARAIC vejfils, in the general fenfe, are the fame with me- 
 fenteric. See Mesenteric. 
 
 In common ufe, mefaraic is more frequently applied to the 
 veins, and mefenteric to the arteries, of the mefentery. 
 MESENTERIC, or Mesaraic, an epithet given to two ar- 
 teries arifing from the defcending aorta, and proceeding to the 
 mefentery. 
 
 There is an upper or fuperior mefenteric, which goes to the 
 upper part of the mefentery ; and a lower or inferior mefen- 
 teric, which diftributcs itfeif through the lower part. — See Tab. 
 Anat. (Angeiol.) fig. 1. «. 43. 45. 
 
 We have alfo a mefenteric vein, compofed of an infinity of veins 
 proceeding from the mefentery ; which, with the vena fplenica, 
 arifins; from the fpleen, form the vena porta. 
 Anatomifts alfo reckon a mefenteric verve, which arifes from 
 the intercoftal, and lends feveral branches to the mefentery. 
 
 Mesenteric plexus, a plexus, or piece of net work formed by 
 the branches or ramifications of the par vagum. 
 The plexus mefciitcrictts magnus, or great mejentcric plexus, is 
 formed out of the concurrent branches of fever::! other plexus's, 
 and fends its nervous fibres through the whole mefentery along 
 with the mefaraic vefiels, which, with various circumligations, 
 they accompany to the interlines. 
 
 Ow/i/jtf/o-MESENTEJiic. See the article Omphai.o mefenteric. 
 
 MESENTERY *, Mesenterium, ofMesar^um, inana- 
 tomy, a fatty membranous body ; thus called, as being placed 
 in the middle of the inteftines, which it connects to one an- 
 other. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, (J.--<r3> , middle, and ivrtziv, 
 inielhne. 
 
 The mefentery is almoft of a circular figure, with a narrow pro- 
 duction, to which the end of the colon, and the beginning of 
 the rectum, are tied. 
 
 It is about four fingers and an half in diameter : its circumfe- 
 rence, being full of plaits and foldings, is about three ells in 
 length. The intettincs are tied like a border on this circum- 
 ference of the mefentery : there are three inches of the inte- 
 ftines thus fattened. 
 
 The mefentery itfeif is ftrongly tied to the three firft vertebra 
 of the loins. It is compofed of three lamina? ; the inner, up- 
 on which the glands and fi:t lie, and the veins and arteries run, 
 is its own proper membrane ; and the other two, which cover 
 each fide of the proper membrane, come from the peritonaeum. 
 Between the two external lamina? of the mefentery, run the 
 branches of the arteria mcfenterica, fuperior and inferior, which 
 bring the blood to the intettincs; and the vena? rr.cfaraicae, which 
 being branches of the porta, carry the blood back to the liver. 
 Here the large brandies of both arteries and veins, communi- 
 cating; with one another, march directly to the guts ; where, 
 with the nerves that form the plexus muentertcm, they divide 
 into an infinite number of fmall branches, which fprend them- 
 felves extremely finely upon the coats of theinteftincs. The venae 
 lactea?, and lymphatic vefiels, run likewiie upon the me j enters, 
 in which there are alfo feveral velicular glands ; the biggeft of 
 which, in the middle of the mefentery, is called pancreas Afellii ; 
 thefe glands receive the lympha and chyle from the lacteal veins. 
 The mefentery has been ordinarily divided into two parts, the 
 mcfurreum, and mefocolon j the firft appended to the inteftina 
 tenuia ; and the latter to the crafla. — Uut this is a divifion of 
 no great moment. 
 
 The ufe of the mefentery is, firft, to gather the inteftines into 
 a narrow compafs, that the courfe of trie chyiiferotis veffels to- 
 wards their common receptacle may he but fhort j next to cover 
 and protect them, and the blood -vefiels ; and to connect and 
 difpofc the inteftines, fo as to fecure them from any entangle- 
 ment that might hinder their periftaltic motion. 
 
 MESN *, or Me asne, a term in law fignifying him who is lord 
 of a manor, and fo hath tenants holding of him ; yet he him- 
 felf holds of a fuperior lord. 
 
 " The word is properly derived from maifne, q«nfim'!narnatu,\>z. 
 caufe his tenure is derived from another, from whom he holds. 
 
 Mesn, alfo, denotes a writ, which belli where there is lord mefn 
 and tenant ; and the tenant is diftrained for fcrvices due from 
 the mefn to the fuperior lord. 
 
 MESOCOLON, MESOKQAON, in anatomy, that part of the 
 mefentery connected to the great guts, efpecially the colon. 
 See Mesentery. 
 
 The mefocolon meets the midft of the colon, to which it is 
 joined. Its lower part fticks to a part of the rectum. 
 MESOLABE, Mesolabium, a mathematical inftrument in- 
 vented by the antients for finding two mean proportionals me- 
 chanically, which they could not come at geometrically. See 
 Proportional. 
 
 It confifts of three parallelograms moving in a groove to cer- 
 tain interfections. Its figure is defcribed by Eutochius in his 
 commentary on Archimedes. 
 MESO-LOGARITHM, a term ufed by Kepler to fignify the 
 logarithms of the co-fines, and co-tangents : the former of 
 which my lord Neper calls anti -logarithms, and the latter diffe- 
 rentialti. 
 
 y Thefe 
 
ME S 
 
 MET 
 
 Thcfe are alfo called artificial figns and tangents. 
 MESOPLEURII *, in anatomy, the intercoftal muffles. 
 
 * The word is derived from fts<H& , medites, middle ; and jr^svfw, 
 cojia, rib. 
 
 A'Ihso-Pleurii is fometimcs alfo ufed for the intermediate 
 
 fpaces between the cofta?, or ribs. See Ries. 
 MESSE, or Mass, Misja. Sec Mass. 
 
 MESSENGERS, in the Englifh polity, are carriers of letters 
 and mcflages ; or, more particularly, certain officers chiefly em- 
 ployed under the direction of the fecretarics of flare ; and always 
 i-n readinefs to be fent with all manner of difpatches, foreign, 
 and domeffic. 
 
 They are alfo employed, with the fecretaries warrants, to take 
 up perfons for high trcafon, or other offences agninft the ftate, 
 which do not fo properly fall under the cognifancc of the com- 
 mon law, and perhaps are not proper to be divulged in the 
 ordinary courfe of juftice. 
 
 The prifoners they apprehend are ufually kept at their own 
 houfes, for each of which they are allowed by the government 
 6 j. 8 d. ter day. When they are di'lpatched abroad, they 
 have an allowance for their journey, as ftated ; viz. to Paris 
 30/. to Holland, 25 I. to Edinburgh, 30/. to Ireland, 30/. 
 and fo to other places in proportion. Part of which money is 
 advanced to them for their journey. 
 
 They wait twenty at a time, monthly, and are diftributcd as 
 follows; viz. four at court, five at one fecrctary's office, five 
 at the other, and two at the third office for North Britain, three 
 at the council-office, and one at the lord chamberlain's of the 
 houfhold. Their pofts, if purclv.fed, are efteemed worth 300 /. 
 Their ftanding falary is 45 /. per annum. 
 
 Messengers of the exchequer are officers attending the exche- 
 quer, in the nature of puriuivants. They are four in number. 
 Their bufinefs is to attend the lord trcafurcr, and to carry his 
 letters, precepts, He. 
 
 Messenger of the prefs, a perfon who bv order of the court 
 iearches piinting-r)<;ufcs, bookfellers (hops, (3 c. in order to dif- 
 cover feditious books, csV. 
 
 MESSIAH *, a term fignifying anointed or facrcd ; and in that 
 fenfe applied to kings and pricfts, hut, particularly, by way of 
 eminence, to Jefus Chrift, the Saviour promifed by the pro- 
 phets of the old law. 
 
 * The word comes from the Hebrew, mnfcur.ch, anointed, of the 
 verb, majchach, to anoint : whence Jefus Chrift claims the title 
 on a manifold account : i°. As having been anointed king of 
 kings from all ages. 2°. As chief of the prophets. 3 0 . As 
 high-prieft of the law of grace, or prieft for ever after the order 
 ot Mekhizcdck. 
 
 The Son of God is variotifly denominated according to his va- 
 rious qualities and attributes. He is called the Word, as being 
 the eternal Son of the Father, and confubftantlal with him : 
 Chi iff, XfH?-(£, a Greek term, fignitying anointed, of the fame 
 import wiih the Hebrew Mejfiab ; jefus, h e. Saviour, of the 
 Hebrew, Jeinfua, by reafon he faves the people from their fins. 
 — In cftcit, lie is called word, as being the fon of God ; "Je- 
 fus, as man ; Chrijl, as being anointed ; and Meffiah, as ibe- 
 1:1:2; both God and man. 
 
 'I he Jews Aft wait for the coming of the Mcffish; being in- 
 fatuated witli the notion of a temporal Meffuib, that is to be a 
 mighty conqueror, and to fubdue all the world, 
 jefus Chrift alTerts himfelf the Mcffiah. In St. John, iv. 25. 
 the Samaritan woman fays to Jefus, 1 know that when Mef- 
 fttfh comes, win is called the Chrift, he will tell us all things, 
 fefus anfivered her, I that fpeak to thee, am he. 
 I here are fcveral impoflors, who have endeavoured to pafs 
 fbf Mtjjiam. J. Lent, a Dutchman, has written an hiflory 
 of falfc Mrjfiahs, De pfewhnuffis. Tlie firft he mentions 
 was one Barcocbab, who appeared under the empire of 
 Adrian. The laft was rabbi Mordecai, who began to be 
 talked of in 1682. A little before him, viz. in 1666. ap- 
 peared Sabbethai Scbi, who was taken by the Turks, and 
 turned Mahometan. 
 WESvSIEURS, a French title of honour, or civility, lately in- 
 troduced into our language ; being the plural of monfieur, and 
 equivalent to the Englifh, f:rs. 
 
 The French lawyers always begin their pleadings and ha- 
 rangues with mefficurs ; which word is alfo frequently repeated 
 in the courfe of their fpecches ; on which occafion it anfwers 
 to our Er.glifh word, gentlemen. 
 
 1 he F'rcnch fay, Meffieurs du parlement ; da confeil; des canit- 
 ies, he. 
 
 MESSUAGE, Messuagium, in law, a dwclling-houfe with 
 fome land adjoining, affiled for its ufe. 
 
 By the name of meffuage may a garden, fhop, mill, cottage, 
 
 chamber, cellar, or the like, pafs. 
 In Scotland, Messuage denotes what we call the maner-hmife ; 
 
 via. the principal dwelling-houfe within any barony 
 MESYMN1UM, a name which the antieno gave to a part of j 
 
 their tragedy ; or to certain verfes in their tragedies. 
 
 The mefymnium w?.s a kind of burden, as la Pa-an ; O Dithy- 
 ramb e ; Hymen, O Hymenae, orthelike; which, when placed 
 at the end of a ftrophe, was called ephymnium ; and when in- 
 ferred in the middle of a ftrophe, mefymnium. See Strophe, 
 and Chorus. 
 
 METACARPUS or Metacarpium, in anatomy, that part 
 of the hand between the wrift and the fingers. — See Tub. MnaU 
 (OJleol.) fig. 3. «. 10. 10. fig. 7. n. 13. 
 
 • The word comes from the Greek i/atu, fofl t behind ; and 
 matius, hand. See Carpus. 
 
 The metacarpus confiits of four bones, which anfwer to the 
 four fingers ; whereof that which fuftains the fore-fincr Cr is the 
 biggeft and Iongeft. They 'are all round and oblong° a little 
 convex towards the back of the hand, and concave and plain 
 towards the palm : they are hollow in the middle, and full 
 of marrow ; they touch one another only at their extremities, 
 leaving fpaces in their middle, in which lie the mufculi inter- 
 oflei. 
 
 In their upper end there is a finus, which receives the bones 
 of the wrift ; their lower extremity is round, and is received 
 into the finus of the firft bones of the fingers. 
 The inner part of the metacarpus is called the palm } and the 
 outer, the hack of the Irand. 
 
 METACHRONlbM, in chronology, an error in computation 
 of time, either on the fide of defect, or excefs. 
 
 METACISM, Metacismus, in grammar, a defect, in the pro- 
 nunciation of the letter M. 
 
 Ilrdore reprefents the metacifm as a final m, followed bv a vow- 
 el i as honum aurum, Bethlehem erat, Sec. 
 
 METACONDYLI is ufed by fome authors for the outmoft 
 bones, or joints of the fingers, next the nails. 
 
 METAL, M ETA A AON, in natural hiftory, a fimple, ponderous, 
 ihining, fixt, foffil body, that tufts, and becomes fluid, by fire, 
 and by ccld Coagulates and hardens into a folid mafs, capable of 
 being diftended under the hammer. 
 
 Metal is find to be fimple, as it may be affirmed of every the 
 minutcft particle of a metal, e. gr. a grain of gold, that it is 
 gold, or has all the properties of gold. See Gold.- — Fufible 
 by fire ; that is, when expofed to a great fire, it difiolves into 
 parti which arc eafily moveable among themfelves, or are in 
 a&ual motion. See Fusion. — Fixt, i. e. bearing the fire 
 without flying off" in vapours : though it is only up to a certain 
 degree that metals are fixt; for, by the large burning-glafies of 
 Mefi". Tfchirnhaufen and Villctte, all metals are found to eva- 
 porate. 
 
 Such is the proper idea of metals, which is not applicable to 
 any other body in nature : for a diamond, or other ftone, 
 though a fimple body, is not fufible in the fire, nor ca- 
 pable of being ftretched under the hammer. And fait, though 
 diftblvable by fire, is not malleable, but breaks under die 
 hammer. 
 
 There are indeed certain woods, which yield in fome meafure 
 to the hammer ; but then they fall to dull in the fire : and fo 
 of the reft, 
 
 We fin j but fix metals in all nature ; viz. gold, lead, filver, 
 copper, iron, and tin. See the nature, chara&ers, praduftion, 
 ules, fjfe. of each, under its proper article. 
 To thefe a feventh metai is ufually added ; viz. mercury, or 
 quick-filvcr; but this is improper, as it has not all the cha- 
 racters of a metal, nor fcarce any thing in common with the 
 other metals, except Weight, and fimilarity of parts. See Mer- 
 cury. 
 
 Thus, it is neither diftblvable by fire, malleable, nor fixt : 
 in t'fFe£f, it feems to conftitute a peculiar clafs of foffils, 
 and is rather the mother or bafis of all metals, than a 
 
 metal itfelf. HoWever, as it is ufually reckoned among 
 
 them, and as it is ufually fuppofed to want nothing to render 
 it a metal, but an additional fulphur to fix and connect its 
 parts together, it may without any great error be confidered. 
 under that clafs. 
 
 The common radical character of metals is, that of all known 
 bodies they afe the heavieft. By Dr. Halley's experiments, 
 the weight of gold to that of glafs is determined to be as 9 to 
 I ; and the weight of tin, the lighteft of all metals, to that of 
 gold, as 7 to 19; which confiderably furpaffes the weight of 
 ail ftones, marbles, gems, and other the moft folid bodies, as 
 appears from the tahles of fpecific gravities. Nor is there any 
 body in nature but a metal, that is one third of the weight of 
 gold. See Specific gravity. 
 
 The Royal Society furnifh us with various experiments of 
 this kind. The weights of the feveral metals, and other 
 folids, they have examined hydroftatically, by weighing 
 them in air, and in water ; and the weights of the fluids by 
 weighing an equal portion of each. By fuch experiments 
 they find, that, taking the fame weights of water and gold, 
 the bulk or magnitude of the former is to the latter as 19636 
 to 1000; confequentiy, that the weight of gold is to stater 
 nearly as 19 to 1. 
 
 The 
 
MET 
 
 MET 
 
 Gold 
 
 19636 
 
 
 Iron 
 
 
 Quick-fdvcr 
 
 
 
 Tin 
 
 
 Lead 
 
 11345 
 
 
 Granate 
 
 
 Silver 
 
 'OS 35 
 
 
 W ater 
 
 
 Copper 
 
 8843 
 
 
 Air 
 
 
 The cube inch of 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Drams 
 
 Gold 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 Quick-Giver 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 Lead 
 
 "Hi j 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 Silver 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 Copper 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 Iron 
 
 n 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 Tin 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 The fpecific weight of the feveral metals by this means deter- 
 mined Hand thus : 
 
 73" 
 3978 
 1000 
 
 5 2 
 8 
 
 3° 
 28 
 
 36 
 24 
 
 J 7 
 
 to the origin and fcrmaihn f>f Met a ls, various are the fenti- 
 mcnts of philofopheis, antieiit and modern. — M. Tournefort 
 is of opinion, t)iat metals, as well as all other minerals, have 
 their origin fi om fi-'cds, like plants ; and that they have veflels 
 with juices circulating in them, £5V. 
 
 Plato will have the caufc of metals to be an humid vapour, 
 inelofed in the bowels of" the earth, which, being varioufly in- 
 termixed witii parts of the earth, produces various metals. Plo- 
 tin maintains fulphur to be the father of metals ; and an olea- 
 ginous vifcous humour, the mother. Lidyat endeavours to 
 prove all metals generated by a fubterranean fire ; urging, 
 ;iniong other reafuns, that many me.'ah, when taken out of the 
 earth, arc exceedingly hot. Du Hams! fbews, that metals do 
 not {take their rife cither from any vaporous exhalation, or from 
 water, or from earth ; but are generated of mercury, fulphur, 
 and fait. He adds, that metals take their matter and weight 
 from the mercury they contain, and their tincture and form 
 from the fulphur. 
 
 The fame author owns the firfi rudiment of a metal to be a fa- 
 line fubftance fwimming in water, which water is by little and 
 little carried oft". iiy how much the terrcfrrial parts are 
 more exquifitely mixed with the aqueous or humid, by fo 
 much is the metal more heavy and firm, as having fewer and 
 imalicr pores. Hence its ductility : for its parts, being ex- 
 tremely fm.dl, denfe, and complicated, may be drawn out into 
 a very ipacious furface : on which account it is, that gold ex- 
 ceeds all other metals both in weight and ductility. Hence alfo 
 its fixity, its parts being too clofe and denfe to be exhaled. 
 The water defends the earth from being burnt, and the earth 
 the water from flying off"; neither forfakes the other, but each 
 is bound in an undilFolvablc knot. The mciiturc gives duc- 
 tility, the earth folidfty. Where the mixture is lefs perfect, 
 whether the earth or the water prevail, the metal will neither 
 have lb much weight, as Jiaving larger pores ; nor will it bear 
 the fire fo well. For if the earth prevail, as in iron, or the 
 water, as in lead ; heat will let the. one at liberty from the 
 other i the moifture evaporates, and the earth is reduced into 
 fcoria, (sc. 
 
 Dr. Woodward maintains, that all metals, now found in the 
 flrata of the earth owe their prcftnt condition to the deluge; 
 when he alfo imagines the prclent flrata of ftone, earth, mar- 
 ble, (sc. were formed. 
 
 'Die metallic and mineral matter now found in the perpendi- 
 cular intervals or filiures of the feveral flrata, whereof the earth 
 iscompofed, was, according to him, at the time of the delude, 
 lodged in the bodies of thofe flrata ; and has been brought 
 thence, and tranfinilted into thefe intervals fincc that time ; 
 the intervals thcmftlves not cxifling, till the flrata were formed 
 and broke again, to let the wa'.cr from the earth. 
 Now the water, which, he imagines, is conftantly afcending 
 from the great abyfs towards the furface of the earth, con- 
 tinually pervading the flrata, detaches out of their pores and 
 inteiftices fuch metallic and mineral corpufctes as it finds loofe 
 in its way, carrying them along with it to the perpendicular 
 intervals, where having a freer paflage than before, it deferts 
 them, and leaves them in thefe intervals. And this he takes 
 to be the way in which all metal/, now found in thofe places, 
 were brought thither, and ft;Jl continue to increafe. 
 Thofe in the flrata, however, he obferves, do not nor can in- 
 creafe ; but, on the contrary, are continually leifened and di- 
 minished, by fo much as has been conveyed into the perpendi- 
 cular intervals,, and brought fortli of the furface of the earth 
 bv fprinss and exhalations from the abyfs, &e. 
 The fame ingenious author complains of the great uncertainty 
 and inconflancv in the mineral and metallic kingdom ; neither 
 colour, figure, nor fituation in the earth, being to be depended 
 on, fo as tomakeanv pofitivejudgment from them.— A pyrites 
 or marcaflte, for inflance, fhall have the colour and brightnefs 
 of gold, or of filvcr, and yet afford nothing but a little vitriol 
 and fulphur ; while what is but a pebble in appearance fhall have 
 a mixture of a valuable metal in it. It is common too to find the 
 fame metal fliot into a great number of different forms, as well as 
 to find different kinds of metal of the fame form. And as to their 
 place in the earth, there is the fame uncertainty ; they being fome- 
 times found in the perpendicular fiflures or intervals of the flrata, 
 fometimes interfperfed in the bodies of the flrata, and fometimes 
 
 in both. The fame metah are alfo pliced indifferently in all 
 kinds of terreftrial matter, or in flrata of very different natures. 
 Thty arc frequently intermixed with each other, fo that it is a 
 rare thing to find any of them pure and fimple ; but copper 
 and iron fhall often be in the fame mab, as alfo gold and cop- 
 per, filvcr and lead, tin and lead ; nay, fometimes all fix to- 
 gether in the fame lump. 
 
 The French chymiMs have been very curious in their inquiries 
 into the nature and production of metals. — M- Geofi'roy, from 
 a mixture of fulphur with a vitriolic fair, and an argdlous" 
 earth, brought an iron, which he maintained to be a new pro- 
 duction, or a compofition refulring from the afTemblage of cer- 
 tain principles which exifted feparatelv in the ingredients that 
 formed the metal; in a word, that it was an artificial iron. 
 And, obfcrviiig that there were parcels of this metal in the co- 
 loured afhes of plants, and of moft other inflammable fubflan- 
 ces, he concluded that it might be formed there alfo by the 
 union of the fame three principles. 
 
 This was oppofed by M. Lcmery the younger, who maintained 
 that the iron contained in the afhes of plants was not fomed 
 there by calcination, but was really exilter.t in the pbnts them- 
 felves ; being raifed in their veflels along with the juices cf the 
 earth j and further, that all the ingredients whereof M. Geof- 
 froy's artificial iron was formed, do really contain iron in 
 themfelvcs, either in fmaller or larger quantities : not the ar- 
 gilla only, where the iron is eafily difcovered by an animated 
 knife ; nor the oil of vitriol] which is drawn from a mineral, 
 the ground whereof is iron; but alfo linfeed oil, whereof 
 M. Geoffrey's fulphur was made ; and even that of turpen- 
 tine, fweet almonds, csV. relating withal the operations where- 
 by each of thofe oils may be reduced to an earth wherein is 
 iron. 
 
 To this it was anfwered, that in what manner foever iron be 
 procured from the feveral ingredients feparately, there will be ft ill 
 found infinitely lefs in them, than when mixed ; and that, cf 
 confequence, the mixture produces iron : that, as for oils, it is 
 evident they arc not fimple fubflances, but are cumpofed of an 
 earth, an acid, and a fulphurous or infla.r.mable part ; which are 
 the three precife principles required for the formation of iron ; 
 fo that, according to all appearances, it is of an afTemblage of 
 thofe fulphurs, fait?, and earth, in the oil, that the iron is for med 
 by calcination ; and therefore that the means ufed to the iron 
 in the ingredients, are the very fame with thofe by which it is 
 compofed. 
 
 Hence alfo it appears, that vegetable matters contain the princi- 
 ples of minerals. But M. Geoflbry goes further ; and to fupport 
 his doctrine of the production 01 metals, he undertakes to prove, 
 that the principles of vegetables, and thofe of minerals, are 
 efltntialiy the fame; and that one may icaddy, and with cafe, 
 decompound minerals by feparating their prin.iples, and com- 
 pound them again by fubflituting principles taken from vege- 
 tables in lieu of thofe taken away. 
 
 'Fo clear this point, he examines and compares the principles 
 of mineral and vegetable (alts. The principal in the mineral 
 clafs are nitre, iba-falt, and vitriol 1 ail which falts we find in 
 plants. The ellential fait of the parietaria is wholly nitrous, 
 and mehs on the coals like fait petre. The fixt fairs of 
 the carduus benedictus, abfinthium, kali, £rV. (.oniain a 
 great deal or fea-falr, which crvflallizts in cubes, and de- 
 crepitates on the coals. Add, that the greateft part of the 
 fixt falts of plants, lalcincd to a certain degree, yield a flrong 
 fine!! oi fulphur ; which can proceed from nothing but a vitrio- 
 lic fait, rarefied and volatilized by the oil of the plant. By 
 thefe falts we may he ab e to judge ot all the other fairs of pl.'.nts ; 
 for the volatile falts are nothing elle but fixt falls difcno.^ed 
 from the groffeft part of their earth, and joined with parts of 
 oil. 
 
 Further, there is fcarce any rcafon to doubt, that the acid juices 
 drawn from vegetables are of the (iime nature with the mineral 
 acids ; with th;s only difference, that the acids of plains have 
 been extremely rarefied by fermentation, and united fo clofcly 
 with fulphurs, that it is not without a great deal of difficulty 
 that they are feparated. 
 
 Thus, diflilied vinegar, which we make no fcruple of ranking 
 among the vitriolic acids ; does only differ from ("pint of ful- 
 phur, J pi t-it of vitriol, or even thecauflic oil of vitriol, in that 
 the acids in the vinegar are diffufed among a great deal of 
 phlegm,, and ftrongly united to a great deal of oil, which yet 
 may be feparated. By diflblving copper in the acid of vinegar, 
 feparated as much as poffible from its oil, there are formed cry- 
 tfals, like in figure to thofe of blue vitriol. From all which it 
 appears, that the falts of plants do not differ efler.tially from 
 thofe of minerals. 
 
 As'for fulphurs, the inflammable or fulphurous principle is the 
 fame in vegetables as in minerals. And M. GeofTroycvenfhews, 
 that the principle of inflammability in common fulphur is the 
 fame with that which renders the fat of animals, the oils and 
 relms of plants, and the bitumens of the earth, inflammable. 
 To which he adds, that this fame fulphurous principle is not 
 only like wife found in metallic fubfhnces, but that it is this 
 which nives them their fufibiktv, duciiht 1 ,', and metalline forms. 
 Thus antimony, which is i* fubflance approaching the neareft 
 
 of 
 
MET 
 
 of any to a metal, is little elfe but a burning fulphur. By 
 haling this, it lofes its metallic form, and turns to a kind of 
 grey aflies, which being melted, inftead of metal become glafs. 
 And by melting this over again, and adding to it fome inflam- 
 mable matter, again it returns into a reguius. 
 As to the fpecies of Metai.s, there are four which the chymifts 
 call imperfect, becaufe their principles are not bound fo faff toge- 
 ther, but that the force of a common fire deftroys them ; thefe 
 are, iron, copper, lead, and tin : the others, which are proof 
 againft common fire, are gold and filver, thefe therefore are 
 called perfecl metals. 
 
 In the four firft it is eafy to fee the principle of inflammability : 
 They become all fufible by the addition of falt-petre, either in 
 a greater or lefs degree. Iron is that wherein this is the moft 
 vihble ; next, tin ; then copper and leap. — But the principle is 
 more confpicuous ftill, in the duflr or fmall filings of the metals, 
 let fall in the flame of a candle, than in the lump. 
 In gold and filver, the fulphurous principle is not fo obvious. 
 No heat but that of the fun collected into a focus, is able to 
 decompound them. But no doubt even thefe have the fame 
 principles with the other metah, though they are not fo eafily 
 feen. — In gold, as well as in the imperfect metals, the bafis is 
 an earth capable of vitrification, as appears by the glafs re- 
 maining after the calcination of gold in a burning-glafs ; and 
 there is reafm to believe, that the greateft part of what is ex- 
 haled in fmoke during the operation, is the fulphurous principle 
 mixed with falts. 
 
 As to filver, there is fomething in it extremely various. When 
 purified with antimony, it vitrifies by the burning-glafs ; but if 
 purified with lead, it leaves nothing behind it but grey afhes.— 
 The bafis of this metal is doubtlefs an earth capable of vitrifica- 
 tion ; and what exhales in fmoke, js apparently a mixture of 
 fulphur, falts, and a little earth volatilized by the fire. 
 From all this, and many more obfervations of the fame kind, 
 M. GeofTroy ventures to draw the following conclufions. That 
 the fubftances whereof metals are compofed, do not differ effen- 
 tially from thofe which compofc vegetables. — That the imper- 
 fect metals are compofed of a fulphur, vitriolic fait, and veri- 
 fiable earth. — That this fulphurous principle is more or lefs 
 jftrongly joined with the other principles ; very frrongly in gold 
 and in filver, lefs in antimony, and very little in mineral ful- 
 phur. — That the principle of inflammability may be feparated 
 from metallic fubftances, either by culinary fire, or by the fun. 
 ■ — That the metal thus defpoiled of its principle, is converted 
 into afhes ; and that thefe afhes, purfued farther with a violent 
 fire, vitrify ; and that fuch allies or glafTes, by the application 
 of fome inflammable matter, again refujne the metallic form 
 they had loff — That it is by this means linfeed-oil turns clay 
 into iron. — That if we knew all the other Jiutallic earths, they 
 might lik'.:wife be immediately converted into metals, by the 
 projection of fome proper inflammable matter — That it is the 
 fahne and earthy parts, found in proper vitriol, that furnifh the 
 earthy vitrifiable part which makes the bafis or ground of iron, 
 and that it receives the metallic form from the fulphurous prin- 
 ciple of the oil. — That the iron found in the afhes of plants, 
 was produced there in the fame manner : and, that it is a com- 
 pofition of the vitrifiable earth of the plants, the acid of thofe 
 plants, and their oily or inflammable principle. 
 The fame author, the better to afcertain the conflituent parts 
 of metals-, made a great number of experiments on them with 
 the duke of Orleans's large burning-glafs ; the refult whereof 
 
 falls in with, and confirms the doctrine laid down above. 
 
 From thofe experiments, he gathers, that the four metals which 
 we call imperfect, viz. iron, copper, tin, and lead, are compofed 
 of a fulphur or oily fubftance, capable of burning, and a me- 
 tallic earth, capable of vitrification. — That from this fulphur 
 proceed the opacity, brightnefs, and malleability of a metal— 
 That this metallic fulphur dots not appear at all different from 
 the oil or fulphur of vegetables, or even that of animals ; and 
 that it is the fame in mercury as in the four imperfect metals. — 
 That thefe four metals have for their bafis an earth fufceptible 
 of vilification ; that this earth is different in each of the four 
 .metals, in that it vitrifies differently in each ; and that on thi; 
 difference in vitrifying, depends the difference of metals. 
 The learned Boerhaave, after an accurate furvey of the feveral 
 metals, their characters, properties, preparations, ufes,^. draws 
 the following corollaries concerning the general nature of me 
 ,tals. i°. That which diftinguifhes metals from all other bo ■ 
 dies, as well as from each other, is their heavinefs : though 
 every metal has its peculiar weight ; which no art is able to 
 imitate, and which depends, as Helmont and the chymifts ex- 
 prefs it, on the anatic homogeneity of their paris. Now, the 
 later philofophers have proved, that all corporeal magnitude has 
 juft fo much reality in it, as it has weight; and therefore if 
 you have found the heavinefs of any metal, you have at the fame 
 time found its corporeity. Sir Ifaac Newton treating of gn 
 ty, and Huygens of the pendulum, fhew that weight and reality 
 are correfpondent. 
 
 2°. The metals appear to be fimple, yet they are really com- 
 pounds. Their component principles, according to the antients, 
 are fulphur and mercury ; to which fome of the moderns have 
 Vox. II. 
 
 MET 
 
 added fait : but it is certain fait is no conftituent part, or in- 
 gredient of metals, but rather fomething external adhering to 
 them. All metah confift of two parts or principles ; mercury 
 as the bafis or matter ; and fulphur, as the binder or cement : 
 the firft, the fubftratum, or metallic matter ; and the fecond, 
 that which renders it fixed and malleable. The mercury, it is 
 to be noted, is the fame with our quick-filver, only defecate, 
 and clear of any heterogeneous matter; whereas the common 
 quick-filver is always mixed. As to the fulphur, it is not the 
 vulgar foffil fulphur, but a peculiat fott of matter fpecifically 
 denominated fulphur of metah, concluded bv fome of our lateff, 
 and bell chymifts, particularly M. Hombe'rg, to be fire ; which 
 being mixed with the mercury, fixes it, and, according to the 
 different degrees of its union and cohelion therewith, produces 
 different metah. 
 
 This doarine of the compofition of metah is confirmed by an 
 experiment of Mt. Boyle, who tells us, that after having re- 
 tained mercury a long time in a modetate fire, he took a piece of 
 gold out of it, which it was apparent was not in the mercury 
 before it was expofed to the fire. M. Homberg alfo has an 
 experiment to the fame efFefl ; from which be concludes, that 
 gold confiffs of a fulphurous igneous part, and a heavy mercu- 
 rial part fixed thereby ; and that upon taking away the ful- 
 phurous or fiery part, the gold muft be converted into fluid 
 mercury. 
 
 5°. All metah muft firft be mercury, ere they be gold ; and 
 the thing fuperadded to common mercury, whereby" it is pre- 
 vented from becoming gold, is a fllarp volatile body, which, 
 when heated, becomes corrofive, and emits fumes ; which ate 
 the true properties of the foilil fulphur. 
 
 4°. If any metal, or other body, could be found that only dif- 
 fered from gold in its wanting weight, it were impoffible ever 
 to make gold of it ; and, on the contrary, if a body could be 
 had that is as heavy as gold, all the other properties, as colour, 
 fixity, ductility, {sV. might eafily be added. And hence the 
 more knowing among the alchvmifts hold the' primary matter 
 of gold to be quick-filver ; which, fay they, is gold at heart, 
 as coming ncareft to gold in point of fpecific gravity. Only 
 there is a conofivc body, i. e. fulphur, adhering to it, which, 
 if it were feparated, you woiild have gold; or" if it weie only 
 inverted, filver. 
 
 And accordingly, on fuch principles whoever would make eolj 
 out of any other foreign matter, muft remember, that "the 
 more his mattei differs from mercury in weight, tic. the Ids 
 gold it will make. 
 
 5°. Therefore metah are tranfmutable into one another : for if 
 mercury be the common matter of all metah, and if all the 
 difference lie in the fixing fpirit or fulphur, which, as it is lefs 
 or more fubtile or pure, conftitutcs this or that metal; it is no 
 way improbable that they mould be tranfmuted by a purer fix- 
 ing fulphur taking place of a corrofive one, and fixing the mat- 
 ter into a more perfecr metal. 
 
 6°. The pureft metals refult of the pureft and moft defecate 
 mercury, and the fmallelf quantity of the fubtilefi fulphur 
 Hence, mercury of gold is heavier than common mercurv, and 
 has always fome impute part that is lighter than gold • and 
 could that be taken away, and the fixing fpirit be\dded it 
 wuuld become heavier than gold. 
 
 ;°. The imperfect metals confift of impure mercury and im- 
 petfefl fulphur, with fome other variable heterogeneous mat 
 ter in it : this, fufed by the fire, emits a fume which whitens 
 copper, after which the fulphur exhales yet further. The rea 
 lity of fuch a third matter is evinced hence, that all thefe bafer 
 metals are refolvable not only into mercury and fulphur but 
 alio into fcoria or fordc-s, which are lighler and more earthy 
 than either of the other, and accordingly fwim therein 
 6°. Upon rhe whole it appears, that in 'the three nobler metah 
 gold, mercury, and filver, it is principal^ the greater or iefs 
 proportion of the fulphut to the mercury, 'that derermines them 
 to be gold, mercury, or filver: that it is by this proportion 
 thofe fevetal metah are defined and denominated ; and that 
 from this difference of proportion, flow all the fpecific differ 
 ences of colour, weight, fixity, dudilily, volatility, fufibility 
 folubihty, falubrity, cjjr. y> 
 9°. That in the other bafer metah, befides this different pro- 
 portion of the two principles, there intervenes another caufe of 
 diverfitv, viz. a third principle, or matter of an earthy kind, 
 and very different from either of the reft ; which adhering tc. 
 the pure elemental fulphur, corrupts and adulterates, and vari- 
 oufly modifies it: and from the different circumftances of this 
 third principle, confidered along wirh thofe of the fulphur itfelf 
 refult the fpecific differences of the more imperfed metals as to' 
 weight, colour, and their other qualities. 
 
 Bath Metal, called alfo Prince's Metal, isakind of factitious 
 metal, compofed of the fineft and pureft copper mixed with 
 zink ; whereby it becomes of a fine yellow, and more difpofed to 
 receive a polifh, luftre, ffe as alfo filter to be gilt. Tis faid 
 to have been invented by prince Rupert, whence its name 
 
 Bell Metal is a compofition of copper and tin melted together 
 See Bell. 6 
 The ordinary proportion is twenty-two or twenty-three pounds 
 " of 
 
MET 
 
 MET 
 
 of tin to an hundred weight of copper. — Some add lead and 
 
 brafs to the compofition. 
 Blueing of Metals. See the article Blueing. 
 Painting on Metals. See the article Painting. 
 Ruji of Metals. See the article Rust. 
 Line d/Metals. — On Gunter's Sector, are fometimes two lines 
 
 thus called, and noted with the characters of the feven metnls, 
 
 ©, }), 5, Tj, 9, J, and % ; their ufe is to give the pro- 
 '~ portions between the feveral metals as to their magnitudes and 
 
 weights. 
 
 To he laid under Metal, in gunnery, is when the mouth of a 
 
 gun lies lower than her breech. 
 Metal, in heraldry. — There are two metah uSed in heraldry, 
 
 by way of colours, viz. gold and filver; in blazon, called cr, 
 
 and argent. 
 
 In the common painting of arms, thefe metals are reprefented 
 by white and yellow, which are the natural colour of thofe 
 metah. 
 
 In engraving, gold is expreffed by dotting the coat, &c. all 
 over ; and iilver, by leaving it quite blank. 
 It is a general rule in heraldry, never to place metal upon metal, 
 nor colour on colour : fo that if the field be one of the metals, 
 the bearing muft be of fome colour, and vice verfa ; otherwife 
 the arms aie falfe : though this rule admits of fome excep- 
 tions. 
 
 METALLIC, or Metalline, an adjective applied to any 
 thing that bears a relation to metals. 
 
 Painting in enamel is performed with metallic colours, that i; 
 with fuch as come from metah, or are made with metah ; no 
 other being able to endure the fire. 
 
 F. Romani has publifhed a metallic hiftory of the popes, or their 
 hiftory collected from coins. La France Metallique is a book 
 - of medals moftly imaginary, pretended to be taken from the 
 cabinets of the curious, where they never were, by Jaques de 
 Bie, engraver. M. Bizot has alfo publifhed the metallic hiftory 
 of Holland. 
 
 Metallic mines. See the article Mine. 
 
 Metallic vitriols. See the article Vitriol. 
 
 Metallorum crocus. See the article Crocus. 
 
 Sulphur Metallorum. See the article Sulphur. 
 
 METALLURGIA, the art of metals, that is, of preparing and 
 working metah, from the glebe or ore, to the utenfil. 
 Metallurgia includes what relates to the finding of the metallic 
 glebe or ore in the mine ; the judging of its kind and richnefs, 
 or the proportion of metal therein \ the digging or Separating 
 it from the earth, and other matters ; and the purifying and 
 difpofing it into a complete, pure, malleable metal. 
 Boerhaave divides metallurgia into four parts. The firft teaches 
 how metals grow in the mine, how they are difcovered, and 
 how procured out of the fame. The fecond how to feparate 
 the metallic from the other matter of the ore. The third, 
 how to reduce the Separated matter to its fimplicity and ducti- 
 lity. The fourth, to work, gild, polifh, and imitate the finer 
 metals in the coarfer. 
 
 METAMORPHISTS, a fe£l of heretics in the XVIth century, 
 whofe dilringuifhlng tenet was, That the body of Jefus Chrift 
 was, upon his afcenfion into heaven, changed, and metamorphofed 
 into God. 
 
 METAMORPHOSIS, * transformation ; the change of a perfon 
 or thing into another form. 
 
 * The word is Greek, M.:ra.uo^wTi( ; formed of f/STct, change, 
 or removal from one place or flate to another ; and y-a^t), 
 form, figure. 
 
 The antients held two kinds of metamorphofes: the one real, 
 the other apparent. The metamorpbofis of Jupiter into a bull, 
 and of Minerva into an old woman, were only apparent. That 
 of Lycaon into a wolf, and of Arachne into a fpider and the 
 like, they fay were of the real kind. 
 
 Moft of the antient metamorphofes include fome allegorical mean- 
 ing, relating either to phyfics or morality. — Ovid s metamor- 
 phofes is a collection of hiftories of fuch transformations, poeti- 
 cally related. — Some authors are of opinion, that a great part 
 of the antient philofophy is couched under them ; and Dr. 
 Hooke has made an attempt to unriddle, and lay open the hid- 
 den meanings of fjveral of them. 
 METAPHOR*, Metaphora, in rhetoric, a fi gureof fpeech 
 whereby a word is transferred from its proper Signification, to 
 another: or, whereby the proper denomination of one thing is 
 applied to another ; which other thing is more eltgantly ex- 
 plained by this tralatitious or foreign name, than by that which 
 naturally belongs to it. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek ^ra.^o;-a, tranflation, or dis- 
 placing ; of jjiiTo., trans, and <pij>w, I bear, or carry. 
 
 As, when we fay, the light of the underftanding ; to burn with 
 zeal ; to float between hope and defpair, c?r. 
 ■The metaphor is the moft common of all the figures of fpeech ; 
 and is that ufually meant when we fcy a thins i 3 fpoken figu- 
 ratively. & 
 
 The metaphor is a fhort fimile ; an image being thereby called 
 from its proper Subject to give the refemblance of another.— An 
 allegory is no more than a continued metaphor. 
 The Sources or places whence metaphors are drawn, are innu- 
 merable : they may be fetched from divine matters; thus Ci- 
 cero calls Plato rur God, Deus ille nojler Plato. From the ele- 
 ments ; as a torrent of eloquence. From plants ; as where 
 virtue has taken root. From artificial things ; as where Ap- 
 pian is called the cymbal of the world ; Longinus, a living li- 
 brary ; Pertinax, fortune's foot-ball, &c. 
 
 Quintilian difiinguifhes metaphors into four kinds : the firft, 
 when a word is transferred from one animal to another; as 
 when Livy fays that Cato ufed to bark at Scipio : or. when 
 our Saviour calls Herod, fox. The fecond, when the word is 
 transferred from one inanimate to another ; as bridle, for laws. 
 The third, when inanimates are applied to animates; as the 
 flower of youth. And the laft, when animates ate applied to 
 inanimates ; as the river dtfdained its bounds. 
 As the inetaphor is intended to fet things before the eyes ; it be- 
 comes So much the more perfect, as it Shews them the more 
 vividly, by reprefenting them in motion and action. A meta- 
 phor Should have nothing in it either coarfe or mocking, or 
 that may raife it above the fimplicity of nature : nor Should it 
 appear a metaphor to any but thoSe who view it very clofely. 
 A metaphor Should never be carried too far; for in that cafe 
 it degenerates into puerility. — Metaphors fliould always be fol- 
 lowed in the Same kind ; they become unnatural, when differ- 
 ent images are introduced. — In all metaphorical dictions, there 
 Should be a kind of unity, fo that the different words ufed, may 
 have a kind of fuitablenefs to each other : different ideas are 
 always abSurd : as in this inftance ; The church was befieged 
 with a deluge of troubles : where the two images, jUge and 
 deluge, have no relation. 
 
 There is nothing young writers are more faulty in, than the 
 indifcrete ufe of metaphors : thofe who affect the merveilleux 
 are eternally on the metaphorical ftrain ; nor know any bounds 
 or reftraint. They who underftand them beft, ufe them with 
 the greateft refcrve. Mr. AddiSon propoSes it as a rule for 
 writers, to imagine their metaphors actually painted before them 
 and to view and examine the juftnefs of their application and 
 affemblage under thofe circum Stances ; throwing every thing 
 out of the writing, but what might be retained in the picture. 
 Card. Perron prefcribes this general rule for metaphors ; that 
 they muft always deScend from the genus to the Species • and 
 never go backwards from the fpecies to the genus : thus we 
 fay figuratively, the bonds of fociety ; and not the human cords 
 which tie us together : bond being a genus, and cord a fpe- 
 cies. 
 
 METAPHRAST, Metaphrastes, a translator, or perSon 
 who renders an author into another form or another language 
 word for word. ° 9 
 
 A metaphrafe, utTMfrVfffr, ufually fignifies fomething more than 
 either a paraphrafe, or a tranflation : according to Baillet a 
 metaphrajl implies a translator, gloffator, and interpolator 'all 
 at once. 1 
 
 METAPHYSICS* Metaphysica, tranfnaturalis ; a branch 
 of fcience, about whofe nature and idea, there is Some differ- 
 ence among authors. 
 * The word is formed of the prepofition (ora, trans, beyond or 
 above; and q>u<ri?, nature, or ipvanw, natural. ' 
 
 Some define mtiaphyfics, that part of fcience which confiders 
 fpirits, and immaterial beings ; which others chufe to diftin- 
 guifh by the name of pneumatics. 
 
 Others, keeping clofer to the etymology of the word, explain 
 metaphyfscs, by tranf-natural, or prater-natural or even poff- 
 natural philofophy. " 
 Others, with more propriety, conceive metaphyfics to be what 
 fome others call ontology, or ontofiphy, i, e. the dodrine de ente 
 or of being, quatenus, being. * 
 In the fame view, fome philofophers call this fcience by the 
 name phdofiphia, or faentia generalh, as being the foundation 
 or, as it were, the ftamen or root from whence all the other* 
 parts of philofophy anfe, and wherein they all meet; its object 
 being being m the abftract, or general, not restrained to this 
 or that Species oS beings ; not to Spirit any mo re than bodv - 
 So that the doctrines of metaphyfics, are applicable to all beinU 
 whatever. ° a 
 Philosophers again, are divided as to the notion of a fcience d 
 entem general Some hold it real, precife, and Solid enough to 
 be demonftrated ; but others judge it too obScure, Saint and 
 confuSed to be admitted into philoSophy. * 
 Being, abstracted from every fort or Species oS being i s r er 
 tainly a very vague term ; and does not feem to give footing 
 enough for a fcience : we do 'not fee how it can affect the 
 mind as an object. Add, that the common metaphyfics cannot 
 demonftrate any part of its Subjea, but affumes the whole ■ 
 there are no principles, or axioms whereon to demonftrate me ' 
 taplyyfics, which contain the principles of all other Sciences 
 The firft who wrote profeffedlv on the fuhi&^nf «,w ±l r ■ 
 
 Arifelc. mm be I the firft who ufe £?£i" tt ™ 
 
MET 
 
 ME T 
 
 fujtua^ is the title of one of his books, but this Tome of his 
 commentators will have to ficnify no more than after the booh 
 ef phyfics. M. du Hamel, taking the prepofition jimt | n the 
 ienfe of pofi, is even of opinion that the word was coined by 
 Ariftotle's followers j and that it was unknown to Ariftotle 
 himfelf. 
 
 Ariftotle's metaphyfics feem to have been intended for a kind of 
 natural theology. F. Malebranche and Mr. Locke have wrote 
 much more clearly and confiftently of metaphyfics, than any of 
 the antients. 
 
 METAPHYSICAL, fomething belonging to metaphyfics. See 
 Metaphysics. 
 
 The word is alfo ufed to denote fomething fufetile, abftradt, and 
 refined.— In which fenfe wc fay, Such a reafoning, fuch a proof, 
 Is too metaphyseal, &c. 
 
 A metaphyseal cafe is an imaginary or chimerical cafe, which 
 can fcarce ever happen, or not without much difficulty ; and 
 which ought not to be laid down as a rule for common occa- 
 fions. 
 
 Metaphysical certitude. See Certitude. 
 Metaphysical diftinftion. See Distinction. 
 Metaphysical evidence. See Evidence. 
 Metaphysical/^. See Form. 
 Metaphysical perfection. See Perfection. 
 Metaphysical^^. See Possible. 
 Metaphysical univerfality. See Universality 
 METAPLASM* Metaplasmus, in grammar, a t'ranfmu- 
 
 tation, or change made in a word, by adding, retrenching or 
 
 altering a letter or fyllable thereof. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, /^TaxArttf^uof, which figni- 
 fies the fame ; compounded of /j-zta and irh&vsi,-,fingo, 
 
 METASTASIS, METASTASIS, in medicine, the removal of a 
 morbid humour from one part to another i frequently ohferved 
 in nervous cafes. 
 
 A metafiafis, or tranflation, is fometi'mes alfo found in the 
 gruffer humours; the refluent blood taking up digefted matter 
 from one part, and difpofing it upon another. 
 METATARSUS*, in anatomy, that part of the human fkeleton 
 containing the middle of the foot.— See Tab. Anat. (Ojleol) 
 Jg.j. «. 30. fig. 7. lit. e ' 
 
 * The word comes from pera, tram, beyond ; and Tttteo; the 
 tarfus. 
 
 The metatarfus confifts of five bones, reaching from the heel 
 to the toes ; whereof that which fuftains the great toe, is the 
 thickeft ; and that which fuftains the next toe, the loneeft. 
 The reft grow, each fhorter than other. They are longer 
 than the bones of the metacarpus ; in other things they are 
 like them, and are articulated to the toes, as thefe are to the 
 fingers. 
 
 METATHESIS *, tranfpofition ; a grammatical figure, whereby 
 , letters or fyllables of a word are tranfpofed, or fhifted out of 
 
 the natural fituation, — as, Evandre for Evander; I pra for 
 
 prat. 
 
 * The word is Greek, ^retSsir/f, formed of piTtt, trans ; and 
 fea^pofitian. 
 
 METEMPSYCHI, antient heretics, who, in imitation of Py- 
 thagoras, held the metempfychofts, or tranfmigration of fouls. 
 
 METEMPSYCHOSIS * METEM^rxnsis, i n the antient 
 philofophy, the pailage or tranfmigration of the foul of a man, af- 
 ter death, into the body of fome other animal. 
 
 * The word is Greek, formed of [Aira, beyond ; and if-4- u X t) * I 
 animate or enliven. 
 
 Pythagoras and his followers held, that after death mens fouls 
 paffed into other bodies, of this or that kind, according to the 
 
 And I this gave occafion to the report that Euphorbus's foul, who 
 penfhed m the Trojan war, had tranfmigrated into Pythagoras 
 Fic.nus afferts, That what Plato fpeaks of the mixtion of 'a 
 human foul into a brute, is intended allegorically, and is to be 
 underflow] only o the manners, affections, and habits dece- 
 rning into a beaftly nature by vice.- Serranus, though he allows 
 fome force to this interpretation, yet inclines rather to under- 
 derftand the metempfychofts of a refurre&ion 
 Pythagoras is faid to have borrowed the notion of a'&toU$- 
 cbofisfram the Egyptians, other, fay from the antient Brachmans. 
 It is ftilJ retained among the Banians and other idolaters of India 
 and China ; and makes the principal foundation of their reli- 
 gion. So extremely are they bigoited to it, that they nut only 
 forbear eating any thing that has life, but many of 'them even 
 refufe to defend themfelves from wild beafts. They burn no- 
 wood, left fome little animalcule mould be in it. j and are fo 
 very charitable, that they will redeem from the hands of ftran- 
 gers, any animals that they find ready to be killed. 
 METEMPTOSIS * a term in chronology, expreflirig the folar 
 equation, neceftary to prevent the new moon from hagpenin" a 
 day too late. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, psr*, pofi, andsnsrr*', 
 eado, I fall. 
 
 By which it ftands contradiftinguifhed from proemptofis, which 
 fignifies the lunar equation, neceftary to prevent the" new moon 
 from happening a day too fuon. 
 
 The new moons running a little backwards, that is, coming a 
 day too foon at the end of three hundred and twelve years and 
 a halfj by the proemptofis, a day is added every three hundred 
 years, and another every two thoufand four hundred years : 
 on the other hand, by the metemptofis, a biflextile is fupprefled 
 each one hundred thiity-four years, that is, three times in four 
 hundred years. — Thefe alterations are never made, but at the 
 end of each century ; that period being very remarkable, and 
 rendring the practice of the calendar eafv. 
 
 There are three rules for making this addition, or fupprcfllon of 
 the bifTex tile -day, and by confcqucnce for changing the index 
 of the epacts. i°. When there is a metemptofis without a pro- 
 emptofis., the next following, or lower iniiex, mult be taken. 
 2 0 . When there is a proemptofis without a metemptofis, the 
 next preceding, or fuperior index, is to be taken. 3° When 
 there is both a metemptofis and a proemptofis, or when there is 
 neither the one nor the other, the fame index is preferved. 
 Thus in 1600 we had D; in 1700, by reafon of the metemp- 
 tofis, C was taken ; in 1 800 there wiil be both a proemptofis 
 and a metemptofis; fo the fame index will be retained. In 1 900 
 there will be a metemptofis again, when B will be taken, which 
 will be preferved in 2000 ; becaufe there will then be neither 
 the one nor the other — This is as far as we need compute for it : 
 but Clavius has calculated a cycle of 301 Sco years} at the end 
 of which period, the fame indices return in the fame order. 
 METEOR*, in phyfiology, a changeable, moveable, impeifeft 
 mixt body, or refemblance of a body, appealing in the atmo- 
 fphere, and formed out of the matter of the common elements 
 altered a little by the action of the heavenly bodies, but not 
 transformed. 
 
 » The Greeks call them piviufa, q. d. fublimia, or high-raifed - 
 the Latins, imprej/tenei, as making figns or impreflions in the air* 
 Meteors are of three kinds : 
 Igneous or fiery Meteors confift of a fat fulphurous fmoke f ct 
 on nre 1 fuch are lightning, thunder, ignis fatuus, draco, vo- 
 Jans, falling ftars, and other fiery phenomena appearing in the 
 
 Aereal or airy Meteors confift of flatulent and fpirituous exha- 
 lations ; fuch are winds, whirlwinds, and hurricanes. 
 
 manner of life they had led. If they had been vicious, they Aqueous or watery Meteors are compofed of vapours' or waterv 
 were impnfoned in the bodies of miferable beafts. there fn dr> particles varinuflv fenarat^ 1 1 ? , ./ 
 
 were imprifoned in the bodies of miferable beafts, there to do 
 penance for feveral ages ; at the expiration whereof, they re- 
 turned afrefh to animate men. — But if they had lived virtu- 
 oufly, fome happier brute, or even a human creature, was to 
 be their lot. 
 
 What led Pythagoras into this opinion, was, the perfuafion 
 he had. that the foul was not of a perifhable nature: whence 
 he concluded, that it muft remove into fome other body, upon 
 its abandoning this. Lucan treats this doctrine as a kind of 
 officious lie, contrived to mitigate the apprehenfion of death, 
 by perfuading men that they only changed their lodging j and 
 only ceafed to live, to begin a new life. 
 
 Reuchlin denies this doctrine; and maintains, that the metem- 
 pfychofts of Pythagoras implied nothing more than a fimilitude 
 of manners, defires, and ftudies formerly exifting in fome per- 
 fon deceafed, and now revived in another alive. — Thus, when 
 it was faid that Euphorbus was revived in Pythagoras, no more 
 was meant than that the martial virtue, which had fhone in 
 Euphorbus at the time of the Trojan war, was now in fome 
 meafure revived in Pythagoras, by reafon of the great refpect 
 he bore the Athlete. For thofe people wondering" how a phi- 
 lofopher ftiould be fo much taken with men of the fword, he 
 palliated the matter, by faying that the foul of Euphorbus, i. e. 
 his genius, difpofitioo and inclinations, were revived in him. 
 
 particles vanoufly feparated, and condenfed by' heat' and col7- 
 fuch are clouds, rainbows, hail, fnow, rain, dew, and the like 
 I he formation of meteors is explained pretty largely bv Des 
 
 V?' .'"V 1 ?^ «P«6. Arifto,le alld Gaflendus [have 
 alfo handled the fame fubjefl. Dr. Woodward's opinion is, 
 
 1 ha the matter of many meteors is in great meafure of a mi- 
 neral natures that the mineral particles contained in the ftrata 
 of the earth, are raifed by the fubterraneous heat, together with 
 the vapours afcending from the abyfs, and pervading thofe 
 Ifrata ; efpec.ally at fuch times as the fun's heat is fufficient to 
 penetrate the.exterior parts of the earth, and to make room for 
 their efcape into the atmofphere. Thefe fulphurous, nitrous 
 and other active, and volatile mineral particles, form varioua 
 meteors, according to the various fate they meet witii m the 
 air. ' 
 
 METEOROLOGY, the doarine of meteors ; explaining their 
 
 origin, formation, kinds, phenomena, ISc. 
 Ml.1 EOROSCOPE », a name which theantient mathematicians 
 gave to fuch inftruments as they ufed for obferving, and deter- 
 the diftances, magnitudes and places of the heavenly 
 
 mining 
 bodies. 
 
 * From the Greek ptTiwp 
 view, obferve. 
 
 hijjh ; and of trutwrcucf I 
 
 METHEGLIN, 
 
MET 
 
 METHEGLIN *, a drink prepared of honey ; one of the moll 
 plcafant and general drinks the northern parts of Europe af- 
 ford ; and much ufed among the antient inhabitants. 
 
 • The word Is Welih, meddyglin, where it fignifies the fame. 
 There are divers ways of making it : one of the beft whereof 
 follows. Put as much new honey naturally running from the 
 comb, into fpring-water, as that when the honey is thoroughly 
 diffolved, an egg will not fink to the bottom, but be juft fuf- 
 pended in it : boil this liquor for an hour, or more, till fuch 
 time as the egg fwim above the liquor about the breadth of a 
 groat j when very cool, next morning, it may be barreled up ; 
 adding to each fifteen gallons an ounce of ginger, as much of 
 mace and cloves, and half as much cinnamon, all grofly pound- 
 ed : a fpoonful of yefl may be alfo added at the bung-hole, to 
 promote the fermenting. When it has done working, it may 
 be clofely flopped up, and after it has flood a month, it fhould 
 be drawn off into bottles. 
 METHOD *, Methodus, the art, or rule of difpofing things 
 in fuch a manner, as they may be eafily comprehended ; either 
 in order to difcover the truth, which we ourfclves are ignorant 
 of ; or to drew and demonflrate it to others when known. 
 See Truth and Error. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek f-'-8»J ot, which fignifies the 
 fame. 
 
 The fchools have a long time difputed, whether logic be an art, 
 a fcience, or mtlhod. 
 
 Gaffendusdiftributes mrt/.W with regard to its objea, into three 
 kinds, or branches! v'iz. Inventions, the method of invention, 
 or difcovering a truth unknown. 
 
 Methodus judhii, the method of judging, or determining of a 
 truth, or propofition propofed. 
 
 And methodus detmnftratimis, or method of demonflration ; 
 that is, of exhibiting it to another. 
 
 Method, with regard to the order of proceedure, is ufually di- 
 vided into two kinds ; the one of re/olution, which is that we 
 generally ufe in our enquiry after truth.— The other of compo- 
 fition, by which the truth once found, is taught or imparted to 
 
 others. . , . 
 
 In the method ofrefohtien, called alfo by geometers the analytic 
 method, we proceed from fome general known truths, to others 
 which belong to fome particular or fingular thing. 
 In the method of cempofiion, called alfo the fynthetit method, we 
 propofe fome certain general truths, from which we produce 
 particular truths. . . 
 
 If in the method of refolution we lay down any axioms ; it is 
 not immediately in the beginning, and all together ; but as 
 they arc found neceffary in the difquifition : on the contrary, 
 in the method of compofition, they are propofed all together in 
 the beginning, before there is any abfolute need of them. 
 The two methods differ from each other, as the methods of fearch- 
 ing out a genealogy, either by defending from the anceftors to 
 their poiterity, or by afcending from the pofterity to the an- 
 ceftors ■ both of thein have this in common, that their pro- 
 greffion is from a thing known, to another unknown. Thofe 
 thinos that are known, in each, are fet in the front, or firft 
 place ; that by them we may be able to arrive at thofc which 
 are not known. ' 
 The following thinss are required in both methods, that error 
 may be avoided.— 1°. That no propofition be admitted as true, 
 to which a man can, with a good confeience, deny his alTent ; 
 or which is not evident, i". That the conneftion of the fol- 
 lowing propofition with the foregoing, in every ftep of the pro- 
 ereffion, be likcwife evident or neceffary. To thefe may be 
 added two other prudential maxims, that hold good in each me- 
 thod: as, that we ought to reafon on thofe thingsonly, of which 
 we have clear and perfpicuous ideas ; or of obfeure things only, 
 fo far as we know them : and that we (hould always begin from 
 the fimple and eafy, and dwell on them a-while, before we 
 proceed to things compounded, and more difficult. 
 Laws peculiar to the analytic method are, I °. That we mull clear- 
 ly and perfectly unJerftand the ftate of the queftion propofed. 
 2°. That with fome energy or effort of the mind, one or 
 more intermediate ideas be difcovered ; which are to be a com- 
 mon meafure or ftandard, by whole help the relations between 
 the ideas to be compared are to be found out. 3°. That we 
 cut off all that has no neceffary relation to the truth fought 
 after from the thing which is to be the fubjedl of our confider- 
 ation'. 4°. That a compounded queftion be divided into parts, 
 and thofe feparately confidered in fuch order, as that we begin 
 with thofe which confift of the more fimple ideas, and never 
 proceed to the more compounded, till we diftinaiy know the 
 more fimple, and by reflection have rendered them obvious to 
 the underftanding. 5°. That certain figns of our ideas com- 
 - prehended in obvious and eftablilhed figures, or in the fewefl 
 words poffible, be imprinted in the memory, or marked on 
 paper, left the mind have any further trouble about them. 
 : 6°. Thefe things done, that the ideas (according to the fe- 
 -cond law) be then compared with each other, either by re- 
 flection alone, or exprefs words. 7°. If after we have com- 
 
 MET 
 
 pared all the ideas, we cannot find out what we feek, we are 
 then, by the third law, to cut off all the propofitions, which, 
 after a full examination, we find of no ufe to the folution of 
 the queftion, and begin a-frefh. If after this method has been 
 repeated as often as is neceflary, nothing of what we have ob- 
 ferved feems to conduce to the folution of the queftion, we 
 ought to give it over as out of our reach. 
 Thefynthetic method is only practicable in things, whofe prin- 
 ciples we perfectly know ; as in geometry, which is wholly 
 employed in the confideration of abftract modes ; of which 
 our mind has clear and adequate ideas. — When the enquiry is 
 into fubftances, as in phyfics, we cannot make ufe of the me- 
 thod of compofition, by reafon their kinds, and intimate eiTences 
 are unknown to us. 
 
 This method has not been by any fo juftly and accurately ob- 
 ferved, as by the mathematicians, whofe principles are perfectly 
 known : its laws therefore will be beft drawn from their prac- 
 tice. As i°. To offer nothing but what is couched in words 
 or terms perfectly underftood ; for which reafon they always 
 define the words they make ufe of. 2°. To build only on, 
 evident and clear principles, fuch as cannot be contradicted by 
 any who underftand them ; for which reafon they firft pro- 
 pound their maxims or axioms, which they demand to he 
 granted them, as being felf-evident, and needing no proof. 
 3°. To prove demonftratively ail their confequences ; for which 
 reafon they ufe nothing in their arguments or proofs, but defi- 
 nitions that have been laid down, axioms that have been grant- 
 ed, and propofitions that have been already proved; which be- 
 come principles to things that follow them. 
 Me t hod, methodus, is more peculiarly ufed in mathematics for di- 
 vers particular procefles for folving problems. — In this feme we 
 fay 
 
 Method of exhaujlions. See Exhaustions. 
 Method effluxions. See the article Fluxions. 
 Method demaxirnis & ?ninimis,&c. See Maximum. 
 Method of tangents. See the article Tangents. 
 Differential 'Method,^. See Differential. 
 Exponential Method, &c. See Exponential. 
 Poriftic Method- See the article Poristic. 
 METHODISTS, Methodici, a feet of antient phyficians, who 
 reduced the whole healing art to a few common principles or 
 appearances. 
 
 The Methodijls were the followers of Theflalus, whence they 
 were alfo called Tbeffalici. — They were ftrenuoufly oppofed by 
 Galen in feveral of his writings ; who fcruplcd not to afiert, 
 that the methodical hcrefy ruined every thing that was good ia 
 the art. 
 
 Quincy miftakenly ufes methodifts, methodici, for thofe phyficians 
 who adhere to the doctrine of Galen, and the fchools ; and who 
 cure with bleedings, purges, &c. duly applied according to the 
 fymptoms, circumftances, &c. in oppofition to empirics and 
 chymifts, who ufe violent medicines, and pretended fecrets or no- 
 ftrums. The fame term has been ufed to exprefs a feet of religion. 
 METOCHE, METOXH, i n t ] ie am ient architecture, a term ufed 
 by Vitruvius, to fignify tbefpaceor interval between the dentils. 
 — See Tab. Archit. fig. 30. lit. c c. See alfo Denticle. 
 Baldus obferves, that in an antient MS. copy of that author, 
 the word metatome is found for metoche. Hence Daviler takes 
 occafion to fufpect that the common text of Vitruvius is cor- 
 rupted ; and concludes, that it fhould not be metoche s but me- 
 tatome, q. d. fection. 
 METONIC cycle, in chronology, the lunar cycle, or period of 
 nineteen years ; thus called from its inventor Meton, an antient 
 Athenian. 
 
 When the metonic cycle is compleated, the lunations, or the 
 new and full moons, return on the fame day of the month ; 
 fo that on whatever days the new and full moons happen this 
 year, nineteen years hence they are to fall precifely on the very 
 fame day of the month, as Meton and the primitive fathers 
 thought. 
 
 For this reafon, at the time of the council of Nice, when the 
 manner of fettling the time for obferving Eafter was eftablifhed, 
 the numbers of the metonic cycle were inferted in the calendar 
 in letters of gold, on account of their great ufe ; and the year 
 of the cycle for that year was called the golden number of that 
 year. See Golden Number, 
 METONYMY % MF.TQNTMrA, a rhetorical trope, confifting 
 in a tranfmutation or change of names ; or a putting of the ef- 
 fect for the caufe, or the fubject for the adjunct ; and vice verfa. 
 * The word comes from the Greek jtsra t trans, and oyoux, na- 
 tnen, name. 
 
 The metonymy is the mod extenfive of all the tropes. It is 
 fometimes alfo called tranfnominatio, and differs not much from 
 the hypallage. See Hypallage. 
 
 There are four kinds of metonymies in principal ufe : the 
 firft, when we put the inventor for the thing invented ; as 
 Bacchus for wine, Ceres for bread. The fecond, when we put the 
 thing containing for the thing contained ; as a glafs for the wine 
 within it. The third, when the effect is put for the -caufe; as 
 the captain for his foldiets, Greece for the Greeks, the author 
 4 for 
 
MET 
 
 M I C 
 
 for his works. The fourth, when the fign is put for the thing 
 ftgnified ; as the gown for the priefthood, &c. 
 METOPE*, or Metopa, in archite&ure, the fquare fpace or 
 interval between the triglyphs, in the Doric frieze. — SceTab. 
 Archit. fig. 28, lit. R. 
 
 * The word, in the original Greek, fignifies the diftance between 
 one aperture or hole and another, or between one triglyph and 
 another ; the triglyphs being fuppofed to be folives or joiits that 
 fill the apertures. It is derived from uija, inter, between, and 
 eziK foramen. 
 
 The antients ufed to adorn thefe parts with carved works, or 
 paintings, reprefenting the heads of oxen, vefTels, bafons, and 
 other utenfiis of the heathen facrifices. 
 
 As there is found fome difficulty in difpofing the triglyphs and 
 metopes in that juft fymmetry which the Doric order requires ; 
 fome architects make it a rule, never to ufe this order but in 
 temples. 
 
 &m/-METOPE is a fpace fomewhat lefs than half a metope, in the 
 
 corner of a Doric frieze. 
 METOPOSCOPY *, METftHOSKOIlIA, the art of difcovering 
 
 the temperament, inclinations, and manners of perfons, by in- 
 
 fpecting their features, and the lines in their faces, and efpe- 
 
 cially of their foreheads. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek {UTanWf firms, forehead ; and 
 
 infpecfion, of t?x.t7r}t>uai t I view. 
 Metopoficopy is no more than a branch of phyfiognomy ; the 
 latter taking its conjectures from all parts of the body : but both 
 the body, and the branch, are extremely precarious, not to fay 
 vain. 
 
 Ciro Spontoni, who has wrote on the Subject of metopofcopy, 
 obferves, that there are feven principal lines to beconfidered 
 in the forehead ; each of which has its peculiar planet. The 
 firft is the line of Saturn, the fecond of Jupiter, &c. 
 
 METRE, or Meter, metpon, in poetry, denotes a fyftem 
 of feet of a juft length. Ariftides defines metre, a fyftem of 
 feet compafed of diffimilar fyllables, of a juft extent. 
 In which fenfe metre amounts to much the fame with genus 
 carminis, or the fort of verfe, and differs from rhythm. 
 
 METRICAL verfes are thofe confifting of a determinate num- 
 'ber of long and fhort fyllables; as thofe of the Greek and 
 Latin poets. 
 
 Opellus obferves, that the genius of the Hebrew language is 
 
 incompatible with metrical poetry. 
 METRICE, or Metrica, among the antients, was that part 
 
 of poetry employed about the quantities of fyllables, feet, forts 
 
 of metre, or verfe, csV. 
 METROCOMJA *, a term in the antient church hiftory, fig- 
 
 nifying a borough, or village, that had other villages under its 
 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek fiijuf, mother, and xJtattf, 
 town, village. 
 
 What a metropolis was among cities, that a metraeomia was 
 among country towns. The antient metroeom'ns had each its 
 chorepifcopus or rural-dean, and here was his fee or refidence. 
 See Metropolitan, and Chorepiscopus. 
 METROPOLIS*, MHTI'OnOAIS. the capital of a country, 
 , or province ; or the principal city, and, as it were, mother 
 of all the reft. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, //tflrp, mater, mother; and 
 T.ohic, urbs, city ; as who mould fay, the mother-city, &c. 
 
 Metropolis is alfo applied to archiepifcopal churches, and 
 fome times to the principal or mother church of a city. 
 
 METROPOLITAN, is indifferently applied to an archbifhop, 
 and to his cathedral church. 
 
 The Roman empire having been divided into thirteen diocefes, 
 and one hundred and twenty provinces, each diocefe and each 
 province had its metropolis, or capital city, where the pro- 
 coniul, or the vicar of the empire, had his refidence. 
 To this civil divifion the ecclefiaftical was afterwards adapted, 
 and the bifhop of the capital city had the direction of affairs, 
 and the pre-eminence over all the bifhops of the province. 
 His reiidence in the metropolis gave him the title of metropo- 
 litan. 
 
 This erection of metropolitans is referred to the end of the third 
 century, and was confirmed by the council of Nice. — Indeed 
 aichbifhop Ufher, and De Marca, maintain it to be an efta- 
 tvfhment of the apoftles ; but in vain : for it is next to cer- 
 - taifij that the ecclefiaftical government was regulated on the 
 foot of the civil, and that it was hence the name and autho- 
 rity ot metropolitans was given to the bifhops of the capital cities 
 of the empire, or the provinces that compofed it. — This is fo 
 true, that, in the contort between the bifhop of Aries and the 
 bifhop of Vienne, each of whom laid claim to the metropolitan- 
 fihip of the province of Vienne ; the council of Turin ap- 
 pointed, that whichever of them could prove his city to be the 
 civil metropolis, fhould enjoy the title and rights of ecclefiafti- 
 cal metropolitan. 
 
 Though the ecclefiaftical government, however, was modelled 
 on the political ; yet, in Gaul, and fome other countries, the 
 Vol. II. 
 
 diftinctions of metropolitan ahd primate were not obferved till 
 very late. As the prafectus Galliae refided by turns at Tre- 
 voux, Vienne, Aries, and Lyons, he communicated the rank 
 and dignity of metropolitan and primate to each of them in 
 their turn; and yet none of the Gallican bifhops affumed to 
 themfelves the rights, nor even the precedence of metropoli- 
 tans, The epifcopate levelled them all, and they had no re- 
 gard but to the privileges of feniority. — This equality lafted 
 till the fifth century, when the conteft between the bifhops of 
 Vienne and Aries was fet on foot. 
 
 M. DuPin obferves, that in the provinces of Africa, except- 
 ing thofe whereof Carthage was the metropolis, the place where 
 the mod aged bifhop refided became the metropolis : thereafon 
 of which, without doubt, was [his; that neither the proconful, 
 nor prsefectus, ever fixed their refidence any-wbere. 
 The fame author obferves alfo, that, in Afia, there were mctropo- 
 lis's merely nominal ; that is, which had no fuffragan, nor any 
 rights of metropolitans. The bifhops of Nice, Chalcedon, and 
 Berytus, had the precedence of the other bifhops, and the title 
 of metropolitans^ but this without any other prerogative befides 
 the honour of the appellation ; they themfelvesbeing fubjectto 
 their metropolitans. 
 
 A metropolitan has the privilege of ordaining his fuffragans ; 
 and appeals from fentences puffed by the fuffragans are preferred 
 to the metropolitan. 
 MEZANINE, or Mezzanine, a term ufed by fome archi- 
 tects to fignify an attic, or little ftory contrived occafionally 
 over the firft ftory, for the conveniency of a wardrobe, or the 
 like. 
 
 The word is borrowed from the Italians, who call mezzanini 
 thofe little windows, lefs in height than breadth, which ferveto 
 illuminate an attic, or entrefole. 
 MEZZO-TINTO, in fculpture, a particular manner of en- 
 graving figures on copper. 
 
 Mexzo-t'mto is faid to have been firft: invented by prince Ru- 
 pert; and Mr. Evelyn, in his hiftory of chalcography, gives 
 us a head, performed by that prince, in this way. 
 It is very different from the common way of engraving. To 
 perform it, they rake, hatch, or punch the furface of the plate 
 all over with a knife, or inftrument made for the purpofe, firft 
 oneway, then the other, acrofs, tsV. till the face of the plate 
 be thus intirely furrowed with lines or furrows, clofe, and, as it 
 were, contiguous to each other; fo that, if an impreffion were 
 then taken from it, it would be one uniform blot, or fmut* 
 This done, the defign is drawn, or marked, on the fame face ; 
 after which, they proceed, with burnifhers, fcrapers, &c. to 
 expunge and take out the dents, or furrows, in all the parts 
 where the lights of the piece are to be; and that more or lefs, 
 as the lights are to be ftronger or fainter ; leaving thofe parts 
 black, which are to reprefent thefhadows, ordeepeningsof the 
 draught. 
 
 MIASMA, MfA^MA, is ufed to fignify fuch particles, or atoms, 
 as are fuppofed to arife from diftempered, putrefying, or poi- 
 fonous bodies ; and to affect people at a diftance. 
 MICHAELMAS, the fealt of St. Michael the archangel; held 
 
 on the 29th of September. 
 Michael'ih;;^. See the article Wing. 
 MICROCOSM *, MiKPOKOSMOS, a Greek term, literally 
 fignitying little world; chiefly underftood of man, who is fo 
 called by way of eminence, as being an epitome of all that is 
 wonderful in the great world, or macrocofm. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek* ^//tporj parvus, little; and 
 noa/AO', mundus, world. 
 
 M1CROGRAPHIA* Micrography, a defection of the 
 parts and proportions of objects that are too fmall to be viewed 
 without the affiftance of a microfcope. 
 
 * The word is compounded of ^u/xpx, parvus, and J-pap;', ferip- 
 tio, defcription. 
 
 MICROMETER*, an aftronomica] machine, which, by means 
 of a very fine fcrew, ferves to meafure extremely fmall dis- 
 tances in the heavens ; as the apparent diameters of the planets, 
 i*?c. to a great degree of accuracy. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, |WKpoff f parvus, and p.iTfoi; 
 menfura; in regard a fmall length, e. gr. an inch, is hereby- 
 divided into a vail number of parts, e. gr. in fome, 2800; and 
 in others, more. 
 
 There is fome controverfy about the invention 'of the micro- 
 meter. MefT. Auzout and Picard have the credit of it in com- 
 mon fame, as being the firft who publifhed it in the year 
 1666. but Mr. Townley, in the Philsfophical iranfaclions, re- 
 claims it for one of our own countrymen, Mr. Gafcoyne. 
 He relates, that, from fome fcattered papers and letters of this 
 gentleman, he had learnt, that, before our civil wars, he had 
 invented a micrometer, of as much effect as that fince made by 
 M. Auzout, and had made ufe of it for fome years, not only 
 in taking the diameters of the planets, and diftances upon land 
 but in determining other matters of nice importance in the hea- 
 vens ; as the moon's diftance, &e, 
 
 6 R Monf. 
 
M I C 
 
 M I C 
 
 Monf De la Hire, in a difcourfe on the sra of the inventions of 
 the micrometer, pendulum clock, and telefcope, read before 
 the royal academy of fciences, in 1717, makes M. Huygens 
 the inventor of the micrometer. That author, he obferves, in 
 his obfervations on Saturn's ring, &c. publifhed in 1659, gives 
 a method of finding the diameters of the planets by means of 
 a telefcope, viz. by putting an object, which he calls virgula, 
 of a proper bignefs'to take in the diftance to be meafured, in 
 the focus of the convex object-glafs : in this cafe, fays he, the 
 fmalleft object will be feen very diftin&ly, in that place of the 
 glafs. By fuch means, he adds, he meafured the diamnters of 
 the planets, as he there delivers them. 
 
 This micrometer, M. Dela Hire obferves, is fo very little differ- 
 ent from that published by the marquis De Malvafia, in his 
 ephemerides, three years after, that they ought to be efteemed 
 the fame : and the micrometer of the marquis differed yet lefs 
 from that publifhed four years after his by Auzout and Picard. 
 Hence M. De la Hire concludes, that it is to M. Huygens the 
 world is indebted for the invention of the micrometer ; without 
 taking any notice of the claim of our countryman, Mr. Gaf- 
 coyne, which, however, is prior by many years to any of them. 
 Confirufiion and ufe of the Micrometer.— Wolfius defcribes a 
 micrometer of a very eafy and fimple figure, firft contrived 
 by Kirchius, thus : 
 
 In the focus of a telefcope fit a brafs or iron ring A B {tab. 
 Ajlron. fig. 11.) with female fcrews diametrically oppofite to 
 each other ; into thefe infert male fcrews C £ and F B, of 
 fuch length, as that they may be turned in the tube, fo as to 
 touch each other: and with this inftrument very fmall fpaces in 
 the heavens may be accurately meafured. 
 
 For when any obje£ts, viewed through a tube, appear conti- 
 guous to the fcrews, if thefe be turned till they ju ft touch 
 two oppofite points, whofe diftance is to be meafured, it will 
 be evident how many threads of the fcrew they are apart. To 
 determine how many feconds anfwer to each thread ; applying 
 the tube towards the heavens, turn the fcrews, till they touch 
 two points, whofe diftance is already accurately known ; and 
 obferve the number of threads correfponding to that interval : 
 thus, by the rule of three, a table may be made of the feconds 
 correfponding to the feveral threads ; by means whereof, with- 
 out more ado, the diftances of any points may be determined. 
 The ftructure of the micrometer now chiefly in ufe, with the 
 manner of fitting it to a telefcope, and applying it, is as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 ARCg {Tab.Jftron.fig. 12.) is a rectangular brafs frame, the 
 fide A B being about three inches long, and the fide B C, as 
 likewife the oppofite fide Ag, about fix inches; and each of 
 the three fides about eight tenths of an inch deep : the two op- 
 pofite fides of this frame are fcrewed to the circular plate, to 
 be mentioned hereafter. 
 
 The fcrew P, which has exactly forty threads in an inch, be- 
 ing turned round, moves the piate GDEF along two grooves 
 made near the tops of the two oppofire fides of the frame; 
 and the fcrew Q_baving the fame number of threads in an inch 
 as P, moves the plate RNMY along two grooves, made 
 near the bottom of the faid frame, in the fame direction as the 
 former plate moves, but with only half the velocity of that 
 other : thefe fcrews are turned both at once, and fo the plates 
 are moved along the fame way, by means of a handle turning 
 the endlefs fcrew S, whofe threads fall in between the teeth of 
 ' the pinions on the fcrews P and Q. And note, that two half 
 revolutions of the endlefs fcrew S carry the fcrew P exactly 
 once round. 
 
 The fcrew P turns the hand a, fattened thereto, over a hundred 
 equal divifions, made round the limb of a circular plate, to 
 which the above-named two oppofite fides of the frame are 
 fcrewed at right angles : the teeth of the pinion on the fcrew 
 P, whofe number is 5, take into the teeth of a wheel on the 
 back-fide of the circular plate, whofe number is 25. Again, 
 on the axis of this wheel is a pinion of two, which takes into 
 the teeth of another wheel, moving about the center of the 
 circular plate, on the outfide thereof, and having 50 teeth ; this 
 laft wheel moves the leffer hand b once round the above-men- 
 tioned circular plate, in the 755 part of the time the hand a 
 is moving round : for becaufe the number of teeth in the 
 pinion on the fcrew P are 5, and the number of teeth of the 
 wheel this pinion moves, are 20 ; therefore the fcrew P moves 
 four times round in the time that wheel is moving once round. 
 Further, fince there is a pinion of two which takes into the 
 teeth of a wheel, whofe numbet is 50 ; therefore this wheel 
 with 50 teeth will move once round in the time that the wheel 
 of 20 teeth moves 25 times round ; and, confequently, the 
 fcrew P, or hand a, mull: move a hundred times round in the 
 fame time as the wheel of 50 teeth, or the hand b, has moved 
 ■once round. 
 
 Hence it follows, that if the circular plate W, which is faf- 
 tened at right angles to the other circular plate, be divided into 
 two hundred equal parts, the index x, to which the handle is 
 fattened, will move five of thofe parts in the fame time in 
 which the hand a moves one of the hundred divifions round 
 the limb of the other circular plate. Thus, by means of an in- 
 
 dex x, and plate W, every fifth part of each of the divifions 
 round the other plate may be known. 
 
 Farther, fince each of the fcrews P and Q_have exactly forty 
 threads in an inch; therefore the upper plate G D E F will 
 move one inch while the hand a moves forty times round ; 
 the four thoufandth part of an inch while the hand moves 
 over one of the divifions round the limb ; and the twenty 
 thoufandth part of an inch while the index x moves one part 
 of the two hundred round the limb of the circular plate W : 
 and the under plate RNMY will move half an inch, the 
 two thoufandth part of an inch, and the ten thoufandth part 
 of an inch, the fame way, in the faid refpective times. 
 Hence, if the under plate, having a large round hole therein, 
 be fixed to a telefcope, fo that the frame is moveable, together 
 with the whole inftrument, except the faid lower plate ; and 
 the ftrait fmooth edge HI, of the fixed plate AB 1H ; as like- 
 wife the ftrait fmooth edge DE, of the moveable plate GDEF, 
 be perceivable through the round hole in the under plate, in 
 the focus of the obje£r.-glafs ; then, when the handle of the 
 micrometer is turned, the edge HI, of the narrow plate ABIH, 
 fixed to the frame, and D E, of the moveable plate, will ap- 
 pear through the telefcope equally to approach to, or recede 
 from each other. 
 
 By thefe edges we fhall be able to meafure the apparent diame- 
 ters of the fun, moon, &c. the manner of doing which take 
 as follows : 
 
 Suppofe, in looking at the moon through the telefcope, you 
 have turned the handle till the two edges D E and H I are 
 opened, fo as juft to touch or clafp the moon's edges ; and that 
 there were twenty-one revolutions of the hand a, to compleat 
 that opening: firft fay, As the focal length of the object-glafs, 
 which fuppofe ten feet, is to radius, fo is one inch to the tan- 
 gent of an angle fubtended by one inch in the focus of the 
 object-glafs; which will be found twenty-eight minutes thirty 
 feconds : again, becaufe there are exactly forty threads of the 
 fcrews in one inch; fay, If forty revolutions of the hand a 
 give an angle of 28' 30'', what angle will twenty-one revolu- 
 tions give ? The anfwer will be, fifteen minutes eight feconds ; 
 and fuch was the moon's apparent diameter. And fo may the 
 apparent diameters of any other objecls be taken. 
 It muft be here obferved, that the divifions on the top of the 
 plate GDEF are diagonal divifions of the revolutions of the 
 fcrews, with diagonal divifions of inches againft them : thus, 
 as the faid plate Aides along, thefe diagonals are cut by divifions 
 made on the edge of the narrow plate KL, fixed to the oppo- 
 fite fides of the frame by means of two fcrews. Thefe dia- 
 gonal divifions ferve for a regifter to count the revolutions of 
 the fcrews, and to fhew how many there are in an inch, or 
 the parts of an inch. 
 
 Mr. Derham tells us, that his micrometer is not, as ufually, to 
 be put into a tube, but to meafure the fpectres of the fun on 
 paper (of anyradius), or to meafure any part of them. By this 
 means he can eafily, and very exactly, with the help of a fine 
 thread, take the declination of a folar fpot at any time of the 
 day; and, by his half-feconds watch, meafure the diftance ot 
 the fpot from the fun's eaftern orweftern limb. Befide this 
 aftronomicai micrometer, the ingenious Mr. Cuff has lately con- 
 trived a very accurate one for the ufe of the microfcope. 
 MICROSCOPE, MlKPOSKOntlON', a dioptrical inftrument, 
 by means whereof very minute objects are reprefented exceed- 
 ingly large, and viewed very diftinctly, according to the laws 
 of refraction. 
 
 Micro/copes are properly diftinguifhed into fimple, or fingle ; 
 and compound, or double. 
 
 Single Microscopes are thofe which confift of a fingle lens, or 
 a fingle fpherule. 
 
 Compound Microscopes confift of feveral lenfes duly combined. 
 As optics have been improved, other varieties have been con- 
 trived, in the forts of micro/copes : hence reflecting microfcopes , 
 water microfcopes, &c. 
 
 When, and by whom, microfcopes were firft invented, is not 
 certainly known. Huygens tells us, that one Drebbel, a Dutch- 
 man, had the firft microfcope, in the year 1621. and that he was 
 reputed the inventor of it: though F. Fontana, a Neapolitan, 
 claims the invention to himfelf, but dates it from the fame year. 
 As a telefcope inverted is a microfcope, the difcovery might ea- 
 fily enough have arofe from thence. 
 Foundation and theory of fingle Microscopes. — If anobjedtAB 
 {Tab. Optics, fig. 21.) be placed in the focus of a fmall convex 
 lens, or a fimple microfcope DE, and the eye be applied clofc 
 to the other fide of the microfcope, the objeel will be fec?i dif- 
 tincl, in an erefl Jituation, and magnified in the ratio of the dif- 
 tance of the focus to the diftance wherein objeils are to be placed 
 to be feen diftincJly by the naked eye. 
 
 For the object A B being placed in the focus of the convex lens 
 DE, the rays iffuing from the feveral points thereof, after re- 
 faction, will be parallel to each other : confequently, the eye 
 will fee it dijlinclly, by virtue of what is proved under theword 
 Telescope. 
 
 Further, fince one cf the rays AF, proceeding from the point 
 A, after refraction becomes parallel to the incident ray, and 
 
 therefore, 
 
M I C 
 
 M I C 
 
 therefore, fetting afide the thicknefs of the lens, is found di- 
 rectly againft: it : and the fame holds true of all the other rays 
 carried to the eye. The rays AF and BF, to which the reft 
 coming from A and B are parallel, will enter the eye in the 
 fame manner as if they entered without pafling through the 
 lens; and will therefore appear ere£t, as if thelens were away. 
 Laftly, it is manifeft, that die object A B will be feen under the 
 fame angle as if viewed by the naked eye : but fince it appears 
 very diftinct, whereas to the naked eye, at the fame distance, 
 it would appear extremely confufed ; it is the fame thing as if 
 the objea fhould feem removed to the diftance FH, wherein 
 it is viewed with equal diftin&nefs, and under the fame angle : 
 the diameter of the object AB, therefore, will be to the ap- 
 parent diameter IK, asFCtoFH, i.e. as the diftance of 
 the focus of tlie lens to the diftance wherein an object is to be 
 placed in order to view it diftin&ly. See Magnitude, and 
 Angle. 
 
 Huygens takes it for granted, that an object, feen with the naked 
 eye, is then in its utmoft diltin£tnefs when feen at the diftance 
 of eight digits, or tenths of a foot; which agrees pretty near 
 with the obfervations of others. 
 Laius of fingle Microscopes. — 1°. Simple micro/capes magnify 
 the diameter of the object A B in the ratio of the diftance of 
 the focus FC to an interval of eight digits, u. gr. If the fe- 
 midiarneter of a lens, convex on both fides, be half adi<*it; 
 AB : IK = £ : : 8 = i : 16; that is, the diameter of theobje£t 
 will be increafed in a fedecuple proportion, or as fixteen to one. 
 2°. Since the diftance FH is conftant, viz. eight digits; by 
 how much the diftance of the focus FC is fmaller, fo much 
 the fmaller ratio will it have to F H : confequently, the diame- 
 ter of the object will be fo much the more magnified. 
 3°. Since, in plano-convex lenfes, the diftance of the focus is 
 equal to the diameter ; and, in lenfes convex on both fides, to 
 the femi-diameter : fimple micro/copes will enlarge the diameter 
 fo much the more, as they are fegments of fmaller fpheres. 
 4°. If the diameter of the convexities of a piano convex lens, 
 and a lens convex on both fides, be the fame, viz. = i ; the 
 diftance of the focus of the fufl will be i, of the fecond j : 
 confequently, the femi-diameter of the object AB will be to 
 the apparent one, in the firft cafe, as i to 8 ; in the latter, as 
 5 to 8 ; i f e. as i to 1 6. A lens, therefore, convex on both 
 fides, magnifies twice as much as a plano-convex lens. 
 As the w hole depends on the juft and fteady fituation of objects 
 with regard to the lens ; various methods have been contrived 
 to that end : whence we have feveral different kinds of fingle 
 microfcopes. The moil fimple is as follows : 
 l°. AB, _/5g. 22. is a little tube, tooneof whofe bafes, BC, is 
 fitted a plain glafs, to which an object, viz. a gnat, wing of an 
 infect, down, or the like, is applied ; to the other bafe, AD, at 
 a proper diftance from the object, is applied a lens convex on 
 both fides, whofe femi-diameter is about half an inch : the plain 
 glafs is turned to the fun, or the light of a candle, and the object 
 is feen magnified ; and, if the tube be made to draw out, lenfes 
 of different fpheres may be ufed. 
 
 Again, a lens, convex on both fides, is inclofed in a cell A C, 
 fig. 22. n°. 2. and by a fcrew H is there faftened acrofs -, through 
 the pedeftal C D partes a long fcrew, by means whereof, and the 
 female fcrew I, a ftyle or needle, fixed perpendicular to its ex- 
 treme, is kept firm at any diftance from the lens : in E is a little 
 tube, on which, and on the point G, the various objects are to be 
 difpofed : thus there may be lenfes of various fpheres applied. 
 2°. But the microjeope which is found to anfwer the end beft, is 
 as follows : AB, fig. 23. is a round brafs tube, whofe exte- 
 rior furface is formed into a fcrew of a length fomewhat lefs 
 than the diftance of the focus of a glafs convex on both fides, 
 ufed here for illuminating the object, and fitted to its bafe AC 
 by a ring with a fcrew in it D E. 
 
 FG is another brafs tube, fomewhat wider than the firft, and 
 open each way, for an object to be applied to the micro/cope : 
 to its upper bafe GH is faftened a fpring of fteel wire, twitted 
 into a fpiral I, whereby an object, placed between two round 
 plates, orflices, K and L, in the manner hereafter mentioned, 
 is, by means of the fcrew BC, brought to the microfcopical 
 lens (or magnifying glafs, whereof there are feveral), and kept 
 firm in its place. To the bafis H G, which has a female fcrew 
 M, are fitted cells N, with a male fcrew O, wherein lenfes of 
 various fpheres, guarded by ferrils, are included. In P is a fe- 
 male fcrew, by which an ivory handle PQjs faftened to the mi- 
 cro/cope. 
 
 In the ivory flice T are round holes, in which are fitted little 
 circles of Mufcovy talc, for objects, efpecially finall and pel- 
 lucid ones, as little infects, or the wings, fcales, (fa. of larger, to 
 be fattened to. 
 
 "When live infects are~to be viewed, they are covered with the 
 brafs flice Y, which is put in a little fquare brafs bed, perforated 
 with holes X ; and the fame flice, whether alone, or inclofed in 
 the bed, being laid between the round plates K and L, is brought 
 to. the lens by means of the fcrew AB, till the objea may be 
 diftinctly viewed. 
 
 If other pcllucio oblong objects arc to be viewed, as down, bfc. 
 inftead of the flice above, is ufed the initrument mentioned | 
 4 
 
 above, for viewing wings of flies ; whofe ftruaure is manifeft 
 from infpection. 
 
 There are other inftruments in the apparatus of the microfcepe, 
 as little tongs, for taking up fmall objeds ; a glafs tube for 
 viewing the circulation of the blood in fifties, bfo, which need 
 no defcription. 
 
 What has been faid hitherto, is to be underftood of lenticular 
 micro/copes ; for fpherical ones, their doctrine will be under- 
 ftood from what follows. 
 
 If an objeft A B, fig. 1 1 . n°. 2. be placed in the focus of a glafs 
 fpherule F, and the eye be behind it, v. gr. in the focus G ; the 
 obj^a will be feen diftina, in an erect fituation, and magnified, 
 as to its diameter, in a ratio of a of the diameter E I, to the 
 diftance at which Objefls are to be placed to be feen diftinctly 
 with the naked eye. 
 
 The firft part of the proportion is proved in the fame manner 
 of fpheres, as of lenfes. As, then, a good eye fees an objea 
 diftinctly at the diftance of eight digits, a glafs fpherule will in- 
 large the diameter of an objea in a ratio of * of the diameter 
 to 88 digits. Suppofe, then, the diameter of the fpherule E I 
 X* of a digit, CE will be = A, and FE = A ; and there- 
 fore FC = A -j- A — /j, Confequently, the true diameter 
 of an objea to its apparent one is in the ratio of to 8 ; e . 
 as 3 to 320, or 1 to 103 nearly. 
 
 Now a lens, convex on both fides, increafes the diameter in a 
 ratio of the femi-diameter to ihefpaceof eight digits ; where* 
 fore 3 having a lefs ratio to 8 than if a lens and a fphere 
 have the fame diameter, the former will magnify more than 
 the latter : and, pretty much after the fame manner, it may be 
 fliewn, that a fphere, of a lefs diameter, magnifies more than 
 another of a large one. 
 For the methods of caflir.g little glafs fphcrales for Microscopes, 
 there are various. — Wolfius defcribes one as follows : A fmall 
 piece of very fine glafs, flicking to the wet point of a fteel 
 needle, is to be applied to the extreme blueifli part of the flame 
 of a lamp, or, which is better, to the flame of fpirit of wine, 
 to prevent its being blackened : being there melted, and run 
 into a little round drop, it is to be removed from the flame, 
 upon which it inrtantly ceafes to be fluid ; folding, then, a thin 
 plate of brafs, and making very fmall fmooth perforations, fo 
 as not to leave any roughnefs on the furfaces ; and, further, 
 fmoo thing them over, to prevent any glaring; fit the fpherule 
 between the plates againft the apertures, and put the whole in 
 a frame, with objeas convenient for observation. 
 Dr. Adams gives another method, thus: Take a piece of fine 
 window-glafs, and raife it, with a diamond, into as many lengths 
 as you think needful, not exceeding an eighth of an inch in 
 breadth; then holding one of thofe lengths, between the fore- 
 finger and thumb of each hand, over a very fine flame, till the 
 glafs begins to foften, draw it out till it be as fine as an hair, 
 and break ; then, applying each of the ends into the pureft part 
 of the flame, you have two fpheres prefently, which you may 
 make larger, or lefs, at pleafure: if they ftay long in the flame, 
 they'll have fpots ; fo they muft be drawn out immediately 
 alter they are turned round. As to the ftem, break it off a 3 
 near the ball as poffible ; and, lodging the remainder of the 
 ftem between the plates, by drilling the hole exaaiy round, all 
 the protuberances are buried between the plates ; and the mi- 
 crojeope performs to admiration. 
 
 After thefe manners may fpheres be made much fmaller than 
 any lens; fo that the beft fingle microfcopes, or thofe which mag- 
 nify the moft, are made thereof. For fuppofe the diameter of a 
 fpherule to be & of a digit, the diftance of its focus will be 
 <r 4 ; and therefore its real diameter to its apparent one, as 
 -f- 64 ; that is, as £ to 8, or as 3 to 512 ; or, laftly, as 1 to 
 J 70. The furface of an objea, therefore, will be increafed by it 
 in the proportion of 1 to 28900, and its bulk in a ratio of 1 to 
 4913000. 
 
 M. Leewenhoeck and M. Mufchenbroeck have fucceeded very 
 well in fpherical microfcopes ; and the apparatus of the latter is 
 much commended : but we forbear any defcriptions thereof; it 
 being eafy for any, who confiders the ftruaure of thofe coniift- 
 mgof lenfes, to conceive how thofe of fpheres may be contrived. 
 #W Microscope.— Mr. S. Gray, and, after him, Wolfius, 
 and others, have contrived water-microfcapes, confiftingof fphe- 
 rules, or lenfes of water, inftead of glafs, fitted up fomewhat 
 after the manner of thofe above-mentioned (as fpheres of 
 water may be likewife ufed inftead of glafs in any of the com- 
 mon microfcopes). But fince the diftance of the focus of a lens 
 or fphere of water is greater than that of one of glafs (the 
 fpheres whereof they are fegments being the fame), water-mi- 
 crofcopes magnify lefs, and are therefore lefs efteemed than thofe 
 of glafs. The fame Mr. Gray firft obferved, that a fmall drop or 
 hemi-fpberule of water, held to the eye by candle-li(»htor moon- 
 light, without any other apparatus, magnified the animalcule 
 contained in it, vaftly more than any other mkrofcope. The 
 reafon is, that the rays, coming from the interior furface of 
 the firft heniilphere, are reflected fo as to fall under the 
 fame angle on the furface of the hind hemifphere, to which 
 the eye is applied, as if they came from the focus of the 
 fpherule ; whence- they are propagated to the eye in the fame 
 
 manner 
 
M I C 
 
 M I G 
 
 manner as if the objects were placed without the fpherule in 
 its focus. 
 
 Hollow glafs fpheres, of the diameter of about half a digit, 
 filled with fpirit of wine, are frequently ufed for micro/copes ; 
 but they do not magnify near fo much. 
 
 Theory of compound, or double Microscopes. — Suppofe an object - 
 glafs ED, fig. 24. the fegment of a very fmall fphere, and 
 the object A B placed without the focus F. 
 Suppofe an eye-glafs GH, convex on both fides, and the feg- 
 ment of a fphere greater (though not too great) than that of 
 DE; and let it be fodjfpofed behind the object, as that if CE : 
 C L : : C L : C K, the focus of the eye-glafs may be in K. 
 Laftly, Suppofe LK : LM :: LM : LI. 
 If, then, O be the plage wherein an object is feen diftinct with 
 the naked eye ; the eye, in this cafe, being placed in I, will fee 
 theobject AB diftinctly, in an inverted fituation, and magni- 
 fied in a compound ratio of M K to L K, and L C to C O ; 
 as is proved from the laws of dioptrics. 
 
 Laws of double Microscopes, — 1°. The more an object is mag- 
 nified by the micro/cope, the lefs is its field, i. e. the lefs of it 
 it takes in at one view. 
 
 2". To the fame eye-glafs may be fucceflively applied object - 
 g] a ties of various fpheres, fo as that both the intire objects, 
 but lefs magnified, and their feveral parts, much more mag- 
 nified, may be viewed through the fame micro/cape. In which 
 cafe, by reafon of the different diftance of the image, the tube 
 LK, in which the lenfes are fitted, fhould be made to draw out. 
 For the proportion of the object-glafs to the eye-glafs, fome 
 commend the fubduple ratio, and fome the fubfefquifextile. 
 De Chales will have the femi-diameter of the convexity of the 
 object-glafs to be § of a digit, or, at moil, £ ; in the eye-glafs 
 an intire digit, or even 1^. Cherubin makes the femi-diame- 
 ter of the object-glafs, f, or \ of a digit; thefemi-diame- 
 ter of the eye-glafs 1^, or 15 of a digit. 
 3 0 . Since it is proved, that the diftance of the image L K from 
 the object-glafs D E will be greater, if another lens, concave 
 on both fides, be placed before its focus ; it follows, that the 
 object will bemagnified the more, if fuch a lens be here placed 
 between the object-glafs D E, and the eye-glafs GH, — Such a 
 microfcope is much commended by Conradi, who ufed an object- 
 lens, convex on both fides, whofe femi-diameter was two di- 
 gits, its aperture equal to a muftard-feed ; a lens, concave on 
 both fides, 12, or at moft 16 digits; and an eye-glafs, convex 
 on both fides, of 6 digits. 
 
 4 0 . Since the image is projected to the greater diftance, the 
 nearer another lens, of a fegment of a larger fphere, is brought 
 to the object-glafs ; a microfcope may be compofed of three 
 lenfes, which will magnify prodigioufiy. 
 
 5 0 . From thefe confide rat ions it follows, that the object will be 
 magnified the more, as the eye-glafs is the fegment of a fmaller 
 fphere; but the field of vifion will be the greater, as the fame 
 is a fegment of a larger fphere. If, then, two eye-glaffes, the 
 one a fegment of a larger, the other of a fmaller fphere, be fo 
 combined, as that the object appearing very near through them, 
 
 1. e. not farther diftant than the focus of the firft, be yet 
 diftinct; the object, at the fame time, will be exceedingly 
 magnified, and the field of vifion much greater than if only 
 one lens was ufed: and theobject will be ftill more magnified, 
 and the field enlarged, if both the object and eye-glafs be 
 double. But in regard an object appears dim, when viewed 
 through fo many glafles, part of the rays being reflected in 
 pailing through each ; the multiplying of lenfes is not advife- 
 able : and the beft, among compound microfcopes, are thofe 
 which confiftof one object-glafs, and two eye-glaffes. 
 
 For a microfcope of three lenfes, De Chales commends an ob- 
 ject-glafs of j or \ of a digit ; and the firft eye-glafs he makes 
 
 2, or %\ digits ; the diftance between the object-glafs and eye- 
 glafs about twenty lines. — Conradi had an excellent microfcope, 
 the object-glafs whereof was half a digit, and the two eye- 
 glafles (which were placed very near) four digits: but it an- 
 fwered beft, when, in lieu of the object-glafs, he ufed two 
 glafles, convex on both fides, their fphere about a digit and an 
 half, or at moft two, and their convexities touching each other 
 within the fpace of half a line. — Euftachius de Divinis, inftead 
 of an object-glafs, convex on both fides, ufed two plano-convex 
 lenfes, whofe convexities touched; Grindelius did the fame, 
 only that the convexities did not quite touch. Zabnius made 
 a binocular microfcope, wherein both eyes were ufed. 
 
 Structure or mechamfm of a double Microscope. — The induftry 
 andaddrefsof our countryman, Mr. Marfhall, here deferves to 
 be remembered : the moft commodious double microfcope is of 
 his contrivance. In this, the eye-glafles are placed in the tube 
 at A and B, fig. 25. and the object-glafs at C; the little 
 pillar DE is turned by means of a ball E, moveable in the 
 focket h ; and thus the microfcope is accommodated to any fi- 
 tuation. The fame pillar is divided into as many parts, 1, 2, 
 3' 4i 5> & c < a s there are lenfes of different fpheres to be ufed 
 in viewing different objects; fo that the diftance of the object 
 from the object-glafs may be found without any trouble. But as 
 it is fcarce exactly enough determined this way, the tube may 
 be brought nearer the objea, at difcretion, by means of the 
 fcrew G H, 
 
 The objects are either laid on the circle I, or fitted to proper 
 inftruments, having their points, or ftiles, palling through the 
 little tube LM. 
 
 Laftly, To illuminate the object, a lens, convex on both fides, 
 NO, is difpofed in a convenient fituation: the reft appears 
 from the figure. 
 
 Reflecting Microscope is, properly, that which magnifies by 
 reflexion, as the above-mentioned ones do by refraction. 
 The ftructure of fuch a microfcope may be conceived thus : 
 Near the focus of a concave fpeculum, A B, fig. 25. n°. 2. 
 place a minute-object C, that its image may be formed larger 
 than itfeif in D ; to the fpeculum join a lens, convex on both 
 fides, E F, fo as the image D may be in its focus. 
 The eye will here fee the image inverted, but diftinct, and in- 
 larged ; confequently, the object will be larger than if viewed 
 through the lens alone. 
 
 The inventor of this microfcope is the great Sir I. Newton ; 
 but the objects appear dim in it. 
 
 Any telefcope is converted into a microfcope, by removing the 
 object-glafs to a greater diftance from the eye-glafs. And fince 
 the diftance of the image is various, according to the diftance 
 of the object from the focus ; and it is magnified the more, as 
 its diftance from the object-glafs is greater ; the fame telefcope 
 may be fucceffively converted into microfcopes, which magnify 
 the object in different degrees. 
 
 MID, or Middle, in philofophy, and mathematics. See 
 Mean, and Medium. 
 
 Middle latitude, in navigation, is half the fum of two given 
 latitudes. See Latitude. 
 
 Middle latitude failing, is ufed for a method of working the 
 feveral cafes in failing, nearly agreeing with Mercator's way, 
 but without the help of meridional parts. See Sailing. 
 
 Middle priced Jiones. See the article Stone. 
 
 Middle region. See the article Region. 
 
 Middle of the aclion. See the article Action. 
 
 Middle of an eclipfc. See the article Eclipse. 
 
 Mafonry filled up in the Middle. See the article Masonry. 
 
 MID-HEAVEN, medium coeli, in aftronomy, is that point of 
 the ecliptic which culminates, or is in the meridian. See 
 Culmination. 
 
 MIDRIFF, in anatomy. See the article Diaphragm. 
 
 MIDSHIP- jw<?w, are officers aboaid a fhip, whofe ftation, when 
 they are on duty, is, fome on the quarter-deck, others on the 
 poop, (ffe. 
 
 Their bufinefs is, to mind the braces, to look out, and to give 
 about the word of command from the captain, and other fu- 
 perior officers. They all affift, on occafion, both in failing the 
 fhip, and in ftowing and rummaging the hold. 
 They are ufually gentlemen, who, having ferved their time as 
 volunteers, are now upon their preferment. 
 
 MIDSUMMER- day, is the feftival of St. John the baptift, held 
 on the 24th of June. See Quart er-Day. 
 
 MIGRATION, or Transmigration, the paffage, or re- 
 moval of any thing out of one ftate, or place, into another ; 
 particularly, of colonies of people, birds, £aV. into other coun- 
 tries. 
 
 The migration of the fouls of men into other animals after death, 
 is the great doctrine of the Pythagoreans, called the metempfy- 
 chofiis. See Metempsychosis. 
 
 The migration of birds, as the f wallow, quail, ftork, crane, 
 fieldfare, woodcock, nightingale, and other birds of paffage, 
 is a very curious article in natural hiftory, and furnifhes a no- 
 table inftance of the powerful inftinct impreffed by the creator. 
 Mr. Derham obferves two things remarkable therein ; the firft, 
 that thefe untaught, unthinking creatures, fhould know the 
 proper times for their paflage, when to come, and when to 
 go; as alfo, that fome mould come when others go. — No 
 doubt, the temperature of the air, as to heat and cold, and their 
 natural propenfity to breed their young, are the great incen- 
 tives to thofe creatures to change their habitation. But why 
 fhould they at all Ihift their habitation ? and whv is not fome 
 certain place to be found, in all the terraqueous globe, affording 
 them convenient food and habitation all the year round ? 
 The fecond, That they fhould know what way to fteer their 
 courfe, and whither to go. What inftinct is it, that moves a 
 poor foolifh bird to venture over vaft tracts of land and fea? If 
 it be faid, that, by their high afcents up into the air, they can 
 fee acrofs the feas ; yet what fhould teach or perfuade them that 
 that land is more proper for the purpofe than this ? That Bri- 
 tain, for inftance, fhould afford them better accommodation 
 than Egypt? than the Canaries? than Spain? or any other of 
 the intermediate countries ? Phyfico-Thcol. p. 34g. 
 Lud. De Beaufort remarks, that birds, in their migration, ob- 
 ferve a wonderful order and polity: they fly in troops, and fteer 
 their courfe through vaft unknown regions, without thecom- 
 pafs. Gefmol. Div'tn. It is to be added, that the birds of paff- 
 age are all peculiarly accommodated, by the ftructure of their 
 parts, for long flights. 
 
 Naturalifts are divided as to the places whither birds of paffage 
 retire when they leave us. Mr. Willughby thinks the f callows 
 fly into Egypt, and Ethiopia, Ornitb. lib. 2. c. 3* 
 
 Olm 
 
M I L 
 
 M I L 
 
 Olaus Magnus fays, they lurk in holes, or under water ; which 
 is confirmed by Etmuller, who affures us, that he faw a bufhel of 
 tliem taken out of a frozen fifh-pond, all hanging together 
 head to head, feet to feet, &c. in one clufter. Dijjert. z. c. i o. 
 ■ — Olaus adds, that this is a common thing in the northern 
 countries ; and that fuch a clufter being carried accidentally by 
 fome boys into a ftove, the fwallows, after thawing, -began to 
 fly about, but weakly, and only for a very little time. 
 A further confirmation of this account was given by Dr. Colas, 
 a perfon very curious in fuch things, to the Royal Society. 
 Speaking of the way of fifhing in the northern parts, by 
 breaking holes, and drawing their nets under the ice, he rela- 
 ted, that he Aw fixteen fwallows fo drawn out of the lake of 
 Samrodt, and about thirty out of the king's great pond in Rofi- \ 
 neilen ; and that at Schlebitten, near a houfc of the earl of , 
 Dohna, he faw two fwallows juft come out of the waters that 
 could fcarce ftand, being very wet and weak, with their v/ings 
 hanging on the ground.— He added, that he had often obfeived , 
 the fwallows to be weak for fome days after their firft appearance. ■ 
 See fupplement, article Migr atio n. 
 MILDEW, rubigo, a difeafe happening to plants, caufed by a dewy | 
 moifture, which falling on them, and continuing, for want of . 
 the fun's heat to draw it up ; by its acrimony corrodes, gnaws, . 
 and fpoils the inmofr. fubfrance of the plant, and hinders the 
 circulation of the nutritive fap : upon which the leaves begin to 
 fade, and the bltffoms and fruit are much prejudiced. 
 According to Cook and Mortimer, mildew is a thick, clammy 
 vapour exhaled in the fpring and fummer from plants, bloffoms, 
 and even from the earth itfelf, in clofe ftill weather, when there ' 
 is neither fun enough to draw it on high, nor wind enough to : 
 difperfe ir. — Hanging thus in the lower regions, when the 
 evening's cold comes on, it condenfes and falls on the plants ; 
 by its thick clammy fubftance flops up their pores, and thus 
 prevents perfpiration, and hinders the fap from afcending to 
 nourifh the flowers, (hoots, fffc 
 
 It is added, that this dew falling on the top of a fhoot of a cherry- 
 tree about Midfummer, has been found to Hop the (hoot ; fo 
 
 that the tree has (hot forth in other places. 
 
 Blights and mildews are commonly taken for the fame thing ; \ 
 
 yet are they very different. 
 
 On plants which have fmooth leaves, as the oak, &c. the dew 
 hangs, and may be feen, tailed, CsV. Others whofe leaves are 
 rougher, imbibe it. When it falls on wheat, &c. it fpots the 
 {terns with a colour different from the natural one. 
 Thefe dews, Mr. Mortimer takes to be the principal food of 
 hees ; being fweet, and eafdy convertible into honey. 
 MILE, in geography, a long meafure, whereby the Englifh, 
 Italians, and fome other nations, ufe to exprefs the dillance 
 between places. 
 
 In which fenfe mile is ufed ,to the lame purpofe with league ufed 
 by the Erench and other nations. 
 
 The mile is of different extent in different countries. The 
 geographical, or Italian mile contains a thoufand geometrical 
 paces, mille paffus, whence the term mile is derived. See Pace, 
 Geographical, &c 
 
 The Englifh mile confifts of eight furlongs, each furlong of 
 forty poles, and each pole of fixteen feet and an half. 
 Cafimir has made a curious reduction of the miles, or leagues, 
 of the feveral countries in Europe into Roman feet, which are 
 equal to the Rhinland feet generally ufed throughout the north. 
 
 Feet 
 
 The mile of Italy . — 5000 
 
 of England . . 5454. 
 
 of Scotland ■ 6000 
 
 of Sweden ■ 30000 
 
 of Mufcovy . ■ 37?o 
 
 of Lithuania • ■ 18500 
 
 of Poland . • 19850 
 
 of Germany, the fmall — — 20000 
 
 The middle ■ . . 22500 
 
 The largeft . . 25000 
 
 of France — l S75° 
 
 of Spain — ■ - ■ 1 21270 
 
 of Burgundy — ■ 18000 
 
 of Flanders — — 20000 
 
 of Holland — — 24000 
 
 of Perfia, called alfo Parafanga — 1 S750 
 
 of Egypt . — 25000 
 
 MILES, a Latin term, which, in its general import, fignifies 
 foldier. 
 
 In our Englifh laws and cuftoms, miles is peculiarly appropriated 
 to a knight, called alfo eques. 
 MILIARY glands, glandules Miliares, in anatomy, a great 
 number of fmall glands interfperfed throughout the fubftance of 
 the cutis, or (kin. See Gla nd and Cutis. 
 The miliary glands are the organs whereby the matter of 
 fweat, and infenfible perfpiration, is fecreted from the blood. 
 They arc interwoven with the pyramidal papiike of the fkin ; 
 and are each ferved with a branch of an artery, vein, and 
 Vol. II. . - a 
 
 nerve ; as alfo with a proper excretory duel, through whicla 
 the fluid matter fecreted from the blood in the fubftance of the 
 gland, is excreted, and fent forth at the pores, or perforations of 
 the cuticle. 
 
 Miliary fever is a malignant fever wherein the fkin is fprinkledl 
 over with little purple fpot?, like grains of millet. 
 It is alfo called a purple fever, from the colour of the fpots. 
 
 Miliary herpes. See the article Herpes. 
 
 MILITANT, a term underftood of the body of Chriftians, while 
 here on earth. 
 
 The Romaniffs divide the church into militant, patient, and 
 triumphant : the militant is on earth ; the patient, or paflivCj 
 they place in purgatory ; and the triumphant in heaven. 
 
 Militarf. tsrarium. See the article jErarium. 
 
 Militaris toga. See the article Toga. 
 
 Militaris via. See the article Via. 
 
 MILITARY, fomething belonging to the militia,* or foldiery. 
 Thus, 
 
 Military architecture, denotes the art of fortification. See 
 
 Architecture and Fortification. 
 Mi utary art, is the art or fcience ofmaking orfuftaining war 
 
 to advantage. See War. 
 Military column, among the Romans, was a column on which 
 
 was engraved a lift of the troops of an army, or the foldiers 
 
 employed in any expedition. 
 Military exeeution, the delivery of a city, or country up to be 
 
 ravaged and deftroyed by the foldiers, upon its refufing to pay 
 
 con tr ibu t ion - money . 
 Military exerrifes, are the evolutions, or various manners of 
 
 ranging, and exercifing foldiers. 
 Military fever, a kind of malignant fever frequent in ar- 
 mies, by reafon of the ill food, dire, of the foldiers. SeeFc- 
 
 VER. 
 
 Military government is the fupreme command and difpofal of all 
 the military power of a nation, by land and fea. 
 
 Military law. See Law of arms, and Martial. 
 
 Military machine. Seethe article Machine. 
 
 Military order. See Order and Knighthood. 
 
 Military pyrotechny. Seethe article Pyrotechn'Y. 
 
 Military tejlament. among the Romans, was what we call 
 a nuncupative-will; or a teftament made only by word of 
 mouth, in the prefence of two witneffes. 
 
 This was a privilege peculiar to the foldiery, and to them only 
 when in the field ; for at other times they were fubjed to the 
 common laws in this refpecl. 
 Military ways, via militares, are the large Roman roads, 
 which Agrippa procured to be made through the empire, in the 
 time of Augufius, for the more convenient marching of troops, 
 and conveyance of carriages. 
 
 N. Bergier has wrote the hiflory of the origin, progrefs, and 
 amazing extent of thefe military roads ; which were paved from 
 the gates of Rome to the extreme parts of the empire. See 
 
 Vl IE. 
 
 MILITES candidati. See the article Candidate 
 MILITIA *, a collective term, underftood of the body of foldiers, 
 or perfons who make profefiion of arms. 
 
 The word comes from the Latin, miles, a foldier ; and miles, 
 from mille, which was antiently wrote mile: for in levying 
 foldiers at Rome, as each tribe furnilhed a thoufand, mille or 
 mile, men, whoever was of that number, was called miles. 
 
 Militia, in its proper and rnoft reftrained fenfe with us, is 
 ufed to fignify the inhabitants, or, as we call them, the trained- 
 bands of a town, or country ; who arm themfelves, on a fhort 
 warning, for their own defence. 
 
 In which fenfe militia is oppofed to regular ftated forces. 
 The Handing militia of England is now computed to be about 
 200000 horfe and foot ; but it may be increafed at the pleafure 
 of the king. 
 
 For the direction and command of thefe, the king conftitutes 
 lords lieutenants of each county, with power to arm, array, 
 and form them into companies, troops, and regiments, to con- 
 duel (upon occafion of rebellion, and invafionj, and employ the 
 men fo armed within their refpeftive counties, and other places 
 where the king commands; to give commiffions to colonels, 
 and other officers ; and to charge any perfon with horfe, horfe- 
 man, arms, &c. proportionable to his eftate, &c. See Lord 
 lieutenant, C5V. 
 
 No perfon is to be charged with a horfe unlefs behave 500 pounds 
 yearly revenue, or 6000 pounds perfonal eftate; nor with a foot- 
 foldier unlefs he have 50 pounds yearly, or 600 pounds perfonal 
 eftate. 
 
 Militum curia. See the article Curia. 
 
 Militum expenfis kvandis. See the article Expensis. 
 
 MILK, lac, a white juice, or humour, which nature prepares 
 
 in the breads of women, and in the udders of other animals ; 
 
 for the nourishment of their young. 
 
 Milk is thicker, fweeter, and whiter, than the chyle itfelf, 
 from which it is derived, and that probably, without much 
 more artifice or alteration than the leaving behind fome of its 
 aqueous parts. 
 
 6 S The 
 
M I L 
 
 MIL 
 
 The antients held it formed from the blood ; but the moderns 
 are of opinion, it comes from the pure chyle, conveyed by the 
 arteries to the breafts, and without any other coftion filtrated 
 through the glands whereof they are compofed, like urine 
 through the reins j without undergoing any confiderable 
 change. 
 
 According to M. Leewenhoeck's obfervations, milk confifts of 
 little globules fwimming in a clear tranfparent liquor, called 
 ferum, or tvbey. 
 
 Milk is a compofition of three different kinds of parts, buty- 
 rous, cafeous, and ferous. The butyrous parts are the cream 
 and oil that fwim a-top. The cafeoas are the grofler parts, 
 and thofe that coagulate, and are made into cheefe. The 
 ferous are properly a lympha, and thefe make what we call 
 whey. 
 
 Dr. Drake fays, that milk is nothing but oil and water united 
 by the artifice of nature, perhaps by the intervention of fome 
 peculiar falts, which, milk itftlf, however fweet at firft, does, 
 after a little ftanding, difecver to be pretty plentifully there- 
 in. 
 
 Milk is firft found in the breafts of women after they have 
 been pregnant about four months. The- fermentation of the 
 milk in the breafts, ttie firft days after a woman is delivered, 
 often occasions a fever, which takes its name therefrom. 
 Ariftotle fays, there are fome men who have milk in their 
 breafts. Cardan tells us he faw one that had enough to fuckle 
 a child. 
 
 In the Philofophical Tranfaft'wru, we have an account of a 
 wether brought to milk by the fucking of a lamb ; which 
 lamb was maintained by it all the fummer, till it was wean- 
 ed. 
 
 Milk corrupted in the ftomachs of children, occafions moft of 
 the difeafes incident to that age. Dohel, a Danifli phyfician, 
 who has wrote exprefly on this fubjeft, tells us, an excellent 
 remedy in fuch cafe is a glafs of water with a little fait dif- 
 folved in it : this a£ls as an emetic, and throws up the matter 
 that occafioned the diforder. Celfus alfo mentions this re- 
 medy, /. i. c. 3. 
 
 Galen obferves, that in animals fed with milk, the greateft part 
 of the food of the mother is for that time converted into that 
 humour. 
 
 There are feveral kinds of milk, ufed not only as food, but 
 as phvfic : as cows milk, afles milk, mares milk, ihecps milk, 
 and goats milk. — Thefe are prefcribed as proper to alter a ftiarp 
 thin blood into a crafis more foft, balfamic, and nutritive ; 
 and in conftitutions where they fit the firft paflages, they muft 
 be very good for that end, as being ready prepared into nutri- 
 ment, fo far as is required for their admiffion into the blood. 
 But where the juices of the ftomach are Iharp, thefe liquors 
 are apt to be turned into curd. Whenever milk, therefore, of 
 what kind foever, is ordered in confumptions, and as a reftora- 
 tive, it is with good reafon joined with the teftaceous powders, 
 and fuch things as are proper to deftroy thofe acidities. 
 Affes milk is faid to be a great beautifier and preferver of the 
 fkin, Poppa?a, wife of the emperor Nero, ufed it for that 
 purpofe ; having; four or five hundred affes conftantly in her 
 retinue, to furnifti her every morning with a frefli bath. 
 We have feveral mineral ?nilks, and fome artificial ones, fo call- 
 ed from their rcfemblance of the natural. As, 
 Milk of the moon, lac lunee, a name given by naturalifts to 
 foffil agaric, a white light marie. 
 
 Milk of the moon, called alfo flower of fiver, is a white, 
 porous, friable, infipid earth, frequently found in form of a 
 white farinaceous powder, hut fometimes concreted into a mafs, 
 fbft, fungous, and not unlike agaric. 
 
 Some fay it is chiefly found in filver mines, and that it isaflower 
 fublim'd from the ore of that metal ; whence its denomina- 
 tion. 
 
 Milk 5/ fulphur, lac fulphuris, a preparation of flowers of ful- 
 phur, and fait of tartar ; prefcribed by phyficians, as a fudo- 
 rific. 
 
 Milk water. See the article Water. 
 
 ^iVsMilk, lac virginale, compofed of rock alum, fpring- 
 water, litharge, and vinegar; ufed as a cofmetic, to drive in 
 pimples, and check any cutaneous eruptions, by its cooling, 
 reftringent quality. 
 
 Milky grotto. See the article Grotto. 
 
 MILKY way, via laftea, ox galaxy. See Galaxy. 
 
 MILL, in propriety, denotes a machine for grinding. 
 
 Mill, in a more general fignification, is applied to all machines 
 whofe acrion depends on a circular motion. 
 Of thefe there are various kinds, which acquire different names 
 according to the various manners in which the moving power is 
 applied.— They may all be reduced to three : viz, Wind-milh, 
 water-mills, and hand mills; under which laft, are alfo com- 
 prehended thofe worked by horfes, £sV. 
 
 #Wr-MiLLS are thofe turned by the force, or fall of a river, 
 Of which, there are two kinds ; thofe where the force of" 
 the water is applied above the wheel, called over-Jhot ; and 
 thofe where it is applied below the wheel called under-Jhst 
 mils. 
 
 #W-Mills are thofe turned by the force of wind gathered in 
 their fails. 
 
 Of thefe, fome are called vertical, others horizontal, according 
 to the pofition of the fails ; or rather according to the direction 
 of their motion with regard to the horizon. 
 For the beft form of horizontal fails, as alfo for determining 
 the pofition of the axis of wind-mills, fee Wind-?™//. 
 Portative, or Uand-MiLLs, are thofe kept in motion by the 
 hand ; or elfe wbofe mill-ftones are turned, or piftons driven, 
 by the force of horfes, or other beafts. 
 
 The ufe of ?nills and mill ftones, according to Paufanias, was 
 firft invented by Myla, fon of Melegcs, firft king of Sparta. 
 Though Pliny attributes the invention of every thing belonging 
 to bread and baking, to Ceres. Polydore Virgil was not able 
 to difcover the author of fo ufeful a machine. Jt is doubted 
 whether or no water-mills were known to the Romans, there 
 being no mention made in the Digeft but of mills turned by 
 fhves and affes. — Salmafius, however, and Gothofred, will not 
 allow water-mills to have been unknown to the antient Romans 
 though they were not in ordinary ufe. — Wind-mills are of 
 much more modern invention : the firft model of thefe was 
 brought from Afia into Europe, in the time of the holy wars. 
 Mill is alfo ufed for any machine, which being moved by fome 
 external force, ferves to give a violent imprefficn on things ap- 
 plied thereto. 
 
 Mills, in this fenfe, are machines of vaft ufe in the manufac- 
 tures, arts, and trades; for the making and preparing divers 
 kinds of merchandizes. — The principal are thofe which fol- 
 low. 
 
 Fulling -Mill, is a water-mill which raifes and beats down lar^e 
 wooden piftons in proper veffeL, called peels or troughs ; in or- 
 der to full, fcower, and cleanfe woolen ftufts. 
 
 Li>'e?i-MiLLS do not differ much from fulling-mills. Their ufe 
 is to fcower linens, after their having been firft cleanfed when 
 taken out of the lixivium, or lye. Some of thefe go by water, 
 the generality by horfes. 
 
 Paper-MihL, a water-mill furnimed with feveral large hammers, 
 which beat or pound the rags or cloth in a kind of wooden 
 troughs ; and thus by reducing them to little pieces, turn them in- 
 to a kind of pulp, by means of water conveyed into the troughs 
 by a pipe for that purpofe. 
 
 Mill in coinage is a machine ufed to prepare the laminx or 
 plates of metal, and to give them the proper thicknefs, hard- 
 nefs, and confiftence before they be ftruck or ftamped. 
 This machine has not been long known among us ; but is of 
 fome ftanding in Germany. It confiffs of feveral wheels dent- 
 ed like thofe of clocks, 6fr, which move two cylinders of 
 fteel, between which the metal is palTed to be brought to its 
 proper thicknefs. It was firft turned with water j fince with 
 horfes. 
 
 Mill, among gold- wire-drawers, is a little machine confifting 
 of two cylinders of fteel, ferving to flatten the geld or fil- 
 ver wire, and reduce it into laminae, or plates. See Gold- 
 Wire. 
 
 They have alfo mills to wind the gold-wire or thread on the 
 filk ; thefe are compofed of feveral rows of bobins all turned 
 at the fame time. 
 
 Forge-Wli lls, turned by water, ferve to raife and let fall one or 
 more huge hammers, to beat and form the iron into bars, an- 
 chors, or other maflive works. 
 
 Gun-powder Mill, is that ufed to pound, and beat together the 
 ingredients whereof gun-powder is compofed. 
 This is done in a kind of iron or brafs mortar, by means of iron 
 peftles wrought by a wheel wi'thout-fide the mill, turned by the 
 water falling on it. 
 
 Leather-Mil ls are ufed to fcower, and prepare with oil, the 
 ficins of flags, buffalos, elks, bullocks, &c. to make what they 
 call huff'- leather, for the ufe of thefoldicry. 
 This is effected by means of feveral large piftons rifinw and 
 fall ing on the fkins in large wooden troughs, by means of a 
 wheel without-fide, turned by the force of water. 
 
 O/V-Mills, whether turned by men, water, hand, or horfe 
 ferve to bruife or break the nuts, olives, and other fruits and 
 grains, whofe juice is to be drawn by expreffion to make oil. 
 Whjt-Mill is a water-mill, ferving to faw feveral planks or 
 boards at the fame time. 
 
 Thefe are frequent in France, efpecially in Dauphine. They 
 were lately prohibited in England, where they were begun to 
 be introduced, from a view to the ruin of the fawycrs, which 
 moft have enfucd. 
 
 There are alfo 5;7/--Mills, for fpinning, throwing, and 
 twitting filks ; which are large round machines in form of 
 turrets, five or fix feet high, and fix yards in diameter ; 
 which being turned either by the force of water, or that of 
 men, work at the fame time an infinity of bobins fattened 
 thereto, whereon the filk had been wound to be here fpun and 
 twifted. 
 
 There are abundance of mills of this kind in France, efpeci- 
 ally about Lyons and Tours, fome of which are fo difpofed, 
 as that three of them will go at the fame time, and by the 
 fame wheel wrought by water, or by ftrejigth of hand. That 
 4 iii 
 
M I L 
 
 M I N 
 
 in the Hopital de la Charite at Lyons, is wonderful, a fingle 
 man working no lefs than forty-eight of thefe mills. 
 
 Stamping-Mlh-L. See the article St a mping. 
 
 Sugar-Mti.L is a machine that ferves to bruife the fugar-canes, 
 and exprefs the liquor or juice contained therein. 
 The fugar -mills are very curious contrivances.— Of thefe there 
 are four kinds, being turned either by water, wind, men, or 
 horfes. 
 
 Thofe turned by the hand were firft in ufe, but they are now 
 laid afide, as being an intolerable hardfbip on the poor negroes, 
 who were doomed thereto ; befides the flownefs of their pro- 
 prefs. 
 
 Wind-mills are the mofi modern, but they are yet fomewhat 
 rare; excepting in St. Chriftopher's and Barbadoes, and a- 
 mong the Portuguefe. Thefe make good difparch, but have 
 this inconvenience, that they are not eafily flopped ; which 
 proves frequently fatal to the negroes who feed them. 
 
 Tan, or Bark-MiLLs, wrought by water or horfes, ferve to cut 
 certain barks into a coarfer fort of powder, .proper for the tan- 
 ning of hides, &c. 
 
 Mills for fword-blades, are likewife moved bv water. They 
 are frequent at Vienne in Dauphine. By working heavv ham- 
 mers they forge thofe excellent fword-blades, called blades of 
 Vienne. The ufes and operations of thefe feveral mills, more 
 at large, fee under the feveral heads, Paper, Fulling, Su- 
 gars, Wf. 
 
 Mill -/too/. See the article Pool. 
 
 MILLEPEDES, wood-lice, a fort of little infects, with a multi- 
 tude of feet, ufually of a dark colour, and which when touched 
 roll up into a ball ; they are of considerable ufe in medicine. 
 Millipedes are fo much in the acquaintance of the people, that 
 they (eem to be mailers of their medicinai ufes, and lake them 
 in many cafes without any other direction, Thev are, by all 
 experience, found to be very diuretic and abfterfive ; which 
 makes them not only frequent in prefcriptions for difbrders in 
 the kidneys, but alfo in obftructions of the vifcera, and parti- 
 cularly in the jaundice. 
 
 Thev abound with a nitrous fait, which they feem to derive 
 from the earthy diet they live on. This is fomewhat volati- 
 lized by its digeftion and circulation in the infect ; as fuch fait 
 always is more or lefs, in proportion to the digeftive powers 
 of the animal, into whofe blood it enters ; yet not fo much, 
 but that it is brackim. and pungent upon the palate. This 
 makes their deterfive qualities extend further than the larger 
 glands, and enables them to fcour even the minuteft paflages, 
 and keep the nerves clear from vifcidities, and fuch things as 
 would clog their fprings ; whence they are good in palfies, epi- 
 lepfies, and all nervous diftempers. 
 
 As they open and cleanfe away vifcofities, and by their mi- 
 nutenefs and afperities cut their way through any obftrudtions, 
 they are good in ftruma's, and all inveterate tumours or ul- 
 cers. Remarkable cures have been performed in each way by 
 a long ufe of them. They are beft adminiftered in fubftance, 
 or bruifed in white wine, the liquor being taken without fet- 
 tling. 
 
 There are alfo feveral chymical preparations of millepedes, as 
 fpirit, volatile fait, oil, and wine of millepedes. See fupple- 
 meht, article MILLEPEDES. 
 MILLENARII*, Millenartaks, a feet among Chriftians. 
 chiefly in the primitive church; who hold that Jefus Chrift i* 
 to come ag.iin and reign on earth for the fpace of a thoufand 
 years; during which time, the faithful are to enjoy all mannei 
 of temporal bleflings, and at the expiration of this term, the 
 day of judgment is to take place. 
 
 * The millenarii are alfo called chtSafis, chiliafta ; from the 
 Greek vifitsK, mille, a thoufand. 
 
 This opinion of the millenarii is very antient, and may be 
 traced back almoft as far as the time of the apoftles. It had its 
 origin from a pafTage in the apocalypfe too literally underftood, 
 wherein mention is made of Chrift's reign on earth, &c. 
 The opinion of S. Papias, fays Mr, Launoy, touching the new 
 kingdom of Jefus Chrift on earth, after the refurrection, was 
 heldT for near three centuries, before it was charged as errone- 
 ous ; as appears from ecclefiaftical hiftory. It was allowed of, 
 and followed by the greater} men among the primitive fathers; 
 as Irenseus, Juftin Martyr, Tertullian, fcff. Dionyfius of Alex- 
 andria, and St. Jerom, oppofed this imaginary millenary reign 
 very ftrongly. 
 
 MILLENNIUM *, a term literally fignifying a thoufand years j 
 chiefly ufed for the time of our Saviour's fecond appearance and 
 reign on earth. 
 
 * The word is Latin, compounded of mille, a thoufand, and an- 
 nus, a year: 
 
 Mr. Whifton, in feveral of his writings, has endeavoured to 
 fupport the notion of a millennium. According to his compu- 
 tation it was to have commenced about the year 1720. 
 MILLIARE. or Milliariu m, among the Romans, denoted 
 a mile, confuting' of a thoufand paces, mille paffus ; whence the 
 name. 
 
 1 In the Roman empire, the milliaria, in all the great roads, 
 were marked with ftones, or columns, erected for that purpofe ; 
 commencing from a column in the heart of the city, called milli- 
 are aureum. 
 
 Thofe columns were alfo hence denominated military columns* 
 
 MILLIARY fever. See the article Mili ary. 
 
 Milliary glands. See the article Miliary. 
 
 Milliary herpes. See the article Herpes, 
 
 Milliary terms. See the article Term. 
 
 MILLING, in the manufactories, an operation called alfo full- 
 ing. See Fulling. 
 
 Mi l l 1 ng, or thrstviag of ftUu is the laft preparation of filk be- 
 fore dying ; ferving to twift it, more or lefs according to the 
 work it is intended for. 
 
 To prepare the filk for milling, they firft put it in boiling wa- 
 ter, inclofed between two linen cloths. — The mill is a fquare 
 machine, compofed of feveral pieces of wood mortifed in each 
 other fo as to form a kind of large cage, in the centre whereof 
 are two wheels placed parallel over each other, whole axis bears 
 on two polls. — When the machine is fimple. a fingle man turns 
 thefe wheels by means of a little cogg in which they catch, and 
 a large handle. 
 
 The wheels put in motion by the handle, communicate their 
 motion to eight windles, or reels, or even more, according to 
 the largenefs of the machine; on the flights, or arms whereof 
 the filk is wound from off two rows of bobins placed on each 
 fide the machine, each row at the height of one of the two 
 wheels in the centre. — Thefe bobins have their motion bv 
 means of leathern thongs, which bear on little cylinders of 
 wood that fupport them, and turn at length on the two wheels 
 at the centre ; fo that the filk on each bobin twin's as it winds, 
 and forms its feparate fkain. 
 
 The fmalleft wheel moves two hundred of thefe bobins, over 
 which a fingle perfon is fuflicient to infpedt, to put new bobins 
 or fpools in lieu of thofe difcharged of their filk, and to knot 
 the ends when they break. 
 MILLION, in arithmetic, the number of ten hundred thou- 
 fand ; or a thoufand times a thoufand. 
 
 The revenues of princes are now only computed in millions. 
 A million of gold, or million of money, is fometime« u.'idcrficod 
 of a million of pounds ; and fometimcs of a million of crowns. 
 MILL- REE, or Mille Ray, a Portuguefe gold coin, current 
 for fomewhat more than the Spanifh piftole. 
 The mitt-ret is thus called, as confining of a thoufhnd recs. 
 See Re e. — Tt is alfo called a St. Stephen, from the figure of that 
 martvr impreffed thereon. 
 
 Thev have alfo a mill-ree of the little crofs, which in reality is 
 
 onl- half the former ; and whofe value is that chiefly ufed in 
 
 computations. 
 MJLOHYOIDjEUS. See Myloh yoidjeus. 
 MILT, in anatomy, a popular name for the fpleen. See 
 
 Spleen. 
 
 Milt, or Melt, in natural hiftory, the foft roe in fifties ; 
 thus called bv reafon it yields, by expreftion, a whitifh juice re- 
 fembling milk. 
 
 The milt is properly the feed, or fpermatic part of the male fifh. 
 The mm of a carp is reckoned a choice bit. 
 It confiils of two long whitifh irregular bodies, each included 
 in a very thin fine membrane. M. Petit confiders thefe as the 
 tefticles of the fifli wherein the feed is preferved : the lower 
 part, next the anus he takes for the veficulas feminales. Vid. 
 Mem. Acad. R. Scion, ann. 1733. p. zor. 
 MIME *, Mimus, a term in the antient comedy, fignifl ing a 
 buffoon, or mimic, who acted by poftures fuitable to the perfon 
 or fubject he reprefented. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, (*i{JJ&; imitator ; formed of 
 fj.iu'ois.a.1, I imitate. The fame comedians were alfo frmetimes 
 called pantomimes, becaufe of their counterfeiting all manner of 
 poflures and geftures. 
 
 MIMESIS, MIMHSIS, in rhetoric, a figure, whereby the words, 
 geftures, fpeech, actions, Gff, of another perfon are imitated. 
 
 MIND, mens, denotes a thinking or underftanding being. 
 
 Philofophers generally allow of three kinds of minds, viz. God 
 angels, and the human foul. For a thinking being muft either 
 be finite or infinite : if infinite, it is God ; and if finite, it is 
 either joined with a human body, or not ; if the latter, it is an 
 angel; if the former a foul. 
 
 The human mind is properly defined a thinking, rational fub- 
 ftance : by thinking, it is diftinguifhed from body ; and by 
 reafoning, from God, and angels, which are fuppofed to fee 
 and know things intuitively, without the htlp of deduction and 
 difcourfe. 
 
 Affections of the Mind. See the article Affection. 
 
 MINE, in natural hiftory, a place under ground, where metals^ 
 minerals, or even precious ftones, are dug up. 
 As, therefore, the matter dug out of mines is various ; the 
 mines themfelves acquire various denominations : as gold mines, 
 filver-mines, copper-mines, iron-mines, diamond-mines, jalt-mines t 
 mines of antimony, of alum, &C. 
 
 For 
 
M I N 
 
 M I N 
 
 For gold and fther-m'mes, the richeit and moft celebrated are 
 thofe of Peru and Chili in America. — Iron-mines are more 
 abundant in Europe than elfewhere.-— Copper mines are chiefly 
 found in Sweden, Denmark, and England.— Lead and Jin-mines 
 abound nmft in England. — §*uick-filver -mines in Hungary and 
 Spain.— Diamond-mines in the Eaft-Indies, and in the Brafils. 
 — Salt mines in Poland, &e. 
 
 Metallic minessre chiefly found in mountains;; though the reafon 
 thereof does not appear. It is probable, plains may abound as 
 much therewith, would people dig deep enough. But plains 
 are commonly cultivated ; and befide, the water will fcarce 
 allow them to be dug. Add, that the metallic veins always 
 run either horizontal or oblique ; and for that reafon are eaficft 
 found on the fides of eminences. 
 
 The metallic veins are commonly encompafled with a fort of 
 ftone peculiar to the mine, and are accompanied with feveral 
 ftrataof different matters, as clay, gravel, rock, £ffV. Thofe 
 who work in mines, know by the fize and colour of the ftones, 
 when they approach the vein. 
 
 They difcover that there is a mine in a mountain by the mar- 
 cafites, or mineral ftones falling from it ; by the mineral taftc 
 of the waters ; by the quality of the exhahtions raifed from it ; 
 and by the difference between the earth over the mines, and 
 that of the neighbouring parts in the cold time of (bring and 
 autumn, the froft lying on the adjacent places, when it 
 thaws about the mines. Add, that the ground's producing but 
 little grafs, and that fhort, pale, and colourlefs, is an indication 
 of a mine. 
 
 Some pretend to difcover mines by the fole virtue of the hazle- 
 tree, out of which they form a forked fiick, called virgula 
 divinatoria, which, they fay, turns of itfelf, in their hands, 
 but differently, according to the different nature of the metals 
 or minerals underneath. " This artifice made a great noife in 
 France towards the end of the feventeenth century; and the 
 corpufcular philofophy was called to account for it. But it is 
 now in little credit. 
 
 There are fome mines wherein the metals are found at their 
 firft opening very crude and imperfect ; which yet, in time, 
 grow ripe Mid rich. Alonfo Barba relates, that in Potofi, 
 ftones have frequently been at firft thrown afide, as not con- 
 taining any thing confiderable of metal ; and yet have been 
 found many years afterwards exceeding full thereof- Gefal- 
 pinus allures us, that earths which before yielded no metal at 
 all, fometimes become very fertile veins. In an ifland of the 
 Tyrrhene-Sea, after the iron mines have been exhaufted, they 
 flop them up about ten years, at the end whereof, it is faid, 
 they find them as rich as before ; many of thefe facts, how- 
 ever, are but fiightly attefted. — For the formation of mineral and 
 metallic matters in mines, fee Mineral. 
 Mine, in the art of war, denotes a fubterraneous canal, or paf- 
 fage dug under the wall, or rampart of a fortification intended 
 to be blown up by gun-powder. 
 
 The ally, or paflage of a mine, is ufually about four feet 
 iquare ; at the end of this is the chamber of the mine, which 
 is a cavity about five feet in width and in length, and about 
 fix in height ; and here tire gun-powder is beftowed. 
 The faucijfe of the mine is the train ; for which there is always 
 a, little aperture left. 
 
 There are various kinds of mines, which acquire various names; 
 
 as royal mines, ferpentine mines, forked mines, according as 
 
 their paffages are flrait, oblique, winding,^. 
 
 There are alfo mines made in the field, which are called fou- 
 
 gades. 
 
 Alines are either dug within the body of the earth, as thofe 
 made by the befieged to blow up the works of the befiegers, 
 before thev make a lodgment on the covered way : or in emi- 
 nences and rifing grounds, as to make a breach in the ram- 
 parts, &c. or to blow up walls : or, huff/, to tear up rocks. 
 Th^ry of Mines. — M. Chevalier, in the memoirs of the royal 
 academy of feiences, has handled the fubject of mines with a 
 great deal of accuracy. He has calculated the force of gun- 
 powder, the effort it makes, and the refinance it meets with 
 in heaving up the ground. He fhews, that a cubic foot of 
 air inclofed in two cubic feet of gun-powder, is capable of 
 fupportina; a weight of near 290000 pounds. But obferves 
 withal, that this force is vaftly greater than what it is found 
 by experience to have ; .and that in fact, 140 pounds of pow- 
 der do not raife above 30000 pounds of earth. The reafon 
 of which difference he afcribes to feveral caufes ; as, that the 
 powder does not take fire all at once, fo that its force is di- 
 vided ; that part of the fhock is loft in the canal or palfage 
 of the mine, and in the pores of the bodies incompaffing the 
 mine; that the tenacity of the parts of the earth refift a fepara- 
 tinn ; that it is not enough that the earth be fupported, but 
 k muff be carried upwards with a certain velocity ; and that the 
 weight of the atmofpbere is a very confiderable obftacle, to 
 which no regard is had in the calculation. 
 From a great number of experiments it appears, i°. That the 
 effect of a /nine is always towards the weakeft fide; fo that the 
 difpofition of the chamber of a mine does not at all contribute to 
 determine this effect either one way or anotherj as the miners 
 miftakenly imagine. 
 
 2°. 'That the quantity of the powder muff be greater or lefs, 
 in proportion to the greater or lefs weight of the bodies to be 
 railed, and to their greater or lefs cohefion ; and the refult of 
 all the experiments that have been made for determining the 
 different quantity of powder to be ufed for different bodies, is 
 to allow lor each cubic fathom, 
 
 Of loofe earth 9 or 10 pounds of powder. 
 
 Of firm folid earth, and ftrong 
 
 fand, 
 
 r 1 or 12 
 
 Of argil, or fat clayey earth, 15 or 16 
 Of new mafonry, not very } 
 
 ftrongly bound, J J 
 
 Of old mafonry well bound, 25 or 30 
 3 0 . That the aperture, or funnel of a mine that has been 
 played, if it had been rightly charged, is a cone, the diameter 
 of whofe bafe is double the height, taken from the centre of 
 the mine. 
 
 4°. That when the mine has been over-charged, its aperture is 
 nearly cylindrical, the upper extremity not being much wider 
 than the chamber at bottom, where the powder was lodged. 
 5 0 . That, befide the fhock of the powder againft the bodies it 
 takes up, it likewife cr ufh.es all the earth that borders upon it, 
 both underneath and fide-ways, which crufh extends itfelf the 
 further as the matters make the lefs refiftance. 
 To account for all the effects refulting from thefe experiments, 
 and to determine the quantity of powder required for the charge 
 of a mine, and the moft advantageous difpofition for anfwer- 
 iii2 the intent ; let us conceive, i°. A mine, whereof all the 
 parts wherewith it is incompaffed are incapable of being com- 
 preffed, and make an equable refiftance, fuch as that of a 
 bomb equally thick throughout, fufpended in the air; where 
 it muft be obferved, that befides the refiftance of the body, the 
 effort of the powder muft likewife furmount the weight of the 
 ambient air; in which cafe the body will be beaten into duft, 
 or at leaft into very fmall pieces. 
 
 z°. Conceive a mine incompaffed wholly by fuch bodies as are 
 equally compreffiblc, and that refift every way with equal force. 
 In this cafe the firft effect of the powder will be to comprefs 
 all thofe bodies equally, and they will not be feparated, till by 
 the violence of their compreffion, they are all incapable, any 
 longer, to refift its effort ; fo that unlefs the powder be in 
 great quantity, all its effect may end in the mere compreffion 
 of the adjacent bodies. For this reafon they fometimes block 
 up the chamber of the mine with large beams, and fometimes 
 wall it up with ftones, that the adjacent bodies may refift the 
 more. s 
 
 Laftly, fuppofy a mine where all the bodies that incompafs it, 
 are equally compreflible, but where there is lefs refiftance on 
 one fide than another ; in this cafe there will be a fphere of 
 Compreffion, whofe diameter will be fo much the greater, as 
 the weak fide refifts the more. With regard to which, there 
 are three things to be confidered. 
 
 Firft, If the effort of the powder be very great with relation to 
 the refiftance of the weak fide, the compreffion will but reach 
 a little way, that fide being torn off too fuddenly for the neigh- 
 bouring parts to receive their fhock. In which cafe the aper- 
 ture or funnel will be almoft cylindrical, the diameter of the 
 upper extreme not much exceeding that of the chamber; and 
 the earth will be thrown to a great diftance, which the enemy 
 may make an advantage of, by forming lodgments in the ca- 
 vity, as was done at the fiege of Verue. 
 
 Secondly, If the mine be under-charged, it only makes a fim- 
 ple compreffion on the weakeft fide, as it happened at Cividad 
 Rodrigo. 
 
 Thirdly, If the mine be charged wirh a quantity of powder be- 
 tween the two extremes, it will raife a cone of earth, the dia- 
 meter of whofe bafe will have a greater or lefs ratio to its height 
 from the centre of the mine, as the effort of the powder is greater 
 or lefs. 
 
 The moft advantageous effect is when the diameter of the bafe 
 of the cone is double its height : in which cafe the earth 
 blown up, falls almoft all back again into the aperture of the 
 mine ; fo that the enemy cannot make any lodgment. 
 To charge a mine, therefore, fo as it may have the molt ad- 
 vantageous effect poffible, the weight of the matter to be car- 
 ried up muft be known, /. e. the folidity of a right cone, 
 whofe bafe is double the height of the earth over the centre of 
 the mine, which is eafily found from the rules of geometry.' — - 
 Having found rhe folidity of the cone in cubic fathoms, mul- 
 tiply the number of fathoms by the number of pounds of pow- 
 der necefiary for raifing the matter it contains, according to 
 the proportion already laid down ; and if the cone contain 
 matters of different weights, take a mean weight between them 
 all ; having always a regard to their degree of cohefion. 
 As to the difpofition of mines, we have but one general rule, 
 which is, that the fide towards which one would determine the 
 effect, be the weakeft. But this varies according to occafions 
 and circumftances. 
 
 Counter-Mix E. See the article CouNTER-m/W. 
 
 Gallery of a Mine. See the article Gallery. 
 
M I N 
 
 M I N 
 
 Knight of the Mine is a military honour, antiently conferred 
 
 on perfons who had diftinguifhed themfelves in engagements in 
 
 mines. - : - -,. '. ,., ' 
 ytims-jkips are fhips filled with gun-powder, inclofcd in ftrong 
 
 vaults of brick or ftone, to be fired in the midft of an enemy's 
 
 fleet. 
 
 Mine is alfo a French meafure. See Measure. 
 MINERA, in medicine, the feat, or rather matter, of a dif- 
 eafe. See Disease. 
 
 The term is applied by fome authors to thofe parts of the body 
 wherein there are collections and coacervations of humours 
 made ; which, hardening, form obftructions, and produce dif- 
 eafes. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, the minera marbi, &c. 
 MINERAL, in natural hiftory, is fometimes ufed in the gene- 
 ral for foffil ; and applied to any body, fimple or compound, 
 dug out of a fubterraneous place or mine ; from which it takes 
 the denomination. 
 
 In this fenfe, metals, fulphurs, fulfil falts, femi-metals, &c. are 
 
 minerals. 
 
 On this principle, they divide minerals into two claries ; the 
 one fufible, and malleable ; i. e. which melt with fire, and 
 ftretch on the anvil ; which arc what we properly call metals. 
 See Metal. — The others want thofe two properties ; and 
 are what in the ftrict fenfe we cdl minerals. 
 Some divide minerals into fimple and compound. To the firft 
 belong f lanes ; falts y as alum, nitre, He. infammablc mine- 
 rals^ as fulpbur and bitumen ; and metals, as gold, t?V. 
 Other more accurate writers reftrain the word mineral to 
 what we ctherwife call femi- metal \ as antimony, cobalt, 
 "'- &e. 
 
 Mineral, in this fenfe, may be defined a compound foffil, 
 wherein there is fomethingdifcovered, in all refpects like metal, 
 only that it is not malleable ; joined or compounded with 
 fome other foffil, as fair, fulphur, ftone, or earth. 
 Such are antimony, cinnabar, b'tfmutb, calaminaris, vitriol, py- 
 rites, mareafites, cobalt, oker, the magnet, lapis hematites, 
 and armenus. See each under its proper article. 
 Some attribute the formation of minerals to the action of the 
 fun without ; fome to the centrd fire within j and fome think 
 the cold does all by uniting, condenfing, and congealing cer- 
 tain juices of the earth. 
 
 Des Cartes takes metals to have been formed from the begin- 
 ning of the world ; and to have ranged themfelves, by the laws 
 of gravity, about the centre. In procefs of time, he fuppofes 
 thefe to have been corroded by the acid falts, ts'c. and abun- 
 dance of the parts thereof carried up along with thofe falts by 
 the mbterrancan heat, and depofited in divers parts of the earth. 
 Monf. Tournefort fuppofes feeds of ?ninerals, as of animals 
 and vegetables. Every thing, according to him, comes from 
 eggs, even ftones ; and the largeft rocks, he thinks, were ori- 
 ginally no more than grains of fand. See his fyftem more at 
 length under the article Stone. 
 
 Others, as M. Geoffroy, contend that metals, csY. may be 
 the rcfult of a mixture of certain matters, which had nothing 
 metallic in them. Thus, in the afnes of all vegetables we 
 find a ferruginous matter, which the load-ftone attracts ; and yet 
 it will hardly be faid, that iron exiftcd in the plants. We fee 
 no hgns of iron in clay, work it in what manner you will ; 
 and yet add to it linfeed-oil, and by fire you will procure iron, 
 the like may be faid of divers other matters. 
 Hence it is probable, metals may be formed by a mere com- 
 bination of different ingredients; much like fulphur, which 
 we all know is made by adding an inflammable principle to a 
 vitriolic fak. The earth may every-where abound with thofe 
 matters, which are continually circulating through its pores 
 and canals, and which, meetintr with an earth homogenous to 
 them, fix thereto ; and commence minerals. 
 The minerals, metals, and ftones, lie in beds ; and have done 
 fo ever fincc the flood, if not from the creation ; ■ yet it is high- 
 ly probable they have a faculty of growing in their refpective 
 beds ; and that, as their beds are robbed and emptied by mi- 
 ners, fo after a while they recruit again. Thus vitriol, Mr. 
 Boyle thinks, may grow by the help of the air, and that alum 
 does the fame. We arc allured {fays that author) by the ex- 
 perienced Agricola, that the earth or ore of alum, being 
 robbed of its falts, will, in tract of time, recover them again 
 by being expofed to the air. 
 
 As for metals, there is good reafon to believe they grow like- 
 wife, from what has been alleged by Mr. Boyle in his ob- 
 fervations about the growth of metal.--, and particularly as to 
 the growth of iron. To the inflances he brings from Pliny, 
 Fallopius, Caefalpinus, and others, we may add, that, in the 
 foreft of Dean in Gloucefterlhire, the belt iron, and in the 
 grcateft quantities, is found in the old cinders, which they 
 melt over again. — This fome impute to the negligence of the 
 former mclters in not exhaufting the ore. And Mr. Derham 
 thinks it rather owing to the new impregnations of the old 
 ore, or cinders from the air, than to any feniinal principle in 
 the ore itfelf. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 The chymifts generally take minerals to be nothing elfe but im- 
 perfect metals, and imperfect: metals to be perfect: ones, which, 
 not having arrived at maturity, may be perfected bv chymical 
 operations, and ratfed to perfection. — This agreeable, but 
 fatal delufion, has given rife to the fc£t of philosophers, who 
 ftudy the philofophers ftone. 
 
 /Ethiops Mineral. See the article TEthiops. 
 
 Turbith Mineral. See the article Tureith. 
 
 Mineral oil. See the article Oil. 
 
 Minerals bezoard'uum. See the article Bezoardicum. 
 
 Cryjlal Mineral. See Crystal mineral. 
 
 Mineral £u«?iv\r are thofe, which, at their fpringing forth from 
 under-ground, are found impregnated with fome mineral mat- 
 ter ; as fait, fulphur, vitriol, l3'c. See Water. 
 Such are hot baths, fpaws, purging, &c. fprings. 
 
 MINIATURE*, or Micnature, a delicate kind of paint- 
 ing, confifting of little points or dots, inftead of lines ; ufual- 
 ly done on velom, with very thin, fimple water-colours. 
 
 * The word corner from the Latin minium, red lead ; that being 
 a colour much ufed in this kind of painting. The French fre- 
 quently call it uiignature, from mignon, fine, pretty, oil ac- 
 count of its fmalnefs and delicacy. 
 
 Miniature is diftinguifhed from other kinds of painting by the 
 fmalnefs and delicacy of its figures, the weaknefs of their co- 
 lours, and faintnefs of the colouring ; and in that it requires to 
 be viewed very near. 
 
 Thofe colours that have the leaft body, are the beft and mofl 
 commodious for painting in miniature ; fuch are carmine, ul- 
 tramarine, fine lakes, and green made of the juices of fevcral 
 kinds of herbs and flowers. 
 
 Painting in miniature is the niceft and molt tedious of all others ; 
 being performed wholly with the point of the pencil. 
 There are fome painters who never ufe any white colour in 
 miniature, but make the ground of the velom ferve to raife their 
 figures ; in which cafe, the lights appear bright in proportion 
 to the depth and ftrength of the colours of lh? figures. Others, 
 before tbev go to work, give the velom a light wafb with 
 white lead, well prepared and purified. 
 
 When the colours are laid on flat without dotting, though the 
 figures be fmall, and the ground either velom or paper, it is 
 not called miniature, but zvnfti'tng. 
 
 The colours for miniature may be mixed up with a folution of 
 gum arabic, or gum tragacanth, in water. 
 
 MINIM, in mufic, a note, or character of time j equal to two 
 crotchets, or half a femibreve. See Time, and Charac- 
 ters of mufc. 
 
 Sextuple of the Mintm. Sec the article Sextuple. 
 
 MINIMA nature, or Minim a r.aturalia, among philofophers, 
 the primary particles, whereof bodies confift ; the fame with 
 what are otherwife called carpufles-, and atoms. 
 
 Minima, in the higher geometry, the fmalleft quantities attain- 
 able in any given cafe. 
 
 Per Minima. Sec the article Per minima. 
 
 MIN1MENTS, or Muniments. See Muniments. 
 
 MINIMI digiti extenfor. Sec the article Extensor. 
 
 Minimi digit/' pedis abduclor. See the article Abductor. 
 
 MINIMS, Minimi, an order of religious, inftituted about the 
 year 1440. by S. Francis de Paulo. 
 
 Thefe have improved on the humility of the minors, by term- 
 ing themfelves minimi^ or minims, q. d. leaft, orfraalleft. See 
 Minors. 
 
 MINIMUS gluteus. See the article Gluteus. 
 
 MINION, a fort of cannon, or piece of ordnance, whereof 
 there are two kinds ; large, and ordinary. 
 
 The large Minion, or one of the largeft fize, has its bore 3 ^ 
 inch diameter, and is 1000 pounds weight; its load is 3 £ 
 pounds of powder; its fliot three inches in diameter, and 3 % 
 pound weight ; its length is eight foot, and its level range 125 
 paces. 
 
 The ordinary Minion is three inches diameter in the bore, and 
 weighs about 800 pounds weight. It is feven foot long ; itg 
 load 2 { pounds of powder ; its ftiot near three inches diameter, 
 and weighs three pounds four ounces ; and fhoots point-blank 
 120 paces. 
 
 MINISTER, one that ferves, or attends on God, on the public, 
 or on a private pcrfon. 
 
 In the reformed church, priefts, or thofe ordained to preach, 
 and do the other functions of the priefthood, are called abfo- 
 lutcly and fimply ?niniflers. 
 
 In which fenfe, bifhops, fjc. are faid to be mir.ijhrs of God ; 
 minljlers of the word ; of the gofpe!, &e. In fome churches 
 they are alfo called pajlors. 
 Ministers of the altar are properly thofe who attend, and 
 affift the prieft at the admiuiftration of the eucharift. 
 Deacon, and fubdeacon, are titles that properly fignify mini- 
 fies; &ta.y.ov&; minifler. See Deacon, and SuBdeacon. 
 Officers of ftate, (ftf. arc called the king's minijlers ; as admi- 
 niftring the affairs of juftice, policy, (Sc. for him. 
 
 6 T Minister 
 
M I N M I N 
 
 Minister of flate, is he with whom a prince cntrufts 
 the admin iftration of his government ; or to whom he 
 commits die care and direction of the principal affairs there- 
 
 • - of. 
 
 Boethius Is propofed as a model for minifters of flate. The 
 grand vilier is the prime minijier of the Ottoman empire. 
 Foreign Ministers, or the minijlers of foreign princes, are their 
 embaffadors, envoys, agents, or refidents in the courts of 
 other princes. 
 
 There are two kinds of foreign minijlers, — Minijlers of the firft 
 rank, who are alio called embajfadors, and envoys in extraordi- 
 nary. 
 
 And minijlers of the fecond rank, who are the ordinary refi- 
 fidents. 
 
 Thofe of the firft rank have a representative character, which 
 the others have not ; though thefe laft arc fometimes invefted 
 with fuller powers than the former. 
 Minister is alfo the title which certain religious orders give to 
 their fuperior. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, the minijier of the Mathurins, or Trini- 
 tarians. 
 
 Minister, among the Jefuits, is the fecond fuperior of each 
 houfe; thus called, as being an alliftant to the fuperior, or 
 lector. 
 
 The general of the Cordeliers order is alfo called the minijier 
 general. 
 
 MINISTRY, orMiNlSTERY, a profeffion, office, or employ- 
 ment, which a perfon difcharges for the fcrvice of God, the 
 public, or fome particular perfon. 
 
 In which fenfe we fay, a bifhop muft give account to God of 
 his minijlry, Sec. 
 Ministry is alfo ufed for the government of a ftate, by fome 
 great minifter, under the fovereign authority. 
 In which fenfe we fay, the minflry of the cardinal de Riche- 
 lieu, fjfti 
 
 Ministry is alfo frequently ufed as a collective word, fignifying 
 the minifters or officers of ftate. 
 
 Thus we fay, the minifiry oppofed a thing ; meaning, the 
 minifters oppofed it. 
 MINIUM, a mineral colour, called alfo red lend) ufed by paint- 
 ers, illuminers, C3Y. 
 
 Minium is a preparation of lead, performed by fire. It is made 
 by melting the metal in an earthen unglazed pan, and ftirring it 
 over the fire till it be reduced to a powder called calcined lend, 
 which, being further urged by a reverberatory fire for three 
 or four hours, turns red, and is the minium. 
 Befide the ufe of minium as a colour, it is alfo an ingredient in 
 an officinal compofition, called emplujirum dt m'uiio, ufed as a 
 deficcative and cicatrizer. 
 
 It was with minium the antient Roman and Grecian la- 
 dies tinged their nails and faces of a red colour. For, as to 
 our modern paints, without doubt they were not known in 
 thofe days. 
 
 MINOR, a Latin term, literally denoting lcfs- t ufed in oppofi- 
 tion to major, greater. 
 
 Thus we fay, St. James minor ; Afia minor ; the minor ex- 
 communication, &c. 
 
 The four Minor orders, are the four inferior orders conferred in 
 
 the Romiih church, between the tonfure and fubdeaconatc. 
 
 Thefe are that of porter, or door-keeper ; that of reader ; that 
 of exorciji ; and that of acolyth. 
 
 Minor adiles. See the article jEdile. 
 
 Minor anticus ferratus. Sec the article Serratus. 
 
 Minor herons. See the article Baron. 
 
 Canis Minor. See the article Canis. 
 
 Retfus Minor. See the article Rectus. 
 
 Minor gajlricus. See the article Gastricus. 
 
 Minor oculi obliquus. See the article Obliquus. 
 
 Teres Minor. See the article Teres. 
 
 Urfa Minor. See the article Ursa. 
 
 Minor, in law, denotes a perfon yet under age, or who, 
 by the laws of the country, is not yet arrived at the power 
 of adminiftring his own affairs, or the pofleffion of his 
 eftate. 
 
 Among us, a perfon is a minor till the age of twenty-one : be- 
 fore which time his acts are invalid. 
 
 "Vet if a patron, csV. have a right of advowfon, by the com- 
 mon law he may prefent at the age of fourteen years; and 
 may of himfelf, and without his father, or guardian, confent 
 to any procefs relating to beneficiary matters. 
 Hence, in the canon law, there is no title, de minoribus ; and 
 the reafon is, that the feveral ages whereat the common law 
 declares a perfon capable of a benefice, or of facred orders are 
 fo many fpecies of canonical majorities. 
 Minor, in logic, is the fecond propofition of a formal or 
 regular fyllogifm, called alfo the affumption. See Syllo- 
 gism. 
 
 I grant the major, but deny the minor. 
 Minor, in mufic, is applied to certain concords, which differ 
 from, or are lower than others of the fame denomination by a 
 leffer femi-tone, or four commas. 
 
 Thus we fay, a third minor, or leffer third : or a fixth major, 
 and minor. 
 
 Concords that admit of major and minor, i. e. greater and Icfs 
 are faid to be ijnperfctl concords. 
 MINORS, or Friars Minors, an appellation which the Fran- 
 cifcans affume, out of Ihew of humility ; calling them- 
 felves fratres minores, i. e. leffer brothers; and fometimes m- 
 nor'ttes. 
 
 There is alfo an order of regular minors at Naples, which was 
 
 eftablifhed in the year 1588. and confirmed by Sixtus V. 
 MINOT, a French meafure. See Measure. 
 MINOTAUR, Minotaurus, in antiquity, a fabulous mon- 
 
 fter, much talked of by the poets ; feigned to be half man, 
 
 and half bull. 
 
 The minotaur was brought forth by Pafiphae, wife of Minos 
 king of Crete. It was fhut up in the labyrinth of that ifland ; 
 and at laft was killed byThefeus. 
 
 Servius gives us the explication of this fable. He fays, that a 
 fecretary of king Minos, named Taurus, bull, had an intrigue 
 with the queen Pafiphae, in the chamber of Daedalus ; and that 
 fhe was at length delivered of twins, one of which relembled 
 Minos, and the other Taurus. — This occafioned the production 
 to be reputed monftrous. 
 Mi NO VERY *, a trefpafs committed in the foreft, by fomething 
 that is a man's handy work 5 as an engine to catch deer, &c. 
 See Forest. 
 
 * The word is formed of the French Mmn-a^uvre, q. d. handy- 
 work. 
 
 MINSTER*, antiently fignified the church of a monaftery, or 
 convent. 
 
 * The word is Saxon, mynfler, or mynfre. 
 
 MINSTREL*, an antient term for a fidler, or player on any 
 other kind of mulical inftrument. 
 
 * Borel derives the word from mamis and hifiria, one who diverts 
 with the hand ; or from minor hiflrio, little buffoon : Da Cange 
 from miniflcllui, a diminutive of minifter, by reafon the minjlrcls 
 were antiently ranked among the lower officers, minifters, or 
 fervants. 
 
 The word minfircl, in its original, was ufed for people who 
 fung, and ferenaded their miftrefles. Afterwards it became a 
 name for all kinds of muficians : and at length it palled to buf- 
 foons, and country- fcrapers. 
 
 MINT, the place where the king's money is coined. 
 
 Antiently there were mints in moft cities of England. The 
 chief mint, at prefent, is the tower of London. 
 
 Officers of the Mint are, i°. The warden, who is the chief, 
 and is to receive the bullion, and oyerfee all the other officer.'-. 
 2°. The majler -worker who receives the bul.ion from the 
 warden, caufes it to be melted, and delivered to the mo- 
 neyers, and takes it from them again when coined. 3°. 
 Comptroller, who is to fee, that themoney be made to the juft 
 affize, and to overfee the officers. 4°. The ajjay-mafler, 
 who weighs the filver and gold, and fees whether it be ftand- 
 ard. 5°. The auditor, who takes all the accounts. 6°. The 
 furveyor of the melting, who is to fee the filver caft out, and 
 that it be not altered after it is delivered to the melter, i. u 
 after the aflay-mafter has made trial of it. 70. The clerk of 
 the irons, who is to fee that the iron be clean, and fit to work 
 with. 8°. The graver, who engraves the dyes and ftamps 
 for the coinage of the money. 9°. The ?neltcrs, who melt 
 the bullion before it comes to coining. ig°. The blanchers, 
 who anneal, or boil and cleanfe the money. 11°. Tbe^ar- 
 ters, who keep the gate of the mint. 12°. The prsv ojl of the 
 mint, who provides for all the moneyers, and overfces them. 
 And, laftly, the moneyers, fome of which Ihear the money ; 
 fome forge it ; fome ftamp or coin it ; and fome round and 
 mill it. See Coinage. 
 
 MlNT-water. See the article Water. 
 
 MINTERS, or Moneyers. See Moneyers. 
 
 MINTING is fometimes ufed for the coining of money. See 
 Coining. 
 
 MINUS, in algebra. See Characters in arithmetic, 
 ghio Minus, in law. See the article Quo minus. 
 
 MINUSCULE, in printing, denotes the fmall or running let- 
 ters ; as contradiftinguifhed from majufcula, or capitals. 
 
 MINUTE *, in geography and aftronomy, is the 60th part of 
 a degree. 
 
 * The word comes from the Latin, minutus, fmall. 
 
 In which fenfe, minute is alfo called prime, or prime-minute.— 
 The diameter of the fun is feen under an angle of 39 minutes 
 in winter ; and 31 in fummer. 
 
 The divifions of degrees are fractions, whofe denominators 
 increafe m a fexagecuplc ratio ; that is, a minute or prime is 
 —^7 ; a fecond, or fecond minute, — } ^ £gY. 
 In aftronomical tables, &c. minutes are expreffed by acute ac- 
 cents, thus, ' ; the feconds by two, " j the thirds by three, "' . 
 
 Minute, 
 
 I 
 
MIR 
 
 M I R 
 
 Minute, in computation of time, is u fed for the fixtieth part 
 of an hour. 
 
 Minute, in architecture, ufually denotes the fixtieth, fome- 
 times only the thirtieth part, or divillon, of a module. See 
 Module. 
 
 Minute is alfo ufed tofignifyafhortmemoir, or itetch of anv 
 thing haftily taken in writing. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, the minutes of the proceedings of the 
 
 houfe of lords, C2"r. 
 Meridional Minutes. See the article Meridional. 
 Minutes of emerfvm. See the article Emersion. 
 MIPARTY, Chamber of. See Chamber. 
 MIQUELETS, a kind of foot-foldiers, inhabiting the Pyrenean 
 
 mountains ; armed with piftols under their belts, a carbine, 
 
 and a dagger. — The miquclcts are dangerous people for travellers 
 
 to meet. ■ 
 
 MIRABILIS aqua. See the article Water. 
 Rete MIRABILE. See the article Rete. 
 MIROBOLANS, or Mirobalans, in pharmacy. See My- 
 
 ROB A LANS. 
 
 MIRACLE, in a popular fenfe, is a prodigy ; or an extraordi- 
 nary event that furprifes us by its novelty. 
 
 Miracle, in a more accurate and philofophical fenfe, is an 
 effect that does not follow from any of the known laws 
 of nature ; or which is inconfiftent with fome known laws 
 thereof. 
 
 A miracle, therefore, being a fufpenfion of fome law, cannot 
 come from any hand lefs than his who fixed that law j that is, 
 from God. 
 
 Spinofa denies, that any power can fuperfede that of nature ■ 
 or that any thing can difturb, or interrupt, the order of 
 things : and accordingly defines a miracle to be a rare event, 
 happening in confequence of fome laws that are unknown 
 to us. 
 
 Divines define a miracle., an extraordinary and wonderful effect, 
 above the power of nature, wrought by God, to manifeft his 
 power or providence ; or to give credit to fome meffenger fent 
 from himfclf. — Thus Jcfus Chrift evinced the truth of his 
 million., and his doctrine, by miracles ; and thus alfo did Mofes. 
 It is ftill a difpute in the world, how far it may be in the 
 power of the devil to work miracles? or wherein the fpecific 
 difference lies between the miracles of Mofes, and thole of 
 Pharaoh's magicians ; thofe of Jefus Chrilt and the apofiles, 
 and thofe of Simon Magus and Apollonius Tyaneus ? Whe- 
 ther the latter were any more than mere delufions of the 
 fenfes ; or whether any fupernatural and diabolical power con- 
 curred with them ? 
 
 The Romans attribute miracles to their emperors Adrian and 
 Vefpafian. — The church of Rome abounds in miracles ; if we 
 believe their writers, fome of their monks have wrought more 
 miracles than all the apoftles ; and this without any vifible ne- 
 ceffity for them. 
 
 As full as that church pretends to be of faints, it is a rule 
 with them, that none are ever canonized till there be good 
 proof of his having wrought miracles. So that were all thofe 
 allowed good miracles, and to have happened out of the 
 common order of nature, they arc fo numerous, one would 
 be tempted to think there was no order or law of nature 
 at all. 
 
 St. Augufiinc is a flrong advocate for miracles. He mentions 
 i'evcra!, whereof he was an eyc-witnefs ; and others, whereof 
 he was informed by thofe that were. In the finale city of 
 Hippo he tells us there were feventy miracles wrought in the 
 fpace of two years, on the building a chapel in honour of 
 St. Stephen. There are thofe, however, who fet alide the au- 
 thority of all miracles ; thinking it unbecoming the wifdom 
 of God to eftablifh fuch laws, as that he mould find it fre- 
 quently neceflary to fuperfede. And as the former, from the 
 avowed authority of fome miracles, fetch an argument for the 
 truth of all, pleading thofe which are allowed as well as thofe 
 which are queitioned ; fo theft allege the falfe ones, as con- 
 clufions againft all. 
 
 In effect, though miracles may prove the fuperintendency of 
 a voluntary agent, and that the univerfe is not guided by necef- 
 fity or fate ; yet that mind muft be weak and inadvertent, who 
 needs them to confirm the belief of a wife and good deity ; 
 fince the deviation from general laws, unlefs upon very ex- 
 traordinary occafions, muft be a prefumption of inconftancy 
 and weaknefs, rather than of a ftcady wifdom and power ; 
 and muft weaken the beft arguments we have for the fagacity 
 and power of the univerfal mind. Inquiry into the original of 
 the ideas of beauty, &c. 
 MIRROUR, or Mi rror, a fpeculum, or body, which exhi- 
 bits the images of objects prcfentcd thereto by reflexion. 
 The ule of mirrours is very antient. Mention is made of bra- 
 zen mirrours, or looking- glaflcs, in Exodus xxxviii, 8. where 
 Mofes is faid to have made a brazen laver, or bafon, of the 
 looking-glajfes of the women continually ajpmbled at the door of 
 the tabernacle. It is true, fome modern commentators will not 
 allow the mirrours themfelves to have been brafs ; but of glafs, 
 only fct or framed in brafs. But the mpft learned among the 
 
 rabbins do all allow, that in thofe times the mirrours made 
 ufe of by the Hebrew women in .dreffing their heads were 
 of metal ; and that the devout women mentioned in this 
 pafTage made prefents to Mofes of all their mirrours to make 
 the brazen laver. See the Jefuit Bonfrerius's comment on 
 this text. 
 
 It might Jikewife be proved, that the antient Greeks made 
 ufe of brazen mirrours, from divers palfages among the an- 
 tient poets. 
 
 Mirrour, in the more confined fenfe of the word, is peculiarly 
 ufed to fignify a finooth furface of glafs, tinned and quick- 
 filvered on the back-fide ; which exhibits the images of objects 
 oppofed thereto. See Looking- Glass. 
 
 Mirrour, in catoptrics, denotes any poiifhed body impervious 
 to the rays of light, and which of confequence reflects them 
 equally. 
 
 Thus water in a deep well or river, and finooth polite metals, 
 
 are ranked among the number of mirrours. 
 
 In this fenfe, the doctrine of mirrours makes the fubject of 
 
 catoptrics. 
 
 The dofirine of Mirro URS is founded on the following general 
 principles. — 1°. Light reflected from any mirrour, or fpeculum, 
 makes the angle of incidence equal to that of reflexion ; which 
 fee demonftrated under the word Reflection. 
 Hence, a ray of light, as HB (Tab. Optics, fig. 26.), falling 
 perpendicularly on the furface of a fpeculum, D£ will be re- 
 flected back upon itfelf : — as we find by experience it actu- 
 ally is. 
 
 From the fame point of a mirrour, therefore, A, there cannot 
 be fevcral rays reflected to the fame point ; fince, in that cafe, 
 all tiie angles of reflexion muft be equal to the fame angle of 
 incidence ABD, and therefore to each other j which is abfurd. 
 Nor can the ray A B be reflected to two or more points ; 
 fince, in that cale, all the angles of reflexion would be equal 
 to the fame angle of incidence ABF : which is likewife ab- 
 furd. 
 
 2°. From every point of a mirrour, are reflected rays thrown 
 on it from every point of a radiant object. — Since then rays 
 coming from different parts of the fame object, and ftriking on 
 the fame point of the mirrour, cannot be reflected back to the 
 fame point; the rays which flow from different points of the 
 fame radiating object are again feparated after reflexion : fo 
 that each point fhews whence it came. 
 
 Hence it is, that the rays reflected from mirrours exhibit the 
 objects to view. — Hence alfo it appears, that rough uneven 
 bodies muft reflect the light in fuch manner, as that rays com- 
 ing from different points will be blended or thrown confufedly 
 together. 
 
 Mirrours may be divided into plane, concave, convex, cylindri~ 
 cal, conical, parabolical, and elliptical. 
 Plane Mirrours are thofe which have a plane or flat fur- 
 face. 
 
 Thefe, by a popular name, we call looking- glaffes. 
 For the manner of making plane mirrours, or fpccula, fee 
 Looking-Glass. 
 Laws and phenomena of plane Mirrours. — 1°. In a plane mr- 
 rour, every point of an object, as A (Tab, Optics, fig. 27.), is 
 feen in the interfedtion , B, of the cathetus of incidence, AB, 
 with the reflected ray CB. 
 
 Hence, 1°. As all the reflected rays meet with the cathetus of 
 incidence in B ; by whatever reflected ray the radiant point A 
 be feen, it will ftill appear in the fame place. Confequently, any 
 number of perfens viewing the fame object in the fame mirrour, 
 will all fee it in the fame place behind the mirrour. — And hence 
 it is, that the fame object has only one image, and that we do 
 not fee it double with both eyes. 
 
 Hence alfo the diftance of the image B, from the eye C, is 
 compounded of the ray of incidence AD, and the refle&ed 
 ray CD: and the object A radiates reflected lv, in the fame 
 manner as it would do directly, were it removed into the place 
 of the image. 
 
 2°. The image of a radiant point, B, ' appears juft fo far be- 
 hind a plane mirrour, as the radiant point is before it. 
 Hence, if the mirrour A G be paced horizontal, the point A 
 will feem fo much below the horizon, as it is really elevated 
 above it : confequently, erect objects will appear as if in- 
 verted ; and therefore men ftanding on their feet, as if on their 
 heads. Or, if the mirrour be faftcned to the cieling of a room, 
 parallel to the horizon, objects on the floor will appear above 
 the cieling as much as they really are below it ; and that upfide 
 down. 
 
 3 0 . In a plane mirrour, the images are perfectly fimilar, and 
 equal to the objects. And hence their ufe as looking- glaffes. 
 4°. In a plane mirrour, things on the right hand appear as on 
 the left ; and vice verfa. 
 
 Hence alfo we have a method of mcafuring any inacceflible 
 altitude by means of a plane mirrour. — Thus, the mirrour be- 
 ing placed horizontally in C (Fig. 28.), retire from it till 
 fuch time as the top of the tree be feen therein. Meafure the 
 height of the eye DE, the diftance of the ftation from the 
 point of reflexion EC, and the diftance of the foot of the 
 
 tree 
 
M I R 
 
 MIR 
 
 tree from the fame. Then to EC, C B, and £D, find a 
 fourth proportional AB. This is the altitude fought. 
 5<=. If a plane mirrour be inclined to the horizon in an angle of 
 45 degrees, an object perpendicular to it will appear parallel, 
 und an horizontal object perpendicular. 
 
 And hence, the eye being placed beneath the mirrcur, the 
 earth will appear perpendicularly over it ; or if placed over it, 
 the earth will appear perpendicularly under it. Hence alfo, a 
 globe, defcending down a plane a little inclined, may, by means 
 of a mirrour, be exhibited as mounting up a vertical plane, 
 to die great furprize of fuch as are unacquainted with catop- 
 trics. — And hence we have a method of rcprefenting ourfelves 
 as if flying. — For a mirrour inclined to the horizon under an 
 angle of 45 0 , wehaveobferved, will reprefent vertical objects 
 as if horizontal. Confequently, a large mirrour being fo dif- 
 pofed ; as you advance toward it, you will feem to move 
 horizontally; and nothing will be wanting to the appearance 
 of flying, buttoftrike out the arms and legs. It muft be 
 added, however, that as the floor is elevated along with you, 
 your feet will (till be feen to walk as along a vertical plane. 
 To deceive the eye intirely, therefore, it mull be kept irom 
 the feet. 
 
 60. It the objea AB (fig. 29.) be parallel to the fpeculum 
 CD, and equally diftant'from it, with the eye ; the reflecting 
 line CD will be half the length of the object AB. 
 And hence, to be able to fee the whole body in a plane mirrour, 
 its height and breadth muft be half your height and breadth. 
 Confequently, the height and breadth of any object to be feen 
 in a mirrour being given, we have alfo the height and breadth 
 of the mirrour wherein the whole object will appear, at the fame 
 uiftance with the eye. 
 
 Hence alfo, as the length and breadth of the reflecting part of 
 the fpeculum arc fubduple of thofe of the object to be reflected ; 
 the reflecting part of the mirrour is to the futface reflected in a 
 (iibquadruple ratio. Confequently, the reflecting portion being 
 a conflant quantity, if in any place you fee the whole body in 
 a mirrour, you will fee it in every other place, whether you ap- 
 proach nearer, or recede farther from it. 
 
 7°. If fcveral mirrours, or feveral fragments or pieces of a 
 mirrour, be all difpofed in the fame plane, they will only ex- 
 hibit an object once. 
 
 S°. If two plane mirrours, or fpecula, meet in any angle, the 
 eye, placed within that angle, will fee the image of an object 
 placed within the fame, as often repeated as there may be ca- 
 theti drawn determining the places of the images, and termi- 
 nated without the angle. 
 
 Hence, as the more catheti, terminated without the angle, may 
 be drawn as the angle is more acute ; the acutcr the angle, the 
 more numerous the images. Thus Z. Traber found, at an an- 
 gle of one third of a circle, the image was reprefented twice, 
 at j thrice, at $ five times, and at A eleven times. 
 Further, if the mirrours be placed upright, and fo contracted ; 
 or if you retire from them, or approach to them, till the images 
 reflected by them coulcfce, or run into one ; they will appear 
 monftioufly diftortcd : thus, if they be at an angle fomewhat 
 greater tht3ii a right one, the image of your face will appear with 
 only one eye ; if the angle be lefs than a right one, you wili fee 
 three eyes, two nofes, two mouths, f jfc . At an angle ftill lefs, 
 the body will have two heads. At an angle fomewhat greater 
 than a right one, at the diltance of four feet, the body will be 
 headlefs, &c. Again, if the mirrours be placed, the one pa- 
 rallel to the horizon, the other inclined to it, or declined from 
 it, it is eafy to perceive, that the images will be ftill more ro- 
 mantic. Thus, one being declined from the horizon to an 
 angle of 144 degrees, and the other inclined to it, a man fees 
 hirufelf {landing with his head to another's feet. 
 Hence it appears, how mirrours may be managed in gardens, 
 £sY. fo as to convert the images of thofe near them into mon- 
 ftcrs of various kinds ; and ftnee glafs mirrours will reflect the 
 image of a lucid object twice or thrice, if a candle, cf'c. be 
 placed in the angle between two mirrours, it will be multiplied 
 an infinite number of times. 
 
 On thefe principles are founded various catoptric machines, 
 fame of which reprefent objects infinitely multiplied and dif- 
 torted ; others infinitely magnified, and fet at vaft diftances. 
 Convex Mirrours are thofe whofe furface is convex. 
 
 Note, by convex furfaces, authors generally mean fuch as are 
 fpherically convex. 
 Manner of preparing or making convex fpecula, or Mirrours. — 
 There are divers methods ufed by divers amils ; particularly as 
 to the matter or compulsion for the filvcring. One of the beft 
 that is known, i; given us by Wolfius thus : 
 Melt one part of tin, another of bifmuth, together ; and to the 
 melted mafs add two parts of mercury : As foon as the mercury 
 begins to evaporate into fmoke (which it prefently does), the 
 whole compoft is to be thrown into cold water, and when well 
 cooled, the water decanted off. The mixture is then to be 
 itrained through a linen cloth two or three-fold ; and what is 
 thus fecerned poured into the cavity of a glafs fphere: this 
 fpherc is to be turned gently round its axis till the whole furface 
 is covered, the reft being referred for future life. 
 If the fphere were of coloured glafs, the mirrour will be fo too. 
 
 And in the fame manner may conic, elliptic, cylindric, and 
 other mirrours, be made. 
 
 How they may be made of metal, fee under concave Mift- 
 ROUR. 
 
 Laws or phenomena of convex Mirrours. — i°. In a fpherical 
 convex mirrour, the image of a radiant point appears between 
 the centre and the tangent ; but nearer to the tangent than the 
 centre. 
 
 Hence, the diftance of the object from the tangent is greater 
 than that of the image. And, confequently, the object is fur- 
 ther diftant from the fpeculum than the image. 
 2°. If the arch BD (fig. 31.), intercepted bttween the point 
 of incidence D, and the cathetus AB ; or the angle C formed 
 in the centre of the mirrour by the cathetus of incidence AC, 
 and that of obliquation FC ; be double the angle of incidence ; 
 the image B will appear on the furface of the fpeculum. 
 3 0 . If the arch intercepted between the point of incidence and* 
 the cathetus ; or the angle C, formed in the centre of the mir- 
 rour by the cathetus of incidence, and the cathetus of obliqua- 
 tion ; be more than double the angle of incidence ; the imago 
 will be without the mirrour. 
 
 4 0 . If the arch intercepted between the point of incidence, 
 and the cathetus ; or the angle, formed in the centre of the 
 mirrour by the cathetus of incidence, and that of obliquation ; 
 be lefs than double the angle of incidence ; the image will ap- 
 pear within the fpeculum. 
 
 5". In a convex mirrour, a remoter point, A (fig. 32.), is 
 reflected from a point F, nearer the eye O, than any nearer 
 point B in the fame cathetus of incidence. 
 Hence, if the point of the object A be reflected from the 
 point of the mirrour F ; and the point of the object B, from 
 the point of the mirrour E ; all the intermediate points between 
 A and B will be reflected from the intermediate points of the 
 fpeculum between F and E. And, confequently, FE will 
 be the line that reflects AB. 
 
 Hence, alfo, a point of the cathetus B feems at a greater di- 
 ftance Qb from the centre C, than a more remote one, A. 
 6°. A nearer point B (fig. 33.)) not in the lame cathetus with 
 a remoter H, is reflected to the eye O, from a nearer point 
 of the fpeculum, than the remoter H. 
 
 Hence, if the point of an object A be reflected from the point 
 of a mirrour C, and the point of the object B, from the point 
 of the fpeculum D, all upon the fame point O ; all the inter- 
 mediate points between A and B will be reflected from all the 
 intermediate points between C and D. Confequently, the 
 image FG of the object BA is contained between the ca- 
 thetus BE and AE. 
 
 7 0 . In a fpherical convex mirrour, the image is lefs than the 
 object. 
 
 And hence the ufe of fuch mirrours in the art of painting, 
 where objects are to be reprefented lefs than the life. 
 8°. In a convex mirrour, the more remote the object, the 
 lefs its image ; and, again, the fmaller the mirrour, the lefs 
 the image. 
 
 9 0 . In a convex mirrour, the right hand is turned to the left, 
 and the left to the right ; and magnitudes perpendicular to the 
 mirrour appear topfy-turvy. 
 
 io°. The image of a right line, perpendicular to the mirrour, 
 is a right line ; but that of a right line either oblique to the 
 mirrour, or parallel thereto, is convex. 
 
 Rays reflected from a convex mirrour diverge more than 
 if reflected from a plane mirrour. 
 
 Hence light, by being reflected from a fpherical mirrour, is 
 weakened ; and, confequently, the effects of reflected light are 
 weaker than thofe of direct. Hence alfo, myopes fee remote 
 objects more diltinctly in a convex mirrour, than they do di- 
 rectly. 
 
 Rays reflected from a convex mirrour of a fmaller fphere di- 
 verge more than thofe reflected from a larger. Confequentlv, 
 the liaht is morewe akened, and its effects are Ids confiderable, 
 in the former cafe than the latter. 
 Concave Mirrours are thofe, whofe furface is concave. Thefe 
 are generally made of a mixed metal. 
 
 Note, by concave, authors commonly mean fpherically concave. 
 Manner of preparing or making concave Mirrours. — Firft, a 
 mould is to be provided for calling them. In order to this, 
 take clay well dried, pulverize and lift it; mix it up with 
 water, and then ftrain or filtre it ; with this, work up horfe- 
 dung, and hair fhred fmall, till the mafs be fufhciently tough ; 
 to which, on occafion, may be added charcoal-duff, or brick- 
 duft, well fifted. 
 . Two coarfe moulds are then prepared of a gritty flone, the 
 one concave, the other convex ; which are to be ground by 
 one another with wet fand between, till fuch time as the one 
 perfectly fits the other. By this means a perfect fpherical figure 
 is acquired. 
 
 The mafs, prepared before, is now to be extended on a tabic, 
 by means of a wooden roller, till it be of a thicknefs proper for 
 the mirrour; and then being flrewed with brick-duft to prevent 
 its flicking, it is laid over the convex mould, and fo gets the 
 figure of the mirrour. When this is dry, it is covered with 
 another lay of the fame mafs ; which once dried, both the covers, 
 
 or 
 
M I R 
 
 M I R 
 
 or fegments of the hollow fphere made of clay, are taken off. 
 The innermoft of the two being laid afide, tiie ftone mould is 
 anointed with a pigment prepared of chalk and milk, and the 
 outer cover again put over it. 
 
 Laftly, The joining being covered over with the fame clay 
 whereof the cover is formed, the whole mould is bound toge- 
 ther with iron-wire, and two holes are cut through the cover, 
 the one for the melted matter of the mirrour to be poured thro', 
 the other for the air to efcape at, to prevent the mirrour 's be- 
 ing fpoiled with bubbles. 
 
 The mould being thus prepared, eight parts of copper, one of 
 EnMifti tin, and five of bifmuth, are melted together; a little 
 of the mixture is taken out with a ladle, and, if it be too red, 
 when cold, more tin is put in; if too white, more copper : 
 the mafs is then poured into the mould before prepared, and fo 
 affumes the figure of a mirrour. 
 
 Some with ten parts of copper mix four of Englifh tin, and a 
 little antimony and falarmoniac, ftirring the mafs about as long 
 as any fumes arife in it: others have other compofitions, many 
 of which aredcfcribed bySchottus and Zahnius. 
 The mirrour, being thus caft, is cemented to a wooden frame, 
 and thus worked to and fro over the convex ftone mould, firft 
 with water and fand, and, laftly, without land, till it be fit for 
 polifhing ; the ftone mould is then covered with paper, and that 
 is fmearcd over with Tripoly duft, and calx of tin, over which 
 the mirrour is worked to and fro till it have got a perfect polifh. 
 —And in the fame manner are glafs mirrours poliftied, except- 
 ing that the convex furface is there worked in the concave 
 mould. 
 
 When the mirrours are very large, they are fixed on a table, 
 and firft ground with a gritty ftone, then with pumice, then 
 with fine fand, by means of a glafs cemented to a wooden 
 frame; and, hdtly, they are rubbed with calx of tin, and Tri- 
 poly duft, on a wet leather. 
 
 For concave mirrours of glafs, the mould is ufually made of 
 alabafter ; the reft is as in metal mirrours. 
 j^azvs and phenomena of cmww Mirrours. — If a ray, as 
 K 1 ( fig. 34j 5 fall on a concave mirrour L I, under an incli- 
 nation of 60 degrees, and parallel to the axis AB; the re- 
 flected ray I B will concur with the axis A B in the pole of the 
 glafs B. — If the inclination of the incident ray he lefs than 60 
 degrees, as that of E, the reflected ray EF will concur with 
 the axis at the d iftance B F, which is lefs than a fourth part of 
 the diameter.— And, univcrfally, the diftance of the point F, 
 wherein the ray HE concurs with the axis, from the centre C, 
 is to half the radius CD in the ratio of the whole fine, to the 
 eofine of inclination. 
 
 Hence it is gathered, by calculation, that in a concave fpberi- 
 cal mirrour, whofe breadth fub tends an angle of fix degrees, pa- 
 rallel rays meet, after reflexion, in a part of the axis lefs than 
 the one'thoufand four hundred fifty-feventh part of the radius : 
 if the breadth of the concave mirrour be 6, 9, 12, 15, or 
 J 8 decrees ; the part of the axis wherein the parallel rays meet, 
 after reflexion, is lefs than jgj, T st, r?» (5si h>> °f the ra- 
 dios. 
 
 And on this principle it is, that burning glajps are formed. 
 For fince the rays diffufed through the whole furface of the 
 concave mirrour, after reflexion, are contracted into a very 
 fmall compafs ; the light and heat of the parallel rays muft be 
 prodigioufly increafed thereby, viz. in a duplicate ratio of the 
 bread th of the mirrour, and the diameter of the circle wherein 
 all the rays are collected : and fince the fun's rays are, as to 
 any purpofes on earth, parallel; no wonder concave mirrours 
 fhould burn with fo much violence. 
 
 From this fame principle is likewife deduced a method of re- 
 prefenting the images of objects in a dark room; which fee 
 under Camera objeura. 
 
 a". A lucid body being placed in the focus F, of a concave 
 mirrour EI, {fig. 34..) the rays, after reflexion, become paral- 
 lel. 
 
 Hence an intenfe light may be projected to a vaft diftance, by 
 a lighted candle, l3c. placed in the focus of a concave mir- 
 , TOUT. : 1„ iU. r 'Lil !(',.:„.;..*' -&.''. ' .: 
 
 Hence, alfo, if the parallel rays be received by another concave 
 mirrour, they will again concur in its focus, and burn. 
 Zahnius mentions an experiment of this kind made at Vienna, 
 where two concave mirrours, the one fix, the other three feet 
 diameter, being placed about twenty-four feet apart, with a 
 live coal in the focus of the one, and a match and tinder in the 
 other, the rays of the coal lighted the tinder. 
 3°. If a lucid body be placed between the focus F, ( fig. 34. 
 n. 2.) and the mirrour H B C, the rays, after reflexion, will di- 
 verge from the axis B A : whence it follows, that light is weak- 
 ened by reflexion. 
 
 4". If a lucid body be placed between the focus F, and the 
 centre G, the rays, after reflexion, will meet in the axis beyond 
 the centre. 
 
 Hence, if a candle be placed in I, its image will appear In A ; 
 if it be placed in A, its image will be in 1 ; in the intermediate 
 points between I and A, the fection of light will be a circle, 
 and that fo much the greater, as it is nearer the point of con- 
 courfe. 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 5 0 . If a luminous body be placed in the centre of the mirrour s 
 all the rays will be reflected back upon themfelves. 
 Hence, if the eye be placed in the centre of a concave mirrour, 
 it will fee nothing but itfelf, and that confufedly through the 
 whole mirrour, 
 
 6°. If a ray, falling from the point of the cathetus {fig-3$.) 
 on the convex mirrgur bE, be, together with its reflex IF, 
 continued within the concavity of the mirrour ; F H will be 
 the incident ray from the point of the cathetus H, and FO its 
 reflex. 
 
 Hence, fince the point of the cathetus H is the image of the 
 point h in the convex mirrour ; but the point h the image of 
 H in the concave ; if the image of an object, reflected by a 
 convex fpeculum, be feen by a reflexion made in its concavity, 
 it will appear like the object itfelf. 
 
 And fince the image of an infinite cathetus is lefs in a convex 
 glafs, by one fourth of its diameter; a portion of the cathetus, 
 lefs than a fourth part of the diameter, may appear of any 
 magnitude required in a concave one, 
 
 A point, therefore, diflant from a concave fpeculum lefs than 
 one fourth of the diameter, muft appear behind the mirrour at 
 any diftance, how great foever. 
 
 Since the image of any object, how broad foever, is contained, 
 in a convex fpeculum, between the two lines of incidence of 
 its extreme points; if an object be placed between the two 
 lines, at a diftance lefs than one fourth of its diameter, the 
 breadth of the image, how great foever, may all appear. 
 Since then the image or an object included between two lines, 
 at a diftance lefs than one fourth of the diameter, may exceed 
 the juft height and breadth of the object ; nay, may be made 
 of any magnitude, how big foever : objects placed between 
 the focus and mirrour muft appear of enormous magnitudes in 
 concave mirrours ; the image being Co much the greater in the 
 concave mirrour, as it is lefs in the convex. 
 In a convex mirrour, the image of a remote object appears 
 nearer the centre than that of a nearer object : therefore, in a 
 concave mirrour, the image of an object remote from the mir- 
 rour appears at a greater diftance than that of a nearer object, 
 provided the diftance of the object from the centre be lefs than 
 a fourth part of the diameter. 
 
 In a convex fpeculum, the image of a remote object is lefs than 
 that of a near one : therefore, in a concave one, the image of 
 an object placed between the focus and the mirrour, is nearer 
 the focus than the fpeculum. 
 
 The image, therefore, of an object receding continually from a 
 concave fpeculum, becomes continually greater, provided it do> 
 not recede beyond the focus, where it becomes confuted ; and 
 as it approaches, it grows continually lefs. 
 In a convex fpeculum, if the fphere, whereof it is a fegment, 
 be fmaller, the image is fmaller than in another of a larger 
 fphere : therefore in a concave, if the fphere whereof it is a 
 fegment be fmaller, the image will be larger than in another 
 whofe fphere is larger: whence concave mirrours, if they be 
 fegments of very fmall fpheres, will do the office of micro- 
 scopes- - 
 
 7°, If an object be placed between a concave mirrour and its 
 focus, its image will appear behind the mirrour, in an inverted 
 fituation. 
 
 8*. If an object AB {fig. 36.) be placed between the focus 
 and the centre, its image EF will appear inverted, and in the 
 open air, beyond the centre, the eye being placed beyond the 
 centre, 
 
 9". If an object EF be placed beyond the centre C, and the 
 eye likewife beyond the centre ; the image will appear inverted 
 in the open air, between the centre and the focus. 
 Hence, the inverted images of objects placed beyond the centre 
 are reflected by a concave mirrour, erect ; and may be received 
 on a paper applied between the centre and the focus, efpecially 
 if the room be dark : if the object E F be further d iff 2m from 
 the centre than is the focus, the image will be lefs than the 
 object. 
 
 On this principle, concave mirrours, efpecially thofe which are 
 fegments of large fpheres, and are capable of reflecting intire 
 objects, exhibit many pleafing phenomena. Thus, if a man 
 flourifh a fword againft the mirrour, another comes out thereof, 
 and meets him with the fame motions; and the image of bin 
 head coming out of the mirrour, if he ftrike it with his real 
 fword, the imaginary fword will ftrike his real head. If he 
 ftretch out his hand, another hand will be flretched out of 
 the mirrour, and meet it at a great diftance in the open air, CsV. 
 And on the fame principle are built catoptric ciftulse, which, 
 when looked into, exhibit images vaftly bigger than the cheft. 
 See Catoptric cijlula. 
 
 io°. The image of a right line, perpendicular to a concave 
 mirrour, is a right line; but ail oblique or parallel lines are 
 concave. 
 
 Cylindrical, conical, parabolical, 3nd elliptical Mirrours, or 
 fpecula, are thofe terminated by a furface refpect.vely cylin- 
 drical, conical, parabolical, and fpheroidical. 
 
 To prepare, or make, cylindrical, conical, parabolical, elliptical, 
 and hyperbolical Mirrours. — For the cylindrical and coni- 
 cal fort, if they are to be of glafs, the method of preparing 
 6 U them 
 
MIS 
 
 M I S 
 
 them is the time as that already hid down for convex mir- 
 
 If of metal, they are to be made after the manner ot concave 
 mirrours, only that the clay moulds, there defcribed, require 
 other wooden ones of the figure of the mirrour. 
 For elliptical, parabolical, and hyperbolical mirrours, the mould 
 is to be thus prepared. On a wooden or brazen plane or table, 
 defcribe the figure of an ellipfis, A B, {fig. 37.) a parabola, or 
 an hyperbola, CD, {fig. 38.) after the manner taught under 
 thofc heads ; which done, cut out the figure from the plane 
 with all the accuracy imaginable. 
 
 To the elliptic figure fir an axis, as EF, with two fulcra to 
 fuftain it, &c. and a handle to move it ; lay a quantity of the 
 clay, above defcribed, under it ; and turn about the axis by the 
 handle, till the plane A B have turned, or impreffed the ellipti- 
 cal figure exactly thereon. 
 
 The axis of the parabolical or hyperbolical figure, CD, is to 
 be fixed at the vertex in fuch manner as that it may always 
 remain erect ; this to be turned about as above, till it have 
 given its own figure to the clay applied about it. 
 The part of the mould, thus formed, is to be dried, and either 
 fmeared over with fat, or fpiinkled with brick-duft ; then a 
 convex mould is to be made, by putting a quantity of the fame 
 clay into the cavity thus formed. — This latter is called themale, 
 as the former the female mould. 
 
 The male mould, being well dried, is to be applied within the 
 female, in fuch manner, as only to leave the intended thicknefs 
 of the mhrour between them. — The reft as for concave mu- 
 rours. 
 
 Thefe mirrours are not made without the utmoft difficulty ; by 
 reafon, be the moulds ever fo juft, the figure of the mirrour is 
 apt to be damaged in the grinding. 
 Phenomena, or properties of cylindrical MlRROURS. — 1°. The 
 dimenfions of objects correfponding length- wife to the mirrour, 
 are not much changed ; but thofe correfponding breadth-wife 
 have their figures altered, and their dimenfions leffened fo much 
 the more, as they are farther from the mirrour: whence arifes a 
 vary great diftoi tion. 
 
 2". If the plane of reflexion cut the cylindric mirrour through 
 the axis, the reflexion is performed in the fame manner as in 
 a plane mirrour ; if it cut it parallel to the bafe, the reflexion 
 happens in the fame manner as in a fpherical mirrour ; if, 
 laftly, it cut it obliquely, or be oblique to its bafe, the reflexion 
 is the fame as in an elliptical mirrour. 
 
 Hence, as the plane of reflexion never paffes through the axis 
 of the mirrour, except when the eye and objective-line are 
 in the fame plane; nor parallel to the bafe, except when the 
 radiant point and the eye areat the fame height; the reflexion, 
 in a cylindrical mirrour, is ufually the fame as in an elliptical 
 one. 
 
 3\ If a hollow cylindrical mirrour be oppofed directly to the 
 fun, inftead of a focus of a point, the rays will be reflected 
 into a lucid line, parallel to its axis, at a diftance fomewhat 
 lefs than a fourth part of its diameter. 
 
 Hence arifes a method of drawing anamorphofes, i. e. wild, 
 deformed figures, on a plane, which appear beautiful, and 
 well proportioned , when viewed in a cylindrical mir- 
 rour. 
 
 For elliptic, parabolic, conic, and pyramidal Mirrours, we 
 are not much acquainted with their properties : only that, 
 In the firft, if a ray ftrike on it from one of its focus's, it is 
 reflected into the oilier : fb that a lighted candle being placed 
 in one, its light will be collected in the other. 
 That the fecond, inafmuch as all the rays they reflect meet in 
 one point, make the beft burning-glaffes of all others. 
 And, laftly, Thatwild, irregular figures, maybe fo drawn on 
 a plane, as that, the eye being placed over the axis of the two 
 laft, they fhall appear beautiful, and well-proportioned. See 
 Anamorphosis. 
 
 MIS, a particle prefixed to divers words, particularly law- 
 terms; denoting fome default, or defect. — As, in mifpri- 
 fan; tr.ifdicere, to fcandalize one ; mifdocere, to teach amifs, 
 *3c. 
 
 .MISANTHROPY*, a general diflikc or avcrfion to man, and 
 mankind. 
 
 * The word is Greek, WIigav^wm, formed of y.t<ro!, odium, 
 hatred ; and nvfyuT'.;, homo, man. 
 In which fenfe it ftands oppofed to philanthropy., or the love of 
 mankind. 
 
 MISAVENTURE, or Misadventure, in law, the killing 
 a man partly by negligence, and partly by chance. — As, if a 
 perfon, thinking no harm, carelefly throw a ftone, or fhoot an 
 arrow, wherewith he kills another ; this is a mifadventure : 
 and, in this cafe, he commits no felony, but only lofes his goods, 
 and lias apardon, of tourfe, for his life. 
 
 Staundford diftiiiguiihes between avinture and mifaventure. 
 The firft he rmkes to be mere chance : as if a man, being 
 upon or near the water, be taken with fome fudden ficknefs, 
 and fo fall in, and be drowned ; or into the fire, and be 
 burnt. 
 
 Mifaventure, according to him, is when a man comes to 
 his death hy fome outward violence ; as the fall of a tree, 
 
 the running of a cart-wheel, the ftroke of an horfe, or the 
 like. 
 
 Weft diftinguifhes homicide into cafual and mixed. The firft, 
 when a man is flain by mere accident, againft the mind of the 
 killer ; as, if the ax fly off the helve, and kill a man : which 
 is the fame with Briton's mifaventure. 
 MISCHNA, or Misna, a part of the Jewifti talmud. See 
 Talmud. 
 
 The mifchna contains the text ; and the gemara, which is the 
 fecond part of the talmud, contains the commentaries : fo that 
 the gemara is, as it were, a gloffary on the mifchna. 
 The mifchna confifts of various traditions of the Jews, and of 
 explanations of feveral paffages of fenpture. — The Jews main- 
 tain, that it was completed, and reduced into a body, by 
 rabbi Juda, in the fecond century, to prevent the memory of 
 their traditions from perifhing. But the generality of the 
 learned fcarce allow it of fo much antiquity, but bring it fe- 
 veral centuries lower. 
 
 It is written in a much purer ftyle, and is not near fo full of 
 
 dreams and vitions as the gemara. 
 MISCONTINUANCE, in law, the fame with difcontinuance. 
 
 See Discontinuance. 
 MISDEMEANOUR, an offence, or fault, particularly when in 
 
 the execution of an office. 
 
 High crimes and mifdemeanours denote offences of a heinous 
 nature, next to high treafon. 
 MISE, a French term, literally denoting expence, or difburfe- 
 ment: it is ufed in our law-books in divers acceptations. — 
 Sometimes for the profits of lands ; fometimcs for taxes, or tail- 
 lajes ; and fometimes for expenees, or cofts : as, pro mifis & 
 cujlagiis, for cofts and charges in the entries of judgments, 
 &c. 
 
 Mise more peculiarly denotes an honorary gift, or cuftomary 
 prcfent, wherewith the people of Wales ufed to falute every 
 new king and prince of Wales at their entrance upon the prin- 
 cipality. 
 
 Antiently, the mife was given in cattle, wine, corn, C3"c. for 
 the fupport of the prince's family; but when that dominion 
 was annexed to the Englifh crown, the gift was changed into 
 money. — The county of Flint paid two thoufand marks, (jfc. 
 for their mife. 
 
 The county of Chefter alfo a mife or tribute of five thoufand 
 marks at the change of every owner of the fiid earldom, for 
 enjoying the privileges of that palatinate. — At Chefter they 
 have a mife-book, wherein every town and village in the county- 
 is rated what to pay towards the mife. 
 
 Mise is alfo ufed in fpeaking of a writ of right. What in other 
 actions is called an ijfue, in a writ of right is called a mife or 
 me : fb that to join the mije upon the meer, is as much as to fir, 
 to join iffue on the meer right, i. li to join upon this point, 
 whether has the more right, the tenant or demandant. 
 Yet even in a writ of right, if a collateral point be tried, it is 
 there called an iffue, not a mife. 
 
 Mise is alfo fometimes ufed corruptly for meofe, a meffuage or 
 tenement. 
 
 In fome manors, a mife or meafe place is taken for fuch a mef- 
 fuagc or tenement as yields the lord an heriot at the death of 
 the tenant. 
 
 MISERERE, have mercy, the name, and firft word, of one of 
 the penitential pfulms ; being that commonly given by the or- 
 dinary to fuch condemned malefactors as are allowed the be- 
 nefit of the clergy. — Whence it is alio called the pfalm of 
 mercy. 
 
 Miserere met, denotes a kind of colic, or diforder of the in- 
 terlines, wherein the excrements, inftead of pafling off the 
 common way, are often thrown up by the mouth. 
 The miferere mei is the fame with what wc otherwife call vol- 
 vulus, and iliac paffon. See Iliac paffion. 
 It takes its name from the intolerable pain and anguifh it occa- 
 fions the patient; which is fuch as claims pity from the behold- 
 ers ; Mijerere met being a Latin phrafe, which literally lignifies, 
 Have pity on me. 
 
 MISERICORDIA, Mercy, inlaw, an arbitrary amerciament, 
 or pimifhment impofed on any perfon for an offence. 
 Where the plaintiff or defendant in any action is amerced , the 
 entry is always idea inmifericordia. 
 
 It is thus called, according to Fitzhcrbert, by reafon it ought 
 to be but fmall*, and lets than the offence, according to tiie 
 tenor of magna charta. 
 
 • Mulela icr.ior fsc dicla, quod hnifima impenitur mifericordia ; 
 graviores ci::m rr.ulcfas fines vacant ; atrocijjimas, redemptiones. 
 See Fine, and Redemption. 
 Hence, if a man unreafonably amerced in a court not of 
 record, as a court-baron, &c. there is a writ called modtrata 
 mifericordia, directed to the lord, or his bailiff, commanding 
 them to take moderate amerciaments. 
 
 Misericordia communis, is when a fine is fet on the whole 
 county, or hundred. 
 
 MISFEASANCE, in law, a mifdeed or trefpafs. Whence alfo 
 misfeafor, a trelpaffer. 
 
 MISKERING, Mijkerring. See Abishersinc. 
 
 M1SLETOE. See the article Mistletoe. 
 
 MISNA. 
 
M I S 
 
 JVIISNA. See the article Mischna. 
 
 MISNOMER*, in law, a wrong name; or the ufmo- of one 
 name for another. 
 
 * The word is compounded of mis, which in compofition fig 
 fiesamifs; and Hammer, to name. 
 MISPRISION, in law, fignifies a neglect, or overfight. — 
 Thus, 
 
 Misprision of dirts, isaneglcflof clerks, in writing or keep- 
 ing records. 
 
 By the mifprifun of clerks, no procefs (hall be annulled or dis- 
 continued. And juftices of affi/.e (hall amend the defaults of 
 clerks mif-fpelling of a fyllable, or letter, in writing. 
 
 Misprisions/' treafon, is a negligence in not reveahngtreafon, 
 where a perfon knows it to be committed. 
 Mifprifton is the concealment, or not difclofmg, of known 
 treaibn, for which the offenders are to fuffer imprifonment du- 
 ring the king's pleafure; and to lofe their goods, and the pro 
 fit of their lands during their lives. 
 
 Misprision of felony, is only fineable by the juftices before 
 whom the party is attainted. 
 
 Juftices of the common pleas have a power to afiefs any amer- 
 ciaments upon perfons offending by mifprifions, contempts, or 
 negle&s, for not doing or mifdoing any thing in or concern 
 ing fines. 
 
 MISSAL, Missale, a mafs-book, containing the feveral maffes 
 to be ufed on the feveral days, feafts, 6rV. 
 The Roman miffal was firft compiled by pope Zachary, and 
 afterwards reduced into better order bv pope Gregory the great 
 who called it the book of facramems. 
 
 Each diocefe, and each order of religious, have their particu- 
 lar miffal, accommodated to the feftivals of the province, or of 
 the order. 
 
 MISSELTOE. Seethe article Mistle toe. 
 MISSEN-m*/?, or MizzEN-iajff, of a (hip, is a mo/?, or round 
 
 long piece of timber, Handing upright in the fternmoft part. 
 
 — -See7i4. Ship, fig. I, 11.1,13,19. See alfo Mast. 
 Missen-/,ii7, is that belonging to the mifien-yard. See Sail. 
 
 When at fea they ufe the word miffen alone, they always mean 
 
 the fad, and not the majl. 
 
 Some great fhips require two miffms ; in which cafe, that next 
 
 the main-maft is called the main-miffen, that next the poop the 
 
 bonaventure-miffen. 
 Change die Missen, that is, bring the miffen-yard over to the 
 
 other fide of the mail. 
 Peek die Missen, that is, put the miffen right up and down the 
 
 maft. 
 
 Spellllie Missen, Vc. that is, let go the flieet, andpeekitup. 
 MISSION. See Emission, Manumission, Remission, 
 
 and Transmission. 
 Mission, in theology, denotes a power or commi'mon to 
 
 preach the gofpel. 
 
 Jefus Chrift gave his difciples their miffion in thefe words, Go, 
 emd teach all nations, &c. 
 
 The Romanifts reproach the Proteftants, that their minifters 
 have no miffion; as not being authorized in the exercife of their 
 miniftry, either by an uninterrupted fueceffion from the apo- 
 ftles, or by miracles, or by any extraordinary proof of a vo- 
 cation. 
 
 The anabaptifts deny any other miffion ncceffary for the mi- 
 niftry than the talents neceffary to diicharge it. 
 Mission is alfo ufed for an eftabliftiment of people zealous for 
 the glory of God, and the falvation of fouls ; who go and 
 preach the gofpel in remote countries, and among infidels. 
 There are miffions in the Eaft, as well as in the Weft- Indies— 
 Among ihe Romanifts, the religious orders of St. Dominic 
 St. rrancis, St. Auguftine, and the Jefuits, have miffions in the 
 Levant, America, {sc. 
 
 The Jefuits have alfo miffions in China, and all other parts of 
 the globe where they have been able to penetrate The men- 
 dicants abound in miffions. 
 
 Mission, is alfo the name of a congregation of priefts and lav- 
 men inftituted by Vincent De Paul, 'and confirmed in 1626 
 by pope Urban VIII. under the title of Prie/ls of the correla- 
 tion of the million. £ 
 Theie profefs to make it their whole bufinefs to affift the poor 
 people in the country ; and to this purpofe they oblige them- 
 ielves never to preach, or adminifter any of the facramems in 
 XT' WlKrC ' here ' S a " archbifl,0 P> bifto P> or provincial 
 They are fettled in mod provinces of France, Italy, Germanv 
 and in Poland— At Paris they have a feminary, which they 
 call ihc foreign miffion; where youth are bred up, and qualified 
 for miffions abroad. " 
 
 MISSIONARY, an ecclefiaftic who devotes himfelf and his la- 
 bours to feme miffen, either for the inrtruaion of the or- 
 thodox, the conviction of heretics, or the convcrfion of In- 
 
 M l S fend E ' f0mCth ' nS {"' mother—From the Latin, mitto, 
 
 We fay miffivc letters, or letters miffivc, meaning letters fent 
 trom one to another. 
 
 In propriety, letters miffwe are letters of bufinefs, but not bufi- 
 
 M I T 
 
 nefs of great concern; in contradiftinftion from letters of ml- 
 »„I^ ry ' ,ctterson P^nts of learning, difpatches, tic. 
 MfcT, a meteor, called alfo fog. See Fog. 
 MISTLETOE, Misletoe, or Misseltoe, in natural hi- 
 ftory, a plant of the parafite kind ; growing, not on the 
 ground but on other trees, as the oak, apple-tree, pear-tree, 
 white-thorn, afh, lime, willow, elm {jf" 
 MftUtoe by phyficians, lie. called' vifium, grows to the 
 height o about two feet. It confifts of feveral ftems, which 
 are ufual y covered with a greenifti, fometimes a yellowifll 
 bark, and are about the thicknefs of the finger, hard woody 
 and divided by knots; from which fpring the leaves, which 
 grow by two and two oppofite to each other : they are oblong 
 thick, of a greenifti, or yellowifll colour, veined their whole 
 length, and rounded at the end. Its flowers grow by three 
 and three, trefoil-wife, at the extremes of the branches ■ each 
 Hower is a fort of yellow calyx, one third of an inch in dia- 
 meter, divided into four parts. 
 
 The truit likewife grows by three and three, at the extremes 
 ot the branches: theyareakind of white roundifh berries, not 
 unlike pearls, containing a flattifh feed in form of a heart ; 
 covered with a fine filvered membrane, and invironed with a 
 vifcid, glutinous humour, of a whitifti colour, wherein the 
 leed naturally buds or germinates, and puts forth two eyes— 
 From this juice it is, that the Latins denominate the plant im/- 
 The truit grows on different branches from the flowers, 
 i he uncommon foil, whereon the miftlctee grows, has occa- 
 doried abundance of fabulous notions, both as to its produaion 
 and virtues. 
 
 Pliny and molt naturalifts relate, that thruflies, being exceed- 
 ingly fond of the berries of the miftletoe, fwallow them, and 
 caft them out again on the branches of trees where they ufe to 
 perch ; and, bv this means, give occafion to a new produaion 
 ot rmjlletoe. Hence that proverb, Tardus f,bi cacat malum ; 
 the mfam being fometimes ufed as bird-lime. By cracking; 
 the berries, alfo, with their bills, or claws, they are fuppofed to 
 JJ ou ' ™ vl| cous juice, which facilitates their' flickm™. 
 Mr. Bradley endeavours to refute the popular opinion of the an- 
 tlents,that the feeds of the mifllttoe, fimply fown, could not vege- 
 tate. Their endeavouring to propagate itin theearth without fw> 
 cels, he takes to have led them into the error ; and afferts, that 
 it may be propagated by feed on any ttee whatever. The me- 
 thod too is very eafy. About Chriftmas, when the berries arc 
 full ripe, you need only apply them on the fmooth bark of any 
 tree; the vifcid juices they are encompaffed withal, will make 
 them ftick; and, provided the birds do not devour the feed 
 you may, without any farther trouble, expea a youns nlan' 
 the following year. b v 
 
 But others rather chufe to account for the propaoation of 
 miftletoe from the fyftem hereafter advanced for chaTof mulh- 
 rooms. SccMushroom. 
 
 F'or the virtues of miftletoe ; it feems of the moft efficacy in 
 the epilepfy ; againft which fome will have it a fpecific. Dr 
 Colbatch has wrote exprefly to ptove it fuch. It is alfo pre- 
 scribed ,n apoplexies, lethargies, and vretigoes ; and is worn 
 about the necks of children to prevent convulfions, and eafe 
 the cutting of their teeth. 
 
 The beft is the miftletoe of the oak ; though it is not this which 
 is commonly ufed, but that of the apple or pear-tree. Mr 
 bradley obferves, that there is no variety in this plant ; but 
 that the leaves, (lowers, fruit, {gc, are all alike, on whatever 
 kind ot tree ,t grows : but others pretend to be able to diftin- 
 guilh that of the oak by feveral particulars. 
 The virtues afcribed to the miftletoe may perhaps be the re- 
 mains of the religious honours paid it by the anticnt Gauls • 
 among whom the Druids, affembled conftantly on the firft dav 
 ot the year, went in queft thereof with hymns, and other cere- 
 monies and rejoicings, diftributing it again among the peoole 
 as a thing facred, after having firft cohfecrated it? cryine Au 
 guy I an neuf, to proclaim the new year. 
 This cry is (till kept up at Picardy, where they add planter 
 to wild a plentiful new year. 
 
 M. Perrault obferves, that the miftletoe is full of a difagreeable 
 juice, which weakens the tree whereon it grows ; and that the 
 iviricv l\ a ' WayS a di % reeabl c arte, while it (licks on it 
 MISY, MIST, ,'n natural hiftory, fee Chalcitis. See alfo 
 
 Supplement, Article MlSY . 
 MITE, a fmall coin, formerly current ; equal to about one third 
 
 part of a farthing. 
 Mite alfo denotes a fmall weight ufed by the moneyers. It is 
 equal to the twentieth part of a grain, and is divided into 
 twenty-four doits. 
 MITHRIDATE, Mithridatium, in pharmacy, an anti- 
 dote or compofition in form of an eleauary, fervin<* either as 
 a remedy or a prefervative againft poifons. 
 Mithridate is one of the capital medicines in the apothecaries 
 (hops, being compofed of a vaft number of drugs; among 
 which are, opium, myrrh, agaric, faffron, ging-r, cinnamon, 
 jpikenard, frankincenje, caftor, pepper, gentian he. 
 
 It is accounted a cordial, opiate, fudorificand alexipharmic. 
 
 Matthiolus fays, it is more effiaual againft poifon than Venice- 
 treacle, and much eafier to be made. 
 
 It 
 
M I X 
 
 MIX 
 
 It takes its name from its inventor, Mithridates king of Pon- j 
 tus, who is reported to have fo fortified his body againft p6i- 
 fons with antidotes and prefervatives, that when he had a mind 
 to difpatch himfelf, he could not find any poifon that would 
 
 take effect. , Lj» f -JI^tu • - . t - 
 
 The receipt of it Was found in his cabinet, written with his 
 own hand, and was carried to Rome by Pompey. It was 
 tranflated into verfc by Damocrates, a famous phyfician, and 
 was afterwards tranflated by Galen, from whom we have it. 
 It has undergone confiderable alterations fince the time of its 
 royal prefcribcr. 
 
 MITRALES WW<s, Mitralw/m, in anatomy, two valves 
 in the heart; thus called from their refembtfng the figure of a 
 mitre. 
 
 They are placed at the orifice of the pulmonary vein, in the 
 left ventricle of the heart. Their office is, to clofe the orifice 
 thereof, and to prevent the return of the blood through the 
 pulmonary vein into the lungs again. 
 MITRE*, Mitra, a pontifical ornament, worn on the head 
 by bifliops, and certain abbots, on folemn occafions. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, y.nfa t which fignifies the 
 fame. 
 
 The mitre is a round cap, pointed, and cleft atop with two 
 pendents hanging down on the moulders. — -Abbots wear the mitre 
 turned in profile, and bear the cruder inwards; to fhew that 
 they have no fpiritual jurifdiction without their own cloifters, 
 The pope has alfo granted to fome canons of cathedrals the 
 privilege of wearing the mitre. — The counts of Lyons are alfo 
 laid to have aflifted at church in mitres. 
 
 In Germany, feveral great families bear the mitre for their 
 creft ; to (hew, that they are advocates cr feudataries of an- 
 tient abbies, or officers of bifhops, tsc 
 
 The pope has four mitres, which are more or lefs rich accord- 
 ing to the fulemnity of the feaft-days they are to be worn on. 
 The mitre was originally the womens hcad-drefs, as the hat 
 was that of the men. This appears from Rcnuilus in Virgil, 
 who reproaches the Trojans, that they were dreiled like wo 
 men, and wore mitres. — Et tunica manicas, & babent redi- 
 micula mitra?. 
 
 The cardinals antiently wore mitres, before the hat, which was 
 fitft granted thi:m by the council of Lyons in 1245. Author:: 
 make no mentidn of the mitre as an epifcopal ornament before 
 the year 1000. 
 
 Mit re, in architecture, is the workmens term for an angle that 
 is juft 45 degrees, or half a right one. 
 
 If the angle be a quarter of a right angle, they call it a half- 
 mitre. 
 
 To defcribe fuch angles, they have an inftrument called the 
 mitre ■ fgtiare ; with this they (hike mitre-lines on their quar 
 ters, or battens : and, for difpatch, they have a mitre-box, at 
 they call it, which is made of two pieces of wood, each about 
 an inch thick, one nailed upright on the edge of the other; 
 the upper piece hath the mitre-lines (truck upon it on both 
 Jidcs, and a kerf to direct the law in cutting the mitre joint- 
 readily, by only applying the piece into this box. 
 MITRED abbots. See the article Abbot. 
 MITTENDIS records £sf proccjfu. See Recordo. 
 MITTIMUS, in law, a writ, by which records are ordered to 
 be transferred from one court to another ; fometimes immedi- 
 ately, as out of the King's Bench into the Exchequer ; and 
 fometimes by a certiorari into the Chancery, and from thence 
 by a mittimus into another court. 
 Mittimus is alfo ufed for a precept in writing directed by a 
 juftice of peace to a gaoler, for the receiving and fafe keeping 
 a felon, or other offender, by him committed to the gaol. 
 MIXING of mortar. See the article Mortar. 
 MIXT, or Mixt body, in philofophy, is that which is com- 
 pounded of divers elements or principles. 
 By which, mixt fhnds contradiftinguifhed from fimple, or ele- 
 mentary, which is applied to bodies confining of one principle 
 only; as the chymifts take fulphur, fait, &c. todo. 
 The fchoolmen define a ?nixt body \a be a whole, rcfultin" 
 from feveral ingredients, altered or new-modified by the mix- 
 ture. — On which principle, the feveral ingredients do not actu- 
 ally exift in the mixt ; but they are all changed, fo as to con 
 lpire to a new body of a different form from the form of any 
 of the ingredients. — But the modern philofophers rarely con- 
 ceive the term in fo much ftrictnels. 
 
 The bufinefs of chymiftry, we fay, is, to refolve mixt bodies 
 into their principles, or component parts. 
 
 The fchool-philofophers diftinguifh mixt bodies Into per -feci and 
 imperfeft. 
 
 Pcrfeft Mixts are the clafs of organized and animated bodies; 
 where the elements or ingredients, they arecompofed of, are 
 changed or transformed by a perfect mixture. — Such are plants, 
 beafts, and men. 
 
 Imperfeft Mixts are unorganized and inanimate bodies, the forms 
 whereof remain ftill the fame as of the ingredients thatconfti- 
 tutethem. — Such are meteors, minerals, metals, &c. 
 
 Mixt a ft ion, in law, is an action partly real, and partly per- 
 fonal. 
 
 A mixt aftion is that which lies both for the thing detained, and 
 againft the per fan of the detainer. — Or it is that which feeka 
 both the recovery of a thing we are unjuflly deprived of, and 
 damages, or a penalty, for the unjuft detainment thereof. 
 Such are actions of wafte, and quare impedit; actions for 
 tythes on the ftatute 2 and 3 Edw. VI. isc. 
 Mixt angle. See the article Ancle 
 Mixt cloths. See thearticle Cloth. 
 Mixt fables. See the article Fable. 
 
 Mixt figure, in geometry, is that which confifts partly of right 
 
 lines, and partly of curve lines. 
 Mixt force. See the article Force. 
 Mixt hijlory. See the article History. 
 Mixt mathematics. See the article Mathematics. 
 Mixt mode, according to Mr. Locke, is a combination of feve- 
 ral fimple ideas of different kinds. 
 
 Thus beauty, as it ccnfifts in a certain compofition of colour, 
 figure, proportion, EsV. of different parts, cauiing delight to 
 the beholder, is a mixt mode. Such alfo are theft, murder, tsfe. 
 The mind, that author obferves, being once furniliied with 
 fimple ideas, can put them together in feveral competitions, 
 without examining whether or not they exift fo in nature to- 
 gether : and hence it is that thefe ideas are called notions-, as if 
 they had their original and conftant cxiftence more in the 
 thoughts of men, than in the reality of things; and that, to 
 form fuch ideas, it fufficed that the mind put the parts of them 
 toeether ; and that thev were confirtent in the underftanding : 
 without confidertng whether they had any real being. 
 There are three ways whereby we get thefe complex ideas of 
 mixt modes. Firft, By experience and obfervation of things 
 themfelves : thus, by feeing two men wreftle, we get the idea 
 of wreffling. Secondly, By invention, or voluntary putting 
 together of feveral fimple ideas in our own mind ; fo he that 
 firft invented printing had an idea of it firft in his mind, before 
 ever it exifted. Thirdly, By explaining the names of actions 
 we never faw, or notions we cannot fee ; and by enumerating 
 all thofe ideas which go to the making them up. 
 Thus the mixt mode which the word lye ftands for, is made up 
 of thefe fimple ideas: Firft, Articulate founds. Secondly, 
 Certain ideas in the mind of the fpeaker. Thirdly, Certain 
 words, the figns of thefe ideas. Fourthly, Thofe figns put 
 together by affirmation, or negation, otherwife than the Ideas 
 they ftand for are in the mind of the fpeaker, fince the lan- 
 guage was made. 
 
 Complex ideas are ufually got by the explication of rlmfe term? 
 that ftand for them. For, fince they confift of fimple ideas 
 combined, they may, by word:, ftanding for thofe fimple idea?, 
 be reprefented to the mind of one who undeifbnds thofe words 
 though that combination of iirnple ideas was never offered to his 
 mind by the real exiftence of things. 
 Mixt number, in arithmetic, that wluch is partly an integer, 
 
 and partly a fraction : as 4}-. 
 Mixt obligation. See the article Obligation. 
 Mixt ratio, or proportion, is when the fum of the antecedent 
 and coiifcqueiit is compared jpitb the difference between the 
 
 antecedent and confequent- 
 . 28 
 
 sif 3 
 
 16 
 d 
 
 then - 7. r "' 
 a x b- a — * 
 
 Mixt falts. 
 
 Mixt jlairs 
 
 Mixt fervic 
 
 Mixt tithes, 
 
 of beafts. 
 
 MIXTIL1NEAR 
 
 MIXTION, Mixt 
 
 4 
 
 c x : c — d. 
 See the article Salts. 
 See the article Stairs. 
 . Seethe article Serv 1 ce. 
 
 are thofe of cheefe, milk, &c. and of theyoung 
 SeeTiTHE. 
 
 See the article Ancle. 
 
 Mistio, the act of mixing; 
 
 the union and coalition of divers corpufcles into one body. 
 The Peripatetics, who hold an alteration effential to mixtion, 
 define it, the union of feveral altered ingredients, or mif- 
 cibles. 
 
 Mixtion makes a confiderable operation in the chymical and 
 Galenical pharmacy; where divers powders, fpecies, and other 
 fimples, are faid to be mixed, mifceri, though without any 
 communication or tranfition of the virtues of one into thofe of 
 another. See Composition. 
 MIXTURE, Mixtura, or Mistura, in a philofopbical 
 fenfe, is an aftemblage, or union of feveral bodies of different 
 properties, in the fame mafs. 
 
 To determine the ratio of the ingredients of a mixture, is that 
 celebrated problem propofed by Hiero, king of Syracufc, to Ar- 
 chimedes, on occaiion of a crown of gold wherein the work- 
 man had fraudulently mixed filver ; the folution whereof was 
 matter of fo much tranfport to that divine mechanic. 
 It may be determined thus. — Weigh the mixture ; immcrge 
 it in fome fluid; and find the weight it lofes therein: then 
 find what weight any determinate quantity of any ingre- 
 dient lofes in the fame fluid: and by the rule ef three find 
 what weight each ought to lofe therein, were its Weight 
 equal to that of the mixture: fubtract the lefs h-fs 
 from the greater, which will give the excefs wherewith tie 
 lofs of the lighter exceeds that of the heavier: then fur- 
 
 uz£t 
 
MOD 
 
 MOD 
 
 trafl the weight loft by the heavier, from that loft by the whole 
 mixture, to find the excefs of the weight loft by the mixture be- 
 yond that loft by the heavier. 
 
 Mixture, in matters of drapery, denotes the union or blending 
 of feveral wools of different colours, not yet fpun. 
 Hence a mixture, or mixed fluff, is that whofe woof and warp 
 are of wools of different colours dyed and mixed before they 
 were fpun. See Cloth. 
 
 MOAT, in fortification, a depth or trench dug round a town, or 
 fortrefs to be defended, on the outfide of the wall, or rampart- 
 See?^. Fortif. fig. 21. lit. h h h,Vc. 
 
 The depth and breadth of the moat often depend on tne na- 
 ture of the foil ; according as it is rnarfhy, rocky, or the 
 like. The brink of the moat next the rampart in any forti- 
 fication is called the /carp, and the oppofite one the counter- 
 fcarp. . 
 
 Dry Moat is that which is deftitute of water; this ought to be 
 deeper than one which is full of water. 
 
 Lined Moat is that whofe fcarp anci counterfcarp are cafed with 
 a wall of mafon's work lying aflope. 
 
 Flat-bottomed Moat is that which hath no Hoping, its corners 
 being fomewhat rounded. 
 
 Angle of the Moat. See the article Angle. 
 
 MOATAZALiTES, a religieus &St among the Turks, who 
 deny all forms and qualities in the divine Being. 
 There are two opinions among the Turkifh divines concerning 
 God, The firft admit metaphyfical forms, or attributes; as, 
 that God has wifdom by which he is wife ; power by which 
 he is powerful ; eternity by which he is eternal, C5V. 
 The fecond allow God to be wile, powerful, eternal ; but will 
 not allow any form or quality in God, for fear of admitting a 
 multiplicity. 
 
 Thofe who follow this latter opinion are called Moatazatites. — 
 They who follow the former, Sepbatites. 
 
 MOBILE, Moveable ; any thing fufceptible of motion, or that 
 is difpofed to be moved either by itfelf, or by fome other prior 
 mobile, or mover. ... 
 
 Primum Mobile, in the antient aftronomy, was,a ninth hea- 
 ven, or fphere, imagined above thofe of the planets and fixed 
 
 This was fuppofed to be the firft mover, and to carry all the 
 lower fpheres round along with it ; by its rapidity communi- 
 cating to them a motion whereby they revolved in twenty-four 
 hours°— But the diurnal revolution of the planets is now ac- 
 counted for without the affiftance of any fuch primum mo- 
 bile- 
 
 Perbctuum Mobile. See Perpetual motion. 
 
 M OBI LI A bona, in the civil law, are what in common law, fcfr. 
 
 we call moveables, or moveable goods. 
 MOBILITY, in the fchools, &c. an aptitude, or facility to be 
 
 The mobility of mercury is owing to the fmalnefs, and fpheri- 
 city of its particles i and is this which alfo renders its fixation 
 
 fo difficult. , . 1 n 1 r 
 
 The hypotbefis of the mobility of the earth is the molt plauli- 
 ble ; and is that univerfally admitted by the later aftrono- 
 
 •rners. . , 
 
 Pope Paul V. appointed commiffioners to examine the opinion 
 of Copernicus touching the mobility of the earth. The refult 
 of their enquiry, was, a prohibition to aflert, not that the mo- 
 bility was poffible, but that it was acljiaHy true. That is, 
 they allowed the mobility of the earth to be held as an hypo- 
 thefis, which gives an eafy and fenfible folution of the phe- 
 nomena cf the heavenly motions ; but forbad the mobility of 
 the earth to be maintained as a thefts, or a real effcflive thing ; 
 by reafon they conceived it contrary tofcripture. 
 
 MODAL, in logic, &f. a term applied to proportions which 
 include ccrtain°conditions or reflations. 
 
 MODE or Mood, Modus, in philofophy, a manner of being ; 
 or a quality, or attribute of a fubftance, or fubjea, which we 
 conceive as neceffarily depending on the fubjea, and incapable 
 of fubfifting without it. ,. „ ... r . , 
 
 Mr Locke defines modes to be thofe ideas (he fhould have faid 
 things) which do not imply any fuppofition of fubfifting by 
 themfelves, but are confidered as mere dependences, and affec- 
 tions of fubftances. .... «■ 
 Our ideas of things may be reduced to two kinds : the one of 
 things which we conceive feparately, and by themfelves, call- 
 ed fubftances ; and the other of things which we conceive as 
 cxiiling in others, in fuch manner as that we cannot allow 
 them exiftence without them ; and thefe we call modes, or ac- 
 
 Thus, when we reflea on wax, and roundnefs ; we confider 
 the wax as a thing which may fubfift without the roundnefs ; 
 wax therefore we denominate a fubflance: on the contrary, we 
 confider the roundnefs fo dependent on the wax, that it cannot 
 fubfift without it, there being no conceiving of roundnefs di- 
 ftina and feparate from a round body.— This therefore we call 
 a mode* or accident. 
 
 It is the charaaeriftic, then, of a true mode, to have fuch a 
 relation to fome fubjecl, as not to be dearly and diftinctly 
 Vol. It 
 
 conceivable without conceiving the fubjecl, whereof it is a 
 mode, at the fame time : when, on the other hand, the con- 
 ception of the fubjecl: does not at all infer or require that of 
 the mode. 
 
 Thus, what gives us to know that thought is not a mode of 
 extended fubftance, or matter, is, that extenfion, and the Other 
 properties of matter may be divided from thought, without 
 ceafing to conceive thought all the while. 
 We always confider things as cloathed with certain modes, ex- 
 cept we reflect on them in the abftract, or general : and it is 
 the variety of modes, and relations, that occafions the great 
 variety of denominations of the lame thing. It is the various 
 modes of matter, e. gr. that make all the diverfity of bodies, 
 or corporeal beings in nature. 
 
 There are various divifions and kinds of modes ; one of the 
 moft common is, into internal and external. 
 Internal Modes are thofe inherent in the fubftance ; — as round- 
 nefs in the bowl ; flatnefs in a nofe ; crookednefs in the fin- 
 ger, CsV. 
 
 Thefe, we have obferved, cannot exift, nor even be con- 
 ceived without the fubjecl, as being only circumftances there- 
 of, or even, according to fome, only the fubjea itfelf con- 
 fidered, not (imply, but as fuch. Thus the roundnefs of the 
 bowl is only the bowl itfelf confidered as round, &c. 
 External Modes are thofe extraneous to the fubjea as when 
 we fay a thing is defired, loved, beheld, &c. Thefe coincide 
 with what we call relations. 
 
 Add, that there are modes which are likewife fubftances, as ap- 
 parel, hair, CsV. which may fubfift without the fubjea. 
 Mr. Locke divides modes into funple, and mixt ex compound. 
 Simple Modes are combinations of fimple ideas of the fame 
 kind, or even of the fame fimple ideas divers times repeated ; 
 — as a dozen, a fcore, C5c. which are only the ideas of fa 
 many diftina units put together. 
 
 The modifications of any fimple idea, Mr. Locke obferves, are 
 as perfeaiy different and difHnfl ideas in the mind as thofe 
 the moft remote and inconfiftent : thus, two is as diftina 
 from three, as blindnefs is from heat. With this view that 
 author examines the fimple modes of fpace. — Which are found 
 to be diftance, capacity, extenfion, figure, place, and dura- 
 tion. 
 
 The mind has feveral diftina ideas of jTiding, rolling, walking, 
 creeping, &c. which are all but the different modifications of 
 motion. Swift and flow are two different ideas of motion, the 
 meafures whereof are made out of the diftances of time and 
 fpace put together. 
 
 The like variety we have in founds ; every articulate word is 
 a different modification of found, as are all notes of different 
 length put together, which make that complex idea called 
 
 time. 
 
 The modes of colours might be alfo very various ; fome of 
 which we take notice of as the different degrees, or as they 
 are termed, fhades of the fame colour. But fince we feldom 
 make afiemblages of colours without taking in figure alfo, as 
 in painting, is'c. thofe which are taken notice of, do moft 
 commonly belong to mixed modes ; as beauty, rahibow, &c. 
 All compounded tafies and fmells are alfo modes made up of 
 the fimple ideas of thofe fenfis. 
 
 As to the modes of thinking ; when the mind turns its view 
 inward upon itfelf, thinking is the firft idea that occurs, where- 
 in it obferves a great variety of modifications; and therefore 
 frames to itfelf diftina ideas. 
 
 Thus the perception annexed . to any impreffion on the body 
 made by an external objea, is called feufation. Where an 
 idea recurs without the prefence of the objea, it is called 
 remembrance. When fought after by the mind, and brought 
 again in view, it is called recollection. When held there long 
 under attentive confideration, it is called contemplation. When 
 ideas float in the mind without regard or refkaion, it is 
 called in French a reverie. When the ideas are taken notice of, 
 and, as it were, regiftercd in the memory, it is attention* 
 When the mind fixes its view on any one idea, and confiders 
 it on all fides, it is intention and fludy. 
 
 Of thefe various modes of thinking, the mind forms as diftina 
 ideas, as it does of white and red, or of a fquare, or a circle. 
 Mixt Modes are combinations of fimple ideas of feveral kinds; 
 as in beauty, which confifts in a certain compofition of co- 
 lour, figure, Cjfc, Theft, which is the concealed change of 
 the pofTeffion of any thing without confent of the proprietor, 
 
 There are three ways whereby we get ideas of mixt modes. 
 1°. By experience and obfervation of things themfelves ; thus 
 by feeing two men wreftle, we get the idea of wrefiling. 
 2 0 . By invention, or voluntary putting together of feveral 
 fimple ideas in our own minds ; fo he that firft invented print- 
 ing, had an idea of it firft in his mind, before ever it exifted. 
 3°. By explaining the names of aaions we never faw, or 
 notions we cannot fee ; and by enumerating all thofe ideas, 
 which go to the making them up. — Thus the mixt mode which 
 the word lye ftands for, is made up of thefe fimple ideas : 
 (1.) Articulate founds. (z.J Certain ideas in the mind of the 
 b X fpeaker. 
 
MOD 
 
 MOD 
 
 fpeafcer. (3.) Words, the fignS of thefe ideas. And, {4.) Thofe 
 Tigris put together by affirmation, or negation, otherwife than 
 the ideas they ftand for are in the mind of the fpeaker. 
 Mixt modes have their unity from an act of the mind, com- 
 bining thofe feveral fimple ideas together, and confidering them 
 as one complex one : the mark of this union is one name 
 given to that combination. Men feldom reckon any number 
 of ideas to make one complex one, but fuch collections as there 
 be names for. Thus, the killing of an old man is as fit to be 
 united in one complex idea, as the killing of a father ; yet there 
 being no name for it, it is not taken tor a particular complex 
 idea ; nor a diftinct fpecies of action from that of killing any 
 other man : thefe collections of ideas have names generally 
 affixed, which are of frequent ufe in converfation ; in which 
 cafes men endeavour to communicate their thoughts to one an- 
 other, with all poffible difpatch. Thofe others, which they have 
 feldom occafion to mention, they lay not together, nor give 
 them names. 
 
 This gives the reafon, why there are words in every language, 
 which cannot be rend red by any one Tingle word of another. 
 For the fafhions and cuftoms of one nation make feveral 
 combinations of ideas familiar in one, which another had 
 never any occafion to make. Such were, Os"p#*/ay.t& , among 
 the Greeks ; and profcriptio among the Romans. 
 This alfo cccalions the confbnt change of languages ; becaufe 
 the change of cufiom and opinion brings with it new combi- 
 nations of ideas, which, to avoid long defcriptions, have new 
 names annexed to them, and" fo they become new fpecies of mixt 
 modes. 
 
 Of all our fimple ideas, thofe which have had moft mixt 
 modes made out of them, are thinking, and motion (which 
 comprehend in them all action), and power, from whence thefe 
 actions are conceived to flow. For actions being the great 
 bufinefs of mankind, it is no wonder that the feveral modes 
 of thinking and motion, fhould be taken notice of ; and the 
 ideas of them obferved, and laid up in memory, and have 
 names afligned them. For without fuch complex ideas with 
 names to them, men could not eafily hold any communication 
 about them. 
 
 Of this kind are the modes of actions diftinguifhed by their 
 oofes, means, objects, ends, inftruments, time, place, and 
 other circumftanccs ; as alfb of the powers fitted for thofe 
 actions. Thus boldnefs is the power to do or fpeak what we 
 intend, without fear or diforder ; and this power of doing 
 any thing, when it had been acquired by frequent doing the 
 fame thing, is that idea we call habit ; and when forward and 
 ready upon every occafion, to break into action, we call it 
 difpofition : thus tcftinejs is a difpofition or aptnefs to be an- 
 gry. Power being the fource of all action, the fubftances, 
 wherein thofe powers are, when they exert this power, are called 
 catifes : and the fubftances thereupon produced, or the fimple 
 ideas introduced into any fubject, are called effecls. The effi- 
 cacy wherebv the new fubftance or idea is produced, is called 
 in the fubject exerting that power, anion ; and in the fubject 
 wherein any fimple idea is changed, or produced, pajton. 
 Which efficacy in intellectual agents, we can conceive to be 
 nothing elfe but modes of thinking and willing : in corporeal 
 agents, nothing elfe but modifications or motions. 
 Whatever fort of action, befides thefe, produces any effect, we 
 have no notion or idea of. And, therefore, many words 
 which feera to exprefs fome action, fignify nothing of the 
 action, but barely the effect, with fome circumfiances cf the 
 fubject wrought on, or caufo operating : thus creation, and 
 annihilation, contain in them no idea of the action, or man- 
 ner whereby they are produced, but barely of the caufe, and 
 the thing done. And when a countryman fays, the coldfreezes 
 water, though the word freezing, feems to import fome ac- 
 tion, yet it truly fignifiSS nothing but the effect, viz. that the 
 water that was before fluid, is now become hard and confift- 
 ent ; without intimating any idea of the action whereby this 
 is done. 
 
 In mixt modes, it is the name that feems to preferve their ef- 
 fences, and to give them their lafting duration. The col- 
 lection of ideas is made by the mind ; but the name is, as it 
 were, the knot which tie? them faft together : hence we fel- 
 dom take any other for diftinct fpecies of mixt modes, but fuch 
 as are fet out by names. We mull obferve, that the names of 
 mixt modes always fignify the real eflences of their fpecies ; 
 which being nothing but the abftract complex ideas, and not 
 referred to the real exiftence of things, there is no fuppolition 
 of any thing more lignified by any name of a mixt mode, but 
 barely that complex idea which the mind itfelf has formed ; 
 which when the mind has formed, is all it would exprefs by 
 it, -and is that on which all the properties of the fpecies depend, 
 and from which alone they flow ; and fo, in thefe, the real and 
 nominal effence is the fame. 
 
 This alfo fhews the reafon, why the names of mixt modes are 
 commonly got, before the ideas they ftand for are perfectly 
 known ; becaufe there being no fpecies of thefe ordinarily taken 
 notice of but fuch as have names ; and thofe fpecies being com- 
 plex ideas made arbitrarily by the mind ; It is convenient, if 
 
 not nccefTary, to know the names, before we learn the com- 
 plex ideas : unlefs a man will fill his head with a company of 
 abftract complex ideas, which others having no names for, he 
 has nothing to do with, but to lay by, and forget again. In 
 the beginning of languages, it was neceflary to have the idea, 
 before one gave it the name ; and fo it is ftill, where a new 
 complex idea is to be made, and a name given it. In fimple 
 ideas, and fubftances, it is otherwife } which being fuch ideas, 
 as have real exiftence and union in nature, the ideas or names 
 are got, one before the other, as it happens. 
 The fchoolmen make numerous other divifions of modes ; as 
 into immediate and mediate: effential and non-efj'ential : pofttive 
 and privative : of fpirit and of body : of thinking, and of hav- 
 ing. 
 
 Immediate Modes are thofe immediately attributed to their fub- 
 jects, or fubftances. 
 Mediate Modes are thofe attributed to fubjects by the interven- 
 tion of fome other mode. 
 
 Thus, e. gr. motion is an immediate mode of the body ; know- 
 ledge of the mind, &c. But fwiftnefs and flownels are not 
 immediately attributable to the body ; but only to the body in 
 refpect of motion. 
 
 EJfential or infeparable Modes are attributes without which 
 the fubftance cannot exift.— As, wifdom, goodnefs, f ower, C3V. 
 in God : figure, place, quantity, cxtenfion, ts\: in body. 
 
 Non- effential or feparable Modes are attributes affecting created 
 fubftances, and remaining affixed thereto fo long as it is necef- 
 fary. — Such are coldnefs, of water: bardnefs, of ftone : white- 
 nefs, of milk, fcfe. 
 
 Pofitive Modes are thofe which give fometbing real, pofitive, 
 and abfolute to their fubftance. — -Thus roundneis is a pofitive 
 mode of a globe, &e. 
 
 Privative Modes are attributed to fubjects, when the mind per- 
 ceiving fome attributes wanting therein, frames a word, which 
 at firft fight feems to note fometbing pofitive, but which in 
 reality only notes the want of fome property, or mode. — Thus 
 a privation of light is attributed to a blind man,c3V. 
 
 Modes of fpirit are two, viz. Cognition, or knuwledge ; and 
 willing. See Knowledge and W ill. 
 
 Modes of body are three, viz. figure, reft, and motion. See 
 Figure, Rest, and Motion. 
 
 Modes of having, are thofe whereby any thing may be bad by 
 another. — Ariftotle enumerates feven of thefe: A thine, for 
 inftance, may be had either by the mode of quality, as know- 
 ledge ; by that of magnitude, as circumference ; or by tiie 
 mode of part, as the hand, &c, 
 
 Divifton of a Mode, Seethe afticle Division. 
 
 Mode, in grammar. l c ,,■ 
 
 • 1 ■ r bee the article Mood. 
 
 Mode, in logic. J 
 
 Mode is alfo ufed in logic, for the modification of a propofi- 
 tion j or that which renders it modal and conditional. 
 
 Tndirecl Modes. Seethe article Indirect. 
 
 Mode, or Mood, in mufic, a particular manner of betrinninc, 
 continuing and ending a fong, whereby we are engaged to make 
 ufe of certain notes, or chords, preferable to, or oiiener than 
 ethers. 
 
 Mode is defined by fome authors, the particular manner of con- 
 ftituting the octave ; or the melodious conftitution of the 
 octave, as it confifts of feven effential or natural notes, befides 
 the key, or fundamental. 
 
 A mode, then, is not any fingle note or found ; but the parti- 
 cular order of the concinnous degrees of an octave : the fun- 
 damental note whereof may, in another fenfe, be called the 
 key, as it fignifi.es that principal note which regulates the reft. 
 The proper difference between a mode and a key, confifts in 
 this, that an octave with all its natural and concinnous de- 
 grees, is called a mode, with refpect to the conftitution, or the 
 manner and way of dividing it ; and with refpect to the pl?ce 
 of it in the fcale of mufic, that is, the degree or pitch of tune 
 it is called a key: that is, an octave of founds may be raifed 
 in the fame order and kind of degrees which makes the fame 
 mode, and yet be begun higher or lower ; that is, be taken at 
 different degrees with refpect to the whole, which makes dif- 
 ferent keys : and from the fame definition it follows, that the 
 fame key may he found with different modes ; that is, the ex- 
 tremes of two octaves may be in the fame degree of tune, and 
 the divifion of them different. 
 
 Now it may be further obferved, that of the natural notes of 
 every mode, or octave, three go under the name of the effential 
 notes in a peculiar manner, viz. the fundamental, the third, 
 and fifth ; their octaves being reckoned the fame, and marked* 
 with the fame letters in the fcale: the reft are particularly call- 
 ed dependents. Again, the fundamental is alfo called the final; 
 the fifth the dominante ; and the third, as being between the 
 other two, the mediante. 
 
 The doctrine of the antients with regard to modes, which they 
 fometimes alfo call tones, is fomewhat obfeure ; there bein°- an 
 unaccountable difference among their authors as to the defini- 
 tions, divifions, and names of their modes. They a°ree indeed, 
 that a mode is a certain 'fyfiem or conftitution of 'founds; and 
 that an octave^ with all its intermediate founds, is fuch a con- 
 ftitution ■ 
 
MOD 
 
 MOD 
 
 ftitution : but the fpecific differences of tones, or modes, fome 
 place in the manner of divifion, or order of their concinnous 
 parts ; and others merely in the different tenfion of the whole ; 
 i. e. as the whole feries of notes are acuter or graver, or as 
 they ftand higher or lower in the fcale of mufic. 
 Eoethius is very dark on this head, and defines a mode to be, 
 as it were, an entire body of modulation, confifting of a con 
 junction of confonances: as, the diapafon. 
 Ptolemy makes the ?nodes the fame with the fpecies of the dia 
 pafon ; but at the fame time he fpeaks of their being at fome 
 diftance from each other. Some contended for thirteen, fome 
 for fifteen modes, which they place at a femi-tone's diftance 
 from each other ; but it is plain, thefe underftood the differences 
 to be only in their place or diftances from each other j and that 
 there is one certain harmonious fpecies of octave applied to them 
 all; viz. that order which proceeds from the profiambanome- 
 nos of the fyftema immutatum, or the A of the modern fy- 
 ftem. Ptolemy argues, that if this be all, they may be infi- 
 nite, though they muft be limited for ufe and practice. But, 
 indeed, much the greater part define them by the fpecies of the 
 diapafon ; and therefore only make feven modes ; but as to their 
 ufe, we are left intirely in the dark. 
 
 If the modes be nothing but the feven fpecies of octaves, the 
 ufe of them can only be, that the proflambenomenos of any 
 modc\ being made the principal note of a fong, there may be 
 different fpecies of melody anfwering to thole different confti- 
 tutions. But then we are not to conceive that the proflamba- 
 nomenos, or fundamental of any mode is fixed to any particu- 
 lar chord of the fyftem, v. gr. the Phrygian to g, fo that we 
 muft always begin there when we would bave a piece of 
 melody of that fpecies. When we fay in general, that fuch 
 nude begins in g, it is no more than to fignify the fpecies of 
 octave as they appear in a certain fixed fyiiem s but we may 
 begin in any chord of the fyftem, and make it the proflamba- 
 nomenos of any mode, by adding new chords, or by altering the 
 tuning of the old. If this were the true, nature and ufe of 
 the tones, raoft of thefe modes muft have been imperfect, and 
 incapable of good melody, as wanting fome of thofe which 
 we reckon the cflential and natural notes of a true mode. 
 Again, if the eflential difference of the modes confift only in 
 the gravity or acutenefs of the whole octave, then we may 
 fuppofe one fpecies or concinnous divifion of the octave, which 
 being applied to all the chords of the fyftem, makes them true 
 fundamentals for a certain feries of fucceffive notes, by chang- 
 ing, as above, the tone of certain chords in fome cafes, or 
 by adding new chords to the fyftem. But that muft have been 
 a fimple kind of melody, produced by admitting only one con- 
 cinnous feries, and that too wanting fome ufeful and neceffary 
 chords. 
 
 Mufic was confiderably improved in the eleventh century, by 
 Guido Aretinus ; who, among other innovations, reformed 
 the doctrine of modes. It is true, they were ftill defined by the 
 ipecies of the octave, in Ptolemy's manner ; and their number 
 was fixed to feven ; but afterwards taking occafion to confider 
 the harmonkal and arithmetical diviiiuns of the octave, whereby 
 it refolves into a fourth above a fifth, or a fifth above a fourth, 
 they hence conftituted twelve modes, making of each octave two 
 different modes, according to this different divifion : but becaufe 
 there are two of them that cannot be divided both ways, 
 there are but twelve modes. Of thefe, fuch as were divided 
 harmonically, that is, with the fifths loweft (which were 
 fix) were called authentic ; and the other fix which had the 
 fifths higheft, were called plagal modes. See the fcheme an- 
 nexed. 
 
 To thefe modes, they gave the names 
 of the antient Greek tones, as Dorian, 
 Phrygian, and Lydian : but the feveral 
 authors differ in the application and or- 
 der of thefe names. So that we are ftill in 
 great meafure at a lofs to know what they 
 meant by thofe diftinctions, and what 
 their real ufe was. — The beft account we 
 can give is this ; They confidered that 
 octave which wants a fourth or fifth, 
 is imperfect ; thele being the concords 
 
 * — — a — — e a next to octave, the fong ought to touch 
 
 thofe chords moil frequently and remark- 
 ably ; and becaufe their concord is different, which makes the 
 melody different, tbev eftabliftied by this two modes in every 
 natur.il octave that had a true fourth and fifth : then, if the 
 fong was carried as far as this octave above, it was called a 
 perfeel mode ; if lefs, as to the fourth or fifth, it was called 
 imperfeSi ; if it moved both above and below, it was called 
 a niH mode. — Thus it is that feme authors fpeak about thefe 
 modes. 
 
 Others, confidering how indifpenfahle a chord the fifth is in 
 every mode, took for the final, or key-note, in the arithmeti- 
 cally divided octaves, not the loweft chord of that octave, but 
 that very fourth. — The onlv difference then in this method be- 
 tween the authentic and plagal modes is, that the authentic 
 goes above its final to the gCtave ; the other afeends a fifth* 
 
 Phgjl Authentic 
 
 —d 
 
 — / 
 
 and defcends a fourth ; which will indeed be attended with dif- 
 ferent effects, but the mode is effentially the fame, having the 
 fame final to which alt the notes refer. 
 
 We are now to confider wherein the modes of one fpecies, as 
 authentic or plagal, differ among themfelves : this muft; either 
 be by their ftanding higher or lower in the fcale, i. e. by the 
 different tenfion of the whole octave, or rather by the different 
 fubdivifion of the octave into its concinnous degrees ; there 
 can be no other. — We are to confider then, whether thefe dif- 
 ferences are fufficient to produce fuch very different effects as 
 are afcribed to the feveral modes ; for inftance, that the one 
 produces mirth, another fadnefs, that a third is proper for religion, 
 a fourth for love, &c. That thefe effects are owing merely 
 to the conftitution of the octave, fcarce any body will affirm. 
 The differences in the conftitution will, indeed, have fome 
 influence ; but it will be fo little, as that by the various com- 
 binations of other caufes, one of thefe modes may be ufed to 
 different purpofes. The greateft difference is that of thofe 
 octaves which have the third /, or third g, making what on 
 other occafions we call the fliarp and fiat key. 
 However, if the modes depend upon the ipecies of octaves, 
 how can they be more than feven ? And as to the diftinction 
 between authentic and plaga], we have already obferved, that 
 it is imaginary with refpect to any effential difference confti- 
 tuted thereby in the kind of the melody ; for though the car- 
 rying the fong above or below the final, may have different 
 effects, yet this is to be afcribed to other caufes befides th e 
 conftitution of the octaves. It is particular ly obfervable, th a t 
 thofe authors who give us examples in actual compofiuon 0 f 
 their twelve modes, frequently take in the artificial notes ^ 
 and h, to perfect the melody of their key ; and by this 
 means depart from the conftitution of the octave, as it ftands fixed 
 in the natural fyftem. There is nothing certain or confident 
 therefore in their way of fpc:ikmg ; but the modes are all really 
 reducible to two, viz. the fharp and flat ; the other differences 
 refpecting only the place of the fcale where the fundamental i* 
 taken. 
 
 The antient modes, befides their general divifion into authentic 
 and plaga], had alfo their refpective names from the feveral 
 Greek provinces where they are fuppofed to have been in- 
 vented. — Originally indeed, there were but three, viz- Doric, 
 Lydian, and Phrygian ; which were particularly called tones, be- 
 caufe at a tone's diftance from one another. The reft were 
 added afterwards, and were fome of them named from the re- 
 lations they bore to the former, puticuUrly the Hypo- Doric, as 
 being below the Doric. 
 
 The Doric Mode wasa mixture of gravity and mirth, invented 
 by Thamyras of Thrace. See Doric. 
 
 The Phrygian Mode was adapted to the kindling of rage; and 
 was invented by Marfyas the Phrygian. 
 
 The Lydian Mode was proper for amorous or funeral fon°;s ; 
 and was invented, according to Pliny, by Amphion. 
 The Mixolydian was invented by Sappho.— The fEolic, Ionic, 
 and Hypo-Doric by Philoxenus. — And the Hypo-Lydian by Po- 
 lymneftes. 
 
 Befides thefe modes of tune, old authors have alfo introduced 
 modes of time, or mcafurcs of notes. — Thefe at firft were diftin- 
 guifhed into greater and lefs, and each of thefe again into per- 
 fect and imperfect. But afterwards they reduced all into four 
 modes, which included the whole bufinefs of time. — As thefe 
 ?)iodes are now difufed, they are hardly worth the reciting. 
 The common mode now in ufe is much more iimple and na- 
 tural than any of thefe ; the proportion, which in theirs vari- 
 ed, being in ours fixed, viz. 2:1. A large equal to two 
 longs ; a long to two breves ; a breve to two femi-breves, ts\\ 
 proceeding in the fame proportion to the laft or loweft notes. 
 And if on fome occafions the proportion of 3 : 1 betwixt two 
 fucceffive notes is required, it is eafily expreffed by annexing a 
 point { . ). 
 
 The antients had likewife their modi melipceies, of which Arif- 
 tides names thefe ; dithyramblc, nom'ic, and tragic : which were 
 called modes from their expreffing the feveral motions and 
 affections of the mind. 
 MODEL, an original, or pattern propofed for any one to copy., 
 or imitate. 
 
 St. Paul's church is faid to be buiit on the model of St. Peter's 
 at Rome. 
 
 Model is particularly ufed in building for an artificial pattern, 
 made of wood, flone, plafter, or other matter, with all its 
 parts and proportions ; in order for the better conducting and 
 executing fome great work, and to give an idea of the effect it 
 will have in large. 
 
 In all great buildings it is much the fureft way to make a 
 model in relievo ; and not to truft to a tare defign, or draught. 
 There are alfo models for the building of fliips, fafir. and for ex- 
 traordinary ftair-cafes, &c. 
 Model, in painting and fculpture, is any thing propofed to be 
 imitated. — And 
 
 Hence, in the academics, they give the term model to a naked 
 man, difpofed in feveral poftures, to give an opportunity to the 
 fcholars to defign him in various views and attitudes. 
 
 The 
 
MOD 
 
 MOD 
 
 The fculptors have little models of clay or wax to aflift them 
 in their defigns of others that are larger, in marble, &c. and 
 to judge of the attitude and correctnefs of a figure. 
 Statuaries likewife give the name model to certain figures of 
 clay or wax, which are but juft fafhioned, to ferve by way of 
 guide for the making of larger, whether of marble, or other 
 matter. 
 
 MODERATOR, in the fchools, the pcrfon who prefides at a 
 difpute, or in a public aflembly. 
 
 Such a doctor was the moderator, that is the prefident, at fuch a 
 difputation, in fuch an afFembly, bfc. 
 MODERN, fomething new, or of our time. — In oppofition to 
 what is antique, or antient. 
 
 Modem authors, according to Naude, are all thofe who have 
 wrote fince Boethius : the modern philofophy commences 
 with Galileo : and the modern aftronomy with Copernicus. 
 
 Modern medals, are reckoned all thofe that have been flruck with- 
 in thefe three hundred years. 
 
 Modern coins. See the article Coins. 
 
 Modern Hebrew. Sec the article Hf. b Rew. 
 
 Modern weights. See the article Weights. 
 
 Modern, in architecture, is improperly applied to the prefent, 
 or Italian manner of building ; as being according to the rules 
 of the antique. Nor is the term lefs abufed, when attributed 
 to architecture purely Gothic. 
 
 Modern arehitehure, in propriety, is only applicable to that 
 which partakes partly of the antique, retaining fomewhat of 
 its delicacy and (blidity ; and partly of the Gothic, whence it 
 borrows members and ornaments, without proportion or judg- 
 ment- 
 
 MODIFICATION, in philofophy, that which modifies a thing j 
 that is, gives it this or that manner of being. 
 Quantity and quality are accidents which modify all bo- 
 dies. 
 
 According to Spinoff's fyftem, all the beings that compofe the 
 univerfe, are only fo many different modifications of one and 
 the fame fubftance. And it is the differentarrangemcntandfitua- 
 tion of their parts, that make all the difference between 
 them. 
 
 MODIFICATIVE, fomething that modifies, or gives a thing a 
 certain manner of being. 
 
 Father Burner eftablifhes a new part of fpeech, which he calls 
 modifieative. Nouns, and verbs, he obferves, are fufceptible 
 of divers circumstances or modifications : in the phrafe, zeal 
 afis, we have a noun and verb, without any modification ; 
 but in that zeal without difcretion atis rajhly, the noun and 
 the verb are each attended with a modification or circum- 
 ftance. 
 
 This laft kind of words, which ferve to modify nouns and 
 verbs, ftnee they have no general name in the common gram- 
 mars, he chufes to call modificatives : — which include what 
 grammarians commonly call adverb, conjunction, and prepofition. 
 MODILLIONS *, in architecture, ornaments in the corniche of 
 the Ionic, Corinthian, and compofite columns. — See 'tab. Ar- 
 d)itecl. fig. zo. and 26. lit, c. 
 
 * The word comes from the Italian, ModigUone, a little mca- 
 fare. 
 
 The modillions are little inverted confoles, or brackets, in form 
 of an S, under the foffit of the corniche, feeming to fupport 
 the projecture of the larmier ; though in reality they are no 
 more than ornaments, 
 
 The modillion is fometimes alfo called mutule ; though cuftom 
 has introduced a little difference between the idea of a modil- 
 lion. and a mutule ; the mutule being peculiar to the Doric or- 
 der, and the modillion to the higher orders. 
 
 The modillions ought always to be placed over the middle of 
 the column. They are particularly affected in the Corinthian 
 order, where they are ufually enriched with fculpture. — Their 
 proportions muff be fo adjufted, as to produce a regularity in the 
 parts of the foffit. 
 
 The inter- modillions, i. e. the diftances between them, depend 
 on the inter-columnations, which oblige the modillions to be 
 made of a certain length and breadth, in order to render the 
 intervals perfect fquares, which are always found to have better 
 effect than parallelograms. To this it muft be added, that in 
 adjufting the modillions, care fhould be taken that they have 
 fuch a proportion, as that when the orders are placed over one 
 another, there be the fame number in the upper order as in 
 the lower, and that they fall perpendicularly over each other. 
 Modillions are alfo ufed under the corniches of pediments ; 
 though Vitruvius obferves that they were not allowed of in his 
 timer in regard modillions were intended to ieprefent the ends of 
 rafters, which could not be fuppofed to be found in a pediment. 
 Some will have the modillions of a pediment to reprefent purlins; 
 and thofe at the eaves to reprefent rafters. Daviler rather takes 
 them for a kind of inverted confoles or corbels. 
 
 MODIOLUS, a furgeon's inftrument, the fame with anabaptijlon 
 and trepanum. See Trepanum. 
 
 -MODIUS, in antiquity, a kind of dry meafure in ufe among 
 the Romans for feveral forts of grain. 
 4 
 
 The mod'tus contained thirty-two heminze, or (ixteen fextarics ; 
 or j of the amphora : amounting to an Englifh peck. 
 MODO & forma, in law, a phrafe ufed in proceffes and plead- 
 ings, whereby the defendant abfolutely denies the thing charged 
 on him by the plaintiff, modo forma declarata, in the manner 
 and form fet forth. 
 
 The civilians in the like fenfe fay, negat allegata, prout allc 
 gantur, ejfe vera. 
 MODULATION, in mufic, is the art of keeping in, and on 
 occafion changing the mode or key ; and returning to it again ; 
 without offence to the ear. 
 
 Under this term is comprehended the regular progreifion of the 
 feveral parts through the founds that are in the harmony of any 
 particular key, as well as the proceeding naturally and regularly 
 from one key to another. 
 
 The rules of modulation in the firft fenfe belong to harmony and 
 melodv. — We fhall here only add a word with regard to the rules 
 of modulation in the latter fenfe. 
 
 As every piece muft have a principal key ; and fince the variety 
 fo receflary in mufic to pleafe and entertain, forbids the being 
 confined to one key ; and that therefore it is not only allowable, 
 but necefliiry, to modulate into, and make cadences on feveral 
 other keys, having a relation and connection with the principal 
 key : it muft be confidered what it is that conftitutes a con- 
 nection between the harmony of one key and that of another, 
 that it may be hence determined into what keys the harmony 
 may be conducted with propriety. 
 
 As to the manner in which the modulation from one key to an- 
 other is to be performed, fo that the tranlition may be eafy and 
 natural ; it is not eafy to fix any precile rules : for though it is 
 chiefly performed by the help of the feventh g of the key, into 
 which the harmony is to be changed, whether it be flat or fbarp ; 
 yet the manner of doing it is lb various and extenfive, that no 
 rules can eafdy circumfcribe it. A general notion of it may be 
 conceived under the following terms. 
 
 The feventh g in either fharp or flat key, is the third g to the 
 fifth f of the key, by which the cadence in the key is chiefly 
 performed ; and by being only a femi-tone under the key, is 
 thereby the mod proper note to lead into it, which it does in the 
 moft natural manner imaginable, Infomuch that the feventh 
 g is never heard in any of the parts, but the ear expects the key 
 fhould fucceed it; for whether it be ufed as a third, or as a fixth, 
 it always affects us with fo imperfect a fenfation, that we natu- 
 rally expect fomething more perfect to fellow, which cannot be 
 more eafily and fmoothly accomplifhed, than by the fmall interval 
 of a femi-tone, to pafs into the perfect harmony of the key. 
 Hence it is, that the tranfition into one key is bcit effected, by 
 introducing its feventh g, which lb naturally leads to it. 
 MODULE, in architecture, a certain meafure, taken at plea- 
 fure, for regulating the proportions of columns, and the fymme- 
 try, or diftribution of the whole building. 
 
 Architects ufually chufe the diameter, or femi-diameter, of the 
 bottom of the column for their module ; and this they fubdivide 
 into parts, or minutes, 
 
 Vignola divides Wis module, which is a femi-diameter, into twelve 
 parts, for theTufcan and Doric, and into eighteen for the other 
 orders. 
 
 The module of Palladio, Scamozzi, M. Cambray, Defgodetz, 
 Le Clerc, istc, which is alfo the femi-diameter, is divided into 
 thirty parts, or minutes, in all the orders. 
 Some divide the whole height of the column into 20 parts for 
 the Doric, 22^ for the Ionic, 2 5 for the Roman, CsrV. and one of 
 thefe parts they make a module, to regulate the reft of the build- 
 ing by. 
 
 There are two ways of determining the meafures, or propor- 
 tions of buildings ; the firft by a fixed ftandard meafure, which 
 is ufually the diameter of the lower part of the column, called 
 a module, fubdivided into 60 parts, called minutes. — In the. fe- 
 cond there are no minutes, nor any certain and ftated divifion of 
 the module ; but it is divided occafionally into as many parts 
 as are judged neceffitry. Thus, the height of the Attic bafe, 
 which is half the module, is divided cither into three, to have 
 the height of the plinth ; or into four, for that of the greater 
 torus ; or into fix, for that of the fefler. 
 
 Both thefe manners have been practifed by the antient, as well as 
 the modern architects; but the fecond, which was that chiefly 
 ufed among the antients, is in my opinion preferable. Perrault. 
 As Vitruvius, in the Doric order, has lefTened his module, which 
 in the other orders is the diameter of the lower part of the co-r 
 lumn ; and has reduced that great module to a mean one, which 
 is a femi-diameter : M. Perrault reduces the module to a third 
 part for the fame reafon, viz. to determine the feveral meafures 
 without a fraction. — For in the Doric order, beftde that the 
 height of the bafe, as in the other orders, is determined by 
 one of thefe mean modules ; the fame module wives likewife the 
 heights of the capital, architrave, triglyphs, and metopes. But 
 our little module, taken from the third of the diameter of the 
 lower part of the column, has ufes much more extenfive ; for, 
 by this the heights of pedeftals, of columns, and entablatures, 
 in all the orders, arc determined without a fraction. 
 
 As 
 
M O L 
 
 MOM 
 
 As then the great module, or diameter of the column, has fixty 
 minutes ; and the mean module., or half the diameter, thirty 
 minutes ; our little module has twenty. Id. 
 MODUS decimandi is when a parcel of land, a fum of money, 
 or a yearly penfion, belongs to the parfon, either by compofi- 
 tion or cuftom, time out of mind, in fatisfaction for tithes in 
 kind. 
 
 MOHAIR, a kind of fluff, ordinarily of filk, both woof and 
 
 warp ; having its grain woven very clofe. 
 
 There are two kinds of mohairs ; the one fmooth and plain ; 
 
 the other watered like tabbies : the difference between the two 
 
 only confifts in this, that the latter is calendered, the other 
 
 not. — There are alfo mohairs both plain, and watered, whole 
 
 woof is of wool, cotton, or thread. 
 MOIDORE, Moedore, or Moeda, a gold coin, ftruck 
 
 and current in Portugal. 
 
 The moidore is properly the Fortuguefef ijlok; i nd is equivalent 
 to two mille-rees. 
 
 There are alfo doppio-moedas, or double moidores or pifioles, 
 
 and demi-piftoles. 
 MOIETY, Medietas, the half of any thing. 
 MOINEAU, in fortification, is a flat baft ion raifed before a 
 
 curtia when it is too long, and the baftions of the angles too 
 
 remote to be able to defend one another. 
 
 Sometimes the moineait is joined to the curtin, and fometimes 
 it is divided from it by a moat. — Here mufqueteers are placed, 
 to fire each way. 
 
 MOISTURE radical See the article Radical. 
 
 MOLA *, in medicine. See the article Mole. 
 
 * The word is Latin, and literally fignifies a mill-ftonc. 
 Mola, in anatomy, a bone of the knee, called alio patella, ro- 
 
 tula, &c. — -See Tab. Anat. (ojleol.) fig. 23. n, 11. 21. 
 MOLARES, in anatomy, the grinders ; an epithet given to the 
 large teeth; a> ferving, like mill-ftoncs, to grind the food. 
 — See Tab. Anat. (ojleol.) fig. 2. lit. f. 
 
 The number of molares is not always the fame. Some perfons 
 have twenty ; and others only fixteen, viz. four or five on 
 each fide of cither jaw. — They are very large, hard, and 
 ftrong ; being fattened into their alveoli or fockets by fcveral 
 roots . 
 
 MOLASSES. See the article Molosses. 
 
 MOLD. See the article Mould. 
 
 Molded column. See the article Column. 
 
 MOLE *, Mola, or Mola carnea, in medicine, a mis-fhapen 
 mafs of hard flefh, fometimes generated in the wombs of wo- 
 men, inftead of a fcetus ; called alfo a falfe conception. 
 
 * The Latins give it the name mola, which literally fignilies mill- 
 Jlonc, from its refemblance thereto in form. 
 
 The mole is the chaos of an embryo ; and would have 
 grown to an infant, had not the procefs of conception been 
 difturbeJ. Though it he without regular bones, vifcera, 
 fcrV. yet the lineaments frequently are not fo far effaced, but 
 that there are fome remains of a child ; fometimes an hand, 
 and fometimes a foot, have been feen ; and commonly the 
 fecund in es. 
 
 It is rare that more than one mole is excluded at a time; 
 though Sennertus obferves there are inflances of two, three, 
 cr even more. He adds, that though they ufually come 
 alone, yet they have been known to come with a foetus, fome- 
 times before it, and fometimes after it. 
 
 The mole is diftinguithed from an embryo, in that it has no 
 placenta whereby to receive its nouriihmtnt from the mother. 
 Inftead of that, it grows immediately to the womb; and is 
 nourifhed thence. 
 
 It has a kind of vegetative life, and continues growing in bulk 
 till the time of cxclufion. Sometimes it has been borne in the 
 womb for two or three years. 
 
 This production is fuppofed to arife from fome defect or indif- 
 pofition of the ovum, or egg ; or, perhaps, from the male's 
 feed wanting force to penetrate it fufficiently in order to 'open 
 or expand the parts : or, the effect: may be accounted for, 
 by fuppofing an ovum to drop into the womb, without being 
 impregnated by the feed of the male : in all which cafes, the 
 egg continuing to grow, and yet wanting fomething neceflary 
 to organize and form it into an embryo, becomes a fhapelefl- 
 lump. 
 
 Authors are divided whether or no women ever bring forth 
 moles without any intercourfe with men ? Some fay there are 
 moles which derive their origin from the menftruous blood de- 
 tained, coagulated, and hardened ; through which the blood 
 and fpirits have made themfelves pafiages, &c. 
 The mole, while in the womb, may be diftinguifhed from a true 
 conception, by its tremulous palpitating motion ; by its rolling 
 Jrom ltde to fide ; and by the belly's fwelling equally every 
 way. The breafts fwell as in cafe of a juft embryo ; but the 
 humour generated therein is not true milk, but a crude matter, 
 formed of the fupprcfied menfes. 
 
 To bring the mola out of the womb, bleeding and violent purg- 
 ing arc ufed, and at laft ftrong emmenagogues. If thefe fan, 
 recourfe is to be had to manual operation. Sec Supplement, 
 article Mola. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 Mole, Moles, a maffive work formed of large frones laid in 
 the fea by means of coffer-dams, extended either in a right line, 
 or an arch of a circle, before a port ; which it ferves to clofe ; 
 to defend the veilels in it from the impetuofity of the waves, 
 and to prevent the paffage of fhips without leave. 
 Thus we fay the mole of the harbour of Meflina, eft. 
 
 Mole is fometimes alfo ufed to figaify the harbour itfelf. 
 
 Mole, Moles, among the Romans, was alfo ufed for a kind 
 of maufoleum, built in manner of a round tower on a fquarc 
 bafe, infulate, incompaffed with columns, and covered with 3 
 dome. 
 
 The mole of the emperor Adrian, now the cattle of St. An- 
 gelo, was the greateft, and moft ftatelv, of all the moles. It 
 was crowned with a b razen pine-apple, wherein was a golden 
 urn containing the afhes of the emperor. 
 MOLECULE, Molecula, in phyfics, a little mafs or por- 
 tion of any body. 
 
 The air, by refpiration, inhnuating itfelf into the veins and 
 arteries, endeavours by its elaftic power to divide and break 
 the molecules of the blood, which on their fide refill fuch divi- 
 fion. 
 
 MOLESTANDO. See the article ISox-moIe/lando* 
 MOLINE', in heraldry. A 0<j/}-Moline' is that which turns 
 
 round both ways at all its extremities, though not fo wide or 
 
 fharp as that faid to be anchored. 
 
 In Upton, the points are all cut off, which makes it very dif- 
 ferent from the crofs anchored. 
 
 MOLINISTS, a fea in the Romifh church, who follow the 
 doctrine and fentiments of the Jefuit Molina, relating to fuf- 
 ficient and efficacious grace. 
 Their great antagonifts are the Janfenifts. 
 
 MOLINOSISTS, a feci among the Romanifts, who adhere to 
 the doctrine of Molinos. — Thefe are the fame with what are 
 otherwife called Quietijis. 
 
 MOLLET. See the article Mullet. 
 
 MOLLIS portio. See the article Portio. 
 
 MOLMUTIN, nrMoLMUTiApjkuj, the laws of Dunwallo 
 Molmutius, XVIth king of the liritons, who is faid to have 
 begun his reign 440 years befure the incarnation. 
 He was the firft who publifhed any laws in this land ; and 
 they continued famous therein till the time of William the 
 Conqueror. 
 
 MOLOSSES, Molasses, or Mel asse s, thatgroft, yet-fluid 
 matter remaining of fugar, aftvr refining, and which no boil- 
 ing will bring to a conliftence more folid than that of fyrup ; 
 hence alfo called fyrup of fugar. 
 
 Properly, molojfes are only the Jediment of one kind of fugar 
 called chypre, or brown fugar, which is the refufe of other l'u- 
 gars not to be whitened, or reduced into loaves. 
 Molojfes are much ufed in Holland among poor people, for the 
 preparation of tobacco, and alfo inftead of fugar. 
 There is alfo a kind of brandy or fpirit made of molojfes; hut 
 by fome erroneoufly held exceedingly unwholfome. See Sup- 
 plement, article Molasses. 
 MOLOSSUS, in the Greek and Latin poetry, a foot coh- 
 fifting of three long fyllablcs. — As audiri, cantabant^ vir~ 
 tutem. 
 
 It takes its name either from a dance in ufe amon^ the people 
 called Molofft, or E pirates; or from the temple of Jupiter Mo- 
 lojfus, where odes were fung, in which this foot had a great 
 {hare ; or elfe becaufe the march of the Mclofji when they 
 went to the combat, was compofed of thefe feet, or had the 
 cadence thereof. — The fame foot was alfo called among the 
 antients, Fertumnus, extenjipes, hippius, & canius. Dion. 
 3- P- 475- 
 
 MOLTA, or Moltura, a duty or toll paid by vafials to the 
 
 lord for grinding their corn at his mill. 
 MOLTING, or Moulting, the falling off or change of hair, 
 
 feathers, fkin, horns, or other parts of animals, happening 
 
 in fome annually, in others only at certain flakes of their 
 
 life. 
 
 The generality of beafts molt in the fpring. 
 The molting of a hawk is called mewing. 
 
 The molting of a deer is the quitting of his horns in February 
 or March. 
 
 The molting of a ferpent is the putting off his fkin. See EXU- 
 VIAE. 
 
 MOLUTA arma. See the article Arma. 
 
 MOMENT, in time, the moft minute and indivifible part of 
 
 duration ; or what we otherwife call an inflant. 
 Moments, in the new doctrine of infinites, denote the infinitely 
 
 fmall parts of quantity. 
 
 Moments are the fame with what we otherwife call infi- 
 nitefmals, and differences ; being the momentary increments 
 or decrements of quantity, confidered as in a continual 
 flux. 
 
 Moments are the generative principles of magnitude: they 
 have no determined magnitude of their own ; but are onlv in- 
 ceptive thereof. 
 
 Hence, as it is the fame thing, if, in lieu of thefe moments, the 
 velocities of their increafes and decreafes be made ufe of, or 
 6 Y the 
 
M O N 
 
 M O N 
 
 the finite quantities proportionable to fuch velocities ; the me- 
 thod of proceeding;, which confiders the motions, changes, or 
 fluxions of quantities, is denominated by Sir If. Newton the 
 method of fluxions. 
 
 Leibnitz, and moft foreigners, confidcring thefe infinitely 
 fmall parts, or infiniteiimals, as the differenceof two quanti- 
 ties ; and thereby endeavouring to find the differences ot quan- 
 tities, /. e. (oms moments, or quantities infinitely fmall, which 
 being taken an infinite number of times, fliall equal given 
 quantities; call thefe moments, differences ; and the method of 
 procedure, the differential calculus. See Calculus differen- 
 tial'^. 
 
 Moment, Momentum, in mechanics, is the fame with impe- 
 tus ; or the quantity of motion in a moving body. 
 
 Momentum is Sometimes alfo ufed limply lor the motion itfelf. 
 Moment is frequently defined by the vis infita, or the power by 
 which moving bodies continually change place. 
 In comparing the motions of bodies, the ratio of their momenta 
 is always compounded of the quantity of matter, and the cele- 
 rity of the moving body ; fo that the moment of any fuch body 
 may be confidered as a reclangle under the quantity of matter, 
 and the celerity. 
 
 Andfince it is certain, that all equal rectangles have their fides 
 reciprocally proportionable; therefore if the mrments of any 
 moving bodies lie equal, the Quantity of matter in one to that 
 of the other will be reciprocally as the celerity of the latter to 
 the celerity of the former ; and, on the contrary, if the quan- 
 tities of matter be reciprocally proportionable to the celerities, 
 the moments, or quantities in each, will be equal. 
 The moment alfo of any moving body may be confidered as the 
 aggregate or fum of all the moments of the parts of that body ; 
 and therefore where the magnitudes and number of particles 
 are the fame, and where they are moved with the fame celerity, 
 there will be the lame moments of the wholes. 
 
 MOMENTARY motion. See the article Quantity. 
 
 MONARCHY *, MONAPXIA, a large ftate governed by one; 
 or a ftate where the fupreme power is lodged in the hands of a 
 fingle. perfon. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek aw one who governs 
 alone ; formed of (JMm foitt, and np'/j; hnperium, government. 
 The moft anticnt monarchy w as that of the AJTynans, which 
 was founded foon after the deluge. — We ufually. reckon four 
 grand, or unlverfal monarchies, the Aflyrian, ferfian, Grecian, 
 and Reman : though St. Auguflin makes them but two, 
 viz. thole of Babylon and Rome. — There Teems in reality no 
 necefhty to make the Medes, Perfians, and Greeks, fucceed to 
 the whole power of the Alfyrians, to multiply the number of 
 the monarchies : it was the fame empire fiill, and the fcveral 
 changes that happened in it, did not conftitute different monar- 
 chies. Thus the Roman empire was fucceflively governed by 
 princes of different nations, yet without ?ny new monarchy be- 
 ing formed thereby. Rome therefore may be laid to have im- 
 mediately fuccteded Babylon in the empire of the world. See 
 Empire. 
 
 Of monarchies fome are ohfolute and defpotic, where tlic will 
 of the monarch is uncontroulable ; as Denmark, fefr. others aie 
 limited, where the prince's authority is retrained by kws, and 
 part of tiie fupreme power lodged in other hands ; as in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Some monarchies again are hereditary, where the fucceffion de- 
 volves immediately from father to fon ; and others arc chftivc, 
 where, on the death of the monarch, his iuccellor is appointed 
 by election; as in Poland, 
 
 According to Hohbes, monarchy, as well as ariftocracv, derives 
 all its authority from the people, who transfer all their right, 
 f. gr. the fupreme power, by a plurality of fuffrages, &c. to 
 fame one perfon called a mmareh ; fo that whatever the people 
 could have done before this tranfiation, may be now rightfullv 
 done by him, to whom, the tranfiation is made. — This done, 
 the people are no longer to be looked upon as a body, but a dif- 
 folved multitude; in regard they were only one by virtue of 
 the fupreme puwer, which they have now transferred to an- 
 other. 
 
 Nor can the monarch, according to this author, oblige him- 
 felf by any covenants, to any perfon, for the authority he 
 has received ; in regard he receives the power from the people, 
 which, as foon as that is done, ceafes to be a body ; and the 
 body ceafing, the obligation to the body ceafes of courfe. — 
 The people therefore are obliged to pay obedience to the mo- 
 narch, by virtue of thofe covenants, whereby thev mutually 
 oblige themfelves to what the people, as a body, injoins to be 
 done. 
 
 He argues further, that as a monarch cannot be obliged by 
 any covenants ; fo neither can he do any injury to hisfub- 
 jedts ; an injury being nothing clfe but a breach of covenant : 
 and where there is no covenant,there can be no breach of one. 
 De cive, cap. 8. 
 
 MONASTERII provifor. See the article Provisos. 
 
 MONAS TERY, a convent, or houfc built for the reception of 
 religious ; whether it be abbey, priory, nunnery, or the like. 
 See Abbey, Priory, csV. 
 
 Monastery is only properly applied to the houfes of monks, 
 
 mendicant friars, and nuns. The reft arc more prcpcrlv called 
 religious houfes. 
 
 MONASTIC, fomethiiig belonging to monks, or the monkifli 
 life. 
 
 The monajlic profeflion is a kind of civil death, which in all 
 worldlv matters has the fame effect, with the natural death. 
 The council of Trent, &c. fix fixtcen years for the age at 
 which a perfon may be admitted into the menujheal ftate. 
 St. Antony is the perfon who in the fourth century firft in- 
 ftituted the mnoajiic life ; as St. Pachomius, in the lame cen- 
 turv, is faid to have fir ft fet on foot the coenobitic lile, /'. e. 
 regular communities of religious. 
 
 In a fhort time, the defarts of Egypt became inhabited with a 
 fet of folitaries, who took upon them the monatlic profeflion. 
 See Anachoret, Hermite, fcfcs, — St. Bafd carried the 
 monkifli humour into the caff, where he compcfeJ a rule, 
 Which afterwards obtained through a great part of the weft-. 
 In the eleventh century, the monajlic discipline was grown very 
 rcmifs : St. Odo firft began to retrieve it in the moiuftery of 
 Cluny : that monaftery, by the conditions of its erection, 
 was put under the immediate protection of the holy fee ; with 
 a prohibition to all powers, both fccular and c clefiaftical, to 
 dillurb the monks in the pofTefTion of their efr'edts, or theeledtion 
 of their abbot. In virtue hereof, they pleaded an exemption from 
 the jurifdiction of the biftiop ; and extended this privilege to all 
 the houfes dependent on Cluny. This made the firft congrega- 
 tion of feveral houfes under one chief immediately fubject to the 
 pope, fo as to conftitute one body, or, as they now call it, one 
 religious order. Till then, each monaftery was independent, 
 and fubject to the hifhop. 
 MONO, See the article Mound. 
 
 MONDAY. — P/ffffw/'- Monday. See the article Plough. 
 MONETAE pes. See the article Pes. 
 
 MONETAG1UM, Moketace, or Mintacp, the right or 
 privilege of coining money. 
 
 MONE TALES triumviri. See the article Triumviri. 
 
 MONETARIUS, oi'Moneyer, a name which antiquaries arid 
 medalifts give to thofe who ftruck the antient coins, or mo- 
 neys. • J * 1 
 Many of the old Roman, coins, have the name nf the 
 monetarius, either written at length, or at tea ft the initial letters 
 of it. 
 
 MONEY, or Mony, Monet a, a piece of metal marked for 
 coin, with the arms of a prince, or ftate, who make it circu- ■ 
 lateorpafs, at a fixed rate, for things of different value ; to fa- 
 cilitate the bufimfs of commerce. 
 
 Paulus the lawyer defines money a thing framped with a pub- 
 lic coin, and deriving its ufe and value from its impirffion ra- 
 ther than its fubfUnce. 
 
 Monf. Boizard defines money a piece of matter to which public 
 authority has affixed a certain value and weight ; to ferve as a 
 medium in commerce. 
 
 The a?ra of the invention of money is rot eafy to be fettled. 
 There is no room to doubt but that in the c::riieft r.gcs, the or- 
 dinary way of traffick among men was by trucking or- ex- 
 chaagfngj commodity for commodity. Thus, in Homer, Glau- 
 DU ;;.>iden armour was valued at one hundred oxen; and 
 Diomedes's- armour at ten. 
 
 But in COUrfe of time it was found ncccfFarv, in the way of 
 commutative juftice, to have fome common meafure or ftand- 
 ard, according to which all other things fhould be effimated. 
 This, as fome gather from Jofephus, was firft invented by 
 Cain : though the firft tidings we hear of it, is in the time of 
 Abraham, who paid four hundred Ihekels for a burying- 
 place. 
 
 The Greeks refer the invention of money to Hcrmodice, wife 
 of king Midas : and the Latins to Janus. — Money being a 
 common meafure for reducing wares to a balance, it was called 
 by the Greeks nomijma ; not from king Numa, but from m- 
 7«aj, as being eftablifhed by law. By the Latins it was called 
 pecuma ; either becaufe the wealth of thofe days confifted in 
 their cattle; or, as Pliny will have it, becaufe their firft coin 
 was framped with the figure of a cow. They alfo call it mo- 
 neta, amonendo, as Suidas obierves, becaufe when the Romans 
 were in want of money, Juno admonifhed them to ufejufnee, 
 and there flioutd be no want of money. The effect whereof 
 when they had found, fhe was furnamed fu.io Mor.eta, and 
 money was coined in her temple. In procefs of time, Money her- 
 felf was made a goddefs, and enfhrmed bv the name of deaPe- 
 cunia, under the figure of a woman holding a balance in one 
 hand, and a cornucopia in the other. 
 
 On the foot money now f lands, it may be divided into real, or 
 effective ; and imaginary. 
 Real Mosey includes all coins, or fpecic; of goWj filvcr, copper, 
 and the like; which have courfe in commerce, arfd do really cxifr. 
 — Such are guineas, crowns, pijfc/es, pieces cf eight-, ducats, occ. 
 Which fee under their proper needs ; as alfc under Col n. 
 Real money, civilians obferve, ha3 three cllential qualities, viz. 
 matter, form, and weight or value. — r or matter, copper is that 
 thought to have been firft coined ; afterwards filvcr ; and, laft- 
 ly, gold, as being the moft beautiful, fcarce, cleanly, Blrifiblc, 
 and pure of all metals. 
 
 i The 
 
MON 
 
 M O N 
 
 The degrees of goodnefs are exprcfFed in gold by carats ; and 
 in filver by penny-weights, kfii For there are feveral reafons 
 for not coining them pure and without alloy, viz. the great 
 lofs and expciice in refining them, the neceffity of hardening 
 them to mafce them more durable, and the fcarcity of gold and 
 filver in many countries. 
 
 Among the antient Britons, iron rings, or, as fome fay, iron 
 plates, were ufed for money. Among the Lacedaemonians iron 
 bars quenched with vinegar 1 , intended that they might not ferve 
 for any other ufe. Seneca obferves, that there was antiently 
 ftamped money of leather, cor turn forma publico impreffum. And 
 the fame thing was put in practice by Frederic II. at the ficge 
 of Milan ; to fay nothing of an old tradition among ourfehes, 
 that, in the confufed times of the barons wars, the like was 
 done in England : The Hollanders, we know, coined great 
 quantities of pafteboard in the year 1574. Numa Pompilius 
 made money of wood and leather. Nor does it appear that 
 the Romans were much acquainted with the art of ftriking 
 money in metal, during the time of their kings. The firft filver 
 money they coined was in the year of Rome 484 ; and their 
 firft gold money in 546. 
 
 As to the farm tf money, it has been more various than the 
 matter. — Under this are comprehended the weight, figure 
 impreffion, and valu6. 
 
 For the imprejpon, the Jews, though they detefted images, yet 
 ftamped on the cue fide their fhekel, the golden pot which had 
 the manna; and on the other, Aaron's rod. The Dardnn?, 
 two cocks lighting. Alexander, as is held by fome, his horfe 
 Bucephalus : Though this may be doubted of, in regard the 
 horfe is found as frequently on the coins of feveral of the kings 
 of Macedon, his predecefibrs, as on his : The Athenians ftamp- 
 ed their coins with an owl, or an ox ; whence the proverb on 
 bribed lawyers, bos in lingua. The People of ^oina, with a 
 tortuife ; whence that other faying, virtntem <o fafientiam vin- 
 cunt tejhdincs. For the Romans, the monetarii fometimcs 
 impreiled the images of men that had been eminent in their fa- 
 milies on their coins : But no living man's head was ever ftamp- 
 ed on a Roman coin till after rheTall of the commonwealth. 
 After that time they bore the Emperor's head on one fide. And 
 from this time the practice of ftamp mg the prince's image on 
 coins, has obtained among all civilized nations ; the Turks and 
 other Mahometans excepted, who, in detcftation of images, 
 inferibe only the prince's name, with the year of the tranfmi- 
 gration of their prophet. 
 
 As to the figure, it is cither round, as in England ; multangu- 
 lar or irregular, as in Spain; fquarc, as in "fome parts of the 
 Indies ; or neatly globular, as in mod of the reft. 
 After the arrival of the Romans in this ifiand, the Britons imi- 
 tated them, coining both gold and filver with the images of 
 their kings ftvimped on them. When the Romans had fubducd 
 the kings of the Britons, they alfo fupprefted their coins, and 
 brought in their own ; which were current herefrom the time 
 of Claudius to that of Valentinian the younger, this being about 
 the fpace of five hundred years. 
 
 Mr. Camden obferves, that the m oft antient Englifh coin he 
 had known was that of Etbelbert king of Kent, the firft Chri- 
 itian king in the ifiand ; in whole time all money accounts be- 
 gan to pafs by the names of pounds, MtHtngt, pence, and man- 
 eufes. 
 
 I he penny feems borrowed from the Latin pecunia, or rather 
 from pe <uh, on account of its juft weight, which was about 
 threepence of our money. Thcfe were coarfely ftamped with 
 the king's image on the one fide, and either the mint-mafter's 
 name, or the city's where it was coined, on the other. Five of 
 thefe pence made their fcilHng, probably fo called from fcilin- 
 gits, which the Romans ufed for the fourth part of an ounce. 
 Forty of thcfe fbiHwigs made their pound, and four hundred of 
 tiielc pounds were a legacv, or a portion for a king's daughter ; 
 as appears by the Iaft will of king Alfred: 
 
 By thefe names they tranflated all fums of money in their old 
 Englifh tefhment; talents by pundes ■ Judas's thirty pieces of 
 filver by thirtig fcillinga ; tribute- zHesfv, by paining ; and the 
 mite by fcorthIi?ig. 
 
 But it muft be obferved, they had no other real money, but 
 pence only ; the reft being imaginary phoneys, i, e. names of 
 numbers, or weights. Thirty of thcfe pence made a mancus, 
 which fome take to be the fame with a mark ; manca, as ap- 
 pears by an old MS. was quints pars undo:, 
 1 hefe manca's or mancus's, were reckoned both in gold and 
 filver. For in the year 680. we read, that Ina king of the 
 Weft Saxons obliged the Kcntifhmen to buy their peace at 
 the price of thirty thoufand manca's of gold. In the notes on 
 king Canute's laws, we find this diftinction, that mancufa was 
 as much as a mark of filver ; and manca a fquare piece of gold, 
 valued at thirty pence. 
 
 The Danes introduced a way of reckoning money by ores, per 
 oras, mentioned in domes-day book ; hut whether they were a 
 feveral coin, or a certain fum, docs not plainly appear. This 
 however, may be gathered from the abby- book of Burton, that 
 twenty ores were equivalent to two marks. 
 They had alfo a gold coin called bizantine, or bezant, as be- 
 ing coined at Constantinople, then called Bizantium. The 
 
 value of which coin is not only now loft, but was fo intirely 
 forgotten even in the time of king Ed ward the third, that where- 
 as the bifhop of Norwich was fined a bizantine of gold, to be 
 paid the abbot of St. Edmond's Bury, for infringing his liber- 
 ties (as it had been enacted bv parliament, in the time of the 
 conqueror), no man then living could tell how much it was J 
 fo that it was referred to the king to rate how much he fhould 
 pay. Which is the more unaccountable, becaufe but an hun- 
 dred years before, two hundred thoufand befants were exacted 
 by the foldan for the ranfom of St. Lewis of France ; which 
 were then valued at one hundred thoufand livrcs. 
 Though the coining of money be a fpecial prerogative of the 
 king, yet the antient Saxon princes communicated it to their 
 fuhjecb ; infomuch that in every good town there was at leaft 
 one mint, but at London eight ; at Canterbury four for the 
 king, two for the archbifhop, one for the abbot at Winchefter, 
 fix at Rochefter, at Haftings two, C3*r. 
 
 1 he Norman kings continued the fame cuftom of coining only 
 pence, with the prince's image on one fide, and on the other 
 the name of the city where it was coined, with a crofs fo deep- 
 ly lmprefTed, that it might be eafily parted, and broken into 
 two halves, which fo broken, they called half-pence ; or into 
 four parts, which they called farthings, or farthings. See 
 Farthing. 
 
 In the time of K. Richard the firft, money coined in the eaft 
 parts of Germany, came in fpecial rcqueft in England, on ac- 
 count of its purity, and was called eajlerllng money, as all the 
 inhabitants of thole parts were called Eajlerlings. And fhortly 
 after, fome of thofe people, fkilled in coining, were fent for 
 hither, to bring the coin to perfection; which ever fince has 
 been called fterl'mg for Eajlerling. 
 
 King Edward the firft, whu firit adiuftcd the meafure of an 
 ell by the length of his arm, her ein imitatingCharlcs the Great, 
 was the firft alfo who eftablifhed a certain ftandard for the coin, 
 which is exprcfled to this cfte£t by Greg. Rockley, mayor of 
 London, and mint-maftcr. — ' A pound of money containcth 
 1 twelve ounces : In a pound there ought to be eleven ounces, 
 ' two eafterlings, and one farthing ; the reft alloy. The fa id 
 1 pound ought to weigh twenty (hillings and three pence in ac- 
 count and weight. The ounce ought to weigh twenty pence, 
 ' andapeny twenty-four grains and ahalf. — Note, that eleven 
 
 * ounces two pence fterling ought to be of pure lilver, called 
 ' ^affher, and the minter mult add of otherweight feventeen 
 
 * pence half- peny farthing, if the filver be fo pure.' 
 About the year 1320, the flates of Europe firft began to coin 
 gold, and among the reft, our king Edward III. The firlt 
 pieces he coined were called Florences, as being coined by Flo- 
 rentines ; afterwards he coined nobles ; then rofe-nobles, cur- 
 rent at fix ftnllings and eight pence ; half-nobles, called half- 
 pennies, at three millings and four pence of gold ; and quarters 
 at twenty pence, called farthings of geld. The fucceeding 
 kings coined rofe-nobles, and double rofe-nobles, great fovc- 
 reigns, and half Henry nobles, angels, and fhillings. 
 King James the firft coined unites, double crowns, Britain 
 crowns : Then crowns, half crowns, EsV. 
 
 Fatfe, or Money, is either that ftruck by an unqualified 
 perfon, and of unftatutable metals ; or that which has loft of 
 its weight, either by being clipped on the corners, or filed on 
 the edges, or laftly, by having fome of its furface eaten off; 
 if gold, by aqua regalis; if filver, by aqua fortis. 
 Another kind of bafc money is that'made of pieces of iron, 
 copper, or other metal, covered on each fide with a thin plate 
 or leaf of gold or filver, neatly foldered and joined around the 
 edges, and ftruck, like other coin, with figures, legends, &c. 
 only to be diftinguiflied from them by the bulk, and weight, 
 and found. 
 
 Imaginary Mone y, or Money of account, is that which has ne- 
 ver exifted,^ or at leaft which docs not exift in real fpecics, but 
 is a denomination invented or retained to facilitate the ftating 
 of accounts, by keeping them ftill on a fixed footing, not to 
 be changed, like current coins, which the authority of the fo- 
 vereign fometunes raifes or Iowers,according to the exigencies of 
 ftate.--Of which kinds arc pounds, livrcs, marks,maravedies,&Lc. 
 Money of account, according to M. Boizard, is a fum of money, 
 or a certain number of fpecies which may change in fubftance 
 and quantity, but never in quality. — Thus fifty pounds con- 
 fifts of fifty pieces called pounds, which are not real, but 
 may be paid in feveral real fpecies, as in guineas, crowns, fhil- 
 lings, csV. which are changeable, as guineas, v. gr. which are 
 fometimcs higher, fometimes lower. 
 Moneys of account, or manners of reckoning Money in Europe 
 and Ada. — We here confine ourfelves to the moneys of thofe 
 two parts of the world : America having none ; the refpeclive 
 moneys of account of the Europeans, who have there made fet- 
 tlements, being eftablifhed with them. As to Africa, the 
 cities of Barbary and Egypt, vvhi:her the Europeans traffick, 
 reckon much after the fame manner as in the Levant, and in 
 the dominions of the grand fignior : For the reft, through- 
 out that vaft extent of coaft, where we trade for negroes, 
 gold-duft, elephants teeth, wax, leathers, csV. either the 
 miferable inhabitants do not know what money of account is, 
 or if they have any, it is only what ftrangcrs, fettled among 
 
 1 hem 
 
M O N 
 
 M O N 
 
 them, have introduced. — The macoute, however, and the 
 ■piece, which are manners of accounting among thefe Barba- 
 rians, will be mentioned in their place. See Piece. 
 
 Englifu Money of account, is the pound, milling, and penny, 
 fterling: The pound containing twenty millings, and the 
 milling twelve pence. 
 
 French Money of account, was antieritly the parifis, toumois, 
 and the ecu, or crown : but fince the ordonnance of 1667, 
 they only reckon by livres, /. c. pounds ; ibis, i, e. (hillings ; 
 and deniers toumois, (, c. pence. The livre, 20 fols, or $ of 
 the ecu, or crown ; the fol, 12 deniers. 
 
 The maille, ohole, or half-penny tournois, is alfo now a 
 money of account, though anriently a real coin. The maille 
 is divided into two pites, and each pite into two femi-pites ; ah 
 moneys of account. To which muft be added the frank, of 
 the fame value with the livre, vtz. 20 fols tournois ; and the 
 blanc, 5 deniers tournois ; and the carolus, ten : All three 
 antiently real coins. 
 
 Dutch and FUmijh Moneys cf account. In Holland, Zealand, 
 Brabant, and Cologne, they ufe the pundr, or livre de gros ; 
 fchclling, or fol de gros ; and penning, or deniers gros. The 
 pundt, containing 20 Penciling; and the fchclling, 12 pen- 
 nings. The pundt equal to 7 livres, 4 fols French, or 10 mil- 
 lings ft ftcrluig. They alfo account by florins or guilders, 
 patards and pennings. The florin is equal to j of the pound, 
 or 20 patards ; and the patard, 12 pennings. The merchants 
 ufe each method of accounting indifteremly. 
 
 Spani/i) Money of account , is the pefo, ducat of filver and vellon, 
 rial of vellon, and cornadus and maravedis of filver and vellon. 
 The pefo is to the ducat as 12 to 10. The ducat of filver 
 contains 1 1 rials of filver i and that of vellon, 1 1 rials of vel- 
 lon i which makes a difference of near one half. The filver 
 rial being current for 7 millings itcrling, and that ol vellon 
 only at 3 : 8 d. fterling. 34 maravedis make the rial of vel- 
 lon, and 63 that of filver. The maravedi is divided into 
 4 cornaros. 
 
 German and Swift Money of account. In Switzerland, and 
 many of the chief cities of Germany, particularly Franc fort, 
 they account by florins (but on a footing different from that 
 of Holland), by crcux's or creutzers, and pennins. The florin 
 is equal to 3 {hillings fterling, and is divided into 60 creux or 
 kreutz, and the creux into 8 pennins. In others, as Nurem- 
 berg, is'c. they account bv rix-dollars, florins, and creux. 
 The rix-doll.;r equal to 4.S. 8 (/. flerling, divided into 100 creux, 
 and the creux into 8 pennins. In others, as Hambourg, Ber- 
 lin, Is'c. by rix-dollars, marks lubs, fchclliiigs lubs, and de- 
 nierslubs. The rix-dollar and dollar on the foot of the French 
 crown, 01-4: 6 flerling, divided into 3 marks, and the mark 
 into 16 fchellings, and the fchelling into 12 pennins. At 
 Hamburgh they alfo ufe the livre, fchelling, and denier de 
 gros. At Ausbourg and Bolzamont, they account by dollars 
 and creux's ; the dollar equal to 4 : 6 fterling, divided into 90 
 creux's. At Nambourg, by rix-dollars gros and fenins ; the 
 rix-dollar equal to 4 : b flerling, divided into 36 gros, and the 
 gros into 12 fenins. At Strasbourg!) by florins, creux, and 
 pennins. The florin equal to is. b d. flerling, divided into 
 60 creux, and the creux into 8 pennins. 
 Italian Moneys of account. In Italy, the moneys of account are 
 as various, almoft as the cities of commerce. At Rome, they 
 account by pounds, millings, and pence of gold di Jlampa. 
 At Venice, by ducats, and grofs di banco. The ducat divided 
 into 24 grofs, each grofs equal to 2 pence y flerling. And by 
 ducats currant, called alfo fequins, equal to 9 s. 2 d, flerling ; 
 2nd by pounds, millings, and pence. At Lucca and Bergamo, 
 they ufe the four laft j and only the three laft at Bologna, 
 Mantua, and Savoy: In Geneva, befides pounds, millings, 
 and pence, they account alfo by florins, containg 6 foldis, or 
 6 pence - flerling. At Leghorn and Genoa, befides pounds, 
 millings, and pence, they account by philters, equal to 4*. bd. 
 fterling. At Nova, their moneys of account are crowns, {hil- 
 lings, and pence of gold di marc. At Raconis, pounds, flo- 
 rins, and grofs. At Ancona, crowns, millings, and pence. 
 At Naples, ducats, grains, and tarins, equal to one {hilling; 
 flerling, and divided into 20 grains. 
 Sicilian and Maltefe Moneys of account. AtMeflina, Palermo, 
 and throughout Sicily, they account by pounds, ounces, tarins, 
 grains and piccoli's ; which are fammed by 30, 20, and 6 : 
 the ounce being 30 tarins, the tarin 20 grains, and the grain 
 6 piccoli's. At Malta, they account by pounds, ounces, car- 
 lins and grains. The ounce 30 tarins, or 60 carlins, or 600 
 urains ; the carlin equal to 6 d. j flerling. 
 Polijh Moneys of account. Throughout Poland, mofl of the 
 dominions of the king of Pruffia, and Dantzic, they account 
 by rix-dollars, roups,and grochs. The rix-dollar equal to 4;, bd. 
 fterling, and divided into 32 roups ; and again, in the Pruffian 
 territories, into 24 grochs : In Poland, into 90 grochs. Some- 
 times they ufe the florin, groch, and penny. 
 Sived/Jb, Danijh y and Mufcovite Moneys of account. In Swe- 
 den, they account by dalles, equal to 32 fols lubs, or 3 {hillings 
 fterling. In Denmark, by rix-dollars, and ft i vers ; the rix- 
 dollar divided into 48 ftivers. 
 
 In Mufcovy, they account by roobles, atlins, and grifs or grives. 
 
 The«rooble equal to 100 copecs, or 2 rix-dollars, or 9 millings 
 fterling ; divided into 10 grifs ; 3 altins -} make the grif, or 
 10 copecs; the copec at 13 pence | flerling. 
 Turhijh Moneys of account. The Turks, both in Europe, Afia, 
 and Africa, account by purfes, cither of filver or gold (the 
 laft only ufed in the feraglio), with half purfes of gold, called 
 alio rizes. The purfe of filver equal to 1500 French livres, 
 or 112/. 10 r. fterling. The half- purfe in proportion. The 
 purfe of gold 15000 fcquins, equal to 30000 French crowns, 
 or 6750 pounds fterling ; this is feldom ufed but for prefents to 
 favourites : So that a purfe, fimply, fignities a purfe of filver, 
 or 1500 livres. They are called purfes, becaufe all the money 
 in the trcafury of the feraglio is kept in leathern bags or purfu.s, 
 of thofc contents. The merchants alfo ufe Dutch dallars, called 
 afani or abouquels, with meideins and afpres. The dallar 
 is equal to 35 meideins, and the meidein to 3 afpres ; the alprc 
 to \ penny flerling. 
 Perfian Moneys of account. In Perfia, they account by the to- 
 man (called alfo man, and tumem J and the dinar-bilti. The 
 toman is compofed of 50 abaflis, or a hundred mamodies, or 
 200 chapes, or 10000 dinars ; which accounting the abaffi 011 
 the foot of eighteen French fols, or the dinar on that of a de- 
 nier, amounts to 3/. 12 J. bd. fterling the toman. They 
 alfo account by larins, efpecially at Ornuis, and on the coafts 
 of the Perfian gulph. The larin is equivalent to 1 1 pence fter- 
 ling ; and on that footing is ufed alio in Arabia, and a great part 
 of the Eaft-Indies. 
 Ch'mefe Moneys of account are the pic, picol, and tael ; which, 
 though in effect weights, do liLcwile fei ve as moneys of account ; 
 obtaining in Tunquin as well as China. 1 he pic is divided into 
 100 catis, fome fiiy 125. The cati into 16 taels ; each tael 
 equal to 1 ounce 2 drachms. The picol contains 66 catis ^ ; 
 the tael is equivalent to 6 s. 8 d. flerling. 
 'Japanefe Moneys cf account, are the lchuites, cockiens, oebans 
 or oubans, and taels. Two hundred fchuites are equal to 500 
 Dutch pounds ; the cockien equal to 10 Low-country pounds ; 
 1 coo oehans make 45000 taels. 
 Mogul Moneys of accsunt. At Surat, Agra, and the reft of the 
 eftates of the Great Mogul, they ufe lacres, acres, or leeths ; 
 implying a hundred thoufand : Thus a lacre of rupees is-an hun- 
 dred thoufand rupees ; the lacre being nearly on the footing of 
 the tun of gold in Holland, and the 1/ illion of France. 
 Moneys of account of other ifands and csajis of India. Through- 
 out Malabar, and at Goa, they ufe tangas, vintins, and par- 
 do;; xeraphin. The tanga is of two kinds, viz. of good, and 
 bad alloy. Hence rlieir cuilom is to count by good or bad 
 money. The tanga of good alloy is -J better than the bad ; fo 
 that 4 tangas good being allowed the pardos xcranhin, there 
 will be required 5 of the bad ; 4 vintins good make a tanga 
 Jikewife goud ; 15 barucos a vintin. The good baruco is equal 
 to a Portuguefe ree, a French denier, or , A ; of a penny fter- 
 ling. In the ifland of Java, they ufe the funta, fapacou, far- 
 dos, and catis ; which lafl money, together with the leeth, or 
 lacre, is much ufed throughout all the Fart-Indies. The fanta 
 is two hundred caxas, or little pieces of that country hung on 
 a firing; and is equal to fi of a penny fterling. Five faiitas 
 make the fapacou. The fardos equal to 2.'. 8 d. fterling. 
 The cati contains 20 taels; the tael bs. Sd. flerling. 
 There are iflands, cities, and ftates of the Eaft-Indies, whofe 
 moneys of account are not here exprefled ; partly becaufe redu- 
 cible to fome of thofc above-mentioned ; and partly becaufe 
 we find no certain confident account of them in any of the 
 authors, or memoirs herein confulted. 
 African Moneys of account. From Cape Verd, to the Cape of 
 Good Hope, all exchanges and valuations of merchandizes are 
 made on the foot of the macoute and piece : which though 110 
 moneys of account (for thofe barbarians, having no real niencysy 
 need no imaginary ones to eftiuiate them by), yet fervc iji lieu 
 thereof. At Loango de Boirie, and other places on the coafl; 
 of Angola, the eftimations are made by macoutes; and at Ma- 
 limbo, and Cabindo, on the fame coafl, the negroes reckon 
 bv pieces. Among the firft, the macoute is equiyalent to 10: 
 Ten macoutes make 100 ; which Iikewife gives us a kind of 
 imaginary money. To eftimate any purclufe, exchange, faV. 
 they fix on the one fide the number of macoutes required, e. tr, 
 for a negro ; on the other for how many macoutes they agree 
 to receive each kind of merchandize required for the ne°ro : 
 fo that there are feveral bargains made for one. Suppofe, v*gr. 
 the flave to be fixed at 3500 ; this amounts to 350 macoutes. 
 To make up this number of macoutes in merchandizes, they 
 fix the price of each in macoutes. Two Flemifh knives, e.gr. 
 are accounted one macoute; a copper-bafon two pounds weight, 
 three ; a barrel of gun-powder, three, is'c. For the piece, it 
 ferves in like manner to eftimate the value of gouds, duties, 
 dfff. on either fide. Thus the natives require 10 pieces for a 
 flave; and the Europeans put, v. gr. a fufee at 1 piece; apiece 
 of falampours blue, at 4 pieces, &c. 
 Moneys cf account among thcantients. — Grecian Moneys of ac- 
 count. The Grecians reckoned their funis of money by drach- 
 ma?, minre, and talenta. The drachma equal to 7^/. fter- 
 ling; jco drachmae made the mina, equal to 3 /. 4*. yd. 
 
 fterling ; 
 
M O N 
 
 M O N 
 
 frerling ; 60 minx made the talent, equal to 193/. ig j, 
 fterling : Hence 100 talents amounted to 19375 /. fterling. 
 The mina and talentum, indeed, were different in different 
 provinces. Their proportions in Attic drachms are as follow : 
 The Syrian mina contained 25 Attic drachms ; the Ptolemaic 
 33 -j ; the Antiochic and Eubcean ico ; the Babylonic 116; 
 the greater Attic and Tyrian 133 f ; the iEginean and Rho- 
 dian 166 7. 
 
 The Syrian talent contained 15 Attic mina: ; the Ptolemaic 
 20 ; the Antiochic 60 ; the Eubcean 60 ; the Babylonic 70 ; 
 the greater Attic and Tyrian 80 ; the ./Eginean and Rhodian 
 100. 
 
 Roman Moneys of account were the feftertius, and feftertium. 
 The feftertius was equal to I d. ^ fterling. One thoufand of 
 thefe made the feftertium equal to 8/. is. $d. 2 a. fterling. 
 One thoufand of thefe feftertia made the decks feftertium (the 
 adverb centics being always underftood) equal to 8072/. i8j. 4^. 
 tteiling. The decies feftertium tiiey alio called decies centena 
 miilia nummitm. Centics feftertium, or ccnties HS were equal 
 to £0729/. 3 j. \d. Millies HS to 807291/. 13 s. Afd. 
 Millies centics HS to 8S8020 I. 16 s. 8 d. 
 
 Ccrf-MoNEY. 1 f C E tit -mc?iey. 
 
 Chimney-MotiEY. 1 Chimn e Y-?noney. 
 
 iVZ-MoNEY. I P0LL-»W»<?jf. 
 
 fjv^-MoNEY. V c A 1 J PREST-mcj«y. 
 n n ■ u / Sec the article ( n 
 
 Prcjl at ion-Mot; ex. I \ Prest ATlox-money. 
 
 Salvage-M 0 n E v . Salvage -money. 
 
 Ship- Mo N E y . Shi p- money. 
 
 T '-ophy- Money. / ^Trophy -money. 
 
 MONEYERS, Moneyors, or Muniers, officers of the 
 
 mint, who work and coin gold and filver money ; and anfwer 
 
 alt the waftc and charges. 
 Moneyers is fometimes alfo ufed for bankers ; cr thofe who 
 
 make a trade of turning and returning money. 
 MONITORY letters are letters of warning and admonition, 
 
 feni from an ecclcliallical judge upon information of fcandals 
 
 and abufes within the cognizance of his court. 
 MONK* antiently denoted a pcrfon who retired from the 
 
 world to give himfelf up wholly to God, and to live in foli- 
 
 tude and abftinence. 
 
 * The word is derived from the Latin monachal, and that from the 
 Greek pa-ay a', folkary, of {jmqs, film, alone ; by reaibn the 
 antient minks lived in loiitude, as the true monks ftill do. 
 
 Such were the Hermits and Anachorcts, who withdrew into 
 
 defarts, and lived remote from all commerce ot mankind. 
 
 See Hermit and Anachoret. 
 
 Sonic writers, as father Hclyot, differ t. prelim, trace the ori- 
 ginal of monks up as early as the time of the Therapeuta? ; and 
 maintain, that there had been an uninterrupted iucccflion of 
 vionks from the Therapeutic to Sr. Anthony. Others, on the 
 contrary, are contented with going back as far as St. Paul the 
 hermit. 
 
 The monks, at leaft the antient ones, were diftinguifhed into 
 
 folitaries, coencbites, and farabaites. 
 
 The jditary are tbofe who live alone, in places remote from 
 all towns and habitations of men, as do ftill fome of the 
 hermits. 
 
 The eo/nohites are thofe who live in community with feveral 
 others in the fame houfe, and under the fame luperiors. 
 The farabaites were Urolling monks, having no iixed rule or 
 lefidence. 
 
 The houfes of mortis again were of two kinds, viz. Mono- 
 peries, and /aura. See Monastery, and Laura. 
 Theft we cuil ?ncnks now-a-days, are coenobites, who live to- 
 gether in a convent or monaftery, who make vows of living 
 according 'to a certain rule eftabliftied by the founder, and 
 wear a habit which diftinguifhes their order. See Vow, and 
 Rule. 
 
 Thole that are endowed, or have a fixed, revenue, are moft 
 properly called monks, monacbi ; as the Chartreux, Bene- 
 dictines, Bernardines, tfe. ■ The Mendicants, or thofe 
 
 that beg, as the Capuchins, and Francifcans, are more pro- 
 perlv called religious, and friars ; though the names are fre- 
 quently confounded. 
 
 The firft minks were thofe of St. Antony ; of St. Bafil, 
 called in the caft, caloger't, trom ftceA$> yif&t t good old man ; 
 and thofe of St. Jerom ; the hermits of St. Auguftine, and af- 
 terwards thole of St. Benedict and St. Bernard ; at length came 
 thofe of St. Kr.incis, and St. Dominic, with a legion of others ; 
 all which fee under their propel heads, Benedictines, fjrY. 
 Aftnks are diftinguifhed by the colour of their habits into black, 
 white, grey, iyc. — Among the monks, fome arc called monks of 
 the choir, others profejfed monks t and others lay monks ; which 
 la ft: arc deftined ior trie fervice of the convent, and have neither 
 clericate nor literature. 
 Chi/lercd Mgnks are thofe who actually refide in the houfe: 
 in oppofition to extra- monks, who have benefices depending on 
 the monaftery. 
 
 Monks are alfo diftinguifhed into reformed, whom the civil and 
 ecclellaftical authority have made matters of ancient convents, 
 and put in their power to retrieve the anticn: difcipline, which 
 had been relaxed ; and antient 3 who remain in the convent, 
 Vol. U 
 
 to live m it according to its eftablifhment at the time when 
 they made their vows, without obliging themfelves to any 
 new reform. 
 
 Antiently, the monks were all laymen, and were only diftin- 
 guifhed from the reft of the people by a particular habit, and 
 an extraordinary devotion. — Not only the monks were prohi- 
 bited the priefthood ; but even priefts were exprefly prohi- 
 bited from becoming monks, as appears from the letters of St. 
 Gregory. Pope Syricius was the fir ft who called them to the 
 clericate, onoccafion of fome great fcarcity of priefts, that the 
 church was then luppofed to labour under. And fince that 
 time, the priefthood has been ufually united to the monaftical 
 profefiion. 
 
 Profeffed Monks. See the article Professed. 
 
 Proprietary Monks. See the article Proprietary. 
 
 Monks-hood. See the article Aconite. 
 
 MONKS rhubarb. See the article Rhubarb. 
 
 Monks feam, among failors, is, when the felvedges of fails 
 
 are laid a little over one another, and fewed on both fides. 
 MONOCHORD, a mufical inftrument wherewith to try the 
 
 variety and proportion of mufical founds. 
 
 TheA/snflc^or^according to Bocthius,is an inftrument invented 
 by Pythagoras, for mcafuring geometricjlly, or by lines, the 
 quantities and proportions of founds. 
 
 The antient monochord was compofed of a rule divided, and 
 fubdivided into divers parts, whereon there was a firing pretty 
 well ftrctched upon two bridges, at each extreme thereof, in 
 the middle between both was a moveable bridge, called magas, 
 by means of which, in apph ing it lo the different divifiona 
 of the line, the founds were found to be in the fame propor- 
 tion to one another, as the divifions of the line cut by the 
 bridge were. 
 
 Tlie monochord is alfo called the harmonica! canon, or canonical 
 rule ; becaufe ferving to mcafurc the degrees of gravity, and 
 acutenefs of founds. Ptolemy examines his harmonical in- 
 tervals by the monochord. 
 
 There are alfo monochords with divers firings, and a multitude 
 of fixed bridges ; but the ufe of all thefe may be fupplied by 
 one fingle moveable bridge ; by only fliifting it under a new 
 chord or ftring, which is placed in the middle, and reprefents 
 theintire found, or the open note, anfwering all the divifions 
 on the other bridges. 
 
 When the chord was divided into equal parts, fo that the terms 
 were as I and i, they called them umfons ; if they were as 2 
 to 1, oelaves, or dlapafons ; when they were as 8 to 2, fifths , 
 or diapentes ; if they were as 4. to 3, they called them fourths, 
 or diateffarons ; if the terms were as 5 to 4, dtton, or a greater 
 third; if as 6 105, a demi-diton, or a leffer third ; laftly, if 
 as 24 to 25, dani-diton or diefis. 
 
 The monochord, being thus divided, was properly what they 
 called a fyjlem, of which there were many kinds, according to 
 the different divifions of the monochord. 
 
 Dr. Wallis has taught the divifion of the monochord in the 
 Philofophkal tranfatlions ; but that inftrument is now difufed, 
 the modern mufic not requiring fucli divifion. 
 Monochord * is alfo ufed for any mufical inftrument, confift- 
 ing of only one chord or ftring. — Such is the trumpet-marine. 
 
 * The word in Greek, pKpQjrofi'of, formed of y.im-, fahts, fingle, 
 and Xfftfjli chord. 
 
 MONOCHROMA*, MONOXPflMA, a pidure all of one 
 colour. 
 
 * The word is compounded of the Greek y.avo;, fingle ; and 
 
 yju'i^ct, colour. 
 
 MONODY*, Monodia, in the antient poetry, a kind of 
 mournful fong, or ditty, fung by a perfon all alone, to utter 
 his grief. 
 
 * The word is compounded (Uoftr, fobs, and fa^'f, fong. 
 MONOGAMY*, the ftate or condition of thofe who have 
 
 only married once, or are reftrained to a fingle wife. 
 
 * The word is compounded of pons, folia, and ytqut t marriage. 
 See Polygamy. 
 
 MONOGRAM, Monogrammus, a cypher, or character, 
 compofed of one or more letters interwoven ; being a kind 
 of abbreviation of a name ; antiently much ufed as a badge, 
 feal, arms, Is'c. 
 
 Under the eaftern empire, it is ufual to find MIK, which are 
 the monogram of Maria, Jefus, Conftantine. 
 rheufe of monograms is of an antient funding, as appears from 
 Plutarch, and from fome Greek medals of the time of Philip 
 of Macedon, Alexander his fon, ESV', 
 
 The Roman labarum bore the monogram of Jefus Chrift, con- 
 fifting of two letters, aP placed perpendicularly through the 
 middle of a X, e . gr. as we find it in feveral medals of 
 the time of Conftantine ; thofe being the two firft letters of 
 the word XPI2T0S, Chrift. See La harlot. 
 Kings formerly marked their coins with their monograms-: of 
 this we have inftanccs in Charlemain's coins. That prince 
 alfo ufed the monogram tor h:s figtururc. Eginhard gives us 
 this reafon for it, viz. that Charlcmain could not write ; and 
 that, having attempted in vain to learn in his grown age, he 
 was reduced to the necefiitv of finning with a manogrartt. 
 6Z - T ^ 
 
M O N 
 
 M O N 
 
 The ar.rrnts alfo ufed monogram as notes, or abbreviations of 
 infenptions; for the undemanding whereof we have exprefs 
 treatifes of Valerias Probus, Sert. Urfatus Vc. 
 MONOLOGUE*, a dramatic fcene, wherein a perion ap- 
 pears alone on the ftage, and fpeaks to himfelf. See SoLi- 
 
 L • t Thc word is formed of the Greek, paw, folus ; and Kayo;, dif- 
 courfe, l'peech. 
 
 MONOMACHIA*, monomaxia, a duel, or fingle combat 
 of man againft man. 
 
 • The word comes from the Greek, yo:w, fiht i and pd.yj, 
 combat. 
 
 Mommachia was antiently allowed by law, for the trial or proof 
 of crimes. It was even permitted in pecuniary caufes, as ap- 
 pears by ant'ient records. It is now foibid both by the civil 
 and canon laws. Sec Combat.— Alciat lias wrote a trcatifc 
 De monomaehia. 
 
 MONOMIAL, in algebra, a root or quantity that has but one 
 name; or coufifts but of one part or member.— Such are ab, 
 aab, aaabb. See Quantity, Binomial, Trinomial, 
 
 ■ Root, .CsV. • " *. ' 
 Monomials may be either rational, or irrational, bee Ra- 
 tional. 
 
 MONOPETALOUS, in botany, a term applied to flowers 
 
 which have only one pctalum, or leaf. 
 MONOPH YSITES*, a general name given to all thofe fe£ta- 
 
 ries in the Levant, who only own one nature in Jefus Chrift. 
 
 • The word comes from the Greek, pit*, foius ; and jjfqrtf, 
 mttura. 
 
 The monophyfites, however, properly fo called, are the followers 
 of Severus, and Petrus Fulleniis. 
 MONOPOLY*, MONO no A ION, an unlawful kind of traffic, 
 when one or more perfons make themfelvcs fole matters of any 
 commodity, trade, manufacture, or the like, with defign to 
 enhance its price ; thofe who have occafion for it being obliged 
 to purchafe it at their hands, and on their own terms. 
 
 • The word is pure Greek, formed of prrcr, fdm, and tto-Mu, 
 njendo, (j.d. I fell alone. — Among the Romans, the term was 
 fo odious, that Tiberius, as Suetonius rehires, having occafion 
 to make ufe of it, begged leave of the fenate for it, as being 
 borrowed from the Greek. 
 
 There are two kinds of monopolies : the one, when a merchant 
 buys up, for inttance, all the corn of a province, to retail it 
 at an advanced rate to the people. 
 
 The other, when a letter, or patent, is procured from the 
 prince, prohibiting any other perfon to fell any commodity be- 
 sides the patentee. 
 MONOPTERE, MONOnTEPOS, a kind of temple among the 
 antients, round, and without walls; having its dome fupported 
 by columns. 
 
 MONOPTOTE, Monoptoton, in grammar, a noun which 
 
 has only one cafe : as, inficias, 
 MONOPYRENEOUS/rai'/j, are fuch as only contain one 
 
 kernel, or feed. 
 
 MONORHYME *, a poetical compofition, all the verfes where- 
 of end with the fame rhyme. 
 
 • The word comes from the Greek, fWfr,flfai and j 
 rhyme. 
 
 Monovhymes are faid to have been invented by the old French 
 poetLeonin, who addrefled fume Latin verfes of this kind to 
 pope Alexander III. whence they arc alfo called Leonine 
 
 verfes. 
 
 MONOSTICH, Monostichon, an epigram or poetical piece 
 confiding of one linglc verfe. 
 
 MONOSYLLABLE, Monosyllabum, a word of a fingle 
 Syllable ; or, that conhfts of one or more letters which arc pro- 
 nounced together. 
 
 The French language abounds in monofyllables more than any 
 other. This renders it the more perplexing to foreigners, and 
 yet the beauty of the language feems to confift in it. One of 
 the beft and fmootheft lines in Malherbe confitts of twelve mo~ 
 mfyllabics: fpeaking of Califta, he fays,— Et met je ne voi 
 rien quandje ne la voi pas.— In this the genius of the Englifh 
 tongue differs very much from the French, an uninterrupted 
 feries of monofyUables in the former having always an ill effeft. 
 This Mr. Pope both intimates and exemplifies in the fame 
 
 verfe. And ten law words oft creep in one dull line. — Pafquier 
 
 cites an elegy of forty-two verfes, conltfting wholly of mono- 
 fyllables. 
 
 MONOTHELITES*, an ant i en t feet, who iprung out of the 
 Eutychiansj thus called, as only allowing of one will in Jefus 
 Chrift. 
 
 • The word is compounded of the Greek (uM, fingle ; and i&S- 
 bA[id, will, of bite; nolo, I will. 
 
 The opinion of the monotbelites had its rife in 630. and had 
 the emperor Heraclius for ah adherent: it was the fame with 
 that of the Acephalous Severians. 
 
 They allowed of two wills in Chrift, confidered with regard to 
 the two natures; but reduced them to one, by reafon of the 
 union of the two natures; thinking it abfurd there fhould be 
 two free wills in one and the fame perfon. 
 
 They Were condemned by the fixth general council, as being 
 fuppoied to deftroy the perfection of the humanity of Jefus 
 Chritt, depriving it of will and operation. That council de- 
 clared their belief of two wills, and two operations,, without 
 divifion, or without changing the one for the other, without 
 either diftinguifhing or confounding them ; the human will be- 
 ing fubje£t to the divine. 
 
 MONOTONIA, Monotony, a want of variation, or in- 
 flection, of the voice; or a fault in pronunciation, where a 
 long feries of words are delivered with one unvaried tone. 
 Thisisoneof the principal faults of our Englifh orators. Mo- 
 notonia is oppofed to chanting* or finging in fpeaking. 
 
 MONS Luna. See Abductor. 
 
 MONSE1GNEUR*, in the plural Messeigneurs, a title of 
 honour and refpedt ufed by the French in writing to perfons of 
 fuperior rank, or quality. 
 
 * The word is a compound of mm, my, and fagneui; lord. 
 Dukes, peers, archbilhops, bittiops, and prelidents^ la mortier, 
 are complimented with the title of monfeigneur \ In the petitions) 
 prefented to the fovereign courts, they ufe the term nojfeigneurs. 
 
 Monseigneur, abfolutely ufed, is a title now retrained to 
 the dauphin of France. 
 
 This cuftom was unknown till the time of Louis XIV. till 
 then, the dauphin was Hi led monficur le dauphin. 
 MONSIEUR *, in the plural Messieurs, a term or title of 
 civility, ufed by the French, in fpeaking to their equals, or 
 thofe a little below them ; anfwering to Mr. or Sir, among 
 the Englifh. 
 
 * The word is a compound of man, and Jfrvr, Sir. — Borel 
 derives it from the Greek, x,vft&> t Urd, or fire, q.d. montyeur. 
 Pafquier derives fair, and monficur, from the Latin ftnior, 
 elder. The Italians fay ftgvor, and the Spaniards fenor, in the 
 fame fenfe, and from the fame origin. 
 
 The fu perfections of all letters begin, A menjieur monficur^ 
 fuch a one. 
 
 The ufe of the word monficur was formerly more extenftVe than 
 at prefent : they applied it to people who lived many ages be- 
 fore them. Thus, monficur St. Auguftinc, monficur St. Anv 
 brofe; and the vulgar ftill fay, monficur St. Paul, nionji tier St. 
 Jaques, ts'c. 'The Romans', during the flourifhing times of 
 their liberty, were unacquainted with that term of parade and 
 flattery, which they afterwards made ufe of in the word ds- 
 minus. In fpeaking or writing to each other, they only gave 
 each other their proper names ; which practice lafted even alter 
 Csefar had brought the republic under his command : but after 
 the Roman emperors were once well feated in the throne, the 
 courtiers and minions, who by flattery fought to procure fa- 
 vours from them, ftudied new honours. Suetonius obferves, 
 that a comedian on the theatre having called Auguftus deminus, 
 lord; the fpeflators all flared at him : fo that the emperor for- 
 bad, for the future, the title to be attributed to him. Ca- 
 ligula was the fir ft who exprcfiy commanded himfelf to be 
 called dominus. Martial, intirely devoted to tyranny, calls 
 Domitian, dominum dcumque nojlrum. — In time, the title was 
 alfo applied to the people; and of dominus, at length, was 
 formed dom. See Dom. 
 
 Monsieur, abfolutely ufed, is a title or quality appropriated to 
 the fecond fun of France, or the king's brother. 
 In a letter of Philip De Valors, that prince, fpeaking of his 
 predecefTor, calls him monficur k ray, monficur the king. At 
 prefent no-body calls the king monficur, but the children of 
 France. See Sire. 
 
 MONSOON, a regular, or periodical wind, in the Eaft-Indies, 
 blowing conftantly the fame way, during fix months of the 
 year, and the contrary way the remaining fix. 
 In the Indian ocean, the winds are partly general, and blow all 
 the year round the fame way, as in the Ethiopic ocean; and 
 partly periodical, i. e. half the year blow one way, and the 
 other half near on the oppofite points: and thofe points and 
 times of fbifting differ in different parts of this ocean. — Thefc 
 latter are what we call monfoons. 
 
 Monfoons, then, are a fpecies of what we otherwife call trade- 
 winas. 
 
 They take the denomination mtmfosn from an antient pilot, 
 who firft crofted the Indian fea by means hereof. Though 
 others derive the name from a Portuguefe word fignifying na- 
 tion, or change of wind, and fea. 
 
 Lucretius and Apollonius make mention of annual winds which 
 arife every year, ettfita fiabra, which feem to be the fame with 
 what in the Eaft-Indies we now call monfoons. 
 MONSTER*, Monst rum, a birth or production of a living 
 dune degenerating from the proper and ufual difpofition of 
 parts, in °he fpecies it belongs to. — As; when there are too 
 many members, or too few ; or feme of them are extrava- 
 gantly out of proportion, either on the fide of defect or excels. 
 * The word comes from the Latin, monfirum, of monjlrando, 
 
 (hewing. Whence alfo the box wherein relics were antiently 
 
 kept to be fhewnwas called wWiVam. Dugdale mentions an 
 inventory of the church of York with this article, Item unum 
 mmfirum cum rjpbm {«*&*, Petri in Beryl, tnicijixo in fum- 
 mitate. 
 
 Ariftotle 
 
MON 
 
 MON 
 
 Ariftotle defines a monfter to be a defect of nature, when, acting 
 towards fome end, it cannot attain to it, by reafon fome of its 
 principles are corrupted. 
 
 Monflers do not propagate their kind ; for which reafon fomi 
 rank mules among the number of monjlers, as alio hernia 
 phrodites. 
 
 Females, which naturally bring forth twins, are found moft 
 liable to produce nmijlers. — The reafon, probably, is owing to 
 this ; that though the twins are covered with one common cho- 
 rion, yet they have each their feparatc amnios, which, by their 
 contiguity, may chance to grow together, and fo occafion a 
 confufion or blending of the parts. — Hence fo many double 
 creatures. 
 
 F. Malebranche accounts for the production of mongers, in the 
 animal world, thus. — The Creator has eftablifhed fuch a com- 
 munication between the feveral pans of his creation, that we 
 are not only naturally led to imitate one another, i. e. have a 
 difpofition to do the fame things, and affume the fame manners 
 with thofe with whom we converfe; but we alio have certain 
 natural difpofitions which incline us to compaffion, as well as 
 imitation. Thefe tilings moft men feel, and are fenfible of ; 
 and, therefore, they need not be proved. The animal fpirits 
 then arc not only naturally carried into the refpecrive parts of 
 the body to perform the fame actions, and the fame motions, 
 which we fee others do, but alfo to receive in fome manner 
 their wounds, and take part in their fufTerings. 
 Experience tells us, that, when we look attentively on any 
 perfon feverely beaten, or that has a large wound, ulcer, or 
 the like; the fpirits immediately flow into thofe parts of our 
 body which anfwer to thofe we fee fuffer in the other ; unlefs 
 their courfe he flopped from fome other principle. This flux 
 of fpirits is very fenfible in pcrfons of a delicate conftitution, 
 who frequently fhudder, and find a kind of trembling in the 
 body, on thefe occafions ; and this fympathy in bodies produces 
 companion in the mind. 
 
 Now, it muft be obferved, that the view of a wound, fcrV. 
 wounds the perfon who views it the more ftrongly and fenfibiy, 
 as the perfon is more weak and delicate; the fpirits making a 
 ftronger impreffion on the fibres of a delicate body, than on 
 thofe ofarobuftone. Thus firong, vigorous men, &c. fee 
 an execution without much concern, while women, &c. are 
 fii uck with pity and horror. As to children ftill in their mo- 
 . thet's womb, the fibres of their fiefh being incomparably finer 
 than thofe in women, the courfe of the animal fpirits muft ne- 
 ceffarily produce much greater alterations in them. 
 Thefe things being laid down, matters are eafily accounted for. 
 Kuppofe, v. gr. a child born a fool, and with all its legs and 
 arms broken in the fame manner as thofe of criminals in fome 
 countries are; which cafe we chufe to inftance in, becaufe we 
 are told from Paris, that fuch a maimer was actually born there, 
 and lived in one of their hofpitals twenty years: the caufe of 
 ihis accident, according to the principles laid down, was, that 
 the mother feeing a criminal executed, every ftroke given to 
 the poor man ftruck forcibly the imagination of the woman ; 
 and, by a kind of counter-rtroke, on the tender and delicate 
 brain of the child. Now though the fibres of the woman's 
 brain were ftrangely fhaken by the violent flux of animal fpi- 
 rits on this occafion ; yet they had ftrength and confiftence 
 enough to prevent an intire diforder; whereas the fibres of the 
 child's brain, being unable to bear the fhock of thofe fpirits, 
 were quite ruined; and the ravage was great enough to de- 
 prive him of reafon all his life-time. 
 
 Again, the view of the execution frighting the woman, the 
 violent courfe of the animal fpirits was directed forcibly from 
 the brain to all thofe parts of the body correfponding to the 
 fuffering parts of the criminal ; and the fame thing muft alfo 
 happen in the child. Eut in regard the bones of the mother 
 were ftrong enough to refift the "impulfe of thofe fpirits, they 
 were not damaged ; and yet the rapid courfe of thefe fpirits 
 could eafily overpower and break the tender and delicate fibres 
 of the bones of the child ; the bones being the laft parts of the 
 body that are funned, and having a very tender confiftence 
 while the child is yet in the womb. 
 
 To which it may be here added, that had the mother deter- 
 mined the courfe of thefe fpirits towards fome other part of her 
 body, by tickling or fcratching herfelf vehemently, the child 
 would not, in all probability, have had its bones broken ; but 
 the part anfweiing that, to which the motion of the fpirits was 
 determined, would have been the fufterer. 
 Hence appears the reafon why women, in the time of geftation, 
 feeing pcrfons, &c. marked in fuch a manner in the face, im- 
 prefs the fame mark on the fame parts of the child ; and whv, 
 upon rubbing fome hidden part of the body, when ftartled at 
 the fight of any thing, or agitated with any extraordinary paf- 
 iion, the mark or impreffion is fixed on that hidden part rather 
 than on the face of the child. From the principles here laid 
 down if the reader is difpofed to allow them, may moft, if 
 not all the phEenomena of mongers be eafily accounted for. 
 Vtgttabh Monsters.— There are alfo monftrous produttions in 
 the vegetable world: fuch, e. gr. are what fome botamfts call 
 mules, bee Mule. 
 
 Florifts alfo give the denomination mnfttn x or monjlrous flowers, 
 
 to thofe flowers which are not only double, but double-podded % 
 or when inftead of one flower there are two or three rifing one 
 above another from a fingle ftalk. 
 
 MONSTRANS de droit, a writ ifTuing out of chancery, for re- 
 ftoring a perfon to lands or tenements that are his in right, tho* 
 on fome occafion found inpoffeflion of another lately dead. 
 
 MONSTRA VERUNT, a writ which lies for a tenant who 
 holds by free charter in antient demefn, upon his being di- 
 ftrained for the payment of any fervice or impofition contrary 
 to the liberty he does, or ought to enjoy. 
 
 MONTANISTS, antient heretics, fo called from their leader 
 Montanus, who acted the prophet, and had his prophetefles. 
 The Montanifls are the fame with what were otherwife deno- 
 minated Phrygians, Catapbrygiam and $htintilians ; which 
 fee. 
 
 MONTANUM vent. See the article Veru. 
 
 MONTENSES. See Agonistici. 
 
 MONTH, Mensis, the twelfth part of a year. 
 
 Time, we have obferved, 13 duration marked out for certain 
 ufes, and meafured by the motions of the heavenly bodies. 
 Hence refult divers kinds of years, and months, according to 
 the particular luminary by whofe revolutions they are deter- 
 mined, and the particular purpofes they are deltined for: as, 
 filar months, lunar months, civil months, ajlronomical months, 
 
 Solar Month is the fpace of time wherein the fun moves thro' 
 one intire h"gn of the ecliptic. 
 
 Hence, if regard be had to the fun's true motion, the filar 
 months will be unequal ; fince the fun is longer in pairing thru' 
 the winter figns, than thro' thofe of the fummer. 
 But as he conftantly travels through all the twelve in 365 days, 
 5 hours, and 49 minutes, the quantity of a mean month will 
 be had by dividing that number by 12. On this principle, the 
 quantity of a fiolar month will be found 30 days, 10 hours 2q 
 minutes, 5 feconds. ' 
 
 £wwr Months arc either finodkal, periodical, or illuminative. 
 
 Lunar fiynoiical Month, called alfo, abfolutely, lunar Month, 
 and lunation, is the fpace of time between two conjunctions of 
 the moon with the fun ; or between two new moons. See 
 Synodical month, and Lunation. 
 
 The quantity of the fiynodkal month is 2c, days, 12 hours Li! 
 3", II'". See Moon. I ' .'. ' ** * 
 
 Lunar periodical Month is the fpace of time wherein the moon 
 makes her round through the zodiac; or wherein the returns 
 to me fame point. 
 
 The quantity of this month is 27 days, 7 hours, 43', 8". 
 The antient Romans made ufe of lunar mmths, 'and made 
 them alternately of 29 and 30 days : and they marked the 
 days of each month by three terms, viz. calends, nones, and 
 tan. - -. Jt ~* - ■ mhmr>^ii: iilrnftiiWwitt.Ti,f 
 Lunar illuminative Month is the fpace from the firft time of 
 her appearance after new moon, to her firft appearance after 
 the new moon following. 
 
 Hence, as the moon appears fometimes fooner after the new 
 moon, and fometimes later; the quantity of the illuminative 
 month is not always the fame.— By this month the Turks and 
 Arabs go. 
 
 AftrmmicaU or natural Month, is that meafured by fome 
 exact interval correfponding to the motion of the fun or 
 moon. ? 
 Such are the lunar and folar months above-mentioned. Where 
 note, That thefe months can be of no ufe in civil life, where 
 H is required that the months begin and end on fome certain day 
 for this reafon, recourie is had to another form of months 
 
 Ctvtl or common Month, is an interval of a certain number 
 of whole days, approaching nearly to the quantity of fome 
 attronomical, either lunar, or folar month. 
 Civil months are various, according to the aftronomical mon'h 
 they are accommodated to. 
 
 Civil lunar Mokths are toconf.fi alternately of 29 and ,odays. 
 Thus will two cvtl months be equal to two aftronomical ones 
 abatmgfor the odd minutes ; and, confequently, the new moon 
 will be hereby kept to the firft day of each fuch evil month for 
 a longtime together. 
 
 However, to make them keep conftant pace with the civil 
 month, at theendof each 9 48 months, zmonthof 2gdaysmull 
 be added ; or elfe every 33d month muft confiftof 30 days. 
 1 his was the month in civil or common ufe among the Tews 
 (jreeks, and Romans, till the time of Julius Carfar. 
 Civil folar Months are toconfift alternately of 30 and 31 days 
 excepting one month of the twelve, which 'for every fourth year 
 
 ftould confift of 30 days, and for the other years of 29 
 
 I his form of civil month, was introduced by Julius Czfar. 
 Under Auguftus, the fixth month, till then from its placecalled 
 fexttlis, was denominated augujlus, in honour of that prince - 
 and, to make the complimeiv yet the greater, a day was added 
 to it : fo that it now conlified of 31 days, though till then it 
 had only contained 30 ; to make up for which, a day was taken 
 from February 1 lo that henceforward it only coniifted of 28 
 days, and every fourth year of 29 ; though before it had ordi- 
 nary confided of 29 days, isc— And fuch are the civil or 
 calendar months which now obtain through Europe. 
 
 Philofophkal 
 
MOO 
 
 MOO 
 
 Phihfaphical Month, amongff chymifls, is the fpace of 40 
 
 days and nights. 
 Dracontic Month. See the artitle Dracontic. 
 Embelifmic Month. See the article Embolismic. 
 Fence Month. See the article Y EKCE-month. 
 TWw-M°n th ' See the article Twelvf.-otoh/Zj. 
 Month climates. See the article Climate. 
 MONTHLY courfes. See the article Menses. 
 MONT-PAGNOTE, the pift of the invulnerable, an eminence 
 
 chofen without the reach of the cannon of a place befieged ; 
 
 where curious perfons poff thcmfelves to fee an attack, and 
 
 the manner of the fie^c, without being cxpufed to danger. 
 MONUMENT*, in aichitecture, a Wilding deffincd to pre- 
 
 i'erve the memory of the per fori who railed it, or of" him for 
 
 whom it was railed. — Such arc, a triumphal arch, a maufu- 
 
 leum, a pyramid, &c. 
 * The word comes from the Latin monumentum, of mwire, to ad- 
 vife, advertife. 
 
 The firft monuments, which the antients erected, were the 
 Hones which they laid over their tombs, whereon they wrote 
 the names and actions of the deccafed. 
 
 Thefe flones were dii'.inguiflied by various names, according as 
 their figures were different. The Greeks gave the name Jleles, 
 ssA£f, to fuch as were fquare in their hale, and preferved the 
 fame dcptii throughout their whole length ; whence were de- 
 rived our fquare pilafters, or Attic columns. 
 They called thofe fiyhs, yv&Mj which being round in their 
 bafe, ended in a point at top, which gave occafion to the in- 
 vention of diminifhed columns. 
 
 The name pyramids they gave to thofe which were fquare at 
 die foot, and la minated in a point at top, in manner of a fu- 
 neral pile. 
 
 And the name ebciife, to thofe whofe bales were more in length 
 than in breadth, and which rofe, Hill lefiening, to a very 
 great height, relimbling the figure of the fpits or inftruments 
 ufed by the antients in roafiing the flefh of their facrifices, 
 which they called obeli, aQihai. 
 Ihe Monument, nbfo!utel)' fo called among us, denotes a mag- 
 nificent pillar erected by order of parliament:, in memory of 
 the burning of the city of London, anno 1606. in the very 
 place where the fire began. 
 
 It is of the Doric order, 202 feet high from the ground, and 
 15 feet in diameter, of (olid Portland Hone, with a Hair- 
 cafe in the middle of black marble. The pedeltal is 21 feet 
 fquare, and 40 high ; the front being enriched with curious 
 baffo relievo's. 
 MONY. See the article Money. 
 
 MOOD., or Mode, in logic, called alio fyllogijiic Moon, is a 
 proper difpufition of the leveral propolitions of a fyllogifm, in 
 refptdt of quantity and quality. 
 
 By proper difpolition, we mean fuch wherein the antecedent 
 ben:g true, the confequent, in virtue of the form, cannot be 
 
 falfe. So that all thofe moods or manners of fyllogifm s are 
 
 at once excluded, where no conclufion formally follows ; or 
 where the antecedent bun" true, a falfe conclufion may be 
 drawn from it. 
 
 There are two kinds of moods ; the one direcl, the other 
 
 mdire£t. 
 
 Dincl \locii is that wherein the conclufion is drawn from the 
 
 premifes directly and immediately As, every animal is a 
 
 living riling ; every man is an animal ; therefore every man 
 is a living thing. 
 
 hdjretl Mood, is that wherein the conclufion is not inferred 
 immediately from the premifes, but follows from them by 
 mcansofaconverfion.-As, every animal is a living thing ; every 
 man is an animal ; therefore lbme living thing is a man. 
 There are fourteen direct, moods ; whereof four belong to the 
 firfi figure ; 4 to the fecond ; and 6 to the third. 
 They are denoted by fo many artificial words framed for that 
 purpofe i viz. I. Barbara, celarent, darii, ferioque. 4. Bara- 
 lip, cc/antes, dabitis, fapifmo, frifefom. 2. Cefare, camejires, 
 ff lino, banco. 3. Darapti, flapton, difamis, datif, bocardo, 
 fsrifon. \ 
 
 The ufe and effuet of which words lie wholly in the fyllables, 
 and the letters whereof the fyllables confifl. Each word, e. gr. 
 confiffs of three fyllables, denoting the three propofuions of a 
 fyllable, vis,, major, minor, and conclufion. Add, that the 
 letters of each fyllable are either vowels or confonants : the 
 vowels are A, which denotes an univerfal affirmative propo- 
 fuion ; E, an univerfal negative j /, a particular affirmative ; 
 and O, a particular negative. 
 
 Thus, barbara is a fyllogifm or mood of the fufl figure, con- 
 fining of three univerfal affirmative propofuions : Baralip of 
 ■ the fourth figure, confuting of two univerfal affirmative pre- 
 mifes, and a particular affirmative conclufion. The con- 
 
 fonsnts are chiefly of ufe in tW reduction of fyllogifms. See 
 Reduction. 
 
 Mood, or Mode, in grammar, is ufed to figntfy the different 
 manners of conjugating verbs, 2greeably to the different actions 
 or affeilions to be cxpreffed ; as Shewing, commanding 
 
 wifliing, is\\ 
 
 Hence arife five moods, viz. the indicative, imperative, opta- 
 tive, fubjunil'ive, and infinitive ; which fee. 
 Some grammarians reckon but iour moods, confounding the 
 optative with the fubjunctive ; and fome make fix, dividing 
 the optative into potential and optative. 
 
 The Greeks have five moods of verbs differing in termination ; 
 
 but the Latins have but four. In Englifh the terminations 
 
 are the fame in all the moods. 
 
 For the origin of moods, it may be obferved, that verbs are of 
 that kind of words which fignify the manner and form of our 
 thought ; whereof the principal is affirmation. Verbs are alio 
 formed to receive different inflections, as the affirmation re- 
 gards different perfons, and different times : whence arife the 
 tenfes and perfons of verbs. 
 
 But, befides thefe, men have thought fit to invent other infle- 
 xions, to explain what pafles in their mind Hill more diflinetly : 
 for, in the firff place, theyconfidered, that, befides the fimple 
 affirmations, as be loves, he loved; there were others modified 
 and conditional, as, if he loved, though he Ji.'ould hve : and 
 the better to diHinguifb thefe affirmations from theothers, they 
 doubled the inflections of thofe tenfes or times ; making fome 
 ferve for fimple affirmations, as, I love, helsvcd; and referving 
 the reff for affirmations that were modified, as, if he jhouid 
 love, might he have loved. — Yet they kept not ffeadily to their 
 rules ; but fometimcs made ufe of limple inflect ions to exprefs 
 affirmations that were modified ; as etfi vereor, for etfi verear. 
 And it is from this laH kind of reflection, that grammarians 
 have formed the mood they call JitbjundTive, 
 But further, befides the affirmation, the action of our will may 
 be taken for a mood, or manner of our thought ; and men have 
 found thcmfelves under a neceffity of exprefling what they will, 
 as well as what the) 1 think. — Now we may will a thing in fe- 
 veral manners ; whereof there are three which may be confi- 
 dered as the principal. Firfl then, we fometimes will things 
 which do not depend on ourfelves ; and in that cafe we only 
 will them by a bare wifli, which the Latins exprefs by the 
 particle utinam ; and we by, pleafe God. Some languages, for 
 inHance, the Greek, have invented particular inflections for 
 this end ; whence the grammarians have taken occafion to call 
 this the optative mood : and there teems fomething like both in the 
 French, Italian, and Spanifh tongues, in regard thefe have a 
 kind of triple tenfes ; but in Latin, Englifh, csv. the fame 
 inflections ferve for the fubjunctive, and tor the optative. For 
 this reafon, one may very well retrench this mood from the La- 
 tin conjugations ; it being the different inflections that make 
 moods, not the different manners of fignityiug, which may be 
 varied to infinity. 
 
 We fometimes will in another manner ; as when we are con- 
 tent a thing fhould come to pafs, though we do not abfolutelv 
 delireit ; as when Terence fays, profiaidat, perd.it, pereat, let 
 ban fpend, fink, pcrifh. — Men might have invented a particu- 
 lar inflection to exprefs this movement, as in Greet they have 
 done to exprefs a limple detire : but they havenot done it ; and 
 in lieu thereof, ihey make ufe of the fubjunctive. In Engliffi 
 we add the particle let, let him fpend, Ls'c. — Authors call ihis 
 the potential, or concef/ive mood. See Potential. 
 The third manner, of willing is, when what we defire, de- 
 pending on another perfon, ot whom we can obtain ir, we fig- 
 nify our will that he do it. — This is the motion we ufe, when 
 we command or pray ; and to exprefs this motion, was in- 
 vented the mood we call imperative ; which has no firH perfon 
 in the fingular, becaufe a man, properly fpeaking, cannot 
 command himfelf : in fome languages it has no third perfon, 
 becaufe, in ffrictnefs, a man cannot command any perfon, but 
 him to whom he fpeaks and addrefies himfelf. — And in regard 
 the command or prayer always relates to what is to come, it 
 happens that the imperative mood, and the future tenfe, are 
 frequently ufed for each other ( efpecially in the Hebrew) ; as, 
 non occides, thou Jhalt not kill, tor do not kill. Hence fome 
 grammarians place the imperative among the number of 
 futures. 
 
 Of all the moods we have mentioned, the oriental languages 
 have none but the laff, which is the imperative ; and, on the 
 contrary, the modern languages have none of them any parti- 
 cular inflection for the imperative. — The method we take for 
 it in Englifli, is either to omit the pronoun, or tranfpofe it : 
 thus, I love, is a fimple affirmation ; love, an imperative : we 
 love, an affirmation ; love we, an imperative. 
 
 Mood, in philofophy. 7 See the artic Ie Mode. 
 
 Mood, in muhc. 5 
 
 MOON, luna, d , in affronomy, one of the heavenly bodies, 
 ufually ranked among the planets ; but with more propriety 
 accounted a fatellite, or fecondary planet. 
 The moon is an attendant of our earth, whom fhe refpects as 
 a centre, and in whofe neighbourhood Hie L conHantly found ; 
 infomuch as, if viewed from the fun, fhe would never appear 
 to depart from us by an angle greater than ten minutes. 
 As all the other planets move primarily round the fun, fo doej 
 the moon round the earth : her orbit is an ellipfis, in which fhe 
 is retained by the force of gravity ; performing her KVulutun 
 
 ro :nd 
 
MOO 
 
 MOO 
 
 round us in zy days, 7 hours, 43 minutes* which is alfo the 
 precife time of her rotation round her axis. 
 The mean diftance of the moon from the earth, is 6oj femi- 
 diameters of the earth; which is equivalent to 240,000 miles. 
 The mean eccentricity of her orbit, is of her mean di- 
 
 ftance, which makes a confiderable variation in that mean di- 
 ftance. 
 
 The moon's diameter is to that of the earthy as 1 1 to 40.2 ; or 
 2175 miles: its mean apparent diameter is 31 minutes 16;, 
 and that of the fun 32 minutes 12 feconds. 
 The moons furface contains 14,000,000 fquare miles; and its 
 folidity 5,000,000,000 cubical ones: The denfity of the moon's 
 body is to that of the earth, as4S9ii to 59214; to that of 
 the fun, as 489 1 1 to 1 0000 : its quantity of matter to that of 
 the earth, nearly as 1 to 39.15 : and the force of gravity on 
 its furface, is to that on the furface of the earth, as 139.2 to 
 407.8. 
 
 Phenomena of the Moon. — The different appearances of the moon 
 are very numerous : fometimes fhe is increafing, then wane- 
 ing ; fometimes horned, then femi-circular ; fometimes gibbous, 
 then full and globular. 
 
 Sometimes again, me illumines us the whole night ; fometimes 
 onlv a part of it ; fometimes fhe is found in the fouthern he- 
 rn ifphere j fometimes in the northern: all which variations 
 having been firft obferved by Endymion, an antient Grecian, 
 who watched her motions, fhe was fabled to have fallen in 
 love with him. 
 
 The fource of moft of thefe appearances, is, that the moon is 
 a dark, opake, and fpherical body ; and only fhines with the 
 light fhe receives from the fun : whence only that half turned 
 towards him can be illumined ; the oppofite one remaining in 
 its native darknefs. The face of the moon vifible on our earth, 
 is that part of her body turned towards the earth ; whence, ac- 
 cording to the various pofitions of the moon with regard to the 
 fun and earth, we obferve different degrees of illumination ; 
 fometimes a large, and fometimes a lefs portion of the enlight- 
 ened furface being vifible. 
 Phafes of the Moon. — To conceive the lunar phafes : Let S (Tab. 
 Jflronomy, fig. 13.) reprefent the fun, T the earth, RST a 
 portion of the earth's orbit, and ABCDEFG the orbit of the 
 moon, wherein (he revolves round the earth, in the fpace of a 
 month, advancing from weft to eaft : connect the centres of 
 the fun and moon by the right line SL, and through the cen- 
 tre of the moon imagine a plane MLN, to pafs perpendicular to 
 the line SL: the fe£tion of that plane with the furface of the 
 moon, will give the line that bounds light and darknefs, and 
 fcparates the illumined face from the dark one. 
 Conned the centres of the earth and moon by TL, perpendi- 
 cular to a plane PLO, paffing through the centre of the moon ; 
 that plane will give on the furface of the moon, the circle that 
 diftinguifhes the vifible hemifphere, or that towards us, from 
 the invifible one, and therefore called the circle of vi/tm. 
 Whence it appears, that whenever the moon is in A, the circle 
 bounding light and darknefs, and the circle of vifion, coincide : 
 fo that all the illumined face of the moon will be turned to- 
 wards the earth : in which cafe the moon is with refpect to us 
 full, and fhines the whole night; with refpect to the fun, fhe 
 is in oppofition ;' in regard the fun and moon are then fecn in 
 oppofite parts of the heavens, the one fifing when the other 
 fets. 
 
 When the moon arrives at B, the whole illumined disk MNP is 
 not turned towards the earth ; fo that the vifible illumination 
 will be fhort of a circle, and the moon will appear gibbous, as 
 in B. 
 
 When fhe reaches C, where the angle CTS is nearly right, 
 there only one half of the illumined disk is turned towards the 
 earth, and then we obferve a half-msss, as in C ; and fhe is 
 faid to be dichotomized or b'feSled. 
 
 In this fituation the fun and moon are a fourth part of a circle 
 removed from each other ; and the moon is faid to be in a qua- 
 drate afpecl, or to be in her quadrature. 
 
 The moon arriving at D, only a fmall part of the illumined 
 face MPN, is turned towards the earth : for which reafon, the 
 fmall part that fhines upon us, will be feen falcated, or bent 
 into narrow angles or horns, as in D. 
 
 At laft, the moon arriving at E, (hews no part of her illumined 
 face at all to the earth, as in D ; this pofition we call the new 
 moon, and fhe is then faid to be in conjunction with the fun ; 
 the fun and moon being in the fame point of the ecliptic. 
 As the moon advances towards F, {he refumes her horns : and 
 as before the new ?nocn, the horns were turned weftward ; fo 
 now they change their pofition, and look caftward : when (he 
 comes at G, fhe is again in quadrate afpect with the fun ; in 
 H fhe is gibbous, and in A fhe is again full. 
 Here, the arch EL, or the angle STL, contained under lines 
 drawn from the centres of the fun and moon to that of the 
 earth, is called the elongation of the moon from the fun : and 
 the arch MO, which is the portion of the illumined circle 
 MON, that is turned towards us, and which is the meafure of 
 the angle that the circle bounding light and darknefs, and the 
 circle of vifion make with each other, is every where nearly, 
 Vol. H. 
 
 fimilar to the arch of elongation EL ; or which is the fame 
 thing, the angle STL is nearly equal to the angle MLO : as is 
 demonftrated by geometers. 
 To delineate the Moon'j phafes for any time. — Let the circle 
 COBP (fig. 14.) reprefent the ?noon's disk turned towards the 
 earth, and let OP be the line in which the femi-circle OCP is 
 projected, which fuppofe cut at right anales by the diameter 
 BC ; then making LP the radius, take LF equal to the co- fine 
 of the elongation of the moon ; and uron BC, as the greater 
 axis, and LF, the lefs, defcribe the femi-elli[ fis BFC; this el- 
 lipfis will cut off from the moon's disk the portion BFCP of 
 the illumined face vifible on the earth. 
 
 As the moon illumines the earth by a light reflected from the 
 fun, fo is fhe reciprocally illumined by the earth, which reflects 
 the fun's rays to the furface of the moon, and that much more 
 abundantly than fhe receives them from the moon. — For, the 
 furface of the earth is above 1 ; times greater than that of the 
 moon; and therefore fiippofing the texture of each body alike, 
 as to the power of reflecting ; the earth muft return r 5 times 
 more light to the moon than fhe receives from it-.;- — In new 
 moons, the illumined fide of the earth is turned fully towards 
 the moon, and will therefore at that time illumine the dark fide 
 of the moon; and then the lunar inhabitants (if fiich there be) 
 will have a full earth, as we, in a fimilar pofition, have a full 
 moon : and hence arifes that dim light obferved in the old and 
 new moons ; wherebv, befides the bright horns, we perceive 
 fomewhat more of her body behind them, though very ob- 
 fcurely.— When the moon comes to be in oppofition to the fun, 
 the earth feen from the moon will appear in conjunction with 
 him, and its dark fide will be turned towards the moon ; in 
 which pofition the earth will difiippcar to the moon, as that does 
 to us at the time of the new moon, or in her conjunction with 
 the fun. After this, the lunar inhabitants will fee theearth in a 
 horned figure. — In fine, the earth will prefent all the fame phafes 
 to the moon, as the moon does to the earth. 
 
 Dr. Hook, accounting for the reafon why the moon's light af- 
 fords no vifible heat, obferves, that the quantity of light which 
 falls on the hemifphere of the full moon, is rarefied into a fphere 
 288 times greater in diameter than the moon, before ir arrive at 
 us ; and confequently that the moon's light is 104368 times weaker 
 than that of the fun. — It would therefore require 104368 full 
 moons to give a light and heat equal to that of the fun at noon. 
 See Sun, Heat, &c 
 Courfe and motion of the Moon. — Though the moon finifh its 
 courfe in 27 days, 7 hours, which interval we call a periodical 
 month, yet fhe is longer in palling from one conjunction to an- 
 other ; which fpace we call a fynodical month, or a lunation. 
 The reafon is, that while the moon is performing its courfe round 
 the earth in its own orbit, the earth with its attendant is make- 
 ing its progrefs round the fun, and both are advanced almoft a 
 whole fign towards the eaft ; fo that the point of the orbit, 
 which in the former pofition was in a right line pairing the 
 centres of the earth and fun, is now more wefterly than the 
 fun : and therefore when the moon is arrived again at that point, 
 it will not yet be feen in conjunction with the fun ; nor will the 
 lunation be compleated in lefs than 29 days and an half. 
 Were the plane of the jr.oon's orbit coincident with the plane of 
 the ecliptic, i. e. were the earth and moon both moved in the 
 fame plane, the moan's way in the heavens, viewed from the 
 earth, would appear juft the fame with that of the fun ; with 
 this only difference, that the fun would be found to defcribe his 
 circle in the fpace of a year, and the moon hen in a month. — ■ 
 But this is not the cafe ; for the two planes cut each other in a 
 right line, paffiing through the centre of the earth, and are in- 
 clined to each other in an angle of about five degrees. 
 Suppofe, e. gr. AB (fig. is.) a portion of the earth's orbit; 
 T the earth ; and CEDF the moon's orbit, wherein is the cen- 
 tre of the earth : from the fame centre T, in the plane of the 
 ecliptic, defcribe another circle CGDH, whofe femi-diameter 
 is equal to that of the moon's orbit. Now, thde two circles 
 being in feveral planes, and having the fame centre £, will in- 
 terfect each other in a line DC, paffing through the centre of 
 the earth. Confequently, C E D, one half of the orbit of 
 the moon, will be raifed above the plane of the circle CGH, 
 towards the north ; and DFC, the other half, will be funk be- 
 low it towards the fouth. — The right line DC, wherein the 
 two circles interfedt each other, is called the line of the nodes, 
 and the points of the angles C and D, the nodes : whereof that 
 where the moon afcends above the plane of the ecliptic, north- 
 wards, is called the afcending node, and the head of the dragon ; 
 and the other D, the defending node, and the dragon's tail ; and 
 the interval of time between the moon's going from the alcending 
 node, and returning to it, a dracontic month. 
 If the line of the nodes were immoveable, that is, if it had no 
 other motion, but that whereby it is carried round the fun, it 
 would ftill look towards the fame point of the ecliptic ; t. 
 it would always keep parallel to itfelf : but it is found by ob- 
 fervation, that the line of the nodes conftantly changes place, 
 and fhifts in fituation from eaft to weft, contrary to the order 
 of the fi^ns, and by a retrograde motion, finifhes its circuit 
 in about nineteen years ; in which time each of the nodes 
 6 A a returns 
 
MOO 
 
 returns to that point of the ecliptic, whence it before rece- 
 
 Heiice it follows, that the moon is never precifely in the eclip- 
 tic, but twice, each period, viz. when fhe is in the nodes.— 
 Throughout the reft of her courfe fhe deviates from it, being 
 nearer or further from the ecliptic, as fhe is nearer or further 
 from the nodes. In the points F and E, fhe is at her greateft 
 diftance from the nodes ; which points are therefore called her 
 limits. 
 
 The mean's diftance from the nodes, or rather from the eclip- 
 tic, is called her latitude, which is meafured by an arch of a 
 circle drawn through the mom perpendicular to the ecliptic, and 
 intercepted between the moon and the ecliptic. — The moon's la- 
 titude, when at the greateft, as in E or F, never exceeds 5 
 degrees, and about 1 3 minutes ; which latitude is the meafure 
 of the angles at the nodes. 
 
 It appears by obfervation, that the moon's diftance from the 
 earth is continually changing; and that fhe is always_ either 
 drawing nearer, or going farther from us. — The reafon is, that 
 the moon does not move in a circular orbit, which has the earth 
 for its centre ; but in an elliptic orbit (as reprefented m fig. 
 16.) one of whofe foci is the centre of the earth : AP repre- 
 fents the greater axis of the ellipfis, and the line of the ap- 
 fides ; and TC, the eccentricity ; the point A, which is the 
 higheft apfis, is called tk apogee of the moon ; and P, the lower 
 apfis, is the moon's perigee, or the point wherein fhe comes neareft 
 the earth. 
 
 The fpace of time wherein the moon, going from the apogee, 
 returns to it again, is called the anomaliftk month. 
 If the moan's orbit had no other motion, but that wherewith it 
 is carried round the fun, it would ftill retain a pofition parallel 
 to itfelf, and always point the fame way, and be obferved in 
 the fame point of the ecliptic ; but the line of the apfides is 
 likewife obferved to be moveable, and to have an angular mo- 
 tion round the earth from weft to eaft, according to the order 
 of the figns, returning to the fame fituation in the fpace of 
 about nine vears. 
 The irregularities of the Moon's motion, and that of her orbit, are 
 very confiderable. For, 1°. When the earth is in her aphelion, 
 the moon is in her aphelion likewife ; in which cafe fhe quickens 
 her pace, and performs her circuit in a fhorter time : on the 
 contrary, when the earth is in its perihelion, the moon is fo 
 too, and then fhe flackens her motion ; and thus me revolves 
 round the earth in a fhorter fpace, when the earth is in her 
 aphelion, than when in her perihelion : fo that the periodical 
 months are not all equal. 
 
 2 0 . When the moon is in her fyzygies, (. e. in the line that 
 joins the centres of the earth and fun, which is either in her 
 conjunction or oppofition ; fhe moves fwifter, cateris paribus, 
 than when in the quadratures. 
 
 3 0 . According to the different diftance of the moon from the 
 fyzygies, I. e. from oppofition to conjunction, fhe changes her 
 motion : in the firft quarter, that is, from the conjunction to 
 her firft quadrature, fhe abates fomewhat of her velocity ; 
 which, in the fecond quarter, fhe recovers : in the third quar- 
 ter, fhe again lofes; and in the laft, fhe again recovers. — This 
 inequality was firft difcovered by Tycho Brahe, who called it 
 the moon's variation. 
 
 4 0 . The moon moves in an ellipfis, one of whofe foci is in the 
 centre of the earth, round which fhe defcribes areas proportion- 
 able to the time, as the primary planets do round the fun ; 
 whence her motion in the perigee muft be quickeft, and it mull 
 be floweft in the apogee. 
 
 5 0 . The very orbit of the moon is changeable, and does not 
 always perfevere in the fame figure ; its eccentricity being fome- 
 times increafed, and fometimes diminifhed ; it is greateft, when 
 the line of the apfides coincides with that of the fyzygies ; and 
 leaft, when the line of the apfides cuts the other at right angles. 
 6°. Nor is the apogee of the moon without an irregularity ; be- 
 ino- found to move forwards, when it coincides with the line 
 of°the fyzygies, and backwards, when it cuts that line at right 
 
 angles, Nor is this progrefs and regrefs in any meafure equal : 
 
 in the conjunction, or oppofition, it goesbrifkly forwards; and 
 in the quadratures, it moves either flowly forwards, ftands ftill, 
 or goes backward. 
 
 7 0 . The motion of the nodes is not uniform ; but when the line of 
 the nodes coincides with that the fyzygies at right angles, they go 
 backwards, from eaft to weft ; and this, Sir, I. Newton fhews, 
 is done with the velocity of 1 6", 1 9'", 24"", in an hour. 
 The only equable motion the moon has, is that wherewith fhe 
 turns round her axis exactly in the fame fpace of time, in 
 which fhe revolves round us in her orbit ; whence it happens, 
 that fhe always turns the fame face towards us. 
 For, as the moon's motion round its axis is equal, and yet its 
 motion or velocity in its orbit is unequal ; it follows, that when 
 the moon is in its'perigee, where it moves fwifteft in its orbit, 
 that part of its furface, which, on account of its motion in the 
 orbit, would be turned from the earth, is not fo, entirely ; by 
 reafon of its motion round its axis. — Thus, fome parts in the 
 limb, or margin of the moon, fometimes recede from the cen- 
 tre of the difk, and fometimes approach towards it, and fome 
 4 
 
 MOO 
 
 parts, that were before invifible, become confpicuous : which is 
 called the moon's Vibration. 
 
 Yet this equability of rotation occafions an apparent irregula- 
 rity : for the axis of the moon, not being perpendicular to the 
 plane of its orbit, but a little inclined to it ; and this axis 
 maintaining its parallelifm, in its motion round the earth ; it 
 muft neceffarily change its fituation, in refpect of an obferver 
 on the earth ; to whom, fometimes the one, and fometimes 
 the other pole of the moon, becomes vifible. Whence it ap- 
 pears to have a kind of wavering or vacillation. 
 Pbyfical caufc of the Moon's motions. — The moon, we have ob- 
 ferved, moves round the earth, by the fame laws, and in the 
 fame manner, as the earth and other planets move round the 
 f un> — The folution therefore of the lunar motion, in general, 
 comes under rhofe of the earth, and other planets. 
 As for the particular irregularities in the moon's motion, to 
 which the earth, and other planets, are not fubject, they arife 
 from the fun, which acts on, and difturbs her in her ordinary 
 progrefs through her orbit ; and are all mechanically deducible 
 from the fame great law, whereby her general motion is di- 
 rected, viz. the law of gravitation or attraction. 
 Other fecondary planets, v. gr. the fatellites of Jupiter and 
 Saturn, are doubtlefs fubject to the like irregularities with the 
 moon ; as being expofed to the fame perturbating or difturbing 
 force of the fun ; but their diftance fecures them from our obfei- 
 vation. 
 
 The laws of the feveral irregularities in the fyzygies, quadra- 
 tures,Uz. fee under Syzycies, Quadratures,^. 
 Ajlronomy of the Moon. — 1°. To determine the period of the 
 moon's revolution round the earth, or the periodical month; and 
 the time between one oppofition and another, or the jynodkal 
 month. 
 
 Since, in the middle of a lunar eclipfe, the moon is oppofite to 
 the fun. Compute the time between two eclipfes, or oppo- 
 fition? ; and divide this, by the number of lunations, that have 
 paffed in the mean time : the quotient will be the quantity of 
 the fynodical month.— Compute the fun's mean motion during 
 the time of the fynodical month, and add this to the entire 
 circle defcribed by the moon. — Then, as the fum is to 360 0 , fo 
 is the quantity of the fynodical month to the periodical. 
 Thus, Copernicus, in the year 1500, November 6, at twelve 
 at night, obferved an eclipfe of the moon at Rome ; and Au- 
 guft 1, 1523, at 4 h. 25', another at Cracow : hence, the 
 quantity of the fynodical month is thus determined : 
 
 Obf. 2 An. 1523 d. 237 h. 4.2;' 
 
 Obf. 1 An. i5ood. 310I1. 2. 20' 
 
 Interval of time An. 22 d. 292 h. 2.5' 
 Add the intercalary days S 
 
 Exact interval An. 22 d. 297 b. 2.5' 
 
 or 11991005' 
 Which, divided by 282 months elapfed in the mean time, 
 gives the quantity of the fynodical month 42521', 9",g"'; that 
 is, 29 days, 1 2 hours, 41 minutes. 
 
 From two other obfervations of eclipfes, the one at Cracow, 
 the other at Rabvlon, the fame author determines more accu- 
 rately the quantity of the fynodical month to be 
 42524'. 3". 10'". 
 
 That is 29 d. 11 h. 43'. 3". 10"'. 
 The fun's mean motion in the time 29°. 6 . 24 '. 1 S"'. 
 
 The moon's motion 389. 6. 24. 18. 
 
 Quantity of the periodical month 2yd. 7 h. 43'. 5". 
 Hence, i°. The quantity of the periodical month bring given; 
 by the rule of three we may find the moon's diurnal and horary 
 motion, And thus may tables of the mean motion of the 
 
 mson be conftructed. 
 
 2°. If the fun's mean diurnal motion be fubtracted from the 
 fnoon's mean diurnal motion ; the remainder will give the moon's 
 diurna] motion from the fun: and thus may a table of latitudes 
 be conftructed, fuch as thofe of Bullialdus. 
 3°. Since in the middle of a total eclipfe, the moon is in the 
 node ; if the fun's place be found for that time, and to this 
 be added fix figns, the fum will give the place of the 
 node, 
 
 4°, From comparing the antient obfervations with the mo- 
 dern, it appears that the nodes have a motion, and that they 
 proceed in antecedentia, i. e. from Taurus to Aries, from Aries 
 to Pifces, csV. If then to the moon's mean diurnal motion, be 
 added the diurnal motion of the nodes, the fame will be the 
 motion of the latitude, and thence, by the rule of three, may 
 be found in what time the moon goes 360 0 from the dragon's 
 head, or in what time fhe goes from, and returns to it : that is 
 the quantity of the dracontic month. 
 
 5 0 . If the motion of the diurnal apogee be fubtracted from 
 the mean motion of the moon, the remainder will be the 
 moon's mean motion from the apogee : and thence, by the 
 rule of three, is determined the quantity of the anomaliflic 
 month. 
 
 According to the obfervations of Kepler, the mean fynodical 
 month is 29 d. 12 b. 44'. 3". %"' . Her periodical month 
 
 *7 d. 
 
MOO 
 
 27 d. 7 h. 43'. 8". The place of the apogee for . the year 
 1700, January t. old ftile, was 11 S 8°. 57' i 7 '. The 
 place of the afcending nodes 4 S. 27°, 39'. 17". Mean di- 
 urnal motion of the moon 13 0 . 10'. 35". Diurnal motion 
 of the apogee 6'. 41". Diurnal motion of the nodes 3'. 1 1" . 
 Laftly, the eccentricity 4362 parts, fuch, whereof the femi- 
 diameter of the eccentric is 100000 ; and therefore the diur- 
 nal motion of the latitude is 13 0 . 13', 46^ ; and the diurnal 
 motion from the apogee 13°. 3'. 54". 
 To find the Moon'j age. — To the day of the month add the 
 epact of the year, and the months from March inclufive. — The 
 fum, if under 30 ; if over, the excefs is the moon's age. — If the 
 month have but 30 days, the excefs above 29 is the moon's age. 
 See Age. 
 
 To find the lime of the Mo em's being in the meridian, or foutbing. 
 ■ — Multiply her age, if under 15 days, by 4 ; and divide the 
 product by 5 ; the quotient gives the hour, and the remainder 
 multiplied by 12, the minute. If her age exceed 15, fub- 
 tract 15, and proceed with the remainder as before. 
 
 To find the time of the MoonV beginning to pine.- — Multiply her 
 age, if under 15, by 48 ; and divide the product by 60: the 
 quotient gives the hour ; and the remainder the minute. If 
 her age be above 15 days, fubtract the time thus found, from 
 24 ; the remainder gives the time of fhining in the morn- 
 ing. 
 
 For the eclipfa of the Moon, fee Eclipses.— For the Moon'j 
 
 parallax, fee Parallax. 
 Theory of the Moon' '* motions and irregularities. — The tables of 
 
 equation, which ferve to folve the irregularities of the fun, do 
 
 likewife ferve for thofe of the moon. 
 
 But then thefe equations muft be corrected for the Atom ; other- 
 wife they will not exhibit the true motions in the fyzygies. — 
 The method is thus : Suppofe the mean's ;place in the zodiac, 
 required in longitude, for any given time; here, we firft find, 
 in the tables, the place where it would be, fuppofing its mo- 
 tion uniform, which we call mean, and which is fonietimes 
 fairer, and fometimes flower than the true motion : then, to 
 find where the true motion will place her, which is alfb the 
 apparent, we are to find in another table at what diftance it is 
 from its apogee ; for, according to this di fiance, the difference 
 between her true and mean motion, and the two places which 
 correfpond thereto, is the greater. — The true place thus found, 
 is not yet the true place ; but varies from it, as the moon is 
 more, or lefs remote both from the fun, and the fun's apogee : 
 which variation refpecting, at the fame time, thofe two dif- 
 ferent diftances, they are to be both confidered and combined 
 together, as in a table apart. Which table gives the correction 
 to be made of the true places firft found. — -That place thus 
 corrected, is not yet the true place, unlets the moon be either in 
 conjunction, or oppofition : if fhe be out of thefe, there muft: 
 be another correction, which depends on two things taken 
 together* and compared, viz. the diftance of the moon's cor- 
 rected place from the fun ; and of that at which fhe is with 
 regard to her own apogee ; this lafl diftance having been 
 changed by the firft correction. 
 
 Ey all thefe operations and corrections, we at length arrive at 
 the moon 5 true place tor that inftant. In this it muft be own- 
 ed, there occur prodigious difficulties: the lunar inequalities 
 are fo many, that it was in vain the aftronomers laboured 
 to bring them under any rule, before the great Sir I.Newton; 
 to whom we are indebted both for the mechanical caufes of 
 thefe inequalities, and for the method of computing and af- 
 certaining them : fo that he has given us a world, in great mea- 
 fure, his own difcovering, or rather fubduing. 
 From the theory of gravity he fhews, that the larger pla- 
 nets revolving round the fun, may carry along with them 
 fmaller planets revolving round themfelves ; and fhews alfo, 
 a priori, that thefe fmaller muft move in ellipfes having 
 their umbilici in the centres of the larger ; and muft have 
 their motion in their orbits variouflv difturbed by the motion 
 of the fun ; and, In a word, muft be affected with thofe in- 
 equalities which we actually obferve in the moon. And from 
 this theory, he argues analogous irregularities in the fatellit.es of 
 Saturn. 
 
 From the fame theory he examines the force which the fun 
 has to difturb, the moon's motion, determines the horary in- 
 creafe of the area which the mom would defcribe in a circular 
 orbit by radii drawn to the earth — her diftance from the 
 earth — the horary motion in a circular and elliptic orbit — the 
 mean motion of the nodes— the true motion of the nodes — 
 the horary variation of the inclination of the moans orbit to 
 the plane of the ecliptic. 
 
 Laftly, From the fame theory he has found the annual equa- 
 tion of the moon's mean motion to arife from the various dila- 
 tation of her orbit ; and that variation to arife from the fun's 
 force, which being greater in the perigee, diftends the orbit ; 
 and being lefs in the apogee, fuffers it to be again contracted. — 
 In the dilating orbit (he moves more flowly ; in the contracted, 
 more fwiftly : and the annual equation, whereby this inequality 
 is cornpenfated v in the apogee, and perigee is nothing at all ; 
 at a moderate diftance from the fun, it amounts to n', 50"; 
 
 MOO 
 
 and in other places it is proportional to the equation of the fun's 
 centre, and is 2dded to the mean motion of the moon, when 
 the earth proceeds from its aphelion to its perihelion ; and fub- 
 tracled when in the oppofite part. 
 
 Thus, fuppofing the radius of the orlis mngnus I ooo, and the 
 earth's eccentricity ib\ ; this equation, when greateft, accord- 
 ing to the theory of gravity, comes out It', 49". 
 He adds, that in the earth's perihelion the nodes move fwifter 
 than in the aphelion, and that in a triplicaie ratio of the earth's 
 diftance from the fun, inverfely. Whence arife annual equa- 
 tions of their motions, proportionable to that of the centre of 
 the fun. — Now the fun's motions in a duplicate ratio of the 
 earth's diftance from the fun inverfely, and the greateft equa- 
 tion of the centre which this inequality occafions, is 1°, 56', 
 26", agreeable to the fun's eccentricity 16 If the fun's 
 motion were in a triplicate ratio of its diftance inverfely, this 
 inequality could generate the greateft equation 2 0 , 56', 9"; 
 and therefore the greateft equations which the inequalities of 
 the motions of the moon's apogee and nodes occafion, are to 2°, 
 56 , 9", as the mean diurnal motion of the moon's apogee, and 
 the mean diurnal motion of her nodes are to the mean diurnal 
 motion of the fun. — Whence the greateft equation of the mean 
 motion of the apogee comes out 19', +z"; and the greateft 
 equation of the mean motion of the nodes 9', 27". The for- 
 mer equation is added, and the latter fubtracted, when the earth 
 proceeds from its perihelion to its aphelion j and the contrary 
 in the oppolite part of its orbit. 
 
 From the fame theory of gravity it alfo appears, that the fun's 
 aclion on the moon muft be fomewhat greater when the tranf- 
 verfe diameter of the lunar orbit pafles through the fun, than 
 when it is at right angles with the line that joins the earth and 
 fun : and, therefore, that the lunar orbit is fomewhat greater 
 in the firft cafe, than in the fecond. — Hence arifes another equa- 
 tion of the mean lunar motion, depending on the fituation of 
 the moon's apogee with regard to the fun, which is greateft when 
 the ?noons apogee is in an octant with the fun ; and none, 
 when fhe arrives at the quadrature, or fyzygies; and is added 
 to the mean motion, in the paflage of the moon's apogee from 
 the quadrature to the fyzygies, and fubtraaed in the paflage of 
 the apogee from the fyzygies to the quadrature. 
 This equation, which Sir Ifaac calls fane/Iris, when greateft, 
 Kiz. in the oflants of the apogee, arifes to 3', 45", at a mean 
 diftance of the earth from the fun ; but it increafes and dimi- 
 nilhes in a triplicate ratio of the fun's diftance inverfely ; and 
 therefore in the fun's greateft diftance, is 3', 34"; in the 
 fmalleft, 3', 56'', nearly. But when the apogee of the moss is 
 without the odtants, it becomes lefs, and is to the greateft equa- 
 tion, as the fine of double the diftance of the moon's apogee, from 
 the next fyzvgy or quadrature, to the radius. 
 From the fame theory of gravity it follows, that the fun's 
 aaion on the moon is fomewhat greater when a ri?ht line 
 drawn through the moon's nodes paifes through the fun, than 
 when that line is at right angles with another joining the 
 fun and earth : and hence arifes another equation of the moons 
 mean motion, which he calls ficunda fimiflris, and which is 
 greateft when the nodes are in the fun's oftants, and vanifhes 
 when they are in the f.zygies, or quadratures; and in other 
 fituations of the nodes is proportionable to the fine of dou- 
 ble the diftance of either node from the next fyzygy, or Qua- 
 drature. , 1 
 It is added to the moon's mean motion while the nodes are in 
 their paftage trom the fun's quadratures to the next fyzygy and 
 fubtraaed in their paflage from the fyzygies to the quadratures 
 in the octants. 
 
 -■When it is greateft it amounts to 47", at a mean diftance 
 ot the earth from the fun ; as appears from the theory of gra- 
 vity : at other diftances of the fun, this equation in the oBanls 
 of the nodes is reciprocally as the cube of the fun's diftance 
 from the earth ; and therefore in the fun's perigee is 4,-" ■ in 
 his apogee nearly 49". ' 
 By the fame theory of gravity the moon's apogee proceeds the 
 faftett when either in conjunaion with the fun, or in oppofition 
 to it ; and is retrograde when in quadrature with the fun — 
 In the former cafe the eccentricity is greateft, and in the lat- 
 ter (malleft.— Thefe inequalities are very confiderable, and ve- 
 nerate the principal equation of the apogee, which he calls fimc- 
 Jtns, or fian-minfirml. The greateft femi-minflrual equation 
 is about 120, 18". ^ 
 Horrox firft obferved the moon to revolve in an ellipfis round 
 the earth placed in the lower umbilicus : and Halley placed 
 the centre of the ellipfis in an epicycle whofe centre revolves 
 uniformly about the earth : and from the motion in the epi- 
 cycle arife the inequalities now obferved in the progrefs and 
 regrefs of the apogee, and the quantity of the eccentri- 
 city. 
 
 Suppofe the mean diftance of the mom from the earth divided 
 into ,00000, and let T (lab. Jjlron. fi ? . ,7.) reprefcnt th= 
 eartn, and 1 C the mean eccentricity of the mm ; <o; parts - 
 produce TC to B, that CB may be the fine of the greateft 
 femi-menftrua! equation 12°, 18', to the radius TC ■ the 
 circle BD A, defenbed on the centre C, with the interval CB 
 
 Will 
 
MOO 
 
 MOO 
 
 Will be the epicycle wherein the centre of the lunar orb is placet^ 
 and wherein it revolves according to the order of the letters : 
 BDA. — Take the angle BCD equal to double the annual ar- 
 gument, or double the diftance of the true place of the fun 
 from the moot?* apogee once equated, and CTD will be the 
 femi-menftmal equation of the moon's apogee ; and TD the 
 eccentricity of its orbit tending to the apogee equated a fecond 
 time. — From hence the moons mean motion, apogee, and eccen- 
 tricity, as alfo the greater axis of its orbit 200000 ; the moon's 
 true place, as alfo her diftance from the earth are found, and j 
 that by the commoneft methods. 
 
 In the earth's perihelion, by reafon of the greater force of the j 
 fun, the centre of the moon's orbit will move more fwifily about I 
 the centre C, than in the aphelion, and that in a triplicate ; 
 ratio of the earth's diftance from the fun inverfely. By reafon j 
 of the equation of the centre of the fun, comprehended in 1 
 the annual argument, the centre of the moon's orbit will move 
 mofe fwiftly in the epicycle BDA, in a duplicate ratio of the i 
 diftance of the earth from the fun inverfely. 
 That the fame may ftill move more fwiftly in a fimple ratio of ; 
 the diftance inverfely from the centre of the orbit D, draw 
 DE towards the moon's apogee, or parallel to TC ; and take 
 the angle EDG equal to the excefs of the annual argument, 
 above the diftance of the moon's apogee from the fun's perigee 
 in confequentia ; or which is the fame thing, take the angle 
 CDF equal to the complement of the true anomaly of the 
 fun to 360 0 ; and let DF be to DC as double the eccentricity 
 of the srbis magnus to the mean diftance of the fun from 
 the earth, and the mean diurnal motion of the fun from the 
 moon's apogee, to the mean diurnal motion of the fun from its 
 own apogee, conjunctly, i.e. as 33I is to 1000, and 52', 
 %~\", 16"', to 59', 8", to'", conjunctly; or as 3 to 100. 
 Conceive the centre of the moon's orbit placed in the point F, 
 and to revolve in an epicycle whofe centre is D, and its radius 
 DF, while the point D proceeds in the circumference of the 
 circle DABD : thus the velocity wherewith the centre of the 
 moons orbit moves in a certain curve, defcribed about the centre 
 C, will be reciprocally as the cube of the fun's diftance from 
 the earth. 
 
 The computation of this motion is difficult, but it will be 
 made eafy by the following approximation. If the moon's mean 
 diftance from the earth be 100000 parts, and its eccentricity 
 TC 5505 of thofe parts, the right line CB or CD will be 
 found 1172I, and the right line DF 3 5 f - This right line 
 at the diftance TC, fubtends an angle to the earth, which the 
 transferring of the centre of the orbit from the place D to 
 F generates in the motion of this centre ; and the fame right 
 line doubled, in a parallel fituation, at the diftance of the upper 
 umbilicus of the moon's orbit from the earth, fubtends the fame 
 angle, generated by that tranflation in the motion of the um- 
 bilicus ; and at the diftance of the moon from the earth fubtends 
 an angle which the fame tranflation generates in the motion of 
 the moon ; and which may therefore be called the fecond equation 
 of the centre. 
 
 This equation of a mean diftance of the moon from' the earth, 
 is as the fine of the angle contained between the right line DF, 
 and a right line drawn from the point F to the moon, nearly ; 
 and when greateft, amounts to z', 25". — Now the angle 
 comprehended between the right line DF and a line from the 
 point D, is found either by fubtradting the angle EDF from 
 the mean anomaly of the mson, or by adding the moons diftance 
 from the fun to the diftance of the moon's apogee from the apo- 
 gee of the fun. And as radius is to the fine of the angle thus 
 found, fo is 2', 25", to the fecond equation of the centre, 
 which is to be added, if that fine be lefs than a femi-circle, j 
 and fubtractcd if greater: thus we have its longitude in the very 1 
 fyzygies of the luminaries. 
 
 If a more accurate computation be required, the moon's place ! 
 thus found muft be corrected by a fecond variation. The firft j 
 and principal variation we have already confidered, and have I 
 obferved it to be greateft in the octants. The fecond is greateft ! 
 in the quadrants, and arifes from the different action of the t 
 fun on the moon's orbit, according to the different pofition of j 
 the mows apogee to the fun, and is thus computed : As radius 
 is to the verfed fine of the diftance of the moon's apogee from ' 
 the fun's perigee, in confequentia, fo is a certain angle P to a ' 
 fourth proportional. And as radius is to the fine of the moon's 
 diftance from the fun, fo is the fum of this fourth proportional 
 and another angle Q_ to the fecond variation, which is to be 
 fubtracted, if the moon's light be increafmg ; and added, if dimi- 
 nifhing. 
 
 Thus we have the moon's true place in her orbit ; and by re- 
 duction of this place to the ecliptic, we have the moon's longi- 
 tude. The angles P and Q_are to be determined by obferva- 
 tion : in the mean time, if for P be affumed 2', and for Qj 
 we (hall be near the truth. 
 
 Nature and furniture of the Moon. — t°. From the various 
 phafes of the moon: from her only fhewing a little part illu- 
 mined, when following the fun ready to fet : from that part's 
 
 . increafmg as fhe recedes from the fun, till at the diftance of 
 1 800 fhe Amies with a full face ; and again wanes as file re- 
 
 approaches that luminary, and lofes all her light when flie 
 meets him : from the lucid part's being conftantly turned to- 
 wards the weft, while the moon increafes ; and towards the eaft 
 when fhe decreafes ; it is evident, that only that part fhines- on 
 which the fun's rays fall. — And from the phenomena of echpfes, 
 happening when the moon fhould fhine with a full face, viz. 
 when fhe is 1 8c° diftant from the fun; and the darkened 
 parts appearing the fame in all places, it is evident fhe has 
 no light of her own, but borrows whatever light fhe has from 
 the fun. 
 
 2 0 . The moon fometimes difappears in a clear heaven, fo as not 
 to be difcoverable by the beft glaffes ; little ftars of the fifth 
 and fixth magnitude all the time remaining vihble. — This phe- 
 nomenon Kepler obferved twice anno 1580, and 1583 ; and 
 Hevelius in 1620. Riccioli, and other Jefuits at Bologna, and 
 many people throughout Holland obferved the like April 14, 
 1642, yet at Venice and Vienna fhe was all the lime confpi- 
 cuous. December 23, 1703, there was another total obfeura- 
 tion. At Aries fhe firft appeared of a yellowifh brown ; at 
 Avignon ruddy and tianfparent, as if the fun had fhone through ; 
 atMarfeilles. one part was reddifh, the other very dufky ; and, 
 at length, though in a clear fky, fhe wholly difappeared. — 
 Here it is evident, that the colours appearing different at the 
 fame time, do not belong to the moon ; but that they are 
 occafioned by an atmofphere around her varioufly difpofed in 
 this and that place, for refracting of thefe or thofe coloured 
 rays. 
 
 3 0 . The eye, either naked, or armed with a telefcope, fees 
 fome parts in the moon's face darker than others, which are call- 
 ed macula, or fpots. Through the telefcope, while the moon is 
 either increafing or decreafing, the illumined parts in the ma- 
 cule appear evenly terminated ; but in the bright parts, the 
 boundary of the light appears jagged and uneven, compofed 
 of diiTimilar arches, convex and concave. (See 'Tab. Aflron. 
 fig. 18.) — There are alfo obferved lucid parts difperied among 
 the darker ; and illumined parts are feen beyond the limits of 
 illumination ; other intermediate ones remaining ftill in dark- 
 nefs ; and near the macule, and even in them, are frequently 
 feen fuch lucid fpecks.— Befide the macule obferved by the anti- 
 ents, there are other variable ones invifible to the naked eye, 
 called neiv macula, always oppofite to the fun ; and which are 
 hence found among thofe parts which are the fooneft illumined 
 in the increafing ?noon, and in the decreafing moon lofe their light 
 later than the intermediate ones ; running round, and appearing 
 fometimes longer, fometimes (mailer. 
 
 Hence, (1.) As all parts are equally illumined by the fun, inas- 
 much as they are equally diftant from him : if iome appear 
 brighter, and others darker ; fome reflect the fun's rays more co- 
 piouflv than others ; and therefore they are of different natures. 
 And, '(2.) Since the boundary of the illumined part is very 
 fmooth and equable in the macule, their fur face muft be fo too. 
 (3.) The parts illumined by the fun fooner, and deferted later 
 than others that are nearer, are higher than the reft, i. e. they 
 fiand up above the other furface of the moon. (4.) The new 
 macule anfwer perfectly to the fhadows of terreftrial bodies. 
 4 0 . Hevelius writes, that he has feveral times found, in fkies 
 perfectly clear, when even ftars of the fixth and feventh mag- 
 nitude were confpicuous, that at the fame altitude of the moan t 
 and the fame elongation from the earth, and with one and the 
 fame excellent telefcope, the moon and its macula? do not appear 
 equally lucid, clear, and pcrfpicuous, at all times ; but are 
 much brighter, purer, and more diftinct atone time than an- 
 other. From the circumftances of the obfervation, 'tis evi- 
 dent, the reafon of this phenomenon is not either in our air, 
 in the tube, in the moon, nor in the fpedtator's eye ; but it muft 
 be looked for in fbmething exifting about the moon. 
 5 0 . Cafllni frequently obferved Saturn, Jupiter, and the fixed 
 flars, when hid by the moon, near her limb whether the illu- 
 mined or dark one, to have their circular figure changed into 
 an oval one ; and in other occupations he found no alteration 
 of figure at all. In like manner, the fun and moon rifing and 
 fctting in a vapourous horizon, do not appear circular, but 
 elliptical. 
 
 Hence, as we know, by fure experience, that the circular figure 
 of the fun and moon is only changed into an elliptical one by 
 means of the refraction in the vapoury atmofphere ; it is pretty 
 apparent, that at the time when the circular figure of the ftars 
 is thus changed by the moon, there is a denfe matter incompaf- 
 fing the moon, wherein the rays emitted from the ftars are re- 
 fracted j and that at other times, when there is no change of 
 figure, this matter is wanting. 
 
 This phenomenon is well illuif rated by the followingexperiment : 
 To the inner bottom of any velfel, either plane, convex, or 
 concave, with wax fallen a circle of paper ; then pourino- in 
 water, that the rays reflected from the circle into the air may 
 be refracted before they reach the eye ; viewing the circle ob- 
 liquely, the circular figure will appear changed into an el- 
 lipfis. 
 
 6°. The moon, then, is a denfe opake body, furnifhed with moun- 
 tains, valleys, and leas. — That the moon is denfe, and impervi- 
 ous to the light, has been fliewn : but fome parts fink below, 
 
 and 
 
MOO 
 
 MOR 
 
 and others rife above the furface ; and that conftderably, Inaf- 
 much as they are viiible at fo great a diftance as that of the 
 earth from the fun : in the ?noon y therefore, are huge moun- 
 tains, and very deep valleys. Ricciolus meafured the height 
 of one of the mountains, called St. Catherine, and found it nine 
 miles hizh. Again, in the moon are fpacious tracts having 
 fmooth even furfaces, and thofe refle&ing lefs light than the 
 reft: hence, as the furface of fluid bodies is naturally even ; 
 and as fuch bodies, being tranfparent, tranfmit a great part of 
 the rays of light, and reflect very little ; thefe lunar fpots are 
 fluid, tranfparent bodies: and as they continue conftantly the 
 fame, they are feas. — In the moan, therefore, are mountains, 
 valleys, and feas. — Hence, again, the lucid parts of the fpots 
 are tflands and peninfulas. 
 
 And lince in thefe macula:, and near the limbs, are feen fome 
 parts higher than others ; in the lunar feas there are rocks and 
 promontories. 
 
 And fince the new fpots are contiguous to the mountains, and 
 in all refpects like the fhadows of bodies on our earth ; no 
 doubt they are the fhadows of the lunar mountains : whence 
 alfo it appears, that the matter of the moon is opakc. 
 Note, This reafoning will be put paft doubt by viewing the 
 icnfible horizon from fome eminence : where it paiTes over a 
 plane, the line will appear fmooth and even ; where acrofs 
 mountains and valleys, irregular and winding ; fmooth, but 
 dark, &c. 
 
 7°. The moon is incompaffed with an heavy and elaftic atmo- 
 iphere, wherein vapours and other exhalations afcend, and 
 whence they return in form of dew and rain. 
 In a total eclipfe of the fun, we find the moon incirclcd with a 
 lucid ring parallel toher periphery. 
 
 Of this, we have too many obfervations to doubt it : in the great 
 eclipfe in i -j J 5. the ring was very confpicuous at London, and 
 elfewhere. Kepler obferves the fame of an eclipfe in 1605. 
 at Naples and Antwerp; and Wolfius of another in 1606. at 
 Leipfick, defcribed at large in the Acla Erud'ttorum, with this 
 notable circumflance, that the part next the moon was vifibly 
 brighter than that fartheft from it ; which is confirmed by the 
 obfervations of the French aftronomers in the Mcmoires de 
 I' Academic, &c. an. 1706. 
 
 Hence about the moon there is fome fluid, which correfponds to 
 her figure, and which botli reflects and refracts the fun's rays : 
 and hence, alfo, this fluid is denfer below, near the moon's 
 body ; and rarer above. Now as the air which incompaffes 
 our earth is fuch a fluid, it is manifeft there is air above the 
 moon ; and fince the different derifity of the air depends on its 
 different gravity and elafticity ; no doubt the different denfity 
 of the lunar air has the fame caufes. Again, we have obferved, 
 the lunar air is not always equally clear and tranfparent: fome- 
 times it changes the fphericai figures of the ftars into ovals ; 
 and in the feveral total eclipfes juft mentioned there was ob- 
 ferved a trembling in the moons limb, immediately before 
 jmmerfion, with an appearance of thin, light fmoak, flying 
 over it during the immerfion : this was very apparent in England. 
 And hence, as thefe fame phenomena are obferved in our air 
 when full of vapours, it is pretty plain, at the time when thefe 
 phenomena are obferved in that of the moon, it is full of va- 
 pours and exhalations. And, laftly, fince at other times the lu- 
 nar air is clear and tranfparent, producing none of thefe phe- 
 nomena ; the vapours muft have been precipitated on the moon ; 
 and therefore either dew, or rain, or fnow, muft have fallen. 
 8'. The moon, then, is a body in all refpects like our earth, and 
 fitted for the fame purpofes : for we have fliewn, that it is denfe 
 — opake — has mountains and valleys — feas, with illands, pe- 
 niniulie, rocks, and promontories — a changeable atmofphere, 
 wherein vapours and exhalations rife and fall — day and night ; 
 a fun to illuminate the one, and a moon the other — iummer 
 and winttr, ts'c. 
 
 From thefe, by analogv, may infinite other properties and ap- 
 pendages of the moon be deduced. — From the changes in the 
 atmofphere will follow winds, and other meteors; and accord- 
 ing to the different feafons of the year, rain, mijls, froji, 
 fnow, Sec. — From the inequalities upon the moon's furface will 
 arife lakes, rivers, fpriigs, &c. 
 
 Now nature, we know, produces nothing in vain: rains and 
 dews fall on our earth to make plants vegetate; and plants take 
 root, grow, produce feeds, and fruits for animals to feed on. — 
 But nature is ftill uniform and confiftent with herfelf, and like 
 things ferve for like ends. — Why then may not there be plants 
 and animals in themoonf To what othenpurpofe foniccapro- 
 vifion for them? 
 
 Thefe arguments will receive new force when we come to 
 fliew that our earth itfclf is a planet; and that, when viewed 
 from the other planets, it appears, in fome, like the moon ; in 
 others, like Venus ; in others, like Jupiter, EsV. a fimilitude 
 between the planets, both optical and phyfical, being a ftrong 
 prefumption that their furniture is alike. 
 To meafure the height of the mountains of the Moon. — Suppofe 
 ED {fig. 19.) the moon's diameter, ECD the boundary of 
 light and darknefs ; and A the top of an hill in the dark part 
 beginning to be illumined : with a telefcope obferve the pro- 
 Vol. II. 
 
 portion of AE, or the diftance of A from the line where the 
 light commences, to the diameter ED: here we have two 
 fides of a rectangled triangle A E, CE; the fquares of which 
 added together give the fquare of the third ; whence the femi- 
 diameter C D being fubtracted, leaves A B, the height of the 
 mountain. 
 
 Ricciolus, v. gr. found the top of mount St. Catherine illu- 
 mined at the diftance of r 6 of the ?noon's diameter from the 
 confines of light. Suppofing, therefore, CE8; and AE I; 
 the fquares of the two will be 65, whofe root is 8.062 the 
 length of AC: fub tract ing therefore B C = 8, the remainder 
 is AB =b 0.062. The moon's femidiameter, therefore, is to the 
 mountain's height as 8 is to 0.062 ; i.e. as8oooto62. Sup- 
 pofing, therefore, the femidiameter of the moon 1182 En°hfh 
 miles, by the rule of three we find the height of the mountain 
 nine miles. 
 
 The heights, £sV. of the lunar mountains being mealurable, 
 aftronomers have taken occafion to give each its name. Ric- 
 ciolus, whom moft others now follow, dift'mguifhed them by 
 the names of celebrated aftronomers ; and by thefe names they 
 are ftill expreffed in obfervations of the lunar eclipfes, &c. 
 See the figure, Tab. AJlron. fig. 20. 
 
 Moon-dial. See the article Dial. 
 
 Prime of the Moon. See the article Prime. 
 
 MOOR, Mora, a word fometimes ufed to exprefs an heath* 
 or barren tract of ground. 
 
 The word is fometimes alfo ufed for a morafs, mofs, or fen. 
 Moramuffa, in antient writings, particularly denotes a mofs, 
 or peat-mofs. 
 
 MOORING, at fea, is the laying out of anchors, in a proper 
 
 place, for the fecure riding of a fhip. 
 To Moor acrofs, is to lay out one of the anchors on one fide. 
 To Moor alongjl, is to have an anchor in a river, and a hawfer 
 
 on fbore. 
 
 To Moor quarter -Jhst, is to moor quartering, between the two 
 firft ways. 
 
 Mooring for eafl, weft, &c. is when tliey obferve which way, 
 and on what point of the compafs the wind or fea is moft likely 
 to endanger the fhip, and there lay out an anchor. 
 
 MOORS-W, in chymiftry, a copper cap made in form of a 
 head, to be fet over any veffel, or over a reverberating fur- 
 nace. 
 
 Moo&s-bead alfo denotes the head of a copper or glafs ftill or 
 alembic, which is luted on to the body or cucurbit, and hath 
 a beak or pipe to let the fpiritrun down into the receiver. 
 
 MOOT *, a difficult cafe, or queftion, argued by the ftudents of 
 inns of court, by way of exercife. 
 * The word is formed either from the Saxon, metan, gemetav, 
 meeting; or from the French, mot, word. 
 
 MOOTING, the chief exercife of the ftudents in the inns of 
 court; being the arguing of cafes, which young utter barrifters, 
 &c. perform at appointed times, the better to enable them for 
 practice, and the defence of their clients caufes. 
 Such as, from their learning and ftanding, are called by the 
 benchers to argue moot- cafes, are fometimes called utter bar- 
 rtjiers't the reft, who, for want of experience, &c. are not 
 admitted, are by fome called inner barrijlers. 
 The place where the moot cafes were argued, was antiently 
 called a moot-hall. 
 
 In the inns of court there is a bailiff or furveyor of the moots* 
 yearly chofen by the bench to appoint the moot-men for the inns 
 of chancery, and to keep account of performance of exer- 
 cifes, both there and in the houfe. 
 
 MOOT-wfH, are thofe who argue moot cafes. 
 
 Out of thefe moot-men are chofen readers for the inns of chan- 
 cery ; where, in term-time, and in vacations, they argue cafes 
 in the prcfence of attorneys and clerks. 
 
 MORALS, any thing relating to the manners, or conduct of 
 life. 
 
 Befides the theological virtues, as faith, hope, charity, &c. 
 
 there are alfo moral virtues ; as juflice, temperance, &c. 
 Moral aflions, or aits, are fuch as render the agent good, or 
 
 evil 1 and, confequently, rewardable, or punifhable, becaufe 
 
 he does them. 
 Moral caufe. See the article Cause. 
 
 Moral certainty, or ajfurance, is ufed to fignify a very ftrong 
 probability; in contradiftinction to a mathematical dernonftra- 
 tion. 
 
 Moral evidence. "J f Evidence. 
 
 Moral evil. ( c . J Evil. 
 
 ivfl „ . , * 1 1 r *>ee the article *£ r . 
 Moral fables. \ I 1'able. 
 
 Moral good. J (-Good. 
 
 Moral impoffibility, is what we otherwife call a very great, and 
 almoft infuperable difficulty ; in oppofition to a phyfical, or na- 
 tural impoflibility. 
 
 Moral neceffity. See the article Necessity. 
 
 Moral perfection. See the article Perfection. 
 
 Moral pkilofophy, a fcience whofe object is to direct, and form 
 mens manners ; to explain the reafon, and nature of actions ; 
 and to teach and inftruct us how to acquire that felicity which 
 is agreeable to human nature, 
 
 6 B b Merat 
 
M O R 
 
 MOR 
 
 Moral philofophy 'is the fame with what we otherwife call ethics, 
 fometimes morality. 
 
 Moral quantity. See the article Quantity. 
 
 Moral fenfe, the faculty whereby we difcern or perceive what 
 is good, virtuous, beautiful, Sf& in actions, manners, cha- 
 racters, faff. .... 
 A late author has endeavoured to prove, that it is a peculiar 
 fenfe whereby we get the ideas of thefe things ; and denomi- 
 nates it a moral fenfe. See Sense. 
 
 Moral theology is that which treats of cafes of conference; 
 called alfo cafuijlry, or cafuijlical divinity. 
 
 Moral univerfality. Seethe article Universality. 
 
 Moral of a fable is the instruction drawn from it. 
 
 Thus when Pbsedrus at the end of a fable adds, Hoc illisdiclum 
 qui, &c. this makes what we call the moral: the Greeks 
 called it ST/f*u£W, when at the end of the fable ; and Tpcui^/oi', 
 when at the beginning. Among the Latins it was called ajfabu- 
 latio. 
 
 MORALITY denotes a conformity, in things and actions, to 
 thofe unalterable obligations which refult from the nature of 
 our exiftence, and the neceSfary relations of life ; whether to 
 God as our creator, or to mankind as our fellow-creatures. 
 
 -Morality is alfo ufed for the fcience or doctrine of morals ; 
 or the art of living well and happily; deduced from reafon, 
 and the nature, relation, and fitnefs of things. 
 In this fenfe it amounts to the fame with what we otherwife 
 call ethics, moral philofophy, or the doclrine of offices. 
 Notwithstanding the great obfeurity and uncertainties in the 
 moral fcience, Mr. Locke is of opinion, that the doctrine oi 
 manners is equally capable of being brought to demon ft rat ion 
 with the doclrine of quantity and number ; that is, with the 
 purelt parts of mathematics. 
 
 According to this author, the idea of a Supreme Being, infi- 
 nite in power, goodnefs, and wifdom, whofe workmanfhip 
 we arc, and on whom we depend ; and the idea of ourfelvcs, 
 as underftanding, rational creatures; would, if duly confi- 
 dered, afford fuch foundations of our duty, and rules of action, 
 as might place morality among the feiences capable or demon- 
 stration: wherein we need not doubt but that, from principles 
 as incontestable as thofe of the mathematics, by necellary con- 
 fequences, themeafure of right and wrong might be made out 
 to any one, who will apply himfelf, with the fame indifferency 
 and attention to the one, as he doth to the other of thefe fei- 
 ences : for the relations of other modes may certainly be per- 
 ceived, as well as thofe of number and extenfion. — E. gr. 
 That where there is no property, there can be no injuftice, is a 
 propofition as certain as any in Euclid : for the idea of property 
 being a right to any thing ; and the idea of injuftice being the 
 jnvafion or violation of that right; it is evident, that thefe 
 ideas being thus eftablifhed, and thefe names adnexed to them, 
 I can as certainly know this propofition to be true, as that a tri- 
 angle has three angles equal to two right ones. — Again, no go- 
 vernment allows abfolute liberty: the idea of government being 
 the establishment of fociety, upon certain rules or laws, which 
 require conformity to them ; and the idea of abfolute liberty 
 being for any one to do whatever he pleafes ; I am as capable of 
 being certain of the truth of this propofition, as of any in ma- 
 thematics. 
 
 What has given the advantage to the ideas of quantity, and 
 made them thought more capable of certainty and demonftra- 
 tion than the ideas of good and evil, right and wrong, &c. 
 
 l°. That the former can be represented by fenfible marks, 
 which have a nearer correspondence with them than any words 
 or founds, Diagrams drawn on paper are copies of the ideas, 
 and are not liable to the uncertainty that words carry in their 
 Signification ; but we have no fenfible marks that refemble our 
 moral ideas, and nothing but words to exprefs them by, which 
 though, when written, they remain the fame; yet the ideas 
 they Stand for may change in the fame man, and it is very i el— 
 dom that they are not different in different perfons. 
 2°. Moral ideas are commonly more complex than figures ; 
 whence thefe two inconveniencies follow: i°. That their names 
 are of more uncertain Signification ; the precife collection of 
 Simple ideas they ftand for not being fq eafily agreed on ; and 
 So the Sign that is uScd for them in'communication always, and 
 in thinking often, does not readily carry with it the fame idea. 
 2°. The mind cannot eafily retain thofe precife combinations 
 fo exactly and perfectly, as is neceffary in the examination of 
 the habitudes and correfpondencies, agreements or disagree- 
 ments, of feveral of them one with another, efpecially where 
 . it is to be judged of by long deductions, and the intervention 
 of Several other complex ideas, to Shew the agreement or dis- 
 agreement of two remote ones. 
 
 One part of thefe difadvantages in moral ideas, which has made 
 them be thought not capable of demonstration, may in a good 
 meafure be remedied by definitions, Setting down that col- 
 lection of fimple ideas which every term Shall Stand for, and 
 then ufing the term Steadily and constantly for that precife col- 
 lection. 
 
 The mathematician confiders the truth and properties belong- 
 ing to a rectangle or circle, only as they arc ideas in his own 
 4 
 
 mind, which poffibly he never found actually exifted mathe- 
 matically; that is, precifely true : yet his knowlege is not only 
 certain, but real ; becaufe real things are no farther, nor in- 
 tended to be, meant by any fuch propofitions, than as things 
 really agree to thofe archetypes in the mind. It is true of the 
 idea of a triangle, that its three angles are equal to two right 
 ones; it is true alfo of a triangle, wherc-ever it exifts: what 
 is true of thofe figures that have barely an ideal exiftence in the 
 mind, will hold true of them alfo, when they come to have 
 a real existence in matter. Hence it follows, that moral know- 
 lege is as capable of real certainty as mathematics : for certain- 
 ty being nothing but the perception of fuch agreement, by the 
 intervention of other ideas ; our moral ideas, as well as mathe- 
 matical, being archetypes themSelves, and fo adequate or com- 
 plete ideas ; all the agreement or disagreement we Shall find in 
 them, will produce real knowlege, a^ well as in mathematical 
 figures. That which is requiSite to make our knowlege cer- 
 tain is, the clearnefs of our ideas ; and chat which is required to 
 make it real is, that they anfwer their archetypes. 
 Eut it will here be Said, that if moral knowlege be placed in 
 the contemplation of our own moral ideas, and thefe are of 
 our own making ; what Strange notions will there be of juftice 
 and temperance ! What confufion of virtues and vices, if every 
 man may make what ideas of them he pleafes ! It is anfwered, 
 No confufion or diforder at all in the things themfelvcs, nor the 
 rejfonings about them, no more than there would be a change 
 in the properties of figures, and their relations one to another, 
 if a man Should make a triangle with four corners, or a trape- 
 zium with four right angles ; that is, in plain Englifh, change 
 the names of the figures, and call that by one name which is 
 called ordinanlv by another. The change of name will indeed 
 at ttrft difturb him who knows not what idea it Stands for; 
 but as Soon as the figure is drawn, the confequences and de- 
 monstration are plain and clear. 
 
 juft the fame is it in moral knowlege: let a man have the idea 
 of taking from others, without their confent, what they are 
 juftly poSftSfed of, and call this juftice, if he pleafeth ; he that 
 takes the name there, without the idea put to it, will be mif- 
 taken, by joining another idea of his own to that name: but 
 Strip the idea of that name, or take it, fuch as it is in the 
 fpeaker's mind, and the fame things will agree to it, as if you 
 called it injujlice. One thinir we are to take notice of, That 
 where God, or any other law-maker, has defined any moral 
 names, there they have made the effencc of that fpecies to 
 which that name belongs ; and there it is not fafe to apply or 
 ufe them otherwife : but in othercafes it is bare impropriety of 
 fpetxh to apply them contrary to the common ufage of the 
 country they are ufed in. 
 MORASS*, a marSb, fen, or low moift ground, which re- 
 ceives the waters from above, without having any defcent to 
 carry them off again. 
 
 * Somner derives the word from the Saxon mrrfc, lake; Salma- 
 fius from mure, a colle£tion of waters; others from the Ger- 
 man marojl, a muddy place ; and others from rnarcfc, of ma- 
 ricctum, a marifcii, i. e. rufhes. 
 In Scotland, Ireland, and the north of England, they have a 
 peculiar kind of moraffes, called mojfes, or peat-moffes, whence 
 the country people dig their peat or turf, for firing. 
 The earl ot Cromertie gives a particular account of thefe 
 moffes in the Pbilofophical "Tranfafiions. They are covered 
 with a heathy fcurf, under which is a black, moiSt, fpunsy 
 earth, in Some places Shallower, in others deeper, ordinarily 
 from three or four, to feven or eight feet depth, though in Some 
 few places twice or thrice as much. 
 
 This black, Spungy earth, they cut into oblong Squares with 
 iron fpades made for that purpofc, eight or nine inches long, 
 and tour or five broad: as the men cut them up, they are car- 
 ried and Spread on a dry ground, to be dried in the wind and 
 fun. Some of thefe become harder, Some Softer, according to 
 the nature of the mould or earth : the more black and Solid 
 they are, the better fire they make; and thofe are the leaft 
 efttemed which are greyeft, lighteft, and moft Spungy. 
 When they have cut off one Surface of four or five inches deep, 
 they proceed downwards to another, and So to a third and a 
 fourth, till they come to the hard Strata ; unlefs they be Stop- 
 ped with water, which they alfo ordinarily remove by making 
 a chanel, if they can ; but, where they cannot, there the 
 water Stagnates. In Such wafted pits, or peat-dikes, as they 
 call them, where water hinders the cubing the Spungy earth- 
 to the bottom, the pits will be rilled up again, in Some years, 
 with a new Spungy earth; which, in procefs of time, comes to 
 the confiftence of peat-mofs ■ at firft, and a Scurfy heathy turf 
 grows over the top of it. When the dikes are dug down to 
 the hard chanel, the moffes do not renew, as in the other 
 cafe ; though it has been obferved, that if they be cut down to 
 the chanel, provided the heathy turf cut off from the top be 
 but laid on the chanel, in courfe of time the mofs grows again. 
 Thefe moffes are always level; though they are frequently 
 found on hills, and near the tops of them too. Yet, as that 
 curious nobleman obferves, the moffes have always a defcent to 
 them, and generally from them ; infomuch that he never knew 
 any where the water might Stagnate. It is the water draining 
 
M O R 
 
 M O R 
 
 from above, that feems to be the parent of the peat. In many of 
 thefe moffes are found quantities of fir and oak wood, ufually 
 in whole trees ; but the fmaller branches are feldom found un- 
 fumed. This wood is as good for ufe as any old wood is ; 
 only that, having imbibed a deal of moifture, it takes fome time 
 to dry, in order to fit it for burning. 
 
 There are many places where wood will not grow, where yet 
 themoflesare well flocked with this under-ground timber ; but 
 yet it appears there muff, have been woods formerly there ; elfe 
 how come they in the moffes ? To prove this, that noble lord 
 gives us the hiftoryand origin of a mofs, in great mcafure from 
 his own experience, -^-In the parifh of Lochburn, in the year 
 165 1. he faw, near the top of a very high hill, a plain about a 
 mile over, then covered with a firm (landing wood, but which 
 wasfo very old, that not only the trees had no leaves or bark 
 on, but the outfide for the {pace of an inch inward was dead 
 white timber, though within they were firm. Coming by the 
 fame place fifteen vears after, he could not difcover the Ieaft 
 appearance of a tree ; but, inftead thereof, there was a plain 
 green ground covered with a mofs ; the trees being all fallen, 
 and having lain fo thick over one another, that the green had 
 over-run the whole timber, by means of the moiflure draining 
 from the hill above it, and ftagnating on the plain. He adds, 
 that none could pufs over it ; the fcurf not being firm enough 
 to fupport them. In thirty years more he found this whole 
 piece of ground turned into a common peat-mofs, and the 
 country people digging turf and psats there. — This accounts 
 for a generation of motles, and whence it is that many of them 
 are furnifhed with timber. See Supplement , article Bog-wood. 
 MORATUR, or Demoratur, inlaw, fignifies as much as, 
 be demurs ; that is, the party here goes not forward, but refts 
 or abides by the judgment of the court, who take time to 
 deliberate, argue, and advife thereon. 
 
 When the counfel of the party are of opinion, that the count 
 or plea of the adverfe party is inefficient in law ; then he 
 demurs, or abides in law, and refers the fame to the judgment 
 of the court. 
 
 MORBID, Morbidus, in medicine, is applied to thofe parts, 
 
 humours, isc. wherein a difeafe lies. 
 Morbid, in painting, is particularly applied to fat flefh. very 
 
 ftrongly expreJTed. 
 MORB1LLI, in medicine, a difeafe popularly called meajles. 
 
 See Measles. 
 
 MORBUS, a term purely Latin, frgntfyingdifeafe. SeeDiSEASE. 
 
 Morbus comitialis deftotes .Jlae epilefffo thus called by the Ro- 
 mans, becaufe, when in any of their public affembhes perfons 
 fell down with this diftemper, they immediately broke up, and 
 diflblved the comitia, which was the common appellation for 
 fucb courts. See Epilepsy. 
 
 Morbus Gallkus. ~\ r Venereal difeafe. 
 
 Morbus prcdramus. I I Prodromus. 
 
 M orbus pediculavis- I artcle \ ^ , ^^"" U ^ J ^^ - ''^ - 
 
 Morbus rffiw. f j Jaundice. 
 
 Morbus virgineus. I I Chlorosis. 
 
 Cholera Morbus. *» Cholera. 
 
 MORESfC, or Morisko, a kind of painting, carving, £*fci 
 done after the manner of the Moors ; confifting of feveral 
 grotefque pieces and compartiments prom ifcuoufly intermingled, 
 not containing any perfect figure ot a man, or other animal, 
 but a wild refcmblance of birds, beafts, trees, &c. 
 Thefe are alio called arabefques, and are particularly ufed in 
 embroideries, damafk-work, ts'c, 
 
 Morefque dances, vulgarly called morrice-dances, are thofe alto- 
 gether in imitation of the Moors j as farabands, chacons, &c. 
 and are ufually performed with caftanets, tambours, CSV. 
 
 MORGANATIC marriage. See the article Marriage. 
 
 MORNING, the beginning of the day ; or die time of the 
 fun-rifing. 
 
 The aftronomers reckon morning, mane, from the time of 
 mid-night, to that of mid -day.— '•Thus an eclipfe is faid to 
 begin at eleven o'clock in tiie morning, &c. 
 
 MoRNiNG-yfor is the planet Venus, when a little to the weft- 
 ward of the fun ; that is, when' me riles a little before him. 
 In this fituation {he is called by the Greeks, phofpborus ; by 
 the Latins, lucifer, fiSffl 
 
 Morning twilight. See the article Crfpusculum. 
 
 MOROCCO*, or Ma rroquin, the fkin of a goat, or fome 
 other animal refembhng it, drefled in fumac or galls, and 
 coloured of any colour at pleafure; much ufed in book- 
 binding, fcff. * 
 
 * The name is ordinarily derived from the kingdom of Morocco, 
 whence it ti fuppofed the manner of preparing thefe fkins was 
 firlt borrowed. 
 
 We have Morocco fkins brought from the Levant, Barbary, 
 Spain, Flanders, and France ; red, black, yellow, blue, &f<\ — 
 The various manners of preparing Moroccos, both black, and 
 in colours, are fo curious, and withal fo little known among 
 us, that the public will not be difpleafed to find them here. 
 Manner of preparing black Morocco.— The fkins, having been 
 dried in the hair, are fteeped in clear water three days and 
 nights ; then they are ftretched on a wooden horfi; or leg, 
 like that ufed by tanners ; then beaten with a large knife for 
 
 the purpofe, and fteeped afrelh in water, changed daily till 
 they be well come again. — In this fhte they are thrown into a 
 large vat in the ground, full of water, wherein quick-lime has 
 been flaked, where they lie fifteen days ; whence, however, 
 they are taken, and again returned every night and morning : 
 they are thrown into a frefh vat of lime and water; and fhifted 
 night and morning, as before, for fifteen days longer ; then 
 rinfed in clear water ; and the hair is then taken off, on the 
 leg, with the knife ; the fkins are then returned into a third 
 vat, and fhifted, as before, for about eighteen days ; then 
 fteeped twelve hours in a river j then taken out, rinfed, put 
 in pails, where they are pounded with wooden peftles, changing 
 the water twice ; then laid on the horfe, and the flefh taken 
 off, returned into pails of new water, taken out, and the hair- 
 fide fcraped ; then returned into frefh pails, taken out and 
 thrown into a pail of a particular form, having holes at bottom : 
 here they are beaten the fpace of an hour, and frefh water 
 poured on from time to time ; ftretched on the leg, and fcraped 
 on either fide ; returned into pails of frefh water ; taken out 
 ftretched, and fewed up all around in manner of bags, leaving 
 out the hind legs, which ferve to make an aperture for the 
 conveyance of a mixture mentioned hereafter. 
 The fkins, thus fewed, are put in lukewarm water, where do<™ 
 excrement has been diffolved. Here they are ffirred with long 
 poles half an hour, left at reft a dozen, taken out, rinfed in 
 frefh water, and filled by a tunnel with a preparation of water 
 and fumac mixed and heated over the fire till ready fo boil ; 
 and as they are filled, the hind-legs are fewed up to ftop the 
 paffiige. In this ftate they are letdown into the veffel of water 
 and fumac, and kept ftirring four hours fucceflively ; they are 
 then taken out. and heaped on one another ; after a little time, 
 their fides are changed : and thus tbey continue an hour and 
 half, till drained. This done, they are loofened, and filled a 
 fecond time with the fame preparation, fewed up again, and 
 kept ftirring two hours, piled up, and drained as before. This 
 is again repeated a third time, with this difference, that they 
 are now only ftirred a quarter of an hour; after which, they 
 are left till the morrow morning, when they are taken out, 
 drained on a rack, unfewed, the fumac taken out, folded in 
 two from head to tail, the hair-fide outwards, laid over each 
 other on the leg, to perfect their draining, ftretched out, and 
 dried ; then trampled under-foot by two and two, ftretched 
 on a wooden table, what flefh and fumac remains fcraped off, 
 and the hair-fide rubbed over with oil, and that again with 
 water. 
 
 Having thus received their oil and water they are wrung in 
 the hands, then ftretched and prelTed tight on the table with 
 an iron inftrument like that of the curriers, the flefh-fide up- 
 permoft ; then turned, and the hair-fide rubbed ftrongly over 
 with an handful of rufhes, tofqueezeout as much of the oil re- 
 maining within as poffible. The firft courfe of black is now 
 laid on the hair-fide, by means of a lock of hair twirted and 
 fteeped in a kind of black dye, prepared of four beer, wherein 
 pieces of old rufty iron have been thrown. When half-dry 
 by hanging in the air, they are ftretched on a table, and rub- 
 bed over every way with a paumelle, or wooden- toothed inftru- 
 ment, to raife the grain, over which is paffed a light couche of 
 water, then fleeked by rubbing them with rufhes prepared for 
 the purpofe. Thus fleeked, they have a fecond couche of black ; 
 they are then dried, laid on the table, rubbed over with a pau- 
 melle of cork, to raife the grain again ; and, after a light couche 
 of water, fleeked over anew ; and, to raife the grain a third 
 time, a paumelle of wood is ufed. 
 
 After the hair-fide has thus received all its preparations, the 
 flefh-fide is pared with a fharp knife for the purpofe ; and' the 
 hair-fide rubbed ftrongly over with a woolen cap, having firft 
 
 given it a luftre with barberries, citron, 
 
 or orange. The 
 
 vhole is finifhed by raifing the grain lightly, for the laft time 
 with the paumelle of cork, which leaves them in a condition 
 for fale and ufe. 
 
 Manner of preparing red Morocco.— The fkins are fteeped 
 twenty-four hours in a river, taken out, ftretched on the W, 
 beat with the knife, returned into the water for twenty-four 
 hours, re- beaten on the leg, re-fteeped ; thrown into a vat, 
 and for three weeks taken out and returned every morning, to 
 difpofe them to peel. — Being taken out for the laft time, they 
 are fcraped with the knife, and, when the hair is quite off, 
 thrown into pails, of frefh water, where they are rinfed ; then 
 the flefh-fide fcraped, thrown into the pails, and thus alternate- 
 ly from the leg to the pails, till they leave the water quite 
 clean : then they are put in lukewarm water, with the fum2c 
 as before ; and, after twelve hours, they are rinfed in clear 
 water, and fcraped on the leg on both fides, pounded in pails, 
 and the water changed three times ; then wrung, and ftretched 
 on the leg, and pafl'ed after each other into water, with alum 
 diflblved in it. Thus alumed, they are left to drain till the 
 morning, then wrung out, pulled on the leg, and folded from 
 head to tail, the flefh inwards. 
 
 In this ftate they receive their firft dye, by paffing them one 
 after another into a red liquor, prepared with lacca, and fome 
 
 other ingredients, kept fecret among the maroquineers. This 
 
 they repeat again and again, till the Jkins have got their firft 
 
 colour. 
 
M O R 
 
 MOR 
 
 colour. They are then rinfed in clear water, ftretched on 
 the leg, and left to drain twelve hours ; then thrown into wa- 
 ter, into which white galls pulverized have been paffed through 
 a fievc and ftirred inceflantly for a whole day with long poles, 
 taken out, hung on a bar acrofs the water all night, white 
 againft red, and red againft: white ; and in the morning the 
 water is ftirred up, and thefkinsare returned into it for twen- 
 ty-four hours. 
 
 MORPHEW, Morphjea, a leprous fort of freckle or fcurf, 
 which breaks out fometimes upon the fkin ; particularly about 
 the forehead ; called alfo alphus. 
 
 MORSELLI, or Morsuli, are denominations given to thofe 
 forms of medicines intended to be fucked in the mouth, as a 
 lozenge ; the word fignifying a little mouthful. 
 
 MORSUS diaboli, devil's bit ; a plant of the fcabious kind, 
 which feems to have a fringe around the bottom of its root : 
 otherwife called fuccifa. See Supplement, article Scabious. 
 It has its denomination from its roots, which appear as if bitten 
 off at the bottom : which fuperftitious people attributed to the 
 devil, as done out of envy, left we fhould have too much of fo 
 falutaryaroot. It was formerly looked on as a good alexiphar- 
 mac ; but is now much out of ufe. 
 
 From a likenefs hereto, the edge or felvedge of the tuba? Pal- 
 
 lopianas has obtained the fame appellation. 
 Morsus cants rabidi. See the article Hydrophobia. 
 Morsus vipera. See the article Viper. 
 Mort d'anceflre, in law. See Assise of mart d'ancejlre. 
 MORTALITY, a term frequently ufed to fignify a contagious 
 
 difeafc, which deftroys great numbers of either men, or beafls. 
 Bills ^Mortality are weekly lifts compiled by the parifh- 
 
 clerks in and about London, containing the numbers of fuch 
 
 as die of each difcafe, as well as of thofe that are born, every 
 
 week. 
 
 The bills of mortality comprehend not only the alleys, fuburbs 
 and liberties of London ->nd Weftminfter, and borough of 
 Southwark, but fifteen out-parifties next adjacent. — But then 
 they are limited to the chriftenings and burials in the'parifh- 
 churches : for as to thofe of the Uiftenters, Quakers, (sfc they 
 do not come under the cognizance of the parifti-clerks. 
 Thefe bills are of fomeflanding in England, in imitation where- 
 of the like are now eftabhfhed at Paris. They are very ufeful 
 on feveral accounts, particularly in judging of the mortality of 
 any difeafe, and whether an epidemic or infectious diftemper 
 increafes or abates. 
 
 There are alfo yearly bills, collected out of the weekly ones. — 
 By thefe it appears, that the annual numbers of burials at Lon- 
 don is twenty-five or twenty-fix thoufand : at Paris it is feven- 
 teen or eighteen thoufand. 
 
 Mr. Graunt, who examined the London bills very accurately, 
 has wrote an exprefs treatife of them. — Among other things, 
 he calculates from them, that of 100 perfons who are born in 
 the fame week, there are but 64 left the end of fix years ; 
 but 40 at the end of fixtcen years ; at the end of twenty-fix 
 years but 25 ; at the end of thirty-fix years, but 16 ; at the 
 end of forty-fix years, but 10 ; at the end of fifty-fix, no more 
 than 6 ; at the end of fixty-fix years, but 3 ; at the end of 
 fevent-fix, but 1 j and at they end of eighty years, they are 
 reduced to none. 
 
 He likewife makes it appear, that in England in general, more 
 are born than die j but in London, more die than are born : 
 the proportion of births to burials, in the former, being as 1 
 i 1 , to-one ; in the latter as 1 ~g to one. Thus alfo cities and 
 market- towns arc found to bury 1 -~ z to one birth. But in Paris 
 they outdo London; their deaths being I - to 1 birth. In the 
 villages of England fewer die than are born ; there being in 
 general hut one death to 1 T Vo births. 
 MORTAR, or Mort e r, in architecture, a compofition of 
 lime, fand, &c. mixed up with water; ferving, as a cement, 
 to bind the (tones, &c, of a building. 
 
 The antients had a kind of mortar fo very hard and binding, 
 that, after fo long a duration as to this time, 'tis next to impof- 
 fible to feparate the parts of fome of their buildings ; though 
 there are fome who afcribe that exceffive fliength to time, and 
 the influence of certain properties in the air, which is, indeed, 
 found to harden fome bodies very furprifingly. 
 The lime ufed in the antient mortar is faid to have been burnt 
 from the turdeft ftones, or often from fragments of marble. 
 DeLorme obferves, that the beft mortar is that made of poz- 
 zolana for fand ; adding, that this penetrates black flints, and 
 turns them white. See Pozzolana ; and in the Supplement, 
 PUT'EOLANUS PlILVlS. 
 
 Mr. Worledge obferves, that fine fand makes weak mortar ; 
 that the larger the fand, the ftronger the mortar. Pie there- 
 fore advifes the fand to be wafhed before it is mixed ; and 
 adds, that dirty water weakens the mortar confiderably. 
 Wolfius obferves, that the fand fhould be dry and fharp, fo 
 as to prick the hands when rubbed ; yet not earthy, fo as to 
 foul the water it is wafhed in. 
 
 Vitruvius obferves, that foflil fands dry fooner than thofe taken 
 out of rivers. Whence he adds, the latter is fitted for the in- 
 fides, the former for the outfides of a building. He fubjoins, 
 
 that foflil fand, lying long in the air, becomes earthy. Palla- 
 dio takes notice, that of all fands white ones are the worft; 
 and the reafon is owing to their want of afperity. 
 The proportion of lime and fand in our common mortar is ex- 
 tremely variable : Vitruvius prefcribes three parts of pit-fand, 
 and two of 1 iver-fand, to one of lime ; but the fand here feems 
 to be over-dofed. About London, the proportion of fand to 
 quick-lime is generally about as 36 to 25 : in fome parts they 
 ufe equal quantities of each. ✓ 
 Mixing and blending of Mortar. — M. Felibien obferves, that 
 the antient mafons were fo very fcrupulous herein, that the 
 Greeks kept ten men conftantly employed, for a long fpace of 
 time, to each bafon ; this rendered the mortar of fuch pro- 
 digious hardnefs, that Vitruvius tells us the pieces of plafter 
 falling off from old walls ferved to make tables. — The fame 
 Felibien adds, it is a maxim among old mafons to their la- 
 bourers, that they mould dilute with the fweat of their brow, 
 i. e. labour it a long time, inftead of drowning it with water, 
 to have done the fooner. 
 
 Befides the common mortar ufed in laying of ftones, bricks, 
 feV. there are feveral other kinds : as, 
 White Mortar, ufed in plaftering the walls and cielings ; 
 made of ox-hair mixed with lime and water, without any 
 
 fand. 
 
 Mortar ufed in making of water-courfes, cijierns, &c. is very 
 hard and durable, being made of lime and hog s -°reafe, fome- 
 times mixed with the juice of figs, and fometimes with liquid 
 pitch : and after application, it is wafhed over with linfeed-oil. 
 
 Mortar for furnaces, &Ci is made with Windfor loam 
 wrought in water, wherein horfe-dung and cb:mncy-foot have 
 been fteeped. 
 
 Mortar for fun-dials on walls may be made of lime and fand 
 tempered with linfeed-oil ; or, for want of that, with fcummed 
 milk. This will grow to the hardnefs of a ftone. 
 For buildings, one part of wafhed foap-afhes mixed with an- 
 other of lime and fand, make a very durable mortar. Seer 
 Cjement. 
 
 MORTAR-PIECE, a fhort piece of ordnance, thick and wide, 
 proper for throwing bombs, carcafles, fhells, ftones, E3V, 
 There are two kinds of mortars : the one hung or mounted 
 on a carriage with low wheels, after the manner of guns ; 
 called a pendent, or banging mortars : the other fixed on an im- 
 moveable bafe, called jlanding mortars. 
 
 At the head of the bore, or chafe of the mortar, is the cham- 
 ber for the charge of powder. — This is ufually made cylindri- 
 cal, all but the bafe, which they make hemifpherical ; 'though 
 fome of the latter engineers prefer fpherical chambers ; as the 
 furfaccs of thofe, being lefs, under equal capacities, make lefs 
 refiftance to the gunpowder. 
 
 The thicknefs of the mortar about the chamber is to be much 
 greater than about the chafe ; by reafon the gun-powder makes 
 a much greater effort about the chamber than elfewhere: the 
 diameter of the chamber is alfo to be much lefs than that of the 
 bore ; by reafon bombs, fhells, &fY. are much lighter than the 
 bullets of equal diameters ; and, confequently, lefs powder fuf- 
 fices. 
 
 To charge, or had a Mortar, the proper quantity of gun- 
 powder is put into the chamber, and if there be any vacant 
 fpace, they fill it up with hay; fome ch ufe a wooden plug: 
 over this they lay a turf, fome a wooden tampion fitted to the 
 bore of the piece; and, laftly, the bomb ; taking care that the 
 fufee be in the axis thereof, and the orifice be turned from the 
 muzzle of the piece: what fpace remains, is to be filled up 
 with hay, ftraw, turf, far*, fo as the load may not be exploded 
 without the utmoft violence. 
 
 The quantity of gun-powder to be ufed, is found by dividing 
 the weight of the bomb by 30 : though this rule is not always 
 to be ftriclly obferved. 
 To elevate the Mortar, fo as its axis may make any given an- 
 gle with the horizon ; they apply the artillery-level, or gun- 
 ner's quadrant : the ufe whereof fee under the articles Level, 
 and Quadrant. 
 
 An elevation of 70 or 80 degrees is what is commonly chofen 
 for rendering mortars moft ferviceable in calling fhells into 
 towns, forts, £sV. though the greateft range be at forty-five 
 degrees. 
 
 If all mortar-pieces were, as they ought to be, exaaiy fimilar, 
 and their requifites of powder as the cubes of the diameters of 
 their feveral bores ; and if their fhells, bombs, carcafles, tge. 
 were alfo fimilar; then, comparing like with like, their ranges 
 on the plane of the horizon, under the fame degree of ele- 
 vation, would be equal; and, confequently, one piece being 
 well proved, (. e. the range of the granado, bomb, carcafs, 
 tSV. being found to any degree of elevation, the whole work 
 of the mortar-piece would become* very eafy, and exact. 
 But fince mortars are not thus fimilar, it is required, that the 
 range of the piece, at fome known degree of elevation, be ac- 
 curately found by meafuring; and from hence all the other 
 ranges maybe determined. 
 
 Thus, to find the range of the piece at any other elevation re- 
 quired j fay, as the fine of double the angle under which the 
 
 expe- 
 
MOR 
 
 M O S 
 
 experiment was made, is to the fine of double the angle pro- 
 pofed, To is the range known, to the range required, 
 buppofe, for inftance, it be found that the range of a piece ele- 
 vated to 30 degrees is 2000 yards: to find the range of the 
 fame piece with the fame charge, when elevated to 45 degrees : 
 Take the fine of 60% the double of 30 s , and make it the firft 
 term of the rule of three ; the fecond term muft be the fine of 
 90 0 , the double of" 45 0 : and the third the given range 2000 
 The fourth term will be 2310, the range of the piece at 
 45 0 . If the elevation be greater than 45% inftead of doubling 
 it, take the line of double its complement to go 0 . As fuppofe 
 the elevation of a piece be 50% take the fine of 8o°, the dou 
 ble of 40°. 
 
 Again, if a determinate diftance to which a fhot is to be caft. 
 be given, and the angle of elevation to produce that effect be 
 required ; the range known muft be the firft term in the rule of 
 three, which fuppole 2000 yards; the range propofed, which 
 we fuppofe 1600 yards, the fecond term ; and the fine of 60 
 double of the elevation for the range of 2000 yards, the third 
 term. The fourth term will be found the fine of 43 0 , 52', 
 whofe half 21°, 56', is the angle of elevation the piece muft 
 have, to produce the defired effect. And if 21 0 , 56', betaken 
 from go 0 , you will have 68", 4' for the other elevation of the 
 piece, with which the fame effect will likewife be produced, 
 Note, to avoid the trouble of finding fines of double the angles 
 of propofed elevations, Galileo and Torrkelli gives us the fol- 
 lowing table, wherein the fines of the angles fought are had by 
 inflection. 
 
 Degrees 
 go 
 89 
 88 
 
 87 
 86 
 
 3s 
 84 
 
 83 
 82 
 
 79 
 78 
 77 
 76 
 75 
 74 
 73 
 72 
 
 7i 
 
 7o 
 
 68 
 6 7 
 
 The ufeof the table is obvious — Suppofe, for inftance, it be 
 known by experiment, that a mortar elevated 1 charged with 
 three pounds of powder, will throw a bomb to the diftance of 
 35.0 fathom; and it be required, with the fame charge, to throw 
 a bomb 100 fathom farther : Seek in the table the number an- 
 fwering to 15 degrees, and you will find it 5000. Then as 
 350 is to 450, fo is 5000 to a fourth number, which is 6428. 
 Find this number, or that nearcft it in the table, and againft 
 it you will find 20 0 , or 70" ; the proper angles of elevation. 
 For the weight, di mentions, &c, of the bombs, tife. to be 
 caft out of mortars, and the lines of their projection; fee Bomb, 
 and Projectile. 
 MORTGAGE *, inlaw, an obligation, whereby lands or tene- 
 ments of a debtor are pawned or bound over to the creditor 
 for money, or other effects borrowed ; peremptorily to be the 
 creditor's for ever, if the money be not repaid at the day 
 agreed on. 
 
 * Glanvil defines mortgage, mortuum vadium, to be that cmui 
 frudus <ud reditus interim per afti in nulla fe acquietant. Thus 'tis 
 called mortgage, i. e. dead gage, of mart, death; and gage, 
 pledge j becaufe whatever profit it yields, yet it redeems not it- 
 felf by yielding fuch profit, except the whole fum borrowed be 
 likewife paid at the day ; the mortgager being by covenant to 
 receive the profits till default of payment. Others hold it called 
 mortgage, becaufe if the money be not paid at the day, the land 
 moritur, dies, to the debtor, and is forfeited to the creditor. 
 
 In this fenfe, mortgage, in common law, amounts to much the 
 
 fame with hypoibeca in the civil law. 
 
 The creditor holding fuch land, on fuch agreement, is in the 
 mean time called tenant in mortgage. — He who lays the pawn 
 or gage, is called the mortgager, and he that takes it the mort- 
 gagee. — If a mortgage include exceffive ufury, it is prohibited 
 by a ftatute 37 Hen. VIII. 
 
 'I he French fometimes ufc the word mortgage in the fame fenfe 
 in their language, where it ftands in contradiftinction to a fim- 
 ple contract, which does not carrv with it the mean profits, 
 and w:'ich they call vifigage, live-pledge. 
 A mortgage is an engagement for the lecunty of the creditor; 
 Vol. II. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Ranges 
 
 
 Degrees, 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Ranges. 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 349 
 
 
 66 
 
 24 
 
 7431 
 
 2 
 
 698 
 
 
 65 
 
 25 
 
 7660 
 
 3 
 
 1045 
 
 
 64 
 
 26 . 
 
 7880 
 
 
 '39 2 
 
 
 63 
 
 m. 
 
 8090 
 
 3 ; 
 
 I73 6 
 
 
 62 
 
 28 
 
 8290 
 
 6 
 
 2709 
 
 
 61 
 
 29 
 
 8480 
 
 
 2419 
 
 
 60 
 
 n .39 >: 
 
 8660 
 
 1 
 
 2556 
 
 
 59 
 
 31 
 
 8829 
 
 9 
 
 3090 
 
 
 58 
 
 32 
 
 8988 
 
 10 
 
 3420 
 
 
 57 
 
 33 
 
 9'35 
 
 11 
 
 3746 
 
 
 56 
 
 34 
 
 9272 
 
 12 
 
 4067 
 
 
 55 
 
 35 
 
 9397 
 
 "3 
 
 43 8 4 
 
 
 54 
 
 3» 
 
 9511 
 
 ■4 
 
 4695 
 
 
 53 
 
 37 
 
 9613 
 
 ■5 
 
 5000 
 
 
 52 
 
 38 
 
 9703 
 
 ■ 6 
 
 5299 
 
 
 5' 
 
 39 
 
 9781 
 
 '7 
 
 5S9 2 
 
 
 5° 
 
 40 
 
 9841 
 
 18 
 
 5870 
 
 
 49 
 
 4' 
 
 9903 
 
 •9 
 
 6157 
 
 
 48 
 
 42 
 
 9945 
 
 20 
 
 6428 
 
 
 47 
 
 43 
 
 9976 
 
 21 
 
 6691 
 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 9994 
 
 22 
 
 6947 
 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 10000 
 
 23 
 
 7'93 
 
 
 
 
 for which purpofe various means have been contrived : That 
 of the pawn or pledge, feems to have been the moft antient, 
 being in reality the fame tiling with the mortgage ; all the dif- 
 ference confifting in this, that in a. mortgage the pawn was put 
 into the hands of the creditor ; whereas in a fimple engagement, 
 the thing remained in the hands of the debtor. — But it was 
 afterwards found much more commodious to engage lands by 
 a fimple convention, than by an actual delivery. 
 Accordingly, this was practifed by theGreeks ; and from them 
 borrowed by the Romans ; who, the better to prevent deceits, 
 fixed up vilible marks to inform the public, that the eftate was 
 engaged by the proprietor : Though thefe marks were found fo 
 injurious to the debtors^ that the ufe of them was at length 
 prohibited. 
 
 The Romans had four kinds of mortgages, or hypothecs:. The 
 conventional, which proceeds from the will and confent of the 
 contracters : The legal, which is introduced by the law, and 
 which is therefore called tacit: - The mortgage of the pr&tor, 
 when, by the flight or refufal of the debtor, the creditor was put 
 in pofleffion of his effects : And the judiciary mortgage, when 
 the creditor was put in poffeflion, in confequence of a decree or 
 fentence. 
 
 The civil lawyers diftinguifh twenty-fix different kinds of tacit 
 mortgages, 
 
 M0RT1ER, a badge orenfignof dignity, borne by the chancel- 
 lors t and great prefidents, of the parliaments of Paris. That 
 borne by the chancellor is a piece of cloth of gold, lined and 
 turned up with ermin : That of the firft prefident is a piece of 
 velvet edged with a gold lace ; that of the other prefidents is 
 only a piece of gold lace. 
 
 They formerly bore it on their head, but now in their handsj 
 except in grand ceremonies, as at the entry of a king. — Hence 
 the denomination, prefidents amorticr. 
 MORTIFICATION, necrofis, in medicine, a total extinction 
 of the natural heat of the body, or a part thereof. 
 Some define mortification a diieafe, wherein the natural juices 
 of any part quite lofe their proper motion ; and by that means 
 fall into a fermentative one, and corrupt and deftroy the tex- 
 ture of the part. 
 
 There are two fpecies, or rather degrees of mortification : The 
 one called zgangrcne, which is a mortification in its firft, or be- 
 ginning flate : The other a fphacelus, which is a perfect or 
 finifhed mortification. 
 MORTISE*, or Mortoisej in carpentry, feffi. a kind of 
 joint, wherein a hole or incifion, of a certain depth, is made 
 in the thicknefs of a piece of wood, which is to receive another 
 piece, called a tenon. 
 
 * The word is originally French, mortoifc, which fignifies the 
 fame ; and which Borel derives further from mordere, to bite. 
 
 MORTMAIN *, in law, the alienation of lands and tenements 
 to any guild, corporation, or fraternity, and their fucceftbrs ; 
 as bifhops, parfonSj vicars, &fo which may not be done with- 
 out the king's licence, and that of the lord of the manor ; or 
 that of the king alone, if it be immediately holden of him. t 
 
 * The word literally denotes dead-hand; being a compound of 
 mart, dead, and main, hand. — Accordingly Hottoman defines 
 mortmain to be the pofleffion of thofe who are, as it were, im- 
 mortal, becaufe they never ceafc to have heirs ; fo that the eftate 
 never reverts to its firft lord ; »;«/«, hand, being ufed for poflef- 
 fion ; and ?»w7, dead, by antiphrafis, for immortal. — .Others 
 aflign the reafon of the name thus ; that the fervices and other 
 profits due for fuch lands, ihould not, without fuch Iicence,come 
 into a dead hand f mainmort), i. e. into a hand as it were dead* 
 that is, fo dedicated to God, or pious ufes, as to be different 
 from, other lands, tenements, or hereditaments, and never to 
 revert to the donor, or any temporal or common ufe. 
 
 The prefidents and governors of hofpitals may, without li- 
 cence in mortmain, purchafe land, &ff ( not exceeding the yearly 
 value of 3000/. Stat. 14. Car. 2. 
 MORTUARY is a gift left by a man at his death to his parim- 
 church, for a recompence of perfonal tithes and offerings, not 
 duly paid in his life-time. 
 
 Mortuary is alfo the fee paid to an incumbent, for carrying a 
 corpfe out of his parifh, to be buried in another. 
 A mortuary is not properly and originally due to an incumbent 
 from any but thofe of his own parifh : But, by cuftom, in 
 fome places of the kingdom, it is paid to the parfons of other 
 parifhes, as the corpfe pafles through them. 
 
 MORTUUM caput. See the article Caput. 
 
 MOSAIC *, Mosaic work, or, as fome chufe to call it, Mu- 
 saic, an affemblage of little pieces of glafs, marble, fliells, 
 precious ftones, woods, or the like, of various colours, cut 
 fquare, and cemented on a ground of ftucco, csV. imitating the 
 natural colours and degradations of painting. In this fenfe 
 msfaic work includes marquetry, or inlaid work, vaneering,Scc. 
 
 * The critics are divided as to the origin and reafon of the name : 
 fome derive it from mefajevm, a eorrupiion of mufa 'uum, as that 
 is of mufivum, as it was called among the Romans. Scaliger de- 
 rives it from the Greek fi«V*, and imagines the name was given 
 to this fort of works, as bcingvery fine, and ingenious. Nebri- 
 cenfis is of opinion it was lo called, becaufe ex Hits piciuris arm- 
 bantur mufea. 
 
 But, in its more proper and restrained fenfe, Mofaic only takes in 
 6 C c works 
 
MOS 
 
 MOS 
 
 works of ftonc, metals, and glafs ; thofe of wood being li- 
 Jtinguifhed by the name of marquetry or inlaying. 
 Others diftinguifh otherwife between mofaic and marquetry. In 
 that properly called mafaic, they fay, the fcvcral ftones are 
 all of the fame colour; and the changes and diminutions 
 of colours, and fhades, are made by applying different 
 ftones one on another, but all of the fitme colour. Mar- 
 quetry, on the contrary, confifts of ftones of different co- 
 Jours ; and by thefe the feveral colours, fhades, degradations, 
 &c. are exprefled. 
 
 Mofaic feems to have taken its origin from paving : The find 
 effect and ufcof pavements, compofed of pieces of marble of 
 different colours fo well joined together, as that, when dried, 
 they might be polifhed, and the whole make a very beautiful 
 and folid body, which continually troddenj upon, and warned 
 ■with water, was not at all damaged ; gave the painter the 
 hint ; who foon carried the art to a much greater perfection : 
 fo as to rcprefent foliages, mafques, and other grotefque pieces 
 of various colours, on a ground of black or white marble. 
 In fine, obferving the good effect which this kind of work 
 had in pavements, and finding that it refitted water, they 
 proceeded to line walls therewith, and to make various figures 
 by it, for the ornament of their temples and public buildings. 
 But nature not producing variety of colours enough for them in 
 marbles, to paint all kinds of objects, they bethought of coun- 
 terfeiting them with glafs and metal colours; which fucceeded 
 fb well with them, that having given all manner of teints to 
 an infinite number of little pieces of thefe two matters, to 
 counterfeit ftones of various colours, in order to get more co- 
 lours ; the workmen arranged them with fo much art, that 
 their mofaic fecmcd almoft to difputc with paintings. This way 
 of reprefenting objects having this advantage, that it refifts the 
 injuries of the air as well as marble itfelf; and even grows 
 more beautiful with time, which effaces all other kinds of paint- 
 ing. 
 
 But the moderns have gone yet further, and fettingafide glafs and 
 metals, as too mean materials, have introduced, along with the 
 fineft marbles, the richeft of precious ftones, as lapis-lazuli, 
 agat, carnclians, emeralds, turquoifes, iffc. 
 Of thefe three kinds of mofaic work, that of coloured glafs 
 and metals is now little in ufe, though of a furprizing luftre 
 and durablenefs : of the other two, that of marbles alone is in 
 common ufe; the mofaic in precious ftone being fo very dear, 
 that the few workmen who apply themfelves to it, make little 
 elfe but petty works, as ornaments for altar-pieces, tables for 
 rich cabinets, £5V. Though out of thefe muft be excepted that 
 iumptuous chapel of the dukes of Tufcany, which will be a 
 noble monument of the magnificence and piety of thofeprinces, 
 as well as of the patience and addrefs of the workmen employed 
 therein. 
 
 We fhall, however, enter into fome detail of the manner of 
 working in thofe three kinds of mofaic ; to which we fhall add 
 a fourth much newer, yet equally ingenious with any of the 
 left, made with a kind of gypfum or talc, found in the ftone- 
 quarries about Paris. 
 Mosaic work of glafs. — This kind they begin with little pieces 
 of glafs, which they provide of as many different colours as 
 poflible. To this end, the glafifnens furnaces being difpofed, 
 and their pots or crucibles full of the matter of which glafs is 
 made, or rather of glafs already made, they put what metalline 
 colour or dye they think fit in each crucible, always beginning 
 with the weakeft, and augmenting the ftrength of the colours 
 from crucible to crucible, till they come to the deepeft dye, as 
 in mixing of colours on a palette to paint in oil. When the 
 glafs has had fuificient codtion, and all the colours are in their 
 perfection, they take out the glafs hot, as it is, and lay it on a 
 ihiooth marble, flatting it down with another marble, and then 
 cutting it into llices of equal bignefs, and about the thicknefs of 
 an inch and half. They then with an inurnment, which the 
 Italians call bocca di cane, make other pieces fquare, and others 
 of different figures and fizes, as occalion requires ; thefe they 
 difpofe orderly in cafes; as in painting in frefco, 'tis ufual to 
 range all the different teints in fhells, according to their colour. 
 If it be.defired to have gold, either in the ground of the paint- 
 ing, or in the ornaments, or the draperies, they take fome of 
 the pieces of glafs, formed and cut in the manner juft mention- 
 ed. Thefe they rnoiften on one fide with gum- water, and af- 
 terwards lay them over with gold-leaf. They then put this 
 piece, or feveral pieces at a time, on a fire-fhovel, which they 
 place in the mouth of the furnace, after having firft covered 
 them with another hollow piece of glafs. Here they continue 
 till fuch time as they become red-hot ; after which the fhovel is 
 drawn our, all at once, and the gold becomes fo firmly bound 
 to the glafs, that it will never afterwards leave it. 
 Now, to apply thefe feveral pieces, and out of them to form a 
 pieture, they firft make a cartoon, or defign ; this they tranf- 
 ter on the ground or planter, by calquing, as in painting in 
 frefco. 
 
 As this planer is to be laid thick on the wall, it will continue 
 frefli and (oft aconfiderable time, fo that there may be enough 
 prepared at once to fcrve three or four days. This plafter is 
 
 compofed of lime made of hard ftonc, with brick-duff ground 
 very fine, gum-tragacanth, and whites of esgs ; wlien it is 
 thus prepared, and laid on the wall, and the dgfigf) rinifhed 
 of what is to be reprcfented ; with plvers thev take out the 
 little pieces of glafs, ranging them one after another, and ft ill 
 keeping ftrictly to the light, fhadow and different teints and co- 
 lours reprefented in the defign ; prefftng or flatting tbe-m down 
 With a ruler, which fc-rves both to fink them within the ground, 
 and to render the furface even. 
 
 Thus, in a long time, and with an infinite deal of trouble, they 
 finifh the work, which is ftill the more beautiful, as the pieces 
 of glafs are more uniform, and ranged at more equal heights. 
 Some of thefe are executed with fo much jullnefs, that they 
 appear as fmooth as a table of marble, and as ftnifhed and maf- 
 terly as a painting in frefco ; with this advantage, that they 
 have a fine luftre, and will hold almoft for ever. 
 The fineft works of this kind, that have defcended to us, and 
 thofe from which the moderns have retrieved the art, almoft 
 loft, are thofe of the church of St. Agnes, formerly the temple 
 of Bacchus, at Rome ; befides fome at Pifa, Florence, and other 
 cities of Italy. The molt efteemed among the works of the 
 moderns are thofe of Jofcph Pine, and the chevalier Lanfranc, 
 in the church of St. Peter at Rome. There are fome very 
 good ones likewife at Venice. 
 Mosaic work of marble, and precious jl ones.- — Thefe two kinds 
 bear fo near a relation to each other, as to the manner of work- 
 ing, that, to avoid repetition, we fhall give them both under 
 one; obferving, by the way, wherein the one differs from the 
 other, either in the fawing or the ranging of the ftones. 
 Mofaic of marble is ufed in large work?, as in pavements of 
 churches, bafilics, and palaces; and in the incruftation and va- 
 neering of the walls of the fame edifices. — As to that of ftones, 
 efpccially precious ftones, 'tis only ufed in fmall works, as be- 
 fore obferved. 
 
 The ground of mofaic works wholly marble, is ordinarily a 
 mafs of marble, either white or black. On thip ground the 
 defign is cut with a chifl'el, having been firft calqued. When 
 'tis dug of a fufficient depth, i. t. an inch or mare, 'tis filled 
 up with marble of a proper colour, firft contoured, or fafhion- 
 ed to the defign, and reduced to the thicknefs of the cavities, 
 with various inftruments. 7'o make the pieces, thus inferred 
 into the cavities, hold, whole feveral colours are to imitate 
 thofe of the defign, they ufe a ftucco, compofed of lime and 
 marble duft ; or a maftic, which each workman prepares dif- 
 ferently : after which, the work is half polifhed with a foft 
 kind of ftone. 
 
 The figures thus marked out, the painter or fculptor bimfelf 
 draws, with a pencil, the colours of the figures not determined 
 bythe ground, and in the fame manner makes ftrokes or hatch- 
 ings, in the places where ftiadows are to be ; and when he has 
 engraved, with the cbifiel, all the ftrokes thus drawn, he fills 
 them -up with a black maftic, compofed chiefly of Burgundy- 
 pitch, poured on hot ; taking oft", afterwards, what is fuper- 
 fluous, with a piece of foft ftone or brick, which with water 
 and beaten cement, takes away the maftic, polifhes the mar- 
 ble, and renders the whole fo even, one would imagine it only 
 confifted of a fingle piece : 'Tis this kind of mofaic we fee in 
 the pompous church of the invalids at Paris, and the fine cha- 
 pel at Verfailles ; and wherewith fome intire apartments of that 
 palace are incrufted. 
 
 For mofaic zvork of precious ftones ; there are required other and 
 more delicate inftruments than thofe ufed in marble ; as wheels, 
 drills, tin-plates, tsV. ufed by lapidaries, and carvers in ftone. 
 As none but the richeft marbles and ftones enter this work, to 
 make them go the further, they are fawn into the thinneft leaves 
 imaginable, fcarce exceeding half a line in thicknefs; the block 
 to be fawed, is fattened firmly with cords, on the bench, only 
 raifed a little on a piece of wood, one or two inches hiaft. 
 Two iron pins, which are on one fide the block, and which 
 ferve to faften it, ferve alfo to direct the faw. The pieces to 
 be fawed, are put into a vice contrived for the purpofe ; in which 
 ftate, with a kind of law or bow made of a fine brafswire, bent 
 on a piece of fpringy wood, together with emerv moiftened with 
 water, the leaf is gradually fafhioned, by following the ftrokes 
 of the defign made on paper, and then glued on the piece. 
 VVhen there are pieces enough fafhioned to form an intire 
 flower,or fome other part of the defign, they are applied. The 
 ground that fuftains this mofaic, is ufually of ftone. The 
 matter wherewith the ftones are joined together, is a maftic, or 
 ftucco, laid very thin on the leaves as they are fafhioned ; and 
 the leaves in this ftate are applied with plyers. If anycontour, 
 or fide of a leaf, be not either rounded enough, or fquarcd 
 enough, to fit the place where it is to be ufed, when it is too large, 
 it is brought down with a brafs file or rafp,and when too fmall, 
 is managed with a drill, and other lapidary inftruments. 
 Manner of making Mosaic work of gypfum. This is a kind of 
 coarfe talc, or fhining tranfparent ftonc, found in the quar- 
 ries of Montrnartre near Paris, among the ftones thence dug 
 to make the plafter of Paris. — It is different from the pla- 
 fter, but retains the name which the Romans gave the plaiiter, 
 viz-g spfum. 
 
 Of 
 
M O S 
 
 MOT 
 
 Of this ftone, calcined in a kiln, beaten in a mortar, and 
 paired, through a fieve, they make a kind of artificial marbles, 
 imitating; precious ftoncs j and of thefe they compofe a kind of 
 mofaic work, which comes little fhort either of the durahlenefs 
 or vivacity of the natural ftoncs ; and which has this advantage, 
 that it admits of continued pieces, or paintings of intire com- ' 
 partimcnts, without any joining vifible. 
 
 Some make the ground of plafter of Paris, others of free ftone : 
 if the former, it is fpread in a wooden frame, of the length and 
 breadth of the intended work, and about an inch and halt" thick. 
 This frame is f<> contrived, as that the tenons being only join- 
 ed to the morales by Tingle pins, they may be taken afiindcr, 
 and the frame be difmounted when the platter is dry. This 
 frame they cover on one fide with a ftrong linen cloth, nailed 
 all round; and, being placed horizontally, with the linen at 
 bottom, it is filled with plafter, pafled through a wide fieve. 
 The plafter being half-dry, the frame is fet perpendicular, and 
 left tillit be quite dry j and then taken out, by difmounting the 
 frame. In this mofaic, the ground is the moft important part. 
 Now, to prepare the fitted gypfum to be applied on this ground, 
 they diffolve and boil it in the beft Engfifh glue ; and, after 
 mixing with it the colour it is to bear, the whole is worked up 
 together into the ordinary confiftence of plafter ; and then 
 taken and fpread on the ground, five or fix inches thick. It 
 muff: be obferved, that if the work be fuch, as that mould inss 
 are required, they are formed with gouges and other inftru- 
 ments. 
 
 *Tis on this plafter, thus coloured like marble or precious ftone, 
 and which is to ierve as a ground to a work either of lapis 
 lazuli, agat, alabafter, or the like, that the defign to be re- 
 prefented is drawn ; having been firft pounced or calqued. To 
 hollow or imprefs the defign, they ufe the fame inftruments 
 with the fculptors ; the ground whereon they are to work, 
 not being much lefs hard than marble itfelf. The cavities thus 
 made in the ground are filled up with the fame gypfum boiled 
 in glue, only differently coloured ; and thus are the feveral 
 colours of the original reprcfontcd. To have the necefiary co- 
 lours and tcints at hand, they temper quantities of the gvpfum 
 with the feveral colours, in little pots. When the defign is 
 thus filled, and rendered vifible, by half-polilhing it with brick 
 or loft ftone ; they go over it again, cutting fuch places as are 
 either to be weaker, or more ftrongly fhadowed, and fitting 
 them with gypfum ; which is repeated till all the colours, add- 
 ed one after another, reprefent the original to the life. The 
 work, being finifhed, is (toured with foft ftone, fand, and wa- 
 ter ; then with pumice-ftone; and, laitly, polifhed with a 
 wooden rubber, and fine emery. Then, a luftre is given it, 
 by fmeering it over with oil, and rubbing it a long time with 
 the palm of the hand ; which gives it a glofs nothing inferior 
 to that of natural marble. 
 
 If it be only required to make a variegated table, or other work 
 of feveral colours, without mafaic figures ; the procefs is fome- 
 what different. — To this end, they only prepare feparately, in 
 large bowls, as many different colours as nature fhews in the 
 marble to be imitated ; and, after incorporating them with the 
 gypfum and glue-water, they take a trowel-full of each, and 
 dilpofe them in a trough, without any order; then without 
 mingling them, and only by cutting or crofting the gypfum of 
 each trowel once or twice with each of the reft, they give them 
 that beautiful confufion, for which natural marbles are fo much 
 valued : of thefe they then make their tables, or lay a mold, 
 according to the work to be done. 
 4i to Mosaic work of wood, more properly called marquetry or 
 inlaid work, the antiems were well acquainted with it, and ufrd 
 it for the adorning of their beds, tables, and other moveables ; 
 employing for this purpofe ivory, beiide the richeft woods. — ■ 
 But friar John of Verona feems to have contributed the moft 
 to its perfection, by diicovering the fecret of dying woods of all 
 colours and degrees, by which means he was enabled to imitate 
 painting, and even to reprefent architecture in perfpective. 
 They begin with fawing their woods into leaves, of the thick- 
 nefs of one or two tenths of an inch ; then they take pieces of 
 the delign they are to follow, and faften them to thofe leaves ; 
 and with a little fteel faw f.ifhion thefe to the contour of the de- 
 fign. All that is necefiary bcingtaken off with the faw, they gjve 
 the ihadow to thofe places that require it, by placing the piece in 
 a hot fand, or otherwife, with the direction necefiary tofhadow 
 it more or lefs. 1 his done, they Jay each piece in its place, on 
 a ground of another wood, as dry oak ; and there faften them 
 . with ftrong glue. 
 
 There are, befide thefe, two other branches of mofaic work ; the 
 ■ one called damafkeening, or damajk-work, confiding in an af- 
 fcmblage of gold or lilver threads, of which are fometimes 
 formed flat works, and fometimes baflb-relievos. 
 The other is called fall-work, confiding of (hells, artificial 
 congelations, petrifications, tsV. ufed in grottoes. 
 MOSQUE*, orMosK, amongthe Mahometans, is a temple fet 
 apart for the exercills of their religion. 
 
 * The word comes from the Turkifli mefgid, or mcfchU, which 
 properly fignifiei a temple built of wood,"" fuch as the Turks firft 
 uied. I It-nee the Spaniards derive their mefcheta, and the Ita- 
 lians mydcui, and the French and Englifh mofque, and mojh. 
 
 Eorel derives the word from the Greek y.otr%a<; calf, becaufe Of 
 the frequent mention of a cow in the Alcoran. But others, 
 with the greateft appearance of reafon, derive it from the Ara- 
 bic viafgiad, a place of worlhip. 
 There are royal v.ofques founded by the emperors, as the Soli- 
 mania and Velidea at Conftantinople ; and private mofques 
 founded by mufties, vizirs, balfa's, BSftf. 
 Mofques are built like large halls, with ifles, galleries, and 
 domes; and arc adorned on the inlide with compartimenta 
 and pieces of arabefque work. — On one fide is always found a 
 pool with feveral cocks : and on the top is placed acrefcent. 
 The Turks have converted moft of the ChriUian churches into 
 mofques. 
 
 MOSS, Muscus, in natural hiftory, a little plant of the para- 
 fite kind, growing on the barks, He, of feveral trees, as oak, 
 poplar, afti, cedar, Ls'c as well as on the ground. 
 The moft efteemed and odoriferous msfs is that of the cedar : 
 it is ot fome medicinal ufe, being afiringent, and proper to flop 
 haemorrhages and dyfenteries. 
 
 The antients took the viofi of trees to be the effect of a diforder 
 or difcompofure of the texture of the bark; or, at moft, a, 
 kind of little filaments arifing from the bark. But the mo- 
 derns find by feveral obfervations, that mo(Jes are all real, di- 
 ftinct plants, whofe feed, being extremely fmall, is inclofed in 
 little capfula; ; which burfting of themielves, the feed is carried 
 oft by the winds ; till, falling into the inequalities of the bark of 
 trees, it is there Itopped, takes root, and feeds at the expence 
 of the tree, as mouldinefs does on bread, CSV. 
 3 he different kinds of ?noffes are very numerous : Monf. Vail- 
 lant reckons 137 leveral ipecies growing only in the neighbour- 
 hood ot Paris. And the number of molles in general has been 
 fince vaftly increafed by Dillenius. 
 
 There is alio a kind of greenifh mofs growing on human fkulls 
 that have been long expofed to the air, called ufnea bumaua, 
 or jnufcus calvarius. The antients made great ufe of it as 
 an aftringent, Ssfa* 
 
 MoJJ'es make an article of commerce ; there being feveral kinds 
 ufed in medicine, in perfuming, is'e. among others, the fen~ 
 mojsy called coralline., and the mofs of cedar and fir, which 
 enter the compofition of Cyprus powder. 
 
 The mofs of common trees, as oak, afli, poplar, &c. is ufed 
 for caulking of veffels. ' Tis alfo ufed by bird -merchants, to 
 prepare cages for certain kinds of birds to hatch in. 
 i he gardeners, 6s?£, reckon mofs among the difeafes or in- 
 firmities of plants. Mr. Mortimer, &c. direct it to be 
 rubbed and lcraped oft with fome proper inftrument, that 
 will not hurt the bark of the tree, or with a piece of hair- 
 cloth after a foaking rain ; though the fur/eft cure is by re- 
 moving the caufe ; which is effected by draining the land 
 well of all fuperfluous moifture : or they fay it may be pre- 
 vented in the firft: planting of trees, by not fetting them too 
 deep. 1 he general diftinctions and fpecies of mojjes, fee in the 
 Supplement, article Muscus. 
 MOTE, Mo T a , frequently occurs in our antient cuftoms, for 
 a meeting, court, or plea. 
 
 Of motes, by the Saxons alfo called gemotes, conftdered in the 
 fenle of aflemblies, or courts, there were divers kinds ; as wit- 
 tenagemctc, folkegemote, fchiregemote, hundredgemote, burgemote, 
 ivardegemote, haligetmte, fwahicgemote, &c. See each under 
 its proper article, Wittenagemote, Folkegemote, 
 
 Mote, mota, was alfo ufed for a fortrefs, or caftle; as mota de 
 
 TPlndfor, cirV. 
 
 Mot e alfo denoted a ftanding water to keep fifli in ; and fome- 
 times a large ditch incompaffing a caftle, or dwell ing-houfe. 
 
 MOTECTICO jlyle. See the article Style. 
 
 MOTHER, mater t a female who ftands in the relation of pa- 
 rent to another. 
 
 Thus Eve is called our common mother : Cybele, among the 
 antients, was the mother of the gods. 
 IjW«-Ml)thek, fignifies the fame with what we otherwife call 
 queen dowager. 
 
 We meet with empreffes on medals and inferiptions with the 
 title of mother of the camp ; mother of the fenate, mother of the 
 country: mater fenatus, mater cajlrorum, tnater pair its , fefr. 
 Mother of God, is an attribute commonly given to the blefl- 
 ed Virgin. It had its origin from the Greeks, who firft called 
 her ©ioTsxof ; in imitation of whom fome Latins began to call 
 her Deipara, Dei genitrix. The council of Ephefus firft gave 
 a fanction to the appellation ; but the 5th of Conftantinople de- 
 creed, that the Virgin fhould always be thus called. This gave 
 rife to terrible diiputes : Anaftalius, a presbyter of Nefiorius 
 patriarch of Conftantinople, firft afferted in a fermon, that the 
 Virgin was by no means to he called 0«o7«ff j upon which 
 words a great tumult arifing, Neftorius took his presbyter's 
 'part, and taught the fame doctrine. 
 But tho' Oiotokm may be extended fo as to fionify as much a3 
 the Mother cf God, becaufe n/.rtr.v fometimes denotes as much 
 as yivvo.y ; whence accordingly it had been tranflated in Latin 
 Dei genctrix, as well as Deipara ; yet thofe antient Greeks, who 
 called the virgin Bsarawf, did not call her ^>mip ra 0:e, the 
 mother of God, till, the Latins tranflating ©r9T«e* by Dei 
 2 genetrix, 
 
MOT 
 
 MOT 
 
 ginetrix the Greeks came at length to re-tranflate Dei genltrix, 
 by fw»p. And thus both were brought to call her Mother 
 of God. 
 
 The firft who is noted by the Greeks to have thus ftylcd her 
 Mather of God, is Leo Magnus : his reafon, as reprefented by 
 S, Cyril, was this, that, taking the Lord and God to be fynony- 
 mous, he apprehended that Elizabeth firft ftyled Mary the 
 Mother of God, becaufe fhe ftyled her the Mother of her Lord. 
 Moth eh- tongue is properly an original language, from which 
 others are formed. 
 
 Of mother-tongues , Scaliger reckons ten in Europe ; -viz. the 
 Greek, Latin, Teutonic or German, Sclavonic, Epirotic, Scy- 
 thian or European Tartar, Hungarian, Cantabrian, Irijh, and 
 Britijh. 
 
 MoTHER-cburchcszie thofe which have founded or erected others. 
 In beneficiary matters, they fay, it is not lawful for a man to 
 enjoy at the fame time both the mother and the daughter ; 
 meaning that the canon-law does not allow an abby, and the 
 benefices depending thereon, to be held by the fame perfon. 
 
 Fits of the Mother. See the article Hysteric ajfeftion. 
 
 MOTION, primarily fo called, or local Motion, is a conti- 
 nued and fucceffive change of place; or that ftate of a body, 
 whereby it correlponds fucceffively to feveral different places ; 
 or is prefent fucceJTivdy in different parts of fpace. 
 In this fenfe, the do£frine and laws of motion make the fub- 
 ject of mechanics, or ftatics. 
 
 The antient philofophers confidered motion in a more general 
 and extenfive manner. They defined it, a paflage out of one 
 ftate into another : and thus made fix kinds of motion, viz. Cre- 
 ation, generation, corruption, augmentation^ dimuintion, and 
 lation, or local motion. 
 
 Some of the later fchoolmen reduce thefe fix kinds of motion to 
 four : the firft is general, including any paffage from one ftate 
 to another ; under which kind come creation, produelion^ and 
 mutation. — The fecond is a paffage of fomething already exift- 
 ing from one ftate to another : and thus generation is a motion. — 
 The third is a fucceffive paflage of fomething already exifting 
 from one term to another ; and thus alteration, and accretion, 
 are fpecies of motion. — The laft, is lation or local motion ; and 
 thus walking is motion. 
 
 But the lateft philofophers deny any other fpecies befide local 
 motion; and reduce all the forts above-mentioned to this one.- 
 So that we have here only to do with lation, or local motion ; 
 whereof the reft are only fo many different determinations, or 
 effects. 
 
 Phylical writers, both antient and modern, have ever been 
 perplexed about the nature and definition of local motion. — 
 The Peripatetics define it by, Atlus entis in potentia, prout in 
 potentia, Arift. 3. Phyf. c. 2. But this notion feems too abf- 
 tract and metaphyfical for our days ; and is of no ufc in ex- 
 plaining the properties of motion. 
 
 The Epicureans explain motion by the migration of a body, or a 
 part of a body, from one place to another. On which defi- 
 nition the later Epicureans refine, and call it the migration 
 or paffage of a body from fpace to fpace ; thus fubftituting 
 the word fpace for that of place. 
 
 The Cartefians define motion a paflage or removal of one part 
 of matter out of the neighbourhood of thofe parts immediately 
 contiguous thereto, into the neighbourhood of others. 
 Which definition agrees, in effect, with that of the Epicure- 
 ans ; all the difference between them confifting in this ; that 
 what the one calls body and place, the other calls matter, and 
 contiguous parts. 
 
 Borelli, and other late writers after him, define motion more 
 accurately and fully, the fucceffive paflage of a body from one 
 place to another, in a determinate time, by becoming fucceffive- 
 ly contiguous to all the parts of the intermediate fpace. 
 Motion, then, is agreed to be the tranflation of a body from 
 place to place : but authors differ infinitely when they come 
 to explain wherein this tranflation confifts. — And hence their 
 divifions of motion become exceedingly precarious. 
 Ariftotle, and the Peripatetics, divide all motion into natural, 
 and •violent. 
 
 Natural Motion is that which has its principle, or moving 
 force, within the moving body. — Such is that of a ffone fall- 
 ing towards the centre of the earth. 
 
 J'iolent Motion is that whofe principle is without, and againft 
 which the moving body makes a refiftance.— Such is that of 
 a ftone thrown upwards. 
 
 The moderns generally divide motion into abfolute and relative. 
 Abfolute Motion is the change of abfolute place, in any moving 
 body : whole celerity, therefore, will be meafured by the 
 quantity of abfolute fpace, which the moveable body runs 
 through. 
 
 Relative Motion is a mutation of the relative or vulgar place 
 of the moving body ; and has its celerity eftimated by the quan- 
 tity oi relative fpace run through. 
 
 Others divide motion into proper, and improper, or foreign, 
 proper Motion is a removal out of one proper place into an- 
 other, which )>ereby becomes proper, as being poflefled by this 
 body alone, in exclufion of all others — .Such is the motion of 
 a wheel in a dock. 
 
 Improper, extraneous^ foreign, or common Motion, is the pafiigc 
 of a body out of one common place into another common place, 
 — Such is that of a clock when moving in a ftiip, &c. 
 The reafon of all this diverfity feems to arife from the not at- 
 tending to the dffierent meanings of the words ; but comprifing 
 all in one definition and divifion; which they fhould rather have 
 diftinguifhed into feveral parts. 
 
 Some, e. gr. in their definitions of motion, confider the moving 
 body, not as it regards the adjacent bodies, but as it regards 
 immoveable and infinite fpace. — Others, again, confider the 
 moving body, not as it regards infinite fpace, but as it regards 
 other bodies vaftly remote. — And others, laftly, confider the 
 moving body, not as it regards remote bodies, but that furfacc 
 only to which it is contiguous. 
 
 But thefe various meanings being once fettled, the difpute clears 
 up ; for as every thing that moves may be confidered in thefe 
 three feveral manners; there hence arife three feveral kinds of 
 motions : whereof that which regards the parts of infinite im- 
 moveable fpace, without confideration of the circumaimbient 
 bodies, may be called abfolutely and truly proper motion. 
 That which regards circumambient bodies vaftly remote, which 
 may themfelves poffibly be moved, we call relatively common 
 motion. 
 
 The laft, which regards the furfaces of the next contiguous 
 bodies, inafmuch as it may want all both abfolute and com- 
 mon motion, we call relatively proper motion. 
 Abfolutely and truly proper Motion, then, is the application of 
 a body to different parts of infinite and immoveable fpace. 
 This alone is proper and abfolute motion, being always gene- 
 rated and changed by forces imprefled on the moving body it- 
 felf,. and by thofe only ; and being that to which the real forces 
 of all bodies to put others in motion by impulfe, are owing ; and 
 to which thofe motions are proportioned. — But this motion we 
 cannot inveftigate or determine accurately ; nor can we diftin- 
 guifti, when two bodies are impelled on each other, in which 
 of the two (v. gr. that which appears to move the more fwift- 
 ly, or the other, which appears to move more flowly, and per- 
 haps even to be at reft) the real motion, and confequently, the 
 real force whence the impulfe arofe, is placed ; not being able 
 to determine whether the centre of gravity of the whole iyftem 
 (which is but a point in infinite fpace) is itfelf at reft, or in 
 motion. 
 
 Relatively common Motion is a change of the fituation of a body 
 with relbect to other remote circumambient bodies : and this is 
 the motion we fpeak of, when we fay, that men, cities, and 
 the earth itfelf, move round the fun. 
 
 This is alfo the motion we mean, when we effirnate the quan- 
 tity of motion, and the force any body has to impel another. — . 
 For inftance, if a wooden fphere, filled with lead to make it the 
 heavier, be dropped from the hand, we ufe to eftimate the 
 quantity of motion, and the force which the fphere has to impel 
 another, by the celerity of the fphere, and the weight of the 
 included lead ; and that truly with regard to the force itfelf, 
 and the effect thereof, as it falls under our fenfes. — But whether 
 the real power or motion be in the fphere which appears to ftrike, 
 or in the earth which appears to be (truck, that, as has been 
 obferved above, we cannot determine. 
 Relatively proper Motion is the fucceffive application of a body 
 to the different parts of the contiguous bodies. 
 And this is the motion ufually underftood in phyfical difputes 
 about the natures of particular things ; as when we fay, that 
 heat, found, fluidity, dsV. confift in motion. 
 This muft be added, however ; that, by fucceffive application of 
 a body, its whole furface, taken together, muft be conceived 
 fucceffively applied to different parts of the contiguous bodies. 
 From thefe feveral definitions of motion arife as many defini- 
 tions of place : for when we fpeak of motion {or reft) truly and 
 abfolutely proper, then place is that part of infinite and im- 
 moveable fpace which the body fills. — When of motion rela- 
 tively common, then place is a part of any fpace or moveable 
 dimenfion. — When of motion relatively proper (which is really 
 very improper), place is then the furface of the next adjacent 
 bodies, or fenlible fpaces, 
 
 The definition of reft is pretty well agreed on ; but whether 
 reft: be a mere privation of motion, or any thing pofitive, is hot- 
 ly difputed. — Malebranche, and others, maintain the former 
 fide of the queftion ; Cartes, and others, the latter.— Thefe 
 laft contend, that a body at reft has no power to perfevere 
 in that reft, nor to refift any bodies that would deftroy it ; and 
 that motion may as well be called a ceflation of reft, as reft 
 of motion. 
 
 The main argument urged by the former is this : Suppofe a 
 globe at reft, and fuppofe God ceafe to will its reft ; what will 
 be the confequence ? It will reft ftilh Let it be in motion, and 
 let God ceafe to will its motion ; what will be the confequence ? 
 It will ceafe to move ; that is, it will be at reft ; becaufe the 
 power whereby z body in motion perfijveres in that ftate, is the 
 pofitive will of God ; that whereby the quiefcent body pcrfe- 
 veres, is only his privative will. 
 
 But this is a petitio principii ; for the force or conatus whereby 
 bodies, whether moving or quiefcent, perfevere in thofe ftatei,, 
 is the mere inactivity of matter; and therefore, were it poffible 
 
 for 
 
MOT 
 
 MOT 
 
 for God not to will any thing, a body already in motion, wouIJ 
 move forever; as a body at reft, would reft for ever.— To 
 this inactivity of. matter k is owing, that all bodies refi ft ac- 
 cording to their quantities of matter, and that any budy ftriking 
 another with any given velocity, will move it in the fame pro- 
 portion which its denfity, or quantity of matter has, to the 
 denhty or quantity of matter of the other. 
 Mutton has ever been efteemed a fpecies of quantity ; and its 
 quantum., or greatnefs, which we otherwife call its momentum, 
 is eltimated partly from the length of the line which die mov- 
 ing body ddcribes (as if a body pafs over a line of an hundred 
 feet, the quantity of its motion is greater than if it pafied over 
 only ten leetj and partly from the quantity of the matter moved 
 together, or at the fame time, i, e. not from the bulk or exten- 
 sion of the body, but from its mafs or weight ; the air, and 
 other fubtile matters wherewith the pores are filled, not enter- 
 ing into the account : as if a body of two cubic feet run over 
 a line of an hundred feet, the quantity of its motion is greater 
 than that ot a body of one cubic foot deftribing the fame line : 
 ior whatever motion one whole has; that is had in one half of 
 the other ; and the motion of the whole is the fum of the mo- 
 tion of all its parts. 
 
 Hence it follows, that for two unequal bodies to have equal 
 motions, or momentums, the lines which they pafs over mult 
 be in a reciprocal proportion of their mafles or weights ; e. 
 if any body have three times the quantity of matter that an- 
 other has, the line it runs over muli be \ of the line run over 
 by the other. — If two bodies, then, fattened to the two extre- 
 mities of a balance or lever, have (heir mafles in a reciprocal 
 ratio of their diftnnces from the fixed point, when thefe are 
 moved, they mutt defcribe lines in a reciprocal ratio of thele 
 mafles. 
 
 For inftance, if the body A (Tab. Mechanic, fig. 30.) have 
 three times the mafs or weight of B, and each be faffencd to 
 the extremes of the lever AB, whofe fulcrum or fixed point 
 is C, in fucb manner as that the diltance B(J is thrice the di- 
 itancc CA ; the lever cannot incline either way, but the fpace 
 which the lefs body moves, BE, will be thrice the fpace AD, 
 which the greater moves : fo that their motions will be equal. 
 • — Nor is there any reafon why the body A tending downwards, 
 v. gr. with four degrees of motion, mould raife the body B, ra- 
 ttier than B, tending downwards hkewile with the fame four de- 
 grees of motion, mould raife the body A : they will therefore be 
 m xquiiibrio. — On which foundation depends the whole doctrine 
 of mechanics. 
 
 Hence that great problem of Archimedes, with any given power, 
 how fmall loever, to raife any weight given, how great foever. 
 1 — For by increafing the diltance CB infinitely, the power of 
 the body A will be increafed infinitely. 
 
 It is allowed on all hands, that motion is no cflential attribute 
 of matter ; and hence ariJes a difpute about its production, and to 
 what caufe its continuation is owing. 
 *t{antity of Motion, if always the fame? — TheCartefians main- 
 tain, that the Creator at the beginning imprefTed a certain quan- 
 tity of motion on bodies; and that under fucb laws, as that no part 
 of it fhould be loll, but the fame portion of motion mould be con- 
 ftantly prelerved in matter : and hence they conclude, that if 
 any moving body ftrike on any other body, the former lofes 
 no more of its motion than it communicates to the latter. 
 This principle Sir Ifaac Newton overturns in the following 
 words : — * From the various cumpolitions of two motions, it is 
 
 * manifeft there is not always the fame quantity of motion in 
 S the world ; for if two balls joined together by a (lender wire, 
 ** revolve with an uniform motion about their common centre of 
 
 * gravity, and at the fame time that centre be carried uniform- 
 
 * ly in a right line drawn in the plane of their circular motion; 
 
 * the fum of the motions of the two balls, as often as they are 
 4 in a light line drawn from their common centre of gravity, 
 
 * will be greater than the fum of their motions when they are 
 
 * in a line perpendicular to that other. Whence it appears, 
 
 * that motion may both be generated and loft. But by reafon 
 e of the tenacity of fluid bodies, and the friction of their parts, 
 
 * with the weaknefs of the elaftic power in folid bodies, nature 
 
 * feems to incline much rather to the deftruction, than the pro- 
 ' ddctton of motion ; and in reality motion becomes continually 
 
 * lefs and lefs. For bodies which are either fo perfectly hard, 
 
 * or fo foft, as to have no elaftic power, will not rebound 
 
 * from each other: their impenetrability will only ftop their 
 
 * motion. And if two fucb bodies, equal to each other, be car- 
 1 ried with equal but oppcfite motions fo as to meet in a void 
 
 * fpace, by the laws of motion they mtrft ftop in the very place 
 
 * of concourfe, lofe all their motion, and be at reft for ever : 
 
 * unlefs they have an elaftic power to give them a new motion, 
 ' If they have eiafticity enough to enable them to rebound with 
 ' zt °r i > or S of the force wherewith they meet, they will 
 
 * lofe i, or I, or -5, of their motion. And this is confirmed 
 
 * by experiments: for if two equal pendulums be let fall from 
 
 * equal heights, (o as to ftrike full on each other ; if thofe pen- 
 
 * duiums be of leal, o. foft clay, they will lofe all, or almoft 
 ' al) their motion ; ard if they be of jtfly elaftic matter, they 
 
 * will only retain lb mu-h motion as they receive from their 
 
 * elaftic power.' If it be afked, how 11 hanpens that motion 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 being thus continually loft, fhould be continually renewed again ! 
 the fame author adds, that it is renewed from fome active 
 principles, * Such as the caufe of gravity, whereby the planeta 
 
 * and comets preferve their motions in their orbits, and all bodies 
 ' acquire a great degree of motion in falling ; and the caufe of 
 
 * ferment it ion, whereby the heart and blood of animals pre- 
 
 * ferve a pcrpetu.il warmth and motion ; the inner parts of the 
 
 * earth are kept continually warmed ; many bodies burn and 
 ' mine ; and the fun himfclf bjrns and fhine=, and with his 
 1 light warms and.chears all things.* (as alio from the caufe of 
 eiafticity, by which bodies reftore themfelves into their former 
 figures ;) * For we find but little motion in the world, except 
 
 * what plainly flows, cii her from thelc active principles, or from 
 1 the command of the wilier.* 
 
 As to the continuation of Mot 1 on, or the caufe why a body once 
 in motion comes to perfevere in it; this has been extremely con- 
 troverted among phyfical writes, and yet it folluws very evident- 
 ly from one of the grand laws of nature, viz. That all bodies 
 perfevere in their prefent ft ate, whether of reft or motion, unlefs 
 difturbed by fome foreign powers. Motion therefore once be- 
 gun, would be continued in infinitum, were it to meet with no 
 interruption from external cauies; as the power of gravity, the 
 rcfiftance of the medium, &c. So that Ariflotle's principle, 
 every thing in motion affects reft, is groundlefs. 
 Nor has the communication of motion, or tt;e manner how a 
 moving body comes to affect another at reft ; or how much 
 of its motion is communicated by the firft to the laft, been lefs 
 difputed. See the laws theieof under the word PtP.cus- 
 SION. 
 
 Motion 1 , we have obferved, is the fiibject of mechanics; and 
 mechanics is the bafis of all natural jphilblb'phy ; which hence 
 becomes denominated, mechanical. 
 
 In effect, all the phenomena of nature ; all the changes that 
 h-ippen in the fyflcm of bodies, are owing to motion ; and are 
 directed according to the laws thereof. 
 
 Hence, the modern pliilofophers have applied themfelves with 
 peculiar ardour to confider the doctrine of motion ; to invefti*ate 
 the properties, laws, &c, thereof ; by obfervation, experiment 
 and the ufe of geometry. — And to this we owe the great advan- 
 tages of the modern philofophy above that of the antients ■ 
 who were extremely difiegardful of motion ; notvviihft.inding 
 that they feemed fo fcnfible of its importance, that they defined 
 nature by the firft principle of motion^ and the reft of the fub- 
 ftance wherein it is. 
 
 Among all the antients there is nothing extant on motion ex- 
 cepting fome things in Archimedes's books, De aquiponiran- 
 tibus,— To Galileo, a great part of the doctrine of motion is 
 owing: he firft difcovered the general laws of motion, and par- 
 ticulirly of the defcent of heavy bodies, both at liberty and on 
 inclined planes ; the laws of the motion of projectiles ;' the vi- 
 brations of pendulums, and ftretched chords with the theory 
 Of refiftences, Zsc. which were things the antients had little no- 
 tion of. 
 
 His difciple, Torricelli, polifhcd, and improved the difcovcries 
 of his mafter ; and added to them divers experiments concern- 
 ing the force of percuffion, and the equilibrium of fluids — M 
 Huygens improved very confiderably on the doctrine of the 
 pendulum ; and both he and Borelli on the force of percuffion 
 — Laftly, Newton, Leibnitz, Varignon, Mariotte, fift have 
 brought the dodtrina. of motion ftill greatly nearer to per- 
 
 fect ic 
 
 The general laws of motion were firft brought into a fv- 
 ftem, and analytically demon ft rated together, by Dr Wallis 
 Sir Chriftopher Wren, and M. Huygens, all much abour'the fane 
 time ; the firft in bodies not elaftic, and the two laft j n elaftic 
 bodies.— Laftly, the whole doctrine of motion, including M the 
 difcoverics both of the antients and moderns on that bead was 
 given by Dr. Wallis in lm Mccbanica, Jive de motu, pubhfheJ 
 in 1670, r 
 
 Motion may be confidered cither as equable, and uniform- at 
 as accelerated, md retarded.— Equable motion again ' be 
 lidered either as>^, or as compound: and compound motion either 
 as retlmilear, or as curvilinear. 
 
 And all thefe again may be confidered either with regard to 
 themfelves, or with regard to the manner of their prouuction, 
 and communication, by percufljon, CSV. 
 Equable •Motion is that wherein the mo'ving body proceeds with 
 the fame unvaried velocity. 
 
 The laws of equable motion are as follow ; — the reader beine 
 only to obferve, by the way, that mafs, or quantity of matter 
 is expreiled by M ; momentum, or the qudntitv of mo'ion or 
 impetus, by / ; time, or the duration of motion, by 7 • velo- 
 city, or its fwiftnefs, by V; and fence, or the line it defcribe* 
 by o, a 
 Thus, if the fpace be=f, and the time=, , ,he velocity will 
 be exprcfled by / : And if the velocity^, and $ raafs 
 =m ; the momentum will hkewife bc—v en. 
 Lails of uniform or equable Motiok._,°. The velocities V and v 
 of two bodies moving equably, are in a ratio compounded of 
 the direa ratjo of the (paces b and f, ini the rcci , 
 of the times T and /. r 
 
 6 D d « 
 
MOT 
 
 MOT 
 
 For, V^S : T and v=f: t 
 Therefore, V : v : : S : / 
 
 T f 
 
 V :v ;:St :/T. 
 Q. E. D. 
 
 This, and the following theorems, may he ilhiftnted in num- 
 bers, thus : ■ — Suppcfe a body A, whofe mafs is a 7, that is, 7' 
 pounds, in ihe time of 3 feconds pafles over a fpace of 12 
 feet; and another body E, whofe mafs is as s, in the time of 
 8 feconds pafles over a fpace of 1 6 feet. We (hall then have 
 M=7, T=3, S=:tz j h;=5, f=8, /=i6. And therefore 
 V=4, v=2. The cafe then will ftand thus: 
 V : v : : S t \f% 
 4 : 2 : : 1 2. 8 : 1 6, 3 : : 4 : 2. 
 Hence, if V — 1>, then will S / ~/T ; therefore S :/:: T : f. 
 That is, if two todies move equably, and with the fame velo- 
 cities, their ("paces are as the times. 
 
 The corollaries may be illustrated by numbers, in like manner 
 as the theorems. — Thus fuppofc S:=l z, T=6, f— 8, t=z<i- 
 Then will the V~n : 6 =2, and a=8 : 4 = 2. 
 Confequently by reafon V^-y 
 
 S :f -T:l 
 
 12 : 8=6 : 4. 
 
 If Vzz.v, and alfo t~ T ; then will S~j] and fo the bodies 
 moving equably, will defcribe equal fpaces in equal times. 
 z°. The fpaces S and f, over which two bodies pafi, are in a 
 ratio compounded of the ratio of the times F and and of 
 the velocities V and v. 
 
 For V :v::St:/T 
 
 Therefore V/T=* St 
 
 AndS:/:: VTlvt. 
 In numbers 1 2 : 1 6 : : 4. 3 : 2. 8 : : 1 z : 1 6. 
 Hence, If S=/, V T—v f, fo that V;v::f.T. that is, if: 
 two bodies moving equably, defcribe equal (pace-si their velo- 
 cities will be in a reciprocal ratio of their times. 
 In numbers, if wc iuppofe S= 1 2, and Bccaufe 
 B—'V T and f-vt ; if V -2 and f==3, X=6 and t—\. 
 So that we have V : v—t : T 
 
 . _ 2-3==4:6. . -.rj^.-Vu j! 
 Farther, if t~~T, then will V— v ; and therefore bodies which 
 move equably, defcribe equal (paces in equal times, and have 
 their velocities equal. 
 
 3 0 . The momenta, or quantities of tnotton, of two bodies 
 moving equally, I and j, are in a ratio compounded of the 
 velocities V and v, and the mafles or quantities of matter M 
 and m. 
 
 For I— V M, and i~ y m ; therefore I : i : : V M : v : m ; 
 that is, the ratio I to / is compounded of the ratio of V to 
 
 and of M to m. Q. E. D. 
 If 1 — then will V M=w m ; and therefore V : v~7n ;M. 
 That is, if the momenta of two bodies moving equably, be 
 equal ; the velocities will be in a reciprocal ratio of their 
 mafles. 
 
 And therefore if M— ra, V~v ; that is, if the momenta 
 and mafles of two moving bodies be equal, their velocities are 
 alfo equal. 
 
 4". The velocities V and v of two bodies moving equably, are 
 in a ratio compounded of the direct ratio of their momenta 
 I and z'j and the reciprocal one of their manes M and m. 
 Since I: VM : v m 
 
 1 v «==i V M 
 
 _ V : v=l m : i M. 
 
 C£ E. D. 
 
 In numbers 4:2 : : 28.5 : 10.7 : : 4. 1:2. r : : 4 : 2 
 Hence, If V=v, then I m=i M ; and therefore I : :=M : 
 m ; that is, if two bodies move equably, and with the fame 
 velocity, their momenta will be in the fame ratio with their 
 maiTcs. IfM— ?w, 1=/; and therefore if two bodies, that 
 have the fame mafles, move equably, and with equal velocity, 
 their momenta are equal. 
 
 5 0 . In an equable ?notion, the mafles of the bodies M and m 
 are in a ratio compounded of the direct ratio of their momenta, 
 and the reciprocal ratio of their velocities V and v. 
 
 For, iincc 1 : t : : V M : y m 
 
 Therefore h«=/VM 
 
 M : m=\ v.iV. 
 In numbers 7 ! 5 : : 28. 2 : 1 o. 4 ; : 7. 1 ; 5. 1 : ■ 7 : 5, 
 If M~«i, then will I v=i V ; and therefore I : i=£? : v. 
 That is, if two bodies moving equably, have their mafles equal, 
 their momenta will be as their velocities. 
 In numbers, fuppofe 1=12, i=S, M=4, m—^\ then will 
 V— 1 z : 4=3, and v—8 : 4=z. 
 
 I'hcreforc I : r=V : v. 
 iz : 8=3 : 2. 
 
 6°. In ail equable motion, the momenta I and j arc in a ra- 
 
 tio compounded of the direct ratio's of the manes M -and ftt, 
 and the fpaces S and/ and the reciprocal ratio of the times T 
 and t. 
 
 For becaufe V : v : : S t : /T 
 And l:!::VM:ti;s 
 
 Therefore VI : v i : : V M S / i vm/T 
 
 I : i : : M S t : m/T. 
 Q.E. D. 
 
 Hence, if I— 1, then will MS/-/»/T; and therefore M 
 :m~fT:$t, $:f=mT:Mt and T:i=MS:p«/i that 
 is, if two bodies moving equably, have their momenta equal, 
 .1°. Their mafles are in a ratio compounded of the direct ratio 
 of their time, and the reciprocal one of their fpaces. z°. Their 
 fpaces are in a ratio compounded of the direct ratio of the times, 
 and the reciprocal one of their mafles. 3°. Their times are 
 in a ratio compounded of their mafles, and their fpaces. 
 Farther, if M=m ; then will /T=zS t ; and therefore S :/ 
 =T: f; that is, if two bodies moving equably, have their 
 momenta, and their mafles equal, their fpaces are as their 
 times. 
 
 Again, if T=7, then will 5=f. Two moving bodies there- 
 fore, whofe mafles and momenta are equal, defcribe equal fpaces 
 in eqii.d times. 
 
 If befides I-. 1, S=fi then will m T-M(; and therefore 
 M : m : : T : / ; that is, if two moving bodies, whofe mo- 
 menta are equal, pafs over equal fpaces, their mafles are pro- 
 portionable to their times. 
 
 Farther, if T^t, then will M~m ; and therefore bodies, 
 whofe momenta are equal, and which moving equably, de- 
 fcribe equal fpaces in equal times, have their mafles equal. 
 If befides 1=/, T=/ j then will M S— m f ; and therefore 
 S :_/":: 7B : M j that is, the fpaces palled over in the fame time, 
 by two moving bodies, whofe momenta are equal, are in a re- 
 ciprocal ratio of their mafTes. 
 
 7 0 . In an equable motion, the fpaces S and / are in a ratio com- 
 pounded of the direct ratio's of the momenta I and i, and the 
 times T and / ; and the reciprocal one of the mafles iM and ;;/. 
 For becaufe lit;-; MSf.mfT, 
 
 Iw/l^'MSf, 
 Wherefore S:/:: ITmJj M. 
 
 Q.E. D. 
 
 In numbers 1 z : 16 : : 3. 28.5 : 2, 10.7 3, 
 4.1 : 8. 2.r : : 1 z : 16. 
 
 Hence, if S== j\ 1 t m—i /Mj and therefore I :i;:t M : T m y 
 M : m : : I T : it, T : / : : 1 M : I m. If two bodies therefore 
 move equably over equal fpaces, i°. Their momenta will he in 
 a ra:io compou':J.e'j of the direct ratio of the mafles, and the 
 reciprocal one of the times. 2°. Their mafles will be in a ra- 
 tio compounded of the momenta and the times. 3°, The times 
 will be in a ratio compounded of the direct ratio of the mafFes, 
 and the reciprocal ont: of the momenta. 
 
 If beflde %=~f, M=m; then will I T— / 1 ; and therefore I : ( " 
 : : / :T. J hat is, bodie? whofe mafles are equal, have their 
 momenta reciprocally proportionable to the times in which they 
 move over equal fpaces. 
 
 If beflde S= f, T=t ; then will 1 M—} m ; an d therefore 
 two bodies moving equably, and through equal fpaces in equal 
 times, have their momenta proportionable to their mafles. 
 8°. Two bodies moving equably, have their mafles M and m 
 in a ratio compounded of the direct ratio's of the momenta 
 I and i, and the times T and /, and the reciprocal one of the 
 fpaces / and S. 
 
 For becauie I:; : : M S t :m /T, I m/T=i MS/. 
 
 Wherefore M : m : : I Tf; it S. 
 
 Q. £. D. 
 
 In numbers 7:51:3. 28.16; 8, 10.12:: 3. 7. 2:1. 10. 3 
 Again, I:;':: USt: m/T. 
 
 In numbers 2S ; 101:7. 12, 8 : 5. 16. 3 : : 7. 4. 1 : 5. 2. 
 1 : : 28 ; io. 
 
 Hence, if M=w, then will I T f=i t S ; and therefore I - i 
 ::tS:Tf,$,:f::lT:it, and I : / : : i S : If. That is, in 
 two moving bodies, whofe mafles arc equal; i°. The mo- 
 menta are in a ratio compounded of the direct ratio of the 
 fpaces, and the reciprocal one of the times. 2 0 . The fpaces 
 are in a ratio compounded of the momenta and the times. 
 3 0 . The times are in a ratio compounded of the direct ratio of 
 the fpaces, and the reciprocal one of the momenta. 
 If beflde M=tk, T—t, then will * S— I / ; and therefore I: j 
 : : S :/ That is, the momenta of two bodies, whofe mafles 
 are equal, are proportional to the fpaces palled over in equal 
 times. 
 
 9 0 . In equable WPkVh the times T and I are in a ratio com- 
 pounded of the direct ratio's of the mafles M and m, and -the 
 fpaces S and f, and the reciprocal one of the momenta I and i. 
 
 For becaufe I : i : : M S / : m/T, I m fT=i M S /. 
 
 WhcreforcT:/ :: i MS : I m f. 
 
 Q,E. D. 
 
 Henee, 
 
 1 
 
MOT 
 
 MOT 
 
 Hence, if T=f, i M S=I m f; and therefore I : r' : : M S ■ mf, 
 M : m :: I/:i"S; and S I m : M. That is, if tw° 
 
 bodies, moving equably, defcribe equal fpaccs in equal times ; 
 l°. Their momenta will be in a ratio compounded of the mattes 
 and the fpaces. 2°. Their mafTcs will be in a ratio compound- 
 ed of the direct ratio of the momenta, and the reciprocal one 
 of the fpaces. 5 0 . The fpaces wiil be in a ratio compounded 
 of the dire£t ratio of the momenta, and the reciprocal one of 
 the mafles. 
 
 Accelerated Motion, is that which continually receives frefh ac- 
 colions of velocity : — It is faid to be uniformly accelerated, 
 when in equal times its accefllons of velocity are equal. 
 
 Retarded Motion is that whofc velocity continually decreafes. 
 — It is faid to be uniformly retarded, when its decreafc is con- 
 tinually proportional to the time. 
 
 Laws of Motions a fti for m fy accelerated and retarded. — 'Tis an 
 axiom that a body once at relf, will never move, unlefs fome 
 other body put it in mition; and when once in motion, it will 
 continue for ever to move, with the fame velocity, and in the 
 fame direction, unlefs it be forced from its ftate by fome other 
 caufe. — This is evident from that fundamental axiom in philo- 
 fophy, That nothing happens without a fufficient caufe. 
 It follows, that a body moved by one only impulfe, muft pro- 
 ceed in a right line. — If then it be carried in a curve, it muft 
 be acled on by a double power ; one, whereby it would pro- 
 ceed in a right line i another, whereby it is continually drawn 
 out of it. 
 
 If the action and re-ad"tion of two (unelajlic) bodies be equal, 
 there will no motion enfue; but the bodies after collifion, will 
 remain at reft, by each other. 
 
 If a moving body be impelled in the direction of its motion, it 
 will he accelerated ; if by a refifting force, it will be retarded. 
 Heavy bodies defcend with an accelerated motion. 
 10 0 . If a bndy move with an uniform accelerated velocity; the 
 fpaces will be in a duplicate ratio of the times. 
 For, let. die veiccity acquired in the time r be=.T>, then will 
 rhc velocity acquired in the time 2 t—z v, in the time 3 t— 
 3 7', tec, and the fpaccs correfponciing to thofe times, r, 2 r, 5 t, 
 tec. wili he as vt, -fvr, 9tv, tec. (by Law 2.) The fpaces 
 therefore are as 1. 4. 9, tec. And the times as 1. 2. 3, tec. 
 that is, the fpaces are in a duplicate ratio of the times. CV_E.D. 
 Hence, in a ?nction uniformly accelerated, the times are in a fub- 
 duplicate ratio of the fpaces. 
 
 11 0 . The fpaces palled over by a body uniformly accelerated, 
 increafe, in equal times, according to the unequal numbers 1. 
 3.5-7* 
 
 For, if the times, wherein a moving body equably accelerated, 
 proceeds, be as 1. z. 3. 4. 5, tee. the fpace paiTsd over in one 
 moment, will be ns 1, in 2 moments as 4, in 3 as 9, in 4 as 
 16, in 5 as z;,c5V. (Lawio.) If therefore you fubtrait the 
 fpace patted over in one moment, viz. 1. from that paffed over 
 in two moment 1 !, 4. there will remain the fpace corresponding 
 to the fecond minute, viz. 3. In the fame manner may be 
 found the fpace p.ifi-jJ over in the third minute, y — 4—5. The 
 fpace corresponding to the fourth minute, 16 — g—~ ; and fo of 
 the reft. The fpace of the firft minute therefore is as 1, that 
 of the fecond as 3, that of the third as c, of the fourth as 7, 
 cf the fifth as 9, tee. Therefore the fpaces paffed over by a 
 body, moving with an uniformly accelerated motion, in equal 
 times, increafe according to the unequal numbers, 1, 3, 5, 7, 
 9, tec. Q^E. D. 
 
 1 z°. The (paces paffed over by a body equably accelerated, are 
 in a duplicate ratio of the velocities. 
 
 For, fuppofing the velocities to be V and v, the times T and /, 
 the foaces S and J ; then will V ■ y ; : T : /. Wherefore, fince 
 S : /: : T* : f\ (Law 10.) S :f: : V* ; v\ 
 Wherefore, in a motion uniformly accelerated, the velocities are 
 in a fubduplicate ratio of the fpaccs. 
 
 1 Heavy bodies defcend with an uniformly accelerated motion, 
 in a medium void of refiftance, if the fpaces be not very great. 
 For, fince heavy bodies defcend with an accelerated velocity, 
 the power of gravity muft continually impel them. But the 
 power of gravity is found the fame at all diftances from tlie earth 
 where the experiment can be made. Therefore heavy bodies 
 muft be driven downwards in the fame manner in equal times. 
 If the:), in the firft moment of time, they be impelled with the 
 velocity v, they will be impelled with the fame velocity v in 
 the fecond moment, and with the fame in the third, fourth, 
 tec. moments. Now the medium being fuppofed void of all 
 refiftance (by Hypotb.) they will ft ill retain the velocity they 
 acquire ; and by reafon of their equal trefh acquifitions every 
 minuie, thev will defcend with a motion uniformly accele- 
 rated. Q^E. D. 
 
 Hence, the fpaccs of defcent are in a duplicate ratio of their 
 rimes, and ub of their velocities, and increafe according to the 
 uneven numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, tec. 
 
 The times, and likcwife the velocities, are in a fubduplicate 
 ratio of the fpaces. 
 
 In luppofing heavy bodies to move through a medium void of 
 iciitlance, we exclude, at once, all manner of impediments, 
 under what name- focver they be called, or from wlutfoever 
 
 caufe they proceed ; and among the reft, that motion where* 
 with the earth revolving on its axis, carries with it heavy bo- 
 dies during the time of their fall ; though this is notfenfibleat 
 any moderate diftance. 
 
 It was Galileo who firft difcovered the law of the defcent of 
 heavy bodies ; and that too by reafoning ; though he after- 
 wards confirmed it by experiments. Thefe he repeated again 
 and again, and ftill found the fpaces paffed over tobeas the fquares 
 of the time : but it muft be obferved, that the fpaces are not 
 to be taken in the length, but the height of the plane, as 
 will be fhewn elfewhere. 
 
 The fame experiments were tried, though in a different man- 
 ner, by Ricciolus and Grimaldus, who let fall fcveral ftone 
 balls of the fame bulk and weight, eight ounces each, from 
 various altitudes ; mcafuring the times of defcent by the vibra- 
 tions of a pendulum. The refult of their experiments is feen 
 in the following table. 
 
 Vibrations. 
 
 
 
 Space at the 
 
 Space paffed 
 
 
 Time. 
 
 end of the 
 
 over in each 
 
 
 
 
 time. 
 
 time. 
 
 
 
 Roman feet. 
 
 Roman feet. 
 
 % 
 
 
 JO, 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 >5 
 
 
 30 
 
 !., 90 ( 
 
 5° 
 
 20 
 
 
 20 
 
 160 
 
 70 
 
 
 i <° 
 
 250 
 
 90 
 
 6 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 ; 
 
 ■S 
 
 12 
 
 
 0 
 
 60 
 
 45 
 
 18 
 
 
 0 
 
 "35 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 0 
 
 240 
 
 10; 
 
 14°. If a heavy body fall through a medium void of refiftance, 
 and from a height not very great ; the fpace it panes over is the 
 fubduple of that which it would pats over by an uniform motion 
 in the fame time, with thej velocity it has acquired at the end 
 of its fall. 
 
 For, let the right line AB (Tab. Mechanics, fig. 31.) reprefent 
 the whole time of a heavy body's defcent; and let this be divi- 
 ded into any number of equal parts ; to the abfdfles AP, AQ__, 
 AS, AB, draw the right lines PM, Q_T, SH, BC, which may- 
 be as the velocities acquired, in thofe times, in the defcent. 
 Since then AP : AQ_: : PM : QJ, AP : AS : : PM : SH,£sV, 
 (Eucl. VI. 2 .) If then the altitude of the triangle ABC be 
 conceived to be divided into equal parts infinitely fmall ; the 
 motion being uniform in a moment of time infinitely fmall ; 
 the little area P^> M m=P p. P M as the fpace palled over in 
 the little moment of time P p. Thereofre the fpace pafled 
 over in the time A B, will be as the fum of all the little 
 areas, i. e. as the triangle ABC. But the fpace that would 
 be defcribed in the fame time AB with the uniform velocity 
 BC, being as the rectangle AECD, it will be to the other 
 fpace as r to 2 (Eucl. I. 41.), 
 
 Hence, the fpace palled over in half the time AB, with the 
 velocity BC, is equal to the fpace which the heavy body 
 paiTes over from a ftate of reft in the whole time AB. 
 Hence alfo, the time wherein a heavy body falls from any 
 given altitude being given ; to determine the fpaccs it pafles 
 over in each part of that time. 
 
 Let the given altitude —«?, the time — r, the fpace patted over 
 in one part of that time x. Then 
 
 1 : * : : f* : *" y 
 
 x=.a 
 x=za : t'. 
 
 The fpace therefore palled over in the firft part of time is a :t : 
 and therefore that pafled over in the fecond part of time=3 <* 
 : t 1 ; that pafled over in the third partly a : tK tec. 
 E.gr. In the above-mentioned experiments of Rjcciolus, the 
 ball defcended 240 feet in four feconds. The fpace therefore 
 pafled in the firft fecond— 240 : 16=15 ; that in the next 
 fecond — 15. 3 — 45 : that in the third = 15. 5 = 75, tec. 
 The time of a heavy body's defcent in a medium void of refift- 
 ance through any given fpace, being given, to determine the 
 time wherein it will pafs over another given fpace in the fame 
 medium. 
 
 Since the fpaces are as the fquares of the time, to the fpace the 
 heavy body moves in the given time, the fpace required in the 
 queftion, and the fquare of the given time, feek a fourth pro- 
 portional ; this wm be the fquare of the time required : its 
 fquare root therefore being extracted, will yield the time re- 
 quired. — E.gr. In Ricciolus's experiments the ball fell 240 feet 
 in four feconds ; it is demanded then how much time it will 
 take up in falling 135 feet? This time will be found —»/ 
 (135- 16 : 240) =y (13; : 15) </ 9—3. 
 1 he fpace a body falls in any given time in a medium void of 
 refiftance being given, to determine the fpace it will fall, in any 
 other given interval of time. 
 
 Since 
 
MOT 
 
 Since the fpaces are as the fquares of the times, find a fourth 
 proportional to the fquare of the time wherein the body falls 
 through the given fpace, the fquare of the time wherein it is to 
 fall through the fpace required, and the fpace given ; this fourth 
 proportional will be the fpace required. 
 
 Thus, by Ricciolus's experiments a ball falling 60 feet in two 
 fecends, to find the fpace it falls through in four feconds? The 
 anfwer will be found 16.60 : 4—4.60=240. 
 150. If a body proceed with a motion uniformly retarded, it will 
 pafs over half the fpace which it would defcribe in the fame 
 time by an equable motion. 
 
 For, fuppofe the given time divided into anv number of equal 
 parts •, and draw the right lines BC, SH, OJ, PM thereto, 
 which are to be as the velocities correfponding to the parts of 
 timcfl. BS, BO, BP, BA ; fo as letting fall the perpendicu- 
 lars HE, IF, MG, the right lines CE, CF, CG, CB, may 
 be as the velocities loft in the times HE, H, GM, AB ; 
 that is. BS, EQ_. BF, BA. Since CE : CF :: EH : FI, 
 -CG:CB::GM : BA, ABC will be a triangle (Eud.ttl 
 17.) If B b 9 therefore, be a moment of time infinitely fmall, 
 its motion will be uniform ; and, therefore the fpace defcribed 
 by the moving body will be as the little area BicC, _ The 
 fpace therefore defcribed in the time AB is as the triangle 
 ABC, viz. as the fum of all the little araas Bif C Now 
 the fpace defcribed by the body moving uniformly with the ve- 
 locity BC in the time AB, is as the Wangle ABCD, there- 
 fore the former is half of this. (Eucl. I. 41. J 
 1 6°. The fpaces defcribed by a motion uniformly retarded, in 
 equal times, decreafe according to the unequal numbers 7, 5 
 3, I. 
 
 For, fuppofe the moving body in the firft inflant of time ft 
 pafs over feven feet ; I fay, that in the fecond if it be equal! 
 retarded, it will pafs over 5 : in the third 3 ; and in the fourth 
 1. For, let the equal parts of the axis of the triangle BS. 
 SQ_, QP, FA be es the times ; the femi-ordinatcs BC, SH. 
 QI PM, as the velocities at the beginning of any time; 
 the trapezia BSHC, SQIH, QPMI, and the triangle PAM 
 as the fpaces defcribed in thofe times. Let then BC— 4 and 
 BS-SQ=Q_P. --PA=i. Then will SH^i, QI^z, PM 
 = i,(L*wil)BSHC=( 4 -H) t-2=5. SQIH=(3-f7. 
 1 : zLf, QPMI -- [i^-i) 1 PAM Qjafc- 
 
 quently the fpaces defcribed in equal times are as- 7, i, -» i) 
 that is as 7,5,3*1- 
 
 For the eaufeykc of the acceleration of Mot ion, fee Gravi- 
 ty, and Acceleration. 
 
 For the caufe, &C. ef retardation, fee Resistance and Re- 
 tardation. 
 
 'the Jaws wherein Motion is communicated by the colhfion and 
 pcrcufiion of bodies, are very different, as the bodies are either 
 ilqflic or unclajlic, and as die direction of the firoke is either 
 oblique or direSi. 
 
 What relates to the collifion of bodies not claflic when the 
 firoke or fhock is direct, will come under the following 
 heads. 
 
 17°. A moving body finking againft a body at reft, will com- 
 municate motion thereto, and both will proceed in the direction 
 of the firft ; and the momentum, or quantity of motion, in the 
 two, will be the fame after the firoke, as in the Angle one be- 
 fore it. 
 
 For, it is the action of the firft that gives the latter all the 
 motion it has ; and it is the re-action of the latter that takes off 
 any part of the motion of the firft. Now, as action and re- 
 action are always equal, the momentum acquired by the one 
 muft be juft equal to that loft by the other ; fo that there is 
 neither lots nor gain from the ftroke. 
 
 Hence, the velocity after the ftroke, is found by multiplying 
 the mafs of the firft body by its velocity before the ftroke, and 
 dividing the product by the mafs of the fecond body. 
 Hence if a body in ?notion ftrike on another moving in the fame 
 direction, but moving more flowly, both will continue their 
 motion in their firft direction ; and the momenta, or fum of 
 Motion will be the fame after as before the ftroke. 
 If two equal bodies move againft each other with equal veloci- 
 ties, after the ftroke they will both remain at reft. 
 
 'Simpie Motion is that produced by fome one power. 
 
 Compound Motion is that produced by feveral confpiring powers. 
 See Compound and Composition. 
 Powers are faid to confpire, when the direction of the one is 
 not oppofite to that of the other ; as when the radius of a 
 circle is imagined to whirl round on its centre, and a point in 
 the fame radius is at the fame time fuppofed impelled ftrait 
 along it. 
 
 AU curvilinear motion is compound ; as all fimple motion is rec- 
 tilinear. 
 
 1 8°, If a moving body (fig. 26.) be acted on by a double 
 power 1 the one according to the direction AB, the other ac- 
 coiding to AC ; with the motion compounded thereof, it will 
 defcribe the diagonal of a parallelogram AD ; whole fides AB 
 and AC it would have defcribed in the fame time with each of 
 the refpective powers apart. 
 ". For, if the body A were only acted on by the force im- 
 
 MOT 
 
 prcfied along AB ; In the firft inftant of time it would be fa 
 fome point of the right line AB, as in H, and fo in the line Hi* 
 parallel to AC ; if it were only acted on by the power im- 
 preffcd in the direction AC, it would in the fame inftant of 
 time be in fome point of the line AC, as in I, and fo in the 
 line IL parallel to AB. — But fince the directions of the powers 
 are not oppofite to each other, neither of them can impede the 
 other ; and therefore the body in the fame inftant of time will 
 arrive both at the point HL and at IL j and will confequently 
 be in the point L, where the two meet. — In the fame man- 
 ner it appears, that if KM and MG be drawn parallel to AB 
 and AC,' the body in the fecond inftant of time will be in M, 
 and at length in D. E. D. 
 
 Hence, fince about every right line as AD, a parallelogram 
 as ABDC, may be conftructcd, by making two equal triangles 
 A CD and ABD, on one common bafe AD : every reailinear 
 motion, when it may be of fervice for the demonftralion, may 
 be confidered as a compound one. 
 
 But as the proportion of the fides AC and CD may be various, 
 fo alfo may the right line AD be defcribed by a motion com- 
 pounded various ways ; and therefore the fame rectilinear mo- 
 tion may be reduced to various compound motions. 
 Hence, if a moveable body be drawn by three feveral powers, 
 according to the directions BA, AD, and AC (fig. 33 J two 
 of which taken together are equivalent to the third ; they will 
 he to each other as the right lines BD, DA, DC, parallel to 
 their directions; that is, reciprocally as the fines of the angles 
 included between the lines of their dire&ions, and the line of 
 direction of the third : DB being to AD as the fine of the 
 angle BAD to the fine of the anyle ABD. 
 19 0 . In an equable compound motion, the velocity produced by 
 the confpiring powers is, to the velocity of each of the twn 
 apart, as the diagonal AD (fig. *5J ^ the parallelogram 
 ABDC, in the direction of whofe fides they act, to either of 
 thofe fides AB or AC. 
 
 For in the fame time that one of the powers would carry it 
 over the fide of the parallelogram AB, and the other over AC 
 feparately, joined together they carry it over the diagonal AD. 
 The diagonal AD therefore is the fpace defcribeJ by the con- 
 fpiring powers in the fame time: but in an equable motion the 
 velocities in the fame time are es the fpaces ; the velocities there- 
 fore arifing from the confpiripg forces are to the velocity aiding 
 from either force, as AD to AB or AC. 
 Hence the confpiring forces thereof being given ; 1. e. the 
 ratio of the velocities being given, by the lines AB and AC 
 given in magnitude, and the direction through thofe lines be- 
 ing given in pofition, or by the angle of direction ; the celerity 
 and direction of the oblique motion is given : becaufe the diago- 
 nal is given both in magnitude and polition. 
 The oblique motion however being given, the fimple ones are 
 not, vice verfa, given ; becaufe the fame oblique motion may 
 be compounded of various fimple ones. 
 
 20°. In a compound motion produced by the fame forces, the 
 velocity is greater if the angle of direction be Ida j and lefs, 
 if this be greater. 
 
 For, let the greater angle of direction be BAC (fig. 3+J the 
 lefs FAC ; fince the powers are fuppofed the fame, AC will 
 be common to each parallelogram AFCE and BACD and 
 belides AB=AF. Now it is*"evident that in the cafe of the 
 greater angle, the diagonal AD is defcribed; and in the cafe 
 of the lefs angle AE ; and both in the fame time, by rea- 
 fon AB=AF. The velocities therefore are as AD to AE ; 
 Wherefore fince AD is lefs than AE, the velocity in the cafe 
 of the greater angle is lets than in that of the lefs angle. 
 Hence, "fince the legs AC and CE, with the included angle be- 
 ing given, the angle CEA, and thence, alfo, AE is found ; 
 the velocity of the confpiring powers, and the angle of direc- 
 tion, in any particular cafe, being given, the velocity of the 
 compound motion, and confequently the, ratio of the velocities 
 produced by the fame powers under different angles of direc- 
 tions, may be determined. 
 
 For the particular laws of Motion arifing from the collfim of 
 Bodies both elaftic and unelaftic, and that where the directions are 
 both perpendicular and oblique, fee Percussion. 
 
 For circular Motion, and the laws of projectiles fee Projec- 
 tile. 
 
 For the Motion ef pendulums, and the laws of ofcillation, fee 
 Pendulum. 
 
 Altitude of Motion. Seethe article Altit ud e. 
 
 Longitude of Motion. See the article Long it ud e. 
 
 Vndulatory Motion. See the article Undulatory. 
 
 Perpetual Motion. See Perpetual motion. 
 
 The celebrated problem of a psrpetual motion, confifls in the 
 inventing a machine, which has the principle of its motion with- 
 in itfelf. — M. de la Hire has demonflrated the impofiibility of 
 any fuch machine, and finds that it amounts to this, viz. to 
 find a body which is both heavier and lighter at the fame 
 time ; or to find a body which is heavier than itfelf. 
 
 Animal Motion is that whereby the fituation, figure, mag- 
 nitude, tiff, of the parts, members, ESV, of animals are chang- 
 ed. 
 
 Under 
 
MOT 
 
 MOV 
 
 Under tbefe motions come all the animal fun&ions ; as rcfplra- 
 tion, circulation of the blood, excretion, walking, &c. 
 Animal motions are ufually divided into two fpecies, viz. fpon- 
 taneous, and natural. 
 Spontaneous, or mufcular Motion, is that performed by means 
 of the mufcles, at the command of the will} hence alfo called 
 voluntary motion. 
 
 Natural, or involuntary Motion, is that effected without 
 fuch command of the will; by the mere mechanifm of the 
 parts. 
 
 Such is the motion- of the heart, and puife ; the pcriftaltic mo- 
 tion of the inteftines, csV. 
 Intejline Motion, denotes an agitation of the particles whereof 
 a body confifls. 
 
 Some philofopbers will have every body, and every particle of 
 a body, in continual motion. For fluids, it is the definition 
 they give of them, that their parts are in continual motion. 
 And as to folids, they infer the like motion from the effluvia 
 continually emitted through their pores. 
 
 Hence intejline motion is reprefented to be a motion of the inter- 
 nal and fmaller parts of matter, continually excited by fome 
 external, latent agent, which of itfelf is infenfible, and only 
 difcovers itfelf by its effects ; appointed by nature to be the 
 great inftrument of the changes in bodies. 
 Motion, in aftronomy, is peculiarly applied to the orderly 
 courfes of the heavenly bodies. 
 
 The motion of the earth, from weft to eaft* is now generally 
 granted among aftronomers : fee it proved under the article 
 Earth. 
 
 The motions of the celeftial luminaries are of two kinds: diur- 
 nal, ot common; and fecondary, or proper. 
 Diurnal or primary Motion, is that wherewith all the heavenly 
 bodies, and the whole mundane Iphere, appear to revolve every 
 day round the enrth, from eaft to weft. 
 
 This is alfo called the motion of the primum mobile, and the 
 common motion ; to diftinguifh it from that rotation which is 
 peculiar to each planet, &c. — It is about the various pheno- 
 mena refulting from this motion, that aftronomy is chiefly em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Secondary, or proper Motion, is that wherewith a flar, planet, 
 or the like, advances a certain fpaee every day from weft to- 
 wards eaft. 
 
 See the feveral motions of each luminary, with the irregula- 
 rities, &c. thereof, under the proper articles; Earth, 
 Moon, Star, &c. 
 
 Angular Motion. See the article Angular. 
 
 Horary Motion of the earth. See the article Horary. 
 
 Paracentric Motion of impetus. See Paracentric. 
 
 Motion of trepidation, &c. See Trepidation, and Li- 
 
 BRATION. 
 
 Motion, in mufic, denote: the manner of beating the mea- 
 fure, to haflen or flacken the time of the words, or notes. 
 See Time. 
 
 The motion, in fongs compofed in double time, differs from 
 that in thofe in triple time. It is the motion that diftinguifhes 
 courantsand farabands, from gavots, borees, chacones, EsV. 
 
 Motion is alfo ufed, among mechanics, for the infide of a 
 watch, fife, more commonly called movement. 
 
 Motions, in war, denote the marches, counter-marches, fcrV. 
 which an army makes in changing its poft. 
 The great fkill of a general confifls in discovering the enemies 
 motions, and concealing his own. Nothing is more dangerous, 
 than to make great motions before a powerful enemy, ready to 
 come to blows. 
 
 Motion, or emotion, in rhetoric, &e. See Passion. 
 
 MOTORII, Motor y nerves, the third pair of nerves; ferv- 
 ing for the motion of the eye. 
 
 This pair is united into one near their infertion into the brain ; 
 by which means, when one eye is moved towards any object, 
 the other is naturally directed towards the fame. 
 MOTOS, M>to{, a piece of lint, or linen cloth, opened lik 
 wool, to be put into ulcers, to flop the flux of blood, 
 
 MOTRIX, fomething that has the power or faculty of mov- 
 ing. 
 
 MOTTO, an Italian term, literally fignlfying word, or faying; 
 
 ufed inarms, devifes, &c. 
 Motto of an armoury, is a fhort fentence or phrafe carried in a 
 
 fcroll generally over, fometimes under the arms; fometimes 
 
 alluding to the name of the bearer, fometimes to the bearing, 
 
 and fometimes to neither. 
 
 The motto, or word, fays Guillim, is an external ornament 
 r.nncxed to coat-armour; being the invention or conceit ot 
 the bearer, fuccinctly and fignificantly expicfl~=d, ufually in 
 three or four words, which are fet in fome fcroll or compart- 
 ment, placed at the foot of the efcutcheon. 
 As the motto holds the loweft place in arms ; fo it is the hit \v. 
 blazoning. In fli iiSlnefs, it fhould exprefs fomething intended 
 in the achievement; butcuitem has now received whatfaever 
 be the fancy of the devifer, 
 VCL. II. 
 
 The ufc of mottas is very antient; hiftory, both facrcd and 
 profane, furnifhing inftances thereof. Our ancefbrs made 
 choice of moitos to exprtfs their predominant paffions; as of 
 piety, love, war, cifc. or fame extraordinary adventure be- 
 fallen them : moil of which, from fome fuch original, have 
 become hereditary in divers families. 
 
 The motto of the royal family of England is, Dim & men 
 droit, God and my tight ; of the royal family of Bqurbon, 
 Efperance, Hope; of the order of the Garter, Honi foil qui 
 maly penfe, Shame be to him that evil thinks; of the duke of 
 Norfolk, Sola virtus invicla ; of the duke of Bedford, Che 
 far a fara; of the duke of Devonfhire, Cavendo tutus al- 
 luding to the family's name, Cavendifb ; of the duke of Kins- 
 fton,' Pie repone te, alluding to the name Pierepoint ; of the 
 earl of Radnor, $h/a fupra, alluding to the three fhrs in his 
 arms; of the earl of Abingdon, p'irtus ariete fortior, alludim* 
 to the three battering rams bore in the arms ; of Fortefcue 
 lord Clinton, Forte fcutum falus ducum. 
 
 The motto of a devife, is alfo called the foul of the devife. 
 
 See Devise. 
 MOTU.-£# mero Motu. See the article Ex. 
 MOVE in arrejl of judgment. See the article Arrest. 
 MOVEABLE, fomething fufceptible of motion; or that is 
 
 difpofed to be moved. See Motion. 
 
 A fphere is the moft moveable of all bodies, i. e . it is the eafieft 
 to move : a door is moveable on its hinges, the magnetical needle 
 on a pin, or pivor, &c. 
 
 Moveable is frequently ufed m contradistinction to fixt. 
 Moveable feajls, are fuch as are not always held un the fame 
 day of the year, or month; though they be on the I'jrne day 
 of the week. 
 
 Thus, Eafter is a moveable feaft ; being always held on the 
 Sunday which falls upon or next after the firft full moon 
 following the 2lft of March. Vid. Philof. Tranf. n°. 240. 
 
 All the other moveable feafls follow Eafler, i. e. they keep 
 their diftance from it; fo that they are fixed with lefpeit 
 thereto. 
 
 Such are Sepiungefima, Scxage/i/m, Jjh-lFednefday, Jfcenftcu- 
 Day, Pcnteccfi, Trinity- Sunday, &c. which fee under their 
 proper articles, Septuagesi ma, (s'c. 
 MOVEABLES, or Moveable goods, by civilians called bond 
 mobilia, are thofe which are capable of being removed from 
 one place to another; or which may be concealed or per- 
 verted ; as not being fixed to the ground, 13c. 
 In England, we have two kinds of effects, moveable and im- 
 moveable: the moveable are, ready money, merchandizes, 
 bonds, book-debts, cattle, and houfhold- furniture, not fatt- 
 ened either with iron or nail, nor fealed in the plafter, but 
 which may be tranfported without either fraction, or deterio- 
 ration. 
 
 In the cuftomary laws, they fay, moveables follow the perfon, 
 and his proper habitation; movcailes follow the body, cs\\ 
 which words have different meanings in different countries. 
 Sometimes they fignify, that moveables go according to the 
 cuftom of the place where is the habitation of the deceafed 
 though he die in another place; and fometimes they fignify, 
 that moveables follow the cuftom of the place where the defunct 
 died. 
 
 MOVEMENT, motion, a term frequently ufed in the fame 
 fenfe with automaton. 
 
 The moft ufual movements for keeping time are watches and 
 clocks; the firft are fuch as fhew the parts of time; the fecend 
 fuch as pubhfh it by founds. 
 Movement, in its popular ufe among us, fignifies all the inner 
 work of a watch, clock, or other engine, which move, and 
 by that motion, carry on the defign of the inftrument. 
 The movement of a clock, or watch, is the infide ; or that part 
 which measures the time, fir ikes, £yf. exdufive of the frame 
 cafe, dial-plate, fcrV. 
 
 The parts common to both of thefe movements are, the main- 
 fpring, with its appurtenances ; lying in the fpring-box, and 
 in the middle thereof lapping about the fpring-arbor, to which 
 one end of it is faftened. — Atop of the fprinc-arbor is the 
 cndlefs fcrew, and its wheel; but, in fpring- clocks, this is a 
 ratchet-wheel with its click, that flops it. — That which the 
 main fpring draws, and round which the chain or flrin^ is 
 wrapped, is called the fufy : this is ordinarily taper; in large 
 works, going with weights, it is cylindrical, and called the 
 barrel. — The fmall teeth at the bottom of the fufy or barrel, 
 which flop it in winding up, is called the ratchet ; and that 
 which flops it when wound up, and is for that end driven up 
 by the fpring, the garde-gut. — The wheels are various ; the 
 parts of a wheel are, the hoop or rim; the teeth, the crafs, 
 and the collet or piece of brats fgldered on the arbor or fpindle 
 whereon the wheel is riveted. — Thelittlcwheels, plavin<* in the 
 teeth of the larger, are called pinions; and their teeth, which 
 are 4, 5, 6, 8, ksc. are called leves ; the ends of the fpindle 
 are called pivots; and the guttered wheel, with iron fpikes at 
 
 bcttom, wherein the line of ordinary clocks runs, the pully 
 
 6 E e VVc 
 
MOU 
 
 M O U 
 
 We need not fay any thing of the hand, fcreivs, wedges, flop, 
 &c. See Wheel, Fusy, &c. 
 Theory of calculating the numbers for Movements — l\ It is to 
 be obferved, that awheel, divided by its pinion, the ws bow 
 many turns the pinion has to one turn of the wheel. 
 2°. That from the fufy to the balance, the wheels drive the 
 pinions ; confequently, the pinions run fafter, or make more 
 revolutions than the wheel : but it is the contrary from the great 
 wheel to the dial-wheel. 
 
 3". That the wheels and pinions we write down either as vul- 
 gar fractions, or in the way of divifion in common arithmetic 
 v.gr. a wheel of 60, moving a pinion of 5, is wrote either 
 
 or better 5)60. And the number of turns the 
 pinion has in one turn of the wheel, as a quotient, 4)36(9 
 
 thus, 5)60(12. A whole movement may be wrote* ■ — 
 
 as in the adjoining fcheme ; where the uppcrmoft 5>55( 1 1 
 number exprefles the pinion of report 4, the dial- 5)45(9 
 ■wheel 36, and the turns of the pin 9 ; the fecond, 5)40(8 
 
 the pinion, and great wheel; the third, the fecond \ — 
 
 wheel, iSc. the fourth, the contrat wheel; and 17 
 the laft, 1.7, the crown wheel. 
 
 Hence, 4 0 . From the number of turns any pinion makes in 
 one turn of the wheel it works in, may be determined the 
 number of turns a wheel or pinion has at any greater diftance, 
 viz. by multiplying together the quotients ; the produce 
 whereof is the number of turns. Thus, 
 Suppofe the wheels and pinions as in the cafe ad- 5)55(11 
 joining; 11 multiplied by 9, gives 99, the number 5)45(9 
 of turns of the fecond pinions, in one turn of tnc 5)4°(8 
 wheel 55, which runs concentrical, or on the fame 
 fpindlc with the pinion 5. Again, 99 multiplied by 8, gives 
 792, the number of turns the laft pinion has in one turn of the 
 firft wheel 5. 
 
 Hence we proceed to find, not only the turns, but the number 
 of beats of the balance in the time of thofe turns. For, 
 having found the number of turns the crown wheel has in one 
 turn of the wheel fought, thofe turns multiplied by its notches, 
 give half the number of beats in that one turn of the wheel. 
 Suppofe, v. gr. the crown wheel to have 720 turns, to one of 
 the firft wheel j this number multiplied by 15, the notches in 
 the crown wheel, produces 10800 j half the number of 
 ftrokes of the balance in one turn of the firfl: wheel of 80 
 teeth. 
 
 The general divifion of a movement is, into the clock, and watch 
 parts. See Clock-w^, and Watch-hxj^. 
 
 MOVER, or firft Mover. SeeMoBiLE. 
 
 Perpetual Mover. See Perpetual motion. 
 
 MOULD, or Mold, in the mechanic arts, $$c. a cavity art- 
 fully cut, with defign to give its form, or impreflion, to fome 
 fofter matter applied therein. 
 
 Moulds are implements of great ufe In fculpture, foundery, 
 
 The workmen employed in melting the mineral or metallic 
 glebe dug out of mines, have each their feveral mould, to re- 
 ceive the melted metal as it comes out of the furnace; but 
 thefe are different, according to the diverfity of metal? and 
 works. — In gold mines, they have moulds for ingots; in filver 
 mines, for bars ; in copper and lead-mines, for pigs or falmons ; 
 in tin mines, for pigs and ingots ; and in iron mines, for fows, 
 chimney-backs, anvils, caldrons, pots, and other large uten- 
 lils and merchandizes of iron ; which are here caft, as it were, 
 at firft hand. 
 
 The Moulds of founders of large works, as ftatues, bells, guns, 
 and other brazen works, are of wax, lupported within-fide by 
 what they call a core, and covered without-fide with a cap or 
 cafe. — It is in the fpace which the wax took up, which is after- 
 wards melted away to leave it free, that the liquid metal runs, 
 and the work is formed ; being carried thither through a great 
 number of little canals, which cover the whole mould. See 
 Foundery. 
 
 The Moulds of moneyers are frames full of fand, wherein the 
 plates of metal are caft that are to ferve for the ftriking of fpe- 
 cies of gold or filver. 
 
 Moulds of founders of fmatl works, are like the frames of coin- 
 ers: it is in thefe frames, which are likewife filled with fand, 
 that their feveral works are fafhioned ; into which, when the 
 two frames, whereof the mould is compofed, are re joined, the 
 melted brafs is run. 
 
 Moulds of letter -founders are partly of fteel, and partly wood : 
 the wood, properly fpeaking, ferves only to cover the real 
 mould which is within, and to prevent the workman who holds 
 it in his band from being incommoded by the heat of the melted 
 metal. Only one letter or type can be iormed at once in each 
 mould. 
 
 Moulds m the manufacture of paper arc little frames compofed 
 of feveral brafs or iron wires fattened together by another wire 
 ftill finer. Each mould is of the bignefsof the fhcet of paper 
 to be made, and has a rim or ledge of wood to which the wires 
 are fattened. Thefe moulds are more ufually called frames or 
 forms. 
 
 Furnace and crucille-makers Moulds are made of wood, of the 
 fame form with the crucibles ; that is, in form of a truncated 
 
 cone : they havehandles of wood to hold and turn them with, 
 when, being covered with the earth, the workman has a mind 
 to round or flatten his veflel. 
 
 Moulds for leaden bullets are little iron pincers, each of whofc 
 branches terminates in an hemifphcrical concave, which, when 
 fhut, form an intire fphere. In the lips or fides where the 
 branches meet, is a little jet or hole, through which the melted 
 lead is conveyed. 
 
 Glaziers Moulds. — The glaziers have two kinds of moulds, 
 both ft/rving to caft their lead : in the one they caft the tpad 
 into long rods or canes fit to be drawn through the vice, and 
 the grooves formed therein; this they Jbmetimcs call tngct- 
 mould. In the other they mould thofe little pieces of lead a 
 line thick, and two lines broad, faftened to the iron bars, 
 Thefe may be alfo caft in the vice. 
 
 Goldfmiths Moulds. — The goldfmiths ufe the bones of the cut- 
 tle-fifh to make moulds for their fmall works; which they do 
 by preffing the pattern between two bones, and leaving a jet 
 or hole to convey the filver through, after the pattern has been 
 taken out. 
 
 Mould, among mafons, is a piece of hard wood or iron, hol- 
 lowed within-fide, anfwerable to the contours of the mould- 
 ings or cornifhes, ts'c. to be formed : this is otherwife called 
 Caliber. 
 
 Moulds, among plumbers, are the tables whereon they caft 
 their fheets of lead. — Thefe they fometimes call fimply tables. 
 — Befides which, they have other real moulds, wherewith they 
 caft pipes without foldering. See each defcribed under the ar- 
 ticle Plumbery. 
 
 Moulds, among glafs-grinders, are wooden frames whereon 
 they make the tubes wherewith they fit their perfpectives, te- 
 lefcopes, and other optic machines. 
 
 Thefe mmlds are cylinders, of a length and diameter accord- 
 ing to the ufe they are to be applied to, but always thicker at 
 one end than the other, to facilitate the Aiding. 
 The tubes made on thefe moulds are of two kinds; the one 
 fimply of pafte-board and paper ; the other of thin leaves of 
 wood joined to the pafte-boaid. — To make thefe tubes to draw 
 out, only the laft or innermoft is formed on the mould ; 
 each tube made afterwards ferving as a mould to that which 
 is to go over it; but without taking out the mould from 
 the firft. 
 
 Moulds ufed in bafket-making are very fimple, confifting ordi- 
 narily of a willow or ofier turned or bent into an ova!, cir- 
 cle, fquare, or other figure, according to the bafkets, pan- 
 niers, hampers, hots, and other utenfils intended. — On 
 thefe moulds they make, or, more properly, meafure all their 
 work ; and, accordingly, they have them of all fizes, fhapes, 
 &c. 
 
 Moulds, among tallow-chandlers, are of two kinds : the firft 
 for the common dipped candles, being the veflel wherein the 
 melted tallow is difpofed, and the wick dipped. 
 This is of wood, of a triangular form, and fupported on one 
 of its angles, fo that it has an opening of near a foot atop : 
 the other, ufed in the fabric of W3«W-candles, is of brafs, 
 pewter, or tin. — Here each candle has its feveral mould. Sec- 
 each under the article Candle. 
 
 Mould, among gold-beaters, a certain number of leaves of 
 velom, or pieces of guts, cut fquare, of a certain fize, and 
 laid over one another, between which they put the leaves of 
 gold and lilver which they beat on the marble with the ham- 
 mer. 
 
 They have four kinds of moulds ; two whereof are of velom, 
 and two of gut : the fmalleft of thofe of velom confifts of 
 forty or fifty leaves, the largeft contains an hundred ; for the 
 others, each contains five hundred leaves. 
 The moulds have all their feveral cafes, confifting of two 
 pieces of parchment, ferving to keep the leaves of the 
 mould in their place, and prevent their being difordered in 
 beating. 
 
 Mould, or Mold, in agriculture, denotes a loofe kind of 
 earth, every-where obvious on the furface of the ground; 
 called alfo natural or mother earth, and by fome alfj 
 loam. 
 
 The beft mould for the gardener's purpofes, according to 
 Mr. Evelyn, is that of a blackifti-grey colour; according to 
 Mr. Switzer, that of a lively chefnut, or hazel colour, which 
 cuts like butter, and does not ftick obftinately, but is fhort, 
 tolerably light, breaks into fmall clods, and may be tempered 
 without crufting or chapping in dry weather, or turning to mor- 
 tar in wet. 
 
 Next to chefnut are the dark greys, and ruflet ; the light and 
 dark afh colours are naught, being thofe commonly found in 
 heathy ground : the yellowifhred is worft of all. 
 
 Hip-MoVLD. See the article Hw-mou!d. 
 
 Zrfltf-MoULD. See the article lnon-mould. 
 
 MOULDINESS, a term applied to bodies which corrupt in the 
 air, from fome hidden principle of humidity therein ; and whofe 
 corruption fhews itfelf by a certain white down, or lanugo, on 
 their furface. 
 
 This mouldinefs, when viewed with a microfcope, affords acu- 
 rious fpeftacle; being a kind of meadow, out of which arife 
 
 herbs 
 
M O U 
 
 herbs and flowers ; fome only in the bud, others full-blown, 
 and others decayed ; each having its little root, ftallc, and 
 other parts: the figure whereof may be feen in Hook's Ml- 
 crographia. — The fame may be obferved of the mouldinejs 
 which gathers on the furface of liquid bodies. 
 Mr. Bradley obferved this mouldinefi in a melon very accu- 
 rately, and found the vegetation of thefe little plants to be ex- 
 ceedingly quick. — Each plant had its feeds in great abundance, 
 which did not feem to be three hours ere they began to ihoot 
 up ; and in fix hours more the new plant was complete and ma- 
 ture, and the feed ready to fall. — When the fruit had been 
 covered with a mould for fix days, its vegetative quality be°-an 
 to abate, and it was intirely gone in two days more ; then came 
 on a putrefaction, and the fk-lhy parts of the melon yielded no- 
 thing but a ftinking water, which began to have a gentle mo- 
 tion in its furface; and in two days time maggots appeared, 
 which in fix more laid themfelves up in their bags, where they 
 continued four days, and then came out flies. Thefe maggots 
 were owing to the e£gs of flies depofited in the putrefaction 
 MOULDING, any tiling caft in a mould, or that feems to have 
 been fo, though in reality it were cut with a chine], or the 
 ax. 
 
 Mouldings, in architecture, are jettings, or projeclures be- 
 yond the naked of a wall, column, wainfcot, fifY. the affem- 
 blage whereof forms cornifhes, door-cafes, and other deco- 
 rations of architecture. — See Tab. Architeel. fig. j, to 12. 
 Some mouldings are fquare, others round ; fome are ftrait, 
 others curved, SV. and fome are plain, others carved, or 
 adorned with fculpture, either hollowed, or in relievo. 
 Some mouldings, again, are crowned with a fillet ; others arc 
 without, as the doucine, talon, ovolo, torus, plinth, fcotia, 
 aftragal, gula, corona, and cavetto. See each under its pro- 
 per article. 
 
 Mouldings are in architecture what letters are in writing. By 
 
 the various difpofitions and combinations of mouldings, may be 
 made an infinite number of different profiles for all forts of or- 
 ders and compofitions, regular and irregulars and yet all the 
 kinds of mouldings may be reduced to three ; viz. fquare, 
 round, and mixt, i. e. compofed of the other two. 
 For this reafon, thofe who invented the Gothic architcaure, 
 refolving to recede from thefe perfefi figures, and affeaing to 
 ufe others Icfs pcrfea, to diflinguifh their architeflure fromthe 
 antique, introduced a new fet of whimfical mouldings and or- 
 naments. 
 
 Regular mouldings are either large ; as doucines, ovolos, gu 
 
 las, talons, torufes, fcotias, BV. or fmall, as fillets, aftragals 
 
 conges, BV. which fee in their places. 
 iW-MouLDiNG. See the article BED-meulding. 
 P-W-Moulding. See the article Plane. 
 
 MOULIN Fir di Moulin. See Feb. 
 
 MOULINET, a French term properly fignifying a little mill 
 
 being a diminutive of moulin, mill. 
 
 It is ufed in mechanics to fignify a roller, which being croffed 
 with two levers, is ufually applied to cranes, capftans, and 
 other forts of engines of the like nature, to draw ropes, and 
 heave up ftones, timber, fjrV. 
 Moulinet is alfo a kind of turn-ftile, or wooden crofs, which 
 turns horizontally upon a flake fixed in the ground ; ufually 
 placed in the pallages to keep out horfes, and to oblige paffen- 
 gers to go and come one by one. 
 
 Thefe moulinets are often fet near the out-works of fortified 
 places, at the fides of the barriers, through which people pafs 
 on foot. 
 
 MOULTING, in natural hiftory. See Molting. 
 
 MOUND, a term ufed for a bank, rampart, or other fence, 
 particularly of earth. 
 
 Mound, or Mond, in heraldry, is a ball or globe with a crofs 
 upon it; fuch as our kings ate ufually drawn with, holding it 
 in their left hand, as they do the fceptre in the right. 
 
 MOUNT, an elevation of earth, called alio mountain. 
 The words mount and mountain arc fynonymous ; but the 
 former is fcarce ever ufed in profe, unlefs when accompa- 
 nied with fome proper name; as mount /Etna, mount Gibel, 
 mount Lebanon, mount Sinai, mount Atlas, mount Parnaffus, 
 fjV. 
 
 St. Calhirint of Mount Sinai. See the article Cathe rine. 
 
 Knight of Mount Carmil. See the article Carmel. 
 
 Mounts if piety, are certain funds, or eftablithments in Italy, 
 where money is lent out on fome fmall fecurity.— We had affo 
 mounts of piety in England, raifed by contribution for the bene- 
 fit ot people ruined by the extortions of the Jews. 
 
 MOUNTAIN, Mons, a part of the earth riling to a confut- 
 able height above the level of the furface thereof. 
 I he origin of mountains is varioufly affigned by philofophers : 
 fome will have them coeval with the world, and created alow 
 with it. ° 
 
 Others, among whom is Dr. Burnet, will have them to take 
 their rile from the deluge ; urging, chat the extreme irregu- 
 larity and difurder vifible in them plainly fliews they do not 
 come immediately out of the hand of God, but arethe wrecks 
 ot the old world broken into the abyfs. 
 
 M O U 
 
 Others, again, alledge from hiftory, that the roots cf man? 
 hills being eaten away, the hills themfelves have fubfided, and 
 iunk into plains: whence they conclude, that where the coi- 
 ruption is natural, the generation is fo too 
 It appears certain to many, that fome mountains muft have been 
 generated gradually, and have grown up in procefs of time, 
 from the fea-ftells, &c. found in many of them; which they 
 fuppofc may be accounted for from a violent wind blowing the 
 fand into huge heaps, which are afterwards made into a 
 
 mafs by the rain, Wc— Some among the divines tell us that 
 the earth was created perfcaiy even ; and that when God fe- 
 parated the water from the land, he dug chanels in the earth - 
 and the earth fcooped out he threw up in mountains : but whe- 
 ther all the mountains be fufficient to fill all the chanels of the 
 ocean, let them look to it. 
 
 The ufes of mountains are numerous : we fliall only mention 
 two or three, il They fetve as fcreens to keep off the cold 
 and nipping Mails of the northern and eaftern winds. 2° 
 They ferve for the produaion of a great number of vegeta- 
 bles and minerals, which are not found in any other foil. 3'. 
 "Fhe long ridges and chains of lofty and topping mountains, be- 
 ing generally found to run from eaft to welf, ferve to flop the 
 cvagation of the vapours towards the poles, without which they 
 would all run from the hot countries, and leave them deftitute 
 of rain. 
 
 Mr. Ray adds, that thev condenfe thofe vapours, like alembic- 
 heads, into clouds; and fo, by a kind of external diffillation, 
 give origin to fprings and rivers; and, by amaffing, coolin",' 
 and conftipating them, turn them into rain ; and, by that 
 means, render the fervid regions of the torrid zone 'habit- 
 able. 
 
 In hiftory we have inftancesof mountains travelling a confider- 
 able dittance; particularly Huiket-Marvel-Hili if I mif-re- 
 member not, in Hereiordfhire, which is laid to have made a 
 confiderable journey. 
 
 To meafure the height of a mountain, fee Altitude, feV 
 
 Though there is another way ufed by Dr. Halley in the mea- 
 fure ot Snowdon-hill in Wales, by means of a barometer, 
 the different heights of whofc mercury at the top and bottom 
 of the mountain give its perpendicular altitude; accounting S2 
 feet perpendicular afcent for every inch varied in the height of 
 the mercury. Sec Supplement, article Mountain 
 Mountain-^",. > (Green. 
 
 .tfanmrf-MouNTAiNS. 5- See the article ■< Volcano 
 Mountains in the moon. J (Moon. 
 MOUNTING the guard, trenches, breach, &c. denotes the 
 going upon duty, being upon guard, in the trenches, runnint; 
 to the breach, Effc. & 
 Mounting a cannon, mortar, &c. is the fetting it on its car- 
 riage, or the raiting its mouth. 
 Mounting, in the manufaaories, fomcthing that ferves toraifa 
 or fet off a work.— Thus the frame or border, and its 'de- 
 pendencies, make the mounting of a looking-ghfs | the fuft or 
 but, the mounting of a mufquet, carbinc,~csV. and the Hit 
 c^ c. the mounting of a fword. 
 Mounting of a fan, the fticks which fe.ve to open and (hut 
 it, whether they be of wood, ivory, tortoife-ftiell, whale- 
 bone, Indian-cane, or the like. 
 MOURNING, a particular chefs or habit, worn to fignify o-rief 
 on fome melancholy occafion. ' ■ > ' 
 
 The modes of 
 
 mourning are various in various countries; 
 
 are alfo the colours that obtain for that end. In Europe 'the 
 
 ordinary colour for mourning is black ; in China, it is white - 
 ill Turlty, blue, or violet; in Egypt, yellow; in Ethiopia' 
 brown. 1 he antient Spartan and Roman ladies mourned in 
 white; and the fame colour obtained formerly in Caftile on 
 the death of their princes. Herrera obferves, that the laft time 
 
 it was ufed, was in 1498. at the death of prince John Kings 
 
 and cardinals always mourn in purple. 
 
 Each people pretend to have their reafons for the particular co- 
 lour of their mourning : white is fuppofed to denote purity • 
 yellow, that death is the end of human hopes ; in regard leaves* 
 when they fall, and flowers, when they fade, become yellow' 
 Brown denotes the earth, whither the dead return. Black, 
 the privation of life, as being the privation of light. Blue) 
 exprelTes the happinefs which it is hoped the deceafed does en- 
 joy ; and purple, or violet, forrow on the one fide, and hope- 
 on the other; as being a mixture of black and blue. 
 MOUTH, in anatomy, a part of the human face, confift- 
 mg of the lips, the gums, the infide of the cheeks, and the 
 palate. 
 
 All thefe parts are lined with a glandulous coat, which is con- 
 tinued over the whole inner furface of the mouth, and all its 
 parts, the teeth excepted. 
 
 l'rom the glands of this coat, through innumerable little 
 excretory duas, is feparatcd a kind of falival juice, which 
 ferves to keep the mouth and all its parts moift, linooth and 
 flippery. ' 
 On the hind part of the palate, perpendicularly over the rima 
 of the larynx, hangs a round, folt, fmooth body, like the 
 end of a child's finger, formed by the dtiplicatute of the mem- 
 brane 
 
MUC 
 
 brane of the palate, and called the uvula which is moved by 
 two mufcles, called fphentlftapb/lbm and pterygejlaplylmus ; 
 and is fufpended by as many ligaments. 
 
 Under the membrane of the palate are a great number ot 
 glands, pretty cpnfpicuous in the fore-part, like grains of mil- 
 let- whofe excretory dufls, piercing the membrane, open into 
 the' mouth: but towards the hind-part they lie much thicker, 
 and about the root of the uvula they are gathered fo clofe to 
 one another, that they feem to form one large conglomerate 
 gland i which is therefore, by Verhcyen, called glandula con- 
 ,k<«u palatina. See Palate.— The gums are, as it 
 were, the lockets and ligaments of the teeth. 
 Bcfides the proper parts of the mouth, there are in and about 
 it others highly ferviceable and necefl'ary thereto: among 
 which are the glands ; the mod confiderable whereof are, the 
 parotides, the glandule maxillares, the fublinguales; and the 
 tonfils, or amygdala: ; which fee in their refpeaive places. 
 Thefe are the falival organs, whence fplings all that liquor wi 
 call the fpittie, which flows into the mouth by the refpeaive 
 duBs, after its reparation from the blood in the bodies of the 
 glands- as the demand of fpittle is greater in aaions of the 
 lower jaw, i. e. in maftication, deglutition, much talking, 
 £iff. fo does the difpofition of thefe falival du8s favour that dif- 
 charge on thole occafions. 
 
 Mr. Dei-ham obferves, that the mouth, in the feveral fpecies ol 
 animals, is nicely adapted to the ufes of fuch a part ; and well 
 fized and fhaped for the catching of prey, for the gathering and 
 receiving food, the formation of fpeech, effr. 
 In fomc creatures it is wide and large, in others little and nar- 
 rows in fome it is formed with a deep incifure up into the 
 head, for the better catching and holding of prey, and mor 
 cafy comminution of hard, large, and troublefome food ; i 
 others with a fhorter incifure, for the gathering and holding o. 
 herbaceous food. 
 
 In infects it is very variable : in fome it is forcipated, to catch 
 hold, and tear the prey ; in others aculeated, to pierce and 
 wound animals, and fuck their blood ; in others ftrongly ridge, 
 with jaws and teeth, to gnaw and fcrape out their food, can- 
 burdens, perforate the earth, nay, the hardeft wood, and ev- 
 flones themfelves, for houfes and nefts for their young. 
 Nor is the mouth lefs remarkable in birds, being neatly fhaped 
 for piercing the air, hard and horny, to fupply the want of 
 teeth ; hooked, in the rapacious kind, to catch and hold then 
 prey ; long and (lender, in thofe who have their food to grope 
 for in moorifh places; and broad and long, in thofe that fearch 
 it in muddy places. 
 Mouth is alfo ufed, in the courts of princes, for what relates 
 their eating and drinking.— Hence, officers of the mouth, yto- 
 men of the mouth, &c. 
 
 Daviler defines mouth, an apartment compofed of feveral rooms 
 as offices, kitchens, tafr. where the meat intended for tb 
 firft tables is dreffed by itfelf.— At court, this is called th 
 king's mouth. 
 
 Mouth, in the manage, denotes a horfe's feeling or lenhb 
 in that part where the bits are applied. 
 
 Riiiges of a horfe's Mouth. See the article Ridge. 
 
 Opening, or pitting the Mouth, of a cardinal, is a cercmon; 
 ufed in the confiftory at Rome; wherein the pope fhuts a new 
 defied cardinal's mouth, fo as he may not fpeak at all, ever 
 thoueh the pope fhould fpeak to him ; and remains, in the 
 meantime, deprived of all voice, both aftive and paffive, till 
 the calling of another confiftory, when the pope opens bis mouth 
 a^ain, making a little harangue, to teach him how to fpea! 
 and comport himfelf in the confiftory. 
 
 MOXA, a fort of cotton, or downy fubftance, brought from 
 China, and by authors faid to grow on the lower part of thi 
 mugwort-leaf. 
 
 It is not much known among us for any medicinal efficacy 
 how ever celebrated in the Indies for curing the gout, by bei 
 burnt upon the part, people here have not faith enough to 
 it this way ; and fome think, if they had, in all likelihooi 
 any other cauftic would do as well. See Supplement, articl 
 MoiA.' j-i! ,• ' ~' - -'' '' ' 
 
 MUCILAGE, Mucilago, in pharmacy, &c. a thick, v 
 cous juice; fo called, as fefembUng the mucus of thenofe. Si 
 the article Mucus. 
 
 Mucilages arc prepared chiefly from roots and feeds, pounded 
 in a mortar, and infufed in hot water, and drained through - 
 cloth. 
 
 The roots principally ufed for this purpofc arc, thofe of 
 tinea, mallows, fymphytum, (Sc. the feeds are, thofe 
 quinces fleawtort, l3c. 
 
 Mucilages enter the compofition of feveral plaifters. — They 
 fometimes alfo made of gums and fruits; as figs, quinc 
 ifing-glafs, tragacanth, fjfr. 
 
 Mucilage alfo" denotes a thick, pltuitous matter, evacuate 
 wirli the urine, in the gravel, and dyfuria. 
 
 MUCILAGINOUS glands, a very numerous fct of glands in 
 joints,firil defcribfd by Dr. Havers.— There are two forts of mil 
 cilaginous glands, fom'c fmall, next akin to miliary glands, beir 
 glandulcs placed all alung the furface of the membranes whil 
 lie over the articulations. SceMucus, and Articulation 
 
 MUG 
 
 The other fort are conglomerated, or are many glandules collect- 
 cd, and planted one upon another, To as to make a bulk, and ap- 
 pear confpicuoiifly. In fome of the joints there are feveral of 
 them ; in otheis there is a lingle one. 
 
 As to the ftru&ure of thefe large glands ; theyconfift of fmall 
 veikles, which are not gathered together into feveral lobes, or 
 bags of glandules, but are difpofed upon feveral membranes 
 lying over one another ; of which membranes there are feveral 
 in every one of thefe glands, which appear evidently in thofe 
 who are hydropical. They have their blood-veilels, as other 
 glands: buttheirveinshaveaparticular texture, in their courfe, 
 for retarding the return of the blood from the glands, that the 
 mucilaginous liquor, which is not feparated with the greateft 
 expedition, may have time for feparation ; which is a contri- 
 vance, obferved where-ever a thick fluid is to be fecerned. 
 The large mucilaginous glands are varioufly fituated ; fome in a 
 fmus formed in the joint ; others ftand near or over-againft the 
 interface between the articulated bones : butin general, they are 
 fo placed, as to be fqueezed gently, and lightly preiled, in the 
 inflexion or extenfion of the joint, in order to yield a quantity 
 of mucilage proportionate to the motion of the part, and the 
 prelent occafion, without any injury. 
 
 The defign of all thefe glands is to feparate a mucilaginous kind 
 of liquor, which ferves principally to lubricate the joints, or to 
 make them Oippery : it ferves likewife to preferve the ends of 
 the articulated bones from attrition and heating : but all this it 
 does in conjuuclion with the medullary oil ; with which, to- 
 gether, is made a compofition admirably well fitted for thofe 
 ends; for the mucilage adds to the lubricity of the oil, and 
 the oil preferves the mucilage from growing too thick and 
 vifcous. 
 
 Dr. Havers obferves the fame glands to He between the mufcles 
 and tendons ; and fuppofes that there is the fame mixture there 
 of an oily and mucilaginous fubftance ; the' one being that fat, 
 which is found between the mufcles, and is fupplicd bv the 
 glandular adipofa? ; and the other feparated by the mucilaginous 
 glandules, of which the common membrane of the mufcles is 
 every-where full. This mixture in the interfaces of the muf- 
 cles lubricates them and their tendons ; and preferves them 
 from fhrinking, and growing rigid and dry. 
 MUCOUS glands are three glands which empty themfelves into 
 the urethra ; fo called by the firft difcoverer, Mr. Cowpcr, 
 
 from the tenacity of the liquor Which they feparate. See 
 
 Tab. Anat. (Splanch.) fig. 8. lit. w. 
 
 The two firft difcovered of thefe are about the bignefs of a 
 French- bean, of a deprefTed oval figure, and a yellowifh co- 
 lour, like the proftates ; being on each fide the bulb of the ca- 
 vernous body of the urethra, a little above it. 
 Their excretory duels fpring from the internal furface, next 
 the inner membrane of the urethra ; into which they open a 
 little lower, by two diftinct orifices, juft below its bending 
 under the ofla pubis, in perinajo, where they difcharge a 
 tianfparcnt vifcous liquor. 
 
 The third mucous gland is a fmall, conglobate, yellowifh gland, 
 like the former, butfomewhatlefs, fituate above the angle of 
 flexure of the urethra, under the ofi'a pubis, in the perinxuin, 
 near the anus. — It has two excretory ducts, which enter the 
 urethra obliquely, a quarter of an inch below the two former ; 
 and difcharge a liquor like the former, both in colour and con- 
 fidence. 
 
 MUCRO cordis^ in anatomy, the lower or pointed end of the 
 heart. 
 
 The word is Latin, mucro, where it properly fignifies the point 
 of a fpear, CsV. 
 
 Hence, Mucronated is applied to whatever tends to, or 
 terminates in a point, like that of a fpear ; as mucronata car- 
 tilage, &c. 
 
 MUCUS of the joints is a mucilaginous liquor, feparated by its 
 proper glands, conveniently placed in the interftices of the 
 bones, where thofe glands are gently preffed by the motion of 
 the parts : it ferves to make the extremities of the bones or 
 joints flip more eafily. 
 
 Mucus of the urethra, a vifcous tranfparent liquor, fcrving to 
 line and lubricate the part ; that the feed and the urine may 
 flip more freely, without either adhering to or lacerating the 
 part. 
 
 It comes from glands, lately difcovered by Mr. Cowper, 
 about the penis ; and is that, which in women is often miftaken 
 for fern en. 
 
 Mucus of the nsjlrik is a vifcid excrementltious humour fepa- 
 rated by its proper glands, placed in the interna] membrane of 
 thofe parts. — It ferves to moiften, lubricate, ar,d defend the 
 olfactory nerves ; which, being extremely foft and naked, 
 would, without fuch provifion, be foon fpoiled. See Nose. 
 
 MUD-iW/j. See the article Wall. 
 
 MUFTI. See the article Muthti. 
 
 MUGGLETONIANS, a religious feet, which arofe in Eng- 
 land about the year 1657. fo denominated from their leader, 
 Lodowick Muggleton, ajourne)man taylor. 
 Mu^gleton, with his aflbciate Reeves, fet up for great pro- 
 phets ; and, it isfaid, pretende l to an abiblute power of laving 
 and damning whom they pleafeJ ; giving out, that they were 
 2 the 
 
MUL 
 
 MUL 
 
 the two laft witnefTes of God, that fliould appear before the end 
 of the world. 
 
 MUID, a large meafure, in ufe among the French, for dry 
 commodities; as corn, pulfe, fait, lime, coals, &c. 
 The muid is no real veffel ufed as a meafure ; but an eftima- 
 tion of feveral other meafures, as the feptier, mine, minot, 
 bufhel, £jf>. 
 
 At Pari?, the muid of wheat, pulfe, and the like, is compofed 
 of twelve feptiers, each feptier making two mines, the mine 
 twominots, the minot three bufhels, the bufhel four quarts, or 
 fixteen litrons, each litron 36 cubic inches, exceeding our pint 
 by 1 \\, cubic inch. — The mux dot oats is double that of wheat, 
 though compofed, like that, of 12 feptiers; but each feptier 
 contains 24 bufhels.— The muid of charcoal contains 20 mines, 
 facks, or loads, each mine two minots, each minot eight 
 bufhels, and each bufhel four quarts, &c, 
 
 Muid is alfo one of the nine cafks, or regular veffels ufed in 
 France, to put wine and other liquors in.— The muid of wine 
 divided into two demi-??iuids, four quart cr-muids, and eight half 
 quarter-mu'tds, contains 36 feptiers, each feptier S pints, Paris 
 meafure ; fo that the muid contains 288 pints. 
 
 MULATTO *, a name given, in the Indies, to thofe who are 
 begotten by a negro man on an Indian woman ; or an Indian 
 man on a negro woman. 
 
 * The word is originally Spanifh, mulata, formed of mule, a mule, 
 as being begotten of two different fpecies, 
 
 Thofe begotten of a Spanifh woman and an Indian man, are 
 called metis ; and thofe begotten of a favage bv a metis are 
 called jambos. — Thefe are all very different in colour, and in 
 their hair. 
 
 MULCT, Mulct a, a penalty, or fine of money, impofed for 
 
 a fault or mifdemeanour. 
 MULE, in natural hiftory, a mongrel kind of quadruped ufually 
 
 generated between an afs and a mare; fometimes alfo between 
 
 a horfe and a fhe-afs. 
 
 Muks are a fort of monfters ; and, therefore, they do not pro- 
 pagate their kind. 
 
 And yet the antients mention a fort of mules that were prolific, 
 in Phrygia, Syria, Cappadocia, and Africa. Witnefs Arifto- 
 tle, Hift. Animal. I. 6. c. 36. Varro de re Ruflica,l, 2. c. 1. 
 Columella, /. 7. c. 36. Theophraftus, and, after him, Pliny, 
 /. 8. c. 44. Steno, examining the tefticles of a mule-, found 
 cva therein, with a fort of placenta about them ; which per- 
 fuaded him, that mules might engender without any miracle. 
 But the obfervation is fanciful, and the conclufion unworthy fo 
 able a naturalift. 
 
 The Roman ladies had equipages drawn by mules ; as appears 
 from the medals of Julia and Agrippina. And, at this day, in 
 Spain, the coaches of the nobility, and even of princes, are ufu- 
 ally drawn by no other than ?nules. We are allured, that M. de 
 Thou, firft prefident of the parliament, had the fourth coach 
 in France, in 1585 ; till which time every body rode to court, 
 parliament, tjfe. on mules. 
 Mules, among gardeners, denote a fort of vegetable monfters 
 produced by putting the farina fcecundans ot one fpecies of 
 plant into the piftil, or utricle of another. 
 
 The carnation and fweet-william being fomewhat alike in their 
 parts, particularly their flowers ; the farina of the one will 
 impregnate the other: and the feed fo enlivened will produce 
 a plant differing from either. — An inftance of this we firft had 
 in Mr. Fairchild's garden atHoxton ; where a plant is feen nei- 
 ther fweet-william, nor carnation, but refembliug both equally : 
 this was raifed from the feed of a carnation that had been 
 impregnated by the farina of the fweet-william. — Thefe coup- 
 lings being not unlike thofe of the mare with the afs, which 
 produce the mule ; the fame name is given them ; and they are 
 like the others, incapable of multiplying their fpecies. 
 This gives us a hint for altering the property and tafte of any 
 fruit, by impregnating one tree with the farina of another of 
 the fame clafs ; e. gr. a codling with a pearmain, which will 
 occafion the codling, fo impregnated, to laft a longer time than 
 ufual, and to beof afharpertafte. Or if the winter-fruits be fe- 
 cundated with the duft of the fummer kinds, they will ripen 
 before their ufual time. And from this accidental coupling of 
 the farina of one with another, it may poflibly be that in an 
 orchard where there is variety of apples, even the fruit gathered 
 from the fame tree differ in their flavour, and in the feafon of 
 maturity. It is alfo from the fame accidental coupling that pro- 
 ceeds the numberlefs varieties of fruits and flowers raifed every 
 day from feed. 
 
 MULIEBRIA, a term fometimes ufed to fignify the privities of 
 women ; or fo much as is otherwife called cunnus — See Tab. 
 Anat. (Splaneh.) fig, 9. 
 
 MULIER, in law, fignifies lawful ifTue born in wedlock, but be- 
 got before. 
 
 If a man have a fon by a woman before marriage, which is a 
 baftard and illegitimate ; and he after marries the mother of 
 the baftard, while with child of another, and they have another 
 Vol. II. 
 
 fon : this fecond fon is called mulier *, and is lawful, and 
 fhall be heir to his father. Thefe we fometimes alfo find with 
 the additions, baflard eigne, and mulier puifne. 
 
 * Some derive the word from the Latin me!ior,ov French meilleur, 
 better ; in regard the condition of a fon born thus is better than 
 that of an elder brother born before wedlock. Though, accord- 
 ing to Glanvil, the lawful ifTue is rather called mulier than me- 
 hor, becaufe begotten on mulieres, and not on concubine: For he 
 Calls fuch iffaeflios mulieratos ; oppofing them to bailards.— 
 Agreeable to which, Briton has frere mulier, i. e. the brother 
 begotten of the wife ; in oppofition to frere baftard. 
 
 The like feems to obtain in Scotland, where, according to 
 Skene, mulieratus films is a lawful fon, begot of a lawful wife. 
 
 Mulier was alfo antiently ufed as an addition for a wife ; fome- 
 times alfo for a widow. — According to Coke, virgin is alfo in- 
 cluded under the name mulier, 
 
 MULLER, or Mullar, denotes a ftone flat and even at bot- 
 tom, but round a-top ; ufed for grinding of matters on a marble. 
 1 he apothecaries ufe mullers to prepare many of their tefta- 
 ceous powders ; and painters for their colours, either dry or 
 in oil. 
 
 Muller is alfo an inftrument ufed by the glafs -grinders ; being 
 a piece of wood, to one end whereof is cemented the glafs to 
 be ground, whether convex, in a bafon or concave, in a fphere 
 or bowl. 
 
 The mulier is ordinarily about fix inches long, turned round ; 
 the cement they ufe is compofed of afhes and pitch. Sec 
 Glass-grinding. 
 MULLET, or Mollet, in heraldry, a bearing in form of a 
 flat, or rather of the rowel of a fpur, which it originally repre- 
 fented. 
 
 The mullet has but five points ; when there are fix it is called a 
 jlar — 7'hough others make this difference, that the mullet is, 
 or ought to be, always pierced, which a ftar is not. — Fid. Tab, 
 Heraldyr, fig. 71. 
 
 The mullet is ufually the difference, or diftinguifhiiig mark for 
 the fourth fon, or third brother, or houfe. 
 Though it is often alfo borne alone, as coat-armour : Thus, 
 Ruby on a chief pear!, two mullets diamond, was the coat of 
 the famous lord Verulam, firft Sir Francis Bacon. 
 
 MULSUM, Mulse, a liquor made of wine and honey; or 
 even of honey and water. See Hydromel. 
 
 MULTA, or Multura, epifcopi, a fine, or final fatisfaftion 
 antiently given the king by the bifhops, that they might have 
 power to make their laft wills ; and that they might have the 
 probate of other mens, and the granting of adminiftrations. 
 
 MULTANGULAR, a figure, or body which has many angles. 
 
 MULTILATERAL, in geometry, is applied to thofe figures 
 which have more than four fides or angles, more ufually called 
 polygons. 
 
 MULTINOMIAL, or MuLTiNoMiNALrocrj, in mathematics, 
 are fuch as are compofed of many names, parts, or members ; 
 as, a 4- b -f- c -f- d, &c. 
 
 I or the method of raifing an infinite multinomial to any given 
 power, or of extracting any given 'root out of fuch a power ; 
 fee a method of M. de Moivre, in Philof. Tranfacl. N°. 230. 
 MULTIPLE, Multiplex, in arithmetic, a number which 
 comprehends fume other feveral times. 
 
 Thus 6 is a multiple of 2, or, which is the fame, 2 is a quota 
 part of 6 ; 2 being contained in 6 three times. And thus 12 
 is a multiple of 6, 4, 3 ; and comprehends the firft twice, the 
 2d thrice, the 3d four times, &c. 
 Multiplex's, or proportion, is that which is between mul- 
 tiple numbers. 
 
 If the leffer term of a ratio be an aliquot part of the greater ; 
 the ratio of the greater to the lefs is called multiple : And that 
 of the lefs to the greater fib- multiple, 
 
 A fub-multiple number is that contained in the multiple. Thus 
 the numbers 1,2, and 3 are fub -multiples of 6 and 9. 
 Duple, triple, BV. ratio's ; as alfo fub-duples, fub-triples, &c. 
 are fo many fpecies of multiple and fub-multiple ratio's. 
 Multiple echo. See the article Echo. 
 
 MULTIPLICAND, in arithmetic, is one of the factors in the 
 rule of multiplication ; being that number which is given to> 
 be multiplied by another called the multiplicator, or multiplier. 
 
 MULTIPLICATOR, in arithmetic, a number multiplying, 
 another called the multiplicand. 
 
 1 he largeft number is ordinarily made the multiplicand, and 
 placed above the fmaller, or multiplicator ; but the refult is the 
 fame, which foever of the numbers be made multiplicand or 
 multiplicator ; 4 times 5, and 5 times 4 making the fame fum. 
 MULTIPLICATION, the aft of multiplying, or increafing 
 the number of any thing. 
 
 The multiplication of the loaves in the wildernefs was one of our 
 Saviour's greateft miracles. The Romanlfts hold a real multi- 
 plication of the body of Chrift in the eucharift; fo that every 
 communicant has a whole body, &c. 
 
 An old ftatute fays, It is ordained and eftaMifhed, that none 
 6 f f from 
 
MUL 
 
 M U L 
 
 from henceforth mall ufe to multiply gold, or filver, nor ufe the 
 craft of multiplication ; and if any the fame do, he fhall incur 
 the pain of felony. Stat. 5 Hen. IV. c. 4. 
 This ftatute was made on prefumption that fome perfons fkil- 
 ful in chymiftry, could multiply or augment thofe metals by 
 elixirs, or other ingredients ; and change other metals into very 
 gold and filver. — Under Henry VI. letters patent were granted 
 to certain perfons (who undertook to perform the fame, and 
 to find the philofopher's ftone), to free them from the penalty 
 in the faid ftatute— But the ftatute has been fince repealed, 
 1 Will, ts" Mar. c. 30. . . 
 
 Multiplication, in arithmetic, the act, or art of multiplying 
 one number by another, to find the product. 
 Multiplication, which is the third rule in arithmetic, confifts 
 in finding fome third number, out of two others given ; 
 wherein one of the given numbers is contained as often as 
 unity is contained in the other. 
 
 Or, Multiplication is the finding what will be the fum of any 
 number added to itfelf, or repeated, as often as there are units 
 in another. — So that multiplication of numbers is a compendious 
 kind of addition. 
 
 Thus the multiplication of 4 by 5 makes 20, i. e. four times 
 five amount to twenty ; which algebraifts exprefs thus, 4x5 
 = 20. 
 
 In multiplication, the firft factor, t, e. the number to be multi- 
 plied, or the multiplicand, is placed over that whereby it is to 
 be multiplied (See Multiplicand) ; and the factum or pro- 
 duct under both. 
 
 An example or two will make the procefs of multiplication 
 eafy. — Suppofe I would know the fum 269 multiplied by 8, 
 or 8 times 269. 
 
 Multiplicand ■ 269 
 
 Multiplier 8 
 
 Factum, or Product < ■ 2152 
 
 The factors being thus difpofed, and a line drawn underneath, 
 (as in the example), I begin with the mukiplicator thus : 8 times 
 9 make 72, fet down 2, and carry 7 tens, as in addition ; 
 then 8 times 6 make 48, and 7 I carried, 55 ; fet down 5, 
 and carry 5 ; laftly, 8 times 2 make 16, and with 5 I car- 
 ried 21, which I put down : fo as coming to number thefeve- 
 ral figures placed in order, 2, 1, 5, 2, I find the product to 
 be 2152. 
 
 Now fuppofing the factors to exprefs things of different fpecies, 
 viz. the multiplicand men, or yards, and the multiplier pounds ; 
 the productwill be of the fame fpecies with the mukiplicator. 
 Thus the product of 269 men or yards multipled by 8 pounds 
 or pence, 152152 pounds or pence ; fo many of tbefe going 
 to the 269, at the rate of 8 a-piece. Hence the vaft ufe of 
 multiplication in commerce, &c. 
 
 If the mukiplicator confifls of more than one figure, the whole 
 multiplicand Is to be added to itfelf, firft, as often as the right- 
 hand figure of themultiplicator fhews, then as often as the next 
 figure of the mukiplicator fhews, and fo on. — Thus 421 X 23 
 is equal to 421 X 3, and alfo 421 x 20. The product arifmg 
 from each figure of the multiplicator, multiplied into the whole 
 multiplicand, is to be placed by itfelf in fuch a manner, that 
 the firft or right-hand figure thereof may ftand under that 
 figure of themultiplicator from which the faid product arifes. 
 I'or inftance ; 
 
 Multiplicand — — 421 
 
 Mukiplicator 23 
 
 Particular product of 421 X 3 
 Particular product of 421 X 20 
 
 The total product — 
 
 9 68 3 
 
 This difpofition of the right-hand figure of each product, fol- 
 lows from the firft general rule ; the right-hand figure of each 
 product being always of the fame denomination with that 
 figure of the multiplicator from which it arifes. 
 Thus, in the example, the figure 2 in the product 842, is of 
 the denomination of tens, as well as the figure 2 in the mul- 
 tiplicator. For 1 x 20 (that is the 2 of 23) — 20, or 2 put in 
 the place of tens, or fecond place. 
 
 Hence, if either of the factors have one or more cyphers on the 
 right-hand, the multiplication may be performed without 
 garding the cyphers, till the product of the other figures be 
 found : To which they are to be then affixed on the right. 
 And if the multiplicator have cyphers intermixed, they need 
 not be regarded at all. — Inftances of each follow. 
 
 12I 3581 1 Jo 24)00 8013 
 
 i|o 6|ooo ilo 3] o 5006 
 
 120 214 &000 100 72000 48078 
 40065 
 
 40113078 
 
 Thus much for an idea of multiplication, where the multiplica- 
 tor confifts wholly of integers ; in the praxis whereof, it is fup- 
 pofed, the learner is apprised of the product of any of the nine 
 
 digits multiplied by one another, eafily learnt from the com- 
 mon table, or other wife. 
 
 There are alio fome abbreviations of this art. — Thus to' multi- 
 ply a number by 5, you need only add a cypher to it, and 
 then halve it. — To multiply by 15, do the fame, then add 
 both together. The fum is the product. 
 Expedients for the more eafy and expeditious multiplying large 
 fums are fliding rules andNepier's bone?. — The want of which 
 may be fupplied by tabulating the multiplicand. 
 Where the mukiplicator is not compofed wholly of integers ; 
 as it frequently happens in bufinefs, where pounds are accom- 
 panied with millings and pence ; yards with feet and inches : 
 the method of procedure, if you multiply by a fingle digit, is 
 the fame as in fimple numbers, only carrying from one de- 
 nomination to another, as the nature of each fpecies requires. 
 E.gr. to multiply 123/. 14 s. qd. $q, by five : Say, 5 X 3 q. 
 ~i$q. that is, 3c/. 3 q. write down the 3 q. and proceed, fay- 
 U1 g> 5X9 = 45^. that is 3 s. 9 d. fet duwn the 9 d. and pro- 
 ceed in the fame manner through the reft. 
 If you multiply by two or more digits, the methods of pro- 
 cedure are as follow. — Suppofe I have bought 37 ells of cloth at 
 13/. 16 j. td.per * ell, and would know the amount of the whole. 
 ■ — I firft multiply 37 ells by the 13/. in the common method 
 of multiplication by integers, leaving the two products without 
 adding them up ; then multiply the fame 37 ells by 16 s. leav- 
 ing, in the like manner, the two products without adding them. 
 Laftly, I multiply the fame 37 by the 6 d. the product where- 
 of is 222 d. which divided by 12 (See Division), gives 18 s. 
 6 d. and this added to the products of the i6f. the fum wilt 
 be6lOJ. 6 d. the amount of 37 ells atl6i. 6 d. the ell. 
 Laftly, the6iOJ. 6d. are reduced into pounds by dividing 
 them by 20 (See Reduction), upon adding the whole, the 
 amount of 37 ells at 13/. 16 J. 6cL will be found as in the 
 following : 
 
 37 ells 37 ells 37 ells. 
 
 At 13 pounds. At 16 fhillings. At 6 pence. 
 
 in 
 
 37 
 
 30 10 6 
 
 222 
 37 
 
 222 
 
 Product 511 10 6 610 6 
 
 Or thus : Suppofe the fame queftion ; reduce the 13 t. 16s. in- 
 to (killings, the amount will be 2761. reduce2y6y. into pence, 
 adding 6, the amount will be 3318 Multiply the 37 ells by 
 3318, the amount will be 122766 d. which divided by 2 ; and 
 the quotient 10230 .r. 6d. reduced into pounds by cutting off 
 the laft figure on the right, and taking half of thofe on the 
 left, yields 511 /. ioj. 6d. the price of the 37 ells, as before. 
 Though by thefe two methods any multiplication of this kind 
 may be effected, yet the operations being long, we fh;:ll add a 
 third much fhorter. — Suppofe the fame queftion : Multiply 
 "the price by the factors of the multiplicator, if eefolvable into 
 factors : if not, by thofe that come neareft it ; adding the 
 price for the odd one, or multiplying it by what the factors 
 want of the multiplier. So, the work will Hand thus i 37 elk 
 at 16 j. 6 d. : 6 x 6 = 36 x 1 = 37 : 
 Therefore ■ 6 
 
 497 
 *3 
 
 16 6 
 
 511 10 6 
 
 The price of the 37 ells. 
 But the moft commodious is the fourth method, which is per- 
 formed by aliquot and aliquant parts— where you are to obicrve 
 by the way, that aliquot parts of any thing are thofe contained 
 feveral times therein, and which divide without any remain- 
 der ; and that aliquant parts are other parts of the fame thing 
 compofed of feveral aliquot parts. 
 To Multiply by aliquot parts, is in effect only to divide a num- 
 ber by 3, 4, 5, C5V. which is done by taking a 3d, 4th, 5th, 
 &c. from the number to be multiplied. Example : 
 To multiply, v. g. by6j. Sd. Suppofe I have 347 ells of 
 ribbon at 6 j. %d. per ell. 
 
 Multiplicand — 347 ells. 
 
 Multiplicator ■ 6 s. 8d. 
 
 Product 115/. 131. tfd. 
 
 The queftion being ftated, take the multiplicator, which ac- 
 cording to the table of aliquot parts is the third ; and fay, the 
 third of three is 1, fet down 1 ; the third of 4 is 1, fet down 
 I, remains r, that is, 1 ten, which added to 7, makes 17 ; 
 then the third of 17 is 5 ; remain 2 units, 1. e. two thirds, or 
 1 3 j. 4 d. which place after the pounds. Upon numbering the 
 figures 1, I, and 5, integers, and 131. \d. the aliquot part 
 remaining, I find the fum 115/. 13 f. 4-d. 
 For Multiplication^ aliquant parts.- Suppofe I would mul- 
 tiply by the aliquant part 191. I firft take for ioj. half the 
 multiplicand ; then for 5, which is the fourth, and laftly, for 
 4, which is the 5th. The products of the three aliquot parts 
 
 that 
 
M U L 
 
 MUM 
 
 that compofe the aliquant part, being added together, the Turn 
 will be the total product of the Multiplication, as in the follow- 
 ing example ; which may ferve as a model for multiplication 
 by any aliquant part that may occur. 
 
 Multiplicand ' — 356 ells. 
 
 Multiplier ■ , ig j. 
 
 178 /. for 10 s. 
 89 /. for 5 s. 
 71/. 4 r. for 4 s. 
 
 Produdr I 338/. 4 j. 
 
 For tin proof of Multiplication The operation is right 
 
 when the product divided by the multiplier quotes the multi- 
 plicand ; or divided by the multiplicand quotes the multiplier. — 
 A readier way, though not abfolutely to be depended on (See 
 Addition), is thus: add up the figures of the factors, call- 
 ing out the nines ; and fetting down the remainders of each. 
 Thefe multiplied together, out of the factum, cad away the 
 nines, and fet down the remainder. If this remainder agree 
 with the remainder of the factum of the fum, after the nines 
 are caft out ; the work is right. 
 
 Crofs Multiplication, otherwife called duodecimal arithme- 
 tic, is an expeditious method of multiplying things of feveral 
 fpecies, or denominations, by others likewife of different fpe- 
 cies, CSV. E.gr. Shillings and pence by (hillings and pence; 
 feet and inches by feet and inches : this is much" ufed in mea- 
 fin ing, &c. — The method is thus. 
 
 Suppofe 5 feet 3 inches to be multiplied by 2 F. I. 
 feet 4 inches ; fay, 2 times 5 feet is 10 feet, 5 3 
 and 2 times 3 is 6 inches : again, 4 times 5 is 2 4 
 20 inches, or 1 foot 8 inches ; and 4 times 3 
 
 is 12 parts, or one inch ; the whole fum makes 10 6 
 12 feet 3 inches — In the fame manner you i 8 
 may manage (hillings and pence, cirV. j 
 
 Multiplication, in geometry, or in lines, is effefled bv 
 fuppofing a line a b (Tab. Geomet. fig. 9 .j called the defcri- 
 bent, moving perpendicular along another b c, called the dil i- 
 gent. 
 
 For by this means the defcribent forms the reflangle a deb; 
 and if it be divided together with the dirigent into any number 
 of equal parts, it will by its motion defcribe as many little rect- 
 angles as the units in the defcribent and dirigent will produce 
 when multiplied into one another; viz. 21. For when the 
 line a b hath moved over one part of a d, it will by its three 
 parts have defcribed the three little rectangles in the firft co- 
 lumn ; when it comes to 2, it will have defcribed three more. 
 And this is the reafon why multiplication in the Latin tongue 
 is ufually expreffed by the word duela, drawn (and from hence 
 alfo comes praduel) : as if a b were multiplied by b c, they fay, 
 ab duCla in be, becaufe the defcribent is led, as it were, or 
 carried along in an exad pofture upon the dirigent, and by 
 that means defcribes the reaangle ; fo that the redangle and 
 product are all one in geometry. 
 
 Now, as in all multiplication unity is to one factor as the other 
 is to the product, multiplication in lines may be performed thus 
 Let ab (Fig. 10.) be to be multiplied by a d.—MAz any 
 angle at pleafure ; on one of the legs fet off a a = to unitv • 
 and on the (lime leg fet off ud, the multiplicator (3) ; then 
 let the multiplicand a b (2) from a on the other leg of the an- 
 gle ; draw u b, and-parallel to it through d, draw d c (6). I 
 fay, dc, or 6, is the product : for •> : ad: : ab : be. 
 Multiplication of plants. See Fecundity of tlants 
 MULTIPLICATIVES. See Numerals. ' 
 MULTIPLYING, in the animal ceconomy, the producing of 
 one's like. 0 
 Mankind multiplied at a prodigious rate before the flood • rab- 
 bets, fifli, and moll infeas, multiply incredibly : the lWIe 
 milt ol a cod, examined with M. Leewenhoeck's microfcope 
 was found to contain more ova than there are animals on the 
 face of the earth. 
 
 M. Dodarthas feveral difcourfes on the multiplication of plants 
 in the Memoirs of the royal academy of feiences. Hehas exami- 
 ned the beech-tree particularly with this view, and found its 
 increafe to furpafs all imagination. 
 Multiplying, in arithmetic, is the finding a number which 
 contains the multiplicand as often as there arc units in the mul 
 tiplier. 
 
 The rule of three confifts in multiplying the third term by the 
 lecond, and dividing the produdt by the fir*, See Rule 
 y three. 
 
 Multiplying.^/,, a lens, or glafs, in which obiefls appear 
 incrcafed in number. 
 
 tZl^ > i" l 7''' f '', cA } ed alf ° 2 P°V>«tron, is a glafs formed or 
 ground into feveral planes, or faces, making anjes with one 
 
 Zt, . fl Wh ' Ch thC o ra),S ° f l; S ht iffi &8 f ™ m *« fame 
 point undergo difterent refrains, fo as to enter the eye from 
 
 Si pom,: * di ' tai °" ' - * from 
 
 And thus the fame point is ten in feveral imaginary foci ; and 
 
 therefore appears multiplied. For the phenomena and laws of 
 
 multiplying-glajes, fee Polyhedron. 
 MULTISILIQUOUS plants, are the fame with cemiculate 
 
 plants, viz. thofe which, after each flower, have divers diftinct, 
 
 (lender, and frequently crooked, filiqure, or pods, wherein 
 
 their feed is contained ; and which, when they ripen, open of 
 
 themfelves, and let the feeds drop. 
 MULTITUDE, Multitudo, an affemblage, or collection, 
 
 of a great number of things, or perfons. 
 
 Multitude is properly the abdract whereby things are faid to be 
 
 many. 
 
 In which fenfe multitude may be confidered as number ; and 
 (lands oppofed to unity. 
 
 In law, fome will have multitude to imply at lead ten perfons; 
 but Sir Edward Coke fays, he could never find it rcftrained by 
 the common law to any certain number, but always left to 
 the difcretion of the judges. 
 
 A MUL1 O fortiori, or a minore ad majus, is a way of argumen- 
 tation often ufed by Littleton ; whofe force is thus : If it be fo 
 in a feoffment palling a new right ; much more is it for the re- 
 (titution of an antient right. 
 
 MULTUM, in arithmetic— If A be one, B one, C one, 
 D one, tic . and E, C, and D, be not the fame with A ; A, 
 B, C, and D, are multa, or plura, many. Wolfius. 
 
 MULTURA epifapi. See the article Multa. 
 
 MUM, a whollbme kind of malt liquor, chiefly prepared in 
 Germany. 
 
 The procefs of making mum, as recorded in the town-houfe 
 of Brunfwick, the place of moil note for this liquor, is as 
 follows : 
 
 Take 63 gallons of water that has been boiled to the confump- 
 tion of a third part ; brew it with feven bufhels of wheaten- 
 malt, one bulhel of oat-malt, and one bufhel of ground-beans ; 
 when it is tunned, let not the hogfhead be too full at firft ; and 
 as foon as it begins to work, put into it of the inner rind of fir 
 three pounds, tops of fir and birch each one pound, carduus be- 
 nedictus three handfuls, flower of rofa folis one handful or two j 
 burner, betony, marjoram, avens, penny-royal, wild thyme, 
 of each a handful and a half ; of elder- flowers, two handfuls or 
 more; feeds of cardamum bruifed 30 ounces, barberries bruifed 
 one ounce : put the herbs and feeds into the veffel when the 
 liquor has worked a while ; and, after they are added, let the 
 liquor work over the veffel as little as may be ; then fill it up : 
 lallly, when it is llopt, put into the hogfhead ten new-laid 
 eggs unbroken or cracked, (lop it up clofe, and drink it at 
 two years end. 
 
 Our Englifh brewers ufe cardamum, ginger, and faffafras in- 
 dead of the inner rind of fir ; and add alfo walnut-rinds, mad- 
 der, red fanders, and elecampane. 
 MUMMY *, Mumia, a carafe or body embalmed or dried 
 in the manner of the antient Egyptians. 
 
 • Menage, after Bochart, derives the word mummy from the 
 Arabic mumia ; of mum, wax. Salmafius, from amomum, a 
 kmd of perfume. Though others hold, that in the Arabic 
 tongue, the word mumia ligniiies a body embalmed, or aro- 
 matized. 
 
 Properly fpeaking, mummy is not the flefh of the deceafed, but 
 the compofition wherewith it is embalmed ; but in common 
 acceptation mummy is alfo ufed for the body. 
 The preparation of mummy is of fo old a (landing, that it was 
 in ufe in Egypt before the time of Mofes. The coffin in which 
 the mummy is contained was to be of fycomore-wood, which is 
 found to keep found for the fpace of 3000 years ; but the tree 
 properly thus called was very different from our fycomore. 
 Mummy is faid to have been firfl brought into ufe in medicine 
 by the malice of a Jewifh phyfician, who wrote that flefh thus 
 embalmed was good for the cure of divers difeafes, and par- 
 ticularly for tellies, to prevent the blood's gathering and co. 
 agulatmg. The Turks prevent the exportation of mummy into 
 Europe as much as poflible. 
 
 t here are two kinds of bodies denominated mummies.— The 
 nrlt are only carcaefs, dried by the heat of the fun, and by 
 that means kept from putrefkaion ; thefe are frequently found 
 in the dry fands of Lybia.— Some fay, they are the bodies of 
 deceafed people buried there on purpofe to keep them intire 
 without embalming ; others, that they are the carcafes of tra- 
 vellers, &c. who have been overwhelmed with clouds of fand 
 railed by the hurricanes frequent in thofe defarts. Be that as 
 it will, thefe mummies are of no ufe in medicine, and are only 
 preferved as curiolities. 
 
 The fecondkind ofmummies are bodies taken outofthe pits or 
 catacombs near Cairo, wherein the Egyptians depofited theirdead 
 after embalming. — Itis thefe that make the mummy once fo much 
 valued, and to which fuch extraordinary virtues are afcribed. 
 It is faid, that all the mummy fold in the (hops, whether brought 
 from Venice or Lyons, or even dircaiy from the Levant by 
 Alexandria, is faaitious, and the work of certain Jews, who, 
 knowing the value the Europeans fet on the Egyptian mummy, 
 counterfeit it by drying carcafes in ovens, after having pre- 
 pared them with powder of myrrh, caballin aloes, Jews pitch, 
 black pitch, and other coarfe or unwholfome drugs. 
 The French charletans, it feems, have likewife got the art 
 
 of 
 
MUN 
 
 M U R 
 
 ef preparing mummies. Their method is fimple enough : Out 
 of the carcafe of a perfon hanged, they take the brain and en- 
 trails, and dry the reft in an oven, fteeping it in pitch, and 
 other druss. And this they fell for right Egyptian mummy. 
 Parxus has a very curious treatife of ?num?nies, wherein he 
 fhews the abufes thereof ; and makes it appear, that they can 
 never be of any real medicinal ufe, 
 
 Matthiolus is of the fame opinion, after Scrapion. Both thefe 
 
 authors take even the Egyptian mummies to be no more than 
 
 bodies embalmed with piffafphaltum. 
 Mummy, mumia, is more particularly ufed for the liquor or 
 
 juice oozing from human bodies aromatized and embalmed ; 
 
 gathered in the fepulcres. — This is the mummy chiefly fpoken 
 
 of among the antient writers. 
 Mummy alfo denotes a medicinal drug, or a vifcous compofition 
 
 partaking of bitumen and pitch, found in the mountains and 
 
 forefts of Arabia, and other hot countries of the eaft ; much 
 
 ufed in embalming of dead bodies. 
 
 Diofcorides fpeaks of a mummy found on the fea-coaft near 
 Epidaurus, brought thither by the torrents from the Ceraunian 
 mountains, and there dried by the fun into huge maffes. 
 It fmells like bitumen mixt with pitch. The people there- 
 abouts call it mineral ivax. — In Latin, or rather Greek, it is 
 called piffafphaltus. See Pissasphaltus. 
 Mummy, mumia, is alfo ufed by fome phyficians for I know not 
 what implanted fpirit, found chiefly in carcafes, when the in- 
 fufed fpirit is fled. 
 
 The infufed fpirit is fometimes alfo called mummy in living fub- 
 jects ; and both the one and the other are fuppofed to ferve in 
 tranfplantation. See Transplantation. 
 A plant, for inftance, bringing this mumia from one fubject 
 to another, the mumia joins and unites itfelf immediately 
 with the mumia or fpirit of the new fubject ; and from this 
 union arifes a natural and common inclination between the 
 two fubjects. — And on this principle they account for fympa- 
 thetic or magnetic cures. But this whole doctrine is now de- 
 fervedly laughed out of doors. 
 Mummy is alfo ufed among gardeners for a fort of wax ufed in 
 the planting and grafting of trees. 
 
 Agn'cola directs the preparation thereof as follows : Take one 
 pound of common black pitch, and a quarter of a pound of 
 common turpentine ; put them together in an earthen pot, and 
 fet them on fire in the open air, having fomething in your 
 hand to cover and quench the mixture in time ; the matter is 
 to be thus alternately lighted and quenched till all the nitrous 
 and volatile parts be evaporated. To this a little common 
 wax is to be added ; and the compofition is then to be fet by 
 for ufe. 
 
 To apply it in the dreffing of the roots of trees, melt it, and 
 dip in the two ends of the pieces of root one after another ; 
 then put them in water, and plant them in the earth, the fmall 
 end downward, fo that the larger may appear a little way out of 
 the earth, and fo may have the benefit of the air j then prefs 
 the earth hard down upon them that they may not receive too 
 much wet. 
 
 MUNDANDIS vicis £9" venellis. See the article Vicis. 
 MUNDIBURDUS. See Advocate. 
 
 MUNDICK,a name for marcafite; a kind of mineral glebe, found 
 in the tin-mines and elfewhere, fometimes white, yellow, or 
 green, and fometimes of a dark brown, colour. 
 It is frequently called maxy ; and appears to be nothing elfe 
 but a mixture of fulphur with fome metalline particles. 
 The mundick ore is eafily diftinguifhed by its glittering, and' 
 fometimes by its difcolouring the fingers. — Some fay it feeds 
 the tin ; and yet they allow that where there is much mundick, 
 there is little or no tin. Vid. Gibf. Addit. to Camd. Brit, in 
 Cornwall. 
 
 What is called mundick in Cornwall, frequently contains a large 
 portion of copper. 
 
 The fteams of the mundick are very troublefome to the 
 miners, yet it is found a good vulnerary ; and the miners 
 ufe no other remedy for wounds but wafhing them in wa- 
 ter that runs from the mundick ore. See Supplement, ar- 
 ticle Marchasita. 
 MUNDIFICATIVES, or Mundifyers, in medicine, denote 
 cleanfers, purifyers, or detergents. 
 
 Mundificative plaifters, or unguents, are fuch as deterge, and 
 dry, and thus cleanfe ulcers of two kinds of matter, viz. pus 
 and fanies. 
 
 The chief ingredients in mundificative unguents, are gentian, 
 ariftolochia, enula campana, and the vulnerary herbs. 
 
 MUNDUS, world. See the article World. 
 
 Anima Mundi. See the article Anima. 
 
 MUNERARIUS. See Designator. 
 
 MUNICIPAL *, Municipals, or Municefs, an appel- 
 lation given to the inhabitants of the municipia, or municipal 
 cities. 
 
 * The word is compounded of mums, office, employ ; and capio, 
 I take or hold. r 7 r 
 
 In the Roman law, municipal denotes a perfon vefted with the 
 rights and privileges of a Roman citizen. 
 This title the Romans frequently beftowed on foreign cities 
 and people ; and in effect, it was little more than a title. 
 Municipal cities, municipia, were thofe whofe inhabitants 
 were capable of civil offices in the city of Rome. 
 Thefe, however, according to Mariana, came fomewhat fhort 
 of the privileges of the colonies. 
 
 They had no fuffrages or votes at Rome ; but were left to 
 be governed by their own laws and magiftrates. — It is true, 
 fome few municipal ' cities, by particular merit, fcjfc. obtained 
 the liberty of votes ; which occafioned that received diftinction 
 of munidpium fine [uffragio, & munidpium cum fuffragio. 
 They were fo called, becaufe muncris hujus honor arii participes ; 
 but by munus honorarium was meant no more than the bare 
 appellation of a Roman, whereby they were privileged ta 
 fight in a legion, as denizens ; and not in auxiliary bands, 
 as aflbciates. The firft who had this honour, were the Cx- 
 rites. 
 
 Municipal, among us, is now applied to the cuftomary laws, 
 
 that obtain in any particular city, or province ; and which 
 
 have no authority in the neighbouring places. 
 Municipal officers are thofe elected to defend the interefts of 
 
 cities, their rights and privileges, and to maintain order and 
 
 good policy ; as mayors, fheriffs, confuls, bailiffs, t£c. 
 
 In Spain, the municipal offices are bought. In England, they 
 
 are obtained by election. 
 MUNIMENTS, or Miniments, the evidences or writings, 
 
 whereby a man is enabled to defend the title of his eftate. 
 
 Wrangford fays, the word muniment includes all manner of 
 
 evidence, deeds, charters, tlfc. 
 Muniment -^cw/^, a little, ftrong apartment in cathedral and 
 
 collegiate churches, caftles, colleges, or the like, deftined for 
 
 keeping the feal, evidences, charters, &c. of fuch church, 
 
 college, (!fc> called muniments, or miniments. 
 MUNIMINA, the grants or charters of kings and princes to 
 
 churches *, fo called, becaufe cum eis muniuntur againft all 
 
 thofe who would deprive them of thofe privileges. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Latin munio, I defend or ftrengthen, 
 
 MUNIONS, in architecture, the fhort upright poflrs or bars, 
 which divide the feveral lights in a window-frame. 
 
 MUNITION, or Ammunition, the provifions wherewith 
 any place is furnifhed in order for defence, or wherewith a 
 veffel is ftocked for a voyage ; or thofe that follow a camp 
 for its fubfiftence. 
 
 MuNiTioN-£r*W is the proportion of bread diftributed every 
 d:iy to the foldiers of a garifon or army.— Each officer is 
 allowed fo many rations of munition-bread, 
 
 MUPHTI, or Mufti, the chief or patriarch of the Mahome- 
 tan religion, reiiding at Conftantinople. 
 
 The muphti is the fovereign interpreter of the Alcoran, and 
 decides all queftions of the law. 
 
 He takes place of the bafhaws ; and his authority is often ter- 
 rible to the grand fignor himfelf. — It is he girds on the fword 
 to the grand fignor's fide ; which ceremony anfwers to the 
 coronation of our kings. 
 
 MURAGE, Muragium, in our cuftoms, a reafonable toll to 
 be taken of every cart or horfe coming laden into a city or 
 town, for the building or repairing the walls thereof. 
 
 MURAL, fomething belonging to a wall; which the Latins call 
 murus. 
 
 Mural crown, among the antient Romans, was a kind of 
 crown indented a-top, like the battlements of a wall. 
 The mural crown was the reward of thofe who firft mounted 
 the walls of the enemy : whence it was alfo called corona obfi- 
 dionalis. 
 
 Mural arch is a wall, or walled arch, placed exactly in the 
 plane of the meridian, i. e. upon the meridian line, for the 
 fixing of a large quadrant, fextant, or other inftrument, to 
 obferve the meridian altitudes, &c- of the heavenly bodies. 
 See Meridian line. 
 
 Tycho Brahe was the firft who ufed a mural arch in his obfer- 
 
 vations ; after him Mr. Flamfteed, de la Hire, &c. ufed the 
 
 fame means. 
 MURDER. See the article Murther. 
 MURDERING battery. See the article Battery. 
 Mure. — Counter-MURE. See the article Counter-?/;^. 
 MURENGERS, two officers of great antiquity in the city of 
 
 Chefter, being two of the principal aldermen chofen yearly to 
 
 fee the walls kept in good repair, and to receive a certain toll 
 
 and cuftom for the maintenance thereof. 
 MURING, the walling, or raifing the walls of a building. See 
 
 Wall. 
 
 MURORUM domejlhus. See the article Domesticus. 
 MURRAIN, gargle, a mortality, or contagious difeafe among 
 cattle. 
 
 Murrains are occafioned various ways, but principally by an 
 hot, dry feafon ; or rather by a general putrefaction of the air, 
 
 which 
 
MVS 
 
 MVS 
 
 which begets an inflammation in the blood, and a fwelling in 
 the throat, with other fymptoms : the difeafe Coon proves mor- 
 tal, and is communicated from one to another. 
 The fymptoms are generally a hanging down or fwelling of the 
 head, rattling in the throat, fhort breath, palpitation of the 
 heart, flaggenng, abundance of gum in the eyes, lie. breath 
 hot, and tongue mining. 
 
 The mod remarkable murrain we hear of, is that mentioned 
 in the Pbilefiphical tranfaeliens, which fpread itfelf through 
 Switzerland, and Germany, into Poland, tifc. 
 The contagion fcemed to propagate itfelf in form of a blue 
 miff, which fell on the grafs where the cattle grazed, infomuch 
 that whole herds returned home fick, and being very dull, and 
 forbearing their food, moli of them died away in twenty-four 
 hours time. On diffcaion there were found large corrupted 
 fpleens, fphacelous and corroded tongues, Efts Thofe people 
 who managed them, without a due regard to their own health, 
 were infefled by them, and died like the beafts. 
 Some imagine it had its rife from noxious vapours thrown out 
 of the earth in three diftinfl earthquakes perceived in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the place where it began : though Dr. Slare ra- 
 ther thinks it owing to fwarms of volatile infeefs. The anti- 
 dote for the found, and the medicine for the fick, were the 
 fame, viz. equal pans of foot, gun-powder, brimffone, and 
 fait, with as much water as would wafh it down : a fpoonful 
 was'adofe. See fiipplcmenr, article Oxen, Diseases of. 
 
 MURREY, in heraldry, a kind of purple colour, called alfo 
 fattgume. . . , \ 
 
 MURRHINE, Murrhinus, MOPPINOE, ,n antiquity, an 
 appellation given to a delicate fort of ware, brought from the 
 eaft, whereof cups and vafes were made, which added not a 
 Jittle to the fplendor of the Roman banquets. 
 Critics are divided concerning the matter of the pseula or vafa 
 murrbina, murrina, or mitrrea. Some will have them to have 
 been the fame with our porcelane, or china-ware. 
 The generality hold them to have been made of feme precious 
 kind of ftone, which was found chiefly, as Piiny tells us, in 
 Parthia, but more efpecially in Caramania — Some conjecture 
 them to have been of agate, others of onyx, others of coral. 
 Baronius doubtlefs was fartheft out of the way, when he took 
 them to be made of myrrh congealed and hardened. 
 Pompey is recorded as the firfl who brought thefe murrbitu 
 veffcls out of the eaft, which he exhibited in his triumph, and 
 dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus.— But private perfons were not 
 ]on» without them. So fond, in effea, did the Roman gentry 
 grow of them, that a cup which held three fextaries was fold 
 for feventy talents. T. Pctronius before his death, to fpite 
 Nero (or, as Pliny exprefl'es it, vt mir.fr.rn ejus exberedaret, to 
 difinherit his table) broke a bafon, nulla murrbina, valued at 
 three hundred talents, on which that emperor had fet his heart. 
 See fupplement, article Mvrrhina. 
 
 MURTHER*, or Murder, the afl of killing another with vio- 
 lence and injultice. 
 
 * The word comes from the Saxon mortli, death ; which fome 
 will have to hgaify a violent death ; whence, the barbarous 
 Latin, murdrum, and mrdrum. 
 
 Among the number of popular errors, is the notion which has 
 obtained, that the dead body would bleed in the prefence, or 
 upon the touch of the murtherer. 
 
 The crime of murther is punifhed with death in almoft all na- 
 tions. ' " t i . 
 Murther, in our law, denotes a wilful, and felonious killing 
 another upon prenenfed malice, whether fecretly or openly, 
 and whether Engliftiman or foreigner, living under the king's 
 protection. 
 
 This prepenfed malice, which makes the effence of murther, is 
 two-fold : i°. Exprefs, where it may be evidently proved that 
 there was ill-will. 2°. When one kills another fuddenly, he 
 having nothing to defend himfelf withal ; as in going over a 
 ftile, or the like: for in fuch a cafe, or when a man kills a 
 mere ftranger, the law prefumes he had malice, or that he- 
 would not have done it w ithout any manner of provocation. 
 Formerly, mtcrtber was reftrained to a clandeftine, and trea- 
 cherous killing. — Thus, Alurdritus htm antiquitus dicebatur. 
 atjus intcrfcilor nefciebatur ubicumque ml quomodocumque effet in- 
 Vntw. Nunc ad'mncluni ejl, licet feiutur quit murdrum fecerit, 
 bamindium per prndithmm. Leges Hen. I. — Arthurum nepatem 
 prcpriis mambusper prsdilhnem inttrficit t peJafK mortis genere, qued 
 Jttigli murdrum appellant. Matth. Paris, an. izi6. 
 
 oV//"-Murt n k R, is otherwife called fuicide. See Ff lo de fe. 
 
 iML'RTHERERS, or Mu r T H F. R I N c-pieees, are fmall pieces of 
 ordnance, either of brafs or iron, having chambers, put in at 
 their breeches. 
 
 They are moftly ufed at fea, at the bulk-heads of the fore-caftle, 
 half-deck, $ic in order to clear the decks when an enemy 
 boards the fhip. 
 
 MUSCADINE *, a rich wine, of the growth of Provence, Lan- 
 gucdoc, Cividad, tic. 
 
 * The word, as well as the liquor, is French : fome fetch its ori- 
 ginal from nusjt ; the wine being fuppofed to have a little of the 
 fmell of that perfume : others from mufca, a fly, becaufe the 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 flies are extremely fond of its grapes ; as the Latins lind their 
 tnntan apinum, fo called, ah npibus, from the bees which fed 
 on the grapes it was made of. 
 
 The way of making mufcad'me at Frontignac is as follows : 
 They Jet the mujcad'me grapes grow half dry on the vine ; and 
 as foon 35 they are gathered, they tread and prefs them imme- 
 diately, and tun up the liquor, without letting it ftand, and 
 work in the fat ; the lee occafioning its goodnefs. 
 MUSCLE*, Musculus, in anatomy, a ftcfliy, fibrous part of 
 the body of an animal, defined to be the organ or inflrument 
 of motion. 
 
 * The word is derived from the G:eek fiv( t or the Latin muj, a 
 motife ; on account of the refemblancc it is fuppoftd to bear 
 
 to a flcinned moufe.- Dr. Douglas will have it from (AVttfj 
 
 to Ihut or contract; that being the proper oliice of a mufcle. 
 
 The mufcle. is a bundle of thin, parallel plates; and is- divided 
 into a great number of fafciculi, or little mnfclcs, each inclofcd 
 in its proper membrane, from the internal furface whereof, pafst . 
 an infinite number of tranfvcrfe filaments, which interfere the 
 mufcle into fevaral diftinci areas, filled with their refpectivc. 
 fafciculi of fibres.— See Tetb.dnat. (Myol.) fig. i, 2, .1, 5, 7, &c. 
 A mufcle is ufually divided into three parts, the bead* the tail, 
 and the belly. — The head and tail, which are abo called tendons* 
 are the two extremes of the mufcle ; whereof the fir ft is fixed 
 to the ftable part, and the latter to the part intended to be 
 moved. 
 
 The venter or belly is the body of the mufcle, being a thick, 
 flehhy part, into which are inferted arteries and nerves, and 
 out of which iflue veins and lymphedudts. 
 
 Thefe feveral parts of a mufcle, the belly, and the tendons, are 
 compofed of the fame fibres: their only diJFerence confifts in 
 this, that the fibres of the tendons are more clofely and firmly 
 bound together than thofe of the belly, which are more looie. 
 Hence in the belly there is room for a fufficicnt quantity of 
 blood to give them an appearance of rednefs ; and the wb'.tc- 
 nefs of the tendons only proceeds from the blood's being in 
 fome meafure excluded by the tightnefs of their contexture.- — ■ 
 The difference then between the belly and the tendons feems to 
 be the fame as between a fkein of thread, and a cord made of 
 the lame thread. 
 
 All the mufcles act by having their bellies inflated or fwelled : 
 for by that means they are mortened, fo as to draw, or prefs 
 the folid bodies to which they are faftened, according to the di- 
 rection of their fibres. — All the difficulty then in rmjadaf 
 motion, is, to aflign their fabric and the cauf; of thuir fwel- 
 ling. 
 
 Every fimple mufcle, then, confifts of one flefhy belly, and 
 two tendons; but it may be again divided into others fimilar, 
 though lefs ; and thofe again into others {till left, yet ftill fimi- 
 lar to the great one : which divifion may be carried on to a 
 degree of fubtilty that exceeds all imagination ; though it is 
 reafonable to think it muft have an end. — That laft, therefore, 
 being fimilar to the firlr, muft, in like manner, have its belly 
 and tendons ; and this is whatwe ordinarily call a mnfcular fibre* 
 in an aflemblage or union of fcvcral whereof, a mujele, properly 
 fo called, confifts. 
 
 Some take the mufcuhr fibres to be productions of the arterie3 
 and veins, or the capillaries of thofe vefiels inofculated with, 
 and continued to each other; by the intumefcence of whofe 
 contents, the extremities are drawn nearer each other, and by 
 confequence, the hone to which the moveable part is fixed, 
 approximated to the other. — But that they are, in truth, nei- 
 ther venous, nor artcrious, nor lymphatic vefiels, is evident 
 from the laft observation. Whether they are veficular ; or 
 whether they only confift of fingle threads, may be ftill a que- 
 ftion ! 
 
 Dr. Boerhaave, from a confide ration that the nerves enter 
 every mufcle along with its veins and arteries, and that there 
 laying alide their outer integument, they are fo diftributed 
 through the whole body of the mufcle., as that no one point 
 can be afligned wherein a part of tbem is not found ; that thofe 
 nerves terminated here ; and that in other parts of the body the 
 extremities of the nerves are expanded, as it were, into mem- 
 branes ; concludes, that the mnfcular fibres are nothing elfe but 
 extremely flender expanfions of the nerves ftript of their inte- 
 gument, hollow within, and of the figure of a mufile, and full 
 of a fpirit communicated by the nerve from its origin in the 
 brain or cerebellum, by the continual action of the heart. 
 Of thefe fibres united are formed fafciculi or bundles ; which, 
 again, have each their feveral membrane, wherein they are in- 
 volved, and kept diflindt from others. This membrane is ex- 
 tremely flender and porous within, and is full of oil, which is 
 accumulated in time of reft, and fpent in motion, furniflied 
 by the arteries ; and this oil, in conjunaion with a fmcoth 
 mucous juice fecreted by fm.il! mucihginous glands, interfperled 
 among thefe fafciculi, ferves to lubricate the parts, and to pre- 
 fcrve the fafciculi from fretting on each other. 
 Now, befides the nerves, there are arteries alfo carried into the 
 mufcles, and thofe in fuch abundance, and of fuch contexture, 
 that a man might be inclined to think the whole body of 
 6 G g thc 
 
MVS 
 
 M U S 
 
 the mufcle compofed of them. — Thefe are principally diftribu- 
 ted among the fafciculi, and the membranes that feparate 
 them, and perhaps alio in the externa! furface of each fibrilla, 
 where they terminate in reticular plexus's, in little oily fecre- 
 tories, finall lymphatics', and perhaps in hollow fibrillar like 
 nerves; whicli fibr illse may again .either terminate in the ca- 
 vity of the nervous mufcular fibres °r make others like them. 
 — This, at leaft, is clear, that every branch of an artery in 
 the mufcles has its corresponding little vein, which, united to 
 the other, increafes its bulk; whence the blood-vciTels of the 
 mufcles are alio lymphatics. 
 
 Of two fiich mufcles as have been deScribed, faflcned in oppo- 
 fite Situations to each other, mod of the mufcles, or pairs of 
 mufcles we know of, confift. 
 
 It has been already obferved, that the tendon of a mufcle con- 
 fifts of the fame number, of fibres with the mufcle itfelf ; with 
 this difference, that the cavities of the mufcular fibres dimi- 
 nishing, and lofing of their former diameter, there form one 
 compact, hard, rough, dry, narrow body, which is but little 
 vafculir. — From what has been faid then it appears, that the 
 rednefs of a mufch is owing to the blood ; and its bulk to the 
 fulnels of the arteries, veins, oily cells, and lymphatics. — Hence 
 we fee, why in old age, leannefs, confumptions, atrophirs, 
 COnftant heat, and hard labour, their rednefs as well as bulk 
 are fo diminished; and yet in old age, leannefs, £jY. the mo- 
 tion remains. This may be effected, when the mufcles have no 
 rednefs left ; as appears in infects, whofe fidh is not perceiv- 
 able. 1 
 
 The fibres, fafciculi, arteries, and nerves, may be Separated 
 from each other in a live or a dead body, without breaking : 
 they are always in a degree of tenfton, and are endued with 
 a contractive force ; fo that when cut afunder, the ends fly 
 back from each other ; and then they become Shorter, their 
 bulk is leffened, and they contract themfelves into an undular 
 kind of furface, and throw off their proper juices. Hence it 
 appears, that they are always in a ftate of violence, are ever 
 oppofing their elongation, and ever endeavouring to fhorten 
 themfelves, but more in a live body than in a dead one; and 
 therefore they require antagonists. 
 
 If the brain be Strongly compreffed, or have any violent con- 
 tufion ; if it be Suppurated, obstructed, or torn, the volun- 
 tary action of all the mufcles immediately ceafes ; as well as all 
 fenfe and memory : however, the fpontancous action of the 
 mufcles in the heart, lungs, the vifcera, and vital parts, remains. 
 — Thefe feme alterations being made in the cerebellum, the 
 action of the heart, lungs, and life itfelf, ceafes ; when yet 
 the vermicular motion continues a long time after in the Sto- 
 mach and intcftines. 
 
 The nerve of any mufcle being compreffed, tied up, corrupted, 
 or cut, all the motion of that mufcle-, both vital and voluntary, 
 immediately ceafes; and if a nervous trunk fending branches 
 to (everal mufcles, be thus bound up, cut, &c. they are all 
 affected in the fame manner. — The fame things being done in 
 any part of die fpinal marrow, the action of all the mufcles 
 whofe nerves arife from the part affected, is deftroyed : and, 
 the (ante thing being done to the artery which carries blood 
 to one or more mufcles, the effect is the fame. 
 The tendon of a mufcle in action does not undergo any fenfible 
 alteration, but the belly Shortens, and becomes hard, pale, fwoln, 
 and protuberant; the tendons arc approached nearer, and the more 
 moveable part faftened to the tendon, is drawn towards the 
 other lefs moveable : which action of a mufcle is called its con- 
 traclion, which is much greater and Stronger than that inherent 
 contraction obferved under the firft phenomenon ; and there- 
 fore is not natural, but fuperadded. — The tendon of a mufcle 
 not in action, is Still the fame ; but the belly is fofter, redder, 
 laxer, longer, and flatter : and this flate of a mufcle is called 
 its rejlitution, though it is ufually owing to the contrary action 
 of its antagonist ; for that being frustrated, the contraction of 
 the other continues, as not being balanced by the action of an 
 antagonist. 
 
 If one antagonist remain at reft while the other is in action, 
 the member in that cafe will be bent ; if both act at the fame 
 time, it will be fixed and immoveable ; if neither act, it will 
 be indifferent, and ready to be moved whither the leaft excels 
 fhall carry it. 
 
 Ail which changes are performed in the fmalleft moment of 
 time, and in the whole mufcle at once ; fo that they can pafs 
 and repafs reciprocally without leaving any trace in the body 
 behind them. 
 
 By injecting warm water into the artery of a quiefcent mufcle, 
 even that of a dead carcafe ; its contraction is reStored ; and 
 that long after death. — The hulk of a mufcle is increafed rather 
 than diminished by every experiment of its contraction. 
 A limb being bent, by fome external force, aaainft the will, 
 the flexor tnujcle of that limb affumes a Slate of contraction, as 
 if acted by its proper motion ; though not altogether fo Strenu- 
 oufly. — The will remaining indifferent, all the voluntary muf- 
 cles, and all their veffels, are equally full, and moved by the 
 blood and fpirits equably conveyed to them, and that through- 
 out the whole body at once. 
 
 For the application of this Structure of the mufcles, in account- 
 ing for the great phenomenon of mufcular motion, fee Mus- 
 cular motion. 
 
 As to the mufcular fibres, or, which comes to the fame, the 
 fafciculi of mufcular fibres, they have not always the fame fixa- 
 tion with regard to each other, nor run in the fame direction, 
 but they Sometimes run parallel to themfelves and their tendons ; 
 and are fometimcs difpofed obliquely both to their tendons and 
 to each other : hence there arife two different kinds of mufcles. 
 The one direct, and parallel; which fome call ftmple Muscles. 
 The other inclined, or oblique ; called comt-mnd Muse l e s. 
 Under the firft of thefe kinds are included Several other Species: 
 For, firft, Either the flefhy fibres run ftrait from one ex- 
 treme to the other, as in the fartorius, feff. or they are turned 
 into a circle, as in the fphintlers of the bladder, and anus ; or 
 twiSted into a Jpiral, as in the ccfcphagtcus : and hence they 
 come to be called rccli, orhiculares, and fpiralex. 
 The fecond kind alio includes various Species, according to the 
 various angles which the oblique fibres make with the tendons ; 
 fome inclining equally to each tendon, fo as to form a rhom- 
 bus, or acute-angled parallelogram with them, whence the muf- 
 cles are called rhimbo'alalcs ; others arifing from two parallel ten- 
 dons, are infertcd obliquely into one common tendon, as in the 
 biceps of the hand ; laSlly, others arifing from the periphery 
 of the circle, concur in a centre, and form mufcles called ra- 
 dial. Tf.d " rtfeff 
 
 There are divers other Species, and divisions of mufcles. — Some 
 authors distinguish them into mufcles of voluntary, and of invo- 
 luntary, or necefpiry motion. 
 Muscles of involuntary, or neceffary motion, have their contract- 
 ing and extending powers within themfelves, and have no an- 
 tagonist ; fuch are the heart and lun^s fuppofed to be. 
 Muscles of voluntary motion, which we more peculiarly deno- 
 minate mufcles, and which are thofe we have here chiefly regard 
 to, have each of them their antagonist mufcles, which act al- 
 ternately in a contrary direction ; the one- being Stretched and 
 extended, while the other is contracted at the inftance of the 
 
 will. 
 
 The mufcles have alfo different names from their different actions, 
 Situations, forms, bffc Thofe which ferve to move the fame 
 members contrary ways, are called cntagonijh \ and thofe that 
 concur to the Same action, fellows, or pairs. 
 Digqflric Muscles are thoie which have two bellies. — 7rigaf~ 
 
 tries., thofe with three. 
 Spkinfter Muscl es are thofe deStined to Shut Several apertures? 
 and paffages in the body ; as the mufcle at the neck of the blad- 
 der, and that of the anus, which have the fame effect with the 
 firing of a purfe to clofe thofe parts. ■ 
 
 Some mufcles have two or three heads, called bicepes and tri~ 
 
 ctfes. 
 
 We call elevators, thofe which lift up or raife the parts ; and 
 depreffors, thofe which move them downwards. 
 Flexors, thofe which bend them ; extenfors, thofe which Stretch 
 them out; adduffors, thofe which move the parts inwards; 
 abduclors, thofe which move them outwards; and rotators, thofe 
 which move them round. 
 
 Mufcles have alfo different names from their different figure ; 
 fome refembling a bat; and fome a lizard. Some are trian- 
 gular, others fquare, others icalenous, others pentagonal, others 
 pyramidal, round, fife Whence the names of delto'ides, rhom- 
 boides, fcalenus, trapezius, &c. 
 
 Anatomists are not agreed on the number of mufcles in the 
 human body ; fome reckon five hundred and twenty-nine ; Some 
 four hundred and forty- fix ; and others only four hundred and 
 thirty-five. — The calculus, according to thefe kit, is as follows. 
 Two of the Sorehead; two of the occiput; fix of the eye- 
 lids ; twelve of the eyes ; feven of the nofe ; eight of the ex- 
 ternal ear; four of the internal ear; thirteen of the lips; 
 eight of the tongue ; four of the palate ; fourteen of the la- 
 rynx ; feven of the pharynx ; ten of the os hyoides ; twelve 
 of the under-jaw ; fourteen of the head ; eight of the neck ; 
 eight of the omoplates ; eighteen of the arms ; twelve of the 
 elbows ; eight of the radii ; twelve of the carpi ; forty ei^ht 
 of the fingers ; fifty-feven of ufe in refpiration ; fix of the 
 loins, ten of the abdomen ; two of the tefiicles ; one of the 
 bladder; four of the penis; four of the anus; thirty of the 
 thighs; twenty-two of the legs; eighteen of the feet ; forty- 
 four of the toes. 
 
 The following table of the names and offices of the Several muf- 
 cles in the body, is taken from Dr. Keil. 
 Frontales, ferve to pull the Skin of the forehead upwards. 
 Occipitales, pull the fkin of the hind-head upward?. 
 Aitollens ) . , 
 n . . f auricularwru 
 Depnmens J 
 
 Internus malleoli, di fiends the tympanum. 
 Externa malleoli, relaxes the tympanum. 
 Obllquus malleoli. 
 
 Muf cuius Jlapedis, moves the Stirrup. 
 Corrugaior fupercilii. 
 
 Meclus palpebra fuperkris, lifts up the upper eye-lid. 
 Orbicularis palpebrarum. Shuts both eye-lids. 
 
 Jttotieni 
 
MVS 
 
 MVS 
 
 At to Hens ~\ 
 
 Adduclor J ., 
 
 Obliquus major, pulls the eye forwards, and obliquely down- 
 wards. 
 
 0%h«j minor i pufls the eye forwards, and obliquely upwards. 
 Attollens ~i 
 DHatans > nares. 
 Depr'tmens J 
 
 Incifivus, pulls the upper lip upwards. 
 Triangularis, pulls it downwards. 
 
 Camnus . . 1 pull, the lower lip upwards, 
 
 Elevator lain infertorts J r 
 
 ghtadratus, pulls it downwards. 
 
 Zygomatics, draws both lips obliquely to either fide. 
 
 Orbicularis, draws both lips together. 
 
 Buccinator, thrufts the meat between our teeth. 
 
 pull .he jaw upwa* 
 Pterygoideus internus, draws the jaw to either fide. 
 Pterygoidaus externus, draws the jaw forwards. 
 Quadratics, pulls the jaw and the cheeks downwards. 
 Digaflr'tcus, pulls the jaw downwards. 
 Periftaphylinus internus, pulls the uvula forwards. 
 Periftaphylinus externus, pulls the uvula backwards. 
 Stylogloffus, draws the tongue upwards. 
 Genioglojfus, thrufts it out of the mouth. 
 Ceratoglojfus, pulls it into the mouth. 
 
 Geniohytndaus, pulls the os hyoides and tongue upwards and for- 
 wards. 
 
 Sternobyo-daus, pulls the os hyoides downwards. 
 
 Milobyoid.cus, pulls it obliquely upwards, 
 
 Coracobyoidaus, pulls it obliquely downwards. 
 
 Styhhyaideus, pulls it to either fide, and fomewhat upwards. 
 
 Stykpharingaus, pulieth up, and dilateth the pharynx. 
 
 Oefophageits, ftraitens the pharynx. 
 
 Sternotbyroideus, pulls the thyroides downwards. 
 
 Hyothyroideus, pulls the thyroides upwards. 
 
 Cricotbyroidazus. 
 
 Cricoaiytn noideus poflicus. 
 
 Cr'tcarytenoidftus lateralis. 
 
 Thyroarytenoideus, dilates the glottis. 
 
 Arytenoids us, contracts the glottis. 
 
 Spknius I mov£ the head backwar d Si 
 
 Complexus J 
 
 J nod the head backwards. 
 
 Kcilus minor J 
 Obliquus inferior -\ 
 
 Obliquus fuperior i perform the femi-circular motion of the head. 
 
 Mafloideus J 
 
 Rectus internus major 1 nod ^ ^ forwards . 
 Rectus internus miner } 
 Reclus lateralis, nnds the head to one fide. 
 Intercalates intern! £sf externi"\ 
 
 Subdavius _ / B the Hbs upwar d s i n infpl- 
 
 bcrratus antieus major > J. at j on 
 
 Serratus poflicus fuperior \ 
 Triangularis -* 
 
 Serratus poflicus inferior 1 make the motion of the ribs down- 
 Sacroiumbaris S ward in expiration the fwifter. 
 
 Diapbragma, ufed in infpiration and expiration. 
 
 ^^Tinfflrf the parts contained in the lower 
 Obliquus internus!*, ^ ^ Qf ^ ribg down _ 
 
 Jranjverjalis r w2S(is in expiration ; and help to bend the 
 
 Pyramidal' s ^ vertebra: of the loins, forwards. 
 
 Longifftmus dorfi, moves the body erect. 
 
 Tranfvcrfalis dorfi, moves the body obliquely backwards. 
 
 Inter fpinalis, draws the acute precedes near one another. 
 
 Sjhtadratus lumbrorum, draws the vertebrae of the loins to one 
 
 fide. 
 
 fV I bend the vertebra of the neck. 
 Scalenus J 
 
 Pfoas parvus, helps to bend the vertebrx of the loins. 
 Crtmafltr, draws up the tefticles in the a£l of generation* 
 EreChres penis, 
 'tranfverfales penis. 
 Accelerators urines. 
 Ereclores ditoridis. 
 
 Spbinder veftcee, contrails the neck of the bladder, that the 
 
 urine may not run continually. 
 Levatores ani, draw up the anus. 
 Sphintler ani, fhurs the anus. 
 
 Serratus antieus minor, draws the fhoulder-blade forwards. 
 "Trapezius, moves it upwards, backwards, and downwards. 
 RJjornboides, pulls it backwards. 
 Levator J copula ; pulls the fhoulder-blade upwards, 
 Deltoides 3 
 ■ Supra-fpinatus f Lft the arm upwards. 
 Coracobrachial!! ^ 
 
 ■ pull the arm downwards. 
 
 extend the fore-arm. 
 
 1 f bend the wrift. 
 f 1 
 
 s I extend the wrift. 
 
 Teres major 
 Latiffunus dorfi 
 
 Petloralh, moves the arm forwards. 
 Infra- jpmatus 1 
 
 Tranfvcrfalis ?■ draw the arm backwards. 
 Subfeapularis 3 
 
 * ice P s t . . , I bend the fore-arm. 
 Brachaus internus 5 
 
 Longus "J 
 
 Brcvis 
 
 Brachieus externus 
 Anconeus J 
 
 Roiundus \ perform the motion of pronation, or turn the 
 Quadratics $ palm of the hand downwards. 
 Longus 1 perform the motion of fupination, or turn the palm 
 Brevis J of the hand upwards. 
 Cubiteus internus 
 Radians internus 
 Cubitaus externus 
 Radiaus externus _ 
 
 Palmaris, helps the hand to grafp any thing clofely. 
 Palmaris brevis, makes the palm of the hand concave. 
 Sublimit ? b£nd the fi 
 Profundus J ° 
 Extenfor d'tgitorum communis. 
 
 Lumbricales, affift in bending the firft joint of the fingers. 
 Interoffei intern!, draw the fingers to the thumb. 
 Jnieroffei extern!, draw the fingers from the thumb. 
 Flexor pollicis longus. 
 Flexor pollicis brevis. 
 Extenfor primi 1 
 
 ' fecund! 5- intcrnodii pollicis. 
 
 ■ tertii j 
 
 Thenar, draws the thumb from the fingers. 
 Antithenar, draws the thumb to the fingers. 
 Abduclor indicis. 
 Extenfor indicts. 
 
 Hypothenar, draws the little finger from the reft. 
 Extenfor auricular is. 
 Pfoas t 
 
 Iliacus C bend the thigh. 
 PeElintEus } 
 Gluteus major 7 
 
 Gluteus medius /• extend the thigh. 
 
 Gluteus minor * 
 
 Triceps, pulls the thigh inwards. 
 
 Pyriformis 1 
 
 Gemini > move the thigh outwards. 
 ghtadratus J 
 
 Obturator internus 1 help to move the thigh obliquely and circtl^ 
 Obturator externus \ larly. 
 Scminervofus -» 
 
 Biceps f ° 
 
 Gracilis J 
 
 Reclus 1 
 
 Vaftuy externus 
 
 Vaflus internus 
 
 Cruraus J 
 
 Sartorius, makes the legs crofs one another. 
 
 Popliteus, turns the leg fomewhat inwards. 
 
 Membranofus, turns it a little outwards. 
 
 Tibialis antieus ? , , . e , 
 t> . > bend the foot. 
 
 reroneus antieus J 
 
 Gajlrocnemii 
 
 Soleus r extend the foot. 
 
 Plantaris 
 
 Tibialis pojlkus, moves the foot inwards. 
 Per one us poflicus, moves the foot outwards. 
 Profundus ~l 
 
 Sublimis > bend the four leffer toes. 
 Lumbricalis 3 
 
 Longus \ j j- Qur j e |j- er t 
 nrevts J 
 Flexor pollieis. 
 Extenfor pollicis. 
 
 Thenar, draws the great toe from the reft. 
 Antithenar, draws it to the reft. 
 Flexor pollicis longus. 
 brevis. 
 
 Abduclor minimi digit! 7 , . „„i f i a „ ro . . 
 
 j , rr . . . & V draw the toes toward the great toe. 
 interoffei internt J 
 
 Interoffei extern!, draw them from the great toe. 
 
 Tranfuer falls, brings all the toes clofe to one another. 
 MUSCOVITE bible. See the article Btble. 
 Muscovite coinage. Seethe article Coinage. 
 Muscovite coins. See the article Coins. 
 Muscovite meafures. See the article Measure. 
 Muscovite moneys. See the article Money. 
 MUSCULAR, or'MuscuLous, fomething that relates to the 
 
 mufcles; or that partakesof the nature thereof. See Muscle. 
 
 In 
 
 • extend the leg 
 
MVS 
 
 MVS 
 
 In which fenfe we fay, mufcukr fibre, mufcukr coat, mufiu.hr 
 £&, nmfcuiar veins, mufcular arteries, &c._ 
 Muscular arteries, two arteries proceeding from the fubclav:- 
 ans and diftributed among the hind-mufcles of the neck. The 
 fame denomination is alfo given by fome to certain arteries of 
 the loins : thefe are divided into upper and under.' — Mufcu- 
 lares fuperiores, the upper-mufeulars, proceed from the large 
 artery, and lofe thcmfelves in the flefh. 
 
 The undcr-mufcukrs, mufcukr es inferiores, are branches of the 
 inner iliac arteries. 
 
 Muscular, mufcukris. Is alfo a name given to two arteries of 
 the thigh, the one called the interna l-mufcukr, as being diftri- 
 buted among the inner mufeks of the thigh ; the other the 
 external- mufcukr, becaufe it proceeds to the outer part. 
 
 Muscular fibres are the fine threads, or fibres, whereof the 
 body of mufcles is compofed. 
 
 Anatomifts are exceedingly divided as to the nature of thefe 
 fibres. Some will have them blood -veflels, viz. veins and ar- 
 teries ; others nerves, bfc. 
 
 Some reftrain mufcular fibres to the longitudinal and red, called 
 alfo pjlif fibres : the tranfverfe, and fpiral ramifications 
 wherewith the former are bound about, they call nervous 
 fibres. 
 
 Dr. Morgan endeavours to prove, that all 'he fibres which 
 enters the ftruiture and compofitiun of a mufcle, are endued 
 with an intrinfic elafticity, fpving, or power of contracting or 
 reftorins themfdves, as a given weight or force, by which they 
 may be ftretched ; and that this elafticity, or contractive refti- 
 tutive power being a natural inherent property of the fibres 
 thcmfelves, does not depend on the mixture, rarefaction, or 
 cfrervefcence of any fluids, or humours whatfoever. 
 Muscular flefh. See mufcukr Flesh. 
 
 Muscular membrane, membrana Musculosa, is a mem- 
 brane by fome fuppofed to inveft the whole body, immediately 
 under the adipofe membrane ; called alfo fannicidus canwfus, 
 and membrana mi fcuhrvm communis. See Panniculu s carnofus, 
 and Membrana communis. 
 
 Muscular motion, is ufed for voluntary or fpontaneous mo- 
 tion } thus called, becaufe effected by means of the contraction 
 and dilatation of the mufcles. 
 
 The mecbanifm of a mufcle we have delivered at large; but 
 how this mechanifm isemplnved to produce motion in animals, 
 is matter of endleft doubt. — The generality of writers fuppofe 
 the belly of the mujele to be fwclled, and thus its extremes 
 brousht nearer ; and confequently the part it is fixed to, 
 moved. 
 
 The ftructure of a mufcle we have (hewn to be fuch as renders 
 it capable of being fwelled and contracted, and by that means 
 of having its extremities brought nearer each other, which is 
 its proper action : but how the contraction is effected, is the 
 point in difpute. 
 
 The generality account for it from the influx of fome fluid 
 into the mufcular fibres. — Others folve it from the natural 
 elafticity of thofe fibres, — And the retainers to a fluid, are 
 fub- divided as to the particular fluid employed for this pur- 
 pofe. 
 
 From the ftrufture and phenomena of the mufcles above laid 
 down, we may gather the properties of the hidden caufe that 
 moves the mufclts \ vi%. l/i, That it may either be prefent or 
 abfent in a mufcle; and therefore, idlp, May enter into it, and 
 go out again : i. e. $dly, It is derived to it from fome other 
 place, and panes from it elfe where. : and, \thly, All this, by 
 an inftantaneous direction of the will : tfhly, And in the fame 
 moment of time, wherein the mufcle is contracted, it muft pafs 
 from within outwards to every point of the furface of the muf- 
 cle ; that is, &thly, It muft be at once equally diftributed 
 throughout the whole belly of the mufch : and therefore, jtbly, 
 It muft fill and dilate the membranes of the fibres, change them 
 from an oblong into a more fpherical figure, lengthen their lefs 
 diameter, and diminifti their longer, and fo draw the tendons 
 nearer to each other: La/lly, That it muft have its rife from 
 the cerebrum and cerebellum, the origin of the nerves, and be 
 powerful enough to overcome thofe obftacles which here ftrong- 
 ly refift it. — On the whole, then, it muft be a moft fluid, 
 fubtile, active body, and muft be applied with fome energy 
 within the mufcle. Now all the fluids in the body that have 
 any pretenfions to thefe properties, that are any way qualified to 
 produce the phenomena above, or that have been alleged as the 
 caufe of mufcukr motion, are the animal fpirits (or, as our later 
 writers call it, the nervous juice) and the blood: but as each of 
 thefe fin^lv fcarce appears adequate to the effect, our authors 
 have fuppofed them to mix in the mufcles, and each to contribute 
 to the action of the other. — But the animal fpirits feem to have 
 the greateft number of advocates, though their exiftence was 
 never yet fully proved ; befides that, the manner of their 
 action, as affigned by authors, feems to be arbitrary and pre- 
 carious. 
 
 Some, with the learned Dr. Willis, make the tendons a recep- 
 tacle for the fpirits, which are railed at the inftigation of the 
 will, and feat thence into the belly of the muffle i where meet- 
 
 ing with the active particles of the blood, they ferment, and 
 caufe an intumefcence, and fo contract the mufcle. 
 Others, among whom are Des Cartes and bis followers, allow 
 no receptacle for them but the brain, and fend them thence 
 through the nerves like lightening at every fummons of the will; 
 becaufe they cannot allow the tendons to be a proper lodgment, 
 on account of the clofenels of their contexture, nor can believe 
 that the animal fpirits fiiould remain there unactive. 
 Others, among whom is M. du Verney, imagine this intumef- 
 cence may be without fermentation, by the animal fpirits, and 
 a juice from the arteries running into the tendons and flefhy 
 fibres, and extending them ; as ropes, fitft. fwell in moift wea- 
 ther. Dr. Chirac, and othws, maintain, that every mufcular 
 fibre, befides its vein, artery, and nerve, has alfo from fpace to 
 fpace, fevera! little cavities, or pores of an oblong figure, when 
 the mufcle is flack or flaccid ; and that the blood circulating thro* 
 the mufile, is continually depofiting into thofe pores a fulpbu- 
 rous recrement, abounding with alkaline falts ; which meeting 
 with the fpirits that flow by the nerves into thofe fame oval 
 pores, their nitro-aereal particles ferment with the laline ones 
 of the fulphurous recrement, and, by a kind of cxplofton, Co 
 diftend the pores, as to change the long oval figure into a round 
 one : and thus the mufcle is contracted. 
 
 Borelli takes the fibres of a mufcle to confift of a chain of 
 rhombus's or lozenges, whofe areas are enlarged or contracted 
 as the nervous juice, with the Ivmpha and blood, is let into, 
 or forced out of them, at the inftanceof the foul. 
 Dr. Croon fuppoies every fltfhv fibre to confift of a chain of 
 little blidders, or globules, communicating with each other ; 
 into which the nutritious juice, and one or two more liquors 
 entering, do, by means of the natural heat, make an effervef- 
 cence ; by which the body of the mufcle is extended, fcjffi 
 Dr. Cheyne takes the final! fibrillar of the mufcles to he fo many 
 (lender elaftic canal?, bound about bv fmall tranfverfe parallel 
 thread?, which divide the hollow nbrilla: into fo many elaftic 
 Cyftea or veficulse, which are otbicillar, being formed of two 
 concave (cements of a fphere ; into every one of which veficuls*, 
 an artery, vein, and nerve enter ; the two firft to carry and 
 bring back the blood, the laft to carry thither the liquidum 
 nervofum, or nervous juice, which mingling in the vehcular, 
 with the blood, does, by its acid pointed particles, prick and 
 break the globules of the blood, fo as to let out the imprifbned 
 elaftic air {contained in the globules) into thofe little veficukE; 
 whereby the elaftic cells of the fibres will be blown up, and 
 thereby their longitudinal diameters from cell to cell ftraitned : 
 and this muft contract the length of the whole fibre, and fa 
 move that organ to which one of the tendons is fixed. 
 Dr. Keil, not contented with this theory, fets up another, 
 wherein the fame ftructurc of the mufcle is fuppofed, and the 
 fame fluids : viz. the blood and nervous juice, are allowed the 
 agents or inftruments of contraction: but inftead of the pun- 
 gent particles of the nervous juice piercing the globules of blood, 
 and fetting at liberty the imprifbned elaftic aura, he refolvcs 
 the whole into the power of attraction. 
 According to this author, the diftenfion of the veficles of the 
 fibres is not owing to their being filled with a greater quantity 
 of blood and animal fpirits than before their contraction ; but 
 to a rarefaction arifing from the mixture of thofe two fluids, by 
 means whereof they come to poffefs a greater fpace. 
 To account for this rarefaction of the blood and fpirits in the 
 veficles of the mufcular fibres, he fuppofes a fmall globule of 
 air between the particles of a fluid, which particles haveaftrong 
 attractive force, whereby they endeavour to come together : 
 by prefting every way equally on the globule of air, they will 
 hinder its efcape from between them. But the force whereby 
 they endeavour to come together, being vaftly greater than that, 
 of gravity, the globule of air muft be confiderably condenfed ; 
 but the force of elafticity being proportional to that of its con- 
 denfation, the force wherewith the airy globule endeavours to 
 expand itfelf, will likewife be vaftly great : fo that if the nifus 
 of the particles of the fluid to come together Ihould be taken 
 off, the air between them would expand itfelf with a confider- 
 able force. Now, if upon the mixing of another fluid, the 
 particles of the firft fluid be more ftrongly attracted to the parti- 
 cles of this other fluid, than they were before to one another, 
 their nifus to one another will then ceafe, and give the inclofed 
 globule of air liberty to expand itfelf; fo that the whole fluid 
 will take up a greater fp^ce than it did before: but when the 
 particles of the two globules come to be united together, they 
 will again inclofe the globule of air that lies between them; 
 and, by their mutual attraction, foon bring it to its former ftata 
 of condenfation. 
 
 Now, that the blood contains a great number of globules of 
 air, is evident from the great quantity that it yields in the air- 
 pump ; and that the particles of the blood have a ftrong attrac- 
 tive force, cannot well be denied. — Upon the meeting, then, 
 of thefe two fluids in the veficles of the fibres, the nervous 
 juice, confiding of (mailer particles than the blood, muft, 
 from what Sir I. Newton has proved of the rays of light, at- 
 tract the particles whereof they are compofed more Strongly 
 
 than 
 
M US 
 
 MVS 
 
 than thofe do one another; and, confequently, the nifus of 
 thofe particles to one another ceafing, the condcrifed globule of 
 air will expand itfelf with a confiderable force ; whereby each 
 vefiel of the fibre will be diftended, and confequently, there- 
 fore, fhortened ; i.e. the whole mufcle will be contracted : but 
 when the particles of the blood are well mixed with the nerv- 
 ous fluid, they will both together inclofe the globule of air 
 again, and comprefs it into as fmall a fpace as it was before: 
 and the contraction of the mufcle mull immediately ceafe, till 
 frcfti blood and fpirits, ftill fucceeding one another, continue 
 the inflation of the veficles. But when a mufcle has been 
 firongly attracted for fome time, the quantity of fpirits fpent 
 being more than can be prepared in the fpace of time by the 
 glands , which fupply its nerves, the inflation of the veficles 
 muft fall, and the mufcle grow feeble and weak. — And thus 
 that ingenious author conceives the veficles to be diftended 
 without any ebullition or effervefcence ; and their diftention 
 to ceafe without any precipitation, or flying-ofF of the aereal 
 globules through the pores of the mufcles. 
 He proceeds to mew how artfully the mechanifm of the fibres 
 is contrived for the neceffary contraction. — It is a known ex- 
 periment, that a bladder blown up and diftended as to its capa- 
 city, but contracted as to length, will raife a weight to fome 
 determined height: two bladders, therefore, thus blown up, 
 and communicating with each other, he argues, will raife the 
 weight double the height, and three bladders thrice the height, 
 £sV. fo that if there were a firing of bladders joined together, 
 of equal bulk, and like figures, the fpace through which the 
 weight would rife would be proportionable to the number of 
 bladders, i.e. to the length of the firing. — .Now each fibre of 
 a mufcle confiding of an infinite number of fmall veficles, re- 
 fembles a chain or firing of bladders ; fo that the contraction 
 of the mufcle is always proportionable to the length of its fibres. 
 Farther, the veficles whereof the fibres confift being very fmall, 
 though one large bladder might raife a weight as high as feveral 
 fmall ones, yet the quantity of claftic fluid ufed in the inflation 
 would, in that cafe, be much greater than where the weight is 
 railed by a firing of fmall ones. 
 
 For,fuppofing two bladders of fimilar figures, but the diame- 
 ter of the one to be triple that of the other ; then will the one 
 require twenty- feven times the quantity of elaftic fluid to ex- 
 pand it that the other does, and will alfo expand to twenty- 
 feven times the fpace ; and yet three of the lefs bladders joined 
 together (he goes on) will raife the weight to the fame height 
 that the bigger one does ; but with nine times lefs expence of 
 elaftic fluid, and take up but a ninth part of the fpace. — By 
 diminifhing, therefore, the bignefs of the veficles, and increas- 
 ing their number, the force required to diftend them, and the 
 diftention itfelf, may be diminifhed in any given proportion, 
 and may come at laft to be infenflble. Suppofe a bladder, v- gr. 
 of a determinate bignefs, can raife a weight a foot ; an hun- 
 dred bladders, whole diameters are each an hundredth part of 
 the former, being blown up, will raife the weight to the fame 
 height; but the force required to inflate them, and the fwell- 
 ing of all put together, will be ten thoufand times lefs than of 
 the large one. 
 
 Again, if a weight, of a determined bignefs, can be raifed to 
 a certain height by a bladder, or one firing of bladders, to 
 ■which the weight is tied ; twice that weight may be raifed by 
 two fuch bladders, or firings; thrice by three, bV. and, con- 
 fequently, the weight a mufcle can raife will be always as the 
 number of its fibres, i. e. as its thicknefs, fuppofing the diften- 
 tion of the veficles equal, and the abfolute ftrength of one 
 mufcle to that of another, as their bulks. — Thus much for the 
 once flourifhing fyftem of the chain of bladders; which being 
 liable to very great difficulties as to the gco me tricky of it, has 
 of late given way to others. 
 
 Dr. Boerhaave, finding all the requifites before laid down for 
 the action of the mufcles in the nervous juice, or animal fpi- 
 rits, and in no other fluid in the body, thinks it necdlefs to 
 have recourfe to a mixture of fevcral liquors where one will do ; 
 and therefore makes no fcruple to attribute the whole bufinefs 
 to it alone. — The manner of action he conceives thus : 
 Suppofe the fpirit, from any caufe, to be moved more fwiftly 
 from the origin of fome one nerve, than through the reft; the 
 influx will here be greater into the mufcular fibre open to this 
 nerve than into another: this will therefore be more dilated, 
 and the other phenomena, mentioned above, will fucceed : 
 the fame caufe continuing, the effect will be increafed ; fo 
 that, in a moment of time, the whole will be fwelled up, and, 
 while the fame determination lafts, will remain contracted : and 
 this obtaining in an infinite number of fibrillar at once, the 
 whole mufcle will be inflated. 
 
 Hence it neceffarily follows, that, as the celerity is increafed in 
 one nerve, the motion will be lefs in another: this, therefore, 
 being relaxed, the effort in contraction will be the ftron^er : 
 ior which reaibn, all the turgid fibres of a mufcle will com- 
 prefs the intermediate fpaces and blood with a great force; 
 whence the veins will be emptied, and the arteries, being com- 
 pelled, will repel the grofl'er, that is, the red parts of the 
 blood, but will drive the more fubtil parts, by the force of the 
 heart, and their own, into the molt minute canals 5 and thus the 
 Vol. II. 
 
 cfuor being expelled, the whole body of the mufcle will be 
 found to act by a fubtil humour concurring from the nerves 
 and arteries. 
 
 Thus are all the phenomena accounted for, without any other 
 aflumption than an accelerating force in the origin of the 
 nerves; which is common to allhypothefes, and which cannot 
 be traced any farther. 
 
 All other fyftems, therefore, Boerhaave abfolutely rejects; 
 nor makes the leafi account of Galen's incorporeal power in- 
 flating the mufcles; the nitrous fpirit of the nerves mixin^ 
 with the oil of the blood, and fo rarefying it; the acid parts 
 of the nervous juice mixing with the alkalious ones of the 
 blood; the ebullition of the air, and the arterious juice; and 
 the increafe or diminution of attractive force of the minute 
 corpufcles of the humours; as repugnant to fenfe, experience, 
 the laws of matter, and of mixture, and to the phenomena of 
 the mufcles. 
 
 Dr. Aftruc has gone a good way towards proving the nervous 
 juice alone concerned in mufcular motion ; and that the blood 
 has no ftiare at all in it; by the following experiment, which 
 he tried feveral times with the fame fuccefs. 
 Cutting open the abdomen of a live dog, and removing the in- 
 teftines out of the way, he bound up the aorta, where it diva- 
 ricates into the iliac arteries, with a thread, fo as to conftringe 
 each iliac and the liypogaftric artery very clofely ; then, fewing 
 up the epigaftric mufcles, he found the fen fat ion and motion 
 flill as brifk and vivid in the dog's pofteriors, as before : fo 
 that, when once fct at liberty, he flood on all four, and walked 
 with his ufual eafe and firmnefs ; though, it is certain, there 
 could not be one drop of blood conveyed to thofe hind parts. 
 Aftruc, however, differs from Boerhaave in the manner where- 
 in this nervous juice acts; nor will he allow that celerity, where- 
 with the mufcles act at the command of the will, to be owing 
 to the velocity of the juice fent through the nerve; but to an 
 impreflion given to one extremity of the thread, and commu- 
 nicated through all the intermediate parts to the other extre- 
 mity ; fuppofing the nerves, in their natural ftate, to be turgid, 
 and full of fpirits: fo that, if the extremity in the fenfory be 
 ever fo little prefled by the acceftion of any new fpirit, a3 much 
 will be inftantly expelled at the other extreme ; and, vice verfa, 
 a fmall impreflion given to the outer extremity cf the nerve 
 will immediately move the other extreme open to the fenfory, 
 fo that part of it will drop out : which accounts for fenfatioii, 
 as well as mufcular motion. See Sensation. 
 Laftly, Dr. Lower, and Mr. Cowper, and after them Dr. 
 Morgan, and others of the lateft writers on that Subject, fetting 
 afide all adventitious fluids, account for mufcular motion from 
 the intrinfic elafticity of the nervous fibrillse contracting and 
 reftoring themfelves againft the ftretching force of the circu- 
 lating blood. 
 
 1 his fyftem Morgan endeavours to evince from the following 
 confiderations. — 1°. All the vefiels in an animal, confuting of 
 flexible, diftradtilc fibres, are in a ftate of tenfion, i.e. are 
 both ftretched tranfverfly and longitudinally by their contained 
 fluids: thus, e. gr. let a vein or artery be cut, and the oppofite 
 fides of the veffel will contract, and come nearly to a contact 
 about the axis ; while the two ends, receding both ways, leave 
 a chafm: which fhews that the vefiel, while in its natural 
 ftate, was diftended both ways ; and, confequently, that con- 
 traction, in all their dimenlions, is the natural intrinfic action 
 of the vefiels or fibres. 
 
 And the fame might be deduced, a priori, from the growth, 
 of animals : for, by the increafed quantity of the accumulated 
 blood, the vefiels muft neceffarily be enlarged every way. 
 Now, againft this diftending power of the fluids, the fulid 
 mufcular fibrillar will continually exert a contractive or reftitu- 
 tive force, by which they are kept in their proper ftate of 
 tenfion. 
 
 2°. That this contractive power of the mufcular fibres is a na- 
 tural intrinfic property of the fibres themfelves, and does not 
 depend on any mixture, or mutual aftion of fluids, is evident 
 from hence, that thefe fibres retain the fame property, after 
 they are taken out of the body, and dried, as we fee in thongs, 
 cat-gut, and other fuchtike cords or firings cut out of the muf- 
 cular coats and fkins of animals, which may be ftretched out 
 to a confiderable length beyond their natural ftate; and when 
 the ftretching force or weight is taken off, they will immedi- 
 ately contract again by their native fpring. 
 3 Q . While a mufcle contracts, the blood is fqueezed out; and, 
 during its ftate of contraction, it is more hard and folid than be- 
 fore ; that is, it contains lefs blood, when contracted, than when 
 ftretched ; which fhews, that the contraction cannot be by the 
 addition of another fluid from the nervesmixing with the blood 
 in the mufcles, 
 
 4 0 . No fuch fluid in the nerves could ever be found, as, beinc 
 mixed with the blood, would occalion fuch fermentation or ex- 
 panfion : but, fuppofing the mufcular cells thus inflated, no 
 fuch effect could follow as fhortening the mufcle in length, 
 and fwelling it in thicknefs; but the confequence muff be, 
 that the mufcle would be lengthened, as well as thickened ; 
 that is, it muft increafe its dimenlions proportionably every way, 
 which is the proper action of fluids on the folids. 
 
 oH h jf 
 
MVS 
 
 MVS 
 
 If, then, it be faid, that thcfe bladders, when the mufcle is 
 ftretched, are drawn into oblong fpheroids ; and when inflated, 
 by the mixture of the nervous fluid, reduced to a fpherical 
 figure, by which means their axes are fhortened, and their 
 conjugate diameters enlarged ; it is anfwered, that thofe fmall 
 veficles are foft, flexible, diftractile, and equally yielding every 
 way : and fince an included expanfive fluid muft prefs its con- 
 taining veflels equally yielding every way, and equally expan- 
 five ; a veflel, notwithstanding fuch diftention, muft retain its 
 natural figure, and be equally ftretched in al! directions. 
 Again, Since the blood circulates freely through thefe mufcular 
 cells, it is plain, that, as foon as they begin to inflate, it muft be 
 immediately pufhed forward with an increafed velocity m the 
 courfe of its circulation, which muft prevent any fuch inflation 
 in the mufcles. Before thefe veficles, therefore, can be dif- 
 tcnded in the manner fuppofed, the exit of the fluid muft be 
 hindered; that is, the circulation muft be flopped. If any 
 one doubt of this, let him try whether he can blowup a blad- 
 der, or other veflel, that is open at both ends, and where the 
 expanfive fluid has as free an egrefs as ingrefs. 
 Thus much premifed, the natural action of a mufcle will be 
 eafily explained. From its ftrutfure it follows, that, on the 
 contra&ion of its tranfverfe and fpiral fibres, which are the ra- 
 mifications of the nerves, the longitudinal, red, and flefhy fi- 
 bres, or blood-veflels., which conftitute the body of themufcle, 
 muft neceflarily be fqueezed and drawn together, as being com- 
 pelled to follow the motion of thefe elaftic cords; by which 
 means the blood, being comprefled, muft be forced, with fome 
 jmpctuofity, through the mufcle, and propelled forward in the 
 courfe of its circulation. 
 
 Now if the blood fliould hereupon flop, and return no more 
 - to the mufcle, it is plain the mufcle muft for ever remain in 
 this contracted ftatc,as its proper and natural ftate of quiefcence, 
 to which it tends, and where itwould reft: but the blood, hav- 
 ing received a frefti impetus by the contraction, and returning 
 upon the mufcle, in the courfe of its circulation, again rufhes 
 into the blood-vefiels ; which being inlarged in all their dimen- 
 fions by the force of the returning blood, the tranfverfe and 
 fpiral nervous fibres muft be hereby ftretched, and the mufcle 
 extended; till, by this means, the blood-veflels being brought 
 to their natural extent, and, confequently, the diftending force 
 of the blood ceafing, the contractive power of the nerves be- 
 gins to act again, and reftore them, with the fame force by 
 ■which they were extended ; till the returning blood re-enters 
 the mufcle, tnd ftretches it again. 
 
 lAvsc\JLARccnfumpiio/i. See the article Consumption. 
 
 Muscular is alfo an appellation given to feveral veins; two 
 whereof come from the fkin and the hind-mufcles of the thigh, 
 and terminate in the fubclavians. 
 
 There are three others in the loins, alfo, called mufculares, and 
 diftinguifhed into upper, middle, and under: the firft terminates 
 in the trunk of the vena cava, and the two others open into 
 the external iliac vein. 
 
 Musculi aliformes. T |*Ali formes. 
 
 Muscvli amatorii. (, See J Amatorii. 
 
 Musculi anmtentcs. ( J Annuentes. 
 
 Musculi vermiformes, &c.J LVermiformes, &c. 
 
 MUSCULOUS. See the article Muscular. 
 
 MUSEUM, MOTE b" ION, was originally ufed to fignify a 
 place in the palace of Alexandria, which took up, at leaft, a 
 fourth part of the city; fo called, as being deftined and fet 
 apart to the mufes, and the fciences. 
 
 Here were lodged and entertained a great number of learned 
 men, who were divided into companies or colleges, according 
 to the fciences or fects whereof they were profeflors. — And to 
 each houfe or college was allotted a handfome revenue. — This 
 eftabliftiment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphia, who here 
 fixed his library. 
 
 Museum has hence pafied into a general denomination, and is 
 now applied to any place fet apart as a repofitory for things that 
 have fome immediate relation to the arts, or to the mufes. See 
 Repository, and Cabinet. 
 
 The Museum at Oxford, called the JJhmoIean mufeum, is a noble 
 pile erected at the expence of the univerfity, for the promoting 
 and carrying on feveral parts of curious and ufeful learning. — 
 It was began Sn 1679. and finifhed in 1683. at which time a 
 valuable collection of curiofities was prefented to the univerfity 
 by Elias Aflimole, Efq; and the fame day there repofitcd, and 
 afterwards digefted and put in a juft order by Dr. Plott, who 
 was conftituted firft keeper of the mufeum. 
 Divers confiderable acceflions have been fince made to the mu- 
 feum:, as of hieroglyphics, and other Egyptian antiquities, by 
 Dr. Huntingdon ; and of an intire mummy, by Mr. Goodyear ; 
 of a cabinet of natural rarities, by Dr. Eifter ; alfo, of divers 
 Roman antiquities, altars, medals, lamps, bfc. 
 Over the entrance of the mufeum is this infeription ; MU- 
 
 ■ SEUM ASHMOLEANUM, SCHOLA NATURALIS 
 HISTORIC, OFEIC1NA CHYMICA. 
 
 MUSES*, Musje, MOT2AI, fabulous divinities of the antient 
 heathens, who were fuppofed to piefide over the arts and fciences. 
 * The word, according to Phornutus, is derived from the Greek, 
 fiftuSct/, which fignifies the fame with ^»jTS/r ( tofearch: others 
 
 derive it from o\m-iSt%-, fimilar, or alike; all the fciences be-, 
 ing bound and united together. Eufebius derives it from [jlvzu, 
 to initiate, to inftruft ; Plato and Scaliger from (j-ctiua^Ai, obftc- 
 tricare, becaufe to them are attributed the invention of arts: 
 and it is they who produced them. Laltly, Heinfius and Voflius 
 derive it from the Hebrew, "IdfO mufar, fcience, difcipHna. — ■ 
 The mufes are called by various names; Camena, Heliconiades, 
 Parnajidts, Aonidcs, Pierides, Ptgafidu, Jga»ippidcs,Tbcfpiadej t 
 Libetbrides, and Cajlalides. 
 
 The antients admitted nine mufes, and made them the daught- 
 ers of Jupiter and Mnemofyne, or Memory. At firft, indeed, 
 their number was but three ; viz. Melete, Mneme, and Acede; 
 Greek words fignifying memory, finging, and meditation: 
 but a certain fculptor of Sicyon, having orders to make three 
 ftatues of the three mufes for the temple of Apollo, and mif- 
 taking his inftructions, made three feveral ftatues of each mufe : 
 thefe, however, were found fo beautiful, that they were all fet 
 up in the temple, and, from that time, they began to reckon 
 nine mufes : to whom Hefiod afterwards gave names ; viz. 
 Calliope, Clio, Erato, Thalia, Melpomene, Terpfs 'chore, Eu- 
 terpe, Polyhymnia, and Urania. 
 
 Each of thefe were fuppofed toprefide over their refpective art: 
 Calliope over heroic poetry; Clio over hiftory; Melpomene 
 over tragedy; Thalia over comedy; Euterpe over wind- 
 muiic ; Urania over aftronomy ; Terpfichore over the harp; 
 Erato the lute ; Polyhymnia rhetoric. 
 
 They are painted as young, handfome, and modeft ; agreeably 
 drefled, and crowned with flowers. Their ufual abodes were 
 about mount Helicon in Bceotia, and mount Parnaflus in Pho- 
 cis. Their bufinefs was, to celebrate the victories of the gods, 
 and to infpire and afiift the poets ; and hence the cuftom of in- 
 voking their aid at the beginning of a poem. 
 It muft not, however, be imagined that the deities, thus in- 
 voked, are confidered, even by the antient poets themfelves, as 
 divine perfons, from whom they expect any real help. Under 
 the name of mufe they pray for the genius of poetry, and all 
 the talents and circumftances neceflary for a happy execution 
 of their undertaking. 
 
 Their addreflcs to the mufes are mere allegories, and manners 
 of expreffing themfelves poetically : as when they make gods 
 of fleep, of fame, of revenge, and other natural and moral 
 things. 
 
 Accordingly, the mufes are of all ages, countries, and even of 
 all religions : there are chriftian as well as heathen mufes; La- 
 tin, Greek, Englifli, and French mufes. There are alfo new 
 mufes, which appear every day in favour of thofe who, difdain- 
 ing things too trite and common, chufe to ftrike out of the 
 road. 
 
 When Virgil wrote his eclogues, he invoked the Sicilian mufes t 
 becaufe he imitated Theocritus: and the Sicilian poet having 
 fucceeded, the Roman begged for a genius as happy as that of 
 this iflander. 
 
 The mufes of the poet Lucretius had never infpired any perfon 
 before him. It is plain, from the doctrine of his book, what 
 kind of divinity it was he invoked. He addreffes himfelf to 
 Venus ; but, at the fame time, tells us, that none of the deities 
 trouble themfelves with human affairs. His mufes, therefore, 
 muft of neceflity be mere allegories. 
 MUSHROOM, or Mushrom, in natural hiftory, a plant of a 
 form and ftructure very different from that of all other plants ; 
 long fuppofed to have neither feeds nor flowers. 
 There are various kinds of muflirooms ; and the vulgar call by 
 this name all that come under the general head of fungus's, by 
 the Greeks called [/.viaijsr. 
 
 They are all ufed with fome fufpicion, though fome are more 
 harmlefs, as well as more delicious, than others. Thofe ufed 
 among us are, mujl>rooms of the wood, called morilles ; and of 
 the meadows, called champignons ; which are gathered in autumn, 
 and efttcmed for their whitenefs above, their carnation under- 
 neath, and the fwcetnefs of their fmell. 
 
 Mr. Bradley mentions an hundred kinds of mufnrooms which he 
 has feen in England, befides thofe very numerous fmall ones 
 which conftitute the mouldinefs of liquors, fruits, &c. which 
 laft are fuch quick growers, that they arrive at perfection in 
 lefs than twelve hours. 
 
 The fungoides only differs from the fungus in its external form ; 
 the coralloides are alfo of the fame fpecies, though of a differ- 
 ent name, as being branched like coral; and truffles come alfa 
 under the fame kind. 
 
 Matthiolus mentions mujhrooms which weighed thirty pounds 
 each, and were as yellow as gold ; Fer. Imperatus tells us, he 
 faw fome which weighed above an hundred pounds apiece ; and, 
 to add no more, the Journal des fcavans furnifhes us with an ac- 
 count of fome, growing on the frontiers of Hungary, which, 
 made a full cart-load. 
 
 The origin and production of muflirooms has extremely puzzled 
 the botanifts: how a plant fhould be produced without a feed, 
 wasamyftery; and yet thebeft microfcopes of a long time were 
 not able to difcover any appearance of a feed ; and the manner 
 of cultivating this plant feemed alfo to make it ftill more pro- 
 bable, that it had not any. 
 
 M, Tournefort gives a very curious account of their culture, 
 
MVS 
 
 MVS 
 
 in the Memoirs of the royal academy, with the fubftance of 
 which we mall here prefent the reader. — All the fecret of 
 bringing up mujhrooms fpeedily and in abundance, confitts in 
 ranging balls of horfe-dung about the bignefs of the fift, in 
 lines, at the diftance of about three feet from each other, and 
 at the depth of one foot under ground, and covering thefe over 
 with mould, and that again with horfe-dung. 
 If this be done in April, in the beginning of Auguft the pieces 
 of dung will begin to whiten, and grow mouldy, being cover- 
 ed all over with little hairs, or fine white threads, branched, 
 and woven about the ftraws whereof the dung iscompoied. 
 The dung now lofes its former excrementitious fmell, and 
 fprcads an admirable odour of mujhrooms. 
 
 According to all appearance, thefe white threads are no other 
 than the open feeds or buds of mujhrooms, which feeds were 
 before inclofed in the dung, but in fofmall a compafs, that they 
 could not be perceived till after they had fhot themfelves into 
 little hairs. By degrees the extremity of thefe hairs grows 
 round into a kind of button, which fwelling by little and little, 
 at length opens itfelf into a mufliroom, whereof the lower part 
 is a kind of pedicle bearded in the place where it enters the 
 ground, and at the other end loaden with a roundifh capital 
 or head, in the manner of a calotte, which expands itfelf 
 without producing either feeds or flowers that are fenfible 
 the bottom is fprcad with laminae, which proceeding from the 
 centre to the circumference, may be called the leaves of the 
 mujhrooms. 
 
 At the foot of each mujbroom are found an infinite number of 
 little ones, not bigger than the head of a pin, when the others 
 are at their growth. The buds of the mujhrooms t or the white 
 hairs of the dung, prefer ve themfelves a long time without 
 rotting, if kept dry ; and if laid again in the ground, will 
 produce new mujhrooms. 
 
 Mujhrooms^ then, feem nothing elfe but the produce of what 
 we call the mouldhiefs of horfe-dung : but what analogy is there 
 between thefe two things ? or how fhould fo artful and deli- 
 cate a ftrudture as this of a plant refult from the mere fortui- 
 tous concourfe of a few juices, differently agitated ? 
 It feems paft doubt then, that mujhrooms, like all other plants, 
 have their origin in feeds : now we know that the feeds of 
 plants cannot vegetate every-where ; there are firft required 
 certain juices proper to penetrate their coats, to excite a fer- 
 mentation, and to join themfelves to the little parts thereof, 
 and increafethem. Hence arifes that infinite diverfity of places, 
 wherein different fpecies of this plant are produced. There are 
 fome which will only grow on fome other particular plants, 
 whofe trunk, bark, or roots, alone have the juices proper for 
 them. 
 
 What M. Tournefort mentions from MefT. Lemery and Mery, 
 is ftill more furprifing : there is a fpecies of mujlirooms which 
 grow on the fillets and bandages applied to the fractures, tsfc. 
 of the patients in the Hotel-Dieu. After which it will not 
 be at all furprifing, that horfe-dung, prepared in the manner 
 M. Tournefort mentions, fhould be a foil or matrix capable of 
 making common mujhrooms grow. 
 
 Kence it feems to follow, that the feeds of mujhrooms fhould 
 be fpread in an infinite number of places where they do 
 not vegetate, and, in a word, throughout the whole earth ; 
 and the fame may be faid of a great number of other plants. 
 It muff; be owned, the imagination is fhocked at fuch a pro- 
 digious multitude of different feeds thrown every-where at ran- 
 dom, and in many places to no purpofe ; but a little reafon' 
 ing will put the matter of fact paft doubt. 
 Diofcorides tells us, he was allured, that pieces of the bark of 
 the poplar-tree being laid in the ground over horfe-dung, there 
 would grow out of them very good mujhrooms. Rue! fays, 
 that by boring the trunk of a white poplar-tree near the root, 
 and wafhing it with leaven fteeped in water, mujhrooms (bring 
 out of it, as it were, inftantly. He adds, that the hillocks 
 produce feveral kinds of mujhrooms, if the flubble be burnt on 
 them in the rainy feafon. 
 
 M. Tournefort tells us, on his own knowlege, that where the 
 Hubble is burnt, as in Provence, Languedoc, and the iflands 
 of the Archipelago, there arife great quantities of black pop- 
 pies^ in the firft autumnal rains, which difappear the year fol- 
 lowing ; fo that they are never found but on burnt lands. And 
 we know, that after the burning of London, the ground, as 
 jar as the fire reached, fhot up with vaft quantities of eryfimum 
 latifolmm majus glabrum. One of the chief reafons, if not 
 the only one, why mountains produce plants different from 
 the plains or valleys, and places become fenny, from the fame 
 places when they were dry, is the difference in the nutritious 
 juices found in thofe places. Without this, how fhall we ac- 
 count for the origin of mifietoe, or hypocyftus, which are 
 never known to grow in the earth, at leaft without adhering to 
 fome other plant; but the one grows on trees, and the other 
 to the root of the cyftus ? why do the ivy and vine of Canada, 
 pelhtory polypody, the fpecies of capillaries, grow only on 
 the trunks of trees, on walls, and in the clefts of rocks, unlefs 
 it be, that the juices of thofe places are the beft adapted to 
 them r 
 
 Thefe and other inconteftable fafls prove plainly both the vaft 
 multitude of feeds difperfed every-where, and the necefTity of 
 certain circumftances to make them vegetate. 
 If to this fpeculation on the invifible feeds of plants, we joiri 
 that of the invifible eggs of infects, which muft be allowed 
 equal thereto, the earth will be found full of an inconceivable 
 infinity of animals and vegetables, perfectly formed, and de- 
 figned, as it were, in miniature, and only waiting for certain 
 favourable circumftances to enable them to make their appear- 
 ance in large. How rich then muft the hand be, that hasfown 
 with fo much profufion ! 
 
 We have been the more particular on this head, on account 
 of the oddnefs of the phenomena j and becaufe what is here 
 faid of mujhrooms, will give light into the generation of all 
 other vegetables, EsV. whofe feeds are yet undifcovered. 
 Dr. Lifter at length found out the feeds of thefe mujhrooms : 
 be inftances particularly in the fungus porofus eraffus magnua 
 I. B. the texture of whofe gills is like a paper pricked full of 
 pin-holes. Thefe gills, he makes no doubt, are the very 
 flower and feed of this plant ; when it is ripe, the gills are 
 eafily fcparable from the reft of the head, each feed being di- 
 ftincf from the others, and having its impreffion in the head of 
 the mujliroom, juft as the feed of an artichoke hath in the bottom 
 of it : the bigger end of the feeds is full and round, and they 
 are difpofed in a fpiral order like thofe of the artichoke : and 
 the fame he thinks will hold of all other mujhrooms, however 
 differently figured. If it happen thatthefe, when fown, prove 
 fterile, and do not produce their kind, it is no wonder, there 
 being whole genus's of plants that come up, and flower, and 
 feed, yet their feed was never known to produce plants of 
 their kind, being in wrong ground, no more than a barren, 
 volatile duft, as that of all the orchides, or bee-flowers, is 
 faid to be. See Supplement, article Fungus. 
 MUSIC*, MOT2IKH, thefcienceoffound,confidered as capable 
 of producing melody, or harmony ; or, the art ofdifpofing 
 and conducting founds, confidered as grave and acute j and 
 of proportioning among themfelves, and feparating them by 
 juft intervals, pleafing to the fenfe. 
 
 * The word is fuppofed originally formed from nufa, tnufe j the 
 mufes being fuppofed to be the inventors thereof. Kircher- 
 however, will have it take its name from an Egyptian word, 
 as fuppofing its reiteration after the flood to have begun there. 
 
 by reafon of the reeds, &c. on the banks of the Nile.— . 
 
 Hefychius tells us, the Athenians gave the name mafic, umrtm, 
 to every art. 
 
 Mr. Malcolm defines muftc a fcience, that teaches how founds 
 under certain mcafures of tune and time, may be produced' 
 and fo ordered or difpofed, as that either in confonance or 
 fucceffion, or both, they may raife agreeable fenfations. 
 Mufic naturally divides itfelf into fpeculative and praBical 
 
 Speculative Music is the knowlege of the materia mufica] or 
 how to produce founds in fuch relations of tune and time as 
 fhall be agreeable in confonance or fucceffion, or both. ' 
 By which we do not mean the actual production "of thefe 
 founds by an inftrument or voice, which is merely the mecha- 
 nical or effective part ; but the knowlege of the various rela- 
 tions of tune and time, which are the principles out of which 
 the pleafure fought derives. 
 
 Praakal Music is that which fhews how thefe principles are to 
 be applied ; or how founds, in the relations they bear tOfflfcft 
 (as thofe are determined in the fpeculative part) may be or 
 dered, and varioufly put together in fucceffion and confonance 
 10 as to anfwer the end. s 
 And this we call the art of compofition, which is properly the 
 practical part of muftc. J 
 Some add a third branch, viz. inflrumentalmufc, or the know- 
 lede of instruments ; but as this depends altogether on the 
 firft, and is only an application or expreffion of it, it cannot 
 come regularly under the definition, and confidently is no 
 part of the divifton of the fcience. 
 
 The firfl branch, which is the contemplative part, divides 
 itfelf into thefe two, viz. the knowlege of the relations and 
 meajures of tune, and the doclrine of time. 
 The former is properly what the antients call harmonica, or 
 the doctrine of harmony in founds, as containing an explica- 
 tion of the grounds, with the various meafures and degrees of 
 the agreement of founds, in refpect of their tune. 
 The latter is what they called rhythmlca, becaufe it treats of 
 the number of founds or notes with refpect to time ; contain- 
 ing an explication of the meafures of long and fhort, or forift 
 and flow, in the fucceffion of founds. 
 
 \hefecond branch, or the practical part of mufic, as naturally 
 divides into two parts, anfwering to the parts of the firft. 
 That correfponding to the harmonica, the antients called ms- 
 lopreia, becaufe it contains the rules of making fongs, with 
 refpect to tune, and harmony of founds ; though we have 
 no reafon to think the antients had any thing like compofition 
 in parts. 
 
 That which anfwers to the rhythmica, they call rhythmop&la, 
 containing rules for the application of their numbers and time. 
 
 We 
 
MVS 
 
 MVS 
 
 We find a ftrange diverfity in the antient writers, as to the 
 
 evtent. divifion, &c. of tmpC. 
 H rme's clones m «> to be the knowledge of the 
 
 ^ WaTl hn » which is alfo the dodrine of the Pythago- 
 rean fcho'l and of the Platonifts, who teach, that every 
 5S» in the univerfe is ror/r.— Agreeable to which wide fenfe, 
 fome divide mufic into divine and mundane. 
 
 Divine Music is that resetting the order and harmony which 
 obtains among the celeftial minds. 
 
 A&WaM Music is that which refpeas the relations and order 01 
 every thing elfe in the univerfe. 
 
 Though Plato, by divine mufic underftands that which exifts 
 in tke divine mind, viz. thofe archetypal ideas of order and 
 fymmetry, according to which God formed all things.— And 
 ' as this order exifts in the mundane creatures, he calls it mun- 
 dane mufic. . r 
 This lalt fpecies the antients again fubdividcd into lour, va 
 Elementary Music, or the harmony of the elements of things. 
 C,-M,WMusic, or the mufic of the /;for« i comprehending the 
 order and proportions in the magnitudes, diftances and motions 
 of the heavenly bod.es, and the harmony of the founds refult- 
 ing from thofe motions. ... r .v„ 
 Human Music, which confifts chiefly in the harmony of the 
 faculties of the human foul, and its various paffions ; and is 
 alfo confidered in the proportion, temperament, and mutui.1 
 
 dependence of the parts of the body. Laftly, _ 
 
 Music properly fi called, which has fonts objefl, motion, con 
 fidered as under certain regular meafures and proportions, b) 
 which it afteas the fenfes in an agreeable manner. 
 Now as motion belongs to bodies, and as found ,s the eftca 
 of motion, and cannot be without it, but all motion does not 
 produce found ; hence this lafl branch of mufic became farther 
 fubdividcd. , . A 
 
 Where the motion is without found, or as it is only the object 
 of fiMir, it was either called mufica orcheftnea, or faltateria, 
 which contains the rules for the regular motions of dancing.— 
 Or mufica hypocritica, which refpeds the motions and geftures 
 of the pantomimes. : 
 When the motion is perceived only by the ear, i.e. when 
 found is the objeft of mufic, there were three fpecies ; vtz. 
 Harmonica, which confiders the differences and proportions 
 with refpeft to grave and acute.— Rhythmics, which refpeas 
 the proportion of the founds as to time, or the fwiftnefs and 
 downers of their fucceffions. And Metrica, which be- 
 longs properly to the poets, and refpeas the art of making 
 ■Verfes. ■ ' . '■ "'■ . 
 
 Ariftides Qiiintilhnus, Bacchius, and fome other antient 
 writers, define mufic the knowlege of finging, and of the 
 things belonging thereto ; which they explain by the motions 
 of the voice and body i as if the finging confided only in the 
 different tones of the voice. ; , 
 
 The fame Ariftides, confidering mufic in the largeft fenfe of 
 the word, divides it into contemplative and active. The firft, 
 he fays, is either natural or artificial— The natural is either 
 arithmetical, which confiders the proportion of numbers ; or 
 phyficat, which examines the order of the things of nature. 
 The artificial he divides as above, into harmmica, rhythmica, 
 and metrica. , . , . , 
 
 The aBive which is the application of the artificial, as either 
 enuntiative (as in oratory) ; organical (or jnftrumental 
 performance) ; cdical (for voice and finging 0 hypocritical, 
 in the motions of the pantomimes.— To which fome add hy- 
 draulical, though in reality no more than a fpecies of the or- 
 ganical ; in which water is ufed, for the producing or modi- 
 fying of found. ..... 
 
 Porphyry makes another divifion of mufic, taking it in the li- 
 mited fenfe, as having motion both dumb and fonorous for its 
 objea ; and withoutdiftinguifhing the fpeculative and praaical, 
 he makes ils parts thefe fix, vise, rhythmica, for the motions 
 of dancing ; metrica, for the cadence and recitation ; arganua, 
 for the praaice of inftruments ; poetica, for the numbers and 
 feet of verfes ; hypocritica, for the geftures of the pantomimes ; 
 and harmonica, for finging. 
 
 The mufical faculties, as they call them, are mclopaeia, which 
 gives rules for the tones of the voice or inftrument ; rhythmo- 
 pcaia, for motions; mipefis, for making veifes. See Po£- 
 
 Mttfic appears to have been one of the moft antient of arts : 
 and of all others, vocal mufic muft undoubtedly have been the 
 
 nr fl kinj, For man had not only the various tones of his own 
 
 voice to make his obfervations on, before any other art or in- 
 ffrument was found out, but had the various natural drains of 
 birds, to give him occafion to improve his own voice, and the 
 modulations of founds it was capable of. See Vocal. 
 Of many antient authors who agree in this conjeaure, we 
 ftiall only mention Lucretius, who fays, 
 
 At liquidas avium voces imitarier ore 
 Ante fuit multo, quam levia carmina cantu 
 Concclclirare homines pojfcnt, aureifque juvare. 
 The firft invention of ftringed inftruments the fame poet af- 
 crihes to the obfervation of the winds whiffling in the hollow 
 reeds. 
 
 As for other kinds of inftruments, there were fo many occa- 
 fions for cords or firings, that men could not be long in ob- 
 ferving their various founds, which might give rife to ftringed 
 inftruments. 
 
 And for the pulfatile inftruments, as drums and cymbals, they 
 might arife from the obfervation of the naturally hollow noife 
 of concave bodies. 
 
 Plutarch, in one place, afcribes the firft invention of mufic to 
 the god Apollo ; and, in another, to Amphion, the fon of Ju- 
 piter and Antiope. This laft, however, is pretty generally al- 
 lowed to have been the firft who brought mufic into Greece, 
 and to have been the inventor of the lyre. — The time he lived 
 in is not agreed upon. 
 
 To him fiicceeded Chiron, the demi-god ; Demodocus ; 
 Hermes Trifme^iftus ; Olympus; Orpheus, whom fome make 
 the firft introducer of mufic into Greece, and the inventor of 
 the lyra; to whom add Phemius, and Terpander, who was 
 contemporary with Lycurgus, and fet his laws to mufic. To 
 him fome attribute the firft inftitution of mufical modes, and 
 the invention of the lyre : laflly, Thales ; and Thamyris, 
 who is faid to have been the firft inventor of inftrumentaUna- 
 fic without finging. 
 
 Thefe were the eminent muficians before Homer's time : 
 others, of a later date, were, Lafus Hermionenfis, Melanippi- 
 des, Philoxenus, Timotheus, Phrynnis, Epijjonius, Lyfander, 
 Simmicus, and Diodorus ; who were all confiderable improvers 
 
 of mufic. Lafus is faid to have been the firft author who wrote 
 
 on mufic in the time of Darius Hyflafpis; Epigonius invemed 
 an inftrument, of forty firings, called the epigonum; Simmi- 
 cus, alfo, invented an inftrument, called fimmicium, of unity 
 five firings ; Diodorus improved the tibia, by adding new 
 holes ; and Timotheus the lyre, by adding a new firing ; for 
 which he was fined by the Lacedaemonians. 
 As the accounts we have of the inventors of mufical inftru- 
 ments among the antients are veryobfeure ; fo are alfo the ac- 
 counts what thofe inftruments were ; we fcarce knowing any- 
 thing of moft of them befides the bare name. 
 The^general divifion of inftruments is, into ftringed injlruments, 
 wind injlruments, and thofe of the pulfatile tind.—Ol /hinged in- 
 jlruments, we hear of the lyra or cithara, the pfatterium, trigo- 
 num, fambuca, petlis, magas, barbiton, tejludo, epiganium, Jlm- 
 micium, and pandoron, which were all ftruck with the hand, or 
 a plectrum ; and which fee in their places. 
 Of wind injlruments, we hear of the tibia, fifiula, hydraulic 
 organs, tubes, cornua, and liluus. 
 
 The pulfatile inftruments were, the tympanum, cymbalum, cn- 
 pitaculum, tintinnabulum, erotalum, and fijlrum. 
 Mufic has ever been in the highefl efteem in all ages, and 
 among all people ; nor could authors exprefs their opinion of 
 it ftrongly enough, but by inculcating, that it was ufed in hea- 
 ven, and was one of the principal entertainments of the gods, 
 and the fouls of the bleficd. . 
 The effefls afcribed ro it by the antients are almoft miracu- 
 lous: by means hereof, difeafes are faid to have been cured, 
 unchaftity correaed, feditions quelled, paffions raifed and 
 calmed, and even madnefs occafioned.^Athena:us affures us, 
 thatantiently all laws, divine and civil, exhortations to virtue, 
 the knowlege of divine and human things, lives and aBions- 
 of illuftrious men, were written in verfe, and publickly fung 
 by a chorus to the found of inftruments; which was found the 
 moft effeaual means to imprefs morality, and a right fenfe of 
 duty, on the mind. 
 
 Mufic made a very confiderable part of thedifcipline of the an- 
 tient Pythagoreans, and was ufed by them to draw over the 
 mind to laudable aaions, and fettle in it a paffionate love of 
 virtue. It was their doflrine, that the foul itfelf confifts of 
 harmony ; and therefore, by mufic, they pretended to revive 
 the primitive harmony of its faculties. — By this primitive har- 
 mony they meant that which, according to their dogma, was in 
 the foul in its pre-exiftent ftate in heaven. 
 Dr. Wallis has endeavoured to account for the furprifing ef- 
 feas afcribed to the antient mufic ; and charges them princi- 
 pally on the novelty of the art, and the hyperbolas of the an- 
 tient writers : nor does he doubt but the modern mufic, creteris 
 paribus, would produce eft'eas, at leaft, as confiderable as the 
 
 antient. The truth is, we can match moft of the antient fto- 
 
 ries of this kind in the modern hiftories. If Timotheus could 
 excite Alexander'sifury with the Phrygian mode, and footh 
 him into indolence with the Lydian; a more modern mufician 
 is faid to have driven Eric, king of Denmark, into fuch a rage, 
 as to kill his beft fervants. Dr. Niewentiit tells us of an Ita- 
 lian, who, by varying his mufic from brifk to folemn, and fo vice 
 verfa, could move the foul lo, as to caufe diftraaion and mad- 
 nefs. And Dr. South has founded his poem, called Mufica in- 
 cantans, on an inftance he knew of the fame thing. 
 Mufic, however, is not only found to exert its force on the 
 affi-aions, but on the parts of the body alfo : wieners the Gaf- 
 con knight, mentioned by Mr. Boyle, who could not contain 
 his wate°r at the playing of a bag-pipe; the woman, mentioned 
 bv the fame author, who would burft out in tears at the hear- 
 
 * inw 
 
M U S 
 
 M U S 
 
 iflg of a certain tune, with which other people were but little 
 •ifVected. — To fay nothing of the trite ftory of the tarantula : 
 we have an inftance in the hiftory of the academy of fciences, 
 of a mufician's being cured of a violent fever, by a little con- 
 cert occafionally played in his room. See Tarantula. 
 Nor are ourmindsand bodies alone affected with founds, but even 
 inanimate bodies are fo. — Kircher tells us of a large ftone,that 
 would tremble at the found of one particular organ-pipe ; and 
 Morhoff mentions one Petter, a Dutchman, who could break 
 rummer-glafles with the tone of his voice. Merfenne alio 
 tells us of a particular part of a pavement, that would fhake 
 and tremble, as if the earth would open, when the organs 
 played. Mr. Boyle adds, that feats will tremble at the found 
 of organs; that he has felt his hat do fo under his hand, at 
 certain notes both of organs and difcourfe ; and that he was 
 well informed, every well-built vault would thus anfwer to 
 fome determinate note. 
 
 There is a great difpute among the learned, whether the an- 
 tients, or moderns, beft underftood and practifed mufic ? Some 
 maintain that the antient art of mufic, by which fuch wonder- 
 ful effects were performed, is quite loft ; and others, that the 
 true fciencc of harmony is now arrived to much greater per- 
 fection, than was known or practifed among the antients. 
 This point feems no other way to be determinable but by com- 
 paring the principles and practice of the one with thofe of the 
 other. — As to the theory or principles of harmonics, it is cer- 
 tain we underftand it better than the antients ; becaufe we 
 know alt that they knew, and have improved confiderably on 
 their foundations. — The great difpute then lies on the practice : 
 with regard to which it may be obferved, that, among the 
 antients, mufic, in the moft limited fenfe of the word, included 
 harmony, rbyibmus, and verfe ; and confuted of verfes fung by 
 one or more voices alternately, or in choirs, fometimes with 
 the found of inftxuments, and fometimes by voices only. 
 Their mufical faculties, we have already obferved, were melo- 
 pceia, rhythmopceia, and poefis. The firffc whereof may be 
 confidered under two heads, viz. Melody and fymphony. As to 
 the latter, it feems to contain nothing but what relates to the 
 conduct of a fingle voice, or making what we call melody. 
 The antients do not appear to have ever thought of the con- 
 cert, or harmony of parts ; which is a modern invention, for 
 which we are beholden, to Guido Aretine a Benedictine 
 friar. 
 
 We would not, however, be here underftood to mean, that the 
 antients never joined more voices or mftruments than one toge- 
 ther in the fame fymphony ; but, that they never joined fere 
 ral voices fo as that each had a diftinct and proper meIodv ; 
 which made among them a fucceffion of various concords, and 
 were not in every note unifons, or at the fame diftance from 
 each other as octaves. — This laft indeed agrees to the general 
 definition of the word fymphonia ; yet it is plain that in fuch 
 cafes there is but one long, and all the voices perform the 
 fame individual melody. — But when the parts differ, not by 
 the tenfion of the whole, but by the different relations of the 
 fucceffive notes, this is the modern art, which requires fo pe- 
 culiar a genius, and on which account the modern mafic feems 
 to have much the advantage of the antient. For further fatif- 
 faction on the fubject, fee Kircher, Ferrault, Dr. Wallis, 
 Mr. Malcolm, the Jefuit Cerceau, and others; who nnani- 
 moufly agree, that after all the pains they have taken to kno 1 
 the true (fate of the antient mufic, they could not find the leaft 
 reafon to think there was any fuch thing in their days as mufic 
 in parts. 
 
 The antient mufical notes are very myfterious and perplexed 
 Boethius and Gregory the Great firft put them into a more eafy 
 and obvious method. — In the year 1204. Guido Aretine, a 
 Benedictine of Arezzo in Tufcany, firft introduced the ufe of 
 a ft aft" with five lines, on which, with the fpaces, he marked 
 his notes by fetting a point up and down upon them, to denote 
 the rife and fall of the voice ; though Kircher mentions this 
 artifice to have been in ufe before Guido's time. 
 Another contrivance of Guido's was to apply the fix mufical 
 fyllables ut, re,mi,fa, fol,la, which he took out of the Latin 
 hymn, 
 
 XJTqueant laxis HTfonare fibris 
 Mlra gefiorum Y kmuli tuarum, 
 
 SOLf ( - polluti \jhb\i reatum, 
 O Pater Alme. 
 
 Befides his notes of mufic, by which, according to Kircher, he 
 diftinguifhed the tones, or mode?, and the feats of the femi- 
 tones, he alfo invented the fcale, and feveral mufical infim- 
 ments, called pilypleflra, as fplnets and harpfichords. 
 The next confiderable improvement was in 1330. when Jo- 
 annes Muria, or de Muris, doctor at Paris (or as Bale and 
 Gefner make him, an Englimman), invented the different fi- 
 gures of notes, which exprefs the times or length of every 
 note, at leaft their true relative proportions to one another, 
 now called longs, breves, femi-breves, crotchets, quavers, 
 &c. • 
 
 The moft antient writer of mufic, we have already obferved, 
 was Lafus Hcrmionenfis \ but his works, as well as thofe of 
 Vol. II. 
 
 many others both Greek and Roman, are loft. Arifloxenas, 
 difciple of Ariftot'e, is the eldcft author extant on the fubject : 
 after him came Euclid, author of the elements : Ariftides 
 Qointiltanus wrote after Cicero's time. Alypius ftands next; 
 after him Gaudentius the philoibpher, and Niconiacbus the 
 Pythagorean, and Bacchius. — Of which feven Greek authors, 
 we have a fair copy, with a tranflation and notes, by Meibo- 
 mius. 
 
 Ptolemy, the celebrated mathematician, wrote in Greek of 
 the principles of harmonics, about the time of the emperor 
 Antoninus Pius. This author keeps a medium between the 
 Pythagoreans and Ariftoxenians. He was fucceeded at a cdn- 
 iiderable diftance by Manuel Bryennius. 
 
 Of the Latins, we have Boethius, who wrote in the time of 
 Theodoric the Goth ; and one Caffiodorus, about the fame 
 time : Martianus, and St. Auguftine, not far remote. 
 Of the moderns, are Zarlin, Salinas, Vincenzo Galileo, Do- 
 ni, Kircher, Merfenne, Paran, De Caux, Perrault, Wallis* 
 Des Cartes, Holder, Malcolm, C3V. 
 Diatonic Music. 
 
 See the article 
 
 See the article 
 
 Recitative Music. 
 Academy c/"MusiC. 
 Characters in Music. 
 MUSICAL faculties. 
 Musical notes. 
 Musical proportion. 
 Musical found. 
 Music al firing, 
 MUSK*, Moschus, a kind of perfume, of a very flrong feent ; 
 only agreeable when moderated by the mixture of fome other 
 perfume. 
 
 * The word comes from the Arabic, mofcha, mujk : whence was 
 formed the common Greek, jWy®^ mujk t 
 Mujk is found in a kind of bag, or tumour, growing about the 
 bignefs of an hen's egg under the belly towards the genital parts 
 of a wild bead of the fame name ; and appears to be nothing 
 elfe but a kind of bilious blood there congealed, and almolt 
 corrupted. 
 
 The animal which produces it is pretty common in the king- 
 doms of Boutan, Tonquin, and fome others, as Cochin* 
 China, &c. But the moft cfteemed are thofe in the kingdom 
 of Tibet. 
 
 They inhabit the woods and forefts, where the natives hunt 
 them down: when the beaft is killed, they cut out the bladder 
 under the belly, feparate the coagulated blood, and dry it in the 
 fun, where it is reduced into alight friable fubftance almoft of 
 the nature of a powder, and of a dufky reddifh colour ; and ac- 
 quires a very ftrong and difagreeable fmell. It is then tied up 
 again in bladders, and exported to other countries ; and this is 
 the mujk which we ufe. 
 
 What the antients bave written of musk is '.fabulous, viz. that it 
 comes from the tefticles of a caftor, which, to (top the purfuit 
 of the hunter, caftrates itfelf. The occafion of their error may 
 be owing to this, that among the Indians the musk animal goes 
 by the name of cafior. 
 
 Musk is in confiderable ufe among the perfumers and confec- 
 tioners ; though much lefs now than it was formerly. It is fup- 
 pofed to fortify the heart and brain ; and is good againft deaf- 
 nefs ; but is little ufed in medicine, as being apt to occafion the 
 vapours. 
 
 MUSKET, or Musquet, properly a fire-arm borne on the 
 fhoulder, and ufed in war ; to be fired by the application of 
 a lighted match. 
 
 The length of the ?nusket is fixed to three feet eight inches from 
 the muzzle to the touch- pan, and its bore is to be fuch as may 
 receive a ball of fixteen in a pound. 
 
 Muskets were antiently borne in the field by the infantry : at 
 prefmt they are little ufed fave in the defence of places ; fufees, 
 or fire-locks, having taken their place. 
 MUSKETOON, a musket fhorter, though thicker, than the 
 ordinary mufket. — It is fired by the collifion of a fteel and 
 flint in the lock ; whereas the mufket is fired by a match. Its 
 bore is a thirty-eighth part of its length ; and carries five ounces 
 of iron,'or feven and an half of lead, with an equal quantity of 
 powder. 
 
 MUSLIN, orMussLiN, a fine fort of cloth, wholly cotton; 
 fo called, as not being bare, but having a downy nap on its 
 furface refembling mofs, which the French call moujfe. 
 There are various kinds of mufiins brought from the Eaff- 
 Indies ; chiefly Bengal ; betelles, tarnatans, mulmuls, tanjeebs, 
 terrindams, doreas, caV. 
 
 MUSSA mora. See the article Moor. 
 
 MUSSLIN. See the article Muslin. 
 
 MUSSULMAN*, or Musulman, a title by which the Ma- 
 hometans diftinguifh themfelves ; iignifyuig, in the Tuikifh 
 language, true believer, or orthodox. 
 
 % In Arabic, the word is written mtfltm, mofiman, or mofilman. 
 The appellation was firft given to the Saracens ; as is obferved 
 by Leunclavius. — There are two kinds of mujfulmans, very 
 averfe to each other ; the one called Sonnites, and the other 
 Shiites. —The Sonnites follow the interpretation of the alco- 
 6 I i ran 
 
MUT 
 
 M Y O 
 
 ran jiven by Omar ; the Shiites arc the followers of Ali. The 
 fubjeas of the king ofPerfia are Shiites ; and thofe of the grand 
 Tumor, Sonnites. See Sonna, and Alcoran. 
 Some authors will have it, that the word muffidman figmhes 
 faved, that is, predeftinated ; and that the Mahometans give 
 themfelves the appellation, as believing they are all predeftinated 
 to falvation. — Martinius is more particular as to the origin of 
 the name ; which he derives from the Arabic Q^DD mufalam, 
 faved, fnatched out of danger : the Mahometans, he obferves, 
 eftablifiiiug their religion by fire and fword, mattered all thofe 
 who would not embrace it, and granted life to all that did, 
 calling them mufidmans ; q. d. erepti e pcricuh, whence the 
 word, in courfe of time, betame the diflinguifhing title of all 
 thofe of that who have affixed to it the figmfication of 
 true believer. 
 
 MUST, Mustum, fweet wine newly prefTed from the grape ; 
 or the new liquor prefTed from the fruit before it has worked or 
 fermented. 
 
 MUSTARD, a preparation of a feed of that name, ground or 
 beaten up with water, vinegar, or the muft of wine ; whence 
 its name. . , •• • 
 
 MusTARD-yW, in Latin finafi, a warm biting feed, which gives 
 the denomination to a fpecics of topical medicines called fma- 
 pifms. 
 
 Mujlard-fccd is alfo ufej in preparing fhagreen. 
 MUS n* *, a review of a body of military forces under arms, 
 in order to take account of their numbers, condition, accoutre- 
 ments, arms, CSV. 
 
 ••The word is formed of the French, mtujlre, fpecimen. See 
 Review. 
 
 F^-Moster. See the article False. 
 
 MuiTlR-ma/ler general, or commipry general of MvsT E RS, is 
 an officer in the army, who takes account of every regiment, 
 their number, horfes, arms, &c. See Commissary. 
 
 M'J5TER-ro//j are lifts of the foldiers in every troop, company, 
 regiment, tic. delivered by the captains to the commiliary : 
 hy which they are paid, and the ftrength of the regiment 
 known. 
 
 MUSTERED of record (Stat. 18. Hen. vi.) denotes a being in- 
 rolled in the number of the king's foldiers. 
 
 MUTABILITY. See the article Immutability. 
 
 MUTARE arma. See the article Arma. 
 
 MUTATION, the afl of changing ; or, fomctimes, the change 
 itfelf. 
 
 It is one of the laws of nature, that the mutation of motion is 
 ever proportional to the moving force imprelled. See Na- 
 ture, and Motion. 
 Mutation, in the antient mufic, is applied to the changes or 
 alterations that happen in the order of the founds which com- 
 pofe the melody. 
 
 Ariftoxenus reprefents mutation as a kind of paftion in the or- 
 der of the melody. 
 
 The changes are, 1°. in the genera ; when the fong begins in 
 ene, as the chromatic ; and pailes into another, as the diatonic. 
 2°. In the fyftem ; as when the fong puifes out of one terra- 
 chord, as mefon, into another, as diazeugmenon ; or more 
 generally, when it pafles from a high place of the fcale to a 
 lower, or contrarily j f. e. part of it is fung high, and part 
 low. 3°. In the mode or tone, as when the fong begins in 
 one, as the Doric ; and paffes into another, as the Lydian. 
 4 0 . In the melopceia, that is, when the fong changes the very 
 air, fo as from gay and fprightly, to become fuft and languifh- 
 ing ; or from a manner that exprefles one paffion or fubject, to 
 the expreffion of fome other. 
 MUTE, dumb, denotes a perfon that cannot fpeak, or has not 
 the ufe of fpeech. 
 
 Mutes and dwarfs make their fortune in the grand fignor's fe- 
 raglio. The mutes ferve as executioners to take off perfons of 
 the hrfr. rank. 
 
 Mute, inlaw, is he that ftands dumb, or fpeechlefs ; when he 
 ought to anfwer, or plead. 
 
 A prifoner may ftand mute two ways : i°. When he fpeaks 
 not at all : in which cafe it is inquired, whether he ftand 
 viute of malice, or by the act of God : if by the latter, then 
 the judge, ex officio, ought to inquire whether he be the fame 
 perfon ; and of all other pleas, which he might have pleaded 
 jf he had not flood mute. 2°. When he pleads not directly, 
 or will not put himfelf upon the inqueft to be tried. — The pu- 
 mfhment of {landing mute, is preffing, even to death. See 
 Paine fort Eff dure. 
 Mute, in grammar, a letter which is not founded, or heard in 
 the pronunciation ; or, a letter which yields no found of itfelf, 
 and without a vowel. 
 
 The confonants are ordinarily diftinguiihed into mutes, and 
 liquids or femi-vowels. See Consonant, Liquid, &c. 
 The ?nutes in the Englifh alphabet are eleven, viz. B, C, D, 
 F, G, J, K, P, Q_, T, V. They are called mutes, becaufe a 
 liquid cannot be founded in the fame fyllable before them, as 
 rpo i but a ?nute may be pronounced in the fame fyllable before 
 a liquid, as pro, 
 MUTILATED cornicbe. See the article Corniche, 
 Mutilated medals, See the article Medal. 
 
 Mutilated reef. See the article Roof. 
 MUTILATION, the retrenching, or cutting away any mem- 
 ber of the body. 
 
 The ufe of the word is alfo extended to (tatues, and buildings, 
 where any part is wanting, or the projeaure of any member, 
 as 'a corniche, or an import, is broken off. 
 Mutilation is fometimes alio ufed in a more immediate man- 
 ner for caftration. See Castration. 
 MUTUAL, a relative term, denoting fomething that is reci- 
 procal between two or more perfons. 
 
 Thus we fay mutual ajjijlance^ mutual avei -Jion, &c. — There 
 are mutual or reciprocal duties, offices, £sV. between fuperi- 
 ors, and inferiors ; the king and his fubjects ; the mafter and 
 
 his fervants, &c. 
 
 Vau<relas makes a diftincrion between mutual and reciprocal ; 
 Mutual, according to him, is underiiood of what is between 
 two only ; and reciprocal of what is between more than two : 
 but this decifion is little regarded in common ufe. 
 Mutual tejlament is that made by two perfons who leave their 
 
 effects reciprocally to the furvivor. 
 MUTULE, Mutulus, in architecture, a kind of fquare mo- 
 dilion in the Doric frieze. 
 
 The chief difference between mutuh and modilion confith in 
 this, that the former is ufed in fpeaking of the Doric oider, 
 and the latter in the Corinthian, See Doric, &c. 
 
 The mutules in the Doric anfwer to the triglypl^, which are 
 under them j whence fome make gutta or drops to hang. 
 MUTUUM, in the civil law, denotes a loan fimply fo called ; or 
 a contraa introduced by the law of nations, whereby a thing 
 conufting in weight, as fuppofc bullion j in number, as mo- 
 ney ; orinmeafure, as corn, timber, wine, &c. is given to 
 another, upon condition that he fhall return another thing of 
 the fame quantity, nature, and value, on demand. 
 This, therefore is a contract without reward ; fo that where 
 ufe or interelt arifes, there muft be fome particular article in the 
 contract whereon it is founded. 
 MUZZLE-r/'w^, of a gun, the moulding, or circle, which in- 
 
 cornpaffes and ftiengthens the mouth of It. 
 MY. — Per My cs" per tout. See the article Pe r my. 
 MYLOGLOSSUM, in anatomy, a pair of mufcles, thus called 
 becaufe arifing about the backfide of the molares, or grinding- 
 teeth, and inferted into the ligament of the tongue j helping to 
 pull it upwards. 
 
 Thefe are the fame with what Mr. Cowper QdXhJlybglojfum* 
 See Styloglossus. 
 MYLOHYOIDEUM, in anatomy, abroad, but fhort mufcle 
 lying immediately under the biventer mufcle of the jaw, and 
 which, fpringing from the lower margin on each fide the under 
 jaw, is inferted into the bafts of theos hyoides. See Hyoides. 
 Befides the common ufe afcribed to this mufcle, which is to 
 move the hyoides, the tongue, and the larynx both upwards, 
 inwards, and fide-ways ; its feries of tranfverfe fibres have a 
 further ufe when it is at reft ; and that is to comprefs the glands 
 under the tongue, and by this means promote the difcharge of 
 faliva into the mouth from the lower falival duels. Whence it 
 is we ufe this mufcle when we want faliva in ihe mouth. 
 MYOCEPHALON *, in medicine, a little part of the tunica 
 uvea, protended over the fight of the eye ; occafioned by an 
 ulceration of the part : fo called, as refcmbling the head of a 
 fiy. 
 
 * The word is Greek iJ.voy.i$Ahov, formed of y.ui a, fly, and 
 >tsy«tAii, head. 
 
 MYOLOGY *, in anatomy, a defcription of the mufcles ; or 
 the knowlege of what rehtes to the mufcles of the human 
 body. — See Tab. Anat. (Myol.) See alfo Muscle. 
 
 * The word is formed of few, p-vot, a mufcle, and koyw, dif- 
 courfe. 
 
 MYOMANCY, a kind of divination, or method of foretelling 
 future events, by means of mice. 
 
 Some authors hold myomancy to be one of the mofl antient kinds 
 of divination ; and think it is on this account that Ifaiah, Ixvi. 
 17. reckons mice among the abominable things of the idola- 
 ters. But, befide that it is not certain, that the Hebrew word 
 ufed by the prophet, fignifies a moufe ; it is evident it is 
 not the divination by that animal, be it whaf it will, is here fpo- 
 ken of i but the eating it. 
 MYOPS *, Myopis, a perfon who is fhort-fighted i or, as we 
 popularly call it, purblind. 
 
 * The word is Greek, y.iJwX., compounded of p.v( t moufe; and 
 &1-4-J eye: by reafon, we fuppofe, the fame confirmation of the 
 eye is obferved in mice. 
 
 Myopes are properly fuch as fee remote objects confufedly, and 
 near ones diftinctly. Thofe who labour under the oppofite de- 
 fect, are called preshytee. 
 
 The defect of myopes is not in the optic nerve, the pupil, or 
 the like ; but in the form of the cryftalline, or the diftance of 
 the retina from the fame. The cryftalline being rounder or 
 more convex than ordinary, the rays will be rendered more 
 convergent than ordinary in paffing through the fame. (See 
 Refraction) By this means they will be brought to meet 
 or concur at the kfs diftance from the cryftalline j fo that if 
 
M Y R 
 
 M Y S 
 
 the retina be at its ufual diftance* they will concur ere they 
 reach it. It is the too great nearnefs, then, of the retina to 
 the cryftalline, that conftitutes the myopia. 
 
 MYOPIA, or Myopias, Jhsrt-jightednefs, a confufion or ob- 
 fcurity of fight, when directed to remote objects. 
 The myopia is owing to the too great convexity of the ball of 
 the eye, and particularly of the cryftalline ; whence it hap- 
 pens, that the vifual rays concur before they reach the retina. 
 For this reafon, to fee an object diftindtly, they muft either 
 apply it clofe to the eye, or ufe a concave glafs. 
 The myopia wears off by time, the eye growing flatter and 
 flatter as perfons draw towards old age. 
 
 MYOTOMY, Myotomia, an anatomical difleition, or de- 
 monftration of the mufcles. See Muscle. 
 
 MYRIAD, the number of ten thoufand. — Whence ?nyriarcha 
 a captain or commander of ten thoufand men. 
 
 MYRMKCIA, in medicine, a kind of wart, by Latin writers 
 called formica. See Formica. 
 
 MYRMIDONS, Myrmldones, in antiquity, a people of 
 1 helialy, fabled to have arofe from ants, or pifmires, upon a 
 prayer put up for that purpofe, by king /Eacus, to Jupiter, af- 
 ter his kingdom had been difpeopled by a fevere pcltilence. — 
 In Homer and Virgil the myrmidons are Achilles's i'oldiers. 
 
 MYRMILLONES *, a kind of gladiators in antient Rome ; 
 called alfo murmuliones. See Gladiator. 
 
 * Turnebus derives the name from the myrmidons. 
 
 MYROB ALANS*, Myeobalani, a kind of medicinal fruit, 
 brought from the Indies 3 much more ufed in the Arabic than 
 the Greek pharmacy ; and more among the antients than the 
 moderns ; and ftill more abroad than in England. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek fUfffit, medicament; and 
 / sii .t, acorn ; as being fomewhat in form of acorns, and ufed i 
 medicine. 
 
 Thei e are five kinds of myrobalans, or purging Indian plumbs 
 the firft called citrim, of a yellowifh red, hard, oblong, and 
 the fize of an olive. — The fecond called black or Indian m\ro 
 balans, of the bignefs of an acorn, wrinkled, without ftone.-Thc 
 third, chebulic myrobalans, the fize of a date, of a yellowifh 
 brown, pointed at the end. — The fourth emblici, round, rough, 
 the fize of a gall, of a dark brown. — The lalt called belUrtciA 
 hard, yellow, round, the fize of an ordinary prune, lefs angu3 
 lar than the reft — Myrobalans of each kind are flightly purga- 
 tive, and aitringent. 
 MYRRH *, Myrrha, a kind of gum or refin, iffuing, by 
 incifion, and fometimcs fpontaneoully, from the trunk, and 
 larger branches of a tree growing in Arabia, Egypt, and efpe- 
 cially in Abyflinia. 
 
 * The word comes from y-vffu, of fM^et, I run, or trickle. 
 
 Authors are not agreed about the tree which produces this gum: 
 It is true, they all make it fmall and thorny ; but they di&gree 
 about the form of its leaves. 
 
 The incifions are made twice a year, and the myrrh oozing out 
 
 is received on rufh-mats, difpoled underneath. 
 
 The druggifts fell two kinds of myrrh, viz. myrrh in tears, 
 
 which they call JlatH ; the other ungulata, or in nails. 
 
 Of the firft kind, the beft is bright, yellow, and in tranfparent 
 
 drops, friable, light, of a ftrong difagrceable fmell : But this is 
 
 very rare ; and moil of that in [ufe is the ungulated myrrh, fo 
 
 called from little white fpots obferved thereon, much like thofe 
 
 on the nails of the fingers. 
 
 The beft is in little mafles, or tears, redifh, and tranfparent 
 the fineft pieces of myrrb,when broken, are fometimcs found to 
 contain a kind of unctuous liquor, the moft precious part of 
 the myrrh, and the real JlaSle of the antients. 
 This gum enters a great number of medicinal compofitions, 
 Its bittcmefs renders it good for the ftomach, and ao-ainft 
 worms ; and it is chewed to prevent infection from contagious 
 difeafes. Dr. Quincyfays,it is excellent to cleanfe and ftrcngthen 
 the womb, and againft tickling rheums ; a good detergent ; 
 and as fuch, much ufed externally in unguents for the healing 
 of wounds: it makes the principal ingredient in emtjajming. 
 The chymifts draw from it oils, fpirits, tinctures, £sV, to which 
 thev attribute extraordinary virtues. 
 
 MYR RHINE w^f/j. — Vaja Myrrhina. See Murrhine. 
 
 MYRTIFORM" glands, gee the article Gland. 
 
 MYRTIFORMES caruncules, in anatomy, little caruncles, or 
 flefhy knots adjoining to, or rather in the place of the hymen 
 in women.— See Tab. Anat. (Splanch.) fig. 9. lit. f. f. 
 They are about the bignefs of myrtle- berries, whence they 
 take their name ; and are fuppofed by fome to be largeft in 
 maids, and by degrees to grow lefs through the ufe of venery. 
 Others, and with more probability, derive them from the 
 broken membrane of the hy men, whofc fragments, fhrunk up, 
 they take them to be. 
 
 MYRTLE-^rriw, the fruit of, a ftirub wel! known under the 
 name of myrtle, myrttu, growing common in Spain, efpecially 
 in the mountains of Sierra Morena, &c. 
 There are two kinds of myrtle, male and female ; the latter 
 whereof produces the beft berries, and in the greatelt quantity. 
 
 The fruit is at firft green, but becomes black gradually ■ within 
 it is a white feed in form of a crefcent, folid, hard, and of an 
 aitringent tafte ; while the fruit continues on the trees, it is 
 fucculent and fmooth, and only becomes hard and wrinkled, 
 becaufe dried in the fun for the convenience of carriage. 
 Myrtle-berries are rough and aitringent, and are chiefly ufed 
 in thewayof fyrup, as a ttrengthner againlt fluxes and abortion. 
 I hey are alfo an ingredient in fevcral of the ftrengthening 
 plaifiers. 5 a 
 
 The perfumers likewife ufe them in their perfumes, and draw 
 an efTence from them. The German dyers make a blue colour 
 from them. In fome places the leaves and branches are alfo 
 in the tanning of leather. 
 MYSTERY *, Mysterium, fomething fecret, or hidden; 
 impoflible or difficult to be comprehended. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek ptttrip/ofj and that, according 
 to fome etymologiils, from tacea, I ffiut, I am filent ; 
 
 and ra^a. mouth ; but then whence comes the r? Muft the 
 m ofropsi be converted into an r ? The word feems derived, 
 with more propriety, from the Hebrew -tflDflitor, to hide ; 
 whence is funned "inDO mijiar, a hidden thing. 
 
 Myflery is primarily ufed infpeakingof certain truths revealed 
 in Icnpture; into the full underftanding whereof human rea- 
 fon cannot penetrate.— Such are the doarines of the trinity, the 
 incarnation, &c. 
 
 y**"** an epitome of the myfleries of faith, or the myfleries 
 of cbriflianity, in the fymbols, or creeds, compiled by the 
 •pontes, the council of Nice, and St. Athanafius. See Creed. 
 In all thefe, mention is made of the myflery of the trinity j the 
 myjlirics of the incarnation of the fon of God, his death and 
 paffion,and his defcent into hell for the redemption of mankind: 
 Oflus refurrecrion the third day, his afcenfion to heaven, his 
 fitting at the right-hand of God, and his coming again to judge 
 the world : Of the divinity, and co-equality of the Holy Ghoft 
 with the Father and the Son : Of the unity of the church : Of 
 the community of faints ; the participation of the facraments ; 
 and the general refurreflion— Such arc the principal myjkrks 
 of faith; which the church declares necefliry to be known 
 and believed, in order to falvation. 
 
 From the earlieft ages there have been particular feftivals infti- 
 tuted in honour of thefe myfleries ; to return thanks to God for 
 having revealed them, and to oblige the minifters and pallors 
 toinltruct the people therein. 
 
 Such arc the fcaft of the myjliry of the incarnation, called alfo 
 Chrijimas ; thofe of the circumciflan, paffion, refurreilion, &c. 
 See Incarnation, Circumcision, Easter, and Epi- 
 phany. 
 
 The heathens alfo had their myfleries, particularly thofe of Ce- 
 res, the bona Dea, tsV. The Egyptian priefts concealed the 
 myfleries of their religion and philofophy under hieroglyphics. 
 Thofe who revealed the myfleries of the bona Dea were fevere- 
 lypunifhed ; and none were trufted with them but thofe fo- 
 lemnly initiated, aud fworn to fecrecy. 
 But thefe were not called myfleries, as being incomprehenfibk 
 or raifed above the power of reafon ; but becaufe they were co- 
 vered and difguifed under types and figures, to raife the 
 
 greater veneration in the people The ny/ttriis of paganifm 
 
 were ufually celebrated in caves and grottoes, fitter to conceal 
 crimes than to celebrate myfleries in. 
 
 Mystery, in fcripture-language, is ufed with fome latitude 
 
 Sometimes it denotes any thing not to be known without di- 
 vine revelation. 
 
 In this fenfe we are to undcrftand thofe texts : « He that re- 
 " veals fecrets (or myfleries), makes known to thee what fnall 
 " come to pafs ; Dan. ii. 29. « There is a God in heaven 
 " that reveals myfleries," ib. ver. 28. 
 Mystery is alfo ufed to denote the fecret things, which God 
 has difcovercd by his minifters the prophets, Jefus Chrift, and 
 the apoftles. 
 
 In which fenfe it is St. Paul fays,—" We fpeak the wifdom of 
 " ln 3 myflery, which God had refolved before all at*es to 
 
 " reveal for our glory. 1 Cor. ii. 7. We are to be accounted as 
 '.' minifters of Chrift, and difpenfers of the myfleries of God, ' 
 " I Cor. IV. 1. Though I underftand a\\ myfleries, and have 
 " the knowlege of all things, if I have not charity, Iamno- 
 " thmg, 1 Cor. xiii. 2. Behold I fhew you zmyflery, I Cor. XV. 
 " 5 1 * By reading my epiftle, you may underiiand my know- 
 " lege in- the myflery of Chrift, Ephef. iii. 4." And in the 
 following verfes he adds, that this myflery is, that the Gentiles 
 are fellow-heirs, and make but one body with the Jews, being 
 fharers with them in the promifes of God in the gofpel. " Hold- 
 " ing the myflery of the faith in a pure confeience, I Tim. iii. g. 
 " When the feventh angel begins to found his trumpet, the 
 " myftery of God fhall be finifhed, as he has declared to his 
 " fervants the prophets, Revel. X. 7." 
 
 Additions o/Mystery. See the article Addition. 
 
 MYSTES, See the article Hydromystes. 
 
 MYSTICAL, MTSTIXS'S, Mystic, fomething mfflerum, or 
 allegorical. See Mystery, Allegory, cifc. 
 The commentators on the fcripture, befides a literal, find alfo 
 a myftical, and a moral meaning.— The Bible, they contend, 
 
M Y S 
 
 M Y U 
 
 is a book written both within-fide, and without-flde.— With* 
 in-fide in refpecl to the myflicaU interna], fublime, and hidden 
 fenfe ■ and without- fide, in refpe£t to the literal and gramma- 
 tical fenfe, immediately exprefled by the words, 
 3b effeci, feveral of the anticnt fathers, and doctors of the 
 church, underftand the books mentioned in Ezek. ii. 10. and 
 in the Apocalypfc, v. r. which were zurote both within-fide, and 
 vjithcut, i oi thefcriptures: and take the literal and myjliealka&i 
 to be here fairly intimated. 
 
 The fenfe of fcripture, fay they, is either that immediately 
 fignified 'by the words and expreffions in the common ufe of 
 language : or it is mediate, fublime, typical, and myftical; 
 wherein the things themfelves fignified are made to fignify ftlH 
 other and further things, according to the particular defign and 
 intention of God, and of the prophets and apoftles infpired by 
 him. . . 
 
 The literal fenfe they again divide into proper literal, which is 
 contained in the words taken fimply and properly : 
 And metaphorical literal, where the words are to be underftood 
 in a figurative and metaphorical fenfe: as, where the right eye 
 is commanded to be plucked out, &c. 
 
 Where-ever the proper literal fenfe contains anything abfurd or 
 indecent, there recourfe maft be had to the metaphorical literal 
 
 fenfe. 
 
 All fcripture has a true literal fenfe, but it has not always a 
 myjlkal one. We muft ever underftand it in the literal fenfe, 
 when it fpeaks immediately of any of the laws of nature, of 
 charity, of doing good, when it gives us inftru£tions for 
 the condua of life, for regulating our manners ; and when it 
 relates any matter of fact, or point of hiftory. 
 The fame paflage of fcripture has fometimes feveral fenfes, ex- 
 prefled and fignified immediately by the words taken in their 
 proper, and their figurative fenfe, and which appear to have 
 been alt intended by the infpired perfon who fpoke them, as 
 having been fo underftood by others likewife infpired. — As thofe 
 words in Pfalm ii. Thou art my fori, this day have I begotten 
 thee ; which St. Paul underflands according to the ffridt letter in 
 Heb. i. 5. of the generation of jefus Chrift in time: And in 
 Acts xiii. 33. he takes them in a metaphorical fenfe, and ap- 
 plies them to our Saviour's refurrection. — Thus, in Hofeaxi. 1, 
 the words of the prophecy, / have called my fan out of Egypt, 
 are underfiood literally of the children of Iirael, whom God 
 brought out of Egypt under the conduct of Mofes ; and yet in 
 Matth. ii. 15. they are understood metaphorically of Jefus 
 Chrift., 
 
 The mjllcal fenfe of fcripture is that which the things expref- 
 fed by "the words do further fignify ; or it is a fecond fignifica- 
 tion held forth or fignified by the firft : this fecond being ex- 
 prefled immediately by the firft, and mediately by the words 
 themfelves. 
 
 Writers allow of three kinds gf myjlkal fenfes in the word of 
 
 God : The firft correfponding to faith, and called allegorical ; 
 the fecond to hope, called anagogical ; and the third to charity, 
 called the tropologkai fenfe. See Anagogical. 
 The four fenfes, and their applications, are included in the 
 Latin diftich, 
 
 Litera gefla docet, quid credas allegoria, 
 Moralis quid agas, quo tendas anagogia. 
 Sometimes the fame word in fcripture is to be taken in all the 
 four fenfes. — Thus the word Jcrufalem literally fignifies the 
 capital of Judsea ; allegorically, the church militant ; tropolo- 
 gically and morally, a believer ; and anagogically, heaven. 
 So, that paflage in Genefis, Let there be light, and there was 
 light ; fignifies, according to the letter, corporeal light; by- 
 allegory, the meffiah ; in the topological fenfe, grace ; and 
 anagog'ically, beatitude, or the light of glory. 
 MYSTIC theology, denotes a refined and fublime kind of divinity, 
 profeffed by the myjlics. 
 
 It confifts in a knowlege of God, and divine things, not ac- 
 quired in the common way, but infufed immediately by God, 
 and which has the power to move the foul in an cafy, calm, de- 
 vout, affective manner ; to unite it intimately to God ; to il- 
 lumine the underftanding, and to warm and enliven the will in 
 an extrordinary manner. 
 
 Among the writings attributed to Dionyfius the areopagite, is a 
 difcourfe of myftic theology. Several others have wrote on the 
 fame fubject, both antients and moderns. 
 MYSTICS, Mvstici, a kind of religious feci:, diftinguifhed by 
 their profeffing pure, fublime, and perfect devotion, with an 
 intire difmterefted love of God, free from all felfifh confidera- 
 tions. 
 
 The myftks, to excufe their fanatic extafies, and amorous ex- 
 travagancies, allege that paflage of St. Paul; The fpirit prays 
 in us by fighs and groans that are unutterable. Now, if the 
 fpirit, fay they, pray in us; we muft refign ourfelves to its 
 motions, and be fwayed and guided by its impulfe, by. re- 
 maining in a ftate of mere inaction. 
 
 Paffive contemplation is that ftate of perfection to which the 
 myjlics- alt afpire. 
 MYTHOLOGY*, MTQOAOFIA, the hiftory of the fabulous 
 gods and heroes of antiquity ; with the explanation of the 
 myfteries or allegories couched therein, 
 
 * The word is Greek, and fignifies a difcourfe or defcription 
 of fables; from (j.vSos,fabula ; and Kiy^ ,fermo, difcourfe. 
 
 MYURUS *, MTOTPOS, in medicine, denotes a pulfc which is 
 continually weakening by infenfible degrees; fo that the fecond 
 beat is fainter than the firft; the third than the fecond, c3V. 
 See Pulse. 
 
 * The word is compounded of fxvi, moufe, and ovpa , tail ; the di- 
 minution of the pulfe being fuppofed like that of the thicknefs 
 of the tail of that animal, which grows lefs from the root to the 
 tip. 
 
 N. 
 
N. 
 
 NAD 
 
 N A I 
 
 NA liquid confonant, and the thirteenth letter of the 
 Greek, Latin, Englifh, &c. alphabets. 
 The A?" is a nafal confonant : its found is that of 
 9 a d paned through the nofe; fo that when the nofe 
 is flopped bv a cold, or the like, it is ufual to pro- 
 nounce d for n. M.'1'Abbe de Dangeau obferves, that in the 
 Trench the n is frequently a mere nafal vowel, without any thing 
 of the found of a confonant in it. - He calls it the Sclavonic 
 vowel The Hebrews call their N, Nun, which figfllfies child, 
 as being fuppofed the offspring of M; partly on account of the 
 refemblance of found, and partly on that of the figure. - 
 Thus from the m, by omitting the Iaft column, 1S formed 
 n- and thus from the capital N, by omitting the firft co- 
 lumn, is formed the Greek minufcule^. - Hence for B.en- 
 nius &c the Latins frequently ufe Bimus.fcff. And the lame 
 peop'le convert the Greek v at the end of a word into an m ; as, 
 $<tp/**X w ) pharmacum, &c. See M. 
 
 N before p, b, and m, the Latins change into m, and fre- 
 quently into 1 and r,as in-ludo, illudo ; in-rigo, irrigo, 
 in which they agree with the Hebrews, who in lieu of Nun, 
 frequently double the following confonant ; and the Greejcs do 
 the fame, as when for Manlius, they write Mxaw^, tjfe. 
 The Greeks, alfo, before k, y, X-> "» changed the v into y : 
 in which they were followed by the antient Romans, who lor 
 Angulus wrote Aggulus; for anceps, agceps, &c* 
 The Latins retrench the n from Greek nouns ending in m ; 
 as ktaf leo ; ^aw, draco. — On the contrary, the Greeks 
 add it to the Latin ones ending in o ; as K*t*p, Nef*x for 
 Cato, Nero. , '[ ' . 
 
 N, among the antients, was a numeral letter, ligmtying 900 ; 
 according to the verfe in Baronius, 
 
 A'' quoque Notigentos mtmero dejignat habemhs. 
 And when a line was ftruck over it, N, nine thoufand. _ 
 Among the antient lawyers, N. L. flood for non liquet, 1. e. 
 the caufe is not clear enough to pafs fentence upon. 
 
 N. or N°, in commerce, tffc is ufed as an abbreviation of nume- 
 'ro, number.— Thus alfo in medicine, caryophyllorum, N° vi. 
 fignifies fix cloves. . 
 
 NAAM, Namium, in law, the taking, or diftraining another 
 man's moveable goods. 
 
 This is either lawful, or unlawful and prohibited. 
 
 Lawful Naam, is a reafonable diftrefs, proportionable to the 
 value of the thing diftrained for; and was antiently called 
 either vrf or mart, as it was made of quick, or dead chattel. 
 Lawful Naam, is fo either by the common law ; as when a 
 man takes another's beafts doing damage in his ground ; or 
 by a man's particular fact, as on account of fome contract, 5sf e. 
 
 Unlawful Naam, Vetitum Namium. See Namium, and Ve- 
 
 TITUM. 
 
 KABONASSAR. The ./Era of Nabonassar is famous : we 
 know but little of the hiftory of the man ; only that he was 
 kino- of Babylon, and was alfo called Belefus ; though fome 
 wilf have him the Baladan mentioned in Ifaiah xxxix. r. and 
 2 Kincsxx. 12. Some even conjecture that he was a Mede; 
 and that he was fet on the throne by the Babylonians, upon 
 their riling and making off the fubjection of the Medes. 
 The beginning of this prince's reign is of great importance in 
 chronology ; by reafon Ptolemy allures us, there were aftrono- 
 mical obfe'rvations made by the Chaldseans from NabonafTar to 
 his time : and Ptolemy, and the other aftronomers, account 
 their years from that epocha. See Astronomy. 
 From the obfervations quoted by Ptolemy, it follows, that the 
 fir ft year of this sera is the 747th year before Jefus Chrift ; 
 and the 3967th of the Julian period. See Epocha. 
 The years of this epocha are Egyptian years, of 36; days 
 each ; commencing on the 29th of February, and reckon'd, 
 according to the computation of aftronomers, from noon. 
 NADIR *, in aftronomy, a point in the heavens diametrically 
 oppoflte to the Zenith. See Zenith. 
 
 * The word is pure Arabic, where it fignifies the fame. 
 The Nadir is that point directly under our feet; or a point in 
 a right line drawn from our feet through the centre of the 
 earth, and terminating in the under-hemifphere. 
 The Zenith and Nadir are the two poles of the horizon, 
 each being 90 0 diftant from it, confequenrly each in the meri- 
 dian, 
 
 Sun's Nadir, is the axis of the cone projected by the fliadow 
 of the earth; thus called, in regard that axis being prolong- 
 ed, gives a point in the ecliptic diametrically oppoflte to the fun. 
 
 N^VT, or Nevi, in the animal oeconomy, marks made on the 
 fetus, by the imagination of the pregnant mother, in longing 
 for any thing. 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 See thefe accounted for under the article Monster. See 
 alfo Foetus, and Imagination. 
 NAIADS*, or Naids, Naiades, a fort of nymphs, or hea- 
 then divinities, fuppofed to prefide over fountains, and ri- 
 vers. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, vttu, fiuo, I flow ; or from 
 vetia, I inhabit, abide. 
 Strabo fays, the Naiades were pricfteffes of Bacchus. See 
 God. 
 
 NAIANT, or Natant, q. d. fvvimmmg ; a term m heral- 
 dry, ufud in the blazoning of fifties, when drawn in an hori- 
 zontal poflure, fefs-wife, or tranfverfcly, acrofs the efcutcheon; 
 that being their natural fwimming poflure. 
 
 NAILING of cannon, the driving of a nail, or iron fpike, by 
 force, into the touch-hole of a piece of artillery ; fo as to 
 render it for fome time ufelefs to the enemy. 
 
 NAILS, in the animal body, a kind of horny excrefcences, grow- 
 ing over die ends of the fingers, and toes of men, and feve- 
 raf other animals; much of the fame nature with the hoofs of 
 others. ' rJ ?~ ' 
 
 Hoofs are nothing elfe but a number of fmall hufks, an- 
 fwering to fo many papillae of the flcin ; and it may be concluded, 
 that nails are no more than the covers or (heaths of the papillae 
 pyramidales of the fkin, on the extremities of the fingers and 
 toes, which dry, harden, and lie upon one another. 
 Their uTe is to ftrengthen and defend the ends of the fingers 
 in handling any hard and rugged bodies; that part being ex- 
 ceedingly fcnlible, by reafon of the great number of nerves 
 which terminate here for the foliation of feeling. 
 The nails are formed, and grow after the fame manner as the 
 reft of the body ; their nourifhment they receive from their 
 roots, as is eafily obfervable from the white fpecks fome- 
 times fcen on them, and which conftantly recede from the 
 root. 
 
 The Remans were very curious in the cutting and forming 
 their nails, and had it done by artifts, who made an employment 
 of it. 
 
 The Chinefe doctors and literati pique tbemfelves on the ex- 
 ceffive length of their nails. F. le Compte fays, fome of them 
 wear nails near as long as their fingers. 
 Nails, in building, 6ff. are little metalline members, ferving to 
 bind, or fallen the parts together, &c. 
 
 The fcveral kinds of nails are very numerous.-— As back and 
 bottom nails ; made with flat fhanks to hold faft, and not open 
 the wood. — Clamp nails, thofe proper to fatten the clamps in 
 buildings, feff. — Clafp nails, whofe heads clafping and flicking 
 into the wood, render the work fmooth, fo as to admit a plane 
 over it : they are of two kinds, viz. long, proper for fine build- 
 ings of fir, 6ftf. and ftrmg, fit for oak, and other hard wood. — 
 Cknch nails, thofe ufed by boat, barge, 6te builders; proper 
 for boarded buildings, that are to be taken down, becaufe they 
 will drive without fplitting, and draw without breaking. — Clout 
 nails, thofe ordinarily ufed for nailing on of clouts to axle- 
 trees. — Deck nails, thofe proper for fattening of decks in Ihips. 
 doubling of (hipping, and floors laid with planks. — Dog nails y 
 proper for fattening of hinges to doors, 6Wt — Flat points are of 
 two kinds, viz. longs, much ufed in ihipping, and proper where 
 there is occafion to draw, and hold faft, yet no necefilty of 
 clenching. — Jobent nails, thofe commonly ufed to nail thin 
 plates of iron to wood — Lead nails, ufed to nail lead, leather, 
 and canvas to hard wood. — Port nails, commonly ufed to nail 
 hinges to the ports of (hips.— Pound nails, are four-fquare in the 
 (hank ; and are much ufed in Norfolk, Suftolk,andEHex, though 
 fcarce elfewhcre, except for paling. — Ribbing nails, ufed to faflcn 
 the ribbing, to keep the ribs of fhips in their place in building. 
 — Rofe-nails are drawn four-fquare in the fhank ; and com- 
 monly in a round tool.— Rather nails t chiefly ufed to fatten 
 rot her- irons to fhips. — Round- bead nails, proper to fatten on 
 hinges, or other ufes, where a neat head is required.— Scupper 
 nails, much ufed to faflen leather and canvas to wood.— Shdrp 
 nails, much ufed, efpecially in the Weft-Indies, made with 
 fharp points, and flat (hanks.— Sheathing nails, ufed to faften 
 (heathing-boardstofhips: the rule for their length, is to have 
 them full three times as long as the board is thick. — Square 
 nails, of the fame fhape as Jharp nails ; chiefly ufed for hard 
 woods.— To which may be added tacks; the fmalleft ferving to 
 faften paper to wood ; middling, for wool-cards and oars ; 
 and larger, for upholfterers, and pumps. 
 
 In lathing, 500 nails are ordinarily allowed to a bundle of 
 five-foot laths. — In flooring, zoo, i. e. 240, are allowed for 
 a Jquare of flooring. 
 7 A 
 
NAM 
 
 NAM 
 
 Nails arc faid to be toughened, when too brittle, by heating 
 them in a fire-fhovel, and putting fome tallow or greafe amcng 
 them. 
 
 Nail is alfo a fort of long meafure, chiefly ufed in the com- 
 merce of cloths; containing the fixteentb part of a yard- 
 
 NAIRANGIA *, a kind of divination, in ufe among the Arabs, 
 drawn from feveral phenomena of the fun and moon. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Arabic Natron, the plural of 
 Nair, light. 
 
 NATSSANT, in heraldry, is applied to a lion, or other animal, 
 fbewing only the head, {boulders, fore-feet, and legs, with 
 the tip of the tail ; the reft of the body lying hid under the 
 fhicld, or fome charge, or ordinary thereon ; from which it ap- 
 pears to be (Suing or ariling.— - See Tab. Herald. Jig. 28. 
 Naiffant differs from Iffuant, in that the animal in the former 
 cafe [flues out at the middle, and in the latter, at the bottom 
 of the Ihield, or charge. See Issuant. 
 
 F. Meneftrier fays, naiffant is only ufed for animals, which 
 (hew the bare head as arifing out of the extremity of the chief, 
 or from above the fefTe. 
 NAKED, in architecture. Naked of a wall, &f>. is the fur- 
 face, or plain, from whence the projefmres arife ; or which 
 ferves as a ground to the proje£tures. See 'Tab. Archit. fig. 24. 
 lit. r. 
 
 Thus, we fay, a pilafter ought to exceed the naked of the wall 
 
 by fo many inches ; and that the foliages of a capital ought to 
 
 anfwer to the naked of the column. See Column, &c, 
 Nakfd Fire, is a term ufed by cbymifts for an open fire ; or 
 
 one v here the containing velTel is immediately expofed to the 
 
 fire. See Fire, and Heat. 
 Naked Seeds, in botany, are fuch feeds of plants as are not in- 
 
 cloicd in any pod, or cafe. 
 NAMATION, Namatio, inlaw, the afl of diftraining, or 
 
 taking a diftrefs. See Distress. 
 
 In Scotland the word is particularly ufed for impounding. See 
 Pound. 
 
 NAME, denotes a word whereby men have agreed to cxprefs fome 
 idea ; or which ferves to denote, or fignify a thing, or fubjeft 
 fpoken of. 
 
 This the Grammarians ufually call a noun, nomen, though 
 their noun is not of quite fo much extent as our name. See 
 Noun. 
 
 Seneca, lib. IT. de Beneficiis, obferves, that there are a great 
 number of tilings which have no name ; and which, therefore, 
 we are forced to call by other borrowed names, Ingens eft, fays 
 he, rerum cop'ia fine nomine, quas cum propriis appellat'ionibus /ig- 
 nore non fojjkmus, alienis accommodatis utimur ; which may fhew 
 why, in the courfe of this dictionary, we frequently give di- 
 vers fenfes to the fame word. 
 
 It was Adam that firft gave things their names, Gen. ii. 19. 
 Formaiis, igitur, Domimts Deus, 3s bums cimclis animantibus 
 terra, iff univerfis volatilibus cceli, 13 omnibus beft'iis term, ad- 
 duxit ea ad Adam, ut videret quid vocaret ea ; omne enim quod 
 vocavit Adam animee viventis ipfum eft nomen ejus. Ver. 20. 
 Appcllavitq; Adam norninibus fiuis cuniia animantia, £5* univerfa 
 volat'dia cccl'i, t2f omnes beftias terra;. 
 Names are diftinguifhed into proper and appellative. 
 Proper Names are thofe which reprefent fome individual thing, 
 or perfon ; fo as to diftinguifti it from all other things of the 
 fame fpecies. — As Socrates, which reprefents a certain pbilofo- 
 ■ pher. 
 
 Appellative, ox general Names, are thofe which fignify common 
 ideas ; or which are common to feveral individuals of the fame 
 fpecies,— as, horfe, animal, man, oak, {5V. 
 Proper names are either called Chrifiian, as being given by us at 
 baptifm ; or fiumames : the firft, impofed for diitinilion of per- 
 fons; anfwering to the Roman prenomen. 
 
 The fecond, for the diftin£tion of families, anfwering to the 
 nomen of the Romans, and the patronymicum of the Greeks. 
 Originally every perfon had but one name; as among the Jews, 
 Adam, £sV. among the Egyptians, Bufiris ; among the Chal- 
 dces, Ninus ; the Medes, Aftyages ; the Greeks, Diomedes ; 
 the Romans, Romulus ; the Gauls, Divitiacus ; the Germans, 
 Ariovifhis; the Britains, Caffibelan ; the Englifb, Hengift, dfrV. 
 And thus of other nations, except the favages of mount Atlas, 
 whom Pliny and Marcellinus reprefent as anonymi, namelefs. 
 The Jews gave the name at the circumcifion, viz. eight days 
 after the birth : the Romans to females the fame day, and to 
 males on the ninth ; at which time they held a feafi, called nmi- 
 nalia. V.yAI xw ^'wj^jflWmTOlu'ii.-^'i} «] 
 
 Since chriftianity has obtained, moil nations have followed the 
 Jews, baptizing, and giving the name on the eighth da y after 
 the birth.; except our Englifh anccftors, who, till of la te bap- 
 tized, and gave the name on the birth-day. 
 The firft impofition of names was founded on different 
 views, among different people ; the moft ufual was to mark 
 the good wilhes of the parents, or to intitle the children to the 
 good fortune a happy name feemed to promife, — Hence, Victor, 
 Caftor, Fauftus, Statorius, Probus, b'c. 
 
 Accordingly, we find fuch names, by Cicero called bona noml- 
 na, and by Tacitus, faufta nomina, were ftill firft enroll- 
 ed, and ranged in the Roman mufters ; firft called to ferve 
 at the firft facrifices in the foundation of colonies, CsV. — 
 And, en the contrary, Livy calls Atrius Umber, abominandi 
 ominis nomen: and Plautus, on occafion of a perfon named Ly- 
 co, i. e. Greedy wolf, fays J 
 
 Vofmet nunc fiacite con]c£luram caterum 
 ®)uid id fit hsminis, cm Lyco nomen fiet. 
 
 Hence, Plato recommends it to men to be careful in giving 
 happy names ; and the Pythagoreans taught exprefly, that the 
 minds, actions, and fucceffes of men, were according to their 
 nanus, genius, and fate. — Thus, Panormitan, Ex bono nomine 
 oritur bona prafumpth ; and thus the common proverb, Bcnuni 
 nomen bonum omen : and hence the foundation of the Onomo- 
 mantia. 
 
 Hence Camden takes it for granted, that the names, in all na- 
 tions and languages, are fignificative, and not fimple founds, 
 for mere diftinftton fake. ■ — This holds not only amono- the 
 Jews, Greek?, Latins, c5Y. but even the Turks ; anions 
 whom, Abdalla fignifies God's fervant ; Soltman, peaceable ; 
 Mahomet, glorified, &c. And the favages of Hifpaniola, and 
 throughout America, who, in their languages, name their 
 children, Gliftering Light, Sun Bright, Fine Gold, &c. 
 And they of Congo, by the names of precious ftones, flow- 
 ers, CsV. 
 
 To fuppofe names given without any meaning, however by 
 the alteration of languages their figniiication may be loft, that 
 learned author thinks, is to reproach our anceftors ; and that 
 contrary to the fenfe of all antient writers. — Porphyry notes, 
 that the barbarous names, as he calls them, were very empba- 
 tical, and very concife : and accordingly, it was efteemed a 
 duty to be plfwt/fWj or fui nom'mh homines : as Severus, 
 Probus, and Aurelius, are called fui nominis imperatores. 
 And it was the ufual way of giving names, to wifh the chil- 
 dren might difcharge their names. ■ — Thus when Gunthram, 
 king of France, named Clotharius at the font, he faid, Crc- 
 fcat pucr, iff hujus fit nominis executor. 
 
 The antient Britains, Camden adds, generally took their names 
 from colours ; becaufe they painted themfelves ; but thefe 
 names are now loft, or remain hid among the Welfh. — When; 
 they were fubdued by the Romans, they took Roman names j 
 fome of which ftill remain, corrupted ; though the greateffc 
 part are become extinct, upon the admiffion of the Englifh 
 Saxons, who introduced the German names, as Cridda, Pen- 
 da, Ofwald, Edward, £5V. — The Danes, too, brought with 
 them their names ; as Suayne, Harrold, Knute, fisfr. 
 The Normans, at the conquefl, brought in other German 
 names, as originally ufing the German tongue ; fuch as Ro- 
 bert, William, Richard, Henry, Hugh, &c. after the fame 
 manner as the Greek names; Afpafius, Boethius, Symma- 
 chus, ciff. were introduced into Italy, upon the divifiou of 
 the empire.— After the conqueft, our nation, which had ever 
 been averfe to foreign names, as deeming them unlucky, 
 began to take Hebrew names ; as Matthew, David, Sam- 
 fon, tsfc. 
 
 The various names antlently, or at prefent obtaining a - 
 mong us, from what language or people foever borrowed, are 
 explained by Camden in his Remains. — 
 Of late years it has obtained among us to give fumames for 
 Chrifiian names ; which fome diflike, on account of the con- 
 fufion it may introduce. — Camden relates it as an opinion 
 that the practice firft began in the time of Edward VI. by 
 fuch as would be godfathers, when they were more than half 
 fathers. Upon which, fome were perfuaded to change their 
 names at confirmation ; which, it feems, is ufual in other 
 countries.— Thus, two fons of Henry II. of France, cbriftened 
 Alexander and Hercules, changed them at confirmation into 
 Henry and Francis. 
 
 In monafteries, the religious affume new names at their admit- 
 tance j to fhew they are about to lead a new life, and have 
 renounced the world, their family, and even their name ; 
 v. g. Sifter Mary of the incarnation, Brother Henry of the 
 holy facrament, 
 
 The_ popes alfo change their name at their exaltation to the 
 pontificate ; a cuflom firft introduced by pope Sergius, whofe 
 name, till then, as Platina informs us, was Swine -fnout. But 
 Baronius refers it to pope Sergius I. and Onuphrius to 
 John XII. or XIII. and at the fame time, adds a different 
 reafon for it from that of Platina, viz. that it was done in 
 imitation of St. Peter and St. Paul, who were firft called Simon 
 and Saul.— Indeed pope Marcellus, of late, refufed to change 
 his name. a 
 In Italy, it is frequent to join the name of fome faint, in a 
 kind of devotion, to the chrifiian name ; as Joannes Baptifta 
 Spinofa, £3V. 
 
 Among the antients, thofe deified by the heathen confecraEions 
 had new names given them; as Romulus was called Quirinus; 
 Melicertes, Portunus, or Portumnus, c2Y, 
 
 4 New 
 
N A R 
 
 New names were alfo given in adoptions, and fometimes by 
 teftament; thus L. iEmilius, adopted by Scipio, took the name 
 of Scipio Africanus; and thus Auguftus, who at firft was called 
 C. Q£tavius Thurinus, being adopted by the teftament of Ju- 
 lius Cae'far into his name and family, took the name of Cakis 
 Julius C^far Octavianus. 
 
 Names were alfo changed at enfranchifements into new ci- 
 ties. — Thus Lucumo, at his firft being made free of Rome, 
 took the name Lucius Tarquinius Prifcus, &c. and flaves, when 
 made free, ufually afiumed their matters names. 
 Thofe called to the equeftrian order, if they had bafe names, 
 were always new named, nomine ingenuorum veterumq; Roma- 
 norum. — And among the primitive Chriftians, it was the 
 practice to change the na?nes of the catechumens : thus the re- 
 negade Lucianus, till his baptifm, was called Lucius, 
 
 Of the Name, is a phrafe, frequent among hiffonans, and ge- 
 nealogifts, to denote perfons of the fame quality, and name. 
 — It is near nine hundred years fince the emperors of the 
 weft firft began to diftinguifh themfelves in this manner by 
 their number : and in the Italia Sacra of Ughellus, we meet 
 with a charter of the emperor Louis le Debonnaire, anno 
 8 1 8. wherein that prince ftyles himfelf the firft of the name. 
 Le Blanc mentions a charter of the year 1084. wherein 
 the emperor Henry III. ftyles himfelf king of Italy, the 
 fourth of the name ; and emperor the third of the name. 
 Some French writers obferve, that in a manufcript preferved 
 in the king's library, their Louis XI. is only ftyled the ninth 
 of the name ; Louis the Debonnaire, and Louis the Stammerer, 
 not being then reckoned in the number, by rcafon they were 
 emperors, as well as kings of France : on which footing, the 
 prefent king, inftead of the fifteenth, fhould only be the thir- 
 teenth of the name. 
 
 NAMIUM, Naam, in law. SeeNAAM. 
 
 Namium Veiitum, or Prohibited Na a m , is an unjuft taking 
 the cattle of another, or driving them to an unlawful place, 
 pretending damages done by them. 
 
 In fuch cafe, the owner of the cattle may demand fat is fact ion 
 for the injury, which is called placitum de namio vetito. See 
 Vet i tom. 
 
 NAPE is ufed for the hind-part of the neck; by reafon, per- 
 haps, of the foft fhort hair growing thereon, like the knap of 
 a cloth. 
 
 NAPELLUS. See the article Aconite. 
 
 NAPHTHA *, Nap&et, a kind of liquid bitumen, very oily 
 and inflammable ; exuding out of the earth in feveral 
 places in Chaldsa ; particularly the place where flood the 
 antient Babylon : and found alfo in fome provinces of Italy 
 and France, particularly Auvergne, and near Ragufa. 
 
 * The word in the original Chaldee fignifics Jlillare, to ooze, 
 or drop ; naphtha, according to Pliny, running like a kind of 
 bitumen. 
 
 Naphtha is found fwimming on the furface of the water 
 of fome fprings. It is ufually of a black colour ; though 
 that found in certain fprings about Babylon is laid to be 
 whitifh. 
 
 That of France is foft and black, like liquid pitch, and of a fe- 
 tid fmell ; that of Italy is a kind of petrol, or a clear oil, of 
 various colours, oozing out of a rock, fituate on a mountain in 
 the duchy of Modena. 
 
 Naphtha is eftcemcd penetrating, refolutive, and vulnerary ; 
 
 but its virtues are but little known in medicine: its chief ufe is 
 
 in lamps, &c. on account of its inflammability. 
 
 The Turks call the naphtha, carah fakiz, black maftic, to d 
 
 flinguifti it from pitch. Voifius has an exprefs treatife on nap). 
 
 iha, antient and modern : he fays, it is a flower of bitumen, and 
 
 of more virtue than any other bitumen. 
 NAPIERS, or Nepers bones. See Nepers bones, 
 NARCOTICS *, in medicine, opiates, or medicines that excite 
 
 drowfinefs and fleep. See Opiates. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek yAfXariiioi, of wtjawtfyf, 
 drowfinefs: 
 
 Narcotics, called alfo hypnotics, and foporifics, aft by calming, 
 and diminiftiing the motion of the blood and fpirits. 
 Authors are of various opinions as to the manner wherein nar- 
 cotics operate : the antients tells us, it is by their being cold in 
 nature, whereby they ftupefy and deaden the fenfe. Etmuller, 
 after Willis, takes the animal fpirits to be compofed of a fluid, 
 volatile fait; and thinks they are diflblved by the mixture of 
 fulphurs and oils, wherewith narcotics abound. — M. Andry's 
 opinion is, that the fait of narcotics diflolves in any liquor 
 whatever, and that their ramous branches becoming thus dif- 
 engaged from the falts, are embarrafled among one ano- 
 ther, and ^ thus flop the courfe of the blood and fpirits. — 
 Others think, that narcotics clofe the orifices of the nerves, 
 and thus block up the paftage of the fpirits. — Laftly, Lin- 
 den, in his treatife de Venenis, thinks, that the operation 
 of narcotics is not the fame in all ; drowfinefs being pro- 
 
 NAT 
 
 ducible from a great variety of different caufes. See 
 Sleep, 
 
 NARRATION, in oratory and hiftory, a recital, or rehearfa! 
 of a fafl as it happened, or as it is fuppofed to have hap- 
 pened. 
 
 Narration Is of two kinds ] either fmplc, and ifcWi as 
 where the auditor or reader is fuppofed to hear or read of a 
 tranfaa.on at fecond hand. — Or artificial, and fahdous ; as 
 where their imaginations are raifed, and the action, is as it were, 
 reacted before them. 
 
 The narration, according to the writers of rhetoric, makes the 
 fecond part of a juft fpeech, or harangue; viz. that immedi- 
 ately following the exordium. 
 
 It makes the whole of a hiftory ; abating for the occafional re- 
 fleclions, epifodes, and digreffions. 
 
 Cicero requires four virtues in a narration ; viz. perfpicuity 
 probability, brevity, and fweetnefs. 
 
 The narration is rendred perfpicuous, by obferving the order of 
 time, by ufing none but proper and known terms, and by re- 
 citing the action uninterruptedly. 
 
 It is rendred probable, by the credibility of the narrator, by the 
 fimphcity and opennefs of the narration, by avoiding every tiling 
 far remote from. the common fenfe -'and opinion of mankind, 
 and by a precife detail of circumftances. 
 
 It is rendred brief, by taking it up no higher than is juft necef- 
 faryi nor fetching it back, as that impertinent author in Ho- 
 race, $m gimino helium Trojamtm orditur all ovo : and by avoid- 
 ing trivial circumftances. 
 
 Laffly, it is rendred Tweet, by ufing fmooth, numerous, and 
 well.founding words ; by arranging them, fo as to avoid any 
 hiatus, or clalhing. Ey the greatnefs, novelty, and unexpect- 
 ed™* of the things related ; and by enriching it with tropes 
 and figures : as, frequent admirations, exclamations interro- 
 gations, expeflations, fufpences, furprifing events; by grief 
 joy, fear, &c. See Number's, Cadence, and' 
 
 i ROPE. 
 
 Narration, in poetry, is ufed more particularly for 
 the aflion, or event, that makes the fubjea of an epic 
 poem. 
 
 F Boffu obferves, that the aflions in poetry are equally fufcepti- 
 ble of the two kinds of oratorial narration ; and that each con- 
 ftitutes a particular fpecies of poetry. 
 
 Thofe under the artificial, or adive form, are now called dra- 
 matic. 
 
 And thofe only related by the poet, who here perforates an 
 niltonan, are called epic. 
 
 In the drama, the narration is the whole of the piece; in the 
 epopceia, it is only a part, though in eftia it is the principal 
 part, and the main body of the poem.— It is preceded bv the 
 propofition and invocation, which Boffu calls the preludes'; and 
 is frequently interrupted by the poet's fpeaking in perfon' de- 
 manding pardon, favour, die. 
 
 The narration includes the whole aaion, epifodified, with all its 
 circumftances and its ornaments. 
 
 It is in this part that the a3ion is to be begun, carried on, and 
 ended. It is this, which is to Ihew the eaufes of all that is related • 
 in this the difficulties are to be propofed and refolved, and the 
 perfons, both human and divine, are here to (hew their interefts 
 their manners, and their qualities, by their aBions and their dif- 
 courfc : and all this is to be defcribed with the beauty, the ma- 
 jefty, and force of verfe, ftyle, fentiments, companion, and 
 other ornaments proper to the fubjea in general, and to each 
 thing in particular. 
 
 The qualities of the epic narration are, that it be agreeable 
 probable, moving, furprifing, and aflive. 
 Horace fpeaks of the utile and dulce as on the fame footine 
 Boffu looks on the utile as an effential property ; and the dulce 
 as no more than an additional quality. 
 
 NASAL, fomething belonging to the nofe, nafus A= the nofe 
 
 piece of an helmet, antiently called the nafale. 
 
 Nasai, in grammar, &(, is applied to thofe founds or letters 
 in whofe formation the nofe is the principal or^an ■ and' 
 particularly where the found formed is palled through 'the 
 nofe. D 
 In moft Englifh words, the founds exprefTed by the characters 
 
 if?'™'^"' are fim r' e Caunis > and Proper ao/i/ vowels. 
 See M, N, tjfe. 
 
 NASALIA, in medicine, a fort of remedies to be taken by the 
 nofe; called alfo errbines. See Errhines. 
 
 NASI Or, in anatomy, a thin bone, making the upper part of the 
 nofe. See Nose. 
 
 NATALIS, Natalis Dies, or Natalitium, properly fig- 
 nify a man's birth-day. See Nativity. 
 The word was firft ufed among the heathens, to fignify the 
 feaft held on the anniverfary of the birth day of an emperor ; 
 whence it came, in time, to fignify any tort of feaft. And ac- 
 cordingly, in the Fafti, we meet with natalis Solis, natalis In- 
 vM, &c. 
 
 The primitive Chriftians, finding the word thus eflablifhed, 
 ufed it in the tame manner; and hence we meet in the an- 
 
NAT 
 
 NAT 
 
 tient martyrologlfts with natalis ealycis, for the feaft of the flip- 
 per or Maunday-Thurfday : natalis cathedra, for the pontificate 
 n . ..„*„V.r nr wnfsilifitjin nf Gich a rhurrh. for the 
 
 of St Peter : natalis, or nataUtium, of fuch a church : 
 feaft of the dedication. ,'-,-** r r 
 
 The word Genethlion is ufed by the Greeks in the lame ienle 
 as natalis* or nataUtium, among the Latins. 
 tudi Natalitii, Natal Gom», were games introduced on 
 
 the anniverfaries of the birth-days of great men. 
 Natal Ring, Annuhs Natalitius, was a ring only worn 
 
 on the birth-day. ' 
 NATES, in anatomy, a term expreffing thofe two flethy pofte- 
 rior parts of the body, popularly called the buttocks : by the La- 
 tins dunes, or nates. . 
 Nates Cerebri, are two circular protuberances of the brain, lt- 
 tuate on the back-fide of the medulla oblongata near the cere- 
 bellum. See Brain, and Medulla. 
 NATION, a colle&ive term, ufed for a confiderable people, in- 
 habiting a certain extent of ground, inclofed within fixed limits, 
 and under the fame government. 
 
 Each nation has its particular charader : and it is proverbially 
 laid, Light as a Frenchman, Waggifh as an Italian, Grave as 
 a Spaniard, Serious as an Englifhman, Fierce as a Scotchman, 
 Drunken as a German, Idle as an Irifhman, Deceitful as a 
 Greek, &c. 
 
 Nation is alfo ufed in fome univerfities, for a diftinction of the 
 fcholars, and profeffors of colleges. 
 
 The faculty of Paris confifts in four nations; viz. that of 
 Trance, that of Normandy, that of Picardy, and that of Ger- 
 many ; which are again, excepting that of Normandy, diftur 
 guiftied into tribes ; and each tribe has its deacon. 
 The German nation comprehends all foreign nations, Englifh, 
 Italian, &c. . 
 When the procureur of the French nation (peaks in public, his 
 ftyle is, Honoranda Gallerum Natio i he of Picardy fays, Fide- 
 likma Picardorum Natio : he of Normandy, Vemranda Norman- 
 norum Natio : he of the nation of Germany, Conftantijfnna Ger- 
 manorum Natio. 
 
 National %i See the articles Synod, and Counc i l 
 NATIVE is applied to a perfon confidered as born in a certa 
 place ; or deriving his origin therefrom. 
 The more accurate writers diftinguifh between a native of a 
 place, and one born there. Born fignifies no more than the 
 having been there produced, or brought into the world, whether 
 that were the proper country, or habitation of the parents, or 
 whether they were there only by accident, as Grangers, tsV.— 
 Whereas native refers to the proper manfion, or refidence of 
 the parents and the family ; and where the perfon has his edu- 
 cation, 
 
 And hence a perfon may he a native of one place, and born at 
 another : thus Jefus Chrift is called a Nazarite, and Gali- 
 lean as a native ; though he was born at Bethlehem in 
 
 Native, Nativus, in our antient law-books, fignified a 
 perfon who was born a Have or villain. 
 
 By which he differed from one who had fold himfelf, or be- 
 came a Have by his own deed, who was called bondman. See 
 Villain. , 
 
 Nati ve Tenentes, in our old law-books, are thofe freemen, who 
 hold native land ; /. e. land fubjecl to the fervices of natives. 
 Spelm. - 
 
 Nativi de Stipite, were villains or bond-men by birth or fa- 
 mily. —There were alfo nativi conventionarii, who were villains 
 by cnntra£t or covenant. Strut enim alii natura, alii facli, aln 
 emptione, alii redemptione, alii fua vel alterius datione. LL. Hen. I. 
 cap. 76. 
 
 In Cornwall it was a cuftom, that if a freeman married na- 
 livam (that is a neif) and brought her ad libermn tenementum 
 & libentm thorum, and had two daughters, one of them was 
 free, and the other a villain. Braft. 1. 4. c. 21. See 
 Neif. , 
 NATIVITY, Nativitas, or Na!al-Vay, the day of one's 
 
 The term is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of faints, &c The 
 nativity of St. John Bandit, &c. - When we fay abfblute- 
 ly the nativity, it is underftood of that of Jefus Chrift, or 
 the feaft of Chriftmas. Sec Feast, Christmas, 
 
 ft 'is commonly held, that pope Telefphorus was the firft 
 who decreed the feaft of the nativity to be held on the 25 th 
 of December. John, archbifhoo of Nice, in an epiftle 
 upon the nativity of Jefus Chrift, relates that at the in- 
 fiance of St Cyril of Jemfalem, pope Julius procured a 
 flrift inquiry to be made into the day of our Saviour's nati- 
 ■ vity which being found to be on the 25th of December, they 
 began thenceforth to celebrate the feaft on that day. See In- 
 carnation. 
 
 Nativity, Nativitas, in antient law-books, lignihes bondage, 
 or fervitude. 
 
 Nativity, in aftrolo^y, the theme, or figure of the heavens, 
 and particularly of the twelve houfes, at the moment when a 
 perfon was born ; called alfo the hnjcopu 
 
 Cafting the nativity, or by calculation feeking to know how 
 long the queen fhould live, &c. was made felony, an. 23. 
 Eliz. c. 2. 
 
 NATRON, or Anatron, in natural hiftory, a brownifh kind 
 of fait, taken out of a lake of fiagnant water, in the defert of 
 Nitria, in Egypt. 
 
 It is much of the nature of nitre, whence it is by many called 
 Egyptian nitre, and is fuppofed to be the proper nitre of the 
 antients. 
 
 It is a popular error, that all bones or flones thrown in this 
 lake, are by degrees converted into natron. — It makes a great 
 ebullition, when mixed with acids ; whence it is ranked among 
 the alkali kind. 
 
 It is ufed in the whitening of linen ; but it burns them, if not 
 corrected by a mixture of afhes. 
 
 The natron of Egypt, as defcribed by Pliny, Mattluolus, and 
 Agricoia, is an alkali fait perforated in manner of a fponge, 
 and of a lixivial tafte. 
 
 Its principles Dr. Leigh takes to be chiefly two ; viz. % 
 fea-falt, and an urinous fait. The firft, he takes it for 
 granted, it receives from from the earth ; the fecond, from 
 
 Dr. Huntington, who was on the fpot, fays the natron is 
 thought to rife from the bottom of the lake ; where, by the 
 heat of the fun, it is condenfed, and hardened into the form 
 we fee it in : but his opinion is, that it is rather feparated by 
 the fun from the water. 
 
 M.de la Cbambre adds, that three or four days before theNde 
 begins to overflow, there falls a certain dew, of a fermentative 
 virtue, infomuch as to leaven a pafte expofed to it ; and that at 
 the fame time the natron rifes. 
 
 Hippocrates, Galen, Mattluolus, Diofcorides, fcfc, mention it as 
 of ufe in phyfic ; and M. dc Clofs is even of opinion, that 
 all the mineral waters of France are impregnated with this 
 kind of nitre ; and that it is hence they derive their medicinal 
 virtues. 
 
 If is of fingular efficacy in fertilizing of ground ; which 
 Dr, Leigh accounts for, by fuppofing its volatile particles 
 heated by fome fubterraneous fire, or by the warmth of the 
 fun ; and thus readily made to afcend up the minute 
 tuhes of plants, and carry with them the juices of the 
 earth. 
 
 Pliny derives the invention of glafs from fome of this natron 
 accidentally melted down into the fand, where it ran into 
 ftreams of glafs. 
 
 This nitre is diftinguifhed from the common nitre, or faltpetre, 
 by its fermenting with acids, which faltpetre will not do ; by 
 its volatile fpirit, its lixivial fmell, and the clammy infipid 
 fubftance it yields, tfc. — It agrees with faltpetre, in that, by 
 dropping fpirit of fulphur upon it, it fhoots into pyramidal cry- 
 fials. Dr. Leigh thinks it comes nearer fal armoniac than falt- 
 petre. 
 
 Dr. Lifter conjectures, that moft of the fait water of the 
 lakes of Esypt, having paffed through the bodies of thofe 
 vaft animals wherewith they are flocked, as crocodiles, 
 hippopotami, £sV. muft of confequence be rendreel urinous, 
 or falino-urinous ; which is a part of the compofition of fal 
 armoniac. See Supplement, article Natrum. 
 NATTA *, or Nat a, in medicine, a large flefby excrefcence, 
 or tumour arifing in feveral parts of the body. 
 
 * The word is alfo written nafa, va/Ja, and tiapta. 
 
 Blancard defines it, a large, foft, painlefs, colourlefs, tumour, 
 arifing ufually on the back, fometimes on the moulders, and 
 other parts. — Its root is very fmall ; yet it grows fo prodigiouily, 
 that it fometimes equals a melon, or gourd. 
 Natta ofteneft appear on the neck, much after the manner 
 ' of talpse. 
 
 They are of the cedematous kind, and are to be extirpated by 
 incifion, and their return prevented by red precipitate, vitriol, 
 or burnt alum, ftrewed on the place. 
 
 Bartholine mentions a lady, who cured herfelf of a natta, by 
 biting it off. 
 
 NATURAL, fomething that relates to nature ; that arifes from a 
 principle of nature; or is conformable to the ordinary courfe and 
 order of nature. 
 
 When a ftone falls downwards, we vu'garly fay it does it by a 
 natural motion ; but if it be thrown upwards, its motion is faid 
 
 to be violent. 
 
 Water fufpended in a fucking pump is faid to be out of its na- 
 tural place : cures wrought by medicines, are natural operations ; 
 but the miraculous ones wrought by Chrift, fupernatural. See 
 Miracle, &c. 
 
 Natural Children are thofe born out of lawful wedlock. See 
 Bastard. 
 
 Natural Horizon, is the fenfible or phyfical horizon. Sec 
 
 Horizon. ( 
 Natural Law. See law of Nature. 
 
 Natural, 
 
NAT 
 
 NAT 
 
 Natural Day. J . , 5 Day* 
 
 •kt v f See the article < v „ 
 
 Natural 1 t i ear. 
 
 Natural Faculty. See the article Faculty. 
 
 Quincy defines Natural Faculty to be that power arifing from 
 the blood's circulation, whicii is confpicuous in all the fecre- 
 tions performed within the body ; that fecretion alone excepted, 
 which is made at the origin of the nerves. 
 
 Natural Funclions, in the animal ceconomy, are thofe actions 
 whereby things taken into the body are changed, and affimi- 
 lated, fo as to become parts of our body. 
 
 Thefe are the actions of the vifcera, the vefTels that receive, 
 retain, move, change, mix, fecern, apply, excern, and fpend 
 the humours of the body. 
 Natural Inclinations are thofe tendencies or motions of the 
 mind, towards things feemingly good, which are common, in a 
 greater or lefs degree, to all mankind. 
 
 Natural Inclination, according to F. Malebranche, is the fame 
 thing, with regard to minds, that motion is with regard to bo- 
 dies : and as all the varieties in the material world arife from 
 the feveral motions of bodies ; fo do all thofe of the intelle- 
 iSlual world from inclinations : and as all motions arc the re- 
 fults of impreffions immediately communicated by the finger 
 of the Creator; fo all inclinations are certainly nothing clfe 
 but continual impreffions of the will of the Creator on that of 
 the creature ; and muff therefore, of neceffity, be agreeable to 
 bis j and therefore can naturally have no principal end but his 
 glory ; nor any fecondary one but their own prefervation, and 
 that of others, both fHll with regard to his will, who gave them 
 being. 
 
 . J. Now as, properly fpeaking, there is but one love in God j 
 I viz. that of himfelf : fo he only imprefles one love or defire 
 in us; which is that of good in the general. It is this general 
 love, or defire, is the principle of all our particular ones ; as, 
 in effect, it is the will itfelf ; the will being defined to be a 
 continual impreffion of the author of nature, which carries the 
 mind of man to good in general. 
 
 But the impreffion towards good in the general dolh not only 
 proceed from God, but alio all our inclinations to particular 
 goods; as, v. gr. felf-prefervation, &c. 
 Natural Hijhry, a defcription of the natural products of the 
 earth, water, or air ; v. gr. bean's, birds, fifties, metals, 
 minerals, and foffils ; together with fuch extraordinary phe- 
 nomena as at any time appear in the material world \ as me- 
 teors, monfters, t£c. 
 
 jBefidea General Natural Hi/lories, as thofe of Phnv, &c. 
 there are particular ones ; and thofe of two kinds, — The firft, 
 thofe which only confider one kind of things ; fuch as the 
 Hiftory of Shells, by Dr. Lifter; of Fifties, by Willoughby ; 
 that of Birds, by the fame; that of Plants, by Ray; thofe 
 of Infects, by Swammerdam, and Mouffet; that of Ani- 
 mals, by Gefner ; that of Foiliis, by Agricola, Mercatus, 
 
 The fecond, thofe which confider the feveral kinds of na- 
 tural things found in particular countries, or provinces: as 
 the Natural Hijlory of Dauphine, by Chorier ; the Na- 
 tural Hi/lory of the Antilles, by F. Du Tertre, and M. 
 Louvillers De Poincy ; thofe of Oxfordfhire and Staffbrd- 
 iliire, by Dr. Plott ; that of Lancafhire, by Leigh ; of 
 Northamptonfiiire, by Morton ; and that of the fame county 
 expected from Mr. Bridges ; that of the Weftern Iflands, by 
 Martin, &c. 
 
 Natural Pbilofophv, that faience which confiders the pow- 
 ers of nature, tiie properties ot Natural bodies, and their 
 mutual action on one another: this is otherwife called 
 
 ■ pbyjics- 
 
 Natural Magic is that which only makes ufe of natural caufes. 
 See Magic. 
 
 Natural Caufe. See the article Cause. 
 
 Natural, in heraldry, is ufed where animals, fruits, flow- 
 ers, fefr. are blazoned with the colours they naturally 
 have, though different from the common colours of heraldry: 
 and this is to prevent the armory's being accufed of falfity, 
 when blazoned with the names ot colours unknown in he- 
 raldry. 
 
 Natural, in mufic, is fometimes ufed for diatonic. See 
 Diatonic. 
 
 Natural is alfo fometimes ufed for phyfical. — In which latter 
 fenfe, Natural mufic is that performed by Natural organs, r. e. 
 vocal mufic ; in contradiltinction to artificial, or inftrumental. 
 See Music. 
 
 Natural Harmony is that produced by the natural and efTen- 
 
 tialchordsof the mode. See Harmony. 
 Natural Note is ufed in opposition to flat and fharp notes, 
 
 which are called artificial notes. See Note, Scale, 
 
 Natural is alfo ufed for- fomething coming immediately out 
 of the hands of nature. — In which fenfe it flands oppofed to 
 factitious, or artificial; which lignifies fomething wrought by 
 art. 
 
 Bifhop Wilkms obferves, that there appears a world of 
 , | difference between Natural and artificial things, when viewed 
 Vol. U. 
 
 with mlcrofcopes : the fii ft; ever appear adorned with all irfia- 
 ginable elegance and beauty ; the latter, though the moll cu- 
 rious in their kind, infinitely rude, and unhewn. The finefc 
 needle appears a rough bar of iron, and the mod: accurate 
 engraving, or imbofTment, as if done with a mattock or 
 trowel. 
 
 NATURALIST, a pcrfon who has ftudied nature, and Is well 
 verfed in natural bodies, efpecislly in what relates to metals, 
 minerals, ftones, vegetables, and animals. 
 Ariftotle, ./Elian, Pliny, Solinus, and Theophraftus, were 
 the greateft Naturalijls among the antients ; but they fell into 
 abundance of errors, which have been corrected by the happy 
 induftry of the moderns. — Aldrovandus is the mod copious, 
 but not the moft accurate, of the modern Naturalijls : hia 
 work is in thirteen volumes in folio. 
 
 NATURALIZATION, in law, the act of naturalizing an 
 alien, or putting him into the condition of a natural-born 
 fubject, and intitling him to the rights and privileges there- 
 of. 
 
 In France, Naturalization is the king's prerogative: in Eng- 
 land, it is only done by act of parliament. 
 In France, Swifs, Savoyards, and Scots, need not any Natura- 
 lization ; being reputed regnicoles, or natives, 
 
 NATURALS, Res Naturales, in medicine. — In every ani- 
 mal, howfoever ftck anddifeafed, there is (till remaining fume 
 degree of life, and flrcngth; and the caufes and effects ot each. 
 — Thefe are called Naturals, natural things, or things accord- 
 ing to nature; and fometimes barely nature; in contradiitin- 
 ction to Non-Naturals. 
 
 NATURE, Natura, is a term varioufly ufed. Aiiftotlehas 
 a whole chapter wrote cxprefiy to enumerate the various ac- 
 ceptations of the Greek word pwrif, rendered, in Englifti, Na- 
 ture: and, among Latin writers, the different acceptations are 
 fomany, that a certain author reckons up fourteen, or fifteen. 
 Mr. Boyle, in a precife treatife of the vulgarly-received notion 
 of Nature, gives us eight principal ones. 
 
 Nature, then, is fometimes ufed for the fyftem of the World ; 
 the machine of the univcrfe ; or the afiemblage of all created 
 beings. 
 
 In which fenfe we fay, theauthorof Nature: the fun Is called 
 the eye of Nature, becaufe he illuminates the univcrfe ; and 
 the father of Nature, becaufe he warms the earth, and makes 
 it fruitful. And thus we fay of the phcenix, or a chimEera, 
 that there is no fuch thing in Nature. 
 
 Inftead of the word Nature in this fenfe, Mr.Boylc, to avoid 
 ambiguity, and abufe of the word, withes to have world, or 
 univcrfe, fubftituted. See World. 
 Nature, in a more confined fenfe, is applied to each of the 
 feveral kinds of beings, created and increated ; fpiritual and 
 corporeal. 
 
 In which fenfe, we fay, human Nature, meaning all men to- 
 gether who poffefs the fame fpiritual, reafonable foul ; ange- 
 lical Nature ; the divine Nature, &c. 
 
 In this fenfe, the fchool divines fay, natura naturans, cif na- 
 tura naturata, fpeaking of God, who is the natura naturans, 
 as giving being and Nature to all others; in oppofition to the 
 creatures, who are the natura naturata, as receiving their Na- 
 ture from the hands of another. 
 Nature, in a flill more reftrained fenfe, is ufed for the ef- 
 fence of i thing ; or that which the fchoolmcn call the 
 quiddity thereof, that is, the attribute which makes it what it 
 is. 
 
 In which fenfe, the Cartefians fay, it is the Nature of the foul 
 to think ; and that the Nature of matter conlifts in exten- 
 fion. 
 
 And here the word cjfince Mr. Boyle would have obtain, in 
 lieu of Nature. 
 
 Nature is more particularly ufed for the eftablifhed order 
 and courfe of material things ; the feries of fecond caufes ; o r 
 the laws which God has impofed on the motions imprefted by 
 him. 
 
 In which fenfe it is we fay, phyfics is the fludy of Nature ; 
 Nature makes the night fucceed the day ; Nature has rendered 
 refpiration nccefiary to life, Isfc. 
 
 Thus St. Thomas defines Nature a kind of divine art, com- 
 municated to beings, which carries them to the end they are 
 determined for. — In which fenfe, Nature is nothing clfe but 
 that concatenation of caufes and effects, or that order and 
 ceconomy which God has eftablifhed in the parts of his crea- 
 tion. 
 
 In this fenfe, too, we fav, miracles are efFefb above the 
 powers of Nature: art is faid to force or furpafs Nature, 
 by means of machines; in regard thefe produce effects 
 which exceed what we find in the common courfe cf 
 things. 
 
 Nature, again, is taken for an aggregate of powers belonging 
 to any body, efpecially a living one. 
 
 In which fenfe phyficians fay, Mature is (hone, weak, or fpent ; 
 or that, in fuch a difcafc, Nature left to herielf will perform 
 the cure: 
 
 7 B 
 
 Naturb 
 
NAT 
 
 N A V 
 
 \ t ure 'is ftill more ftriflly ufed for the aaion of providence, 
 the principle of all things ; or that fpiritual power, or being, 
 which is difFufed throughout the creation, and moves and acts 
 in all bodies, and gives them certain properties, and produces 
 certain effects. 
 
 In this which Mr. Boyle confiders as the molt ufual lenie, 
 Nature\s nothing elfe but God, acting himfelf, and according 
 to certain laws he himfelf has fixed. See God. 
 This feems pretty agreeable to the opinion of many of thean- 
 tients, who made Nature the God of the univerfe, To Hew, who 
 prefides over, and governs all things; though others owned this 
 an imaginary being, and by Nature meant no more than the 
 qualities, or virtues, which God has given his creatures, and 
 which their poets and orators took occafion of perfonifying. 
 F. Malebranche fays, that the Nature fo much talked of in the 
 fchools is fit for nothing but to lead us back to idolatry ; the 
 antient heathens hereby underftanding fomething, which, 
 without being God, acts continually throughout the univerfe. 
 Thus the idol Nature muft be an aaual principle, which, 
 in concurrence with God, is the next and immediate caufe 
 of all the changes which befal matter. Which feems to fall 
 in with the opinion of the Anima muruli ; as if Nature were a 
 fubftitute of God, or a collateral caufe with God, or a middle 
 being between God and created things. 
 
 Ariftotle defines Nature, Principium y caufa moius c5f ejus in 
 quo eji prima per fe, & non per aecidens : a definition fo obfeure, 
 that none of his commentators, with all their glolTes, have 
 been able to render it intelligible. 
 
 This principle, which the Peripatetics called Nature, they fup- 
 pofed to aft necefi'arily ; and to be therefore deftitute of know- 
 lege, or liberty. See Necessity. 
 
 Thus, alfo, the Stoics conceived Nature as a certain fpirit or 
 virtue difFufed throughout the univerfe, which gave every 
 thing its motion ; fo that all muft be dragged away by the 
 invariable order of a blind Nature, and an inevitable necef- 
 
 fity. . 
 
 In fpeaking of the action of Nature, no more is to be under- 
 ftood, but that bodies aft on one another, in a manner agree- 
 able to the general laws of motion which the Creator has efta- 
 blifhed. 
 
 In this lies the myftery of that great word, which is only a 
 compendious way of exprefling the action of all bodies : but 
 the mechanifm of bodies would, perhaps, better exprefs what 
 is here meant by Nature. 
 
 Some, Mr. Boyle obferves, will have the Nature of a thing to 
 be only the law that it receives from the Creator, and accord- 
 ing to which it acts on all occafions.— But this is an improper 
 and figurative expreffion. 
 
 The fame author propofes a notion of Nature as more fit, than 
 any yet given, to pafs for the principal one of Nature ; 
 with regard to which many axioms and expreflions relate- 
 ing to that word may be conveniently underftood. In 
 order to this, he diftinguifhes between general and particular 
 Nature. 
 
 General Nature he defines the aggregate of the bodies which 
 make up the world in its prefent ftate, confidered as a prin- 
 ciple by virtue whereof they act and fufFer, according to the 
 laws of motion prefcribed by the author of all things. 
 
 Particular Nature of any fubordinate, or individual, confifts 
 in the general Nature applied to a diftindt portion of the uni- 
 verfe. — Or it is a convention of the mechanical properties (as 
 magnitude, figure, order, fituation, and local motion) of parts 
 convenient and fufHcient to conftitute, or intitle to its particu- 
 lar fpecies or denomination, the particular body they make up ; 
 the concourfe of all thefe being confidered as the principle of 
 motion, reft, bfc. 
 
 Laws of Nature are axioms, or general rules, of motion and 
 reft, obferved by natural bodies in their actions on one another ; 
 and in all the changes which befal them in their natural 
 ftate. 
 
 The Laws of Nature, and of motion, are, in effect, the fame: 
 cuftom, indeed, has made fome difference ; and we find au- 
 thors call the particular cafes of motion, laws of motion ; 
 which fee under Motion. The more general, or catholic 
 ones, and thofe from which, as from axioms, the others are 
 deduced, they call Laws of Nature. 
 Of thefe, Sir Ifaac Newton has eftablifhed three. 
 I . That every body perfeveres in the fame ftate, either of reft, 
 or uniform rectilinear motion; except fo far as it is forced to 
 change that ftate by fome foreign force. 
 
 Thus projectiles perfevere in their motions, except fo far as 
 they are retarded by the refiftance of the air, and the caufe of 
 gravity: and thus a top, whofe parts, by their cohefion, are 
 continually drawing one another out of their rectilinear mo- 
 tion, only ceafes to run round becaufe refilled by the air, and 
 the friction of the plane whereon it moves. And thus the 
 larger bodies of the planets and comets preferve their progref- 
 five and circular motions a long time undiminifhed in regions 
 void of all fenfible refiftance. See Vis Inertia^ Resistance, 
 and Medium. 
 
 2. The change of motion is ever proportional to the moving 
 farce whereby it is effected, and in the direction of the right 
 line wherein that force is impreffed. 
 
 If a certain force produce a certain motion, a double force 
 will produce double the motion ; a triple force triple the mo- 
 tion j whether it be imprcfied all at once, or fucccffively, and 
 by degrees. And this motion (fince it is ever directed to the. 
 fame point with the generating force), if the body were in 
 motion before, Is either to be added to it, as where the motions 
 confpire ; or fubtracted from it, as where contrary ; or added 
 obliquely, as where oblique : and is compounded with it, ac- 
 cording to the determinations of each. 
 
 3. Reaction is always contrary and equal to action ; or the. 
 actions of two bodies upon one another are always mutually 
 equal, and directed contrary ways. 
 
 Whatever prefTes or pulls another, is equally prcfTed or 
 pulled thereby. Thus, if I prefs a ftone with my finger, 
 the finger is equally prefTed by the ftone: if a horfe draw a 
 weight by a rope, the horfe is equally drawn back towards 
 the weight: for the rope, being equally ftretched each way, 
 will, with an equal endeavour to relax itfelf, drive the horfe 
 toward the ftone, and the ftone toward the horfe ; and will 
 hinder the progrefs of the one, as much as it promotes that of 
 the other. 
 
 Again, if any body, by ftriking on another, do in any man- 
 ner change its motion, it will, itfelf, by means of the other, 
 undergo alfo an equal change in its own motion, by reafon of 
 the equality of thepreffure. 
 
 In thefe actions the changes are equal; not thofe, we mean,, 
 of the velocities, but thofe of the motions, the bodies being 
 fuppofed free from any other impediments. For the changes 
 of velocities, which are likewife made contrary Ways, inaf- 
 much as the motions are equally changed, are reciprocally pio- 
 portional to the bodies, 
 
 This law alfo obtains in attractions. See Attraction. 
 Nature, in profody. — A fyllable is faid to be long or fhort by 
 Nature, tofignify that it is fo originally, and independently of 
 any rule of grammar which might render it fo by pofition, or 
 otherwife. 
 
 NAVAL, fomething relating to fhips, or navigation. See Ship, 
 and Navigation. 
 
 In this fenfe we fome times fay, Naval ftrength, a. Naval com- 
 bat, &e. 
 
 Naval Crown, Corona Navalis, among the antient Romans, 
 a crown adorned with figures of prows of ftiips, conferred 
 on perfons who, in fea-cngagements, firft boarded the enemy's 
 vefl'el. 
 
 Though A. Gellius feems to fpeak in the general, where he 
 fays the Naval Crown was adorned with prows of ftiips ; Lip- 
 fius diftinguifhes two kinds of Naval Crowns : the one he calls 
 fimple, the other rajlrated. 
 
 The firft he fuppoles plain, and given to the common 
 foldiers, &c. — The latter, much more glorious, adorned 
 with prows of fhips, and only given to generals, or ad- 
 mirals, who had gained fome important victory at fea. 
 NAVE*, in architecture, Navis Ecclefics, denotes the body 
 of a church ; or the place where the people are feated ; 
 reaching from the rail, or balufter, of the choir, to the chief 
 door. 
 
 * Baldus derives the word from the Greek, vctx, temple ; which 
 Salmafius brings farther from ww, (hip ; by reafon the vault 
 or roof of a church bears refemblance to a fhip. 
 The antient Greeks called the Nave, Pronaos; the Latins fre- 
 quently call it Cella. 
 
 The Nave of the church belongs to the parifhioners : it is 
 they are to repair it, (ft. 
 
 NAVEL, apart in the middle of the belly, by anatomifts called 
 Umbilicus. — See Tab. Anat. (SplanchJ fig. 3. lit. c. fig. 16. lit*, 
 e. See alfo Umbilicus. 
 
 NAVEL-S/r;'«£ by anatomifts is called Funiculus TJmhilicalis. 
 See Umbi lical. 
 
 NAVICULARS * Os, in anatomy, the third bone in the foot, 
 between the aftragalus and the ofla cuneiformia. 
 
 * It is thus called from Npvts, a fhip, to which it bears fome re- 
 fern blance ; for which reafon, likewife, it is fometimes called 
 Cymbiforme, from Cymba, a boat ; and Scafboiiles, from a G reek 
 word of the like import. 
 The Os Naviculare has behind it a large finus, which receives 
 the anterior convex head of the firft bone ; and before, it is con- 
 vex. It is divided into three heads, which are received into 
 the finus's of the offa cuneiformia. 
 
 NAVIGATION, the art or act of failing, or of conducting a 
 veflel from one place to another, the fafeft, ihorteft, and muft 
 commodious way. 
 
 This art, in the full latitude of the word, comprehends three 
 parts: i°. The art of conftructing and building mips. z°. The 
 loading of fhips. And, 3°. The conducting and guiding of 
 ftiips through the fea ; which is, in a peculiar fenfe, called Na- 
 vigation } or failing. See Sailing. 
 
 In 
 
N A V 
 
 N A V 
 
 In this reftrained fenfe of the word, Navigation is either com- 
 mon, or proper. 
 
 Common Navigation, ufually called Coajling, is where the 
 ports are on the fame, or very neighbouring coafts ; and where 
 the veffel is feldom out of light of land, or out of reach of 
 founding. 
 
 In this little elfe is required but an acquaintance with the 
 lands, the compafs, and founding-line ; each of which fee in 
 its place, Compass, and Sounding. 
 Proper Navigation is where the voyage is long, and out in 
 the main ocean. 
 
 In this, befides the requifites in the former, are likewife re- 
 quired ufe of the Mercator's chart, azimuth and ampli- 
 tude compafles, log-line, and other inftruments for celeftial 
 obfervations, as quadrants, foreftaffs, &c. See each inftru- 
 ment, cifc. in its place. 
 
 Navigation turns principally on four things ; two whereof 
 being known, the reft are eafily found from them by the 
 tables, fcales, and charts. 
 
 Thefe four things are, the difference of latitude, difference of 
 longitude, the reckoning or diftance run, and the courfe, or 
 rhumb failed on. 
 
 The latitudes are eafily found, and that with fufficient accu- 
 racy. See Latitude. 
 
 The courfe and diliance are had by the log-line, or dead reck- 
 oning, and the compafs. See Log, Compass, Course, 
 and Distance. 
 
 Nor is there any thing wanting to the perfection of Naviga- 
 tion, but to determine the longitude. — The mathematicians of 
 many ages have applied themfelveswith the utmoft afliduity to 
 fupply this grand defideratum, but hitherto in vain ; notwith- 
 standing the magnificent rewards of feveral princes and flates 
 to the difcoverer. 
 
 For the various methods that now occafionally obtain at fea 
 for this purpofe, fee Longitude. 
 
 The potts refer the invention of the art of Navigation to Nep- 
 tune, fome of the antients to Bacchus, others to Hercules, 
 others to Jalbn, others to Janus, who is faid to have made the 
 firft inip. See Ship. Hiftoiians afcribe it to the iEginetes, 
 the Phoenicians, Tyrians, and the antient inhabitants of Britain. 
 Some will have it, the firft hint was taken from the flight of 
 the kite ; others, as Oppian de Pifcibus, lib. I. from the fifh 
 called Nautilus : others afcribe it to accident.->-Scripture 
 refers the origin of fo ufeful an invention to God himfelf, 
 who gave the firft fpecimen thereof in the ark built by Noah 
 under his direction. For the raillery the good man underwent 
 on account of his enterprize, fhews evidently enough the 
 World was then ignorant of any thing like navigation ; and 
 that they even thought it impoifible. 
 
 However, hiffory reprefents the Phoenicians, efpecially thofe 
 of their capital Tyre, as the firft navigators ; being urged to 
 feek a foreign commerce by the narrownefs and poverty of a 
 flip of ground they poffefied along the coafts ; as well as by 
 the conveniency of two or three good ports 5 and by their na- 
 tural genius to trafftck. 
 
 Accordingly, Lebanon, and the other neighbouring moun- 
 tains, furnifhing them with excellent wood for (hip- building, 
 in a fhort time they were matters of a numerous fleet, with 
 which conftantly hazarding new Navigations, and fettling new 
 trades, they foon arrived at an incredible pitch of opulency 
 and populoufnefs ; infomuch as to be in a condition to fend 
 out colonics, the principal of which was that of Carthage j 
 which keeping up their Phoenician fpirit of commerce, in time 
 not only equalled Tyre itfelf, but vaftly furpafied it ; fending 
 its merchant- fleets through Hercules's Pillars, now the 
 {freights of Gibraltar, along the weftern coafts of Africa 
 and Furope ; and even, if we believe fome authors, to Ame- 
 rica itfelf ; the difcovery whereof fo many ages afterwards, 
 has been fo glorious to the Spaniards. 
 
 Tyre, whofe immenfe riches and power are reprefented in 
 fuch lofty terms both in facred and profane authors, being 
 deftroyed by Alexander the Great, its Navigation and com- 
 merce were transferred by the conqueror to Alexandria, a 
 new city, admirably fituated for thofe purpofes, propofed for 
 the capital of the empire of Alia, which Alexander then me- 
 ditated. — And thus arofe the Navigation of the Egyptians, 
 which was afterwaids lb cultivated by the Ptolemies, that Tyre 
 and Carthage (which laft, after having a long time difputed 
 empire with the Romans, was at length fubdued) were quite 
 forgot. 
 
 Egypt being reduced into a Roman province after the battle 
 of Aftium, its trade and Navigation fell into the hands 
 of Auguftus ; in whofe time Alexandria was only inferior 
 to Rome : and the magazines of the capital of the world 
 were wholly fupplied with merchandizes from the capital of 
 
 At length, Alexandria itfelf underwent the fate of Tyre 
 and Carthage ; being furprifed by the Saracens, who, in 
 fpite of the emperor Heraclius, ovcrfpread the Northern 
 coafts of Africa, csV. whence the merchants being driven, 
 Alexandria has ever fince been in a lancuiftrnig ftate, though 
 
 Sill it have a cor.fiderable part of the commerce of the Girl* 
 
 ftian merchants, trading to the Levant. 
 
 The fall of Rome, and its empire, drew along with it not 
 
 only that of learning, and the polite arts, but that of Navi* 
 
 gation ; the Barbarians, into whofe hands it fell, contenting 
 
 themfelves with the fpoils of the induftry of their pre- 
 
 deceflors. 
 
 But no fooner were the more brave among thofe nations well 
 fettled in their new provinces ; fome in Gaul, as the Franks ; 
 others in Spain, as the Goths ; and others in Italy, as the 
 Lombards j but they began to learn the advantages of Navi- 
 gation and commerce, and the proper methods of mana^in^ 
 them, from the people they fubdued ; and this with fo much 
 fuccef?, that in a little time fome of them became able to 
 give new leflbns, and fet on foot new inftitutions for its advan- 
 tage. 
 
 Thus it is to the Lombards we ufually afcribe the invention 
 and ufe of banks, book-keeping, exchanges, rtchanges, & c . 
 It does not appear which of the European people, afier the 
 fettlement of their new matters, firft took themfelves to 
 Navigation and commerce. — Some think it began with the 
 French ; though the Italians fecm to have the jufteft title to 
 it, and are accordingly ordinarily looked on as the reftoreis 
 hereof, as well as of the polite arts, which had been bammed 
 together, from the time the empire wjs torn afunder. 
 It is the people of Italy ;hen, and particularly thofe of Venice 
 and Genoa, who have the glory of this reftoration ; and it is 
 to their advantageous fituation for Navigation, they in great 
 meafure owe their glory. 
 
 In the bottom of the Adriatic were a great number of marfby 
 iflands, oniy feparated by narrow chanels, but thofe well 
 fcreened, and aimoft inacccinble, the rcfidence of fome fiflier- 
 men, who here fupported themfjves by a little trade of fiih 
 and fait, which they found in fome of thefe iflands.— - 
 Thither, then, the Veneti, a people inhabiting that part of 
 Italy along the coafts of the Gulph, retired, when Alaric, 
 king of the Goths, and afterwards Attila, king of the Huns, 
 ravaged Italy. 
 
 1 hefe new iflanders, little imagining that this was to be their 
 fixed rcfidence, did not think of compofing any bodv politic ; 
 but each of the feventy-two iflands of this little Archipelago 
 continued a long time under its feveral dirtin£t matters, and 
 
 each made a diftinit commonwealth.- When their 
 
 commerce was become confiderable enough to give jea- 
 loufy to their neighbours, they begrr. to think 01 uniting 
 into a body : and it was this union, firft begun in the fixth 
 century, but not completed till the eighth, that laid 
 the fure foundation of the future grandeur of the ftate of 
 Venice. 
 
 From the time of this union, their fleets of merchantmen 
 were fent to all the parts of the Mediterranean ; and at laft 
 to thofe of Egypt, particularly Cairo, a new city, built 
 by the Saracen princes on the eaftern bank of the Nile 
 where they traded for their fpices, and other produces of the 
 Indies. 
 
 Thus they flourifhed, increfaed their commerce, their Navl- 
 gation, and their conquefts on the terra firma, till the famous 
 league of Cambray in 1508. when a number of jealous 
 princes confpired to their ruin ; which was the more eafily 
 effected by the diminution of their Eaft-India commerce 
 of which the Portuguefe had got one part, and the French 
 another. 
 
 Genoa, which had applied itfelf to Navigation at the fame 
 time with Venice, and that with equal fuccefs, was a lon^ 
 time its dangerous rival, difputed with it the empire of the 
 fea, and fliared with it the trade of Egypt, and other nart<- 
 both of the Eaft and Weft. v 
 Jealoufy foon began to break out ; and the two republics 
 coming to blows, it was three centuries aimoft continual war, 
 ere the fuperiority was afcertained j when towards the end 
 of the fourteenth century, the fatal battle of Chioza ended 
 the noble ftrife ; the Genoefe, who till then had ufually the 
 advantage, having now loft all: and the Venetians, aimoft 
 become defperate, at one happy blow, beyond all expectation, 
 fecured to themfelves the empire of the fea, and fuperiority in 
 commerce. 
 
 About the fame time that Navigation was retrieved in the 
 Southern parts of Europe, a new fociety of merchants was 
 formed in the North, which not only carried commerce to 
 the greateft perfection it was capable of till tlic difcovery of 
 the Eaft and Weft-Indies, but a Kb formed a new fcheme of 
 laws for the regulation thereof, which fti'l obtain under the 
 name of Ufa andCujloms of the Sea. See Uses. 
 This fociety is that famous league of the Hans towns com- 
 monly fuppofed to have begun about the year 1 164. See 
 Hans Towns. 
 
 For the modern ftate of Navigation in England, Holland 
 France, Spain, Portugal, fcrV. f ee Commerce, Com- 
 pany, cjfV. 
 
 We mall only add, that in examining the reafons of com- 
 merce's paffing fucceflively from the Venetians, Gcnoele, 
 
 and 
 
N A V 
 
 N A V 
 
 and Hans-towns, to the Portuguefe and Spaniards ; and 
 from thofe again to the Englifh and Dutch ; it may be efta- 
 blifhed as a maxim, that the relation between commerce and 
 Navigation, or, if we may be allowed to fay it, their union, 
 is fo intimate, that the fall of the one inevitably draws atter 
 it the other ; and that they will always either fiourifh or 
 dwindle together. 
 
 Hence fo many laws, ordinances, flatutes, £tff. for its regu- 
 lation ; and hence particularly that celebrated act of Naviga- 
 tion, which an eminent foreign author calls the Palladium, 
 or tutelar deity, of the commerce of England ; which is too 
 important not to be here mentioned ; as it is the Handing 
 rule, not only of the Englifh among themfelves, but alfo of 
 other nations with whom they traffick. 
 M of Engli/h Navigation is a ftatute whereby the parlia- 
 ment of England have fettled divers matters relating to the 
 Navigation and commerce of this kingdom. 
 Till this act, all nations were at liberty to import into Eng- 
 land all kinds of merchandizes, whether of their own 
 growth, or laden elfewhere, and that on board their own veflels. 
 Cromwell, firft, perceiving the prejudice this liberty did to the 
 Englifh commerce, which was now almoft wholly in the 
 hands of foreigners, chiefly the Dutch, whom he hated, ani- 
 mated the Englifh, by fevcral acts of parliament, to refume 
 their trade into their own hands ; and particularly palled an 
 aft prohibiting the Dutch from importing any merchandizes, 
 except thofe of their own growth or manufacture, which 
 were very few. 
 
 Upon the reftoration, the firft parliament Charles II. called, 
 diltinguifhing in Cromwell the politician from the parricide, 
 condemned the memory of the one, and followed the plan 
 of the other with regard to Navigation and commerce, by 
 palling that celebrated Bill or Ait /or the encouraging and in- 
 creafing of fhipping, and of Navigation, which (till fubfifts in 
 its full latitude, and its antient vigour. Its date is from the 
 firft of December, 1660. 12 Car. II. c, 18.— Its chief arti- 
 cles follow. 
 
 j. That no goods or commodities {hall be imported or ex- 
 ported to or from any of the Englifli colonies in Ana, Africa, 
 or America, but on veflels built within the dominiuns of Eng- 
 land, or really belonging to Englifhmen, and whofe mailers, 
 and at lealt three-four thsof the crew are Englifh *, on pain of 
 forfeiture of the goods and veffel. 
 * Under the name Erglijh here, are comprehended all the king's 
 fubjedtsof England, Ireland, and the i lantations j as was ex- 
 plained in a fubfequent A& 1 3 and 14 Car. II. c. 11. 
 
 2. That no perfon born out of the mbje&ion of England, or 
 not naturalized, fhall exercife any commerce in thofe colonies 
 for himfelf or others. 
 
 3. That no merchandizes of the growth of Alia or America 
 ihall be imported into any of the dominions of England on any 
 other than Englifh vellels. 
 
 4. That no coods of foreign growth or manufacture that fhall 
 be brought into England, Wales, Ireland, iflands of Jerfey 
 or Guernfey, or town of Berwick on Tweed, rn Englifh- built 
 flapping; or other fiiipping belonging to theforefaid places, and 
 navigated by Englifh mariners, as aforefaid, fhall be fhipped or 
 brought from any other place or country, but only from thofe 
 of tile growth or manufacture thereof. 
 
 5. That all kinds of dried and fa] ted fea-fifh, train-oils, 
 blubber, and whale-fins, not caught by Englifh vellels, im- 
 ported into England, fhall pay double duties.^ 
 
 6. That the commerce from port to port in England and 
 Ireland fhall be carried on wholly by Englifh vellels, and 
 Englifh merchants : the crew to be always three-fourths 
 Englifh. 
 
 7. That none but Englifh veflels fhall reap the benefit of the 
 diminutions made, or abatements to be henceforth made, in 
 the cuftoms. 
 
 8. All veflels are prohibited importing into England and Ire- 
 land any of the commodities of Mufcovy, or even any mafts 
 or other timber, foreign fait, pitch, refin, hemp, raifins, 
 prunes, oil of olive, any kind of corn or grain, fugars, 
 afhes, and foap, wine, vinegar, or brandy, except veflels, 
 whereof Englifh are owners or part-owners, and where the 
 mafter and three-fourths of the mariners are Englifh. — And 
 that no currans, or other commodities, the growth or manu- 
 facture of theTurkifh empire, lhall be imported, but in veflels 
 of Englifli build, and navigated as aforefaid ; except only fuch 
 veflels as are of the build of the country or place whereof fuch 
 commodities are the growth or manufacture, or cf fuch part 
 where fuch goods are ufually fhipped for tranfportation, and 
 unlets the mailer and three-fourths of the crew be natives of 
 the country where they are laden. 
 
 9. All timber, mafts, boards, fait, pitch, tar, refin, hemp, 
 flax, raifins, figs, prunes, olive-oils, corn or grain of any 
 kind, fugar, pot-afhes, brandies, and wines, and all goods of 
 the growth and manufacture of Mufcovy, all currans and 
 Turkifh goods imported into England, &c. in other than 
 fuch fhipping, and fo navigated, fhall be deemed aliens goods, 
 and fhall pay accordingly. 
 
 10. That, to prevent frauds in buying and difguifing foreign 
 
 veflels, the proprietors fhall take an oath, that they really 
 belong to them, and that no alien has any part in them. 
 
 11. That Englifh veflels, and navigated by Englifh, may 
 import into the dominions of England, any merchandizes of 1 
 the Levant, though not taken up in the places where they 
 grow, or are manufactured j provided it be in fome part of the 
 Mediterranean beyond the ftreights of Gibraltar. And the 
 fame is underftood of commodities brought from the Eaft- 
 Indies ; provided they be taken up in fome port beyond the 
 Cape of Good-Hope ; and thofe from the Canaries, and other 
 colonics of Spain ; and the Azores, and other colonies of Por- 
 tugal ; which are allowed to be fhipped, the one in Spanifh 
 ports, the other in Portuguefe. 
 
 12. Tbefc penalties, prohibitions, and confifcations, not to 
 extend to goods taken by way of reprifal from the enemies of 
 England, nor to fifh caught by the Scots, or their corn, and 
 fait, which may be imported into England by the Scotch-built 
 fhips. 
 
 13. Five fhillings per ton duty is impofed on every French 
 veffel arriving in any port of England, fo long (and even three 
 months longer) as 50 (oh per ton lies on the Englifli veflels in 
 France. 
 
 Laftly, That fugars, tobacco, and other commodities of the 
 growth of the Englifli colonies, fhall not be imported into 
 any other part of Europe, but the dominions of England. 
 And thatveffels going out of the ports of the fame crown for 
 the Englifh colonies, fhall give 1 oco /. fecurity, if under one 
 hundred tons, and 2000 /. if above, ere they depart, that 
 they will import their cargo into fume port in the laid domi- 
 nions ; and the like, ere they quit thofe colonies, that they 
 will land their whole cargo in England. 
 
 NAVIS, .^rgo Navis, or the fhip Jrgo, in aftronomy a con- 
 ftellation of the Southern hemifphere. See Argo. 
 
 NAUMACHIA *, Naumachy, a fpedtacle or fhew among 
 the antient Romans, reprefenting a fea-fuht. 
 
 * The word comes from theGreek fsuti, fhip, veffel, and f4&yx$ 
 pugna, fight, 
 
 Naumachia is alfo ufed by fome for a circus incompafied with 
 feats and porticoes ; the pit whereof ferving as an arena, was 
 filled with water by means of pipes, for the exhibiting of 
 fea- fights. 
 
 There were fevcral of thefe Naumachias at Rome ; three 
 built by Auguftus, one by Claudius, and another by Domitiau. 
 'Nero's Naumachia ferved for the reverfe of his medals. 
 NAUSEA*, NetL-7'*, in medicine a retching , or propenfity and 
 endeavour to vomit ; arifing from a loathing of food, excited 
 bv fome vifcous humour that irritates the ftomach, and uiges 
 ic to difcharge itfclf ; and accompanied with anxiety about die 
 prEecordia, and falivation of the. mouth. 
 
 * The word is Latin, formed from the Greek vai^a, of patff, 
 Navh, fhip : in regard, people, at the beginning of their 
 voyages, are ufually liable to this disorder. 
 
 A Naufea is when the thoughts or fight of proper food create 
 a ficknefs in the ftomach, and a tendency to vomit. 
 Naufea and vomiting only differ from one another, as more 
 or lefs violent. — The Naufea is properly the efturt the fto- 
 mach makes to vomit, which has not always the effect. 
 Boerhaave defines a Naufea anatomically, to be a rctrogade 
 fpafmodic motion of the mufcular fibres ot the ocfophagus, 
 llomach, and inteltines ; attended with cunvuliions of the 
 abdominal mufcles, and the fcptum tranfverfum. 
 The ufual caufes of a Naitfea, and anorexia, are hard drinking, 
 great heat, a fever, confumptions, laxncfs of the ftomach 
 occasioned by tea, is'c. alfo narcotics, as tobacco, paliions of 
 the mind, luppreffion of evacuations inducing a plethora, foul 
 ftomach, tenacious humours lodged therein, and certain 
 {wimmiog or undulatory motions. 
 
 NAUTICAL Planifphere, a defcription of the terreftrial globe 
 upon a plane, for the ufc of mariuers. See Planisphere 
 and oVa-Chart. 
 
 Nautical Chart. See the article Sm-Chart. 
 
 Nautical Compafs. See the article Compass. 
 
 NAUTICUS, in anatomy a mufcle, called alfo Tibialis pojl'uus. 
 Se^ Tibialis. 
 
 NAUTILUS*, Nat^Mof, a fpecies of turbinated fea- {hell, of 
 a comprefied figure, and having the whirl or volute latent or 
 hid within the body ; frequently dug up at land, and ol ten 
 found petrified. 
 
 * It takes its name from a teflaceous animal, whofe habitation it 
 was, called Nautilus, orthefailor; of which naturalillsdiltin- 
 guifh divers fpecies. See Supplement, article Nautilus. 
 NAVY, the fleet or fhipping of a prince or ftate. See 
 Fleet. 
 
 The direction of the Navy Royal of England is in the lord 
 high- admiral, and under him in the principal officers and com- 
 miflioners, who hold their places by patent. 
 Principal Officers of (/« Navy are four, viz. The Treasurer, 
 whofe bufinefs is to receive moneys out of the exchequer, and 
 to pay all the charges of the Navy, by warrant from the prin- 
 cipal officers. — Comptroller, who attends and comptrols all 
 payment of wages, is to know the rales of ftores, to examine 
 
 and 
 
N E A 
 
 arid amine all accounts, iSc. — Surveyor, who is to know the 
 ftare of all ftores, and fee wants fupplied, to eftiniate repairs, 
 «harge boatfwains, &(. with what ftores they receive; and 
 
 at the end of each voyage, to ftate and audite accounts. 
 
 Chris of thi Afts^ whofe bufmefs is to record all orders, con- 
 tracts, bills, warrants, c3V, 
 Co.mmijfioners of the Navy are five. — The firft executes 
 that part of the comptroller's duty which relates to the 
 victuallers accounts. The fecond another part of the 
 /aid comptroller's duty relating to the accounts of the {lore- 
 keepers of the yard. The third has the direction of the 
 Navy at the port of Portfmouth. The fourth has the fame 
 at Chatham. 
 
 The Navy was antienfly vi&ualled by contract ; but the vic- 
 tualling is now under commiffioners, who keep their office 
 on Tower-hill. See Victualli ac-Office. 
 The ordinary expences of the Navy in times of peace, con- 
 tinuing in harbour, is fo well regulated, that it amounts to 
 .fcarce 130000/. per annum. 
 
 The number of {hips and vefiels in the Navy, as it flood in 
 the year 1710, was 7 firft-rates, 13 fecond-rates, 48 third- 
 rates, 65 fourth-rates, 68 fifth-rates, 40 fixth-rates, 5 fire- 
 flips, 7 bomb-veflels, j8 yachts, 1 advice-boat, 2 brigan- 
 tines, 7 (loops, 4 flore- flips, 13 hulks, 26 hoys, 2 fmacks. 
 
 NAZAREATE, or Nazariteship, the ftate and condition 
 of a Nazarite or Nazarean among the Jews. See Na z a rit e. 
 The Nazareate was a ftate of reparation from the reft of 
 mankind; particularly in three things; 1. In that the per- 
 fbns devoted hereto drank no wine. 2. In that they did not 
 fhave their heads, but let the hair grow. 3. In avoiding the 
 touch of dead people, which they held a defilement. 
 The Nazareate was of two kinds ; the one temporary, or 
 for a certain number of days ; the other for life. The rab- 
 bins inquire what the term of the temporary Nazareate was, 
 and determine it by the Cabbala : for fincc, in fcripture, 
 Numbers vi. 5. where it is faid, Dmim? functus er/t, the 
 Hebrew verb, ffff erit, confifts of four letters j the firft 
 - and third whereof taken as numeral letters, do each make 
 JO, and the reft each 5, all together 30; the term of the Na- 
 zareate, fay they, was 30 days. 
 
 NAZARITE *, or Nazarene, in the Old Teftament, is 
 ufed for a perfon diftinguifhed and fcparated from the reft, 
 . by fomething extraordinary, either his fanflity, dignity, or 
 vows. 
 
 . » The word comes from the Hebrew f } Nazar, to diflinguifh, 
 feparate ; in which it differs from Nazarean, an inhabitant of 
 the country called Nascaretb, which comes from natzar, or 
 netzer, to fave, preferve. 
 In the book of Numbers, ch. vi. we find the vow of a 
 Nazarite defcribed; i.e. the vow whereby a man or wo- 
 man feparated themfelves to the Lord ; and the conditions or 
 cft'ecls thereof as to abftinence, £sV. 
 Nazarites, Nazarenes, or Nazareans, were Iikewife 
 a kind of fedlaries in the church, in the firft ages thereof. 
 S. Epiphanius tells us, the Nazareans were the fame with the 
 Jews in every thing relating to the doctrine and ceremonies 
 of the Oldie/lament ; and only differed from them in this, 
 that they added Chriftianity thereto ; profefling to believe 
 that Jelus Chrift was the Mclfiah. 
 
 There were two kinds of Nazareans J the one pure, who 
 Jtcpt the law of Mofcs and Chriftianity together ; the other, 
 real Ebionites. 
 
 Eccleliaftical writers tell us, that S. Matthew preached the 
 gofpel to the Jews at Jerufalem, and the reft of Palxftinc, 
 in then own language ; and that accordingly they had his 
 gofpel written in the Hebrew of that time. And S, Epi- 
 phanius adds, that this gofpel was preferved intire among the 
 Nazareans; only he doubts whether they might not have 
 retrenched the genealogy of Jefus Chrift, which was not in 
 the copy of the Ebionites. S. Jerom, who tranflated it out 
 of Hebrew into Greek and Latin, fays, a great many people 
 took the Hebrew gofpel ufed by the Nazareans and Ebionites, 
 to be the original of S. Matthew. 
 
 Hence Baronius, in his Annals, fays, if the vuluate Latin 
 verfion were to be reformed ; it fiould rather be done by 
 the Hebrew original, than by the Greek, which is but a copy. 
 Cafjubon treats this opinion of Baronius as highly impious ; as 
 not being able to conceive how the authority of the Greek ver- 
 lion fhould depend on a text quite loll.— He adds, That it 
 was never ufed by any but the Nazareans, Ebionites, and 
 fome other heretics; and that it was fell of fables, as having 
 been altered and corrupted by thole heretics 
 
 NE ADMI TTAS, a writ direcled to the biftiop, in behalf of 
 the plaintiff, or defendant, in a caufe where a quare impedit, or 
 aflize Of darrein preferment is depending; when either party 
 fears, that the biflop will admit the other's clerk during the 
 fuit between them. 
 
 NEALING, or rather Annealing, a term ufed for the pre- 
 paring of feveral matters by healing or baking them in an 
 oven, or the like, gee Annealing. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 NEC 
 
 Nealing of Gldfi is the baking of glafs, to dfy, harden, 
 and give it the due confidence, after it has been blown, and 
 fafhioned into the proper works. 
 
 This is ufiially performed in a kind of tower, called the Leer, 
 
 built over the melting-furnace. 
 Nealing of Glafs, is alfo ufed for the art of ftaining „lafc with 
 
 metalline colours. 
 Nealing of Steel is the heating it in the fire to a blood-red 
 
 heat ; and then taking it out, and letting it coo! gently of it- 
 
 This is done to make it fofter, in order to engrave or punch 
 upon it. See Tempering and Engraving. 
 NEAP, or Neep Tides, are thofe tides which happen when 
 the moon is in the middle of the fecond and fourth quar- 
 ters. 
 
 The Neap Tides are low tides, in refpeft of their oopofites 
 the fpring-tides. 
 
 As the higheft of the fpring-tides is three days after the full 
 
 or change, fo the loweft of the Neap is four days before the 
 
 full or change.— On which occafion the feamen fay, That it 
 
 is deep Neep. See Tide. 
 NEAPED, when a fhip wants water, fo that fhe cannot get 
 
 out of the harbour, off the ground, or out of the dock; the 
 
 feamen fay, She is Neaped, or beneaped. 
 NEAT, or Net Weight, the weight of a commodity alone, 
 
 dear of the cask, bag, cafe, and even filth. See Net and 
 
 Weight. 
 
 NEBULOUS, Cloudy, in aftronomy, a term applied to cer- 
 tain of the fixed ftars, which fhew a dim, hazy liaht ; bein^ 
 lefs than thofe of the fixth magnitude ; and therefore fcarce 
 yifible to the naked eye, to which, at beft, they only appear 
 like little dusky fpecks or clouds. 
 
 Through a moderate telefcope, thefe Nebulous ftars plainly 
 appear to be congeries's or clufters of feveral little flats. 
 In the Nebulous ftar, called prxfepe, in the breaft of cancer 
 there are reckoned 36 little ftars, three of which Mr. 
 rlamftead gives us in his catalogue. 
 
 In the Nebulous ftar of orionare reckoned 21. V. le Compte 
 adds, that in the pleiades are 40; 12 in the ftar in the middle 
 of onon's fword ; in the extent of two degrees of the fame 
 conftellation, 500 ; and 2500 in the whole conftellation. See 
 Orion, &c. 
 
 NEBULY, Nebule'e, in heraldry, when a coat is charged 
 with feveral little figures, in form of clouds, running within 
 one another, or, when the out-line of a bordure, ordinarv, 
 itc. is tndented or waved ; as reprefented in Tab. Herald. 
 
 fg- 3 2 - 
 
 NECESSARY, in a philofophical fenfe, that which cannot but 
 be, or cannot be otherwife, 
 
 Thefchoolmen make a great many kinds, ordivifions hereof- 
 A h—Neceffury m eaufing : when there is a caufe from which 
 an effeft mult neceffanly follow : Neeejfary in predieating : 
 Neceffary in being, &c. * 
 There is alfo a logical Neceffary: phyfual Neceffary: and 
 there are meta-phyftcal, and moral Neceffaries. 
 NECESSITY what is done by a neceffary caufe, or a power 
 that is irrcliftible. 
 
 In this fenfe neceffity ftands oppofed to liberty. 
 Neceffity is ufually confounded with conftraint ; yet, in God 
 the Neceffity of being good is not any conftraint, but a per- 
 fection.— In effeft, Neceffity, according to Rochefoucault, dif- 
 fers from conftraint in this, that the former is joined with the 
 pleafure and inclination of the will, to which conftraint is 
 contrary. 
 
 Smiplicius, after Plato and EpiBetus, diftinguifhes two kindj 
 of Aeceffity: the one molent or ceaclive, which is oppofite to 
 liberty ; the other fpontaneous or voluntary, very confiftent 
 with it ; This latter, adds he, is that which neeeffitates all 
 things to aft accordmg to their nature, as being connatural 
 to them ; fince at™™™, a thing that is felf-moved mull 
 of Neceffity be moved according to its own nature, i. e. fpon- 
 taneoufly.— Thisdiftinaion is admitted by many of the di- 
 vines, particularly by S. Auguftine, who urges it againft the 
 Pelagians, as is fhewn by Janfenius. 
 
 The fchools diftinguifh a phyffal Neceffity, and a moral Ne- 
 J'fVj 3 fimple ' a V°' u " N '"Ph and a relative one. 
 Pbyjua Necessity, is the want of a principle, or of a na- 
 tural means neceffary to aft; which is otherwife called a 
 pbyjical or natural impotence. 
 Moral Necessity, is only a great difficulty; fuch as that 
 anhng from a long habit, a ftrong inclination, or violent 
 paffion. 
 
 Simple, or abfohte Necessity, is that which has no depend- 
 ence on any ftate, or conjunflure, or any particular fituation 
 of things, but is found every where, and in all the circum- 
 ftances in which the agent can be fuppofed. 
 Such is in a blind man the Neceffity he is under of not diftin- 
 guifhing colours. 
 
 Relative Necessity is that which places a man in a real 
 incapacity of acfing, or not afting, in thofe circumftances, 
 
 and 
 
NEE 
 
 »«d that fituation he is found in ; though to other cir- 
 cumftances, and another ftate of things, he might aft, or 
 
 ftadl in the opinion of the Janfenifts, is the Ncccjjity of 
 doine evil in a man, who, with a violent paffion, has only 
 a feeble grace to refill it t or the Neceffily of doing well in 
 a man, who having grace of feven or eight degrees of 
 ftreig*, has only concupifcence of two or three degrees 
 to withftand. 
 
 All thefe kinds of Necejfity are oppofite to liberty ; hnce even 
 In the laft, it is as impoffiblc for the man to aft, or not 
 aa, as if he were in a ftate of abfilute, fmple, and pbyfical 
 Necefftty 
 
 The fchoolmen admit other fpecies of Necejftiy; antecedent, 
 
 concomitant, confequent, &c. 
 Antecedent Necessity is that arifing from an antecedent 
 
 caufe, neceflarily operating.— Such is the Necefftty of the fun s 
 
 rifing to-morrow morning. 
 CmemUiM Necessity arifes from an antecedent and ne- 
 
 ceffary caufe, but depends on the circumftances of the effect ; 
 
 the efTVfl all the while being free.— Thus it is necefTary Peter 
 
 fit, fuppofing he is fitting. . 
 NECK, a pan in the human body, and in that of feveral 
 
 other animals, between the head and the thorax, or trunk 
 
 of the body.— See Tab. Anat. (Ofteol. fig- 3. n. I. I. pg. 7 
 
 ■n. 14. 14.) " . , . 
 
 All animals have Nicks, which have lungs and voice, except- 
 ing frogs, and one daft of fifties, whofe charaftenftic it is, 
 vocem aliquam emittere. 
 The upper part before is called the Threat ; and the lower 
 part the Pcmum Adam!.— The hole between the two clavi- 
 cles is called the Jugulum, by the Greeks <r<f*.yr, murder; 
 it being very eafy to kill in this part.— The hmd part of the 
 Neck is called Cervix; and the hole between tht firft and 
 fecond vertebra, the Nape; and that underneath, Epsmts. 
 Its lateral parts commence from the bottom of the cars, and 
 arc called parotide!. 
 
 The inner parts of the Ned are feven vertebra, the trachea, 
 larynx, jugular veins, carotid arteries, the intercoftal nerve 
 that of the eighth pair, with the recurrent, and fevera 
 mufchs. See each part under its proper article. 
 til Necks cf Quadrupeds, Mr. Dcrham obferves, are 
 alwavs equal to the length of their legs ; this is contrived by 
 nature, to enable them to reach the ground for their food 
 without ftooping the body. ■ 
 Indeed, the elephant is an exception from the rule; its Neck 
 is very fhort \ but then it has a peculiar provifion by a pro. 
 bofcis, or trunk. 
 
 Another thine remarkable in the Necks of graminivorou 
 quadrupeds is"a ftrong, tendinous and infenfible aponeurofis 
 or ligament, braced from the head to the middle of the back 
 by means wherefore they arc enabled conftantly to hold down 
 the head, though very heavy, to gather their food without 
 pain or labour. 
 
 NECROLOGY *, Necrologium, a book antiently kept in 
 churches, and monafteries ; wherein were regiftred the bene- 
 factors to the fame, the time of their deaths, and the days 
 of their commemoration ; as alfo the deaths of the priors, 
 abbots, religious, canons, 6ftf. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek r;xj©' 1 dead, andAojo;, 
 difcoiirfe, enumeration. 
 
 This was otherwife called calendar, and obituary. 
 NECROMANCY *, the art or act of communicating with 
 devils, and doing furprifing feats by their affiftance ; parti- 
 cularly of calling up the dead, and extorting anfwers from them. 
 See Magic. 
 
 » The word is formed from r=x?5f, dead, and ^itrTei*, enchant- 
 ment, divination. 
 NECROSIS *, in medicine, a complete mortification of any 
 part ; called alfo ftderatio, and fphacelus. 
 
 * The word is Greek, vty^uacs, where it has the fame fignification. 
 NECTAR, Neicraf, among the antient poets, the drink of 
 
 the fabulous deities of the heathens. See Ambrosia. 
 NEEDLE, a very familiar little inftrument, or utenfil, made 
 of fteel, pointed at one end, and pierced at the other ; ufed 
 infewing, embroidery, tapeftry-work, tic. 
 Needles make a very confiderable article in commerce -, and 
 the confumption thereof is almoft incredible — The fizes are 
 from N° 1, the largeft : to N° 25, the fmalleft. 
 There is fcarce any commodity cheaper than Needles ; which 
 will appear fomething extraordinary to the reader, after he 
 has been fhewn the great number of operations they undergo 
 ere brought to perfection. 
 Manufaaure of Needles. German and Hungarian fteel is 
 of molt repute for Needles. The firft: thing is, to pafs it 
 through a coal fire, and under a hammer, to bring it out of 
 its fquare figure, into a cylindrical one. This done, 
 drawn through a large hole of a wire-drawing iron ; returned 
 into the fire, and drawn through a fecond hole of the iron. 
 
 NEE 
 
 fmaller than the firft : and thus fucceflively from hole to hole, 
 till it have acquired- the degree of finenefs required for that 
 fpecies of Needles i obferving every time it is to be drawn, that 
 it be greas'd over with lard, to render it the more manageable. 
 The fteel, thus reduced into a fine wire, is cut in pieces of 
 the length of the Needles intended. Thefe pieces are flatted 
 at one end, on the anvil, in order to form the head and eye. 
 They are then put into the fire, to foften them farther, and 
 thence taken out, and pierced at each extreme of the flat part, 
 on the anvil, by force of a punchion of well-tempered fteel, 
 and laid on a leaden block, to bring out, with another pun- 
 chion, the little piece of fteel remaining in the eye. 
 The corners are then filed off the fquare of the heads, and a 
 little cavity filed on each fide the flat of the head. This 
 done, the point is formed with a file i and the whole filed 
 over. 
 
 They are then laid to heat red-hot, on a long, Hat, narrow 
 iron, crooked at one end, in a charcoal- fire; and when taken 
 out thence, are thrown into a bafon of cold water, to harden. 
 
 On this' operation a good deal depends ; too much heat 
 
 burns them ; and too little leaves them foft ; the medium is 
 only to be learnt by experience. 
 
 When they are thus hardened, they are laid in an lron-fhovel, 
 on a fire more or lefs brisk, in proportion to the thicknefs of 
 the Needles ; taking care to move them from time to time. 
 This ferves to temper them, and takeoff their brittlenefs ; 
 great care, here, too, muft be taken of the degree of heat. 
 They are then ftraitened, one after another, with the ham- 
 mer ; the coldnefs of the water ufed in hardening them having 
 twifted the greateft part of them. 
 
 The next procefs is the polifhing. To do this, they take 
 twelve or fifteen thoufand Needles, and range them in little 
 heaps againft each other, on a piece of new buckram, fpriA* 
 kled with emery duft. The Needles thus difpofed, emery duff- 
 is thrown over them, which is again fprinkled with oil of 
 olives. At laft, he whole is made up into a roll, well bound 
 at both ends. 
 
 This roll is then laid on a polifhing table, and over it a thick 
 plank loaden with ftones, which two men work backwards 
 and forwards a day and half, or two days fucceflively. By 
 which means, the roll thus continually agitated by the weight 
 and motion of the plank over it, the Needles within-fide be- 
 ing rubbed againft each other, with oil and emery, are infen- 
 fibly polifhed. 
 
 In Germany, inftead of hands, they polifh with water- 
 mills, "■ 
 After polifhing, they are taken out, and the filth warned off 
 them with hot water and foap : they are then wiped in hot 
 bran, a little moiftened, placed, with the Needles, in a round 
 box, fufpended in the air by a cord, which is kept ftirring till 
 the bran and the Needles be dry. 
 
 The Needles, thus wiped in two or three different brans, are 
 taken out, and put in wooden veffels, to have the good fepa- 
 rated from thole whofe points or eyes have been broken cither 
 in polifhing or wiping : the points are then all turned the 
 fame way, and fmoothed with an emery ftone, turned with 
 a wheel. 
 
 This operation finifhes them ; and there remains nothing 
 but to make them into packets of two hundred and fifty 
 each. 
 
 Chtrurgeons Needles are made crooked, and their points tri- 
 angular. They are of different fizes, and bear different 
 names, according to the purpofes they are ufed for. 
 The ]ar"-eft are Needles for amputation ; the next, Needles 
 for wounds ; the fineft, Needles for futures. — They have others 
 very fhort and flat, for tendons ; others, ftill fhortcr, and the 
 eye placed in the middle, for the tying together of veffels, 
 
 MswnetUal Needle, in navigation, denotes a Needle touch- 
 ed with a load-ftone, and fuftained on a pivot or centre, 
 on which, playing at liberty, it directs itfelf to certain points 
 in or under the horizon. See Magnet. 
 Mao-netical Needles are of two kinds, viz. Horizontal and 
 Inclinatory* 
 
 Horizontal Needles are thofe equally balanced on each fide 
 the pivot which fuftains them ; and which, playing horizon- 
 tally, with their two extremes, point out the North and 
 South points of the horizon. — For their application and ufe, 
 fee Compass. 
 
 Q 0 nJfruclion cf an Horizontal Needle. A piece of pure 
 'fteel is provided, of a length not exceeding fix inches, left its 
 weight impede its volubility ; very thin, to take its verticity the 
 better ; and not pierced with any holes, or the like, for orna- 
 ment fake, which prevent the equable diffufion of the mag- 
 netic virtue. 
 
 A perforation is then made in the middle of its length, and 
 a brafs cap or head foldered on, whofe inner cavity is conical, 
 fo as to play freely on a ftyle or pivot, headed with a fine 
 fteel point. 
 
 The North point of the Needle in our hemifphcre is made 
 a little lighter than the Southern, the touch always deftroy- 
 
 ing 
 
N E G 
 
 N E M 
 
 ing the balance, if well adjufted before ; and rendering the 
 north end heavier than the fouth, and thus occafioning the 
 Needle to dip. 
 
 Now to give the Needle its verticity, or directive faculty, it 
 is to be rubbed leifurely on each pole of a magnet, from the 
 fouth pole towards the north ; firft beginning with the 
 northern end, and going back at each repeated rub, towards 
 the fouth. — A rub in a contrary direction takes away the 
 power communicated bv the former. 
 
 If after touching, the Needle be out of its equilibrium, fome- 
 thing muft be filed off from the heavier fide, till it balance 
 cvenlv. 
 
 Needles in fea-compaffes are ufually made of a rhomboidal, 
 or oblong form. — See their ftructurc under the article Com- 
 pass. . ...i ... .. : . ..".jtiq^uun -lit ill Vi f 15. J .v. i„ 
 A Needle, on occafion, may be prepared without touching it 
 on a load-Hone : for a fine ft eel Needle, gently laid on the 
 water, or delicately fufpended in the air, will direct itfelf to 
 the north and fouth. 
 
 Thus, alfo, a Needle heated in the fire, and cooled again 
 in the direction of the meridian, or even only in an erect 
 fituation, acquires the fame faculty. 
 
 The Needle is not found to point precifely to the north, 
 except in very few places ; but deviates from it, more or Iefs, 
 in different places, and that too at different times ; which 
 deviation is called the Declination. 
 
 Declination of the Needle is the variation of the horizontal 
 Needle from the meridian ; or the angle it makes with the 
 meridian, when freely fufpended in a horizontal plane. See 
 Declination, and Compass. 
 
 Cleopatra's Needles. See Porphyry. 
 
 Inclinatery, or Dipping- Needles. See Dipping- Needle. 
 
 NEEP Tides. See the article Neap Tides. 
 
 NEFASTUS, a Latin term. — The Romans ufed the appel- 
 lation dies nefajii, for thofe days wherein it was not allowed 
 to adminifter juftice, or hold courts ; nor for the pretor to 
 pronounce the three folemn words or formula's of the law, 
 do, dies, addico, I give, I appoint, I adjudge. See Fastus. 
 Thefe days were diftinguifhed in the calendar by the letter 
 N. or by N. P. Nefajlits prima-, as when the day was only 
 Nefajltts for the firft part thereof. 
 
 NEGATION, in logic, an ait whereby the mind feparatcs 
 one idea from another ; or affirms the one to be different 
 from the other. As, the foul is not the body. 
 
 NEGATIVE, a term that denies, or implies a denial of any 
 thing. 
 
 Logicians, &e. fay, A Negative cannot be proved but by 
 converting it into an affirmative. 
 Negative Heretics, in the language of the inquifition, are 
 thofe, who being accufed of herefy, by witneiTes whofe evi- 
 dence they do not deny, ftill keep on the negative, make open 
 profeifion of the Catholic doctrine, and declare their abhor- 
 rence of herefy. 
 
 There are alfo Negative Schifms, as well as pofitive ones. — 
 In the Negative, it is fufficient to reject the errors of a 
 church without feparating from it, or fetting up a diftinct 
 fociety. 
 
 Negative Penalties, the laws whereby certain perfons are 
 excluded from honours, dignities, &c, without inflicting any 
 direct, and pofitive pains on them. 
 
 Negative Quantities, in algebra, thofe affected with the 
 fign — and which are fuppofed to be lefs than nothing. 
 Negative quantities are the effects of pofitive ones : where po- 
 fitive end, there Negative ones commence. 
 
 Negative Pregnant, in law, a Negative which implies or 
 brings forth an affirmative. 
 
 As if a man being impleaded to have done a thing on fuch a 
 day, and in fuch a place, denies he did it, modo £3* forma 
 declarata ; which implies neverthelefs that he did it in fome 
 fort. 
 
 NEGATIVELY, Negative, in the fchool philofophy, 
 is varioufly ufed in contradiftinction to pofitively. See Po- 
 sitive, y 
 
 NEGRO'S, a kind of black Haves, which make a confiderable 
 article in the modern commerce. 
 
 The Negro's, alfo called Blacks and Moors, are a people of 
 Africa, whofe country extends on each fide the river Niger, 
 and is called Nigritia : though, whether the people com- 
 municated their name to the river, &"r, or received it there- 
 from, is not eafily determined. 
 
 The origin of Negro's, and the caufe of that remarkable 
 difference in complexion from the reft of mankind, has much 
 perplexed the naturalifts j nor has any thing fatisfactory been 
 yet offered on that head. 
 
 They are brought from Guiney, and other coafts of Africa, 
 and Tent into the colonies in America, to cultivate fugar, 
 tobacco, indigo, &c. and in Peru and Mexico to dig in the 
 mines. 
 
 This commerce, which is fcarce defenfible on the foot either 
 of religion, or humanity, is now carried on by all the nations 
 
 that have fettlements in the Weft-Indies ^particularly by the 
 Englifh, Dutch, Spaniards, and Portuguefe. 
 The Spaniards, indeed, have few Negro's at firft hand ; but 
 have always treated with other nations to furnifti them there^ 
 with: thus they were formerly furnifhed by the company 
 of the Grilles, eftablifhed at Genoa ; fince, by the Affiento in 
 France ; and fince the peace of Utrecht, by the Englifh 
 South-fea company. 
 
 The beft Negro's are brought from Cape Verd, Angola, Se- 
 negal, the^ kingdom of Joloffes, that of Galland, Danielj 
 the river Gambia, fcy'r. 
 
 A Negro between 17 or 18, and 30 years of age, Was an - 
 tiently only valued at about 45 r< in the commodities pro- 1 
 per for that country, which are brandies, iron, linnen, paper, 
 brafs-pots, bafons, &c. — But their value is now much en- 
 hanced, and it is feldom they meet with a good Negro for 
 five pounds : they frequently give feven or eight. 
 There are various ways of procuring them : fome, to avoid 
 famine, fell themfelves, their wives, and children, to their 
 princes, or great men, who have wherewithal to fubfift 
 them. Others are made prifoners in war ; and great num- 
 bers feized in excurfions made for that very purpofe by the 
 petty princes upon one another's territories ; in which it is 
 ufual to fweep away all both old and young, male and 
 female. 
 
 The Negro's make a frequent practice of furprifing one ano- 
 ther while the European veftels are at anchor, and dragging 
 thofe they have caught to them, and felling them in fpighC of 
 themfelves ; and it is no extraordinary thing to fee the fon 
 fell, after this manner, his father or mother, and the father 
 his own children, for a few bottles of brandy, or a bar of 
 iron. 
 
 As foon as the fliip has its complement, it immediately makes 
 off; the poor wretches, while yet in fight of their country, 
 falling into fuch deep grief and defpair in the paffage, that a 
 great part of them languifh, fall into ficknefs, and die : 
 others of them difpatch themfelves by refufmg their food ; 
 others by flopping their breath, in a manner peculiar to 
 themfelves, by turning and folding their tongue, which im- 
 mediately ftrangles them ; others dafh out their brains againft, 
 the fhip ; and others jump over-board. 
 
 The only fure means to preferve them, is to have fome 
 mufical inftrument play to them, be it eVer Co mean. EuC 
 this excelfive love for their country abates as they get far- 
 ther off. 
 
 At their arrival in the colonies, each Negro is fold for 38 or 
 40 pounds. They make the chief riches of the inhabitants 
 of the iflands, fjfr, A man, v. g. who has twelve Negro'sf 
 is efteemed a rich man. 
 NEIF, Nativa, in our antient cuftoms, a bond-woman, or 
 flie villain, born in one's houfe. 
 
 Anticntly, Lords of manors fold, gave, or afligned their 
 Neifs, and natives. See Slave, Villain, feV. 
 
 Writ ij/Neifty is an antient writ, whereby the lord claimed 
 fuch a woman for his Neif. 
 
 NE IN JUSTE vexes, a writ which lies for a tenant againft: 
 the lord, forbidding him to diftain on the tenant, who has 
 formerly prejudiced himfelf by doing or paying more than he 
 needed. 
 
 NEMA:AN, or Nemean Games, one of the four great 
 kinds of games, or combats, celebrated among the antient 
 Greeks. 
 
 Some fay, they were inftituted by Hercules, on occafion of 
 his killing the Nemaran lion ; and that it was hence they took 
 their name, as alfo the place of celebration, the foreft of 
 Nemaa. 
 
 Others relate, that the feven chiefs fent to Thebes, under the 
 conduct of Polynices, being extremely pinched in their jour- 
 ney with thirft, met with Hypfipyle of Lemnos, who had 
 in her arms Opheltes, fon of Lycurgus, prieft of Jupiter, 
 and Euridice. They begging her to fhew them fome water, 
 file laid the child down on the grafs, and conducted them to 
 a well. In her abfence, a venomous ferpent killed the child ; 
 upon which the nurfe, out of an excefs of grief, grew de- 
 fperate. The chiefs, at their return with her, killed the 
 ferpent, buried the young Opheltes, and to divert Hypfipyle, 
 inftituted the Nemeean Games. 
 
 ./Elian fays, it was indeed the feven chiefs going to the fiege 
 of Thebes, that inftituted them ; but he adds, that it was in 
 favour of Pronax. 
 
 Paufanias refers the inftitution of them to Adraftus, and their 
 reftoration to his defcendnets. 
 
 Laftly, Hercules, on his victory over the Nemaan lion, aug- 
 mented the games, and confecrated them to Jupiter Ne- 
 ro asus. 
 
 The games were opened with facrificing to Nemaan Jove, 
 appointing him a prieft, and propofing rewards for fuch as 
 fhould be victors in the games. 
 
 They were held every three years, in the month called Pane* 
 mos by the Corinthians, and Boedromian by the Athenians. 
 
 The 
 
N E G 
 
 N E M 
 
 "The Argians were the judges, and fat clothed in black, to 
 exprefs the origin of the games. As they were inftituted by 
 ■warriors, none at firft were admitted to them but military 
 men, and the games themfelves were only equeftnan and 
 gym'nic ; at length they were open to the people, and other 
 kinds of fports were introduced. 
 
 The conquerors were crowned with olive, till the time of 
 the war with the Medes ; when a blow they received in 
 that war, occafioncd them to change the olive for the fmallage, 
 a funeral plant : though others maintain, that the crown 
 was originally fmallage, on account of the death of Opheltes, 
 otherwil'e called Jrchemorus ; this plant being luppofed to 
 have received the blood, which ran from the wound made by 
 the ferpent. 
 
 NEMINE Cantradicente, I r. none contradiaing it, a term 
 chiefly ufed in parliament, when any matter is earned with 
 univerfal content of all the members. 
 
 NENIA*, or Njenia, in the antient poetry, a kind of fune- 
 ral fong, fung to the mufic of flutes, at the obfequies of the 
 dead. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, vm>ia.i<; on which Scaliger 
 obferves, that it ihould be written in Latin Ncnia, not Na-nia. 
 
 Authors reprefent them as forry compofitions, fung by hired 
 women-mourners, called pra-fica:. The firft rife of thefe 
 Ncnix is afcribed to the Phrygians. 
 
 Guichart notes, that Nettia was antiently the name of a 
 fons, fung by nurfes to lull children afleep ; and conjectures 
 it to come from the Hebrew |*J nin, child. 
 In the heathen antiquity, the goddefs of tears and funerals 
 was called Nenia, whom fome fuppofe to have given that 
 name to the funeral fong ; and others to have taken her name 
 from it. — Some will have the one, and fome the other ; 
 formed, by onomatopoeia, from the found or voice of thofe 
 that weep. 
 
 NEOMENIA, in chronology, cjY. a term ufed for the new 
 moon. 
 
 Some fay, the Jews reckoned two kinds of Ncomenia, or 
 new moons ; the firft on the day of her conjunction with 
 the fun ; the fecond on that of her apparition or phafis ; and 
 add, that they celebrated two pafibvers, by reafon of the un- 
 certainty which of thefe days it mould be held on. 
 F. Hardouin, on the contrary, maintains, they had no other 
 Newenia but that of the moon's conjunction with the fun ; 
 which it was cafy to afcertain by aftronomical calculation : 
 whereas the other was liable to miftakes ; the moon fome- 
 times not fhewing herfelf till four or five days after conjun- 
 ction. 
 
 NEOPHYTES*, Ut ofvro l, in the primitive church, were new 
 chriftians ; or the heathens newly converted to the faith. 
 
 * The word fignifies a new plant ; being formed of the Greek 
 vm. new, and ausi, I produce, y. d. newly born ; baptifm ; 
 whereby they commenced Neopbytei, being a kind of new 
 birth. 
 
 The fathers never difcovered the myfteries of their religion to 
 the Neophytes, 
 
 The term Nesphyle is (till applied to the converts which the 
 miflionaries frequently make among the infidels. — The Japo- 
 nefe Neophytes, in the latter end of the fixteenth, and begin- 
 ning of the feventeenth century, are faid to have fhewn pro- 
 digies of courage and faith, equal to any known in the primi- 
 mitive church. See Catechumen. 
 
 Neophytes has formerly likewife been ufed to denote new 
 pi lefts, or thofe firft admitted into orders ; and fometimes, the 
 novices in monafteries. 
 
 NEPENTHE,* or Nepenthes, in antiquity, a kind of 
 magic potion, which made perfons forget all their pains and 
 misfortunes. 
 
 * The word is Greek, N;it{v9>k, formed of the privative, tti, von, 
 or ttbjqtti, and irsi'Ssr, luclut, forrow. 
 
 The Nepenthe mentioned in antient authors, was the juice 
 or infufion of a plant, now unknown : Homer fays it was a 
 plant of Egypt; and adds, that Helena made ufe of it to 
 charm her holts, and make them forget their pains. 
 Some authors fay it was the plant we call Hdenium ; others, 
 Btiglofs, whole juice infufed in wine has this effect. — -M. Petit 
 has a differtation on the antient Nepenthe. 
 
 Nepenthe, in pharmacy, is a name given to a kind of opiate, 
 contrived by Theo. Zwingerus ; from the great opinion he 
 had of its giving eafe in all manner of pain. 
 
 NEPER's, Naiper's, or Napier's Bones, an inftrument, 
 whereby multiplication and divifion of large numbers are much 
 facilitated and expedited ; fo called from its inventor J. Neper, 
 baron of Merchifton in Scotland. 
 
 Conjhuclion of Neper's Bones. Five rods, plates, or lamella?, 
 are provided of wood, metal, horn, paftboard, or other mat- 
 ter, (Tab. Algebra, fig, n.) of an oblong form, and divided 
 each into nine little Jquares j each of which is refolved into 
 two triangles by diagonals. 
 
 In thefelittlefquarcs are written thenumbers of the multiplication 
 table ; in fuch manner as that the units, or right hand figures, 
 arc found in the right-hand triangle ; and the tens, or the left- 
 hand figures, in the left-hand triangle ; as in the figure. 
 Ufe of Neper's Bones in multiplication. To multiply any 
 given number by another; difpofe the lamellae in fuch man- 
 ner, as that the top figures may exhibit the multiplicand ; 
 and to thefe, on the left-hand, join the lamella of units ; in 
 which feek the right-hand figure of the multiplicator ; and 
 the numbers correfponding thereto, in the fquaresofthe other 
 lamellae, write out, by adding the feveral numbers occurring 
 in the fame rhomb together, and their fums.— After the fame 
 manner write out the numbers correfponding to the other 
 figures of the multiplicator ; let them be difpofed under one 
 another, as in the common multiplication : and laftly, add the 
 feveral numbers into one fum. 
 For example ; fuppofe the multiplicand 5978, 
 and the multiplicator 937* From the duter- 59/8 
 moft triangle on the right-hand (Tab. Algebra, 937 
 
 fig. 12.) which correfponds to the right-hand ■ ' 
 
 figure of the multiplicator 7, write out the 41846 
 figure 6, placing it under the line. In the 1 7934- 
 next rhomb, towards the left, add 9 and 5 ; 53802 
 
 their fum being 14, write the right-hand ; 
 
 figure, viz. 4, againft 6 ; carrying the left- 5601386 
 hand figure, 1, to 4 and 3, which are found 
 
 in the next rhomb. The fum 8, join to 46, already put 
 down ; after the fame manner, in the laft rhomb, add 6 and 
 5, the latter figure of the fum tst, put down as before, and 
 carry 1 to the 3 found in the left-hand triangle ; the fum 4 
 join as before on the left of 1846: thus will you have the 
 factum of 7 into 5978 ; and after the fame manner will you 
 have the factum of the multiplicand, into the other figures of 
 the multiplicator: the whole added together gives the whole 
 product. 
 
 Ufe o/Neper's Bones in divifmn. — Difpofe the lamellae fo, as 
 that the uppermoft figures may exhibit the divifor ; to thefe, 
 on the left-hand, join the lamella of units. Defcend under 
 the divifor, till you meet thofe figures of the dividend, 
 wherein it is firft required, how oft the divifor is found, or 
 at lcaft the next lefs number, which is to be fubtracted from 
 the dividend ; the number correfponding to this, in the place 
 of units, write down for a quotient. By determining the 
 other parts of the quotient after the fame manner, the divifion 
 will be completed. 
 
 For example ; fuppofe the dividend 5978)5601386(937 
 5601386, and the divifor 5978 ; 53802 
 
 lince it is firft afked how often 5978 
 
 is found in 56313, defcend under 221 18 
 
 the divifor (Tab. Algeb. fig. 11.), 1 7934. 
 
 till in the loweft feries you find the 
 
 number 53802, approaching neareft 41846 
 to 56013 ; the former whereof is 41846 
 
 to be fubtracted out of the latter, ■ 
 
 and the figure 9 correfponding there- 00000 
 to in the lamella of units write . 
 down for the quotient. To the remainder 2211, join the 
 following figure of the divifor 8; and the number 17934 
 bein r -* found, as before, to he the next lefs number thereto, 
 the correfponding number in the lamella of units, 3, is to 
 be written down for the quotient; and the fubtraction to be 
 continued as before. After the fame manner the third and 
 laft figure of the quotient will be found to be 7 ; and the 
 whole 937. 
 
 NEPHEW*, a term relative to uncle and aunt; fignifying 
 a brother's or filter's fon, who, according to the civil law, 
 is in the third degree of confanguinity ; but according to the 
 canon law, in the fecond. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin Nepos ; which in the corrupt 
 ages of that language fignified the fame : though antiently and 
 properly it denoted a grandibn- 
 
 NEPHRITIC,* Nephriticus, fomething that relates to the 
 kidnies. See Kidney. 
 
 * The word is Greek, K-ppiTiy.K, formed of cssfor, rein, kidney. 
 Nephritic Colic, is a fort of colic, or pain anting from a 
 
 ftone or gravel in the reins, C3V. 
 This is the moft cruel of all colics. See Colic. 
 Nephritic Wood, Lignum Nephriticum, a kind of medi- 
 cinal wood growing in New Spain, chiefly in the kingdom of 
 Mexico ; called by the Indians Coult and Tlapalcypatly, as being 
 reputed fovereign againft Nephritic pains. 
 
 It muft be chofen well cleared of its bark and rind ; it is of 
 a bitter tafte, and a dufkv yellow colour : but when infufed 
 in cold water, gives it a fky-blue tincture, when viewed by 
 a falfe light, and a gold colour by a true one : a little of any 
 acid being mixed with the tincture, both thefe colours difap- 
 pear ; but a little oil of Tartar reftores its fky-blue. 
 Some fubftitute ebony, and others red Brafil wood, for Lignum 
 Nephriticum ; but the deceit becomes apparent by mfufmg it 
 in water. See Supplement, article Nephriticum Lignum. 
 Nephritic Stone, Lapis Nephriticus, a fort of precious 
 ftone ; fo called from its extraordinary virtues againft the ftone 
 and gravel in the kidneys, 
 
X E R 
 
 NER 
 
 It is a fpccies of jafper, commonly of an uniform dufky green 
 colour ; but fom crimes variegated with white, black, or yellow, 
 —it feems only to differ from jafper in its being harder, and 
 always without any thing of red. 
 
 It is brought chiefly from New Spain, where it is fometimes 
 found in pieces large enough to make moderate cups. There i3 
 fome, likewife, found in Old Spain, and Bohemia. 
 This ftone was once very dear, by reafon of the wonderful vir- 
 tues afcribed to it. A cup made of it was fold for 1600 
 crowns in the time of the emperor Rudolphus II. — The belt 
 for medicinal ufe is of a greyifh green, fat and unctuous, like 
 talc of Venice. 
 
 The Indians of New Spain, who firft difcovered its ufe, and 
 taught it the Europeans, wear it hung about their necks, after 
 having cut it in various figures, chiefly of the beaks of birds : 
 whence fome Charletans take occafion to counterfeit it, by 
 
 j cutting other green ftones into like figures ; and fell them, at 
 great prices, to thofe who have an opinion of their Nephritic 
 faculty. See Supplement* article Nephriticus Lapis. 
 
 NEPHROTICS, Nspp///**, medicines proper for difeafes of the 
 kidneys, particularly the ftone. 
 
 Such, particularly, are, the roots of althxa, dogs-grafs, afpa- 
 ragus, fago, pellitory of the wall, mallows, pimpinella, red 
 chich-peas, peach- kernels, turpentine, lapis nephriticus, and 
 lignum nephriticum ; which fee. 
 NEPHRITIS*, or Nephriticus Dolor* in medicine, aname 
 given to a painful difeafe occafioned by the ftone or gravel in 
 the kidneys. 
 
 * The word is Greek, K?p/T/?i y. d. difeafe of the reins; formed 
 from n$pK) rein. 
 The Greeks alfo give the name v^itn to the firft vertebra of 
 the loins, from its neighbourhood to the kidneys. See Supple- 
 ment* article Nephritis. 
 NEPOTISM, a term ufed in Italy, in fpeaking of the authority 
 which the pope's nephews and relations have in the adminiftra- 
 tionof affairs, and of the care the popes take to raife and in- 
 rich them. 
 
 Many of the popes have endeavoured to reform the abufes of 
 Nepotifm : at prefent Nepotijm is faid to be abolifhed. Lett has 
 wrote exprefly on this iubject, II Nepotifmg. 
 NEPTUNALiA, feafts held among the antients in honour of 
 Neptune. 
 
 The Neptunalia differed from the confualia, in that the latter 
 were feafts of Neptune confidcred particularly as prefiding 
 over horfes, and the manage. 
 
 Whereas the Neptunalia were feafts of Neptune in general, 
 and not confidered under any particular quality. — They were 
 celebrated on the 1 oth of the calends of Auguft. 
 NEREIDS, Nereides, fea- nymphs; or fabulous deities of the 
 antients, fuppofed to inhabit the fea. 
 
 The Nereids were fifty in number, all the daughters of Ne- 
 reus, by the nymph Doris. — Their names and genealogies are 
 defcrihed by HefioJ. See NYMPH. 
 
 'NERVE, Nervus, in anatomy, around, white, long body, 
 like a cord, compoftd of feveral threads, or fibres; deriving 
 its origin from the brain, or the fpinal marrow ; and diftributed 
 throughout all parts of the body: ferving for the conveyance 
 of a peculiar juice, by fome called animal fptrits, for the per- 
 formance of lenfation, and motion. 
 
 Origin of the Nerves. — From every point of the cortex of the 
 brain there arife minute medullary fibres, which, in their pro- 
 grefs, uniting together, at length become fenfible ; and thus 
 conftitute the medulla of the brain, and the fpine. 
 Hence they are continued, and, in their farther progrefs, be- 
 come diftinguifhed or feparated by coats which are detached to 
 them, from the dura and p:a mater, into feveral diftinct fafci- 
 culi, or Nerves, rcfembling, in the pofition of their compo- 
 nent fibriUee, fo many horfes tails, wrapped up in a double 
 tunic. 
 
 It is probable, that the medullary fibres of the cerebellum, 
 jifing up towards the fore-parts of the medulla oblongata, do, 
 part of them, join the Nerves arifing thence, but fo as ftill to 
 retain their feparate origin, progrefs, and functions: the reft 
 of the fibres of the cerebellum are fo mixed with thofe of the 
 brain, as that there is, perhaps, no part of the whole medulla 
 oblongata, or fpinalis, where there are not found the fibres of 
 each kind ; and thus, to conftitute the body of each Nerve, 
 both kinds of fibres contribute, though the end and effect: of 
 each be quite different. 
 
 The Nerves, thus formed, and font from the medulla oblongata 
 and fpinalis, while within the cranium, are ten pair ; though 
 very improperly fo accounted ; jnafinudl as molt of them do, 
 jn reality, confirt of feveral diftinct, very large Nerves : from 
 the fpinal marrow, continued without the cranium, there arife, 
 after the like manner, thirty pair; to which may be added an- 
 other pair fent from the vertebra; of the neck, augmented in its 
 procrefs by branches from the fecoud and third pair, and at laft 
 joined to the eighth pair. 
 
 All thefe, while within the medulla, arepulpous; as foon as 
 they quit it, they acquire a Ihcath, or cafe, wherewiih being 
 Vol. II. 
 
 defended, they proceed to the dura mater, which Is perforated 
 into an open vagina, reaching as far as the foramina of the cra- 
 nium, deftined for the tranfmiflion of the Nerves; where the 
 nine firft pair, and the acceflbry pair, affirming this vagina or 
 cafe, pafs fafely out of the cranium. 
 
 The other thirty and one pair defcend through fpaces between 
 the commiffures of the apophyfes of the vertebra; ; whence, 
 firm, hard, and well clothed as they are, they are difperfed 
 through all, even the fmaileft points of the folid parts of ths 
 body yet known. 
 
 The coats, or covers, of thefe Nerves, are everv-where in- 
 vefted with blood-veilds, lymphatics, and other veficles of a 
 very tight texture, which ferve to collect, ftrcngthen, and con- 
 tract the fibrillar ; and from which many of the phenomena of 
 the Nerves, and of difeafes, are accountable. 
 As foon as the laft extremities of the Nerves are about to enter 
 the parts to which they belong, they again lay afide their coats, 
 and become expanded either into a kind of thin membranula, 
 or into afoft pulp. 
 
 Now upon considering, firft, that the whole vafcular medulla 
 of the brain goes to the constituting of the fibrillar of the 
 Nerves; nay, is wholly continued into, and ends in them : 
 fecondly, that, upon compreflion, tearing, difperfion, putre- 
 faction, csV. of the medulla of the brain, all the actions ufed 
 to be performed by the Nerves arifing thence, are immedi- 
 ately abolifhed, even though the Nerves continue intire, and 
 untouched : thirdly, that the Nerves themfelves are every- 
 where found lax, pendulous, crooked, retrograde, and ob- 
 lique; yet effect motion and fenfation almoft inftantaneoufly : 
 fourthly, that, when clofe bound or compreflcd, though in 
 all other refpects intire, they lofe all their faculty in thofe 
 parts between the ligature and the extremes to which they 
 tend, without lofing any in thofe parts between the ligature 
 and the medulla of the brain, or cerebellum : it evidently ap- 
 pears, that the nervous fibrillar do continually take up a hu- 
 mour or juice from the medulla of the brain, and tranfmit ir 
 by fo many diftinct canals, to every point of the whole body j 
 and by means hereof, alone, perform all their functions in fen- 
 fation, mufcular motion, CSV. which humour is what we po- 
 pularly call animal fpirits, or the nervous juice. 
 Nor does there appear any probability in that opinion main- 
 tained by fome; viz. that the Nerves perform all their 
 action by the vibration of a tenfe fibrilla ; which is in con - 
 fiftent with the nature of afoft, pulpous, flaccid, crooked 
 wavy Nerve, and with that nice diftinctnefs wherewith the ob- 
 jects of our feufes are reprefented, and mufcular motions per- 
 formed. 
 
 Now after the fame manner as the arterial blood is perpe- 
 tually carried into all the parts of the body furniflied with 
 thofe vefiels ; fo we conceive a juice prepared in the cortex of 
 the brain and cerebellum, conveyed thence every moment 
 through the Nerves to every point of the folid bodv. The 
 fmalnefs of the vefiels in the cortex, as exhibited in Ruyfch's, 
 injections, which yet are only arterious, and therefore incre- 
 dibly thicker than the laft emiflary derived thence, fhew how 
 flendcr thefe hollow nervous ftamina muft be : but the great 
 bulk of the brain, compared with the exceeding fmalnefs of 
 each fibrilla, fhews, that their number muft be great beyond the 
 limits of all imagination. 
 
 And again; the great quantity of juice conftantly brought hi- 
 ther, and violently agitated, will occafion a conftant plenitude 
 opennefs, and action of thefe little canals. 
 But as frefh juice is every moment prepared, and the laft is 
 continually protruding the former; as foon as it has done its 
 laft office it feems to be driven out of the laft filaments into 
 the fmaileft lymphatic venule, both about the glands, ami 
 eliewhere; thence into the lymphatics fomewbat larger • and 
 again from thefe to the common lymphatic veflels'wilh the 
 valves of veins, and, at length, into the veins and the heart: 
 and thus, like the other juices of the body, does it make its cir- 
 cuit round the body. 
 
 Upon the whole ; if we confider the great bulk of the brain, 
 cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and medulla fpinalis, with 
 regard to the bulk of the reft of the folids of the body; the 
 great number of Nerves diftributed hence throughout the 
 whole body ; that the brain and carina, that is, "the fpinal 
 marrow, are the bafis of an embryo, whence, according to 
 the great Malpighi, the other parts are afterwards formed ; 
 and, laftly, that as there is fcarce any part of a body but what 
 feels, or moves ; it will appear very probable, that all the folid 
 parts of the body are woven out of nervous fibres, and confift 
 wholly of them. 
 
 The antitnts only allowed of feven pairs or conjugations of 
 Nerves proceeding from the brain; which, with their fun- 
 ctions, they comprifed in thefe two Latin verfes: 
 Optica prima, oculos movet altera, tenia guflat 
 Quartaq; quinta audit, vaga fcxta eft, feptima lingua. 
 But the modems, as before obferved, reckon ten, which are 
 as follow : 
 
 7 D NiRV£« 
 
N E R 
 
 NER 
 
 NMrtfetif fa brain, or cerebrum, are, the 
 Auditory Nerves. See Seventh ^/r. 
 
 Olfactory Nerves, />ar olfaclorium, which afjfif in the fore-part 
 "nt the brain, juft below the os frontis: thefe, being pretty 
 thick near the os cribrofum, are therefore called procerus papil- 
 lares, which Dr. Drake takes to be a propcrer name, in that 
 place, than that of Nerves; they appearing rather productions 
 of the medulla oblongata, whence the olfactory Nerves^ arife, 
 than diftinct Nerves. As foon as they have made their way 
 through the os cribrofum, they are diftributed throughout the 
 membranes of the nofe : their ufe is in the fenfation of fmell- 
 ing.— See Tab. Anat. (Ofteol) fig. 5. h h. 
 
 Optic Nerves. Thefe pafs the fkull, through two perforations 
 •in its bafis, a little above the fella equina, and are thence 
 conveyed to the tunics of the eye ; whereof the retina, fup- 
 pofed to receive the objects of vifion, is an extenfitm of the 
 inner or medullary part alone. — See "tab. Anat. (Ofteol) fig. 
 5. lit. i i. 
 
 Nerves which move the eyes, oculorum motorii, arife from the 
 crura of the medulla oblongata, near the annular protu- 
 berance ; whence they march out between two branches of 
 the cervical artery ; and, pafling out of the fkull at an irre- 
 gular oblong hole, immediately under the former, are fpent 
 on thofe mufcles of the eyes called attollcnt, depriment, addu- 
 ccni, "lid obliquus inferhr ; except fomc fmall fibres fpent in 
 the mufekfi of the upper palpcbra. — See Tab. Anat. (Ofteol) 
 fig. 5. lit. kk. 
 
 Pathetic Nerves arife behind the tefte9, and, patting out of the 
 fkull at the fame foramen with the former pair, fpend them- 
 felves wholly on the trochlear mufcle. — See Tab. Anat. (Oftecl) 
 fig. 5. lit. m m. 
 
 Fifth pair of Nerves, the largeft of all thofe coming from 
 the brain, has its ufe, as well as diftribution, more extenfive ; 
 fcrving both for fenfe and motion, for touch and ufte. — It 
 fends branches not only to the eyes, nofe, palate, tongue, 
 teeth, and moft parts of the mouth and face; but alfo to 
 the breaft, lower venter, prrecordia, &c. by means of the 
 intercoftels, which are partly compofed of branches of this 
 Nerve ; whence arifes a confent or fympathy between 
 thofe feveral parts of the body. — See Tab, Anat. (Ofteol) fig. 
 5. Ht. nn. 
 
 ]t arifes from the annular protuberance near the proceffus ce- 
 rcbelli, and is, at its origin, very large ; but, before its egrefs 
 from the dura mater, it is divided into two branches, each con- 
 iifting of innumerable nervous fibres-, whereof thofe of one 
 branch are pretty tough and firm, the other foft and lax : a lit- 
 tle beyond the fella it forms a plexus called ganglioformis, near 
 which each Nerve Is divided into an anterior and pofler'ior 
 branch. 
 
 The anterior, or fore-branch, after a few twig? fent to the 
 dura mater, enters the receptacle on each fide the fella; 
 whence it fends off one or two twigs to the intercoftal ; and, 
 as foon as it emerges thence, is again fubdivided into three 
 itearly.-equal branches: the uppcrmoft, paffing the foramen la- 
 
 - cerum into the orbit of the eye, is immediately fubdivided 
 into three lefs branches ; the firfl of which, after fending 
 twigs to the tunica adnata, glandula lacrymalis, the mufclcs 
 that draw up thenofe, and the orbicular mufcles running over 
 the mufcle which draws up the upper eye- lid, is fpent on the 
 
 . mufcles of the forehead, and the common integuments of the 
 fore- part of the head. 
 
 The fecond branch, running over the pathetics and motorii, is 
 divided into two ; whereof the outer and fmallcr fends off fe- 
 veral fibrillx into the fat that envelopes the optic Nerve^ and, 
 joining with others from the third pair, forms a fort of plexus 
 on the trunk of the optic Nerve ; whence fibrillie are detached 
 into the mufcuhis deprimens, adducens, and the tunica fclero- 
 tica. The inner and bigger (lip is fubdivided into four twigs ; 
 the firft, running over the optic Nerve, enters the fclerotica, 
 and is fpent in that membrane : the fecond, returning into the 
 fkull by a peculiar perforation, pierces the dura mater; and, 
 fometimes turning back again, palles out of the fkull through 
 one of the holes of the cribriforme, and is diftributed into the 
 interior membrane of the nofe: the third twig is fpent 
 partly on the eye-lid?, and their orbicular mufcles, the 
 external integument of the nofe, and the mufcles which 
 draw it upwards: the fourth is diftributed, by feveral twigs, 
 into the eye-lids, and orbicular mufcles. The third flip of the 
 upper branch is fpent on the glandula innominata, and tunica 
 adnata. *' w 5: * OYI ■ 
 
 The inferior branch, ere it leaves the fkull, enters the 
 orbit of the eye, and, running along the outfideof the muf- 
 culus abducenj, goes out again at a little perforation peculiar 
 to ir; after which it divides'into feveral fibres, fomeof which 
 go to the integuments of the cheeks, and the reft to the mufcles 
 that raife the upper lip. As foon as it quits the fkull at the 
 third- foramen, it is fubdivided into three little branches ; the 
 firft. of which, after fume twigs beftowed on the mafleter, 
 the teguments of the face, the gums, and upper teeth, enters 
 a peculiar finus. of the bone making a lower part of the orbit, 
 
 and goes out at a hole peculiar to it ; after which, it divide* 
 into feveral fibrillar, which go to the teguments of the face, the 
 upper lip, the mufcle that draws the lower part of the nofe la- 
 terally, and the inner mufcle of the nofe. 
 
 The fecond fmailbtanch, running downwards behind the d Lifts 
 which go from the nofe to the fauces, is divided into two; the 
 upper whereof is diftributed, by many twigs, into the incm- 
 brana pituitaria : the lower, pafling a peculiar hole on the hindi 
 and lateral part of the bone of the palate, is diftributed into 
 that fpungy flefh that lines the palate, and the tough membrane 
 that covers it. 
 
 The third little branch is fpent on that part of the membrana 
 pituitaria that lines the fauces upon the uvula and muielcs there- 
 abouts, and upon the tonfils. 
 
 The pojhrior, or greater branch, after fending a few twigs 
 to the dura mater, paiTes the fkull through the fifth foramen ; 
 and, having fent off fome twigs to the buccinator, mafleter, 
 and the mufcles of the lower jaw, is divided into th;ee confi- 
 derable branches. 
 
 The fiijl gaffes to the root of the tongue, and, thence pro- 
 ceeding forwards, fends feveral branches to the maxillary 
 glands : it fends others along the inner fubftance of the tongue, 
 which end in capillaries at its extremity; and, joining every- 
 where with the branches of the ninth pair, ferve both the muf- 
 cle-, and the papillary glands ; and contribute to the tafte, as 
 Will as the motion, of the tongue. 
 
 The fecond, or middle branch, after diftributing a twig into 
 the maxillary glands, and the mufcles ftylogloffus and mylo- 
 glofius, enters the finus of the lower jaw, along which it runs 
 accompanied with branches of the carotid arteries, and little 
 veins, which return to the internal jugulars ; and, befides fend- 
 ing off a twig to each tooth, with the membranes of the fore- 
 fa id veffels, contributes to forma membrane, which lines the 
 whole finus. At the fourth grinder it divides into two, the 
 lefs whereof runs to the joining of the jaw; the hisrger, 
 paffing out at a peculiar perforation, is divided into feveral fi- 
 bres, which are difpofed into the mufcles of the lower lip and 
 chin. 
 
 The third, or exterior branch, is fpent on the parotid glands. 
 
 Sixth pair of Nerves, or the QufiatorU, rife from the medul- 
 lary tiafts of the centrum ovale, below the annular procefs ; 
 and, proceeding forwards, enter the fame receptacle or finus 
 of the fkull, on the fide of the fella, as the fifth pair does ; 
 whence, fending ofT a twig to join thofe of the fifth pair in 
 their paffage to the intercoftals, it goes out of the fkull at the 
 fame hole with the motorii oculorum, and ends in the abdu- 
 cent mufcles of the eye; fending, withal, fome twigs to the 
 tongue. — See Tab. Anat. (Ofteol) fig. 5. lit. 00. 
 
 The feventh pair, er auditory Nerves, arifing from the medul- 
 lary tract of the fourth ventricle, and paffing out of the fkull 
 through a hole of the os petrofum, divides into two branches, 
 or portions, a hard and a foft one. 
 
 The hard portion, entering a little finus in the upper part of 
 the bone, that conftitutes the barrel of the car, fends off a tw'ri % 
 which diftributes itfelf into the dura mater, except fome fmall 
 twigs, which go to the membrane that lines the ear, to the 
 internal mufcles that line the ear, and the fine membrane that 
 cloathes the infide of the cavity of the apophyfis mamillaris : 
 after this, the hard branch fends off two other twigs ; one to 
 the eighth pair, the other to the tympanum, whofe cord it 
 forms; whence, creeping over the malleolus, it goes out of 
 the ear, and fends a ramification to the tongue. — See Tab. Anat. 
 (Ofteol) fig.$. ///.pp. 
 
 The fame hard branch, coming out of the proceffus mamil- 
 laris, fends fome twigs to the mafleter, and others to the elands 
 about the car, where it divides into two other ramifications ; 
 the interior beftowed on the glands, the cheek, and the upper 
 lips ; the reft on the lower palpebra, and the external part of 
 the face. The exterior ramification, beftowing fomc fibrillar 
 on the glands, out of which it iflucs, divides into two ; the 
 upper diftributed into the quadratus, and outer parts of the 
 under jaw; the lower fpent on the integuments of the fore and 
 lateral part of the neck, fome mufcles of the lower jaw, and 
 the maftoidal mufcle. 
 
 The foft and larger portion of this pair divides into three rami- 
 fications, the upper whereof pafi'es through a fmall foramen 
 into the concha, where, expanding, it forms a fine membrane, 
 which lines its inner furface j the fecond and third ramifications 
 are alfo fpent on the inner parts of the concha and femicir- 
 cular ducts, which they furnith with membranes, the imme- 
 diate organs of hearing. 
 Eighth pair of Nerves, or the par vagum, fprings from the 
 medulla oblongata a little above the olivaria corpora, and paffcl 
 out of the fkull through the fame perforations with the lateral 
 finus'sof the dura mater.- — See Tab. Anat. (Ofteol) fig. 5. lit. 
 
 ■ r ■ ■ - i 
 
 This, in its progrefs, is joined by the par accefforium, and a 
 little farther by a twig of the hard part of the feventh pair ; 
 and, at the fecond vertebra of the neck, by the Nerves that 
 iflue from the cervical marrow - t asd detaches feveral twigs to 
 
 the 
 
NER 
 
 N E S 
 
 the mufcles of the larynx, gtfta, neck, &c. particularly from 
 a ganglioform plexus, formed by its union with a branch 
 of the intercoftal. Hence defcending to the thorax, it 
 makes another plexus under the clavicle, whence arifes the 
 recurrent nerve on the right fide, as on the left it has its rife 
 from the trunk of the nerve itfelf. Tiie right recurrent 
 is reflected at the axillary artery ; the left at the defend- 
 ing branch of the aorta ; each, running afide the trachea, 
 impart fome twigs to it, and terminate in the mufcles of the 
 larynx. Their ufe is in the formation and modulation of the 
 voice. 
 
 Agatnft the origin of the aorta it fends off a branch towards 
 the heart, which dividing into two, the letter twifts about the 
 pulmonary vein ; the bigger proceeds to the pericardium, 
 and heart, after having fent off a twig, which, with others 
 from the intercoftals, makes the plexus cardiacus fuperior : 
 proceeding ftill farther, it fends it out feveral ramifications, 
 which, meeting together, make the plexus pneumonicus, 
 whence arife fibres that conftringe the veflels and veficles of 
 the lungs. In its paflage downwards it diftributes feveral 
 branches of the cefophagus, along which it runs. 
 About the lower vertebra; of the neck the trunk divides 
 into two branches, the external and internal, communicating 
 all along by feveral ramifications, and at length reuniting. 
 The reft of this pair joins with the intercoftals°in the forma- 
 tion of feveral plexus's in the lower venter, and in them 
 feems to terminate. 
 
 Along with thefe, and wrapped up in the fame coat from 
 
 the dura mater, pafs the 
 Jccefory Nerves, par Acccfforium, which has its origin from the 
 
 medulla contained in the vertebras of the neck. Soon after 
 
 its return out of the fkull, it leaves the par vagum again, and 
 
 is diftributed into the mucles of the neck and moulders.— See 
 
 Tab. Anat. (Ofteol) fig. 5. lit. r r. 
 'Inter coflal Nf.rves confift oV nervous filaments, derived partly 
 _ from the brain, viz. the branches of the fifth and fixth pair ; 
 
 and partly from the fpinal marrow, by thofe branches they 
 
 receive from the vertebral nerves. 
 
 In each trunk of thefe nerves, ere it arrives at the thorax, 
 arc two cervical plexus's; the upper whereof receives a branch 
 from each trunk of the par vagum ; the under fends out feve- 
 ral ramifications to the cefophagus, and aipera arteria, and 
 particularly a large one to the recurrent nerve. From the 
 fame plexus defcend two other ramifications to the cardiac 
 plexus ; which are joined a little lower by a third, from 
 which the intercoftaUvrz/f defending to the clavicles, divides 
 into two, and embraces and confiringes the fiibclavian artery ; 
 thence entering the thorax, it receives three or four twigs 
 from the upper vertebral nerve, together with which it con- 
 ftitutes the intercoftal plexus ; and thence defcendinn- along 
 the fides of the vertebra?, and receiving a nervous twig from 
 each of them, to the os facrum, and entering the abdomen, 
 it forms feveral confiderable plexus's; viz. the lienaris, hepa- 
 ticus,the two renales,mefentericus magnus,and two little ones 
 in the pelvis. 
 
 Ninth pair a/ Nerves, mot or U lingua, arife from the middle 
 of the centrum ovale, by three or four fmall twigs, and go 
 out of the fkull near the procefs of the occiput ; and fend their 
 brandies to the tongue.— See Tab. Anat. (Ofteol) fig. 5. 
 
 They may be likewife called Guf.atorii, as they contribute, 
 together with the branches of the fifth and fixth pair, to the 
 fenfctioa of tailing. 
 Tentlt pair of Nerves arifes by two or three branches from 
 > the medulla oblongata, juft below the corpora pyramidalia and 
 olivaria, or rather at the beginning of the medulla fpinalis ; 
 whence reflecting a little backwards, it goes out of the fkull 
 . between the firif vertebra of the neck, and the procefs of the 
 occiput.— See Tab. Anat. (Ofteol) jfc. 5. tfr. 1 1. 
 It is fpent on the external mufcles of the head and ears. 
 Nerves/taw the fpinal marram. — The fpinal Nerves, (i.e. 
 thofe fpringing from the medulla after its egrefs out of the 
 fkull, where it lays afide the name oblongata, and aflumes 
 that of fpinalis) are thirty pair : of which, fome are 
 reckoned as belonging to the neck, as having their origin 
 thence, and called cervical nerves ; others to the dorfum, or 
 back, and called dorfd nerves \ others to the loins, called 
 lumbal nerves, and the reft to the os facrum.— See Tab. Anat 
 (Ofteol) fig. 6. lit. b b. 
 Cervical Nerves. Of thefe there are feven pair : the firft 
 pair anfe between the firft and fecond vertebra of the neck, 
 . and, contrary to the reft, come out before and behind ; 
 
 whereas the other fix pair come out laterally from the 
 t junaures of the vertebra;, throueh particular perforations near 
 the tranfverfe procefles. Thefe go to the mufcles of the head 
 
 and ear. See Tab. Anat. (Ofteol) fig. 6. lit. d d. 
 
 The fecond pair contributes the main branch towards the 
 formation of the diaphragmatic nerves, which, according to 
 . Vieuflens, fpring only from the fourth and fixth pair. 
 
 The three laft pair of the neck joining with the two firft of 
 the dorfum, or thorax, make the brachial nerves. 
 
 All the cervical nerves fend innumerable branches to the muT- 
 cles, and other parts of the head, neck, and fhoulders. 
 Dorfal Nerves are in number twelve : thefe, excepting what 
 the two upper pair contribute to the brachial nerves, are Gene- 
 rally diftnbuted into the intercoftal an d abdominal mufcles", the 
 
 pleura, and external parts of the thorax See Tab. Anat, 
 
 (Ofteol) fig. 6. //V. f f. 
 Lumbal Nerves are five pair: the firft 0 f which fends two 
 branches to the lower fide of the diaphragm ; the fecond, fome 
 twigs to the genital parts, and others, as well as the three fol- 
 lowing ; to give the firft roots to the crural nerves : the reft of 
 the branches of the lumbal nerves are diftributed into the muf- 
 cles of the loins, and adjacent parts. — See Tab. Anat. (Ofteol) 
 fig. 6. lit. gg. 
 
 Nerves of the os facrum are fix pair; the firft three or four 
 pair whereof are beftowed wholly on the crural nerves, 
 the reft on the mufcles of the 'anus, vefica, and genital 
 parts. 
 
 Brachial Nerves are the offspring, partly, of the cervicals, 
 and partly of the dorfals: thefe, after the feveral branches 
 whereof they are compofed have been varioufly complicated 
 and united, run but a little way in a trunk ere they divide; 
 again into- feveral branches, varioufly diftributed into the 
 mufcles of the fkin and arms— See Tab. Anat. (OfteolJ fig. 6. 
 itt. e e. 
 
 Diaphragmatic Nerves are likewife the offsprings of the cervi- 
 cals: thefe, after joining in a trunk, run through the mediafti- 
 num undivided, till they arrive near the diaphragm, into which 
 they fend off feveral branches ; fome into the mufcular, others 
 into the tendinous part of it. 
 Crural Nerves confift of an union of fix or feven pair ; viz. the 
 three laft of the lumbal, and three or four firft of the os fa- 
 crum : thefe, after having fpent their upper branches on the 
 mufcles of the thigh and fkin, as far as the knee, proceed in a 
 trunk downwards, which fends its branches to the extremities of 
 the toes, fupplying, as it goes, the mufcles and fkin of the leg 
 and foot: this is the largeft and firmeft nervous trunk in the 
 body. 
 
 Capillaments of the Nerves. See the article Capil lament. 
 Nerves, in botany, are long, tough ftrings, running either 
 
 acrofs, or Iengthwife of the leaves of plants. 
 Nerves, in architecture, denote the mouldings of projecting 
 arches of vaults, or thofe arifing from the branches of ogives, 
 and crofting each other diagonally in Gothic vaults ; ferving ta 
 feparate the pendentives. 
 NERVINES. See the article Neuritics. 
 NERVOSA corpora, in anatomy. See Cavernosa corpora. 
 NERVOUS colic. See the article Colic. 
 Nervous fpir'tt, or juice, denotes a pure, fubtile, volatile 
 humour, better known by the name of animal jpirits ; fe- 
 creted from the arterious blood in the cortical part of thebrain, 
 collected in the medulla oblongata, and thence driven, by the 
 force of the heart, into the cavities of the nerves ; to be con- 
 veyed by them throughout the body, for the purpofes of fenfa- 
 tion, and animal motion. 
 NEST. See the article Nidus. 
 
 NESTOR 1ANS, a fed of antient heretics, ftill faid to 
 be fubfifting in fome parts of the Levant; whofe dif- 
 tinguiftiing tenet is, that Mary is not the mother of 
 God. 
 
 They take their name from Neftorius, who, of a monk, be- 
 came a prieft, and a celebrated preacher; and was at length, 
 after the death of Sifinnius in 428. raifed byTheodofius to the 
 fee of Conftantinople. 
 
 At firft he fhewed a great deal of zeal againft herefy, in his fer- 
 mons before the emperor : but at length, taking the liberty to 
 fay, that he found in Scripture, that Mary was the mother of 
 Jefus; but tfiathe no-where found, that Mary was the mother 
 of God ; his auditory was fhocked, and a great part of them 
 retired from his communion. 
 
 His writings were foon fpread through Syria and Egypt, where 
 he made many converts, notwithstanding the vigorous oppo- 
 fition of St, Cyril. 
 
 His capital tenet was, that there are two perfons in Jefus 
 Chnft; and that the Virgin was not his mother as God, but 
 only as man. See Person. 
 
 This doctrine was condemned in the council of Ephefus, at 
 which aflifted above 200 bifhops; and Neftorius was anathe- 
 matized, and depofed from his fee. 
 
 Neftorius was not the author of this error, but borrowed it at 
 Antioch, where he had ftudied. Theodorus Mopfueftanus had 
 taught the fame before him. 
 
 It is fomething difficult to determine whether or no the 
 Chaldee Chriftians, who ftil! profefs Nejlorianifm, have pre- 
 cifely the fame fentiments with Neftorius, whom they ftill 
 efteem as their patriarch. They have made feveral re unions 
 with the Romiih church ; but none of them have fubfifted 
 long. The moft confiderabie was that under the pontificate 
 of Paul V. 
 
 Till the time of pope Julius III. they acknowledged but one 
 
 patriarch, 
 
NEU 
 
 NEW 
 
 patriarch, who a {Turned the quality of patriarch of Babylon. 
 g ut a divifion anting among them, the patriarchate be- 
 came divided, ;it Icaft for a time, and a new patriarch was 
 appointed by that pope, who made his rcfidence at Caremit 
 in Mefopotamia ; whofe fucccflbr, however, unable to with- 
 ftand the power of the patriarch of Babylon, was obliged to 
 retire within the confines of Perfia. — Thus matters Hood till 
 the pontificate of Paul V. under whom there was a folemn 
 re-union with the Romiih church, whom their patriarch fo- 
 lemnly owned for the mother, csY. of all churches ; fending 
 his minifters to Rome to negotiate the union, and compofing 
 an explication of the articles of religion, wherein their de- 
 putes with the Romifli church were reprcfented as only verbal, 
 &c. 
 
 NET, Neat, in commerce, fomcthing pure, and unadulte- 
 rated with any foreign mixture. 
 
 Thus, wine is faid to be net, when not falfified or fophifticated ; 
 and coffee, rice, pepper, tste. are net, when the filth and impu- 
 rities are feparated from them. 
 
 A diamond is faid to be net, when it has no ftains or flaws ; a 
 cryftal, when tranfparent throughout. 
 Net is alfo ufed for what remains after the tare has been taken 
 out of the weight of any merchandize ; /. c. when it is weighed 
 clear of all package. 
 
 Thus we fay, a barrel of cochineal weighs 450 pounds ; the 
 
 tare is 50 pounds, and there remains net 400 pounds. 
 Net-Produce, a term ufed to exprefs what any commodity 
 
 has yielded, all tare and charges deducted. 
 
 The merchants fometimes life the Italian words netto proceduto, 
 
 for net produce. 
 Net-Masonry. See the article Masonry. 
 Tramel-iSET. See the article Tramel. 
 
 NETE hyperbolcon* , in the antient mufic, the name of the 
 higheft and moft acute of the chords of the lyre, or the antient 
 fcale, ordiagramma. 
 
 * The %vord is Greek, compofed of WTH, and vir-^Qhw, y. d. 
 the laft of the higlicft, where is underftood the word chords. 
 
 It anfwercd to the A, mi, la, of the third octave of the organ, 
 or the modern fyftem. 
 Nete diazeugmenon* , in the antient mufic, was one of the 
 chords of the lyre, or fyftem of the anticnts. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek i<>m-,and J'lX^uyiJ.fmf, laft 
 of the feparate ; where is underftood the word chords. 
 
 It anfwersto the E, fi, mi, of the third octave of the organ, 
 or modern fyftem. 
 Nete fynemmenon* , in the antient mufic, the name of the 
 .higheft chord of a tetrachord of the Greek fyftem; added to 
 make the b mollis fall between the mefe and paramefe, /. /. 
 between la and fi. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, vw, and miPYifi(MtWi the 
 laft of the added j where is underftood the word chords. 
 
 The chord had the fame found with the paranete diazeugmenon, 
 or our la by b mollis. 
 
 NETHER vert. See the article Vert. 
 
 NEVELLI tejh. See the article Testa. 
 
 NEURITICS*, or Nervines, in medicine, remedies proper 
 for difeafes of the nerves, and nervous parts; as the mem- 
 branes, ligaments, &c. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, tiv^v, nerwus. 
 Such are betony, lavender, rofemary, fage, laurel, marjoram, 
 and others among the cephalics. See Cephalic. 
 
 NEUROGRAPHY, in anatomy, a defcription of the nerves. 
 Raim. Vieuifcns, a phyfician of Montpelier, has an excel- 
 lent treatife in Latin, under the title Neurographia Univer- 
 falis; where he fhews, that there are more ramifications of 
 the nerves in the fkin, than in the mufcles, and all the other 
 parts. 
 
 Duncan, another phyfician of the fame place, has alfo a trea- 
 tife called Neurographia Rationalis. 
 NTUROLOGY, NivfoKeyiet, adifcourfeof the nerves. 
 
 Neurology feems to be of lefs extent than neurography, inaf- 
 much as the latter may be underftood not only of difcourfes 
 on the nerves, but alfo of figures and engravings, reprefenting 
 them; whereas the former is reftraincd to difcourfing alone. 
 , —Willis has o-iven a fine neurology, in his Anatcme Ce- 
 rebri. 
 
 NEUTER, a perfon indifferent, who has efpoufed neither party, 
 and is neither friend, nor foe. 
 
 A judge ought to be neuter in the caufes he judges. In que- 
 
 ftions where reafon appears neuter, a man fhould ever incline 
 
 to the fide of the unhappy. 
 Neuter, in grammar, denotes a fort of gender of nouns 
 
 which are neither mafculine, nor feminine. 
 
 The Latins have three kinds of genders; mafculine, feminine, 
 
 and neuter: in Englifh, and other modern tongues, there is no 
 
 fuch thing as neuter nouns. 
 I'trbs Neuter, by fome grammarian', called hilranjitive verbs, 
 
 are thofe which govern nothing, and that ate neither active nor 
 
 paflive. 
 
 When the action expreffed by the verb has no oojecl to fall 
 upon, but the verb alone fupplies the whole idea of the action ; 
 the verb is faid to be neuter : as, I lleep, thou yawneft, he 
 fneezes, we walk, ye run, they ftand full. 
 Some divide verbs neuter into, 1 ft, Such as do not fignify any 
 action, but a quality; as albet, it is white ; or a fituation, as 
 fedet, he fits ; or have fome relation to place, as adeji, he ii 
 prefent; or to fome other ftate or attribute, as regnat, he rules, 
 feV. 
 
 And, 2dly, Thofe that do fignify actions, though thofe are fuch 
 as do not pafs into any fubjecl different from the actor ; as ta 
 dine, to [up, to play, &c. 
 
 But this latter kind fometimes ceafe to be neuter, and com- 
 mence active, efpecially in Greek and Latin, when a fubjecl 
 is <nven them ; as vivere vitam, ambulare v'tam, pugnare pug- 
 nam. Thus the old Ercnch poets fay, Soupirer fen tourment ; 
 the Englifh, To figh his woes, &c. 
 
 But this is obferved only to obtain where fomething particular 
 is to be expreffed, which is not contained in the verb: as vi- 
 vere vitam heatam, to live a happy life; pugnare bonam pug- 
 nam, to fight a good fight, Lfe. 
 
 According to the abbot De Dangeau, verbs neuler may be di- 
 vided into eftive and paffve : the fit ft, thofe that form their 
 tenfes in Englifh by the auxiliary verb to have ; in French, by 
 avoir: the fecond, thofe that form them, in Englifh, with the 
 verb to be ; in French, efre. 
 
 Thus, to flcep, to yawn, dormir and cternuer, are neuters 
 aelive. — To come, and to arrive, are neuters paffve. 
 NEUTRAL falls, among chymifts, are a fort ot intermediate 
 falls between acids and alkalis ; partaking of the nature of 
 both. Use Supplement, article Neutral Salts. 
 Mr. Boyle alfo gives the appellation neutral to a fort of fpirits, 
 differing, in divers qualities, both from vinous, acid, and urin- 
 ous fpirits. — Thefe he alfo calls anonymous and adiaphorous fpi- 
 rits. 
 
 NEUTRALITY, the ftate of a perfon, or thing, that is neu- 
 ter. 
 
 NEW. See the articles Antient, Modern, &c. 
 New algebra. See the article Algebra. 
 New ajironomy. See the article Astronomy. 
 New moon, neomenia, that ftate of the moon a little before, and 
 
 a little after, her conjunction with the fun. 
 Ne\y Jlyle. See the article Style. 
 New tables. See the article Tables. 
 
 NEWEL, in architecture, the upright poft which a pair of 
 winding flairs turn about; being that part of the ftair-cafc 
 which fuftains the fteps. 
 
 The newel is, properly, a cylinder of flone, which bears on the 
 ground, and informed by the ends of thefteps of thewinding- 
 ftairs. 
 
 There are alfo newels of wood, which are pieces of timber 
 placed perpendicularly, receiving the tenons of the fteps of 
 wooden ftairs into their mortices; and wherein ate fitted 
 the Ihafts and refts of the ftair-cafe, and the flights of each 
 ftory. 
 
 NEWTONIAN philofophy, the doftiineof the univerfe, and,, 
 particularly, of the heavenly bodies; their laws, affections, CsTc. 
 as delivered by Sir Ifaac Newton. 
 
 The term Newtonian philofophy is applied very differently ; 
 whence divers confufed notions relating thereto. 
 Some authors, under this philofophy, include afi die corpufcular 
 philofophy, confidered as it now ftands corrected and reformed 
 by thedifcovcrics and improvements made in fcveral parts therer 
 of, by Sir Ifaac Newton. 
 
 In which fenfe it is that Gravefande calls his elements of phy- 
 fics, Introdutlio ad Philofophiam Newtonianam. 
 And in this fenfe the Newtonian is the fame with the new phi- 
 lofophy ; and ftands contradirtinguiihed to the Cartcfian, the 
 peripatetic, and the antient corpufcular. 
 
 Others, by Newtonian philofophy, mean, tlie method or order 
 which Sir Ifaac Newton obiVives in philofophizing ; viz. the 
 reafonin^, and drawing of conclufions directly from pheno- 
 mena, exclufive of all previous hypothefes; the beginning 
 from fimple principles; deducing the fir ft powers and laws of 
 nature from a few (elect phenomena, and then applying thofe 
 laws, isfe. to account for other things. See Law of Nat ure. 
 And, in this fenfe, the Newtonian philofophy is the fame with 
 the experimental philofophy; and ftands oppofed to the antient 
 corpufcular. 
 
 Others, by Newtonian philofophy, mean, that wherein phy- 
 fical bodies are confidered mathematically ; and where geo- 
 metry and mechanics are applied to the folution of pheno- 
 mena. 
 
 In which fenfe, the Newtonian is the fame with the mecha- 
 nical, and mathematical philofophy. 
 
 Others, again, by Neivtcnian philofophy underftand, that part 
 of phyfical knowledge which Sir Ifaac Newton has handled, 
 improved, and demonfti ated, in his Pr in cipi a. 
 
 (Others, laitly, by Newtonian phibfophy, mean, the new 
 principles 
 
NEW 
 
 principles which Sir Ifaac Newton has brought into philofopbv ; 
 the new fyitem founded thereon ; and the new Solutions of 
 phenomena thence deduced ; or that which characterizes, and 
 distinguishes his phibfophy from all others. — Which is the 
 ienfe we wherein fh^ll chiefly conftder it. 
 As to the hiftory of this philosophy we have but little to fey ; 
 it was firft made public in the year 1686, by the author, then 
 a fellow of Trinity-college, Cambridge ; and in the year 17 r 3. 
 republished, wiih confiderable improvements. — Several other 
 authors have Since attempted to make it plainer ; by letting 
 afide many of the more fublimc mathematical rcfearches, and 
 fubftituting either more obvious reafonings, or experiments, m 
 lieu thereof ; particularly Whifton in his Pr<de£l. Phyf. Ma- 
 themat. Gravcfande in Ehncnl. &f Injlit. and Dr. Pemberton 
 in his View. 
 
 Notwithstanding the great merit of this philofophy, and the 
 universal reception it has met with at home, it gains ground 
 but flowly abroad ; Neivtonmnifm has Scarce two or three 
 adherents in a nation ; but Carteftan'ifm, Hnygeniamfm> and 
 Lei&nitzianiihi remain frill in the chief pofTcflion. 
 The philofophy itfelf h laid down principally in the third book 
 of the Prhidpia. The two preceding books are taken up in 
 preparing the way for it, and laying down fuch principles of 
 mathematics as have the molt relation" to philofophy : fuch are 
 the laws and conditions of powers. And thefe, to render 
 them lefs dry and geometrical, the author illuftrates by fcho- 
 11a in philofophy, relating chiefly to the denfity and refift- 
 ance of bodies, the motion of light, and founds, a vacuum, 
 &r. 
 
 Jn the third book he proceeds to the ph'dofipJjy itfelf ; and 
 from the fame principles deduces the ftrudlure of the uni- 
 verfe, and the powers of gravity, whereby bodies tend to- 
 wards the fun and planets ; and from thefe power?, the mo- 
 tions of the planets and comets, the theory of the moon and 
 the tides. 
 
 This book, which be calls De Mundt Syjlemate, he tells up, 
 was firft written in the popular way : but considering, that 
 fuch as are unacquainted with the faid principles, would not 
 conceive the force of the conftquences, nor be induced to lay 
 afide their antient prejudices ; for this reafon, and to prevent 
 the thing from being in continual difpute, he afterwards di- 
 verted the fum of that book into propofition?, in the mathe- 
 matical manner ; fo as it might only come to be read by fuch 
 as had firft canfidered the principles. Not that it is neceflary, 
 a man fhould mailer them all. Many of them, even the 
 firft-ratc mathematicians, would find a difficulty in gettingover. 
 It is enough to have read the definitions, laws of motion, and 
 the three firft fed! ions of the firft book ; after which, the au- 
 thor bimfelf directs us to paG on to the book de Syjlemate 
 Afundi. 
 
 The Several articles of this pbilcfipby, are delivered under their 
 refpCcKye heads in this dictionary; as Sun t , Moon, Pla- 
 net, Comet, Earth, Air, Centrifugal Force, 
 Resistance, Medium, Matter, Space, Elasti- 
 city, Is'c. A general idea, or abftract of the whele, we Shall 
 here gratify the reader withal; to fhew in what relation the fe- 
 veral parts Hand to each other. 
 
 The great principle on which the whole philofophy Is founded, 
 is the power of gravity. This principle is not new : Kepler, 
 long ago, hinted it in his htrodufi. ad Mot. Martu. He even 
 difrovered fome of the properties thereof, and their effe&s in 
 the primary planets : but the glory of bringing it to a phyfi- 
 cr.I demonstration was rcferved to the Englifh philofupher. See 
 Gravity. 
 
 His proof of the principle from phenomena, together with the 
 application of the fame principle to the various other appear- 
 ances of nature, or the deducing thofe appearances from that 
 principle, conftitute the Newtonian fyfttm ; which, drawn in 
 miniature, will Stand thus, 
 
 i°. The phenomena are, That the fatcllites of Jupiter 
 do, by radii drawn to the centre of the planet, defcribe areas 
 proportional to their times ; and that their periodical times are 
 in a fefquiplicate ratio of their di fiances from its centre: in 
 which the obfervations of all affronomers agree. 2. The fame 
 phenomenon holds of the fatellites of Saturn, with regard to 
 Saturn ; and of the moon with regard to the earth. 3. The 
 periodical times of the primary planets about the fun, are in a 
 fefquiplicate ratio of their mean diftances from the fun. But, 
 4- The primary planets do not defcribe areas any- way propor- 
 tional to their periodical times, about the earth ; as being fome- 
 times fecn Stationary, and fomctimcs retrograde with regard 
 thereto. 
 
 2°. 1. The powers whereby the Satellites of Jupiter are con- 
 stantly drawn out of their rectilinear courfe, and retained in 
 their orbits, do refpeel the centre of Jupiter, and are recipro- 
 cally as the fquares of their distances from the fame centre. 
 2. The fame holds of the fatellites of Saturn with regard to 
 Saturn ; of the moon with regard to the earth : and of the pri- 
 mary planets with regard to the fun. 
 
 5°. riie moo » gravitates towards the earth, and by the power 
 of that gravity is retained in her orbit : and the fame holds 
 Vol. II. 
 
 N E-W 
 
 of (lit other fatellites with refpefl to their primary- planets! 
 and of the primaries with refpeS to the fun. See Moon. 
 As to the moon, the propofition is thus proved : The moon's 
 mean diftance is 60 femWiameters of the earth ; her period, 
 with regard to the fixed ftars, is 27 days, 7 hours 43 minutes ; 
 and the earth's circumference 133249600 Paris feet. Now, 
 fuppofing the moon to have loft all its motion, and to be 
 let drop to the earth, with the power which retains her in 
 her orbit ; in the fpace of one minute (lie will fall 1 ; A Pa- 
 ris feet; the arch file defcribes in her mean motion at the 
 diftance of 60 femidiameteis of the earth being the verfed 
 fine of 15 K Paris feet. Hence, as the power, as it ap- 
 proaches the earth, increafes in a duplicate ratio of the di- 
 ftance inverlly ; fo as, at the furface of the earth, it is 60 X 60 
 greater than at the moon : a body falling with that force in 
 our. region muft, in a minute's time, defcribe the fpace of 
 60 x 60 x 1 5 A Paris feet; and 15 ft, Paris feet in the fpace of 
 one fecond. 
 
 Eut this is the rate at which bodies fall, by gravity, at the 
 furface of our earth ; as Huygens has demonftrated, by expe- 
 riments with pendulums. Confequently, the power whereby 
 the moon is retained in her orbit, is the fame with that we- 
 call gravity : for if they were different, a body falling with 
 both powers together, would defcend with double the velo- 
 city, and in a fecond of time would therefore defcribe 50 £ 
 feet. See Descent of Bodies. 
 
 As to the other fecondary planets, their phenomena with re- 
 fpeft to their primary ones, being of the fame kind with thofe 
 of the moon about the earth ; it is argued by analogy, they 
 depend on the fame caufes : it being a rule or axiom which 
 all philofophcrs agree to, that effects of the fame kind have 
 the fame caufes. Again, attraction is always mutual, i. e. the 
 reaction is equal to the action. Confequently, the primary 
 planets gravitate towards their fecondary ones ; the earth to- 
 wards the moon, and the fun towards them all. And this 
 gravity, with regard to each fevetal planet, is reciprocally as 
 the fquare of its diftance from its centre of gravity. 
 4°. All bodies gravitate towards all the planets ; and their 
 weights towards any one planet, at equal diftances from the 
 centre of the planet, are proportional to the quantity of mat- 
 ter in each. 
 
 For the law of the defcent of heavy bodies towards the earth, 
 fetting afide their unequal retardation from the rcfiftance of 
 the air, is this ; that all bodies fall equally in equal times : 
 but the nature of gravity or weight, no doubt, is the fame 
 on the other phnets, as on the earth. 
 
 Suppofc, 1. gr. fuch bodies raifed to the furface of the moon, 
 and together with the moon deprived at once of all progrtffive 
 motion, and dropped towards the earth : it is Ihewn, that in 
 equal times they, would defcribe equal fpaces with the moon ; 
 and, therefore, that their quantity of matter is to that of the 
 moon, as their weights to its weight. Add, that fincc Jupi- 
 ter's fatellites revolve in times that are in a fefquiplicate ra- 
 tio of their diftances from the centre of Jupiter, and con- 
 fequently at equal diftances from Jupiter their accelerating- 
 gravities are equal ; therefore, falling equal altitudes in equal 
 times, they wiil defcribe equal fpaces ; juft as heavy bodies do 
 on our earth. And the fame argument will hold of the pri- 
 mary planets with regard to the fun. And the powers where- 
 by unequal bodies are equally accelerated, are as the bodies ; 
 1. r. the weights are as the quantities of matter in the pla- 
 nets. And the weights of the primary and fecondarv planets 
 towards the fun, are as the quantities of matter in tlie plancti 
 and fatellites. And hence are feveral corollaries drawn re- 
 lating to the weights of bodies on the furface of the earth, ma»- 
 netifm, and the exiftence of a vacuum. Which fee under the 
 articles Vacuum, Weight, and Magnetism. 
 5°. Gravity extends itfelf towards all bodies, and is in pro- 
 portion to tlie quantity of matter in each. 
 That all the planets gravitate towards each other, has been 
 already (hewn ; likewife, that the gravity towards any one 
 confidered apart, is reciprocally as the fquare of its diftance 
 from the centre of the planet: confequently, gravity is pro- 
 portional to the matter therein. Fatther, as all the parts of 
 any planet, A, gravitate towards another planet, B; and 
 the gravity of any part is to the gravity of the whole, as the 
 matter ot the part, to the matter of the whole ; and re;clion 
 equal to action : the planet B will gravitate towards all the 
 parts of the planet A ; and its gravity towards any part, will 
 be to its gravity towards the whole, as the matter of the part 
 to the matter of the whole. 
 
 Hence, we derive methods of finding and comparing the gra- 
 vities of bodies towards different planets ; of finding the quan- 
 tities of matter in the feveral planets, and their denfities ; 
 fince the weights of equal bodies revolving about planets, are 
 as the diameters of their orbits directly, and as the fquares of 
 the periodical times, inverlly ; and the weights at any diftance 
 from the centre of the planet are greater or lefs in a duplicate 
 ratio of their diftances, inverlly : and fince the quantities of 
 matter in the planets are as their powers at equal diftances 
 from their centres : and, laftly, fince the weights of equal 
 7 E anj 
 
NEW 
 
 N I C 
 
 and homogeneous bodies towards homogeneous fpheres are, at 
 thefurfaceof the fpheres, as the diameters of thofe fpheres ; and, 
 confequently, the denfkies of heterogeneous bodies are as the 
 weights at the diftances of the diameters of the fpheres. 
 6° The common cenrre of gravity of the fun, and all the 
 planets, is at reft : and the fun, though always in motion, 
 yet never recedes far from the common centre of all the 
 planets. 
 
 For, the matter in the fun being to that in Jupiter as 1033 
 to 1 ; and Jupiter's diftance from the fun to the femidiamcter 
 of the fun in a ratio fomewhat bigger ; the common centre 
 of gravity of Jupiter and the fun will be found a point a little 
 without the fun's furface. And, by the fame means, the 
 common centre of Saturn and the fun will be found a point 
 a little within the fun's furface : and the common centre ot 
 the earth, and all the planets will be fcarce one diameter of 
 the fun diftant from the centre thereof. But the centre is 
 always at reft : therefore, though the fun will have a mo- 
 tion 'this and that way, according to the various fituations of 
 the planets, yet it can never recede far from the centre. So 
 that the common centre of gravity of the earth, fun, and 
 planets, may be efteemed the centre of the whole world. 
 7°. The planets move in ellipfes that have their foci in the 
 centre of the fun ; and defcribe areas proportional to their 
 times. 
 
 This we have already laid down a pofteriori, as a phenome- 
 non : and now, that the principle of the heavenly motions 
 is (hewtl, we deduce it therefrom a priori. Thus : Since 
 the weights of the planets towards the fun are reciprocally 
 as the fquares of the diftances from the centre of the fun ; 
 if the fun were at reft, and the other planets did not act 
 on each other ; their orbits would be elliptical, having the 
 fun in their common umbilicus ; and they would defcribe areas 
 proportional to the times : but the mutual actions of the pla- 
 nets are very final], and may be well thrown afide. There- 
 fore, t3c. 
 
 Indeed, the action of Jupiter on Saturn is of fome confe- 
 quencej and hence, according to the different fituations and 
 diftances of thofe two planets, their orbits will be a little di- 
 
 fturbed. 
 
 Trie fun's orbit too is fenfibly difturbed by the action of the 
 moon : and the common centre of the two defcribes an el- 
 lipfis round the fun placed in the umbilicus ; and with a radius 
 drawn to the centre of the fun, defcribes areas proportional to 
 the times. 
 
 8°. The aphelia and nodes of the planets are at reft ; except- 
 ing for fome inconfiderable irregularities arifing from the actions 
 of the revolving planets and comets. — Confequently, as the fixed 
 ftars retain their pofuion to the aphelia and nodes, they, too, are 
 
 at reft. 
 
 9°. The axis, or polar diameter, of the planets is lefs than the 
 equatorial diameter. 
 
 The planets, had they no diurnal rotation, would be fpheres, as 
 having an equal gravity on every fide : but by this rotation, 
 the parts receding from the axis endeavour to rife towards the 
 equator, which, if the matter they confift of be fluid, will be 
 effected very fenfibly. Accordingly Jupiter, whofe denfity is 
 found not fo much to exceed that of water on our globe, is 
 obferved by the aftronomers to be confiderably lefs between the 
 poles, than from eaft to weft. And on the fame principle, 
 unlefs our earth were higher at the equator than towards the 
 poles, the fea would rife under the equator, and overflow all 
 near it. 
 
 But this figure of the earth Sir Ifaac Newton proves likewife 
 it pofteriori ; from the ofcillations of pendulums being flower, 
 and fmaller, in the equatorial, than the polar parts of the 
 globe. 
 
 io°. All the moon's motions, and all the inequalities in thofe 
 motions, follow from thefe principles : e. gr. her unequal 
 velocity, and that of her nodes, and apogee in the fyzygies 
 and quadratures ; the differences in her eccentricity, and 
 her variation, fcfc. See Moon, Quadrature, Syzygy, 
 &c. 
 
 11°. From the inequalities in the lunar motions, we can 
 deduce the feveral inequalities in the motions of the fatellites. 
 12°. From thefe principles, particularly the action of the 
 fun and moon upon the earth, it follows, that we muft 
 have tides ; or that the fea mult fwell and fubfide twice every 
 day. 
 
 13°. Hence likewife follows the whole theory of comets; 
 as, that they are above the region of the moon, and in the 
 planetary fpaces ; that they fhine by the fan's light reflected 
 from them ; that they move in conic fedt'ions, whofe um- 
 bilici are in the centre of the fun ; and by radii drawn to 
 the fun, defcribe areas proportional to the times ; that their 
 orbits, or trajectories, are very near parabolas ; that their bodies 
 are folid, compact, &c. like thofe of the planets, and muft there- 
 fore acquire an immenfe heat in their perihelia ; that their tails 
 are exhalations arifing from them, and encompafling them like 
 atmofpheres. See Comet. 
 
 The objections raifed againft this philofophy are chiefly aim- 
 
 ed at the principle, gravity ; which fome condemn as an se- 
 ra// quality, and others as a miraculous, and preter-natural 
 caufe ; neither of which have any longer room in found: 
 philofophy. Others, again, fet it afide, as deftroying the no- 
 tion of vortices; and others, as fuppofing a vacuum. But thefe 
 are all abundantly obviated under the articles Gravity, 
 Attraction, Vortex, Vacuum, and Quality. 
 NEXUS of Matter. See the article Cohesion. 
 NICHE*, in architecture, a cavity, or hollow place, in the thick- 
 nefs of a wall ; to place a figure, or flame in. 
 
 * The word comes from the Italian nicchia, fca-fhell ; in regard 
 the flattie is here inclofed in a (hell ; or, perhaps, by reafon 
 of the Ihell wherewith the tops of fome of them are adorned. 
 
 The larger niches ferve for groups of figures ; the fmall ones 
 for fingle ftatues, and fometimes only for bufts. 
 Great care muft be taken to proportion the niches to the 
 figures ; and that the pedeftals of the figures be proportioned 
 to the niches. 
 
 Niches are fometimes made with ruftic-work, fometimes 
 with fliell-work, and fometimes of craiied, or arbour-wcrk. 
 Round Niche is that whofe plan and circumference are circu- 
 lar. 
 
 Square Niche, that where they are fquare. 
 Jugular Niche, that formed in a corner of the building. 
 Ground Nic he, that which, inftead of bearing on a. maflive, 
 has its rife from the ground ; as the niches of the portico of 
 the pantheon at Rome. — Their ordinary proportion is to be two 
 diameters in height, and one in width. 
 Capital of a Niche. See the article Capital. 
 Culdefourofa Ni CHE. See the article Cul. 
 NICHED Column. See the article Column. 
 NICHILS. See the article NlHItS. 
 Clerk of the Nichils. See the article Clerk. 
 NICOLAI Catholic an. See the article Catholicon. 
 Argonauts of St. NICOLAS. See Argonauts. 
 NICOLAITANS, or Nicolaites, one of the moft anticnt 
 feats' in the Chriftian church ; thus denominated from Nicolas, 
 a perfon ordained a deacon of the church of Jerulalem toge- 
 ther with St. Stephen. 
 
 The diftinguifhing tenet of the Nicclaitans, as renrefented by 
 ecclefiaffical hiftorians, is, that all married women fhould be 
 common ; to take away all occafion of jealoufy. 
 Other authors tax Nicolas with other impurities ; but Clemens 
 Alexandrinus imputes them all to his difciples, who, he fays, 
 abufed their matter's words. 
 
 Nicolas, it feems, having a very beautiful wife, was fufpected 
 by the apoftles as jealous of her, and as being a lafcivious 
 man. — To remove this fufpicion, he called his wife ; and 
 to fhew he was not at all attached to her, offered any of 
 them the liberty of efpoufing her. This is confimed by 
 Eufebius, who adds, that NicoLs never had more than one 
 wife. 
 
 Other things charged on the Nicolaitans, are, that they made 
 no fcruple of eating meats offered to idols : that they main- 
 tained that the Father of Jefus Chrift was not the Creator ; 
 that fome of them adored one Barbelo, who inhabited the 
 eighth heaven, and who proceeded from the Father, and was- 
 the mother of Jaldabaoth ; or, according to others, of Sa- 
 baoth, who had" forcibly taken pofieilion of the feventh heaven. 
 Others of them gave the name Prounicos to the mother of the 
 heavenly powers ; but all afcribed infamous actions to her, 
 and with hers authorized their own impurities. Others fhewed 
 books, and pretended revelations under the name of Jaldabaoth. 
 Ircnzeus and Epiphanius relate thefe and feveral other extravagan- 
 cies ; and reprefent the Nicolaita7is as the authors of the feet of 
 Gnoftics. See Gnostics. 
 
 Cocceius, Hoffman, Vitringa, and Maius, take the nam» 
 Nicolaitan to be coined, to fignify a man addicted to plea- 
 fure and debauchery ; adding, that it has nothing to do with 
 Nicolas one of the feven deacons. And, as the doctrine 
 of the Nicolaitans is mentioned in the Apocalypfe, immedi- 
 ately after mention made of Balaam, and his doctrine, thev 
 compare the two names Balaam and Nicolas, which, in 
 their originals, the one in Greek, the other Hebrew, have 
 nearly the fame fignification, viz, prince, or majler of the 
 people. 
 
 Maius adds, that it was probable enough the hicolaitans might 
 value themfelves on being the difciples of one of the feven 
 deacons ; but that it was without any ground : notwithstanding 
 what the antients, who were ever too credulous, have rcprefentcd 
 to the contrary. 
 
 NICOTIANA, or berla nicotians, a name given to tobacco ; 
 from Nicot the French embaffador at the court of Portugal, 
 who firft fent it into France in 1 5 60, and gave it his own name, 
 as he himfelf tells us in his dictionary. See Tobacco. 
 NICTITATING Membrane, in anatomy, a thin membrane 
 which covers the eyes of feveral creatures, and (belters th::m 
 from duft, or too much light ; yet is fo thin, that they can fee 
 indifferently well through it, 
 
 This 
 
N I H 
 
 N I T 
 
 This niSlitathig membrane is chiefly found in (he bird and fifli 
 kind. 
 
 This membrane, in the eagle's eye, is remarkably clofe and firm, 
 infomuch as to be accounted as a fecond eye-lid : and hence 
 that remarkable firmnefs of the eagle's fight in viewing the 
 fun. 
 
 NIDUS*, Nejl, a repofitory, wherein certain animals, particu- 
 - larly fowls, infers, and reptiles lodge their eggs, for incubation ; 
 
 and wherein, when, hatched, they nurfe their young till they 
 
 become able to ftiift for themfelves. 
 
 * The word is Latin, and is fuppofed to be derived from tiidor, 
 a rank, or ill fmcll ; in regard the nefts of animals ufualiy 
 funk. 
 
 Mr. Derham fays, he has often wondered how wafps, hor- 
 nets,- and other infccts that gather dry materials (as the duft 
 of wood fcraped off for that purpofe) fliould find a proper 
 glutinous matter to cement and glue their combs, and line 
 their cells : but he adds, that in all probability it is in their own 
 bodies: as in the tinea veftivora, the cad worm, Jifc. 
 Goedart obferves of his erucas that fed on leaves, that they 
 made their cells of leaves glued together with their own fpittle. 
 NIECE, a term relative to uncle, and aunt ; fignifying a bro- 
 ther's or lifter's daughter ; which, in the civil law, is the 
 third degree of cordanguiuity, and in the common law, the 
 fecond. 
 
 "NJENT Csmprife, in law, an exception taken to a petition as 
 unjuft ; becaufe the thing defired is not in that a£l or deed 
 whereon the petition is grounded. 
 
 Thus, a perfon defiring of the court to be put in pofleffion of a 
 houfe formerly adjudged to him among other lands ; — the ad- 
 verfc party pleads that this petition is not to be granted ; by 
 - reafon though the petitioner had a judgment for certain lands 
 'and houfes, yet this houfe is nient co/nprife, not comprized 
 therein, 
 
 NIGHT, that part of the natural day, during which the fun is un- 
 derneath the horizon. 
 
 Or night, is that fpace of time wherein the fun is out of our he- 
 mifphere. 
 
 Under the equator, the nights are always equal to the days. — 
 
 Under the pules, the night holds half the year. 
 
 The anticnt Gauls and Germans divided their time not by 
 
 days, but nights ; as appears from Tacitus and C^far. And 
 
 the people of Iceland and the Arabs do the fame at this 
 
 day. 
 
 The fame is alfo obferved of our Saxon anceflors. 
 Thus, in the council of CWelhoe, anno 824. we read, Ibi finita 
 is" profcripta contentione coram epifcopo pojl 5 o Nactes, ilium ju- 
 raimntum ad Wtjlminjler deduction eft. — Whence our cuftom 
 of faying, feven-night, fortnight, &c. 
 
 Signals by Night. Sec the article Signals. 
 
 Third-N: gut -awn- kind. See the article Third. 
 
 NIGHT-Mare*, a popular name for a difeafe by the Greek 
 pbyficiaOS called ephialtes, and the Latins, incubus; to which 
 people lying afleep on their backs, and having their ftomach 
 charged with heavy food, difficult of digeftion, are very 
 liable. 
 
 * The fleeping patient appears to himfelf as if oppretfed with a 
 huge weight on thebreait; 2nd frequently imagines fomefpeftre 
 or fan torn, Mopping his breath : whence the appellations, night- 
 mare, and hag-ridden. 
 
 The difeafe does not arife, as was antiently imagined, from 
 grofs vapours filling the ventricles of the brain ; but rather 
 from a too great repletion of the ftomach, which prevents 
 the motion of the diaphragm, and, of confequence, the dila- 
 tation of the bread: necefiary to refpiration. — Though others 
 take it to be produced by a convulfion of the mufcles of refpira- 
 tion. 
 
 The Arabs, Etmullcr oWerves, call this difeafe a notlumal epi- 
 lepfy ; fince upon its prevailing much, it degenerates into an epi- 
 lepfy; and is in effect, the prodromus hereof in young people, as 
 in old ones of an apoplexy. 
 
 NIHIL, Nihilum, nothing, among the fchool philofophcrs, is, 
 what has no real efle, and which is only conceived negatively, 
 and denominated by a negative. 
 
 Nihil Capiat per Billam, or per Breve, is a form ufed when 
 judgment is given againft the plaintiff', fo as to bar his aclion, 
 or overthrow his writ, or bill. 
 
 JsTjhil DUit, is a failing of a defendant to put in an anfwer to 
 the plantift's plea by the day alligned : on which omifTion judg- 
 ment is given againft him of courfe, quod nihil dicit, becaufe he 
 alleges nothing to the contrary. 
 
 Nihil, orNiHiLi Album. See the article Pompholyx. 
 
 NIHILS, or Nichils, iflucs, which the flier iff that is ap- 
 pofed in the exchequer fays are nothing worth, and illc- 
 viable ; from the inefficiency of the parties that fhould pay 
 them. 
 
 Clerk of the NlCHItt, Nihihrum Clericus, is an officer of th e 
 
 exchequer who makes a roll of the funis which are nichiled by 
 the fherifrs. See Exchequer. 
 NILOMETER *, or Niloscope, an inftrument ufed among 
 the antients, to meafure the height of the water of the river Nile, 
 in its overflowings. 
 
 • The word comes from the Greek NiMof, Nile (and that from 
 pea l\vf, new mud, m, as fome others will have it, from H&, I 
 
 fonv, and tKVf, mud), and^,, mtajure. The Greeks 
 
 more ordinarily call it NUMffxmw, 
 
 In the French king's library is an Arabic treatife on nihmeters 
 entitled Neil fi alnal al Nil ; wherein are defcribed all the over- 
 flowings of the Nile from the firft year of the Heeira to the 
 875th. 
 
 Herodotus mentions a column erefted in a point of the ifland 
 Delta, to ferve as a nilometer : and there is ftill one of the fame 
 kind in a mofque of the fame place. 
 
 As all the riches of Egypt arife from the inundations of the 
 Nile, the Egyptians ufed to fupplicate them at the hands of their 
 Serapis, and committed the moil execrable crimes, as aciions, for- 
 fcoth, of religion, to obtain the favour. This occafkmed Con- 
 ftantine exprefly to prohibit thefe facrifices, £sV. and to or- 
 der the nilorpeter to be removed into the church ; whereas 
 till that time it had been in the temple of Serapis. Ju- 
 lian the apoftate had it replaced in the temple, where it 
 continued till the time of the great Theodofius-. See on the 
 fubje& of nikmeters, the ASa Eruditorum Lipf. anno 1686 
 P- '47- 
 
 NIMBUS, in antiquity, a circle obferved on certain medals, 
 around the heads of fome emperors ; anfwering to the a- 
 reote, or circles of light, drawn around the images of 
 faints. ■ 
 
 The nimbus is feen on the medals of Maurice, Phocas, and 
 others, even of the upper empire. 
 NIMETULAHITES, a kind of religious among the Turks ; 
 fo called from Nimetulahi their inftitutor. 
 
 When a Turk would be admitted into the order, he is to 
 fhut himfelf up clofe in a chamber forty-davs, tied down 
 to four ounces of food per day. The term expired, the 
 Nimetulahites take him by the hand, and lead him a Moor- 
 ifh dance, accompanied with an infinity of ridiculous gefti- 
 culations; till the violence of the exercife, with his former 
 regimen, throw him down on the ground. This fall is con- 
 strued an extafy, during which he is fuppofed to have a 
 vifion. 
 
 The Nimetulahites meet every Monday in the night-time, and 
 fing hymns to God, fcrV. 
 
 NINTH pair of nerves. See the article Ne r ve. 
 
 NIPPLE. See the articles Papilla and Breasts. 
 
 NISI PRIUS, in law, a writ judicial, which lieth in cafes where 
 the jury being impanelled and returned, before the iufticesof 
 the bank,. one of the parties requefts to have fuch writ for 
 the eafe of the country, whereby to will the fberiff to caufe 
 the mqueft to come before the juftkes in the fame county at 
 their coming thither. 1 
 ft is called a writ of Nif: Prius ; and its efftfl is, that the 
 lberirt is hereby commanded to bring to Weftminfter the 
 men impanelled at a certain day, before the juftices, Nifi 
 Prius pifi'u, domini regis ad affifas capiendas venerint, that is 
 unlets the juftices go before that day into fuch county to take 
 affizes. ' 
 
 NITRE, N«T»vi« natural hiftory, a bitter fort of fait; thus 
 called by the antients; by the moderns, more ufualiy, falt- 
 
 Naturalifls differ as to the point whether our faltpetre be the 
 nitre of the antients, but it certainly is not. G. C Schelbam 
 mer has a particular treatife on the fubjea, dl mm, turn vttmm 
 turn no/lro, eommentarius. 
 
 Molt authors hold the antient nifr, to have been mineral or 
 foffil ■, whereas our faltpetre is in great meafure artificial — 
 oerapion fays, the antient mines of nitre were like thofe of 
 common fait, and that it was formed out of running water 
 congealed in its progrefs into a fort of flone: he adds that 
 their Un was of four kinds, diltinguifhed by the coun- 
 tries whence ,t came ; viz. the Armenian, Reman, Africa*. 
 called Aphremtre, and by Avium*, Eaaracb ; and the E,yp- 
 ™* was lhc moft ftnaous, giving name to all the 
 relt, itlelf denominated from nilria, a province in Eoypt 
 where it was found in great abundance. He allures us,°too| 
 that their nitre was of divers colours, iria white, red, and 
 livid; that fome maffis of it were cavernous, likeafpon?e; others 
 clofe and compact ; others tranfparcnt like glafs ; and others 
 fcaly. 
 
 Schelhammer gives a different account : The antients, he ob- 
 ferves, diffinguifhed between N^per, nitre, ASw/jfot, aphra- 
 nitre, and Aj f o. »1 f>> Jpuma nitri, or fcum ef nitre. He 
 ac'ds, that Agricola, iic. is miffaken in afferting that there 
 were antiently mines in Lydia, Magnefia, Caria, lie. out 
 of which nitre was dug like Rones out of a quarry:' and 
 that the nitrt ufed by the antients was brought out of 
 
 leveral 
 
NOB 
 
 NOB 
 
 feveral countries mentioned by Pliny, L$0& e. ie. A 
 lake in Macedonia, whofe waters were nitrous, and in the 
 middle whereof, however, was a fpring of frefb water, fiff- 
 nifhfd the greateft quantity and tlie heft : it was called Cba- 
 hftrlcum from a neighbouring cane in the gulf of *kd»' 
 lonica, and waa formed like a cruft on the furface of the 
 water during the dug-days. The waters of the lake Afca- 
 nius in Bithynia, and thofe of certain fprings near Chalcis, 
 were fwcet and potable towards the furface, yet nitrous at 
 bottom. There was alfo nitre gathered on the ground near 
 Philippi, in Thrace ; but it was little, and of no great 
 value. 
 
 The valleys of Media alfo furnifhed feme. And there were 
 7»f re-pits in Egypt, as there are kit-pit? among us. 
 The chief virtue the antients afcrihe to their nitre, is, that of 
 drying, deterging, and attenuating; and, as fuch, it was ufed 
 in ulcers, diforders of the eyes, the itch, the bites of fer- 
 pents, the gout, CSV. They alfo took it inwardly to rcfolve and 
 attenuate vifcid humours : 'but its cooling quality, whereof the 
 modern phyficians make fo much ufc, they were unacquainted 
 withal.— It is found excellent in difcafes of the ftomach, accom- 
 panied with a propenfny to vomit. See Supplement, articles 
 Nitrum and Natron. 
 Aereal N i t r e . Many of our phylirians are full of the no- 
 tion of 'a volatile nitre abounding in the air; and a world of 
 phenomena they account for from the operation of the particles 
 thereof. 
 
 That the atmofphere abounds with faline particles, is moft 
 certain ; for being filled continually with effluvia from the 
 earth and fea, it muff needs have from both a gre.it quantity 
 of faline corpufcles ; and thefe will be of different kind?, ac- 
 cording to the variety of thofe falts from whence they are 
 derived. 
 
 But why thefe mould be moftly fuppofed of a nitrous na- 
 ture, is not fo eafy to prove; for (altpetre is by no means 
 found in greater quantity than the other falts, efpecially com- 
 mon fait ; nor is it of a much more volatile nature than 
 they, nor capable of being raifed more eafily, or by a lefTer 
 heat. But fince foot, and that which produces it, fmoke, 
 is found to abound very much with a truly volatile fait ; 
 and fincc fuch a kind of fait is produced frequently by the 
 putrefaction of animal and vegetable bodies ; it is probable 
 the air may abound with falts of this kind, among many 
 other decompounded ones of different natures and names. 
 
 Diaphoretic Nit re of Antimony. Sec Ant 1 mony. 
 
 Fixed Nitre. See the article Fixed. 
 
 Spirit of Nitre. See the article Spirit. 
 
 NOBILIARY, a collection, or hiftorical account of the noble fa- 
 milies of a province, or nation. 
 
 Chorier has publifhed a nobiliary of Dauphine ; and Cau- 
 martin, another of Provence. The Germans are particu- 
 larly careful of their nabiliaries, to keep up the purity of their 
 families. 
 
 NOBILISoTMUS, in antiquity, a title, or quality given to the 
 princes of the Imperial family. 
 
 F. Doucine advances, that the title Nobilijfimus was firft given 
 under the emperor Juftin ; others find the title Nobilis 
 far, or N. C. that is, Nobilijfimus Cafar, on medals long 
 before that time, even as early as Trajan. Spanhcim and 
 Toubert indeed fet this title on medals no higher than the time of 
 Philip the younger : though it appears earlier in fome in- 
 fcriptions i fo that even M. Tillemont is miftaken where 
 he fays, the quality of Nobilijfimus is not to be found in 
 hiftory before the time of Confiantine the Great, who firft 
 gave it to his two brothers ; after which it was attributed 
 to fuch of the emperors children as were not C:efars. See 
 CffSAR. 
 
 Trifian adds, that the Cxfars bore the title of Nobilijfimi 
 in all ages; but that the Nobiliffimate firft became a diftinct 
 independent dignity in the time nf Conftantine the Great. 
 NOBILITY, a quality that dignifies, or renders a thing noble ; 
 particularly, that raifes a perfon pohefled thereof above the 
 rank of a peafant or commoner. 
 
 In England, indeed, the term nobility is reftrained to de- 
 crees of dignity above knighthood. — Every where elfe, nobi- 
 lity and gentility, or gentry, are the fame. See Gentle- 
 ma N. 
 
 Some refer the origin of nobility in Europe to the Goths ; 
 who, after they had feized a part of Europe, rewarded their 
 captains with titles of honour, and called them nobles ; nobiles, 
 to diftinguifh them from the common people. 
 Nobility, in England, is only conferred by the king, and that by 
 patent, in virtue whereof it becomes hereditary. In other 
 countries there are other ways of acquiring it. 
 Thus, in France, v. gr. there are feveral offices which con- 
 vey perfect nobility, and fuch as defcends to pofterity. Such 
 are all offices of the crown, thofe of counfcllor of ftate, Wip, 
 Others they have which only communicate an acceflbry, or 
 perioral nobility, which dies with the perfon. Thus, a coun- 
 cilor in parliament enjoys all the rights and exemptions of 
 
 nobility; yet his fon is never reputed noble; unlets there 
 have been a fucccffion of them, and both lather and grand- 
 father have been noble ; which they call patrc & avo con- 
 fulibus. 
 
 They have a third kind of nobility-, called nobility of the bell, de 
 la cloche ; which is what the mayors and fheriffs of certain cities, 
 as Lions, Bourges, Rochcl, Poitiers, &c, acquire in virtue of 
 their magiftracy. 
 
 The nobility of England is called the peerage of England. 
 Its decrees are only five, viz. that of a duke, marquis, earl 
 or count, vifcounr, and baron. See each under its proper ar- 
 ticle, Duke, Marquis, Esff. 
 
 The privileges of the Englifh nobility are very confiderable : 
 they are all effeemed as the king's hereditary counfellors, 
 and are privileged from all arrc.ls, unlets for treafon, felony, 
 breacli of peace, condemnation in parliament, and contempt 
 of the king. No fupplicavit can be granted zgainft them; 
 no capias, or exigent, fued againfl them for action of debt, 
 or trefpafs ; and noedoign lies pgainft them : in criminal cafes, 
 they are only to he tried by a jury of peers, who are not 
 put to their oath ; but their verdict upon their honour fuffkes. 
 In their abfence, they are allowed a proxy to vote for them j 
 and in all places of trufl they are allowed toconftitute deputies, 
 by reafon of the ncceffity the law fuppofes them under of at- 
 tending the king's perfon. 
 
 Guillim obferves, that if an appeal of murther, or felony, 
 be fued by a commoner, againfl a peer, he fhall be tried by 
 commoners, not peers. Sec Appeal. 
 
 No peer may go cut of the kingdom without the king's leave : 
 if any have leave, he is to return upon the king's writ, or to for- 
 feit goods and chattels. 
 
 Anton. Matthseus obferves, that nobility among the Romans was 
 a quite different thing from what it is among us. The nobles 
 among the Romans were either thofe raifed to the magiflrature, 
 or defcended from magiftrates : there was no fuch thing as nobility 
 by patent. 
 
 Bartoli fays, that doctors, after they have held a profeffor's chair 
 in an univerfity for twenty years, become noble ; and are enti- 
 tled to all the rights of counts. 
 
 But this claim is not admitted at court, &c. though Bartoli's 
 fentiments be backed with thofe of feveral other authors, parti- 
 cularly ChafTan^us in his Confuctudin. Burgundies ; Boyer fur 
 la Coutume de Berry ; Faber C. de dig- def. 9. tzfe. which laft, 
 however, reftrains Bartoli's rule to doctors in law, and princes 
 phyficians. 
 
 By an edict of the French king, in 1669. it is declared, that 
 trade mall not derogate from nobility, provided the perfon do not 
 fell by retail. 
 
 In Brctagnc, by antient cuftom, a nobleman lofes nothing by 
 trading even in retail : but he reaflumes all his rights as 
 foon as he ceafes traffic ; his nobility having flept all the 
 time. 
 
 In Germany, a woman, not mils by birth, doth not become 
 v. gr. a countefs, or haroneG, by marrying a count, or baron. 
 A lady of the higher degree, indeed, becomes a princefs by 
 marry ins a prince ; but this doth not hold of a hdy of the 
 lower nobility. 
 
 On the coaft of Malabar, children are only capable of being no- 
 ble by the mother's fide ; it being allowed them to take as many 
 husbands as they pleafe, and to quit them whenever they think 
 good. 
 
 ■ NOBLE*, NoBILIS, a perfon who has a privilege which raifes 
 him above a commoner, or peafant, either by birth, by office, or 
 by patent from his prince. 
 
 * The word comes from the Latin, nobilis, formed from th» 
 antient nofcibilis, difting unliable, remarkable. 
 
 In England, the word noble is of a narrower import than in 
 other countries, being confined to pcrfins above the degree of 
 knights ; whereas, abroad, it comprehends not only knights, but 
 what we fimply call gentlemen. 
 
 The 7iobles of England are alfo called pares rrgni, as being no- 
 bilitate pares, though graJu imparcs. 
 
 The Venetian mblejfe is famous : it is in this that the fovcreign- 
 tv of the Irate refides. It is divided into three clafies. 
 The firft only comprehends 24 families. 
 
 The fecond includes the defcenck-nts of all thofe who were en- 
 tered in the golden book, in 1289: and deftined to govern the 
 ftate, which then began to be ariitocratic. 
 
 The third confifts of fuch as have bought the dignity of noble 
 Venetians. 
 
 This laft clafs is only admitted to the inferior employs ; the two 
 former, to all indifferently. 
 
 The title of noble Venetians is fometimes alfo given to foreign 
 kings, princes, tsV. 
 Noble a!fo denotes a money of account, containing fix millings 
 and eight pence. See Money. 
 
 The noble was antiently a real coin, under the denomination of 
 rofe-nobk. See Coin, and Ross. 
 
 Authors 
 
N O C 
 
 NOD 
 
 Authors obferve, that there has not been any piece of gold or 
 filver of this name, coined with us, fince 9 Hen. V. They 
 were firf* coined by Edw. III. in 1334- 
 
 The Nubitr contained 80 d. the fame with the prefent money 
 of account--- Its half was called Obolui, containing ^.od. its 
 fourth pare the quadrans, or farthing in thofe days, 20 d. 
 NOCTAMBULI *, or Noctambulones, a term of equal 
 import with femnambuli, applied to perfons who have a habit 
 of rifing, and walking about, in their fleep. 
 
 * The word is a compound of the Latin, vox, night, and amhuh, 
 I walk. 
 
 Echcnckius, Horftius, Clauderus, 'and Hildanus, who have 
 wrote of fleep, give us divers unhappy hiflories of fuch 
 NoSiambuli. 
 
 The diforder fcems to confifr. in this, that the proper organs 
 of mufcular motion are at liberty, while the organs deftined 
 for fenfation are firmly bound up, or in a ftate of in- 
 action. 
 
 To conceive the caufe, it is to be obferved, that the laws 
 of the union of the foul and body are fuch, as that cer- 
 tain ideas follow upon certain motions of the fibres of the 
 brain ; and certain motions of thofe fibres upon certain 
 ideas. Now, by much thinking on any one thing, the 
 fibres acquire fome permanent fituation, which eives a freer 
 paffage to the fpirits towards a certain part of the body 
 than ordinary. — If then the animal fpirits become too 
 copious, or too much agitated, or confifr. of parts too folid ; 
 they throw thcmfelves into the paffages they find the moil 
 open, glide into the nerves and mufcles correfponding to thofe 
 paffages, and there produce the motions proper to thofe 
 mufcles. 
 
 Accordingly, the body rifes and walks ; though the foul be 
 excluded from thinking on the objects that ufe to employ it on 
 fuch occalions. 
 
 The bilious, according to Horftius ; the melancholic, accord- 
 ing to Salius; and the fanguine perfons, according to Libavius, 
 are moft fubjeft to thofe nocturnal vagaries. 
 'I he remedies are all fuch things as temper the agitation of the 
 fpirits, and relax the fibres ; as bleeding, and all coolers, either 
 internally or externally : Aperitives too have a good effect; 
 but the beft remedy, according to fome, is cold-bathing. 
 NOCTILUCA, among naturalifts, a fpecies of phofphorus, 
 fo called, becaufe it (nines in the night, without any light 
 being thrown on it : fuch is the phofphorus made of urine. 
 By which it ftands diftinguifhed from feme other fpecies of 
 phofphorus, which, ere they fhine, mult be expofed to the 
 fun-beams; fuch as is the bolonian-ftone, &c. See Bolo- 
 UlAts- Stone. 
 
 Mr. Boyle, in a particular treatife on the fubjecr, gives ar 
 
 account of three Noftilucx The firft, invented by Kraft't. 
 
 he calls the confijient, or gum/nous Nocliluca, as being of a tex- 
 ture not unlike that of a cherry-gum. This, on account of 
 its uninterrupted action, was, by the Germans, called the cm- 
 Jlant NoCiiluca ; among us it is now known under the deno- 
 mination of the folid phofphorus, 
 
 Ti ^J e , C °" d ' S liqU ' d ' invemed b y the kid Krafft : this is only 
 a diffolution of the former in a convenient liquor.— The third 
 kind was prepared by Mr. Boyle himfelf: and was of a different 
 nature from both the other ; for it would not fhine of itfelf, 
 like either of them, but required the contact of the air 
 (though not any external rays or heat) to make it produce 
 light, which would be very durable, in a well flopped veffel. 
 Add, that it was not the body that fhone, but an ex- 
 halation, or effluvium mixed with the air ; on which ac- 
 counts the inventor gives it the denomination of the atrial 
 NoCiiluca. 
 
 The fame Mr. Boyle, afterwards, prepared another fort; 
 which, from the little pellucid fragments or cryftals therein, 
 he denominated the icy NoBiluca. 
 
 NOCTURNAL, fomething that relates to night, nox ; in 
 contradifiinAon to diurnal. In this fenfe we fay, NoBurnal af- 
 femblies ; NoBurnal walks ; NoBurnal pollutions, (Sc. See 
 Pollution, Noctambuli, csV. 
 
 Nocturnal Pahs are a frequent concomitant of venereal dif- 
 orders, which can only be palliated with narcotics ■ nothing 
 but a mercurial couife, or a long continued ufe of diet-drinkl 
 can intirely remove them. 
 
 Nocturnal Arch, in aftronomy, the arch of a circle defaced 
 by the fun, or a ftar, in the night. See Arch I 
 
 WNocturnal Arch of th. Sun is that portion of a circle 
 he paffes over between the lower part of our meridian, and 
 the point of the horizon wherein he arifes ; or between the 
 point of the horizon wherein he fets, and the lower part of 
 our meridian. r 
 
 ft AL ' orN ?"uilLABiu-M, is more particularly ufed 
 for an inftrument, chiefly uled at Tea, to take the altitude or de- 
 preffion of fome of the flats about the pole, in order to find 
 the latitude, and the hour of the niahr 
 
 voi.n. 5 
 
 There are NoBurnals of various contrivances, fome of them 
 projeftions of the fphete ; fuch as the hemifpheres, or plani- 
 fpheres, on the plane of the equinoctial : thofe ordinarily ufed 
 by the feamen are two ; the one adapted to the polar ftar, 
 and the firft of the guards of the little bear; the other to the 
 pole-ftar, and the pointers of the great bear. 
 ConJlruBion of the Nocturnal — The inftrument confifts 
 of two circular plates {Tab. Navigation, fig. 13.) applied 
 on each other. The greater, which has a handle to 
 hold the inftrument, is about 2I inches diameter, and is 
 divided into 12 parts, agreeing to the 12 months; and each 
 month fubdivided into every fifth day : and fo, as that the 
 middle of the handle corresponds to that day of the year, 
 wherein the ftar here regarded has the fame right afcenfion 
 with the fun. 
 
 If the inftrument be fitted for two ftars, the handle is made 
 moveable. The upper left circle is divided into 24 equal 
 parts, for the 24 hours of the day, and each hour fubdivided 
 into quarters, as in the figure. Thefe 24 hours are noted 
 by 24 teeth; to be told in the night. Thofe at the hours 12 
 are diftinguifhed by their length. In the centre of the two cir- 
 cular plates, is adjufted a long index A, moveable upon the 
 upper plate. And the three pieces, viz. the two circles and in- 
 dex, are joined by a rivet which is pierced through the centre, 
 with a hole two inches in diameter for the ftar to be obferved 
 through. 
 
 Ufe of thi Nocturnal. Turn the upper plate till the longeft 
 tooth, marked 12, be againft the day of the month on the 
 under plate ; then, bringing the inftrument near the eye, fuf- 
 pend it by the handle, with the plane nearly parallel to the 
 equinoctial ; and viewing the pole-ftar through the hole of 
 the centre, turn the index about, till, by the edge coming 
 from the centre, you fee the bright ftar or guard of the little 
 bear (if the inftrument be fitted to that ftar) : then that tooth 
 of the upper circle, under the edge of the index, is at the 
 hour of the night, on the edge of the hour circle : which may 
 be known without a light, by accounting the teeth from the 
 longeft, which is for the hour 12. 
 
 Nocturnal Pollution. See the article Pollution. 
 
 NOCUMENTI JJffa. See the article AssiSA. 
 
 NODATED Hyperbola, a kind of hyperbola, which, in 
 turning round, decuffatcs or crones itfelf. See Curve and 
 Hyperbola. 
 
 NODE, Nodus, in chirurgery, denotes a tumour arifing on 
 the bones ; and ufually proceeding from fome venereal caufe. 
 Node amounts to the fame with what is otherwife called ixo- 
 Jlofu- 
 
 It feems generated of a thick, cold, vifcid humour, which is 
 
 often found very difficult to refolve They frequently apply 
 
 to it a leaden plate, covered with mercury. 
 The cure is frequently alfo attempted by emplafl. de ranis cum 
 mircurio; which failing, fome mercurial unguent is now and 
 then rubbed on them ; and afterwards mercurial plaifters made 
 of cinnabar, fife are applied. 
 
 Some give the denomination Nodes to all tumours formed by 
 a coagulation of vicious matter in the external parts of the 
 body. 
 
 Node is more particularly applied to the tumours or protube- 
 rances arifing on t fi c j 0 ; nts of 0 lj g out p eo „i c . ca ]] e( j a [ fo 
 tophi. 
 
 They are fuppofed to be formed of a thick, crude, heavy, 
 vifcid, mdigefted matter, mixed with a hot, fharp, bilious 
 juice, the grafter and more terreftial part whereof bein^ 
 detained, grows into a ftony fort of concretion. 
 NODES, in aftronomy, the two points wherein the orbit of a 
 planet interfects the ecliptic. 
 
 Such are the two points C and D, (Tab. A/Iron. fig. ,->.]_ 
 whereof the Node C, where the planet afcends Northwards 
 above the plane of the cliptic, is called the afcending Node, 
 the Northward Nodi, and the head of the dragon, and is thus 
 marked Si. 
 
 The other Node D, where the planet defends to the South, 
 is called the defending Node, the Southward Node, or the 
 dragon s tail ; thus marked y. SeeDRAG 0 N'si/Wandra,7. 
 The right line DC, wherein the two circles intcrfea, is called 
 the line of the Nodes. 
 
 It appears from obfervation, that the line of the Nodes of all 
 the planejs conftantly changes its place, and ihifts its fituation 
 m antecedentia ; i. e. from Eaft to Weft, contrary to the order 
 of the figns. 
 
 Thus, by retrograde motion, the line of the moon's Nodes 
 fimihes its circuit in 119 years; in which time, after having 
 receded irom any point of the ecliptic, it returns to the 
 fame. 
 
 When the moon is in the Node, file is alfo in the ecliptic, 
 viz. twice in each period ; when flic is at her greateft diftance 
 from the Nodes, viz. in the points E, F, fhe is faid to be in 
 her limits. 
 
 The moon muff be in one of the Nodes when there is an 
 eclipfe, either of the fun or moon. 
 
 7 F NODULE, 
 
N O M 
 
 N O M 
 
 NODULE, Nodulus, in pharmacy, a bag of medicinal 
 iligredtents put into beer, or wine, to give its tincture there- 
 
 Nodules are fometimes alfo parcels of odoriferous fimples, tied 
 up in a piece of filk, for the patient to be frequently GncH- 
 ing to. 
 
 NODUS, Knot. See the artice Knot. 
 
 Nodus in Poetry, £#f. See Intrigue, and Plot. 
 
 Nodus, or Node, in dialing, denotes a point or hole in 
 the gnomon of a dial, by the fhadow or light whereof, 
 either the hour of the day in dials without furniture, op- the 
 parallels of the funs's declination, and his place in the ecliptic, 
 (sV. in dials with furniture, are fhewn. 
 
 Nodus is alfo ufed for a hole in the cieling of a room, or in 
 the window, for the making of a dial on the floor, wall or 
 the like. 
 
 NOETIANS, a feel of antient heretics, difciples of Noetius, an 
 Ephefian, the maftcr of Sabellius. 
 
 They only allowed of one perfon in the godhead ; viz. the 
 father ; and accordingly taught, that it was God the father that 
 differed on the crofs. — An error, fays Epiphanius, who wrote 
 an hundred years after Noetius, never heard of before ; though 
 it is certain there had been other Patripaffians in the church 
 before him. 
 
 Being reprehended by his fuperiors, Noetius made them this 
 anfwer : What harm have I done ? I adore only one God ; 1 
 own none but him. He was born, fuflered, and is dead. 
 NOLI me iangere, q. d. touch me not, a malignant eruption in 
 the face ; occafioned by an extremely Sharp, corrofive hu- 
 mour : thus called, either becaufe it infects thofe who touch 
 it, or becaufe the more It is touched, the worfc it grows, and 
 the farther it fpreads. 
 
 The Noli me tangcre is a fpecies of herpes exedens ; by fome 
 referred to the cancer, by others to the lepra. 
 Noli me tangere is chiefly ufed among us for an external ulcer 
 in the ahe of the nofe; proceeding often from a venereal 
 caufe, though fometimes the effect of a fcrophulous conflitu- 
 tion. See Ulcer. 
 
 It docs not always confine itfelf to the altf, but will fpread 
 and corrode the very fubftance of the nofe. The cure is dif- 
 ficult, efpecially when it rifes from a bad constitution. 
 Noli me tangere, among botanifts, is a name of a plant fo deno- 
 minated from a fingular property it has, of darting out its feed 
 when ripe, upon the firft approach of the hand to touch its 
 pods. 
 
 NOMADES *, HofttSfatt a name given, in antiquity, to feve- 
 ral nations, or people, whofe whole occupation was to feed 
 and tend their flocks ; and who had no fixed place of abode, 
 but were conflantly Shifting, according to the conveniences of 
 pa flu rage. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek «ft«j pafco, I feed. 
 
 The moft celebrated among the Nomades were thofe of 
 Africa, who inhabited between Africa, properly fo called, to 
 the Eaft, and Mauritania to the Weft. — They are alfo called 
 Num'uU, or Numidians. — Salluft fays, they were a colony of 
 Perlians brought into Africa with Hercules. 
 The Nomades of Afia inhabited the coafts of the Cafpian fea 
 — The Nomades of Scythia were the inhabitants of little Tar 
 tary ; who ft ill retain the antient manner of living. 
 NOMANCY *, a name given to the art of divining the fates 
 of perfons by means of the letters that form their names. 
 
 • The word is a compound of the Latin, nsmen, name, and 
 fMirnieLf divination. 
 
 Nomancy, or, as it Should rather be called, Nominomancy, or 
 Onomatomancy, feems to be nothing elfe but the cabbalifhc 
 gematria. 
 
 NOMARCHA, in antiquity, the governor or commander of a 
 
 nome, or nomos. 
 
 Eoypt was antiently divided into feveral regions, or quarters, 
 called Names, from the Greek vo/j-o<, taken in the fenfe of a 
 divifion; and the officer who had the administration of each 
 Nome, or Nomos, from the king, was called Nomarcha, from 
 vo^uof, and ix-fX" command. 
 NOMBR1L Point, in heraldry, is the next below the fefs-point; 
 or the very centre of the efcutcheon. See Point. 
 Suppofing the efcutcheon divided into two equal parts below 
 the fefs ; the firft of thefe divifions is the Nombril; and the 
 lower the bafe. 
 
 NOME, or Name, in algebra, denotes any quantity with a 
 Sign prefixed, or added to it, whereby it is connected v^ith 
 Some other quantity ; upon which the whole becomes a bino- 
 mial, trinomial, or the like. 
 
 Thus a -|- b is a binomial, whofe Names, or No?nes, are 
 I a andi: and a-\-b-\-c a trinomial, whole Names are a, b, 
 
 and c, dsV. See Binomial, Trinomial. 
 NOMEN. See the articles Prjenomen, Name, and Ag- 
 nomen. *o am 5iU to i. j 
 NOMENCLATOR, or Nomenculator, among the 
 Romans, was ufually a Slave, who attended perfons that Stood 
 
 candidates for offices, and prompted or fuggefted to them the 
 names of all the citizens they met, that they might court 
 them, and call them by their names ; which anion;-- that peo- 
 ple was the higheSt piece of civility. 
 Nomenclator of the Roman Church was an officer whofe 
 bufinefs it was to call the perfons whom the pope invited to 
 dinner. 
 
 He alfo listened to thofe who were admitted to audience, in 
 the fame manner as thofe now retained by the cardinals, 
 called Auditors. 
 
 NOMENCLATURE, Nomenklatura, a catalogue of 
 feveral of the more ufual words in any language, with their 
 ft unifications ; compiled in order to facilitate the ufe and re- 
 taining of fuch words to thofe who ate to learn the tongue. 
 We have Latin, Greek, Erench, l*tc. Nomenclatures. 
 NOMINA V'dlaritm, an account of the names of all the 
 villages, and the poSTeSlbrs thereof, in each county, drawn up 
 by the feveral Sheriffs, at the inftance of king Edward 11. 
 and returned by them into the exchequer \ where it is Still 
 preferved, 
 
 NOMINAL Characters. See the article Character. 
 NOMINALS, or Nominalists, a feci of fchool-philofophers, 
 the difciples and followers of Occam, or Odium, an Englilh 
 Cordelier, in the 14th century. 
 
 The Nominalijls were great dealers in words ; whence they 
 were vulgarly denominated zusrd fellers. 
 
 They had the denomination Nominalijls, becaufe in oppofition 
 to the Realifls, they maintained, that words, not things, 
 were the object of dialectics. See Realists, £3c. 
 This feci; had its firft rife towards the end of the eleventh 
 century, and pretended to follow Porphyry and AriStotle ; 
 but it was not till Ocbam's time that they bore the 
 name. 
 
 The Nominals were the founders of the univerSity oS Letpfic : 
 There are many yet abroad, who pique themielves on being 
 Nominals. 
 
 The Nominals, with the Stoics, admit the forma] concep- 
 tions or ideas of things, as the Subject and foundation of 
 univerfality ; but to this they add names, which reprefent 
 and Signify, after the fame univocal manner, and without 
 any distinction, a great variety of Single things alike in genus 
 and fpecies. 
 
 Whence it is that they are called Nominals ; as pretending, 
 that to become learned, it is not enough to have juft ideas of 
 things, but it is likewife required to know the proper names 
 of the genera and fpecies of things, and to be able to exprefs 
 them clearly and precifely, without confufion, or ambi- 
 guity. 
 
 NOMINATION, the act of naming and appointing a perfon 
 for fome function, employ, or benefice. 
 
 The word is chiefly ufed for the right of prefenting to a bene- 
 fice, &c. 
 
 In common law, however, there is a difference between No- 
 mination, and presentation ; the former being properly a 
 power which a man has, by virtue of a manor, or otherwife, 
 to appoint or name a clerk to a patron of a benefice, to be 
 by him prefented to the ordinary. Sec Presentation. 
 NOMINATIVE, in grammar, the firft cafe of nouns which 
 are declinable. 
 
 The Simple pofition, or laying down of a noun, or name, is 
 called the Nominative cafe ; yet is it not lo properly a cafe, as 
 the matter or ground whence the other cafes are to be formed, 
 by the feveral changes and inflexions given to this firft termi- 
 nation. See Noun. 
 
 Its chief ufe is to be placed in difcourfe before all verbs, as the 
 Subject of the proportion, or affirmation, as, Dominus regit 
 me, the Lord governs me 5 Deus exaudit me, God hears 
 
 NOMINATOR, he who names or preScnts a perfon to an' 
 office, or benefice. 
 
 Hence nominee, the perfon named or prefented. 
 
 Errard obferves, there are Some cuftoms where the Nominator 
 
 is refponfible for the folvibility of the nominee. 
 NOMTNIS ldentitaie. See the article Id entitate. 
 NOMOCANON *, a collection of canons, and of imperial 
 
 laws relative or conformable thereto. See Canon. 
 
 ' The word is compounded of the Greek vo^a, lex, law ; 
 KeLyav, canon, rule. 
 
 The firft Nomocanon was made by Johinnes Scholafticus in 
 554. — ■ Photius, patriarch of Constantinople in 883, compiled 
 another Nomocanon, or collation of the civil taws with the 
 canons ! This is the moft celebrated. — B-dtlimon wrote a com- 
 mentary on it, in 1180. 
 Nomocanon alSo denotes a collection oS the antient canons of 
 the apoftles, councils, and fathers ; without any regard to 
 imperial conSlitutions. 
 
 Such is the Nomocanon publifhed by M. Cotelier. 
 Nomocanon is Sometimes alfo ufed fox a penitential book of 
 the Greeks. See Penitsntial, 
 
 NGN- 
 
N O N 
 
 NON 
 
 NON-Aeility, In law, an exception taken againft the plain- 
 tiff in a caufe, on fome juft ground why he cannot commence 
 a fiut in law: as, praemunire, outlawry, being profeffed in 
 religion, excommunicate, or a ftranger born. This Iaft holds 
 only in actions real, and mixed ; and not in perfonal, except 
 he be both a ftranger, and an enemy. 
 
 The civilians fay, that fuch man hath not perfonam Jlandi in 
 judicio. 
 
 Non-Admittas. See the article Ne-Admittas. 
 
 Non- Appearance, a default in not appearing in a court of 
 
 judicature. See Appearakce. 
 Non-Claim, in law, the omiflion or neglect of him who 
 
 challenges not his right within the time limited by law : as, 
 
 within a year and a day, where continual claim ought to be 
 
 made. 
 
 By fuch neglect, he is either barred of his right ; as upon Non- 
 claim within five years after a right accrued to him j or of his 
 entry by defcent, for want of a claim within five years after 
 the diffeifin. 
 
 Non-Compos mentis, a phrafe denoting a perfon not to be of 
 found memory, or underftanding. 
 
 Of this, in common law, there are faid to be four kinds. — 
 Firft, an ideot born ; fecondly, he that by accident lofeth 
 his memory, and underftanding; thirdly, a lunatic, that has 
 lucida iaidrvalla, fomttimes underftanding, and fomctimes 
 not ; fourthly, he that by his own act, for a time, depriveth 
 himfeif of his right fenfes, as a drunkard. — But this laft kind 
 fliall give no privilege to him, or his heirs. 
 A defcent takes away the entry of an idiot, though the want 
 of underftanding were perpetual. 
 NoN-EsT Culpabilis, Non-CV. q. d. he is not guilty, inlaw, 
 the general plea to an action of trefpafs, whereby the defend- 
 ant abfalutely denies the fact charged on him by the plain- 
 tiff : whereas, in other (pecial pleas, the defendant grants the 
 fact to be done, but alleges fome reafons in his defence, why 
 he lawfully might do it. 
 
 As Non-Cul. is the general anfwer in an action of trefpafs, i. e. 
 a criminal action civilly profecuted ; fo is it in all actions 
 criminally followed, either at the fuit of the king, or others, 
 wherein the defendant denies the crime objected to him. 
 NoN Est faSIum, in law, is an anfwer to a declaration, whereby 
 a man denieth that to be his bond or deed, whereupon he is 
 impleaded. 
 
 Non-Juridici Dies. See the article Dies. 
 
 Non-Liquet, it does not appear, a verdict given by a jury, 
 
 when a matter is to be deferred to another day of tryal. See 
 
 Verdict, and Jury. 
 
 The fame phrafe was ufed among the Romans : after hearing a 
 caufe, fuch of the judges as thought it not fufficiently clear to 
 pronounce upon, caff, a ballot into the urn with the two letters 
 A^. L. for Non Liquet. 
 
 Non-Molestando, a writ which lies for him who is molefted 
 contrary to the king's protection granted him. 
 
 Non-Oestante, notivithfianding, in law, a claufe frequent 
 in ftatutes, and letters patent; importing a licence from the 
 king to do a thing, which at common law might be lawfully 
 done ; but, being rcftrair.ed by act of parliament, cannot be 
 done without fuch licence. 
 
 All grants of fuch pennons, and every Non obflante therein 
 contained, mail be void. — Henry III. took up the claufe, 
 Non cbftante (firft: introduced by the pope), in his grants. 
 NoN-Obstantes, in the Romifli canon law, make the third 
 part of the provifions of the court of Rome beginning with 
 Non obflantibus, and comprifing abinlutions from cenfures, re- 
 habilitations, and neceffarv difpenfations for the enjoyment of 
 benefices. None inferior to the pope can ufe the claufe Non 
 obfiante. 
 
 Non-Omittas, a writ which lies where the fheriff having 
 delivered a writ or procefs to a bailiff" of a franchife in which 
 the party it is to be ferved on dwells, and the bailiff having 
 refufed or neglected to ferve it, upon the fheriff's return- 
 ing that he delivered it to the bailiff, this fecond writ mall 
 be directed to the fheriff, charging him to enter the fran- 
 chife, and execute the king's command, cither by himfeif or 
 officer. 
 
 Non-Pi.evin, Non pkv'nui, a default in not replevying of land 
 in due time. See Replevin. 
 
 In Hengam magna, it is faid, that the defendant mould be fure 
 to replevy his lands feized by the king, within fifteen days ; 
 and that if he neglects, then, at the inftance of the plaintiff 
 at the next court-day, he (hall lofe his feifin, ficut per defaltam 
 fojl defaltam. — But, by Stat. 9 Edward HI. it was enacted, 
 that no perfon fhould lofe his land thenceforward becaufe of 
 Non Plev 'm. 
 
 Non-Ponendo in Ajfifis, Cj? furatis, a writ granted on divers 
 occalions to men tor freeing them from ferving on affizes and 
 juries ; as by reafon of old age, charter of exemption, or the like. 
 
 Non'-Procedekdo ad Jjjifam Rege inconfullo, a writ to flop 
 the tryal of a caufe appertaining to one who is in the king's 
 fcrvicc, £s*c. till the king's pleafure be farther known. 
 
 ON-ResIDENCE, in law, is applied to fuch fpiritual peffottS 
 as are not refident on* but do abfent themfelves, for one 
 month together, or two at feveral times of the year, from their 
 benefices, or dignities. See Beneftce. 
 
 Regularly, perfonal refidence is required of ecclefiaftical per- 
 fons upon their cures ; though there are fome exceptions in 
 favour of particular perfons, as king's chaplains, bifhops, &c. 
 See Residence. 
 
 Non-Residentia pro ClerU'ts Regis, is a writ directed to the 
 ordinary, charging him not to molefl: a clerk employed in the 
 king's fervice, on account of his Non-Refidence. 
 
 Non Sane Memor'us, or Non fane Memoire, is an exception 
 taken to an act declared to be done by another, importing that 
 it was done at a time when the party that did it was mad, or 
 not in his proper fenfes. See Non-Compos. 
 
 Non-Suit, in law, the dropping or k'tting fall a fuit or action. 
 Nonfat is a renunciation of a fuit, by the plaintiff or demand- 
 ant ; molt commonly upon the difcovery of fome error, or 
 defect, when the matter is fo far proceeded in, as that the 
 jury is ready at the bar, to deliver their verdict. — The civi- 
 lians term it Litis renunciatio. 
 
 Non Sum Infor/natus. See Informatus non Aon, 
 
 Non-Tenure, a plea In bar to a real action, whereby the 
 party urges that he holdeth not the land mentioned in the count, 
 or at leaft fome part of it. 
 
 Welt diftinguifhes Non-Tenure into general and fpecial. The 
 firjl, where one denies himfeif ever to have been tenant to 
 the land in queftion. — The fecond, where he only alleges, 
 that he was not tenant on the day whereon the writ was pur- 
 chafed. 
 
 Non-Term, the time of vacation between term and term. 
 See Vacation. 
 
 It was antiently called the time or dap of the king's peace. See 
 Peace of God and the church. 
 
 Among the Romans it was called Fence, or Dies Nefafii. 
 See .Ferine and Nefasti. 
 
 Non-Entity, whatever has no real being, or is only con- 
 ceived negatively, or claims only a negative denomination. 
 See Esse, Essence, &c. 
 
 Non-Essential Modes. See the article Modes. 
 
 Non-Naturals, in medicine, res non naturales, are ths 
 caufes and effects of difeafes, whether near or remote. 
 Phyficians have digefted all the caufes of difeafes into fix 
 clafies, which they call the fix Non-naturals. — Thefe are, 
 I. Air. 2. Meat and drink. 3. Motion and reft. 4. The 
 paffions of the mind. 5. Excretions and retentions. 6. Sleep 
 and waking. See each under its proper article. 
 They are thus called, becaufe, by their ufe, or abufe, they 
 become either good, naturals^ or evil, contra- naturals. 
 But the divifion, in effect, is of no grfat life; the caufes 
 of difeafes being much more commodioufl" laid down other- 
 wife. 
 
 NONjE and Decima: were payments antiently made to the 
 church by thofe who were tenants of church-farms. 
 The Nona were a rent or duty claimed for things belong- 
 ing to hufbandry : the Decima were claimed In right of the 
 church. 
 
 NONAGE, in law, an incapacity of doing certain things from 
 a want of age. 
 
 The term of Nonage is different, with regard to different 
 things. — In matters of inheritance, a man is in his Nonage till 
 twenty-one years - t for marriage only till fourteen, &c. See 
 Minority. 
 
 NONAGE, Nonagium, alfo denotes the ninth part of a 
 man's moveable goods, antiently paid in the nature of a mor- 
 tuary ; being claimed by the clergy upon the death of thofe of 
 their parifh. 
 
 At firft this was a third part of the goods, and was called Ter- 
 tiagium j till by a bull of Clement VI. it was reduced to a 
 ninth. 
 
 NONAGESIMAL, in aftronomy, the ninetieth degree of the 
 ecliptic, reckoned from its eaftern term, or point. " 
 The altitude of the Nonagefimal is equal to the angle of the 
 eaft ; and, if continued pafles through the poles of the ecliptic : 
 whence the altitude of the Nonagefimal, at a given time, 
 under a given elevation of the pole, is eafily found. 
 If the altitude of the Nonagefimal be fubtracted from go<\ 
 the remainder is the diftance of the Nonagefimal from the 
 vertex. 
 
 NONAGON, a figure having nine angles and fides. 
 NONCONFORMISTS, the name of a religious feet, or rather 
 of a number of fects, in England. 
 
 The term was antiently confined to the Puritans, or rigid 
 Calvinifts ; at prefent it extends to all who diffent from the 
 eftablifhed church, the Roiiunifts alone excepted. See Dis- 
 senter, Puritan, Presbyterian, Independent, 
 
 The word is faid to have had its rife from a declaration of 
 king Charles I. who appointed that all the churches of Engl.ind 
 and Scgt'and ftiould have the fame cercmonks and difcipline ; 
 
 the 
 
N O S 
 
 N O S 
 
 the acquiefcetice wherein, or diffenting from which, deter- 
 mined conformity, and nonconformity. 
 NONE or Nones, Noica:, one of the (even canonical 
 hours in the Romifh church. See Hour. 
 None or the ninth hour, is the laft of the leffer hours, that 
 is faid before Vefpers ; and anfwers to three a-elock in the 
 afternoon. 
 
 The fingle office, and that for the dead, ends at Nones, which 
 father Rofweyd obferves, was antiently the hour for the break- 
 ing up of the fynaxis, or ufual meetings at church of the pri- 
 mitive christians. 
 
 The hour of None was alfo the ufual time for taking the 
 repaft on faft-days ; though fome would keep the faft till 
 night. 
 
 Nones*, Nunje, in the Roman Calendar, the fifth day 
 of the months January, February, April, June, Au- 
 guff, September, November, and December ; and the fe- 
 venth of March, May, July, and October: thefe four laft 
 months having fix days before the Nones, and the others only 
 four. 
 
 * The word apparently has its rife hence, that the day of the 
 Nones was nine days before the ides, and might be called Nono- 
 
 '■' 2 &&. ; 
 
 March, May, July and O&ober had fix days in their Nones ; 
 
 by reafon thefe alone, in the antient conftitution of the year 
 
 by Numa, had 31 days apiece ; the reft having only 29, and 
 
 February 30. — But when Ca?far reformed the year, and made 
 
 other months contain 31 days, he did not likewife allot them 
 
 fix days of Nones. 
 NOMUS Humeri Placentini, in anatomy, a mufcle, called alfo 
 
 Rotuvdus tninor. See Rotundus. 
 NORMANNORUM Terra. See the article Terra. 
 NORMAL Line, in geometry, is ufed for a perpendicular line. 
 
 See Perpendicular and Subnormal. 
 NORROY, North Roy, q, d. Northern king ; the title of the 
 
 third of the three kings at aims, or provincial heralds. See 
 
 King at Arms, and Herald. 
 
 His juiifdiction lies on the North fide of Trent, whence his 
 
 name; as Clarencieux, on the South. 
 NORTH, in cofmography, one of the four cardinal points 
 
 of the horizon, being that interfeftion of the horizon and 
 
 meridian which is neareft our pole. 
 North Latitude of the Moon. See Latitude. 
 North Company. See the article Company. 
 North Dial. See the article Dial. 
 
 North Eaji, a rhumb, or point, in the middle between the 
 Eaft and North. 
 
 North North Eaji, North Eaji and by Eaji, are fubdivifions 
 
 of the compafs between the North and Eaft. See Wind. 
 North Pole. See the article Pole. 
 North Sea. See the article Sea. 
 
 North Star, the laft in the tail of the little bear; called alfo 
 
 the Pole Star. See PoLE-Star. 
 North Wall. See the article Wall. 
 
 North Weft, is a point, or rhumb, in the middle between 
 
 the North and Weft. See West, b'c. 
 North Wind. See the article Wind. 
 Northern Afpe£l, or Expofure. See Exposure. 
 Northern Light, or Aurora Borealis. See Aurora Borealis. 
 Northern Ocean. See the article Ocean. 
 Northern Signs are thole fix on the North fide of the equator. 
 
 See Sign. 
 
 Northern Hemifphere. See the article Hemisphere. 
 Northing, in navigation, the difference of latitude, which 
 
 a fhip makes in failing towards the North pole. 
 NOSE, the external organ of fmelling; or that part in men 
 
 which ftands prominent, in the middle of the face. 
 
 The Nofc is ufually divided by anatomifts into external and 
 
 internal ; a divifion of very little fcrvicc. 
 
 It is farther fubdivided into leveral parts which make up 
 
 its external figure. 
 
 Firft is the dorjum, or ridge, running along the whole length 
 of it; one part whereof, about the middle, more prominent 
 than the reft, is called the Spine ; and the extreme, which 
 in many is turned round, OrbUulus- — The tides are called the 
 Jlu; or Pinna. 
 
 The teguments of the Nofe are common to the reft of the 
 face. Under thefe appear the mufcles of the Nofe, which 
 are three pair, viz. the Elevatores Ala Nafi, ferving to pull 
 the alae upwards, and turn them outwards ; the Dilatator es 
 Ala: Nafi, which draw them from each other, and widen 
 the external apertures of the noftrils ; and the Conjlriclores 
 Ala Nafi, which draw them downwards nearer each other ; 
 and at the fame time the upper lip alfo downwards. See each 
 mufcle defcribed under its proper head, Elevator, Dila- 
 tator, £ffV. 
 
 The frame of the Nofe is chiefly fupported by two bones, 
 which end in cartilages of a triangular figure, and are di- 
 
 vided in the middle by a third, called Septum, into two . 
 partitions, called the Nares, or Nojhils. See Nostril. _ 
 This feptum likewife ends in a cartilage ; by means of which 
 cartilages, the lower part of the Noje is rendered moveable, 
 which, the upper Jbeing perfectly ofieous, is not. The car- 
 tilages of the alae are tied to the others by ligaments, which 
 loofe connexion renders them moveable. 
 
 The bones of the Nofe are either proper, Or common. — The 
 firft of the proper, are the two external ones that con- 
 ftitute the dorfum, and are joined to the oil a frontis, the fourth 
 bone of the upper jaw, and to each other, ufually per har- 
 monium, 
 
 In the concave of the arch of thefe two bones, at their 
 union internally, is placed the bony part of the feptum. Its 
 upper part joins the os ethmoides ; but in adults is continued 
 fo as the ethmoides, and its procef, called Crijla Galli, ap- 
 pear of a piece with the feptum. The feptum is thinneft in 
 the middle, and divides the right noflril from the left; 
 though its pofition is feldom perpendicular. It is capped with 
 another thin bone, from its figure called Vomer Aratri, and 
 is joined to the fourth bone of the upper jaw, and to the ofla 
 palati. 
 
 The other proper bones are the turbinata, or fpongiofa, two 
 of which are ufually found in each noftril, fometimes three, 
 placed one over the other. 
 
 The middlemoft, when there are three, is fo placed as to inciter 
 the perforation of the antrum maxilla: fuperioris into the noftril, 
 and prevent the fudden ruining in of air from the noftril into 
 the antrum. They are all very porous, and turned, not un- 
 like the ihell concha veneris. In quadrupeds, thefe hones are 
 very numerous. 
 
 The common hones of the Nofe are fuch as make fences 
 for the foramina narium, and help to compofe the parts 
 adjacent. The largeft of thefe is the fourth bone of the 
 upper jaw, which has the greateft mare in framing the fora- 
 mina. 
 
 Thefe fourth bones, with the feptum and offa turbinata, 
 chiefly frame the internal paries of the foramina. In the 
 upper part, a portion of the os frontis, the inlide of the os 
 unguis, the os cribrofum, with part of the fphenoides ; and 
 backwards towards the fauces, the ofla palati, help to com- 
 pofe the foramina. 
 
 Befides the cavities circumfcrihed by the bones now men- 
 tioned, the foramina have feveraj collateral cavities, that open, 
 into them : the largeft is that called Antrum Gcna ; by Dr. 
 Highmore, Antrum maxilla fuperioris, framed in the fourth 
 bone of the upper jaw, near two inches long, and an inch 
 broad ; the bony parts of which, with the fphenoides, make 
 the foramen lacerum externum. Its lower furface makes a 
 thin covering for all the roots of the molares, and canini, 
 which frequently upon drawing a tooth, to which it fticks, is 
 taken along with it, whereby tin's cavity is opened into the 
 alveolus, and confequently into the mouth. 
 All thefe cavities of the Nofe and cheek, as alfo the offa tur- 
 binata, feptum, &c. are inverted with a membrane furnifhed 
 with large arteries from the carotides ; and veins, which 
 empty themfelves into the jugulars ; and nerves, from the 
 fifth pair, as well as the olfactory nerves. 
 In this membrane are a great number or fmall glands, placed 
 very near each other, from whence flows all that pituita, 
 commonly difcharged at the noftrils. 
 
 By means of this mucus or pituita is the membrane kept foft, 
 and defended from the injuries of extraneous bodies, efpecially 
 thofeof the air, which muft pafs this way in infpiration, when 
 the mouth is fhut. 
 
 By this means alfo, the olfactory nerves, here diffufed, arc 
 rendered capable of the perception of odoriferous effluvia; 
 which the drinefs of the part would be apt to deftroy. See 
 Smelling. 
 
 Befides this ufe of the Nofe, which is the principal, nature 
 has made it, as it were, a diverticulum to the eyes ; there 
 being a confiderable paflage into each noftril that empties 
 itfelf under the middle os turbinatum, arifing from two 
 apertures, called Puncla Lacrymalia, at the great canthus. 
 By this way, the fuperfluous moifture of the eyes is carried 
 off, which would otherwife incommode the cheeks ; as in 
 effect, it does, when thofe parts are affected with any diforder ; 
 as in the a^gilops, and fiftuki lacrymahs. 
 
 The difeafes to which the Nofe is fubjedr, are a coryza, 
 ozasna, polypus, farcoma, and noli me tangere, befide freez- 
 ing, and a lofs of fmelling. See each in its place. 
 Amb. Pare, in his 23d book, mentions an Italian furgeon, 
 who had the art of reftoring loft Nofes, or making them 
 come again after they were cut off". His method was to make 
 an aperture in the patient's arm, and there to engraft the 
 mutilated Nofe; the arm being bound up for 24 days, the 
 Nofe took root in the wound, and glued itfelf with the flefh 
 of the arm, and grew to its hulk ; which done, lie cut off the 
 flefh of the arm, and fafhioned the Nofe to his liking, ap- 
 plied ic in its place, and healed the wound at leifure. 
 
 This 
 
NOT 
 
 NOT 
 
 This operation we fee burlefqued in Hudibras : So learned Ta- 
 tiacqt'tus fr6tn—&c. and alfo in the Ma Eruditorum Lipfta, 
 nnno M.dc.lxxxii. , 
 Ha^arup, a Dane, maintains, that the nofe is, in fome mea- 
 fure, fitted for an organ of fight ; and that a man may fee 
 through it ; grounding his opinion on the authority of Sme- 
 tius- who, in his fifth .bqofc of Medicinal mifieSanies, relates, 
 of his own knowledge, that a youth, quite blind in other re- 
 fpects, could fee the light, and was able to difcern the white- 
 nefs of flowers, by the nofe. 
 
 But for our part, we mould rather account for thefe fenfa- 
 tions from the faculties of feeling and fmelling, than thofe of 
 feeiog : not but there is a very great refemblance between 
 the various organs of fenfe, enough to give ground to the 
 opinion, that they only differ as more or lefs delicate ; for 
 which reafon, we do not abfolutely reject the inftance given, 
 by Grimaldi, of a man who could diftinguifh colours by his 
 
 feeling. * , 
 
 The nerves, whofe texture and conftitution, for any-thing we 
 know, is the fame throughout the whole body, are confeffedly 
 the vehicles of all the fenfations from without; and thofe arc 
 all depofited in the fame fenfory, whether they be brought 
 from the eye, the ear, or the nofe, &c. and that fingular ap- 
 paratus, obfervable in each organ, feems rather intended for 
 the bene effe, than the effe, of that fenfe ; rather to ftop and 
 detain the tranfient effluvia, to collect them where too fcanty, 
 difperfe them where too copious, foftcn them where too rude, 
 and break their force where too violent; and, by this means, 
 to proportion them to the feveral degrees of finenefs, ten- 
 fion tec* of the nerves of the refpective organs, in order 
 to render the fenfations adequate to the ends, than really to 
 produce them. 
 
 In Tartary, the greateft beauties are thofe who have the leaft 
 nofe*. Ruybrock mentions the wife of the great jinghifchan, 
 the mother of Tamerlane, as a celebrated beauty, becaufe the 
 had only two holes for a nofe. In moft other countries, China 
 excepted, great nofes are in honour. 
 
 The Crim-Tartars break the nofes of their children while 
 young, as thinking it a great piece of folly to have their nofes 
 ftand before their eyes. 
 NOSOCOMIUM, Nwo»tffi««r, an hofpital, or infirmary, for 
 
 the reception of the difeafed. 
 NOSOLOGY*, NwohoyiA, adifcourfe or treat! fe of difeafes; 
 otherwife called pathology. See Pathology. 
 
 * The word is compounded of voaof, malady, difeafe ; and Kofa, 
 difcourfe, reafon. 
 
 NOSTRILS, nares, the two apertures or cavities of the nofe, 
 through which the air paffes, and which ferve to convey odours, 
 and to carry off the pituita feparated in the finus of the bafe of 
 the cranium. 
 
 The noflrih are feparated by a cartilage called feptum narium, 
 and lined with a very fenfible membrane. See Smell- 
 ing. 
 
 Cicero obferves, that the fituation of the noflrih fo near the 
 mouth is very convenient, as the judging of the fmells of 
 meats and drinks is a great part of their office : he adds, that 
 their erect pofition argues the Creator's wifdom ; in regard all 
 odours rife from below upwards. 
 
 NOT guilty, the general iffue or plea of the defendant, in any 
 criminal action. See Non ejl culpabilis. 
 
 Not putrid fever. See the article Fever. 
 
 Not vital aclion. See the article Action. 
 
 NOTABIL1A bona. See the article Bona. 
 
 NOTARICON, the third part or fpecies of the Jewifh cab- 
 bala. 
 
 Rabbi Nathan, in his Great Aruch, fays, that notaricon is 
 when a fingle letter is taken for the fign of a thing, /'. e. for a 
 whole name. — He adds, that the word comes from the Latin 
 notarius, a perfon who writes in notes, or fhort-hand : andR. 
 Elias Levita gives the fame account in his Thefbites ; except 
 that, in lieu of one letter for a word, he mentions two or 
 three. 
 
 But, after all, neither the one nor the other feems alone fuffi- 
 cient: for as a fingle letter frequently makes a word ; fo, in 
 the notaricon, a whole word fometimes ftands for a fingle 
 letter. 
 
 There are, therefore, two principal kinds of notaricon : the 
 firft is, when, by apbrerefis, or apocope, the firft or laft let- 
 ters of feveral words are joined to make a fingle word, or 
 phrafe; which, therefore, is of two kinds; the one initial, 
 the other final ; and each is done feveral ways; viz. either 
 by taking the letters the common way, or backwards : 
 though there is alfo a third kind made, as the Rabbins call 
 it, by leaps, i, c. by fkipping over fome letters. The firft 
 of thefe kinds, which the Rabbins call Rafche Tbebotb, 
 appears very antient ; and is fuppofed by fome, well verfed 
 in the Hebrew, to have taken its origin from the pfalms, 
 and other places of Scripture, proceeding alphabetically, 
 i.e. the firft verfe beginning with J^, the firft letter of the 
 alphabet; the fecond with 3, the fecond letter, tec* See 
 Abcedary. 
 Vol, II, 
 
 The fecond kind is alfo very common, and is called Sophe 7bi- 
 both, i.e. the end of words.. For inftance; by telling the 
 laft letters of the words HO \W tlD, Mihi quodnam 
 nommejl? §>uodnam? they find the name of God, Jehovah. 
 This becomes ftill more puerile, when they take the letters 
 backwards. 
 
 The third kind is more modern, and is more grofs, and per- 
 plexed : here a .letter gives a whole word, inftead of a word's 
 only giving a letter ; lb that a word fhall furniih a whole 
 phrafe. 
 
 Thus, for an example, in the firft word of Genefis, fTt^'SOS. 
 berefchit, is found, he created the heaven and the eaith, the 
 fea, the abyfs, tec. 
 NOTARY, Notarius, primarily denotes one who takes 
 notes, or fhort draughts, of contrails, or other inftruments. 
 From the 44th novel of Juftinian it appears, that contracts 
 were firft wrote in notes, or abbreviatures, by the nota- 
 ries, or clerks of the tabelliones ; and were not yet obli- 
 gatory. — Afterwards they were ingrofi'ed, or wrote at length, 
 by the tabellio himfelf, and then figned and fealed; See Ta- 
 
 BELLIO. 
 
 Notary is more particularly ufed to denote an officer who 
 draws and keeps notes and minutes of contracts, obligations, 
 and other inftruments, executed before him ; and delivers out 
 authentic copies, tec. thereof. 
 
 Ragueau diftinguilhes between notarii and tabelliones : notaries 
 he fays, in feveral cities, are only to receive and pafs the mi- 
 nutes of contracts, and to deliver them to the parties in brief; 
 being obliged to carry them to the tabelliones to be kept, ana 
 to have ingroffed copies delivered out to the parties. 
 He adds, that the notaries were antiently clerks of the tabel- 
 liones j and that, feparating, by degrees, from their mafters, 
 they at length erected offices of their own ; and, at laft, took 
 place of the tabelliones, who were fupprefied. 
 They had their name notarii from notts ; becaufe antiently they 
 wrote in notes, or fhort-hand. 
 
 Notaries are now little ufed among us, except in mercantile 
 affairs; though in France they ftill fubfift in their legal capa- 
 city The notaries of the chatelet are called the king's coun- 
 
 fellors, and note-keepers. 
 Notary public, among us, is a perfon who draws, and pub- 
 licly attefts, deeds, or writings, between merchants, to make 
 them authentic in another country. 
 
 Notaries have the drawing, palling, keeping, ifluing, tec. of 
 all deeds, contracts, charter-parties, tec. in the mercantile 
 world. In their books are regiftred protefts, remon finances, 
 
 tec. 
 
 Ecdefiajlical Notaries were officers in the firft ages of the 
 church, whofe bufinefs was, to collect and preferve the acts of 
 the martyrs. 
 
 They are fuppofed to have been firft inftituted by St. Clement. 
 Their number was feven, and they were difpofed in the feven 
 quarters or regions of Rome. 
 
 Pope Fabian, judging the fhort-hand of the notaries too ob- 
 
 fcure for common ufe, added feven fubdeacons to them, to 
 
 tranferibe at length what the notaries drew in fhort. 
 
 At length thefe notaries were laid afide, and two other kinds 
 
 Were eftablifhed in their ftead ; viz. apojhlical notaries, and 
 
 epifcopai notaries ; whofe bufinefs lies in fpiritual and beneficiary 
 
 inftruments. 
 
 NOTATION, in arithmetic, the art of characterizing num- 
 bers, or of reprefenting them by proper figures. 
 The choice of arithmetical characters is arbitrary ; hence, 
 in various nations, they are various : but, perhaps, there 
 are none fo commodious as thofe commonly ufed in 
 Europe, ufually faid to have been invented by the Arabs; 
 and thence called Arabic character's : though Dr. Wallis ob- 
 ferves, that Altepedi, an Arab, refers the invention to the 
 Indians. 
 
 The Greeks, Hebrews^ and other eaftern nations; as, alfo; 
 the Romans ; expreffed numbers by the letters of their com- 
 mon alphabet. See Character. 
 
 Notation, in algebra, is the reprefenting of quantities by let- 
 ters of the alphabet; or calling, them by thofe names. See 
 Quantity, Character, tec 
 
 NOTE, Nota, is ufed for a character, or abbreviature* 
 ferving to denote or exprefs fbmething in a little com- 
 pafs. 
 
 The antient notaries wrote all in notes, or fhort-hand ; 
 whence they were fometimes denominated curfores, quia notis 
 curfim verba expediebant. 
 Notes, in mufic, are characters which mark the tones, I.e. 
 the elevations and fallings of the voice, or found ; and the 
 fwiftnefs or flownefs of its motions. See Sound. 
 In the general, under notes are comprehended all the figns, 
 or characters, ufed in mufic, for the marking harmony of 
 founds. 
 
 But, in propriety, the word only implies the marks which 
 denote the degree of gravity, or acutenefs, to be given each 
 found. 
 
 7 G 
 
 The 
 
NOT 
 
 NOT 
 
 The Greeks ufed the common letters of their alphabet for 
 rnuftcal notes; and, in regard more notes were needed than 
 they had letters, the defect was fupplied by the different 
 fituation of the letters; vfe. by placing them upright, 
 inverted, Etfft and by cutting off, or doubling fome 
 flrokes. 
 
 Thus the fame letter pi exprefTed different notes in all the fol- 
 lowing forms; n, jj, C, S, 17, n. For every feveral mode 
 they had no lefs than 1 8 figns. 
 
 Now Alypius gives us figns for 15 different modes, which, 
 with the differences of the genera, and the diffin&iori be- 
 tween voice and inurnment, Mr. Malcolm obferves, make, 
 in all, 1620 notes. Not that they had fo many diftinct cha- 
 racters; but the fame character has different fignifications, on 
 different occafions. Thus *, in the Diatonic genus, is lyca- 
 nos hypaton of the Lydian mode ; and a hypate mefon in the 
 Phrygian. 
 
 The Latins, in the time of Boethius, had eafed themfelves of 
 fo needlefs a burden ; and only ufed the firft 15 letters of their 
 alphabet for notes: tbefe, pope Gregory, confidering that the 
 octave was the fame, in effect, with the firft; and that the 
 order was the fame in the upper and lower octave of the gam- 
 ut ; afterwards reduced to feven ; which were to be repeated 
 in a different character. 
 
 At length, in the 1 ith century, a Benedictine, one Guido 
 Aretine, in lieu of the letters, fubftituted the fix fyllables, ut, 
 re, mi, fa, fol, la ; placing them on different lines, and 
 marking them with points. Laffly, it was thought proper to 
 add notes, likewife, in the fpaces. See Gamut. 
 Of the feven mufical notes, ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la, fi, the 
 firft fix are afcribed to Aretine, who is faid to have invented 
 them at Pompofa, in the duchy of Ferrara : the feventh, viz. 
 fi, was added, according to fome, by Vander Putten ; accord- 
 ing to others, by De Muris. It ferves very good purpofes, 
 in avoiding the difficulty of the divifions remaining in Guido's 
 fcale. 
 
 Indeed VofTius will not allow Guido to have the honour of in- 
 venting any of them; but ffiews, that the Egyptians had ufed 
 them long before him : in which he is confirmed by the tefli- 
 mony of Halicarnaffeus. However, common fame afcribes to 
 him not only the notes, but alfo the lines, letters, or clefs, 
 flats, and fharps. 
 
 The notes ut, re, mi, fcfr. he is faid to have taken from an 
 hymn, in the vefpers of St. J. Baptifl ; Ut queant laxis refo- 
 nare fibrxs, &c. 
 
 Hitherto the notes only fcrved to exprefs the degree of tune : 
 they were all of equal value, as to time, till about the year 
 1330. when John De Meurs, or De Muris, a doctor of Pa- 
 ris, gave different figures to the feveral points, to exprefs 
 the quantity of time each was to be dwelt upon. See 
 Time. 
 
 There are three things to be confidered in thefe notes : 
 
 1. The quantity, i.e. the fize and figure of the head. 
 
 2. The quality, i.e. the colour of the head ; whether it be 
 white or black, or full or open. 3. The properties, as the Ita- 
 lians exprefs themfelves ; viz. whether the note is accompanied 
 with a virgula, or comma, or not. It muft likewife be con- 
 fidered, whether the notes be feparate and diftinct, or bound to- 
 gether. 
 
 The feveral mufical notes are, the large, which contains 8 
 meafures, though Merfennus makes it 12 (fee its figure under 
 Character); the long, containing 4 meafures; the breve, 
 containing 2 ; the femibreve, containing 1 ; the minim, - z ; 
 the crotchet, \ ; the quaver, ' s ; the fem'iquaver, rj i and the 
 demifemiquaver , 3^. 
 
 Ufuaily we only diftinguifh fix principal notes, reprefented by 
 as many different characters; viz. the femibreve, equal to two 
 minims; the minim, equal to two crotchets; the crotchet, 
 equal to two quavers; the quaver, equal to two femiquavers; 
 and the faniquaver , equal to two ilemlfemlquavers. See each 
 under its proper article, Semiereve, Minim, Crotchet, 
 fcrV. 
 
 The mathematicians compute, that one may make 720 changes, 
 or varieties, with fix notes, without ever repeating the fame 
 twice ; and that of the notes of each octave one may make 
 40320 different tunes, or fongs. 
 Note is alfo ufed for a mark made in a book, or writing, where 
 there occurs fomething remarkable, and worthy of particular 
 notice. 
 
 Note is alfo ufed for an obfervation, or explication of fome paff- 
 age in an author, added in the margin, at the bottom of the 
 page, or elfewhere, by an editor. 
 In this fenfe, note ftands contradiftinguifhed to text. 
 The notes make the principal difference in the editions of 
 claffic, &c. authors. — We have Virgil, Horace, Terence, 
 &c. with Ruseus's notes, the Dauphin's notes, Dacier's notes, 
 Bentley's notes, Hare's notes ; with notis variorum, &c. See 
 Variorum. 
 
 TsIote is alfo a minute, or fhort writing, containing fome article 
 of bufmefs. 
 
 In which fenfe we fay, a promiffory note, a note under handy a 
 bank note, &c. 
 
 To Note a bill, is when a public notary goes asawitnefs, or 
 takes notice, that a merchant will not accept or pay it. Sec 
 Protest. 
 
 Note of a fine is a brief of a fine made by the chirogra- 
 pher, before it be ingroffed. See Fine, and Chirogra- 
 ph er. . 
 
 NOT/E materna, mother's [pots. SeeN^vus. 
 
 Natural Note. See the article Natural. 
 
 Noth^ cofia, in anatomy, denote the five loweft ribs on each 
 fide. They are called bajiard, or fpurious ribs, in regard 
 they do not join with the breaft-bone, as the other ribs do ; 
 nor are they, as the others are, bonv, but cartilacinous. See 
 Ribs. 
 
 NOTHING, nihil, nlhilum, or non ens. 
 
 The fchoolmen diftinguifh between nothing taken JiriSily, which 
 is what is impoffible, or implies a contradiction ; and nothing 
 taken more generally, which is both applied to what is poffible, 
 and impoffible. 
 
 Again, they diftinguifh nothing into negative, which is the ab- 
 fence of reality in any fubject ; and privative, which is the 
 abfence of reality in a fubject capable thereof, or wherein it 
 ought to be found. 
 NOTHUS, No0of, a Latin term, properly fignifying a bajlard y 
 or a perfon of fpurious birth. 
 
 Hence it is applied figuratively, by phyficians, &c. to fuch 
 difcafes as though, in refpect of a fimilitude of fymptoms, 
 &c. they have the fame denomination as fome others; 
 yet are of a different origin, feat, or the like, from the 
 fame. 
 
 Nothus is fometimes alfo ufed for the back-part of the cheft, 
 or thorax. 
 
 NOTION, Notio, in logic, an idea, or reprefentation of any 
 thing, in the mind. 
 
 M. Leibnitz is very accurate in the diftinctkm of notions, in the 
 A£ta erudit. Leipf. anno 1684. 
 
 A clear notion, he defines to be fuch an one as fuffices us to re- 
 collect the object; v. gr. that a given figure is reckoned in 
 the number of triangles. 
 
 An obfeure Notion is that which doth not fuffice to recollect the 
 object : fuch, v. gr. is that of a plant, which, upon feeing, 
 you are in doubt whether or no it be the fame you had feen 
 elfewhere, and which is called by this or that name. 
 
 Dijlincl Notion is that wherein you are able to affign the very 
 marks, or characters, by which you recollect the thing ; 
 v. gr. that a circle is a figure terminated with a curve line re- 
 turning into itfelf, the feveral points whereof are equally di- 
 ftant from one and the fame intermediate point. See the ar- 
 ticle Distinct. 
 
 A confufed Notion is that wherein you are not able to aflign 
 the very marks or characters whereby you recollect the object, 
 though it be refolvable into them. Such, v. gr. is the notion 
 of red colour. 
 
 An adequate Notion, that wherein you have diftinct notions of 
 the marks or characters whereof it is compofed. Such, v. gr, 
 is the notion of a circle above inftanced ; where you have di- 
 ftinct notions of the curve returning into itfelf, of the inter- 
 mediate point, and of the equal diftance and termination. 
 See the article Adequate. 
 
 An inadequate Notion that wherein you have only a confufed 
 notion of characters that enter a diftinct one. 
 Some confufed notions are admitted into mathematics ; viz. 
 fuch whofe refolution is of no great confequence to any de- 
 mon drat ions. 
 
 Thus, Euclid does not refolve the notion of equality, though 
 it enter the notion of an equilateral triangle, a rhombus, csY. 
 inafmuch as the propofitions, for whofe demonftration it fhould 
 be ufed, are eafily granted, without fuch a detail : as, v. gr. 
 that things equal to the fame third, are equal to one another, 
 l3c. but no notions are admitted into the number of mathema- 
 tical definitions, except diftinct ones, and thofe too as adequate 
 as poffible, or as occafion requires. 
 
 The fchoolmen diftinguifh notions into formal, and ob- 
 jective ; and each of thefe they fubdivide into firft, and fc- 
 cond. 
 
 A firfl formal Notion is the knowledge we have of any 
 thing according to what it is, or has in itfelf : as the know- 
 ledge of fire, quatcnus fire ; of a light body, quatenm light, 
 fcfr. 
 
 A firjl objstllve Notion is the thing itfelf known, accord- 
 ing to what it is, or has in itfelf : as the fire known as fire, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Second formal Notion is the knowledge of a thing according to 
 what it receives from the underftanding : as, of fire, that it is 
 the fubject, and not the predicate. 
 
 Second objective Not 1 on is what agrees to the thing by means of 
 the operation of the intellect, or what it receives from the in- 
 tellect. 
 
 Cemmen 
 
NOV 
 
 NOV 
 
 Common Notions, called alfo Prenoiions, wp^H^/f, and xotp&l 
 tvpotctJ, are certain principles fuppofed to be innate, and which 
 therefore are felf-evident, i. e. appear, or are known by their 
 own light, without the intervention of any medium, or proof ; 
 being impreiTed, as it were, by the finger of God ; to ferve 
 as the foundations of all our conclufions in the fciences, 
 which are to be demonftrated hereby. 
 
 Thefe common notions, confidered as the foundations offciences, 
 are called axioms. 
 
 They are called common, not as if fo actually and neccflarily 
 perceived by every perfon, that nobody could be ignorant 
 of, or deny them ; but becaufe they are judged to be true 
 and certain, by all perfons of found reafon. For the fame 
 reafon as we fay, fuch a food is wholfome ; not that it is 
 fo to all men, but to all that are of a found body and confu- 
 tation. Ariftot. Topic, c. 4. 
 
 There are two kinds of common notions t viz. theoretical, which 
 lay the ground-work for fpeculation ; fuch are, every thing 
 either is, or is not ; nothing can be made by itfelf ; the 
 whole is greater than a part ; equal things being added to 
 equal, the funis are equal : and practical, which lay the 
 foundation for honefty, and good morals ; fuch are, God 
 is to be beloved and worfhipped ; our parents to be honour- 
 ed ; to give every-body their due ; to do as we would be 
 done by. 
 
 Some philofophers, however, and thofe even of beft note, 
 deny the reality of any innate, or common notions ; urging, that 
 the mind does not need any actual notions to prepare it to 
 . think, but that an innate faculty of thinking mayfuffice; as 
 appears in an infant, from its perception of pain, talte, co- 
 Jour, csV. They add, that the common organs of fenfe, if 
 they have but objects prefented to them, and the faculty we 
 have of reflecting on, and varioufly combining or ordering 
 the ideas received thereby, are furficient to furniih us with 
 all the flock of knowledge we have. 
 
 NOTIONAL Quantity. See the article Quantity. 
 
 NOTITIA, Notice, fomething that has come under a per- 
 fon's knowledge or obfervation. 
 Hence notification, the action of giving notice, CSV. 
 
 Notitia is alfo the title of certain books, compofed for living 
 a particular knowlege of the places, roads, tSe. of a province, 
 kingdom, diocefe, or the like. 
 
 Such is the notitia imperii, &c. M. Valois has given a notitia 
 galliarum, being a collection of the feveral names which 
 the cities and provinces of that kingdom bore at different 
 times. 
 
 The notitia digniiatum imperii, both eaflern and weftern, 
 are of the utmoft ufe both in the Roman, and in eccleliaftical 
 hiftory ; yet are they of little fervice, at leaft to young peo- 
 ple, without good notes ; fuch are thofe of Pancirollus, &c. 
 and unlefs the text, which is ftrangely corrupted and muti- 
 lated, befupplicd. 
 NOTORIOUS, fomething known, manifeft, and public. 
 ■ Hence, 
 
 AiNotoria, a chimerical kind of art, or fcience, whereby 
 it is pretended that a perfon may arrive at the knowledge of 
 all tilings, all fciences, l$c. And this by infufion, without 
 any labour or trouble, befide that of performing a few cere- 
 monies. 
 
 NO TRE Dame, Our Lady, a term frequently ufed for the 
 Holy Virgin. — Hence, feafts of notre dame ; the office of 
 mire dame ; congregations, nunneries, and orders of notre 
 dame. 
 
 NOV ALE*, in our antient cuftoms, denotes land newly 
 ploughed, and converted into tillage ; and which had not 
 been tilled within the memory of man before. 
 
 * £>uod novale feme! fuit, femper erlt novale quoad decimarum 
 retentionem <velfolutionem. What was once novale, will ever 
 remain fo, as to the paying, or non-paying of tithes. Ex- 
 cepts dicima novaliam cvjujdam terra quam it novo excoluerunt. 
 Tat. 6 Edward III. 
 
 : Novale is fometimes alfo ufed for fallow land, e. land 
 which has been ploughed for two years, and refts, or lies fal- 
 low, one more ; or that lies fallow every other year. 
 
 ! NOVATlANSf, Novatiani, a fed* of antient heretics, 
 fo called from novates, an African bifhop ; or from novati- 
 ons, a prieft of Rome. 
 
 + They were called alfo cathari, from y.*Qd.t&; pure. 0 d 
 Puritans, 
 
 Novation firit feparated from the communion of pope 
 Cornelius, on pretence of his being too eafy in admitting 
 to repentance thofe who had fallen off in times of perfec- 
 tion. 
 
 Novates coming to Rome, joined himfelf to the faftion of 
 Novatian 5 and both maintained, that there was no other 
 admiflion into the church but by the repentance in bap- 
 tifm ; grounding their opinion on that of St. Paul : it is 
 tmpoffible for thofe once enlightened, and who have tafted 
 
 the heavenly gift— if they fall away, to renew themfclves by 
 repentance. 
 
 Not that they denied but a perfon fallen into any fin, how 
 grievous foever, might obtain pardon by repentance ; for they 
 themfelves recommended repentance in the ftrongeft terms : 
 but their doctrine was, that the church had it not in its power 
 to receive finners into its communion; as having no way of 
 remitting fins but by baptifm; which, once received, could 
 not be repeated. 
 
 In procefs of time the novations foftened and moderated the 
 rigour of their matter's doctrine, and only refufed abfolution 
 to very great iinners. 
 
 The two leaders were profcribed, and declared heretics not 
 for excluding penitents from communion, but for deiiyiqg that 
 the church had a power of remitting fins. 
 NOVATION, Innovation, in the civil law, denotes a 
 change, or alteration of an obligation, whereby it becomes ex- 
 tinguished, or annihilated. 
 
 Thus when an obligation is difcharged without receiving any 
 money, but a fimplirpromife is accepted in its ftead; this occa- 
 fions a novation. 
 
 1 here are two kinds of novations; the onevoluntary, the other 
 necejjary and conftrained. 
 Ncccjfary Novation is that made in confequence of a fentence 4 
 
 or decree of juftice. 
 V limitary Novation is made three ways ; viz. by changing the 
 caufe of the obligation without the intervention of any other 
 perfon; by changing the nature of the obligation ; and by de- 
 legation ; as when the debtor makes over a debt to the cre- 
 ditor for his fatisfaction. 
 
 In all thefe cafes there is a will to innovate. Accordingly, 
 Juftinian fays, Vohmtate, non lege, novandum. 
 NOVEL, Novella, in jurifprudence, is a term ufed for the 
 conftitutions of feveral emperors ; viz. Juflin, Tiberius II. 
 Leo, and particularly Juftinian. 
 
 Moft of Juftinian's novels were originally Greek, and after- 
 wards were tranfktcd into Latin. Their number is 165, com- 
 prized in nine collections, or chapters. See Civil law. 
 They had their name novel, either from their making a great 
 alteration in the face of the antient law ; or, as Cujas rather 
 thinks, becaufe made on new cafes not yet confidered; and, 
 after the revifal of the code, compiled by order of the em- 
 peror. 
 
 Where-ever Accurfius fpeaks of novels, he means thofe pub- 
 limed in Greek by Juftinian : the Latin verfion of them, made 
 I in the time of Bulgarus, he calls aiitbentks, by reafon of its 
 I exactnefs and fidelity. 
 Novel alignment, in an action of trefpafs, is an aflignment of 
 time, place, or the like, in a declaration, other wife or more 
 particularly than it was in the writ. 
 Novel dijj'eifm. SeeAssisE of novel dijeifm. 
 NOVEMBER, the eleventh month in the Julian year, but the 
 ninth in the year of Romulus; whence its name. See Month, 
 and Year. 
 
 NOVEMS1LES, in mythology, a fpecies of gods worfhiped 
 among the antient Romans. 
 
 The dii novemfiles were the gods of the Sabines, adopted by 
 Romulus; and had a temple built to them, in confequence 
 of a vow, by king Tatius. 
 
 Some antiquaries take the name to have been given to thofe 
 which were laft placed among the number of the gods ; as Her- 
 cules, Vefta, Sanctity, Fortune, £sV. 
 NOVEMVIRI, an order of magiftrates at Athens, nine in 
 number. 
 
 The novemviri were the chief magiftrates of the city : their 
 office only held for one year. Their chief was called arcbon, 
 whofe name was recorded in the Athenian feafts; as, at Rome, 
 that of the confuls. 
 
 The fecond bore the title of bafilcus, the third of pslemarcba, 
 u»» chief of the troops; and the remaining fix, of tbefmo- 
 
 NOVENDIALE*, or Novemdiale, inantiquity, afolemn 
 faenfice among the Romans, held on occafion of any prodi- 
 gies appearing to menace them with ill fortune. See Sacri- 
 fice. 
 
 * It had its name from the term of its celebration ; vtx. novem 
 dies, nine days. 
 
 NOVICE, a perfon not yet fkilled, or experienced, in an art or 
 profeffion. 
 
 In the antient Roman militia, novicii, or novitii, were the 
 young raw foldiers, diftinguifhed by this appellation from the 
 veterans. 
 
 In the antient orders of knighthood there were novices, or 
 clerks in arms, who went through a kind of apprenticefhjp 
 ere they were admitted knights. 
 Novice is more particularly ufed, in monasteries, for a religious 
 yet in his, or her, year of probation, and who has not made 
 the vows. 
 
 In fome convents the fubprior has the direction of the novices. 
 — In nunneries the novices wear a white veil, the reft a black 
 one, 
 
 A 
 
NOW 
 
 , ■ ■ n „ t efteemed dead in law, but is capable of in- 
 A ibm,» no e cm ^ ^ be 
 
 S-bSX.^ th = ° f p robation - without h,s 
 
 Thf council of Trent prohibits a Novice from aligning over 
 his benefices, till two months before the expiration of his 
 year of probation ; and he may even refume them if the pro- 
 feffion be null. , , . f 
 
 A Novice is not allowed to make any donation to his lupe- 
 rior by reafon of the dependence he is under.— Novice: may 
 either quit the convent during their noviciate, or may De 
 turned off by the convent. , ■' . , 
 
 NOVICIATE, a year of probation, appointed for the tr al 
 of religious, whether or no they have a vocation, and the 
 necelfay qualities for living up to the rule ; the obfervation 
 whereof they ate to bind themfelves to by vow. 
 The noviciate lafts a year at lead ; m fome houfes more. _ It 
 is efteemed the bed of the civil death of a novice, who expires 
 to the world by prolclTion. 
 
 Noviciate is alfo ufed for the houfes or places where novices 
 
 liTt'hf fenffthe noviciate is frequently a cloifter feparate from 
 the erand dormitory. , 
 NOUN, Nomen, in grammar, a name or word which i ex- 
 preffes the fubjea (poke of; or expreffes a fubjeft whereof 
 teething is, or maybe affirmed ; as man, food, whitenefs, 
 
 aTIk Aerefore, in language, anfwers to an idea in 
 
 The generally of fubjeas fpoke of have particular names 
 yet there are 'others, which, without be.ng attached to the 
 fame particular fubjea, are yet real nouns. 
 Thus, befides the particular name which each perfon beat? 
 and whereby others denote him, he gives himfelf another 
 when he fpeaks of himfelf ; as, /, or myfelfi. 
 It is only the more particular names that in grammar have 
 retained the quality of mm ; the more general ones are 
 called tronouns. . . 
 
 Nouns again, are to be viewed in another light, »a. as di- 
 vided into nouns fubjiantive, and noun, adjeelive. 
 Thev are called kbftantivcs when the objeBs they defign arc 
 confidered Empty in themfelves, and without any regard to 
 
 TheyTrec'aticd adjectives, when their objefls are confidered 
 as cloathcd with any qualities. . 
 Thus when I fay fimply, the heart, the word heart is called 
 a mm fubjlanthl, inafmuch as it does not exprefs any of its 
 qualities ■ but if I fay, the generous heart, or the perfidious 
 heart I then confider the heart as accompanied with the 
 quality of generous, or the quality perfidious for this rea- 
 fon the words generous and perfidious are called nouns adjective, 
 becaufe they add a quality to the objea. . 
 But in effea, the objea is alone defigned by the nouns 
 fubftantive ; which, in this view, are alone the proper 
 
 Adicaives, at the bottom, are only the modificatives of nouns ; 
 thou-h in one view they may be confidered as noun, ; vtx. 
 is they do not fo much reprefent a quality or circumftance 
 of the objea, as the objeft itfelf, cloathed with that quality 
 or circumftance. Nor muft it be omitted, that a noun ad- 
 ieaive frequently becomes a fubftantive : for as its nature is 
 to exprefs the quality of an obieft, if that quality happen to 
 be the objea itfelf fpoke of, then, according to our hrit de- 
 finition, it becomes a fubftantive. 
 
 Thus if I fay a good intention, the word good is here an ad- 
 icaive reprefenting the intention as cloathed with the quality 
 ofgoodnefs; but if I fay, (*' good is to be chefen, It is evi- 
 dent that good is here the fubjea fpoken of, and of cong- 
 ruence is a mm fubftantive. Nor are there cafes wanting, 
 wherein nouns fubftantlves become adjeflives. 
 It is true, that in the common ufe of grammar, many nouns that 
 are really adjeaives, are not reckoned as fuch ; none being 
 efteemed adjeaives but thofe which without any, or at leaft 
 any confiderable change in their inflexion and termination 
 are joined indifferently to nouns fubftantives of different gen 
 ders. . 
 Nouns are again divided into proper and appellative. _ 
 Nouns proper are thofe which exprefs a particular thing or 
 perfon, fo as to diftinguifh it from all other things of the fame 
 kind ; as, Socrates. c 
 Nouns appellative are thofe common to feveral individuals of 
 the fame kind ; as man, angel, Uc. 
 Heterogeneous Nouns are fuch as are of one gender in the 
 fingular number, and of another in the plural. See Het 
 
 ROCLITE. 
 
 NOURISHING ClsJIers. See the article Clyster. 
 
 NOURISHMENT. See the article Nutrition. 
 
 NOWED, Nowe, i.e. knotted, in heraldry, is applied to 
 the tails of fuch creatures as are very long, and fometimes 
 reprefented in coat-armour, as if tied up in a knot. 
 
 N U M 
 
 NUBECULA, little cloud, in medicine, a term fometimes ufed 
 for a difeafe in the eye, wherein objeBs appear as through a 
 cloud, or mill. 
 
 The Nubecula feems to arife from certain grofs particles de- 
 tained in the pores of the cornea, or fwimming in the aque- 
 ous humour, and thus intercepting the rays of light. 
 Nubecula, or Nubes, is alfo ufed for what we otherwife 
 
 call Albugo and Patmus. See Pannus. 
 Nubecula is alfo ufed for a matter in form of a cloud, fuf- 
 pended in the middle of the urine— This they fometimes alfo 
 call Enceorema. See Urine. 
 NUBILES Ami. See the article Anni. 
 
 NUCHA, the hinder part or nape of the neck ; called alfo 
 
 Cervix. See Cervix. 
 NUCIFEROUS, an appellation given by botanifts to trees 
 
 which bear nuts. 
 NUCKIANfE * Glandules, in anatomy, a number of fmall 
 glands, fituate in that part of the (kull wherein the orbits 
 of the eves are, between the abducent mufcle of the eye, 
 and the upper part of the osjugale. See Gland. 
 
 * They were thus denominated from their inventor, Ant. Niick", 
 profeffor of phyfic at Leyden. 
 
 The fame author gave his name to a falival du&, duelus 
 Nuchianus. See Salival. 
 NUCLEUS, a Latin word, literally denoting the kernel of a 
 nut, or ftone-fruit i or, more ftriaiy, the edible part con- 
 tained within the fkin of the kernel. 
 Nucleus is alfo ufed by botanifts, in a larger fenfe, for any 
 
 fruit or feed contained within a hufk, or fliell. 
 Nucleus is alfo ufed by Hevelius, and fome other aftronomers, 
 for the body of a comet, which others call its head, in con- 
 tradiftinaion to its tail, or beard. 
 Nucleus is alfo applied by fome to the central parts of the 
 earth, and other planets, as fuppofing them to be loofe 
 from the exterior part, which they confider as a cortex, or 
 fhell. jImM , . 
 
 Nucleus, in atchiteflute, denotes the middle part ot the 
 flooring of the antients, confiding of a ftrong cement, over 
 which they laid the pavement, bound with mortar. 
 NUDE Compact, Nudum Paclum, a bare contrafl, engage- 
 ment, or promife of a thing without any confideration : 
 Ex quo, fay the lawyers, mn oritur aliio. See Con- 
 tract. 
 
 Nude Matter denotes a bare allegation of a thing done. See 
 
 Matter. sM'\ . 
 
 NUDITIES, in painting and fculpture, denote thofe parts ot a 
 human figure not covered with any drapery ; or thofe parts 
 where the carnations appear. 
 NUEL, or rather Newel of a flair-cafe. See Newel and 
 . &TAlK-cafe. 
 
 NULLITY, the quality of a thing null, that is, void, and ot no 
 cftea, by reafon of fomething contrary to law, cuftom, or 
 form. „ 
 There are two kinds of nullities to invalidate a contradt, or 
 other inftrument, viz. de faclo, and de jure,— The former 
 where the thing commences null, ipfo faclo, as foon as the 
 thing is proved : in the latter the aft does not immediately 
 become null, but a handle is given thereby to have it intirely 
 annulled or fet afide. 
 NUMBER, in arithmetic, a colleaion or affemblage of ieveral 
 units, or feveral things of the fame kind. 
 Stevinus chufes to define number as that whereby the quan- 
 tity of any thing is expreffed : agreeably to which Sir Ifaac 
 Newton conceives number to confift, not in a multitude of 
 units, as Euclid defines it, but in the abftraa ratio of a 
 cuantity of any kind to another quantity of the fame kind 
 which is accounted as unity. And on this view he divides 
 number into three kinds, viz. Integers, Fractions, and Surds. 
 See each under its proper article, Integer, Fraction, 
 and Surd. 
 
 Wolfius defines number to be fomething which refers to unity, 
 as one right line refers to another.— Thus, afiuming a right 
 line for unity, a number may likewife be expreffed by a right 
 
 A lefs general definition of number that author thinks will not 
 comprehend the feveral kinds of whole numbers, fraaions, 
 rationals, and furds. 
 
 The fchoolmen, keeping to Euclid's definition, hold number 
 to confift of tmtttr uniform: the matter is the things num- 
 bered ; e.gr. coins: the/arm, the idea whereby comparing the 
 feveral pieces, we bring them into one fum, as ten : fo thai .num- 
 ber depends altogether on the mind of the perfon that numbers ; 
 whence, changing the idea at pleafure, an hundred men fhall 
 only be called one, or it fhall be two, or four, Uc. 
 Hence fay they, the form of a number is not any thing 
 added to the things numbered ; for the idea is a mere mode 
 of the mind, not any thing fuperadded to the things. And 
 hence, though there may be fome efficacy m number, , con- 
 
NUM 
 
 N U M 
 
 fidered with refpe& to the matter, as when we fay, A triple 
 rope is not eafily broken; yet there is none in refpeci to form: 
 For what alteration mould my idea make? And hence the folly 
 of the philofophy of Numbers. 
 
 The fame philofophcrs call Number a difcrete Quantity • 
 ££t/antity, as it admits of more and Ids; and difcrete, fince 
 the feveral units it confifls of are not united, but remain 
 diflinct. 
 
 For the manner of dejignlng or characterizing Numbers. See 
 Notation. 
 
 For that of exprefmg or reading thofe already characterized. See 
 
 Numeration. 
 For the meafure of a Number. See the article Measure. 
 
 Mathematicians, confidering Number under a great many cir- 
 
 cumftance-, different relations, and accidents, make many 
 
 kinds of Numbers. 
 A determinate Number is that referred to fome given unit '; 
 
 as a ternary, or three : which is what we properly call a 
 
 Number. 
 
 Indeterminate Number is that referred to unity in the general j 
 
 which is what we call quantity. See Quantity. 
 Homogeneal Numbers are thofe referred to the fame unit. See 
 
 HOMOGENEAL. 
 
 UettrogenealiSuMEERs, thofe referred to different units. 
 
 For every Number fuppofes fome determinate unit, which is 
 determined by the notiun to which we have regard in num- 
 bering : e.gr. it is a diftinguifbing property of a"fphcre, that 
 the (cveral points of its furface are equidilijint from its centre : 
 If then, this be laid down as a note of unity, all bodies to 
 which it agrees will have the nature of unity ; and are the 
 lame units, qnatemts contained under this notion. But if 
 fphcres be diitinguifheJ, e.gr. with regard to the matter they 
 are compofed of, then thofe which before were the fame units 
 commence different. Thus, fix golden fpheres, and three 
 golden fphcres are homogeneal Numbers among themfelves ; and 
 three brafs fpheres and four filver ones are heterogeneous Num- 
 bers. 
 
 Whole Numbers, called alfo natural Numbers, and integers, 
 or fimply Numbers, are all the various aflemblages of unity, or 
 the ideas we have of feveral multitudes ; or, according to 
 VVoIfius, all thofe which, in the manner of exprefling, refer 
 to unity, as a whole does to a part. 
 
 £«kNuMBF.Rs, or Fractions, are thofe confuting of feveral 
 parts of unity ; or thofe which refer to unity as a part to the 
 whole. See Fraction. 
 
 Rational Number is that which is commenfurable with unity. 
 Rational whole Number is that whereof unity is an aliquot part. 
 — Rational broken Number, that equal to fome aliquot part or 
 parts of unity. — Rational mixed Number, that confuting of a 
 whole Number and a broken one, or of unity and a fra&ion. 
 
 Irrational Number, or Surd, a Number incommenfurable with 
 unity. See Surd. 
 
 Even Number, that which may be divided into two equal 
 parts, without remainder or fraction ; as 4, 6, 8, 10, &c. 
 The fum, as alfo the difference, and the factum or produce 
 of any number of even Numbers, is always an even Num- 
 ber. 
 
 ■ An even Number, multiplied by an even Number, produces 
 an evenly even Number. 
 
 An even Number is laid to be evenly even, when it may be 
 ineafurcd or divided without any remainder b-y another even 
 Number. 
 
 Thus, twice four being eight, eight is an evenly even 
 Number. 
 
 A Number is faid to be unevenly even, when it may be equally 
 divided by an uneven Number; as 20, which may be divided 
 b Y 5- 
 
 Uneven Number, that which exceeds an even Number at leaft 
 by unity ; or which cannot be divided into two equal parts. 
 Such are 3, 5, 9, if, (sfc. 
 
 The fum, or the difference, of two uneven Numbers, makes 
 an even Number ; but the factum of two makes an uneven 
 one. 
 
 If an even Number be added to an uneven one, or if the one 
 be fubrtrafled from the other ; in the former cafes, the fum, 
 in the btter the difference, is an uneven Number. But the 
 factum of an even and uneven Number, is even. 
 The fum of any even Number of uneven Numbers is an even 
 Number ; and the fum of any uneven Number of uneven Num- 
 bcrs, is an uneven Number. 
 
 ' Primitive or prime Number is that which is only divifible by 
 
 unity; as 5, y, 1 r , fcfr. See Prime and Incomposite. 
 Prime Numbers among themfelves are thofe which have no com- 
 mon meafure befide unity ; as 12 and 19. 
 
 ; Compwnd Number is that divifible by fome other Number -be- 
 tides unity ; as 8, divifible by 4 and by 2. 
 
 -.Compound Numbers among themfelves, thofe which have fome 
 common meafure befides unity ; as 12 and 15. 
 
 }Perfe£l Number, that whofe aliquot parts added together, 
 m:.ke the whole Number ; as 6, 28, bV. The aliquot parts 
 Vol. II. 
 
 of 6, bein* 3 2, and 1=6. And thofe of 28, being 14, 7? 
 4,2,1. which together make 28. 
 fmptrfe&NvMms, thofe whofe aliquot parts added toother 
 make e.ther more or lefs than the whole, whereof they are 
 parts. 1 
 
 ImperfeSi Numbers are diftinguimed into abundant and de- 
 
 feclive. 
 
 Abundant Numbers are thofe whofe aliquot parts, added to- 
 gether, make more than the Number whereof they are Darts l 
 as 12, whofe aliquot parts, 6, 4, 3, 2, ,, make ,6. See 
 Abundant. 
 
 Defective Numbers are thofe whofe aliquot parts, added to- 
 gether, make lefs than the Number whofe parts they arc ■ as 
 16, whofe aliquot parts, 8., 4, 2, and 1, only make 15 ' 
 
 Flam Number, that arifing from the multiplication of two 
 Numbers ; e. gr. 6. which Is the prodi.a of 3 multiplied by 
 2. The Numbers, which thus multiplied, produce a plain 
 Number, as here, 2 and 6 are called the fides of the plane. 
 
 Square Number, the product of any Number multiplied by it- 
 ielf ; thus 4, the faflum of 2 by 2, is i/«r< Number. See 
 SQUARE. 
 
 Every fiquare Number, added to its root, makes an even Num- 
 ber. 
 
 Cubic Number, the produa of a fquare Number, multiplied by 
 its root; e.gr. 8, the produft of the fquare Number 4, mul- 
 tiplied by its root 2. 
 
 AH cubic Numbers, whofe root is lefs than 6, v. gr. 8, 27 
 
 ;'u- IJ ?,'-u be " , , E , dlvidcd 6 > thc '"Minder is their root 
 Itielf. Thus 8 being divided by 6, 2, the remainder of the 
 divifion ,s the cube root of 8. , For the cubic Numbers be- 
 yond 125; 216, the cube of 6, divided by 6, leaves no 
 reminder; 346, the cube of y, leaves a remainder 1, 
 which added to 6, gives the cube root of 343. And 512 
 the cube of 8, divided by 6, leaves 2, which added to b 
 makes the cube root of 512. So that the remainders of the 
 diviiionsof the cubes above 216, divided by 6, being added 
 to 6, always give the root of the Cubic Number divided; till 
 that remainder be 5, and of confequence 1 1 the cube root of 
 the A umber divided : But the cubic. Number above this, bein^ 
 divided by 6, there remains nothing, the cute root being 
 Ihus, if you continue to divide the higher cubes by 6? you 
 mult not add the remainder of the divifion to 6, but to 12 
 tire firft multiple of 6 ; and thus coming to the cube of 18' 
 the remainder of the divifion muft not be added to 6, nor to 
 I 2, but to 18 : and fo in infinitum. 
 
 Monf. de la Hire, from confidering this property of the 
 A»„Ar 6, with regard to cubic Number,, founef that all 
 other lumbers raifcd to any power whatfoever, had each 
 their d.vifor which had the fame effect with regard to 
 them, that 6 has with regard to cubes. And the °eneral 
 rule be has dilcovered is this: If the exponent of the 
 power of* Number be even, i. e. if that power be raifcd 
 to the 2 d, 4 th, 6th, he. power, it murt be divided by 2 - 
 and the remainder, if there he any, added to 2, or to a 
 multiple of 2, gives the root of the Number correfnondin- to 
 its power, ,. ,. the 2d or 6th root, &c. But if the exponent 
 ot the power of the Number be uneven, /. e if it be raifed 
 will h 3d ;, Stl 'V 7 ?' -"I ?°u"rl S* d "P' e ° f fe* exponent 
 required, ' ^ W t,,e h «= 
 
 Polygonum Numbers, the fums of arithmetical pnwreffions 
 beginning with unity. Thefe, where the common deference 
 ot terms is 1, are caBrf triangular Numbers. See Tri an- 
 gular. Where 2, Jauare Number,; where 3, pentagonal 
 Nmibers; where 4 , hexagonal Numbers ; where 5, LptaLaL 
 See Heptagonal and Polygonal. ri,"'"!. 
 
 P ; ™»,V„/N„mber S . The fums of polygonous Numbers, col- 
 lected after the fame manner as the polygons themfelves are 
 midal Numbers 3 mCt ' Cal are callcd/r/? fyra- 
 
 The fums of the firft pyramidals are called fiecond pyramidals. 
 t he fums of the fecond pyramidals are called third pyra- 
 midals, mi h cm. Jr. 
 In particular, they are called triangular pyramidal Numbers, 
 it they ante out of triangular Numbers. Fuji pentagonal 
 pyramidal, if they atife out of pentagons, Sec. 
 
 Cardinal Numbers, thofe which exprefs the quantity of units ; 
 as I, 2, fjf>. ^ 1 
 
 Ordinal Numbers, thofe which exprefs their order or rank; 
 as ift, 2d, 3d, He. 
 
 Abfolute Number. Sec the article Absolute. 
 
 Jbjlraa Numbers. Sec the article Abstract. 
 
 Amiable Numbers. See the article Amiable. 
 
 Artificial Numbers. Seethe article Artificial. 
 
 Binary Number. See the article Bin ary. 
 
 Circular Numbers. See the article Circular. 
 
 Concrete Numbers, face the article Concrete.! 
 
 Linear Numbers. See the article Linear. 
 
 Mixt Number. See the article Mixt. 
 
 Similar Numbers. See the article Similar. 
 
 ^ H I Gelded 
 
NUM 
 
 N U M 
 
 CMfn Numbitr, in chronology. See Go lden Nmnber. 
 
 i M. Caffini defines the Golden Number by the number of years 
 elapfed fince that which had the new moon on its ftrft day j 
 as that of the year 1 500, whofe Golden Number was o ; which 
 he takes for his epocha. 
 
 Golden Number is alfo ufed with fomewhat kfs propriety, for 
 a period of 1 9 years, invented by Meton the Athenian ; at 
 the end whereof, the fame lunations return in the fame 
 days, though not precifely in the fame hour and minute of 
 the day. 
 
 In which fenfe, Golden Number amounts to the fame with 
 
 what we otherwife call lunar iycle 9 or met gnu year. 
 
 Hence this period, called by the Greeks Enneadecaeteris, is 
 
 not perfectly juft; there being a proemptofis, or leap, at the 
 
 end of each 312 years, /'. e. in that time, the lunations 
 
 fall out a day fooner than the Golden Number expreffes 
 
 them. 
 
 This, among other things, was what engaged pope Gregory 
 XIII. to reform the calendar, to throw out the Golden 
 Number, and fubftitute the cycle of epafts inftead of it. For 
 the life of the Golden Number, which, in the Julian calendar, 
 fcrves to find the new moons, only ferves in the Gregorian to 
 find the cycle of epacts. 
 
 This Number is find to have had its name, Golden, from the 
 greatnefs of its ufe ; or otherwife becaufe the Athenians re- 
 ceived, it with fo much applaufe, that they had it wrote in the 
 public market in letters of gold. 
 Number, in grammar, is a modification of nouns, verbs, 
 CSV. to accommodate them to the varieties in their objects, 
 confidercd with regard to Number. 
 
 Nouns or names agreeing to feveral things may be confidered 
 either as applied to one of thofe things Angularly, or to a 
 Number of them ; and thofe either confidered as feveral, or 
 as united. — To diltinguifh thefe cafes, two Numbers have been 
 invented, the fmgular and plural. 
 
 When a noun indicates an object confidered as Angle, or 
 alone, or a number of them confidered as united together, it 
 is faid to be of the fmgular Number ; as, a tree, a troop, a 
 temple. 
 
 When tt indicates feveral objects, and thofe as diftindt, it is 
 of the plural Number : as trees, or temples.— Thus when I 
 fpeak of myfelf, as making part of feveral others, inftead of 
 I, I fav, we, CSV. 
 
 The Greeks have a third Number, which they call the dual 
 Number, as fignifying two. — The Hebrews have fomething 
 like it ; but then it only takes place when the words fignify a 
 thing double either by nature, as the hands, the eyes, &c. 
 or by art, as fciffars, tongs, &e. 
 
 As to common and appellative names, they fcem all naturally 
 to require a plural Number ; yet are there ieveral wiiich have 
 rone, as the names of gold, fteel, c5V. 
 
 The difference of Numbers in nouns is expreffed by a diffe- 
 rence of termination, or ending. 
 
 In Enslifh, the fingular is ufually converted into plural, by 
 adding s; as tree, trees ; hand, hands, £&. Where the 
 pronunciation requires it, as when the fingular ends in s, or x, 
 fh, or ch, it is ufually done by the addition of « inftead 
 of s. 
 
 The plurals of adjectives, though varied from the fmgular s in 
 moft other languages ; yet in Engliih are generally the 
 fame. 
 
 NUMBERS, in poetry, oratory, mufic, c^V. are certain 
 meafures, proportions, or cadences, which render a verfe, 
 period, or fong, agreeable to the car. 
 Poetieal and profaic Numbers are fomewhat different. 
 
 Poetical Numbers confift in a certain harmony, in the 
 order, quantities, We f of the feet and fyllables ; which 
 make the piece mufical to the ear, and fit for fmging j for 
 which all the verfes of the antients were intended. See 
 Rhythm. 
 
 It is of thefe Numbers Virgil fpeaks in his fourth eclogue: 
 
 ._ ..- N umeros memini fi verba tenerem. 
 And again, in the fixth eclogue : 
 
 Turn vera in Numerumfaunofque ferafque videres 
 
 Ludere 
 
 The Numbers are what conftitute the air and character of a 
 verfe ; and denominate it fmootb, or foft, or lozv, or rough, 
 or fonorous. The following lines of Milton furnifli an inftance 
 of foft eafy Numbers. 
 
 Then feed on thoughts, -which voluntary move 
 Harmonious Numbers ; as the tuneful bird 
 Sings darkling, and injhadiejl covert hid, 
 Tunes her noclurnal note— 
 How different from the Numbers of thefe : 
 
 Arms meet with arms, faucheons with faucheons clajh. 
 And fparks of fire, Jlruck out from armour, fiajh. 
 Rhetorical, ox profaic Numbers, are a fort of fimple unaffected 
 harmony, lefs glaring than that of verfe ; yet fuch as is per- 
 ceived, and affects the mind with pleafurc- 
 
 The Numbers are that by which the ftyle is faid to be eafy, 
 free, round, flowing, (fc See Style. 
 
 A fine inftance of Numbers we have in that paffag? of Tully 
 for Marcellus : Nulla ejl tanta vis, tantaque copia qua non ferrs 
 ac viribus debilitari frangiqua poj/it. All the beauty of which 
 would be intirely ioft to any tolerable ear, if the Numbers 
 were a little inverted, thus : Nulla ejl vis tanta, Iff copia tanta 
 qua non pofftt debilitari frangique viribus ferro. 
 Numbers are a thing abfolutely neceflary in all writing, 
 and even in all fpeech. Hence Ariftotle, Tully, Quintilian, 
 CSV. lay down abundance of rules as to tbe beft manner of 
 intermixing dactyls, fpondees, anapefts, iambus's, choreic 
 and dichoraic molollus's, &c, in order to have the Numbers 
 perfect. 
 
 The fubftance of what they have faid, is reducible to what 
 follows. i» The ftyle becomes numerous, by the alternate 
 difpofition and temperature of long and fliort fyllables ; fo, 
 as that the multitude of fhort ones neither render it too 
 hafty, nor that of long ones too flow and languid. — Thus, 
 Tully to Cxfar : Domuijli gentes im?nanitate barbaras, multi- 
 tudine xnnumerabiles, km ivfin 'ttas, omm copiarum genere abun- 
 dantes, &c. 
 
 Sometimes, indeed, long or fliort fyllables are defignedly 
 thrown together, without any fuch mixture ; to paint 
 the celerity or flownefs of a thing by that of the Num- 
 bers ; as, 
 
 Quadrubedante putrem fonitu quatit ungula campum. 
 
 y r f j ^neid.l. 8. 
 
 Luclantes ventos, teynpeftatefque fonoras. 
 
 Id. 1. I. 
 
 2. The ftyle becomes numerous by the intermixing words of 
 one, two, and more fyllables ; e. gr. Vivis ; & vivis non ad 
 deponendam fed ad confirmandam audadam. Whereas the too 
 frequent repetition of monol'yllables renders the ftyle pitiful, 
 and grating : e. gr. Hac in re nos hie non ferit. 
 
 3. It contributes greatly to the numeroufnefs of a period, 
 to have it clofed by magnificent and well-founding words; 
 as, £>ui locus quiefis ac tranquillitatis plenijjimus forevidebatur, 
 in eo ynaxima molejliarum, Cif turbulentijfsma: tempejlates ex~ 
 iiterunt. 
 
 4. The Numbers depend not only on the noblenefs of the 
 words in the clofe, but of thofe in the whole tenor of the 
 period : as in that fine oration of Cicero for Fonteius, a brother 
 of one of the veftal maids : Nolite pati, judiees, eras dtorum 
 immortalium, vcftaque matris, quotidianis virginum lamentatio- 
 nibus de vejlro judicio commoveri. 
 
 5. To have the period flow cafily and equably, the harfh. 
 concurrence of letters and words is to be very itudioufly avoid- 
 ed, particularly the frequent meeting of rough cunfonants ; 
 as ars Jfudiorum, rex Xerxes: The beginning the lirlt fyl- 
 lable of a word with the laft of the preceding ; as, Res 
 mihi invifa funt: The frequent repetition of the fame letter 
 or fyllable ; as in that verfe of Ennius, Africa terribili tre- 
 mit horrida terra tumultu ; And the frequent ufe of like- 
 ending words ; as amatr'tces, adjutrices, prcfiigiatrices fue- 
 runt. 
 
 Laftly, The utmoft care is to be taken, left in aiming at 
 oratorial Numbers, you lhould fall into poetical ones ; and in- 
 ftead of profe, write verfe ; which even Cicero himfelf is 
 fometimes guilty of: witnefs Cum loquitur, tanti fetus gemi- 
 tufque fiebant. 
 
 NUMERAL Letters, thofe letters of the alphabet which are 
 generally ufed for figures; as I, V, X, L, C, D, M. 
 
 Numeral Charatlers. See tbe article Character. 
 
 NUMERALS, in grammar, are thofe words which exprefs 
 Numbers ; as fix, eight, ten, csV. See Ordinals. 
 
 NUMERATION, in arithmetic, the art of eftimating or 
 pronouncing any Number, or feries of Numbers. 
 The characters whereby numbers are ordinarily expreffed, 
 are the nine following ones, viz. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 
 It being the law of the common Numeration, that when you 
 are arrived at ten, you begin again, and repeat as before; 
 only expreffing the number of tens. 
 
 Weigelius, indeed, fliews how to number without going be- 
 yond a quaternary, i. e. by beginning to repeat at each fourth, 
 And Leibnitz, in what he calls h\s binary arithmetic, begins 
 to repeat at every fecond ; only ufing two characters, 1 and o. 
 But thefe are rather matters of curiolity than ufe. See Bi- 
 nary Arithmetic. 
 
 That the nine numerical notes may exprefs not only 
 units, but alfo tens or decads, hundreds or centuries, 
 thousands, &c. they have a local value given them ; fo, 
 as that when either alone, or when placed in the right- 
 hand place, they denote units; in the fecond place, tens; 
 in the third, hundreds : in the fourth, thoufands. 
 Now, To exprefs any written number, or aflign the proper 
 value to each character; divide the propofed number by 
 comma's into claffes, allowing three characters in each dais ; 
 beginning at the right-hand. Over the right-hand figure of 
 
 the 
 
N U N 
 
 NUT 
 
 the third cbfs, add a fmall mark or tranfverfe line ; over the 
 right-hand figure of the fifth cbfs, add two marks or tranf- 
 verfe lines; over that of the feventh, three, &c. The 
 number to the left of the firft. comma, exprefs by thou- 
 fands ; that which has over it the firft tranfverfe line, ex- 
 prefs by millions ; that with two, by billions ; that with 
 three, by trillions, <sc Laftly, the left-hand character of 
 each clafs, exprefs by hundreds j the middle one by tens ; 
 and the right-hand one, by units. Tfius will the Numeration 
 be effected. 
 
 £. gr. The following numbers, 2 /// , 125, 473", 613, 57 
 432, 597, is thus expreffed or read : Two trillions, one 
 hundred twenty five millions of billions, four hundred feventy 
 three billions, fix hundred thirteen thoufands of millions, and 
 five hundred feventy eight millions, four hundred and thirty 
 two thoufand, five hundred and ninety feven. 
 NUMERATOR, in fpeaking of fractions, fignifies the num- 
 ber which (hews how many of thofe parts, which the in- 
 teger is fuppofed to be divided into, are expreffed by the 
 fraction. 
 
 The Numerator is that part of a fraction which is placed 
 over the little bar: by which it is fcparated from the under 
 number, called the Denominator , and which fhews into how 
 many parts the integer is divided. 
 
 Thus, v. gr, £f exprefics feven tenths ; where 7 is the Nu- 
 merator, and 10 the denominator. See Fraction. 
 
 NUMERICAL, Numerous, or Numeral, fomething that 
 relates to number. 
 
 Numerical Algebra is that which makes ufe of numbers, 
 inftead of letters of the alphabet. 
 
 Numerical difference is the difference whereby one individual 
 is diftinguifhed from another. 
 
 Hence a thing'is faid to be Numerically the fame, idem numero, 
 or numerice, when it is the fame in the ftrieteft fenfc of the 
 word. See Unity, and Identity. 
 NUMERO, in commerce, &c. a term prefixed to any num- 
 ber of things; marked or abbreviated thus, N°. See 
 Book. 
 
 De Numero, i. e. by tale, is ufed in anti'ent authors for the 
 payment, e, gr. of a pound in a certain number of pieces, viz. 
 20 fhillings. 
 
 In con trad iftinct ion to Libra penfa, or a pound weighed 
 out. 
 
 NUMEROUS Arithmetic. See Arithmetic. 
 Numerous Exegijh, See the article Exegesis. 
 NUMISM ATOGR APHI A, a Greek term ufed for the de- 
 
 fcription and knowlege of antient medals and coins, whether 
 
 of gold, filver, or brafs. 
 
 Fulvius Urfinus, Ant. Auguflinus, bifhop of Saragofa, 
 Erizzo a noble Venetian, and Sambucus a Polifti gentleman, 
 have all fucceeded in the Numifmatographia. — Nor muff, the 
 more modern authors on the fame fubject be omitted ; viz. 
 the two Mezzabarba's, Patin, Spanheim, Hardouin, Morel, 
 Vailhint, Joubert, Baudelot, Beger, and among ourfelves 
 Evelyn. 
 
 NUMMUS, or Numus, among the Romans, a particular 
 piuce of money, other wife called Se/lertius. See Sesterce. 
 This was fome times called Numus feflcrtius. — Decern millia 
 r.umum, 13 decern millia fejlertium, were Roman fums, which 
 amounted to the fame. 
 
 NUN *, Nonna, a word antiently ufed for a female religious; 
 and ft ill retained in that fenfe in our language ; and in other 
 languages, particularly the French, but by way of ridicule 
 and burlefcjue. 
 
 * The word comes from nonna, numtana, or nonnanis , all Latin 
 terms, tuft ufed for penitents, then for religious.— Eorel derives 
 it from nonno, or nonna, which in Xtalion fignifies grandfather, 
 or grandmother ; and adds, that it was applied by way of 
 honour to the woman, as that of father to the man, religious, 
 See Father. 
 
 Hence alfo nunnery, a monaftery of female religious. 
 NUNCIO, or Nuntio, an embaffador from the pope to 
 fome catholic prince or ftate ; or a perfon who attends, on 
 the pope's behalf, at a congrefs, or an affembly of feveral em- 
 
 bafladors. 
 
 The word Nuncio has the fame import with embaffador ; 
 but is reftrained in its ufe to the cmbaffadors of popes alone ; 
 as that of internuncio is to their envoys extraordinary. 
 Branton informs us, that when he firft came to court, the 
 Nuncio had only the title of embaftador. 1 
 I he Nuncio has a jurifdiction, and may delegate judges, in 
 all the ftates where he refides, except in France, where he has 
 no authority hut that of a fimple embaffador. 
 NUNCUPATIVE, in the fchools, a term ufed to expref 
 fomething that is only nominal, or has no exjftence but in 
 name. 
 
 Felix of Urgel maintained, that Jefus Chrift, as man, waj 
 only God Nuncupative^ i. e. nominally. Alcuin, u 
 his anfwer :o Felix, maintains, that it is to fall into Nefto 
 rianiim to diftinguilb two Sons of God in Jefus Chrift, tht 
 
 one natural, the other adoptive ; and two Gods, the one real s 
 
 the other Nuncupative. 
 Nuncupative Will denotes a laft will or teftament only 
 
 ■made verbally, or viva voce, and not put in writing. See 
 
 Will, and Testament. 
 NUNDINAL, Nund in a lis, a name which the Romans 
 
 gave to the eight firft letters of the alphabet, ufed in their 
 
 calendar. 
 
 This feries of eight letters, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, is 
 placed and repeated fucceffively from the firft to the laft day 
 of the year ; one of thefe always expreffed the market-days, 
 or the aftemblies called Nundince, quafi novendincs, becaufe 
 they returned every nine days. 
 
 The country people, after working eight days fucceffively, 
 came to town the ninth, to fell their feveral commodities, 
 and to inform themfelves of what related to religion and 
 government. 
 
 Thus the Nundinal day being under the letter A, on the iff, 
 9th, 17th, and 25th days of January, &c. the letter D 
 will be the Nundinal letter of the year following. 
 Thefe Nundinal* bear a very great refemblance to the domini- 
 cal letters ; which return every eight days, as the Nundinah 
 did every nine. See Dominical Letter. 
 NUNTIO. See the article Nuncio. 
 
 NUPER Obiit, in law, a writ which lies for a coheirefs 
 being deforced by her coparcener of lands or tenements, 
 whereof their common father or anceftor died faffed in fee- 
 fimple. 
 
 If the anceftot died feifed in fee tail, the co-heirefs deforced 
 Dial] have a formedon. 
 NUPTIAL, fomething that relates to marriage. See Mar- 
 riage." 
 
 NURSERY, in gardening, denotes a feminary, or feed-plot 
 for raifing young trees, or plants. 
 
 Some authors make a difference between Nurfery and femi- 
 nary, holding the former not to be a place wherein plants are 
 fown ; but a place for the reception and rearing of voung 
 planes, which are removed, or tranfplanted hither from the 
 feminary, cjff. 
 
 Mr. Lawrence recommends the having feveral Nurfries, for 
 the feveral kinds of trees : one for tall ftandards ; viz. 
 apples, afhes, elms, limes, oaks, pears, fycomores, &c. 
 Another for dwarfs, viz. fuch as are intended for apri- 
 cots, cherries, peaches, plums, &c. and a third for ever- 
 greens. 
 
 The Nurfery for ftandards fhould be in a rich, light foil, 
 fown, with the proper feeds, in October, or November. For 
 apples and pears, crab, and wild pear kernels are to be pre- 
 ferred for frocks : elms and lime are to be raifed from 
 planted fuckers : and walnuts to be fown with the green fhell 
 upon them, to preferve them from mice. This Nurfery, if 
 it be well managed and weeded for two years, the crabs 
 and pears will be fit for grafting and inoculating the third 
 year. 
 
 Firs and pines are to be raifed from thofe little feeds, taken 
 out of their large apples. 
 
 The Nurfery for dwarfs does beft by itfelf, that it may 
 not be over-topped by taller trees. Stones of apricots and 
 peaches are not proper to raife thofe trees ; but in lieu there- 
 of, fow the ftones of the pear-plum, muffel or bonum, 
 magnum plum ; which prove better, and more lafting, than 
 the former. For ftocks for all forts of cherries, black cherry- 
 ftones do beft. 
 
 Mr. Mortimer directs all ftone-fruit to be fown quickly after 
 gathering ; for that if they be kept, they will be two years 
 ere they come up. Add, that, if they have not all the moi'fture 
 of the winter to rot the fhells, the kernel will fcarce come up 
 at all. * 
 To furnifli the Nurfery of ever-greens, the feveral forts of 
 feeds or berries, as yew, holly, juniper, &c. are to be put in 
 fo many diftinct pots or boxes, with fome fine mould over 
 them, and thus buried for a year ; after which, they are to be 
 taken out and fown. 
 
 If they were to be fown when gathered, like other feeds, 
 they would not come up the firft year, nor grow fo kind- 
 
 V' 
 
 NUSANCE *, Nocumentum, in law, is ufed not only for 
 a thing done to the hurt, or annoyance of another, in his fee- 
 lands, or tenements J but alfo for the afiize, or writ lying for 
 the fame. 
 
 * The word is derived from the French, nuire, to hurt. 
 
 Manwood makes three kinds of Nufances in the forcft ; the 
 firft, common Nufance ; the fecond, fpecial Nufance ; the third, 
 general Nufance. 
 
 The writ of Nufance, de nscumento, is either fimply de nocu- 
 mento, or de parvo tiocuments. 
 
 Writs of Nufances are now properly termed Trefpajfes, and 
 actions upon the cafe. 
 MUT, Nux, a fort'of fruit, inclofed in an hard cortex, orflaell; 
 which contains a fofter edible nucleus, or kernel. 
 
 Of 
 
NUT 
 
 NUT 
 
 OF theft; we have divers kinds 5 fmall nuts, filberds, clicfnuts, 
 walnuts, &c- 
 
 NUTATION, in aftronomy, a kind of trepidation, or tremulous 
 niorion of the axis of the earth ; whereby, in each annual re- 
 volution, it is twice inclined to the ecliptic ; and as often re- 
 turns to its former pofnion. 
 
 That the moon has the like motion, is fhewn by Sir Ifaac 
 Newton, in the firft book of his Printipia 5 but he obferves 
 withal, that this motion muft be very fmall, and fcarce fen- 
 fible. 
 
 NUTMEG, Nux Mofchata, a delicate kind of aromatic fruit, 
 or fpice, brought from the Eaft-Indies ; whereof there are di- 
 ftinguifhed two kinds, the male and female. 
 'The female is that chiefly ufed among us: its form is 
 round, its fmell agreeable, and its tafte hot and pun- 
 gent. 
 
 'The male is a wild nut, of a longifh form, and without either 
 tafte or fmell'; yet fometimes put off, while yet in the fruit, 
 for the female.. 
 
 Nutmegs are inclofed in four different covers : the firft, 
 a thick fleftry coat, fomething like that of our walnuts. 
 Under this lies a thin reddifh coat, of an agreeable fmell, and 
 aromatic tafte, called Mace ; by others, though improperly, 
 .f.oiver of Nutmeg, This wraps up the fhcll, and opens in 
 proportion as the fruit grows. The fhcll which makes the 
 third cover, is hard, thin, and blackifh. Under tin's is a 
 grccnifh film of no ufe ; and in this is found the Nutmeg, 
 which is properly the kernel of the fruit. — Every Nutmeg 
 has a little hole in it, which fome ignorantly take for a de- 
 fect. 
 
 The belt Nutmegs are thofe gathered in April. They muflr 
 be chofen heavy, of a wbitdh brown colour, well marhled 
 without fide, reddifh within, having a fat undtuous moifture, 
 and an agreeable fmell. 
 
 As to the mace, it muft he chofen in large blades of a high 
 colour, and like the Nutmeg in tafte and fmell. 
 Nutmegs preferved green are excellent to fortifv the ftomach, 
 and re U ore the natural heat. They are particularly efteemed 
 carminative. — The powder called Dukes powder, efteemed 
 a fovereign againft rheums, is only Nutmeg pulverized with 
 iugar, and a 1 it tic cinnamon. — Nutmegs, by diftillation, or ex- 
 prefTion, yield an oil of great fragrancy, and ufe in medi- 
 cine. 
 
 The whole commerce of Nutmegs is in the hands of the 
 Dutch Eaft-India company. — The Nutmeg tree is propagated 
 after a particular manner : Tavernier tells us, that the 
 birds devouring the Nutmeg when ripe, give it back whole 
 by itool ; and that thus falling down to the ground, be- 
 fmeared with a vifcous matter, it takes root, and produces 
 a tree. 
 
 NUTRITION, in the animal orconomy, the acceffion or 
 apportion of new parts to the body, limilar to thofe it already 
 confifted of ; either fur its augmentation, or for the repara- 
 tion of fuch as arc worn oft. 
 
 By the continual motion of the fluids in the minute vefTcls 
 of the body, and the action of the mufcles, fje. fmall parcels 
 are of ncceffity worn oft from the folids, become mixed with 
 the fluids, move with them, and are at length eliminated and 
 exhaled through the pores. 
 
 And at the fame time the fluids, diminifbed as they are by 
 a conflant attrition, apply to the orifices of the perfpiring 
 vefTcls, and vanifli out of the body. 
 
 Hence the animal body, by the very condition of its frame, 
 
 becomes loon liable to deftruelion. 
 
 To prcfervc life, therefore, it is neccfliiry, that a reftitution be 
 made to the juices and iohds of the body, equal and fimilar 
 to what is loft 111 thofe motions ; which is what we call the 
 a£iim of Nutrition. 
 
 Now the loft juices are eafdv fupplicd by meat, drink, air, 
 c5V. taken into the ftomach, digeftcd, converted into chyle, 
 then into blood, and thence fecreted by the proper dudls, and 
 carried by the action of the body, to the proper receptacles ; 
 after the manner laid down under the articles Digestion, 
 Ch ylification, Sanguification, and Secre- 
 tion. 
 
 But the Nutrition of the folid parts is much more obfeure. 
 This indeed has proved the fubjedt of infinite doubts and dif- 
 ferences among authors ; nor had we any rational or iatisfsctory 
 account of the fame, till that of the accurate Boerhaave, whof e 
 doctrine is as follows. 
 
 Every folid part of the body cnnfiffs of other leffer ones, in all 
 refpecTs like the larger j veilels, v. gr. ofveficles, and thofe 
 of others ftill fmaller; bones of oflicles, Etfifc Which ftruc- 
 ture goes beyond all limits of fenfe, however aflifted by art j 
 as appears by the experiments and obfervations of Malpighi, 
 Ruyfch, Leewenhocck, and Hook. Yet it is fcarce poflible 
 this divifion and fubdivihon ihould be infinite, as that of foods 
 and juices is. 
 
 Again, it appears from microfcopes, injections, fmall wounds, 
 eatficcations, tsY. that the folid parts of the body are very 
 
 fmall, compared with the fluids ; and it is ahnoft demon Arable 
 from confidcring the rife and generation of the veiTels, and 
 the refolution ot the greater veilels into their fmaller confti- 
 tuent ones, that all the folid mais of the body is conftru&ed of 
 mere nerves, as its elements. 
 
 And, in effejft, all tins mafs, an Incredibly fmall particle only 
 excepted, at firft arofe out of what was a very fmall colli- 
 quament, much like the nervous juice itfelf; is is abundantly 
 lhewn by the great Malpighi in h,s two treatifes on incubated 
 eggs. Tor neither does the white of the egg nourifh, till, by 
 means of the incubation, it have palled innumerable de- 
 grees of fluidity, from its firft thicknefs to that exceeding 
 iubtilty wherein it terminates. But, even then, the liquor 
 thus given to the embryo is exceedingly thick, in compa- 
 nion with what it is to be, when converted into its veilels 
 and vifcera. 
 
 Now the firft tender folids, arifing from this fubtile humour, 
 do again pafs infinite intermediate degrees, ere they arrive 
 at their utmoft ftate and confiftence ; as is ftiewn by Mal- 
 pighi in eggs, and by Ruyfch in embryo's and foetus's. 
 Hence, therefore, it tollows, that the folids, in their firft 
 formation out of the liquids whence they arife, only differ 
 from .them in reit, cohefion, and figure. Therefore. fuch a 
 particle, now in its fluid Hate, will become a^jjjfft of the 
 folid to be formed out of it, as foon as there .happens to be a 
 power to effect its cohefion with the other folid parts ; how- 
 foever that cohefion be effected. 
 
 This cohefion is eafdy produced in a fibre already formed, 
 if there happen to be a proper cavity in the folid, left open 
 by fome loit particle, and at the fame time a particle in the 
 fluid, anfwerable i thereto in bulk, figure, and nature ; and, 
 laftly, if there be a power wherewithal to intrude it into that 
 place, or accommodate it thereto. Thus will arife a real 
 Nutrition of the folids in the minute veilels, by whole union 
 the large ones are formedj that is, in the nerves, or in veliels 
 fimilar thereto. Which being impracticable by any other 
 liquid than that brought into tfoefe veilels, it appears very evi- 
 dent that the nervous juice, at leart a juice perfectly like it, is 
 the immediate matter of Nutrition .- whence Nutrition appears 
 one of the laft and molt perfoft actions in the body ; fuice to 
 have this laudable, ,all the precedent actions mult of neceility 
 have been fo. 
 
 The chyle therefore, which fome make the immediate matter 
 of Nutrition, is, indeed, fitted to fill the larger veilels, but it 
 cannot nourifh or reftore them. This, when attenuated, 
 changed, more intimately mixed in the lungs by means of 
 refpiration, and thus fitted for the pafiage of certain velfels, 
 is, indeed, rendered fitter, yet far from being quite fit 3 to be; 
 the matter of Nutrition. 
 
 But, by the repeated action of the lungs, the vifcera, veiTels, 
 &c. there is formed out of this humour, a (oft, tenacious,, 
 plaftic, infipid ferum, which thickening by the fire, becomes 
 perfectly like the white of an egg. This fluid therefore has 
 in it all the conditions found in that from whence, by fure 
 experience, we know alt the folid parts of an animal arife, 
 by mere incubation. It is therefore a ftep nearer, but is not 
 yet quite dispofed ior nutriment. Much lefs is the cruor, or 
 red globular past of the blood fo. Neither are yet fitted to 
 enter the veiTels ; yet both the one and the other are, by dif- 
 ferent authors, made the nutritive juice. 
 
 But as the heat of incubation, fo the acYion of the vifcera 
 and veilels, on the ferum, introduces various changes therein ; 
 till at length a part of it be rendered fubtile enough for the 
 purpofe required. This, when exhaufted, is inftantly re- 
 paired ; and thus we have the true immediate matter of Nu- 
 trition, ■ 
 
 But this fame humour, lofing too many of its oily parts, by 
 many repeated circulations, is rendered too fbarp ; and being 
 likewife liripped of its molt liquid parts, from the fame caufc 
 becomes too denfe ; and is thus rendered unfit for this fecretion. 
 Hence the neceility of new chyle, and new food, to keep up 
 Nutrition. 
 
 The matter of Nutrition thus afcertained ; the manner 
 wherein, and the caufe whereby it is effected, are as follow. 
 A juice being driven directly through a full, conic or cyiin- 
 dric, elaftic or rigid canal ; if its courfe be from a wider to a 
 narrower part, or if it have any thing to oppofe its motion, 
 will endeavour to ftictch the fides of its canal according to the 
 axis of its length. This muft be the cafe every-where 
 in the body, except, perhaps, in the veins and receptacles. 
 By this nilus, or endeavour, how weak fuever, continually 
 repeated, the veliels will be infeniibly lengthened out ; and, in 
 lengthening, they will be made moie and more flender. Hence 
 the fall extremities of the vefleis, which in man are ex- 
 tremely final!, are continually Hretched, and rendered lefs and 
 lefs consent, /'. e. it 1 11 nearer and nearer to a diilblution ; and 
 thus at length wiil they cohere fo weakly, as fcarce to differ 
 from fluids. 
 
 While fuch motion goes on, therefore, and the propulfion 
 is cominuedj there will, of neccfiry, happen thefe two 
 
 things : 
 
N U X 
 
 N Y M 
 
 and 
 
 things; Firft, the outmoft particle? of the minuteft tubes be- 
 ing torn off, will again be converted into a kind of humour, 
 what part of the body foever they flick in. Secondly, the 
 fmalleft: particles, which by their union compofed the flendereft 
 fibriilae, will be fo feparated from each other, as to leave open 
 interftices in thofe places, where, before, they cohered. Both 
 theft effects will be produced at all times, and in all parts of 
 the body, fo long as life continues ; efpecially where nature is 
 ffrong, and the anions of the body violent. But the fame hu- 
 mour whereby thefe effects are produced, containing abundance 
 of particles fimilar to thofe thus feparated and loft, conveys and 
 applies them to thofe interfaces, by that very impetus whereby 
 it endeavours to diftend the canals ; and thus intercepted, at 
 length, it forms, adapts, and faftens them, fo as to adhere in the 
 fame manner 3s the former. 
 
 The matter, preparation, application, energy of motion, ftill 
 remaining the fame ; what from time to time is loft, is thus 
 prefently reftored; and the folids continue in the fame ftate " 
 before, i. e. they are perpetually nourijhed, and fupplied. - 
 preferved. 
 
 In this the Creator's wifdom is very confpicuous ; in that the 
 fame power, which inevitably deftroys, does not repair again at 
 the fame time, and by the fame action ; and that the greater 
 the lofs is, the more copious is the fupply ; and laftly, that thofe 
 parts, firft fpent in the a£tion of the body, are the firft reftored. 
 Farther, it is evident, that the newer, the more tender, and the 
 nearer to the moving caufe thefe veffels are, the more eafily 
 will they be lengthened, diftended, deftroyed, and repaired : 
 our bodies therefore, the nearer to their origin, the more dc 
 they grow. For, the aflion ftill continuing, the greater veffels ? 
 become more extended by their fluid ; and at the fame time the 
 fmallcr, whereof the membranes or coats of the larger fort are 
 compofed, are compreffed, dried, and at laft concreted, and grow j 
 up ; whence arifes a firmnefs, indeed, of the fibres, but a lofs 
 of the vcficles. 
 
 Thus, what were formerly veffels, commence mere hard liga- j 
 ments ; and thus the fluids being once fixed, the fcveral veffels 
 coalefce : from the concurrence of thefe caufes arife the ftrength, 
 hardnefs, rigidity, and tbickneis of the folid paits. 
 Hence the number of veffels is greateft in embryo's, and as 
 age comes on, it fenfibly diminifhes ; and hence it is that their 
 weaknefs conffantly declines, and their ftrcnzth and firmnefs 
 increafes. In youns people, therefore, the quantity of humours 
 is redundant, and greatly exceeds the folids : in old men, the 
 folids exceed the fluids. And hence we fee the reafon, man- 
 ner, and appearance of growth, ftate, dedenfion, and at length 
 of death from pure old age. 
 
 A perfon who confidcrs this account, and compares it with what 
 is actually obfervable in the body, will find every circumftancc 
 to obtain : thus the whole cuticula is every where, and at all 
 times, conftantly defquammating, peeling off, and again re- 
 newing; and thus the hair, naib, teeth, continually rubbed, 
 torn, and wore off, come again ; parts taken off from the vef- 
 fels, and the bor.e=, foon grow again. And the fordes, or filth, 
 rubbed off from the extremities of the veffels, when examined 
 by a microfcope, 01 diluted and vie wed in water, appear plainly 
 to confift both of folid and fluid parts ; and thofe carried off 
 by wafhing, {having, &e. are the fame. 
 
 Hence, too, we fee that a general increafe of the bulk of the 
 body, with regard to habit, as in fat, fiefhy, brawny perfons, 
 does not arife from any increafe of the folids, but by their ex- 
 tenfion into larger cavities, crouded with ffagnant humours. 
 And hence fatnefs becomes hurtful, as it loads, weakens, and 
 fuffocates. 
 
 Whence arifes a very confiderable distinction between nutrition 
 and repletion ; to which a phyfician muft have fpecial regard : 
 the one ftrengthening and condenfing the veffels, the other weak- 
 ening, loofening, and extending the fame. 
 
 Hence, laftly, we fee why the fabric of the folids is not de- 
 ftroyed by the contained fluids ; how our machine comes to 
 fubuft fo long ; why, when a nerve is corrupted, the nutrition 
 of that part it belongs to, ceafes ; and why the fame obtains in 
 an artery : why in an embryo there are no folids, in a foetus 
 very few, in old men a great deal ; and why even the nerves, 
 tendons, arteries, and receptacles, become firft cartilaginous, and 
 then bony. 
 
 Nutrition c/'P/^j. See Vegetation, Sap, Circu- 
 lation, CSV. 
 
 Nutrition, in pharmacy, a kind of preparation, confifting in 
 the gradual mixture of liquors of different natures, by ftirring 
 them together till they have acquired a thick confiftence, — as, 
 in making butter of Saturn, or ungucntum nutritum. 
 
 NUTRITIOUS Juice. Sec the article Nutrition. 
 
 NUTRITIVK Faculty, See the article Faculty. 
 
 NU TRITUM, in pharmacy* is a denomination given to a defic- 
 cativc, cooling, unguent, prepared by the agitation and nutrition 
 of litharge of gold with oil and vinegar, or the juice of folanum, 
 in a mortar. 
 
 NUX Vomica, the fruit, or, as fome will have it, the ftone of 
 the fruit of a vegetable, growing in fevcral parts of Egypt, and 
 in the iflands Timor and Ceylon ; of a ftrong narcotic quality, 
 fo as to be ranked in the number of poifuns. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 It is round and flat, of a grey moufe-colour without, and of 
 various colours within j fometimes yellow, fometimes white, 
 fometimes brown. The largeft, whiteft, neweft, and cleaneft, 
 are the befh 
 
 This drug is faid to be an afihred poifon for all animals except 
 men. — On the contrary, Hermannus, botanic profeffor at Ley- 
 den, who has wrote exprefly on it, feys, that the vomic nuts of 
 Timor and Ceylon are, for the human fpecies, excellent fudo- 
 rifics, and are alfo to be ranked among diuretic medicines. 
 Nux Galla. See the article Galls. 
 
 Nux Indica, the fruit of a tree called cacao. See Cacao, and 
 Chocolate. 
 
 NYCTAGES*, or Nyctazontes, a religious fea, diftin- 
 guifhed by their inveighing againft the practice of waking in 
 the night to fing the praifes of God ; in regard, faid they, the 
 night was made for reft. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek vvZ, night? 
 NYCTALOPIA*, or Nyctalops, a difeafe which prevents 
 
 the feeing by day, not by night ; or an indifpofition wherein a 
 perfon fees better by night than by day. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek l'vE, night, and AKKitY^,fox ; 
 this animal being faid to fee lefs by day, than night. 
 
 In which fenfe the word is ufed by Hippocrates. 
 The nyctalopia is fuppofed to be owing to the fpirits being too 
 much diihpated in the day, but collected by night. See Sight. 
 Boerhaave fays, the nytlalopia confifts in this, that the uvea is 
 immoveable, and at the fame time very open, 
 more""^ ■ Nyctalopia is alfo ufed by fome for a difeafe of the eyes. 
 
 which prevents their feeing, when the fun is let, and the light 
 begins a little to diminifti. 
 
 In which fenfe it amounts to the fame with noilurna cescitas. 
 In the general, any difeafe which prevents the feeing at any par- 
 ticular time, when others fee, is called nytlalopia. 
 In the Philnfopbical I'ranfaclions^ we have an inftance of a nycta- 
 lopia, or nocturna ctscitas, in a youth of twenty years of age ; 
 who had been aftedted with it as long as he could remember. 
 > — Dr. Parham affures us, he had a good fight all day, and di~ 
 ftinguifhed objedts at all distances as well as any body ; but 
 when twilight once came, he was quite blind, and faw nothing 
 at all ; nor could make icarce any ufe either of fire, candle, 
 or glafles. Yet his eyes, upon examination, (hewed nothing 
 at all amifs; nor had he any vertigo, or other difeafe of the 
 head. The cloudinefs, as he himfelf told the doctor, ufed to 
 come gradually on him like a mift, as day-light declined. He 
 always faw alike in all afpects of the moon, Jelt no pain by 
 fire or candle-light, and was the fame in fummer as winter. 
 Dr. Briggs accounts for the cafe thus : ' As vapours are railed 
 in great quantities during the day time, which being condenfed 
 by the coldnefs of the evening, fall again, and render the air, 
 near the earth, the thicker : fo, perhaps, the humours in the 
 eyes of this youth may be affecled ; and, in the evening, ren- 
 dred groffer, and more turbid. As we fee in urines, which 
 frequently grow clear, or turbid, as heat or cold is applied to 
 them. But fuch thicknefs or fpiflitude of the humours, the 
 rays being either reflected, or too much refracted, do not 
 reach the retina, or at leaft ftrike it too feebly.' 
 NYCTELTA * Orgin, or feafts in honour of Bacchus ; fo called, 
 becaufe held in the night-time. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek Vvi;, night, and TZhZiv, 
 perficere, to accomplilh, perform. 
 
 A great part of the ceremony confifted in running through the 
 ftreets, with bottle and glafs in hand, and drinking : but there was 
 no impurity unpra&ifed in them. 
 
 The Athenians celebrated the nytlelia every three years, at the 
 
 beginning of the fpring. 
 NYCTHEMERON, N uj^efor, the natural day. See Day. 
 NYMPH*, Nvmpha, in mythology, a fort of heathen divinity, 
 
 fuppofed to prefide over waters, rivers, and fountains. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek I'uuz;-, a bride, or woman 
 newly married ; and was applied to thefe deitie.% becaufe re- 
 prefented under the figure of young maids. Though others 
 derive nymph from lympha, water, in regard of their inhabit- 
 ing near the waters.. 
 
 Some extend the name nymph farther, and comprife under it the 
 goddeffes of the fountains, forefts, and trees ; called particuLnly 
 Greades, Dryades, and Hamadryads ; as well as thofe of the fea, 
 called nereides. 
 
 Meurfius is of opinion, the Greeks borrowed their notion of the 
 divinities from the Phoenicians '■ for nympha in their language 
 fignifying foul, the Greeks imagined, that the fouls of the an- 
 tient inhabitants of Greece were become nymphs. Particular- 
 ly, that the fouls of thofe who had inhabited the woods, were called 
 dryades ; thofe who had inhabited the mountains, oreades ; thofu 
 who had dwelt on the fea-coafts, nereides ; and laftly, thofe who 
 had their place of abode near rivers, or fountains, naiades. 
 
 Nympha, among naturalifts, is fometimes ufed for the little fkin 
 wherewhh infects are inclofed ; both while they are in the egg, 
 and after they have undergone the firft apparent transformation. 
 
 Nympha, is ufed by others for the change itftlfof the eruca, or 
 worm, into a flying animal j after having laid afide its former 
 7 I fltin; 
 
N Y M 
 
 N Y M 
 
 Ikin : which, as Swammerdam fhews, is not effected by any 
 proper transformation, but by Ample accretion, or growth of 
 the parts, whence the fkin is by degrees ftretcbed, and at Iaft 
 burfts : as is the cafe, likewife, in frogs. 
 Nympha is more frequently ufed by naturalifts for the infects 
 themfelves, while they have yet only the form of worms, or 
 maggots. 
 
 The word properly fignifies bride, or a new-married woman ; 
 it being now, when it has laid afide its former fkin, that it 
 begins to fhew all its parts diftin£tly.— In this change it lofes 
 its motion for awhile, as when in the egg : fo that thefe infects 
 are twice in their nympha ftate ; firft, in the maggot, which is their 
 firft nympha ; and again in this change, which is their fecond. 
 The only difference between the two nympba-Rates confifts in 
 this, that in the latter the members appear more diftinclly. 
 — Swammerdam calls this latter nympha aurea, or aurelia, and 
 chryfalh ; and the former fimply nympha. — The nympha are 
 otherwife diftinguifhed into vermiformes, and oviformes. 
 The eggs of bees firft change into nympha or maggots ; thefe 
 maggots inclofed in their alveoli or cells, are transformed into 
 nympha aurelia ; and twelve days afterwards come out bees. 
 See Aurelia and Chrysalis. 
 
 —Of the caterpiller's nymhp,aurelia, or cryfalis, fo called, became 
 the creature here is veiled or covered up from fight, like a bride. 
 See Supplement, article Nymph. 
 NYMPHS, in anatomy, are two foft, fpongy, red bodies, de- 
 fending from the tip of the clitoris to the fides of the urinary 
 paffage ; thus reaching to about the middle of the orifice of the 
 vagina : where they grow lefs and lefs, till they difappear.' — See 
 Tab. Anat. (Splanch. ) fig. 9. lit, n n. fig. 1 3 . lit. e e. 
 Their breadth is uncertain, ufually in maids half a ringer : fome- 
 
 times. they are larger, and are capable of being diflenJed to i. 
 great degree ; fo as to hang a good way out of the body : whence, 
 in fome, thefe, as well as the clitoris, have been forced to be cut. 
 The ufe of the nympha is, by fwelling in the aft of coition, to 
 embrace the penis, and by their fcnfibility to affecl the woman, 
 and mutually invite to procreation. 
 
 Their fubftance is very fpongy, compofed of membranes, and 
 veflels loofely cohering, and therefore eafily diftendible, 
 NYMPHEUM *, Ni/pfwpr, among the antients, a public hall, 
 or building, magnificently adorned and difpofed for banqueting 
 and entertainment; where thofe who wanted conveniences at 
 home, held their marriage-feafts, He* 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek CV#JW, bride. 
 
 Some authors rather take the antient nympheum to have been a 
 grotto, adorned with ftatues, jets, and other ornaments ; and that 
 it had its name by corruption, from lymphaum of lympha t water. 
 — In which fenfe it muft have been a public bath. 
 
 NYMPHOMANIA, in medicine, the fame with furor uterinum 
 See Uterinus. 
 
 NYMPHOTOMIA, in furgery, the operation of cutting off part 
 of the nymphae, or of the clitoris by fome alfo called nympha, 
 when they are fo large and tumid, as to prevent the confirma- 
 tion of marriage, or render it very difficult. 
 The Egyptians, Galen obferves, frequently pradtifed the nymphs- 
 tomia; but in our parts of the world, it is rarely found necef- 
 fary. 
 
 When it happens to be fo, the cafuifis give their judgment, that 
 the woman is obliged to undergo it. 
 
 The nymphotomia is properly the circumcifion of women. See 
 Circumcision 
 
 o. 
 
o. 
 
 OAT O B E 
 
 The fourteenth letter of the alphabet ; and the fourth 
 
 vowel. 
 
 The grammarians call it a clofe vowel ; becaufe 
 9 pronounced with the mouth fhut. 
 
 Among the Latins, the O bore fo great an affinity 
 with the U, that they frequently confounded them; writing 
 confab an d pronouncing conful. See Gruter's Infcript. 
 Thus, alfo, they wrote aequom for arquum, aorelius for aurelitts, 
 cmpafcaos, duomvir, &c. 
 
 The Greeks had two O's, viz. omicron, o, and omega, a ; 
 the firft pronounced on the tip of the lips with a fharper 
 found ; the fecond in the middle of the mouth, with a fuller 
 found, equal to oo in our language. — The long and fliort 
 pronunciation of our 0 are an equivalent to the two Greek 
 ones i the firfl, as in fuppafe ; the fecond, as in obey. 
 O, among the antients, was a numerical letter, fignifying eleven ; 
 as in the verfc, 
 
 O numerum geflat qui nunc undedmus extat. 
 When a dafli was added at the top, as O, it fignified eleven 
 thoufand. 
 
 Among the Irifh, the letter 0 at the beginning of the name of 
 e family, is a character of dignity, annexed to great houfes. 
 Thus in the hiftory of Ireland, we frequently meet with the 
 ONeals, OCarrols, &c. confiderable houles in that ifland. 
 Camden obferves, that it is the cuftom of the lords of Ireland 
 to prefix an O to their names, to diflinguifh them from the 
 commonalty. 
 
 A majufcule 0, in mufic, is a note of time, called by us femi- 
 ireve, by the Italians, circolo ; making what they call tempo 
 perfetto. 
 
 The antients ufed O as a mark of triple time ; from a no- 
 tion that the ternary, or number 3, was the moft perfect of 
 numbers, and therefore properly exprefled by a circle, the rnoft 
 perfect of figures. 
 
 O Ni, in the exchequer. — As fonn as the fheriff enters into, 
 and makes up his accounts for iflues, amerciaments, and mean 
 profits ; the practice is to mark on his head, O Ni, which fig- 
 nines, Omratur nifi habeat fufficientem exonerationem : and imme- 
 diately he becomes the king's debtor, and a debet is fet on his 
 head. — Upon which the parties become debtors to the flicriff", 
 and are difcharged to the king. 
 
 OAK. See the article Tim ber. 
 
 Hcyal Oak. See the article Royal. 
 
 Scarlet Oak. See the article Kermes. 
 
 Mijletoofthe Oak. See the article MisLETO. 
 
 Oak-So/A, Oak- Jpples* or Oak-Cowj, in natural hiftory, a 
 kind of galls, or excrefcences arifing out of the oak. — For w'hofe 
 generation and ufe, fee Galls. 
 
 OAKHAM, Ockham, or Oakum, in the fea language, de- 
 notes the matter of old ropes untwifted, and pulled out again into 
 loofe hemp, like hurds of flax, to be ufed in the caulking of 
 fhips. 
 
 OAR, in navigation, an inftrument whereby a boat, barge, gal- 
 ley, &c. is rowed, or advanced along the water. 
 In a vefTel with oars, the water is to be confidered as the point of 
 fupport, or fulcrum ; the oar as a lever ; the boat as the bur- 
 den to be moved, and the rower's hand as the moving power. 
 SeeLEVER, and Mechanic Power. 
 
 The burden is to be confidered as applied to that point of the 
 lever where the oar reffs on the boat. — The greater therefore 
 the diflanceof the hand from that point, and the lefs the diftance 
 of the water from that point, the greater effect will die oar 
 have. 
 
 Oar, in natural hiftory. See the article Ore. 
 
 OARISTUS, or Oaristys, a term in the Greek poetry, fig- 
 nifying a dialogue betwixt a husband and his wife; fuch as 
 that in the fixth book of the Iliad, between Hector and An- 
 dromache. 
 
 Scaligcr obferves, that the oarifus is not properly any particular 
 little poem, or intire piece of poetry ; but always a part ofa great 
 one. He add?, that the paflage now cited in Homer, is the only 
 proper oarifius extant in the antient poets. 
 OASY. See the article Oazy. 
 
 OATH, fusjurandum, is ufually defined a reliaious aflertion, or 
 affeveration ; wherein a perfon invokes the Almighty, renounces 
 all claim to his mercy, or even calls for the divine vengeance 
 upon himfelf, if he (peak falfly. 
 
 Some civilians look on this definition as too lax, fince it may 
 
 agree to perjury ; and would have this cfTential to an oath 
 that the thing affirmed be true. — But this is arbitrary. 
 An oath is efteemed a kind of civil medium, between the per- 
 fon that gives it, and him to whom it is given; whereby fome 
 controverfy, or other matter, which could not otherwife be de- 
 termined, is brought to an ifTue. — Its form, and the ceremonies 
 it is attended withal, are arbitrary, and various, in different 
 countries. 
 
 The oaths we make to God are called vows, and in fome cafes 
 facraments. 
 
 Oath, in a legal fenfe, is a folemn action, whereby God is called 
 to witnefs the truth of an affirmation given before one or more 
 perfons, impowered to receive the fame. 
 
 Legal oaths end with, fo help me God ; antiemly with, fo 
 help me God at his holy dome, e. judgment. See Dome. 
 This, according to our law-books, is called a corporal oath ; be- 
 caufe the party, when he fwears, touches the gofpels with his 
 right hand. 
 
 But, in fome old cuftoms of Anjou and Maine, it appears that 
 corporal oath was antiently a fimple affirmation, or vow of 
 faith, and fidelity, made by a vaflal who has no liege, by 
 lifting up his hand ; in con tradi function to that made by a 
 liege vaffal, which was made by laying bis hand on the gof- 
 pel. 
 
 An oath is called canonka purgatio, becaufe allowed of by the 
 canons ; to diflinguifh it from vulgares purgationes, viz. bf 
 battle, fire, ordeal, t$c. which the church always difcouraged. 
 In fmall matters, which the plaintiff could not prove, or if he 
 could, if his proof were fet afide, the defendant might purge 
 himfelf by his own oath : this was called, jurare propria 
 jnatiu. 
 
 But in matters of more weight, he was to bring other cre- 
 dible perfons, ufually of the fame quality with the plaintiff 
 to fwear that they believed the defendant had fworn the 
 truth. 
 
 Thefe were called compurgators, or facramentales ; and their 
 number was greater or lefs, according to the quality of the 
 defendant, and the nature of the thing in quefiion. — Hence 
 jurare duodecimo manu. 
 Oath is alfo ufed for a folemn promife faithfully to execute, cr 
 obferve fometbing. 
 
 Trials at common law depend on twelve, or twenty-four men, 
 who take their oaths that they will declare the truth, as it fliall 
 appear to them. See Jury and Trial. 
 In this fenfe we (ay,flate oaths ; the oath of fupremacy, oath of 
 allegiance, oath of abjuration. 
 
 At tlie meeting of a new parliament, the commons, a'l, take the 
 oaths of allegiance, fupremacy, and abjuration. 
 Kings and princes fwear to the performance of the treaties they 
 make : though antiently, they did not fwear of themfelves ; but 
 others fwore in their name. 
 
 Thus, in a treaty in 11 77. between the emperor Frederic Bar- 
 baroffa, Roger king of Sicily, pope Alexander III. and the cities 
 of Lombardy ; the count de Dieffe, by the emperor's or- 
 der, fwore, upon the foul of that monarch, that he woul 1 
 faithfully obferve the peace ; and, at the fame time, Romuald 
 archbifhop of Salernum, and count Roger, fwore, on the gof- 
 pel, that when the emperor's meffenger fhould arrive in Si- 
 cily, king Roger fhouid procure fome of his lords to fwear 
 for him. 
 
 fe/l Oath. See the article Test. 
 
 OAZY, or Oasy Ground, a name given by the feamen to foft, 
 (limy, or muddy ground. 
 
 OBEDIENCE, Obedientia, is fometimes ufed in the canon 
 law, for an office, or the adminiftration of it. 
 In our antient cuftoms, ebedientia was ufed in the generai, for 
 every thing that was injoined the monks, by the abbot. 
 
 Obedientia, in a more reftrained fenfe, was applied to the 
 farm belonging to the abbey, to which the monks were fent 
 vi ejufdem obediential, either to look after the farm, or collect 
 the rents. — Hence, alfo, thofe rents themfelves were called 
 obedientia. 
 
 OBELISK *, Obeliscus, a quadrangular pyramid, very {lender, 
 and high ; railed as an ornament, in fome public place, or to 
 (hew fome ftone of enormous fize ; and frequently charged 
 with inferiptions, and hieroglyphics. 
 
 * Borcl derives the word fom the Greek cG',\$ , a /pit, hroacb, 
 fpindle, or even a kind of long javelin. — Pliny lays, the 
 
 Egyptians 
 
OBJ 
 
 O B j 
 
 Egyptians cut their oheUJks in form of fun-beams ; and that 
 in the Phoenician language the word obelifk ilgnifies ray. 
 
 The Egyptian priefts called their ohlifks, the fun's fingers, be- 
 caufc fervin^ as ftyles, or gnomons to mark the hours on the 
 grouna.—The Arabs full call them Pharaoh's needles : whence 
 the Italians call them aguglia, and the Englilh Cleopatra s 
 
 needles. jaj | £ jfi vn ism j i/VU j* ' i f 
 
 The difference between *fc/j#J and pyramids, according to lome, 
 confifts in this, that the latter have large bafes, and the former 
 very fmall ones. 
 
 Though Cardan makes the difference to confift in this, tbatfifif- 
 Ufis are to be all of a piece, or to confift of a Tingle ftone, and 
 pyramids of feveral. 
 
 The proportions of the height and thicknefs are nearly the lame 
 in all obelifks ; that is, their height is nine, or nine and an half, 
 fometimes ten times their thicknefs ; and their thicknefs or dia- 
 meter a-top is never lefs than half, nor greater than three-fourths 
 of that at bottom. . , 
 
 This kind of monument appears very antient ; and we are tola 
 was firft made ufe of to tranfmit to pofterity the principal pre- 
 cepts of philofophy, which were engraven in hieroglyphical 
 characters hereon.— In after -times they were ufed to immor- 
 talize the aaions of heroes, and the memory of perfons be- 
 
 The 'firft obelifk we know of, was that raifed by Ramefes 
 kin^ of Esypt, in the time of the Trojan war. It was 40 cu- 
 bits^high/and, according to Herodotus, employed 20000 men 
 in the building. Phius, another king of Egypt, raifed one of 
 4; cubits ; and Ptolemy Philadelphus another of 88 cubits, in 
 memory of Arfinoe. See Porphry. 
 
 Auguftus erected an obelifk at Rome in the Campus Martius. 
 which ferved to mark the hours on a horizontal dial drawn on 
 the pavement. 
 
 F. Kircher reckons up 14 obelijks, celebrated above the reft. 
 viz, that of Alexandria, that of the Barberins, thofe of Con 
 flahtirfople, of the Mons Elquilinus, of the Campus Flaminius 
 of Florence, of Heliopolis, of Ludovifio, of S. Mahut, of the 
 Medici, of the Vatican, of M. Ceelius, and that of Pam- 
 phyliawi^»?*ui» jow^'TP'***^***' 
 Obelisk, in grammar, is a character, in form of a dagger (+), 
 ierving to refer the reader to fome note, or other matter in the 
 margin. 
 
 OBELUS, in antiquity, denotes a little line, or ftroke, like a needle 
 whence its name, oCeAof, which lignifies needle. 
 The word is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of Origen's Hexapla 
 wherein he diftinguifhcs with an afterifk, or ftar, the fupplements 
 he makes to the text of the Septuagint, where it fails fhort of 
 the Hebrew meaning; and with an obelus, orlineoh( — ) thofe 
 places where the Septuagint had any thing not in the He- 
 brew. 
 
 St. Jerom fays, the obelus was only ufed in thofe places where 
 fomething was to be retrenched from the Septuagint, as fuper 
 fluous 5 and the afterifk in thofe that were defective. Thefe 
 marks frequently occur in antient manufcripts. Ufu-lly, tht 
 obelus is accompanied with two dots ; the one above, the other 
 underneath, as (—) ; and the afterifk is a St. Andrew's crofs, 
 cantoned with four points. 
 OBESITY, Obesitas, in medicine, the ftate of a perfon 
 too much loaded with fat, and flefh; otherwife called cor- 
 pulency. 
 
 OBJECT*, in philofophy, fomething apprehended, or prefented 
 lo the mind, by fenfation, or by imagination. 
 
 * The word is derived from the Latin, objicere, to prefent to, to 
 fet before ; which is compofed of ob and jaceo, I lie againft. 
 
 An objeel is fomething that affects us by its prefence, that moves 
 the eye, ear, or fome of the other organs of fenfe ; or, at leaft, 
 is reprefentcd to us by the imagination. 
 
 The fchool-philofophers define objeSi to be that about which a 
 power, act, or habit, is employed. Thus, good is the objeel of 
 the will ; truth of the undemanding ; fa colour is the object 
 of fight ; found of hearing, c3V. 
 
 Objeils are ufually divided into next, proximo, which are thofe 
 the power, or habit is immediately empoyed on; in which 
 fenfe colour is the next objefl of fight. — And remote, which 
 are thofe only perceived by means of »he former : in which 
 fenfe, the wall is the remote objeel of fight, fince we only fee 
 it by means of its colour, Wtf. 
 
 Ideas are the immediate ohjeils of the mind in thinking : bo- 
 dies, their relations, attributes, &c. are the mediate objecls. 
 Hence it appears that there is a fort of fubordination of objecls. 
 But, note, that a next objeel, with regard to a remote one, is pro- 
 perly a fubject, not an objeel. See Subject. 
 They alfo diftinguifh objeSs per fi, which are what properly 
 move, or affect our fenfes : fiich as are the fenfible qualities. — 
 And obje"s per accident, which are fubftances, and only affect 
 us by being inverted with fenfible qualities. 
 Again, they diftinguifh between common objecls, which are fuch 
 as affect divers fenfes ; as are motion, figure, &c. and proper 
 cbjeStij which only affect one fenfe. See Sf.nse. 
 
 There are feveral conditions requifite to an objeel of fenfe ; as 
 that it be material ; that it be within a certain diftance of 
 a competent extent, its fenfible qualities fufficicntly imenfe, 
 
 It is the objeel that rqfleas, or emits the rays of light Which 
 occafion viiion. — Objecls of themftlves are invifible ; we only 
 feem to perceive them, becaufe the different texture of their 
 furface, difpofing them to reflect differently coloured rays, occa- 
 fion in us feveral fenfations of colour, which we attribute to 
 them. 
 
 The objecls of the eye, or vifion, are painted on the retina ; 
 though not there erect, but inverted, according to the laws of 
 optics. — This is eafily {hewn from Cartes's experiment of lay- 
 ing bare the vitreous humour on the back-part of the eye ; and 
 clapping over it a bit of white paper, or the fkin of an egg, and 
 then placing the fore-part of the eye to the hole of a darkened 
 room. By this means is had a pretty landfchape of the objects 
 abroad, painted invertedly on the back of the eye. 
 How in this cafe, the objects which are painted inverted fhould 
 be feen erefl, is matter of controverfy. See Seeing. 
 Object-G/<t/? of a telefcope, or microfcope,_ is the glaS placed 
 at that end of the tube which is next the objeel. 
 To prove the regularity and goodnefs of an objecl-glafs,—fh\ka 
 two concentric lines on a paper, the one having its diameter the 
 fame with the breadth of the objecl-glafs ; the other half that 
 diameter : divide the inner circumference into fix equal parts, 
 and making fix fine fmall holes therein with a needle, cover one 
 fide of the glafs with this paper ; then cxpofing it to the fun, 
 receive the rays that pafs through thefe fix holes, on a plane, at 
 a juft diftance from the glafs ; and by withdrawing or ap- 
 proaching this plane, from or to the glafs, we (hall find whether 
 the rays that pafs through thefe fix holes, unite exactly together 
 at any diftance from the glafs ; if they do, we may be allured 
 of the regularity of the glafs ; that is, of its juft farm ; 
 and at the lame time we obtain exactly the glafs's focal 
 length. 
 
 Indeed there is fcarce any better way of proving the excel-, 
 lency of an objecl-glafs, than by placing it in a tube, and 
 trying it with fmall eye-glafTes at feveral diftant objects ; for 
 that objeft-glafs which reprefents objects the brighteft, and 
 moft diftinct, which bears the greateft aperture, and moft con- 
 vex, and concave eye-glafs, without colouring or hazinefs, is 
 always the belt. 
 
 To prove whether ohjeil-glajfes be well centred,— hold the glafs 
 at a due diftance from the eye ; and obferve the two reflected 
 images of a candle ; where thofe images unite or coalefce, there 
 is the true centre. If this be in the middle, or central point 
 of the glafs, then it is known to be truly centred. 
 Object is alfo ufed for the matter of an art or fcience j or that 
 about which it is employed. 
 In which fenfe the word coincides with fubjecl. 
 The fchool-philofophers diftinguifh divers kinds of objecls in the 
 fame fcience, viz. 
 Material Object, which is the thing itfelf that is corifidered, or 
 treated of. — And thus it is the human body which is the objeel 
 of medicine. 
 
 Formal Object is the manner of confidering it. — And thus the 
 fame human body, confidered with a view to the healing it, is 
 the formal objec't of medicine. 
 Objectum quad complexum, of an art, is the aggregative whole; 
 or a collection of all the objective conclufions, or confequencea 
 found in the fcience. 
 Objectum quod incomplcxum is a collection of all the fubjects of 
 the objective conclufions. — Thus, therefore air is claftic, is the 
 complex objeel of one branch of pbyftcs ; and air itfelf, or 
 the fubject of the conclufion, the incomplex objeel of the fame 
 branch. 
 
 Objectum quo complexum is a collection of all the objective an- 
 tecedents of the fcience. 
 Objectum quo incomplcxum is a collection of all the mediums, 
 or arguments contained in thofe antecedents, and whereby thofe 
 conclufions are proved. 
 
 In thefe cafes, the object is faid to be complex, inafmuch as it in- 
 cludes both an affirmation and negation; and inconiplex, as it in- 
 cludes neither : quod, as being that which (quod) is fhewn in the 
 fcience; and quo, as being that whereby (quo) the conclufions 
 therein are proved. 
 
 Schoolmen alfo diftinguifh an objeel per fe y and per aecidens ; 
 oljeclum adaquatum, and inadaquatum ; attribution^, and at- 
 
 tributum, &c. 
 
 OBJECTION, in reafoning, fomething urged to overthrow a po- 
 fition ; or, a difficulty raifed againft an allegation, or propofition 
 of a perfon we are difputing withal. 
 
 -The anfwering of objections comes under that branch of ora- 
 tory, or that part of an oration, called confirmation, or confuta- 
 tion. 
 
 Over-ruling an Ob jection. See Over-ruling. 
 OBJECTIVE, Objectivus, is ufed in the fchools in fpeak- 
 ing of a tiling which exifts n.o otherwife than as an object 
 known. 
 
 The 
 
 1 
 
OBL 
 
 OB L 
 
 The effc, or exigence, of fuch thing, is faid to be objective. 
 Others call it ratio objefliva. 
 Objective is alio ufed for the power, or faculty, by which any 
 thing becomes intelligible. — And, for the aft itfelf, whereby 
 any thing is prefented to the mind, and known. 
 Hence a thing is faid to exiji objectively, objective, when it ex- 
 ifts no otherwife than in being known, or by being an object 
 of the mind. 
 
 This fome will have to be real effe; others deny it. See 
 
 Esse . 
 
 Objective evidence. See the article Evidence. 
 Oejective line. See the article Line. 
 Objective notion. See the article Notion. 
 Objective plane. See the article Plane. 
 OBI1T nuper. See the article Nuper. 
 
 OBIT, Obitus, in our antient cuftoms, was a funeral fo- 
 
 lemnity, or office for the dead ; commonly performed when 
 
 the corpfe lay uninterrcd in the church. 
 Obit is alfo an anniverfary office, or mafs, held yearly, in the 
 
 Romifh church, on a certain day, in memory of fome perfon 
 
 deceafed. 
 
 One of the moft antient obits in Europe is that of king ChU- 
 debert, founded in the abby of St. Germains Dcfprez, and 
 faid on the eve of St. Thomas's day. 
 
 The tenure of obit, or chantry-lands, held of the fubjecr. by 
 fuch fcrvice, is decreed to be extinct with us, by Stat, i Ed- 
 ward VI. 
 
 OBITUARY, Oeituarium, a funeral rcgifter, wherein are 
 
 wrote the names of the dead, and the days of their burial ; 
 
 for whom obits, or anniverfaries, are to be performed. 
 
 Thefe, in fome places, are alfo called mortuaries ; but more 
 
 frequently necrologies, or calendars. 
 Obituary is more particularly ufed for a book containing the 
 
 foundation or inftitution of the feveral obits in a church, or 
 
 monaftery. See Obit. 
 
 This is more frequently called the martyr 'ohgy. See Marty- 
 ROLOCY. 
 
 OBLATA, things given, or'voluntarily offered, particularly to 
 the king, by any of his fubjedls. 
 
 They are thus called, by reafon the obiata, or offerings to our 
 kings, were fo ftriflly looked to in the reigns of king John, 
 and Henry III. that they were entered into the fine-roll under 
 the term obiata ; and, if not paid, were put in charge to the flic- 
 riff. 
 
 Oblata, in the exchequer, fignifies old debts ; brought, as it 
 were, together, from preceding years, and put to the prefect 
 fheriff's charge. 
 
 OBLATI, anciently, were fccular perfons, who beftowed them- 
 felves, and their creates, on fome monaftery, and were ad- 
 mitted as lay-brothers. 
 
 There were fome of thefe oblati, properly called donati, who 
 gave their perfons, their families, and effects; and even en- 
 tered into a kind of fervitude themfelves, and their defend- 
 ants. 
 
 They were admitted by putting the bell-ropes of the church 
 around their necks, and, as a mark of fervitude, a few pence 
 on their heads. 
 
 The donati took religious habits, but different from thofe of 
 the monks. 
 
 In the archives of the abby of St. Paul de Verdun is a per- 
 miflion, given in 1360. to a man of that abby, to marry a 
 wife; on condition, that, of the children arifing from the 
 marriage, one half Ihould belong to the abby, in quality 
 of oblati ; the other half to the bifhop. — This kind of ob- 
 lati are faid to have taken their firft rife in the eleventh cen- 
 tury. 
 
 In the earlier times, thofe only were called oblati whom their 
 parents engaged, from their infancy, to the monaftic life.— 
 Thofe who embraced it themfelves, when at an age capable of 
 choice, were called converts, converfu 
 
 The oblati made no profeffion ; yet kept the celibate, lived in 
 obedience to the fuperiors, and did the drudgery of the mo- 
 naftery. — Yet they differed from trie fervants of the houfe, 
 who were allowed to marry. 
 
 The oblati and donati were, properly, fervants by devotion, as 
 the others were by condition. 
 
 Helyot fays, the oblati differed from converts, inafmuch as 
 the latter made the profeffion, and wore the habit, which the 
 former did not. 
 
 Oblati were alfo, in France, a kind of lay-monks, antiently 
 placed by the king in all the abbeys and priories in his nomi- 
 nation ; to whom the religious were obliged to give a monk's 
 allowance, on account of their ringing the bells, and fweeping 
 the church, and the court. 
 
 Thefe offices were ufually filled with lame foldiers, and inva- 
 lids, fome of whom had penfions on benefices, without any 
 duty. — But ihcfe oblati, with their penfions, have fince been 
 all removed to the hotel of the invalids at Paris. 
 OBLATIONS, Offerings, properly denote, things offered 
 to God. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 In the canon law, ablations are defined to be any things of- 
 fered by godly chriftians to God, and the church, L e. 
 to the priefts, whether they be moveables, or immove- 
 ables. 
 
 Oblations were antiently of various kinds ; viz. oblationes al~ 
 tarts, which the prieft had for faying mafs. — Oblationes de-' 
 funSiorufn, given by the laft wills of the faithful to the church. 
 — Oblationes moriuorum, thofe given by the relations of the 
 dead, at their burials. — Oblationes pcenitentiutn, thofe given 
 by penitents. — And oblationes pentecojlales, or Whitfun- offer- 
 ings; 
 
 Till the fourth century the church had no fixed revenues, nor 
 any other means of fubfiftence but alms, or voluntary obla- 
 tions. 
 
 OBLIGATION, an act whereby a perfon engages, or binds 
 himfelf, or is bound by another, to do fomething ; as to pay 
 a fum of money, to be furety, or the like. 
 The acceptance of a bill of exchange, is a kind of obligation to 
 pay it. 
 
 The exacting of intereft on a fum due by a fimple obligation, 
 is accounted ufury. 
 
 All obligations arife from contracts, or quafi-contradrs ; from 
 crimes, or quafi-crimes ; and, in the Roman law, were either 
 eivil, or praetorian ; e, either approved by the civil law, or 
 introduced by the prxtor. 
 
 There are three kinds of obligations ; natural, civil, and 
 
 B2 " f '* LX-illrt 5||iJlbTiliTtfi^ihVinriTi'- )mtStiUitmikk 
 Natural Obligations are founded on the mere bond of na- 
 tural equity, without any civil neceffity, and without pro- 
 ducing any action of conftraint. — Such are the obligations a mi- 
 nor is under. 
 
 Civil Obligation is that fupported on civil authority alone, 
 and which induces a conftraint without any principle or foun- 
 dation in natural equity. — Such is the obligation on a man con- 
 demned unjuftly. 
 
 Mixt Obligation, or an obligation both natural and civil, is 
 that which, being founded in natural equity, is farther con- 
 firmed and inforced by civil authority. 
 
 There are alfo perfonal obligations, hypothecary obligations, ob- 
 ligations of goods, body, C3V. 
 Obligation, in a more ftrict fenfe, denotes a bond contain- 
 ing a penalty, with a condition annexed, for payment of mo- 
 ney at a certain time ; or for performance of covenant, or the 
 like. 
 
 A bond, or obligation, is faid to differ from a bill, in that 
 the latter is commonly without a penalty, and without con- 
 dition.— Yet a bill may be obligatory. Goke on Little- 
 ton. 
 
 Till the conqueft, writings were rendered obligatory by cer- 
 tain marks of gold croffes, tiff. The Normans firft intro- 
 duced the cuftom of making bills and obligations with a print 
 or feal in wax fet to every one's fignature, attefted by three 
 witnefTes. 
 
 OBLIQUATION, in catoptrics.— Cathetus of Oeliquation 
 
 is a right line drawn perpendicular to a mirrour, in the point of 
 
 incidence, or reflexion of a ray. 
 OBLIQUE, in geometry* fomething aflant, indirect, or that 
 
 deviates from the perpendicular. 
 Oblique angle, in geometry, is an angle that is either acute 
 
 or obtufe; /'. e. any angle, except a right angle. See 
 
 Angle. 
 
 pE>Li<iVE- angled triangle is that who fe angles are oblique; i.e. 
 either obtufe, or acute. 
 
 Oblique line, a line which, falling on another, makes an oblique 
 angle. 1 
 A line falling obliquely oh another makes the angle on one fide 
 obtufe, and that on the other acute. 
 
 Oblique planes, in dialling, are fuch as recline from the ze- 
 nith, or incline towards the horizon. 
 
 The obliquity, or quantity, of this inclination, or recli- 
 nation, is eafily found by a quadrant; it being an arch 
 of fome azimuth, or vertical circle, intercepted between 
 the vertex of the place and of that plane. —This azi- 
 muth, or vertical circle, is always perpendicular to the 
 plane. 
 
 Oblique pcrcujfion is that wherein the direction of the 
 ftriking body is not perpendicular to the body ftruck, or 
 is not in a line with its centre of gravity. See Percus- 
 sion. 
 
 The ratio an oblique ftroke bears to a perpendicular one, is de- 
 monftrated to be, as the fine of the angle of incidence to the 
 radius. 
 
 Oblique powers, or forces. See Powers, Motion Di- 
 rection, CSV. 
 
 Oblique projection, in mechanics, is that where a body is im- 
 pelled in a line of direction, which makes an oblique an°-le with 
 the horizontal line. 
 
 Oblique Jpherc, in geography, is that whofe horizon cuts 
 the equator obliquely, and one of whofe poles is raifed 
 above the horizon equal to the latitude of the place. 
 
 7 K It 
 
OBL 
 
 O B R 
 
 It is this obliquity that occafions the inequality of days and 
 
 Thofc who live undet an oblique fphere (as we, and all thofe 
 in the temperate zone, do) never have their days and nights 
 equal, except in the equinoxes. 
 
 Oblique afcenfton, in aftronomy, an arch of the equator inter- 
 cepted between the firft point of Aries and that point of the 
 equator which rifes together with z ftar, lie. in an oblique 
 fphere. See Ascension. 
 
 Oblique defcenfm, an arch of the equator intercepted between 
 the firft point of Aries and that point of the equator which lets 
 with a ftar, Safe, in an oblique fphere; and reckoned from weft 
 toeaft. See Desc ension. 
 
 To find the oblique afcenfton and defcenfwn by the globe, bee 
 
 Oblique'/""'''"^ in navigation, is when the fhip, being in fome 
 intermediate rhumb between the four cardinal points, makes 
 an oblique angle with the meridian, and continually changes 
 both its latitude and longitude. 
 
 Oblique failing is of three kinds ; viz. plum failing, Merca- 
 ior's failing, and great circle [ailing. See Sa I L 1 KG. 
 The feamen alfo call the application of the method of calcu- 
 latins; the parts of oblique plain triangles, in order to find the 
 diftance of a fhip from any cape, head-land, (Sc. by the name 
 of oblique failing. 
 
 Oblique dijhllalion, in chymiftry. See Distillation. 
 
 Oblique flank, in fortification. See Flank. 
 
 Oblique cafes, in grammar, are all the cafes of the declenfions 
 of nouns, befides the nominative. See Case. 
 
 Oblique, Obliquus, in anatomy (fee Muscle), is applied 
 fubftantively to fevcral mufcles of the head and eye ; particu- 
 larly the . . . , 
 
 Obliquus capitis major , or par Obliquum mfenus, the irxin 
 mufcle of the head ; lb called becaufe ferving to turn the head 
 afide; though it has neither its origin nor infertion in the 
 
 This' rifes flefhy from the external parts of the fpine of the 
 fecond vertebra of the neck, and, fwelling into a flefhy 
 belly, runs obliquely to the tranfverfe procefs of the firft 
 vertebra. —This fome rank among the mufcles of the 
 neck. r 
 Obliquus capitis fuperior, or minor, or par obliquum Jupe- 
 rius, the feventh mufcle of the head ; which, fpringing 8elhy 
 from the tranfverfe proceil'es of the fecond vertebra of the 
 neck, and afcending obliquely, is inferred laterally into the 
 '•occkmft'' 1 - ': 'Vm .0/- sis!.'.!' ■ 
 Others will have its origin to be in the occiput, where the 
 common opinion places iis infertion ; its infertion they make 
 in the tranfverfe proceffes of the firft vertebra, near that of 
 the fame fide. 
 
 The two oblique mufcles, by pulling the tranlverle procels, 
 ; the head a femicircular motion. 
 
 give t 
 
 the fifth mufcle of the eye. 
 
 Obliquus oculi fuperior, or major 
 
 iThas^its'origin in the upper part of the orbit; whence, tend- 
 ing upwards towards the inward canthus of the eye, it pafles 
 through a cartilage on the bone of the forehead, called trochlea-, 
 whence, alfo, the mufcle itfelf is called trochlears: thence it 
 is reflected to its termination in the fclirotica, on the back part 
 of the ball of the eye. 
 
 When this mufcle a3s, that part of the ball of the eye 
 is drawn downwards towards the trochlea, whereby the 
 pupil is directed downwards, towards the lefler canthus; and, 
 at the fame time, ihe whole ball of the eye fomewhat out- 
 wards. 
 
 Obliquus oculi inferior, or minor. It rifes from the external 
 margin of the lower part of the orbit, near the inner can- 
 thus ; whence, rifing towards the outward canthus, it termi- 
 nates' near the other. — It draws the ball of the eye outwards, 
 and turns its pupil upward, contrary to the former. See 
 SoTATOJ. , 
 
 Obliquus defcendens, or dtclivis, a very broad pair ot mulcles 
 of the abdomen, each covering one half thereof, and part 
 of the thorax ; fo called from the oblique courfe of its fibres. 
 
 r t ar j(e S from the two laft true ribs, and five fpurious 
 
 ones ; and is indented with the ferratus major amicus by five 
 or fix dictations, each whereof receives a nerve from the in- 
 terfaces of the rib : it fprings, likewife, from the margin of 
 the ilium, and ends in a broad tendon in the linea alba.— See 
 Tab. Anat. (Myol.) fig. 7. n. 19. fig- t. n. 45. and fig. 6. ». 
 
 Befides the ordinary ufe afcribed to it by all anatomifts, which 
 is, to comprefs the inteftines and bladder ; Cowper and GliiTon 
 attribute to it another, which is, to turn the trunk of the body 
 without moving the feet. 
 Obliquus afcendem, or ecciivis*, -lies under the lower part 
 of the former; running withacourfe jult contrary. 
 
 lower part upwards : its flefhy fibres have their origin from the 
 edge of the ilium, and end at the fpurious ribs : it terminates 
 with a large double tendon in the linea alba, the upper part 
 whereof, creeping over the mufculus re£tus, and the other 
 creeping under it, and joining together at the linea alba, do, 
 
 as it were, fheath the reftus See Tab. Anat. (Myol.) fig. 2. 
 
 n. 30. fig. 1. n. 44. 
 
 Its ufe is, to fhut and comprefs the belly ; as, alfo, the cavity 
 of the thorax, in refpiration; and it affifts, with its antago- 
 nift, the defcendens, in turning the body without moving the 
 
 \ legs. '. * '. ni,T.f J.*-> 
 
 Obliquus auris lies in the external part of the canal of the 
 aqueduft ; whence, palling upwards and backwards, it enters 
 the tympanum, by a very oblique finuofity, immediately above 
 the bony circle to which the tympanum is fixed ; and is inferted 
 into the (lender procefs of the malleus. 
 
 OBLIQUITY, that which denotes a thing oblique. 
 
 The obliquity of the fphere is the caufe of the inequality of the 
 feafons, of nights and days. 
 
 Obliquity of the ecliptic, is the angle which the ecliptic makes 
 with the equator. 
 
 Meffieurs Caffini, and De la Hire, make the obliquity of the 
 ecliptic, by their obfervations, 23°. 29'. M. le Cheva- 
 lier DeLouville, from later obfervations, makes it 23°. 28'. 
 
 The fame author, giving the hiftory of the feveral determin- 
 ations of this obliquity, by all aftronomers, in all ages, ob- 
 ferves, that they conftantly diminifh ; and thence takes oc- 
 cafion to fufpeft, that the real obliquity of the ecliptic itfelf 
 may have been diminiflied fince the time of the antient aftro- 
 nomers. 
 
 He goes fo far, as even to fix the proportion of the diminution, 
 which he makes to be at the rate of half a minute in fifty years. 
 According to an antient tradition among the Egyptians, men- 
 tioned by Herodotus, the ecliptic was formerly perpendicular to 
 the equator. 
 
 The libration of the fphere makes fome alterations in the obli- 
 quity of the ecliptic ; fo that Wolfius reckons a great obliquity 
 of 23". 53'. ismean obliquity of 23°. 41'. and a fmall one of 
 
 23°. 3C/. - 1 t ftiir.:^Jl|lU*lB %±;\*V\<\">j*lft\rXH.\ V. 
 
 OBLONG, in geometry, a figure longer than it is broad. 
 
 Thus a reflanglcd parallelogram, whofe fides are unequal, is 
 an oblong : fo an ellipfis is alfo an oblong. 
 OBLONGATA medulla. See Medulla, and Crura. 
 OBOLATA term, in our anrient law-books, is a certain quan- 
 tity of land, which fome authors fix at half an acre; though 
 others make it but half a perch. 
 
 According to Thomafius, the obulus terres contains ten feet in 
 length, and five in breadth. 
 OBOLUS*, an anlient filver money of Athens, the fixth patt 
 of a drachma ; worth fomewhat more than a penny farthing 
 fterling. 
 
 » The word comes from the Greek, of oa®, of of s/.®', fpir, 
 or broach ; either becaufe it bore fuch an imprefiion, or 
 becaufe, according to Euftathius, it was in form there- 
 of : but thofe now in the cabinets of the antiquaries are 
 round. 
 
 from the 
 
 » AeeSmi is compounded of ad, to 1 and c/i*«<, a cliff, 2 fcant 
 ling? or Hoping, 4. 
 
 Obolus was alfo ufed, among our anceftors, for half a noble, 
 or florin ; where the noble was efteemed as the penny, and its 
 quarter part a farthing. 
 
 In effect, in the old hiftories and accounts of coins, we ars 
 to underftand, by the word denarius, the whole coin, be it 
 angel, rial, EsY. by the obolus, its half ; and by quadrans, its 
 fourth part. 
 
 Obolus, in medicine, is ufed for a weight of ten grains, or half 
 a fcruple. 
 
 Du Cange fays, the obolus weighs three carats, or four 
 grains of wheat : others divide it into fix areola;, and the 
 areola into feven minutes; others into three filiquae, each 
 filiqua into four grains, and each grain into a lentil and an 
 half. 
 
 Among the Sfcilians obolus alfo denoted the weight of a 
 pound. 
 
 OBREPTICIOUS, Obreptitius, a quality of letters patent, 
 or any other inftrument which confers a favour, title, or con- 
 ceffion; denoting it obtained of a fuperior by furprize, or by 
 concealing from him the truth, which was neceffary to have 
 been expreffed, in order to render it valid. 
 In which fenfe the word ftands oppofed to furrepticieus, 
 where fome falfhood has been exprefled, in order to procure 
 it the more eafily. — Obreptien annuls the grant, where-ever 
 found. _ . 
 
 By the canon law, a perfon demanding a benefice, without 
 expreffing thofe he is already pofleffed of, forfeits, & c. by ob- 
 reptien. ... 
 OBR1NE, Kmc-HTS of Obrine, a military order inftituted 
 in the thirteenth century by Conrade, duke of Mazovia and 
 Cujavia ; whom fome authors, call alfo duke of Poland. 
 
 H« 
 
O B S 
 
 OBS 
 
 He firfl gave them the name of knights ofjefus Chrlff. Their 
 firfr. grand matter was Bruno. Their chief end was to 
 defend the country from the Pruffians, who were yet idola- 
 ters, and committed great cruelties. 
 
 Duke Conrade putting them in pofleffion of fort Obrine, they 
 hence took a new name ; and it was agreed between them, 
 that whatever lands they conquered from the Pruffians, fhould 
 be equallydivided with him. 
 
 But the Pruffians blocking up the fort, fo that none of the 
 knights could get out ; the order became ufelefs, and was 
 foon fupprefled. — Upon this, Conrade called in the Teutonic 
 knights. 
 
 OBSCURA Camera. See Camera Ohfcnra. 
 Obscura Clara. See Clair-Obscure. 
 OBSCURE, fometbing that is dark, or that only receives 2nd 
 
 returns a little light. 
 Obscure is alfo ufed in a figurative fenfe, for a thing that 
 
 is not clear, exprefs, and intelligible ; that one does not 
 
 fully apprehend ; or that may be conftrued in divers 
 
 fenfes. 
 
 Obscure notion, or Idea. See Notion, and Idea. 
 Clair Obscure. See the article Clair-Obscure. 
 OBSCURITY, that which denominates a thing obfeure. 
 
 Obfcurity is a fault that may either be in the perception, or 
 
 the diiEtion. 
 
 Obfcurity in the perception arifes chiefly hence, that we do 
 not conceive things as they are, or as we find them ; but as 
 we judge them to be before we know them : fo that our 
 judgment precedes our knowledge, and is made the rule or 
 ftandard of our conceptions. — Whereas nature and reafon 
 direct, that things fhould be judged of according as they are 
 known ; and that they are to be known, not as they are in 
 themfelves, but only in fuch manner as God was pleafed to 
 have them known. 
 
 Obfcurity in the dielion may arife, firfl, from the ambiguity of 
 the fenfe of words ; fecondly, from the figures or ornaments 
 of rhetoric ; thirdly, from the novelty or obfoletcnefs of the 
 words. 
 
 OBSECRATION, Obsecratio, in rhetoric, a figure where- 
 by the orator implores the affiftance of God, or man. 
 , This figure Cicero makes admirable ufe of, for K. Deiotarus, 
 
 to Caviar. Per dcxteram te iflam oro, quam reg't Deictaro 
 
 hofpes hofpiti porrexijli : ijlam, inquam, dexter am non tarn in 
 bellisitf inprcsliis, quam in promijfis csf fide firmiorem. — Thus 
 • Virgil : /;•;• 
 
 j^uod te per cccli jucundum lumen, & auras, 
 Per genitorem oro, per fpem furgentis lull, 
 
 Eripe me his, tnvide, malis 
 
 OBSEQUIES*, funeral folemnities, or ceremonies performed 
 at the burials of eminent perfonages. 
 
 * The word is derived from the Latin obfeqmum, obedience ; 
 theie olfequies being the laft devoirs we can render to the de- 
 ccafed. 
 
 OBSERVANCE literally denotes the act of obferving, or 
 
 complying, with a rule, law, or ceremony. 
 
 Hence obfervance is fometimes alfo ufed for a rule, ftatute, or 
 
 ordinance to be obferved. See Rule. 
 Observance, Observantia, is particularly understood, in 
 
 a monafTic fenfe, of a community of religious, who are tied 
 
 to the perpetual obfervation of the fame rule. In which fenfe 
 
 the word coincides with congregation, or order. 
 
 The Cordeliers denominate themfelves, religious of the obfer- 
 vance the great, and the lejfcr obfervance. 
 
 Among the Bernardins, there are monks of the Jir'tft obfer- 
 
 vnnce, who eat nothing but fifh. 
 OBSF.RVANTINES, religious Cordeliers of the obfervance. 
 
 In Spain there are bare-footed obfervantines. 
 OBSERVATION, in the fea-language, the taking the fun's, 
 
 or any ftar's, meridian altitude, in order thereby to find the 
 
 latitude. 
 
 For tbe method of making an obfervation, fee Lati- 
 tude. 
 
 The finding of a latitude from the meridian altitude ob- 
 ferveJ, they call working an cbjervation. 
 Observations, in aftronomy. See Coelestial obferva- 
 tions. 
 
 : OBSERVATORY, Observatorium, a place deftined for 
 obferving the heavenly bodies ; or, a building ufually in form 
 of a tower, raifed on fome eminence, and covered with a 
 terrace, for making of aftronomical obfervations. 
 
 The more celebrated obfervatorics are, 1^. The Grien- 
 
 wich obfervatory, built in 1676. by order of king Charles IL 
 at the folicitation of Sir Jonas Moor, and Sir Chrifiopher 
 Wren ; and furnifhed with the moft accurate inftruments by 
 the fame ; particularly a noble fextant of feven feet radius, 
 with tth-fc ope- fights. 
 
 The ptrfon to whom the province of obferving was firft 
 committed, was Mr. J. Flamftecd ; a man, who, as Dr. 
 
 Halley expreiTes it, feemed born for the employment. For 
 the fpace of fourteen years, with unwearied pains, he watch- 
 ed the motions of the planets, chiefly thofe of the moon, as 
 was given him in charge s that a new theory of that planet, 
 exhibiting all her irregularities, being found, the longituda 
 might thence be determined. 
 
 In the year 1690. having provided himfelf of a mural arch 
 of 7 feet diameter, well fixed in the plane of the meridian, 
 he began to verify his catalogue of the fixed liars, which 
 hitherto had depended altogether on the diftances meafured 
 with the fcxtant, after a new and very different manner ; 
 •viz. by taking the meridian- altitudes, and the moments 
 of culmination, or the right afcenfion and declination. 
 This inftrument he was fo pleafed with, that he hid the ufe of 
 the fextant almoft wholly afidc. Thus was the aftronomer 
 royal employed for thirty years ; in the courfe of which time 
 nothing had appeared in public, worthy fo.much expence and 
 preparation i fo that the obferver feemed rather to have been 
 employed for his own fake, and that of a few friends, than 
 for the public ; though it was notorious, the obfervations that 
 had been made were very numerous, and the papers fwelled 
 to a great bulk. 
 
 This occalioned prince George of Denmark, in the year 
 1704. to appoint certain members of the Royal Society, viz. 
 the honourable Fr. Robarts, Sir C. Wren, Sir L Newton, 
 Dr. Gregory, and Dr. Arbuthnot, to infpect Mr. Flamfteed's 
 papers, and chufe out of them fuch as they mould think fit 
 for the prefs ; purpofing to print them at bis own expence : 
 but the patron of the work dying, ere the impreflion was 
 half finifhed, it lay ftill for fome time ; till at length it was 
 refumed by order of queen Anne ; and the care of the prefs 
 committed to Dr. Arbuthnot ; and that of correcting, and 
 fupplying the copy, to Dr. Halley. 
 
 Such was the rife and progrefs of the Wfloria Ccelejlis ; the 
 principal part whereof is the catalogue of fixed iters, called 
 alfo the Greenwich catalogue. 
 
 Fhe Greenwich obfervatory is found, by very accurate obferva- 
 tions, to lie in 510, 28', 30", north latitude. 
 2°. The Paris obfervatory, built by the late Louis XIV. in 
 the Fauxbourg St. Jaques. — It is a veryfingular, but withal a 
 very magnificent building ; the defign of M. Perrault. It is 
 80 feet high, and atop is a terrace. — It is here M. de la Hire 
 has been employed. — The difference in longitude between this 
 and the Greenwich obfervatory, is 20", 20', Weft. 
 In the Paris obfervatory is a cave, or cellar, of 170 feet de- 
 fcent, for experiments that are to be made far from the fun, 
 &c. particularly fuch as relate to congelations, refrigerations, 
 indurations, confervations, &c. 
 
 3°. Tycho Brahe's obfervatory was in the little iffand Ween, 
 or the Scarlet ifland, between the coafts of Schonen and Ze- 
 Jand, in the Baltic. — It was erected and furnifhed with inftru- 
 ments at his own expence ; and was called by him Urani- 
 burg. In this place he fpent twenty years in obferving the 
 ftars. The icfult is his catalogue. 
 
 Mr. Gordon, in Phil. Tranfi obferves, that this was none 
 of the fittteft places for fome kind of obfervations, particu- 
 larly the rifirjgs and fettings ; as lying too low, and being 
 land-locked on all the points of the compafs but three ; and 
 the land-borizon exceedingly rugged and uneven. 
 4°. Pehin obfervatory. Father Le Compte defcribes a very 
 magnificent obfervatory, erected and furnifhed by the late em- 
 peror of China, in his capital, at the interceifion of fome 
 Jefuit miffionaries, chiefly father Verbieft, whom he made 
 his chief obferver. 
 
 The inftruments are exceedingly large ; but the divifions are 
 lefs accurate, and the contrivance, in fome refpects, lefs com- 
 modious, than thofe of the Europeans. The chief are an ar- 
 millary zodiacal fphere of fix Paris feet diameter, an equi- 
 noctial fpbere 6 feet diameter, 2n azimutbal horizon 6 feet 
 diameter, a large quadrant 6 feet radius, a fextant 8 feet ra- 
 dius, and a cceleftial globe 6 feet diameter. 
 OBSESSION, the action, or rather paffion, of being befet by 
 an evil fpirit ; which, without entring the body, torments, 
 and, as it were, befieges the perfon without. 
 In which fenfe, obfeffion differs from poffeffion. 
 The marks of obfeffion, according to fome, are a being hoifted 
 into tbe air, and thrown violently down without being hurt ; 
 fpcaking languages never learnt ; having an averfion to all 
 acts and offices of religion, fsV. 
 
 Some phyficians look on all cafes of obfeffion as natural, and 
 curable by natural medicines, particularly by an unguent called 
 unguentum carr'tohteri, with purgatives, or vomitives. 
 Of this opinion is doctor Gabriel Clauderus, member of the 
 Leopoldine academy, which he confirms with the teftimony 
 of Fromannus, in his treatife De Fafcinationibus, and Gan- 
 flus de Corallis ; adding, that it has been confeffed by many 
 witches and forcerers, that the plant hypeciron, and other 
 fimples, &c, incommode them terribly, and prevent their 
 operations. 
 
 He 
 
occ 
 
 occ 
 
 He confirms this fentiment hence, that the devil, in thofe he 
 thus befits, makes ufe of the melancholic humour, or the 
 atra bilis, anil the groffer impurities of the blood, without 
 always afling immediately of himfelf. For which he refers to 
 the books of MelchiorSebizius, and Jerom Jordan deDivinom 
 homine ; and gives the procefs of a cure of a manifeft obfeffun 
 of a child of a year old at Delitfchebjurg, three leagues from 
 Leipfic. In truth, the devil has no fhare in the matter. 
 OBSIDIONALIS*, an epithet which the Romans gave to a 
 fort of crown wherewith they honoured fuch of their generals 
 as had delivered a Roman army, or fortrefs, befieged by 
 the enemy ; and had raifed the fiege, or obliged them to 
 decamp. 
 
 • The word comes from the Latin tbfitSt, liege. 
 It was alfo called graminea, becaufe made of graft or herbs 
 found on the fpot or foil. 
 
 It was the foldiery who befiowed this crown ; which, doubt- 
 lcfs, was the reafon of its not being of a more precious 
 matter. , , , , 
 
 OBSTRUCTION, in medicine, a lett or ftoppage of the 
 natural paffages or cavities of the body ; occafioned either by 
 the exceflive°quantity, or the vicious quality, of the humours 
 aslentor, thicknefs, or the like. 
 
 Ob/lruclicns are fuppofed ufually to arife from the grofs parts of 
 the blood, detained in the extremities of the capillary veffels, 
 and thus blocking them up. 
 
 Some phyficians doubt whether there be any fuch thing as 
 ebjlrutlims in the vifcera; and rather attribute the incon- 
 venitneies, ufually afcribed to objlruclions, to the acrimo- 
 nies and crudities of the ftomach.— But their reafons are 
 not convincing. It is true, objrutiions may not perhaps 
 be fo frequent as is ufually fuppofed; and many of the 
 fymptoms afcribed to them, are, doubtlefs, owing to dif- 
 orders of the ftomach; but then there is no denying that 
 there are any objlrutliens at all in the vifcera, 6fc. fcir- 
 rhus's, and other kinds of tumours, are inconteftable proofs 
 hereof. 
 
 Objlruclions frequently prove the caufes of dropfies. See 
 Dropsy. 
 
 OBSTRUENTS. See the article Deobstruent. 
 
 OBSTRUXIT, Share ObstRUXIT. See QuARE. 
 
 OBTURATOR, in anatomy, a name given to two mufcles 
 of the thigh; by reafon of their fhutting, or covering up, 
 the foramen, or apertute between the OS pubis and the hip- 
 bone. 
 
 The obturator intermit and marfupialis are the two parts, or 
 divifions, that make the gemini. SeeGEMtNt. 
 The obturator externus arifes flefhy from the exterior margin 
 of the os pubis and ifchium, and is inferted tendinous at the 
 root of the great trochanter.— See Tab. Anat. (Myol.) fig. 7. 
 71. 25. 
 
 OBTUSE literally imports blunt, dull, tiff, in oppofition to 
 
 acute, fharp, brifk, EifY. 
 Obtuse angle, in geometry, an angle of more than 90 degrees, 
 s.«. more than a quadrant of a circle; or an angle greater 
 than a right angle. See Angle. 
 Obtuse-angled triangle, is a triangle, one of whofe angles 
 is obtufe. 
 
 Obtuse appui. See the article Appui. 
 
 OBVENT10NS, Obventiones, in antient law-books, fig- 
 nify the produce of a benefice, or fpiritual living ; including 
 oblations, tithes, rents, and other revenues. See Obla- 
 tion, Tithe, and Benefice. 
 
 OCCASIO, in antient law-writers, denotes a tribute which the 
 lord impofed on his vaffals, or tenants, on occafion of war, 
 and other exigencies. 
 
 OCCASIONAL caufe, &c. See the article Cause, Uc. 
 
 OCCIDENTAL, a term ufed chiefly in commerce, to diftin- 
 guifh commodiries brought from the Weft-Indies, i. e. Ame- 
 rica, from thofe brought from the Eaft-Indies, which arefaid 
 to be oriental. 
 
 In this fenfewefay, occidental bezoard. See Bezoard. 
 Occidental pearl. See Pearl. 
 Occidental horizon. See Horizon. 
 
 OCCIPITAL, in anatomy, a term applied to the parts of the 
 occiput, or of the hinder part of the head. See Occi- 
 put. „ 
 
 Occipital 'baa. See the article Occipitis os. 
 
 OCC1PITALES, or Occipital mufcles (fee Muscle), 
 are a pair of mufcles of the head, whofe origin is in the 
 fame place with that of the frontales, i. e. in the upper part 
 of the head near the vertex; but which go a quite oppofite 
 courfe ; viz. from before, hindwards ; and are inferted into 
 the lower part of the hairy fcalp, or fkin of the occiput 
 which they ferve to draw upwards. — See Tab. Anat. (Myol.) 
 fig. 6. n. 1. 
 
 Dr. Drake obferves, that the occipitalis and frontalis are one 
 continued digaflric mufcle on each fide; that part called the 
 occipitalis, after a fmall afcent, becomes a thin tendon, and 
 marches over the whole bregma, where it divides ; the one 
 
 part going on to the os jugale, and the other, growing flefhy , 
 acquires the name frontalis. 
 OCCIPITIS os, or os proree, in anatomy, the fourth bone of 
 the cranium ; fo called from its fituation in the occiput. — See 
 Tab. Anat. (Ofteol.) fig . 2. lit. g. fig. 7. n. 2. See alfo the 
 article Occiput. 
 
 It is the hardeft and thickeft of all the bones of the cranium. 
 Its figure is triangular. In new-bom children it is divided 
 into four ; but it grows up, and becomes one, in time. 
 It is joined to the bones of the finciput at the lambdoidal fu- 
 ture ; as likewife to the petrofa, and os fphenoides, at the fphe- 
 noidal future. 
 
 The parts of this bone are either folid, or hollow, i. e. empty: 
 the folid are two proceffes, called corones ; the hollow parts are 
 either foramina, or fmus's. 
 
 The foramina are either common, or proper. The common 
 are two, one on each fide, common with the offa petrofa, af- 
 fording a paffage to the nerves, par vagum, and to the internal 
 jugular veins. 
 
 The proper foramina are five. The firft is very large ; and 
 through this it is that the fpinal marrow pafTes : two others 
 give paffage to the nerves of the tongue, and the two laft an 
 entrance to the cervical arteries. 
 
 It has two large finus's withinfide, for the reception of the 
 two hemifpheres of the cerebellum. 
 
 On each fide the foramina which give paffage to the fpinal mar- 
 row, is ufually a p.ocefs lined with a cartilage, articulated with 
 the firft vertebra of the neck. 
 
 In lieu of this, is fometimes only a prominence of the bone ; 
 which, or the procefs where it is found, receives the infertions 
 of the mufcles of the head, whereof there are ten ; viz. the 
 par fplenium, par complcxum, par rectum majus externum, 
 par rectum minus externum, par obliquum fuperius, obliquum 
 inferius, par maftoideum, reef urn internum majus, rectum in- 
 ternum minus, and rectum laterale ; each of which fee in its- 
 proper place. 
 
 OCCIPUT, the hinder part of the head, or fkull ; or the part 
 wherein is the os occipitis. 
 
 Scultetus obfetves, that cauterizing the occiput is very frequent 
 in many places. 
 
 OCCULT, fomething fecret,. hidden, or invifihle.— The 
 occult fciences are, magic, necromancy, cabbala, &c. 
 Agrippa has fevcral books of occult pbihfophy, full of rhe vain- 
 eft, wildeft dreams, imaginable: and Fludd nine volumes of 
 the cabbala, or occult fcience, wrapt up under figures, or He- 
 brew characters. 
 
 Weak phiiofophers, when unable to difcover the caufe 
 of an effect, and unwilling to own their ignorance, fay, 
 it arifes from an occult virtue, an occult caufe, an occult 
 quality. ^ 
 Occult, in geometry, is ufed for a line that is fcarce perceiv- 
 able, drawn with the point of the compaffes, or a black-lead 
 pencil. 
 
 Occult, or dry lines, are ufed in feveral operations ; as the 
 raifing of plans, defigns of building, pieces of perfpec- 
 tive, tie. They are to be effaced, when the work is fi- 
 niftied. 
 
 Occult cancers. See the article Cancer. 
 OCCULT ATION, in aflronomy, the time a ftar, or planet, 
 is hid from our fight, by the interpofition of the body of the 
 moon, or of fome other planet. See Eclipse. 
 Circle of perpetual Occultation is a parallel, in an oblique 
 fphere, as far diftant from the depreffed pole, as the elevated 
 pole is from the horizon. 
 
 Between this parallel and the pole, all the ftars contained do 
 never rife; but lie conftantly hid under the horizon of the 
 place. 
 
 OCCUPANT, in law, he that firft feizes and takes poffeffion 
 of a thing. 
 
 If a tenant hold land, fsY. for the term of another s life, and 
 fuch tenant die firft, without making any eftate of it ; he that 
 firft enters to hold that term out, is faid to acquire a property ; 
 and is called an occupant, by reafon his title comes by the firft 
 occupation. 
 
 So, if a tenant, for his own life, grant over his eftate to an- 
 other ; if the grantee dies before him, there fhall be an oc- 
 cupant, . . ' * . v ' 
 
 OCCUPATION, or Occupancy, in the civil law, de- 
 notes the pofleffion of fuch things as at prefent properly 
 belong to no private perfon, but are capable of being made 
 fo. As, by feizing or taking fpoils in war; by catching 
 things wild by nature; as birds, and beafts of game, t3c. or 
 by finding things before undifcovered, or loft by their proper 
 owners. 
 
 Occupation is alfo ufed, in common law, for the putting a 
 man out of his freehold in time of war. 
 
 Occupation amounts to the fame with diffeifin in time of peace ; 
 only that the former is deemed not fo great an offence. See 
 Disseisin. 
 
 Occu- 
 
O C H 
 
 OCT 
 
 Occupation is alfo ufed for holding, tenure, or pofleflion. 
 
 As, when we fay, fitch land is in the tenure or occupation of 
 
 fuch a man, that is, in his poffeiTion. 
 Occupations, in the ftatute de Blgamis, denote ufurpations 
 
 upon the king) by ufing liberties or franchifes a perfon is riot 
 
 intitled to. 
 
 Asanyunjuft entry upon the king into lands and tenements 
 
 is called an intrufi&n ; fo an unlawful uling of franchifes is 
 
 called an occupation. See Intrusion. 
 OCCUPAVIT, in Jaw, a writ which lies for him who is 
 
 ejected out of his land, or tenement, in time of war: as a 
 
 novel difleifin lies for one ejected in time of peace. 
 OCEAN *, the grand fea, or the vaft collection of fait and 
 
 navigable water, which encompanes the whole globe of the 
 
 earth. 
 
 * The word comes from the Latin of the Greek coy.ix.vQ', 
 which Euitathius fetches from a/.tut v&itv, to Aide fwiftly : 
 Others fay, the Greeks borrowed it from the Phoenician?, who 
 called the circumference of the ocean, og, from the Hebrew 2)T] 
 hbog, circuit, ambit. 
 
 The ocean is that huge body of waters wherein the two srand 
 continents known to us, the new and old, are inclofed like 
 iflands. 
 
 By computation it appears, that the ocean takes up confidera- 
 bly more of what we know of the terreflrial globe than the 
 dry land. 
 
 Dr. Keil computes the furface of the whole ocean to be 
 85490506 fquare miles ; fo that, fuppofing the depth of the 
 ocean at a medium to be £ of a mile, the quantity of water in 
 the whole will be 21372626 \ cubic miles. 
 Yet Dr. Burnet computes, that all the waters in the ocean 
 were not fufficient to drown or overflow the dry land fo high 
 as the Scriptures fay it was at the deluge : feven or eight 
 oceans, according to him, would fcarce have fufficed. 
 The ocean, penetrating the land at feveral freights, quits its 
 name of ocean, and alfumcs that of fea, or gulf ; to which 
 are ufually added fome epithets to diftinguilh it ; as Mediter- 
 ranean-fea, Ferfian-gulf, tsV — In very narrow places it is 
 called Jlrelghts, finus. 
 
 The ocean takes different names according to the divers 
 countries it borders on ; as the Britijb ocean,Gcnnan ocean, he. 
 According to Maty, the ocean may be commodioufly divided 
 into fuperlor, or upper ; and inferior, or lower. 
 
 Upper Ocean, which the antients called the exterior, as envi- 
 roning all the known parts of the world, he fubdivides, ac- 
 cording to the fnur cardinal points, into the northern, fouthern, 
 eaflern, and luefitern. 
 
 Northern Oce an, called alfo the glacial, fro%en, and fiythlan, is 
 that part of the upper ocean next the north-pole, bounded on 
 the fouth with the arctic-circle, and the northern coafls of 
 Europe and Afia, and on the north with the unknown lands 
 about the pole. 
 
 Jt is called the icy or frozen ocean, becaufe thofc who have 
 attempted a paflage through it to China, csV. have always 
 been ftupped with the ice ; and fcythian ocean, becaufe wafh- 
 ing the coafts of Scythia. 
 
 Wejlern, or Atlantic Ocean, is that part of the grand ocean 
 which wafhes the weftern coafts of Europe and Africa, ex- 
 tending from the arctic circle to the equinoctial. 
 
 Southern, or European Ocean, is that part reaching from the 
 equinoctial to the unknown antarctic lands. 
 
 Eajlern, or Indian Ocean, has its firft name from its fituation 
 to the eaft ; as its latter from India, the chief country it 
 wafhes.— It reaches from the coait of Ajan to the ifle aux Lar- 
 rons, *. e. of Thieves. 
 
 Inferior, or American Ocean, is that vaft part of the grand 
 ocean which wafhes the coaft of America; unknown, in 
 great meafure at leaft, to the antients. It is divided into 
 three parts, viz. 
 
 The north fea, which wafhes the eaftern coafts of America 
 from the arctic-circle to the tropic of Capricorn. 
 The magellank fea, extending from the tropic of Capricorn to 
 the terra auftralis incognita. 
 
 The fouth fea, or pacific, which wafhes the weftern coafts of 
 America to the eaft, as far as the ifle of Thieves ; and from 
 fouth to north, from the tropic of Capricorn to the land of 
 Jeffo. 
 
 For the faltnefs if the Ocean, fee the article Saltness. 
 
 For the tides obferved in the Ocean, fee the article Tides. 
 Phil. Sachfius, in 1664. printed a diflertation, intituled, 
 Oceania micrccofmicus, dedicated to Bartholine ; wherein he 
 (hews, that there is a circular motion in the waters, like that 
 or the blood in the human body: that they all come from 
 the ocean, and return thither again. The thought is Solo- 
 mon's, Ecctef. ch. 12. See Vapour, Spring, tifc. 
 
 OCHLOCRAF1A *, a form of government, wherein the po- 
 pulace has the whole power and adminiftration in its own 
 hand. 
 
 • The word comes from the Greek oyXoc, multitude, and ypdjee, 
 power, command. 
 
 Vol. U. 
 
 OCTABIS, in law. See the article Octave. 
 OCTAETERIDES *, in chronology, c?V. the fpace or dura* 
 Lion of eight years. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek onrAirmu compofed of 
 MTU, eight, and =7^, year. 
 
 OCTAGON. Seethe article Octocon. 
 
 OCTAHEDRON, or Octaedron, i n geometry, one of 
 the five regular bodies, confuting of eight equal and equila- 
 teral triangles. 
 
 The otlahedron may be conceived as confifting of two qua- 
 drilateral pyramids put together at their bafes. 
 Its folidity therefore is had by multiplying the quadrangular 
 bafe of either, by one third of the perpendicular height of 
 one of them; and then doubling the product. 
 The fquare of the fide of an otlahedron is in a fubduple ratio 
 of the fquare of the diameter of the circumfcribing fphere. 
 
 OCTANT, or Octile, in aftronomy, an afpect or pofition 
 of two planets, 13 c. wherein their places are diftant an eighth 
 part of a circle, or 45 degrees from one another. 
 
 OCTAPLA *, a term in the facred learning, ufed for a kind of 
 antient polyglot bible, conlifting of eight columns. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek qy.tu, eight ; a, d. feme- 
 thing with eight rows, or columns. 
 
 In the firft column was the Hebrew text, in Hebrew cha- 
 racters ; inthefecond, the fame text in Greek characters ; in 
 the third, the Greek verfion of Aquila ; in the fourth, that of 
 Symmaclms; in the fifth, the Septuagint ; in the fixth, that 
 of Theodotion : in the feventh, that called the fifth ; the laft 
 was that called the fixth. 
 
 Origen was the author of the oclapla, as well as of the tetrapla> 
 and hexapla. 
 
 OCTATEUCH, in the facred literature, is ufed for the eight 
 firft books of the Old Teftament, viz. Genefis, Exodus, 
 Leviticus,_ Numbers, Deuteronomy, Jofhua, and Judges. 
 — Procopius of Gaza has ten commentaries on the ofta- 
 teuch. > 
 
 OCTAVE, in mufic, an harmonical interval, confuting of eight 
 tones, or degrees of found. 
 
 The moft fimple perception the foul can have of true founds, 
 is that of jmifon ; in regard the vibrations there begin and 
 end together.— The next to this is the oclave ; wherein the 
 more acute found makes precifely two vibrations, while the 
 graver or deeper makes one ; and wherein, by confcqucnce, the 
 vibrations of the two meet at every vibration of the more 
 grave. 
 
 Hence unifon and oclave pafs almoft for the fame concord. 
 Hence alfo the proportion of the founds that form the oclave 
 are in numbers, or in lines, as 2 to 1 ; fo that two chords 
 or firings of the fame matter, thicknefsi, and tenfion, one 
 whereof is double the length of the other, produce the 
 oclave. 
 
 The oclave is called, by the antients, dtapafon, becaufe con- 
 taining all the fimple tones and concords ; all of which derive 
 their fweetnefs from it, as they arife more or left directly out 
 
 To be juft, it muft contain diatonically 7 degrees, or inter- 
 vals ; and confequcntly 8 terms, or founds : whence its name, 
 
 oclave. 
 
 The oclave containing in it all the other fimple concords 9 
 and the degrees being the differences of thefe concords, it is ' 
 evident the divifion of the oclave comprehends the divifion of 
 all the reft. 
 
 By joining, therefore, all the fimple concords to a common 
 fundamental, we have the following feries : 
 
 I J 1 ; 1 ; 1 ; I ; i ; 1 . I, 
 
 Fund. 3 d.I, 3 d.g, 4 th, 5th, 6th.I, 6th.g, 8ve. 
 Again, the fyftem of otlave containing all the original con- 
 cords ; and the compound concords being the fum of oclave^ 
 and fome leffer concord ; in order to have a feries to reach 
 beyond an oclave, we muft continue them in the fame order 
 through a fecond oclave, as in the firft ; and fo on through a 
 third and fourth oclave. Such a feries is called the fcak of 
 mufic. 
 
 Though the composition of oelavcs may. be carried on infi- 
 nitely, yet three or four otlavcs is the greateft length we go 
 in ordinary practice. The old fcales went no further than 
 two, or at moft three oclaves, which is the full compafs of an 
 ordinary voice. And, notwithftanding the perfection of the 
 oclave, yet after the third, the agreement diminifhes very 
 faft ; nor do they ever go fo far at one movement, as from 
 one extreme to the other of a double or triple oclave ; feldom 
 beyond a fmglc oclave: nor is either voice or instrument well 
 able to go beyond. — To form a fourth oclave, if the acuter 
 ftring be half a foot, which is but a fmall length to give a 
 clear found; the longer muft be eight feet. If then we 0-0 
 beyond the fourth oclave, either the acute term will be too 
 fhort, or the grave one too long. 
 
 7 L " The 
 
O D A 
 
 ODE 
 
 The 90ave is not only the greateft interval ot the feven ori- 
 ginal concords, but the firft in degree of perfeaion. As it is 
 die greateft interval, all the lefs are contained m it. Indeed, 
 the manner wherein the lefs concords are found in the 
 ntlave, is fomewhat extraordinary; viz. by taking both an 
 harmonical and arithmetical mean between the extremes of 
 the ofiave, and then both an arithmetical and harmonical 
 mean between each extreme, and the moft diftant of the 
 two means laft found; i. e. between the laft extreme and the 
 firft arithmetical, and between the greater extreme and the 
 firft harmonical mean, we have all the leffer concords. 
 Mr. Malcolm obferves, that any wind-inftrument being over- 
 blown, the found will rife to an oclave, and no other con- 
 cord ; which be afcrihes to the perfe&ion of the octave, and 
 its being next to unifon. 
 
 From this firnpic and perfea form of the o&dvt, antes this 
 peculiar property, that it may be doubled, tripled, CSV. and 
 ftill be concord, i, e. the fum of two or more octaves are 
 concord ; though the more compound, gradually, the lefs 
 agreeable. He adds, there is that agreement between its ex- 
 tremes, that whatever found is concord to one extreme of 
 the oilave, is fo to the other. 
 
 Des Cartes, from an obfervation of the like kind, viz. that 
 the found of a whiffle, or organ- pipe, will rife to znoilave, 
 if forcibly blown, concludes, that no found is heard, but 
 its acute edlave feems fome way to echo or refound in the 
 
 Octave, or Octaeis, in law, denotes the 8th day after any 
 feaft, inclusively! which fpace is alfo called titas. 
 
 Octave, among the Romanifts, is ufed for the fpace or period 
 of eight days allowed for the celebration of a feaft, or fer- 
 vice,°in commemoration of fome faint, or on other folemn oc- 
 cafions. .„ . , 
 
 Eaftcr, Whitfuntide, S. John Eaptift, 5. Laurence, Epiphany, 
 the Dedication, &c. are celebrated with oftaves. — 1 he office 
 in the oSlave is femi-double. 
 
 OCTILE, or Octant, in aftrology, an afpea of two planets 
 when diftant from each other by an eighth of the zodiac. 
 i. e. a fign and half, or 45 °. 
 
 OCTO, Ad Octo. See the article Ad octo. 
 
 OCTOBER, the eighth month of the year, in Romulus s 
 calendar; though the 10th in that of Numa, Julius Csefar, 
 fcV. confifting of 31 days. 
 
 Oflober has ftill retained its firft name, in fpite of all the 
 different names the fenate, and Roman emperors, would have 
 
 oiven it. The fenate ordered it to be called Faujlinus, in 
 
 honour of Faujlha, the wife of Antoninus the emperor : 
 Commodus would have had it bear the name of Inyiclus; 
 and Domitian made it be called Domitianus, after his own 
 name. ' .L; 
 
 OCTOGON, or Octagon, in geometry, a figure of eight 
 fides, and eight angles. , 
 "When all the fides and angles are equal, it is called a 
 regular oclogcn, or an otlogon that may be inferibed in a 
 circle. 
 
 Octogon, in fortification, denotes a place that has eight bath- 
 cm. See Bastion. 
 
 OCTOSTYLE, in the anticnt atchitcaure, the face of a build- 
 ing, or ordonnance, containing eight columns. 
 The eight columns of the oclojlyle may cither be difpofed in a 
 rigta line, as in the Pfeudodiptere temple of Vitruvius, and 
 in the Pantheon ; or in a circle, as in the round Monoptere 
 temple of Apollo Pythius at Delphi, &ff. 
 
 OCTO Tales. See the article Tales. 
 
 OCULARES Denies, or Cynodentes, the eye-teeth. See 
 Tooth. 
 
 OCULUS, in anatomy. See the article Eye. 
 Oculi Cancrorum. See the article Crabs-/?)**. 
 Oculi, Eyes, in botany, the gemma! or buds of a plant juft 
 
 putting forth, or the knots out of which thofe buds arife. 
 Adductor Oculi. See the article Adductor. 
 Deprcffbr Oculi. See the article Depressor. 
 Elevator Oculi. See the article Elevator. 
 Obliqtius Ocudi. See the article Oeliquus. 
 ODA, in the Turkifh feraglio, fignifics a ck/s, chamber, or 
 
 order. , 
 
 The grand fignor's pages are divided into five clafles, or 
 
 chambers, called Odas. See Page." 
 
 The firft, which is the Ioweft in dignity, is called the great 
 eda, from the number of perfons that compofe it. 
 Thefe are the juniors, who are taught to read, write, and 
 fpeak the languages ; which are the Turkifh for this world ; 
 the Arabic for paradife ; and the Perfwn for hell, by reafon of 
 the herefy of the people that fpeak it. 
 
 The fqcond is called the little oda ; where, from the age of 
 14 or 15 years, the youth are trained up to arms, and the 
 ftudy ot fuch polite learning as the Turks are acquainted 
 withal; viz. logic, arithmetic, geometry, and a little 
 aftrology. 
 
 In each of thefe chambers is a page of the privy chamber, 
 
 who fuperintends them, as the prefeds in the colleges of the 
 jefuits. 
 
 The third chamber, called kilar-oda, comprehends two 
 hundred pages; which, befide their other exercifes, are com- 
 manded by the kilerdgi-bach, for the fervice of the buttery 
 and fruitery. 
 
 The fourth only confifts of twenty- four: thefe, under the 
 khazineda-bachi, take care of the treafure in the grand fig- 
 nor's apartment, where they never enter with any cloaths on 
 that have pockets. 
 
 The fifth is called kbas-oda, i. e. privy-chamber, and confifts 
 of forty pages, which attend the emperor's bed-chamber. The 
 firft of this chamber is called odabacbi, the fecond fdik- 
 tar, &c. . - r -' v---* .-v* v • «.j.nt.r 
 
 Eight of thefe pages keep conftant guard every night m the 
 emperor's bed-chamber. They are ported in feveral place?, 
 fume nearer him, others farther off, according to their 
 decrees in the chamber. They are to take care the light, 
 kept conftantly in the chamber, do not glare in his eye?, 
 and awake him; and if they find him difturbed with any 
 troublefome dream, and to take care he be awaked by one of 
 the aga's. 
 
 ODABACHI, or Oddaeassi, an officer in the Turkifti fol- 
 diery, equivalent to a fergeant or corporal among us. 
 The common foldiers, and janizaries, called oldacbis, after 
 having ferved a certain term of years, are always preferred, 
 and made biquelairs ; and of biquelars in time become oda- 
 bacb'is, i. e. corporals of companies, or chiefs of certain divi- 
 fions, whofe number is not fixed, being fometimes ten, and 
 fomctimes twenty. 
 
 Their pay is fix doubles ^7- month, and they are diftinguifhed 
 by a large felt, a foot broad, and above a foot long, hanging 
 on the back with two long oftrich feathers. 
 ODD. See the articles Evenly and Foot. 
 ODE*, Oda, in the antient poetry, a fong ; or a compofition 
 proper to be fung, and compofed for that purpofe; the finging 
 being ufually accompanied with fome mufical inftrument, 
 chiefly the lyre. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek uh\ cantus, fong, or Tinging. 
 Ode, in the modern poetry, is a lyric poem, confifting of 
 long and fliort verfes, diftinguifhed into ftanza's, or ftrophes > 
 wherein the fame meafure is preferved throughout. 
 The Odes of the antients, Voflius obferves, had a regular 
 return of the fame kind of verfe, and the fame quantity of 
 fyllables, in the fame place of every fimilar verfe ; *' But there 
 « is nothing (fays he) but confufion of quantities in the mo- 
 « dern odes ; fo that, to follow the natural quantity of our 
 <* fyllables, every ftanza will be a different fong." 
 He fhould have obferved, however, that all the antient 
 odes were not of fuch kind. But he proceeds : ** The 
 " moderns have no regard to the natural quantity of the 
 M fyllables, and have introduced an unnatural and barba- 
 " rous variety of long and fhort notes, which they apply 
 " without any regard to the natural quantity of fylla- 
 * s bles ; fo that it is no wonder our vocal mutic has no 
 (t effea." Dc poem, cantu. 
 
 Among the antients, ode fignified no more than a fong; 
 with us, they are different things. — The antient odes were 
 generally in honour of their gods, as are many of thofe of 
 Pindar and Horace : fometimes on other fubje£ts, as thofe of 
 Anacreon, Sappho, Csfc. — The Englifh odes are generally com- 
 pofed in praife of heroes, and great exploits; as thofe of Dry- 
 den, Prior, fsV. 
 
 The diftingu idling character of the ode is fweetnejs : The poet 
 is to footh the minds of his readers by the variety of the 
 verfe, and the delicacy of words, the beauty of numbers, and 
 the defcription of things moft delightful in themfelves. Va- 
 riety of numbers is eflential to the ode. 
 At firft, indeed, the verfe of the ode was but of one kind ; 
 but for the fake of pleafure, and the mufic to which they were 
 fung, they by degrees fo varied the numbers and feet, that 
 their kinds are now almoft innumerable. One of the molt 
 confidecable is the pindaric, diftinguifhed by the boldnefs and 
 rapidity of its flights. 
 
 The antient ode bad originally but one ftanza, or ftrophe ; 
 but was at laft divided into three parts, jlropbc, a?iti//ropbe, 
 and epode. — The priefts going round the altar, finging the 
 praife of the gods, called their firft entrance jirophe t i. e. 
 turning to the left: the fecond, turning to the right, they 
 called antijlropbe, q. d. returning. Laftly, ftanding ftill be- 
 fore the altar, they fung the remainder ; which they called 
 epode. 
 
 Alcaic Ode. See the article Alcaic. 
 
 ODEUM, &Htw % among the antients, was a place deftined 
 
 for the rehearfal of the mufic to be fung on the theatre. 
 Odeum was fometimes alfo extended to buildings that had no 
 relation to the theatre. — Pericles built an odeum at Athens, 
 where mufical prizes were contended for : Paufanias fays, 
 that Herod the Athenian built a magnificent odeum for the 
 fepulcre of his wife, 
 
 Ecele- 
 
O D Y 
 
 O E C 
 
 Ecclsfiaftical writers alfo ufe Odeum for the choir of a 
 church. 
 
 ODIO 6f Jtia, antiently called breve de bono & mo/a, is a 
 writ directed to the (herifF, to inquire whether a man , being 
 committed to prifon on fufpicion of murder, be committed on 
 tuft fufpicion, or only malice, and ill-will. 
 
 ODONTALGIA *, in medicine, the tooth-ach ; one of the 
 molt common, yet molt cruel pains the body is fubje£t to. 
 
 * The word is Greek sJVt ahytA, formed from oJV, tooth, 
 and a,hy &; pain. 
 
 Its caufe is fome (harp ferofity, thrown on the membrane 
 that lines the fockets, or alveoli of the teeth. The liquor is 
 fomctimes fo very fharp and corrofive, that it eats away the 
 teeth by little and little, and makes them fall piece-meal.- — 
 Its more remote caufes are fugars, very hot things, and very 
 cold acids, &c. 
 
 The difeafe is frequently attended with an inflammation, _ or 
 cedematous tumour of the jaw. — It is fomethnes alfo owing 
 to a worm found in the root of the tooth. 
 
 The academifts Curiofi Nature, decad II. mention an 
 odontalgy cured by a box on the ear given the patient ; and 
 add an inftance of blindnefs and odontalgy caufed by (having 
 a man's beard. The very fight of a remedy frequently drives 
 away the pain. 
 
 ODONTOIDES *, OJVto^JV, in anatomy, an apophyfis in 
 the midle of the fecond vertebra ; fo called from its re- 
 femblance to a tooth. 
 
 ■* The word is formed from the Greek sJV, tooth, and &${$> t 
 form. 
 
 Its furface is fomewhat unequal, that the ligament which 
 comes out of it and binds it to the occiput, may take the 
 better hold. 
 
 It is alfo encompafled with a folid ligament, contrived on 
 
 purpofe to prevent the fpinal marrow from being comprelled 
 
 by this apothyfis. 
 ODOR, or Odour. See the article Smell. 
 ODORAMENTUM, in pharmacy, a medicine applied for 
 
 the benefit of its fmell, whether it be fetid, or agreeable. 
 
 Such are frequently ufed in hyfteric and hypochondriac dif- 
 
 orders ; e. gr. affa hetida, camphor, t&e. 
 ODORIFEROUS Glands. See Gland. 
 ODOROUS, or Odoriferous things, are fuch as exhale a 
 
 brifk, agreeable fmell, fcnfible at a diftance. 
 
 Such are the jelfamin, rofe, tuberofe, EifY. 
 ODYSSEE *, Odyssea, an epic poem of Homer, wherein 
 
 he relates the adventures that befel Ulyffes in his return to 
 
 Ithaca from the fiege of Troy. See Epic. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek oS Vsvs.'ec, which figniiies 
 the fame, of ofvfffivi, UJyffes. 
 
 The defign of the Mad, F. BofTu obferves, is to inftruct 
 the (rates of Greece considered as united in one body, or 
 as parts of the whole ; and that of the odyjfee, to inftruct thofe 
 fame ftates, confidered in their private capacities. 
 A ftate confifts of two parts: the head, which commands, 
 is the firft ; and the members, that obey, the fecond. Now, 
 inftruclions are required both for the one and the other; 
 but it is poffibie to have them both conveyed under the fame 
 per fun. 
 
 The fable, then, of the odyjfee is as follows. — A prince had 
 been obliged to quit his country, and lead an army of his fub- 
 ieifts upon a foreign expedition : after having glorkmfiy executed 
 this, he was upon his return home ; but in fpite of all his en- 
 deavours, was detained for feveral years by tempefts which 
 threw him on feveral countries very different from one another 
 as to manners, cuftoms, polity, &c. 
 
 In the dangers he had to ftruggle withal, his companions, 
 neglecting his advice, all perifh, through their own default. 
 In the mean time, the great men of his country, abufing 
 his abfence, commit ftrange difordcrs in his palace, fquandcr 
 his treafure, lay (hares for his fon, and will needs force his 
 wife to chufe an hufband among them ; all this from an 
 opinion that he was intirely loft:. But at length he returns ; and, 
 having difcovered himfclf to his fon, and fome others of his 
 friends who had perfifted in their allegiance, he becomes 
 an eye-witnefs of the infolence of his courtiers ; punifhe? 
 them as they deferved ; and reftores that peace and tran- 
 quillity to his ifland, which had been banilhed during his 
 abfence. 
 
 The truth or model whereon this fable is founded, is, that 
 a perfon's abfence from home, fo as that he cannot have an 
 eye to his affairs, occafions great diforders. Accordingly, 
 the hero's abfence is the principal and molt efiential 
 part of the action ; and takes up the greateft part of the 
 poem. 
 
 This poem, Boffu adds, is more calculated for the people, 
 than the Mad is, where the fubjects fuffer rather from 
 
 the ill conduct of their princes, than by their own fauh\ 
 The great names of heroes, Ulyffe?, &fV« do not here repre- 
 fent the pooreft peafants lefs than princes, Czefars, Alexanders* 
 tjfe. The meaneft people are as liable to ruin their effaces and 
 families by negligence, WV. as the greateft : and accordingly 
 have as much need of Homer's lectures, and are as capable of 
 profiting by them, as kings themfelves. 
 
 Gerard Croes, a Dutchman, in a book intitled CMHFGS 
 EBPAI02, printed at Dort in 1704. endeavours to prove, 
 that the fubjects of Homer's two poems are taken from the 
 Scriptures : that the action of the odyjfee, in particular, is 
 nothing elfe but the adventures of the Ffraelites till the death 
 of Mofes ; and that the odyjfee was compofed before the 
 iliady the fubject whereof is the taking of Jericho. What 
 fancies 1 
 
 OECONOMICS, Oeconomica, that part of moral philo- 
 fophy which teaches how to manage the affairs of a family, 
 or houfhold. 
 
 OECONOMUS, barnvfo** a perfon appointed to direct 
 and manage a vacant church revenue, or that of an hofpital, 
 or other community. 
 
 Oeconomus was alfo antiently ufed for a protector, or ad- 
 vocate, who defended the rights and effects of churches, mo- 
 nafttries, tfrV. 
 
 Oeconomus was alfo an appellation given to a church -officer, 
 who took care of the buildings and repairs of the church, 
 and received and distributed alms according to the directions 
 of the bifhop. 
 
 In this fenfe it is that the fixth council appoints, that every 
 church have its ceconamus. 
 OECONOMY, OmoyoiHA, the prudent conduct, or de- 
 creet and frugal management, of a man's eftate, or that of 
 another. 
 
 To recommend economy, a modern author obferves, that 
 land as good as molt in England is let at 20 f. an acre per 
 annum, and fold at 20 years purchafe, or for 20 pounds the 
 acre. Now, in an acre of land are 43560 fquare feet, and in 
 2o pounds are 4800 pence : by which dividing 43560, the 
 quotient will be q, and 360 remaining; which fhews that 
 one penny will purchafe 9 fquare feet and almoft 13 inches 
 of land, viz. a piece 3 feet long, and 3 broad, and fome- 
 thing more. 
 
 Whence it follows, that two (hillings purchafe a piece of 
 ground of 216 feet; viz. 18 feet long, and 12 feet broad ; 
 enough to build a pretty houfe upon, and 'room for a little 
 garden. 
 
 Animal Oeconomy, the firft branch of the theory of medicine ; 
 or that which explains the parts of the human body, their 
 structure and ufe ; the nature and caufes of life and health 3 
 and che effects or phenomena arising from them. 
 This is otherwife called phyfiology ; and its objects just enu- 
 merated are called the naturals, or res fecundum naturam. 
 
 Legal, or Jewijb Oeconomy or D'tfpenfation, is the manner 
 wherein God thought good to guide and govern his people 
 under the miniftry oi Mofes. See Judaism. 
 This included not only the political and ceremonial laws, 
 but alfo the moral law, inafmuch as it pronounced a curfe 
 on all thofe who did not fulfil it perfectly. 
 
 Evangelical, or Chrijl'tan Oeconomy or Difpenfation, is ufed 
 in oppofition to the legal ; and comprehends all that relates to 
 the covenant of grace, which God has made with men by 
 Jefus Chrift. 
 
 Oeconomy of the parts of plants. See Plant. 
 
 OECUMENICAL * lignifies as much as general^ or unl- 
 verfaU 
 
 * The word is formed of the Greek, t>lK>s[/.ipiK&', of MBsitfJff, 
 the habitable earth ; or, the whole earth. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, an oecumenical council, or fynod ; mean- 
 ing one at which the whole Chrifiian church affifted, or 
 which they were invited to. 
 
 Du Cange obferves, that many of the patriarchs of Con- 
 stantinople, affumed to themfelves the quality and denomi- 
 nation of oecumenical patriarchs ; particularly John the Falter 
 in 590. and Cyril his fuccefibr. —Gregory the Great of 
 Rome was exceedingly enraged at it; pretending it was a 
 title of pride, and a character of antichrist ; as fuppofing 
 the title oecumenical to imply univerfal bifhop, or bifhop of all 
 the world : whereas, in effect, it implied no more, than the 
 quality of chief of the Eaftern church ; in like manner as the 
 firft doctor of the church of Conltantinople was called dollar 
 oecumenicus. 
 
 The title ecumenical bilhop was firft offered to Leo I. but 
 he refufed it ; nor did his fucceffors accept of it for a long 
 time. The fifth council of Conltantinople gave it to John, 
 patriarch of that city ; though fome of the Romanifts pretend, 
 that the emperor Phocas gave it, by way of preference, to 
 the bifhop of Rome. 
 
 But thofe of Conftantinople have preferved it ; and fo late 
 as the council of Bafil, that patriarch ufed the title. But 
 4. oecumenical 
 
OES 
 
 OFF 
 
 cure 
 Lttend 
 
 mummed here is only to be underlbod as of the extent of 
 
 each patriarchate. . i.vn, fXfr 
 
 OEDEMA * Oi.f»f<«, a tumour which appears wnitun, ion, 
 •„„H lax without any notable change of colour, heat, pain, 
 « J&oi «>d which yields to the preffure of the finger 
 fo as for fome time to retain the dent or impreffion there- 
 of. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek wJW, I fwell ; whence 
 uHfue, a tumour. Accordingly, Hippocrates ufes the word 
 oedema for any tumour in general. 
 
 The general caufe of adorns is vulgarly fuppofed to be a 
 pituita, as it is called, or a phlegmy humour in the body 
 Contufions, fractures, luxations, He. when of long ltanu 
 ing, often give rife to ademas, efpecially in dropfical and 
 aged pcrfons : fo alfo do irregular living, want of exerciie, rup- 
 tures, diforders of the lymphatics, defluxions of humouis, 
 weaknefs of the joints, He. , t , 
 
 The chief feat of this tumor is the legs : m a leucophlegmat.a, 
 the whole body is ademateus. It frequently comes upon other 
 difeafes, efpecially clinics ; and is familiar to women with 
 child. It is dangerous when it tends to an abfeefs ; when it 
 hardens it becomes fcirrhous. . . 
 
 There are alfo {furious ademas; in which cafe the pituitous 
 humour is mixed with other humours ; whence the tumor 
 becomes eryfipelatous, fcirrhous, and fomet.mes gyplous 
 and hence wens, &c. 
 OEDEMATOUS, in medicine, fomething that is of the nature 
 of an adema ; or feifed, or affiled with an adema. 
 Thus we fay, an edematous arm, ademeitous legs, &c.— 
 Phyficians divide tumors into inflammatory, adematous, Jeir 
 rhous, feropbukus, eaneerous, &c. 
 
 Oedematous tumors feldom, of themfelves, prove dangerous, 
 or mortal : but when they are of a long continuance, the 
 efFeft of old age, or a dropfical habit ; when they grow 
 hard, fcirrhous, painful, or come to fuppurate the - 
 is generally tedious and uncertain. Thofe which 
 wounds, fraaures, or the like, are lefs difficult to cure 
 They are eafily difcuffed in their firft formation by the ex- 
 ternal application of folutions of bay-falt, nitre, crude fill 
 armoniac, (Sc. in Spanifh wine, urine, lime-water, or other 
 lixivious fluids ; while the patient fubmits to a courfe c r 
 purgatives, to difcharge the matter repelled by fuch appl 
 cations. . , 
 
 Under the clafs of adematous tumors, are ranked condylomata 
 criftse, rhagades, thymi, talpae, or natie, the ganghum and 
 pfydracium. See each under its proper article, Condyloma 
 Crtsta, &e. . 
 OENELiEUM *, in pharmacy, a mixture of wine and oil 
 ufually of thick black wine, and oil of rofes. 
 
 * The word is Greek, QmW»> formed of m&, wine, an. 
 £A«(or, oil. 
 
 In fraflures with wounds, where the hone is not bare, 
 Scultetus orders that the comprefles, to make them flick 
 be drenched with aneUum, to footh the pain, and pre- 
 vent an inflammation ; and the bandages to be every day 
 moiftened with the fame, till the inflammation be out 
 all danger. , 
 OENISTERIA *, in antiquity, facrifices, held by the youth 
 of Athens, before the firft time of cutting the hair, and 
 fhaving the beard. 
 
 * The etymology of the word, which comes from mos, wine, 
 Ihews that the matter here offered was wine. 
 
 Thefe facrifices were offered to Hercules ; and the quantity 
 of what was offered was regulated by law. 
 OENOPT/E, a kind of officers or cenfors at Athens, who 
 attended at their feafts, regulated the number of cups each 
 was to drink, and took care that none drank too much or too 
 
 Thofe who would not be kept within the bounds of tem- 
 perance, were prefented by the anopta to the Areopagus. 
 
 The anoptee were alfo called eyes, oeuli. 
 
 OESOPHAGiEUS, in anatomy, one of the mufcles of the 
 pharynx, which it encompalfes round like a ring. 
 It is fmgle, and ferves to fqueeze the 1 aliment down, by 
 clofmf the pharynx after the manner of a fphinaer : whence 
 fome "call it the fphinaer guU ; others deglutiter, or fwal- 
 
 Dr. Drake will have it no more than a produflion of the 
 pte'ryopharyngarus, whofe fibres furround the pharynx from 
 a tendinous line on the back part of it : though Verheyen 
 makes it a diftinct pair. 
 OESOPHAGUS, Oio-etnyu, in anatomy, the gula, or gullet ; 
 a membranous pipe or paffage, whereby our food and drink is 
 conveyed from the mouth to the ftomach. — See Tab. Anat. 
 (Splanch). fig. 2. St. a. See alfo Food, Ue. 
 The afepbagus defends from the fauces to the ftomach, be- 
 tween the afpera arteria and the vertebra: of the neck and 
 
 hack, in a ftrait line, excepting for a little defkaion about 
 the fifth vertebra of the thorax, where it turns a little to 
 the rwht to make way for the great artery, which runs along 
 with 5 to the ninth ; where turning again towards the laft, it 
 crones the artery, and piercing the diaphragm, ends at the left 
 orifice of the ftomach. See Stomach. 
 Itconiifts of feveral coats or membranes, ufually reckoned 
 three ; though fome make them four, others five or fix, all owing 
 the crufia villofa to be one : which laft divifion, Dr. Drake 
 follows as moil accurate. 
 
 The firft coat is membranous, and only defigned for a co- 
 vering for the reft ; and feems only a continuation of the 
 outward membrane of the ftomach, derived from the peri- 
 tonaeum ; though fome derive it from the pleura, and others 
 from the diaphragm. .■ 
 The fecond coat is mufcular, confiding of ftrong, fleihy fibres, 
 like other mufcles ; fo that it feems to make the gullet an 
 hollow fillulous mufcle. According to Steno and Willis, it 
 confifts of two orders of fibres, going from top to bottom in 
 fpiral lines, contrary to and decuflating each other. Which 
 defcription is very cxa3 of the gullet of ruminants, but not 
 fo of that of men. In men it confifts of two fh-fhy lamella;, 
 like two diftinft mufcles : the outward compoled of ftrait 
 longitudinal fibres j the inner of annular fibres, without any 
 obfervable angles. The ufe of this coat is to promote deglu- 
 tition ; the longitudinal fibres, when in contraaion, fhort- 
 ning the afepbagus, and making its capacity larger to admit 
 of the matter to be fwallowcd ; and the annular, on the 
 contrary, contraaing the capacity, and clofing behind the 
 defcending aliment, prefs it downward. So that the two 
 orders of fibres feem to 3,& as antagomft-mufclcs to each 
 
 Other. onjifcB «2' -Hi r n C J J.i.1 
 
 The next coat, called the vafcular, confifts of a double 
 membrane ; the outer formed of irregular fibres and innu- 
 merable vellils interwoven ; the inner of ftrait longitudinal 
 fibres mixed with little glands; whence fome call it the 
 glandulous. This membrane adheres clofcly to another with- 
 in, called the nervous-coat, which is exceedingly fine, and 
 made up of exceffively {lender fibres, varioufly difpofed. It 
 is continued to that which covers the fauces,' mouth, and 
 lips; whence it happens, that tickling the bottom ol the 
 fauces by vellicating this membrane, provokes a retching to 
 
 vomit. , s *j . ., , . .,^ta»iij ^-.^j 
 
 This membrane has a quick fcnfation ; and m this part, as 
 fome think, is the feat of fhirft, or the organ whereby the 
 appetite of drinking is excited. It is lined inwardly with a 
 villous cruft, which Dr. Drake takes to be the excretory dufls 
 of the glands, and not unlike the cuticula of the cutis, to de- 
 fend the fubjacent membrane. In excoriations, this is feme- 
 times caft out at the mouth. 
 
 The upper opening of the afepbagus, fituate at the bottom of 
 the fauces, is called the pharynx. See Pharynx. 
 OESTRUM Veneris. See the article Veneris. 
 OESYPE *, or Oesypos, a kind of fatty mucilage, of the 
 confiftencc of an unguent ; of a greyilh colour, and a fickifh 
 difagreeable fmell, drawn from the greafy wool growing on 
 the throats and between the buttocks of fheep. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek ftf, (heep ; and -r.iee.; I 
 putrify, or corrupt ; the ocfype being a filthy, and, as it were 
 corrupted matter, drawn from ilieep. 
 
 This wool they wafh, boil it in water to cour, let the 
 lotions or decoctions ftand for fome time, and from the top 
 (kirn off' a fatty fubftance, which being Brained through a 
 linen cloth, and fet to cool, makes the oefype, much ufed 
 externally to refolve, foften, and appeafe pain. 
 OFFA Alba, a name which Van Helmont gives to the white 
 coagulum arifing from a mixture of rea.fied fpirit of wine 
 with fpirit of urine. 
 
 Note, The fpirit of urine muft be diftilled from well fer- 
 mented wine'; and the other muft be well dephlegmated : elfe, 
 no offa will arife. 
 OFFERING. See Oblation, and HzAVE-Offiring. 
 OFFERTORY, Okfertorium, an anthem fung, or 
 played on the organ, at the time the people are making an 
 offering. ... 
 Antlently the offertory confided of a pfalrn fung with its 
 anthem ; though it is fomewhat dubious whether the pfalrn 
 was fung intire ; St. Gregory mentioning, that when it was 
 time, the pope, looking at the choir who fung it, gave the 
 fign when they Ihould end. 
 Offertory was alfo a name anticntly given to the linen 
 whereon the offerings were laid.— Dr. Harris fays, it was 
 properly a piece of filk, or line linen, wherein the occafional 
 oblations or offerings of each church were wrapped up. 
 OFFICE, Officium, in a moral feiife, denotes a duty; or 
 that which virtue, and right rcafon, direa a man to do. 
 Virtue, according to Chauvin, is the purpofe of duing well : 
 the thing which immediately follows, or arifes from this pur- 
 pofe, is obedience ; which fame is alfo denominated officium : 
 fo that an office is the object of an obedience to virtue. Sec 
 
 Virtue. J, 1 ; 
 
 Cicero, 
 
OFF 
 
 OFF 
 
 Cicero, in l.is difcouife of offices, cenfures Panjctius, who had 
 written before him on the fame, for omitting to define the thing: 
 or Subject on which he wrote ; yet does he himfelf fall under 
 the fame cenfure. He in lifts much on the divffion of offices ; but 
 forgets the definition. — l/i other of his pieces we find him 
 defining office to be an action which renfon requires to be done : 
 quod avian ratione aflum ft, id ofheium appellamus. De 
 Finib. 
 
 The Greeks, he obferves, made two Species of office: perfect, 
 called by them x.et-ro^n\ua ; and common, or indifferent, called 
 kclQhkw i which they define fo, as that, what is absolutely right, 
 makes a perfect office ; and what we can only give a probable 
 reafon for, a common or intermediate office. 
 Office, in a civil fenfe, denotes the mutual aid, and affiftancc, 
 which men owe to one another. 
 
 Benevolence infpires a man with an endeavour to do good offices 
 to all mankind. 
 
 Office is alfo a particular charge, or truft, whereby a man is 
 authorized to do Something. 
 
 Loyfeau defines office a dignity attended with a public function. 
 The word is primarily ufed in Speaking of the offices of judi- 
 cature, and policy : as, the office of a Secretary of rtate, that of 
 a juftice of peace, of a Sheriff, &c. 
 
 Offices are either venal, or not venal. — Venal offices are thoSe 
 bought with money. 
 
 Venal offices are fubdivided into two kinds ; piss, Dominial and 
 cafual. — Dominial, or offices in fee, are thofe abfolutely torn off, 
 and Separated from the king's prerogative, fo as not to become 
 vacant by death, but paffing in the nature of a fee, or inherit- 
 ance. 
 
 Of thefe we have but few inftances among us, which go be- 
 yond a firfl reverfion. — Among the French they are more fre- 
 quent. 
 
 Cafual offices are thofe given Sor life, by patent, commilfion, 
 ISc. and which become vacant, by the officer's death, to the 
 king's benefit ; unlcis the officer have before refigned, or dif- 
 pofed of it. 
 
 The venality of offices of judicature is one of the grievances in 
 
 the French policy. See Ve na l. 
 Alienation Office. See the article Alienation. 
 ' Alternate Off ice. See the article Alternate. 
 Crown Office. See the article Crown. 
 ■"Jewel Office. See the article Jewel. 
 Victualling Office. See the article Victualling. 
 Office is alfo ufed for a place, apartment, or board, appointed 
 
 for the officers to attend in, for the difcharge of their refpective 
 
 duties or employments. 
 
 Such are the fecretarys office, the fx clerks office, the paper-office, 
 fgnet-office, the prothonotarys- office, pipe-office, king' s fiver-office, 
 excife office, office of ordnance, Sec. See each in its place, Se- 
 ■ cretary, Six Clerk, Paper, Signet, Excise, 
 Ordnance, caV. 
 
 Of Such offices, Some arc diftinguifhed by the name of boards, 
 and otheis of chambers \ as the board of green cloth, &c. 
 "Where the inquifition obtains, the tribunal thereof is called the 
 
 holy office. 
 
 Offi ce, in the canon law, is ufed for a benefice which h.-'.s no jurif- 
 diclion annexed to it. See Benefice. 
 
 Office is alfo ufed, in common law, for an inquifition made to 
 the king's ufe of any thing found by virtue of his office who in- 
 quires or makes an inquifition ex officio. 
 
 Hence, to travcrfe an office, is to traverfe an inquifition taken 
 of office before an efchcator, — To return an office, is to return 
 that which is Sound by virtue of the office. 
 There are two furts of offices ifiuing out of the exchequer by 
 commiffion ; viz., an office to intitle the king in the thing in- 
 quired into ; and an office of inftruction. 
 
 Office is alio ufed for divine fervice celebrated in public. 
 
 St. Jerom is rbe perfon, who, at the requefl of* pope Damafus, 
 is fatd to have firfl: diftributed the pfalms, epiftles, and gofpsls 
 in the order in which they are now found in the Romifti office. 
 The popes Gregory and Gelafius added the prayers, refponfes, 
 and verfes ; and St. Ambrofe the graduals, hallelujahs, &c. 
 
 Office is more particularly ufed in the Romifti church, for the 
 manner of performing the fervice ; which varies every day. 
 Thus thev fay the office of Sunday i the office of Such a Saint, djff. 
 i — The office is either fngU- half double, or double. 
 
 Office, again, is applied to a particular prayer preferred in ho- 
 nour of a faint. 
 
 When any perSm is canonized, a particular office is at the 
 fame time afiigned him out of the common office of the con- 
 feflbrs, the virgin, or the like. See Saint and Canoniza- 
 tion. 
 
 We fay, the office of the virgin ; of the holy fpirit ; of the 
 paffion : the holy fjcrament, Lfc. The office of the dead is re- 
 liearfed every day, excepting on feaft-days, among the Carthu- 
 fians. The office of the holy virgin is alfo added to the office 
 of the day, in the order of Bernardins. 
 ! Offices, with regard to architecture, denote all the apartments 
 that lerve for the neceffary occafions of a great houfe, or pa- 
 lace : as kitchens, pantries, Uew-houfes, conte^ionries, fruite- 
 Vol. II. 
 
 ries, granaries, as alfo wafh-houfes, wood-houfes, ftables, 
 
 &c. 
 
 The offices are commonly in the baffecour ; Sometimes they are 
 funk under-ground, and well vaulted. 
 
 OFFICER, a perfon poffefled of a port or office. 
 
 Great Officers of the crown, or fate, are the lord high 
 fteward, the lord chancellor, the lord high treafurer, the lord 
 preSident of the council, the lord privy-feal, the lord rrreat cham- 
 berlain, the lord high conftable, the earl marft.nl, and lord high 
 admiral. See each under its proper article, Chancellor, 
 Treasurer, Marshal, &c. 
 
 Officers of juftice are thofe who are intruded with the ad- 
 miniftration of equity, and juftice in the courts thereof. 
 
 Royal Officers are thofe who adminiiler juftice in the kind's 
 name, — as the judges, ifc. See Judge. 
 
 Subaltern Officers are thofe who adminiftcr juftice in the name 
 of Subjecls.— Such are they who act under the earl-marftial, ad- 
 miral, &c. 
 
 Officers of policy, are thoSe in whom the government and di- 
 rection of the affairs of a community are ihvefted. — Such are 
 mayors, fheriffs, &c. 
 
 Officers of war, are thofe who have command in the 
 
 Sorces. 
 
 TheSe are either general, field, or fubaltern officers. 
 General Officers are fuch whofe command is not limited to a 
 Single troop, company, or regiment ; but extends to a body of 
 forces compofed of feveral regiments. 
 
 Such are the general, lieutenant-generals, major-generals, and 
 brigadiers. 
 
 Field Officers are fuch as have command over a whole 
 regiment ; Such are the colon:!, lieutenant- colonel, and ma- 
 jor.,- ; . lf . . 
 
 Subaltern Officers are the lieutenants, cornets, enfigns, Ser- 
 geants, and corporab. — See each officer under his proper article, 
 Captain, Colonel, &c. 
 
 Commiffion Officers are Such as are appointed by the king's 
 commiffion. 
 
 Sucli are all Srom the general to the cornet inclufive. 
 They are thus called in contradiftincticn to warrant, or Jlaff 
 officers, who are appointed by the colonel's or captain's war- 
 rant : as quarter-maflers, fergeants, corporals, and even fur- 
 geons and chaplains. 
 
 Sea Of f i c e rs, or officers of the marine, are thofe who have com- 
 mand in Ships of war. 
 
 Flag Officers are the admirals, vice-admirals, and rear-admi- 
 rals. 
 
 Officers of the houjhold, are the lord fteward, treafurer of 
 the houfliold, comptroller, cofferer, matter, clerks of the 
 green-cloth, &c. the lord chamberlain, vice-chamberlain, 
 gentlemen of the privy and bed chamber, gentlemen ufhers, 
 grooms, pages, mailer of the wardrobe, of the ceremonies, 
 C5V. the maftcr of the horfe, avenor, equerries, furveyors, 
 csV. See Houshold ; See alfo each officer in his proper ar- 
 ticle. • fi i* >,♦! •' % i* > ■: , ;: . ' 
 
 S/^Officers are Such as in the king's preSence bear a white 
 itaff; and at other time3, going abroad, have a white ftaff borne 
 before them by a footman bare-headed. 
 
 Such are the lord fteward, lord chamberlain lord treafurer 
 fcrY. * 
 The white ftaff is taken for a commiffion ; and at the death 
 of the king, the officers break their ftaff over the hearfe made 
 for the king's body, and thereby difcharge their inferior offi- h 
 
 ' WJ« , Anil J|il JAl tLL * V 
 
 Municipal Officers. See the article Municipal. 
 
 Reformed Officer. See the article Refosmado. 
 
 Officers of the mint. See the article Mint. 
 
 Signahfor Officers. Seethe article Signal. 
 
 OFFICIAL, Officialis, in the canon-law, the bifhop's de- 
 puty, or lieutenant ; or an ecclefiaftical judge appointed by a 
 bifhop, chapter, abbot, &c. with charge of "the Spiritual jurif- 
 diction thereof. 
 
 Of thefe there are two kinds,— the one, as it were, vicar- 
 general of the church ; exercifing jurifdiction throughout the 
 whole diocefe, called by the canonifts officialis principalis, in 
 our ftatute-Iaw the bifhop's chancellor. See Chancel- 
 lor. 
 
 There is no appeal from his court to the bifhop j his being 
 cfteemed the bifhop's court. 
 
 The other, called officialis foraneus, as having his jurisdiction 
 foris, tjf extra civitatem, is appointed by the bifhop when the 
 dioceSe is very large; having a certain extent of territory align- 
 ed him, wherein he refides. 
 
 This official has but a limited jurifdiction, though he have unl- 
 verfitatem caufarum, and exercife it in the bifhop's name. — Our 
 ftatute laws call him, commiffary. 
 
 The biShops, efpecially thofe of large fees, finding themfelvea 
 oppreiTed with a multiplicity of bufineSs, at firft, difcharged a 
 part of it upon their archdeacons and priefts ; to whom they 
 gave commiffinns revocable at pleafure. — Thefe are called vr- 
 carii, or officialis. 
 
 7 M ^ 
 
O I L 
 
 O I L 
 
 As we do not meet with this term any-where before the 
 conftitutinns of the fexius decretalium, it is pretty apparent 
 the cuftom had not its rife till the end of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 In procefs of time the function was divided into two; and 
 the title official given to him with whom the bifliop intruded 
 the exercife of litigious jultice ; and that of vicars-general, 
 or grand vicars, to thofe who had the voluntary juris- 
 diction. 
 
 The number of officials was foon exceflively multiplied ; and 
 not only bifliops, but chapters and archdeacons would have 
 their officials. 
 
 The officials, by degrees, had drawn to their cognizance and 
 
 jurifdicTion, moll of the civil caufes ; till they were taken out 
 
 of their hands by appeals,^. 
 Official is alfo ufed in our laws for a deputy appointed by an 
 
 archdeacon, for the executing of his jurifdiction. 
 OFFICIALITY, the court, or jurifdi&ion, whereof an official 
 
 is head. 
 
 The practice of officiahies is now reduced into a little compafs ; 
 and anions of piomif.'s, and difTolutions of marriages, are the 
 principal things tranfactcd therein. 
 OFFICINAL *, in pharmacy, a term applied to fuch medi- 
 cines, whether fimple or compound, as are required to be con- 
 ftantly kept in readinefs in the apothecaries fliops, to be mixed 
 up in extemporaneous prefcription. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Latin ejfeina, afhop. 
 
 The officinal fimpks are appointed, among us, by the college of 
 phyficians ; and the manner of making the compofitions is di- 
 rected in their difpenfatory. 
 
 OFFICIO. Sufpoifton ab Officio. See Suspension. 
 
 Ex Officio. See the article Ex officio. 
 
 §)md ckrici non eligantur in Officio. See Qu o d . 
 
 OFFING, or Offin, in the fea-language, that part of the fea a 
 good diftance from fhnre ; where there is deep water, and no 
 need of a pilot to conduit the (hip into port. 
 If a {hip from fhore be feen failing out to feaward, they lay 
 fhe ftands for the offing. — And if a fhip having the (hore near 
 Iter, have another a good way without her, or towards the fea, 
 they fay, that fhip is in the offing. 
 
 OFF-SETS, in gardening, CSV. are thofe young (hoots which 
 fprihg, and grow from roots that are round, tuberous, or bul- 
 bous. See Root, Bulb, &c. 
 
 The word is alfo applied by fome to the loofe, outer, brown fkins 
 of tulips, onions, &c. 
 Off-Sets, in fuTveymg, are perpendiculars let fall, and meafurcd 
 from the ftatiojiary- lines, to the hedge, fence, or extremity of 
 the inclofure. 
 
 OGEE, or Og, in architecture, a moulding, confiding of two 
 members, the one concave, the other convex : the fame with 
 what is otherwife called cymatiwn. See Tab. Archit. fig. y, and 
 24. lit./, x. 
 
 Vitruvius makes each member of the cgec a quadrant of a cir- 
 cle ; Scamozzi, and fome others, make them fomewhat flatter, 
 and ftrike them from two equilateral triangles. 
 The figure of the ogee bears fome refemblance to that of an 
 S. 
 
 OGIVES, arches or branches of a Gothic vault, which, in lieu 
 of being circular, pafs diagonally from one angle to another, 
 and form a crofs with the other arches which make the fide of 
 the fquare, whereof the ogives are diagonals. 
 The middle, where the ogives cut or crofs each other, is 
 called the key, which is fometimes carved in form of a rofe, 
 or a cul de Inmpe. — The members or mouldings of the 
 ogives are called nerves, branches, or reins ; and the arches 
 which feparate the ogives, double arches. See Vault. 
 
 OGLIO. See the article Olio. 
 
 OGRESSES, or Agresses, in heraldry. See Pellets. 
 OIL*, Oleum, a fatty, un&uous, inflammable matter, drawn 
 from fevcral natural bodies. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin oleum ; of olea, olive-tree, 
 the fruit whereof abounds in fuch juice. 
 
 The word oil is fometimes applied to the juices which difiil 
 naturally from plants and trees ; as balm, £sV. but more ftridtly to 
 thofe juices drawn by expreffion, &c. from plants, fruits, grains, 
 or feeds ; as oil of olive, nut-oil, 8fc. See Expressed and Ex- 
 pression. 
 
 The kinds of oils, their properties, manners of expreffion, &c. 
 are numerous : for the generality, of them, the reader is re- 
 ferred to the proper articles. 
 
 Such as could not be more conveniently inferted, are as fol- 
 low. 
 
 Oil of olives, is the mod popular, and mod univerfal of all others ; 
 being that chiefly ufed in medicine, in foods, fillets, and in the 
 manufactures. 
 
 It is drawn from olives by prefTes or mills made for the 
 purpofe. The fruit is gathered when at its utmod maturity, 
 in December and January, as it begins to redden ; being , 
 
 put under the mill, as foon as gathered, it yields that oil 
 lb very fweet, and of fo charming an odour, called virgin-oil. 
 But, as the olives newly gathered yield but little oil, thofe who 
 rather regard quantity than goodnefs, leave them on the ground 
 for fome time, ere they prefs them. 
 
 Neither the fmell nor fade of the fecond oil is very agreeable ; 
 though there is a third kind dill worfe, which is the common 
 oil procured by throwing boiling water on the preffings, and re- 
 prefling them more dronglv. 
 
 The confumption of this oil is incredible; the fouth parts of 
 France, Provence, Languedoc, &c as alfo Candia, fome parts 
 of Italy, djfY. yield vaft quantities. Its ufe every bodv knows ; 
 it being reputed one of the mod univerfally ufeful things in the 
 whole world. 
 
 Oil of Jiviet almonds, cold drawn, or without fire, is pre- 
 pared various ways. Some peel the almonds before they 
 pound them ; others pound them without peeling. Some 
 warm them in luke-warm water ; others in balmo marics ; 
 fome only bruife them ; others beat them into a pade. — In 
 effect there are almofr as many different ways of preparing 
 this oil, as there are perfons who make it their bufinets to 
 prepare it. 
 
 In this diverfity, Pomet gives us a method eafier and lefs ex- 
 penfive than any of the reft; which, it mould feem, we cannot 
 do better than follow. 
 Method of procuring Oil of fweet ahnonds by expreffion without 
 fire. — Take a pound and an half of fweet almond?, new and 
 dry ; after pounding them in a mortar, pafs them through 
 a coarfe fieve, lay them in a hair-cloth, and put them 
 under the prefs between two plates of copper, fteel, or the 
 like ; prefs them gently ; and when all the unctuous and 
 fluid part is exprefled, you will have a fweet oil without any 
 fediment which is fcarce avoidable in any of the other man- 
 ners. 
 
 Palm Oil, or Oil of Senegal, a thick unctuous liquor, of a 
 yellow colour, and a violet-fmell ; fo called becaufe drawn, 
 by ebullition or by expreffion, from the fruit -of a kind of 
 palm-tree, growing in feveral places of Africa, efpecially in 
 Senegal. 
 
 The Africans ufe this oil as we do butter; and burn it in 
 their lamps when old. In Europe it is efteemed a fovereigrt 
 remedy againft cold humours ; and is even faid to give eafe 
 in the gout. It is fometimes counterfeited with wax, oil of 
 olives, iris, and turmeric; but the trick is found out either by 
 air or fire. The air alters the colour of the genuine, and 
 leaves the counterfeit unchanged ; and on the contrary, fire 
 changes the counterfeit, but docs not alter the genuine. 
 Oil of camomile, an oil made with the flowers of this plant 
 fteeped in oil of olives, and expofed to the fun in the heat 
 of fummer : fome add fine turpentine. 
 
 It is the mod edeemed when old. It is ufed for the cure of 
 feveral kinds of wounds ; and is reputed a kind of balm. 
 Oil of afpic, or fpike, an inflammable oil drawn from the 
 flowers or leaves of a plant frequent in the fouthcrn parts of 
 France, refembling our lavender, and called by botanids lavcn- 
 dula mas. 
 
 It is of a white colour, and an aromatic fmell ; and is reputed 
 the only oil that will diflblve fandarach ; whence the genuine 
 oil is eafdy diftinguifhed from the counterfeit, which is oil of 
 turpentine mixed with a little petrol. 
 
 It is ufed by painters and farriers ; and is of fome ufe in me- 
 dicine, where it makes a part in feveral galenical compofi- 
 tions. 
 
 Oil of petrol. See Naphtha, and Petroleum. 
 
 Oil of amber. See Amber. 
 
 Oi L, or butter of antimmy. See Antimony. 
 
 Oil, or butter of arfenic. See Arsenic. 
 
 Oil of balm. See Balsam. 
 
 Oil of been. See Been. 
 
 Oil of beech. See BtECH. 
 
 Oil of bricks. See Brick. 
 
 Oil of camphor. See Camphor. 
 
 Oil of cinnamon. See Cinnamon. 
 
 Oil of caflor. See Castoreum. 
 
 Oil of wax. See Wax. 
 
 Oil of cummin. See Cummin. 
 
 Oil of nutmeg. See Nutmeg. 
 
 Oil of cloves. See Cloves. 
 
 Oil of neroli. See Orange. 
 
 Oil of black pitch. See Pit ch. 
 
 Oil of rofemary. See Rosemary. 
 
 Oil of fage. See Sagf. 
 
 Oil of tartar. See Ta rtar. 
 
 Oil of turpentine. See Turpentine. 
 
 'train Oil. See Whale Fisuery and Train. 
 
 Virgin Oil is underftood of oils expiefied from olives, nuts, E^V. 
 
 fVefh gathered, without being heated, too much prefied, &c. 
 
 See Oil of olives, and Virgin. 
 Granulated Oil is that fixed in little grains ; this is the bed, and 
 
 mod efteemed, efpecially of oils of olives. 
 
 Oil frequently takes new names from the drugs mixed with it ; 
 t » 
 
O I N 
 
 O L I 
 
 as oil of rofes, which is that mixed with rofes ; oil of jeffamy, 
 that perfumed with jafmin. 
 
 Plato obferves, that oil is deftructive to all plants ; and he adds 
 too, to the life of all animals, except that of man, to which 
 it b agreeable, as alfo to the reft of his body. He adds farther, 
 that it is vcrv ufeful to the external parts of the body, but fome- 
 times hurtful to the internal. Fernelius obferves, that oil fof- 
 tens, moiftens, and lubricates the body, and takes off the fenfe 
 of wearinefs; for which reafon the Greeks call it acopum ; it 
 alfo renders the body prompt and agil. Diofcorides fays it cures 
 leprofies, l$c. 
 
 Oil, among the chymifts, is the fecond of the elements, or hy- 
 poftatical principles ; otherwife called fulpbur. 
 All natural bodies yield oil, cither by diftillati'on, putrefaction, 
 or liquation, called per deliquium : and her.ee the chymifts will 
 have it a neceffary ingredient in the compofition of all bo- 
 dies. 1 hey make it the principle of odours ; and to the di- 
 verfities thereof afcribe all the differences of bodies in refpect of 
 
 findfe. 
 
 All plants, iinlefs diftilled with water, yield a fetid oil at the 
 end of diftilldtion ; but aromatic ones befides this yield an- 
 other oil, which arifes after the phlegm, and at the begin- 
 ning of the diftillation : this chymifts call an ejfential oil y be- 
 caufe it retains the natural fme!l of the plant ; whereas the 
 fecond oil, even that of aromatic plants, ftinks intolerably. 
 M. Homberg, from an obfervation that plants which yield 
 the moft acid, yield likewife the moft oil ; took occafion to 
 think that the acid might aflifl the oil to difengage itfelf 
 from the body, and to rife in diftillation; which he found 
 to anfwer in the experiment. Mineral acids proved to have, 
 more force on the oils of plants, and put them in a condition 
 of riling in diftillation, and in greater quantity by the 
 action of fire, than vegetable ones. Accordingly, whereas 
 the perfumers find a deal of difficulty in raifing eflential oil 
 of rofes;. and fcarce get an ounce out of an hundred pounds 
 of the flower : M. Homberg, on his principle, got at leaft 
 one third more ; viz.. by laying the rofes fifteen days in wa- 
 ter impregnated with fpirit of vitriol, before diftillation. 
 The chymifts doctrine of principles, Mr. Boyle fliews to be- 
 very deficient in the article of oils : for the character iftic of 
 a fulphur, or that which denominates a thing fuch, is its in- 
 flammability : now, there are at leaft three fubffances mani- 
 feftly different in confirtence, texture, or both ; which, ac- 
 cording to that notion, ought to be referred to fulphurs : 
 for fometimes the inflammable fublfance obtained from a 
 mixed body by means of fire, appears in form of an oil that 
 will not mix with water ; fometimes in form of an inflamma- 
 ble fpirit, which will readily unite with that liquor; and fome- 
 times alfo in form of a confiffent body almoft like common 
 fulphur. Produdh. of Cbym. Prin, 
 
 Dr. Slare in Phihf. franjacl. gives us a fcheme, or analyfis of 
 cils. He diftinguilhes oils into vegetable, animal, and mine- 
 ral. 
 
 The vegetable he divides into ejfential, and not ejfential The 
 tffential again arc either perfect itilUtions made by the ana- 
 lyfis of the chvmift's fire; where the oleaginous particles 
 are truly fcparated from all other ; as thofe from the feeds 
 of cummin, fennel, and dill : or light and ethereal, ufualiy * 
 drawn from the tops of plants, and fpecifically lighter than ' 
 water, and fome of them than fpirit of wine ; as thofe from 
 thyme, wormwood, hvllbp, lavender, rofemary, peny-royal, 
 rue, fage, favin, c5>. or ponderous, which commonly fink in 
 water. 
 
 Thofe not effential are imperfect, made by exprelfion ; being 
 decompounded of feveral parts of the plants ; as of almonds, * 
 olives, walnuts, lime, rape, &c. 
 
 The animaUils are either thefe of the folid parts, as harts-horn, 
 human fkull, hoofs, cifc. or thofe of the fluids, as of human- 
 blood. 
 
 Laftly, the mineral oils are thofe of amber, petroleum, Barbadoes 
 tar, to which fume add bees- wax. 
 
 Of thefe oils there are twelve ; that, by a mixture of com- 
 pound fpirit of nitre, make an ebullition, explofion, and flame. 
 Eighteen that rmke an ebullition and explohon without flame : 
 and four that produce neither. See Supplement, article Oil 
 Ejfential. 
 
 ffi.therial Oil. See the article j^therIAL, * 
 
 Can/lie Oil. See the article Arsenic. 
 
 Medullary Oil. Sec the article Me d u ll a r y. 
 
 Anointing with OlL. See Unction, 
 
 Stilhititicus Oils. See Stillatitious. 
 
 Gilding in Oil. See the article Gilding. 
 
 Paintingin Oil. Sec the article Painting. 
 
 Oi l-Bag, a vefiel in birds, replete with an unctuous fubftance, 
 fecretcd by one, fometimes two, glands for the purpofe, dif- 
 pofed among the feathers ; which being prefled by the bill or 
 head, emits its oily matter, for the drefling and pruning the 
 feathers. 
 
 O t l -Mill. See the article M i l l. 
 Oily Waters. See the article Waters. 
 OINTMENT, in pharmacy and furgery, &c. See Unguent. 
 
 ', OKER*, Ochra, or Ocher, in natural hiftory, a yellow* 
 dry, foflil earth ; harfh to the touch ; often found in iron, 
 is copper, and lead mines, fometimes in thofe of filver, and very 
 h frequently in mines of its own. 
 
 ,_ * The word comes from the Greek oye a., yellow earth j formed 
 
 of *>2£f$ , yellow. 
 
 Some authors feem more rightly to refer oker to the claG of 
 s femi-metals, than that of earths. It confifis, :iccordin^ to them, 
 of earth and a metal, particularly iron, combined. ° 
 Mr. Boyle afiiires us he has fcen a piece of oker richer in me- 
 tal than moft iron-ores ; and which was even rendered mag- 
 netical by heating, and then cooling it in a perpendicular pofi- 
 tion, 
 
 Oker, in effect, is always impregnated with iron, and is what 
 generally gives to the chalybeat fprings their medicinal virtues; 
 r. many of which we fee, upon the water's ftanding, will depefir. 
 
 the oker at the bottom of the vcflcl. 
 . Some authors efteem oker proper to promote the meltin°- of 
 ' metals, when they are too harfti and brittle ; but its chief ute is 
 in painting. 
 
 Yellow oker is natural ; the red is commcmly prepared from 
 ! the yellow by calcining it in the fire till it have acquired its 
 rednefs, though there are fome naturally red kinds. 
 The beds are often from one hundred and fifty to two hundred 
 feet deep ; and their thicknefs from four to eight inches ; but 
 this is all uncertain, fome lying near the furface. 
 The beft oker is that of Berry in France. There are feveral 
 kinds dug up in England ; fome of them ufed in painting, 
 and others in polifhing'looking-glafles. See Supplement, article 
 Ochra. 
 
 OLD Age. See the articles Age and Longevity. 
 ■ Old Ajlronomy. Sec the article Astronomy. 
 Old Style. S;e the article Style. 
 Old Subfuly. See the article Subsidy. 
 Old impofition of Tonnage. See the article Duty. 
 OLEAGINOUS, fomething that partakes of the nature of cil ; 
 or out of which oil may be exprefted. 
 
 Thus olives, nuts, almonds, tsV. are oleaginous fruits, or fruits 
 out of which oil is cxpreiled. 
 
 Pines, Firs,c3*tr. are oleaginous woods, yielding rofin, turpentine, 
 cifV. Of allwoods, oleaginous ones burn the beft. An oleaginous 
 urine in malignant fevers is a fign of death. 
 OLECRANUM, ii^avoy, in anatomy, an eminence behind 
 the bend of the elbow ; being the part whereon the arm 
 bears when we reft on the elbow. — See Tab. Anat. fie. 7. 
 n. 1 1. 
 
 This eminence is nothing clfc but the pofterior apophyfis of 
 the head of the ulna, which flays that bene, and prevents its 
 flipping back ; fo as to form an acute angle when the arm is 
 bent. 
 
 The olecranum is received into the hind finus of the lower end 
 of the humerus; and with the fore protuberance of the ulna, 
 which is received into the fore finus of the humerus, it forms a 
 perfect ginglymus, whereby the two bones move as on a 
 hinge. 
 
 OLEOSUM Sal volatile. See Sal. 
 
 OLERON-Zaiw, or the Sea-Laws of Oleron, are a fet of 
 antient laws, relating to maritime affairs, made by king Ri- 
 chard I. 
 
 They are thus called, becaufe compofed in the Oleron, an ifland 
 in the bay of Aquitaine, at the mouth of the river Cha- 
 rent. 
 
 OLFACTORY Nerves, in anatomy, the firft pair of nerves 
 fpringing out of the medulla oblongata ; fo called as being the 
 immediate inftruments of fmelling.— See Tab. Anat. fOfteoI ) 
 fig. 5. lit. b. h. * 
 The antients called them proeeffus papillares ; which Dr. Drake 
 thinks a more fuitable name, till their arrival at the os cri- 
 brofum ; in regard they rather appear productions of the me- 
 dulla oblongata, than diftinct nerves; againft which, their ma- 
 nifeft cavities, and their communication with the ventricles, 
 argue, 
 
 TbsoIfaFlory nerves havetheir rife juft below the os frontis, and 
 are diftributed among the membranes of the note. 
 0LIBANUM*, in pharmacy, a kind of gum, or refin, ufualiy 
 called male frank'mcenfe. 
 
 * It has its name olibanum, quaji oltum Hbar.i ; becaufe diftilled in 
 form of an oil, from a tree growing on mount Libanon. 
 
 Ohhanum is brought to us in large white tears, bordering a little 
 on the yellow j heavy, of a lharp bi'.ltr tafte, and a brilk 
 fmell. 
 
 It is diftinguilhed from the female, or common fiankincenie, 
 by the largenefs of the drops. — It is very glutinous, and con- 
 fequently flrcngthening ; and partakes enough of the turpen- 
 tine to render it foinewhat detergent. It is more ufed in 
 compound ftxengthenjng pUifters, than in inward compofi- 
 tions, 
 
 OLIGAR- 
 
O L Y 
 
 O M B 
 
 OLIGARCHY *, form of government, wherein the adnrimftfa- 
 tion is in the hands of a few perfons. 
 
 • The word is formed from the Greek, B\iyo},fiw ; and &JX"» 
 command, government. 
 
 The ftates of Venice, and Genoa, may be ranked among oli- 
 garchies. 
 
 Oligarchy amounts to much the fame thing with ariftocracy ; 
 unlefi perhaps the former import a kind of defect or corruption; 
 as if the fovereign power were monopolized by a few perfons, 
 in prejudice of the rights of a great number. 
 OLIO, or OcLlo,a favoury difh, or food, compofed of a great 
 variety of ingredients : chiefly found at Spanifh tables. 
 The forms of olio's are various. To give a notion of the flrange 
 afTembLge, we fliall here add one from an approved au- 
 thor. _ 
 Take rump of beef, neat's tongues boiled and dried, and Bo- 
 lonia (aufeges ; boil them together, and after boiling two hours, 
 add mutton, pork, venifon, and bacon, cut in bits ; as alfo 
 turneps, carrots, onions, and cabbage, borage, endive, mari- 
 golds, forrel, and fpinage ; then fpices, as faffroll, cloves, mace, 
 nutmeg, Cifft This done, in another pot put a turkey orgoofe, 
 with capons, pheafants, widgeons, and ducks, partridges, teals, 
 and ftock-doves, fnipes, quails, and larks, and boil them in wa- 
 ter and fait. In a third vefiel, prepare a fawce of white wine, 
 flrong broth, butter, bottoms of artichokes and chefnuts, with 
 cawlifiowers, bread, marrow, yelks of eggs, mace and faffron. 
 Laftly, difh the olio, by firft laying out the beef and veal, then 
 tlievenifon, mutton, tongues,and faufagcs,and the roots over all ; 
 then the Lrg^ft fowls, then the fmalleft, and Lilly pour on the 
 fawce. KNWWPPHl')^''f*i ' 
 
 OLITGRY, a kitchen-garden; or a garden of herbs, roots, isc. 
 
 for food. Ste Garden, Sallet, is'c. 
 OLIVARIA Corpora, in anatomy, are two protuberances in 
 the under part of the brain, placed on each fide the corpora 
 pyramidalia, towards the lower end ; having their name from 
 their figure, which refembles that of an olive. 
 OLIVE, Oliva, a ftone-fruit, which yields plenty of oil; the 
 produce of the oka or olive-tree. 
 
 There are three kinds of olives frequently fold ; different in 
 fize and coodnefs ; viz. thofe of Verona, which are the beft ; 
 thofe of Spain ; and thofe of Provence. 
 
 The olives, w"hile on the tree, are intolerably bitter, without 
 any thing of that delicious tafte, which procures them admittance 
 at the richeft tables. To fit them for that, they muft be pre- 
 pared as follows : 
 Curing or pickling Olives. — In the months of June and July, 
 long ere the olives are fit to yield their oil, they are gathered, 
 and kid to ftcep fome days in frefh water ; when taken out, 
 they are put in a lye made of water prepared with barillia, 
 or kali, with afbxs of olive ftones calcined ; or at leaft with 
 lime. 
 
 They are next laid in a liquor of water and fait, with which 
 they are put in thofe little barrels, wherein they are brought to 
 lis. To give them the flavour, they throw over them an 
 effcnee ufually comrofed of cloves, cinnamon, coriander, and 
 fennel. 
 
 This efltnee is a kind of fecret among thofe who deal herein ; 
 and, in cfteifl, it is in this that all the difficulty of the prepara- 
 tion lies. 
 
 Drawing of oil of Olives. — The olives being gathered, are 
 hid for fome time on the ground to mellow, or to ripen 
 farther ; they are then ground into a pafle with a null- 
 flone : the pafle is put in large frails, and boiling water 
 is poured over it. Laflly, the whole is pteiTed ; by means 
 whereof the oil is eafily leparated, and iwims atop of the 
 water. 
 
 Olive-Colour is a yellow mingled with black. 
 
 ■ The term is chiefly ufcd in fpeaking of the tincture of the com- 
 plexion : the Spaniards and Indians are rarely white, generally 
 olive- com plexioned . 
 
 OLYMPIAD, 0\t/«x/^f, in chronology, a fpjee, or period of 
 four years; whereby the Greeks reckon'd their time. See 
 Epocha. i £ .-' .3 - ■ '. j f |* 
 
 This method of computation had its rife from the olympic games, 
 which were celebrated every fifth year, near the city Olympia in 
 Pcloponnefus. 
 
 The firft olympiad commenced, according to fome, in the year 
 395R of the Julian period; the year from the creation 3174 ; 
 the year before Chrift 774; and 24 years before the foundation 
 of Rome: or rather, as others will have it, in the year of the 
 world 3251 ; the year of the Julian period, 3941 ; and 23 
 years before the building of Rome. 
 
 The Pcloponnefian war began on the firfl: year of the 87th 
 olympiad. Alexander the Great died the firft year of the 
 114th; and Jefus Chrift was born the firft year of the 195th 
 
 olympiad. 
 
 The olympiads were alfo called anni Iphiii, from Jphitus, who 
 inftituced, or at leaft renewed the folemnity of the olympic 
 games. 
 
 We do not find any computation bv olympiads after the 364th, 
 which ended with the year of Chrift 440. — Except that in a 
 charter of our king Ethelbert, the years of his reign are faid 
 to be reckoned bv olympiads. 
 OLYMPICS, or Olympic Games, were folemn games, famous 
 among the antient Greeks ; inftituted, according to fome, by 
 Hercules, in honour of Jupiter ; and held at the beginning of 
 every fifth year, that is, every 49th month, on the banks of 
 the Alpheus, near Olympia, a city of Elis; to exercife their 
 youth in five kinds of combats. 
 
 Thefe games became fo con fide r able, that the Greeks made 
 them their epocha ; diftinguiftiing their years by the returns of 
 the olympics. 
 
 Thofe who were conquerors in them, were fo honoured by 
 their countrymen, that at their return, a piece of the wall of 
 the city was pulled down to give paffage to their chariots. 
 The prize contended for, was a crown made of a peculiar fort of 
 wild olive appropriated to this ufe. 
 Olympic Fire, is fometimes ufed for the fire arifing from the 
 
 fun's rays collected in the focus of a burning-glafi. 
 Gli OLYMPICI, the title of the academifis of Vicenza in Italy. 
 
 See Academy. 
 OLYMPIONLTS, 0\vfA-^io"iK»r, in antiquity, an appellation 
 given to thofe who came off victorious in the olympic games. 
 The olympionices were infinitely honoured in their country, as 
 being efteemed to have done it immortal honour. The Athe- 
 nians particularly, were fo lavifh in their prellnts to the olympi- 
 onices, their countrymen, that Solon found it neceilary to re- 
 ffrain their liberality by a fpecial law, which imputed that the 
 city fhould only give 500 drachma's to the Olympionices ; which 
 amounted to about 58 ounces of filver, our weight. No very 
 confiderable fum ! 
 OMBRE, a celebrated court-game at cards ; played by two, by 
 three, or by five perfons; but generally by three. 
 The game of ombre is borrowed from the Spaniards ; and re- 
 quires all the phlegm and gravity of that people in the playing. 
 The name fignifies as much as the game of man ; ombre, or 
 bombre, in Spanifh, fignifying ?nan, in allulion to the thought 
 and attention required herein. 
 
 In ombre by three, nine cards are dealt to each party ; the whole 
 ombre pack being only 40 ; by rcafon the eights, nines, and 
 tens, are thrown afide : he that wins muft take five tricks, or 
 four when the other five are divided, fo as one have two and the 
 other three. 
 
 After the cards are dealt, if none of the parties think their hand 
 ftrong enough to attempt for the flake or g:ime, they all pafs ; 
 and, after fomething put down to the former flake, deal oyer 
 again. If any will attempt for it, he henceforth is called the 
 ombre ; and the other two become leagued together, like two 
 partners at whift, to defend it againft him. 
 
 Note, each has the refufal of being ombre, according to 
 his order of feniority. 
 
 There are two ways of undertaking for the game ; In the 
 firft, which is the moft ufual, after chufing what he will have 
 trumps, he difcards, or lays afide what number of his cards he 
 pleafes, and in their lieu takes an equal number from the re- 
 mainder of the pack ; the like do the other two. — The other 
 way is, when he dare truft to his own hand, and therefore de- 
 clines to difoard, or change any cards, but leaves that to the 
 others; which is called playing fans prendre : if he gains the 
 point in this latter cafe, he reaps fomuwhat extraordinary, more 
 than in the firft. 
 
 If he fail in either cafe, he is faid to be bcaftcd; and the failure 
 is called a remife, or repuejh ; and if one of the defenders of the 
 ftake win more tricks than he, fuch perfon is faid to win csdille, 
 and takes up the ftake the ombre played for: and in both cafes, 
 the ombre is to forfeit the value of the ftake pLycd for to the 
 board. 
 
 If the ombre win all the nine tricks, it is called winning the 
 vole, and he reaps doubly ; and if he attempt it, and mifcarry, he 
 fufivrs proportionably. 
 
 The oversights and irregularities committed in the courfe of the 
 game, are called beajles, and fubjecT: the perfons chargeable there- 
 with to forfeitures. 
 
 As to the order and value of the cards at omhrc, it is to be ob- 
 ferved, that the ace of fpades, called fpadille, is always the 
 firft or higheft trump, in whatever fuit the trump be ; the 
 duce of trumps, when trumps are of cither of the black co- 
 lours ; or the feven, if of the red, is the fecond trump, and 
 called vianille ; the ace of clubs, called bajla, the third ; and 
 if either of the red fuits be trump, the ace of that fuit, cal- 
 led panto, the fourth. The reft in the black fuits are valued 
 according to the following order ; viz. king, queen, knave, 
 feven, fix, five, four, and three. In the red fuits they fol- 
 low thus ; kins", queen, knave, duce, three, four, five, and 
 fix. 
 
 The three firft, or principal trumps, are called matadores ; 
 which have this privilege, that they are not obliged to attend 
 an inferior trump when it leads ; but for want of another fmall 
 2 trump, 
 
O M E 
 
 O M P 
 
 trump, the pcrfon may renounce trumps, and play any ether 
 card. — Add, that if the three matadores be in the hands of the 
 ombre, in cafe he be beafted, he is to forfeit for them ; or, if 
 he gain his point, he is to have a confideration for them ; but 
 for nothing Ids than three. And it muft be further noted, 
 that the trumps immediately fucceeding thefe, viz. punto, 
 king, queen, &%i if they be found in ihe fame hand with the 
 former, are alfo reputed as matadores, and to be allowed, or for- 
 feited for, like the reft ; and this as low as the fequence reaches, 
 without interruption. 
 
 There are fome varieties in the manner of playing the game 
 of ombre. — Sometimes he who has fpadille is obliged to play, 
 let his game be ever fo bad, which is called force fpadille ; 
 fometimes, when all have patted, a perfon undertakes the 
 game on condition of difcardmg, and making up his hand ere 
 he names trump ; which is called gafcarille. 
 In ombre by fve, which fome even prefer to that by tbree t as 
 not requiring fo much attention ; only eight cards apiece are 
 dealt ; and five tricks muft be won, otherwife the ombre is 
 beafed. 
 
 Here the perfon who undertakes the game, after naming the 
 trump, calls a king to his afliftance ; upon which, the per- 
 fon in whofe hand the king is, without difcovering himfelf, 
 is to afTiftbim as a partner, and to fhare his fate. If between 
 both they can make five tricks, the ombre wins j and then the 
 auxiliary king mares the fpoil ; and viceverfa. 
 If the ombre venture the game without calling in any king, 
 this too is called playing fans prendre ; in which cafe the other 
 four are all againft him, and he muft win five tricks alone, 
 or be beafed. The reft is much the fame as by three mu- 
 tatis mutandis. 
 
 Ombre de Sold!, in heraldry, Jliadow of the futi t Is when the 
 fun is borne in armoury, fo as that the eyes, nofe, and 
 mouth, which at other times are rcprefented, do not appear ; 
 and the colouring is thin, fo that the field may be fcen 
 through it. 
 
 OMELET*, or Amlet, a kind of pancake or fricaffee of 
 eggs, with other ingredients ; very ufual in Spain and 
 France. 
 
 * Menage derives the word from the Italian ammella, little foul ; 
 which, he fays, that people ufe for the nice bits among the 
 giblets of fowls, &t. ufed for fricaffees, as livers, hearts, 
 kidneys, gizzards, CSV. From whence, by refemblance, is 
 formed the French ameletle, a fricaike of eggs. Tripod derives 
 the word from dfia, together, and Khuv, to difiblve, moiften, 
 mix : and M. de la Mothe le Vayer, from the French oeuf, egg, 
 and melez t mingled. 
 The forms ot omelets are various. We meet with farced 
 omelets, omelets with fugar, omelets of green peafe, omelets a 
 la Turq. &c. 
 
 A noted author in this way prefcribes the following one : the 
 eggs being beaten, are to be feafoned with fait and pepper, 
 and then fried in butter made boiling hot : this done, gravy 
 to be poured on, and the whole ftrewed with chives and pariley 
 fhred fmall. When one fide is fried enough, it is to be 
 turned on the other. 
 
 OMEN f, a fign or indication of fomething future, taken from 
 the mouth of a perfon fpeaking. 
 
 -f- Fejli/s derives the word omen from oremcn, quod ft ore, as being 
 a prefage by the mouth. See Presage, 
 
 Omen PrcErogathum y among the Romans, was the vote of the 
 firft tribe, or centurv, in their comitia. 
 
 When a law, £sV. was propofed, or an election to be made, 
 an urn was brought in to the priefts there prefent, into which 
 were caft the names of the tribes, or centuries, or curia: ; as 
 the comitia were either tributa, centuriata, or curiata. And 
 the lots being drawn, that tribe, century, fijff. whofe name 
 came up firft, was called tribus, or centuria praragntiva, be- 
 caufe their voices were allied firft. And fo much did the Ro- 
 mans depend on this prerogative century, that the reft general- 
 ly followed them. Hence a perfon who had the voices of 
 the prerogative, was faid to have omen prcsrogativu?n. 
 OMENTUM in anatomy, a fat, thin membrane fpread over 
 the inttftines, and following them in all their finuofities. — 
 See Tab. Anat. (Splanch.) Jig. Z. lit. g g. fig. 3. lit. m m. 
 X The omentum is the fame with what is otherwife called epi- 
 ploon, caul, rete, reticulum, ScC. 
 It reaches from the bottom of the ftomach (to which it is con- 
 nected) to the navel, at which it ordinarily terminates; tho' 
 in fome fubjects it goes farther, fo as upon a rupture of the 
 peritonaeum, to fall into the fcrotum. Befides the ftomach, 
 it is fattened to the concave part of the liver, the backfide of 
 the duodenum, part of the colon, the back and the fpleen ; 
 its other extremity to the fmall guts. 
 
 Its form refembles that of a pouch or fachel, which may be 
 inflated with a blow-pipe to the capacity of a gallon. 
 Its fubftance is membranous, confifting of two leaves, or 
 coats, between which, and on the furfaces of which, are in- 
 numerable veins, arteries, nerves, and vafa adipofa, or fat 
 vcfTels, variuufly interwoven, and by their interferons dividing 
 the part into a multitude of little areola;, refembling the 
 mafhes of a fine net ; whence its name, rite. 
 The fat, in its proper duels, running along with the other 
 Vol. II, 
 
 veflels, renders thefe areolae very obfeure ; while the inter- 
 mediate fpaces are filled with a tranfparent membrane, full of 
 fmall holes, fo that the whole appears a beautiful kind of net. 
 Its arteries come from the cceliac and mefenterics, and its 
 veins run to the porta, and are called epiploicse ; its nerves 
 are from the intercoftals. 
 
 The fat here, as in the membrana adipofa, is either brought 
 by the du&s into the adipofe cells, or elfe delivered from the 
 cells into the duels ; for the finenefs of the veflels, ts'c. renders 
 their courfe exceedingdifficult to trace: it is even doubted whe- 
 ther or no they be hollow. Malpighi, and many others, incline 
 to the former opinion ; and take the omentum to be nothing 
 elfe but a large pouch, full of innumerable little ones, filled 
 with fat ; they add, that the duclus adipoii are real veflels 
 arifmg out of the omentum, and fpreading themfclves, by 
 means of the membrana adipofa, throughout thewholebody ; 
 diftributing fat to every part, in the fame manner as the arte- 
 ries dillribute blood. See Fat, and Ductus Adipofi. 
 The particular ufe of the omentum is to promote the periftaltic 
 motion of the guts, by lubricating them with its oily fub- 
 ftance, which tranfudes through its pores ; and by following 
 them in their doublings and windings, to ferve them as a bolfter 
 to Aide upon ; 2nd by filling up their hollows, preventing their 
 being too much diftended with flatulences, yet giving way to 
 them when replete with aliment. See Hift. Acad. R. Scienc. 
 ann. 1725. p. 12, feqq. 
 
 The omcntmn is fingle in all animals, excepting monkeys, in 
 
 which it is triple, or quadruple. 
 OMITTAS. See the article Non Onuttas. 
 OMNIUM forwn aqua. See the article Aqua. 
 OMOPHAGI*, among the anUent geographers, a name given 
 
 to certain nations who fed on raw flefh, as the Scythians, cjjY. 
 * The word is formed of up.®*, crude, and ictfc, I eat. 
 OMOPHORIUM *, a little cloak, antiently wore by the 
 
 bifhops over their moulders ; thereby to reprefent the good 
 
 fhepberd who brings home the ftrayed iheep on his ihoulders. 
 
 * The word is pure Greek, formed from , moulder, and 
 <f ep», I bear. 
 
 For this reafon the omopborium was put off at the opening of 
 the gofpels, becaufe then the true fhepherd Jefus Cbnft was 
 fuppofed prefent in perfon. 
 
 Some confound the omopborium with the pallium worn by the 
 patriarchs : but there was this difference, that the pallium was 
 a long cloak, of purple, and was peculiarly rcferved for pa- 
 triarchs ; though fince given to fome bifhops by way of di- 
 ff.incr.ion. 
 
 OM O PLATE *, ii^oTAe^", in anatomy, is ufed in the general 
 for the moulder ; but more particularly for two bones fituate 
 on the hind part of the upper ribs, one on each fide ; called alio 
 fcapula and JJmtlder- blades. See Scapula, and Shoulder. 
 
 * The word conies from the Greek »jw©--, Ihoulder, and nKaJvc, 
 broad. 
 
 Thefe bones are broad, and efpecially in the middle ; thick in 
 their apophyfes ; of a triangular form, concave within, and 
 convex without ; and are joined to the clavicles and arms. 
 OMPANORATE, an appellation given to the priefts of the 
 ifland of Madagafcar. 
 
 Thefe are the fchoolmafters of the country, and teach Ara- 
 bic and writing. They have feveral books, but none of them 
 contain more than fome chapter of the Alcoran, and a few 
 phyfical recipe's. 
 
 They are divided into feveral orders, bearing fome refemblance 
 to our ecclehaftical dignities : as ombiajfe, fecretary or phvfi- 
 cian ; tibon, fubdeacon ; mouladzi, deacon ; faquihi, prieft ; 
 catibon> bifhop ; lamlamaha, archbiftiop ; ompitftquili, pro- 
 phets or diviners \ fabaha, calif, or chief of the religion. 
 The Ompanoraies deal much in talifmans, and other charms, 
 which they call bitidzi, and which they fell to the grandees 
 of the place. They alfo make little ftatucs or images, called 
 auli, which they confult as oracles ; and to which they afcribe 
 various powers ; as the making rich, deftroying enemies, 
 &c. They have public fchools, where they teach their fuper- 
 ftitions and fortileges. 
 
 The ompitfiquili practife geomancy, and are moftly confuked 
 on difeafes, and the fuccefs of affairs ; refolving all queftions 
 by figures drawn on a little table covered with faiid- 
 OMPHACIONf, Oy.ya.x.iov, in pharmacy, the juice of four 
 or unripe grapes. 
 
 f The word is derived from the Greek Ou$a-:, unripe grape. 
 Some have alfo given the name to a kind of oil, pretended to 
 be drawn from olives while yet green and four. — But Pomet 
 charges it as an impofture ; adding, that olives yield no oil at 
 all till perfectly ripe. 
 OMPHALOCELE J, in medicine, a kind of hernia or tu- 
 mour in the navel ; arifing, like other ruptures, from a relaxa- 
 tion, or rupture of the peritonxum ; by which either th= 
 omentum, or the guts, fall down. 
 
 X The word is Greek, Oy.$a.hw> ri, formed of ejiz*eiA(ft-', navel, 
 and kmmi, tumour. It is otherwife called exomphalus. See 
 
 ExOMPHALUS. 
 
 Its remoter caufes arc violent ff rains, loud cries, abundance of 
 ferous humour, difficult dtlivcrv, Gfr, 
 
 7 N OMPHALO- 
 
O N O 
 
 O N Y 
 
 OMPHALOMESENTERIC, in anatomy.— All foetus's are 
 wrapped in at leaft two coats, or membranes : moft of them 
 have a third, called allantoides, or urinary. Some, as the dog, 
 cat hare, &c. have a fourth, which has two blood-veflels ; 
 viz. a vein, and an artery, called omphalo-mefentcrics ; becaufi; 
 paffing along the firing to the navel, and terminating in the me- 
 (enter)'. , . 
 
 OMPHALOPTER, or OmPhaloptic, in optics, a glals 
 that is convex on both fides, popularly called a convex 
 lens. 
 
 OMPHALUS. See Enteromfkalus, Exomphalus, and 
 Hydromphalus. 
 
 ONANIA, and Onanism, terms which fome late empirics 
 have framed to denote the crime of felf pollution ; mentioned 
 in Scripture to have been practifed by Onan, and punifhed m 
 him with death. Some take it for the fame with what in other 
 places of Scripture, particularly Levit. ch. xx. is called giving 
 of feed to Moloch * ; for which the punilhment allotted is {ton- 
 ing to death. 
 
 * This is but ill warranted ; the ableft critics make them quite 
 different things. Selden is pofitive the Jews, in imitation of 
 their neighbours, actually facriiiced their children to Moloch. 
 
 Others fanfy they only made them pafs between two fires, in 
 
 order to obtain the idol's favour and protection. 
 
 ONDEE, or OndEj in heraldry. See the article Wavy. 
 ONE-ttW phugh. See the article Plough. 
 ONEIROCRITiCA*, Om^mw, the art of interpreting 
 
 dreams ; or a method of foretelling future events by means of 
 
 dreams. 
 
 * The word Is formed from the Greek ovun^, dream, and kfijik,^, 
 of Jtp/fif, judgment. — Some call it oneirocratia, and derive it 
 from op* /pS*--, and I poflefs, I command. 
 
 It appears, from feveral paflages of Scripture, that there was, 
 under the Jewifh difpenfation, fuch a thing as foretelling future 
 events by dreams ; but then there was a particular gift, or re- 
 velation, required for that purpofe. 
 
 It fhould feem, hence, that dreams are really figmficative, and 
 do forebode fometbing to come; and all that is wanting among 
 us is, the oneirocritica, or the art of knowing what: yet it is 
 the opinion of many, that dreams are mere chimeras; bear- 
 ing, indeed, fome relation to what has palled, but none to what 
 is to come. — As to the cafe of Jofeph, it was poflible for God, 
 who knew all things, to difcover to him what was in the womb 
 of fate; and, to introduce that, he might take the occafion of 
 a dream: not but that he might as well have foretold it from 
 any other accident or circumftance whatever: unlefs God, to 
 give the matter more weight, fhould purpofely communicate 
 fuch a dream to Pharaoh, in order to fall in with the popular no- 
 tion of dreams and divination, which then prevailed among the 
 Egyptians. 
 
 ONEIROCRITICS*, a title given to interpreters of dreams, 
 or thofe who judge of events from the circumftances of 
 dreams. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek BCS/pSP, dream, andzf/av?, 
 judgment. 
 
 There Is no great regard to be had to thofe Greek books called 
 oneirocritics ; nor do we indeed know why the patriarch of Con- 
 ftantinople, and others, fhould amufe themfelves with writing 
 on fo pitiful afubject. 
 
 Rio-auk has given us a collection of the Greek and Latin works 
 of '"this kind ; one attributed to Aftrampfichus ; another to Ni- 
 cephorus, patriarch of Conftantinople : to which are added the 
 treatifes of Artemidorus and Achmet. — But the books them- 
 felves are little elfe but reveries ; a kind of waking dreams, to 
 explain and account for fleeping ones. 
 
 The fecret of oneirocrittcifm, according to them all, confifts in 
 the relation fuppofed to be between the dream and the thing 
 fignified ; but they are far from keeping to the relations of 
 agreement and fimilitude, and frequently they have recourfe to 
 others of difTimilitude and contrariety. 
 
 ONERANDO pro rata portionis, a writ which lies for a joint 
 tenant, or tenant in common, when diftrained for more rent 
 than the proportion of his land comes to. 
 
 ONGLEE, or On gle, is ufed by the French heralds to denote 
 the talons or claws of beafts or birds, when of colours different 
 from the body. 
 
 ONKOTOMY*, in chimrgery, the operation of opening a 
 tumor, or abfeefs. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek tfx.&, tumor, and Tiuvx, 
 I cut. 
 
 ONOMANCY*, or rather Onomamancy, the art of di- 
 vining the good or evil fortune which mall befal a man, from 
 the letters of his name. 
 
 * The word is fuppofed to be formed from the Greek, ovwa, 
 name, and naff ft*, divination. — Indeed there is fomething An- 
 gular in the etymology, for, in ftrictnefs, ononmncy fhould ra- 
 ther fignify divination by afies ; being formed from oref, afinus, 
 and [j.a \i-.a. : to fignify divination by names, it fhould be ono- 
 matomancy. 
 
 Onomantia was a very popular and reputable practice among 
 the antients. The Pythagoreans taught, that the minds, ac- 
 tions, and fuccciTes of men, were according to their fate, genius, 
 
 and name ; and Plato himfelf feems fomewhat inclinable to the 
 fame opinion, Aufonius expreil'es it to Probus, thus : 
 
 SjhtaUm creavit moribiUj 
 
 Jujfit vocar't nomine 
 
 Mundi fupremus arbiter. 
 Thus he plays with tippling Meroe, as though her name told 
 fhe would drink mere wine without water, or, as he calls it, 
 | merum merum. Thus Hippolytus was obferved to be torn in 
 pieces bv his coach-horfes, as his name imported ; and thus 
 Agamemnon fignified he fhould linger long before Troy ; 
 Priam, that he fhould be redeemed out of bondage in his 
 childhood. Hitherto may be alfo referred that of Claudius 
 Rutilius : 
 
 Nominibus ccrtis credam decurrcre mora P 
 Mor'ibm aut potius nornina certa dari? 
 It is a frequent obfervation in btftory, that the greateft em- 
 pires and ftates have been founded and deitroyed by men of 
 the fame name. Thus Cyrus, the fon of Cambyfes, began 
 the Perfian monarchy; and Cyrus, the fon ot Darius, ruined 
 it: Darius, fon of Hyftafpes, reffored it; and, again, Da- 
 rius, fon of Arfamis, utterly overthrew it. Philip, fon of 
 Amyntas, exceedingly enlarged the kingdom of Macedonia ; 
 and Philip, fon of Antigonus, wholly loft it. Auguftus was 
 the firft emperor of Rome; Auguftulus the laft : Conftantine 
 firft fettled the empire of Conftantinople, and Conftantine loft 
 it wholly to the Turks. 
 
 It is an obfervation of the like kind, that fome names are con- 
 ftantly unfortunate to princes : as Caius, among the Romans j 
 John, in France, England, and Scotland; and Henry, in 
 France. 
 
 One of the great rules of onomancy, among the Pythagoreans, 
 was, that an even number of vowels, in a name, fignified an 
 imperfection in the left fide of the man; and an odd number, 
 in the right. — Another rule, about as good as this, was, that 
 thofe perfons were the moft happy, in whofe names the nu- 
 meral letters, added together, made the greateft firm : for 
 which reafon, fay they, it was, that Achilles vanquifhed He- 
 ctor ; the numeral letters in the former name amounting, for- 
 footh, to a greater number than in the latter. 
 And it was, doubtlefs, from a principle much of the fame kind, 
 that the young Romans toafted their miftrefTes at their meetings 
 as often as there were letters in their names. Thus Mar- 
 tial, 
 
 Navia fex cyathis, fcptem Jujlina bibatur. 
 Rhodiginus defcribes a fingular kind of onomantia. — Thcodo- 
 tus, king of the Goths, being curious to know the fuccefs of 
 his wars againff, the Romans ; an onomantical Jew ordered 
 him to fhut up a number of fwine in little ftyes, and to give 
 fome of them Roman, to others Gothic, names, with dif- 
 ferent marks to diftinguifh them; and there to keep them till 
 a certain day : which being come, upon infpecting the ftyes, 
 they found thofe dead to whom the Gothic, and thofe alive to 
 whom the Roman names were given. — Upon which, the Jew 
 foretold the defeat of the Goths. 
 ONOMATOPOEIA*, in grammar and rhetoric, a figure of 
 fpeech, whereby names and words are formed to the refemblance 
 of the found made by the things fignified. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, mpa, name, and iroizu, 
 
 Jingo, I make, feign. 
 Thus is the word trique-trac formed, from the noife made by 
 moving the men at this game : and from the fame fource arifes 
 the buz of bees, the grunting of hogs, the cackling of hens, 
 the fnoringot people alleep, the clajlnng of arms, &c. 
 The fureft etymologies are thofe deduced from the onomato- 
 poeia . 
 
 ONONYCHITES*, fomething that has hoofs, like the feet, 
 of an afs. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, wo;, afs ; and ovv% t hoof, 
 nail. 
 
 Ononychites was an appellation which the heathens, in the 
 firft century, gave the God of the Chriftians, becaufe they 
 owned and adored the fame God with the Jews. — For it was a 
 notion (howfoever it had its rife), as appears from Tacitus, 
 hi/I. lib. 5. c. 3. that the Ifraelites, much afflicted with thirft, 
 were led to a fpring by an afs going to drink ; and that, in gra- 
 titude for the benefit, they worfhiped an afs; and that the 
 Chriftians did fo likewife. See Tertull. Apol. 
 
 ONTOLOGY, or Ontosophy, the doctrine or fcience de 
 cnte, that is, of being, in the general, or abftract. See Ens. 
 Ontology coincides with what in the fchools is more ufually 
 called metaphyfics. 
 
 ONYCOMANCY*, or, as fome write it, Onymancy, a 
 kind of divination by means of the nails of the fingers. 
 
 * The word is fromed from the Greek, ovv'r, nail ; and (AAvJiia t 
 divination. 
 
 Theantient practice was, to rub the nails of a youth with oil 
 and foot, or wax; and to hold up the nails, thus fmeared, 
 againft the fun. — Upon them were fuppofed to appear figures, 
 or characters, which fhewed the thing required. 
 Hence, alfo, modern chiromancers call that branch of their 
 art, which relates to the infpection of nails, onycomancy. 
 
 I ONYX, 
 
OPA 
 
 OPE 
 
 ONYX *, Oev?, in natural hiftory a kind of precious ftone. 
 
 * The word in the Greek language fignifies nail; the poets 
 making this ftone to have been formed by the Parcje 
 from a piece of Venus's nails, cut rff by Cupid with one 
 of his arrows. 
 
 It is ufually of a dark horny colour, in which are veins of a 
 bluifh white, and fometimes of red ; the feveral colours ap- 
 pearing as diftindt as if laid on by art. 
 
 There are fome, brought from Arabia, mixed with abrownifh 
 hue, which, after taking off one lay, or zone, {hew another 
 underneath of a different colour. — Whence they take the name 
 Memphitis, or Camehuia, q. d. another ftone. 
 White zones or girdles are by fome reckoned effential to an 
 onyx. 
 
 Diofcorides and Galen rank alabafter among the number of 
 onyx's ; though this is very remote from the fentiment of the 
 moderns. See Supplement, article Onyx. 
 OPACITY, in philofophy, a quality of bodies which renders 
 them opake; that is, impervious to the rays of light. 
 The term opacity is ufed in oppofition to transparency. 
 Opacity, according to the Cartefmns, confifts in this ; that the 
 pores of the body are not all {trait, or directly before each 
 other ; or, rather, not pervious every way. 
 But this doctrine is deficient : for though it muff be allowed, 
 that, to have a body tranfparent, its pores muff be {trait, or, 
 rather, open everyway; yet how it mould happen, that not 
 only glafs and diamonds, but even water, whole parts are fo 
 very moveable, fhould have all their pores open and pervious 
 everyway; and, at the fame time, the fineft paper, or the 
 thinner! gold plate, mould exclude the light, for want of fuch 
 pores ; is inconceivable. So that another caufe of opacity muff 
 be found. 
 
 Now all bodies have vaftly more pores, or vacuities, than are 
 neceffary for an infinite number of rays to find a free paffage 
 through them in right lines, without ftriking on any of the 
 parts themfclves : for fince water is nineteen times lighter, 
 i. e. fo much rarer than gold ; and yet gold itfelf is fo very 
 rare, that magnetic effluvia pafs freely through it, without any 
 oppofition; and quickfilver is readily received within its pores, 
 and even water itfelf, by compreffion; it mult have much 
 more pores than folid parts: confequentlv, water muft have 
 at leaft forty times as much vacuity as folidity. See Pore. 
 The caufe, therefore, why fome bodies are opake, does not 
 confift in the want of rectilinear pores, pervious every way ; 
 hut either in the unequal denfity of the parts, or in the mag- 
 nitude of the pores; and their being either empty, or filled with 
 a different matter ; by means whereof, the rays of light, in their 
 pafiage, are arretted by innumerable refractions and reflexions ; 
 till, falling, at length, on fome folid part, they become quite 
 extinct, and are utterly abforbed. 
 
 Hence cork, paper, wood, £3V. are opake ; while glafs, dia- 
 monds, 6V. are pellucid. For in the confines, or joining of 
 parts alike in denfity, fuch as thofe of glafs, water, diamonds, 
 c3V. among thcmfelves, there arifes no refraction or reflexion, 
 by reafon of the equal attraction every way; fo that fuch of 
 the rays of light as enter the firft furface, pafs ftrait through 
 the body, excepting fuch as arc loft and abforbed, by ftrikin» 
 on folid parts: but in the bordering of parts unequal in den- 
 fity, fuch as thofe of wood and paper, both with regard to 
 themfclves, and with regard to the air or empty fpace in their 
 larger pores; the attraction being unequal, the reflexions and 
 refractions will be very great ; thus the rays will be unable to 
 pafs through fuch bodies, being continually bandied about, till 
 they become extinct:. 
 
 That this interruption, or difcontinuity of parts, is the chief 
 caufe of opacity, Sir Ifaac Newton argues, does appear hence ; 
 that all opake bodies immediately begin to be tranfparent. 
 when their pores become filled with a fubftance of equal, or 
 almoft equal, denfity with their parts. — Thus paper dipped in 
 water or oil, the ftone called oculus mundi ftecped in water, 
 
 linen-cloth dipped in oil or vinegar, and other fubftances 
 foaked in fuch fluids as will intimately pervade their little 
 pores, become more tranfparent than before. 
 On the contrary, the molt tranfparent fubftances, by emptying 
 their pores, or feparating their parts, may be rendered very 
 opake. — Thus falts, or wet paper, or oculus mundi, by dry- 
 ing ; horn, by fcraping ; glafs, by pulverizing, or flawing; 
 and water itfelf, by being beat into bubbles or froth ; are ren- 
 dered opake. 
 
 Indeed, to render bodies opake, and coloured, their interfaces 
 muft not be lefi than of fome determinate fize : for the molt 
 opake bodies that are, if their parts be very minutely divided, 
 as when metals are divided in acid menftruums, become per- 
 fectly tranfparent. 
 DPAL, Opalus, a precious ftone, of various colours; change- 
 able according to the different pofition of the ftone to the 
 light. 
 
 In it are fecn the red of the ruby, the purple of the amethyft, 
 the green of the emerald, befides yellow, blue, and fometimes 
 black and white. 
 
 When the ftone is broken, molt of tliefe colours difappear ; 
 
 which mews that they arife by reflexion from one or two prin- 
 cipal ones. 
 
 Its form is ufually either round, or oval ; its prevailing colour 
 white. Itsdiverfityof colours makes it almoft of equal value 
 with a fapphire or ruby. 
 
 T avernier fays, perhaps fomewhat too pofitively, that there* 
 are mines of opalin Turky : other authors, antient and mo- 
 dern, fay, Cyprus, Arabia, Egypt, Bohemia, and Hungary, 
 produce it; whence it is diftinguilhed into two kinds, oriental 
 and occidental. Its figure and luftre are fomewhat like thofe of 
 a pearl. They polifh it with tripoli. 
 
 Pliny among the antients, and Porta and Albertus Magdus 
 among the moderns, are very copious on the vinues cf'the 
 cpal: forfooth, becaufe it has the colours of all the other pre- 
 cious {tones, it muft have all their virtues too. The antients 
 called it paideros, from its promoting love and good-will. 
 Pliny and Solinus mention a fpecies of opal, called hexaconta- 
 lithus, which had fixty colours. See Supplement, article 
 Opal. 
 
 Artificial Opal.— In the Phihfoph. tranfacl. Mr. Coieprcffe 
 gives us an account of the manner of counterfeiting opal, a? 
 practifed at Harlem. He fays, the counterfeit is very lively; 
 and thinks it only performed by the degrees of heat, which 
 produce the colours. When the compofition is melted, they 
 take out fome on the point of an iron rod, which, being cooled 
 either in the air or water, is colourlefs, or pellucid ; but, be- 
 ing put into the mouth of the furnace on the fame rod, and 
 there turned by the hand for a little fpace, hath its little particles 
 fovarioufly pofited in various parts of the fame piece, that the 
 light falling on them, being varioufly modified thereby, repre- 
 fents the feveral colours feen in the natural opal. He adds, 
 the colours may be deftroyed and reftored, according to the va- 
 rious motions of its particles by heat. 
 OPALIA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated at Rome in honour of 
 the goddefs Ops. 
 
 Varro fays, they were held three days after the expiration of 
 the Saturnalia: according to Macrobius, they were held on 
 the nineteenth of December, which was one of the days of 
 the Saturnalia. — He adds, that thofe two feafts were celebrated 
 in the fame month, becaufe Saturn and Ops were hulband and 
 wife j and that it is to them we owe the invention of corn and 
 fruits : for which reafon, the feaft was not held till the harveft 
 and fruit-time were intirely over. 
 
 The fame author obferves, that the vows offered to the god- 
 defs were made fitting on the ground; to fhew, that {he was 
 earfh, the mother of all things. 
 OPEN flank, in fortification, is that part of the flank which is 
 
 covered by theorillon. 
 Open fire. See Fire, and Reverber atory. 
 Open fountain. See the article Fountain. 
 Open pound. See the article Pound . 
 OPENING a vein. Seethe article Phlebotomy. 
 Opening of trenches is the firft breaking of ground by the be- 
 fiegers, in order to carry on their approaches towards a place. 
 See Trench. 
 
 Opening of gates, in aftrology, is when one planet feparates 
 from another, and prcfently applies to a third, bearing rule in a 
 fignoppofite to that ruled by the planet with which it was be- 
 fore joined. 
 
 Opening the mouth. See the article Mouth. 
 OPERA, a dramatic compofition, fet to mufic, and fimg on 
 the ftage, accompanied with mufical inftruments ; and in- 
 riched with magnificent dieffes, machines, and other decora- 
 tions. 
 
 Bruyere fays, that it is effential to the opera to keep the mind, 
 the eyes, and ears, in an inchantment. St. Evremondcalls the 
 opera a chimerical allemblage of poetry and mufic ; where the 
 poet and mufician mutually cramp each other. 
 The opera we derive from the Venetians, among whom it is 
 hekl one of the principal glories of their carnival. 
 While the Englifh and French comic and tragic theatres were 
 forming, the Venetians invented the opera: the abbot Perrin, 
 introduaor of embafiadors to Gafton duke of Orleans, was 
 the firft who formed the defign of introducing it into Paris ; 
 and he obtained the king's privilege for the fame in 1669. 
 and it was not long ere it paffed thence into England.— The 
 author of the Spectator obferves, that the French mufic agrees 
 with their accent and pronunciation, much better than the 
 Englilh; and they are, at the fame time, better calculated for 
 the gay humour of that people. 
 
 At Rome they had a kind of jpiriiual operas, frequent in 
 Lent; confifting of dialogues, duos, trios, ritornellas, cho- 
 rufes, (Sc the fubject whereof is taken out of Scripture, the 
 life of fome faint, or the like. — The Italians call them ora- 
 torios. The words are frequently Latin, and fometimes Ita- 
 lian. 
 
 OPERATION, in the general, the act of exerting, or exer- 
 cifing fome power, or faculty, upon which an effect fol- 
 lows. 
 
 The nobleft operation of man is that by the fchoolmen called 
 vitaly or immanent ; viz. the operation of the mind j which, 
 2 with 
 
Q P H 
 
 O P I 
 
 With regard to the undemanding, is threefold i apprehenfion or 
 ^rceptfon, '« toti0n M > Uigm!:nt ' rC % 
 
 The r direaing of thefe makes the obbjeft of logic I 
 
 With C regarf to the will, the immanent operations are willing 
 and nining ; to which are referred loving and hating. 
 Operation, in medicine, denotes a methodical a&o ot 
 the hand, on the human body ; in order to re-eitabliin 
 
 Bleeding is a very common, but at the fame time a dangerous 
 (iteration. . . tu. 
 
 Trepanning is one of the fineft operations in chwrgery. the 
 Gefarean is the cutting open a woman with chile 
 
 and drawing out the child through the aperture 
 The other chirurgieal , ? *™<,W, are Sutures, Tapp ng, t_ 
 ftrating, Cutting for the Fiftula, Amputation, Extnpation, 
 Cupping, Uc. See each in its place as Suture, tic 
 Hioh Operation. See the article High. 
 rJW Operation. See Lithotomy. 
 Operation is more particularly ufed in medicine, for the 
 manna" wherein any remedy produces its alutary crTed ; or 
 Series of aflions, mediate and immediate, whereby its 
 remote end is attained. .. 
 See the operations of each kind of medicine, under the proper 
 head,, Specifics, Purgatives, Emetics, Opiates, 
 
 Operations, in chymiftry, denote the procelfes, or experi 
 ments, by means whereof the proper changes are produced , 
 bodies, and the effeft of the art procured. 
 The changes chymiftry produces in bod.es are Kducib e to 
 two kinds | viz! an union of parts, and a reparation thereof 
 thus chymiftry either feparates fp.rits, falls, oils, E?f. or 
 compounds them together. 
 
 A chymical operation, then, confifts in changing thefi ua, on 
 of the parts f particularly, either ,n movihg fome parts, but 
 not the whole, which is called feparatmg ; or in add.ng new 
 parts, which is called umlmg. 
 
 All chymical operations, theiefore, are reducible to two gen era 
 kinds I viz. fuch whereby the parts of bodies before joined or 
 united, are feparated, which the antient chymifts ; called filu- 
 tien ; and fuch whereby the parts before disjoined are com 
 bincd, or united, called coagulation. 
 
 Some however, objea digeft.on as a th.rdfpec.es of Mr* 
 ,,on, not reducible to either of them ; but Boerhaave ihews 
 that it is a compofition of both. 
 
 Mod chvmifts, however, look on this divifion as fcarce 
 curate and minute enough, and fubdivide the art into a num 
 ber of particular, or fubordinate operations ; as eacmah 
 vitrification, dijlitlation , fublimation, cohohation, amalgamation 
 fermentation, putrefaction, &c. See each m its place, Cal 
 cination, Vitrification, Sublimation, Distil 
 lation, Fermentation, tie. 
 Operation, in theology, is ufed for the aftions both of the 
 word and the man, in Jefus Chnft. See Person. _ 
 The orthodox teach, that there are two operations in Jefus 
 Chrift the one divine, the other human ; and not one thean- 
 dri, operation, as was the doctrine of the Monothelites and 
 
 OPERATOR, in medicine, &c. a perfon who operates, or 
 works with the hand, on the human body, to preferve, or 
 reftore its health. . 
 We fay an operator for the ftone, meaning a lithotomiit, or a 
 
 perfon who cuts. . 
 
 Operator for the eye,, denote a perfons who couches cata 
 
 Owwifir the teeth, fignifies a tooth-drawer, iifc. See 
 
 OPHITES + Of (Ik, in natural hiftory, a fort of variegated 
 marble of a duiky green ground, fprinkled with fpots of a 
 lighter green ; otherwife called [erpentine. 
 
 + It is thus called from the Greek »«;, ferpent ; by reafon its 
 fpots referable thofe of that animal. See Supplement, article 
 Ophites. 
 
 Ophites is alfo the name of a feft of antient heretics, who 
 fprung out oftheGnoftics; fo called from their worfhip.ng 
 the ferpent that feduced Eve. .„„,,. • ,11 
 
 This ferpent they taught, was inftrufled thoroughly in all 
 knowlege • and they rrfake it the father and author of all the 
 
 On which principle they built a thoufand chimera's ; part of 
 which may be feen in St. Epiphamus See Gnostic 
 They faid this ferpent was the Chnft ; that he was very dif 
 ferent from Jefus born of the virgin, into whom faid they, 
 the Chrift defcended ; and that it was this Jefus, not the 
 Chrift, that fuffercd.-Accordingly, they made all thofe of 
 their fea renounce Jefus to follow Chrift. 
 The Sethians, or Sethites, mentioned by Theodoret, were 
 either the fame with the ophites; or verylittlcdirTerentfrom 
 
 OPH1UCUS, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the northern 
 hemifphete ; called *Vo ferpentarius. See SerpentaRIUS. 
 
 OPHTHALMIA *, 0?8«fu<«, in medicine, a difeafe of the 
 :yes ; properly, an inflammation of the tunica adnata, 
 conjunaiva ; accompanied with a rednefs, heat, and 
 pain. 
 
 ' The word is formed from the Greek o ? 8«\u3>, eye.— Celfus 
 calls the ophthalmia lippityJo, by reafon of a gum flicking ro 
 the eye-lids in this difeafe, which the Latms call lippa. 
 
 The ophthalmia is either moifi or dry : in the firft, there is a 
 fhedding of tears ; in the fecond, none at all. 
 It fometimes happens in the ophthalmia, that the two eye-hds 
 are fo diftorted, that the eye continues conftantly open, with- 
 out bein» able to fhut ; which is called ; fometimes 
 the eye-lids are fo fattened together, that the eye cannot be 
 opened, which is called q. d. clofure ot things that 
 fhould be open. 
 
 The immediate caufe of the ophthalmia is the blood flowing 
 in too great abundance in the little veflels of the adnata, fo as 
 to ftagnate therein, and by that means diftend them. I he 
 remote caufes are the fame with thofe of other inflammations. 
 
 In fummer it is frequent to have epidemic ophthalmia's. 
 
 Snow, applied to the aftMed eye, is reputed a good remedy 
 for the ophthalmia : the cphemerides of the Leopoldine aca- 
 demy mention an ophthalmia cured by applying cows dung, 
 while hot, between two linen cloths, to the eye. A tox s 
 tongue, and the fat and the gall of a viper, are empirical pre- 
 fervatives againft the ophthalmia. 
 
 The cure of ophthalmia's, according to the modern praBice, 
 depends chiefly on the due repetition of purgatives. _ If thefe 
 fail, recourfe is had to velicatories, ifi'ues, felons, tic. tho 
 Pitcairn prefers bleeding ; it being his obfervation, that no 
 difeafe requires copious bleeding fo much as the ophthalmia. 
 Pitcairn, and fome others, diftinguifh an external and internal 
 ophthalmia ; the firft in the adnata, which is that hitherto 
 fpokeof; the fecond in the retina.— The fymptoms or indi- 
 cations of the latter, are mufce volitantes, duft feeming to 
 fly in the air, tic. 
 
 This, when inveterate, degenerates into a gutta ferena, or 
 amaurofis. See Gutta Serena. 
 OPHTHALM1CS, medicines proper for difeafes ot the 
 
 Such are ophthalmic waters. See Water. Ophthalmicyov- 
 ders, ointments, lie.— There is an excellent ophthalmic pre- 
 pared of faccharum Saturni. , 
 Ophthalmic The fifth pair of nerves of the brain, 
 
 dividing into three branches ; the firft is called ophthalmic, 
 becaufe it goes to the eye.— This again fubdivides into two 
 branches, after fending out feveral twigs which encompafs 
 the optic nerves, and are diftributed into the choroides. 
 OPHTHALMOGRAPHS f, that branch of anatomy which 
 confiders the ftrufture and compofition of the eye, the ule 
 of its parts, and the principal effeds of vihon. See Eye. 
 f The word is formed from the Greek of-SaA^-, eye , and 
 T/papii, defcription. 
 Our countryman, Dr. William Briggs, has publifhed an ex- 
 cellent ophthalmograph'^, and Plempms another. 
 OPHTHALMOSCOPIA, that branch of phyfiognomy which 
 confiders a perfon's eyes and looks ; to deduce thence the 
 knowlege of his temperament, humour, and manners. 
 OPIATE, Opiatum, in medicine, is fometimes applied to 
 any confection, or eleauary. 
 
 In which fenfe it is defined an internal remedy, varioufly 
 compofed of powders, pulps, liquors, fugar, or honey, re- 
 duced into a foft confidence. . 
 The opiate of Solomon ii a compofition of great fame, la 
 called from one Solomon, a phyfician, its inventor ; andhrlt 
 publifhed by Laurence Joubert. 
 
 There are a particular kind of opiates, called mcarnatwes, 
 for the teeth and gums, made of alum, fumach, lignum 
 aloes, myrrh, maftic, lie. reduced inro powder. _ 
 Opiate is alfo ufed for any medicine given with an intention 
 to procure fleep. . . . 
 
 In which fenfe the word is of the fame import with narcotic, 
 hypnotic, foporofic, or pacific. 
 Opiate is more particularly ufed for a compofition, wherein 
 opium is an ingredient. _ 
 The operation of opiates, ot the manner wherein they pro- 
 duce their effea in the body, Dr. Quincy thus lays down ■ 
 -All pain is a ftimulus on the part affeaed, and is attended 
 with contraftions of the pained membranes, which occation 
 a ereater afflux than ordinary of the nervous juice that way : 
 on the other hand, pleafure, or a delightful fenfat.or, in any 
 part is accompanied with a fmooth undulation, and ealy re- 
 lux'of the nervous juice towards the brain. _ This is, as it 
 were the entertainment of the mind ; with which being 
 taken up, it doth not determine the fpirits to the organs ot 
 motion ■ that is, there is fuch a relaxation of the mufcular 
 fibres, and fuch a difpofition of the nervous fluid, as is necet- 
 
 Now° ft'iTftiewn, that an agreeable fenfation produced in the 
 ftomach, together with a diftention of its membranes, K MM 
 
O P I 
 
 O P P 
 
 immediate caufe of that fleepinefs, to which we are inclinable 
 after eating i the one engaging the mind, the other adting on 
 the bodv. For pleafure amufes the foul, and the fulnefs of the 
 veflels in the brain checks and hinders, in fome meafure, the 
 derivation of the nervous juice into the organs. 
 Now, to apply this ; a moderate dofe an of opiate ufually 
 tranfports people with a pleafing fenfation, to that degree, that, 
 as they often exprefs themfelves, they are in heaven; and 
 though they do not always lleep (which proceeds from the 
 prefentation of pleafing images to the mind fo ftrongly, that, 
 like dreams, they over-engage the fancy, and fo interrupt the 
 ftateof reft), yet they enjoy fo perfect, an indolence and quiet, 
 that no happinefs in the world can furpafs the charms of fo 
 agreeable an ecftafy. 
 
 Thus we have from thefe medicines, but in a far more emi- 
 nent degree, all thofe effed'ts which are obferved to follow upon 
 that grateful fenfe in the ftomach, which a moderate fulnefs 
 produceth. For no bodies are fo fit and able pleafingly to 
 affe£t our fenfible membranes, as thofe which confift of vola- 
 tile parts, whofe activity is tempered and allayed by the fmooth- 
 nefs of fome which are lubricating and oily ; for they lightly 
 rarefy the juices of the ftomach, and caufe a pleafant titilla- 
 tion of its nervous coat, whereby there is induced an agree- 
 able plenitude, and the mind is entertained with ideas of fatif- 
 fa£tion and delight. 
 
 And thus we eafily fee upon what mechanifm the other vir- 
 tues of opiates depend ; for their eating pains, checking eva- 
 cuations, fefa proceed not only from the mind's being taken 
 up with a pleafing fenfe, whereby it is diverted from a dif- 
 agreeablc one ; but all pain being attended with a contraction 
 of the part, the relaxation of the fibres, which they caufe, 
 eludes and deftroys the force of the ftimulus. 
 Opiates are found to abate immoderate fecretions and evacua- 
 tions, which they do by removing that irritation of the or- 
 gans, whereby they are occafioned. And herein lies the in- 
 craflating quality of thofe medicines, in that the. twitching 
 fenfe upon the membranes of the lungs, bowels, £jff. being 
 leflencd, the fharp humour is differed to lodge there in a great- 
 er quantity, bciore it is fo troublefome as to be thrown off and 
 expelled ; it being all one as if there were no irritation of the 
 part, if the uncafy fenfe thereof be not regarded by the mind. 
 And thefe effedh will all be heightened by the mixture of the 
 opiate particles with the blood; which is hereupon rarefied, 
 and diftends its veflels, efpecially thofe of the brain ; and this 
 docs ftill, to a greater degree, leflen the influx of the nervous 
 iluid to the parts, by preffing upon the tubuli, or little canals, 
 through which it is derived. Whence the reafon of that dif- 
 ficulty of breathing, which opiates occafion ; this fymptom 
 being infcparable from the rarefaction of the blood in the 
 lungs. 
 
 OPINION, Opinio, denotes a probable belief ; or a doubtful 
 and uncertain judgment of the mind. 
 Opinion is better defined the affent of the mind to propofitions 
 not evidently true at firft fight ; nor deduced, by neceflary 
 confequence, from others that are fo ; but fiich as carry the 
 face of truth. 
 
 The fchools define opinion^ afftnfui intelleftus cum formidine de 
 oppofito ; an affent of the undcrftanding, with fome fear or 
 diftruft of the contrary being true. 
 
 According to logicians, demonftration begets fcience, or know- 
 lege ; and probable arguments beget opinion. 
 Where-ever the mind's acquiefcence in a truth propofsd to it is 
 accompanied with any doubt, this is what we call an opi- 
 
 ' nim. 
 
 Plato makes opinion a medium between knowlege and i<rno- 
 rance ; clearer and more exprefs than ignorance ; yet more 
 obfeure and unfatisfying than knowlege. See Ignorance. 
 OPISTHOTONOS • t O*irtvrwof i in medicine, a kind of con- 
 vulfion, wherein the body is bent backwards, fo as to form a 
 kind of a bow. 
 
 * The word is compounded of the Greek, ww^jj, backward/be- 
 hind, and 7 itsnVf tendere, to ft retch or bend. 
 
 In which fenfe the word ftands oppofed to emproJ!hotonos> where- 
 in the body is bent forwards. 
 
 The opijihotonos arifes from a tonic motion of the mufcles of 
 the pofterior parts of the body; efpecially thofe on the back of 
 the head. 
 
 OPIUM *, in pharmacy, & c . a narcotic juice, drawn from the 
 iiead of the white poppy, and afterwards infpiffated. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, otosJhccui, juice. 
 
 When the juice flows of itfelf, through incifions made in the 
 poppy heads, it is properly called opium.— When drawn by ex- 
 preifion, it ought rather to be called meconium. 
 I he difference between the qualities and virtues of the two 
 juices is very confiderablc. The former is preferable on all 
 accounts; but it is exceeding rare ; the Turks, among whom 
 it is produced, and who make great ufe of it, never allowing 
 it to be exported.-So that it is the latter that is ordinarily ufed 
 among us, and iuld tor opium ' 
 Vol. XI. ' 
 
 It ismoflly brought from the Levant, and Cairo; generab'y 
 very impure; the Levantines, to fhortcn their labour, and to 
 have the more juice, drawing it equally from the heads and 
 the leaves of poppies, by expreflion, and then reducing it to 
 the thicknefs of an extract by nre.^Thoush a late traveller 
 into their countries affures us', it is drawn by decoction, and 
 afterwards infpiffated.^ See Mem. Acad. R. Scien. an. J732. 
 p. 427. 
 
 It mull be chofen dry, the fmootbeft and blacked poffible 
 of a difagreeable fmell, and neither rugged, nor fticky, nor all 
 in a mafs. 
 
 It is a popular error, that there is any fuch thing as white 
 opium ; for though the juice, as it runs from the heads of the 
 poppies, be of a milk-colour, it always becomes of a very deep 
 brown as it thickens. — Where-ever it is found yellowifh or 
 foft, it is a fign the juice has not had fire enough. 
 Molt of the opium fold at Contlantinople is brought from Ana- 
 tolia, from a place called, by the Turks, Aphium Carahillat, 
 r, e. black caule of opium — It is alfo produced in the territory 
 of 'I hebes in Egypt ; but this is held much inferior to the 
 Anatolian opium. 
 Prepared Opium is called laudanum : of which there are two 
 kinds : the one fimple ; extracted by means of rain-water, 
 and fpirit of wine. — The other compound, called laudanum 
 opiatu?n ; wherein there enter feveral other ingredients. 
 The ufes of opium are to foolh pain, to excite fleep, and to flop 
 vomiting and loofenclTes. — Its dofe is from half a grain to two 
 grains. Some perfons, who have much habituated themfelves 
 to it, can take 50 or 60 grains. Charas fays, he has taken 12 
 grains himfelf ; and adds, he knew one who made nofcruple 
 of 36. And in the Philof. TranfaSl. we have an inftance of one 
 Mrs. Lovelock, who, in a fever, in three days time, took 102 
 grains. 
 
 Opium raifes the fpirits, occafions agreeable fenfations, and has 
 much the fame effeft with wine, or ftrong fpirits. — The Turks 
 ordinarily take to the quantity of a drachm when they go to 
 battle, or undertake any affair that requires vigour and ftrength. 
 Opium ftops> for a time, all overflowings of humours, fluxes, 
 haemorrhages, &c. probably from the fmoothnefs and round- 
 nefs of its parts, which, by a kind of titration, oblige the in- 
 teftincs,and other veffels, to contract themfelves. 
 Willis, Sylvius, and Muller, look on opium as a coagulating 
 poifon, which fixes the fpirits in the nerves. — Wepfer and Pit- 
 cairn, on the contrary, maintain it to be a hot diffolving poi- 
 fon, which fubtilizcs the blood, exalts and reduces it into va- 
 pours, which bloat up the arteries ; and the bloated arteries 
 comprcfling the veins and nerves, fliut up the paffage of the 
 fpirits. 
 
 By analyfis, opium is found to contain a great deal of volatile 
 fait. 
 
 OPOBALSAMUM, in pharmacy, a whitifh juice, gum, or 
 refin, diftilling from the branches of a tiee called batfamum, 
 or the balfam tree. 
 
 It is whitifh, pretty thick, tranfparent, and of a fmell approach- 
 ing turpentine, but much more agreeable. 
 It is the fame with the celebrated balfamum vcrum, or balm of 
 the Levant. 
 
 It obtains a place among thealexipharmacs, and is a good in- 
 gredient in the theriaca Andromachi, and mithridatc ; very 
 ill fupplied with the expieil'ed oil of mace for a fuccedaneum, 
 which does not at all corne up to the fubtilty and activity of 
 its parts, but is of a much heavier texture. 
 This, as all other balfams, is iuppurative, dctcrfive, and incar- 
 nating, applied outwardly to tumours, ulcers, or ereen wounds. 
 OPOPANAX *, Ottvtav*^ i n pharmacy, a vegetable juice, or 
 gum, yellow without-fidc, white within, fatty, and brittle, 
 of an agreeable tafte, and a very ftrong fmell. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, e 
 the^name of the plant which yields it. 
 
 , juke, and sr< 
 
 The Latins call it panax Herculeum, from Hercules, who is 
 fuppofed to have firft difcovered its fpecific virtues. — It is 
 one of the three celebrated panaceas, or univerfal medicines, to 
 which the antients attributed fuch wonderful virtues. The 
 two others are the Afclepium and Chironium ; the firft found 
 by ALfculapius, the fecond by Chiron. See Panacea. 
 The gum cpopanax flows by incifion from a plant growing 
 abundantly in Achaia, Beeotia, Phocis, and Macedonia: while 
 it is liquid, it is white ; but, as it dries and hardens, it affumcs 
 a beautiful golden yellow. 
 
 There are three kinds of it imported ; that in tears ; that in the 
 mafs ; and that counterfeited, or flatted.— The rirft is the befr, 
 and the fecond is the better, as it has the more tears ; the third 
 is a rank fophiftication, and good for little. 
 It is little ufed internally ; though Etmuller ranks it among 
 cathartics. — Its chief ufe is in the cure of wounds; whence it 
 enters the compofition of the unguentum divinum, with the 
 galbanum, ammoniac, and- bdellium. 
 OPPILATION, in medicine, the a£t of obftru&ing or flop- 
 ping up the duds, or paffages of the body, by redundant or pec- 
 cant humours. 
 
 O 
 
 The 
 
O P P 
 
 OPT 
 
 The word is chiefly ufed for obllru&ions of the lower 
 
 Vifcid, heavy food?, difficult of digeftion, are oppilative ; they 
 do not pafs off well, but flop in the mouths of the veffels. 
 
 OPPILATIVE. See the article Deoppil ative. 
 
 OPPONENT, a perfon who withftands or oppofes another. 
 The term is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of fcholaftic or academic 
 difputes or exercifes, where a perfon who oppofes a thefts, or 
 impugns it by his objections, is called opponent, opponent. ( 
 
 OPPOSER Foreign. See Foreign Oppofer. 
 
 OPPOSITES, Opposita, among logicians, are fuch things 
 as differ among themfelves j but fo, as not to differ m like 
 manner from fome third. 
 
 By which circumftance, oppofites differ from d\[paratcs. 
 The fchoolmen reckon four kinds of oppofites ; viz. relatively, 
 contrarily, privatively, and contradictorily oppofites. 
 Either, fay they, the oppofition is between ens and non ens : 
 if the former, it is either with a dependent ens, which makes 
 a relative oppofition, the loweft of all ; or an independent one, 
 which is a contrary oppofite : if with a non ens, it is either with 
 a non ens fecund um quid, which is privative j or with a non 
 ens Amply, which is the higheft oppofition. 
 Opposites, Oppofita, complexly taken, are propofitions that 
 clafh with each other.— As, man is an animal j and man is 
 not an animal. 
 Opposite Angles. See the article Angle. 
 
 If a line S T, {Tab. Geometry, fig. 46.) meet two other 
 lines, A P and B R, in different points A and B, but in the 
 fume direftion ; the angles u and y, as alfo z and y, hereby 
 formed, are called oppofite angles ; particularly u, the external 
 oppofite angle, and z, the internal oppofite angle of y. 
 Opposite Cones denote two fimilar cones, vertically oppofite, 
 that is, having the fame common vertex as well as the fame 
 axis. See Cone. 
 Opposite Seclions, are two hyperbola's made by cutting two 
 oppofite cones by the fame plane. See Hyperbola. 
 If a cone be cut by a plane through its vertex, and afterwards 
 by a fecond plane parallel to the former ; this latter plane pro- 
 duced through the oppofite cone will there make the oppofite 
 feclions. 
 
 OPPOSITION, in geometry, the relation of two things, be- 
 tween which a line may be drawn perpendicular to both. 
 
 Opposition, in logic, the quality of difagreement between 
 propofitions which have the fame fubject, and the fame attri- 
 bute. 
 
 Oppofition is faid, by logicians, to be either complex or tn- 
 
 complex. * 
 
 Jnccmplex, or fiunple oppofition, is the difagreement of two 
 things, which will not fuffer each other to be in the fame 
 fubjea. 
 
 Thus heat is oppofed to cold; fight to blindnefs, fcft. — Which 
 oppofition has already been obfeivcd to be of four kinds. 
 Complex oppofition is denned, by Ariftotle, to be the affirming 
 and denying the fame predicate of the fame fubjea, not taken 
 equivocally, but for the fame, in the fame manner, and at the 
 fame time.' — As Socrates is learned ; and Socrates is not learned. 
 The later fchoolmen, deviating from their mafter, define op- 
 pofition an affection of enunciations, whereby two abfohite 
 propofitions, the fame extremes being fuppofed in the fame 
 order and number, and underftood without any ambiguity, 
 of the fame thing, oppofe each other, either in refpefl ol 
 quantity, or of quality ; or of both. 
 
 According to the former definition, there are three fpecies of 
 eppofition, contrary, fubcontrary, and cor.tr adiclory : according 
 to the fecond, a fourth fpecies is admitted, viz. fubaltern. 
 To know how and wherein propofitions are oppofite, they 
 muftbe compared, in quantity and quality, all the ways they 
 can be compared in. — If they be oppofite both in quality and 
 quantity ; i. e. if the one be affirmative, and the other nega- 
 tive ; the one univerfal, the other particular ; they are faid to 
 he contradictory : — v. gr. no pleafure is allowed ; fome plea- 
 furc is allowed. 
 
 If they be only oppofite in quality, and not in quantity, they 
 are called contraries, if univerfal; and fubcontraries, if parti- 
 cular. v. gr. All ufe of wine is evil ; no ufe of wine is evil. 
 
 Some means of preferving reputation are allowed ; fome means 
 of preferving reputation are not allowed. 
 If the propofitions be only oppofite in quantity, they are called 
 fiibalterns.— v.gr. Everyman is liable to fin ; fome man is 
 liable to fin. But this laffc is no proper oppofition ; inafmuch 
 as the univerfal proportion always includes the particular 
 one. 
 
 Single propofitions, which can only be oppofed in quality, 
 are reducible to contrary ones. 
 
 The eflential properties of propofitions, confidered with regard 
 to their oppofition ; are, 1. Thai of two contradictory propo- 
 fitions, there is one always true, and another falfe. 2. Two 
 contrary propofitions can never be both true; but may be 
 both falfe. 3. Sub-contrary propofitions may be all true at 
 the fame time ; as happens when the attribute is accidental to 
 the fub|ed i but when it is eflential to it, the one is true, the 
 
 other falfe. 4. Subalterns may he either true or falfe at the 
 fame time ; or the one may be true, the other falfe. If the 
 attribute be eflential to the fubjea, the fubaltern affirmatives 
 are true, and the negatives falfe ; but if the negatives deny 
 the fubjea an attribute incompatible with the fubjea, they 
 will be both true. When the attribute is accidental to the 
 fubjea, the univerfal fubaltern is ordinarily falfe, and 4 the par- 
 ticular one true.' 
 Opposition, in rhetoric, denotes a figure, whereby two things 
 are joined together, which appeared incompatible ; as when 
 Horace fays, a wife folly. \ 
 
 In Bouhours's notion, this figure, which feems to deny what 
 it eftablifhes, and contradias itfelf in appearance, is very 
 elegant. 
 
 Opposition, in aftronomy, is that afpea or fituation of two 
 ftars or planets, wherein they are diametrically oppofite to 
 each other, or 180°, that is, a femicii cle, apart. 
 When the moon is diametrically oppofite to the fun, fo that 
 fhe fbews her whole illumined face ; {he is faid, with regard 
 to the fun, to be in oppofition ; and fhe is then faid to be in 
 her full, and fhines all night long. See Moon and Pha- 
 SIS. 
 
 Eclipfes of the moon never happen but when fhe is in oppofi- 
 tion with the fun, and when they both meet in the nodes of 
 the ecliptic. 
 
 Mars in his oppofition to the fun is nearer the earth than he is 
 to the fun. 
 
 OPSONOMUS, in antiquity, a magiflrate of Athens, whereof 
 there were two or three ; chofen out of the fenate, or council. 
 Their office was to infpea the fifh-market, and to take care 
 that every thing were done in order, and according to the 
 laws. 
 
 OPTATIVE, in grammar, the third mood in the conjugations 
 of verbs, ferving to exprefs an ardent defire or wifh for any 
 thing. 
 
 Inftead of a particular mood, or a particular fet of inflexions 
 to exprefs this defire, the Englifh, Latins, fijff. exprefs it by 
 an adverb of wifhing prefixed to it. The Latins by utinam ; 
 the French by plut a Dieu ; and the Englifh by mould ta 
 God, &c. 
 
 In thefc languages, fetting afide the adverb, the optative is the 
 fame with the fubjunaive ; the inflections of the verb, which 
 make what we call the moods, being the fame in both. 
 Indeed, in the Greek, the wifh is expreiled by a particular 
 inflexion, thence called optative ; and in the French, Spanifli, 
 and Italian, there is fomelhing like it; their triple fenics ferv- 
 ing trie fame purpofe. But the optative mood may be faith? 
 retrenched from the Latin and Englifh. 
 OPTERlA *, among the ancients, piefcnts made to a child, 
 the firft time a perfon faw it. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, oproij.a.1, 1 fee. 
 
 Opteria was alfo ufed for the prefents which the bridegroom 
 made his bride when fhe was condufted to him -, this being 
 the firft time he faw her. See Barthol. de Fuerp. vet. 
 OPTIC or Optical, fomething that relates to viiion, or the 
 
 fenfeof feeing. See the article Vision, C5Y. 
 Optic Angle. See the article Angle. 
 
 Optic Axis is a ray pafling through the centre of the eye, and 
 
 the middle of the optic pyramid, C5V. See Axis, (jjrV. 
 Optic Chamber. Set Camera Obscura. 
 Optic Glajfes are glades ground either concave or convex; 
 fo as either to collea or difperfe the rays of light ; by mean: 
 whereof vifion is improved, and the eye ftrengthened, pre 
 ferved, &c. 
 
 For the manner of grinding and polifhing optic glajfes, fei 
 Grinding, Polishing, Glass, C3V. — Tor their ph^no 
 mcna, fee Lens, Mirrour, fcfe. 
 
 The principal among optic glajfes are telefieopes, rnicrofcopes 
 fpeclacles, reading glajfes, magic lanterns, &c. See the con 
 itruaion and ufe of each under its proper article, Te 
 lescope, Microscope, Spectacle, Magic Lantern 
 &c. 
 
 Optic Inequality, in aftronomy, is an apparent irregularity ii 
 the motions ot far difiant bodies ; fo called, becaufe not realb 
 in the moving bodies, but arifmg from the fituation of tb 
 fpcaator's eye : fo that were the eye in the centre, it wouli 
 always fee the motions uniform. 
 
 The optical inequality may be thus illuftrated.— ■ Suppofe 
 body revolving in the periphery of a circle ABDEFGQP 
 (Tab. Optics, fig. 40.) and moving through equal archc 
 AB, BD, DE, EE, in equal times; and i'uppofe the ey 
 in the plane of the fame circle, but at a diltancc from it 
 viewing the motion of the body from O : when the bod 
 goes from A to B ; its apparent motion is meafured by th 
 angle AOB, or the arch HL, which it will fcem to de 
 fenbe. But in an equal time, while it moves through th 
 arch BD, its apparent motion will be determintd by th 
 angle BOD, or the arch LM, which is lefs than the for 
 mer arch H L. And when arrived at D, it will be ften a 
 
 th 
 
r.ib . Op ticks. 
 
 f& I. Zens JT&.g. Zen* Ify.+.Zmt Jgf. s .O>Aur J&.6.Co/eio- /■<.•.„ C„/c„r Jfr.S.G>&uj 
 
 Tab.H. OPTlfKS 
 
 r 1 AT! XT 
 
 Tf° XTV 
 
OPT 
 
 the point M of the line NLM. But it fpends th- fame 
 time m defcnbing DE, as it does in AB or BD ; and when 
 arrived at E, is (till feen at M ; appearing ftationary in all 
 the (pace from D to E. When it arrives at F, the eye will 
 fee- it in L ; and at G, will appear at H ; h that it will feem 
 to have gone retrograde : and, Iaftly, from Q_ to P, it will 
 again appear ftationary. 
 Optic Nerves, the fecond pair of nerves, fpringing from the 
 crura of the medulla oblongata, and palling thence to the eve 
 —See Tab. Anat. (Ofteol.) fig. 5. lit. i i. 
 Thefe nerves approach, by degrees, in their recefs from 
 their origin ; and at length meet, in the bafis of the brain, 
 near the mfundibulum. Thence they again feparate, but 
 without decuflatmg; and proceed, one to each eye. See 
 
 1.YE. . * 
 
 They are covered with two coats, which they take from 
 the dura and pia mater ; and which, by their expanfions 
 form the two membranes of the eye, called the uvea and 
 cornea. 
 
 The retina, which is a third membrane, and the immediate 
 organ of light, is only an expanfion of the fibrous, or inner, 
 and medullary part of thefe nerves. 
 
 The conftruaion of the cptic nerve Teems to be different from 
 that of the other nerves, which all appear to confift of hard 
 fibres: for this, ere it enters the orbit of the eye, is only a 
 ccat or cover formed by the pia mater, and including a pro- 
 ration of the medulla of the brain, which is eafily fcparated 
 from it. At its entrance into the eye, it takes another coat 
 from the dura mater ; which two coats are bound together 
 by exceedingly fine filaments : that from the pia mater is 
 continued in the choroides, and that from the dura mater in 
 the uvea. 
 
 From their entrance within the orbit, to the ball of the 
 eye, the medulla, enclofed under the two coats, is feparated 
 into a number of little cells anfwering to each other. See 
 
 VISION. 
 
 Optic Pencil, or Pencil of Rays, is that affemblage of rays by 
 
 means whereof any point, or part of an object is"" feen. 
 
 Some opt.c writers laugh at the notion of optic pencil, and 
 
 maintain them to be mere chimera's. 
 Optic Place of a ftar, lie. is that point of its orbit in which it 
 
 appears to be, to our eye. 
 
 This is either true; as when the eye is fuppofed at the centre 
 
 of the canh, or planet it inhabits; or apparent, as when at 
 
 the circumference. The difference between the two, makes 
 
 what we call the parallax. See Parallax. 
 Optic Pyramid, in perfpeflive, is the pyramid ABCO (Tab 
 
 Perfpeclive, fig. 1.) whofe bafe is the vifible object ABC ■ 
 
 and its vertex, in the eye O ; formed by rays drawn from the 
 
 leveral points of the perimeter to the eye. 
 
 Hence alio may appear what is meant by optic triangle. 
 Optic Rays are particularly ufed for thofc wherewhh an cptic 
 
 pyramid, or optic triangle, is terminated.— As OA, O C, 
 
 CJ B, csV. 
 
 °pI T ^? R ,'r rM nerv " um <Mami. See Thalami. 
 0 r; lies, Optica', is properly the fcience of direft vifion. 
 bee Vision. 
 
 Optics is alfo ufed, in a larger fenfe, for the fcience of vifion, 
 or vmbles in general. 
 
 In which fenfe, optics include catoptrics, and dioptrics ; and 
 even perfpecfive. 
 Optics, in its more extenfive acceptation, is a mixed mathema- 
 tical fcience which explains the manner wherein vifion is per- 
 iorrned in the eye; treats of fight in the general ; gives the 
 reafons of the feveral modifications or alterations, which the 
 rays of light undergo in the eye; and fhews why objects 
 appear fometimes greater, fometimes fmailer, fometimes more 
 diitincr, fometimes more confufed, fometimes nearer, and 
 Jometimes more remote. 
 
 In this extenfive fignification, it is confidered by Sir Ifaac 
 Newton m his admirable work called optics. 
 Optics makes a confiderable branch of natural philofoohv ■ 
 both as it explains the laws of nature, according to which 
 vilion is performed ; and as it accounts for abundance of 
 Wlylical phenomena, otherwife inexplicable. For what c-n 
 be determined' about light, colours, tranfparency, opacity 
 
 ^'T'tv', C T bC T' VMul ' but °" Principles If 
 
 'Plus <■ What about the nature of the ftars ! The ftrXre of 
 the mundane fyftem > The motions of the planets ' The 
 •cUpfes of the luminaries ? Vc— Optics, therefore, make a 
 confiderable part of aftronomy. 
 
 Euclid has wrote on the antient optics and catoptrics : diop- 
 t ICS were unknown to them. f. Honorat. Fabri has an 
 abridgment of catoptrics, and dioptrics : Father Efchi- 
 
 Alht,™ h' VCnaC r ntUry J ° fpr0blcmsin Vitellio, and 
 
 Alhazen have performed well on the elements of cpucs. Fa- 
 
 liX ISaJ 1 " a volumc on the fKrets ° f °P'*«, of 
 
 light, and fhadow, and their furprifing rfecte, which paf on 
 the people for magic. We have alfo Poptiaue » cauptriaue 
 of K Merlenne, Pans ,65,. Dioptrioue Llaire of Father 
 Chenibin, Paris 1671. & Chrift. Sheineri opti.a, Lond. 
 4 
 
 O R A 
 
 Lond ,/ nT" V"- Barrovii L,C1 '' m " 
 Lond. ,663. Joh. Bapt. Porta* refraclion, optices, Lond 
 669 Prtnc.pe generale e/e PoptioJ, by Mr. Leibnitz, or 
 the Leipfic afts, 1682 VOechiiie alPOcchio, or Dioptric, 
 Prajltca Carol. Ant. Mancini, Bologna, ,660 40. plficc 
 
 Bononiaa l66 S . 4- CogttaUoncs PbyHco-mecbanica: de Na- 
 tura Vtfwn.s, per Joh. Ott. Scaphufain, Heidel. 16,0. 4°. 
 and, which ought to be named firft, the ereat Sir Htto 
 Newton's Optics, Latin and Engli/h, 1> and 8» 
 From opt.e, hkewifc arifes perfipeaivc ; all the 'rules whereof 
 have their foundation in optics. Indeed Tacquc. ,LZ per- 
 fpeaivea part of »/,,,„; though John, archbilhop of canter- 
 bury ,n his perfpeCltva communis, calls optics, ca optrics, and 
 dioptrics by the name perfpeilhe. F ' 
 
 OPTIMATES in anliquity, one of thedivilions of the Roman 
 people, oppofed to populares. 
 
 According to Telly's defeription, the optimates were the bed 
 citizens or thofe who delired their actions might be ap- 
 proved by the better fort : and the populates thofc, who out 
 ot a thlrft of vain-glory, did not fo much confider what was 
 mThenT W ° U ' d ^ * e P°P ulacc ' and S« » intereft 
 Others rather make the optimates to be the vigorous afierters 
 of the dignity of the chief magiflr.,te, and the 'ticklers for 
 the grandeur of the ftate ; who cared not if the Arior mem- 
 ber- luftered, if ,t were for the advancement of the command- 
 ing powers : and the populares thofe who courted the favour 
 of the populace, and encouraged them to demand la.ger pri- ■ 
 
 nPT iriV 0 g matterE " earer "> a level - 
 UP1 ION, the power, or faculty of wifhing, or chufing ; or 
 the choice a perfon makes of any thing. 
 
 Whenanewfufrragan bifliop is confecrated, the archbilhop of 
 of the°fi ft"' 7 \ Cul,oma 'y Prerogative, claims the collation ' 
 a It AT? ^"f"' ° r dignity, in that fee, according 
 Tptln ' Wh ' Ch Ch0kc is callcd the archbilhop's 
 
 0 w "I hera,dr >'. y"ow, or the colour of gold. 
 
 Without this colour, or argent filvcr, cheie can be no «ood 
 armory. 
 
 In the coats of nobles, it is called topaz ; and in thofe of fo- 
 verelgn princes, fo ft is reprefcnted in engraving by fmall 
 HeraU.fig. 7 T' *. the or bea ™S ■ aE » Tat. 
 
 Irlr^yX^ ° fw!fd0m ' faitl " 
 rJ°'J,°", {■ ° E - See the artic,,: Toison. 
 
 ORACLE, an anfwer, ufunlly couched in very dark and am- 
 biguous terms, fuppofed to be given by daemon's of old, either 
 
 nloole wh f i*^ 0 '*' ° r by th ° k °f t"=irp»e(ts, to the 
 
 people who confulted them on things to come. 
 
 1 he Pythian was always in a rage when fhe gave oracles ■ 
 
 underftt 7^1 "c I ^ ' ^ that ^ ^re never 
 
 *at W after 1 th f u "«omp!ifhment. H.ftorians relate, 
 &l or~ade l ? ? a " d ^"vocation of 
 
 Kf.t T« >A,.„ f Mtv pqftMfc * W , iccrzKwtl. 
 Thus rendered in Latin : 
 
 Craefis Haiym fiperctns magnam pmerlel cpum vim. 
 
 the place where it was given. See Son. 
 The principal oracles of antiquity are that of Aba,, men- 
 dSte at' 0tUS ; ,' hat i A 4lnaraus ; that of th Bran- 
 
 chite at Didymus; that of the camps at Laeediemon ; that 
 of Dodona; that of Jupiter Amnion; that of Nabar a a 
 the country of the Anariaci, near the Cafpian fea; tha of 
 t!at P of cT' mCm '? ned ^ Herodotus; that of Chr^opolis ; 
 ha rfW M T' a - ; that ° f MMos - that of PatareaJ 
 of %nn P n" 11 "' 1 "»« ofPhafelides in Cilicia; that 
 hv PhTV" P ' a u?°? lai '""ofOrpheus'shead, mentioned 
 by Ph.loftratus in his life of Apollonius, 13 C 
 But, of all others, the oracle of Apollo Pythius at Delphos 
 was the moft celebrated : this was confulted'in the 
 ff'n ^."T," f 'he princes of thofe ages. See Pvthia. 
 
 j 1 y °- b ,f crra > tl,at at firft it gave its anfwers in verfc ; 
 and that it fell at length to profc, upon the people's be<-innin» 
 to laugh at the poornefs of its verification. 
 It is a pretty general opinion arson; the more learned that 
 oracles were all mere cheats, and impoliures ; either calculated 
 to lerve the avaricious ends of the heathen priefts, or the po- 
 litical views of the princes. 
 
 M. Bayle fays pofitively, they were mere human artifices 
 in which the devil had no hand. He is ifronely oacked bv 
 Van Dafc, and M. Fontenelle, who have wroti exprefly on 
 the (ubject. J 
 There are two points in difpute on the fubjea of oracles ;■ 
 viz. whether they were human, or diabolical machines ? and 
 
 whether 
 
OR A 
 
 OR A 
 
 whether or no they ceafed upon the publication or preaching 
 
 of the gofpel ? , . 
 
 Plutarch has a treaofe on the ceafing of fome mchl . ana 
 Van bale a Dutch phjfician, has a volume to prove they 
 did noteff. at the coming of Chrifb ; but that many of 
 them ecafed long before ; and that others held till the tall ot 
 baeanifm, under the empire of Theodof.us the Great ; when 
 p4anifm being diffipatcd, thefe inflations could no longer 
 fubfift. .... 
 Van Dale Was aufwered by a German, one Mcebius, pro- 
 feffor of theology at Leiplic, in 1685. M. I'onteneLe efpoufed 
 Van Dale's fyftcm, and improved upon it in his Mijtory n 
 Oracles; and '(hewed the wealcnefs of the argument uled by 
 many writers hi behalf of Chriftianity, drawn from the ceaung 
 
 F. Bakhiis, a learned Jefuit, has anfwered both Van Dale 
 and Fontenelle. He labours to prove that there were real cra- 
 ck, and fuch as can never be attributed to any artlfiOM of the 
 p, lefts or priefteffe i and that feveral of thefe became f.lent in 
 the firft ages of the church, cither by the coming of Jefus 
 Chrift, or by the pravers of the faints. .fir; 1 
 
 This doctrine is confirmed by a letter from Father Bouchet. 
 miffionary, to Fathet Balthus ; wherein it is declared, that what 
 Father Balthus fays of the antient oracles, is experimented every 
 day in the Indies. ., 
 It feems, according to this miffionary, that the devil Mi l 
 gives iraclil in the Indies ; and that, not by idols, which 
 would be liable to impofture : but by the mouths of the pricfts, 
 and fometimes of the by-ftanders : it is added, that thefe 
 cracks, too, ceafe, and the devil becomes mute, in proportion 
 as the gofpel is preached among them. 
 
 It was EuftHxs who firft endeavoured to perfuade the Chri- 
 ftians, that the coming of Jefus Chrift had ftruck the crocks 
 dumb ; though it appears from the laws of Theodofius, Gra- 
 tian, and Valentinian, that the cracks were flill confulted as 
 low as the year 358. Cicero fays, the cracks became dumb, 
 in proportion as people, growing Icfs credulous, began to fu- 
 fpect them for cheats. 
 
 Plutarch alleges two reafons for the ceafing of cracks : the 
 one was Apollo's chagrin; who, it feems, took It in dudgeon 
 to be interrogated about fo many trifles. The other was, 
 that in proportion as the genii, or demons, who had the 
 management of the cracks, died, and became extina, the 
 cracks muft neccflarily ceafe. He adds a third, and more na- 
 tural, caufe for the ceafing of cracks ; viz. the forlorn itate of 
 Greece, ruined and defolated by wars. For, hence, the 
 fmallncfs of the gains let the priefts fink into a poverty and 
 contempt too bare to cover the fraud. . 
 Moft of the fathers of the church took it to be the devil 
 that gave cracks ; and looked on it as a pleafure he took to 
 sive dubious and equivocal anfwers ; in order to have a handle 
 to laugh at them.— Voffius allows, that it was the devil who 
 fpokeln cracks ; but thinks that the obfeurity of his anfwers 
 was owing to his ignorance as to the precife circumftances of 
 events That artful and ftudied obfeurity, wherein the an- 
 fwers were couched fays he, fhewed the embarrafs the devil was 
 under s as thofe double meanings they ufually bore provided 
 for their accomplifhment. Where the thing foretold did not 
 happen accordingly, the crack, forfooth, was mifunder- 
 
 Eufebius has preferved fome fragments of a philofopher, called 
 CEnomaus ; who, out of refentment for his having been fo often 
 fooled by the cracks, wrote an ample confutation of all their 
 impertinences : " When we come to confult thee, fays he to 
 " Apollo, if thou feeft what is in futurity, why doft thou 
 «' ufe expreffions that will not be underftood > doft thou not 
 " know that they will not be underftood ? if thou doft, 
 « thou takeft pleafure in abufing us ; if thou doft not, be 
 " informed of us, and learn to fpeak more clearly. I tell 
 " thee, that if thou intendeft an equivoque, the Greek 
 " word whereby thou affirmed that Crcefus fhould overthrow 
 ' a great empire, was ill chofen ; and that it could fignify 
 nothing but Crcefus's conquering Cyrus. If things muft 
 ' neceflarily come to pafs, why doeft thou amufe us with thy 
 «< ambiguities ? what doft thou, wretch as thou art, at Del- 
 «< phos; employed in muttering idle prophecies !" 
 But CEnomaus is ftill more out of humour with the crack, 
 for the anfwer which Apollo gave the Athenians, when Xerxes 
 was about to attack Greece with all the ftrength of Aha. 
 The Pythian declared, thatMinerva, the proteflrefs of Athens, 
 had endeavoured in vain to appeafe the wrath of Jupiter ; yet 
 that Jupiter, in complaifance to his daughter, was willing the 
 Athenians fhould fave thcmfelves within wooden walls ; and 
 that Salamis mould behold the lofs of a great many children, 
 dear to their mothers, either when Ceres was fpread abroad, 
 or gathered together. 
 
 Here CEnomaus lofes 'all patience with the god of Delphos : 
 « This coined, fays"he, between father and daughter, is 
 " very becoming the deities ! It is excellent, that there fllould 
 " be contrary inclinations and interefts in heaven!— Poor 
 " wizzard, thou art ignorant whofe the children are, that 
 
 ' Salamis fhall fee perifh ; whether Greeks or Perfians. It 
 ' is certain,|they muft be either one, or the other ; but thou 
 ' needed not have told fo openly, that thou kneweft not 
 ' which. Thou concealeft the time of the battle under thofe 
 1 fine poetical expreffions, either when Ceres is fpread abroad, 
 ' or gathered together : and wouldft thou cajole us with fuch 
 1 pompous language r Who knows not, that if there be a 
 ' fea- fight, it muft either be in feed-time or harveft ? It is 
 certain it cannot be in winter. Let things go how they 
 :« will, thou wilt fecure thyfelf by this Jupiter, whom Mi- 
 is nerva is endeavouring to appeafe. If the Greeks lofe the 
 ; ' battle, Jupiter proved inexorable to the laft ; if they gain 
 " it, why then Minerva at length prevailed. " 
 Oracles of the fibyls. See the article Sibyl. 
 ORAL, fomething delivered by the mouth, or voice. See the 
 article Verbal. 
 
 In this fenfe, we fay, oral lam, oral tradition, Sec. 
 ORANGE *, a delicious fruit, of the apple-kind, too well 
 known to need a particular defcription ; yet yielding too many 
 kinds of merchandize, to be paffed over. 
 
 • The Latins call it aurantium, aurantia ma/us, or ma/us aurea, 
 .olden apple, from its colour. 
 
 Oranges are ordinarily brought from Nice, Ciouta, the ides of 
 Hiercs, Genoa, Provence, Portugal, the American illands, 
 and even China and the coatis of India. 
 
 Thofe called China oranges were firft brought into Europe from 
 China, by the Portuguefe ; and it is faid the very tree, whence 
 all the European orange-ma of this fort were produced, is ftill 
 preferred at Lifbon, in the houfe of the count S. Laurent. 
 Thofe moft efteemed, and that are made prefents of as ra- 
 rities, in the Indies, are no bigger than a billiard-ball ; when 
 fweetened with a little fugar, they are efteemed excellent for 
 difoidcrs of the breaft.— The juice is cooling and antifcor- 
 butic. T , 
 Oranges are ordinarilv preferved in halves and quarters. 1 hey 
 are firft peeled, then feooped, and dried in a ftove.— Orapof 
 is the „™«-peel cut in pieces, and candied. Italy furmlhes a 
 great deal of flower of oranges, either dry or liquid. 
 The water of flower of oranges, called aqua naphec, comes 
 moftly from Provence. To be good, it muft be very IWeet- 
 fcented, and not above a year old. 
 
 There are various oils drawn from oranges : the 01 of neroli 
 is the produce of the flowers by diftillation. That drawn 
 from the Ikin by water and an alembic, is almoft as good. 
 There is alfo an oil drawn from little oranges, or crangelcttes, 
 by fteeping them five or fix days in common water, and di- 
 ftilling them with the fame water in an alembic Thefe oils- 
 arc all efteemed good for deftroying worms in children ; hut 
 are very apt to be fophifticated with oil of ben, or that of 
 fweet almonds. . . 
 
 Orange colour, is an hue or dye, that partakes equally of red 
 and yellow ; or is a medium between the two. 
 In heraldry, the term orange or tragi is given in blazon to all 
 roundles that are tenne or tawncy. 
 
 ORAKCt-ficvjcr-water. See the article Water. 
 
 ORANGEADE, a drink made of oratlge-^wx, water, and 
 
 Eery fays it may be given to people in the height of a 
 
 ORANGERY, a gallery in a garden, or parterre, expofed to 
 the fouth, but well clofed with a glafs window, to preferve 
 oranges in, during the winter feafon. 
 
 The orangery of VerfaiUes is the moft magnificent that ever 
 was built 1 it has wings, and is decorated with a Tufcan 
 
 order. , 
 Orangery is alfo ufed for the parterre, where the oranges are 
 
 expofed in kindly weather. . 
 ORATION, a fpeech, or harangue, framed according to the 
 
 rules of oratory, and fpokc in public. ... 
 
 All the kinds of orations may be reduced to three heads ; viz. 
 
 demonjlrativt, deliberative, and judicial. 
 
 To the demonftrative kind belong panegyrics, gencthliaca, 
 efithalamia, epicedia, eucharifiix, cpinicia, and congratu- 
 lations. r r r 1 
 To the deliberative kind belong, perfuafton, dijfuajion, exhor- 
 tation, and commendation. , 
 To the judicial kind belong accufatian, confirmation, confu- 
 tation, &c. See each under its proper article, Confirma- 
 tion, &c. 
 
 Funeral Oration. See the article Fun eeal. 
 
 ORATORY, Oratoria, the art of fpeaking well. 
 
 In which fenfe the word amounts to the fame with rhetoric ; 
 the difference between the two only confiding in this, that 
 the firft is Latin, the other Greek. 
 
 Oratory is alfo ufed among the Romamfts, for a clofet, or 
 little private apartment, in a large houfe, near a bed-chamber, 
 furnifhed with a little altar and a book-ftand, for private 
 devotion. . . 
 
 The antient oratories were little chapels, adjoining to mona- 
 fteries, wherein the monks faid their prayers, ere they had any 
 ' churches 
 
ORB 
 
 ORC 
 
 churches. Several councils and fynods have" Condemned the 
 
 ufe of private oratories. 
 
 In the fixth and feventh centuries oratories were little churches, 
 frequently built in burial-grounds, without either baptiftery, 
 cardinal prieft, or any public office ; the bifhop fending a prieft 
 tu officiate occafionally. 
 
 Oratory is alfo ufed for a fociety or congregation of devout 
 perfons, who form a kind of monaftcry, and live in commu- 
 nity; but without being obliged to make any vows. Hence, 
 
 Prie/ls of the Oratory, a community of fecular priefts, who 
 live together in a monadic manner, but without vows ; they 
 were firft eftablifhed at Rome, about the year 1590, by S. 
 Philip Neri, a Florentine, under the title of oratory of Sanfla 
 Maria in the Valicclla. 
 
 On the model of this the cardinal Berulle eftablifhed a con- 
 gregation of the oratory of Jefus in 1612. in France, which 
 has fince increafed : fe that there arc now 60 houfes of priefts 
 of the oratory in that kingdom. 
 
 There is fome difference, however, between the Italian and 
 French inflitutions. — S. Philip Neri, to prevent the confufion 
 which the great number of houfes ufually occafioned in congre- 
 gations, would have his to be a fingle houfe: and though others 
 were at liberty to form the like congregations, yet they were 
 to have no dependence on one another. 
 
 For this reafuii, the houfes of the oratory in Italy and Flanders 
 are all independent ; whereas thofe in France have a relation 
 to each olhcr, and all depend on the fame chief, who has the 
 quality of fuperior general ; and, with three afliftants, governs 
 the whole congregation. 
 
 ORB, Orbis, m aftronomv, a fpherical body, or i pace, con- 
 tained under two fuperricics; the one concave, the other con- 
 
 . vex. 
 
 The anticnt aflronomers conceived the heavens as confiding 
 of feveral valt azure tranfparent orbs, or fpberes, inclofed in 
 one another ; or vaft circles, which in their areas included the 
 bodies of the planets; the radii whereof were comprized be- 
 tween the centre of the earth and the higheft point to which 
 the planets rife, fappofing the earth to be in the centre. 
 There are orbs concentric, i.e. having the fame centre ; and 
 orbs eccentric. 
 
 1 he magma Orbis, or great Orb, is that wherein the funis 
 fuppofed to levolve | or, rather, it is that wherein the earth 
 makes its annual circuit. ' 
 
 Orb, in aftrolcgv. An orb of light is a certain fphcre, or ex- 
 tent of light, which the aftrologers allow a planet beyond its 
 centre. 
 
 They fay, that, provided the afpeets do but fall within this or/;, 
 they have ahnolt the fame effect as if they pointed directly 
 againft the centreof the planet. See Aspect. 
 The orb of Saturn's light they make to be 10 degrees ; that of 
 Jupiter 12 degrees; that of Mars 7 degrees, 30 minutes; 
 that of the Sun 1 7 degrees ; that of Venus 8 degrees ; that of 
 Mercury 7 degrees ; that of the Moon 12 degrees, 30 mi- 
 ■ nutes. . v - 
 
 ORBICULARE si, Orbicular bone, inanatomy, the fourth 
 of the little bones of the inward ear ; tied bv a flender liga- 
 ment to the ftapes ; and named from its figure, which is 
 round. 
 
 It was firft difcovered by Fran. Sylvius. Its ufe is in the ex- 
 tenfion and relaxation of the tympanum. See Ear. 
 ORBICULARIS, or conjirittor labhrum, in ana torn v, is one of 
 the mufcles of the lips. 
 
 The orbicularis is iingle ; its fibres make a ring about the 
 mouth, and ferve to conftringe and draw up the lips ; and, by 
 that means, to flint the mouth, t>V. it alfo ferves to advance', 
 or Itretch them outwards ; and has the chief part in the action 
 of luffing : whence it is alfo called ofai!atoriits 3 or the tiffing 
 mufcle. 
 
 Verheyen will not have it one mufcle, but a pair, whofe fi- 
 bres meet, and join at both corners of the mouth; though 
 other authors are unanimous in making it fingle. and call it a 
 
 fphhatr. 
 
 Orbicula ris, or depimens palpebrarum, Is a mufcle fpringing 
 from each corner oi the eye, and anfwered by another of 
 like figure and ffi uctute in the lower eye-lid ; which are there- 
 fore often confide red as one orbicular mufcle. — See Tab. Anat 
 (Myol.) fig. 1, n. 2. 
 
 Its fibres environ the eye-lids, and are inferted into them, not 
 unlike the fphincters of other parts: it is fattened to that part 
 of the margin of the orbit, towards the nofe, made by the 
 fourth bone of the upper jaw. 
 ORBIT, Orbita, inaftionomy, the path of a planet, or co- 
 met ; or the line defcribed by its centre in its proper motion in 
 the heavens. 
 
 The fun's, or rather earth's orbit, is the curve which it panes 
 along in its annual revolution ; called the ecliptic. 
 The orbit of the earth, and that of all the primary pla- 
 nets, is an ellipfis, in one of whofe foci the fun is placed ; 
 in which ellipfis they move according to this law, that a 
 radius drawn from the centre of the fun to the centreof 
 Vol. II. 
 
 the planet, always defcribes areas proportional to the 
 times. 
 
 The anticnt aftronomcrs made the planets defcribe circular 
 orbits, with an uniform velocity : Copernicus himfelf could 
 not believe they fhould do othervvife. Fieri nequit, fays he, 
 ut ccelejle corpus fimplex una orbe hiaqualiter ?noveatur. So 
 that, to account for their inequalities, they were obliged to 
 have recourfe to eccentrics and epicycles ; from the embarrafa 
 whereof Copernicus himfelf could not intirely difentaagle 
 himfelf. 
 
 But alter him came adronomcrs who, with a little more phy- 
 fics, have made no difficulty of changing thefe circular orbits 
 into elliptic ones; and of making them move with different 
 velocities in different parts thereof. 
 
 Of thefe elliptic orbits, there have been two kinds affiled: 
 the firft that of Kepler, which is the common ellipfis ; to 
 which Seth Ward, though he himfelf keeps to it, thinks one 
 might venture to fubftitutc circular orbits, by ufmg two points, 
 taken at equal diftances from the centre, on one of the dia- 
 meters, as they do in the foci of the ellipfis. The fecond 
 is that of M. Caffini, whofe character is this; that the pro- 
 ducts of the right lines drawn from each point of its circum- 
 ference are everywhere equal ; whereas, in the common el- 
 lipfis, it is the fum of thofe right lines that is always the 
 fame. 
 
 M. Varignon fhews how inconfiftcnt Copemicus's fentiment is 
 with the mechanifm of the heavens ; fince the forces which 
 planets have, to retain them in their orbits, muft almoft always 
 confpire to make them move with reallv different velocities ; 
 and that, among an infinity of cafes, there is but one wherein 
 they can move uniformly. 
 
 The femidiameter of the earth's orbit Dr. Gregory makes 
 94,696,969 miles Englifh, and the femidiameter of Saturn's 
 orbit about 10 times as great. 
 
 The orbits of the planets are not all in the fame plane as the 
 ecliptic, or the earth's orbit round the fun ; but are varioufly 
 inclined to it, and to one another : but dill the plane of the 
 ecliptic interfects the plane of the orbit of every planet in a 
 right line which paffes through the fun. 
 
 The quantities of the inclinations of the planes of the orbits o£ 
 the primary planets to that of the ecliptic, are as follow: that 
 of Saturn, is an angle of 2 desrees ; that of Jupiter, an angle 
 of 1 deg. 20 min. tiiat of Mars is almod 2 deg. Venus is a 
 little more than 3 deg. 20 min. and that of Mercury a little 
 more than 7 deg. 
 
 The orbits of comets Caffini takes to be rectilinear; but Dr. 
 Halley, from Sir Ifaac Newton's theory, fhews them to be 
 parabolical, having the fun in one of their foci. See Planet 
 and Comet. 
 
 Orbits, in anatomy, the two large cavities, or fockets, wherein 
 the eyes are placed. — See Tab. Anat. (Ofteol.) fig. 1. Ut, h. 
 Their figure is pyramidal: they are formed of the proceffes 
 of the os frontis and the upper jaw-bone, joined together ; 
 and are perforated at bottom, to give paflage to the optic 
 nerves. 
 
 ORBITER, inanatomy, a name fometimes given to two hole?, 
 or cavities, either from their refemblance of, or ncarr.efs to 
 the orbits of the eyes. 
 
 The arbiter externus is an hole in the cheek-bone, below the 
 orbit. 
 
 The arbiter internus is an hole in the coronal-bone of the fkull, 
 within the orbit. 
 ORCHARD, a feminary, or plantation of fruit-trees, chiefly 
 of apples and pears. 
 
 It is a rule, among gardeners, that thofe orchards, ceteris pa- 
 ribus, thrive beft, which lie open to the ibuth, fouth-weft, 
 and fouth-eaft ; and are fcreened from the north ; and have the 
 foil dry and deep. 
 
 Orchards are flocked by tranfplantation ; feldom by femina- 
 tion. 
 
 The feafon for tranfplanting apple-trees into orchards, is in the 
 months of October and November : if the leaves he not all off 
 at the time they are removed, they muft be pulled off: and they 
 are likcwife to be pruned. Trees may be tranfplantcd into 
 orchards after three years grafting, and ought not to be fet at a 
 lei's diftance than eight yards, nor at a greater than fourteen: 
 and the richer the land, the greater the didancc. 
 the trees are tranfplanted to bed purpofe when youn^ ; 
 for trees ten or twelve years old, a narrow trench muft 
 be dug, the November before, deep enough to meet the 
 fpreading roots, at fuch a diftance all around the tree, as 
 the roots are to be cut off at. In making the trench 
 the roots are to be cut off clean, and without fplitting or 
 bruifing the bark, and the trench filled up again: this will 
 enable the tree, upon removal, to draw more nourifhmenr. 
 than otherwife it would, and fo thrive better in its new 
 manfion. 
 
 The fide-branches of all tall orchard fruit-trees are to be 
 cut oft", till the irce be arrived at the height defired : if the 
 tree be to fpread low, fome are to be kit on each fide ; fo 
 
ORD 
 
 ORD 
 
 as to form a kind of balance. For the firft three years, I 
 at lcaft, they muft not grow thick, and buftiy- headed : this! 
 mult be prevented, by cutting off Tome of the infide fhoots, 
 and fuch as grow acrofs each other, or pendent. See Prun- 
 ing. ; * ' ' 
 
 The foil, if not rich enough, is to be amended in two or 
 three years, by opening it around the tree, and on the out- 
 fide of the ground firft dug when the tree was fet ; and in 
 a month's time filling it up again with a proper compoft, or 
 manure. 
 
 ORCHESTRA, in the drama, the lower part of the antient 
 theatre ; made in form of a femicircle, and furrounded by the 
 feats. 
 
 It was fo called, becaufe, in the Grecian theatres, it was 
 a place where they held their balls; from or/j-W&h I 
 dance. 
 
 The orcheflra among the Greeks made a part of the fcena ; 
 bur, on the Roman theatres, none of the actors went down 
 to the orcheftra, which was taken up with feats for the fe- 
 nators, magiftrates, veftals, and other perfons of diftinction ; 
 anfwering, nearly, to the pit in our theatre. With us the or- 
 chejlra is the name of the place where the muficians fit. 
 ORDEAL*, Ordalium, a form of trial, that is, of difco- 
 vering innocence, or guilt; practiied in England, in the time 
 of Edward the Confeflbr ; and lince, as low as king John, and 
 king Henry III. 
 
 * The word, in the original Saxon, fignifies a great judgment ; 
 formed of or, great, and deal, or dele, judgment. 
 
 It was called purgalio vulgaris, or judicium, in oppofition to 
 helium, ox combat, the other form of purgation. 
 The practice of ordeal did not only obtain in England, but 
 alfo in France and Germany. It was condemned by pope 
 Stephen II. and abolifhed by a declaration of Henry III. 
 The ordeal was of various kinds ; viz. that of fire, that of 
 red-hot iron, that of cold water, that of judicial pottage, that 
 of hallowed chcefe, that of boiling water, that of the green 
 crof?, and that of dice laid on relicks, covered with a woolen 
 cloth. — There were particular mafics for each fpecies of or- 
 
 The more popular kinds of ordealv/erc thofe of red-hot iron, 
 and water ; the firft for freemen, and people of fafhion ; the 
 iecond for peafants. 
 
 It is a popular ftory in our hiftories, that Emma, mother of 
 Edward the Confeflbr, being accufed of too much familiarity 
 with the bifhop of Leiceller, demanded the ordeal of red-hot 
 iron ; and parted bare-footed, and hood-winked, over nine 
 red-hot plough- fhares, without touching any of them. 
 ORDEFF, or Orede F , a word frequently ufed, in charters of 
 privileges, for a liberty whereby a man claims the ore found in 
 his own ground. 
 
 It properly fignifies ore lying under-ground ; as a delf or deff 
 of coal is coal lying in veins under-ground. 
 ORDER, in architecture, a fyftem of the feteral members, 
 ornaments, and proportions, of a column and pilafter. — 
 Or, a regular arrangement of the projecting parts of a 
 building, whereof the column is the chief, fo as to form 
 one beautiful whole. — See Tab. Arch'tt. fig. 25, 27, 29, 31, 
 33- 
 
 Perrault defines order to be that which prefcribes the propor- 
 tions of intire columns, and determines the figures of certain 
 parts fuitable to the different characters their different ufes and 
 ends require. 
 
 M. Le Clerc defines an order to be a column charged with an 
 entablature, and lupported on a pedeftal. 
 
 The definitions Vitruvius, Barbara, Scamozzi, csV. give of 
 order, are fo obfeure, that it were vain to repeat them : with- 
 out dwelling, therefore, on the definition of a word, which 
 cuftom has eftablifhed, it is fufficient to obferve, that there 
 are five orders of columns; three whereof are Greek ; viz. 
 the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian ; and two Italic 5 viz. the 
 Tufcan, and Compofite. 
 
 The three Greek orders reprefent the three different manners 
 of building ; viz. the /olid, delicate, and middling ; the two 
 Italic ones are imperfect productions thereof. The littie 
 regard the Romans had for thefe laft, appears hence, that 
 we do not meet with one inftance, in the antique, where they 
 are intermixed : that abufe the moderns have introduced, by 
 the mixture of Greek and Latin orders, Daviler obferves, 
 arifes from their want of reflection on the ufe made thereof by 
 ihe antients. 
 
 The origin of orders is almoft as antient as human fociety. 
 The rigour of the feafons firft led men to make little cabins, to 
 retire into ; at firft half under-ground, and the half above co- 
 vered with ftubble : at length, growing more expert, they 
 planted trunks of trees on-end, laying others acrofs, to fuftain 
 the covering. 
 
 Hence they took the hint of a more regular architecture : 
 
 for the trunks of trees, upright, reprefent columns; (he 
 girts, or bands, which ferved to keep the trunks from 
 burfting, expreJTcd b:ifes and capitals ; and the fummers, 
 laid acrofs, gave the hint of entablatures; as the cover- 
 ings, ending in points, did of pediments. This is Vitru- 
 vius's hypothefis ; which we find very well illuftrated by M. 
 Blondel. 
 
 Others take it, that columns took their rife from pyramids, 
 which the amients erected over their tombs; and that the 
 urns, wherein they inclofed the afhes of the dead, reprefentcd 
 the capitals, whofe abacus was a brick, laid thereon to 
 cover the urns ; but Vitruvius'a account appears the more 
 natural. 
 
 At length the Greeks regulated the height of their co- 
 lumns on the foot of the proportions of the human body: 
 the Doric represented a man of a ftrong, robuft make ; 
 the Ionic that of a woman; and the Corinthian that of a 
 girl: their bales and capitals were their head-drefs, their 
 ihoes, fife, 
 
 Thefe orders took their names from the people among whom 
 they were invented : Scamozzi ufes fignificative terms to ex- 
 prefs their character, when he calls the Tu/can the Gigantic ; 
 the Doric the Herculean ; the Ionic the Matronal; the Co m- 
 pofitc the Heroic ; and the Corinthian the Virginal. See 
 each order under its proper article; Tuscan, Doric, 
 
 To give a general idea of the orders, it muft be obferved, that 
 the whole of each order is compofed of two parts, at the 
 lcaft; viz. the column and entablature; and of four parts at 
 the moft, when there is a pedeftal under the column, and art 
 acroter, or little pedeftal, atop of the entablature : that the co- 
 lumn has three parts; viz. the bafe, the Jhaft, and the ca- 
 pital; the entablature has three, likewife ; viz. the architrave , 
 the freeze, and cornicbe : which parts are all different in the 
 feveral orders. See each part under its proper article ; En- 
 tablature, Capital, &c. 
 
 Tufcan Order is the firft, moft fimple, and folid : its column 
 is feven diameters high ; and its capital, bale, and entablature, 
 have but few mouldings, or ornaments. 
 
 Doric Order is the fecund, and the moft agreeable to nature: 
 it has no ornament on its bale, or on its capital. Its height is 
 eight diameters. Its freeze is divided by triglyphs and me- 
 topes. * 
 
 Ionic Order is the third, and a kind of mean proportional be- 
 tween the fulid and delicate manner. Its capital is adorned 
 with volutes, and its cornich with denticles. 
 Mich. Angclo, contrary to all other authors, gives the Ionic 
 a (ingle row of leaves at the bottom of the capital. 
 
 Corinthian Order, invented by Callimachus, is the fourth, 
 the richeft, and moft delicate. Its capital is adorned with two 
 rows of leaves, and eight volutes, which fuftain the abacus. 
 Its column is ten diameters high, and its cornich has modil- 
 lions. 
 
 Cojnpofite Order, the fifth and laft (though Scamozzi and Le 
 Clcrc make it the fourth), is fo called becaufe its capita] is 
 compofed out of thofe of the other orders ; having the two 
 rows of leaves of the Corinthian, and the volutes of the Ionic. 
 It is alfo called the Roman, becaufe invented among that peo- 
 ple. Its column is ten diameters high, and its cornich has den- 
 ticles, or fimple niodillions. 
 
 Ruflic Order is that adorned with rufticquoins, boffages, EaV, 
 SeeRusTic. 
 
 Attic Order is a little order of low pilafters, with an architrave 
 cornich for its entablature ; as that of the caitle of Verfailles 
 over the Ionic on the fide of the garden. 
 M. Blondel calls the little pilafters, of attics and mezzanine;, 
 
 falfe orders. 
 
 Pcrftan Order is that which has figures of Perfian flaves, in- 
 ftead of columns, to fupport the entablature. 
 
 Caryatic Order is that whofe entablature is fupported 
 with figures of women, inftead of columns. See Cary- 
 atides. 
 
 Gothic Order, that which deviates from the ornaments 
 and proportions of the antique, and whofe columns are 
 cither too maffive, in manner of pillars; or too flcnder, 
 like poles ; its capitals out of all meafure, and carved 
 with leaves of wild acanthus, thiftles, cabbage, or the 
 like. 
 
 French Order is a new-contrived order, wherein the capital 
 confifts of attributes agreeing to that people ; as cocks-heads, 
 flowers-de-luces, &c. 
 
 Its proportions are Corinthian. Such is that of M. Le 
 Brun, in the grand gallery of Verfailles ; and that of M. L.e 
 Clerc. 
 
 M. Le Clerc gives a fecond Tufcan order, and a Spa- 
 rtijh order, befides his French order. — The Tufcan he 
 ranks between the firft Tufcan and Doric. Its height 
 he makes 23 femidiameters, 22 minutes j the column 
 to have 15, the pedeftal and the entablature 3, and 
 
 22 
 
ORE) 
 
 ORD 
 
 22 minutes : and he propofes ils freeze to be adorn'd with 
 turtles, which are the arms of Tufcany. 
 
 The Spanijb order he places between the Corinthian anc 
 Compojite. The whole order he makes 30 femidiameters. 
 28 minutes ; whereof the column has 9, and 25 min. the 
 pedeftal 16, and 18 min. and the entablature 4, and 15 min, 
 The horns of the abacus he fuftains with little volutes ; the 
 middle, in lieu of a rofe, has a lion's fnout ; that animal 
 being the fymbol of Spain, and expreffing die ftrengtb, gravity, 
 and prudence of that nation. 
 
 Greek Orders. See the article Greek. 
 
 Order is alfo ufed for a clafs or divifion of the member: 
 of the body of a ftate ; with regard to affemblies, prece 
 dencc, &c. 
 
 In this fenfe, order is a kind of dignity, which, under the 
 fame name, is common to feveral per tons ; and which, of 
 itfelf, does not give them any particular public authority, 
 but only rank, anil a capacity of arriving at honours and em- 
 ployments. 
 
 To abridge this definition j order may be faid to be a dignity 
 
 attended with an aptitude for public employ. By which 
 
 it is diftingui fried from an office, which is the exercife of a 
 public trult. 
 
 In this fenfe, nobility is an order, &c. The clericate is alfo 
 an order, &c. 
 
 Order is alfo the title of certain antient books, containing 
 the divine effice, with the order and manner of its per- 
 formance. 
 
 Roman order h that wherein are laid down the ceremonies 
 
 which obtain in the Roman church. See Ritual. 
 Order, in aflronomy, &c. — A planet is faid to go according 
 
 to the order of the figns, when it is direct ; proceeding from 
 
 aries to taurus, thence to gemini, &c. — It goes contrary to 
 
 the order or fucceflion of the fign;, when it is retrograde, i. e. 
 
 when it goes back from pi fees to aquarius, csV. 
 Order, in war, deuotcs an arrangement of the parts of an 
 
 army, either by lafid or fea ; whether for marching, (ailing, 
 
 or engaging. See Army. 
 Order of battle, is the placing the battalions and fquadrons in 
 
 one, two, or three lines, according as the ground will allow, 
 
 either in order to engage the enemy, or to be reviewed by 
 
 the general. See Line, ESff, 
 A Order of march is difpofed in two or three columns 
 
 according to the ground. — The orders and evolutions make 
 
 the fubjedt of the fcience of tatties. 
 Order is more particularly ufed for the equal diftance of one 
 
 rank, or file, from another. 
 
 The ufual order in files is three feet ; En ranks fix feet. ■ 
 
 The open or marching order is twice as much. 
 Orders, by way of eminency, or holy Orders, denote a 
 character peculiar to ecclefiafUcs, whereby they are fet apart 
 for the miniftry. 
 
 This the Romanics make their fixth facrament. 
 
 In the reformed churches there are but three orders ; -viz. 
 
 bifhpos, pricfb, and deacons. In the Romifh church there 
 
 arc (even, exclufive of the epifcopate : all which the council 
 
 of Trent injoins to be received, and believed, on pain of 
 
 anathema. 
 
 They are diftinguifhed into petty, or fecular orders ; and ma- 
 jor, or f acred orders. 
 The petty, or mimr Orders, are four ; viz. thofe of door- 
 keeper, exorcift, reader, and acolyth. 
 
 Thofe in petty orders may marry without any difpenfation : 
 in effect, the petty orders are looked on as little other than 
 formalities, and as degrees neceilary to arrive at the higher 
 crders. — Yet the council of Trent is very ferious about them : 
 injoids that none be admitted into them, without underftand- 
 ing Laiin ; and recommends it to the bifhops, to obferve the 
 intervals of conferring them, that the perfons may have a 
 fufHcicnt time to exercife the function of each order : but 
 it leaves the bifhops a power of difpenfing with thofe rules ; 
 fo that the four orders are ufually conferred the fame day, 
 and only make thj firft part of the ceremony of ordination. 
 The Greeks difavow thefe petty orders, and pafs immediately 
 to the fubdiacoiiate ; and the reformed to the diaconate. 
 Their fitit rife, Fleury dates in the time of the emperor 
 Juflinian. There is no call nor benefice required for the 
 four petty crders ; and a baftard may even enjoy them without 
 any difpenfation ; nor does bigamy difqualify. 
 Saered, or rnajcr Orders, we have already obferved, are 
 three ; viz. thofe of deacon, prieft, and bifhop. 
 The council of Trent, retrieving the antient difcipline, for- 
 bids any perfon being admitted to the major orders, unlefs he 
 be in peaceable polfeflion of a benefice fufficient for a decent 
 fubfiftence ; allowing no ordinations on patrimonies or pen- 
 fions ; except where the bifhop judges it fo.- the fervice of 
 the church. 
 
 A perfon is faid to be promoted to orders per faltum, when 
 he has not before palled the inferior orders. The council of 
 Conftantinople forbids any bifhop being ordained without 
 pafmig all the degrees ; yet church-biftory furnifhes us with 
 inftances of bifhops confecrated, without having parted the 
 order of priefthood ; and Panormus ftill thinks fuch an ordi- 
 nation valid. 
 
 Military Orders, are companies of knights, inftituted by 
 kings and princes ; either for defence of the faith, or to 
 confer marks of honour, and make diftinctions among their 
 fubjects. 
 
 There have been five orders, purely military, in England ; 
 ■viz. thofe of the knights of the garter, knights bannerets, 
 knights of the bath, knights batchelors, and knights baronets. 
 See the inftitution of each under its proper article, Garter, 
 Bath, Baronet. 
 Order of the Thiflle. See the article Thistle. 
 
 The French have had five military orders ; vix. that of the 
 genette, inftituted by Charles Martel ; but which foon fell. 
 — The order of the virgin Mary, fince called the order of 
 the jlar, inftituted by king John in 1352. — The order of 
 St. Michael, inftituted in 1469. by Lewis IX. — The order 
 of the Holy Gho/l, or the blue ribbon ; the members of 
 which are firft to be knights of St, Michael. See Holy 
 Ghost. — And the order of St. Louis, inftituted by Lewis XIV. 
 in 1693. 
 
 The princes of the blood, marfhals of France, admirals, and 
 generals, become knights of St. Louis by their offices. 
 
 Order of Alcanatra, 
 Order of the Band, 
 Order of Chrifi, 
 Order of the Crofs, 
 Order of the Elephant * 
 Order of the Golden Fleece, 
 Order of the Knot, 
 Order of 'the Rofary, 
 Order of the Star, 
 Order of the Stole, Sec 
 
 >See, 
 
 Alcantara. 
 
 Band. 
 
 Christ. 
 
 Cross. 
 
 Elephant. 
 
 Fl E E C E . 
 
 Knot. 
 Rosary. 
 Star. 
 Stole, Ss'c. 
 
 Religious military Orders, are thofe inftituted in defence of 
 the faith, and privileged to fay mafs ; and withal are prohi- 
 bited marriage, &c. 
 
 Of this kind are the knights of Malta, or of St. John of Je- 
 rufalem. — Such alfo were the knights templars, the knights 
 of Calatrava, knights of St. Lazarus, Teutonic knights, CSV. 
 See each under its proper article, Malta, Templar, f^f, 
 Father Putignani accounts thofe military orders where mar- 
 riage is not allowed, real religious orders. F. Papebroch 
 
 fays, it is in vain to fearch for military orders before the 
 Xilth century. 
 
 Religious Orders, are congregations or focieties of mona- 
 ftics, living under the fame fuperior, in the fame manner, 
 and wearing the fame habit. 
 
 Religious orders may be reduced to five kinds ; viz. monks, 
 canons, knights, mendicants, and regular clerks. See each 
 under its proper article, Monk, Canon, t&e. 
 Father Mabillon fhews, that till the IXth century, almolt 
 all the monafteries in Europe followed the rule of St. Bene- 
 dict ; and that the diftinction of orders did not commence 
 till upon the re-union of feveral monafteries into one congre- 
 gation : that St. Odo, abbot of Cluny, firft began this re- 
 union, bringing feveral houfes under the dependence of 
 Cluny : that, a little afterwards, in the Xlth century, the 
 Camaldulians arofe ; then, by degrees, the congregation of 
 Vallombrofa j the Ciflertians, Carthufians, Auguftines ; and 
 atlaft, in the XHIth Century, the Mendicants. He adds, 
 that Lupus Servatus, abbot of Ferrieres, in the IXth cen- 
 tury, is the firft that feems to diftinguifh the order of St. 
 Benedict from the reft, and to fpeak of it as a particular 
 order. 
 
 H'lnte ordsr denotes the order of regular canons of St. Au- 
 
 guftine. 
 
 Black order denoted the order of Benedictines. 
 Thefe names were firft given thefe two orders from the co- 
 lour of their habit ; but are difufed fince the inftitution of 
 feveral other orders, who wear the fame colours. 
 Grey order was the antient name of the Ciftertians ; but 
 fince the change of the habit, the name fuits them no 
 more. 
 
 Order of Charity. See the article Charity. 
 
 Order of St, Saviour. See the the article Saviour. 
 
 Third Order. See the article Third. 
 
 Order, in the geometry of curves. See Gender, Line, 
 
 nd Curve. 
 Bock of Orders. See the article Book. 
 Order Interlocutory, inlaw. See Interlocutory. 
 ORDINAL, Ordinals, a book containing the order, or 
 manner of performing divine fervice. Sec Ritual. 
 
 Ordinal, 
 
ORD 
 
 ORD 
 
 Ordinal, in grammar, an epithet given to fiich numbers 
 as mark the order of things, or in what rank they are placed. 
 
 a law, ftatute, or corn- 
 
 Thus firft, fecond, tenth, hundredth, fcff. are ordinal num 
 bers. See Cardinal. 
 ORDINANCE, or Ordonnance 
 mand of a fovcreign, or fupcrior. 
 
 Ordinance of parliament is ordinarily ufed in the fame lenle as 
 ftatute, or a£t of parliament. 
 In the parliament-rolls, afls are often called 
 of parliament. Thouah in Tome cafes we find a dif- 
 ference made between the two i ordinances being only 
 temporary things, by way of prohibition ; and capable of 
 bcin^ altered by the commons alone : whereas an att is a 
 perpetual law, and cannot be altered but by king, lords, and 
 commons. r ,. 
 
 Sir Edward Coke afferts, that an ordinance of parliament 
 differs from an ail, as the latter can only be made by the 
 king, and the threefold content of the eftates ; whereas the 
 former may be made by one or two of rhem. 
 Ordinance of the foreft, is a ftatute made in the 34th year of 
 Hemy I. relating to fureft-matters. 
 
 In the- Erench juriiprudencc, crdonuanccs are fue l laws as are 
 cftablifhed by the king's authoriiy alone. All crdonnances 
 betin with, a torn prefer,! 13 a ucnir faint. 
 Ordinance, or Ordnance, is alfo a general term for all 
 forts of crcat guns, or cannon, mortars, U.c. ufed in war. 
 The paits of a piece of ordinance are the outhde, round 
 about the piece, which is called the fuperficics of her metal 
 ■the fubftancc, or whole mafs of metal, called her body 
 the part next us, when fhe ftands ready to fire, the brucb. 
 or atll ■ and the pummel, or round knob at the end of it, the 
 cafcabell ; by fome the cafcabcll-dack. The trunnions are the 
 two knobs, or ears, which hold the piece in the carnag. 
 Mar.iglions, or dolphins, in the German guns, are two bandit 
 placed' on the back of the piece near the trunnions, and near 
 the centre of gravity, to mount and difmount them more 
 eafily. r 
 The rinfs about a piece of ordinance are five : the baje- 
 ring, that which is next below the touch-hole : the next 
 above the touch-hole, is called the reinforced ring : the next 
 to that forward, the trunnion-ring : the next to that, the 
 cornice-ring: that at the mouth, the mu7.-2.le- ring, or the 
 freeze.— All the rings near the mouth are fometimes called 
 the freeze]. 
 
 As to the internal parts ; the whole cavity or bore of the 
 piece is called her chafe : that part of the cavity between 
 the trunnions, and the muzzle or mouth, the vacant cylin- 
 der ■ that part from the trunnions to the end of the cavity, 
 or fo much of it as containeth (or is loaded with) the pow- 
 der and fhot, is called the chamber. The diameter of the 
 mouth, the caliber : and the fpacc between the fhot and thi 
 hollow fiipcificies of the piece within, the vent ; being the 
 difference between the diameter of the fhot, and the mouth 
 of the piece. . , . . 
 
 Ordinance in England is diftinguifhed into two kinds, viz. 
 Field pieces, which are from the fmalleft to twelve pounders. 
 —And cannon of battery, which arc from a culverm to a 
 •whole cannon. . c n . . 
 
 Each of thefe divifions is again fubdivided ; the firft into 
 bafc rabinet, falconet, falcon, minion ordinary, minion 
 larreft faker leaft, faker ordinary, demi-culverin leaft, and 
 
 oemi-culverin ordinary. The fecond into culverm leaft 
 
 culverin ordinary, culverin largefr, dem.-can.10n leaf , 
 demi-cannon ordinary, demi-cannon large, and royal whole 
 
 cannon. j , r , . \ 
 The lengths and weights of each whereof, as aljo tbe weights 
 of the bullets they curry, fee erpreffed In a particular table under 
 ■ the article Cannon. See alfo each piece under its proper 
 head, Cannon, Culverin, Saker, tic. 
 The ftrenrth and ferviceablencfs of a piece of ordinance depends 
 much on "the thicknefs of the metal, efpecially about its 
 chamber and breech, which is called \b fortification. 
 Of this there arc three degrees, both for cannons and ali- 
 ens Such are the ordinarily fortified, alfo called login- 
 
 ma'e Pieces. Thofe whofe fortification is lefiencd, are called 
 bafiard pieces. Thofe doubly fortified, are called ixtrtw- 
 
 ThTforufic'ation of a gun is reckoned from the thicknefs of 
 the metal at the touch-hole, at the trunnions, and at the 
 muzzle, in proportion to the diameter of the bore. The 
 doublv fortified pieces are a full diameter of the bore in thick- 
 nefs at the touch-hole, ft of it at the trunnions, and A at 
 ' the muzzle : the leflcned cannons have but 1, or ;j of the 
 diameter of their bore, in the thicknefs at the touch-hole, f 
 at the trunnions, and A, at the muzzle. 
 AH the double-fortified culvcrins, and all the leffer pieces of 
 that kind, have a diameter and k at the touch-hole, ij at 
 the trunnions, and * at the muzzle. And the ordinary for 
 
 tificd culverins are every way as the doubly fortified cannon ; 
 and the leflened culverins as the ordinary cannon, in all 
 
 refpedfs. The ordinary-fortified cannons have J at 
 
 the touch-hole, 1 at the trunnions, and J at the 
 muzzle. 
 
 Ordinance, in painting. See the article Ordonnance. 
 Ordinance, or Ordnance Office, is the (Landing grand 
 magazine of arms, habiliments, inftruments, and uteniils of 
 war, as well by fea as land ; not only of thofe lodged in the 
 tower, but in all the garifons, cafiles, forts, bY. in Great 
 Britain : from whence, as occafion requires, his majefty's ar- 
 mies, t\3c. are fupplied. 1 
 
 The officers of the ordinance are, the mafler-general, from 
 whom are derived all orders and difpatches relating to the 
 
 fame, as the fervice fhall heft require. This port has often 
 
 been annexed to the office of general and commander in 
 
 chief. -.' . 
 
 Under him is a lieutenant-general of the ordinance, who receives 
 orders from the mafter-general, and the reft of the prime 
 officers at the board ; fees them duly executed ; orders the 
 firing of guns on days of rejoicing, and fees the train of 
 artillery fitted out when ordered to the field. 
 Next to him is the furveyor-general, who has the infpeflion 
 of the ordinance, ftorcs, and provifions of war, in the cuftody 
 of the ftore-kecpers ; he allows all bills of debts, keeps a 
 check on labourers, C3V. 
 
 Under thefe is a clerk of the ordinance, who records all or- 
 ders and inftrucLions given for the government of the office ; 
 with all patents, grants, names of officers, (sc. draws all 
 eftimates for provifions, and fupplies all letters, infttuaions, 
 commiffions, deputations, contrafls, &c. and ferves as a check 
 between the two accomptants of the office, the one for mo- 
 ney, the other for ftores. 
 
 This office has alfo a ftorc-keeper, who takes into his cuftody 
 Morrlinance, ammunition, ftores, tjfe. thereto belonging ; 
 and indents, and gives in legal fecurity for the fate keep- 
 in" thereof ; and renders an exact account from time to 
 time. 
 
 Here is alfo a cleri of the deliveries, whofe duty is to draw up 
 all provifions, cither at the tower, or any other of his 
 majefty's magazines, to fee them duly executed, &c. 
 And laftly, a trcafitrer, through whole hands pafles the mo- 
 ney of the whole office, as well for payment of falaries as de- 
 bentures. 
 
 Spiting up the OrdINANC*. See the article Spiking. 
 0RD1NARII, in antiquity, were a fort of gladiators ; being 
 thofe appointed to exhibit combats on certain ftated days, 
 (3c. 
 
 ORDINARY, fomething that happens : or panes frequently, 
 or ufually. >'■' " , 
 
 We lay, the ordinary courfe of tilings, whatever is done 
 without miracles, is done by ordinary agents. 
 Ordinary Culverin. Sec tiie article Culverin. 
 Ordinary Minion, &c. See the article Minion, lie. 
 Embajfador, or Envoy in Ordinary, he who is Cent to Mid* 
 itatedlv, and for a number of years, in the court of fome 
 prince' or ftatc, to keep up a good underftanding, and watch 
 the interefts of his nation. 
 Ordinary is alfo applied to feveral officers and fervants be- 
 longing to the king's houfhold, who attend on common 
 occafions.— Thus we fay, phyfician in ordinary. Sec. 
 Ordinary, Ordinarius, in the civil law, is any 
 judge vefted with authority to take cognizance of caufes, 
 in his own right, as he is a magiftrate ; and not by de- 
 
 putation. 
 
 Ordinary, in common and canon law, denotes him who 
 * has ordinary or immediate jurisdiction in ecclefiaftical caufes 
 in fuch a place. _ ~. 
 
 in which fenfe archdeacons are ordinaries. — Though the appel- 
 lation be moft frequently given to the bifhop of the diocefe, 
 who has the ordinary ecclefiaftical jurifdidtion, and the col- 
 lation to benefices therein. 
 
 There are feveral chapels, chapters, abbeys, H c. exempted 
 from the jurifdiclion of the ordinary. 
 
 The archbifhop is ordinary of the whole province, to vifit, and 
 receive appeals from, the inferior judicatures. 
 The Romifh canonifts call the pope ordinary of ordinaries, 
 fincc by the Lateran council he has ufurped the right of col- 
 latin", by prevention, to all benefices ; in exclufion of the 
 ordinary collators. 
 
 ORDINARY of Affizes anil Seffions was a deputy of the bt- 
 fhop of the diocefe, anticntly appointed to give malefaflors 
 their neck-verfes, and judge whether they read or not j alfo 
 to perform divine fervice for them, and affift in preparing 
 them for death. . . ,. , 
 
 Ordinary, or Honourable Ordinary, m heraldry, a de- 
 nomination given to certain charges properly belonging to 
 that art. The 
 
ORD 
 
 ORD 
 
 The honourable ordinaries are ten in number, viz. the chief, 
 pale, bend,feffe, bay', crofs, faltler, chevron-, bordure, and orle. 
 See each in its place, Chief, Pale, Este. 
 The heralds give fcveral reafons for their being called ho- 
 nourable; viz. i. Their great antiquity, as having been ufed 
 ever fince armoury was fet on foot. And, 2, for that 
 fhey denote the ornaments moft: neceffary for noble and ge- 
 nerous men : thus the chief reprefents the helmet, wreath, 
 or crown, covering the head : the pale reprefents his lance 
 or fpear : the bend and bar, his belt : the feiTe, his fcarf : 
 the crofs and faltier, his fword : the chevron, his boots and 
 fpurs : and the bordure and orle, his coat of mail. 
 As to the allotting or distributing of" thefe ordinaries, fome 
 authors write, that when a gentleman, having behaved him- 
 felf gallantly in fight, was prefented to the prince, or ge- 
 neral, and a fuitable coat-armour ordered him ; if he were 
 wounded in the head, they gave him a chief; if in the 
 legs, he had a chevron ; and if his fword and armour 
 were difcoloured with the blood of the enemies, a crofs or 
 . bordure. 
 
 Some heralds have attempted to increafe the number of 
 honourable ordinaries to twenty ; adding to thofe above- 
 mentioned, the plain quarter, the git en, the efcutcheon, 
 cappe dexter and finiiter, emmanch dexter and iinifter, 
 chaujj'e dexter and Iinifter, and the point. Eut thefe are not 
 yet authorized. 
 
 ORDINATE. See the article Co-ordinate. 
 
 ORIGINATES, in geometry and conies, are lines drawn from 
 any point of the circumference of an ellipfis, or other conic 
 fedtion, perpendicularly acrofs the axis, to the other fide. 
 The Latins call them ordinatim applicatee, — Such are the 
 lines MM, MM, 13c. (Tab. Conies, fig. 26.) 
 Half of each of thefe, as the lines EM, EM, Gfr, are pro- 
 perly only ferni- ordinates, though popularly called ordinates. 
 In curves of the fecond order ; if any two parallel right lines 
 be drawn fo as to meet the curve in three points : a right 
 
 . line which cuts thefe parallels fo, as that the fum of two 
 parts terminating at the curve on one fide the fecant, is 
 equal to the third part terminated at the curve on the other 
 fide : will cut ail other right lines parallel to thefe, and 
 that meet the curve in three points, after the fame man- 
 ner ; i. e. fb as that the fum of the two parts on one fide 
 ■Will always be equal to the third part on the other fide: — 
 and thefe three parts equal on cither fide, Sir Ifaac Newton calls 
 ordinatim applicata, or ordinates of curves of the fecond order. 
 See Curve. 
 
 Ordinate in a parabola, "i f Parabola. 
 Ordinate in an hyperbola, > See \ Hyperbola. 
 Ordinate in an ellipfis, j I Ellipsis. 
 Ordinate Ratio is that wherein the antecedent of the firft 
 
 ratio is to its confequcnt, as the antecedent of the fecond is to its 
 
 confequent. 
 
 ORDINATION, the a£ of conferring holy orders; or of 
 initiating a candidate into the diaconate, or priefthood. 
 The ordination of bifhops is more properly called confecra- 
 tion. 
 
 Ordination has always been eftecmed the principal preroga- 
 tive of bifhops ; and they ftill retain the function as a kind 
 of mark of fpiritual fovereigntv in their diocefes. 
 In the antient difcipline there was no fuch thing as a vague, 
 and abfolute ordination ; but every one was to have a church, 
 whereof he was to be ordained clerk, or prieft. — In the 
 twelfth century they grew more remifs, and ordained with- 
 out any title, or benefice. 
 
 The council of Trent reffored the antient difcipline, and ap- 
 pointed, that none fhould be ordained but thofe who were pro- 
 vided of a benefice fufficient to fubfift them. — The fhadow 
 of which pradtice ftill obtains among us. 
 The reformed hold the call of the people the only thing 
 effential to the validity of the mimitry ; and teach, that 
 ordination is only a ceremony which renders the call more 
 auguft and authentic. 
 
 The council of Rome in 744. order?, that no ordinations fliall 
 beheld except on the firft, fourth, feventh, and tenth months. 
 —With us, ordination-days are the four fundays immediately 
 following the ember weeks : being the fecond funday in 
 lent, trinity -funday, and the fundays following the firft 
 Wednefday after September the 14th, and December the 13th. 
 Pope Alexander II. condemns ordination per faltum, as they 
 call it ; i. e . the leaping to a fuperior order without pafling 
 through the inferior. 
 
 ORDNANCE. See the article Ordinance. 
 
 'ORDONNANCE, or Ordinance, in painting, denotes 
 the difpofition of the parts of a picture, either with regard 
 to the whole piece, or to the fcveral parts \ as the groups, 
 mafies, contrails, afpccls, Eiff. 
 
 In the ordonnance there arc three things regarded, viz. the 
 place, or fcene, where i the diitribution, how ; and the 
 contra ft. 
 
 Vol. n. 
 
 In the firft, regard is to be had to the difpofition of thing* 
 to ferve as a ground-work ; and to the plan, or pofition of 
 bodies : under the former whereof come, 1. The landfchapc ; 
 whether an uninhabited place, where there is a full liberty of 
 reprefenting all the extravagancies of nature; or inhabited, 
 where the marks of cultivation, &c. muff, be exhibited. 
 
 2. The building, whether ruffic ; wherein the painter's fancy 
 is at liberty : or regular; wherein a nice attention is required 
 to the orders. 
 
 3. The mixture of both ; wherein 'tis a maxim to compofe 
 in great pieces, and make the ground-plot big enough ; to 
 neglect fome little places, in order to beftow more on the whole 
 mafs, and to fhew the more confidcrable places with the more 
 advantage; and to mark fome agitation in all the things that 
 move. 
 
 As to plans of bodies, they are either fohd ; which again, 
 are either fo by nature, and which muft be proportioned to 
 their places ; or artificial where regard is to be had to the 
 rules of geometry, perfpective, architecture, &c. — Or 
 they move : which they do, either by a voluntary motion, 
 wherein care muft be had to proportion them to their fitua- 
 tion, and to ftrengthen them by regarding the equilibrium ; 
 or by fome extraordinary power, as machines, cfc. where 
 the caufes of their motions muft appear. — Or they are things 
 at a diftance. In all which an even plane muft ftill be pro- 
 pofed to find their precife fituation, and fettle their place by 
 fudden breaks and diflances agreeable to perfpedtive. 
 In placing the figures, regard mult be had, 1. To the group, 
 which connects the fubje£t, and flays the fight. In this are 
 to be confidered the knot, or nodus, which binds the croup ; 
 and the nearneis of figures, which we mav call the chain, as 
 it holds them together ; that the group be fuftained by fome- 
 thing loofe and diftinct from it; and by the fame joined and 
 continued to the other groups ; and that the lights and iha- 
 dows be fo difpofed, as that we may at once fee the effect 
 of all the parts of the compofition. 
 
 2. To the afiions, wherein forced attitudes are to be avoid- 
 ed, and fimple nature feewn in her moft advantageous po- 
 ftures. In weak and lean figures, the nudites are not to be 
 {hewn; bat occafions of covering them are to be fought. In all 
 human figures, fpecial care to be taken, the head be well placed 
 between the moulders ; the trunk on the haunches, and the 
 whole on the feet. 
 
 3. To the drapery; which is to be adjufted, fo as it may 
 appear real garments, and not {tuffs loofely thrown on. The 
 folds to be fo difpofed as to leave the great parts, wherein 
 the nudity may appear, free ; ranging the little folds about 
 the joints, and avoiding them on the relievo of the mem- 
 bers. And, laftly, to difpofe the draperies, by railing the 
 fluff", and letting it fall eaiily and lightly, that the air fuftain- 
 ing the folds may let them fall foft, 
 
 Laftly, in the contra/?, are to be confidered the actions, 
 which vary infinitely j the afpedts, which, in actions of 
 the fame kind, may, by their difference, make a con- 
 traft : the fituation, according as they meet above or under 
 the fight, far or near. And, laftly, cuftom ; which extends, 
 indeed, to all parts of painting, but is particularly to be 
 regarded in the ordonnance ; to be managed difcrcetly, how- 
 ever, and fliffhefs and formality avoided. 
 Ordonnance, in architecture, is nearly the fame as in paint- 
 ing ; viz. the compofition of a building, and the difpofition 
 of its parts, both with regard to the whole, and to one 
 another. 
 
 Vitruvius defines ordonnance to be that which regulates the 
 fize or magnitude of all the parts of a building with refpeel to 
 their ufe. 
 
 This definition is cenfured by M. Perrault, who takes the 
 ordonnance to confift in the divifion of the plan or fpot of 
 ground whereon the building is to be raifed ; u e. in the ap- 
 portioning or laying it out, agreeably to the intended di- 
 menfions of the whole fabric ; which Mr. Evelyn exprefies 
 in fewer words, by 16 determining the meafure of what is 
 * ( afligned to compofe the feverai apartments." 
 On this foundation, ordonnance is the judicious contrivance 
 of the plan or model; as when the court, hall, lodgings, 
 CSV. are neither too large, nor too little : but the court, 
 v. gr. affords convenient light to the apartments about it, 
 and is large enough for ufual accefs. ' The hall of fit capa- 
 city to receive company ; the bed-chambers accordingly, c3Y. 
 When thefe divifions are either too great, or too fmall with 
 refpect to the place, as a large court to a little houfe, or 
 a little chamber in a magnificent palace; the fault is in the 
 ordonnance. 
 
 This the antients .called taxis ; and diftingnifhed it from dia- 
 thefis, difpofition; which is, where all the parts and members 
 of a building are afligned their juft place and fituation with 
 regard to their quality, office, rank, CSV. without any regard to 
 the dimenfions, or quantity : as, that the veftible or porch be 
 before the hall, the hall before the parlour, and that before the 
 7 Q. with- 
 
ORG 
 
 ORG 
 
 Withdrawlng-room, Esff. The bed-chambers, again, to look to 
 the fun- i£ng ; and libraries, galleries of paintings, and cabinets 
 of curiofities, &c. to the north. 
 
 ORE, in natural hiftory, the mineral glebe, earth or ftone, 
 dug out of mines, to be purified, and to have the metalline 
 parts procured, and feparated from the fame. 
 The ore is frequently called the mineral ; and by fome the 
 juarcafite ; though, on other occafions, a difference is made 
 in the fignification of thefe two words ; the denomination ore 
 being only given where the mineral is rich enough of metal 
 to be wrought. — When it is not, it is denominated marcafite. 
 See Supplement, article Ore. 
 
 Ore, in navigation. See the article Oar. 
 
 ORGAL, or Argoll, the lees of wine dried, and ufed by dyers 
 to prepare the cloth for the more readily taking their feverai 
 colours. 
 
 ORGAN, Ofyonr, is ufed in the general for anything framed 
 and deftined for fome certain action, ufe, or operation. 
 
 Organ, or Orcanical Part, in phyfiology, is fuch a part 
 of the body as is capable of the performance of fome perfect 
 aft, or operation. 
 
 In which fenfe, all the parts, even the moft fimple, may be 
 denominated organical. 
 
 The organs are divided into primary and fecondary. — The 
 primary are thofe compofed of fimilar parts, and appointed 
 for fome one fiflgk function. — Such as coniift of feverai of 
 thefe, though appropriated to one angle a£Uon, are efteemed 
 fecondary organs. 
 
 Thus the veins, arteries, nerves, and mufcles, are primary 
 organs; and the hands, fingers, &c. are fecondary organs. 
 Organ of fenfe is that part of an animal body, by means 
 whereof it perceives external objects. 
 
 Thefe, fome divide into internal, which is the brain ; and 
 external, viz. the eye, ear, nofe, &c. 
 Organ, in mufic, denotes the largeft and moft harmonious of 
 all wind inftruments ; chiefly ufed for playing a thorough bafs, 
 with all its accompanymcnts. See Music. 
 The invention of the organ is very antient, though it is 
 agreed it was little ufed till the eighth century. It fecms 
 to have been borrowed from the Greeks. Vitruvius defcribes 
 one in his tenth book. The emperor Julian has an epigram 
 in its,praife. St. Jerom mentions one with twelve pair of 
 bellows, which might be heard a thouiatid paces, or a mile ; 
 and another at Jcrufalem, which might be heard to the mount 
 of Olives. The ftru&ure of the modern organ may be con- 
 ceived as follows : 
 
 The organ is an affemblage of feverai rows of pipes. Its 
 fize is ufually expreffed by the length of its largeft pipe : 
 thus we fay an organ of 32 feet, of 16 feet, of 8 feet, and 
 of 2 feet. 
 
 Church organs confift of two parts, viz. the main body of 
 the organ, called the great organ; and the pofitive, or little 
 organ, which is a fmall buffet, ufually placed before the great 
 organ. 
 
 1 he organ has at leaft one fet of keys, when it has only 
 one body ; and two or three, when it has a pofitive> The 
 large organs have four, fometimes five fets. Befides, the 
 pedals or largeft pipes have their key, the flops or touches 
 whereof are plaved by the feet. The keys of an organ are 
 ufually divided into four octaves; viz. the fecond fub-oc"tave, 
 firft fub-ocfave, middle octave, and firlt octave. Each octave 
 is divided into twelve (tops or frets ; whereof the feven black 
 mark the natural founds, and the five white the artificial 
 founds; /'. e. the flats and ftiarps. So that the keys ufually 
 contain 48 flops, or touches. Some organifts add to this 
 number one or more flops in the third fub-octave, as well 
 as in the fecond. Note, in harpfichords and fpinets, the na- 
 tural flops or keys are ufually marked white, the artificial 
 ones black. The pedals extend to two or three octaves at 
 the pleafure of the organift : fo that the number of flops is 
 indeterminate. 
 
 Each key or flop preffed down opens a valve or plus, 
 which cbrrefponds, lengthwife, to as many holes as there 
 arc rows of pipes on the found-board. The holes of each 
 row are opened and fbut by a regifter or ruler pierced 
 with 48 holes. By drawing the regifter, the holes of one 
 row are opened, becaufe the holes of the regifter corre- 
 fpond to thofe of the found-board. So that, by opening a 
 valve, the wind brought into the found -board by a large pair 
 of bellows finds a pdflage into the pipe, which corrclponds 
 to the open hole of the found-board. But by pufning the 
 recifter, the 48 holes of the regifter not anfwering to any 
 of thofe of the found-board, that row of pipes anfwering to 
 the pufhed regifter are fhut. Whence it follows, that by 
 ■ drawing fever.il regifters, feverai rows of pipes arc opened ; 
 and the fame thing happens, if the fame regifter correfpond 
 to feverai rows. Flence the rows of pipes become either 
 fimple or compound : fimple, when only one row anfwers 
 to one regifter j compound, where feverai. The organifts 
 
 fay, a row is compound, when feverai pipes play upon prefting 
 one flop. 
 
 The pipes of the organ are of two kinds; the one with mouths 
 like our flutes ; the other with reeds. The firft called pipes 
 of mutation, confift, 
 
 1. Of a foot A ABB (Tab. Mifell. fig. 15.), which is a 
 hollow cone, and which receives the wind that is to found 
 the pipe. 2. To this foot is faftened the body of the pipe 
 BBDD. Between the foot and the body of the pipe is a dia- 
 phragm, or partition, EEF, which has a little, long, narrow 
 aperture to let out the wind. Over this aperture fS the mouth 
 BBCC ; whofe upper lip, CC, being level, cuts the wind as 
 it comes out at the aperture. 
 
 The pipes are of pewter, of lead mixed with a twelfth part 
 of tin, and of wood. Thofe of tin are always open at 
 their extremities : their diameter is very fmall, and their found 
 very clear and fhrill. Thofe of lead mixed are larger ; 
 the fhorteft open, the longeft are quite flopped ; the mean 
 ones partly flopped, and having befides a little ear on each 
 fide the mouth, to be drawn clofer, or fet further afunder, 
 in order to raife or lower the found. The wooden pipes are 
 made fquare, and their extremity flopped with a valve or 
 tampion of leather. The found of the wooden and leaden 
 pipes is very foft ; the large ones flopped, are ufually of 
 wood ; the fmall ones of lead. The longeft pipes give the 
 graveft found ; and the fhorteft the moft acute: their lengths 
 and widths are made in the reciprocal ratio's of their founds ; 
 and the divifions regulated by their rule, which they call 
 diapajon. But the pipes that are fhut are of the fume length as 
 the open ones, which yield the fame found. Ufually, the 
 longeft pipe is 16 feet: though in extraordinary organs it is 
 32. The pedal tubes are always open, though made of wood 
 and of lead. 
 
 A reed pipe confifls of. a foot A A B B, (Tab. Mi/cell, 
 fig. 16.) which carries the wind into the fhalot, or reed 
 C D, which is a hollow demi-cylinder, fitted at its extremity 
 D into a kind of mould II, by a wooden tampion K G. 
 The fhalot is covered with a plate of copper EE IT', fitted 
 at its extremity EE into the mould by the fame wooden 
 tampion : its other extremity EE is at liberty ; fo that the 
 air entering the fhalot, makes it tremble or fhakc a^ainft 
 the reed ; and the longer that part of the tongue which is 
 at liberty FL, is made, the deeper is the found. The 
 mould 1 1, which ferves to fix the fhalot or reed, the 
 tongue, tampion, &c. ferves alfo to flop the foot of the 
 pipe, and to oblige the wind to go out wholly at the reed. 
 Eaflly, in the mould is foldcred ihc part HHKK, called 
 the tube, whofe inward opening is a continuation of that of the 
 reed. 'I he form of this tube is different in the different ranks 
 of pipes. 
 
 The degree of acutenefs and gravity in the found of a reed- 
 pipe, depends on the length of the tongue, and that of the 
 pipe CK, taken from the extremity C of the fhalot, to the 
 extremity K of the tube. 
 
 The quality of the found depends on the width of the reed, 
 the tongue, and the tube as alfo on the thicknefs of 
 the tongue, the figure of the tube, and the quantity of 
 wind. 
 
 To divcrfify the founds of the pipes, they add a valve to 
 the port-vent, which lets the wind go in fits or fhakes. 
 Hydraulic Organ denotes a mufical machine that plays by 
 means of water inftead of wind. 
 
 Of thefe there are feverai in Italy in the grotto's of vine- 
 yards. Ctefebes of Alexandria, who lived in the reign of 
 Ptolemy Evergetes, is faid to have firft invented organs that 
 played by compRifing the air with water, as is ftill practifed. 
 Archimedes and Vitruvius have left us defcriptions of the hy- 
 draulic organ. Felibien, de la Vie des Aichit. 
 In the cabinet of queen vChriftina is a beautiful and large 
 medallion of Valentinian, on ihc reverfe whereof is feen one 
 of thefe hydraulic organs ; with two men, one on the right, 
 the other on the left, feeming to pump the water which 
 plays it, and to liften to its found. It has only eight pipes, 
 placed on a round pedeftal. — The infeription is PLACEA 
 SPETRI, if it be not wrong copied, which we fufpect. 
 ORGANICAL, in the antient mulic, was that part performed 
 with inftruments. 
 
 The organical comprehended three kinds of inftruments ; viz. 
 Wind injlruments, as the trumpet, flute, ISc. Stringed inftru- 
 ments^ as the lute, lyre, &c. and Ptdfatile injlruments, or 
 thofe played on by beating, as drums, cirV. See each in its 
 place, Trumpet, cjV. 
 
 Organical Part is that part of an animal or plant deftined 
 for the performance of fome particular function. 
 
 Organical Difeafe, a difeafe in an organical part of the body, 
 whereby its function is impeded, fufpended, or deftroyed. 
 
 Organical Defcription of curves is the method of de- 
 ferring them on a plane, by means of inftruments. See 
 Curve. 
 
 ORGASM, 
 
O R I 
 
 ORGASM*, Orcasmus, an ecftafy, or impetuous defire of 
 coition, occaficned by a turgefcency of the fcminal veflels 
 which are no longer able to rertrain their contents. 
 
 * The word is Greek, o%yaffy.&, denoting violence, or turgef- 
 cency ; formed from o-ya.ee, lurgeo, I fwell. 
 
 The antients alfo extend orgafm to the other humours, and 
 even excrements, which, being accumulated, and comin» to 
 ferment, demand excretion. 
 
 Quincy ufes orgafm for an impetuous, or too quick motion of 
 the blood, or fpirits ; whereby the mul'cles are diltended with 
 an uncommon force. 
 ORGIA *, O n sa, in antiquity, feafls and facrifices performed 
 in honour of Bacchus, inftituted by Orpheus, and chiefly ce- 
 lebrated on the mountains by wild, diftradted women, called 
 Baechar. 
 
 * Eufebius derives the word atto Tftf o^ym, fury, irndnefs 
 Others fromc?£, mountain; becaufe Orpheus removed from 
 Thrace to mount Citheron : others from tfy&f'i a place confe- 
 crated to fome divinity : others from CJ;>*r, to remove re- 
 
 pulfe ; in regard the prophane were to be driven 
 
 away. 
 
 The orgia were alfo called orphica, from their inftitutor. 
 —They were held every third year. The chief folemnities 
 were in the night-time ; and were attended with all manner 
 of impurities. 
 
 Servius fays, that at firft orgia v/as a common name for all 
 kinds of facrifices among the Greeks ; of the fame import with 
 the word cercmonia among the Romans. 
 
 ORGUES, in the military art, thick long pieces of wood 
 pointed and fhod with iron, and hung each by a feparatc rope 
 over the gateway of a city, ready on any furprize or attempt 
 of the enemy to be let down to ftep up the gate. 
 
 Orcues is alfo ufed for a machine compofed of feveral har- 
 quebufs or mufquet barrels, bound together; by means whereof 
 feveral expfjfions are made at the fame time ; ufed to defend 
 breaches, and other places attacked. 
 
 OROYA, Qfyvia, an antient Grecian meafure, containing fix 
 
 Some reprefent the orgya as the Grecian pace. ' 
 Hefycliius defcribes it as the fpace comprehended between the 
 two hmds, when the arms are extended : anfwering to the 
 Roman ulna, and our fathom. 
 ORIENT, Oriens, in geography and aftronomy, the eaft, or 
 eaft-point, of the horizon. 
 
 It is thus called from the Latin orire, to arife ; becaufe it is in 
 this point the fun rifes. 
 Equinot'.ial Orient is ufed for that point of the horizon 
 wherein the fun rifes when he is in the equator, or when he 
 enters the ligns Aries and Libra. See Spring, and Au- 
 tumn. 
 
 JEJlhal Orient is the point wherein the fun rifes in the middle 
 
 of lummer, when the days are longeft. 
 Uybernal Orient is the point where the fun rifes in the middle 
 
 of winter when the days are fhorteff, 
 ORIENTAL, fjmefhing fituated toward the eaft with regard 
 
 to us : in oppofition to occidental. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, oriental pearls, q. d. fuch as are found in 
 the Eaft-Indics (See Pearl).— Oriental languages, meaning 
 the Hebrew, • Syriac, Chaldee, and Cophtic. See Lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Oriental Bezoard. See the article Bezoard. 
 
 Oriental Bibles. See the article Bible. 
 
 Oriental Emerald. See the article Emerald, 
 
 In aftronomy, a planet is faid to be oriental, when it appears 
 in the eaft before tllefun. See Risino. 
 
 ORIENTING, the turning a thing towards ithe eaft, or dif- 
 pofing it fo as it may look towards the eaft. 
 In moft religions, particular care has been taken to have 
 their temples oriented — St. Gregory Thaumaturgus is faid to 
 have made a mountain give way, becaufe it prevented the ori- 
 enting of a church he was building. 
 
 ORIFICE, Orificium, the mouth, or aperture of a tube, 
 pipe, or other cavity. 
 
 Orifice, in anatomy, is particularly applied to the mouths of 
 the feveral duds, velfels, and other cavities ; as of the bladder, 
 uteres, ftomach, fife. 
 
 The upper orifice of the ftomach is the part where hunger is 
 
 felt ; the lower orifice is called the pylorus. 
 
 There arc fome operations in chymiftry, where the orifices of 
 
 the veffcl muft be fraled hermetically. 
 Orifice is alfo ufed by extenlion for the aperture of a wound, 
 
 or ulcer. See Whund, and Ulcer. 
 ORIGENIANS, Origeniani, a fedi of antient heretics, who 
 
 even furpafled the abominations of the Gnoftics. 
 
 St. Epiphanius (peaks of them as fublilling in his time; 
 
 but in very fmall number. He feems to fix their rife about 
 
 the tune of the great Origin , but does not fay they took their 
 
 name from him. On the contrary, he diflinnuifhes them 
 
 from the OngeniJIs, whom he derives from Origen Ma- 
 
 O R I 
 
 months ; adding, indeed that they firft took (heft name 
 from one Origen ; by which he intimates, that it was not the 
 Great Origen And St. A uguftine fays exprefly it was another. 
 As to their doctrine, all that modefty will allow to 1- ai 
 is, that they rejefled marriage ; that they ufed feveral apocry- 
 phal books, as the ails of St. Andrew, fife; and that to excufa 
 their open crimes, they accufed the catholics of doing the fame 
 in private. 
 
 ORIGENISTS, in church-hiftory, followers of the errors of 
 Origen, who maintained that Chrift is only the Son of God by 
 adoption ; that the human foul had a prie-cxiftent ftate, and 
 had finned in heaven before the body was cleared ; that the 
 torments of the damned fhall not be eternal, but that the devils 
 themfelves fhall be relieved at laft. 
 
 St. Epiphanius infills very largely on the errors of this father - 
 but as he declares himfelf too warmly againft him, rhcre may 
 be fomewhat of exaggeration in what he fays. Nor do St. 
 Jerom, or Theophilus of Alexandria, feem to have kept their 
 zeal within the proper bounds in fpeaki.ig of Origen. for 
 which reafon, no doubt, it was that St. Cliryfoftom himfelf 
 was Accufed of being an Origenijl, becaufe not fo vehemently 
 bent againft him. Origcnifm fpread itfelf chiefly among the 
 monks of Egypt. 
 ORIGINAL, a firft draught, defign, or autograph of any 
 thing ; ferving as a model, or exemplar, to be imitated, or 
 copied. 
 
 Scarce any of the antient titles, tenures, fife, are now found 
 in the originals. They are only vidimus's, or copies collated 
 with the originals. 
 Original Sin, is that crime we become guilty of at our birth ; 
 by the imputation of Adam's difobedienie. 
 Father Malebranche accounts for original (in from natural 
 caufes, thus : Men at this day retain, in the brain, all the 
 traces and impreffions of their firft parents. For all ani- 
 mals produce their like, and with like traces in the brain ; 
 whence it is that animals of the fame kind have the fame 
 fympjthies and antipathies, and do the fame things on the 
 fame occalions : and our firft parents, after t'<cir tranfgreflion, 
 received fuch deep traces in the brain, by the impreflion of 
 fenfible objefts, that it was very poflible they might commu- 
 nicate them to their children. 
 
 Now, as it is neceflary, according to the order cfUilifhed 
 by nature, that the thoughrs of the foul be conformable to 
 the traces in the brain ; it may be faid, that as foon as we are 
 formed in the womb, we are infected with the corruption of 
 our parents : for having traces in the brain like thofe of the 
 perfons who gave us being ; it is neceflary we have the fame 
 thoughts, and the fame inclinations with regard to fenfible ob- 
 jects. Thus, of courfe, we muft be born with concupifcence, 
 and original fin. With concupifcence, if that be nothing but 
 the natural effort the traces of the brain make on the mind to 
 attach it to fenfible things ; and with original fin, if that be 
 nothing but the prevalency of concupifcence ; nothing in effea, 
 but thefe eftefls coniidered as vidtorious, and as mailers of the 
 mind and heart of the child. 
 
 Original IVrits. See the article Writ. 
 
 ORIGINALIA, in the exchequer, are records, or tranferipts 
 fent to the remembrancer's office, outof chancery. 
 They differ from recorder, which contain the judgments and 
 pleadings in fuits tried before the barons. ° 
 
 ORILLON, in fortification, a fmall rounding of earth, lined 
 with a wall ; raifed on the moulder of thofe baftions that have 
 catenates j to cover the canon in the retired flank, and prevent 
 their being difmounted by the enemy. 
 
 There are other forts of orillons, properly called tpaulements, 
 almolt of a fquare figure. 
 ORION *, in aftronomy, one of the conftcllations of the fouthern 
 hemifphere. 
 
 • The word is formed from the Greek »{&, to make water ; 
 the antients fuppofing that it raifed tempelts at its rilinp- and 
 letting. b 
 The ftars in the conftellation Orion, in Ptolemy's catalogue 
 are 37, in Tycho's 62, in the Britannic catalogue 8o°— 
 The names, fituations, magnitudes, longitudes, and latitudes 
 whereof, are as follow : 
 
 Names and fstitations of the K 
 
 Jfars. 1 
 
 Preced. and 6th in the lion's (kin. n 
 
 5th in the lion's fkin. 
 
 7th in the lion's fkin. 
 
 ift and north, in the lion's (kin, 
 
 3d in the lion's fkin. 
 
 4th in the lion's (kin. 
 
 8th in the lion's (kin. 
 
 lA in the lion's (kin. 
 
 Laft and fouth. in the lion's fkin. 
 
 Prec. of 2 infer, towardsthehorn of cj 
 
 Longitude 
 
 Latitude 
 
 South. 
 
 0 / // 
 
 Q 1 " 
 
 7 3 2 39 
 
 15 25 3° 
 
 8 00 53 
 
 13 31 20 
 
 7 46 00 
 
 16 48 55 
 
 9 °9 *5 
 
 8 16 07 
 
 9 22 11 
 
 11 09 1- 
 
 9 14 57 
 
 12 24 01 
 
 8 09 36 
 
 20 02 56 
 
 10 ou 34 
 
 9 c6 31 
 
 9 11 42 
 
 20 53 51 
 
 12 12 00 
 
 7 25 06 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 5 
 4 5 
 
 Nam* 
 
ORI 
 
 OR P 
 
 Names and foliations of the 
 Jiars. 
 
 ? Longitude 
 
 n 
 
 North, in the preced. arm. 
 South, and fubfeq. in the arm 
 Subf. of the infor. tow. the horn of 
 That againft the preced. fide. 
 That againft the preced. arm. 
 
 Bright one in preced. foot called 5 
 regel. \ 
 More north, over the heel. 
 
 12 20 45 
 
 12 40 I 
 
 13 *3 4* 
 
 14 36 24 
 
 12 30 cc 
 
 13 30 2l 
 
 14 46 4 
 
 North, in the prec. fide under the 7 
 
 girdle. 5 15 *? 4 
 
 Preced. and north, in the fide. 
 20 
 
 In the preced. fhoulder. 16 37 31 
 
 Preced. and fouth. in the back. 16 12 2t 
 
 S. in the prec. fide under the girdle. 15 55 4c 
 
 In the hilt of the fword. 15 49 47 
 
 In the calf of the preced. leg. 15 13 47 
 25 
 
 Preced. of 4 in the back (as it were 16 50 5c 
 
 in a right line) 17 23 2 
 
 That foil? the (houlder to the fouth. 18 02 5c 
 
 2d of four in the back. 18 01 10 
 Preced. in the girdle. 
 3° 
 
 Under the point of the fword; 17 3405 
 
 Preced. in the head. 19 15 5 
 
 In the back the 3d. 18 51 06 
 
 In the head the north, of three. 19 22 I 
 
 South, and fubfeq. of the head. 19 46 28 
 
 35 . , .. 
 
 Prec. of the contig. m the mul- 
 
 I 18 38 
 
 Latitude 
 South. 
 
 '+ 22 37 
 [3 04 00 
 7 21 3 2 
 20 07 24 
 'i 45 55 
 
 31 10 11 
 
 29 52 52 
 
 20 30 01 
 
 23 31 II 
 
 '9 37 3' 
 
 6 51 30 
 
 21 21 07 
 
 24 05 24 
 
 2 5 3+ 47 
 
 30 S7 44 
 
 20 08 
 24 21 29*6 
 17 20 25I5 
 
 20 00 09 6 
 3 3 6 
 
 30 35 12 
 
 '3 5i 19 
 19 34 10 
 
 13 25 02 
 
 14 02 58 
 
 28 43 24 
 
 Preced. of the north, of the con- > 
 tig. in the mid. of the fword- 5 
 Subfeq. in the middle of the fword. 18 40 14 
 South, in the fword. 18 39 17 
 
 Laft of the north, in the fword. 18 46 48 
 40 
 
 Middle of three in the girdle. 19 07 44 
 
 Laft of 4 in the line of the back. 20 09 56 
 That under the third of the girdle. 19 45 41 
 Subf. under the point of the fword. 19 35 25 
 Third and laft in the girdle. 20 21 45 
 
 45 
 
 Preced. in the hind-fide. 
 
 10 17 
 
 45 02 
 
 29 14 37 
 28 11 45 
 
 24 33 23 
 19 16 03 
 
 25 5 8 47 
 
 30 34 5° 
 25 20 
 
 20 57 34;2I 56 
 
 22 32 37 16 59 55 
 
 22 03 41)33 07 06 
 24 22 23 3 11 44 
 
 23 38 2321 37 IC 
 
 In the hind-knee. 
 Preced. of two in the club. 
 Latter of two in the hind-fide. 
 
 - 5° I 
 
 24 29 '3 3 44 01 
 Glittering ftar in the hind-fhoulder. 24 25 00.16 04 26 
 
 25 14 1021 38 5c 6 
 That following the fide out of form. 25 20 4^22 56 046 
 Preced. of thofe following the knee. 25 23 3233 02 04 
 
 26 29 13 3 47 31 5 6 
 In the lower part of the hind-arm. 26 16 0513 50 01 
 Subfeq. in the club. 26 36 07 3 20 37 
 
 26 21 38 18 01 566 
 
 Laft of the two fubfeq. of the knee. 26 12 0734 04 585 
 60 I 
 
 26 59 00 I 
 
 Prec. ofthefouth. in Q ofhind-hand. 27 31 17 
 28 30 25 
 
 Preced. of the north, in the fquare. 28 34 14 
 Laft of the fouth. in the fame. 28 34 01 
 
 65 
 
 Laft of the north. 
 North, in the hind ulna. 
 70 
 
 .South in the hind ulna. 
 
 Informes following anon between 
 gemini and canis major. 
 7S 
 
 29 
 29 24 09 
 
 29 34 49 
 29 45 12 
 29 53 42 
 
 B 0 00 00 
 I 56 47 
 
 3 33 '3 
 3 55 
 1 4 09 40 
 
 8j 
 
 4 °9 
 
 6 02 11 
 
 7 48 5 
 
 8 27 11 
 
 % 15 u 48 
 
 19 A 
 
 42 10 
 
 39 59 
 19 30 
 14 49 
 
 16 02 
 
 10 53 13 
 
 30 
 
 29 42 05 
 
 13 28 25 
 18 45 41 
 
 30 18 3 
 18 23 14 
 
 5 54 21 
 l Z r 3 14 
 14 56 15 
 22 32 584 
 22 46 00)4. 
 
 4 5 
 
 Orion's Rivtr, in afrronomy, a conftellation called alio Eri- 
 
 danus. See Eridanus. 
 Oris Columna. See the article Columna. 
 Oris Dijlortor. See the article Djstortor. 
 Oris Speculum. Seethe article Speculum. 
 ORLE *, Orlet, or Orlo, in architecture, a fillet under 
 
 the ovolo, or quarter-round of a capital. — See Tab. Jrchit. 
 
 fig. 28. 
 
 * The word is French, formed from the Latin, orktum, or Of- 
 lum, of era, a border or lilt. 
 
 When it is at the top or bottom of the fiiaft, it is called the 
 cintture. 
 
 Palladia alfo ufes orlo for the plinth of the bafes of columns and 
 pedeftals. 
 
 Orle, in heraldry, is an ordinary in form of a fillet, drawn 
 round the fhield, near the edge or extremity thereof, leaving 
 the field vacant in the middle. 
 
 Its breadth is but half that of the trefTure or bordure, which 
 contains a fixth part of the fhield j the orle only a twelfth : 
 add, that the orle h its own breadth diftant from the edge of 
 the fhield ; whereas the bordure comes to the edge itfelf. 
 There is fometimes one orle, fometimes there are two, and 
 fometimes three.— When there are three, or more, they take up 
 the whole fhield.— It is/ometimes borne flory, or counterftory, 
 like the trefTure. 
 
 The form of the orle is the fame with that of the fhield ; 
 whence it refembles an inefcutcheon : as reprefented in Tab. 
 Herald, fig. 73. 
 
 If a round of martlets, cinquefoils, fife, be placed about any 
 ordinary, in manlier of an orle, they are faid to be eti-orle, 
 or orle-wlfe. 
 
 ORLOPE, orORLopp, in the fea language, the uppermoft 
 fpace or deck in a great fhip, from the main-malt to the 
 mizen. 
 
 In three decked fhips, the fecond and loweft decks are fome- 
 times alfo called er lopes. —See Tab. Ship. fig. 2. lit. I. E. F. 
 
 ORNAMENTS, in architecture, exprefs all the fculpture, 
 or carved work, wherewith a piece of architecture is enriched. 
 See Sculpture, &c. 
 
 Ornaments in Relievo are thofe carved on the contours of 
 mouldings ; as leaves, fhclls, fcrolls, flowers, fife 
 
 Ornaments in Creux are thofe cut within the mouldings; 
 as eggs, flutes, &c. 
 
 Vitruvius and Vignola alfo ufe the word ornament to fignify 
 
 the entablature. 
 Dijiribution j/Ornaments. See Distribution. 
 ORNITHOLOGY *, that branch of natural hiftory, which 
 
 conliders and defcribes birds, their natures, kinds, 6W. 
 
 ■* The word is formed from the Greek OfVt% bird, and hzyoe 
 difcourfe. 
 
 We have an excellent ornithology of Fr. Wjllughby, Efq; and 
 another of Mr. Ray, a polthumous work, which is chiefly an 
 abridgment of the former, with the addition of his Ichthyology ; 
 and leveral kinds wanting in the other. 
 
 Willughby, herein, (peaks with afliirance of a fwan that lived 
 300 years ; and a goofe that they were obliged to kill at 8o a 
 by reafon of its mifchievoufhefs. 
 
 ORNITHOMANCY, a kind of divination, or method of ar- 
 riving at the knowlege of futurity, by means of birds. 
 
 Ornithomancy, among the Greeks, was the fame with au- 
 gury among the Romans. See Augury. 
 
 ORPHAN, a child, or minor, deftitutc of father ; or that has 
 neither father, nor mother. 
 
 Hence the Taborites, or followers of Zifca, finding them- 
 felves, at his death, without chief or conductor, took the ap- 
 pellation of orphans. 
 Orphans Moncy^ or Tax. See Duty. 
 
 qRPIMENT, Auripigmentum, a bituminous mineral, ufually 
 found in copper mines ; and fuppofed to contain particles of 
 gold ; which may be extracted by chymiflry, but which were 
 never found to countervail the expence. 
 
 Orpiment is found in lumps of feveral fizes, and figures : its 
 colour is always yellow, intermixed with fhades of other co- 
 lours ; as green, red, orange, &c. 
 
 Sometimes it is found almolt quite red ; which is the proper 
 fandaracha of the antients. 
 
 But that ufually called red orpiment, or red arfenic, is only the 
 yellow orpiment heated to a great degree, in a crucible, with 
 oil of hemp-feed, olives, or nuts. 
 
 Painters, farriers, &c. make a great confumption of this 
 mineral ; but as it is found a violent corrofive, and is even re- 
 puted a poilbn, it muft be ufed with a great deal of precau- 
 tion. 
 
 Orpiment muft be chofen of a golden yellow hue, eafy to fcale, 
 and the fcales very thin, fmall, and fhining like gold. 
 Some authors injudicioufly diitinguifh orpiment into three 
 kinds : White, which is the fame with arfenic, and not pro- 
 perly any fpecies of orpiment : Yellow, which is the 
 
 proper 
 
OR T 
 
 proper orphnenl and red, which is fandarach, or realgar. See 
 Realgar. 
 
 The Indians ufe orpiment, corrected with juice of lemons, with 
 good fuccefs againft fevers. See Supplement, article Orpi- 
 
 MENT. 
 
 ORTEIL, in fortification. See the article Berme. 
 ORTHODORON, O$o£e$w, an antient Greek long meafure ; 
 being the fpace from the carpus or wrift to the tips of the fin- 
 gers : rated at i f inches. 
 ORTHODOXY *, a foundnefs of doctrine, or belief, with re- 
 gard to all the points and articles of faith. 
 # The word is formed from the Greek cp9&.-, right, and 
 opinion, judgment. 
 
 Orthodoxy is ufed in oppofition to heterodoxy, or herefy. 
 Orthodoxy, or, Feajl of Orthodoxy, denotes a folcmn 
 feaft in the Greek church, inftituted by the emprefs Theodora; 
 ftill held on the firft Sunday in Lent, in memory of the reitera- 
 tion of images in churches, which had been taken down by 
 the Iconoclaftes. 
 
 ORTHOGONIAL, Orthogonius, in geometry, denotes as 
 much as rectangular, or right-angled. 
 
 When the term is referred to a plain figure, it fuppefes one 
 leg or fide to ftand perpendicular to the other : when fpoken of 
 folids, it fuppofes their axis to be perpendicular to the plane of 
 the horizon. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHIC Projection of the Sphere, is a reprcfentation 
 of the feveral points of the furtace of the fphere on a plane 
 which cuts it in the middle : the eye being placed at an infi- 
 nite diftance, vertical to one of the hemifpheres. 
 It is thus called, becaufe the perpendiculars from every point of 
 the fphere, will all fall in the common interaction of the fphere 
 with the plane of the projection. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY*, in grammar, the art of fpelling, that is 
 writing words juftly, and with all the proper and necefiary let- 
 ters. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek afS© 1 , right, and jp«.?;n, 
 fcriptio, writing. 
 
 Orthography makes one of the greateft divifions or branches of 
 grammar. 
 
 That diverfity found in moft of the modern languages, efpe- 
 cially the Englifh and French, between the pronounciation and 
 orthography, makes one of the principal difficulties in acquiring 
 them ; yet does it ariie from the f.une fource as the languages 
 themfelves. 
 
 The Gauls, e. gr- .forming a new language from the antient 
 L^itin, took the liberty to model the words to their fancy : at 
 firft, indeed, 'tis probable they wr.-te as they pronounced ; but, 
 by degrees, finding that words pronounced with all their let- 
 ters founded harfh, they bsgan to pronounce more fmooth- 
 
 Thus, in fpe^king, they thought fit to foften that harfhnefs 
 reiuking frnm the concurrence and claftiing of confonants : but 
 as the orthograpljy, or writing, did not offend the ear, it ftill 
 continued on its former footing. 
 
 Attempts h^ive been fince made to reduce the writing to the 
 pronunciation, or to make us write as we fpeak ; which has 
 occafioned great difputes. Pelletier of Mins was the firft who 
 pleaded for the change of the orthography ; and after him 
 Maigret, Peter Ramus, de Bois, Menage, and others; but in 
 vain. 
 
 They have, however, occafioned a fchifm among writers, 
 which has done more harm than the evil they intended to re- 
 form : the French writers being now divided into two par- 
 ties ; one of which retains to the old, the other to the new or- 
 thography. — The latter, F. Buflier observes, is the moft con- 
 fiderable body, yet are thefe divided among themfelves ; fome 
 beinw for carrying the reformation much farther than others. 
 The chief matters urged in behalf of the antient orthograpljy, 
 are, that bv changing it, we fhould lofe fight of the origin 
 and etymology of words borrowed from the Greek and La- 
 tin, tifc. That it does not matter what characters are ufed 
 to exprefs founds in writing, provided one know the rela- 
 tion between thofe characters and the founds they reprefent : 
 that by a ncceffiry confequence of fuch change, the language 
 would' in time be all altered, and we ftiould lofe the ufe of 
 our old authors ; as ours, in their turn, would likewifc become 
 unintelligible. 
 
 What is alleged for the new orthography, is, it being more com- 
 modious, natural, eafy, fhott, yv. 
 
 Some authors take a middle courfe between the two extremes ; 
 retrenching the letters where they are abfolutely ufelefs, as the 
 j in a multitude of words ; and yet ftudiouflv retaining all the 
 letters whereon the etymology has any dependence. 
 In the Englifh the orthography is more vague, and unafcertain- 
 ed, than in any other langunge we know of. Every author, 
 and almoft every printer, has his particular fyftem. Nay, it is 
 fcarce fo well with us as that : we not onlv differ from one an- 
 other ; but there is fcarce any that confifts with himfelf. 
 The fame word ftiall frequently appear with two or three 
 Vol. II. 
 
 O s c 
 
 different faces in the fame page, not to fay line. See Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 The antients who have wrote treatifes of echography, are Velius 
 Longus, Marius Victorinus, Fiavius Caper, Caffiodonis, and 
 Eeda. Among the moderns, Torelli, Lipfius, Bftufquha, Scop- 
 pa, Valla, and Manutius the younger, have treated on the fame 
 fubject. 
 
 Orthography* in geometry, is the art of drawing, ordeli- 
 neating the fore-right plan or fide of any ohjed; and of cx- 
 preffing the heights, or elevations of each part. 
 
 * It is called orthography, from the Greek cpS-©-., right, and 
 3-p*<jH, defcription, from its derermining things by perpendicular 
 right lines falling on the geometrical plan : or rather, by rea- 
 fon all the horizontal lines are here tlrsit and parallel, and not 
 oblique, as in reprefentations of perfpective. 
 
 Orthography, in architecture, is the elevation of a building; 
 fhewing all the parts thereof in their true proportion. 
 The orthography is either external or internal. 
 
 External Orthography, is a delineation of the outer face or 
 front of a building ; exhibiting the principal wall, with its aper- 
 tures, roof, ornaments, and every thing vifible to an eye pkced 
 before the building. 
 
 Internal Orthography, called alfo feftim, is a delineation, or 
 draught of a building, fuch as it wuulj appear, were the external 
 wall removed. 
 
 Todraw the Orthography ofa building.— Draw a right line 
 for a bafis or ground line (Tab. Perfpeclive, fig. t%.) AB, and 
 at one end erect a perpendicular AD. Upon AB fet off the 
 widths and diftances of the gates, windows, HV. On the right 
 line AD, fet off the heights of the feveral parts vifible in the 
 face of the building, v. gr. of the doors, windows, the roof, 
 chimneys, csV. and apply a ruler to each point of divifion. 
 The common inlerfections of the ri^ht lines drawn from three 
 points, parallel to the lines A E and AD, determine the 
 external orthography of the building : and afer the fame 
 manner is the internal orthography down. See Per- 
 spective. 
 
 Orthography', in fortification, is the profile, or reprefentation 
 of a work ; or a draught fo conducted, 2s that the length, 
 breadth, height, and thicknefs, of the feveral parts are ex- 
 prefll-d ; fuch as they would appear, if it were perpendicularly 
 cut from top to bottom. 
 
 ORTHOPNOEA *, O^twtM*, in medicine, a great difficultyof 
 refpiratian, wherein the patient is obliged to fit, or ftand upright, 
 to be able to breathe. 
 
 ight, ereS, and ^vix, J 
 
 The word is compounded of o^ot, i 
 refpirc or breathe. 
 
 An orthopnea is a fpeciesor degree of an aftbma. 
 It may be caufed from pus, thick or mucilaginous juices, or po- 
 Ivpus in the bronchia; mercurial, and other fumes, hindering 
 the playing of the lungs ; ftoppage of evacuations ; cachexies, 
 ill digeftions, or whatever affords vifcid chyle, or occafions the 
 blood to run flower through the lungs, either by ftraitenin^ the 
 canals, or thickening the blood, or hindering the motion of the 
 animal (pints, fo that they cannot elevate the breaft ; or that 
 caofes the blood to be more rarefied, or more in quantity, fo 
 that there is not fulficient room to receive it into the veffels of 
 the lungs. 
 
 ORT1VE, Ortivus, inaftronomy. — Ortive or eajlern ampli- 
 tude, is an arch of the horizon intercepted between the point 
 where a ftar rifes, and the caft point of the horizon, or point 
 where the horizon and equator interfecl. 
 
 ORVIETA, Penitents of Orvieta. See Penitents. 
 
 ORVIETAN, a celebrated antidote, or countcr-poifon ; fb 
 called, becaufe invented and originally fold by an operator 
 from Orvieta in Italy; who made experiments thereof in his 
 own perfon, on the public ftage, by taking feveral dofes of 
 poifons. 
 
 In Charas's Pharmacopoeia is a method of making orvietan ; 
 where it appears that Venice -treacle is one of the principal in- 
 gredients of it. 
 OS, in anatomy. See Bone and Mouth. 
 
 , 6Tft 
 
 OSCHEOCELE *, tVfc*f*»Wf, in medicine, a kind of her- 
 nia, wherein the inteftines or omentum defcend into the fcro- 
 tum. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek oo~/j's.',fcrotum, and 
 tumour. 
 
 OSCHOPHORIA *, in antiquity, fcafts inftituted by Thefeus, in 
 acknowledgment for his having deftroved the Minotaur, and by 
 that means freed his country Athens from the tribute of feven 
 young men, which were to be fent every year into Crete, to be 
 devoured by that monfter. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek wyj, branch of a fine 
 leaden with grapts, and f«;s', 1 hear. Plutarch fays they 
 
 7 R were 
 
o s c 
 
 OSS 
 
 were fo named, becaufe inftituted by Thefeus at his return to 
 Athen?, which happened to be at the time of vimage. 
 Some fay the Ofchephoria were inftituted in honour of Mi- 
 nerva and Bacchus, who had affifted Thefeus in his enter- 
 prize. Others, that they were in honour of Bacchus and 
 Ariadne. 
 
 To celebrate the Ofcbophoria, the young people who had ta- 
 tbers and mothers alive, run to the temple of Bacchus, and that 
 of Minerva, with grapes in their hands. He who arrived there 
 firft, was the conqueror ; and was to perform the facrifice, by 
 pouring out of a phial a mixture of wine, honey, cheefe, flower, 
 and oil. , 
 
 OSCILLATION, in mechanics, vibration j or the reciprocal 
 afcent, and defcent of a pendulum. 
 
 Ama/Oscillation, is a right line, parallel to the apparent 
 horizontal one, and pafling through the centre ; about which the 
 pendulum ofcillates. See Axis. 
 
 If a fimple pendulum be fufpended between two femicycloids, 
 whofe generating circles have their diameter equal to half the 
 length of the thread ; all the ojcillatiom, howfoever unequal, 
 will be ifochronal, or equi-diurnah 
 
 The time of the entire ofcilhthn through any arch of a cycloid, 
 is to the time of the perpendicular defcent through the diameter 
 of the generating circle, as the periphery of the circle to the 
 diameter. 
 
 If two pendulums move in Cmilar arches, the times of ofcil- 
 lations are in a fubdu; licate ratio of their lengths. 
 The numbers of ifochronal ofdlktions, performed by two pen- 
 dulums in the fame time, are reciprocally as the times wherein 
 thefeveral ofcillations are performed. See Clock. 
 M. Huvgen^'s whole doctrine of cfcillat'ion is founded on this 
 hypothecs ; that the common centre of gravity of feveral 
 bodies, connected together, muft return precifely to the fame 
 height whence it fell ; whether thofe weights return con- 
 jointly, or whether after their fall, they return feparately \ 
 each with the velocity it had then acquired. See Centre of 
 Gravity. 
 
 This fuppofition wasoppofed by feveral, and very much fufpe£Ud 
 by others. And fome who inclined to believe it true, yet 
 thought it too daring to be admitted into a fcience, which de- 
 monstrates every thing. 
 
 At length M. James Bernoulli demonftrated it by Ariel geome- 
 try ; by referring the weights to a lever. After his dea;h, a 
 more eafy and natural demonftration of the centre of ofcilla- 
 tiort was advanced by his brother. The fubftance whereof may 
 be conceived as follows, 
 
 A fimple peridulum of a determinate length and weight, 
 raifed to a determinate height, whence it is to fall till it reco- 
 ver its vertical line, employs in that fall, or demi-vibration, a 
 determinate fpace of time, which can never poffibly be either 
 greater or lefs. Which time is neceflarily fuch, becaufe the 
 agitative force, u e. the force which produces (he mution of 
 the pendulum, is determined in every thing that concurs to 
 the formation thereof : fo that it can only caufe one certain 
 effea. 
 
 The agitative force of the pendulum arifes from three things: 
 i°. The power or moment of gravity. z°. The maiis or body 
 tied to the end of the inflexible rod. 3 0 . The diftance of that 
 body from the point of fufpenfion, or, which is the fame, the 
 length of the rod or the pendulum. 
 
 Now, i°. The power of gravity, be the caufe what it will, is 
 that power which makes a body fall, and that, v.gr. at the 
 rate of fourteen feet, in the firft fecond of time. It is vifible, 
 then, that this force is the effect of a quantity which determines 
 thofe fourteen feet; and that an heavy body would pa's more 
 or lefs (pace in that fame firft fecond, if the force of gravity 
 were greater or lefs. 
 
 2 0 . As that force is inherent in each point, or infinitely fmall 
 part of a body, the greater this body is, or the larger its inafs, 
 the greater quantity of motion or force it has. 
 3 0 . The diftance of the moving body from the point of 
 fufpenfion, or the length of the rod, is always the radius of 
 a circle, whereof the moving body defcribes an arch : and 
 of confequence the greater the radius is, ceteris paribus, the 
 larger arch the body defcribes. And at the lame time, 
 the greater height it falls from, the greater velocity it ac- 
 quires. 
 
 Now, the agitative force of the pendulum is only that of 
 the body faftened to the end of the rod. So that it is the 
 product of the force of the weight, of the mafs of that body, 
 and of its diftance from the point of fufpenfion. The force 
 of gravity therefore being always the fame ; and a body or 
 weight faftened to the end of the rod, always the fame ; it is 
 impoflible that two fimple pendulums of a different length 
 mould be ifochronal, or fhould make their vibrations in the 
 fame time ; for by virtue of thofe different lengths, the velo- 
 cities will be unequal, and of confequence, the times of their vi- 
 brations will be fo. 
 
 But if it be fuppofed, that there are in nature different pow- 
 ers of gravity ; it will then be poffible that two fimple pen- 
 dulums of different lengths fhould be ifochronal } the one ani- 
 
 mated by the natural weighty the' other by the imaginary 
 one. 
 
 If the imaginary gravity or weight be greater than the na- 
 tural one, the pendulum imagined ifochronal to the natural 
 one, will neceflarily defcribe a larger fpace or arch in the 
 fame time ; and of confequence the weight will be faftened at 
 a greater diftance from the point of fufiitnficn. Though to 
 have an ifochronifm, the two agitative forces of the two pen- 
 dulums muft be equal ; yet of the three things which com- 
 pofe thefe forces, there are already two greater in ihe imagi- 
 nary, than the real pendulum : the third, therefore, i. e. the 
 mafs or ball, muft be diminifhed in the neceifary propor- 
 tion. 
 
 As the fpace or arch defcribed by the imaginary pendulum is 
 greater than that b^ the natural pendulum, in the fame ratio 
 as the imaginary gravity is greater than the natural one, and 
 a radius of that arch, greater in the fame ratio ; are two 
 things infeparable : the two gravities will be always to one an- 
 other, as thofe two radii, or the two lengths of the two pen- 
 dulums ; which always gives the expreflion of the imaginary 
 gravity, and by a neceflary confequ ence, that of the dimmilhed 
 mafs or ball of the imaginary pendulum. If the power of gra- 
 vity be imagined lefs than that of the natural one, it is eafy to 
 obferve how it is to be taken ; but that were needlefs in our 
 defign. 
 
 If now there be a compound pendulum, charged with two 
 weights or balls faftened to the fame rod ; M. Bernoulli conceives 
 each of thofe weights removed to a greater diftance from the 
 point of fufpenfion than it was before ; but both to the fame ; 
 and, diminifhed in mats, in a due proportion : fo as that both 
 together only make one fimple pendulum, animated with one 
 weight, the expreffioii whereof is had, and ifochronal to the 
 natural compound pendulum. 
 
 Thus we fliall have one limple natural pendulum ifochronal to 
 the compound natural one, by having a fimple natural pendu- 
 lum ifochronal to the fimple imaginary pendulum before found j 
 which is very eafy : fince as the imaginary gravity is to the na- 
 tural, fo is the length of the fimple imaginary pendulum to the 
 length of the fimple natural pendulam; and it is there is the 
 centre of ofcUlation required. 
 Centre of Oscillation, in a fufpended body, is a certain point 
 therein, each vibration whereof is performed in the Lme manner, 
 as if that point or part alone were fufpended at that diitance 
 from the point of fufpenfion. 
 
 Or, it is a point, wherein, if the whole length of a compound 
 pendulum be collected ; the feveral ofcillations will be pei formed 
 in the fame time as before. 
 
 Its diftance, therefore, from the point of fufpenfion, is equal to 
 the length of a fingle pendulum, whofe ofcillations are ifochronal 
 with thnfe of the compound one. 
 OSCITATION, the act popularly called yawning. See Yawn- 
 I NG. 
 
 OSCULA, in anatomy, a term ufed for the orifices, or openings 
 of the k-ffer veffels. 
 
 OSCULUM, in the new analyfis. — A circle defcribed on the point 
 C, as a cen re (Tab. Analyfis, fig. \ 2.) with the radius of the 
 evolute MC, is faid to ofcu/ate, kifs, the curve defcribed by evo- 
 lution, inM; which point M is called by the inventor Huy- 
 gens, the ofculum of the curve. 
 
 The line MC is alfo called the radius of the ofculum. 
 The evolute BCF is the place of the centres of all the circles 
 that ofculate the curve AM, defcribed by evolution. 
 The doctrine of the ofcula of curves is owing to M. Leibnitz, 
 who firft fhewed the ufe of Huygens's evolute in meafuring the 
 curvature of curves. 
 Osculum — Antiently it was a cuftom in the church, 
 that in the celebration of mafs, after the prieft had confe- 
 crated the wafer, and fpoke the words, pax dotnlni vobif- 
 cum, the people killed each other, which was called ofculum 
 pacts. 
 
 When this cuftom was abrogated, another arofe; and while 
 the priefls fpoke the words, a deacon, or fub-deacon, offer- 
 ed the people an image to kifs ; which they called pa- 
 can. 
 
 OSIANDRIANS, a fed! among the Lutherans, fo called from 
 Andrew Ohander, a celebrated German divine. 
 Their diftinguifhing doctrine was, that man is juftified for- 
 mally, not by the faith and apprehenfion of the jultite of Jcfus 
 Chrift, or the imputation of our Saviour's juftice, according to 
 the opinion of Luther and Calvin; but by the effeniial iuftice 
 of God. 
 
 Semi Osiandrians were fuch among the Ofandrians, as held 
 the opinion of Luther and Calvin with regard to this life; and 
 that of Ofiander, with regard to the other : afferting, that man 
 is juftified here by imputation, and hereafter by the eflential 
 juftice of God. 
 
 OSSA, in anatomy. See the article Bone. 
 
 OSSICLK, Ossiculum, little boni; a diminutive of or, 
 bone. 
 
 In which fenfe the term is frequently ufed among anatomifts. 
 
 Botanifts 
 
O S T 
 
 OVA 
 
 Botariifts aifo ufe ejfuuhm for the frorie of a cherry, plumb, apri- 
 cot, or any other (tone-fruit. 
 OSSIFICATION, in the animal ceconomy, the formation of the 
 bones ; but more efpecially, the converfion of parts naturally 
 fa ft to the hardnefe and confiftency of bones. 
 Bones, Dr. Drake argues, are formed out of the mofi com- 
 minuted or broken part of the blood ; fince we fee that the 
 blood of old men, which by a long courfe of circulation, be- 
 comes in a manner unfit for the common office of nutrition, 
 will howLver ojfify, and convert into bones, many of the 
 tendons and ligaments, and even the coats of the veffels 
 themfelves, whofe fubfbmce being next to the bones the moft 
 compact, admits only of the fmalleft particles of the blood ; 
 which therefore fooneft become offeous-, as they are frequently 
 found- 
 
 OSTENSIO, a tax antiently paid by merchants, c&, for 
 leave to fhew, or expofe their goods to (how and fale in 
 markets. 
 
 OSTENSiVE Demonjtrations, fuch as plainly and direilly demon- 
 flrate the truth of any propofition. 
 
 In which they fiand diitinguifhed from apagogieal ones, or re- 
 ductions ad abfurdum, or ad impsjjibik, which prove the truth 
 propofed, by demonitrating the abfurdity or impoffibility of the 
 contrary. 
 
 Oftenfivt demtmjlrations are of two forts: — fome barely, but di- 
 rectly, prove the thing to be ; which they call o?,.— Others de- 
 monftrate the thing from its caufe, nature, or eflential proper- 
 ties ; and thefe are called in the fchools, J ify, 
 
 OSTEOCOLLA, Or-o^AAc, in natural hiftory, a white, or 
 afh-coloured fparry fubftance, fhaped like a bone, and by fome 
 fuppofud to have the quality of uniting broken bunes ; on which 
 account it is ordered in feme plaiflers. See Supplement, artice 
 Osteocolla. 
 
 OSTEOCOPOS*, or Ostocopos, is ufed by fome for an 
 acute pain, wherein the patient is affeited as if his bones were 
 breaking. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek os-edi', bane, and kqtsIuv, to 
 break, cut, or cleave. 
 
 It arifes from a fbarp humour vcllicating the perlofieum, or 
 membrane wherewith the bones are inverted. — It is particu- 
 larly incident to fcorbutic and pocky perfons. 
 
 OSTEOLOGY*, Oviohofid, that part of anatomy which teaches 
 the nature and fabric of the bones of the human body; their 
 form, difpofition, articulation, ufe, bV. — See 'tab. Anat. P i 
 
 , Ofteol. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek ortov, bone, and AofSi 
 
 Hfiowrfi. 
 
 Dr. Clopton Havers has given us an ojleohgy in good re- 
 pute. 
 
 OSTIA, in anatomy, a term ufed indifferently with ofcula, orifices, 
 &c. for the mouths or apertures of the veffels of the body : as 
 the nfl'm vaginat, &c. 
 
 OSTRACISM % Orfaw^w, a kind of popular judgment, or 
 condemnation among the Athenians ; being a fentence of 
 banifbment againft perfons whc.fe too great power render- 
 ed them fufpected to the people ; or whofe merit and credit 
 gave umbrage, left they fhouhl attempt fomething againft 
 the public liberty, and their power degenerate into tyran- 
 ny. 
 
 * It had the denomination ojlracifm, in regard the people gave 
 their votes, by writing the name of the perfon to be banifhed 
 in a fhell, by the Greeks called Kftuw, and carting the fhells 
 into an urn. 
 
 This kind of banifhment had nothing infamous in it, as not be- 
 ing for any crime ; but, on the contrary, was held very honour- 
 able, as it was a mark of popularity. 
 
 It lafted for ten years ; but the banifhed perfon had the full en- 
 joyment of his eftate all the time. 
 
 Ojlracifm was null, unlefs there were 6000 citizens in the affem- 
 hly of the people whereby it was injoined. 
 OS 1RACITIS, Q.-fanfl/c, in natural hiftory, a kind of crufh 
 ftone, hard, and in form of an oifter-fhell, and, like that, 
 feparable into laminre ; found in feveral places in Germany ; 
 and held of good fervice in the gravel. 
 
 Dr. Home, in the Pbilof. Tranfail. fays, it rather diffolves the 
 little ftones than forces them out, as not being remarkably diu- 
 retic. 
 
 He adds, that he prefcribes it in powder, with a third part of 
 flores chamsemeli. 
 
 The dole is from half a drachm to a whole one, in white 
 wine. See Supplement, article Ostra cites- 
 Ostracitis is alfo the name of a kini of cadmia, found at 
 the bottom of furnaces where copper is purified. 
 It is very heavy, and in ftruflure refembles an oifter-fhell ; 
 whence its name. 
 
 It is efteemed aftringent and deterfive ; and is an inzredient in 
 feveral unguents. 
 
 1 to inftruments, which aid or 
 
 OTACOUSTIC* atermapp! 
 improve the fenfe of hearing, 
 » The word is formed from the Greek «, K %, ear, and 
 1 bear. See Acoustic. 
 
 OTALGIA* nrMfi*, in medicine, denotes a pain in the 
 fage m f " thW ° f the auditor y P af " 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek „s sTJ®,, ear, and sAff>, 
 
 pain. 
 
 The otalgia ufually arifes from an inflammation ; tho' femetimef 
 from a (harp ferous humour, which vellicates the membrane 
 wherewith the canal of the ear is lined. It is fometimcs alfo 
 occafioned by a wound or ulcer in that part, or by fome 
 pungent matter gathered within the ear. 
 
 The fmoke of tobacco conveyed into the ear through a pipe, 
 Ktmuller recommends as good to afluage this pain ; as „Ifo mille- 
 pedes in a proper vehicle. 
 
 The otalgia is faid fometimes alfo to arife from a worm in the 
 ear ; which is to be drawn out alive, or killed within —Warm 
 milk, they fay, tempts the worm to come forth ; wormwood 
 juice deftroys it within. 
 OTIOSI, in the Htbrew cuftnms. The learned are exceedingly 
 divided about the decern otiofi, ten iule perfons fpoke of in The 
 Jewifh f\ nagogues. 
 
 Some fay, they were the three prefidents, and the feven read- 
 ers; others, that they were ten perfons hired to atiend confhnt- 
 ly at the fynagogue, becaufe, without the number ten, it could 
 be no regular fynagogue, or legal affembly ; fo that the decern 
 otiofi were ten idle folks kept in pay, to form, by their prefence, 
 a legal fynagogue, or quorum. 
 
 Vitringa, in his Archi-fynagega, refutes this opinion J and will 
 have the otiofi to have been ten direflors, or officers in the 
 fynagogue. 
 
 He (hews, that each fynagogue had its direflors ; that the num- 
 ber was greater or lefs according to the dignity of the fyna- 
 gogue; that the fmalleft had at lead two'; that, from the 
 earheft times, each fynagogue had its chief, called arcbifina- 
 gogtis, who had two collegues, to be piefent at the ceremo- 
 nies, and other adls of religion, and to take care every rhino 
 were done with decency ; but that the archi-fynagosus referved 
 to himfelf the power of teaching : that befides thefe three, the 
 archi-fynagogus named feveral readers who read in the f'vna 
 gogue every Saturday ; and that thefe made the deem otiofi of 
 the fynagogue ; fo called, becaufe being difengaged from a ll 
 other employment, their whole attendance was'on divine fer- 
 vice. 
 
 OTTi.'B.- Hunting. See the article Hunting. 
 
 OVA, Egg,, in natural hiftory. Sec Egg. 
 
 Ova in the human anatomy, are little fpherical bodies, in form of 
 bladders, or bubbles ; confining each of two concentric mem- 
 branute, replete with a limpid humour like the white of an 
 egg, found under the external membrane of the ovaries of 
 women, and connected to the minute orifices of the veficles 
 cah'x C ° <"hftance of the ovaries themfelves, by a 
 
 After the ufe of venery, the ova fwell fenfiblv, become more 
 and more pel ucid their membranes grow thicker, and at 
 ength.raife that of the ovary, in form of papilla, ; till, at 
 aft breaking the membrane of the ovary, they are de- 
 ached from thetr cahx, taken into the cavities of the fal- 
 lopian tubes and thence conveyed into the womb; where 
 being cherifhed and impregnated with the male feed thev 
 commence embryo's ; or, for want of that, are a-ain eiefl. 
 
 CO. - * • ■ ° J 
 
 Ova, in artAiteflure, are ornaments in form of ergs, carved on 
 the contour of the ovolo, or quarter-round ; and'feparated from 
 each other by anchors, or arrows heads 
 
 TheEnglifh ufually call thefe ornaments eggs and anchor,.- 
 Mead of eggs, the antients fometimes carved hearts ; on which 
 foundation .t was, that they introduced arrows ; .0 fymbolize 
 with love. J " v "" w 
 
 OVAL, Ellipfis ; an oblong curvilinear figure, with two unequal 
 diameters : or a figure inclofed with a (ingle curve line, imper- 
 fectly round, its length being greater than its breadth ; like an 
 egg ; whence its name. 
 
 The proper.™/, or egg-fhape, is an irregular figure, beino nar- 
 rower at one end than the other ; in which it differs from an 
 ellipfis, which is the mathematical oval, and is equally broad at 
 each end. 1 ' 
 
 The common people confound the two together ; the geometri- 
 cians alfo call the oval, afialfie ellipfis. 
 
 1 he method of defcribing an oval chieflv ufed anions work- 
 men, is, by a cord, or firing, as E/M (Tab. Gemot, fig 
 48.; whofe length is equal to the greater diametet of the oial 
 and which is fattened by its extremes to two points or nails 
 . /• P«"ted ,n its longer diameter ; by which means the oval 
 is made fo much the longer, as the two points or nails are far- 
 ther apart. 
 
 4 Ova i 
 
O V E 
 
 OUR 
 
 See Foramen male. 
 
 Oval Column. See the article Column, 
 Oval Crown, See the article Crown. 
 OVALE Foramen, in anatomy. bee if t 
 
 OVARY, Ovarium, in anatomy, that part of a female animal 
 wherein the ova, or eggs are formed, and lodged. — See Tab. 
 Anat. (Splanch) feli. lit. h h. 
 
 The ovaries in women are alfo called tejles muliebres, female tetti- 
 cles; from their ufe, which the antients fuppofed analogous to 
 that of the tefticles in men. 
 
 They are two in number ; tying near the ends of the fallopian 
 tubes, two fingers diftance from the uterus, to which they are 
 connected by a ftrong ligament, called vas deferens, and in fome 
 meafure by the fallopian tubes, and the broad ligament about the 
 region of the ilium. 
 
 They are fattened to the peritonaeum by the fpermatic veffels, by 
 which means they are kept fufpended about the fame height with 
 the fundus uteri. 
 
 Their figure is femi-oval ; their furface fomewhat uneven; 
 their fize different in the different ftages of life. At the time 
 of puberty, when largeft, they ufually weigh about a drachm and 
 
 half. 
 
 They are covered with a common membrane from the perito- 
 naeum ; their fubftance is whitifb, compofed of a number of 
 little thin membranous and flender fibres, interwoven with arte- 
 ries, veins, and nerves. 
 
 Among thefe fibres and veffels are interfperfed a number of 
 little round bodies, like bladders ; full of a limpid fub- 
 flance, and called ova, or eggs, of great ufe in genera- 
 tion. 
 
 OVATION, Ovatio, in the Roman hiftory, a letter tri- 
 umph allowed to commanders, for victories won without 
 the effufion of much blood ; or for the defeating of rebels, 
 Haves, pyrates, or other unworthy enemies of the repub- 
 lic. 
 
 Their entry was on foot ; fometimes on horfeback ; bu; 
 never in a chariot : and they wore crowns of myrtle, 
 called ovaks ; having all the l'enate attending in their re- 
 tinue. 
 
 The denomination ovatio, according to Servius, is derived from 
 wis, fheep ; becaufe the conqueror facrificed a fheep on this 
 occafion to Jupiter ; whereas in the greater triumph they facri- 
 ficed a bull. 
 
 Others derive it from the found or din of the acclamations 
 and fhouts of joy made by the people in honour of the fclem- 
 nity ; the people and foldien, on this occafion, redoubling the 
 letter O, as in the greater triumph they did the words lo Tri- 
 umphe. 
 
 The ovation was firft introduced in the year of Rome 250, or 
 251, in honour of the conful Poftbumius Tubertus, after his 
 defea'inc the Sabines. 
 
 OVELTY. Pee the article Owelty. 
 
 OVER -FLOWING, or Inundation. 
 
 The over-flowing of lands, ufed by our hufbandmen, is chiefly 
 effected by diverting the ftreams of rivers, brooks, land- 
 floods, or fprings, or fome part of them, out of their natural 
 chanel. 
 
 When the ftreams lie too low for this, they are made ufe of 
 to turn fuch engines as may raife a fufficient quantity of water 
 to do it. 
 
 The mod ufual engi"e, on this occafion, is the Perfian wheel. 
 See Persian Wheel. See alfo Supplement, article Over- 
 flowing. 
 
 OVER-RAKE, in the fea-language. — When a fhip riding at an- 
 chor, fo over-beats herfelf into a head-fea, that flic is waflie<! 
 by the waves breaking in upon her 3 they fay, the waves over- 
 rake her. 
 
 OVER.-REACH, in the manage, is when a horfe ftrikes his hind 
 feet agMnft his fore. 
 
 The word is alfo ufed for a ftrain, or painful fuelling of 
 the matter- finew of an horfe ; occafioned by fuch over- 
 reach. 
 
 OVER-RULING an Objcflion, in law, is the rejecting or fettinj 
 
 it afide by the court. 
 OVER-RUNNING, among printers. See Printing, and 
 
 Correcting. 
 
 OVERS AMESSA, an antient fine or penalty, impofed 
 before the ftatute of hue and cry, on fuch perfons, a 
 hearing of a murder or robbery, did not purfue the male 
 fa£lor. 
 
 OVERT AR % , a term in law, fignifying an open acl ; or an act 
 capable of being manifefted, and proved. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, owveri, open. 
 
 In which fenfe it is diftinguifbed from an intentional iB.. 
 Overt Pound. See the article Pound. 
 
 Overt Word, denotes a plain open word, not to be mif- 
 taken. 
 
 OVERTURE, or Ouverture, opening, or preluding ; a 
 term ufed for the folemnities at the beg inning ot a public 
 acl, or ceremony j as of an opera, tragedy, concert of mu- 
 
 fic, ar*. 
 
 The overture of the theatre, or fcene, is a piece of mufic, ufu- 
 ally ending with a fugue. 
 
 The overture of the jubilee is a general proceftion, csV. 
 OVI Albumen, See the article Albumen. 
 OVICULUM, in the antient architecture, a little ovum 3 or 
 
 Some alfo ufe the word ovieulum for ovolo. 
 Baldus will have this to be the Lesbian ajlragal of Vitmvius. 
 Da viler. 
 
 OVILIA, or Septa, in antient Rome, a place in the Campus 
 Martius, at firft railed in, like a ftieep's pen ; whence its 
 name. 
 
 Afterwards it was mounted with marble, and beautified with 
 , walks and galleries ; as alfo with a tribunal, or feat of 
 juftice. 
 
 Within this precinct, or inclofure, the people were called to give 
 their fuffrages for the election of magiftrates. 
 The afcent into the ovilia was not by flairs, but by pontes, a 
 fort of bridges made for the time ; every curia, tribe, and cen- 
 tury, as the aflembly was centuriate or tribute, ts\\ having its 
 proper bridge. 
 
 Whence the proverb, de ponte dejieiendusy where a perfon is to 
 be barred from giving his vote. 
 OVIPAROUS, in natural hiftory, a term applied to fuch ani- 
 mals as produce their young, ab ovo, from eggs j as birds, in- 
 fers, &c. 
 
 The oviparous kind ftand in oppofition to thole which bring 
 forth their young alive, called viviparous animals ; a?, man, 
 
 quadrupeds, tsfc. 
 
 Oviparous Animals, may be defined to be fuch as conceive eggs, 
 which they afterwards bring forth ; and from which, by the 
 incubation of the parent, or fome other principle of warmth and 
 fermentation, at length arife animals ; which, after they have 
 fpent themoifture or humour thev were furrounded withal, and 
 are grown to a fufficient bulk, firmnefs, and ftrcngth, break 
 their (bell, and come forth. 
 
 The oviparous kind, befide bird?, include divers fpecies of ter- 
 reftria! animals ; as, ferpents, lizzards, tortoifes, crabs, lobfters, 
 
 frogs, &c. 
 
 OUNCE*, Unci a, a little weight, the fixtcenth part of a pound 
 avcrdupois ; and the twelfth of a pound troy. 
 
 * The word Is derived from the Latin tmeia, the twelfth prtrt 
 of any whole, called as ; particularly in geomet ical mea- 
 fures, an inch, or the twelfth part of a foot. See Inch, 
 and As. 
 
 The ounce averdupois is divided into eighth drachms, and the 
 drachm into three fcruples. 
 
 The ounce troy into twenty peny weights, and the peny weight 
 into twenty-four grains. 
 
 The ounce, once, makes the eight part of the French mark, 
 and is divided into three gros, or drachms ; the drachm 
 into three peny weights, or fcruples ; and the fcruple int3 
 twenty-four grains: each grain being computed to weigh a grain 
 of wheat. 
 
 All precious merchandizes, as gold, filver, filk, &c. are fold by 
 
 the ounce. 
 
 Ounce Pearls are thofe too fmall to be fold by tale; ufually call- 
 ed feeds of pearl, or feed pearls. 
 Ounce Cottons, are certain cottons brought from Damaf- 
 cuf, of a kind and quality fuperior to the reft. See Cot- 
 ton. 
 
 OVOLO, Ovum, in architecture, a round moulding, whofe pro- 
 file, or fweep, in the Ionic and Compofite capitals, is ufually a 
 quadrant of a circle ; whence it is alfo popularly culled the 
 
 quarter-round. 
 
 It is ufually enriched with fculpturcs among the antients, in 
 form of chefnut-fliells ; whence Vilruvius, and ethers of the 
 
 antients, call it echinus, chefnut-jhcU. See Tab. Archit. 
 
 ■ fig> 5- fig- H- <>. m. fig. 28. lit. p. fig. 32. lit.g. fig. 40. 
 
 ! lit. e. 
 
 Among us, it is ufually cut with the reprefentation of eggs, 
 and anchors, or arrows-heads, placed alternately ; whence 
 its Italian name ovolo, Latin ovum, and French ocuf, q. d. 
 
 OUR Lady. See the article Notre Dame. 
 Our Lady of theThiJlle. See the article Thistle, 
 OURAN, or Ur a n So Angus, the name of an imaginary fee"! of 
 I magicians, in the ifiand Grcmbcccanore, in the Eaft- 
 Indies. 
 
 The word implies men-devils ; thefe people, it feems, hav- 
 ing the art of rendering themfelves invifible, and patting 
 where they pleafe, and by that means, doing infinite mif- 
 chief : for which reafon the people hate and fear them mor- 
 tally, and always kill them on the fpot, when they can take 
 them. 
 
 In the Portuguefe hiftory, printed 1 5 8 1 , folio, there is mention 
 of a prefent made by the king of the ifland, to a Portuguefe 
 officer, named Brittio, confifting of twelve of thefe ourans ; 
 with whom it is pretended he made incurfions on the people of 
 Tidore, killed great numbers, csV, 
 
 To 
 
OUT 
 
 O Y E 
 
 To try whether, in effeft, they had the faculty afcribed 
 to them, one of them was tied by the neck with a rope, 
 without any pofflbility of difengaging himfelf by natural 
 means : yet, in the morning, it was found he had flipped his 
 collar. 
 
 But, that the kingofTidore might notcomplain, that Brittio 
 made war on him w'th devils : it is faid, he difmiffed them, at 
 lengrh, into their own ifland. 
 OUS TED *, in our antient law-books, a being removed, or put 
 out of pi'ifleflion. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, after, to remove, take or 
 away. 
 
 OUSTER le main, amovere manum, in law, denotes a livery 
 of lands out of the king's hands ; or a judgment given for him 
 that traverfed or fued a monftrans le droit. 
 When it appeared, upon the matter difcuffed, that the king had 
 no right or title to the land he had feized ; judgment was given 
 in chancery, that the king's hands be amoved. — Hereupon, 
 eujier le main, or amoveas ?nanum, was awarded to the efche- 
 ator to reftore the land, fcrV. 
 
 But now all wardfliips, liveries, oujter le mains t &c. aretaken 
 away, and difcharged, by ftatute 12 Car. II. 
 Ouster le met *, inlaw, a caufe of excufe, or effoign ; where 
 a man not appearing in court upon Jummons, it is alledged, 
 that he is beyond the feas. 
 
 * The term is compounded of the old French, oultre, and /enter, 
 q. d. beyond the fea. 
 
 OUTER rainbow. See the article Rainbow. 
 OUTKANGTHEFE *, 3 privilege whereby a lord was enabled 
 to call any man dwelling in his fee, but taken for felony in an- 
 other place, to judgment in his own court. 
 * The word is formed from the Saxon, ut, extra, without ; fang, 
 capio, fuel taptus ; and theof, thief ; q, d. Fur extracapius, 
 Spdm. 
 
 OUT-LAW, Utlagatus, one deprived of the benefit of the 
 Jaw; or put out of the king's protection. 
 Bracton fays, an out-law forfeits every thing he has ; -and 
 that, from the time of his outlawry, he wears a wolf's head ; 
 and any-body may kill him impune ; efpecially if he de- 
 fend himfelf, or fly.— -But, in the beginning of king Ed- 
 ward the Third's reign, it was refolved, by the judges, that 
 it fhould not be lawful for any man, but the fheriff alone 
 (having lawful warrant, therefore), to put to death a man out- 
 lawed. 
 
 OUTLAWRY, or Utlawry, Utlagaria, the punifli- 
 ment of him who, being called into law, and lawfully fought, 
 does (after an original writ, and three writs of capias, alias & 
 pluries, returned by the fheriff with a non eft inventus, and 
 an exigent with a proclamation awarded thereupon) contemp- 
 tuoufiy refufe to appear. 
 
 He muff alfo be called at five county court-days, a month 
 between each one; and, if he appear not in that time, pro 
 ex-lege tenehitur, cum principi non obediat, nec legi, tff ex- 
 tunc exlegabttur ; /'. e. he fliall be pronounced to be out of 
 the king's protection, and deprived of the benefit of the law. 
 The effect of which is, if he be out-lawed at the fuit of an- 
 other, in a civil caufe, he fhall forfeit all his goods and chat- 
 tels to the king ; and if on felony, all his lands and tenements, 
 which he has in fee, or for life ; and all his goods and chattels. 
 ■ — And then, according toBracton, he may perifli without law, 
 
 A minor, or a woman, cannot be out-lawed. — A wo- 
 man is faid to be waived, where a man is out-lawed. See 
 Waive. 
 
 Ckrk of the Outlawries. See the article Clerk. 
 
 OUT-PARTERS, in our antient writers, were a fort of 
 thieves, or highwaymen, on the frontiers of Scotland, who 
 rode about to fetch in fuch things as they could lay hold 
 
 on. 
 
 OUT-RIDERS are bailiffs errant, employed by fheriffs 
 or their deputies, to fummon people in the remoteft 
 parts of their hundreds to the county or hundred-courts. 
 
 OUTWARD flanking angle. See Angle. 
 
 OUT-works, in fortification, all thofe works made wi th- 
 ou tfide the ditch of a fortified place, to cover and defend 
 it, .j, tlAf 
 
 Outworks, called alfo advanced and detached works, are 
 thofe which not only ferve to cover the body of the 
 place, but alfo to keep the enemy at a diftance, and pre- 
 vent his taking advantage of the cavities and elevations 
 ufuafly found in the places about the counterfcarp ; which 
 might ferve them either as lodgments, or as rideaux to 
 facilitate the carrying on their trenches, and planting their 
 batteries againft the place. — Such are ravelins, tenailles, horn- 
 works, queue d'arondes, envelopes, crown-works. 
 The moft ufual of thefe are ravelins, or halfmoons, formed 
 between the two baftions, on the flanquant angle of the 
 counterfcarp, and before the curtin, to cover the gates and 
 bridges. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 OUVERTURE. See the article Overture. 
 
 OVUM Pbikfophicum, or Cbymieum, is a glafs bodv, of an 
 
 oval form, reiembling an egg ; ufed for the fublimation 
 
 of mercury. 
 
 OWELTY, orOvELTY of fervices, in our law-books, an 
 equality ot fervices ; as when the tenant paravail owes 
 as much to the mefn, as the mefn does to the lord para- 
 mount. 
 
 OWLER, a matter of a fhip, or other perfon, who con- 
 veys wool, or other prohibited goods, in the night, to the 
 fea-fide, in order to fhip them off, contrary to law. 
 The name is derived hence, that, like owls, they only ftir 
 abroad in the night-time. 
 
 OWSE, among tanners, is oaken bark, beaten or ground fmall ; 
 to ferve in the preparation of leather. 
 
 OXGANG*, or Ox gate of Land, is ordinarily taken, in 
 our old law-books, for fifteen acres ; being as much land as 
 it is fuppofed one ox can plow in a year, 
 
 * Batata terra, q. d. quantum fufficit ad iter mel atlum unius 
 bavii. 
 
 In Lincolnfhire they ftill corruptly call it oskin of land. 
 OX-SPAVIN. See the article Spavin. 
 OXYCRATE*, Oxycratum, in pharmacy, CSV, a mix- 
 
 ture of water and 
 
 inegar. 
 
 , formed of o^v-, iharp, four, 
 
 honey 
 
 * The word is Greek, o^uKfttftp 
 and xtpctyrvpu, I mix. 
 
 The ufual proportion is one fpoonful of vinegar to five or fix 
 of water. 
 
 Oxycrate is proper to affwage, cool, and refrefh. They 
 
 make fomentations of oxycrate, clyfters of oxycrate, Ssff, 
 OXYCROCEUM *, in pharmacy, a preparation much ufed 
 in planters for fractures, and to form callus's ; compofed 
 chiefly of faffron, with gums diffolved in vinegar, 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, sf wf , iharp, four, and 
 Kpwc&, faffron. 
 
 OXYGALA *, Ofuy*M, four milk. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, ofu?, fhaxp, four and 
 y<tha, milk. 
 
 The Turks ufe this as a popular drink, and call it igur. . 
 
 Vigenere fays, they drink four milk diluted with water - 
 which is found to cool and nourifh much better than the milk* 
 alone. 
 
 OXYGONIUS, Oxygonous, in geometry, acute-angled • 
 a figure conhfting wholly of acute angles, or angles lefs than 
 90 degrees. 
 
 The word is chiefly applied to triangles, where the three 
 angles are all acute, or lefs than 90 degrees each. 
 OXYMEL *, Ofi^sA/, in pharmacy, a mixture of j 
 and vinegar, boiled to the confiftence of a fyrup. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, o%uf t four, and m\i 
 mtl, honey. ™ ' 
 
 There are two kinds of oxymel ; the one ftmple, the other 
 compound. 
 
 Simple Oxymel is compofed of two parts of good honey, and 
 one of white-wine vinegar, boiled into the confiftence' of a 
 fyrup ; it is proper to incide and fcour any phlegm adhering 
 to the throat and breaft. a 
 Compound Oxymel only differs from the fimpk, in that to 
 the honey and vinegar they add the decoction of the five 
 greater opening roots, with the feeds of fmallage, parfley 
 and fennel. It is ufed to open obftructions of the liver and 
 fpleen. 
 
 OXYREGMIA *, O^ps^/a, [ n medicine, a fournefs of the 
 ftomach-liquor, occafioning acid belches. 
 
 * The word is formed from <fy% and = 
 
 TATION. 
 
 OXYRRHODON *, Oxyrrhodinum, a mixture of two 
 parts of oil of rofes, and one part of vinegar, ftirred together 
 for fome time. 
 
 * The word is compofed of the Greek afwj four, and poJV' 
 rofe. " 5 
 
 To thefe are fometimes added diftilled waters It is ufed for 
 
 inflammations, and to dry up tetters. 
 Scultetus prefcribes it as follows : two whites of eggs beaten 
 one ounce and half of vinegar of rofes, four ounces 3 of rofe- 
 water, and two ounces of oil of rofes. 
 OXYSACCHARUM *, 0£vtr*«x et f f ''> a liquid medicine com- 
 pofed of fugar and vinegar. 
 
 ■>svya t rutlo. See Ruc- 
 
 * The word 
 fugar. 
 
 compounded of o£vf, four, and tra,'A%atpop- 
 
 The name is more peculiarly given to a fyrup prepared 
 with vinegar, the juice of four pomegranates, and fu°ar - 
 ufed to cool, refrefli, and rellft the malignity of peccant hu- 
 mours. 
 
 OYER, feems to have been antiently ufed for what we call 
 ajfifes. See Assise. 
 
 7S 
 
 Oyer 
 
O Y E 
 
 Oyer and terminer*, a commiflion direded to the judges and 
 other gentlemen of the county to which it is iffued, by virtue 
 whereof they are impowered to hear and determine treafons, 
 and all manner of felonies and trefpaffes. 
 » The term is French, and literally denotes to hear and deter- 
 mine. — In our features it is fometimes wrote oyer and deter- 
 miner. 
 
 It is the firft and largefl of the five commiflions by which our 
 judges of aflize do fit, in their feveral circuits. 
 Antiently it was only in ufe upon fome fudden outrage or m- 
 furredrion, in anyplace. 
 Oyer de record is a petition made in court, praying that the 
 judges, for better proof- fake, will be pleafed to hear, or look 
 upon any record. 
 
 In the like fenfe a Perfon may demand oyer of a bond, deed, 
 covenant, or the like. 
 O YES, a corruption of the French, cya, hear ye ; being 
 
 O Z E 
 
 a term, or formula, whereby the criers in our courts injoiu 
 filence, or attention, ere they make proclamation of any 
 thing. 
 
 OZENA *, in medicine, a putrid and ftinking ulcer, in one 
 or both noftrils ; wherein the humour is very acrid, or 
 corrofive, fanious, and fometimes mixed with a bloody 
 mucus. 
 
 * The word is Greek, o'^&ivtt., which fignifies the fame 
 thing. 
 
 It fometimes proceeds from neglected or ill-managed wounds, 
 contufions, &c. in the noftrils ; efpecially in fcorbutic, fcro- 
 phulous, or venereal habits ; and fometimes follows the 
 final 1- pox. 
 
 It often fpreads and eats through the alse ; and at other 
 times preys into the feptum, nafi, cartilage, and os palati ; 
 efpecially in venereal cafes, Whence the great danger of 
 the nofc in that diftemper. 
 
p. 
 
 P A C 
 
 PA eonfonant, and the fifteenth letter in the Englifh 
 Alphabet. 
 • When the P is followed with an H in the fame 
 word, it has the found of an F ; thus PMofophy 
 pronounced i<ilofophy. 
 
 P and B are fo like each other, that Quintilian declares, that 
 in the word abtinuit, his reafon required him to put a b, bui 
 that his ears could hear nothing but a p, optinuit : hence in an- 
 cient infcriptions and old glotfaries, it appears, that thefe two 
 letters have been often confounded. 
 
 Several nations ftill pronounce one for the other, the Germans 
 particularly, who fay ponum vinum, for bonum vinum. 
 Plutarch obferves, it was ufual for thofe of Delphos to fay fa-n* 
 for warwv, frxe™ for t^xt™ ; and among the Latins, as often as 
 an s followed, the b was changed into a p, as fcribo, fcripfi. 
 
 P, in the Italian mulic, frequently reprefents piano ; which is what 
 in our mufic we call [oft, i. e. the force of voice or inftrumcnt 
 is to be diminilhed, fo as to make a kind of echo. 
 P P fignifies piu piano, i. e. more foft, or a fecond echo weak- 
 er or more remote than the former : and PPP fignifies pia- 
 mffmo foftefi of all, or a third echo, the voice being, as it 
 were, loft in the air. 
 
 P M, among aftronomers, is frequently ufed for pojl meridiem, 
 or afternoon ; and fometimes for pojl mane, after the morn- 
 ing, i. e. after midnight. 
 
 P was alfo ufed among the ancients as a numeral letter, figni- 
 fying the fame with the G, viz. an hundied ; according to 
 the verfe of Ugutio. 
 
 Pfimilem cum G numerum monjlratur habere. 
 Though Baronius thinks it rather flood for feven— See what 
 has been obferved, with refpecf to thefe numeral letters in ge- 
 neral, under the letter A. 
 
 When a dafli was added a-top of P", it flood for four hundred 
 thoufand. 
 
 St. Jerome obferves, on Daniel, that the Hebrews had no P ■ 
 but that the ph ferved them inftead thereof: adding, that 
 there is but one word in the whole bible read with a P, viz. 
 
 apadno. 
 
 P, in medicinal prefcription, is ufed for Pugil, or the eighth part 
 
 of a handful. ° 
 P JE fignifies paries eequalcs, equal parts of any ingredients: 
 
 otherwife denoted by a or ana. 
 P P fignify pulvis patrum, i. e. Jefuit's powder, or the cortex 
 
 peruvianus in powder, which is fo called, becaufe firft brought 
 
 into Europe by thofe fathers. 
 PABULUM is fometimc ufed among naturalifts for fewel ; or 
 
 that part in combuftible bodies, which the fire immediately 
 
 feeds on or is fupported by. 
 
 The oily or fulphurous part of fuels is the only proper pabu- 
 lum. It is that alone wherein fire can inhere. 
 PACALIA, a feaft held among the ancient Romans, in honour 
 of the goddefs Pax, peace. 
 
 Alnhelmus, * Laud Virgin, fpeaking of the impure feftivals 
 and ceremonies of the heathens, calls one of them pcenaiia ; 
 which paflage Gronovius charges as faulty, alledging, that 
 there was no feaft of that name, but that it mould have been 
 Pacaiia, or perhaps PaliUa. 
 
 The ancients, who perfonified, and even deified every thing 
 were not forgetful of peace : Hie had an altar at Rome, and a 
 flately temple ; and religious Rites were paid her with great 
 lolemnity. 
 
 PACE, Paffus, Step ; a meafure taken from the fpace between 
 the two feet of a man in walking. 
 
 The ordinary Pace of a man is two foot and a half ; though 
 many reckon it a yard : the geometrical or German Pace, called 
 alfo the greater Pace, is five feet 
 
 The ancient Roman and modern Italic mile confifts of a 
 thoufand Pace.; mille paffus. The French league is ?cco 
 Paces, and the German 4000. 
 Pace, in the manage, is a certain manner of motion, or pro- 
 greluon ot a horfe. 
 
 The natural paces of a horfe are three, ifz. the walk trot 
 and gallop : to which may be added an amble ; becaufe fome 
 hories have it naturally. See under each its proper article, 
 Trot, Gallop, Uc. 
 For the artificial paces, fee the article Airs. 
 Horfes that mix their Paces, i.e. muffle betwixt a walk and 
 amble be .are : fcldom of a any value. The defect proceed, 
 from their fretful, fiery temper : and fometimes from a weak- 
 nefs either m their reins or legs. 
 Pace is more particularly underftood of that eafy low motion 
 wherein the horfe raifes the two feet of the fame fide at a 
 time ; called alfo ambit. See Amble. 
 Vol. 11. 
 
 PAD 
 
 PACIFIC, peaceful, or free from trouble?, tumults, SsV. 
 Geographers call the South Sea, mare paifiarn, the pacific 
 ocean ; as being lets infefted with ftorms than the atlantic. 
 M. Frezier affirms, it does not deferve that appellation ; 
 and that he has feen as violent tempefts therein as in any 
 other fea : but Magellan happening to have a very favour- 
 able wind, and not meeting with any thing to ruffle him, 
 when he firft travelled this vaft ocean in 1520, gave itl the 
 name which it has retained ever fince. Maty, however, 
 adds, that the wind is fo regular there, that the veffels would 
 frequently go from Acapulco to the Philippine Iilands, with- 
 out Ihifting a fail. 
 
 Pacific Letters, Litem Pacific^, in the ancient church 
 was a denomination given to all forts of letters teftimonial' 
 given by the bifhop or chorepifcopus to their priefts, when 
 they had occafion to travel abroad; certifying that the bearer 
 was a catholic, and in communion with the church. 
 The life of pope Sixtus I. taken from the pontifical of pope 
 Damafus, mentions that pope as the firft who introduced 
 thofe letters called Formate, Canonicce, Commendatitia, Commu- 
 mcatorits, Ecclefiafticas, is Pacificas. 
 
 PACIFICATION, the aft of reftoring or re-eftablifhing the 
 public peace, and tranquillity. 
 
 The word is particularly appropriated to the periods put to 
 the religious broils raifed in France, in the year ijb2, by the 
 edict of Nantz; and the civil commotions, between the En- 
 glifll and Scots, ended in 1638. 
 PACIFICATOR is commonly underftood in the fame fenfe 
 with Mediator, viz. one who endeavours to reconcile piinces 
 or powers at variance. 
 
 Wicquefort makes a difference between Mediator, and Pacifi- 
 cator.— The peace being concluded between France and Eng- 
 land, in 1621. the inftruments on each fide were put in the 
 hands of certain embafl'adors, who had been employed as P ■- 
 cificators, not as Mediators; to be kept till fuch time as the ra 
 tirications had been exchanged.— So the archbilhop of Pifa 
 the duke of Tufcany's embaliador at Madrid, was never c? 
 teemed a Mediator, though the French embafTadors allowed 
 him to be prefent at the conferences held with the commiffi 
 oners of Spain, to ad as a Pacificator of the differences between 
 them. 1 he grand duke had not offered his mediation ■ nor 
 would I' ranee have accepted it. Wicquefort, p. 2 & 1 \ 
 
 PACK in commerce.— A Pack of wool is a horfe's load • 
 containing i 7 ftone and 2 pound ; or 240 pound weight. 
 See Wool. 6 
 
 PACT*, Pactum, or Paction in law, a covenantor con- 
 vention between two or more parries. 
 « Ulpian derives .he word from die Latin verb pacifci, to bargain 
 agree, comma : Others wall more probability, f™,„ f ' 
 peafe or pacify ; or from fa„g,, 1 fix, ciiablifh ' r 
 
 The civil lawyers after Ulpian, define the word Pall the eon 
 Tent of two or more parties to the fame thing:— Dmvm aut 
 Planum ,n tdem eonfenjus. L. III. 2. ff. Je paciis. 
 I here are two Ipecies of conventions, viz. the Pad and On 
 trail. A Pact againft good manners, againft publick or natu- 
 
 T oHtur"e7 " 15 3 maXim m UW ' a nud ° **>> ™> 
 
 PACTA Can-cm, in Poland are the articles agreed on between 
 the kmg and the republic; and which they mutually oblige 
 each other to obleive. ' "S 5 
 
 PADDOCK, or Paddock-Cmo^ a piece of ground, conve- 
 niently taken out of a park, ordinarily a mile long, and a 
 quarter of a mile broad, encompafled with pales, or a wall 
 oTt he e iik X e raCCS W " h gre y hounds for wagers, plates, 
 
 At one end of the Paddock is a little houfe, where the dogs 
 are to be enteied ; and whence they are flipped ; near which 
 are pens to enclofe two or three deer for the fport. 
 'I he deer, when turned loofc, run all along by the pale ■ and 
 the fpectators are placed on the other fide. 
 Along the courfe are feveral ports, viz. the law-poft, 160 
 yards from the dog-houfe and pens ; the quarter of a mile 
 port, half mile port, and pinching-port ; beiide the ditch a 
 place made to receive the deer, and prefeive them from fur 
 ther puifuit. 
 
 Near the ditch, are placed judges or trieis. The keeper to 
 fiip the dogs fairly, puts a falling collar upon each to' (lip 
 through a ring ; and the deer being turned loofe and put for- 
 ward by a teazer, as foon as it is arrived at the iaw-port the 
 dog-houfe door is thrown open, and the dogs flipped. 
 Know the deer fwerve fo much, as that his head is judged 
 nearer the dog-hotue than the ditch, before he arrive at the 
 pinching-port ; it is no match ; but muft be run over again 
 three days after. If there be no fuch fwerve, but the deer 
 0 A Juns 
 
PAG 
 
 P A I 
 
 runs ftrait as far as the pinching-poft ; then the dog neareft 
 him, if he chance to fwerve afterwards, or by any accident, 
 be blanched ; or if there be no fuch fwerve, £sV. the dog that 
 leaps the ditch firft, wins the match. 
 PADUAN, among medalifts, a modern medal made in imita- 
 tion of the antique or a new medal ftruck with all the 
 marks and characters of antiquity. 
 
 The name is taken from Padua?!, Paduanus, a famous Italian 
 painter, who fucceeded fo well in the impofture, if it may be 
 fo called, that the beft judges are at a lofs to diftinguifh 
 his medals from the genuine ones. 
 
 This Paiuan was thus called from the place of his birth, Pa- 
 dua ; his proper name was Giovanni Cavino ; others fay, 
 Lewis Lee; he flouriihed in the XVTI lh century. — Gotheb 
 Rink adds that he had an afTociate in this forgery, called 
 Alexander Baflianus. — His ion Octavian, though born at 
 Rome, was alfo called the Paduan. 
 Pad ua n is, properly, applicable to thofe medals only, which 
 are ftruck on the matrices of the elder Paduan ; which are 
 itill preferved. — Though it is frequently ufed in the general 
 for all medals of this kind. 
 
 Joubert obierves, that there have been a Paduan and Parmefan 
 in Italy, and a CarUron in Holland, who had the knack of 
 imitating the antique in perfection. The Paimefan was Lau- 
 rentius Farmefanus. We may alfo add another Italian who 
 excelled in this way, wis. Valerius B-ellus Vicentinus, but his 
 medals a:e not fo common as thofe of the reft. 
 PAL AN *> Uaittr, in antiquity, a hymn in honour of Apollo, 
 or fome other of the gods ; chiefly ufed on occafion of victo- 
 ry, and triumph. 
 
 * Feltus derives the word aira rn <rxtu, ferire, to fmite, (hoot : but 
 HeCychiii) rather Cakes Apollo to have been denominated P<ean 
 liom mma, (MpnHim, I heal, in allnfion to his being the deity of 
 Medicine. 
 
 The Paan took its name from Apollo himfelf; who was deno- 
 minated P&on, becaufe in his combat with the ferpent Python, 
 his mother Latona encouraged him to make ufe of his arrows, 
 by crying frequently tu «r«., i'h do boy, bravely boy. 
 P.#an or Pjeqs is alio the name of a foot in the ancient 
 poetiy; fo called, as commonly fuppofed, becaufe appropri- 
 ated to the hymn Paan ; though Quintilian derives the name 
 fiom its inventor Ptson, a phyfician. 
 
 The Paon coniifts of four fyllables, one df which is long, 
 and the reft ihoit. 
 P^EDO-Baptism *, infant-baptifm, or that conferred on chii- 
 dien. 6ee Baptism. 
 
 * The word is a compound of the Greek waif, B'AiJ®', infant, and 
 (Sam-licr-ft©-, baptiGn. 
 
 PAGAN, Paganus, a heathen, gentile, or idolater ; one who 
 adores falfe gods. 
 
 Baionius derives the word Pagamis, a Pagis, villages, becaufe, 
 when the chriftians became matters of the cities, the heathens 
 were obliged by the edicts of Conftantine and his fons, to go 
 and live in the country villages, EsY. — Salmafius will have the 
 word come from Pagu:, considered as originally fignifying 
 Gens or nation : whence, he pbferves, we fay indifferently Pa- 
 gans or Gentiles. 
 
 The Abbot de Fleury gives another origin of Pagan : he ob- 
 ferves that the emperor Conftantine going from Antioch 
 againft Maxentius in 350, afiembled all his troops, and ad- 
 vifed fuch as had not received baptifm to receive it immedi- 
 ately ; declaring withal, that fuch as fhould be found unbap- 
 tized Ihould quit the feivice, and go home. 
 Hence, perhaps, fays the abbot, the name Pagan might be 
 given to thole who chofe the latter : the Latin word, Paganus, 
 propeily fignifying a perfon who does not bear arms : in 
 oppcfition to niih-s, a foldier. 
 
 And hence it might, in time, extend to all heathens. — Or, 
 continues he, the word might come rjo'm Pagus 9 village, in 
 regard the peafants were thofe who ftuck longeft to the ido- 
 latry of the heathens. 
 PAGANALIA, an ancient rural feaft, thus called, becaufe cele- 
 brated in the villages, in Pagis. 
 
 In the Paganalia, the peafants went in folemn proceftion all 
 around the village, making luft rations to purify it. They had 
 alfo their faenfices, wheieinthey offeied cakes on the altars 
 of the gods. 
 
 Halicarnefteus and St. Jerom refer the inftirution of ihePaga- 
 nalia to Servius Tullus. They were held in the month of 
 February. 
 
 PAGANISM, the religious worfhip and difcipline of Pagans ; 
 or the adoration of idols and falfe gods. 
 The gods of Paganifm were either men, as Jupiter, Hercules, 
 Bacchus, (jfc. or fictitious perfons, as victoiy, fame, fever, &c. 
 or beafts, as in Egypt, crocodiles, cats, &c. or finally in- 
 animate things, as onions, fire, and water, &e. 
 
 PAGARCHUS *, ritefaj^©., among the ancients, a petty ma- 
 giftratc of a Pagnr, or little diftrict, in the country. 
 * The word is formed From Pagus, village, and a^i. command. 
 
 PAGE *, a youth of rtatc, retained in the family of a prince 
 or great pejfonage, as an honourable fervant to attend in vifus 
 of ceremony, do mcitages, bear up trains, robes, &t. and at 
 
 the fame time to have a genteel education, and learn his 
 exercifes. 
 
 * The word feems formed from the Greek, xmi, child, boy. 
 
 The Pages in the king's hou'fhold are various, and have va- 
 rious provinces aitigned them : as Pages of honour, Pages of 
 the prefence-chamber, Pages of the back-ftairs, (sc. 
 Pages were anciently diftinguilhed from the other fcrvants in 
 livery, by their wearing drawers in lieu of breeches; and 
 fteeves turned up with velvet. 
 
 Cujas and Gothofred obferve, that pages in the emperor's fa- 
 milies, were called Pccdagogiani Put'ri. Fauchct fays, the 
 word Page, was firft given to the little boys who attend tilers 
 to bring them their tiles, bV. That till the time of Charles 
 VI. or VTf. the name was common to the bafeft fervants ; 
 and it is fince then, that Page is become a term of honour ; 
 and the meaner fervants are diftinguifhed from them by the 
 names of lacqueys, valets, &£. 
 
 Page is particularly ufed in the Turkifh feraglio, for the chil- 
 dren of tribute, or, flaves who wait on the grand fignor. 
 They are commanded by the firft Aga> and conftitute four 
 dalles, called Ode's. 
 
 Page of a Book. See the article Printing. 
 
 PAGEANT, a triumphant car, chariot, arch, dr other the like 
 pompous decoration, varioufly adorned with colours, flags, 
 fife carried about in public (hews, proceftions, firV. 
 
 pAGOD, a name which the Portuguefe have given to all the 
 temples of the Indians, and all the idolaters of the Eaft. 
 The Pagods of the Chinefe and Siamefe arc exceedingly magni- 
 ficent. Among others, there is one at Golconda, whole nich, 
 that they pray m, confifts of a tingle ftone, of fuch prodigious 
 bulk, that they were five years in bringing it to the place : 
 600 men being conftantly employed at it all that time j and 
 the machine that brought it, drawn by 1400 oxen. 
 The revenues of the Pagod of Janigrade are fo great, as to 
 fubfift, every day, from fifteen to twenty thoufand pilgrims. 
 
 Pagod is alfo ufed for the idol adored in the temple. 
 
 Hence many give the name Pagod to thofe little porcelain 
 images brought from China. 
 
 Pag on is alfo the name of a gold coin current in feveral parts 
 of the Indies ; on the footing of the piece of eight. 
 The EnglMh coin Pagods at fort St. George, and the Dutch at 
 Palicate. 
 
 There are alfo filver Pagods ftruck at Narfingua, Bifnagar, fife, 
 which ufually bear the figure of fome monftrous idol ■> 
 whence their names. They are of various values. 
 PAIN, an uneafy fenfation, arifing from a fudden and violent 
 folution of continuity or other accident in the nerves, mem- 
 branes, veflels, mufcles, tffc. of the body. 
 Pahi^ according to fome, confifts in a motion of the organs 
 of fenfe ; and according to others, it is an emotion of the 
 foul, occafioned by thofe organs. 
 
 If it be enquired what it is occafions the Pain of a puncture ? 
 one may anfwer, that the puncture cannot feparate the fibres of 
 the fiefh, without fhaking the nerves which proceed thence to 
 the brain. If it be further asked, why we feel pain upon a fha- 
 king of that part of the brain ? we are at a ftand, there being 
 no necelfary connection between conculfions of the brain, and 
 the fenfation of pain wherewith the foul is affected. 
 To account, therefore, for Pain ; F. Malcbranche obferves, 
 We nuift have rccourfc to a fuperior being, who forms an ar- 
 bitrary connection between the lhakes of the brain, and the 
 fenfation of pain. 
 
 From the phyfical definition of Pain, it follows that whatever 
 may diffract or feparate the parts of the neives or membranes 
 from one another may caule Pain ; but there is nothing in 
 the compafs of nature which may not do that, with what- 
 ever figures and properties it be endued : for fince lome- 
 what may always be applied, or added to any other body, 
 fuch body may at length encreafe into a bulk too big to 
 flow through a canal of a given diameter, and will there- 
 fore require more room : wheiefoie, while the fides of a ca- 
 nal are thruft outward beyond what they ufed to be, that 
 is, while the parts compofing thofe (ides, befo-.e conti- 
 guous, become loofencd and moved away from ore another ; 
 if that body ftrike upon thofe fides with a brifk impetus, and 
 that impetus be continually renewed, the folution will be con- 
 fiderable, or the nifus towards a folution violent ; that is, 
 there will be Pain. — Wheiefoie the conftituent pattsof tiuids 
 being fufficiently augmented in dnnenfron, and propelled 
 with a continually repeated impetus agaioft any canal of our 
 body, may occalion that folution, hi which coniifts the ef- 
 fence of Pain. 
 
 For it comes to the fame thing, whether fome parts be added 
 to a body ; or the pairs of that body be, by any cauie what- 
 foever, feparated to fo great an interval near the fides of a ca- 
 nal, as to conftitute a dimenlion equal to that which would 
 arife from the addition of a new part ; for the bulk may fo 
 far increafe both ways, as that the natural capacity of the ca- 
 nal (hall not be big enough to contain it, without fome violent 
 dilatation, and a diftraftion of the fibres it is compofed of : 
 , and confequcntly Pain muft eiiluc. 
 
 Farther, 
 
P A I 
 
 Farther, as there may be always fomewhat added to another 
 body ; fo from any body may fomewhatbe always taken away ; 
 a body lb diminiflied in dimenfion, and impelled with a confi 
 derable impetus will break through the interftices of the fibres, 
 where it is lefs than the capacity of fuch interftices, and is 
 moved obliquely : and becaufe the fupeificies of the fibres aie 
 not wont to be contained under geometrical right lines, but to 
 have particles Handing out and prominent, thefe it divides 
 from one another. And thus any body, of whatfoever figure, 
 may occafion in us Pain, fo it be big enough to diftend the 
 vefTels beyond their wonted Meafure, or fmall enough to en. 
 ter the pores in the fides of a canal, with an impetus in the 
 manner intimated. 
 
 And what is thus advanced, with relation to things within the 
 veffels, may be ealily applied to others out of the veffels. 
 Pain, in medicine, confidered as a fymptom of a difeafe, makes 
 aconfiderable article in a palliative cure. 
 Pain is mitigated, or afiwaged divers ways ; as i. by diluting 
 and foftening acrimonies, with warm water mixed with flower 
 applied by way of drink, fomentation, clyfter, or bath. 2. By 
 refolving and warning away obftrucrions, by the fame means 
 and refolvents. 3. By relaxing (he nervous veffels, with drinks, 
 fomentations, baths, relaxants, anodynes, and aperients. 4. By 
 correcting the acrimony itfelf with proper remedies. 5. By 
 freeing the obftruent, obftruifted, and acrimonious parts from 
 the too great preffure of the vital humour ; and by foften- 
 ing, and fuppurating, and depurating them. 6. By reba- 
 ting or deadening the fenfe by narcoticks, either internally 
 or externally. 
 
 PAINE fart, & dun, in law, an efpecial puniihment for one, 
 who being arraigned of felony, refufes to put himfelf upon 
 the oidmary trial of God and his country, and thereby Hands 
 mute by the interpretation of law. 
 
 This is vulgarly called prejjmg to death.— -The procefs where- 
 of is thus prefcribed. 
 
 * Hc (naI1 be fent b ack to the prifon, whence he came, and 
 " be laid in fome low dark room, where he fhall lie naked 
 " on the earrh, without any litter, ruffles, or other clqaSfiflg, 
 
 and without any raiment about him, but only fomething to 
 « cover his privy-members ; and he mall lie upon his back 
 
 * Wlth hls head covered, and his feet ; and one arm (hall 
 " be drawn to one quarter of the room, with a cord, and the 
 « other arm to another quarter, and his legs in the fame man- 
 « ner; then let there belaid upon his body iron, or ftone, as 
 " much as he may bear, or more ; and the next day following 
 « he (hall have three morfels of barley-bread without drink ; 
 " and the fecond day he (hall have drink three times, as much 
 " at each time as he can drink, of the water next unto the pri- 
 " fon, except it be running water, without any bread : and 
 " this (hall be his diet, till he dies." 
 
 PAINIM the fame with Pagans. See Pagan. 
 
 PAINTING, Pictura, the art of reprefenting natural bodies, 
 and even giving them an appearance of life by the duel or 
 draught of lines, and the degrees of colours. 
 Painting is faid to have had its rife among the Egyptians : and 
 the Greeks, who learned it of them, carried it to its per- 
 fettion; if we may believe the dories related of their Apelles, 
 and Zeuxis. 
 
 The Romans were not without confiderable mafters in this art, 
 in the latter times of the republic, and under the firft emperors; 
 but the Inundation of Barbarians who ruined Italy, proved 
 fatal to Painting, and almoft reduced it to its firft elements. 
 It was in Italy, however, that the art afterwards returned to 
 its ancient honour, and in the beginning of the XV'h century ; 
 when Cimabue, betaking himfelf to the pencil, tranflated the 
 poor remains of the art from a Greek painter or two, into his 
 own country. 
 
 He was feconded by fome Florentines : the firft who got any 
 reputation was Ghiilandai, Michael Angelo's mafter; Pietro 
 Perugino, Raphael Urbin's mafter; and Andrea Verocchio. 
 Leonardo Da Vinci's mafter. 
 
 Butthefefcholarsvaftly furpafled the mafters ; they not only 
 effaced all that had been done before them, but carried Paint- 
 ing to a pitch from which it has everfmce been declining. 
 It was not by their own noble works alone that they advan- 
 ced Painting, but by the number of pupils they bred up, and 
 the fchools they formed. 
 
 Angelo, in particular, founded the fchool of Florence ; Ra- 
 phael, the fchool of Rome ; and Leonardo, the fchool of Mi- 
 lan j to which mud be added, the Lombard fchool, eftablifh- 
 ed about the fame time, and which became very confiderable 
 under Giotgione and Titian. 
 
 Befidesthe Italian mafters, there were other very great ones on 
 this fide the Alps, who had no communication with thole of 
 Italy,fuch were Albert Durer, in Germany ; Holbens, in Swit- 
 zerland; Lucas in Holland; and others in France and Flan- 
 ders; but Italy, and particularly Rome, was the place where 
 the art was practifed with the greateft fuccefs ; and wheie 
 from to time, the greateft mafters were produced. 
 To Raphael's fchool, fucceeded that of the Caraccios, which 
 has lafted, in its fcholars, almoft to the prefenttime; wherein 
 
 P A I 
 
 the French Painters, by the Munificence of the late Louis XIV*. 
 leem almoft in a condition to vie with thofc of Greece or Italy 
 In Pans they have two confiderable bodies ofpainters, the 
 one, the Royal Academy 0) Painting and Sculpture ; the other, the 
 Community of Maflers in Painting, Sculpture, &c. 
 The art ot Painting is divided, by Frefnoy, into three princi- 
 pal parts; invention, defigning, and colouring; to which fome 
 add a fourth, JX. dilpoiition.— Felibien divides Painttm into 
 compofition, defigning, and colouring. 
 M. Teftlin, painter to the late king, divides it, fom»whac 
 more accurately, into the defign or draught, the propor- 
 tion, the expreffion, the clair-obfeure, the ordonnance and 
 the colouring; to which his Englilh tranflator adds the' per- 
 fpeclive. Under each of thefe heads, he gives us the rules 
 and fentiments of the beft mafters ; which fee under their 
 proper articles in this dictionary, Design, Proportion 
 Expression, Clair-Obscure, Ordonnance, Co- 
 loup.ing, C3V* 
 
 Painting is of various kinds, with regard to the materials 
 ufed ; the matter whereon they are applied ; and the manner 
 of applying them. — Hence we diftingnifh Painting in oil ; 
 fainting in water-colours, or Limning ; Painting in fiefco [ 
 Painting on glafs ; Painting in enamel ; and Paintinr in mi- 
 mature. 
 Painting in Oil. - The 
 
 art of Painting in oil was unknown 
 to the ancients ; and it was a Flemilh Painter, one John van 
 Eyck, or John de Bruges, who firft difcovered, and put it in 
 piaftice in the beginning of the XlVth century ; tili him, all 
 the painters wrought in frefco, or in water-colours. 
 This was an Invention of the utmoft advantage to the art ; 
 (ince, by means hereof, the colours of a painting are preferved 
 much longer and better, and receive a luftre and Iweetnefa 
 which the ancients could never attain to, what varnilh foever 
 they made ufe of to cover their pieces. 
 The whole lecret only confifts in grinding the colours with 
 nut-oil or linfeed-oil ; but it mud be owned, the manner of 
 working is very different from that in frefco, or in water ; by 
 reafon the oil does not dry near fo faft ; which gives the 
 painter an opportunity of touching and retouching all the 
 parts of his figures, as often as he pleafes : which, in the 
 other kinds, is a thing impracticable. 
 
 The figures too are here capable of more force and boldnefs; 
 mafmuch as the black becomes blacker, when ground with 
 oil than with water ; befides that, all the colours, mixing bet- 
 ter together, make the colouring fwceter, and more delicate 
 and agreeable, and give an union and tendernefs to the whole 
 work, inimitable in any of the other manners. 
 Painting in Oil is performed on walls, on wood, canvas- 
 (tones, and all forts of metals. 
 To Paint on a Wall— When well dry, they give it two or three 
 walhes with boiling oil, till the plafter remain quite greafy 
 and will imbibe no more. Over this they apply deficcative 
 or drying colours, viz. white chalk, red oker, or other 
 chalks beaten pretty ftiff. This layer being well dry'd, thev 
 (ketch out, and defign their fubjefl on it, and at laft paint it 
 over; mixing a little varnilh with their colouis, to lave the 
 varmfliing afterwards. 1 
 Others, to fortify their wall better againft moifture, cover it 
 with aplafler of lime, niarble-duir, or a cement made of 
 beaten tries foaked with linfeed-oil ; and at laft prepare a com- 
 pohtion of Greek pitch, maltic, and thick varnilh borled to- 
 gether which they apply hot over the former plafter ; and 
 when dry, they lay on the colours as before. 
 Others, in fine, make their plafter with lime-mortar tile 
 cement, and land ; and this being dry, they apply another of 
 lime, cement, and iron fcorim; which being well beaten, and 
 incorporated with whites of eggs and linfeed oil, makes an 
 excellent plafter. When this is dry, the colours are applied 
 as before. rv 
 To Paint on They ufually give their ground a layer of 
 
 white tempered with lize ; or they apply the oil above-men- 
 tioned ; the reft is done as in Painting on walls. 
 To Pa iktm Cloth or Canvas. — The canvas being ftretched on 
 a frame, they give it a layer of fize, or pane-water ; and when 
 dry, they go over it with a pumice-ftone, to fmooth off the 
 knols. By means of tile fize the little threads and hairs aie all 
 laid clofe on the cloth, and the little holes flopped up, £6 that 
 no colour can pafs through. 
 
 When the cloth is dry, they lay on oker in oil, which is a na- 
 tural earth, and bears a body ; lomctimes mixing with it a little 
 white lead to make it dr y the fooner. When dry, they go over 
 it again with the pumice-ftone, to make it fmooth. 
 Afterthis, theyfometimes add a fecond layer compofed of white 
 lead: and a little charcoal black, to render the ground of an 
 afh-colour ; deferring in each manner to lay on as little colour 
 as pofl'tble ; that the cloth may not break, and that the colouis 
 when they come to be painted over, may preferve the better. 
 In fome Painting! of Titian and Paolo Veronefe, we find they 
 made their ground with water, and painted over it with oil ; 
 which contributed much to the vivacity and fieflinefs of then- 
 works : for the water ground, by imbibing the oil Of the 
 
 colouiSj 
 
PAL 
 
 colours, leaves them the more beautiful; the oil it felf taking 
 away a deal of their vivacity. 
 
 As little oil therefore is to be u fed as poffible, if it be defired 
 to have the colours keep fre(h : for this reafon lbme mix them 
 with oil of fpike, which evaporates immediately, yet ferves to 
 make them manageable with the pencil. 
 Paint on Stones or Metals, it is not neceffary to apply fize, 
 as on cloth ; it fumces to add a flight layer of colours, before 
 you draw your defign ; nor even is this done, on ftones 
 where it is defired the ground mould appear, as on certain 
 marbles and agates of extraordinary colours. 
 All the colours ufed in frefco are good in oil, except white 
 of lime and marble-duft. 
 
 Thofe chiefly ufed are white lead or ccrufs, yellow and 
 white mafticot, orpiment, black lead, cinnabar or vermillion, 
 lacca, blue and green afhes, indigo, lamp-black, burnt ivory, 
 and verdigreafe, fsV. See the preparation, tyc of each under 
 its proper article, Ceruss, Orpiment, Vermillion, 
 Lacca, Indigo, &c. 
 
 As to oils, the belt are thofe of walnuts, linfeed, fpike, and 
 turpentine. The deliccativc or drying oils, are a nut oil 
 boiled with litharge and fandarach, or otherwife with fpint of 
 wine, maitic and gum-lacca. 
 
 To have a varniih that lhall dry readily, they mix fpint ot 
 
 wine with turpentine. See Varnish. 
 Painting in IVater-Colours. See Limning. 
 Painting in Frefco. See Fresco. 
 Painting in Miniature. See Miniature. 
 Painting on Glafs. See Glass. 
 Painting in Enamel. See Enamel. 
 Painting in Mofak. See Mosaic-Work. 
 PAIR, Par, a collective Term, ufed for two equal or fimilar 
 
 things ordinarily joined together j though more frequently for 
 
 artificial things, than for natural ones. As, a Pair of gloves. 
 
 of -flock ings, of fhoes, fcfr. 
 Pair is alfo ufed in compound things, for two parts alike to each 
 
 other, though they only make one whole. — As, a Fair of 
 
 Sciflars, &c. 
 
 Pair is alfo ufed for a fet, or fyflem of feveral things joined to 
 make another compleat, — as a Pair of bagpipes, tsV. 
 
 Pair, again, is ufed by extenfion, for a thing that is fingle, as, a 
 Pair of tables, CSV. 
 
 Pair, Par, in anatomy, denotes an aftemblage or conjugation 
 of two nerves, which have their origin together in the brain 
 or fpinal marrow ; and are thence diftributed into the fe 
 veral parts of the body, one on the one fide, and the 
 other on the other. 
 
 Thus we fay, the firft Pair, fecond Pair, EsV. the Par vagum. 
 Par quintum, &t, fometimes the olfactory Pair, opthalmk 
 Pair, &e. 
 
 PALACE, Palatium, a name generally given to the dwel- 
 ling-houfes of kings and princes. 
 
 Procopius derives the word from a Grecian called Pallas, who 
 gave his own name to a magnificent houfe he had built ; adding, 
 that Auguftus after him, gave the Name Palatium to the houfe 
 of the Roman emperors on the hill which for that reafon was 
 called the Palatine mount. — Others take it the contrary way ; 
 and fay that Romuius's houfe, wherein Auguftus lived, was 
 properly called Palatium, becaufe fituate on the Palatine mount. 
 Be this as it will, it is certain, Palstwm, from a proper name, 
 in time, became common to all houfes of kings. 
 And as the kings ufually heard and determined caufes in their 
 houfes, in what part of the realm foever they were fituate ; 
 hence alfo Palatium became a name for a court of juflice, 
 which ufage is ftill retained, efpecially in Fiance. 
 In courfe jo£ time the name Palace has alfo been applied to 
 the houfes of other perfons ; taking different epithets, accord- 
 ing to the quality of the inhabitants ; as imperial Palace, royal 
 Palace, pontifical, cardinal, epifcopal, ducal Palace, &e. 
 PALAESTRA, ffa*«ire<*, among the ancient Greeks, a publick 
 building, where the youth exercifed themfelves in WreftJjng. 
 running, playing at quoits, ESV. 
 
 Some fay, the Palajlra confided both of a college, and an 
 academy ; the one for exercifes of the mind, the other for 
 thofe of the body. But moft authors rather take Pal&ftra to 
 be a Xyftus, or mere academy for bodily exercifes, according 
 to the etymology of the word, which comes from ita.t,-^ wreft- 
 Jing, one of the chief exercifes among the ancients. 
 The length of the Palafira was marked out by fladia, each 
 equal to 125 geometrical paces; and hence the name Stadium 
 was given to the Arena whereon they ran. 
 PAL^ESTROPHYLAX * among the ancients, was the di- 
 rector of a Palajlra j and of the exercifes performed therein. 
 See Paljestr a. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek ixaXut^a. and ptAa*, guar- 
 dian, keeper. 
 
 This Officer was alfo called Xyjlarcha and Gymnafmrcha. 
 PALANQUIN, a kind of chaife, or chair bore by men 
 on their (houlders ; much ufed by the people of China 
 and the Eaft, as a vehicle for their eafy conveyance from 
 place to place. 
 
 PALATE, Palatum * 3 in anatomy, theflefh that compofes 
 
 PAL 
 
 the roof, /. e. the upper and inner part of the mouth. See 
 Mouth. 
 
 * Du Laurence fays it has its name from the Latin pal: ; becaufe 
 endofed with two rows of teeth, reiembliug little Hakes which 
 the Latins cull pali. 
 The Palate is a little vaulted or concave ; it is lined with a 
 glandulous coat, under which are great numbers of pretty 
 confpicuous glands, fcattered in the tore-part ot it like grains 
 of millet, with many interftices, whofe excretory duels pier- 
 cing the membrane, open into the mouth ; but towards the 
 hinder part, they lie much thicker ; and about the root of 
 the uvula they are gathered lb dole together, that they ap- 
 pear to form one pretty large conglomerate gland, called by 
 Verheyen, glandula conglomerate palatina. 
 
 Towards the bottom of the Palate, behind the uvula, is a 
 pretty large perforation, which, a little from its orifice, divides 
 into two, each whereof goes to one of the nofhils. 
 Many take the palate to be the organ of tafting. 
 PALATI Os, a fmall fquare bone, forming the hind-part of the 
 Palate, and joined to that part of the os maxillare which forms 
 the fore-part of the Palate. 
 PALATINATE, Palatinatus, a province or fignory, 
 pofiefTed by a Palatine, and from which he takes his title and 
 dignity. 
 
 The Palatinates now fubfifting, are either thofe of Germany, 
 or Poland. — Thofe of Germany are the principalities of the 
 upper, and lower Rhine, i.e. of Bavaria and the Rhine. 
 The Palatinates in Poland, are the provinces and diftricts of 
 the Polilh grandees or fenators, who are the governors 
 thereof. 
 
 PALATINE — Count Palatine * Comes Palatinus, in an- 
 cient cuftoms was a title given to all perfons who had any 
 office, or employment in the prince's palace. 
 * The appellation is derived hence, that anciently the emperors 
 rent the judges of their palace, whom they called comites pa- 
 latini, or pals-graves, to corrcci the abufes of the other 
 judges in the provinces of Saxony, Bavaria, Franconia, and 
 the Rhine. 
 
 Matthasus fays, that the Palatines were originally thofe who 
 had the fuper-intendance of the palace ; the fame with what 
 the Greeks call'd Curopolata, and the French Makes du Palais ; 
 though in time the name became more general. 
 The only Palatine of this kind, now fubfifting, is the prince 
 Palatine of the Rhine. 
 Palatine was afterwards a title conferred on thofe delegated 
 by princes to hold courts of juftice in the provinces ; and on 
 fuch among the lords as had a palace, 2. e. a court of juftice, 
 in their own houfes. 
 
 The French writers make the Palatines of Champagne to be 
 the firft who bore that title ; which they will have it, the Ger- 
 mans and other people borrowed from them ; not they from 
 the Germans. 
 
 At prefent, the Word Palatine is reftrained to a prince of Ger- 
 many, or a lord of Poland pollened of a Palatinate. 
 In the code we find a title T>e Palatinis facrarum largitionum. 
 Thefewere a kind of treafuresof the empire. 
 Palatine Games, LWi-Palatini among the Romans, were 
 games inftituted in honour of Julius Ca;far, as fome will have 
 it, or as others fay, of Auguftus. 
 
 It is pretended that Dion calls them Augujlalia ; which mould 
 feem to confirm the fecond opinion. Indeed, it is certain 
 that he fays Livia inftituted particular games on the Palatine 
 mount, in honour of that prince; but he apparently diftin- 
 guifhesthem from thofe called Auguftalia. 
 The Romans had alfo their Apollo Palatinus, a furname of 
 that deity, given him in refpect of the temple erected to him 
 by Auguftus on the Palatine mount, in confequence of a report 
 of the Aruipices, which required it to be done ; Auguftus en- 
 riched it alfo with a noble library ; as is intimated by Horace, 
 Lib. I. Epift.III. Ver. 17. 
 Palatine Tribe, was one of the four tribes, into which Rome 
 
 was anciently divided by Scrvius Tullus. 
 Palatine. See Acolythi. 
 
 PALATO-Salpingjeus, called alfo Mufculus tubes novui 
 Valfalva, and Ptcrygojlapbylinus cxternus, a mufcle arifing 
 broad and tendinous from the edge of the lunated part of the 
 os palati, feveral of its fibres being fpread on the membrane that 
 covers the foramen narium ; whence growing into a fmall 
 thin tendon, it is reflected about the hook-like procefs of the 
 inner wing of the proceflus pterygoidsus interims, and is in- 
 ferted carnous, into all the membranous, flefhly, and cartila- 
 . ginous parts of the tube, which leads from the palate to the 
 
 ear. It is ufed to dilate and keep open this tube. 
 PALATO-STAPHILINUS, in anatomy, a mufcle called 
 alfo Pterygojlaphylinus internus. See Pterygostaph yli- 
 nus. 
 
 PALE, Palus, a little pointed flake, or piece of wood, ufed 
 in making enclofures, feparations, hfc 
 
 The pale was an inftrument of punifhment and execution 
 among the ancient Romans ; and ftill continues fo among the 
 Turks. — Hence Empaling ; the parting a iharp pale through 
 the fundament up the body. See Empaling. 
 
 PALE, 
 
PAL 
 
 PALE*, in Heraldry, is one of the honourable ordinaries of 
 'an cfcutcheon ; being the reprefentation of a Pale, or flake, 
 placed upright ; and comprehending the whole height of the 
 coat, from the top of the chief to the point. See Ordi- 
 nary. When the Pale is imgle, it is to contain one third of 
 the breadth of the fhield. 
 
 When there are feveral, more properly called Pallets* they 
 are proportioned fo, as that two take up two fifths of the 
 ihield ; and three take up three fevenths : and in thofe cafes, 
 the number of pieces is fpecified as well as that of thofe they 
 are charged withal, tiff* 
 
 Pales are bore various ways, as wavy, crene/le, fauns, tnavniea* 
 ingrafted* &c. There are alfo the cometed, and flaming Pale, 
 which are pointed, fometimes waved, tffc. 
 
 Paled, Pale' in heraldry — A coat is faid to be Paled, 
 when it is equally charged with pales of metal, and colour 
 It is Counter-Paled whenlt is cut, and the two Demi-Pales of 
 the chief, though of colours the fame with thofe of the point, 
 yet differ in the place where they meet ; fo as if the firft of 
 the chief be metal, that correfponding to it, underneath, is 
 of colour. . 
 The coat is faid to be Paliffe, when the Pales are pointed like 
 thofe ufed in the defence of places. 
 
 In Pale, is applied to things born one above another m 
 manner of a Pale . 
 
 Party per Pale is where the fhield is divided by a fingle line 
 through the middle, from top to bottom. See Party and 
 . Paly. t . , 
 
 PALED Flowers, in botany, are thofe which have thin leaves 
 fet about, or furrounding a head, or thrum : as in Marigolds, 
 &c. 
 
 PALES, or Piles, in carpentry, denote rows of flakes drove 
 deep into the ground, to make wooden bridges over rivers, 
 and to eredl other edifices on. 
 
 * Du Cange derives the word from the Latin name Pal/a, a hang- 
 ing, or piece of tapcilry : the ancients gave the name Pala to the 
 hangings or linings of walls : thus a chamber was faid to be paled 
 with doth of gold, with filk, feff, when covered with bands or 
 fluffs of two colours. — Hence alfo the original of the word Pals a 
 ilake, &c. The arms of Arragon are paled or and gules. 
 
 Tertullian obfetves, that the Romans planted Pales to ferve 
 as boundaries of inheritances ; and that they confecrated them 
 to the god Terminus, under the name of Pali T;rminalcs. 
 Ovid tells us, they were crowned and adorned with flowers, 
 feftons, &c. and that the god was worihipped before thefe 
 Pales. See Terminalia. 
 
 Pales for building ferve to fupport the beams which are laid 
 a-crofs them, from one row to another 5 and are ftrongly 
 bound together with crofs-pieces. 
 PALILIA, a feaft among the ancient Romans in honour of 
 
 the goddefs Pales. 
 
 The Palilia by fome called Parilia, were celebrated by the 
 fhepherds on the firft of May ; to befeech that goddefs to 
 take care of their flocks, and preferve them from wolves, and 
 difeafes. 
 
 Part of the ceremony conflfted in lighting heaps of ftraw, 
 and jumping over them. 
 PALILICIUM, in aftronomy, a fixed ftar of the firft mag- 
 nitude, in the Bull's-eye ; called alfo Aldebaran. 
 Its longitude in Mr. Flamftead's catalogue is 5 0 . 27'. 00". 
 Its latitude 5 0 . 29'. 49". South. 
 
 Pliny gives the name Palilicium to the Hyades, of which the 
 Palilicium is properly only one. 
 PALINDROMUS*, a verfe, or fentence, which runs the fame, 
 when read either backwards, or forwards. 
 
 * The word is Greek, na-hal^a^oi;, retro current, running back- 
 ward, formed of nahM again, and ^of*oj courfe. 
 
 Such is the verfe 
 
 Roma tibi fitbito motibus ibit amor. 
 Some People of leifure have refined upon the Palindromic, 
 and compofed verfes, each word whereof is the fame back- 
 wards as forwards. As that inftance in Cambden. 
 
 Odo tenet mulum, madidam mappam tenet Anna. 
 
 Anna tenet mappam madidam, malum tenet Odo. 
 P AILING, or Paleing in agriculture, &c. a kind of fence- 
 work for fruit-trees, &c. planted in fields, &c. 
 It coniifls of three I'm all pofls driven into the ground, at a 
 foot and a half diftance ; with crofs-bars nailed to each other, 
 near the top. 
 
 Ju fixing the Pales in a form of a triangle, room is to be left 
 for the tree to play and bow by the high winds without gall- 
 ing. The trees are to be bound to a flake for a year or two ; 
 after which fern or ftraw may be fluffed in betwixt the tree, 
 and uppermoft rails to keep it upright. 
 
 If the place be open to deer, rabbets, or the like, a poft is to 
 be nailed to the bar between every two Pales. 
 PA LING EN ESI A*, ria^fmcn*, a new birth, or regeneration. 
 See Regeneration. 
 
 * The word is Greek, formed of wa?u( over-again, a-new, and 
 y., -:.- Ctntjis, generation. 
 Palincenesia, is alfo ufed by fome for the migration 01 
 paflage of the foul of a defunct into another body. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 PAL 
 
 The Palingmefta is almoft the fame thing with the Meteni- 
 pfycholis taught by Pythagoras, and ftill believed by the 
 Brachmans, Banjans, and other philofophers of the eafl. See 
 Metempsychosis. 
 PALINODY, H«&iwJfc* s a difcourfe contrary to a preceding 
 one. 
 
 Hence the phrafe Paliuodiam Cawc, to fmg Palinody, q. d. to 
 make a Recantation. 
 
 The word in the original Greek fignifies ftnging again, or 
 a-new. Hence it has parted as a general name for any pocmi 
 or the like, which contains a retractation in favour of a 
 perfon whom the poet had before offended. 
 The poet Stefichorus is faid to be the firft author pf thePfl- 
 linody. The fixth ode of the firft book of Horace beginning, 
 O Matre pukhra, is a true Palinody. 
 
 PALINTOCIA*, tt^iT-o*^, in antiquity, the birth' or deli- 
 very of a child a fecond time. ■ 
 * The word is formed from the Greek a-freffi, a-new, and 
 
 tok^- of T ( j£lw, I bring fdrth. 
 Thus the fecond birth of Bacchus, proceeding but of Jupiter's 
 thigh, was a Palintocia. 
 
 Palintocia is alfo ufed for the reftittition of tifury, or the 
 refunding of interefts. 
 
 The Megarians, having expelled their tyrant, ordained the 
 Palintocia ; that is, they made a law, that all the creditors 
 fhould return to their debtors the interefts they had received 
 for monies lent. 
 
 PALISADE or Palisado^ in fortification, ah inclofure of 
 flakes, or piles driven to the ground, each fix or feven 
 inches fqume, and eight foot long ; three whereof are hid 
 underground. See Tab. Fertif. Fig. 18. 
 
 Palifadcs are ufed to fortify the avenues of open forts, gorges, 
 half-moons, the bottoms of ditches, the parapets of covert- 
 ways ; and in general all ports liable to ltirprize, and to which 
 the accefs is cafy. 
 
 Pallfadocs are ui'ually planted perpendicularly; though fome 
 make an angle inclining towards the ground next the enemy, 
 that the ropes caft over them, to tear them up, may flip. 
 Turumg Palisades, are an invention of M. Coehoin, in or- 
 der to preferve the Palijddes of the parapet of the covert-way 
 from the befiegers fhot. 
 
 He orders them fo, that as many of them, as ftand in the 
 length of a rod, or in about ten foot, turn up and down like 
 traps; fo as not to be in fight of the enemy till theyjuft bring 
 on their attack : and yet are always ready to do the proper 
 fervice of Palifades. 
 Palisade, in gardening, denotes a fort of ornament; being a 
 row of trees which bear branches and leaves from the bot- 
 tom, cut and fpread in manner of a wall, along the fide of 
 an alley, or the like ; fo as to appear like a wall covered with 
 leaves. 
 
 Thefe Palifades are made of jeflamin, phillyrea, £jfY. 
 PALISSE', in heraldry, a range of Palifades before a fortifica- 
 -tibn reprefented on a ferte, rifing up a confiderable height ; 
 
 and pointed a top, with the field appearing through them — 
 
 V. Tab. Herald. Fig. 31. 
 PALL, in heraldry, denotes a kind of crofs, reprefenting the 
 
 Pallium or archiepifcopal ornament fent from Rome to the 
 
 metropolitans.— See its figure in Tab. Herald. Fig. 32— Which 
 
 is blazoned thus : He beareth Gules, a Crop A;// Argent. 
 PALLA, among the old Romans, a mantle which women 
 
 wore over the gown called Stola. 
 
 It was born on the left Shoulder, whence parting to trie other 
 fide, under the right arm, the two ends were botirid under 
 the left arm, leaving the breaft and arm quite bare. 
 It made abundance of plaits or wrinkles ; whence, accord- 
 ing to Varro, it had its name, viz. from vibro, I fhake, 
 or tremble. 
 
 Among the Gauls there was alfo a kind of Palla wore by the 
 men, called Gallica Palla. 
 PALLADIUM, in antiquity, a ftatue of the goddefs Pallas, 
 preferved in Troy ; whereon the fate of that city is faid to 
 have depended. 
 
 The tradition is, that in building a citadel, in honour of Pal- 
 las, and a temple in the moft elevated part thereof; the Pal- 
 ladium dropped from heaven, and marked out the place 
 which the goddefs was pleafed to poflefs,— After this, Apollo 
 gave an oracle, importing, that Troy fhould never be ta^ed 
 while the Palladium was found within its walls: which occa- 
 lioncd Diomed and Ulyffes, in the Time of the Trojan War, 
 to undertake the ftealing thereof. 'Tie faid, there was anci- 
 ently a ftatue of Pallas preferved at Rome, in the temple of 
 Vefta : which fome pretended to be the true Palladium of Trey, 
 brought into Italy by ^neas : it was kept among the facred 
 things of the temple, and only known to the pi iefts and vefials; 
 This ftatue was cfleemed the defliny of Rome; and there 
 were feveral others made perfectly like it,- to fecuie it from 
 being ftolen. See Ancyle. 
 
 There was alfo a Palladium in the citadel of Athens, placed 
 there by Nicias. 
 
 Thefe Palladium!, in all probability, were no other than a 
 kind of Talifmans. See Talisman. 
 
 8 B PALLET, 
 
PAL 
 
 PAL 
 
 PALLET, among painters, a little oval table, or piece of 
 wood, or ivory, very thin and fmooth ; on and round which 
 the painteis place the feveral colours they have occaiion tor, 
 to be leady for the pencil. 
 
 The middle ferves ro mix the colours on, and to make the 
 tints required in the work. It has no handle, but in lieu 
 (hereof, a hole at one end, to put the thumb through to 
 hold it. 
 
 Pallet, among potters, crucible-makers, bV. is a wooden in- 
 ftfument, almoli the only one they ufe, for forming, beating, 
 and rounding their works. 
 ' They have feveral kinds ; the largeft are oval, with a handle ; 
 otheis a>e lound, or hollowed tiiangulavly; others, in fine, 
 are in manner of large knives, feiving to cut olf what is lu- 
 perrluous on the moulds of their woik. 
 
 Pallet, in gilding, is an infhumcnt made of a fquirrel's tail ; 
 ufed to take up the gold leaves from the pillow, to apply and 
 extend them on the matter to be gilt. See Gilding. 
 
 Pallet, in heraldry, is the moiety, or half of the pale; or a 
 fmall pale, half the breadth of the ufual one. 
 The Pallet muft never be charged with any tiling either quick 
 or dead ; neither can it be divided into two equal parts : but 
 it may be into four ; for one fouith pait of the Pallet, or I 
 parts of the pale, is called an endoiie. 
 
 If the pale be upon atiy heart, they lay, the beaft is debruifed 
 
 with the pale : but if the beaft be upon the pale, they fay he 
 
 is jupported by it. 
 Pallet is alio a part belonging to the ballance of a watch or 
 
 movement. See Watch. 
 PALLIATION, the act of mitigating, foothing, or difguifing 
 
 a thing. 
 
 Hence, in medicine, Palliation is ufed for the quieting and 
 afluagitig of pain, and providing againft the feveier fymptoms 
 of a diicale, when nothing can be directly levelled againft 
 the caufe. 
 
 PALLIATIVE Indiai/ion, is where the fymptoms of a difeafe 
 give too much tiouble, and danger, to have their cuic 
 deferred till the difeafe whereon they depend, is removed. 
 ■Heie, the fymptoms, thcmfelves, aie to be cuied, or miti- 
 gated a-patr: and hence, 
 
 Palliative Cure, is the anfwering of a Palliative indication: 
 or the removal, or mitigation of the fymptoms of a difeafe ; 
 the caufe of the difeafe ftill remaining. 
 
 Bceihaave obferves, that every mitigation of a fymptom takes 
 away fomewhat fiom the difeafe itfelf; lb that to cure all 
 the fymptoms together, is almoll to cure the whole dif- 
 eafe.' ; " . . 
 
 The principal fymptoms which call for fuch a fort of cure, 
 are thirft, pain, too much waking, and fainting. See each 
 under its proper aiticle. 
 PALLIER, or Paillier, in building, a landing-place in a 
 ftair-cafe ; or a ftcp, which, being bioader than the rcit, ferves 
 to reft upon. See Stair-case. 
 
 The term is pure Fi ench, and is not much ufed in Englilh. 
 In perrons, or large ftair-cafes, where there aie fometimes 
 feveral Puttiers in the fame range, or line, they ought to have 
 each at leaft the width of two fteps. 
 
 Thole in the tin ns of fkiir-caics ought to be as broad as long. 
 Vitiuvius calls the Paliiers or landing-places of the thaaties, 
 Dia_z$fnata. .:, .1 _* 1 • -*-*:■ 1 : lerii 
 
 PA LLIFICATION, in architecture, denotes the piling of 
 the ground-woik; or the ftrengthening it with piles, or tim- 
 ber dtiven into the ground : which is practifed, when peo- 
 ple build upon a moift, or marlhy foil, 
 
 PALLID csoperire.' — It was an ancient cuftom, where chil- 
 dien weie born out of lawful wedlock, and their parents af- 
 •terwaids intermarried ; that thole children, together with the 
 father and mother, Ihould ftand Pallid cooperti, under a cloth 
 fpiead over them, while the marriage was a folcmnizing ; 
 which was a kind of adoption, and had the effect of a legi- 
 timation. 
 
 Thus Robert Grofthcad, the famous blfhop of Lincoln, in 
 
 one of his letteis fays: — /// Rgnum legltimaLionh, nati ante 
 matrimonium conjueverunt poni jub pallio jupcr parentes eorum 
 ■e.xtetito, in matrimonii jJe?nmza!ioiie. 
 
 Seidell, in his notes on l-'ieta, adds, that the children of John 
 of Gaunt duke of Lancafter, by Catherine Swinfoid, though 
 legitimated by act. of parliament, yet were covered with the 
 Ptdl at the time of the marriage of their parents, 
 PALLIUM or PALL, a pontifical ornament woie by popes, 
 patiiaichs, primates, and metropolitans of the Romilh church 
 over their other garments, as a lign of their jurifdiction. 
 It is in form of a band, or fillet, three fingers broad, and 
 incompalles the ihoulder ; whence by fome authors it is 
 called Superhuinerah:, It has pendants, or firings, about a palm 
 long, both befoie and behind; with little lamina; of lead 
 rounded at the extremes, and coveied with black lilk, with 
 four red cioiles. 
 
 The Pallium is made of white wool, Ihorn from off two 
 lambs, which the nuns o." St. Agnes offer every year, on 
 the day of her leaft, at the linging of the mafs, 4ym Dei. 
 
 The lambs are received by the two canons of the church of 
 St. John de Lateran ; who deliver them into the hands of 
 the apoftohcal lub-dcacons, to whom belongs the feeding and 
 ftieaiing of them in leafon, and who alone have the right of 
 making fhefe Pallium ; which, when made, they lay over the 
 bodies of St. Peter and St. Paul in the grand altar of their 
 church, making prayers over them all night, according to the 
 form pieiciibcd for that purpofe in the Roman Ceiemonial. 
 Some, with Eufcbius, will have the Pallium to have been in- 
 troduced by pope Linus ; adding, that as the Ephod was the 
 "maik of the pontifical authority in the Jewiih iynagogue, fo 
 is the Pallium in the romilh church. 
 
 Others have obferved, that there is no mention made hereof 
 
 befo?e the year 336. 
 
 Laftly, others wifl have it to have been firft granted by Con- 
 ftantine the great, to pope Silvefter ; from whence it palled 
 to the other patriarchs, and archbilhops. 
 The pope pietends to the fole light of conferring the Pallium ; 
 though fome patriarchs have granted it to their furtVagans ; 
 having firft received it themielves from the Roman fee. 
 Anciently, the pope ufed to fend the Pallium, to certain of his 
 diocefan bilhops, on whom he laid a good part of his au- 
 thority, and who weie a kind of collaterals to him, as the 
 Patricii weie to the empciois. 
 
 7tie fiift, who received it in France, was Vigilius, archbilhop 
 of Aries, this was done, in order, as Pafquicr obferves, to 
 give him the precedency over the other bilhops. 
 Anciently they went to Rome to feek the Pallium in perfon ; 
 afteiwards, it was fent by the pope's legates. At laft the cuf- 
 tom was introduced of lending perfons exprefs to demand it, 
 with this form, Injlanter, Injlantius, Injhnijjjimc. 
 By the popilh canon laws, a metropolitan, till he have re- 
 ceived the Pallium, cannot confecrate bilhops, or churches, 
 and he may not be called aichbilhop, oV. — Upon a tran- 
 flation he muft have the Pallium afrelh ; and till then he 
 cannot hold a fynod, nor perform any of his archiepifcopal 
 functions. 
 
 The P&JHum was anciently interred with the perfon. 
 The ufe of the Pallium is leftrained to certain feafons and 
 occafions ; none but the pope have the right of wearing it 
 always, and in all places. 
 
 The pope fometimes fends it to bilhops on his own accord ; 
 and has fometimes given the right hereof to particularchurches. 
 Among die Gieeks all the bilhops wear the Pallium. 
 In ancient records, we find mention made of another Pallium, 
 Which was a long garment fpread over with crolles. Tertul- 
 lian fays it was a diftinguifhing garment of the chriftians ; 
 that of the heathens being called Toga. 
 PALM, Palmus, an ancient long meafurc, taken from the 
 extent of the hand. 
 
 The Roman Palmus was of two kinds : the great Palm, taken 
 fiom the length of the hand, anfwercd to our fpan, and con- 
 tained 12 fingeis, digits, or fingers breadths, or 9 Roman 
 inches, equal to about 8 Englilh inches ^. See Digit and 
 
 Span. 
 
 The fmall Palm, taken from the breadth of the hand, con- 
 tained 4 digits or fingers, equal to about two Englilh inches, 
 g tenths. 
 
 . The Greek Palm or Dcrcn, was of two kinds. The fmall 
 contained four fingers, equal to 2 inches. ^. The great con- 
 rained 9 fingers. — The double Greek Palm, called Dicbas, 
 contained alfo in proportion. 
 
 The modem Palm is different in different places where it ob- 
 tains. — At Rome it contains 7 inches ,1 : At Naples, accord- 
 ing toRiccioli, 8 inches: At Genoa, according to M. Petit, 
 8 inches ,- " : At Morocco and Fez, 7 inches T 5 : In Languedoc 
 and fome other parts of France, the Palm is 8 inches }. — 
 The Englilh Palm is 3 inches. 
 
 At Leghorn there ate two kinds of Palms, the one for 
 Soollens, the other for lilks : the firft one third lhorter than 
 the latter. 
 
 PALM, Palma, in anatomy, denotes the infide of the hand; 
 called alfo Vola and Metetarpion. See Hand. 
 
 PALMARIS, in anatomy, a mufcle feiving to contract the palm 
 of the hand in graining. See Tab. ylnat. (Myol) Fig- 2. n. 25. 
 It arifes from the internal protuberance of the humerus, and 
 by a long and llender tendon, palfes above the annular liga- 
 ment to the palm of the hand ; wheie it expands itfelf into a 
 large aponeuiofis, which cleaves dole to the (kin above, and 
 to the lides of the metacarpus below, and to the fiift phalanx 
 of the lingers i by which means it makes four cafes for the 
 tendons of the fingeis to pafs through. 
 
 The mufcle is fometimes wanting, but the aponeurofis is al- 
 ways there. 
 
 Palmaris brevis or quadratus, a mufcle that lies under the apo- 
 neurofis of the firft. It aiifes from the bone of the meta- 
 carpus that luftains the little finger, and from that bone of 
 the carpus which lies above the reft. It goes tranfveilly, and 
 is inferred mta the eighth bone of the carpus. 
 
 .4 , h 
 
P A L 
 
 It fervcs to draw the palm of the hand into a concave figure 
 PALMER, in our ancient writers, is uled for a pilgrim, and 
 
 ibmethnes for a croile, on account of a daft" made of thr 
 
 palm-tree, which they ever afterwards bore as a badge of their 
 
 devotion. See Pilgrim and CroISK'. 
 PALMISTRY, a kind of divination performed by infpcctine 
 
 the lines and marks of the hands and fingers : called alio di- 
 
 romancy. 
 
 PALMS, among botanifts, white buds (hooting out of willows, 
 or fallows, before the leaf ; of the ettpanfions whereof, the 
 flowers of that tree are formed. 
 
 P alm-Sunday, Dominica Palmarum, the Sunday next before 
 Eafter-Sunday ; or the laft Sunday irr Lent. See Lent. 
 It has been thus called from the primitive days, on account 
 of a pious ceremony then in ufe, of bearing Palms in me- 
 mory of the triumphant entiy of Jefus Chi iff into Jeruraleirr, 
 eight days before the fcaft of the pallbvcr, defcribed by 
 St. Mathew, Chap. XXI. St. Mark, Chap. XI. arrd St. Luke, 
 Chap. XIX. 
 
 The ancients had other names for this day. For i ° they 
 called it Dominica Compel cntium, i. e. Sunday of the Compe- 
 tences ; becaufe on that day the catechumens came to alk rhe 
 bifliop leave to be adnritted to baptifm, which was conferred 
 the funday following. 
 
 They had alfo, then, given them the fymbol or credo to get 
 off by heart, to be repeated to the brihop in the ceremony 
 of baptiihi. 
 
 2°. They called it Capitilu-aium, the Sunday of wafliing the 
 head ; by reafon thofe, who were to be baptized the follow- 
 ing Sunday, were prepared by wafliing their heads on this 
 day. 
 
 Some time afterwards they called it Indulgence Sunday; by 
 reafon that the emperors and patriarchs uled to dirtrrbute 
 gifts on that day. 
 
 PALMULAR1I, more properly called Parmularii, in anti- 
 quity, a fort of gladiators, who fought armed with a fort of 
 little buckler called parma. See Gladiator. 
 
 PALPABLE, fomerhing that may be perceived by the fenfe 
 efpecially by the fenie of feeling. 
 
 JJ cn 5 impalpable powder. See Impalpable and Powder 
 
 PAL1EBR7E, in anatomy, the eye-lids, or thofe externa, 
 moveable coveis, which ferve to fcreen and defend the 
 eyes. 
 
 T hey confift of a thin mufcular membrane, covered without- 
 fide with a ftrong, yet flexible Ikin ; and lined within-fidt 
 wrth a production, as fome think, of the pericranium. Their 
 edges are fortified with a foft cartilage, by means whereof, 
 they are enabled to dole the better. 
 
 Out of thefe cartilages grow a palifadc of (tiff hairs called 
 Cilia \ of great ule to warn the eye of the approach of dan- 
 ger, cither in deeping or waking j to keep off motes, flies, 
 (ft, in the air, and to break the too fierce impielfion of the 
 rays of light. 
 
 I hefe hairs, it is obferved, only gr ow to a certain convenient 
 length, and never need cutting, as mod others do ; add to 
 this, that their points (land out of the way ; thole of the up- 
 per eye-lid being bent upwards, as thofe of the lower down- 
 wards, fo nice is nature in fuch (mall matters. 
 At the comminut e, or joining of the upper and under eye- 
 lids, arc formed two angles called Canlhi. 
 In the inner of thefe is a gland called Gkniuld lacbrymalis ; 
 from which proceed two or three ducts, which, opening on 
 the inner furface of the eye-lid, ferve to moiften the ball of 
 the eye, and keep its membranes from growing harlh and 
 dry. 
 
 Near the other angle, is a gland called Innminatan which 
 helping alio, by fevcral bl anches, to irrigate the eye, the over- 
 plus is carried to the greater angle, arid tranfmitted to the 
 nofe through the puncta lachrymalia. 
 
 By thefe glands it is, that the humour, called tears, is fe- 
 cerned. 
 
 The eye-lids are both moveable ; efpecially the upper, which 
 lias two mufclcs to raife and deprefs it, called Atlellens, and Dc- 
 primens ox Orbicularis. See Attollens and ORBrcuLARrs. 
 In quadtupeds the lower fi alpebra is moveable, and is the 
 fmaller ; in birds, on the contrary, the lower is immoveable, 
 and the greater. 
 
 Animals that have hard eyes, as lobders, and the generality 
 of fiflies, have no Palpebra, fuch eyes being fufficiendy 
 k-cured without. 
 
 In the generality of brutes there is a kind of a third eye-lid, 
 "hrch is drawn like a curtain, to wipe off the humidity 
 which might incommode the eyes ; it is called the Nictilamu 
 Membrane. 
 
 1 he monkey is almoft the only one that wants it ; as beine 
 
 P Il'Svrl Trr m" 1 ""' With ' Unds to wi P e tlle W on «"<">n. 
 rALHTATJUN, Palpitatio, in medicine, a prretci natural 
 
 beating, or puliation of any of the folid parts of the body, 
 
 elpccially the heart. 
 
 The Palpitatim of the heait is an irregularity in the motions 
 ot that vilcus, whereby it is driven wirh violence towards 
 
 PAL 
 
 the tibs, in its contraction, attended with a great feebleheft! 
 Of pulfe. 
 
 there are feveral degret „ of this Palpitation : fometimes it is 
 great, iometimes moderate, fometimes (mall; itisfometin.es 
 fo impetuous, as to beh ,rd and even feen by the by- (landers. 
 I he trepidation or trembling of the heart, differs from the 
 Palpitation, or panting. In the former, the pulijnons ate 
 taint, flow and (altering, in the latter, the (hakes are immo- 
 derate, violent^ and convullive. 
 
 The caufe of the Palpitation, according to Boerhaive is ufuaily 
 an inordinate and violent influx of the vital ([writ's irrto the 
 villi of the heatt; as in violent paffrctis, fudden fear hy.teric 
 affections, and in violent and fudden motions. Sometimes 
 it is owing to an irritation of the fibres of the heart occafi- 
 oned by fome (harp (timulus ; as an inflammation of the 
 heart or pericardium, or fome other difotder thereof from a 
 (tone, worms, hairs, an aneuryiina, or tile like. 
 Sometimes it arifes from a thick, copious, polypous blood ■ 
 and fometimes from the arteries being become cartilaginous 
 or bony ; or their extremities being obltrufted therewith. 
 In the dictionary de Trevoux, an author, himfelf afflicted 
 with this difcafe, makes a particular drfquifition into its na- 
 ture and caufe. 
 
 Anatomy, he obferves, (hews us a great number of occafional 
 caufes of tins difeafe : but phyficians are ltill at a lofs to de- 
 termine the efficient caufe. 
 
 The moderns, with better reafon than the ancients, feek for 
 it in the blood of the pulmonary artery, which is fuppofed 
 to rebound rnrpetuouily towards the right ventricle of the 
 heart; by being prevented from puifuing its courfe towards 
 the other veffels of the lungs, on their being flopped by fome 
 obftruehon, or comprell'ed from various caufes. 
 In opening the carcalles of people dead of this difeafe, or 
 lubjeft to it while living, worms or polypus's have been often 
 tound in the pericardium. 
 
 In fome the heart is extraordinatily big, and the pulmonary 
 attery dilated to double, or quadruple rts ordinary capacity 
 with obrtructions of the pulmonary vein, confiding of carti- 
 laginous matters which cram its cavity fo clofe, that, as 
 lilancard tells us, in his anatomy, it is fometimes difficult 
 even to get a pin in. From thefe obfetvations, fome have 
 concluded, that the capillary, and other vellels of the lungs, 
 oppoling an impalfflbie dike to the courfe of the thicker* 
 part of the blood, driven thither by the contraction of the 
 heart, io that only a (mall quantity can find a pafl'age through 
 them, the reft muff make an effort againlt their "fides and 
 oblige them to give way, and (tretch them out in proportion 
 to the quatrtrty of blood impelled againlt them by the con- 
 traction of the heart. 
 
 But becaufe the pulmonary artery cannot (tretch wide enough 
 to reccrve all the blood ol the light ventricle driven thither at 
 a connection ; and lince rhe blood, by reafon of obltructions 
 cannot continue rrs progieflive motion, in proportion to the 
 velocrty whercwirh it is impelled, by the contraction of the 
 heart; the heart at each contraction fails to exprefs into the 
 pulmonary artery, all the blood it contained in its right ven- 
 tricle 'I hus that part of rhe blood which remains, receiving 
 the whole dock rmprelled by the contraction, returns it agaii 
 to the heart by reflection, di iking impetuoully againd its 
 fides, and making it bound and (hoot towatd the ribs. 
 The fame confequences will arife fiom obft.uctions of the 
 aorta, preventing the entiie evacuation of the left ventricle • 
 and generally, horn all obrtructions or comprellions of the 
 velfels, as polypus's, abfeeffes, and dropfies in the parts near 
 the Heart As to worms, their biting and gnawing the fibrous 
 parts or the heart, mud occafion violent" refluxes of fpirits 
 towarus the btarn, followed with a copious effluvia of other 
 (pints into the nerves of the lungs, by the confent of parts. 
 And by fuch means violent and convulfive contractions will 
 be occafioned throughout the whole texture of the lungs, 
 w hich oppofingthe free paffage of the blood may alfo occa- 
 hon a Palpitation of the heart. 
 
 The fame difeafe may alfo arife from a compreflion of the 
 lungs, occafioned by the extraordinary rarefaction of vicious 
 and fermentative juices, fojourning in the domach and in- 
 telttnes ; which dilate thofe parts to that degree, that the 
 diaphragm and lungs being extremely draightened, the blood 
 cannot crrculate without a great deal of difficulty ; a Palpita- 
 tion therefore mult enfne ; which will lart as long as that fare- 
 faciron in the Ai ft pallages. 
 
 Such, according to modern phyficians, are the immediate 
 caufes of the Palpitation of the heart : the remote or occa- 
 fional caufes are whatever may occafion luch obftrurflion of 
 the pulmonary artery, c?7. 
 
 In the (amc woik, another phyfician lays down winds or 
 flatus's, as the caufe of the Palpitation ; he adds, that the an- 
 cients, to a man, looked on that as the mod ordinary occa- 
 fion theieof : In effect, fays he, from this fource may be de- 
 duced a multitude of caufes of fympathetic Palpitation, by 
 means of the ventricle, the diaphragm, mediartirmm, bfc. 
 Others will have tlle fole caule of Palpitation to be a vifcid 
 
 blood i 
 
PAL 
 
 blood : which, by its extraordinary rarefaction, dilating the 
 pulmonary artery, and, by that means, opening the cavity oi 
 its capillary veffels towards their extremes ; or, by this ^na- 
 tation comp. effing the other little veffels of the lungs, pre- 
 vents the blood from continuing its circulating motion Wltn 
 freedom ; and thus occafions a Palpitation or the heart. 
 All thefe authors hold the Palpitation a dangerous difeafe, and 
 Galen obfeives, that thofe much troubled with it, when 
 youna', never live to be old. . . 
 
 According to M. Pifon, a doaor of the faculty at Pans, the 
 Palpitation of the heart may arife, eirher from a too abun- 
 dant feiofity lwelling the proper membrane of the heart; as 
 Galen found to be the cafe in opening a monkey ; ortiom 
 too great a quantity of water contained in the pericaraium ; 
 by which means, the heart being ftraightened, and dilameu 
 fiom moving with its ulual freedom, is obliged to make 1c 
 veral jerks or half beats, inftead of the reguiar motions i 
 had before ; or, again, it may arife from a ferofity thrown 
 into the ventricles of the heart, cither from .rhe grand ve.lcls 
 which furnifh the blood, or from the lungs, or from the Drain. 
 Of ihefe three caufes, the moil ordinary feems to be Lie too 
 great extenfion of rhe pericardium, by water, as it rs found ro 
 be in the bodies of moft of thole opened after this dileale 
 The different caufes have their different tymptoms. 1 ne 
 boilins ferofity thrown out of the blood-veffels into the 
 heart, "lhews itfelf by hidden beatings of the temples, whizmgs 
 in the ear, dimnefs of the fight, and wandering pains m vari- 
 ous parrs of the body. 
 
 In that produced by the abundance of water in the pericar- 
 dium, or from the humour (welling the proper membrane of 
 the heart, the heart feems as if fuffocated in water, the pulle 
 is weak, and the Palpitation continual, or nearly fo, together 
 with a feveriilurefs and a difficulty of breathing. To which 
 may be added, that the difeale comes by little and little. 
 The Palpitation ariling from the ferofity is to be cured by 
 bleeding, the other by purging. Set Supplement, Article 
 Palpitatio Cordis. 
 PALSGRAVE, a term ul'ed among the Germans, of the fame 
 import with palatine. See Palatine. 
 
 It is compounded of the Latin, pahtittm, and the Dutch, 
 grave, governor, q. d. governor, or fupcrintendant of a prince's 
 
 palace. .Jima"/ . ^S^l * '-. ■talftihainrfii 'ill*. 
 
 PALSY, Paralysis, in medicine, a difeafe, wherein the body, 
 or fome of its parts lofe their motion, and fometimes their 
 fenfation, or feeling. 
 
 The caufes of the Palfy are an impeded influx of the nervous 
 fpiiits into the villi or the mufcles : or of the arterious blood 
 into their veffels ; this may happen from fome fault, either 
 jn the brain, the nerves, the mufcles or their vefi'els. 
 The Palfy is laid to be per/eel or compleat, when theie is a 
 privation of motion, and fenfation at the fame time. 
 Impafccl, when one of the two is deftroyed, the other 
 remaining. 
 
 The Pa/Jy again, is either univerfal, lateral, or partial 
 XJniv.rfal Palsy, called alio Paraplegia or Paraplexia, is a ge- 
 neral immobility of all the mufcles that receive nerves from 
 the cei ebrum or cerebellum, except thofe of the head. — Its 
 caul'e is ufually fuppofed to relide in the ventricles of the 
 brain, or in the root of the fpinal marrow. 
 EtmtlUer makes this a different difeafe from the parahjis, 
 which he fuppoles to confift in a relaxation of the ligaments 
 and membranes fetving for motion ; but the paraplegia in a 
 meer obit ru£rion of the nerves. 
 
 The paraplegia is feldom a primary difeafe, ufually a fecondary 
 one, attending or following an apoplexy, fcotbutus, carus, or 
 arthritis. 
 
 Lateral Palsy, called alfp Himphgm, is the fame difeafe with 
 the paraplegia \ only that it affects but one fide of the body. 
 —Its caule is the fame, only that it is reftramcd to one fide 
 of the btain, or fpinal marrow. 
 
 Partial? alsy ', is rhat where fome particular part, or member- 
 alone is affected ; c. gr. where the motion of the arm or leg 
 is deftroyed. 
 
 Qtiincy obfei ves, that a Palfy where motion is deftroyed. 
 fenfation remaining, may be produced : firlt, by too much 
 humidity ltretching the mufcular fibres in length. Secondly, 
 from cold thincs, which thicken the juices. Thirdly, from 
 external comprelfion. And fourthly, from hot things, which 
 ftraighten the fupplc membranes and vclles. — All thefe caufes 
 affect either the blood, or mufcles; the former, by thickening 
 that humour, lb that it cannot fuddenly larify ; and the latter, 
 by relaxing the mufcles into too great a length by too much 
 mcilluie, or contracting them into too narrow dunenfions by 
 too much hear. But the fenfation may yet be piel'erved, be- 
 caul'e, notwithllanding all thefe hindrances, the anintal fpirits 
 and neives may not be at all affected. 
 
 The caufes of the Pally where fenfation is deftroyed, mo- 
 tion remaining, he obfeives, may be alt thofe things which lb 
 far thicken the animal fpiiits in the nerves, arifing below the 
 cerebellum, that though indeed they may How into the muf- 
 cles through the neives, and there, by the occuilion of fome 
 
 PAL 
 
 liquor fecreted from the blood, may ratify ; yet they cannot 
 alor.e flow in fuch quantities into the nerves, as from a very 
 flight caufe to be made to undulate ; whence fenfation will 
 ceafe without lofing the motion of the pair. 
 The caufes of this kind oiPafy are alfo whatfoever render thofe 
 nerves more lax and moifi, and fo left apt for lively vibra- 
 tions ; the animal fpirits flowing in the moan time into the 
 mufcles, from whence motion is performed without fenfation. 
 The cure of the Palfy, according to Waii J ichmidt, does not 
 differ much from that of the venereal dill. ife. Internally, mer- 
 curials, fudoiifics and decoctions of the woods are good : 
 externally, unctions, paiticularly 01 fyiiitous and penetrating 
 things, not or' the pait aftecled, but on the fpina dorfl. See 
 Supplement , Article Paralysis. 
 P A LTJD AMENTUM, in antiquity, Chlamis : a garment wore 
 by the Romans in time of war; being the coat of arms of 
 their principal men, efpecially the generals ; who, for that 
 reafon were diftinguiihed by the appellation prdudati. 
 The foldicrs only^ having inort coats, were therefore named 
 fagatu j,. i -j 
 
 This garment was open on the fides, with fhort fleeves, by 
 fome relembled to angels wings, and came down no lower 
 than the navel. 
 
 It was either white or red ; Valerius Maximus remarks it was 
 an ill omen to Ciaflus, that they gave him a black Pahida- 
 mentum : PuUum ei traditum eft Paludamentum, cum in pra- 
 lium euntibus album aut purpureum dari folcrct. 
 Cornutus fays, the Romans wore the Toga in peace, and the 
 Paludamenitnn in war. — And hence the phrafe, Togam Palu- 
 damento mutavit. 
 PALY, or Pale', in heraldry. — When an efcutcheon is divi- 
 ded into fix, eight, or ten divifions pale-wife, e, by perpendi- 
 cular lines drawn from the top to the bottom : it is blazoned 
 Paly of fix, eight, or ten, &c. pieces. 
 
 If the number be odd, then the field is firft named, and the 
 number of the pales fpecified. See Pale. 
 The like is to be undeiftood alfo of barry and bendy. See 
 Barry, is'c. 
 
 Paly-Bendy is, when a coat is divided, both pale and bend- 
 wife : In Poly-Bendy the field is divided by perpendicular lines, 
 which is called Paly, and then again by diagonals crofting the 
 former, from the dexter fide to the finiller, which is the Bendy. 
 See Tab. Herald. Fig- 30. The field is Paly-Bendy, topaz and 
 diamond. 
 
 PAMPINIFORM E Corpus, in anatomy, a fort of plexus, or 
 knot of blood-veffels, formed by the fpermatick veins ; which 
 in their progrefs through the teftes, conftitute a body, called 
 
 Corpus Varicofum Pampimfor?ne y or Pyramidale. See Pyrami- 
 
 DALE CiYpUS. 
 
 PANACEA *, n«»«iia, an univerfal medicine ; or a remedy 
 for all difeafes. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek -mat, all, aw^x, I cure. 
 The accurate Boerhaave overturns the notion of 'Panacea's, 
 and ihews, from the different caufes, natures, effects, feats, 
 csV. of difeafes, that feveral may indeed be cured by one me- 
 dicine ; but all, by none. 
 
 He obfeives, that rhe moft univerfal remedies known, are wa- 
 ter, fire, mercury and opium ; and adds, that by thefe alone, 
 cautioufly difguifed, fome have acquired the reputation of uni- 
 verfal phyiicians. 
 PANACEA, Panaces, or Panax, All-heal, is alfo applied 
 to feveral plants, by reafon of the extraordinary virtues afcri- 
 bed to them. 
 
 There are three of thefe Panacea's peculiarly famed among 
 the ancients : the hcraclean, afclepian, and chironian ; thefe 
 were fo called from their inventors, Hercules, Afclepias, and 
 Chiron. 
 
 The firft is the Panax Heracha vera fieulnea folio, in Englifh 
 true All-heal of Hercules. — From the root and ftem of this is 
 drawn, byincifion, the gum opopanax. 
 
 The afclepian, according to fome botanifts, is a kind of ferula, 
 which Gaf. Bauhin. calls Libanotis Ferula folk IS femine. 
 The chironian, according to fome, is a kind of helianthcmum : 
 according to Bradley, itisDoria's woundwort. 
 PANADA*, Panata, or Panatella, a diet confifting 
 of bread boiled in water, to the confidence of a pulp ; given 
 to fick Pei fons whofe digeftion is weak, or to whom ftronger 
 foods would be improper. 
 
 * The word is formed from the name of the principal ingredient, 
 panii, bread. 
 
 It is fometimes made thin, to ferve as a drink ; and fometimes 
 likewife is fweetened, csV. to render it more palatable. 
 PANAGE or Pannage in our ancient cuftoms. See Pan- 
 nage. 
 
 PANARIS *, Panaritium, or Paronychia, in medi- 
 cine, is a painful tumour, or inflammation, arifing on the 
 extremities of the fingers or toes ; popularly called among us 
 
 a JVhithe._ 
 
 * The word in Latin is Panaritium, which we find in Apuleius, 
 formed apparently from the Greek ^n^-^x, q. d. an Abfcefs at 
 the root of the nails ; of ^a^xjuxta, and ow^ unguis. 
 
 It 
 
PAN 
 
 It is occafioned by a (harp or faline humour, lodged between 
 die bone and periofteum, or among the nerves and tendons. 
 An infallible remedy for it, is to open it either with the point 
 of a lancet, or with fome cauftick, and then to dip the finger 
 in a lixivium of vine aihes. 
 
 Befide the mild kind, called the Whithe, there is alfo a ma- 
 lignant kind, called a FeHon. 
 
 The Panaris is exceeding painful. It fometime3 tends to an 
 impofthume, butmoie ufually gangrenes. 
 For the Panaris, after bleeding, and the univerfal remedies, 
 Dr. Burnet orders the patient to hold his finger a good while 
 in a rotten egg, or in a putrified moufe. Helmont tells us, he 
 has feen a finger as big as an arm by means of a Panaris, cured 
 by rubbing it with blood, and then wrapping it up in mole- 
 ikins. Riverius adds, that to hold the finger aft'ecf ed in a cat's 
 ear, cures a Panaris in two hours. Obfervat. 63. Cent. 4. 
 
 PANATA, oi Pakatelia. See the article Panada. 
 
 PANATHENjKA, n««A„„«, in antiquity, a feaft celebrated 
 at Athens, in honour of Minerva, whom the Greeks called 
 Athena. 
 
 Harpocration and Suidas, refer its inftitution to Erichthonius 
 IV. king of Athens, who lived before Thefeus. Thcodoret, 
 alone, fays the feaft was eftablifhed by Orpheus. 
 Be this as it will, till Thefeus, this was a particular feaft of the 
 city of Athens, and was called fimply Albena-a : but that prince 
 uniting all the people of Attica into one republick, they 
 afterwards all afTifted at the feaft ; whence the name Pana- 
 tkmta, i. e. the feaft of all Attica. 
 
 In effecT: all Attica was prefent ; and each people fent a bul- 
 lock for the facrifices, and for the entertainment of the vail 
 multitude of people aflembled. 
 
 If they eat a great deal, it appears they did not drink lefs ; 
 witneis the vellels they drunk out of, which were called Pa- 
 natbcnaiccl, each of which held two congius's and a half. 
 There were two kinds of Panatbencea ; the great celebrated 
 every five years ; and the little, every year, or every three 
 years ; if we may credit the author of the argument of De- 
 mofthenes's oration againft Midias. 
 
 In the .P«7/&»«r,j was held one of the proceffions which the 
 ancients called Pcmpa:, compofed of the briikeft old men, each 
 whereof bore, in his hand, an olive branch: whence they 
 were called Thalhpbari. 
 
 This was to do honour to Minerva, in quality of inventrefs 
 of the olive-tree; on which account they had likewife com- 
 bats, wherein the victors were rewarded with vefi'els of oil 
 and crowned with olive crowns. It was a crime for any of 
 the fpectators to be clad in black. 
 
 The ceremonies were the fame in the great, and the little Pa- 
 Tiatbentca ; excepting for a banner wherein the actions of the 
 goddeis were repi efented in embroidery performed by maids 
 with the names of thofe who had diftinguifhed themfelves 
 in the fervice of the republic ; which was only bore at the 
 greater. 
 
 PANCARPUS *, in antiquity, a fort of fpeflacle, or (hew Which 
 the Roman emperors frequently exhibited to the people. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, «v„, all, and fruit — 
 Whence the name was alfo given by the Athenians lo a facrifice 
 wherein all kinds of fruits were offered. 
 
 The Pancarpus of the Romans was a kind of chace, or hunt ■ 
 forthe performance hereof, a number of hearts, as hares, deer 
 bullocks, £SV. were lliut up in the circus or amphitheatre ; into' 
 which trees were frequently tranfplanted, fo as to form a kind 
 of foreft, wherein the beads were let loofe ; whence the Pan- 
 tcirpm was alfo called Syha. 
 
 The beads were thus abandoned to the people : e. to all who 
 were difpofed to (hare in the pleafure of the chace ; who pur- 
 fued, (hot, killed and cut in pieces all they could lay hold of 
 Hehogabalus, the Gordians and Probus, gave this diverfion 
 very frequently. 
 
 Cafaubon, Cujas, Pithou, 6r>. make the Pancarpus and Syha 
 the fame thing ; Salmafius will have them different. The Stl- 
 vt, according to him, was fuch a diverfion, as that above de- 
 fenbed ; but the Pantarpus a combat, wherein robuft people 
 hired for that purpofe, fought with wild beafts ; which opin ion 
 he confirms from Caffian, Juilinian, Claudian, Firmicus Ma- 
 nilius, and Cafliodorus. 
 
 PANCHREAS. Seethe article Pancreas. 
 
 PANCHREATIC. See Pancreatic Juice 
 
 PANCHREST » Panchrestos, in medicine, a panacea, or 
 remedy tor all diftempcrs. See Panacea 
 
 * The word i, Greek n«r Zs -,,-e-, formed of all, and v ; „ r s- 
 
 mm, uleful. as"*". 
 
 PANCHYMAGOGUE*,Panc H vmaooou M , in pharmacy, 
 a purging extract made from aloes, rhubard, fenna,fcammo.iv 
 jalap, agaric, coloquintida, and black hellebore. 
 
 * Id" W ° rd / fom "-' d / ram t' Greek ■"»■ "H. Pr*,/««, juice, 
 lod«9H», iMtrtt todrawoff. 
 
 Its name ariics hence that being a eompof.tion of all the kinds 
 of purgatives, ,t was fuppofed to iiave the virtue of purging all 
 the foils of humours ot die body at once. 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 PAN 
 
 PANCRATIUM *, n*f xf « T ,„, among the ancien!Si a o( 
 intermixed cxeicile, confiding of the luc~ta or wieftlin* and 
 the boxing or pugilate. 6 
 
 * The word is compounded of,™,, all, and H „m, I overcome 
 The Pmerarim was the third gymnartic exercife, and was not 
 introduced till long alter the others 
 
 The people who were engaged in thefe exercifes, were called 
 P°«™W*i which name was alfo give,, to fuch as did not 
 difcent ones '° one exercilt > but deeded in feveral 
 
 PA ww EAS ,*' n * r ' 1 '"' , ln mMom y> Popularly called the 
 Swe.t-breaJ, a great conglomerate gland ; or a body compofed 
 of an infinite number of little glands, tied up ,,, the fame 
 common membrane ; fituate at the bottom and hind-part of 
 the ftarnach, and reaching from the duodenum to the fnleen 
 — ice-Tab. Anal. (Splanch.) fig. I. lit. f. 
 
 * The w °' d is f°™=d of G«ek all, and „ { ,* t , „„, feu 
 i he glands it confifts of are bound together both by the vef- 
 lcl and by a membrane proper to each of them ; and all toge 
 thcr are loofely cloathed with a thin membrane, from the Deri 
 tonauim. r 
 Its colour is a pale red ; its form like that of a dog's tongue 
 It is S or 9 fingers long, 2; broad, and one thick ; its weight 
 4 or 5 ounces.— Its aiterics come from the eceliac ; its veins 
 go to the porta ; its neives come from the hepatic plexus. 
 ■Lach httle gland has an excretory duel; which uniting form 
 one common excretoiyduft, called Ductus Pancreaticus V,rt- 
 Jungi, from Watfongus, profelTor of anatomy at Padua, the 
 difcoverer thereof. 
 
 This duel, running along the middle of the Pancreas, opens 
 into the cavity „t the duodenum, generally by two mouths 
 the one tour or five fingers below the pylorus, fometimes at 
 the lame orifice with the duifus choledochus ; the other lower 
 KM of ihe bignefs of a raven's quill, near the inteftines but 
 
 double" °' K UC ° blerVCS ' thM * is fre< !«''"y 
 
 The Pancreas ferves to feparate a peculiar humour from the 
 blood which is called the Pamiatic Jmct. See Pancre 
 a t I c juice. " 
 Pancreas Afdlii, in comparative anatomy, is a large gland 
 m the middle of the melenteiy of fome brutes, cfpeciallv 
 dogs; to which mod of the lacteal, retort ; and whence 
 the chyle a conveyed, by large veffels, that have their 
 rile immediately from the inteftines, and are called LaCtca 
 jecundi generis. 
 
 An," ' tS from the author who fir<l took notice of it 
 
 Afellius—M.Pei raultobierves, that the filh called Place has 
 Pancreas's; though it has but five duets opening into' the 
 inteftines, three of which correfpond to 80 PancLf, and 
 2 of them to 100 a-piece. "' 
 PANCREATIC Juice, an infipid, limpid juice or humour 
 feparated from the blood, and prepared in die Pancreas 
 I his juice is not acid, as moft authors have fuppofed- 
 nor alkaline, as fome others have thought ; but a ffi &' 
 
 p"ope 1 ties mU ^ the ftliVa " its orig!n ' veS, and 
 
 It is carried by the Pancreatic dud into the duodenum, where 
 it ferves to dilute the chyle, to render it more fluid and fit o 
 enter the mouths of the laSeals ; and perhaps to temper and 
 dilute the hue, to change its vifcidity, bitterne s"To lour 
 fsc and make it mix with the chyle, in order to reduce t hi 
 leyeral taftes, odours, and properties of the feveS foods 
 into one homogeneous one. 
 
 Janllbn ab Almeloveen will have the Pancreatic Juice to have 
 been known to Hipocrates and Galen.- De Gr(af r Dutch 
 phylican, has found means of collecting a quant ty of it fo 
 a ' ldhaS PUbli(hed 3 I Sulci 
 
 Brunner relates, that the Pancreatic duft, in feveral do<ts 
 l aving been tried and cut, they ftill continued to e a t 
 and dunk, and perform all the other functions of Hfe a s 
 fort ,hCm ftem ' d ° nl >' *° haVe the better ftomach 
 
 PANDECTS*, Pandects, in jurif-prudence, the digeft or 
 co leflion made by Juftinian's oider, of S L decS o 
 judgments of the ancient lawyers, on fo many queftions oc 
 curring m the^ civil law; to which that emperor gave foe 
 force, and authority of law by an epirtle prefixed to the m 
 " The word is Greek compounded of ™, all, an d j 
 
 ta , ke •' J* * compilation, or a Book containing all rhiL,' 
 -Though others as Barroli, will have it formed fin, I, " g „j 
 ivXfpiu ; as if thefe books contained the whole doctrine of the 
 
 The ■ Pande(ls confift of fifty books, and make the firft part of 
 the body of the civil law. 1 ot 
 
 They were originally denoted by two » r . but ihe copifts ta 
 king thoU . . („ * the cuftom arofe of quoting them bv f 
 Thcfhrcnt.-ne PanJctJ.., are thofe minted from a famous an- 
 cient manulcnpt at f lorencc. 
 
 8 G 
 
 Papias 
 
 t, 
 
PAN 
 
 PAN 
 
 Papias extends the denomination of Pandects, to the old and 
 new teftament. „ , >*>.>•• 
 
 There are alio Pandecta Mediums, Pandefls oj Medicine ; 
 thefeare a kind of dictionary of things relating to medicine, 
 compiled by Mat. Sylvaticus of Mantua, who lived about 
 the year 1297- Leunclavius has publilhed Pandetls of Tur- 
 key; and bilhop Beveridge Pandetls of the canons, Pandemia 
 Canonum. . 
 PANDICULATION, Pandiculatio, in a general lenie, 
 is a violent and tenfive motion of the folids which ufually 
 accompanies the act of yawning ; and is otherwile called 
 Stretching. ■ 
 
 Pandiculation, is alio ufed in a peculiar fenfe for that reit- 
 leflhefe, ftrctching, and uneafinefs, which ufually accompany 
 the cold fit of an intermitting fever. 
 
 It is fuppol'ed to arife from a convulfive dilatation of the 
 mulcles, whereby nature endeavours to throw off lomething 
 that difturbs her. 
 P AND LIRA, or Pandoron*, a mufical inftrument, ufed 
 among the ancients; much reiembling the lute. 
 
 • The word, according to fome, is formed from the Greek &a.v and, 
 $ui>ai, i.e. all-gift, all forts of gifts, Uidore derives the name 
 from'its inventor Pandjrtu ; others from Pan, to whom they at- 
 tribute its invention, as well as that of the flute. 
 
 It has the fame number of firings with the lutes ; but they are 
 of b: afs, and of confequence give a more agreeable found than 
 thofe of the lute. Its frets are of copper, .like thole of the 
 ciiLre ; its back is flat like thole of the guitane ; and the rims 
 of its table, as well as its ribs, are cut in fcmi-ciicles. 
 Du Cange obferves, that Varro, Ifidore, and others of the 
 ancients, mention it as having only three firings; whence it is 
 fometimes alio fpoken of, under the denomination, t^x.^ So ', 
 Trichorditm. 
 
 PANEGYRIC*, Panegyris, or Panecyricus, an ora- 
 tion in praife of fome extraordiny thing, perfon, or viitue, 
 
 * The name is Greek rimr/ogif, formed of iray, all, and aya^u. 
 I alTemble, becaufe ; 1 ncieiul>' held in public and iolcmn ailemblies 
 of the Greeks, either at their games, their feafls, or their reli- 
 gious meetings. 
 
 The Panegyric is ranked among the demonfhative kind of 
 orations. 1 . 
 
 To make their Panegyrics the more folemn, they ufed to begin 
 with the praifes or the deity, in whole honour the games, £57. 
 were celebrated ; then they defcended to the praife of the 
 people or country were they were celebrated ; then to the 
 princes or magiftra>es who prel'ided at them ; and at length 
 to the champions, eipecially the conquerors who had gained 
 the prizes in them. 
 
 F. dc Colonia lays down two methods, orferies's obferved in 
 Panegyrics. — The Artijseial, where, without any regard to 
 the order of time, every thing is reduced to certain heads. 
 Thus, Tully leteis the whole praife of Pompey to his Ikill in 
 war, his virtue, authority, and felicity. ■ 
 The other Natural, wherein the order and time of hiftory are 
 obferved. This feries lie divides into three periods ; the fpape 
 before the perfon's bath, that wherein he lived, and if he be 
 dead, that which followeth his death. This natural feries re- 
 quires much lefs art, genius, &c. than the other. 
 The place, or fources of Panegyric are chiefly the family, 
 and country of the hcioes, auguries at his birth, his virtues, 
 the talents of his body and mind, honours, riches, manner of 
 his death, and the confequences thereof. 
 Panegyric, na*r l yvpK<&, is alfo the name of a church-book 
 in ufe among the Greeks; fo called, as confiding of Pane- 
 gyrics, or dilcouifes in praife of Jefus Chrift, and the faints. 
 It is found in MS. in moll churches; but is notthe fame in all ; 
 each church having its particular faints ; and the compilers of 
 thefc kind of books, ufually fuiting their collections to the 
 tafle of their own devotion. 
 
 They are difpoled according to the order of months, and fre- 
 quently coniift of twelve Volumes, anfwering to the twelve 
 months of the year. 
 PANEL, Panella, Panellum, in law, is derived by Spel- 
 man from Page/la, a fchedule, or page : in which fenfe we 
 fay, a Panel of parchment, a Cou?itcr-pane of an indenture, 
 ' tiff . ; 
 
 Panel or Pannel, is more commonly ufed for a fchedule 
 or roll, containing the names of fuch jurors, as the iheriff re- 
 turns to pafs upon any trial. 
 
 Hence the empanelling of a jury, is the entering of their 
 names, by the fheriff, into a Pannel, or little fchedule of 
 parchment ; called alfo the Panel of ajfife, Pandlum ajjifce. 
 Coke on Littleton, will have Panel to be an Engliih word, 
 frgnifying a little part ; as being a diminutive of the word Pane, 
 part. But Spclman takes this for an over-fight. 
 
 Panel, in joinery, £57.. See Pannel. 
 
 PANES, in the ancient theology. See Fauns. 
 
 PANIC, or FAxiC'Fcar, a term ufed for a needlefs, or ill- 
 grounded fright. 
 
 Polysenus fetches the origin of the phrafe from Pan, one of 
 the captains of Bacchus, who, with a few men, put a nume- 
 
 rous enemy to rout, by a noife which his foldiers raifed in 
 a rocky valley, favoured with a great number of Echo's. 
 This ftratagem making their number appear much greater 
 than it really was, the enemy quitted a very commodious 
 encampment, and fled. — Hence all illgrounded fears have 
 been called Pannics or Panic-fears ; and it was this that 
 gave occafion to the fable of the nymph echo's being 
 beloved by the god Pan. 
 
 Others derive the origin of the expreffion hence, that in the 
 wars of the Titans againft the gods, Pan was the rirft who 
 flruck terror into the hearts of the giants. — Theon on Aratus 
 fays, he did it by the means of a fea-fhell which ferved him for 
 a trumpet, whereof he was the inventor. 
 PANICULA, Panicle, in Botany, a foft woolly beard, or 
 ftring, whereon the feeds of fome plants hang pendulous : as, 
 in reeds, millet, tiff. 
 Such are hence called Paniculated Plants. 
 PANIS £3* Cerevifits Affifa. See Assisa. 
 Panis £2" Cerevifia Emendalio. See Emendatio. 
 PANNAGE, Panage or Pawnage, are ufed in our law- 
 books, £57. for the maft of woods ; as of beech, acorns, £sV. 
 See Mast. 
 
 As alfo for the running, and feeding of fwine, or other cattle 
 
 in forefts. 
 
 And for the monies taken by the agiftors for the fame. 
 Pannagium liberum, or free Pannage, was a liberty of free 
 running of fwine in certain forerfs or woods, granted by 
 privilege to certain private perfons, and feveral religious 
 houfes. 
 
 Lindwood defines Pannagium, by pajlits pecomm in nemoribus, 
 & tn fikds, tttpote de glandibus & aliis fructibus arborum fylvef- 
 trium, quarum fruclus aliter non fclent colligi. 
 It is alfo mentioned 20 Car. II. ^nifque villanus habens decern 
 porcos, dat unum porcum de Pannagio ; by which it appears, that 
 oneiiog in ten was given for the Pannage. 
 PANNEL, inlaw. See the article Panel. 
 Pannel, or Panel, in joinery, £57. a tympan, or fquare 
 piece of wainfcot, fometimes carved ; framed or grooved" in a 
 larger piece, between two mounters or upright pieces, and two 
 traverles or crofs-pieces. 
 
 Hence alfo Panels, or panes of glafs, are compartments or 
 pieces of glafs of various forms, fquare, hexagonal, £s7. 
 Pannel in mafonry, denotes one of the faces of a hewn ftone. 
 Pannels * of a Saddle, are two culhions full of hair, or flocks, 
 placed under the laddie, one on each fide, next the horfe's back, 
 to prevent the bow from hurting the horfe. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French Pannsau, of Pan, flatfide. 
 
 PANNICULUS *, in anatomy, a term frequently ufed for a 
 membiane. See Membrane. 
 
 * The word is Latin, and is formed by diminution, from Pannus, 
 cloth, q. d. a little cloth or fine web, 
 
 Hence Pamiic.dus adipofus, &c. is the fame with Membrana 
 adipofa, &c. 
 
 Panniculus Canirfus is a flefhy membrane, which the ancient 
 anatomifts fuppoied to be common to the whole body ; and to 
 be the fourth integument or covering thereof, after the epi- 
 dermis, cutis, and the adipofus. 
 
 This flejbly pannicL\ according to them, is a thick membrane, 
 which covers the whole body ; and even becomes mufculous 
 in fome parts : but the lateft anatomifts deny any fuch mem- 
 brane in the human body ; maintaining, that wliat the ancients 
 called the fiejby Pannicle, is only the fatty or adipofe one. — 
 Dr. Drake makes it a douhle membrane, one half of which 
 forms the membrana adipofa, the other half the membrana 
 communis of the mufcles. 
 
 The ufe the ancients afcribed to the flejby Pannicle, was to 
 wrinkle and contract the lk in ; but the truth is, where-ever 
 the flciri wrinkles, there are particular mulcles for that purpofe, 
 called cutaneous mufcles. 
 
 Thefe mufcles the ancients owned ; but they faid their office 
 was confined to particular motions ; adding, that there are 
 places where no fat is found between the cutis and the fiejby 
 Pannicle ; which is falfe. 
 
 Further, even in animals which do move the fldn, this Pan- 
 nicle, is no more than a cutaneous mufcle, as well as the dar- 
 
 tos. 
 
 Some of the modern anatomifts, however* admit the flefhy 
 Pannicle, and deny the adipofe one ; fuppoling the latter, in 
 reality, only a part of the former. 
 PANNIER, in architecture. See Cornel. 
 PANNUS*, a Latin word, fignifying cloth, rag, £37. 
 
 * The word is derived from <nv l t'&-, a web. 
 PANNUS, (in medicine) a difeafe of the eye, popularly called 
 the Web. 
 
 The Pannus is an excrefcence arifing on the adnata or con- 
 junctiva ; lefs hard and membranous than the unguis ; and re- 
 prefenting a web, or plexus of little veins fwelled with blood. 
 Its caufe is an obfttuction of the blood in the minute velfels 
 of that tunic. 
 
 Its cure is much the fame with that of the Ophthalmia. 
 A chief difference is, that in the Unguis, the membranous 
 
 exciefcence 
 
PAN 
 
 excrefcence only covers part of the eye, after the manner of 
 nail ; whereas in the P annus it covets the whole. See Uncui: 
 PANTALOON or Pantalok, the name of an ancient gar- 
 ment frequent among our forefathers, confuting of breeches 
 and ftockings all of a piece. 
 
 The denomination comes from the Venetians, who firft 
 introduced this habit, and who are called Pantahni, from St. 
 Pantaksn, who was formerly their patron. 
 Pantaloon, on the theatre, is a buffoon or mafk, who per 
 forms high and grotefque dances, and (hews violent and 
 travagant poftures, and airs. 
 
 The word is alfo ufed for the habit or drefs thefe buffoons 
 ufually wear; which is made precifcly to the form of their 
 body, and all of a piece from head to foot. 
 And hence thofe who wear a habit of this kind, for conve 
 niency, under their other cloaths, are called Pantaloons of 
 Venice. 
 
 PANTHEA, ZXmOtio, among the ancients were fingle ftatues 
 compofed of the figures, or fymbols of feveral different divi 
 nities combined. 
 
 Father Joubert, who calls them Panthea, and who has ob 
 ferved them on feveral medals, fays their heads are mod 
 commonly adorned with the fymbols or attributes belonging 
 to feveral gods. 
 
 An inftanee hereof we have in a medal of Antoninus Pius 
 which at the fame time reprefents Serapis, by the buihel it 
 bears ; the Sun, by the crown of rays ; Jupiter Amraon, by 
 the ram's horns ; Pluto, by the large beaid \ and ^fculapius. 
 by the Jerpent twilled in his hand. 
 
 M. Baudelot-, in a difiertation on the Lares, will have the 
 Panthea fc have had their rife from the fuperffition of thofe. 
 who taking feveral gods for the protcctoi s of their houfes. 
 united them all in the fame ftatue, by adorning it with th> 
 feveral fymbols, proper to each of thefe deities. 
 PANTHLON*, n«»!iM, in architecture, a temple, or church, 
 of a circular form; dedicated to all the gods, or to all the 
 faints. 
 
 * It is thus named from the Greek wm\ all, and $t&, God. 
 The Pantheon of aircient Rome, is of all others the moll 
 celebrated, and that whence all the reft take their name. It 
 was built by Agrippa, fon-in-law of Auguftus, in his third 
 confulate, 25 years before Chaff. It was dedicated by him 
 to Jupiter ultor, Jupiter the revenger; and had the name 
 Pantheon, by reafon of the great number of ftatues of the 
 Gods ranged in niches all round it ; and becaufe built of a 
 circular form, to reprefent heaven, the refidence of the u . 
 It has but one door, and one window, receiving all itslight 
 from the top of its dome. 
 
 The pope obtaining this Pantheon of the emperor Phocas, 
 converted it into a church, without any alteration in the 
 building; and dedicated it to the virgin, and all the martyrs. 
 — And it ftill fubfifts at Rome under the title of Notre Dame 
 della Rotorida. 
 
 The Pantheon of Nifmes, was a temple in that city, wherem 
 were 12 niches, or ftatues, fuppofed to have been deftined 
 for the 12 great gods. 
 
 In the efcurial, is a magnificent chapel, called Pantheon, 35 
 feet in diameter, and 38 high, from the pavement which is 
 of marble and jafper inlay ed. The whole inirde of the 
 chapel is of black marble, excepting the luthern and fome 
 ornaments of jafper and red marble. 
 
 In this chapel are depofited the bodies of the kings and 
 queens : there are only places made for 26 : eight of which 
 are already filled. See Kscurial. 
 PAPA. See the article Pope. 
 
 PAPAL Crown, is a deep cap, or mitre of cloth of gold, en- 
 compaffed with three coronets or circles of gold, adorned 
 with flowers; and the whole enriched with precious ftoncs 
 having a globe at top, finilhed with a crofs. See Crown, 
 
 PAPER*, a thin flexible leaf, ufually white, artifically prepared 
 of fome vegetable fubftance, chiefiy to write upon, with ink. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek ttmiwj^ Papyrus, the name 
 
 of an Egyptian plant, called alfo Biblus, whereon tin 
 
 ancients ufed to write. 
 Various are the materials, on which mankind in different ages 
 and countries have contrived to write their fentiments; as on 
 ftones, bricks, the leaves of herbs, and trees, and their rinds 
 or barks ; alfo on tables of wood, wax, and ivory; to which 
 may be added plates of lead, linen rolls, fisftf. At length the 
 Egyptian Pap yrus was invented ; then parchment, then cotton 
 Paper, and lartly the common or linen Paper*. 
 
 * Maffei J/ior. Diplm. I 2. $, 3 10 Bibl. hal. T. 2. p.242. 
 
 Leo AUat. Anttq. Harufc. p. 127. feq. Hug. de Scrib. Origin 
 Alex, ab Alexand. L 2. c. 30. Barthol. Difl. 4. deLibr. Legend. 
 p. 90. feq. 
 
 In fome places and ages they have even written on the flrijjg of 
 fifties; in otheis, on the inteftines of ferpents; and in others, 
 on the backs of toitoifes— Not to mention what Epiphanius 
 relates, that Moles received the law written on tables of fap- 
 phire ; nor what the Cabbalifts dream, that the fame was writ- 
 ten on a globe of lirej nor laftly, of thofe military teflaments 
 
 PAN 
 
 fpoken of by civilians, which were written in the duft or find K 
 Vid MabiU de Re ilflma, \. ,, c . g. Fabric Bill. At. c. 21. 
 5- 9- P- 610. Icq. Baimm. Idea Sjflem. Atttiq. Liter, p. 3C9. 
 There are few forts of plants but have at fome time been ufed 
 tWraptr, and books : and hence the feveral terms, liiblos, codex, 
 liber,] mum, tabula, ttllura, pbilura, Jeheda, iSc. which exprefs the 
 tcveral parts on which they were written : and though in Eu- 
 rope all thefe dilappeared upon the Introduction of the Papyrus 
 and parchment, yet in lome other countries the life of divers 
 of them obtain to this day.— In Ceylon, for inftance, they 
 write on the leaves of the Talipot '. And the Biamin MSS. 
 in the! ulinga language, fent to Oxford from Fort St. George, 
 aie written on leaves of the Ampana or Palma Malabarica > : 
 Mermannus gives an account of a monllrous palm tree called, 
 CedJa patia, or Palma Mtntana Malabarica, which about the 
 35/* year of its age, rifes to be 60 or 70 foot high, with pli- 
 cated leaves nearly round, 20 foot broad ; wherewith they 
 commonly cover their houfes ; and on which they -alfo write; 
 part of one leaf fufficing to make a moderate book. They 
 wnte between the folds, making the characters through the 
 outer cuticle c . 
 
 ■ Knox. HiJI. Ceyl. I 3. Le Clerk. Bill. Univ. T. 23. p. 2( , 
 Ptil. Treat/. N° 246. p. 422, feq. . Vid. Hurt. Ltd. MaLl. 
 p. 3. Ptil. Trent/ N° 14;. p. 10S. 
 
 In the Maldivee Iflands, the natives are faid to write on the 
 leaves of a tree called Macaraqueatt, which are a fathom and 
 a half long and about a foot broad. And in divers paits of 
 the haft Indies, the leaves of the Mufa Arbor or Plantain 
 Tree dried in the fun, ferved for the fame ufe, till of late that 
 
 the French have taught them the ufe of European Paper " 
 
 Ray, in fine, enumerates divers kinds of Indian and American 
 trees which bear Paper; particularly one called Xagua, which 
 has fomething m it extraordinary; its leaves are fo large, and 
 of lo clofe a texture, that they cover a man from top to toe, 
 and ihelter him from the rain, and other inclemencies of the 
 weather like a cloak j and from the inneimoft fubftance of 
 thcle leaves, a Paper is taken ; being a white and fine mem- 
 brane like the (kin of an egg, as large as a ikin of our vellum 
 or parchment, and nothing inferior for beauty and eoodnefs 
 to the bed of our Papers ". 
 
 " Hi. Savar D. de <W T. 2. p. ,67. = Vid. Ray Hi/!. 
 
 Plantar. T. 2. I. 32. AW Rep. Let. T. 12. p. 361. 
 
 Paper is chiefiy made among us of linen or hempen rags 
 beaten to a pulp in water, and moulded into fouare (heels' 
 of the thicknefs required.-But it may alfo be made of 
 nettles hay turnips, parlhips, colewort leaves, afbefius, or 
 any thing that is fibrous; nay, it may be made of white 
 woollen rags ; though this would not ferve for writing, be- 
 l n f' h K r "" iners '— The Chinefe/V^ j s fo fine, that 
 many of the Europeans have thought it was made of filk • 
 not eonfidenng, faysduHalde, that (ilk cannot be beat into 
 Inch a palle, mi is necelTary to make Papers : But it is to be 
 cblm ed that the fame author afterwards fpeaks of a Pater 
 or parchment made of the balls of filk worms ; and the like 
 we are aflured by others is done at Cathay K 
 
 Hough. Clha. N» 360. T. 2. p. 4,8, feq' , De/erlpt of 
 
 CS». P . 3 6o,feq. i^.Bufcq. Legat.Ture.Lpif.l/.Jl 
 
 Paper with regard to the manner of making it, and the ma 
 tenals employed therein, is reducible to divers kinds - l s ™l 
 Egyptian, Bmfm** Cbimfe Paper: we alfo find mention of 
 «%nP<P>r, bark Paper, and afiejlitte or mcembu/ltble PaZ 
 
 Egyptian Paper, is that which was principally ufed among me 
 ancients : ,t was made of a ruflr called A/^/oSE 
 growing chiefly in Egypt about the banks of the N 1c ■ though 
 it was a ,0 found ,n India ; and Gualandinus affures us f,e 
 aw in Chaldiea at the confluence of the Tygris and Euphrates 
 large fens, wherein with his own hands he plucked 
 diner.ng in nothing from that oftheNile Strabo likewife 
 (peaks of a fort of Papyrue growing in Italy; b ut we d not 
 hnd that this was ever ufed for making Paper 
 1 he delcnption given by Pliny ' of the Papjrus, or Pater-reed 
 .sfomewhatoblcure. Its root, according to him, is of he 
 thicknefs of a man's arm, and ten cubits long : from this ate 
 a great number of triangular (talks 6 or 7 cubits high each 
 
 fhnt Zlt 1°, be rl My fplnned ' Its ™ tong like 
 
 thole of the bul-ru(h ; its flowers ftamineous, ranged in 
 duffers at the extremities of the (talks i its roots woody and 
 knotty like thofe of ruflies, and its tafte and fmell near akin 
 to thofe of the Cyperus 
 ' r,d Plin. HiJI. Nat. L 13. c. 11. » Vid. Theophr. Hi/1. Pl«„. 
 j. 4. c. 9. and Dalecamp. who gives us a figure of it Hill 
 I. 18. p. 1883.— See alfo Bauhin. 1. 18. c. ,86. who with 
 Reiner makes it a (pedes of Cyperus. Grew. Muf. R, r 
 
 f'f f- fc£l - 2 - P- *»* H Maffei - Diplm. Bill 
 Jtal. 1 . 2. p. 246. 
 
 Befides Paper, they made fails, ropes, and other naval rigrinir- 
 as alio mats, blankets, clothes, and even (hips, of the ftalk of 
 the Pappus Mofes, we are told, when a child, was expofed 
 on the banks of 'the Nile, ? .ff, ^ in ' \ ba ^'™ 
 Papyrus. Add, that the Egyptian pi lefts wore (hoes of Papyrus. 
 
 Guilandinus, 
 
PAP 
 
 fiulWlnus, a Piuffian phyfician before mentioned, has a 
 cclebiatcd workespteflyon the ancient Papyrus, by way • ot 
 commentary on three chapters of Pliny *, wherein is amply, 
 and with great learning, explained all that relates to this 
 fiibiea- vetScaliger has written a fevere critique on it, in 
 which feme inaccuracies of Guilandinus are pointed out •«, 
 but this has not hindered Kirchmayer from adopting almolt 
 Guilandinus's whole book in his ditfertation on the Papy- 
 rus ***. Add, that the moil ingenious and learned count 
 Scipio Mallei has lately vindicated Guilandinus againft the 
 exceptions of Scaliger, as well as of Voffius and Hardoum.— 
 I'id. t/lir. Diplomat. L 2- Bibl. ltd. T. 2. p. 248. 
 
 « Milch. Guilaudini Papyrus, h. e. QaMHaio '"'"'"„?;/''?"„' 
 Mmm de JW. capita, fc. lib. XIII. c. XI XII XIII, M 
 publiihed at Venice in 1572. and afterwards at Amberg in 
 by Salmath. — It feems Guilandinus intended a com- 
 mentary on the whole of Pliny's Natural Hifor, i but this fmall 
 part not exceeding a moderate page, taking him up foil *: 
 months, 'tis no wonder he was diftouraged from proceed™ 
 with the red. In thefe three chapters he has reBored above 
 twenty pnffages in the text of Pliny, not merely from his own con- 
 jecture, or the help of MSS. but from. the nature of the things 
 defcribed, and the rellimonies of authors of the firft rank : be- 
 fides that, he had been npon the fpot, where formerly the Pafyru, 
 was manufactured, and had carefully examined all the ancient 
 Greek and Latin authors who fpeak of it. 
 
 *» ■y.r -f.,ft Sealiecri sinlrnad^e, penes in Mdehiens Ualandim Urn 
 
 ■ Itjritm in tria C. Piinii eapta, lib XIII. Hifma Mu,it fia, 
 Naurali,, pibu. agit de Papyro, firft pnolilhed in the Lells.ne, 
 HblhtbeearL m,,nerab,l„, ol Rudolpl.us Capellns, at Hamburgh 
 i„ ,63z— Where he follows Guilandinus ftep by Hep, finds as 
 many faults in him as his father had done in Cardan, and ufes 
 him altogether as coarfely ; every where pointing out his literary 
 miitakes, and labouring to (how, that inltead of relloring Pliny, 
 he has often miltaken and corrupted him. „,.,,. 
 
 »»« M Sfb Kirchmakri Ufenbain.eufis Franei DifertaM Phhhguc, 
 
 J, Papyro veterum, Wilteberga, 1666. a". He had done better 
 
 fervice if befides Guilandinus he had confulted others, and parti- 
 cr'arly'Scaliger But as he chofe to follow one rather than many, 
 and that too as the blind follow their guides, his fate has been 
 much the fame. 
 
 The ori«in of the art of making Paper of the Papyrus is very 
 obfcureT no doubt it was firft difcovered in Egypt. Ifidore 
 fixes it more particularly to the city Mcmphis.-Ong. 1. 6. c. 1 0 
 In which he feems to be countenanced by Lucan, where he fays 
 Nondum flumincas Memphis tmttxm Bibbs 
 
 No-jcrat Pharfal. 1. 3. v. 222. 
 
 TheiEra of this invention is warmly difputed: Varro, the moll 
 learned of the Romans, fixed it to the time of Alexander the 
 Great, after the building of the city Alexandria by that con- 
 queror ■ but fevcral objeftions of no fmall weight are brought 
 a-ainU this dccilion. Pliny recites a pallage out of a very 
 ancientannaliit,oneCattiusHemina,wlierein mention is made 
 of Paper books found in Numa's tomb 535 years after his 
 Death which had been buried with him ■ : Now Numa was 
 prior to Alexander by above 300 years. Guilandinus in erleft, 
 maintains with great erudition, that the name and ufe of the 
 Pabwus were known to the Greeks long before Alexander 
 conquered Egypt; and that the words &&S- and occur- 
 in their received lignification in authors prior to, or at leall 
 older than Alexander, particularly Anacreon, Alcreus, Plato the 
 comedian, Ariftomenes, Cratinus, Antiphanes, Plato the phi- 
 losopher, jEfchylus and Ariftorle. And whereas fomc fpeak 
 of 1 know not what, pfeudo biblus, known before the dilco- 
 very of the true fort, he argues on the contrary, that the biblus 
 mentioned by thofe authors prior to the conqueft of Alexander, 
 appears from Herodotus, Theophrallus, and others, to be the 
 very fame plant with the Biblus or Papyrus, of which Paper 
 was 1 afterwards made. Even Homer and Hcfiod, the moft 
 ancient Greek poets, and who, by Hcrodotus's teftimony, 
 lived about 400 years before himfelf, appear to have been no 
 ftrangersto the Papyrus, fmce they both make expicfs men- 
 
 ll °^fld Plin. 1. 13. c. 13. b Guiland. Papyr. Mernbr. 2. Reimm 
 
 UiaSyJt. Antif. liter, p. 2S5, feq. Kirchman. Dijf. dt Papyr. 
 Art. II. §■ 2. 
 
 To this it may be anfwered, that fuppofing the plant Papyrus 
 known in Greece long before Alexander's conqueft of Egypt, 
 it no more follows, rhat they had then the life of Paper, than 
 it follows that men had wine immediately on the difcovery of 
 the Vine : this laft it is certain was known among them long 
 before they made wine; and to this day, a part of the newworld 
 called Florida is faid to abound with vines, though no ufe have 
 been yet made of themeither by the inhabitants or theSpaniards. 
 As it was with the vine, which mull have been known before 
 wine could be made from it, fo it is nithPapyrus, which among 
 ' the Greeks was long tiled for tying up things, before it came 
 to be written on. In reality, Guilandinus produces tcllimo- 
 nies from Anacreon andAlcaeus, in which the Papyrus is em- 
 ployed for binding and not for Paper: add, that he ill tranflates 
 TefgM *:yy», Ellychnium, iince Jw??^ here is the torch itfelf. 
 Nor does the Poet fay it was made of Papyrus, but tyed up 
 with it. — Via. Scalig. lib. eh. Reimm. ubifupia, p. 305, : 
 
 PAP 
 
 Some have even doubted whether the art of manufacturing the 
 Papyrus was fo ancient as Alexander's time ; chiefly on this 
 ground, that for 200 years after Alexander, men wiote on 
 fkins, and on the barks of trees : But this is no-wife condu- 
 five. The fcarcity of the new manufacture may account for 
 it : for fome ages afterwards, even as low as Tiberius, we read 
 of fuch a fcarcity of Paper, that its ufe even in contracts was 
 difpenfed with by a decree of the fenate, and the opinion of 
 the judges. The fame confideration may be carried ruither : 
 Paper might have been known in Egypt, Jud;ea, Syria, and. 
 Afia on this fide Taurus, long before the Birth of Alexander, 
 though not in common ufe : but it might be later ere the 
 Europeans received it ; and probably it was by means of Alex- 
 ander's conqueft that it firft became publickly known there. 
 When the manufacture of the Egyptian Paper ceafcd,is another 
 qucflion ; for at prefent the Papyroteeknia Mgyptiaea may be 
 reckoned among thole arts that are loft. Euftathius, the learned 
 commentator on Homer, teftifies, that even in his time, WZ; 
 in 1 170. it was difufed Q ; Mabillon indeed maintains that it 
 continued till the eleventh century after Chrift, and cites one 
 Fridegod, a monkilh poet of the X" 1 century, as fpeaking of if 
 as fubfifting in the age before his, that is in the IX 11 ' ; and that 
 it continued longer, the fame Mabillon endeavours to evince 
 from feveral papal bulls wrote on it as low as the XI th century d . 
 4 Fid. Eufhth. ad Homer. Od^Jf. <P- Faff, de Art. Gramm. 1. 1. c. 37. 
 d Fid. Mabili. de Re dtphmat. 1. 1. c. 8. §. 6, feq. Reimm. Idea 
 Syft. Antiq. Liter, p. 311. 
 Maffei, on the other hand, maintains, with more probability, 
 that the Papyrus was generally difui'ed before theV ,fl century ; 
 for that we find no authentic records written on it .dated fmce 
 that time; thofe bulls of popes, cited by Mabillon, appearing 
 rather to be written on cotton Paper But this we may ob- 
 fcrvc, relates only to the general and legal ufe of the Papyrus 
 — For that it mould have continued to be made by particular 
 pcrfons feveral hundred years after it firft began to give way, 
 is not to be wondered at. 
 
 e Fid. Maffei IJIqt. DipUmat. he. cit. Bill. Sal. T. 2. p. z;i. 
 In reality, a more commodious fort of Papa; made of cotton, 
 having been invented fome ages before in the Eaft, and coming 
 to be introduced into Europe, feems to have turned the Pa- 
 pyrus out of doors. — To which the continual wars with the 
 Saracens, by which the traffick to Alexandria was rendered 
 precarious, might poflibly not a little contribute. 
 Yet fevcral books written on leaves of the Papyrus have even 
 continued to our days : Mabillon fays, he had one of them, 
 and adds, that there was another in the Petavian library, being 
 a volume in fmall folio, containing feveral Sermons of St. 
 Auguftin ; he alfo mentions a third, containing that father's 
 epiftles, formerly belonging to the church ofNarbonne, and 
 now in the cuftody of Madame dePhirmacon. Befides the 
 Homilies of Avitus bifhop of Vienne, and divers diploma's 
 or charters all written on the Papyrus, which appear not to be 
 iefs than 1100 years old f . But the decifions of this learned 
 father concerning MSS. notwithftanding all his diplomatic 
 flail fo highly boafted of, are not always infallible : witnefs 
 his taking the MS. of St. Mark's Gofpel at Venice to be 
 written on the Egyptian Papyrus, and that of jofephus atMilan 
 not to be fo. — Maffei fhews on the contrary, that the former 
 is cotton Paper, and that the latter appears at firft light to be 
 Egyptian : not but the Venetian MS. is very old ; but it has 
 been fo much ufed, that its leaves are as it were transformed 
 into the original parte from whence they were made 8 . 
 f Fid. Mabill. Suppl. ad Lih: de Re diplomat. Joum. des Scav. T. 32. 
 P. 2. p. 992. e Fid. Maffei lib. cit. Bibl. T. 2. p. 252. 
 
 Manner of making the Egyptian Paper. — They began with 
 lopping off the two extremes of the Papyrus, -viz. the head 
 and root as of no ufe in this manufacture : the remaining ftem 
 they ftit lengthwife into two equal parts, and from each of 
 thefe they ftripped the thin fcaly coats or pellicles*, whereof 
 it was compofed, with the point of a penknife**. The inner- 
 moft of thofe pellicles were looked on as the beft ; and thofe 
 neareft the rind or bark the woift : they were kept apart ac- 
 cordingly, and conftitutcd different forts of Paper. 
 * Thefe pellicles are called in Pliny by twelve different names, vizi 
 philura, 1 amentum, fcheda, cutis, plagula, cerium, t&?iia,fubt£gmer. t 
 Jiatumen, pagina, tabula, and papyrus. ' 
 ** The generality of criticks, in lieu of a penknife employ a needle 
 to feparate the pellicles : in which they are warranted by the 
 common text of Pliny : Praparantur ex eo cbartte, diuifo am in 
 pr/stemm, fed quam latiffimas philuias. But Guilandinus makes a 
 correction here : he had found by experiment, that the pellicles 
 of Papyrus cannot be feparated by a needle ; but that a very (harp 
 knife is required : for which reafon inltead of divifo acu, he reads 
 divifofcapa \ In which he is followed by Maffei ; though Har- 
 douin, Voffius, Pitifcus, and others, retain the antient reading b . 
 a ['id. Guiland. Papyr. Membr. 10. §. 3. & Maffei Jftar. Diplom. 
 ap Btbl. Ital. T. 2. p. 247, feq. b VofT. de Art. Grammat. 
 
 I. 1. c. 37. Pitifc. L. Ant. T. l. p. 413. uor Charts. Hardou. ad 
 Plin. 1. 13. c. 12. 
 As the pellicles were taken off, they extended them on a table : 
 then two or more of them were laid over each other tranf- 
 verfely, fo as that their fibres made riirht angles ; in this ftate 
 
PAP 
 
 PAP 
 
 they were glued together by the muddy waters of the Nilus *, 
 Thefe being afterwards preffed to get out the water, then 
 dried, and Uftly flatted, and fmoothed by beating them with a 
 mallet, conftitutcd Paper : which they fometimes poliihed 
 further by rubbling it with a hemifpheie of glafs, or the like. 
 — Vtt. piin. Guiland. and Maftei lecc. citt. 
 
 * In other countries, where the waters of the Nile were not to be 
 had, the pellicles were fattened together with a parte made of 
 the finefl wheat-flower, mixed with hot-water, and a fprinkling of 
 vinegar. 
 
 There were Paper manufactures in divers cities of ./Egypt J but 
 the greateft and moll celebrated was that at Alexandria, where, 
 according to Varro's account, Paper was firft made. It is cer- 
 tain at leaft it was.from hence that Greece and Italy were fur- 
 nilhed, on account of the convenient fituatibn of that port : 
 and it is more than probable it was this that gave the Romans 
 occafion to conclude the art had been invented there. It was 
 not, till late, when Egypt was reduced into a Roman province, 
 that they had much interco,urie or even knowledge of the in- 
 land cities of Egypt, where Paper was alfo made.— The trade 
 and confumption of this commodity were in reality incre- 
 dible. Vopifcus relates, that the tyrant Firmus, who rebelled 
 in Egypt, publickly declared he would maintain an army on- 
 ly with Paper and glue, Papyro & glutine. This, Calaubon 
 underftands as fpoken of the produce, and revenue of Paper ; 
 though Salmafius takes it to be meant of the Papyrus itfelf, 
 which could fupply moll of the neceffaries of life. — Vid. Mont- 
 fauc. Paleeogr. Grcee. I. i. c. 2. p. 14. 
 
 We find divers fpecies of Egyptian Paper mentioned in ancient 
 writers : fome denominated from the places where they were 
 manufactured; as i° the Amphitheairiea, luppofed to have 
 been made in fome building belonging to an amphitheatre at 
 Alexandria. Tho' Guiiandinus, with more probability, reads 
 it Athribitica, from Athribh, a city in the middle of the Delta, 
 which was the place of its manufacture. What countenances 
 this correction, is, that we find mention of this Paper before 
 there was fo much as an amphitheatre at Rome, much lefs at 
 Alexandria.- — 2 0 Saitica, made in the city Sai. — ^°Ta:motica, or 
 accordingtoothers7^/f<3,w'hofeplace authors arenot agreed on. 
 There were alio other forts denominated from the makers ; as 
 i° the Fanniana, from the grammarian Rhem. Fannius Pa- 
 Ia:mon, who kept a Paper work. This kind was fmall, but 
 finer than the amphitheatrical Paper ; being firft wrought at 
 Alexandria, and afterwards finifhed at Rome. — 2 C Claudia, firft 
 made by order of the emperor Claudius. This was reputed 
 the belt of all, in that befides the two pellicles, in common 
 with the reft, it had a third. 
 
 Others were denominated upon the ufes they were intended 
 for, as 1 0 Hieratica, the firft or oldeft foi r, which was appropri- 
 ated to religious ufes ; this was afterwards denominated Au- 
 gufta and Liviana, in complement to the emperor of that name, 
 and his wife ; who, according to fome, improved and made 
 it whiter than before.— % D Emporctica, or Emporica, a fmall and 
 coarfe fort, ferving for fhop-keepers ufes to tie up goods, &e. 
 The qualities for which the ancient Papers were prized, were 
 their thinners, clofenefs, whitenefs and fmoothnefs; tho' their 
 breadth alfo conliderably enhanced their value. — That fort 
 called Cbarta Claudia was thirteen inches wide; the Hieratica, 
 eleveii'; the Fanniana, ten ; and the Amphitheatrita, nine : for 
 the Saitica, it exceeded not the diameter of the mallet it was 
 beaten with. a 
 
 a See further, concerning the ancient Paper in Nigrifoli Diff. de 
 Charta ejufque ufu apud antiquos. Ext. in Galler.dc Miners. T. 3. 
 p. 249, feq. Other authors are enumerated in Fabric. Bib/. 
 Antiq. C. 2t. §.9. p. 609. Pitifc. h. Ant. locc. citt. 
 
 Bark Paper, if it may be fo called, was only the Liber, or inner 
 whitifh rind incloied between the outer bark and the wood of 
 divers trees, as the maple, plane, beech, and elm, but efpecially 
 the tilia, fy/w^a., or linden-tree, which was that moftly ufed for 
 thispurpofe — On this, ftripped off, flatted, and dried, the anci- 
 ents wrote books ; feveral of which are faid to be ftill extant. b 
 
 b Fid. Plin. Hift. Nat. 1. 13. c. 11. Hardou Not. ad mnd. Suid. Lex 
 in Fox. qnKv%a.. Hid. Orig. 1. 6. c. 13. Alexand. ab Alexand. 1. 2. 
 c. 30. Salmuth. ad Pancirol. I. 2. tit. 13. p. 252, feq. 
 Mabillon and Montfaucon fpeak frequently of manufcripts and 
 diploma's on Bark, and are very exprefs in diftinguilhing be- 
 tween the Papyrus ufed by the Egyptians, and the Likr or 
 Bark in ufe in other countries. The two are alledged to differ 
 in this, that the Bark Paper was thicker and brittler than the 
 Papyrus, as well as more apt to cleave or fhiver, by which the 
 writing was fometimes loft ; as is the cafe in a Bark manu- 
 fcript in the abbey of St. Germains, where the bottom of the 
 Paper remains, but the outer furface, on which the letters 
 had been drawn, is in many places peeled off'. 
 
 6 Vid Momfauc. PaUogr. Gr*c. 1. 1. c. 2. p. 15. Mabill. ie Re 
 Diplam. I.i. c. S. Reimm. Idea Syjl. Antiq. p.311. 
 But Matfei, it muft not be forgot, combats the whole fyftcm 
 of Bark manufcripts and charters as a popular error ; and main- I 
 tains that the ancients never wrote diploma's on Bark ; that the 
 diftincrion between the Papers made of the Papyrus and of 
 Cortex is without foundation , that the only ufe of the TlUa 
 or Linden, was for making thin boards or tablets for diptycha 
 or pocket- books, wherein they wrote on both lides, as is done 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 among us : an advantage which they could not have in the 
 Egyptian Paper by reafon of its thinnefs. 
 A late French writer on the rules of criticifm wanders flill far- 
 ther out of the way ; when he fpeaks of a fort of Paper in 
 Egypt made of the pith of the cypeius : he defcribes the man- 
 ner of preparation, which was by reducing this pith to a pulp, 
 and then fpreading it out in leaves. — Fid. Hon. St. Marie 
 Rcjiex.Jur les Regl. Je la crit. T. 2. DirT 4. p. 77. This we 
 fuipect for a chimera hatched oniy in the critick's brain. 
 Not but there occur divers anomalous forts of Paper, which 
 antiquaries are not a little puzzled with, what fpecies to refer 
 them to : fuch is that of two bulls in the archives of the 
 church of Gironne Hilled by the antipopes Romanus and For- 
 mofus, between the years 891 and 895. They are two ells long, 
 and one broad, and confift of two leaves or pellicles glued to- 
 gether tranfverfly, and are ftill legible in moit places. The 
 conjectures of the Fi ench Literati in regard to thefe are nume- 
 rous : the abbot Kiraut de Belmont has a difcourfe exprefs on 
 the occafion. Some will have them made of the leaves of the 
 ■Alga, or feawreck — others of the leaves of a rufh called la Bo- 
 
 ga, growing in the marfhes of Rculillon — others of Papyrus 
 
 others of Cotton — and others of Bark. So little certainly does 
 there really appear to be in thefe things, on which the critics 
 ncverthclefs often lay a great ftrefs.— Vid. Mem. it Trev. Sept. 
 1711. p. 1559, feq. 
 Cotton Paper, Charts Bombydna, BcpfaK.n (thus called from 
 a word which anciently lignified (ilk, though in after times, 
 B°f*f3u| and came to denote Cotton) is a fort of Paper 
 
 which has been in ufe upwards of 600 years, as is fhewn by 
 Montfaucon from feveral authorities : Whatismoie, Cotton 
 Paper appears to have been very common at the beginning of 
 that time, and confequently mull have been invented long be- 
 fore. In the French king's library are MSS. on this Paper, 
 which by the character, and other circumftanccs, appear to be 
 of the X'i> century. Be this as it will, from the XIW cen- 
 tury, Cotton MSS. are more frequent than parchment ones d . 
 
 * Vid. Montfauc. Palaogr. Grttt. 1. I. c. 2. p. 17, feq. item 1. a. 
 c 6. p. 209. M?.ffei, lib. tit. Bill. Jtet. T. 2. p. 252. 
 buombujlibie Paper is made of the lapis a/k/los, or linum vivum, 
 which will bear burning without beinginjured. See Asbestos. 
 Dr. Bruckmaun, profelibr at Brunfvvick, has publifhed a na- 
 tural hiftory of the Jfief.ine or Ineombujiibie Paper ; and what 
 is molt remarkable, has printed four copies of his book on 
 this Paper : they are depofitcd in the library of Wolfembuttel 
 rid. Bibl. Germ. T. 14. p. 190. 
 
 The manner of making this extraor dinary Papa- is defcribed 
 by Mr. Lloyd, from an eflay made by himfelf.— He pounded 
 a quantity of the afbeftos in a ftonc mortar, till it became a 
 downy fubftance; then fifted it in a fine fearce, and by 
 this means purged it indifferent well from its terrene parts ; 
 for that what earth or ftones he could not pick out of it be- 
 fore, or at the pounding, being reduced to a pow der, came 
 through the fearce, the linum remaining. This done, he 
 brought it to the paper-mill ; and putting it in water in a vef- 
 feljuft big enough to make a fliect with fuch a quantity, he 
 ftirredit pretty much, and defired the workmen to proceed 
 wirh it in the ufual method, with their writing-paper mould ; 
 only to ftir it about always before they put their mould in [ 
 conlidering it as a far more ponderous fubftance than what 
 they ufed, and that confequently, if not immediately taken 
 up after it was agitated, it would fubfide. 
 The Paper made of it proved but coarfe, and was very apt to 
 tear : but this being the firft trial, there is reafon to believe it 
 might be much improved ; nor did the workmen doubt, but in 
 cafe rt were pounded in one of their moi tars for 20 hours fpace 
 it would make good writing-paper.--/.'.P*.rr,w/: N° 166. p.824. 
 Linen or European Paper, is chiefly made of linen rags beaten 
 to a pulp with great hammers, and the foil carried off by a 
 continual lupply of frelh water conveyed among the pulp in 
 little troughs, till it be rendered perfectly white. 
 Befrdes the chief ufe of this Paper, which is for writing and 
 printing on, there is a great confumption of it in packing up 
 goods, and on other occafions. 
 
 The Turks, Bufbequius tells us, have a veneration for Paper 
 which approaches to fuperftitiori : they will not profane'or 
 proflitute the leaft bit of it to vile ufes ; but fold it very neat- 
 ly, and lay it up fafe, becaufe the name of God, or fome text, 
 forlooth, of the alcoran may be written on it. — Vid. Bufbcq. 
 Epijh 1. Legal. Titre. p. 50. 
 
 Books in large Paper, are thofe which have wider margins 
 than thofe on fmall Paper, though otherwife of the fame im- 
 preflion. 
 
 The manufacture of Paper has got footing in moft countries ; 
 though France,Holland, and Genoa, are the places where it fuc- 
 ceeds heft. In the general, it depends much on the quality 
 of the linen worn in the country where it is made: wheie 
 that is coarfe, and brown, £sV. the rags, and confequently 
 the Paper made thereof, nruft be fo too. Hence the whitenefs 
 of theDutch and Flemith Papers, beyond the Italian and Fi ench, 
 and much moie the German Papers. The Englilh manufac- 
 ture was a great while in no great reputation ; but it is eveiy 
 day improving ; infomuch that we now import little of the 
 ordinary forts, which were formerly all brought from abroad. 
 
 8 D Yet 
 
PAP 
 
 PAP 
 
 Yet paper-mills are of fome ftanding among us. We find one 
 ceded at Dartford as early as the year 158S, which we believe 
 was the firft, and which is celebrated by a noted poet of that 
 age, Tho. Churchyard, in a work in verfe, intitled, A defcrip- 
 tionand difcourje of paper, and the benefits it brings ; with the Jet- 
 ting forth of a paper-mill built near Dartford, by a High-German, 
 called Mr. Spilman, Jezveller to the queen, Land. 1588. 4 to . 
 In reality, the deficiency of the Engliih paper-manufaclure, 
 did not iecm owing fo much to the quality of our rags, as to 
 the want of (kill and attention in the makers. The encourage 
 merit given it by the legiflature, in the high duty laid on fo- 
 reign Pater imported, we hope it will in time deferve. How 
 confiderable this is, will appear from the following ftate.— Ge 
 noa royal fine Paper pays per ream, 7 s. 7 d. k- — Genoa royal 
 fecond, 6 f. 10 el. ;.— FineHolland royal, 7 t. yd. I— Fine Hoi 
 land fecond, 5 f j— Ordinary royal, is. td. —Genoa demy fine, 
 3 s. ro d. i— Genoa demy fecond, 3 s. 1 d. ■.— Dutch punting 
 demy, 3 j. 4*/. i, — Genoa crown fine, 3 J. Genoa 
 crown fecond, 2 J. \d. Dutch crown fine, 2 s. 4 d. { —Dutch 
 crown fecond, 2 s.— Genoa fools cap fine, 3 J. id. i.— Genoa 
 fools cap fecond, 2 J. 4 d. Dutch printing fools cap, 2s.— 
 Atlas fine, 28 j. 10 d. , 
 When and by whom Linen Paper was invented, is a iecret, 
 which Polydore Virgil owns he cculd never trace 3 . Scahger 
 will have it to have been found out by the Germans : Mattel 
 affirms it certain, that the invention is owing to the Italians «. 
 Others afcribe it to fome refugee Gi ccks at Bafil, who took the 
 hint from the manner of making Cotton-Paper in their own 
 country d . Conringius takes the Ai abs to have firft brought it 
 among us «. Perhaps the Chinefc have the beft title to the 
 invention ; who for many ages have made Paper much after 
 the lame manner f , and even in fome provinces of the fame 
 materials, viz. hemp, fcff. „ - , 
 
 i Fid. Polyd. Verg. de Inventor. Rer. I. 2. c 8. b Fid. Sicund. 
 
 Scalieer. p. 7. Fabric. Bill. Antiq. c. 9. %. it. c fftor. Dt- 
 
 ttm*V 2. BUI. ltd. T. 2. P . 253. d fU Phil. Tra,,/. 
 
 N 8 288. p. 1515- c "J. Conring. Epif. 4B. Erud. 
 
 Lipf An 1720 p. 94. 1 f Savar. D. Comm. T. 2. p. 963. 
 
 _ — I DuHald. Defer. Chin. T. t. p. 367. 
 Linen Pater appears to have been firft introduced among us, 
 towards the beginning of the XIV* century.— The learned 
 Conringius denies that there are many manuicripts of this Pa- 
 per above 400 yea: s old h ; with whom agrees the count Maf- 
 fei, who finds no marks of its ule before the year 1300 !; 
 h Vid. Conring. Epijt. tip. A3. Erud. Lipf. An. 1720. p. 94. 
 I Maffei Ijhr. Diplm. I. 2 . Bib/. Ital. T. 2. p. 253. 
 Some indeed go much further back ; and take the Libri Ufttti 
 mentioned by Livy, and other Roman writers, to have been 
 written on Linen Paper k : But Guilandinus, and after him AU 
 tatius and others, have fufficiently refuted this notion ; and 
 fhewn, that the Libri lintei were written on actual pieces of 
 linen cloth, or canvas, prepaicd for this purpofe, fuch as 
 painters ftill ufc ; and not on Paper made of linen rags 
 
 * Vid. Liv. Dec. i. I.4. Plin. Hijl AW. L 1 c. it. Pitifc. L. 
 Ant. T. z. p. 85. 1 Cuiland. Papy. Memb. 25. Sal- 
 
 muth. adPancirol. t. 2. tit. 13. p. 253. 
 Others run into* the contrary extreme, and make Paper the 
 invention but of a very little while ago. The jefuit Incho- 
 fer dates its origin about 250 years ago m : with whom agrees 
 Milius in his Hortm Phihfophicus, who maintains, that the 
 art of making Paper was not invented till about the year 
 1470". Of the fame opinion feems Ray, who tells us the 
 art of making this paper was not known in Guernfey, till 
 the year 1470, and when two perfons, named Anthony and 
 Michael, firft brought it to Balle, out of Galicia in Spain 0 . 
 In effect, if the invention be owing to the refugee Greeks at 
 Bafil, who fled thither after die lacking of Conftantinople, it 
 muff, at lcaft be pofterior to the year 1452, when that city was 
 taken ?. Some add a further argument for the novelty of 
 Paper, drawn from the novelty of hempen cloth, which Ra- 
 belais, who died in 1553, mentions as firft found out about 
 an hundred years bcfoie him ; and which was fo fcarce in the 
 rime of Charles VII. of France, who died in 146T, that the 
 queen his wife, was the only woman in France that had a 
 couple of fhifts of it 9, 
 
 » Fid. Mabill. de Re. Diplom. 1. 1 . c. 8. Reimm. Idea S\fi. Antiq. 
 LtUr. p. 31 3, ieq. n Balbin. Mi/cell. Hifl. Bohcm. c. 22 
 
 M. Erud. Lipf. 1682. p, 243. 0 Ray Hift. Plant. 1. 22 
 
 P Pbil.Tranj. N Q 28S. p. 1515. °- Naudjean. p. 82. Nouu 
 
 'Rep. Let. T. 26. p. 571. 
 But thefe fuggeftions are refuted by Mabillon, from the tefti- 
 monies of wi iters prior to the time here fpoken of, and from 
 many manufcripts of about 400 years old, which are written 
 011 Linen Paper'. Thejefuit Balbinus produces divers inftances 
 of Paper MS&. written before the year 1340 s . An ingenious 
 writer of our own country afiuies us, he had a piece of Paper 
 which agieed well with a charter dated in 1358, in the 32 d 
 year of Edward III. He adds, that in the archives of the Li- 
 brary belonging to the dean and chapter of Canterbury, is an 
 inventory of the goods of Henry, piior of Chrift Church, who 
 died in 1340, written on Paper ; and that in the Cotton Li- 
 biary theie are feveral writings on our Paper in the times of 
 rriofr of our kings and queens as high as the 15''' of Edw. Ill 
 
 which coincides with the year 1335 And Dr. Prideaux af- 
 fureS us 'he has i'een a regiftration of fome acts of John Gran- 
 der*, prior of Ely, made on Paper, which bears date in the 
 14th year of king Edward II. that is, anno Dom. 1320. 
 
 ' Mabill. he. eit. s Balbin. lib. eU. 1 Phil. Iran/. N° zSS. 
 p. 1515. Prid. Comieel. p. I, 1. 7. p. 710. 
 Add, that the invention of Paper may appear more modern 
 than it is, by rcalbn records were not ufed to be wrote on it, 
 but it was a confiderable time confined to letters, and other 
 fugacious coinpofitions; which is fo true, that, to this day, 
 few infhuments of any confequence are written on it, though 
 it have been fo long in ufe. — It is even allcdged, that Peter, the 
 venerable abbot ofCluny, who died in 1157, has a pallage in 
 his book againft the Jews, which plainly indicates Paper 
 books to have been then known ; on the authority whereof 
 Valefius, in his notes on the panegyric of Beicngarius Au- 
 guftus, fcruples not to make Paper upwards of 500 years old. 
 — Vid. Mabill. ubifup. Reimm. he. cit. 
 
 Father Hardouin allures us, he had feen records or diploma's 
 on it prior to the Xlil^ century.— But this will hardly be cre- 
 dited. Count Maffei aflures us, that in all his refearches he 
 could never meet with one more ancient than the year 1367. 
 It is highly probable the learned jefuit miftook a Cotton ma- 
 nufcript for a Linen one : a miftake eafily made, as the chief 
 difference between the two confifts in the greater thinneU 
 of the Linen Paper. But it is known we have Linen Papers 
 of very different degrees of thicknefs j and the like may be 
 faid of thofe of Cotton.— Vid. Maffei f/lcr. Dipkm. 1. 2. BibL 
 Ital. T. 2. p. 253, feq. 
 
 The invention, according to Prideaux, feems to have been 
 brought from the Eaft ; for that moft of the old MSS. in Ara- 
 bic, and other Oriental languages, are written on this fort of 
 Paper : fome of which are certainly much older than any of 
 the dates above-mentioned. This author thinks it moft: 
 probable that the Saracens of Spain firft brought it out of 
 the Eaft into that country ; from whence it was propagated 
 through the reft: of Europe. — Vide Prid. ubi fupra. 
 Method of 'making Linen Paper. — The procei's begins with pre- 
 paring the rags. — Thefe, when brought to the paper-mills, are 
 firft to be fortcd into what they call the grobiti fine, grobin fecond, 
 and grobin tres : for among the reft there will be fome linfey- 
 woolfey, which the dirt makes indifcoverable till they are 
 once wafhed. — The way of wattling, is by putting them in a 
 puncheon with many holes in the bottom, and grates on the 
 fide made of ftrong wires. Here are the rags to be often 
 ftirred, that the dirt may run from them. 
 When fufficiently waftied, they are laid in fquare heaps, and 
 covered clofe with pieces of clean facking, till they thoroughly 
 fweat and rot, which is called fermenting, and is ufually per- 
 formed in four or five days ; if they be not taken up from 
 thefe heaps in the due time, they are apt to mildew, difcolour 
 and take fire. When duly fermented, they twift them in 
 handfuls, then cut them with a ftiarp hook let faft in a frame, 
 with the point upwards, and the edge from the workman; 
 ftill drawing them upwards, and cutting them piece by piece 
 about half an inch long, or as ihort as the fingers will allow. 
 With the rags thus prepared, they prime or feed the mortars, 
 which are made oval, and about half a yard deep, of heart of 
 oak well feafbned. At the bottom of each is an iron plate 
 an inch thick, eight inches broad, and thirty long.y fhaped 
 inward like a mould for a falmon with head and tail rounded. 
 In the middle is a walhing block groved with five holes in it, 
 and a piece of hair fieve faftened on the infide. This keeps 
 the hammers from, touching it, and prevents any thing going 
 out except the foul water. 
 
 The mortars are fupplied with water night and day by little 
 troughs, from a ciftern fed by buckets fixed to the feveral 
 floats of a wheel, fo long as the wheel goes. 
 In thefe mortars the rags being beaten fit for a remove to the 
 preffes juft by, they take them out with little iron hooped 
 pails ; this they can do out of any of the moitars, whole ham- 
 mer they can flop whilft the others woik. This makes what 
 they call the 'firft fluff. 
 
 From the mortars, this firft fluff is lodged in boxes of five 
 foot high, made like the corn-chandlers bins, with the bottom 
 board a-flant,and a little feparation on the front for the water to 
 drain away. — The pulp of rags being in, they take away as ma- 
 ny of the front boards as are needful, and prels the mafs down 
 hard with their hands : the next day they put on another board 
 and add more pulp, till the box is full. And here it remains 
 mellowing a week, more or lets, according to the weather. 
 In the whole procefs, there mult be no iron work where it 
 may be liable to grow rufty, which would ironmould the 
 fluff", and ftain the Paper. 
 
 After this, the fluff is again put into clean mortars, and is 
 beaten afrefti, and removed into boxes as before ; in which 
 ftate it is called the fecond fluff. 
 
 The like we are to underrtand of the third time, which fits it 
 for the pit mortar, when it is again beaten, till fome of it 
 being mixed with fair water, and brewed to and fro, appears 
 like flower and water without any lumps in it. 
 Thus prepared, it is fit for the pit mortar which has flat ham- 
 mers without nails. Into this, by a trough, runs water con- 
 tinually 
 
PAP 
 
 tinually whilft they work at the fat; and here the Beating and 
 water diflblves it perfectly : after which it is carried into the 
 fat, and more is brought from the boxes, — And thus they do 
 fucceflively. 
 
 The fat is primed according to art, when the liquor has fuch 
 a proportion of the pulp, as that a mould dipped in it, will 
 take up as much as will make the Iheet of Paper of the thick- 
 nefs defired. A mould is a fquare lieve about an inch deep, 
 bottomed with brafs-wire-cloth, fupported with flicks to pre- 
 vent the wire from bagging down, and to keep it perfectly 
 horizontal : for that if it any way bags, one part of the iheet 
 of Paper will be thicker than the other. 
 This mould the maker dips, with a deckle on, into the fat, 
 and takes it out again (hatting it, that the water may run 
 clear from the pulp in the fieve, and thus he delivers it to the 
 coucher, who couches it upon a felt laid on a plank, and lays 
 another felt on it ; and fo fucceflively, a Iheet and a felt, a Iheet 
 and a felt, till a poll, i. e. one preffing, containing fix quires, be 
 made. — Of poft Paper they may make twenty ports or more 
 per day. — The coucher having done his office, returns the 
 mould to the maker, and the maker to the coucher fucceflively. 
 A port being made, either die maker, or coucher whittles ; 
 upon which four or five men advance, one whereof draws the 
 poft under the prefs with two little hooks ; and the reft prefs 
 it with great force till no water is left, which is quickly done 
 with two or three pulls. 
 
 This being done, the poft is pulled from the prefs, and fet on 
 the right fide by the laying ftool ; then the layer takes off the 
 firft felt, returns it to the coucher, and lays the firll Iheet on 
 the laying ftool, over which he lays the fecond, then the third 
 very regularly; and thus fucceflively till the whole poft be laid 
 out.— Which done it is fet by till toward the end of the day ; 
 and then the whole day's work is prefled again, and the Iheets 
 are fet exaftly one on another, fo that the whole looks like 
 one folid pafteboard. 
 
 This, after two or three pulls, as before, is taken out again by 
 the dry workman, and carried up into the loft, and hung fix 
 or feven Iheets together upon lines faftened to a thing called 
 a Trtbblc, each tribble containing thirty lines ten or" twelve 
 foot long. 
 
 When thus dried it is taken down, laid on a three footed ftool, 
 and there rubbed fmooth with the hands; and afterwards placed 
 in heaps, feven or eight foot high, in a very dry place; where 
 it Hands till the fizing, which is the next operation. 
 Chufing a fine, dry, temperate day, they put into a copper two 
 barrels ot water; and into this, when juft warm, they put fixty 
 pounds weight of clean parchment or vellum Ihavings ; which 
 they boil till it be reduced to a perfect fize ; they then ftrain 
 it through a fine cloth, on which is ftrewed a due proportion 
 of white vitriol and roch-allom finely powdered, into a tub a 
 foot deep. 
 
 Near to this tub are brought four or five reams of the Paper ; 
 and a full gage, or fo much as can be taken up with the hands 
 at a time, is dipped into the fize, being as hot as the hands 
 can well bear it ; and by a certain gentle quick management, 
 it is fo ordered, that every Iheet (hall be fized : after which it is 
 put regularly into the prefs, and when preffed, moved thence 
 into the drying loft, and hung ufually Iheet by Iheet till dry. 
 But care is taken, that the dircfl rays of the fun come not nigh 
 it till it be dry, which would otheiwife endanger the evapora- 
 tion of the fize. When thoroughly dry it is taken down, 
 fmoothed with the hands as before, heaped, prefled hard, and fo 
 it (lands all night. Next morning it is taken out, and carried 
 into the ftorehoufe, where it is lbrted ; what is fit for inlide 
 quires, are laid by themfelvcs, and the outfide by themfelves ; 
 and then it is prefled again, and lb commonly (lands all night. 
 In the morning it is carried into the ftorehoufe ao-ain, where it 
 IS told into quires of 24 or 25 Iheets each, folded, laid by in 
 heaps ; and when there is a prefs full, it is prefled again, dou- 
 ble for a while, and then made into reams of twenty quires 
 each", and bales of 10 reams to a bale 1 
 > >W. Hought. Coll.lt. T. 2. p. 4, 2 , feq. ., Moor . s Uath ^ 
 
 Ltfmp. p. 16. 
 
 The broken Iheets are commonly put together, and two of 
 the worft quires are placed on the out-fides of the ream, called 
 the Out-fide quires ; thus being tied up in wrappers made of the 
 fettling of the fat, it is fit for fale. 
 
 ^V°r ° f the aforefaid P U, P> is al(b made pafteboard, 
 alter the fame manner as Paper, only that it is thicker. See 
 
 " ASTEBOARD. 
 
 cards/ Se^CA^f &h ^ b ™ d > »ake playing 
 
 thfnaner f °i db , ytIl f e » re:im ' e ™7 where ™ think, except in 
 he paper-works of Auvergne, where it is fold by weight, at 
 
 its kind T CeS t0 , thC P ° Und ' each ™. ^cording to 
 
 f A ? ° WEIgh a certai " number of pounds, pre- 
 ferred by authority.-Savar. he. at P 
 
 P ™v E le'Ll^T ^s-W* regard to colours, they 
 may be divided into white, hrmm, Hue, Sv.— With rega.d to 
 quality mtofine./eeond, bajlard,fuperfi„'e, U e.-^m I d o 
 ufe, mw-^ printing prejjing, ,, A mnrid 
 poft, fcV.-With regard to dimenlkms, info demy, medium, 
 
 PAP 
 
 T'/^' " ya! < fiP^-'-V"', imperial, etefhdti't- 
 °!r t ,A~ Wifh re S ard <° count, y, into German, Lomard. 
 Jiecbel, Genoa, Holland, is'c. 
 
 French Papers a.e divided into large, middle tuifwHl — To 
 the fmall belong theft called, petit Romaine, petit Railin, or 
 Baton royal pent mm de Jejh, and petit a la main, all this 
 nominated from the marks imprefl'ed on them in making: 
 Alfo xheCarticr for the backs of playing cards j Pot for the 
 figure fide ; Cm-mate, which has commonly the arms of the 
 comptroller general of the finances ; Telliere, with the arms bf 
 the late chancellor Tellier, and a double T ; and OuMW, Sr 
 a Lhafiii La Serpeule, lo called from its mark, the Terpen" - 
 which being extremely fine and thin, is u'fed by fan-makers '. 
 To the middling fort belong the grand Raijn fimple Carrf 
 fimple, Cavalier, and Lanbart, the three laft of which are for 
 printing; VEeu, or de compte fimple, earre double, I' Ecu deuh'- : 
 grand Raifm double, and Courame double, which three Iatl are 
 denominated double on account of their ftreiigth and thin- 
 ners. Add to thefe the Pantalon, or Paper with the Dutch' 
 arms, and grand Cornet, fo denominated from the impreflisn 
 on it. 
 
 j °i the ,arge ' belon S the Sfdnd Jefus; petite & orande fleur- 
 de-lu-, Chapelet, Cokmbier, grand Aiglc, Dauphin, So/tit and 
 I hloile, which are thus called from the figures they be/r, 
 being all proper for printing either at the letter-prefs, or rol- 
 hng-prefs; alfo tor merchants books, and for drawing on. 
 
 The grand Monde is tire Urged of all.— Fid. SaVar: D. de Comm. 
 
 i ■ 2. p. 965, feq. 
 
 We have Mo P,inted-?t.vzn., to hang rooms withal.— Stam^J 
 Papcr,to write obligations, deeds and contrails upon.— RLu-l 
 Paper for books ot accounrs, tfr.-To which may be added 
 Cut-Paper, and Gill-Paper for letters, lie. 
 
 Blue Paper, is a fort uled by tradefmen to wrap up goods • as 
 fugar-loaves, pieces of linen, We. 
 
 Blotting? aper, is Paper not fized, and in which therefore irik 
 readily links or fpreads. Jt is ufed in books of account, SV 
 in lieu of fand, to prevent blotting and disfiguring the oppo- 
 site pages. The fame kind is likewife ufed by apothecaries 
 111 filtrating juices and other matters, for which the Manila 
 Hippocratu is not lo proper. 
 
 Tehit, or Demi-teint Paper, for defigning on, is either brow,:,- 
 blue, or bijicrdi 
 
 Bifterd Paper, is whire Paper waflled over with a fpunge'dipped 
 in foot-water. Its ufe, is to fave the labour of the crayon in 
 places which are to be lhadowed the fame depth with the 
 teint of this Paper. -Vox light places, they are made thereon 
 with white chalk. —Vid. Corneil. Elem. de la Pe'nt Prat 
 c 15. p. 34, feq. 
 
 Marbled Paper, is a fort of Paper varioufly ftained, or painted 
 as ,t were with divers colours ; made by applying a Iheet on 
 the lurface of a liquor wherein colours diluted with oil or 
 ox's gall are fufpended. 
 
 The manner of making it is thus.-A trough' is provided bf 
 the lhape and dimenfions of a Iheet of the' Paper - to be mar 
 bled and about four fingers deep, this is made of lead or 
 wood well joined, and pitched or primed to contain the 
 liquor.—* or the liquor, a quarter of a pound of gum trasra- 
 canth ,s macerated four or five days in fair water ; this they 
 for from time to time and add to it daily frelh water, rill it 
 be ot a confiftency fomewhat thinner than oil ; then thev 
 dram it into the trough. - ' 
 The colours to be applied thereon, for blue, are indigo ground 
 up with white ead.-For green, indigo and orpiment? the one 
 ground, and the other tempered ; mixed and boiled together 
 n ' H C °T° n "' at f— F ° r y e »™, orpiment bruifed and tern- 
 percd.-For red, the hneft lake, ground with rafpings of bra- 
 
 \lr7°»i K r Ch , h3S bMn P ' e P ared ^ filing half a d v 
 nto all thele colours they put a little ox or filh-Vall, which is 
 two or three days old; and if the colours dilate not of hern 
 felves fuffieiently they add mpie gall.-On the contrary if 
 thcylpread too much, the gall is over-doled, and mud be 
 corrected by adding more of the colour without gall 
 
 fnlhe l^T'T ° f ,m ? lin S : ™ hc " *• gum is well fettled 
 n he trough they extend a Iheet ot Paper, and plunge jt very 
 hallow into the liquor, luddenly lilting it out again? in order 
 to ftirup, and raile the fubliding gum towards the furface, 
 and tor the more univerfal impregnating bf the liquor. 
 I his done, and all the colours ranged in gallipots oh the 
 table where alfo the trough is placed, they begin by dipping 
 a brulh of hog's hair into any colour, commonly the blue 
 fall, and fprinkle it on the furface of the liquor: If the colour 
 
 has been rightly prepared, it will dilate itlelf duly therein 
 
 1 his done, the red is applied in the like manner, but with 
 another pencil.— After this the yellow ; lallly the green ; for 
 white, it is made by only fprinkling fair water, mixed with 
 ox's gall, over the liquor. 
 
 When all the colours are thus floating on the liquor, to give 
 them that agreeable cambletting which we admire in Marble 
 Paper,they ufe a pointed flick, which being applied by drawing 
 it trom one fide of the trough to the other with addrefs, ftirs 
 up the liqiior and fluctuating colours ; then with a comb tik-n 
 by the head with both hands, they comb the fuiface of the 
 
 liquor 
 
PAP 
 
 liquor in the trough from one extreme to another, permitting 
 only the teeth to enter : this being performed with a gentle 
 and uniform motion, makes thofe clouds and undulations 
 whereon much of the beauty of the Paper depends. 
 If it be further defired to have the colours lie in any other fan- 
 taftical pofture, reprefenting fcrpents or the like, it is effected 
 with the pointed flick abovementioned, by drawing it over 
 what has been already combed ; but this mud: be done with a 
 dexterous hand, and with a mallow dip into theliquor, circling 
 as if you would draw fome flouriih, or figured letter. 
 Laftly, the colours being in this pofture, the operator difplays, 
 and applies on them a meet of white moiftened Paper ; to do 
 which artift-like, requires a Height only to be obtained by prac- 
 tice ; for that the furfaces of the liquor and the Paper are to meet 
 equally in all parts : which done, before the colours have time 
 to foak through, which, unlets the paper be very thick, will be 
 in the fpace of two or three pulfes, he lifts up the Paper nim- 
 bly, and with an even hand ; and then after fpreading it a 
 while on a board, hangs it on a line to dry ; which when fuf- 
 ficiently done, they polifh it with a marble ftone, or ivory knob. 
 It muft be obfei ved, that the fprinkling of the colours is to be 
 renewed, and all the other ceremonies performed with the ftick' 
 and comb at every application of a freih Paper, by reafon that 
 every Paper takes oft" all the colour from the liquor a. 
 
 * Vid. Kirch, de Luce C? Umbra. 1. 10. Par. z. c. 4. Merr. Ohfer-v. 
 cn Ntri de art. Vitr. c. 42. p. 312. Hought. Callett. T. z. 
 
 p-4'9. feq- 
 
 Some effays have been made to enrich the marbling by mixing 
 gold and fibrer with the colours, which fucceeded well in many 
 attempts in theFrench king's library, though the expence has 
 hindered the practice from obtaining. — Savar. ubi fupra. 
 
 Chinefe Paper is of various forts ; fome is made of the rinds, or 
 barks of trees, efpecially thole abounding in fap, as the mul- 
 berry-tree, and elm, but chiefly of the bambu and cotton-tree ; 
 but in reality, almoft each province has its feveral Paper : that of 
 Se-chwen is made of hemp : that of Fo-kyen, of foft bambu ; 
 that ufed in the northern provinces of the bark of the mulbeny- 
 tree : that of the province of Che-kyang,of wheat or rice-ftraw ; 
 that of the province of Kyang-nang, of the flcin found in the 
 filk-worms balls. In fine, in the province of Hu-quang, the 
 tree chu, or ko-chu furnifhes the principal material for Paper. 
 
 Per Papers iv.a.ie of the Barks cf Trees; the manner of their 
 prepaiation may be exemplified in the inftance of that of the 
 bambu, a tree of the cane, or reed-kind, being hollow, and 
 divided into joints ; but much larger, fmoother, harder and 
 ftronger than any other fort of reed. 
 
 For this Paper, they ordinarily only ufe the fecond coat or 
 fltinofthe bark, which is foft and white; this they beat in 
 fair water to a pulp, which they take up in very large 
 moulds or frames, lb that they have meets ten or twelve 
 feet long, and fometimes more. They are compleated by 
 dipping them lheet by fheet in allom-water, which ferves in- 
 ftead 01 the lize ufed among us, and not only hinders the Pa- 
 per from too freely imbibing the ink, butgives it that luftre which 
 at firft fight makes it look filvered, or at leaft varniihed over. 
 The Paper thus made, is white, foft and clofe, without the leaft 
 roughnefs to ftop the motion of the pen, or occafion the ri- 
 fing of any of its fibres. Though being made of the bark 
 of a tree, it cracks more eafily than the European Paper : add 
 that ^ i& more apt to take moifture, that the duft flicks to it, 
 and that the worms foon get into it ; to prevent which lali 
 inconvemency, they are obliged often to beat their books, 
 and expole them to the fun. Add, that its thinnefs making 
 it liable to be foon worn out, the Chinefe are under a frequent 
 necefllty of renewing their books, by frefh imprefiions taken 
 from their blocks b . 
 
 b Vid. le Compt. Nottfv. Mem, fur Chin. Lett. 7. Kuft. Bill. vov. 
 Libr. An. 1697, p. 67, feq. Lett. Edif. Cif Cur.T. 19. p. 479. 
 
 But the Paper of the bambu, it is to be obferved, is neither the 
 the belt, nor that moft ufed in China. In the former of thei'e 
 refpects, it yields the priority to the paper made of the cotton 
 fhrub, which is the whiteft and fineft, and at the fame time 
 leaft fubject to the inconveniences above-mentioned ; for that 
 
 it keeps as well, and is as durable as the European Paper. 
 
 Dr. Grew thinks we* have many plants in England, which con- 
 tain a down that in all probability would make as fine a Pa- 
 per as that made by the Chinefe from their cotton fhrub. 
 
 By which it appears he miftakenly imagined that the Chinefe 
 Paper was made not from the rind of the cotton-fhrub, but 
 from the down or cotton itfelf. — ViL Grew Muj. Reg. See. 
 P. 2. §. i.e. 5. p. 215. 
 
 But the Paper in moft common ufe in China, is that made of 
 the tree called Chu-Ku, or Ku-Chu, which du Halde com- 
 pares, firft to a mulberry-tree, then to a fig-tree, then to a fy- 
 camore-trec, and laftly, to increafe the embarrafs, to a ftraw- 
 berry-trec. — By all which, we know no more of it than if he 
 had laid nothing about it. But this is a way of defcribing ve- 
 ry familiar to that author, who is often ftrangely jejune in the 
 .midftof theutmoft prolixity, and is nevermore confufed and 
 . incoherent, than when he aims moft at order and Exactnefs. 
 But to return to the Ku- Chu, 
 
 PAP 
 
 The method of preparing it for Paper, is by firft fcraping off 
 lightly the thin outfide of the tree, which is greenifh : then 
 they take off the inner rind in long thin flips, which they 
 blanch in water and in the fun ; and afterwards prepare them 
 in the fame manner as the bambu. 
 
 It muft not be forgot, that in the other trees it is only the in- 
 ward bark that ferves for making Paper ; but the bambu, as 
 well as the cotton fhrub, have this peculiarity, that not only 
 their bark, but their whole fubftance may be employed, by 
 means of the following preparation. 
 
 Out of a wood of the largest, bambd's, they fclect (hoots of 
 a year's growth, which are about the thicknefs of the calf of a 
 man's leg: thefe they ftrip of their firft green rind, and fplit 
 them into ftrait pieces of fix or feven foot long : the pieces 
 thus cleft, they fteep in a pond of muddy water, till they rot 
 and grow lbfc by the maceration. In a fortnight they take 
 them out, wafh them in clean water, fpread them in a large 
 dry ditch, and cover them with lime for a few days ; then 
 they take them out again, and having wafhed them a fecond 
 time, they Hip them into final! filaments, which they expofe in 
 the fun to dry and whiten : then throw them into large cop- 
 pers, where they are thoroughly boiled : and laftly reduce 
 them by the ftrokes of large hammers to a thin pafte, or pulp. 
 After this they take fome fhoots of a plant called Ko-teng, they 
 foak them four or five days in water, til! there come out an 
 unctuous fizy fort of juice ; this they mix with the pulp of 
 which the Paper is to be made, fomewhat in the fame man- 
 ner as painters temper their colours ; care being taken not to 
 put in too much, nor too little of it, on which the goodnefs 
 of the Paper much depends. 
 
 When they have mixed the juice ofKo-teng with the cleft 
 bambu, and beaten the whole till it refembles a thick clammy 
 water, they pour it into a large deep refervoir, confifting of 
 four walls raifed breaft high, and having the fides and bottom 
 fo cemented, that the liquor cannot run out nor foak in. 
 This being done, and the workmen placed at the fides of the 
 refervoir, they dip in their moulds, and take up the furfacex>f 
 the liquor, which almoft inftantly becomes Paper ; the muci- 
 laginous and glewy juice of the Ko-teng binding the parts, 
 and rendering the Paper compact, foft, and glolfy, qualities 
 which the European Paper never has when firft made. 
 To harden the ftieets, and make them bear ink, they dip them 
 in ailom-water : this operation is called Fan'mg, from the Chi- 
 nefs word Fa?i., which iignifies allom. The manner is this.— 
 Six ounces of filh glue cut very fmall, are put in divers por- 
 ringers of water, which they afterwards boil up, ftirring it all 
 the time to prevent lumps : when the whole is reduced to a 
 liquid fubftance, they throw into it three quarters of a pound 
 of calcined allom, which they melt and incorporate with it. 
 This mixture is next poured into a wide bafon, acrofs which 
 is laid a fmall round ftick : then they fhut the edge of each 
 fheet in another ftick cleft from end to end, and in this man- 
 ner dip the iheet, gently drawing it out as foon as it is wetted, 
 by Aiding it over the round ftick. When the whole fheet has. 
 been pafl'ed nimbly througli this liquor, which makes it whiter 
 and more compact, the long ftick that holds the fheet by the 
 edge, is ftuck in a hole in the wall, and the fheet hung up to 
 dry. — For the mould wherewith they take up the fheet, its 
 frame is fo contrived that it may be raifed or lowered at plea- 
 fure; and its bottom is not made with wire, as ours, but with 
 little flender flips of bambu drawn feveral times through holes 
 made in a fteel plate, whereby they are rendered as line as 
 wire : they are then boiled in oil till thoroughly foaked, that 
 the mould may enter lightly into the water, and not fink deep- 
 er than is requifite to take up matter enough for a fheet. 
 To make meets of any extraordinary fize, care is taken to 
 have a refervoir and mould large in proportion. This mould 
 is fuftained by firings which pafs over the pulley ; and the mo- 
 ment thefe pull up the frame, the workmen placed afide the re- 
 fervoir, affift to take the fheet off; working together in a regu- 
 lar manner. For drying the lheets when taken off, they have 
 a hollow wall, whole fides are welt whitened : at one end 
 hereof is an aperture, through which, by means of a pipe, they 
 convey the heat of a neighbouring furnace : and at the oppo- 
 fite end is a fmall vent to let out the fmokc. By help of this 
 fort of ftove, they dry the Paper almoft as faft as it is made. 
 Silvering of Paper, as it is called, is another fecret among the 
 Chinefe, practifed at a very fmall charge, and without ufing 
 any filver.— In order to this, they take two fcruples of glue 
 made of neats leather, one fcruple of allom, and half a pint of 
 clean water: thefe they fimmer over a flow fire, till the wa- 
 ter is confumed, that is, till no more fteam arifes ; then on 
 a fmooth table they fpread fome ffieets of Paper, and on this, 
 with a pencil, they apply two or three layers of the glue : 
 then they take a powder made of talc boiled, and mixed with 
 4 the quantity of allom : the two are ground together, fifted, 
 and the powder boiled again in water, then dried in the 
 fun, and laftly pounded again. — This powder they fift 
 through a fine fieve, fpreading it uniformly on the iheets 
 prepared as above : after which they hang them in the fhade 
 to dry ; and this effected, they lay them again on the table, 
 and rub them gently with clean cotton to take of the fupcr- 
 
 fiuous 
 
pap 
 
 fluous talc, which ferves a fecond time for the fame purpofe. 
 With this powder diluted in water mixed with glue and 
 allom, they draw any figuies at fancy on the Paper — Fid. Du 
 Hald, Defcrip. Chin. T. i. p. 368, feq. 
 Paper-Clothes became a mode a few years ago in France. 
 M. Flachs has a differtation exprefs on the fubject, wheiein 
 he tells us this fafhion fcarce outlived half a day; and un- 
 dertakes to /hew that it is no new thing, but had been prac- 
 ticed among the ancients. But then it mould be confidered 
 that the old Egyptian Paper was a very different thing from 
 ours ; as being like wife ufcd for fails, ropes, b"c.—-Bibl. Germ. 
 T.i. p. 260. 
 
 Paper-Mills, (in the court of king's bench) is where the 
 writings belonging to that couit are repofited. 
 
 Paper-Office, (in the palace of Whitehall) is where all the 
 publick writings, matters of ftate and council, proclamati- 
 ons, letters, intelligences, negotiations of the king's mini- 
 iters abroad, and generally all the papers and difpatches that 
 pafs through the offices of the fecretaries of flate, aie lodged, 
 and difpoled in the way of library. — It was chiefly from this 
 noble repofitory that biihop Burnet had materials for his 
 hiflory of the reformation. — Fid. Nicholf. Eng. Hift. Libr. 
 P. 3. c. 1. p. j8o. 
 
 Paper-Portraits, and Pictures. — One Elizabeth Pyberg, 
 who lived at the Hague in 169/9, cut in Paper not drily towns, 
 as Loo and Hounflerdyke, but even faces to an extreme 
 likenefs. Mr. Ellys allures us, fhe did king William and 
 queen Mary better than any limner he had ever feen, and 
 refufed 1000 guilders for the pieces : which were fo curious, 
 that he could not believe the queen's drapery not to be point 
 till he had moil exquifitely inquired into it. — Fid. Phil. Tranf. 
 N° 2 86. p. 1418. 
 
 Papers is a Term alfo ufed for writings, efpecially thofe re- 
 lating to a man's eftate, property, dealings, or the like. 
 In which fenfe, Papers include books of accounts, invoices, 
 _and orders ; alfo deeds, bonds, charters, and the like. 
 
 Papers is alfo fometimes ufed for manufcript-books. 
 
 Such an author left his Papers to *** college. Several of Sir 
 Ifaac Newton's Papers have been publifhed fince his death. — 
 Tournefort allures us, that the heirs of M. de Peirefk 
 warmed themfelves a whole winter with the Papers he left in 
 his cabinet. But it had been cheaper, adds M. Tournefort, 
 if they had burnt cedar, or aloes wood. — Fid. Journ. Liter. 
 T. 12. p. 64. 
 
 Papers is more particularly ufed of late days for gazettes, 
 journals, and other public news-writings. 
 In this fenfe we fay, to read the Papers i the Papers abound 
 with falfhcods : the multitude of Papers is become a burthen 
 on corlee-houfes, but an advantage to the revenue. — We have 
 daily Papers, weekly Papers, morning Papers, evening Papers, 
 ©ccafional Papers, political Papers, literary Papers, Papers of 
 entertainment, &c. 
 
 Paper, among bankers and other negociants, is alfo ufed for 
 bills of exchange, bank, and promiffory notes, fsV. 
 I have no money to give you, but only Paper ; Paper 
 indeed as good as ready money. In the year 1720, mul- 
 titudes were ruined by changing their money and lands for 
 Paper. It is the ufe and effect of credit to reprefent money 
 by Paper. 
 
 Subffituting Paper for money, and giving the Paper an arbi- 
 trary value, was the way of paying debts introduced in 
 France by Mr. Law.— A royal bank was eftabliftied, to 
 which people were to carry their money, and receive the 
 value of it in bills, which were to pafs current in trade as 
 fo much money.— Fid. Chevign, Scienc. desPers. de la Com; 
 T. 2. p. 292, feq. — It was made confifcation of goods, and 
 the gallies, for any man to keep above 40 livres by him of 
 any but Paper money. When the regent was told what a 
 rage was fpirited up againfl him about the arrets for ma- 
 king Paper current, and how openly the people threatened 
 him, he anfwered cooly, the French were like watch dogs, 
 they would bark but not bite, les Franfois refemblent aux 
 ehtens a garde, Us aboyent, mais ne mordent pas. Miff. Mifc. Lett. 
 T. 4. p. 16. 
 
 Paper, among fan-painters. See the article Fan. 
 PAPILLA, in anatomy, a nipple ; a prominence arifing from 
 the middle of the breaft, or mamma. 
 
 The colour of the Papilla is various ; in different itates, and 
 flages of life, it is rediili, bluifh, and blackifh. It is encom- 
 paffed with a pale brownilh or rediih circle, called Areola. 
 The lacteal tubes, coming from the feveral parts of the 
 breads, terminate in the Papilla, with feveral nervous, or 
 fpongious emiffaries which communicate with each other 
 by anaftomofes, through which, in fucking, the milk is 
 drawn. 
 
 Papillje Pyramidales, are little eminences arifing from the fub- 
 cutaneous nerves. 
 
 Under rhe cutis lies a thick congeries of nerves, wove into a 
 kind of membrane ; together with arteries, veins, and lym- 
 phaticks: thefe nerves Handing out about the level, form 
 Vol. IX. 
 
 PAP 
 
 little PapilLs, which laying afide the outer eoat given theni 
 by the dura mater, form the corpus reticulars, firft obfervedt 
 by Malpighi in the feet, hands, and tongue ; and fmce (hewn 
 by Ruyfch, throughout the whole body.— See Tab. Anat. 
 (Myol) Fig. 8. Lit. aa, kz.bb. 
 
 Thefe Papilla are always the moll numerous and confpicuous 
 in the places of molt acute fenfe, as the tongue, glans of the 
 penis, vagina, labia, ccfophagus, ventricle, fmall inteflines, 
 and tips of the fingers and toes, where the cutis they a:e 
 covered withal is extremely thin. 
 
 In the other parts of rhe body the cutis is thicker, and the 
 Papilla; are much fewer, fmaller, &c. 
 
 Thefe Papilla: are fuppofed to be the immediate orgrm of feeling. 
 Pap ill i£ of the tongue, are little em.inences of\hc tongue; 
 
 fo called from their refcmblance to thzPapilhe of the breaft. 
 
 From the papillary tunic of the tongue arife numerous nervous 
 
 Papilla:, which, penetrating the vifcous fubflance over them, 
 
 terminate under the furface of the tongue. 
 
 It is by means of thefe Papilla, that the tongue is fuppofed 
 
 to have its faculty of tailing. 
 Papillae, or caruncula Papillar.es, of the kidneys, are 
 
 bundles of little urinary pipes, joined together in the inner 
 
 fubllancc of the kidneys. 
 
 They end in fhort tubulous bodies, or larger pipes, anfwering 
 in number to the Papilla, which arc ufually 12; and are 
 called Fljhda Mcmbranacea ; being only productions of the 
 membranous ceil called the Pelvis. 
 
 The Papilla ferve to diftjll the urine feparated from the arte- 
 ries, and brought them by the urinary pipes, into the pelvis; 
 See Urine. 
 
 PAPILLARY, Papillaris, in anatomy, an epithet given to 
 a tunic or membrane of the tqngue; called Papillary Tunic, 
 Papillary Membrane, or Papillary Body. 
 
 The papillary tunic, or body, is the third tegument, placed 
 beneath the exterior membrane which lines the tongue, and 
 the vifcous fubflance next under the fame. 
 It is full of nerves derived from the fifth, and ninth pair. 
 From this tunic arife little eminences, called Papilla or Pa- 
 pillary Eminences. 
 
 The falts and juices of bodies, finking againft thefe promi- 
 nences, occafibn undulations therein, which are immediately 
 communicated to the fpirits contained in the nerves, and 
 thefe carry them to the brain, C3Y. 
 Papillary Procejfes, is a name which the ancients gave to the 
 olfactory nerves, from the place of their origin, to the os 
 cribofum. 
 
 Dr. Drake thinks this name becomes them better in this place 
 than that of nerves, in regard they rather appear as pro- 
 ductions of the medulla oblongata, whence the olfactory 
 nerves arife, than as diflirsa nerves ; againlt which their 
 manifeft cavities, and their communication with the ven- 
 tricles, argue. 
 
 PAPILIONACEOUS, in botany, an appellation given to the 
 flowers of fome plants, as reprefenting fomething of the figure 
 of a papilio or butterfly, with its wings diiplayed. 
 Papilionaceous Flowers have four petala, or leaves, joined toge- 
 ther at the lower extremity : one in the middle of the flower 
 is larger than the reft, and by fome is called the vexillum, or 
 the flan da rd. 
 
 The plants, that have this flower, are of the leguminous 
 kind, as peafe, beans, vetches, &c. 
 
 PAPPUS, in botany, that foft light down, which grows out of 
 the feeds of fome plants, as thiftles, dandelion, hawkweed, 
 tsV. and which buoys them up fo in the air, that they may 
 be blown any where about with the wind. 
 This diftinguifhes a clafs of plants, which are hence denomi- 
 nated Pappofa, or Pappifera. 
 
 PAR, in commerce, an equality between different monies; or 
 fo much as a perfon mufl give of one kind of fpecie, to render 
 it juft equivalent to a certain quantity of another; 
 The Par differs from the courfe of exchange,' in this, thae 
 the Par of exchange fhews what other nations mould allow 
 in exchange ; which is certain and fixed, by the intrinfic 
 values of the feveral fpecies to be exchanged : but the courfe 
 lhews what they will allow in exchange; which is uncertain 
 and contingent, fometimes more, fometimes lefs. See Ex-' 
 
 CHANGE. 
 
 Some have charged our merchants with a great error in fuf- 
 fering our neighbours to fettle the Par of our exchanges far 
 below what it ought to have been fettled at : by which means; 
 we have been imperceptibly robb'd of the greatefl part of our 
 filver, and no fmail part of our gold. 
 
 For inflance, it hath been reckoned for upwards of 40 years 
 lafl, that 37 Dutch fchillings, and 4 ninths of their grofs; 
 Flemifh are exactly equal to, or on a Par with our pound 
 flerling or 20 (hillings: whereas it appears demonllrable that 
 we Iofe between 4 and 7 per cent, by every fuch exchange.— 
 See Sir I. Newton's Eflays and Calculations on foreign coins. 
 The French crown of 60 fols, before the late dimrnution,was 
 equivalent to 54 pence (now to 31 d. ij fieri, of England ; to" 
 8 E loa 
 
PAR 
 
 PAR 
 
 loodeniers crofs of Holland; and to ioi of thofe of Co- 
 logne. To 48 Lubec fols of Germany and Hambourg. To 
 8b" creuxs of Aulbouig, and 90 of Franckfort, 83 of Bolzam, 
 and 84 of Switzerland. To 8 Julio's and an half of Rome, 
 and as many of Ancona ; to 3 Teiloons of Florence, 58 
 Soldi of Leghorn, 83 of Geneva, 0,4 of Milan, 60 of Nova; 
 to 5 lires or livres of Genoa, 4 lires and 10 lbldi of Lucca, 
 
 8 lires of Bergmna, 3 lires and 15 foldi of Savoy; to 
 
 9 carlins of Naples, and as many of Sicily; 11 groats and 
 three tilths of Venice, 24 of Naumbourg ; to 372 maravedis 
 of Spain, to 600 rces of Portugal, to 4 farms and 15 grains 
 of Malta, to 120 afpers of Conftantinople, to a demi-honge of 
 gold of Hungary, to two florins of Liege, 3 of Strafhourg, 
 and 20 of Raconi.s to 90 groats or groches of Poland, and 
 24 of Berlin, to 80 maiks of copper of Sweden, to 50 grives 
 or grifts of copper of Mufcovy, and laltly, to 4 hors of Den- 
 mark. — Savar. 
 
 Par, [in anatomy.) See Pair. 
 
 Par Pag'uni, or the eighth Pair, is a very notable conjugation of 
 nerves, of (he medulla oblongata; thus called from their wide 
 andvague diftributiorj throughout the fcveral parts of the body. 
 — See their origin, courfc, diftribution, ksc. under Nerve. 
 
 Par, (a term of nobility.) See Peer. 
 
 PARABLE*, nAPABOAHj a fable, or allegorical inftruclion 
 founded on fomething real, or apparent in nature, or hiftory ; 
 from which a moral is drawn, by comparing it with fome 
 other thing, wherein the people are more immediately con- 
 cerned. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, tn/x.gx.Zv.'KhiHi, to oppofe, 
 or compare. 
 
 Such are thofe Parablei of the ten virgins, of Dives and Laza- 
 ius, of the prodigal fon, 6sfY. in the New Tejlament. St. Mat- 
 thew fays our Saviour never fpoke to the people but by Parables. 
 Ariftotle defines Parable, a Jimilitude drawn from form to 
 form. Cicero calls it a collation, others a fimilc. F. de Co- 
 Ionia calls it a rational fable. 
 
 The Hebrew calls it, *1T£?.j from a word which fignifies ei- 
 ther to predominate, or to aflimilate ; the proverbs of So- 
 lomon arc by them alfo called Parables, or Proverbs. 
 Glaflius defines Parable a fimile wherein a fictitious thing is 
 related as real, and compared with fome fpiritual thing, or 
 accommodated to fignify it. 
 
 Some make Parable differ from fable ; Grotius and others 
 life the two terms promifcuoully. Kirchcr derives the ule of 
 Parables from the Egyptians. 
 
 In the New TeJfcmeHt, the word Parable is ufed varioufly. 
 In Luke IV, 23. for a proverb, or adage : In Matth. XV. 15. 
 for a thing darkly and figuratively exprefied : In Heb. IX. 9, 
 &c. for a type : In Luke XIV. y, ts'c. for a fpecial inftruc- 
 tion : Matth. XXIV. 32. for a fimilitude or comparifon. 
 PARABOLA, in geometry, a figure arifing from the fection 
 of a cone, when cut by a plane parallel to one of its fides. 
 See Section. 
 
 From the fame point of a cone, therefore, only one Parabola 
 can be drawn ; all the other feet ions within thofe parallels 
 being cllipfes ; and all without them hyperbola's. 
 Wolfius defines the Parabola to be a curve wherein a .■<■=.%• *, 
 that is, the fquare of the femi-ordinate is equal to the rect- 
 angle of the abfeifie, and a given right line called the pqra- 
 vitter of the axis, or latus reftum. 
 
 Hence, a Parabola is a curve of the firft order ; and as the 
 abfeifies increafe, the femi-ordinates increafc likewife ; con- 
 fequently the curve never returns into itfelf. 
 Hence alio the abfeifle is a third proprotional to the parame- 
 ter and femi-ordinate; and the parameter is a third proporti- 
 onal to the abfeifie and femi-ordinate ; and the femi-ordinate 
 is a mean proportional between the parameter and the abfeifie. 
 To defcribe a Parabola — The parameter AB Tab. Conies 
 Fig. 8. being given ; continue it to C, and from B let fall a 
 peipendicular to N. From centres taken at pleafure, with 
 the compares open to A, defcribe arches cutting the right 
 line BV in I, II, III, IV, V, &c. And the right line BC 
 in 1,2, 3, 4, 5, b'r. Then will B 1, B 2, B 3, B 4, B 5, csY. be 
 abfeiffes j and B I, B II, B III, B IV, B V, &c. femi-ordinates. 
 Wherefore if the lines B 1, B 2, B 3, &e. be transferred from 
 the line BC to that B N, and in the points r, 2, 3, 4, fj f . 
 perpendiculars be raifed, iI=BI, 2lI=BII, 3 111 = Bill, 
 &c, the curve paffing through the points, I, H, III, EsV. is 
 a Parabola ; and P N its axis. 
 
 Every point of the Parabola may alfo be determined geome- 
 trically; e.gr. If it be inquired, whether the point M be in 
 the Parabola or not ? from M to BN let fall a perpendicular 
 defcribe a femicircle. For if that pafs through M, the point 
 M is in the Parabola. 
 
 In a Parabola, the diftance of the focus from the vertex, is to 
 the parameter, in a fubquadruple ratio : and the fquare of the 
 femi-ordinate is quadruple the rectangle of the diftance of the 
 focus from the vertex, into the abfeifie. See Focus. 
 To defcribe a Parabola by a continual Motion. — Affirming a 
 right line for an axis, let /A, Big. g.=AF=;a. In A fix a ruler 
 D B cutting the axis fU at right angles. To the extremity of 
 
 another ruler E C, fallen a thread fixed at its other extreme in 
 the focus E, which is to be = AD-f-AF. If then a llyle or 
 point be fixed to the ruler E C, and the ruler be carried firft 
 to the right then to left, according to the direction of the 
 other DB; the ilyle will mark out a Paraiola.~For, F M will 
 bcconftantly = E M = P/=a + j <7, and confequently the 
 point M is in a Parabola. 
 Properties of the Parabola. — The fquares of the femi-ordinates 
 arc to each other as the abfeifies ; and the femi-ordinates tiiem- 
 fclves, in a fubduplicate ratio of the abfeifies. 
 The rectangle of the fum of two femi-ordinates into their 
 difference, is equal to the rectangle of the parameter into the 
 difference of the abfeifies : the parameter therefore is to the 
 fum of the two femi-ordinates, as their difference to the diffe- 
 rence of the abfeifies. 
 
 In a Parabola, the rectangle of the femi-ordinate into the 
 abfeifie, is to the fquare of the abfeifie, as the parameter to 
 the femi-ordinate. 
 
 In a Parabola, the fquare of the parameter is to the fquare of 
 one femi-ordinate, as the fquare of another femi-ordinate is 
 to the rectangle of the abfeifies. 
 
 In a Parabola, the fubtangent is double the abfeifle, and the 
 iubnormal fubduple of the parameter. 
 
 Quadrature of the Parabola. See Quadrature. 
 
 Reclification of the Parabola. See Rectification. 
 
 Centre of gravity of a Parabola. See Centre of Gra- 
 vity. 
 
 Centre of ofcillat'ton of the Parabola, See Oscillation. 
 Parabola'* of the higher kinds are algebraic curves, defined by 
 1 xz=zy m . £. gr. by a -1 *=;•% a 3 x—y* 3 a*x=ys, & 
 x=zy 6 , &c. See Curve. 
 
 Some call thefe Paraboloids : more particularly, if a*xz=y 3 ; 
 they call it a Cubical Paraboloid. — If a 3 xznyi. dsV. they call it 
 a hiquadrathal Parabtloid, or a Surdefolidal Paraboloid. 
 And in refpect of thefe, the Parabola of the firfl kind, above 
 explained, they call the Apollonian, or Quadratic Parabola. 
 Thofe curves are likewife to be referred to Parabola's wherein 
 ax m — '=y m , as e.gr. ax^~y 3 , a x?*zy* 9 which fome call 
 Semi-parabola's. They are all comprehended under the com- 
 mon equation, a m , x" y c , which alfo extends to other curves, 
 v. gr. to thofe wherein a 1 x 1 =/S a* x 3 =y*, a z x+~y 7 . 
 Since in Parabola's of the higher kinds, y m =a m — •x; if any 
 other femi-ordinate be called v, and the abfeifie correfponding 
 thereto z, we fiiall have v m —a™ — 1 z, confequently y m ; v m 
 . ■ a m — 1 v . a m — 1^ That is x : z. It is a common pro- 
 perty, therefore, of thefe Parabola's, that the powers of the 
 ordinates are in the ratio of the abfeifles. 
 But in Semi-parabola's, y m : v m : : ax 1 " — 1 : ^m—'- Vn)M i - 
 ^m—,'. Or ; the powers of the femi-ordinates are as the powers 
 of the abfeifies, one degree lower. E.gr. In Cubical Semi- 
 parabola's, of the ordinates/ and v z are as the fquares of the 
 abfeifies x* and z 1 . 
 
 Apollonian Parabola, is the common, or Quadratic Parabola 
 of the firft kind ; fo called by way of diftinction from Parabola's 
 of the higher kinds : which fee. 
 
 §)iiadratic Parabola, is the fame with the Apollonian. Which 
 fee. 
 
 Pelecoid Parabolia. See the article Pelecoid. 
 Refinance of a Parabola. See the article Resistance. 
 PARABOLAN*, Parabolanus, among the ancients, was a 
 fort of gladiator, called alfo the Ccnfeclor. See Confector. 
 * The name was given them from the Greek, ir^a.Q^, of 
 
 to throw, precipitate ; in regard they threw themfelves on dan- 
 ger and death. 
 
 Parabolani, or Parabolarii, is alfo ufed in church -hi flory, 
 for a fet of people, efpecially in Alexandria, who devoted 
 themfelves to the fervices of churches, and hofpitals. 
 The Parabolani were not allowed to withdraw themfelves 
 
 from their function, which was the attendance on the fick. 
 
 They made a kind of fraternity, amounting fometime to 600 
 perfons, dependant on the bilhop. 
 
 The defign of their inftitution was, that the difeafed, efpe- 
 cially thofe infected with the plague, might not be without 
 
 attendance. 
 
 PARABOLIC Conoid, a folid figure generated by the rotation 
 of a parabola about its axis. 
 
 The folidity of the Parabolic Conoid, is = i of that of its cir- 
 cumfcribing cylinder. 
 
 The circles conceived to be the elements of this figure, are in 
 an arithmetical proportion, decreafmg towards the vertex. 
 A Parabolic Conoid is to a cylinder of the fame bale and 
 height, as 1 to 2 ; and to a cone of the fame bafe and height, 
 as F i to I. 
 
 Parabolic Cuneus, a folid figure formed by multiplying all 
 the DB'sTtfi-. Conies, Fig. 10. into the DS's: or which a- 
 mounts to the fame, on the bafe A P B erect a prifm, whofe 
 altitude is A S : this will be a Parabolical Cuneus, which of 
 nccefiity will be equal to the parabolical pyramidoid ; inafmuch 
 as the component rectangles, in one, are feverally equal to all 
 the component fquares, in the other. 
 
 Parabolic Pyramidoid, a folid figure, generated by fuppofing 
 
PAR 
 
 all the fipiares of the ordinate applicates in the Parabola, To 
 placed, as that the axis (hall pais through all their centres 
 tight angles ; in which cafe the aggregate of the planes will 
 form the parabolic pyramiJoid. 
 
 The folidity hereof is had by multiplying the bafe, by half the 
 altitude; the realbn whereof is obvious : for the componeni 
 planes being a feries ot arithmetical proportionals beginning 
 from o, their fum will be equal to the extremes mukiply'd by 
 half the number of terms, that is, in the prefent cafe, equal 
 to the bafe multiplied by half the height. 
 
 Parabolic Sparc, the fpace or area contained between any en- 
 tire ordinate, as VV Tab. Conies, Fig, 8. and the curve'of the 
 incumbent Parabola. 
 
 The Parabolic Space is to the rectangle of the femi-ordinate into 
 the abfeifie, as 2 to 3 : to a triangle inicribed on the ordi- 
 nate as a bafe, the Parabolic Space is as 4 to 3. 
 Every Parabolical and Paraboloidical Space is to the rectangle o: 
 the femi-ordinate into the abfeifie, as r xy : (;«+/■) to x y 
 that is, as r to m-\-r. 
 
 Segment of a Parabolic Space, is that fpace included between 
 two oidmatcs. 
 
 Quadrature of a Parabolical fegment. 'See Quadrature. 
 Parabolic Speculum or Mirrour. See Mirrour. 
 Parabolic Spindle. See Pyramidoid. 
 
 PARABOLOID!^, in gecmetiy, Paiabola's of the higher 
 kinds. See Parabola of the higher Kinds. 
 
 Quadrature of a Paraboloid. See Quadrature. 
 
 Reclif cation of a Par a bo loid. See Rectification. 
 
 Centre of Gravity of a Paraboloid. See Center. 
 
 Quadratic Paraboloid. Cubical Paraboloid, Surdcfilidal Para- 
 boloids. See Parabola's of the higher Kinds. 
 
 PARACENTESIS*, nAPAKE.VTHEir, an operation in chirur 
 gery, commonly called Tapping. 
 
 * 1 he word is formed from the (Jreek vx%cc, with, and ximi*, fun 
 gere, to prick. 
 
 It conlilts in opening a little hole in the lower venter or bel- 
 ly, to let out waters collected ir. the cavity thereof, or be- 
 tween the teguments, in an afcites or water droply. 
 The ancients cut the aperruie with a lancet j but the 
 moderns punch it with a kind of ftillet or bodkin ; clap- 
 ping a cannula or tap into the hole when made, to 
 ry off the water. 
 
 The operation is ufually performed two or three fingers 
 breadth on one fide the navel, fometimes a little lo wer, but 
 always fo as to avoid the linea alba. 
 
 The^ water is ufually drawn off at feveral times, as the pa- 
 tient's ffrength will allow; and a new puncture is made, eveiy 
 time the belly is thus to be emptied. 
 
 The Paracentcfu does not often cure, though often repeated 
 becaufe the root of the difeafe, notwithflanding the carrying 
 off the water by this means, is (fill left behind. 
 
 Paracentesis, is alio a name applied by fome authors to all 
 operations either with the lancet, the needle, or punch ; not 
 excepting the operation of couching for cataracts ; this fenfe 
 is founded on the etymology of the word.— Others retain it 
 to apertures made in the head, bread, belly, and fcrotum ; 
 and others to the fingle opetation of tapping in dropfies. 
 
 PARACENTRIC Motion, in alfronomy, a teim ufed for 
 fo much as a revolving planet approaches nearer to, or 
 recedes farther from the fun, or centre of attraction. See 
 Attraction. 
 
 Thus if a planet in A, Tab. Aftronomy, Fig. 24. move to B. 
 then is SB— SA=iB, is the Paracentric motion of that planet 
 Paracentric Soilicitation of Gravity, amounts to the fame 
 with the vis centripeta, and, in aftronomy, is expreffed by 
 the line AL, Fa. 24. drawn from the point A parallel to 
 the ray SB (infinitely nearer SA) till it interfect the tan- 
 gent BL. 
 
 PARACLET, a name which the church has given to the holy 
 fpuit; from the Greek ajj.^ ». d. comforter, or ad- 
 vocate. 
 
 PARACME, Qagwgi*, a Greek word fignifying declenfion 
 
 or a thing's being paft its height. 
 PARACYNANCHE, in medicine. See Ancina. 
 PARADE, the (hew, or expofal of any thing to view, in all 
 
 its advantages and ornaments. 
 
 Bed of Parade, is that wherein a perfon lies in (late. 
 
 Parade, in war, the place where troops aifemble, or draw to- 
 gether, in order to go on any Service. 
 
 Parade, is more properly the appearance of the officers 
 and loldieiy at a port arligned them, to put themfelvcs 
 
 U u l' ms ' thc beft order thc >' can ! either to mount, 
 or bieak up the guard, or to form a battalion, or on fome 
 other occalion. 
 
 Parade, in fencing, is theaflionof parrying, or turning off 
 any pulh, or ftroke. 
 
 There ate as many kinds of Parade:, as of flrokes, and attacks. 
 p.rlni?.T n ' °"tward, above, below, feigned, &c. 
 rAKAUIGM*, Paradigma, an example, or mflance of 
 
 fomcthing laid or done. See Example. 
 
 • The ivord h formed of the Greek ^ f «J„r„«, exemplar, of 
 arid fajatpi, ojlcrtdo, q, d. juxta ojlcr.»o. 
 
 PAR 
 
 PARADISE *, a term primarily ufed for the place wherein 
 Adam was feated, during his innocence j and from which he 
 was expelled for difobeying God : this is called in a ftridtcr 
 manner .the Terreflrial Paradife. 
 
 « The word k formed of the Greek c* S aJ (Iff ©., orchard, a place 
 fiored with apples, and all kinds of fruit. — Mofes calls it the 
 Garden of Eden, q. d. garden of delight, from *W voluptas, 
 pleafure. ^ ' 
 
 The critics are in difpute about the precife place of Paradi r e. 
 Some will have it in Judea, in the place where now is the lake 
 Genefareth ; others, in Syiia, toward thc fpiings of theOron- 
 tes, and Chryfonhoe : but in neither of thole places do we 
 difcoverany tiack of the riveis wheiewith the Paradife in Mo- 
 fes's defcription was watered. Others place it in the greater 
 Armenia near the mountain Ararat, where Noah's ark was left ■ 
 and imagine they there difcover the fources of the four rivers 
 which watered the garden of Eden, viz. Euphrates ; Hiddckd 
 nowtheTygris; Gihon, now Ai axes ; andPifon,now Phazzo! 
 But Sir J. Chardin alluves us in his travels, that the Phazzo 
 fprings out of the mountains of Caucafus, northwaid of the 
 kingdom of Imereti, and far enough fiom mount Araiat : be- 
 fide, that in Armenia, we have no figns of the countries of 
 Havila and Ethiopia, which thofe rivers warned after their 
 departing from Eden, 
 
 There are various other opinions, as to this point : Poftellus 
 will have Paradife placed under the north-pole ; grounding his 
 notion upon an ancient tiadition of the Egyptians and Baby- 
 lonians, that the ecliptic or fun's way was at rirft at light an- 
 gles to the equator ; and fo pafled dire&ly over the north- 
 pole. Others are againft limiting it to any one place, and 
 contend, that it included the whole face of the earth, which 
 was then, as it were, one continued fcene of plcafures, till al- 
 tered upon Adam's TranfgrelTion. 
 
 But the moll: common and probable opinion is that of Hop- 
 kinfon, Huet, Bochait, tS<. who place Paradife between the 
 confluence of the Euphrates, and Tyg: is, and their fcparation. 
 Thefe rivers are two of thofe wherewith the gai den of Eden 
 was watered : Pifon was a branch arifing out of one of them 
 atter their feparation; and Gihon another branch arifmg from 
 the other, on the fide of Armenia or thc weft : accoidin^ly 
 Ethiopia, one of the countries which thele rivers walhed, was 
 inconteilably Arabia Deletta, for Mofes calls his wife, who 
 was of this countiy, an Ethiopian ; and Havilah, the other 
 country, muft have been the Chufiftan in Perfia ; where there 
 were anciently found gold, bdellium, the onyx, fcCf. mention- 
 ed in Moies's defcription. 
 PARADISUS, among ancient church -writers, denoted a fquare 
 court, before cathedrals, furrounded with piazza's, or poiti- 
 co's for walking under, fuppoi ted by pillars. Matthew Paris 
 calls it Parvijus. 
 
 PARADOX *, riAPAAOHON, in philofophy, a propofition feem- 
 ingly abfurd, becaufe contrary to the received opinions j but 
 yet true in effect' 
 * The word is formed from the Greek contra, again!!, and 
 
 oc-|a, opinion. 
 
 The Copernican fyftem is a Paradox to the common people ; 
 but the learned are all agreed of its truth. 
 
 There are even Paradoxes in geometry ; a number whereof are 
 collected by the Jefuit Marius Bettinus : among others is this, 
 that the contained is greater than the containing. 
 PARADOXI, orPARADoxoLoGi, among the ancients, were 
 a kind of mimes or buffoons, who diverted the people with 
 their drolling. 
 
 They were alfo called Ordinarii, for this reafon apparently, 
 that, as they fpoke without ftudy or preparation, they were 
 always ready. 
 
 They had another denomination, viz. Nianicologi, q. d. tellers 
 of childrens tales : and, befidc, were called Aretahgi, of »fm, 
 virtue, as talking much of their own rare talents, and Qlto i: 
 fications. 1 
 PAR^NESIS*, iUPAWESir, a Greek term, fignifying adora- 
 tion or exaltation. 
 * The word is formed of «r«g«, and «.» E w, laudo, I praife 
 ARAGE, Paracium, in law, an equality of blood, or dig- 
 nity ; but more eipecialiy of land, in the partition of an in- 
 heritance between co-heirs. 
 
 arage, Paracium, is more properly ufed in ancient cu- 
 ftoms, for an equality of condition among nobles, orperfons 
 holding nobly. 
 
 Thus when a fief is divided among brothers ; in this cafe the 
 younger hold their part of the elder by Parage, i. e. without 
 any homage, or fervice. 
 
 1 his Mill obtains, in fome mcafure, in Scotland, where the 
 husbands of the younger fitters are not obliged to any faith or 
 homage to the husband of thc elder; nor their children to 
 the fecond degree. 
 
 This Parage being an equality of duty, or fervice among bro- 
 theis and lifters, fome have called it Fratriage and Parentage. 
 The cuftomary of Normandy defines tenure by Parage to be, 
 when a noble rief being divided amonu daughters, the eldeft 
 docs homage to the chief loid for all the refl^and theyoungeft 
 
 hold 
 
r 
 
 PAR 
 
 hold their parts of the eldeft by Parage* i. e. without any ho- 
 mage or fealty. 
 
 Parage ceafes at the fixth degree inclufively. It Ukewifeceaies, 
 when any of the iharers fell their part. 
 PARAGOGE,. riAPAriirH, in grammar, a figure whereby a 
 word is lengthened out, by adding a iyllable at the end there- 
 of : as in dicier for did. 
 PARAGOGIC*, in grammar, denotes fomething added to a 
 word without adding any thing to the fenfe thereof. 
 * The word is formed of the Greek wafeeytf, I prolong, com- 
 pounded of 5TAg* and u.yu. 
 
 In the Hebrew, the n is frequently Paragopd as in, rD"ON 
 for, IpflN I witlpraife. 
 
 The ufe of Paragogic letters is only to give a more full and 
 
 agreeable found to words, either for the fake of the verfe, or 
 
 the fmoothnefs of the period. 
 PARAGORICKS. See the article Paregoricks. 
 PARAGOUE'. See the article Paraguay. 
 PARAGRAPH, HAPArpA*oE, a term in jurifprudence, fignify- 
 
 ing a fecrion, or divifion of the text of a law : otherwife 
 
 called an Article. 
 
 Such a law is faid to be divided into fo many Paragraphs. 
 The character of a. Paragraph in quotation, is §. 
 Among the Greek poets, Paragraphs, n^y^ot, were a fpe- 
 cies of critical notes, ferving to mark the couplets, ftrophes, 
 and other diviiions of odes, and other poetical compofitions. 
 — This Paragraph, as defcribed by the fcholiaft of Arif- 
 tophanes, was a ihort line with a dot at the extremity 
 of it. 
 
 ■PARAGUAY, or Paragocue', in natural hiftory, a cele- 
 brated plant of the lhrub kind, growing in fome provinces 
 of South-America, efpecially in that of Paraguay, whence its 
 name ; though better known among us, under the denomina- 
 tion of South-Sea Tea. 
 
 This plant, which does nor rife above a foot and half high, 
 has very flender branches, and leaves fomewhat like thofe 
 of fenna ; it may be looked on as a kind of occidental tea, 
 which, like the oriental, is taken infufed in hot water, to 
 which it communicates a colour and fmell nearly like thofe 
 of the beft tea feen in Europe. 
 
 There are two kinds of Paraguay, the one called fimply Pa- 
 raguay ; the other Camini, by the Spaniards, Yerva-camini ; 
 which I aft is moft efteemed, and fold for a third more than 
 the other. 
 
 The firft the Spaniards call Yerva-con-palos, i. e. herb with lit- 
 tle fticks, becaule full of broken branches, this is chiefly uied 
 by domefticks and ftaves : the latter is the drink of the rich- 
 eft. But both aie of fo much ufe, and efteemed of fuch abfo- 
 lute neceflity, that no body in that part of America will live 
 without them. The works of the mines of Potofi would 
 ftand {till, but that the matters take care to fupply the poor 
 Haves that labour therein, with Paraguay, which is their con- 
 ftant remedy againft thofe mineral fleams wherewith they 
 would otherwife be fuffocated. Nor will a fervant engage 
 himfelr with any mafter, but upon this among other con- 
 ditions, that he have nothing but Paraguay for drink. 
 The Paraguay makes one of the moft considerable articles of 
 the South Ameiican commerce. At Peru, Chily, and Bue- 
 nos Ayres, there aie above two millions worth fold per An- 
 num ; which partes almoft altogether through the hands of 
 the Jefuits. 
 
 The ufe of Paraguay began lately to obtain in England ; where 
 fnany people feemed to like it as well as tea. But foreigners 
 fay^ that their approbation flowed as much from their intereft 
 as their tafte j in regard they came lb eafily by it, by reafon 
 of their commerce with the Spaniards of South America, and 
 Buenos Ayres, fince the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. 
 The preparation of the plants and the making it into drink, 
 is much the lame with that of tea, except that they infufe 
 both the leaves and the wood, that they drink it immediately 
 out of the veifel it is made in ; without letting it have time 
 to infufe, by reafon of the black tincture it gives ; and that, 
 to prevent leaves and all from coming, they fuck it through 
 a fiiver or glafs pipe, which goes round the company one after 
 another. Frezier. 
 
 Befide all the virtues which the eaftern people afcribe to their 
 tea, as to be good indifeafes of the head, breaft andftomach, 
 againft phlegm, and to reftore deep ; the Americans attribute 
 to theirs this further, of purifying all kinds of water, how foul 
 and corrupt foever, by only infuiing it therein, either hot or 
 cold. Thus, having always fome of it with them, if they 
 meet with none but the worft waters in the vaft defarts to be 
 crofted in going from Buenos Ayres to Peru and Chily, they 
 are not afraid to drink them, after fteeping fome of the plant 
 a little while therein. It is alio held fovereign againft the 
 fcurvy, and putrid fevers. 
 PARALEPSIS, iiAPAAEmi, in rhetorick, a pretence of 
 omitting, or patting over a thing, and yet exprefling it by] 
 the way. 
 
 When the imagination is warmed, and reafons and arguments 
 prefent themfelves in abundance j the orator would willingly 
 
 PAR 
 
 lay them all down, in form ; but for fear of wearying his 
 audience, he only produces fome of them en pajjant, and 
 without dwelling on them : and this is called a Paralepfis, by 
 the Latins Prateriito, by the Greeks Apofcopefis. 
 Forinftance, I pafs over in filence the many injuries I have 
 received, Ejff. I wont infift on his laft outrage. 
 PARALIPOMENA *, L7APAAEinoM£NA, a fupplement of 
 things omitted, or forgot in fome preceding work, or treatife. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek wajoAftwy, pnstennitto, I 
 
 pafs by. Some authors ufe the word Suhrelidum inltead of 
 
 Paralipomenan. 
 
 In the canon of fcripture, there are two books of Par&Iipo- 
 mena, called in the Englifh. verfion, Chronicles ; being a fup- 
 plement to the four books of kings, the two fhft whereof 
 are alio called Banks of Samuel. 
 
 Quintus Calabar has awork, entituled,thBP^^iJW^^Hi?OT^r. 
 PARALLACTIC Angle, called alfo limply, Parallax, is the 
 angle made in the centre of a ftar by two right lines, drawn, 
 the one from the centre of the earth, T B, (Tab. Ajlron. Fig. 
 27.) the other from its furface, E B. 
 
 Or, which amounts to the fame, the Parallaclic angle is the 
 difference of the angles CEA, and BTA, under which the 
 real and apparent diftances from the zenith ate ieen. 
 The fines of the Parallaclic angles ALT and AST, Tab. Ajlron. 
 Fig. 30. at the fame or equal diftances from the zenith S Z, 
 are in a reciprocal ratio of the diftances of the ftars from the 
 centre of the earth T L and T S. 
 PARALLAX, HAPAAAASIE, in aftronomy, an arch of the 
 heavens intercepted between the true place of a ftar, and its 
 apparent place. 
 
 The true place of a ftar is that point of the heavens, B. Tab. 
 AJlronomy, Fig. 27. wherein it would be feen by an eye placed 
 in the centre of the earth, as at T. — The apparent place is 
 that point of the heavens C, wherein the ftar appears to an 
 eye on the furface of the earth, as at E. 
 Now, as in effect, we view the celeftial bodies not from th» 
 centre, but from the furface of our earth, which is a femi-dia- 
 mcter diftant from the centre ; we fee it by a vifual ray, 
 which patting through the centre of the ftar, and proceeding 
 thence to the furface of the mundane fphere, marks out an- 
 other point C, which is its apparent place. 
 This difference of places, is what we call abfolutely, the Pa- 
 rallax, wa^aMiafif, or the Parallax of Altitude ; by Copernicus 
 it is called the Commutation; which, therefore, is an angle 
 formed by two vifual rays, drawn, the one from the centre, 
 the other from the circumference of the earth, and traverfing 
 the body of the ftar ; and is meafured by an arch of a great 
 circle intercepted between the two points of true and appa- 
 rent place C and B. 
 
 rallax of Declination, is an arch of a circle of declination 
 
 S I, Fig. 28, whereby the Parallax of altitude increafes or 
 diminilhes the declination of a ftar. 
 Parallax of right Afcenjion and Declmfmn, is an arch of the 
 equator D d, Fig. 28, whereby the Parallax of altitude in- 
 creafes the afcenfion, and diminifhes the defcenfion. 
 Parallax of Longitude., is an arch of the ecliptic Tt, Fig. 29, 
 whereby the Parallax of altitude increafes or diminifhes the 
 longitude. 
 
 Parallax of Latitude, is an arch of a circle of latitude SI, 
 whereby the Parallax of altitude increafes or diminilhes the 
 latitude. 
 
 Parallax is alfo ufed for the angle made in the centre of the 
 ftar, by two right lines, drawn, the one from the centre, the 
 other from the furface of the earth. 
 
 This is alfo called Parallaclic Angle. See Parallactic 
 Angle. Hence, the Parallax diminilhes the altitude of a ftar, 
 or increafes its diftance from the zenith, and has, therefore, 
 a contrary effect to the refraction. 
 
 The Parallax of altitude C B, Fig. 27, is, ftriclly, the diffe- 
 rence between the true diftance from the zenith C A, and 
 the apparent diftance B A. 
 
 The Parallax is greateft in the horizon ; in the zenith, or 
 meridian, a ftar has no Parallax at all ; the true and apparent 
 places, then co-inciding. 
 
 The horizontal Parallax is the fame, whether the ftar be in 
 the true, or the apparent horizon. 
 
 The fixed ftars have no fenfible Parallax, by reafon of their 
 immenfe diftance, to which the femi-diameter of the earth is 
 but a meer point. 
 
 Hence alfo, the nearer a ftar is to the earth, the greater is its 
 Parallax, at an equal elevation about the horizon j and 
 Saturn is fo high, that we have much ado to obferve in him 
 any Parallax at all. 
 
 The Parallax increafes the right and oblique afcenfion, di- 
 minifhes the defcenfion ; diminifhes the northern declination, 
 and latitude in the eaftern part, increafes them in the weftern s 
 increafes the fouthern in the eaftern and weftern part ; dimi- 
 nifhes the longitude in the weftern part, increafes it in the 
 eaftern. The Parallax, therefore, has juft oppoftte effects to 
 the refraction. 
 
 Hence the Parallax of the remoter ftar S, is lefs than the Pa- 
 rallax 
 
PAR 
 
 PAR 
 
 ratio* of the nearer L, at the fame diftance from the zenith ; 
 as before obferved. 
 
 The fines of the Parallaelic angles M and S, of ftavs equally 
 diftant from the centre of the earth T, are as the fines of the 
 diftances feen from the vertex Z M, and Z S. 
 Hence, as the diftances from the veitex decreafe, i, t, as the 
 altitudes decreafe, the Parallax encreafes ; and hence, alio, the 
 Parallax affects the altitude of the ftar, from the horizon to 
 the zenith. 
 
 The doctrine of Parallaxes is of the utmoft importance in 
 aftronomy ; for determining the diftances of the planets, 
 comets, and other phenomena of the heavens ; for the calcu- 
 lation of eclipfes ; and for finding the longitude. 
 Methods of rinding the Parallaxes of the celeftial phenomena 
 are various : Some of the principal and eafier follow. 
 To obferve the Parallax of a celeftial phenomenon. — Obferve 
 when the phenomenon is in the fame vertical with a fixed ftar 
 which is near it ; and meafure its apparent diftance from the 
 ftar. Obferve again, when the phenomenon and fixed ftar 
 are in equal altitudes from the horizon ; and again meafure 
 their diftance. — The difference of thofe diftances will be, very 
 nearly, the Parallax fought. 
 
 The Parallax of a phenomenon may be Hkewife found by ob- 
 ferving its azimuth, and altitude ; and by marking the time 
 between the obfervation, and its arrival at the meridian. 
 All required to find the Parallax of the moon, is the Parallax 
 of right afcenfion : to find the effect of the magnitude of the 
 femi-diameter of the earth, with regard to the phenomena of 
 its motion, it is futficient to know how far the meridian, to 
 which the eye refers it, deviates from the true meridian. 
 This is what M. Caffini found and practifed, with regard to 
 mars; and what M. Maraldi has fince practifed, with regard 
 to the moon. — The whole myfteiy here confifts in having 
 the moon's true motion, which refers to the centre of the 
 earth ; and its apparent motion, which refers to the place of 
 obfervation. The difference of thefe, which is greatelt in the 
 horizon, or horary circle of 6 o'clock, gives the horizontal 
 Parallax, for that latitude, whence the general Parallax, or 
 that under the equator is eafily found : the Parallax of any pa- 
 rallel being to that of the equator, as the femi-diameter of 
 this parallel is to that of the equator. See the practice of this 
 method exemplified in finding ^Parallax of mars. 
 To obferve the moon's Parallax. — Obferve the moon's meridian 
 altitude, with the greateft accuracy, (See Altitude) and 
 mark the moment of time : this time being equated ; (See 
 Equation) compute her true longitude and latitude; and 
 from thefe rind her declination ; (See Declination) and 
 from her declination and the elevation of the equator find her 
 true meridian altitude. If the obferved altitude be not meri- 
 dian, reduce it to the true altitude for the time of obfervation. 
 Take the refraction from the obferved altitude, and HibtiaOt 
 the remainder from the true altitude : and the remainder is 
 the moon's Parallax. 
 
 By this means Tycho in 1583. Oct. d. 12. hor. 5. 19'. from 
 the moon's meridian altitude obferved, 1 3 0 . 38'. found her 
 Parallax to be 54 minutes. 
 
 To obferve the moon's Parallax in an eelipfe. — in an eclipfe of the 
 moon, obferve when both horns are in the fame vertical cir- 
 cle ; in that moment take the altitudes of both hoi ns ; the 
 difference of the two being halved and added to the leaft, or 
 fubtracted from the greateft, gives nearly the vifible altitude of 
 the moon's centre. But the true altitude is nearly equal to 
 the altitude of the centre of the fhadow at that time. Now 
 we know the altitude of the centre of the fhadow ; becaufe 
 we know the fun's place in the ecliptic, and its depreffion un- 
 der the horizon, which is equal to the altitude of the oppofite 
 point of the ecliptic in which the centre of the lhadow is. 
 Thus have we both the true and apparent altitude; the dif- 
 ference whereof is the Parallax. 
 
 From the moon's Parallax AST, Fig. 30. and altitude S R, to 
 find her diftance from the earth. — By her apparent altitude given, 
 we have her apparent diftance from the zenith, e. the angle 
 ZAS ; or by her true altitude the angle A T S. Wherefore, 
 fince, at the fame time, we have the Parallactic angle S ; and 
 the femi-diameter of the earth A T is reputed as 1 ; by plain 
 trigonometry we fhall have the moon's diftance in femi-dia- 
 meters of the earth, thus : as the fine of the angle S is to the 
 oppofite fide given, fo is the fine the other angle T, to the 
 fide required TS, 
 
 Hence, according to Tycho's obfervation, the moon's diftance 
 at that time from the earth was 62 femi-diamcters of the earth. 
 Hence alio, fince, from the moon's theory, we have the ratio 
 of her diftances from the earth in the feveral degrees of her 
 anomaly ; thofe diftances being found by the rule of three in 
 fe mi -diameters of the earth, the Para/lax is thence determined 
 to the feveral degrees of the true anomaly. 
 De le Hire makes the greateft horizontal Parallax i°. 1'. 25". 
 the fmalleft 54'. 5". the moon's diftance, therefore, when in 
 her perigee is 5$rJ L , thatis almoft 56 femi-diameters ; in her 
 apogee 63 y 0 7 L , that is, 63 i femi-diameters of the earth. 
 Vol. ft- 
 
 To obferve the Parallax of mars. — 1. Suppofe mars in the me- 
 ridian and equator, in H, Tab. Aftronomy, Fig. 31, and that the 
 obferver under the equator in A, obferves him culminating 
 with fome fixed ftar. 2. If now the obferver were in the cen- 
 tre of the earth, he would fee mars conftantly in the fame 
 point of the heaven with the ftar; and therefore, together with 
 it in the plane of the horizon, or of the iixth horary. But 
 lince mais, here, has fome feniible Parallax, and the fixed ftar 
 has none, mats will be feen in the horizon, when in P, the 
 plane of the fenfible horizon : and the ftar, when in R the 
 plane of the true horizon : obferve therefore the time between 
 the tranlits of mars and of the ftar through the plane of the 
 lixth hour. 3. Convert this time into minutes of the equator ; 
 by this means we lhall have the aich P M, to which the angle 
 PAM, and confequently the angle A M D is nearly equal, 
 which is the horizontal Parallax of mars. 
 If the obferver be not under the equator, but in a parallel, IQ, 
 that difference will be a lefs arch, OJVI. Wherefore, fince 
 the little arches, OJVI and P M, are as their fines A D and 
 ID; and fince ADG is equal to the diftance of the place from 
 the equator, e. to the elevation of the pole ; and therefore, 
 AD to ID, as the whole fine to the co-fine of the elevation of 
 the pole ; fay, as the co-fine of the elevation of the pole I D 
 is to the whole fine AD; fo is the Parallax obferved in I, to 
 the Parallax to be obferved under the equator. 
 Since mars and the fixed ftar cannot be commodioufly ob- 
 ferved in the horizon ; let them be obferved in the circle of 
 the third hour : and fince the Parallax there obferved, T O, is 
 to the horizontal one, P M, as T S to I D ; fay, as the fine of 
 the angle I D S, or 45 0 (fince the plane DO is in the middle 
 between the meridian D H and the true horizon D M) is to 
 the whole fine, fo is the Parallax TO to the horizontal Pa- 
 rallax PM. 
 
 If mars be likewife out of the plane of the equator ; the Pa- 
 rallax found will be an arch of a parallel ; which muft, there- 
 fore, be reduced, as above, to an arch of the equator. 
 Laftly, if mars be not ftationary, but rather direct, or retro- 
 grade by obfervations for feveral days, find out what his 
 motion is every hour, that his true place from the centre may 
 be affigned for any given time. 
 
 By this method CaiTini, to whom we owe this noble inven- 
 tion, obferved the greateft horizontal Parallax of mars to be 
 25 feconds, or a little lefs. But by the fame method Mr. 
 Flamfteed found it near 30 feconds. 
 
 By the fame method the fame author Caffini obferved alfo the 
 Parallax of venus. 
 
 It muft be here noted, that the obfervation is to be made with 
 a telefcope, in whole focus are ftrained four threads cutting each 
 other at right angles A, B, C, D, fig. 45. n° 2, and the telefcope 
 is to be turned about, till fome ftar near mars be feen to pals 
 over fome of the threads, that the threads A B and C D may 
 be parallel to the equator, andtheiefore, AC and B D may re- 
 present circles of declination. Thus, by means of the perpen- 
 dicular threads, the fituations of the ftar, and of mars in the 
 meridian, and circie of three o'clock will be determined. 
 So find the fun's Parallax. — The great diftance of the fun ren- 
 ders its Parallax too fmaU to fall under even the niceft imme- 
 diate obfervation : indeed, many attempts have been made 
 both by the ancients and modems, and many methods invented 
 for that purpofe. The firft was that of Hipparchus, followed 
 by Ptolemy, £sV. This was founded on the obfeivation of lunar 
 eclipfes ; the fecond was that of Ariftarchus, whereby the an- 
 gle fubtended by the femi-diameter of the moon's orbit feen 
 from the fun, was fought fiom the lunar phafes : but, thefe 
 both proving deficient, aftronomers are now forced to have re- 
 couife to the Parallaxes of the planets nearer us, as mars and 
 venus ; for from their Parallaxes known, that of the fun, which 
 is inaccefiible by any direct obfervation, is eafily deduced. 
 For from the theory of the motions of the earth and planets, 
 we know at any time the proportion of the diftances of the fun 
 and planets from us ; and the horizontal Parallaxes are in a 
 reciprocal proportion to thofe diftances : knowing, therefore, 
 the Parallax of a planet, that of the fun may be found from it. 
 Thus, mars, when oppofite to the fun, is twice as near as the 
 fun is : his Parallax, therefore, will be twice as great as that 
 of the fun : and venus, when in her inferior conjunction with 
 the fun, is fometimes nearer us than he is ; her Parallax, there- 
 fore, is greater in the fame proportion. 
 
 Thus, from the Parallaxes of mars and venus, the fame CaiTini 
 found the fun's Parallax to be ten feconds, which implies his 
 diftance to be 22000 femi-diameters of the earth. 
 In an obfervation of the tranlit of venus over the fun, which 
 will be feen in May 1761. Dr. Hallcy has (hewn a method of 
 finding the fun's Parallax, and diftance to a great nicety, viz. 
 to a five hundredth part of the whole. 
 Tie Parallax of the Stars, with regard to the earth's natural 
 orbit. — The ftars have no Parallax, with regard to the earth's 
 femi-diameter ; yet, with regard to the earth's annual orbit, 
 it is juftly expected that lome Parallax be found. See 
 Orbit. 
 
 8 F The 
 
PAR 
 
 PAR 
 
 The Axis of the earth in its annual motion defcribes a kind of 
 cylinder, which being prolonged to the heaven of the fixed 
 fiats, there draws a circular circumference ; each point wheie- 
 of is the pole of the world for its respective day : fo that the 
 fituation of the appaient pole, with regard to any of the fixed 
 liars, changes very considerably in the courfe of a year. 
 Could this' be found by obfeivation, it would irrefiagably 
 evince the annual motion ofthe earth round the fun, and re- 
 move that only objection which lies againft it, urged by Ric- 
 ciolus, from no fucli Parallax being obferved. 
 Accoidingly, Dr. Hook attempted to find it by obferving the 
 various diftanccs of a fixed ftar from the zenith, in dirfeicnt 
 parts of the earth's oibit; and Mr. Flamftced, from the accefs 
 and recels of a fixed ftar from the equator at different times 
 of the year ; and with fuccefs, the refult of his obfervations 
 being, that a fixed ftar, near the pole, was found 40 or 45 
 feconds nearer it at the winter iblfticc than at the Summer 
 one, for feven years fucceflively. 
 
 M. CaiTmi the younger allows the obfervations ofFlamfteed 
 to agree with thole made at the royal obfervatory ; but he de- 
 nies the ccnicquenccs : he fays that the variations in the dif- 
 tance of the pole ftar are not fuch as they Should be, fuppoiiiig 
 the motion of the eaith. Fontcnelie accounts for them from 
 afuppofition that the ftars, like the fun, turn or revolve on thcii 
 centies, and that fome of them have theii hemilphcies une- 
 qually luminous : whence, when the moie Ihining hemilphde 
 is turned towards us, the ftars appear bigger, coniequently 
 nearer the neighbouring ftars than when the darker is to- 
 wards us. 
 
 Parallax is alfo ufed in levelling, for the angle contained be- 
 tween the line of true level, and that of appaLent level. 
 
 PARALLEL, in geometry, is applied to lines, figures and bo- 
 dies, which are every wheic equidiftant from each other; 01 
 which, rhough infinitely produced, would never either ap- 
 proach nearer, or recede farther from each other. 
 
 Parallel Right Lines, are thole which, though infinitely pro- 
 duced, would never meet. 
 
 Thus, the line O P, Tab. Geometry., Fig. 36, is parallel to Q_R.. 
 See Line. 
 
 Parallel Lines ftand oppofed to lines converging, and di- 
 verging. 
 
 Some define an inclining or converging line, that which will 
 tneet another at a finite diftance ; and a Parallel Line, that 
 which will only meet it at an infinite diftance. 
 A perpendicular is by fome faid to be the ShorteSr. of all lines 
 that can be drawn to another; and a Parallel the longeft. 
 But for the orthodoxy of theie notions of paiallelilhi we do 
 not undertake. 
 
 Geometricians demonstrate, that two lines, parallel to the fame 
 third line, are alio parallel to one another ; and that if two Pa- 
 rallels O P and Q_R, be cut by a tranfvcrle line S T in A and 
 B; 1. The alternate angles x and_v are equal ; 2. The ex- 
 ternal angle b is equal to the internal oppofite one y ; and, 
 thirdly, that the two internal oppofite ones z mdy are alfo 
 equal to two right ones. 
 
 It is Shewn on the principles of opticks, that if the eye be 
 placed between two Parallel Lines, they will appear to con- 
 verge towards a point oppofite to the eye. And if they run 
 to Inch a length, as that the diftance between them be but as 
 a point thereto, they will there appear to coincide. 
 Parallel Lints ate delciibcd by letting fall equal perpendicu- 
 lars, and di awing lines through their extremes, by Sliding the 
 compaiTes open to the defired width along a line, itfe. 
 
 Pare l lel Planes, are thofe planes which have all the perpendi- 
 culars drawn betwixt them equal to each other. 
 
 Parallel in opticks, arc thofe which keep at an equal 
 
 diftance in lelpeiir to each other, from the vilible object to 
 the eye, which is fuppofed to be infinitely remote from the 
 object. 
 
 Parallel Ruler, called alfo Parallel!///!, an inftrument con- 
 fifting of two wooden, brafs, or fteel rulers, AB, and CD; 
 
 37' equally broad every where, and fo joined together by 
 the crols blades L F, and G H, as to open to different inter- 
 vals, and accede and recede, yet ftill retain their Parallclifm. 
 The life of this inftrument is obvious ; for one of the rulers 
 being applied to R S, and the other withdrawn to a given 
 point V ; a right angle A B, diawn by its edge, throughV is 
 a/WWtoRS. 
 
 Parallels, or Parallel Circles, in geography, called alfo 
 Parallels of Latitude, and Circles of Latitude, are lelTer circles 
 of the Sphere, conceived to be drawn from weft to eaft through 
 all the points of the meridian; commencing fiorfi the equa- 
 tor, to which they are parallel, and terminating with the 
 poles. 
 
 They are called Parallels of Latitude, erV. becaufe all places 
 lying under the fame Parallel, have the fame latitude. 
 Parallels of Latitude, in aftronomy, are lefter circles of the 
 iy.hac parallel to the ecliptic, imagined to pafs through every 
 deg:ee and minute of the colutes. 
 
 They are reprefentcd on the globe by the divjftons of the 
 
 quadrant of altitude, in its motion round the globe, when 
 fcrewed over the poles of the ecliptic. 
 Parallels of Altitude, or Alnuuanters, are circles parallel to 
 the horizon, imagined to pafs through every degree and mi- 
 nute of the meridian between the horizon and zenith; ha- 
 ving their poles in the zenith. 
 
 On the globe, thefeaie icprefented by the divifions on the 
 quadrant and altitude, in its motion about the body of the 
 globe, when fciewed to the zenith. See Globe. 
 
 Parallels of Declination, in aftronomy, are the fame with 
 Parallels of latitude in aftionony. 
 
 Parallel Sphere, that fituation of the Sphere, wherein the 
 equator coincides with the horizon, and the poles with the 
 zenith and nadir. 
 
 In this fpheie all the Parallels of the equator become Parallels 
 of the hoiizon, coniequently no ftars ever rile or fet, but all 
 turn roundinciicles/«7/v;//f/to the horizon ; and the fun, when 
 in the equinoctial, wheels round the horizon the whole day. 
 After his rifing to the elevated pole, he never fets for fix 
 months ; and after his entering again on the other fide of the 
 line, he never rifes for fix months longer. 
 This pofiticn of the fphere is theirs who live under the poles ; 
 if any fuch thcic be. Their fun being never above 22 v . ?o'. 
 high. 
 
 Parallel Sailing, in navigation, is the failing under a parallel 
 of latitude. 
 
 Of this there are but three cafes. 1° Given, the departure, 
 and diftance j required the latitude..— The canon for which is, 
 as the difference of longitude is to the radius, fo is the diftance 
 to the co-iine of the latitude. 
 
 2° Given the difference of longitude between two places un- 
 der the fame Parallel, required their diftance.— The canon is 
 as radius to difference of longitude, fo is co-fine of latitude to 
 diftance. 
 
 3 0 Given the diftance between two places in the fame lati- 
 tude ; required their difference of longitude. — The canon is, 
 as the co-tine of latitude to diftance, fo is radius to differ- 
 ence of longitude. 
 PARALLELEPIPED, in geometry, one of the regular bodies, 
 or folids, comprehended under lix parallelograms, the oppo- 
 fite ones whereof are fimilar, parallel and equal. As in Tab. 
 Gem. Fig. 38. 
 
 A Parallelepiped is by fome defined a prifm, whofe bafe is a 
 parallelogram. 
 
 Properties of the Parallelepiped. — All Parallelepipeds, prifms, 
 and cylinders, &i. whofe bales and heights are equal, are 
 themfelves equal. 
 
 A diagonal plane divides the Parallelepiped into two equal 
 prifms : a triangular prifm, therefore, is half a Parallelepided 
 upon the fame bafe, and of the fame altitude. 
 All Paralle/c/iipeels, prifms, cylinders, die. are in a ratio com- 
 pounded of their bales, and altitudes : -wherefore, if their 
 bafes be equal, they are in proportion to their altitudes ; and 
 conveifely. 
 
 All Parallelepipeds, cylinders, cones, &e. are in a triplicate 
 ratio of the homologous fides ; and alfo of their altitudes. 
 Equal Parallelepipeds, prifms, cones, cylinders, &c. recipro- 
 cate their bafes and altitudes. 
 To meafure the furfaee and folidity of a Parallelepiped.— Find the 
 areas of the parallelograms ILMK, LMON and OMKP 
 (See Parallelocram.) Add thefe into one fun}, and mul- 
 tiply that fum by 2 : the factum will be the furfaee of the Pa- 
 rallelepiped. 
 
 If then the bafe ILMK be multiplied by the altitude M O, 
 the product will be the folidity. 
 
 Suppofe w. LM = 36MK=i 5 MO=tj. Then, 
 L M = 36 L M = 36 M K = 15. 
 MK = i; MO=i; MO = n. 
 ltto 72 30 
 
 3° 3<? IS'' 
 
 LlKM 540 LMON 432 MOKP 180 
 L I K M 540 
 MOKP 180 
 1 152 
 
 MO 12 2 
 
 5^° 2304 Superficies. 
 
 6480 Solidity. 
 
 PARALLELISM, the quality of a parallel, or that which deno- 
 minates it fuch : or it is that whereby two things, zr. gr. lines 
 rays, or the like, become equidiftant from one" another. See 
 Parallel and Parallelogram. 
 
 Thus, we fay, remote objects are fcarce perceptible, by reafon 
 of the Parallelifm of their rays. 
 Parallelism of the earth's axis, in aftronomy, or, motion of 
 Parallelism; is that fituation or motion of the earth's 
 axis, in its progrefs through its orbit, whereby it ftill looks to 
 the fame point of the heavens, viz. toward the pole ftar ; fo 
 that if a line be drawn parallel to its axis, while in any 
 one pofition, the axis, in all other potitions or parts 
 
PAR 
 
 of the orbit, will always be parallel to the fame line. 
 This Parallelijm is the ncceffary reiult of the earth's double, 
 motion ; the one round the fun, the other round its own axis. 
 Nor is there any neceffity to imagine a third motion, as ibme 
 have done, to account for this Paralldipn, 
 It is to this Paralldipn that wc owe the viciffitude of feafons. 
 and the inequality of day and night. 
 
 Parallelism of rows of trees. — The eye placed at the end of 
 an alley bounded by two rows of trees, planted in paral 
 lines, never fees them parallel, but always inclining to each 
 other, towards the further extreme. 
 
 Hence mathematicians have taken occaficn to enquire, in 
 what lines the trees mull be difpofed, to correct this effect 
 of the perlpecttve, and make the rows ftill appeal -parallel ? 
 to this purpofe parallel they muft not be, but diverging ; but 
 according to what law mult they diverge ? the two rows, 
 in tine, muft be fuch, as that the unequal inteivals of any 
 two cppofite or coriefponding trees may be leen under equal 
 vifual angles. 
 
 On this principle, F. Fabry has afiertcd, without any demon 
 ftration, and F. Tacquet, after him, has demonf rated by a long 
 and intricate fynthelis, that the two rows of trees oiuft be two 
 oppoiite femi-hyperbola's. 
 
 M. Varignon has fince, in the memoirs of the royal academy, 
 an. 1717, found the fame iblution by an eafy, and limple 
 analylis. But he renders the problem much more gene:al, and 
 requires not only that the vifual angles be equal, but to have 
 them increafe, or decreafe in any given ratio : provided the 
 greateft do not exceed a right angle. The eye, he tequiies to 
 be placed in any point, either juft at the beginning of the 
 ranges, or beyond, or on this fide. 
 
 All this laid down, he fuppofes the firft row to be a right 
 line, and leeks what line the other muft be, which he calls 
 the, curve of the range. This he hnds muft be an hyperbola, 
 to have the vifual angles equal. The ftraight and hyper- 
 bolical rows will be leen pajallel to infinity ; and if the 
 oppoiite femi-hyperbola be added, we lhall have ihiee 
 rows of trees, (the ftraight one in the middle) and ali thiee 
 parallel. 
 
 Nor is it required this fecond hyperbola be the oppofiteof the 
 firft, /. e. of the fame kind, or have the fame tranfverfe axis : 
 It is enough if it have the fame centie, its vertex in the fame 
 right-line, and the fame conjugate axis. Thus the two hypei 
 bola's may be of alt the different kinds polliblc ; yet all 
 have the lame effect. 
 
 Again, the ftraight row being laid down as before ; if it be re- 
 quired to have the trees appear under decreafmg angles. M. 
 Varignon ihews, that if the decreafe be a certain ratio, which 
 he determines ; the other line mult be a parallel ftiaight line. 
 But he goes yet farther ; and fuppofing the firfl row any curve 
 whatever, he feeks for another that lhall make the rows have 
 any effect defired, e. be feen under any angles equal, in- 
 creafing or decreafmg. 
 PARALLELOGRAM, in geometry, a quadrilateral right- 
 lined figure, whofe oppoiite fides arc parallel, and equal to 
 each other. 
 
 A Parallelogram is generated by the equable motion of a right 
 line always parallel to itfelf. 
 
 When the Parallelogram has all its four angles right, and only 
 its oppoiite lides equal, it is called a reclaugk, or an oblong. 
 When the angles are all right, and the fides all equal, it 'is 
 called a fquare, which fome make a fpecies of Parallelogram 
 others not. 
 
 If all the fides be equal, and the angles unequal, it is called a 
 
 rhombus or lozenge. 
 
 If both the fides and angles be unequal, it is called a rhom- 
 boides. 
 
 Properties of the Paralle logram. — In every Parallelogram 
 what kind foever it be of, e. gr. that A B CD, Tab. Geometry. 
 Fig. 41. a diagonal DA divides it into two equal parts ; the 
 angles diagonally oppofite B, C, and A, D, are equal ; the op- 
 pofitc angles of the fame fide, C,D, and A, B, &e, are, toge- 
 ther, equal to two right angles ; and each two lides together 
 are greater than the diagonal. 
 
 Two Parallelograms A B~C D, andECDF on the fame or 
 on an equal bafe C D, and of the fame height A C, or between 
 the fame parallels A F, C D are equal.— And hence two tri- 
 angles C D A, and C D F on the fame bafe and on the fame 
 height, are alio equal. 
 
 Hence, alfo, every mangle CFD is half a Parallelogram 
 A C D B upon the fame or an equal bafe C D, and of the 
 fame altitude, or between the fame parallels. Hence alfo a 
 triangle is equal to a ParaUtsgram, having the fame bafe, and 
 half the altitude or half the bafe, and the fame altitude. 
 Parolklograms, therefore, are in a given ratio, compounded 
 ot their bales and altitudes. If then the altitudes be equal 
 they areas the bafes, and converfely. 
 
 In i'umhr Parall-hgrams and triangles, the altitudes are pro- 
 poitional to the homologous lides ; and the bafes are cut pro- 
 portionabiy thereby. Hence, limihr Parallelogram and triangles 
 aic in a duplicate ratio of their homologous tides, alio of their 
 
 PAR 
 
 altitudes and the fegiftents of their bafes : they are, therefore, 
 as the kjuaies of the fides, altitudes, and homologous fegrrients 
 ot tile bales. 
 
 laesefj-Parallikgram, tbefum of the fquares of the two dia- 
 gonals, is equal to the fum of the fquares of the four fides: 
 This piopofition, M. de Lagny takes to be one of the mod 
 unpoitant ra all geometry ; he even ranks it with the celebra - 
 ted 47 >k of Euclid, and with that of the limilitude of trian- 
 gles ; and adds, that the whole firft book of Euclid is only a 
 particular cafe hereof. For if the Parallclnram be rectan- 
 gular, it follows that the two diagonals are equal ; and, of 
 confequence, the fquare of a diagonal, or which comes to the 
 lame thing, the fquare of the hypothenufe of a right angle is 
 equal to the fquares of the tides. 
 
 It the Parallelogram be not reel angular, and, of confequence, 
 the two diagonals be nor equal ; which is the moft "e- 
 neial cafe, the propofition becomes of vaft extent ; it 
 may feive, for initance, in the whole theory of compound 
 motions, 13c. 
 
 1 he:e are three manners of demonftrating this problem; the 
 firft by trigonometry, which requires 2 1 operations ; the fecond 
 geometrical and analytical, which requires 15. M. deLa^ny 
 gives a moie concife one, in the Memoirs de 1' Acad, which 
 only requires 7. 
 
 Tejiml the Area of the re/Jangled Parallelogram, ABCD Find 
 
 the length, of the lides A B, and A C ; multiply A B into A C, 
 the produce will be the area of the Parallelogram. Supnofe 
 e.gr. A Is to be 345; AC 123; the area will be U3S5. 
 Hence 1. Rectangles are in a ratio compounded of their fides 
 A B and A C. 2. If, therefore, there be three lines, continu- 
 ally propoitional ; the fquare of the middle one is eoual to 
 the rectangle of the two extremes : and if there be four p opo' - 
 tional hues, the reef angle under the two extremes, is equal to 
 that under the two middle terms. 
 
 Other Parallelograms, not rectangular, have their areas foiiid 
 by rclolvmg them, by diogonals, into two triangles; and ad- 
 ding the areas of the feparate mangles into one fum. 
 Complement 0/ a Paralle looram. See Complement. 
 Centre of Gravity of a Parallelogram. See Center of 
 
 Gravity, and Centrobaryc Method. 
 Par all E Log ham, or Parallelism, alfo denotes a machine 
 uled for the ready and exact reduction or copying of deligns 
 fchetries, prints, lit. in any proportion ; which is done here- 
 by without any knowledge or habit of designing, bee 
 
 DESIGNING. 
 
 The Parallelogram is alfo called Pctttagraph. See its defcrip. 
 tlbn and life under the article Pentagraph 
 PARALOGISM, riAPAAoriSMOS, in logic, a falfe reafonine • 
 or a fault committed in demonftration, when a confequence 
 is drawn trom principles that are falfe, or, though true are not 
 proved ; or when a propofition is palled over, which ihould 
 have been proved by the way. 
 
 A Paralogijm differs from a Sophifm in this, that the Sophifm 
 is committed out ot defign and fubtlety ; and the Paralgttm 
 out of miftake, and for want of lufficicnt light, and aouli- 
 cation. vv 
 Yet Meffieurs du Port Royal do not feem to make any diffe 
 rence between them. There are none of the pretenders to the 
 quadrature of the circle, but have made Paralogifms. 
 
 " in medicine, a difeafe popularly 
 
 PARALYSIS 
 called Palfy. 
 * The word 
 
 ttAPAAYSli 
 See Palsy, 
 
 is formed from the Greek ra S «»f», I unbind ; this 
 dileale being fuppolcd to unbind the nerves and mufcles. 
 The Paralyfis only diiters from the pare/is, as the greater from 
 the lefs. See Paresis. 
 
 Authors diftinguilh the Paralyfls into a paraplegia or pa ra- 
 plexia, and a hemiplegia, and partial Paralyfis. 
 The firft is a Pally of the whole Body. See Paraplegia. 
 The fecond, ot one hde of the body. See Hemiplegia 
 The third ot tome particular member ; which is the proper 
 Paljy. See Palsy. 
 PARALYTIC, a perfon afflided with the paralyfis, or palfy. 
 
 See Palsy, (Sc. j r jj 
 
 PARAMESE *, rupAMElH, in the ancient mufic, the ninth 
 chord, or found in the diagramma, or fcale of mufic. See 
 Diagramm a. 
 * The word is Greek, and fignifies jiuM mejhrn, next to the middle, 
 its filiation in the firlt date of the fcale, being next ihemefe, or 
 middle chord. 
 
 PARAMETER, in geometry, a conftant right line in each 
 of the three conic fections ; called alfo latus rectum. See La- 
 tus rcclum. 
 
 In a parabola V B V, Tab. Comes, Fig. 8. the redtangle of the 
 Parameter A B, and an abfeifie, e. gr. B 3, is equal to the 
 fquare of the correfpondent femi-ordinate 3 III. See Pa- 
 rabola. 
 
 In an ellipfis and hyperbola, the Parameter is a third propor- 
 tional to the conjugate, and tranfverfe axis. See Ellipsis 
 and Hyperbola. 
 
 PARA- 
 
PAR 
 
 PARAMOUNT, in our law, fignifies the fupreme lord of 
 ' ;he fee. 
 
 There may be a tenant to a lord, who holdeth himfelf of 
 another lord ; in refpect whereof, the former lord is called 
 lord Mefnt ; and the latter lord Paramount. 
 AH honours which have manors under them, have the lord 
 
 Paramount. 
 
 But even the term lord Paramount, is only comparative : tol- 
 as one man may be great, compared to a lefs, and little, be- 
 ing compared with a greater; fo none truly feems to be 
 lord Paramount but the king, who is patron Paramount to all 
 the benefices in England. 
 FARANYMPH, Paranymphus, among the ancients, the 
 perfon who waited on the bridegroom, and directed the nup- 
 tial folemnities; called alfo pronubus, 3n6.au/pcx, becaufe the 
 ceremony begun wirh taking aufpicia. 
 
 In ftri&nefs, the Paranymph, n^««^p©-, only officiated on the 
 part of the bridegroom ; on the part of the bride, it was a 
 woman officiated, who was called Pronuba. 
 The Jews had likewife a kind of Paranymph, which the tal- 
 mud and the rabbins call D Schufcbebim, q. d. compa- 
 
 nions of the fpoufe. 
 
 The IV th council of Carthage appoints, that, when the mar- 
 ried couple come to afk the prieft's bleffing, they be prcfented, 
 either by their fathers and mothers, or by their Paranympln. 
 PARAPET *, Breajhvork, in fortification, a defence or fkreen, 
 on the extreme of a rampart, or other work, ferving to 
 cover the foldiers, and the cannon from the enemy's fire. 
 
 * Borel gives us from Jof. Maria Subrefws, a curious collection of 
 names, which the ancients and moderns have given to this kind 
 of Parapets : the Latins call them Subarr<e, and Baftite, whence 
 the names Baflion and Baftile. They alfo called them Pagineu- 
 mata, Lories, and Antemuralia. The Spaniards called them 
 Barbacana ; the Italians, Parapetti, becaufe of their defending 
 the breaft, petto ; whence our Parapet. 
 
 Parapets are railed on all works, where it is neceffary to cover 
 the men from the enemies fire; both within and without the 
 place, and even in the approaches. 
 
 The Parapet Royal, or that of the rampart, is to be of earth, 
 cannon-pi oof, from 1 8 to 20 foot thick ; fix foot high towards 
 the place, and four or five towards the rampart. — This diffe- 
 rence of height makes a glacis or flope for the mufketeers to 
 fire down into the ditch, or at leaft the counterfcarp. 
 Before the Parapet is a banquette, a little eminence, a foot 
 and half high for the foldiers to ftand on. See Banquette. 
 The Parapet of the wall is fometimes of ffone. — The Parapet 
 of the trenches is either made of the earth dug up j or of 
 gabions, fafcines, barrels, facks of earth, or the like. 
 
 Parapet, is alfo a little wall, bread-high, raifed on the brinks 
 of bridges, keys, or high buildings j to ferve as a flay, and 
 prevent people's tailing over. 
 
 PARAPH, a particular character, knot, or flourifh, which peo- 
 ple habituate themfelves to make always in the fame manner 
 at the end of their name, to prevent their lignature from being 
 counterfeited. 
 
 The Paraph of the Kings of France is a grate, which the fe- 
 cretaries always place before their own, in all letters, fsV. Me- 
 nage derives the word from Paragraphia. See Paragraph. 
 PARAPHERNALIA*, or Parapherna, in the civil law, 
 thofe goods which a wife brought her lmfband, befides her 
 dower, and which were (till to remain at her dilpofal, exclu- 
 five of her huiband, unlefs there were fome provifion made 
 to the contrary in the marriage contract, 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek raraja, beyond, or over, and 
 <ptpv*i, dos, dower. — In b'ts Rebus quas extra dotem mulier habet iff 
 quas Gr<cci 'sja.^a.tpievx, 'vacant, nullam, uxore probibente, tnr babeat 
 communiemm. Cod. de padis. 
 
 The grand cuftomary of Normandy gives a different fenfe to 
 the word ; it calls Paraphernalia the moveables, linen, and 
 other female neceffaries, which are adjudged to a wife, in 
 prejudice of the creditors, when fhe renounces the fuccefllon 
 of her huiband. 
 
 Some of our Englifh lawyers give a ftill different fenfe to the 
 word Paraphernalia, defining it to be fuch goods as a wife 
 challengeth over and above her dower, or jointure after her 
 hufband's death ; as, furniture for her chamber, wearing ap- 
 parel, and jewels, which are not to be put into the inventory 
 of her hufband's goods. 
 PARAPHIMOSIS, nAPA*iMP.sis, in medicine, a diforder of 
 the penis, wherein the prepuce is fhrunk, and withdrawn be- 
 hind the glans, fo as not to be capable of being brought to 
 cover the fame. 
 
 This happens ofteneft in venereal diforders, where the hu- 
 mours difcharg'd frequently prove fo (harp, as to caufe this re- 
 traction. There fometimes arifes a neceflity in this cafe to 
 fnip, or cut the prepuce open, otherwife the humours will be 
 pent up under it, and do a great deal of mifchief. 
 PARAPHRASE, hapa^pasie, an explanation of fome text 
 in clearer and more ample terms, whereby we fupply what 
 the author might have faid or thought on the fubject. See 
 Text. 
 
 PAR 
 
 Colomefms looks on Erafmus's Paraphrafe on the New Tene- 
 ment, as fo extraordinary a work, that he makes no fcruple 
 to declare, he thinks the author to have been divinely in- 
 fpired, when he penned it. 
 Chaldee Paraphrase, is a phrafe frequent among the critics 
 and divines. — There are three Chaldee Parapbrafes on the pen- 
 tatcuch : that of Onkelos, whom fome take to be the fame 
 with Aquila, and whom others take to have been that Onkelos 
 whom the talmudifts in die treatile Gittin, make a nephew of 
 the emperor Titus. 
 
 The fecond is the Paraphrafe of Jonathan. — The third is called 
 
 the Targum of Jentfalem. 
 
 The Chaldee Paraphrafe on the prophets is of Jonathan fon of 
 -Uziel, whom fome confound with Theodotio. 
 The author of the Chaldee Paraphrafe on the hagiographers 
 is unknown. Some attribute it to one Jofeph, furnamed the 
 fquinter*; others to rabbi Akiba. Others fay, there is fo much 
 difference in the ftyle, that no one perfon can have been the 
 author of the whole. 
 PARAPHRENESIS, or Paraphrenias, rUPAfPENiTii:, j tl 
 medicine, a fecondary kind of phrenzy, fuppofed by the 
 ancients, to be owing not to any immediate diforder of the 
 brain, or meninges, but to an inflammation of the ventricle 
 and the liver, and efpecially of the diaphragm, whereby the 
 brain and meninges come to be affected by confent of parts. 
 See Phrenitis. 
 
 The ancients called it ^Pfeudo-Phrenep, falfe phrenzy, to 
 diflinguifh it from the true one, which they made to conlifl 
 in an inflammation of the brain and its meninges. 
 The moderns do not make any fuch diftinction in phrenzies: 
 they determine that all come from the fame caufe ; but that 
 caufe is neither an inflammation of the brain, nor of the dia- 
 phragma. 
 
 Paraphrenias, among modern phyficians, is fometimes ufed 
 for an inflammation of the mediaftinum, or pleura about the 
 diaphragm, attended with a continual fever, and exquifite 
 pain in the parts affected on contracting the abdominal 
 mufcels ; as alfo a delirium and a 1 ifing of the hypochondria. 
 PARAPLEGIA*, or Paraplexia, nAPAnAHriA, or iiapa- 
 iiahsia, in medicine, a fpecies of paralyfis, or palfy, ufually 
 fucceeding an apoplexy. 
 * The word comes from the Greek tna.gtt, much, and roMo-o-w, or 
 ibXjjtIw, I ftrike. 
 
 The Paraplegia is a general palfy, affecting the whole body, 
 the head alone excepted. — Boerhaave defines it an immobility 
 of all the mufcles below the head, that have nerves from the 
 cerebrum and cerebellum. 
 
 Sometimes, all fenfe as well as motion are deftroyed hereby, 
 fometimes only the one of them is loft. 
 Its original is ufually fuppofed to be fome diforder, or ob- 
 rtruction in the fouith ventricle of the brain, or in the begin- 
 ning of the fpinal marrow. • 
 
 Etmuller diftinguifhes the Paraplegia from the paralyfis. The 
 paralyfis, according to him, is a relaxation or resolution of 
 the ligaments and members miniftring to motion, not from 
 any obftruction of the nerves, but from a relblution of the 
 nervous paits. — Whereas the Paraplegia arifes from fome ob- 
 ftruction of the nerves. 
 
 The latter ufually fuccecds an apoplexy, epilcpfy, convulfions, 
 or vertigo's ; the former, the fcorbutus, hypochondriacal dif- 
 eafe, colic, Is'c. 
 PARAPLEXIA, in medicine. See Paraplegia. 
 PARASANG*, nAPAEAiTHS, an ancient Perlian meafure dif- 
 ferent at different times, and in different places ; being ufually 
 30, fometimes 40, and fometimes 50 ftadia, or fui longs. 
 
 * The word, according to Littleton, has its rife from Parafcb An- 
 garius, q. d. the fpace a poll-man rides from one ihation, Angaria, 
 to another. 
 
 PARASCENIUM, among the Romans, was a place behind 
 the theatre, whither the actors withdrew to drefs, undrefs, 
 ISc. more frequently called Pojtfeenium. 
 PARASCEVE, nAPASKETH, the fixth day of the laft week of 
 lent, popularly called Good-Friday. 
 
 St. John fays our Saviour was crucified on the Parafceve of 
 the Paffover, e. on the eve or day of preparation of the 
 paffover : For Ifidore and Papias obferve, that the word in the 
 original Greek fignifies preparation, and was applied among the 
 Jews to Friday, becaufe on that day they ufed to prepare what 
 was neceffary for the celebration of the Sabbath. 
 Hence what our Tranflation of the New Teftament ren- 
 ders preparation of the Sabbath, M. Simon, and fome others, 
 call Parafceve. 
 
 PARASELENE*, in phyfiology, a mock-moon % a meteor, or 
 phenomenon encompaffing or adjacent to the moon, in form 
 of a luminous ring ; wherein are fometimes obferved one, 
 fometimes two apparent images of the moon. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek wa^a, near, and crvttowi, 
 moon. 
 
 The Parafelsnes are formed after the fame manner as the par- 
 helia, or mock-funs. See Parhelion. 
 PARASITE, nAfASiEOE, among the Greeks, was originally a 
 
 very 
 
PAR 
 
 very reputable title : the parafites being a kind of priefts, or 
 at leaft minifters of the gods ; in the lame manner, as at 
 Rome were the epulones. 
 
 They took care of the facred corn ; or the corn deftined foi 
 the fervice of the temples, and the gods, viz. facririces, feafts, 
 csV. they had even the intendance over facrifices, and tdok 
 care that they were duly performed. 
 
 At Athens there was a kind of college of twelve parafites \ 
 each people of Attica fumifhing one, who was always chofen 
 out of one of the beft families. 
 
 Polybius adds, that parafite was alfo an honourable name a- 
 mong the ancient Gauls ; and was given to their poets i but 
 of late it has been made a term of reproach, and us'd for a 
 flatterer and mean dependant. 
 Parasites, or Parasitaical plants in botany, a kind of 
 plants, growing on trees, and fo called from their manner 
 of living and feeding, which is altogether on others. 
 Such is mofs, which was anciently fuppofcd the cflecr. of a 
 difcompofure of the texture of the bark : or a kind of ruft, 
 or at moft, little hlaments arinng from the bark : but from 
 many obfervations of the moderns, it appears, that modes are 
 real plants, whofe feed is exceedingly fine, and inciofed in 
 very little capfula: ; which burning of themfelves, the feed is 
 driven by the wind, and at length detained in the inequalities 
 of the barks of trees ; where it takes root and is fed at the ex- 
 pence thereof. 
 
 Of thefe molfes M. Vaillant reckons no lefs than 137 fpecies 
 common in the neighbourhood of Paris : which with the li- 
 chens and other moiles dilcovered fince his time, make the 
 family of parafite plants very large. 
 
 The moft pernicious of thefe parafites, to the trees that fup- 
 port them, are the lichens ; which appear on the barks of trees 
 in form of a cruft, mixed with yellow and a dirty white. 
 M. de Reflbns gives us a remedy for this difeafe, in the French 
 Memoirs of the Acad. Roy. It confifts in making an incihon 
 through the bark to the very wood, from the firft branches to 
 the earth ; the bark clofes again in a little time, and after 
 this always preferves itfelf clean and free from moiles for the 
 futui e. 
 
 This aperture renders the courfe of the fap more free, and 
 prevents the forming of thole inequalities fo favourable to 
 the production of moiles. The inciiion, he adds, is to be 
 made from March to the end of April, and on that fide turn- 
 ed moil from the fun. 
 PARASOL, a little moveable, in manner of a canopy, bore in 
 the hand to fcreen the head from the fun, rain, cVtr. more 
 ufually called umbrella. 
 
 It is made of leather, taffety, oil-cloth, c?7. mounted on a ftick, 
 and opened or ihut at pleafure, by means of pieces of whale- 
 bone that fuftain it. — The Kaft-hidians never ftir without a 
 
 parafol. 
 
 The word is French, — and that ufed againft rains is fome- 
 times called paraphde. 
 PARASTATA, in the ancient architecture, a kind of pier, 
 or piedroit,ferving as a defence or fupportto a column or arch. 
 Mr. Evelyn makes the parajlata the fame with pilafter. Bar- 
 bara, and others, the lame with anta : andDaviler, the fame 
 with piedroit. See Pilaster. 
 
 PARAS TATiE, in anatomy, Epididymides, two tuberous, vari- 
 cofe bodies, lying upon, and adhering to, the upper part of 
 the tefticles ; whereof they properly appear to be a part ; 
 though different from the reft in form and confidence. 
 The Parajlata: confift, like the tefticles, of a convolution of 
 feminal tubuli, mixed with blood-veifels ; the difference be- 
 tween them lying only in this, that in the paraftatcc, the 
 tubuli are united into one ; the various convolutions of which, 
 being more firmly bound together by a ftrong membrane, ari- 
 fing from the tunica albuginea, they feel more compact than 
 thetefticles. SeeSsED, Spermatic, &c. 
 The parajlattz and tefticles, are laid to be inciofed in three 
 proper membranes ; the firft mulculous, derived from the cre- 
 mafter mufcle ; the fecond called the vagmalia ; and the third 
 the albuginea. See each under its proper head. 
 
 PARASYNANCHE *, in medicine, a kind of angina or 
 fquinancy, wherein the exterior mulcles of the throat are 
 inflamed. 
 
 * The word comes from -aet^ct, av>, a[x.=iv, to fufFocate. 
 
 PARATHESIS, in the Greek church, the prayer which the 
 bifhop rehearfes over the catechumens, ftretching his hands 
 over them to give them benediction j and which they receive, 
 bowing their head under his hands- 
 
 Paratheses, (popularly called Brackets or Crotchets) is alfo 
 the name of a kind of point or mark, as [ ] ufed in writing, 
 chiefly to include fynonymons, explicatives, and the like mat- 
 ters, not eflential to the difcourfe. See Parenthesis. 
 
 Par a thesis, in grammar, appefition ; or a figure whereby two or 
 more fubftantives are put in the fame cafe. 
 
 PARAT1LMUS, in the ancient Gieek jurifprudence, a name 
 given to a fort of punimmcnt impofed on adulterers who were 
 poor and unable to ftand the common penalty. 
 It conlifted either in making them run a horfe-radilh up the 
 anus, which they called avll^a^lnac, ; or in tearing up by the 
 
 voi. n. 
 
 PAR 
 
 roots the hair about the pudenda, which they called v«ga4ttp8<J 
 of ■cra^Ti?A!i ( , to tear, pluck up. 
 
 PARATITLES, Paratitla, in jiirifprudence, fhort notes,; 
 or fummaries of the titles of the digeft, and code ; which have 
 been made by feveral lawyers, in order to compare and exa- 
 mine the connection of the feveral parts with one another. 
 We have paratitles of Cujas, of Maran, fcrV. Chaffatieus lias 
 a fecond comment on the paratitles of Cujas. 
 
 PARAVAIL, Par availe, in law, the loweft tenant of a fee ; 
 or he that is immediate tenant to the land. See Tenant. 
 He is called tenant paravail, becaufe it is preiumed he hstfi 
 profit, and avail by the land; 
 
 PARAZONIUM, riAPAZiiNiON,- of Stipto; among rrieda- 
 lifts, a fcepter, rounded at the two ends in manner of A 
 truncheon, or commander's ftaff; or a kind of poniard, or 
 fhort fword r^prefented as wore at the girdle, oh feveral an- 
 cient medals. 
 
 Antiquaries are much divided on the explication of the" para- 
 xnmum ; as, indeed, the form and manner of bearing it are" 
 very different.— It is fometimes thrown acrofs the ftioulders in 
 manner of a quiver. 
 PARBOILING, in pharmacy, c?r. a tcrrri applied to fiuitsj 
 herbs, £sY. which are boiled a little while, to draw out the 
 firft: juices ; in order to be afterwaids inipiilated or thickened. 
 See BoilinG. 
 
 PARCjE, goddeffes who, according to the ancient Pagan" tHe- 
 °l°gy, prefide over the periods, or durations of human lives. 
 Thefe the ancients frequently confounded with the fates, or 
 deftinies ; and, in effe£\:,theparca?, according to Plato, were the 
 daughters of rtcceffity, and deftiny. 
 
 The panes were three, Clotho, Lachefis, and Atrbpds ; be- 
 caufe, forfooth, all things have their beginning, progrefs, and 
 end. Hence the poets tell us, the porta fpun the thread of 
 mens 1 ivcs ; that Clotho held the diftaft, and drew the thread ; 
 Lachefis twirled the fpindlc, and fpun it ; and Atropos cut it, 
 Chtho eolum retinet, Lachefis tut, W Atropss occat. 
 The ancients reprefent the porta divers ways : Luciah, in 
 the Ihape of three poor old women, having large locks of 
 wool, mixed with daffodils on their heads ; one of which holds 
 a diftafT, the other a wheel, and the third a pair of fcillars, 
 wherewith to cutoff the thread of life.— Others reprefent them 
 otherwife ; Clotho appearing in a long robe of divers colours, 
 wearing a crown upon her head adorned with feven ftars, and 
 holding a diftaff in her hand : Lachefis in a robe befet with 
 ftars, with feveral Ipindles in her hand ; and Atropos, clad in 
 black, cutting the thread with a large fciffars. 
 The ancients imagined that the parens ufed white wool for 
 a long and happy life j and black, for a fhort and unfortu- 
 nate One. 
 
 PARCEL-Maters, two officers in the exchequer, who make 
 parcels of the efcheator's accounts, wherein they charge them 
 with every thing that they have levied for the king's ufe 
 within the time of their office, and deliver the fame to one 
 of the auditors of the court to make their accompts there- 
 with. 
 
 Bill of "Parcels. See the article Bill. 
 PARCENERS, quafi Parcellers. See Co-Parceners. 
 PARCHMENT *, in commerce, EffV. fheep or goat's (kin 
 prepared after a peculiar manner^ which renders it proper for 
 feveral ufes ; particularly for writing on, and for the cover- 
 ing of books, csY. 
 
 * The word conies from the Latin Pergamena, the ancient name of 
 this manufacture ; which it is faid to have took from the city 
 Pergamos, to Eumenes, king whereof, its invention is ufually 
 afcribed. Though, in reality, that prince appears rather to have 
 been the improver, than the inventor of Parchment. For the 
 Perfians of old, according to Diodorus, wrote all their records on 
 flcins ; and the ancient Ionians, as we are told by Herodotus' 
 made ufe of fheep-fkins and goat-fkins in writing, many ages 
 boforeEumenes's time. Nor need wc doubt that iuch fkins were 
 prepared and drefled for that purpofe, after a manner not unlike 
 that of our Parchment; though probable not fo artificially.— Vide 
 Diod. Sicul. 1. 2. p. 84. Herodot. 1. 5. Prid. Connedt part 1 
 I. 7. p. 708. 
 
 Parchment is begun by the fkinner, and ended by the parchment- 
 maker. It conftitutes a very confiderable article in the French' 
 commerce : it is made in moft of their cities ; and befides the 
 confumption at home, they fend vaft quantities abroad, parti- 
 cularly to England, Flanders, Holland, Spain, and Portugal. 
 That called virgin parchment, and which fuperftitious people 
 believe to be made of a kind of caul, wherein fome children 
 are inciofed in the womb, is nothing but a fomewhat thinner 
 and finer fort than the reft, and is moft proper for certain, pur- 
 pofes, as fans, £3Y. and made of the (kin of an abortive lamb, 
 or kid. 
 
 Manufacture of Parchment.— The (kin having been ftripped 
 of its wool, and having paired the lime-pit (after the manner de- 
 fcribed under the article Shammy) the lkinnerftretches it on a 
 kind of frame, confifting of four pieces of wood, mortifed into 
 each other at the four angles, and perforated lengthways from 
 diftance to diftance, with holes furniflied with wooden pin3 
 fhat may be turned at pleafure, like thofeof a vioh'n. 
 
 8 G Ta 
 
PAR 
 
 To ftretch the fltin on this frame, they make little holes all 
 around it, and through every two holes draw a little ikewer ; 
 to this lkewer they tie a piece of fmall packthread, and tie 
 that over the pins ; fo that coming to turn the pins equally, 
 the fkin is foamed tight every way, like that of a drum. 
 The fkin being thus fufficiently ftretched on the frame, the 
 flefh is pared off with a (harp inftrument for that purpofe ; this 
 done, it ismoiftened with a rag; and a kind of white Hone or 
 chalk reduced to a fine duft, is ftrewed over it ; then with a 
 large pumice-ftone, flat at bottom, much after the manner of 
 a mullet for grinding colours, they rub over the fkin as if about 
 to grind the chalk ; and thus they fcower off the remains of 
 the lleih. Then they go over it again with the iron inftrument; 
 again moiften it as before, and again rub it with the pumice- 
 ftone without any chalk underneath ; this fmoothens and lbftens 
 the flefh fide very confiderably. They then drain it again, by 
 paffmg over it the iron inftrument as before. 
 .The rleth fide being thus drained, they pafs the iron on the 
 wool of hair-fide ; then, ftretch it tight on the frame, by means 
 of the ipins, and go over the flefh fide again with the iron : 
 this fmilhes its draining ; and the more the flcin is drained, the 
 whiter it always becomes. 
 * They now throw on more chalk, fweeping it over with apiece 
 ' of lamb-ikin that has the wool on ; this fmoothens it ftill further, 
 and gives it a white down or nap. It is now left to dry, and 
 
 ■ when dried, it is taken off the frame, by cutting it all round. 
 The fkin, thus far prepared by the fkinner, is taken out of his 
 hands by the parchment-maker; who firft fcrapes or pares it 
 dry on the fummer, with an iron inftrument like that above- 
 mentioned, only finer and fharper, with this, worked with the 
 arm from top to bottom of the nun, he takes away about one 
 half of its thicknefs. The fkin thus equally pared on both 
 fides, they pais the pumice-ftone over both fides, to fmoothen 
 it. This laft preparation is performed on a kind of form or 
 bench covered with a fack fluffed with flocks, and it leaves the 
 parchment in a condition for writing on. 
 
 The paring the flcin dry on the fummer, is the moft difficult 
 preparation in the whole procefs of parchment-making; for 
 which reafon the fkinners feldom dare meddle with it ; but 
 ulually leave it to thole more experienced in it : the fummer 
 whereon it is performed, is a calf-fkin well ftretched on a 
 frame, ferving as a fupport to the fkin which is faftened a top 
 of it with a wooden inftrument that has a notch cut in it. 
 Laftly, that the iron knife may pafs the eafier between the fum- 
 mer and the lkin to be pared, they put another fkin which 
 they call the counter-fummer. The parings thus taken offthe 
 ikin, are ufed in making glue, fize, &c. 
 
 \ ."hat we call vellom is only parchment made of the fkins of 
 abortive calves, or at leaft of fucking calves ; 'tis finer, whiter, 
 and fmoother than the common parchment, but it is .prepared 
 in the fame manner as that, abating that it is not palled 
 through the lime-pit. 
 
 Roll c/Parchment. See the article Roll. 
 
 PARCO fraclo, inlaw, a writ which lies againft him who vio- 
 lently breaks open a pound, and takes out beafts thence, 
 which, for fome trefpafs done, were lawfully impounded. 
 See Pound. 
 
 PARDON, in law, aremiffion, or forgivenefs of a felonious, 
 or other offence, againft the king, or the laws. 
 This our lawyers make twofold ; the one, ex gratia regis, the 
 other, per cours de ley. — The firft is that which the king out of 
 fome fpecial regard to the perfon, or fome other circumftance, 
 grants by his abfolute prerogative, or power, either before con- 
 viction of the offender, or after. 
 
 Pardon by courfe of law, is that which the king grants as the law 
 and equity perfuades, fora flight offence ; as homicide, carnal, 
 &c. 
 
 Charter ^/Pardon. See the article Charter. 
 
 Pardon, in the canon law, is an indulgence which the pope 
 grants to fuppofed penitents, for remiffion of the pains of 
 purgatory, which they have merited for the punifhment of 
 their fins. 
 
 The grand time for the difpenfation of pardons is the Jubilee. 
 In this fenfe, pardon is properly the angelic falutation faid to 
 the virgin at the found of three little ftrokes of a bell rung in 
 the morning, at noon, and night, in order for the perfon to 
 be entitled to indulgences. 
 PARDONERS, in our ancient cuftoms, were perfons who 
 carried about the pope's indulgences, and fold them, to the 
 
 ■ beft bidders. 
 
 PAREGORICKS *, in medicine, remedies which aflwage 
 pain.—- The fame with what we otherwife call anodynes and 
 
 ■ opiates. 
 
 * The word is Greek, Tra^y^iKa, formed of •ma.^y^ia, Unio, I ap- 
 peafc, or mitigate. 
 PAREIRA BRAVA, the root of a plant growing in the 
 Weft-Indies, chiefly in Mexico and Brazil ; efleemed a fpe- 
 cific for the cure of the ftone and gravel. 
 The name, which in the original Portugueze, fignifies wild- 
 vine, or baftard-vine, bears a good deal of analogy to the plant, 
 which bears branches loaden with leaves perfectly like thofe of 
 
 PAR 
 
 the vine ; and which, like them, creep along walls and trees. 
 The Portuguese value this root on an equal footing with 
 the* ipecacuanha. Some druggifts call it, by corruption, pa- 
 
 radapr&va. 
 
 M. Geohroy attributes the efficacy of this root, in nephritic 
 cafes, to its diflblving the vifcid matters, whereby the particles 
 of the fand, t3Y. were cemented together : and hence, he 
 gives it with the fame intention in jaundices, afthma's, &c. 
 It is adminiftered in decoction. 
 
 The Portugueze hold it alio a remedy for dyfenteries, quin- 
 zies, bites of venomous beafts, Is'c. See Supplement, article 
 
 PAREIRA BRAVA. 
 
 PARELCON, in grammar, a figure, whereby a word or fyl- 
 
 lable is added to the end of another. 
 PARELIA, or rather parhelia, in phyfiology. See Parhelium. 
 PARENCHYMA*, in anatomy, a peculiar kind offubftance 
 different from flefh, whereof feveral parts of the body, as the 
 heart, lungs, liver, fpleen, kidneys, &c. were anciently fuppo- 
 fed to be formed. 
 * It is thus called from the Greek sa^y^tjf**, cfFufioa, q . d. gene- 
 rated by a collection, and condensation of juice. 
 Erafiftratus firft uled the word ; as imagining the fubftance of 
 thefe parts not to bevafcularlike the reft, but to confift of a 
 mafs or coagulum of blood, ftagnated in the veffels of the 
 parts. — But the moderns univerially reject tins opinion : the 
 obfervations made by microfcopes, injections, &c. clearly fhew- 
 ing, that the heart is a true muicle, the lungs and fpleen, 
 clufters of membranous veficles, and veffels, and the liver 
 and kidnies, corapofitions of glands, through which the bile 
 and urine are filtrated. 
 Parenchyma of plants.— Dr. Grew gives the name paren- 
 chyma, to the pith or pulp, or that inner part of a fruit or 
 plant, through which the juice is fuppofed to be diftri- 
 butcd. 
 
 This, when viewed with a microfcope, appears to refemble 
 marrow ; or rather a fpunge ; being a porous flexible dilatable 
 fubftance. 
 
 Its pores are innumerable, and exceedingly fmall ; receiving as 
 much humour as is requilite to fill and extend them ; which 
 difpofition of pores it is, that is fuppofed to fit the plant for 
 vegetation and growth. 
 
 The Parenchyma of roots is white at firft, but it changes its 
 colour, in proportion as the root grows thicker. Thus^it be- 
 comes yellow in the root of the baftard rhubard, and red in 
 that of the biftort. 
 PARENT, Parens, a term of relation, applicable to thofe 
 from whom we immediately receive our being. See Father 
 andMoTHER. 
 
 PARENTALIA, in antiquity, funeral obfequics ; or the laft 
 
 duties paid by children to their deceafed parents. 
 Pare nt alia, is alfo ufed for a facririce or folemn fervice offer- 
 ed annually to the manes of the dead. 
 PARENTELA— De parentela fe tollers, in ancient cuftoms, fig- 
 nified a renunciation of one's kindred and family. 
 This was done in open court, before the judge, and in the pve- 
 fence of twelve men, who made oath, they believed it was 
 done for a juft caufe. 
 
 "We read of it in the laws of Henry I. after fuch abjuration, 
 the perfon was incapable of inheriting any thing from any of 
 his relations, &c. 
 PARENTHESIS *, in grammar, certain intercalary words 
 inferted in a difcourfe, which interrupt the fenfe or thread, 
 but which feem neceflary for the fuller underftanding of the 
 fubject. 
 
 * The word is Greek, na^Sca-i?! formed of itapa, inter, between, 
 and EjSic-K) pofuion, q. d. putting between. 
 The politeft of our modern writers avoid all parenthefes ; as 
 keeping the mind in fulpence, embarraffing it, and rendering 
 the difcourfe lefs clear, uniform, and agreeable : long and fre- 
 quent parcnthejes are intolerable, efpecially in verfe, which 
 they ever render dull, and languid, and like toprofe. 
 The proper characteriftic of a parenthefis is, that it may be either 
 Liken in or left out, the fenfe and grammar remaining entire. 
 In fpeaking, parenthefes are to be pronounced in a different 
 tone ; and in writing, they are inclofed between ( J ; to diftin- 
 guifti them from the reft of the difcourfe. 
 The character itfelf whereby they are diftinguifhed, is alfo 
 called a parenthefis. 
 PARERE, in commerce, an Italian term which begins to be 
 naturalized. It fignifies the advice, or counfel of a merchant, 
 or negotiant ; for that fuch a perfon, being confulted on any 
 point, introduces his anfwer, in Italian, with mi pare, i. e, 
 I think, it feems to me. 
 
 The method of negociating, efpecially that of bills of ex- 
 change, being borrowed from the Italians, moft trading cities, 
 efpecially Lyons, retain the ufe of parens ; which are the 
 advices or opinions of merchants and negociants, and which 
 ferve as acts before notaries, when given by authority of a 
 judge-confer vat or, or at a particular confultation, for main- 
 taing the right of the confulter. 
 
 M. Savary 
 
PAR 
 
 M. Savary has an excellent trearife, entitled, parcre, ou fats 
 f& conjeih fur les plus importantes maliem du commerce ; contain- 
 ing the refolution of the moft difficult queftions relating 
 to bankrupts and failures, bills of exchange, ordeis without 
 date or expreffion of value, bank-fignings, renewing cf 
 bills of exchange, thofe drawn or accepted by women in 
 behalf of their hufbands, or during the minority of the 
 drawer, &c. 
 
 PARERGA, nAPEprA, a term fometimes ufed in architecture, 
 for additions, or appendages, made, by way of cinament to 
 a principal work. 
 
 It is fometimes alfo ufed in painting for little pieces, or com- 
 partments on the fides, or in the corners of the principal 
 piece. 
 
 PARESIS, nAPESis, in medicine, a difeafe called alfo paralyfis 
 and palfy. 
 
 PARGETING, in building, is ufed for the plaiftering of walls; 
 fometimes for plaifter itfelf. 
 
 Pargeting is of various kinds; as, i. White lime and hair 
 mortar laid on bare walls. 2. On bare laths, as in partition- 
 ing and plain ceiling. 3. Rendring the infides of walls, or 
 doubling partition -walls. 4. Rough-cafting on heart-laths. 
 5. Plaiftering on brick-work, with finHhing mortar in imi- 
 tation of ftone-work ; and the like upon heart-laths. 
 
 PARHELIUM*, or Parhelion, in phyfiology, a mock-fun, 
 or meteor, in form a very bright light, appearing alide of the 
 fun ; and formed by the reflexion of his beams in a cloud 
 properly pofited. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, wa;a, juxta, near, and 
 ■rjhi<&,Jbf ) fun. 
 
 The parhelia ufually accompany the coronas, or luminous 
 circles, and are placed in the fame circumference, and at the 
 fame height. Their colours refemblc thofe of the rainbow, 
 the red and yellow are on the fide towards the fun, and the 
 blue and violet on the other. 
 
 Though, there are corona; fometimes feen entire, without 
 any parhelia ; and fometimes parhelia without corona?. 
 Parhelia are fometimes double, triple, (s'e. 
 
 In the year 1629, was leen at Rome a parhelion of five funs; 
 and m 1666, another at Aries of fix. 
 
 M. Maiiotte accounts for the appearance of parhelia, from an 
 infimty of little parcels of ice floating in the air, which mul- 
 tiply the image of the fun, either by refracting or breaking 
 his rays, and thus making him appear where he is not; or 
 by reflecting them, and ferving as minors. 
 TheJcnown laws of reflection and refraction have given a 
 handle for geometrizing on thefe phsenomena; and M. 
 Mariotte has determined the precife figure of the little icicles, 
 and their fituation in the air, the fize of the corona or circles 
 which accompany the parhelia, and the colours wherewith 
 they are painted, by a geometrical calculus. 
 M. Huygens accounts for the formation of a parhelion^ in the 
 fame manner as for that of the halo, viz. by fuppofing a num- 
 ber of fmall icy cylinders with opaque kernels, carried in the 
 air, neither in a perpendicular nor parallel direction, but in 
 
 PA R 
 
 half a right one. 
 
 To make the effect of thefe cylinders manifeft, M. Huygens 
 produced to the academy of Paris, a glafs cylinder a foot 
 long, with an opaque cylinder of wood in the middle, and 
 the ambient fpace rilled with water, and tranfparent ice ; 
 which cylinder being expofed to the fun, and the eye put in 
 the requifite lituation, there were fucceffively feen all the re- 
 fractions and reflections neceffary for the phenomena of the 
 parhelia. 
 
 PARIAN Marble. See the article Marble. 
 
 PARIETALIA OJfa, in anatomy, the third, and fourth bones 
 
 of the cranium ; fo called, becaufe they form the parietes, or 
 
 fides of the head. 
 
 They are alio denominated offa bregmatis, and offa fincipitis. 
 1 heir fubftance is finer and thinner than that of the coronal 
 and occipital bones. Their figure is fquare; their fize ftir- 
 paffes that of the other bones of the head ; and their litua- 
 tion is in the lateral parts, which they poffefs entirely. 
 The fagittal future connects them at the upper part ; the 
 coronal joins their fore-part to the os frontis ; the lambdoidal 
 joins them by the hind-part to the occipital bone ; and, laftly, 
 the fquamous future joins them by the lower-part of the 
 olia petrofa. 
 
 The outer furface of thefe bones is very fmoofh and polite ; 
 the inner, rough and uneven, being full of impreffions which 
 the arteries of the dura marer have made by their continual 
 puliation before the bones were oflified. 
 PARIETES, in anatomy, a term ufed for the inclofures, or 
 membranes that ftop up or clofe the hollow parts of the body ■ 
 cfpecially thofe of the heart, the thorax, CSV. 
 'I he pane les of the two ventricles of the heart are of unequal 
 firength and thicknefs, the left exceeding the right, becaufe 
 ot its office, which is to force the blood through all parts of 
 the body; whereas the right only drives it through the lungs. 
 
 PARISH*, the precincr, or territory of a parochial church- 
 or the ".cult ot ground within which the people beloffring 
 to any church do inhabit. '""S""S 
 • The word comes from the Latin farochia, of the Greek .„.,. 
 «% habitation ; compounded of ^ „ ra „ and hou { ft . 
 —Accordingly, Du Cange obiirves, ,„at the „.„», ';„..«,« 
 was anciently g.ven to the whole territory of a bilhnp and <le- 
 daiiL'tc 7 • , (t h " rh r di bCCaUfc ••'^"-idvechrihiln, not 
 
 In the ancient church, there was one large edifice in each city, 
 
 hint the figmhcation of the word was afterwards enlareed and 
 by -panfl .was meant a diocefe, or the extent of the iurifdiction 
 of a bilhop, confiding of feveral chuiches; unlifs we w°l" 
 uppofe as feme do, that thofe bifliops were only pallors of 
 tingle churches. 
 
 Du Pin obferves, that country purifies had not their origin be- 
 fore the &* century; but that thofe of cities are more 
 ancient. The city of Alexandria is faid to have been the 
 tuft that was divided into purifies. Baronius fays, that in the 
 time of pope Cornelius, there were 46 purifies in Rome. 
 
 lle oi™on ot England into parijbes, is attributed to Ho- 
 norius archbifhop of Canterbury, in 636. Camden leckons 
 <n«n purifies m England. And Chambeilayn makes, at nie- 
 tent, 9gi3 . J 
 
 a R benefice Ii!ST ' ™ min ' fter > who hoIds a P""^ as 
 
 If the predial tythes be appropriated, the parfon is called 
 reilor. See Rector. If they be impropriated, he is called 
 wear. See Vicar. 
 PARISIS, a French money of account, formerly a real coin 
 (truck at Pans, at the fame time with the touinois ftruck at 
 1 ours. 
 
 The parifis exceeded the tournois by one fourth; fo that the 
 hvre or pound parifis was 25 fols; and the livre toutnois 20. 
 pjVf, n derniers parifis, were in propoition. 
 
 c , V ™* cus ' a lar g e inclolure, privileged for wild beafts 
 ot ehale, either by the king's grant, or by prefcription. 
 
 i he word is originally Celtic, where it ligniies an inclofure or 
 place llmt up with walls. ' 
 
 Manwood defines a pari a place of privilege for beafts of 
 venery or hunt, and other wild beafts of the foreff, and of 
 chaie, tarn fyhejlres quam campefires.—K park differs from 3 
 toielt m that Crompton obferves, a fubject may hold a bark 
 a y foreft CnPt '° n ' ° r the kin S's grant, which he cannot do by 
 
 A Arf differs from a chafe alfo; for that a park muft be en- 
 c lofed ; if , t fie open, it is a good caufe of feizmg it into 
 ge kings hand; as a free chafe may be, if it be enclofed 
 Nor can the owner have any aflion againft fuch as hunt in 
 his park, it it lye open. See Chase. 
 
 Du Cange refers the invention of parks to king Henry I of 
 England ; but Spelman ftews, it is much more ancient and 
 was m ufe among the Anglo-Saxons. Zofimus affurcs , 
 alio, that the ancient kings of Perlia had parks. 
 
 ..v.u^, ... .^ijjLuuauidi uui uaianei uiieciion, But in- ,K, t r u ■ } ■ a ;„ ^wmiius aimres us 
 
 clined to the horizon in a certain angle, which mult be nearly p A ' , -J the ™ Km ^mgs of Perha had parks. 
 half a right one. ' ™ RK » a 10 ufcd for a moveable palliiade fet up in the fields to 
 
 ~ yaniuuc ici up 111 tile 
 
 inelofe ihecp in to feed, and reft in during the night 
 
 P T fl " ft Iil ? u -P« rl > tV om time to time, to duns 
 the ground, one part after another. S 
 
 PA „ R f';i, iS r a " 0 "i d f ? r 3 V( *V lar S e net > dif P° fc d on the brink 
 Id wb ,' T'" 1 ° nly J" 6 h0le Whkh ^oks towards the C 
 and which becomes dry, after the flood is gone off ; foTa 
 the fifh once got 111, have no way left to efcape 
 
 Park, in war Park of artillery, a port in a camp out of 
 cannot mot of the enemy, and fortified to fecure the maga- 
 zines, and ammunition. B 
 Here are the artillery, artificial fireworks, powder, and other 
 warlike provifions kept, and guarded by pikemen only to 
 avoid all eafualties that might happen by fire 
 Every attack, at a fiege, has its park of artillery. 
 
 Park, of provifions, is a place in a camp, on the 1 ear of every 
 regiment which is taken up by the hitlers, who follow the 
 
 P^Tv* a " { ° n c ° f P rovlfims . a "<i ft" them to the foldiers. 
 r AKEE i *, a conference with an enemy fifr 
 
 tZJ^Z* iS f0 'T d ° f J tl!e Fr£nch ' t"'^, to'fpeak, talk. 
 Hence to beat or found a parley, is to give a fignal for the 
 holding fuch a conference by beat of drum, or found of 
 trumpet. See Chamade. 
 PARLIAMENT, Parliament™, in England, a grand af- 
 lembly, or convention of the three eftates of the kingdom 
 viz, lords fpintual, lords temporal, and commons, fum- 
 moned to meet the king, to confult of matters relating to 
 the common-weal; and particularly to enaft, and repeal 
 laws. 1^ 
 
 The two houfes of Parliament are the king's grand council 
 Till the conqueft, the great council, confining only of the 
 great men of the kingdom, was called magnalum convenes 
 and preclatorum proeermique concilium. The Saxons in th»ir 
 own tongue, called it IVHteiagemctt, i. f . allembly of the 
 
 After 
 
PAR 
 
 After the conqueft, about the beginning of the feign of king 
 Edward I. tome lay, in the time of Henry I. it was firft called 
 parlementum, q. d. fpiubmat, from the French, purler, to 
 fpeak ; though it (till only confifted of the barons, or great 
 men of the "nation ; till in the reign of Henry III. according 
 to feme, the commons were alio called to fir in parliament, 
 the firft writs fent out to fummon them bearing date 49 Hen- 
 ry III. anno 1217: But Sir Walter Raleigh in his preroga- 
 tive of parliaments, thinks the commons were firft called in 
 the 17 th of Henry I. and Dr. Heylin fixes the time of their 
 frrft admifiion to the reign of Henry II. 
 
 Indeed, Sir Edward Coke, Dodderidge, Pryivn, and others, 
 have lhewn that the commons of England had always a (hare 
 in the legiflature, and a place in the great affembhes ; though 
 not on the prefent footing, as making a diftinft houfe, and 
 as compofed of knights, citizens, and burgeffes. 
 Parliaments are to be fummoned, prorogued, and diflolved by 
 the king alone : nor can a parliament begin without the king s 
 prefence, or that of his commiffioners. 
 
 At firft, new parliaments were called every year: by degrees 
 their term grew longer. In the time of king Charles II. they 
 were held a long time with great interruptions between. Both 
 which methods were found of lb ill confequences, that in the 
 beginning or the reisn of king William, an aft was palled 
 whereby the term of all parliaments was reftrained to three 
 feffions, or three years; this was hence called the triennial act. 
 Since that, from other views, the period of parliaments is again 
 lengthened to feven years. 
 
 A parliament is called by the king's writ, or letter, directed to 
 each lord, commanding him to appear; and by other wi its 
 directed to the Ihcriffs of each county, to fummon the peo- 
 ple to eleft two knights for each county, and one or two 
 burgeffes for each borough, tic. 
 
 Anciently, all the people had votes in the eleftions ; till it 
 was enaited by Henry VI. that none but freeholders, refiding 
 in the county, and who had a yearly revenue of 40 J. (hould 
 beadmitred to vote; nor were any to be elected, thatweie 
 under 2r years of age. 
 
 That the membeis might attend in parliament with more free- 
 dom, they, and all their menial feivants, were privileged 
 from all airefts, attachments, imprifonments, tic. foi debts, 
 trefpafTes, He. eundo, morando vel ad propria reddendo ; but not 
 from arrefts for treafon, felony, and breach of peace. 
 
 The place where the parliament meets, is wherever the king Sefliem o/Parliament. See rhe article Session. 
 pleales- of late, it has been in the palace of Weftminfter ; Parliament is fometimes alfo ufed for other 
 the lords and commons each in a diftinft apartment. In the fide thofe of the (fates of rhe realm.— Thus we 
 
 the lords and commons each in a diftinft apar 
 lords houfe, the princes of the blood are placed in diftinft 
 feats ; the great officeis of ftate, dukes, marquiffes, and 
 bilhops on benches ; and the vifcounts and barons on otheis 
 acrofs the houfe ; all according to their order of creation, 
 place, lie . 
 
 The commons fit promifcuonlly ; only the fpeakcr has a 
 chair at the upper end ; and the clerk and his affiftant at ; 
 table near him. Before any bufinefs is done, all the mem 
 hers of the houfe of commons take the oaths, and fubl'cribe 
 their opinions ag'ainft tranfubftantiation, fit. which teft, the 
 loids too, though they do not take the oaths, are obliged to 
 take. . . 
 
 The houfe of lords is the fovcrcign court of jufticc of the 
 realm, and the dernier refort : the houfe of commons is the 
 grand inqueft, but is no court of juftice. 
 As to the manner of debating and pajjing bills in Parliament, 
 Any member may move to have a bill brought in for any 
 thing, which, upon a queftion put, being agreed to by the 
 majority, this peifon with others, are ordered to prepare and 
 bring in rhat fame. When ready, a time is appointed for 
 reading: after leading it by the clerk, the fpeakcr reads the 
 abftraft thereof, and puts the queftion, whether or no it ihall 
 have a fecond reading > after a fecond reading, the queftion 
 is, whether or no it lhall be committed? which is either to 
 a committee of the whole houfe, if it be of importance ; 
 or to a private committee, any member naming the perfons. 
 The committe being appointed, and a chairman chofen, the 
 chairman reads the bill, paragraph by paragraph, puts every 
 claufe to the queftion, and fills up blanks, and makes amend- 
 ments, according to the opinion of the majority. The bill 
 thus gone through, the chairman makes his report at the fide- 
 bar of the houfe* reads all the additions and amendments, He, 
 and moves for leave to bring up the report to the table; 
 which granted, he delivers it ro the clerk, who reads the 
 amendments,^, -^wmi i,' 
 
 The fpeaker then puts the queftion, w-hcther they (hall be 
 read a fecond time ; and, if agreed to, he reads them him- 
 felf. To fo many as the houfe acquiefces in, the queftion is 
 now put, whether the bill, thus amended, (hall be engrofl'ed 
 and wiit fair in parchment, and read a third time ? the bill 
 engrofted, the fpeaker holds it in his hand, and alks if it (hall 
 pais ? if the majority be for it, the clerk writes on it, foil 
 bailie aux feigneters. Or, in the houfe of lords, foil bailk am 
 communes — If a bill be icjefted, "it cannot be any more 
 propolcd during that fefiion. 
 
 PAR 
 
 Forty members conftitute a houfe of commons, and eight a 
 committee. A member of the commons, to fpeak, ftands up, 
 uncover'd, and directs his fpcech to the fpeaker only. If 
 what he fays be anfwered by another, he is not allowed to 
 reply the fame day, unlefs perfonally reflected on. Nor may 
 any perfon fpeak more than once to the fame bill in the fame 
 day. In the lords houfe they vote, beginning at the puifne 
 or loweft baron, and fo up oideily to the higheft, every one 
 anfwering apart, content, or not content. In the houfe of 
 commons, they vote by yea's and nay's ; and if it be dubi- 
 ous, which is the greater number, the houfe divides. If the 
 queftion be about bringing any thing into the houfe, the ay's 
 go out ; if it be about any thing the houfe already has, the no's 
 go out. In all divifions, the fpeaker appoints four tellers, two 
 of each opinion. In a committee of the whole houfe, they 
 divide by changing fides, the ay's taking the right, the no's 
 the left of the chair, and then there are but two tellers. 
 If a bill pafs one houfe, and the other demur to it, a confe- 
 rence is demanded in the painted chamber, where certain 
 members are deputed from each houfe ; and here the lords 
 fitting covered, the commons ftand bare, and the cafe is de- 
 bated. If they difagree, the affair is null ; if they agree, this, 
 with the other bills that have parted both houfes, is brought 
 down to the king, in the houfe of lords, who comes thither 
 clothed in the royal robes, and with the crown on, before 
 whom the clerk of the parliament reads the title of each bill, 
 and as he reads, the clerk of the crown pronounces the royal 
 allcnt or difibnt. 
 
 If it be a publick bill, the royal aflcnt is given by thefe words, 
 k roy le veut. If a private one, by j'oit fait comme il eft defire. 
 If the king refule rhe bill, the anfwer is, k roy s'avijera. If 
 it be a money bill, the anfwer is, k roy remereie fes loyaux fujets, 
 accepte kur benevolence iff aujj'i le veut. 
 
 The bill for the king's general pardon has but one reading. 
 The number of members in the houfe of lords is uncertain, 
 as increafing at the king's pleafu.e. The members of the 
 houfe of commons, when full, are 553, viz. 92 knights of 
 ihiies; 52 deputies for the 25 cities, London having 4 ; 16 
 for the 8 cinque poits; 2 for each univerfity ; and, finally, 
 332 for 180 boroughs, befides 12 boroughs for Wales, and 
 45 members for Scotland. 
 Porter (/Parliament houfe. See the article Porter. 
 Rolls 4/ Parliament. See the article Rolls. 
 
 t. See the article Session. 
 
 affembhes be- 
 we read that the 
 
 abbot of Croyland was ufed to call parliaments of his monks, 
 to confult of the affairs of the monaftery. — And, at this day, 
 an alfembly, of the two temples, called to confult of their 
 common affans, is called a parliament. 
 Parliaments of France, are courts or aflemblies eftablifhed 
 by the kings to judge of the differences between particular 
 perfons, and to pronounce on appeals from fentenccs given 
 by inferior judges. 
 
 There are ten of thefe parliaments in France. That of Tho- 
 loufc, eftablifhed in 1303 : that of Dijon, in 1476 : that of 
 Grenoble, in 1453 : that of Rouen, in 1499 : that of Rennet 
 in Bretagne, in 1553 : that of Bourdeaux, in 1502 : that of 
 Aix, in 1501 : that of Metz, in 1633 : that of Pau in Beam, 
 in 1519: and that of Paris. 
 
 The parliament of Paris is the principal, and that whofe fu- 
 rifdiclion is of the grcateft extent. This is the chief court of 
 juftice throughout the realm. It confifts of fix chambers : 
 the grand chamber, where caufes of audience are pleaded ; 
 and five chambers of inqucfts, where procelfes are adjudged 
 in writing. 
 
 Under their fecond race of kings, this parliament, like that of 
 England, was the king's council, it gave audience to ambafla- 
 dors, and confulted of the affairs of war and government. 
 The kings, like ours, at that time prefided in them, without 
 being, at all, mafters of their rcfolution. But, in after times, 
 their authority has been abridged, the kings having referved 
 the decifion of the grand affairs of the public to their own 
 councils ; leaving none but private ones to the parliaments. 
 PARLIAMENTUM Indoilorum^ a denomination given to a 
 parliament held at Coventry, 6 Henry VI. whereunto, by 
 fpecial precept to the Iheriffs of the feveral counties, no 
 lawyer, or perfon fk.il led in the law, was to be called. 
 Parli amentum I/ifanum, was a parliament held at Oxford, 
 anno 41 Henry HI. thus called, fay our chronicles, becaufe 
 the lords came with great retinues of armed men to it ; and 
 many things were violently traniaeted therein, againft the 
 king's prerogative. 
 Parliamentum Diabolicutn, was a parliament held at Co- 
 ventry, 38 Henry VI. wherein Edward earl of March, af- 
 terwards king, and feveial others, were attainted. — The 
 a<fts pafi'ed herein, were annulled by the fucceeding parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 Parliamentum de la bonde, was a parliament in Edward IF'^ 
 time, whereto the barons came armed againft the two Spencers, 
 with coloured bauds on their fleeves for diftincfion. 
 
 PARLOUR, 
 
PAR 
 
 PAR 
 
 PARLOUR*, Parloir, in nunneries, a little room, or dofetj 
 where people talk to the nuns, through a kind or" grated 
 window. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French park,-, to talk 
 Anciently there were alio parlours in the convents oi monks, 
 where the novices ufed to converfe together at the hems of re- 
 creation ; but there were liftening places over, from whence 
 the fuperiois could hear every thing they laid.— Such a one 
 there ftill fubfifts in the abbey St. German de Piez. 
 
 In the order of Feuillans, the Parlour is a little room open on 
 all fides, placed at each end of the dormitory, where the 
 monks talk together, it not being allowed them to iptak in 
 the dormitory. 
 
 PARMA, among antiquaries, a kind of ancient buckler. 
 
 Polybius deicribes the Parma as very ftrong, round, thiee foot 
 in diameter, and big enough to cover the whole body ; yet 
 Servius on the yEneid, and even Virgil himfelf mention it as a 
 light piece of armour, in comparifon of the clypeus, though 
 bigger than the pclta. 
 
 PARMASITTY, the popular name for Sperma Cell. 
 
 PARMESAN. See the article Paduan. 
 
 PAROCHIAL, fomething belongingto a parilh. See Parish, 
 and Extraparochi AL. 
 
 Every church is either cathedral, collegiate, or parochial. 
 Cathedral, is where there is a bilhop's fee, or feat called ca- 
 thedra. Collegiate confifts either of icgular clerks, profeffing 
 fome religious order ; or of a dean and chapter. 
 Parochial church is that inftituted for the performing of divine 
 fervice to the people who dwell within a certain compafs of 
 ground. See Parts Hi 
 
 PARODICAL degrees, in an equation, the feveral regular terms 
 in a quadratic, cubic, biquadiatic or o:her equation, the in- 
 dices of whole powers afcend or defcend orderly in an arith- 
 metical progreffion. See Term, and Equation. 
 Thus, Zi-i-Z^M-f-Z 1 ?— S is a cubical equation where no 
 term is wanting, but having all its paroalc degrees j the indices 
 of the terms regularly defcendirjg thus 3, 2, 1, o. Harris. 
 
 PARODY *, Parodia, a popular maxim, adage, or proverb. 
 See Proveri!, and Adage. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek and ma, way ; 
 as being trite, or palling among the people. 
 
 Parody, Do^k*, is alfo a poetical plcaiantry, confining in ap- 
 plying the verfes written on one fubject, by way of ridicule, 
 to another ; or in turning a ferious work into builefque, by 
 affecting to obferve, as nearly as poflible, the fame rhimes, 
 words, and cadences. 
 
 The parody was firft fet on foot by the Greeks ; from whom 
 wc borrow the name. It comes near to what fome of our late 
 writers call travejlry. 
 PARCEMIA*, ilapoimia, a proverb. See Proverb. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek yetex, and sipj, way ; quaf. 
 ira^a, qiiaw, juxla -viem, i. e. tritam. 
 
 PAROL, Parole, inlaw, is fometimcs ufed in ancient writers 
 for a plea in court. 
 
 Zc^-Parol, orper Parol, is a leafe by word of mouth ; thus 
 called to diftinguilh it from one in writing. 
 
 PAROLE, in war, Isc. when a prifoner of war is allowed to 
 go into his own country, or to his own party, upon his word 
 and pi omife to return at a time appointed, if not exchanged, 
 he is laid to be out upon parole, i. c. upon his word. 
 
 P^/t-Parole. See the article Pass-Parole. 
 
 PAROLI, in gaming, the double of what was laid at flake, be- 
 fore. — Hence, to offer the paroli, &c. 
 
 PARONOMASIA *, iiaponomasia, in rhetoric, a Pun, or a 
 figure whereby words nearly alike in found, but of very dif- 
 ferent fenfes, ate affectedly or dcfignedly ufed. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek -mx^a, near, and mpa, name, 
 q. d. proximity or refemblance of two names. 
 
 As, not friends but fiends were here : fo Tully to Anthony, 
 turn in gremio mimarum men tern £5 mentum deponercs : and to 
 Atticus, csnful ipfe parvo ammo & pravo, facie magh quam face- 
 tiis ridiciiha. And that of P. Chryfologus, monachorum csllula 
 jam non eremeticce fed aromaticx. And in another place, hoc 
 agant in cellis quod angeti in ccelis. 
 
 Among the Greeks the paronomafia was very familiar. Thus 
 Herododus, w-«Ss)/*acT«, ^S^xtoc, qua nocent, decent. 
 And thus that inscription of Apollodorus a celebrated painter, 
 on one of his pieces. 
 
 It will be eafier to deride, than to imitate. 
 PARONYCHIA *, whithe, in medicine, a painful kind of 
 tumor, or abfeefs, arifing at the ends of the lingers, and the 
 roots of the nails ; othcrwife called Panaritium and Panaris. 
 See Panaritium. 
 
 * The word is derived from the Greek frag*, near, and bwJ, unqu'u, 
 na!I. ' 
 
 The humour, or matter of the paronychia, is fometimes fo 
 fharp as to corrode the tendons, nerves, the periofteum, and 
 even the bone itfclf. 
 
 It is either lodged between the integuments, or between the 
 periofteum and bone. The deeper it lies, the more dangerous 
 it is. 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 PAROTIDES *, nAPp.xiAEj;, in anatomy, two large glands 
 fituate behind the two ears ; and filling all the fpace between 
 the pofterior angle of the under jaw, and the mailoidal apo- 
 phylis. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek near, and bj, ear. 
 They aie of the conglomerate kind, and by divers excretory 
 ducts, which, at laft, coalefce into one trunk, they difcharge 
 a humour feparated in them from the arterious blood, called 
 falka, into the mouth, by two veffels formed of feveral branch- 
 es uniting at the iffue of thefe glands, and which run along 
 the cheek to the third grinder. 
 
 Parotides, in medicine, tumors, or inflammations arifing be- 
 hind the ears, on the parotid glands. 
 
 Parotides aie very frequent after malignant and peftilential fe- 
 ver s : children alfo are particularly liable to them. They 
 aie to be treated like bubo's. See Bubo. 
 PAROXYSM *, nAPOjrrSMOZ, in medicine, the fevere fit of 
 a difeafe under which it grows higher, or exafpera;es; as of 
 the gout, &c. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek much, and oftie, acute. 
 Paroxysm is fometimes alfo ufed for the accefs, or return of a 
 
 difeafe that intermits ; as an ague. 
 PARRICIDE, Parricida, or Patricida, in ftrictnefs, de- 
 notes the murder, or murderer of a father : as matricide does 
 of a mother. 
 
 Though the word parricide is alfo ordinarily extended to both. 
 The Romans, for a long time, had no law againft panicides ; 
 from an opinion that nobody could be fo wicked as to kill his 
 parents. L. Oftius was the firft who killed his father, 500 
 years after Numa's death ; and then the Pompeian law was 
 made, which ordained, that the pci Ion convicted of this a ime, 
 after he had been firft whipped till the blood came, fhould be 
 tied up in a leathern lack, together with a dog, an ape, a 
 cock, and a viper, and fo thrown into the fea, or the next river. 
 
 Parricide is alfo extended to the murder of any near rela- 
 tion, as a hufband, wife, brother, filter, child, grandchild, 
 Uncle, We. and even to that of great or facred peifons, though 
 no way allied in blood, as a king, &c. 
 
 PARRYING, in fencing, the action of defending a man's 
 felf, or of ftaving off the thrufts, ftrokes, offered him 
 by another. See Fencing. 
 Good fencers puftr and parry at the fame time. 
 The Spaniards parry with the poniard. The ancients parried 
 With their bucklers. 
 
 PARSON, Persona, the rector or incumbent of a parifh 
 church. 
 
 He is faid, by fome, to be thus called by way of eminence ; the 
 revenues of a church being deftined to maintain magnam perfo- 
 nam ; or, as fome will have it, becaufe he is bound by virtue 
 of his office, in propria perfona fervire deo, whence impcrjonarc, in 
 old chatters, is to put in pofleffion of a parfonage, b'e. Or, 
 accciding to others, becaufe the original parfons, p(rjonar,v/cre, 
 in icality, only dignitaries, and pollened benefices, which 
 gave them fome petfonal pre-eminences in the church or 
 chapter, but no power. — Or, laftly, according to others, be- 
 caufe the par/on, for his time, reprefents his chuich, and fuf- 
 taineth the perfon thereof, as weli in filing, as being fued in 
 any action touching the fame. 
 
 Some diftinguilh between a reElor and parfon •> the rector, fay, 
 they, is where the vicarage is endowed ; and the parfon, per- 
 fona, where the parfonage is without a vicarage : the distinction 
 feems new and fubtle : Bracton apparently ufes reclor, and 
 parfon, as fynonymus terms. 
 
 Formerly he who had a church by inftitution and induction 
 only for his own life, was called parfon mortal : but any col- 
 legiate, or conventual body, to whom the church was for ever 
 appropriated, was called parfon immortal. 
 
 Some again make a diftinction between parfon fimply, and 
 parfon imperfonee, or imperforated. 
 
 Parfon imperfonee is the rector or incumbent in poffeffion of a 
 pariih church, whether preventative or impropriate, and with 
 whom the church is full. 
 
 Parfon fimply, they contend, is properly the patron, or he that 
 has the right of prefentation ; called parfon, by reafon, before 
 the Lateran council, he had a right to the tythes, in refpect of 
 his liberality in erecting or endowing the church, quaf. fujli- 
 neret perfonam ecdefia. 
 
 It is certain, in the regifter of writs, perfona imperfenata is ufed 
 for the rector of a benefice prefentative : and in Dyer, a dean 
 and chapter are faid to be parfons imperfonee' s of a benefice 
 appropriated to them.— So that perforata leems only changed 
 into imperfonata, in refpect of the poileilion of the benefice. 
 See Cole on Litt.fol. 300. 
 PARSONAGE, a re£iory\ or a paiifh church endowed ordi- 
 narily with houfe, glebe and tithe, for the maintenance of a 
 minifter with cure of fouls within fuch par ifh. 
 There may alio be a rectory or parjo?iage without any glebe 
 land, except the church and church-yard ; and without any 
 tithes, or other fixed income, except an annual payment, or 
 pound rate. 
 
 8 H Parsonage 
 
PAR 
 
 PAR 
 
 Parsonage in its original, and, at this day, m other coun- 
 tries, is a bencricc which gives Some prerogative, or pre- 
 eminence in a church or chapter, but without any juris- 
 diction. ,. , . . i. . 
 The ancient Parfonages gave a little honour, and dignity as to 
 the perfon, but they gave no power : whence, apparently, the 
 name; intimating the effect of the dignity to be retrained to 
 the perfon, pcrfona, parfon. 
 
 Such are /Trill the chantries in fcveral churches, and the fub- 
 chantries in others. 
 
 Some as Oldrade, &c. extend the word parfonage to dignitary, 
 and comprehend under it the archdeacons, deans, Eft. in 
 cathedrals ; but this feems to be ftraining the fenfe of the 
 word. 
 
 In effect, the canonifts ufe the term very differently ; fome 
 applying it to all who have any prerogative in the choir, or 
 the chapter, over the other canons, cither in options, Suf- 
 frages, elections, or barely in place and proceffion ; thus 
 confounding it with dignity ; while others apply it to fimple 
 rectors, Eft. . , , 
 
 PART, Pars, a portion of fome whole, considered as divided, 
 or as divifible. 
 
 Quantity is divifible into an infinite number of Parts: not 
 equal Parts, but proportional ones. Philofophy is divided 
 into four Parts, mz, logicks, ethicks, phylicks and meta- 
 phyficks. 
 
 The Schoolmen uSually diftinguifh Parts into logical zndpbyftcal. 
 
 Logical Part, is that referring to fome univerfal as its whole 
 in which ScnSe the fpecies are Parts of a genus j and in- 
 dividuals, or Singulars, are Parts of the fpecies. 
 
 Phyjical? art, is that which, though it enter the composition 
 of a whole, may yet be confidered a-part, and under its 
 own diftinel idea — in which fenfe, a continuum is Said to con- 
 fift of Parts. 
 
 It is conttoveited in the Schools, whether the Parts of a con- 
 tinuum or phySical whole, e.g. water, do exift actually beSore 
 the divifion be made, or only potentially ? 
 Phyfual Parts, again, are of two kinds ; homogeneous and he- 
 terogeneous— the tirrt are thofe of the Same demomination 
 witn Some other; the Second of a different one. See Homo- 
 geneous, Eft. sAi 
 Parts, again, are diftinguifhed into fubjeelive, effential, and 
 integrant. 
 
 Subjective or potential Part, is the Same with logical Part, viz. 
 that contained in Some univeilal whole, not in act, but only 
 in power.— As, man and horfe are in animal : Peter and Paul 
 in man. 
 
 Effential Part is that, whereby, with the concurrence oS Some 
 other, an effential whole is constituted. — Thus the body and 
 foul are effential Parts of man. 
 
 Integrant or Integral Part, is that which is neceffary to the in- 
 tegrity of the" whole.— As a head is of a man, 
 Anatomifls divide the Parts of the human body into contain- 
 ing and contained ; Similar and dilimilar ; and the Similar, 
 again, into Spermatic and Sanguineous, fjtci 
 
 Noble or effential Parts, are thole absolutely neccSfary to life: 
 as the heart, lungs, liver, brain, Eft. 
 
 Natural or genital Parts, popularly called privy Parts, are thofe 
 miniftring to generation. 
 
 The fineit writings of phySicians are thoSe which treat of the 
 ufe of the Parts : Galen's works, de ufu partium, affords infi- 
 nite arguments of the being and wifdom of a God. 
 Nature, we fay, always discharges itlelf on the weak Part, the 
 difeafed Part, the Part affected, Eft. 
 Ccnfent of Parts. Sec the article Consent. 
 
 In chymiftry, bodies are Said to be refolved into their minute 
 Parts, their component Parts, Eft. 
 
 That art is Said to Separate the homogeneous Parts from 
 the heterogeneous ; and the volatile. Subtile, Sulphureous, 
 mercurial, Eft. Parts, from the fixed, ciafs, earthy, viScid, 
 ftfc. Parts. 
 
 Part, in geometry and aftronomy, is applied to the diviSions 
 of lines and circles. 
 
 The Semi-diameter of the circle, called alio the radius, and 
 whole fine, is divided into an hundred thoufand Parts ; and 
 the circumfcience of the circle into 360 Parts or degrees; 
 in which two divifions all the ccleftial computations are 
 made. 
 
 Aliquot Part, is a quantity which, being repeated any number 
 of times, becomes equal to an integer. Thus 6 is an aliquot 
 Part of 24 ; and 5 an aliquot Part of 30, Esf c. 
 
 Aliquant Part, is a quantity which, being repeated any number 
 of times, becomes always either greater or lefs, than the 
 whole. Thus 5 is an aliquant Part of 17 ; and 9 an aliquant 
 Part of 10, Eft. 
 
 The aliquant Part is refolvible into aliquot Parts. Thus 15, an 
 aliquant Part of 2c, is icfolvible into 10 a half, and 5 a fourth 
 Part of the fame. 
 Proportional Part, is a Part or number agreeable and analogous 
 to fome other Part or number ; or a medium to rind Some 
 
 number or Part unknown by proportion and equality of 
 
 reafon. <.,.,,•■,:,■ ■■ t\f.iii: 
 
 Similar Parts are thofe which are to one another as their wholes 
 
 are to one another. 
 Orgauical Part. See the article Oroanical. 
 Part, in mufic, denotes a piece of the Score or partition, wrote 
 
 by itSelf, for the convenience of the mufician ; or it is one or 
 
 more of the fucceffions of founds which make the harmony, 
 
 wrote a-part. 
 
 Or, the Parts are the Sounds made by Several perfons Singinir, 
 or playing in concert. 
 
 Mufic mParts was unknown to the ancients ; they had but one 
 Part ; all their harmony confifted in the Succcilion of notes, 
 none in the confonance. 
 
 There are four principal Parts ; the treble, bafs, tenor, and 
 counter-tenor. 
 
 Some compare the four Parts in mufic, to the four elements : 
 the baSs, they Say, represents the earth ; the tenor, water ; 
 counter-tenor, air ; and the treble, fire. 
 Part, in trigonometry. In a rectangular Spherical triangle 
 ABC, Tab. Trigen. Fig. 22, that Part lying between two others, 
 confidered as extremes, is called by Some authors, the ftiidtile 
 Part. — Thus, if A B and B C be the extreme Parts, the angle 
 B will be the middle Part. 
 
 If the Parts, confidered as extremes, be contiguous to the mid- 
 dle Part and one of the extremes ; thofe arc called conjunct 
 Parts. — Thus, if B be in the middle Part, AB and BC will 
 be the conjunct Parts. 
 
 If between the extremes, and the middle Part, there lie an- 
 other, befidc a right angle ; then the Parts are Said to be dis- 
 junct, or Separate ; — e. gr. If B be the middle term, A C and C 
 will be disjunct Parts ; becaufe, between the middle Part B, 
 and the extreme C, there lies the hypothenuie B C ; and be- 
 tween the middle part B, and the other extreme A C, be- 
 fides the right angle, there lies the leg A B. 
 ThoSe Parts, either joined to the middle Part, or Separated 
 from it, are called lateral Parts. 
 Parts offpecch, in grammar, are all the forts of words which 
 enter the compofition of difcourfe. 
 
 The grammarians ufually admit of eight Parts of Speech, viz. 
 noun, pronoun, verb, participle, adverb, conjunction, pre- 
 pofition, and interjection. See each in its proper place, 
 Noun, Pronoun, Eft. 
 Part of fortune, in judiciary aStrology, is the lunar horoScope ; 
 or the point wherein the moon is, at the time when the Sun 
 is in the alcending point oS the eaft. 
 
 The Sun in the aScendant is SuppoSed, according to this Sci- 
 ence, to give life; and the moon diSpenfes the radical moi- 
 sture, and is one of the caufes of fortune. — In horofcopes, the 
 Part of fortune is reprefented by a circle divided by a crofs. 
 
 Art and Part, in law. See the article Art. 
 
 £.vParte. See the article Ex. 
 
 PARTERRE,, in gardening, that open part of a garden into 
 which we enter, coming out oS the houSe ; ufually fct with 
 flowers, or divided into beds, encompaiTed with platbands, 
 Eft. 
 
 The Parterre is a level divifion oS ground, which, for the 
 moft part, faces the South and beft front of a houfe, and is 
 generally well furnilhed with greens, flowers, Eft. 
 There are divers kinds of Parterres, as bowling-green or plain 
 Parterres; Parterres of embroidery; and Parterres cut in ihell- 
 work, in fcrollwork, Eft. with Sand-allies between. 1 
 An oblong, or long Square is accounted the moft proper figure 
 for a Parterre; the fides whereof, Should be as two, or two and 
 a half to one. See Supplement, Article Parterre. 
 PARTI, Party or Parted, in heraldry, is applied to a Shield, 
 or elcutcheon, denoting it divided, or marked out into par- 
 titions. See Shield, and Escutcheon. 
 The French heralds, from whom we borrow the word, have 
 but one kind of parti, the Same with our Parti per pale, which 
 they call Simply Parti: but, with us, the word is applied to 
 all the Sorts of partitioning; and is never uSed without fome 
 addition to Specify the particular kind intended. 
 Thus we have parti or parted per crofs, per chief, per pale, per 
 fefs, per bend dexter, per bend finifler, per chevron, Eft. See 
 Quartering. 
 
 The humour of our ancestors, Colombicrc obServes, turning 
 much upon exploits oS aims and chivalry ; they ufed to pre- 
 ferve their battered and hacked armour as honourable Symbols 
 of their hardy deeds ; and thole who had been in the hotteft 
 fervice, were diftinguifhed by the moft cuts and bruifes that 
 appeared on their fhields. To perpetuate the memory hereoS, 
 Says the Same author, they cauSed them to be painted on their 
 Shields, and thus handed down to posterity.— And when he- 
 raldry grew into an art, and officeis were appointed to direct 
 the manner of bearing, and blazoning ; they gave names to 
 thofe cuts, anfwerable to the nature thereof ; appointing four, 
 from which all the others proceed: thefe are Parti, (called by 
 our Heralds, Parti per pale) coupe, (parti per fef'e) tranche, {party 
 per bend dexter) and Unlit (parti per bend finijler :) See Couped, 
 Tranche, Eft. 
 
 Parti 
 
PAR 
 
 Parti per pale, is when the fhield is divided perpendicularly 
 into two halves, by a cut in the middle from top to bottom. 
 
 Parti per fefje, is when the cut is a-crofs the middle, from fide 
 to fide. 
 
 Parti per bend dexter, is when the cut comes from the upper 
 corner of the fhield on the right hand, and defcends athwart 
 to the oppofite lower corner. 
 
 Parti per bend finijler, is when the cut coming from the upper 
 left corner, defcends a-crofs to the oppofite lower one. 
 From thefe four partitions have pioceedcd an infinite number 
 of others of various and extravagant forms. 
 Spelman, in his Afpilogia Obferves, that the prcfent divifions 
 of efcutcheons were unknown in the reign of the emperor 
 Theodofius ; and were brought up in the time of Charle- 
 maign, or later ; they were little ufed among the Engliih in 
 the days of king Henry II. but more frequently under 
 Edward III. 
 
 The erect or upright fection, he obferves, is called in Latin, 
 palarts, from its refemblance to a palm, or ftake ; and two 
 coats arc often entire on the fides, the hufbands on the right, 
 and the wives on the left.— The direct fection a-crofs, being 
 in the place of a belt, is called bnltka, £sV. 
 When the ihield is parti, and eoupee, it is faid to be ecartele. 
 It is faid to be parti one from the other, when the whole ihield 
 is charged with fome honourable hearing divided by the fame 
 line that parts die Ihield. — Here it is a rule, that one fide be 
 of metal, and the other of colour. Thus he bears fable parti 
 d'argent, a fpread eagle parti from one to the other. 
 
 PARTIAL Caufe. See the article Cause. 
 
 Partial Eclipfe. See the article Eclipse. 
 
 PARTICIPATION, Participate, that which gives us a 
 part or (hare in any thing, either by right or grace. 
 In Italy they diftinguilh participating officers, as prothonotarics, 
 fife, which have a real function ; from honorary ones, which 
 have only a title, without any duty or employ. 
 
 Parttcipattonis medium. See the article Medium. 
 
 PARTICIPLE, Participium, in grammar, an adjective 
 formed of a verb; fo called, becaufe it ftill participates of 
 fome of the properties of the verb; retaining the regimen 
 and fignification thereof: whence mofl authois confound it 
 with the verb. 
 
 There arc two kind of participles, the one called aclive, be- 
 caufe exprefimg the fubject which makes the action of the 
 verb ; as legem, audiens, reading, hearing. — The other called 
 Paffive, becaufe exprefimg the fubject that receives the action 
 of the verb, as Uflum, auditum, read, heard. 
 As our adjectives are not declined, the participles, being real 
 adjectives, are not declined neither : in the Latin, &e. wher 
 the adjectives are declined, the partieiples active are declined 
 likewife. — Thus they fay audiens, audicntis, audienti, ISe. and 
 in the French the participles paffive are declinable like their 
 adjectives, as fay hie, elle a lue, nous avons lus, &c. 
 We may take this occafion to obferve, that declenfion, or the 
 Changing or not changing the termination, is a thing perfectly 
 accidental to the feveral kinds of words : the Latins, e. gr. 
 have indeclinable nouns, as cornu and nequam, yet both Latins 
 and Italians decline their adverbs, as farther, fortijfime ; bene, 
 benijjimo, £sV. and fome nations fcarce conjugate their verbs at 
 all. Indeed the Engliih do it very little in comparifon with 
 the Latins, Greeks, French, £sV. 
 
 In our language, the participle and gerunds are not at all diftin- 
 guilhable. 
 
 PARTICLE, Particula, in phyficks, the minute part of a 
 
 body, or an affemblage or coalition of feveral of the atoms 
 
 whereof natural bodies are cornpofed. 
 Particle, in the new philofophy, is frequently ufed in the 
 
 fame fenfe with at cm in the ancient Epicurean philofophy ; 
 
 and eorpufcle in the latter. 
 
 Some of the more accurate writers, however, diftinguifli 
 them; making particle an alTemblage or conapofition of two 
 or more primitive, and phyfically indivifible coipufcles or 
 atoms; and eorpufcle, or little body, an ailemblage, or mafs of 
 feveral particles or fecondary corpufcles. 
 
 Indeed, the diftinction is of no great moment ; and, as to 
 moft purpofes of phyficks, particle may be underftood as fy 
 nonymous with eorpufcle. 
 
 Particles then aie, as it were, the elements of bodies: it is 
 the various arangement, and texture of thefe with the diffe- 
 rence of the cobeuon, €sV. that conftitute the various kinds of 
 bodies, hard, foft, liquid, dry, heavy, light, £s7. 
 The fmallcft particles or coipufcles cohere with the ft rongeft 
 attractions, and always compofc bigger panicles of weaker 
 cohefion ; and many of thefe cohering compofe bigger par- 
 ities whofe vigour is ftill weaker ; and thus on for divers fuc- 
 ceflions, till the pjogreflion end in the biggeft particles, 
 whereon the operations in chemiftiy, and the colours of na- 
 tural bodies depend, and which, by cohering, compofe bodies 
 of fenfible bulks. 
 The abefm of the particles of matter, the Epicureans imagined 
 was effected by means of hooked atoms ; the Aiiffotelians by 
 
 PAR 
 
 reft, that is, by nothing at aii. But Sir Ifaac Newton fhewi 
 it done by means of a certain power wheieby the ptriiilet 
 mutually attrafl or tend towards each oilier. 
 By this attraction of the particlts he (hews that moft of the 
 phenomena of the Ieffer bodies are effedtcd ; as thof» of the 
 heavenly bodies are by the attraction of Jravitv. 
 For the laws of this attraclion of the particles, See AttrAC- 
 TION: 
 
 All bodies, the fame great author (hen s, confift of the fame 
 folid perfectly hard particles or corpulcles. 
 Particle, in grammar,.denotes a little indeclinable word con- 
 fifting of one or two fyllablcs at the moft. 
 Thofe are properly particles which are neither declined nor 
 conjugated. 
 
 Brightland calls particles, manners of words, becaufe rather 
 ferving to expiefs the encumftances, and manners of othef 
 ideas and objects of the mind, than to lepielent any diftuicr. 
 objects of their own. 
 
 Particles may be reduced under three heads : the firlt drew 
 the manners or qualities of words, by being added to them • 
 called adverbs. 1 
 The fecond denote fome circumftances of actions, and join 
 words to woids, fentehce to fedtence, c3V. 
 The third exprefs the emotions of the foul. 
 It is in the light ufe of particles, Mr. Locke obferves, tha* 
 moie particularly conlifts the clearncfs and beauty of a good 
 ftyle. To exprefs the dependance of his thoughts and tea. 
 ItmingS One upon another, a man mufi have woids to (hew 
 what connexion, rcftriaion, diftintfion, oppofition, em- 
 phafis, fit. lie gives to each refpective part of Ins difcourfe. 
 This cannot be rightly underftood, without a clear view of 
 the poftures, (lands, turns, limitations, exceptions, and fe- 
 veral other thoughts of the mind. Of thefe there are a great 
 variety much exceeding the number of particles, that moft 
 languages have to expiels them by ; for which reafon it hap- 
 pens that moft of thefe particles have divers, and lbmetimes 
 almort oppofite (ignirications. 
 
 Thus the particle but in Engliih, has feveral veiy diffe.cnt 
 fignificatioiis : as in, but to fay no more, where it iritimaus a 
 flop of mind in the courfe it was goimr, before it came to 
 the end of it. I law but two planets ; heie it thews that the 
 mind limits the fenfe to what is exp.elfcd with a negation of 
 all other. You pray, but it is not that God would bung you 
 to the tiue religion, but that he would confirm you in your 
 own. The former of thefe intimates a fuppofition in tha 
 mmd, of fomcthing otherwife, than it fhould ; the latter 
 ftlews that the mind makes a cured oppofition between that 
 and what goes before. All animals have fenfe, but a do» is 
 an animal : heie it figniries the connection of the battel cro- 
 pofition with the fol mer. 
 Particles is alio a term in theology, ufed in the Latin church 
 tor the crams or little pieces of confecrated bread, called MmiJm 
 in the Greek church. 
 
 In the Greek church they have a particular ceremony, called 
 n, lueilv., of the particles, wherein certain crums of bread 
 not conlecrated, are offered up in honour of the viigin St 
 John Baptift, and feveral other faints. They alfo give' the 
 name OgtSfigo, oblation, to thefe particles. 
 Gabriel, arclibiftop of Philadelphia, has a little treati'e ex- 
 prefs, «. { . rtt p.j.J™, wherein he endeavours to (hew the 
 antiquity of this ceremony, in that it is mentioned in the 
 liturgies ot St. Chryfoftom, and Balil. 
 
 There has been a confiderable difpute on this head, between 
 the reformed and the catholic diMp.es. Aubemn and Blonde! 
 explain a paiiage in the theoiy of Gcimanus, patriaich of 
 Constantinople, where he mentions the cc:er,icr,y of the 
 parf.des as in uie in his time; in favour of the former: 
 Meffieurs de Port Royal coined the explanation : but M. 
 Sinionin Ins notes on Gab, icl of Philadelphia, endeavours 
 to (hew, that the paffage it felf is an interpolation ; not being 
 found in the ancient copies of Gennanus: and lC onfcquently 
 that the difpute is very ill grounded 
 
 vllV-u^'i i " (,ranom l'- See P articula exfors. 
 
 PAR 1 1CULA exjors, m aflronomy, the difference between the 
 squatorial triangle LAC, (Tab. Jfirm. fi, 3^-) and its fellow 
 
 To find the particula exfors, the menftrual eccentricity A C, 
 and the annual argument of longitude HAD, being given - 
 from the data in the triangle B C A, find the hypothenufe 
 A B to the angle C, and to the angle CAB find the fubtenfe 
 C B. Multiply C B into half the menftrual ecccnti icity A C • 
 the product is the area of the triangle A C B. Find likewife 
 theaiea of a circle defcribed by the radius of the eccentric 
 BL. Then as the aiea of the circle is to 360° or r2o6oo' ■ 
 fo is the area of the triangle A C B to its value in thofe fe- 
 conds : which value is the particula exfors. 
 PARTICULAR, Particulars, a relative tetm, referring 
 to (pedes, or individual; and oppofed to general, or univeilal. 
 See General, CSV. 
 
PAR 
 
 In the fchools, particular is defined to be fomething included 
 ' under an univei fal ; as man under animal. 
 Though fometimes it is alio taken for an individual, as Peter. 
 See Individual. •• ->- r . , 
 
 There is this difference between particular and jiugutar, taat 
 particular denotes a thing taken as a part; as Peter in relpeet 
 of mankind.— Whereas Angular denotes the part taken after 
 the manner of a whole ; as Peter confidered in himfelf. 
 
 Particular Averment, "j f Averment, 
 
 Particular Caufe. 
 
 Particular Character. 
 
 Particular Executor. 
 
 Particular Geography. 
 
 Particular Gravity. 
 
 Particular Maps. 
 
 Particular Nature. 
 
 Particular Vitalities. 
 
 Particular Ptneumntijin 
 
 Particular Tenant. 
 
 Particular Theorem. 
 
 Particular Winds. J 
 
 PARTICULARIST, among 
 holds for particular grace. 
 
 Cause 
 
 Character. 
 Executor. 
 Geocrafh i. 
 Gravity. 
 \ a. <, Map. 
 
 Nature. 
 Quai ity. 
 Rheumatism. 
 Tenant. 
 Theorem. 
 Winds. 
 polemical divines, a perfon who 
 e. who teaches, or believes that 
 Chrift died for the elect only ; and not for mankind in gene- 
 ral. See Grace. 
 PARTIES in law, are thofe who arc named in a deed, or nnc, 
 as parties to it : e. gr. thofe who levy the fine, and to whom 
 the fine is levied. . . 
 
 So they who make any deed, and they to whom it is made, 
 are both called parties to the deed. 
 PART1LE a/pell, in aftrology, an exact and full afpecl of any 
 
 kind. - , , 
 
 Thus a «<jr:i7r conjunction is when two planets are precilely 
 in the fame decree of longitude and latitude : but if one or 
 them deviate a "little to the north, and the other to the l'outh 
 the afpea or conjunction is no longer partik. 
 
 PARTING or DEPARTING, a method of fcparatmg gold 
 and filver by means of aqua fortis. See Supplement, article 
 Quartation. ■ . 
 
 PARTITION, the act of parting, dividing, or diftributing a 
 
 thing. ... . . . 
 
 The denomination Parlitiones oratorio:, is alio given to a dia- 
 logue of Cicero's, between him and his fon ; in regard the 
 difcourfe is, as it were, parted or divided between them. 
 Partition, in law, a dividing of lands defcended by common 
 law or cuftom among coheirs, where there arc two at 
 
 l eaft - c , 
 
 The partition is made four ways ; whereof three are by agree- 
 ment, the fourth by compulfion. 
 
 The firft partition by agreement is, when the parceners di- 
 vide the land equally themfelvcs into fo many paits as there 
 are coheirs. . . 
 
 The fecond is when each chufe fome of their friends to make 
 the divifion for them. ... 
 The third is by drawing lots, thus : having firft divided the 
 land into as many parts, as there are perfons, they write eve- 
 ry part feverally m a diMnrt fcroll, and wrapping it up, throw 
 each into a hat, or fuch a thing ; out of which each one 
 draws according to fuperiority ; and fo the land is feverally 
 allotted. 
 
 The fourth partition, which is by compulfion, is, when one 
 c- more of the heirs, by reafon of the refufal of fome other, 
 fues out a writ of partitimte facicmla ; by force whereof they 
 (hall be compelled to divide. 
 
 In Kent, wheie land is of gavel-kind nature, they call their 
 
 ■partition, fhifting. 
 
 Partition alio may be made byjoint tenants, and tenants in 
 common, by afl'ent, by deed, or by writ. 
 
 Partition, in mufic, is the difpofition of thefcveral parts of a 
 fong, fet on the fame leaf ; fo as upon the uppermost ranges of 
 lines are found the treble ; in another the bafs ; in another the 
 tenor, (sc. that they may be all fung or played cither jointly 
 orfeparately. ....... 
 
 Partition, in architecture, that which divides, or fepatates 
 one room or apartment from another. 
 
 Partition, in heraldry. See the article Quartering. 
 
 P^rtium price. Seethe article Prece. 
 
 PARTNER, and PARTNERSHIP. See Company, Co- 
 parcener, and Fellowship. 
 
 PAR TOUT. See the article Pass par tout. 
 
 PARTURITION, the act of bringing forth, or being delivered 
 of young. See Delivery- 
 
 PARTUS, in medicine and law, the delivery of a woman, 
 the birth of a child. 
 
 Ciefareus Partus, is that where the mother is cut open, and 
 thechild taken out at one fide. See Cesarean. 
 
 PARTY or Part ie, a fadion, intereft, or power, confidered 
 as oppofite to another. See Faction. 
 The French and Spaniards were always of oppofite parties 
 England has, for upwards of a century, been divided into two 
 -parties. See Whig and Tory. 
 
 PAR 
 
 Party, inlaw. See the articles Parties and Charter 
 Party. 
 
 Party in the military feme, is ufed for a fmall bodyofmen,- 
 whether cavalry, infantry, or both, commanded out on any 
 expedition. 
 
 A party of cavalry carried off a great number of cattle. By the 
 French military law, thofe who go out on parties muff have 
 an order in writing from the commanding officer, and be at 
 lead: twenty in number, if foot, or fifteen, if horfe; otherwife 
 they are reputed as robbers. 
 Party Jury, in law. See Medietas Lingua. 
 Party, in heraldry. See the articles Parti, Pale, and 
 Fesse. 
 
 Pervise. See the article Pervise. 
 
 PARULIS *, nAPOTAir, in medicine, an inflammation of the 
 gums, attended with a violent pain, and an impofthume : 
 fometimes ending in an ulcer, and fometimes in a cancer, 
 fiftula, gangrene, &c. 
 * The word is Greek, formed of near, and uhw, gingiva, 
 
 gum. 
 
 Sennertus orders it to be cured by revulfion, derivation, and 
 proper gargarifms. Care is to t>e taken in the beginning to 
 prevent an import humation. 
 Parvum cape. See the article Cape. 
 
 PASCHAL, Paschalis, fomething belonging to the Jewifh 
 paffover, or to the chriftian Eafter. 
 
 The pafchal lamb was a lamb which the Jews eat with a deal 
 of ceremony, in memory of their having been brought out of 
 flavery in Egypt. It mould be eaten ftanding, their loins girt, 
 the ftaff in hand. 
 Paschal canon. See the article Canon. 
 Paschal taper. See the article Taper. 
 Paschal rents, are rents or annual duties paid by the inferior 
 clergy to the bifiiop, or arch-deacon, at their Eafter vi'fi- 
 tations. 
 
 They are alio called Synodal:. 
 Paschal letter, in church-hiftory, a circular letter, which the 
 patriarch of Alexandria firft, and afterwards the pope, an- 
 ciently wrote to all the metropolitans ; to inform them of the 
 day whereon the feaft of Eafter was to be celebrated. 
 PASQUIN, a mutilated ftatue, feen at Rome, in a corner of 
 the palace of the Urfmi. It takes its name from a cobler of 
 that city, called Pafquin, famous for his fneers and gibes ; and 
 whofe ihop was the retort of a number of idle people, who di- 
 verted themfelves with bantering folks as they palled by. 
 After Pafquin's death, as they were digging up the pavement 
 before his ihop, they found a ftatue of an ancient gladiator, well 
 cut, but maimed and half fpoiled. This they fet up, in the 
 place where it was found, at the comer of the deceafed Paf- 
 quin's (hop ; and by common confent, called it by the name 
 of the defunct. 
 
 From that time allfatires, and lampoons are afcribed to this 
 figure, and are put in its mouth, or parted againft it ; as if 
 they came from Pafquin rcdivivus. — Pafquin ul'ually addrclTes 
 himfelf to Marforio, another ftatue in Rome ; or Marforio to 
 Pafquin, whom they then make reply. 
 
 The anlwers are ufually very lhort, poignant, and unlucky : 
 When Marforio is attacked, Pafquin comes to his afliftance ; 
 and Pafquin is aflifted by Marforio in his turn, e . the people 
 make the ftatucs fpeak juft what they pleafc. 
 PASQUINADE, or Pasquil, is properly a fatyrical libel 
 fattened to the ftatue of Pafquin 
 
 Hence, by extenfion, the term becomes ufed for any fa- 
 tire, lampoon, or fneer upon the public, or upon the ru- 
 ling powers. 
 
 Theic is this difference between a Pafquinade and a Satire; 
 that the end of the latter is to correct and reform ; whereas 
 that of the former is only to feoff and expofe. 
 The Italians have publilhed feveral books which they call Paf- 
 quino in eftafi, Pafquin in an extafy. 
 PASS, Pa ssad e, in fencing, aleap, or advance upon the enemy. 
 Ofthefe are feveral kinds; as voluntary pajfes, commencing 
 from the left foot out of meafure of the firm foot; as when 
 the enemy is not expected. • 
 
 Others, neceffary, made after a pufh from the right foot; where 
 being fo prefled by the enemy, as not to have time to retire, 
 you endeavour to feize the guard of his fword. 
 The meafure of the jPafi is, when the two fmalls of the fwords 
 are fo near as that they may touch one another. 
 There are pqfes withm, above, beneath, to the right, the left; 
 and paffes under the fword, over the line, &c. 
 Pass of arms, in chivalry, a place which the ancient knights 
 undertook to defend, c. gr. a bridge, road, &c. which was 
 not to be palled without fighting the perfon who kept it. 
 The knights who held the pafs, hung up their arms on 
 trees, pales, columns, &c. erected for the purpofe: and fuch 
 as were difpofed todifputethe pafs, touched one of thefe ar- 
 mories with his fword, which was a challenge the other was 
 obliged to accept. The vanquilhed gavethe victor fuch prize 
 as was before agreed on, 
 
 PASSA, 
 
PAS 
 
 PAS 
 
 PASSA, uva Passa, in pharmacy, a term applied to thofe 
 dried grapes, which we call raifns. See Raisin. 
 
 Uva Passje, is fometimes alio ufed, with lefs propriety, for 
 figs. 
 
 PASSADE, or Passado, in fencing, a thruft or pafs. See 
 Pass. 
 
 Passade, is alfo a benevolence or alms given to poor pafTcn- 
 gers. 
 
 Passade, in the manage, fignifies a turn, or courfe of a horfe 
 backwards or forwards on the fame plot of ground ; paiTing 
 or repairing from one end to the other. 
 
 PASSAGE, in commerce, or right of 'Passage, is an imposi- 
 tion which fome princes exact by theii officers or farmers, in 
 certain narrow, clofe places of their territories, eithei by land 
 or fea ; on all veflels, vehicles, and carriages of all kinds ; 
 and even fomciimes on perlons, and paffengeis coming in or 
 going out of ports, &e. 
 
 The paffage of the found, (that famous ftreight which carries 
 us out of the German into the Baltic fea) is the moft ce- 
 lebrated Paffage in Europe. The dues theieof belong to 
 the king of Denmark, and are paid at Elfenoie or Cvo- 
 nenburg. 
 
 Birds of Passage, are fuch as only come to US at certain fea- 
 fons, and then difappear again ; being luppefed to pafs the 
 fea to fome other climate. 
 
 Among the birds of Paffage are the ftork, fwallow, nightingale, 
 martin, woodcock, quail, f£t. There are alio fifhes of paf- 
 fage, as herrings, mackerel, &c. 
 
 Mr. Derham produces it as a remarkable inftance of inftinct, 
 that,— the flork in the heavens knoweth her appointed times, and 
 the turtle, and the crane, and the fwatlow, obferve the time of their 
 taming — Jer. viii. 7. No doubt the temperature of the air, 
 and their natural propenfity to b;eed their young, are the 
 great incentives to this migration : but how thefe untaught, 
 unthinking creatures, mould fo exactly know the belt and 
 only proper feafons to go and come from a place that would 
 obftruct their generation, or not afford convenient food for 
 them and their young ; or how they Jhould know which way 
 to fleer their courfe, and whither to go, is a difficult confede- 
 ration ? Phyf Theol L. VII. c. 3. See Supplement, article Mi- 
 gration. 
 
 Passage, in the manage, an action wherein the horfe raifes two 
 legs together, a hind and a fore leg, in form of Sr. Andrew's 
 crofs; when, fetting thofe two on the ground again, he raifes 
 the other two; and thus alternately ; never gaining above a 
 foot of ground at a time. 
 
 The beauty of the PqJJr.ge confifts in keeping the legs a good 
 while in the air: fetting that afide, the motion of the legs in 
 the Paffage is the fame as in pacing and trotting. 
 
 Passage, or Passo, in raufic, a portion of an air, or tune, 
 confifting of feveral fhort notes, as quavers, demi-quavers, 
 csY. lading one, two, or, at moft, three meafures. 
 What the Italians call Contrapunio d'un fol pafjb, is a portion 
 confifting of one, two, or three meafures, compofed in the 
 firft notes of a piece, and which is to be afterwards imitated 
 on the other notes of the piece, not with the fame choids 01 
 tones, but only by obferving the fame motion, number, and 
 figure as in the notes of the firft Paffage. — This makes one 
 of the kinds of Contrapunto perjidiato. 
 
 Passagers. Vide Albigenses. 
 
 PASSALORHYNCHITES, Passalorhvnchitje, a feet of 
 montanifts in the fecond century, who made profeffion of per- 
 petual filence, and the better to maintain it, kept the thumb 
 continually upon the lips : founding their practice on that of 
 the Pfalmift, Set a guard, O Lord on my mouth. 
 St. Jerom mentions his having met witii fome of them in his 
 time. 
 
 PASSANT, in heraldry, a term applied to an animal in a 
 ftiield, appearing to walk lcilurely ; or, to the oidinary pofture 
 of terreftrial animals. 
 
 Thus we fay, he bears gules two lions paffants over one another, 
 for moft beafts, except lions, they frequently ufe the word 
 tripping, inftead of paffiant. 
 PASSION, Passio, nAGos, or n.A©HMA, i s applied to the 
 different motions, and agitations of the foul, accoiding to the 
 different objects that prefent themfelves to the fenfes. 
 In propriety, all thofe motions whe:eby the foul is carried to- 
 wards any thing; as love, ambition, levenge, fcfr. are rather 
 actions than Pajfions. 
 
 Thofe motions whereby the foul finds itfe-f interrupted in its 
 actions, as grief, iSc. are the only real Pajfions. 
 We lind various modifications and impreffions of pleafure and 
 pain, infeparably annexed by an eltabliftied law of nature, to 
 the feveral judgments we form concerning good and evil: 
 thefe judgments, with their refpeetive modifications of plea- 
 fure or pain annexed, according to the various appearances 
 and_ relations of the object considered, either as good or evil, 
 refent or abfent, certain or unceitain, probable or impro- 
 sble, poflible or imnoflible, and arreting the machine in a 
 certain manner peculiar to fuch modifications ; make what 
 we call the PaJJwns. 
 
 How, or by what means, this mutual action and communi- 
 V01. II. 
 
 cation between foul and body is effected, we are, in a giea': 
 meafure, ignorant : we have but veiy obfcuie and faint 
 notions of any thing prior, or more fimple to lefolve it 
 into ; except the immediate will and agency of the firft caufe 
 itfelf. 
 
 Malebranchc defines the Pajfions to be all thofe emotions na- 
 turally arifing in the foul, on occafion of extraordinary mo- 
 tions of the animal fpirits, and the blood. — In oppofition to 
 thofe motions of the foul which aie common to us with pUie 
 intelligences, and which he calls natural inclinations. 
 Though the Pajfions be infeparable from inclinations ; and 
 though a man be only capable of fallible iove or hatred, 
 becaufe he is capable of fphitual ones; yet does it ap- 
 pear juft in that author to diftinguifh between them. Paf- 
 fions are much ftronger and warmer than inclinations - 
 their objects alfo are different, and fo a»e their cauies : in 
 truth, Pajfions and inclinations differ juft as much as fenfe 
 and imagination. 
 
 In effect, the Pafpons of the foul are impreffions of the author 
 of nature, which incline us to our bodies, and all things that 
 may be of ufe to their prefervation : natural inclinatipns are 
 impreffions of the author of nature, which determinc'us pri- 
 maiily to love him, as our fiipreme good. 
 Philolbphei'S are not agreed about the number and divifion 
 of the Pajfions: the ordinaiy distribution is into Palfions of 
 the concupifcibk appetite, which are pleafure and pain, defire and 
 ave.-fion, love and hatred: and thofe of the in? fable atpctite; 
 which are anger, courage, fear, hope, and defpair. — See 
 the authors on the fubject of the Pajfions ; Des Cartes, 
 who confiders them phyfically ; Coelteteau, who gives us 
 the tableau, or picture of the Pajfions ; La Chambte, the 
 characters of the Pajfions ; and Senault, the ufes of the 
 Pajfions. 
 
 Dr. Cheyne confiders the Paffior.s as either fpiritual or animal : 
 —Spiritual Pajfions he defines to be thofe fentiments produced 
 in the foul by external objects, either fpiritual ones imme- 
 diately, or material ones by the mediation of the organs of the 
 body. 
 
 Animal Pajfions- he defines to be thofe effects produced by fpi- 
 rits or bodies, immediately on the body. 
 Hence, as outward objects may be conhdered either as goods 
 or evils ; the moft natural divifion of the Pajfions, whether 
 fpiritual or natuial, as they regard thofe objects, is into pka- 
 jurable and painful. 
 
 And, in this fenfe, all the Pajfions may be reduced to love and 
 hatred; of which joy and forrow, hope and fear, are only fo 
 many modifications, or complexions, accoi dins to the various 
 appearances, poiitions, &c. of the object. 
 In effect, all the Pajjions may not only be reduced to two, 
 1 tz. love and hatred ; but, perhaps, to one, love ; and even 
 that may be all refolved into felf-love ; and this into a piin- 
 cipal of felf-prefervation, or necclfaiy invincible defire of 
 pleafure, or happinefs. The reft are only rivulets from this 
 fou:ce; or fpecial applications of this principle to particular 
 occaiions. 
 
 1 hus, the defire of any thing, under the appearance of its 
 goodnefs, fuitablenefs, or neceffity to our happinefs, confiuutes 
 the Pajfion ot love : the defire of efchewine or avoiding any 
 thing appiehendcd to be mifchievous, hurtful, or definitive 
 confiuutes hatied or averfion : the defire of a good, which 
 appears at the fame time probable, and in our power, confti- 
 tuteshope; but if the good appear impicbable, d,rficult, or 
 impoffible, it conftitues fear or defpair: the unexpected gra- 
 tification of deiire is joy : thedefueof hancinefs to another 
 under pain, or iuffeiing, is companion ; and the defiie of 
 another's punifhment, is revenge or malice, fsV. 
 The fingle defire of happinefs, then, is the fpi ing or motive of 
 all our Pajfions ; as thofe are of all our actions. Some wife 
 and reafonable motive, or end of aftion, fays Dr. Morgan is 
 ccitamlyneccffaryto all wife and reafonable aftion ; to act 
 without a motive, would be the fame thing as not to act at 
 all, that is, fuch an adion could anfwer no faither or better 
 end than not ading ; and confequcntly the atfion, as well as 
 the agent, would be fo far inlignificant and ufelefs. He who 
 ffiould have no object at all of his love or averfion, hope or 
 fear, joy or grief, mult be limply and purely indifferent to all 
 action; and confcquently he muft either be in a ftate of per- 
 fect reft and inaction, or in a ftate equivalent the: eto ; wherein 
 the action of fuch a being could be of no moie fignificancy, 
 than the uncertain fluctuation of an atom, or the quivering 
 of a feather in the air. 
 
 The natural or occafional caufe of all the Pajfions, Malebranche 
 makes to be the motion of the animal fpirits, which are diffufed 
 through the body to produce and prefeive a difpofition theiein 
 fuitable to the object perceived ; to the end, that the bodv and 
 mind may mutually aftiff each other on this occafion ; it being 
 the order of the creator, that our wills be followed by motions 
 of the body proper to execute them ; and that the motions of 
 the body mechanically excited in us by the view of external 
 objefls, be accompanied with a Pajfim of the foul v hich 
 inclines to will or nill what appears iervicexble or noxious to 
 the body. 
 
 8 1 It 
 
PAS 
 
 PAS 
 
 It is a continual impreffion of the will of the creator, that 
 unites us thus intimately to a piece of matter, and occasions 
 this reciprocation of motions and fenfations ; were this im- 
 preliion of the creator's will fufpended a moment, we fliould 
 be delivered from all dependance, all Paffiom, t$c. For, what 
 people uiually imagine of a neceffary connection between the 
 motions of the fpirits and blood, and the emotions of the 
 foul, is wholly inconceivable. 
 
 Certain little parts of the bile, fay they, move with fome vio- 
 lence among the fibres of the hsain : therefore the foul muft 
 ncceffariiy be agitated with fome Pr.Jfion; and this PaJJion 
 muft be anger, rather than love. What relation can we con- 
 ceive between the faults of an enemy, a Paljion of contempt 
 or hatred, and a bodily motion of the parts of the blood 
 ftriking againft certain parts of the brain ? how can the union 
 or alliance of two things fo different as fpirit or matter be 
 effected, but folely by the omnipotent will of the author of 
 nature ? 
 
 It is a point, about which the divines and philofophers can 
 never agree, whether this relation and connection ot thoughts 
 of the mind, and motions of the body, be the gift of nature, 
 or the punifbment of the firft fin ? and whether the Pajjiom be 
 the inftitution of nature, or the corruption thereof ? Indeed, 
 confidering the good and wife purpofes the Paffiom ferve, and 
 that abfolute neceffity they are of, it is furprizing it mould 
 ever be doubted, that they aie effentkil to human nature. 
 This union or relation is found in all men, but in different 
 degrees, and of different extent, according to the different 
 temperaments, conditions, ages, fexes, occafions, objects, isc. 
 Thus, e. gr. our union or relation to the fenlible objects we 
 have feen, is ftronger than that to things we have only heard 
 talk of. And thus, as the great have a relation to many more 
 things, than others, their flavery is more extenfive. A general, 
 e.gr. retains or has a relation to all his foldiers, as they all re- 
 fpect him; and it is this flavery that ufually occafions his gene- 
 rofity : the defire of being eftccmcd by all in whole fight he is 
 frequently, obliges him to facrificc more reafonable pleaiures. 
 It is thus throughout the world : vanity animates virtue, other- 
 wife we fliould never have fuch lengths gone. Again, children 
 do not mind the fame things with grown people. Women 
 look no further than their families and neighbourhood : but 
 men retain to their whole country; it is for them to defend 
 it; they mind honours, offices, t?f. Nor is there a lefs va- 
 riety refulting from the different circumftances and employ- 
 ments of people. 
 
 The difpoiition of mind in a married man differs much from 
 that in a batchelor. The people in monaftcries have both the 
 mind and heart turned very differently from people who live 
 in the world. They arc united to much fewer things ; but 
 then the attachment is much clofer and ftronger. Their PaJ- 
 fwm move in a narrow fphere, and, like the fun's rays in a 
 convex lens, they are collected, as it were, in a focus. 
 In every PaJJhn there may feven things be diftinguifhed : the 
 firft, the judgment the mind makes of an object, or the view 
 of the relation the object bears to us. The fecond, a new 
 determination of the will towards that object, fuppofing it to 
 appear as good or evil. The third, the peculiar lenfation of 
 modification which accompanies them; as the fenfation of love, 
 hatred, defire, orjoy ; which fenfations are always different in 
 the different P^j/uns, and are as it were, the characterifticks 
 thereof. The fouith, a new determination of the courfe of the 
 blood and fpirits towards the feveial parts of the body : before 
 the light of the object of the Pajjion, the animal fpirits were 
 pretty equally diffufed throughout the body ; but the prefencc 
 of the new object difturbs the whole ccconnmy ; and the 
 greatcft part of the fpirits arc lent into the mufcles of the arms, 
 legs, face, c?V. The fifth, is the fenlible emotion of the foul, 
 which finds itfelf (haken by this hidden over-flowing of fpirits. 
 The fixth, is the different fenfation of love, hatred, £sV. caufed, 
 not by the intellectual view of good or evil, but by the ditfe- 
 rent fhakes or movements the animal fpirits occafion in the 
 brain. The la ft, is a certain fenfation of joy, or an inward fa- 
 tisfaction, which detains the foul in its Pajp.cn, and attcfts its 
 being in the ftate it ought to be in with regard to that object. 
 Passions, in a view to medicine, make one of the fix non- 
 naturals, and are of the utmoft confequence, with refpect to 
 health or difeafe. 
 
 In confequence of the feveral judgments we form concerning 
 objects, as either good or evil, the organs of fenfation and 
 motion, i. e. the nervous fibres, are vaiioufly imprelfed or 
 ftimulated ; whence arife certain fenfations, and certain mo- 
 difications of motion, which it is apparent, ate reciprocal, and 
 follow mutually from each other, whether the impreffion be 
 fuppoied firft made on the body, or on the mind : that is, any 
 ftrong violent motion made on the organs, will excite a pain- 
 ful fenfation in the mind; or any fuch painful fenfation firft 
 excited in the mind horn the bare conlideration of an objedt 
 will imprcls a violent motion on the organs. And, on the 
 contraiy, an eafy and placid undulation, impicffed originally 
 by the actual impulfe of object*, will excite a pleafurablc fen- 
 fation in the mind ; or a pleafurabte fenfation excited in the 
 
 mind, fiom the mere contemplation on ah object, will be fol- 
 lowed with a like eafy, placid undulation of the organs. 
 The painful PajTicm, then, as well as bodily pain, imprefs the 
 nervous fibres with a violent motion, which brings them alter- 
 nately into foicible contractions, and dilatations, or ftrengthens 
 and increases their mufcular force, and action. While then 
 this pain or uneafmefs of defire, annexed to the paffions, and 
 imprelfed on the nerves, is moderate and rcftrained within the 
 bounds of nature, fuch ftimulating defiies have a good effect; 
 as they ftrengthen mufcular motion, keep up the circulation 
 of the blood, promote the natural fecretions, and excite a man 
 to thofc actions and exercifes, wherein animal life, health, and 
 vigour confift. But where the uneafmefs annexed to the Pajp.cn 
 is too violent, fuch a continual ftimulus will gradually derive 
 a too great proportion of blood to the ftimulated organs, by 
 which the vclTeis will be over-ft retched and diftended, their 
 mufcular force will be gradually impaicd, and the equilibrium 
 of the blood and juices will be interrupted. And hence, from 
 a mere painful fenfation, will arife a complicated train of bo- 
 dily i!lneffes and pains, in confequence of the eftablifhed laws 
 of the union and communication of foul and body. 
 Again, while we are wearing off the uneafmefs of defire an- 
 nexed to any PnjTicn, we feel a fenfible- pleafure, or agreeable 
 emotion; and the organs, hereupon falling into eafy, uni- 
 form, placid undulations, the too great current of the blood 
 toward them is diverted, and the equilibrium is reftored. As 
 foon as the uneafmefs is all gone, the pleafure ceafes, and ter- 
 minates in nicer indolence, which dilpofes the pcrfon to reft 
 and inaction : tiii the return of fome frelh defire, ftimulating 
 to faither action, renews the fame fuccellicn, and intci change- 
 able feries of pains and pleafure. 
 
 And this is the circle of animal life: as the ftimulus of de- 
 fire throws off the indolence of reft, and excites to action ; 
 fo the gratification moderates the pain of defire, creates a plea- 
 fine at firft, and then terminates in the former indolence and 
 inaction ; till frelh defires returning, llimulate to farther 
 action, and continue the fame round. 
 
 Dr. Chcyne divides the Pajpom, into acute and chronical; after 
 the fame manner, and for the fame reafoh as difeafes are fo 
 divided. 
 
 The acute Pajpon:, whether pleafurable or painful, he obferves, 
 have much the lame effect, and operate alter much the fame 
 manner as acute difeafes do. They produce a brifk circula- 
 tion of the fluids, and conftringe the folids for fome fhort 
 time. Thus, fudden gurts of joy or of grief ftimulate the 
 nervous fibres, and the coats of the animal tubes, and thereby 
 give a greater celerity to their included fluids; and the func- 
 tions of the heart and lungs being iuvolluntary, they have 
 their more neccifaiy and immediate effects on them. Thus, 
 both fudden joy and grief make us breathe ihort and quick, 
 and render the pulfe fmall and frequent : though retaining our 
 breath fometime to reflect more intenfely on a painful object, 
 forces at length a ftrong expiration, which becomes a figh. 
 Thus a fudden painful idea, making a quick circulation, and 
 thereby throwing a great quantity of blood upwaid, makes it 
 appear in the fupeificial veffels of the face, neck, and breaft, 
 and fo pioduces a blufh. The fame principles will account 
 for the effects of fear and anger, which make us change co- 
 lour, and look ted or pale as the blood is accelerated or re- 
 tarded in its couife. Sudden, and great fear do fo convulfo 
 the nervous fyftem, that they fometimcs alter the pofttion of 
 the parts: thus the hair fhali ftand on end in a fright, and 
 the nerves be lendered fo ft iff and rigid, as to ftop at once 
 the animal functions, whence fainting, and fometimcs even 
 death. 
 
 Chronical Pajp&m, wafle the nervous fyftem gradually. Thofe 
 nerves employed in confidering, brooding over, and fixing 
 fuch a fet of ideas in the imagination, muft be at length worn 
 out and impaired ; and the reft, by dilute, rendered rcrty and 
 • unactive, lifelcfs and deftitute of a fufficient flux of warm 
 blood and due nourifhment. Thus do long grief, dark mc- 
 lancholly, honclefs love, over weening pride, tic impair the 
 habit; and fometimes, when long indulged, terminate in 
 madnefs ; the reafon is, that a conftant habit of fixing one 
 thing in the imagination, begets a ready difpofition in the 
 nerves, to produce again the fame image, till the thought of 
 it become fpontaneous and natural, like breathing, or the mo- 
 tion of the heart. Thus the Faquirs in India fix one or both 
 hands by long holding them up fo, as that they cannot bring 
 them down again. Effay cf Health, ts'c. 
 
 Dr. Morgan feems to have gone beyond any body in explain- 
 ing the origin, and effects of the Pajpcns. — From a courfe of 
 actual obfeivations of the feveral phenomena in, the body, 
 which attend the feveral Pajjiom, viz. the ftate of the pulfe, 
 refpiration, warmth, digeftion, ts'c. that author draws thefe 
 general conclufions: 
 
 i°. That all the grateful, or pleafurable Pajfwm raife the vital 
 tide, ftrengthen and quicken the pulfe, diffufc the natural heat, 
 and take off any antecedent ftimulus, or preifuie upon the ab- 
 domen and inferior organs: and, on the contrary, the painful 
 Pajpom link and depicts the blood, weaken the pulfe, recall and 
 
 concenter 
 
PAS 
 
 Pas 
 
 concenter the natural heat, and fix a ftimulus or compreflion 
 on the inferior organs. 
 
 2°. All the Paffions imprefs their characteriftick fenfations, or 
 modifications of pleafuie and pain, efpecially upon the oefo- 
 phagus, and upper orifice of the ftomach. 
 3 U . That they imprefs the different modifications on the 
 mufcles of the larynx, and thus difcover themfelves by the 
 ditferent modulation and tone of the voice. 
 And hence he infers, that the nerves of the eighth conjugation 
 or par vagum, are the principal inftruments of the Pafjiens; by- 
 means whereof they ate varioufly impreffed, modified, and or- 
 ganized : thefe, therefore, which are difperfed to all parts of the 
 breaft and abdomen, particularly to the heait, lungs, ftomach, 
 liver, oefophagus, diaphragm, inteftines, the organs of genera- 
 tion, y c. he confiders as Patheticks of the prjl order ; the intercof- 
 tal, which accompany ail the divilions of the par vagum, 
 he calls patheticks oj the fecund order : the nerves which fei ve the 
 mufcles employed in relpnation, and have the neareit commu- 
 nication with thofe of the par vagum, by means of the intei- 
 coftal, he cni\s patheticks of the third order .-and, the netves which 
 immediately difpenfe feme andmotion to the feveral parts of the 
 head, and have a remoter communication with the par va- 
 gum, patheticks of the fourth order. 
 
 According to this giadation, then, the organs which are. im- 
 mediately fupplied with nerves from the par vagum, or pathetick, 
 cf the firji order, will be firft affected in the Ptjjiins, and that 
 with the lmalleft degree of imprefted motion ; with which the 
 paits communicating immediately with the intercoftal, or fe- 
 coml order of pathetich, keep pace, and are affected almolt at the 
 lame time, and with the fame motion : then the organs fup- 
 plied with the third order cf pathetkks, or the nerves employed 
 in the mulcles of refpnation, are affected : and laftly, the or- 
 gans of fenle and motion in the biain itfelf, by which fenfa- 
 tion and imagination are performed, ate put in a forcible 
 emotion ; by which the ordinary operations of fenfe, judgment, 
 C3V. aie much diflui bed. 
 
 This gradual rife and progrefs of the Pa funs 'is confirmed by 
 fact, obleivalion, and experience ; but how they are geneia- 
 ted, and by what Aeps they make thefe advances,reauires fome 
 1'arthei conlideration. 
 
 It may be oblei ved then, that the quantity of motion impreffed 
 on the pathetick nerves in any Paffion, is always proportional 
 to the ltrength of the delite ; but filch impieil'ed motion is not 
 always uniform, or equally ditfufed through the whole pathe- 
 tick lyftcm ; for as the largeft and mod numerous branches of 
 the pathetick nerves are ipent on thofe parts Which derive their 
 blood from the defcending trunk of the aorta, viz. the fto- 
 mach, lpleen, kidneys, tie. upon any motion too forcibly im- 
 preffed or too long continued, thefe inferior organs are the firft 
 and greatcft fulfil ers ; whence the blood flowing impetuoufly 
 and irregularly to the parts thus ftimulated, they become 
 over-ftretched 3 and hence arifes a fenfe of pain, weight and 
 oppielfion. By this means alfo the head and fuperior parts be- 
 ing deprived of their due Ihare of blood, the pulfe mull fink, 
 the natural heat diminilh and retire, and a fenfe of cold and 
 conft 1 action be felt about the oefophagus, whete the branches 
 of the par vagum are very numerous , and hence the patient 
 will be excited to figh, groan, moan, cry out, and complain, 
 and will difcover it in the tone of the voice, and modulation 
 of the mufces of the larynx, the characf crifticks of the pre- 
 vailing Paffion. 
 
 Such is the Hate of nature under the painful Paffions, where the 
 ftrong defire of good is attended with an appearance of diffi- 
 culty, or improbability : where the fame defire is attended with 
 a feeming probability of obtaining or effecting it, this appear- 
 ance, by moderating the intenfenefs of the pain of the defire, 
 and taking off the too violent ad ion of the pathetick nerves on 
 the inferior organs, puts the pathetick fyftem in an eafy, natural, 
 uniform undulation ; by which the equilibrium of the blood 
 being reftored, the pleafurable Paffions of love, joy, hope, est. 
 will be raifed : and in this cafe the pulfe will rife, and the natu- 
 ral heat will be diffufed, and by the aft ion of the pathetick 
 nerves on their proper organs the feveral fymptomswill be pro- 
 duced which dilcover their placid emotions. Where the defire 
 is very keen and intenfe, we fee what a prodigious force it will 
 imprefs on the netves, by the actions of madmen, and men in 
 a fright. In this cafe the ftimulus of defire being exceeding 
 ftrong, and the imprefi'ed motion univerfal, the pathetick 
 nerves of the fourth or laft order come to be affected ; that is, 
 the organs of fenfation and imagination in the brain are 
 brought into fuch violent vibrations, as to difturb the ope- 
 rations of reafon. 
 
 From this violent perturbation of the pathetic nerves in the 
 biain, madmen have their imagination as ftrong and vivid as 
 fenfation itfelf. See Imagination- and Sensation. 
 Hence, alfo, we may obferve the heights, or extremes of the 
 two contraty painful, and pleaiui able /VJSsi/j ; the one riling at 
 length into a mania or raving madnefs, and the other finking 
 into an hypochondriacal melancholy. The principal feat of the 
 one is the brain ; and of the other the vifec-ra of the abdomen, 
 efpecially the fpleen and mefentery. The one inflames and over- 
 
 heats, the other chills and freezes the imagination : the one* 
 hangs over the underftanding, like a glaring, dazling light, 
 which animates and leads us on with zeal and vehemence ; 
 the othet like a thick, black, and difmal cloud, that links al! 
 the powets of nature into the depths of mifeiy and defpair. 
 
 Celiac Passion. Seethe article Cjeliac. 
 
 Hypochondriac Passion. See the article Hypochondriac. 
 
 Hyjlcric Passion. See the article Hysteric. 
 
 Iliac Passion. See the article Iliac. 
 
 Passions in poetty, denote the pajfwnate fentiments, geftures, 
 actions, csV. which the poet gives his perfons. 
 The Paffions are, as it wete, the life and fpitit of the longer 
 poems. Their nccefiity in tragedy and comedy is obvious ; 
 nor can the epopcea fublift without them. 
 It is not enough that the epic narration be furprizing ; it fnuft 
 likewife be moving, and paffionate hurrying away the reader's 
 mind, and filling it with anxiety, joy, terror, or fome other 
 violent Paffion, and this for fubjects which it knows are feigned. 
 Though Paffions be always ncceflary, yet, all are notequally 
 neceffary, or fuitable to all. Comedy has joy, and agieeabl'e 
 furprizes for its part : tragedy on the conttaiy, has terror, and 
 compaffion. The proper Paffion of the epopceia is admiration ; 
 tho' the epopceia, as a medium between the two others, takes 
 in boih their kinds of Paffions ; as we fee in the griefs of the 
 fourth book of the j*Eneid, and the games and diverfions of the 
 fifth. Admiration in effect, is confiftent with each ; we ad- 
 mire with joy the things that furpiize us agreeably, and with 
 terror and grief thofe that amaze and afflict us. 
 Befides the general Paffion which diftinguilhes the epic from 
 dramatic poems, each epopceia has its peculiar Paffion, which 
 diftinguilhes it from other epic poems. This peculiar Pajjion 
 ftill follows the chaiadter of the hero. Thus wrath and 
 terror reign in the Iliad, becaufe Achilles is wrathful, and 
 ■BcHm imzyMtm <s,J f „, the mod terrible of men. And on 
 the contrary, the Viineid is all in the tender, fofter Paffions ; 
 fuch being the character of vEneas. The prudence of Ulyf- 
 fes, not allowing thefe exceffes, we find none of them in the 
 Odyll'ey. 
 
 As to the conducting of the Paffions, to make them have their ef- 
 fect, there are two things requited ; viz. that the audience be 
 prepared or difpofed to receive them ; and that feveral incom- 
 patible Paffions be not mixed together. 
 
 The neccllity of difpofing the audience, is founded on the na- 
 tural necefiity of taking up things where they are, in order to 
 remove them elfewhere. The application of this maxim is eafy - 
 a man is calm and at eafe, and you would put him in a Pa"i-n 
 by a difcourfe made on purpofe. You muft begin, then in a 
 calm manner; by this means you join yourfelf to him'- and 
 afterwards walking together, he wont fail to follow you 'in all 
 the Paffions to which you lead him infenfibly. 
 If you lhew your anger at firft, you will be as ridiculous and 
 will have as little effect as Ajax in the Metamorphofes ■ in 
 whom the ingenious Ovid gives a fine example of this failine 
 He begins his harangue in the height of Paffiiu, and with the 
 moft violent figures, before his judges, who are inthedeeoeft 
 tranquility. ™ • 
 
 ~~. Sigeia torvo, 
 
 Littoraprofpexit, claffemque in littore, vultu ; 
 ProteiMenjque manus, Agimus, proh Jupiter ! intuit 
 Ante rates caufam, t? mecum confertur Wyffes ' ' 
 The neceffary difpofitions arifc from fome preceding difcourfe 
 or, at leaft from fome action, which has aheidy begun to raiii 
 the Paffions c're they are mentioned. The orators themfclvea 
 fometimes life this laft means ; for tho' ordinarily, they do not 
 railethc^r till the end of their difcourfe : yet, when thev 
 find their audience already moved, it would be ridiculous in 
 them, by an imfeafonable tranquillity, to lay them again. 
 Ihus the aft time Catiline came to the fenate, the fathers 
 were lo (hocked at his prefence, that thofe near the place whe- e 
 he fat down, rofe up, retired, and left him alone. On this oc- 
 casion, C^o had too much fenfe to begin his oration with 
 the ufual tranquillity and coolnefs of exordiums. By this means 
 he would have palled and abated the indignation of the fena- 
 tors agamft Catiline, which it was his bulinefs to fpirit up, and 
 inflame ; and he would have eafed the parricide of that confter- 
 natioti, the behaviour of the fenatois had given him ; and 
 which it was Cicero's bufinefs, and defien to aggravate. Omit- 
 ting therefore, the fiift part of his oration, he takes his auditors 
 in the condition he finds them ; continues and augments their 
 paffions . ^uoufque tandem abutere, Catilina, palientia nolira f 
 £>uamdiu nos ctiam furor ijle tuus eludct ? £hfcm ad finem fefe ef- 
 franata jadabit audacia ? Nihilnc le noclurnum prafidium palatii 
 nihil urbis vigilix, nihil timer populi, nihil, (sc. ' 
 The poets are full of inftances of this kind, where the Pctn-tt 
 is prepared or kept up by actions. Dido in Virgil begins iM 
 courie like Ajax: P,d, Jupiter! ibithicait, SV. But then the 
 motions are heie well difpofed ; Dido is before reprefented 
 under terrible apprehenfions of .ffineas's quitting her &V 
 Seneca's conduct, indeed is quite oppotite to this iule" ' If fie 
 has a Paffion to raile, he is fine fiift to take from his audience 
 any difpolmon they might have to be affected. If they be in 
 
 grief. 
 
PAS 
 
 grief,fear, or the expectation of fomething horrible, bv.Hewill 
 begin with fome tine defcription of the place, &<e. In the 
 Troades, Hecuba and Andromache, being prepared to hear the 
 violent and barbarous death of their fon Aityanax, whom the 
 Greeks precipitated from the top of a tower ; what booted it 
 to teli them, that of the fpecfatois that ci ouded from all quar- 
 ters to fee the execution, fome placed thcmfclves on ftones, 
 which the ruins of the walls made to project ; that others 
 {hook their legs, as being placed too high, &c. Aha rapes cu- 
 jus c cacumint) erecla fummos turba libravit pedes, cs*r. 
 The fecond thing required in the management of the Pajjivu, 
 is, that they be found pure, and difengaged from any thing 
 that might prevent their effect. 
 
 Polymythy, therefore, i. c. a multiplicity of fables, actions, or 
 hiflories, mull be avoided : all adventures much broken, and 
 hard to be retained ; and all intrigues intricate and difficult to 
 conceive, are at once to be excluded. Thefe embarrafs the 
 mind, and require fo much attention, that there is none to 
 fpare for tfoePaffians. The foul muff be free and difengaged, to 
 feel ; on the contrary, we divert ourfelves even from our real 
 forrows, by an application to other things. 
 But of all others, the greatcft enemies to the Paffims, are the 
 Paffims themfelves : They oppofe and deftroy one another 
 and if two oppoiitc ones, c. gr.toy and forrow, meet in the 
 fame object, they will neither of them Hand it. It is the na- 
 ture of thefe iiabits that impofes this law : The blood and 
 fpirits cannot move gently and equally, as in a ftate of tran- 
 quillity, and at the fame time be flopped and lufpended with a 
 violence, occaiioned by admiration. Nor can they be in 
 either of thofe lituations, while fear calls them from the outer 
 parts of the body, to alienable them about the heart ; or rage 
 lends them into the mufcles, and makes them act there with 
 violences very oppohteto the operations of fear. 
 The caufes and effects, therefore, of the Paffims in the foul, 
 are to be ftudicd, in order to be able to manage them with all 
 their force. Virgil furnifhes two examples of what we have 
 faid about the iimplicity and engagement of cacll Paffigp 3 in 
 the deaths of Camilla and Pallas. See the JEneid. 
 
 Passion, in heraldry. — Crofs of Passion, is a crofs thus called, 
 becaule, in lhape of that whereon our Saviour fuffeied, 
 not crollcd in the middle, but neaier the top ; with arms 
 lhort in proportion to the length of the fhaft. 
 
 Passion-Week, the Week next precccding Eaffer. 
 
 It is thus called from our Saviour's Pajjbn, i. e. his crucifixion. 
 £s?V. which happened on the Friday or this week, now called 
 Good-Friday. 
 
 PASSIVE, a term of relation, implying a thing to fuffer, or un 
 dergo the action of fome other : which, in refpect hereof, 
 denominated aclive. 
 
 In all generations, philofophers conceive an aelive power and 
 a paffive. 
 
 In civil life, we fay, fuch a perfon in fuch an election, has 
 both an active voice, and a paffive^ i. c. he is both capable of 
 electing, and of being elected. 
 
 Some alfo ufe the term paffive debt-, for a debt which we owe 
 another, in contiadifiinction to an active debt, which is ow- 
 ing to us. 
 
 The chymifts divide their principles, or elements into active 
 and paffive. — Paffive are fuch as have no active, force inherent 
 in themfelves, and which only act by being joined with fome 
 of the others. 
 
 Such are phlegm, and earth, fome fay alfo, fait, and, in effect, 
 all but fulphur, or fire, which they will have the only prin- 
 ciples of action, and motion in the univeife. 
 
 Passive qualities. See the article Quality. 
 
 Passive underjlaming. See Understanding. 
 
 Passive prayer, in the language of myftick divines, is a total 
 fufpenfion, or ligature of the intellectual faculties, 
 tuc whereof the foul remains, of itfelf and as to its own 
 power, impotent with regard to the producing of any effects. 
 See Prayer. 
 
 The paffive ffate, fays Fcnelon, is only paffive in the fame fenfe 
 as contemplation is fo, i, e. it does not exclude peaceable, dif- 
 interefted acts, but only unquiet ones, or fuch as tend to our 
 own intercft. 
 
 In the paffive ft ate, the foul has not properly any activity, any 
 fituation of its own : it is a mere infinite flexibility of the foul, 
 which the feebleff impulfe of grace gives motion to. Id, 
 Passive in grammar, denotes a fecond voice or inflection of 
 verbs, which of active become paffive, by afluming, in the 
 modern languages, new auxiliary verbs : and in the ancient, 
 by new terminations. See Verb, Voice, &e. 
 The Englifh verbs become paffive, by taking the auxiliary verb 
 lam, in lieu of / have, wherewith the active are conjugated 
 the French, by Je fids, in lieu of 'fay \ the Italian, by Jo fo 
 for Jo ho, Esff. 
 
 Latin vcibs become paffive, by changing their terminations 
 as amor for amo, &c. cmari for amare, &c. 
 fcnglifh verbs paffive are nothing elfe, in effect, but the vcr 
 / mn-i in all its mffcctions joined to the participle paffive t a; 
 
 PAS 
 
 1 am praifed, in Latin War, in French Je fuh hue ; I have 
 been praifed, J"aji t'te hue, laimatm fum, &e. 
 Neuter Passive, is a verb that has a paAat conjugation, but a 
 neuter frgnification. 
 
 Of thefe, the;e arc a very final! number in Latin, more in 
 * rench ' and fewer in Englifli : as, I am enteied, inerellus fum 
 jejuis entre,&e. ... , i " .' J ' 
 
 Grammarians are frequently miftaken here ; taking veibs for 
 neuters ^fm, which in eifta aie aflives, and only differ in 
 that they a3 on themfelves, by adding the pronoun peifonal • 
 and which on that footing Ihould lather be neutcis aflive 
 than neuters to^rW. 
 
 Some admit of no genuine /^-.t verbs in the modern tonaues ; 
 lucn we mean as anfwertothe notion of pejjiucs in the ancient 
 where all is done by different terminations. On which foot- 
 ing, there Ihould be none but actives paffivt, and neuters fa/hve. 
 assive wjfakgi. See the article Vassalage. 
 PASSO. Sec the article Passage. 
 
 PASSOVER, maxA, a folemn feaft, celebrated among the 
 Jews, on the fourteenth, day of the moon next after the ver- 
 nal equinox. 
 
 This ieaft was called by the ancient Latins andGreeks pafiki; 
 not from wpj* I fuffer; as Lanctantius weakly imagines ; but 
 from die Hebrew ncD Pefabb, paiiage, leap; the. defign of 
 the feaft being to commemorate the deflroying angels puffing 
 «wthe houfc of the Iiiacliles, when he entered in, and de- 
 coyed the filB boin in thofe of the Egyptians. 
 Many weakW imagine that it was in memory of their paffma. 
 the red fca, that the Paflo'jer was inftituted ; thoueh it is cer- 
 tain the feaft was held, and had its name before the Ifraelites 
 took a ftep of their way out of Eeypt ; and confequcntly fe- 
 veral days before their palling the red fca. 
 Befide the Pajover celebrated in the fourteenth of the firft 
 month; there was a fecond Pajbvtr held on the fourteenth of 
 the fecond month after the equinox, inftitutcd by God in fa- 
 vour of travellers, and lick pcrfons who could not attend at 
 the firft ; nor be at Jcrufalem on the day. 
 TheGieeks, and even fome of the catholic doaors, from the 
 XVIIItn. chapter of St. John, take occafion to conclude that 
 Jefus anticipated the day mai ked for the Pajfovtr in the law ; 
 but the authoiity of three evangelifts feems to evince the 
 contrary. 
 
 E. Lamy is of opinion, that he did net attend at the Paffiver 
 the laft year of his life ; which fentiment has drawn upon him 
 abundance of oppofers. ' . 
 
 F . Hardouin maintains, that the Galileans celebrated the Paf- 
 - fiver on one day, and the Jews on another. 
 
 PASS-P AROLE, a command given in the head of an army, and 
 thence communicated to the rear ; by rafting it from mouth to 
 mouth. 
 
 PASS-PAP.-TOUX, a mafter-kcy ; or key that opens indiffe- 
 \f 7 lev , era] locks belonging to the fame lodge or apartment. 
 PASS-PORT , a licence, or letter from a prince, or governor, 
 granting liberty and fafe-condua to travel, enter, and go out 
 of his territories,. freely and without molcftation. 
 The Pafs-pcrl is, profeily, given to friends; and the fafe- 
 conduato enemies. Sie-SAFE-CONDUOT. 
 PafquiertakesPdyJ-^rr.tohave been introduced for pafc-par- 
 taut. Balzacmentiona* very honourable P«fir/»«given by 
 anempeiortb a philofophcr in thefe terms : If there beany one 
 on land, or fca, ha; dy enough to moleft Potamon ; let him 
 confider whether he be ftrongenough to wage war with Csefar. 
 Pass-port is alfo ufed for a licence granted by a pi ince for the 
 importing, or exporting merchandizes, moveables, of, without 
 paying the duties. 
 
 Mei chants fometimes procure fuch Pafs-porti for certain kinds 
 of commodities ; and they are always given to cmbali'adors 
 and minifters, for iheir baggage, equipage, &fc 
 Pass-port is alfo a licence obtained for the importing or ex- 
 porting of merchandizes deemed contraband, and declared 
 fuch by tariffs, Isc. as gold, filver, precious ftones, ammuni- 
 tion of war, horfes, coi n, wool, bV. upon paying duties. 
 PASS- VOLANT, or Passe-volant, a faggot or a pretended 
 foldier, not enrolled, whom the captain or colonel makes pal's 
 in review,or mufter, to lhew that his company is compleat.and 
 to receive the pay thereof to his own profit. See Fagot, fjfr 
 In Fi 'ance the pfljje-z'ohints are condemned to be marked on the 
 cheek with a fiower-de-luce. 
 PAST-BOARD, a kind of thick paper, formed of feveral fliects 
 parted together. 
 
 There is alfo a coarfe kind of Pajl-board, made of old paper 
 and old Pq/fboard, beaten in a morta-- with water, and reduced 
 into a kind of pulp ; to which is added a little pafte, to give 
 the mafs a conliffence ; after which it is formed in a mould ; 
 and to finifh it, laid in a prefs, to fqueeze out all the water, 
 and reduce it to its proper thicknefs. 
 
 Each kind is diftinguiibcd by numcro's, which exprefs the finc- 
 nefs and value : the fineft is covered on both fides with a very 
 white fmooth paper, others only on one fide ; and others cn 
 both fides with common paper. 
 
 The 
 
PAS 
 
 The chief ufe of Paf -board is in the binding of books, and 
 the making of letter-cafes, hat-cafes, gloves, is'c. See Book- 
 Binding. 
 
 PASTE, in cookery, a foft compofition of flour, wrought up 
 with proper fluids, as water, milk, or the like, to ferve foi 
 cafes or coffins, therein to bake meats, fruits, &c. 
 Pafle is the bafis or foundation of pyes, tartsj patties, parties, 
 and other works of paftry. 
 
 Paste is alfo ufed in confection ry, Esfc. for a preparation of fome 
 fruit, made by beating the pulp thereof with fome fluid, or 
 other admixture, into a foft pappy conliftence, fpreading it in- 
 to a difh, and drying it with fugar, till it becomes as plyablc 
 as an ordinary Pajle. See Confect. 
 
 It is ufed occafionally for making the cmfts, and bottoms of 
 pyes, &c. 
 
 Thus, with proper admixtures, they make almond Pd/ies, ap- 
 ple Pafle:, apricot Pajles, cherry, currant, lemon, plum, 
 peach, and pear Pajfes. 
 
 Paste is alfo ufed for a preparation of wheatcn flour, boiled up, 
 and incorporated with water ; ufed by various artificers, as up- 
 holfterers, fadlers, book-binders, dsY. inftead of glue or lize, to 
 faften or cement their cloths, leathers, papers, &a 
 
 PASTEL. Seethe article Pastil. 
 
 PASTERN, of a horfe, the diftance between the fetlock, or 
 joint next the foot, and the coronet of the hoof. 
 This part fhould be (hort, efpecially in middle fized hbrfes ; 
 faecaufe long Pajlerns are weak, and cannot fo well endure 
 travel. 
 
 Pastern joint, is the joint above the Pajlern. 
 
 The pajiem joint, after travelling, is very apt to be crowned, 
 i. e. to have a fwelling round it beneath the fkin, in form of 
 a circle, a third of an inch broad. 
 
 PASTIL, or Pastel, among painters, &c. a fort of parte made 
 of feveral colours, ground up with gum-water, either together 
 or feparately; in order to make crayons to paint with on pa- 
 per, or parchment. See Crayon. 
 
 Pastil, Fastillus, is alfo ufed for a dry compofition, yield- 
 ing a fragrant fmell when burnt in a perfuming pan, to clear 
 and fcent the air of a chamber. 
 
 It is eompofed of odorous refins, mixed with aromatic woods, 
 or drugs pulverized, and incorporated with mucilages of gum 
 tragacanth. Some call thefe compofitions OJJ'ekts of Cyprus. 
 There are alfo PaftiL for the mouth, chewed to procure a 
 fweet breath. Thefe have feveral names, and conlift of fe- 
 veral preparations, as mulcadines, confer ves, CsfV. 
 
 Pastil, or P a steLj is fometimes alfo ufed for the plant other- 
 wife called woad. See Wo ad. 
 
 Pastil, in confectionry, is a preparation of fugar with lemon- 
 water, tsc. boiled up with gum-water, drained, beat up, and by 
 the addition of more dry fugar, worked into a pliable parte, and 
 thus formed into round or oblong figures, and dried in the 
 ftove. See Lo zekge. 
 
 PASTINATION, a term fometimes ufed in agriculture, for 
 the act of opening, loofening, and preparing the earth for 
 planting. 
 
 PASTOR, originally, fignifies one that {pa/Hi) feeds.— Hence 
 it was anciently ufed for a Jhcpherd, or advocate ; and is now 
 appropriated to a minifer, or one that has the cure of fouls'. 
 
 PASTORAL, fometh'mg that relates to fhepherds, Pajhres. 
 The poets reprefent the innocence of the pa/hral life, and paf- 
 toral manners, in the moil agreeable light. We muft not 
 imagine them fo beautiful in nature as in their defcriptions. 
 
 Pastoral, in poetry denotes a compofition, the fubject where- 
 of is fomething in the pajloral, at leaft in lural life, and the 
 perfons, ihepherdsj or st leaft rurticks. 
 
 Moft authors, except the Englilh, efteem Pajloral of the drama- 
 tic kind ; and define it a dramatic piece, wherein the perfons 
 are clad like nymphs and fhepherds, and act their own amours. 
 The fcene is always in the fields or rite woods ; whence Tallb 
 calls Pajloral, favola Bofcarecda. 
 
 Such are the Pajhr Fido of Guarini, the" Aminia of Taffo, the 
 Sylvia of Mairet the French poet, and the Comt/s of Milton, &c. 
 Taflb aflumes to himfelf the honour ofhaving invented Paf 
 toral ; but the firrt idea of this kind of 'drama feems to be Bec- 
 cari's due, who made the firrt attempt of this kind iff 1552. 
 But Tallb's Aminta, which did not appear till the year 1573, 
 effacing what had been done by Beccari, the fiift author was 
 forgot, and Tallb was left as the inventor. 
 It is certain this kind of pajloral fable, eompofed according to 
 the rules of the ftage, was unknown among the ancients. The 
 Greeks and Latins have indeed introduced fhepherds in their 
 eclogues ; but thefe eclogues had nothing theatrical in them ; 
 nor were the fhepherds ever brought upon the ftage. 
 This kind of dramatic Pajloral h^B yet but little known among 
 us ; nor have we any thing confiderable under the title of Paf 
 tenth, but country pieces after the manner of the eclogues, or 
 idyllions of the ancients. 
 
 Every Pajhral, even in this lart view, fhculd have a little plot 
 or fable, which may deferve the title of a pajhral fcene. It 
 muft be Ample, and but one; yet, not fo as to refufe all di 
 greflions, provided they be but Ihort. This rule of the plot 
 is every where obferved by Virgil. 
 Pastoral c:lumn. Sec the article Column, 
 
 Vcl. XL 
 
 PAS 
 
 Pastoral Jlaf. See the article Crosier. 
 
 PASTRY, that btanch of cookery, which teaches the prepara- 
 tion of Pafle with feveral favour y ingredients of fle.'h, fiuits, 
 fpices, fugar, butter, fifr; 
 
 Pajlry is chiefly converfant 111 the making of pies, parties, pat- 
 ties, cakes, biscuits, £sV. 
 PASTURE, Pastura, in our law-books, is any place where 
 cattle are occafionally fed. 
 
 By which it differs from pafnt.n, which is a place fet wholly 
 a-part for feeding, and never plough'd. * 
 
 * Y&aiz. amne genus paf e,,difig„ifeat, five in pratis, fae in fiifttta, 
 fi<vt in agrts, five in campis ; Std Paicua eft locus principaliter depu - 
 tatus pecaribui fafandis, ut puta in montibus, iiio/ij, marifeit & wa- 
 nt* non cult is ncc a rat is, Lindwood. 
 Pasture ground is propcily that which is not cultivated that 
 is, it is neither meadow, nor arable ; but rcferved for the 
 feeding of cattle. 
 
 The beft domains arethofc confiding in Paflure; they need no 
 tilling. Holland is a country abounding much in Pajiure. 
 
 Admeafurcment ^Pasture. See Admeasurement. 
 
 PASI'US, the procuration* or provifion, which the king's, or 
 lord's tenants, arc bound to make for them at certain days, or 
 feafons, or as often as they make a progrefs to their lands. 
 This, in many places, has been converted into a pecuniary 
 fee ; as in the procurations of the cJergy. 
 
 PASTY, in cookery, a work of paftry ; being a preparation of 
 fome proper meat, as beef, venifon, lamb, or the like, well 
 boned, beaten up to a pulp, and highly feafoned ; put up in a 
 paftc, and then baked in an oven.— They alfo make veal paf. 
 ties, umble Pofttes, kidney Pa/lies, marrow Pafiies, &ii 
 
 PATARINS. Vide Albigenses. 
 
 PATAVINITY, Patavinitas, among criticks, a fault ob- 
 jected to Titus Livy, which he derived from his country 
 Padus, by the ancients called Patavium. 
 Afinius Pollio, as we are informed by Qumtilian, taxed Livy 
 with Patavinity.— But what this Patavinity confifted hi, has 
 given the criticks a world of pain to find out. 
 Paolo Beni, profeflbr of eloquence in the univerfity of Padua, 
 is of opinion, it muft be underfiood of the inclination of that 
 hiftorian to pompey's party. — - But would Pollio have re- 
 proached him with an inclination from which he himfelf was 
 not exempt ? 
 
 Pignorius will have the Patavinity to confirt in Livy's retain- 
 ing the vicious orthography of his countrymen of Padua, who 
 wrote Jibe and quaje, ioxjibi and quafi : which lie proves from 
 feveral ancient inicriptions. 
 
 F. Rapin takes the Patavinity to be only a faulty pronuncia- 
 tion, which fhocked the delicate ears of the people in the 
 court of Auguftus ; and favouied a little of the country. 
 Morhof believes itto be a certain turn of exprefiion, and fome 
 phralcs peculiar to the Paduefe.— All we know for certain, is, 
 that it was a fault in the language of Livy, hot in the fentiments 
 or manners. In all probability, it is one of thole delicacies that 
 are loft in a dead language. M. Balzac could not ridicule his 
 dotard better than by fuppofing he valued himfelf on having 
 difcovered the Patavinity ohjecled by Pollio to Livy. 
 Dan. Georg. Morhof has an expiefs trcatife, De Patavinitate 
 Livuma, printed at Kiel in 1685; where he explains very 
 learnedly, the urbanity and peregi inity of the Latin tongue. 
 
 PATE, in fortification, a kind of platform, like what they call 
 an horfe-fhoe ; not always regular, but generally oval, en- 
 compalled only with a parapet, and having nothing to flank 
 it. It is ufually erected in marfhy grounds, to cover a gate of 
 a town, or the like, See Horse-shoe. 
 
 PATEE, or Pattee, a term in heraldry for a crofs, fmall in the 
 centre, and widening towaids the extremes. V.Tab.Hcr.fig. 76. 
 The field is fable, a crofs pate/, argent, by the name of Crofs. 
 This torm of a crofs is alfo called forme. 
 
 Petty Pates. See the article Petty. 
 
 PATELLA, in anatomy, a bone which covers the forepart of 
 the joint of the knee ; called alfo moh; rotula, and popularly, 
 the knee-pan. — See Tab. Anat. (Ofteol.) jig. 3. n. 21. Jig. 7. n. 25. 
 The Patella is roundifh on the outlide, fomewhat of the figure 
 of a ihield, and covered with a fmooth cartilage, and is about 
 two inches in diameter ; over it Aide the tendons of the muf- 
 cles which extend the leg, as on a trochlea, or pulley. 
 But its more immediate uie is to hinder the leg from being 
 bentforwaids in extenfion; which would of necelfity be the 
 cafe in this articulation, did not this bone, like a bolfter, check 
 its rolling forwards ; in the fame manner as the olecranum 
 does the fwing of the cubitus backwards. 
 In an erect pofture, when one foot is let forwards, the whole 
 weight of the body beai s on the Patella ; which, in this litua- 
 tion, hinders the knee from bending backwards, and (training 
 the mufcles that inflect it behind.-— Hence it was that Galen's 
 wreftler, who had dislocated his patella, foa'nd fo much pain 
 in going down hill. 
 
 PA TEN A, in the Romifti church, the cover or lid of the cha- 
 lice, made of the fcme metal therewith, ferving to hold the 
 particles of the hoft, and given the people to kifs, when 
 they make an offering. 
 
 It has its name Patena, a patendo ; and this is a general name, 
 in Columella, for any broad flat veflel. 
 PATENTS, or letters Patent, in law, the king's letters, fealed 
 with the great-fed ; ferving to convey the title or property of 
 8 K feme 
 
P>A T 
 
 fome grant, favour, privilege of a new eftablifhment, or the 
 like. See Letters Patents. 
 
 They have their name becaufe delivered open, ut pateant 
 omnibus ; by way of contradiftinction from letters de cachet, 
 which are fealed. 
 
 It is to be noted, that Patents differ from writs : a coroner is 
 
 made by writ, not by Patent.Ste Writ. 
 
 To this office enacted 18 Jac. I. belong a Clerk, &c. 
 PATENTEE, is he to whom the king grants his letters patent. 
 
 See Lettters Patents. 
 PATERA *, among antiquaries, a goblet, or veffel, ufed by 
 
 the Romans in their facrifices ; wherein they offered their 
 
 confecrated meats to the gods ; and wherewith they made 
 
 librations. 
 
 * The word is Latin, formed from paieo, I am open ; quad paleat, 
 becaufe it had a great aperture : in contradjitinilion to bottles, & c. 
 which have only narrow necks, or whofe aperture is lefs than the 
 body of the veffel. 
 
 On .medals, the Patera is feen in the hands of feveral deities; 
 
 and frequently in the hands of princes, to mark the facerdotal 
 
 authority joined with the imperial, &c. 
 
 Hence F. Joubert obferves, that beftde the Patera, there is fre- 
 quently an altar, upon which the Patera feems to be pouring 
 its contents. 
 
 The Patera was of gold, filver, marble, brafs, glafs, or earth 
 and they ufed to enclofe it in inns with the afhes of the de- 
 ceafed, after it had ferved for the librations of wine and li 
 quors at the funeral. „ 
 The Patera is an ornament in architecture, frequently feen in 
 the Dorick freeze, and in the tympans of arches, 
 
 PATERERO. See the article Pedrero. 
 
 PATERNITY, the quality of a father. 
 
 There is an immediate relation between the Paternity of the 
 father, and the filiation of the fon, in the my fiery of the 
 trinity. 
 
 Divines have a long time difputed, whether Paternity be 
 real and fpecific character, which abfolutely diftinguifhes the 
 father from the fon ; or whether it be a mere relation of 
 ccconomy, and fubordination ? On the one hand, if Pater- 
 nity be fuppofed incommunicable to the fon, and if it confli- 
 tute a real and pofitive distinction ; this feems to amount to 
 tritheifm. 
 
 On the other hand, if Paternity be only regarded as a mode, 
 or a term of order and ceconomy ; there is no eflential and 
 intrinfic difference between the father and fon: which is no- 
 thing lefs than fabellianifm. 
 
 PATER-NOSTER, the Lord's-prayer, a form fo called from 
 the two initial words thereof in Latin. 
 
 Pater-noster. is alfo ufed for a chaplet or firing of beads ; 
 becaufe, ferving to number the reheaifals of that prayer. 
 
 Pater-nosters, in architecture ; a fort of ornaments cut in 
 form of beads, either round, or oval ; ufed on baguettes, af- 
 tragals, tjfe. 
 
 PATER-NO STRE', in heraldiy. A crofs Pattr-mjlri, is a 
 crofs made of beads ; as reprefented in Tab. Herald. Fig. 77. 
 This crofs is to be fo ihadowed in drawing, as that the fpbe- 
 ricity of the beads may appear; to diltinguifh them from be- 
 fants. 
 
 PATH of the Vertex, a term frequently ufed by Mr. Flamrteed 
 in his doctrine of the fp'nere, (ignifying a circle, defcribed by 
 any point of the earth's furface, as the earth turns round its 
 
 axis. 
 
 This point is confideied as vertical to the earth's centre ; and 
 is the fame with what is called the vertex or zenith in the 
 Ptolemaick projection. 
 
 The femi-diameter of this Path of the vertex is always equal 
 to the complement of the latitude of the point or place that 
 defcribes it ; that is, to the place's distance from the pole of 
 the world. 
 
 PATHETIC *, riAeHTiKor, fomething that relates to the 
 paffions i and particularly, that is proper to wake or excite 
 them. 
 
 * The word come? from the Greek w«5©., piiffion, emotion. 
 The pathetic ar.d Iliblime have a near affinity. See Style. 
 Pathetic, in rnulic, fomething very moving, expreflive, or 
 pafTionate ; capable of exciting pity, companion, anger, or 
 the like. In this fenfe, we fay the pathetic ftyle, a pathetic fi- 
 gure, pathetic fong, csV. 
 
 The chromatic genus, with its greater and lefTer femi-tones, 
 either afcending or defcending, is very proper for the pathetic ; 
 as is alfo an artful management of dilcords ; with a variety of 
 motions, now brifk, now la ngui thing, now fwift, now flow. 
 Nieuwehtyt tells us of a mufician at Venice, who excelled in 
 the pathetic to that degree, that he was able to play any of his 
 auditors into distraction ; he adds, that the great means he 
 made ufe of, was the variety of motions, crV. 
 PATHE HO, in anatomy, the fourth of the ten pair of nerves, 
 which arife out of the medulla oblongata.— See Tab. Anat. 
 (Ofteol.) fig. 5. litt. mm. See alio the article Nerve. 
 The Pathetici are the fmalleit nerves of the brain ; they have 
 their origin in the lower pait of the medulla oblongata, be- 
 hind the' nates and testes. 
 
 PAT 
 
 They have their name Pathetici, from their ferving to move 
 the eyes in the various paffions ; and they are by fome alfo 
 called amatorii, from the great ufe made thereof by lovers, in 
 ogling, &c. 
 
 PATHOGNOMONIC, nAOOTNSiMONiKOs, in medicine, an 
 efiential fign or characteriflic ; or a fymptom peculiar to, and 
 inleparable from fome difeafe ; and every rtage thereof. 
 Thus Elancard, and after him Harris, c. — But the truth is, 
 there is nothing in all medicine that anfwers to the idea of a 
 Pathognomonic; difeafe and fymptoms are too complicated. 
 And we arc to judge of the former not by any one fign, but 
 by the concurrence of feveral. 
 PATHOLOGY *, nAQOAoriA, that part of medicine which 
 confideis difeafes, both thofe of the body, and thole of tire 
 mind ; their natures, caufes, fymptoms, &c. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek srods-, paifion, fufferlng, 
 and hiy<&; difcourfe. 
 PATHOS, nAQOE, paflion, a term frequently ufed in fpeaking 
 of the movements which the orator excites in his audience. 
 There is a world of Pathos in his difcourfe.— We fornetimes 
 alfo ufe the word for energy or ffrefs. 
 PATIENT, among phyficians, a perfon under the direction 
 
 of a physician, or furgeon, to be cured of fome difeafe. 
 Agent and Patient. See the article Agent. 
 PATIENTI./E mufculus, in anatomy. See Levator Scapula. 
 PATONCE, in heraldry — a Crofs Patonce, is a crofs flory at 
 the ends : from which it only differs in this, that the ends in- 
 flead of turning down like a flower de luce, are extended 
 fomewhat in the patee form.— Fid. Tab. Herald, fig. 78. He 
 bears gules, a crofs Patonce, argent, by the name of Latimer. 
 PATRES conferipti, in antiquity, a denomination given to the 
 fenators of Rome. 
 
 The firft hundred fenators appointed by Romulus, were called 
 fimply Patres, fathers ; another hundred being added by Ro- 
 mulus and Tatius, upon the union of the two people ; thefe 
 latter were called Patres minorum gentium, and the former ma- 
 jorum gentium. 
 
 At length Tarquinius Prifcus making up the number three 
 hundred, the two latter claffes were called Patres conferipti ; 
 becaufe, adfcripii, or wrote down to the former. 
 Thofe afterwards chofen from among the knights, were called 
 Patres adlecli. 
 Gloria Patri. See the article Gloria. 
 Dower ex affenfu Patris. See the article Dower. 
 PATRIARCH, Patriarcha, one of thofe firft fathers who 
 lived towards the beginning of the world ; and v/ho became 
 famous by a long line of defendants. 
 
 Abraham, Ifaac, Jacob, and his twelve fons, are the Patriarch 
 of the Old Teftament : Seth, Enoch, l£c. were antediluvian 
 Patriarchs. The number of children is the benediction and 
 character of a Patriarch. 
 Patriarch is alfo ufed in Christendom for thebifliops in pof- 
 feffion of fome of the grand fees, independent of the papal 
 jurifdiction. 
 
 The patriarchate has been always esteemed the fupreme dig- 
 nity in the churclr : fo that to rife by degrees, the bifhop had 
 only under him the territory of the city whereof he was bifhop 5 
 the metropolitan commanded a province, and had for fuffra- 
 gans the biJhops of his province ; the primate was the chief of 
 a diocefe, and had feveral metropolitans under him ; and the 
 Patriarch had under him feveral diocefes, and the primates 
 themfelves were under him. — But this order was not always 
 obferved. 
 
 Ufher, Pagi, de Marca, and Morinus, attribute the eitablifiV 
 ment of the grand Patriarchates to the apoftles. They fuppofe 
 that the aportles, according to the defcription of the world 
 then given by geographers, pitched on the three principal ci- 
 ties in the three parts of the known world, viz. Rome in 
 Europe ; Antioch in Ana ; and Alexandria in Africa : and thus 
 formed a trinity of Patriarchs. 
 
 Others, far from attributing this inftitution to the apoftles, 
 maintain that the name Patriarch was unknown at the time of 
 the council of Nice ; and that for a long time afterwards, Pa- 
 triarchs and primates were confounded together ; as being all 
 equally chiefs of diocefes, and equally fuperior to metropoli- 
 tans, who were only chiefs of provinces. Hence it is that 
 Socrates gives the title Patriarch to all the chiefs of diocefes, 
 and reckons ten of them. In effect, it does not appear, that 
 the dignity of Patriarch was appropriated to the five grand 
 fees of Rome, Court antinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerufa- 
 lem, till after the council ofChalcedon in 451. For when the 
 council of Nice regulated the limits and prerogatives of the 
 three Patriarchs of Rome, Antioch, and Alexandria, it did not 
 give them the title of Patriarchs, though it allowed them the 
 pre-eminence and privileges thereof. Thus, when the coun- 
 cil of Conrtantinople adjudged the fecond place to the bifhop 
 of Conrtantinople, who till then, was only a fuffragan of 
 Heraclea; it laid nothing of his Patriarchate. 
 Nor is the term Patriarch found in the decree of the council of 
 Chalcedon, whereby the fifth place is affigned to the bifhop of 
 Jerufalem; nor did thefe five Patriarchs govern all the churches. 
 
 There 
 
PAT 
 
 PAT 
 
 There were ftill many independent chiefs of diocefes, who, far 
 from owning the juiifdiction of the grand Patriarchs, called 
 themfelves Patriarch j fuch as that of Aquileia 5 nor was Car- 
 thage ever fubjectto the Patriarch of Alexandria. 
 The authority of the Patriarchs grew by infenfible degrees, till 
 at length all affairs of moment, Within the compafs of their 
 Patriarchate, came before them ; either at firft hand, or by 
 appeal from the metropolitans. 
 
 They confecrated bifhops, appointed the time of Eafter, &c. 
 Nothing in fhort was done without confulting them ; and theii 
 decrees were executed with the fame regularity and refpect as 
 thofe of princes. 
 The Latin church was unacquainted with Patriarchs till the fixth 
 century; and the chuschesof Gaul, Britain, &c. were never fub- 
 ject to the authority of the Patriarch of Rome, whofe authority 
 only extended to the fubui bicary provinces.— There was no pri- 
 macy,noexarchate orPatriarchate,ovmedhere i but the bilhops. 
 with the metropolitans, governed the church in common. 
 Indeed, after the name Patriarch became frequent in the weft, 
 it was attributed to the bifhops of Bourges, and Lyons ; but it 
 was only in the firft fignification, viz. as heads of diocefes. — 
 Du Cange adds, that there have been fome abbots, who have 
 bore the title of Patriarchs. 
 
 Patriarch, is alfo applied to the chiefs of feveral churches in 
 the eaft, who live out of communion with the Roman church ; 
 Such are the Patriarch of the Armenians, refiding in the mo- 
 nailery of St. Gregory ; the Patriarch of the Abyfilnians, cal- 
 led Abuna ; the Patriarchs of the Cophti, the Jacobins, fcff. 
 See Armenians, Cophti, Jacobins, &c, 
 
 PATRIARCHAL, in heraldry.— A Patriarchal Crofs, is that 
 where the fhaft is twice crofted ; the lower arms or traverfes 
 being longer, and the upper (hotter.— Such a crofs is laid to 
 belong to Patriarchs, as the triple crofs does to the pope. 
 
 PATRICIAN, Patricius, in ancient Rome, a title given to 
 the defcendants of the hundred, or, according to others, of the 
 two hundred fiift fenators choien by Romulus, and by him 
 called patres, fathers. 
 
 Patricians therefore, were orginally the ancient nobility ; in op- 
 pofition to the plebeians. 
 
 But the cognizance and character of thefe ancient families be- 
 ing almoft loft and extinguifhed, by a long courfe of years, 
 and frequent changes in the empire ; a new kind of Patrician. 
 were at length let on foot ; who had no pretentions from birth, 
 but whofe title depended wholly on the emperor's favour. 
 This new Patriciate, Zofimus tells us, was erected by Conftan- 
 tine, who conferred the quality on his counfellors, calling them 
 ■pairicii, not becauie defcended from the ancient fathers of the 
 lenate, but becauie they were the fathers of the republic, or of 
 the empire. 
 
 This dignity, in time became the higheft of the empire. Jufti 
 llian calls itfummam dignitatem : in effect, the Patricians feem 
 to have had the precedence of the confulares, and to have taken 
 place before them in the fenate : though F. Faber afTerts the 
 contrary. What embroils the queftion is, that the two digni- 
 ties often met in the fame perfon ; for that the Patriciate was 
 only conferred on thole who had gone through the firft offices 
 of the empire, or had been confuls. 
 
 Pope Adrian made Charlemaign take the title of Patrician, e're 
 he affumed the quality of emperor ; and other popes have given 
 the title to other kings and princes, by reafon of its eminence. 
 
 Patrician, Patricius, is alfo a title of honour frequently 
 conferred on men of the firft quality in the time of our anglo- 
 faxon kings. See Thane. 
 
 PATRICIANS, in ecclefiaftical writers, denote ancient fecta- 
 ries who difturbed the church in the beginning of the third 
 century : thus called from their founder Patricius, preceptor 
 of a marcionite called Symmachus. 
 
 His diftinguifhing tenet was, that the fubftance of the flefli is 
 not the work of God, but that of the devil ; on which account 
 his adherents bore an implacable hatred to their own flefti ; 
 which fometimes carried them fo far as to kill themfelves. 
 They were alfo called Tatianitcs ; and made a branch of the En- 
 cratites. See Tatianite. 
 PATRIMONY, Patrimonium, aright or eftate, which ; 
 perfon inherits from his anceftors. 
 
 The name Patrimony waszKo anciently given to the effects,or re- 
 venues wherewith a church or religious houfe was endowed. In 
 which fenfe authors ftill fay thepatrimsny of thechurch ofRimini. 
 of Milan, &e, The dutchies of Urbino and Spoleto, are called 
 St. Peter's Patrimony. Thechurch of Rome had Patrimonies in 
 feveral countries, in France, Africa, the Alps, Sicily, £SV. 
 To make what belonged to the churches the more refpected. 
 they ufually give their Patrimonies the names of the faints they 
 held in die higheft veneration. 
 
 Thus the church of Ravenna, called its inheritance the Patri- 
 mony of St. Apollinarius ; that of Milan the Patrimony of St. 
 Amhnfe, csV. as is obferved by Fra. Paolo. 
 PATRIPASSIANS, Patripassiani, a namegiven to the Sa- 
 bellians, becaufe they did not believe it was the fon, but the 
 father himfelf that fullered and was crucified.*See Sa e e l lia n. 
 * The council of Antioch held by the Eufebians in 345, fays, that 
 ihofe whom the Romans call PatripaJJians, the Extern people 
 
 called Sabeliani : it adds the reafon of the name Pohipaffiav't 
 in their condemnation ; vtz. that by the incarnation of rhe fa- 
 ther, they rendered him comprehenfible and paflible. 
 The Patripajjian herefy was firfl broached by Pi axeas, who Was 
 feconded by Victorinus, at the beginning of the third centu- 
 ry.— They confefted Chrift to be God, and that God fuffertd 
 and died tor us ; but they confounded the divine perfons, and 
 denied in effect the trinity ; meaning by father, fon, ahdlpirirj 
 not three perfons, but one perfon under three names. So that 
 he who fullered for us, was,according to them, as much father 
 as fon. Tertullian wrote exprefly againft Praxeas. 
 Hermogenes efpoufed the error of the Patripajfmns; whence 
 they came to be denominated alfo Hermogmian:.— Afterwards 
 Noetius gave into it, which occafioned them the name of No- 
 etians. — His difciple Sabellius the Libyan followed, about the 
 year 250, whence they were called SahelHans.— Laftly, becaufe 
 Sabellius was of Pentapolis, and thelierefy fpread much there; 
 it was called the Pentapolitan doclrine. 
 
 PATROLL, or Patrouille, anciently Patool, in war, a 
 round, or march made by the guards, or watch, in the night- 
 time, to obferve what, paffes in the ftreets, and to fecure the 
 peace and tranquillity of the city or camp. 
 The Patrol! confifts generally of a body of five or fix men, de- 
 tached from a corps dc guard, and commanded by a feijeant. 
 
 PATRON, Patronus, a term ufed in various acceptations, 
 though all reducible to the relation of a protector, or guaidian. 
 In the church of Rome, a faint, whofe name a peifon beais, or 
 underwhofe protection he is put, and whom he takes particu- 
 lar care to invoke ; or a faint in whofe name a church, or order 
 is founded ; or 2 perfon who firft eftabiiihed it, and Who is 
 chofen protector of it ; are called the Patrons thereof. 
 Thus fat. Peter and St. Paul are the Patrons of the church of 
 St. Genivieve, St. Dionyfius the Patron of the city of Paris, St 
 George of England, St. Benedict the Patron of the Behedictines, 
 St. Michael of the armorers, St. Ignatius of the Jefuits, CsY. 
 
 Patron, Patronus, among the Romans, was an appellation 
 given to a mafter, who had freed his flave. 
 Hence, as the right, and jelation of mafter expired, that of 
 Patron commenced. 
 
 For the Romans, in giving their flaves their freedom, did not 
 defpoil themfelves of all rights and privileges in them : the law 
 ftill fubjected the freed-men to confiderable iervices and devoirs 
 toward their Patrons, the neglect whereof was always very fe- 
 verely puniftied. 
 
 The principal right which Patrons had, was that of being the~ 
 legal heirs of their freed men, if they died without lawful iffue, 
 born after their enfranchifement, and inteftate. 
 By the Paphian law it was further provided, that if the eftate of 
 the freed man were 100000 fefterces, and he had three chil- 
 
 dren, the Patron fhould have a child's portion. 
 Patron, was alfo a name which the people of Rome gave to a 
 perfon of power under whofe protection they put themfelves^ 
 The common people ufually chofe fome perfon of eminence 
 and authority, to whom they paid all kind of honour and ref- 
 pefl ; denominating themfelves his clients : and the Patron on 
 his fide granted them his credit and protection. 
 By this reciprocal relation was the Patron bound to his client 
 and the client to his Patron. 
 Patron, in the canon and common law, denotes a perfon whe* 
 founds, or endows a church or benefice, and referves to him- 
 felf the right of patronage. 
 
 The king is Patron paramount of all ecclefiaftical benefics irt 
 England. 
 
 Patron, in navigation, is anamegiven in the Mediterranean to 
 the perfon who commands the veflel and feamen ; fometimes 
 to the perfon who fleers it : the former, in other places, being 
 called majler ; the fecond pilot. 
 PATRONAGE, Patronatus, the right of giving or difpofina 
 of a church or benefice, properly belonging to the founded 
 or endower thereof. 
 
 P atronage confifts in having the nomination, or prefentation to 
 the benefice by him founded or endowed ; in having the ho- 
 nourable rights of thechurch, in being interred in the chan- 
 cel, &c. 
 
 Of Patronages, fome are lay, others ecclefiaftical. 
 Lay Patronace, is a right attached to the perfon, either as 
 founder, or. as heir of the founder ; or as pofiellbr of a fee to 
 which the Patronage is annexed. 
 EccleftaJiicaiP at RbK age, is that which a perfon is entitled to 
 by virtue of fome benefice which he holds. 
 If an ecclefiaftic have a right of Patronage on his own account, 
 independent of his ecclefiaftical capacity; this is ftill lay-patro- 
 nage. Lay-patronage again is real or perjonal. 
 Real Patronage is that attached to the glebe, or to certain' 
 
 lands and hereditaments. 
 ^Perfonal Patronage is that belonging immediately to the foun- 
 der of the church, and tranfmittible to his children and family, 
 without being annexed to any fee. I 
 
 Perfonal Patronage cannot be alienated or fold ; real may, to- 
 gether with the glebe to which it is annexed. There muft 
 ever be fome body or matter to fix it to 3 in order to its* 
 being transferred to another. 
 
P A V 
 
 P A U 
 
 The origin of the right of Patronage, we find in the io" 1 canon j 
 of the council of Orange : where it is expreffed that a founder 
 may prefent to the diocel'an the clerks he thinks proper for his 
 church. And by a law of juftinian it is ordained, that the 
 founders of churches may not put clerks in them on their 
 own authority, but only prefent them to the bifhop. 
 Some canonifts look on the right of Patronage, as a kind of 
 ecclefiaftic fervitude. — The right of Patronage fleeps, but is 
 tiot loft, while a perfon is out of the communion of the 
 church. 
 
 Arms Patronage, in heraldry, are thofe, a top whereof are 
 fome marks of fubjection and dependance. — Thus the city of 
 Paris, bears three flower de luces in chief, to (hew her fub- 
 jection to the king. 
 
 The cardinals on the top of their arms bear thofe of the pope, 
 ■who gave them the hat, to (hew that they are his creatures. _ 
 PATRONYMIC*, riATpONTMiKOE, among grammarians, is 
 applied to thofe names, which the Greeks gave to the race, or 
 lineage ; and which were taken from him who was the chief, 
 or founder thereof. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, wwriifl father;, and nopa, name. 
 Thus the defendants of ^acus, were called ^acida ; and 
 thofe of Hercules, Heraclida.-. 
 
 Thefe Patronymic names the Romans called gentihtia, which 
 
 amount to much the fame with our fur-names. 
 
 Thus, thofe of the prefent reigning 'family in France, we call 
 
 the Bourbons j thole of the late in England, the Stuarts, &(, 
 VATROQN -galley. See the article Galley. 
 PATROUILLE. See the article Patroll, 
 PATTES, in heraldry, the paws of a beaft. SeePAw. 
 PAVAGE, Pavagium, in our old law-books, money paid 
 
 towards the paving of ftreets, or high-ways. 
 PAVAN, or Pavane, a grave kind of dance, borrowed from 
 
 the Spaniards ; wherein the performers made a kind of wheel, 
 
 or tail before each other, like that of a peacock : whence the 
 
 name. 
 
 The Pavane was anciently in great repute ; and was danced by 
 gentlemen with cap andfwoid; by thofe of the long robe 
 with their gowns, by princes with their mantles, and by the 
 ladies with their gown tails trailing on the ground* 
 It was called the grand ball ; from the folemnity wherewith 
 it was performed.— To moderate its gravity, it was ufual to 
 introduce feveral flouriihes, paifades, capers, £57. by way of 
 epifodes. — Its tabiature or fcore is given at large by Thoniot 
 Aibeau in his Orchefographia. 
 PAVEMENT*, a layer or ftratum of ftone, or other matter, 
 ferving to cover and ftrengthen the ground of divers places, 
 for the more commodious walking on, or for the pafiage of 
 
 carnages. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin favimtntum, of pavtre, to 
 beat down the earth, in order to make it firm and ilrong. 
 In England, the Pavements of the grand ftrccts, £57. are ufually 
 of flint, or rubble ftone ; courts, ftablcs, kitchins, halls, 
 churches, £s7. aie paved with tiles, bricks, flags, or fire-ftone ; 
 fometimes with a kind of frce-ftonc, and rag-ftone. 
 In fome cities, e. gr. Venice, the ftreets, £57. are paved with 
 brick ; churches fometimes are paved with marble, and fome- 
 times with mofaic work, as the churches of St. Mark at Ve- 
 nice.— In France, the public roads, ftreets, courts, £57. are 
 nil paved with gres or grit, a kind of fiee-ftone. 
 In Amfterdam, and the chief cities of Holland, they call their 
 brick. Pavement the burgher-rnafters Pavement, to dirtingtiifti it 
 from the ftone or &xntPavement>vrhicii ufually takes up the mid- 
 dle of the ftreet, and which ferves for carriages: the brick which 
 borders it being deftined for the paflage of people on foot. 
 Pavements of fiee-ftone, flint, and flags, in ftreets, c37. are laid 
 dry, j. e. in a bed of fand ; thofe of courts, ftables, ground 
 rooms, £37. are laid in a mortav of lime and fand ; or in lime 
 and cement, efpecially if there be vaults or cellars underneath. 
 Some malbns, after laying a floor dry, efpecially of brick, 
 fpread a thin mortar over it ; fweeping it backwards and for- 
 wards to fill up the joints. — Thirty two ftatute bricks laid 
 flat pave a yard fquare ; lixty four of edge-wife. 
 The fquare tiles ufed in paving, called paving-bricks, are of 
 various fiz.es, ftom 6 to 12 inches fquare. 
 Pavements of chinches, £57. frequently confift of ftones of fe- 
 veral colours ; chiefly black and white, and of feveral forms, 
 but chiefly fquares, and lozanges, aitfuliy difpofed. — Indeed, 
 there needs no great variety of colours to make a furprizing 
 diverfity of figures and arrangements. M. Truchet, in the 
 memoirs of the French academy, has (hewn by the rules of 
 combination, that two fquare-ftones divided diagonally into 
 two colours, may be joined together checquerwife lixty four 
 different ways; which appears lurpnimg enough ; lince two 
 letters, or figures can only be combined two ways. 
 The reafon is, that letters only change their fituation with re- 
 gard to fiift and fecond ; the top and bottom remaining the 
 fame: but in the arrangement of thefe ftones, each admits of 
 four feveral lituations, in each whereof the other fquare may 
 be changed 16 times, which gives 64 combinations. 
 Indeed, from a further examination of thefe 64 combinations, 
 he found there were ftrictly only 32 different figures ; each 
 ^figure being lepcated twice in the fame fituation, though in a 
 
 different combination ; fo that the two only differed from each 
 other by the tianfpofition of die dark and light parts. 
 Pavement of tarrace, is that which ferves for a covering in 
 manner of a plat-form ; whether it be over a vault, or a 
 wooden floor. 
 
 Thofe over vaults are ufually ftones fquareu', and bedded in 
 lead. — Thofe on wood, called by the Latins, pavimenta eon- 
 tignata, are either ftones with beds for bridges, tiles for ceil-* 
 ing of rooms, or lays of mortar made of cement and lime, 
 with flints or bricks laid flat : as is ftill practifed by the eaftern 
 and fouthern people a-top of their houles. 
 All thofe Pavements which lie open, were called by the La- 
 tins pavimenta fubdialia. 
 Mofaic Pavement. See the article Mosaic work. 
 Tejfellated Pavement. See the article Tessellated. 
 Projection, ox per fpe Stive of a Pavement. See Perspective. 
 PAVILLION*, in architecture, fignifies a kind of turret, or 
 building ufually infulated, and contained under a Angle roof; 
 fometimes fquare, and fometimes in form of a dome: thus 
 called from the refemblance of its roof to a tent. 
 
 * The word comes from the Italian padigliane, tent, and that from 
 the Latin papitio. 
 
 Pavillions are fometimes alfo projecting pieces, in the front of 
 a building, marking the middle thereof. — Sometimes the Pa- 
 villion flanks a corner, in which cafe it is called an angular 
 Pavillion. — The Louvic is flanked with four Pavillions t The 
 Pavillions are ufually higher than the reft of the building. 
 There tixc Pavillions built in gardens, popularly called fummer- 
 houies, pleafure-houfes,£57.— Some caftles or forts confift only 
 of a fingle PavilUon. 
 Pavillion, in war, denotes a tent railed on pofts, to lodge un- 
 der in the fummer-time. See Tent. 
 Pavillion is alio fometimes applied to flags, colours, enfigns, 
 ftandards, banners, £57; all which, authors ufually confound 
 with one another. 
 
 The cuftom of bearing pointed Pavillions, as at prefent, firft: 
 came from the Mahometan Arabs, at the time when they con- 
 quered Spain.— Till then, all colours were ftretched on crofs 
 pieces like church banners; whence they were called in Latin, 
 vexilla quaft vtBlfo, a diminutive of vela, fails. 
 The pirates all along the coafts of the Atlantic artd Barbary, 
 bear hexagonal Pavillions, gules, charged with a little Turk, 
 dretTed in his turban ; though contrary to their law, which, 
 prohibits the making any image of a man; from an opinion 
 that thofe who make the figure here, will be obliged to fur- 
 nifh a foul for it at the day of judgment, or in default thereof 
 be damned. 
 
 But this portrait, it feems, is that of Hali Sulficar, Mahomet's 
 fon-in-law, to whofc party the Africans adhere : and who ap- 
 pointed his picture to be reprefented on their banners : ima- 
 gining himfelf fo terrible to the chriftians, that the mere fight 
 of his image Would put them to flight j as we are told by 
 Lcunclavilis. 
 
 Pa vrLLioN, in heraldry, denotes a covering inform of a tent, 
 W'hich inveftc, or wraps up the armories of divers kings, and 
 fovereigns depending only on God and their fword. 
 The French heralds hold, that none but fovercign monarchs 
 may bear the Pavillion intire, and in all its parts. 
 The Pavillion confifts of two parts: the top, which is the 
 chapeau, or coronet ; and the curtain which makes the mantle. 
 —-Thofe who are elective, or have any dependance, lay the 
 heralds, muft take off the heady and retain nothing but the 
 curtains. 
 
 The ufe of Pavillions and mantles in armories is derived from 
 the ancient lambrequins, which are fometimes found ftretched 
 out in form of coverings ; and tucked back on either fide. 
 Others will have it derived from the ancient tournaments, 
 wherein were cxpofed the arms of the knight in rich tapeftry 
 work, on tents and Pavillions which the chiefs of the quadrils 
 planted to Ihelter themfelves in, till the time of entring the lifts. 
 PAVIOUR's level. See the article Level. 
 PACL's art. See the article Art. 
 Hermits of St. Paul. See the article Hermit. 
 PAULIAN1STS, Paulianist-s:, a feet of hereticks, fo called 
 from their founder Paulus Samofatenus, a native of Samofata, 
 elected bifhop of Antioch in 262. 
 
 ThisHerefiarch denied the diftinction of perfons in the trinity, 
 with Sabellius : and taught with Artcmonius, that the word 
 defcended into Jefus ; and that after having performed by him 
 what he purpoied to do, he re-afcended to his father. 
 He diftinguiftied two perfons in J. C. the Word, and theChrift: 
 The latter, according to him, was only God in regard of his 
 holinefs: accordingly, he did not baptize in the name of the 
 Father and the Son, £57. For which reafon the council of 
 Nice ordered thofe baptized by him to be rebaptized. 
 Being condemned byDionyfius Alexandrinus in a council, he 
 abjured his errors, to avoid depofition; but foon after he return- 
 ed them, and was actually depofed by another council in 270* 
 PAULICIANS*, a branch of the ancient Manichees, fo called 
 from their chieftain, one Paulus, an Armenian, in the fevesith 
 
 century. 
 
 * They were alfo called fublicani, populicmii, and pobluam. 
 
 The Paulidans, by their number, and the countenance of the 
 
 empeigr, 
 
PAY 
 
 emperor Nicephorus, became formidable to all the eaft. To 
 the other opinions of the Manichees, they are laid to have 
 added an abhorrence of the crofs ; and to have employed it in 
 the moft fcrvile offices, out of defpight. 
 ' The emprefs Theodora, tutorefs of the emperor Michael in 
 845, would oblige them either to be converted, or to quit the 
 empire : Upon which feveral of them were put to death, and 
 more retired among the Saracens but they were not all ex- 
 terminated. 
 
 Towards the end of the IX'h century, they were able to main- 
 tain war againft the emperor Bafilj and even preached long 
 after this in Bulgaria ; from whence they fpread into feveral 
 other parts of Europe. 
 PAVO, in aftronomy, a fouthem couftcUation called the Pea- 
 cock. 
 
 PAUPER, in law. See Forma pauperis. 
 
 PAUSARY, Pausarius, in ancient Rome, an officer, who 
 in the folemn pomps, or proccfllons of thegoddeis His, direc- 
 ted the flops, or paufes. 
 
 In thefe ceremonies, there were frequent ftands at places pre- 
 pared for the purpofe; wherein the ifatues of Ifis and Anubis 
 were fet down ; much after the manner of refling places in the 
 proceflion of the holy facrament in the Romiih chuich. — 
 Thefe refts were called manfwnes j the regulation whereof was 
 the office of thefe Pai/farii. 
 
 From an infcription quoted by Salmafius it appears, that the 
 Romans had a kind of college, or corporation of Paujaries. 
 Pausary, Pausarius, was alio a name given to an officer in 
 'the Roman gallies, who gave the fignal to the rowers, and 
 marked the times and paufes ; to the end they might act in 
 concert, and row all together. 
 
 This was always done with a mufical inftrument: Hyginus fays, 
 that in the flap Argo, Orpheus did the office with his lyre. 
 PAUSE * ? a flop or ceflation of fpeaking, finging, playing, or 
 the like. 
 
 *The word is formed from the h? tin fan/a, which we find ufed in 
 Lucretius and Pkutus in the fame fenfe. 
 The ufe of pointing in grammar, is to make the proper Paufes 
 in certain places. 
 
 There is a Paufe in the middle of each veife : in a hemeftic, it 
 is called the reft, or repofe. 
 Paufes or filences aie the fame in poetry, as the odd refts in mn 
 fic, which ferve to make the odd notes even 10. St. Auftin 
 inftructs us how thefe paufes aie to be made according to the 
 laws of mufic. 
 
 Pause, in mufic, a character of filence, and reft ; called alfo by 
 fome, a mute figure; becaufe it thews that fome part or perfon 
 is to be filent, while the others continue the fong. 
 
 Paufes are ufed either for the fake of fome fugue or imitation, or 
 to give a breathing time, or to give room for another voice, (sc. 
 to anfwerwhat this part fung ; as in dialogues, echoes, &e. 
 The ancients had two kinds of Paufes : the one called by the 
 Italians, initial Paufes : becaufe firft placed at the beginning of 
 the piece, though fometimes after, and regularly before the 
 circle O, or the femi-circle C. — They had alfo Paufes to mark 
 filences, after the characters of the meafure, and in the courfe 
 of the piece. 
 
 General Pause, denotes a general ceflation, or filence of all 
 - the parts. 
 
 Demi Pause, a ceflation for the time of half a meafure. 
 
 They alfo fay, Paufe of a minim, paufe of a femihreve, long paufe, 
 and paufes ef a eroma, and femi-croma ; which are names given by 
 the Italians,to exprefs the different values,or durationsof Paufes. 
 For the figns or characters of Paufes. See Character. 
 
 PAW, Patte, in heraldry, the fore-foot of a beaft cut offfhort.— 
 If the whole leg be cut off, it is called Gambe. — ■ lAons-pazvs 
 are much ufed in armoury. 
 
 PAWN-Arfliftr. See the article Broker. 
 
 PAWNAGE. See the article Pannage. 
 
 PAX Dei. See the article Peace of God. 
 
 Pax Ecclefia. See the article Sanctuary. 
 
 pAx Regis *. See the article Pe a c e of the king 
 
 * Longe debet ejfe Pax Regis a parte fua, ubi refidens fuerit , a qualuor 
 partibus loci illiits, hoc eft qua/nor inilliaria C? ti es quarentente, (s 
 IHW acree latitudine, (S tion/em pedes, & noDcm palm.?, (s maiem 
 grana hordti t (Sc. Leg. Edv. ConfelT. 
 
 Ad Pacem redire, to reftore to the peace, is to reverfe an out- 
 lawry ; whereby a perfon is reftored to the benefit of the 
 king's peace *. 
 
 * Rex poteft dare quod fuum cjl, hoc eft pacem funm, quam utlagatus 
 nmifit. Brafton. Lib. 3. 
 
 PAYMENT, the difcharge of a debt, either by money really 
 told, or by bills of exchange, (3c. Sec Deet, tsY. 
 
 prompt Payment, a popular term in England and Amflerdam : 
 it is when a debtor acquits what he owes before the expiration 
 of the term granted by the creditor. 
 
 The ordinal y difcount for prompt Payment on moft merchan- 
 dizes is 1 per cent. 
 Pay, in the fea-Ianguage. The feamen fay, pay more cable ■> i. e. 
 let out more cable. See Cable. 
 
 Pay cheap-, is ufed in turning the anchor cut of the boat, to 
 denote, turn it out faflcr. 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 PEA 
 
 PEACE, Pax, in its general unification, ftands in oppofitiorl 
 
 to war. . 
 Peace, in our law-books, Lie. is reftrained to a quiet, and in- 
 
 ortenlive carnage towaids the king, and his people. Lamb. 
 
 Eirettareh. 
 
 Where any man (lands in danger of harm from another, and 
 makes oath thereof before a juftice of the peace ; he mult be 
 fecured by good bond, which is called hinding to the peace. 
 Time of Peace, is when the courts of juftice aie open, and 
 the judges and minifters of the fame may by law protect men 
 from wrong and violence, and diftribute juftice to all. See 
 Coke on Lift. 
 
 Peace of the king, Pax Regis, mentioned in the Stat. 6 Ric. II. 
 fit. is that fecurity which the king promifes his fiibjects, and 
 Others taken into his protection ; both for life and goods. See 
 Prote c Tr oN. 
 
 Peace of God and the church, Pax Dei C9' ectlefta, mentioned in 
 our ancient law books, is that reft and ceilation which the 
 king's Subjects had from trouble and fuit of law, between the 
 teims. 
 
 Peace of the plough, that whereby the plough, plough-tackle, 
 and plough-cattle, are fecured from diftfeiles. See Fitzh. 
 Nat. Br. 
 
 Thus fairs may be faid tohave their Peace, becaufe no man' may 
 
 be troubled in them for any debt contracted elfewhere. 
 Homage of 'Peace. See the article Homage. . 
 Clerk of the Peace. See Clerk of the Peace. 
 VEACrl-Water. See the article Water. 
 PEACOCK, Pavo, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the fouth- 
 
 ern hemifphere ; unknown to the ancients ; and not vifible in 
 
 our northern parts of the world. 
 PEACoCK'r-5rf/V. See the article Tail. 
 PEAN, in heraldry, is when the field of a coat of arms is fable, 
 
 and the powdering?, or. 
 PERCH fijhing. See the article Fishing. 
 PEARL, Perla, or Margarita, in natural hiftory, a hard, 
 
 white, mining body, ufually loundilb, found in a teftace- 
 
 ous fifh, refembling an oyfter; and ranked in the number 
 
 of Gems. 
 
 The fitlr wherein the Pearls are found, is three or four times 
 the fize of the common oyfters ; and is called by naturalifts, 
 
 the concha margaritifera. 
 
 Each fifh ordinarily yields ten or twelve Pearls ; though an 
 author who treats well of their production, pretends to. have 
 feen an hundred and fifty in the fame fifh ; but thofe in diffe- 
 rent degrees of perfection. The moft perfefl drop out firft ; 
 the reft remaining longer at the bottom of the fhell. 
 The formation of Petals has puzzled both ancient and mo- 
 dern naturalifts ; and given occafion to a great number of hy- 
 pothefes, many of them wild and extravagant enough. Pliny, 
 and from him Solinus, &e. will have them to be formed of 
 the dew : the fifh, fay they, rifes every morning to the furface 
 of the water, and there opens its fhell, to imbibe the dew of 
 heaven ; which like a liquid iW/, infinuating into the body of 
 the;W-oyfter, fixes by its falts, and there alfumes the colour, 
 hardnefs, and form of Pearl; as fome other liquors are con- 
 verted into cryftals in the earth ; or thejuice of flowers into 
 honey and wax in the body of the bee : But this, how plaufible 
 foever, is apparently falfe : for the /W-oyftcrs grow faft to 
 the rocks, and no body ever yet faw any of them appear on 
 the furface of the water. 
 
 Others will have Pearls to be the eggs of the fifties they are 
 found in : but neither does this conlill with the phrenomena. 
 For Pearls are found throughout the whole fubftancc of the 
 oyfter, in the head, the coat that covers it, the circular mufcles 
 that terminate it in the Stomach,and in general in all the flelhy 
 and mufculous parts; fo that there is no appearancethatPcar/i 
 mould be in the oyfters, what the eggs and fpawn are in fowls 
 and fillies. For befide that there is no particular place deftined 
 for theirformation ; anatomifts have not been able to find 
 any tiling- about them that bears any relation to what paffes 
 in this refpedt in other animals— This indeed may be faid, 
 that as in a hen there is an infinity of little eggs, in form of 
 feed; fome whereof grow and ripen, whilft'the reft continue 
 long nearly in the fame date , fo in each oyfter there is ufually 
 found one_POT-/much larger, and that ripens much falter than 
 the reft. This Pearl fometimes grows big enough to hinder 
 the oyfter from Ihutting, in which cafe the filh tots and dies. 
 Others, with M. Geortioythe younger, tstnkPearls among the 
 bezoars; as comprehending under that clafs all ltones formed 
 in layers or ftrata in the bodies of animals. See Bezoar. 
 M. Reamur, has a very curious piece on the fubjetftof the 
 formation both of the (hells and Pearls, in the memoiisof the 
 French academy, anno 1717- He obferves that Pearls aits 
 formed like other (tones in animals, as thofe e. gr. in the blad- 
 der, kidneys, CSV. and that they are apparently the effects of a 
 difeafe of the fifh. — In effect, they are all formed of a juice 
 extravafated out of fome broken ved'cls, and detained, and 
 fixed among the membranes. 
 
 To evince the poffibility of this, he (hews that the (hells of 
 fea-fidies, as well as thofe of fnails, C5V. arc wholly formed of 
 8 L a glu- 
 
PEA 
 
 PEA 
 
 a glutinous ftony matter, ouzing out of the body of the ani- 
 mal. Now it is no wonder that an animal, which has veilels 
 wherein circulates a fufficient quantity of ftony juice to build, 
 thicken and extend a /hell, fliould have enough to form ftones 
 alfo, in cafe thejuice deftined for the growth of the /hell (hall 
 chance to overflow, and burft forth in any cavity of the body, 
 or among the membranes. 
 
 To confirm this fyftem he obferves, that the inner furface of 
 the common Pearl-muk\e, found on the coafts of Provence, is 
 of a Pearly or mother of Pearl colour, from one part of its ex- 
 tent, which he determines, to another ; after which it becomes 
 reddifh : now there are Pearls of two colours found in the (hell ; 
 and the colours of the Pearls are precifely the fame with thofe 
 of the /hell ; nay, more, each kind of coloured Pearl is found 
 in the correfponding coloured part of the /hell; which /hews, 
 that in the fame place wherein the tranfpiration of a certain 
 juice had formed, and would have continued to form a coat, 
 or layer of fliell of a certain colour ; the vcftels which convey- 
 ed that juice being broke, there is formed a little mafs or col- 
 lection of thejuice, which hardening, becomes a Pearl of the 
 fame colour with the part of the /hell to which it correfponds. 
 Add to this, that the filver, or Pearl-colovixeft part of the fliell is 
 formed of ftrata, or layers over one another, like an onion j 
 and the reddi/h part of little cylindrical, fliort fibres applied 
 againfl; one another. The Pearls of the two colours have alfo 
 this difference of texture ; not but they are both compofed of 
 concentric couches ; but thofe of the reddi/h Pearls are much 
 lefs fenfible ; and, befidcs, they have threads, which, like radii, 
 proceed from their centre to their circumference. — Thefe cir- 
 cumftances feem effectually to determine the formation of 
 Pearls, and to eftablifli the new fyftem beyond contradiction. 
 As to the formation of the Pearl-fijli, though it is the molt na- 
 tural opinion, that this fiih, like all others, produces eggs or 
 fpawn, whofe exterior furface at firft is foft and vifcous, but 
 changes and hardens by degrees into a /hell ; yet we muff not 
 leave unmention'd the popular, tlio' erroneous hypothecs of 
 the Paravas, viz, that in rainy weather the brooks of the neigh- 
 bouring lands that empty thcmfelves all along the coaffs, run 
 near two leagues on the furface of the fca without mixing there- 
 with. For a while, the fufpended water, they fay, retains its 
 natural colour and fweetnefs ; but at length, the heat of the fun 
 condenfing it, forms it into a kind of light tranfparent froth ; 
 this done, it prefently divides into an infinity of parts, each 
 whereof appears as if animated; moving this way and that 
 like little infects. The fifties fometimes catch at them as they 
 pafs by : but they foon abandon them. By degrees their fldn 
 thickening and hardening, they at length become heavy enough 
 to fink to the bottom, and affiime the figure of Pearl oyfters. 
 The perfection of Pearls, whether round, in form of pears, or 
 olives, or irregular, confifls chiefly in the luffre and clearnefs 
 of the colour ; which jewellers call the water. There are 
 fomc whofe water is white ; which are thofe moft: effeemed 
 in Europe. The water of others borders on the yellow, which 
 fome Indians and Arabs prefer to the white. Others are of a 
 lead-colour, others border on black, and others are quite black. 
 They are all liable to change with wearing : in 80 or 100 years 
 they ufually become of little value ; efpecially the white ones, 
 which often turn yellow, and fpoil in 40 or 50 years time. 
 The difference of colours doubtlefs arifes from the different 
 parts of the oyfter wherein they are formed. When the feed 
 happens to be thrown into the mefentery or liver, or the parts 
 correfponding thereto, it is no wonder if the impurities of 
 the blood change the natural white. 
 
 In Europe, Pearls are fold by the carat-weight, the carat con- 
 taining four grains. — In Afia, the weights ufed for Pearls are 
 different, in different ftates. 
 
 The term Pearl is only properly applied to what grows indepen- 
 dent of the fliell. — The lheil itfelf is rather call'd naker of Pearl 
 Thofe pieces which have grown thereto, and have been fince 
 feparated by the addrefs of the workman, are called wens of 
 Pearls ; which are in effect nothing but roundiffi excrefcences, 
 or pieces of the /hell, though frequently ufed for real Pearl. 
 Pearls, F. Bouhours obferves, have this advantage over pre- 
 cious ffones dug out of rocks, ISc. that the latter owe their 
 lu/tre to the induftry of men ; nature only, as it were, hews 
 them out and leaves the fini/hing of them to art: but the 
 former are born with that beautiful water which gives them 
 their value. They are found perfectly polifhed in the abyffes 
 of the fea; and nature has put the laff hand to them e're they 
 are feparated from their mother. 
 
 Pearls of unufual figures, ;'. e. neither round, nor in the pear 
 form, are called baroguas, and ours Scstcb-pearls : thofe of unufual 
 fixes, are called parangons; fuch were that of Cleopatra valued 
 by Pliny at centies H S. or 80000 /. fterling ; that 'brought in 
 1574 to PhilipII. of the fize of a pigeon's egg,- valued at 14400 
 ducats ; that of the emperor Rudolph, mentioned by Boetius, 
 called la ptregrina, or the incomparable, of the ftiape of a 
 mufcade pear, and weighing 30 carats, and that mentioned by 
 Tavernier, in the hands of the emperor of Perfia, in 1633, 
 bought of an Arab for 32000 tomans, which at 3/. gs. the 
 toman, amounts 11 0400/. fferling. 
 - Pearls are of fome ufe in medicine; but it is only the fmall- 
 
 eft fort, called feed of Pearls that are there ufed. The quality 
 required, is, that they be white, clear, and tranfparent ; and 
 truly oriental. They ferve to make cordial potions, formerly 
 much valued, but now fallen much from their ancient repu- 
 tation ; and fcarce ordered by any but charletans. 
 The ladies alfo ufe certain preparations of Pearls, as they are 
 made to believe, for their complexions ; fuch as the whites of 
 Pearls, flowers, eflences, fpirits, tinctures, csV. of Pearl-, but 
 they are all apparently deceits. 
 Oitnee Pearls. See the article Ounce. 
 
 PEA-RL-f/lieries. — Pearls are caught in the feas of the Eaff-Indies j 
 
 in thofe of America; and in fome parts of Europe. 
 Pe a r l -ffberies of the Eafl, are — 1°. The ifland of Bahren, or 
 Baharem, in the Pcrfian gulph. This the Portugueze were 
 mafteis of while they held Ormus andMafcata; but it has 
 been returned to theSophi of Perfia, fince the time that prince, 
 with the afliffance of the Englilh, took from them Ormus; 
 and the Arabs Mafcata. 
 
 2°. The fiihery of Catifa, on the coaft: of Arabia Felix, over - 
 againfl: Bahren, 
 
 3 0 . That of Manar, a fea-port in the ifle of Ceylon. The 
 Pearls here fiflied, are the fineft in all the caff for their water 
 and roundnefs ; but they fcldom exceed four caratsi 
 Laftly, there arc Pearls fifhed on the coaft of Japan ; but they 
 are coarfe and irregular, and little valu'd. 
 The Pearls of Bahicn and Catifa, are thofe commonly fold in 
 the Indies ; they border a little on the yellow, but the eaffern 
 people do not value them the lefs for it ; they effeem it she 
 lign of their being ripe and mature, and are peiiuadcd, that 
 thofe which have this yellowi/h tincture naturally, never 
 change their colour ; and that on the contrary, thofe of the 
 white water do not hold above 30 years e're the Pearl 
 aflumes a filthy yellow colour, by reafon of the heat of the 
 climate, and the fweat of the perfons who wear them. 
 American PEAL-fj/beries, are all in the great gulph of Mexico, 
 along the coaft of the Terra-firma. There are five of them— 
 i°. The fiihery of Cubagna, an ifland rive leagues from New 
 Andaiufia, in 10 deg. i north lat. 
 2°. That of the ifland Marguerites, or Pearl ifland. 
 3°. That of Comogote near the Terra-firma. 
 4 0 . That of the river De la Hach, called la Re?icheria. 
 5°. That of St. Martha fixty leagues from the river de la Hach. 
 The Pearls of thefe three laft filheries are ufually of a good 
 weight; but ill formed, and of a livid-water. Thofe of Cu- 
 bagna feldom exceed 5 carats ; but are found in abundance. 
 But the greatcft quantity, and the fineft, both with regard to 
 weight and water, are thofe of the ifland Marguerits. 
 PEAKL-fi/bery in Chinefe Tartary, is near the city Nipehoa, fitu- 
 ate on a lake of the fame name : the Pearls here are lefs beau- 
 tiful than thofe of Baharem ; and the fi/hery lefs plentiful. It 
 was this fi/hery that occafioned the war between the Chinefe 
 and Mufcovites, terminated toward the end of the laft cen- 
 tury, by the jefuites Pereira and Gerbillon ; when the lake, 
 which is of great extent,' was divided between the two nati- 
 ons, each whereof had pretended to the whole. 
 There are fome Pearl filheries alfo in the South-Sea, but they 
 are very incon/iderable. 
 PEARL-fjkries of Europe, are in fome places on the coaffs of 
 Scotland, and in a river of Bavaria : but the Pearls found here 
 are no ways comparable to thofe of the Eaft-indies, or of 
 America ; though they ferve for necklaces, which arc fold 
 fometimes for a thoufand crowns and upwards. 
 Manner of fijbing for Pearls in the Eaft-indies. — There are two 
 feafons of Pearl-fijbing in the year; the firft in March and 
 April, the fecond in Auguft and September : the more rain 
 there falls in the year, the more plentiful are the filheries. 
 In the opening of the feafon, there appear fometimes two 
 hundred and fifty barks on the banks. In the larger barks are 
 two divers, in the fmaller, one. Each bark puts off from 
 lhore e're fun- rife, by a land-breeze, which never fails ; and 
 returns again by a fea-breeze, which fucceeds it about noon. 
 As foon as the barks are arrived at the place where the nth lie, 
 and have caff anchor, each diver binds a ftone fix inches 
 thick, and a foot long under his body ; which is to feive him 
 as ballaft, and prevent his being driven away by the motion 
 of the water; and to enable him to walk more ffeadily among 
 the waves. 
 
 Befide this, they tye another very heavy ffone to one foot, 
 whereby they are funk to the bottom of the fea in a moment. 
 And as the oyfters are ufually ftrongly faftened to the rocks r 
 they arm their fingers with leathern mittens, to prevent their 
 being wounded in fcraping them violently off ; and fome even 
 carry an iron rake for the purpofe. 
 
 Laftly, each diver carries down with him a large net, in manner 
 of a fack, tied to his neck by a long cord, the other endwhereof 
 is faftened to the fide of the bark. The fack is intended for 
 the reception of the oyffers gathered from the rock, and the 
 cord is to pull up the diver when his bag is full, or when he 
 wants air. 
 
 In this equipage he precipitates himfelf, fometimes above 60 
 foot under water. As he has no time to lofe there, he is no 
 fooner arrived at the bottom;, than he begins to run from fide to 
 
 fide, 
 
PEA 
 
 PEA 
 
 fide, fometimes on a fand, fometimes on a clayey earth, and 
 fometimes among the points of rocks ; tearing off the oyfters 
 he meets withal, and cramming them into his budget. 
 At whatever depth the divers be, the light is fo great, that 
 they eahly fee whatever paiTes in the fea, with the fame clear- 
 nefs as on land. And to their confirmation, they fometimes 
 fee monftrous rimes, from which, all their addrefs in mudding 
 the water, ts'c. will not always fave them ; but they become 
 their prey : and of all the perils of the fiGiery, this is one of 
 the greateft and moft ufual. 
 
 The beft divers will keep under water near half an hour 3 the 
 reft do not ftay lefs than a quarter. During which time, they 
 hold their breath without the ufe of oils, or any other liquors ; 
 only acquiring the habit by long practice. 
 When they find themfelves ftraitened, they pull the rope to 
 which the bag is fattened, and hold fait by it with both hands ; 
 when the people in the bark, taking the fignal, heave them up 
 into the air, and unload them of their fi/h, which is fometimes 
 five hundred oyfters, fometimes not above fifty. 
 Some of the divers need a moment's refpite to recover breath ; 
 others jump in again inftantly, continuing this violent exercile 
 without intermifiion, for many hours. 
 
 On the fhore they unload their barks, and lay their oyfters in 
 an infinite number of little pits, dug four or five foot fquare, in 
 the fand ; railing heaps of fand over them to the height of a 
 man, which, at a diftance, look like an army ranged in battle. 
 In this condition they are left, till the rain, wind, and fun. 
 have obliged them to open, which foon kills them. Upon 
 this the fkfti rots and dries, and the Paris, thus difengaged. 
 tumble into the pit upon taking the oyfters out. 
 The flefh of the fifh is excellent, and if what fome naturalifts 
 maintain be true, viz. that the Pearls aie ftones, formed thde 
 by the ill conftitution of the body, as fometimes happen in 
 men : this difeafe does not alter the humours : at leaft, the 
 Paravas, who eat them, do not find any difference between 
 thofe that have Pearls, and thofe that have none. 
 After clearing the pits of the groffer filth, they lift the fand fe- 
 veral times, to feparate the Pearls. But what care foever they 
 take herein, they always lofe a great many. After cleaning and 
 drying &e Pearls, they are paffed through a kind of fieve, ac- 
 cording to their fizes. The fmalleft are fold as feed Pearls ; the 
 reft are put up by auftion, and fold to the higheft bidder. 
 Mannor of fijhing for Pearl in the Weft-Indies.— The feafon 
 for fifhing there is ufually from Oftober to March. In this 
 time there let out from Carthagena ten or twelve barks, under 
 the convoy of a man of war called Larmadilla. Each bark 
 has two or three Oaves for divers. 
 
 Among the barks there is one called Capitana ; to which all 
 the reft are obliged to bring at night what they have caught in 
 the day, to prevent frauds. The divers never live long, by 
 reafon of the great hardlhips they fuftain ; continuing fome- 
 times under water above a quarter of an hour. — The method 
 is the fame as in the Eaft-India fifheries. 
 The Indians knew the value of their Pearls before the difco- 
 very of America; and when the Spaniards arrived there, they 
 found great quantities ftored up, which the Americans let great 
 value on. But they were almoft all imperfea, and their wa- 
 ter yellow and fmoaky, by reafon they ufed fire in opening 
 the fifties. In the Didlionnaire de commerce, is a table of the va- 
 lue of Pearls, communicated to the author by an able hand 
 As Pearls make a very curious article in commerce, and a; 
 their value is a thing little known among us ; we Ihall hers 
 give the reader an abridgment of the fame, reduced to our mo- 
 ney on the foot of i s. 6 d. fterling the French livre, or 4 s 
 6 d. the French crown. 
 
 Value of all kinds of Pearls, with regard to their diprenl 
 weights^ 
 
 ■ grains, or two carats, 
 
 Of 4 grains, or one carat 
 Of 5 grains 
 Of 6 grains 
 Of 7 grains 
 Of 8 ; ■ 
 Of 9 grains 
 Of 10 grains 
 Of 11 grains 
 Of 13 grains 
 Of 15 grains 
 Of 17 grains 
 Of 20 grains, or 5 carats 
 Of 22 grains _ 
 Of 24 grains, or 6 carats 
 Of 26 grains 
 Of 28 grains, or 7 carats 
 Of 32 grains, or 8 carats 
 Of 36 grains, or 9 Carats 
 Of 40 grains, or 10 carats 
 
 ;, 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 CO 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 OI 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 02 
 
 Of 
 
 0 
 
 03 
 
 01 
 
 0 
 
 O4 
 
 to 
 
 0 
 
 06 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 08 
 
 °s 
 
 0 
 
 09 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 *3 
 
 °5 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 2 7 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 37 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 52 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 82 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 99 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 150 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 225 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 262 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 300 
 
 do 
 
 0 
 
 d. per »r„ 
 
 Seed Pearls. 
 
 Seed Pearls not perforated, fit for 
 
 grinding, are worth 
 Fine feed Pearls perforated for 
 
 fmall necklaces or embroidery, 
 Ditto a little larger, 
 
 /. s. d. per oz. 
 00 09 
 
 01 
 
 Ragged or irregular Pearls. 
 
 Of 500 to the ounce, are worth 03 
 
 3°o 06 
 
 '5° 11 
 
 100 ,8 
 60 
 30 
 
 33 
 75 
 
 Regular round Pearls. 
 
 One of J a grain is worth o 
 
 Of a grain 0 
 
 Of a grain and half o 
 
 Of 2 grains o 
 
 Of 2 grains and half o 
 
 Of 3 grains q 
 
 As to Pearls in form of pears, though equally peifeS, and of 
 equal weight with the round ones, their value is much infe- 
 rior : however, when two are found that match well, their va- 
 lue is lels but by one third. 
 Falfe Pearls are counterfeit or fiflitious Pearls, refembling the 
 true ones in water or colour : populaily called beads. 
 I here anciently were only made of glafs; with a kind of 
 coating of quick-hlver vrithinfides aftei wards they ufed wax, 
 covered over with a tine biilliant rim glue. 
 There has finee been invented in France, another manner of 
 making mem, lo near the natural ones in Luftre and water, that 
 they deceive a good eye. Tllefe are what the ladies now gene- 
 rally wear in aefea of true Pearl; fmall necklaces whereof 
 they deipife ; and the large ones are generally too dear. 
 Method of mahr.gfalje Fr arls. — This cuiious invention is ow- 
 ing to the bicur Janin ; and is the more to be valued, in that, it 
 IS not only very Ample, but prevents the ill effects of thofe 
 falle Pearls made with quick-filver within, or with fifh glue 
 without. 
 
 That ingenious artift having obferved, that the fcalcs of a little 
 h(h called xtaibai, found plentifully in the river Marne, had 
 not only all the luftre of the real Pearl; but that after beating 
 them to powder in water, they returned to their former bal- 
 ance upon drying ; he bethought hnnleif of letting a pie™, or 
 little mafs the.eot in the cavity of a bc=d, or grain of girafol, 
 which is a kind of counterfeit opal made of glafs, and border- 
 ing much on tne colour of Pearl. The u.fficulty was to get 
 
 bead ' Wh ™ IO fpread '* eqlu " y throu S hout the 
 A little glafs tube fix or feven inches long, and a line at-d half 
 in diameter, but very (harp at one end, and a little crooked, 
 lerved tor tile mtioducing of the matter, by blowing it with the 
 mouth after having taken up a drop of this mixture with the 
 pointed extremity of the tube ; and to fpread it throughout 
 tne inner circumference, he contented himfelf to (hake it gent- 
 ly a long time, in a little ofier basket lined with pape, , 
 ihepulvenfed (bales, fattened by this motion in tSTinfide of 
 he bead, refume their luflie as they dry. To mcreafe this 
 luftre in winter, they lay the beads in a hair fieve, or a bol ! 
 ing-doth which they fufpend to the ceiling, and under it, at 
 fix foot diftance, they lay heaps of hot allies. In rummer 
 they fufpend them in the lame manner, but without any fire 
 1 he Pearl,, thus well d;,cd, become very brillant ; and no- 
 thing remains but to (top up the apetture, which is done bv 
 melted wax, conveyed into it with a tube like that ufed in 
 mtioducing the peceder'd (tales. 
 
 After clearing off the fuperfuous wax, they perforate the' 
 Pearls with a needle, and firing them ; and thus they com- 
 mence a necklace. 3 
 Mother /Pearl, is the (hell not of theiW oyrter, but of 
 another fea h!h of the oyfter kind. 
 
 This (heU within-fide is very lmocth, and polifhed, and of the 
 wh.tenefs and water of Pearl itfelf ; and it has the fame luftre 
 without-fide, after the fiift laminae or leaves which mak<- the 
 outer coat of this rich fhell fifh, have been cleared off with 
 aqua fortis and the lapidaries mill. It is ufed in inlayed 
 works, and in feveral toys, as muff-boxes, SV. 
 Wens of Pram are certain excrefcences, or prominent places, 
 in form of half Pearl. t; fometimes found in the bottoms of the 
 Pearl (hells. 
 
 The lapidaries have the addrefs to faw off thefe protuberances 
 
 to join them together, and ro ufe them in feveral works of 
 
 jewelry, as if they were really Pearls. 
 Pearl, in heraldry, is ufed by fuch as blazon with precious- 
 
 ftones inftead of colour and metals, for argent, or white. 
 Pearl, pin, or uieb, in medicine, an unnatural fpeck, or thick 
 
 film over the eye. See Pa nnus. 
 Pearled crowns. See the aiticle Crowh. 
 PEARS. See the articles Fruit, and Dwarf pear'. 
 PECCANT, in medicine, an epithet given to the humours of 
 
 the body, when they offend eithei in quantity or quality, / /. 
 
 when they aie either morbid, or in too great abundance, 
 
 Moil 
 
PEC 
 
 Mod difeafes arife from peccant humours, which are either tra 
 be corrected by alteratives and fpecificks, or elfe to be eva- 
 
 PECK a mcafure, or vefl'el ufed in meafuring grains, pulle, 
 and the like dry fubflances. 
 
 The dandard, or WinchefterPfrf, contains two gallons ; eacli 
 gallon of corn weighing about eight pound Troy. 
 Four Peels make a'bulhel ; four bufheis a comb or carnock. 
 Befides the general, or Wincheder Puis, there'are local Peeks, 
 containing fome more, fome lei's; as, the Lancafter Peck con- 
 taining fix gallons, &c< 
 
 PECQUETS dull, in anatomy, the thoracic duct 
 from its difcoverer Pecquet. 
 
 PECTEN arboris, in botany, is the grain of the wood ot any 
 tree. 
 
 Pecten, in anatomy, is ufed by fome authors for the pubes, 
 lower part of the hypogadrium ; ufually covered with hair. 
 
 PECTINEUS, orPECTiN/eus, in anatomy, the third ot the 
 fifteen mufcles of the thigh ; fo called, becaufe it has its or 
 gin in the fore part of the os pectinis.— See Tab. Anat. (Myol) 
 
 no 2. 71 "7 C 
 
 Its infertion is in the thigh, under the left trochanter. The 
 with the pibas and iliacus, draw the thigh forwards 
 
 thus called 
 
 SeeO 
 See 
 
 pellineu. . 
 
 and of confequence bend it. 
 PECT1NIS or, in anatomy, the fame with os pubis. 
 PuBts. 
 
 PECTORAL, fomething relating to the bread, pectus. 
 Breast. 
 
 In the Romifh church, bilhops, and regular abbots wear a 
 peltoral crofs, i. e. a little crofs of gold, hanging from the 
 neck down the bread. 
 
 Pectoral tantiemes, or Amply Pectorals, are remedies pro- 
 per to drenethen and relieve the bread ; or medicines intend- 
 ed againd difeafes of the bread, and lungs. 
 Their ordinary intention is either to attenuate, or to thicken 
 the humours of. thole parts, which caufe coughing, est. and 
 render them fit to be expeflorated, or fpit out. 
 
 PECTORALW/nf. See the article Wine. 
 
 PECTORALE, or Pectoral, in the Jewifii law. See Ra- 
 tionale. . 
 
 PECTORALIS, in anatomy, a mufcle which poddies almolt 
 the whole bread, and moves the arm forwards. 
 It arifes by a fleihy and femicircular beginning, from the cla- 
 vicula, dernum, and cartilages of the fix fupcrior ribs ; and 
 covering a great part of the bread, is inferred by a fliort, but 
 ftrong and bi oad tendon into the upper and inner part of the 
 humerus, between the biceps and deltoidcs. See Tali. Aaal. 
 (Myol)/7,j. i. a. 22. 
 
 Its fibres, near their infertion, decuflate one another. 1 hole 
 which come from the clavicle, or firfi ribs, are on the lower 
 fide of the tendon, and tliofe from the inferior ribs on the 
 upper fide of the tendon. 
 
 Naturalids obferve a fpecial mark of providence in the fize 
 and drength of the Plkiral mufcle in different animals. It is 
 by the action of this mufcle, that the flying of birds is chiefly 
 performed: accordingly it is much larger and drongcr in 
 birds than in any animals not made for flight. 
 Borelli obferves, that in men the PcBoral mufcles are fmall ; 
 fcaice the 50 lh or -jeA part of all the other mufcles : but in 
 birds they are vadly large, equalling, nay, exceeding in bulk 
 and weight all the other mufcles of the bird together. 
 
 Pectoralis interims. See Triangularis. 
 
 PECTORIS es, the (toe as ftifhkm. See Sternum. 
 
 Pectoris triangularis. See the article Triangularis. 
 
 PECULATE, Peculatus, in the civil law, the crime of 
 pilfering the publick money, by a perfon who has the ma- 
 nagement, receipt, or cudody thereof : fo called, quaji pecunics 
 ablatio. 
 
 Civil lawyers ufe peculate for any theft of 'a thing either fa- 
 cred, religious, public, or fifcal. — Peculate in the'ea^ of pub- 
 lick money is profecuted even on the criminal's heir. 
 PECULIAR in the canon law, a particular parilh, or church, 
 which hath jurifdicfion within itl'elf, for probate of wills, £37. 
 exempt from the ordinary, and the biihops courts. 
 There are royal Peculiars, and arebbijhops Peculiars, 
 The king's chapel is a royal Peculiar, exempt from all 
 fpiritual jurifdicrion, and reierved to the vifitation and imme- 
 diate government of the king himfelf, who is fupreme or- 
 dinary. : - . jj. ^ y ( 
 
 It is an ancient privilege of the fee of Canterbury, that where- 
 focver any manors or advowfons do belong to it, they forth- 
 with become exempt from the ordinary, and are reputed 
 Peculiars. In the province of Canterbury there are fifty feven 
 fuch Peculiars. 
 
 ■ Court h/Peculiars, is a court where the affairs of Peculiars are 
 tranfacfed. 
 
 PECULIUM*, the dock which a perfon in the power or pro 
 perry of another, as a llave, a minor, or the like may acquire 
 by his own indudry, without any advance or aflidance from 
 his father or mader ; but merely by their permiffion. 
 
 P E D 
 
 * The word is ufmlly derived a pecimia & pyecoribus ; becaufe the 
 whole cflatc anciently conMed in money and cattle. 
 Peculium is alio ufed among the Romaniffs, for what each 
 monk or religious referves, and poflclVes to himfelf. 
 Some fay that the Peculhim of a religious, when preferred to 
 a cure, does not ceafe to belong to the monaftery ; and 
 that the property thereof never abfolutely refides in the re- 
 ligious himfelf. 
 PECUNIA, money. Seethe article Money- 
 Pecunia, in our old law books, is fometimes ufed for cattle; 
 andfometimes for other goods, as well as money. 
 In the emendation of the laws of Edward the Confeflbr by- 
 William the firft, it is ordered that no viva pecunia, living 
 money, i. e. cattle, be bought or fold, except within cities, 
 and that before three fufficient witnefTes. 
 So in doomefday book, pecunia is frequently ufed, pn pecuAe ; 
 as pafture ad pecuniam villa. 
 Pecunia ecelefta, was anciently ufed for the eftate of the 
 church. 
 
 Pecunia fepitkhralis, was money formerly paid to the prieft at 
 the opening of the grave, for the good and behoof of the de- 
 ceafed's foul ; and which our faxon anceftors called foul-feat, 
 and anim.s fymbolum. 
 PEDAGE, Pedagium, Toll, or a local due exacted on per- 
 fons, goods, and carriages, parting through certain places. 
 Pedage is ufually levied for the repairing of roads, bridges, 
 and caufeways, the paving of flreets, fcflf, Anciently, thole 
 who had the right of Pedage-, were to keep the roads fecure, 
 and anfwer for all robberies committed on palTengers between 
 fun and fun ; which is ftill obferved in fome parts of England, 
 and in Italy, where there are guards called Stationarii, efta- 
 bliihed for the fecuiity of merchants, particularly at Terra- 
 cina, on the road between Rome and Naples. 
 PEDAGOGUE*, or Pedagogue, nAiAAmror, a tutor or * 
 mafter, to whom is committed the dilcipline and direction of 
 a fcholar, to be inftructed in grammar and other arts. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek «r»iui.t ayuy& f putrorutn 
 du£ior t leader of boys. 
 M. Fleury obferves, that the Greeks gave the name Pedagogues 
 to fjaves appointed to tend their children, lead them, and 
 teach them to walk, i$c. The Romans alfo gave the fame 
 denomination to the flaves who were intruded with the care 
 and in ft ruction of their children. 
 PEDALS, the large pipes of an organ, fo called, becaufe played 
 and flopped with the foot. See Organ. 
 The Pedals are the largeft pipes in the machine, they are made 
 fquai e and of wood; they are ufually thirteen in number. — 
 They are of modem invention, and fervc to carry the founds 
 an octave deeper than the reft. 
 PEDANEUS, in the civil law, a petty judge, who has no formal 
 feat of juftice, but hears caufes Handing, and without any 
 tribunal. 
 
 The word fcems formed from flans in pedibus ; and is ufed 
 amongthc ancients by way of oppofition to thole magistrates, 
 who were feated in the cuiule chair, in fella curuli, or had a 
 tribunal or bench raifed on high. 
 
 The Roman Pedasei, therefore, were fuch as had no tribunal, 
 nor pretorium, butrendred juftice de piano, or piano pede. 
 From the eighty fecond novel, it appears that the emperor 
 Zeno eftablilhed thefe Pcdanc'x, in the fee of every province ; 
 and that Juftinian erected feven of them at Conftantinople, in 
 manner of an office ; granting them power tojudgeinany 
 fum as high as three hundred crowns. 
 PEDANT, a fchool-m after, or pedagogue, who profeffes to 
 inftruct and govern youth, and teach them the humanities, 
 and the arts. See Pedagogue. 
 Pedant is alfo ufed for a rough, unpolifhed man of letters, 
 who makes an impertinent ufe of the fciences, and abounds 
 in unfeafonable criticifms, and obfervations. 
 Dacier defines a Pedant, a perfon who has more reading than 
 good fenfe. 
 
 Pedants are people ever armed with quibbles and fyllogtfms ; 
 they breathe nothing but difputation and chicanry, and pur- 
 fue a propolition to the laft limits of logic. 
 Malebranche defcribes a Pedant as a man full of falfe erudition, 
 who makes a parade of his knowledge, and is ever quoting 
 fome Greek or Latin author, or hunting back to a remote 
 etymology. 
 
 St. Evremont fays, that to paint the folly of a Pedant, we muft 
 reprefent him as turning all conversation to fome one fcience 
 or fubject which he is beft acquainted withal. 
 There are Pedants of all conditions, and of all robes. Wicque- 
 fort fays, an ambaffador always attentive to formalities, and 
 decorums, is nothing elfe but a political Pedant. 
 PEDANTRY, or Pedantism, the quality, or manner, of a 
 Pedant. See Pedant. 
 
 To fwell up little, and low things, to make a vain fhow of 
 ficence, to heap up Greek and Latin without judgment, to tear 
 thofeto pieces who differ from us about a pali'age in Suetoni- 
 us, or the etymology of a word, to ftir up all the world againft 
 
P E D 
 
 P E D 
 
 a man for nor admiring Cicero enough, to be intercfted lor 
 the reputation of an ancient, as if he were our next of kin, 
 is what we properly call Pedantry. 
 PEDESTAL *, in architecture, the loweft part of an order of 
 columns; being that which fuftains the coloum, and feives it 
 as a Foot or Hand on. 
 •The word is formed from the Latin, pes pedis, foot, and r vXfr, 
 column. 
 
 The Pedejhil, called by the Greeks, Stybolates and Stereobates, 
 confifts or three principal parts, ia!& a fquare trunk or dye, 
 which makes the body ; a cornice, the head ; and a bale, the 
 foot of the Pedejhil. 
 
 The Pedejhil is properly an appendage to a column ; not an 
 effential part thereof; though M. le Clere thinks it is ef- 
 fential to a compleat order. 
 
 The proportions and ornaments of the Pedefiil, are different in 
 the different ordcis : Vignola, indeed, and moll: of the mo- 
 derns, make the Pedejhil and its ornaments in all the orders, 
 one third of the height of the column, including the bale and 
 capital : but fome deviate from this rule. 
 M. Pe; rault makes the pi oportions of the three constituent parts 
 of Pedejlah the fame in all the orders, viz. the bale one fourth 
 of the re&efttfli the cornice an eighth part; and the Ibcle or 
 plinth of the bale two thirds of the bale itfelf. The height of 
 the dye is what icmains of the whole height of the Pcdeftal, 
 
 Tujcan Pedestal, is the fimpleft, and the loweft of all. — Palla- 
 dio and Scamozzi make it three modules high ; Vignola 5. 
 
 . Its members in Vignola are only a plinth for a bafe, the dye, 
 and a talon crown'd for a cornice. — This has rarely any bafe. 
 See Tuscan. 
 
 Doric Pedestal, Palladio makes four modules, five minutes 
 high, and Vignola five modules four minutes. — In the antique 
 we not only do not meet with any Pedejlah ; but even, not 
 with any bale in thedoric order. — The members in Vignola's 
 doric Pcaejlal, are the fame with thofc in the tufcan, with the 
 addition of a mouchette in its cornice. 
 
 fonic \ B BEST a l , in Vignola and Seilio, is fix modules high ; in 
 Scamozzi five ; in the temple of Eortuna Virilis it is feven mo- 
 dules twelve minutes. — Its members and ornaments are moftly 
 the lame with thole of the doric, only a little richer. The Pe- 
 iejlal now ulually followed, is that of Vitiuvius ; though we 
 do not find it in any work of the antique. — Some, in lieu 
 hereof, ufe the attic bafe, in imitation of the ancient. 
 
 Corinthian Pedestal is 'die richeft and moft delicate of all. In 
 Vignola it is i'even modules high, in Palladio five modules one 
 minute, in Sciiio fix modules fifteen minutes, in the Coli- 
 feum four modules two minutes. 
 
 Its members in Vignola are as follows : in the bafe are a 
 plinth to: a .ode, over that a tore carved ; then a reglct, a 
 gula inverted and enriched, and an aftragal. — In the dye are 
 areglet, with a conge over it, and near the cornice a reglet, 
 with a conge underneath. — In the cornice is an aftragal, a 
 frieze, fillet, anragal, gorge, and a talon. See each under its 
 pioper article. 
 
 Composite Pedestal, in Vignola, is of the fame height with the 
 connthian, viz. feven modules, in Scamozzi fix modules two 
 minutes, in Palladio fix modules feven minutes, in the gold- 
 frniths arch feven modules eight minutes. 
 Its members in Vignola, are the fame withthofe of the corin- 
 thian ; with this difference, that whereas thefe are moft of them 
 enriched with carvings in the corinthian, they are all plain in 
 the compojite, — Nor mall it be omitted, that there is a diffe- 
 rence in the profiles of the bafe and cornice in the two orders. 
 The generality of architects; Daviler obferves, ufe tables or 
 panne hi, either in relievo or creux, in the dyes of Pcdeftah ; 
 without any regard to the character of the oider. Thofe in 
 relievo, he obferves, only fit the tufcan and doric ; the three 
 others muft be indented ; but this, he adds, is a thing the an- 
 cients never praetifed, as being contrary to the rules of lblidity 
 and ftrcngth. 
 
 Square Pedesta l, is that whofe height and width are equal— as, 
 that of the aich of the lions at Verona, of the corinthian or- 
 
 • der; and fuch, fome followers of Vitruvius, as Serlio, Philan- 
 der, is'c. have given to their tufcan orders. 
 
 Double Pedestal, is that which fupports two columns, and is 
 larger in width than height. 
 
 Cwtf/'^vf^pEDEtTAL, is that which fupports a row of columns 
 without any bieak or interruption ; fuch is that which fuftains 
 the fluted ionic columns of the palace of the Tuileries on the 
 fide of the garden. 
 
 Pedestals effiatucs, aie thofe ferving to fupport figures or fra- 
 mes. 
 
 . Vignola obferves, there is no part of architecture more arbi- 
 trary, and wherein more liberty maybe taken, than in the Pe- 
 
 . dejlals of ftatues ; there being no laws prefcribed for them by 
 antiquity ; nor any even fettled by the moderns. 
 Thei e is no fettled proportion for thefe Pedellah ; but the height 
 depends on the lituation, and the figure they fuftain. Yet, when 
 on the ground, the Pedejlal is ufually two thirds, or two fifths 
 of that of the ftatue : but always the more maftive the ftatue, 
 the ftrongc; muft be the Pedejlal. 
 
 Their form, character, &c. are to be extraordinary and inge- 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 nious, far from the regularity and fimplicity of the Pedejlah of 
 
 columns. The lame author gives us a great variety of forms, 
 
 oval, triangular, multangular, (sfc 
 Pedestrian ftatue. Seethe article Statue. 
 PEDICLE*, Pediculus, in botany, fioot-jlalk - } that little ftalk 
 
 whereby the leaf, fruit, or flower is fuftained, and connected 
 
 to its branch, or ftem. 
 
 * The word is a diminutive of the Latin, pes, foot. 
 
 Flowers will keep frefh a long time after gathering, by im- 
 merging their Pedicles in water. The great fecret of preferring 
 fruits for the winter, is to fcal up their Pedicles with wax. 
 Cherries with the fhorteft Pedicle, are cfteemed the heft. The 
 piftil of the flower fomctimes becomes the Pedicle of the fruit. 
 See Pistil. 
 
 PEDL3lAN s nEAtAios, in antiquity. — The city of Athens was 
 anciently divided into thiee different quarters; one on the 
 defcent of a hill ; another on the fea-fhore ; and a third in a 
 plain between the other two. 
 
 The inhabitants of the middle regio were call'd Uthetm^ * Pe- 
 difsam ; or, according to Ariftotle, Pediaci ; thofe of the hill, 
 Diacrians ; and thole of the fliore, Paralians. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek vsthas, plain, flat. 
 
 Thefe quarters ufually compofed lb many different factions : 
 Piliftiatus made ufe of the Pediceam again ft the Diacrians. 
 In the time of Solon, when a form of government was to be 
 chofen, theDiacrians would have itDemocratic ; the Pediaans 
 demanded an Arift ocracy ; and the Paralians a mixed govern- 
 ment. 
 
 PEDI/EUS, in anatomy, is the fecond of the extenfor mufcles 
 of the foot, pes; whence its name. 
 
 It has its origin in the lower part of the perone, and annular 
 ligament; and is divided into four tendons, which are in- 
 ferted into the extei rial part of the firft articulation of the four 
 toes. — Its ufe is to extend the foot together with the firft of 
 the extenfors, called extenfor communis. 
 PEDICTJLARIS *%ffrfatf, in medicine, the loufy diftemper; 
 a difeafe arifing from fome uncommon corruption in the 
 body, which generates infinite quantities of lice on the ikin. 
 
 * The word comes from the Latin pediculus, loufe, 
 
 Herod is faid to have died of the Pedicular difeafe. 
 PEDIGREE, a defcent or genealogy. See Descent. 
 PEDIMENT, in aithitecruie, a kind of low pinnacle; ferving 
 
 to crown an ordonnance, or finUh a frontifpiece; and placed 
 
 as an ornament over gates, doors, windows, niches, altars, 
 
 &c. — See Tab. Arddtctf. fig. 24. 
 
 The pinnacles of the ancient houfes, Vitruvius obferves, gave 
 architects the firft idea of this noble part ; which ftill retains 
 the appearance of its original. 
 
 The parts of the Pediment are, the tympanum, and its cornice. 
 The firft is tire panne), naked, or area of the Pediment, reprc- 
 fentcd by e. in Tab. Architect, fig. 34. enclofed between the 
 cornice fi s /, which crowns it, and the entablature, which 
 ferves it as a bale or Ibcle. 
 
 Architects have taken a great deal of liberty in the form of 
 this member : nor do they vary lefs as to the proportion of 
 the Pedks'ent. — The moft beautiful, according to Daviler, is 
 that where its height is about one fifth of the length of its 
 
 bafe. 
 
 It is defcrihed thus : divide the line ab [Tab. Architcel. fig. 34.,) 
 which is the length of the bafe, into two equal parts, in the 
 point r, by means of the perpendicular /V; in this perpendi- 
 cular, take the pai t e d, equal to a c ; and from the point d, as 
 a centre, defer ibe the arch a e b. The point of the perpendicu- 
 lar cut in e, will be the top of the Pediment aeb; and the cor- 
 nice, and the triangular fpace included therein, the tympanum. 
 V itruvius calls the Pediment, faftigium ; a word which fignifies 
 a roof railed or pointed in the middle, this form among the 
 Romans was peculiar to temples. All their dwelling- houfes 
 were covered in the plat-form manner : Salmafius on Solinus 
 obferves, that Cjefar was the firft who obtained leave to roof 
 his houfe with a ridge, after the manner of the temples. 
 Pliny tells us, that Pediment s were firft made to place ftatues 
 upon, whence they were called plafta?. 
 
 The Pediment is ufually triangular, and fometimes an equila- 
 teral triangle, this is called alfo a pointed Pediment. — Sometimes 
 it is circular; though Felibien obferves, that we have no in- 
 ftance of round Pediments in the antique, befide thofe in the 
 chapels of the Rotondo. Sometimes its upper cornice is di- 
 vided into three or four fides, or right lines : fome times 
 the cornice is cut, or open atop; which is an abule intro- 
 duced by the modems, particularly by Michael Angelo. For 
 the defign of this part, at leaft over doors, windows, &c. be- 
 ing chiefly to Iheltcr thofe underneath from the rain, to leave 
 it open in the middle, is to fruftiate its end.' 
 Sometimes the Pediment is formed of a couple of fcrolls, or 
 wreathes, like two confoles joined together. See Console. 
 Sometimes again the Pediment is without a bafe, or its lower 
 cornice is cut out, all but what is beftowed on two columns 
 or pilafters, and on thefe an ar ch or fweep railed, in lieu of an 
 entablature: of which Serlio gives an inftance in the airtique, in 
 8 M a 
 
PEE 
 
 a corinthian gate aFoligny, in Umbria ; and Daviler, amore 
 modem one, in the church of St. Peter at Rome. 
 Under this kind of pe3ffo*nt% do alfo come thole little arched 
 ■cornices, which form pediments over doors and windows, fup- 
 ported by two confolcs, in lieu either of entablature or co- 
 lumns. 
 
 Sometimes the Pediment is made double, i. e. a lefs Pediment is 
 made in the tympanum of a larger, on account of fome pro. 
 jeclure in the middle ; as in the frontilpicce of the church of 
 the great Jefus at Rome : but this repetition is an abule in ar- 
 chitecture, though authorized' by fome very good buildings, 
 as the large pavilion of the Louvre, where the caryatides fup 
 port three Pediments one in another. 
 
 Sometimes the tympanum of the Pediment is cut out, or left 
 open, to let in light j as we lee under the portico of the capi 
 tal at Rome. Laftly, this open Pediment is fometimes trian 
 gular, and enriched with fculpture, as roles, leaves, csV. as we 
 find in moft ofthegothic churches. 
 
 M. Le Clerc obferves, that the modillions in the cornice of the 
 Pediment Jhould always anlwcr exactly over thole of the enta- 
 blature. Indeed Vitruvius fays, the ancients did not allow 
 any modillions at all in Pediments. 
 
 The fame M. Le Clerc obferves, that the cornice which ferves 
 the Pediment as a bafe, Ihould have no cymatium ; by reafon 
 the cymatium of the reft of the entablature, when it meets the 
 Pediment, palles over it. 
 
 This change of determination occafions a confiderable diffi 
 culty ; the cymatium, in this cafe, appearing too broad in the 
 turn of the angle. To remedy which, the architects have re- 
 courfeto feveial expedients. 
 
 A pointed Pediment may crown three arches ; but a circular Pedi 
 ment can only crown one agreeably. 
 
 One would never ulc above two Pediments over each other in 
 the lame frontifpiece ; and even where there are two, it would 
 be proper to have the lower circular, and the upper pointed. 
 PEDib ebjajjioy cutting off a foot ; a punilhment anciently in- 
 rliLLtu among us : as appears by the laws of William the con- 
 queror, lnterdkimus nt quis oecidatnr, vcl fufpendatur, pro ali- 
 qua culpa, Jed eruantur oculi, abfeindantur pedes, vel tejlkulL 
 vehhanus, <&ti£eg. h ill. cap. i.— So Ingulphus, fib pcena perdi- 
 tioms dexter t fui pedis, &c. 
 Pedis minimi digit! abduclor ~\ 
 A .,u..or pdlici Pedis 
 
 Dsrjum Pedi; 
 Plexor pollicis Pedis 
 Pedis inter ojja 
 Pedis perforate 
 Pedis pcrforatus 
 Pedis tt anjverjaUs 
 Tranjer'ipiio Pedis finis 
 PediTum arraiatio 
 
 f Abductor. 
 Adductor. 
 Dorsum. 
 Flexor. 
 Interossei. 
 Perforans. 
 Perforatus. 
 Transversalis. 
 Transcriptjo. 
 _ Arraiatio. 
 Pcdo-BAf IISM. See PxDo-Bapti/m. 
 PEDOMETER *, 01 Pudometer, way-wifer ; a mechanical 
 inltiument, in foimofa watch; confiding of various wheels 
 with teeth, catching in one another ; all difpofed in the lame 
 plane ; which by means of a chain or firing farmed to a man's 
 toot, or to the wheel of a chanot, advance a notch each ftep, or 
 each levolution or the wheel ; lo that the number being mark- 
 ed on the edge of each wheel, one may number the paces, or 
 meafure exactly the diffance from one place to another. 
 •The word is formed from the Greek foot ; and WW 
 
 meafure. ' 
 Pedometer, is fometimes alfo ufed for the common furvey- 
 ing wheel, an inrtiument chiefly ufed in mcafuring roads; po- 
 pularly called the zvay-zuifer. See Perambulator. 
 PEDRERO, Peterero, or Paterero, a fmall piece of ord- 
 nance, ufed on board Ihips ; for the difcharging of nails, bro- 
 ken iron, or partridge Ihot on an enemy attempting to board. 
 See Ordnance. 
 
 They are generally open at the breech, and their chamber made 
 to take out, to be loaded that way, inftead of at the muzzle. 
 PEDUNCULI Cerebelii, in anatomy, two medullary procefies of 
 the cerebellum, whe;eby that part is joined to the medulla ob- 
 longata. See Cerebellum. 
 
 Willis, who riift gave them the name, obferved in them three 
 diflir.ct procelfes on either fide, the two firft whereof go to the 
 tcftes, theieconddiiectly from the cerebellum to thc'mcdutla 
 oblongata, decuflaimg the former, and fattening the procerus 
 annularis. The third, ipringing from the hinder procefs of 
 the cerebellum, is inferted into the medulla oblongata ; look- 
 ing like an additional chord to it. 
 
 PEEK, in the lea language, aterm ufed in various femes. E.gr. 
 
 an anchor is faid to be a-pcek, when the fhip being about to 
 weigh, comes over her anchor, lb that the cable hangs perpen- 
 dicularly between the haule and the anchor ; — the bringing of" 
 a fhip into which polition they call heaving a-peek. 
 A ffiip is laid to ride a-peek when lying with her main and fore- 
 yards hoiled up, one end of her yards is brought down to the 
 1 hrouds, and the other raifed up an end ; which is chiefly done 
 when ihe hes at reft in rivers, left other (hips, falling foul on 
 her, Ihould break her yards. 
 
 PEE 
 
 To ride a broad-peel, denotes much the fame, excepting that the 
 
 yards here aie only raited to half the height. 
 Til peek the mijfen, is to put the miffen yard perpendicular by the 
 
 mart. 
 
 Peek is alfo ufed for the room in the hold, from the bitts for- 
 ward to the ftem ; in this place men of war keep their powder, 
 and merchant-men their victuals. 
 
 PEER, Par, primarily denotes an equal, or one of the fame 
 rank and condition. — Hence in fome councils or affemblies, 
 we find, with the confent of our peers, bifhops, abbots, (Se. 
 
 Peer, afterwards was applied to the vaffals or tenants of the fame 
 lord, who were obliged to ferve, and attend him in his courts. 
 They were called Peers, pares, becaufe equal in function ; and 
 Peers in fiefs, or fees, becaufe holding fees of the lord, or be- 
 caufe their bufinefs in court was to (it and judge under their 
 loid of difputes arifing concerning fees. 
 
 The number of Peers required to fit in a court, was at lead 
 four ; and when there happened to be too many Peers in the 
 fame lordrhip, the lord dually chofe out twelve, who had the 
 title of Peers by way of distinction and eminence. 
 There are alfo inftances of women who have afiifted at judg- 
 ments, on account of their tenements, not of their being wives 
 of Peers. The origin of thefe Peers of fees is as ancient as that 
 of the fees they were appointed to judge of; from thefe we 
 derive our common juries, and our peers of the realm. 
 Peer oj the Realm, denotes a noble lord, or perfon who has a 
 feat, and vote in the upper houfe of parliament, which is 
 hence called the houfe of Peers. 
 
 The houfe of lords have a right to take cognifance, originally 
 of all publick accounts ; and to enquire into any mifapplication, 
 or default in the distribution of public monies, or of any other 
 mifmanagement whatfoever. Vide life of qu. Anne, p. 85. 
 There aie five degrees of peerage, or nobility, viz. that of a 
 duke, marquefs, earl, vifcount, and baron. See each under its 
 proper article. 
 
 It is the king who confers the Peerage, by honouring the perfon 
 with fome of thofe titles by patent. See Nobility. 
 PEERS, Pars of Frariee,ate the I2grand lordsof that kingdom. 
 The Inftitution of thefe Peers is very uncertain ; fome refer it 
 to Hugh Capet,at the time when the dukes and counts changed 
 the offices they then held of the king into perpetual fiefs. Hut 
 this is impoffible ; Champagne, one of the titles, not being 
 then erected into a county. Indeed Pafquier obferves, that it 
 is an old tradition, that there have been 12 Peers in f\l ages. 
 Of thefe Peers fix are dukes, and fix counts, eomtes ; of thefe 
 again, fix are eccleiiaitics, and fix lay-men. The archbifhops 
 ot Rheims, and the bifhops of Laon, and Langres, are dukes 
 and peers ; the bifhops of Noyons, Chalon on the Mam, and 
 Beauvais, are counts and Peers. 
 
 The dukes of fjuigundy, Normandy, and Aquitain, are 
 lay Peers and dukes ; and the counts of /landers, Champagne, 
 and f holoufe, lay Peers and counts. 
 
 Thefe lay Peers ftill affilt at the coronation of the kings in ce- 
 remony, and by way of representatives ; where each per- 
 forms the functions attached to his refpeetive dignity : tho' 
 their peer/hips be in reality all, except that of Elanders, re- 
 united to the crown. Six lords of the firft quality are chofe 
 to repiefent them.— The ecclefiaflic Peers ufually -affift in 
 peifon. 
 
 At prelim, the title Peer, in France, is beftowed, as in England, 
 on every lord or perfon, whofe fee is erected into a lordfhip 
 or peerlhip. 
 
 The word Peer, according to Pafquier, is derived from patrici- 
 us, the firft dignity in the eaftern empire, on rhe model where- 
 ot he luppofes thefe Peers to have been inftituted. But others 
 with moie probability derive the title from the pares curia, or of 
 Peers of fees, becaufe of their being equal to each other. 
 1 hefe pares cunts, on whofe model they fuppofe the Peers of 
 realms to have been eredted, were a kind of vaffals depending 
 all on the fame lord, whom they were obliged to attend and ai- 
 iift in court. 
 
 All feudal matters or difputes among vaffals relating to their 
 fees or dependences, litre terminated by the fuperior lord of 
 the two contending parties, and by their Peers in fee. 
 If the procefs weie between the lord and the vaflal, the lord 
 took no cognizance of it, and the Peers alone judged it. 
 Hence, all lords or nobles being pares nobiliiate, i. e. all equally 
 entitled to the privileges of nobility, are denominated pares 
 regni, Peers of the realm. 
 
 Some authors attribute the firft inftitution of Peers of the realm 
 to Charlemagne; but with little piobability; fince moft of the 
 fiefs which bear the names of dutchies, &c. or give titles to • 
 the Peers, were not erected into dutchies, &e. till long after. 
 The Dukes, & e. in thofe days being no more than fimple go- 
 vernors of provinces, without any other title or privileges. 
 The more probable opinion is, that Peers were firft inftituted by 
 Philip the young, of France, about the year 1 179 ; and that 
 they firft acted in capacity of Peers at the coronation of his foil. 
 Peer, or Pier*, in building, denotes a mafs of ftone, ttti op- 
 pofed, by way of fortrefs, againft the force of the fea, or a great 
 river; for the fecurity of (hips, that lie at harbour in any haven. 
 * The word in this fenfe is formed from the French, pierce, ftone. 
 
 Such 
 
PEG 
 
 Such are the Peer of Dover defcribed by Camden, Brit, ana" 
 the haven and Peer of great Yarmouth, mentioned 22 Car. II. 
 Peers are alfo ufed in aichitecture for a kind of pilaftcrs or but- 
 treffes, railed for fupport, ftrength, and fomctimcs for orna- 
 
 ment * * m tacfu / i'j m iliajl -Jfi") O'iJiKV 
 
 PEERAGE, the dignity of a Peer attached to a duchy, earl- 
 dom, barony, or the like. 
 
 The kings of England and France confer Peerage at pleafure. 
 His late majefty of England offered his parliament to reiign 
 that branch of his prerogative, and to have the number of 
 Peers limited. 
 
 The reafon infilled on, was the inconvenience accruing to 
 the Mate from an arbitrary and immoderate ufe thereof; the 
 prince having it hereby in his power to throw what num- 
 ber of his creatures he pleafes into the upper-houfe of par- 
 liament. 
 
 The twelve Peers created at once in the late reign, was a main 
 argument in behalf of the Peerage bill. — It is recorded as a laying 
 of king Charles, that if his friends could but fecure him a 
 houfe of commons, he would put his whole troop of guards 
 into the upper-houfe, but he would have the Peers. 
 
 To hold land in Peer ace, in the ancient cuftoms, was a tenure 
 which obliged the perfon to aflift the lord's bailiff in his 
 judgments; as all the ancient vaffals, called Peers, did. 
 
 PEGASUS, among the poets, a horfe imagined to have wings ; 
 being that whereon Bellerophon was fabled to be mounted 
 when he engaged the Chimera. 
 
 The opening of the fountain Hippocrcnc, on mount Helicon, 
 is afciibcd to a blow of Pegafus's hoof. — It is feigned to 
 have flown away to heaven ; where it became a conftellation. 
 Hence 
 
 Pegasus, in aflxonomy, the name of a conftellation of the nor- 
 thern hemifphere, figured in form of a flying horfe. 
 The ftars in this conftellation in Ptolemy's catalogue are 20, 
 in Tycho's 19, in the Britannic catalogue 93. Their longi- 
 tudes, latitudes, magnitudes, &e. are as follow. 
 
 
 Long 
 
 
 Latitude 
 
 
 Flumes and JitiuiioH of the oMj'i. 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 Noith. 
 
 r 
 
 Prcced. i In the triangle over Pe- 
 
 JT2S 
 
 58 
 
 „ 
 
 39 
 
 0 
 
 33 
 
 18 
 
 39 
 
 4 
 
 North j gafus's mouth 
 
 29 
 
 49 
 
 57 
 
 36 
 
 09 
 
 3° 
 
 4 5 
 
 
 24 
 
 43 
 
 4i 
 
 '2 
 
 38 
 
 1+ 
 
 6 
 
 
 24 
 
 36 
 
 55 
 
 IS 
 
 46 
 
 05 
 
 6 
 
 
 29 
 
 49 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 6 7 
 
 
 23 
 
 37 
 
 56 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 40 
 
 6 
 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 3° 
 
 18 
 
 22 
 
 36 
 
 6 
 
 Pegafus's mouth 
 
 27 
 
 33 
 
 32 
 
 22 
 
 07 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 Porter, and Couth, in the triangle 
 
 X 0 
 
 41 
 
 04 
 
 29 
 
 02 
 
 49 
 
 4 5 
 
 In the heel of the pieced, foot 
 
 4 
 
 37 
 
 10 
 
 36 
 
 39 
 
 °5 
 
 4 
 
 
 25 
 
 39 
 
 21 
 
 15 
 
 06 
 
 59 
 
 6 
 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 '7 
 
 34 
 
 °5 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 
 2 
 
 °4 
 
 04 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 5S 
 
 6 
 
 
 8 
 
 2 5 
 
 «3 
 
 40 
 
 15 
 
 40 
 
 6 
 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 38 
 
 46 
 
 07 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 54 
 
 27 
 
 36 
 
 07 
 
 °7 
 
 6 
 
 
 1 
 
 35 
 
 20 
 
 2 3 
 
 01 
 
 46 
 
 6 
 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 46 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 
 1 
 
 06 
 
 39 
 
 19 
 
 06 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 .mriw begin s 3> ■ 
 
 3 
 
 01 
 
 4* 
 
 23 
 
 37 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 
 2 
 
 51 
 
 41 
 
 21 
 
 47 
 
 57 
 
 5 
 
 South of two in the head. 
 
 0 
 
 58 
 
 06 
 
 '5 
 
 42 
 
 01 
 
 5 
 
 
 1 r 
 
 39 
 
 57 
 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 34 
 
 6 
 
 In the preced. knee. 
 
 10 
 
 04 
 
 09 
 
 34 
 
 
 48 
 
 4 
 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 3° 
 
 51 
 
 42 
 
 6 7 
 
 North in the head 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 46 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 48 
 
 4 
 
 
 15 
 
 04 
 
 15 
 
 4i 
 
 °3 
 
 45 
 
 8 
 
 In the heel of the hind foot 
 
 8 
 
 4* 
 
 5' 
 
 29 
 
 •58 
 
 44 
 
 6 7 
 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 '3 
 
 40 
 
 59 
 
 52 
 
 4 5 
 
 3° 
 
 Small one againft the ear 
 
 19 
 
 42 
 
 °7 
 
 44 
 
 24 
 
 3° 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 48 
 
 3° 
 
 15 
 
 01 
 
 47 
 
 6 
 
 North in the ear, or rather inform 
 
 7 
 
 37 
 
 52 
 
 20 
 
 51 
 
 42 
 
 4 5 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 °3 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 56 
 
 5 6 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 55 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 34 
 
 40 
 
 6 7 
 
 In the top of the main, prcfeed of 
 
 5 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 >3 
 
 09 
 
 56 
 
 6 
 
 35 little A) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 North of the triangle 
 
 6 
 
 08 
 
 55 
 
 '3 
 
 21 
 
 c 9 
 
 5 
 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 58 
 
 »7 
 
 18 
 
 5° 
 
 6 7 
 6 
 
 Porter, and fouth. in the fame 
 
 6 
 
 33 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 53 
 
 28 
 
 
 '9 
 
 41 
 
 5' 
 
 38 
 
 2 9 
 
 08 
 
 6 
 
 40/ " ' r 
 
 X 13 
 
 48 
 
 43 
 
 27 
 
 09 
 
 3° 
 
 6 7 
 
 PEL 
 
 Names end fixation of the Stars. & 
 
 Preced. of the contig. ftars in the neck 
 South in the hind knee 
 Noith. in the fame knee 
 45 
 
 Laft of the contig. in the neck 
 Preced. of the two in tiie breaft 
 Sub feci. 
 
 North of two in the mane 
 South of the fame 
 
 In the rife of the hind leg Scheat. 
 In the Ihoulder of the wing Markab 
 
 55 of the neck 
 
 Preced. of the north in thefmall □ 
 That under Scheat. 
 Pieced, of South, in □ of neck. 
 Laft of north. 
 Laft of fouth. 
 
 60 
 
 North of two under the wing in the 
 body) 
 
 Pieced, of five in the belly 
 
 Preced. of two behind Markab. 
 Second and north in the belly 
 South of two under the wing 
 
 That behind Markab. (and 63 d 
 That in a right line with the 6g lh 
 Third and middle in the belly 
 
 75 
 
 Preced in the middle of the wing 
 
 Fourth in the belly 
 South of five in the belly 
 80 
 
 Middl. in the mid. wing. 
 
 North, in the mid. wing. 
 
 85 
 
 North in the cxtrem. of the wing. 
 
 In the navel, Andromeda's head 
 
 Tip of the wing, Algenib 
 South in cxtrem. of the wing. 
 
 PEGMATES, or rather Pegmares, in antiquity, a name given 
 to ceitain gladiators, as well as artificers, among the Romans. 
 The ancients fometimes exhibited ihews of a fort of moving 
 machines, called pegmata: thefe were fcaflblds varioufty adorned, 
 lbmcwhat after the manner of thofe now railed for fire-works. 
 Thcfc fcaffolds being made to play, and rife aloft, either threw 
 up into the air the matters wherewith they were charged ; and 
 among the reft, men, who were thus facrificed to afford the 
 people diverfion ; or elfe they precipitated them into holes 
 dug in the ground, where they lighted their funeral piles ; or 
 finally into the dens of wild beafts. 
 
 Both the miferable people thus facrificed, and the work- 
 men that made and played the machines, were called pegmates^ 
 or pegmares. 
 
 According to Cafaubon, fire was fet to the fcaffold ; and the 
 pegmates were to fave themfelves through the flames, and the 
 wreck of the machine. 
 
 Lipfius only fays, that the pegmates were fuch gladiators as 
 fought on fcaffolds erected for rhat purpofe. They were alfo 
 called petaurijla, q. d. flyers in the air. 
 PELAGIC *, in natural hiftory, a term ufed to exprefs fuch fea- 
 Ihells and fifties, as never, or very raiely, are found near the 
 
 Ihoars ; 
 
 Longit. 
 
 Latitude 
 
 
 
 North. 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' o ' '' 
 
 » ' 
 
 
 
 X 1 5 0 29 
 
 25 54 
 
 02 
 
 6 1 
 
 IS 17 33 
 
 25 5 D 
 
 59 
 
 6 
 
 11 59 06 
 
 I J 42 
 
 02 
 
 3 
 
 20 35 43 
 
 34 2 5 
 
 43 
 
 5 » 
 
 21 24 1 2 
 
 2< 07 
 
 01 
 
 3 
 
 16 29 36 
 
 25 05 
 
 48 
 
 6 
 
 1 3 37 19 
 
 18 27 
 
 l8 
 
 5 
 
 1 8 43 48 
 
 28 i-- 
 
 4j 
 
 
 4 
 
 20 03 20 
 
 
 3 2 
 
 4 
 
 13 57 oi 
 
 15 43 
 
 
 6 
 
 14 14 06 
 
 H 3° 
 
 06 
 
 6 
 
 19 56 37 
 
 25 11 
 
 47 
 
 6 
 
 16 21 59 
 
 16 46 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 25 02 13 
 
 31 08 
 
 c6 
 
 
 19 09 13 
 
 19 24 
 
 37 
 
 2 
 
 17 14 16 
 
 »3 53 
 
 52 
 
 5 
 
 24 28 48 
 
 28 28 
 
 3° 
 
 5 6 
 
 17 31 19 
 
 12 58 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 18 06 39 
 
 '3 57 
 
 58 
 
 6 
 
 18 03 32 
 
 12 47 
 
 24 
 
 6 5 
 
 26 16 35 
 
 29 13 
 
 44 
 
 6 
 
 2 7 53 40 
 
 30 05 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 26 44 08 
 
 20 33 
 
 57 
 
 6 
 
 v 0 10 38 
 
 31 3' 
 
 39 
 
 6 
 
 1 11 12 
 
 32 39 
 
 01 
 
 6 
 
 K25 5° 08 
 
 22 44 
 
 22 
 
 6 7 
 
 22 10 23 
 
 H 57 
 
 2 5 
 
 
 V 02 09 28 ■ 32 52 
 
 21 
 
 V 
 
 X2 7 38 15 
 
 24 47 
 
 5 2 
 
 
 29 01 51 
 
 26 og 
 
 20 
 
 6 7 
 
 23 45 06 
 
 14 45 
 
 25 
 
 5 6 
 
 29 04 02 
 
 23 10 
 
 OQ 
 
 6 
 
 V03 35 42 
 
 31 01 
 
 57 
 
 6 
 
 4 56 31 
 
 32 53 
 
 00 
 
 6 
 
 X27 25 39 
 
 '7 37 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 28 12 34 
 
 19 00 
 
 48 
 
 6 
 
 28 23 ss 
 
 16 40 
 
 02 
 
 6 
 
 26 00 19 
 
 11 07 
 
 40 
 
 6 
 
 V 4 46 00 
 
 28 18 
 
 95 
 
 5 6 
 
 5 45 24 
 
 27 16 
 
 
 6 
 
 X 27 24 45 
 
 9 24 
 
 26 
 
 6 7 
 
 2 57 2 4 
 
 20 22 
 
 38 
 
 7 
 
 1 49 59 
 
 18 13 
 
 -r 1 
 
 6 
 
 28 22 33 
 
 10 45 
 
 5y 
 
 
 3 °3 °i 
 
 20 35 
 
 00 
 
 6 
 
 5 45 5° 
 
 23 09 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 7 37 33 
 
 24 34 
 
 42 
 
 6 
 
 2 22 00 
 
 11 42 
 
 38 
 
 5 6 
 
 9 58 50 
 
 25 41 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 5 °9 17 
 
 15 46 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 2 25 18 
 
 9 '3 
 
 22 
 
 S 
 
 4 49 50 
 
 12 35 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 X 7 l 7 42 
 
 17 01 
 
 40 
 
 6 
 
PEL 
 
 Ihoars ; but always rcfide in the deep, or in thofe parts of the 
 bottom of the Sea which are mott remote from Land. See 
 Shell. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Greek MXafe*, marine, belonging to 
 
 the Sea. 
 
 PELAGIANS, Pelaciani, ancient hereticks, well known in 
 the church by the writings of St. Auguftin. 
 The author of this feet, Pelagius, properly called Morgan, was 
 a monk of Banchor ; but the learned aie at a lofs whether it 
 was of the monaftei y of Banchor in Wales, or that of the fame 
 name and order in Ireland. But he was cotemporary with St. 
 Jerom, and St. Auguftin, and quitted his country to go and 
 live in the eaft, according to the cuftom of the monks of thofe 
 days, who were not attached to particular houics like thole ot 
 our time. 
 
 Pelagius abfolutely denied all original fin, which he held to be 
 the mere invention of St. Auguftin, and taught that men are 
 entire mailers of their actions, and perfectly free creatines ; in 
 oppolition to all pi cdeftination, reprobation, election, csY. 
 He owned indeed, that the natuial power of man need- 
 ed ro be alfiited by the grace of God, to enable him 
 to work out his own falvation ; but by this grace he only 
 meant outward afliftance, viz. the doctrines of the law and 
 of the Goipel. 
 
 Though, when prclVed by thofe words of St. Paul, Deus eft earn 
 qui opcralur ' in nobis, (Sc. he owned that it is God, in effect, 
 that makes us will what is good, when he warns and excites us 
 by the greatnefs of the glory we are to obtain, and by the pro- 
 rnifes of rewards; when he makes us love him by revealing 
 his wifdom, (sc. 
 
 Thefe are Pelagius's own words, as cited by St. Auguftin ; who 
 comutes him, and (hews that belides thefe exterior graces, there 
 are required other real and interior ones. 
 Pelagius.owned further, that the will of man is indeed aided by 
 a real grace ; but he added, that this grace is not abfolutely ne- 
 ceflary in order to live well ; but that it only helps us to do 
 well with the more cafe. 
 
 Julian, one of his adherents, went further yet ; and owned 
 that the afliftance of grace was abfolutely necellary to enable 
 us to do perfect works. 
 
 In effect, the grand doctrine of the Pelagiani was, that a man 
 might accomplifh all the commands of God by the mere 
 power of nature ; and that the gifts of grace were only necef- 
 fary to enable him to act well more eafiiy, and more perfectly. 
 
 PELECAN. See the article Pellican. 
 
 Pelecoid angle. See the article Angle- 
 
 PELECUiDhS *, in geometry, a figure in form of a hatchet. 
 
 * Whence its name irom the Greek roiXtjeu;, hatchet, and %i3es, form. 
 Such is the figure BCDA, Tab. Geometry, fig. 45. contained 
 under the two inveited quadrantal aics AB and AD, and the 
 femichcie BCD. 
 
 The area of the Pelecoides is demonltrated to be equal to the 
 fquaie AC ; and that, again, to the rectangle E B. — It is equal 
 to the lquare AC, becaule it wants of the fquaie on the left hand, 
 the two fcgmentsAB and AC, which are equal to the two feg- 
 ments BC and CD, by which it exceeds on the right hand. 
 
 PELLETS, in heraldry, a name given thofe roundlets which are 
 black.— Called alio ogrcjj'es and gun-jhnes. 
 
 PELLICAN, or Pelecan, among chy mitts, a kind of double 
 veilel, ordinarily of glafs ; ufed in working on liquors, by cir- 
 culation. 
 
 Pellican alio denotes an inftrument ufed by chirurgeons, &e. 
 to draw teeth. 
 
 Pellican, again, is the name of an ancient piece of ordnance, 
 carrying a bail of fix pounds ; by the French made eight feet 
 and half, and by the Dutch nine feet long. See C a nnon. 
 
 Pellican, the name of a bird. See Supplement, article 
 
 ONOCR ATOLUS. 
 
 PELLICLE, Pellicula*, a thin film or fragment of a 
 membrane or ikin. See Membrane. 
 * The word is a diminutive of pilis, fliin. 
 
 The epidermis or cuticula, is a little Pellicle, covering the der- 
 ma, cutis, or ikin. See Cuticle. 
 
 The valves of the veins and arteries are infenfible Pellicles, 
 which open and /hut to promote the circulation. 
 "When any chytnical folution is evaporated in a gentle heat till 
 a thin Ikin or film arifes a-top, it is called an evaporation to a 
 PelRc'le, in this cafe there is but juft liquor enough left to keep 
 falts in fufion. 
 
 PELLS, Clerk of the Pells. See Clerk: of the Pells. 
 
 Controllers of the Pells. See Controller. 
 
 PELLUCID*, a term of the fame import with diaphanous, or 
 tranfparent. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Latin pelluceo, or perJam, I jhim 
 
 through. ■ 
 Pellucid itandsoppofed to opake. 
 
 PELLUCIDITV, diaphaneity, or tranfparency. See Trans- 
 parency, &C- 
 
 PELT A, heath, in antiquity, a kind of buckler, ufed among 
 the ancients. 
 
 The Pelta was fmall, light, and more manageable than the 
 panna. 
 
 PEN 
 
 It appears from Virgil, and other authors, that the pelta was 
 the buckler ufed by the Amazons : and Xenophon ob- 
 feives, that the pelta of tiie Amazons was fhaped like a leaf 
 of ivy. — Pliny fpeaking of the Indian fig-tree, fays its leaves 
 are of the width of the Amazonian pelta.— Servi us on the 
 /Eneid fays, the pelta refembled the moon in her firlt 
 quarter. 
 
 PELVIS, in anatomy, the lower part of the cavity of the abdo- 
 men i thus called from its rcfemblance to a bafon, or ewer, 
 called in Latin pelvis. 
 
 The pehis is always much larger in women than in men, to 
 give room for the growth, ISc. of the foetus. 
 It is well fortified with bones, to fcreen the contents from ex- 
 ternal injuries.!— The offa illia, coxendicis, pubis, and the 
 facrum, comprehend or inviron the pelvis. 
 Pelvis of the kidneys, is a large membranous finus, or cell in the 
 concave part of the kidneys. — See Tab. Anat. (Splanch) fig, 4. 
 lift. e. dd. EsV. 
 
 From the twelve papillae of the kidneys there arife twelve ca- 
 nals, called fijhda membranacete. Thefe at length are collected 
 into three large brandies, which being at latt united into one, 
 form the pelvis ; and this again, contracting itfelf, terminates 
 in a membranaceous pipe, called the ureter. 
 The urine, then feparated from the blood by the urinary 
 pipes, conveyed to them by the papilla?, and taken up by 
 the fiftu!,T membranacex, is brought into the pelvis, and 
 thence is difcharged into the ureter, thence into the bladder, 
 ts'c. See Urine. 
 
 PEN, according to Camden, originally fignifies a high moun- 
 tain, which was thus called among the ancient Britains, and 
 even the Gauls. — And hence that tall range, which parts Italy 
 and France, is called apenn'mes. 
 
 Pen, is alfo a little inftrument, ufually formed of a quill, and 
 fei ving to write withal. 
 
 Dutch Pens, are thofe made of quills, which have been patted 
 through hot allies, to take off the grolTer fat and moifture 
 thereof. 
 
 Fountain Pen- See the article Fountain pen. 
 
 Pen flock, a fort of fluice or flood-gate placed in the water 
 
 of a mill-pond, or the like, to retain or let it go at plea- 
 
 fure. 
 
 Penal ailion. See the article Action. 
 
 Penalties negative. See the article Negative. 
 
 PENANCE, Poenitentia, is properly the exercife of pe- 
 nitence; and may be defined a punilhment, either voluntary, 
 or impofed by legal authority, for the faults a perfon has com- 
 mitted. 
 
 The Romanifts define penance, a facrament wherein a perfon 
 who has the requilite difpolitions, receives abfolution at the 
 hands of the prieft, of all fins committed fince baptifm. 
 To a legitimate penance they require three things, contrition, 
 abfolution, and fatisfaction. 
 
 Their prielts receive a power of adminiftring the facrament of 
 penance, when they receive the prietthood ; but to exercife this 
 power, it is required they have the jurifdiction of an ordinary, 
 u e. that they have a benefice, either original or delegated ; 
 with the approbation of the bithop to hear confeffions. 
 Penance is particularly ufed in the Romith church, for the 
 penalty which a confelfbr impofes, for fatisfaction of the fins 
 whereof a perfon is ablblved. 
 
 The ancient difcipjme, Du Pin obferves, was very fevere on 
 the head of penance ; for great crimes people were excluded 
 the communion of the church, expelled the affemblies of 
 the faithful, obliged to faft, and to mortify themfelves 
 publickly, even at the church door, cut their hair, go always 
 on foot, fkf. 
 
 He adds, that thofe who had done public penance, were never 
 admitted into the clergy ; and that public penance was never 
 granted more than once. Thofe who fell a fecond time were 
 never to be reconciled to the church, and were to look for 
 pardon only at the hands of God. 
 
 Penance, in our canon-law, is an ecclefiaftical punifliment, 
 chiefly adjudged to the fin of fornication. 
 The punilhment is thus prefer i bed by the canons : the delin- 
 quent is to ttand in the church porch on fome funday bare head 
 
 , and bare foot, in a white thect, with a white wand in his hand ; 
 here bewailing himfelf, and begging every one to pray for him, 
 then to enter the church, falling down, and kiffing the ground ; 
 and at laft to be placed on Ttn eminence in the middle of the 
 church, againft the minitter, to declare the foulnefs of his 
 
 1 crime, odious to God, and fcandalous to the congregation. 
 If the crime be not notorious, the canons allow the punifii- 
 ment to be commuted at the parties requeft, for a pecuniary 
 mulct, for the benefit of the poor, &c. 
 
 PENATES, in the ancient mythology, a term applied to all 
 the domeltic gods, whom the ancients adored in their houfes : 
 whence they are ordinarily confounded with the lares. See 
 
 , Lares. 
 
 Authors are not at all agreed about the origin of the diipenatcs, 
 who were properly the tutelary gods of the Trojans, and were 
 only adopted by the Romans, who gave them the title otpenates. 
 
PEN 
 
 De Meziriac, in his notes cn Dido's epiflie to .Eneas, relates at 
 large what he has met withal in the ancient write; son this fub- 
 ject : Dionyfms Halica- nalieus tells us, that ^Encas firft lodged 
 thefe gods in the city Laviniura ; and that his Ton Afcanius, af- 
 tciwaids, upon building the city Alba, tianilated them thither ; 
 but that they returned twice miraculouily to Lavinium. The 
 fame author adds, that in Rome theie is ftill feen a dark tem- 
 ple, lhadedbythe adjacent buildings, wherein are the images 
 of the Trojan gods, with the infeription Denas, which iigni- 
 fies Penates. 
 
 . Thefe images rcprefent two young men fitting, each of which 
 holds a lance. I have fcen, adds Dionyfius, feveral other fta- 
 tues of the fame gods in ancient temples ; who all appear like 
 young men dveifed in a habit of war. 
 
 Varro fetches thefe Penates from Samothrace to Phrygia, to be 
 afterwards tianfported by ./Eneas into Italy. — Maciobius,who 
 relates this fiomVairo, adds alfo, that they were called Penates 
 from the Latin wo:ds per quos pemtus fpiramus, which fecms a 
 mere fubtilty. But the real etymology mufl be fought in the 
 Phiygian, not the Latin tongue. 
 
 Cicero, in Aulus Gellius, derives the name hence, quodpenes nos 
 nati funt. Yet in his book de Nat. Deor. he fays, it is formed 
 from penus, provifion ; or, perhaps, adds he, quod peniius infi- 
 4cnt ; others fay, quia ecluntnr in penetralibus. 
 Roftnus diftinguimes among the Penates : he makes an order 
 of Per.ates of the heavens, fuch as Pallas in the ethereal regi- 
 on, Jupiter in the middle region, and Juno in the loweft ; 
 belides, Penates of cities, Penates of private families, cjY. — - 
 On which footing the dii peuates were the guardian or tutelary 
 gods of every tiring. 
 
 It is a popular qucftion among the learned, who were the Pe- 
 nates of Rome ? fome fay Vena, others Neptune and Apollo ; 
 Vives fays Caftor and Pollux, with whom agrees Vofilus, who 
 adds, that the rcafonor their chiding Caftor and Pollux in qua- 
 lity of PendteSf might be the important fervice they did the 
 Romans in the war againfl the Latins. 
 
 Nor are authors more unanimous on the fubject of the Penates, 
 which iEneas brought into Italy. Some fay they were Nep- 
 tune and Apollo who built the walls of Troy ; others Jupi- 
 ter, Juno, and Minerva ; and others Ccelus and Terra. 
 
 PENCE, Prffr-PjsjlCE. Sec the article PETER-petice. 
 
 Pifcbi/ig-PEti ce. See the article PiTCHiNG-PfWf. 
 
 Pencil *, an inftrument ufed by painters, for the application of 
 their colours. 
 
 * The word comes from the Latin feniadus, petntillms, or ptnhil- 
 ium, which fignify the 'fame, formed by diminution of pe- 
 nis. 
 
 There are Pencils of various kinds, and made of various mat- 
 ters : the moft ufuaJ are of badgers and Squirrels hair, thofc of 
 fwans-down, and thofe of boars bridles ; which laft are bound 
 on to a ftick bigger, or lefs, according to the ufes they are de- 
 fined for; and when large, are called brujhes. — The others are 
 inclofed in the barrel of a quill. 
 
 The ancients, M. Felibien obierves, had Pencils made of little 
 pieces of fpunge ; whence, doubtlefs, the ftory of the painter, 
 who, notable to exprefs the foam of a Horfe, fucceeded by 
 throwing the fpunge at the picture. 
 Pencil cafe. Sec the article Por t eraion. 
 
 Pencil of rays, in opticks,isa double cone, or pyramidof rays, 
 joined together at the bafe ; one of which hath its vertex in 
 fome point of the object, and has the cryftallin humour, or the 
 glafs GLS {Tab. Optieks,pg. 39.) for its bafe; and the other 
 has its bafe on the fame glafs, or cryflallin, but its vertex in the 
 point of convergence ; as at C. See Ray, of. 
 Thus BGSC is a Pencil of rays ; and the line BLC is called 
 the axis of that Pencil. See Axis and Ray. 
 
 Optic Pencil. See the article Optic. 
 
 PENDANT, Ear-ring, an ornament, of fome precious matter, 
 wore by the ladies; hung by a hole made for that purpofe 
 through the car ; and frequently enriched with diamonds, 
 pearls, and other precious ftones. 
 
 The Pendants of the European ladies are nothing in companion 
 with thofe wore by the Eaft-Indians, both men and women ; 
 among whom it is the fafhion to lengthen out the ears, and to 
 enlarge the hole, by putting in Pendants of the fize of fauccrs, 
 fet with Hones. 
 
 The queen of Calicut, Pyrard tells us, and other ladies of her 
 court, have their ears, by this means, weighed down as low as 
 their breafts, and even lower ; imagining this a main point of 
 beauty ; and the holes in them were large enough to pais the 
 fift thiough. 
 
 '1 he Moncois, who arc the common people there, are not al- 
 lowed to wear their ears fo long as the Naires, who are the No- 
 bility ; three ringers length are the utmoft ftrctch allowed the 
 former. 
 
 In the Weft-Indies, Columbus named a certain coaft Orcja, 
 by reafon he found people with holes in their cars big enough 
 to pafs an egg through. 
 
 They make holes too in their lips and noftrils, and \\zx\% Pen- 
 dents at them : which is alfo practifed by the Mexicans and 
 other nations. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 PEN 
 
 Pendant, in heraldry, a term applied to the parts hanging down 
 from the label, to the number of three, four, five, or fix at 
 moft. — Thefe muft be fpecified in blazoning, when there aie 
 more than three. — They refemble the drops at the bottom cf* 
 the triglyphs in the done freeze. 
 Pendant barometer. See the article Barometer. 
 Pendant feaihers, in falconry, arc thofe feathers, which grow 
 
 behind the thighs of an haws. 
 Pendants, among florifts, a kind of globules growing on fta- 
 mina, or chives. Such are thofc in the middle of tulips, lilies, 
 6frs SeeApiCEs and Stamina. 
 Pendants 5/ a /hip, are thole long colours, or dreamers, cut 
 pointing towards the end, and there divided into two 
 parts; hung out at the head of mails, or at the yard-arm 
 ends. 
 
 The Pendants are chiefly ufed for fhew, though fometimes for 
 diftinction of fquadrons. — See7'ab. Ship.fg. i.n. 80. 
 Pendant, or Pennant, is alfo ufed for a fhort rope, which at 
 one end is faftened to the head of the maft, or to the yard, or 
 the clew of the fail, and at the other end, hath a block and 
 lhiver, to reeve fome running rope into. 
 
 The Pendant of the tackle is made faft to the head of the maft ; 
 and the Pendants of the back-ftays are faftened to and hang 
 down on the infide of the ihrouds. — All the yard-arms, ex- 
 cept the mizen, have of thefe Pendants, into which the braces 
 are reeved. 
 
 PENDENTIVE, in architecture, the whole body of a vault, 
 fuipended out of the perpendicular of the walls, and bearing 
 againft the arc-boutants. 
 
 Daviler defines it, a portion of a vault between the arches of 
 a dome, ufually enriched with fculpture : Felibien, the plane of 
 the vault contained between the double arches, the forming 
 arches, and the ogives. 
 
 The Pendentives are ufually of brick, or foft flone ; but care 
 muft be taken that the joints of the mafonry be always laid le- 
 vel, and in right lines proceeding from the fwecp whence the 
 rife is taken. 
 
 The joints too muft be made as fmall as poffible, to fave the 
 neceility of filling them up with flips of wood, or of ufmg 
 much mortar. 
 
 PENDULOUS, hanging dszvn ; a name which botanifts give to 
 thofe heads of fioweis which hang downwards ; the ftalk not 
 being able to fuftain them upright. 
 PENDULUM, in meehanicks, any heavy body fo fufpended as 
 that it may vibrate, or fwing backwards and forwards, about 
 fome fixed point, by the force of gravity. 
 The vibrations, or alternate afcent and defcent, of the Pendu- 
 lum, are called its of dilations. See Oscillation. — The point 
 on which it vibrates, is called the tenter of fufpenfion or motion. 
 See Center and Suspension. — And a right line patting 
 through the center, parallel to the apparent horizon, is called 
 the axis of ofcillation. 
 
 The vibrarionsof a Pendulum are all ifochronal, or affected in 
 fpaces of time perfectly equal. 
 
 And hence the Pendulum becomes the moft accurate chrono- 
 meter, or inftrument for meafuring time, in the world. 
 Hence alfo its vibrations are propofed as an invariable and 
 univerfal meafure of lengths for the moft diftant countries and 
 ages. 
 
 For a vibration being once found precifely equal to a fecond 
 of time of the fun's mean motion ; \iv.gr. the horary foot (as 
 M. Huygens calls the third part of his fecond Pendulum ) com- 
 pared to the Engliih ftandard foot, be as 392 to 360; it will 
 be eafy, by calculation, to reduce all the other meafures of 
 the world to thefe feet ; the lengths of Pendulums, reckoned 
 from the point of fufpenfion, to the center of the ball, be- 
 ing to each other, as the fquares of the times wherein the 
 feveral ofcillations are performed ; and therefore recipro- 
 cally are the fquares of the numbers of ofcillations per- 
 formed in the fame time.-*- On this fame principle, M. Mou- 
 ton, canon of Lyons, has a pretty treatife, de menfura pojle- 
 ris tranjmittenda. 
 
 M. Huygens lays down the length of a Pendulum that fhall 
 fwing feconds, to be three feet, three inches, and two tenths of 
 an inch; accoiding to Sir J. Moor's reduction ; which agrees 
 perfectly with M. Mouton's Pendulum eight inches one tenth 
 long, to vibrate one hundred and thirty two times in a minute : 
 fo that this may fafely be relied on as a fuic meafure. — Note, 
 the lengths of Pendulums are ufually meafuied from the centre of 
 motion. The firft who obferved this noble propeity, the ifo- 
 chronifm of Pendulums, and made ufe thereof in meafuring 
 time, Sturmius tellsus, was Ricciolus; after him Tycho, Lan- 
 grenus, Wendeline, Merlenne, Kircher, and othc.s, hiton the 
 fame thing ; though without any intimation of what Ricciolus 
 had done. — Huygens firft applied the Pendulum to clocks. 
 Pendulums are either fimple or compound. 
 Simple Pendulum, is that confiftingof a fmgle weight, as A, 
 confidered as a point, and an inflexible right line, as AC, 
 coniidered as void of gravity, fuipended on a centre C, and 
 voluble about it. Tab. Meehanicks, fig. 36. 
 Compound Pendulum, is that which conlifts of feveral weights, 
 S N f 0 
 
PEN 
 
 PEN 
 
 fo fixed as to retain the fame diftance both from one another, 
 and from the centre about which they vibrate. 
 Dot'trine and laws ^Pendulums. — i° A Pendulum raifed to B, 
 through the arch of the circle BA ; will fall, and again rife, 
 through an equal arch, to a point equally high, D ; and thence 
 will fall to A, and again rife to B ; and thus continue rifing 
 and falling icciprocally for ever. 
 
 For fuppoic H i a horizontal line, and B D parallel thereto ; it 
 the ball A, which we here confider as apoint, be railed to B ; 
 the line of direction BH, beins perpendicular from the centre 
 ofgravityB to the horizontal line HI,Bs without-fide the 
 bafe, which is in the point C— The ball therefore cannot reft, 
 but muft defcend. 
 
 But being retained by the thread BC, from falling perpendicu- 
 larly through BH ; it will fall through the arch BA. Conlc- 
 quently, when the centre of gravity arrives at the bottom ; A 
 has the fame force, it would have acquired in falling from K ; 
 -and will therefore be able to rile equally high as if it had, t. e. 
 in defcending through the rirfthalf of its vibration, it acquires 
 a velocity by the continual acceleration of its fall : and as this 
 velocity is always proportionable to the height whence it falls, 
 - as being in fome meafure the effeft thereof ; it is ftill able to 
 make it remount to the fame height, fuppefing, according to 
 thefyftem of Galileo, that the velocities are always the fquarc 
 roots of the heights. . 
 Since then the thread prevents the Pendulum going oft m the 
 tangent AI, it mull alcend through the arch AD, equal to 
 thatAB. 
 
 All the force therefore which it had acquired by falling, 
 being exhaufted ; it will return by the force of gravity 
 through the fame arch AD, and again will rife from A to B \ 
 and thus for ever. 
 
 Experience confirms this theorem, in any finite number of of- 
 cillations; but if they be fuppofed infinitely continued, there 
 will arife a difference. For the refinance of the air, and the 
 friction about the center C, will take off part of the force ac- 
 quired in falling ; whence it will not rife precifely to the fame 
 point whence it fell. 
 
 Thus the afcent continually diminifliing ; the ofcillation will 
 be at laft (topped, and the Pendulum will hang at reft. 
 2° If the fimpk Pendulum be fuipended between two femici- 
 cloids CB and CD (Tab. Mechanlds, fig. 37.) whole genera- 
 ting circles have their diameter CF equal to half the length of 
 the thread CA ; fo as the thread in ofcillating be wound about 
 them ; all the ofcillations, however unequal in fpace, will be 
 ifochronal, or performed in equal times ; even in a refilling 
 medium. 
 
 For fince the thread of the Pendulum CE, is wound about the 
 femi-cycloid BC ; the centre of gravity of the ball E, which is 
 here confidered as a point, by its evolution, will defcribe a 
 cycloid BEAD ; as is (hewn from the doctrine of infinites ; but 
 all afcents and defcents in a cycloid aie ifochronal, or equal in 
 time : therefore the ofcillations of the Pendulum are alio equal 
 in time. See Cycloid. 
 
 Hence, if with the length of the Pendulum CA, a circle be 
 defcribed from the centre C ; fince a proportion of the cycloid 
 near the vertex A, is almoif defcribed by the fame motion ; 
 a fmall arch of the circle will almoft coincide with the cy- 
 
 In° little arches of a circle, therefore, the ofcillations of Pen- 
 dulums will be ifochronal as to fenfe ; however, unequal in 
 themfelves ; and their ratio to the time of perpendicular de- 
 fcent through half the length of the Pendulum, is the fame 
 with that of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. 
 Hence alfo, the long r the Pendulums are, that ofcillate inar- 
 ches of a circle ; the 1. ore ofcillations aie ifochronal ; which 
 agrees with experiment: for in two Pendulums of equal lengths, 
 but ofcillating in unequal arches, provided neither arch be very 
 great, you will fcarce difcern any inequality in an hundred ol- 
 cillations, .''»'', 
 Hence alio, we have a method of determinating the fpace 
 which* a heavy body, falling perpendicularly, pafies over in a 
 civen time. For the ratio which the time of one ofcillation 
 has to the time of the fall through half the length of the Pendu- 
 htm being thus had ; and the time wherein the fcveral vibrations 
 of any given Pendulum being found ; we have the time of the 
 fall through half the length of the Pendulum. And hence 
 may collect the fpace it will pafs over in any other time. 
 The whole doctrine of Pendulums ofcillating between two femi- 
 cycloids, both theory and practice, weowetothegreat Huy- 
 gensjwho firft publilhed the fame in his Horologium Ofcillato- 
 rlurnfive demonjlrctiones de motu pendnlcrum, &{i 
 3°. The a£ion of gravity is lefs in thofe parts of the earth 
 where the ofcillations of the fame Pendulum are flower, and 
 greater where they are fwifter. 
 
 For the time of ofcillation in the cycloid, is to the time of 
 perpendicular defcent through the diameter of the generating 
 circle, as the periphery of the circle to the diameter. 
 If then the ofcillations of the fame Pendulum be flower, the per- 
 
 pendicular defcent of heavy bodies is like wife flower, :'. e. the 
 motion is lefs acceleiated, or the force of gravity is lefs : and 
 converfely. 
 
 Hence, us it is found by experiment, that the ofcillations of 
 the fame Pendulum aie (lower near the equator, than in pla- 
 ces lefs remote from the pole ; the force of gravity muft alfo 
 be lefs towards the equator than towards the poles. And con- 
 fequently the figure of the earth is not a juft fphere, but a 
 fpheroid. 
 
 This M. Richer found by an experiment made in the ifland 
 Cayenna, about four degrees from the equator j whcie a Pen* 
 dulum 3 foot, 8 lines \ long, which at Paris vibrates feconds, 
 was to be fhortcned a line and a quarter to reduce its vibra- 
 tions to feconds. 
 
 M. des Hayes, in a voyage to America, confirms the obferva- 
 tion of Richer ; but adds, that the diminution eftablifhed by 
 that author, appears too little. 
 
 M. Couplet the younger, upon his return from a voyage to 
 Brafil and Portugal, falls in witli M. des Hayes, as to the ne- 
 ceffity of (hortening the Pendulum towards the equator more 
 than Richer has done. He obferved, that even at Lilbon the 
 Pendulum which (wings feconds, muft be two lines I Ihorter 
 than that of Paris ; which is fhorter than that of Cayenna, as 
 fixed by Richer ; though Cayenna be in 24 degrees lefs lati- 
 tude than Lisbon. 
 
 The truth is, this diminution does not proceed regularly: Meff. 
 Picart and de la Hire, found the length of the pendulum which 
 beats feconds exactly the fame at Bayonne, at Paris, and at 
 Uranibourg in Denmark, though the firft be in43°£ of la- 
 titude, and the laft in the latitude 55 0 3'. 
 Hence M. de la Hire takes occafion to fufpect that the dimi- 
 nution is only apparent ; and that c, gr, the iron yard, where- 
 with M. Richer meafured his Pendulum, might be lengthened 
 by the great heats of the ifle of Cayenna ; not the Pendulum 
 mortened by the approach towards the line. 
 To confirm this, he tells us he found, by very careful 
 experiments, that an iron bar, which expofed to the froft 
 was fix foot long; was lengthened | of a line by the fum- 
 mer's Sun. 
 
 4" If two Pendulums vibrate in fimilar arches, the times of the 
 ofcillations are in the fubduplicate ratio of their lengths. 
 Hence the lengths of Pendulums vibrating in fimilar arches, are 
 in a duplicate ratio of the times wherein the ofcillations are 
 performed. 
 
 5° The numbers of ifochronal ofcillations performed in the 
 
 fame time by two Pendulums, are reciprocally as the times 
 
 wherein the feveral ofcillations are performed. 
 
 Hence the lengths of Pendulums vibrating in fimilar and fmall 
 
 arches, are in the duplicate ratio of the numbers of olcillations 
 
 performed in the fame time, but reciprocally taken. 
 
 b° The lengths of Pendulums fufpended between cycloids, are 
 
 in a duplicate ratio of the times wherein the feveral ofcillations 
 
 are performed. 
 
 And hence they are in a duplicate ratio of the numbers of 
 ofcillations performed in the fame time, but reciprocally taken : 
 and the times of olcillations in different cycloids are in a iub- 
 duplicate ratio of the lengths of the Pendulums. 
 7 0 To find the length of a Pendulum, which fhall make any 
 affigned number of vibrations in any given time. 
 Let the number of vibrations required be 50 in a minute, and 
 the length of the fixing, counted from the point of fufpenfion, 
 to the centre of ofcillation, or round ball at the end of it be 
 required : it is a fixed rule that the lengths of Pendulums are to 
 each other, as the fquarcs of their vibrations and contrariwife : 
 now it is agreed that a Pendulum vibrating feconds (or 60 times 
 in a minute) is 39 inches, and > c of an inch ; fay therefore as 
 the fquare of 50 (which is 2500) to the fquareof 60, which 
 is 3600) fo is 39, 2, to the length of the Pendulum required ; 
 which will be found 56 inches * B . 
 
 Note, in practice, fince the product of the mean time will 
 always be 141 1200 (that is the product of the fquare of 60, 
 multiplied by 39, 2. J that is 3600+39, 2. you need only di- 
 vide that number by the fquare of the number of vibrations 
 affigned ; arid the quotient will give the length of a Pendulum, 
 which fhall vibrate juft fo many times in a minute. 
 8° The-length of a Pendulum being known, to find the num- 
 ber of vibrations it will make in a given time. 
 This being the reverfe of the former ; fay, as the length given, 
 fuppofe 56, 4, is to the length of the ftandaid Peudulu?n twing- 
 ing feconds, viz. 39, 2 ; fo is the fquare of the vibrations of the 
 ftandard Pendulum in the given time, v.gr. a minute, to the 
 fquare of the vibrations fought : that is, as 56, 4 : 32, 2 : : 3600 : 
 2500. — And the fquare root of 2500, will be 50, the number 
 of vibrations fought. 
 
 But for ufe, here, (as in the former problem) you need only 
 divide 1411200 by the length ; and it gives the fquare of the 
 vibrations ; as there you divided by the fquare of the vibra- 
 tions to find the length. 
 
 On thefe principles, Mr. Derham has conftructed a table of the 
 
 vibrations 
 
PEN 
 
 PEN 
 
 vibrations of Pendulums of different lengths in the [pace of a 
 minute. 
 
 fend. 
 
 v id. at. 
 
 
 rend. 
 
 V ibi at. 
 
 length in 
 
 in a 
 
 
 length in 
 
 in a 
 
 inches. 
 
 Minute. 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 Minute. 
 
 i 
 
 375-7 
 
 
 3° 
 
 68.6 
 
 
 265.6 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 216. q 
 
 
 39- 2 
 
 68.0 
 
 
 187.8 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 168.0 
 
 
 40 
 
 59-5 
 
 6 
 
 153-3 
 
 
 5° 
 
 53-1 
 
 7 
 
 142.0 
 
 
 60 
 
 48.5 
 
 8 
 
 132.8 
 
 
 70 
 
 44.9 
 
 9 
 
 125.2 
 
 
 80 
 
 42.0 
 
 10 
 
 n8.8 
 
 
 90 
 
 39- 6 
 
 20 
 
 84.0 
 
 
 ICO 
 
 37-5 
 
 Note, Thefe laws, SsfY. of the motion of Pendulums can fcarce 
 hold ftriclly, unlefs the thread that fuftains the ball, be void 
 of weight, and the gravity of the whole weight be collected in 
 a point. 
 
 In practice, therefore, a very fine thread, and a fmall ball, but 
 of a very heavy matter, are to be ufed. A thick thread, and 
 a bulky ball, difiurb the motion frrangely; for in that cafe, 
 the Pendulum, of fimple, becomes compound ; it being much 
 the fame as if fcveral Weights were applied to the fame in- 
 flexible rod in feveral places. 
 
 The ufe of Pendulums in meafuring time in agronomical ob- 
 fervations, and on other occafions where a great degree of pre- 
 cifenefs is required, is too obvious to need a defcription. 
 Either the length of the Pendulum may be adjufted before its 
 application, and made to vibrate the denied time, v. gr. fe- 
 conds, half-fecoinds, && by article VI. or it may be taken at 
 random, and the times of the vibrations afterwards deter- 
 mined from article VIII. 
 
 - For the ufe of the Pendulum in meafuring remote inacceiTible 
 diftances, (stc by means of found, &e. See Sound. 
 
 Pendulum CW, a clock which derives its motion from the 
 vibration of a Pendulum. 
 
 It is controverted between Galileo and Huygens, which of 
 the two firft applied the Pendulum to a clock. For the pre- 
 tcnlions of each, fee Clock. 
 
 After Huygens had difcovered that the vibrations made in 
 arches of a cyloid, however unequal they were in extent, were 
 all equal in time; he foon perceived that a Pendulum applied 
 to a clock, fo as to make it defcribe arches of a cycloid, would 
 rectify the otherwife unavoidable irregularities of the motion 
 of the clock ; lince, though the feveral caules of thofc irregu- 
 larities ihould occafion the Pendulum to make greater or lefs vi- 
 brations ; yet, in virtue of the cycloid, it would ftill make 
 them perfectly equal; and the motion of the clock, governed 
 thereby, would therefore be preferved perfectly equable. 
 But the difficulty was to make the Pendulum defcribe arches of 
 a cycloid ; for, naturally, the Pendulum being tied to a fixed 
 point, can only defcribe arches of circles about the fame. 
 Here M. Huygens hit on a fecret which all the world is now 
 the better for : the iron rod or wire which bears the bob or 
 bottom, he tied at the top to a filken thread, placed between 
 two cycloidal checks, or two little arches of a cycloid, made of 
 metal. Hence the motion of vibration, applying inceflantly 
 from one to the other of thofe arches, the thread, which is ex- 
 tremely flexible, eafily aflumes the figure thereof; and by means 
 hereof it is demonstrated, that the weight fufpended at the 
 other end of the rod, will defcribe ajoft arch of a cycloid. 
 This is doubt L-fs one of the moit uieful and ingenious inven- 
 tions many ages have produced : by means whereof, we have 
 clocks which will not err a tingle fecond in feveral days. 
 It is true, the Pendulum is ftill liable to its irregularities, how 
 minute foeverthey may be ; and M. de la Hire thinks there is 
 ftill room to improve it. 
 
 The filk thread by which it is fufpended, he obferves, Shortens 
 in moift weather, and lengthens in dry ; by which means the 
 length of the whole Pendulum? and confequently the times of 
 the vibrations, are fomewhat varied. 
 
 To obviate this inconvenience, M. de la Hire, in lieu of a filk 
 thread, ufed a little fine fpring ; which was not indeed fubject to 
 ihoi ten and lengthen ; but which he found grew differ in cold 
 weather, and then made its vibrations fafter than in warm. 
 He had theretore rccouife to a ftifFwire or rod, firm from one 
 end to the other. Indeed, by this means he renounced the 
 advantages of the cycloid ; but he found, as he fays, by expe- 
 rience, that the vibrations in arches of circles are performed 
 in times as equal, provided they be not of too great extent, 
 as thofe in cycloids. But the experiments of Sir J. Moor and 
 others, have demonftratcd the contrary. 
 The ordinary caules of the irregularities of Pendulums, Mr. 
 Dei ham afcubes to the alterations in the gravity, and tempera- 
 
 hue of the air j which increafe and diminifli the weight of the 
 ball, and by that means make the vibrations greater and lefs ■ 
 an acceffion of weight in the ball being found by experiment 
 to accelerate the motion of the Pendulum 
 A weight of fix pound added to the ball,' Mr. Derham found, 
 made his clock gam 13 ieconds every day 
 A general remedy againft the inconveniences of Pendulum, is 
 to make them long, the bob heavy, and to vibrate but a little 
 way : this is the uiual means in England s the cycloidal cheeks 
 being generally overlooked. 
 To eorreil the motion of Pendulum clods; the ufual method is 
 tofcrewand letdown the ball ; but a very fmall alteration 
 here having.a very great effect, Mr. Derhampreleis Huvtrens's 
 method, which is to have a fmall weight or bob to Aide uo 
 and down the rod above the ball, which is to be immoveable • 
 though he improves on the method, and recommends havine 
 the ball to fcrew up and down, to bring the Pendulum near its 
 gage; and the little bob to fcrve for the nicer corrections is 
 the alteration of a fecond, tJV. 
 
 Mr. Huygens orders the weight of this little corrector to be 
 equal to that of the wire, or 50' of that of the great ball; he 
 adds a table of the alterations the feveral fliiftings thereof will 
 occadon in the motion of the Pendulum ; wherein it is obfer- 
 yable that a fmall alteration towaids the lower end of the 
 Pendulum , makes as great an alteration in time, as a gieater 
 riling or falling does when higher. 
 Pendulum Royal, a name given among us to a clock, whofe 
 Ftxduhm fwmgs feconds, and goes eight days ; (hewing the 
 hour, minute, and fecond. 
 
 The numbers of filch a piece are thus calculated j firft caft up 
 the Ieconds in twelve hours, and you will find them to be 
 4.3200=1 2x60x60. The fwing wheel mud be 20 to fwins6o 
 Ieconds in one of its revolutions : now let 1 4320c =21600 
 be divided by 3 o, and you will have 720 in the quotient, 
 winch mud be bioken into quotients ; the firft of them mu 
 12 tor the great wheel which moves round once 
 in twelve hours. 720 divided by 12, gives 60 81 06 '12 
 which may alfo be conveniently bioken into two 8) 1 , 
 quotients, as 10 and 6, or 5 and 12, or 8 and 7 j ; 8) & 
 
 which lad is mod convenient : and if you __ 
 
 take all your pinions 8, the work will ftand 
 
 thus. J u 
 
 According to this computation, the great wheel will go about 
 once in twelve hours, to thew the hour ; the fecond wheel 
 once in an hour, to fhew the minutes ; and the fwing wh»el 
 once in a minute, to (hew the feconds. See Clockwork 
 
 Pendulum level. 1 „ t Lev . 
 
 Pendulum watci. 5 See the articles { 
 
 See the article Impenetrability, 
 PENETRATION, Penetratio, the afl whereby one thin- 
 enters another, or takes up the place already poflefled bv 
 another. r ■> 
 
 The fchoolmen define Penetration the co-exiftence of two or 
 mo,e bodies, fo, as one is prefent, or has its extenfion in the 
 lame place as the other. 
 
 Philofophers hold the Penetration of bodies abfurd i , th-t 
 two bodies ihould be at the fame time in the fame place' and 
 accordingly, impenetrability is laid down as one of the eflin- 
 tial properties ot matter. 
 
 What we popularly call Penetration, only amounts to the mat- 
 te, of one body's being admitted into the vacuity of mother 
 Such is the Pemtratton of water through the fubrtance of gold! 
 
 See (^rOLD. ° 
 
 rt-NICILLA * in pharmacy, a lozenge ; or form of medicine 
 made round by rolling. See Lozenge meuicine 
 
 " ,ef^i,:t pe r0m ^''" 7 '"' aPendl - whkh " * <° 
 PENICILLUS, among chirurgeons, is ufed for a tent, to be nut 
 in wounds or ulcers. See Tent. f 
 PENIDIUM, in pharmacy, barfyfugar ; a preparation of fugar, 
 made by boiling it up with a decoction of barly, till it be- 
 come brittle ; which done, it is turned out upon a marble 
 anointed with oil of fweet almonds, and kneeded with the 
 hands like pafte ; and while yet hot, drawn out into flicks 
 twined like cords. 
 
 Pemdia are good againft colds, to moderate the acrimonies 
 ot the bread, and to promote expectoration, lie. 
 Dr. Quincy ules the word Penidittm, for a kind of clarified fu- 
 gar, with a mixture of darch, made up into little lumps. 
 PENINSULA*, in geography, a portion, or extent of land, 
 joining to the continent by a narrow neck or ifthmus ■ the 
 red being encompalfed with water. 
 * The word is compounded of the Latin, pent and inlula n d 
 almoft iflaadj which the French pertinently enough render trtf 
 qui ijle. ' J 
 
 Such is Peloponnefus, or the Morea ; fucli alfo are Africa 
 Jutland, &e. 
 
 Peninjula is the fame with what is otherwife called Cherfenefus. 
 See Chersonesus. 
 PENIS, in anatomy, a part of the body, called alfo the yard; 
 
 and 
 
PEN 
 
 and by the way of- eminence the member, or virile 
 ntmbtr, as being one of the principal organs of generation 
 in the male kind.— See Tab. Aunt. (Splanch) fig. I. hit. z. 
 fig. 8. lilt- e b, (gt. fig. 10. litt. d. fig. 15. litt. e e. n n. 
 
 ( Angciol) fig. 1. ». 67. ' 
 
 It is fattened to the lower part of the os pubis, and the upper 
 part of the ifchion : its body confifts of the two corpora ca-_ 
 vernofa, the corpus caveinofum urethire, and the urethra 
 itfelf. . 
 The corpora cavernofa of the penis, called alfo corpora nervoja 
 fa' fpongiola, iic. have two diftincft origins in the os pubis ; 
 whence they proceed, growing both in bulk and thicknefs, till 
 they meet the corpus caveinofum of the urethra, where they 
 join; leaving an inteiftice or channel for its pafiage along, 
 them ; and thus they continue their progrefs, connected to- 
 gether by a membranous body called the fcptum, and termi- 
 nating at length in the glans. 
 
 The taxrnau body of the -urethra, includes the urethra or un- 
 narypaflage. Its form, contraiyto that of the other caver- 
 nous bodies, isla.geft at the two extiemcs, and fmalleft in 
 the middle. That pait included between the two ongms ot 
 the cavernous bodies of the penis, Mr.-Cowper calls the bull) 
 of the urethra: its other extremity-being dilated, forms the 
 body called the glans. 
 
 The Penis receives arteries from the internal iliac branches, 
 and umbilical aitcrics; and thefe at length fubdividing into 
 innumerable branches, from the capillaiy extremities thereof 
 arife fo many veins, in whofe channels are apertures corre- 
 fponding to fo many cells, which communicating with each 
 other, empty rhemfclves into larger venous ducfts, running on 
 the l'upcrior furface of the Penis : fome whereof join the veins 
 of the prepuce ; others make one large trunk, called vena 
 Perns, which maiching on the doifum Penis to the proftatre, 
 there divides and enters the internal iliac on either fide. 
 The Penis has nerves from a trunk compofed of a coaIefcen.ce 
 of the third of the os facrum, and a branch of the great 
 crural : rhefe afcending the cavernous bodies, expand them- 
 felves over the upper furface thereof, and are thence diftri- 
 buted.to all parts of the Penis. 
 
 It has iympharducts very numerous on its furface under the 
 (kin, which difcharge themfelves into the glandulre inguinalcs. 
 See Seed and Urine. 
 
 The Perns has two pair of mufcles, and an odd one ; the odd 
 mufcle is called accelerator wince : its upper part, which covers 
 the bulb, ferves to ftreighten the veins palling through it from 
 the corpus cavernofum of the urethra, and thus hinders the 
 reflux of the blood in erection ; and by repeated conti actions, 
 drives the blood into the bulb toward the glans. Its elon- 
 gation ferves alfo to comprefs the channel of the urethra, and 
 ro force out the contained feed or mine. 
 The firft pair of mufcles are called the ereclores Penis. By 
 their action the Penis is fuftained, and drawn towards the 
 pubes ; and by tire afliftance of the fufpenfory ligament of the 
 Penis, the vena Penis is applied to the tranfverfe ligament of 
 the olTa pubis, and the refluent blood hindered from palling 
 -that way ; wheieby the corpora cavernofa become diftended. 
 The laft pair of mufcles are the tranfvcrfales Penis, which 
 vary in various fubjecfts, and are fometimes wanting : their 
 life is to dilate that pait of the cavernous body of the urethra, 
 to which they are fattened. 
 
 The Penis has alfo three glands, fiift difcovered by Mr. Cow- 
 per ; thefe all empty themfelves into the urethra, and from 
 the tenacity of the liquor they feparate, are called the mucous 
 glands. ■ 
 1 he whole compages of the Penis is inverted with a cellu- 
 lofe membrane, of admirable texture ; which again is cover- 
 ed with a Arm nervous coat; and that with a cuticula and 
 cutis : the duplicature of the cutis on the glans, makes the 
 prepuce. 
 
 It is tyed to the lower part of the glans by a ligament called 
 the freeman. By another ligament, called fitfpenfirium, the 
 Penis is held up to the oll'a pubis. 
 
 The-ufe of the Penis is for evacuating the feed, and urine. — 
 Indeed Dr. Drake, from a view of its ftructure, thinks it ori- 
 ginally intended for the former only ; and that the conveyance 
 of the uiine was not coniidei ed by nature in the mechanifm 
 of this part. 
 
 He adds another life, K. the incitement to venery, and the 
 propagation of the fpecies.— In effect, without fuch an inftru- 
 mcnt the feed of the moft perfect" animals could not be con- 
 veyed to the place of prolirication : add to this, that an alter- 
 nation of erection and flaccidity is absolutely necellary ; the 
 firft for the peiformance of its office, the fecond for the fe- 
 curity of the part. 
 
 Without an erection, it were impoffible to emit and lodge the 
 feed wheie it ought to be ; and with a conftant one, it would 
 be almolf as impoffible to fecure the part from injuries : not 
 to mention the lofs of inftigation, which would be the confe- 
 tiuence of conftant erection. 
 
 The caufe of the erection of the Penis is the blood diftending 
 tUe coipora cavernofa ; as is evident from many experiments ; 
 
 PEN 
 
 among the reft, from tying the Penis of a dog in coitu, in which 
 nothing is found but blood. And hence, in the bodies of 
 criminals that hang long after death, the Penis becomes erect- 
 ed, by the blood's falling to the inferior parts, and flopping 
 there. — The cavernous body of the urethra is etected by the 
 mufculi accelerators, embracing the veins of its bulb. 
 PENITENCE, Poenitentia, is fometimes ufed for a ftate 
 of repentance, and fometimes for the act of lepcnting. See 
 Repentance and Impenitence. 
 Penitence is alfo ufed for a difcipline, or punifhment attend- 
 ing repentance; more ufually called Penance. See Penance. 
 Penitence, alfo gives the title to feveral religious oiders, con- 
 fiding either of converted debauchees, and refoimed profti- 
 tutes ; or of perfons who devote themfelves to the office of 
 reclaiming them. Of this latter kind is the 
 Order of Penitence of St.* Magdalen, cftablHhed about the 
 year 1272, by one Bernard, a citizen of Marfeilles, who de- 
 voted himfelf to the work of converting the courtezans of 
 that city. 
 
 Bernard was feconded by feveral others ; who forming a kind 
 of fociety, were at length erected into a religious order by 
 pope Nicholas III. under the rule of St. Auguftin. 
 F. Gefnay adds, that they alfo made a religious order of the 
 Penitents, or women they converted, giving them the fame 
 rules and obfervances which they themfelves kept. 
 Congregation cf Penitence of St. Magdalen at Paris, owed its 
 rife to the p, caching of F. TifTeran, a Francifcan, who con- 
 verted a great number of courtezans about the year 1492- 
 Louis, duke of Orleans gave them his houfe for a monaftery;, 
 or rather, as appears by their conftitutions, Charles VIII. gave 
 them the Hotel, called Bochaigne, whence they were removed 
 to St. Geoige's chapel in 1572. By virtue of a brief of pope 
 Alexander; Simon, bifhop of Paris, in 1497, drew them upj 
 a body of ftatutcs, and gave them the rule of St. Auguftin. 
 To qualify a woman for admiftion, it was required that (he 
 had committed the fin of the flefli. — None were admitted 
 who were above 35 years of age. 
 
 Till the beginning of the laft century, none but Penitents were 
 admitted ; but fince its reformation by Mary Alvequin, in 
 1616, none have been admitted but maids s who, however, 
 ftill retain the ancient name Penitents. 
 Penitents, an appellation given to certain fraternities, or fo- 
 cieties of pcrfons who affemble together for prayers, make 
 piocefiions bare-footed, their faces covered with linen, and 
 give themfelves difcipline, Sc. 
 
 There are white Penitents in Italy, at Avignon, and atLyons. — 
 There are alfo blue Penitents, and black Penitents, which laft: 
 ailift criminals at their death, and give them burial. 
 Mabillon tells us, that at Turin there are a fet of Penitents 
 kept in pay, to walk through the ftreets in procefllon, cut 
 their fhoulders witli whips, Sc. 
 Penitents, or converts of the name of Jcfus, a congregation of 
 religious at Seville, conf.fting of women, who had led a licen- 
 tious life : founded in 1550. 
 
 This monaftery is divided into three quarters : one for pro- 
 felled religious ; another for novices ; a third for thofe under 
 correction. 
 
 When thefe laft give figns of a real repentance,^ they are re- 
 moved into the quarter of the novices, where, if they do not 
 behave themfelves well, they are remanded to their correction. 
 They obferve the rule of St. Auguftin. 
 Penitents of'Orvieto, are an order of nuns, inftituted by An- 
 thonySimoncelli, a gentleman ofOrvieto — The monaftery he 
 built, was at rirft deftined for the reception of poor girls, aban- 
 doned by their parents, and in danger ot loling their virtue. 
 In 1662, it was erected into a monaftery, for the reception 
 of fuch as, having abandoned themfelves to impurity, were 
 willing to take up and confecrate themfelves to God by fo- 
 lemn vows.— Their rule is that of the Carmelites. 
 Thefe religious have this in peculiar, that they undergo no 
 noviciate. All required is, that they continue a few months 
 in the monaftery in a fecular habit j after which they are 
 admitted to the vows. 
 PENITENTIAL, Poenitentiale, an ecclefiaftical book, 
 retained among the Romanifts, wherein is prefcribed what 
 relates to the impofition of penance, and the reconciliation 
 of Penitents. See Penance and Penitence. 
 In the capitulars of Charlemaign, the priefts are enjoined to 
 ftudy well their Penitential. — There are various Penitcntiah ; 
 the Roman Penitential, that of venerable Bede, that of pope 
 Gregory III. Sc. 
 PENITENTIARY, Poenitentiarius, an office, or tribu- 
 nal in the court of Rome ; wherein are examined and deli- 
 vered out the fecret bulls, graces, or difpenfations relating to 
 confeience, confeffion, Sc. 
 
 The expeditions of the Penitentiary are fealed up with red wax, 
 and fent clofe ; directed to the confeubrs. 
 Penitentiary is alfo an officer, or dignitary, in fome cathe- 
 dials, verted with power from the bifhop to abfolve cafes 
 referved to him i on which account he is alfo called the 
 bifoop's ear. 
 
 In 
 
PEN 
 
 In fome places there is a grand-penitentiary, and a fuh-peniten- 
 tiary. Anaftafuis fays, that pope Simplicius chofe fome 
 among the Roman priefts to prefide over penances. 
 At prefent the pope has his grand Penitentiary, ; who is a cardi- 
 nal and the chief of the other penitentiary priefts eftabliihed in 
 the patriarchal churches of Rome, who confult him in all dif- 
 ficult cafes. 
 
 He prelides in the Penitentiary, difpatches difpenfations, abfo- 
 lutions, &c. and has under him a regent, and twenty four 
 proctors, or advocates of the facred Penitentiary. 
 PKNNA. Seethe article Pinna. 
 
 PENNATA folia, winged leaves, among botanifts, are fuch 
 leaves of plants, as grow directly one againfl another, on the 
 fame rib or ftalk : as thofe of aih, walnut-tree, csV. 
 
 PENNON, or Penon, a ftandard with a long tail, anciently 
 belonging to a iimple gentleman ; properly ufed as a guidon, 
 to place over a tent. 
 
 It is oppofed to the banner, which was fquare ; and hence, 
 when any one was to be made a banneret, the ceremony con- 
 lifted in cutting off" the tail of his Pennon, and thus converting 
 it into a banner. 
 
 PENNY, or Peny *, in commerce, an ancient Englifh coin, 
 which had formerly considerable courfe ; but is now dwin- 
 dled into an imaginary money, or money of account. 
 
 * Camden derives the word from the Latin Peainia, money. See 
 Pecunia. 
 
 The ancient Englifh f enny, Penig, or Pening, was the firft fil- 
 ver coin ftruck in England ; nay, and the only one current 
 among our Saxon anceftors ; as is agreed by Camden, Spel- 
 man, Dr. Hicks, csV. 
 
 The Penny was equal in weight to cur three-pence ; five of them 
 made one milling, or fcilling faxon ; and thirty a mark or man- 
 cufe, equal to our 7 s. bd. 
 
 Till the time of king Edward I. the Penny was ftruck with a 
 crofs fo deeply indented in it, that it might be ealily broke, 
 and parted, on occafion, into two parts ; thence called half- 
 pennies ; or into four, thence called fourthings, or farthings. — 
 But that prince coined it without indenture ; in lieu of which 
 he firft ftruck round ha.\i-pence and farthings. 
 He alfo reduced the weight of the Penny to a ftandard ; or- 
 dering that it ihould weigh thirty two grains of wheat, ta- 
 ken out of the middle of the ear. — .This Penny was called 
 the Penny jlerling. — Twenty of thefe pence were to weigh 
 an ounce ; whence the Penny became a weight, as well as 
 a coin. 
 
 The Penny Jlerling is now nigh difufed as a coin ; and fcarce 
 fubfifts, but as a money of account, containing the twelfth 
 part of a milling, or the two hundred and fourtieth part of a 
 pound. 
 
 The courfe of exchange between England and France, is fet- 
 tled on the foot of fo many pence fterling, for a French 
 crown of three livres. 
 
 The French Penny, or denier, is of two kinds ; the Paris Penny, 
 called denier Parljis ; and the Penny of Tours, denier Tourmis. 
 See Denier. 
 
 The Dutch Penny, called Pennink, is a real money, worth about 
 one fifth more than the French Penny T mrnois. — The Pennink 
 is alfo ufed as a money of account, in keeping books by 
 pounds, florins and patards ; twelve Penninks make the patard ; 
 and twenty patards the florin. 
 
 At Hambourg, Nuremberg, dsV. the Penny or Pfennig of ac- 
 count, is equal to the French Penny Tournois. Eight of 
 them make the krieux ; and fixty the florin of thofe cities ; and 
 ninety the French crown, or 4 s. 6 d. fterling. 
 
 Penny, in ancient ftatutes, isc. is ufed for all filver money. 
 And hence the ward-penny, aver-penny, hundred-penny, tithing- 
 penny, and hrothal-penny. See Pence, He. 
 
 Bord half-?v.nnY "J rBoRD half-penny. 
 
 Balf-PENNY I \ Half -penny. 
 
 Rete Penny V- See the article <Rete ?fw/v. 
 
 Sehar Penny \ I Schar penny. 
 
 Ward Pe nny J *-Ward penny. 
 
 PENNY-WEIGHT *, a Troy weight, containing twenty four 
 grains ; each grain weighing a grain of wheat gathered out of 
 the middle of the ear, well dried. 
 
 * The name took its rife hence, that^Ms was actually the weight 
 of one of our ancient filver pennies. 
 
 Twenty of thefe penny-weights make an ounce Troy. ' A 
 penny-weight of gold bullion ftandard, is worth four (hil- 
 lings ; and of filver bullion, three-pence. See GoLd and 
 Silver. 
 
 PENNY POST. See the article Kv.-vv-Post. 
 PENON. See the article Pennon. 
 
 PENSA libra s in our ancient cuftoms, a pound of money paid 
 by weight, not by tale. 
 
 PENSION, Pensio, a yearly appointment, or fum of mo- 
 ney paid any one for fervices, or coniiderations already 
 paft. ' 
 That which in the two temples is called a Parliament, and in 
 Lincoln's-Inn a Crutuil, is in Gray's-Inn termed a Penjlott ; viz. 
 
 PEN 
 
 an aflembly of the members of the fociety, to confult of the 
 affairs or the houfe. 
 Pensions alib denote certain annual payments of each member 
 to the houfe, tor certain occafions. 
 
 When a Penjiou writ is ill'ued, none fued thereby in the inns 
 of court ihall be difcharged, or permitted to come into com- 
 mons, till all duties be paid. 
 
 Hence a Penjion order in the fame inn, is a peremptory order 
 againft fuch of the fociety as are in arrear for Penthns, and 
 other duties. 
 
 PENSIONARY, or Pensioner, a perfon who has a Penfion, 
 appointment, or yearly fum, payable during life, by way 
 ot acknowledgment ; charged on the eftate of a prince., com- 
 pany, particular perfon, or the like. 
 
 In the Romifh countries it is frequent to have Penfi'cns on be- 
 nefices : thefe were anciently granted with a great deal of cafe, 
 under pretence of infirmities, poverty, £jV.~ But lince the Xlith 
 Century, thefe pretences were carried fo far, that the incum- 
 bents, or titularies of benefices were little more than farmers. . 
 1 his obliged the fpiritual powers to fix the caufes, and the 
 quantities of Penjions.— Pen/ions are now only creatable by the 
 pope; and are never to exceed one third of the revenue; two 
 thirds being (fill to remain to the incumbent. 
 Pensionary, is alfo the appellation of the firft minifter of the 
 ftates of the province of Holland. 
 
 The Penjionary is chairman in afl'emblics of the ftates of that 
 province j he propofes the matters to be confulted on, collects 
 the votes, tonus and pronounces the refolutions of the ftates ; 
 he alfo opens letters, confers with foieign minifters, &c. 
 He is charged with impeding the finances, prefervihg the rights 
 of the province, maintaining the authority of the ftates, and 
 feeing to the obfervation of the laws, CSV. for the good of the 
 Hate. He aflifts in the college of deputy-counfellors of the pro- 
 vince, who reprefentthefoveieignty in the abfence of theftat.es; 
 and he is perpetual deputy of the ftates general of the United 
 Provinces. His ccmmiflion is only given for five years ; after 
 which it is deliberated whether or no itfliallbe renewed. In- 
 deed there is no Inftance of its having been revoked. Death 
 only puts a period to the functions of this important minifter. 
 Formerly he was called the advocate of the province : the title 
 Poifionary was oniy given at the time Barnevelt had the office, 
 Orotius calls him in Latin adfejfor jurifperitus ; Merula, advoca- 
 tus generalis ; and Matthxus, profeflbr at Leyden , confliarius 
 penfmarius, which is the quality the ftates give him in their 
 mltruments. 
 
 Pensionary, is alfo the firft minifter of the regency of each 
 city, in the province of Holland. 
 
 His office is to give his advice in matters relating to the go- 
 vernment, either of the city in particular, or of the ftate in ge- 
 neral ; and in aflemblies of the ftates of tire province is fpeaker 
 in behalf of his city. 
 
 Yet, the functions of thefe Penftonaries is not alike every where : 
 In fome cities they only give their advice ; and are never found 
 maflemblies of the magistrates, except when exprefly called 
 thither : in others they attend conftantly ; and in others they 
 even make the proportions on thepart of the burgher-mafters, 
 draw up their conclufions, CSV.— They are called Penfionaries, 
 becaufe they receive an appointment ot Pen fori. 
 Gentlemen Pensioners, a band of gentlemen, whofe bufinefs it 
 is to guard the king's perfon in his own houfe ; and who for 
 that end wait in the prefence chamber. 
 
 They were firft fet on foot by king Henry VII. the number 16 
 forty j and each is obliged to keep three double horfes and a 
 fervant, who is to be armed : lb that they properly make a 
 troop of guards, and have accordingly been muflered by their 
 own officers: but this part of duty, to which they are fworn 
 the king ufually difpenfes with. 
 
 Their officers are a captain, lieutenant, ftandard-bearer; and 
 clerk of the cheque. — Their ordinary arms are gilt pole-axes, 
 with which they attend the king to and from the chapel-royal; 
 receiving him in the prefence-chamber, or coming out of his 
 private lodging; as alfo at all great folemnities. Their Penjion 
 100 /. per annum. 
 PENSTOCK. See the article Pen. 
 
 PENTACHORD *, an ancient mufical inftrument with five 
 firings. 
 
 * Whence the njtme of we^Ii, five, and xopSij, firing. 
 The invention of the Pentachord is referred to the Scythians : 
 the firings were of bullocks leather, and they were ftruck witft 
 a plectrum made of goats horn. 
 PEN TACROSTICK, a fet of, or feries of verfes fo difpofed, 
 as that there are always found rive acrofticks of the fame riame, 
 in five divifions of each verfe. See Acrostick. 
 PENTAGON*, in geometry, a figure of five fides, and five 
 angles. SeeFicuRE. 
 
 * The Word comes from the Greek ■a^layus^, quinquangulus, com- 
 pounded of sb.^Ie, five, and J^na, angle. See Polygon. 
 If the five fides are equal, the angles are fo too ; and the figure' 
 is called a regular Pentagon, as fig. 47. Tab. Geometry. — Moil 
 citadels are regular Pentagons. 
 
 The moft conliderable property of a Pentagon is, that one of 
 SO its 
 
PEN 
 
 its fides, v. f. L>E, is equal in power to the fides of a hexagon, 
 and a decagon inferibed in the fame circle AECDE : that is, 
 the fquare of the fide DE is equal to the fum of the fquares oi 
 the fides D a andDb. 
 
 Pappus has alio demonftrated, that twelve regular Pentagon!; 
 contain more than twenty triangles inferibed in the fame cir- 
 cle, lib. 5. probl. 45. 
 
 The dodecahedron, which is the fourth regular body, confifts 
 of twelve Pentagons. 
 
 Projelikn or perfpefiive of (/Pentagon. See Perspective. 
 
 PENTAGRAPH, an inftrument whereby defigns, prints, &e 
 of any kind, may be copied in an} - propoition ; without a per- 
 fon's being ikilled in drawing. 
 The inftrument is otherwife called a Parallelogram. 
 Thecommon Pentagraph (reprefented Tab. Mifcel. fig. 6.) con- 
 fifts of four brafs or wooden rulers, two of them from fifteen 
 to eighteen inches longs the other two half that length. At 
 the ends, and in the middle of the longer rulers, as alio at the 
 ends of the (hotter, are holes, upon the exaft fixing whereof 
 the perfection of the inftrument chiefly depends. Thofe in 
 the middle of the long rulers are to be at the fame diftance 
 from thole at the end of the long ones, and thole of the fhort 
 ones; fo that when put together, they may always make a 
 parallelogram. 
 
 The inftrument is fitted together for ufe, by feveral little pieces, 
 particularly a little pillar, N° 1 , having at one end a fcrew and 
 nut, whereby the two long rulers arc joined ; and at the other 
 a little knot for the inftrument to Hide on. The piece N° 2. is 
 a rivet with a fcrew and nut, wherewith each fhort ruler is 
 faftened to the middle of each long one. The piece N* 3 3. is 
 a pillar, one end whereof being hollowed into a fcrew, has a 
 nut litted to it. At the other end is a worm to fcrew into the ta- 
 ble ; when theinftrument is to be ufed, it joins the ends of the 
 two fhort rule: s. The piece N° 4. is apen,poitcraion, or pencil, 
 ferewed into a little pillar. Laftly, the piece N° 5. is a brafs 
 point, moderately blunt, fciewed likewife into a little pillar. 
 Uje of the Pentagraph, or Parallelogram. — 1. To copyadelign 
 in the fame fcale or bignefs as the original : fcrew the worm 
 N° 3. into the table ; lay a paper under the pencil N° 4. and the 
 dcfign under the point N D 5. This done, conducting the point 
 over the feveral lines and paits of the dcfign, the pencil will 
 draw or repeat the fame on the paper. 
 
 2. If the dcfign be to be reduced — e. gr. into half the fpace ; 
 the worm muft be placed at the end of the long ruler N° 4. 
 and the paper and pencil in the middle. In this lituation con- 
 duct the brafs point over the feveral lines ofthe dcfign as before ; 
 and the pencil at the fame time will draw its copy in the pro- 
 portion required i the pencil here only moving half the lengths 
 that the point moves. 
 
 PIcnce, on the contrary, if the defign be to be enlarged by one 
 Half, the brafs point, with the delign, muft be placed in the 
 middle, at N° 3. the pencil and paper at the end of the long 
 ruler, and the worm at the other. 
 
 3. To enlarge or reduce in other proportions, there are holes 
 drilled at equal diftanccs on each ruler, viz. all along the ihort 
 ones, and half way of the long ones ; in order for placing the 
 brafs point, pencil, and worm in a right line therein ; ;'. e. if the 
 piece carrying the point be put in the third hole, the two other 
 pieces mult be put in its third hole. 
 
 If then, the point and delign be placed at any hole of the great 
 rulers, and the pencil with the paper at any hole of the fhort 
 ruler, which forms the angle therewith ; the copy will be lefs 1 
 than half the original. On the contrary, ifit be placedatone 
 ofthe holes of that fhort mler, which is parallel to the long 
 ruler, the copy will be greater than half the original. 
 The conftruction of this inftiument requires a degree of ac- 
 curacy, which molt of ourinltrument-makers are ftrangers to; 
 for which rcalbn there are very few of the inftruments that fuc- 
 ceed. Few will do any thing tolerably but ftrait lines ; and 
 many of them not even thofe. 
 PENTAMETER*, in poetry, a kind of verfe, confining of 
 five feet or metics. See Verse and Foot. 
 * The word is derived from the Greek -mrrxpty®*, q. d. five mea- 
 fures. 
 
 The two fi'ft feet of a Pentameter, maybe cither dactils or fpon- 
 dees;the third muft be always a ipondee; andthetwolaftana- 
 ptefts. 
 
 It lsufually joined to hexameters, in elegies, epiftles, epigrams, 
 and other little pieces.- There is no wor k extant of Penta- 
 meters alone. 
 
 PEN PAPETALOUS plants, arc fuch whofc flower confifts of 
 
 rive leaves. 
 
 PENTAPOLIS, nENTAiIOAlE, in geography, &T*. a country 
 wherein are live cities. 
 
 The name Pentapclis has been given to feveral countries, parti- 
 cularly the valley wherein flood the live infamous cities deftroy- 
 ed by "the Ihower of jive and brimftoue, in the time of Abraham. 
 It is commonly fuppofed, this country was the place where 
 now ftands the lake Alphaltites, or dead lea : Sanfon places it in 
 the neighborhood of this lake, but without any proof. 
 ITHeibelot calls this the Peutapolis of '/be foilomius. 
 The moft celebrated of all others was the Pentapolis eyrenaica 
 
 PEN 
 
 or Penlap-iVn of Egypt, whofe five cities were Berenice, Affi- 
 noe, Ptolemais, Cyrene, and Apollonia. 
 Among the ancient geographers and hiftorians, we likewife read 
 ofthe Pentapolisoi 'Libya, now called Mejlrata; the Pentapdis 
 of Italy ; and the Pentapclis of Alia nlinor. 
 PENTAPTOTON, in grammar, a noun which has only five 
 cafes. 
 
 FENTASTICH, PefjtAstichon, in poetry, a ftanza, or di- 
 vision of a poem, conlifting of five veifes. 
 PENTASTYLE, in architecture, a work wherein are five rows 
 of columns. 
 
 Such w^stheportico begun bythe emperorGallienus, andwhich 
 was to have been continu'd from thel'iaminian-gate to the bridge 
 Milvius, 2. e. from the Porto del populo, to the Ponte-mole. 
 PENTATEUCH*, in the facred leai nmg, the five books of Mo- 
 fes, at the head of the old teftament : viz. Genelis, Exodus, 
 Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek ■jnv'Mrtr^, which fignifies 
 the lame, compounded of nnr\i, five, and tiij;®', volume. 
 Pere Simon, in his Hi ft. Crit. du V. Te/'l. produces a great num- 
 ber of pafiages to prove that Moles was not wholly the author 
 of the Pcutateuch, as we now have it. Indeed, thofe apparent 
 interpolations at the end, are furficient to determine that point; 
 it being abfurd to fuppofe Moles the author of the account of 
 his own death and burial, and of the companion between him 
 and the fucceeding prophets in Ifrael. 
 
 Thefe interpolated paifagcs are ufually attributed to Efdras ; 
 who, on his return from the Babylonilh captivity, is fuppofed 
 to have publilhed the old teftament, or at leaft a part of rt, cor- 
 rected and enlarged. 
 
 There are two famous Pentateuchs, or editions of the Pentateuch, 
 which have a long time dilputed the pieference, both as to an- 
 tiquity, and as to character; viz. that of the jews, called the 
 Jcivijh or Hebrew Pentateuch, wrote in the Chaldean or Affyrian 
 character ; and that of the Samaritans, wrote in the Samaritan 
 or Phoenician character. — Each is maintained to be the ancient 
 Hebrew ; though the generality of the criticks give it in behalf 
 of the latter. 
 
 Indeed, as to the point of matter, they are generally pretty 
 conformable to each other, each has all the interpolated pal- 
 fages above-mentioned, though the Samaritan has one or two 
 more, which are not in the Hebrew: the tirft a paft'age in Deut. 
 xxvii. 4. where an altar is enjoined to be built, and facrifices 
 to be offered on mount Ebal, or rather mount Gerizzini; 
 which paffage was doubtlefs foifted in to countenance the Sa- 
 maritan woiihip, and reprefent it of equal antiquity with that 
 of the temple of Jerufalem. See Samaritans. 
 Mr. Whifton, however, declares, he fees no reafon to accufe 
 the Samaritan of corruption, in thefe points, but rather the 
 Jewilh ; and eameftly contends that the former is an uncor- 
 rupted copy of the books of Mofes, originally derived from 
 the nrfl feparation of the ten tribes thcmfelves, in the days of 
 Jeroboam. — but the contrary of this is apparent from the mere 
 confelfed interpolations afcribed to Efdras, who lived feveral 
 hundred years after the time of Jeroboam. 
 Butthc grand difference is in the letter or character : the Jewifii 
 being in the Chaldean or Affyrian character, and the Samaritan 
 in the Phoenician, i.e. the Canaanitilh character ; this latter 
 feems to have an advantage over the vulgar Jewilh Pentateuch.— 
 Yet is Prideauxof opinion, the latter is only a tranfeript from 
 the former out of the Chaldean into the old Hebrew character. 
 One great rcalbn he gives, is, that there are many variations 
 in the Samaritan, manifeftly occafioned by nrillaking the fi- 
 milar letters in the Hebrew Alphabet ; which letters having no 
 frmilitude in the Samaritan character, it is evident the varia- 
 tions muft have arifen in tranferibing from the vulgar Hebrew 
 into Samaritan ; and not the contrary way. 
 Add to this, that Simon, Allix, and many other learned men, 
 take the Chaldean or AiPyrian character to have been the cha- 
 racter always in ufe anrong the Jews ; and the Samaritan or Ca- 
 naanitifh, or as it is alfo called the old Hebrav character, to have 
 never been ufed by the Jews before the captivity, in any man- 
 ner, cither in books, or on medals. 
 
 Hence the Pentateuch muft have been tranferibed into that cha- 
 racter ; and that, probably, to render it legible to the inhabi- 
 tants of Samaria, who, upon their introduction of the Penta- 
 teuch, might probably be verfed in no other character. 
 Ufher takes the Samaritan Pentateuch to have been compiled by 
 Dofitheus a Samaritan, mentioned by Origen to have adultera- 
 ted the Pentateuch.— Dupin fuppofes it the work of fome mo- 
 dern Samaritan, whom he imagines to have compiled it chiefly 
 out of the different copies of the Palestinian and Babylonian 
 Jews, and the Septuagint ; becaufe it fometimes agrees with 
 one, and fometimes with another. 
 PENTATHLON, iientaoaon, in antiquity, the five exer- 
 eifes performed at the Grecian games, and for which prizes 
 were propofed. See Exercise, Game, tsY. 
 Thefe exercifes were wreftling, boxing, leaping, running, and 
 quoit-playing.— He who bore away the prize in them all, was 
 called Pcutathlus ; by the Latins, quinquertio ; as the five exer- 
 cifes themfclves wcie by thofe latter people called quinquertium. 
 
 PENT A- 
 
pEn 
 
 PENTATONON, in the ancient mufic, a concord, by us 
 called the redundant fixth. 
 
 It confifts of four tones, and a major and minor fcmitone ; 
 whence the name, Pentatonon, q. d. five tones. 
 PENTECONTERUS, Henthkontepos, a veffel with fifty 
 oars. 
 
 PENTECOST*, nENTHKOSTH, Whitfuntide ; a folemn feaft 
 of the church, held in commemoration of the defcent of the 
 Holy Ghoft on the apoftles ; as deicribed in the acts. See 
 
 W HITSUN TIDE. 
 
 * It has its name from the Greek ■xt^-rx^iz, q- d. quinquagefimm 
 50> h , becaufe held on the fiftieth day after Eafter. See Easter. 
 
 In the ancient church, Pentecojl finifhed the pafchal time, or 
 eafter-feafon ; wherein, as 1'ertullian, St. Jerom, &c. obferve, 
 Hallelujah was fung every where, the office celebrated land- 
 ing, no fafting allowed, t5V. 
 
 The Jews likewife had a feaft they called Pentecojl, or quinqua- 
 gefimm, folemnized in memory of the laws being given to 
 Mofes 50 days after their depaiture out of Egypt. 
 
 PENTECOST ALS, Pentecostalia, anciently, were pious 
 oblations made at the feaft of Pentecoft, by the patifhioners to 
 their pariih prieft ; and fometimes by inferior churches or 
 parifhes, to the principal or mother church. 
 Thefe pariih Pentecoftah were alfo called Whit fun- far things ; and 
 their fum was divided into four parts, of which one went to 
 the prieft, one to the poor, one towards the repair of the 
 church, and one to the biftiop of the diocefe. 
 
 PENTESYRINGUS, in antiquity, a fort of pillory, with five 
 holes ; wherein were fattened the legs, arms, and heads of 
 criminals, to prevent their ftirring. 
 
 PENTHEM1MERIS*, in the Greek and Latin poetry, part of 
 a verfe, confifting of two feet, and one long fyllable. 
 
 * The word is Greek, OTEj9*>(/.if/,igi; ; compounded of tome, five, 
 ■n^tav;, half, and part. 
 
 PENULTIMA*, or Penultimate, in grammar, denotes the 
 fyllable, or foot, immediately before the laft. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin pene and ultimus, almoft hft. 
 Hence antepenultimate is that before the Penultimate, or the laft 
 but two. 
 
 Penultimate, in mufic. M. Brofihrd will have it the fame 
 with what the Greeks called paranete ; though others will not 
 allow the paranete to be the penultimate chord, but the next 
 thereto. 
 
 Penultimate of the feparate, paranete diazeugmemn, is a name 
 the ancients gave to one of the chords of their lyre or fyftem; 
 correfponding to the d, la, re, of the third octave of the mo- 
 dern fyftem. 
 
 Penultimate of the acute, paranete hypcrboken, a chord of the 
 ancient fyftem, anfwering to the g, re, fol, of the third octave 
 of the modern fyftem. 
 
 PENUMBRA, in aftronomy, a faint, or partial fhade, obferved 
 between the perfect (hadow and the full light in an eclipfe. 
 The Penumbra arifes from the magnitude of the fun's body: 
 were he only a luminous point, theihadow would be all per- 
 fect ; but by reafon of the diameter of the fun, it happens 
 that a place which is not illuminated by the whole body of 
 the fun, does yet receive rays from a part thereof. 
 Thus fuppofe S the fun {Tab. Jftron.fig. 47.) and T the moon, 
 and the lhadow of the latter to be projected on a plane as G H. 
 The true proper fhadow of T, ziz. G H, will be encompaffed 
 with an imperfect fhadow, or Penumbra, H L and G E, each 
 portion wheieof is illuminated by an entire hemifphere of the 
 fun. 
 
 The degree of light or (hadow of the Penumbra will be dif- 
 ferent in different parts, as thofe parts lie open to the rays of 
 a greater or letter part of the fun's body ; thus from L to H, 
 and from EtoG, the light continually diminifhes ; and in the 
 confines of G and H, the Penumbra becomes loft and con- 
 founded with the total fhade ; as, near E and L, it is con- 
 founded with the total light. 
 
 A Penumbra muft be found in all eclipfes, whether of the 
 fun, the moon, or the other planets, primary or fecundary ; 
 but it is moft conftderable with us in eclipfes of the fun ; as 
 is the cafe here referred to. 
 
 In eclipfes of the moon, the earth is encompaffed indeed with 
 a Penumbra; but it is only feniible to us on the earth near 
 the total lhadow : an obferver placed on a plane, whereon 
 the fhadow falls, might obferve the whole Penumbra , as in 
 eclipfes of the fun. Thus an eye placed at I or F, would 
 only fee the femi-diameter of the fun ; the reft being hid be- 
 hind the moon. Going from I towards H, more and more 
 of the fun is hid, till it be loft in the fhadow itfelf, &e. 
 Hence we have eclipfes of the fun when the fhadow never 
 touches the earth, provided the Penumbra do but reach it ; 
 and hence there is a difference obferved in eclipfes of the fun, 
 as the lhadow itfelf, or a greater or lefs degree of the Penum- 
 bra palles over a place. — But eclipfes of the moon appear the 
 fame in all places where they are vilible. 
 When the lhadow itfelf falls on the earth, the eclipfe is faid to 
 be total or central ; when only the Penumbra falls on it, the 
 eclipfe is faid to be partial. 
 
 The Penumbra extends infinitely in length, inafmuch as to 
 
 P E P 
 
 each point of the diameter of the fun, there anf.vers a fpace 
 infinite in length into which no rays enter from that point- 
 though there do from otheis. Two rays drawn from the two 
 extremities of the earth's diameter, and which proceed (till 
 diverging, form the two edges of the Penumbra ; which, of 
 confequence, is continually growing in width, and is infinite 
 alfo in this fenfe.— All that infinite fpace is the Penumbra, ex- 
 cept the triangle of the lhadow included in it. 
 The figure of this fpace comprehending the (hadow, is a tra- 
 pezium, one of whofe fides is the diameter of the earth ; the 
 oppofite fide parallel thereto is an infinite line, e. the width 
 of the Penumbra projected to infinity, and the two other fides 
 are two rays drawn from the two extremities of the diameter 
 of the fun, through thole of the diameter of the earth, and 
 which prolonged back beyond the fun, will interfect in a cer- 
 tain point, making an angle equal to the apparent diameter 
 of the fun ; which angle may be called the angle of the 
 Penumbra. 
 
 Now the Penumbra will be the greater, as this angle, or, which 
 is the fame thing, as the ftar is greater, the planet remaining 
 the fame; and if the diameter of the planet be incrcafed, the 
 ftar remaining the fame, it will be the fame as if ihe diameter 
 ltill receded from the angle of the Penumbra. 
 M. de le Hire examines the different degrees of the Penumbra^ 
 and reprefents them geometrically by the ordinates of a curve, 
 which lhall be among themfelves, as the feveral parts of the 
 fun's difk, wherewith a body placed in the Penumbra is en- 
 lightned. 
 PENY. See the article Penny. 
 PEP andPEPiA. Seethe article Pip. 
 
 PEPASMUS*, nEriASMOs, in medicine, the digesting, and 
 
 ripening of morbid humours. 
 PEPASTIC*, or Peptic, nEriAiriKOZ, or nErrriKor, in me- 
 dicine, a kind of medicament of the conliftence of an em- 
 plafter; proper to bring vitious and corrupt humours to a 
 head, and difpofe them for fuppuration. 
 
 * The words are formed from the Greek «w.zm ( «, to digelt, or ripen . 
 Butter, roots of mallows, of rlowers-de-lis, onions and leaves 
 of oxylapathum are efteemed good Pepa/lich, or maturatives. 
 The word is alfo ufed for fuch medicines as promote the di- 
 geftion of food in the ftomach. 
 PEPPER, Piper, an aromatic fruit, of a hot, dry quality, 
 chiefly ufed in the feafoning of meats. 
 
 It is the product of a fhrub growing in feveral parts of the 
 Eaft-Indics, chiefly Java, Sumatra, Malacca, and the coafts of 
 Malabar. The plant is very weak and of the reptile kind 
 and for that reafon ufually planted at the foot of the larger 
 trees, as the aicca, coco, cVv. 
 
 Pepper grows in bunches or clufters, at firft green ; as the 
 grains ripen they grow rcdifh ; and at laft, after being expofed 
 a while to the fun, they become black, in the condition 
 we fee them. 
 
 The fruit is gathered in November. It muft be chofen large, 
 full, not wrinkled, without duft, with a good many white 
 grains in it ; and care muft be taken the largeft berries have 
 not been picked out, as is often done, to make white Pepper. 
 White Pepper, Piper album, is the fruit of the fame plant with 
 the black, and is prepared from it by moiftening it with the 
 fea-watcr, and then expofing it to the fun, and cafting away 
 the outer bark, which abandoning the grains, leaves them 
 white. 
 
 Indeed, M. Dellon, a late traveller, fays, they ftripoffthe 
 fkin, by beating it before it be quite diy ; or by foaking it 
 in water after it has dried, and then beating it. 
 Many authors, and among the reft Pomet, will have the ivkite 
 Pepper to be natural, and the fruit of a different plant from 
 the black; but M. Dellon, who exprefly declares the con- 
 trary from his own long experience, fecms to put the matter 
 paft doubt. 
 
 White Pepper muft be chofen after the fame manner as black ; 
 with this further care, that it hath not been dyed white. .— 
 Pepper that is fold giound, is very apt to be fophifticated ; the 
 black with burnt cruft of bread, &c. the white with beaten 
 rice. 
 
 Long Pepper, Piper hngum, is thus denominated from its form, 
 which in length and thicknefs equals a child's finger; it con- 
 fifts of an aflemblage of grains, or feeds joined clofe to one 
 another, of a brownifh colour, bordering without on red, 
 and within on black ; and grows by a long pedicle to a plant, 
 like that of the black Pepper, but lower, and its leaves fmaller 
 and greener. — Its tafte refembles that of the former, but it is 
 lefs fharp. 
 
 There are three kinds of this Pepper, that of the Eaft-Indies, 
 that of America, and that of Ethiopia, called alfo grain of 
 Zelim ; though the firft alone is the proper long Pepper, the 
 reft refembling it but little. 
 
 It muft be chofen new, large, heavy, well filled, hard to 
 break, and without duft or mixture ; its chief ufe is in me- 
 . dicine, where it enters feveral galenical compofitions, among 
 
 the reft Venice treacle. 
 Guinea Pepper, Piper indi cum, is a reddifh pod, of a coral co- 
 lour, much efteemed by the Americans, from among whom it 
 
 * is 
 
PER 
 
 is brought, and by them called chile, and by the French, 
 garden coral. . . . 
 
 It is now cultivated pretty commonly m France, efpecially in 
 Laneuedoc, where it is ufed in making vinegar, and is likewde 
 comfited with fugar. It muft be chofen new, in large pods, 
 dry, entire, and red. 
 
 There are four kinds of this, the firft called by the Americans 
 ttilchotes ; the fecond, very fmall, cbilterpin ; both of a very 
 pungent tafte ; the third, tonalcbilel, moderately hot, and eaten 
 by the natives like other fruit with bread ; the fourth, clnlpe- 
 lagua, moderately pungent, ibmetimes ufed by the Spaniards 
 in the preparation of chocolate ; there is alio a fifth kind called 
 agy, growing in Peru. 
 
 Jamaica Pepper, called by the Dutch amomi, by the Spaniards 
 pimienta de Jamaica, is the fruit of a tree, growing plentifully 
 in Jamaica, and other American iflands. 
 It is a real aromatic, and may iupply the defefl of cloves, 
 nutmeg, and cinnamon ; whence it is called alio by the Eng- 
 lifli, all-fpice. The French call it the round clove, from its 
 round Ibape, and its tafte refembling that fpice. 
 
 PEPSIS *, in medicine, the coition, or digeftion of foods, or 
 humours in the body. See Coction and Digestion. 
 * The word is Greek, ?t4k, which iignifies boiling. 
 
 PEPTIC, in medicine. See Pepastic. 
 
 PEPUZIANS, a fed of ancient hereticks, otherwifc called 
 Phrygians, or Catapbrygiant. 
 
 They had their name Pepuzians, from a pretence that Jefus 
 Chrift appeared to one of their propheceffes in the city Pe- 
 puza in Phrygia, which was their holy city. See Quinti- 
 
 LIANS. 
 
 PER accident See the article Accidens. 
 
 PERACUTUM menjlruum. See Menstruum. 
 
 PERAMBULATION of the foreft, the furveying, or walking 
 about a foreft, or the limits of it, by juftices or other officers 
 thereto appointed, to fet down the metes and bounds there- 
 of, and what is within the foreft, and what without. 
 
 PERAMBULATIONS fadenda, is a writ commanding the 
 flleriff to make Perambulation, and fet down the bounds of two 
 or more manors, whofe limits are not lb well known. 
 The writ de perambulatione fadenda, is only iftiied where the 
 lords of both manors agree to have fuch perambulation. If one 
 of them refufe, the other muft feek his remedy by a writ de 
 ratienabilibus divifu. See Rationabilibus. 
 
 PERAMBULATOR, in furveying, an inftrument for the mea- 
 furing of diftances ; called alio pedometer, way-wifer, and fur- 
 veying wheel. See Pedometer and Way-wiser. 
 Its advantages are its handinefs, and expedition : its contri- 
 vance is fuch, that it may be fitted to the wheel of a coach ; 
 in which ftate it performs its office, and meafures the road 
 without any trouble at all. 
 
 There is fome difference in its make : that now mod ufual, as 
 mod convenient, is as follows. 
 Conjlruclion of the Perambulator or zvay-wifcr. — The Peram- 
 bulator (reprei'ented Tab. Survey, fig. 23.) confifts of a wheel 
 two feet feven inches and a half in diameter; confequently 
 half a pole, or eight foot and three inches in circumference. 
 On one end of the axis is a nut three quarters of an inch 
 in diameter, divided into eight teeth, which upon moving 
 the wheel round, fall into the eighth teeth of another nut c, 
 fixed on one end of an iron rod Q_, and thus turn the rod once- 
 round, in the time the wheel makes one revolution. This 
 rod lying along a groove in the fide of the carriage of the in- 
 ftrument, has at its other end a fquare hole, into which fits the 
 end b of the little cylinder P. This cylinder is difpofed un- 
 der the dial-plate of a movement, at the end of tile carriage 
 B, in fuch manner as to be moveable about its axis. Its end 
 a 'is cut into a perpetual fcrew, which falling into the thirty 
 two teeth of a wheel perpendicular thereto ; upon driving 
 the inftrumenr forward, that wheel makes a revolution, each 
 iixteen pole. On the axis of this wheel is a pinion with fix 
 teeth, which falling into the teeth of another wheel of fixty 
 teeth,' carries it round every hundred and fixtieth pole, or 
 half a mile. 
 
 This laft wheel then carrying a hand or index round with it. 
 over the divilions of the dial-plate, whofe outer limb is divi- 
 ded into one hundred and iixty parts, correfponding to the 
 one hundred and fixty poles ; points out the numbers of poles 
 palfed over. Again, on the axis of this laft wheel is a pinion 
 containing twenty teeth, which falling into the teeth of a third 
 wheel that has forty teeth, drives it once round in three hun- 
 dred and twenty poles, or a mile. On the axis of this wheel 
 is a pinion of twelve teeth, which falling into the teeth of a 
 fourth wheel that has feventy two teeth, drives it once round 
 in twelve miles. 
 
 This fourth wheel, carrying another index, over the inner 
 limb of the dial plate, divided into twelve, for miles, and each 
 mile iiibdividcd into halves, quarters, and furlongs, ferves to 
 regifter the revolutions of the other hand, and to keep account 
 of the balf miles and miles palled over, as far as twelve miles. 
 life of the Perambulator or way-wifer. — The application of 
 ' this inftrument is obvious from its conftrucYion. Its proper 
 
 PER 
 
 office is in the furveying of roads, and large diftances, where 
 a great deal of cxpedition,and not much accuracy is required. 
 — It is evident that driving it along, and obferving the hands, 
 has the fame effect: as dragging the chain, and taking account 
 of the chains and links. See the article Chain, 
 PER Arsin, and tfojin, in mufic. — Per is a Latin Prepofition, 
 lignitying by, during ; arfa and the/is are Greek words, the firft 
 whereof iigniries elevation or rifmg ; the fecond pofition, or 
 fctting down. 
 
 Per thefm, then Iignifies in falling, or during the latter time of 
 the meafure : per arfat, in riling, or in the firft time of the 
 meafure. A fong, counter-point, fugue, &c are faid to be 
 per the/in, when the notes defcend from acute to grave : on 
 the contrary, they are per ar/fa, when the notes afcend from 
 grave to acute, bee Arsis. Fugue per Arsin and thefm. See 
 Fugue. 
 
 PERCEPTION, Perceptio, in philofophy, the act of percei- 
 vings or apprehending a thing : or that fimple idea which we 
 conceive of a thing without making any affirmation, or ne- 
 gation. 
 
 If that idea exhibit any image to the mind, it is called imagi- 
 nation; if it exhibit none, it retains the general name of Per- 
 ception. * 
 
 Thus when we hear the word tree, the idea we then form in 
 the mind, is called an imagination. But when we hear of a 
 thing whereof no image can be framed, as of doubtjng, the 
 idea we then have is a meer Perception. 
 
 The faculty or power of Perception, conftkutes what we call 
 the underjlanding. See Power, Faculty, and Under- 
 standing. 
 
 It may be obferved, that the ideas we receive by Perception are 
 often altered by the judgment, without our taking notice of 
 it ; thus a globe being fet before our eyes, the idea thereby 
 imprinted, is a flat circle, varioufly lhadowed : but being ac- 
 cuftomed to perceive what kind of appearances convex bodies 
 are wont to make in us ; the judgment alters the appearances 
 into their caufes ; and from that variety of fhadow or colour, 
 frames to itfelf the Perception of a convex figure of one uni- 
 form colour. 
 
 This, in many cafes, by a fettled habit, is performed fo rea- 
 dily, that we take that for the Perception of our fenfes, which 
 is really an idea formed by the judgment ; fo that one ferves 
 only to excite the other, and is fcarce taken notice of itfelf : 
 as a man who reads or hears with attention, takes little notice 
 of the characters or founds, but of the ideas which are excited 
 in him thereby. 
 
 The faculty of Perception feems to be that which puts the di- 
 ftinction between the animate, and inanimate parts of the cre- 
 ation. Vegetables, fome of them, have fome, degree of mo- 
 tion, and upon different applications of other bodies, alter 
 their figures and motions; fo as hence to obtain the name of 
 [enjitive plants ; which, however, is the refult of mere mecha- 
 nifm, and no otherwife produced, than the Ihortening of a 
 rope by the effufion of water. But Perception is a metaphyfi- 
 cal principle, and is found in fome degree in all animals ; and 
 in them alone. 
 
 PERCH, pole, or rod, a long meafure, much ufed in furveying 
 and meafuring of land. 
 
 Among the old Romans, and ftill among geometricians, the 
 pertica, perch, is ten foot j and they otherwifc call it the cate- 
 na, funis, and \ decempeda. 
 
 In England, the Ratine Perch contains fixteen foot and a half ; 
 and for coppice-woods, &c. eighteen foot. — Forty fquare Per- 
 ches make a rood, and one hundred and fixty an acre. 
 The cuftomary Perch is various in various counties : in Staf- 
 fordshire it is twenty-four foot ; in the foreft of Sherwood 
 twenty-one, the foot there being eighteen inches, the meafure 
 whereof is marked in the chancel wall of Edwynftow, and in 
 the church of St. Mary in Nottingham. 
 
 In Herefordihire, a Perch of walling is fixteen foot and a half; 
 a Perch of ditching twenty-one foot, &e, — In France, the Perch 
 is from eighteen to twenty-three, and even twenty-feven of 
 their feet. 
 
 PEKCH-Ji/hijig. See the article Fishing. 
 
 PERCHANT, among fowlers, a decoy-bird, which the fowler 
 has faftened by the foot, and which flutters about the place 
 where it is tied, to draw other birds to it, and give the fowler 
 an occafion of catching them. 
 PERCOLATION. See Filtration. 
 
 PERCUSSION, in phyiicks, the imprefiion a body makes in 
 falling or ftriking upon another ; or the fhock or collifion of 
 two moving Bodies ; which meeting alter each others motion. 
 See Motion and Collision. 
 Percuffion is either direil or oblique. 
 
 Direft Percussion, is where the impulfe is given in the direGr- 
 tion of a right line perpendicular to the point of contact. 
 In fpheres therefore, the Pereujfion is direel, when the line of 
 direction palTes through both their centres. 
 Oblique Percussion, is where the impulfe is given in the di- 
 rection of a line oblique to the point of contact. See Ob- 
 lique. 
 
 In 
 
PER 
 
 In bodies cither perfectly hard, or perfectly foft, and fo void of 
 all elafticity, the laws of PercuJJion are eafily determined : but 
 fmce even the hardeft bodies have their (hare of elafticity, and 
 in elaftic bodies the laws are very different, and much more 
 intricate, having been firft afcertained in the PhihJ'ophicalTran- 
 facliom, by Sir Ch. Wren, Dr. Wallis, and Mr. Huyens \ 
 we (hall lay down each a-part. 
 Linus <?/Percussion;'s bodies not elaftic. — i °. If a body in motion, 
 as A (Tab. Mechankh^ fig. 40.) ftrike directly againft another 
 at reft, B; the firft will lolcjuft as much of its motion as it 
 communicates to the fecond; fo that the two will proceed 
 thence with an equal velocity, as if collected into one mafs. 
 If A therefore be triple of B, it will lofe one fourth of its mo- 
 tion ; fo that if before it moved through a line of twenty-four 
 foot in a minute, it will now only move eighteen. 
 2°. If a moving body A, ftrike againft another already in mo- 
 tion, B ; the firft will increafe the velocity of the latter ; but 
 will lofe lefs of its own motion than if the latter had been at 
 reft : fince all here required, is that fome degrees of motion be 
 added to thofe the latter already had, to make them both pro- 
 ceed with an equal velocity. 
 
 Suppofe, e. gr. the body A, with twelve degrees of motion, to 
 ftrike againft the other B, lefs by half, and at reft ; the firft will 
 transfer four degrees of its motion to the latter, and retain eight 
 to itfelf : but if it ftrike with twelve degrees of motion on the 
 other already moving with three degrees, it will only commu- 
 nicate two degrees ; for A being double of B, this needs only 
 half the motion to make it proceed with the fame velocity. 
 3°. If a moving body A, ftrike on another B, either at reft, or 
 moving more (lowly, and either in the fame direction, or in a 
 contrary one ; the fum of the momenta, if the bodies move in 
 the fame direction, or their difference, if they move in a con- 
 trary one, will be the fame after the Percujfton as before. 
 4 U . If two equal bodies A and B meet each other with equal 
 velocities ; after the congrefs, they will both remain at reft. 
 5 0 . If a body A, ftrike directly on another at reft B ; its cele- 
 rity after the ftroke is to its celerity before it, as the weight of 
 A is to the fum of the weights of A and B : if therefore the 
 weights were equal, the celerity after the (hock will be half of 
 what it was before it. 
 
 6°. If a body in motion A, ftrike directly on another moving 
 more flowly, but in the fame direction ; the velocity after the 
 fhock will be equal to the fum of the momenta, divided by 
 the fum of the weights. 
 
 7 0 . If two equal bodies moving with different velocities, ftrike 
 directly againft each other; after the conflict, they will pro- 
 ceed with the femi-difference of the velocities wherewith they 
 were moved before it. 
 
 8°. If two bodies A and B meet directly with velocities that arc 
 reciprocally as their weights ; after the conflict, they will both 
 remain at reft. 
 
 q°. If two bodies A and B meet directly with the fame velo- 
 city, the celerity after the impulfe will be to that before it, 
 as the difference of the weights to their fum. 
 io°. If two bodies meet directly with any velocity whatever, 
 the celerity after the ftroke will be equal to the fe mi-difference 
 of the momenta, divided by the fum of the weights. 
 To determine the momentum io/l by the conflift : multiply the cele- 
 rity which the body had before the conflict, into its mafs : thus 
 have you the momentum before the conflict. In like manner, 
 multiply the celerity after the conflict into the mafs : thus have 
 you the momentum after the conflict. The latter moment 
 therefore being fubtracted from the former, leaves the lofs. 
 And hence may the magnitudes of the ftrokes be eftimatcd. 
 1 i v . A direct or perpendicular ftroke is to an oblique one, as 
 the whole fine is to the fine of the angle of incidence. 
 Laws o/Tercussion in elajik bodies. — In bodies perfectly elaftic, 
 the force of elafticity is equal to the force wherewith they are 
 comprefled ; that is, the collifion of two fuch bodies on each 
 other is equivalent to the motion which either of them would 
 acquire, or lofe, by mere fimple impulfe. This force exerting 
 itfelf contrary ways, a motion equivalent thereto muft be fub- 
 tracted from the motion in the impelling body, and added to 
 that in the body impelled by mere impulfe, to find their velo- 
 cities after Percujfton. See Elasticity. 
 12 0 . If a body ftrike directly on an immoveable obftacle, ei- 
 ther one, or both of them being elaftic, the body will be re- 
 flected with the fame velocity wherewith it (truck, and in the 
 fame line. For if the elafticity were away, the whole force of 
 the ftriking body would be (pent in overcoming the refiftance 
 of the obftacle ; and confequently all the motion would ceafe : 
 it follows that the whole force is employed in comprefting the 
 elaftic body ; by which means it acquires an elaftic force equal 
 thereto : fince then the elafticity, when the comprefting force 
 is fpent, reduces the body into its former ftate, it repels the 
 other with the fame force wherewith it ftruck, confequently it 
 will rebound with the fame velocity. And becaufe an elaftic 
 body reftores itfelf in the fame direction wherein it was com- 
 prclled (there being no reafon why it lhould change its direc- 
 tion) the body will rebound in the fame right line. 
 1 3 0 . If an elaftic body ftrike obliquely on an immoveable ob- 
 ftacle, it will rebound in fuch manner as to make the angle of 
 reflection equal to the angle of incidence. See Reflection. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 PER 
 
 14". If an elaftic body A, ftrike directly againft another ac 
 reft, B i after Percujfion A Will remain at reft, and 13 will pro- 
 ceed with the fame velocity which A had before the (hock; 
 and m the fame direction. 
 
 For if the bodies were not elaftic, each would proceed after the 
 ftroke m the fame direction, and with half the velocity ; but 
 fince the elaftic force afls in the fame diieftion wherein the 
 compreffton is made, and is equal to the coihprefling force j it 
 repels A with half its velocity, and therefore flops it's motion ; 
 but it drives B further, with half its velocity, and therefore ac- 
 celerates its motion. It is therefore carried after the fhock 
 with the whole celerity wherewith A was carried before it, 
 and A remains at reft. 
 
 Hence, fince A {Tab. Mechan.fig. 4 t.) transfers all its force id 
 B, B in like manner will transfer it to C ; C again to D, and 
 D to E. Wherefore if there be feveral equal elaftic bodies, mu- 
 tually touching each other, and A be ftruck againft B ; all the 
 intermediate ones remaining at reft, the laft alone, E, will be 
 moved ; and thatwith the velocity wherewith A ftruck againft B. 
 15 0 . If two equal elaftic bodies A and B meet directly, and 
 with equal velocity, each will rebound with the fame velocity 
 wherewith it ftruck, and alfo in the fame direction. 
 For, letting afide the elafticity, both would remain at reft : 
 their whole force therefore is fpent in the compreflion ; but 
 their elaftic force whereby they rebound in the former direc- 
 tion, is equal thereto : this force therefore acting equally on 
 each body A and B, will produce the fame celerity in each ; 
 and that, equal to the former. So that they will rebound with 
 the celerity wherewith they ftruck. 
 
 16°. If two equal elaftic bodies A and B ftrike directly againft 
 each other with unequal velocities, after the fhock they will 
 rebound with interchanged velocities. 
 
 For fuppofe the bodies to concur with the velocities C-f-r and 
 C : if they meet with the fame velocity C, after the (hock, 
 they would both move with the fame velocity C. If B were at 
 reft, and A lhould ftrike upon it with the celerity c, after the 
 fhock, A would remain at reft, and B be moved with the cele- 
 rity c Therefore the excefs of celerity r, wherewith A is car- 
 ried, is transferred wholly by the conflict to B : A therefore is 
 moved with the celerity C, and B with the celctity C+r. 
 Hence, after Percuffim, they recede from each other with the 
 fame velocity as before they concurred. 
 
 17°. If an elaftic body A, ftrike on another equal one, indued 
 with a lels degree of motion B ; after PeralJJim, both will pio- 
 ceed in the fame, viz. in the former, direction, and with in- 
 terchanged velocities. 
 
 For fuppofe A to ftrike with the velocity C+r, upon E moving 
 with the velocity C. Since by reafon of the equal velocities C 
 and C, there arifes no impulfe ; it is the fame thing as if A 
 ftruck on B with the fole celerity c, on B at reft. But in that 
 cafe A would remain at reft, and B would move with the velo- 
 city t : therefore, after Permffim,A will move with the folc cele- 
 rity C, and B with the celerity C+r, both according to the for- 
 mer direflioo, there being nothing to change that direftion. 
 1 8°. If a moving body A, ftrike on another B ; the ftroke 
 will be the fame as would be made by the body A ftriking on' 
 B at reft, with the difference of their velocities. 
 Hence, fince the elaftic force is equal to the Pereufficn ; it acts 
 on the bodies A and B with the difference of the velocities 
 they had before the congrefs. 
 
 19". To determine the velocities of any tzao elaflic hodics A andB, 
 ajter Jhiking di redly on each other -with any velocities, i~If the 
 elaftic body A ftrike on B, either at reft, or moving fafter than 
 A ; the velocity v. gr. of A after Percuffim, is found thus : as 
 the fum of the weights is to double of either of them, fup- 
 pofe, in this cafe, of B ; fo is the difference of the velocities 
 before the congrefs, to a velocity, which fubtracted from the 
 velocity of A before the impulfe fin the other cafe added to 
 it) leaves the velocity of A after the congrefs. 
 It the two elaftic bodies A and B meet each other ; the velocity 
 of A after the impulfe is found thus : as the fum of the weights, 
 is to the double of either of them, fuppofe of B ; fo is the fum of 
 the velocities before collifion, to a velocity which fubtracted 
 from the velocity of A before collifion, leaves its celerity after 
 collifion. 
 
 20°. If an elaftic body A ftrike direflly on another at reft, B ; 
 its velocity after Percuffion will be to its velocity before it, as 
 the difference of weights is to their fum : but the velocity it 
 communicates to B, is to the fame, as double the weight of 
 A, to the fum of the weights. 
 
 After Percuffion therefore, the velocity of A is to the velocity 
 of B, as the difference of weights to the double of A. 
 21 0 . If two elaftic bodies, A and B, ftrike directly on each 
 other with velocities that are reciprocally proportional to their 
 weights ; after collifion, they will rebound with the fame ve- 
 locity wherewith they met. 
 
 22 0 . In the direct collifion of bodies the fame refpective ve- 
 locity is prefcrved, /'. e. in a direct concurrence, the difteience 
 of velocities is the fame before and after the fhock ; and in 3 
 direct mutual encounter, the difference of velocities after the 
 fhock is the fame with their fum before it. 
 Hence they retire from each other after the impulfe, with the 
 fame velocity wherewith they met. 
 
 8 P 23°. In 
 
PER 
 
 Per 
 
 '/3 0 . In the collifion of elaftic bodies there is not always pre- 
 served the lame momentum, or as theCartefians exprefs it, the 
 fame quantity of motion ; but this is fometimes increafed, and 
 fometimes diminilhed. 
 
 It is a miftake therefore of Cartes and his followers, that the 
 fame quantity of motion is ftill preferred in the world. 
 24". If two elaftic bodies, A and B, meet, or overtake each 
 other dhedtly ; the fum of the factums of the malTes into the 
 fquares of the velocities remains the fame before and after the 
 congrefs. Hence the fame quantity of force is likewife pre- 
 fcrved in the congrefs. 
 
 25 0 . To determine the motion of two bodies Aand~B, (fig- 42-) 
 p iling obliquely againjl each other, whether they be elaftic, or not 
 elajlic.The motion pi the body A along AC is refoluble into two 
 others, in the directions AE and AD; and the motion of B 
 along B C into two others according to B F and B G ; and the 
 velocities through AD and BFaie to the velocities through A 
 C and BC, as the right lines AD, BF, AC, BC ; now, iince 
 the right lines A E and B G are parallel, the forces acting ac- 
 cording to thefe directions are not mutually oppoiite, and mufv 
 therefore be confidered in the congrefs. But fmce the lines 
 A D and B F, or, which is the fame, E C and G C, conftitute 
 the fame right line perpendicular toDC; it is the fame as if 
 the bodies A and B mould meet directly with velocites that 
 are as E C and G C. Find therefore the velocity of A and B 
 according to the rules above laid down. 
 Suppole, e. gr. the velocity of the rebounding body A to be as 
 C H ; Iince the motion along AE is not changed by the con- 
 grefs, make CK = AE, and complcat the parallelogram 
 HCKI; the diagonal C I will reprcfent the motion of A 
 after rhe congrefs : for after Percuffton, the body will move 
 according to the direction C I, and with a velocity as CI. In 
 the fame manner it will be found, that the rebounding bo- 
 dy B will move along the diagonal of the parallelogram C 
 M; in which LM=BG. The velocities therefore after 
 Pcrcujfion are as C I to C M. 
 Center ^/Percussion, is that point wherein the fhock or impulfe 
 of the percutient bodies is the greateft. 
 
 The center of Pcrcufjkn is the fame with the center of ofcilla- 
 tion, if the pcicutient body revolve round a fixed axis. See 
 Oscillation. 
 
 If all the paits of the percutient body be carried with a paral- 
 lel motion, or with the fame velocity ; the center of Percufjhn 
 is the fame with the center of gravity. 
 
 PER deliquium. See the article Deliquium. 
 
 PER dafcenfumi by defcerrt, in chymiftry, a particular manner 
 of diftillation. See Distillation. 
 
 PERDONATIO utlagarice, in law, a pardon for one who is 
 outlawed. 
 
 PERDUE *, a foldier placed in a dangerous, and almoft defpe- 
 rate poll. — Thus we fay, enfans perdues, for the forlorn hope 
 of an army. 
 
 * The word is French, and literally fignifies loft. 
 To lie perdue, is to lie flat on the belly, or to licclofely in wait. 
 
 PEREGRINARY, Peregrinarius, in the ancient mon arte- 
 ries, a monk, to whom was committed the care of receiving, 
 and entertaining rtrangers, or viiitors. 
 
 PEREGRINE, Perecrinus, a term applied among aftrolo- 
 lers to a planet, when found in a fign where it has none of 
 its five clfential dignities. 
 
 PEREMPTORY, in law, an epithet applied to an action, ex- 
 ception, ije. fignifyiog them to be abfolute, final, and deter- 
 minate ; and not to be altered, renewed, or restrained. 
 Thus in our law-books we find peremptory aition, peremptory 
 nanjuit, peremptory exemption, ice. 
 
 PERENNIAL, in botany, is applied to thofe plants whofe roots 
 will endure many years. 
 
 Perennials are of two kinds ; the one retain their leaves all 
 ' the winter, called ever-greens. 
 The other call the leaves in winter, called deciduous or per- 
 
 ' defols. 
 
 Perennial TVimh. See the article Wind. 
 
 PERFECT, fome thing to which nothing is wanting; or that 
 has all the requisites of its nature and kind. 
 
 Perfect, in arithmetic. Perfect Number is that, all whofe 
 aliquot parts added together, make the fame number, with the 
 number whereof they are fuch parts. 
 
 Perfect, in grammar. Preter or preterit-perfefl tenfe, is an in- 
 flection, 'marking a time pei fectly paft ; as / have heard : pluf- 
 quam pvrfetij is an inflection, exprefling the time more than 
 perfectly paft ; as / had heard, &e. 
 
 Perfect, in mufic, denotes fomcthing that fills and fatisfies 
 the mind, and the ear. — In which fenfe wc fay, pcrfefl cadence, 
 perfect concord, £s7. 
 
 1 he ancients had two kinds of modes, the major and minor ; 
 
 ■ and each of thefe again was either perfefi, or imperfeti. 
 The word pcrfa'l, when joined with tire words mode, and time, 
 ufually expreiles triple time, or meafure ; in oppofitioa to 
 double time, which they called vnperfecl. See Time. 
 
 Perfect, in phyfiology. A per/eel animal is ufed by fome 
 writeis for that which is bom by univocal generation ; in op- 
 position to infects, which they pretend to be produced by 
 
 equivocal generation. See Generation. 
 Perfect flowers, are fuch as have petala, piftil, fiamina, and 
 
 apices. See Flower. 
 Perfect mixts } c . , c Mixts. 
 
 Perfect^; \ See the art:cles } Pl ants. 
 PERFECTION, the ftate or quality of a thing perfect. See 
 
 Perfect. — This is of diveis kinds : phfeeal, moral, and meta- 
 
 phyfieal. 
 
 Phyfical or natural Perfection is that, whereby a thing has all 
 its powers, or faculties, and thole too in their full vigour; 
 and all its parts both principal and Secondary, and thofe in 
 their due proportion, con ft it uti on, <sc.— In which fenfe a 
 man is laid to be perfeft, when he has a found mind in a found 
 body. 
 
 This Perfetlim is by the fchoolmen frequently called iw{y*7i*i, 
 by reafon a thing is hereby enabled to perform all its operations. 
 Moral Perfection is an eminent degree of virtue, or moral 
 goodnefs ; to which men arrive by often repeated acts of pie- 
 ty, beneficence, &c. 
 
 This fome fubdivide into abfolute or inherent, which is actual- 
 ly in him to whom we attribute it ; and imputative, which ex- 
 ifts in fome other, and not in him it is attributed to. 
 Metaphyseal, or tranjcendental, or effential Perfection, is the 
 pofidlion of all the effential attributes, or of ail the parts nc- 
 ceOary to the integrity of a fubftance : or it is that whereby 
 a thing has, or is provided of eveiy thing belonging to its na- 
 ture. 
 
 This is cither abjolute, where all imperfection is excluded; 
 fuch is the Perfection of God : or jeeundum quid, and in its 
 kind. 
 
 PERt ECTISSIMATE, Perfectissimatus, aquality, or dig- 
 nity, whereof we find mention made in the code. — Perfecliffimi 
 were thofe to whom the emperors trullcd the prefidentihip of 
 any province. — Alciat imagined the name had been only given 
 to the governors of HifpaniaTarraconenfis, and Noricum ; but 
 Calvin has Ihewn the contrary in his Lexicon jariJicum. 
 The perfeSliffimi were inferior to the clarijfmi, though the for- 
 mer word imply moft perfect. 
 
 PERFIDIA, in mufic, a term borrowed from the Italians, fig- 
 nifying an affectation of doing always the fame thing, of pu:- 
 fuing the fame defign, continuing the fame motion, the fame 
 fong, the fame pafiage, and the fame figures of notes. 
 Such are the ftiff or conttrained baffes, as thofe of chacones, 
 and many others, becaufe depending wholly on the caprice 
 of the compofer. 
 
 PERFORANS manus, in anatomy, a mufcle of the hand ; call'd 
 alio, from its action, flexor tertii internodii digitorum manus. See 
 " Tab. Anat. (Myol.) fig. 2. n. 18. 
 It arifes rlelhy from the fore and upper part of the ulna, and 
 the ligament which joins that and the radius ; and after form- 
 ing a pretty thick flefhy body, it is fplit into four round ten- 
 dons ; which palling under the annular ligament, and throueh 
 the flits in the tendons of the former, are inferted into the 
 third bone of each finger. See Finger. 
 
 Perforans pedis, in anatomy, a mufcle of the foot, called alia 
 profundus ; and from its action, fie.xor tertii internodii digitorum 
 pedis, & fiexor magnus. 
 
 It riles from the upper andback-pait of the tibia, and palling 
 under the inner ancle, and ligament that tics the tibia and os 
 calcis together, it divides into four tendons, which pafiing the 
 holes of the pciforatus, arc inferted into the third phalanx of 
 the leiTer toes. 
 
 There is a maffa carnea, or flefhy fubftance, that arifes from 
 the os calcis, and which joins the tendons of this mufcle 
 where the lumbricalcs begin. 
 PERFORATIVE. Vide Trepanum. 
 
 PERFOR.ATUS manus, in anatomy, a mufcle of the fingers, 
 thus called from the perforations of its tendons by thofe of the 
 perforans; it is alio called fometimes flexor fecundi internodii, 
 from its action; and fomc-tir^es fublimis, from its fituation. 
 See Tab. Anat. (Myol.) Jig. a. n. 17. 
 
 It arifes tendinous from the internal protuberance of the hu- 
 merus, and the upper part of the radius before ; and being par- 
 ted into four, palfes under the annular ligament ; whence it 
 fends fcveral tendons into the upper-part of the phalanx of each 
 finger : every tendon having at the firft interncde, a Hit or per- 
 foration for the admiffion of the tendons of the perforans. 
 Perforatus pedis, in anatomy, a mufcle of the foot, called 
 alfo flexor pedis, Eir" fublimis. 
 
 It arifes from the inner and lower part of the calcaneum, and 
 fends a tendon to every bone of the fecond phalanx of each 
 of the four lefs toes. — In this, as alfo in the 1 perform us of the 
 hand, there is a llit in each tendon about the firit joint, which 
 lets through the tendon of the perforans. 
 PERFUME, an agieeable attilkial odour, fluking the fenfe, or 
 organ of fmelling. 
 
 The generality of Perfumes are made or compofed of mufk, 
 ambergreefe, civet, role and cedar-woods, orange-flowers, jef- 
 famjne, jonquills, tubeiofes, and other odoriferous flowers. 
 Therein alfo enter ftorax, frankincenfe, benzoin, cloves, 
 mace, and other like diugs, commonly called aromaties. 
 — Some Perfumes are alfo compofed with aromatic herbs, 
 
 or 
 
PER 
 
 PER 
 
 or leaves, as lavender, marjoram, fage, thyme, hyf- 
 
 Ibp, &c\ " 
 
 Perfutnis were anciently much in ufe, particularly thole where- 
 in mulk, ambergieefe, and civet enter; but they aie now ge- 
 nerally difufed, lince people have become fenfible ot the harm 
 they do the head. — In Spain and Italy however, they are ftill 
 very common. 
 
 Perfumes, Jujitus, in pharmacy, £3V. are topical or external 
 medicines, compofed of certain powders and gums, which 
 being mixed together, and thrown on the coals, produce a 
 vapour or fmoak, falutary in feveral dileafes. See Suffitus. 
 Fits of the mother are cured by the fume of partridge fea- 
 thers, old leather, 5f*. Burnt mercury is fometimes applied 
 by way oifujfitus, called fumes of cinnabar. 
 There are dry Perfumes, made up in troches, pills, &c. of oli- 
 banum, mallic, aloes, isc. and moift vifcous ones mixed with 
 the juices of herbs, Ejfc, 
 
 PERI ANT HI UM *, or Periantheum, in botany, the little 
 green leaves which compels the bottom of a flower, called 
 by Dr. Grew the empalement, and by others the calyx. 
 * The word is formed from die Gre^k «ri£f, about, and a$S$->j 
 flower. 
 
 The ufe of the Periaithium is to be a fupport, fecurity, and as 
 it were bands to the other parts of the flower. — Mr. Ray ob- 
 ferves, that flowers, whole leaves or petala are ftiong, as tu- 
 lips, have no Perianthium, as needing none. Carnations, tyc, 
 whole petala arc long and flendet, have their Perianthium of 
 one piece ; others, as the knap-weed, t&c, have it of feveral 
 pieces, and found in divers rounds, and all with a counter- 
 changeable refpect to each other, for the greater ftrength and 
 fecurity of themfclves,, and the petala, which they include. 
 
 PERIAPTON, nEPiAriTON, a kind of medicine, othcrwife 
 called periamma, or amulet ; which being tied about the neck, 
 is fuppofed to prevent, or cure dileafes. 
 
 PERICARDIARY, an epithet given to worms generated in 
 the pericardium, or capfula of the heart. 
 M. Andry makes thefe one of the twelve kinds of worms en- 
 gendered in the human body : they fometimes occafion con- 
 vulfions, the paroxifms whereof laft but a little while, but 
 jet urn inceffantly. 
 
 Thefe worms are accompanied with a frightful palenefs of 
 the face, a low pulfe, and violent pains of the rtomach 
 and bread. — 
 
 They fometimes occafion a palpitation of the heart. M. 
 Andry adds, that they have been known to occafion fudden 
 death. 
 
 PERICARDIUM * , xiepikap aion, in anatomy, a membranous 
 capfula, or pouch, which includes the heart. 
 
 * The word is formed from die Greek k^i, about, and xxfSm, hearr. 
 The Pericardium confifts of a double membrane ; the inner 
 arifing from the coats of the velieis of the heart, and the outer 
 from the mediaftinum. Its figure refembles that of the heart, 
 being conoidal ; and it embraces the heart laxly, allowing 
 room for its puliation. 
 
 It is connected either immediately, or by veficula; emitted 
 from it, to the fternum, back, and jugulum, and in human 
 bodies to the tendinous part, or centre of the diaphragm ; 
 whereas in brutes it is loofe. 
 
 Its ufe is fuppofed to be to defend the heart ; as likewife to 
 contain a foft ferous humour, which ferves to lubricate and 
 moiften the heart, and to prevent any inflammation, that might 
 probably arife from the dry friction of the heart and its capfula. 
 But this latter ufe is controverted ; for fome take the humour 
 found in it to he unnatural ; and will have it forcibly feparated 
 by the convullive agonies iiipervcning in the article of death. 
 In effect, anatomifts are puzzled to find whence it Ihould 
 come, or from what vellcls it is fecrcted. 
 Dr. Keil, in his treatife of animal fecretion, (hews that the li- 
 quor in the Pericardium mull: be the moft fluid of any fepara- 
 ted from the blood, becaufe its particles unite firft, and are fe- 
 creted firft. For thofe particles which unite firft, will have 
 thegreateft attractive force, confequently their particles muft be 
 the moft fpherical and moft folid ; and therefore their contact 
 will be the leaft of any, and they the moft fluid. See Fluidity. 
 In the memoirs of the French academy, M. de Mortal gives an 
 inftance of a Pericardium, which being opened, the liquor con- 
 tained therein was found congealed into a confidence fit to be 
 cut with a knife, and lay two fingers thick about the heart. 
 PERICARPIA*, nEPiKAPniA, a name fometimes given to me- 
 dicines that are applied to the wrift: otherwife called epicar- 
 pia. Sec Epicarpium. 
 
 * The word is compounded of frfu, about, and I'njtQ , carpus, the 
 wrirt. 
 
 PERICARPUS, or Pericarpium *, in botany, a pellicle, 
 membrane, or other fubftance incompaffing the fruit, or feed 
 of a plant. See Fruit, Seed, WSr« 
 
 * The word is formed of the Greek mft, about, and xmamte, fruit. 
 PERICHORUS *, in antiquity, a name given by- the Greeks, 
 
 to their profane games and combats, i. e. to fuch as were not 
 confecrated to any of the gods. See Games. 
 
 * The word ii formed from the Greek #ifi, and country. 
 
 Penchants, in the original fignifies near or neighbouring ; ap- 
 parently, becaufe none of tiie people of the neighbourhood at- 
 tended at thefe obfeure cxerciles.— The champions here did 
 not fight in honour of any god, or hero, as in the others; but 
 only tor the prize fake. 
 PERICRANIUM *, n epikp anion, in anatomy, a thick, folTd 
 coat or membrane, covering the out-fide of the cranium, or 
 ikull. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek «rai: about and fc&tofi 
 head or fkull. r '' ' 
 
 Some call it by the general name of Periopum, becaufe of its 
 adhering to the bone : others divide it into two membranes ; 
 the under whereof immediately inverting the Ikull, they call 
 periorteum, and the upper the Pericranium. In effect, it is one 
 double membiane, confiding, as moft others do, of two coats. 
 It is fuppofed to have its origin from the dura mater ; which 
 parting through the futures of the fkull, by means of feveral 
 filaments forms this thick membrane : at leaft, it is found con- 
 nected to tiie dura mater by fibres tranfmitted from it to the 
 membrane through the futures. 
 
 About the origin of the temporal mufclea the two coats of 
 the Pericranium part ; the outer parting over thofe mufcles, and 
 the inner ftill adhering dole to the cranium. 
 PERIDROME; Peridromus, in the ancient architecture, the 
 fpace, or ifle in a periptere, between the columns and the 
 wall. See Periptere. 
 
 Salmafius obferves, that the Pmdromes ferved for walks among 
 the Greeks. 
 
 PERIEGETES, nfeWHTftTEEj a Greek term, fignifying a per- 
 fon who leads or conducts another about a thing, to fhew it 
 him, &c. 
 
 It is applied in antiquity to geographers ; efpecially to thofe 
 who defcribed the fea-coafts : thus Dionylius is ftiled Periegeses, 
 forpublifhing a geography in hexameter veifes j which Eufta- 
 thius has commented on : both in Greek. 
 The name Periegetes was alio given to thofe who conducted 
 ftrangers about m cities, to fhew them the antiquities, monu- 
 ments, curiofities, &u thereof. — Thefe were the fame with 
 what they now call the antiquaries in Italy. 
 PERIGjEUM* Perigee, in aftronomy, that point of the: 
 fun's or moon's orbit, wherein they aie at their leaft diftance 
 from the earth. 
 
 In which fenfe Pt-r/^ft* Hands oppofed to apogee. See Apogee. 
 Perigee, in the ancient aftronomy, denotes a point in a planet's" 
 orb, wherein the centre of its epicycle is at the leaft diftance 
 from the earth. 
 
 PERIHELIUM *, in aftronomy, that point of the orbit of a 
 planet, or comet, wherein it is at its leaft diftance from the 
 fun. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek Utd, and rih^fol, fun. 
 Perihelium ftands oppofed to apbelium. The ancient aftrono- 
 mers, inftcad of this term, ufed persg&um : becaufe they pla- 
 ced the earth in the centre. 
 
 PERIMETER *, in geometry, the ambit, or extent that 
 bounds a figure or body. See Figure. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek win, and f^ox, meafure. 
 The Perimeters of furfaces, or figures, are lines j thofe of bo- 
 dies are furfaces. 
 
 In circular figures, EsTf. inftead of Perimeter, we fay circumfe- 
 rence or periphery. 
 PERIN/EUM *, or Perineum, in anatomy, the fpace be* 
 tween the pudendum and the fundament ; properly, the liga- 
 mentous feam which connects thofe two parts, called by the 
 Latins, inter fcemineum. 
 
 * The word is Greek, mf^wtm or <atpmv, formed from ftui and 
 raiEir, to inhabit. 
 
 PERINDE valere, in the canon law, a difpenfation granted a 
 clerk, who being legally incapable of a benefice, or other ec- 
 clefiaftical function, is de facto admitted to it. 
 The Perinde valere is a kind of writ, thus called from two 
 words therein, fignifying the difpenfation to be equivalent or 
 tantamount to a legal capacity. 
 PERIOCHA, H£PioxH, an argument, indicating the fum of a 
 difcourfe. 
 
 PERIOD, nEPiOAOS, in aftronomy, the time taken up by a 
 ftar or planet in making a revolution; or the duration of its 
 courfe, till it return to the fame point of the heavens. See 
 Revolution. 
 
 The fun's, or properly the earth's Period, is three hundred and 
 fixty five days, five hours, forty nine minutes, That of the 
 moon is twenty feven days, feven hours, forty three minutes, 
 Isc. The Periods of the comets are now many of them pretty 
 well afcertained. See Comet. 
 
 There is a wonderful harmony between the diftances of the 
 planets from the fun, and their Periods round him ; the great 
 law whereof is, that the fquares of the periodic times are 
 ever proportional to the cubes of their mean diftances from 
 the fun. 
 
 The 
 
PER 
 
 PER 
 
 The feveral Periods and mean diffances of the feveral planets 
 are as follow. 
 
 Days h. ' " 
 
 meanDift. 
 
 Saturn 10579 6 36 26 
 Jupiter 4332 12 20 35 
 Mars 688 23 27 30 
 Earth 365 6 9 30 
 Venus 224 16 49 24 
 Mercury 87 23 15 53 
 
 953800 
 52or ro 
 152369 
 1 00000 
 
 72333 
 38710 
 
 Pe mod, in chronology, denotes an epocha, or interval of time, 
 by which the yeai s are accounted ; or a feries of years, where- 
 by, in different nations, and on different occafions, time is 
 meal u red. 
 
 Such are the Calippic, and Metafile Periods, two different cor- 
 rections of the Greek calendar ; the Julian Period, invented by 
 Jofeph Scaliger ) the Viclorian Period, &7. 
 
 Calippic Period, is a feries of feventy-fix years, returning in a 
 perpetual circle ; which elapfed, the new and full moons arc 
 fuppofed to return to the fame day of the folar year. 
 The Calippic Period isan improvement onthc Adetonic of nineteen 
 years, which proving inaccurate, Calippus the Athenian multi- 
 plied it by four, and thus arofe the Calippic Period. 
 
 Conflantinopolitan Period. See Julian Period. 
 
 Dionyfian Period. See Viclorian Period. 
 
 Hypparcbus's Period, is a feries of three hundred and four folar 
 years, returning in a conftant round, and rcftoring the new 
 and full moons to the fame day of the folar year; according 
 to the fentiment of Hipparchus. 
 
 This Period arifes by multiplying the Calippic Period by four. 
 Hipparchus aiVumcd the quantity of the folar year to be 365 
 days, 5 hours, 55' 12 7 . And hence concluded that in one han- 
 dled and four years Calippus's Period would err a whole day. 
 He therefore multiplied the Period by four, and from the pro- 
 duct caff away an entire day. But even this does not reftore 
 the new and full moons to the fame day throughout the whole 
 . Period t but they are fomctimcs anticipated 1 day, 8 hours, 
 23' 29" 20"'. 
 
 Julian Period j a feries of feven thoufand nine hundred and 
 eighty Julian years ; arifing by the multiplication of the cycles 
 of the moon, the fun, and indietions into one another ; com- 
 mencing from the firfl day of January in the Julian year. 
 The Julian Period is alio produced by multiplying the Viclo- 
 rian Ptrio'd by fifteen. Since every year in the Julian Period 
 has its particular cycles of the moon, fun, and indications : e.gr. 
 only the firfl: has the moon's cycle one, the fun's cycle one, 
 and cycte of indietions one ; all the years of this Period are 
 accurately diftinguiflied from each other. 
 This Period was invented by Scaliger, as a common receptacle 
 of epocha's, to facilitate the reduction of years of a given 
 ■ epocha to thofe of another epocha iikewife given. ' It agrees 
 with the Conflantinopolitan epocha, or Period ufed by the 
 Greeks, except in this, that the cycles of the fun, moon, and 
 indietions aie reckoned differently; and in that the firft year 
 of tire Confrantinopolitan Period differs from that of the Ju- 
 lian Period. 
 
 Metonie Period, or cycle, called alfo the cycle cf the moon, is a 
 •feries of nineteen years, which elapfed, the new and full 
 moons, arc fuppofed to return to the lame day of the folar 
 year : it was thus called from its inventor Mcton. 
 
 Victorian Period, an interval of five hundred and thirty two 
 Julian years, which elapfed, the new and full moons return on 
 the lame day of the Julian year, according to the fentiment 
 of the inventor VictorinUs or Victoi ius, who lived in the time 
 of pope Hilaiy. 
 
 . Some afcribe this Periodta Dionyfius Exiguus ; and hence call 
 .it the Dionyfian Period: others call it the great pafehal cycle; 
 becaule it was invented for computing the time of Eafter. 
 The Victorian Period is produced by multiplying the lunar 
 cycle nineteen, by the folar circle eighteen ; the product of 
 which is five hundred thirty two. But neither does this re - 
 
 . ifore the new and full moons to the fame day throughout its 
 whole duration, by 1 day, 16 hours, 58' 59" 40'". 
 
 Period, in grammar, denotes a little compafs of difcourfe, 
 containing a perfect fenfe; diffinguifhed at the end by a point 
 or full flop (.) and its members or divifions marked by com- 
 ma's, colons, Esfc See Sentence, Point, £aV. 
 De Colonia defines Period a fhort, but perfect fentence, con- 
 fiding of certain parts of members, depending one on another, 
 and connected together by fome common vinculum. 
 The celebrated definition of Ariftotle is, a Period is a dif- 
 courfe which has a beginning, a middle, and an end, all vifible 
 at one view. 
 
 The Periods allowed in oratory are three : a Period of two 
 members, called by the Greeks dicolos, and the Latins bimem- 
 bris : a Period of three members, tricolos, trimembris ; and a 
 Period of four, quadrimembris, tetracolos. 
 
 A ftriet 01 atorial Period docs not allow of either more or fewer 
 than the fc : it is poflible indeed to introduce a Pcrkd of one 
 
 member, called by Ariffotlemowsfs/i?;, or fimplc Pi nod ; but it 
 will be reputed a rlaw, and is a thing never practifed by the 
 mailers. 
 
 The Period may be Iikewife prolonged to five or fix members ; 
 but then it changes its name, and inffead of Period, commen- 
 ces what they call a periodical difcourfe. 
 
 A Period of two members Cicero fupplies us with : Ergo & 
 mibi mecs priflina vita confuetudinem, C. Cafar, inter clufam 
 aperuijli ; y his omnibus ad bene de republiea fperandum quaft 
 fignum aliquod fufiulijli. 
 
 A Period of three members the fame Cicero gives us in the 
 exordium of his Mattilian oration : Nam cum antea per atatem 
 hujus aucloritatcm loci contingere non auderem ; Jlntueremqne ni- 
 hil hue nift perfeclum ingenio, elaboratum vidujhia. ajferri oportere j 
 omne meum tempus amicorum temporibus tranfmittendum putaii. 
 A Period of four members he gives us in that admirable de- 
 fuiption of the punifhmcnt of parricides. Ita vivunt, ut ducers 
 animam de each non queant : ita moriuntur, ut eorum offa terra non 
 tangat: ita jaclantur fluttibus, ut nunquam obluantur : itapojlremo 
 ejiciuntur, ut ne ad faxa quidem mortui conquiefcant. 
 The laws and meaiures of Per'rJs arc pretty frrictly regarded by 
 orators, at Icaft they arefo by thcancient ones : in ordinary dif- 
 courfe,and in the modern tongues authors are much lefs fevere. 
 In oratory, the members of Periods are to be equal, or nearly 
 equal ; that the paufes or refts of the voice at the dole of 
 eaeh member may be nearly equal : but in writing not inten- 
 ded for rchcarfal, this is diliegarded. 
 
 Common difcourfe allows of Periods both longer and fhorter 
 than oratory ; which admits of none lefs than two members, 
 nor greater than four. Short, mutilated Periods break the 
 ftieam, and check the courfe of the fublime ; and long ones 
 embarrafs and keep the mind too long in fufpenle ; and even 
 ftrain the voice, which is never to flop hut at the ends of Pe- 
 riods. Philarcus, Hermogenes, Terence, £3V. confine the juft 
 Period (called by the Latins, Ambitus and Circuitus ) to four 
 members ; agreeable to the difiich. 
 
 £>uatuor e membris plenum formare v'ulebh 
 
 Rhetora circuitum, five ambitus ille vocetur. 
 Of which fentiment is Cicero, who in his Orator fays, Con- 
 flat ille ambitus & plena comprehenfio e quatuor fere partibus, 
 qua: membra dicuntw; ut b' aures implcat, 13 ne brevior jit 
 quam jatis jit, neque longior. — An inftance of a periodical dif- 
 courfe the fame author gives us in the opening of his ora- 
 tion for Archias the poet: Si quid in me jit ingenii, judices, quod 
 fentio quam fit exiguum ; out fi qua exercitatio dicendi, in qua 
 me non inficior mediocriter effe verfatum ; aut ft hujufce ret ra- 
 tio aliqua ab optimarum artium Jludiis fcr" difciplina profecla, a 
 qua ego confiteor nullum atatis rnear tempus abhorruiffe ; earum 
 rerum omnium vel in primis hie A. Licinius fruclum a 'me repetcre 
 prope fuo jure debet. 
 
 Periods are faid to be either rotundi, round, or quadrati, fquare, 
 according to their different ceconomy, and cadences. 
 
 Square Period is that confiding of three or four equal mem- 
 bers, formally diffinguifhed from each other — as, that of Ci- 
 cero on the punilhent of parricides. 
 
 Round Period is that whofe members or parts are fo connected, 
 and fitted into each other, as that thejunctures or commifiures 
 are fcarce feen ; but the whole Aides equally round,without any 
 notable ftops or inequalities. — Such are the dicolos and trieo- 
 los of Cicero above-mentioned. 
 
 Period is alfo ufed for the character ( . ) wherewith the Periods 
 of difcourfe are terminated and cxprefTed ; this is popularly 
 called a full-jhp or point. See Pointing. 
 Father Burlier obfei ves two difficulties in the ufe of the Period, 
 or point; i.e. in diflinguilhing it from the colon, or double 
 point ; and in determining juflly the end of a Period or per- 
 fect fentence. 
 
 It is obferved that the fupcrnumerary members of a Period, fe- 
 paratcd from the reft by colons and lemicolons, ufually com- 
 mence with a conjunction. Yet it is certain thefe fame con- 
 junctions fometimes rather begin new Periods, than fupcrnu- 
 merary members of old ones. It is the fenfe of things, and the 
 author's own difcretion, that muff make the proper diftinction- 
 which of the two in effect it is. No rules will here be of any 
 feivicc, unlefs this be admitted as one ; that when what fol- 
 lows the conjunction is of as much extent as what precedes 
 it, it is ufually a new Period ; otherwile not. 
 Thefecond difficulty arifes hence, that the fenfe appears per- 
 fect in feveral fhort detached phrafes, wherein it does not feem 
 there mould be Periods : a thing frequent in free difcourfe; as, 
 we are all in fufpence : make your propofals immediately : you will 
 be to blame for detaining us longer. Where it is evident, that 
 fimple phrafes have perfect fenfes like Periods, and ought to 
 be marked accordingly; but that the fhortnefs of the difcourfe 
 making themeafUy comprehended, the pointing is neglected. 
 Period, in numbers, is a diftinction made by a point or comma, 
 after every fixth place, or figure : and is ufed in numeration, 
 for the readier diftinguifhingand naming the feveral figures or 
 piaccs : which fee under Numeration. 
 
 Period, 
 
Per 
 
 Period, in medicine, is applied to certain difeafes which have 
 intervals, and returns, to denote an entire courfe, or circle of 
 fuch difeafe ; or its progrefs from any (rate thiou .h all the reft, 
 till it return to the lame again. 
 
 Galen defcribes Period as a time enmpofed o" an intenfion and 
 remiffion ; whence it is ufually divided into two parts, the pa- 
 roxyfm or exacerbation, and lemifllon. 
 
 In intermitting fevers, the Periods aie ufually ftated and regu- 
 lar ; in other difeafes, as the epilepiy, gout, fife, they are vague 
 or irregular. 
 
 Period is alfo ufed, by fome writers, for theftate of adiftemper 
 or difeafe. 
 
 Period of the blood, Periodus janguims, the circle of the blood, 
 
 or the tour it makes round the body, for the filpport of life. 
 
 See Circulation. 
 PERIODEUTA, riEPmAEYTHE, a church officer among the 
 
 Greeks \ eftabhihed by the council of Laodicea, in towns, CsY. 
 
 where there weie no bilhops. 
 
 The Pcriodeuics were a kind of rural deans, fo called, according 
 to Zonaras, hecaufe always on the road, going from one quar- 
 ter to another to keep the people in their duty. 
 Hence, Gregory of TheJialonica calls them ambulantes, walkers. 
 Balfamon calls them exarch^ by which name they arc known 
 among the Greeks at this day. 
 PERIODIC, Periodical, fomething that terminates and com- 
 prehends a period. 
 
 J periodical month, is the fpace of time wherein the moon dif- 
 patches her period or periodic motion, viz. 27 days, 7 hours, 
 43 minutes, in which time (he returns to the fame point of the 
 ■zodiac, wherein fhe was when fhe left the fun. 
 Periodical difeafes, are fuch as decline and rife again with fi- 
 milar fymptoms, alternately. 
 
 In the Phibfophical Tranfatlions, Dr. Mufgrave gives us an in- 
 itance of a periodic palfy ; and Dr. Cole an inftancc of a peri- 
 odic convulfion. 
 
 Periodic, ih grammar, is applied to a ffyle or difecurfc that has 
 numbers; or which confifts of juft and artful periods. 
 
 Periodical Winds. See the article Wind. 
 
 PERICECl*, riEPioiKoi, in geography, fuch inhabitants of the 
 globe as have the fame latitudes, but oppofitc longitudes ; or 
 live under the fame parallel, and the fame meridian, but in 
 different femi-circles of that meridian, or oppofite points of 
 the parallel. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek rrrgi, about, and otxw, I inhabit. 
 Thefe have the fame common feafons thioughout the year; 
 and the fame phenomena of the heavenly bodies ; but their 
 hours, or times of the day, are oppofite to each other. When 
 v.gr. with the one it is mid-day ; with the other it is mid- 
 night. 
 
 PERIOPHTHALMIUM *, in natural hiftory, a thin (kin which 
 birds can draw over their eyes to defend them, without fhut- 
 ing their eye-lids, othe.wife called the nictitating membrane. 
 See Nictitating membrane. 
 
 * The word is compounded of the Greek, M^gi, about, and cpOaty^, 
 ey*. * 
 
 PERIOSTEUM*, or pEaiosTiuM, in anatomy, a membrane, 
 pretty tough, and extremely fenfible, covering the whole exte- 
 rior furface of all the bones of the body, the teeth only excep- 
 ted. HecTab.Juat. (Splanch.)/^. 13. litt.gg. See alfo Bone. 
 
 * The word is originally Greek, Bripfafr*, formed of trig*, about, 
 and criM, bone. 
 
 The Periojleum is derived from the diira mater, and confifts 
 principally of fibres detached thence ; befieles which it receives 
 other fibres from the membrana communis of the mufcles, or, 
 as Dr. Havers imagines, from the fiefhy fibres of the belly of 
 the mufcles, which interfect the former. — That part of it 
 which covers the cranium or ikull, is by a peculiar name 
 called the pericranium. 
 
 The Periofteum is very thin every where ; though not every 
 where alike. It adheres clofely to the bone ; and in fome 
 places is obferved to fend fibres into the very fubftance thereof. 
 Its principal ufe is to defend the mufcles and tendons from 
 being fretted in their action by the attrition of the hard fub- 
 ftance of the bones; and to give notice, by its fenfibility, of 
 any thing that might annoy the bones. — Indeed, this laft ufe 
 is controverted ; fome of trfe lateft anatomifts maintaining 
 that the Periojleum is wholly infenfible. 
 PERIPATETIC philofophy, the fyftem of philofophy, taught 
 and eftablifhcd by Ariftotle, and maintained by his followers, 
 the Peripateticks. 
 
 A fpecimen of the peripatetic philofophy, fee under Aristo- 
 telian. 
 
 PERIPATETICKS, nEPiriATHTiKoi, a feet of philofophers, 
 the followers of Ariftotle; or the maintained of the peripa- 
 tetic philofophy : called alfo Jri/frtcJians. 
 Cicero tells us that Plato left two excellent difciples, Xeno- 
 cratea and Ariftotle, who founded two fedrs, which only dif- 
 fered in name : the former taking the appellation otacademieks, 
 who were thofe that continued to held their conferences in the 
 Vol. II. 
 
 PER 
 
 academy, as Piato had done betore : the others who followed 
 Ariftotle, were called Peripateticks; from «fnr«1™, I walk, 
 becaufe they difputed walking in the lyceum. 
 Ammonius fetches the name Peripatetic fiom Plato himfelf, 
 who only taught walking ; and adds that the difciples of Arif- 
 totle, and thole of Xenocrates, were equally called Peripate- 
 ticks ; the one Peripateticks of the academy, the other Peripa- 
 tcticks of the lyceum: but that at length, the former quitted 
 the title Peripatetic, for that of academic, on occalioh of the 
 place where they aflembled, and the latter retained fimplv 
 that of Peripatetic. See Academic. 
 
 The greateft and beft part of Ariftotle's philofophy, he bor- 
 row'd from his mafter Plato : Serranus affirms conftdentlv, 
 and fays he is able to demonftrate it, that there is nothing ex- 
 quifite in any part of Ariftotle's philofophy, dialectics, ethics' 
 politics, phyfics, or metaphyfics, but is found in Plato. And 
 of this opinion are many of the ancient authors, Clemens Alex- 
 andrinus, isY. 
 
 Gale endeavours to ihew, that Ariftotle borrowed a good 
 deal of his philofophy both phyfical about the rtrft matter j 
 and metaphyfical about the firrt being, his affections, truth, 
 unity, goodnefs, Csfo from the facied books ; and adds from 
 Clearchus, one of his (Ariftotle's) fcholars, that he made ufe 
 of a certain Jew, who afiifted him therein. 
 Ariftotle's philofophy preferved itfelf in puris naturalibus, a 
 long time ; none of his followers or commentators having 
 dared to make any innovations therein, till the beginning of 
 
 the XIII th century ; when it began to be new modelled. A 
 
 reformed fyftem of pe/ipaietkifm was firrt introduced into the 
 fchools, in the univerfity of Paris; from whence it foon fpread 
 throughout Europe-; and has fublifted in the univeifities to 
 this day, under the name oijehool philofiphy. 
 The foundation hereof is Ariftotle's doctrine, frequently mif- 
 underftood, and oftencr mifapplied : whence the retainer 
 thereto may be denominated reformed Peripateticks. 
 Out of thefe have fprung, at feveral times, feveral branches, the 
 chief are the Thomifts, Scotifts, and Nominalifts; fee each 
 under its proper article, Thomist, Scotist, andNowiNAL. 
 PERIPETIA*, riEPinETEW, in the drama, that part of a tragedy 
 wherein the action is turned, the plot unravelled, and the 
 whole concludes. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek vi^ir^, famtlhint falling into 
 
 a different ftate, formed of wif, about, and inwlu, cada, I fall. 
 The Peripetia is properly the change of condition, whether 
 happy or unhappy, which the principal perfon or perfons un- 
 dergo ; arifing from fome difcovery or incident, which gives 
 a new turn to the action. 
 
 The Peripetia therefore coincides with the cataftrophe, or un- 
 ravelling ; unlefs we make the Peripetia to depend on the ca- 
 taftrophe, ts'c. as an effect on its caufe. 
 
 The Peripetia is fometimes induced by remembrance or dif- 
 covery, as in the Oedipus, where the meffenger, fent fiom 
 Corinth to invite Oedipus to the crown, inroims him that Po- 
 Iybus and Merope were not his father and mother ; which 
 begins a difcovery, that Laius whom he had killed, and To- 
 cafta whom he had then to wife, were his father and mooter] 
 and throws him into the deepeft diftrels.— i his inftance Arif- 
 totle calls a double Peripetia. ■ . 
 The qualities of the Peripetia are, that it be probable and nc- 
 ceflary ; in order to which it muft.be the natural refult, at 
 leaft the effect, of the foregoing actions, or of the fubject itfelf; 
 and mud not ftart out from any foreign, or collateral caufe. 
 Sometimes the Peripetia is occafioned without any difcovery; 
 as in the Antigone of Sophocles, where the change in Creon's 
 fortune is produced by the effect of his own obftinacy ; and 
 fometimes by a mere change of the will, which, though the 
 leaft artful, yet, Mr. Dryden obferves, may be fo managed, as 
 to become exceedingly beautiful. 
 
 Thefe two cafes Ariftotle calls fmplt Peripetias ; in thefe, the 
 change only confifts in a paflage out of trouble and action, 
 into tranquillity and reft. See Fable, Action, CSV. 
 PERIPHERY *, in geometry, the circumference or bounding- 
 line of a circle, ellipfis, parabola, or other regular curvilinear 
 figure. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, drcumfcra, I fur- 
 
 round ; of bqfa about, and tyioa, I bear or carry. 
 The Periphery of every circle is fuppofed to be divided into 
 360 degrees, which are again fubdivided, each into 60 mi- 
 nutes, the minutes into feconds, tSc. 
 
 The divifions of degrees, therefore, are fractions, whofe 
 denominators proceed in a fexagecuple ratio : as, the minute 
 ; ysj fecond riev) third iYsbtr8> See Sexagesimal. 
 
 But thefe denominators being troublefome ; in their ftead are 
 ufed the indices of their logarithms ; hence the degree, being 
 the integer, or unit, is marked by 0, the minute by, fecond 
 by", CSV. 
 
 Geometricians demonftrate, that a circle is equal to a triangle, 
 whofe bafe is equal to the Periphery, and altitude to the radius. 
 See Triangle. 
 
 Hence it follows, that circles are in a ratio compounded of 
 8 Q.- their 
 
PER 
 
 their peripheries and radii. But they are alfo in the duplicate 
 ratio of their radii ; thevefoie the Peripherics of circles are to 
 each other as their radii : and fince the Periphery of one circle 
 is to its radius, as the Periphery of any other to its radius ; the 
 ratio of the Periphery to the diameter is the fame in all circles. 
 Angle at' the Periphery. See the article Angle, 
 PERIPHRASIS*., in rhetoric, circumlocution ; a circuit or tour 
 of words, much affected by orators, to avoid common and 
 trite manners of expreffion. 
 
 * The word in the original Greek, wift^ao-K, fignifies circumlocution, 
 formed of about, and <p£«£u, I Jpeak. 
 The Ptriphrajn is of good ufe on many occafions ; and we are 
 frequently forced to have recourfe to it, to make things be con- 
 ceived, which are not proper to name. 
 
 It is often a piece of pohtenels to fupprefs the names, and only 
 intimate, or defign them. Thefe turns of expreffion are alio 
 particularly ferviceable in oratory ; for the fublhne admitting 
 of no direct citations, theie mult be a compafs taken to infi- 
 
 - nuate the authors, whofe authority is borrowed. A Periphra- 
 fis, by turning round a proper name to make it underftood, 
 amplifies and raifes the difeburfe; but care muft be taken it 
 be not too much fwclled, nor extended mal a propos, in which 
 cafe it becomes fiat and languid. 
 
 PERIPLUS, ixepiiiaots, a voyage or navigation round a cer- 
 tain fea, or fea coaft. 
 
 Arrian has described all the coaft s of the black fea, after hav- 
 ing infpected them in quality of general of the emperor Adri- 
 an, to whom he dedicates the description under the title of 
 Periplus of the euxine fea. 
 PERIPNEUMONIA *, nEPinsEYMONiA, in medicine, an in- 
 flammation of fome part of the thorax, properly of the lungs ; 
 attended with an acute fever, and a difficulty of breathing. 
 See Lungs, is'c. 
 '* The word h formed from the Creek, teigi^ about, and vitvfMt'. 
 lungs. 
 
 The Peripneumonia is diftinguifhed into vera, or true ; and notha, 
 or fpuriens. 
 
 The true Peripmeumony is a real inflammation of the fub- 
 ftance of the lungs, attended with a fymptomatical fever, and 
 a cough ; by the former of which it is diftinguifhed from an 
 Afthma ; and by the latter from a pleiinfy. 
 Its ufual caufes me, want of exercife, hard ftudy, fuppreffion 
 «f natural evacuations, a moift air, or the like, — When it 
 arifes from a phlegmon, the patient lpits pure blood ; when it 
 is erysipelatous, the iputum is yellow, and not much tinged 
 with* red. In this laft, the breaft is not lb much contracted, 
 but the fever is more violent. 
 
 The Peripneumonia .is more dangerous, though lefs painful than 
 the pleurify : its ufual way of going off is by expectoration of 
 well conceded, reddifh, yellow or white matter. The flow- 
 ing of the menfes, or any haemorrhage, a diarrhcea, abfeeffes 
 about the ears, or other parts, are alfo good prognoflicks. — 
 The medicines prefcribed are moftly the fame that obtain 
 in aftmatick and pleuritick cafes. 
 
 - Spurious or bajlard Peripneumony, is a difeafe of the lungs, 
 
 ariiing from a heavy pituitous matter generated throughout 
 the whole mafs of blood, and discharged upon the lungs. 
 It is known by the vifcidity, palenefs, and flownefs of the 
 blood, ropinefs of the faliva, palenefs, and want of feent of the 
 lirine, fwellings and obftuicrions in the minuter veffels, fhort 
 breath, opprcllion in the thorax, ksc. Worn out, phlegmatic, 
 cord, phthiiical, catarrhous, conftitutions, aie mofl liable to it. 
 It begins with a fecblcnefs, indolence, wearinefs, difficulty of 
 breathing, oppreflion of the bread, and feverifhnefs ; and goes 
 on, without any great appearance of danger, to death itfelf, 
 without any prognoflic thereof in the urine, pulfe, ts'c. It is 
 cured by blood-letting, clyfters, thin diet, diluters, abltergents 
 and aperients. See Supplement, Article Peripneumony\ 
 PERIPTERE *, nEPinTEPor, in the ancient architecture, a 
 building incdmpafll'd on the out fide with a feries of infu- 
 late columns, forming a kind of ifle or poi tico all around. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Greek, wigt, circum, about, and trliMvl 
 alu, wing, q. d. winged on every fide. 
 
 Such were the baiilica of Antoniuc, the feptizon of Severus, 
 the portico of Pompey, csV. 
 
 Peripter-es were propeily temples, which had columns on all 
 the four fides, by which they were diftinguifhed from pro/hies, 
 and amphipioftyles, the one of which had no columns before, 
 and the other none on the fides. 
 
 M. Penault obferves, that Peripferr in its general fenfe includes 
 all the fpecies of temples which have portico's of columns all 
 around, whether the columns be diptere, or pfcudo-diptere, or 
 fimply Periptcre, which is a fpecies that bears the name of the 
 genus, and which has its columns diftant from the wall by the 
 breadth of an lntercolumnation. — for the difference between 
 Periptcre and periflyle, fee Peristyle. 
 FERISCII », lupiskioi, in geography, thofe inhabitants of the 
 earth, whofe fhadows do, in one and the fame day, fucceflively 
 turn to all the points of the horizon. See Shadow. 
 
 * And hence die nr.mc, from the Greek trtftcmqx, y. d. circum- 
 lahbia ; of yigt, about, and emu, fhadow. 
 
 PER 
 
 Such are the inhabitants of the frozen zones, or thofe who 
 live within the compafs of the arcl ic and antarctic circles ; 
 for, as the fun never goes down to them after he is once up, 
 but moves always round about, fo do their (hadows ; info- 
 much that, in the fame day, they have their fhadows on all 
 fides. 
 
 PERISKYTISM *, or Periskyphism, in chirurgery, an ope- 
 ration performed by the ancients cn the cranium. See 
 Cranium. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, ngi and ewimfet*, to flay, 
 or cut the {kin. 
 
 The Perifkytifm is an incifion which they made under the co- 
 ronal future, reaching from one temple a-crofs to the other, 
 and penetrating to the bone of the cranium : its intention was 
 to feparate the pericranium from the ikull. 
 PERISSACHOREGIA, a term found in the code, about the 
 meaning whereof authors are much divided. 
 Alciat, and fome others, will have it to be the name of an of- 
 fice, viz. that of curator of the annona or provifions; from 
 *»f abundance, and yj>%r,y.a, to lead, or bring<-Othcrs 
 take it to be the office of a magiftrate who was to look to the 
 augmentation of the annona, and the diftribution of the fame. 
 Dom. Macri will have it to fignify a donative, or distribution 
 made to the foldiers, over and above their pay. See Dona- 
 tive. 
 
 PERISTALTIC *, itepietaatikoe, in medicine, a motion 
 proper to the inteftines, wherein their fcveral parts are fuccef- 
 fively con traded from above downwards, or from the pylorus 
 to the anus ; in a manner fomcwhat refembling the creeping 
 of a worm : whence it is alfo called the vermicular motion. See 
 Intestines. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek wigtrijjfcn ; and literally im- 
 plies fomething driven or prefild all around. 
 
 The periflultie motion is pertormed by the contraction of the 
 circular and longitudinal fib;es, whereof the rlefhy coat of the 
 inteftines is compofed. It is by means hereof that the chyle 
 is driven into the orifices of the lacteal veins, and the excre- 
 ments are preifed downwards, and at Lift expelled. 
 When this motion comes to be depraved, and its direction 
 changed, fo as to proceed from below upwards, it produces 
 what we call the iliac pafiion. See Iliac pajficn. 
 M. Perrault, in an exprefs treatife on the periftaltk motion, ob- 
 ferves, that though it is ordinarily only attributed to the in- 
 teftines, yet it is really an action common to all thofe parts of 
 the body which alter, prepare, concoct the fcveral humours 
 and fpirits, which are the matter and inftruments of animal 
 action. — In effect, he gives the name to all the motions 
 whereby the cavities of the body are preifed or compreffed. 
 PERIS1 APHYL1NUS, in anatomy, a name which fome give 
 to a mufcle of the uvula, more propeily denominated pteiy- 
 goflaphylinus. See Uvula and Pterygostaphylinus. 
 PERISTYLE *, itepixtyaoe, in the ancient architecture, n 
 place or building, incompafled with a row of columns on the 
 infide; by which it is diftinguifhed from the periptcre, where 
 the columns are difpofed without-fide. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek about, and j-i/A©., co- 
 lumn. 
 
 Such was the hypsethre temple ofVitruvius; and fuch are 
 now fome bafilica's in Rome, feveral palaces in Italy, and 
 mofl cloifters of religious. 
 Peristyle -is alfo tiled by modern writers for a range of co- 
 lumns, either within, or without a building. 
 Thus we fay, the Corinthian Periflyle of the portail of the 
 Louvre, &c. 
 
 PERISYSTOLE, n e p iey eto ah, in medicine, the paufe or in- 
 terval between the two motions of the heart, or pulfe, viz. 
 that of the fyftolc or contraction, and that of the diaftole or 
 dilatation. 
 
 PERITONAEUM *, or Peritoneum, in anatomy, a thin foft 
 membrane, covering and containing all the vifcera of the 
 lower belly. — See Tab. Jnat. (Splanch) fig. \. lit. u u. fig. 3. 
 lit. bb. See alio Viscera and Abdomen. 
 
 * The term is Greek, Wf^jordHi*, or tet&rbmiii, derived from the 
 verb TOfsiTEinw, circumtendo, I Itretch .ill around. 
 
 The figure and fize of the Peritoneum anfwer to thofe of the 
 lower belly, which it lines throughout; its internal furface is 
 fmooth, and lined with an unctuous humour, ferving to pre- 
 vent its wounding the inteftines, and other parts it touches, 
 as well as to lubricate and facilitate their motion. When the 
 glands which fuinilh it are obftxueted, the Peritoneum glows- 
 thick, as is frequently found in droplics. 
 The external furfaee is fibrous and unequal, that it may ad- 
 here more firmly to the mufcles of the abdomen, linea alba, 
 ofla pubis, ifchium, ilium facrum, and the vertebrie lum- 
 bares, to which it is fattened ; and from the laft whereof, 
 many fuppofe it to have its origin. 
 
 It is alfo connected to the inferior or convex furface of the 
 liver, which it fulpcnds : and the part imployed in this action, 
 is called the ligamentum fufpenforium hepatis. 
 The Peritoneum is double every where, but moft apparently fo 
 from the navel to the os pubis, and near the lumbar vertebra!, as 
 
 appears 
 
PER 
 
 appears not only from its extraordinary thicknefs in both, but 
 from itsfpontaneous parting in the latter, to receive the kidnies. 
 It is perforated in the upper part to give paflage to the ccfopha- 
 gus, aorta, and cava ; in the under, for the fundament, the 
 neck of the matrix, and the vefiTels that go to the thighs 3 and 
 in the fore- part to give paflage to the umbilical vcflels. 
 Its exterior coat has two procefles ; which in men fall down 
 into the fcrotum, wrap up the fpermatick veflbls, and dilating 
 make the tunica vaginalis of the tefticles ; in women they 
 form a cover for the round ligament of tile womb. 
 The Peritoneum receives veins and arteries fiom the mamma- 
 rije, diaphragmatic^, epigaftrica?, facre, ant' lumbares : neives 
 from the os factum and loins. Ol. Rudbockius pretends to 
 have likewife difcovered lyniphar_icl;s, but thefe being fcarce 
 vifible, except in hydropic cafes, are not much taken notice 
 
 In morbid cafes, great quantities of ferum have been found be- 
 tween the duplicatures of this membrane, when there was 
 none in the cavity of the abdomen : This conftitutes the true 
 tympany. 
 
 The life of the Peritoneum is to contain, and keep in their place 
 the vifcera of the abdomen ; this is fo manifeft, thai; when ever 
 this membrane happens to be broke, or extraordinarily dilated, 
 fome of the parts are apt to fall down, and to form thole tu- 
 mors called hernias or ruptures. See Hernia. 
 
 PERITROCHIUM, in mechanicks, a wheel, or circle, con- 
 centric with the bafe of a cylinder, and moveable together 
 with it, about an axis. — Such is the wheel A E, Tab. Macha- 
 meh, fig. 44. moveable on the axis E F. 
 The axis, with the wheel, and levers fixed therein to move it, 
 make that mechanical power, called ^.m in peritroehio. 
 
 Axisin Peritrochio, in mechanicks, one of the fix mechani- 
 cal powers, or fimplc machines, contrived for the ratfing of 
 weights.— See its (tructure, doctrine, application, b'c. under 
 the article Axis in peritrochio. 
 
 PERJURY, Perjurium, inlaw, the crime of fwcaring falfely 
 in a lawful oath, adminiftcred by one who has authority, in 
 any matter relating to an iflue, or caufe in queltion j whether 
 it be of the perfon's own accord, or by fubornation of another. 
 Ifa-matf calls me perjured^ I have my action upon the cafe. 
 If he calls me fiorfworn no action lies, becaufe the forfwearing 
 may be extra-judicial. — Perjury isufually excepted out of ge- 
 neral acts of grace. 
 
 The punifhment of Perjury is colliftrigium, the pillory, or 
 
 burning the criminal in the forehead with a P, rooting up his 
 
 trees, and confifcating his goods. 
 Permanent air i - , .. t Air. 
 Permenent quantity f See the articlc \ Quantity. 
 PERMEABLE, denotes a body confidered as its pores are 
 
 capable of letting ibmewhat pals through them. See Pore. 
 PER MINIMA, in medicine, denotes a perfect mixture of the 
 
 fmallcft particles of feveral bodies, or ingredients. 
 Per minima, in pharmacy, denotes an intimate and perfect 
 
 mixture of natural bodies ; wherein their very minima, i. e. 
 
 their atoms, or firft component particles are fuppofed to be 
 
 accurately blended together. 
 
 If nlver and lead bt.- melted together, they will thus mingle 
 per minima. 
 
 Permittit — ■ quare non Permittit. Seethe article Quare. 
 PERMUTATION, the truck, or exchange of one thing for 
 another. 
 
 The commerce of the firft inhabitants of the world was per- 
 formed wholly by way of Permutation. 
 
 Permutation, in the canon law, a real and actual exchange 
 of two benefices. 
 
 Permutation is a means of bringing benefices into commerce 
 without fimony. 
 
 The conditions acquired to a canonical Permutation, are, i° 
 That there be benefices permuted on either fide, though the re- 
 venues be unequal ; and in cafe of inequality, no compenia- 
 tion is to be made in money, but only a penfion is to be 
 charged on the greater. 2° That each of the Pertnutants quit 
 their benefices, and make a procuration ad rejignandwn. 3° That 
 the Permutation be followed by a collation of the ordinary. 4° 
 That the ordinary be informed of the caufe oi the Permutation. 5 0 
 That thofe to whom the prefentation or election to the bene- 
 fices belongs, give their confent ; or in cafe of their refufal, 
 that the confent of the diocefan be had. 
 
 '1 he chief rules of Permutation are, that if one of the comper- 
 mutants cannot enjoy, he re-enters with full right into the be- 
 nefice he has quitted 3 and that if he die before he have ac- 
 compli ihed the Permutation on his part by the taking of pof- 
 fefllon, the compermutant who has accompliihed, retains both 
 benefices, unlefs they fall into the regale. 
 Permutations of quantities, in algebra, the changes, alterna- 
 tions, or different combinations of any number of quanti- 
 ties. 
 
 Permuta TioNE arehidiaconatus £ff eeelefies eidem annexe eum eccle- 
 j'ut tff prebenda, is a writ iflued to an ordinary, commanding 
 him to admit a clerk to a benefice upon exchange made with 
 another. Peg. cf tvrtts, 
 
 P E R 
 
 PER MY y per tort— A joint tenant is faid to be feized of the 
 land he holds jointly, per my et per tout, i. e. he is feizxd by 
 every parcel, and by the whole, totum tenet, 13 nihil tenet ; fr. 
 totvm conjunclim, c5* nihil feparaiim. Bract. 
 
 PERNANCY, in law, the taking, or receiving any thing—- 
 from the French, prendre, to take. 
 
 Tithes in Pernancy, are tithes taken, or which may be taken, 
 in kind. 
 
 PERNIO (in medicine) a difeafe afflicting the hands and feet 
 in the-wintcr-time, popularly called a kibe or chilblain. 
 The parts affected fwell, inclining from a white to a bluifh 
 colour, itch and ake ; yet the tumor vanilhes without any 
 cxulceration, upon anointing the part with petroleum, or the 
 like; 
 
 PERNOR cf profit;, he who takes, or receives the profits of 
 
 anything — from the French, prencur, taker. 
 PERONE, in anatomy, a bone of the leg, more ufually callc'd 
 
 fibula. Hence 
 
 PERONEUS anticus, hngus or primus, a mufcle of the leg, 
 arifihg fiefhy and tendinous from the head to the middle of 
 the p'erone; whence, running as in a pulley, through thecha- 
 nel on the hind part of the outer ankle bone, it is inierted into 
 the upper end of the bone of the metatarfus, which joins the 
 great toe. The office of this mufcle is to diaw the foot up- 
 wards. Sec Tab. Anat. (Myol.) fig. 1. h. 76. fig. 2. n. 46. Jig. 
 6. n. 43. fig. 7. n . 28. 
 
 Peroneus pojiieus, brevis or feeundus, a mufcle fometimes alfo 
 called femifibuleus, arifing flefhy and (harp cn the back part of 
 the perone ; whence, continuing down the outer fide of le 
 bone till below the middle, it forms a fmooth, ftrong, flat ten- 
 don, which runs through the fame chanel at the bottom of 
 the maleolus cxternus, with the Iongus, to the out-fide of the 
 os metatarfi of the little toe. Its office is to pull the foot up- 
 wards. See Tab. Anat. (Myol. J fig. 1. 76. fig. 6. n. 43. 
 fig. 7. zS. 
 
 PERORATION, Peroratio, in rhetoric, the epilogue, or 
 lafl part of an oration ; wherein, what the orator had infifled 
 oh through his whole difcourfe is urged afieih, with greater 
 vehemence and paflion. 
 
 The Peroration confifts of two parts, 1. recapitulation, wherein 
 thefubltanceofwhat was dilfufed throughoutthewholcfpeech, 
 is collected briefly^ and curforily 3 and fummed up with new 
 force and weight. 
 
 2. The moving the pafllons which is fo peculiar to the Perora- 
 tion, that the matters of the ait call this part fedes affefiuum* 
 See Passions. 
 
 The pafllons to be raifed in the Peroration are various, accord- 
 ing to the various kinds of orations : in a panegyric, love, ad- 
 miration, emulation, joy, &c. In an invective, hatred, con- 
 tempt, Uc. In a deliberation, hope, confidence, or fear. 
 The qualities required in the Peroration ate, that it be vehe- 
 ment and paflionate 3 and that it be ihort : becaufe, as Cicero 
 obferves, tears foon dry up. 
 
 The 'Peroration was Cicero's matter-piece, here that great orator 
 not only let his judges and auditors on fiie, but even fcemcd 
 to burn himfelf; elpecially when he was to raife pity andcom- 
 miferation towards the accufed; wherc,as he himfelf tells us, he 
 frequently filled the forum with weeping and lamentation. He 
 adds, that where there were feveral orators to fpeak for the 
 fame perfon, the Peroration was always refei ved to him and 
 fubjoins, that if he excelled herein, it was not owing to genius, 
 but the grief himfelf fhewed.— This is abundantly evident in 
 his Milonian Pcroratim, where he fays, Sed finis fit : mque enim 
 pre lachrymisjam hqui pojj'um, & hie fe Jaehrymis defendi vetat— 
 and in that for Rabirins Pofihumus ; Sed jam, quoniam, ut fipero, 
 fidem quam potui, tibiprejliti,Pofthume,reddam, etiam lachrymas 
 quasdebeo—jam indicat tot hominum fictus qv.sm fi.s carus tuis, tjf 
 me dolor debilitat, inclnditque vocem. 
 PERPENDICULAR, in geometry, a line failing direftly on 
 another line, fo as to make equal angles on each fide ; called 
 alfo a ncnnal line. 
 
 Thus the line I G. (Tab. Geometry, fig. 57.) is perpendicular to 
 the line K H, i. e. makes right and equal angles therewith. 
 From the very notion of a Perpendicular, it follows ; 1. That 
 the Perpendicularity is mutual ; i.e. if a line, as I G be per- 
 pendicular to another, K H 3 that other is alfo perpendicular to 
 the firft. 
 
 2. That only one Perpendicular can be drswn from one point 
 in the fame place. 
 
 3; That if a Perpendicular be continued through the line it was 
 drawn perpendicularly to 3 the continuation will alfo be perpendi- 
 cular to the fame. 
 
 4. That if there be two points of a right line, each of which 
 is at an equal diltance from two points of another right-line 3 
 that line is perpendicular to the other. 
 
 5. That a line which is perpendicular to another, is ilfoperpen- 
 dicuhr to all the parallels of the other. 
 
 6. That a perpendicular line is the fhorteft of all thofe which can 
 be drawn from the fame point to the fame right-tine. 
 
 Hence the dirfance of a point from a line, is a right-line, drawn 
 from the point perpendicular to the line or planes and hence 
 
 the 
 
PER 
 
 the altitude of a figure is a Perpendicular let fall from the ver- 
 tex to the bale. „ 
 7i «rafl a Perpendicular GI on any given point G, in a 
 ri«htlineML: one foot of the compalles being in G, with 
 anv interval at pleafure, cut off equal parts on each lideG H 
 and G K • from tile points K and H, with an interval greater 
 by half than K H ftrikc two arches interieaing in I ; the right 
 line G 1 is perpc-idieular to M L. 
 
 Perpendiculars are bed del'cribed in pradice by means ot a 
 fquare ; one of whole legs is applied along that line to or from 
 which the Perpendicular is to be let fall or railed. 
 
 To creel a Perpendicular on the end of a given line, fuppofe 
 atP- open your compaffes to any convenient diltance, and 
 fettin" one foot in C, delcribethe arch RPS; lay a ruler trom 
 S through C, it will find the point R in the arch, whence draw 
 P R, which is perpendicular to P M. 
 
 To lit fall a Perpendicular on a given line, MP; trom a 
 given point L, fig. 57. »■ 2. fet one foot of the compares in 
 L, and with the other crofs the given line in the points M and 
 G Then letting the compades 111 G and M, ftnke two arches 
 interfeaing each other in a : then lay a ruler from L to a, and 
 the line K L defcribed thereby is the Ptrfm/utdtr required. 
 A line is faid to be perpendicular to a plane, when it is perpenut- 
 tular to more than two lines dran n in that plane. 
 A plane is faid to be perpendicular to another plane, when a line 
 
 - in one plane is perpendicular to the other plane. 
 
 Perpendicular to a parabola, is a right line cutting the para 
 bola in the point in which any other right line touches it, and 
 is alfo itfelf perpendicular to that tangent. 
 
 PERPENDICULARITY of Plana, is a curious phenomenon 
 in natural hiftory, firft obferved by M. Dodart, and publilh- 
 ed in an cxpreis Effay on the atieaation of Perpendicularity 
 obfervable in the Hems or (talks of all plants, in the roots of 
 many, and even in their branches as much as poffible. 
 The matter of faa is, that tho' almoft all plants rile a little 
 crooked, yet the items (hoot up perpendicularly, and the roots 
 fink down perpendicularly : even fuch as by the declivity of the 
 foil come out' inclined, or fuch as are diverted out of theiV- 
 pemi'ular by any violenr means, again redrefs or (heighten 
 themlelves, and recover their Perpendicularity, by making a 
 fecond and contrary bend or elbow, without rectifying the 
 firft. A common eye looks on this affixation without any 
 furp'rize ; but a man that knows what a plant is, and how for- 
 med, finds it a fubject of aftonifhment. 
 In eftea, each feed contains in it a hale plant, already formed, 
 and needing nothing but to be unfolded : the little plant has its 
 little root ; and the pulp.which is uKially feparated into two 
 lobes, is the foundation of the firft food the plantulc draws, by 
 its root, when itbegins to germinate. 
 
 Now if a feed in the eaith be fo dilpofed, as that the root ol 
 the little plant be turned downwaids, and the ftem upwaids, 
 and even perpendicularly upwards ; it is ealy to conceive that the 
 little plant coming to unfold itfelf, irs ftalk and root need 
 only follow the direaion they have, to grow perpendicularly. 
 But it is known the feeds of plants, whether (own ofthem- 
 felves or by the help of man, fall in the ground at ran- 
 dom ■ and among an infinite number of lituations with re- 
 gard to the ftalk of their plant, the perpendicular one upwards 
 
 In all' Ac reft therefore, it is necefTary the ftalk redrefs or reaify 
 itfelf in order to get out of the ground : but what force is ir, 
 that eft'eas this change, which is certainly a violent action .' is 
 it that the ftalk finding a lefs load of earrh above it, goes natu- 
 rally that way where it finds the leaft obftacle r were this fo, 
 the little root when it happens to be uppermoft, muft tor the 
 fame reafon follow the fame direaion, and mount on high. 
 M Dodart, thetetore,to account for two fuch dirferent actions, 
 has recourfe to another fyflem : he fuppofes that the fibres of 
 the (talks -are of fuch a nature, as that they conttaa and (hor- 
 ten by tVs heat of the fun, and lengthen out by the moifture of 
 the earth : and on the contrary, that the fibres of the roots 
 contract by the moiftuie of the earth, and lengthen by the 
 heat of the fun. 
 
 When then, the plantule is inverted, and the root 13 a-top ; the 
 fibres which compole one of the blanches of the root are not 
 equally cxpofed to the moiftui e of the eai th ; the lower part is 
 more expofed than the upper. The lower therefore muft con- 
 tract the molt ; which contraction is again promoted by the 
 lennheniag of the upper, whereon the fun acts with the great- 
 eft force. Of conicquence, therefore, this branch of the toot 
 muft recoil towards the earth, and infinuating through the 
 pores thereof muft get underneath the bulb, lie. 
 By inverting this reafoning, it is ealy to drew how the ftalk 
 comes to get uppeimoft. . 
 
 In a word; we may imagine, that the earth attracts the root to 
 itfelf, and that the fun contributes to its defcent ; and on the 
 contrary, that the fun artraas the ftem, and the earth, in fome 
 meafure lends it towards the fame. 
 
 As to the fecond ftrcightening, to. that of the ftalks in the 
 open air, he takes it to arile from the impreftion of external 
 caufes, particulatly the fun and rain. For the upper part of a- 
 
 PER 
 
 ftalk that is bent, is more expofed to the rain, dew, and evni 
 fun, is'c. than the under. Now both thefe caufes, in a certain 
 ftructure of the fibres, tend equally to ftrcighten the part molt 
 expofed, by thefhortening they lucceffively occafion in it; for 
 moifture fhortens by fweliing, and heat by diftipating. Indeed, 
 what that ftructure is which gives the fibres fuch different qua- 
 lities, or whereon it depends, isftilla myftery. 
 M. dela Hire accounts for the Perpendicularity of the ftems or 
 ftaiks of plants thus: he imagines that in plants the root draws 
 a coarferand heavier juice ; and the ftem and its branches a 
 finer and more volatile one. And, in effect, mod natuialifts 
 conceive the root as theftomach of thepUnt, where the juices; 
 6f the earth are fubtilized, fo as to become able to rife through 
 the ftem to the extremity of the brandies. This difference of 
 juices fuppofes larger pores in the roots thin the ftalk, Sfa and 
 in a word, a different contexture ; which difference muft be 
 found even in the little invifible plant inctofed in the feed : in 
 this plantule, therefore, we may conceive a point of (eparation ; 
 fuch as that all on one iide, e. gr. the root, (hall be unfolded 
 by the groffer juices, and all on the other fide, by the more 
 fubtile juices- 
 
 Suppole, now, the plantule when its parts begin to unfold, to 
 be entirely inverted ; the root a-top, and the ftalk below : the 
 juices which enter the root will ftill becoarfeft, and when they 
 have opened and enlarged the pores, fo as to admit juices ot a 
 determinate weight, thofe juices ftill picffing the root more 
 and moie, will drive it downwards, and this the more, as the 
 root is more extended or enlarged : for the point of reparation 
 being conceived a:, the fixed point of a lever, they will act by 
 the longer arm. At the fame time the volatile juices having 
 penetrated the ftalk, will tend to give it a dir&ftion from below 
 upwards; and by teafon of the lever, will give it more and 
 moie every day. Thus is the little plant turned on its fixed 
 point of feparation, till it be perfectly erect. 
 The plant thus erected, the ftalk, we know, fhould continue 
 to rife perpendicularly, to give it the more firm biding, and en- 
 able it to withftand the eribit of wind and weather. 
 The manner wherein this is effeaed, M. Parent lays downthus ; 
 the nutritious juice being arrived at the extremity of a riling: 
 ftalk ; if it evapoi ate, the weight of the air which eucompaffes 
 it on all fides, will make it akend vertically ; and if it do not 
 evaporate, but congeal, and remain fixed to that extremity 
 whence it was ready to go off, the weight of the air will give 
 it the fame direction ; fo that the ftalk will have acquired a ve- 
 ry little new part, vertically laid over it : juft as in a candle 
 held any how obliquelyto the horizon, the flame ftill conti- 
 nues vertical, by the prefture of the atmofphere. The new 
 drops of juice that fucceed, will follow the fame direction ; and 
 as all together form the ftalk, that muft of courfe be vertical-, 
 unlefs fome particular circumftance intervene. 
 As to the branches, which are at firft fuppofed to proceed la- 
 terally out of the ftalk in the firft embryo of the plant ; though 
 they fhould even come outin a horizontal direction, yet, muft 
 they raife themfelves upwards by the conftant direction of the 
 nutritious juice ; which at firft fcarce meets any refinance in a 
 tender, nipple branch ; and even afterwards, though the branch 
 grow more firm, yet will it act with the more advantage I fince 
 the branch being become longer, furniihes it with a longer arm 
 or lever. The llcnder action of a little drop becomes very con- 
 fiderabte, by its continuity ; and by the afiiftancc of fuch fa- 
 vourable circumftances. Kence may be accounted for, that 
 regular fituation and direction of the branches, which all, and 
 always nearly, make the fame conftant angle of 4.5 0 with the 
 ftem and with one another. 
 
 M. Aftruc accounts for the PerpEndicularity of the ftems, arid 
 their redrefting themfelves, on thefe two principles. i° That 
 the nutritious'juicc arifes from the circumference of the plant, 
 and terminates in the pith. 2 0 That fluids contained in tubes 
 cither parallel or oblique to the horizon, gravitate on the low- 
 er part of the tubes, and not at all on the upper, 
 for hence it ealilyfollows,thatin aplant poiited either obliquely 
 or parallel to the horizon, the nutritious juice will act- more on 
 the lower part of the canals than the upper, and by this means, 
 infinuate more into the canals communicating therewith, and 
 be.collected morecopiouily therein; thus the parts on thelower 
 fide will receive more accretion, and be more nourifhed than 
 thofe on the upper ; the confequence whereof muft be, that 
 the extremity of the plant will be obliged to bend upwards. 
 The fame principle brings the feed into its due fituation at firft : 
 in a bean planted upiide down, the plume and radicle are eafily 
 perceived with the naked eye, to Ihoot, at firft, directly, for 
 about an inch; but thenceforth they begin to bend, the one 
 downward, and the other upward. The like is feen in a heap 
 of barley to be made into malt, or in a quantity of acorns laid 
 to fprout in a moift place, &c. each grain of barley in the tirft 
 cafe, and each acorn in the fecond, has a different fituation ; 
 and yet, all the fprouts tend directly upward, and the roots 
 downward, and the cui vity or bend they make is greater or lefs 
 as their fituation approaches moreor lefs to the directionwhere- 
 in no curvature at all would be neceffary- Now, two fuch 
 
 eppofite 
 
PER 
 
 PER 
 
 dppofite motions cannot arife without fuppofing fome confider- 
 able difference between the two parts : the only one we know 
 of, is, that the plume is fed by ajuice, imported to it by tubes 
 parallel to its fides, whereas the radicle imbibes its nou. uhmcnt 
 at all the pores in its furface. As oft, therefore, as the plume 
 is either parallel, or inclined to the horizon, the nutritious juice 
 feeding the lower parts more than the upper, will determine its 
 extremes to turn upward, for the reafons already aliigned. On 
 the contrary, when the radicle is in the like fixation, the nutri- 
 tious juice penetrating more copiously through the upper part 
 than the under, there will be a greater accretion of the former 
 than the latter ; and confequently the radicle will be bent 
 downwards. And this mutual curvity of the plume and radi- 
 cle muft continue, till fuch time as their fides are nourilhed 
 alike, which cannot be till they are perpendicular. Memoires 
 de I'Jcad. Royak des Same. an. 1708. 
 PERPETUAL, fomething that endures always, or that lafts 
 for ever. 
 
 Perpetual, is fometimes alfo ufed for a thing that lafts, or 
 holds during a peribn's life. 
 
 Thus offices, isY. held durante vita, are fometimes called per- 
 petual offices. — In this fenfe, M. Fontenelle is faid to be perpe- 
 tual fecretary of the royal academy of fciences. Hence the 
 French call him abiblutely, M. le Perpetuel. 
 
 Perpetual aclion. See the article Action. 
 
 Perpetual glands, in anatomy, are thole which are natural : 
 thus diftinguiihed from the adventitious ones. 
 
 Perpetual Lamp. See the article Lamp. 
 
 Perpetual motion/m mechanicks, is a motion which is fupplied 
 and renewed fiom itielf, without the intervention of any ex- 
 ternal caufe : or, it is an uninterrupted communication of 
 the fame degree of motion from one part of matter to 
 another, m a circle, (or other curve returning into itielf) fo 
 as the fame momentum ftill returns undiminished upon the 
 nrft mover. 
 
 To fmd a perpetual motion, or to conftruet an engine, tiff, 
 which (hall have fuch a motion, is a famous proplem that has 
 employed the mathematicians of two thousand years ; though 
 none perhaps have profecuted it with attention and carneftnefs 
 equal to thofe of the prefent age. 
 
 Infinite are the fchemes, defigns, plans, engines, wheels, EsV. to 
 which this longed for perpetual motion has given birth : itwere 
 as endlefs as impertinent to give a detail of them all. 
 Nor does any of them defer ve paiticular mention, fmce they 
 have all equally proved abortive. It would rather be of the 
 nature of an alii on t than a compliment,.to diftinguifh the pre- 
 tenders hereto ; when the very thing they arc commemorated 
 for, carries with it fo difagreeable an idea. 
 In effect, there feems but little in nature to countenance all 
 this affiduity and expectation : among all the laws of matter 
 and motion, we know of none yet, which feem to lay any 
 principle or foundation for fuch an effect. 
 Action and re-action are allowed to be ever equal ; and a body 
 which gives any quantity of motion to another, always lofes 
 jult fo much of its own : but under the prefent ftate of things, 
 theieliftance of the air, the friction of the parts of machines, 
 &c. do neceii'urily retard every motion. 
 
 To keep the motion on foot, therefore, either i** there muft 
 be a fupply from fome foreign caufe; which in ^perpetual mo- 
 tion is excluded. 
 
 Or, 2 d, y, all reliftance from the friction of the parts of matter 
 mult be removed ; which necelfarily implies a change in the 
 nature of things. 
 
 For, by the fecond law of nature, the changes made in the 
 motions of bodies, are always proportional to the impreffed 
 moving force, and are produced in the fame direction with 
 it ; no motion then, can be communicated to any engine, 
 gi eater than that of the firft force impreffed. 
 But, on our earth, all motion is performed in arefiftingfluid; 
 and muft therefore of necefliry be retarded ; confequently a 
 confiderable quantity of its motion will be fpent on the me- 
 dium. 
 
 Nor is there any engine or machine wherein all friction can 
 be avoided ; there being in nature no fuch thing as exact 
 fmoothnefs, or perfect congruity ; the manner of the cohe- 
 fion of the parts of bodies, the fmall proportion the folid mat- 
 ter bears to the vacuities between them, and the nature of 
 thofe conftituent particles not admitting it. 
 This friction, therefore, will alfo in timefenfibly diminifh the 
 imprefted, or communicated force ; fo that a perpetual motion 
 can never follow, unlcfs the communicated force be fo much 
 greater than the generating force, as to recompenfe the dimi- 
 nution made therein by all thefe caufes : bntnii dat quod non 
 babet % and the generating force cannot communicate a greater 
 degree of motion than it hath itfeif. 
 
 The whole bufinefs of finding a perpetual motion, therefore, 
 comes to this, ziz. to make a weight heavier than itfeif, or 
 an elaftic force greater than itfeif. 
 
 Or, 3% and laftly, there muft be fome method of training a 
 force equivalent to what is loft, by the artful dilpoimon and 
 combination of mechanic powers : to which laft point, then, 
 Vol. II. 
 
 all endeavours are to be directed : but how, or by what ihcafa4 
 fuch force Ihould be gained, is ftill a myftery ! 
 The multiplication of powers or forces, it is eertain, avails 
 nought; for what is gained in power is ftill loft in time, lb 
 that the quantity of motion ftill remains the fame. 
 All mechanicks cannot really make a little power equal, or 
 fuperioi to a larger ; and where-ever a lefs power is found in 
 equilibno with a larger, v. gr. twenty five pounds with a hun- 
 dred, it is a kind of deception of the fenfe: the equilibrium 
 is not ft.net ly between one hundred and twenty five; but be- 
 tween one hundred pounds, and twenty five moving, or dif- 
 pofed to move four times as fail as the one hundred. 
 To confider the weights one hundred and twenty five as fixed, 
 and immoveable ; the twenty five may feem, fome how, raifed 
 beyond themfelvcs ; which is one of the fham-miiacles of 
 mechanicks, that has deceived millions ; but which is eafily 
 diffipatcd by confideiing the four degiees of velocity, which" 
 are to be given to the twenty five pounds, and which re- 
 quire a force equal to the excels of one hundred above twen- 
 ty five pounds. 
 
 A power of ten pounds moved with ten times the velocity of 
 the one hundred pounds, would have equalled them in the like 
 manner ; and the fame may be faid of all the pofiible products 
 eciual to one hundred. But in fine, there muft ftill be one 
 hundred pounds of power on each fide, what way foever they 
 be taken ; whether in the matter, or in the velocity. 
 'I his is an inviolable law of nature ; by which nothing is left 
 to art, but the choice of the feveral combinations that may 
 produce the fame effect. 
 
 Perpetual ocniltation. Seethe article Occultation. 
 
 Perpetual pil!s y pillules Perpetuus, among phyficians, are 
 pills made of regulus of antimony ; which being fwal lowed 
 and voided fifty times, will purge every time, with tmdimi- 
 ihed force. 
 
 PERPETUAL, or endlefs fcrezu. See Screw. 
 
 Perpetual Virginity. See the article Virgin: 
 
 Circle c/'Perpetual apparition. Seethe article Circle. 
 
 PERPETUITY, Perpetuitas, in the canon law, the quality 
 of a benefice that is irrevocable, or whofe incumbent cannot 
 be deprived ; except in certain cafes determined by law. 
 It is aliened with ieafon,that the Perpetuity of benefices is cfta- 
 blifhed by the ancient canons, and that priefts are infepars- 
 bly attached to their churches, as by a fpirkual marriage. It 
 is true, by the corruption of the times, the fccular priefts being 
 fallen into great diforder, and even contempt, the bifhops an- 
 ciently called the religious to their affi (lance*, and committed to 
 them the cure of fouls, and the ad mini Oration of parifhes ; ftill 
 remanding them back again to their cloifters, when they thought 
 fit, and again revoking them adnutum. 
 
 But this vague and uncertain adminiftratioh only laftcd to the 
 Xll tb Century, when benefices returned to their effential 
 Perpetuity. 
 
 PER Qll/E fervitia, is a writ judicial, ifTuincr, cn the note of 
 a fine ; and lyes for the cognize of a manor, feignory, chief 
 rent, or other ferviccs, to compel the tenant of the land, at the 
 time of the fine levied, to attourn to him. 
 
 PERQUISITE, Perquisitum, any thing gotten by a man's 
 owninduftry, orpurchafed with his own money.-— In contra- 
 di function to that which defcends to him from his father, or 
 his anceftors. 
 
 Perquisites of courts, are thofe profits which arife to a lord of 
 a manor, by virtue of his court-baron ; over and above the 
 certain yearly profits of his lauds ; as fines of copy-holds, her- 
 riots, amerciaments, waifes, ftrays, csV. 
 
 Perriwig. See the article Perruke. 
 
 PERRON, in architecture, a ftair-cafe lying open, 6r without 
 fide the building : properly, the fteps before the front of the 
 building, which lead into the firft ftory when raifed a little above 
 the level of the ground. 
 
 Perrons are made of different forms and fizes, with regard to 
 the fpace and height they are to lead to. — Sometimes the fteps 
 are round, or oval ; more ufually they are fquare. 
 PERRUKE*, or Perriwig, was anciently ufed for a long 
 head of natural hair ; fuch particularly, as there was care ta- 
 ken in the adjufting and trimming of. 
 * Menage derives the word by a long detour, from the Latin p.'.'ut, 
 hair. The feveral flages of its paiTage, according to the crkic, 
 are film, pdus, pelutm, ptluticus, ptlut'ua, pontics, pctuca, pcr- 
 ruque. 
 
 The Latins called it coma ; whence part of gaul iook the deno- 
 mination of Gallia comata, from the long hair, which the na- 
 tives wore as a fign of freedom. An ancient author fays that 
 Abfolom's Ptrra/-? weighed two hundred ihckels. 
 Perruke, is now ufed for a fet of falfe or borrowed hair, curled, 
 buckled, and fewed together on a frame, or cawl ; anciently 
 called capillamenhtm-, or falfe Perruke. 
 
 It is doubted whether or no the ufe of Permits was known 
 among the ancients. It is true, they ufed falfe hair; Martial 
 and Juvenal make merry with the women of their time, for 
 making themfelves look young with their borrowed halt j with 
 the men who changed their colours according to the feafons ; 
 
 8 R and 
 
PER 
 
 2nd with the dotards, who hoped to deceive the deftinies by 
 their white hair. . 
 But thefe feem to have fcarce had any thing in common with 
 our Perrukes ; and were at beft only compofed of hair paint- 
 ed and glued together. Nothing can be more ridiculous than 
 the defcription Lampridius gives of the emperor Commodus's 
 Perru&e : it was powdered with fcrapings of gold, and oiled 
 (if we may ufe the exprefiion) with glutinous perfumes for the 
 powder to hang by. 
 
 In effefl, the ufe mPermkes, at lead on their prcfent footing,, 
 is not an hundred years old : the year 1629 is reckoned the 
 epocha of long Perruhs ; at which time they began to appear 
 in Paris ; whence they ipread by degrees throughout the reft 
 of Europe. 
 
 At firft it was reputed a fcandal for young people to wear them, 
 by realon the lofs of their hair at that age was attributed to a 
 dileafe, the very name whereof is a reproach : but at length the 
 mode prevailed over the fcrupte ; and now all ages and con- 
 ditions wear them ; foregoing, without any necefiity, the 
 conveniences of their natural hair. 
 
 It was fome time, though before ecclefiafticks came into the 
 fafhion : the fiift who affumcd the Perruke were fome of the 
 French clergy in the year 1660 ; nor is the practice yet well 
 authorized."'The cardinal Grimaldi in 16S4, and the bifhopof 
 Lavaur in 168S, prohibited the ufe of the Ptrruke to all priefts 
 without a dilpenfation and neceffity. M. Thiers has atreatifc 
 exprefs, to prove the Perrufo indecent in an ccclefiaftic, and 
 direflly contrary to the decrees and canons of councils. A 
 pricft'shead embellifhed with an artificial hair curioufly ad- 
 jufred, he efteems a monfter in the church ; nor can he con- 
 ceive any thing lb fcandalous as an abbot with a florid coun- 
 tenance, heightened with a well curl'd Pcrruhe. 
 PERRY, a drink made of pears, alter the like manner as cyder 
 is made from apples. 
 
 The beft fruit for this ufe, are fuch as are lean: fit for eating ; 
 e. gr. the borbery-pear, horfe-pcar, boreland pear, and choak- 
 ,pear : and always the redder they are the better. 
 The method of preparing Perry, is perfectly the fame with 
 that of cyder. — Only note, that the fruit muft be perfectly 
 ripe. Some mix crabs with them to mend the liquor. 
 
 PER SE, in the fchools, is fometimes oppofed to per accidem, — 
 in which lenfe a thing is faid to agree with another per fe, 
 when the agreement is not owing to any accidental event, but 
 is found in the intrinsic principles of things themfelves. 
 
 Per s-e is fometimes alio oppofed to per aUud — In which fenfe 
 God alone is faid to have a being per fe, as not deriving it 
 from any other, but having it necciYarily and of himielf. 
 
 Per se, again, fometimes fignifi.es as much as, of its own nature, 
 or in vii cue of its own entity. — Thus the fun is laid to give 
 light per fe ;and thus quantity is extended per fe. 
 
 Perse, among logicians — A thing is laid to be known per fe, 
 per fe notum, when we immediately perceive it upon the 
 lii ft propcling of the terms. -^-As, that the whole is greater 
 than its parts. 
 
 Philoibphers go fo far as to confider the mode of a thing exift- 
 
 \x\%per fe, or that which conftitutes its exiflence fuchj which 
 
 they call ferfeity, perfeiuu. 
 Object Per se. See the article Object. 
 Per se, in chymiftry. When a body is diftiilcd fingly, and 
 
 without the ufual addition of any other matter to raife it ; it is 
 
 faid to bediftilled per fe. 
 
 The genuine fpirits ot harts-horn, are thofe raifed^r/r, in op- 
 
 politicn to thofe diftiilcd with the addition of lime. 
 PERSECUTION, Persecutio, literally imports any pain. 
 
 affliction, or inconvenience, which a perfon defigncdly inflicts 
 
 on another. 
 
 Persecution, as a term, is reftrained to the futferings of chri 
 ftians, in behalf of their religion ; particularly to thofe of the 
 primitive chriftians, under the heathen emperors Nero, De- 
 cius, Dioclefian, &c. 
 
 We ufually reckon ten of thefe perfections; Nero fet on 
 foot thetirft. 
 
 La£tanrius has wrote the hiftory of the deaths of Perfecutors. 
 though fome queftion whether that work be really his or not; 
 but bilhop Burnet, who has turned it into Englilh, makes no 
 great doubt of it. 
 
 FERSEVERANCE, in theology, a chrirtian virtue, where- 
 by we are enabled to perlift in the way of falvation to 
 the end. The final Perfeverante of the faints is an article 
 much controverted between the Arminians and Calvinifts : 
 the latter of whom maintain it impollible for grace to 
 be loft ■, and Therefore make Perfeverance to the end, 
 neccilary confequence thereof : which the former deny ; 
 tftccming the moft confirmed believers never to be out of 
 a poflibility of falling. 
 
 PERSEUS, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the northern he- 
 miiphcrc ; whole ftars, in Ptolemy's catalogue are twenty 
 nine j in Tycho'sas many; and in the Britannic catalogue 
 lixty fovea, the longitudes, latitudes, magnitudes, ^V. where- 
 of are as follows ; 
 
 PER 
 
 Longit. 
 
 Nanus and fitattim cf the Jltin. &! 
 In Andromeda's foot, according td s 8 08 36 
 
 Ptolemy and Tycho ; according to 
 Bayer in Perfeus. 
 In the middle of the fword 
 5 
 
 South in the hilt of the fword againft 
 North- (thehand 
 10 
 
 Small one under the hand 
 
 North of the informes before Medu- 
 In the preced. moulder (fa's head 
 
 In the upper arm dufa's head 
 
 South of the informes before Me- 
 Preced. of inform, under Mcdufa's 
 In Perfeus's head (head 
 
 Subfecr. and lefs. before 
 
 Preced. in Medufa's head 
 Laft of inform, und. Medufa's head 
 In the hinder thoulder 
 
 In the upper part of the arm 
 South, in Medufa's head 
 In the middle of the back, Algol 
 Bright one in Medufa's head 
 In the lower part of the arm 
 3° 
 
 That under Algol. 
 
 Medufa's 
 (head 
 
 Againftthe preced. and fouth fide 
 35 
 
 A lucid one againft the hind part 
 
 Preced. the lucida of the hind, part 
 
 Middle of three in the fide 
 
 4° (hip 
 Another following thefe againft the n 
 Over the heel of the inner foot 8 
 In the lower thigh 
 In the heel of the fouth. foot 
 In the heel of the fame foot 
 
 10 18 13 
 
 14 19 
 
 11 52 02 
 
 12 09 56 
 
 15 39 io 
 19 02 06 
 
 '5 45 3 s 
 
 19 56 48 
 
 20 12 34 
 
 *9 44 42 
 20 39 23 
 
 22 47 39 
 
 16 32 13 
 20 19 25 
 
 18 25 56 
 
 24 23 
 
 17 29 
 16 36 35 
 
 23 35 3 C 
 
 18 08 09 
 16 51 09 
 
 19 34 3 6 
 18 13 28 
 
 25 42 10 
 
 27 10 38 
 
 20 34 30 
 
 24 49 20 
 
 21 50 42 
 
 23 21 12 
 
 22 01 
 
 26 52 43 
 
 24 38 48 
 
 26 54 54 
 
 23 07 54 
 
 27 46 04 
 
 28 35 2 S 
 28 17 42 
 
 28 03 15 
 
 29 26 13 
 
 Latitude 
 North. 
 
 35 23 45 
 
 3 6 49 '3 
 4° 13 15 
 
 36 18 37 
 
 34 26 01 
 
 38 57 37 
 41 13 >5 
 
 35 09 28 
 
 4° 43 2° 
 41 03 20 
 
 . 57 4i 
 
 39 28 49 
 
 37 06 23 
 
 3 13 10 
 31 36 07 
 
 6 57 26 
 
 37 26 5° 
 20 55 32 
 17 46 05 
 34 20 1 2 
 
 20 44 42 
 
 4 24 47 
 
 21 42 15 
 17 24 46 
 34 30 °5 
 
 37 27 42 
 33 
 
 30 38 35 
 3 47 
 26 04 21 
 
 20 55 56 
 30 42 10 
 24 49 51 
 30 33 42 
 23 58 05 
 
 30 05 20 
 9 30 00 
 28 00 24 
 
 26 03 51 
 
 27 56 05 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 6 7 
 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 
 5 6 
 
 45 
 
 In the upper thigh 
 In extrem. of fouth. 
 In fouth. knee 
 In fouth. leg. 
 
 foot 
 
 50 
 
 0 29 07 
 
 26 48 20 
 
 29 30 l6 
 
 20 49 II 
 
 28 O5 52 
 
 2 54 03 
 
 3 4& 5 C 
 28 47 44 
 
 1 21 25 
 o 39 15 
 
 Preced. againfl north. knc« 
 Pi eced, in the upper leg 
 
 Subfeq. in upper leg 
 
 . 55 
 
 Inform, over north, knee 
 That following fouth. knee 
 That following north, knee 
 South, of thofe contiguous thereto 
 North 60 
 
 In the calf of the upper leg 
 
 6 
 7 
 7 
 6 
 
 + 
 
 6 
 4 
 4 
 
 6 5 
 
 5 6 
 4 
 6 
 
 5 & 
 4 
 * 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 ■ S 
 
 6 7 
 6 
 o 
 
 5 & 
 
 5 26 
 
 5 10 541 
 
 2 56 50 
 
 3 03 45 
 
 6 28 58 
 
 7 54 41 
 
 4 49 3° 
 7 3° 02 
 7 37 09 
 7 59 23 
 
 '7 
 
 51 10 
 
 37 
 
 37 19 
 55 46 
 
 27 15 21 
 
 13 53 28 
 22 07 03 
 12 08 36 
 12 40 25 
 
 26 20 30 
 29 33 04 
 
 11 17 54 
 
 '9 °4 53 
 
 14 54 06 
 
 28 51 00 
 26 12 08 
 16 26 27 
 16 44 25 
 26 40 09 
 
 31 27 20 
 
 " 53 20 
 28 24 56 
 28 08 30 
 * 58 11 
 
 24 35 00 
 
 12 51 48 
 12 17 47 
 12 07 44 
 20 49 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 4 
 6 
 
 7 
 5 
 3 
 3 
 S 
 
 4 S 
 
 6 
 
 & 7 
 5 
 
 6 
 S 
 S 
 6 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 6 S 
 7 
 7 
 6 
 
 In the heel of the upper foot 
 °5 
 
 In the lole of the fame foot g l6 20 lg j8 
 
 n 10 48 29 20 52 59 
 PERSIAN, or the Persian tongue, one of the living oriental 
 languages ; fpoke in the empire of Perfia. 
 The Per/an has two particularities not found in any of the 
 other eaftem tongues,theonethatithasan auxiliaryverb,anfwer- 
 : ng to th: verb i>i" of the Greeks ; the other, that it has no Ao- 
 
 riftus 
 
PER 
 
 riftus. — Both thefe it borrowed from the Macedonians, after 
 , the conqueft of Alexander. 
 
 Persian Wheel} in agriculture, is a machine for railing a quan- 
 tity of water fufficient to overflow lands bordering on the 
 banks of rivers, Isfc. where the ftream is too low to do it 
 alone. See Wheel. 
 
 Persian or Persic, in architecture, a name common to all 
 ftatues of men, ferving inftead of columns, to fupport entabla- 
 tures. — See Tab. Architecl. fig. 37. 
 
 They only differ from caryatides, in that thofe reprefent frames 
 of women. 
 
 The Perfian is a kind of order of columns, nrft pra&ifed 
 among the Athenians, on occafion of a vicioiy their general 
 Paufanias obtained over the Perfians. As a trophy of this vic- 
 tory, the figures of men drefied in the Perfian mode, with 
 their hands bound before them, and other characters of fla- 
 very, were charged with the weight of doric entablatures; and 
 made to do the office of doric columns. See Tab. Architecl. 
 fig- 37- 
 
 Perfian columns, M. le Clerc oblerves, are not always made 
 with the marks bf flavery ; but arc frequently ufed as fymbols 
 of virtues, vices, of joy, fliength, and valour, EsY. as when 
 made in the figures of Hercules to rcpi efent ftrength, and of 
 Mars, Mercury, Fauns, Satyres, £sY. or other occafions. 
 
 Persian /Era, and Year. See Epocha and Year. 
 
 Persian Bibles v r Bible. 
 
 Persian Coins L See the articles ) Coins. 
 
 Persian Money j £ Money. 
 
 PERSON, Persona, an individual fubftance, of a rational or 
 intelligent nature. 
 
 The father and fon are reputed, in law, as the fame Per/on ; 
 an embaffador reprefents the per/on of his prince. 
 In theology, the godhead is divided into three Perfians ; but 
 here the word Per/on carries a peculiar idea, very 7 different 
 from that attached to it every where elfe ; being only ufed for 
 want of another term more pertinent and expreflive. 
 The word Per/on, perfona, is faid to be borrowed a perfonando, 
 from perfonating, or counterfeiting, and is fuppofed to have 
 firft fignified a mask : by reafon, lays Boethius, in larva con- 
 cavafonm volvatur ; and hence the actors who appeared malked 
 on the ftage, were fometimes called larvati, and fometimes 
 perfionati. 
 
 The fame author adds, that as the feveral adlors reprefented 
 each their fingle individual perfon, w'z. Oedipus,or Chremes, or 
 Hecuba, or Medea ; for this reafon, other people, who were 
 alfo diftinguifhed by fomething in their form, character, &c. 
 whereby they might be known, came alfo to be called by the 
 Latins pcrfiones, and by the Greeks 
 
 Again, as thefe adors rarely reprefented any but great and il- 
 luftrious characters ; the word came at length to import the 
 mind, as being a thing of the greateft regard and dignity 
 among human matters. — And thus men, angels, and even 
 God himfelf were called Perfons. 
 
 Things merely corporeal, as a ftone, a plant, or a horfe, were 
 called by them hypoftajes, or fuppofita; but never Perfons. 
 Hence alfo the learned imagine, the fame name Pa-fin came 
 to be ufed to frgnify fome dignity, whereby a Perfon is di- 
 Itinguilhcd from another ; as a father, husband, jud»e maei- 
 ftrate, (Sc. 
 
 In which fenfe we are to iinderftand that of Cicero : Gefar 
 never fpealcs of Pompey, but in terms of honour and refbed ; 
 but he does many hard and injurious things againft his 
 
 Perfon. 
 
 This for the name Pa-fin.— As for the thing, we have already 
 defined Per/an, an individual fubftance of a reafonable nature ; 
 which is the fame as Boethius's definition. 
 Now a thing may be individual two ways ; i. Logically, as it 
 cannot be predicated of any other ; as Cicero, Plato, (Se- 
 ll. Phyfrcally, in which fenfe a drop of water feparated from 
 the ocean, may be called an individual. Pirfin is an indivi- 
 dual nature in each of thefe fenfes : Logically, fays Boethius, 
 fince Pafin is not fpoke of univerfals, but only of fingulars 
 and individuals ; we do not fay the Pafin of an animal or a 
 man, but of Cicero and Plato ; and phyfrcally, fince Socrates's 
 hand or foot are never confidered as Perfons. 
 This lair kind of individual is denominated two ways ; po- 
 iitively, as when the Pa/on is faid to be the whole principle 
 of acting ; for, whatever thing adion is attributed to, that do 
 the philofophers call a Pafin ; and negatively, as when we 
 fay, with the Thomifts, (Sc. that a Perfin conlifts in this, that 
 it docs not exift in another as a more perfed beine 
 
 c i ,1, 1. r n ■ r r f 
 
 Thus, a man, though confiding of two very different things, 
 dy and fpirit, is not two Perfons ; fince neither part 
 
 viz. bod 
 
 alone is a whole principle of adion ; but one Pafin, fince'the 
 manner of his confiding of body and fpirit, is fuch as conffi. 
 tutes one whole principal of adion ; nor does he exift ir 
 any other as a more perfect being, as, e gr. Socrates's foot 
 does in Socrates, or a drop of water in the ocean. 
 So Uinrt, though confining of two different natures, u 
 the divine and human, is not two Perfons, but one divine ft 
 
 PER 
 
 far, the human nature, in him, not being a whole principle of" 
 action, but exiftmg j n the other more perfed one. By the 
 union of the divine and human nature, one individual, or 
 whole IS conflicted; that is, one principal of ading: for 
 h Jri <" " Sh T an ^ do «<''™docs' his divinity joined 
 herewith: lo that there is but one Pirfin in Chnft. ai d one 
 operation, which is called Tbeandrit ' 
 F S V™™*, is a term applied to verbs and pronouns, 
 which bang conjugated, are applicable to three different }cr- 
 
 ™ b , ufed , !n fcft Perfin ; thou Ikek defigns 
 plural numbef ' ^ ^ * ird : and thus in < he 
 PerfiZ' pr ° n0Uns of *• fi 4> fe cond, and third 
 
 Verbs agree with their nouns in tenfe, number and Per- 
 
 Jon. 
 
 Person, Persona, in dramatic poetry, the name, and part of 
 an actor; or of him prefented by the comedian. 
 At the head of dramatic pieces come the dramatis pafinz, 
 fh a ' ld chara ' acrs tllat ** to a PP CM on the 
 
 1 he ancient tragedy was only a Ample chorus : Thefpis was 
 irV- ' vvho mtrodu ced a to relieve the choms; and 
 /tlchilus added a fecond. Sec Tragedy. 
 h Bo ' lu oblerves, that in the epic and dramatic poem, th- 
 lameft-,y OT muft reign throughout, i.e. mud fuftain the chief 
 part through the whole pic;e, and the charadeis of all the 
 other Pa-fins mud be fubordinate to him. 
 
 #P* «««<>«* "" trdmkrS; (Sc. See the article Quod. 
 
 o^m^S"' 1 ' inlw ' See Parson. 
 
 1 ERSONABLE, Personaeilis, ,n law, implies the being 
 able to hold, or maintain a plea in court. 
 1'hat is, as the civilians would exprefs it, habere perfonam flandi 
 in judicio. ; - ■ fc. ■ r J J 
 
 Thus they fay, the defendant was judged perfonablc to main- 
 tain this adion : old Nat. Brev. 142. 
 
 I he tenant pleaded that the demandant was an alien, born hi 
 Portugal without the ligeance of the king ; and judgment was 
 alked, whether he (hould be anfwered ? the plaintiff laid he 
 was vtaia pafinablc hy parliament, Kitch. fol. I24 . 
 Personable is alfo ufed to fignify a capacity to take any thino- 
 granted or given. ' " 
 
 PERSONAL, fomething that concerns or is reflrnined to the 
 
 pirfin. 
 
 In difputes among the learned, there is ever fomething pa- 
 final intermixed ; in ethickS it is a maxim that all faults are 
 pafinal, 1. r. they do not pais to our defcendants. 
 Personal Aaiom in law, is that levied direflly, and folely 
 againft the perfon, in opposition to a real or mixed aftiou. 
 oce AcTroN. 
 
 Personal Goods, or Eftote, is that confiding of money, move- 
 ables, tS c. which every perfon has in his own difpofal.— In op- 
 pofition to lands and tenements, which arc called real elate. 
 See Estate. 
 
 I heft is defined a felonious taking away another man's-move- 
 
 able, or perfinal goods. 
 Personal Tythcs, are tythes paid of fuch profits as come by the 
 
 labour and mduftry of a man's perfon : as, by buying and 
 
 lelling, gams of merchandize, handicraft (Sc 
 Personal Chattels 
 Personal Covenant 
 Personal Dijlrefs 
 Personal Hi/lory 
 Personal Patronage 
 Personal Privilege 
 Personal Service 
 
 Pronoun Personal, or Verb Personal, in grammar, a verb' 
 or pronoun, conjugated in all the three perfons.' . 
 They are thus called, in oppofition to impafinais. which have 
 only the third perfon. 
 
 PERSONALITY, Personalitas, in the fchools, the quality 
 of a perfin ; or that which conditutes an individual in the qua- 
 lity ot pafin. 1 
 The philofophers being ufed to confider matter, and form in 
 every other thing, do the fame in pirfin.— The matter of per- 
 (0.1, according to them, is a Angular fubftance, endued with 
 realon. lor fubftance may, at the pleafure of God, either be, 
 or not be a perfon ; inafmuch as the human nature in Chriftis 
 not a perfon. The form of perfon which they call fubfiftency, 
 Juppofitahty, and pcrfinality, is that by which the forefaid fub- 
 flance becomes individual. 
 
 The fchoot divines are divided about what it Is that diftin- 
 guifties the feveral Pcrfinalities in the trinity : fome will have 
 it to be only the different relations: othcis, as Floraventius 
 contend for fome incommunicable fubftance : S. Bona^ 
 venture, and S. Thomas, take it to be different origins 
 that diftinguiih the Pa-finalities ; which opinion is the rnoft 
 followed. 
 
 PtR, 
 
 See the articles 
 
 ^Chattels. 
 
 Covenant. 
 ^Distress. 
 ^History. 
 jPatronage. 
 
 Privilege. 
 
 Service. 
 
PER 
 
 PER 
 
 Personality, or Person alty, in law.— An aflion is pud 
 to be in Perfmality* when it is brought agamft the right 
 perfon. ( V . ^'l, ■*] r 
 
 PERSONATI, among botnnifts, denote fuch flowers as expreis 
 the gaping mouths of certain living creatures. 
 
 PERSONIFYING, or Personalizing, the feining a pet/en ; 
 or attributing a perfon to an inanimate being; or giving it the 
 figure, fentiments, and language of a perfon. 
 The poecs have perjonified all the paffions ; and even made di- 
 vinities of them, which were worihipped by the heathens ; 
 as the goddeis perfuafion, the god fleep, the furies, envy, and 
 difeord, and fame, fortune, viitory, &c. 
 Perfonifying is effential to poetry, efpecially to the epopceia 
 
 PERSPECTIVE, the art of delineating vifible objeas on 
 plain furface, fuch as they appear at a given diftance or 
 height, upon a traniparent plane, placed perpendicular to 
 the horizon, between the eye and the object. This we par- 
 ticularly call 
 
 Linear Perspective, as regarding the pofition, magnitude, form, 
 crc. of the feveral lines, or contours of objeas, and exprefling 
 their diminution *. 
 * This is a bianch of mathematicks : fome make it a member of 
 opticks ; others a rivulet therefrom : its operations are all geo- 
 metrical. 
 
 Aerial Perspective, is that which regards the colour, luftre, 
 ftrength, boldnefs, £s7. of diftant objeas, confidered as feen 
 through a column of air, and expreffes the diminutions 
 thereof f. 
 
 •f- This is a part of painting, and confnls wholly in the conduft of 
 the colours, their different tcints, or degrees, force, weaknefs, 
 
 A third kind of Perfpeclive is called 
 
 Specular Perspective, which reprefents the objeas in conical, 
 fpherical, or other mirrors, ereft and clear, whereas on other 
 planes they appear confuted and irregular. See Mirrour. 
 But to return to the doctrine of 
 
 Linear Perspective : Suppolc a glafs-plane H I (Tab. Pcrfpecl. 
 fig- i.J railed perpendicular no an horizontal plane: and the 
 fpeaator S, directing his eye O, to the triangle ABC: if now 
 we conceive the rays A O, OB, O C, cjfe. in their paflage 
 through the plane, to leave their traces or veftigia, in a, b, c, 
 tiff, on the plane ; there will appear the triangle a b c ; which, 
 as it ftrikes the eye by the fame rays a O, b O, fO, by which 
 the fpecies of the triangle A B C is carried to the fame ; it will 
 exhibit the true appeaiance of the triangle ABC, though the 
 objed mould be removed ; the fame diftance and height of 
 the eye being preferred. 
 
 The bufinefs of Perfpedtive then, is to fhew by what certain 
 rules the points a, b, c, may be found geometrically : and 
 hence alfo, we have a mechanical method of delineating any 
 objea very accurately. 
 
 Perfpef-iive is either employed in reprefenting the Iconographies. 
 and ground-plots of objects, as projected on perfpeclive 
 planes. 
 
 Or in Sinographies, and reprefentations of the bodies them- 
 felves. 
 
 The general laws of each are fubjoined ; in order to which 
 it is neceffary to premife the following lemma's. 
 i. That the appearance of a right line is ever a right line ; 
 whence, the two extremes being given, the whole line is 
 given. 2. That if a line ¥G(fig. 12.) be perpendicular to 
 any right line N I drawn on a plane, it will be perpendicular 
 toeveiy other right line through the fame point G drawn on 
 the fame plane. 3. That the height of the point appearing 
 on the plane, is to the height of the eye, as the diftance of 
 the objective point from the plane, to the aggregate of that 
 diftance, and the diftance of the eye. 
 
 Laws of the projection of plane figures, or Ichnographic Per- 
 spective, are as follows. 
 
 To exhibit the Perspective appearance, h, of an objective point, H, 
 (fig, 2. J From the given point draw HI perpendicular to the 
 fundamental line D E. From the fundamental line D E cut 
 off I K =1 H : through the point of fight F draw a horizon- 
 tal line F P ; and make F P equal to the diftance of the eye 
 S L : laftly, from the point I to the point of fight F, draw 
 F I ; and from K to the point of diftance P, the line P K. 
 The interfeaion h is the appearance of the objeaive point. 
 Hence, 1. Since the appearance of the extreme points of a 
 right line being given, the appearance of the whole lme is 
 given ; the ichnographic projection of any rectilinear figure may 
 be had by this method. And, 2. Since any number of points 
 of a cuive line may by this means be projected on the per 
 fpetlive plane ; the projeaion of curve lines may like wife be 
 effeded after the fame manner. And, 3. Therefore, this 
 method will futike for mixtilinear figures ; and is confe- 
 quently univerfal. There are indeed other methods delivered 
 by other authors, but this is the moft ufual. — To conceive 
 its force and effect, it will be proper to illuftrate it with fome 
 examples. 
 
 . To find the Perspective appearance of a triangle, ABC, (fig. % 
 n. 2.J whofe bafe A B is parallel to the fundamental line D E. 
 
 To the fundamental line D E draw a parallel at an interval 
 equal to the altitude of the eye. Affume a fundamental point 
 V, oppofiteto this either direflly or obliquely, as the cafe re- 
 quires. Transfer the diftance of the eye from V to K. From 
 the feveral angles of the triangles A CB, let fall perpendicu- 
 lars, A i, C 2, B 3 : fet oft" thefe perpendiculars upon the fun- 
 damental line D E oppofite to the point of diftance K. From 
 1, 2, 3, draw right lines to the fundamental or principal point 
 
 V 1, V 2, V 3. From the points A, B and C of the funda- 
 mental line D E draw other right lines A K, B K, C K, to the 
 point of diftance K. 
 
 Since a, b and c are the appearances of the points A, B and C ; 
 the right lines c a, ab and b c, being drawn, a c b will be the 
 appearance of the triangle A C B. 
 
 After the fame manner is a triangle projeaed on a plane, where 
 the vertex C is oppofed to the eye : all here required, is, that 
 its fituation on the geometrical plane be changed, and the 
 vertex C be turned towards the fundamental line D E. 
 To exhibit the Perspective appearance of a fquare ABDC (fig. 4.) 
 feen obliquely, and Saving one of its fides AB in the fundamental line. 
 The fquare being viewed obliquely affume the principal point 
 
 V in the horizontal line HR, in fuch manner as that a per- 
 pendicular to the fundamental line may fall without the fide 
 of the fquare A B, at Ieaft, may not billect it ; and make V K 
 the diftance of the eye. Transfer the perpendiculars A C and 
 BD to the fundamental line DE; and draw the right lines 
 KB, KD, as alfo A V, V C. Then will A and B be their own 
 appearances; and c and ^the appearances of the pointsC andD. 
 Confcqucntly A c d B is the appearance of the fquare ABDC. 
 If the fquare ACBD fhould be at a diftance^from the funda- 
 mental line D E ; which yet rarely happens in praftice, the 
 diftances of the angles A and B muft likewife be transferred 
 to the fundamental line : as is evident from the proceeding 
 problem. And fince, even the oblique view is not very com- 
 mon ; in what follows, we (nail always (uppofe the figure to 
 be pofited direaiy oppofite to the eye; unlets, where the con- 
 trary is exprefly mentioned. 
 
 To exhibit the appearance of a fquare ABCD (fig. 5.) whofe diago- 
 nal A C (V perpendicular to the fundamental line. Continue the 
 (ides DC and CB till they meet the fundamental line in 1 
 and 2. From the principal point V fet off the diftance of the 
 eye to K and L. From K to A and 1 draw right lines K A and 
 K 1 ; and fiom L to A and 2, the right lines LA, L2. The 
 interfeaions of thefe lines will exhibit the appearance of the 
 fquare ABCD viewed argle-wife. 
 To exhibit the appearance of a jquare ABCD (fig. 6. ) wherein 
 another, IMGH is inferibed; the fide of the greater, A B, 
 being in the fundamental line ; and the diagonal of the lefs, 
 perpendicular to the fundamental. From the principal point 
 V, fet off, each way, on the horizontal line H R, the dif- 
 tances V L and V K ; draw V A and V B ; and K A and L B ; 
 then will A c^B be the appearance of the fquare A CDB. 
 Produce the fide of the inferibed fquare I H, till it meet the 
 fundamental line in 1 ; and draw the right lines K 1, and KM ; 
 then will i hg M be the reprefentation of the inferibed fquare 
 I H G M. Hence is eafily conceived the projeaion of any 
 figures inferibed in others. 
 To exhibit the Perspective of a pavement, confifling of fquare 
 fanes, viewed direclly. Divide the lide A B (fig. 7.) transferred 
 to the fundamental line D E into as many equal parts as there 
 are fquare ftones in one low. From the feveral points of di- 
 vifion, draw right lines to the principal point V ; and from A 
 to the point of diftance K, draw a right iine A K ; and from B 
 to the other point of diftance L, draw another L B. Through 
 the points of the interfeaions of the correfponding lines draw 
 right lines on each fide, to be produced to the right lines A V, 
 and B V. Then will A fg B be the appearance of the pave- 
 ment AF GB. 
 
 To exhibit //^Perspective of a Circle. — If the circle be fmall, 
 circumfcribe a fquare about it. Draw diagonals and diameters 
 b a and d e (fig. 8.) intcrfcaing each other at right angles ; and 
 draw the right lines fg and b c parallel to the diameter d e 
 through b and f\ as alfo through c and g draw right lines 
 meeting the fundamental line D E in the points 3 and 4. To 
 the principal point V draw right lines V 1, V 3, V 4, V 2 ; and 
 to the points of diftance L and K, draw the right lines L 2 and 
 K 1. Laftly connea the points of interfeaion, a, b, d,J\ h, 
 g, e, c, with arches a b,b d, d f, &c. Thus will a b dfh g 
 e c a, be the appearance of the circle. 
 
 If the circle be large, on the middle of the fundamental A B 
 (fig. g.) defcribe a femi-circle ; and from the feveral points of 
 the periphery, C, F, G, H, I, &c. to the fundamental line, let 
 fall perpendiculars C 1, F 2, G 3, H 4, I 5, bV. From the 
 points A, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, csV. draw right lines to the prin- 
 cipal point V, as alfo a right line from B to the point of" di- 
 ftance L ; and another from A to the point of diftance K. 
 Through the common interfeaions draw right lines as in the 
 preceding problem ; thus fhall we have the points c,f, g, />, r, 
 which are the reprefentations of thefe A, C, F, G, H, I, and thefe 
 being conneaed as before, give the projeaion of the circle. 
 Hence appears not only how any curvilinear figure may be pro- 
 jected 
 
PER 
 
 PER 
 
 je&ed on a plane ; but alfo how any pavement, confiding of 
 any kind of ftones, may be delineated in Perfpeclive. 
 Hence alio appears what ufc the fquare is of in Pafpetlive, 
 for even in the fecond cafe we ufe a fquare divided into cer- 
 tain areola:, and circumfcribed about the circle ; though it be 
 not delineated on the geometrical plane in the diagram. 
 To exhibit the Perspective of a regular Pentagon, having a broad 
 limb, terminated by lines parallel thereto.— i ° From the ieveral 
 angles of the exterior pentagon A, B, C, D, E, (Jig. 10.) to the 
 fundamental line T S, let fall perpendiculars A o, B i, C 2, 
 D 3, E 4 ; which, as in the former, transfer to the fundamen- 
 tal line. Connect the points i, 2, 3, 4, to the principal point V ; 
 and the points 1, 2, 3, 4, to the point of diftance K. Thus will 
 the common intellect ions rcprelent the appearance of the ex- 
 terior pentagon. 2. If now, from the inner angles GHLI, the 
 perpendiculars G o> H 5, K 6,17 , L 8, be in the like manner 
 let fall ; and the reft be done as m the former ; we fliall have 
 the reprefentation of the inner pentagon. The pentagon AB C 
 D E, therefore, with its limb, is reprcfented in Perfpetlive. 
 This problem is added for the fake of an inftance of the pro- 
 jection of a figure that has a broad limb, or edge. 
 It mult be here obferved, that if the magnitudes of the feveral 
 parts of an object, be given in numbcis, together with the 
 height and diftance of the eye ; its figure is to be firft con- 
 ducted by a geometrical fcale ; and the fundamental point, 
 with the point of diftance, to be determined by the fame. 
 Nor is it always necefVary, that the object be delineated under 
 the fundamental line : in the projection of fquares and pave- 
 ments it is belt let alone. But where it is necellary, and fpace 
 is wanting, draw it a-part ; find the divifions in it, and transfer 
 them to the fundamental line in the plane. 
 Threads being hung in the principal point, and the point of 
 diftance, and thence ftretched to the points of die divifions of 
 the fundamental line ;» the common inteifection of the threads 
 will give the projection of the feveral points without confu- 
 fion ; a thing much to be feared from the multiplicity of lines 
 to be drawn. 
 
 Stenographic Perspective ; or the projeflkn of bodies on a plvte. — 
 On a given pointy C. (fig. r, n. 2.) to raife a perfpective altitude 
 anjwerable to the given objective altitude PQ; On the funda- 
 mental line, raife a perpendicular P Q, equal to the given ob- 
 jective altitude. From P and Qjto any point, as T, draw right 
 lines P T, and Q_T. From the given point C draw a line C K 
 parallel to the fundamental line D E ; and meeting the right 
 line QT, in K. In K, erect a perpendicular to K C, viz. 
 I K ; this I K is the fcenographic altitude required. 
 
 To exhibit the Perspective of a f olid.— Find the projection of 
 its bafe in the ichnographic/V/^iw : and in the feveral points 
 thereof erect the perspective altitude : Thus will the fcenogra- 
 phy of the folid be finilhcd, except for what relates to the 
 lhadow j which muft be fuperadded from the laws of (hadows, 
 delivered under the article Shadow. — For an example, 
 
 To exhibit the feemgraphic Perspective of a cube, viewed angle- 
 wife. — Since the bafe of a cube viewed angle-wife, and (land- 
 ing on a geometrical plane is a fquare viewed angle-wife ; draw 
 a fquare on the per/peclive plane, after the manner laid down 
 above: raife the tide of thefqwareHI (fig. a. ft. 2.) perpendi- 
 cularly in lbme point of the fundamental line DE; and to any 
 point V, of the horizontal line H R, draw right lines V I and 
 VH. From the angles d, b, and c\ draw e 1, d 2, parallel to 
 the fundamental line D E. From the points 1 and 2 raife L 1 
 and M 2 perpendicular to the fame. Laftly, fince H I is the 
 altitude to be railed in a, L 1 in t, and b and M 2 in d ; in a 
 raife fa perpendicular to i%\ and in b and e, raife bg and t e 
 perpendicular to b c 1 ; and laftly raife d h perpendicular to d 2 ; 
 and let (7/ be equal to H I, b gz=.e c=.h 1, and /; d to M 2; 
 if then the points g, h,e?f\ be connected by right lines, the 
 fcenography will be finiibed. 
 
 This method is general ; but its application is not equally ob- 
 vious in every cafe ; fee it further illuftrated under the article 
 
 SCENOGRAPH Y. 
 
 Perspectives/" building, &c. — In the practice hereof, great 
 regard is had to the height of the horizontal line ; all above the 
 horizontal being feen in the upper part, and all below it in the 
 under part: whence Perfpetlive becomes divided into the high, 
 and low fight ; both which may be illuftrated by what follows. 
 
 To reprefent a building (v. gr. palace, college, &c.) in Perfpective. 
 
 1, Take the ichnography, or ground-plat of the building ; its 
 lengths, breadths, and depths, by actual meafuring, and take 
 its altitude with a quadrant. 
 
 2. Make a fcale divided into two or three hundred equal parts, 
 either actually, or fo as that each divilion fignify ten parts : by 
 this fcale lay down the ground plat : as in figure 13. 
 
 This done, having a long rule, and a fquare, which by Aiding 
 on the rule helps you to draw your perpendiculars eafilier, re 
 duce it into Pcrfptclhe, in its Iceuographic appearance. 
 Then having drawn a line towards the bottom of the paper for 
 the front or bale line as FL, (fig. 14.) divide it into as many 
 equal parts as you find the building has in the ichnography, or 
 more if you pleafe : this will ferve for a fcale to determine the 
 feveral heights, l$c% and to thefe Dhifions, with a black lead 
 V o l. II. 
 
 pencil draw lines from the centre, when yoii have chofen it \ 
 which choice requires judgment on two accounts. 
 For, if the centre be too nigh the front-line, then the depth of 
 the whole building will fore-Jhorten too much; and if too far 
 off, it will not fore-ihbrtcn enough. This may be illuftrated 
 thus, fet an open tankard, or the like, on a ftand, fo as that it 
 be a little lower than your eye; if you be at a great diftance 
 from it, you can fee very little or nothing into it ; if you come 
 nigher to it by degrees, you will peiceivc the farther edge 
 fecm to be raifed a little higher than that next you, fo that 
 you may fee a little way into it ; if you come vciy nigh ir, 
 you fee too deep into it, or more than cah well be expiefted 
 in picture. We fhall therefore findfome one place, which we 
 muft conclude the molt convenient for the draught, and 
 which may be in general determined to be asfarolfthc front- 
 line as the front-line is long: this rule, though it has jure 
 grounds, yet we fometimes dilpenfe with pro re ncta; that we 
 may expiefs things with the better appearance. 
 
 4. Conlidei how to place this centre with fuch advantage as 
 that you may expiefs thofe things moft, which are chieriy de- 
 signed ; for as to the bottom and top lines of the fides of the 
 building that run from us in or nigh the direii line to the cen- 
 tre, though you fee the upper part very well, yet the fides that 
 fall between the ground-line and top, fall fo very near one an- 
 other, that it would be very difficult to expiefs paiticulais in 
 them ; fo that the centre muft be well chofen in reference to 
 this. 
 
 Thofe buildings therefore, which yci would fee moft of 7 
 muft be placed as far off" as you think convenient ft ©to the di- 
 rect line that inns to the centre : and the farther they are, the 
 plainer they will be. 
 
 Place then thofe things you would fee leaft of, nigheft the di- 
 rect line ; and fee whether the others fall according to your 
 mind : but this muft be done after you have drawn your dia- 
 gonal, which is the next thing. 
 
 5. Having pitched on your centre, and having from it drawn 
 lines to every divifion of the front-line, you are to determine 
 your diagonal, A R, thus : having with a pair of compares, 
 mcafured the length -of the fiont-h'ne, take your compailes, 
 and putting one foot in the centre, lee where the other will 
 reach in the horizon : (on both fides if you pleale) where it 
 refts, from that point draw a thwait line to the laft divi- 
 lion of the front ; and this will be truly drawn, or pretty 
 nigh to the truth. That it is fo, you may conlider how it 
 falls in reipect of the two laft cenne-lines : for if where the 
 next line from the laft is interfected by the diagonal, you diaw 
 a parallel to the front between them, as at A io, you will have 
 a lhombus ; if then all the fides be pretty equal, you may be 
 fure you are nigh the right; but if the fides that run towards 
 the centre be too long, then things will not fore-lhortcii 
 enough ; and if the fides be not long enough, they will fore- 
 Ihorten too much. 
 
 6- After the front-line is thus divided, the centre fixed,and the 
 diagonal placed, take the breadth of the chapel A B, which in 
 the ichnography is Ihewn to be twenty pa: ts ; becaufe this line 
 is perpendicular, it mult run toward the centre, therefore 
 reckon twenty in the diagonal, and the rule laid parallel to the 
 front in that point, will give you a point in the centte-line, 
 which will give the breadth of the chapel ; and confequently 
 a line drawn from A to B puts it into the ichnographic Perfpec- 
 tive. The length of the chapel being feventy divifions in the 
 front-line ; reckon feventy from B, parallel to the front-line, 
 and there you will have a point at (J. 
 
 The depth of the building from the chape 1 northward, being 
 one hundred and fifteen from the chapel, 1 reckon from D ; 
 (where it cuts the diagonal at ten) onwards in the diagonal ; 
 and at one hundred and fifteen in the diagonal, with my rule 
 as before paiallel in this place in the front, I have the point 7, 
 in the central line. Its bieadth being thirty, I leckon three di- 
 vifions, and there is the juft bi eadth there ; and fo on in every 
 particular part. 
 
 Having placed the ichnography into Perfpeflhe, you may then 
 give every thing its proper height thus : 
 7. The height of the chapel being thirty, I reckon thirty on 
 the front-line, and with this length by a fquare clapt to the 
 front-line, I drop a perpendicular to that height ; and fo where 
 the other fide of the chapel is placed, having reckoned the 
 height upon a fuppofed parallel, there I diaw another line in 
 that height ; then joining thefe feveral heights by feveral lines, 
 you have the profiles of each building. 
 
 To diverfify thefe feveral lines, that they confound you not, 
 make the ichnography, when you lay it into Perfpedive, in dif- 
 continued crooked lines, the heights in pi icked lines, and the 
 tops of each building in continued lines, as the centre-lines aie 
 in the table. You will likewife find the centre, though it is 
 not here exprefled, as likewife the point of diftance, by con- 
 tinuing the diagonal up to the fuppofed horizon, wheie it and 
 the eye are placed. 
 
 Having done thus, your ait muft be employed for the particular 
 expreftions of things, by drawing and lhadowing, which is tho 
 life of this half formed figure, which we leave to the painter. 
 
 8 S It 
 
PER 
 
 PES 
 
 It remains that we fpeak of the low-fight: And here, wc fup- 
 pofe the horizontal line juft the height of the eye, about live 
 foot from the bafis; though it is generally placed higher, even 
 to a third part of the height of the building, that the fide 
 building may be expreffed the more gracefully. 
 The diagonal is bell determined by dividing the laft divifion 
 of the balis-tine into five parts at G, taking four of thefe, 
 fometimes the whole rive, becaufe we determined before, that 
 the length of the front-line was the diftauce of the eye in the 
 horizon to the point of dtftance : but here we take four, and 
 then make this the diftauce In the horizon between the eye and 
 the point of diftance. You may then either graduate the plan 
 at the feveral interferons of the diagonal with the centre lines, 
 or elfe fuppofeit ib ; and then ra'rfe the buildings as you will find 
 by Per jpectkvs enough of this fort every where to be met with. 
 
 Perspective, is alfo ufed for a kind of picture or painting, 
 frequently feen in gardens, and at the ends of galleries ; dc- 
 ftgned exprefly to deceive the fight by representing the con- 
 tinuation of an alley, a building, landfkip, or the like. 
 
 Perspective aerial, 1 C Aerial. 
 
 Alley in Perspective, V. J Seethe articles J Alley. 
 
 Jrcbite£furem?EKsvtcrxvE, ) ( Architecture. 
 
 Perspective,^;;, PtatU, is a glafs, or other transparent fur- 
 face, fuppofed to be placed between the eye and the object, 
 perpendicular to the horizon, unlefs the contrary be expreily 
 mentioned. 
 
 Such is the plane, H I {fig. i.) between the eye O, and the 
 
 object ABC, cutting the optic rays in b, c. 
 
 This, fome call the fiffkn ; fome the table, and others the 
 
 PERSPIRATION, Perspiratio, in medicine, the action erf 
 evacuating the fupcrfluous juices of the body, through the 
 pores of the fkin. 
 
 When this evacuation is copious enough to be perceived by 
 the fenfes, as in fweat, the Eerfpfratian is faid to be fenfible; 
 where it efcapes the notice of the fenfes, as is the cafe in the 
 ordinary irate of the body, the Perfpiration is faid to be 
 
 infenfible. 
 
 The word Perfpiration ufed fimply, and without any adjective, 
 is to be undeiftood of infenfible Perfpir -alien. 
 This evacuation was indeed known to the ancients, Hippo- 
 crates, Galen, Sjfc. but it was Sanctorius, the famous Paduan 
 phyfician, who firft brought it under any ftated rules. To 
 him we owe both the invention and perfection of the doctrine 
 of infenfible Perfpiration. 
 
 The'vefiels through which the'jPffj^rffiflB is performed, lie 
 obliquely open under the fquama; or fcales of the cuticle or 
 fcarf-fkin. They are inconceivably fmall : from a calculation 
 of Lecwcnhocck, it appears that the mouths of one hundred 
 twenty-five thoufand of them, may be covered with a com- 
 mon grain of fand. 
 
 Through thefe veffels there is continually tranfuding a fubtle 
 humour, from every point of the body, and throughout the 
 whole expanfe of the cuticle. 
 
 The matter evacuated this way, is found by certain experience 
 to be moie than equal to that evacuated all the other ways, 
 i. e. by ftool, urine, EsV. Sanctorius found in Italy, under the 
 circumftances of a moderate diet, middle age,- and eafy life, 
 tiiat the matter infcnlibly perfpired was j of that taken in for 
 food : Ib that there -only remained $ for nutrition, and for the 
 excrements of the nofe, ears, intertines, bladder, &c. 
 The fame author (hews, that as much is evacuated by infenfible 
 Pcrfpiration in one day, as by flool in fourteen days ; parti- 
 cularly, that iii the lpace of a night's time, about fixteen 
 ounces is ordinarily fent out by m ine, four ounces by ftool ; 
 and above forty ounces by infenfible Pcrfpiration. 
 He alfo obferves, that if a man eat and drink eight pound in a 
 day, rive pound of it is ipentin infenfible Perfpiration; and adds 
 as to the times-, that within five hours after eating there is per- 
 lpiied about one pound ; from the 5 111 to the 12 th hour about 
 three pound; and from the 12 th to the i6 lh fcarce half a pound. 
 The benefits 01 infenfible Perfpiration are fo great, that without 
 it, iiorelli fays, animal life could not be preferved. 
 The great lubtility, equability, and plenty of the matter, 
 thus perfpired, its incteale after flcep, tsc. conftitute the grand 
 fymptoms of a perfect ftate of health ; and the chief means of 
 preferving the fame. On the contrary, the departing from 
 thefe is the firft lure fign, and, perhaps, the original caufe of 
 difeafes. 
 
 Perfpiration is performed, preferved, and encreafed by the vif- 
 cera, veffels, and fibres ; by motion or excrcife as far as the 
 fiift appearance of fweat, by moderate ufe of venery ; by fleep 
 of feven or eight hours, the body well covered yet not loaded 
 
 - with bed-cloaths, chearfulnefs, light fermented yet lb] id food, 
 not fat; pure, heavy air, c?c — The contraries of all thefe, as 
 alfo the increafc of the other excretions, diminilh, prevent, 
 
 I and deprave it. 
 Hence we fee the caufe, effect, Isc. of this perfpirable matter, 
 its ufe in preferving the parts foft and flexible, and in Supply- 
 ing what's loft, but chicriy in preferving the nervous papilke 
 
 molft, Fre/h, lively, and fit to be affected by objects, and to 
 tranfmit their impreffions. 
 
 Too much Perfpiration occafions wcaknefs,. fwoonings, fud- 
 den death; too little, or none at all, occafions the capillary 
 vefiels to dry, wither, and perifti. Hence alfo the larger 
 emunctories come to be obftructed ; hence the circulation is 
 difturbed, lharp humours retained ; and hence putridity, cru- 
 dity, fevers, inflammations, and impofthilmes. 
 To determine the ftate and conditions of the Perfpiration, fo 
 neceffary forjudging of thofe of the body, Sanctorius invent- 
 ed a weighing chair, whereby he examined the quantity, de- 
 gree, Uc. of Perfpiration in feveral circumftances of the body, 
 under feveral temperatures of the air, and in the feveral inter- 
 vals of eating, drinking, fleeping, tsfc. 
 
 Some of the more extraordinary phenomena obferved here- 
 with, are, that for fome time after eating the Perfpirdtion is 
 leaft of all. That between the fifth and twelfth hour after 
 meals Perfpiration is greateft. That riding either on horfe - 
 back, in a coach or (hip, 6~Y. brifk motion on the ice, iffc. but 
 above all, a brifk friction of the fkin ; promote Perfpiration 
 furprifingly : and that Perfpiration is naturally always much 
 lei's in women than in men. 
 PERTICATA*, or Particata terra", in our old law bocks, 
 is the fourth part of an acre, or a piece of ground containing 
 one perch in breadth, and forty in length. See Rood, and 
 Perch. 
 
 * Continet in Integra fuperfuie 40 pcrticas. See Perch. 
 Peru — Balfam of Peru. See the article Balsam. 
 PERVIGILIUM, in medicine, exceftive waking or watching 
 
 See Wakefulness. 
 
 PERVISE, or Parvise, a term in our old law books, fignifying, 
 according to Selden in his notes on Fortefcue, an afternoon's 
 exercife, or moot, which the pleaders held for the inftruction 
 of the younger ftudents ; bearing oiiginaily the fame name 
 with the parvifire in Oxford. See Moot. 
 M. Somner fays, that Pervise fignifies pa/atn atrium vel area 
 ilia a fronte aula; TVcflmor.alJerienf.s, hodie the Palace-yard : and 
 Spelman thinks that' the lawyers turned thither to meet their 
 clients, not to hold moots. 
 
 PERUVIAN-^77^. See Cortex peruvianas. 
 
 Peruvian Emerald. See the article Emerald. 
 
 PES, a long meafurc, inEngliih better called 2 foot. Sec Foot. 
 
 Pes fcrcfla, the foreft foot contains eighteen inches*. 
 
 * Notand-um e/l quod pes forelfs ufitatas tempore Ric. Oyfifd in arrcnta- 
 /tone •vaffalUvum, faS}vs eft , fignatus ts fculptus in pariete caneelL? 
 eccltji<e dc Ed-\L-ynjione & in ecciefia B. Maria de Nottingham, & 
 ditlui fei continet in longitudim oftodceim polliecs, £3° in errantatlouc 
 ouorundam ueJJ'alhrum pertua, ZO, 2 l , £5" Z\ pedum ufa fuit, &C. 
 
 Pes moneta, in ancient records, fignifies a true and reaibnable 
 adjuftmcnt of the real value of all current coin. 
 
 PESA, an old law term, for a weigh, or certain weight of cheqfe, 
 wool, &c. See Weigh. 
 
 PESADE, or Pesate, in the manage, that action taught 3 
 horfe, wherein he rifes with his fore feet, and bends them up 
 to his body, without ftirring the hind feet. 
 The Pefade is the firlt leflbn taught a horfe, in order to bring 
 him to curvetts, c5V. unlefs he perform this well, he will never 
 go well in any air ; yet is he not to be taught it at the fiift 
 riding. 
 
 PESAGE, Pesagium, a cuftom or duty paid in certain mar- 
 kets, tsc. for weighing of merchandiles, or wares. 
 PESATE. See the article Pesade. 
 
 PESSARY*, or Pessus, in medicine, a folid medicament of 
 the length and tbicknefs of the finger, but of a pyramidal 
 form ; conveyed into the natural parts of a woman, to pro- 
 voke, or to put a (top to the menfes, to prevent a defcent 
 of the matrix, or on other occafions in difordcrs of thofe 
 parts. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, Xltco-ugm, or rorenr©-, which 
 fignifies the fame. 
 
 The Pejf'ary conlifts of a piece of cork, or light wood, or of 
 a little linnen bag full of powders, incorporated with wax,, 
 oil, and cotton ; crammed dole together, to make it folid 
 enough for intromifiion. 
 
 At one end it is fattened to a little ribbon, by which it may 
 be drawn out at pleafure. 
 PESTILENCE*, in medicine, an epidemical, malignant, and 
 contagious difeafe, ufually mortal; popularly known under 
 the name of plague. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, peftis, which fignifies the 
 
 fame See Plague. 
 ?E5T-hsufe, a lazaretto or infirmary, where goods, perfons, CsV. 
 
 infected, or fulpected to be infected with fome contagious 
 
 difeafe, are difpofed and provided for. 
 PESTILENTIAL fevers, among phylicians, are fuch as do 
 
 not only afflict the patient with a vehement heat, but alfo with 
 
 fome malignant, and venomous quality, and in fome degree 
 
 approach to the nature of the plague. 
 PESTIS. See the article Plague. 
 
 PET ALA, 
 
PET 
 
 1PETALA *, in botany, the leaves of a flower ; To called to di 
 ftinguilh them from the folia, or leaves of the plant. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek »e1«ask, a leaf, which, ii 
 that language, ferves indifferently for the leaves of the plant, and 
 thofe of the flower. 
 
 By flower is properly meant, that afTemblage of parts, called 
 Peiala, Jlam'ma, apices, and pijiil, which ferve for the propa- 
 gation of the kind. 
 
 The coloured leaves, called Petala, which incompafs the othef 
 parts, are in reality no more than cafes or covers to fecure and 
 fcreen the generative organs ; unlefs, as Mr. Bradley conjec- 
 tures, they may alio ferve to fecrete fome fine juice for the 
 nourifhment of the feed. 
 
 The moft eafy divifion of flowers, in regard to the matter of 
 generation, is into fimple ones, n e. thofe formed of ft amina 
 and piftil only ; and compound flowers, whofe ftamina and 
 piftil are encompalTed with Pctda, called by Dr. Grew the 
 foliation, and by Mr. Ray folia. 
 
 Compound flowers again, are either incompafled with a fingfe 
 petalufn, or piece ; or with feveral pieces ; the firft of which 
 arecalled monopetahus, the fecond polypetakus flowers. 
 Again, from the regular or irregular configuration of the Pe- 
 tala, M. Jeflieu makes another divifion of flowers into claries j 
 as regular and irregular monopetahus ; regular and irregular po- 
 lypetalouSy &c. 
 
 Nature mews a world of art in the folding up of the PctJa ir. 
 the perianthium, before they begin to blow or expand : of 
 thefe foldings Dr. Grew notes the following varieties, viz. the 
 clofe couch, as in rofes ; the concave couch, as in blattaria 
 flore albo ; the Angle plait, as in peafe-bloffoms ; the double 
 plait, as in blue-bottles ; the couch and plait together, as in 
 marigolds, EsY. the rowl, as in ladies bower; the fpire, as in 
 mallows i and laftly, the plait and fpire together, as in con- 
 volvulus doronici folio. 
 
 The calyx, or perianthium fometimes ferves plants in lieu 
 of Petala. 
 
 PETALISM, Petalismus, iietaaitmoe, in antiquity, a kind 
 of exile or baniihment, for the term of five years. See Ba- 
 nishment. 
 
 The Petalifm at Syracufe was nearly the fame thing as the of 
 tracifm at Athens, except that the latter was for ten years, and 
 the former only for five. 
 
 The Petalifm was performed by the people's writing the name 
 Of the perfon condemned, on a leaf: whence the term, from 
 tstiaXoi, leaf. 
 
 PETALODES, itetaai2ah£, a name given to urine, when it 
 feems to have little leaves, flakes, or icales in it. 
 
 PETAMINARIUS *, in antiquity, a name given to certain 
 perfons who performed extraordinary feats of activity; took 
 perilous leaps, vaults, c5Y. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, iB^^tzi, -volo, I fly. 
 
 Some authors write it petiminarius ; and derive it from pttimen . 
 which, according to Servius, flgnifics the bunch of a camel ; allu 
 ding to the manner wherein thefe operators bend the body ir 
 exhibiting poftures, isfc . 
 
 PETARD, in war, a kind of engine of metal, fome what in 
 ihape of a high-crowned hat ; ferving to break down gates, 
 barricades, draw-bridges, or the like works which are inten- 
 ded to be furprized. 
 
 The Petard may be confidercd as a piece of ordnance, very 
 fhort, narrow at the breech, and wide at the muzzle ; made 
 of copper mixed with a little brafs ; or of lead with tin ; lift, 
 ally about feven inches long, and five broad at the mouth ; 
 weighing from forty to fifty pound. 
 
 Its charge is from five to fix pounds of powder, which reaches 
 to within three fingers of the mouth: the vacancy is filled 
 with tow, and flopped with a wooden tampion ; the mouth 
 being ftrongly bound up with a cloth tied very tight with 
 ropes. It is covered up with a madrier or wooden plank, that 
 has a cavity cut in it to receive the mouth of the Petard, and 
 is fattened down with ropes after the manner exprefled in 
 Tab. Fortification, jig. 5. 
 
 Its ufc is in a clandeftine attack, to break down gates, bridges, 
 barriers, to which it is hung; which it does by means 
 of the wooden plank. — It it alfo ufed in countermines, to 
 break through the enemies galleries, and give vent to their 
 mines. 
 
 Some, inftead of gun-powder for the charge, ufe one of the 
 following compofitions, viz. gun-powder feven pounds, mer- 
 cur. fublimat. one ounce, camphor eight ounces ; or gun- 
 powder fix pound, mercur. fublimat. three ounces, and ful- 
 phur. three; or gunpowder fix, beaten glafs \ an ounce, and 
 camphor \ — Petards are fometimes alio madeof wood, bound 
 round with iron hoops. 
 
 The invention of Petards is afcribed to the French Huguenots 
 in the year 1579 ; their moft fignal exploit was the taking the 
 city Cahors by means hereof, as we are told by d'Aubigne. 
 PETECHIA, l'pots in the (kin, like flea-bites, which come 
 out in fome fevers, which ate hence called petechial or [pitted 
 fevers. 
 
 PETECHIAL, an appellation given to a malignant, epidemical 
 
 PET 
 
 kind of fever ; wherein the (kin breaks cut iii P.-tuK*, or m'tr- 
 pie fpots. *' ' 
 
 The -Petechial fever is alfo called febris lenticularh; and pulicarh. 
 See Supplement, drticle Febris Petechialis 
 
 PETERERO. See the article Pedrero. 
 
 f&TESi-peme, an ancient levy, or tat of a penny on each' 
 houie throughout England, paid to the pope. 
 It was called Peter-pence, becaufe collefled on the day of St 
 Peter ai vmeula j by the Saxons it was called Rem, f„L i e' 
 the fee or Rome, and alfo Rome-fcot, and Rcme-iemyi,,,, be- 
 caufe collected and rent to Rome; and laftly, it jailed 
 Hearth-mcney, becaufe every dwelling-houfc was liable to it 
 provided there were thirty pence viva: pecuiiU belonging to it -' 
 nay, and eveiy religious houfe; the abbey of St. Albans 
 alone excepted. 
 
 This Peter-pence was at firft given as a penfion or aim* bylna 
 king of the weft faxons, in the year 725, being then in pilgri- 
 mage at Rome: and the like was done by Orta king of "the 
 Mercians, throughout his dominions in j-94. 
 It was not intended as a tribute to the pope, but chiefly for 
 the iupport ot the Englifh fchool or college tit Rome , the 
 pope, however, went halves with the college ; and at lennh 
 lwallowcd almoft the whole. 0 
 At firft it was only an occafional contribution ; but it became 
 at laft a Rinding tax ; being eftablifhed by the laws of king 
 Canute, Edward the Confelfor, the Conqueror, tic. 
 The billiops who are charged with the collecting it- employed 
 the rural deans and archdeacons therein. 
 Edward the III' firft forbad the payment ; but it foon after re- 
 turned, and continued till the time of king Henry VIII, when 
 Polydore Virgil redded here as the pope's receiver-general 
 ™ ab=hll,ed under that prince, and rcllored again under 
 I nlip and Mary ; but it was finally prohibited under queen 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 PETIT Cafe. See the article Cape. 
 
 Petit Serjeanty, in law. Sec the article Serjeanty. 
 
 Petit Jury. See the article Jury. 
 
 PETITA Terra. See the article Summons. 
 
 PETITIO Mutiarm, in the civil law, the fame as imparhr.ee 
 in common law. See Imparlance. 
 
 Petitio Primipii, in logic, a begging the queftion, or a preca- 
 rious fuppohng a thing to be Hue, or taking it for granted, 
 when it really remains either dubious, or elfe is exactly denied. 
 
 PE1IITON, Petitio, a fupplication in form, made by an 
 inferiour to his lupeiioui ; efpecially to one having fome iu- 
 nfdiction. J 
 
 PETRA ltmev, in bur ancient cuftoms, a ftone of wool. See 
 Stone. 
 
 P2TRARIA, in ancient writers, is fometimes taken for a quar-i 
 ry of ftone. 
 
 In other places Petraria is ufed for a fort of engine of war where- 
 with (tones were caft on the enemy ; chiefly ufed in fie<r.-s cSe 
 
 PETRE oil, ntWEAAiON, the fame as petrdcum. See Petrol. 
 
 PETRIFACTION*, or Petrification, in phyfioloey, the 
 aft of converting fluids, woods, and other matters into ftone. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek in-ji', (tone, and the Latin 
 Jio or facia, to become, or to make. 
 The faculty of petrifying wood is afcribed to feveral fprings, 
 lakes, ye. and the ancient naturalifts mention a river whole 
 waters turned bodies into marble, by mere contact ■ nay 
 which being drunk, petrified the vifcera of the drinker. ' 
 Flumen habent Cicones, quodpetum faxea reddit 
 Vifcera, ami taclis indueit marmora rebus. 
 Seneca relates, that the mud of this river was of fuch a nature 
 as to harden and glue together the parts of bodies. As favs 
 he, the duft of Puzzuoli, by barely touching water becomes 
 (tone i fo this water, by touching any folid, penetrates and 
 grows to it : Whence things caft into it are immediately taken 
 out (tones. Plmy obferves very well, that wood caft into this 
 river is prefentiy found covered with a (tony bark or rir.d ; and 
 fubjoins the names of feveral other rivers which do the lime ■ 
 particularly the river Silaius near Taicntum, whofe w aters are 
 neverthelels found very wholefome.— To Pliny's lift we might 
 add many more among ourfelves ; particularly the lake Loh- 
 mond m Scotland, Loch Neagh in Ireland, igt. 
 But, in effect, there does not fcem any real tranfmutation of 
 the woody nature into the nature of ftone, in any of thele 
 cafes : all that is done is this, the (tony particles which before 
 floated in the liquor are now lodged on the furface, or depofited 
 in the pores of thefe fubftances, in fucii manner, and in fuch 
 plenty, as to leave little elfe but the appearance of a ftone. 
 Petrifacliom are moft frequently nothing elfe but incruftations 
 of ftony particles, which furround the bodies immerged and 
 as falts (hoot upon and adhere to them. 
 
 Varenius has a conjecture, that waters outy petrify woods by 
 means of certain minute, (harp, and pointed particles lodged 
 therein, which cut the longitudinal fibres of the wood in an 
 infinite number of points, and thus deftroy the form by which 
 they were diftinguilhcd from ftone. 
 
 Near Nacfivan is a little river, whofe water the people turn off 
 
 into 
 
P -E T 
 
 PET 
 
 into little canals ; where, they fay, in a little time it petrifies ; 
 and of this petrified water they pretend is built a large caravan- 
 'fera in the neighbourhood 
 
 Purifications from waters, or juices of the earth are inconteftable. 1 
 In the place called Us Caves Goutieres in France, the water fal- 
 ling from the upper parts of the cave to the ground, immedi- I 
 ately hardens into little fames', of fuch figures as the drops fal- 
 ling either fmgly, or upon one another, chance to exhibit. 
 Of this kind of caves we have alio feveral in England, Pool's 
 hole is one of the mbft remarkable. Mr. Derham mentions 
 another on the top of Bredon-hill in Worceftcrlhire ; to which 
 we may add another called the Elve-hok in Witherilack in 
 Weftmoreland ; lined a-top with thefe flalactical ftones, hang- 
 ing like icicles; which are manifeftly nothing elfc but exfu- 
 dations or exftillations of fome petrifying juices out of the rocky 
 earth there. See Supplement, Artieks Petrifaction and Spar. 
 PETROBRUSSIANS, a religious feet, which arofe in France, 
 and the Netherlands, about the year eleven hundred and 
 twenty fix ; fo called from their leader, Peter Bruys, a pro- 
 vincial. 
 
 The chief of Bruys's adherents was a monk, one Henry ; from 
 whom the Petrobruffians were alio called Henricians. — Peter the 
 venerable abbot ot Clugny, has an exprefs treatife againft the 
 Petrobrufiians ; in the preface to which, he reduces their opi- 
 nions to five heads. 
 
 i. They denied that childien before the age of rcafon can be 
 juftified by baptifm ; in regard it is our own faith that laves by 
 baptifm. 2. They held that no churches mould be built, but 
 that thofc that already are, mould be pulled down; an inn 
 being as proper for prayer as a temple, and a (table as an altar. ' 
 3. That the crofs ought to be pulled down and burned, in re- 
 gard we ought to abhor the initruments of our Saviours paf- 
 lion. 4. That Jefus Chrift. is not in the eucharift, and that 
 this facrament is vain. 5. That facrificcs, alms, prayers, (ft, 
 do not avail the dead. 
 
 F. Langlois objects manicheifm to the Petrcbrujfians ; and fays 
 they maintained two gods, the one good, the other evil ; but 
 this we rather efteem an effect of his zeal for the catholick 
 caufe, which determined him to blacken the adverfaries there- 
 of, than any real fentimcnt of the Petrobruffians. 
 
 PETROJOANN1TES, the followers of Peter John, or Peter 
 Joannis, i. e. Peter the ion of John, who lived in the XII" 1 
 century ; whole doctrine was not known till after his death ; 
 when his body was taken out of his grave and burnt, r— His 
 opinions were, that he alone had the knowledge of the true 
 fenfe wherein the apoftlcs preached the gofpcl ; that the rea- 
 fonable foul is not the form of man ; that there is no grace 
 infulcd by baptifm ; and that Jefus Chrift was pierced with a 
 
 1 launce on the crofs ere he expired. 
 
 PETROL, Petroleum, q. d. petra-okum, oil of petre, or rock 
 oil, TO oleaginous juice, hilling out of the clefts of rocks ; 
 and found floating on the waters of certain fprings. 
 Eefide artificial and vegetable oils, :'. e. thofe drawn from 
 plants, (Je. by expreflion ; there are alfo natural and mineral 
 oils illuing of thcmfelves from the entrails of the earth, called 
 b„y a common name Petrols, or Petrokc. 
 
 Thefe, according to all appearance^ mint be the work of fub- 
 terraneous fires, which raife, or fublime the more fubtile parts 
 of certain bituminous matters that lie in their way. Thefe 
 parts being condenfed into a liquor by the cold of the vaults 
 of rocks, are there collected, and ooze thence through clefts 
 and apertures, which the difpolition of the ground furnifhes 
 them withal. 
 
 Petrol, then, is a liquid bitumen, only differing by its liquidi- 
 ty from other bitumens, as alphaltum } jet, amber, and the like 
 fubftances. 
 
 The naphtha, which is either a liquid, or at leaft a very foft 
 bitumen, is nearly allv'd to Petrol. 
 
 Hitherto there has been little Petrol foUnd, except in hot coun- 
 tries. Olcarius fays he law above thirty iprings of it near Sca- 
 machia in Perils : there are alfo Petrols in the fonthern provinces 
 of France ; bus the belt are thole in the duchy of Modena, 
 iirft difcoveied by Ariofto a phyfician, in 1640, in a very bar- 
 ren valley, twelve leagues from the city of Modena. 
 Three canals are there dug with great cxpcncc in the rock ; by 
 which thiee ditlerent kinds of Petrol are difcharged into little 
 bafons or refervoirs : the fiift, as white, clear, and fluid as 
 water, of a brisk penetrating fmell, and not difagrccable ; the 
 fecond of a bright yellow, lefs fluid, and of a lefs brifk fmell 
 than the white ; the third of a blackilh red, of thicker con- 
 fidence, and a fmell more approaching that of bitumen. 
 M. Boulduc has made fevcral experiments on the Petrol, defcri- 
 bed in the Hijl. of Acad, of Seie/ic. an. M.dcc.xv. He obferves, 
 that he could not raife from it any phlegm orfalinefpirit by any 
 diftillation, either in balnco maria 1 , 01 in a fand heat : all that 
 would rile was cM ; and that at the bottom of the pellican re- 
 mained an exceeding lrnall quantity of a thickilh, browniih 
 matter. 
 
 Hence, to ufc Petrolhm in medicine, it ought to be prefcribed 
 juft as it is. It is a remedy nattSre has prepared to our hands : 
 
 it is found very warm and penetrating ; and is commended in 
 many outward complaints, rheumatick and aithritick pains, 
 and paralytick limbs. See Supplement, Article Petroleum. 
 PETRONEL, a fbit of haiquebufs or hand-gun. See Har- 
 
 Qt)EBU5S. 
 
 PETROSA offa, in anatomy, a denomination given to the fifth 
 and fixth bones of the fkull, called alfo offa temporum, becaufe 
 they (hew the age of man ; the hairs hereon turning grey be- 
 fore any of the reft. 
 
 Their upper part is fquamous, or fcaly, the lower is petrous, \. e. 
 hard or ftony, and hence they come here to be more particu- 
 larly denominated Petrofa. — 
 
 The offa Petrofa are the fmalleft proper bohes of the cranium : 
 their upper part is femi-circular, and their lower is of a firm 
 ftruif tui c. They are fituated in the lateral and lower parts of the 
 head; bounded at top by the iquamous future, which joins 
 them to the parietalia ; and behind by the lambdoidcs, which 
 joins them to the occipital, and connects them to os fphenoides. 
 Each has two finus's, before and behind the fphenoides : the 
 exterior lined with a cartilage, receiving the procefs of the 
 lower jaw ; the interior receives the lower-pait of the linus 
 lateralis of the dura mater. 
 
 Each again has four procelles ; three external, and one inter- 
 nal ; of the external, the firft is called xygomatieus or os jugale ; 
 the fecond ma/hides or ma/umil/aris ; the third fiyloide}, each 
 whereof fee under its proper article. 
 
 The internal proceis is properly called the os petrofum ; this is 
 pretty long and large, containing the whole meatus auditorius 
 and cavity of the tympanum. 
 PETTEIA, tietteia, in the ancient mufick, a Greek term, to 
 which we have no correfponding one in our language. 
 The melopceia, f. e. the art of arranging founds in luccciTion 
 fo as to make melody, is divided into thice parts, which the 
 Greeks call Jepfn, mixis, and chrefis; the Latins fumptio, mixtio, 
 and ufus \ and the Italians prefa, mefcolanie'ito, and ufo. — The 
 laft of thefe is alfo called by the Greeks, nt^Eia, Petteia, and 
 by the Italians pettia. 
 
 Petteia, or Pettia, then is the art of making a juft difecrnment 
 of all the manners of ranging, or combining founds among 
 themielves, fo as they may produce their effect, i. e. may ex- 
 prefs the feveral paftions intended to be raifed : thus, e. gr. it 
 Ihews what founds are to be ufed, and what not, how often 
 any of them are to be repeated, which to begin, and with 
 which to end, whether with a grave found to rife, or an acute 
 one to fall, is'c 
 
 It is the Pettda that conftitutcs the manners of the mufick ; ic 
 being this that chufes out this or that paftion, this or that mo- 
 tion of the foul to be awakened, and whether it be proper to 
 excite it on this or that occafion. — The Petteia therefore is in 
 mufick much what the manners are in poetry. 
 We do not fee whence the denomination fhould have been ta- 
 ken by the Greeks, unlcfs from U^ ia . their game of chefs j the 
 mufical Petteia being a fort of combination and arrangement 
 of founds, as chefs is of peices called Wlo, calculi, or chefs- 
 men. 
 
 PETTY bag, an office in chancery, the three clerks whereof re- 
 cord the return of all inquifitions out of every mire, and make 
 all patents of cuitomeis, gangers, comptrollers, feY. 
 ! Vzttv fogger*, a little, (tickling, folicitor, or jobber in law dif- 
 putes, without either skill or conference. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, petit, little ; and the Saxon, 
 fogere, fuitcr, or woer. 
 
 Petty, 01 Petit hreeny, in law, fmall theft; or the ftealing of 
 things under the value of twelve-pence. 
 The puniihment anciently was fometimes the lofs of an ear ; 
 fometimes cudgelling : after Edward HI. it was for a long 
 time whipping, but it is now tranfportation. 
 Petty orders. See the article Orders. 
 
 Petty patees, among confedioners, a fort of fmall pies, made 
 of a rich cruft, and filled with fweat meats. 
 ' Petty jingles, among falconers, are the toes of a hawk. 
 
 Petty tally, in the fea language, a competent allowance of vic- 
 | tuals, according to the number of the (hip's company. 
 
 Petty, or Petit treafon, inlaw, the crime of a fervant's kil- 
 f ling his mafter, a wife's killing her husband, a child's killing 
 his parent, or a clergyman's killing his prelate to whom he 
 ' owes obedience. 
 
 ' The punilhmcnt of petty treafon is, that the criminal fhall be 
 j drawn on a fledge, or hurdle to the gallows, and there hanged. 
 The puniihment of petty treafon in a woman is the fame with 
 that of high-treafon, viz. drawing and burning alive. 
 PETUM, nieotiana, or tabacco. See Tobacco. 
 Pevet. See the article Pivot. 
 ' PEVETS, in a watch, the ends of the fpindle of a wheel in a 
 J watch.— The holes into which they run, arc called pevet holes. 
 See Watch. 
 
 ~ PEWTER, a factitious metal, ufed in domeftick utenfils : its- 
 bafis is tin, which is converted into Pcivter by the mixture of 
 ^ fix pounds of brafs, and fifteen pounds of lead, to an hundred 
 weighE of tin. See Metal. 
 
 Bcfide 
 
P H A 
 
 Befide this compofition which makes the common Pewter 
 there are others for other occasions, compounded of tin, mix- 
 ed with regulus of antimony, bifmuth^ and copper, in feveral 
 proportions. 
 
 Pewter has occafionally ferved for money. In the philofoph. 
 tranfacf. M. Putland informs us, thatK, James II. turned all the 
 pewter veffels, csV. of the proteftants in Ireland he could feize, 
 into money ; half-crowns were fomewhat bigger than half- 
 pence, and other pieces in proportion. 
 
 He ordered it to be current in all payments : whence, our au- 
 thor obferves, people abfcondcd for fear of being paid their 
 ■debts : he alio mentions crown-pieces of this metal, With this 
 legend on the rim, meliorutcjf era fail 
 PHENOMENON *, <J>AiNnMENON, ftriclly an appearance in 
 phyfics, an extraordinary appearance in the heavens, or on 
 earth ; either difcovered by obiervation of the cjeleftial 
 bodies, or by phyfical experiments j and whofe caufe is not 
 obvious. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek tpuiw, I appear. 
 
 Such are meteors, comets, uncommon appearances of ftars, 
 and planets, earthquakes, bV. fuch alfo are the effects of the 
 magnet, phofphorus, &e. 
 
 The Phenomena of comets are inconfiftent not only with the 
 folidity of the heavens, fuppofed in the ptolemaic hypothecs, 
 but equally with the plenitude of the heavens affertcd by the 
 carteiians. 
 
 That hypothefis is beft which folves moft Phenomena. Sir 
 If. Newton fhews, that all the Phammena of the heavenly 
 bodies follow from the attraction of gravity, which inter- 
 cedes thofe bodies ; and almoll all the Phenomena of the lef- 
 fer bodies from the attraction and repulfion between their 
 particles : fo fimple is nature. 
 
 Parallax of a Phenomenon. See Parallax. 
 
 PHAGEDENA*, in chirurgery, tSc. a deep, bloated ulcer, 
 which eats and corrodes the neighbouring parts. 
 
 * The word is Greek, pa^rWa, formed of <paye», to eat. 
 Phagedenic medicines, fuch as are ufed to eat off fungous, or 
 
 proud ftefh. 
 
 Phagedenic ulcer. See Phagedena, and Ulcer. 
 
 The ephemerides of the academy of the curiofi nature., 
 
 relate, that phagedenic ulcers have been frequently cured only 
 
 with fheeps dung. 
 Phagedenic water, in chymiftry, denotes a water made 
 
 from quick-lime and fublimate i fo called from its efficacy in 
 
 the cure of phagedenic ulcers. 
 
 To prepare this water, they put two poundsof frefh quick-lime 
 in a large earthen pan, and pour upon it about ten pounds or 
 rain-water; thefe they let ftand together two days, ftirring them 
 frequently : at laft leaving the lime to fettle well, they pour off 
 the water by inclination, filtrate it, and put it up in aglafs hot-' 
 tie, adding to it an ounce of corrofive fublimate in. powder ; 
 which, of white becomes yellow, and finks to the bottom of 
 the veflel. The water being fettled, is fit for ufe, in the clean- 
 ing of wounds and ulcers, and to eat off fuperfluous fiefh ; 
 and efpecially in gangrenes ; in which cafe may be added to 
 it a third or fourth part of fpirit of wine. 
 PHALANX, *AAArs, i n antiquity, a huge, fquare, compa£ 
 battalion, formed of infantiy let clofe to one another, with 
 their fhiclds joined, and pikes turned crofs-ways ; infomuch 
 that it was almoft impoffible to break them. 
 It conf/ilted of eight thoufand men : Livyfays, that this fort 
 of battalion was invented by the Macedonians, and that it was 
 peculiar to them ; whence, among writers, it is fometimes 
 called the Macedonian Phalanx. 
 
 St. Evremont obferves, that the Macedonian Phalanx had the 
 advantage in valour and ftrength over the Roman legion. 
 Phalanx, Phalanges, is alfo applied by anatomifts, to the 
 three rows of fmall bones which form the fingers. 
 The uppermoft Phalanx next the wrift is the longed: and 
 largeft j the fecond is lefs, but longer and larger than the 
 third Phalanx. 
 
 PHALEUCUS, or Phalecius, in poetry, a kind of verfe, 
 in ufe among the Greeks and Latins ; confifting, like the fa- 
 phic, of five feet, the firft a fpondee, the fecond a dactyl, and 
 the three laft troches. 
 
 The Phakucu: is very proper for epigrams. Catullus excelled 
 in it. Its original author is not known. 
 PHALLICA, * aaaika, in antiquity, feafts, or facrifices celebra- 
 ted at Athens, in honour of Bacchus. 
 
 7 he Phallha were inftituted on the following occafion : one 
 Pegalus, a citizen of Eleutheris, having carried fome ftatues of 
 Bacchus to Athens, drew on birofelf the laughter and contempt 
 ot the Athenians.— Soon after this, the people were feized 
 with an epidemic difeafe j and upon confulting the oracle how 
 to get free of it, were anfwered, that there was no way but to 
 receive Bacchus in pomp ; they did it, and thus inftituted the 
 Phauua ; wherein, befides the Itatues and trophies of the god. 
 they bore figures of the parts affected tied to thyifi 
 PHALLGPHORI-, oaaaooopoi, in antiquity, a name given 
 at gcyon to cc;«m mimes, who ran about the meets fmutted 
 Vol. IT. 
 
 P H A 
 
 with black, and cloathed in flieep' fkins, bearing baskets full 
 of various herbs, as chervil, branca urfina, violet, ivy, t$c 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, f a pole, at the end 
 
 of which was fattened the figure of a human penis made of leather ; 
 
 and p F o», I bear. 
 
 They danced in cadence and were crowned with ivy, in ho- 
 nour of Bacchus : carrying the phallus befoie them as the en- 
 fign of their office, 
 PHANATIC, Phanaticus, a vifionary ; one who fancies 
 or thinks he fees fpectres, fpirits, apparitions, or other ima- 
 ginary objeds, even when awake ; and takes them to be 
 real. 
 
 Such are phrenetics, necromancers, hypochondriac perfons; 
 lycanthropi, &c. See Phrenetic, Hypochondriac, Lv- 
 canthropy, &c. 
 
 Hence the word is alfo applied to enthufiafts, pretenders to 
 revelation, new lights, prophecies, csY. 
 PHANTASM, santaema, Phantoh, a fpecies of an objefl 
 perceived by an external fenfe, and thence retained in the 
 phantafy. 
 
 PHANTASTIC, in mufick.— Phantastic flyle, is a free, 
 eafy manner of compofition ; proper for inftrumcnts. See 
 Style. 
 
 Phantastical colours, is a denomination given by the peripa- 
 teticks to thofe colours exhibited by the rainbow, or a prifm ; 
 they erroneoufly fuppofing them not to be real colours, but 
 only phantoms or deceptions of the fight. 
 But many experiments of the moderns, and particularly thofe 
 of Sir Ifaac Newton, demonftrate the contrary, and prove 
 them as real as any other colours in nature. 
 
 PHANTASY, or Fancy, the imagination; the fecond of the 
 powers, or faculties of the fenfitive or rational foul ; by which 
 the fpecies of objects received by the common fenfe, are re- 
 tained, recalled, further examined, and eirher compounded, 
 or divided. 
 
 Others define the Phantafy to be that internal fenfe or power, 
 whereby the ideas of ablent things are formed, and prefented 
 to the mind as if they were prefent. 
 
 The feat or organ of this fenfe is vulgarly fuppofed to be the 
 middle part of the brain 3 and its objects, all the fpecies com- 
 municated to it by the common feme, by the comparing of 
 which it frames infinite others to itfelf. 
 
 In melancholic, and mad men this faculty is very ftrong, 
 reprcfenting many extravagant and monftious things ; and 
 framing its images as lively as thofe of fenfation : whence na- 
 turally arife the vifions and deceptions tiiofe perfons are 
 liable to. 
 
 In poets and painters the fame faculty ought to be the pre- 
 dominant one ; to enable them to feign, and purfue, and ex- 
 ecute their fidlions or fables with more ftrength, confifteney 
 and beauty. 
 
 In men it is fuppofed to be fubject to reafon, but in brutes it 
 has no fuperior : this being the ratio brutmam, or what we call 
 reafon in brutes. 
 
 The Phantafy is free from the ligature, or fufpenfion of deep • 
 witnefs our dieams, &c. ' 
 Some philofophers ufe the word Phantafy in a more general 
 fignification, viz. for what we ufually call fenfus communis the 
 commbn fenfe. 
 
 PHARISEES*, a celebrated feci: among the ancient Jews ■ fo 
 called, fay fome, becaufe feparated from the reft, by the au'fte- 
 nty ot their life, and by their profefling a greater degree of ho- 
 linefs, and a more religious obfervation of the law. 
 
 * This is the import of the word fieri,, in the Hebrew, or rather 
 Chaldee tongue j whence is formed the Greek and 
 the Latin ebanftu, _ St. Jerom, and fcveral of the Rabbins 
 maintain this etymology ; which is very agreeable to the Hate and 
 charat.er of the Pearifia , who were not only dittinguifhed from 
 the reft by their manner of life, but by their habit. 
 It is very difficult to fix the precife origin of the Pharifees The 
 jefuit Serranus places their firft rife abo~ut the time of" El'dras ■ 
 becaufe it was then that the Jews firft began to have interpreters 
 ot their traditions. Maldonat, on the other hand, will not have 
 this feci to have arofe among the Jews, till a little before the 
 time of Chnft. Others, peihaps withmore probability, refer 
 the origin of the Pharifees to the time of the Maccabees. 
 Be this as it will, Pbsrifmfm is ftiH the prevailing dodhflM in 
 the Jewifti religion ; that vaft number of traditions in the 
 Talmud, which bear fo great a fway among the Jews, com- 
 ing all from the Pharifees. 
 
 Jofephus, who defcribes their dogmata, fays, that they attribu- 
 ted all to deftiny, and to God ; fo, however, as not to deprive 
 man of his free agency ; which Sixtus of Sienna thus explains : 
 The Pharifees believed that all things were done by deftiny, 
 i. e. with God's foreknowledge, and in confequence of h;s im- 
 mutable decree ; the will of man ftiH remaining free and unaf- 
 fected : fan, hoc ejl Dei prafcientia & immobiii decreto omnia gerij 
 mancnte tamen libera httmance libertatis affenfu. ' 
 They owned the immortality of the foul, and a future fare ; 
 but they admitted at the fame time a kind of metempfychofis^ 
 or tranlfnizration of fouls. 
 
 8 T The 
 
P H A 
 
 The Pbarifees were great sticklers for the allegorical or myftical 
 fenfe of the fcriptures ; whence moll of the converts made to 
 chriftianiry among the Jews were of the number of the Pba- 
 rifees. 
 
 In effect, the Pbarifees Were in every thing direftly oppofite to 
 the fadducees. 
 
 PHARMACEUTIC A, *apmaK.eytikh, that part of phyfick 
 
 which directs the preparation, and application of medicines. 
 
 See Pharmacy. 
 PHARMACOLOGY, a treatife of medicines, or of the art of 
 
 preparing them, judging of them, &c. 
 PHARMACOPOEIA*, a dilpenlatory ; or a treatife defcribing 
 
 the preparations of the feveral kinds of medicines, with their 
 
 ufes, manner of application, csV. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek tp^xxav, remedy, and woieiii, 
 faccre, to make. 
 
 We have various Pharmacopoeia's ; as thofe of Eauderon, 
 Quercetan, Zwelfer, Charas, Bates, Salmon, Lemery, &c. — 
 The Iateft, and moil in efteem, are the Edinburgh and Lon- 
 don difpenfatories : but the moll univerfal is Quincy's Phar- 
 macopoeia. 
 
 PHARMACOPOLA *, or pharmacopceius> an apothecary ; or a 
 perfon who prepares and fells medicines. See Apothecary. 
 
 * The word is feldom ufed but by way of ridicule. It is formed 
 from the Greek ^a.^a.x.av, and ■ku'K'.iv, winders, to fell. 
 
 PHARMACUM, fAPMAKON, a medicament, or medicine ; whe- 
 ther of a falutary, or poifonous quality. 
 
 PHARMACY *, i>apmakeia, that branch of medicine which 
 teaches the choice, preparation, and mixture of medicines. 
 
 * The word is derived from the Greek (pa.^u.K.^, remedy. 
 Pharmacy is divided into galenical and chymical. 
 
 Galenical Pharmacy, called alio (imply Pharmacy, is that derived 
 to us from the ancients ; conlifting in the knowledge, and ma- 
 nagement of the feveral parts of the materia medica, now in 
 the hands of the apothecaries. 
 
 CViw/ Pharmacy, called alio fpagyrical and hermetkal-, is that 
 introduced by Paracelfus, who calls it an dipllatoria ; conlift- 
 ing in the relblving of mixed bodies, into their component 
 parts, in order to feparate the ufelefs and ill, and colled and 
 exalt the good. 
 
 One of the chief obfhcles in the way of the improvement of 
 phyfic, is the phyficians neglecting of Pharmacy. — Simples, 
 vulgar, familiar, eaiily prepared, and readily procured, Pliny 
 well obferves, were the only remedies intended by nature : 
 when fraud was got into the world, and men began to live by 
 their wits, fhops were foon fet up ; and life offered every man 
 to fale. Straight, innumei able compolitions ; and endlefs, inex- 
 plicable mixtures were cryed up ; The products of Arabia 
 and India were crouded into a draught; and a plaifter for a 
 little ulcer fetched from the red fea. Whereas the proper 
 remedies are thofe the poor every day meet with. — Hill. 
 Nat. lib. 24. c.i. 
 
 Charallers in Pharmacy. See Character. 
 
 PHAROS, Ph are, a ligbt-houfe ; a pile raifed near a port, where 
 a fire is kept burning in the night to guide and direct veflels 
 near at hand. 
 
 The Pharos of Alexandria, built in a final! Kland at the mouth 
 of the Nile, was anciently very famous, infomuch as to com 
 municate its name to all the reft — the Coloflus of Rhodes 
 alfo ferved as a Pharos. 
 
 Ozanam fays, Pharos anciently fignified a ftreight ; as the Pha- 
 ros or Pharo of Meffina. 
 
 PHARSANG, or Parasang. See Parasang. 
 
 PHARYNX, OAPYTE, in anatomy, the upper opening of the 
 cefophagus or gullet, fituate at the bottom of the mouth ; and 
 called alfo the fauces. 
 
 The Pharynx is that part more particularly called the gula s or 
 gullet; in which the action of deglutition commences; and 
 where it is chiefly performed. 
 
 It is afiifted by three pair of mufcles, which principally corn- 
 pole the Pharynx. The firft called the Jlylopkanngaus ferves 
 to draw up and dilate the Pharynx : the fecond the ptcrygo- 
 pharyngaus ferves to conftringe it : the third, which is called 
 the ajfbphagaui, ferves to clofe it ; See each under its proper 
 article. 
 
 PHASES *, OAZES, in aftronomy, the feveral appearances, or 
 quantities of illumination of the moon, venus, mercury, and 
 the other planets; or the feveral manners wherein they appear 
 illuminated by the fun. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, <pa. lw , 1 appear, I mine 
 upon. 
 
 The variety of Phafes in the moon is very remarkable : fome 
 times (he increafes, fomctimes wanes, fometimes is bent into 
 horns, and again appears like a femicircle, at other times /he 
 is gibbous, and prefently again refumes a full circular face. 
 For the theory of the lunar Phafes fee Moon. — As to the 
 Phafes of Venus, the naked eye does not difcover any diverfity 
 in them ; but the telefcope does ; Copernicus anciently pro- 
 phefied, that after-ages would find that Venus underwent all 
 the changes of the moon ; which prophecy was firft fulfilled 
 bjr Galileo, who directing his telefcope to Venus, obferved her 
 Phajes to emulate thofe of the moon ; being fometimes full, 
 fometimes horned, and fometimes gibbous. 
 
 P H I 
 
 Mercury alfo does the fame— all the difference between thefe 
 and thole or the moon, is, that when thefe are full the fun is 
 between them and us ; whereas, when the moon is full we are 
 between her and the fun. 
 
 Saturn puzzled the aftronomers along time with his ftrange va- 
 riety of Phajes: Hevelius and others found him, r.Monofphe- 
 rical 2. Trifpherical. 3. Spherico-anfated. + . Elliptico-anfated. 
 5. Sphenco-culpidated: but Huygens thews, that thofe mon- 
 itions Phafes were principally owing to the impcrfeflion of their 
 teletcopes. 1 hat great author, affifted by the bell tciefcopes 
 noted three principal Phafes, viz. Jan. 16, 1656, he wis round, 
 Oflob. 13. brachiated, and Decemb. 17, 1657, anfated See 
 Saturn. 
 
 Phases of 'emits. See the article Comet. 
 To determine the Phasis of an eelipfe for any given time.— Find 
 the moons place in her vifible way for that moment : and 
 thence as a centre, with the interval of the moon's femi-dia- 
 meter, defenbe a circle. Find in like manner the fun's place 
 in the cclrptic,andthcnce,with the femi-diameter of thefun de- 
 fcnbe another circle : the interfection of the two circles ihews 
 the -.Phajes of the eclipfe, the quantity of obturation, and the 
 polition of the cufps or horns. 
 PHASMATA, in phyfiology, certain appearances arifmg from 
 he various tmdtures of the clouds by the rays of the heavenly 
 luminaries, efpecially the fun and moon. 
 Thefe are infinitely diverfified by the different figures and fitu- 
 atiorrs ot the clouds and the appulfcs of the rays of light, and 
 together with the occafional flalhings and (hootings of diffe- 
 rent meteors, they have, no doubt, occafioned thofe prodigies 
 of armies fighting in the air, &e. of which we have luch fre 
 quentaccounts in molt forts of writers *. V.Maccab ii c Me- 
 lanchth. meteor. 2. Snel. de comet, ann. r6i8. 
 ' Kirchcr, and his imitator Schottos, have erroneoufly endeavoured 
 to explain the phenomenon from the reflection of terreilrial ob 
 jetts made on opake and congealed clouds in the middle region of 
 the air, which according to them, have the effect of a mirrour — 
 bo that according 10 thefe anthors, the armies pretended by feveral 
 h.llonans to have beenfeen lathe Ikies, were no other than the 
 rdlechon of the bke armies placed on fome part of the earth. Vid 
 ni/t. dead. It. Stiettc. tin. 1726. p. 405, & Jeq, 
 
 PHEONS, in heraldry, the barbed heads of darts, arrows or 
 other weapons. ' 
 Pheens are reprefented as in Tat. Herali.fw. 70.— Sable, a fefie 
 
 phJ Tr n « « etwcen threc Ph " m ' b ? tIlc name ° f E s e «™- 
 
 vial HIA "' a '™ll thin glafs bottle, popularly called a 
 
 PHTnrrr 1™"* is ,?™ cd of the Greck whicl > r '6 nifcs th <= fa» 
 i iA, or 1 hilitia, in antiquity, fcafts celebrated with 
 great frugality at Lacedranon. 
 
 1 he Phditia were held in the public places, and in the open 
 
 fn, : * r P °°, r affi&d at th0m ali " e ' and on th0 fi">e foot- 
 ing; their defign being to keep up peace, friendlhip, and a good 
 
 S 1 *"!™ 8 ' ^ity ^mppgall the citizens great and 
 fmall. Bernegger fays, they who attended at this feaftf brou-ht 
 each a bulhel ot flower, eight meafures of wine, called chorus 
 and five mime of cheefe, and as much figs. 
 The Phditia o{ the Greeks were much the fame with thecha- 
 riftiaatRome. See Charistia. 
 PHILADELPHIA, <Maaaea*os, in antiquity, a title or fur 
 
 rw ,° r % by I e T eral ancient kings ; ,OTmed fi«B the 
 Greek ?1 », C) f„ e nd, lover, and ahxp*, brother; q.i. one who 
 loves his brother, or brethren 
 
 Ptolemy Philadelphia erected a library at Alexandria, and fur- 
 mined it with 400000, others fay with 700000 volumes, by the 
 advice, and with the abidance of Demetrius Phalareus 
 It wa S the fame Philadelphia that procured the Greek verfion 
 ot the books of Motes, called the fiptuagint 
 Fatht-r Chamillart has a medal of the" queen of Comagene 
 which bears the title of Philadelpha, without any other name ! 
 
 Phlde/phs m ' P S ° f Sl " ia had alfo the title 
 
 PHILANTHROPY «A ANe poniA, love of manlind, a general 
 
 benevolence towards the fpecies - 
 PHILAUTIA*, »iaattia, i„ the fchools, felf-hve ; a vicious 
 
 ronclnets and complaifance for a man's felt" 
 
 PhllLIt PICKS, Philippic je, fiAinniKoi Aoroi, in literattire 
 a name given to the orations of Demofthenes againft Philirl 
 king of Maccdon. l 
 The Philippieks are efteemed the mafter-pieces of that great 
 orator : Longinus quotes abundance of inftances of the fublime 
 ftoni them ; and points out a thoufand latent beauties therein. 
 In erteel, that pathetic wherein Demofthenes excelled, the fre- 
 quent interrogations and apofYrophe's wherewith he attacked 
 the indolence of the Athenians, where could they be better 
 employed ? How much delicacy foever there be in the oration 
 againft Leptinus, the Philippieks have yet the advantage over it, 
 were it only on account of the fubjefl, which gives Demo- 
 fthenes fo fair a field to difplay his chief talent, we mean with 
 Longinus, that of moving and aftoniiliing. 
 Dionylius Halicamalleus ranks the oration on the Halonefe 
 among the Philippieks, and places it the eighth in order ; but 
 though the authority of that great critic be of no fmall weight ; 
 
 yet, 
 
P H I 
 
 yet, that force and majefty whereby Cicero characterifes the 
 Philippich of Demofthenes, feems to exclude the oration on 
 the Halonefe out of the number ; and authorife the almoft unr 
 verlal opinion of the learned, who reject it as fpurious. 
 Libanius, Photius, and others, but above all, the languidnefs 
 of the ftyle, and the lownefs of the expreffions which feign 
 throughout the whole, father it on Hegefippus. 
 M. Tourreil has given an excellent French tranilation of the 
 Philippich of Demofthenes. It is an extraordinary thing to 
 fee fo much fpirit in a tranilation : fo much of the ftrength 
 and energy of Demofthenes, in a modern tongue ; and that 
 too fo weak a one as the French. 
 
 Philippick is alfo applied to the fourteen orations of Cicero 
 againft Marc Anthony.-^It was Cicero himfelf that gave them 
 this title in his epiftles to Brutus ; and pofterity have found it 
 lb juft, that it has been perpetuated to our times. 
 Juvenal calls the fecond the divine Philippick, and witneffes it 
 to be of great fame, conj'picuce divina phiiippica fames. That ora- 
 tor's entitling his laft and moft valued orations after the Philip- 
 puh of Demofthenes, lhews the high opinion he had of them. 
 Cicero's Philippich coft him his life ; Marc Anthony having 
 been fo irritated with them, that when he was arrived at the 
 triumvirate, he procured Cicero's murther, cut off his head, 
 and ftuck it up in the very place whence the orator had deli- 
 vered the Philippich. 
 
 PHILIPPISTS, a feet or party among the Lutherans ; the fol- 
 lowers of Philip Melanchthon. 
 
 That reformer having ftrenuoufly oppofed the Ubiquifts, who 
 arofe in his time ; and the difpute growing ftill hotter after his 
 death : the univerfity of Wittemberg, who efpoufed Melanch- 
 thon's opinion, were called by the Flacians, who attacked it, 
 Philippijh. See Ubiquist. 
 
 PHILIT1A. See the article Phiditia. 
 
 PHILIZERS, or Filazers. See Filacer. 
 
 PHILO, a term originally Greek, formed of amicus, friend, 
 or lover ; now ufed in compofition in feveral words in our 
 language, As, 
 
 PHILELEUTHERUS », "MAEAEYeEPOE, a lover of liberty. 
 
 * The word is formed of p.*©., and >M»9i S ©., liter, free. 
 PHILOLOGY *, tlAOAOHA, a fcience, or rather afTemblage 
 of feveral fciences, confifting of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, an- 
 tiquities, hiftory, and criticifm. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek pi*©., and fay®?, q. d. lover 
 of difcourfe. 
 
 Philology is a kind of univerfal literature, converfant about all 
 the fciences, their rife, progrefs, authors, cerV. 
 Philology makes what the French call the bilks lettres. In the 
 univerfities it is alfo called humanities, or humaniores littercc. 
 Anciently, Philology was only a part of grammar. 
 Eratofthenes, library keeper at Alexandria, was the firft 
 who bore the fplendid title of Philologies, according to Sue- 
 tonius ; or that of critict, according to Clemens Alexandri- 
 nus. He lived under Ptolemy Philadelphus, and died in the 
 146 th olympiad. 
 
 PHILOMATHES * , 4IA0MASHS, a lover of learning, or 
 fcience. See Science, Knowledge, &c. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek lover, and 
 difco, I learn. 
 
 PHILONIUM, in pharmacy, an opiate, or electuary, whereof 
 there are two kinds, the Roman and the Perfian. 
 The Roman, called alfo the greatPfe'/on/Wi, took its name from 
 the phyfician Philo who invented it. It confifts of the feeds 
 of henbane, pepper, opium, and other ingredients. It it ufed 
 to promote deep, and againft colds, colicks, CSV. 
 The Perfian Philonium confifts of feveral ingredients, among 
 which are opium, terra figillata, lapis haematites, caftor, and 
 faffron. It is ufed to ftop haemorrhages, dyfenteries, cerV. 
 
 PHILOPATOR *, oiaohatop 
 
 in antiquity, a title, or fur- 
 
 name, affumed by feveral of the kings of Egypt and Syria 
 importing, lover of one's father. 
 
 • The word is formed from the Greek lover, and 
 
 father^ ' 5 ' 
 Ptolemy Philopator fucceeded Ptolemy Euergetes; and had 
 for his fucceffor Ptolemy Philometer.— The Syrians had their 
 Seleucus Philopator, Antiochus Philopator, &c. 
 PHILOSOPHER, aiAosoooi:, a perfon well verfed in philofo- 
 phy ; or who makes profeflion of, or applies himfelf to the 
 fhidy of natute and morality. 
 
 The fefis of Philo/ophers are very numerous ; and their dog- 
 mata or tenets very contradictory. 
 
 Helrnont, and fome of the chymifts, denominate themfelves 
 Phlojophers by pre. 
 
 Iii ^ii hym i fts and ade P li are fluently denominated the 
 
 Phlojophers, by way of eminence. 
 Philosophers Lotion. See the article Lotion. 
 Philosophers Stone, the greateft objeft of alchymy, is a 
 
 long-fought-for preparation, which, when found, is to tranf- 
 
 mute or exalt impurer metals, as tin, lead, and copper, into 
 
 gold and filver. 
 
 There are three ways whereby the alchymifts have attempted 
 to arrive at the making of gold : the firft, by reparation ; for 
 it is affirmed that every metal yet known, contains fomc quan- 
 
 PHI 
 
 tity of gold : only in moft, the quantity is fo little that if 
 wont defray the expence of getting it out. 
 ZtJST f '7 ma r !ration ! the alchymiffs hold mercu: 
 IZ/f ?n md matterof a " metal "i *»t quickfilver 
 T„ff! T) heterogeneous bodies would be much heavier, 
 denier and f.mpler than the native quickfilver ; and that bv 
 
 \Z?T S 'J ymS ^ d ' gefting iE With m "eh labour, and 
 long operations it may be converted into pure gold. 
 This method of maturation is only for mercury ■ the other 
 metals it is ineffectual for, on two accounts : ,'« becaufe their 
 matter ,s not pure mercury, but has other heterogeneous bo- 
 dies adhering to it : and 2° by reafon the digeftion whereby 
 mercury is turned into gold, would not fuccecd in other me- 
 
 w'- '," reg ,' d th J efe .'l ad not been l0 "S enough in the mines. 
 Weight is the individual and inimitable character of gold bv 
 Now mercury they fay has ever fome impurities in it /and 
 thole impurities are lighter than mercury. Could thofc be 
 purged quite out, as it does not appear to them impoilible 
 but they might; mercury would be as heavy as gold; and 
 what is as heavy as gold is gold, or at leaf! might very eafily 
 be made gold. 3 
 The third method is, that of tranfmuting, or of turning of all 
 metals readily into pure gold, by melting theft in the fnc, and 
 calting a little quantity of a certain preparation into the filled 
 matter ; upon which the faeces immediately retire, arc volatized 
 and burnt, and lo carried off; and the reft of the mafs is turned 
 into pure gold —That which works this change in the metals 
 is 1 called the -PhdofopherS fone. See Transmutation. 
 Whether this third method be poflible or not is very hard 
 to lay ? We have fo many tcftimonies of it from perfons, who 
 on a 1 other occafions fpeak truth, that it is fomewhat haid to 
 lay they lye in this, even when they fay that they have been 
 maltcis of the lecret. All required is, they fay, to do that by 
 art which nature does in many years and ages. For that as 
 lead and gold do but differ little in weight, therefore there is 
 not much in lead belide meicury and gold. Now, if I had 
 any body which would fo agitate all the parts of lead, as to burn 
 all that is not mercury therein ; and had alfo fome fulphur to 
 fix the mercury ; would not the mafs remaining be converted 
 into gold > there is nothing in nature fo heavy as lead, gold 
 and mercury only excepted. It is evident, therefore, thci e is 
 iomethmg m lead that comes very near to gold. But in lead 
 there is alfo fome heterogeneous matter different both fiom 
 mercury and gold. If now nineteen ounces of lead be diffolved 
 by the tire, and eight ounces be thus deftroyed, they argue that 
 we mall have the reft good gold : the ratio of lead to gold being 
 as eleven to nineteen. If then thePhilofephr's ftone can purify the 
 mercurial matter in lead, fo as that nothing fhall remain but 
 the pure mercurial body, and you can fix and coagulate this 
 by means Oc fulphur, out of nineteen ounces of lead, you will 
 have eleven of gold. Or, if you reduce the lead from eighteen 
 to fourteen you will then have convened it into mercury 
 and if you further purify this mercury to the proper ftandard' 
 you will have gold ; provided you have but a fulphur to fix 
 and coagulate it withal. Such is the foundation of the opini- 
 on of the Ihhjiphir'sjlore; which the alchymifts contend to 
 be a moft fubtde, fixed, concentrated tire, which as foon as if 
 melts with any metal, does, by a magnetic virtue, immediately 
 unite itfelf to the mercurial body of the metal, volatilizes and 
 cleanfes off all that is impure therein, and leaves nothihe but 
 a mafs of pure gold. s 
 
 Philosophers Tree, a ehymical preparation, called alfo arbor 
 ilumes, diana s tree. See Arbor Dianz. 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL, fomething that relates to (Bilk See 
 Philosophy and Philosopher. 
 Thus we ray a philofophkal thefis, a philofiphical principle, a 
 lojophtcal definition, Vc. e 
 
 Philosophical Mther. See ^ther. 
 
 Philosophical Criticifm. See Criticism 
 
 Philosophical . Egg, among the chymifts, is a thin glafs body, 
 or bubble, of the fhape of an egg; with a long neck or Item 
 ufed in digeftions. 3 
 
 Philosophical Month, 1 r Menstruum, Month. 
 
 PHILOSOPHIZING, the aft of confidering fome object of 
 our knowledge, examining-its properties, and the phenomena 
 it exhibits, and enquiring into their caufes or effects, and the 
 laws thereof ; the whole condufted according to the nature and 
 realonof things, anddirected to theimprovementof knowledge. 
 !.fn% INO ' r 'S" ,a Philosophandi, as efta- 
 
 bhlhed by fir Ifaac Newton, are, i.That no more caufes of 
 a natural effea be admitted than are true, and fufirce to ac- 
 count for the phenomena thereof. 
 
 This agrees with the fentiments of moft philofophers, who hold 
 that nature does nothing in vain ; and that it were vain to do 
 that by many things which might be done by fewer. 
 2. Natutal effects, therefore, of the fame kind, proceed from 
 the fame caufes. Thus, e. gr. the caufe of refpiration is one 
 and the fame in man and brute ; the caufe of the defcent of 3 
 ftone, the fame in Europe as in America ; the caufe of li<-ht 
 the fame in culinary fire, and in the fun ; and the caufe of re- 
 fleaion the fame in the planets as the earth. 
 
 3-Thoft 
 
P H I 
 
 P H I 
 
 3. Thofe qualities of bodies which are not capable of being 
 heightened, and remitted, and which are found in all bodies 
 where experiments can be made; muft be looked on as uni- 
 verfal qualities of all bodies. 
 
 Thus the extenfion of body is only perceived by our fenfes, nor 
 is it perceived in all bodies ; but lince it is found in all that we 
 have perception of, it may t be affirmed of all. So we find that 
 feveral bodies are hard ; and argue that the hardnefs of the 
 whole only arifes from the hardnefs of the parts : whence we in- 
 fer that the particles, not only of thofe bodies which are ienfi- 
 ble, but of all others, are likewife hard. Laftly, if all the bo- 
 dies about the earth gravitate towards the earth, and this ac- 
 cording to the quantity of matter in each ; and if the moon 
 gravitates towards the earth, alio, according to its quantity ot 
 matter; and the lea again gravitates towards the moon; and 
 all the planets and comets gravitate towards each other : it 
 may be affirmed univerfally, that all bodies in the creation 
 gravitate towards each other. — This rule is the foundation of 
 all natural Pbihfophy. 
 PHILOSOPHY, <i>iaos:o*ia } the knowledge or ftudy of nature 
 and morality, founded on realbn and experience. 
 Phihfophy owes its name to the modefty of Pythagoras, who 
 refufed the titles, cap®-, wife, given to his predecellbrs, Thales, 
 Pherecydes, ts'c. as too aiVuming ; and contented himfelf with 
 the fimple appellation of ^w<# > , quafi, Jfi-Nl" tij a<,qw,, 2 
 friend, or lover of wifdom. 
 
 Chauvin rather derives the name from defire or ftudy 
 and t«fi«, q, d.jludhim fapientia ; and fays that Pythagoras con. 
 ceiving that the application of the human mind, ought rather 
 to be called ftudy than feience, fet afide the appellation zvife, and 
 in lieu thereof took that of philofopher. — For having difcourfed 
 with great judgment and learning before Leontius king of the 
 PhliaSii, that prince asked him what ait he profeSfed ; or in 
 what points his wifdom chiefly lay ? To which he anSwered, 
 that he neither understood any art, nor was he o-o?^, but 
 $i*offo<p®'. Which title St. Auguftin obferves, took fo well with 
 other authors, that whoever excelled in any thing relating to 
 wifdom or knowledge, had afterwards no other appellation. 
 Accordingly Socrates, Plato, &c. ever refrained from the 
 fwelling titles of fophos. 
 
 pHrLOsoPHY is a term ufed in various Significations among an- 
 cient and modern writers. In its laxer fenfe, it fignifies the love 
 of truth: thus, Plato frequently calls itphilalctbcia. 
 In other places it Signifies the knowledge of many tilings : thus 
 Zeno calls Phihfophy, je«7a7w?4"f> comprehension, becaufe com- 
 prehending all truth.— Agreeable to which, is Cicero's defini- 
 tion of philofopher, that he is one who Studies to know the 
 natures and cauies of all things human and divine, and to at- 
 tend to every good rule and method of life. 
 
 Philosophy, in anarrower fenfe, is frequently confined to fome 
 one Science, or branch of Science : v. gr. to Logic, as we find 
 it in Plato and AriStotle. — To Phyfics, or the knowledge of 
 nature : in which fenfe it was chiefly ufed in the Ionic School. 
 And to Ethics, or the rules of morality : thus it is Clemens of 
 Alexandria relates, that among the Greeks there are philofo- 
 phers who hold disputes about virtue. 
 
 Agreeable to this laft application, Pythagoras defines Phihfophy 
 a meditation on death ; by which, according to Plato and Cle- 
 mens, is meant an abstraction or retirement from the body ; 
 which Apuleius thus explains : A philofopher is to ftudy no- 
 thing fo much as to fet his foul at liberty from its correspon- 
 dence with the body : Thus Cicero calls Phihfophy, ars vita, 
 and Seneca, lex vita : and thus Plutarch — conftancy, fidelity, 
 and a found mind, are the real Phihfophy ; all the other parts 
 of wifdom, tending any other way, are prettineffes and curio- 
 fities : and in this fenfe it was, that Phihfophy chiefly flourished 
 in the fchool of Socrates, afterwards called the academic fchool, 
 and among the Stoics. 
 Philosophy again is frequently ufed by Pythagoras and Plato for 
 Metaphyfics, or the knowledge of God ; whieh Plato calls the 
 true Phihfophy, others the prima phihfiphia ; and in refpect 
 whereof, the Platonilts call all other Phihfophy, nofiurnal, 
 
 Gale includes the feveral notions hitherto delivered, underthis 
 one general definition : Pbilofophy is the knowledge of things 
 natural, moral, Supernatural and notional, originally granted by 
 God to our fit ft parents, and transmitted to us for the honour 
 of the Creator, and the good of the univerfe. 
 That definition of Epidtetus is aHb pretty comprehensive : Pbi- 
 lofophy, he fays, conSiSts in three things ; the practice of precepts, 
 the reafon of precepts, and the proof of precepts. 
 Some have given the following appellations to the ancient Phi- 
 hfophy, under its Several Stages : Phihfophy, Say they, became 
 impious under Diagoras ; vicious under Epicurus ; hypocritical 
 under Zeno ; impudent under Diogenes ; covetous under De> 
 mochares ; voluptuous under Mctrodorus ; fantafiical under 
 Crates ; jcurrilous under Menippus ; licentious under Pyrrho ; 
 and quarreljome under Cleanthes. 
 
 The Several dogmat.i maintained by the Several philofophers : 
 are infinite ; Ciceio makes no Scruple to aver, that there is 
 
 nothing in the world, how Sbfurd foever, but has been main- 
 tained by one philofopher or other. 
 
 Krom thefirft broachers of new opinions, and the firSt founders 
 of Schools, Pbihfophy is become divided into innumerable Sects : 
 fome ancient, others modern : Such are the Platonifts, Peripate- 
 ticks, Epicurians, Stoicks, Pyrrhonians and Acadcmicks; and 
 fuch are the Cartefians, Newtonians, &t. See the rife, doc- 
 trines, &c. of each Sect, under its proper article, Platonist, 
 Peripatetic, Epicurean, Stoic, Pyrrhonian; Aca- 
 demic, Cartesian, Newtonian, csY. 
 Pbihfophy may be divided into two branches, or it may be con- 
 sidered under two habitudes, Theoretic,:! and Pradical. 
 Theoretical, or Speculative Philosophy, is that employed in mere 
 contemplation, and which terminates therein. — Such is Phy- 
 fics, which is a bare contemplation of nature, and natural 
 things. 
 
 Theoretical Phihfophy, again, is ufually fubdivided into three 
 kinds, viz. Pneumatics ; Phyfics, or Somatics ; and Meta- 
 phyfics, or Ontologia. 
 
 The firit considers being, abstracted from all matter, its object 
 are Spirits, their natures, properties and effects. 
 The Second conndeis matter and material things ; its object 
 are bodies, their properties, laws, CsV. 
 
 The third extends to each indifferently ; its object are either 
 body or Spirit. 
 
 In the order of our difcovery, or arrival at the knowledge of 
 them, Phyfics is firSt, then Metaphyfics ; the laft ariSes from 
 the two firSt confidercd together: after an acquaintance with 
 God, ouilelves, and natural bodies, we come to confider what 
 is common to them all, or the attributes that agree to all ; and 
 thus form a Sort of universal Phihfopby, or doctrine de cute in 
 general. 
 
 But in teaching, or laying down thefe Several branches to 
 others, we oblcivc a contrary order; beginning with the moft 
 univerSal, and descending to the more particular. And hence 
 we See why the Peripatetics call Metaphyfics, and the Carte- 
 fians Pneumatics, the prima phihfophia. 
 
 Others prefer the distribution of 'Phihfophy into four parts, viz. 
 1. Pneumatics, which confiders and treats of Spirits. 2. So- 
 matics, of bodies. The third compounded of both, Anthro- 
 pology, which confiders man, in whom both body and fpirit 
 are found. The 4. Ontofophy, which treats of what is com- 
 mon to all the other three. 
 Practical Philosophy, is that which lays down the rules of 
 virtuous and happy life ; and excites us to the practice thereof. 
 Practical Phihfophy is properly Ethics alone, or the method of 
 leading a virtuous and happy life. — Yet moSt authors divide 
 it into two kinds, anfwerable to the two forts of human actions 
 to be directed thereby, viz. i° Logics, which govern the ope- 
 rations of the understanding. 
 
 2 0 Ethics, properly So called, which direct thofe of the 
 will. 
 
 A^to/Philosofhy, 7 c j. .... (Natural- 
 AW Philosophy, £ See the am< M Mora... 
 Philosophy is alio frequently ufed for the particular doctrine, 
 or fyftem of opinions, broached by fome considerable philo- 
 ibpher, and cipoufed and adhered to by his followers. 
 In this fenSe we fay the 
 
 Jrijhtelian 
 Caricjian 
 Epicurean 
 Hermetical 
 Newtonian 
 Platonic 
 Socratic 
 
 Philosophy. See 
 
 Peripatetic. 
 [Cartesian. 
 
 Epicurean. 
 I Hermetical. 
 j Newtonian. 
 I Platonic. 
 ^Socratic. 
 
 Philosophy is alfo ufed for a certain manner of philofophizing ; 
 
 or certain principles, upon which all the enquiries thereby 
 
 made do turn. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, ; 
 Corpuf ular or Atomical Philo-") r Corpuscular , and 
 
 sophy. ( g eg J Atomical. 
 
 Mechanical Philosophy. \ j Mechanical. 
 
 Experimental Philosophy. J (-Experimental. 
 Philosophy, again, is confidered with regard to the age, oi 
 
 the place wherein it was taught. 
 
 In this fenfe we Say, 
 Schofafic or School Philosophy. See Scholastic. 
 New Philosophy, &c. See Mechanical Phihfopby. 
 PHILTER, Philtre, Philtrum, in pharmacy,^, a Strai- 
 ner, or filter. See Filter. 
 Philter*, *iatpon, is alSo ufed for a drug, or preparation, 
 
 or charm, which it is pretended will excite love. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, tpfaw, I love, of pi?,®*, 
 lover. 
 
 Philters are distinguished into true and Spurious : the Spurious 
 are fpells or charms, SuppoSed to have an effect beyond the 
 ordinary laws of nature, by fome magick virtue ; fuch are 
 thofe faid to be given by old women, witches, &c. 
 The true Philters are SuppoSed to work their effect by fome natu- 
 ral andmagnetical power. — There are many enthufiaftic authors 
 
 who 
 
P H L P Hi 
 
 who believe the reality or thefe Philters ; and allcdge matter 
 of fact in confirmation of their opinion : among the reft is 
 Van-Helmont, who fays, that upon holding a certain herb in 
 his hand for fome time, and taking afterwards a little dog by 
 the foot with the fame hand, the dog followed him wherever 
 he went, and quite deferted his former mafter. 
 He adds that Philters only demand a conformation of mumia ; 
 and on this principle he accounts for the phenomena of love 
 tranfplanted by the touch of an herb ; for, fays he, the heat 
 communicated to the herb, not coming alone, but animated by 
 the emanations of the natural fpirits, determines the herb to- 
 wards the man, and identifies it to him : having then received 
 this ferment, it attracts the fpivit of the other object magne- 
 tically, and gives it an amorous motion. But all this is mere 
 cant ; and all Philters, whatever fads may be alledged in their 
 favour, are mere chimera's. 
 
 Naturalifts afcribe an effect fomewhat of kin to that of a Philter 
 to cantharides taken inwardly ; thefe, it is true, tend to excite 
 love, or rather luft : but it is luft in the general, not determin- 
 ed to any particular object j and they do it no otherwife than 
 by irritating the fibres of the nerves and mufcles, by whole 
 action the cmiffio feminis is effected. 
 
 PHILTRATION, or Filtration, the feparation of the finer 
 parts of a fluid, from the coarfer ; by palling it through a filter, 
 viz. a linnen cloth, fliammy fkin, brown paper, or the like. 
 See Filtration. 
 
 PHIMOSIS *, »iMnsir, in medicine, a difeafc of the penis, 
 wherein the prceputium is glued, or ftrongly conftringed upon 
 the glands ; fo as not to be capable of being drawn back, to 
 uncover the glans. 
 
 * The word is Greek, and properly fignifies a ligature with pack- 
 thread, ipifiuo-i; denoting packthread. 
 
 Sometimes a Phimojis conceals (hankers on, or about the glans ; 
 andfometimes itisfo violent as to prevent the flowing out of the 
 matter, whence itcaufes an inflammation or mortification of 
 the part. When the prepuce is detained behind the glans, the 
 cafe is called a Paraphimojis. 
 
 The cure of a paraphimofis in no wife differs from that of a 
 Phimojis, except in the ufe of injections ; and in both cafes, if 
 they frill prove obffinate, the prepuce muft be cut, in order to 
 reduce it to its natural ftate or fituatipn. See Paraphimosis. 
 
 Phimosis is alio ufed for a difeafe of the eyes, wherein the eye- 
 lids are fo bound together by the mediation of fome glutinous 
 matter, that they are not to be opened. 
 
 PHLEBOTOMY *, oaebotomia, in medicine and chirurgei y, 
 bleeding ; or the art, or operation of letting blood. 
 
 * The word is compounded of the Greek, vein, and tntwr: 
 to cut. 
 
 Phlebotomy is a fpecies of evacuation of the utmoft importance 
 in medicine ; an idea of its effects, with the reafon of its ufe, 
 may be conceived from what follows. 
 
 It is evident the blood thrown out of the heart, while it fhikes 
 upon the antecedent blood, and drives it forwards, transfers to 
 it part of its own motion, and it is therefore fo much retarded 
 in its own motion. Hence, if blood be drawn out of the bafilic 
 Vein of the right arm ; the fucceeding blood, or that carried by 
 the axillary artery, or light fubclavian, will be lefs hindered in 
 its motion, than it was before that vein was opened : for part 
 of the blood being taken away by the opening of that vein, 
 there remains behind a letter quantity in the axillary vein, or 
 lei? is contained between the farther extremity of the axillary 
 artery and the heart, than was before : therefore the blood 
 being let out by the vein, the remainder in the artery will be 
 lefs impeded in its motion than before. 
 
 Hence the blood of that artery which communicates with the 
 vein that is opened, will flow with a gieater velocity after the 
 aperture is made than before. Confequently, whilethe blood 
 is Qowiog out of the vein in the arm, that thrown out of the 
 heart into the aorta, will find lefs refinance in the afcending 
 trunk, than in the defending ; and will therefore flow falter 
 in the afcending, than in the defcending trunk : and thence too 
 it will find lefs refinance in the right fubclavian artery than in 
 the left. 
 
 Laftly, it hence appears, that the blood being let out of a vein 
 in the right arm, the remaining blood in the right axillary arte- 
 ty runs with a greater velocity into the artery of that arm that 
 is contiguous to it, than through the thoracic artery, or the right 
 fcapulary, which is likewife contiguous to it ; becaufe, when the 
 blood is not fuppofed to be drawn out from any vein corrcf- 
 ponding to the thoracic artery, or into which this difcharges it- 
 felt, there is proportionably a greater impediment to the moti- 
 on of the blood in the thoracic artery, than in that of the arm. 
 But beeaufe the velocity of the blood in the fubclavian artery, 
 or the right axillary, is greater than in the left ; the velocity in 
 the right thoracic will alio be greater than in the left thoracic ar- 
 tery. Hence it is tnanifeft, that the blood being let out of a 
 vein m the right ai m ; the greateit velocity of the remaining 
 blood wifl be in the artery of that aim, becaufe it immediately 
 empties its blood into the vein that is opened ; and the next 
 greateft velocity will be in the thoracic artery, or fcapulary of 
 the fame fide, going out from the axillary artery. But the 
 velocity of the blood will be far lefs in the brachial, axillary, 
 Vol. E 
 
 and thoracic artery on the left and oppofite fide ; and leaft <J 
 all in the arteries ariling fiom the defcending trunk of th« 
 aorta. 
 
 On this view it may eafily be gathered, what is to be done iri 
 the feveral circumftance's of blood-letting : for inftance, if we 
 wpuld prevent the increafe of any humour from the blood 
 ftagnating in the left leg, or bring it about, that as little blood 
 as poflible fhould flow to that leg in any given fpace of time ; 
 firft, blood is to be taken from the arm or leg of the tight fide : 
 becaufe this is truly making what is called a revul/kn.. 
 Again, if blood be drawn away on the fame fide, and from 
 fome vein that receives the blood from a branch of that trunk 
 which tranfmits it to the fwelled part; it will occaiion a greater 
 derivation of blood to that limb for a few moments ; and this 
 is all that can make any difference between the different parts 
 from which ;he blood is drawn. 
 
 As to what relates to the whole habit ; in all lentors and vifci- 
 dities, if there be a due ftrength and elafiicity remaining in 
 the folids, Phlebotomy will make the remaining blood circulate 
 the falter, and become thinner and warmer; but in a plethora, 
 from a debauch, or too large quantities of fpirituous nounlh- 
 ment, or from a diminution of perforation, where the blood 
 yet retains its natural fiuxility, Phlebotomy will make the re- 
 maining rnafs circulate flower, and become cooler. 
 In the foimer cafe, a diminution of the refinance in the blood - 
 veflels, will increafe the contractile poweis of thole veifels, and 
 make them beat farter, and circulate their contents with great- 
 er velocity ; but in the latter cafe a diminution of the quan- 
 tity of a iphituous blood will leffen the quantity of fpirit fe- 
 ci cted in the brain, the confequence of which will be, that the 
 heart and arteries will not contract fo often nor fo ftrongly as 
 before, and therefore the blood will move flower, and become 
 cooler. And on thefe things depend the whole doctiine of 
 blood-letting. 
 
 PHLEGM, ♦AETMA, in chymiftry, an aqueous and infipid 
 fluid, fuppofed to be found in all natural bodies; coinciding 
 with what the other philolbphers call water. 
 Phlegm makes the fouith of the chymical elements, or elemen- 
 tary principles. 
 
 In the difiillation of vinegar, as alfo of all minerals and inodo- 
 rous vegetables, PhUgm comes out firft ; in that of wine laft. 
 This Phlegm is fuppofed to be the common vehicle and dilu- 
 ter of all folid bodies; and in proportion to its quantity in 
 the mixture, are the other parts more languid and difabied in 
 their attractions : yet, on the chymifts fyfiem, Phlsgm fhould 
 be a principle of action ; as being necefifcry to the diffolution 
 of the fait in bodies, and without which the fait muft remain 
 inactive. 
 
 It is much to be queftioned, whether this Phlegm can ever be 
 procured without fome mixture of other matters, that which 
 has the leafi: of them muft come nearer!: to the nature of a prin- 
 ciple ; and on that account rain-water ihould afford it moft. 
 Plegm, Boeihaave obferves, drawn by diftiilation from vegeta- 
 bles, does always carry witli it fomewhat of the fmell of the 
 vegetable, which it derives partly from the oil, and partly 
 from the fpirit rcfiding therein. The fame Phlegm, by fre- 
 quently reiterated diftillations, lays afide moft of this fmell, 
 and approaches nearer to pure water, but it never becomes per- 
 fectly Rich. Add, that the puieft diftiiled water, if expofed a 
 few days to the fur.,* is much changed, and rendered turbid. 
 That Phlegm is not an elementary body, Mr. Boyle argues 
 from its different powers and properties : the Phlegm of wine, 
 and moft liquors, have qualities that make them 'differ from 
 mere water, and alio from one another ; the Phlegm of vitriol 
 that author obferves, is an effectual remedy againft burns, and 
 a valuable noftium for dilcuiling hard tumouis ; and that of 
 vinegar will extract a faccharine fwectnefs" out of lead, aid 
 even dillblve corals with long digeftion ; and that of fugar of 
 lead, is laid to diffolve even pearls. 
 
 In eiiet.% the characters whicii ferve to denominate a fluid, 
 Phlegm, or water, among the chymifts, are inlipidity, and vo- 
 latility ; yet quickfilver has both thefe, which no body pretends 
 to be Phlegm. Add, that it appears from feveral experiments, 
 that water itfelf, by repeated diftillations, may be converted 
 into earth. Yet water, the fame author obferves, has a much 
 fairer pretence to be an element, than any other of the tria 
 prima. 
 
 Add, that as to the qualities which occafion that name to be 
 given any vifible fubftance, viz. its being fluid, infipid, and 
 inodorous; we have never yet feen any of thefe leparated 
 fubftances, which the chymifts call Phlegm, which were per- 
 fectly deftitute both of tafte and fmell. 
 
 Common fait, and feveral other faline bodies diftiiled ever fo 
 dry, will each yield a large quantity of Phlegm ; which can no 
 other way be accounted for but from this, that among the va- 
 rious operations of the fire, on the matter of a concrete, feveral 
 particles of that matter are reduced to a ihape and fize, requilite 
 to compofe fuch a liquor as the chymifts call Phlegm, or water. 
 Phlegm, in the animal ceconomy, is one of the four humours, 
 whereof the ancients fuppofed the mafs of biood to confift. 
 Phlepn is the fame that is otherwife called pittdta. See Pi- 
 
 TUITA. 
 
 8 U PHJ-SG- 
 
P H L 
 
 MAGOGUE *, ^AETMArnros, a medicine propc- to 
 
 • pwge-phfcgm., or pituita. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, ?* E J^«, pituita, and », 
 to drive, or draw. 
 
 Agaric, hermodaclyls, tuvbith, and jalap, are reputed Phleg- 
 
 magogues. 
 
 PHLEGMATIC, ^aetmatikos, a temperament, wherein 
 phlegm, or pituita, is the prevailing humour. 
 Phlegmatic confutations are fubjecl to rheums, defluctiors, 
 
 &c. 
 
 PHLEGMON *, *ErMONH, in medicine, a general vr i for 
 all hot or inflamed tumours-, formed in the fleihy or bloody 
 parts of the body. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, fKUit, to burn, or inflame. 
 An inflammation, attended with a conliderable l'welling of the 
 part, conftitut.es a Phlegmon. 
 
 If the blood be gocd, and laudable, and only peccant in quan- 
 tity, it is called a true Phlegmon. 
 
 "When coirupted and adulterated with bile, or pituita, it is 
 called a hajlard Phlegmon ; in which cafe it participates of the 
 eryfipelas, oedema, or fchirrus. 
 
 The blood here cxtravafed produces a heat, rednefs, tenfion, 
 renitency, puliation, and great pain.t— The bubo, carbuncle, 
 furuncle, puftulcs, and other tubercles arifing from the blood, 
 are all reducible to the Phlegmon, 63V. — The ophthalmia, pa- 
 rotides, fquinancy, and even pleurify and peripneumony, are 
 fpecies of the Phlegmon. See each under its proper article 
 Oph thalmia, &c. 
 PHLOGOSIS, *A0rfi2iI, in medicine, fometimcs denotes a 
 flight degree of the ophthalmia. 
 
 When the inflammation of the eye is light and gentle, it is 
 called a Phlogojis ; when very fevere, a themofe. See Ophthal- 
 mia. 
 
 PHLYACOGRAPHIA *, among the ancients, a merry and 
 burlefque imitation of fome grave and ferious piece; particu- 
 larly a tragedy traveftied into a comedy. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, ipivx^iit, vugari, to trifle, or 
 <p.i>«£, trifler, offpAuij, tiugor. 
 
 The Phlyacogmphy was the fame thing with the hilarcdy, or 
 bilarotragedy. 
 
 There were feveral kinds of Phlyacogmphy, which had their 
 feveral names. See Salmafius on Solin. 
 
 The parodies which have been made of fome parts of the beft 
 poets, as the Virgil travejly of Scarron, and Cotton ; the Rival 
 queens of Gibber, from the Rival queens of Lee ; and fome 
 pieces of opera's, the mufick whereof is applied to low and 
 ridiculous words, come under the notion of Phlyacographies. 
 
 PHLYCT/ENiE, Oatktainai, little white itching pimples or 
 veficulre, arifing on the fkin, chiefly between the fingers, and 
 about the wrift ; and full of a limpid ferum. 
 Thele fometimes degenerate into the itch, and fometimes into 
 tetters. They are cured like other cutaneous eruptions. 
 
 Phlyct^n^e alio denote little ulcerous vclicles, arifing fome- 
 times on the adnata, and fometimes on the cornea, of the eye, 
 like fo many little bladders full of water ; they are popularly 
 called blijlers in the eyes. 
 
 They appear like grains of millet ; and when produced by a 
 fharp corroding humour, occafion violent pain : the puff ules 
 on the adnata arc red ; thole on rhe cornea are blackifh, if 
 near to the furface, but whiter if deeper. They are cured by 
 excutients and dryers. 
 PHLYSTiENA *, in medicine, a difeafe which produces bubo's 
 or tumours, full of a fcrous humour. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, ajtou exuea tiullh I boil 
 bubble, £if c . b ' 
 
 The Pblyjiicna is a virulent difeafe. — The bubo's it occafions 
 arefomctimcslarge, livid, pale, black, orof any colour different 
 from that of the natural rlelh ; and when pierced, the flefh 
 frequently appears ulcerated under them. 
 They are ulually occalioned by a hot (harp humour, and arife 
 on all parts of the body ; but they are molt dangerous on the 
 cornea of the eye. 
 PHOENICIAN Character. See the article Character 
 PHCENIGMUS •, •owirMOE, a medicine which produces 
 rednefs, with blifters, on the places it is applied to. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, poin§, red. 
 Such are muftard-ieed, pepper, vificatorics, tsV. 
 Phanigmi are ufed to draw the humour to the part they 
 aie applied on, and to divert it from the part affected. 
 
 PHQINIX, fOiNiH, in aftronomy, a conftclhtion of tire fouthern 
 hemifphere ; unknown to the ancients, and inviliblc in our 
 northern parts. 
 
 It took its name, and form, from that of a bird famous amon 
 the ancients ; but generally looked upon by the moderns as 
 fabulous. 
 
 The naturalifts fpeak of this bird as fingle, or the only one of 
 its kind : they defer ibe it as of the fize" of an eagle; its head 
 finely crefted, with a beautiful plumage; its neck 'covered 
 with feathers of a gold colour, and the reft of its body pur- 
 ple ; only the tail white intermixed with carnation; and its 
 eyes fparkling like, liars.— They hold that it lives live or fix 
 
 P H O 
 
 hundred years in the wildemefs : that when thus advanced iri 
 age, it builds itfelf afuneral pile of fvrect wood and aromatic 
 gums ; then it lights it with the wafting of its wings, and 
 thus bums itfelf : and from its aihes arifes a worm, which in 
 time grows up to be another Pbcenix. 
 Hence the Phoenicians gave the name Pka-mx to the palm- 
 tree, by reafon, when burnt down to the very root, it natu- 
 rally j ifes again fairer than ever. 
 PHONASCiA *, SfiNAZKiA, the art of forming the human 
 voice. L -[ ; ..!: 
 
 * Ti.e word is derived from the Greek, voice. 
 
 In ancient Greece, there were combats, or contcfts, cfta- 
 blifbed for tire voice, as well as other parts of the gvm- 
 naftice. 6J 
 Thefe combats continued to be held in the time of Galen ; 
 and it was thefe that brought the Pbcna/cbia into vogue. 
 Hence the matters of this art, and thofe who taught the art 
 
 of managing the voice were called Phtnafci, p \ In, and 
 
 under their tutorage were put all thofe deftined to be orators, 
 fingers, comedians, &c. 
 PHONICKS *, »I!nikh, the doctrine, or fcience of founds ; 
 otherwife called acoufticks. 
 
 * The word is derived from the Greek, tpm?,, voice, or found. 
 Phonhh may be confidercd as an art, analogous to opticks ; 
 
 and may be divided, like that, into dircl, re/ratted and rc- 
 flccled. Thefe branches the bifhop of Ferns, in allufion to 
 the parts of opticks, denominates Pbinich, diapbtmich, and 
 catapbonicks. 
 
 Pbonkh is improveable both with regard to the object, the 
 medium, and the organ. 
 
 As to the object, found, it maybe improved both with regard 
 
 to the begetting, and the propagating of founds. 
 
 The firft, in fpcaking, or pronouncing, in whiffling, or fing- 
 
 ing, or hallowing, or luring, which are all diftinct arts and 
 
 all improveable — The Second by the poiition of the fonorous 
 
 body. 
 
 With regard to the medium, Pbcnich may be improved by 
 the thinnefs and quiefcency thereof, and by the fonorous bo- 
 dy being placed near a fraooth wall, either plain or arched, 
 efpecially cycloidally or ellipticaliy : whence arifes the theory 
 ot whispering places. 
 
 Add to thefe, that by placing the fonorous body near water, 
 its found is mollified ; that by placing it on a plain, the found 
 is conveyed to a greater diftance than on uneven ground, 
 
 fcfr. 
 
 As to the organ which is the ear : it is helped by placing it 
 near a wall, (efpecially at one end of an arch, the found be- 
 ginning at the other ;) or near the furface of water, or that of 
 the earth. 
 
 And alfo by inftruments, as the ftentorophonicon, or fpeak- 
 ing-trumpet. 
 
 Alfo by an inurnment to help weak ears, as fpeitacles do 
 eyes ; by an instrument to take in vaftly remote founds as 
 telefcopes do objects ; by a microphone, or magnifying 
 ear-inftrument ; and by a polyphone or multiplying ear-in- 
 ftrument. 
 
 Catapbonicks, or reflected hearing, may be improved by feve- 
 ral kinds of artificial echoes ; for, in general, any found fall- 
 ing either directly or obliquely, on any denfe body of a 
 fmooth furface, whether plain or arched, is beat back again, 
 or reflected, f, e. it docs echo more or lefs. 
 
 PHONICUM centrum. -) [Qhtrum. 
 
 PHONOCAMPTICUM centrum, ( See ) Centrum. 
 
 PHOSPHORICAL column. \ (Column. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS *, "tnsmopoj:, a matter which Shines, or even 
 bums, fpontaneoufly, and without the application of any 
 fenlible fire. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, o w; , light, and cptcu I 
 bear. * 
 
 Pbofpbori are either natural or artificial. 
 Natural Phosphori are matters which become luminous at 
 certain times, without the afliflance of any art, or preparation, 
 Such are the glow-worms frequent in our colder countries ; 
 Lanthom-flies, and other fliining infects, in hot countries ; 
 rotton wood ; the eyes, blood, fcales, flefh, fweat, feathers, 
 CSV. of feveral animals ; diamonds when rubbed after a cer- 
 tain manner ; fugar and fulphur when pounded in a dark 
 place ; fea-water and fome mineral-waters when briskly agi- 
 tated ; a cat's or hoi fe's back, duly rubbed with the hand, 
 lie. in the dark ; nay, Dr. Croon tells us, that upon rubbing 
 his own body biiskly with a well warmed Shirt, he has fre- 
 quently made both to thine ; and Dr. Sloane adds, that he 
 knows a gentleman of Briftol and his foil, both whofe (lock- 
 ings will Ihine after much walking. 
 
 All natutal Pbojpbori have this in common, that they do not 
 lhine always, and that they never give any heat. 
 But that which of all natural Pbofpbori has occafioned the 
 moft fpeculation, is the 
 Barometrical or mercurial Phosphorus. — M. Picard firft obferved 
 that the metcury of his barometer, when Ihaken in a dark place, 
 emitted light ; with this circumstance, that in making the mer- 
 cury 
 
P H O 
 
 cuiy with rapidity, fometimes above and fometimes below its 
 equilibrium with the air, the light was only feen when below it, 
 where it appeared as if adhering to the upper furface. 
 But this light is not found in the mercury of all barometers, 
 which occalions a great difficulty. 
 
 M. Bernoulli, upon examining the circumftances of this phe- 
 nomenon, invented a folution of the fame : he imagines that 
 upon the mercury's defcending, the vacuum in the tube increa- 
 sing, there illues out of the mercury to rill up this excels of va- 
 cuity, a very fine fubtile matter before dilperfed throughout 
 the pores ol this mineral; and that at the fame time. there enters 
 through the pores of the tube another fine matter : thus, the 
 firft matter emitted from the mercury, and collected over its 
 furface, ftriking impetuoully againft that received from with- 
 out, has the fame effect. withDes-Cartes's firft element againft 
 the fecond : that is, it produces the moiion of light. 
 But why, then, is not the phenomenon common to alt baro- 
 meters I to this he anfwers, that the motion of the fubtile 
 matter out of the mercury may be weakened, and prevented 
 by any heterogeneous matter collecied on its upper furface 
 into a kind of pellicle : fo that the light lhould never appear 
 but when the mercury is perfectly pure. 
 
 This reafoningfeem'dconhrm'd from the experiments offeveral 
 barometers which he made according to this plan ; but the roy- 
 al academy of fciences, who repeated experiments with baro- 
 meters made after the fame manner, did not meet with thefame 
 fuccels ; the light being found in fome, but not in others. 
 M. Hombe; g therefore conjectured, that the difference confided 
 in the ditteient qualities of the quickfilver : in fome, he ob- 
 leived, they tiled quick-lime to purify it; in others, (reel-filings. 
 The mercury then, rifing in the diftillation, and pafling 
 through the lime, might take away fome parts thereof, capable 
 by their extreme fmallnefs, to lodge in its interftices. Hence, 
 as quick-lime always retains fome fiery particles, it is poffible, 
 in a place void of air, where they fvvim at liberty, they may pro- 
 duce this luftre. 
 
 Mr. Hauikbee has feveral experiments on the mercurial Pbof- 
 phorus — pafling air forcibly through the body of quick-filver 
 placed in an exhaufted receiver, the parts were violently driven 
 againft the fide of the Reiver, and gave all around the appear- 
 ance of fire; continiJHp^hus till the receiver was half full again 
 of air. 
 
 From other experiments he found, that though the appearance 
 of light was not producible by agitating the mercury in the fame 
 manner in the common air ; yet, that a very fine medium near- 
 ly approaching to a vacuum was not at all necelTary. 
 And, laftly, from other experiments he found, that mercury 
 cncloled in water, which communicated with the open air, by 
 a violent fhaking of the veflel wherein it was enclofed, emitted 
 particles of light in great plenty, like little ftars." 
 By including the veffel of mercury, EsfV. in a receiver, and 
 exhaufting the air, the phenomenon was changed : and upon 
 making the veflel, inftead of fparkles of light, the whole mafs 
 appeared one continued circle of light. 
 Artificial Phosphori arc fuch as owe their luminous quality to 
 fome art or preparation. 
 
 Of thefe there are three principal kinds : the firft burning, 
 which confumes every comb irfiible it touches ; the other two 
 have no fenfible heat, and are called the bononian and hermetic 
 Pbofphorus. 
 
 The burning Phosphorus may be made of urine, blood, hairs, 
 and generally of any part of an animal that yields an oil by di- 
 ftillation.— The matter itis mod eafily drawn from is human 
 urine. It isof a yeltowilh colour, and of the confidence of hard 
 wax, in the condition it is left by the diftillation ; and in this 
 ftate is called Pbofphorus fulgurans, from its corufcations ; and 
 Pbofphorus fmaragdinus, becaufe its light is frequently green or 
 blue, efpecially in places that are not very dark. It is alio 
 called folid Pbofphorus from its confidence. 
 It diffolves in all kinds of diftilled oils ; and in that ftate is 
 called the liquid Pbofphorus. 
 
 It may be ground in all kinds of fat pomatums ; in which cafe 
 it makes a luminous unguent. 
 
 So that the Pbofphorus fulgurans, fmaragdinus, folid and liquid 
 Pbofphorus, and luminous unguent, are all the fame Preparation 
 under different circumftances. 
 
 It was invented by Mr. Kunkel, chymift of the elector of Sax- 
 ony ; and brought into France by M. Kraft, a phyiician of 
 Drefden, by whom it was communicated to Mr. Boyle. 
 In 1676, Mr. Elzbolt publilhed a treatife exprefly on it, at 
 Berlin ; and in 16S0, Mr. Boyle publilhed another in Englilh 
 under the title of Nocliluca. 
 
 M. Homberg firft made fome of it at Paris in 1679, and com- 
 municated the method of preparation to the public. 
 Preparation of folid Phosphorus ov Phosphorus of urine. — ■ 
 Evaporate a good quantity of urine of beer-drinkers to the 
 confidence of honey. Cover it up in an earthen veflel, and let 
 it three or four months in a cellar to ferment and putrity. — • 
 Mix two parts of land, or powder of pot-threads, with one 
 part of this urine, and putit into a retort, fitted to a long-necked 
 receiver, with two or three quarts of water in it. — Diftil it in a 
 naked fire, in a revei beratory furnace j at firft gently ; after two 
 
 P H O 
 
 hours, augment the fire gradually, till all the black fetid oil be 
 drawn ori.— Raife the fue'to the higheft degree ; upon which 
 white clouds will come into the receiver, and fix by little and 
 little on one fide, inform of ayellowilhfkin; and another part 
 will precipitate to the bottom in powder. — Keep the fire thus 
 violent tor thiee hours till no more fumes arife.— Let all cool, 
 and unloofe the veffels ; and throwing more water into the re- 
 ceiver, fluke ail well about, to loofen what fticks to the fide**. 
 — Pour the whole into a glafs veffel to fettle. 
 Thevolatile fait will nowdiffolve in the water, and thePbofph- 
 rus andoilwillfmk to the bottom; then pour off the water, and 
 gathering the remaining matter together, put it into a glafs- 
 veflel with a little freih water ; and digeft it in a fand-heat, 
 ftirring it from time to time with a wooden fpatula. 
 By this means the Pbofphorus will feparate from the oil, and 
 fink to the bottom ; pour off the oil, and make up the Pbof- 
 phorus, while hot, into fticks for ufc. 
 
 Boerhaave gives us other ways of yiepai-'mg Pbofphorus. Recent 
 urine, he obferves, digefted three or four days in a tall glafs, 
 with a heat no greater than that of a healthy man, grows rud- 
 dy, fetid, and cadaverous: this digefted urine being put to 
 diftil in a retort, yields a clear fetid liquor, then a yellow vola- 
 tile fait, which evaporated to the confidence of a fapa, and 
 mixed with four times its weight of dry land, and the diftilla- 
 tion continued in a covered retort ; there fucceflively comes 
 over, by greater and greater degrees of fire, a fetid brown oil, 
 bluifh tumes, and finally a graft fhining matter which finks in 
 water, and is the folid Pbojphorus. 
 
 'I o make it more eafily, and to the beft advantage, it may be 
 proper to take a fufficient quantity of human urine, afforded by 
 a perfon not much given to drink wine, and exhale it away in 
 an open veffel to a rob, or the confidence of honey ; then fet it 
 to purify for half a year, and upon diftillation it will afford a 
 large proportion of fait ; after which, if fix times its own quan- 
 tity of land, or brick-duff, be added to the remainder, and the 
 diftillation be continued, as in the cafe ]aflmention'd,the Pbof- 
 phorus will fall into the water.-Or it may commodioufiy be pre- 
 pared, by fuff'ering the rob of urine to digeft for two years in 
 an open veffel in the open air ; during which time a flimy, 
 feculent, unftuous, earthy matter will fall to the bottom ; 
 which being frequently walhed with pure water, wherein it 
 will not diffolve, will leave a white matter behind it, neither 
 of an alkaline, acid, faline, orterreftrial, nor fcarce of an unctu- 
 ous nature : and this is of itfelf a proper matter for the ma- 
 king of Pbofphorus by diftillation with fand. 
 Properties of folid Phosphorus. — 10 With this Pbofphorus one 
 may write on paper, as with a pencil, and the letters will ap- 
 pear like flame in the dark ; yet in the light nothing will ap- 
 pear but a dim fmoak. 
 
 2° A little piece rubbed between two papers takes fire inftan- 
 taneoufly — and if care be not taken in the management of it, 
 there is danger of burning the fingers, the Pbofphorus being ex- 
 ceedingly inflammable. 
 
 3 0 Its burning is very vehement, and penetrates deeper into the 
 fle'fh than common fire ; and it is very diffiucult to be extin- 
 guifhed. 
 
 M. Cafiini happening to prefs a piece in a cloth between his 
 fingers, the cloth immediately took fire ; he endeavoured to 
 putit out with his foot, but his fhoe caught the flame, and he 
 was obliged to extinguilh it with a brats ruler, which caft 
 forth rays in the dark for two months after. 
 The folid Pbofphorus never fpoil s, provided it be kept in a phial 
 full of water : that in form of an unguent does not keep fo 
 well, and the liquid Pbofphorus word of all. 
 The liquid Pbojphorus is beft made by digeding in horfe-dung, 
 a little bit or fome fcrapings of the folid kind, for two days, in 
 oil, or effence of cloves, oil of turpentine, or the like. After 
 diffolution the oil will be fo impregnated with it, that upon, 
 opening the bottle, the matter will appear on a flame. 
 Experiments with liquid Phosphorus..— By wafhing the face, 
 hands, or the like, with liquid Pbofphorus, Dr. Slare tells us 
 they will be made to fhine very considerably in the dark, and 
 the ludre thereof will be communicated to adjacent objects, 
 yet without any offence to the fkin. 
 
 As foon as a candle is brought in, the fhining difappears, and 
 no change is perceivable. 
 
 7 his Pbofphorus emitsfrequent flafheslike lightning, even when 
 clofe ftopped,efpecially in warm weather. HenceMr.Boyle takes 
 occafion to draw a parallel between lightning and Pbofphorus. 
 Bononian Phosphorus. — The fecond kind of artificial Pbofpho- 
 rus, is a preparation of a done called the Bononian ftone, from 
 a city of that name in Italy, near which it is found. 
 The firft who undertook to make this done luminous, was a 
 chymift of that city called Vmcenzo Cafftarolo. — Poterus, Lice- 
 tus, &c. have defcribed the procefe, but midakenly : M. Hom- 
 berg, who made a journey to Italy exprefly to learn the pre- 
 paration, firft communicated the lame to Mr. Lemery, who 
 publilhed it in the feventh edition of his chymiftry. See the 
 article Bononian jhne. 
 
 T\i\sPhofphorus\t2iS not any fenfible heat, and only becomes lu- 
 minous after being expofedto the fun, ortheday-light, in which 
 ftate it relemblcs a burning coal, and preferves its light five or fix 
 
 minute-* 
 
P H O 
 
 minutes m the dark, during which time the tight gradually 
 dwindles ; and to recover the ihining, it muft be expolcd 
 afreth to the air. , . . , 
 
 The HtrmcthPnospHORus or Phosphorus Baldiam, which makes 
 the third kind, is a preparation of Englilh chalk, with aqua 
 fortis or fpirit of nitre, by the fire. 
 
 This makes a body confiderably fofter than theBonoman ftone, 
 but it has all the qualities thereof.— It has its name from its m- 
 ventorBaldwin, a German chymift, called Hermes in the fociety 
 of the tiatura curiojontm, whence its other name Hermetic 
 New Phosphori.— Some of the late chymifts have hit on other 
 forts of Phofphori.— Monf. Homberg, in a procefs upon the 
 fecal matter, happening to calcine it with allum, accidentally 
 produced a new Phofpborus, in form of a powder, the lean- 
 quantity of which taken out of a clofe veifel, and expofed to 
 the air upon a piece of paper, in a moment's time would take 
 fire, and fet the paper a imoaking, and preiently burn it or 
 any other combuflible matter it came near. 
 This it would do, equally by night and day ; and without rub- 
 bing or heating, or mixing it with any other thing to promote 
 the inflammation ; in which he obferves, it differed from all 
 the artificial Phofphari hitherto known, For that, e. gr. of 
 urine, requires a final) degree of warmth to enable it to ihine, 
 or to take fire ; and the Bononian ft one, and Pbofphorus BaUu- 
 ini, only ihine by means of the day-light. 
 In effect, M. Lemeiy the younger has at length dilcovered that 
 there is fcarce any animal or vegetable matter but will afford 
 Pbofphorus. — This he experienced in the feeds, farina?, leaves, 
 flowers, woods, roots, and oils of divers plants ; in honey and 
 fugar, and in the blood and flelh of calves, fhecp, flies, worms, 
 the yolks of eggs, &c. alfo in the human fkull, bones, fat, 
 and nails j and the dung of all animals. 
 
 The principal tiring added to all thefe matteis to ma!;e Pbofpho- 
 rut of them, is allum, which is indifpenlably requilite ; nor can 
 any other fait how near a-kin focver hereto, even though it 
 yield the very fame principles, be fubftituted in its place. As 
 to the means, or the opciation whereby it is to be made, cal- 
 cination appears to be the effential part. 
 Rationale of the efecls ^/Phosphorus. It may be obferved that 
 in moft of the natural Phofpbori, there is a biisk attrition or 
 friction concerned ; which we may fuppofe either to give the 
 minute parts of the fubftance the proper motion and agitation 
 neceffary to convert them into tire, if fire be fo producible, (as 
 Bacon, Boyle, Newton, and the generality of the Englifh phi- 
 lofophers have fuppofed that it is J or elle to expel and emit 
 the particles of tire naturally contained in them. 
 In the factitious forts, we may note, that a long procefs by fire 
 is ufually required, wherein the matter undergoes divers coc- 
 tions, torrefactions, calcinations, diftillations, is'c. in thecourfe 
 whereof a considerable quantity of five muft neceflarily be im- 
 bibed, and may pollibly be retained therein. 
 In that e. g. prepared of the fecal matter, M. Homberg ob- 
 ierves, that the aqueous part of the fubftance muft neceffarily 
 have all been evaporated, with the greateft part of the oil and 
 volatile fait ; leaving pores or vacuities in the places they pof- 
 felfed ; fo that what remains, is a fpongeous plexus of earth 
 and tix'd fait, having nothing in its loculi, or cavities, but 
 fome of the matter of the fire which has been flopped and de- 
 tained therein ; much as in quick-lime. 
 
 This being fuppofed, we know that the fixed fait, which is here 
 pretty copious, will readily abforb the moifture of the conti- 
 guous air j and that the hidden introduction of fueh moifture 
 into the pores of the powder muft pi oduce a friction, which 
 may excite a f'mall degree of heat ; and this joined with what 
 lire was there already laid up, may make a heat fufficient to 
 give fire to the Email remains of oils too clolely linked with the 
 fait to have been earned off by the calcining tire : fo that we 
 have here every thing neceffary to heat and light. 
 What confirms this doctrine is, that if die powder be kept in 
 a veifel not lutficicntly clofe ; the air, inlinuating by degrees, 
 moirtens and faturatcs it, but thatfoilowly, as not to produce 
 friction enough to fet it on fire ; fo that it is fpoiled, and dila- 
 bled from taking fire ever after : much as is the cafe in quick- 
 lime, which, after it has lain fome time in the air, ceafes to 
 grow hot even by the afi'ulion of water. 
 
 The reafon why quick-lime, which contains a great quantity 
 of paiticles of fire, as well as our powder, does not conceive 
 heat by the accefs of the air, or the ingrefs of its moifture into 
 the pores thereof, but that water muft be thrown thereon, is, 
 that the quick-lime being more throughly calcined, retains too 
 little fixed fait to imbibe the moifture readily and copioully 
 enough to excite the neceffary friction. 
 
 And the reafon why quick-lime docs not produce a flame, as 
 the powder does, even when water is call: on it, is, that it did 
 not retain enough of the oily matter to afford flame : for if 
 oil were mixed with it, a flame would readily cnlue. Mem. 
 de I' Acad. an. xjiu 
 Phosphorus, in altronomy, is the morning-ftar, or the planet 
 Venus, when the goes before the fun. 
 
 The Latins call it lua/er \ the French etoile de berger ; the 
 Greeks, Pbojpborus, from pa,-, light, and fqv, I bear, or bring. 
 PHOTOSCIATERICAj a term which fome authors ufe for the 
 art of dialling. 
 
 P H R 
 
 The name is derived hence, that the art not only (hews thfi 
 hours by the fhadow of a gnomon, whence it is called fcia- 
 teriea, from 6km, lhadow ; but fometimes alio by means of 
 the fun's light, as in lpot-dials, reflecting- dials, (Sc. from q>m, 
 lux, light. 
 
 PHOTINIANS, a feet of ancient hereticks, who denied the 
 divinity of Jefus Chrift. 
 
 They took their name from Photinui their chief, who was 
 bifhop of Sirmium, and a difciple ofMarcellus. — He main- 
 tained, as Leo tells us in one of his fermons, that Jefus Chrift 
 was true man, but not true God, nor bom before all ages ; 
 that he only began to be Chrift when the Holy Ghoft defcend- 
 ed upon him ; and that he was called only [on, for no other 
 reafon but becaufe the virgin had no other. — He was convicted 
 of his error, anddepofed by a fynod held at Sermiuin in 351. 
 — His error was afterwards revived by Socinus. 
 PHRASE, Phrasis, ♦PAXIE, in grammar, an elegant turn or 
 manner of fpecch, peculiarly belonging to this or that occa- 
 fion, this or that art, or this or that language. 
 Thus we fay an Italian Phrafe, an eaftein Phrafe, a poetical 
 Phrafe, or a rhetorical Phrafe. 
 
 A few elegant Phrafes, pertinently applied, are 3n ornament of 
 difcourfe ; but if they come too thick they have an ill effect, 
 and make the flyle favour of affectation. 
 Phrase is fometimes alio ufed for a Ihort fentence, or fmall fet 
 or circuit of words conftructed together. 
 In this fenfe father Huffier divides Phrafes into tompleat and 
 incompleat. 
 
 Phrases are amplest where there is a noun and a verb, each in 
 its proper function ; i. a where the noun exprelfes a fubjeet, 
 and the verb the thing affirmed of it. 
 Incompleat Phrafes, are thofe where the noun and the verb toge- 
 ther only do the office of a noun ; as coniift ing of feveral 
 words without affirming any thing, and which might be ex- 
 prelfed in a fmgle word. 
 
 Thus, that which is true, is an incompleat Phrafe, which might 
 be exprelfed in one word, truth .- as, that which is true fatisfies 
 the mind ; u e. truth fatisfies the mind. 
 PHRASEOLOGY, Phraseologia, opaseoaoi-ia, a collec- 
 tion of the Pbrajes, or elegant cxpreflions, in any language. 
 See Phrase. 
 PHRENES, opentee, in anatomy, the diaphragm. 
 
 It was thus called by the ancients, from fljw, mind ; they ima- 
 gining this the feat of the rational foul. Hence 
 PHRENESIS, Phrensy, or diffraction. Sec Phrenitis, and 
 
 Paraphrenesis. 
 PHRENETIC nerves, called alfo diaphragmatic and flomacbie 
 nerves, arc nervous branches derived from the cervical nerves, 
 whicli joining in a trunk, run through the mediaftinum undi- 
 vided, till arriving near the diaphragm, they again divide, and 
 fend off divers branches, fome into the mul'cular, others into 
 the tendinous part thereof. 
 PHRENIC vefjeh, an appellation given to a vein, a*id fome ar- 
 teries of the human body ; from their palling through the 
 diaphragm. See Diaphragm. 
 
 The phrenic artery arifes out of the defcending aorta, and di- 
 ftributes itfelf into the diaphragm and pericardium. See Tab. 
 Jnat. f Angeiol.)y?£. 1. 40. See alfo Artery, Aorta, isc. 
 The phrenic veins are two veins which the defcending cava re- 
 ceives immediately after its piercing the diaphragm. — See Tab. 
 Anat. (Angeiol.) fig. 6. hit. q. q. 
 PHRENITIS *, Phrene.sis, or Phrensy, in medicine, a 
 confiant and vehement delirium, or diffraction j accompanied 
 with an acute fever, raving, waking, ts'c. 
 
 * It has its name tatmc, from ftatr, mem, the undemanding ; or 
 as fome will have it, from <p sw, the diaphragm, in regard the an- 
 cients fuppofed it to have its feat in that part. 
 
 It differs from the mania, and melancholy, in that thefe are with- 
 . out fevers. 
 
 Phyficians generally make the Phrenkis to confift in an in- 
 flammation of the meninges of the brain; and diftinguifh it 
 from the paraphrenias, which they fuppofe to be an inflamma- 
 tion of the diaphragm. 
 
 Willis will have them the fame difeafe, and both to confift 
 in an inflammation of the animal fpirits. He only diftinguilhes 
 them as the inflammation arifes from the cereb.um alone, or 
 from the cerebrum and cerebellum together; and conclude;, 
 that they both arife in a fever, from the boiling blood's throw- 
 ing its adult recrements into the brain. 
 
 Boerhaave makes the Phrenitis either true, wherein the cere- 
 brum, or meninges, or both, are inflamed; or fymptematic, 
 where the matter of a fever is tranflated into the cerebrum. 
 The true one either kills on the third, fourth, fifth, or fe- 
 venth day ; or it changes into a mania, lethargy, comus, &c. 
 tremors, gnafhing of the teeth, and grumous blood diftilling 
 from the nofe in this cafe, are prognoftics of de.-.th. 
 The difeafe is moft fiequently the effect of inflammatory or 
 malignant fevers ; though it fometimes arifes from a fupprei- 
 fion of the natural evacuations, as the menfes, &c, 
 Thecureisthefameasofanapoplexy; but where the evacuations 
 
P H T 
 
 are concerned, they muft firft be rectified. 
 PHRENSY. See the article Phrenitis. 
 PHRYGIAN made, in mufic. See Mode. 
 PHRYGIANS, Phryges, or Phrygastes, as S. Epiphanlus 
 
 calls them, in the church hiftory, were ancient heretics, a 
 
 branch of the montanifts ; fo called from Pbrygia, a country 
 
 where they abounded. 
 
 They efteemed Montanus their prophet ; and looked on Max- 
 
 imilla and Prifcilla as great propheteires. 
 
 This fpirit of prophecy, or rather enthufiafrh, was their diftin- 
 
 guilhing character. In the bufinefs of the trinity they were 
 
 orthodox. 
 
 PHTHIR1ASIS *, *©epiasis, in medicine, the morbus pedi- 
 cularis, or louzy difeafe, wherewith children, and even fome- 
 times adults, are afflicted. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, fki?, Ioufe. 
 Its caufe is in the feeds or ova of that vermin laid in the 
 cuticle, which here happening to prove a proper nidus, che- 
 rifhes and farters the feed fo as to hatch it. 
 The linnen cloths ufed by goidfmiths to wipe their veffels 
 with after gilding, are excellent againft the Phthiriafn by reafon 
 of the mercury they contain: they are to be applied by rub- 
 bing the child's head. 
 
 PHTHISIS, Ae&IEj in its general fenfe, denotes any kind of 
 confumption of the body, in what part foever it be feated, or 
 from what caufe foever it arife. 
 
 Thus we have a nervous Phthifn, and renal Pbthtfs, dorfal 
 Phlbijis, pulmonary Pbrbijis, c2V: 
 Phthisis, in its proper fenfe, is reftrained to a pulmonary con- 
 fumption, or a confumption arifing from an ulcer, or other 
 diforder of the lungs, accompanied with a flow hectic fever, 
 which waftes, extenuates, and confumcs the mufcular flefli. 
 Sydenham obferves, that the hectical Phthifn ufually has its 
 origin in the winter's cold ; from a fliarp humour trickling 
 down upon the lungs, where, like a catarrh, it irritates them 
 fo as to raife a cough. 
 
 This by degrees brings on other fymptoms ; as a fpitting, firft. 
 of a vifcid pituita, then a heavy fetid pus, then of pure blood, 
 and fometimes of the very fubftance of the lungs rotted by a 
 long exulceration : with night-fweats, falling off of the hair, 
 and finally a colliquative flux, which is foon followed by 
 death. — The fame author adds, that the Phthifn kills two thirds 
 of thofe who die of chronic difeafes. 
 
 In the laft ftage of the Phtbifs, the nofe appears fharp, the eyes 
 hollow, the temples fallen, the ears cold and contracted, the 
 Ikin about the forehead hard and dry, and the complexion 
 greenifti, or livid, &t. This appearance is called the fades hip- 
 pocratica'. 
 
 Among tire caufes of this difeafe may be reckoned intem- 
 perance, as it brings on a plethora or cacochymia, and alfo 
 peripneumonies, afthma's, pleuriiies, &c. Morton adds, that 
 the Phthifn frequently arifes from an ill conformation of the 
 breaft ; which is either natural, as when the breaft is too nar- 
 row, the heck too long, Csto or accidental, where there happens 
 a curvity or distortion of the breaft ; — among the fymptoms 
 he reckons a naufea, or reaching, with a heat in the palms of 
 the hands, and rcdnefs in the cheeks, all after eating. 
 For the cure— Sydenham orders the deflu&ion on the lungs, 
 in the firft ftage, to be abated by blood-letting, bV. and pec- 
 torals to be uled, accommodated to the various Mates of the 
 difeafes, viz. Incraflants, attenuants to alfwage the hectic, Is'c. 
 with emulfions, aftes-milk, Eifft and balfamics to cure the ulcer. 
 But the chief alliftance in this difeafe is to be expected from ri- 
 ding constantly on horfe-back : he fays the patient need not 
 confine himfelf to any laws of diet, &'c. This alone, he adds, 
 if ufed in time, is almoft as fure a cure for a Pbtbifss, as the 
 cortex is for an intermittting fever. See Exercise. 
 Dr. Baynard recommends butter-milk, as an admirable fucce- 
 daneum toafles-milk. — Silvius fays, lie knows of no medicine, 
 either internal or external, fo good againft frefh ulcers of the 
 lungs, as balfam of fulphur, efpecially when prepared with oil 
 of anife. 
 
 Etmullcr obferves, that the cough of phthifcal people is at firft 
 only ftomachal; but that at length it becomes pulmonary. He 
 adds, that vomitories are good in a beginning Phthifis> and 
 that purgatives by all means are to be avoided ; and com- 
 mends the ufe of medicines made of tobacco, not only as 
 they promote expectoration, but as they are vulnerary. 
 It is a common obfervation, that in thofe countries where 
 they burn turf, people are rarely affected with the Pbtbifis j 
 which Willis afcribes to the fulphur abounding therein, and 
 recommends tincture of fulphur as the beft remedy he knows 
 of in any cough without a fever ; adding, that a furfumigation, 
 or fmother, of fulphur and arfenic has alfo frequently proved 
 a cure in the moft defperate Phthifn. 
 
 Boneti:s holds the Phthifn to be contagious ; and that there are 
 ficquently inftanccs of its being communicated by cloaths, 
 linnen, beds, isc: 
 Vol. II. 
 
 PHY 
 
 Pitcairn recommends mcrcurius dulcis, in the beginning of i 
 Pbtbip. ^ And Barbrette and Colbatch afi'ert, that, contrary tc 
 the opinion of moft authors, they have frequently ufed acids 
 with great fuccefs in the Pbtbifii. See Supplement, Artide 
 
 PHTHISIS. 
 
 PHYGETHLON *, 4YrraA0N, ; n medicine, is defined by 
 t-elfus, a hard flat tumour, fomewhat reftmbling a puftle ; oc- 
 cafioning an intenfe pain, and fometimes a fever. 
 
 * The word is derived from the Gieel;, f „«, i breed, or engender. 
 The Phygethhn only differs from the phyma, in that it does not 
 rife fo high ; it ripens very flowly, and produces but little pus. 
 The Latinscall xtpanis, orpamts, and fometimes paiiiada—GoT- 
 rrcus defines the Phygethhn, a phlegmon, arifing on the glandu- 
 lous parts, efpecially about the neck, armpits, and inguen ; in 
 which laft place it is called a bubo. 
 
 The Phygitbhn has the fame caufes, and the fame fymptoms 
 with the common bubo. It frequently arifes after fevers, and 
 pains of the belly, and is cured like other inflammatory 
 tumours. 
 
 PHYLACTERY, 4TAAKTHPI0N, in church-hiftory, a flip of 
 parchment, wherein was wrote fome text of holy fcripture, 
 particularly of the decalogue ; which the more devout people 
 among the Jews wore on the forehead, the breaft, or the neck, 
 as a mark of their religion. See Frontal. 
 
 Phylactery, in the general, was a name given by the ancients 
 to all kinds of charms, fpells, or characters, which they wore 
 about them, as amulets, to preferve them from dancers or 
 difeafes. 
 
 The primitive chriftians alfo gave the name Phyheterks to 
 *<• ca| es wherein they inclofed the relicks of their dead. 
 PHYMA, 4>tma, in medicine, a roundifh pointed tumour, 
 arifing on the glandular parts, efpecially under the lower 
 jaw. 
 
 The Phyma is fmallcr and finoother, left red and painful, than 
 the Phygethhn. See Phygethlon. 
 
 It is eafily cured in children, but more difficultly in adults, but 
 in thofe it is more rare. It is remedied by aflifting nature in 
 the work of maturation , as, by a fuppurating cataplafm, Isc 
 —It is fuppofed to have its rife from pituitous blood • and is 
 moft common in young children, where it frequentlv alfo 
 anles from too tight bandages. is-. X* r" 
 
 Gorraus obferves, that fome make Phyma a general name for 
 a) tumours, or apofthumes, that maturate and fuppurate rta- 
 tlleyarife ' ' " whatfoever Sedulous part 
 
 H cSS°L PHY5ICK ' * raKH ' ,he art of h ^-' twiy 
 
 •The word is formed from the Greek, „ atHe . ;„ d 
 
 medicine confilts principally m the obfervation of nature. 
 For the rife, progrefs, divifion, &e. of Pbyfu, fee Medicine 
 Ucrmetieal Physic. J c lU ., (Hermftti-ai ' ' 
 
 Bachelor */Physic ( Seethe ^\ Bach ELor 
 PHYSICAL, ot^ikoe, fomething belonging to, or really exift 
 ing in, nature. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay a phyfual point, in oppofition to a mathe- 
 matical one, which laft only exifts in the imagination 
 Or * phyfual fubftance, or body, in oppofition to fpirit' or me. 
 taphyfical fubftance, &c. 
 Physical 
 
 or fenfible horizon. 
 Physical agent. 
 Physical caufe. 
 Physical certitude. 
 Physical concrete. 
 Physical continuity. 
 Physical evidence. 
 Physical fate. 
 Physical good. 
 Physical necefjity. 
 Physical part. 
 Physical perfection. 
 Physical pojfibk. 
 Physical predetermination. 
 Physical premodon. 
 Physical qualities. 
 "hysical quantity. 
 
 >?,< 
 
 See Horizon, 
 Agent. 
 Cause. 
 Certitude. 
 Concrete. 
 Continuity. 
 Evidence. 
 Fate. 
 Good. 
 Necessity. 
 Part. 
 
 Perfection, 
 Possible. 
 
 Pr 
 
 ED E TERMI NATION* 
 
 Premotion. 
 Quality. 
 Quantity. 
 
 PHYSICIAN, a perfon who profeifes medicine, or the art of 
 healing. 
 
 The ancients diftinguiflied their Phyfuiam into various claffes 
 or fects : — As, 
 
 Rational Physicians, thofe who proceeded in a certain regular 
 method, founded upon reafon ; deducing confequences there- 
 from, to particular cafes. 
 
 Methodical Physicians. See the article Methodical. 
 
 Dogmatical Physicians, thofe who laid down principles, and 
 reafoned from thofe principles, and from experience. 
 
 Empirical Physicians, thofe who keptwholly to experience, and 
 excluded all ufe of reafon in medicine.— Such were Serapion, 
 Appollonius, Glaucus, &fc 
 
 8 X ciinhal 
 
PHY 
 
 Clinical Physicians were thofe who vifited their patients in bed 
 to examine their cafes. 
 
 They were thus called in oppofition to the empiric^ who fold 
 their medicines in the ftreets, CsV, 
 
 The ancients had alfo their aftrological Pbyficiam, botanical 
 Pbyficiam anatomical Pbyficiam, chirurgical Pbyfidans, pharma- 
 teutical Pbyfidans, &c. befides gymnaftical Pbyfidans, iatra- 
 liptre, or thofe who applied external unctions, and fric- 
 tions, £sV. — Cofmetic Pbyficiam for the complexion ; opthalmic 
 Pbyficiam for the eyes; and vulnerary Pbyfidans for wounds, 
 We. 
 
 Among the moderns, the name Pbyfidan includes almoft all 
 thefe feveral kinds. — Regular Pbyficiam are contra-diftinguifhed 
 from empirical Pbyfidans, who prefcribe at random ; having 
 only fome one or two remedies which ferve in all difeafes. 
 
 Galenical Physicians are thofe who prefcribe gentle, natural, 
 and ordinary medicines. 
 
 Spagyrical or cbymical Physicians are thofe who prefcribe vio- 
 lent medicines drawn from minerals, &c. by fire, and by 
 means of chymiftry. 
 
 College 0_/"PhYsicians. See the article College. 
 
 PHYSICKS *, Physica, OYEikh, fometimes alfo called phyfio- 
 logy, and natural pbilofophy ; is the doctrine of natural bodies, 
 their phsenomena, caules, and effects, with the various affec- 
 tions, motions, operations, Wc. thereof. 
 
 * The word is derived from the Greek, (pvj^, nature. 
 
 Mr. Locke would likewife have God, angels, and fpirits, ^ome 
 under Pbyfiicks, but thefe are more ufually referred to meta- 
 phyficks. 
 
 The origin of Phyfids is referred by the Greeks to the barba- 
 rians, vizi the brachmans, magi, and the Hebrew and Egyp- 
 tian priefts. 
 
 From thefe it was derived to the Greek fages or fophi, parti- 
 cularly to Thales, who is faid to have rirft piofelfed the ftudy 
 of nature in Greece. 
 
 Hence it defcended into the pythagoric, platonic, and peripa- 
 tetic fchools ; whence it was propagated into Italy, and thence 
 through the reft olKurope: though the druids, bards^ We; 
 had a fort of fyflems of Pbyfids of their own. 
 Pbyficks may be divided, with regard to the manner wherein 
 it has been handled, and the perfons by whom, into 
 
 Symbolical Physics, or fuch as was couched in fymbols : fuch 
 was that of the old Egyptians, Pythagoreans and Platonifts, 
 who delivered the properties of natural bodies under arithme- 
 tical and geometrical characters, and hieroglyphics. 
 
 Peripatetical, or that of the Ariftotelians, who explained the 
 nature of things by matter, form, and privation, elemen- 
 tary and occult qualities, fympathies, antipathies, attractions, 
 Wc. 
 
 Experimental, which enquires into the reafons and natures of 
 things from experiments ; fuch as thofe in chymiftry, hydro- 
 ftatics, pneumatics, optics, &c. 
 
 This has been much cultivated fince the time of my lord Ba- 
 con ; and continues to be fo, with good fuccefs. 
 The experiments of the academifts of Cimento, of the royal 
 foclety, of the royal academy, and thofe of private perfons, 
 particularly Mr. Boyle, Sir If. Newton, Mr. Hawibee, £sV. 
 have been of infinite fervice in Pbyfics ; and it is to thefe, in 
 great meafure, that the advantage of the modern philofophy 
 above the ancient is due. 
 
 And finally, Mechanical or Corpuficuhr^ which explains the ap- 
 pearances of nature from that matter, motion, ftructure, and 
 figure of bodies, and their parts ; all according to the fettled 
 laws of nature and mechanicks. 
 
 PHYSIOGNOMIC S, a term ufed by fome phyficians and 
 naturalifb, for fuch figns as are taken from the counte- 
 nance to judge of the flate, difpofition, c5V. of the body and 
 mind. 
 
 PHYSIOGNOMY *, GYiiorNflMiA, the art of knowing the 
 humour, temperament, or difpofition of a perfon, from obfer- 
 vation of the lines of his face, and the characters of its mem- 
 bers or features. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, ^o-,,, nature, and y^aaxu, 
 I know. 
 
 Baptifta Porta and Robert Fludd are the top modern authors 
 on Phyjiognomy. — The ancient ones are the fophift Adaman- 
 tius, and Ariftotle; the Phifiognomy of which laft we have 
 tranilated into Latin by de Lacuna. 
 
 There feems to be fomething in Phyfisgnamy ; and it may per- 
 haps bear a much purer philofophy than what thefe authors 
 were acquainted withal. This, at leaft, we darC fay, that of 
 all the fanciful arts of the ancients, difufed among the mo- 
 derns, there is none has fo much foundation in nature as 
 this. 
 
 There is an apparent coriefpondence between the face and the 
 mmd ; the features and lineaments of the one are directed 
 by the motions and affections of the other : there is even a 
 peculiar arrangement of the members of the face, and a pe- 
 culiar difpofition of the countenance, to each particular 
 arlcctionj and perhaps to each paiticular idea of the 
 mir.d. 
 
 \ 
 
 PHY 
 
 In effect, the language of the face, Phyfiognmis, >s as copious, 
 nay, perhaps, as diftinct and intelligible, as that of the tongue', 
 fpeech— Thanks to bounteous nature, flie has not confined us 
 to one only method of converting with each other, and of 
 learning each other's thoughts ; we have feveral : we do no: 
 wholly depend on the tongue, which may happen to be 
 bound ; and the ear, which may be deaf ; but in thofe cafe3 
 we have another refource, the countenance and the eye. 
 which afford us this further advantage, that by comparing" 
 the reports of the tongue (a member exceedingly liable to 
 deceive) with thofe of the face, the prevarications of the 
 former may be detected. 
 
 The foundation of Pbyfiognimy is tllis; the different objefls 
 that prelent thenifelves to the i'enfes, nay, the different ideas 
 that arife on the mind, do each make fome impteflion on the 
 fpirits : and each an impreflion c'orrefpondent or edequate to 
 its caufe : therefore each makes a different impreflion. 
 If it be asked how fuch an impreflion fhould be effected > It is 
 eafy to anfwer that it follows from the ceconomy of the crea- 
 tor, who has fixed fuch a relation between the feveral parts of 
 the creation ; to the end that we may be apprized of the ap- 
 proach or recefs of things ufeful or hurtful to us. 
 If this be not philofophical enough, take the manner in the 
 Cartefian language, thus : the animal fpirits moved in the or- 
 gan by an object, continue their motion to the brain ; whence 
 that motion is propagated to this or that paiticular part of 
 the body, as is moft fuilable to the dclign of nature ; having 
 firft made a proper alteration ia the face, by means of its 
 nerves, efpecially the pathctici and oculorum motorii. 
 The face, here, does the office of a dial-plate ; and the wheels 
 and fprings within- fide the machine aauating its mufcles, 
 fhew what is next to be expected from the finking part.— 
 Not that the motion of the fpirits is continued all the way by 
 the impreflion of the object ; the impreflion probably termi- 
 nates in the medulla of the brain, the common fund of fpirits : 
 the left Dr. Gwither imagines may be effected much after the 
 fame manner as the air is conveyed into the pipes of an organ, 
 which being uncovered, the air rufhes in, and when the keys 
 are let go, is flopped again. 
 
 Now, if by repeated acts, or the frequent entertaining of a fa- 
 vourite paflion, or vice, which natural temperament has hur- 
 ried, or cuftoin dragged one 'to ; the face is often put in that 
 pofture which attends fuch aas ; the animal fpirits will make 
 fuch patent pafl'ages through the nerves (in which the ef- 
 fenfe of a habit conlifts) that the face is fometimes unalterably 
 fet in that pofture (as the Indian religious are by a long 
 continued fitting in ftrange poftures in their pagods) or at 
 leaft it falls infenfibly and mechanically into that pofture, 
 unlefs fome prefent object diftort it therefrom, or fome dif- 
 fimulation hide it. 
 
 This reafoningis confirmed by obfervation : thus we fee great 
 drinkers, with eyes generally fet towards the nofe ; the addu- 
 cent mufcles being oft employed to put them in that pof- 
 ture, in order to view their loved liquor in the glafs, in the 
 time of drinking; whence thofe mufcles are alio denominated 
 bibitcry 7mifdei. 
 
 Thus alfo lafcivious perfons are remarkable for the oculorum 
 mobiles pctulanlia, as Petronius calls it.— Hence alfo we may 
 account for the quakers expefting face, waiting the fpirit ; the 
 melancholy face of moft feftaries ; die ftudious face of men 
 of great application of mind, f$c. 
 
 Were our obfervation a little more ftrict and delicate, we 
 might doubtlefs not only diftinguifh habits and tempers, but 
 even profeflions.-— In effect, does there need much penetra- 
 tion to diftinguifti the fierce look of the veteran foldier, 
 the contentious look of the practifed pleader, the folemri 
 look of the minifter of ftate, or many others of the like 
 kind. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY *, tiSTOAOru, the dodrine of nature, or 
 natural bodies ; called alfo pbyfics, and natural philofophy. 
 
 • The word is formed of f mi! , nature, and difcomfe, or 
 
 reafon. 
 
 Physiology properly denotes only an internal reafoning, or 
 difcouifing, which flops or terminates in the fpeculation, or 
 abftract contemplation of its object, viz. natural appearances, 
 their caufes, ts'c. and does not direa or prefcribe rules for 
 the making of natural things, e. gr. (tones, plants, tiff. 
 In which view, chymiftry does not properly belong to Phyfio- 
 but is a kind of counter-part thereto, as in many cafes 
 imitating or mimicking nature, rather than confidering and 
 explaining her. 
 
 Phisiology is more particularly ufed for a branch of medi- 
 cine, whieh confiders nature with regard to the cure of di- 
 feafes ; particularly the human body, its parts, ftructure, 
 health, life, functions, ceconomy, t$c. 
 Pbyfwlogy, in this fenfe, amounts to much the fame with what 
 we otherwife call the doctrine of the animal ceconomy. 
 
 PHYTOLOGY*, MTOAOriA, a difcourfe upon plants; era 
 defcription of their forms, kinds, properties, &c. 
 * The Word is compounded of the Greek, rpfo, t plant, and v.!©-, 
 difcourfe, or asfw, I defcribe, or rehearfe. 
 
P I G 
 
 P I C 
 
 PIA mater, in anatomy, called alfo mater tenuis, and meninx te- 
 nuis, a fine coat, or membrane, immediately inverting the 
 "brain. — Tab. Anat, (Ofteol.) fig. 4. lit. a, a, a. 
 
 PIACHE, Piazza, a covered arched walk, or portico. See 
 Portico and Piazza. 
 
 PIASTER, a Spanifh money, more ordinarily called a piece of 
 eight. See Piece of eight. 
 
 PIAZZA, in building, popularly called Piache, an Italian name 
 for a portico, or covered walk, fupported by arches. 
 The word literally iignifi.es a broad open place, or fquare ; 
 whence it alfo became applied to the walks, or portico's around 
 them. 
 
 PICA, in medicine, malaria, or a depravation of appetite, which 
 makes the patient abfurdly covet things unfit for food, or in- 
 capable of nouriihing, as coals, alhes, plaifter, fait, lime, 
 chalk, vinegar, pepper, £sV. 
 
 The Pica is frequent in girls, and in women with child ; men 
 are more rarely affected with it. — Thediforder isfeldom ori- 
 ginals but is ufually an effect of an hypochondriacal infirmity 
 in men ; and of a chlorofis, ftoppage of the menfes, or their 
 eruption about the fecond month of pregnancy, in women : 
 fometimes it feems to be hereditary in children, from fome 
 caufe affecting the mother. 
 
 The difeafe is ufually fuppofed to have its rife from a vitious 
 ferment of the ftomach ; to which may be added alfo fome 
 diforders of the imagination, occafioned by ill examples and 
 ridiculous prejudices. 
 
 In the Philofophkal Tranfaclians, Dr. Fairfax gives us ah in- 
 stance of a woman in Stow-market, who was invited by her 
 Pica to fuck the wind out of bellows ; which as often as fhe 
 could fhe took into her body with open mouth, forcing it in 
 by blowing with both hands, the bellows being inverted.— 
 He adds, he knew another in the fame circumftances, whom 
 nothing would fatisfy but crackling cinders under her feet. 
 Something like this has alfo been fuppofed to be fometimes 
 found in brutes.— The laft mentioned author mentions a 
 greyhound bitch, who five or fix days before calling her 
 whelps, longed for another bitch's whelps, and eat them all 
 up, and would have eat the bitch herfelf. Thus it is that 
 fows are fometimes known to eat up whole litters of pigs. — - 
 The ufual remedies in the Pita, are bleeding, purging, vo- 
 
 , miting, and chalybeats. 
 
 Pica., in printing. See printing Letter. 
 
 PICARDS, a religious feet, who arofe in Bohemia, in the 
 XVtfi century ; fo called from their author one Picard. 
 He drew after him a great number of men and women, pre- 
 tending he would reftorc them to the primitive ftate of inno- 
 cence wherein Adam was created ; and accordingly himfelf 
 aifumed the title of the new Adam. 
 
 Under this pretence he taught his followers to abandon tftem- 
 felves to all impurity ; making them believe, that therein con- 
 fifted the liberty of the fons of God ; and that all thofe not of 
 their fed were in bondage. 
 
 He firft began in Germany and the Low Countries : perfuading 
 many people to go naked, and giving therrt the name of Ada- 
 mites. — After this, feizing an illand in the river Laufnecz, a 
 few leagues from Thabor, the head quarters of Zifca, he fixed 
 himfelf and his followers therein ; appointed his women to be 
 Common, but allowed none to enjoy them without his permif- 
 fion. So that when any man defired a Woman, he carried her 
 to Picard, who gave him leave in thefe words, mcreafe, multi- 
 ply, and fill the earth. 
 
 At length, Zifca, the great general of the Huflites, fb famous 
 for his victories over the emperor Sigifmund, (buck with their 
 abominations, marched againft them j and making himfelf ma- 
 tter of their ifland, put them all to death except two,' whom he 
 fpared to inform himfelf of their doctrine. 
 
 PICATUM vinum. See the article Vinum. 
 
 PICKAGE, or Piccage, Piccagium, an ancient cuitom 
 or duty, paid at fairs and markets, for breaking the ground, 
 and pitching up flails, or ftandings. 
 
 This profit of Pickage was ufually given Or granted in charters 
 for holding a fair or market. 
 PICKEERINGi 2nd Pickeroonikg. See the article Pic- 
 queering. 
 
 PICKET, Picquet, or Piquet, in fortification ; a ftake fharp 
 at one end, and ufually (hod with iron ; ufed in laying out the 
 ground, to mark the feveral meafures and angles thereof. 
 There are alfo larger Pickets, drove into the earth to hold to - 
 gether falcines or faggots, in any work caft up in hafte. 
 
 Pickets are alfo flakes drove into the ground by the tents of the 
 horfe, in a camp, to tie their horfes to; and before the tents 
 of the foot, where they reft their mufkets or pikes about them 
 in a ring. 
 
 "When an horfeman hath committed any confiderable offence, 
 he is often lentenced to ftand on the Picket ; which is to have 
 one hand drawn up as high as it can be ftrctched, and thus to 
 ftand on the point of a Picket or ftake, only with his oppofite 
 foot ; fo that he can neither ftand nor hang well, nor eafe 
 himfelf by changing feet. 
 Pickets are alfo ftakes with notches towards the top, to which 
 
 are fattened the cordages of tents.— Thus, to plant the 
 is to encamp. 
 
 Picket in gaming. See the article Piquet. 
 
 PICKLE, a brine, or liquor, ordinarily compofed of fait, vine- 
 gar, Effe. fometimes with the addition of fpices, wherein meats, 
 fruits, and other things are preferved and feaibned. 
 
 Pickle is alfo ufed fubffantively for a fruit, root, leaf, or other 
 vegetable matter, prepared in Pickle, to be ufed by way of 
 fauce, bV. See Sal l et, isc. 
 
 They pickle artichokes, mufhrooms, afhen-keys, barberries 
 afparagus, beans, &c. — Broom-buds, capers, and olives are 
 picked with oil and vinegar. 
 PICKLED fijh. See the article Fish. 
 
 PICQUEERING, PickeerIng, or Pickerooning, a little 
 flying war, or Ikirmifh, which the foldiers make when de- 
 tached from their bodies, for pillage, or before a main bat- 
 tle begins. 
 
 PIQUET, or Picket, a celebrated game at cards, much in Life 
 throughout the polite world. 
 
 It is played between two perfons, with only thirty two cards ; 
 all the duces, threes, fours, fives, and fixes, being fet afide. 
 In reckoning at this game, every card goes for the number it 
 bears, as a ten for ten ; only all court-cards go for ten, and the 
 ace for eleven : and the ufual game is one hundred up. — In 
 playing, the acew p ins the king, the king the queen, and fo down. 
 Twelve cards are dealt around, ufually by two and two j which 
 done, the remainder are laid in the middle : if one 'of the 
 gamefters finds he has not a court-card in his hand, he is to 
 declare he has carte blanche ; and tell how many cards he will lay 
 out, and defire the other to difcard, that he may fhew his 
 game, and fatisfy his ahtagonift that the carte blanche is real ; 
 for which lie reckons ten. 
 
 Each perfon difcards, i. e. lays afide a certain number of his 
 cards, and takes in a like number from the ftock. — The firft 
 of the eight cards, may take three, four or five ; the dealer, 
 all the remainder if he pleafes. 
 
 After difcarding, the elder! hand examines what fuit he has 
 moft cards of; and reckoning how many points he has in that 
 fuit j if the other have not fo many in that or any other fuit 
 he tells one for every ten of that fuit. — He who thus reckons 
 moft is faid to win the point. 
 
 The point being over, each examines what fequences he has 
 of the fame fuit, viz. how many tierces, or fequences of ihree 
 quartes or fours, quintes or fives, fixiemes or fix's, csY. For 
 a tierce they reckon three points, for a quarte four, for a quinte, 
 fifteen, and for a fixieme fixteen, &c. And the feveral fequences, 
 are diftinguiihed in dignity by the cards they begin from : 
 thus; ace, king, and queen, are called tierccmajor ; king, queen" 
 and knave, tierce to a king ; knave, ten, and nine, tierce to a 
 knave, l$c. and the beft tierce, quarte, or quinte, ;'. e. that 
 which takes its defcent from the beft card, prevails ; fo as to 
 make all the others in that hand good, and deftroy all thofe 
 in the other hand.— In like manner a quarte in one hand fets 
 afide a tierce in the other. 
 
 The fequences over, they proceed to examine how many aces, 
 kings, queens, knaves, and tens, each holds ; reckoning for 
 every three of any fort, three : but here too, as in fequences 
 he that with the fame number of threes, has one that is higher 
 than any the other has, e. gr. three aces, has ail his others made 
 good hereby, and his adverfary's are alt let afide. — But four of 
 any fort, which is called a quatorze, always fet afide three. 
 Allthe game in hand being thus reckoned, the eldeft proceeds 
 to play, reckoning one for every card he plays above a nine • 
 and the other follows him in the fuit : and the higheit card of 
 the fuit wins the trick.— Note, unlefs a tries be won with a 
 card above a nine, (except the laft trick) nothing is reckoned 
 for it ; though the trick ferves afterwards towards winning 
 the cards : and that he who plays laft does not reckon for his 
 cards unlefs he wins the trick. 
 
 The cards being played out, he that has moft tricks reckons 
 ten for wttmutg the car ls.- If they have tricks alike, neither 
 reckons anything.— The deal being finiihed, and each having 
 marked up his game, they proceed to deal again as before, 
 cutting afrefheach time for the deal. 
 
 If both parties be within a few points of being up, the carte 
 blanche is the firft thing that reckons; then the point; then the 
 fequences ; then the quatorzes or threes ; then the tenth cards. 
 He that can reckon thirty in hand, by carte blanche, points,' 
 quintes, EaY, without playing before the other has reckoned any 
 thing, reckons ninety for them ;— and this is called a repique.- 
 If he reckons above thirty, he reckons fo many above ninety." 
 If he can make up thirty, part in hand, and part play before the 
 other has told any thing, he reckons for them lixty.-- And this 
 is called a pique. Whence the name of the game. 
 He that wins all the tricks, inftead of ten, which is his right 
 for winning the cards, reckonsforty,— and this is called a capoU 
 
 PICRA—Hiera PiCra. See the article Hiera. 
 
 PICTA Toga. See the article Toca. 
 
 PICTS Walk in antiquity, a famed piece of Roman work, be- 
 gun by the emperor Adrian, on the northern bounds of Eng- 
 land, to prevent the incuriions of the Picts and Scots, 
 
 A5 
 
P I E 
 
 At fiVft it was made only of turf, flrengthencdwith palliladbes; 
 till the emperor Severus, coming in perfon into Britain, built it 
 with folid ftone, reaching eight miles in length, from the Irifh 
 to the German lea, or from Carlifie to Newcaftle ; with watch- 
 towers garrifoned at the difranceof a mile fromcach other. 
 It was mined leveral times by the Picr.s, and often repaired by 
 the Romans.— At laft Altius, a Roman general, rebuilt it of 
 brick ; and the Pitts ruining it in the year following, it was no 
 longer regarded, but as a boundary between the two nations. 
 The wall was eight foot thick, and twelve high from the 
 ground ; it run on the northlide of the rivers Tyne and Ir- 
 thing, up and down feveral hills : the tractor remains of it are 
 to be feen to this day in many places both in Cumberland and 
 Northumberland. 
 
 PICTURE, Pictura, a piece of painting: or a fubjett, re- 
 prelented in colours, on canvas, wood, or the like j and in- 
 cloied in a frame. 
 
 PIECE, in commerce, fignincs fometimes a whole j and fome- 
 times only a part of the whole. 
 
 In the firit fenfe we fay, a Piece of cloth, of velvet, fi*f. mean- 
 ing a certain quantity of yards, regulated by cuflom ; being 
 yet entire, and not cut. 
 
 In the other fignincation, we fay, a Piece of tapeftry, meaning 
 a diftinct member wrought a-part, which with leveral others 
 make one hanging. 
 
 A Piece of wine, of cyder, &c. is a calk full of thofe liquors. 
 Chimney Piece. 1 fC 
 
 Detachea 'Piece. U ee the articles- 
 
 MaJler-BizCE. \ 
 Eafel Piece. J 
 
 Piece, in matters of money, fignifies fometimes, the fame thing 
 with /pedes : as, when we lay, this Piece is too light, &c. 
 Sometimes by adding the value of the pieces, it is ufcd to ex- 
 prefs fuch as have no other particular name : as, a Piece of 
 eight rials, a Piece of twenty five fols, &c. 
 In England, the Piece abfolutcly, is fometimes ufcd for twenty 
 millings fterling ; and fometimes for a Guinea. 
 By 6 G. II. c. 25. Broad -pieces of five and twenty or three and 
 twenty (hillings value, 01 any halves or quarters thereof, are 
 called in.— And all perfons are forbid to receive or utter them 
 in payment by tale. 
 
 Piece of eight, or piaffe, is afilver money, firft (truck in Spain 
 afterwards in other countries ; and how current in moil parts 
 of the world. 
 
 It has its name Piece of eight, or rial of eight, becaufe equal to 
 eight filver rials. 
 
 Its value is nearly on the fame foot with the late French crown ; 
 VIZ. four (hillings and fix pence ilerling.— In 1687, the pro- 
 portion of the fimple rial to the piaftcr was changed ; and in 
 lieu of eight rials they gave ten.— At prclent the reduction is 
 on the ancient frandard. 
 
 Therearetwo kindsof piaftersorSpanifh crowns; the onefrruck 
 atPotofi, theotlieratMexico: thefe latter are a little matter hea- 
 vier than the former, but in return they are not quite fo fine. 
 Th&Pieu of eight has its diminutions, itiz. the demi-piafter, or 
 Piece of four rials ; the quarter, or Piece of two; the half quar- 
 ter, and the fixteenth.— The exchange between Spain and Eng 
 land is made in Pieces of eight. 
 Piece, is alio a kind of Money of account, or rather a manner 
 of accounting ufcd among the negroes on the coaft of Angola 
 in Africa. 
 
 The price of fiaves, and other commodities, here negociated, 
 as alio the duties paid the petty kings, arc eftimated on both 
 fides in pieces. Thus, thole barbarians requiring ten Pieces for 
 a Have ; the Europeans in tike manner value the money or 
 merchandize, to be given in exchange, in Pieces. 
 E. gr. a barrel of powder of ten pounds, is one Piece ; a 
 Piece of blue falempouris goes for four Pieces ; ten brafs ba- 
 tons are reckoned for one Piece. 
 Piece, in heraldry, denotes an ordinary, or charge. See Or- 
 dinary, and Charge. 
 
 The honourable Pieces of the fliield, are the chief, fefs, bend, 
 pale, bar, crofs, faltier, chevron ; and in general all thole which 
 may take up one third of the field, when alone, and in what 
 manner foever it be. 
 Pieces, in the military art, include all forts of great guns and 
 mortars. 
 
 Thefe are alfo called Pieces of ordnance, or artillery. 
 Field Pieces are a fmaller fort, carrying balls of ten or twelve 
 pounds. 
 
 Battery Pieces are the larger fort of guns ufed at fieges for ma- 
 king of breaches.— Such are the twenty four pounders, and the 
 culvei in ; the one carrying twenty four, and the other eighteen 
 pound of ball. 
 
 Poifoning a Piece. ~i fPo 
 
 Elevation of a Piece. VSee the article: 
 
 Quadrating a Piece. ) (_Q\ 
 
 PIEDOUCHE *, in architecture, a little iland, or pe 
 deftal, either oblong or fquare, enriched without mouldings ; 
 
 ■ ferving to fuppoit a buft, or other little figure. 
 
 f Poison'. 
 es^ Elevation. 
 
 t QUADRATINC 
 
 P I E 
 
 The word 13 French, formed from the Italian, jtifadt, foot. 
 PIEDROIT, in architecture, a peer ; or a fquare kind of pillar; 
 part whereof is hid within a wall. 
 
 The only thing wherein it differs from a pilafler is, that the 
 latter lias a regular bale and capital, which the other wants". 
 See Pilaster. 
 
 Piedroit is alfo ufcd for a part of the folid wall annexed to a 
 door or window ; comprehending the door-pod, ehanioranie 
 tableau, leaf, fjrY. 
 PIE-POUDER-&Krt, an ancient Court mentioned in many of 
 our ftatutes, to be held in fairs ; for the rendering of iuftice 
 to buyers and fellers ; and the redrels of grievances S&« 
 therein. 
 
 It had its name either becaufe moft ordinarily held in iurnmer 
 and that the fuiters hereat were chiefly country clowns -with 
 dufty feet, called by the French, fUds poudren.r • or from the 
 expedition intended in the hearing of caufes proper thereto 
 ere the dull went off the plaintiff and defendant's feet. ' 
 The Saxons called it ceapiinj-jemoc-, /'. e. court of mer'chan- 
 dife; or a court for the deciiion of difputes relating to buy- 
 ing and felling.— Docfor and ftudent obferve, that it is on'y 
 held during the continuance of the fairs, bY. 
 PIER. See the article Peer. 
 
 PIERCED, Perce', in heraldry, is when an ordinary is perfo- 
 rated or (truck through, Ihewing, as it were, a hole in it. 
 This Piercing is to be expl oded in blazon, as to its lhape : thus 
 if a crofs have a fquare hole, or perforation in the center, it is 
 VwuxxA, fquart pierced, which is more proper than quarter 
 pierced, as Leigh exprelfes it; and accordingly the French 
 call it, pace en quarrc.— When the hole, or perforation is 
 round, it muft be expreffed round pierced ; which Gibbon in 
 Latin calls perforata, becaufe all holes made with pierces or 
 augers, are round.— If the hole in the center be in the (hape 
 of a lozenge, it is exprefi'ed pierced lozenge ways. 
 All piercings muft be of the colour of die field; becaufe piercing 
 implies the Ihewing of what is under the ordinal y, or bear 
 trig.— And when fuch figures appear on the center of a crofs 
 (sfc. of another colour, the crofs is not to be fuppofed pierced' 
 but that the figure on it is a charge, and muft be aecordinglv 
 blazoned. & 3 
 
 PIERCING, among farriers.— To pierce a borfe's fixe lean, is to 
 pierce it too near the edge of the iron.— To pierce it fat, is to 
 pierce it further in. 
 PIES, in our ancient law-books.— Frercs Pies, were a fort of 
 monks, lo called becaufe they wore black and white garments 
 like magpies ; the fame, we fuppofe, with thofe fince called 
 Carmelites : who, for a like reafon, were anciently called bv 
 the French Frercs Barrez. 
 
 They arc mentioned by Walfingham, p. 124. In quodavrve- 
 ■tm ecemeteno, quodfucntt quondam fratrum, quos freres pies vete- 
 . res appellabant. ' r 
 
 PIESTRUM, niKTPOS, an inftrument wherewithal to beat in 
 pieeerthe bones of the head, fometimes neceffary in draw- 
 ing a child out of the womb : called alfo embryetbbfics. 
 PIETANTIA, or Pittance, a portion of vidtuals dift'ributed 
 to the members of a college, or other community, upon 
 fome great feftivals. 1 
 PIETANTIARIUS. See the article Pitanciarius. ' 
 PIETISTS, a religious feet lately fprung up among the proteft- 
 ants of Germany, fecming to be a kind of mean between 
 the quakers of England, and the quieftifts of the Romilh 
 church. 
 
 Their author was Spenerus, from whom they learnt to defpife 
 all ecclcfiaftical polity, allfchool theology, and all forms and 
 ceremonies ; and to give themfelves up to contemplation, and 
 the myftick theology. 
 
 The Fietifls are eftcemcd Adiaphorifts, or Indiffcrentifts, / r 
 in the German way of talking, they receive and allow of all 
 feds among proteftants, particularly the calvinifts ; contrary 
 to the practice of other Lutherans.— Hence a Lutheran of 
 Dantzick defines Ptetifm, an aflemblage of the hypothefes, or 
 fyftems, of Anabaptifts, Schwenckfeldians, Weigelians Rath 
 manmans, Labadifts, and Quakers, who, under pretence of 
 a new reformation, and in hopes of better times, fet afide the 
 Augiburg confeflipn. 
 
 " The fame author charges the Picti/ls not only with fchifm but 
 with herefy ; in that they believe with the Donatifts, that the 
 efiea of the facraments depends on the piety and virtue of 
 the minifter ; that creatures are emanations from the fubftance 
 of God ; that a ftate ot grace is a real pofVeffion of the divine 
 attributes, and a true deification ; that one may be united to 
 God, though he deny the divinity of Jefus Chrift ; that all 
 error is innocent, provided the perfon will be but fincere • 
 that the preventing grace is natural, and that the will'-bcginl 
 the work of falvation ; that one may have faith without any 
 fupernatural afliftancc ; that all love of the creature is original 
 fin : that a chriftian may avoid all fin ; and that one may enjoy 
 the kingdom of God in this world. 
 
 Thefe things we find charged on the Pietifls, in a book inti- 
 tuled, Manipuhs olfcrvationum AntipicliJlicarum.~lnAei;i, this 
 • looks 
 
P I L 
 
 looks too much like polemical exaggeration ; at leaft it is cer- 
 tainly fo with regard to a good part of them. 
 In effedt there are Pietijfs of feveral kinds : fome ran into 
 grofs illufions, and carry their errors to the overturning a great 
 part of the chriftian doclrine : others are only vifionaries ; and 
 Others very honeft and good people, who difgufted with the 
 coldnefs and formality of other churches, and charmed with 
 the frequent piety of the Pietijh, are attached to their party, 
 without giving into the groffeft Of their errors. 
 
 PIETY— Mounts o/Piety. See the article Mount. 
 
 PIG of lead; the eighth part of a fother, amounting to about 
 250 lb. weight. 
 
 PIGER Hettricus, flothful Harry, a fantaftical name for a flow 
 diftilling chymical furnace ; called alfo z&athanor. SeeATHA- 
 
 NOR. 
 
 PIGMENTS, Pig men t a, preparations ufed by painters, dy- 
 ers, csV. to impart colours to bodies, or to imitate particular 
 colours. 
 
 When glafs is ftained or coloured, as in painting oh glafs, or 
 for counterfeiting gems, or precious ftones; the Pigme, 
 always of a metalline, or a mineral nature. 
 
 PIGMY, or Pygmy. See the article Pygmy. 
 
 PIGNE. See the article Pinea. 
 
 PIKE *, an offenfive weapon, confirming of a fhaft of wood, 
 
 twelve or fourteen foot long ; headed with a flat pointed fteel, 
 
 called the fpear. 
 * The name Pike is faid to be derived from a bird, called by the 
 French pie, by us wood-pecker, who^e bill is faid to be fo fharp as 
 to pierce wood like an auger.— Du Cange derives it from the bafe 
 Latin pica, or picca, which Turnebus iuppofe= to have been fo 
 called, quafi /pica, becaufe refembling a kind of ear of corn : Ocla- 
 vio Ferrari derives ir d fpicula. — M. Fauchet fays it was the Pike 
 that gave name to the Picards, and to Picardy, which he will have 
 to be modern, and to have been framed on occafiDn of that peo- 
 ple's renewing the ufe of the Pike, the etymology whereof he 
 fetchesfrom the French piquer, to prick : but others will have the 
 names picard to have been given that people by reafon of their 
 readinels to pick quarrels, called in French ptstte). 
 
 The Pike was a long time in ufe in the infantry, to enable 
 
 them tofuftain the attack of the cavalry; but it is now taken 
 
 from them, and the bayonet, which fixes on at the end of 
 
 the carabine, is fubftituted in its place. 
 
 Yet the Pike ftill continues the weapon of foot- officers, who 
 
 fight Pike in hand, falute with the Pike, Effr. 
 
 Pliny fays the Lacedemonians were the inventors of the Pike. 
 
 — The Macedonian Phalanx was evidently a battallion of 
 
 pikemeh. 
 
 Pike, in commerce — TO treat at the Pike, or Pike's end, a la 
 'pique, denotes a kind of commerce which the Europeans hold 
 tfith certain favage nations, wherein they are to keep on 
 their guard, and,- as it were, fword in hand. — Thus it is we 
 treat with the favages of Canada, tsc. and with fome negro 
 nations on the coaff of Africa. 
 
 Treating at the Pike alfo denotes a kind of prohibited traffic 
 which the Englifh, French and Dutch maintain in feveral parts 
 of the Spanilh Weft-Indies, near the colonies which thofe 
 nations have in the Caribbee iftands. 
 
 Perhaps it mould rather be called treating at Pike, i. e. with the 
 veffel at anchor ; in regard this commerce, which is prohibited 
 on pain of death, is only praetifed in roads where veffels lie 
 at anchor, waiting for the Spanifh merchants, who fometimes 
 by ftealth, though more frequently with the connivance of 
 the governors, is'e. come to exchange their gold, pieces of 
 eight, cochineal, fjfY. for the European merchandizes. 
 Others will have it treating at the Pike, i. e. at a Pike's length, 
 or dijlance ; by reafon of the diftance ftrangers are obliged to 
 keep at. 
 
 Vi^fjbing. I r Fishing. 
 
 HuxingofViKz, J bee the artlcIes | Huxinc. 
 P1LA or Pile, among our ancient writers, denotes the arms- 
 fide of a piece of money. 
 
 The denomination arofe hence, that anciently this fide bore 
 an impreffion of a church built on piles. 
 Fleta, lib. 1. cap. 39. He who brings an appeal of robbery or 
 theft againff another, muft Ihew the certain quantity, quality, 
 price, weight, number, meafuie, or the valorem & pilum 
 where pilum fignifies figurammonetse. 
 
 Pila *, Peer, in building, a mafs of mafons work in manner 
 of a pillar, ufually hexagonal. 
 * The word comes from the Latin, pi/a, ufed in the fame fenfe by 
 Vitnmttt j and this probably from wtbau, cego, coarilo. 
 Such are thole ferving as fulcra, to feparate and fupport the 
 arches of a ftone-bridge, or the beams of a wooden-bridge. 
 The Peers of a ft one-bridge are not to be lefs than one fixth 
 part of the arch, nor more than a fourth. 
 Evelyn obferves, that Pila and their quadras, as we fee them 
 in ancient altars and monuments, were ufed for inferiptions ; 
 but the Jhorter and more maffy ferved for arches and buttreffes 
 to folid work. — They were fometimes made femicircular : but 
 the ancients preferred thofe pointed at right angles, as beft 
 able to refill the current. 
 
 PILASTER, in architecture, a Enure column, fometimes infu- 
 Voj.. II. 
 
 P I L 
 
 lated, but more frequently let with 111 a wall, and orly project- 
 ing with a fourth or fifth pan of its thicknel's. 
 The Pilajter is ditferent in different orders; it borrows the 
 name of each order, and has the fame proportions, and the 
 fame capitals, members, and ornaments, with the columns 
 themfelves. 
 
 Pilaftm are made ufually without either fwellihgor diminution, 
 as broad at top as at the bottom ; though fome of the modern 
 architects, as M. Manfard, &c. diminilh them at top, and even 
 make them fwell in the middle, iike columns: particulaily 
 when placed behind columns. 
 
 Pilafttrs, M. Perrault obferves, like columns, become of diffe- 
 rent kinds, according to the different manner wherein they are 
 applied to the wall. — Some are wholly detached, called by Vi- 
 truvius paraftata ; others have three faces clear out of the 
 wall : and others two : and others only one ; tliefe are all call- 
 ed by Vitruvius, anta. 
 
 fnfulate Pila/lers are but rarely found in the antique. The 
 
 chief ufe they made of Pi/aftcrsvtas at the extremities of porti- 
 co's, to give the greater ftrength to the corners. 
 Thei e are four principal things to be regarded in Pi'.afters, Viz. 
 their projecture out of the wall, the diminution, the difpofition 
 of the entablature when it happens to be common to them 
 and to a column, and their fiutings and capitals. 
 ■l° Then, the projedlurc of Pilaftm which have only one face- 
 out of the wall, is to be one eighth of their breadth ; at mod: 
 not above one fixth. When they receive imports againft their 
 fides, their projeaure may be a quarter of their diameter. 
 2° Pilajltrs are but feldom diminifhed, when they have only 
 one face out of the wall.— Indeed where they (land in the 
 fame line with columns, and the entablature is continued over 
 both, without any break, the Pilaftm are to have the fame di- 
 minution with the columns ; that is to fay, on the face refpect- 
 ing the column ; the fides being left without any diminution. 
 3 0 Pilaftm are fometimes (luted, though the columns they ac- 
 company be not fo j and, on the other hand, the columns are 
 fometimes fluted, when the PUofttrs that accompany them are 
 not. 
 
 The fiutings of Pilaftm are always odd in number, except in 
 half Pilaftm, meeting at inward angles ; where four flutinss 
 are made for three, SsV. 
 
 4" The propoitions of the capitals of Pilaftm are the fame as 
 to height with thofe of columns, but they differ in width ; the 
 leaves of the foimer being much wider; becaufe Pilr.llers, fto' 
 of equal extent, have only the fame number of leaves' for 'their 
 girt, viz. eight. — Their uiual difpofition is to have two in each 
 face in the lower row, and in the upper row one in the mid- 
 dle, and two halves in the angles, in the turns whereof they 
 meet.— Add to this, that the rim of the vafe or tambour is 
 not ftrait as the lower part is, but a little circular and promi- 
 nent in the middle. 
 
 In Pilaftm that fupport arches, the propoitions, Palladio (hews 
 muft be regulated by the light they lie in ; and at angles by 
 the weight they are to fuftain. For which reafon, = fays Sir 
 Henry Wotton, a ruftic fuperficies beft becomes them. 
 
 PiLAsTER-^nV^. Seethe article Brick. 
 
 PILCHARD-/^. See Pilchard Fishinc. 
 
 PILE, in antiquity, a pyramid built of wood, whereon were laid 
 the bodies of the deceafed, to be burnt. 
 
 Pile is alfo ufed in building, for a great ftake rammed into the 
 earth for a foundation to build upon in marfhy ground. See 
 Foundation. 
 
 Amfterdam and fome other cities are wholly built upon 
 Piles. The ftoppage of Dagenham-breach is effected by 
 dove-tail Piles, i. e. by Piles mortifed into one another, by a 
 dove-tail joint. 
 
 Pile is alfo ufed among architect, for a mafs, or body, of 
 building. 1 
 
 Pile, Pila, in coinage, denotes a kind of punchion, which, in 
 the old way of coining with the hammer, contain'd the arms, 
 crofs, or other figure and infeription, to be ftmck for the re- 
 verfe of the fpecies. 
 
 Accordingly, we ftill call the arms fide of i piece of money 
 the Pile, and the head the crofs; becaufe in the ancient mo- 
 nies, a crofs ufually took the place of the head in ours. 
 Hence alfo the game of crofs and Pile. 
 
 Some will have it called Pile, Pila, becaufe on this fide, m our 
 ancient coins, there was an impreffion of a church built on 
 Piles. . Scaliger, with more probability, derives it from the 
 old French word, Pile, a fhip. fide prima Scaligarana, in voc. 
 Nummus Rathus, p. 1 15.— In fome ancient writings Pila is ufed 
 to fignify the particular figure or impreffion of money.— Thus 
 Fleta ; he who brings an appeal of robbery, or theft, againft 
 another, muft fllew the certain quantity, quality, price, weight, 
 number, meafures, value, and Pile. 
 Pile, in heraldry, is an ordinary, in form of a point inverted 
 or a ftake iharpened ; contracting from the chief, and termi- 
 nating in a point towards the bottom of the fhield, fome- 
 what in manner of a wedge.— See "Tab. Herald, fig. 80. 
 It is formed probably in imitation of the Roman pilum, 
 which was a tapering dart about five feet long, and fharpened 
 at the point with fteel. 
 
 8 Y The 
 
P I L 
 
 P I N 
 
 The Pile is born inverted, engrailed, EsV. like other ordinaries, 
 and iffues indifferently from any point fefthe verge of the ef- 
 cutcheon.r— He beareth a Pile gules, by the name of Chandois. 
 
 Piles, in medicine, a dileafe, by phyiicians, called bamorrboids. 
 See Hemorrhoids. 
 
 P1LETTUS *, in our ancient foreft laws, an arrow which had 
 a round knob a little above the head, to hinder it from going 
 far into the mark. 
 
 * From the Latin pila, which fignifies any round thing like a ball. 
 Et quad forejiarii fui non portabunt fagittas barbatas /c^pilettos. 
 Charta Rogcri deQuincy. 
 
 PILGRIM *, one who travels through foreign countries to vi- 
 fit holy places, and to pay his devotion to the reliques of dead 
 faints. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Flemifh, pelgrim, or Italian pcle- 
 grino, which figuifies the fame ; and thefe originally fiom the 
 Latin peregrinus, a ffrangcr, or traveller. 
 
 The humour of going on pilgrimage anciently prevailed ex- 
 ceedingly J particularly about the time of the croifades. 
 Several of the principal orders of knighthood were eftablifhed 
 in favour of Pilgrims going to the Holy Land, to fecure them 
 from the violences and infults of the Saracens and Arabs, fsV. 
 Such were the order of the knights Templars, the knights Hof- 
 pitallers, knights of Malta, <Jc. 
 
 PILLAGE, among builders, is fometimes ufed for a fquare pil- 
 lar, ftanding behind a column to bear up the arches ; having 
 a round bafe and capital as a pillar has. 
 
 PILLAR, in architecture, a kind of irregular column, round 
 and infulate j but deviating from the proportions of a juft 
 column. 
 
 Pillars are always either too mafiive or too (lender for a regu- 
 lar architecture. In effect, Pillars are not retrained to any 
 rules : their parts and proportions are arbitrary. 
 Such e. gr. are the Pillars which fupport Gothic vaults and 
 other buildings, &c. 
 
 A fquare Pillar is a maflive work, called alfo a peer or piedroit, 
 ierving to fupport arches, Sfitf. 
 
 hutting Pillar is a butment or body of mafonry, raifed to prop 
 or futtain the thiult of a vault, arch, or other work. See 
 Buttress. 
 
 Pillar, in the manage, fignifies the centre of the volta, ring, or 
 manage-ground, round which a horfe turns j whether there be 
 a wooden Pillar placed therein, or not. 
 
 There are alio Pillars in manages on the circumference, or 
 fide ; placed at certain dittances, by two and two. — To diftin- 
 guilh thefe from that of the center, they are called the two 
 Pillars. When thefe latter are fpoken of, it is ufual to fay, 
 work the horfe between the two Pillars. — When the former, it is 
 called working round the Pillar. 
 
 The ufe of the Pillar in the center, is for regulating the extent 
 of the ground, that the manage upon the volts may be per- 
 formed with method, and juftnefs, and that they may work 
 in a fquare by rule and meaiuie upon the four lines of the 
 volts; and alfo to bieak unruly high mettled horfes, without 
 endangering the rider. 
 
 The two Pillars are placed at the diflance of two or three 
 paces one from the other. — The horfe is put between thefe, 
 to teach him to rife before, and yerk out behind ; and put 
 himfelf upon raifed airs, csV. either by the aids, or chaltifement. 
 
 Ropes of two Pillars. See the article Rope. 
 
 P1LLE of Foddray, or Pile of Fouldrey, in the county of Lan- 
 cafter, a defence built on a creek of the fea called Pilh\ by the 
 idiom of the county, for a pile, or fort built for the fafe-guard, 
 or protection of any place. 
 
 This Pile was erected there by the Abbot of Fourneffc, in the 
 firft year of Edward III- Camd. Brit. Rex — Dedimus Henrico 
 comiti Ncrtbum. infulam, cajlrum, pelain £ff dominium de Man, &c. 
 Rot. Pat. i Hen. IV. 
 
 PILLORY was anciently a poft erected in a crofs road, by the 
 lord, as a mark of his leignory, with his arms on it, and fome- 
 times with a collar to tye criminals to. 
 
 Pillory, at piclent, is a wooden machine, whereon certain 
 criminals, as perjurors, csV. are fattened, and expofed to the 
 public derilion. 
 
 In the laws of Canutus it is called henlfehang. — Sir Henry 
 Spelman fays, it is fupplicii macbina ad ludibrium^ magis quam pa:- 
 nam. It was peculiarly intended tor tire punilhment of bakers 
 who fhould be caught faulty in the weight, or finenefs of their 
 bread. — In old charters is is called collijhigium. 
 The Pillory in Paris is in the middle of a round tower, with 
 openings on every fide, — It is moveable on an axis, or arbor ; 
 round which the executioner gives the criminal the number 
 of turns appointed in court ; flopping him at each opening to 
 ihew him to the people. — It was intended for feveral kinds of 
 criminals, particularly for fraudulent bankrupts ; and all thofe 
 who made a cellion, or furrender of their effects to their 
 creditors, were obliged to take fome turns round the Pillory 
 on foot, with a green cap on. 
 PILL, Pillula, in pharmacy, a form of medicine, taken dry ; 
 refembling a little ball ; invented in favour of fiich as cannot 
 well take ill-tatted mtxiicinal draughts ; as alfo to keep in rea- 
 dinefs for occafional ufe without decaying. 
 
 Pills are of various kinds, anodyne, fomniferous, laxative, 
 aperitive, hyfleric, antinephritic, ts'e. but they are principally 
 cathartic. 
 
 The bafis of cathartic Pills is ufually aloes ; with which are 
 mixed agaric, tuibith, hermo dactyls, fenna, rhubarb, colo- 
 cynth, lsc. 
 
 Pills are ufually wrapped up in leaf-gold, wafer paper, or the 
 like, to prevent their ill tafte being perceived. 
 Perpetual Pills, or Pill ul & perpetucs, are regulus of antimony 
 made up in pills ; thus called, becaufe being fwallowed and 
 voided fifty times, they will purge every time with undimi- 
 nished force. 
 
 The aloephav.gim or aromatic Pills of Mefue, made of aloes, 
 fcammony, troches of aihandal, and faffron, are by fome called 
 polycbrejla, as being fuppofed to collect the humours from all 
 parts, to enable nature to catt them out more eafily. 
 Bechic Pills, are a fort of Pills good againft coughs, fo called 
 from the Greek, Cu|, cough. — They are alfo called hypoglot- 
 tides, becaufe left like lozenges to diffolve under the tongue. 
 Pillulje Diarrbodon. See the article Diarkhodon. 
 PILOT *, a perfon retained on board a fhip to conduct it into 
 a road, or haibour ; or over bars, or fauds; or through ter- 
 pentine, and intricate chanels, or the like. 
 
 * Menage derives the word Pilot from prorita, q. d. lie who go- 
 verns the prow, or head. Others fetch it from the old Freinh 
 pile, fhip. 
 
 Pilots are no conftant and ftanding officers on board our 
 veffels : but are mottly called in occafionally on coafts and 
 fhoars unknown to the matter. — And having done their parts 
 in piloting the veifel, they return to ihoar where they re- 
 fide. 
 
 Among the French, Pilot is alfo ufed for the ttcerfman ; or an 
 officer on board a fhip, who always watches her courfe, and 
 directs it. 
 
 There are among the French two kinds of Pilots ; the one a 
 coafling Pilot, well acquainted with the coafts, ports, roads, 
 bars, fands, &c. and who commands in fight thereof. 
 The other an officer, who makes obfervations and takes alti- 
 tudes out at fea, ufes the quadrant, and fore-ttaff, and alio 
 watches the compafs. 
 
 The Pilot is always the fecond perfon in the fhip ; whether it 
 be a man of war, or a merchant-man. — In the former the cap- 
 tain is the firtt, the Pilot the fecond. In a merchant-ihip, the 
 matter is the firtt, the Pilot after him. 
 
 This Pilot is alfo the fteerfman, who ftands at the helm, and 
 manages the rudder. 
 PILY Bany. See the article Barry Pily. 
 
 PIMENTO, Pjmenta, all-fpice ; a kind of aromatic fruit, 
 
 called alfo guinea-pepper. 
 PIN, in commerce, a little necettary implement, chiefly ufed 
 
 by the women, in adjufling their drefs. 
 
 The form and application of this little moveable need no dc- 
 fcription ; but its confumption, and the number of hands it 
 employs, are too confidcrable to be pafl'ed by unnoted. 
 Pins are now altogether made of brafs wire blanched : former- 
 ly they likewife made them of iron-wire, which being 
 blanched like the others, patted for brafs : but the ill effects 
 ofthofc Phis has quite difcarded their ufe.— The French how- 
 ever could not be driven off from them without feveral arrets 
 of parliament. By a fentence of the lieutenant de police, 
 July 1695, the feizureoffome millions of thofe Pins was con- 
 firmed, and the Pins condemned to be burnt by the common 
 executioner. 
 
 The Pins mofl ettccmed in commerce are thofe of England ; 
 thofe of Bourdeaux are next, then thofe made at Rugle, Nai- 
 gle, and fome places in Normandy. 
 
 The perfection of Pins confitts in the ftiffnefs of the wire, and 
 its blanching, in the heads being well-turn'd, and the points 
 filed. 
 
 The London pointing and blanching are in mott repute ; be- 
 caufe after forming the points on the ttone, our pin-makers 
 fmooth them again on a polifher; and in blanching ufe fine 
 tin well calcined, and fometimes iilver leaves prepared by the 
 gold-beaters ; whereas in other parts they ufe a mixture of tin, 
 lead, and quick-lilver, which not only blanches worfe than the 
 former, but is alfo dangerous, by reafon of the ill quality of 
 that mixture, which renders a puncture with a Pin thus 
 blanched very difficult to cure. 
 
 The confumption of Pins, and the number of artificers em- 
 ployed in the manufacture thereof are incredible. In Paris 
 alone there were anciently above 1000 people employed in it, 
 at prefent there are none ; yet there is every year fold above 
 50,000 crowns worth of the Pin-wire, to the pin-makers of 
 the neighbouring places, all brought thither from Stockholm. 
 In the little Town of Rugle in Normandy, there are com- 
 puted at leaft 500 workmen employed in the P/'w-manufac- 
 ture ; the whole town being peopled therewith. 
 No twi tli flan ding that there is fcarce any commodity cheaper 
 than Pirn, there is none that paffes through more hands be- 
 fore they come to be fold. — They reckon twenty-five work- 
 men fucceflively employed in each Pin, between the draw- 
 ing of the brals-wire, and the flicking of the Pin in the paper. 
 
 Pins 
 
P I N 
 
 Pins are diftinguifhed by numero's : tlie fmaller called from 
 N° 3, 4, 5; thence to the 14th; whence they are only ac 
 counted by two to two, WK.N 9 16, 18, and 20, which is the 
 largeft fize. 
 
 Beiides the whitcPins there are alfo black ones made for mourtv 
 ing, from N° 4, to N° ro. — Thefe are ufually of iron-wire- 
 Laflly, there are Pins with double heads, of feveral numero's 
 ufed by the ladies to fix the buckles of their hair for the night, 
 without danger of being diftuibed by their pricking, &c. 
 One of the articles of the flatutes of the ancient pin-makers of 
 Paris, was, that no mailer ihould open more than one (hop 
 for the fale of his wares, except on new-year's-day, and the 
 eve thereof ; this we mention in an age of luxury and profu- 
 fion, to recollect the agreeable fimplicity of our fore-fathers, 
 who contented themfelves with giving Pins for new-years 
 gifts. 
 
 Hence tire cuftom of ftill giving The name Pins, or Pin-money, 
 to certain prelents which accompany the moft confiderabie 
 bargains ; in which it is ufual to give fomething towards the 
 Pins of the wife, or children, of the perfon with whom the 
 bargain is ftruck. 
 
 Hook Pins. 1 c . ... t Hook. 
 
 PrfatHmg-tni, \ S «theamcles Iproteact.no. 
 . ^Pinnas Mbere, a method of drinking anciently ufed among 
 the Danes in England. — The cuftom was to fix a Pin in the 
 fide of the wooden cup or waffalbowl ; which Pin, each guefl 
 was to drink bare, upon penalty of forfeiting. 
 
 Pv&-and-l"eb, a horny induration of the membranes of the eye 
 not much unlike a cataract. 
 
 The Pin and web is the fame with what we otherwife call 
 
 pannus, unguis, pterygium, &c. Set Pannus, Pterygium, cJV, 
 Vw-wbeel, of a clock, the fame with the firiking wheel. See 
 
 Wheel and Clock. 
 PINCHING, in gardening, a fort of pruning ; performed by 
 
 nipping or breaking off the branches, or fprigs of a plant, 
 
 tree, between the nails of two fingers. 
 
 Moft gardeners hold, that pinching contributes to the abundance 
 of the fruit, as well as of the branches ; and they fay, that 
 young moots, thus lopped, are lefs apt to grow black and die, 
 than when cut with a pruning knife. 
 
 The feafon for pinching is chiefly in April or May, fometimes 
 it is alfo practifed in June and July.-— The fruits it is practifed 
 on are chiefly melons, cucumbers, dsY. Quintiny alfo pi e- 
 fcribes it for fruit-trees. 
 
 It is chiefly to be praftiied on the large branches towards the 
 top of the plant, or tree, which are ufelefs, and yet confume a 
 great quantity of good fap. It mult rarely be employed on 
 the large branches below; which ought always to be preferved 
 for the winter's pruning, that they may yield others, the fol- 
 lowing year, fit to fill the empty places. — Nor mull the ope- 
 ration of pinching be performed on the tender moots ; becaulc 
 having only jurt fap enough for themfelves, when they come 
 to put forth more branches in the place where they are pinched, 
 the fmall flock of fap allotted them being divided, will flarve 
 them.— The operation is to be performed, within two or three 
 eyes of the branch they grow out of. 
 
 The effect of pinching is, that inftead of one ufelefs, and per- 
 haps hurtful wood-branch, a vigorous tree will put forth two 
 or three at the eyes remaining ; and the fap being thus divided, 
 the branches will be lefs, and fit for both wood and fruit. 
 Pinching, in the manage, is when, the horle ftanding, the rider 
 holds him fall with the bridle-hand, and applies the fpurs juft 
 to the hairs of his fides, without pricking him. 
 Pinching is accounted an aid, lpurring a chaftifement or cor- 
 rection. 
 
 PINDARIC, in poetry, an ode formed in imitation of the 
 manner of Pindar. 
 
 The Pindaric manner is diflinguifhed by the boldnefs and height 
 of the flights, the fuddenneis and furprizingnefs of the ttanfi- 
 tions, and the feeming irregularity, wildnefs, and enthuiiafm 
 of the whole. 
 
 Pindar, whence the manner takes its name, was of Thebes : 
 he flouvifhed about four hundred and feventy eight years before 
 Chrift; and was cotemporary with ^fchylus : what we have 
 remaining of his is a book of odes, all in praife of the victors 
 at the Olympian, Pithian, Nemaean, and Ifthmian games ; 
 whence the full is entitled the Olympians, the fecond the Py- 
 thmns, the third the Nemacns, and the fourth the IftbmtMS. 
 Pindar is full of force and fire, his thoughts arefententious, his 
 flyle impetuous, his fallies daring, and frequently running as 
 it were at random ; he affects a beautiful diforder, which yet 
 is faid to be the effect of the gl eateit art. 
 
 The fuppofed irregularity of his numbers has made feveral of 
 his imitators imagine themfelves pindaric poets, by the mere 
 wildnefs, and irregularity of their vcrfes. — None of our wri- 
 ters feem to have fucceeded in the pindaric character, better 
 than Cowley. 
 
 Jn a pindaric ode, the plan of the whole ought to be drawn full, 
 and the places marked out where the elegant fallies and wan- 
 drings may bell be, and how the returns may be hiftly made 
 to the fubjecl. J 1 
 
 P I N 
 
 PINEA, or Picne, in commerce, a term ufed in Peru and CSijij 
 for a kind ot light, porous mslles, or lumps formed of a mix- 
 ture ot mercury and filver dull from the mines. 
 T he ore, or mineral of filver, being dug out of the veihs of 
 the mine, is hrft broke, then ground in mills for the purpole, 
 driven by water with iron pertles, each of two hundred pound 
 weight.- The mineral thus pulverized, is next lifted, then 
 worked up with water into a parte, which when half dry, is cut 
 into pieces calied omrpo's a foot long, weighing each about 
 two thouland five hundred pounds. 
 
 Eachcuerpo is again kneeded up with fea-falt, which diffolvinz 
 incorporates with it— They then add meicu.y, from ten to" 
 twenty pounds for each cuerpo, kneeding the parte afrelh until 
 the mercury be incorporated therewith. This office being ex- 
 ceedingly dangerous, by rcafon of the noxious qualities of the 
 mercury, is always made the lot of the poor Indians. 
 'I his amalgamation is continued for eight or nine days ■ and 
 Tome add, lime, lead, or tin ore, bY. to forward it ; and in'fome 
 mines they are obliged toufe fire.-To try whether or no the 
 mixture and amalgamation be fufficient,they wafh a piece in wa- 
 ter, and it the mercury be white, it is a proof that it has had 
 its effect ; it black, it muft be further worked. 
 When enough, it is fent to the lavatories, which are large ba 
 Ions that empty fuccefiively into one another—The parte JsV 
 being laid in the uppermoft of thefe, the earth is then waflicd 
 ■ tho bva rivulet turned upon It, an Indian all 
 
 the while rtirnng it up with his feet, and two other Indians 
 doing the like in the other batons. 
 
 When the water runs quite clear out of the bafons, they find 
 the mercury and filver at bottom, incorporated.— This matter 
 they call Pel!,:, and of this they form the Pimm, by expreffing 
 as much of the mercury as they can; firft by putting it in 
 woollen bags, andprefling and beating it ftrongly ; then bv 
 ltampmg itin a kind of wooden mould of an oftagonai torn' 
 at bottom whereof is a bi afs plate pierced full of little holes 
 i he matter being taken out of the mould, is laid on a trivet 
 under which is a large veflel full of water ; and rhe whole beu,^ 
 covered with an earthen head, a tire is made around it 
 I he mercury ftill remaining in the mafs, is thus reduced into 
 tumes, and at length condenfmg, it is precipitated into the 
 water, leaving behind it a mafs of filver grains of different fi 
 gores, which only joining or touching at the extremes, render 
 the matter very porous and light. 
 
 This then is the Pima or Pi,m which the workmen endea- 
 vour to fell iecrctly to the vellels trading to the South-fea : and 
 trom which thefe who have ventured to engage in fo dange- 
 rous a commerce, have made fuch vart gains.- Indeed the tra- 
 ders ; herein murt be very careful, for the Spanilh miners are 
 errant knaves, and to make the Pigms weigh the more, they 
 
 ptSf » e r a P S il ' Ce ot hlling thc middle with &IH1 or iron. 7 
 1-lMi.AL, Iinealts, in anatomy, a name which Des Cartes 
 gives to a fmall gland in the third ventricle of the brain • from 
 its refemblance to a pine-apple. 
 
 This gland he makes the fenforium, or feat of the reafonable 
 loul. Other authors call it maims and conarium See Co- 
 
 NARIUM. 
 
 PINGUEDO, (in anatomy) the Latin term for fat. See Fat 
 Some rertrain Pingucdo only to that humid fift kind of fat found 
 m animals next under rhe Ikin. 
 PINION in mechamcks, an arbor, or fpindle, in the bodv 
 whereof are feveral notches, into which catch the teeth of a 
 wheel that lerves to turn it round. 
 
 Or a Pink,. r is alerter wheel, which plays in the teeth of a lar- 
 ger. See Wh eel. 
 
 In a watch &Y. the notches of a Pimm (which are commonly 
 wheels ' n0t teeth ' as in othcr 
 
 Pinion tfrQtfi, li that Pinion in a watch which is commonly 
 fixed on the arbor ot the great wheel, and which in old watches 
 ufed to have but four leaves ; it drives the dial-wheel, and car- 
 nes about the hand. 
 
 The quotient, or number of turns to be laid upon the Pinion, 
 ot report, is found by this proportion : as the beats in one 
 turn of the great wheel, are to the beats in an hour; fo are the 
 hours of the face of the clock. (fe& I2 , or 24) to the quotient 
 ot the hour-wheel, or dial-wheel divided by the Pinion of re- 
 port, that is, by the number of turns which the Pinion of re- 
 port hath in one turn of the dial-wheel : which in numbers 
 is 26928 : 20196 1:12:9. 
 
 Or rather thus : as the hours of the/watches going, are to the 
 numbers of the turns of the fufy^'ib are the hours of the face, 
 to the quotient of the Pinion of report— If the hours be 12! 
 then 16: 12: : 12: 9. Eut if 24, the proportion is 16 ■ 12 ■ ' 
 24 : 18. ' 
 This rule may ferve to lay the Pinion of report on any 
 other wheel, thus : as the beats in one turn of any wheel, 
 are to the beats in an hour ; fo are the hours of the face' 
 or dial-plate of the watch, to the quotient of the dial-wheel' 
 divided by the Pinion of report, fixed on the fpindle of the 
 aforefaid Wheel. 
 
 Flying 
 
PIP 
 
 Fhhu Pinion. See the article Flying. 
 
 PINK a Veflel ufed at fea, mailed and rigged like Other (Wpsj 
 only that Ihe is built with a round ftern ; the bends and rios 
 compaffing fo, as that her fides bulge out very much. 
 This difpofition renders the Pmb difficult to be boarded; 
 and alto enables them to carry greater burdens than otheis 
 —Whencethey are often ufed for ftore-fhips and hofpital-lnips 
 in the fleet. 
 
 PINNA, or Fenna, a Latin word figmfying a leather, 
 
 Itis^o ufed figuratively in divers arts, to exprefs things 
 
 which bear fome refemblance, in form, to feathers ; as the 
 
 tins of fillies, CSV. 
 Pinna auris, in anatomy. See Ear.^ 
 Pinna mfi, is the fame as ah mfi. See Nose. 
 PINNACE, a fmall veflel, with a fquare ftern, having la 
 
 and oars, and carrying three malls ; chiefly uled as a feout for 
 
 intelligence, and for landing of men. 
 
 One of the boats belonging to a great man of war, ferving 
 to carry the officers to and from the Ihoar, is alfo called the 
 Pinnaci. lAjk.ut ill .iwln^aii . , * V* 
 
 PINNACLE *, in architecture, the top, or roof, of a houle 
 terminating in a point. 
 
 * The word comes from the Latin pinna, or pinnaculum. 
 
 This kind of roof among the ancients was appropriated to 
 temples ; their ordinary roofs were all flat, or made in the 
 platform-way. . -i ,■ <- . 
 
 It was from rhe Pinnacle, that the form of the pediment too 
 its rife. . 
 PINNATA /c/m, in botany, are fuch leaves ot plants, as are 
 formed of fevcral other fmall leaves let on the two fides of a 
 middle rib, as thofe of the alh-tree, of vetches, and the 
 like. ■ y' 
 
 PINNING, in building, the fattening of tyles together, with 
 
 pins of heart of oak j for the covering of ahoufe, SSV. 
 PINT*, Pinta, a veflel, or meafure ufed in eftimatilig the 
 quantity of liquids, and even fometimes of dry things. 
 » Budxns derives the word Tint from the Greek otS* : others 
 from the German Pint, a little meafure of wine j Nicod from the 
 Greek nnnu, to drink, 
 The Englilh Pint is twofold ; the one for wine-meafure, the 
 other for beet and ale-meafure. 
 
 The wine Pint contains a full pound; avoir du pois, of com 
 mon running water ; two Pints make a quart, two quarts 
 pottle, two pottles a gallon, Est. 
 
 The Paris Pint is eftimated at one frxth of the ancient con 
 gius ; and contains two pounds of common water ; it is di 
 vided into chopines, which fome call feptiers : the fceptier 
 into two demi-leptiers, the demi-feptier into two poiflbns, 
 each poiflbn containing fix cubic inches.— Two Pints make 
 a quart, quarteau, which fome call a pot : the Pint of S 
 Denis is almoft double that of Paris. 
 
 PINTLE, among gunners, an iron which ferves to keep the 
 cannon from recoiling. 
 
 Pintles, in a (hip, are hooks by which the rudder hangs to 
 the ftern-poft. 
 
 PIONEER *, in war, a labourer employed in an army, to 
 fmooth the roads, pais the artillery a-long, and to dig lines 
 and trenches, mines, and other works. 
 * Menace derives the word from the Latin peritonei, a diminu 
 live of psditei : Bochart deduces it from the Paynes, a People 
 of Ma, whole principal employment was to dig the earth in 
 mines, &c. 
 
 PIP or Pep Pepia, a difeafe among poultry ; confiding of 
 white, thin (km, or film, that grows under the tip of the 
 tongue, and hinders their feeding. 
 
 It ufually arites from want of water, or from the drinking 
 puddle-water, or eating filthy meat.— It is cured by pulling 
 off the film with the fingers, and rubbing the tongue with 
 fait— Hawks are particularly liable to this difeale ; ei'pecially 
 from feeding on (linking flelh. 
 PIPE, in building, Wr. a canal or conduit for the conveyance 
 of 'water, and other liquids. . 
 Pipe! for water, water-engines, &£. are ufually ot lead, iron, 
 earth, or wood.— Thofe which are of timber ate commonly 
 either oak, or alder. ., 
 Thofe of iron are call in the forges ; their ufual length .- 
 about two foot and a half; feveral of thefe are commonly 
 fattened together, by means of four (crews at each end, with 
 leather, orold hat between them to flop the water. 
 Thole of earth are made by the potters.— I hefe are fitted 
 into one another, one end being always made wider than the 
 
 other.— , , . , , . , 
 
 To join them the clofer, and prevent their leaking, they ar_ 
 covered with pitch and tow.- Their length is ufually about 
 the fame with that of the iron Pipes. 
 
 The wooden Pipes ai e bored with large iron augers ot difterent 
 fizes lucceedin'g one another fiom lets to larger; the firfl 
 pointed, the reft formed fpoon-wife, increafmg in diameter 
 from one inch to fix.- They are fitted into the extremities of 
 each other, and are fold by the foot. 
 
 P I s 
 
 Leaden Pipes are of two kinds ; the one foldered, the other 
 not foldered : for the conftruction of each kind whereof, fee 
 Plumbery. 
 For the Pipes of organs. Seethe article Organ. 
 .S^Pipe. See the article Bag-Pipe. 
 
 pe is alfo a popular machine ufed in the fmoaking of to- 
 bacco ; confifting of a long ilender tube, made of earth or 
 clay; having at one end a little vale; or furnace, called the 
 bowl, for the reception of the tobacco : the fumes whereof 
 are drawn by the mouth through the other end. 
 Pipes are made of various faihions, long, fhort, plain, work- 
 ed, white, varnifhed, unvarniflied, and of various colouvs, c3Y._ 
 —The Turks ufe Pipes three or four foot long, made of 
 rufhes, or of wood bored; at the end whereof they fix a 
 kind of nut, of baked earth, which ferves as a bowl, and 
 which they take off after fmoaking. 
 Pipe*, alfo denotes a velTel, or meafure for wine, and things 
 meafurcd by wine-meafure. 
 
 * The word is formed from die barbarous Latin pepa, a veflel, 
 calk, cs°c. 
 
 The Pipe, or butt, contains two hogfheads, four barrels, 
 or one hundred and twenty fix gallons ; and is computed 
 to weigh about nine hundred, two quarters, and feventeen 
 pounds. 
 
 The Pipe is little ufed in France, except in Anjou and Poic- 
 tou, where it confifts of two boiffeaux, equal to a muid and 
 half of Paris ; the muid confifting of thirty fix feptiers, and 
 the feptier of eight pints. 
 
 Pipe, Pipa, in law, is a roll in the exchequer, called alfo the 
 
 great roll- 
 
 Pipe Office, is an office wherein a Perfon called the clerk of the 
 Pipe, makes out leafes of crown-lands, by warrant from the 
 lord-treaiiKer, or commiflioncrs of the tieafury, or chancellor 
 of the exchequer. 
 
 Clerk of the Pipe makes up all accounts of iheriffs, trV. and 
 gives the accomptants their quietus eft. To this Office are 
 brought all accompts which pals the remembrancers office 
 and remain there ; that if any ftated debt be due from any_ 
 perfon, the fame may be drawn down into the great roll of 
 the pipe ; upon which the comptroller iffues out a writ, 
 called the fununons of the pipe, for recovery thereof. And, 
 if there be no goods or chattels, the clerk then draws down 
 the debts to the lord treafurer's remembrancer, to write eftreats 
 againft their lands. 
 
 All tallies which vouch the payment of any fum contained in 
 fuch accompts, are examined, and allowed by the chief^iwr- 
 dary of the Pipe. 
 
 Belides the chief clerk, in this office are eight attorneys, or 
 fworn clerks, and a comptroller. 
 Piquet. See the articles Picket and Picquet. 
 PIRATE, or Pyrate, Pirata, rover ; a perfon, or veffel, 
 that robs on the high feas, or makes defcents on the coafts, 
 EsY. without the permiffion, or authority of any prince, or 
 ftate. 
 
 When Pirates are caught, they are ufually hanged up without 
 remifiion, or any formal trial; fometimes in the next port - t 
 fometimes on board the veflel that takes them. 
 In different parts they are differently denominated ; as in the 
 Weft-Indies, buccaneers, free-footers, CSV.-- In the Mediterra- 
 nean, corfairs, &c. 
 
 Alexander reproaching a Pirate with his condition ; was an- 
 fwered, if I am a Pirate, it is becaufe I have only a fingle vef- 
 fel ; had I a fleet, I (hould be a mighty conqueror. 
 Pirate was alfo anciently ufed for the perlbn to whofe care the 
 mole, or peer, of a haven, which in Latin was called pera, 
 was intrufted. 
 
 Pirate was fometimes too, according to Spelman, ufed for 
 a fea-captain, or foldier. Affer, in the life of king Alfred, tells 
 us, juffit naves hngas fabneari, impofuifque piratis in illis vias 
 maris cujlodiendas commijit. 
 PIROUETTE *, or Pvrouet, in the manage, a turn or cir- 
 cumvolution which a horfe makes, without changing his 
 ground. 
 
 * The word is French, and literally fign'ifies a whirligig. 
 Pirouettes are either of one tread or pijle, or of two.— The 
 nrft is an entire fhort turn which the horfe makes upon one 
 tread, and almoft in one time ; in fuch manner as that his head 
 comes tothe place where his tail was, without putting out his 
 haunches.— In the Pirouette of two treads or pifles, he takes 
 a fmall compafs of ground, almoft his length, and marks both 
 with the fore-part and the hind. 
 PISCARY, Piscaria, in our ancient ftatutes, the liberty of 
 
 fifhing in another man's waters. 
 PISCES, in aftrcnomy, the twelfth fign, or conftellation of the 
 zodiac. ( 
 The liars in Pifces, in Ptolemy's catalogue, are 38. In Tycho's 
 33. In the Britannic catalogue iog. — The longitudes, lati- 
 tudes, magnitudes, isfc. whereof are as follow. 
 
 Names 
 
PIS 
 
 P I s 
 
 Names ami fituation of the Jlars, Z 
 P 
 
 Long 
 
 it. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 
 era 
 
 
 ir 
 
 06 
 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 49 
 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 
 12 
 
 06 
 
 J5 
 
 6 
 
 5 r 
 
 40 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 In the mouth of the fouth. fifh 
 
 12 
 
 04 
 
 48 
 
 6 
 
 01 
 
 09 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 5 6 
 
 9 
 
 °3 
 
 J 9 
 
 B 
 
 4 
 
 
 14 
 
 41 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 01 
 
 3 r 
 
 g 
 
 6 
 
 South, of 2 in the hind part of the hear. 
 
 17 
 
 03 
 
 44 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 43 
 
 g 
 
 4 
 
 North, in the hind part of the head 
 
 18 
 
 42 
 
 I 7 
 
 8 
 
 52 
 
 36 
 
 B 
 
 c 6 
 
 Preced. of two in the belly 
 
 18 
 
 34 
 
 3S 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 g 
 
 5 
 
 A fmall one contiguous to it 
 
 18 
 
 35 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 B 
 
 
 Preced. in the back. 
 
 JO 
 
 20 
 
 52 
 
 2 7 
 
 9 
 
 01 
 
 58 
 
 B 
 
 5 
 
 
 T 7 
 
 56 
 
 47 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 5+ 
 
 j.j 
 
 5 
 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 °5 
 
 2 
 
 OA 
 
 20 
 
 l_> 
 
 5 
 
 
 18 
 
 48 
 
 28 
 
 1 
 
 46 
 
 36 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 
 19 
 
 !3 
 
 5° 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 53 
 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 34 
 
 43 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eubfeq. in the back 
 
 21 
 
 05 
 
 4 U 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 34 
 
 g 
 
 
 2 3 
 
 18 
 
 3° 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 g 
 
 5 
 
 Subfeq. of two in the belly 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 07 
 
 B 
 
 5 
 
 
 26 
 
 00 
 
 
 11 
 
 07 
 
 22 
 
 g 
 
 7 
 
 
 23 
 
 56 
 
 55 
 
 4 
 
 32 
 
 43 
 
 
 3 u 
 
 ■bne .siapqfiftfil v 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ift of thofe preced. the fquare - 
 
 21 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 r 9 
 
 43 
 
 
 " 7 
 
 under the fouth. filhj 
 
 23 
 
 41 
 
 07 
 
 2 
 
 01 
 
 47 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 
 24 
 
 59 
 
 44 
 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 57 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 Second. 
 
 22 
 
 47 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 39 
 
 A 
 
 6 7 
 
 
 2 7 
 
 22 
 
 55 
 
 6 
 
 58 
 
 I 3 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Preced. of north, in the fquare 
 
 2 3 
 
 57 
 
 34 
 
 3 
 
 07 
 
 49 
 
 A 
 
 5 
 
 In the tail of the fouth. fifh 
 
 28 
 
 14 
 
 55 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 ]-> 
 
 
 Subfeq. of the north, in the fquare 
 
 24 
 
 53 
 
 04 
 
 2 
 
 57 
 
 45 
 
 A 
 
 c 
 
 Preced. of the fouth. in the fquare 
 
 2 3 
 
 42 
 
 3° 
 
 5 
 
 4* 
 
 33 
 
 A 
 
 5 
 
 That which follows over the tail 
 
 29 
 
 49 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 57 
 
 5a 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 38 
 
 45 
 
 7 
 
 3' 
 
 43 
 
 lj 
 
 c 6 
 5 0 
 
 Sublet}, the fouth. of thofe in the 
 
 24 
 
 36 
 
 3° 
 
 5 
 
 46 
 
 55 
 
 A 
 
 5 4 
 
 fq^iare under PiicesJ 
 
 2 
 
 2b 
 
 2 3 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 37 
 
 j> 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 03 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 
 2 
 
 45 
 
 08 
 
 5 
 
 54 
 
 26 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 04 
 
 06 
 
 11 
 
 °5 
 
 36 
 
 Q 
 
 6 
 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 3° 
 
 L 6 
 
 2 4 
 
 02 
 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 45 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 °4 
 
 g 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 46 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 55 
 
 03 
 
 li 
 
 6 
 
 In the line next the tail of Pifces 
 
 3 
 
 39 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 2 7 
 
 3 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 09 
 
 48 
 
 10 
 
 09 
 
 08 
 
 lj 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 01 
 
 13 
 
 [0 
 
 41 
 
 48 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 44 
 
 49 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 
 55 
 
 4' 
 
 3° 
 
 42 
 
 1! 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 57 
 
 40 
 
 15 
 
 06 
 
 45 
 
 B 
 
 
 45 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 ♦3 
 
 r 3 
 
 37 
 
 3 1 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 8 
 
 43 
 
 3 1 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 56 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 9 
 
 oS 
 
 47 
 
 11 
 
 39 
 
 13 
 
 
 7 
 
 Second from the tail in the line 
 
 5 
 
 49 
 
 42 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 38 
 
 g 
 
 6 
 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 eft 
 
 15 
 
 2 3 
 
 53 
 
 g 
 
 6 
 
 5° 
 
 8 
 
 5° 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 10 
 
 00 
 
 g 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 08 
 
 47 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 41 
 
 g 
 
 7' 
 
 
 '3 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 
 15 
 
 4 ? 
 
 2 4 
 
 R 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 26 
 
 4 2 
 
 9 
 
 3§ 
 
 4 2 
 
 g 
 
 6 
 
 
 11 
 
 08 
 
 49 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 3° 
 
 '3 
 
 l 9 
 
 5« 
 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 MM 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 a8 
 
 f» 
 
 7 
 
 
 14 
 
 57 
 
 3" 
 
 14 
 
 3° 
 
 43 
 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 
 9 
 
 37 
 
 3' 
 
 1 
 
 57 
 
 28 
 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 . . . . 
 
 Freced. of the bright itars in the line 
 
 9 
 
 49 
 
 l ' 
 
 2 
 
 09 
 
 44 
 
 o 
 
 4 
 
 
 J3 
 
 34 
 
 02 
 
 10 
 
 44 
 
 49 
 
 B 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Preced. of three in the head of the 
 
 18 
 
 : 7 
 
 4° 
 
 
 3° 
 
 43 
 
 p 
 
 
 nortti. nin J 
 
 15 
 
 43 
 
 29 
 
 12 
 
 •7 
 
 *3 
 
 
 
 Middle of thofe in the head 
 
 !9 
 
 2 3 
 
 22 
 
 !9 
 
 29 
 
 3« 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 Laft of 3 in the head ofthenorth. fifh 
 
 20 
 
 33 
 
 53 
 
 20 
 
 57 
 
 08 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 Preced. of 2 againft the eye of the 
 
 22 
 
 53 
 
 4 1 
 
 23 
 
 °3 
 
 47 
 
 B 
 
 5 
 
 north. frfh) 65 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Middle of the bright ftars in the 
 
 '3 
 
 12 
 
 i 1 
 
 1 
 
 04 
 
 07 
 
 B 
 
 4 
 
 fouth. line) 
 
 16 
 
 2 3 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 2 3 
 
 22 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 Preced. of 2 in the fin of the back. 
 
 12 
 
 46 
 
 09 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 4= 
 
 A 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 06 
 
 06 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 
 08 
 
 B 
 
 5 
 
 70 
 
 Subfeq. againfl the eye of the north. 
 
 15 
 
 43 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 3' 
 
 »3 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 2 3 
 
 46 
 
 30 
 
 23 
 
 06 
 
 2 3 
 
 B 
 
 5 
 
 
 12 
 
 41 
 
 48 
 
 r 
 
 55 
 
 3 2 
 
 A 
 
 6 
 
 
 2 + 
 
 04 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 
 5» 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 Middle in the fin of the back <y 
 
 19 
 
 
 2 5 
 
 12 
 
 il 
 
 46 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 A'j/otj W fituatim of the Jlars. 
 
 Longlt. 
 
 75 
 
 v 12 06 37 
 
 Jpper, in the fold of fouth. line 12 , 7 I2 
 
 Laft of three in the tin of the tail 19 ,7 47 
 
 North, of two again!* the mouth of 24 27 ,2 
 
 23 58 26 
 
 12 52 27 
 
 20 II 43 
 
 13 21 16 
 22 08 31 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 
 s 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 49 cS 
 
 A 
 
 7 
 
 
 30 24 
 
 A 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 18 00 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 59 00 
 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 42 19 
 
 
 c 
 j 
 
 ♦ 
 
 40 45 
 
 A 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 25 20, 
 
 B 
 
 > 
 
 4 
 
 5° 3° 
 
 A 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 29 02 
 
 B 
 
 
 0 
 
 »J 2 5 
 
 A 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 39 2 7 
 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 51 50 
 
 A 
 
 6 7 
 
 4 
 
 "7 '3 
 
 A 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 26 56 
 
 B 
 
 S 
 
 18 
 
 39 53 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 ° 43 
 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 B 
 
 
 9 
 
 2 3 58 
 
 B 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 34 5 2 
 
 A 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 57 39 
 
 A 
 
 6 7 
 
 8 
 
 '7 49 
 
 B 
 
 6 7 
 
 3 
 
 04 25 
 
 A 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 21 07 
 
 B 
 
 4 3 
 
 4 
 
 20 47 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 52 05 
 
 B 
 
 < J. 
 
 5 
 
 51 46 
 
 B 
 
 3 8 
 
 3 
 
 40 32 
 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 38 07 
 
 B 
 
 67 
 
 4 
 
 43 12 
 
 A 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 01 34 
 
 B 
 
 6 7 
 
 8 
 
 36 20 
 
 B 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 38 58 
 
 A 
 
 J 
 
 7 
 
 55 45 
 
 A 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 35 05 
 
 A 
 
 6 7 
 
 9 
 
 05 10 
 
 A 
 
 3 
 
 north full) South, of the fame 
 80 
 
 That follow, the fin of the back 
 
 South, of two in the belly 
 Laft of three bright ones in the 15 32 13 
 fouth. line) 18 t, u 
 
 85 " 3 
 
 15 32 53 
 
 South, of 2 in the fold of fouth. line 15 00 04 
 North, in the belly 242710 
 Another following it 25 25 21 
 
 21 40 54 
 
 90 ' 
 
 Preced. of the contiguous In the bend- 22 45 12 
 ing of the line) Subfeq. of the fame 22 52 27 
 
 17 56 00 
 
 18 56 45 
 23 14 23 
 
 95 knot) 
 3d of thofe in north, line before the 18 46 40 
 North, of three in the north, line 22 29 20 
 
 23 11 35 
 
 Middle of thofe in the north, line 2235 18 
 
 24 41 39 
 
 100 
 
 23 50 06 
 
 2d of thofe in fouth. line before the 21 10 27 
 knot ) 26 47 42 
 
 . ,o S 27 H 27 
 
 That next the knot in the north. line 23 24 40 
 1 ft before the knot in fouth. line 23 11 18 
 
 In the knot of the two lines r 25 02 33 
 
 PISCINA * in antiquity, a large bafon, in an open publick- 
 place or fquare; where the Roman youth learnt to fwim • 
 and which was furrounded with a high wall, to prevent the 
 calling ot tilth into it. 
 
 * S5 ITS f ° rm / d fr0m thE Latin fifr 1 b ^»«ft h«e 
 .muatcd fifties m (mmmmg) and becilfe (Ihes we e aftaaHy kept 
 m (ome of thefe places. 1 e 
 
 Piscina was alfo ufed for the fquare bafon in the middle of a 
 bath. 
 
 Piscina prda'ka, was a pool, or refervoir of water, near the 
 court of Solomon's temple ; fo called from the Greek 
 Mp becaufe here they wauled the cattle which were dehmed 
 tor faenhce. wu,i t « 
 
 By this Pifdna it was that our Saviour wrought the miraculous 
 cure of the paralytic.-Davilerobferves, theie a,e ftffl tern °„! 
 'pfjeim * ° l pCUk °' and P art of the ba '"°n of this 
 
 tel^ °i amon 8 * e Turks - i« » l^ge bafon placed 
 
 m the m iddle of the court of a mofque, or under the portico's 
 that encompafs it. 1 
 Its fo,m is uiually a long fquare ; it is built of ftone or maible 
 furnilhed with a great number of cocks ; wherein the muffuU 
 mans wafl, themlelves before they offer their prayers ; as beW 
 peifuaded that ablution effaces lin. 
 
 PISCIS aa/lra/is. See the article Austraiis 
 
 Piscis ratal, in aftronomy, is a fmall conftellation of the 
 iouthern hemifpheie, unknown to the ancients, and invifible 
 to us in thefe northern regions 
 
 PISSASPHALTUM «, or Pissasphaitus, ni £ rAE».AATos, 
 2 na , tllral h,ftor >'' denotes a »«:ve, folid bitumen ; found in 
 the Ceraunian mountains of Apollonia : of an intermediate 
 nature between pitch and afphaltum. 
 
 » The word is compounded of „„„ , pitch, and o^,*®, bitumen. 
 Pissasphaitum is alfo a name given to a faflitious fubflance 
 compounded of pitch, and alphaltus or the true bitumen iu- 
 daicum. J 
 
 The coarfenefs of this, the black colour, and the fetidnefs of 
 the fmell, diftmguilh it from the true afphaltum. 
 
 Pissasphaltum is alfo ufed by fome writers to denote the 
 Jewifh pitch, or fimple afphaltum. 
 
 PISSELjEUM, nasiAAioN, dium Picinum, or oil of pitch 
 a medicament compounded of oil and pitch. ' 
 
 PlssitjEuM indicum, among modern writeis denotes a bitumi- 
 nous fubftance brought from the W eft-Indies, popularly called 
 tiarfadscs tax. *' "' * 
 
 8 2 r, 
 
P I s 
 
 P I T 
 
 It has a ftrong fmell not unlike the common tar, and is not 
 veiy pleafant to light or tafte. It is accounted a good balia- 
 jiiick, and where theftomach can difpenfe with it, will do great 
 iervice in many dilbiders of the b;eaft, wiiich has alfo been 
 experienced ot common tar. 
 KSTACHIA*, or Pistach nut, a fruit brought from feveral 
 parts of Afia, chiefly from Aleppo and Pcilia. — When wrapt 
 in all its coats, it is of the fize of a green almond ; but when 
 ftript of all but its fhell,itrefembles a fmall nut. The kernel is 
 red without, and green within, its tafte is very agreeable. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, pijiacium, of the Greek, 
 *ir2<x«i» whence, according to Menage, the city Piittacmni 
 took its name. 
 
 The tree that produces it is a kind of turpentine-tree : the nuts 
 are to be choien new, heavy, and full ; as to thofe that are 
 broken, fuch as have kept their colours beft are to be pre- 
 ferred; for as to the fize.it is a fancy. 
 
 Pijlachias are apeitive, and proper to give vigour, and are ufed 
 in emulfions, cjv. in phthifical, and nephi itical cafes. They alfo 
 enter feveral ragouts, and are comiired, made into conferves,cSV. 
 There is likewife a kind of fali'e Pijlachia, brought from the 
 Caribbee iflands, which fome confound 'frith the real ones, 
 though very different, both with regard to the plants tiiat pro- 
 duce them, and their quality. The lpuiious Pijlachia plant 
 -does not rile above a foot high. Nor does the fruit grow on 
 the branches, but is found in pods. — The pod fometimes 
 only contains a fingle nut, which refemblcs an olive ; but ufu- 
 ally feveral ; and in that cafe they are irregular. The fub- 
 flance is white, compact and heavy. 
 
 This fruit is rarely eat raw, becaufe of the ill effects it pro- 
 duces ; it is ufually roafted or comfited ; is ufed in ragouts, 
 and to make ratafia's. 
 PISTE *, in the manage, the track or tread, which a horfe 
 makes upon the ground he goes over. 
 
 * The word is French, and litterally fignifies a track. 
 The Pijle of a horfe may be either Jingle or double. 
 If the rider make him go. but an ordinary gallop, in a circle, 
 or rather fquare, he will make but a fmgU Pijle : it he cither 
 make him gallop with his haunches in, or go terra a terra, he 
 will make two Pi/les, one with the fore-part, another with the 
 hind. — And the iame if the rider make him palfage, or go fide 
 ways, either in a ftrait line, or upon a circle. 
 
 PISTIL, Pistillum, in botany, a little upright part in the 
 middle of the calyx, or the leaves of dowers ; called alfo by 
 fome the jlylc. 
 
 The Pijlil is an clTcntial part of a flower ; and the principal 
 female organ of generation ; it being in this that the feeds or 
 young plants are formed. ' 
 
 It arifes from the pedicle of the flower, or the centre of the 
 calyx, and at length becomes the young fruit, which is fome- 
 times hid in the calyx, and fometimes ftands quite out. 
 The figure of the Pijlil is very different in different flowers ; 
 fometimes it is a little ftalk, which enlarges at the two ends 
 like a peftle ; fometimes it is a mere ftamen or thread : fome- 
 times it is round, fometimes fquare, triangular, oval, feV. 
 Almoft 3.W Pijlih are furnilhed at top, either with line hairs, 
 which make a kind of velveting ; or with little filaments dif- 
 pofed in plumes ; or clfe they arc befet with little velicles full 
 of a glutinous juice. 
 
 Some flowers have feveral Pijlih ; or rather the Pijlih termi- 
 nate in feveral brandies, or horns, which have their rife 
 from as many young fruits, or as many different capfula;, 
 containing feeds. 
 
 All thefe Pijlih, whatever form they be in, have certain aper- 
 tutes at their tops, or certain clefts continued the whole length, 
 to the bale or embryo of the fruit. — This is very vifible in the 
 lilly, daffodil, and melon, either by cleaving the Pijlih length- 
 wife, or cutting them tranfverfely.' — If after cutting the Pijlil 
 of the lilly, you immerge one extremity in water, and fuck 
 through the other end, the water will rife through it as through 
 a pipe. 
 
 By opening the Pijlih in their different ftates of growth, it ap- 
 pears evidently, that it is thefe which form the young fruits, 
 and contain within them the embryo's of the feeds ; whether 
 thofe feeds be ditfufed through the whole length of the Pijlil; 
 ■or whether they be all inclofcd in its bafe ; and that they are 
 always open at top, and perforated, either more or lefs lenfi- 
 bly, to the bottom : though this cavity is frequently effaced 
 as the young fruit grows ; and fometimes a part of the Pijlil, 
 which Malpighi calls the Jlyle, or bodkin, dries and falls 
 off. 
 
 The Pijlih we have obferved, is the female organ of genera- 
 tion ; its bafe does the office of the uterus, or womb, in wo- 
 men ; and its length that of the vagina. 
 It is encompaffed with the ftamina, the apices whereof are full 
 ■of a fine duff, called Jarinajaecundans ; which burfting its vefi- 
 cula;, or apices, when mature, is fhed on the upper part of the 
 Pijlil, and thence is conveyed by the cavity thereof to the bafe 
 or uterus; where being fed with a line juice, fecreted by the 
 petala, it grows, expands, and thus forms the embryo of a 
 new plant, £sY.— For a more diftincf account of the office of 
 the Pijlil in the generation plants, fee Plant, 
 
 PISTOL, a little fire-arm, bore at the faddle-bow, at the girdle 
 or in the pocket. 
 
 The Pijhl is laid to have taken its name from Pijloya, a city in 
 Italy; where, as Fauchet tells us, it was fiift made. — Borcl 
 derives the word from fijlula, pipe; the barrel of this piece 
 bearing Ibme refemblance to a flute. 
 Pistole, Doblon, in commerce, a gold coin ftruck in Spain, and 
 feveral paits of Italy, Switzerland, csY. 
 
 It has its augmentations, and diminutions ; which are quadruple 
 Pijhlcs, double Pijhlei, and halj' Pi/hles. 
 
 'I he Pijloli is about the fame weight, finenefs, and value, with 
 the French louis d'or, viz. it is equal to about fix teen (hillings 
 and lix-pence flerling. 
 
 In Spain the Pijlole is accounted equal to four pieces of eight, 
 or thirty two rials, or a thoufand and eighty eight maravadis ; 
 or a thoufand three hundred and lixty maravedis of billon : 
 the old money current at Seville and Cadiz, in Andalulia, 
 Zs't. being 25 percent, better than the money they now reckon 
 by at Madrid, Bilboa, csY. which augmentation was made by 
 Charles II. in 1668. to prevent the exportation of money out 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 Moft of the exchanges in Italy are made on the foot of the 
 
 ptftoU. ,#a3Ca"iM 4 jT*" . 
 
 PISTON, a part or member in feveral machines, particularly 
 pumps, air-pumps, fyringes, &C. called alfo the embolus, and 
 popularly the fucker. 
 
 The Pijlon of a pump is a fhort cylinder of metal, fixed ex- 
 actly to the cavity of the barrel or body ; and which being 
 worked up and down alternately therein, raifes the water ; and 
 when railed, preffes it again, fo as to make it force up a valve 
 wherewith it isfurnifhed, and fo efcape through the nofe of 
 the pump. See Pump. 
 
 The Pijlous of air-pumps, fyringes, faV. See defcribed under 
 Air-pump, and Syringe. 
 PIT and gallows, in our ancients cuftoms. See Furca and 
 
 Fossa. 
 
 \ See the articles j £ 
 Lock Pit. I \ Cock pit. 
 
 Pit faw- See the article Saw. 
 
 Pit of a theatre, all that fpace between the amphitheatre, or 
 galleries, and the theatre or ftage; called by the ancients er- 
 chejlra, and by the French parterre. 
 
 This being the moft commodious part, it was here the Ro- 
 man fenate was placed. It has its name Pit, in Latin eavea, 
 from its being funk below the level of the ftagc. 
 
 PITANCIARIUS, PlETANCIARIUS, or PlET A NTI AR IUS, an 
 
 officer in the ancient monafteries, whofe bufinefs it was to 
 provide and diflribute the pittances of herbs and meat, amongft 
 the monks. See Pittance. 
 PIT CH, Pix, a tenacious kind of juice or gum, drawn from 
 fatty woods, chiefly from pines and firs ; and ufed in (hip- 
 ping, in medicine, and in various other arts. 
 Pitch is properly a juice of the bark of the picea, or pitch-tree : 
 and is conceived to be no other than the oil thereof infpif- 
 fated and turned black, farther than in the balfom. 
 The method of drawing, or procuring it, is by cleaving the 
 tree into little billets, which they lay in a furnace having two 
 apertures, through one of which the fire is put, and through 
 the other the Pitch is gathered ; which oozing from the wood 
 runs along the bottom of the furnace into bafons or recep- 
 tacles placed for the purpofe.— The fmoak which is here very 
 thick, gives it the black colour we find it withal. — Some will 
 have our common Pitch to be only the laft running, and tar 
 to be the firft. 
 
 Yv heeler gives us another manner of drawing Pitch, ufed in 
 the Levant. — A pit is dug in the ground two ells in diameter 
 at top, but contracting as it goes deeper : this they fill with 
 bl anches of pine, cloven into Ihivers. — The top of the pit 
 is then covered over with fire, which burning down to the 
 bottom, the Pitch diftils and runs out at a hole made 
 therein. 
 
 Pitch acquires different names according to its different pre- 
 parations, colours and qualities. As it diftils from the wood 
 it is called barras, but afterwards it aflumes a double name ; 
 the fineft and cleareft being cz\\c<\ galipot, and the coarfer, mar- 
 
 bled barras. \ 
 
 Of the galipot is made what they call white Pitch, or burgundy 
 Pitch, which is nothing but the galipot melted with oil of 
 turpentine; though fome will have it a native Pitch, diftillins 
 from a refmous tree growing in the mountains of Franche 
 Comte. 
 
 Of the fame galipot is likewife prepared what we call rofin; 
 by boiling Burgundy Pitch to a certain confifience, and ma- 
 king it up in cakes. 
 
 The black Pitch, which is what we properly call Pitch, fome 
 fay, is the liquid galipot burnt and icduced into the form and 
 coniiftence we fee it in, by mixing tar with it while hot. 
 , The beft is that brought from Sweden and Norway.— Its 
 goodnefs confifts in its being of a gloffy black colour, dry, 
 and brittle. 
 
 1 Naval Pitch, Pix navalis, is that drawn from old pines, ranged 
 and 
 
P I T 
 
 and burnt like charcoal. — This, with a mixture of tow or 
 beaten cables, fervcs for the pitching of vefiels. 
 
 Naval Pitch is alfo a denomination given to that fcraped from 
 oft the fides of old velfcls ; and which is fuppofed to have 
 acquired an aftringeni virtue, by means of the fait water.— 
 It laves to make plaifters ; though it is certain the apothe. 
 caries ufually fubftitute the common Mad Pffeh in vs ftead. 
 
 Greek Pitch, or Spanijh Pitch, is that boiled in water till 
 it has loft its natural fmell : upon which it becomes dry and 
 friable. 
 
 The ancients called it Colophony, fiom Colophon a city in 
 Greece, whence great quantities were brought. 
 
 Oil of Pitch, o/mm Picinum, is an oil procured from pitch, 
 by feparating the aqueous matter that fwims at top of the 
 melted pitch. — This, for the great virtues attributed to it, i: 
 alfo called balfamof Pitch. 
 
 Pitch, in building, denotes the angle or gable end. Sec Gab el. 
 If the length of each rafter be % of the breadth of the build- 
 ing, the roof is faid to be true Pitch. 
 
 It the rafters be longer, it is faid to be a high or Jharp pitched 
 roof; if fhorter, which feldom happens, it is laid to be a 
 low or flat pitched roof. See Roof. 
 
 Pitch is alfo a fea term.— When a (hip falls with her head too 
 much into the fea, or beats againft it fo as to endanger her 
 top-mafts, they fay, fhe will pitch her wafts by the board. 
 
 PITCHING-^wf, a duty, commonly of one penny, paid for 
 pitching or letting down every lack of corn, or pack of mer- 
 chandize, in a fair or market. 
 
 PITCH T—flmilder Pitcht. Sec Shoulder pitcht. 
 
 PITH, the inward central part of a tree, or plant ; anfwering 
 to the medulla, or marrow, of an animal. 
 Some will have the circulation of the fap to be effected 
 by means of the Pith ; others by the bark ; and others by 
 the wood. 
 
 PITHIA, and Pithian. See the articles Pythia and Py- 
 thian. 
 PITT. Seethe article Pit. 
 
 PITTACIUM, LWJ***, in ch irurgery, a name which fome 
 
 authors give to a piece of cloth fpread with a falve, to be laid 
 
 on a part a Heeled. 
 PITTANCE, Pietantia, the commons, or allowance of 
 
 meat, be it nfh, flefh, or the like, ftatedly eaten at meals, be- 
 
 fides bread. 
 
 The word is not much ufed except among religious, and thofe 
 who live in college, or community. — Du Cange derives it 
 from piciaiitia, uled in the lower Latin for a monachal portion 
 given to two monks in the fame dilh, confifting of lbmething 
 better than pulfe. 
 
 Hence we fometim.es alfo find it denote a meal, or commons 
 better than ordinary ; fuch as is allowed in communities on 
 feaft days. 
 
 Others derive the word a pietate ; and others, with Salmafnis, 
 from pittacia, a mefs, orpoition allowed the foldiers, men- 
 tioned in feveral laws of the Theodofian code. It is added, 
 that the word pitticia propeily fignihed a title, or written la- 
 bel, added at top of the veflei, to (hew what was within-fide, 
 or for whom it was intended. 
 PITUITA, one of the four humours found in the bodies of 
 animals, on which their temperament is commonly fuppofed 
 to depend. 
 
 The Pituita, called alfo phlegm, is properly the moftvifcid and 
 glutinous part of the blood, feparated in the largcft glands, 
 where the contortions of the arteries at e greateft, and give the 
 greateft retardation to the blood's velocity ; as in the glands 
 about the mouth and head. 
 
 The clafs of phlegmagogucs, as manna, &r. are fuppofed par- 
 ticularly to purge Pitidta. 
 
 Phyficians give feveral epithets to the Pitidta, according to 
 its conditions or qualities, as faline, vitreous, gypfous, acid, 
 (stc ■ " e i:'t:l*'-- >■■■■■•- ■ 
 
 Pituita is fuppofed to be the prevailing humour in cold, hea- 
 vy (low people, inclined to fei iouihefs and ftudy ; as the bile 
 is in thofe inclined to war, &c. 
 
 The Pituita difcharged at the noftrils, is feparated in the 
 membrane that lines the cavities of the nofe, cheeks, Hfc. 
 Its ufe is to keep that membrane foft, and defend it from inju- 
 ries of extraneous bodies, elpecially thofe of the air, which 
 palTes this way in infpiration when the mouth is fhut. 
 PITUITARY gland, is a gland in the brain, fomewhat diffi- 
 cult to be feen without removing it out of its place. — See 
 Tab. Anat. (Angeiol.) fig. i: lit. 6. 
 
 It is of the fize of a very large pea, and is placed in the fella 
 of the os fphenoides, under the infundibulum, wherewith it 
 communicates; receiving from it a lympha, or juice, which 
 the infundibulum derives from the plexus choroides and pi- 
 neal gland ; and from this lympha does the gland itfelftake 
 its name. 
 
 It alfo filtrates a juiceitfelf; feparating from the blood a white 
 
 liquor very fubtile, and apparently very fpirituous. 
 
 M- Littre obferves a finus,or refcrvoir of blood, which touches 
 
 P L A 
 
 this gland ; and which is open to it in the place of contact, 
 fo that the gland lies partly in the blood.— ThL, that author 
 i e j t0 f the cffice a lialneu m maris, in keepins the 
 gland of the degree of warmth neceffary for tile difcharse 
 or its functions. 
 
 This gland is found in all quadrupeds, fifties, and fowls, 
 as well as in men. — M. Littre gives an infiance of a tedious 
 difeafe, and at length death, arifing lblely from an obft.uc- 
 tion and inflammation of the pituitary gland 
 PIVOT, or Pevot, a foot, or (hoe of iron, or other metal, 
 ufually conical, or terminating in a point ; whereby a body 
 intended to turn round, beais on another fixed at reft and 
 pcrtorms its circumvolutions. 
 
 The Pivot ufually bears or turns round in a fole or piece of 
 iron or brafs, hollow ed to receive it. 
 
 Large gates, Slit, ufually turn on Pivot;.— The antients tell us 
 they had theatres in Rome that held eighty thoufand people ■ 
 which yet turned or. a angle Pivot. 3 
 PLACARD, or Placart, Placaert, a foreign term, fre- 
 quent in gazettes, fignifying a leaf, or fheet of paper ft re'tched 
 and applied upon a wail or poft.— Edicts, regulations, (St. are 
 to be made publick in Placards. 
 
 The word Placard is alfo ufed for a libel, or lampoon At 
 
 Rome, Placards againft the pope are frequently fixed in the 
 night-time, to the ftatue of Pafquin. See Pasquinade. 
 
 Placard, in architeaure, denotes the decoration of the door 
 of an apartment, confifting of a chambranle, crowned with its 
 frieze or gorge, and a cornictie fometimes fupported by con- 
 foles. See Door. 
 
 Placard, in our cuftoms, denotes a licence whereby a Perfon 
 is permitted to (hoot in a gun, or to take othei wife unlawful 
 game. 
 
 PLACE, hats, in philofophy, that part of immoveable fpace 
 which any body polfcfies. 
 
 Ariftotle and his followers divide Plate into external and 
 internal. % 
 
 Internal Place is that fpace or room which the body contains. 
 
 External Place is that which includes or contains the body - 
 which is alio called by Ariftotle, the firft or concave and im- 
 moveable furface of the ambient body. 
 
 It is controverted in the fchools, whether internal Place be a 
 real entity, or only an imaginary being ; i. e. whether it be any 
 thing intrinfically, or only an aptitude and capacity of receiv- 
 ing bodies. 
 
 Some maintain it a pofitive being, incorporeal, eternal, inde- 
 pendent, and infinite : and affert it even to conftitute theim- 
 menfity of the godhead. 
 
 The Cartefians, on the contrary, hold internal Plate abftracf- 
 edly confidered, to be no other than the very extenlion of 
 the bodies contained therein ; and therefore in no wife diffe- 
 rent from the bodies themfelves. 
 
 The fchoolmen likewifc difpute, whether external Place be 
 moveable or immoveable > Its immobility is argued from this 
 confrderation, that what moves muft neccllaiily leave its Place 
 which it cannot do if it go along with the moveable, Othets 
 charge an abfuidity on this opinion of Ariftotle, viz that 
 hence it follows, that a body really at reft is continually fhift- 
 mg Place ; a tower, for inftance, on a plain, or a rock in the 
 middle of the fea, in regard the one and the other are conti- 
 nually mclofed with new air or new water, muft be faid to be 
 m motion, or to change Place. 
 
 To lalvc this difficulty, and ward off the abfurdity which fol- 
 lowstrom Anftotle's laying down external fpace as immoveable 
 mhnite expedients have been had recourfe to.— The Scotifts 
 contend tor Place', being only immoveable, by equivalence.- 
 1 hus, when the wind blows, the air which inverted the fur- 
 tacc ot the tower does indeed recede, but then other fimilar 
 and equivalent air takes place—The Thomifts chut to deduce 
 the immobility of external Place, from its keeping the fame di 
 nance from the center, and the cardinal points of the wo, Id • 
 and the Nommalifts, from a eorrefpondence with certain vir- 
 tual paits of the divine immenfity. 
 
 The Caitefians deny external Place to be either a furroundine 
 furface, or a body fin rounded, or a mean teim between the 
 two, and conceive it to be the fituation of a body among adja- 
 cent bodies confidered as at reft.-Thus the towe, mall be 
 deemedto remain in the fame Place, though the ambient an be 
 changed, Imce it retains the fame fituation, with legaid to the 
 neighbouring hills, trees, and other pa.ts of tire ca.th. 
 Sir Ifaac Newton better and more intelligibly dillinguilhes 
 Place into abfolute and relative. 
 
 Abfolute mA primary Place is that part of infinite and immove- 
 able lpace which a body poiTeffes. 
 
 Relative or Jccandary Place is the fpace it poflcfles confidered 
 with regard to other adjacent objects. 
 
 Dr. Clarke adds another kind of relative Place, which he calls 
 relatively common Place, and defines it that part of any moveable 
 ot meafurablc fpace which a body poffefles ; which Place 
 moves together with the body. 
 Place, Mr. Lockcobfen cs, is fometimes likewifc taken for that 
 
 portijii 
 
P L A 
 
 portion ©f infinite fpace poflVOed by the material world, 
 though this he adds, were more properly called exten- 
 fion. 
 
 The proper idea of Place, according to him, is the relative 
 pofition of any thing, with rcgaid to its diftance from cer- 
 tain fixed points ; whence we fay, a thing has or has not 
 changed Place, when its diftance is, or is not altered with re- 
 fpecl to thole bodies. — 
 
 For the vilion of Place. See Vision, andVisiBLE. 
 Place, in optic ks, or optical Place, is the point to which the 
 eye refers an object. See Optic 
 
 Thus the points D and E (Tab. Optics, fig. 68.) to which two 
 fpeclatots in d and e refer the obje& C, are called optic 
 Places. 
 
 Here, if a right line joining the optic Places!) andE, be pa- 
 rallel to a right line parting through the eyes of the fpectators 
 d,e; the diftance of the optic Places D, E will be to the 
 diftance of the fpectators d and e, as the diftance of one of the 
 optic Places from the Place of the object E C, to the diftance 
 of the other fpectator from the fame object d C. 
 
 Optic Place of a ftar, is a point in the furface of the mun- 
 dane fphere asCor B, (Tab. Afironomy, fig. 27.) wherein a 
 fpectator in E, or T, fees the centre of the ftar S. See 
 Star and Planet. 
 This is divided into true and apparent. 
 
 True or real optic Place, is that point of the furface of the 
 fphere B, wherein a fpectator, placed in the centre of the 
 earth fees the centre of the ftar or phenomenon. — Or it is a 
 point among the fixed ftars, determined by a line drawn 
 from the centre of the earth through that of the ftar, and ter- 
 minated in B among the ftars. 
 
 Apparent or vifible optic Place, is that point of the furface of the 
 fphere, wherein a fpectator, placed on the furface of the earth 
 in E, fees the centre of the ftar S. — Or a point C found by a 
 line parting from the fpectator's eye through the ftar, and 
 terminated in die fphere of the ftars. 
 
 The diftance between the two optic Places makes what we 
 call the Parallax. 
 Place of the fun, a Jlar, or planet, fimply, denotes, the fign 
 and degree of the zodiack, which the luminary is in. 
 Or, it is that degree of the eclipic, reckoning from the be- 
 ginning of Aries, which the planet's or ftar's circle of lon- 
 gitude cuts : and therefore it coincides with the longitude 
 of the fun, planet, or ftar. 
 
 As the fine of the fun's greateft declination 23° 30' : to the 
 fine of any prefent declination given or obferved, v.gr.iT? 
 15 : : lb is radius, 10 : To the line of his longitude 8i° 52'; 
 which if the declination were north, would give 20 0 52' of 
 Gemini, if lbuth, 20 0 52' of Capricorn, for the fun's place. 
 
 Afircnomkal Place. See the article Astronomical. 
 
 Moon's Place is that point of her orbit wherein fhe is found 
 at any time. 
 
 This by reafon of the great inequalities in the lunar motions, 
 which render a number of equations and reductions neceflary 
 before the juft point be found, is of various kinds; viz. her 
 fictitious Place, which is the moon's Place once equated; her 
 Place marly trtte t which is her Place twice equated ; and the 
 moon's true Place, which is her Place thrice equated. 
 Rxcentrh Place of a planet in its orbit, is the Place or point of 
 its orbit, wherein a planet would appear if feen from the fun. 
 Thus fuppole NEOR, (Tab. Ajlron. fig. 25.) the ecliptic, 
 N P O Q_ the planet's orbit, the fun in S, the earth in T, and 
 the planet in P : the right line S P expreiles the excentrk Place 
 in the orbit. ' * 
 
 Heliocentric Place of a planet, or its place reduced to the 
 ecliptic, or the excentric place in the ecliptic, is that point 
 of the ecliptic to which a planet, viewed from the fun, is 
 referred. 
 
 This coincides with the longitude of a planet viewed from 
 
 the fun. "a- ': 
 
 Thus the right-line R S indicates the heliocentric place, or 
 
 place reduced to the ecliptic. 
 Geocentric Place, is that point of the ecliptic, to which a 
 
 planet viewed from the earth is referred. 
 
 Thus NEOR, reprefenting the ecliptic, Is'c. T R will re- 
 
 prefent the geocentric Place. 
 Computation of a Planet's Place. See the article Planet. 
 Place of radiation, in optics, is the interval, or fpace in a me- 
 dium or transparent body, through which any vifible object 
 
 radiates. 
 
 Place, in geometry, is a line ufed in the folution of problems 
 more ufually called by the Latin name, locus. 
 See the doctrine of geometrical Places under the article Lo- 
 cus, fee alfo Geometrical andPLAiit. 
 
 Place, in war, is a general name for all kinds of fortreffes, 
 where a party may defend themfelves. 
 
 In which fenfe it may be defined to be a Place fo difpofed, 
 as that the parts which encompafs it, defend and flank one 
 another. 
 
 Strong or fortified Place, is a Place flanked and covered with 
 baftions. 
 
 -j 1 Face. 
 
 t See the articles \ F * RE ' 
 
 f I Tenaille. 
 
 J <-VlEW. 
 
 P L A 
 
 Regular Place, is that whofe angles, fides, baftions, and other 
 parts are equal ; and this is ufuaily denominated from the 
 number of its angles ; as, a pentagon, a hexagon, (*Fc. See 
 Pentagon, Hexagon, EsV. fee alfo Regular. — Palma 
 nova, built by the Venetians, is a dodecagon. 
 
 Irregular Place, is that whofe fides and angles are unequal. 
 See Irregular. 
 
 Place of arms, in fortification, is a ftrong city, or town, pitch- 
 ed upon for the chief magazine of an army.— See Tab. For- 
 tififig. 21. litt.gg. &c. 
 
 Place of arms, in a city or garrifon, is a large open fpot of 
 ground, ufually near the centre of the place, where the grand 
 guard is commonly kept, and the garrifon holds its rendez- 
 vous at reviews, and in cafes of alarm, to receive orders 
 from the governor. 
 
 Place of arms, of an attack, in a fiege,' is a fpacious place co- 
 vered from the enemy by a parapet or epaulment, where the 
 foldiers are ported ready to fuftain thole at work in the 
 trenches, againft the foldiers of the garrifon. 
 
 Place of arms particular, in a garrifon, is a place near every 
 baftion, where the foldiers, fent from the grand place to the 
 quarters artigned them, relieve thofc that aie either upon the 
 guard, or in fight. 
 
 Place of arms without, is a place allowed to the covert- way, 
 for the planting of cannon, to oblige thofe who advance in 
 their approaches to retire. 
 
 Place of arms, in a camp, is a large fpace at the head of the 
 camp, for the army to be ranged in and drawn up in bat- 
 talia. There is alfo a Place for each particular body to af- 
 femble in. See Camp. 
 
 Place of arms, of a troop, or company, is the fpot of ground 
 on which the troop, or company, draws up. 
 
 Face of a Place. -* i Face. 
 
 ^ t See the articles 
 
 Tenaille of the Place. 
 
 View of a Place. 
 Place, among logicians, and orators, denotes the feat or 
 
 fource of an argument ; or that from which it is taken. See 
 
 Argument. 
 
 There arts two forts of Places, viz. inartificial and artificial.— 
 The firft is the Place of teftimony, authority, csV. The fe- 
 cond, that of reafon : as when we argue from univerfals, 
 e. gr. from genus, and lpecies j or from caufes, as the end, 
 erficient, matter, form, csff. 
 
 Common Place. See the article Common Place. 
 
 Place of units, tens, &c. See Unit, and Numeration. 
 
 Hylegial Places tnajlrology. ~i C Hylegial. 
 
 // 'hmering Place. VSee the articles^ Whispering. 
 
 Additions of Place. j (.Addition. 
 
 Unity of Place. See the article Unity. 
 
 PLACENTA, in anatomy, a fofthh roundifh mafs, found in 
 the womb of a pregnant woman ; wherein the ancients fup- 
 pofed, the blood was purified and prepared fo; ihe nounlh- 
 ment of the fcetus. — See Tab. Anat. (Splanch)y%. 16. lit. aa. 
 Hence they alfo called it hepar uterinum, the liver of the womb, 
 as if it did the office of a liver in pieparing the blood. 
 It is called by the moderns Placenta, q. d. womb-cake, be- 
 caufe in form of a cake. 
 
 The Placenta is fuppofed by fome to be only a mafs of coagu- 
 lated blood ; for in the prefiing, or warning it, it difiblves ; 
 and its real ufe to be, to ferve as a pillow for the umbilical 
 veiTels to reft on. 
 
 Its figure is not unlike that of a plate without brims ; it is 
 ufually three quarters of a foot over, and fometkries a foot. 
 It is round, and generally concave and convex. The convex 
 fide adheres to the uterus, and is uneven, having divers protu- 
 berances and pits, by which it makes imp;cfiions upon, and 
 receives others from, the uterus. — 'Its place in the uterus, what- 
 ever fome pretend, is not certain. 
 
 In women, unlefs in cafe of twins, csV. there is but one Pla~ 
 centa, however, the number generally anl'wcrs the number of 
 the fcetus. — In fome brutes, efpccially oxen or rtieep, they are 
 very numerous, fometimes near an hundred, even for one fce- 
 tus ; but fmall, and only refcmbling large conglomerate glands. 
 From the external or concave fide, which likewife has its l< o- 
 tuberances, though covered with a fmooth membrane, iftue the 
 umbilical vefTels, which are in great plenty diftributed through 
 the whole fubftance of it. 
 
 Some even imagine this part to be no more than a plexus of 
 the veins and arteries, by whofe extremities opening into the 
 fides of the hypogaftrick veffels, the circulation is performed 
 between the mother and the fcetus ; for that fide of the Placenta 
 which adheres to the womb, appears to be nothing but the 
 extremities of an infinite number of fmall threads, which, in 
 labour, dropping out of the pores in the fides of the hypoga- 
 ftrick blood -veffels, into which they had infmuated themfelves, 
 is the occafion of the flowing of the lochia, till the uterus col- 
 lapfes, or the pores, by the natural elafticity of the veffels, 
 contract by degrees. 
 
 It 
 
P L A 
 
 It is a great difpute among the anatomifls of the royal acade- 
 my of Paris, whether the Placenta have any external coat, 
 whereby it is connected to the womb ? — M. JVIeiy maintains 
 it has none, and that nothing hinders the blood of the mo- 
 ther from paffing out of the womb into the Placenta, and 
 thence to the fcetus : In which opinion he is feconded by M. 
 Rohault. Men". Vieuflens and Window maintain the con- 
 trary. In a fubfequent memoir, M. Rohault endeavours to 
 mew, that the Placenta is no particular part, but only a por- 
 tion of the chorion condenied or thickened. See Chorion. 
 PLACITA, Pleas, a term frequent in our laws, and cuftoms. 
 Originally, Placita fignificd certain publick affemblies, of all 
 degrees of men, wherein the king prelided, and where the 
 great affairs of the kingdom were confulted upon. 
 Thefe affemblies were called Placita generalia ; becaufe gene- 
 ralitas univerforum major um tarn ckr'uorum qvam laicorum ibidem 
 tonvenicbat. — And hence the decrees, ordinances, fentences, 
 tsc. of this affembly were alio called Placita- 
 Sim. Dunelmenfis tells us, they were held in the open fields ; 
 for, fays he, nullum oportet regem in Utteris ajfignare curiam, 
 quia ubi rex judicat in aperto, ibi ejl curia fua. 
 Some will have thefe Placita generalia, and curia: regis, of an- 
 cient times, to be much the fame with what we now call a 
 Parliament. 
 
 The lords courts came hence alfo to be called Placita genera- 
 lia, though oftner curia generales ; becaufe all their tenants and 
 Vaffals were obliged to appear in. them. 
 
 We alfo meet with Placitum nominatum; for the day appointed 
 
 a criminal to appear in, and make his defence. Leg. Hen. I. 
 
 —And Pladtum fratlum, i. e. when the day is lapfed. 
 
 My lord Coke derives the word pladtum a plaando, quia bene 
 
 pladtare jup-.r omnia placet : Indeed, this feems a very fanciful 
 
 etymon ; and others have more reafon in deriving the word 
 
 from the German platz, or the Latin platen, fields, or ftreets, 
 
 where thefe affemblies were originally held. 
 
 PLACITARE *, in the old law-books, fignifies to plead 
 
 caufes. See Pleading. 
 
 * Mas placitandi, ante conqueflum, fuit coram aldermanno, C3* proccri- 
 bus, ti? eorum hundredanis, fc. baronibus, majoribus, mdiiribus, fe- 
 nhribui, CS* urbanit- Mile, in Bibl. Cote, tub Tit. Vitellius. 
 
 Hence Pladtator, a pleader.— Ralph Flambavd is recorded to 
 
 have been todus regni pladtator, in William the fecond's time. 
 PLACITUM, in law, a ientenee of the court ; or an opinion, 
 
 ordinance, or deaee. 
 Cujlos Placitorum Corona. See the article Custos. 
 PLAFOND, or Platfond, in architecture, the ceiling of a 
 
 room, whether it be flator arched ; lined with laths and plafter, 
 
 and fometimes alfo enriched with paintings, &e. — See Tab. 
 
 Archit. jig. io. See alfoCEiLiNC. 
 Plafond is alfo more particularly ufed for the bottom of the 
 
 projecture of the larmier of the corniche ; called alfo the 
 
 fofit. See Sofit. 
 PLAGIARY, in philology, author-theft ; or the practice of 
 
 purloining other peoples works, and putting them off for a 
 
 man's own. 
 
 Among the Romans, Plagtarius was properly a perfon who 
 bought, fold, or retained a freeman for a Have ; fo called, be- 
 caufe the Flavian law condemned fuch a perfon ad plagas, to 
 be whipped, 
 
 Thomafius has an exprefs treatife de Plagio literario ; wherein 
 he lays down the laws and meafures of the right which authors 
 have to one anothers writings. — Dictionary-writers, at leaft 
 fuch as meddle with arts and fciences, feem in this cafe ex- 
 empted from the common laws of meum and tuimi; they do 
 not pretend to let up on their own bottom, nor to treat you 
 at their own coil;. 
 
 Their works are fuppofed, in great meafure, compofitions of 
 other people's ; and whatever they take from others they do it 
 avowedly, and in the open fun. In effect, their quality gives 
 them a title to every thing that may be for their purpofc, 
 where-ever they find it ; and if they rob, they do not do it 
 any otherwife, than as the bee does, for the public fervice. 
 Their occupation is not pillaging, but collecting contribu- 
 tions ; and if you ask them their authority, they will 
 produce you the practice of their predeceffors of all ages and 
 nations. 
 
 PLAGUE, Pestilence, Pestis, a very acute, deftructivc, 
 malignant, and contagious difeafe ; ufually proving mortal. 
 7 he Plague is commonly defined by a malignant fever ; but 
 Diemerbroek thinks the two ought to be drftinguiflied ; the 
 tever not being the effence, but only a fymptom, or effect of 
 the Plague. 
 
 1 he Plague is reckoned by Dr. Lifter, and many others, as 
 an exotic difeafe, never bred or propagated in England, but 
 always imported from abroad, and particularly from the Le- 
 vant, the coaftsof Afia the lefler, Egypt, cY. where it is 
 familiar. Sydenham obfen-cs, that it rarely infclts Eng- 
 land oftencr than once in forty years ; but through the mer- 
 cy of God, it is now greatly beyond that period lincc we 
 have been vifited. 
 
 Thcon?inandcatifeofthe/>V;:; C has been a celebrated fub- 
 Vpi.. II. 
 
 P L A 
 
 jeer of controverfy among phyficians. — The diforder is gene- 
 rally fuppofed to be communicated by the air, but how, and 
 in what manner the air becomes thus deadly, is the queftion 
 Some will have infects the caufe of Plagues, as they are of 
 blights ; thefe, they fay, being brought in fwarms from other 
 parts by the winds, are taken into the lungs in refpiration, mix 
 with the blood and juices, and attack and corrode the vifcera, 
 Mr. Boyle, oil the other hand, attiibutes Plagues principally to 
 the effluvia or exhalations breathed into the atmofphere.. 
 from noxious minerals. 
 
 The air, in effect, is depraved in farmore places than improved, 
 by being impregnated with fubterraneous expirations. —Indeed 
 among the minerals known to us, there are many move noxious 
 than wholfome ones ; and the power of the former to do mil- 
 chief, is more eificacious than of the latter to do good, as we 
 may guefs by the fmall benefit men receive in point of health, 
 by the effluvia of any mineral or other known foltil, in com- 
 panion of the great and fudden damage often done by the ex- 
 pirations of orpiment, fandarack, and white arfenic. 
 Amongft the various forts of particles wheiewith the atmofphere 
 is replete, fome may be fo fmall and folid, or fo conveniently 
 lhaped, as to enter many of tiie numerous orifices of the minute 
 glandules of the (kin, or at other pores thereof. Thus, though 
 neither paper nor bladder be pervious to the elaftic parts of 
 the air ; yet may either of them be eafily penetrated by other 
 corpufcles of the atmofphere ; and Mr. Boyle, fays he, has 
 prepared a dry body, which being inclofed in either, would, 
 without wetting or difcolouring, or any ways fenlibly altering 
 them, pals in a trice through the pores thereof, in fuch plenty, 
 as to exert a manifefr. operation on bodies placed at fome di- 
 ftance beyond them. 
 
 This is alfo confirmed from the fudden check almoft every 
 fummer given to the Plague at Grand Cairo; for lince morbi- 
 fic caufefi operate more effectually than curative ones, it feems 
 more than probable, that exhalations afcending from under 
 ground, rnay produce peitilential fevers, and the Plague itfelf ; 
 iince the corpufcles which impiegnate the Egyptian air upon 
 the fwelling of the Nile, put a fpeedy flop not only to the 
 conragion, but to the malignity of the Plague, afilfled even 
 by the fummers heat, which there is exceffive. 
 It is poffible there may be noxious minerals in a country, that 
 are not often able to produce pefUlencies ; they may be m fha- 
 ta, or beds, fo deep, that even a fmall earthquake trial! not af- 
 fect them, though a more violent fhocfc may. 
 And hence we may account for xhzPlague's raging in fomeparts 
 of Africa once in thirty, or once in a hundred years ; tince there 
 may be periodical paroxifms, or grand and vehement commo- 
 tions in the fubterraneal parts, tho' not yet obterved in them. 
 It is probable, peculiar kinds of venemous exhalations may 
 fometimes be emitted, efpecially after earthquakes; and thus 
 occafion mortal difeales in animals of one kind, and not of 
 another ; and in this or that place, and not elfewhere. — Ferne.- 
 liiis gives us an account of a Plague^ or murrain, in 1514, which 
 invaded no creatures but cats. Dionyfius Halicarnaffeus men- 
 tions a Plague, which attacked none but maids : and that which 
 raged in tire time of Gcntiiis killed fcarce any women, and very- 
 few but kilty men. Boterus mentions another Plague, which al- 
 fauked none but the younger fort ; and we have instances of the 
 fame kind of a later (landing. Cardan fpeaks of a Plague at 
 Bafil, with which the Switzers, and not the Italians, Germans, 
 or French were infected ; and Joh. Utenhovius takes notice of 
 a cruel Plague at Copenhagen, which, though it raged among 
 the Danes, fpared the Germans, Dutch,"and Engliih, who 
 went with all freedom, and without the leaft danger, to the 
 houfes of the infected. 
 
 ThePlague, according to Sydenham, ufually begins vith a chil- 
 linefs and lhivering, like the accefs of an intermitting fever ; 
 then comes on a naufea, with vehement vomitings, an intenfc 
 pain about the region of the heart, as if pinched in a pi els; and 
 a burning fever, which continually preys on thepatient, till ei- 
 ther death, or the eruption of fome bubo, parous, or other tu- 
 mor, in the inguina or axills, or behind the ears, relieve 
 him, and difcharge the matter of the difeafe. Sometimes, in- 
 deed, it attacks without any fever ; purple fpots appearing all 
 at once, the certain figns of prefent death ; but this rarely hap- 
 pens except at the beginning of fome terrible Plague, Ithaa 
 alfo been known to make its firlt appearance in tumors, 
 without any fever, or other violent fymptom. 
 Heavinefs, pain in the ftomach, head, and back, cardialgy, 
 broken fleep, anxiety, alteration in the look, difficulty of breath- 
 ing, hiccough, fyncope, delirium, convullive twitchings, diar- 
 rhcea, eyes funk or inflamed, tongue black and dry, vehement 
 drought, foetid breath, carbuncles, fpots livid, purple, green, 
 c?V. are alfo fymptoms ufually attending this difeafe. 
 A great deal depends on the circumftances of the tumors, or 
 plague-Jorcs ; as they appear, and inci eafe, the fever abates ; ard 
 as they link or diminiih, it renews again. When they happen 
 about the time of the crifis, and luppurate kindly, they are 
 good prognofticks of a happy recovery. 
 
 In acute dVeafes, fays Hippocrates, prognofticks arc ever falla- 
 cious. However, 111 the terrible plague at Nimeguen, Diemer- 
 
P L A 
 
 broek, who attended the fick through the whole progrefs there- 
 of relates that thofe taken ill about new and full moon rarely 
 efcaped ; that faintings, fwoonings, and palpitations of the 
 heart, were ufually deadly figns ; an intermitting pulfe always 
 mortal ; drowfinefe, freezings, tremulous motions, doting, fore 
 throat, Eff. were ill omens : pleurifies always mortal j coitive- 
 nefs a good fign ; a diarrhcea almoft conftantly fatal ; and that 
 bloody fiools or urines always prefaged ill. 
 As to the cure, phyficians are much divided. — It is generally 
 attempted with alexipharmics and cardiacs, with the affiftancc 
 either of fudorifics, or phlebotomy, or both.— Many eminent 
 phyficians both ancient and modern, highly commend blood- 
 letting; Sydenham particularly fays, that if ufed copioufly, and 
 in time, it never yet did harm ; but that fudorifics often prove 
 pernicious : Diemerbroek, on the contrary, with other very 
 experienced writers, proteft againft phlebotomy, as very dan- 
 derous, and often deadly ; the chief hopes they built in dia- 
 phoretics and fudorifics ; emetics and purgatives are by moft 
 abfolutcly forbid : and yet Dr. Sayer ufed the former with 
 good fuccefs, in the beginning of the difeafe in the Plague at 
 London, Ann. 1640. See Alexipharmic, &V. 
 The juice of lemons is commended as of lingular efficacy in 
 the Plague, and peftilential fevers : Pifo relates that it is the 
 principal remedy of the Indians, and protcfts he never knew 
 any thing come up to it. Dr. Harris obferves, that the fame 
 remedy is what the Turks have principally recourfe to.— 
 Camphor is alio much extolled : this, Ftmuller allures us, was 
 the bafis of Heinfius's antipeftilential oil, who had a ftatue 
 erected to him when dead, in the city of Verona, for the 
 fervicc he had done thereby. — It was prepared from equal 
 quantities of camphor, citron peel, and amber. — The viperine 
 lalt, and rob of cider-berries, are al!'o greatly commended. 
 For prcfei vatives againft the Plague, they are ufually fummed 
 up in that popular diftich : 
 
 Htsc trio hbif.cam toMunt adverbia peftem, 
 Moxy longe, tarde, cede, recede, redi. 
 Cauteries, and efpecially ifiues, and fetons in the inguina, are 
 found of great fervicc in p referring from infection. A piece 
 of myrrh held in the mouth in contagious places, is alio com- 
 mended. But Diemerbroek allures us, that there is nothing 
 better in this intention, than fmoaking tobacco ; but he adds, 
 that it is only to fuch as have not made the practice familiar 
 to them. The other prefervatives ufed by that author, were 
 the rad. hclcnii, cardamoms, white-wine vinegar, and chcarful- 
 nefs ; and when he found his ipirits low, as if the difeafe were 
 taking poifeflion, a cup of generous wine, fometimes even to 
 a degree of ebriety. 
 pLAGUE-xtw/V'', aquti cpidemica, is one of the compound waters 
 ofthelhops, diltilled from mint, rofemary, angelica roots, 
 
 PLAIN, Planus, an epithet applied to various things, gene- 
 rally importing them to be imooth, even, level, or fuperficial, 
 or iimple, or obvious, or the like. 
 
 In thefc fenfes the words ftand oppofed to rough, folid, la- 
 boured, enriched, &c. 
 
 It is a maxim in heraldry, that the plainer the coat, the nearer 
 to antiquity. — -Plain coats are fuch as are leaft encumbered 
 with figures, or charges, and which have nothing in them but 
 what is natural 
 
 Plain figure, in geometry, is an uniform furface, from every 
 point of whofe perimeter, right lines may be drawn to every 
 other point in the fame. 
 
 Plain angle is an angle contained under two lines or fur- 
 faces. 
 
 It is fo called in contradiflinction to a folid angle. 
 Plain triangle, is a triangle included under three right lines, or 
 furfaces ; in oppofition to a fpherical, and a mixt triangle. See 
 Triangle. 
 
 Plain trigonometry is the doctrine of plain mangles, their mca- 
 
 fures,. proportions, ts'e- 
 Plain glafs, or mirroier, in optics, is a glafs or mirrour whofe 
 
 furface is flat, or even— See the phenomena, and laws of plain 
 
 mirrours, under the article Mirrour. 
 
 Plain mii rouis amount to what we popularly call boking-glafjes; 
 fee the manner of grinding, polilhing, and preparing them, 
 under the article Lookinc-^/.z/j. 
 Plain tyle. See the article Tvle. 
 
 Pl a i n e fcale, is a thin ruler, whereon are graduated the lines of 
 chords, fines, tangents, fecants, leagues, rhumbs, csV. of ready 
 ufe in moft parts of the mathematics, chiefly in navigation. 
 
 See Line, &c. 
 
 See its defcriptlon and ufe under the article Scale. 
 Plain chant, in mufic. See the article Chant. 
 Plain defiant. See the article Descant. 
 Plain chart, in navigation, is a fea-chart, wherein the meridians 
 
 and parallels are reprefented by parallel (trait lines ; and where, 
 
 of confequence, the degrees of longitude are the lame in all 
 
 the parallels of latitude. 
 
 See the properties, conftruction, &c. of this chart under the 
 article Chart. 
 
 P L A 
 
 Plain failing, in navigation, is the art of working the fcveral 
 cafes and varieties in a Ihip's motion, on a plain chart. Sec 
 plain Chart. 
 
 Plain failing is founded on the fuppofition of the earth being a 
 plane, or flat; which though notorioufly falfe, yet places 
 being laid down accordingly, and a long voyage broke into 
 many lhort ones ; the voyage may be tolerably performed 
 by it, near the lame meridian. 
 
 In plain failing it is fuppofed, that by the rhumb-line, meri- 
 dian, and parallel of latitude, there always will be formed a 
 right-angled triangle ; and that fo pofited, as that the perpen- 
 dicular fide may reprefent part of the meridian, or north and 
 fouth line, containing the difference of latitude : the bafe of 
 the triangle reprelents the departure ; and the hypotheneulc the 
 diftance failed. —The angle at the vertex is the courfe, and the 
 angle at the bafe the compliment of the courfe ; any two of 
 which, with the right-angle being given, the triangle may be 
 protracted, and the other three parts found. 
 For the doctrine of plain failing, fee Sailing. 
 Plain table-, in geometry, &c. an inftrument ufed in the fur- 
 veying of land ; whereby the draught, or plan, is taken on 
 the fpot, without any tutuie protraction, or plotting. See 
 Surveying. 
 
 The plain table, reprefented Tab. Suii'cying, fg. 31. ft, 1. con- 
 fifts of a parallelogram of wood, about fifteen inches long, and 
 twelve broad ; round this goes a boxen jointed frame, by 
 means whereof a fheet of paper is faftened tight to the tabic, 
 fo as lines may be conveniently drawn upon it. 
 On each fide the frame, which may be put on either fide up- 
 wards, towards the inward edge, at e fcales of inches fubdivided, 
 for the ready drawing of parallel lines.— Befide which, on one 
 fide are projected the 360 degrees of a circle, from a brafs cen- 
 tre in the middle of the table, (each degree halved) with two 
 numbers to every tenth degree, the one cxprefling the degree, 
 the other its complement to 360, to fave fubtraction : on the 
 other fide arc projected the 1 Ho degrees of a lemi-cirele, from 
 a brals centre in the middle of the table's length, and at J of 
 its bieadth ; each degree halved, and every tenth noted with 
 two numbers, viz. the degree and its complement to 180 °. 
 To one lide of the Table is fitted a compafs, forplacingthe in- 
 ftrument by ; and the whole is fixed by a locket, upon a three 
 legged It art' for a itand, on which it is turned round, or faftned 
 by a fcrew, as occalion requires. — Laftly, to the table belongs 
 an index, which is a ruler at leait fixteen inches long, and 
 two broad ; ufually graduated with fcales, is'c. and having 
 two fights perpendicularly placed on its extremities. 
 Ufe of the Plain table. — To take an angle by the Plain table - 
 or to find the diftance of two places acceffible from the fame 
 third. 
 
 Suppofe DA, DB, (Tab. Surveying, pg. 32. n. 2.) the fides of 
 the angle required ; or AB the diftance required. Place the 
 inftrument horizontally, as near the angle as poffible ; and af- 
 fume a point in the paper on the table, v. gr. c. To this point 
 apply the edge of the index, turning it about this and that way, 
 till through the fights you fee the point B, and in this fitua- 
 tion of the ruler, draw by its edge the line c e indefinitely. 
 After the fame manner turn about the index on the fame point, 
 till through the fights you fee the point A ; and draw the 
 right line c d indefinitely. — Thus have you the quantity of 
 the angle laid down. 
 
 Meaiure the lines DA, D B, with a chain ; and from a 
 fcale, fet off the meafures thus found, on the refpective lines ; 
 which fuppofe to reach from c to b, and from c to a. — Thus 
 will c b and c a be proportional to D B and D A. 
 Transfer the diftance a b to the fame fcale, and find its length; 
 the length thus found, will be the length, or diftance, of A B 
 required. 
 
 2° To find the diflance of two places, one whereof is inaccejfible, bv 
 the plain table. — Suppofe the diftance required A B ; (fg. 33.) 
 and A thcaccefilble point. i° place the plain table in C ; look 
 through the fights till you fee A and B ; and draw a c and c b. 
 Meaiure the diftance from your ftation to A ; and fet it off from 
 the fcale, upon c a, 2° Remove the table to A, where place 
 it fo, as that the point a reprefenting A, and theindex laid along 
 the line a c, you fee backwards, the former ftation C. (Note, 
 in this fixing the inftrument, lies the ufe of the compafs ; for 
 the needle will hang over the fame degree of the card in the 
 firftand the fecond cafe ; fo that fome fet the inftrument by the 
 needle alone ; others only ufe it to fhorten the trouble, by 
 bringing the inftrument nearly to its due pofition by means 
 thereof ; and then fixing for good by the back fight.) 3 0 The 
 inftrument fixed, turn the lights to B ; and draw the line a b. 
 4° on the fcale, meafure the interval a b ; which will be the 
 diftance of A B required. 
 30 To find the dijlance of two inaccejfible places by the plain table.— 
 Suppofe the diftance of A B (Tab. Surveying, fig. 34.) required. 
 1 0 Chufing two ftations in C and D ; in the firft C, place the 
 plain table; and through the lights look to D, B, and A : draw- 
 ing by the edge of the index, the lines cd, c b, c a. — 2° Mea- 
 fare the diftance of the ftations C D ; and fet this off, from a 
 
 fcale, 
 
P L A 
 
 fcale, on c d. — 3 s Removing the table from C, fix it In D ; fa 
 as the point d hanging over the place D, and the index lying 
 along the line c d, through the fights you fee the former fixa- 
 tion C. The inftrument thus fixed, direct the fights to A and B. 
 and draw the right lines d a and d b. Laftly, find the diftance 
 ofab,onthe fcalejandthis will be the difiance of A B required. 
 After the fame manner, may the diftance of any. number of 
 places be found from two ftations ; and thus may a field, part 
 of a country, &c. be iurveyed. 
 
 4 0 To take the plot of a field from one Jiation, whence all the angles 
 may be feen ; with the plain table. — Placing the instrument in the 
 ftation, aflume a point in the paper, to reprefent the fame, j 
 gr. C. {fig. 21.) laying the edge of the index to this point ; d: 
 r«a it to the feveral angles of the field, ABCDEF, CSV. and 
 draw indefinite lines by its edge, towards every angle, viz. 
 Ca, Cb, Cc, E5V. meafure the diftance of each angle from 
 the ftation, viz. CA, CB, CC, CD, &c. and from a fcale 
 fet thefe off from C on their correlponding lines ; the extremi- 
 ties hereof will give points, which being connected by lines 
 will reprefent the field. 
 
 50 To take the plot of a field, zvsod, or the like, by going round the fan.., 
 ivith the plain table. — Place the inftrument horizontally at the 
 firft angle, v.gr. A. The needle on the meridian of the card ; 
 afluming a point on the paper, to reprefent it, to that point 
 lay the index, directing it through the fights you lee a mark in 
 the angle B. And draw an indefinite line along it ; meafure the 
 diftance of A and B, and from a fcale fet it oft" on the line thus 
 drawn ; the extremity of this diftance will reprefent the point 
 B. Remove the inftrument to B, where fet it fo as that the 
 needle hang over the meridian of the card ; and fo as the in- 
 dex lying along the line laft drawn, you fee the for mer ftation 
 A through the fights : here fallen it, lay the index to the point 
 B, and turn it, till through the fights you fee the next angle 
 C ; in this fituation draw a line as before, meafure the difiance 
 BC, and fet it off from a fcale on the line.— Remove the in- 
 ftrument to C, where, fixing it by the needle, and the back 
 fight, as before, turn the index on the point C, till you fee the 
 next angle D ; draw the line, meafure, and fet off the diftance 
 CD as before, and remove the plain table to E ; where fix it. 
 as before, look to the next angle F, draw the line, meafure 
 and fet oft the diftance, &c. 
 
 In this manner having compafled the whole field, you will have 
 its whole perimeter plotted on the table; which may be now 
 caft up, and its contents found, as in the article of Surveying. 
 
 Maimer of Jhif ting paper on the plain table.— When in large parcels 
 of ground, the plot is found to exceed the dinrenfions of the 
 plain table, and to run off from the paper ; the ftieet muft be 
 taken off the table, and a frefh one put on : the way of ma- 
 naging which drifting, is as follows :— Suppofe H, K, M, Z, 
 (fig- 3S-) me limits of the plain table ; fo that having laid down 
 the field from A to B, thence to C and D ; you want room, 
 the line D E running oft' the paper : draw as much of the line 
 D E as the paper will well hold, viz. D O. And by means of 
 the divilions on the edge of the frame, draw the line P Q_ 
 through O, parallel to the edge of the table H M ; and through 
 the point of interfeftion O, draw O N parallel to M Z. This 
 done, take off the frame, remove the meet, and clap a frefti 
 one (Jig. 36.) in its ftead ; drawing on it a line RS near the 
 other edge parallel thereto. Then lay the firft fhcet on the table, 
 fo that the line P QJie exactly on the line R S, to the bed ad- 
 vantage, as at O. Laftly, draw as much of the line O D, on 
 the freih (heer, as the table will hold ; and from O continue 
 the remainder of the line D, to E. From E proceed with the 
 work as before to F, G, and A. 
 
 Ufe of the plain table, a; a theodolite, femi-circle, or ciraimferentor. 
 The great inconveniency of the plain table is, that its paper 
 renders its ufe impracticable in moift weather. Even the 
 dew of the morning and evening is found to fwell the paper 
 confiderably, and of confequence to diftort the work. — To 
 avoid this inconvenience, and render the inftrument ufeful in 
 all weathers ; by leaving oft" the paper, and fetting up a pin in 
 the centre, it becomes a theodolite, a femi-circle, or a circum 
 ferentor, and is applicable like them. 
 
 The plain table ftripped of its paper, becomes either a theodo- 
 lite, or a femi-circle, as that fide of the frame, which has the 
 projection of the degrees of a circle, or a femi-circle, is turned 
 upwards. If it be to ferve tor a theodolite ; the index, which 
 as a plain table turns on any point as a centre, is conftantly to 
 turn about the brafs centre hole in the middle of the table 
 If it be for a femi-circle, it muft turn on the other brafs centre 
 hole,in both cafes it is doneby means ofa pin raifed in the holes. 
 When the plain table is to ferve as a circumferentor, fcrew the 
 compafs to the index, and both of them to the head of the 
 ftaff, with a brafs fcrew-pin fitted for the purpofe ; fo as the 
 ftaft and table (landing fixed, the index, fights, CsV. may be 
 turned about, and vice verfa. 
 To take an angle by the plain table, eonfilererl as a theodolite.— Suppofe 
 the quantity of the angle EKG {fig. 20.) required. Place 
 the inftrument at K, the theodolite tide of the frame upwards 
 
 PL A 
 
 laying the index on the diameter. Turn the whole inftrument 
 about, the index remaining on the diameter, till through the 
 fights you fpy E. Screw the inftrument faft there, and turn 
 the index on its centre, till through the fights you fpy G. 
 1 he degree here cut on the frame by the index, is the quan- 
 tity of the angle fought; which may be laid down on paper 
 by the rules ot common protraction. 
 
 Thus you may proceed to do every thing with the plain tables 
 as with the common theodolite. 
 
 To take an angle with a plain table, confidered at a fcml-circh —Pro- 
 ceed in the fame manner with the inftrument confidered as a 
 femi-circle, as when confidered as a theodolite; only laying 
 the femi-circular fide upwards, and turning the index on the 
 other centre hole in the middle of the length, and at about ' 
 of the breadth of the table. * 
 
 To take an angle with the plain table, confidered at a cirlumferentor — 
 Suppofe the former angle EKG required. Place the inftru- 
 ment at K, the flower-de-luce towards you. Direct the fights 
 to E, and obl'erve the degree cut by the fouth end of the needle 
 which fuppofe 2g6. Turn the inftrument about, the flower- 
 de-luce ftill towards you, and direct the fight toG, noting the 
 degree cut by the other end of the needle, which fuppofe 182. 
 Subftract the lefs from the greater, the remainder 114° is the 
 quantity of the angle fought. If the remainder chance to be 
 more than rSo° then it muft be again fubtracted from 360. 
 T his fecond remainder will be the angle required ; which may 
 be protracted, Uc. as under the article Protractor. 
 Thus you may proceed to do every thing with the plain ta- 
 ble, as with the common circumferentor. 
 
 Plain number is a number that may be produced by the multi- 
 plication of two numbers into one another.— Thus 20 is a 
 plain number, produced by the multiplication of 5 into 4. 
 
 Plain place, in geometry, locus Pianos, or hem ad Planum, 
 is a term which the ancient geometricians ufed for a geometrical 
 locus, when it was a right line, or a circle— in oppolition to 
 a fohd place, which was an ellipfis, parabola, or hyperbola. 
 Thefe plain hd the moderns diftinguilli into loci ad reclam, and 
 loci ad circulum. See Locus. 
 
 Plain problem, in mathematics, is fuch an one, as cannot be 
 folved geometrically, but by the interfection either ofa right 
 line and a circle ; or of the circumferences of two circles. 
 Such is the problem following— Given, the greateft fides, and 
 the lum of the other two fides, of a right-angled triangle • to 
 find the triangle.— Such alfo is this, to defcribe a trapezium 
 that (lull make a given area of four given lines. 
 Such problems can only have two folutions, in regard a right 
 line can only cut a circle, or one circle cut another in two 
 points. 
 
 Plain, in heraldry, is fometimes ufed for the point ofthe ftiield 
 when couped Iquare ; a part remaining under the fquare, of a 
 different colour, or metal from the (hield. 
 This has been fometimes ufed as a mark of baftardy, and called 
 cbampaigni : for when the legitimate defeendants of baftards 
 have taken away the bar, fillet, or traverfe bore by their fa- 
 thers, they are to cut the point of the ftiield with a different 
 colour called Plain. 
 
 Plain, ufed fubftantively, in perfpeftive, mechanics, aftrono- 
 my, t$c. See Plane. 
 
 Oblique Plains. See the article Oblique. 
 
 PLAINT, Plainte, in law, the propounding or exhibiting 
 any action, real or perfonal, in writinp. 
 
 oT H » e ,'i C T^V ,he pm ? makin 5 this Pk ""< " is ""ed plaintiff. 
 
 PLAINT E, in the ancient cuftoms of France, was a requeft 
 or petition, prefented to the king, againft the judges of the 
 provinces, and afterwards againft bailiffs and fenefchals • for 
 denying juftice, or for rendering judgment contrary to the 
 laws of the realm. 
 
 For in thole days there was no appeal from their decifions • 
 but they all pionounced in the dernier refort ; fo that the 
 Plmnte was not directed againft the party, but againft the 
 judge ; who was cited to fee his own fentence declared null 
 This was a kind of fupplement to the way of appeals, which 
 was then fhut up. Thefe Plainte,, in the capitulars of Charle- 
 maign, are called blafphemie. 
 
 PLAINTIFF, in law, he that fues, or complains, in an affize, 
 or in an action perfonal ; as, in an action of debt, trefpafs, 
 deceit, detinue, and the like. 
 Plaintiff Hands oppofed to defendant. 
 
 PLAISTER, in building. See the articles Plaster, Mor- 
 tar, 
 
 Cajling jVi Pl a r s t e R . See the article Casting. 
 
 Plaister, in medicine. See the article Emplaster. 
 
 Plaistered walls. See the article Wall. 
 
 PLAN, a reprefentation of fomething, drawn on a plane. 
 Such are maps, charts, and ichnographies. 
 
 Plan, in architecture, is particularly ufed for a draught of a 
 building ; fuch as it appears, or is intended to" appear, 
 on the ground ; (hewing the extent, divifion, and diftri* 
 
 butiori 
 
P L A 
 
 P L A 
 
 button of its area into apartments, rooms, parages, fcfc 
 The Plan is the ftrft device or Sketch the atchitect makes ; it 
 is alfo called the ground-plot , plat-form, and ichnography of the 
 building. 
 
 Geometrical Plan* is that wherein the folid and vacant parts are 
 
 reprefented in their natural proportion. 
 RaifedPtAW, is that where the elevation, or upright is Shewn, 
 
 upon the geometrical plan, fo as to hide the distribution. See 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 PerfpeflivePhAU, is that conducted and exhibited by degrada- 
 tions, or diminutions, according to the rules of perspective. 
 To render Plans intelligible, it is ufual to diftinguilh the maf- 
 fives with a black warn. The projcctures on the ground are 
 drawn in full lines, and thofe fuppofed over them in dotted 
 lines. The augmentations or alterations to be made are dif- 
 tinguilhed by a colour different from what is already built ; 
 and the tints of each Plan are made lighter as the ftories are 
 raifed. 
 
 In large buildings it is ufual to have three feveral Plans for the 
 
 firft there ftories. 
 PLANCHIER, or Plancere, in architecture, the under part 
 
 of the corona, or drip ; making the fuperiour part of the cor- 
 
 niche, between two cymatiums. 
 PLANE, Planum, in geometry, denotes a plain figure ; or a 
 
 furface, lying evenly between its bounding lines. 
 
 Wolfius defines Plane, a furface from every point of whole 
 
 perimeter a right line may be drawn to every other point in 
 
 the fame. 
 
 As the right line is the fhorteft extent from one point to an- 
 other; fo is a Plane the fhortcft extcniion between one line 
 and another. 
 
 Parallel Planes. See the article Parallel. 
 
 Planes are frequently ufed in aftronomy, ESfV, for imaginary 
 Surfaces, fuppofed to cut, and pais through folid bodies ; 
 and on this foundation it is that the whole doctrine of conic 
 fectiohs, and of the Sphere, turn. 
 
 When a Plane cuts a cone parallel to one of its fides, it makes 
 a parabola ; when it cuts the cone parallel to its bale, it makes 
 a circle. 
 
 The fphere is wholly explained by Plana, imagined to cut the 
 celeftial luminaries, and to fill the areas or circumferences of 
 their orbits. 
 
 AftronomCrs fhew, that the Plane of the moon's orbit is incli- 
 ned to the Plane of the earth's orbit, or the ecliptic, by an an- 
 gle of about 5 deg. and partes through the centre of the earth. 
 The interferon of this Plane with that of the ecliptic, has a 
 proper motion of 3' 1 1" each day, from eaft to weft ; fo that 
 the nodes anfwer fucceffively to all the degrees of the ecliptic, 
 and make a revolution round the earth in about nineteen years. 
 The Planes of the orbits of the other planets, like that of the 
 ecliptic, pafs through the centre of the fun. — The Plane of the 
 orbit of Saturn, is inclined to the ecliptic by 20 0 33' 30", and 
 cuts it, at prelcnt, in the 22 d degree of Cancer and Capri- 
 corn. 
 
 The centre of the earth then, being in the Plane of the moon's 
 orbit, the circular Section of that plane in the moon's di(k, is 
 reprefented to us in form of a right line parting through the 
 centre of the moon. — This line is inclined to the Plane of 
 the ecliptic by 5 Q when the moon is in her nodes : but this 
 inclination diminishes as that planet recedes from the nodes ; 
 and at three degrees diftance, the lection of the moon's orbit 
 in its difk, becomes parallel to the Plane of the ecliptic. 
 The fame appearances attend the primary planets, with re- 
 gard to the fun. 
 
 But the cafe is very different in the planets as feen from one an- 
 other, efpecially from the earth. — The Planes of their orbits 
 only pals through the centre of the earth when they are in 
 their nodes, in every other fit nation, the Plane is railed above 
 the orbit of the planet, either to the north or the fouth. And 
 the circular Section of the Plane of the orbit on its difk, or 
 in the orbit of one of its fatcllites, does not appear a right 
 line, but an ellipfis, broader or narrower as the earth is more 
 or lefs elevated above the Plane of the orbit of the planet. 
 Plane, in mechanics. — A horizontal Plane, is a Plane level 
 or parallel to the horizon. 
 
 The determining how far any given Plane, tSc, deviates from 
 an horizontal one, makes the whole bufinefs of levelling. 
 Inclined Plane, in mechanics, is a plane which makes an oblique 
 angle with an horizontal Plane. 
 
 The doctrine of the motion of bodies on inclined Planes makes 
 a very conliderable article in mechanics * -> the fubftance 
 whereof is as follows : 
 
 * A machine has been contrived for meafuring the acceleration of a 
 ball down an inclined plane, and comparing it with that found 
 in bodies falling at liberty. See its description in Mem. deVacad. 
 ray. desfcienc. 1699. p. 343. 
 
 Zaivs of defeat of bodies on inclinedPh anes. — 1. If abodybe placed 
 on an inclined Plane, its relative gravity will be to its abfolute 
 gravity, as the length of the Plane, e. gr. A C (Tab. Median, 
 fig. 58.) to its height A B. 
 
 Hence, i° fince the ball D only gravitates on the inclined Plane, 
 with its relative gravity ; the weight L, applied in a direction 
 
 parallel to the length of the Plane, will retain or fufpend it, 
 provided its weight be to that of the ball, as the altitude of the 
 Plane B A is to its length AC. 
 
 2° If the length of the Plane C A be taken for the whole fine ; 
 A B will be the fine of the angle of inclination A C B. — The 
 abfolute gravity of the body;, therefore, is to its respective gra- 
 vity applied on the inclined Plane, and therefore, alio the weight 
 D to the weight L acting according to the direction D A which 
 fuftains it; as the whole fine is to the line of the angle of in- 
 clination. 
 
 3 0 Hence the refpective gravities of the fame body on differ- 
 ent inclined Planes, are to each other as the fines cf the angle 
 of inclination. 
 
 4 0 The greater therefore the refpective gravity is, the greater 
 is the angle of inclination. 
 
 5 0 As, therefore, in a vertical Plane, where the inclination is 
 greateft, vhs, perpendicular, the refpective gravity degenerates 
 into abfolute ; fo in an horizontal Plane, where there is no in- 
 clination, tire refpective gravity vanilhes. 
 
 II. To find the fine of the angle of inclination of a Plane, on 
 which a given power will be able to fuftain a given weight.— 
 Say, as the given weight, is to the given power, fo is the whole 
 fine to the fine of the angle of inclination of the Plane. Thus, 
 fijppofe, a weight of 1000 be to be fiiftained by a power of 50, 
 the angle of inclination will be found 2 0 52'. 
 
 III. If the weight L defcend according to the perpendicular di- 
 rection AB, and raiie up the weight D in a direction parallel 
 to the inclined Plane ; the height of the afcent of D will be to 
 that of the defcent of L, as the fine of the angle of inclination 
 C, to the whole line. 
 
 Hence i u the height of the defcent C D of the weight L, is 
 to the height of afcent D H of the weight D, reciprocally as 
 the weight D to the equivalent weight L. 
 2 W Since then C D. L=D H. D, and the aftions of the equi- 
 ponderating bodies D and L are equal ; the moments of the 
 weights D and L are in a ratio compounded of their mattes, 
 and the altitudes through which they afcend or defcend in a 
 Plane, either inclined or perpendicular. 
 
 3 V The powers that raife weights through altitudes recipro- 
 cally proportional to them, are equal.-*-This Des Cartes af- 
 fumes as a principle whereby to demonstrate the powers of 
 machines. 
 
 Hence we fee why a loaded waggon is drawn with more diffi- 
 culty up an inclined than on an horizontal Plane ; as being 
 pielied with a part of the weight which is to the whole 
 weight in a ratio of the altitude of the plane, to its length. 
 
 IV. Weights E and ¥,fig. 53. n. 2. equiponderating upon in- 
 clined planes AC and C B of the fame height C D, are to each 
 other as the lengths of the Planes A C and C B. 
 
 S. Stevinus gives a very pretty demonstration of this theorem, 
 which, for its eafinefs and ingenuity, we fhall here add. — Put 
 a chain, whofe parts do all exactly weigh in proportion to 
 their length, over a triangle, GIH : (fig. 59.) it is evident the 
 parts G K and K H do balance each other. If then I H did not 
 balance G I, the preponderating part would prevail ; and there 
 would arife a perpetual motion of the chain about GIH : but 
 this being abfurd, it follows, that the parts of the chain 1 H 
 and GI ; and confequcntly all other bodies which are as the 
 lengths of the Planes I H and I G, will ballance each other. 
 
 V. A heavy body defcends on an inclined Plane, with a motion 
 uniformly accelerated. 
 
 Hence, 1 u The Spaces of defcent are in a duplicate ratio of the 
 times, and likewife of the velocities ; and therefore in equal 
 times they incieafe according to the unequal numbers, 1, 
 
 h u * &c - 
 
 2 I he fpace parted over by a heavy body defcending on an in- 
 clined Plane, is fubduple of that which it would pafs over in the 
 fame time, with the velocity it has acquired at the end of its fall. 
 3 0 Heavy bodies, therefore, defcend by the fame laws on in- 
 clined Planei, as in perpendicular Planes. Hence it was, that Gal- 
 lileo, to find the laws of perpendicular defcent, made his expe- 
 riments on inclined Planes, in regard of the motions being flower 
 in the latter than the former ; as in the following theorem, 
 
 VI. The velocity of a heavy body defcending on an inclined 
 Plane, at the end of any given time ; is to the velocity which it 
 would acquire in falling perpendicularly, in the fame time, as 
 the height of the inclined Plane is to its length. 
 
 VII. The fpace parted over by a heavy body on an inclined Plane 
 A D, (fig. 60.) is to the fpace A B, it would pafs over in the 
 fame time in a perpendicular Plane; as its velocity on the in- 
 clined Plane is to its velocity in the perpendicular defcent, at 
 the end of any given time. 
 
 Hence, i° The Space palled over on the inclined Plane, is to the 
 fpace it would deSccnd in the Same time in the perpendicular 
 Plane, as the altitude of the Plane A B to its length A C ; and 
 therefore as the fine of the angle of inclination B, to the whole 
 fine. 
 
 2 U If, then, from the right angle B, a perpendicular be let fall 
 to ACj AC: AB:: AB: AD. So that in the fame time 
 wherein the body would fall perpendicularly from A to B - y 
 in an inclined Plane it will defcend from A to D. 
 3 0 The fpace, therefore, of perpendicular defcent being given 
 
 in 
 
P L A 
 
 in the altitude of the Plane A B ; by letting fall a perpendicular 
 from B to AC, as we have the fpace A E to be palled over in 
 the fame time on the inclined Plane. 
 4° In like manner, the fpace A D, paffed over on the inclined 
 Plane, being given, we have the fpace AB, through which it 
 would defcend perpendicularly in the fame time, by railing a 
 perpendicular meeting the fide of the Plane in B. 
 5° Hence in the femi-circle CDEFfg. 6i.the body will defcend 
 through all the Planes AD, AE, AF, AC, in the fame time ; 
 viz. in that time wherein it would fall through the diameter 
 AB, fuppofing that perpendicular to the horizontal iVa/^LM. 
 
 VIII. The fpace AD,/*. 60. palled over an inclined Plane AC, 
 being given, to determine the fpace which would be palled 
 over in any other indited Plane in the fame time. 
 
 From the point D ere£t a perpendicular D B, meeting the 
 altitude A B in B ; then will A B be the fpace, through which 
 the body would fall perpendicularly in that time. Wherefore 
 if from B a perpendicular B E be let fall to the Plane AF ; AE 
 will be the fpace in the inclined plane which the body will pals 
 over, in the fame time wherein it falls perpendicularly from A 
 to B 5 and confequently A D will be the fpace in the other in- 
 clined Plane A which it paffes through in the fame time. 
 Hence, lince AB is to AD, as the whole fine to the fine of the 
 angle of inclination C ; and A B is to A E as the whole fine 
 to the fine of the angle of inclination F ; the fpaces A D and 
 AE, which the body will pals over in the fame time on diffe- 
 rent inclined Planes, are as the fines of the angles of inclination. 
 C and Fj and reciprocally as the refpe£tivc gravities on the 
 fame Planes. And confequently, they are alio reciprocally as 
 the lengths of Planes equally high, ACandAF. — Whence 
 the problem may be refolved various ways by calculation. 
 
 IX. The velocities acquired in the fame time on different hull 
 tied Planes, are as the fpaces paifed over in the fame time. -Hence 
 alfo, they are as the fines of the angles of inclination C and F ; 
 reciprocally as the refpeclive gravities on the fame Planes ; and 
 reciprocally as the lengths of equally high Planes AC and AF 
 
 X. A body defcending on an inclined Plane A C> when it ar- 
 rives at the horizontal line C B, has acquired the fame velo- 
 city which it would have acquired in a perpendicular defcent 
 A B, to the fame horizontal line C B. 
 
 Hence, 1° a heavy body defcending through different inclined 
 Planes AC, A G, AF, has acquired the fame velocity when 
 it arrives at the fame horizontal line CF. 
 Hence alio a body continuing its defcent through feveral conti- 
 guous inclined Planes, acquires the fame velocity which it would 
 acquire in defcending perpendicularly to the fame horizontal 
 Plane. 
 
 XI. The time of defcent along an inclined Plane A C, is to the 
 time of perpendicular defcent through A B, as the length of 
 die PUm A C, to its altitude AB: but the times of defcent 
 through different inclined Planes equally high A C and A G, are 
 as the lengths of the Planes. 
 
 XII. If the diameter of a circle A B {fig. 61.) be parallel to 
 the horizontal line L M ; a body will defcend from any point 
 of the periphery D E, or C to B, along an inclined Plane D C, 
 E B, and C B, in the fame time wherein it will defcend 
 through the diameter A B. Hence, 
 
 XIII. The defcents of bodies through a femicyloid D E F, 
 {fig. 62.) and through any arch thereof D G, are always ifo- 
 chronal, or performed in the fame time ; on which principle 
 is built the doctrine of pendulums vibrating in a cycloid. 
 
 Laws of a/cent of bodies on inclined Planes. — I. If a body afcend 
 in a medium void of refinance, in any direction, whether per- 
 pendicular, or along an inclined Plane ■> its motion will be uni- 
 formly retarded. 
 
 Hence, 1 0 a body attending either perpendicularly or oblique- 
 ly, in fuch a medium, paffes over a fpace which is fubduple of 
 that it would pafs over in the fame time on a horizontal Plane, 
 with an uniform celerity equal to that it has at the beginning 
 of its motion. 
 
 2" Such fpaces, therefore, performed in equal times, decreafe 
 in a retrograde order, as the uneven numbers 7, 5, 3, r : and 
 therefore the afcent is fo much impeded ; and confequently, 
 when the impreffed force is exhaufted, the body will defcend 
 again by the force of gravity. 
 
 3 0 They are therefore, inverfely, as the fpaces defcribed in 
 the fame times by a body defcending through the fame 
 altitude. 
 
 For, fuppofe the time divided into four parts ; in the firft mo- 
 ment, the body A defcends through the fpace 1 , and B afcends 
 through 7 ; in the fecond, A defcends through 3, B afcends 
 through 5, CsV. 
 
 4 0 Hence a bodyrifing with an impreffed force, afcends to 
 that altitude, from which it muft fall to acquire that velocity 
 in falling wherewith it afcended. 
 
 5° Hence, by falling it acquires a force to rife again to the 
 height trom whence it felt. 
 
 II. The time wherein a body afcends to a given altitude, being 
 given ; to determine the fpace paffed over each moment. 
 Suppofe the fame body to defcend from the fame altitude in the 
 fame time ; and find the fpaces paffed over each moment. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 P L A 
 
 Thcfe, taken inverfely, are fin fame with the fpaces of ac- 
 cent required, r 
 Suppofe, v gr. a body projected perpendicularly, to afcent) 
 through a ipace of 2 + o feet m fourfeconds; and the fpaces of 
 afcent performed ,n the feveral times required ; if now, the bo- 
 dy had aefcended, the defcent in the fiift minute had been , S 
 feet, in the lecond 4S , in the third 7S , i„ the fourth 105, feV 
 The defcentthererore will be in the firft moment 105, in the 
 fecond 75, &c. D> 
 m. If a body defcend either perpendicularly through AD) 
 [fig. 62.) or in any other furface FED, and with the velocity 
 it has there acquired, again afcend along another furface D C • 
 at points equally high, t. gr. at G H, and Q, it will have the; 
 lame force, and the fame velocity. 
 
 Hence, if a body defcend along any fur face, FED, and again 
 alcend along another fimilar and equal furface D G C ; it is the 
 fame as if it paffed over the feveral parts of the fame line 
 twice. 
 
 Whence, the times of afcent and defcent through equal fpaces 
 are equal. 
 
 On this principle is founded the conllruction and ufe of pen- 
 dulums. 
 
 lane of gravity, or gravitation, is a plane fuppofed to pafs 
 through the centre of gravity of the body, and in the direction 
 ot its tendency ; that is, perpendicular to the horizon. 
 
 Plane of reflection in catoptrics, is a plane which paffes 
 through the point of reflection ; and is perpendicular to the 
 plane ot the glafs, or retMing body. 
 
 Plane of nfrdcTm, is a plane drawn through the incident and 
 refracted ray. 
 
 PerfpeCke Plane, is a plain pellucid furface, ordinarily perpen- 
 dicular to the horizoh-, and placed between the fpcclator's eye 
 and the object he views ; through which the optic rays, emit- 
 ted from the feveral points of the objedl, are luppofed to pafs 
 to the eye, and in their pall'age to leave marks that repreient 
 them on the faid plane. 
 
 Sachisthe Plane HI ; (Tab. Perfect, fig. 1.) fome call it the 
 tam, or picture, becaule the draught, or perfpcfli ve of the ob- 
 ject, is fuppofed to be thereon ; others, the Jetlion, from its 
 cutting the vifual lays ; and others, the glafs, from its fuppo- 
 fed tranfparency. 
 Geometrical Plane, in perfpeftive, is a plane parallel to the ho- 
 rizon, whereon the object to be delineated is fuppofed to be 
 placed. 
 
 Such is the Plane L M. {Tab. PcrfpeCt. fig. 1.)— This Plane is 
 ufually at right angles with the firfpeclhe Plane. 
 
 Horizontal Plane, in perfpeclive, is a plane palling through 
 the fpecfator's eye, parallel to the horizon, cutting the per- 
 fpeaive plane when that is perpendicular to the geometrical 
 one, at right angles. 
 
 Vertical Plane, in perfpeclive, a plane palling through the fpec- 
 tator's eye, perpendicular to the geometrical plane ; and ufu- 
 ally parallel to the perfpecfive plane. 
 
 Objellive Plane, in perfpeclive, is any plane fituate in the hori- 
 zontal plane, whole reprefentation in perfpeclive is required. 
 
 Plane of the horopter, in optics, is a plane that paffes through 
 the horopter, A B, (Tab. Optics, fig. 67.) and is perpendicular 
 to a plane paffing through the two optic axes I C and C H. 
 See Horopter. 
 
 Plane of the Projection, in the ftereographic projection of the 
 fphere, is the fame with the perfpeclive Plane, which fee. 
 
 Plane of a dial, or dial-Pi an e, the furface whereon a dial is 
 drawn. See Dial. 
 
 We have horizontal, vertical, inclining, declining, reclining, de- 
 inclining, dtreCI, He. dial-planes. See Declines., Recliner, 
 Direct, tfc. 
 
 Decimation of a Plane. See the article Declination. 
 Plane glafs, mirrour, figure, number, problem, lie. SeePlAlM 
 
 glafs, mirrour, number, figure, problem, gfV. 
 Plane, in joinery, tic. denotes an edged inllrument, ufed to pare 
 
 or fhave woods fmooth, even, 
 
 It confifts of a piece of wood very fmooth at the bottom, fer- 
 ving as a (lock, or fhaft ; in the middle whereof is an aperture, 
 through which paffes a fteel edge, or chiffel, obliquely placed, 
 and very (harp, which takes off the inequalities of the wood it 
 is Aid along. 
 
 The Plane acquires various names according to its various 
 forms, fizes, and ufes ; as, the .—Fore-plane, which is very long, 
 and is that commonly firft ufed; the edge of its iron is not 
 ground ftreight, but riles with a convex arch in the middle, to 
 bear being fct the ranker ; its ufe being to take off the greater 
 irregularities of the ftuff, and to prepare it for the fmoothing 
 plane. 
 
 Smoothing plane, is fhort and fmall, its iron fine ; it takes off the 
 great irregularities left by the fore-plane, and prepares the wood 
 for the jointer. 
 
 Jointer is the longed of all ; its edge very fine, not Handing 
 out above a hair's breadth ; it comes after the fmoothing-plane^ 
 and is chiefly intended to (hoot the edge of a board perfeclly 
 ftreight for jointing fmooth tables, &c. 
 
 8 B b Strikl 
 
P L A 
 
 P L A 
 
 Strike block is like the jointer, but fhorter ; its ufe is to fhoot 
 Ihort joints, Esfo 
 
 Rabbet-plane is ufed to cut the upper edge of a board, ftraitor 
 fquare, down into the fluff, fo as the edge of another, cut after 
 the fame manner, may join in with it on the fquare : it is alio 
 ufed to Alike fafcia's in mouldings. Its iron is full as broad as 
 its flock, that the angle may cut flrait ; and it delivers its 
 fhavings at the fides, not, like the others, at the top. 
 The Plow, a narrow rabbet-plane, with the addition of two 
 ftaves, whereon are moulders, and on the fhoulders a fence.— 
 ' It's ufe is to plow a narrow fquare grove on the edge of a 
 board, b'c. 
 
 Moulding-planes ; of thefe there are various kinds, accommo- 
 dated to the various forms and profiles, of the mouldings. 
 Such are the round-plane, the hollow, the 0 G, the Snipe' s-bi 11, 
 ciff. which are all of feveral fizes, from half an inch to an 
 inch and half. 
 
 To ufe the moulding-planes on foft wood, as deal, pear-tree, \&t. 
 they fet the iron to an angle of 45 0 with the bale or fole ot the 
 Plane. On hardwood, e.gr. ebony, box, &c. they fet to an 
 angle of 8o° ; fometimes quite upright. To work on hard 
 ■Wood, the edge or bafil is ground to an angle of 18 or 20 0 ; 
 on foft wood to an angle of about 12 0 . For the more acute 
 the bafil, the fmoother the iron cuts ; but the more obtufe, 
 the ftronger. A method has lately been brought into ufe, of 
 forming mouldings in marble with the Plane. 
 
 Plane, among fowlers. — To Plane, is to fly or hover, as a 
 kite or other bird does, without moving its wings. 
 
 PLANET, Planeta*, in aftronomy, a celeftial body, re- 
 volving round the fun as a centie, and continually changing its 
 polition with refpeci to the other flars. 
 
 * Whence its name oftorantf, wanderer ; in oppofition to a Jlar 
 which remains fixed. 
 The Planets are ufually diftinguifhed into primary and fecondary, 
 
 Primary Planets, called alio limply and by way of eminence, 
 Planets, are thole which move round the fun as their proper 
 centre.— Such are Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Earth, Venus, 
 and Mercury. 
 
 Secondary Planets are fuch as move round fome primary Planet, 
 as their refpective centre, in the fame manner as the primary 
 Planets do round the fun. — Such aie the Moon moving round 
 our earth ; and thofe others moving round Saturn and Jupiter, 
 properly called their Satellites, bee the doctrine of fecondary 
 Planets, under the article Satellites, and Secondary. - 
 The primary Planets are in number fix, which are again diftin- 
 guifhed into the fuperiour and inferiour. 
 
 Superiour Planets are thofe further off the fun than our earth is, 
 —Such are Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. 
 
 Inferiour Planets are thofe nearer the fun than our earth is, 
 and fituate between the earth and fun. — Such are Venus and 
 Mercury. — See the order, polition, C3V. of the Planets, in 
 Tab. Ajiron.fig. 44. 
 
 The Planets are reprefented by the fame characters as the che- 
 jnifts ufe to reprefent their metals by, on account of fome 
 luppoled analogy between thofe celeftial and fubterraneous 
 bodies. 
 
 Saturn is reprefenetd by the character \ . — This Planet, by 
 reafon of its great diftance, appears to the eye with a feeble 
 light. — It performs its revolutions round the fun in about thirty 
 
 years. 
 
 Jupiter, marked %, is a bright refulgent ftar, finifhing its 
 courfe round the fun in about twelve years. 
 Mars, characterifed $, is a ruddy fiery coloured Planet, finifh- 
 ing its courfe in about two years. 
 
 Venus, ¥ , is the brighteft of all the Planets, conftantly attend- 
 ing the fun, and never diftantfrom him above47 degrees. 
 It finilhes its courfe in about feven months. 
 When it goes before the fun, it is called phofphorus and lucifer ; 
 and when it follows him hefperus. See Phosphorus, C3V. 
 Mercury, ?, a little bright Planet^ the fun's conflant compa- 
 nion, from whofe fide it never departs above 28°, and by that 
 means is ufually hid in his fplendor. — It performs its courfe in 
 about three months. 
 
 To which we now add, Tellus, the earth, marked or ¥ , 
 perfoiming its courfe about the fun, between Mars and Venus, 
 
 in the fpace of a year. 
 
 Prom thefe definitions, a perfon may eafily diftinguifh all the 
 Planets. — For if after fun-let he fees a Planet nearer the eaft 
 than the weft, he may conclude it is neither Mercury nor Ve- 
 nus ; and may determine whether it is Saturn, Jupiter, or 
 Mars, by the colour and light : by which alfo he may diftin- 
 guifh between Mercury and Venus. 
 Nature of the Planets. — From the feveral phafes and appear- 
 ances of the Planets, they are found to be all perfectly like the 
 moon ; which we have lhewn to be perfectly like our earth; 
 whence it follows, that the Planets are alfo dark, opake, fphe- 
 rical, &c bodies, like our earth. 
 
 This may be lhewn almoft to be a demonftration. — 1 0 Venus 
 obferved with a telefcope, is rarely found full, but with variable 
 phafes like thofe of the moon ; her illuminated partftiU turned 
 
 towards the fun, viz. towards the eaft when flie is the morn- 
 ing-ftar, and towards the weft when the evening-flar. — And 
 the like phafes are obferved in Mercury and Mars. 
 2 0 Gaflendus firfl, and after him others, have obferved Mer- 
 cury on the face of the fun, a-crofs which he appeared to pal's 
 like a black round fpot. SccTransit. — Horrox in 1639, 
 alfo obferved Venus in the fun ; where (he made the fame ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 3° De la Hire, in 1700, with a telefebpe of fixteen foot, dif- 
 covered mountains in Venus, larger than thofe of the moon. 
 4 0 CafTmi obferved two fpots in Venus ; four in Mars, likewile 
 obferved by Campani ; and feveral, at feveral times, in Jupi- 
 ter : and from his obfervations of thefe fpots, he found that 
 they had a rotation round their axes : He even determined the 
 velocity of that rotation, or the period wherein it was effected. 
 v.gr. That of Jupiter, 9 hours 56'. That of Mars 24 houis 
 40'. And that of Venus, 24 hours. And lince the Sun, Moon, 
 Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and the earth, are found to levolve on 
 their axes, /. e. to have a diurnal rotation : no doubt Mercu- 
 ry and Saturn have the fame ; though the great nearnefs of 
 the former to the fun, and the great diftance of the latter, 
 prevent any fpots from being obferved on them, whence that 
 rotation might be demonftratcd. 
 
 5 0 In Jupiter aie obferved two fwaths, or belts, different from 
 the reft of his disk, and moveable ; they are fometimes found 
 in one part, fometimes in another ; and aie fometimes broader, 
 fometimes narrower. 
 
 6° In 1609, were fiift obferved the little ftars, or moons, mov- 
 ing about Jupiter, by Sim. Marius ; and in 1610 the fame were 
 obferved by Galileo: Thefe are now frequently obferved to 
 difappear in a clear Iky, when Jupiter happens to be diametri- 
 cally interpofed between them and the fun. — Whence it ap- 
 pears they are void of light, at fuch time when the fun's rays, 
 intercepted by Jupiter, cannot be propagated to them in right 
 lines i and hence alfo that, like the moon, they are opake bodies, 
 illuminated by the fun; and hence again, lince Jupiter docs not 
 illuminate his fatellites when placed behind him, he himfelf, in 
 that part turned from the fun, may be argued to be void of light. 
 7 0 "VV hen Jupiter's moons are diametrically interpofed between 
 Jupiter and the fun, there is feen a round fpot on Jupiter'sdisk, 
 which is fometimes larger than the fatellite itfelf.— Whence it 
 appears, that the fatellites are opake bodies, illuminated by the 
 fun, that they project a fhadow from the fun ; and that the 
 round fpots feen in Jupiter, are the fhadows of the fatellites. 
 Whence alfo, the interfection of that fhadow being found to 
 be a circle, the fhadow muft be conical ; and therefore the 
 figure of the fatellites, atleaft as to fenfe, is fpherical. 
 8" The earth being between Jupiter and the fun ; if, at the 
 fame time, any of the fatellites happen to be between Jupiter 
 and the fun, it is loft in Jupiter's light ; though fometimes ap- 
 pearing like a black fpot.— This phenomenon has been fre- 
 quently obferved by Caffini and Maraldi, who have likewile 
 noted very confiderable alterations in the apparent magnitudes 
 of the fatellites 3 for which no reafon could be given from the 
 diftance of Jupiter, the fun, or the earth: <.-.£?■. Thatthe fourth, 
 which is ufually feen the fmallcft, is fometimes the largeft ; 
 and the third, which is ufually the largcft,appearsfometimcs the 
 fmalleft.— Hence, as the fatellites are illuminated by the fun, 
 even then when emerged in Jupiter's light, yet do appear ob- 
 fcure, there muft be fome alteration in their atmofpheres, to 
 prevent the fun's rays being equally reflected from every par t 
 of their furface; which muft likewife be the caufe why their 
 fhadow is fometimes larger than themfelves. 
 Now, to fum up the evidence. — i Q Since in Venus, Mercury, 
 and Mars, only that part of the disk illuminated by the fun, is 
 found to fhinc; and, again, Venus and Mercury, when between 
 the earth and the fun, appear like dark fpots or maculae, on the 
 fun's disk; it is evident, that Mars, Jupiter, and Mercury, are 
 opake bodies, illuminated with the borrowed light of the fun. 
 And the fame appear s of Jupiter, from its being void of light 
 in that part to which the fhadow of the fatellites reaches, as 
 well as in that part turned from the fun ; and that his fatellites 
 are opake, and reflect the fun's light, is alfo abundantly lhewn. 
 Wherefore, fince Saturn, with his ring and fatellites, do only 
 yield a faint light, fainter confiderably than that of the fixed 
 ftars ; though thefe be vaftly more remote ; and than that of 
 the reft: of the Planets : it is paft doubt, that he too, with his 
 attendants, are opake bodies. 
 
 2 0 Since the fun's light is not tranfmitted through Mercury 
 and Venus, when placed againft him ; it is plain they are denfe 
 opake bodies ; which is likewife evident of Jupiter, from his 
 hiding the fatellites in his fhadow ; and therefore, by analogy, 
 the fame may be concluded of Saturn. 
 
 30 From the variable fpots in Venus, Mars, and Jupiter, it is 
 evident thofe Planets have a changeable atmofphere which 
 changeable atmofphere may, by a like argument, be inferred 
 of the fatellites of Jupiter ; and therefore, by fimilitudc the 
 fame may be concluded of the other Pla?iets. 
 4 0 In like manner, from the mountains obferved in Venus, the 
 fame may be fuppofed in the other Planets. 
 
 5° Sincq 
 
P L A 
 
 $• Since then Saturn, Jupiter, both their fatellites, Mars, Ve- 
 11 us, and Mercury, are opake bodies, ihining with the fun's bor- 
 rowed light, and are furniihed with mountains, and encom- 
 paffed with a changeable atmofphere ; they have, of confe- 
 quencc, waters, feas, ts'c. as well as dry land, and they are bo- 
 dies like the moon, and therefore like the earth. E. D. 
 And hence nothing hinders but that the Planets may alio be con- 
 cluded to be inhabited— Huygens, in his Cofmotheoros, argues 
 Very plaulibly for the exiftence of planetary inhabitants, from 
 the fimilkude of the Planets with our earth ; thofe, like this, 
 being opake, d en fe, uneven, round, heavy, illuminated and war- 
 med by the fun, having night and day, fummer and winter, 
 Wolfius deduces fomething relating hereto from arguments of 
 another kind — Thus e. gr. It is fcarce to be doubted, that the 
 inhabitants of Jupiter are much larger than thofe of the earth ; 
 and in effect of the giant kind. For it is (hewn in optics, that 
 the pupil of the eye dilates in a ftrong light, and contracts in 
 a weak one ; wherefore, fince in Jupiter the fun's meridian 
 light is much feebler than on the earth, by reafon of Jupiter's 
 .greater diftance from the fun ; the pupil will need to be much 
 more dilatable in the inhabitants of Jupiter, than in thofe of 
 the earth. But the pupil is obferved to have a conftant pro- 
 portion to the ball of the eye ; and the eye to the reft of the 
 body ; fo that in animals, the larger the pupil the larger the 
 eye, and the larger the body. 
 
 To afecrtain the fize of thefc jovial inhabitants, it may be ob- 
 ferved that the diftance of Jupiter from the fun, is to the earth's 
 diftance from the fame, as 26 to 5 ; the intenfity of the fun's 
 light in Jupiter is to its intenfity on the earth, in a duplicate ra- 
 i»io of 5 to 26 ; but it is found by experience, that the pupil di- 
 lates in a ratio greater than that wherein the intenfity of light 
 decreafes ; otherwife, a body at a great diftance might be feen 
 as clearly as a nearer : the diameter, therefore, of the pupil in 
 its greateft dilation, in Jupiter, is to its diameter in the like 
 ftate in the earth, in a ratio greater than that of 5 to 26. — If 
 then we put it, as 10 to 26, or as 5 to 13 : fince the ordinary 
 tfature of the inhabitants of the earth is computed at 5 Englilh 
 feet, 4 inches and $ e ; (which Wolfius tells us was his own 
 height) the ordinary ftature of Jupiter's inhabitants will be 
 found 14 feet %, which is very nearly the fize of the giant Og, 
 mentioned by Mofes, whofe iron bed was 9 cubits long, and 
 its breadth 4. 
 
 Motion of the Planets. — That the Planets do all revolve round 
 the fun as their centre, and not round the earth, is evident 
 from a thoufand phenomena. — 1° The orbit wherein Venus, 
 e. gj\ moves, does certainly encompafs tire fun, and therefore in 
 defciibing that orbit, the Planet muft turn round the fun. 
 That her orbit includes the fun, appears hence, that me is 
 fometimes above the fun, fomctimcs below it, fometimcs be- 
 yond it, and fomctimcs on this fide ; all which are evident 
 from the circumftanccs of her phafes. 
 
 That (he does not move round the earth is no lefs apparent 
 from her being ever obferved in the fame quarter with the fun, 
 never receding from him above 45 0 . — She never therefore 
 comes to be in oppofition to the fun j no, not to be in a quar- 
 tile afpect, or to have a quarter of the heavens between them ; 
 both which, like the earth, (he muft frequently have, did fhe 
 attend and move round the earth. 
 
 2 W That Mercury revolves round the fun appears in like man- 
 ner from his phafes, which refemble thofe of Venus and the 
 moon ; and from its neighbourhood to the fun, fiom whom 
 Mercury never recedes fo far as Venus does. 
 3° That the orbit of Mars includes the fun, is evident from 
 that Planet's being found both in conjunction and oppofition 
 with the fun ; and in both cafes fhining w r ith a full face — 
 Indeed, from the fame circumft ances it appears, that the orbit 
 of Mars encompaffes the earth ; but then, it follows, likewife, 
 from Mai s's diameter appearing feven times as big when in op- 
 pofition, as when in conjunction, that he is feven times nearer 
 the earth, in the former than the latter pofition. The earth 
 therefore is far from being the centre of Mars's motion ; but 
 Mars is ever nearly at the fame diftance from the fun. — Again, 
 Mars viewed from the earth moves very irregularly ; is fome- 
 timcs feen to proceed flower, fometimes fafter ; fometimes he 
 ftands ftill, and fometimes he goes backward : (the reafons 
 whereof, fee under the article Optic inequality.) but viewed 
 from the fun, he will ever appear to move with the fame con- 
 ftant uniform tenor ; whence it is evident, he refpe&s the 
 fun, not the earth, as the centre of his motion. 
 4 0 The fame appearances whence Mars is fhewn to revolve 
 round the fun as a centre, are likewife obferved in Jupiter and 
 Saturn ; whence the fame conclusion may be made of them. 
 Laftly, that the earth revolves round the fun, as a centre, is 
 evidenr from her place, which we have obferved to be between 
 the orbits of Mars and Venus ; and from the phenomena of 
 the fupei ior Planets viewed therefrom.— If the earth flood ftill 
 we ibould never fee thefc Planets either ftationary or retro- 
 grade ; the earth theieforc moves, but it is ftill found oetwecn 
 the 01 bits or Mais and Venus which encompafs the funj 
 ihercfoic the eaith alfo encon.pafles the fun. 
 
 P L A 
 
 To this agronomical demonftration, may be added a phyficai 
 demonftration, of the earth's motion from Sir Ifaac Newton. 
 —It appears from abundant obfervation, that either the earth 
 turns round the fun, or the fun round the earth, fo as to de- 
 Icnbe equal area's in equal times : but he demonftrates, that 
 bodies revolving about one another according to filch law, do 
 of ncceffity gravitate towards each other. Whence, if the fun 
 gravitate to the earth, a<5tion and re-action beine ftill equal, the 
 earth will likewife gravitate toward the fun. ""But he proves, 
 further, that two bodies gravitating towards each other, with- 
 out directly approaching one another in right lines, muft both 
 of them turn round the common centre of gravity of both.— 
 The fun and earth, therefore, do both revolve round one com- 
 mon centre. — Eut the earth being but a point in companion 
 of the fun, the common centre of gravity of the two, will be 
 within the fun's body, and not far from its centre. — The eaith, 
 therefore, revolves round a point, within the body of the fun, 
 and theiefore round the fun. 
 
 The orbits of the Planets are all ellipfes; one of whofe foci is in 
 the fun. — This Kepler tuft found from Tycho's obfervations ; 
 before him all aftronomcrs took the planetary orbits for ec- 
 centric circles. 
 
 The planes of thefc orbits do all intellect in the fun ; nor are 
 their extremities far apart.— In effect, they are but little incli- 
 ned to one another ; and the greateft angle any of them makes 
 with the plane of the earth's orbit, i. e. of the ecliptic, is that 
 of Mercury, which lies at an angle of 6° 52' ; that of Venus is 
 3 0 23'; that of Mars l°5z'; that of Jupiter i°2o'; and that 
 of Saturn 2° 30'. 
 
 The line wherein the plane of each orbit cuts that of the earth, 
 
 is called the line of the nodes ; and the two points wherein the 
 
 orbits themfelves touch that plane, the nodes. 
 
 The diftance between the centre of the fun, and the centre of 
 
 each orbit, is called the eccentricity of the Planet. 
 
 And the angle at which each plane cuts that of the ecliptic, is 
 
 called the inclination of the plane. 
 
 To account for the motion of the Planets about the fun ; there 
 needs nothing but to fuppofc an uniform projectile motion, in 
 ftrait lines, at firft given them ; and a power of attraction or 
 gravitation, fuch as we obferve in all the great bodies in our 
 fyftem.— For a body A, (Tab. JJtrm.fa. 60. n. 2.) proceeding 
 uniformly along the line A B ; will, by the intervention of 
 the attracting body C, be every moment diverted out of its 
 rectilinear, and bent into a curvilinear path, according to the 
 laws of central forces. 
 
 11, then, the projectile motion be perpendicular to a line, C A, 
 drawn from the attracting body C ; and its velocity be fo 
 proportioned to the force of attraction of A, as that the cen- 
 tripetal and centrifugal forces aie equal, i. e. that the conatus 
 to tall to the central body C, in a right line, A C ; and that to 
 proceed in the direction of the tangent, AB, balance each 
 other : the body will revolve in a circular orbit, 
 
 It is not Improbable, that at the beginning, this was the ftate 
 of things ; and that the velocities imprefled on the feveral Pla- 
 nets were fo combined with their refpective mall'es and diftances 
 from the fun at which they were to roll ; as that their mo- 
 menta (hould counter-balance the fun's attractive force, and be 
 precifely counter-balanced thereby : whence the primitive or- 
 bits muft have been perfect circles, from wnich they do not 
 even now deviate very far j the eccentricity of the earth's or- 
 bit being only T JS a of its lemi-diamctei. 
 If the Planet's projectile motion be not perfectly adjufted to 
 the fun's atti action ; the orbit defcribed will be an ellipfis.— If 
 it be too fwift, the orbit will be greater than a circle, and the 
 hearer tocus coincide with the central body ; if too How, the 
 orbit will be lefs than a circle, and the further focus coincide 
 with the central body. 
 
 Indeed the form of the planetary orbits does not only depend 
 on the adjuftment of the firft piojectile velocity with the fun's 
 attraction, but alfo on the direction wherein that motion was 
 originally impreffed.— If that dircdion were according to the 
 tangent A B, as above fuppofed, and the central forces exact- 
 ly balanced, the orbit would be circular; but if that direc- 
 tion were oblique, in any manner, whether afcending to or 
 defeending from the fun, the orbit of the Planet, notwith- 
 Handing any adjuftment of its velocity to the attraction, would 
 be an ellipfis. 
 
 The motion of the Planets in their elliptic orbits are not equa- 
 ble, by reafon the fun is not in their centre but their focus. — 
 Hence they move, fometimes fafter and fometimes flower, as 
 they are nearer or farther from the fun ; but yet thefe irregu- 
 larities are all certain, and follow according ro an immutable 
 law. 
 
 Thus, fuppofe the ellipfis BEP, Hi. (Tab. Aflron. fig. 6r. 
 n. 2.) the oibit of a Planet ; and the focus S, the fun's place : 
 A P the axis of the ellipfis, is called the line of the apjides ; the 
 point A the higher apjis or aphelion ; P the lower atfis or peri- 
 helion ; S C the eccentricity ; and E S the mean diftance of the 
 Planet from the fun. 
 
 New 
 
P L A 
 
 Now the motion of the Planet in its perihelion, is fwifteft ; and 
 in its aphelion, floweft ; at E the motion as well as the diftance 
 is mean, i.e. it is fuch as would defcribe the whole orbit in 
 the fame time it is really delcnbed in. 
 
 The law wheieby the motion is regulated in every point or the 
 orbit, is, that a line, or radius, drawn from the centre of the 
 fun to the centre of the Planet, and thus carried along, with an 
 angular motion^ does always defcribe an elliptic area propor- 
 tional to the time. — Suppofe, e. gr. the Planet in A, and 
 thence in a certain time to proceed to B ; the fpace or area the 
 radius S A defcribes, is the triangle A S B : when, at length, 
 the Planet arrives at P, if from the centre of the fun S there be 
 drawn S D, in fiieh manner as that the ecliptic area P S D is 
 equal to that A S B ; the Planet will here move through th 
 the aich P D, in the fame time wherein it moved through the 
 arch A B ; which arches are unequal, and nearly in a recipro- 
 cal proportion to their diftance from the fun. For from the 
 equalities of the areas it follows, that the arch P D muft ex- 
 ceed A B as much as S A exceeds S P 
 
 This law was firft demonftrated by Kepler, from obfcrv.ition 
 and is fince accounted for by Sir I. Newton from phyfical_ 
 principles : And to this all aftronomers, now, fubfcribe, as of 
 all others that which beft folves the planetary phenomena, 
 Computation of a Planet'; motion and place. — As to the periods 
 and velocities of the Pla?iets, or the times wherein they per- 
 form their courfes j they are found to have a wonderful har- 
 mony with their diftances from the fun, and with one an- 
 other. The nearer each Planet is to the fun, the quicker frill 
 being its motion ; and its period the fhorter. — The great law 
 they here all immutably obferve is, that the fquares of their 
 periodical times are as the cubes of their diftances from the 
 centres of their orbits. 
 
 The knowledge of this law we a!fo owe to the fagacity of 
 Kepler, who found it to obtain in all the primary Planets ; as 
 aftronomers have fince found it alfo to do in the fecondary 
 ones. 
 
 Kepler deduced this law, merely from obfervation, and com 
 parifon of the feveral diftances of the Planets with their pe- 
 riods : the glory of inveftigating it from phyfical principles, 
 is due to Sir Ifaac Newton, who has demonftrated that, in the 
 prefent ftate of things, fuch a law was inevitable. 
 A Planefs motion or diftance from its apogee, is called the 
 mean anomaly of the Planet ; and is meaiuied by the arch, or 
 area it defcribes in the time. — When the Planet arrives at the 
 middle of its orbit, or the point G, the diftance or time is 
 called the true anomaly. — When the Planet's motion is reckon'd 
 from the firft point of Aries, it is called its motion in longitudt 
 which is either mean, viz. fuch as the Planet would have were 
 it to move uniformly in a circle ; or true, which is that where- 
 with the Planet actually defcribes its orbit, and meafured by 
 the arch of the ecliptic it defcribes. 
 
 Hence may the Planet's place in its orbit for any given time 
 after it has left the aphelion, be found. — For fuppofe the area 
 of the ellipfis fo divided by the line S G, that the whole el- 
 liptic area may have the fame proportion to the area A S G as 
 the whole periodical time wherein the Planet defcribes its or- 
 bit, has to the time given : in this cafe G will be the Planet's 
 place in its orbit. See Place. 
 
 The phenomena of the inferiour Planets, are their conjunctions, 
 elongations, ftations, retrogradations, phafes, and echpfes. See 
 Conjunction, Elongation, Station, Retrograda 
 tion, ts'c. under their lefpedtive articles. 
 
 Phenomena of the f.periour Planets, are the fame with thofe of 
 the infeiiour j with an additional one, viz. oppofition. 
 
 The particular phenomena, circumftanees, tsfc. of each Planet, fee 
 under the name of the refpe&ive Planet, £3V. Jupiter, 
 Mars, &c. 
 
 The general proportions, diameters, furfaces, folidities, diftances, gra- 
 vities, degrees of light, tse. of the feveral Planets ; fee under the 
 articles folar System, and Diameter. 
 
 ConfguraMon of the Planets. \ gee S Configuration 
 
 Theories of the Planets. S \ Theory. 
 
 PLANETARY, lbmething that relates to the Planets. See 
 Planet. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, planetary worlds, planetary inhabitants, &c. 
 
 Hu^gens and Fontenelle bring feveral probable arguments for 
 
 the reality of planetary worlds, and animals, plants, men, &c. 
 
 —The former in his K.o£MO0EOPO2,ybe de terris cceleflibus ; 
 
 the latter in his dialogues, fur la pluralite des mondes. 
 Planetary fyftcm, is the fyftem or aircmblage of the planets, 
 
 primary and "iecundary, moving in their refpecfive orbits, round 
 
 their common centre, thc fun. 
 Planetary hours in chronology. See Hour. 
 Planetary days.— Among the ancients, the week was fhared 
 among the feven planets j each planet having its day. This we 
 leain from Dion Caffius and Plutarch, Sympos, 1. 4. q. 7. Hero- 
 dotus adds, that it was thc /Egyptians who firft dilcovered 
 what God, that is, what planet prefides over each day, for 
 that among this people the planets were directors. And 
 hence it is,"thatin moft Euiopean languages, thedaysofthe 
 week are ftill denominated from the planets ; Sunday, Mon- 
 day, ftff. 
 
 P L A 
 
 Planetary years, the periods of time wherein the feveral pla- 
 nets make their revolutions round the fun, or earth. 
 As from the proper revolution of the fun, thc folar years takes 
 its original; fo from the proper revolutions of the reft of thc 
 planets about the earth, fo many forts of years do arife, viz. 
 the faturnian year, which is defined by 29 Egyptian years, 174. 
 hours 58 minutes, equivalent in a round number to 30 folar 
 years.— -The jovial year, containing 317 days, 14 hours, 59 
 minutes. — The martial year, containing 321 days, 23 hours, 
 31 minutes. — For Venus and Mercury, as their years, when 
 judged of with regard to the earth, are almoft equal to the fo- 
 lar year ; they are more ufually eftimated from the fun, the 
 true centre of their motions ; in which cafe, thc former is 
 equal to 224 days 16 hours 40 minutes, the latter to 87 days 
 23 hours 14 minutes. 
 Planetary dials, thofe whereon the planetary hours are inferi- 
 bed. 
 
 Planetary fquares, the fquares of thc feven numbers from 3 
 to 9 difpofed magically. 
 
 Corn. Agrippa, in his famous book of magic, has given the 
 conft ruction of the (even planetary fquares : M. Poignard, canon 
 of Bruffets, in his treadle of fublime fquares, gives new, eafy, 
 and general methods for making the feven planetary fquares* 
 and all others to infinity, by numbers in all fort of progrcf- 
 fions. 
 
 Planifolious flowers. See the article Flower. 
 PLANIMETRY, Planimetria, that part of geometry which 
 confiders lines and plain figures ; without any conlideiation of 
 heights or depths. 
 
 Planimetry is particularly reftrained to the menfuration of 
 planes or furfaces ; in oppofition to ftercomatry, or the menfu- 
 ration of folids. See Measuring. 
 
 Planimetry, or the art of mcafuring the fuifaces and planes of 
 things, is performed with thc fquares of long meafures, as 
 fquare feet, fquare inches, fquarc yards, fquare perches, 6fr. that 
 is, by fquares whofe fides are an inch, a foot, a yard, a perch, 
 £sY. fo that the area or centre of any furface is faid to be found 
 when we know how many fuch fquare inches, feet, yards, &c. 
 it contains. 
 
 PLANISPHERE, a projection of the fphere, and the feveral 
 circles thereof, on a plane : as, upon paper, or the like. 
 In this fenfe, maps of thc heavens and the earth, wherein are 
 exhibited the meridians, and other circles of the fphere, are 
 called Planifpheres. 
 Planisphere is fometimes alfo confidercd as an aftronomical 
 inftrumenf, ufed in obferving the motions of the heavenly. bo- 
 dies ; confiding of a projection of the celcftial fphere upon a 
 plane, reprefenting the fiars, conftellations, bfe. in their pro- 
 per fituations, diftances, £sY. — Such is thc aftrolabe } which is a 
 common name for all fuch projections. 
 
 In all Planifpheres, the eye is fuppofed to be a point viewing 
 all the circles of the fphere, and referring them to a plane 
 whereon the fphere is as it were flattened. — This plane is 
 called the plane of the projection. 
 
 A perfpeciive plane is only a plane of projection placed be- 
 tween the eye and the object, fo as to contain all the points 
 which the feveral rays drawn from the object to the eye im- 
 prefs thereon. But in Planifpheres or aftrolabes, the plane of 
 the projection is placed beyond the object ; which is the 
 fphere.— The plane of the projection is always fome of the 
 circles of the fphere. 
 
 Among the infinite number of Planifpheres which the different 
 planes of projection, and the different pofitions of the eye, 
 would furnilh ; there are two or three that have been preferred 
 to tire reft. — Such are that of Ptolemy, where the plane of pro- 
 jection is parallel to the equator. — That of Gemma Frifius, 
 wheie the plane of projection is the colure, or folftitial meridi- 
 an, and the eye of the pole the meridian. — That of John de 
 Royas, a Spaniard, whofe plane of projection is a meridian, 
 and the eye placed in the axis of that meridian, at an infinite 
 diftance. This laft is called the Analennna. 
 The common defect of all thefe projections is, that they diftort 
 and alter the figures of the conftellations, fo as it is not eafy to 
 compare them with the heavens ; and that the degrees in fome 
 places are fo fault, that they afford no room for operation. 
 All thefe faults M. de la Hire has provided againft in a new 
 projection, or Planifphere; where it is propofed the eye fhall 
 be fo placed, as that the diviiions of the circles projected fhall 
 be fenfibly equal in every part of the inftrument. — The plane 
 of his projection is that of a meridian. 
 Nautical Planifphere. See the article Nautical. 
 FLANO-concave-glafs, or lens, is that, one of whofe furfaces is 
 concave, and the other plain. 
 
 The concavity is here fuppofed to be fpherical, unlefs the con- 
 trary be expreifed. — For the properties, grinding, isc. of piano* 
 . concave lenfes, fee Lens, Grinding, &e. 
 VL&xo-convex-glafs, or lens, is that, one of whefe furfacee is 
 convex, and the other plain. See Convexity. 
 The convexity is fuppofed to be fpherical, unlefs the con- 
 trary be expreifed. For the properties, grinding, &f. of pia- 
 no eenvex lenfes, fee Lens, &c. 
 
 TLAN T, 
 
P L A 
 
 PLANT, Planta, an organical body, confifting of a root, 
 and other parts, and producing ufually leaves, a (lem, branches 
 and flowers. 
 
 A Plant may be defined, in Eoerhaave's manner, to be an 
 organical body compofed of veffels and juices ; to which 
 body belongs a root, or a part whereby it adheres to fome other 
 body, and particularly the earth, from which it derives the 
 matter of its life and growth. 
 
 A Plant is diftinguilhed from a foffil by its being organical, 
 and confuting of veffels and juices ; and from an animal, by 
 its adhering to another body, and deriving its nourilhment 
 therefrom. 
 
 Plant is a general name, under winch are comprized all vege- 
 table bodies, as trees, fhrubs, and heibs. 
 From the obfervations of Malpighi, Dr. Grew, M. Reneaume. 
 Bradley, and others, there appears a great fimilitude .between 
 the mechanifm of Plants, and that of animals ; the parts of 
 the former bear a conftant analogy to thofe of the latter ; 
 and the vegetable and animal ceconomy appear both formed 
 on the fame model. — To give an idea hereof, it will be necef- 
 fary to defcribe the parts whereof Plants confift. 
 The parts o/"Plants are,— r. The root, a fpongy body, whofe 
 pores are difpofed to admit certain humid particles prepared 
 in the ground : On the fize of the vcllels and pores of the 
 root, the quality of the root is found much to depend. — 
 Bocihaave confidcrs the root as compofed of a number of ab- 
 forbent veffels, analogous to the lacteals in animals. And M. 
 Reneaume takes it to do the office of all the parts in the abdo- 
 men which minifter to nutrition ; as the ftomach, jntef- 
 tines, &c. 
 
 2. The woody matter, which confifts of capillary tubes, running 
 parallel from the root throughout the (talk, — The apertures 
 of thefe tubules are ordinarily too minute to come under the 
 cognizance of the eye, unlefs in a piece of charcoal, cane, or 
 the like. Thefe tubes Mr. Bradley calls arterial vefiels ; it 
 being through thefe that the fap rifes from the root. 
 
 3. Befides thefe, there are other larger vefiels difpofed on the out 
 fide of the arterial vcllels between the wood and the inner 
 bark, and leading down to the covering of the root. — Thefe 
 the fame author calls the venal veffels, and fuppofes them to 
 contain the liquid fap found in Plants in the fpring, dsY. 
 
 4. The bark, winch is of a fpongy texture, and by many little 
 firings palling between the arteries, communicates with the 
 pith. 
 
 5. The pith, or peiten, which confifts of little tranfparent glo- 
 bules, chained together fomewhat like the bubbles thar. com- 
 pofe the froth of liquor. 
 
 Add, that the trunk and branches of a tree bear a refcmblance 
 to the exterior members or limbs of an animal, which it may 
 fubfift without, though their rotting and mortification frequent- 
 ly occafion a total deilruetion thereof. — Accordingly, we find 
 the like effects from wounding or lopping of a tree, as that of 
 a limb, viz. an extravafation, callus, 6fe. 
 Oeconomy or ufe of the parts ^Plants. — The root having im- 
 bibed the faline and aqueous juices of the earth, and filled it- 
 felf therewith for the nourilhment of the tree ; thofe arc put in 
 motion by heat, i. c. are made to evaporate into fleam, which 
 from the root enters the mouths of the arterial veffels, and 
 mounts to the top with a force anfwcrable to the heat that puts 
 it in motion. — By this means it gradually opens the minute 
 vafcules rolled up in the buds, and expands them into leaves. 
 Now, as all vapours, upon feeling the cold, naturally con 
 denfe ; fo this, when arrived at the extreme parts of the arte- 
 ries, i. e, the buds of the tree, meeting the cold air, condenfes 
 into a liquor, in which form it returns by its own weight, 
 through the venal vcllels, to the root ; leaving behind it fijeh 
 parts of its juice, as the texture of the bark will receive, and 
 requires for its fuftenance. 
 
 Thus does the juke continue to circulate; till the winter's 
 cold congealing it into the conliftency of a gum, it ftagnates in 
 the vefiels ; in which ftate it remains till the fielh warmth of 
 the fucceeding fpring puts it in motion again : upon which 
 the Plant renews its former vigour, and puihes forth branches. 
 . leaves, &ff. 
 
 This fhort view of the vegetable ceconomy will bear fome 
 further illuftration ; there being feveral curious points hen. 
 couched, and, as it were, folded up in fame. — The principle, 
 then, whereby the root, after imbibing its food, determines ii 
 to mount upwards, contrary to its natural gravity, is fomewhat 
 obfeure: Some w ill have it effected by means of the prellure 
 of the atmofpheie, in the fame manner as water is raifed in 
 pumps : But this is precarious, as being founded on a fuppofi- 
 tion, that the ablorbent tubules are void of air ; befides, that the 
 atmofphere could notraife the juice above 32 feet high, where- 
 as theie arc trees much higher than that. — Others have recourfe 
 to the principle of attraction, and fuppofe the power that raifes 
 the fap m vegetables to be the fame with that whereby water 
 afcends in capillary tubes, or in heaps of land, aihes, or the 
 like; but neither will this alone futiice to raife water to the 
 tops of trees. 
 
 One would fufpect therefore that the firft reception of the food, 
 and its propagation through the body, were etiected by different 
 
 V O L. II. I 
 
 P L A 
 
 means; which is confirmed by the analogy of animals. 
 The motion of the nutritious juices of Plants is produced 
 much like that of the blood in animals, Tiy the action of the 
 air; in effect, theie is fomothing equivalent to reljiiration ea:- 
 ried on throughout the whole Phmt. 
 
 The difcoveiy of this we owe to the admirable Malpighi, wiu 
 firft obleivcd, that vegetables confift of two feries's or orders 
 of vcllels. — • 1. Thofe above-mentioned, which receive and 
 convey the alimental juices ; anfwering to the arteries, lacteal,, 
 veins, fit, of animals. — 2. Trachea,', or air-veffels, which are 
 long hollow pipes, in and from which air is continually recei- 
 ved and expelled, I. e. infpired and expired; within which tra- 
 chea;, the fame author thews, all the former feries's of veffels 
 aie contained. 
 
 Hence it follows, that the heat of the year, nay, of a dato of a 
 lingle hour, or minute, muft have an eft'eft on the air included 
 in thefe trachea;, h c. it muft rarefy it, and confequently dilate 
 the trachea;; whence alio muft aril'c a perpetual fpring, or 
 fource of a&ion, to promote the circulation in Plants, ' 
 For, by the cxpanlion of the trachea;, the veffels containing; 
 the juices, arc preffed; and by that means the juice contained 
 is continually propelled, and fo accelerated; by which fame 
 propullion, the juice is continually comminuted, and rendered 
 more and more fubtile, and fo is enabled to enter veffels ftill 
 imer and line; ; the thiclteft part of it being at the fame time fc 
 ci cted and depolited into the lateral cells or loculi of the bark 
 to defend the Plant from cold, and other external injuries. 
 I he juice having thus gone its ftage, from the rootfo the re- 
 mote branches, and even to the flower; and having in every 
 part of its piogreis depofited fomcthing both for aliment and 
 defence ; w hat is redundant pall'es out into the bark, the veffels 
 whereof are inofculated with thofe wherein the fap" mounted • 
 and through thefe it ledefcends to the root, and thence to the 
 earth again— And thus is a circulation effected. 
 1 hus is every vegetable, acted on by heat during the day-tim-, 
 especially while the fun's force is conliderable ; and the iap-vef- 
 iels arethusfqueezedand preffed, and the fap protruded, and 
 raifed, and at length evacuated, and the veffels exhaufted ■ md 
 m the night again, the fame trachea; being contracted by 'thr- 
 cold ot the air, the other veffels are eafedand relaxed and 1 
 are difpofed to receive frelh food for the next day's dVertin,, 
 and excretion.— And thus Plants may be faid to eat and drink 
 in the night-time. 
 
 The vellels or containing parts of Plants, confift of mere earth 
 
 ev Wa 0 7, 0 "'i eC " tCd tOSCthe ' hy 0i '' 35 a « luten • wl ™ h being 
 cxhauifed by tire, air, age, or the like, the Plan, moulders or 
 returns again into its earth, or duff—Thus, in vegetables but nt 
 by the mtenleft hre, the matter of the vefiels is left intire and 
 indiiioiubleby its utmoft force; and, confequently, itis neither 
 water, nor air, nor fait, norfulphur, but c.uth alone 
 The juice or fap of a Plant is a humour furnilhed by the 
 earth, and changed in the Plant; confining of fome fopil 
 parts, other parts derived from the air and rain; and others 
 from putrified animals, plants, ;&c. confequently, in vegetables 
 are contained all kind of . fairs', oil, water, earth ; and p?obably 
 all kinds of metals too : in fact, the afhes of vegetables always 
 yield lomewhat which the load/fone artracls. 
 This juice enters the Plant in form of a fine and fubtle water 
 which the nearer it is to the root, the more it retains of its nro' 
 per nature ; and the further from the root, the more action it 
 has fuftained, and the nearer it approaches to the nature of the 
 vegetable. > 
 Confequently when the juice enters the root, the bark where- 
 of is furnilhed with excretory veffels fitted to diicharge the ex 
 crementitious part ; it is earthy, watry, poor, acid, and fear'ce 
 oleaginous at all. 
 
 In the trunk and branches it is further prepared ■ though it 
 (fill continues acid as we fee by the tapping or perforating of 
 a tree in the month ot February, when it d.liils a natrv iuice 
 apparently acid. ; 1 
 
 The juice being hence earned to the germs, or buds, is more 
 concoded ; and here having unfolded the leaves, thefe come to 
 ferve as lungs tor the circulation and further preparation of the 
 juice— For thofe tender leaves being expofed to the alternate 
 action ot heat and cold, moid nights, and hot fcorching days, 
 are alternately expanded and contracted ; and the more fo, on 
 account of their reticular texture. 
 
 By fuch means thejuice is ftill further altered and digefted ; as 
 it is further yet in the petala, or leaves of the flowers, w hich 
 tranlmit the juice, now brought to a further fubtility, to the 
 (lamina. — Thcl'e communicate it to the farina, or duff in the 
 apices ; where having undergone a farther maturation, it is lhed 
 into the piftil ; and here having acquired its laft perfection it 
 gives rife to a new fruit or Plant. 
 Tl.v gentration u/Plants does alfo bear a clofe analogy to that 
 of lome animals ; particularly fuch as want local motion ; as 
 muflels, and other immoveable Ihell-filh, which are herma- 
 phrodites, and contain both the male and female organs of 
 generation. 
 
 The flower of the Plant, for all its finery, is found to be the 
 pudendum, or principal organ of generation ; but the ufe of fo 
 9 A much 
 
P L A 
 
 P L A 
 
 r i eh mechanifm, and fo many parts has till of late been bui 
 uttle known. — -We (hall inftance in a tulip. 
 Its flower conlifts of fix petala, or leaves; from the bottom 
 whereof, at the middle, arifes a kind of tube called the piJHl ; 
 and around this are difpofed feveral pretty fine threads called 
 flcnnna, aiiling likewife from the bottom of the flower, and ter- 
 minating in little bunches at top called apices, replete with a fine 
 duft called farina. — For the further explanation of the parts oi 
 generation, lee Pistil, Stamen, Farina, tiff. 
 This is the general ftructure of the flowers of Plants, though 
 diverfified infinite ways, and to fuch degree, that fome have 
 no fenfible piftil, others no ftamina ; others have ftamina with- 
 out any lenlible apices ; and what exceeds all the reft, fome 
 Plant i feem to have no flowers. —But, allowing the ftructure 
 now reprefcnt.cd to be, as in effect it is, the moft common ; and 
 that thole parts which Teem wanting are ulually only lefs appa- 
 rent ; the generation of Plants, in general, may be well account- 
 ed for. The fruit is ulually at the bafis of the piftil, fo that 
 when the piftil falls, with the reft of the flower,the fruit appears 
 in its ftead.— Indeed frequently the piftil is the fruit itfelfj but 
 ftill they have both the fame lituation in the centre of the 
 flower, whole leaves difpofed around the little embryo, only 
 ieem deftined to prepare a fine juice in their little veitels, foi 
 its fupport, during the little time that they laft, and it requires 
 it : though Mr. Bradley takes their chief ufe to be to detend 
 the piftil, is'c. The apices of the ftamina are little capfulae, or 
 bags full of a farina or duft, which, upon the capfulae growing 
 ripe, and burfling, falls out. 
 
 M. Tournefort took this duft to be only an excrement ot the 
 food of the fiuit, and the ftamina to be no more than a kind 
 of excretory duels, which filtrated this ufelefs matter, and thus 
 riifcharged the embiyoP/W of it. But M. Morland,M. Geof- 
 froy, and otheis, find nobler ufes for this duft.— According to 
 their fyftem, it is this duft that falling on the piftil iccundines 
 the grain or fruit inelofed therein ; and hence they call it the 
 firina feccuttdaus.— i 'hus the farina fhould be the male part ot 
 tbe Plant, and the piftil the female. 
 
 Mr. Bradley, at the bottom of the piftil of the lily, defenbes a 
 veilel which he calls the uterus, or womb, wherein are three 
 ovaries rilled with little eggs, or rudiments of feeds, like thofc 
 found in the ovaria of animals ; and thefe, he adds, always de- 
 cay and come to nothing, unlefs impregnated by the farina ot 
 die fame Plant, or fome other of the fame kind.— The ftamina, 
 he fays, ferve for the conveyance of the male feed of the Plant, 
 to be perfected in the apices ; which, when ripe, burning forth 
 in little particles like duft, fome of them fall into the orifice ot 
 the piftil, and are either conveyed thence into the utricle, to 
 fecundity the female ova, or are lodged in the piftil, where, 
 by their magnetic virtue, they draw the nouriihment from the 
 other parts of the Plant into the embryo's of the fruit, making 
 them (well, grow, 6V. 
 
 The difpofition of the piftil, and the apices about it, is always 
 fuch, as that the farina may fall on its orifice. It is ulually 
 placed lower than the apices ; and when we obferve it to be 
 grown higher, we may conjecture the fruit has begun to form 
 itfelf, and has no further occafion for the male duft. Add to 
 this, that as loon as the work of generation is over, the male 
 parts, together with the leaves, fall off, and the tube leading to 
 the uterus begins to Ihrink. Nor muft it be omitted, that the 
 top of the piftil is always either covered with a fort of velvet 
 tunicle, or it emits a gummy liquor, the better to catch the 
 duft of the apices. — In flowers that turn down, as the acan- 
 thus, cyclamen, and the imperial ciown, the piftil is much 
 Longer than the ftamina ; that the duft may fall from their api- 
 ces In fuflicient quantity on the piftil. 
 
 This fyftem favouis much of that admirable uniformity found 
 in the works of nature ; and carries with it all the feeming 
 charactcriftics of truth ; but it is experience alone muft deter- 
 mine for it.— Accoidiugly M. Geolfioy tells us, that in all the 
 obfervations he had ever made, the Plant was rendered barren, 
 and the fruits became abortive, by cutting off the piftils before 
 the duft could impregnate them : which is fince confirmed by 
 many other experiments of Mr. Bradley and others. 
 In many kinds of Plants, as the willow, oak, pine, cyprefs, 
 mulberry-tree, &£. the flowers are fterile, and feparatc from 
 the fruit. But thefe flowers, M. Geoffroy obferves, have their 
 ftamina and apices, whofe farina may ealily impregnate the 
 fruits, which are not far off- 
 
 Indeed there is fome difficulty in reconciling this fyftem to a 
 fpecies of Plants which bear flowers without fruits, and another 
 fpecies of the fame kind and name which bear fruits without 
 flowers ; hence diftinguilhed into male and female ; of which 
 kind are the palm-tree, poplar, hemp, hops, ?Jc— For how 
 mould the farina of the male, here, come to impregnate the 
 feed of the female. 
 
 M. Tournefort conjectures, that in this cafe the fine filaments, 
 tomenrum, or down, always found on thermits of thefe Plants, 
 may ferve inftcad of flowers, and do the office of impregnation. 
 — But M. Geoffroy i ather takes it, that the wind, doing the of- 
 fice of a vehicle, brings the farina of the males to the females. 
 In this opinion he is confirmed by a ftory in Jovian us Ponta- 
 nus ; who relates, That in his time there were two palm-trees, 
 ihe one male, cultivated at Brindifi, the other female, in the 
 wood of Ottranto, 15 leagues apart ; that this latter was feveral 
 
 years without bearing any fruit ; till at length rifmg above the 
 other trees of the foreft,fo as it might fee (lay sthe poet) the male 
 palm-tree at Brindifi, it then began to bear fiuit in abundance. 
 Here, M. Geoffroy makes no doubt, but that the tree then only 
 began to bear fruit, becaule in a condition to catch on its 
 branches the farina of the male, brought thither by the wind. 
 For the manner wherein the fauna fecundities, M. Geoffroy ad - 
 vances two opinions: — That the farina being always found 
 of a fiflphurous compofition, and full of fubtile penetrating 
 parts, (as appears from its iprightly odour) falling on the piftils 
 of the flowers, there refolves, and the fubrileft of its parts pene- 
 trating the fubftance of the piftil and the young fruit, excite a 
 fermentation fufficieht to open and unfold the young Blant, In- 
 clofed in the embryo of the feed.— In this hypothecs the feed is 
 fuppoled to contain the Plant in miniatme, and only to want 
 a proper juice to unfold its parts, and make them gi ow. 
 The 2d opinion is, that the farina of the flower is the firftgeini 
 or bud of the new Plant, and needs nothing to unfold it, and 
 enable it to grow, but the juice it rinds prepared in the em- 
 bryo's of the feed. 
 
 Thefe two theories of vegetable generation, the rcaderwill bb- 
 ferve, bear a ftrict analogy to thole two of animal generation ; 
 viz- either that the young animal is in the femcn mafculinun:, 
 and only needs the juice of the matrix to chesifli and bring it 
 forth ; or that the animal is contained in the female ovum, 
 and needs only the male feed to excite a ferment arion, ts'c. 
 M. Geoffroy rather takes the proper feed to be in the farina ; 
 inafmuch as the beft microfcopes do not difcover the leaft ap- 
 pearance of any bud in the little embryo's of the grains, when 
 examined before the apices have fhed their dull. — In legumi- 
 nous Plants, if the leaves and ftamina be removed, and the pif- 
 til, or that part which becomes the pod, be viewed with the 
 microfcope, ere yet the flower be opened ; the little green 
 tranlparent veficul-e, which are to become the grains, will ap- 
 pear in their natural order; but ftill (hewing nothing elfe but 
 the mere coat or fltin of the grain. If the obfervation be con- 
 tinued for feveral days fucccftively, in other flowers, as they 
 advance, the veQculse will be found to fwell, by degrees to be- 
 come replete with a limpid liquor ; wherein, when the farina: 
 comes to be (Tied, and the leaves of the flower to fail, we ob- 
 ferve a little greenilh [peck, or globule, floating about at large. 
 —At fii ft there is not any appearance of organization in this 
 littie body; but in time, as it grows, we begin to diftinguii'i 
 two little leaves like two horns. The liquor diminilhes inien- 
 fibly, as the little body grows, till at length the grain becomes 
 quite opake; when, upon opening it, we find its cavity filled 
 with a young Plant in miniature ; confirming of a little germ of 
 plumula, a little root, and the lobes of the bean or pea, fcjfV. 
 The manner wherein this germ of the apex enters the veficula 
 of the feed, is not very difficult to determine. — For, betides 
 that the cavity of the piftil reaches from the top to the em- 
 bryo's of the grains, thofe grains or veficula;, have a little 
 aperture correfponding to the extremity of the cavity of the 
 piftil, fo that the fmall duft, or farina, may eafily fall through 
 the aperture into the mouth of the veficula, which is the em- 
 bryo of the grain. — This cavity, or cicatricula, is much the 
 fame in moft grains, and it is ealily obferved in peafe, beans, 
 c3V. without the microfcope. The root of the httle germ is 
 juft againft this aperture, and it is through this it pali'es out 
 when the little grain comes to germinate. 
 The procefs of nature in the generation of vegetables, and the 
 apparatus lhe has contrived for that purpofe, are fo curious, 
 and withal fo little and fo lately known among us, that we lhr.ll 
 illuftrate them further with figures ; taking the melon for otir 
 example, in regard the parts of generation are here very diftinct. 
 By the way it muft be obferved, that though the melon contains 
 both fexes, yet the difpofition of the organs differs, here, from 
 the general one above rehearled in the inrtance of the tulip : In 
 effect, on the melon Plant are two diftinct flowers, or bloilbms, 
 the one doing the male office, the other the female ; which, 
 we lhall therefore call the male and female flower. 
 In Tab. Nat. Hijl.fig. 13. is repreiented the male flower or 
 blolfom of the pumpion, a plant of the melon kind, the leaves 
 being ftripped from off the circle F F. — ABE reprefent the 
 head, placed in the centre of the flower, and formed of the cir- 
 cumvolutions of the apices B, and fuftained by four columns 
 GGGG. — The part B of the head repicfents the circumvo- 
 lutions of the apices while yet fhut ; and the part F represents 
 them open, and covered with the farina, which they before 
 contained, but which is diffufed on the outfide when the Plant 
 arrives at maturity. Each apex forms a kind of canal feparated 
 by a partition into two. A grain of the farina i» represented by 
 D. H reprefents the pedicle that fuftains the flower, and which 
 in the male flower produces nothing. 
 
 Fig. 15. reprefents the female flower, or bloffbm of the pum- 
 pion, or that which bears the fruit.' — The leaves are ftripped off 
 the circle FF, as before, the better to ftiew the other parts. The 
 knot of the flower, or the embryo of the fiuit, is leprefented by 
 A. The piftil is reprefented by BB ; and is only a continuation 
 of the embryo of the fruit A. The top of the piftil fpieads in 
 BB into feveral oblong bodies, each feparable into two lobes. 
 Thefe bodies are very rough, furnilhed with hairs and litde 
 veficies proper tn catch the duft of the male flower, and to con- 
 duit them to the mouths of the canals, which communicate as 
 
 far 
 
PLA 
 
 far as the cells of the grains contained in the young fruit. Up 
 on cutting the piftil tranfverfely in its fmalleft part, we find as 
 many canals as there are divifions in its head ; which canals 
 correlpond to as many little cells, each including two orders of 
 grains, or feeds, ranged in a fpongy placenta. 
 This doctrine of generation affords us a hint how to alter, 
 improve, 63te the tafte, form, and quality of fruits, Sff. ife.by 
 impregnating the flower of one, with the farina of another or 
 the fame clafs. 
 
 To this accidental coupling and intermixing it is, that the 
 numberlefs varieties of new fruits, flowers,^, produced every 
 year by our gardiners, with many other phenomena in theve 
 getable kingdom, are to be afcribed. 
 
 The affectation of perpendicularity obferved in the ftalks or 
 Hems of Plants, as well as in their branches and roots, makes 
 a fine fpeculation. — It is a phenomenon never attended to till 
 very lately. The caufe is very fubtile, and has employed the 
 wits of feveral of the prefent fetor' philofophers, particularly 
 of Aftruc, de la Hire, Dodai t, and Parent : See their feveral fy 
 ftems under the article Perpendicularity. 
 Nor is that conftant parallelifm obferved in the tufts of trees, 
 to the foil or ground they grow upon, a circumrtance to be 
 over-looked. See Parallelism. 
 For the fecundity of Plants, &c. See Fecundity, 
 l ants may be divided, with regard to the manner of their ge> 
 ncrating, into 
 
 Male, or fuch as bear no fruit or feed, and have only the male 
 organ of generation, viz. the farina. — Of this kind are the 
 Male palm-tree, willow, poplar, hemp, nettle, and hop-plant. 
 Pemale, or fuch as bear fruit, and have the female organ, viz. 
 the piftil, or uterus, but want the farina. — Such are the female 
 palm, willow, poplar, &c. 
 
 He: 'tnaphrodites^ or fuch as have both male and female parts, 
 or both the farina, and piftil. 
 
 Thefe are again fubdivided into (i.) thofe, in whole flower 
 bothfexes are united; as the lily, gilliflower, tulip, and much 
 the greater part of the vegetable fpecics ; whole piftil is fur- 
 rounded by the ftamina. And (2.) thofe whole male and fe- 
 male parts arc diftinct, and at a diftance from each other ; fuch 
 is the rofe, whole uterus is beneath the petala ; the melon, 
 and all of the cucumber kind, which have their male and fe- 
 male flowers apart ; and all fruit, nut, and malt-bearing trees, 
 as the apple, plum, goofeberry; and the walnut, ha/.lc, phil- 
 bert, oak, beech, pine, cyprefs, cedar, juniper, mulberry, 
 plantain, &c. which have catkins. 
 
 Plants may be again diftinguilhed, with regard to their food, 
 and the element they live in, into 
 
 Temjiriai, which are thofe that live only on land, as oaks, 
 beech, flax, &e. 
 
 Aquatic, which live only in water; either in rivers, as the 
 water-lily, water-plantain, &c. or in the fca, as the fucus, co- 
 ral, coralline, &e. 
 
 Amphibious, which live indifferently either in land Or water ; 
 as the willow, alder, &c. 
 
 Plants are again diftnbuted, with regard to their deftined age 
 or period, into 
 
 Annual, which are thofe whofe root is formed and dies in the 
 fame year; fuch are all the leguminous Plants, wheat, rye, &c. 
 Biennials, or triennials, which only produce flowers and feeds, 
 the fecond or even third year after their being railed, and then 
 die, fuch are fennel, mint, cirY. 
 
 Perennial, which are thofe that do not die after they have once 
 borne feed ; of thefe fome are ever-greens, as the afarabacca, 
 yew, &c. others lofe their leaves one part of the year, as rag- 
 wort, colts-foot, &c. 
 
 Plants again are diftinguilhed, with regard to their magnitude, 
 £srV. into 
 
 Trees, arbores ; as the oak, pine, fir, elm, fycamorc, t5V. 
 Shrubs, frutices, as the holly, box, ivy, juniper, &e. and 
 Herbs, as mint, fage, forrel, thyme, fcfY. 
 With regard to certain remarkable qualities, into inert and 
 Senfitivc *, fuch as give fome tokens of fenfe. 
 * On which account they were called by the ancients afebynome- 
 
 iioiis plants (from m^x^r*', to be balhful) and by the moderns, 
 
 living or mimic plants. 
 But thefe divifions are rather popular, than juft andphilofo- 
 phical. 
 
 ' ^ ■ ^ otani ^ s £' ve us more accurate and minute arrangements, 
 or dirtributions, of the vegetable kingdom, into clatfes, gene- 
 ra, fpecies, E?f. with regard to their nature, characters, (Sc.— 
 f!ut it is a point they are not well agreed upon from what 
 consideration the divifion into genera is beft taken ; fome, as 
 Gelner, Columna, Tournefort, £«ff, chufing only the flower 
 and fruit ; and others taking in the roots, leaves, Hems, Wr. 
 bee farther under the article Genus. 
 
 Our ingenious Mr. Ray diftributes plants into 25 genera, or 
 clafies, under the following denominations. 
 
 . Impcrfctt P lants, which are fuch as appear to want the flower 
 and feed.— Such are, corals, (ponges, fungus's, truffles, and mofs. 
 
 . Plants producing an imperfect flower,and whofe feed is too 
 fmallto bediiccintd by the naked eye i fuch are fern, poly- 
 pody, csV. 
 
 PLA 
 
 3. Thofe whofe flowers want petala j — fuch are hops, heffip'j 
 nettles, and docks. 
 
 4. Thofe with a compound flower, and which emit a milky juice 
 when cut or broke j as lettuce, dandelion, fuccory, &c. 
 
 5. Thole with a compound flower of a difcous form, and whofe 
 feed is alated, or as it were winged with down ; as colts-foot, 
 flea-bane, crV. 
 
 6. Hcrba capita**, or thofe whofe flower is compofed of fever a \ 
 long fiftulous flowers gathered into a round head, and covered 
 with a fcaly coat; as the thiftle, great burdock, blue-bottle, £3V. 
 
 7. Corymbifrous Plants with a difcous flower, but no down to* 
 the feeds ■ as the dairy - , yarrow, corn-marygold, crV. 
 
 8. Plants with a perfect flower, and only one feed to each 
 flower, as valerian, agrimony, burner, &tt. 
 
 9. Umbelliferous Plants, with a fiowei of five petala, and two' 
 feeds to each flower. This being a large genus, is fubdivided 
 into feven orders, viz. thofe with a flat broad feed, as wild 
 garden parfnip : with a longifli and larger feed, fwelling in the 
 middle, as cow-weed, and wild chervil : with a Ihorter feed, 
 as angelica : with a tuberous root, as the earth-nut : with a 
 lmall llriatcd feed, as caraways, faxifrage, and buinet : with a 
 rough hairy feed, as parfly, and wild cat rot : and with intne 
 leaves, as fanicle and thorough-wax. 
 
 10. Stellate Plants, whole leaves go round the /talks, at cer- 
 tain intervals, in form of ftars ; as clivers, madder, d?V- 
 
 n. Rough-Laved Plants, which have their leaves placed alter- 
 nately, or in no certain order along the ftalks ; as honnds- 
 tongue, mouic-car, £2V. 
 
 12. Veriiciiuite Plants, whofe leaves grow by pairs; on their 
 ftalks, one leaf right againfl another, the flower being nlono- 
 petalous, and ufually in form of a helmet; as thyme, mint, 
 pennyroyal, vervain, iii. 
 
 13. Pdyjpermctts, or thofe with many naked feeds, atleaft five, 
 fucccedirig their flower ; as crows-foot, marlh-mallows, cin- 
 quefoil, ftravvberries, is?. 
 
 14. Bacciferous Plants, or fuch as bear berries ; as b'riony, 
 honeyfuckle, Solomons-teal, lily of the valley, nightfliade, af- 
 paragus, iSe. 
 
 15. Mullifiliaums, or corniculafe Plants, which after each 
 flower produce feveral long (lender liliquze, or cafes wherein 
 their feed is contained ; as orpine, navel-wort, bears-foot, 
 columbines, c?V. 
 
 7 6. V ?Jcidiferous?i. ants with a monopetuhus flower, and which after 
 each flower, have a vefl'cl befide the calix,' containing the feed, 
 as henbane, bindweed, tampions, fox-glove, eye-bright, c?7. 
 
 17. Thofe with an uniform tetrapetalous fawn-, bearing their feeds 
 in oblong liliquous cafes ; as flock-gillyflower, muftard, ra- 
 dilh, CSV. 
 
 18. Vafculiferms Plants with a firming tetrapetahus firmer, but 
 of an anomalous or uncertain kind, and in reality oiily mono- 
 petalous, falling off altogether in one ; as fpeedwell, fiuellin 
 plantain, yellow and wild poppy, iSc. 
 
 19 . Ifafmliferom Plants with .a pmtapitahm five-kaved firmer ; as 
 maiden pinks, campions, 'chickweed, St. John's wort flax 
 pnmrofe, wood-forrel, £jfr. 
 
 20. Leguminous Plants, or fuch as bear pulfe, with a papiliona- 
 ceous flower, confiding of four pans joined at the edges; as 
 peaie, beans, vetches, tares, lentils, liquorice, trefoil, EsV. 
 
 21. Plants with a true bulbous root ; as garlick, daffodils, hya- 
 cinth, faftron, EsV. 
 
 22. Thofe whofe roots approach nearly to the bulbous form i as 
 flower-de luce, cuckoo-pint, t3c. 
 
 23. Culmifmus Plants, with a graffy leaf, and an imperfect 
 flower, having a fmooth, hollowjointed (talk with a long lharp 
 pointed leaf at each joint, and the feeds contained in a = chan y 
 husk ; as wheat, bailey, rye, oats, reeds, and mod kinds ofgrals. 
 
 24. Plants with agrally leaf, but not culmiferous, with an im- 
 perfect or ftamineous flower; asmlhes, cats-tail, tsY. 
 
 25. Plants, whofe charaders are uncertain ; chiefly water- 
 plants, as the water-lily, milk-wort, moul'e-tail, &n 
 
 For the fancied tranfmutation of one fpecies of Plants into 
 another, fee Transmutation,Df.generation, lie. 
 Thepropertics and virtues of Pitajhave been obferved byfome 
 naturalifts to bear an analogy to their forms.-In the Philofophi- 
 cal Tranfaciions, we have a dilcourfe of Mr. James Pettiver, to 
 (hew, that Plants of the fame or like Bguie, have the fame or 
 like virtues and ufes. -Thus the umbelliferoustribe, heobferves. 
 have all a carminative taflc and fmell, are powerful expellers of 
 wind, and therefore good in all flatulent diforders. — The ga- 
 lcate or verticillate kind are a degree warmer, and more pow- 
 erful than the laft ; and therefore may be reputed aromatic, be- 
 ing proper for nervous diforders.— The tetrapetalous kind are 
 hot like the two former, but exert their power in a different 
 way, viz. by a diuretic volatile fait, which makes them of uie 
 in chronical difeafes, obflructions, cacochymias, CSV. 
 PLANTA, in anatomy, the lowed part, or fole of the foot of 
 man ; comprehended between the tarfus and the toes. See 
 Foot. 
 
 PLANTAGENET, in hiftory, an addition or fumame, borne 
 by many of our ancient kings. 
 
 The term Planlagrnethis given infinite perplexity to the critics 
 and »ntiquaries,whocould never fettle its origin andetymoloey. 
 
 -It 
 
P L A 
 
 —It is allowed that it firft belonged to the houfe of Anjou, and 
 was brought to the throne of England by Henry II. where his 
 male pofterity preferved it till the time ot Henry V II. a fpace 
 of above 400 Years. 
 
 It is difputed who it was that firft bore the name. Molt ot oui 
 Euglifli authors conclude, that our Hem y II. inherited it from 
 his father Geoffrey V. earl of Anjou, fon of FulkV. king ot 
 Jenifaleni, who died in 1144.— This Geoffrey they will have 
 the firft of the name ; and our Henry II. the illuc of Geoffrey 
 by Maud, only daughter of Henry t the lecond. 
 Yet Menage will not allow Geoffrey to have botne the name ; 
 and adds, that in effect the old annalift of Anjou, J. Bourdigne, 
 never calls him fo.— The firft Menage adds, to whom he gives 
 Ihc appellation, is Geoffiey third fon of this Geoffrey V. 
 Yet muft the name be much more ancient than either ot thele 
 princes, if what Skinner lays of its origin and etymology be 
 true.— That author tells us, that the houfe of Anjou derived the 
 name from a prince thereof, who having killed his brothei to 
 enjoy his principality, took to repentance, and made a voyage 
 to the Holy Land to expiate his crime ; difciplmmg himlelt 
 every night with a rod made of the plant genet, gemlta : 
 broom ; whence he became nick-named Plania-ginit. 
 Now it is certain that our Geoffiey made the tour of Jerula- 
 lem ; butthen he did not kill his bi other, nor did he go thither 
 out of penance, but to affift king Amauris his brother.— Who 
 then lliould this prince of the houfe of Anjou be > Was lti-ulk 
 IV. ? It is true he difpoffeffed his elder brother Geoffrey, and 
 clapt him in prifon, but he did not kill him; nay, Bouidignc 
 obferves, he was even teleafed out of the fame by his Ion Geot- 
 frey V. already mentioned. 
 
 Further, this I ulk did make a journey to Jerufalem, and that 
 too, partly out of a penitential view ; we are allured by Bour- 
 digne, he did it out of apprehenfion of the judgments ot God, 
 and eternal damnation, for the gieatcffulion of chriftian blood 
 in the many mortal battles he had been in.— The annalift alio 
 adds, that he made a lecond voyage ; but it was to return God 
 thanks for his nieicies, Uc. To which wc may add, that Fulk 
 was never called Plmtagaiet ; lb that what Skinner advances 
 appears to be a table. 
 
 There is another common opinion, which appears no better 
 founded; and it is this, that the name Plautagenet was common 
 to all the princes of thehoufe of Anjou, after Geoffrey V. 
 whereas, in fact, the name was only given to a few ; and that, as 
 it fhould feem, to diltinguilh them from the reft. Thus Bour- 
 digne never applies it to any but the thud Ion of Geoffrey V 
 and diftinguilhes nimby this appellation from the other princes 
 of the fame family.-Tho' it is certain that it waslikewife given 
 to the elder brother, Henry of England, as before obferved. 
 PLANT ARIS, in anatomy, a mufcle which has a rlelhy begin- 
 ning from the back part of the external protuberance of the 
 thigh-bone, and defending a little way between the gemellus 
 and foleus, becomes a long and (lender tendon, which proceeds 
 by the infide of the great tendon over the os calcis to the bot- 
 tom of the foot, and expands itfelf under the fole, upon the 
 mufculus perforatus, to which it adheres elofely, as the pal- 
 nraris does in the hand. See Tab. Anal. (Myol.)Jig. 1. n. 68. 
 Some reckon this among the extenders of the foot. See Ex- 
 tensor. 
 
 PLANTATION, in the illands and continent of America, a 
 l'pot of ground which fome planter, orperfon arrived in a new 
 colony, pitches on to cultivate and till for his own life. 
 
 PLANTING, in agriculture and gardening, the fetting of a tree, 
 or plant, taken up from its former place in a new hole or pit 
 proportionable to its bulk ; throwing frelh earth over its root 
 and rilling up the hole to the level of the other ground. 
 
 Planting mi orchard. See Orchard. 
 
 Planting of fortji-treis. See Nurshry and Tree. 
 
 Planting 0] luall-frmt-trm.—hi^i two years growth in the 
 nurfery, ftone-frint, being firft inoculated or grafted, are ready 
 for removal ; which is belt done in October or November. 
 To prepare the foil for its new gueft, a hole is dug two foot 
 deep ; or, if the foil be not very good, the pit is made Ihallower, 
 and earth railed above it.-VV ith the foil dug up, they freqently 
 mix either a rich foil from elfewhei e, or manure, fo as the mix 
 ed be at leaft as rich as the foil out of which the tree came. 
 The hole being half filled up with this compoft, it is trodden 
 down, to ahold a him relt to the root ; all the extremities 
 whereof are cut off, and the tree fitted to the wall by cutting off 
 fuch branches - as grow directly either towards or from- wards 
 the wall, and leaving only the lidt-bianches, which are to be 
 nailed to it. *■•..!£• 1 '..■rrfri' 
 
 This dcr.e, the tree is fet in its hole, as far from the wall as is 
 confident with the head's fpreauing thereon, that the root may 
 have the more room backwaids : and the hole is then filled up 
 with the Gompoft, 
 
 If the foil be poor, it is proper to manure round the tree ; and 
 in the end of Febiuaiy, to cover it with fern or ltraw.— It will 
 alio be necellary to pi une and nail the tree to the wall, at leaft 
 twice or tin ice every year. 
 
 iiiverf Planting, is a method of planting, wherein the ordi 
 nary polition of the plant, or lhoot, is inverted; the branches 
 
 P L A 
 
 being fet in the earth, and the roots reared into the air. 
 Agricola mentions this monftiousway of planting* which he 
 afluies us fucceeds very well in moft, or all forts of fruit-trees, 
 timber-trees, ts'c. both foreign and domeftic. 
 Bradley affirms to have feen a lime-tree in Holland growing 
 with its firft roots in the air, which had (hot out branches in 
 great plenty, at the fame time that its firft branches weie 
 turned into roots, and fed the tree. 
 
 The induftrious Mr. Fairchild has practifed the fame with us, 
 and gives us the following directions for the performance 
 thereof. 
 
 Chufe a young tree of one fhoot, of alder, elm, willow, or any 
 other tree that takes root readily by laying. Bend the fhoot 
 gently down till the extreme part be in the earth, and fo let it 
 remain till it has taken good root. — This done, dig about the 
 firft root, and gently take it up out of the ground, and raife it 
 till the ftem be nearly upright ; in which ftate ftake it up. 
 Then prune the roots, now erected in the air, from the bruifes 
 and wounds they received in being dug up ; and anoint the 
 pruned parts with a compofition of four parts of bees-wax, two 
 of refm, and two of turpentine, melted together and applied 
 pretty warm. — Then prune off all the buds or flioots upon the 
 ftem, and drefs the wounds with the fame compoiition, to pic- 
 vent any collateral fhootings ; and leave the reft to natuie. 
 
 Planting, in architecture, denotes the laying the firft courfes 
 of ftoue on the foundation, according to the meafures, with all 
 the exactnefs pollible. 
 
 PLASM, Plasma, is fometimes ufed for a mould, wherein any 
 metal, or fuch-like lunning matter, which will afteiwards 
 harden, is caft, to receive its figure. 
 
 PLASTER, or Plais i er, in building, a compofition of lime, 
 fometimes with hair, fometimes with find, 6r7. to parget, or 
 cover the nudities of a building. 
 
 l aster of Paris, is a fiftile ftone, fciving many purpofes in 
 building ; and ufed likewifc in fculptme, to mould and make 
 ftatues,~baffo relievo's, and other decorations in aichiteclure. 
 It is dug out of quarries, in feveral parts of the ueigfibouihood 
 of Paris ; whence its name. — The fineft is that of Montmartie. 
 Plaijlcr of Paris, among our workmen, is of two kinds; viz 
 crude, or in the ftone ; and burnt, or beaten. 
 The crude is the native Plajhr, as it comes out of the quarry ; in 
 which ftatc it is ufed as lhards in the foundations of buildings. ( 
 The burnt Plajhr is a preparation of the former, by calcining 
 it like lime in kiln or furnace, and then beating it into powder, 
 and diluting and working it. In this ftate it is ufed as mor- 
 ter or cement in buildings. 
 
 This, when well fifted and reduced into an impalpable powder, 
 is ufed alio to make figures and ether works of fculptui e ; and 
 is befidcs of ibme life in taking out fpots of gi cafe, bY. in ftuifs 
 and risks. 
 
 In the Plaflcr quarries is alfo found a kind of falfe talc, or 
 plated felenites, wherewith they counterfeit all kinds of mar- 
 ble. See Supplement, article Gypsum. 
 PLASTIC, n?.»s-ix©. imports as much as formative, or a thing 
 endued with a faculty of forming, or falhiuning a mals of 
 matter after the likenefs of a living being. 
 * The word comes from the Greek, -zharnt, of roWiw, or -nbuwu, 
 Jingo, I famion, form, Sir, 
 Some of the ancient Epicureans, and perhaps the Peripatetics 
 too, imagined TiplajTu virtue to relide in the earth, or at leaft 
 to have anciently refided therein ; and that it was by means 
 hereof, and without any extraordinary intervention of a Crea- 
 tor, that it firft put forth plants, csY. 
 
 Nay, fome of them, whether ferioutly or not, we do not un- 
 undertake to determine, taught, that animals, and even man, 
 were the effect of this plajVic power. 
 PLASTICE, tfj^rtKM, the Plastic art ; a branch of fculpture, 
 being the art of forming figures of men, birds, beafts, fifties, 
 plants, We. in plafter, clay, ftuc, or the like. See Sculpture. 
 The workmen concerned herein are alfo called plajlct, ^term. 
 Plajiicc differs from carving, in that here the figures are made 
 by addition of what wants ; but in carving always by fub- 
 ftraction of what is fupe: tluous. 
 
 The plajlic art is now chiefly ufed among us in fret-work-ceil- 
 ings ; but the Italians apply it alfo to the mantlings of chinv- 
 nies with great figures. 
 
 PLAT, a popular term among mariners, &c. for a fea-chart. 
 
 PLATA, Plate, in commerce, a Spanilh term, fignifying iil- 
 ver ; as vellon, which they pronounce vellion, fignifies copper. 
 Thefe two terms are not only ufed to exprefs the fpecies of 
 thole metals ftruck in Spain, but alfo to diftinguifh between 
 feveral of their monies of account. — Thus they fay a ducat of 
 Plata, and a ducat of vellon ; a rial of Plata, and a rial of 
 vellon ; which denominations augment and diminifh the va- 
 lue by almoft one half; 34maravedis of Plata being equal to 
 63 of vellon ; and the piece of eight being only 272 maravedis 
 of Plata, but 510 of vellon. See Ducat, Piece oj eight. 
 Rial, and Maravedis. 
 
 Plate, in commerce, denotes gold or filver wrought into vef- 
 fels -for domeftic ufes. 
 
 Plate, in heraldry, is around, flat piece of filver, without any 
 impreffionj but, as it were, formed ready to receive it. 
 
 The 
 
P L A 
 
 The term is ufed only by Englifti heralds. — In other nations 
 they are known by the name of bezants argent. 
 PLAT- BAND, in gardening, a border, or bed of flo%vers, alonj 
 a wall, or the tide of a parterre ; frequently edged with box, 
 
 ?*ff. ...... .11* ben .taf,'*' t'"l nfij 
 
 Flat-band, in architecture, is any flat fquare moulding, whofe 
 height much exceeds its projeciure. — See Tab. Arcbit. fg. 28 
 lit. 11. 
 
 Such are the faces or fafciae of an Architrave, and the Plat- 
 band of the modillions Ota cornich. 
 
 The Plat-band is hgnitied in Vitruvius, and others, by the 
 
 words fafcia, ttcnia, and corfa. See Fascia. 
 Plat-band of a door or window, is uied for the lintel, where 
 
 that is made fquare, or not much arched. 
 
 Thefe Pht-bamk are ufually crofl'ed with bars of iron, when 
 
 they have a great bearing : But it is much better to eafe them 
 
 by arches of difcharge built over them. 
 Plat-Bands of flutings, the lifts or fillets between the flutings 
 
 of columns. 
 
 PLAT-FORM, in war, an elevation of earth, on which cannon 
 is placed to fire on the enemy. 
 Such are the mounts on the middle of the curtins. — On the 
 rampart there is always a Plat-firm, where the cannon are 
 mounted. 
 
 It is made by the heaping up of earth on the rampart ; or by 
 by an arrangement of madriers, rifnig infenfibly for the cannon 
 to roll on ; either in a cafemate, or on an attack in the outworks. 
 
 Plat-form, in architecture, is a row of beams, which fupport 
 the timber-work of a roof, and lie on the top of the wall, 
 where the entablature ought to be railed. 
 
 Plat-form is alfo ufed for a kind of terrace, or broad fmooth 
 open walk on the top of a building, from whence we may take 
 a fair proipect of the adjacent country. 
 Hence an edifice is faid to be covered with a Plat-firm, when 
 it is flat at top, or has no ridge. * 
 Moil of the oriental buildings are thus covered, as were all thofe 
 of the ancients.— Carfar was the fitft among the Romans who 
 procured leave to build his home with a ridge or pinnacle. 
 
 Plat-form, or orlop, in a man of war, is a place on the lower 
 deck, abaft the main-maft, between it and the cock-pit, and 
 round about the main capftan ; where provifion is made for the 
 wounded men, in time of fervice. See Tab. Ship. jig. 2. lit. 7. 
 
 PLATONIC, fomething that relates to Plato, his fchool, philo- 
 fqphy, opinions, or the like. 
 
 Platonic bodies, are the fame with what we otherwife call regu- 
 lar bodies. See Regular bodies. 
 
 Platonic love, denotes a pure, fpiritual affection, fubfifting be- 
 tween the different lexes, abftraCted from all carnal appetites, 
 and regarding no other objeft but the mind, and its beauties : 
 or it is even a finccre difinterefted fiiendfliip, fubfifting between 
 perfons of the fame fex, abftraCted from any felfifh views, and 
 regarding no other object but the perfon. 
 The term took its rife from the philofopher Plato, a ftrenuous 
 advocate for each kind. 
 
 The world has a long time laugh' d at Plato's notions of love 
 and friendfhip.— In effect, they appear arrant chimera's con- 
 trary to the intentions of nature, and incontinent with the 
 great law of felf-prefervation; which love and friendihip ar 
 both ultimately refolvible into. 
 Platonic year, or the great year, is a period of time determined 
 by the revolution of the equinoxes ; or the fpace wherein the 
 ftars and conftellations return to their former places, in refpecf 
 of the equinoxes. 
 
 The Platonic year, according to Tycho Brahe, is 25816; ac- 
 cording to Ricciolus 25920 ; and according to Caflini 24800 
 years. 
 
 This period, which is more than five times the age of the 
 world, once accomplilhed, it was an opinion among the an- 
 cients, that the world was to begin anew, and the fame feiies 
 of things to turn over again. 
 PLATONISM, the doctrine and fentiments of Plato and his 
 followers, with regard to philofophy, £5Y. 
 The founder of this fyftem of philofophy, Plato, the fon of 
 Arifto, was an Athenian ; born about the year of the world 
 3625 j who, after having fpent his youth in exercifes of the 
 body, painting and poetry, became a dilciple of Socrates.— Af- 
 ter his mafter's death, he applied himfelf to Cratylus and Her- 
 mogenes ; till being a mafter of the Greek philofophy, he tra- 
 velled into Italy, where he learnt alio that of the Pythagoreans. 
 Thence he proceeded into Egypt ; where, in feveral years re- 
 fidence, he became fully acquainted with the fecrcts of the 
 Egyptian priefts. . 
 
 At his return to Athens, he began to retail the (lock of learn- 
 ing he had collefted, among his countrymen ; philofophizing 
 daily m the Academy, a delicious villa in the neighbourhood 
 of that city.— And hence hisdifciples were called Academics. 
 In phyhes, he chiefly followed Heraclitus; in ethics and poli- 
 tics, Socrates ; and in mctaphyfics, Pythagoras. 
 After his death, two of the principal of his difciples, Ariftotle 
 and Xenocratcs, continuing his office, and teaching, the one 
 • jn the Academy, the other in the Lyceum ; form'd'two feels, 
 under different names, though in other refpeas the fame ; the 
 one retaining the denomination of Aiadimits ; fee Academic. 
 Vol. II. I 
 
 P L A 
 
 The other affuming that of Ptriptttftitli fee Per ipatt ■'-re 
 In after-times, about the tirft ages of the dv.iftian church, the 
 followers of Plato quitted the titles of Acadcmijh, and took that 
 of Platmjh. 
 
 It is fuppofed to have been at Alexandria in Egypt that they 
 hrftafiumed their new title, after having reftored the ancient 
 Academy, and re-eftablifhed Plato's fentiments ; which in pro- 
 cefs of time had many of them been laid afide 
 Porphyry, Plctin, Iamblichus, Proclus, and Plutarch, are thofe 
 who acquired the greatefl reputation among the Greek Plato- 
 nifts : And among the Latins, Apuleius and Chalcidius.— 
 Among the Hebrews, Philo Judaeus. —The modern Platonifts 
 own Plotm the founder, at lead the reformer of their fee*. 
 The Platonic philofophy appeal s veiy confident with the Mofaic • 
 and a great party of the primitive fathers follow the opinions 
 of that philofopher, as being favourable to Chriftianity— Juf- 
 tm is of opinion, that Plato could not learn many things which 
 he has faid in his works, from mere natural reafon ; but thinks 
 he might have learnt them from the books of Mofes, which 
 he might have read when in Egypt. 
 
 Hence Numenius, the Pythagorean, exprefly calls Plato the 
 Attic Mojes ; and upbraids him with plagiarifm, in that he Hole 
 his doctrine about the world and God, from the books of 
 Mofes. 
 
 Theodoret fays exprefly, that he has nothing good and com- 
 mendable about the Deity, and his worfhip, but what he fiole 
 from the Hebrew theology; and Clemens Alexandiinus calls 
 him the Hebrew philofopher. 
 
 Gale is very particular in his proof of the point, that Plato bor- 
 rowed his philofophy from the fcriptures, either immediately, 
 or by means of tradition; and, befide the authority of the anci- 
 ent writers, he brings Tome arguments from the thing itfelf.-As, 
 e. gr. Plato's confefiion that the Greeks borrowed their know- 
 ledge of the one infinite God, from an ancient people, better 
 and nearer to God than they ; by which people, our author 
 makes no doubt, he meant the Jews : From his account of 
 the ftate of innocence, as, that man was born of the ea ; ih, that 
 he was naked, that he enjoyed a truly happy ftate, that he con- 
 veiled with brutes, «*. —In effect, from an examen of all the 
 parts of Plato's philofophy, phyfical, metaphyfical, and ethi- 
 cal ; this author finds, in every one, evident characters of its 
 facred original. 
 
 As to the manner of the creation, Plato teaches that the world 
 was made according to a certain exemplar, or idea, in the di- 
 vine Architect's mind. And all things in the univerfe, in like 
 manner, he fliews, do depend on the efficacy of eternal ideas 
 
 This ideal world is thus explain'd by Didymtis : " Plato rup- 
 ee P k' e l I 6 " 3 '" P attems or exemplars of all fenfible things, 
 which he calls ideas ; and as there may oe various impieffi- 
 " ons taken off from the fame feal, fo he fays are there a vaft 
 " number of natures exifting from each idea." This idea he 
 fuppofes to be an eternal offence, and to occafion the feveral 
 
 beings in nature to be fuch as itfelf is : And that molt beau- 
 tiful and perfect idea, which comprehends all the reft, he 
 maintains to be the world. 
 
 Further, Plato teaches that the univerfe is an intelligent ani- 
 mal, confuting of a body and a foul. 
 
 The firft matter whereof this body was formed, he obferves 
 was a rude mdigefted heap, or chaos : Now, adds he, the cre- 
 ation was a mixed production; and the world is the refult of 
 a combination of neceffity and undcrftanding, ,. e, of matter 
 which he calls neceffity, and the divine wifdom ' 
 I he principles, or elements, which Plato lays down are fire 
 air, water, and earth. * 
 He fuppofes two heavens ; the empyrean, which he takes to ba 
 of a hery nature, and to be inhabited by angels, lie. and the 
 jtarry 'heaves, which he teaches is not adamantine or folid but 
 liquid and fpirable. ' 
 His phyfics or doflrine de corpore, is chiefly laid down in his 
 remains- where he argues on the properties of bod v , in a geo- 
 metrical manner; which Ariftotle takes occafion to reprehend 
 in him. -His doctrine de mente is delivered m his tenth book 
 of laws, and his Parmemdes. 
 
 ?■ con ™ends the Platonic philofophy ; and even fays, 
 
 that the Platonijls were not far from Chriftianity: He adds, 
 that the generality of the new Plannijls of his time embiaced 
 the faith. 
 
 Jultin Martyr profeffes, that Plato's doctrine was of the utmoft 
 advantage to him, in helping him to believe the myfteries of 
 the Lhnftian faith.— To which it may be added, that it was 
 in good meafure by Plato's help, that Origen confuted Celfus. 
 indeed the late author of Platomfme deveiie carries things to an 
 extravagant length, when he contends, that the dogmata of 
 our religion are only the opinions of Plato ; that the fathers 
 give us nothing of the myfteries thereof, but what they learnt 
 from him ; and that Chriftianity is only Platonifm veiled, or 
 covered over. To which opinion, however, M. le Clerc fee'ms 
 alfo a little inclined. 
 
 PLATONISTS. See Platonism, and Academics. 
 
 PLATTOON *, or Plottoon, in war, a fmall fquare body 
 of 40 or 50 men, drawn out of a battalion of foot, and placed 
 * The word is formed, by corruption, of the French tilat.-ii, a bot- 
 tom, or clue of thread. 
 
 9 ■ between 
 
P L E 
 
 between the fquadrons of horfe, to fuftain them ; or in amfcuf- 
 cades, freights, and defiles, where there is not room lor whole 
 battalions or regiments. 
 
 Pkttoom are alfo ufed, when they form the hollow fquare to 
 ftrengthen the angles. 
 
 The grenadiers are generally pofted in Plattoons. 
 PLATTS, on board a fhip, are flat ropes made of rope-yarn, 
 and woven one in another. 
 
 Their ufe is to fave the cable from galling in the haufe ; or to 
 
 ■wind about the flukes of the anchors, to fave the pendant of 
 
 the fore-iheet from galling againft: them. 
 PLATYSMA, Myoides. V. Muscle. 
 PLAY, Luftts. See Game, and Gaming. 
 Play, in poetry, cjfY. See Drama, Tragedy, Comedy, 13c. 
 Play-house. See Theatre, Amphitheatre, &c. 
 PLEA, Placitum, in law, that which either party alledgethfor 
 
 himfelf in court, in a caufe then depending to be tried. 
 
 Pleas are either of the crown, or common Pleas. 
 Pleas of the crown, are all fuits in the king's name, for offences 
 
 committed againft his crown and dignity, or againft his crown 
 
 and peace.— Such are treafons, felonies, mifpiiiions of either, 
 
 and mayhem. 
 
 EdwaTd I. enfeoffed Walter de Eurgo in the land of Ulfter in 
 Ireland, bfc. excepting the Pleas of the crown, viz. rapeftal. 
 wilful tiring, and treafure-trove. Cam. tit. Ireland. 
 Common Pleas, are thofe agitated between common perfons ; 
 though, by the divilion above laid down, they fliould comprife 
 all others except thofe there enumerated, notwithstanding that 
 the king be a party. 
 
 Pleas may farther be divided into as many branches as a£lion ; 
 Hiafmuch as they are in reality the fame thing. 
 There is alfo foreign Plea, whereby matter is alledgcd in any 
 court, that ought to be tried by another. — As if one lay bal- 
 tardy to another in a court baron. 
 Pleas of the fword.— Ranulph earl of Chefter, 2 Hen. III. granted 
 to his barons of Chelhire, an ample charter of liberties, exceptis 
 placitis ad gladhtm meum pert'mentibus. 
 
 The reafon of the exception was, that William the Conqueror 
 gave the earldom of Chefter to his half-brother Hugh, com- 
 monly called Lupus, anceftor of this Ranulph, Tenere ita libere 
 ad gladium, ficut ipfe rex tenuit AngUam ad eoronam. 
 Accordingly, in all indictments for felony, murder, ls"c. in 
 the county Palatine, the form was, Contra pacem domini cotni- 
 tis, gladhtm & dignitatem fuam ; or contra dignitatem gladii Ce/lriar. 
 — Such were the Pleas for the dignity of the earl of Chefter. 
 Court of common Fleas, called alfo common bench. See Common 
 Pleas. 
 
 PLEADING, Placitatio, a difcourfe fpoken at the bar, in 
 defence of the caufe of a party. 
 
 From the time of the conqueft, all Pleading was performed in 
 French, till the time of Edward III. when it was appointed 
 that the Pleas fhould be pleaded in EngYitri, but that they mould 
 "be entered or recorded in Latin. 
 
 At Athens, and even in France and England, it was prohibited 
 to have any formed or prepared Pleading, or to amufe the court 
 with long artificial harangues ; only, in important matters, it 
 was tire fettled cuftom to begin the Pleadings with a paifage in 
 holy fcripture. 
 
 It is but of late years that eloquence was admitted to the bar 
 and it may be laid, there is (carte any nation in Europe, where 
 it is lefs piactifcd or encouraged than among us.— Theelocution 
 of the bar, like that of the pulpit, defpifes the rules of rhetoric. 
 Pleadings, in a ftricter fenfe, are all the allegations of the par- 
 ties to a fuits made after the count, or declaration, till iJTue 
 is joined. 
 
 In this fenfe the Pleadings exprefs what is contained in the 
 bar, replication, and rejoinder ; and not what is in the decla- 
 ration itfelf. — Hence defaults in the matter of declaration, are 
 not comprized within the mifpkading, or inefficient Pleading, 
 which only extends to that committed in the bar, replica 
 tion, or rejoinder. 
 PLEASURE, the effect of a fenfation or perception, agreeable 
 to the mind, or of the gratification of fome appetite. 
 Pleajurei may be diftingui/hed into two kinds. — The firft, thofe 
 which anticipate, or go before the reafon ; fuch are all agreeable 
 fenfations. — Thefe are popularly called Pleafures of fenfe, or of 
 .the body. 
 
 The fecond are thofe which do not precede or anticipate ei- 
 ther the fenfes or reafon. Thefe we call Pleafures of the mind. 
 —Such is the joy arifmg from a clear perception of fome fu- 
 ture good, or the confufed fenfation of a prefent one. 
 For an inftance of each :— A man frequently finds Pleafure in 
 eating a fruit he was before unacquainted withal : This is an- 
 ticipating Pleafure, which he feels ere he knows the fruit to be 
 good. On the other hand, a hungry hunter expects, or per- 
 haps actually finds, victuals; where the joy he conceives, is a 
 Pleafure that follows from the knowledge of his prefent or fu- 
 ture good. 
 
 Pleafure and Pain feem to be no other than engines in nature's 
 hand ; whereby we are directed to confult our own preferva- 
 tjon, and avoid qur ruin.— To things that may contribute to 
 
 the one, as food, venery, Ise. (he has annexed Pleafure ; and 
 to thofe that may conduce to the other, as hunger, difeafes, 
 pain: She durft not leave it to our diicretion, whether we 
 
 Est 
 
 would preferve and propagate the fpecies or not ; but, as it 
 weie, conftrains us to both : Were theie no Pleafure in eating 
 nor pain in hunger, what numbers would be ftarved through 
 negligence, forgetfulnefs, or llothfulnefs ? What is it induces 
 people to the office of generation but Pleafure ? Without 
 this the world had fcarce fubiifted to this time. 
 Among the multiplicity of things to be done, and to be avoid- 
 ed, for the prefervation of animal life, £57. how fhould we 
 have diftinguifhed between the one and the other, but for the 
 fenfation of Pkajure and pain? Thefe are not only fpurs, to 
 urge us on, but alfo guides, to direct us whither we are to go. 
 Wherever nature has fixed a Pleafure, we may take it for 
 granted, flie there injoins a duty ; and fomething is to be there 
 done, either for the individual, or for the fpecies. 
 Hence it is that out Pleafures vary at different ftages of life; the 
 Pleafures, e. gr. of a child, a youth, a grown man, an old man, 
 &c. all tending to thofe particular things required by nature in 
 that particular ft ate of life, either for the prefervation, limply, 
 or jointly tor that and propagation, £sV, 
 
 Hence, from the different conltitutions of the body, at diffe- 
 rent ages, it were very eafy to account for all the particular 
 taftes and Pleafures thereof : Not by deducing the Pleafures 
 mechanically from the difpofition of the organs in that ftate ; 
 but by confidenng what is neceffary for the perfetfion and 
 well-being of the individual in that ftate, and what it is to con- 
 tribute to that of the fpecies.— In a child, e. gr. mere preferva- 
 tion in the prefent ftate is not enough ; it muft likewife grow : 
 to bring this to pafs, nature has made the returns of hunger, 
 &c. more frequent, as well as more acute ; and the Pleafures of 
 feeding more cxquifite. And that the excefs of aliment in 
 proportion to the bulk of the body may be difpenfed withal, 
 the has made one of the great Pleafures of the ftate to coniift 
 in a leries of fportive exercifes, by means whereof the parts of 
 the body come to be opened and expanded, and arrive at 
 maturity. This done, the Pleafures that conduced thereto 
 duappear; and others fuited to the new ftate, fucceed. 
 For the Pleasures of beauty, muftc, fiffc See Beauty, Music 
 
 PLEBANUS was anciently the title of a rural dean. See Ru- 
 ral dean. 
 
 The denomination arofe hence, that thefe deanries were then 
 affixed to the Plcbama, or chief mother-church within fuch a 
 diftrict, which at firft was ufually ten parifhes. 
 Plebanus feems alfo to have been ufed for a parifh-prieft of 
 fuch a large mother-church, as was exempt from the jurifdic- 
 tion of the ordinary, fo that he had the authority of a rural 
 dean committed to him by the archbifhop, to whom the church 
 was immediately lubject. 
 PLEBEIAN, Pleheius, : 
 or common people. 
 
 The term is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the ancient Romans, 
 who weie divided into fnators y knights, and Plebeians or com- 
 mons. 
 
 PLEBISCITUM, among the Romans, a law enacted by the 
 common people, at the requeft of the tribune, or fome other 
 plebeian magiftrate, without the intervention of the fe- 
 nate. 
 
 Plebiscitum is more particularly applied to the law which the 
 people made, when, upon fome mifunderftanding with the fe- 
 nate, they retired to the Aventine mount. 
 PLEDGE, Plegius, in common law, a furety, orgage, either 
 real or perfonal, which the plaintiff or demandant "is to find 
 for his profecuting the fuit. 
 
 The word is fometimes alfo ufed for frank Pledge, which fee. 
 To Pledge, in drinking, denotes to warrant, or be furety to one, 
 that he fhall receive no harm while he is taking his draught. 
 The phrafe is referred by our antiquaries to the practice of the 
 anes, heretofore in England, who frequently ufed to (tab, or 
 cut the throats of the natives, while they were drinking. 
 IPLEDGERY, orPiEccERv, furetilhip, or an undertaking or 
 anfwering for another. 
 
 The appellant fhall require the conftable and marefchal, to de- 
 liver his pleggs, and to difcharge them of their Pleggcry ; and 
 the conftable and marefchal fhall allt leave of the king to acquit 
 his Pleggt, after that the appellant is come into the lifts to do 
 his devoir. Orig. Jur. ex Vet. Cod. MS. in Bibl. Selden. 
 PLEDGET, in chirurgery, a kind of flat tent, made, not to 
 enter a wound, but to be laid upon it, to imbibe the fuper- 
 fluous humours, and keep it clean and dry. 
 PLEGIIS acquictandu, a writ that lies for a furety, againft him 
 for whom he is furety, in cafe he pay not the money at the 
 day. Fitz. Nat. Brsv. 
 PLEIADES, n* £1 «j; 5 , in aftronomy, an affemblage of feven 
 liars, in the neck of the conftellation Taurus. 
 They are thus called from the Greek mvigare, to fail ; as 
 being terrible to mariners, by reafon of the rains and ftorms 
 that frequently rife with them. 
 
 Th<) 
 
 a perfon of the rank of the populace, 
 
P L E 
 
 The Latins call thtmffisFg&dz, from Ver, fpringj beeaufe of 
 their riling about the vernal equinox. 
 
 The largerr. is of the third magnitude, and is called Lucida Pleia- 
 dum. See their feveral longitudes, latitudes, magnitudes, &c. under 
 the article Taurus. 
 Poetical Pleiades, is a name which the Greeks gave to feven 
 celebrated poets, flouriihing under the reign ot Ptolemy Phi- 
 ladelphus. 
 
 In imitation of the Greeks, Ronfard formed a Pleiades of 
 French poets under the reign of Henry II. — It confiftcd of 
 Daurat, Ronfaid, du Bellay, Belleau, Balfj Tyard,and Jodelle. 
 On the fame model, fome of their authors are projecting anew 
 Pleiades of the Latin poets of the preient time ; but they are not 
 yet agreed about the names of thole that are to compofe it ; 
 much lefs on him who who (hall be the Lucida Pleiadum.—M. 
 Baillet has named F.llapin, E. Commire, F. dela Rue, M. de 
 Santeuil, M. Menage, M. du Perier, and M. Petit. 
 
 PLENARTY, in law, a term ufed in ecclciiaftical matters, to 
 denote that a benefice is full, orpoilelfed of an incumbent. 
 In which fenfe it flands oppofed to vacancy. See Vacancy. 
 Inftitution, by fix months, is a good Pknarty againft a com- 
 mon perlon, but not againft the king, without Induction. See 
 Institution and Induction. 
 
 PLENARY *, fomething complete, or full. — Thus we fay, the 
 pope grants plenary indulgauei ; i. e. full and intireremillions of 
 the penalties due to all lins. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Latin phuarius, of plenus, full. 
 PLENILUNIUM *, in aftronomy, that phalis or ftate of the 
 
 moon, popularly called the full moon. 
 
 * The word is a compound of the Latin plenus, and luna. 
 
 PLENIPOTENTIARY *, a perl'on who has full power, and 
 eommiliion to do any thing. 
 
 * The word is compounded of plenus, full, and potenlia, power. 
 The word is chiefly undcrflood of the miniiteis or ambalfadors 
 fent from princes or flates to treat of peace, marriages, and 
 other important matters. 
 
 The fiift thing done in conferences of peace, is, to examine 
 the powers of the Plenipotentiaries. 
 PLENI TUDE, Plenitudo, the quality of a thing that is full, 
 or that fills another. 
 
 In phylic, it is chiefly ufed for a redundancy of blood and hu- 
 mours. 
 
 Phylicians reckon two kinds of plenitude. — The one called ad 
 vires, when the abundance of the blood opprelles the patient's 
 ftrength. 
 
 The other ad vafa, when it fills the vefiels too much; fwcl- 
 Iing them 10 a degree of burfting. 
 PLENUM, in phyiics, a term ufed to fignify that ftateof things, 
 wherein every part of fpace, or extenfion, is fuppofed to be full 
 of matter. 
 
 it is ufed in oppofition to a vacuum, which is a fpace fuppofed 
 devoid of all matter. 
 
 The Cartefians adhere firmly to the doctrine of an abfolute 
 Plenum.— This they do on this principle, that the eflence of 
 matter confifts in extention ; from whence, indeed, the con- 
 fequence is very caly, that where-ever there is fpace or exten- 
 sion, there is alio matter. 
 
 But this principle we have fhewn to be falfe ; and therefore 
 the confequence drawn from it falls to the ground. See 
 Matter. 
 
 But that there is a real vacuum in the nature of things, is like- 
 wife demonftrated by arguments a pojleriori, under the article 
 Vacuum. 
 
 PLEONASM *, Pleonasmus, in rhetoric, a figure of fpeech, 
 whereby we make ufe of words feeiningly needlefs or iuperflu- 
 ous, in order to exprefs a thought with the gieater force and 
 energy. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek ro^cur^-, y. d. fupcr- 
 abuniancy. . 
 
 Such is, I Jaw it with my own eyes \ or, he heard it with his 
 own ears, &c. 
 
 The Pleonapn is called by the Latins, redundantia. 
 Pleonafm, by grammarians, is ufually defined a fault in dif- 
 courfe, wherein we fay more than needs. 
 M. Vaugelas will not allow the phrafe, I faw it with my own 
 eyes, to be a Pleonafm ; inafmuch as there are no fuperfluous 
 words in it ; none but what are neceiiary to give a Itronger 
 afTurance of the thing affirmed. — It is fufficient that one of the 
 phrafes fay fomevvhat more than the other, to avoid the im- 
 putation of a Pleonafm. 
 
 In effect, though we give the name Pleonafm to any thing that 
 is not neceiiary, or that enters the dilcouife independently of 
 the fenfe or conftruction ; yet there are frequently words which 
 in that view would be peitinent, yet are ufed to good purpole 
 to give a greater force, or grace to difcourle. 
 He fpoke with his mouth, is a Pleonafm in Englifh ; it is none in 
 Latin: Virgil fays, jic orebcutus. Some French authors deny 
 tour enfembk, to unite together, to be a Pleonafm. 
 PLEROTICS *, ■aMfUT**, i n medicine, a kind of remedies, 
 otherwife called i/icarnati'.es^ and farcotics. See Incarnative 
 and Sarcotic. 
 
 » Thp ucrtf !^ formed from the Greek w?,r,je«, If//. 
 
 P L E 
 
 PLETHORA, wJwiSopot, in medicine, fuch an abundance of 
 any good and laudable humour, as proves hurtful to the ani- 
 mal functions. 
 
 Plethora is chiefly underftood of the blood, though fometimes 
 of the other humours. 
 
 The Plethora is the confequence of a good chylification, fan- 
 guification, (ft. attended with a too (paring difcharge by per- 
 ipiration, CSV. 
 
 It is ufually defcribed either as ad vires, or ad vafa. 
 The Plethora is chiefly produced in a body whole organs of 
 digeftion are ftrong, blood-veffeis lax, diet full of good juice, 
 temperament (anguine, mind at eafe and indolent, of a middle 
 age, and in a moift air. — It renders heat and motion uneafy ; 
 it ftretcb.es the great veffels, and comprelles the fmaller. And 
 hence fliffnefs, and heavinefs, and on the lead occaiion rup- 
 tures in the vefiels, fuflbcations, CSV. 
 
 Dr. Freind makes the catamcnia, or menfes, the mere refultof a 
 Plethora, and will have them only an evacuation for relief againft 
 the quantity of the blood, which hefuppofes to be natural to 
 women, from the humidity of their temperature, the fmall- 
 nefs of their vefiels, tic. Hence arifes a Coacervation in the 
 blood-vedels, of a fuperfluity of aliment remaining over and 
 above what is excreted by the common ways. 
 
 PLEVIN, PLEvrNA, in law, a warrant or affurance ; the lame 
 with pledge. See Pledge, Replevin, fit. 
 
 PLEURA*, B*sff», in anatomy, a membrane which lines the 
 infide of the cavity of the bread, and inclofes all the parts con- 
 tained therein, being of the fame figure and extent as the tho- 
 rax itfelf, and of the fame fubftancc with the peritoneum. 
 * The word is derived from the Greek sr^a, which primarily 
 fignifies fide. The Latins call it fuccingem. 
 It is very fine and thin, yet manifeitly double; thickeft about 
 the back; where it is fattened to the ligaments of the vertebrs.- 
 In the middle of the thorax it is doubled, which duplicative 
 forms what we call the mediajlinum, which divides the 
 thorax longitudinally into two parts. 
 
 The ufe of the Pleura is to defend the infide of the thorax, and 
 to render it fmooth, that the lungs may not be hurt in their 
 motion. 
 
 PLEURISY, Pleuresis, Pleuritis, ajwprti, in medi- 
 cine, a violent pain in the fide, attended with an acute fever, a 
 cough, and a difficulty of breathing. 
 
 The Pleurify arifes from an inflammation of fome part of the 
 pleura, to which is frequently joined that of the exterior and 
 fuperricial part of the lungs. 
 
 It ufually arifes upon cooling too haftily after violent heat ; as 
 bv drinking cold water, lying open to the air, (So. 
 This inflammation feizes any part of the integuments of the 
 thorax, viz. either the pleura or mediaflinum ; and therefore 
 the pricking pain may be felt in any part of the thorax ; but 
 the place it molt ordinarily infefts is the fide ; fometimes the 
 right, fometimes the left, fometimes higher, fometimes lower. 
 This makes what we call the pleuritis vera, or true or internal 
 Pleurify ; in oppofition to the notha, or fpurious, or extend 
 Pleurify, which is a pain in the fide, without any fever, and 
 frequently without any cough ; and is fuppofed to arife from 
 a (harp ferofity lodged in the pleuia, or higher among the in- 
 tereoftal mufcles. 
 
 The gieat remedy in the true Pleurify is copious and repeated 
 bleeding. In adults, Sydenham oblerves, it is feldom cured 
 with leis than the lofs of forty ounces of blood.— By omitting 
 phlebotomy the patient is frequently fuflbcated. 
 The Pleurify fometimes fucceeds another fever ; occafioned by 
 a precipitation of the febrile matter upon the pleura. 
 When it i ifes to an impofthume, it is called an empyema. 
 When it happens in the mediaflinum, or diaphi agma, it ia 
 called paraphrenias. 
 
 Etmullei recommends fudorifics in the Pleurify; and obferves 
 that much more regard is to be had to the fputum that attends 
 the cough, than to the urine.-Baglivi notes, that Pleuriftes are 
 frequently occult ; and gives this method of difcovcrmg them. 
 —Make the patient lie on his right or left fide, and bid him 
 bieathe f. ongly and cough : If he feel any pain or heavinefs 
 after it, he is cei tainly pleurelic— The lame author adds, that 
 a hard pulfe is a ceitain attendant of the Pleurify. 
 Riverius gives us inftances of fome notable cures pel formed 
 herein by cupping and fcarrification. See Supplement, article 
 Pleuritis. 
 
 PLEXUS, in anatomy, a name common to feveral parts in the 
 body, confiding of bundles of little vefiels interwoven in form 
 of net-work. 
 
 The nerves, in their progrefs form feveral Plexus's, efpccially 
 theparvagum, ot eighth pair, the intercoftals, and the fifth. 
 The par vagum, at its interferon with the intercoftal nerve 
 forms the Plexus ganglioformis fuperior and inferior. A branch 
 of this nerve joining near the heart, with others from the in- 
 tercoftals, form the Plexus eetrdiacus fuperior. A little further 
 it fends off feveral branches, which reuniting, form the 
 Plexus pneumoaicus. In each trunk of the intercoftal be- 
 fore it arrives at the thorax, ate two Plexus gangla/irmes, 
 called Plexus etrvitales.— When arrived in the thorax, it re- 
 ceives 
 
PL A 
 
 ceives three or four twigs from the vertebral nerves, together 
 with which it conftituies the Plexus intercejlalis ; whence de- 
 fcending into the abdomen, it forms that famous piece of net- 
 work, called on the right fide Plexus hepatieus, and on the left 
 Plexus fplenieus.- -From the hepatic Plexus arifc a number of 
 branches, proceeding feme to the liver, others to tire pancreas, 
 others to rhe capfula of glilTon, and other larger onesto the right 
 kidney.— The fplenic Plexus fends out branches to the left part 
 of the ventricle and pancreas, the fpleen, the left atrabilary cap- 
 fula and leftkidney.-Lauly.feveral branches both from the he- 
 patic and fplenic Plexus, palling along the mesenteric arteries, 
 efpecially the upper, to which they ferve as a kind ot cover, 
 form the mefenteric Plexus, which bears fome refemblance to a 
 fun, from the circumference whereof proceed feveral little 
 branches or threads in manner of rays, continued thence to the 
 interlines ; though Hill accompanying the arteries. 
 PLEXUS chenilles is a wonderful contexture of fmall arteries 
 and veins, and, as fome fay, lymphatics, in the brain, on each 
 fide of the thalami nervorum opticorum, and juft over the 
 pineal gland. 
 
 It is fometimes alfo called Plexus reticularis, from its net-like 
 ftruclure. 
 
 PLICA, in medicine, a difeafe of the hair, almoft peculiar t( 
 Poland, and hence denominated Pohnica ; though there are in- 
 stances of it in Hungary, Alfatia, Switzerland, err. 
 The Plica is a fevere, malignant, and dangerous difeafe, where- 
 in the hair of the head is matted and glued together beyond all 
 poflibility of being extricated ; and is attended with a grievous 
 difordcrof all the limbs of the body ; and before the hair be- 
 come complicated, a violent pain ; a fweat ufually attending it. 
 An unfeafonable cutting off the hair in this cafe is dangerous ; 
 nor is there any proper and adequate remedy for rhe difeafe 
 yet difcovered, See Supplement article Plica Polonica. 
 
 PLIGHT, in our old law-books, a term which (ignifies the 
 eftate, with the quality of the land ; though fometimes it ex- 
 tends alfo to the rent-charge, and the poffibility of a dower. 
 Coke's InJl.fol.2Zi. 
 
 PLINTH *, in architecture, a flat fquare member, in torm of 
 a brick: fometimes alfo called the flipper.— See Talc. Arcbit. 
 fig. 26. lit. n.fig. 24.. lit. u.fig. 49. lit. k. 
 
 * The words come from the Greek *rAi*9©-, brick. 
 The Plinth is ufed as the foot, or foundation of columns : 
 being that flat fquare table, under the mouldings of the bale and 
 pedeftal, at the bottom of the whole order ; l'eeming to have 
 been originally intended to keep the bottom of the pi imitive 
 wooden pillars from rotting. 
 
 The Plinth is alfo called the orleor orlo. See Orlo. 
 Vitruvius alfo calls the Tufcan abacus, Plinth, from its re- 
 fembling a fquare brick. 
 Plinth of a Jlatue, &c. is a bale or (land, either flat, round, or 
 fquare, ferving to fupport a ftatue, IS e. 
 Plinth of a wall, is a term for two or three rows of bricks 
 advancing out from the wall : or in the general, for any flat 
 high moulding, ferving in a front wall to mark the floors ; or 
 to fuftain the eaves of a wall, and the larmier of a chimney. 
 See Wall, C9V. 
 
 PLOCE, in rhetoric, a figure whereby a word is repeated, by 
 way of emphafis ; in fuch manner as not only to exprefs the 
 fubjefl, but the quality thereof ; as, 
 
 Cruelty ! yes, cruelty beyond all example. His wife s a 
 
 wife indeed. ..■''>, , A , 
 
 PLOK-PENIN, a term ufed in the public fales at Amlterdam, 
 for a little fum given by the laft bidder. 
 
 The Pkl-penin is a kind of earned, whereby it is fignincd, that 
 the commodity is adjudged to him. 
 
 The Plok-penin differs accordmg to the quality of the commo- 
 dity, and the price of the lot.— Sometimes it is arbitrary, and 
 depends on the pleafure of the buyer ; and fometimes it is re- 
 gulated by the ordinances of the burgo-mafters. 
 for inftance, the Plok-penins of French wines are fixed at two 
 ■florins ; thofe of Frontignac at 20 fols ; thole of Rhenilh at two 
 florins; thole of vinegar at 20 fols, and thofe of brandy at 30. 
 There are alfo merchandizes where there are no Plok-penins, 
 and others where it is double what we have mentioned. 
 PLOT, or Plott, in gardening. See the article, Grass 
 
 Plot in dramatic poetry, the fable of a tragedy or comedy; or 
 the action reprefented therein. See Fable and Action. 
 
 Plot is more particularly ufed for the knot or intiigue, which 
 makes the difficulty and embarrafs of a piece. 
 The unravelling puts an end to the - Plot 
 
 Plot in furveying, the plan or draught, of any parcel of ground. 
 e gr a field, farm, or manor, furveyed with an mftrumem, and 
 laid down in the proper figure and dimenfions. SeePLOTTlNC. 
 
 PLOTTING, among furveyors, the ait of defenbing or laying 
 . down on paper lie. the feveral angles and lines of a trail of 
 ground furveyed by a theodolite, or the like mftrument, and a 
 . chain. " , . . r , , . - 
 
 In furveying with the plane-table, xkn Plotting is faved ; the fe- 
 veral angles and diftanccs being laid down on the fpot as faft 
 as they are taken. 
 
 But in working with the theodolite, femicircle, orcircumteren- 
 tor, the angles are taken ill degrees ; and tils diftanccs in chains 
 
 P L A 
 
 and links. So that there remains an after-operation, to reduce 
 thofe numbers into lines : and fo to form a draught, plan, or 
 map. This operation is called Plotting. 
 
 Plotting^ then, is performed by means of two inftruments, the 
 protractor and Plotting-fcale.—By the firft, the feveral angles 
 obferved in the field with a theodolite, or the like, and entered 
 down in degrees in the field-book., are protracted on paper in 
 their juft quantity. 
 
 By the latter, the feveral diftances meafured with the chain, and 
 entered down, in like manner in the field-book, are laid down 
 in their juft proportion. 
 
 Under the articles Protraclor and PloUmg-fcah, are found, feve- 
 rally, the ufe of thofe refpective inftruments in the laying dowrt 
 of angles and diftances : We fhall here give their ule con- 
 jointly, in the plotting of a field, furveyed either with the cir- 
 cumteientor, or theodolite. 
 Method of Plotting, from the tircumfercntor. — Suppofe an in- 
 clofure, e. gr. ABCDEFGHKL {Tab. Survey, fig. 21.) to have 
 been furveyed : And the feveral angles, as taken by a circum- 
 ferentor in going round the field, and the diftances as mea- 
 fured hy a chain, to be found entered in the rkld-bqok, as 
 in the following table : 
 
 A 
 B 
 C 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 Beg. Min. Cha. Link. 
 
 75 
 *3 
 82 
 96 
 
 191 
 297 
 216 
 
 325 00 
 12 24 
 
 3° 
 
 Deg. Min. Cha. Link. 
 
 3H 
 9« 
 
 3° 
 3° 
 
 . On a paper of the proper dimenfions, as LMNO, {fig. 31.} 
 draw a number of parallel and equidiftant lines, reprefenting 
 meridians, exprefled in dotted lines. — Their ufe is, to direct 
 the pofition of the protractor ; the diameter whereof muft al- 
 ways be laid either upon one of them, or parallel thereto j the 
 femi-circular limb downwards for angles greater than x8q°, 
 and upwards for thofe lefs than 180 0 . 
 
 The paper being thus prepared, allume a point on fome meri- 
 dian, as A, whereon lay the centre of the protractor, and the 
 diameter along the line. — Confult the field-book for the firft 
 angle, e. for the degree cut by the needle at A, which the 
 table gives you 191°. 
 
 Now, fince 191 0 is more than a femicircle or 180 0 , the femi- 
 circle of the protractor is to be laid downwards ; where, keep- 
 ing it to the point with the protratthig pin, make a mark againft 
 igi ; through which mark from A, draw an indefinite line Ab. 
 The firft angle thus protracted, again confult the book, forthe 
 length of the firft line AB. This you find io chains, 75 links. 
 — from a convenient fcale therefore, on the plotting jcale, take 
 the extent of 10 chains, 75 links between the compaftes; and 
 letting one point in A, mark where the other falls in the line 
 Ab, which fuppole in B: draw therefore the full line AB, for 
 the firft fide ot" the inclofure. 
 
 Proceed then to the fecond angle: and laying the centre of the 
 protractor on the point B,with the diameter as before directed, 
 make a mark, as c, againft 297 0 , the degrees cut at B ; and 
 and draw the indefinite line Be— On this line, from the plotting 
 fcale, as before, fet off the length of your fecond line, viz. 
 
 6 chains, 83 links ; which extending from B to the point C, 
 draw the line B C, for the fecond lide. 
 
 Proceed now to the third angle or ftation : Lay then the centre 
 of the protractor, as before, on the point C ; make a mark, 
 as d, againft the number of degrees cut at C, viz. 216. draw the 
 indefinite line Cd, and thereon let off the third diftance, viz. 
 
 7 chains, 82 links ; which terminating, e. gr. at D, draw the 
 full line C D, for the third fide. 
 
 Proceed now to the fourth angle D ; and laying the centre of 
 the protractor, over the point D, againft 325 0 , the degree cut 
 by the needle, make a mark e draw the dry line D e, and 
 thereon fet off" the diftance 6 chains, 96 links ; which termi- 
 nating in E, draw D E for the fourth line : And proceed to 
 the fifth angle, viz. E. 
 
 Here the degrees cut by the needle being 1 00 24. 1 ' (which is lefs 
 than a femicircle) the centre of the protractor muft be laid on 
 the point E, and the diameter on the meridian, with the femi- 
 circular limb turned upwards.— In this fituation make a mark, 
 as before, againft the number of degrees, viz. iz° 24', cut by 
 the needle at E ; draw the dry line E /, on which let off the 
 fifth diftance, viz. 9 chains, 7 1 links ; which extending from E 
 to F, draw the full line E F, for the fifth fide of the inclofure. 
 After the fame manner proceed orderly to the angles F,G, H, 
 and K j then placing the protractor, making marks againft the 
 refpective degrees, drawing indefinite dry lines, and letting off 
 the refpective diftances, as above, you will have the Plot of the 
 whole inclofure, ABC, &t. 
 
 Such is the general method of Plotting from this inftrument j 
 but it muft be obferved, that in this procefs, the ftationary 
 lines, ii e- the lines wherein the circum ferentor is placed to take 
 the angles, and wherein the chain is run to meafure the diftan- 
 ces, are, properly, the lines here plotted. — When therefore, in 
 furveying, the ftationary lines are at any diftance from the 
 fence or boundaries of the field, &'c. off-fets are taken, i. e. the 
 diftance of the fence from the ftationary line is meafured at 
 each ftation ; and even at intermediate places, if there prove 
 any confiderable bends in the fence. ^ » 
 
P L O 
 
 In pktting, therefore, the ftationary lines being hid down, as 
 above ; the off-fets muft be laid down from them, ;". e. perpen- 
 diculars of the proper lengths muft be let fall at the proper 
 places from the ftationary lines. The extremes of which per- 
 pendiculars, being connected by lines, give the Plot defired. 
 if inftead of going round the field, the angles and diftances 
 have been all taken from one ftation j the procefs of plotting 
 is obvious, from the example above : All here required, being 
 to protract, after the manner already defcribed, the feveral 
 angles and diftances, taken from the lame ftationary point in 
 the field ; rrom the fame point or centre on the paper. — The 
 extremities of the lines thus determined, being then connect- 
 ed by lines, will give the Plot required. 
 
 If the field have beenfurvcyed from two ftations ;the ftationary 
 line to be firft plotted, as above, then the angles and diftances 
 taken from each, to be laid down from each refpectively. 
 The method of Plotting, where the angles arc taken by the theodo- 
 lite, i. e. by back-fight and fore-fight, {as it is called) is fomewhat 
 different. — To prepare the angles for plotting, the quantity of 
 each muft firft be found, by fnbtracting the degrees of the 
 fore-fight and back-fight from each other : The remainder 
 is then the angle to be protracted. 
 
 The ufe of parallel lines is here excluded, and inftead of laying 
 the protractor conftantly on, or parallel to meridians ; its di- 
 rection is varied at every angle. — The practice is thus : 
 Suppofe the former inclofure to have been furveyed with the 
 theodolite, after the manner of back-light and fore-fight ; and 
 fuppofe the quantity of each angle to be found by fubtraction. 
 An indefinite line is drawn at random, as A K fig, 31 j and on 
 this the meafurcd diftance, e.gr. 8 chains, 22 links, is fet off, as 
 in the former example : If now the quantity of the angle A have 
 been found 140 0 , the diameter of the protractor is to be laid 
 on the line AK, with the centre over A ; and againft the num- 
 ber of degrees, viz. 140, a mark made, an indeterminate dry 
 line drawn through it, and the diftance of the line A B laid 
 down from the fcale thereupon. 
 
 Thus we gain the point B ; upon which laying the centre of the 
 protractor, the diameter along the line A B, the angle B is pro- 
 tracted, by making a mark againft its number of degrees, draw- 
 ing a dry line, and fetting off the diftance B C, as before. 
 Then proceed to C, laying the diameter of the protractor on 
 B C, the centre on C protracts the angle C, and draw the line 
 C D : Thus proceeding orderly to all the angles and fides, 
 you will have the Plot of the whole inclofure ABC, (Sc. as 
 before. 
 
 Plotting fcale, a mathematical inftrument ufually of wood, 
 fometim.es of brafs, or other matter 3 and either a foot, or half 
 a foot long. 
 
 It is denominated from its ufe in plotting of grounds, See 
 Plotting. 
 
 On one fide of the inftrnment (reprefented Tab, Survey, fig. 32.) 
 
 are feven feveral fcales, or lines, divided into equal parts. 
 
 The firft divifion of the firft fcale is fubdivided into ten equal 
 parts, to which is prefixed the number 10, fignlfying that 10 
 of thole fubdivifions make an inch; or that the divifions of 
 that fcale are decimals of inches. 
 
 The firft divifion of the fecond fcale is likewife fubdivided into 
 10, to which is prefixed the number 16, denoting that 16 of 
 thole fubdivifions make an inch— The firft divifion of the third 
 fcale is fubdivided in like manner into 10, to which is prefixed 
 the number 20.— To that of the fourth fcale is prefixed the 
 number 24; to that of the fifth 32 ; that of the fixth44; 
 and that of the feventh 48 j denoting the number of fubdivi- 
 fions equal to an inch, in each, refpectively. 
 The two laft fcales are broken off before the end, to give 
 room for two lines of chords marked by the letters c c. 
 On the back-fide of the inftrument is a diagonal fcale, the firft 
 of whofe divifions, which is an inch long, if the lcale be a foot 
 and half an inch, if half a foot, is fubdivided, diagonally, into 
 100 equal parts ; and at the other end of the fcale is another 
 diagonal lubdivifion, of half the length of the former, into 
 the lame number of parts, viz. 100. 
 
 Next the fcales, is a line divided into hundredth parts of a 
 foot, numbered 10, 20, 30, &c. and a line of inches fubdivi- 
 ded into tenth parts, marked 1, 2, 3, &c. 
 Ufe of the Plotting fcale.— 1. Any diftance being mtafured with 
 the chain, to lay it down on the paper.— Suppofe the diftance to 
 be b chains, 50 links. Draw an indefinite line ; let one foot of 
 the compailes at figure 6 on the fcale, e. gr, the fcale of 20 in 
 an inch,and extend the other to fiveof the fubdivifions,for the 
 50 links : This diftance being transferred to the line, will ex- 
 hibit the 6 chains, 50 links, required. 
 
 If it be deified to have 6 chains, 50 links, take up more or lefs 
 fpace, take them off from a greater or leffer fcale, i. g . from a 
 lcale that has more or fewer divifions in an inch. 
 To find the chains and links contained in aright line, as thatjuft drawn 
 according to any fale, e. gr. that of 20 in an inch.— take the 
 length or the fine in the compaffes, and applying it to the 
 given lcale, you will find it extend from the number 6 of the 
 great divifions, to five of the (hull ones ; hence the given line 
 contains 6 chains, 50 links. 
 
 PLOUGH, or Plow, in agriculture, a popular machine for 
 Vol. II. 
 
 P L O 
 
 the breaking up of ground ; confiding of a train or carriage; 
 with two large irons, the one pointed, the other edged ; ferviW 
 to cut and open the land, [and draw furrows the. em. 
 The parts of the Plough a.e, the plomh-beam, the handle, tail. 
 Mb , bales or Jlaves, neck or Jbare-beam, earth-hard, mould-board, 
 brcajl-board,Jurroiu-board,Jl,idd-board, &c. the /heath, fiare-iron, 
 coulter, plougb-pm and cellar-links, plough-pillow and brtjler, and 
 fometimes wheels. J 
 The ftiuflure and contrivance of the Plough is various for va- 
 rious kinds of grounds : A particular description of all would be 
 endlcfs.— The moft ufual are the 
 
 Double zifcfci Plouch, tiled throughout Hcrtfordfhire, £5V — 
 rhis is apparently one of the beft and ftrongeft, and of cafieft 
 draught of any ; itfuits all kinds of lands, except miry clavs 
 in winter ; which are apt to clog the wheels, which are about 
 18 or 20 inches high, and the furrow-wheel fometimes K-Ee- 
 than the other. 6 * 
 
 Liucdiijhire Plouoh is fingular in its fhape, and very good for 
 maifhor fenny lands, fubjea to weeds and ledges, but free 
 from Hones ; by reafon of its coulter, and the largencfs of its 
 (hare, which is often a foot broad, and very (harp. 
 Suffexfinglc-uheel Plough isof a cluml'y make, very wide in 
 the breech; fothat the draught of it mult be veryhaid.— It is 
 chiefly remarkable for its ihape. 
 
 Caxton or trenching Plough, invented to cut drains about Cax- 
 ton m Cambridge/hire, in ffiff miry clay grounds.— It is larrer 
 than ord, naiy, and has two coulters, one before the other - 
 which bending inwards, cut each fide of the trench.— The 
 mould-hoard is three times the ufual length, to call the tuif a 
 great way or! from the trench. 
 
 It cuts a trench a foot wide at bottom, a foot and half at top 
 and a foot deep, and is drawn with 20 horfes. 
 
 Drajr Plough is the moft common— It is made without either 
 wheel or root; of an eafy draught, and bed in winterfor mi.v 
 clays, where the land is loft. 1 
 
 Spamjh Plough varies much in its make from our common 
 Ploughs. It is a kind of femiciicle pitched on one end, with the 
 convex fide turned to the plowman, and the concave lide (a 
 littleinclinedjtothchoile. Itstaii isin a right line with theihaie. 
 With this Plough and one horfe the Spaniards plouah two or 
 three acres of their light ground in a day. 
 
 Colchcjler Plough is a fine light-wheel Plough, with which two 
 horles will cut up two acres of their light land in a day — It is 
 peculiar for its iron earth-board made rounding, by means of 
 which ittdrhstheturfbetter than any other Privet invented. 
 
 One-wheel Plough may be tiled in almoft any kind of ground • 
 being hgnter and nimbler than other wheel Plomhs 
 
 Double Ploughs. In this, there is one Plough fix°ed to the fide 
 of another; fo that by means of four horfes and two men 
 a double furrow ,s plowed, the one by the fide of the other 
 Add to thefe another kind of double Plough, whereby two fur 
 rows are ploughed at once, one under another, by which the 
 earth is (lined up 12 or J+ inches depth, which is in manv ca- 
 fes of great benefit. See Supplement, arl.de Plough 
 
 Plough, among book-binders, is a tool wherewith thev cut 
 the leaves of books fmooth. See Book-binding 
 
 Plough, 01 Plow, in navigation, an ancient mathematical inftru- 
 ment made of box, or pear-tree, and ufed to take the height 
 of the fun or Oars, in older to find the latitude 
 It admits of the degrees to be very large, and has been much 
 efteemed by many artifts ; though now generally difufed 
 among us. 1 
 
 Plow-land or plough-land, earucata terror, in our ancient 
 cufloms, the fame with kda, or, a hide of land 
 In a more modern feme ,as ufed in refpeet of repairing high- 
 ways, a Plough-land is eftimated at 50 s. per annum 
 
 Plow-alms, a duty anciently of a penny, paid to the chutchfor 
 every Plough-land, or hide of land. 
 
 De qualibet earucata junlta inter pafchaU pcnteeollcn mum dena- 
 rttim, qui diatur plou-almes. Mouajl. Aug. 
 Plough-Monday, the next monday after twelfth-day. The 
 ploughmen, in the north-country, on this day, draw a fi«i 
 
 or rTr^u,^ and beg Plm ^ mo " c Y t0 drink. 
 
 PLOUGHING, or Plowing, one of the principal operations 
 in agriculture, performed with the Plough. 
 Ploughing is principally cither that of lays, ox of fallows. 
 
 Ploughing of lays, is the firft cutting up of grafs-ground for 
 corn ; which is ufually done in January, when the earth is wet, 
 and the turf tough, fo as to hold turning without breaking ; in 
 which the perfection of this kind of ploughing confifts. 
 
 Plouching of fallows, called Mo fallowing, is a preparing of 
 land by ploughing, long before it be ploughed for feed.— This is a 
 confidcrable benefit to all lands, few of which will bear above 
 two or three crops fucceflively without fuch refpite. Hence 
 landlords ufe to bind their tenants to do it once in three years. 
 When this is done twice, it is called tivifailowing; when thrice 
 trifallowing, &c. ' 
 1 he firft is as foon as the husbandman has done fowing his 
 corn ; and this is to be very (hallow, well turned, and clapped 
 clofe together.— The fecond is in June, when they go to the 
 full depth.— The third, about the beginning of Auguft.— If it 
 rife full of clods, they harrow it down ; but then they foon 
 (trick-fize, or plough it up again into ridges. 
 
 9C In 
 
P L U 
 
 In Staftbrdlhire, bcfide the three fummer fallowings, they ufu- 
 HW eive their land a winter fallowing. Pliny commends the 
 ]>l':iA-:ig of lands four times ; and fo does Virgil. 
 
 ' ilia fegei demum votis rejpondet avari 
 Agrkolec-, bis sua film, bis frigora fenftt. 
 
 Georg. lib. i. 
 
 This is an ancient piece of husbandry ; Xcnophon, Pindar, 
 and Virgil recommend it : witnefs alio thole velfes of Virgil. 
 
 Alternis idem ienfas, ctffhre uovaleis, 
 Et feguem patiere fttu durefcere campum. 
 
 Georg. lib. I. 
 
 PLUG, a large wooden peg, wherewith to flop the bottom of a 
 ciftern, calk, pipe, or the like. 
 
 PLUMAGE, the feathers, or covering of birds.— Far the mc- 
 cbanifm whereof, fee Feather- 
 
 Plumage, in falconry, is particularly underftood ot the fea- 
 thers under a hiwk's wing. 
 
 The falconers alfo give their hawks parcels of fmall leathers 
 
 to make them cad ; and thefe they call Plumage. 
 PLUMB, or Plum, in matters of l'piccry. See Currans 
 
 and Raisins. ' 7 . 
 
 PLUMB-Line, a term among artificers for a perpemiadar line. 
 
 See Perpendicular. 
 
 It is thus called, becaufe ufually defcribed by means ot a 
 plummet. 
 
 PLUMBAGO, in metallurgy, a metalline recrement, lepara- 
 ted in the purification of gold or filver with lead, and lack- 
 ing to the lides of the furnace. 
 
 This is otherwife called mtlybdaim i and has the lame virtue 
 with litharge. . 
 
 Plumbago leems alfo to have been ufed, among the ancients, 
 for black lead, ufed in making pencils for defigning, tic. See 
 blackLEAD. - , - , . f l 
 
 Pomet adds, that Plumbago was alfo the Tea-lead, plumbum ma- 
 rinum of the ancients ; who, he notes, took black lead for a 
 produflion of the fea, not a mineral, as it really is ; but this 
 is fcarce credible. ' . 
 
 PLUMBERY*, the art of calling, preparing, and working 
 lead ; and of ufing it in buildings, &6 
 
 * The word is formed of the Latin, plumlum, lead. 
 The lead ufed in Plumbery is furnifhed from the lead-works in 
 large ingots, or blocks, called pigs of lead, ordinarily weighing 
 about an hundred pounds a-piece. 
 
 As this metal melts very eaiily, it is eafy to caft figures hereof ot 
 any kind, byrunning it into moulds of btafs, clay, plafter, rjfr. 
 But the chief article in Plumbery, is the fheets, and pipes of 
 lead.-Itis thefe which make the bafis of theplumbeis wotk 
 in building; the procefs of thefe, therefore, we lhall give a de- 
 
 Methld^cf °ifli"g large Jheels of lead.r-The lead deftined for this 
 ufc is melted in a large caldron or furnace, ulually built with 
 free-ftone and eardl, fortified on the outlide with a mallive of 
 (hards and plafter. At the bottom hereof is a place funk lower 
 than the reft, wherein is difpofed an 11 on pot, 01 pan, to receive 
 what may rema.n of the metal after the .iiect is tun. The fur- 
 nace is fo railed above the area of the floor, as that the iron 
 pot juft reds thereon. , . . . .. 
 
 To ufe the furnace, they heat it with wood laid within it ; that 
 done, they throw in the lead, pell-mell with the burning coals, 
 
 to melt. ... , , j ■ 
 
 Near the furnace is the table or mould, whereon the lead is to 
 be caft.-This confifis of laige pieces of wood welljointcd, and 
 bound with bars of iron at the ends. Around it runs a frame, 
 confiding of a ledge or border of wood two or three inches 
 thick, and one or two high from the table, called the Jbarps. 
 The ordinary width of the tables is from three to four foot ; 
 and their length from 1 8 to 20 foot. 
 
 This table is covered with fine fand, prepared by moiftening 
 it with a watering pot, then working it with a dick ; and at 
 lad, to lender it irnooth and even, beating it fiat with a mallet, 
 and' plaining it with a flip of brafs or wood. 
 Over the table is a ftrike or rake of wood, which bears and 
 plays on the edges of the frame by means of a notch cut in 
 either end thereof, and is fo placed, as that between it and the 
 fand is a fpace proportionable to the intended thieknefs of the 
 
 fheet. The uie of this ftrike is to drive the matter, while yet 
 
 liquid, to the extremity of the mould. 
 
 At top of the table is a triangular iron peel or (hovel, bearing, 
 before, on the edge of the table itfelf, and behind, on a treftle 
 fomewhat lower than the table. — Its ufc is in conveying the 
 metal into the mould ; and the defign of its oblique difpolition 
 is, that it may by that means be able to retain the metal, and 
 keep it from running off at the fore-fide, where it has 
 no ledge.— Some of thefe peels are big enough to hold fifteen 
 or fixteen hundred weight of lead, and even more. 
 Things being thus difpofed, with a large iron ladle they take out 
 the melted lead, coals and all, out of the furnace; and with 
 this, mixed as it is, they fill the iron peel.— When full, they 
 take out the coals, and clear the lead with another iron fpoon 
 pierced after the manner of a fcummer. 
 This done, they hoiit up the lower part of the peel by its 
 handle ; upon which the liquid matter running off, and (plead- 
 ing itfelf on the mould, the plumber conducts and drives it to 
 the extremity of the table by means of the ftrike, which the 
 
 P L U 
 
 workman palTes along the ledges, and thus renders the fheet of 
 an equal thieknefs. 
 
 The iheets thus call, there remains nothing but to edge them, 
 i. e. to planifh the edges on both fides, in oider to render them 
 fmooth and (trait. 
 Method of calling thin Jbttti of had. — The table or mould here 
 ufed is of a length or breadth at difcretion, only ledged on one 
 fide.— Inftead of land they cover it with a piece of woollen 
 Huff, nailed down at the two ends to keep it tight ; and over 
 this lay a very fine linnen cloth. — The feet ot the table arc 
 uneven, fo that it does not (land horizontal, but moderately 
 inclined. 
 
 Great regard is in this procefs had to the lead while melting, 
 thatithavethejuft degree of heat, fo as it mayrun well, yet not 
 burn the linen.— This they judge of by a piece of paper ; for if 
 the paper take lire in the liquid lead, it is too hot ; and if it be 
 not (hrunk and fcorched a little, it is not hot enough. 
 Being then in its juft degree, they have a ftrike, but different 
 from that defcribed in the former article; as fcrving both for 
 peel and ftrike; both to contain, and to conduct the liquid 
 lead. — It is, in effect, a wooden cafe without any bottom, only 
 doled on three fides. It is pretty high behind, but the two 
 fides, like two acute angles, ftill diminilh to the tip, from the 
 place where they are joined to the third or middle piece, where 
 they are of the fame height therewith, Wk, 7 or 8 inches high. 
 
 The width of the middle makes that of the ftrike, which 
 
 again makes that of the Iheet to be caft. 
 
 The ftrike is placed at top of the table, which is before covered 
 in that part, with a pafteboard that ferves as a bottom to the 
 cafe, and prevents the linen from being burnt while the liquid 
 is pouring in. The ftrike is fo difpofed on the table, as that 
 the higheft part looks to the lower end of the table, and the 
 two lloping fides to the higher end. 
 
 The ftrike is now filled with lead according to the quantity 
 to be ufed ; which done, two men, one at each fide the 
 table, let the ftrike delcend down the table, or elfe draw it 
 down with a velocity greater or lefs, as the Iheet is to be 
 more or lefs thick ; the thieknefs of the fheet ftill depending 
 on the promptitude wherewith the ftrike Hides down the in- 
 clining mould. 
 
 The fine fmooth fheets of lead thus made, are fometimes ufed 
 between the joints of large ftones in great buildings, &c. 
 Method of ' cajYing pipes, without foldering. — To make thefe pipes, 
 they have a kind of furnace, conlifting of a large iron pot 
 or caldron, fupported on a pretty high iron ftand. The cal- 
 dron is encompaffed with a maflive of bricks and loam ; only- 
 leaving a mouth or paifage for the conveyance of wood under- 
 neath, and for lighting the fire ; and another little aperture be- 
 hind, to fervc as a vent-hole. 
 
 In this furnace they melt the lead, after firft heating it with a 
 fire underneath : To forward the fufion, they alfo put in burn- 
 ing faggots along with the metal.— The metal is afterwards 
 fkimmed and laden off with the inftruments mentioned above. 
 Near the furnace is a bench, furnifhed at one end with a little 
 mill, with arms orlevers to turn it withal. — A ftrong girt, 
 aimed with an iron hook at one extremity, is faftened by the 
 other to the axis of the mill, around which it turns when in 
 motion. On this bench the moles of the pipes are placed ho- 
 rizontally, and the mill and the girt fei ve to draw out the iron 
 core after the pipe is caft. 
 
 The moulds of thefe tubes are of brafs, and con fi ft of two 
 pieces, which open and (hut by means of hooks and hinges ; 
 their inward caliber, or diameter, is according to the fize of the 
 pipe to be made, andtheir length is ufually two foot and a half. 
 In the middle is placed a core, or round piece of brafs or iron, 
 fomewhat longer than the mould, and of the thieknefs of the 
 inner diameter of the pipe.— This core is patted through two 
 copper rundles, one at each end of the mould, which they 
 ferve to dole ; and to thefe is joined a little copper tube about 
 two inches long, and of the thieknefs the leaden pipe is in- 
 tended to be of. — By means of thefe tubes the core is retained 
 in the middle of the cavity of the mould. 
 The core being in the mould, with the rundles at its two ends, 
 and the lead melted in the furnace, they take it up in a ladle, 
 and pour it into the mould by a little aperture at one end, 
 made in form of a funnel. 
 
 When the mould is full, and the metal cold, they pafs the 
 hook of the girt into a hole at the end of the core ; and turning 
 the mill with the hand, draw out the core. — They then open 
 the mould and take out the pipe. 
 
 If they defire to have the pipe lengthened, they put one end 
 thereof in the lower end of'the mould, and pafs the end of the 
 core into it ; then fhut the mould again, and apply its rundle 
 and tube as before, the pipe juft caft feiving for rundle, &c 
 at the other end. 
 
 Things thus rcplaccd,they pour in frefh metal into the mould, 
 thus repeating the operation, till they have get a pipe of the 
 length required. 
 
 Pipes made of fleet had foldtred.- -For thefe the Plumbers have 
 wooden cylinders or rollers, of the length and thieknefs re., 
 quired ; and on thefe they form their pipes, by wiapping the 
 Iheet around them; foldering up the edges all along in this 
 manner.— After grating the lead well with a grater, they rub 
 
 refin 
 
P L U 
 
 rcfitt over the part thus grated ; they then four on it fome 
 folder melted in a ladle, or eil'e melt it with a hot foldering 
 iron, fettering thole parts where they would not have the 
 folder catch, with chalk, or the foil of the hand. 
 The folder which the Plumbers ufe, is a mixtuie of two pounds 
 of lead with one of tin. See Solder. 
 
 PLUMBUM. See the article Lead. 
 
 Plumbum ujhm. See Burnt Lead. 
 
 PLUME-Alum, ahtmen plumofttm. See Alum. 
 
 PLUME, a fet or bunch of oftiieh-feafhers, pulled out of the 
 tail and wings, and made up to ferve for ©inamcnt in fune- 
 rals, cjfV. 
 
 Plume *, in falconry, is the general colour or mixture of the 
 feathers of a hawk, which fiiews her conftitution. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Latin pluma, feather. 
 When a hawk ieizesher prey, and difmantles it ot its feathers, 
 Ihe is laid to plume it. 
 
 Plume, or Plumule, in botany, a little member of the grain 
 or iced of a plant; being that which in the growth of the plant 
 becomes the ftem, ortrunk thereof. See Seed and Stem. 
 The Plume is inclofed in a cavity formed in the lobes on pur- 
 pofe for its reception. — It is almoft of the fame colour with the 
 radicle, or little root, on the balis whereof it is fuitained, 
 The Plume is tile full part that appears out of the earth ) as, 
 in effect, it is the part that firft appears out of the mem- 
 brane or cover of the feed ; there being a hole over-againft it 
 in the membrane, through which it makes its efcape. 
 It is the appearance of the Plume without the cavity of the 
 grain, that makes what we call the bud or germ of a plant. 
 The Plume is fo called, becaule confining of feveral pieces 
 bound together in manner of a feather.— In corn, the Plume is 
 that which, after the radicle is (hot forth, lhoots out towards 
 the fmaller end of the feed ; whence fome call it the acrofpire. 
 
 PLUMMET, Plumb-rule, or Plumb-line, an inftiument 
 ufed by mafons, carpenters, fcfY. to draw perpendiculars with- 
 al j in order to judge whether walls, CsV. be upright, planes 
 horizontal, and rhe like. 
 
 It is thus called from a piece of lead, phmbimi? fattened to 
 the end of a thread or cord, which ufually conftitutes this 
 Inftrurnent. 
 
 Sometimes the firing delcends along a ruler of wood or metal 
 railed perpendicularly on another : in which cafe it becomes a 
 level. 
 
 At fea a Plummet is ufed by the pilot to found the depth of 
 the water. 
 
 PLURAL, Pluralis, in grammar, a particular inflexion of 
 nouus and veibs, whereby they come to exprefs a plurality, 
 or number, of things. 
 
 The Latins, Englitti, 6te have only two numbers, finguhr and 
 plural ; the Greeks and Hebrews have three, jiuguLu; dual and 
 plural. 
 
 In Latin, Eft. both nouns and verbs have ufually diftinft ter- 
 minations to their different numbers; in Englilh, nouns fub- 
 ftantives ufually become plural by the addition of an 1 or es to 
 the Angular. 
 
 Nouns adjective are the fame in both numbers; and in verbs, 
 the number is dittinguifhed by that of the pronouns. 
 PLURALITY, Pluralitas, a difcrete quantity, confiding of 
 two, or a greater number. 
 
 A Plurality of lucri/jis.a thing which Mr. Huygcns has endea- 
 voured to prove in his Cofmotheoros. — And the lame is likewife 
 contended for in a very pretty treatile of M. Fontenelle under 
 that title. 
 
 See the chief argument for a Plurality of worlds under the ar- 
 ticles Moon, Planet, and Earth. 
 
 The gicateft abfuidity in the pagan theology, is, the Plurality 
 cf gods. 
 
 Plurality of benefices or livings is where the fame clerk is 
 poffeffed of two or moie ipirkual preferments, with cure of 
 fouls. 
 
 Plurality of benefices is a thing too much tolerated in the church, 
 but never approved of. 
 
 It was the fmallnefs of fome benefices that firft gave occafion 
 to Pluralities ; for an ecclefiaftic not being able to fubfitt on a 
 fingle one, was allowed to hold two ; and at length the num- 
 ber incrcafed without bounds. 
 
 The abule was endeavoured to be remedied at the council of 
 Lateran under Alexander III. and Innocent III. when the hold- 
 ing more than one benetice was cxprelly forbid by a canon ; 
 but the fame canon granting the pope a power to dilpenfe with 
 it in favour of pcifons of diflinguilhed merit, there were fo 
 many found a title to this merit, that the prohibition became 
 ufelefs. 
 
 We have alfo a regulation in regard to Pluralities? but it is of- 
 ten dilpenfed with. See Benefice. 
 
 In Germany rhe pope grants difpenfations for poffeffing ^Plura- 
 lity of benefices?, on pretence that the ecclefiaftic princes theie 
 need large revenues to bear up againft the proteftant princes. 
 PLUS, in algebra, a term commonly ufed for majus y or nuigis, 
 more- 
 Its character is -f-. See Character. 
 Thus 4— I-jc=i4, is read, four,j?/i;, or more, 16, is equal 
 to l£ 
 
 P O C 
 
 PLUSH, in commerce, fev. a kind of fluff having a fort of vel- 
 vet knap or ihagon one fide; conipofed regularly of a woof 
 of a fingle woolen th.ead, and a double warp, the one wool, 
 of two threads twitted, the other goats or camels hair; tho' 
 there are alfo fome Plujhes, intirely of worfled, and others 
 compofed wholly of hair. 
 
 Plujb is manufactured like velvet, on a loom with three treadles. 
 — Two of thefe fepaiate and deprels the woolen waip, and the 
 third raifes the hair-warp ; upon which the workman thiowing 
 the fhuttle, pailes the woof between the woolen and hair- warp ; 
 and, afterw ards, laying a brafs broach, or needle, under that of 
 the hair, he cuts it thereon with a knife deftined for that ufe, 
 conducting the knife on the broach, which is made a little hol- 
 low, all its length ; and thus gives the fuiface of the Plujh an 
 appeal ance of velvet. 
 
 Some afcribe the invention, of Plufh to the Englifh ; others fay 
 it was firft made in Holland, and particularly at Haerlem. — Be 
 this as it will, it is certain, the French aiethe people who make 
 the moft of it ; there being feveral very confiderable Plujh ma- 
 nufactures at Amiens, Abbeville, and Compeigne, 
 There are other kinds of Plujb? all of filk ; fome of which have 
 a pretty long knap on one fide, and fome on both. 
 
 Plush, among botanitts, is a name given to the middle of rofes, 
 ariemonies, f&i. called alfo thrum? or thrummy heads ; by others 
 hairy heads^ buttons? bofs? tuft? or wort. This is properly the fta- 
 mina of the flower. See Stamina. 
 
 PLUVIAL, Pluviale, anciently fignified a hood, or cloak, 
 which ecclefiaftics, chiefly religious, wore in the country, to 
 fhelter thcmfelves from the rain ; by the Latins called pluvialis 
 lacerna. 
 
 The word is now ufed in the Romiffi church, for a large hood 
 wore by rhe chantor and fub-deacon, at mafs and vefpens, fsY.— 
 It covers the whole man, and is fixed before with twoclafps. 
 
 PLUVIUS, in antiquity, an attribute of Jupiter; implying him 
 the author of rain ; q. d. he that fends rain. 
 Amone the baflb reli ivo's of the Antonine column, in the place 
 where the miracle of the thundering legion is reprefented, we 
 fee a flying man in the air, his arms fprcad out, and with a very 
 long beard, which feems to diflblvc into rain.— The learned 
 take this to be a reprefentation of Jupiter Pluvius. 
 
 PNEUMATICS, Pneumatics, called alfo Pneumatolog y 
 and Pneumatosophv, the doctrine and contemplation of 
 fpirits, and ipiritual fubftances. 
 
 The word is formed of the Greek nvtt^a, fpiritus? breath ; 
 whence, from the different acceptations of that word either as 
 an incorporeal fubftance, or as air, there arife two forts of 
 
 Pnsumatus. . 
 
 Pneumatics, 3n the fchools, is frequently ufed for the do- 
 ctrine of ipirits : as God, angels, and the human foul. See 
 Spirit. 
 
 In this fenfe Pneumatics coincide with what we otherwife call 
 
 metaphyfics. 
 
 Pneumatics is more commonly ufed among us, for the do- 
 ctrine of the air; or the laws wherein that fluid is condenfed, 
 rarefied, gravitates, c?V. 
 
 Some make Pneumatics a branch of mechanics ; becaufe it con- 
 fiders the air in motion, with the effects thereof.— It is certain- 
 ly a fitter of hydroftatics; the one conlidering air in the fame 
 manner that the other does water. 
 
 Wolnus, in lieu of Pneumatics^ ufes the word aeromctry, q, d. 
 the art of meafuring the air. 
 
 The doctrine and laws of Pneumatics will be found under 
 the articles Air, Atmosphere, Elasticity, Gravity, 
 Compression, Condensation, Rarefaction, Expan- 
 sion, £tY. 
 
 Pneumatic engine, machina or antlia Pneumatica, denotes 
 
 the air-pump. See Air-pump. 
 PNEUMATOCELE *, KmjWIow^j, in medicine/a flatulent or 
 
 windy hernia j or a tumor of the membranes of the fcrotum 
 
 or navel, proceeding from pent up vapours, and attended with 
 
 a tenfive pain. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek m^p, wind, and xntw, 
 tumor. 
 
 Sometimes one of the tefles only is thus inflated, fometimes 
 
 both, and fometimes likewife the fcrotum. 
 
 This hernia is of all others the lighteft, and leaft dangerous. — 
 
 It is cured by difcutients internally, and fomentations and ca- 
 
 taplafms externally. 
 PNEUMATOMACHI, n^alofia^., ancient heretics, fo called, 
 
 becaufe they oppoied the divinity of the Holy Spirit, placing 
 
 him in the number of creatures. 
 PNEUMATOSIS, Inmpditaif, a term which fome authors ufe for 
 
 the generation or formation of animal fpirits in the brain. 
 PNEUMONICS *, ®«f^(jH*a, medicines proper in difeafes of 
 
 the lungs, in whicli refpiration is affected. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, rnnnpiip t lungs, or imt)f*», , 
 Jfr'ttitus? breath. 
 
 Of this number arc fulphur, lung-wort, hyffop, ground-ivy, 
 and colt's-foot ; they are ufed in phthifes, afthma's, perip- 
 neumonies, pleurifies, £sV. 
 POCK. See the article Pox. 
 
 POCKET 
 
P O E 
 
 Pocket efmek is half a rack - See Sack °f wosl 
 
 POD, the fheU or hulk of any pulfe. See Siliqua. 
 PODAGRA *, )r<>i*7?*, in medicine, the gout in the feet. See 
 
 Gout. 
 
 * It is thus called from the Greek, tens, foot, and alga., topiwaA 
 feizure. 1 
 Podagra dentittm, fometimes, though with impropriety enough, 
 
 is ufed for the tooth-acb. 
 PODESTA, or Potesta, a magiftrate, or oflicer of juftice and 
 policy, in a free city. 
 
 The name is originally Italian, Podefla ; and is chiefly applied 
 to certain magift rates of Venice and Genoa, whofe function is 
 to adminifter juftice in thofe republics. 
 
 The Pedefta in Venice correfponds to the prsetor in ancient 
 Rome, though appeals lie from his decifions, to the new au- 
 ditors, or the new civil quaranty. See Quarantia. 
 PODEX, in anatomy, &c the lame with onus, or fundament. 
 See Anus. 
 
 PODOMETER, or Pedometer. See Pedometer. 
 
 POEM, Poem a, *mnm* a compofition in verfe, of a due 
 length and meafure. 
 
 Poems, earmina, are of various kinds; fome denominated from 
 the perfons who firft: invented, or moft ufed them ; as the Ar- 
 chihehian, Sapphic, &c— Others from their compofition, as the 
 monocolon, confifting of one kind of verfe; duoUn, of two ; and 
 tricolon, of three kinds.— Others from their intirenefs or defici- 
 ency ; as brachycatakftus, which in every verfe wants two fylla- 
 bles ; cataleftus, which wants one ; acatak&uZ, none ; and hyper- 
 catekSus, which has a fyllable too much, which, if cut off at 
 the beginning of the next verfe, the verfe is faid to be hyper - 
 mter. See Acatalectic, far*..— Others are denominated 
 from the fubject- matter ; as the apobaterion, epibaterion^ epini- 
 tion, cpitbalamium, genetbliae, propemptic^ _ elegiac, fatiric, epicc- 
 dion, epitaph, threnas or lamentation, encomiajlic, panegyric, Joterie, 
 lyric, pajhral, &c. — Others from tire manner of narration ; as 
 exegetic, which relates a thing under the author's own perfon, 
 dramatic, and epic. See each under its proper head, Efic, 
 Drama, &c— To thefe may be added, odes, eclogues, and 
 idylliums. 
 
 To this head muft alfo be referred feveral other poetical com- 
 pofitions of a lefs ferious kind, which the idly- labouring vein 
 of little poets has produced into the world, and which, tho' fre- 
 quently admired by perfons of a low tafte, are juftly ranked by 
 Mr. Addifon in the clafs of falie wit. —Such are the acroftic, 
 enigna, anagram, cento, chronogram, proteus, echo, (Sc. 
 
 POESY % Poesis. Seethe article Poetry. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, wonwif, of ireiEW, facia, fa- 
 bricor, fngo, I make, I frame, I invent. 
 Hence alchymy, or the art of making gold, was anciently called 
 Poefy, chryfopoejy, &c. 
 
 POET, Poeta, an author who compofes poems, or difcourfes 
 in verfe. 
 
 Cicero relates it as a faying of Democritus and Plato, that 
 there could be no good Poet fine afflatu furoris, without a 
 tincture of madnefs ; and Ariftotle calls Poets exprefly, mam- 
 ad, maniacs, madmen. 
 
 M. Spanheim tells us, that the Arab authors are more poeti- 
 cally given than thofe of any other people ; and adds, that 
 there are more verfes among the Arabians, than among all 
 the other nations of the would put together. 
 The Greek word wm^tsm, Poet, iignifies maker, from *««*>j fa- 
 de, I make ; whence the Poets were anciently alfo called fatifts. 
 —The name they were properly denoted by among the Ro- 
 mans, was votes* which iignifies alio prophet. 
 By a law of the emperor Philip, inferted in the code, 1. 10. t. 52. 
 Poets are exprefly excluded from the immunities granted the 
 profeffoi? of all other fciences. 
 
 Homer, Virgil, Milton, and Taffo, are the chief, almoft the 
 only epic Pcets. — Sophocles, Euripides, Shakefpeare, Otway, 
 Corncille, and Racine, are the beft tragic Poets. — Ariftophanes, 
 Menander, Plautus, Terence, Fletcher, Johnfon, Moliere, &c. 
 the chief comic Poets, — Horace, Cowley, and Malherbe, ex- 
 celled as lyric Poets. And Juvenal, Perfius, Regnier, Boileau, 
 Dryden, and Oldham, as fatiric Poets. 
 POETICAL, mwrHtfa, ibmething that relates to poetry or poets. 
 In this fenfe we fay, a poetical genius, a poetical phrafe, poetical 
 licence, poetical fury, tsc. 
 
 Moft languages have their poetical words, which are never ufed 
 on other occafions. — Thefe prove of great advantage to the 
 poets ; who are hereby enabled to raife the ftyle and diction 
 into the poetical character, with the greater eafe. 
 The French often lament the want of a fet of fuch words in 
 their language ; for want whereof their poetry appears in a too 
 familiar garb, not fufficiently diftinguifhed from the common 
 language. It is too referved ; not being allowed any bold- 
 neffes, or flights, but what might pafs in profe. To this, 
 in good meafure, is attributed the little fuccefs their authors 
 have met withal in the epic way. 
 VoETicALjvJlice is chiefly ufed in refpect of the drama, to de- 
 note a di'ftiibution of rewards and punilhments to the feveral 
 perfons, at the cataftrophe or clofc of the piece, anfwerable to 
 the feveral characters they have appeared in. See Character. 
 Whatever difficulties and diftrelfes the virtuous and innocent 
 
 P O E 
 
 may labour under, and how profperoufiy foever it may go with 
 the wicked, in the courfc of the piece ; the poet ufually takes 
 care to give each of them their due ere he parts with them. — ■ 
 But it is controverted whether this piece of juftice be indiipcn- 
 fable, and whether it may not be allowed to leave virtue op- 
 prelTcd, and vice flourifhing. 
 Poetical rifing and fetting. See Rising and Se ttinc. 
 
 The ancient poets, referring the rifing, fgc. of the ftars to that 
 of the fun, make three kinds of rifing and fetting, viz. cefmieaij 
 acronical, and heliacal. See each under its proper article, 
 Cosmical, crV. 
 
 POETICS, Poetice, vonmxri, the doctrine of poetry, or the 
 laws and rules of conducting pieces or compofitions of poetry. 
 Ariftotle's Psetia is a work infinitely valued ; and M- Dacici's 
 comment thereon is one of his beft pieces we have.— Horace, 
 Vieta, Voffius, and Scaliger, have likewife publiftied Potties in 
 Latin; the Duke of Buckingham inEnglilh; and Menardieie, 
 Hedelin, and Defpreaux, in French. 
 POETRY *, Poesy, the art of compofing poems, or pieces in 
 verfe. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, erowiff**.* of «mu, focio, I 
 make. 
 
 If a verfe be confidered as a mere feries of juft fix feet fol- 
 lowing one after another in the fame line : Poetry and verfifi- 
 cation will appear two very different things : But [Jollu, in. his 
 idea of verfe, includes cadencies, peculiar conf (ructions, ar- 
 rangements and exprelTions unknown in common difeourfe - t 
 and above all, a certain noble, bold, elevated, and metaphori- 
 cal turn and manner of diction. — Thefe, he obferves, are fo 
 effential to Pcetry, that without them the moft: exact arrange- 
 ment of long and fhort fyllables, makes little ejjfe but a kind 
 of meafured prole ; whereas thefe, in a difeourfe that has no 
 poetical feet or mcafures, do yet give it the poetical character, 
 and make it a kind of umr.eafiired Poetry. 
 
 The rules of Poetry and veififying are taught by art, and ac- 
 quired by ftudy ; but this force and elevation of thought, which 
 Horace calls fimetbing divine, and which alone makes the Poe- 
 try of any value, muft be derived from nature ; or, according 
 to Ariftotie, from fome happy tranfports, to which that au- 
 thor gives the name of madnefs : — %vfvi& -n wim* ww -n y-a.- 
 hxu. — But theie muft: ever be conceived ajult folidjudgment at 
 the head of this fury of the poet's imagination. 
 Hence the critic concludes, that the end of Poetry is to pleafc ; 
 its caufe, either the excellence of the poet's genius, or a poeti- 
 cal fury, and tranfport of the foul, manageable by the judg- 
 ment; its matter, long and fhort fyllables, and feet compolcd 
 hereof, with words furnifhed by grammar; and its form, the 
 arrangement of all thefe things in juft: and agreeable verfe, ex- 
 prefiing the thioughts and fentimems of the author after ths 
 manner already mentioned. 
 
 But after all, how narrow are thefe bounds, if we confider Po- 
 etry in the light wheicin the works of Homer and Virgil have 
 fet it ? What is here laid down pretends to no praife, which a 
 mere tranfiator may not rife to, and which the war of Catiline- 
 might not merit, if turned out of the profe of Saluft. — It is 
 with reafon, therefore, that we diftinguiilr the low and fimple 
 from the greater Poetry ; by giving the former the title of tfir- 
 jification : and that we make Poetry and verfifie-at'wi two diftinct 
 arts ; In effect, there is not more difference between grammar 
 and rhetoric, than between the art of making verfes, and that of 
 inventing poems. 
 
 The greater Poetry, then, confifts principally in fiction, or the 
 invention of fables; in the exprefiing of things by allegories and 
 metaphors ; and in the inventing of actions, under which the 
 truths which the poet has to teach may be agreeably difguifed. 
 In this view, fcarce any poems retain the nature and eflence of 
 the grand Poetry, but the epoparia, tragedy and comedy ; the reft, 
 be they elegies, latires, fong, or what they will, come under 
 the name oiverftfication. 
 
 The ancient eloquence it is obfcrved,was full of myfteries and 
 allegories— The truth was by them ufually difguifed under thofe 
 ingenious inventions called (*fSoi, fables, q. d. ivords ; as if there 
 were as much difference between thefe fabulous difcourfes of 
 the learned, and the common language, as between the fpeech 
 peculiar to man, and the voice of brutes. 
 At firft fables were chiefly ufed in treating of the divine na- 
 ture, after the manner they then conceived of it : this occa- 
 lioned the firft: poets to be called divines, and Poetry the language 
 of the gods. — The divine attributes they feparated into a num- 
 ber of perfons ; by reafon the weaknefs of the human mind 
 could not conceive fo much power, and fo much action, in a 
 fimplicity fo ftrict and indivifible as that of God. 
 Nor could they fpeak of the operation of this almighty caufe, 
 without fpeaking likewife of its effect. — They therefore added 
 phyfics to their theology, handling both after the fame man- 
 ner, without quitting their veils or allegories. 
 Now, man being the moft confiderable of all the works of the 
 Deity, and there being nothing fo proper for poets, or of fuch 
 general ufe to mankind, as fuch a fubject ; they therefore added 
 ethics to the former, and treated the doctrine of manners in. 
 the fame way as they had done divinity and phyfioiogy.— 
 And hence arofe the epopceia, ox epic poem. 
 
P O I 
 
 The epic poets have done, with regard to morality, juft the 
 contra! y of what the divine poets did for their theology. —As 
 the too great diverfity of divine actions and perfections, fo lit- 
 tle proportionate to our under/landing, oceaiioned the latter to 
 divide the fingle idea of the fimple elier.ee of God into fever al 
 perfons under diffeicnt names ; as Jupiter, Juno, Neptune, b'c 
 So, on the contrary, the nature of moral philoibphy, which 
 never gives any rules for particular things, occafioned the epic 
 poets to unite in one fingle idea, in the fame perl'on, and even 
 in a lingie action, whatever of the like kind occurs in different 
 perfons, and different actions. 
 Thus, fays Ariftotle, Poetry teaches moral philofophy, not by 
 reciting hiitorically what Alcibiadcs has done or fuffeied ; but 
 by piopcling what fuch a perfon, whom the poet calls by any 
 name he pleafes, would necei]":irily or probably have done or 
 laid on the like occalion.— It is in this manner that Poetry re- 
 presents either the unhappy confcqucnces of defigns ill con- 
 ceited, of wicked actions, (Sc. or the reward of good actions, 
 and pleafure reaped from a defign laid in virtue, and conduct- 
 ed by prudence. 
 
 Thus, according to our critic, the poetical actions and perfons 
 are all feigned, allegorical and univcrfal ; not hiftorical and 
 fingular. — This is Hkewife the fentimcnt of Horace, who adds, 
 that poets teach morality as well as philofophy; but the pre- 
 ference herein he gives to Homer. 
 
 This advantage of the poets over mere philofophers arifes 
 hence, that ail Poetry is an imitation. — Now imitation is a thing 
 extremely natural ; and hence this manner of propofing things 
 becomes better fitted to engage the auditors. Aa;ain, imita- 
 tion is an inftrucrion given by examples ; and examples are the 
 more proper to perfuade, in regard they prove the thing poffi-j 
 ble. — In effect, imitation is fo much the nature of Poetry, that 
 Ariftotle tells us, it is to this the art owes its rife. 
 But the poets, by becoming philofophers, did not ceafe to be 
 divines ; on the contrary, the morality they taught obliged 
 them frequently to introduce the deity in their works; and 
 the ihare fo augufl a being had m the action, obliged the poet 
 to make it grand, important, and conducted by the perfons 
 of kings and princes. 
 
 Add to this, that itlikcwifc obliged the poet to think and fpeak 
 after a manner elevated above the common pitch of men, and 
 to ufe phiaies equal, in fome meafure, to the divine perfons he 
 introduced ; and to this purpofe ferved the poetical, figurative 
 language, and the majefty of heroic verfe. 
 To convey their truths to the beft advantage, and adapt them 
 to the particular purpefes they were intended for; poets found 
 out various forms. — Hence the eponoeia and drama. 
 Epic Poetry is more for the manners and habits, than the 
 paffions; thefe laft rile all at once, and their violence is but 
 of a Ihort duration; hut the habitudes are cooler and more 
 gentle, and rife and fall more flowly. 
 
 The epic action, therefore, could not be retrained to a day 
 or two, as that of the drama ; a longer and a jufter fpace was 
 required fortius, than for tragedy, which is only for the paf- 
 fions. And hence arofe a ftiH greater difference between tra- 
 gedy and the cpopceia. 
 
 For the tragic violence required a ftronger and more lively re- 
 premutation than the epic ; and accordingly it conhfts wholly 
 in the action ; the poet never fpeaking ; as he does in the cpo- 
 pceia, where there are no actors. 
 
 5"iv laws of epic and dramatic Poetry, fee under Epic, Cha- 
 racter, Invocation, Dramatic, Theatre, Trage- 
 dy, Comedy, Act, Scene, Character and Se nti m e n t. 
 For the lower forts of Poetry, fee each under its proper ar- 
 ticle, Ode, Song, Epigram, Elegy, Satyr, csV. 
 
 POINT *, is a term ufed in various arts. 
 
 * The word is derived from the Latin, punAum, which is formed 
 from pungere, to prick. 
 
 Point, in geometry, according to Euclid, is a quantity which 
 has no parts, or which is indiviiible. 
 
 Wolfius defines it, that which terminates itfelf on every fide ; 
 or which has no terms or boundaries diftinct from itfelf. 
 This is what we otherwife call the mathematical Point ; and is 
 only conceived by the imagination ; yet is it in this that all 
 magnitude begins and ends ; the flux or motion of the point 
 generating a line, that of a line a furface, csY. 
 Hence fome define a Point to be the inceptive of magnitude. 
 A line can only cut another line in a Point.— Any three Points 
 being given out of a right line; a circle, or pait of a circle, 
 may be drawn that /hall pafs through them all. 
 To draw a paralkl hue, a perpendicular, a tangent. Sic. to a given 
 point, ate popular problems in geometry. See Perpendicu- 
 lar, Parallel, Tangent, csV. 
 TroMmgvtfthtthatkol Points. —It is a current maxim, that 
 all mhmtcs, whether infinitely great or infinitely final 1, aie 
 equal ; yet is the maxim falfe in both cafes.— Dr. Halley ihews 
 feveial infinite quantit.es, which are in a finite proportion to 
 one another ; and fome inriitcly greater than others. See inh- 
 mte Quantity.— The like, the Hon. Mr. Robarts Ihews of 
 infinitely lmall quantities, viz. mathematical Points. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 P O I 
 
 He demonltrates, for infiance, that the points of contaa be. 
 tween circles, and their tangents, are in a fubduplicate propor- 
 tion to the diameters of the circles. That the Point of contact 
 between a fphere and a plane is infinitely greater than that be- 
 tween a circle and a tangent; and that the Pants of contain 
 Ipheies of different magnitude are to one another as the dia- 
 meters ot the ipheies. 
 Point of contrary flexure, in the higher geometry, is a Point of a 
 cuive, wherein it is bent or inflected towards a part contral- 
 to that it before tended towards : fo, e. gr. as to turn its con- 
 vexity towards its axis, or any other fixed Point, which be 
 fore it, turned irs concavity towards. 
 
 If the curve turn back again towards the Point Whence it firft 
 let out, the Point of the flexure is particularly called the Point of 
 rtgrtffim, 01 • retrogradation. See Retrocradation tfemts 
 Wolfius illuftrates the ufe of the calculus differentialis in find- 
 ing the Point of contrary flexion in various kinds of curves 
 Point, Punctum, in phyfics, is the fmalleft or leaft feniible 
 oDject of fight, marked with a pen, point of a compafs or 
 the like. 
 
 This is what we popularly call a phyfical Point ■ which in reality 
 has pans, though thofe parts are not here regarded.— Of fuch 
 Points does all phyfical magnitude confift. 
 This phyfical Point coincides with what Mr. Locke calls the 
 Point Jcnf ble, and which he defines to be the lead particle of 
 matter, or fpace, we can difcern.—He adds, that to the Iharp- 
 elt eye this is leldom lefs than 30 feconds of a circle, whereof 
 the eye is the centre. 
 Poin t, in grammar, is a character ufed to mark the divifions 
 ot diicourfe. 
 
 The Point proper, is what we otherwife call a full flop or pe 
 nod, and lerves to denote the fenfe complete, and the period 
 ended. v 
 Two Points ufually mark the middle of a period, and fhew a 
 conitruction complete, and the fenfe to be perfect ; yet inti- 
 mating fomething to come after it : this we call a Colon. 
 A Point with a comma, called a fimicolon, marks a fenfe lefs 
 complete than the colon : though authors feem to ufe them 
 indirteiently; noraie giammarians agreed about their precife 
 difteience. 
 
 The comma, or virgula, marks a fubdivifion of a member of 
 a period. 
 
 A Point of interrogation, > marks fomething to,be pronounced 
 in a higher tone, as intimating a qucflion afked. 
 A Punt of admiration, I marks a hidden furpiize and wonder- 
 ing. 
 
 Our Points and accents were intirely unknown to the ancients 
 In the ancient Greek manufcriprs, the whole difcouife lbcms 
 wtote with the fame ftroke of the pen; the words and letteis 
 being joined throughout. 
 
 In after-times, points were invented, and added at the too of 
 the letteis, to fhew when the fenfe was finiihed • Hence the 
 grammarians, coming to leiotich the old manufcrjpts, thotreht 
 fit to add the points and accents.— Salmalius affiuns that he 
 has even oblerved, plainly, wheie they have been added bv 
 the difference of hands. ' 
 Points, or wml Points, in the Hebrew learning, are certain 
 characters, which, in the writings of that language, feive to 
 maik the vowels. 
 
 The antiquity of the Points in the Hebrew tongue makes the 
 fubject of a celebrated controverfy among the leamed • fome 
 maintaining their origin to be the fame with 'hat of the He 
 brew language ; and others aliening them to have been firft in" 
 troduced by LTdras, after the Babylonilh captivity, when he 
 compiled the canon, tranfcnbed the books into the p-efent 
 Chaldee character, and reftoied the purity of the Hebrew text 
 Others will have them invented by the doctors of the fchoot 
 of Tiberius, ufually called the Mafl'oretes, five or fix hundred 
 years alter Chrift.— The ratbinEliasLevitawas the firft who 
 flatted this queftion in the laft century ; and maintained them 
 to have been an invention of the Mafl'oretes, for the eafe of 
 thole who were to learn the Hebrew tongue. 
 This fentiment was efpouied by Capelia, to whom alfo adhered 
 Luther, Calvin, Calaubon, Scaliger, tic. Buxtorf attacked 
 Lapella violently on this article, and gamedagreat number of 
 divines on his fide, who took the alaim, imagining it a grie- 
 vous wound to the holy text, to allow the vowel-points to have 
 been added by the Mairoieies, and not to have been found in 
 the ancient text ; becaufe, without thefe, it is very difficult to 
 fix the certain reading theieof.— Yet in the Samaritan text 
 there is no Point or vowel, nor in many of the moft ancient 
 Hebrew manufcripts. 
 Point, in mulic, is a mark or note anciently ufed to diftinttuifh 
 the tones. ° 
 Hence we flill call it fimple counter-point, when a note of the 
 bals anlwers precifely to that of the treble ; and figurative 
 counter-point, when a note is lyncopated, and one of the parts 
 makes leveral inflections of the voice or tone, while the other 
 only makes one. 
 
 9 D We 
 
P O I 
 
 We ftill ufe a Point to raife the value of a note, and prolong 
 its time by one half, e, gr,. a Point added to a femibreve makes 
 it inftcad of two.minims, equal to three. 
 Point, in aftronomy, is> a term applied to certain parts or places 
 marked in the heavens, and diftinguifhed by proper epithets. 
 The four grand Points or diviiions of the horizon, WJS. the 
 eaji, weft, north, and fouth, are called the cardinal Points. See 
 Cardinal ; fee alfo East, W«bt, &c. each under its pro- 
 per article. 
 
 The zenith and nadir are the vertical Points. 
 
 The Points wherein the orbits of the planets cut the plane of 
 
 the ecliptic, are called the nodes. 
 
 The Points wherein the equator and ecliptic interfect, are call- 
 ed the equinoP.ial Points.*- Particularly, that whence the fun 
 afcends towards the north-pole, is called the vernal Point. — 
 And that by which he defcends to the fouth-pole, the autum- 
 nal Point. 
 
 The Points of the ecliptic, where the fun's afcent above the 
 equator, and defcent below it, terminate, are called the foljli- 
 tial Points.— Particularly, the foimer of them the ejlival or 
 jummer Point : the latter, the brumal or winter Point. 
 Point, in navigation and geography. — Points of the horizon, 
 or of the compajs, are certain Points formed by the intei fcctions 
 of the horizon with vertical circles. 
 
 The number of thefe Points, therefore, is really the fame with 
 that of the Points conceived in the horizon, r. e. infinite ; tho' 
 in practice we only diftinguifh 32 of them. 
 Some ufe Point for the interferon of a vertical circle with a 
 circle parallel to the horizon ; and even fome, for the fegment 
 of a vertical intercepted between the meridian and horizon, or 
 a circle parallel thereto. 
 
 The Points are fhewn by right lines drawn from a Point af- 
 fumed in a horizontal plane. 
 
 A Point of theeompafs is popularly taken for a 32d part of the 
 whole; or for an arch of 11 degrees, 15 minutes: half of 
 which, viz. $° 37' {, is called a half Point : and half of that, 
 or 2 0 48' I, a quarter Point. 
 
 Thefe Points of the compajs are divided into cardinal and col- 
 late] al. 
 
 Cardinal Points are the interferons of the horizon and meri- 
 dian, called the north and fouth Points ; and the interferons of 
 the horizon with the prime vertical, called the eaji andzw/?. 
 Thefe coinfide with what the Latins call cardines mundi ; and 
 are a quadrant, or go degrees, diftant from each other. 
 
 Collateral or intermediate Points, are thofe lying between the 
 cardinal Points, — which aie cither primary, viz. thofe equidif- 
 tant from the two cardinals, as north-eaft, fouth-weft, isc. 
 
 • Or fecondary, which are again, either of the firjl order, viz. 
 fuch as are equidiftant from a cardinal and the next primary, 
 as new th- north-eaft ; or of the fmfd order, i. e. equidiftant be- 
 tween a cardinal or primary, and firit fecondary, as north-eaft 
 by north. 
 
 The primary collateral Points, therefore, are 45 0 diftant from 
 the cardinals ; the firft fecondaries 22 0 30' from the cardinal 
 and next primary collateral ; and the fecondaries of the fecond 
 order n° 15' from a cardinal, or firft collateral, and a fe- 
 cond. 1 trr ->*•-. t-. 
 Point, among feamen, is alfo ufed for a cape, or head-land, 
 jetting out into the fea. 
 
 They fay, two Points of land are one in another, when they arc 
 ' fo in a right line againft each other, as that the inncrmoft is 
 
 hindeied from being fecn by the outermoft. 
 Point, in perfpective, is a term ufed for various parts or places, 
 
 with regard to the perfpective plane. Such are, the 
 Point of fght, or cf the eye ; this is a point F, on a plane, H I, 
 
 {tab. per] peel. fg. 12.) marked out by a right line O F, drawn 
 
 from the eye, perpendicular to the plane. — This is alfo called 
 
 the principal Point. 
 
 This Point is in the interferon of the horizontal and vertical 
 planes. See Plane. 
 
 Some authors call this theprincipal Point ; and give the name 
 Point of fight, or vifon, to the point wherein the eye is actually 
 placed, and where all the rays terminate, as O. See hereafter 
 Point ofvieiv. 
 
 Point of dijfance is a Point, v.gr. P, or Q, in the horizontal 
 
 line P Q_, at the fame diftance from the principal Point F, as 
 
 the eye O is from the fame. 
 'Third Point is a Point taken at difcretion in the line of diftance, 
 
 wherein all the diagonals drawn from the divifions of the 
 
 geometrical plane, concur. 
 'Objective Point, a Point on a geometrical plane, whofe repre- 
 
 fentation is requiied on the perfpective plane. 
 Accidental Point. See the article Accidental. 
 'Vifual Point. See the article Visual. 
 
 Point, in optics. — The Point of concourfe, or coneurrence, is 
 that wherein converging rays meet, mote ufually called the 
 
 focus. 
 
 Point of difperfton, is that wherein the rays begin to diverge; 
 
 ufually called the virtual focus. 
 Point of incidence, is a Point on the furface of a glafs, or other 
 
 body, wherein a ray falls. 
 
 P O I 
 
 Point of view, with regard to building, painting, csY. is a 
 Point at a certain diftance from a building, or other object, 
 wherein the eye has the moil: advantageous view or profpect 
 of the fame. 
 
 This Point is ufually at a diftance equal to the height of the 
 building. — For an inftance : — To confider with judgment the 
 whole of the famous church of the invalids at Paris ; we muft 
 not ftand at above 340 foot diftance from it, which is nearly 
 its height. To be able to judge of the ordonnance of its fa- 
 cage or frontiipiece, and the regularity of its order, the eye 
 fhould only be as far off as the frontiipiece is high, viz. 100 
 feet. 
 
 But to examine the correctnefs of its profiles, and the fpirit of 
 its ornaments, the eye lhould only be diftant the height of the 
 Doric order, which is about 40 feet ; if it be nearer, the 
 parts being too much fhortened, will appear out of pro- 
 portion. 
 
 A vague or indeterminate Point has a different effect from the 
 Point of viav ; in that, in looking at a building from an inde- 
 terminate Point, the eye can only form an idea of the magni- 
 tude of its mafs, by comparing it with other buildings adja- 
 jent to it. 
 
 Point of reflexion, is a Point on the furface of a glafs, or other 
 
 body, whence a ray is reflected. 
 Point of refraction, is a Point in the furface of a glafs, or other 
 
 refracting furface, wherein the refraction is effected. 
 Radiant Point. See the article Radiant. 
 Points, in heraldry, are divifions of the efcutcheon into feveral 
 fquares, fometimes to the number of 9, fometimes to 15 ; fome 
 whereof are of one colour or metal, the others of another ; 
 called alfo equipollent Points. 
 
 There is alfo another, and that more frequent divifion of the 
 efcutcheon into Points, which have feveral names and values, 
 according to their feveral places. 
 
 There are nine principal Points in an efcutcheon, as marked in 
 tab. herald, fig. 38. A reprefents the dexter chief Point. — B the 
 middle chief Point. — C the fmijler chief. — D the honour Point. 
 — E the fefs Point, called alfo the' centre. — F-the nombril or 
 navel Point. — G the dexter bafe. — I the fmijler bafe. — PI the 
 prccife middle bafe. 
 
 Columbiere makes the Points and their fituations fymbolical. 
 —As the feveral bearings in an efcutcheon are fo many types 
 reprefenting the commendable actions of the perfon they are 
 given to ; fo the efcutcheon itfelf reprefents the body of the 
 man that performed them ; and the Points, or parts, lignified by 
 thefe letters, the principal parts of his body. — Thus, A, B, C, 
 reprefent the head, in which the three great faculties refide : 
 D, the neck, where ornaments are chiefly borne: E,the heart 
 &ff. See Escutcheon. 
 Point is alfo the name of an ordinary, fomething like the pile, 
 riftng frequently fi om [he bottom of the efcutcheon to the top, 
 very narrow, and only taking up two thirds of the Point of 
 the efcutcheon. . 
 
 When the Point arifes from the bafe, it is peculiarly called 
 
 Point-in-point. 
 
 Point inverted, is when it defcends from the chief downwards ; 
 polTefling two thirds of the chief, but diminifhing as it approach- 
 es the point of the efcutcheon, though without touching it. 
 Point in bend, or Point in bar, is when the Point is placed tranf- 
 verfe, in the fituation of a bend or bar. 
 When it comes from the fides of the efcutcheon, it is alfo 
 called a Point dexter or fmijler, according to its fituation. 
 The Point dexter is commonly reputed an abatement due to a 
 braggadocio. — Point-champion- ten due for killing a prifoner 
 after quarter demanded. — Point-in-point, a diminution belong- 
 ing to a coward. — Point-plane, an abatement belonging to a 
 lyar, &c. : See Diminution. 
 Point is alfo ufed in heraldry for the loweft part of the efcut- 
 cheon, which ufually terminates in a Point. 
 Point -champain. See the article Champain. 
 In the French arms the fleur de lys's are two in chief, and one 
 in Point. 
 
 Point is alfo an iron or fteel inftrument, ufed with fome varie- 
 ty in feveral arts. 
 
 Engravers, etchers, cutters in wood, ftonc-cutters, hSc. ufe 
 Points to trace their defigns on the copper, wood, ftone, 
 
 av. 
 
 Statuaries, £37. have likewife Points in manner of little chiffels, 
 ufed in the firft forming or fketching out their work. 
 Turners work or faftiion their common works between two 
 Points fattened to the puppets. — Lapidaries alfo have iron 
 Points, to the ends whereof are fattened pieces of diamonds, 
 ferving to pierce the precious ftones withal. 
 Point, in the manufactories, is a general term ufed for all kinds 
 of laces wrought with the needle. 
 
 Such are Point de Venice, Point de France, Point de Genoa, C-:c. 
 which are diftinguifhed by the particular ceconomy and ar- 
 . rangement of their Points. 
 
 Point is fometimes alfo ufed for lace woven with bobbins, as 
 Englijh Point, Point de Malines 3 Point de Havre, &c. 
 
 Point, 
 
P O I 
 
 Point, in architecture. — Arches of the thirdPoisr. 
 
 Arches of the fourth Point. See the article Arch. 
 
 Gmige-Yowr. See the article Gauge. 
 Point, in poetry, denotes a b;isk lively turn, or conceit ufually 
 
 found or expected at the clofeof an epigram. 
 Point-blank, in gunnery, denotes the ihot of a gun, levelled 
 
 horizontally, without either mounting or finking the muzzle 
 
 of the piece. 
 
 In (hooting PoinUbhnk, the fhot or bullet is fuppofed to go di- 
 rectly forward, in a ftrait line, to the mark; and not to move 
 in a curve, as bombs and highly elevated random mots do. 
 
 POINTED crowns. See the article Crown. 
 
 Pointed roof See the article Roof. 
 
 A crofs tointed, among heralds, is that which has the extre- 
 mities turned off into Points by ftrait lines. Columbiere calls 
 it aiguife, q. d. Jharpened, 
 
 POINTING, Punctuation, in grammar, the art of dividing 
 a difcourfe, by points, into periods and members of periods, 
 in order to facilitate the pronunciation and understanding 
 thereof. See Punctuation. 
 
 Pointing, among feamen, the marking on the chart in what 
 point or place the veflel is. 
 
 All the difficulty in Pointing a chart arifes from our ignorance 
 of the longitude. — The pilot eafily finds the latitude by taking 
 the height of the pole ; but for the longitude, there is no co- 
 ming at it but by computation, which is always uncertain. 
 Pointing the cable , is a fea term, denoting the untwifting it 
 at the end, and leffening the yarn, and then twifting it again, 
 making all faft with a piece of marling, to keep it from ra- 
 velling out. 
 
 Pointing, in war, the levelling or directing acannon, or mor- 
 tar-piece, fo as to play againft any certain point. See Ord- 
 nance. 
 
 This is done by means of a quadrant with a plummet. See 
 
 gunners Qy adr ant. 
 POISE. See the articles Counterpoise, Waterpoise, £sV. 
 POISON *, in medicine, a malignant quality in fome animal, 
 
 vegetable, or mineral body, which renders it hurtful, and even 
 
 mortal, to thole who take it even in a fmall quantity. 
 
 * The word is derived from the Latin, patio, draught ; and was an- 
 ciently trfed in an innocent fenfe. See Potion. 
 
 Some define Poifoti to be any thing taken inwardly, whofe 
 
 prcpe- ties are contra; y to thole of food, or to what they Ihould 
 
 be in order to nutrition. 
 
 Poifons aie of various kinds, and operate in various manners; 
 fome by diffolving the blood, others by coagulating it, and 
 ethers by corroding and deftroying the folid parts. 
 Some attack, equally, all the parts; fome only a particular 
 one. — Thus the lepus marinus is an enemy to the lungs, can- 
 tharides to the bladder, &c. 
 
 Some things again, which prove Pcifcn to man, ferve for food 
 to other animals. — Thus, mandragora and henbane feed hogs, 
 though they kill man ; and thus that deadly Poifoti hemlock 
 is whclfome for goats, buftards, and, as Galen fays, for flir- 
 tings too. The caffavi plant, Sir Hans Sloane tells us, poifens 
 unprepaied ; but prepaied, is the common bread of the 
 Weft Indies, particularly in Jamaica and the hotter parts ; and 
 is ufed to victual fhips. 
 
 Nay, what is more, fome Poifons are not only food, but even 
 phyiic, to other animals. — In the Phi/of Tranfafl. we have an 
 inftance of a horfe troubled with the farcy, which could not be 
 cured by the moft famed remedies, which yet cured himfelf in 
 a moit time, by feeding greedily on hemlock. — Fontanus alfo 
 tells us of a woman who eat hemlock for fome time to pro- 
 cure fleep, and with very good effect, though repeated dofes 
 of opium had no operation. 
 
 Dr. Tanc. Robinfon, in a letter to Mr. Ray, gives an account 
 of feveral poifonous plants, which, if truly corrected, or exact- 
 ly dofed, he fays, may prove the moft powerful remedies 
 known.— Thus the hellebores, incorporated with a fapo, or 
 with alkaly-lalts alone, are fuccefsful in epilepfies, vertigo's, 
 palfies, lethargies, and mania's : dofe from 3j to 3 fs. The 
 roots of cicuta, affarum, and napellus in agues and periodical 
 pains: dofe 3y to 3 /i. The hyofcyamus in hemorrhages, 
 violent heats and inflammations : dofe Bj to sfs. The femcn 
 ftramonii is a good anodyne, ufeful invigilia's, rhcumatilms, 
 hyfteric cafes, tSc. dofe 3j to sfs. Elaterium, foldanellaand 
 gratiola, are aifo good in hydropic cafes. Opium corrected 
 lofes its narcotic quality, and is fafely given in great doles 
 in convullive cafes, fluxes-, catanhs, CsV. 
 Phyficians diftinguifh thiee kinds of poifons. 
 
 Animal Poisons, which are thole drawn from animals ; as, the 
 viper, fcqrpion, lepus marinus, &i. 
 
 Vegetable Poisons, as aconite, cicuta, or hemlock, hellebore, 
 napellus, &c. 
 
 Mineral Poisvuz, as arfenic, corrofive fublimate, ceruffe, orpi- 
 mcnt, realgal, jjff. 
 
 The theory of the effects, operations, ts'c. of animal poifons., 
 is very accurately and mechanically delivered by Dr. Mead, in 
 thole lemarkable cafes, the bites of a viper, tarantula, and mad 
 
 POL 
 
 dog. See his doctrine under the refpectivc articles, Taran- 
 tula, Viper, and Hydrophobia. 
 
 The operation of vegetable Poifons, fee delivered under the ar- 
 ticle Opiates. 
 
 As to mineral Poifons, they all bear fo much analogy to that 
 made of quick-filver in the common fublimate, that their ope- 
 ration will be eafily conceived from what we have already laid 
 down under the heads Mercury and Sublimate. 
 They are all more or lefs dangerous, as their falts receive a 
 greater or lels force from the metallic particles ; and hence, as 
 the moft virulent may be mitigated by breaking the points of 
 the faline cryftals, fo the moft innocent minerals may become 
 corrofive by combining them with falts, as is leen in the pre- 
 parations of filver, antimony, iron, ds7. 
 The general remedies againft Poifons are known by the name 
 of antidotes, alexipharmics, and akxiferials. 
 
 Counter Poison. See the article Counter Poifon. 
 
 To Poison a piece, among gunners, is the fame as to clog and 
 nail it up. See Nailing. 
 
 POISONING, in law, the crime of adminiftring poifon to a 
 perfon, whereby he dies. 
 
 This, by a law of Henry VIII. was made a fort of treafon j and 
 the punifhment doomed for it was, to be put alive into a 
 cauldron of water, and boiled to death. — At prefer.t it is only 
 murder, or felony without benefit of clergy, if the party dies 
 of the poifon within a year and a day. 
 
 Poisonous waters. See the article Water. 
 
 POLAR, fomething that relates to the poles of the world. See 
 Pole and Circumpolar. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, polar virtue, polar tendency, isc. See 
 Polarity. 
 
 Polar circles, are two leffcr circles of the fphere, parallel to the 
 equator, at the diftance of 23 deg. from each pole ; ferving to 
 mark the beginning of the frigid zones. 
 The polar circles are particularly denominated from their re- 
 fpective neighbouring poles, the arcl'tc and antariiic. 
 
 Polar dials are thofe whole planes arc parallel to fome great cir- 
 cle paiiing through the poles, or to fome one of the hour-cir- 
 cles ; fo that the pole is neither elevated above, nor deprefied 
 below the plane. 
 
 Such dial, therefore, can have no centre, and confequcntly its 
 ftyle, fub-ftyle, and hour-lines, are parallel. 
 This, therefore, will bean horizontal dial to thofe who live 
 under the equator or line. 
 
 To conf.ruei a Polar dial. See the article Dial. 
 
 Polar projection is a reprefen ration of the earth, or heavens, pro- 
 jected on the plane of one of the polar circles. 
 
 POLARITY, the quality of a thing conlidered as having 
 poles. 
 
 By heating an iron bar, and letting it cool in a vertical pof- 
 ture, it acquires a Polarity.— The lower end becomes die north 
 pole, the upper the fouth. 
 
 Iron bars acquire a Polarity, by being kept a long time in an 
 erect poftuie, even without heating.— Thus the bars of win- 
 dows, &c. are frequently found to have poles. Nay, a rod 
 of iron acquires a Polarity, by the me-e holding it erect ; the 
 lower end in that cafe attracting the fouth-end of a mag- 
 netic needle, and the upper the noith-end. — But thefe poles 
 are mutable, and fhift with the lituation of the rod. 
 
 POLE*, Pol us, t'^, in aftronomy, one of the extremities 
 of the axis, whereon the fphere revolves. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek sj-g^iv, <vertere, to turn. 
 Thefe two points, each 90 deg. diftant from the equator, are 
 called, by way of excellence, the Poles of the world. 
 Wolfius defines the poles, thofe points on the furface of the 
 fphere, through which the axis paffes ; fuch are the points I 
 and K, [tab. ajlron. fig. 21.) — whereof, that vifible to us, or 
 raifed above our horizon, I, is called the arilic or north-pole ; 
 and its oppofite, K, the antarclic or fouth-pok. 
 
 Pole, in geography, is the extremity of the earth's axis, or 
 one of the points on the furface of our globe, through which 
 the axis paffes. See Earth. 
 
 Such are the points P, Q, (tab. geogr. fig. 1.) whereof that ele- 
 vated above our horizon is called the arclic or north-pole •; and 
 its oppofite Q_, the antarclic or fouth-pole. 
 Dr. Hallcy fhews, that the folftitial day, under the Pole, is as 
 hot as under the equinoctial, when the fun is in the zenith ; 
 in legard all the 24 hours of that day under the Pole, the fun- 
 beams are inclined to the horizon in an angle cf 23 \ degrees; 
 whereas, under the equinoctial, though the fun becomes ver- 
 tical, yet he fhines no more than 12 hours, and is abfent 12 
 hours ;— befides that for 3 hours, 8 minutes, of that 12 
 hours, which he is above the horizon there, he is not fo 
 much elevated as under the Pole. 
 
 The altitude, or elevation of the Pole, is an arch of the meridian 
 intercepted between the Pole and the horizon. 
 To find this elevation, is a very popular problem in aftrono- 
 my, geography, and navigation; this, and the latitude of the 
 place, being always the fame. 
 
 To 
 
POL 
 
 T< Mm theallitwle if the Poi.«.— With a quadrant, obferve 
 both the greateft and leaft meridian altitude of the Pile for- 
 Subtract the leaft from the greateft, and divide the difference 
 by two ; the quotient is the ftai's diftance from the Pile ; which 
 added to the lelfer altitude found, gives the elevation of the 
 Pill required. •■•> . 
 
 Thus M. Couplet the younger, at Lisbon, in 1697, in the end 
 of September, obferved the greateft meridian altitude 41 0 5 4-C''. 
 The fniaileft 36" 2S' o". The difference whereof is 4° 37' 40"; 
 one halfwheieof 2° 18' 50", added to the lefs, gives 38 0 46 
 50 ', the altitude of the Pile of Lisbon. 
 
 The altitude of the Pole, together with the meridian line, being 
 'the balis of all aftronomicaf obfervations ; to determine it with 
 the greater accuracy, the meridian altitudes muft be corrected 
 from the doctrine of refractions, hereafter to be delivered. 
 By means hereof, M. Couplet, fubtraaing i'^ in the propo- 
 fed example, .leaves the corrected altitude 38= 45- 25 . 
 Hence 1. The altitude of the Pile being fubtracted from 90°, 
 leaves the altitude if the equatir. .... 
 2 If the greateft meridian altitude of tins (far exceed the alti- 
 tude of the equator, the latter fubtraftedfrom the former, leaves 
 the dclination ofthc ftar northward ; if the altitude of the (far 
 be lefs than that of die equator, the former fubtracled from 
 the latter leaves the ftar's declination foulhward. 
 Dr Hook, and fome others, imagined the height of the Pile, 
 and the pofition of the circles in the heavens, m refpect of 
 thofe on the earth, to bechangedfromwhat they anciently were : 
 But M. Caffini thinks there is no ground for fuch a turn-life, 
 but that all the difference we now find in the latitudes of pla- 
 ces, fsff. in relpecf of the ancient accounts, arifes from the in- 
 accuracies of the ancient obfervations. 
 
 Indeed, it is no wonder they lhould err in their obfervations, 
 confide: ing what inftruments they ufed. He adds it is p obable 
 there may be fome variation in the height of the Pile , but lie 
 ■thinks this never exceeds two minutes ; and that even this will 
 vanilh after it is arrived to its higheft difference. 
 Pole, in fphcrics.is a point equally diftant from every part of 
 the circumference of a greater ciicle of the fphere; as the cen- 
 tre is in a.plain figure. 
 
 Or, Pile is a point 90" diftant from the plane of a circle, and in 
 
 a line palling perpendicularly thro" the centre, called the axis. 
 
 The zenith and nadir are the Poles of the horizon. — The Piles 
 
 of the equator are the fame with thofe of the fphere or globe. 
 Poles of the ecliptic are two points on the furface ot the fphere, 
 
 20° 30' diftant from the poles of the world, and 90' diftant 
 
 from every part of the ecliptic. 
 Poles, in magnetics, are two points in a load-ff one, correfpond- 
 
 ing to the Piles of the world ; the one pointing to the north, 
 
 the other to the fouth. 
 
 If the ftone be broken in ever fo many pieces, each fragment 
 will have its two Piles.— If a magnet be bifected by a line per- 
 pendicular to the axis ; the two points before joined will be- 
 come oppofite Poles, one in each fegment. 
 To touch a needle, lie. that part intended for the north end is 
 touched with the fouth Pile of the magnet, and that intended 
 for the fouth end with the north Pile. 
 
 A piece of iron acquires a polarity, by only holding it upright. 
 But its Piles are not fixed, but lhift, and are inverted as the 
 iron is.— A fixed north Pile may be made all the ways a fixed 
 fouth Pole is made, but not vice verfa ; and whatever way we 
 get a fixed fouth Pile, it is always weaker than a fixed north 
 Pole got the fame way. Fire deftroys all fixed Piles, but it 
 ftrengfhens the mutable ones. 
 
 The end of a rod being heated, and left to cool northward. Dr. 
 Gilbert fays, becomes a fixed noith Pile, if fouthward, a fixed 
 fouth Pile : Yet this doth not hold in all cafes.— If the end be 
 cooled, held downward, or to the nadir, it acquires fomcwhat 
 more magnetifm, than if cooled horizontally towards the 
 north. But the beft way is to cool it a little inclined to the 
 north. Repeated ignitions do not avail to this purpofe any 
 more than a fingie one. 
 
 Dr. Power fays, that if we hold a rod northwards, and hammer 
 the north end in that pofition,itwill become a fixed north Pile; 
 and, contrarily, if you hammer the fouth end. — What is laid 
 of hammering is to be likewife underftood of filing, grinding, 
 fawing; nay, a gentle rubbing, provided it be continued long, 
 will produce Piles. 
 
 The more heavy the blows are, extern paribus, the magnetifm 
 will be the ftronger.- A few hard blows do as much as many. 
 Old drillsand punches have all fixed north Poles, becaufe almoft 
 conftantly ufed downwards. New drills have either mutable 
 Piles, or weak north Piles. Drilling with fuch a one fouth- 
 ward horizontally, it is a chance if you produce a fixed fouth 
 Pile, much lefs if you drill fouth downwards ; but if you drill 
 fouth upwards, you always make a fixed fouth Pile. 
 A weak fixed Pile may degenerate into a mutable one in a day, 
 nay, in a few minutes, by holding it in a pofition contrary to its 
 Pile. The load-ftone itfelf will not make a fixed Pile in any 
 iron. It is required the iron have a length, if it be thick. Mr. 
 
 POL 
 
 Ballard tells us, that in fix or feven drills made before his face, 
 the bit of each became a north Pole meei ly by hardening. 
 Pole of a glafs, in optics, is the thickeft part of a convex, or 
 the thinneft of a concave glafs. 
 
 If the glafs be ti uly ground, the Pole will be exactly in the mid- 
 dle of its furface. 
 
 This is fometimes alfo called the vertex of the glafs. 
 
 Pole, in iurveying, is a meafure containing 16 feet and an half ; 
 called alto perch, and fometimes rod. 
 
 Pole Star, or Polar Star, is a ftar of the fecond magnitude, 
 the laft in the tail of urfa minor, or the little bear. 
 Its longitude, Mr. Elamftead makes it 24° 14/41', its lati- 
 tude 66° 04' 1 1''. 
 
 The nearnefs of this ftar to the Pole, whence it happens that it 
 never fets, renders it of vaft fervice in navigation, &?(, for de- 
 termining the meridian line, the elevation of the pole, and con- 
 feqnently the latitude of the place, (jfc. 
 POLEIN, in our ancient cuftoms, a fort of fhoe, fharp or 
 picked at the point. 
 
 This fafhion was tuft taken up in the time of king William 
 Rufus; the picks being made lb long, that they were tied up to 
 the knees with filver or golden chains. 
 
 They were forbidden by flat. an. 4. Edw. IV". cap. — Tunc 
 fiuxus crinium, tunc luxia veftium, tunc uj'm calceorum cum arena- 
 tis aculeis inventus eji. Malmefb. in Will. II. 
 POLEMICAL *, weAtf*!*©., an epithet applied to books of con- 
 troverfy, efpecially thofe in divinity. 
 
 * The word tomes from the Greek MAiu&, war, battle.— Scaliger's 
 exercitatious againlt Cardan make a pure polemical book. 
 
 Hence alio we fay, polemical divinity, for controverfial, &c. 
 POLEMOSCOPE, in optics, an oblique kind of profpective 
 glafs, contrived for the feeing of objects that do not He directly* 
 before the eye. 
 
 It was invented by Hevclius, in 1637, who gave it this name, 
 from the Greek a-oXs/*©-, battle ; becaule it may be of Life in 
 war, in engagements, duels, &c. , 
 
 Something of this kind are thofe now known among us under 
 the name of ogling-glafTes, or opera glalfes, through which one 
 fees a perfon in appearing to look at another. 
 Conjlrutiion of the Polemoscope. — Any telefcope will be a Pole- 
 mofeope, if the tube be but crooked, like a rectangular Jyphon 
 ABDM {tab. fig. 70.) ; and between the object-glais A B 
 and firft eye-glafs GH (if there be feveral) be placed a plain 
 mirror, in fuch manner as that the mirror is inclined to the ho- 
 rizon at an angle of 45", and its reflected image found in the 
 focus of the eye-glafs G H. 
 
 For by this means, objects fitiiate over-againft the lens A B 
 will appear the fame as if the mirror K were away, and the 
 object-glafs, with the objects, were directly oppolite to the 
 eye-glafles. 
 
 If it be defired to look in at O, not at M, another plain mirror, 
 N, muft be added. 
 POLETA, in our ancient law-books, fignifies the ball of the 
 foot. — Tres ortilli feiudantur de pede anterieri jine pdeta, Mat. Par. 
 anno 1215. 
 
 POLEY, in medicine. See the article Polium. 
 
 POLICY *, or Polity, ■a&.\™«, t the laws, orders, and regula- 
 tions prefcribed for the conduct and government of ftates and 
 communities. 
 
 * The word is of Greek original, being derived from the Greek 
 vro},\<; t ctvitat, city or ftare. 
 
 In the general, Policy is ufed in oppofition to barbarifm. — Dif- 
 . ferent ftates have different kinds of Policy j thus the Policy 
 of Athens differed from that of Sparta. 
 
 Loyfeau obferves, that Policy properly fignifies the courfe and 
 adminiftration of juftice in a city. — The direction of the Po- 
 licy of London is in the hands of the lord-mayor. 
 At Paris they have a chamber of Policy, where people are ver- 
 bally accufed for contraventions of Policy. 
 Some divide Policy into two parts, agoratiomy, that relating to 
 affairs of merchandize; and aflynomy, that concerning the 
 civil and judiciary government of the citizens. Some add a 
 third branch, viz. what relates to the ecclefiaftical government. 
 See Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Richard Hooker has a fine treatife of the laws of ecclefiaftical 
 
 Policy. 
 
 Policy of 'infurance or ajfurance, of fhips, is a contract or con- 
 vention whereby a perfon takes upon himfelf the rifques of a 
 lea-voyage ; obliging himfelf to make good the loffes and da- 
 mages that may befal the Veffel, its equipage, tackle, victual- 
 ling, lading, &c. cither from tempefts, fhipwrecks, pirates, 
 fire, war, reprizals, &c. in part or in whole; in consideration 
 of a certain fum of feven, eight, or ten per cent, more or lefs, 
 according to the rifque run ; which fum is paid down to the 
 afFurer by the affuiee, upon his figning the Policy. 
 There aie fome afiurances for the going, fome for the return- 
 ing, and fome for both ; or for a limited time ; though fome 
 maintain, that the time ought never to be limited, in that the 
 contract thereby becomes ufurary. 
 
 • The 
 
POL 
 
 POL 
 
 The Policy is to contain the name and dwelling of the perfon 
 alibied ; his quality, whether as proprietor or agent ; the effects, 
 the name of the veffel, and ot the matter j thofe of the place 
 where the goods aie to be toaden or unloaden ; the port whence 
 and whither ; as alfo the time, therifques, and the conditions. 
 If the vclfels or merchandizes affured be lott, theaffuree mutt 
 notify the fame by an acf in form ; declaring he furrenders the 
 whole to the allurcr, on his paying the fums allured in the 
 time exprelled. 
 
 The origin of thefe affurances is afcribed to the Jews, at the 
 time they were expelled France, in 1 182, who are faid to have 
 ufed this as a means to facilitate the tranlporting of their effects. 
 The Term Policy is Spanilh, and comes from i<Mth% fchedutc ; 
 but the practice conies from the Italians, and the Lombards, 
 who, again, derived it originally from (hi Latin pbllicttatio, 
 promife.— Some fay, the merchants of Marfeilles were the fiitt 
 who fet on foot this kind of commerce. 
 Anciently, Policies were given by word of mouth, called Poli- 
 cies of credit ; it being fuppofed the aflurer would enter them in 
 his ledger : but of late, that honetty is become lefs frequent 
 among traders, they have been made conftantly in writing. 
 The grand mart for the affurance of mips is the city of Amfler- 
 dam. It is here not only the Dutch traders infure their own 
 Vefiels; but, what is infinitely more conliderabic, fuch are the 
 riches, reputation, Gft. of the inhabitants, as to engage the 
 gene;ality of merchants of other countries to prefer them to 
 their own countrymen, and to afXure with the Dutch, when 
 it would be much eafier for them to find ailurers at home, or 
 in the ports where the vettels are laden. 
 
 The number of infurers at Amtterdam is not above 50 or 60 
 perfons, yet is their wealth and character fuch, that a man never 
 fails of an aflurer, be the countries or ports what they wild, the 
 cargo ever forich, or the dangeis ever fo imminent. 
 Policy of infurancc,ax affurance of houfes, isaninfhument form- 
 ed on the model of that for vefiels ; whereby a perfon or com- 
 munity ct perfons take on themfclves the rifques and damages 
 that may befal houfes, their furniture, in whole or inpait, c5V. 
 from fire ; on confideiation of a certain fum or fums, to be 
 paid by the aftuier, according to the terms of the agreement. 
 The inlut ance fr om fiieis now a popular piece of commerce ; 
 and we have a number of focictics erected into corporations 
 for that purpofe. 
 P 'olicy of 'infurance of lives, is an inttrument whereby a fociety 
 of perfons erected into a corporation, i$c. oblige themfelves to 
 pay a certain fum of money, e. gr. an hundred pounds^ upon 
 the death of a perfon whofe life they aflure, in coniideration of 
 a fum of money, e.gr. one guinea paid quaitcrly, to the alluiers 
 duringthe life of the faid perfon aifured. 
 
 The Policy is under the feal of the office, and intitles the Heir 
 perfon in whole favour it is granted, to makegood his claim, 
 accoiding to the tenor of the articles, or by-laws of the fociety. 
 There have alfo been lately fet on foot, Policies of allurance of 
 horfes, from death, damages in travelling, difeafes, being ftolen, 
 &c. in which cafes the ailurers ave to make them good to the 
 alTurees, is'c. 
 
 Officers of 'Policy. Seethe article Officer. 
 
 Policy, in letter-foundery, is fometimes uicd for a rule that re- 
 gulates the number of letters of each kind in a compleat font ; 
 i. e. to determine how many, in proportion to the whole fet, 
 there are to be of each particular kind. 
 
 For inftance, in a font of an hundred thoufand characters, 
 there are to be a thoufand for e t five thoufand for a, three 
 thoufand for ;//, thirty only for k, as many or a little more for 
 -v,^, and:r; and in proportion for the other letters, the great 
 and fmal! capitals, the initial letters, points, comma's, double 
 letters, csV. 
 
 POLIOPTRUM, or Polyoptron, in optics. See Poly- 
 
 OPTROK. 
 
 POLISH coins, mcafttres, t£c. See the articles Coin, Money, 
 Measure, &fY. 
 
 POLISHER, an inttrument called alfo a burniflw, ufed for 
 polilhing and burnifhinggold, filver, and other metals, when 
 gilt or iilvered j and matters of other kinds proper to take a 
 poluh. 
 
 The Polifbcr is different in the different arts and manufacturies. 
 The gilders ufe an iron Polijber to prepare their metals be- 
 fore gilding, and the blood-ftone to give them the bright 
 polilh after gilding. 
 
 The Polijber ufed by the makers of fpurs, bits, &V. is part iron, 
 part fteel, and part wood.— The inttrument conliftsof an iion 
 bar, with a wooden handle at one end, and a hook at the other, 
 to fatten it to another piece of wood held in the vice, while 
 the operator is at work. In the middle of the bow, withm- 
 lide, is what they properly call the Polijber, which is a trian- 
 gular piece of fteel with a tail, whereby it is riveted to the bow 
 What the cutlers call their PcUjhers, are a kind of wooden 
 wheels for grinding, made of walnut-tree, an inch thick, and 
 of a diameter at plcafuie. They are turned by the great 
 wheel ; and it is on thefe they polifh and fmooth their 
 wotks with emery and putty. 
 
 The Pclijbcn ufed in the manufacture of glafs are very different 
 from all thefe. — They conlift of two pieces of wood, the one 
 flat, cover'd with old hat ; the other ion, and half-round, is 
 
 v o l. ir. 
 
 fattened on the former, whofe edge it exceeds on both fides 
 by fome inches, which ferve the workman to take hold of, 
 and to work it backwaids r.nd forwards by. 
 The Polijbers ufed by fpcctacle-makers are pieces of wood a 
 foot long, feven or eight inches broad, and an inch and half 
 thick, covered with old cattor-hat, whereon they polifh the 
 fhell and horn frames their fpechcle-daffes are to be fet in. 
 
 POLISHING, the art of giving a gloYs, or luftrc, to a thing ; 
 particularly a precious ttone, marble, glafs, a mirror, or the like. 
 
 Polishing of glaffes, lens's, kc. fucceeds the grinding thereof. 
 See Grinding. 
 
 The pclifhing of a mirror is the laft preparation given it, with 
 emery or putty. 
 
 Forthe poliftnng of diamonds, OrV. fee Lapidary. 
 POLITICAL *, tf^Tix©-, fomething that relates to policy, or 
 civil government. 
 
 **The word is formed from the Greek ■wo^k, chvitas, city. 
 In this fenie we fay, political interetts, political views, political 
 difcourfes, &c. 
 
 Political arithmetic, is the application of arithmetical calcu- 
 lations to political ufes and fubjects ; as, the public revenues, 
 number of people, extent and value of lands, taxes, trade, 
 commerce, manufactures, or whatever relates to the power, 
 ftrength, riches, £sfY. of any nation or commonwealth. 
 The chief authors who have atrempted calculations of this 
 kind, are Sir William Petty, Major Grant, Dr. Hal lev Dr. 
 Davenant, and Mr. King; and the principal points fettled by 
 them are as follow : 
 
 According to SirWilliam Petty's computations, tho' the land of 
 Holland and Zealand be not above 1000000 acres, nor that of 
 Prance lefs than 8000000, yet the former are near a third part 
 as rich and ftrong as the latter. — That the rents of lands in 
 Holland are to thofe in France as 7 or 8 to 1.— That the people 
 of Amtterdam are * of thofe of Paris orLondon ; which, accord- 
 ing to him, do not differ above a 20th part from one another.— 
 That the value of the Shipping of Europe is about two mil- 
 lions of tuns, whereof the Lnglifh have 500000, the Dutch 
 900000, the French 100000, the Hamburghers, Danes, Swedes 
 and Dantzickers, have 250000 ; and Spain, Portugal, Italy' 
 bV. about as much. — That the value of goods then exported 
 yearly from France into all parts, was quadruple of that ex- 
 ported into England alone, and confequently, in all about 
 5000000 /. What was then exported out of Holland into Eng- 
 land, was worth 300000/. and what was exported thence into 
 all the world, 18000000 /. — That the money yearly raifed by 
 the French king, in timeof peace, is about 61- millions fterline - 
 and that the moneys raifed in Holland and Zealand are about 
 2 100000 /. and in all the provinces together, about 3000000 / - 
 That the people of England are about 6000000, and their ex 
 pences at 7 /. per annum a head, 42000000 /. or 800000 / a 
 week.— That the rent of the lands is about 8 millions, and the 
 interetts and profits of the perfonal eftates as much.— The rent 
 of houfes in England 4000000 /.—That the profits of the la- 
 bour of all the people is 26000000 /. yearly. — That in Ire- 
 land the people amount to about 1200000.— . That the corn 
 fpent in England, at 5 s. the bulhel for wheat, and 2 s. 6 d for 
 barley, amounts to ten millions per annum.— That the navy of 
 England (then) required 36000 men to man it, and other 
 
 trade and fhipping, about 48000. — That in Fr 
 
 «- . —trance, to manage 
 
 the whole Hupping trade, there were at that time required but 
 1500 men.— That the whole people of France are about thir 
 teen millions and a half ; and thofe of England, Scotland and 
 Ireland, together, about nine millions and a half.— That in 
 the three kingdoms are about 20000 churchmen • and in 
 trance above 270000.— That in the dominions of Endand 
 are above 40000 teamen, and in France not above 10000 — 
 That in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and all other domi 
 nions depending thereon, there was then about 60000 tun of 
 fhipping, which is worth about four millions and a half in 
 money.— 1 hat the fea-line round England, Scotland, and Ire- 
 land, and the adjacent iQtes, is about 3800 miles.— That in the 
 whole world are about 300 millions of people \ whei eof thofe 
 With whom the EngHih andDutch have any commerce, are not- 
 above 80 millions.— That the value of commodities annually 
 traded for in the whole, is not above 45000000 /. That the 
 manufaaures exported out of England amount to about 
 5000000 /. per annum. Lead, tin, and coals to 500000 /. per 
 annum.— That the value of the Fiench commodities fthen) 
 
 brought into England, did not exceed 1200000 l.per annum. 
 
 7 hat the whole caih of England, in current money, was then 
 about 6000000 /. fterling. 
 
 Dr. Davenant gives fome good reafons, why many of Sir Wm 
 Petty's numbers are not to be intirely depended upon; and 
 thereto re advances others of his own, founded on the obfer 
 vations of Mr. Greg. King. 
 
 Some of the particulars are,— That the land of England is -?q 
 millions of acres.-That the number of people, accordingto 
 his account, is about 5545000 fouls, they increafm* about Qooo 
 every yea;, allowances being made for piagues, ware Blip, 
 ping, and the plantations.— The people in London he reckons 
 at 530000 : Thole in the other cities and market towns in 
 England, 870000 ; and thofe in the villages and hamlets, at 
 4100000. The yearly rent of the land, he accounts to be 
 9 E xocooooo/. 
 
POL 
 
 ,0000000 /.-That of the houfes and buildings 2000000 A 
 per «ww».-The produce ot all kinds of gram he reckon to 
 be worth 9075000 I. in a year moderately plentiful.— The rent 
 of the com-lands annually 2000000 /. and their neat produce, 
 above aoocooo /.—The rent of the paftuie, meadows, woods, 
 foiefts, commons, heaths, lie. 7000000/.— The annual pro- 
 du-e by cattle, in butter, cheefe, and milk, he dunks is about 
 2Corcoo/.--Thevalueofthewoolyearlylhoin,about2CCCCOC/. 
 _Oi ho'fes yearly bred, about 250000 /.-Of the deih yearly 
 fpent as food, about 3350000 /.--Of the tallow and hides, a- 
 bout 600000 /.-Of the hay yearly confirmed by horfes, about 
 1 300000 /.-Of hayconfumed by other cattle, 1000000 /.-- 
 Of the timber yearly felled for building, 500000 /.--Ot the 
 wood yeaily fpent in firing, fcff, about 500000 /.-- 1 he land ot 
 England to its inhabitants is now about 7 i acres/^r head.--- 
 The value of the wheat, rye, and barley, necellary tor the 
 fuftenance of England, amounts to at leaft 6300000 LJrrL 
 per ,;<mm.~Thc value of the woollen manufacture made hcie 
 is about 8000000/. permmm; and our exports of all kinds 
 of the woollen manufacture amount to above 2000000 I. per 
 annum.— The annual income of England, on which the whole 
 people live and fubfift, and out of which taxes ot all kinds are 
 paid, is now about 43 000000 /.-that of France 81000000/. 
 and that of Holland 18250000/. 
 
 M ajor Grant, in his obfervations on the bills of mortality, com 
 put'es that there are 39000 fquare miles ot land in tngland.- 
 That in England and Wales there are 4600000 fouls.— I hat 
 the people of London are about 640000 ; being one fourteenth 
 oart of the people of England.— That in England and V> ales 
 are about 1 ooco parilhes.-That there are 25 millions ot acres 
 in England and Wales, viz. about four acres to every head.-- 
 That but 64 out of too of the children born, are living at 6 
 old —That but 40 of 100 are alive at 16 years end.— 
 rha't but 25 of 1 00 at 26 years end.-That but 1 6 at 36 years 
 end -That but 10 out of too at 46 years end.-l hat but 
 6 out of too at 56 years end..- That but 3 out of too at 
 66 V e.i.»end.-Aud that but one out of 100 at 76 years end.~ 
 And that London doubles itfelf in about 64 yeats. 
 Sir William Petty, in his difcourfe about duplicate proportion, 
 further tells us, that it is found by expenence, that there are 
 inoie perlons living between 16 and 26, than ot any other 
 a»e ■ and laying down that as a fuppofition, he inters, that 
 the lquaie roots of every number of mens ages under 1 6 
 (whole loot is 4) fhew the proportion of die probability ol 
 fuchpeifons reaching the age of 70 years. 
 Thus it is 4 times more likely, that one of 16 years ot age 
 lives 'to be 70, than that a child of one year old does.— It is 
 till ice as probable, that one of 9 years lives to be 70, as that 
 anew-born child does, Isfe.- That the odds is rive to 4 , that 
 one df 25 dies before one of 16 years.-That it is 6 to 5, (fflU 
 as the fauare roots of the ages) that one ot 36 years old dies 
 before one but of 25 years of age : and lo on according to any 
 declining age to 70, compared with a number between 4 and 
 ,-. which is the root of 21, the law-age. 
 fit Halley has made a vciy exact eftimate of the degrees of the 
 mortality of mankind, fiom a curious table ot the births and 
 burials at the city of Breflau, the capital ot Silelia ; with au 
 attempt to afcertain the price of annuities upon lives.--! rom a 
 SSe which he has calculated thence, publllhed in tile FhhJ. 
 ■TV usuie'. he derives the following ufes. 
 j. To find in any multitude or body of people, the proportion 
 
 To ihew the 
 
 ye; 
 
 of imaTabte to' bear arms, which he reckons from iS to 56 
 years old ; and accounts about; of the wb.olc.--z. To ft 
 dineicnt degrees of mortality, or rather vitality, m all ages 
 by which means he finds the odds there is, that any perlon ot 
 nnv ate doth not die in a year's time, 01 before he attains fuch 
 Vaee -1 To (hew in what number ot yea: s it is an even lay 
 that fuch a perfon mall die; and finds, for inftance, that it is an 
 even lay thata manof thirty yearsof age lives between twenty- 
 feven and twenty-eight years.— 4. To regulate the price ot my 
 furance upon lives :-5-Andthe valuation ot annuitiesuponlives. 
 
 6 pj ow to value two or three lives alter the lame manner. 
 
 From the whole, he makes two very good obfervations : 1. 
 Kow iiiflly we life to complain of the ihortuefs of our lives ; 
 for that it appears, that one half of thole that aie born, do not 
 live above leventeen years. 
 
 That the Growth and increafe of mankind is not fo much 
 ft'inted by^any thing in the natute of the fpecies, as it is from 
 thecu.ious difficulty moll people make ot venturing on the 
 ifatcof marriase : and theiefore that celibacy ought to be every 
 way difcouraged by all wife governments ■ and thofe who have 
 numerous families of children ought to be countenanced and 
 encouraged by good laws ; fuch as the jlfl tnum liberarum, ice. 
 among the Romans. ... , . , 
 
 Farther particular .elating to the number of birth and burials, 
 the proportion of males and females, Uc. See under the arti- 
 cles Marriage, Mortality, &u. 
 Poiiticai criuafm. See the article Criticism. 
 POLITICS*, Politics, wiu™» the hrft part ot ceconomy, 
 or ethics, confifting ia the governing and regulating of -fates, 
 
 POL 
 
 for the maintenance of the publick fafety, order, tranquility, 
 and good morals. See Ethics. 
 
 • The word is forrrfd from the Greek woXtt, civiias, (late. 
 The lord Bacon divides politics into three parts with regard to 
 the three grand ends thereof, or the three offices incumbent on 
 thofe who have the adminiftration, viz. the prefervation of the 
 Hate, the happiuefi and flourijhi.ig of the fiate, and the inlarge- 
 matt of its bounds. 
 
 The two firft parts, he obferves, are well handled by feveral 
 authors ; but about the third there is a deep filence. — He ranks 
 this therefore in the number of the dejidcrat 'a , and gives us 
 a Ipccimen of an eflay to fupply it. 
 
 We have feveiallyfterm of Politics by Ariftotle, Machiavel, 
 Doria, Lipfius, £sY. in which lad there is nothing but particles 
 and conjunctions of the author's own, the body of the book 
 being all quotations. 
 Academy 0/ 'Politics. See the article Academy. 
 POLITY, or Policy. See the article Policy. 
 POLIUM*, Po leY) 3 medicinal plant, which makes an ingre- 
 dient in the treacle of Andromachus. 
 
 * It has its name from the Greek -anAt^., white, in regard the 
 heads of the polium of the ancients, according to Diolcorides, 
 and the leaves, according to Pliny, were white. 
 It grows in mountainous places, and is thence denominated 
 montanum. — The tops of its branches are eftecmed cephalic, 
 proper to promote urine, and the menfes, and to prevent pu- 
 trefaction. See Supplement, article Polium. 
 POLL, a term ufed in ancient writings, for the head. 
 
 The word is doubtlefs formed from pok ; this part being, as it 
 were, the pole of the microcofm. 
 
 Hence, to poll, is to enter down the names of perfons who 
 give their votes or voices at an election. 
 POLLARD, among hunters, a ftag, or male deer, which has 
 
 caft its horns. 
 
 Pollard, or Pollenger, in agriculture, is applied to fuch 
 trees as have been frequently polled or lopped ; by which they 
 are contradiftinguifhed from timber-trees. 
 POLLEX, in anatomy, denotes either the thumb or great toe, 
 
 according as either manus, or pedis, is added to it. 
 Pollicis abduclor. See the article Abductor. 
 Pollicis addutior. See the aiticle Adductor. 
 Extcttfsr Pollicis brevis, and longus. See the article Extensor. 
 Flexor Pollicis brevis and longus. See the article Flexor. 
 POLL-MONEY, or capitation, a tax impofed by authority of 
 parliament on the perfon or head ; either on all indifferently, or 
 according to fome known mark of diftinction as quality, call- 
 ing, &c. 
 
 Thus by the ftatute 18 Car. II. every fubjeel in the kingdom 
 was afielTed by the bead or pell, according to his degree ; every 
 duke 100 /. marquis 80 /. baronet 30/. knight 20/. efquire 10/. 
 &c. and every Tingle private perfon 12 d. • 
 This was no new tax, as appears by former acts of parliament ; 
 particularly that anno 1380, where, quilibet tarn conjugatus quam 
 folutus, utriufq; fexus,pro capitefuo folvere cogebatur. Walfing. 
 Camden, in his remains, of coins, fays there was anciently a 
 perfonal tribute, called capitatio, or poll-Jifocr, impofed on the 
 Pol!, or perfon, of every one j on women from the age of 
 12 years, and on men from 14. 
 POLLUTION, Pollutio, the ad of profaning a temple, or 
 other holy place. 
 
 The Romanifts hold a church to be polluted by the effufion 
 of blood, or of feed, therein ; and require its being confecra- 
 ted anew. 
 
 The Jews were held polluted by the touching of a dead body, 
 or of the menfes of women ; and were to be purified in form. 
 See the laws hereof in Leviticus. 
 
 The Indians are fo fuperftitious on the head of Pollution, that 
 they break all the veilels which thofe of another religion have 
 drank out of, or even only touched ; and drain all the water 
 out of a pond a ftrangcrhas bathed in. 
 Pollution', or felf Pollution, is alio ufed for the abufing 
 or defiling of one's own body, by means of lafcivious fric- 
 tions and titillations, raifed by art, to produce emiflion. 
 We read in fcripture, that Onan, and as fome critics alfo 
 think, Er, were feverely punifhed for having polluted them- 
 lelves by ipilling their feed on the ground ; whence the crime 
 has been denominated by fome Quanta- 
 
 Of Pollutions, fome are voluntary, others involuntary, and noc- 
 turnal. 
 
 Noclumal Pollution, is an involuntary emiffion of feed, ari- 
 fing either from a too great tuigefcency of the feminal vef- 
 fels, or from the feed's being too fharp and irritating, or fi- 
 nally, from a weaknefs of the parts. 
 
 The Rorniih church puts up prayers in the clofe of the evening 
 office, to be preferved from noclumal Pollutions. 
 POLLUX, in afhonomy, the hind twin, or the pofterior part 
 
 of the conftellation gemini. 
 Pollux is alfo a fixed ftar of the fecond magnitude in the con- 
 ftellation gemini, or the twins. 
 
 Its 
 
POL 
 
 POL 
 
 Its place is in the head of the hind-twin, named Peili)x, — Its f 
 longitude i8° 56' 09". Its latitude 6° 39' 27". N. See Ge- 
 mini. ■ |y* : 3r ,:> X '" ;jp w y < 2j ' 
 
 Pollux is alfo ufed in meteorology. See Castor. 
 
 POLTROON, or Poltron, a coward or dijlard, wanting cou- 
 rage to perform any thing great or noble. 
 The word we borrow from the French, who, according to 
 Salmafius, derive it a pollice truncato ; becaufe anciently thole 
 who would avoid going to the wars, cut off their thumbs. 
 But Menage, with more probability, derives it from the Itali- 
 an, poltrone, and that from poltro, a bed ; becaufe timorous, pu- 
 fillanimous people ufually take pleafure in lying a-bed.— He 
 adds, that the Italian, poltro, is again derived from the Ger- 
 man, poller, a pillow, or cufhion. 
 
 Others chufe to derive the word from the Italian, poltro, colt ; 
 
 becaufe of that creature's readinefs to run away. 
 Poltroon, in falconry, is a name given to a bird of prey, when 
 
 the nails and talons of his hind toes are cut off, wherein his 
 
 chiet\force and armcur lay ; in order to intimidate him, and 
 
 prevent his flying at great game. 
 POLY AC OUST ICS *, initruments contrived to multiply 
 
 founds; as multiplying-glafles, or polyfcopes do the images 
 
 of objects. See Phonics. 
 
 * The word is compounded of the Greek, art^u,-, much, and uxau, 
 
 audio, I hear. 
 
 POLYANTHEA, a collection of common-places in alphabeti- 
 cal order; of great fervice to orators, preachers, t$c. of the 
 lower clafs. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek. uroXt;;, much, and av§& t 
 flower, and is much of the fame fignificancy with anthology, or 
 
 ■ Jlortiege. 
 
 The firft author of the polyati'bea was Dominic Nanni de Mi- 
 rabellio, whole labour has been improved on by Baith. Aman- 
 tius, and Franc. Tortius, and iince thefe by Jof. Langius, un- 
 der the title of Polyanthea nova* 1613. 
 POLYANTHUS*, or Pqlvanthium, a garden flower, of the 
 primrofe kind. The word is alfo ufed in general to denote a 
 plant which bears or produces feveral or many flowers. 
 
 * The word is compounded of wsAvj, multui, much, and _fioj, 
 
 flower. 
 
 POLYCHREST *, wtfwjfeDr®*, in pharmacy, a medicine that 
 ferves for many ufes, or that cures many difeales. 
 
 * The word is compounded of the Greek, usa'Kui, multus, much, and 
 
 Xjir©-, uti/is, uieful. 
 Su'/Polychrest is a compound fait, made of equal parts of 
 
 falt-petic and lulphur, laid on a crucible firft heated red hoi 
 
 for the purpofe. 
 POLYEDRON. See the article Polyhedron. 
 POLYGAMY*, y ■■/'■-< y a plurality of wives, or hufbands, 
 
 held by the fame man, or woman, at the fame time. 
 
 * The word 19 formed from the Greek, woto, multum, and yctp-n, 
 •ax3r, wife. 
 
 Polygamy is prohibited among Chriftians, but it was allowed by 
 divine appointment among the Jews; as it is ftill among the 
 Mahometans. 
 
 Major Grant obferves, that the males and females brought in- 
 to the world are nearly on a balance ; only abating for a little 
 excefs on the fides of the males^ to make up for the extraordi- 
 nary cxpence thereof in war, and at fea : whence it evident- 
 ly lollows, that nature only intends one wife, or one husband, 
 for the fame perfen ; fince, if they have more, fomc others 
 muff go without any at all. 
 
 ■Hence he concludes, that the Chriflian law, which prohibits 
 Polygamy, is more agreeable to the law of nature than the Ma- 
 hometan ; and we may add, than the Tewilh law, which tole- 
 rated Polygamy. 
 
 Yet iielden has proved, in his uxor pbraiea, that plurality of 
 wives was allowed of, not only among the Hebrews, but alfo 
 among all other nations, and in all ages. — It is true, the an- 
 cient Romans were more fevere in their morals ; and never 
 pract ifed it, though it was not forbid among them : and Mark 
 Antony is mentioned as the firft who took the liberty of 
 having two wives. 
 
 From that time it became pretty frequent in the empire, till 
 the reigns of Thecdoiius, Honoiius, and Arcadius, who tint 
 prohibited it by exprefs law in 393. — After this the emperor 
 Valentinian, by an edict, permitted all the fubjects of the em- 
 pire if they pleafed to marry feveral wives : nor does it ap- 
 pear from the ecclefiaftical hiftory of thole times, that the bi- 
 ihops made any oppoiition to this introduction of Polygeny. 
 In erfect, there are fome even among the Chriftian cafuhtp, who 
 do not look on Polygamy as in itfelf criminal. Jurieu obferves, 
 that the prohibition of Polygamy is a politive law, but from 
 which a man may be exempted by fovei eign neceffity. — Baillet 
 adds, that the example of the patuarchs is a very powerful ar- 
 gument in favour of Polygamy' 
 
 At London we had fome years ago an artful treatife publiihed 
 in behalf of a plurality of wives, under the title of polygamic 
 triumphal rix ; the author whereof afiumcs the name oi TI:eo 
 philus Alethe-.u, but his true name was Lyferus : he was a native 
 of Saxony. — It has been anfwered by feveral. 
 Polygamy is alfo ufed in the canon law for a plurality of wives, 
 though only had fucceifivcly, or one at a time. 
 In the Romilh church this difqualihes a man for the epifcopate. 
 
 DLYGLOTT *, n^yWl.^ among divines and criticr> 
 chiefly denotes a bible printed in feveral languages. 
 * It is [hus called from the Greek, *HXa, and yTwrla, tongue, lan- 
 guage. 
 
 To firft Polyglott bible is that of cardinal Ximenes, printed in 
 1 515. at Alcala de Henares; and commonly called die bible of 
 Complutum, or the Complutenfian bible. 
 
 It contains the Hebrew text, the Chaldee paraphrafe on the 
 pentateuch, the Greek verfion of the LXX. and the ancient 
 Latin verfion. 
 
 In this Polyglott there is no other Latin verfion from the He- 
 brew befide this laft ; but there is added another literal one 
 from the Greek feptuagint.— The Greek text of the new tene- 
 ment is here printed without accents, to bring it nearer to the 
 original of the apoftles, or, at leaft, to the molt ancient copies, 
 wherein there are no accents found. 
 
 At the end is added an appaiatus of grammars, dictionaries, 
 and indices or tables. — The chief author, Ximenes de Cineros, 
 cardinal and archbifhop of Toledo, in his dedication to pope 
 Leo X. obferves, that it was neccfiary to give the holy fcrip- 
 tures in their originals; there being no tranllation, how good 
 foever, that can render them perfectly. 
 
 The fecond Polyglott is that of Philip II. printed by Plantin at 
 Antwerp, in 1572. and the care of the edition impofed on Arias 
 Montanus. 
 
 In this, befides every thing in the bible of Complutum, there 
 arc added the Chaldee paraphrafes on the icft of the old tefta- 
 ment befide the pentateuch, with a Latin tranllation of thofe 
 paraphrafes. In this Polyglott is likewife a very literal Latin 
 verfion of the Hebrew text, for the ufe of thole who have a 
 mind to learn the Hebrew language. 
 
 As to the new teftament, befide the Greek and Latin of the 
 bible of Alcala, in this edition there is added an ancieru Synac 
 verfion, both in Syriac and Hebrew characters, with points, to 
 facilitate the reading thereof to thofe accuftomed to read He- 
 brew. — To the Syriac is likewife added a Latin one, compofed 
 by Guy le Fevre, who had the care of the Syriac verfion of 
 the new teftament. 
 
 Laftly, in the Polyglott of Antwerp is added a more copious 
 apparatus of grammars, dictionaries, Wfi than in that of Com- 
 plutum ; with feveral little treatifes judged necelfary for clear- 
 ing up the more difficult paflages in the text. 
 The third Polyglott is that of M. le Jay, printed at Paris in 1645. 
 which has this advantage over that of Philip II. that it has the 
 Syriac and Arabic vei lions of the old teftament with Latin 
 interpretations. — In the pentateuch it has likewife the Hebrew 
 and Samaritan text ; and the Samaritan verfion in Samaritan 
 characters. 
 
 As to the new teftament, befide every thing in the Polyglott of 
 Antwerp, here is added an Arabic tranllation with a Latin in- 
 terpretation. — But here are wanting the apparatus, and the 
 grammars and dictionaries, which are in both the former Po- 
 lyglott:, which renders this great work very imperfect. 
 The fourth Polyglott is that of London, printed in 1657. called 
 Walton's Polyglott, from the author of the edition, L>r. Brian 
 Walton, afterwards bilhop of Winchcfter. 
 This is indeed lefs magnificent than that of M. le Jay, with re- 
 gard both to the fize of the paper, and the beauty of the cha- 
 racters, but is in all other refpects preferable ; being both much 
 more ample, and more commodious. 
 
 In this, the vulgate is printed according to the revifed and cor- 
 rected edition of Clement Vllf. which is not done in that of 
 Paris, where the vulgate is printed as it ftands in that of Ant- 
 werp before that correction. 
 
 This likewife contains an interlineary Latin verfion of the He- 
 brew text ; whereas the Paris edition has no other Latin ver- 
 fion from the Hebrew befide the common vulgate : again, the 
 Greek feptuagint printed in this Polyglott is not the fame with 
 that printed in the bible ofComplutum, which was retained in 
 the editions of Antwerp and Paris, but the Greek text of the 
 edition of Rome : to which are added, the various readings of 
 another very ancient Greek copy called the Alexandrian, be- 
 caufe brought from Alexandria. 
 
 The Latin verfion of the Greek of the feptuagint is that pub- 
 lilhed by Flaminius Nobilius, by authority of pope Sixtus V. 
 Add, that in this Polyglott are found fome pans of the bible in the 
 Ethiopic andPerfian, nothing whereof appears in any of the reft. 
 Laftly, this edition has the advantage of piebmir.asy dilcourfes, 
 called, Prolegomena, on the text boih of the originals and ver- 
 fions ; with a volume of various readings of all the different 
 editions. 
 
 To the number of the Prfyghtti may likewife be added the two 
 pentateuchs printed by the Jews of Comtantinople, in four 
 languages ; but all in Hebrew characters. 
 In one of thefe pentateuchs, printed in 1551 . is found the He- 
 brew text in large characters; on one fide whereof is the 
 Chaldee paraphrafe of Onkelos in middling characters ; and on 
 the other fide a paraphrafe in the Pcrfian, compoled by a Jew, 
 one Jacob be Tous, fo called from the city where he lived. — 
 Befide thefe three columns, the Arabic paiaphrafe of Jaadias 
 Gaon is printed in final! characters at top of the pases , and 
 at bottom is added the commentary of Raich. 
 
 The 
 
POL 
 
 POL 
 
 The other Polyghtt was printed at Conftantinople in 154.7, in 
 three columns tike the former. — The Hebrew text of the law 
 is in the middle, a tranilarion into the vulgar Greek on one fide, 
 and a Spanifh tranilation on the other. Thefe ver lions are 
 both in Hebrew charaeteis, with points to determine the pro- 
 nunciation. At top of the page is added the Chaldee paraphrafe 
 of Onkelos, and at the bottom the commentaries of Raich. 
 To all thcfe may be added, as a feventh Polygh't, the Pfalter 
 publifhedby Aug. Juftinian, a Dominican, and bilhop of Ne- 
 bio, at Genoa, 1515; containing the Hebrew, Greek, Arabic, 
 and Chaldee, with Latin interpretations and glofies. 
 There aie alio various other editions of the bible either in 
 whole or in part, which might be ranged under the article of 
 Polyglctts ; though they are not fo denominated. — Such are the 
 Hcxapla and Oclapla of Origen. 
 
 And the bible of Flutter, printed at Hambourg, in Hebrew, 
 Chaidee, Greek, Latin, German, Saxon, Italian, French, Scla- 
 vonic, Danilh, dsV. 
 POLYGON *, v,>.vyu,&, in geometry, a multilateral figure, 
 or a riguie whole perimeter conlifts of more than four fides 
 and angles. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek iroXu;, many, and ym\et, 
 angle. 
 
 If the fides and angles be equal, the figure is called a regular 
 Polygon. For fimilar Polygons, fee Similar. 
 
 Polygons are diftinguiihed according to the number of their fides. 
 — Thole of five fides are called pentagons ; thofe of fix, hexa- 
 gons; thofc of feven, heptagons; thofe of eight, oclagons, £sV. — 
 The particular properties, EsV, of each whereof, fee under its 
 proper article, Pentagon, Hexacon, £sV. 
 
 General properties 0/" Polygons. — Euclid demonftrates thefe 
 which follow. — 1. That every Polygon may be divided into as 
 many triangles as it hath fides. 
 
 This is done by affirming a point, as F, (tab. ge0m.fig.2S.) 
 any-where within the Polygon, and thence drawing lines to 
 every angle F a, F b, F c, Yd, &t. 
 
 2. The angles of any Polygon taken together, make twice as 
 many right ones, abating four, as the figure hath fides. 
 Thus, if the PoQgon have five fides ; the double of that is 10 ; 
 ■whence fiibtrafiting 4, there lemain 6 right ones. 
 
 3. Every Polygon circumfcrlbed about a circle is equal to a 
 lectangled triangle, one of whofc legs is the radius of the cir- 
 cle, and the other the perimeter or fum of all the fides of the 
 Polygon. 
 
 Hence, every regular Polygon is equal to a rectangled triangle, 
 one of whofc legs is the perimeter of the Polygon, and the other 
 a perpendicular drawn from the centre to one ot die fides of 
 
 the Polygon. 
 
 Hence alfo every Polygon circumfcribed about a circle is bigger 
 than it ; and every Polygon inferibed, is lefs than the circle. 7 he 
 fame likewife appears hence, that the tiling containing is ever 
 greater than the thing contained. 
 
 And hence again, the perimeter of every Polygon circumfcribed 
 about a circle, is greater than the circumference of that circle ; 
 and ihe perimeter of every Polygon inferibed, lefs : whence it 
 follows, that a circle is equal to a right-angled triangle, whofe 
 bafe is the circumference of the circle, and its height the radi- 
 us; fince this triangle is lefs than any Polygon circumfcribed, 
 and greater than any inferibed. 
 
 Nothing therefore is wanted to the quadrature of the circle, but 
 to find a right line equal to the circumference of a circle. 
 
 To find the area of a regular Polygon. — Multiply a fide of the Po- 
 lygon, as A B, by half the number of the fides, c. gr. the fide of 
 a hexagon by 3. Again, multiply the product by a perpendi- 
 cular let fall from the centre of the circumicribing circle to 
 the fide A B ; the product is the area required. 
 Thus, fuppofe A B 54 ; and half the number of fides 2 i ; the 
 product or femiperimcter is 135. Suppofing then the perpen- 
 dicular F/ 29 j the product of thefe two, 3915, is the area of 
 the pentagon required. 
 
 "To find the area of cn irregular Polygon, or Trapezium.— Refolve 
 it. into triangles ; find the feveral areas of the feveral triangles; 
 fee Triangle. The fum of thefe is the area of the Poly- 
 gon required. 
 
 To find the fum of all the angles in any Polygon.— Multiply the 
 number of fides by 180 0 : From the product fub tract 360; 
 the remainder is the fum required. 
 
 Thus in a pentagon, 180 being multiplied by 5, gives 900 ; 
 whence fubti acting 360, there remain 540; the fum of the 
 angles of a pentagon. 
 
 Hence, if the fum found be divided by the number of fides, 
 the quotient will be the angle of a regular Polygon. 
 Or, the fum of the angles is more fpc?dily found thus : Multi- 
 ply 180 by a number lefs by two than the number of fides of 
 the Polygon ; the product is the quantity of the angles required : 
 thus 180 being multiplied by 3, a number lefs by 2 than that of 
 its fides, the product is 540, the quantity of angles as before. 
 The following table exhibits the fums ot the angles in all recti- 
 linear figures, from a triangle to a dodecagon ; and is of good 
 ufe both for the defcribing of regular figures, and for proving 
 ■whether or no the quantity of angles have been truly taken 
 with an inltrument. 
 
 
 A'umii. 
 Sides. 
 
 Sum. 
 Aiig. 
 
 Aug. ol 
 Reg. Fig. 
 
 Sides. 
 
 A'.v /.'/ . 
 Angl. 
 
 Aug. of 
 Reg. Fig. 
 
 
 III. 
 IV. 
 V. 
 VI. 
 VII. 
 
 180" 
 
 6o° 
 
 via. 
 
 IX. 
 X. 
 XI. 
 XII. 
 
 io8o tf 
 
 1260 
 
 1440 
 
 1620 
 
 1800 
 
 135 
 
 
 360 
 540 
 
 720 
 300 
 
 90 
 
 108 
 
 120 
 
 I28J 
 
 140 
 144 
 
 H7tt 
 150 
 
 To inferibe a regidarVotY gon in a circle. — Divide 360 by the num- 
 ber of fides in the Polygon required, to find the quantity of the 
 angle E F D. Set off" the angle at the centre, and apply the 
 chord thereof ED, to the periphery, as often as it will go. — 
 Thus will the Polygon be inferibed in the circle. 
 The refolution of this problem, though it be mechanical, yet 
 is not to be defpifed, becaufc both eafy and univerfal.— Euclid 
 indeed, gives us the confiruction of the pentagon, decagon, and 
 quindecagon ; and other authors give us thofe of the hepta- 
 gon, enneagon, and hendecagon ; but they are far from geo- 
 metrical ftrictnefs. 
 
 Renaldinus lays down a catholic rule for the defcribing of all 
 Polygons, which many other geometricians have borrowed 
 from him ; but Wagnerus and Wolfius have both demonftra- 
 ted the fallity thereof. 
 On a regular Polygon to circumfcribe a circle : or, to circumfcribe a 
 regular Polygon upon a circle. — Bifect two of the angles of the 
 given Polygon A andE, by the right lines A F and EF, con- 
 curring inF; and from the point of concourfe with the radius 
 E F defcribe a circle. 
 
 To circumfcribe a Polygon, &c. divide 360 by the number of 
 fides required, tofind<?F^; which fet off from the centre F, 
 and draw the line ed; on this conitruct the Polygon, as in the 
 following problem. 
 
 On a given line E D, to defcribe any given regular Polygon. — Find 
 an angle of the Polygon in the table; and in E fet oflf an angle 
 equal thereto, drawing E A=E D. Through the three points 
 A E D defcribe a circle. In this apply the given right line as 
 often as it will go. — Thus will the required figure be defcribed. 
 
 To inferibe or circumfcribe a regular Polygon trigonometrically. — Find 
 the fine of the arch produced by dividing the femiperiphery 
 180 by the number of fides of the Polygon : the double of this 
 is the chord of the double arch ; and therefore the fide A E 
 to be inferibed in the circle. — If then the radius of a circle, 
 wherein, e. gr. a pentagon is to be inferibed, be given in any 
 certain meafure, e. gr. 345, the fide of the pentagon is found 
 in the fame meafure by the rule of three, thus : as radius 1000 
 is to 1176; fo is 3450 to 4057, the fide of the pentagon. — 
 With the given radius therefore defcribe a circle; and therein 
 fet off the fide of the Polygon as often as it will go ; thus will 
 a Polygon be inferibed in the circle. 
 
 To lave the trouble of finding the ratio of the fide of the Po- 
 lygon to radius, by the canon of fines ; we fhall add a table 
 expieffing the fides of Polygons in fuch parts whereof radius 
 contains 100000000. In practice, as many figutes are cutoff 
 from the right-hand, as the circumftances of the cafe render 
 need lefs. 
 
 Numb. 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Numb. 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Sides. 
 
 Side. 
 
 Sides. 
 
 Side. 
 
 III. 
 
 17320508 
 
 VIII. 
 
 7653668 
 
 IV. 
 
 14142135 
 
 IX. 
 
 684O4O2 
 
 .v.v 
 
 1 1755705 
 
 X. 
 
 6180339 
 
 VI. 
 
 10000000 
 
 XI. 
 
 56346SI 
 
 VII. 
 
 8677674 
 
 XII. 
 
 51/6380 
 
 To defcribe a regular Polygon, on a given right line, and to circum- 
 fcribe a circle about a given Polygon, trigonometrically. — Taking 
 the ratio of the fide to the radius out of the table ; find the 
 radius in the fame meafure wherein the fide is given. For 
 the fide and radius being had, a Polygon may be defcribed by 
 the laft problem. And if with the interval of the radius, arches 
 be ftruck from the two extremes of the given line, the point of 
 interfection will be the centre of the circumfcribing circle. 
 
 Polygon, in fortification, denotes the figure or perimeter of a 
 fortrefs, or fortified place. See Fortification. 
 
 Exterior Polygon, is a right line drawn from the vertex or 
 point of a bafiion, to the vertex or point of the next adja- 
 cent baftion. See Bastion. 
 Such is the line C F, tab. fortification, fig. 1. 
 
 Interior Polycon, is a right line drawn from the centre of one 
 baftion to the centre of another. Such is the line G H. 
 
 Line c/~Polygons, is a line on the French lectors, containirg the 
 homologous fides of the firft 9 regular Polygons inferibed in 
 the fame circle, e. from an equilateral triangle to a dodeca- 
 gon. See Sector. 
 
 Polygonal column. See the article Column. 
 
 Polygonal number, in algebra, is the fum of a rank of numbers 
 in arithmetical progreflion, beginning from unity :— thus called, 
 by reafon the units of which it confifts, may be fo difpofed as to 
 reprelent the Figure of feveral equal iides and angles. 
 
 Polygonal 
 
POL 
 
 Pdygonal Numbers are divided, with refpect to the number of 
 their terms, into triangular, which are thofe whole difference 
 of terms is i ; quadrangular or fquare, where it is 2 ; pentagonal, 
 where 3 ; hexagonal, where 4 ; heptagonal, where 5 i oftagottal, 
 where 6, tifV. 
 
 They have their names from the geometrical figures, into which 
 points correfponding to their units may be difpoied, e. gr. three 
 points correiponding to the three units of a triangular num- 
 ber, may be difpofed into a triangle ; and fo of the reft. 
 The generis of the feveral kinds of polygonal numbers from the 
 feveral arithmetical progrellions, may be conceived from the 
 following examples. 
 
 Arithmetical progreffion 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 6, 7, 8 
 
 Triangular numbers 1, 3 6, 10, 15, 21 28, 36 
 
 Arithmetical progreflion 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 
 
 Square numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64 
 
 Arithmetical progreffion 1, 4 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22 
 
 Pentagonal numbers 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, 51, 70, 92 
 
 Arithmetical progreffion 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, 29 
 
 Hexagonal numbers 1, 6, 15, 28, 45, 66, 91, 120 
 
 ^fo/a Polygonal number, is the number of terms of the 
 arithmetical progreffion that compofe it : and 'the number of, 
 angles is that which (hows how many angles that figure has, 1 
 whence the polygonal number takes its name. 
 The number of angles, therefore, in triangular numbers, is 3, 
 in tetragonal 4, in pentagonal 5, daV. Confequently the num- 
 ber of angles exceeds the common difference of terms, by two. 
 
 To find a Polygonal rtumbcr, the fide and number of its angles 
 being given. The canon is this : The polygonal number is the 
 femi-difference of the factums of thefquare of the fide into the 
 number of angles diminifhed by two units ; and of the iide it- 
 felf into the number of angles diminifhed by four units. 
 The fums of polygonal numbers collected in the fame mariner 
 as the polygonal numbers themfelves are, out of arithmetical 
 progrellions, are called pyramidal numbers. 
 
 POLYGRAPHY *, Polygraphia, or Polycraphice, 
 the art of writing in various unufual manners or cyphers ; as 
 alfo the art of decyphering the fame. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, ntf.-j, multum, and yg4fjj, 
 fcriptura, writing. 
 
 The word is ufually confounded with Jleganography and cryp- 
 tography. 
 
 The ancients feem to have been very little acquainted with this 
 art; nor is there any mark of their having gone beyond the 
 Lacedaemonian fcytala. See Scytala. 
 Trithemius, Porta, Vigenere, and father Niceron, have writ- 
 ten on the fubjecr. of Polygraphy or cyphers. See Cypher. 
 POLYHEDRON *, or Polyebron, w,*y £ tye*, in geometry, a 
 body comprehended under many rectilinear fides or planes. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek tanh-j, much, and \l<^a.,fcat. 
 If the fides of the Polyhedron be regular Polygons, all fimilar 
 and equal ; the Polyhedron becomes a regub.r body, and may be 
 inferibed in a fphere, that is, afpheremay be drawn round it, 
 fo as its furface fhall touch alt the fbl id angles of the body. 
 
 Mnemonic Polyhedron, is a ftone with feveral faces, whereon 
 are projected various kinds of dials. See Dial. 
 Of this kind that in the Privy-garden, London, now gone to 
 ruin, was anciently thetineft in the world. 
 
 Polyhedron, oi'Polyscope, in optics, is a glafs or lens con- 
 futing of feveral plain furfaces, difpofed into a convex form ; 
 popularly called a multiplying-glafs. 
 
 The phenomena of the Polyhedron are as follow If feveral 
 rays , as E F, A B, C D, {tab. optics, fig. 71.) fall parallel on 
 the furface of a Polyhedron, they will continue parallel after re- 
 fraction. 
 
 If then the Polyhedron be fuppokd regular, L H, H I, I M, will 
 be as tangents cutting the lpherical convex lens in E, B, andD 
 confequently, rays falling on the points of contact, ijite.fect 
 the axis. — Wherefore, fincethe reft are parallel to thefe, they 
 alfo will mutually interfect each other in CJ. 
 Hence, if the eye be placed where parallel rays decuffate, 
 rays of the fame object will be propagated to it.it.ill parallel 
 from the feveral fides of the glafs. Wherefore, fmce the chry- 
 ftalline humour, by its convexity, unites parallel rays ; the 
 rays will be united in as many ditferent points of the retina, a, 
 b, c, as the glafs has fides. 
 
 .Confequently, the eye, through a Pnlyhedren, fees the object re- 
 peated as many times as there are fides.— And hence, iincc 
 rays coming from remote objects are parallel ; a remote object 
 is feen as often repeated through a Polyhedron, as that has fides. 
 2. If rays A B, A C, A D, ( fig. 72/) proceeding from a ra 
 diant point A, fall on feveral fides of a regular Polyhedron , 
 after refraction they will deeuifate in G, and proceed on a 
 little diverging. 
 
 Hence, if the eye be placed where the rays coming from the 
 feveral planes deeuifate, the rays will be propagated to it from 
 the feveral planes a little diverging, /. e. as if they proceeded 
 horn different points. But fince the chryftallinchumour, by its 
 convexity, collects rays from feveral points into the lame 
 Vol. II. 
 
 POL 
 
 point ; the rays will be united in as many different points of 
 the retina, a, 6,e, as the glafs has fides ; confequently, the eye 
 being placed in the focus G, will fee even a near object repeat . 
 ed as otten through the Polyhedron, as that has fides. 
 Thus may the images of objecls be multiplied in a camera ob- 
 feura, by placing a Polyhedron at its aperture) and adding a con- 
 Vex lens at a due diftance from it.-And it makes a very 
 plealant appearance, if a prifm be applied fo as the coloured 
 rays of the fun refracted therefrom be leceived on the Pdyhe- 
 drm : forty this means they will be thrown on a paper or wall 
 near at hand in little lucid lpccks, much exceeding the bright- 
 nefs of any precious ftone ; and in the focus of the Polyhedron 
 where the rays deeuifate, (for in this experiment they are re- 
 ceived on the convex iide) will be a ftar of furprifintr l u fi- re 
 If images be painted in water-colours in the areola; or little 
 fquares of a Polyhedron, and the glafs applied to the aperture of 
 
 carry 
 
 a camera obfeura ; the fun's rays parting through it, will 
 with them the images thereof, and project them on tire oppo 
 
 fite wall. 
 
 This artifice bears a refemblance to that other, whereby an 
 image on paper is projected on the camera, viz. by wetting the 
 paper with ojl, and (training it tight in a frame ; then applying 
 it to the aperture of the camera obfeura, fo as the rays of a 
 candle maypafs through it upon the Polyhedron. 
 To make an amimorphofti or deformed image, which through a Poly- 
 hedron or mu!tipIying-glafs,/&//#.?r regah' and kamiful... 
 At one end of a horizontal table erect another at rirht-an- 
 gles, whereon a figuie may be defigned ; and on the other 
 erect another, to feive as a fulcrum or fupport, moveable on 
 the horizontal one. — To the fulcrum apply a plano-convex 
 Polyhedron, coniilfing, e. gr. of 24 plain triangles ; let the Po- 
 lyhedron be fitted in a draw tube, whereof that end towards the 
 eye to have only a very fmall aperture, and a little further off 
 than the focus. — Remove the fulcrum from the other perpen- 
 dicular table, till it be out of the diftance of the focus ; and 
 that more, as the image is to be greater. — Before the little 
 aperture place a lamp; and trace the luminous areola: pro- 
 jected from the fides of the Polyhedron, with a black lead pen- 
 cil, on the vertical plane, or a paper applied theteon. 
 In thefe feveral areolae, defign the feveral parts of an image, in 
 inch manner as that when joined together, they may make one 
 whole, looking afreth every now and then through the tube, fo 
 guide, correct, tic. the colours, and to fee that the feveral parts 
 match aptly together. 
 
 The intermediate tpace fill up with any figures or defigns 
 at pleafure, contriving it fo, as that to the naked eye the whole 
 may exhibit fome appearance very different from that intend- 
 ed to to appear through the Polyhedron. 
 
 The eye now looking through the little aperture of the tube 
 will fee the feveral parts and members difperfed among the 
 areolre to exhibit one continued image, all the intermediate 
 ones difappearing. See Anamorphosis. 
 POLYMATHY *, Polymathia, *:t.vfu&>*, the knowledge 
 of many arts and feiences j or an acquaintance with a great 
 number of different fubjeds. 
 •The word comes from the Greek man, nullum, autl aaAml 
 di/co, I learn. 
 
 Lipfius, Scaliger, Kircher, Pefavius, Grotius, Salmafius, Leib- 
 nitz, (He. were famous foe Polynmthy.— Among the ancients, 
 filch as were eminent this way were called Pclyhijhces, 
 Polymcthy is frequently little more than a confufed heap of ufe- 
 lefs erudition, occafionally detailed, either pertinently or im 
 pertinently, for parade.— The genuine Pdymathy is an exten- 
 five erudition, or a knowledge of a great number of things 
 well digefied and applied to the purpofe, and never but whe're 
 they are neceffary. 
 POLYMYTHY, Poiymythia, in poetry, denotes a multi- 
 plicity of fables, in an epic or dramatic poem; in lieu of an 
 unity, or a fingle one. 
 
 ft4'wy.'*w is a great fault— It confifts in joining a number of 
 difhncr aftions or fables into one complex body. 
 Such a work BofTu compares to the batrachomyomachia, or 
 one of the fables of ffifop : And filch would be the idea of a 
 Theleid, an Heracleid, an Achilleid, or the like poems, which 
 fhould comprehend all the actions of thole heroes, compa- 
 red with the Iliad or TEneid. 
 POLYNOMIAL, or multinomial roots, in mathematics. See 
 
 Multinomial and Root. 
 POLYOPTRUM •, in optics, a glafs through which objecls 
 appear multiplied, but diminilhed. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek irsAy, much, many, ar.d 
 MMspeit, I fee. 
 
 The Polyoptrum differs both in ftruclui e and phenomena from 
 the common multiplying-glalfes, called polyhedra. 
 Conflnalion of the Polyoptrum. -In aglafs, plain on both fides, 
 A B, {tab. optics, fig. 73.) and about three fingers thick, cut out 
 lpherical fegments, fcarce a fifth part of a digit in diameter. 
 If then the glafs be removed from the eye, Till you can take in 
 all the cavities at one view, you will fee the fame object, as if 
 through fo many feveral concave glaffcs, as there a: e cavities, 
 and all exceeding fmall. 
 
 9 F Fit 
 
POL 
 
 Fit this as an objea-glafs, in a tube AE C D, whole aperture 
 AB is equal to the diameter of the glafs, and the other CD is 
 'equalto thatofaneye-glafs, e. gr. about a finger's breadth. 
 The length of the tube A C to be accommodated to the object 
 and eve-glafs, by trial. 
 
 InCDfitaconvexeye-glafs, or in lieu thereof a menifcus, 
 havin" the diftance of its principal focus a little larger than the 
 lcneth of the tube ; fo that the point from which the rays di- 
 Verge after refraction in theobjed-glafs, may be in thefocus.,- 
 If then the eye be applied near to the eye-glafs, a tingle object 
 will be feen repeated as often as there are cavities in the objcct- 
 elafs, but ftill diminifhed. . 
 
 POLYPETALOUS*, in botany, a flower confiding ot leverai 
 netala, or leaves. . 
 
 * The word comes from «sto, nullum, and aMta pilalum. 
 The corolla: of flowers conflft either of alingle continued petti- 
 Ion, whence they are called mmopttahus ; or ot feveral diltmct 
 pieces, whence they are named pitypctakus. 
 Pahpetahus flowers are either regular or irregular. 
 
 Regular Polypetalous flwttf, according to fomc botanitts 
 
 POL 
 
 are cither thofc confiding of two pieces, as thecirccea flower, or 
 of four, thence nWrtcrejs-flowers, as the flower ot the clove-tree 
 or of rive, ufually umbelliferous, as fennel ; or of fix, as the white 
 lily, thence called the lily-kind. 
 
 Thofe exceeding this number, in any quantity, equal or une- 
 qual, form anew clafs of pofyMalm flowers ; among which 
 are alfo ranked all thofe, whole fruits differ fo horn the reft, 
 that the rules of genera rcquiie that they "be diftinguilhed from 
 
 Such'is the flower of the water plantain, which though it has 
 only three leaves, yet by the relation ot" its feed with that ot the 
 ranunculus, is ranged in this laft clafs.-Such alio is the flower 
 of tormentil; which by B eaipn of the difterence ot its tnut trom 
 thefiliquxor iilicukeof the crofs-ftowcrs, cannot be ranged 
 amon( r them.— Such alio is the pink, which, though conhtting 
 of five pieces, yet is excluded the clafs of umbelliferous p ants : 
 becaufe its fruit is not divided into two parts.— Such, ftftr, an 
 the flowers of fome ranunculus's, houic-leek, and anemonies j 
 which, though they have fix petala, yet never produce touts 
 divided into three lodges, as thofe ot the lily-kind ; and there- 
 fore cannot belong to their clafs. 
 
 Irregular Polypet alous /lowers, are fo called from the odd 
 figure and difpolition of their petala, what number ot them 
 foever they have. „ -j , . f - 
 
 Such are thole in two pieces relembhng two chaps, as m turni- 
 tory ; or thofe of five pieces refembliog butterflies : theie laft 
 are common to all leguminous plants. 
 
 POLYPODY *, Polypodiumj m botany, a plant of the para- 
 fitaical kind, of coniiderable ufe in medicine, crY. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek toqtet, and ftot, in re- 
 ■ <-afd the root of the plant ciings to walls and trees, by a great 
 number Df little fibres like claws. 
 Difpenfatory writers make two kinds of this plant : — Cerumen 
 Pohpody, and Polypody of the oak. The rirft ufually grows on 
 old walls in the country, among mofs, tsc. the latter called alio 
 by fome eakrftrn, from the refcmblance it bears to tern, grows 
 about the roots of that and other trees, in the places where 
 they lhoot or fpread out, feeding on a little earth, collected 
 there horn the duff blown about by the wind, and watered 
 with the rain. 
 
 Polypody of the oak, pchpcdium qucranum, is fuppoied the better 
 of the two.— It muft'bc chofen new, well-fed, dry, brittle, 
 of a tan-red without, green within, of a fweet tafte reiembling 
 
 liquorice. . ' " ■ ^ /^ffi* *ss£ 
 
 The root is what is chiefly uled in medicine, being cftecmed 
 cathartic ; though Dr. Qiuncy fays it is no more than a com- 
 mon detergent ; in which capacity it ismuchprefcribedm me- 
 
 ' dicatcd ales againft the jaundice, fcurvy, obftiuctions of the 
 vifeera, fcfr. See Supplement * article Polypody. 
 
 pQkYPTOTON, ce^uvttwtw, in rhetoric, a figure wherein the 
 the fame word is repeated in different cafes, genders, or num- 
 bers i.e. with difteient terminations. See Figure. 
 Such is that of Cicero, pro Arch. Sed pleni fuut omnes libri, 
 plerns fapientum voces., plena exemplorum vetujhs. So Virg. /En. 
 /. 4. v. 28. . 
 Littora littoribus contraria, flttclibus undas 
 Imprecor; arma cirmis pugnent. — 
 
 POLYPUS **Af*tfti or •Mi*©', in medicine, a ftefhy tumour, 
 orexcrcfcence arifmgon the infide of the noftriis, prejudicial 
 to refpiration andlpeech; called alio, by way of diftmction, 
 Polypus uaritim. . 
 This Polypus arifes by feveral Roots from the os cnbofum, and 
 hangs down, fometimcs as low as the lip ; growing likewife 
 backwards, fo as to ftop the hole of the palate, whereby the 
 air and pituita defcend out of the nofe down into the throat j 
 and by this means fti angling the patient. 
 It has its name from the refcmblance it bears to the h&i polypus. 
 called the pourcontnl, or many-fat. — Some derive the name 
 fiom the refemblance its fubftancc bears to that of the Polypus 
 and others, from the refemblance its many roots bear to the 
 many feet of that fiih. 
 
 If it have no roots, or only one continued root, it is called ; 
 
 - farcenni, which is only a beginning Polypus. See Sarcoma. 
 Polypus** arc chiefly totlttd m fcrophuluus or cancel ous confti 
 
 tutions, along with venereal cafes, ulcers^ ozcenas, £JV. — Can- 
 ities, emollient fomentations, extirpation, and directive pow- 
 ders and lotions are the ufual remedies. 
 Polypus is alfo uled for a morbid excrefcence in the heart, con- 
 fiding of a tough concretion of grumous blood lodged therein. 
 Malpighi gives a very accurate defcription of this Polypus. In 
 the right ventricle of the heart, lie obferves, it is ufually larger, 
 and of a paler colour, like pituita, with reddiih or blackifh 
 ftieaks ; in the left ventricle it is fmaller, blacker, and denier.— 
 He adds, that it feems to have a fort of organifnr, and appears 
 like a congeries of pellicles ftretched over one another, which 
 form a kind of nervous compages. 
 
 Polypus's are often found upon opening the bodies of per* 
 fons dying apoplectic ; and are doubtleis frequently the ccca - 
 fion of hidden death. — They are feldom difcovercd till they 
 have difpatched the patient. 
 
 It is however a difpute among phyficians, whether Polypus's be 
 produced any coniiderable time before,or always immediately 
 after death f — Mr. Gould has an exprefs difcourfe in the pbihf. 
 tranjac-t. to evince the former. 
 Polypus of the lungs. — In phiiof. tranfacl. Dr. Rob. Clarke gives 
 us a very odd mflancc of a patient, who cougffd up, at times, 
 feveral hundred Polypus's of the lungs. 
 
 They teemed to have fome organization, and were all perfectly'" 
 alike.-— The patient faid, though they had no life, he had fre- 
 quently prelfed a ilimy matter out of the body of them. 
 Dr. Lifter obferves, that fuch Pdypus\ are formed in the re- 
 moter and deeper branches of the afpeia artciia, whence thev 
 are very difficult to get up. — The patient above-mentioned 
 never brought them up till after a continued coughing of half 
 a day and night. 
 
 He adds,that tlicy are nothing butvifcous excretionsof thefmall 
 glands, hard baked in thofe parts whole form they receive.— 
 M. Jiuiiliere obferves, they aie frequently miftaken for pieces 
 of the blood-veifels or lungs. 
 POLYP YRENEOUS *, fruits, in botany, are fuch as contain 
 feveral kernels or feeds. 
 
 * They are thus called from the Greek rniShv, much, and <mppw, ker- 
 nel, or berry. 
 
 POLYSCOPE, a multiplying-glafs, e. a glafs which repre- 
 fents one object to the eye as if it were many ; called alfo Po-, 
 lyhedron. 
 
 POLYSP ASTON *, tfstawttwrw, in mechanics, a machine fo 
 denominated by Vitruvius, confuting of an allcmblage of feve- 
 ral pullies, uled for railing of huge weights in a little time. 
 
 * The word conies from the Greek ■r-Ttii^ and sisau, traho, 1 draw, 
 y. d. that may be drawn many ways. 
 
 The multiplication of pullies in the pclyfpa/lon, is to very good 
 purpofe ; it being demonftratcd in mechanics, that the force 
 required to fuftain a weight by means of a polyfpajlon, is to> 
 the weight itfelf as unity to the number of ropes, or of the 
 pullies } thofe ropes or pullies being fuppofed parallel to each 
 other. See Pulley. 
 
 Hence the number of pulleys, and the power being given,; 
 the weight that will be luftained thereby Ss ealily found, viz. 
 by multiplying the power by the weight. 
 E. gr. Suppofe the power 50 pounds, and the number of 
 pullies 5, the weight they will balance is 250 pounds. 
 In like manner, the number of pullies being given, together witii 
 the weight fuflained, the power is found by dividing the weight 
 by the number of pullies : Thus, if the weight be goo pounds, 
 and the number of pullies 6, the power will be 150 pounds. 
 Dechales obferves, that it is found by experience, that a mode- 
 rate man, ftanding barely on die ground, will lift 150 pounds ; 
 whence the fame man, by means of a polyfpajhn confirming of 
 6 pullies, will be able to fuftain 900 pounds. 
 The power of the pullies will be ftill exceedingly incrcafed by 
 joining leverai pclyjpajhns. 
 
 To find the number of pullies a polyfpajhn is to confift of, to 
 raife a given weight by a given power.— Divide the weight by 
 the power ; the quotient is the number required. 
 Suppofe, e. gr. the weight 600 pounds, and the power 150; 
 the pullies will be 4; whole diameters are to be all equal, lup- 
 pofing two of them upper and two lower, moveable on the 
 fame common axes. 
 POLYSPERMOUS * mttkoamtf^, in botany, is applied to fuch 
 plants as have more than four feeds fueceeding each flower, 
 without any certain order or number. See Plant. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek criAy, and a^-.f^st, feed. 
 Thefe Mr. Ray makes a diftinct kind of herbs, calling them 
 herba femine nudo polyfperma \ where, by femiae nudo^ are meant 
 fuch feeds as do not put off fpontaneoufly the integuments or 
 coverings which they either have, or appear to have, but fall 
 olf whole from the mother-plant. See Seed. 
 
 Polyfpermous herbs are fubdivided into, 1. Such as have a calyx 
 or perianthium, confift ing either, rirft, of three leaves, and the 
 flower tripetalous, as the plantago aquatica, and the fagittaria, 
 both water-plants; or the flower polypetalous, and the calyx 
 falling with it, as the chelidonium minus ; or remaining after 
 the flower is dropped, as in the hepatica mobilis. Secondly, 
 of five leaves^ in fome deciduous with the flower, as in ths 
 ranunculus; in others perennial, as in the hdleborus niger fe- 
 rulaceus ; or annual, as in the flos Adonis. Thirdly, of eight 
 
 leaves, 
 
POM 
 
 f eaves j as the malva and alcea. Fourthly, of ten leaves, as the 
 caryophylla, fragaria, pentaphyllum, tormentilla, argenthta, 
 althaea, and pentaphylloides. 
 
 2. Such as have no calyx or perianthium ; as the clematitis, 
 lilipendula, ulmaria, anemone nemorum, pulfatilla, £srY. 
 
 POLYSTYLE colonnade. See the article Colonnade. 
 
 POLYSYLLABICAL echoes, thofe which repeat many fyllables 
 or words. 
 
 POLYSYLLABLE *, ^va-v^^, in grammar, a word con- 
 fifting of more than three fyllables. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, note, much; and o-uWiaC©-, 
 fyllable. 
 
 A word of one fyllable is called a momfyllable ; one of two, 
 difyllabk i one of three, trijyllablc ; one of four or more, poly- 
 fylhbk. 
 
 POLYSYNDETON, nfovovtl^ui, in rhetoric, a figure confid- 
 ing in the abundance, or even fupertiuity, of conjunctions co- 
 pulative. 
 
 Such is, me pra caicris b* ftjgft is* obfervat, & diligit. — In oppo- 
 fition to this frauds afyndeton. See Asyndeton. 
 POLYTHEISM *, the doctrine, or belief of a plurality of gods. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek, anXv, much, and 9f£<, Baa. 
 See Idolatry. 
 
 POMADA, an exercife of vaulting the wooden horfe, by laying 
 one hand over the pommel of the fiddle. 
 
 POMATUM, or Pom a do, a competition of apples, with lard 
 and rofe-water; ufed by way of unguent on many occafions, 
 particularly fordifeafes of the ikin, pimples, fcurfs, c?V. and to 
 foften the hands, render the tkin fmooth, the complexion 
 frefh, & : c f 
 
 Pomatums are occafionaliy made with jelTamins, oranges, jon- 
 quils, tuberofes, &c. u e. they are perfumed with the odours 
 of thofe flowers. 
 
 The beft is faid to be that prepared of kid's greafe, pippins, an 
 orange fiiced, with a glafs of rule-water, and half a glafs of 
 white-wine, boiled and ftrained, and at laft fprinkled with oil 
 of fweet almonds. 
 
 The unguentum Pantaium, prefcribed by the college difpenfa- 
 tory, confifts of hog's lard, Iheep's fuel, the apple called pome- 
 water, rofe-water and orrice root, boiled till the apples are 
 foft, ftrained, and perfumed with oil of rhodium. 
 Dr. Quincy obferves, that the apple is of no fignificance at all 
 in the recipe; and that the common Pomatum fold in the 
 flaops is only lard beat* into a cream, with rofe-water, and 
 fcented with lemons, thyme, or the like. 
 POME, among gardeners. — To PoMS 3 is to grow or knit into 
 a round head, fomewhat like an apple. 
 
 Thus, they fay, a cabbage begins to pome, feV.— They fometimes 
 ufe the term, to cabbage, in the fame fenfe. 
 POMEGRANATE*, malus punica, or granata, a medicinal 
 fruit, in form of an apple or quince ; full of feeds or kernels, 
 inclofed within a reddiffi pulp, fometimes fweet, fometimes 
 acid. * 
 
 * It is denominated from the abundance of its grains or kernels ; q. d. 
 pomum granatum, a kernelled apple ; or from the country where it 
 was anciently produced, viz. Granada. 
 
 The Pomegranate tree is of two kinds, the one wild, which pro- 
 duces a kind of flowers Ufed in pharmacy, called balaujlia. 
 The other, cultivated in gardens, whereof there are again two 
 kinds ; the one only bearing flowers ; the other, both flowers 
 and fruit. — The flowers of each, called cytini, are inclofed in 
 an oblong purple calyx, refembling a bell. 
 The trees never grow high ; their branches are a little prickly; 
 their leaves referable thofe of the greater myrtle ; and their fruit, 
 which is compofed of a great number of red angular grains, 
 fometimes fweet, fometimes four, and fometimes vinous, ac 
 cording to the quality of the tree, are all inclofed in little di 
 fHnct cells, and covered, in common, with a thick brownifh 
 rind. Over this grows a kind of crowning, of the fame 
 ture with the rind, formed of a production of the calyx. 
 In the general, Pomegranates are not only agreeable to the taftc, 
 but good for the ftomach, and of confidcrablc ufe in medicine. 
 Of the kernels are made fyrops and conferves ; and the peel or 
 rind, which is called malicorium, is held very aftringent, and is 
 an ingredient in feveralremedics and ptifans, fordyfenteries, di- 
 arrhoea's, iienteries, hemorrhages, and relaxations cf the 
 gums. — The ancients ufed the rind as the moderns do fumac, 
 in the preparation of leather. 
 
 The rind ought always to be dried, after the grains are taken 
 out ; that dried without fcouping always tafting mufty, and 
 being more likely to increafe diftcmpers, than cure them. 
 As to the conferve, there is but little of the true fold ; it being 
 very difficult to make —That which ordinarily partes for it is 
 only fugar melted down ; to which they give the colour and 
 (harp taite,with cochineel, cieam of tartar, and alum. 
 POMEIS, in heraldry, are green roundles; fo called by the 
 Engliih heralds, who expa-fs different coloured roundles by 
 diftinet names. 
 
 The French, who content themfelvcs to denote the different 
 coiour of the mundles, call the pomeis, torteaux vert. 
 POMIFEROUa' *, apple-bearing, in botany, a name given 
 
 PON 
 
 to thofe pkhts which have the largeft fruit, covered wilfi 
 a thick hard rind ; by which they are diftinguiihed from the 
 bacciferous, which have only a thin (kin over the fruit. 
 
 • Tlfc word is formed from pmum, apple, and f„ a , I bear ' 
 The pemijerous kind have a naked monopetalous flower, divi- 
 ded into five partitions, and growing oti the top Of the Cue- 
 ceeding fruit. — They are divided into 
 
 1. Capreolatc, or thofe creeping along the ground, £s7. by means 
 of tendrils ; as the cucurbita, rnclo, cutumisi ce'po, baifarfiina ' 
 ariguria, and colocynthis. 
 
 2. Without eaprcoli, or tendrils, as the cUcu;b. ; :a clypeata or 
 melo-cepo clypeiformis. ; 
 
 POMME', or Fommbtte; in heraldry,— a crofs petnme, or tern- 
 mate, called alfo trophic, is a crofs with a ball or knob, like ari 
 apple, at each end. 
 
 POMMEL, or Pummel, in the manage, a piece of brafs of 
 other matter .at top and in the middle of the faddle-bow, to 
 which are fattened the holders, ftirrup-leathers, faV. 
 
 Pommel is alfo a round ball of (i)ver, Heel, or the like, fixed at 
 the end of the guard and grafp of a fword ; to ferve, in fomc 
 meafure, as a counterpoife. 
 
 Balzac obfervet, that there are ftill extant charters and privi- 
 leges granted by Charlemagne, which were fealed with the 
 Pommel of his fword, which, ordinarily, hepromifes to defend 
 with the fame fword. 
 
 POMMETTE', See the article Pomme'. 
 
 POMP. See the articles Circus, Cavalcade, &f>. 
 
 POMPHOLYX *, in pharmacy, a fort of metalline 
 
 flower ; being a white, light and friable fubftance, found ad- 
 hering to the lid or cover of the crucibles or furnaces, where- 
 in copper is melted with calamine ftone, for the making of 
 brafs. 
 
 « The word is Creek, where it literally denotes a bubble emfm m 
 
 I! is elfcemed deterfivc and deficcativc, though only applied 
 externally. 
 
 The apothecaries fometimes call it nil, or nihili album, and 
 fometimes white tatty, in regard of its refemblance to tutty in 
 virtue. 
 
 POMUM Adami^ in anatomy, a protuberance in the foie-pait 
 of the throat. 
 
 Some fanfy it is thus called upon. a lTiange conceit, that 3 
 piece of the forbidden apple, which Adam eat, (luck by tire 
 Way, and was the occalion of it. 
 
 In reality, it is only the convex part of the firit cartilage of the 
 
 larynx, called jeuuformis. 
 POND, in geography, a little lake, which neither receives iior 
 
 emits its waters into any river. 
 Fijh Ponds. See the article Fish ponds. 
 
 PONDERATE, in our ancient cuftoms, a method of curin? 
 (ick children, by weighing them at the tomb of fome faint"; 
 counterpoising or balancing the fcale with money, wheat- 
 bread, or any other thing the parents were willing to offer to 
 God, his faints, or the church. 
 
 But a fum of money was always to make part of the Counter- 
 balance. By this means the cure was effected.— Ad fipulchnim 
 ■fon£ii\ niimnlo fe ponderabat. — 
 
 PONDUS, weight. See the article Weight. 
 
 Pondus, in ancient records, denotes a duty paid to the king 
 according to the weight of merchandizes. 
 
 Pondus regis, the (tandard-weights anciently appointed by the 
 king ; being that which we now call Trey-wiight. See Stand- 
 ard and Troy-weight. 
 
 ^/Pondus omnium. See the article Ad. 
 
 Tcmpcrmnentum ad Pondus. See Temperamentiim. 
 
 PONE, a writ, whereby a caufe depending in the county or 
 other inferior court, is removed to the common.pleas or 
 fometimes to the king's-bench. 
 
 Poke, per vadium, is a writ commanding the fheriffto take Orre- 
 ry of one for his appearance at a day alfigned. 
 
 PONIARD », a little pointed dagger, very lharp edged ; borne 
 in the hand, or at the girdle, or hid in the pocket. 
 » The word is formed from the French p„rnard, and that from 
 poignce, handful. 
 
 The Poniard was anciently in very great ufe, but is now in good 
 meafure fet afide, except among alTaffins. See Assassin. 
 Sword and Poniard were the ancient arms of dueliifts ; and are 
 faid to continue dill fo among the Spaniards.— The practice of 
 fword and Poniard ftill make a part of the exercife taught by 
 the mailers of defence. 
 PONS varsii, or varolii ; or Pons cerebri, in anatomy, the upper 
 part of a duct in the third ventricle of the brain, fituate in 
 the cetebcllum, and leading to the infundibulum. — See tab 
 anat.\ofleol.)fg. S . litl.g.g. 
 
 It is thus called from its difeoverer, Varolus, an Italian phy- 
 fician, who riourilhcd in the univerfity of Padua about tho 
 year 1572. 
 
 PONTAGE, Pontagium, a contribution towards the main- 
 tenance, repairing, and rebuilding of bridges. See Bridge. 
 This was anciently one of the three geneial national charges, 
 whence no pcrfon of any degree whatever was exempted. 
 
 The 
 
POP 
 
 The three things called trtoda mce£itas s whence, Ingulpluis 
 tells us, nulllpo flint laxari, were, the expedition to the wars, 
 the building of caftles, and the buildingand repairing of bridges. 
 Mr. Selden" in his notes on Eadmerus, obferves, that «f qmdem 
 epifcopi, abbales, cs 5 monachi immunes eir.nt. — And Mat. Pans adds, 
 anno 1244, that in all grants of privileges to the monaftciies, 
 thofe three things were always excepted, for the public good, 
 and that the people might be better able to refift any enemy. 
 
 Pontage, is alio a due anciently belonging to the lord of the 
 fee, for perfons or merchandizes, that pafs over rivers, brid- 
 ges, £9V. called in the later Latin pontagium, or pontonagium^ 
 pontage. ' 
 
 PONTICUS reparandh; a writ directed to the fheriff, command- 
 ing him to charge one or more perfons to repair a bridge, to 
 whom it belongs. 
 
 PONT1FEX, Pontif, high-priejl.. a perfon who has the fu- 
 pcrintendance and direction of divine worfhip ; as the offering 
 of facrifices, and other religious folcmnities. 
 The Romans had a college of Pontiff and over thofe a iovc- 
 reign Pontiff or pmiifes maximum inftituted by'Numa; whole 
 function it was to prefcribe the ceremonies each God was to 
 be worihipped withal, compofe the rituals, direct the veftals ; 
 and for a good while to perform the bulincfs of augury; till 
 on fome fuperftiticus occalions he was prohibited intcrmcd- 
 ]ing therewitli. 
 
 He confccratcd the fratues of the gods, ere they were put up 
 in the temples ; bleffed the hgures of fome of Jove's thunder- 
 bolts, to prelerve the people from harms ; and compiled their 
 Iratutes. 
 
 The Jews too had their Pontif or high-prieft ; and among the 
 Romanifts, the Pope is flill ftyled the fovereign Pontif. 
 Authors differ about the origin of the word Pontifex- Some 
 derive it from pojje facerc, that is, from the authority the Pon- 
 tif had to facrifice ; others, as Varro, from pons, becaufe they 
 built the Sublician bridge, that they might go and offer facri- 
 fice on the other fide of the Tiber. 
 
 PONTIFICAL, Pontificals, a book of the rites and cere- 
 monies belonging to pontifs, bifhops, popes, CSV. See Ri- 
 tual and CliREMONIAL. 
 
 PONTIFICALIA, the robes and ornaments wherein a bifhop 
 performs divine feivice. See Episcopalia. 
 
 PONTIFICATE, Pontificatus, the itate or dignity of a 
 pontif, or high-prieft. 
 
 Caffar reformed the calendar in the time of his Pontificate. See 
 Calendar. 
 
 Pontificate is more peculiarly ufed in modern writers for the 
 reign of a pope. 
 
 The concordat was paffed in the Pontificate of Leo X. 
 There was a Pontificate that only lafted twenty-four hours. 
 PONTON, or Pontoon, in war, denotes a little floating 
 bridge, made of boats and planks. 
 
 The Ponton is a machine confiding of two vcffcls, at a little 
 diftance, joined by beams, with planks laid acrofs, for the pal- 
 fage of the cavalry, the canon, infantry, &e. over a river, an 
 arm of the lea, £37. 
 
 The late invented Ponton is of copper, furnifhed with an an- 
 chor, £sV. to fix it. — To make a bridge, feveral of thefe are 
 difpofed two yards afunder, with beams acrofs them, and over 
 thofe, are put beards or planks. 
 
 They are alio linked to each other, and fattened on each fide 
 the river, by a rope run through a ring in each of their heads, 
 and fixed to a tree or ftake on either fliore. — The whole 
 makes one firm, uniform bridge, over which a train of artil- 
 lery may pafs. 
 
 Caffar and Aulus Gellius both mention Pontons ; but theirs were 
 no more than a kind of fquaie flat veifels, proper for the car- 
 rying over of horie, cjtV. Ours however take their names from 
 them ; thofe authors call them pontones, of panto. 
 
 PONT volant, flying bridge, a kind of bridge ufed in fieges ; made 
 of two Uriell bridges laid over one another, and fo contrived 
 by means of cords and pullies placed along the fides of the 
 under-bridgc, that the upper may be pulhed forwards, till it 
 join the place where it is defigned to be fixed ; the whole 
 length of both not to be above five fathom, left they fhould 
 break with the weight of the men. See Bridge. 
 
 POOL is properly a refervoir of water, lupplied with fprings, 
 and difcharging the overplus by flukes, defenders, wears, and 
 other caufe-ways. 
 
 Mill Pool is a fteck of water, by whofe force, 15c. the motion 
 of a mill is effected. 
 
 IVhirl Pool. See the article Whirl pel 
 
 POOP, Puppis, flern; the highcit or uppcrmoft part of a fhip's 
 hull a-ftern.— See tab.jbip.fi. 2. lit- P. See alfo Stern and 
 Ship. 
 
 POPE, Papa, the bifhop of Rome ; being the head or patri- 
 arch of the Roman-catholic church. 
 
 Father le Cointe, in his annals obferves, from St. Jerom, St. 
 Cyprian, St. Gregory, St. Augufrin, and Sidonius Apollinaris, 
 that the title Pope was anciently given to all bilhcps. See 
 Bishov. 
 
 P O R 
 
 They were alfo add retted under the term holincfs, and beati- 
 tude ; and their churches were called apoflolkal fees. 
 He adds, that it was only in the eleventh century, that Grego- 
 ry VII. rirft appointed, in a lynod held at Rome, that tire title 
 Pope mould be reftrained to the bifhop of Rome, as a particu- 
 lar diftinction and prerogative. 
 
 In the council of the Lateran, held under Innocent III. the 
 Pope was_ declared ordinary of ordinaries. 
 The Pope is chofen by the cardinals, out of their own body. 
 His fee is at Rome, whence he iifues out his orders, called 
 brief and bulls, throughout the catholic world. 
 Plifrory mentions a popefs, Joan. — The reality hereof has been 
 oppofed and defended by many learned men. — The tradition 
 might pollibly take its rife from the weaknefs of pope John 
 VIII. in reftoring Photius to his communion, and owning him 
 as true patriarch : for he hence got the appellation of woman ; 
 as that prince called king Alary did, by leaving himfclf to be 
 governed by queen Mary his wife. 
 
 M. Spanhcim, profeffor of theology at Leyden, has lately writ- 
 ten very amply on the fubject ; and fhews it to be a queftioii 
 defaclo, fcarce determinable at this time of day. 
 Pope, Popa, among the Romans, was a name given to certain 
 inferior officers, or minifters of facrifice. See Sacrifice. 
 The bufinefs of the Popa was, to whet the facrificing knife, to 
 bind the victim, prepare the water, and other ncceffaries, ty 
 finite the victim, &r. 
 
 They did their office naked to the girdle, and crowned with 
 laurel. 
 
 POPLES, in anatomy, the inner part of the juncture whereby 
 the thigh-bone is articulated with the tibia ; populaily called 
 
 the ham. 
 
 POPLICANI, Populicani, or Publicans, a name given in 
 the weft to the Manichees ; or rather to a paiticular branch 
 thereof, called in the eafl Paulicians. 
 
 POPLIT/EUS, or Sub-Poplit jeus, 3 mufcle which arifes from 
 the external and inferior protuberance of the thigh-bone, 
 and palling over the joint obliquely, is inferted into the fuperi- 
 or and internal part of the tibia. — It afiifts in bending of the 
 leg, and turns it inwards. — See tab. auat. (Myol.) fig. 7. n. 27. 
 27. 27. See alfo Leg. 
 
 POPLITEA, in anatomy, is a name given to the third vein of 
 the leg. 
 
 It arifes from the heel, where it is formed out of ftveral 
 branches coming both from the heel and ankle. 
 It lies pretty deep in the fiefh ; and afcending up to the ham, 
 terminates in the crural vein. 
 POPPY, Papaver, a medicinal plant, famed for its narcotie 
 quality. 
 
 There are divers kinds ; fome wild, fome cultivated, white, 
 purple, fcarlct, is'c. — Thofe molt ufed, are the white, papaver 
 hortenfe femine albo ; ancPblack, papaver hortenfe femine mgro. 
 The heads of thefe plants are of lingular virtue to promote 
 fleep, alfuagc pahi, Is'c. They ftop diarrhoea's, hemorrhages, 
 fcfr.'' ■■ 
 
 Of the juice of the white Poppy is prepared the opium fold in 
 the fliops ; and of the juice of the leaves, meconium. 
 Poppy water. Seethe article Water. 
 
 POPULAR, Popularis, fomething that relates to the com- 
 mon people. 
 
 The Roman nobility was dhtinguiflied into two factions; the 
 optimatcs, who adhered itrenuoully to the miniftry, the fenatc, 
 fcfV. in oppofition to the people. — And the Popularcs, who 
 favoured the rights and pretentions of the people, in oppofi- 
 tion to the noblcife. 
 
 Popular aftion. See the article Action. 
 
 Popular difeajh, are fuch as become common, and run through 
 the body of the people j called alfo en.lemic and epidemical dif- 
 eafes. 
 
 Ifippocrates has written exprefly, cle nv.rbis popularibus. 
 
 Popular errors, are fuch as people imbibe from one another, 
 by cuitom, education, and tradition, without having confider- 
 ed the reafon or foundations thereof. 
 
 POPULEUM, or Populneu.m, in pharmacy, an unguent pre- 
 pared of the buds of black poplar, violet leaves, navel-wort, 
 and lard bruited and macerated j to which are added bramble- 
 tops, leaves of black poppies, mandragora, henbane, night- 
 fhade, lettuce, and burdock, boiled in rofe -water, and ftrained. 
 It is much ufed as a cooler, in burns, fcalds, and all forts of 
 inflammations, and alfo to affuage arthritic pains. 
 
 POPULICANI. See the article Poplicani. 
 
 POPULNEUM. Sec the article Populeum. 
 
 PORCELAIN *, or Purcelain, a fine fort of earthen-ware, 
 chiefly manufactured in China, and thence alfo called china, 
 or chiua-ivare ; but brought into Europe from other parts of 
 the eaft ; efpecially Japan, Siam, Surat, and Perfia. 
 * The Chinefe call it tfe-H. The word Porcelain is but little 
 known there ; except among a few workmen and merchants ; and 
 feems derived from the Pormguefe, porcelana, a cup. 
 Scaliger and Cardan, though generally of contrary fentiments, 
 are yet agreed, that what the Romans called vafa mitrrh'ma, 
 
 marring. 
 
POR 
 
 murrhm and murrea, which were firft feen at Rome in Pom- 
 pey's triumph, and afterwards became i'o very precious, were 
 the Porcelain of our times. 
 
 This may be true : but if the opinion be only founded on 
 Pliny's defcription of thofe velTels *, one would rather take 
 them to have been made of a kind of precious ftones, of a 
 whitiih colour, but varioufly veined and variegated ; found 
 in fome parts of Parthia. 
 * Oriens murrhina mittit. Inveniuntur enim ibi in pluribus lotas, 
 nec infignibus maxime Parthjci regni : pnecipue tamen in Carma- 
 nia. Humorem putant fub terra calore denfari. Amplitudine 
 nufquam parvoa excedunt abacos : craifitudine raro, quanta di&um 
 eft vafi potorio. Splendor his fine tiribus : nitorque verius quam 
 Iplendor. Sed in pretio varietas colorum, fubinde circumagentibus 
 le maculis in purpuram candoremque, St tertium ex utroque igncf- 
 centtrm, veluti per tranfitum colons, in purpura aut rubcfccnte lac- 
 tea. Sunt qui maxime in iis laudrmt ex: reinitiates, St quojdam co- 
 lorum repercuffus, quales in coclefli arcu fpeetantur. _ His macule 
 pingues placent. Tmnflucere quidquam aut pallere, vitiura eft. Item 
 fales verrucjeqi non eminentes, led ut in corpore etiam plerumque 
 fettles. Aliqua & in odore commendatio eft, Flin. Hill. Nat. 
 L 37- c - z - 
 
 Be this as it will, it is certain, that both Cardan and Scaliger 
 aie miftaken when they tell us, that Porcelain is made of eggs 
 and fea-fhells, beaten fmall, and buried under-ground for 80 
 or 100 years. The account we (hall here give will put that 
 matter out of all quertion. 
 
 It is not known who was the inventor of Porcelain ; the Chinefe 
 annals, which ufe to contain every thing in any wife memora- 
 ble, are perfectly iilent about it ; nor do we know much more 
 of the time of its invention : only it is certain it muft have 
 been before the beginning of the fifth century, the annals of 
 Feuliang relating, that from the fecond year of the reign of the 
 emperor Tarn, about the year of Chrilt 442, the workers in 
 Porcelain of that province had alone furnished the emperors 
 therewith. 
 
 Porcelain is now made chiefly, fome fay wholly, at Kingteching, 
 a large town in the province of Kyatignv 
 There is fome indeed made in the provinces of Kanton and 
 Fokyen ; but it is of little account, being far inferior in beauty 
 and value to the Porcelain of Kingteching. That of Fokyen 
 is perfectly white, without either glofs or painting. Attempts 
 have been made to remove the manufacture from Kingteching 
 to Pekin, and other places, but in vain J the Porcelain made in 
 the new manufactories never coming up to that of the old : fo 
 that Kingteching has the honour of fitoplving the greateft part 
 of the world with this commodity. F. du Halde aftures us, 
 that even the Japanefe come to China for it. 
 ' Mamfathire, of PoRqEiAiN.— Porcelain makes a very curious 
 article in commerce, and not lefs fo in natural hiftory. Its 
 manufacture has hitherto parted for a myftery in Europe ; and 
 that in fpite of all the endeavours of the Jeiuit miflionaries to 
 penetrate into the fecret. The veil, however, is at length 
 drawn; and in a letter of F. d'Entrccolles to F. Orry, from 
 Jauchew, dated September the firft, 1 7 1 2, and lately publiflicd 
 in French, the whole procefs is defcribed in all its circumftances; 
 with an extract whereof we ihall here gratify the curious reader. 
 In the manufacture of Porcelain there are four principal things 
 to be confidered, viz. the matter it is made of ; the art of form- 
 ing the veffels, and Other works ; the colours wherewith it is 
 painted ; and, laftly, the baking or giving it the proper degree 
 of fire.— Each of which will make the fubject of a feveral ar- 
 ticle. 
 
 Materials of Porcslaix.— There are two kinds of earths, and 
 as many kinds of oils, or varnifhes, ufed in the compotition 
 of Porcelain. The firit earth, called kauiih, is befet with glitter- 
 ing corpufcles ; the fecond, called petunfe, is a plain white, but 
 exceedingly fine, and i'oft to the touch. They are both found 
 in quarries twenty or thirty leagues from Kingteching ; and 
 hither thefe earths, or rather (tones, are brought in an infinite 
 number of little barks, inceiTantly palling up and down the 
 river Jauchew, for that purpofe. The petunfes are brought 
 in form of bricks ; having been fo cut out of the quaries, 
 where they arc naturally pieces of a very hard rock. The 
 white of the beft petunfe is to border a little on green. 
 The firft preparation of thefe bricks is, to break and pound 
 them, firft into a coarie powder with iron mallets, then in mor- 
 tars with peftles that have (tone heads, armed with iron, and 
 wrought either with the hand, 01 with mills. 
 When the powder is rendered almoft impalpable, they throw 
 it in a large urn full of water, ftirring it brilkly about with an 
 iron inftrumcnt. After the water has refted a little while, they 
 fltim off from the top a white fubftar.ee formed there, of the 
 thicknefs of four or five fingers, and difpofe this fcum or cream 
 in another velTel of water. They then ftir again the water of 
 the ti;it urn, and again (kim it, and thus alternately, till there 
 rernatn nothing but the gravel of the petunfes at bottom; which 
 they lay afrefh under the mill, for a new powder. 
 As to the fecond inn, wheiein are put the fkimmings of the 
 tirlt ; when the water is well fettled, and become quite clear, 
 they pour it off; and with the fediment, collected at bottom 
 in foim of u parte, till a kind of moulds : whence, when al- 
 moft dry, they'takc it out, and cut it into fquare pieces, which 
 are what they propcily call iquaie/Wi/y/c.'; refervingthem to be 
 mixed wilfa the kaulin in the pioportion hereafter aftigncd. 
 Thefe fquaics arc fold by th^ hundred, but it is very rare to 
 V01. II. 
 
 meet with them unfalfified. The workmen, who, like the 
 reft or the ChMele, ate airant knaves in their dealings, uluitiy 
 mixing refute along with them; fo that they aie commonly 
 obliged to purify them ere they can be employed. 
 The tat/an* which is the other earth ufed in Pcrceki'i, is touch 
 foftcr &tah the pctunfe, when dug out of the quart y ; yet is it 
 this, which, by its mixture with the other, gives the ft length 
 and firmnefs to the work. F. d'Entrccolles obferves, that fome 
 Englilh or Dutch, having procured fome petunfes to be bought 
 privately ; upon their attempting to make Porcelain at their 
 return into their own country, could not fucceed for want of 
 taking kaulin along with it : which the Chinefe being appriied 
 of, faid, drolling., " That the Europeans were wonderful peo- 
 " pie, to go about to make a ocdy, whofe flefh was to fuftain 
 " itfelf without bones." 
 
 The mountains whence the kaulin is dug, arc covered without: 
 fide with a reddifh earth. The mines are deep, and the mat- 
 ter is found in glebes or clods. The author is of opinion, 
 that the white earth of Malta is not much different from tfe 
 kaulin, except that it wants the filvered particles. The 
 preparation of kaulin is the fame with Chat of the petunfes, 
 except that the matter being left hard, lefs labour is required. 
 The oil or vatnilh, which makes the third ingredient in Por- 
 celain, is a whitiih liquid fubftance : this is drawn from the hard 
 ftone, whereof the petunfes arc formed ; that which is whiteft, 
 and whole ftains ate the grceneft, being always chofen fortius 
 purpofe. 
 
 The manner of preparing the oil, is thus : The petunfes, being 
 w : afhed, undeigo the fame preparations as for making the 
 fquare s ; excepting that the matter of the fecond urn is not 
 put in moulds, but the fineft part of it taken to compofe the 
 oil. To an hundted pounds of this matter they calt a mine- 
 ral ftone called flxkau, refembling out alum : This (lone is fit ft 
 heated red-hot, and thus reduced in a mot tar into an impalpa- 
 ble powder ; and ferves to give the oil a confidence; which 
 however, is (till to be kept liquid. 
 
 The oil of lime makes the fourth ingredient \ the preparation 
 whereof is much more tedious and circumfhntial. They firft 
 difiblve large pieces of quick-lime, and reduce it to a powder, 
 by fprinkling water on it; on this powder they lay a couch 
 of dry fern, and on the fern another of the flacked lime, and 
 thus alternatcly,till they have got a moderatepile ; which done, 
 they fet fire to the fern : the whole being confumed, they di- 
 vide the afhes that remain on new couches of dry fern j letting 
 them on fire as before. And this they repeat five or fix times 
 fucceffively, or even more ; the oil being ftill the better, as 
 the alhes are oftcner burnt. 
 
 In the annals of Feuliang 'tis faid, that inftead of fern they an- 
 ciently ufed the wood of a kind of medlar-tree ; and that it 
 was this gave the ancient Porcelains that admirable hue, which 
 the moderns cannot come up to for want of that wood. 'Tig 
 certain, however, the quality of the fern and lime contribute 
 very much to the goodnefs of the oil. 
 
 A quantity of thefe afhes of fern and lime are now thrown into 
 an urn full of water ; and to an hundred pounds of aihes is 
 added a pound of fhekau, Which diflblves therein. The reft 
 being performed after the fame manner as in preparing the earth 
 of the petunfes ; the fediment found at the bottom of the fe- 
 cond urrr, and which is to be kept liquid, is what they call the 
 oil of lime ; which the Chinefe efteem as the fou! of the former 
 oil, and which gives the Porcelain all its luftre. This oil is 3a- 
 fily fophifticated by adding water to increafe the quantity; 
 adding at the fame time proportionably of the fame lhekau to 
 maintain the confiftence. Ten meafures of oil of petunfe ufu- 
 ally go to one of lime. To have the mixtme juft, the two 
 oils lhould be equally thick. 
 Forming of Porcelain vejfels. — The firft thing is, to purify the 
 petunfe and kaulin ; which, for the firft, is done after the man- 
 ner already defcribed in preparing the fquares. For the fecond, 
 as its foftnefs makes it difiblve cafily, 'tis fufticient, without 
 breaking it, to plunge it in an urn full of water in an open baf- 
 ket. The dregs that remain are perfectly ufelefs, and are empti- 
 ed out of the work-houfe, when a quantity is got together. 
 The work-houfes are properly vaft yards walled round, with 
 Iheds, and other conveniences for the workmen to work un- 
 der; as well as other buildings for them to live in. It is* al- 
 moft inconceivable what number of perfons are employed in 
 thefe works; there being fcarce a piece of Porcelain but partes 
 through above twenty hands, ere it comes to the paintei's 
 work-houfe, and above fixty, ere it be brought to perfection. 
 To make a juft mixture of petunfe and kaulin, regard muft be 
 had to the finenefs of the Porcelain to be made : for the finer 
 Porcelains, they ufe equal quantities ; four parts of kaulin to fix 
 of petunfe, for moderate ones ; and never lefs than one of 
 kaulin to three of petunfe, for the coarfeft. 
 The hardeft part of the work is the kneading and tewing the 
 two earths together ; which is done in a kind of large baton?, 
 or pits, well paved and cemented, wherein the workmen tram- 
 ple continually with their feet, relieving one another, till the 
 mats be well mixed, grow hat d, and become of the coniilt- 
 ence required to bs ufed by the potter. 
 
 The earth, w hen taken out of the batons, is kneaded a fecond 
 time, but piece-meal, and w ith the hands, on large flates forihe 
 purpofe ; and on this preparation, in effect, it is, that the pet- 
 9 G fectica 
 
POR 
 
 fection of the work depends; the lean 1 heterogeneous body re- 
 maining in the matter, or the leaft vacuity that may be found 
 in it, being enough to fpoil the whole. The fmalleft grain of 
 Jand, nay, fometimes a finglc hair, ihall make the Porcelain 
 crack, fplinter, run, or warp. 
 
 The Porcelain is fafhioned or formed either with the wheel, like 
 our earthen ware, or in moulds. See Pottery. Smoothpieces, 
 as cups, urns, dilhes, &c. are made with the wheel. The reft, 
 i. e. fuch as are in relievo, as figures of men, animals, fcff. are 
 formed in moulds, but rinilhed with the chiflel. 
 The large pieces are made at twice ; one half of the piece is 
 railed on the wheel by three or four workmen, who hold it till 
 it have acquired its figure ; which done, they apply it to the 
 ■other half, which has been formed in the fame manner ; uniting 
 the two with Porcelain earth, made liquid by adding water to it, 
 and polifhing the juncture with a kind of iron fpatula. 
 After the fame manner it is that they join 'the feveral pieces of 
 Porcelain formed in moulds, or by the hand ; and after the 
 fame manner they add handles, £sV. to the cups, and other 
 works formed with the wheel. 
 
 The moulds are made after the manner of thofe of our fculp- 
 tors ; viz. of divers pieces, which feverally give their refpedive 
 figure to the feveral parts of the model to be reprelented ; and 
 which are afterwards united to form a mould for an intire fi- 
 gure. The earth they are made of is yellow and fat, dug out of 
 its proper quarries, whereof there are abundance about Kingte- 
 ching. It is kneaded like potters earth, and when fufficiently 
 mellow, line, and moderately dry, beating it ftoutly, they form 
 it into moulds, according to the works required, either by 
 hand, or on the wheel. Thefe moulds are fold very dear, but 
 they laft a long time. 
 
 All ihe works made in moulds are finifhed by the hand, with 
 feveral inftruments proper to dig, fmooth, polifh, and to touch 
 up the ftrokes that cfcape the mould ; fo that 'tis rather a work 
 of fculpture than of pottery. There are fome works whereon 
 relievo's are added, ready made, as dragons, rlowers,&c. others 
 that have impreffions in creux ; which laft are engraven with 
 a kind of puncheons. In the general, all Porcelain works are 
 to be fheltered from the cold; their natural humidity making 
 them liable to break when they dry unequally. 
 To conceive the number of hands each piece of Porcelain pafles 
 through ere perfect, we fhall dole this article with what F.d'En- 
 trecolles inftanccs of a common tea-cup, ere it be lit for the 
 painter. The cup begins with the potter, who has the manage- 
 ment ot the wheel, where it acquites its form, height, and dia- 
 meter. This operator has not afarthing Itcrling for a plate fur- 
 nifhed with twenty-fix cups; accordingly, they go out of his 
 hands exceedingly imperfect, efpecially towards the feet, which 
 are only unformed lumps of earth, to be afterwards cut with the 
 chiftel, when the cup is dry. When it comes from the wheel, 
 the cup is received by a fecond workman, who fits it to its bafe. 
 A third takes it immediately from him, and applies it on a 
 mould to bring it to its true form. This mould is on a kind of 
 lathe. A fourth workman poliihes the cup with a chiflel, efpeci- 
 ally about the edges ; and brings it to the thinnefs necellary to 
 make it trantparent : in doing which, he moiftens it from time 
 to time, .left its drynefs mould make it break. When of its pro- 
 per thicknefs, another workman turns it gently on a mould, to 
 fmooth its inlide ; taking a deal of care it be done equably, left 
 any cavity be formed, or it warp. Other workmen add fome 
 ornaments in relievo ; others, impreffions in creux ; others, on- 
 ly handles ; as the quality of the cup requires. At laft, they 
 round and hollow the foot on the inlide with a duffel; which 
 is the function of a particular artift, who does nothing elfe. 
 This multiplicity of workmen, is fo far from retarding the 
 work, that it is found, by experience, to go on the fafter for it ; 
 as well as to be the better done ; each workman, by a continual 
 attention to the fame thing, becoming very dextrous at it : be- 
 fides faving the time of changing inftruments, &c. 
 
 Painting u/Porcelain. — The Chinefe painters, efpecially thofe 
 that meddle with human figures, our author obferves, are all 
 forry workmen : be adds, that the defeat is fcarce any-where 
 fo fenlible as in the whapey, or porcelain painters, among whom, 
 fetting afide flowers and landfkips, which are fometimes toler- 
 able, the greateft mafters are not to be compared to ordinary 
 apprentices among the Europeans, for the beauty and juftnefs of 
 delign. But it is other wife with the colours thefe whapey ufe ; 
 which are fo exceeding lively and brilliant, that there are but 
 little hopes our workmen fhould ever come to vie with them. 
 The painting work is diftributed among a great number of 
 
 . workmen, in the fame laboratory : to one it belongs to form 
 the coloured circle about the edges of the Porcelain ; another 
 traces out flowers, which another paints : this is for waters 
 and mountains alone ; that for birds and other animals ; and 
 a thhd for human figures. 
 
 There are Porcelains made of all colours ; both with regard to 
 the grounds, and to the leprcfcntations thereon. As to the 
 colour of landikips, ssfo fome are limple ; luch are all blues, 
 which arc thefe mo ft usually fcen in Europe ; others are mixed 
 up of feveral teints ; and others, again, are hei^hten'd with gold. 
 The blue is made of lapis lazuli, prepared by burning it the 
 Ipace of twenty-four hours, in a kiln, where it is buried up in 
 gravel, to the hervht of half a foot ; when burnt, they reduce it 
 
 POR 
 
 into an impalpable powder in porcelain mortars, not vaiflifhc'd, 
 and with peftles of the fame matter. 
 
 For the red, they ufe copperas, which they call tfanfan ; a 
 pound of this they put in a covered crucible, in the lid wheieof 
 is left a little apcituie, through which the matter on occanon 
 may be feen. The cmcibleis heated with a revei beratory fire, 
 till the black fmoke cealcto afcend, and a fine red one fuccecda 
 it. A pound of copperas yields tour ounces of red matter, which 
 is found at the bottom of the crucible, though the tin eft part 
 is that ufually adhering to the lid and fides of the ciucible. 
 The powder of flint is likewife an insredient in moil of the 
 other colours ; e. gr, for green, to three ounces of tongwhapeen, 
 or fcoria of beaten copper, they ufe half an ounce of powder 
 of flint, and an ounce of cerufe. Violet is made by adding \ 
 dofe of white to the green already prepared ; the more green is 
 added, the deeper is the violet. For yellow, they ufe feven 
 drachms of white, and three of the copperas-red. 
 Moll of thefe colours are mixed up with gum-water, for appli- 
 cation ; with little falt-petre, fometimes cerule or copperas, but 
 more ufually copperas alone, being firft diifolved in the water. 
 Indeed for Porcelains that are to be quite red, the colour is ufu- 
 ally applied with oil ; i.e. with the common oil of the Porce- 
 lain, or anothecmade of the white flints. 
 
 There is alio another kind of red, called blown red, hecaufe in - 
 reality applied by blowing with a pipe, one of whole orifices is co- 
 vered with a very fine gauze. The bottom of this tube is lightly 
 applied to the colour wherewith the gauze isfmeaicd; when 
 blowing againft the Porcelain, it becomes all I'prinkled over 
 with little points. This Porcelain is very rare, and of great pi ice. 
 Black Porcelain, which they call umiam, has likewife its beauty : 
 this colour has a leady caff, like our metal burning Illinois ; 
 and is ufually heightened with gold. It is made of three ounces 
 of lapis lazuli, with feven of the common oil of ftone ; though 
 that propoition is varied, as the colour is deligned to be more 
 or lels deep. The black is not given the Porcelain till it be Uir, 
 nor muft the work be put to the fire till the colour be dry. 
 The gold is not applied till after the baking, and is rebaked in 
 an oven for the purpofe. To apply gold, they break and 
 diffolve it in water at the bottom of a veffel of Porcelain, liil a 
 thin gilded cloud arife on the furface : it is ufed with gum- 
 water, and to give it a body, they add three parts of cerule to 
 thirty of gold. 
 
 There is likewife a kind of marbled Porcelain, which is not 
 made by applying the marblings with the pencil, but for oil to 
 varnifh it withal, ufing that of white flints, which hatches and 
 cuts the work with a thoufand humorous ftrokes, in manner of 
 Mofaic work. The colour this oil gives, is a white, fomcwhat 
 aftiy. The Porcelain is called tfiviki. 
 
 There are feveral other kinds of Porcelain ; but they are fuch 
 as are rather for curiolity than ufe : the prettied are the magic 
 Porcelains, whole colours only appear when filled with fome li- 
 quor. Thefe are made double : the outlide is white, and all 
 laid out in compartiments ; the infide is a folid cup, of co- 
 lour'd Porcelain ; though the cup is fometimes of glals, which 
 has a better eftect than Porcelain. The fecret of thefe magic 
 Porcelains, which the Chinefe call kiatfim, is almoft loft ; yet Y . 
 d'Entrecolles has furnifhed us with the following account. 
 The Porcelain to be painted thus muft be very thin ; and the 
 colours, which in other Porcelains are applied on the put-fide, 
 are here applied on the infide. When the colour is dry, they 
 lay over it a light couch of a fize made of the Porcelain earth ; 
 by which means the colour is inclofed between two earthen la- 
 minae. When the fize is dry, they throw oil within the Porce- 
 lain ; and when it has enough, they return it to the mould, atul 
 the wheel, to render it as thin and transparent as pofiibie. 
 When dry, it is baked in the common furnace. The colour 
 here ufed are always the fineft, and the figures painted are 
 fifties ; as the rnoft fuitable to the liquor put within them, and 
 in which they feem to iwim. 
 
 The feveral kinds of Porcelains above-mentioned, being quite 
 painted, with their feveral colours, and all the colours dty, 
 are to be polifhed,to prepare them to receive the oil orvarniJh ; 
 which is done with a pencil of very fine feathers, moiftened 
 with water, and palled lightly over, to take oft' even the fmal- 
 left inequalities. 
 
 The oiling or varnifhing is the laft preparation of the Porcelaia, 
 before it be carried to the oven : this is applied more or let* 
 thick, and feldomer or oftener repeated, according to the qua- 
 lity of the work. For thin, fine Porcelain, they give two very 
 thin couches ; to others one ; hut that one equivalent to the o- 
 othertwo. There is a deal of art in applying the varnifh ; both 
 that it be done equally, and not in too great quantity. The 
 couches on the inlide are given by afpcrlion, ;'. e. by carting in 
 as much varnifh as is necellary : thofe on the out-fide, by irri- 
 merfion, or by plunging the pieces in a veffel of oil. 
 It muft be obferved, that the foot is not yet formed, but conti- 
 nues in a mere mats, till the work has been varnilhed : it is as 
 length finilhcd on the wheel; and when hollowed, a little circle 
 is painted in it, and fometimes a Chinefe letter. This painting 
 being dry, the foot is varnilhed, and the work now carry' d to 
 the oven to be baked. 
 
 Our curious author omits nothing; not even the dexterity of 
 the people, who carry the Porcelain to the bake-houfe. He has 
 
 been 
 
P O R 
 
 P O R 
 
 been frequently Cut-prized, he tells us, to fee a man pafs through 
 feveral ftreets full of people, with two very long, narrow 
 boards, ranged with porcelains on his moulders, If ill prcferving 
 the equilibrium lb accurately, as not to do any damage to fo 
 frail a commodity. 
 Baking or mating (/"Porcelain. — There are two kinds of ovens 
 ufed in baking of Porcelain : large ones, for works that are on- 
 ly ufed to come to the fire once, which is the common way ; 
 and fmall ones for fuch as require a double baking. The large 
 ones are two Chinefe fathoms deep, and almoft four wide. 
 They are formed of a mixture of three earths ; one whereof, 
 yellow and common, make the bafis ; the two others are 
 fcarcer, and dug out of deep mines, wherein people can only 
 work in winter. One of them, called lautou, is a very ftrong 
 ftiff earth ; the other youtou, oily. 
 
 The fides and roof of the ovens are fo thick, that one may 
 lay the hand on them, when the fire is at its height, without 
 danger of burning. At the top of the dome, which is in form 
 of a tunnel, is a large aperture to give vent to the flames and 
 fmoke, which mount up inceflantly, as foon as fire is once fet 
 to the oven. Befide the principal aperture, there are four or 
 five fmall onesaround ; which by being opened and fliut, ferve 
 to augment or diminiih the heat : like the holes in the chy- 
 mifts furnaces, called regijhrs. The hearth, which takes up 
 the whole breadtli of the oven, is placed in front, precifdy a- 
 gainft the opening of the door, and is two or three feet deep, 
 and two broad ; people pairing over it on a plank, to go into 
 the furnace to range the Porcelain. 
 
 As foon as the fire is lighted, the door is walled up, only leav- 
 ing an aperture for the conveyance of wood. Laftly, the bot- 
 tom of the oven is covered with fand, wherein part of the firft 
 Porcelain cafes are buried. The oven itfelf is ufually placed at 
 the extremity of a long, narrow vcftible, which ferves in lieu 
 of bellows, the cold air and wind being thus driven directly 
 in the face of each oven. 
 
 Each piece of Porcelain of any note, is difpofed, in the furnace, 
 in its peculiar, feparate cafe, or coffin. Indeed, as to tea- 
 dimes, £ffV. the fame cafe ferves for feveral. The cafes are all 
 of the fame matter with the oven ; they have no lids, but ferve 
 each other mutually, the bottom of a fecond cafe fitting into 
 the aperture of the firft ; and thus luccefiively, to the top of 
 each column. Each coffin, which is ufually of a cylindrical 
 form, that the fire may communicate itfelf more equably to the 
 Porcelains inclofed, has, at bottom, a little lay of very fine fand, 
 covered over with duit of kaulin, that the fand may not ftick 
 to the work ; and care is taken that the Porcelain may not touch 
 the fides of the cafe. In the larger cafes, which hold the fmall 
 pieces, they leave the middle vacant, in regard Porcelains pla- 
 ced there would want the necefiary heat. Each of thefe little 
 pieces is mounted on a little mafiivc of earth of the thicknefs 
 of two crowns covered with powder of kaulin. 
 F. d'EntrecolIes obfei ves, that the Porcelains are put in cafes, to 
 prevent any diminution of luftre from the too violent effect of 
 a naked fire ; adding, that it is owing to thofe thick veils, that 
 the beauty, or, as he calls it, the complexion of the Porcelains, 
 is not tanned by the heat of the fire. 
 
 As faft as the cafes are filled, a workman ranges them in the 
 cavity of the furnace ; forming them into piles or columns, 
 whereof thofe in the middle are at leaftieven feet high i The 
 two cafes at the bottom of each column are left empty, becaufc 
 being partly funk in the fand, the fire has the lefs effect on 
 them ; and for the fame reafon, the uppermoft one is left emp- 
 ty. In this manner is the whole cavity of the oven filled with 
 columns, excepting thatpart precifely under the grand aperture. 
 In ranging the cafes,they obferve always to place the fineft piles 
 of Porcelain in the centre ; the coarfeft at the bottom : and thofe 
 that are high-coloured, and confift of as much petunfe as kau- 
 lin, and wherein the worft oil is ufed, at the mouth. 
 Thefe piles are all placed very near one another, and are bound 
 together at top, at bottom, and in the middle, by pieces of 
 earth; in fuch manner, as that the flame may have a free paf- 
 fage among them, and infinuate equally on all fides : in which 
 a great part of the workman's art lies, and on which the per- 
 fection of the Porcelain much depends. Another thing to be 
 obferved, is, that an oven muff never be fet altogether with 
 new coffins ; but half one, half the other \ the old ones at the 
 bottoms and tops of the pile, and the new ones in the middle. 
 Indeed it were better to have them all burnt in an oven apart, 
 ere they come to be ufed for Porcelain ; as was anciently 
 done. The cafes, our author obferves, arc brought ready pre- 
 pared from a large village on the river, a league diflant from 
 Kingteching. Ere burnt, they are yellow ; and iftcrwards of 
 a dark red. 
 
 When the oven is filled, they wall up the door, only leaving 
 a little apertuie for the throwing in of little pieces of wood, 
 a foot long, but very flender, to keep up the fire, It is then 
 heated, by degrees, for the ipace of a day and night ; after 
 which two men, who relieve one another, continue to throw in 
 wood without any intei rnifiion. To know when the Porcelain 
 is baked enough, they open one of the leiler holes of the 
 oven, and witn a pan ot tongs take off the lid of one of the 
 piles. If the fire appear veiy brisk and clear, and the piles 
 equally inflamed ; and efpecially if the colours pf the Porcelains 
 
 that are uncovered, dart forth a noble luftre; the coction is 
 futficient, they difcontiuue the tire, and wall up what remain- 
 ed of the door of the furnace. 
 
 If the oven be only filled with fmall Porcelain, they take them 
 outtwelve or fifteen hours after the fire is extinct : if it be filled 
 with larger, they defer opening it for two or three days. In this 
 the modern practice differs from the ancient; wherein the 
 door was not opened till after ten days for the large pieces, 
 and five for the fmall ones. 
 
 One thing very furprizing, and almoft inconceivable, F. d'En- 
 trecolles obferves, is, that there are never found any allies on 
 the hearth of the oven, what quantity of wood foever is con- 
 fumed. He adds another thing, which with him, paffes for 
 equally ftrange, that the workmen employed about the furna- 
 ces, flake their thirft by continually drinking hot tea, with fait 
 dilfolved in it. 
 
 The Chinefe make another kind of Porcelain, which they paint 
 and bake twice ; and for this fecond baking they have a kind of 
 little ovens on purpofe. Thefe ovens, when very fmall, are 
 made of iron ; or otherwife, of a kind of bricks an inch thick, a 
 foot high, and half a foot broad, made of the fame earth with 
 the porcelain cafes. The biggeft of thefe ovens docs not exceed 
 five foot in height, and three in diameter ; and being made 
 much in form of bee-hives, the bricks are arched a little, to 
 form the curvity the betrer. The hearth is of earth half a toot 
 high, formed of two or three ranges of bricks ; and on this 
 maflive is the oven built. Around the oven, at the diftance 
 of about half a foot, is raifed a fhell of common bricks, joined 
 to the oven itfelf, by a kind of aicboutant of earth, which 
 ferves to ftrengthen it. They ufually build four or five of thefe 
 ovens at equal diftances from each other. At the bottom 
 of the ihell are holes to give air to the fire when lighted : at- 
 top is an aperture, which they cover up with a piece of the 
 baked earth, when the Porcelains aie laid in ihe oven. 
 The Porcelains^ here, are not inciofed in coffins, as in the 
 common ovens ; the oven itlllf ferving that purpofe, and be- 
 ing fo exactly clofed, that they receive no other impreHion 
 of the fire, but that of the heat of the charcoal difpofed in 
 the hearth, at the bottom of the oven, as well as at-top of 
 the vault, and in the interval between the oven and the ihell, 
 or brick-wall. 
 
 To prepaie the Porcelains for a fecond baking, they rnuft have 
 had their varniih in the common manner, and have palled the 
 great oven. In this ftate they are painted with various co- 
 lours, after which, without giving them any new varniih, they 
 are ranged in piles in the little oven ; fetting the little ones 
 over the larger, inform of pyramids. 
 
 This fecond baking is fometimes intended to preferve the luftre 
 of the colours the better, and at the fame time to give them a 
 kind of relievo. But, more ufually, its deiign is to hide de- 
 fective places, by covering them over with colours : but the 
 artifice is eafily found out, by pafling the hand over them. 
 When the workman judges his Porcelains enough baked, he 
 takes off the piece that covers the aperture ; and if the works 
 appear glittering, and the colours glowing, he takes out the 
 charcoal ; and when the oven is cold, the Porcelain is fo too. 
 How beautiful foever the modern Porcelain may be, the tafte 
 for antiquity, which reigns in China, as well as in Europe, 
 gives the ancient Porcelain a value far above that of the modern. 
 It muft be owned, the ancient feems finer as to the matter, 
 more perfect as to the baking, and of a more pleafant caft, 
 both as to the white of the ground, and the other colours ; yet 
 it is certain, the moft able and difceining may be deceived 
 herein ; and there are workmen who make it their bufinefs to 
 counterfeit the ancient Porcelain, called kutcug, in the modern. 
 The matter of the falfe kutong is a foft and yellowifh earth, 
 found near Kingteching. There is nothing particular in the 
 firft part of the procefs, except tharthey are made thicker, and 
 that they are varnilhed with an oil drawn from the yellow- 
 ftone, mixed with the common oil, which gives them a kind 
 of fea-green hue. When taken out of the oven, they throw it 
 into a fatty broth, made of capons, csV. in which they boil it a 
 fecond time ; they then bury it in tire filthieft fink they can find, 
 for a month or fix weeks, or more, according as they would 
 give it the greater appearance of antiquity. Belides their 
 thicknefs and their colour, thefe falfe antiques rcfemble the 
 true ones in this, that they do not refound when ftruck, nor 
 even give the leaft buz, when held to the ear. 
 Notwithftanding the vaft quantity of Porcelains made in almoft 
 all the provinces of the empire of China, they ftill continue 
 very dear ; though not near fo dear as anciently. The Chinefe 
 annals tell us of times wherein a fingle ui n coft ninety or an hun- 
 dredcrowns on the fpot. What chiefly occafions the extraordi- 
 nary price of this commodity, efpecially in Europe, is, befide 
 the great profits of the merchants in Europe, and their factors 
 in China, that it rarely happens an oven fucceeds throughout ; 
 that it is frequently quite fpoilt, fo that upon opening it, in lieu 
 of fine Porcelains, is found a hard unformed mafs, into which 
 both the Porcelains, and theircoffins, are convened, either by 
 excels of heat, or fome ill qualities in the matter. 
 Another reafonof the dearnefs of Porcelain, is, that the ingre- 
 dients It is made of, and the wood wherewith it is buint, grow 
 more and ir.oicfcaice. One may addathiid reafon for the ex- 
 
 ctfllve 
 
P O R 
 
 fcefnve price of Porcelains to the Europeans ; and It is this, that 
 moft of thofe fent to Europe are formed on new models, fre- 
 quently very capricious, and difficult to fucceed in ; which yet, 
 for thefmalleft defects, are turned on the manufacturers hands : 
 and he not being able to dilpofe of themto the Chinefe, bee a ufe 
 not to their tafte, nor to their ufe, is forced to charge the 
 Porcelain lie delivers, the higher, to pay himfelf for thofe re- 
 futed. 
 
 The French have been thefe fifteen years attempting to imitate 
 Pcnelain. The firft effays made at Rouen, are laid to have fuc- 
 cccded tolerably well ; and M. Savary tells us, are now carried 
 to fuch a point in the manufactories at Paffi and St. Cloud, that 
 the French Porcelains want nothing to make them of equal va- 
 lue with the Chinefe, but to be brought five or fix thouland 
 leagues. In effect, for the finenefs of the grain of the matter, 
 the^beauty and turn of the vcttels, the exactitude of the defign, 
 and the luftre of the colours, at leaft the blues, the French are 
 not much behind the Chinefe. -But their grand defect is in the 
 white of the ground, which is ufually dingy and dull, and 
 ealily diftinguifhes itfelf from the pure fprightly white of the 
 Chinefe. 
 
 But the Saxons feemto have exceeded the French : There is a 
 manufacture at Miffen, the capital of Mifnia, which the baron 
 dePollnitz allures us, produces Porcelains paintedand enamelled 
 in fuch perfect ion,that they are more beautiful, as well asdearer, 
 than thofe of China itfelf. The invention is owing to an al- 
 chymift, who being clapped up in the caftie of Konigftein, 
 by the late king of Poland, on a fufpicion of being mafter of 
 the fecrct of the philofopher's ftone, had leifure enough, not 
 indeed to make gold, but to invent a ware, which by the great 
 vent of it confiderably enriches the country. 
 
 Porcelain alfo denotes a kind of little white iea-thel!, found on 
 the fliores along with the fponges ; and current in feveral parts 
 of Alia, Africa, and America, by way of Money. 
 Authors have hitherto been of opinion, that thefe (hells were 
 the matter whereof the Porcelain, or China-ware, was made. 
 They are of fome ufe in medicine, and are prefcribed pound- 
 edor broken, in manner of pearls, 
 
 PORCH, atrium, a kind of veftible, fupported by columns 
 much ufed at the entrance of the ancient temples, halls, 
 churches, bfc. 
 
 In theancient architecture, a Porcbvtas a veftible, or adifpofition 
 of infulated columns, ufually crowned with a pediment, form- 
 ing a covert place before the principal door of a temple, or 
 court of juftice.— Such is that before the door of St. Paul's. 
 Covent-g'arden, the work of Inigo Jones. 
 When U had four columns in front, it was called a tetrajlyle ; 
 when fix, bexaftyk ; when eight, etiojlyle ; when ten, deca- 
 Jfy/e, &c. — Vitriivius calls it pronas, Pollux, ro fi ,^ ot , prododo- 
 mos : *hen finer than ordinary, the ancients called it alfo 
 propyltsum. awirwt*)* *■ -i v.l-ne boj.lYW™> 
 
 PORK *, a little interflice between the particles of matter which 
 conftitute bodies ; either empty, or filled with fome infenfible 
 medium. 
 
 * The word Pore is formed from the Greek wo^o., aperture, or 
 duft, through winch a thing partes. 
 Condenfation, and rarefaction, are only performed by clofmg 
 and opening the Pores. 
 
 The tranfparency of bodies is ufually fuppofed to arife from 
 their Pores being directly oppofite to one another. 
 The matter of infenfible perforation is conveyed through the 
 Pores of the cutis. 
 
 Sirlfaac Newton fhews, that bodies are much more rare and 
 porous, than is commonly believed : water, e. gr. is 19 times 
 lighter, and coniequently rarer than gold : and gold itfelf is fo 
 rare, as very readily, and without the leaft oppofition, to tranf- 
 mit magnetic effluvia, and eafilyto admit quickfilver into its 
 Pores, and to let even water pafs thro' it : for a concave fphere 
 of gold hath, when filled with water, and foldered up, upon 
 preHing with a great force, lets the water fqueeze through it, 
 and ftand all over its outlide, in multitudes of fmall drops like 
 dew, without burftingor cracking the gold. Whence it may 
 be concluded, that gold has more Pores than folid parts ; and 
 by confequence that water hath above forty times moie Por-es 
 than parts. 
 
 The magnet tranfmits its virtues without any diminution or 
 alteration, through all cold bodies that are not maguetick; as 
 gold, filver, brafs, glafs, water, Ue. See Magnet. 
 The rays of light, let them be either bodies actually coming to 
 us from the fun, or only motions or impreilions upon the me- 
 dium, move in right lines, and aie hardly ever, unlets by great 
 chance reflected back again in the fame line, after their im- 
 pingence upon objects ; and yet we fee, that light is trans- 
 mitted to the greateft diftances thiough pellucid bodies, and 
 that in right lines. 
 
 Now how bodies mould have Pores fufficient for thefe effects, 
 may be difficult to conceive, but not impollible : for Sir Ifaac 
 mews, that the colours of all bodies aiile fiom their particles 
 being of filch a determinate fize or magnitude. Wherefore, 
 if we conceive thofe panicles to be fo dilpofed. as that there is 
 at much poichry, as there is of matter; and in like manner 
 
 P O R 
 
 thofe particles to be compofed of others much lefs, and that 
 have as much interfperfed vacuity or fpace, as their quantity of 
 matter amounts to ; and fo on, till we come to folid particles 
 without Pores: then, if in any body there be (for inftance) three 
 of thefe fizesof particles, and that the laftbe of the folid, or 
 leaft fort ; that body will have feven times as much vacuity as 
 folid matter : if four fuch degrees, and the laft be leaft and fo- 
 lid, that body will have fifteen times as much poroiity as foli- 
 lidy : if five fuch degrees, it will have thirty-one times as much 
 fpace as folidity : and if fix degrees, then it will have fixty- 
 three times as much vacuity, as folid matter. 
 And perhaps in the wonderful conformation and fabric of na- 
 tural bodies, there may be other proportion* of fpace to matter, 
 which are to us wholly unknown ; whence it is poffibie, there 
 may be yet farther great quantities of interfperfed vacuity. 
 Pores, in anatomy, are certain permeable fpaces, between the 
 parts of the skin ; whereby we fweat, or peilpire, Slfc, — See 
 tab. anai. (myol.) fig. 8. litt. dd.fig. 9. litt. aa and c. 
 The Pores are moft remarkable in the hands and feet. Ey 
 viewing the palm of the hand with a moderate glafs, after waih- 
 ing it well, we perceive innumerable little ridges, of equal fize 
 and diftance, running parallel to each other ; efpecially on the 
 tips and joints of the fingers, C37. where they are regularly dif- 
 pofed into fpherical triangles and ellipfes. 
 On thefe ridges ftand the Pores, in even rows, big enough to be 
 feen by a good eye without a glafs ; but with one, eveiy Pore 
 looks like a little fountain ; and the fweat may be feen to ftand 
 therein, clear as rock-water ; and as often as it is wiped off, 
 it fprings up again. 
 
 The Pores are placed on the ridges, not in the furrows between 
 them ; that they might be lefs liable to be flopped by compref- 
 fion : for the fame reafon, the Pores of the hands and feet are 
 larger than the reft ; thofe parts being more ufed and prelled 
 than the reft; and hence again, there aie no ridges on other 
 parts. 
 
 Thefe Pores ferveas a convenient out- let for the more noxious 
 parts of the blood, which by the continual ufe of the hands 
 and feet, are plentifully brought into them : whence in hypo- 
 chondriac and hyfteric people, there is a continual burning in 
 the palms and foles. 
 
 In the ftoppage or conftriction of the Pores of the fkin, that 
 difcafe we popularly called a cold, is commonly fuppofed to con- 
 fift; tho' Dr. Kcill maintains a quite contrary opinion, in a 
 dillertation at the end of his medicina Jlatica Britannica. 
 In thephilofophical transactions, we have an inftance of a flu- 
 dent near Leyden, much addicted to autonomy, who (pending 
 many nights in ftar-gazing, had, by the nocturnal wet and cold, 
 fo obftructed the pores of his fkin, that little or nothing exha- 
 led from his body; as appeared hence, that the thirt he had 
 worn five or fix weeks, was then as white as if it had only 
 been worn one day. In the mean while, a water was collected 
 under the fkin, whereof he was afterwards cured. 
 Bilary Pore. See the articles Bilary, and Porous. 
 PORIME*, Porima, in geometry, a theorem, or propofition, 
 fo eafily demonftrated, that it is almoft felf-evident. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek wogip©., pervious, a thing 
 eafy to penetrate or conceive, and which opens the way to fomt:- 
 thing more difficult. 
 
 Such, e. gr. is this, that a chord is wholly within the circle. 
 Porime ftands oppofed to aporime, which denotes a propofitkm 
 fo difficult, as to be almoft impollible to be demonftrated. — 
 Such as the quadrature of the circle is now, and as the fquaring 
 of anyailigned portion of Hippocrates's Junes foimeily was. 
 The porime coincides nearly with the lemma, or alfumption. 
 POR1SM *, Porisma, in mathematics, a general theorem, or 
 canon, deduced from a geometrical locus, and ferving for the 
 folution of other general and difficult problems. 
 
 * Proclus derives the word from the Greek wo^^w, I clfabliih, and 
 conclude from fomething already done and deinonttrated ; and ac- 
 cordingly defines por if ma, a theorem drawn occaiionally from fome „ 
 other theorem already demonstrated. — In which fenfe it coincides V 
 
 with what wc otherwife cull corollary. 
 
 PORISTIC method, in mathematics, is that which determines 
 when, by what means, and how many different ways, a pro- 
 blem may be folved. 
 PORPHYRIANA arbor. See the article Arbor. 
 PORPHYRIANS, a name given to the Arians, in the fourth 
 century, by authority of Conifantine. 
 
 That prince, publiihing an edict againft Arius and his writings, 
 declares, that as Arius has imitated Porphyry in composing 
 books againft religion, hedeferves tobe noted with his infamy \ 
 and that as Porphyry is become the reproach of poftemy, 
 and his writings fuppreffed ; fo he wills, that Arius and his 
 followers be called Porphyrians, &c. 
 
 The propriety of the name feems to confifts in this, that the 
 Arians endeavoured to reftore idolatry : for in faying that the 
 fon, whom they call a begotten God, is a creature, they put a 
 creature in the rank of God; and only differ from the Hea- 
 thens in this, that the one give the quality of Gbd to one 
 creature, the other to a great many. 
 
 POP. 
 
POR 
 
 PORPHYROGENITUS, in antiquity, an appellation given to 
 the children of the eaftern emperors : implying as much as, 
 born in purple. 
 
 Cedrenus will have the word to fignify, born in the purple 
 ■palace, or the palace of porphyry, a palace fo called in Conftan- 
 tinople ; wherein the empreffes ufed to lie in. Others derive 
 the appellation hence, that the imperial children, as foon as 
 born, were wrapped in purple ; others from this, that the cham- 
 ber wherein they were born was hung with purple hangings. 
 PORPHYRY, Porphyrites, in natural hiftory, cSV. a pre- 
 cious kind of ftone, or marble, of a brownifh-red colour ; fre- 
 quently interfperfed with white fpots ; anciently brought from 
 Egypt, and exceeding all other marbles in hardnefs. 
 There are three famous Porphyry pillars, or obelisks, in Egypt ; 
 one near Cairo, and the other two at Alexandria. The Franks 
 call them aguglia's, the Englifh Cleopatra's needles. 
 'Tis difficult to conceive whence they fhould have been brought, 
 for Dr. Huntingdon allures us, that there is no quarry, or rock 
 of fuch ftone in all the lower parts of Egypt ; fo far as the Nile 
 overflows being perfect foil. V. Ray's Trav. T. 2, p. 461. 
 The art of cuttlngPorphyry, pra&ifed among the ancients, feems 
 loft. In effect, it is hard to conceive what kind of tools thev 
 muft have ufed for the fafhioning of thefe huge columns, and 
 other Porphyry works found in fame of the antique buildings in 
 Rome. 
 
 One of the moft confidcrable pieces, now remaining intire, is 
 a tomb of Conftantia, daughter of the emperor Conftantine, in 
 the church of St. Agnes without the walls j ordinarily called, 
 the tomb of Bacchus becaufe of feveral boys reprefented herein, 
 playing among the vine-leaves. Add to this Apollo's, and the 
 bufts of twelve emperors, all in Porphyry, in the palace of the 
 Tuilleries. 
 
 Some of the ancient pieces appear to have been wrought with 
 the chiffel, others with the faw, others with wheels, and others 
 ground down by degrees with emery. Yet the modern tools 
 will fcarce touch Porphyry: it fhould feem therefore that the 
 antients had the fecret of tempering fteel better than we j not 
 as fome incline to think, that they had the art of foftening the 
 Porphyry : though it is probable, that time and air have con- 
 tributed to increafe its hardnefs. 
 
 Mr. Addifon . tells us, he faw a workman at Rome employed 
 in the cutting of Porphyry ; but his advances were exceedingly 
 flow, and almoft infenfible. 
 
 All the way the Italian fculptors have to work the pieces of old 
 Porphyry columns ftill remaining, (for the Porphyry quarries are 
 long fince loft) is with a brafs faw without any teeth. With 
 this, together with emery and water, they rub and wear the 
 ftone with infinite patience. 
 
 Yet have many excellent perfons endeavoured to retrieve the 
 ancient art, particularly Leon Baptifta Alberti ; who fearchmg 
 for the necefTary materials for temper, fays, he found goats 
 blood the beft of any : yet even this availed but little ; for in 
 working with chiflels tempered herein, fparks of fire came 
 much more plentifully than pieces of the ftone. By means 
 hereof, the fculptors were able to make a flat or oval form ; 
 but could never attain to any thing like a figure. 
 It is true, in 1555, Cofmo de Medicis is faid to have diftilled 
 a water from certain herbs, wherewith his fculptor Francefco 
 Tadda, gave his tools fuch an admirable hardnefs and temper, 
 as that he performed fome fine works with-them ; particularly, 
 our Saviour's head in demi- relievo, and Cofmo's head, and his 
 dutchefs's. Even the very hair, and beard, how difficult foever, 
 are here well conducted ; and there is nothing of the kind 
 better in all the works of the ancients : but the fecret feems 
 to have died with him. 
 
 The French have lately found another method of cutting Per- 
 phyry, viz. with an iron faw without teeth, and grez, a kind 
 of free ftone pulverized, and water. The authors of this in- 
 vention pretend, they could form the whole contour of a co- 
 lumn hereby, had they matter to work on. See Supplement, 
 article Porphyrites. 
 PORRACEQUS*, in medicine, a term applied to the bile, 
 fceces, when their colour is green, approaching that of a 
 leek. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin porrum, leek. 
 PORRETANI, a religious f e a, the followers of Gilbert de 
 la Porree, bifhop of Poictiers, condemned in the twelfth cen- 
 tury, for admitting a phyfical diftinction between God and his 
 attributes ; or, as Marfham fays, for having written too curi- 
 oufly on the fubjeit of the Trinity : for his real fentiments, 
 we are not over-well acquainted withal. 
 
 However, he gave occafiou for thofe fufpicions, by maintain- 
 ing that this propofition, Deus eji bonitas, is not true, unlefs 
 reduced to this, Deus eji bonus. And there are fome pafTages 
 noted by St. Bernard, who wrote warmly againft him, wherein 
 he feems to admit a real diftindtion between the nature of 
 God and his attributes.— The Porretani are fet in oppofition 
 to the Nominals. 
 
 PORT, haven, or harbour, a commodious place fituate on the 
 fea-coaft, or at the mouth of a river, wiih depth of water fuf- 
 ficient for mips of burden, and convenient bottom for an- 
 chorage ; where vefTels lie by, to load or onload ; fcreened 
 from the wind, and fife from any enterprize of enemies ; either 
 
 POR 
 
 by the difpofition of the place, or by means of a mole, or difce a 
 
 or the like, with a chain and light-houfe. 
 
 Ports are . either natural or artificial. 
 Natural Ports are thofe which providence feems to have formed 
 
 for the communication of commerce. 
 Artificial Ports are thofe formed with moles, or projeclures 
 
 into the fea. 
 
 The Englifh coafts are exceedingly thin of Ports. France has 
 the advantage of all other countries in the number and ex- 
 cellence of Ports : that of Breft is the fineft natural Port in 
 the world, as that of Dunkirk was lately the ftrongeft artificial 
 one. 
 
 Bar Ports, Ports de larre, are fuch as can only be entered 
 
 with the tide, as that of Goa. 
 Clofe Ports, are thofe within the body of a city; as thofe cf 
 
 Rhodes, of Venice, Amfterdam, Rochel, Bayonne, and St, 
 
 John de Luz. 
 
 Free Port, in commerce, a Port open and free for merchants 
 of ail nations to load and unload their vefTels in, without pay- 
 ing any duties or cuftoms. 
 
 Such are the Ports of Genoa and Leghorn. — The emperor, 
 fince his being in pofleflion of the ftates in Italy, formerly be- 
 longing to Spain, has feemed determined to eftablifh a free 
 P art In fome of the cities he poflefles on the Adriatic fea. — 
 bearing date the 5th of March 1669. 
 
 Free Port is alfo ufed for a total exemption and franchife, which 
 any fet of merchants enjoy, for goods imported into a ftate, or 
 thofe of the growth of the country exported. 
 Such was the privilege the Englifh enjoyed for feveral years 
 after their difcovery of the Port of Archangel ; and which was 
 taken from them on account of the regicide in 1648. 
 
 Cinque Ports. See Cinque Ports. 
 
 Port is alfo fometimes ufed for the burden of a {hip. See Bur- 
 den. 
 
 The capacity of a vefTel is efti'mated in tuns } each whereof 
 may contain about two thoufand pounds weight of fea-water,, 
 When we fay, a veflel is of the Port or burden of a thou- 
 fand tuns ; it is not meant, as fome imagine, that it bears fo 
 many casks full of merchandize ; but that the fea-water, which 
 would be contained in the fpace which the capacity of the veflel 
 pofFcfTes in the fea, weighs a thoufand tuns, which, at the rate 
 of 2000 pounds each, is as much as to fay, it bears a burden 
 of two millions weight. 
 Port is alfo ufed for the palace of the grand fignior, or emperor 
 of the Turks. 
 
 Port is alfo ufed for a ftrong wine brought from Oporto, or 
 Port a-port in Portugal ; whence its name. See Wine. 
 
 Port of the voice, in mufic, the faculty and habit of making 
 the (hakes, pafTages, and diminutions, wherein the beauty of 
 a fong, or piece of mufic, confifts ; and which the Italians 
 comprehend under the terms trilli, gruppi, ftrafcini. 
 
 Port, among failorSj denotes the larboard, or left fide of the 
 fhip. 
 
 To Port a helm, is to put the helm on the left fide of the fliip, 
 that the fhip may go to the right, or the ftarboard. 
 PORTA, in anatomy, or vena Porta, a very confiderable 
 vein, employed in bringing the blood from feveral parts, by 
 an infinite number of branches, which it is divided into to 
 the liver, through the whole fubftance whereof it is diffemi- 
 m ted.— See tab. anat. {angeisl.) fig. 4. lit. a. ( fplanch, J fig. 5. 
 
 The vena porta is formed of two large veins; the mefenteric 
 and fplenic ; which are again formed of feveral other minuter 
 veins coming from the ftomacb, inteftines, fpleen, epiploon 
 
 The ancients gave it the name porta, as imagining it to bring 
 the chyle, by its mefenteric branch, from the inteftines to 
 the liver; but fome of the moderns have found another ufe for 
 it. 
 
 It is remarkable of the porta, that, after the manner of the 
 arteries, it moots itfelf from a trunk into branches ; and being 
 at Iaft loft in capillaries, it delivers the blood into the cava, by 
 which it is immediately reconveyed to the heart. 
 The porta is formed out of the concurrence of divers veins, 
 which, meeting together, make one of the moft confiderable 
 venous trunks of the body, as to its bulk ; though, contrary to 
 the courfe of other veins, it runs not far m a trunk, but is, as 
 before obferved, foon diftributed again, by ramifications, into 
 the liver. 
 
 This vein is vulgarly divided into branches without the liver, 
 and branches vj'ithin, and a trunk intermediate : but this divi- 
 fion is not very clear, the branches, as they are called, without 
 the liver, not being fo properly branches as roots; which have, 
 by anatomifts, been dignified with diftincT: names from the parts 
 whence they come. 
 
 The veins which confpire towards the formation of this trunk 
 which having been defcribed in their proper places, or being to 
 be defcribed there, we fhall not here inlarge upon, are, from 
 the placenta uterina, in a fcetus, the vena umbilicalis ; from 
 the gall-bladder, the cyftica? gemellae ; from the upper part of 
 the ftomacb, the pylorica, or gaftrica dextra, which goes to 
 the trunk ; the gaftrica major, and minor finiftra, from the 
 ftomach (of which the major is formed out of the coronaria 
 9 ventriculij ; 
 
POR 
 
 ventriculi,' ; the epip^ois fmifrra and poffica, from the omen- 
 tum ; the vas, or vafa brevia, from the ftomach ; the fpltuica, 
 from the fpleen : all which join to form the left, or fpleatc 
 I iraitcb tf tbt porta. 
 The right, or me/entme branch, confiits of the gaftrica ana 
 epiploica dextra, from the ftomach and omentum ; the duo- 
 dena, from the duodenum and jejunum ; the hajmorrhoidalis 
 interna, from the inteftinum rectum and colon ; the mefaraics, 
 from the mefelltery. 
 
 By means of all thefe veflcl;, the Porta receives the blood from 
 moll of the vifcera of the abdomen ; and, after the coalefcence 
 of its branches,' enters the liver in a trunk ; immediately unrlei 
 the furface whereof, having firft formed a kind of firms, it i 
 divided into two principal branches, and thofe again into hve 
 which fcatter innumerable ramifications through the whole fub 
 . fiance of the liver. 
 The true ufe of this vein, hitherto unknown. Dr. Keill thinks 
 he has dircovcred i he fays it is this : The bile, fays he, bcml 
 to be mixed with the chyle, as it comes out of the ftomach into 
 the duodenum, could no-where be fo conveniently fecerned 
 from the blood, as where the liver is placed : but if all the 
 branches of the CJeliac artery carried all the blood to the liver, 
 from which the gall was to be feparated ; it is evident, Conu- 
 dcring the near nets of the liver to the heart, and the mteffine 
 motion of the blood, that fo vifcid a fecretion as the gall is, 
 •could never have been formed. 
 
 Nature therefore is forced to alter her conftant method of fend- 
 ing the blood to all parts of the body by arteries : [he here 
 forms a vein, by which [lie fends the blood from the branches 
 of the mefenteric and cceliac arteries to the liver. 
 Bv this means the blood is brought a great way about, ere it 
 arrive at the liver ; fo that its celerity being dimiinfbed, all the 
 
 ■ corpufcles that are to form the gall, may have time to attradt 
 one another, and unite ere they come to therr fecermng veflcl. 
 
 . Keill's aim. for*, p- 3 6 > &c - 
 
 PORTABLE, fomcthing eafy of carnage. 
 
 Books in 12™' arc valued for their being portMt; eafily put 
 
 in the pocket. This machine is the better, as being Portable. 
 
 Armies carry with them Portabil bridges, Portabh mills, boats, 
 
 ovens, forges, Vc. . 
 Portable barometer, is a barometer fo contrived as that it may 
 
 be carried from place to place without being difordered. bee 
 
 Barometer. 
 
 ■ A Portable barcmcter was an extraordinary thing a little while 
 ago ■ at prefent they are made Portablt of all forts ; being fo 
 contrived, as that the mercury may be fcrewed quite up to the 
 fealed end of the tube ; by which means it is fecured from 
 fwaoointr, and fo endangering the breaking of the tube. A 
 contrivance for which we are indebted to Mr. Patrick. 
 
 PORTAIL, in architeflurc, the face or trontifpiece of a church, 
 viewed on the fide wherein is the great door. 
 Portail is alfo ufed for the great door itielf of a palace, caftle. 
 
 POTTAL*, in archireflure, a term ufed for a little fquare 
 corner of a room, cut off from the red: of the room, by the 
 wainfcot ; frequent in the ancient buildings, but now difufed, 
 '* The word feems a diminutive of the French, fart, door, gate ; 
 it being through this that they entered into the room. 
 
 Portal is fometimes alfo ufed for a little gate, perlella ; where 
 there are two fates of a different bignefs. See Gate. 
 
 Portal is fometimes alfo ufed for a kind of arch of joiner's 
 work before a door. . ' J I d 
 
 ■POPTATE in heraldry.— A crofs Portate is a crofs which 
 does not ftand upright, as croffes generally do ; but lies athwart 
 the efcuthcon, in bend, as if it were carried on a man s moul- 
 der. See Cross.- ' , . ■ 
 Colombiere tells us, it is by fome called parte, that is, carried ; 
 becaufe when our Saviour went to fuffer death, he was obliged 
 to carry his crofs, which is always thus reprcfented [loping, and 
 inclined after this manner. 
 
 PORT-CRAION, a penal-cafe, an mflrument fervmg to indole 
 a pencil, and occafionally alfo ufed as a handle for holding it. 
 
 ' Sec Pencil.- - ' V '. " , , '."S t. 
 
 It is ufually four or five inches long, and contrived fo as the 
 nencil may be Hid up and down it by means of a fpring and 
 button Its outftde is filed into eight fides or faces, whereon 
 are drawn the feaor-lincs ; its infide is round : fometimes it is 
 made round or cylindrical both without-fide and within, and 
 has its length divided into inches and parts of inches. 
 
 PORTCULLICE, called alfo herjc and jarrajm, in fortih- 
 cation an afi'emblage of feveral great pieces of wood laid or 
 joined acrofs one another, life an harrow j and each pointed at 
 the bottom with iron 
 
 See Herse and Sarrasin'. 
 
 Thefe fotmerly ufed to be hung over the gate-ways of fortified 
 places, to be ready to let down in cafe of a furprize, when the 
 
 enemy fhould come fo quick, 
 gates. 
 
 ; not to allow time to [hut thi 
 
 But now a- days, the orgues are more generally ufed, as bein 
 found to anfwer the purpofe better. , ... - 
 
 PORT-DIEU, among the French, is a panin-pnett, whofe 
 b'ufinefs is to carry the viaticum, or lacrament, to iick people. 
 PORTER in the circuit of juffices, is an officer who carries 
 a verge, or white rod, before the juftice in eyre ; fo called a 
 j,artanh virgam. 
 
 P O R 
 
 Porter of the dour of the parliamcnt-hmfe, is a neceflary officer 
 belonging to that high court j who enjoys the privileges accord- 
 ingly. Cramp, jurifd. 
 Groom Porter. See the article Groom Porter. 
 PORT-FIRE, a paper-tube, about ten inches long, filled with 
 acompofition of meal-powder, fulphur and falt-petre, rammed 
 moderately hard ; ufed to fire guns and mortars inftead of match. 
 PORT-GLAIVE, [word-bearer, an order of knights in Po- 
 land, called by the Latins enfifert. 
 
 It was confirmed by pope Innocent III. and by him fent into 
 Livonia to defend the preachers of the gofpel againft the infidels 
 at the fir ft converfion of that country. Being too weak to 
 effect that bufinefs, they united thcmfelves with the Teutonic 
 or Marian knights, by the pope's authority; and inftead of 
 knights of the fword, were called, knights of the crofs, — They 
 feparated again under Univus, their great mafter, anno 1541. 
 The Teutonic knights being then difpoffed of Pruflia, and 
 the Port-glaives going into Luther's opinions, foon dwindled 
 away ; for in the year 1557, they fell out with the bifhop of 
 Riga, of the houfe of Brandenburg, becaufe he would not em- 
 brace their notions ; and he, to fecure his own eftate, put Riga 
 into the hands of the Polanders. 
 
 Afterwards, the knights having had moft of Livonia taken 
 from them by the Mufcovites, put themfelves under the pro- 
 tection of Sigifmond Auguftus, king of Poland, anno 1559, 
 but William of Furftembourg, their great mafter, being be- 
 trayed by his own mercenaries into the hands of the Mufcovites, 
 Goth;;rd Keller his fucceffbr, following the example of Albert, 
 the great mafter of Pruflia, tranfadled with the aforefaid Sigif- 
 mond for the whole eftate, which he furrendered to his own 
 ufe in the caftle of Riga, together with his crofs, the feal of th» 
 order, the charters and grants of the feveral popes and em- 
 perors, which concerned the fame ; as alfo the keys of the city 
 and caftle of Riga, the office of great- mafter, the rights of coin- 
 age, and all the powers and privileges appertaining to it ; re- 
 ceiving back again from Radzivil, the king's comrniffioner, the 
 dukedom of Courland to him and his heirs for ever, 
 PORT-GREVE*, or Portgrave, was anciently the prin- 
 cipal magiftrate in ports and other maritime towns. 
 * The word is formed from the Saxon port, a port or other 
 town; and genf, a governor. — It is fometimes alfo written 
 port -r eve. 
 
 Camden obferves, that the chief magiftrate of London was 
 antiently called Port greve ; inftead of whom, Richard I, ordain- 
 ed two bailiffs ; and foon afterwards king John granted them 
 a mayor for their yearly magiftrate. See Mayor. 
 The charter of William the conqueror to the city of London 
 runs thus : " William king, grete William bifhop, and Godfrey 
 " Port-greve, and all the burgefs within London, French and 
 " Engliih. I grant you that I will that ye be all your law* 
 " worth that ye were in Edward's day the king. And I will 
 " that each child be his fader's eyer, and I will not fuffer that 
 " ony man you any wrongs breed, and God you keepe." 
 PORT-HOLES, in a fhip, are the embrafures, or holes in the 
 fides of the veffel, through which the muzzles of the cannons 
 are put. 
 
 Large mips have three rows of Port-holes, or batteries ; eacn 
 ufually confifting of fifteen Port-holes. 
 
 In florins, they ufe to fhut up the Port- holes, to prevent the 
 water's driving through them. 
 
 In Englifh, Dutch, and French mips, their valves or cafements 
 are faftened at top of the apertures ; in Spanifti veiTels afide of 
 them. 
 
 PORTICO, in architecture, a kind of gallery on the ground ; 
 or a piazza encompafTed with arches fupported by columns, 
 where people walk under covert. 
 
 The roof is ufually vaulted, fometimes flat. The ancients call- 
 ed it lacunar. 
 
 Though the word Portico be derived from porta, gate, door ; 
 yet it is applied to any difpofition of columns which form a 
 gallery, without any immediate relation to doors or gates. 
 The moft celebrated Portico's of antiquity were thofe of Solo- 
 mon's temple, which formed the atrium or court, and encom- 
 pafled the fanftnary : that of Athens, built for the people to 
 divert themfelves in, and wherein the philofophers held their 
 difputes and converfations ; which occafioned the difciples of 
 Zeno to be called Jlolcs, from the Greek r=*, porticus : and 
 that of Pompey at Rome, raifed merely for magnificence, con- 
 fifting of feveral rows of columns fupporting a plat-form of 
 vaft extent : a draught whereof, Serlto gives us in his antique 
 buildings. 
 
 Among the modern Portico's, the moft celebrated is the piazza 
 of St. Peter of the Vatican, — That of Covent-Gartlen, London, 
 the work of Inigo Jones, is alfo much admired. 
 PORTIO, Portion, a part, or divifion of any thing. See 
 
 Part and Division. 
 Portion, in the canon law, is that allowance, or proportion, 
 which a vicar ordinarily has out of a rectory, or impropriation ; 
 be it certain or uncertain. 
 Portio dura, and mollis, in anatomy, a partition of the fifth 
 pair of nerves of the brain ; which, before its egrefs out of the 
 dura mater, is apparently divided into two branches ; the one 
 pretty tough and firm, called portio dura ; the othtr foft and 
 lax, called portio mollis, ' 
 
 POR- 
 
POR 
 
 PORTIONER, Portionarius. Where a parfonage is ferved 
 fometimes by two, fometimes bv three minifters, alternately ; 
 as Bromyard, Burford, £jf>. in Shropshire ; the vicars or in- 
 cumbents are called Portioners, becaufe they have but their 
 portion or proportion of tythes, or profits of the living. 
 
 PORTLAND y? 5 w*. See the article Stone. 
 
 PORT-LAST, inafhip, denotes the gun-wale. See tab.Jh'tp. 
 fi%. 1. n. 19. 
 
 When a yard is down on the dock, they fay, the yard is down 
 a Port-laft. 
 
 PORTMANNIMOTE, in old records, the port-mens court, 
 held in any city or town. See Port-men. 
 
 PORT-MANTEAU, a piece of joiners work, fattened to the 
 wall, in a wardrobe, armory, &c. proper for the hanging on of 
 cloaks, hats, &c. 
 
 PoRT-manteau is alfo ufed for a cloak- bag, of cloth, leather, 
 or the like, wherein the cloak and other habiliments of tra- 
 vellers are difpofed, and laid on the horfe's crupper. 
 
 PoRT-MA nt £ A u is alfo an officer under the king of France, 
 whereof there are twelve : their bufinefs is to keep the king's 
 hat, gloves, cane, fword, C&r. to take them from him, and to 
 bring them to him again when wanted. 
 
 The Dauphin has alfo his Port-manteau. Anfwerable to thefe 
 are the cardinals, caudataries, or tail-bearers. 
 The Romifh bifhops have alfo their port-croix, port-mitres, 
 &c. i. e. crozier- bearers, mitre-bearers, &e. 
 PORT-MEN, the twelve burgeffes of Ipfwich ; thus called in 
 the flat. 13 Eliz. 
 
 Camden adds, that the name was common to the inhabitants 
 of all the cinque-ports. See QuinQUE partus. 
 PORTMOTE*, fignifies a court kept in port or haven town ; 
 as fwani-mote in the foreft.—- It is fometimes alfo called the 
 Portmote court. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Saxon, port, port, and gemot 
 cotrventus , meeting ; q. d. pert gemot. 
 Portmotes are alfo held in fome inland towns, as at Knolft in 
 Chefhire. 
 
 PORT-NAILS, in a fhip, fuch as are ufed to fafren the hinges 
 to the ports. 
 
 PORTRAIT, Pour tr a it, or Pourtraiture, in paint- 
 ing, the rcprefentation of a perfon, and efpecially a face, done 
 from the life. 
 
 In this fenfe, we fay, Portrait-painting, in oppofition to 
 hiftory- painting, where all reftmblance of perfon is difregard- 
 cd. 
 
 Portraits are ufually painted in oil-colours, fometimes in water ; 
 
 fometimes in miniature, with crayons, pens, paftels, t£c. 
 
 It was faid of a great painter, who never fucceeded in the like- 
 
 nefs, {Sir Peter Lely, if we miftake not) that he made a great 
 
 many fine pictures, but all poor Portraits. 
 PORT-ROPES, in a fhip, thofe which ferve to haul up the 
 
 ports of the ordnance. 
 PORT- ROY \h, a term that makes a confiderable figure in the 
 
 republic of learning. — Its origin is this : 
 
 Philip Auguftus, wandering from his company in hunting near 
 Chevreufe, weftward of Paris, found a little chapel, where he 
 put up, expecting that fome of his attendants might meet him. 
 This happening accordingly, he gave the place the name of the 
 king's port, Port dit roi, or Port- royal ; and to give thanks for 
 his deliverance, he refolved to erect a monaftery there. 
 Odo, bifliop of Paris, apprized of his intention, prevented 
 him ; and with the concurrence of Mathilda, wife of Matth. 
 Montmorenci, firft. lord of Marly, built an nunnery in 1204, 
 filling it with Ciftercians, who continued under the jurifdictiort 
 of the general of that order till the year 1627, when they were 
 removed to a houfc given them in the Fauxbourg St. Jaques 
 at Paris. 
 
 In 1647, they quitted the habit of Ciffercians, and embraced 
 the inftitution of the perpetual adoration of the facrament. The 
 fame year the archbilhop of Paris allowed them to remand fome 
 of their religious to their former abbey, and to re-eftablilh the 
 fame. 
 
 Some time after, the formulary of Alexander VII. being ap. 
 pointed to be fubferibed throughout the kingdom ; the religious 
 of Port-royal in the city figned it; thofe remitted to the former 
 abbey fcrupled it extremely, and at laft only figned it with 
 great rcftrictions. 
 
 Still perfirKog in the fame fentiments, the king finding noway 
 to reduce them but by difperfiog them ; that was executed in 
 1709, and the revenues given to the other monaftery. 
 Upon this evacuation, feveral ecclefiaftics, and others, who 
 had the like fentiments with regard to the fubfeription as the 
 religious, retired to Port-royal, and had apartments there: and 
 there published feveral books both on the fubject of this dif- 
 putc, and other topics ; — whence all that adhered to that party, 
 took the name of Port-royalifis, and their books, books of 
 Port-royal. 
 
 Hence we Oy, the writers of Port-royal, Meffieurs de Port 
 royal, the tranflatiom of Port-royal, the Greek and Latin 
 methods of Port~rcyal, which are grammars of that language. 
 PORT-SALE, a public fate of goods to the higheft bidder. 
 
 Port-falc, in the fiat. an. 35. Hen. 8. cap. 7. denotes the fJe 
 of fifn prefently upon its arrival in the port or haven. 
 
 P O S 
 
 PORT-SOKEN*, or Port-soka, the fuburb of a city ; or 
 a place within the liberties and jurifdidtion thereof. 
 
 The word is formed from the Saxon, pari, city ,■ and fiU, 
 jurisdiction. — Coneejfi eU od nulhs de clvitate, vel port-ioka 
 fva eaptui. &c Somii. Gavelkind 
 PORTUGUESE coins. See the article Coins 
 Portuguese meafure. See the article Mfasure. 
 
 f&ge? JPJJ U . S ' See the article QUINRUE Partus. 
 
 I Zlr ' m 3n ° rgan ' is a wood en pipe, well clofed, 
 which ferves to convey the wind from the bellows to the found- 
 board of the organ. 
 
 PORUS bilarms, Wary Pore, or hepatic duel, in anatomy, a 
 duct, which, with the cyftic, or choledoc duel, forms the com- 
 mon canal of the bile. 
 
 Fallopius was miftaken in imagining, that the Psrus bilarius 
 earned the bile into the gall-bladder. Its office is to convey 
 it into the imeflines by the ductus communis ; for in blowin? 
 mtp.it, that inteftinc is found to fwell. See Bilarv and 
 -Ductus communis. 
 
 POSE', in heraldry, denotes a Hon, horfe, or other beaft /landing 
 till, with all four feet on the ground ; to denote thereby rhat- 
 t is not in a moving pofture. 
 
 POSITION, in phyfics, Jite, or fituation ; an affection of plat., 
 which exprefles the manner of any body's being therein. See 
 Body and Place. 
 
 Position, in architecture, denotes the fituation of a building 
 with regard to the points of the horizon. 
 
 Vitruvius direas the Pofition of a building to be fuch, as that 
 
 the four corners point directly to the four winds. 
 Position, in aftronomy. The Pofition of the fphere is either 
 
 right, parallel, or oblique ; whence arifes the inequality of our 
 
 days, difference of feafons, csV. 
 Circles of Position, are fix great circles parting through the 
 
 interfeaion of the meridian and horizon, and dividing the 
 
 equator into twelve equal parts. 
 
 The fpaces included between thefe circles, are what the aftro- 
 logers call the twelve houfes ; and which they refer to the 
 twelve triangles marked in their themes. 
 
 Thefe circles are reprefented on the globe by the femicircle of 
 Pofition. 
 
 Position, in dancing, the manner of difpofing the feet, with 
 regard to each other. 
 
 There are four regular Pofttions : the firft is when the feet are 
 joined in a line parallel to the moulders : the fecond, when 
 the heels are perpendicularly under the moulders ; and of con- 
 fequence, the width of the moulders apart ; the third, when 
 one foot is before the other, in fuch manner, as that the heel 
 is in the cavity form'd by the rotula and carpus of the foot : 
 the fourth, when one foot is the width of the moulders apart 
 from the other, the heel ftiil anfwering to the cavity above- 
 mentioned, which is the only regular manner of walking. 
 
 Position, in arithmetic, a rule, fo called, for fitppofition.~The 
 rule ot falfe Pofition, or of falfoood, confifts in calculating on 
 fever2] falfe numbers, taken at random, as if they were the 
 true ones ; and from Lhe differences found therein, determining 
 the number fought. 
 Pofition is either fingle or double. 
 
 Single Position is, when there happens in the propofition fome 
 partition of numbers into parts proportional ; in which cafe 
 the queftion may be refolved at one operation by this rule: 
 Imagine a number at pleafure, and work therewith according 
 to the tenour of the queftion, as if it were the true number : 
 and what proportion there is between the falfe conclufion and 
 the falfe Pofition, fuch proportion the given number has to the 
 number fought. 
 
 Therefore the number found by argumentation fhall be the firft 
 term of the rule of three ; the number fuppofed, the fecond 
 term ; and the given number, the third. 
 Double Position is, when there can be no partition in the num- 
 bers to make a proportion. 
 
 In this cafe, therefore, you muft make a fuppofition twice ; 
 proceeeding therein according to the tenour of the queftion. 
 If neither of the fuppofed numbers folve the propofition, ob- 
 ferve the errors, and whether they be greater or leffer than the 
 refolution requires ; and mark the errors accordingly, with the 
 figns-f-and — . 
 
 Multiply, contrariwife, the one Pofition by the other error ; and 
 if the errors be both too great, or both too little, Subtract rhe 
 one product from the other, and divide the difference of the 
 products by the difference of the errors. 
 
 If the errors be unlike, as the one +, and the other — , add 
 the products, and divide the fum thereof by the fum of the 
 errors added together. For the proportion of the errors is the 
 fame with the proportion of the exceffea or defects of the num- 
 bers fuppofed, to the numbers fought. 
 Position, in geometry, is a term fometimes ufed in contra- 
 distinction to magnitude. — Thus, a line is faid to be given in 
 Pofition, pofitione data, when its Iituation, bearing, or direction, 
 with regard to fome other line, is given : on the contrary, a 
 line is given in magnitude, when its length is given, but not 
 its fituation. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton fliews how to find a point, from which three 
 lines, perpendicularly let fall to three other lines given in Ptfa 
 tion, have any given ratio, &c, 
 
 . Position 
 
P o s 
 
 P OS 
 
 Position is aMb ufed for a thefis or proportion maintained in 
 thefchools. See Thesis. 
 
 Traitereus Position. See the article Traiterous. 
 
 POSITIVE, a term of relation fometimes oppoferj to negative. 
 Thus we' fay, the commandments are fome of them Pofitive, 
 others negative. . . ; 
 
 Positive quantity, in algebra, a real or affirmative quantity , 
 or a quantity greater than nothing ;— thus called, in opposition 
 to a privative or negative quantity, which is lefs than nothing. 
 See Quantity. . . 
 
 Pofitive quantities are defign'd by the charaBer -+- pretixed to 
 them, or fuppofed to be prefixed. 
 
 Positive is alfo ufed in oppofition to relative, or arbitrary. 
 Thus we fay, beauty is no pofitive thing, but depends on the 
 different taftes of the people. See Relative. 
 
 Positive is alfo ufed in oppofition to natural. See Natural. 
 Thus we fay, a thing is of Pofitive right, meaning, it is found- 
 ed on a law 'which depends abfolutely on the authority or him 
 who made it. . . 
 
 The prohibition of eating certain beafts, under the old law, 
 was of Pofitive right ; the command to honour father and 
 mother, of natural right. ■ ■'_ . 
 
 Positive degree, in grammar, is the adjective m its iimple iigni- 
 fication ; without any comparifon. See Degree. 
 Or, Pofitive degree is that termination of an adjeftive, which 
 expreffes its fubjea fimply and abfolutely, without comparing 
 it with any other. 
 
 Thus, good, 4mm, fair, pulcber, &c. are in the Pofitive degree 
 better, fairer, He. in the comparative. 
 
 Positive theology, is that which confifts in the fimple under- 
 Handing or expofition of the dogma's and articles of faith, 
 as contained in the holv fcriptures, or explained by the fathers 
 and councils, clear of all difputes and controverfies. 
 In this fenfe, Pofitive theology (lands oppofed to fcbolajiic and 
 polemical theology. See Scholastic and Polemical. 
 
 Positive, in mufic, denotes the little organ ufually behind, 
 at the foot of the organift, played with the fame wind, and the 
 fame bellows, and confiding of the fame number of pipes with 
 the large one, though thofe much fmaller, and in a certain 
 proportion. See Organ. 
 
 In the organs of the Jefuits, the Pofitive is in the grand body. 
 Positive levity. See the article Levity. 
 Positive cold. See the article Cold. 
 Positive mode!. See the article Mode. 
 POSSE emnitatus, Power of the county, a phrafe in law, figm- 
 
 fying the aid and attendance of all knights, gentlemen, yeomen. 
 
 labourers, fervants, apprentices, villains, and other perfons. 
 
 above the age of fifteen years, within the county; becaufe all 
 
 above that age are bound to have harnefs by the ftatute of 
 
 Winchefter : only women, ecclefiaftical perfons, and fuch as 
 
 are decrepit and infirm, are excufed. 
 
 It is ufed where a riot is committed, a poiTeflion kept upon a 
 forcible entry, or anv force of refcue ufed, contrary to the 
 command of the king's writ, or in oppofition to the execution 
 ofjuftice. Stat. 2. Hen. 5. 
 POSSESSION, PosSessio, in law, quafi pedis pefitio ; an a«i 
 whereby we hold or occupy any thing, either de jure, or de 
 
 Posses'sioh di faBo, is when there is an aftual and effectual 
 enjoyment of the thing. 
 
 Possession de jure, or in law, is the title a man has to enjoy 
 a thing, though it be fometimes ufurped, and in the a3ual Pof- 
 fefiien of another. . 
 
 Unity of Possession makes what the civilians calls conjolidation. 
 E. gr. If a loid purchafe a tenancy, held of himfelf by 
 herriot fervice ; the fervice becomes extinft by' unity of Pof- 
 feffien, i. e. by the feignory and tenancy's coming into the fame 
 hand. 
 
 Long Poffeffen beyond the memory of man begets a right. 
 By the French laws, a Pofeffjen of three years, in matters per- 
 ianal, begets a right ; and in real eftates, a Poffeffien of ten 
 years, among perlbns living near the premifes, and twenty 
 years among thofe that live elfewhere. 
 Annual Possession is the ufucapio, which gives a right to move- 
 ables : a triennial and peaceable Peffeffion of a benefice, is fuf- 
 ficient to maintain it ; provided it be founded on a plaufible 
 
 'a Pofeffion of an efiate for ten years by a perfon prefent, and 
 of twenty years by one abfent, with a title ; or of thirty years 
 without any, gives a full right. 
 Centenary Pofeffion conftitutes Poffeffim immemorial 
 is the beft and molt indifputabk of all titles. 
 
 Possession is fometimes alfo ufed for the afl of taking Peffeffion, 
 which is performed with certain formalities, whereby a perfon 
 is juftified to be in the enjoyment of any thing. 
 Anciently, upon buying an eftate, Poffeffim was 
 deal of ceremony : in fome places, by a dick, a branch, or a 
 ftraw, put into the hands of the buyer by the feller. 
 
 Possession of a benefice, in fome cuftoms, is taken by entering 
 the church, kneeling down, killing the altar, and ringing the 
 bell. See Induction. 
 
 In fome cafes, Poffeffim is taken by the fight of the fteeple, 
 The emperors anciently put prelates in Poffeffttm, by giving 
 fchem a ring and a fluff. 
 
 which 
 
 Possession is alfo ufed for the Hate of a perfon poffeffed by the 
 devil. 
 
 Poffeffim differs from olfeffion, in that in the former the devil 
 acts inwardly ; and in the latter outwardly. See Demo- 
 niack. 
 
 POSSESSIVE, in grammar, is applied to pronouns, which de- 
 note the enjoyment or pofleffion of any thing, either in par- 
 ticular, or in common. 
 
 Thus, mine, thine, his, ours, &c. are pronouns Pofeffive. 
 POSSIBILITAS, Possibility, in our old law-books, is fome- 
 times ufed for a thing done wilfully or wittingly. 
 In which fenfe it Hands oppofed to irnpoffibilitas, a thing done 
 againft the will. Si autem ocules afnaffet, reddat verarn ejus, 
 C? impombilitatis aecufetur in eo fatlo. Leg. Alfred. Again, 
 — Si quis agat impombiliter, non ejl omnino fimile ac ft volun- 
 tarie faciat. Leg. Canut. c. 6. 
 POSSIBILITY, Possibilitas, denotes a non-repugnance 
 to exifting in a thing that does not any way exift. See 
 Possible. 
 
 This non-repugnance to exifting is no other than the pro- 
 ducibility of any thing ; which confifts in this, that there are 
 fufficient caufes aaually exifting, or at lead poflible, where- 
 by the thing may be produced, or be brought to exift ; prin- 
 cipally as there is a God, or an almighty caufe. See Exist- 
 ence. 
 
 So that Pofftbility does not imply any thing in the thing poffible, 
 but it is a mere extrinfic denomination taken from the power 
 of the caufe, and principally of God. 
 
 In effea, if a creatable thing had any intrinfic Pofftbility, it 
 would follow, that fuch a thing mult exift even without the 
 caufe. 
 
 And yet we may allow an intrinfic Pofftbility of a thing, if by 
 Pojfibility we do not underftand its producibility, or its non- 
 repugnance to exift ; but only the non-repugnance of the at- 
 tributes contained in its idea. But fuch Pojfibility is merely 
 logical. 
 
 POSSIBLE, Possible, is fometimes oppofed to real exiftence, 
 and underftood, in the fchools, of a thing, which, though 
 it does not actually exift, yet may exift;— as, a new ftar, 
 another world, tfo which are particularly faid to be phyfically 
 
 PojfibU. .-/Vi' 
 
 It is alfo oppofed to impojfible. In which fenfe it is applicable 
 to any thing that does not contradict itfelf, or involve contra- 
 dictory predicates ; whether it actually exift or not : as a man, 
 fire, c^r. — Thefe are alfo faid to be logically Poffible. _ 
 It is a great point of controverfy among the fchool philofophers, 
 whether and how far things may be laid to have entity, while 
 only in a ftate of Pofftbility f 
 
 Pojfibles are ordinarily conceived to be three- fold ; future, po- 
 tential, and merely Poffible. 
 Future Possible, is that whofe production is decreed and af- 
 certained ; — v. gr. the futurition of all thofe events fixed by 
 the immutable decree, or the immutable will, of the Al- 
 mighty. 
 
 Potential Possible, is that which is contained or lies hid in its 
 
 caufes : — as, the tree in the feed, the fruit in the tree, &c. 
 Mere Possible, is that which might exift, though it never 
 fhall. 
 
 Others diftinguilh Pojfibles into metaphyftcal, phyfical and 
 ethical. 
 
 Metaphyseal Possible, is that which may at leaft be brought to 
 being by fome fupernatural and divine power, — as, the refur- 
 reition of the dead. 
 
 In which fenfe the word is oppofed to an impoffible even to God 
 himfelf ; as, a crooked ftraitnefs, a fquare circle, an infinitely 
 perfect creature, a mortal God. 
 Phyfical Possible, is that which may be effected by a natural 
 power ; — as, to overturn the Turkifh empire. 
 In oppofition to fuch things as cannot be produced by any finit* 
 power ; as, to reftore the dead, &c. 
 Ethical Possible, is that which may be done by prudent perfons, 
 ufing all the proper means they have for the fame. — Again, it 
 is ufed for any thing done according to right reafon, and con- 
 fidently with the laws. 
 
 In the firft fenfe, it is Poffible for the Venetians to beat the 
 Turks at fea : In the fecond, whatever is right and juft, ia 
 Poffible. 
 
 Possibility of ijfite extinft. See Tail. 
 POST*, in the military art, is any fpot of ground capable of 
 lodging foldiers. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, pofttiu, placed ; fome 
 derive it from potejlas, power. 
 A Poft denotes any ground or place, fortified or not, where 
 a body of men may make a ftand, and fortify themfelves, or 
 remain in a condition to fight an enemy. 
 Hence they fay, the Poft was relieved, the Poft was quitted, 
 the Poft was taken fword in hand, dsV. 
 
 A fpot of ground feized by a party to fecure the front of an 
 army, and to cover the Pofts that are behind, is called an ad- 
 vance Poft. 
 
 The advance guard, or the right of the two lines of an army, 
 
 tsV, is called the Poft of honour, and is always given to the 
 
 eldcft regiments. _ 
 
 ° Posts, 
 
P o s 
 
 P o s 
 
 Posts, in building, large pieces of timber, placed upright in 
 houfes, &c. 
 
 The corner Pa/is are called the principal P efts ; — the Pofli fra- 
 med into breffummers between principal Pofls for ftrengtbening 
 the careafe of the houfe, are called the prick Pofls. 
 An excellent method to preferve Pofli from rotting, is, to burn 
 the ends that are to be fet in the ground, the oufiGdc W a very coal. 
 
 Crown Post. See the article CaowN Ps/l. 
 
 Post *, alfo denotes the difpatch a courrier or letter-carrier makes 
 by changing horfes from time to rime. 
 
 * The name is borrowed hence, that the horfes are pojiti, placed, 
 polled, or difpofed from diftance to diilance. 
 The word is alfo applied to the perfon himfelf ; the houfes 
 where he takes up, and lays down his charge ; and the fiages, 
 or diftances between houfe and houfe. — Hence the phrafes, 
 Pofl-hy, Poll-horje, Pofl-hsufe, &c. 
 
 We find mention made of Pofl- horfes in the Theodofian Code, 
 de atrju pub/ice ; but thefe were very different from the prefent 
 cftablifbment, and were only publick horles firff appointed by 
 Trajan ; till whole time, the mefiengers feized any horfes that 
 came in their way. 
 
 Lewis Hornigk has an exprefs treatife onPofls, whereof he makes 
 four kinds, viz. on horfeback, in chariots, in boats, and on foot : 
 which laft kind is in ufe in Italy, Turky, and Peru. 
 Herodotus afcribes the origin of Pofls to Cyrus, or Xerxes ; 
 but the Pofls inftituted by thofe princes were no more than 
 couriers. 
 
 In effect, Pofls on the prefent footing are but a modern inven- 
 tion ; though fnme go back as high as Charkmaign. — It is cer- 
 tain it was the policy, or rather the diffidence, of Louis XI. 
 of France that they owed their rife to ; that uneafy prince firft 
 fettling them by an ordonnance of the igth of June 1464. to 
 be the fooner, and the more furely, advertifed of what paifed 
 in his own kingdom, and in the neighbouring ffates. 
 From France, the institution propagated itfelf, by decrees, 
 through the feveral other parts of Europe. In Germany, Hor- 
 nigk obferves, Pofls were firft fettled by the count de Taxis at 
 his own expehce ; in acknowledgment whereof, the emperor 
 Matthias in 1016, gave him, in fief, the charge of Pofl-mafler 
 under him and his fucceffors, 
 
 In England, Pojh were firft: eftablifhed by aft of parliament 
 12 Car. 2. which enabled the king to fettle a P oft -office, and 
 appoint a governor. 
 
 The Enghfh Pc/l-rffice is now managed by two commiffioners, 
 who have under them about forty other officers of their own 
 appointing. Thefe are all fworn, and give fecurity for their faith- 
 ful difcharge, tsY. as the receiver, comptroller, accomptant, fix 
 clerks of the fevcral roads, a tvindow man, and fixteen forters, 
 for the inland office, tor the foreign office are, a comptroller, 
 an alphabet- keeper, fix clerks, and a foreign officer; beiiJcs fo- 
 lici'tors and clerk 1 ;, and fixty-feven letter-carriers. 
 From this office letters and packets us'd to be only difpatched 
 every Monday, to France, Spain, Italy, Germany, Sweden, 
 Kent, and the Downs ; every Tuefday to all parts of Ens« 
 land, Scotland, and Ireland ; alio to Holland, Germany, Swe- 
 den, £if. every Wednefday to Kent only, and the Downs; 
 every Thurfday to all parts of England and Scotland, as alfo to 
 Fiance, Spain, and Italy ; every Friday to Flanders and Hol- 
 land, Germany, Sweden, Kent, and the Downs ; and every 
 Saturday to all parts of England, Scotland, and Ireland, but the 
 Pofls are now made more frequent. 
 
 Again, letters are returned to London from all parts of England 
 and ScotlanJ, Wales only excepted, every Monday, Wednes- 
 day, and Friday : from Wales every Monday and "Friday ; and 
 from Kent and the Downs every Day. 
 
 On this grand office depend 182 Pofl mcrflers in England and 
 Scotland, who keep regular offices in their feveral fiages, and 
 fhh-pojl-mnfl'-rs in their branches. 
 
 Though the number of letters in England was anciently very 
 inconfiderable ; yet it is now fo increafed, that this office, be- 
 fore the addition of the penny -pofl y was farmed at 50000 /. 
 per annum. 
 
 The charge of a letter of a fheet of paper 80 miles, is 3 d. of 
 two (heers, 6 d. for above So miles, a meet 4 d. two 8 d. An 
 ounce of letters for 80 miles, 1 s. for above, 1 j, 6 d. 
 Note, The Pofl travels at the rate of 120 miles in 24 hours. 
 For thofe who chufe to travel with the Pofl, horfes are ready, 
 ar the rate of 3 d. per mile, and 4 d. to the boy every fbgc 
 The Great Mogul performs part of his poflage by pigeons, kept 
 in feveral places, for the conveyance of letters on extraordinary 
 occafions. They will carry them from one end of that vaft 
 empire to another. The fame vehicles have been ufed by the 
 Dutch in lieges. And at this day, Tavernier obferves, the 
 couful of Alexandretta fends news daily to Aleppo, in five hours 
 time, by means of pigeons ; though thofe two places are three 
 days journey on horfeback apart. 
 Penny Post, a Pofl eftabhfhej for the benefit of London, and 
 the parts adjacent ; whereby any letter or parcel, not exceed- 
 ing fixteen ounces weight, or ten pounds value, is fpeedily and 
 Jafcly conveyed to and from all parts within the bills of morta- 
 lity, to moft towns and villages within ten miles of London, for 
 one penny each packet, letter, c3V, 
 
 This office is managed by a comptroller ; under whom are an 
 accomptant, collector, fix forters, feven fub-fbrters, and above 
 an hundred mefTengcrs. • 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 Posts, in fculpture, &e. denote ornaments formed afrer the man- 
 ner of rolls, or wreathing? ; thus called, becaufe they feem to 
 run after one another. 
 
 Some are fimple; others enriched, or flourifhed. 
 Post, after, is alfo a Latin prepofition, ufed in compofition with 
 
 feveral Fnglifh words, and generally implying a relation of 
 
 Pojhriority, 
 Post-book. See the article Book. 
 
 Post-communion, a prayer which the prieft, recites after the 
 
 communion. See Communion. 
 Post-date. See the article Date. 
 
 Post diem, a fee, by way of penalty, on a ftieriff, for his neg- 
 left in returning a writ after the day affia,ned. 
 For this the cuftos brevium has four-pence ; whereas he has 
 nothing, if it be returned at the day. 
 
 Post-disseisin, a writ g^iven by the ftatute of Weftminfter, for 
 him who having recovered lands or tenements, by praecipe quod 
 reddat, upon default or reddition, is again difleized by the for- 
 mer difieizor. 
 
 POS1 EA, in law, a return or certificate of the proceedings by 
 
 niu prius into the court of common pleas, after a verdict ; and 
 
 tbere'afierwards recorded. 
 POSTERIOR, a term of relation, implying fomething behind, 
 
 or that comes after another. — In which fenfe it is ufed in oppo- 
 
 fition to prior and anterior. 
 
 The back and hips are the poflerior parts of man. Ariftotle has 
 given prior and poflerior analytics. A date is faid to be poflerior 
 to another, when it is later or frefher. See Date. 
 
 Ramus posterior. See the article Ramus. 
 
 POSTERIORITY, in law, a term of comparifon, and relation 
 in tenure, oppofite to priority. 
 
 A man holding lands or tenements of two lords, holds of 
 his ancienter lord by priority, and of his later lord by pofleri~ 
 ority. 
 
 POST ERN, in fortification, a fmall gate, ufually made in the 
 angle of the flank of a bafiion, or in that of the curtain, or near 
 the oriilon, defcending into the ditch ; whereby the garifon can 
 march in and out, unperceived by the enemy, either to relieve 
 the works, or to make private fallies, &c. 
 
 The word is alfo ufed in the general for any private, or back- 
 door.' — Poteflas habere poflernam in omni curia penitus inhibca~ 
 tur, fed unicus fit ingreflus, &C. Fleta. 
 Post-fine, a duty belonging to the king for a fine formerly 
 acknowledged before him, in his court j paid bv the cognizee 
 after the fine is fully paffed, and all things touching the fame 
 are accomplished. 
 
 The rate is fo much, and half fo much, as was paid to the king 
 for the pra-fine ; and is collected by the ftieriff of the county, 
 where the land lies, and to be anfwered by him into the ex- 
 chequer. 
 
 POSTHUMUS*, or Posthumous, a child born after the death 
 of his father, or taken out of the body of a dead mother. 
 
 * The word is compofed of the Latin, pofi, and humus, ground. 
 Among the Romans, Poflhnmus was alfo ufed for a child born 
 after the making of a teftament, which occafioncd the tefhtor 
 to alter it. 
 
 Posthumous is alfo applied figuratively to the works of an author 
 that were not pnbliflied till after his death, or interment. 
 
 POSTICUS /luraw^aj, ferratus Posticus, tibialis Posticus. 
 See the articles Peronjeus, Serratus, Tibialis. 
 
 POSTIL, Pqstilla, a name anciently given to a note, or re- 
 mark, written in the margin of the bible ; afterwards alfo to a 
 note written in any other book poflerior to the text. 
 Trivet in his chronicle, fpeaking of St. Langton, archbHhop of 
 Canterbury, fays, Super bibliam poftillas fecit, & cam per capi- 
 tula, quibus nunc utuntur modern!, dijiinxit : That Alexander, 
 bifhop of Cbefter,/ff/w- pfalterium poftillas fcripfit. —Knighton, 
 another of our hiitorians, fpeaking of one Hugo, a Dominican 
 and cardinal, fays, Totam bibliam poftillavit. 
 
 POSTING, among merchants, the putting an account forward 
 from one book to another ; particularly, from the journal or 
 wafte-book into the ledger. 
 
 POSTIQUE *, in architecture, fete, an ornament of fculpture is 
 laid to be poflique, when it is fuperadded after the work itfelf 
 is done. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Italian, pofiktio, added. 
 
 A table of marble, or other matter, is alfo faid to be pofl/aue, 
 when it is incruftated in a decoration of architecture, 
 POSTLIMINIUM, Postliminy, among the Romans, the 
 return of one who had gone to fojourn elfewhere, or had been 
 banifhed, or been taken by the enemy, to his own country and 
 ftate. 
 
 It was thus called, according to Aul. Gellius, from pofl, after, 
 and limen, threfhold, q. d. a return to the fame bounds, or 
 threfhold : — though others, after Amm. Marceliinus, will have 
 it fo denominated, becaufe perlbns were reftored into the houfe 
 through a hole in the wall, pi/l limen, not by going over the 
 threfhold, which was eftcemed ominous. 
 
 Postliminium was alio a law, or action, whereby one reco- 
 vered an inheritance, or other matter, that had been loft, from 
 a ftranger or enemv. 
 
 Post nati, in our fhtutes, is particularly ufed for fuch perfons 
 as were born in Scotland, after the acceflion of king James I. 
 to the crown of England. 
 
 9 I 7 Jac. 
 
P o s 
 
 7 Jac, I. it was by all the judges folcmnly adjudged, that 
 fuch perfons were no aliens in England ; as, on the con- 
 trary the onte-aatit or thofc born in Scotland before that 
 acce'flion, were aliens here in refpect to the time of their 
 
 birth.- sJjU £ ' fia?flf)t'. „ ' . f > 
 
 Post-natus iialfo ufcd by Bniflon, Flcta, GlanviHe, Wf. tor 
 
 the ftcond ton, as difringuifhed from the eldeft. 
 
 Tims in Brompton, lib. 2. Ej! coufuctudo in quibufdam parttbus, 
 
 quod poft-natus prcsfertur primogenito. 
 Postponing, the putting anything after, or behind another, with 
 
 regard either to the order of time or place. 
 
 Sometimes it is taken in an til part ; as when we fay, the book- 
 binder has poflpuned a fheet, &t, of a book. 
 POSTSCENIUM, in the ancient theatre. See Parasce- 
 
 NlUM. 
 
 Postscript, an after-thought, or article added to a letter or 
 memoir ; containing fomething learnt or recollected after the 
 fubferiptinn or conclufion of the piece. 
 
 It is tifually marked thus, P. S. The Spcflator obferves, that 
 a woman's mind is ever better learnt from her P. S. than her 
 letter. 
 
 -Post-predicaments, in logic, are certain general affection?, 
 o r properties arlfing from a comparifon of predicaments with 
 each other ; or modes following the predicaments, and often 
 belonging to many. 
 
 Such, according to Ariftotle, are oppofitum, fttUS, Jhmu % mtus, 
 and habere ; the three firft of which are in all predicaments. 
 
 Post-term, or Pqst-terminum, a fee, or penalty, taken by 
 the cuftos brcvium of the court of common pleas, for the return 
 of a writ, not only after the day, but after the term or time in 
 which fuch writs are returnable,— For which the cuftos brevium 
 has twenty- pence. 
 
 POSTULATE, Postulatum, in mathematics, a clear, evi- 
 dent proportion ; wherein it is affirmed, or denied, that fome- 
 thing may, or may not be done. See Proposition. 
 A thino- immediately deduced from the confidential of one 
 fmgle definition, if it exprefs fomething to agree or difagree to 
 another, is called an axiom— If it affirm, that fomething may 
 or may not be done, it is called a Populate. 
 Thus, e. gr. from the genefts of a circle, it is evident, that all 
 ripht lines drawn from the centre to the circumference, are 
 equal ; fince they only reprefent one and the fame line, in a 
 different fituation : this propofitlon, therefore, is efttcmcd an 
 axiom. See Axiom, 
 
 But, fince it is evident from the fame definition, that a circle 
 may be defcribed with any interval, and from any point ; this 
 is accounted a Pojlulate. 
 
 Axioms and Populates, therefore, feem to have nearly the fame 
 relation to each other that theorems and problems have. 
 POSTULATION, Postulatio, in the canon law, the no- 
 mination of a perfon to a dignity in the church, to which, by 
 the canons, he cannot be eleftcd ; as, for want of age, of birth, 
 becaufe already poflefled of a benefice incompatible therewith, 
 or for the like impediment. 
 
 Thus the formal election of fuch a perfon being faulty, they 
 are obliged to proceed by way of Pojlulatian \ that is, the chap- 
 ter befecches the perfon to whom the confirmation of the 
 election belongs, to approve of it, though it be not canonical. 
 See Election. 
 
 The perfon to whom the fupplicatton is made by the proteftants 
 In Germany, is the emperor ; by the papifts, the pope. 
 VVicquefort obferves, that when a part of the chapter elects, 
 and another populates, the number of Pojlulants mutt be twice 
 as "Teat as that of the electors, to bring the matter to ^Poftu- 
 lation. 
 
 POSTURE Hi painting and fculpture, the fituation of a figure 
 with regard to the eve, and of the feveral principal members 
 thereof with regard to one another, whereby its action is ex- 
 
 preffed, 
 
 A good part of the painter's art confifts m adj Lifting the Paftures : 
 in giving the moft agreeable Poflures to his figures ; in accom- 
 tnodating them to the characters of the refpective figures, and 
 the part "each has in the action, and in conducting and purfuing 
 them throughout. 
 
 Paftures are either natural, or artificial. 
 
 Natural Postures are fuch as nature feems to have had a view to 
 in the mechanifm of the body ; or rather, fuch as the ordi- 
 nary actions and occafions of life lead us to exhibit while young, 
 and the joints, mufcles, ligaments, &c. flexible. 
 
 Artificial Postures are thofe which fome extraordinary views 
 or occafions lead us to exhibit. — Such, e. gr. are thofe of our 
 balance and pojlure-mafters. 
 
 A painter would be ftrangely puzzled with the figure of Clark, 
 (the iate famous pojlure-mafter of Pall mall) in a hiftory-piece. 
 This man, we are told in the Pbilofi. Tranf. had fuch an 
 abfolute command of his mufcles, 1&c. that he could disjoint 
 almoft his whole body ; fo that he impofed on that great fur- 
 geon, Mullens, who looked on him to be in fuch a miferable con- 
 dition, he would not undertake his cure. Though a well-made 
 man, he would appear with all the deformities imaginable ; 
 hunch-backed, pot-bellied, fharp-breafted, tjfc. He disjointed 
 his arms, fliouldcrs, legs, and thighs ; and rendered himfelf fuch 
 an object of pity, that he has frequently extorted money, in 
 
 P O U 
 
 quality of a cripple, from the fame company he had the minute 
 before been in, in quality of a companion, He would make his 
 hips ftand a confiderable way out from his loins ; and fo high 
 as to invade the place of his back. Yet his face was the moft 
 changeable part about him, and fhewed more Paftures than all 
 the reft. Of himfelf he could exhibit all the uncouth odd 
 faces of a Quaker's meeting. 
 Hatch POT. See the article Hotch pot. 
 WhiU POT. See the article White. 
 
 POTABLE, potabilis, fomewhat that may be taken, or 
 fwallowed, by way of drink. 
 
 The chymifis talk much of Potable gold, auritm potabile. Sec 
 Aurum and Gold. 
 POT-ASHES, are properly the Ifodvious aflles of certain vege- 
 tables, ufed in the making of glafs and foap. 
 Such are the afties of the herb kali, called alfb falt-wort, glafs- 
 weed, £f<*, from its great ufe in glafs- making. 
 Pot-a/hes are alfo called cineres clavellati, and make the bafis of 
 fait of tartar, and moft of the lixivial falts, as our chymifts of 
 late manage them for cheapnefs. 
 
 The Englifh and Dutch make a confiderable commerce of 
 Pot-ajhcs, which they bring from about the Black fea ; ufing 
 great quantities thereof in the preparation of their cloths, &c. 
 thofe afhes being found excellent to fcour withal. 
 Pot-ashes is alfo a denomination popularly applied to all kinds 
 of wood-afhes bought up and down the country, and mixed 
 together, for the making of green glafs. — The beft of Englifh 
 Put-ajhes are thofe made of the fmaller common high-way 
 thiffle ; though all thirties in general are good. Fern alfo 
 makes excellent Pot-ajhes. 
 POTENT, or Potence, in heraldry, a term for a kind of a 
 crofs, whofe ends all terminate like the head of a crutch. 
 This is otherwife called the Jerufalem crofs; and is reprefent- 
 ed in tab. herald, fig. 47 . 
 
 He beareth fable, a crofs Potent, or, by the name of Aleyn. 
 POTENTIA, Power, that whereby a thing is capable either 
 of acting, or being acted upon. See Power. 
 Hence it is of two kinds, afilve and pajfive. 
 Potentia adiva, or a Rive Power, called alfo by a barbarous, 
 but ugniflcanl fcbool-term, operativity, is the efficacy or faculty 
 of any being, in virtue whereof fomething arifes, or is produced 
 by it. — Such is the power of fpeaking in man. 
 Potentia pajfiva, vel receptiva, paftivs, or receptive Power, 
 is a capacity of receiving fome act ; e. gr. of knowing a man. 
 This is alfo called fubje"iva Potentia, fubjective power. 
 l"o exift in Potentia, is ufed among fchool-writers, to denote 
 that exiftence which a thing has in a caufe capable of producing 
 it, but which has not as yet actually produced it. — In which ic 
 ftands oppofed to exiftence in a flu. 
 POTENTIAL, Potentials, in the fchools, is ufed to de- 
 note and diffinguifh a kind of qualities, which are fuppofed 
 to exift in the body in potentia only ; by which they ca- 
 pable, in fome manner, of affecting and impreffing on us 
 the ideas of fuch qualities, though not actually inherent in 
 thcmfelves. 
 
 In this fenfe we fav, Potential heat, Potential cold, Szc. Brandy 
 and pepper, though cold to the touch, are potentially hot. 
 Potential cold is a relative term, by which we mean, that 
 fucli a thing is not actually cold to the touch, but in its effects 
 and operations, if taken inwardly. 
 
 T'his quality is fuppofed to arife from the fize, fhape, &c, of 
 the component particles of a body, which give fome check or 
 retardation to the blood's motion, whereby it is lefs agitated, 
 and upon which the fenfible parts of the body are not fo briskly 
 {truck by it ; the perception of which diminution or change of 
 motion in the organs of feeling, is called cold. 
 Hence every thing that lefiens the blood'.-; motion, with relation 
 to the fenfation before made, is cold ; — and every thing which 
 increafts it, may be called potentially hot. 
 Potential, in medicine, &c. — Cauteries are either actual, 
 viz. a button of red-hot iron ; or 'Potential, as lime, and other 
 cauftic drugs. 
 
 Potential calcination. See the article Calcination. 
 Potential fire. See the article Fire. 
 
 Potential is alfo ufed by fchoolmen, for fomething that has 
 
 the quality of a genus. 
 A Potential whole is that which has its parts under it, as a genus 
 has its fpecies ; to diltinguifh it from an a dual whole, which 
 has ils parts in itfelf ; as a body compofed of matter and form. 
 Grotius, with a view hereto, ufes the phrafe, Potential parts 
 of a /late, in oppofition to the fubjefiive parts. See Part. 
 By Potential, he means thofe parts poflefled of the fovereign 
 power ; by fubjective, thofe fubject thereto ; which are that, 
 with regard to the fovereign power, that feveral fpecies 
 are with regard to the genus whereof they are the fubjective 
 parts.| 
 
 Grotius maintains, that though the fovereign power be one and 
 indivjfible, yet it may have feveral Potential parts: for, as in 
 the Roman empire there have been two Potential heads, the one 
 ruling in the eaft, the other in the weft ; yet the imperial autho- 
 rity, all the while, fingle and indivifible: fo is it poffible, the 
 fubjective parts combining to give away their fovereignty, 
 may not give it Satire, but referve a part of it for certain emer- 
 gencies. 
 
POU 
 
 gencies. In which cafe the lubje&ive part becomes Potential: 
 and thus there are two Potential parts, and yet the fovereignty 
 fmgle. 
 
 Potential, in grammar, gives the denomination to one of the 
 moods of verbs. 
 
 The Potential mood is the fame in form with the fubjunctive ; 
 but differs from it in this, that it hath always implied in it, 
 either pojfum, volo, or debeo : as roget, that is, rogare potefl, 
 the man may ask, 
 
 It is fometimes called the permiffive mood, becaufe it often im- 
 plies a permifiion or conceflion to do a thing : as, Hahcat, 
 valeat, vivat, cum ilia. Terent. 
 
 Potfrii antiheSiicum. See the article Antih ecticum. 
 
 POTION, Potio, a liquid medicine, in the quantity of a 
 draught, or fo much as is to be taken at one time. 
 A Potion only differs from a julep, or a mixture, in the quan- 
 tity j as being confined to one dofe. 
 
 There are purging Potions, emetic Potions, diaphoretic, pe&oral, 
 cephalic, cardiac, ftumachic, hyftcric, vulnerary, carminative, 
 t9V. Potions. 
 
 POTTERY, the art of making earthen pots and vefTels ; or, 
 the manufacture of earthen ware. 
 
 The wheel and lathe are the chief, almoff the only inftruments 
 ufed in pottery ; the firft for large works, the fecond fur fmall : 
 though, in reality, they are much the fame as to the manner 
 of ufing them. 
 
 The potter's wheel confifts principally in its nut, which is a 
 beam or axis, whofe foot or pivot plays perpendicularly on a 
 free-ftone fole or bottom. From the four corners a-top of this 
 beam, which docs not exceed two feet in height, arife four iron 
 bars, called the /pokes of the wheel ; which forming diagonal 
 lines with the beam, d'efcend, and are faflened at bottom to the 
 edged of a ftrong wooden circle, four feet Hi diameter, per- 
 fectly like the felloes of a coach-wheel ; except that it has nei- 
 fher a<xis nor radii ; and is only joined to the beam, which ferves 
 it as an axis, by the iron bars. The top of the nut is flat, of a 
 circular figure, and a foot in diameter. On this is laid a piece 
 of the clay or earth, to be turned and fafhioned. 
 Tile wheel thus difpofed, is encompaftcd with four fides of 
 four different pieces of wood, fuft.tined on a wooden frame : 
 the hind-piece, which is that whereon the workman fits, is 
 made a little inclining towards the wheel : on the fore-piece 
 are placfd the pieces of prepared eartli : laftly, the fide-pieces 
 ferve the workman to red: his feet againft, ; and are made in- 
 clining to give him more or lefs room, according to the fize of 
 the -.veflel to be turned. By his fide is a trough of water, 
 wherewith from time to time he wets his hands, to prevent the 
 earth's (licking to them. 
 To life the wheel. — The potter having prepared his clay or earth, 
 and laid a piece of it fuitable to the work he intends, on the 
 top of the beam, fits down ; his thighs and legs much ex- 
 panded, and his feet refted on the fide-pieces, as is moft con- 
 venient. 
 
 In this ittuation he turns the wheel round, till it has got the pro- 
 per velocity ; when, wetting his hands in the water, he bores 
 the cavity of the vefTel, continuing to widen it from the middle ; 
 and thus turns it into form, turning the wheel afrefh, and wet- 
 ting his hands h orn time to time. 
 
 When the vufful is too thick, they ufe a flat piece of iron with 
 a hole in the middle, and fumewhat fharp on one edge, to 
 pare off what is redundant, Laftly, wh^n the veflel is finiflied, 
 they take it oft* from the circular head by a wire parted under- 
 neath the veflel. 
 
 The potter's lathe is alfo a kind of wheel, but much fimpler and 
 {lighter than the former. Its three chief members are an iron 
 beam or axis three feet and an half high, and two inches in 
 diameter ; a little wooden wheel all of a piece, an inch thick, 
 and fevLii or eight in diameter, placed horizontally a-top of the 
 beam, and ferving to form the veffel on j and another larger 
 wooden wheel, all of a piece, three inches thick, and two or 
 three feet broad, fattened to the fame beam at bottom, parallel 
 to the horizon. The beam or axis turns by a pivot at bottom, 
 in an iron Hand. 
 
 The workman gives the motion to the lathe with his feet, by 
 pulhing the great wheel alternately with each foot ; ftill giving 
 it a greater or Icller degree of motijn, as his work requires. 
 They work with the lathe, with the fame inftruments, and after 
 the fame manner, as with the wheel. 
 
 But neither the one nor the other ferve for any more than 
 forming the body of the veflel, fsV. The feet, handles, anil 
 ornaments, if there be any, befide the mouldings, being to be 
 made and fet on by hand ; if there be any fculpture in the 
 work, it is ufually done in earthen or wooden moulds, pre- 
 pared by a fculptor, unlefs the potter have skill enough to do 
 it himfelf, which is very rare. 
 
 As to the glazing, or varnifhing of the work, it is ufuallv done 
 with fand, litharge or lead- afhes, wood-aih.es and fait, melted 
 into a cake. 
 
 For the Chinefe Pottery, fee the article Porcelain'. 
 POTTLE, an Englifh mealure, containing two quarts. See 
 Measure. 
 
 Two of thefe Pottles, in the liquids, make a gallon ; but in 
 dry meafure three go to a gallon. 
 POUDER. Sec the article Powder. 
 
 POU 
 
 Pie Pouder court. See the article Pie powder court. 
 POULTICE, or Poultis, a form of medicine, called alfa 
 
 cataplafm. See Cataplasm. 
 POULTRY. See the article Fowl. 
 
 POUNCE*, among artificers, a little heap of charcoal- duff, 
 inclofcd in fome open ftuff, to be paffed over holes pricked in 
 a work, in order to mark the lines or defigns thereof on a paper 
 placed underneath ; which are to be afterwards finifhed with 
 a pencil, a needle, or the like. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, ponce, pumice-flone ; 
 in regard they anciently ufed pumicc-flone powdered for this 
 purpofe. 
 
 Pounce is much ufed by embroiderers, to transfer their patterns 
 upon their fluffs ; by lace-makers, and fometimes alfo by en- 
 gravers, and a kind made of gum fandarack by writing-matters. 
 Pounces, in falconry, the talons or claws of a bird of prey. 
 POUND*, Libra, a weight of a certain proportion, much 
 ufed as a ftandard for determining the gravities and quantities 
 of bodies. 
 
 * The word is deriv'd from the Saxon, fund, or pond, ptuidsa, 
 weight. 
 
 We have two different Pounds in England ; the Pound troy, 
 and the Pound avoirdupois. 
 The Pound troy confifts of 12 ounces, each ounce of 20 penny- 
 weights, and each penny-weight of 24 grains ; fo that 480 
 grains make an ounce, and 5760 grains a Pound. 
 T his Pound is ufed in the weighing of filver, gold, precious 
 flones, all kinds of grains, dsV. 
 
 It is alfo ufed by the apothecaries, though differently divided : 
 among them 24 grains make a fcruple, 3 fcruples a drachm, 
 8 drachms an ounce, and 12 ounces a Pound. 
 The Pound avoirdupois confifts of 16 ounces; but then the 
 avoirdupois ounce is lefs by 42 grains than the troy ounce, 
 which amounts to nearly a 12th part of the whole, fo that 
 the ounce avoirdupois only contains 438 grains, and the troy 
 ounce 480. 
 
 The difference whereof is nearly as that of 73 to 80, /. e. 73 
 ounces troy make 80 ounces avoirdupois. 112 avoirdupois 
 Pounds make the hundred weight, or quintal. 
 By this Pound are weighed all larg;e and coarfe commodities, 
 flelh, butter, cheefe, iron, hemp, lead, fteel, fife. 
 An avoirdupois Pound is equal to 14 ounces \ of a Paris Pound; 
 fo that 100 of the former Pounds make qi of the latter. 
 The French Pound contains 16 ounces; but one French Pound 
 is equal to one Pound one ounce j of an avoirdupois Pound ; 
 fo that 1 co Paris Pounds make 109 Enghih avoirdupois 
 Pounds. 
 
 I he Paris Pound is divided in two manners ; the firft divifion 
 is into two marcs, the marc into eight ounces, the ounce into 
 eight gros, the gros into three deniers, the denier into twenty- 
 four grains, each weighing a grain of wheat. 
 The fecond divifion of the Pound is into two half-pounds ; the 
 half-Pound into quarters ; the quarter into two demi-quartcrs ; 
 the demi-quarter into two ounces; the ounce into two half 
 ounces, cSV. 
 
 The firft divifion is ufually followed in weighing gold, filver, 
 and other precious wares; and the latter in thofe of lefs 
 value. 
 
 At Lyons the < Pound is 14 ounces. — One hundred Paris Pounds 
 make 116 Lyons Pounds. — At Venice, the Pound is equal to 
 eight ounces three quarters of the French Pounds he. 
 For the feveral Pounds of the fevetal cities and countries, their 
 
 Proportion, reduftitn, divifion, he. See Weight. 
 Pound alfo denotes an imaginary money ufed in accounting ; 
 containing more or lefs, according to the feveral names added 
 to it, and the feveral countries it is ufed in. 
 Th is in England we fay a Pound fterling ; in France, a Pound 
 or livre tournois and Parifis ; in Holland and Flanders, a Paund > 
 or livre de gros, &c. 
 
 The term took its rife hence, that the ancient Pound flerlinr, 
 though it only contained 240 pence, as ours does, yet each 
 penny being equal to five of ours, the Pound of filver' weighed 
 a Pound troy. 
 
 The Pound fterling, or Englifli Pound, contains twentv milling?, 
 the (hilling twelve pence, and the penny four farthings. 
 Anciently there were three ways of paying a Pound of money 
 into the exchequer : j. The pavment of a Pound de numero, 
 which was juft twenty millings in tale. 2. Ad fcalam, which 
 was 6 d. over and above the 20 s. 3. Ad penfam, which was 
 giving the full weight of twelve ounces. 
 The French Pound, or livre tournois, contains twenty fola or 
 millings, and the fol 12 deniers or pence tournois ; which was; 
 the value of an ancient French coin called franc, a term flill 
 fynonymous with livre. 
 
 The Pound, or livre tournois, contains, in like manner, 20 fols 
 or fhillings, and the fol 12 deniers or pence Parifis. Each fol 
 Parifis is equal to 15 deniers tournois ; fo that a Pound Parifis 
 is equal to 25 fols tournois. 
 The Pound, or livre de gros, of Holland, is divided into 20 mil- 
 lings gros, and the (hilling into 12 pence gros. It \i equal to fix 
 florins; the florin valued at 24 fols tournois; fuppofing the 
 exchange on the footing of 100 pence gros for a French Crown 
 of 3 livres tournois ; fo that the Pound gros amounts to ic (hil- 
 lings and 1 1 pence farthing fterling, — The Pound gros of Flan- 
 ders 
 
P o u 
 
 POW 
 
 tiers and Brabant is divided like that of Holland ; and like that 
 too, is equal to fix florins: but rhe florin is equal to 25 fole 
 
 tuurnois i lb that the Flanders Pound is equal to 7 Imcs, 
 fols tournois, or 1 1 s. 3 fterling. 
 
 Merchants, factors, bankers, &ff. ufe characters, or initial let- 
 ters, to exprefs the feveral kinds of Pounds of account, as L. or 
 L. St. Pounds fterling. L. G. Pounds gros j and L. or lb. 
 ton. Pounds tournois. 
 Pound nails. See the article Nails. 
 
 Pound,.Parcus, is alfo an inclofure, or ftrong place, where 
 
 cattle diftrained, or caught in any trefpafs, arc put, till they 
 
 are replevied or redeemed. 
 
 The Pound is either overt, or covert and clofe. 
 Pound overt, is an open Pound, built upon the lord's wafte : 
 
 and thence alfo called, the lord's Pound ; becaufe he provides it 
 
 for the ufe of himfelf, and his tenant?. 
 
 Pound overt alfo includes back-fides, court-yards, pafture- 
 
 grounds, or any place whatever, to which the owner of beam 
 
 impounded may come to give them meat and drink, without 
 
 offence or trefpafs. 
 Pound covert or clofe, on the contrary, is fuch a one as the 
 
 owner cannot come to for the faid purpofe without trefpafs — 
 
 offence; as fome clofe houfe, caftle, fortrefs, He. 
 POUNDAGE, a fubfidy granted to the king upon all manner 
 
 of merchandize imported or exported, by all merchants, na- 
 tives, denizens, and aliens. 
 
 It is called Poundage, becaufe fixed at the rate of fo much per 
 pound, viz. one milling in every pound, or twenty (hillings ; 
 and for Englifh commodities exported by aliens, one milling 
 more. 
 
 It was fir ft granted to Edward VI. for term of his life ; and 
 afterwards to K. Charles II. anno 12 Car. 2. 
 POUP, or Poop, Puppis, in navigation, the hind-part of a 
 veflel, or that where the helm is fixed, called a]fo ftern. 
 The French frequently call it queue, tail; becaufe the rudder 
 here applied ferves the fame purpofes in a fhip, as the tad does 
 to fiib.es. 
 
 The poop is divided into three or four ftories, which, all toge- 
 ther, form the poup-cafle, or hind-caftle ; the outfide whereof 
 is richly adorned with balconies, galleries, .pilafters, trophies, 
 the arms of the prince, He. 
 
 To have the wind in Peup, in the fea phrafe, is to have it 
 
 behind, or favourable. 
 Poop is more particularly ufed among us for the floor, or deck 
 
 ever the round-houfe, or mafter's cabbin ; being the higheft 
 
 part of a (hip's hull a-ftern. — See tab. jhip. fig. 2. lit. P. 
 POURALLEE. See the article Purlue. 
 POUR-PARTIE, or Pour-party, in law, a term ufed in 
 
 oppofition to pro-indivifo, denoting the fhare or part of an eftate 
 
 firft held in common by parceners ; which is by partition allot- 
 ted to any of them. 
 
 To make Pour partie, is to divide and fever the lands that 
 
 fall to parceners; which, before partition, they held jointly 
 
 and pro ind'tvifo. 
 POURFLE. See the article Purpure. 
 POUR-PRESTURE, or Purpresture, Pourprestur a, 
 
 in law, is defined by Glanville to be, when any thing is un- 
 
 juflly occupied, that properly belonged to the king; as is the 
 
 cafe in the encroaching on his grounds, abftrudting the higr, 
 
 ways, diverting public rivers from their proper courfe, o. | - _ - 
 
 building any thing over the high-ftreets of a ciiy ; and i n the : Po w D B R ^fPfojefc 
 general, where any thing is done to the prejudice of the king'i 
 tenements, high-ways, or cities. 
 
 Crompton in his Jurifd. fays, paur-preflurc is properly when 
 a man takes to himfelf, or encroaches any thing which he 
 ought not; whether it be in jurifdi&ion, in land, or in fran- 
 chife ; and, generally, where any thing is done to the nuifance 
 of the king's tenants. 
 
 Some authors divide ponr-prefture into three kinds : the firft 
 againft the king, the fecond againft the lord, the third againft 
 a neighbour. 
 
 Pour-prefturs again/? the king, lib. nig. in fcacc. fol. 38. is that 
 happening through the negligence of the fheriff, or the long 
 continuance of wars, He. when thofc that have lands near the 
 crown- lands, inclafe part of tliem, or lay them to their own. 
 Pour-prejhire againft the lord, is when the tenant neglects to 
 perform what he is bound to do for the chief lord, or deprives 
 him of his , right. 
 
 Pour-preflure again/1 a neighbour, is a nuifance againft a neigh- 
 bour, He. mentioned in the Monaji. torn. I. 
 POURSUIVANT*, or Pursuivant, a meffenger, anciently 
 attending the king, in his wars, or at council-table, or in 
 the exchequer ; to be difpatched upon any occafion or mef- 
 fage : as, for the apprehenfion of a perfon fufpsdted, or accu- 
 fed, &e. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French ^ar/anjrf, to purfoe. 
 Many of the nobility too had their Pcurfuivants : a knight 
 banneret was allowed a Pourfuivant, with the confent of a 
 herald. 
 
 Upton, de re miliiari, calls the Pcurfuivants, miUtes lingua- 
 res ; becaufe, fays he, their chief honour was in cujlodia 
 lingua. 
 
 He divides them into foot and horfe Pourfiiivant', airfares equi- 
 tantes & profecutores. 
 
 There were alfo Poztrfmvants particularly employed in martial 
 canfes, called 1 
 Poursuivants at arms, a term anciently applied to gentlemen 
 who attended the heralds, and afpired to their office ; to which 
 they could not rife, till after feven years apprenticeftiip patted 
 in this quality. 
 
 They were intirely dependent on the heralds, and affifted at 
 their chapter ; officiating for them in preparing and aifigning 
 turnaments, and all other parts of their miniftry. 
 They were baptized at ftdemn feafts with fome gallant name, 
 as Jolicceur, Verluifant, Sanfmentir, He. 
 
 Their coats of arms were different from thofe of the heralds, 
 and they bore plain ftaffs without ornament. 
 Of the great number of Pourfuivants anciently on foot, there 
 are now only four remaining, viz. blue-mantle, rouge-crofs, 
 rouge-dragon, and portcullice ; who are the loweft order of 
 officers belonging to the college of arms. 
 
 Their buiinefs is to attend with the heralds in marfhalling and 
 ordering public folemnities, funerals, interviews, cavalcades, 
 He. 
 
 Stow, fpeaking of Richard the third's end, has thefe words : 
 " His body was naked to the skin ; not fo much as one clout 
 ** about him ; and was trufi'ed behind a 'Pourfuivant at arms, 
 " like a hog, or a calf." 
 POURTRAIT, or Pourtraiture. See the article Por- 
 trait. 
 
 POURVEYANCE, or Purveyance, the providing of corn, 
 victuals, fuel, and other neceffaries for the king's houfe. 
 By a ftat. 12 Car. 2. no perfon, under colour of Pourveyance, 
 fhall take any timber, cattle, corn, or other matter, from any 
 fubjedt, without his free confent. 
 POURVEYOR, or Purveyor, an officer of the houfhold, 
 who provides and buys in corn, and other victuals, He. for 
 the king's houfe; mentioned in magna charta, and feveral 
 ftatutes. 
 
 Pourveyor became a term fo odious in times paft, that by ftat. 
 36 Edw. 3. the heinous name Pourveyor was changed into that 
 of aehator, or buyer. — The office itfelf was much reftrained 
 by the ftat. 12 Car. 2. 
 POWDER, or Pouder, in pharmacy, a dry medicine pul- 
 verized, or prepared, by being broken and reduced into almoft 
 imperceptible atoms, either in a mortar, or by chymical opera- 
 tions, He. 
 
 We fay, a ftyptic Powder, a fympathetic Powder, &c. — Viper 
 Powder, pulvis viperinus, has of late days come much in re- 
 queft, under the denomination cf animal bezoard. 
 Powder for the hair, is flour of wheat, or beans, well fifted 
 and prepared, to give it an agreeable odour. 
 That wherein ftarch grounds is mixed, is much us'd. See 
 Starch. 
 
 Jefuits Powder, pulvis fatrvm. See the article Cortex Pe- 
 ruvians. 
 
 Gun Powder. See the article Gun Powder. 
 PoWDBK-CflESTS. in the fea-language, are boards joined in 
 form of a triangle, and filled with gun-powder, pebbles, He. 
 which they fct fire to, when the fhip is boarded by an enemy, 
 ami \>o:i make .-11 clear before them. 
 Corni ■ e Powder. See the article Cornachine. 
 Emetic Powder. See the article Emetic 
 lux Powders, See the article Flux. 
 
 See the article Projection. 
 POWDERINGS, in building, a term.fometimes ufed for de- 
 vices ferving to fill up vacant fpaces, in carved works : as alfo 
 in cfcutcheons, writings, He. 
 Powderings, in heraldry. See the article Fur. 
 POWER, Potentia, in phyfics, a natural faculty of doing 
 or fuffering any thing. 
 
 Mr. Locke explains the origin of our idea of Power to the fol- 
 lowing effect : The mind being daily informed by the fenfes, 
 of the alterations of the fimple ideas of things without, and 
 reflecting on what paffes within itfelf, and obferving a conftant 
 change of its ideas, fometimes by the impreffions of outward 
 objects upon the fenfes, and fometimes by the determinations 
 of its own choice ; and concluding from what it has fo con- 
 ftantly obferved to have been, that the like changes will for 
 the future be made in the fame things, by the fame agents, and 
 by the like ways ; confiders, in one thing, the poflibility of 
 having any of its fimple ideas changed ; and in another, the 
 poffibility of making that change : and fo comes by that idea 
 which we call Power. 
 
 Thus we fay, fire has a Poiver to melt gold, and make it fluid ; 
 and gold has a Power to be melted. 
 
 Power, thus confidered, is twofold, viz. as able to make, or 
 able to receive any change : the one may be called aclive, the 
 other paffive Power. See Active and Passive. 
 Of paffive Power, all fenfible things abundantly furnifh us with 
 ideas ; nor have we of aclive Power fewer inftances : fince 
 whatever change is obferved, the mind muft fuppofe a Power 
 fomewhere able to make that change. See Cause. 
 Yet, if we attentively confider it, bodies, by our fenfes, do 
 not afford us fo clear and diftindt an idea of active Power, as 
 we have from reflection on the operations of our minds : for 
 all Power relating to action, and there being but two forts of 
 
 action, 
 
POW 
 
 P o w 
 
 action, viz. thinking and motion, it may be confidered whence 
 we have the deareft ideas of the Powers which produce thofe 
 actions. 
 
 Of thinking, body affords us no ideas at ali ; it is only from 
 reflection that we have that : neither have we from body any 
 idea of the beginning of motion. A bod)', at reft, affords us 
 no idea of any active Power to move j 'and when it is fet 
 motion itfelf, that motion is rather a paflion, than an action 
 in it. The idea of the beginning of motion, we have only by 
 reflection on what pafles in ourfelves ; where we find by expe- 
 rience, that barely by willing it, we can move the parts of our 
 bodies, which before were at reft. 
 We find in ourfelves a Power to begin or forbear, continue or 
 end, feveral actions of our minds, and motions of our bo-' 
 dies, barely by a thought or preference of the mind. Thi 
 Power, which the mind has, thus to order the confideratioh of 
 any idea, or the forbearing to confider it, or to prefer the 
 motion of any part of the body to its reft, and vice verfa, in 
 any particular inftance, is what we call the will. — And the 
 actual exercife of that Poiuer, is that which we call volition, or 
 willing. 
 
 The forbearance or performance of that action, confequent to 
 fuch an order or command of the mind, is called voluntary : 
 and whatfoever action is performed without fuch a thought of 
 the mind, is called involuntary. 
 
 The Power of perception, is what we call the under/land- 
 ing. 
 
 Perception, which we make the act of the underftanding, is of 
 three forts : the perception of ideas in our minds : the percep- 
 tion of the fignification of figns ; and the perception of the 
 agreement or difagreement of any diftinct: ideas. See Per- 
 ception. 
 
 Thefe Powers of the mind, viz. thofe of perceiving, and prefer- 
 ring,are ufually called by another name ; and the ordinary way of 
 fpeaking is, that the under/landing and will are two faculties or 
 Powers of the mind. A word proper enough, if ufed fo as not 
 to breed any confufion in mens thoughts, by being fuppofed 
 (as there is room to fufpect it has been) to exprefs ibme real 
 beings in the foul, that perform thofe actions of underftanding 
 and volition. 
 
 From the confideration of the extent of the Power of the mind 
 over the actions of the man, which every one finds in himfelf, 
 arife the ideas of liberty and neceflity. 
 
 So far as a man has a Power to think, or not to think ; to move, 
 or not to move, according to the preference or direction of his 
 own mind ; fo far is a man free. 
 
 Where-ever any performance or forbearance are not equally in 
 a man's Power ; where-ever doing or not doing will not equally 
 follow upon the preference of his mind ; there he is not free, 
 though perhaps the action may be voluntary. 
 So that the idea of liberty is the idea of a Power in any agent, 
 to do or forbear any action, according to the determination or 
 thought of the mind, whereby either of them is preferred to the 
 other : where either of them is not in the Power of the agent to 
 be produced by him according to his volition, there he is not at 
 liberty ; that agent is under neceflity. So that liberty cannot be 
 where there is no thought, no volition, no will : but there may 
 be thought, there may be will, there may be volition, where 
 there is no liberty. Thus a tennis-ball, whether in motion by 
 the ftroke of a racket, or lying ftill at reft, is not by any one 
 taken to be a free agent ; becaufe we conceive not a tennis-ball 
 to think, and confequent ly not to have any volition, or prefe- 
 rence of motion to reft, or vice vcrfa. So a man ftriking hi 
 felf or his friend by a convulfive motion of his arm, which it is 
 not in his Power by volition, or the direction of his mind, to ftop 
 or forbear ; nobody thinks, he has liberty in this ; every one 
 pities him, as acting by neceflity and conftraint. Again, fuppofe 
 a man be carried, whilft faft afleep, into a room, where there is a 
 perfon he longs to fee, and be there locked faft in, beyond his 
 Power to get out ; he awakes, and is glad to fee himfelf in fo 
 defirable company, which he flays willingly in ; that is, he pre- 
 fers his ftaying to going away ; Is not this ftay voluntary ? No- 
 body will doubt it ; and yet being locked faft in, he is not at 
 liberty to ftay, he has not freedom to be gone. 
 Liberty, therefore, is not an idea belonging to volition, or pre- 
 ferring; but to the perfon having the Power of doing, or for 
 bearing to do, according as the mind fhall chufe or direct. 
 As it is in the motions of the body, fo it is in the thoughts of our 
 minds -. where any one is fuch, that we hwtPower to take it 
 up, or to lay it by, according to the preference of the mind, there 
 we are at liberty. 
 
 A waking man is not at liberty to think, or not to think, no 
 more than he is at liberty, whether his body fhall touch any 
 other or no : but whether he will remove his contemplation 
 from one idea to another, is many times in his choice ; and then 
 he is, in refpect of his ideas, as much at liberty, as he is in 
 . refpect of bodies he refts on. He can at pleafure remove him- 
 felf from one to another. 
 
 Yet fome ideas to the mind, like fume motions to the body, are 
 fuch, as in certain circumftances ir cannot avoid, nor obtain 
 their abfencc, by the utmoft effort it can ufe : thus a man on 
 the rack is not at liberty to lay by the idea uf pain, and en- 
 tertain other contemplations. 
 
 Where-ever thought is wholly wanting, or the Power to act 
 or forbear according to the direction of thou tbt, there ncctiflitv 
 Vol. II. 3 
 
 in the latter. 
 
 takes pace. This, in an agent capable of volition, when the" 
 beginning vr continuation of any atfion is contrary to the pre- 
 fe.ence of Ins mind, is called eompulfion ; when the hindering 
 or flopping any action is contrary to his volition, it is called r?- 
 ftratnt. Agents, that have no thought, no volition at all, are 
 in every thing neceflary agents. 
 Power in mechanics, denotes a force, which being applied to 
 a machine, tends to produce motion ; whether it does actualiy 
 produce it or not. 
 
 In the former cafe, it is called a moving Power 
 a fnflaining Power. 
 
 If the Power be a man, or a brute, it is called an animate 
 Power ; if the air, water, fire, gravity, or elafticity, an in- 
 animate Power. 
 
 Attractive Power. See the article Attractive. 
 
 Confpiring Power. See the article Conspiring. 
 
 Repelling Power. See the article Refilling. 
 
 Power is alfo ufed in mechanics, for any of the fix fim'nle 
 machines, viz. the lever, balance, /crew, axis in peritrochio 
 wedge, and pully ; which are particularly called the mechanic 
 Powers. 
 
 See alfo each Power under its proper article, Lever, Ba- 
 lance, taV. 
 
 Powers, in pharmacy, the refult of a combination or union of 
 the eflential oils with the fpirit of a plant ; wherein, it is fup- 
 pofed, are contained all the principal virtues thereof : whence 
 the name. 
 
 The Powers of fcabious and mullein ate prepared by beating 
 and tncopuiating the expreffed juices of thefe plants when 
 green, with lard, and afterwards expofing them feveral days to 
 the fun; fuch beating and inflation being feveral times re- 
 peated at due diftances. 
 Power, in the feodal jurifprudence, a right which the lord has 
 to re-unite to his fief, a dependent fee held of him, when the 
 vaflal has alienated it, upon reimburling the money eiven for k 
 with the legal colts. 
 
 The lord is to exercife his Power over the fee, within a year af- 
 ter he has notice of the fall ; uthcrwifc he loies ir. 
 The word is alfo ufed for the right a lord has to fcize a depen- 
 dent fee, to compel the payment of all due;, fervices, &g. 
 Po we rs, polemics, is alfo ufed among the fathers, Izc. for the fixtll 
 order in the hierarchy of angels, reckoning from Seraphim 
 Thefe they fuppofe to be the fpirits who bridle and reftrain the 
 Power of the devils; prefide over inferior caufes j and prevent 
 contrary qualities from difturbing the ceconomy of the world. 
 See An get.. 
 
 Power, in optics.— The Power of a gjafs is ufed by fome for 
 the diftance of the convexity from its folar focus. See Focus 
 
 Power, in arithmetic, the produce of a number, or other qua'n^ 
 tity, multiplied into itfelf. 
 
 Thus the produce of the number 3, muliiplied by itfelf viz q 
 is the fecond /Wr of 3 ; the factum of 9, multiplied by" V 
 viz. 27, is the third Power; and the produtt of 2 7 ,2^zin mul- 
 tiplied by 3, viz. 81, is the fourth Power; and fo on to infi- 
 nity.— In refpea hereof, the firit number, 3l is called the roo' 
 or firji Power. 
 
 The fecond Power h called the fquare ; with refped to which, 
 3 is the fquare root. 
 
 The third Power, 27, is called the cult ; with refpea to which, 
 the 3 is the cube root. 
 
 The fourth Power, 81, is called the blquadrate, or quadrato- 
 quadratum ; with refpeft to which, 3 j 3 the biquadratic 
 root. 
 
 The number which fhews how often the root is multiplied into 
 itfelf, to form the Power ; or how oft the Power is to be di- 
 vided by its root, to come at the root, is called the exponent of 
 the Power. ' J 
 
 The moderns, after des Cartes, are contented to diftinguim melt 
 of their Powers by the exponents ; M,frJl,f e cond, third, &c 
 The particular names of the feveral Powers were introduced by 
 the Arabs, viz. fquare, cube, quadrato- quadratum or biqua- 
 drate, furdefolid, fquare of the cube, fecond furdefolid, quadrato- 
 quadrato-quadratum, cube of the cube, fquare of the Jurde/olid, 
 third furdefolid, &c. 
 
 The names given by Diophantus, followed by Vieta and Ough- 
 tred, are, the fide or root, fquare, cube, quadrato-quadratum, 
 quadrato-cubus, cubo-cubus, quadrato-quadrato- cubits, quadrato- 
 cubo-cubus, cubo- cubo-cubus, &C. 
 
 The charaaers wherewith the feveral Powers are denoted, both 
 in the Arabic and Cartcfian notation, are as follow : 
 
 1024 
 
 ft 
 
 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 
 Arab. Rye bq s qc Bf tq 
 Cartef. a o 1 a 1 a* a> a? a- a* 
 
 Hence, to raife a quantity to a given Power or dignity, is the 
 fame as to find the faftum arifing upon its being multiplied a 
 given number of times into itfelf : e. gr. to raife 2 to the 3d 
 Power, is the fame as to find the faaum 8 ; whofe fetors are 
 
 2, 2, 2. 
 
 Powers of the fame degree are to one another in the ratio of the 
 roots as manifold as their exponent contains units : thus, fquares 
 are in a duplicate ratio ; cubes in a triplicate ratio ; quadrato- 
 quadrata, or fourth Powers, in a quadruple ratio. See Ratio. 
 The Powers of proportional quantities are alfo proportional 
 to one onother, 
 
 9 & From 
 
POX 
 
 Prom a given Power to exiraSi the root, ox fide, is the fame as 
 to find a number, e.gr. 2, which multiplied any number of 
 times, e. gr. twice, produces the given Power, e. gr. the 3d 
 Power, or 8. See Root and Side. 
 
 To multiply or divide any power by another of the fame root, 
 i°. For multiplication, add the exponents of the factors ; the 
 fum is the exponent of the factum. Thus : 
 
 Faaorsi*' * *" a " * 
 I x* y m y" a? x' 
 
 Prod. #7 y i m ym-\- n a m -\-r x' : - s r s 
 2°. For diviuon, fubtract the exponent of the Power of the 
 divifor, from the exponent of the dividend ; the remainder is 
 the exponent of the quotient. Thus : 
 
 Divid. x 7 fx 1 1] y m -f-» ( Jf ll^ x n .a m — r ■ — 5 
 
 Divif, x* \ \\ y" \ \\a r x\ x 
 M. de la Hire gives us a very odd property common to all 
 Powers : M. Carre had obferved with regard to the number 6. 
 that all the natural cubic numbers, 8, 27, 64, 125, whofe root 
 is lefs than 6, being divided by 6, the remainder of the divifion is 
 the root itfelf ; and if we go farther, 2 1 6, the cube of 6, being 
 divided by 6, leaves no remainder ; but the divifor 6, is itfelf 
 the root. Again ; 343, the cube of 7, being divided by 6, 
 leaves I ; which, added to the divifor 6, makes 7 the root, C5Y. 
 M. de la Hire, on coniidering this, has found that all numbers, 
 raifed to any Power whatever, have divifors, which have the 
 fame effect with regard thereto, that 6 has with regard to cubic 
 numbers. 
 
 For the finding of thefe divifors, he difcovered the following 
 general rule : 
 
 If the exponent of the Power- of a number be even, |, e. if the 
 number he railed to the 2d, 41b, 6th Power, &cc. it mull be di- 
 vided by 2 ; the remainder of the divifum, in cafe there be any, 
 added to z, or to a multiple of 2, gives the root of this number, 
 correfponding to its 'Power, i. e. the 2d, 6th, csV. root. 
 If the exponent of the Power be an uneven number, /. e. if the 
 number he raifed to the 3d, 5th, 7th, &c. Pozver ; the double 
 of this exponent will be the divifor, which has the property 
 mentioned. 
 
 Thus is it found in 6, double of 3, the exponent of the Power 
 
 of all the cubes; thus, a!fo, 10 is the divifor of all numbers 
 
 raifed to the 5th Power; &c. 
 Commen fur able in Power. See Commensurable. 
 Power, of an bvperbola, in conies, is the fquare of the right 
 
 line CI, or A I {tab. conies, fig. 20,) 
 
 The Power of the hyperbola, is the fourth part of the fquare of 
 the conjugate femi-axis ; or the fixteenth part of the fquare of 
 the conjugate axis. See Hyperbola, 
 
 Power of the country. See Posse comitatus. 
 
 POX, in medicine, a difeafe under which name there are feveral 
 kinds : as, fmall Pox, Prcnch Pox, chicken Pox, [wine Pox, &c. 
 
 Small POX, variola, is a contagious difeafe appearing on the 
 Surface of the skin, which it covers with puftules, or ulcerous 
 eruptions, that leave efchars behind them. Or, it is a general 
 eruption of particular puftules tending to fuppuration, and at- 
 tended with a fever. 
 
 The origin of this difeafe is uncertain : we find no mention of it 
 before the Arab phyficians.- — It bears a great refemblance to the 
 mcafles ; fo that for the two or three firft days it is difficult to 
 diftinguifh them : they both arife from an impure blood, and 
 corrupt humours ; with this difference, that in the fmall Pox, 
 the peccant matter is more thick and vifcid ; in the meafies 
 more fubtile, hot, and bilious ; and neither of them are known 
 to return after the having palled them once. See Measles. 
 Dolreus fays, that the caufc of" the fmall Pox is brought into the 
 world with us, and lies hid till it find an opportunity of burn- 
 ing forth : he adds, that there is fcarce one in many thoufands 
 that efcapes it all his life. 
 
 Dr. Drake obferves, that the [mall Pox not being founded in anv 
 permanent habitual difpofition, has its period within a limited 
 time neceffary for the extrufion of the peccant matter out of the 
 pores of the skin. For the fait ferum of the blood being in this 
 difeafe, by an accidental fever, thrown out in great quantities 
 on the glands of the skin, acts much after the manner as in the 
 lepra Arabuin ; but when the blood is defpumated, the fcales 
 dry, and fill ofF. So that he thinks it would be no great impro- 
 priety to call this fmall Pox, a temporary, critical lepra. 
 The fmall Pox are of two kinds : the diflincl, where the puftules 
 ftand apart ; and the confluent, where they run into one con- 
 tinued cake. 
 
 The dijlintt, or regular fmall Pox, Sydenham obferves, begins 
 with a fhuddering and chillinefs, which is fucceeded by an in- 
 tenfe heat, violent pain of the head and back, vomiting, drow- 
 finefs, efpecially in children, and fomeiimes epileptic fits \ 
 which mew the Pox to be ready to burit forth, and that they 
 will be mild. 
 
 The eruptions are ufually on the fourth day ; upon which the 
 feyerah fymptoms vanifti, except that adults are prone to fweat. 
 The puff u Its firft appear in the lace, then the neck, &e. They 
 are at firft reddifh, by degrees they fwclJ and grow whiter; on the 
 eleventh day the fwelling and iiiftariitnatibft of the face vanifh, 
 and the puftules begin to wither. If ever this kind kill, it is 
 on the fourteenth or fifteetnth day. 
 
 POX 
 
 The fymptoms of the diflincl fmall Pox, as enumerated by Dr. 
 Shaw, are, 1. A pain in the hear!, back, and fcrobiculum cordis. 
 2. A fever, which decreafes as the eruptions hicreafe, with red- 
 nefs of the eyes. 3. Naufea and retchings. 4. Little reddilh 
 fpots, or beginning puftules, appearing on the neck, face, breuft, 
 &p. about the third or fourth day inclufive, from the beginning 
 of the illnefs. 5. Reftleflhefs. 6. About the feventh or eighth 
 day, other little red fpots- ufualiy appear between the growing 
 puftules. 7. The puftules about the ninth day are at their ffate ; 
 being then generally as big as a large pea, the matter in them 
 well concocted, of a whitifh colour inclined to yellow ; at which 
 time, 8. The patient is ufually light-headed and feverifh. 
 g. About the tenth day the puftules begin to dry on the face. 
 10. And about the fifteenth they appear flirunk, and begin to 
 fcale off" ; and now the danger is efteemed to be over. 
 The diftinti kind is here confidered unattended with a Joofe- 
 nefs, and other fymptoms, which fometimes happen in it, as 
 well as in the other. 
 The confluent, or fiux fmall Pox has the fame fymptoms with 
 the diflincl, only in a more violent degree : they ufually come 
 out on the third day ; not feparate, as in the dijlintt kind, but 
 fpread into one another ; and at length appear all like one whitifh 
 pellicle, over the whole skin. After the eighth day, the pellicle 
 darkens. In adults this kind is attended with a falivation; in 
 children with a diarrhoea. The falivation frequently fucceeda 
 immediately after eruption ; the diarrhoea later. The confluent 
 kind ufually kill on the eleventh day. 
 
 The fymptoms of the confluent kind, according to Dr. Shaw, 
 are, 1. Violent pain in the head, hack, and fcrobiculum cordis. 
 2. Naufea and retching, with a fever, which rather increafes 
 than decreafes after the eruption. 3. In children a diarrhoea, 
 which ufually precedes the eruption, and attends the diftemper 
 throughout. 4. A ptyalifuius in adults, arid but feldoni a diar- 
 rhoea. 5. Deliria, convulsions, hoarlencfs, difficulty of breath- 
 ing, fixednefs of the eyes, and reftlefliiefs ; which may alfo in a 
 lefter degree attend the diflincl fort. 6. The fpots are here more 
 red, thick, and clofe, than in the diflincl ; and the fpaces be- 
 tween them more inflamed and fwelled ; purple or livid fpots 
 alfo often appear in thefe fpaces; whence the fmall Pox with 
 purples. At other times in thefe fpaces, or on the heads of the 
 eruptions, appear bladders full of clear water, vulgarly called 
 the white hives. Laftly, thefe eruptions are frequently de- 
 preffed in the middle, and there turn black ; whence the black 
 fmall Pox. 
 
 The eruptions often rife and fink again in the progrefs of the 
 diftemper. They ufually firft appear about the fourth or fifth 
 day, and come to their ftate about the fifteenth. 
 Morton divides the difeafe into four ftages : the apparatus or 
 preparation, from the time of the firft infection to the eruption 
 of the puftules. The eruption, which comprehends three ftates ; 
 eruption, maturation, and declenfion, in which laft the puftules 
 are firft incruftated with a fcab, then wither and dry oJF. 
 When the eruptions are very round, diftindt, encompaifed with 
 a red margin, &c. they are faid to be benign ; otherwife ma- 
 lignant. 
 
 There are four degrees of malignancy, viz. when the puftules 
 are univerfally confluent ; particularly confluent ; diftindt, but 
 very fmall and coherent ; and diftinct, with petechia: and mi- 
 liary eruptions. 
 
 Dr. Freind, Dr. Cade, &c. recommend purging and phlebo- 
 tomy after an imperfect crifis of the fmall Pox, i.e. where the 
 fever remains after rhe puftules decline : many oppofe it : in- 
 deed reafon feems on its tide ; but prefcription is a^ainft it. Al- 
 faharavius, in the firft ftage of the fmall Pox, prcfciibes phle- 
 botomy, even to a fwooning, and great quantities of cold wa- 
 ter to be drank. In the malignant fmall Pox, Dr. Lifter found 
 the blood, when cold, exceiTivcly tender and friable, fo as the 
 fofteft feather would eafily divide its globules. EtmuIIcr fays, 
 there is nothing to be more regarded than the breath and voice ; 
 where thefe are good, it is an excellent fign. He adds, that horfe- 
 dung is an admirable medicine, in that it promotes fweat, fives 
 the throat, &c. 
 
 A method of managing the fmall Pox, lately introduced from 
 abroad, is by inoculating them. Par the reafon, procefs, and 
 advantages whereof, fee Inoculation. 
 Why the fmall Pox fcarce evet vifit a perfon above once, is a 
 famous problem ; long canvafled, and with little fuccefs ! Dr. 
 Drake accounts for it very plaufibly from the alteration made in 
 the skin by that difeafe. For the diftenti'on the glands and pores 
 of the skin fufTcr therein is fo great, that they fcarce ever recover 
 their tone again, fo as to be able any more to arreft the matter 
 in its courfe outwards long enough, or in quantity enough, to 
 create thofe ulcerous puftules which are the diagnoftics of the 
 difeafe. For though the fame feverifh difpolitiun ftiould arife 
 again in the blood, yet the paffages through the skin being mure 
 open, the matter will never be ltopped, fo as to exhibit the ap- 
 pearance of the fmall Pex. 
 
 Accordingly we find, that in perfons feverely handled with this 
 difeafe, the face (which is ufually the fulleft, from the extraor- 
 dinary obftruction the matter meets with by the great conftipa- 
 tion of the pores) fcldom returns to its former dimenfions 1 
 which inlargemcnt he accounts for from the dilatation of the 
 areolae of the glands and pores of the skin, nut from any aug- 
 mentation of the iubftance itfelf. 
 
 What 
 
POX 
 
 What confirms this hypothefis, is, that nurfes, t&c, who attend 
 perlbns fick of the /mail Pox, are frequently a little affected 
 with it, and have now-and-then two or three eruptions: that 
 they have no more, f'eems to follow from the free courfe of the 
 matter through the skin. With this, too, agrees that conftant 
 obfervation, that people of coarfe fkins, in whom the pores 
 are largeft, are always more favourably treated by this drftem- 
 per than others, and that it conftaiuly leaves fine fkins coarfer 
 than it found them. 
 
 This folution would feem mere probable, were it not that fame 
 have fo very few of thefe eruptions perhaps not above twenty 
 or thirty ; which cannot fairly be allowed fo far to inlarge the 
 pores of the whole skin, as to prevent any return. 
 Others hold, that in a genuine eruption, the caufe of the dif- 
 temper is fo far evacuated, as fcarce to leave a poflibility of a 
 return of it ; and that if part of the original caufe did remain 
 behind, it might, when the air favours it, or when by other 
 accidents it is fecreted from the blood, appear in the form of 
 eruptions, and fo prove to be the mealies, chicken Pox, Sic, 
 It may, indeed, be objected, that thefe Iaft- mentioned often 
 happen before the frr.all Pox : but whatever be the caufe of thi 
 /mail Pox, the feparating power muft be in fuch a detei mined 
 proportion, or it will fail to caufe a regular fisaH Pox, and fo 
 acting proportionably, may produce any of the other diftempers 
 juft mentioned. 
 
 The occafional caufes of the fmall Pox may be, r. Some alteration 
 in the air ; fince they happen moft frequently about fiheforfflg- 
 feafon ; and both in Europe, and ellewhere, ate more epide- 
 mical and mortal at particular times. 2. From fear 5 which 
 appears more evident, than eafy to explain. 3. From forfeits, 
 as by eating any thing too chilling to the blood, as cucumbers, 
 oranges, (Sfe, in hot feafons ; or when the body is heated by 
 motion, the drinking of cold liquors. 4. From too plentiful 
 feeding. 5. From any over-heating -the blood, or too fuddenly 
 cooling it after it is heated, whereby a fudden check is given 
 to perforation ; and this more efpecially, if the air favours fuch 
 an eruption. 
 
 As to prognofiic figns of the fmall Pox; 1. The fooner they 
 appear in the fpring, and the more the air is difpofed to favour 
 the diftemper, the more fatal they ufually prove. 2. The con- 
 fluent fpecies both in adults and children, is dangerous ; and thi 
 more fo, if attended with a fuppreffian of urine, naufea, retch 
 ing, delirium, purple fpots, cryihllines, bloody urine, &c. after 
 the eruption; but the black nefs of them is not dangerous before 
 the crifis. 3. Diarrhoeas in the confluent kind, are not fo bad 
 in children as in adults. 4. A ptyalifmus is a regular attendant 
 of the confluent kind in adults from the fixth or feventh day 
 till after the crifis ; and is fo necefiary, that if it ftop fuddenly, 
 and return not for twenty-four hours, the patient is fuppofed 
 to be in great danger. 5. A quinzy here is highly dangerous, 
 
 6. The eruptions fwelling, and finking fuddenly, are bad figns, 
 
 7. The danger is not over till about the twentieth day in the 
 confluent fpecies. But if the eruptions be diftinct, few, round, 
 plump, rife full, and grow up fharp at the top ; if the ficknefs, 
 vomiting, c5V. go off, or remit upon the appearance of the 
 eruptions, and the patient be under no dreadful apprehenfions ; 
 the danger is ufually over about the tenth day in 'the diftinct 
 kind. Convulfions attending the firft fymptoms of the fmall 
 Pox in children, are faid to forcftiew the appearance of erup- 
 tions within twelve hours ; which then generally prove diftinct. 
 and the patient does well. The fmall Pox fucceeding a de- 
 bauch in liquors, or happening upon an irregular courfe of life, 
 is ufually mortal. 
 
 Chicken Pox, a cutaneous difeafe, frequent in children, where- 
 in the skin is covered with puftules like thofe of the fmall 
 Pox as to figure and magnitude ; and only diftinguifliablc there- 
 from, in that thofe of the fmall Pox appear with a rednefs and 
 inflammation, and thofe of the chicken Pox whiter, refembling 
 veficulEe full of a ferous humour; which in three days time 
 burft, and dry away, without any danger, and ufually without 
 ^any fever. 
 
 The chicken Pcx and fwine Pox feem to be the fmall Pox in a 
 lefs degree, though they fomstimes precede, and fometimes 
 fucceed the fmall Pox. The puftules appear to be of the fame 
 kind ; only in the fwine Pox they are much larger, and in the 
 chicken Pox fomewbat lefs than in the fmall Pox, There com- 
 monly appear five or fix, fometimes twenty or thirty on the 
 face, and but very few on the body. 
 
 The patient is very little indifpofed, either before, at, or after 
 their appearance ; though the fudden finking of them often 
 caufes fome diforder ; but it is prefently relieved by a little 
 fack and faffron, or a dofe of treacle- water. 
 Grown perlbns feldom keep within doors for either ; and upon 
 that account the eruptions may continue the longer, becaufc 
 the cold air is fuppofed to hinder their ripening ; fo that it is 
 fometimes three weeks or a month before they totally dif- 
 appcur, 
 
 French Pox, a contagious difeafe, contracted by a poifonous hu- 
 mour, ufually in coition ; and manifetiing itfelf in ulcers and 
 pains. See Venereal difeafe. 
 
 The French call it mal de Naples, the Neapolitan difeafe, be- 
 caufe firft obferved among the foldiery at the fiege of Naples 
 under Charles VIII. The Italians call it mal Francefe, and we 
 trie French dilcaje, becaufe firft caught by the French. The 
 
 P R A 
 
 Spaniards call it fas hilar, or farva des Indian becaufc Si ft 
 brought from the Weft- Indies. Trev. See Luks. 
 POYNING'i law, an aft of parliament made in Ireland undt.; 
 Henry VII. whereby all the ftatutes of force in England wet!: 
 made of force in Ireland ; which before that time they were 
 not.— Nor are any now in force there, made in England fintc 
 that time. 
 
 The law took Its name from Sir Edward Poyning, lord lieute- 
 nant of th:it kingdom at the time of its m;iki'iu 
 POZZOLANA, a greyifh kind of eaith, ufed in Italy for 
 building under waier. 
 
 The beft is found about Po77.uo!i, Baia 1 , and Cum;c in the 
 kingdom of Naples, from the firft of which places it takes its 
 name. 
 
 Pc%%olana, mixed with lime, makes the beft morter in the 
 world. — It hardens and petrifies in water : builders afftire us 
 that it penetrates black flints, and whitens them. It is of par- 
 ticular fervice in making moles, and other buildings, in ma- 
 ritime places. Agricola takes it to be of an aluminous and 
 fulphurous nnture. Sec Vitruvius, Pliny, de Lorme^ t?V. who 
 fet a great Value on it. See Supplement, article Pu t £ 0 LrfNUS 
 Pulvis. 
 
 PRACTICAL arithmetic, T r Arithmetic. 
 
 Practical geometry, I \ Geometry. 
 
 Practical mathematics, > See J Mathematics. 
 
 Practical muftc, \ J Music 
 
 Practical phHofophy, J (_ Philosophy. 
 
 PRACTICE, in arithmetic, Practica Italica, or 'Italian 
 ujages ; ceitain compendious ways of working the rule of pro- 
 portion, or golden rule; especially where the firft term is i t 
 or unity. 
 
 They were thus called from their expediting of Pradice and 
 buiinefs, and becaufe firft introduced by the merchants and 
 negotiants of Italy, 
 
 The moft ufeful of thefe Praclices are as follow : — 1. Since 
 the ufe of the rule of three is to find a fourth proportional to 
 three given numbers, divide the firft and fecond, or the fiift 
 and third, by fome common number, if that can be done ex- 
 actly, and work with the quotients in their ftead : as in the 
 following example. 
 
 Price of 3 it is 9 fiiil. What is the price of 7 it ? 
 3) 1 3 3 
 
 fecit 21 fliil. 
 
 Price of 14 It is 26 fliil. What is the price ot 7 ft \ 
 7) 22)— t 
 facit 13 fliil. 
 
 2. If the fi.ft term be I, and the fecond an aliquot part of 3 
 pound, fliilling, or penny ; divide the third by the aliquot part : 
 the quotient is the anfwer. Note, To find the aliquot part j 
 thofe who cannot do it otherwife, may fee the table of aliquot 
 parts of a pound under the article Aliquot. 
 
 E. gr. If 1 ell cofl 10 fliil. What coft 957 ells ? 
 
 facit £478 : 10 /. 
 
 3. If the firft or third number be I ; the other not exceeding 
 large, and the middle term a compound, /'. e. conlift of 
 feveral denominations, it may be wrought without reduction 
 thus : 
 
 Price of 1 It is 3 s. 8d. iq. What is the price of 5 lb ? 
 5 
 
 facit 18 j. yd. %q. 
 For 4 farthings making a penny, 5 times 3 farthings make 
 3d. $q. and 12 pence making 1 fliilling, five times eight pence 
 make 3 s. \d, which, with 3d. from the place of farthings, 
 make 3 r. yd. Laftly, five times 3 fliillings make .15 millings* 
 and with the 3 (hillings from the place of pence, iiS s. The 
 price required therefore is l8r. yd. 3q. 
 
 4. If the middle term be not an aliquot, but an aliquant part, 
 refolve the aliquant part into its aliquot parts, divide the middle 
 term by the feveral aliquots, the fum of the quotients is the 
 anfwer. To find the aliquot parts contained in an aliquant, 
 fee the table of aliquant parts of a pound under the article 
 Aliquant. 
 
 For an inftance of this rule : 
 
 If 1 ell coft 15 fliil. What cofl: 124 ells ? 
 
 * 3i 
 
 facit 93 /. 
 
 5. If the firft or fecond term be 1, and in the former cafe, the 
 fecond or third, in the latter the firft, be rcfolvible into factors, 
 the whole operation may be performed in the mind without 
 writing down any figures, as in the following example. 
 
 Price of 1 lb is 24 fliil. What is the Piice of 20ft ? 
 
 80 
 6 
 
 facit 48 : 0 s. — 24 /. 
 6. Where one of the given numbers is 1, we have fevernl com- 
 pendious ulages, to fave multiplication and divilion. E. gr. \i 
 9 ft coft 20 fliil. What does 1 It coft ? 
 
P R A 
 
 PRE 
 
 It is obvious the fum required is had by adding to the tenth part 
 
 of 20 s. viz. 2 r. the ninth part of that tenth, viz. $d. t, ana 
 
 ■J of a penny ; the anfwer therefore is 2 s. 3 d. k and %. 
 
 Aoain : If 5 it cod 64 fhil. What cofts 1 ft ? 
 
 Since 5 is half of 10, the double of the tenth part of the given 
 
 price viz. 10 j. q d. is the fum required. 
 
 Again: If 1 ft coft lid. Whit will 19ft ooft? 
 
 Since iq=20 — I ; from the given price doubled, and incrcafee 
 
 by a cypher, viz. 360, fubtraa the funple 18 ; the remainder 
 
 is 342 (/.— 28 j. bd. the fum required. 
 
 7. If two terms of the fame denomination differ by an unit, 
 we have a peculiar kind of compend, which will be clear from 
 the following examples. E. gr. If 5 * coft 30 s. What will 
 4 ft coft ? 
 
 Since the price of 4 ft is one fifth part fhort of that of 5 ft. 
 divide the given price 30 by 5 ; the quotient 6 being rubtraMed 
 from the dividend, the remainder, viz 24 r. is the fum re- 
 quired. „ 
 Again : If 8 ft cod 24 s. What coft g 16 ? 
 Since the price of 9 ft exceeds that of eight by one eignth part ; 
 divide the given price 24 by 8 ; and add the quotient 3 to the 
 dividend ; the fum 27 is the anfwer. 
 
 8. Sometimes one may ufe feveral of thefe compends 
 or Prailkes in the fame qucftion. E. gr. If 100 it coft 
 30 r. ^d. What cofts 50ft? 
 50)2. 2 — 
 
 foot 15 J. 2 d. 
 
 Again : 60 It coft 41. What coft 2520 ? 
 
 6 42 
 
 2+ 
 
 7 
 
 168/. 
 
 PRjE, a Latin prcpofition, literally fignifying btfm ; it is ufed in 
 ' compofition with feveral words in our language, to denote the 
 ' relation of priority. See Preposition and Composition. 
 Of late, our writers, in Latin words anglicifed, (or Pra, ufually 
 write pre, reftraining the Latin orthography to words that are 
 flill Latin, or ufed as fuch. Hence, for 
 
 PRjEADAMITE, v 
 
 PR/EBENDARY, 
 
 PRy*ECEPTORY, 
 
 PRECESSION, 
 
 PRECINCT A toga, 
 
 PRECIPE, 
 
 PRECONTRACT, 
 
 PR/ECORDIA, 
 
 PREDECESSOR, 
 
 PREDESTINATION 
 
 PREDETERMINA- 
 TION, 
 
 PREDICTION, 
 
 PREDOMINANT, 
 
 PREEMPTION, 
 
 PREEXISTENCE, 
 
 PREFECTUS, 
 
 PREMIUM, 
 
 PREMONSTR ANTES, 
 
 PRENESTINE fortes, 
 
 PRENOMEN, 
 
 PREPAR ANTIA, 
 
 PREPOSITUS, 
 
 PREPUTIUM, 
 
 PREROGAT1VUM mm 
 
 PRESEPE, 
 
 PRETEXT A, 
 
 PRETOR. 
 
 PRETORIAN, 
 
 PRAGMATIC * faBun, 
 Hottoman, a refciipt, or 
 by advice of his council 
 
 Preadmite. 
 Prebendary. 
 Preceptory, 
 Precession. 
 Toga. 
 Precipe. 
 Precontract. 
 Precordia. 
 Predecessor. 
 Predestination. 
 
 Predetermination. 
 
 Prediction. 
 Predominant, 
 Preemption. 
 Preexistence. 
 Prefect and Augustalis, 
 Premium, 
 premonetr antes. 
 Sortes. 
 Prenomen. 
 Preparantia* 
 Prepositu.s. 
 Preputium. 
 Oman. 
 Presepe. 
 Pretexta. 
 Pretor. 
 ^Pretorian. 
 in the civil law, is defined by 
 anfwer of the fovereign, delivered 
 to fome college, order, or body 
 of people, upon their confuting him on fome cafe of their 
 community. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Irreek ^ay/**, negotium. 
 bufmefs, — It is fometimes alio called abfohnely pragmatic 
 
 The like anfwer given to any particular perfon, is called fimply 
 refcript, refcriptum. 
 
 The term Pragmatic fantlion is chiefly ufed among the modern 
 writers for that famous ordonnance of Charles VII. of France, 
 publifhed in 1268, containing a regulation of ecclefiaftical dif- 
 cipline conformable to the canons of the council oFBafil j and 
 Snce ufed by the Gallican church, as a barrier agamft the en. 
 terprizes and encroachments of the court of Rome. 
 The fcope of the Pragmatic fantlion was to regulate the form 
 of elections made by the clergy ; to declare the collations to be- 
 long to ordinaries, the prevention alone referved to eftablifh pre- 
 bends ; to affign a third of the benefices to graduates ; and to 
 abolifh refervations_, annates, and other like grievances. 
 Pope Pius II. obtained an abrogation of this fanction from 
 Louis XI. on which occafion the court of Rome, tranfported 
 with joy, dragged the Pragmatic through the ftreets, whipping 
 it all the way, as Xerxes anciently did the Hellefoont. 
 
 But the parliament oppofed this abrogation with a grent deal of 
 vigour, and refilled its confent to the laft. So that maugre all 
 the efforts of Rome, the Janfiion flill held in force ; till the 
 concordat paffod between pope Leo X. and Francis I. in 1515, 
 when the Pragmatic jancYion was abolifhed. See Con- 
 cordat. 
 
 The parliament of Paris again oppofed the innovation, and rc- 
 fufed to confirm the concordat ; and was not brought to give 
 its confent at .aft, till after repeated orders of the king ; together 
 with a fecret refolution taken, always to judge conformably tc 
 the tenor of the Pragmatic fanclion. 
 
 PRAGMATICAL, Pragmaticus, a term fometimes ufed 
 in the fame fenfe as practical, mechanical, or problematical, 
 Stevinus, in his hydroftatical elements, calls certain of his me- 
 chanical or practical experiments, which he undertakes to in- 
 ftrucf his reader how to make, by the name of Pragmatical 
 examples : and in the like fenfe is the word fometimes ufed by 
 other naturalifts. 
 
 PRATIQUE*, or Pr at t ic, in commerce, a negotiation or 
 communication of commerce, which a merchant- vefl'el obtains 
 in the ports it arrives in, and the countries it difcovers. 
 
 * The word is French, and fignifies, literally, paftict. 
 Hence to obtain Pratique, is to obtain a liberty to frequent a 
 port, to go afhore, buy and fell, Isc. We could never have 
 any Pratique with the inhabitants of Nova Zembla. 
 
 Pratique is particularly ufed for a licence to traffick, granted 
 to the matter of a fhip in the parts of Italy, upon a bill of 
 health j that is, a certificate that the place whence he came, is 
 not annoyed with any infectious difeafe. 
 PRAXEANS, a fecf of heretics, fa called, from their author 
 Praxcas. 
 
 This herefiarch was of Afia, and lived in the fecond century. 
 He was at firft. a difciple of Montanus, but quitted him, and 
 foon after fet up a feci: of his own ; teaching, that there was 
 no plurality of perfons in the godhead ; and that it was the 
 Father himfelf that fuffered on the crofs. Which fentiment 
 was afterwards adopted by the Monarchici, Sabellians, and Pa- 
 tripamans. 
 
 PRAYER, in theology, a petition put up to God, either for 
 the obtaining of fome future favour, or the returning of thanks 
 for a paft one. 
 
 Divines diftinguifh three kinds of Praytr : 
 Focal, which is cloathed in words and founds to be uttered with 
 the mouth. 
 
 Mental, which is only formed or conceived in the mind, and not 
 
 delivered in words. 
 Ejaculatory, which is a fhort, fudden flight, without ftudy, order, 
 
 or method. 
 
 Myftic divines, again, diftinguifh Prayer into a clive and pajjive. 
 Among us, Prayer is moft frequently cpnfidered under the 
 divifions of preconceived and extemporary. 
 
 Under the firft come all fet forms, whether public or private, 
 by which the mind is directed in the order, manner, expreffion, 
 &c. of its petitions. 
 
 The fecond is that where the mind is left "to itfelf, its own con- 
 duct, both as to matter, manner, words, (sc. 
 The Romanifts alfo prefer Prayers to faints, the virgin, the 
 angel Gabriel, &c. See Saint, Office, Ave Alary, &c. 
 PREACHING *, in theology, the declaration, or promulgation 
 of the word of God, in public, by a perfon authorized, and in 
 a place appointed for the purpofe. 
 
 * The word is derived from the Hebrew parafcb, expojuit, he 
 expounded. 
 
 Anciently, none but bifhops were allowed to preach : now, 
 not only priefls, but deacons, are qualified. See Bishop and 
 Deacon. 
 
 Bifhop Wilkins has delivered the art of Preaching, in a treatife 
 called Ecclefiajles, or the preacher. 
 
 The religious of the order of St. Dominic aiTume the quality of 
 Preaching- brothers, friers-predicant, or predicants. See Sermon. 
 PREADAMITE, Prjeadamita, a denomination given to 
 the inhabitants of the earth, conceived, by fome people to 
 have lived before Adam. 
 
 Ifaac de la Pereyra, in 1655, publifhed a book to evince the 
 reality of Preadamites, by which he gained a confidcrable num- 
 ber of profelytes to the opinion ; but the anfwer of Demaretf, 
 profeffor of theology at Groningen, publifhed the year follow- 
 ing, put a flop to its progrefs ; though Pereyra made a reply. 
 His fyftem was this ; The Jews he calls Adamites, and fuppofes 
 them to have iffued from Adam, and gives the title Prea- 
 damites to the Gentiles, whom he fuppofes to have been a long 
 time before Adam. 
 
 But this being exprefly contrary to the firft words of Genefis, 
 Pereyra had recourfe to the fabulous antiquities of the Egyp- 
 tians and Chaldeans, and to fome of the idle rabbins, who ima- 
 gined there had been another world before that defcribed by 
 Mofes. 
 
 He was apprehended by the inquifitors in Flanders, and very 
 roughly ufed, though in the fervice of the Dauphin. But he 
 appealed from their fentence to Rome, whither he went in the 
 time of Alexander VII. and where he printed a retra£tatiuji 
 of his book of Preadamites. 
 PREAMBLE, in law, the beginning of an acf of parliament, 
 &c. ferving, as it were, for a key, to open the intent of the 
 
 makers 
 
PRE 
 
 PRE 
 
 makers of the a£t, and the mifchiefs intended to be prevented 
 or remedied thereby. See Act, 
 PREBEND, pRiEBENDA, the portion a prebendary receives 
 for his maintenance out of the eftate of a cathedral, or colle- 
 giate church. 
 
 The term Prebend is ufually confounded with canonicate, or 
 cammed ; yet there is a real difference. A Pretend is properly 
 a right which an ecclefiaftic has in a cathedral, or collegiate 
 church where he officiates, to receive certain ecclefiaflical re- 
 venues, and to enjoy certain dues, either in money or in kind ; 
 (fo called a prcsbendo, q. d. afforded or allowed him ; not a 
 prcsbendo auxilium or conjllium epifcopo) whereas canenica is a 
 mere title, or fpiritua! quality, which a perfon enjoys indepen- 
 dent of any praeftation, or any temporal revenue: fo that the 
 Prebend may fubfift without the canonicate 3 but the canonicate 
 is infeparable from the Prebend. 
 
 For it is not to the Prebend that the right of fuffrage, and 
 other fpiritual rights are annexed, but to the canonicate ; 
 and when the Prebend is joined to the canonicate, it be- 
 comes fpiritual by virtue of the canonicate to which it is at- 
 tached . 
 
 Anciently the pope created canons with a right of having place 
 in the choir, a deliberative voice in the chapter, and an expect- 
 ation of the firft Prebend that mould become vacant j but this 
 was prohibited by the council of Trent : yet the pope ftill con- 
 fers the canonicate without any Prebend, when he would confer 
 a dignity in a church, for the obtaining whereof, it is required 
 the candidate be a canon. 
 
 This they call a canonicate ad effeilum, and fomc times 3. jut 
 •ventofum, which is no more than an empty title, conferred 
 purely to qualify a man for a dignity reftrained to the capacity 
 of canon. 
 
 In fome churches there are double Prebends, and in others 
 femi- Prebends. 
 
 Originally the Prebend was only a livery, or portion of things 
 neceffary to life, given daily ; at prefent the rents and profits 
 of the church are divided into fixed portions, called Prebends, 
 ■which are enjoyed independently. The nomination to Prebends 
 is in the king. In France it is one of the honorary rights of the 
 king, on his joyful acccfiion to the crown, to nominate to the 
 firft Prebends vacant by death in the cathedral and collegiate 
 churches. 
 
 Prebends are either fimple, or with dignity.— The latter are 
 fuch as, befide their Prebends, have fomc jurifdiiftion annexed . 
 to them. 
 
 'Theological, or divinity Prebend, is a Prebend appropriated to a 
 dottor in divinity, in each cathedral and collegiate church 
 throughout France, for preaching on fundays, and making a 
 public lecture thrice a week. 
 
 PreeeptorialPREBEND, is thatPrcbcnd wbofe revenues are deftined 
 for the fupport of a preceptor or mafter, who is obliged to 
 inftru6t the youth of the place gratis. 
 The canonicate is not here neceffary to the Prebend. 
 . Panorm. obferves, that in the cathedral church of Chartres, 
 there are Prebends appropriated to laymen, and for the fubfiftence 
 of fome perfons of birth and distinction. 
 
 PREBENDARY, Pr jebendariusj an ecclefiaftic who en- 
 joys a prebend. 
 
 Prebendaries and canons of cathedral and collegiate churches 
 have this in common, that they have each a portion of the 
 revenues of the church for their fubfiftence ; the one under 
 the title of presbenda, prebend ; the other under the title of 
 canonica, or canonicate ; and have each places^ and voices in 
 the chapter : but they differ in this, that the former re- 
 ceives his portion or prebend in confederation of his officiating 
 and ferving in the church ; but the latter without any fuch 
 confideration, merely by his being received into the cathe- 
 dral or college, per affignatum Jiallum in chore, C3* locum in 
 capitulo. 
 
 Golden Prebendary of Hereford, called alfo prabendaritts epif- 
 copi, is one of the twenty-eight minor Prebendaries^ who has, 
 ex officio, the firft canon's place that falls. 
 
 He was* anciently confeffor of the bifhop and cathedra], and 
 had the altarages ; oh which account he was called the golden 
 Prebendary. 
 
 PRECARI./E, or Preces, in our ancient law-books, days 
 works, which the tenants of certain manors are bound to give 
 their lords in harveft-time. 
 
 Thefe, in fome places, are corruptly called bind-days, for biden- 
 days, from the Saxon, biddan, to pray. 
 
 Magna Precaria was a great or general reaping-day. 
 
 The lord of the manor of Harrow in Middlefex had, 21 Ric. 2, 
 a cuftom, that by fummons of his bailiff on a general rcap- 
 day, then called magna precaria, the tenants ftiould do one 
 hundred ninety-nine days Work for him ; every tenant that had 
 a chimney fending a man. 
 
 PRECARIOUS, in commerce, an appellation given to a kind of 
 trade carried on between two nations at war, by the interven- 
 tion of a third at peace with them both. 
 Thus the Englifti hold a precarious commerce with the Spa- 
 niards by means of the Portuguefe ; when the two former na- 
 tions being at war, the third lends its veflels, its colours, and 
 name, to continue their trade. 
 
 Precarious, in juiifprudence, is applied to a fund or flock, of 
 Vol. II. 
 
 A 
 
 which a perfon has not the fuil propriety, whereof he cahtoi 
 difpofe abfolucely, and which is moft of it borrowed. 
 PRECE partium, in law, the continuance of a fim by confent of 
 both parties. 
 
 PRECEDENCE, Precedency, or Precedency, a place of 
 honour which a perfon is intitled to in companies ; either fit- 
 ting, or walking. 
 
 Precedency is either of courtefy, or de jure, of ri^ht. 
 The former is that which is due to age, to eftate &c. tvhich 
 is regulated by cuftom and civility. 
 
 The latter is fettled by authority, and where broken in ubon s 
 gives an action at law. 
 
 The point of Precedency is thus prdered by the heralds : After 
 
 the king, the princes of the blood, viz, the fons, grandfons, 
 brothers, and nephews of the king, take place ; then the "rc-at 
 officers of the church and crown, viz, the archbifhop of 
 Canterbury ; then the lord chancellor, or lord keeper of the 
 great feal; next, the archbifhop of York ; the lord high trea- 
 furer ; the lord prefident of the privy-council ; the lord privy- 
 feal : next, dukes, then marquifes, dukes eldeft fons, earls, 
 marquifes eldeft fons, dukes younger, fons, vifcounts, earls 
 eldeft fons, marquifes younger fons, biftiops, barons, vifcounts 
 eldeft fons, earls younger fons, barons eldeft fons, privy-coun- 
 feliors, judges, mafters in chancery, vifcounts younger fons, 
 barons younger fons, knights bannerets, baronets, knights of 
 the bath, knights batcbelors, colonels, ferjeants at Jaw, doctors, 
 cfquires, lieutenant colonels, majors, captains, batchelors of di- 
 vinity, law, csV. mafters of artsj gentlemen, yeomen, tradef- 
 men, mechanics. 
 
 Note, That great oflicers of court, of what degree foever they 
 are, take place above all other perfons who are of the fame de- 
 gree or order of nobility, viz. the mafter of the horfe, lord 
 great chamberlain of England, lord high conftable of England, 
 lord marfhal of England, lord admiral of England, lord fteward, 
 and lord chamberlain of his majefty's houfhald.— So the fecre- 
 taries of ftate, if peers, take place of all that degree, except the 
 great officers aforefaid. — Dukes, marquifes, earls, barons, &c t 
 not having any of the faid offices, nor being defcended of the 
 blood-royal, take place according to the feniority of their crea- 
 tion. — Tffe ladies take place, or Precedency, according to the 
 degree of quality of their husbands. 
 PRECEDENT, in law, frequently denotes an original, au- 
 thentic inftrument, or writing ; ferving as a form to draw 
 others by. 
 
 Hence precedent-booh, &c. full of draughts of deeds, convey- 
 ances, CSV. for attornies. 
 PRECENTOR *,. Pr^ceKtor, a dignitary in cathedral 
 churches, popularly called the chanter, or mafler of the choir. 
 * The Precentor is fo called, from the Latin pr ri ■ and carta ; be- 
 caufe he is fuppofed to lead the choir, and fmg before the reft. 
 PRECEPT, Prjeceptum, in law, a command in writing 
 fent by a chief juftice, juftice of peace, or other like officer' 
 for the bringing of a perfon, record, or other matter, before 
 him. 
 
 Precept is alfo ufed' for the command, or incitement, whereby 
 
 one man ftirs up another to commit felony, theft, &c. Era£toii 
 
 fr.eaks of three diverfities of offending in murder, viz. prcecep- 
 tio, fortia, conftlium. 
 
 Prteceptio, is the inftigation ufed before- hand ; fortia, the 
 affiftance in the fa£t j confslium, the advice given either before 
 or after. 
 
 PRECEPTORIAL prebend. See the article Prebend 
 PRECEPTORY, Precjeptoria, cojnmandry ; a kind of be- 
 nefice held by the more eminent among the ancient knigbts- 
 templars, who were created by the grand mafter, with the tills 
 of prcsceptores templi, i. e. mafters of the temple. 
 Stephens, de jurifd. lib. 4. fays, the Preeeptorhs were only a 
 kind of cells, all fubordinate to their principal maniion the 
 temple in London, ' 
 Of thefe Preceptories, Dugdale fays, he finds fixteen recorded' 
 as anciently belonging to the templars in Enjland, viz. CrefiW 
 Temple, Balfhal, Shengay, Newland,Yevely^ Witham,Temp!e- 
 Bruere, Wdhngton, Rothelev, Overfington, Temple-Comb 
 Trebigh, Ribftane, Mount St. John, Temple-Newfum, and 
 Temple-Hurft. Eut there were more. See Commandry 
 PRECES. See the article Precarije. 
 
 PRECESSION, Prtecessio, in aftronomy, a term applied 
 to the equinoxes, which, by a very flow infehfible motion, 
 change their place, going backwards, or weftward, i. e . in an- 
 tecedentia, as aftronomers call it, or contrary to the order of 
 the figns. 
 
 It is fhewn, in the new aftronomy, that the pole, the folftices 
 the equinoxes, and all the other points of the ecliptic, have 1 
 retrograde motion ; and are continually moving from eaft to 
 weft, or from aries towards pilces, bfc by means whereof the 
 equinoctial points are carried further and further back, amona 
 the preceding figns of ftars, at the rate of about 50 feco:ids 
 each year; which retrograde motion is called the Preceffvm, rt* 
 cejfion, or rctroceffun of the equinoxes. 
 
 Hence, as the fixed ftars remain immoveable, and the equi- 
 noxes go backward, the ftars will feem to move more and more 
 eaftward with lefpecl: thereto ; whence the longitudes of the 
 ftars, which are reckoned from the firft point ovaries, or the 
 vernal equinox, are continually increafins. 
 
 <J L Hence 
 
PRE 
 
 Hence it is that the conftellations have all changed the pl:tces 
 afiVncd them by the ancient aftronoraers : in the time of Hip- 
 p'archus, and the oldeft aftxonomers, the equinoctial points 
 were fixed to the firft ftars of aries and libra ; but the figns are 
 now no longer in the fame points ; and the ftars which were 
 then in conjunction with the fun when he was in the equinox, 
 are now a whole fign, or 30 degrees, to the eaft thereof : thus 
 the firft ftar of aries is now in the portion of the ecliptic called 
 taunts ; and the firft ftar of taurus now refides in gemini ; and 
 gemini Is advanced into cancer, &c. 
 
 The equinoxes will have made their revolution weftward, and 
 Will be returned to aries again ; or the conftellations will have 
 made theirs eaft ward, and will again fall into their former places, 
 with regard to the equinoxes, in 25816 years, according to 
 Tycho ; in 25920, according to Rrcciolus ; and in 24800, 
 according to Cafllni. 
 
 The ancients, and even fome among the moderns, have taken 
 the equinoxes to lie immoveable ; and afcribed that change of 
 dlftance of the ftars herefrom, to a real motion of the orb ot 
 the fixed ftars, which they fuppofed to have a flow revolution 
 about the poles of the ecliptic ; fo as that all the ftars perform 
 their circuits in the ecliptic, or its parallels, in the fpace of 
 25920 years; after which they fhould all return again to their 
 former places. 
 
 This Period the ancients called the 'Platonic, or great year ; 
 and imagined, that at its completion every thing would begin 
 as at firft ; and all things come round in the fame order as they 
 have already done. See Platonic Year, 
 The phyfical caufc of the precejfion of the equinoxes, Sir Ifaac 
 Newton demonflrates, does anfe from the broad fpheroidal 
 figure of the earth ; which ttfelf arifes from the earth's rotation 
 around its axis. 
 
 PRECIOUS, or Pretious Jlone, called alfo gem and jewel, is 
 a ftone extraordinarily hard, durable, tranfparent, and of a 
 beautiful colour or water. 
 Of thefe we may dirtinguifh three kinds : 
 
 1. Such as are intirely tranfparent ; which again may be divided 
 into fuch as are either colourlefs, as the diamond, or coloured, 
 as the emerald, ruby, &c. — Which divifion of coloured gems 
 may be fubdivided into thofe of one colour, as the ruby ; and 
 thofe with feveral, as the opal. 
 
 2. Brilliant, or ihining, but lefs tranfparent, as the Bohemian 
 granate. 
 
 3. Semi-tranfparent, as the onyx. 
 
 Bifhop Wiikins divides precious ftones into more and lefs tranf- 
 parent. 
 
 The lefs tranfparent he diftinguifhes by their colours ; into red, 
 as the fardian and cornelian ; pale, flefhy colour, like that of 
 a man's nail, as the onyx ; bluifh, as the turquols ; and thofe 
 of various colours, as opal and cat's eye. 
 The more tranfparent he diftinguifhes into fuch as are colour- 
 lefs, as the diamond and white fapphire ; and coloured, which 
 are either red, as the ruby, carbuncle, and granate ; yellow, 
 as the chryfolitc and topaz ; green, as the emerald, fmaragd, 
 and beryl ; bluifh, as the fapphire ; and purple or violaceous, 
 as the amethyft. 
 
 Dr. Woodward divides precious ftones fomewhat more precifely, 
 into opake, femi-opake, and tranfparent. 
 
 The cpake are either of one colour, as the turquois ; or of va- 
 rious colours, as the lapis lazuli, and jafper. 
 Semi-apah either have their colours permanent, as the agat, 
 chalcedony, onyx, fardonyx, cornelian, and beryl ; or their co- 
 lours vary according to the pofition of the light, as in the oculus 
 cati, and opal. 
 
 Tranfparent ftones are either with colours ; as the topaz and hy- 
 acinth, yellow, or partaking thereof ; granate, ruby and ame- 
 tbyft, red ; fapphire, water-fapphire, and aquamarine, blue ; 
 and emerald, or chryfolite, green, or partaking thereof: — or 
 without colours, as the cryfta!, pfeudo-diamond, white fapphire, 
 and diamond. 
 
 The natural lufiory, characters, properties, &c. of each Jlone, 
 fee under its proper article, Diamond, Cornelian*, Rub y, 
 Turquois, Onyx, Emerald, Chrysolite, £sV, — For 
 the medicinal virtues of precious ftones, or gems, in the general, 
 fee Gem. — The origin and formation of precious jlones, fee un- 
 der Stone. — For the art of engraving on precious ftones, fee 
 Engraving, — The art of cutting them, fee under Lapidary. 
 Mofaic work of precious /tones, fee Mosaic. 
 
 PRECIPE, or Praecipe quod reddat, a writ of great diverfity 
 both as to form and ufe; extending as well to writs of light, 
 as to other writs of entry and pofTeflion. 
 It is fometimes called a writ of right clofe, as when it iffues 
 out of the court cf chancery clofe ; fometimes a writ of ri"ht 
 patent, as when it i flues out of chancery patent, or open, to 
 any lord's court, for any of his tenants deforced, againft his 
 deforcer. 
 
 PRECIPITANT, Prjecipitans, in chymiftry, a term ap- 
 plied to any liquor, which, being poured on a diflolution, fepa- 
 rates what is there diliblvcd, and makes it precipitate, i. e. fall 
 to the bottom of the veflel. 
 
 Thus oil of tartar, and the volatile fpirit of fal armoniac, are 
 Precipitants with regard to the diflolution of gold in aqua re- 
 gatta ; and common water is a Precipitant with regard to the 
 diflbiution of jalap in (pint of wine. 
 
 PRE 
 
 Precipitant is alfo ufed in medicine, for a remedy which 
 feparates and precipitates any heterogeneous matter contaiii'.-d in 
 the mafs of blood ; and by this means abates any irregular fer- 
 mentations, efVervefcences, or the like diforders, which that 
 matter had excited. 
 
 Among the number of Precipitants are ranked harts-horn, 
 crabs-eyes, ivory, bezoard, barks of oak, and guaiacum, iron, 
 quinquina, chalk, &c. 
 PRECIPITATE, Prjecipitatus, in chymiftry, a fub- 
 ftance which having been diflblved in a proper menftruum, 
 is again feparated from its diflblvent, and thrown down to 
 the bottom of the veflel, by the pouring in of fome other 
 liquor. 
 
 The chymifts make various Precipitates of mercury, which 
 are of various colours, as the precipitants vary, viz. white, red, 
 yellow, green, Sec, 
 White, called alfo fweet Precipitate, is prepared of mercury 
 diffolved in fpirit of nitre, and precipitated with fait- water, or 
 fpirit of fait, into a white powder. 
 
 If, in lieu of the former precipitants, hot urine be poured on 
 the diflolution, we have a pale rofe-coloured Precipitate. 
 To make the red or corrofive Precipitate, they take the 
 diflolution of mercury made in fpirit of nitre; evoporate all 
 the humidity over a gentle fire, til! nothing remains but a white 
 mafs ; which, by increafing the fire, they rubify, or raife to 
 a red colour. 
 
 Green Precipitate is made with mercury, copper, and acid 
 fpints ;— yellow Precipitate with mercury, and oil of vitriol. 
 But thefe three laft are improperly called Precipitates, becaufe 
 not procured by Precipitation. 
 
 PRECIPITATION, Pr^ecipitatio, an operaton in chy- 
 miftry ; being a kind of reparation, whereby a body diffolved 
 and fufpended in any menftruous liquor, is detached therefrom, 
 and falls down to the bottom of the veflel. 
 Precipitation is either fpontaneous, or artificial. 
 
 Spontaneous Precipitation is, when the particles of the diflbl- 
 ved body feparate of themfelves from their diffolvent. 
 
 Artificial Precipitation is, when fome other body, called a 
 precipitant, is added to procure this feparation. 
 There is alfo a total Precipitation, wherein the diffolved parts 
 are all feparated, and funk to the bottom; and a — partial 
 Precipitation, wherein fume of the parts diffolved are ftill fuf- 
 pended in the fluid, and do not fall down. 
 
 To account for the operation of Precipitation : It may be ob- 
 ferved, that a fluid menftruum may be made to fuftain a body 
 fpecifically heavier than itfelf, either by making the refiftance, 
 arifing from the cohefion of the parts of the fluid, equal to the 
 excefs of fpecihe gravity of thofe bodies above that of the men- 
 ftruum. 
 
 Or, by the heavy body's being joined to fome lighter one ; fo 
 that the two together only make one whole, equal in weight to 
 the fluid. 
 
 In the firft cafe, the refiftance, we know, is ftill proportional to 
 the furfaceoftheeoipufcles; fo that the furface being diminifhed, 
 the refiftance is weakened : the proportion therefore of the te- 
 nacity of the menftruum, to the gravity of the corpufcles, being 
 thus deftroyed, a Precipitation muft enfue. 
 Precipitation, then, may he effected two ways, on this founda- 
 tion, viz. either by the dropping in a liquor fpecifically lighter, 
 or fpecifically heavier. In the former cafe, the gravity of the 
 menftruumj which is always proportional to the compound 
 gravities of both, will by this mixture become lighter; thus, 
 the menftruum being diluted, the force of cohefion is alfo 
 weakened, fo as to become unable any longer to fuftain the bo- 
 dies ; fo hydrometers, which are eafily fuftained in water, upon 
 pouring in a good deal of any burning fpirits, fink to the bottom 
 of the glafs. 
 
 And this agrees not only with the laws of mechanics, but with 
 experiments : thus fpirit of fal armoniac does very plentifully 
 precipitate the filings of metals, diffolved, in acid menftruums ; 
 though it be abundantly lighter than any of ti:tm. 
 The fame thing is done quicker by fpirit of wine, whofe gra- 
 vity is known to be almolt the lev;"! of that ol any liquor. 
 By this fpirit alfo, all faltS, which are lufpehded in water, are pre- 
 cipitated, and fo unite into cfyftals. So, if" you drop diftilied 
 vinegar into the fcoria of antimony di/fufed in water, it falls to 
 the bottom, and affords the golden fulphur. 
 After the fame manner, watei, . ..... ■ ■, (Jc. make a Precipita- 
 tion from acids, though more (pari igly : nay, acids themfelves 
 being poured upon others, which ..e heavier, will precipitate 
 whatever is fwi mining in them. Thua fpirit of fait precipitates 
 either lead, copper, or tin, diflblved in oil of vitriol : fo little 
 need is there of alkalies in this bufmefs, though the chymifts have 
 unanimoufly contended for them as absolutely neceflary. 
 In the fecond cafe, Precipitation will fucceed by the addition of 
 a heavier liquor to the menftruum. Eor the particles of this 
 liquor, what with their weight, and what with the impetus they 
 acquire in their defcent, carry down and fink all the folid cor- 
 pufcles they meet with in their way ; fo that the corpufcles being 
 thus forced down, and kept there by this adventitious liquor, 
 cannot mount up into their former fituation. 
 To try the truth of this reafoning by experiments ; not only acid 
 fpirits, but even mere water, will be found to precipitate tinctures 
 of vegetables extracted by fpirit. of wine : and the very fame 
 
 tinctures, 
 
PRE 
 
 PRE 
 
 tinctures, extracted with water or wine, are precipitated very 
 copioufly by acid fpirits, which are heavier. 
 Metals, when diflblved in fpirit of fal armoniac, are precipi- 
 tated with oil of vitriol, or fpirit of nitre. When fufpended 
 in aqua fortis, they are precipitated with oil of vitriol, or 
 bezoartic fpirit of nitre. 
 
 As to bodies fufpended by means of their union with other 
 lighter ones : this is properly the cafe of diflblved metals ; and 
 to this may the laft cafe of Precipitation be reduced. Here, the 
 particles of a metal being feparated by a diflblvent, and render- 
 ed imperceptible by their extreme littlenefs^ only float, becaufe 
 united to very light particles of the acid fpirit, which keeps 
 them fufpended ; though the great furface they have, both on 
 account of their fmallnefs, and of their union with the acids, 
 frequently contributes to the effect. 
 
 Now, as they are in a forced equilibrium with the fluid wherein 
 they fwim ; and as the caufes that fuftain them, are only acci- 
 dental, they muft of courfe be precipitated to the bottom, when 
 the acid or menftruum abandons them, from whatever caufe it 
 be : it is even fomc times fufficient, that the quantity of the 
 fluid, wherein they are fuftained, be diminifhed. For then 
 feveral of the metallic particles, though ftill joined to their 
 acid, coming to meet and unite, aflume a fmaller furface, with 
 regard to their mafs ; and thus, being no longer held up by the 
 largenefs of their furfaces, they fubfide to the bottom. 
 When the menftruum abandons a diflblved body, if that body 
 be lighter than the menftruum, the contrary to Precipitation 
 will enfue, i. e. the body will rife to the furface : thus cam- 
 phor being mixed in oil of olives, and the whole diftilled, the 
 camphor rifes firft, tiff. 
 
 If it happen, that the particles, when abandoned by the diflbl- 
 vent, are equally heavy with the fuftaining fluid, they will nei- 
 ther rife nor fall, only feveral of them now reuniting, form lit- 
 tle mafles, fufficient to fpoil the limpidnefs and tranfparency 
 of the fluid, as is the cafe in refin diflblved in fpirit of wine, 
 and water poured over them ; where the water uniting clofely 
 with the fpirit of wine, makes it let go the greatefl: part of the 
 refinous particles. 
 
 Thus is effected what we call an Imperf eel Precipitation, which, 
 in reality, is no more than a dilbofition to precipitate. 
 If in this cafe, the aqueous particles of the fluid be bid, and, 
 as it were, abforbed among the grofs molecula: of the dif- 
 folved matter, it forms what they call a coagulant. See Coa*- 
 
 CULATION. 
 
 Sometimes, when the liquors are poured on one another, the 
 falts with which they abound, being put into motion, by their 
 attractive force, they run mutually to embrace one another, 
 and becaufe they do not recoil far back after the congrefs, they 
 are at length fo united, as to become like a folid, there being 
 very little phlegm remaining, as is very obfervable in tartarum 
 vitriolatum. 
 
 In thefe experiments there happens fuch a conflict and effer- 
 vefcence, as evaporates almofl all the moifture, with which 
 the falts are diluted. And upon this depends the rationale of 
 chymical coagulation, a thing of very great confequence in the 
 bufmefs of Precipitation. Nor can we account for oil of tartar's 
 precipitating bodies diflblved in acids, any otherwife than from 
 its making a kind of coagulum with their corpufcles, and there- 
 by becoming too heavy for, and exceeding the tenacity of, the 
 menftruum. 
 
 Such are the general principles of Precipitation, 
 PRECIPUT*, q. d. precipuate, in the French jurifprudencc, 
 an advantage belonging to any one, in a thing to be divided, 
 or a portion taken off", and fet by, in bis favour, ere the di- 
 vifion be made. 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, pr&cipuus, chief, prin- 
 cipal. 
 
 In noble partition, the eldeft has always the principal fief, or 
 manor, for bis Preciput. — In which view, the Preciput coin- 
 cides with the right of primogeniture. 
 PRECISION, Pr^cisio, in the fchools, the fame with abf- 
 traElion. 
 
 PRECONISATION, a propofition or declaration, which the 
 cardinal patron makes in the confiftory at Rome, of a perfon 
 nominated by fome prince to a prelature, by virtue of letters 
 whereof he is the bearer ; which the pope complying with, 
 gives his collation. 
 
 The date of the bulls is difpatched on the fame day with the 
 Preeomfation. 
 
 PRECONTRACT, Prjecontractus, a contract made 
 before, or prior to another ; chiefly ufed in relation to marri- 
 ages. 
 
 PRECORDIA, or Pr.#cordia, 6r>. the parts about the 
 heart, e. gr, the pericardium, the diaphragm, the hypochon- 
 dria, and even the heart itfelf, with the lungs, fplecn, tiff. 
 The word is alio ordinarily ufed for the fore-part of the region 
 of the thorax. Sec Thorax. 
 
 Pliny, and fomc other authors, ufe it for all the vifcera or en- 
 trails : Pracordta vocamus una nomine exta in homine. 
 One of the principal differences between men and brutes con- 
 lifts in this, that there is a greater correfpondence and commu- 
 nication between the head and heart of the former than in the 
 Litter ; which correfpondence is effected by means of a greater 
 number of nerves, ient from the brain to the heart and Pre- 
 
 1 
 
 csrdia ; brutes only receiving nerves to the Prccordia by th* 
 branches of the par vagum i but man, likewife, by the in- 
 tcrcoftal pair. 
 
 The reafon, Dr. Willis well obferves, is* that brutes being 
 void of difcretion, and but little fubject to paftions, need not, 
 like man, a double paflage for the fpirits, the one for the fer- 
 vice of the vital functions, the other for the reciprocal irtipref- 
 fion of the affections. 
 
 PRECURSOR, Precursor, fore-runner, in theology, a per- 
 fon who goes before any one to notify his coming 
 
 ' The term is peculiarly applied to St. John Baptift^who is ftyled 
 the Precurfor of Jcfus Chrift, from what is faid of Mm by St. 
 Luke, lmt, child, jbalt go before the face of the Lord, to 
 prepare his way. 
 
 PREDECESSOR, a perfon who has preceded another in the 
 
 fame office or employ. See Ancestor. 
 PREDESTINARIAN, a perfon who adheres to the dcarine 
 
 of abfolute predeftination, 
 
 St, Auguftin is looked on as the founder of the feet of Predejll- 
 narians, he being, the firft of the fathers that feems to have; 
 after ted the doctrine in fuch exprefs terms ; though the Janfe- 
 nifts and Jefuits are ftill greatly divided about the real ductrine 
 of St. Auguftin, in this article, each interpreting him confift- 
 ently with their own fcheme. 
 
 tather Sirmond contends for an ancient feet of Predeftinariam, 
 or prede/IinatianS) prtzdeftinatiani, cotemporarv with St. Au- 
 guftin himfelf, and who had their rife in Africa, in the mona- 
 ftery of Adrumetum, from a mifunderftanding of St. Augufiin's 
 doctrine. It is added, that the opinion fpread thence through- 
 out the Gauls, where one of them, a prieft, named Lucidus, 
 was condemned by Fauftus bifhop of Rheggio, and his fen- 
 tencc was confirmed by two councils. 
 
 1 he doctrine was again broached in the ninth century, by Go- 
 defchalcus a Benedictine ; who, as Hincmar in a letter to pope 
 Nicolas, fays, maintained with the ancient Predeftinarians^ who 
 had been already anathematized, that God predejiinated fome 
 to eternal Life, and others to eternal death ; that God did not 
 will all people to be faved ; that Jefus Chrift: did not die for all, 
 but only (he elect, or thofe that are faved, tiff. See Grace, 
 
 This doctrine was again condemned in a fynod held at Mentz ; 
 but the Janfenifts, particularly the friends of MefT. de Port- 
 Royal, and among the reft, the prefident Mauguin, have re- 
 futed F. Sirmond, and (hewn, that the herefy of the Predejli- 
 nariam is a mere chimera ; adding, that St. Fulgcntius, St. 
 Profper, and the other difciples of St. Auguftin, only looked 
 on it as an imaginary herefy, invented by the enemies of St, 
 Auguftin's doctrine, to traduce it. 
 
 In effect, the chief evidences father Sirmond produces to the 
 contrary, are the priefts of Marfeiiles, who are fufpected of 
 femi-pelagianifm. 
 PREDESTINATION, Prjedestinatio, in theology, a 
 judgment, or decree of God, whereby he has refolved, from all 
 eternity, to fave a certain number of perfons, hence named 
 elect. 
 
 Others define Predejlination, a decree to give faith in Jefu3 
 Chrift, to a certain number of men, and to leave the reft to 
 their own malice, and hardnefs of heart. See Faith. 
 The Remonftrants define Predejlination more laxly and gene- 
 rally, the decree of faving believers, and damning unbelievers. 
 The greateft difficulties wherewith the modern theology is 
 clogged, turn on the article of Predejlination : both the Romifti 
 and Reformed churches are divided about it : the Lutherans 
 fpeak of it with horror ; the Calvinifts contend for it with the 
 greatefl: zeal ; the Molinifts and Jefuits preach it down as a 
 moft dangerous doctrine; the Janfenifts aflert it as an article 
 of faith : the Arminians, Remonftrants, and Pelagians, are all 
 avowed enemies of Predejlination. 
 
 Thofe ftrenuous patrons of Janfenifm, the Port-Royalifts, teach, 
 that God predejlinates thofe who he forefees will co-operate 
 with his grace to the end. Du Pin adds, that men do not fall 
 into fin, becaufe not predeftinated ; but they are not predefti- 
 nated, becaufe God forefaw their fins. 
 Predestination is alfo ufed for a concatenation of fecond 
 caufes appointed by providence, in virtue whereof, things are 
 brought to pafs by a fatal neceifity, contrary to all appearances^ 
 and in fpite of all oppofition. 
 
 The Turks are great predeftinarlam ; they efteem the lighteft 
 accident predetermined, and on this account, are much more 
 daring in battle, and run greater rifques of their lives, than they 
 would otherwife do. See Election and Reprobation. 
 PREDETERMINATION, Prvedeterminatio, in phi- 
 lofophy and theology. — The fchoolmen call that concurrence 
 of God, which makes men act, and determines them in all their 
 actions both good and evil, phyftcal Predetermination, or pre- 
 motion. 
 
 Divines hold, that God has no part in fin, inafmuch as he only 
 affords his concurrence to the phyfica] part of human actiors, 
 not to the moral part. 
 
 Phyfical Predetermination, or premotion, if there be any fuch 
 thing, is that action of God, whereby he excites a fecond caufc 
 to aft i or by which, antecedently to all operation of the crea- 
 ture, or before it could operate in confequence either of the 
 order of nature or reafon, he really ar.J effectually moves, and 
 
 occafioiu 
 
PRE 
 
 PRE 
 
 ocCafions "it to produce all its anions : that is, whatever the 
 creature does or ads, is really done and afled by the agency 
 of God on the creature, who is all the time paffive, bo that 
 without fucli Predetermination of God, all creatures muft re- 
 main in an eternal ftate of inadivity, and with fuch Predeter- 
 mination, it is impoffible but that they mould do what they are 
 thus puf upon doing. ' : 
 
 It is ftrongly controverted, whether or no fuch a pby/ical f re- 
 determination be neceffary to the aftion of natural caufes ? The 
 Scotifts maintain the negative } urging, that all natural caufes 
 are, of their own nature, determined to a certain aflion ; whence 
 it fhould feem needlefs to call in a mem Predetermination of 
 God, e. gr. to fire, to make it warm the hand. For if an ob- 
 jed be, by the courfe of divine providence, applied to fire 
 wiiat need a fecond application of the fire, to make it warm 
 the objea applied thereto ? fmce beings are not to be multiph- 
 ed unncceflarily. 
 
 And fuch Predetermination Come philofophers hold flill lefs re- 
 auifite to produce the afts of the will: at leaft, fay they, the 
 human mind muft be allowed the common power and privilege 
 of a fecond caufe, and therefore be intitled to produce its bwn 
 z&s, as well as other ftriftly natural agents. See Will. 
 The Thomifts, on the other hand, Itand up ftrenuoufly for the 
 pbyjical Predetermination : one of their principal arguments is 
 drawn from the fubordination of fecond caufes to the firft. 
 Where there are fevcral fubordinate agents, fay they, the lower 
 agents do not aft, unlefs firft moved and determined thereto by 
 the firft ; this being the very eflence of fubordination. 
 A«ain, the like they argue from the dominion of God over all 
 his creatures : it is of the eflence of dominion, fay they, to 
 apply and dire£t things fubjea thereto, to its own operations, 
 and this, if the dominion be only moral, morally ; but if it 
 be alfo phyfical, phyfically. And that this is the cafe in re- 
 fpeft of God and his creatures, is confelled. See God and 
 Liberty. 
 
 PREDIAL tithes, deeimcB PRiF.DtAi.KS, are tithes paid of things 
 which grow from the ground only, as corn, hay, fruit, t$e. 
 See Tithe. 
 
 PREDIATORY debt. See the article Debt. 
 
 PREDICABLE, Pr;edicaBil£, in logic, a general quality, 
 or epithet, which may be predicated of, or applied to, feveral 
 fubjeas. . 
 Thus animal is Predieable both of man and beaft : man is Pre- 
 dicable of Peter and James : triangle is Predieable of an hun- 
 dred different kinds of figures, as right angles, fcalanes, ifo- 
 fceles's, &c. 
 
 The fchoolmen reduce the Predicates to five dalles, viz. 
 genus, fpecies, proprium, differentia, and accidens, under one 
 or other of which all that can be predicated of any fubjea, is 
 included. , 
 A Predieable is alfo called vniverfah logicum, as having relpett 
 toother, particular, and inferior, or iubjeit things ; thus ani- 
 mal is an univerfal, with regard to man and beaft. 
 It is called a logical univerfal, to diftinguifii it from a meta- 
 physeal one, which is a common being, considered in itfelf, 
 and therefore denominated univerfal in effendo ; whereas the 
 logical one is only univerfal as to our conception and applica- 
 
 Among the fchoolmen, Predieable is ufually defined unum, aptum 
 pr^dicari de mult is, univoce, & divifim : or, fomewhat more 
 clearly, a Predieable is a nature which may be predicated uni- 
 vocally of all things to which it is common, and which, as it 
 is dividually multiplied in all its fubordinates, may be aptly 
 predicated of them all. t 
 Tiius when the appellation of virtue is attributed to juftice, 
 prudence, temperance, fortitude, charity, £SV, the fame reafon 
 may be given why each is diftinguiGied by fuch name, as being 
 all founded in a mediocrity, and being agreeable to right reafon, 
 which is the charr.aer of virtue. 
 
 Hence if there be fevcral things called by fome common name 
 but the reafon of fuch name is not the fame in all, but diffe- 
 rent • thefe do not come under the number of Predicables. As 
 in the inftance, earth, dog, which is botii applied to a domeftic 
 animal diftincuifhed by its barking ; to a conftellation of the 
 heavens ; and to a fca fifh. 
 
 The way by which the mind comes to form fuch Predicables, 
 or univerfals, is this : among thofe things which fell under our 
 obfervation, we find fome charaaers and properties common to 
 feveral and others peculiar to each ; what we find common, 
 we confider apart, and thus we form an univerfal equally appli- 
 cable to all. See Universal. ( . , ' 
 PREDTCABLY, Pr^edicaeiliter, is ufed in the fchools 
 in oppofition to predkamental/y.— Thus, matter is faid to be 
 united to form Predicably, or per accidens, to exclude the no. 
 tiou of a predicamental accident. 
 PREDICAMENT, Fr^edicamentum, in logic, a clafs, or 
 order of beings, or fubftances, ranged according to their natures, 
 called alfo category, and fumetirnes categorema. 
 The word pr'adicaihentum was firft introduced by Boethius, in 
 lieu of the Greek *inwt*#*\ and is ufed among the fchool- 
 ivriters with a good deal of latitude and variety : for it either 
 fisnifies the aa of predicating, or a common predicate itfelf 
 or the genus or bafts of any category ; or, the collc&ion o: 
 
 feveral common predicates difpofed in a certain order : — which 
 laft is its molt ufual acceptation. 
 
 Hence fome define Predicament, a ferics of predicates traced 
 From the genus, or higheft term, through all the inferior genera 
 and fpecies. — Thus, a feries of fubjlance drawn from fub/lame 
 through body, living, animal, man, to Peter, is called the Pre- 
 dicament of fubftance. 
 
 The ufual definition among logicians is, that Predicament is a 
 natural order, or fcheme, of fome moft general or univerfal 
 thing, and of all that is contained under the fame, that is, all 
 the fubordinate genera, fpecies, and individuals. 
 The properties of a Predicament, ex parte vocis, \. e. of the 
 term or word whereby the Predicament or predicamental feries 
 is denoted, the logicians hold, are, that it be one, ftmple, pre- 
 cife, and concinnous. 
 
 Vox una, & fnnplex, rebus cominna locandis. 
 
 The conditions requifite ex 'parte rei, or of the thing to be 1 
 ranged in ^'Predicament, are contained in the following verfe : 
 
 Entia per fefe, finita, realia, iota. 
 
 i. e. it muft be a pofttive beings in exclufion of nonentities, 
 negations, privations, impofiibilities, &c. and a being per fe, 
 to exclude accidental things, faaitious things, EsV. and finite^ 
 that is, of a limitted nature and extent, to exclude God and 
 other tranfcendentals : real, fince its intention is for the better 
 and more commodious difpofing of things in their places, to be 
 the more diltinaiy known and conceived ; and whole, or com- 
 plete, as not being in the relation of a component part, or aa 
 only acceffarv to fome other. 
 PREDICAMENTAL accident. See the article Accident. 
 PREDICATE, Prjedicatum, in logic, that part of a pro- 
 portion which affirms or denies fomething of the fubjea. 
 Thus, in, God made the world ; made the world is the pre- 
 dicate ; and God is the fubjea. 
 
 A Predicate, fay the fchoolmen, is properly a name predicated 
 or fpoken of another, as its fubjea : as man, in the propofition, 
 Peter is a man. 
 
 It is a celebrated rule or law of Predicates, that nothing is 
 efteemed to be abfolutely fpoken or affirmed of another, unlefs 
 it be affirmed thereof in fuch manner, or by fuch an affirma- 
 tion, as wants nothing either in the fubjea, Predicate, or co- 
 pula, to make it true. 
 
 This alfo is a noted property of a Predicate, that It contains, 
 in fome meafure, its own fubjea : thus, metal contains gold, 
 copper, iron, &c. of which it is predicated. 
 The word Predicate is fometimes ufed indifferently with attri- 
 bute ; but the more accurate writers make a diftinaion. Every 
 Predicate is indeed an attribute, fince whatever is predicated of 
 a thing, is attributed to it : fo, if animated be predicated of 
 man, it is alfo attributed to him : but every attribute is not a 
 Predicate: thus fcul, learning, c5V. are attributed to man, hut 
 not predicated of him. 
 PREDICATING, in logic, is properly the aa of affirming 
 or denying fomewhat of fomething. — As, Man is not a /lone ; 
 body is a fubjlance. The thing thus predicated, is called predi- 
 cate. 
 
 In the doctrine of univerfals, or predicables, to predicate is to 
 fpeak or declare a thing truly, direaiy, and affirmatively. Thus 
 man is predicated of feveral, ;'. e. it is truly and direaiy affirmed 
 that thefe feveral are men ; as when I fay, Socrates is man, Plate 
 is man, Arijiotle is man, &c. 
 
 The things predicated of others are reducible to three claffes : 
 genera, as animal, of man, C3V. forms, as whkenefs, of a fwan, 
 &c. and equals, of things of equal extent, as fpecies, differ- 
 ence, proprium, &c. 
 
 The fchoolmen diftinguifii feveral ways of Predicating, as. I. In 
 quod tantum, which is to predicate effentially, both as to the 
 thing and the manner, as, fujlice is a virtue. 2. Jn quale tan- 
 tum, which is to predicate accidentally, both as to the thing 
 and the manner, as, Peter is learned. And, 3. In quale quid y 
 or in quale pojl quid, which is to predicate both effentially and 
 accidentally, as, Alan is rational. 
 PREDICTION, Prjedictio, divination, prophecy, or fore- 
 telling of what is to come, either by divine revelation, by art 
 and human invention, or by conjeaure. 
 
 Divines labour hard to make the Predictions in the Old Tene- 
 ment tally with the events m the New. 
 The Predictions of oracles were all dark and ambiguous. 
 PREDOMINANT, Prjedominans, that which prevails, 
 appears moft, or has fome fuperiority or afcendance over ano- 
 ther thing. 
 
 Thus we fay, bitternefs is the Predominant quality among 
 taftes, or that which is moft perceived, It is a rule, that 
 fugar is never to predominate in confeaions, nor pepper in 
 ragoufts, 
 
 PRE-EMPTION, Pr^emptio, a privilege anciently allowed 
 the king's pourveyor, of having the choice and firft buying 
 of corn and other provifions for the king's houfe, but taken 
 away by ths Jf at. 19. Car. 2. 
 PREENING, in natural hiftory, the aaion of birds, cleaning, 
 compofing and dreffing their feathers, to enable them to glide 
 more eafily through the air, 
 
 For, 
 
PRE 
 
 PRE 
 
 For their ufe herein, nature has given them an admirable piece 
 of furniture, viz. two peculiar glanJs, which fecrete an unctuous 
 matter into an oil- bag, perforated ; out of' which the bird, on 
 oceafion, draws it with his bill. See Oil-bag. 
 PRE-ESTABLISHED harmony. See the article Har- 
 mony. 
 
 PRE- EXISTENCE, Prjeexistentia, the flate of a thing 
 actually in being before another. 
 
 The ancient Pythagoreans and Platonifts all after ted the Pre- 
 exijlence of human fouls, i. e. that they were in being before 
 they were joined to our bodies. 
 Origen alfo held the etcm2.[ Prc-exiflence of fouls. 
 The orthodox believe, that God created the world out of no- 
 thing j and not of a pre-exiftent matter. 
 Some perfons have held mankind pre-exifient to Adam. See 
 
 PRE-ADAMITE. 
 
 PREFACE*, Prjefatio, an advertifement in the beginning 
 of a book, to inform the reader of the dellgn, order, method. 
 &c. obfervcd therein ; of what is neceffary to receive its full 
 effect, and facilitate the understanding thereof. 
 * The word is formed from the Latin pns and fari, q d. to fpeak 
 before. 
 
 There is no part of writing that requires more art and addrefs, 
 or that fewer authors fucceed in, than Prefaces. Prefacing is. 
 in effect, a particular fpecies of writing, and has its peculiar 
 character and tafte, to diftinguifh it from all others. It " 
 ther argumentation, difcourfe, narration, nor apology. 
 Preface of the mafs. — The Rom.mifts call that part of their 
 mafs, which precedes the confccration, and which is to be re- 
 hearfed in a peculiar tone, Preface. 
 
 The ufe of Prefaces in the church, they contend, is very an. 
 cient ; and conjecture, from fome pallages of St. Cyprian, £sfr. 
 that it was in ufe in the times of the apofties. 
 The- Preface to the mafs anciently had, and ftill has, very dif- 
 ferent names in different churches. In the Gothic, or Galilean 
 rite, it is rilled immolation ; in the Mozarabic rite, illation ; 
 anciently among the French, it was called conteflation \ in the 
 Roman church alone, it is called Prcsfatio, Preface. 
 PREFECT, Prjefectus, in ancient Rome, was one of their 
 chief magiftrates, who governed in the abfence of the kings, 
 confuls, and emperors. 
 
 His power was fomewhat different at different times ; but was 
 always grea'eft under the emperors. His principal care was the 
 government and adminiftration of the city of Rome. 
 He took cognizance of all crimes committed in the city, or 
 within an hundred miles thereof. He judged capitally and finally, 
 no appeal lying from htm ; and even by the 62d novel, he pre- 
 fixed in the fenate, taking place before all the patricii and con- 
 fulares, Zfc. 
 
 He had the fuperintendence of the proviftons, policy, building?, 
 
 and navigation. 
 
 There is frill a PnfeSf of modern Rome, who is a kind of 
 governor ; differing little from the ancient prefeSIus, except 
 that bis authority only extends to 40 miles round the city, 
 whereas that of the Prefect of ancient Rome reached ioo 
 miles round. 
 
 PREFECT of the pretorium^ PRj^fectus pr/storii, was the 
 chief or leader of the pretorian bands, or cohorts, deftined for 
 the emperor's guard. 
 
 The pretorian legion, according to Dion, confiflred of ten thou- 
 fand men. Suetonius refers the inftitution of prtsfeclus pretorii 
 to Auguftus. It is added, that he was ufually taken from amonc 
 the Roman knights. 
 
 Bjf the favour of the emperors, his authority grew very con- 
 siderable ; infomuch that he became the arbiter and fupreme 
 judge of all affairs. 
 
 To reduce this extravagant authority, Conftantine divided the 
 prefecture of the pretorium into four prefectures ; and each of 
 thefe he again fubdivided into civil and military departments ; 
 though the name was only referved to him who was inverted 
 with the civil authority ; and that of comes belli given him who 
 had the command of the cohorts. See Count. 
 Thus the office of Prefect of the pretorium, which, in its ori- 
 gin, and till the time of Conftantine, was military, and fuc- 
 ceeded to thru of magijler equitum, now commenced a purely 
 civil ma^rtrature ; and at length became the prime dignity of 
 the empire. 
 
 The fucceeding emperors, following Co nrta mine's divifion, di- 
 vided the empire into four prefectures pratorii, as into four 
 diocefes, vz. the Gauls, Hlyria, Italy, and the Eaft. See 
 Diocese. 
 
 The provinces whereof thefe diocefes confided, had their par- 
 ticulai governors ; at the head of whom was the Prefect, who, 
 though he had not the command of the army, yet had the power 
 of the fword, decided ultimately of all caufes, and had all the 
 marks and honours of fovereignty. 
 
 Juftmian created a fifth PuftS of the pretorium for the go- 
 vernment of Egypt, which had been torn off" from the diocefc 
 of the Eaft by the invafion of the Vandals during the empire 
 of that prince. 
 
 Under Auguftus, the officer fent to govern Egypt with a pro- 
 consular authority, was called prarfetfus Auguftalit. 
 PREGNANCY, the ftate of a woman when lhe has conceived, 
 or is with child. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 The fame ftate, with a view to the bearing of the child in the 
 womb, is called geftation. 
 
 Hence alfo the act of impregnating. See Generation 
 Flower, and Seed. 
 PREGNANT.— Negative pregnant, inlaw. See Nega- 
 tive. 
 
 PPvEJUDICE, Prjejudicium, a falfe notion or opinion of 
 any thing, conceived without a due previous examination 
 thereof. 
 
 Prejudice, q. d. pre-judgment, does not import a judgment 
 merely as prior to another in refpect of time, but as °beinf 
 prior thereto in refpect of knowledge, or of Efficient atten- 
 tion to the thing ; the prepofnion p r a expreffing an anticipa- 
 tion, not fo much of time, as of knowledge and due atten- 
 tion. See Error. 
 
 Hence Prejudice is alfo called among the fchoolmen anticipate 
 & presventa cognitio, a preconceived opinion, C3V 
 PREJUDICIAL affiqn. See the article Action." 
 PRELATE*, Pr^latus, an ecclefiaftical fuperior, raifed to 
 fome eminent and fuperior dignity of the church. 
 
 * The word comes from the Latin pralatus, of pra, before, and 
 fero, I bear, carry. 
 
 Patriarchs, primates, archbifhops, bifliops, generals of religious 
 orders, certain crofiered and mitred abbots, and even deans' and 
 archdeacons, are ranked among the number of Prelates. 
 Prelate of the garter, is the firft officer of that noble order, 
 and is as ancient as the inftitution , itfelf. 
 
 William de Edjnton, then biftiop of Winchefter, was the firft 
 Prelate at the erection of the order ; and it has been conti- 
 nued in that fee ever fince. 
 
 It is an office of great honour, but has neither falary nor fees ; 
 only a convenient lodging allowed in Windfor-caftle ; and as oft 
 as the Prelate comes thither, (by the fovereign's command J he 
 is to have court-livery allowed for himfelf and fervants. 
 PRELIMINARY *, or Preliminary, fomething to be ex- 
 amined, difpatched, or determined, ere an affair can^be treated 
 of thoroughly, and to purpofe. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Lathi, p r <s, before, and limm 
 threfhold. 
 
 Preliminaries of peace generally take up the greateft part of 
 treaties. They conftft in examining of powers, qualities of 
 princes, ranks of ambafTadors, &f>. 
 PRELUDE, Pr^ludium, in mufic, a Symphony ufed by 
 wuy of introduction or preparation to what follows. 
 A Prelude is ufually a flourifh, or an irregular air, which the 
 mufician plays off-hand, to fee if his inftrument be in U 
 
 in tune ; 
 the two firft 
 
 and to lead him into the piece to be played. 
 PREMISES, Premisses, Premiss.*-, in 
 proportions of a fyllogifm. 
 
 When a fyllogifm is in form, the two Premifes being granted 
 the conclufion cannot be denied. 
 
 The Premifes, fays Chauvin, are properly the parts of the ante- 
 cedent of an argument, when complex ; and are called pramiffie, 
 becaufe premifed to the conclufion. 
 
 Thus in the argument, Every man is an animal, Peter is a man 
 therefore Peter is an animal ; the propofitions, every man &c. 
 and Peter, &c. are the premifes. 
 
 Premifes are the principles of our reafonings ; as being clear 
 evident, and demonftrative propofitions, from the relations 
 whereof to one another, we draw or infer new truths, pro- 
 pofitions, &c. 
 
 The Premifes are either equal, where neither fuffices alone for 
 the drawing a conclufion, as in the inftance above ; or unequal 
 the one major, greater, from which alone the conclufion is 
 drawn ; the other minor, or lefs, which only ferves in applying 
 the antecedent to the confequent. 
 
 In the common practice of the fchools, however, every fyllo- 
 gifm, or formal argument, of what kind foever, is faid to have 
 a major and a minor, how equal foever the Premifes may be 
 See Major and Minor. 
 Premises, in law, the land's, fsV. mentioned in the preamble or 
 
 beginning of a deed, leafe, conveyance, or the like. 
 PREMIUM, or Premium, literally denotes a reward or re- 
 compence. 
 
 Among merchants it is taken for that fum of money, viz. 8 or 
 10 per cent, which is given to an infurer, for infuring the fafe 
 return of any fhip or merchandize. 
 Premium is alfo ufed in the money and paper-trade, for what 
 is given for a thing above par. 
 
 Thus, lottery-tickets, (stc, are faid to bear fo much, e. gr. 10 
 or 20 s. Premium, when they are fold fot fo much beyond the 
 prime coft, at which the government iffued them, 
 PREMONSTRANTES, or Prjemonstra tenses, a religious 
 order of regular canons inftituted in 1120. by S, Norbert ; 
 and thence alfo called Norberttnes. 
 
 The firft monaftery of this order was built by Norbert in the 
 lfle of France, three leagues to the weft of Laon ; and by him 
 called Pramonjire, Pramonflratum, whence the order itfelf was 
 denominated ; though, as to the oceafion of that name the 
 writers of that order are divided. 
 
 The order was approved by HonoriusII. in 1126. and again by 
 feveral fucceeding popes. At firft the abftinence from flefti was 
 rigidly obferved. In 1245. Innocent IV. complained of its be- 
 ing neglected, to a general chapter. In 1288. their general, 
 9 M William, 
 
PRE 
 
 PRE 
 
 William, procured leave of pope Nicolas IV. for thofe of the 
 ruder to eat flefh on journies. In 1460. Pius II. granted them 
 a general permiffion to eat meat, excepting from Septuagcfima 
 to Eafter. 
 
 Tlie religious of this order are cloathed in white, with a (capil- 
 lary before the caflbek. Out of doors they wear a white cloak 
 and white hat ; within, a little camail, and at church, a fur- 
 
 plice, fcrV. 
 
 In the firft monafteries built by Norbert, there was one for 
 irien, and another for women, only feparatcd by a wall. In 
 1137. by a decree of a general chapter, this practice was pro- 
 hibited, and the women removed out of thofe already built to a 
 greater difhnce from thofe of the men. 
 PREMOTION, Pr^motio, in the fchools, the _ aftion of 
 God co-operating with the creature, and determining him to 
 
 2Ct. 
 
 Phyfical Prentoiion, according to Alvarez, Lemos, Esft. is a com- 
 plement of the active power, whereby it paffes from the firft act 
 to the fecond, /. e. from a complete, and next power, to action. 
 It is an influence or participation of the virtue of the firft caufe, 
 which makes the fecond caufe actually active. See Cause. 
 
 PREMUNIENTES, in law, writs difpatched to each bifhop to 
 call them to parliament, warning them to bring with them the 
 deans and archdeacons, one proctor for each chapter, and two 
 for the clergy of his diocefe. See Convocation. 
 
 PREMUNIRE*, Prjemunire, a term ufed both for an of- 
 fence, for a writ granted thereupon, and for the punifhment 
 thereof. 
 
 *The word is a corruption of the Latin, prtemontre, q. d. to fore 
 warn, or bid the offender take care ; of which a leafon may be 
 drawn from the words of the ftatute 27 Edw. 3. and the form of 
 the writ, Prrcmunire facias pr<rfatum propofitum, CS* J. R. pi 
 curatorem, fcff. quod tunc Jint coram nobis. 
 Thefe will all be underftood from one ; anciently, then, the 
 church of Rome, on pretence of her fupremacy, and the dig- 
 nity of St. Peter's chair, took upon her the difpofal of moft of 
 the bifhopricks, abbeys, and other ecclefiaftical benefices of 
 worth, bv mandates or bulls, called expeclatlvc graces, and pro 
 vifiones, before they become void. 
 
 Edward III. not brooking fo intolerable an incroachment, made 
 fever.il ftatutes againft thofe who drew the king's people out of 
 the realm, to anfwer to things properly belonging to the king's 
 court ; and another to reftrain the privilege of the pope. 
 The pontiff, huwv-ver, ftil! perfifted in his pretenfions ; and tbi 
 conflux of people from England to Rome, to fue for them, was 
 as great as ever. 
 
 This occafioned Richard II. to make feveral ftatutes of the like 
 jjpport with thofe of Edward III. and particularly one, where 
 he affigned their punifhment to be this ; Tlmt they Jhould be out 
 ef the king's protection, attached by their bodies, i. e. imprifoned 
 during life ; and lofe their lands, goods and chattels j which is 
 fince called the penalty of a premunire. 
 
 Henry IV. made new ftatutes againft other abufes of this kind 
 not fully obviated in thofe of his precieceffors ; adding certain 
 new cafes, and laying on them the fame penalty. 
 By later ftatutes, the like penalty of premunire is laid on fume 
 other offenders ; as, e. gr. by that I Eliz. on him who denies 
 the king's fupremacy a fecond time. — By 13 Eliz. on thofe 
 who aJfert the pope's authority, or refufe the oath of fupremacy ; 
 on feditious talkers of the inheritance of the crown ; and fuch 
 as affirm the king or queen to be a heretic.— -And by ftatute 13 
 Car. 2. on thofe who affirm that the parliament begun Novem- 
 ber if 40. is not yet diffolved ; or that there is any obligation 
 in an oarh or covenant, is'c. to endeavour a change of govern 
 ment either in church or ftate ; or that the houfes of parliament 
 have a lepiflative authority without the king. 
 
 PremunikE is now chiefly ufed for the punifhment appointed 
 tiie ft mites above-mentioned. — Thus, when it is faid a man 
 for an offence Jhall incur a premunire, it is meant, he fhall in- 
 cur the penalty appointed by the ftatute 16 Rk. 2. commonly 
 called the ftatute of premunire. 
 
 PRENDER *, in law, a power or right of taking a thing be- 
 fore it is offered. 
 * The word is formed from the French, prendre, to take. 
 
 Such a thing lies in render, but not in prender. Coke's Rep, 
 part I. Sir John Peter's cafe. 
 Prender dc baron is an exception to difable a woman from 
 purfuing an appeal of murder againft the killer of her for 
 mer husband, taken from her having married a fecond. Se 
 Appeal. 
 
 PRENOMEN, Frjenomen, among the Romans, a proper 
 name, or name prefixed to the general name of the family ; as. 
 Cams, Lucius, Marcus, &t. See Name. 
 The Premmen anfwers to our Chriftian name, Peter, Paul, He, 
 It was not introduced among the Romans till long time after 
 the nomen. 
 
 The name of the family was given by the Romans to their chil 
 dren the day after their birth ; but the Prenoinen was not °ivei 
 them till they took the virile habit. 
 
 Varro reckons up thirty presnomina among the Romans. The 
 ufual ones may be reduced to eighteen. 
 
 The Greeks had no pmnomina j they had but one name, 
 See Name. 
 
 PE.ENOTION, Pk-enotio, or Prjecqgniti. 
 
 a notice, 
 
 qr piece of knowledge preceding fome other, in refpect of 
 tim% 
 
 S;xn is the knowledge of the antecedent ; which mull precede 
 that of the conclufion. 
 PREPARANTIA, or Pr jeparantia vafa, in anatomy, the 
 fpermatic vefTels ; being two arteries, and as many veins of the 
 tefticles ; thus called by the ancients, from an opinion that the 
 feed began to be prepared herein. See Spermatic veffels, 
 and Generation. 
 PREPARATION, Prjeparatio, apparatus, in mathema- 
 tics, makes one of the parts or branches of a demonftra- 
 tion. 
 
 If it be a proportion in geometry that is to be demonftratcd, 
 the Preparation confifts in certain lines to be drawn in the fi- 
 gure : if a proportion in arithmetic, in fome computation to be 
 made to come the more eafily at the demonstration. 
 Preparation, in chymiftry and pharmacy, is applied to the 
 feveral manners of managing the materia medica, and of dif- 
 pofing it to ferve the feveral purpofes. 
 
 There are various Preparations of mercury, antimony, and 
 other drugs to purify them, fublime, calcine, edulcorate them, 
 &e. 
 
 Crude antimony is ufed in fudorific decoctions ; though, when 
 it has undergone a certain Preparation, it becomes a violent 
 vomitive. 
 
 PREPARATORY torture. See the article Torture. 
 PREPARED antimony. See the article Antimony. 
 Prepared opium. See the article Opium. 
 PREPENSED, Prjepensus, in taw, denotes fore-thought. 
 In which fenfe we fay, prepenfed malice, &c. 
 If, when a man is (lain upon a fudden quarrel, there were ma- 
 lice prepenfed formerly between them, it makes it murder ; and, 
 as it is called in fome ftatutes, prepenfed murder, 
 PREPOSITION, Prjepositio, in grammar, one of the parts 
 of fpeech or difcourfe. 
 
 The Prepofttion is an indeclinable particle, which yet ferves to 
 govern the nouns that follow it. Such are, per, pro, propter, 
 in, with, through, from, by, &c. 
 
 They are called Prepofitions, becaufe prapofita, placed before 
 the nouns they govern. 
 
 F. Buffier does not allow the Prepofttion to be a part of fpeech, 
 but merely a modificative of a part of fpeech, viz. of the 
 noun ; ferving only to modify or circumftantiate it. See 
 Modificative. 
 PREPOSITUS villa is fometimes ufed for the chief officer of 
 the king, in a town, manor, or village. 
 
 In ancient records, the Prcspofitus villa? was no more than the 
 bailiff of the lord of the manor. 
 
 Prapafitv.s villa is fometimes alfo ufed, in later writers, for the 
 conftable of a town, or petty conftable. See Constable. 
 PreP'ositus eccleficf. See the article Church reve. 
 ^uatuor homines prepositi, in Crompton, £srV. denote four men 
 of each town, which are to appear before the juftices of the 
 foreft in their circuit. 
 PREPUCE, Pr^putium, in anatomy, the foreskin ; a pro- 
 longation of the cutis of the penis, covering the glans, or extre- 
 mity of the yard. — See tab. anat. (/planch.) fig. 10. lit. cc. 
 Dr. Drake obferves, that nature does not feem more various in 
 any part of her works than in the Prepuce ; for the figure and 
 proportion whereof there does not feem any ftandard. 
 Hence, probably, arofe the neceffity of circumcifion, fo ge- 
 nerally practifed throughout the oriental parts of the world ; 
 not out of a view to religion, but to cleanlinefs, and to 
 prevent difeafes, which a detention of the mucus of the fitb- 
 preputial glans might breed in thofe hot countries. For even 
 here, the fame author adds, he has known fome, who, having 
 large Prepuces, called filbert- Prepuces, have been frighted at the 
 appearance of a mucus oozing out upon a mere plenitude from 
 between the Prepuce and glans; which, it is probable, the great 
 legifiator of the Jews might have a view, to in the firft inftitu- 
 tion of circumcifion. 
 
 The skin of the Prepuce is double ; at the connexion of the in- 
 ternal skin, to the other part, are feveral oval and roundifh glan- 
 dules placed irregularly about the joining of the glans to the 
 corpora cavernofa, and on the glans itfelf. 
 
 Their ufe is to feparate a liquor to render the agitation of the 
 Prepuce on the glans eafy. When this liquor becomes rancid, 
 as upon old age, or venereal contacts, it excoriates the glans 
 and Prepuce ; and even fometimes contracts the latter, and ren- 
 ders it nccefl'ary to be divided, to afford a paflage to the glans. 
 See Phimosis and Paraphimosis. 
 PREROGATIVE, Prjerogativa, a privilege or pre-emi- 
 nence, 1 which one perfon has over another. 
 The word is borrowed from the appellation of a century in 
 ancient Rome, which gave the firft vote, or fuffraie in the 
 comitia, or afi'emblies for the election of magifirares ; quafi 
 pnerogati ; becaufe firft asked, or their fLtffrage firft re- 
 quired. 
 
 Their vote was called omen prarogativum, becaufe the reft ufu- 
 ally gave their votes the fame way. 
 Prerogative of the king, Pr jerogativa regis, is that power, 
 pre-eminence, and privilege, which the king hath over, not only 
 other perfons, but over the ordinary courfe of the common 
 law, in right of his crown. 
 
 Such 
 
PRE 
 
 Such are thcfe, that the king; may pardon n perfon condemned 
 to die : that the king's perfon is fiibject to no man's fuit : his 
 p'lfleifions cannot be taken from him by any violence, or wrong- 
 ful difltizin : his goods and chattels are fubject to no tribute, 
 full, or cuftom, nor are they diftrainable, Uc. 
 Prerogative court, is a court belonging to the archbifhnp of 
 Canterbury, wherein all wills are proved, and all admmifrra- 
 lions granted, that belong to the archbifhop by his Prerogative 
 that is, where the party at his death had bona notabilia, five 
 pounds or upwards, out of the diocefc where lie died, and 
 within the archbifhop's province. 
 
 All citations and decrees of this court run in the name of th> 
 archbifhop. 
 
 This court, for the province of Canterbury, is kept in the 
 common-hall in Doctors Commons, in the afternoon, next 
 day after the arches. 
 The judge is attended by the regifter, who fets down the 
 decrees and acts of court ; and keeps records, &c. all ori- 
 ginal wills and teftaments of parties dying, having bona no- 
 tabilia. 
 
 The place is ufually called the Prerogative office, it is now kept 
 in Dean's court ; where, for a moderate fee, one may have a 
 copy of any fucb will. See Will. 
 
 The archbifhop of York hath aifo the like court, called his 
 exchequer. 
 
 PRESAGE, PrjEsagium, an augury, or fign of fomething to 
 come. 
 
 The Romans judged of future events by certain figns, which 
 their fuperftition, or the artifice of their priefts, had invented. 
 Their moft celebrated Prefages were founded on the flight of 
 birds, or the entrails of victims : all night-birds pafied for birds 
 of ill Pre/age. 
 
 It is a popular error, that comets Prefage misfortunes. 
 Clofe weather, and a fouthern wind, Prejoge rain. 
 PRESBYTA, n-^riSuriif, j n optics, a term applied to pcrfons 
 in whom the configuration of the cryftalHne of the eye is too 
 flat, fo that they fee diftant things clearly, but thofe near at 
 hand confufedly. 
 
 The reafon is, that in near objects, the vifual rays pafling the 
 retina before thev unite, there can be no diilinctncis, fince the 
 diffinct bafe falls too far ofF beyond the retina. 
 This defect is helped only with convex-glafles, or fpectiicbs ; 
 which will make the rays converge fooner, and if they are 
 Well fitted, fall exactly on the retina. 
 
 The word is formed from the Greek, wptt&uf, fenex ; becaufe 
 old people are naturally fubject; to this defect ; time, and the 
 friction of the eye-lids, &c. gradually wearing the ball flat. 
 Prcsbytce are oppofed to myopes, in whom the cryftalline is too 
 round. 
 
 If" the diftance between the retina and the cryftalline be too 
 final], the perfon will likewife be a Presbyta. See Eye and 
 Vision. 
 
 PREsBYTER, a pricjl, or perfon in priefts orders. 
 
 He is thus called, from the Greek, <nf»$>rig*t elder, of 
 old; becaufe, anciently, none were ordained but fuch 
 as were advanced in years. 
 
 The great difpute between the retainers to the Geneva and the 
 Roman difcipline, h about the famenefs or difference of Pre/- 
 byters and biftiops, in the times of the apoftles. 
 The presf>\teral character is held indelible. 
 PRESBYTERIANS, a name affumed by the Calvinifls of 
 Great Britain. 
 
 The Presbyterians, as to doctrine, agree with the church of 
 England : their chief difference lies in the point of difcipline, 
 viz.. who fliall appoint the governors of the church, and what 
 fi;bordination there fhall or dull not be between them ? 
 The Presbyterians allow of no hierarchy, no fubordination in 
 the pcrfons of their minifters : bifhops and priefts, they main- 
 tain, in the times of the apoftles, were the fame ; and there- 
 fore, though they allow epifcopacy as now fettled in the church 
 of England to be very ancient, yet they deny it to be jure 
 divino. 
 
 In lieu of a feries of minifters one over another, in quality of 
 priefts, biftiops, and archbifhops, their polity confifts in a feries 
 of aftemblics, or fynods : thus every minifler is to be obedient 
 to the claflis under which he lives ; and that clafs to a fynod, 
 provincial, claflical, or oecumenical. 
 
 The power of ordination, with them, refides in a claffis, and 
 none are admitted to adminifter the facrament, but thofe or- 
 dained by the impofition of hands of other minifters. 
 They nuke ufe of deacons to take care of their poor; and 
 in the government of the church, they call in lay-elders ; whence 
 their name, from the Greek, w^-s-^i/ti^, fignifying femor. 
 elder. 
 
 This is now the reigning difcipline in the church of Scotland | 
 as it was, during the inter- re gnum, in England. 
 PRESBYTERY, Presbyterium, wpafivnpv, a n afTembly 
 of the order ol presbyters, or priefts, with lay-elders, for the 
 exercife of church difcipline. See Presbyterian. 
 The kirk, or church of Scotland, is divided into fixty-nine 
 presb- tcrieSy each confifting of a number of parifhes, not ex- 
 ceeding twenty-four, nor lefs than twelve. 
 The miniilers of thcfe parifhes, with one ruling elder chofen 
 half-yejrly, conflitute a Presbytery, who, meeting in their 
 
 PRE 
 
 chief town, whence the Presbytery is denominated, chtlfe a 
 moderator, or more properly a prolocutor, half-yearly. 
 They determine all appeals from kirk feffions, i. e. from the 
 feveial parochial affemblies ; but can try nothing at the firfb 
 inftance cognizable before a kirk feflion. 
 
 They compofe all differences between minifters and people ; 
 for which end they hold presbyteral vifitations in each.parifh 
 where they examine the regifters of the kirk feffions, tfc. 
 They inquire into repairs of churches ; fee that the glebe, CSV. 
 fiiffer no dilapidations ; appoint fchools in the parifhes ; and 
 fee that the funds be not mifapplied. 
 
 It is they alone can exclude from the communion, liccnfe 
 probationers, fufpend, depofe, and, in effeft, determine all 
 ecclefiaftical matters within theirdiftrifl. From the Presbytery 
 there lies an appeal in all cafes to provincial fynods. 
 Presbytery, presbyterium, is fometimes aifo ufed for the 
 choir of a church, becaufe anciently appropriated to the pref- 
 bytcrs. 
 
 In oppofition to the nave, or body of the church, which was 
 for the people. 
 
 PRESCIENCE, in theology, previfisn, or firc-inewled^c ; that 
 knowledge which God has of tilings to come. 
 The doclrine of predeftination is founded on the prefcienee 
 of God, and on the fuppofition of all futurity's being prcfent 
 to him. 
 
 Human reafon can fcarce reconcile the prefcienee of God with 
 the free-agency of man. 
 
 How are we to admire the depth of the prefcienee and wifdom 
 of God ; who, in giving the firft motion to matter, forefaw 
 all the poffible combinations this firft impreffion might undergo 
 during infinite ages ! Malebr. 
 PRESCRIPTION, Prjescriptio, in law, a right or title 
 acquired by ufe and time. 
 
 Prefcriptien is a fort of title introduced for alluring the pro- 
 perty of effects in favour of perfons who have p IT led 
 them a certain time ; and to keep off anv who would difquiet 
 them, or recover the thing poffeffed, after the term fixed by 
 the laws. 
 
 Tourreil calls Prefcriptien a penalty impofed by the laws upon 
 negligence ; and adds, that poffe/Tors who have no other title 
 to plead but Prefcriptien, are only legal ufurpers. 
 In effect, however, the law of Prefcriptien does not punifh the 
 indolence of proprietors ; but only interprets their filence for 
 their confent, prefuming, that a man who neglects to afi'ert his 
 right for a long feries of years, gives it up. 
 There are fome of the lawyers who doubt, whether time and 
 unjuft Prefcriptien be any legitimate means of acquiring ? 
 Others, more favourable, call it the patrenefs af mankind ; °as 
 being a general prefumption, under which the law will have 
 men live in peace. 
 
 In the common law, Prefcriptien is ufually underftood of a 
 poffeffion from time immemorial, or beyond the memory of 
 man ; as, when my anceftors, or his from whom I have an 
 eftate, have enjoyed and ufed it all the time whereof any me- 
 mory remains. 
 
 But in the civil law, and even in our common law, there are 
 Prefer iptions of a much fhorter date. Prefcriptien of forty years 
 excludes all actions whatever. Reform. Leg. Ecclef. 
 The cuftom of Paris allows of a Prefcriptien of ten years if 
 the parties be prefent ; and of twenty, if abfent, in favour of 
 peaceable polfeflors of an inheritance, if they have any title 
 however controverted ; and of thirty years in favour of thole 
 who poffefs without any title at all. 
 
 In Normandy, a Prefcriptien of forty years peaceable pof- 
 feffion is equivalent to a title, to immoveables ; and for 
 moveables, and perfonal aflions, a Prefcriptien of thirty years 
 fuffices. 
 
 In Romifli countries, Prefcriptien does not avail auainft the 
 church, if fhort of an hundred years. In France, Pre/iriptim 
 of twenty years is admitted againft all crimes, except duehW 
 which was excluded by a declaration of the year 1670 In 
 matters of adultery, five years fuffice, ;'. e. provided there' have 
 been a difcontinuance of profecution all that time. 
 By our ftatutes, a judge or clerk convifted of falfe entering 
 pleas, &c. may be fined within two years ; but, thofe elapfedt 
 he prefcribes againft the punilhment of the ftatute. 
 The crime of maintenance or embracery, whereby perjury is 
 committed by a jury, muff be profecuted within fix days ; or 
 otherwife the parties prefcribe. 
 
 There is no preferibing againft a man's lord ; no Prefcriptien 
 avails to take off any fervitude or tenure : a title is always re- 
 quired there. 
 
 The author of the hiftory of the inquifition obferves, that no 
 time of Prefcriptien avails in matters of herefy ; even death 
 itfelf does not fecure the fufpected from the researches of that 
 tremendous court. 
 Prescription, in medicine, the aft or art of affigning a pro- 
 per and adequate remedy to a difeafe, from an examination of 
 the fymptoms thereof, and an acquaintance with the virtues 
 and effects of the materia medica. 
 
 The methodus prrefcribendi is the laft, finifhing piece of fur- 
 niture of a phyfician, and is the refult of all the reif, joined 
 with a ready, prefent thought. 
 
PRE 
 
 To trtlmht with judgment, elegance, &e. a moderate acquain- 
 tance with pharmacy, 1. e. with the forms and preparations ot 
 medicines, is required. ...... t b 
 
 The merits of a bill or Prefcription confift in its being cone le 
 pertinent, efficacious, and agreeable ; in the beft and fuitable't 
 materials' beini pitched on; thofe afl'embled in the molt judi- 
 cious proportions, made up in the beft and moll convenient 
 form, and applied in the jufteft dofe, a due regard being ttul 
 had to the non-naturals, regimen, intervals of application, o t *. 
 Sydenham particularly excelled in 'Prefcription. 
 Prefcription is cither officinal, or extemporaneous ; the former 
 confifts in ordering the medicines which the apothecaries keep 
 bv them ready prepared according to their difpenfatory. 
 Bxtemporanemi is that which the phyfician frames ofhim- 
 felf, pre ri nala, according to the circumftances of the pa- 
 tient, to be made up by the apothecary according to the pny- 
 fician's bill. . 
 PRESENCE, Pr.S5ENTia, a term of relation, ufed in oppo- 
 lition to ahfinct, and fignifying the exiftence of a perfon in a 
 certain place, or the ftate of a perfon confidered as co-exilting 
 with another. . 
 In this fenfc, an obligation is faid to be palled in Prijence of 
 a notary and witnefles. At the breaking open a feal of a 
 minor, or an abfent perfon, the Prefence of a fubftitute is ne- 
 
 The ic'hoolmen hold, that Prefence, in fpeaking of bodies, de- 
 notes not only a co-exiftence, but a fort of contact. 
 They diftinguifh two kinds of Prefence ; the one virtual, in 
 which fenfe a fpirit, or mind, is faid to be prefent to a body 
 when it afis thereon ; the other corporeal, which confifts in a 
 phyfical contact. 
 
 The treafurers, &c. of France have what they call a right ef 
 Prefence, a certain fum due on their actual attendance in 
 their offices, to oblige them to be the more affiduous in their 
 function. 
 
 A perfon abfent in the fervice of the king, or a community, 
 is reputed as prefent. - , fl 
 
 The Roman catholics believe the real Prefence of Jefus Chnlt 
 in the eucharift, both in body and foul. See Transub- 
 
 STANTIATION. 
 
 PRESENT, Prjesens, in grammar, the firft tenfe, or infle- 
 xion of verbs, expreffmg the time Prefent, or that which now 
 is. 
 
 It is a particular piece of addrefs in eloquence, to make ufe 
 of the Prefent for a paft tenfe, in order to exprefs a part adlion 
 with the more force and warmth. — Thus, The fleet it no 
 fooner in full fea, than the heavens begin to lour, the winds 
 rife, the waves dafh againft each other, thunder rails, and 
 lightning glares on all fides; the (hips life their mafts and 
 rudders, and are driven impetuoufly againft the rocks. 
 PRESENTATION, Prjesentatio, in the canon law, the 
 aft of a patron, nominating and offering his clerk to the bifhop 
 or collator, to be inftituted in a benefice of his gift, which is 
 
 void. " pOncL t-n. 
 
 Tie Prefenlation mil be tendered to the bilhop within an 
 hundred eighty-two days after the living is vacant, elfe it lapfes 
 to the bifhop, and if the bifhop do not collate in half a year 
 more, it lapfes to the archbiffiop, and from him in a like time 
 to the king, who may ftay as long as he pleafes, for nullum 
 tempus occurrit regi. . 
 By fome cuftoms, a lay-patron has only four months time to 
 make his Prefentation in, and if he have prefented a perfon 
 incapable, he may vary it, and make a new Prefentation within 
 the four months. 
 
 The word is formed from the ancient phrafe, prafentare ad 
 ecchfiam, which originally fignified the patron's fending, or 
 placing a perfon in a church, and which itfelf is formed 
 from reprxfentare, which, Selden obferves, is ufed in the 
 council of Lateran, and elfewhere, for pricfentare. See 
 Parson. . ^ ) - • ■ i J 
 
 Presentation of the virgin, is a feaft of the Romiftl church 
 held on the twenty-firft of November, in memory of the holy 
 virgin's being prefented by her parents in the temple, to be there 
 educated. 
 
 It is pretended, that there were young women brought up in 
 the temple of Jerufalem, which fome endeavour to prove from 
 the fecond book of Maccabees, Sed £r/ virgines qua: conclufee 
 erant, procurrebant ad Oniam, which is the fentiment of Eu- 
 tochius on this paflage. And Lyranus adds, that other more 
 ancient authors obfervc, that young women were educated till 
 
 marriage, el 
 
 ther in the temple, or at leaft in buildings conti- 
 guous thereto. 
 
 Emanuel Comnenus, who began to reign in 1143, makes 
 mention of this feaft in his conflitution. Some even imagine 
 it to have been eftablifhed in the eleventh century among the 
 Greeks, and think they fee evident proofs of it in fome homi- 
 lies of Georce of Nicomedia, who lived in the time of Photius, 
 fo that it feems a miftake in fome modern critics to refer its 
 inftitution to Gregory XI. in 1372. 
 
 Some take it to have been inftituted in memory of the ce- 
 remony praSifed among the Jews for their new-born fe- 
 males ; correfponding to the circumcifion on the eighth day for 
 males. 
 
 PRE 
 
 Presentation of our lady 1^0 gives the title to three orders of 
 nuns. 
 
 The firft, projected in 1618, by a maid named Joan of Cam- 
 bray. The habit of the nuns, according to the vifion fhe pre- 
 tended to have, was to be a grey gown of natural wool, t$c. 
 but this project was never accompliftred. 
 
 The fecond was eftablifhed in France about the year 1627. by 
 Nic. Sanguin, bifhop of Senlis. It was approved by Urban 
 VIII. This order never made any great progrefs. 
 The third was eftablifhed in 1664. when Fred. Borromeo, being 
 apoftolical vifitor in the Valteline, was intreated by fome devout 
 maids at Morbegnobourg to allow them to live in community 
 in a retired place; which he granted and erected them into a 
 congregation, under the title of congregation of our lady. They 
 live under the rule of St. Auguftin. 
 PRESENTEE, in the canon law, a clerk prefented by a patron 
 
 to a collator. See Presentation. 
 PRESENTMENT, in law, a denunciation or information of 
 the jurors themfelves, or of fome other officer, as a juftice, 
 conftable, fearcher, furveyor, &f. of an offence, inquirable in 
 the court whereto it is prefented. 
 Jfftzc of darrein Presentment. See the article Assise. 
 PRESENTS, Pr 2ESENTIA, free-gifts, or gratuities ; efpeci- 
 ally thofe given by the clergy, or the ftates of a realm, to a 
 king. 
 
 They are fo called, becaufe given into the hands of a perfon 
 prefent ; by which they are diftinguiftied from munera, gifts, 
 which are fent to the party, or delivered by the intervention of 
 a third perfon. 
 
 Thus the XVIIIth law, de verb, fignif. Abfentibus res donari 
 dieanlur, munera autem mitti, C3" prrefentia offerri. 
 There is no accofting the eaftern princes without making them 
 fine Prefenls. Kings ufually make rich Prefents to embaffadors 
 fent to their courts. 
 PRESEPE, or Prjesepe, in aftronomy, a name given to three 
 nebulous ftars in the breaft of the fign cancer, or the crab ; two 
 of them are of the feventh, the third of the fixth magnitude. — 
 Their longitudes, latitudes, (ft. fee among thofe of the other 
 ftars in Cancer. 
 PRESERVATIVE, or Preservative, in medicine, a re- 
 medy taken by way of precaution ; or to fecure a man from a 
 difcafe that threatens him. 
 
 The principal Prefcrvathes, according to Boerhaave, are ab- 
 ftinence, quiet, drinking of warm water ; and, after this, a gentle 
 and continued motion till the firft appearance of fweat ; then 
 a profufe deeping, the body well covered. 
 By fuch means, crafs humours are diluted, the veffels are relaxed, 
 and noxious matter excreted. He adds, that the beft defence 
 againft the force of external cold, is to leflen the winter's cloath- 
 ing late in the fpring, and to increafe the fummer's cloathing 
 foon in autumn. 
 
 In time of plague, Prefervatives are very neceflary againft 
 the contagion of the air, (sc. — See Plague and Conta- 
 gion. 
 
 Generous wines, cardiacs, and fudorifics, are Preferva- 
 tives. 
 
 Dr. Alprunus tells us, he made incifions with a lancet in inguine 
 dextio & finiftro, and put in fetons, to give paflage to the ve- 
 nom ; which proved an excellent Prefervative againft the plague 
 that raged at Prague in 1680. 
 
 Dr. Wenceflaus Dobr. Zensky de Negro Ponte gives us an uni- 
 verfal Prefervative againft infection in all difeafes. Whoever, 
 fays he, in converfing with patients of any kind, would pre- 
 fervt himfelf from infection, he muft, while he is within the 
 fphere of their effluvia, never fwallow his fpittle, but fpit it out: 
 for this author conceives it to be the fpittle that firft imbibes 
 the infection. 
 
 PRESERVING of timber. See the article Timber. 
 PRESIDENT, Pr iESEs, an officer created, or elected, to prefide 
 over a company, or affembly ; fo called in contradiftinction to 
 the other members, who are termed ref dents. 
 Lord President of the council is the fourth great officer of the 
 crown ; as ancient as the time of king John, when he was ftyled 
 conciliarius capitalis. See Council. 
 
 His office is to attend on the king, to propofe bufinefs at the 
 council- table, and to report to the king the feveral tranfactions 
 
 PRF.SlblAL, a tribunal, or bench of judges, eftablifhed in the 
 feveral confiderable cities of France, to judge ultimately, or in 
 the laft refort, of the feveral caufes brought before them by 
 way of appeal from the fubaltern judges, 
 
 The Prefidmh make one company with the officers of the bail- 
 liages and fenefchauffees, where they are eftablifhed. 
 The edifl of 155 1, eftablilhes Prefidials under thefe two con- 
 ditions ; firft, that they may judge definitely, and without ap- 
 peal, to the fum of 250 livres or 10 livres per annum. And, 
 2. to the fum of 1500 livres by provifion. 
 When they judge in the fotmer cafe, they are obliged to pro- 
 nounce it with thefe words, par jugement dernier ; in the fe- 
 cond, par jugement pr'efidial. 
 
 When they judge finally of appeals from inferior judges, they 
 may not pronounce the fentence or appeal, au neant, void ; . 
 that form only belonging to the fovereign courts : but are to 
 
 pronounce 
 
PRE 
 
 pronounce fimply, that it has leen well or ill judged. — To 
 judge prcfidially and finally, they rnuli: be at leaft feven in 
 number. 
 
 PRESS, Prelum, in the mechanic arts, a machine made of 
 iron or wood ; ferving to fqueeze or comprefs any body very 
 clofe. 
 
 The ordinary Prejfes confift of fix members or pieces, viz. 
 two fiat, fmooth planks, between which the things to be 
 preiTed are laid ; two fcrews, or worms, faftened to the lower 
 plank, and palling through two holes in the upper ; and two 
 nuts in form of an S, ferving to drive the upper plank, which 
 is moveable againft the lower, which is finable, and without 
 motion. 
 
 Presses ufed for exprejjitig of liquors, are of various kinds ; fome, 
 in moft refpects the lame with the common Prejfes, excepting 
 that the under plank is perforated with a great number of holes, 
 to let the juice exprefied run through into a tub, or receiver, 
 underneath. 
 
 Others have only one fcrew, or arbor, which pafles through the 
 middle of the moveable plank ; which is made to defcend into 
 a kind of fquate box, full of" holes on all fides, through which 
 the juices flow in proportion as the arbor is turned, by means 
 of a little lever applied thereto. 
 Press ufed by joiners* to keep clofe the pieces they have 
 glued, efpeci.dly panels, ISc. of wainfcot, is very fimplc ; 
 confuting of four members, viz. two fcrews and two pieces 
 of wood, four or five inches fquare, and two or three feet 
 long, whereof the holes at the two ends ferve for nuts to 
 the fcrews. 
 
 Press ufed by inlaycrs, refcmbles the joiners prefs, except that 
 the pieces of wood are thicker, and that only one of them 
 is moveable ; the other, which is in form of a tieflel, being 
 iuftained by two legs, or pillars, jointed into it, at each 
 end. 
 
 This Prefs ferves them for fawing and e'eaving the pieces of 
 wood required in marquetry, or inlaid work. 
 
 Founders Press, is a Itrong fquare frame, coniifting of four pieces 
 of wood firmly joined together with tenons, (Sc 
 This Prejs is of various fizes, according to the fizes of the 
 /noulds ; two of them are required to each mould, at the two 
 extremes whereof they are placed ; fo as that by driving wooden 
 wedges between the mould and the fides of the Prejfes, the two 
 parts of the mould wherein the metal is to be run, may be 
 prefled clofe together. 
 
 Printing Press is a very complex machine, ferving to prefs the 
 fheet of paper upon the forms, which the workman has firfl 
 fmeared or beat over with ink ; fo as that the characters, or 
 types, whereof the forms are compofed, may leave their marks 
 or impreifions thereon. 
 
 The parts of this Prefs are the two cheeks ; fee Cheek ; the 
 four planks, viz. the cap, bead, fheives, and winter, the back 
 of the prejs, where the ink is placed, the fpindle with its nut, 
 the hoje with its books, the platten-plate with \ts plug, the car- 
 riage, the coffin, gallows, tymban, and its joints, &c. Laftly, 
 the bandle, to bring the plank on which the coffin is fixed back- 
 wards and forwards ; and the bar to work the fpindle, and prefs 
 the platten on the forms. 
 
 See tbe form and ufe of tbefc feveral parts defcribed under the 
 
 article Printing Prefs. 
 Meffenger of the Press. See the article Messenger. 
 Rolling Press, is a machine ufed for the taking off prints from 
 
 copper-plates. 
 
 It is much Jefs complex than that of the letter-printers. See 
 its defcription and ufe, under the article Rolling - prejs 
 Print i ng. 
 
 Press, in coining, is one of the machines ufed in the finking 
 of money ; differing from the balance, in that it has only 
 one iron- bar to give it motion, and prefs the moulds or coins ; 
 is not charged with lead at its extreme, nor drawn by 
 cordage. 
 
 £inders Press, or cutting Press, is a machine ufed equally by 
 book-binders, flationers, and paftboard-makers ; coniifting of 
 two large pieces of wood, in form of cheeks, joined by two 
 ftrong wooden fcrews ; which being turned by an iron bar, 
 draw together, or fet afunder, the cheeks as much as is neceflary, 
 for the putting in of the books, or paper, to be cut. 
 The cheeks are placed flat on a wooden ftand, in form of a 
 cheft, into which the cuttings fall. A -fide of the checks are 
 two pieces of wood, of the fame length with the fcrews ; fer- 
 ving to direct' the cheeks, and prevent their approaching or I 
 opening unequally upon turning the fcrew. 
 Upon the cheeks is the lhafc or tuft, to which the cutting- 
 knife is faftened by a fcrew, which has its key to difmount it 
 on occafion, to be fharpeneii. 
 
 The fhaft confilts of feveral parts ; among the reft, a wooden 
 fcrew or worm, which catching within the nuts of the two feet 
 that fuftain it on the cheeks, brings the knife to the book or pa- 
 per, which is faflened in the Prlfi between two boards. This 
 fcrew, which is pretty long, has two directories, or pieces of 
 wood, which, both as to their form and eft'eft, refemble thofe 
 of the fcrews of the cheeks. To make the fhaft Hide fquare 
 and even on the cheeks, fo that the knife pufhed along by the 
 workman, may make an equal paring ; that foot of the fjlaft 
 where the knife is nut iixed, has a kind of groove, directed bv a 
 Vol. II. 
 
 PRE 
 
 thread faftened along one of the cheeks. Laftly, the knife is i 
 piece of fteel, fix or (even inches long, flat, thin and (harp ; 
 terminating at one end in a point like that of a fword ; and at 
 the other in a fquare lorm, which ferves to fatten it to the fhaft. 
 See Book binding. 
 Press, in the woollen manufa&ory, i s a large wooden machine, 
 ferving to prefs cloths, ferges, rateens, b'c. thereby to render 
 them fmooth and even, and to give them a glofs. 
 This machine conbfts of feveral members ; the principal whereof 
 are the checks, the nut, and the worm or fcrew, accompanied 
 with its bar, which ferves to turn it round, and make it defcend 
 perpendicularly on the middle of a thick wooden plank, under 
 which the fluffs to be prefled are placed. 
 
 The calender is alfo a kind of Prefs, ferving to prefs or calender 
 linens, filks, tsV. 
 PRESSING, in the manufactures, the action of violently 
 fqueezing a cloth, fluff, linen, Gaffe, in a prefs, to render it even, 
 fmooth, polifhed, and glofly. 
 
 This, in the filken and linen manufactures, they properly call 
 calendering. 
 
 There are two manners of Pre/fing ; the one hot, the other 
 
 cold. 
 
 Method of Pressing cold. — After the fluff has had all its prepa- 
 rations, i, e. has been fcoured, fulled, and fhorn, (fee Full- 
 ing and Sheering) it is folded fquare, in equal plaits ; and 
 a skin of velum, or fine fmooth paflboard, is put between each 
 plait. Over the whole is laid a fquare wooden plank ; and 
 in this condition it is put in the prefs ; which is driven tight 
 down by means of the fcrew turned full upon it, by the hands 
 affifted with levers. 
 
 After it has lain a fufficient time under the prefs, they take it 
 out, remove the paflboards or velums ; and lay it up to keep. 
 It may be obferved, that fome do not ufe a prefs with a fcrew 
 in preffmg cold \ but content themfclves with laying the fluff on 
 a firm table, after plaiting and paftboarding it as before ; cover- 
 ing the whole with a wooden plank, and loading this with a 
 weight, greater or lefs, as is judged neceflary. 
 Method of pressing hot. — The miff having received all its pre- 
 parations, as before, it is fprinkled a little with water, fome- 
 times with gunirWater fpurted over it with tbe mouth; then 
 plaited equally ; and between each two plaits are put leaves of 
 paflboard ; and between every fixth and feventh plait, as well 
 as over the whole, an iron or brafs plate, well heated in a kind 
 of furnace prepared for the purpofe. 
 
 This done, it is laid upon the prefs ; and a fcrew is brought 
 forcibly down upon it, by means of a long iron bar.'' 
 Under this prefs are laid five or fix pieces one over another, at 
 the fame time ; all furnifhed with their paflboard and iron plates. 
 When the plates are well cold, they take the fluffs from under 
 the prefs, remove the paflboards and plaits, and flitch it a little 
 together, to keep it in the plaits. 
 
 This manner of Preffmg woollen fluffs is very pernicious, and 
 was only invented by the manufacturers to cover the defects of 
 the fluffs, and excufe their not giving them all the (hearings, 
 dyes, and preparations, that are neceflary to render them per- 
 fect. Accordingly it has been frequently prohibited. 
 
 Pressing to death. See the article Paine fort ef dure. 
 
 PRESSION, or Pressure, in the Cartefian philofophy, an im- 
 pulfive kind of motion, or rather an endeavour to move, im- 
 preffed on a fluid medium, and propagated through it. 
 In fuch a Prej/isn the Cartefians fuppofe the action of light 
 to confift; fee Licht. And in the various modifications 
 of this PreJJian by the furfaces of bodies, whereon that me- 
 dium is thus prefled, they fuppofe the various colours to con- 
 fift, &c. 
 
 But Sir Ifaac Newton has taught us better : for if light, e.gr. 
 confifted only in a Preffxon propagated without actual motion; 
 it could not agitate and warm fuch bodies as reflect and refract 
 it, as we actually find it does ; and if it confifted in an inftan- 
 taneous motion, or one propagated to all diftances in an inftant, 
 as fuch Preffion fuppofes, there would be required an infinite 
 force to produce that motion every moment in every lucid 
 particle. 
 
 And if light confifted either in Preffion, or in motion propa- 
 gated in a fluid medium, whether inftantaneoufly, or in time, 
 it muft follow, that it would inflect itfelf ad umbrarn ; for 
 Preffion or motion in a fluid medium,, cannot be propagated in 
 right lines beyond any obftacle which fhall hinder any part 
 of the motion ; but will inflect and diffufe itfelf every way into 
 thofe parts of the quiefcent medium, which lie beyond the faid 
 obftacle. 
 
 Thus the force of gravity tends downwards, but the Preffion 
 which arifes from that force of gravity, tends every way with 
 an equable force ; and with equal eafe and torce is propaga- 
 ted in crooked lines as in ftrait. Waves on the furface of 
 water, while they Aide by the fides of any large obftacle, do 
 inflect, dilate, and diffufe themfclves by degrees into the quief- 
 cent water lying beyond the obftacle. The waves, pulfcs, or 
 vibrations of our air, in which founds confift, do manifefily 
 inflect themfclves, though not fo much as the waves of water j 
 for the found of a bell, or of a cannon, can be beard over a 
 hill, which intercepts the Jpnorous object from cur fight ; and 
 founds will be propagated a3 eafiiy through ctooktd tubes as 
 through ftrait. 
 
 9 N But 
 
PRE 
 
 But light is never obferved to go in curve lines, nor to infteft 
 itfelf ad umbrtm. For the fixed liars do immediately difap- 
 pear on the interpofition of any of the planets, as well as tome 
 parts of the fun's body by the interpofition of the moon, Venus, 
 or Mercury. 
 PRESSURE eftbc air. See the article Air. 
 
 Moft of the efrefls anciently afcribed to the fuga vacui, are now 
 accounted for from the weight and Prfjfurc of the air. 
 The Prtjjun of the air on the furface of our earth, is balanced 
 by a column of water of the fame bafe, and about thirty-five 
 
 PRE 
 
 feet high ; or one of mercury of about twenty-nine inches, 
 The Preffure of the air on every fquarc inch on the furface 
 of the earth, is computed to be about fifteen pounds avoir- 
 dupois. See Atmosphere. 
 Pressure cff.xids. See the article Fluid. 
 PREST*, adutvin money, paid by the fhenff upon his ac- 
 counts in the exchequer, for money left or remaining m his 
 hands. ; , . , 
 
 * The word is French, prrfi, where it fignifies ready. 
 
 Pre ST - money is a fum of money which binds thofe who receive 
 it, to be ready at command, at all times appointed : chiefly un- 
 derfrood in the lilting of foldiers. . 
 
 Prest-sail, in the fea language, is when a fh ip carries all the 
 fail ftie can poffibly croud. 
 
 This is fometimes done in giving chace, (Sc. but it is a dange- 
 rous experiment, left the (hip overfet, or bring her mails by the 
 board ; in which Utter cafe fhe becomes an eafy prey. 
 
 Juditors of the V p. est. See the article Auditor. 
 
 PRESTATION-MONEY, a fum of money paid yearly by 
 archdeacons, and other dignitaries, to their bifhop, pro extm- 
 ori iurifdifl'ume, . « 
 
 Prestation, Prjestatio, was alfo anciently ufed for other 
 payments : Et quieti fint de praeftatione muragu, Chart. Hen, 
 — Sometimes alfo for pourveyance. _ 
 
 PRESTER *, a meteor, conlifiing of an exhalation thrown 
 from the clowds downwards with fuch violence, as that by the 
 collifion it is fct on fire. 
 
 * The word v, Greek, wpirvfr the name of a kind ot ierpsnt, 
 called alfo dip/as, to which this meteor is fuppofed to bear a 
 reiemblarice. 
 
 The Prefter differs from the thunder-bolt in the manner of its 
 inflammation ; and in its burning and breaking every thin] 
 touches with neater vehemence. See Thunder-bolt. 
 Psester John, or Jean, an appellation given the emperor of 
 the Abyffinians ; becaufe anciently the princes of this country 
 were really priefts, and the word jean in their language fignifies 
 king. , . r 
 
 It was the French who firft made him known in Europe 
 under this title. His emnire was anciently of vaft extent ; at 
 prcfent it is confined to fix kingdoms, each about the bignefs of 
 • Portugal. . • . . . 
 
 The name Prefierjohn is altogether unknown in Ethiopia, 
 and took its rife hence, that the people of a province, where this 
 prince uuiallv refides, when they requcft any thing, fay, Jean- 
 coi, i. e. my king. His proper title is, The Grand Negus. 
 There is alfo a Prefter John of Afia, mentioned by M. Polo, 
 the Venetian. His jui ifdiaion is in the country of Cangmgu, 
 between China, Sifan, and Thibet ; a kingdom mightily valued 
 by the Chinefe for its policy, anrl the number of its fortified 
 cities ; though they have ufually the utmoft contempt for fo- 
 reign countries. . 
 Some fay this latter is fo called from a Neftorun pneft, men- 
 tioned by Albericus, towards the year 1 145, to have mounted 
 the throne. Others, that he ttkes the name from a crofs which 
 he hears in his hand as a fymbol of his religion. 
 PRESTIMONY, Pr^estimonia, in the canon law, a term 
 about which authors are much divided.— It is derived apresjla- 
 tione quotidiana, and is by fnme defined a kind of benefice fei 
 ved by a fingle prieft : in which feme, Prejlhnony is the fame 
 with a presbyterial chapel, 
 Others will have Prcftimony to be the incumbency of a chapel, 
 without any title or collation ; fuch as are moft of thofe 
 catties, where prayers or trials are faid ; and which are mere 
 oratories unendowed. — Whence alfo the term is applied in the 
 Romifh chuich to certain perpetual offices bellowed on canons 
 religiou?, or others, for the faying of mafies, by way of aug- 
 mentation of their livings. 
 
 Others acain, will have Preflhmny to be a leafe or conceffion 
 of any ccclefiaftical fund, or revenue belonging to a monaflery, 
 to be enjoyed during life. " . \ 
 
 Du Moulin makes Preflhnmy a profane benefice, which, how- 
 ever, has a perpetual title, and an ecclefiaftical office with cer- 
 tain revenues attached to it ; which the incumbent is allowed 
 to fell, and which may be pofieffed without tonfure : fuch 
 as the lay church-wardens of Notre-dame. He adds, that 
 in propriety, the canonries of chapels are benefices of this 
 nature. 
 
 Upon the whole, the fureft opinion feems to be this, that Prte* 
 jlimcny is a fund or revenue appropriated by the founder for the 
 fubfiftence of a priefl, without heing erected into any title-of 
 benefice, chapel, prebend, or priory ; and which is not fubje£l 
 either to the pope, or to the ordinary ; but whereof the patron, 
 and thofe who have a right tram him, are the collators, and no- 
 minate and conler, plena jure. 
 
 PRESUMPTION, Prjesumptio, in law, a fufpicion, or con- 
 jecture founded on a verifimilitude. 
 
 Prefumption is of three forts. — r. Violent, which many times 
 is allowed a full proof : as if one be killed in a houfe, arid a 
 man is feen to come out of the houfe with a bloody fword, and 
 no other perfon was at that time in the houfe ; this, though 
 but a Prefumption, is a proof. — 2. Probable, which has but a 
 fmall effect. — 3. Light, or temerarious, which is of no preva- 
 lency at all. 
 
 In cafes of a charter, or feoffment, if all the witneffes to the 
 deed be dead ; the violent Prefumption that ftands for a proof, 
 gives continual and quiet pofleflion : Stabh prxfumptio, done: 
 probetur in contrarium. Coke on Lit. 
 Presumption was alfo anciently ufed for intrufion. See In- 
 trusion. 
 
 PRESUMPTIVE heir, denotes the next relation, Or heir at law, 
 to a perfon, who is to inherit from him ab intejlato ; and who, 
 it is prefumed, will be heir : nothing but a contrary difpofitiou 
 of the teftator being able to prevent him. 
 PRETENCE, in heraldry. See the articles Inescutcheoh 
 
 nd Escutcheon of pretence. 
 PRETENSED, or pretended right, in law, is where one is 
 in pofieffion of lands and tenements, which another, who is 
 out, claims and fues for. — Here the pretenfed right is in h;ra 
 who fo claims or fues. 
 PRETER naturam, in medicine, csV. See the article Na- 
 ture. 
 
 PRETER, or Preterit,- prjeteritus, fajl, in gram- 
 mar, an inflexion of verbs, expreffing the tenfc or time 
 
 paffed. 
 
 Preter, or preterit, is a general name that comprehends all the 
 inflexions correfponding to the feveral tenfes, or feveral cir- 
 cumflances and relations of the time paft ; all which the La- 
 tins diftinguifh by particular inflexions or terminations 
 of the verb 5 which make the proper notion of tenfes. See 
 Tense. 
 
 The modern languages, particularly the Englifh, in lieu of 
 different terminations of the verbs themfclves, have ufually re- 
 courfe to thofe of their auxiliaries and participles. 
 The preter, or paft time, is fubdivided by grammarians inta 
 prefer 'imperfea ; as, e. gr. I had, I thought ; in the Latin, 
 Habebam, cogitabam ; in the French, J'avols, je penfois ;~the 
 preter -per feci, as, / have had, I have thought, habui, cogitavi, 
 faieu, j'ai penfe; — and preter-pluperfeft, as, I had thought y 
 I had had, habueram, ccgitaveram, j'eus eu,feus penfe. 
 The Enslifh have properly hut two cafes or kinds of the preter 
 tenfe, viz. the preter time of the imperfect action ; as, / wa* 
 at fJpper then, but had not yet done it : and the preter time 
 of the perfect a&ion ; as, 1 had then fupped, and it was then, 
 d one< — The preter tenfe is ofteneft formed of the prefent tenfe, 
 by adding ed ; as, I burned. 
 
 The French have a particular cafe of the preter-perfefi, which 
 F. Buffier calls the preter'tt-fsmple, in oppofition to the former, 
 called the preterit-compofite ; others call it the preterit- indefi- 
 nite, becaufe expreffing a thing done indetermiriately ; wjecrivis 
 bier. This anfwers to the aoriftus of the Greeks ; and in the 
 diftinrtion of this from the compound preterit does one of the 
 greateft niceties in the praaice of the French language confift. 
 See Aoristus. 
 
 In the paflive voice, the Latins, French, EsV. have recourfe to 
 participles and auxiliaries, like the Englifh, to form their preter 
 tenfes ; a% I was loved, amatus eram,j'etois aime, ice. 
 PRETERIT, Prjeteritus, in the Roman juriiprudence. — 
 Infans PR JETF.RlT us is a child of whom the father has forgot 
 to make mention in his teftament ; which renders it intirely 
 
 Exheredation of his fon is allowed in a father, but never pre- 
 
 terition. 
 
 PRETERITION, or Pretermission, in rhetoric, a figure 
 whereby, in pretending to pafs over a thing untouched,we make 
 a fummary mention thereof. 
 
 Twill not fay he is valiant, he is learned, he is juji, &c. 
 The moft artful praifes are thofe given by way of Pretention. 
 See Reticency. 
 PRETERNATURAL rains. See the article Rain. 
 PRETEXT, or Pretence, a colour, motive, or caufe, cither 
 
 eal, or apparent. ' 
 PRETEXT A, or Prjetexta, among the Romans, was a 
 long vv.hite gown, or toga, having a band or border of purple 
 at bottom. 
 
 It was worn by children of quality till the age of puberty, e. 
 by boys till feventeen, at which time they laid it afide, anJ 
 affumed the virile gown. Girls wore it till marriage. 
 It took its name Pretexts, according to Godwyn, quod ei pur- 
 pura Prtetexta erat, becaufe guarded about with purple filk. 
 The Pretexta, at firft, was a robe of ftate, or ceremony, worn 
 only by the chief magiftrates, and the priefts ; nor was it lawful 
 for fuch who wore this gown to be arraigned, or fentence to 
 pafs againft them, till it was pulled off. 
 
 In continuance of time it was permitted to noblemens chil- 
 dren ; and, at length, even to all Roman children in general, 
 See Toga. 
 PRETIOUS. See the article Precious. 
 
 PRETIUM, 
 
PRE 
 
 P R I 
 
 PRETIUM fepulehri, in old law-book?, &c. thofe goods ac- 
 cruing to the church wherein a corps is buried. 
 In the Irifh canons, lib. 19, cap. 6. it is ordered, that along 
 with every body that is buried, there go his cow, horfe, appa- 
 rel, and the furniture of his bed ; none of which may be 
 difpofed of otherwife than for the payment of debts, &c. as 
 being familiars and domeftics of the deceafed. 
 PRETOR, Prjetor, an eminent magiftrate, or minifter of 
 juftice, in ancient Rome. 
 
 In the firft ages of the commonwealth, all the great magiftrates 
 were ftyled Pretors ; afterwards, the title was bellowed on all 
 the principal officers of the army : at lafti Pretor became re- 
 lt rained to a particular magiftrate. 
 
 About the year of Rome 388. the people foliciting to have 
 one of the confuls always chofen from among themtelves, the 
 fenators granted it, on condition that a new magiftracy fliould 
 be erected, to be filled wholly from among the patricians : fuch 
 was the origin of the preture, pr&tura ; which, Livy obferves, 
 was firft difcharged by Spurius Furius ; and whofe office was to 
 look to the adminiftratiori of juftice and equity between man 
 and man; much in quality of a lord chief juftice, or lord chan- 
 cellor, or rather both in one. 
 
 But bufinefs increaiing in proportion as the empire was inkfged, 
 a fecond prestor was created, to take cognizance of the afrairs 
 of foreigners refiding at Rome : upon which the former was 
 diftinguifhed by the title of prestor urbanus, or major; and the 
 latter by that of prestor peregrinus, or minor. 
 The number, in after-times, was much increafed : under the 
 reign of Auguftus there were no lefs than twelve Pretors, and 
 afterwards eighteen ; two whereof were called prestores cereales, 
 as being charged with the providing of corn and grain ; and 
 two others prestores fidei commijfaru. — In the code, 7. I, t. 39. 
 we find a law of the emperors Valentinian and Marcian, which 
 reduces the Pretors to three. 
 
 The office of the Pretor, or prestor urbanus, was to render 
 juftice in the city : he had a power to interpret the laws, to 
 fupply and reform them ; and even to make new ones, when 
 the public good required it. See Civir. laiu. 
 In the inititutes, the edicts of the Pretors are called jus hono- 
 rarium ; whence it fliould feem, they had only the force of 
 laws out of refpedt to that eminent magiftrature ; the bufinefs 
 of the Pretor being rather to look to the obfeivation of the old 
 laws, than to make new ones. See Edict. 
 Some are of opinion, he had not the jus gladii, the power of 
 the fword ; the cognizance of criminal matters being the fpecial 
 province of the prefect of Rome. See Prefect. 
 But others are of another fentiment. In the general, it is 
 very difficult to fix precifely how far his power extended. 
 When he walked, he was preceded by fix lictors ; and was 
 cloathed with the robe called trabea. 
 
 His authority, like that of the other magiftrates, was very much 
 weakened and reduced under the emperors. In the Digeft and 
 Code is a title de officio prestoris, 
 Pretor was alfo a title among the Romans, given the governor 
 of a province, who had ferved the office of Pretor. 
 Whence provinces governed by Pretors, or reftrained to 
 thofe who had difcharged that office, were called pretorian 
 provinces. 
 
 PRETORIAN guards, Pr jetori iE cohsrtes, were the fol- 
 diers of the emperors guard ; fo called, as fome imagine, from 
 their place or ftation in the palace or court called presto- 
 r'mm. 
 
 Their inftitution is owing to Scipio African us, who firft efta- 
 blilhed a company of the braveft men in his army, picked out 
 for the purpofe, to be his guard, and never to ftir from his fide 
 in battle. 
 
 Their number was at length increafed, as Dion tells us, to ten 
 thoufand. They were commanded by an officer created by 
 Auguftus, called prcsfeclus pnstorii. See Prefect, 
 PRETORIUM, Prjetorium, among the Romans, the 
 place, hall, or court, wherein the pretor of a province lived, 
 and wherein that magiftrate fat to adminifter juftice to the 
 people. See Pretor. 
 
 There were of thefe Pretoriums in all the cities of the Roman 
 empire. — The fcripture mentions that of Jcrufalem under the 
 name of judgment-hall ; and there arc ftill fome remains of one 
 at Nifmes in Languedoc. 
 
 Pretorium was alfo the tent or pavilion of the general of the 
 P-oman army ; wherein councils of war, &c. were held. 
 From the time of Auguftus, the emporor's tent in the camp 
 was diftinguiflied by the title of prestorium Augujlale, 
 
 Pretorium was alfo a place In Rome where the pretorian 
 guards were lodged. 
 
 Some will have the Pretorium to be properly the tribunal of the 
 prafeflus prestorii, or an auditory deftined for the rendering of 
 juftice in the emperor's palace. See Prefect. 
 This they argue from St. Paul's tpiftle to the Philippians ; and 
 from this place called pra:toriu/n, they will have the guards to 
 have been denominated prictoi iani, becaufe aflembled here for 
 the emperor's fatety. 
 
 Others will' not allow the Pretorium to be any tribunal, or 
 feat of juftice, but merely the imperial guard-houfe. 
 Periz.onms bai an exorels di flirtation to prove, that the Pre- 
 
 torium was no court of juftice in St. Paul's time ; but the 
 camp or place where the pretorian guards were quartered. 
 He adds, that the name Pretorium was not given to places 
 where juftice was adminiftcred till long time after ; when die 
 office of the presfeSius pratorii was converted into a civil 
 function. 
 
 PREVARICATION, Prevaricatio, in the civil law, h 
 where the informer colludes with the defendant, and fo makes 
 only a feigned profecution. 
 
 Sylvius, in bis comments on Cicero, pro Cluentio, gives us the 
 difference between the three terms, calumninri, pr-svaricari, 
 and ttrgwtrfari. He who in his accufation forges faults 
 which were never committed, is faid calumn'tari ; he who un- 
 dertakes one's fuit, and either will not add reafons in behalf of 
 his client, or not anfwer the objections of his adverfary, when 
 he is able, is faid fravarhdri : and he who defifts in his accu- 
 fation, and lets the fuit drop, tergiverfari. 
 Prevarication, in our law, is when a man falfly and deceit- 
 fully fee ms to undertake a thing, with intention tiiat he may 
 deftroy it : e> gr. where a lawyer pleads booty, or acts by 
 collufion, &fc. 
 
 Prevarication is alfo ufed for a fecret abufe committed in 
 the exercife of a public office, or of a commiffion given by a 
 private perfon. 
 
 PREVARICATOR, Prevaricator, in the univcrfity of 
 Cambridge, is a maftcr of arts, chofen at a commencement, 
 to make an ingenious, fatirical fpeech, reflecting on the 
 mifdemeanors of the principal members. See Terr je 
 films. 
 
 PREVENTION, Prjeventio, in the canon, &c. law, the 
 right which a fuperior perfon or officer has to lay hold of, 
 claim, or tranfact an affair, prior to an inferior one, to whom, 
 otherwife it more immediately belongs. 
 
 The word is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the pope's pre-Jentinr 
 the ordinary collators ; and of the royal judges preventing fuu- 
 altern ones. 
 
 The Roman canonifts maintain, that the pope, who is the. 
 fource of all jurifdiction, has not tranfmittcd it privatively to 
 the ordinary collators ; but that he may ftill not only collate 
 concurrently with them, but he alfo may prevent them by 
 ufing his original power as head of the church. 
 Thefe Preventions are grown odious in feVera] countries, whcie 
 they do not now obtain without a world of modifications and 
 reftridtions ; and the civil power in France always judges in 
 favour of the ordinary collators. 
 
 The pope has no Prevention to the prejudice of Isy-patrons ; 
 but by the concordat he has referred to himfelf the right of 
 conferring elective benefices by Prevention, and even cathedral 
 and collegiate dignities. 
 
 If the provifions of the pope, and collations of the ordinary, 
 bear date on the fame day, the Ultramontane canonifta give thd 
 preference to the pope ; the French to the ordinary. 
 The cardinals have a particular indulgence not to be prevented 
 by the pope within fix months. 
 PRIAPEIA, in poetry, a name given to certain obfeene 
 epigrams, and other pieces, compofed on the god Priapus ; 
 whereof we have many inftances in the Greek Catalefta. See 
 
 PRIAPUS. 
 
 PRIAPISM, w^KWKTf*©*, in medicine, a continual and painful 
 erection or tenfion of the yard. 
 
 The term is derived from Priapus, a heathen god, whom the 
 poets and painters reprefent with a yard always ftifr and 
 erect. 
 
 As fatyrs are ufually painted after the fame manner, the difeaft 
 is alfo called fatyrieifts, or fatyriafmus. 
 
 Some, however, diftinguifh between the fatyriafis and pria- 
 pifmus ; in that the latter is without any effufion, or defire of 
 coition ; but the former attended with both; 
 The immediate caufe of a Priapifm is the heat, pungency, or 
 acrimony of the femen, accompanied wiili a convulfion of' the 
 mufcles of the part, which completing the veins and cavernous 
 bodies, prevent the return of the blood. 
 
 The more remote caufes are too hot, fliarp, ftimulatin* foods ; 
 cantharides are alfo found to perform the fame effect, but with 
 much more violence. There are inftances of people, efpeci- 
 ally old men, who, making ufe of cantharides to enable them 
 to fatisfy their paifions the better, have been feized with a 
 Priapifm, which has been followed with univerfal convulfions, 
 and even death. 
 
 PRIAPUS, ergiaTr©., a term fome times applied to the genital 
 parts of men, viz. the penis, and teftes. 
 
 The name took its rife from Priapus, a fabulous deity, parti- 
 cularly adored at Lampfacus, the place of his birth ; who for 
 the extraordinary fize of his parts, was exceedingly revered by" 
 the women ; infomuch that the fcripture feems to tell us, king 
 Afa dethroned bis mother Maachab, becaufe Ihe had confecra- 
 ted a grove to Priapus, and prefided at his facrifices. 
 
 PRICE, Pretium, the value of a thing. See Value. 
 
 PRICE current, in commerce, a weekly account of the current 
 "value of nioft commodities. See Current,- 
 
 PRICK pofi, in building. See Post. 
 
 PRICKED wine. See the article Wine. 
 
 PRICKING, 
 
P R I 
 
 PRICKING, in the fea-language.— To Prick the plat, or 
 chart is to make a point therein, near about where the fhip is 
 now,'or is to be at fuch a time, in order to find the courfc they 
 are to fleer. 
 
 PRIER age. See the article Age. 
 
 PRIER aid. See the article Aid. 
 
 PRIEST, facerdos, a perfon fct apart for the performance of 
 ftcrifice, and other offices and ceremonies of religion. 
 Thus the fel ft gods and goddefles of the heathens had their 
 Prieft ; Prieji: of Mars, of Bacchus, of Hercules of Ifis ; and 
 fomeof them their priefteffes. See Pontiff, fcfY. 
 The Jews had two orders, viz. Priejls and levites, who ferved 
 in the temple. 
 
 The Mahometans have their Priefts called fcheik and mufti ; 
 . and the Indians and Chinefe their hramini and bonzas. See 
 
 Mufti and Brachman. 
 Priest, Presbyter, in the Chriuian church, is a perfon in- 
 verted with holy orders ; in virtue whereof, he has a power to 
 preadi, pray, adminifler the fiicraments, feflf. and, in the Romiln 
 church alfo, to blefs, abfolve, &c. 
 
 By the canons, a man muft be twenty-four years of age ere he 
 be admitted to the piiefthood ; anciently thirty years were re- 
 quired. • n • a r 
 The holy fcripture ufually confounds the title of Prieft, prcj- 
 byter, with that of bijbop, epiftopus ; and does not feem to give 
 any fuperiority to the one over the other : and yet, the abfo- 
 iute equality among all the Pritjh in the government of the 
 church has few inflances hut what arc contefted. 
 Blondel and Salmafius maintain with a world of reafon, that m 
 the primitive church, the Priefts governed with perfect equality, 
 and without any other pre-eminence befide that of age ; and yet 
 to confult the fathers, and tradition, the presbyterian form of 
 government would icarce feem to have been known among the 
 ancients. 
 
 In effect, the primitive writers fpeak of nothing but epifcopacy ; 
 and of that too, frequently in fuch terms, as if they efteemed 
 it of apolitical inflitution. See Episcoi'ACy and Bishop. 
 As, in the ancient church, the deacons had the management 
 and adminiftration of the revenues of the church, their autho- 
 rity grew apace, and in a little time they were got above the 
 Priejls. St. Jerom ufed its utmoft endeavours to prove, that 
 deacons were originally inferior to Priefts ; and the council 
 of Nice decided .the queftion in favour of the latter. See 
 Deacon. 
 
 Indeed, an order of deacons having been inftituted without any 
 other function than to affift the Prieft at the altar ; thefe have 
 made no difficulty of owning the fuperiority of the Priefts. Add 
 to this, that the order of a deacon being now become necefiary 
 to arrive at that of a Prieft, there is no room to difpute the pre- 
 cedency : but the deacons who had retained their function, had 
 the difpofal of the revenues, and paid the Priejls their pennons, 
 ftill maintained the fuperiority. Upon which, the forth council 
 in Trullo pronounced once more on the difpute, and gave the 
 pre-eminence to the Priefts. 
 Arch Priest, fee the article Arch Prieft. 
 Cardinal Priest, fee the article Cardinal. 
 Bigb Priest, fee the article Pontifex. 
 Regular Priest, fee the article Regular. 
 Priests of the oratory, fee the article Oratory. 
 PRIEST'j cap, in fortification, fee Bonnet a preire. 
 PRIMA naturalia, in phyfics, atoms, or the firft particles where- 
 of natural bodies are primarily compofed ; called alfo minima 
 naluralia, which fee': fee alfo Particle and Atom. 
 Tria prima, in chymiftry, fee the article Tria. 
 PRIM.& vits t in medicine, the firft parages of the chyle ; in- 
 cluding the ccfophagus, ftomach, inteflines, and their appen- 
 dices. See Chyle and Vije. 
 PRIMAGE, a duty at the water-fide, appointed by a feature of 
 Henry VIII. to be paid to the mafler and mariners of the fhip. 
 by the merchants whofe goods are loaded or unloaded. 
 It is paid to the mafler for the ufe of his cables and ropes, ir 
 moving the goods ; and to the mariners for their fervice and 
 affiftance. 
 
 This is different, in different places ; in fome 12 d. per tun. 
 others, a penny per pound ; in others, fix- pence per bale or 
 , pack. See Duty and Custom. 
 
 PRIMARY planet, a planet which revolves round the fun as a 
 centre. 
 
 Such are Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Earth, Venus and Mercury 
 thus called in oppofition to fecondary planets, or fatellit.es. 
 Some authors reftrain the primary planets to the fupcrior ones, 
 viz. Saturn, Jupiter and Mars ; but very impertinently, 
 
 Primary affeclions, 
 
 Primary collateral points, 1 
 
 Primary dials, I See the a 
 
 Primary motion^' f ticks 
 
 Primary place, \ 
 
 Primary qualities, J 
 
 PRIMATE, Primas, an archbifhnp, invcftal with a jurifdic 
 tion over feveral archbifhops, or bifhops. 
 
 Father Sirmond derives the origin of Primates hence ; that the 
 large provinces having been divided and lubdivided by the em- 
 perors i the firfl divilions were called fulls, othurs feconds, 
 
 P R I 
 
 others thirds, fit,' Slid the title Primate given to the metropo- 
 litan, /. e. to the bifhop of the city which was the capital of the 1 
 province, ere the divifion was made. 
 
 This metropolitan Primate had fome jurifdi&ion over the 
 bifhops of the inferior provinces i and was alfo called ff- 
 triarch. 
 
 The term Primate is Latin, and fignifies the firft, or prefident 
 of a fociety : the Greek word correfpcmiir.g to it is 
 exarch, 
 
 Thofe who hold for a flria ecclefiaftic hierarchy, maintain a 
 Primate to be he who has feveral metropolitans under him ; as 
 a patriarch has feveral Primates. Yet it is pretty evident from 
 hiftory, that Primates were at firft confounded with patriarchs : 
 thus Socrates, enumerating ten patriarchs, does not make any 
 diftinction thereof from Primates. 
 
 In Africa, after tlie diftinction was made, the Primates were not 
 at all fubjeit to the patriarch : thus tlie bifhop of Carthage, who 
 wzs'Primate, paid no obedience to the bifhop of Alexandiia, 
 who was patriarch. 
 
 Nor, to be a Primate, was it neceffary to have metropolitans 
 for fuffragans : each province of Africa, except thofe which 
 compofed the diocefe of Alexandria, had its 'Primate > this qua- 
 lity being given to age. 
 
 In France, the fubdivifion of provinces gave occafion to the 
 erection of Primates t thus Aquitaine, e. gr. being divided 
 into two provinces, the archbithop of Bourgcs became Pri- 
 mate of the Aquitaines, becaufe Bourges was the capital ol the 
 
 firft. , . . * -.faj 
 
 Thus alfo the divifion of England into two provinces, Can- 
 terbury and York, in 1152. gave occafion to the introduc- 
 tion of primacies among us ; Canterbury, which was the me- 
 tropolis before, thence giving the title of Primate of all L up- 
 land to its prelate, though the archbilliop of York ffill 
 claims that of Primate of England. And accordingly, the 
 firft has fome jurifdiaion over all England, relating to admi- 
 niftrations, (Sc. which the latter has only within his own 
 province. 
 
 PRIME, Primus, the firft in order, degree, or dignity, among 
 feveral things of the fame or like kind. 
 
 Thus we fay, Prime minifier, Prime mover, Prime cojf, &c. 
 See Minister, Mobile, CSV. 
 Prime, or Prime minute, in geometry, denotes the fixtieth 
 
 part of a degree. See Degree. 
 Prime is fometimes alfo ufed for the tenth part of an unit. 
 See Decimal. 
 
 In weights, it is ufed for the twenty-fourth part of a gram, bee 
 
 Grain. 
 
 Prime number, in arithmetic, a number which can only be mea- 
 fured by unity ; or whereof 1 is the only aliquot part : fuch are 
 5, 7, 11, 13, &c. 
 
 Prime numbers inter fe, among thcmfelves, are thofe which 
 have no common meafure bolides unity ; thus 12 and 19 are 
 Prime numbers inter fe. 
 Prime figure, in geometry, is that which cannot be divided into 
 any other figures more limple than itfelf. See r-icuRE. 
 Such is a triangle among planes ; and the pyramid in folids. — 
 For all planes are made of the firft, and all bodies or folids are 
 compounded of the fecond. 
 Prime vertical, is the vertical circle which pafl'es through the 
 
 poles of the meridian. 
 Prime verticals, in dialing, or Prime vertical dials, are thofe 
 projeaed on the plane of the Prime vertical circle, or on planes 
 parallel thereto. 
 
 Thefe are what we likewife call direct, erefr, north or fouth 
 dials. — But lince every plane hath that pole raifed or deprefled 
 thereon, which lies open to it; therefore this plane (it a direct 
 fouth) hath the fouth pole elevated, and confequently the itvlc 
 {whofe height muft be the complement of the latitude of the 
 place) will point downwards. Wherefore to find the hour's 
 diftance from the meridian upon this plane, the proportion is, 
 as the radius is to the fine of the ftyle's height, or co-latitude ; 
 fo is the tangent of the hour, or angle at the pole, to the tan- 
 gent of the feveral hours diftance from the meridian. By this 
 canon, the hours requifite for the plane, as alfo the half-hours, 
 quarters, tie. being calculated and fet in a table ; the dial is de- 
 ferred after the fame manner, as the horizontal dial. North 
 dirca erea dials are but the backfide of the fouth, becauio 
 lying in the fame azimuth with it ; therefore it is no more but 
 turning the fouth dial upfidedown, and leaving out the fuper- 
 fluous hours between 5 and 7, and 4 and 8, and the north dial 
 is made. Onlv note, that the ftyle muft point upwards to the 
 north pole. Harris. 
 Prime of the moon is the new moon at her firft appearance, for 
 
 about three days after her change. See New moon. 
 Prime is alfo ufed in the Romith church, for the firft of the 
 canonical hours, fucceeding to lauds. See Hours, Laud, 
 &c. 
 
 Prime, in fencing, is the firft and chief of the guards ; which 
 is that the body is in, immediately after drawing the fword ; be- 
 in» fitted to menace and terrify the enemy, by reafon the point 
 of°the fword is held higher up to the eye, than in any ot the 
 other guards. 
 Prime, or Priming of a gun. See Priming. 
 
P R I 
 
 PRI 
 
 PRIMICERIUS, in antiquity, the firft, or chief perfon in any 
 office or dignity. See Chief, Principal, &c. 
 In ihis fenfe the word occurs frequently in the code, and even 
 in our old Englifh laws : though it is there alfo occafionally ufed 
 for a nobleman ; as, Primicerius totius Angl'us. 
 The Romans had great variety of primicerii, both in church, 
 and the emperor's court ; a Primicerius of the empre/s, Pri- 
 mcerins auguflalis, Primicerius of the bardariotes, Primi- 
 cerii of the legions, of the court, of the chamber, of the pa- 
 lace, &CC. 
 
 The ecclefiajVical Primicerius, Du Cange obferves, was the fame 
 with the chantor among us. 
 
 In the church of Metz, the Primicerius is the firft dignitary of 
 the diocefe, and prelides at ailemblies of the clergy, in pre- 
 judice of the bifhop. 
 
 At Venice, the dean of the church of St. Mark is called Primo- 
 cirio, or Primicerius : he is independent of the patriarch of Ve- 
 nice, and enjoys epifcopal privileges. 
 PRIM1ER feifin, in law, Prima feifina, or the firft feifin ; a 
 branch of the king's prerogative, whereby he had the firft 
 pofieflion of all lands and tenements held of him in chief, 
 whereof his tenant died feized in fee ; and confequently the 
 rents and profits thereof: till the heir, if he were of age, did 
 homage ; and if under age, till he became of age. — But all 
 charges arifmg by Primier feifin, are annulled by a ftat. 12. 
 Car. II. 
 
 PRIMING, or Prime of a Gun, is the gun-powder put in the 
 pan or touch-hole of a piece, to give it fire by. 
 The Primitg is the laft thing done in charging. See Charge. 
 For pieces of ordnance, they have a pointed iron-rod to pierce 
 the cartiidge through the touch-hole, called the primer, or Pri- 
 ming-iron. 
 
 Priming, among painters, fignifies the laying on of the firft 
 colour, 
 
 PRIMiPILARII, or Primopilarii, or Primipilares, in 
 antiquity, were properly fuch as had formerly borne the uffice 
 of primipilus, or firtt centurion of a kgion, to whom was en- 
 trusted the care of the banner. 
 
 Some will alfo have Ptimipilarii to have been a denomination 
 
 given to the foldiers of the firft cohort of a legion. 
 
 The Primipilarii had confidcrable advantages ; one of the chief 
 
 wa?, that moil of the foldiers who died in the campaign, left 
 
 them their heirs. 
 PRIMIPILUS, or PrimoPilus, or Frimipili centitrio, in 
 
 antiquity, the centurion of the firft cohort of a legion, who 
 
 had charge of the Roman eagle. 
 PRIMITIVE, the firfl fruits gathered of the earth ; whereof the 
 
 ancients made prefenls to the gods. 
 
 In Leviticus, the Primities of all fruits are enjoined to be of- 
 fered to God. 
 
 In our law, the Primities are one year's profits, after avoidance, 
 of every fpiritual living, as rated in the king's books. See 
 First fruits. 
 
 PRIMITIVE, in grammar, a root ; or a word in a language, 
 which is neither derived from any other language, nor com- 
 pounded from any other words of the fame. See Root, 
 Word, &c. Thus God is a Primitive ; Godly, a derivative ; 
 God-Uke, a compound. 
 
 Primitive, in arithmetic. See Prime and Number. 
 
 PRIMO beneficio ecclefiajlico habendo, in law, a writ directed 
 from the king to the lord chancellor, appointing him to beffow 
 the benefice that mall firft fall in the king's gift, above or under 
 fuch a value, upon this or that clerk. See Benefice. 
 
 Prot>ofith de Primo adjacente. See Proposition. 
 
 PRIMOGENITURE, Primogenitura, the right of firft- 
 born, or eldeft ion or child. 
 
 The right of Primogeniture feems to be an unjufl preroga- 
 tive, and contrary to natural right : for fince it is birth 
 alone that gives children a title to the paternal fucceffion, the 
 chance of Primogeniture fhould not throw an inequality among 
 them, 
 
 Accordingly, the right of Primogeniture, which calls the elder- 
 born to the crown, preferably to the others, was not introduced 
 into France till very late : it was unknown to the firft race of 
 kings; and even to the fecond. 
 
 The four fons of Clovis fhared the kingdom equally among 
 themfelves ; and Louis le Debonnaire did the fame : it was not 
 till the race of Hugh Capet, that the prerogative of fucceffion 
 to the crown was appropriated to the firft-born. 
 By the ancient cuftom of gavel-kind, ftill preferved in fome parts 
 of our ifland, '■Primogeniture is of no account ; the paternal 
 eftate being equally fhared by all the fons. See Gavel-kind. 
 
 PRIMOPILUS. See the article Primipilus. 
 
 PRIMUM ens. See the article Ens. 
 
 PRIMUM mobile, in the Ptolemaic aftronomy, the ninth or 
 higheft fphere of the heavens, whofe centre is that of the 
 world, and in comparifon of which the earth is but a point. 
 See Mobile. 
 
 This they will have to contain all the other fpheres within it, 
 and to give motion to them, turning itfelf, and all them, quite 
 round in twenty-four hours. 
 
 PRIMUS peronaus. See the article Peronjeus. 
 
 PRIMUS fcaknus. See the article Scalenus. 
 
 PRINCE, Princeps, in politics, a perfon inverted with the 
 Vol. II. 
 
 fupreme command of a ftate or country, independent of any 
 fuperior. 
 
 Prince is alfo ufed for a perfon who is foveteign in his own terri- 
 tory ; yet holds of fome other, as his fuperior or lurd, and 
 pays homage or tribute to him. 
 
 1 hus all the Princes of Germany are feudataries of the em- 
 peror : they are as abfolute in their refpective principalities, 
 as the emperor himfelf ; yet are all bound in certain ferviccs 
 to him. 
 
 Prince, in ancient records, frequently fignifies no more than 
 lord.— Du Cange gives a great number of inftances of this 
 ufage. 
 
 In eft'eft, the word princeps in Latin, whence Prince in Englifh, 
 originally fignifies only the chief, or firfl : it is compounded of 
 the Latin primus, and caput ; and is properly a word of dignity 
 and office, not of property and fovereignty. 
 Thus, in the charter of king Offa, after the biQiops had fub- 
 fcribed their names, we read, Brordanus patritius, Binnanus 
 princeps ; and afterwards the dukes fublcribed their names. 
 And in a charter of king Edgar, in Mon. AngL torn. 3. p. 301. 
 Ego Edgarus rex rogatus ab epifiopo meo Deorwolfe, & prmcipc 
 meo Aldredo,Uz. And in Mat. Paris, p. 155. Ego Maiden 
 princeps regis pro viribus afjenfum prabeo, Etf ego lurketillus 
 dux concede. 
 
 Prince of the youth. — Among the ancient Romans, it was the 
 cultom for the emperor in his life-time to nominate him whom 
 he would have to fucceed in the empire, under the title of 
 princeps juventutis, &f Cafar. 
 
 In the Indus Trojanus, the youth who was chofen captain, was 
 alfo called princeps juventutis. 
 Prince is alfo a title given to the iffue of Princes, or thofe of 
 the royal family. 
 
 In which fenfe they are called, particularly in France, Princes 
 of the blood ; as partaking of the blood to which the fovereignty 
 js appropriated : and not by any hereditary right, but as a pa- 
 tiimony fubftituted to all the royal race. 
 
 In England, the king's children are called fons and daughters of 
 England: the eldeft: fon is created Prince of Hales. The ca- 
 dets, or younger, are created dukes or earls, with what title 
 the king pleafes. They have no apanages, as in France} buc 
 only what the good pleafure of the king beftows on them. 
 The fons are all by birth counfellors of ftate : and the daughters 
 are ftyled princeffes ; to violate the eldeft of which, unmarried, 
 is at this day high treafon. 
 
 To all the king's children belong the title of royal highnefs : 
 all fubjefts are to kneel, when admitted to kifs their hand ; and 
 at tabic, out of the king's prefence, they are ferved on the knee. 
 1 he firft Prince of the blood in France is called abfolutely 
 monficur le Prince. —The quality of Prince of the blood gives 
 a rank and precedency, but it does not include any jurifdic- 
 tion ; they are Princes by order, not by office. 
 Wicquefort obferves, that it is not fifty years fince the Princes 
 of the blood of France gave place to all embafladors, even 
 thofe of republics ; and it was at the king's requeft, that they 
 were fince allowed the precedency. 
 
 The moment a pope is elected, all his relations become Princes. 
 Prince of /Vales, the eldeft fon of England. See Son. 
 
 He is born duke of Cornwall ; and immediately intitled to all 
 the rights, revenues, Lfc. belonging thereto ; as being deemed, 
 in law, at full age on his birth-day. 
 
 He is afterwards created Prince of IFales ; the inveftiture where- 
 of is performed by impofition of a cap of ftate, and a coronet, 
 a verge of gold, and a ring. He holds the principality by pa- 
 tent, granted him and his heirs, by the kings of England 
 The title and piincipality were firft given by kin* Edward the 
 firft to htt eldeft fun ; till that time, the eldeft fon of England 
 was called lord Prince. While Normandy remained to the king 
 of England, the eldeft fon was always ftyled duke of Norman- 
 dy : tince the union, his title is Magna Britannia princeps. 
 He is reputed, m law, the fame perfon with the kin* ■ to ima- 
 gine his death, or to violate his wife, is high-treafon. His re- 
 venues, as duke of Cornwall, are computed at t 4 ,ooo /. per 
 annum. The revenues of the principality were eftimated, 300 
 years ago, at 4680 /. per ann. 
 
 Prince's metal. See the article Metal. 
 
 PRINCIPAL, Principalis, the chief, moft confiderable, or 
 neceftary part of a thing. 
 
 Thus we fay, the mayor is the principal magiftrate of a city or 
 town : a council of war confifts of the principal officers. In 
 a peroration, the principal points infilled on, are to be briefly 
 fummed up. The Principal of a college, or hall, is the mafte-r 
 thereof. 
 
 Principal, in commerce, is the capital cf a fum due or lent ; 
 
 in which fenfe the word is ufed in oppofition to intereft. 
 Principal is alfo ufed for the firft fund or fum put by partners 
 
 into common ftock ; by which it is diftingujfhed from the 
 
 calls or acceflions fometimes required, when the former proves 
 
 inefficient. 
 
 Principal point, in pcrfpeclive, is a point in the perfective 
 plane ; upon which a line drawn from the eye, perpendicular to 
 the plane, falls. 
 
 This point is in the interferon of the horizontal and vertical 
 plane, and is alfo called the pi'mt of ft"ht, and point cf the eye. 
 Sec Sight, Uc. 
 
 9 O PRIN- 
 
j-Cause. 
 j See the ar- \ Challenge. 
 f > ticks. *) Navy. 
 \ |_Petitio. 
 
 P R I 
 
 Principal ray, fn perfpeaive, is that which pates perpend: 
 cularly from the fpcaator's eye to the perfpeaive plane, or 
 
 Wience the point, where this ray falls on the plane, is by fome 
 alfo called the principal paint, which other writers call the centre 
 of tbe picture, and the piint of concurrence. See Point. _ 
 
 Principal, Principalium, in old law-Wiiters, is fometimes 
 ufed for a heir-horn. # ' ' i 
 
 In Urchenfield com. Hereford, certain Principals, as the belt 
 bead, bell bed, bell table, &c. pafs to the eldeft child, and are 
 not fubjeel to partition. f 
 
 Principal is fometimes alfo ufed for a mortuary, or corje pre- 
 
 J ml , j tem leg, equum meum vtcatum le bay gelding, ut of- 
 
 feratur ante corpus meum in die fipulturcc meat, nomim princi- 
 pal, fell. Job. de Macclesfield, 9 Hen. 5. 
 
 Principal eaufe, 
 
 Principal challenge, 
 
 Principal officers of the navy 
 
 Principii petitio, 
 
 PRINCIPLE, Principium, a term frequently utei tor the 
 eaufe, fource, or origin of any thing. See Cause, t?r. 
 In which fenfe we fay, the Principle of thinking, of willing, &c 
 In phyfics, wc muft ever have recourfe to a firft Principle. 
 which is God. r j .i. 
 
 The Manichees admit of two Principles, the one of good, the 
 other of evil ; which they eftablifh in tbc quality of two con. 
 trary deities, conftantly oppofing each other. . See Manic hee 
 See alfo Good and Evil. 
 
 According to the doarine of Pelagius, our own wills are the 
 Principles of our good aBions, and we ourfelves the Principles 
 of our srood wills. 
 Principle is denned, among the fchool philofophers, to be that 
 from which any thing is, is done, or known : undeahquid eft, 
 fit, aut cognofcilur ; which is a very extenfive figmhcation, and 
 agrees to all kinds of Principles. 
 
 Thus, the premifes are Principles, in refpeft of the conclufion 
 and thus fire, and every other agent, are the Principles of things 
 which they produce. . a a ■ 1 r 
 
 The Thomiits define Principle to the like effect : id a quo all- 
 Quod precedit aliquo modo. t 
 Philofophers ulually diftinguifh Principles, into thofe of being, 
 printipia effemli ; and thofe of knowing, prmcipia eognojeendi : 
 or, prmcipia rei, and eognitionis. 
 
 Of the firft they make two kinds, viz. Principles of origina- 
 tion, which are thofe from which fomething proceeds really 
 the fame with the Principle ; as in the proceffion ot the Son 
 and Spirit from the Father in the Trinity. -And Principles ol 
 dependency ; in which fenfe, any eaufe may be a Pr-"P 's m 
 refpea of the thing caufed ; or a fubjeS, in refpea of the ac 
 cidents inherent in it. . 
 The fecond is that from which we borrow, or der.ve our know- 
 ledge of fome other thing ; or, it is that which makes the thing 
 oe known.— Such are axioms, definitions, hypolbefes ; filch alfo 
 are examples, explanations, ice. 
 
 Innate principles. See the article Innate. 
 
 Principle, in phyfics, or Principle of a natural body, is lome- 
 thing that contributes to the eflence of a body ; or, whereof a 
 
 natural body is primarily conftituted. 
 
 Ariftotle defines Principles to be thofe things which are no 
 made or conftituted of themfelves, nor of other things, but al 
 things of them : Qua nan fiunt ex fe mvicem, nee ex aim, Jed 
 ex Us omnia. . . , 
 
 To give an idea of natural Principles, confider a body in leveral 
 itates ; a coal, e. gr. that was juft now a piece of wood : it is 
 evident there is fomething in the coal, which before exifted 111 
 the wood ; this, whatever it is, is a Principle, and is what we 
 call matter, . . 
 
 Again, there muft be fomething joined with this matter, to 
 make it wood rather than fire, or fire rather than wood : this is 
 another Principle, and is what we denominate form. See Form. 
 Matter and form, then, are univerfal Principles of natural bo- 
 dies. The Peripatetics add a third Principle, viz,, privation ; 
 for though, fay they, a thing is not made from nothing; yet it 
 muft b° made from its not being that thing before.— This 
 Ariftotle calls privation, and admits it as a thitd Principle. — But 
 the moderns rejea it : for if privation be a Principle, it is at 
 lead fo in a very different fenfe from matter and form. 
 Some late philofophers admit no Principles but acid and alkali. 
 Ariftotle diftinguifhes two forts of natural Principles, as they 
 concur in the generation, or in the compofition of bodies. 
 Principles of generation, or of a body in fieri, are thofe with- 
 out which a natural generation can neither be, nor be conceived, 
 —Such are the three Principles above-mentioned, matter, form, 
 and privation. 
 
 Principles of compofition, or of a body in fallo ejfe, already- 
 made, are thofe whereof natural bodies really confifi— Such, 
 according to him, are matter and form ; to which fome add a 
 third, viz. union, to connect the two others together. — But this 
 is only necefiary upon fuppofition of fubftantial fornis. 
 'Principles are ufually confounded with elements ; yet is there a 
 real difference : elements are properly the firft and fimpleft be- 
 ings, anting from the firft determination or affemblage of 
 Principles. They are the fimpleft things in which matter and 
 
 PR I 
 
 from arc combined. — Elements and Principles, therefore, dif- 
 fer in this, that a Principle, as matter, is only a begun, not a 
 complete nature ; but an element is perfect and complete. See 
 Element. 
 
 To this bead may likewife be referred what we call mechanical 
 Principles of ladies, which ferve to account for the mecbanifhi 
 or artificial ftructure of things, and all the varieties and differ- 
 ences of bodies from motion, figure, and other common af- 
 fections. 
 
 Thefe Principles arc differently maintained by three or four dif- 
 ferent fects of philofophers, viz. the ancient Epicureans, or 
 Corpufcularians, to whom may be added the modern Gulien- 
 difts i the Cartefians ; and the Newtonians. 
 PrInc 1 ples, in cbymifhy, are the firft and fimpleft parts where- 
 of natural bodies are compounded j and into which they are 
 again refolvible by fire. 
 
 Thefe are more properly, as well as more commonly, called 
 elements. _ **° f 3 
 
 The chymifts make five Principles ; three whereof are called 
 aft'tve Principles } which are fuppofed to act oi themfelves, and 
 do not need to be put in motion by others : fuch as fait j ful- 
 phur, or oil ; and mercury, or fpirit. — The fait they fuppofe 
 the foundation of all favours. The fulphur, of all odours ; and 
 the fpirit, or mercury, of colours. See each under its proper 
 Head, Salt, &c. 
 
 The two pajfive Principles, which have no force inherent in 
 themfelves, and only act by being joined with fome of the 
 others are phlegm, and caput mortuum, which they alio call 
 elementary Principles. 
 
 Principles, among Hermetic philofophers. — According to thefe 
 gentlemen, the two univerfal Principles of fenfible nature, are 
 fubtile and folid, which being joined in a greater or lels dt-gru-, 
 generate all that beautiful variety of beings in the univerfe. 
 The three natural Principles are, fait, fulphur, and mercury. 
 Thefe Principles generate the four elements ; and are, as it were, 
 fecondary elements, inafmuch as they are contained in all mixed 
 bodies. Sulphur is the firft, and ftands in the place of male ; 
 mercury the fecond, ftanding in the place of female ; and fait the 
 third, which copulates the others together. Dill. Hermet. 
 
 Principle is alfo applied to the foundations of arts and fci- 
 ences. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, Principles are not to be proved , they 
 muft be common notions. 
 
 There is no difputing againft a man that denies Principles: the 
 worft reafoning is that which includes a petitio prixcifi't, i.e. 
 which fuppofes a Principle that ought to be proved. 
 Principle is alfo applied by extenfiun to the firft rules or maxims 
 of an art. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, a man is ignorant of the Principles of geo- 
 metry ; meaning, he has not learnt Euclid's Elements. — The 
 Principles of mod arts and (ciences are found in this dictionary, 
 under their refpective heads. 
 PRINTER, typographies, a perfon who compofes, and takes 
 impreffions from moveable characters, ranged in order, or from 
 plates engraven, by means of ink, and a prefs. 
 Fuft, Guttemberg, Scheffer, Mente!, and Kofter, were the firji 
 Printers. The firft that practifed it in England was Fred. Cor- 
 feilles, brought over from HaL-rlcm, under king Henry VI. In 
 France, Gering ; at Rome, Conrad Sweynheirn, and Arnold 
 Pannarts, both Germans ; at Naples, Sixtus Rulinger. 
 The great Printers were Aldus, and Paulus Minutius ; the two 
 Badii ; William and Frederic Morel ; Oporin ; Frobenius ; 
 Zvob. Hen. and Char. Stephens; Gryphius, Turnebus, Torres, 
 Commelin, Plantin, Raphelengius, Vafcofan, Bleau, Crifpin, 
 and the two Elzevirs. 1 — The learned Printers were, the Man- 
 nutii, the Stephens's, the Badii, Turnebus, Wechel, Morel, 
 Junto, &e. 
 
 Plantin had the title of arch-printer, archi-typographus, given 
 him by the king of Spain, in confideration of his printing the 
 polyglot of Antwerp. 
 
 The names, characters, and elogies of all the famous Printers are 
 found in part II. of the firft tome of the jugemens des [cavans. 
 The Printers, fince the eftablifhment of that art, are efteemcd 
 a part of the company of ftationers and bookfellers : before 
 that eftablifhment, the company confuted only of bookfellers, 
 binders, writers, illuminers, and parchment-makers. — The 
 parchment-makers prepared the skins, and made the parchment 
 or velum ; which were then almoft the only matters books were 
 written on. The writers, or copyifls, wrote and tranferibed books 
 after copies given them by the bookfellers. The binders were 
 charged with the binding of thofe days, which was very coarfe, 
 only confifting of two flight boards covered with fome paltry 
 leather. The illuminers painted in miniature, and gilt initial 
 letters, head-pieces, tail-pieces, and other compartiments. 
 Laftly, tXicJlationers or bookfellers fet the writers to work, and 
 fold their copies in (hops, and other places, on the days allowed 
 them by the ftatutes to expofe the fame. 
 PRINTING, typigraphla, the art of taking impreffions with 
 ink, from characters and figures moveable or immoveable, upon 
 paper, velum, or the like matter. 
 
 There are two kinds of Printing ; the one for books, the other 
 from copper-plates, for pictures.— The firft called common prefs- 
 printing* the fecond rolling- prefs-printing. 
 
P R I 
 
 The prime difference between the two confiils in this, that the 
 characters of the former are caft in relievo, and thofe of the 
 latter are ingraven in creux. See Relievo, Engraving, fsV. 
 The art of Printing is a modern invention : it is, indeed, of a 
 very ancient ftanding among the Chinefe ; but then their Print- 
 ing is very different from ours. It muft be owned, the Euro- 
 pean Printing, in its original, was much the fame with the Chi- 
 nefe ; yet, as there was at that time no commerce or correfpon- 
 tlence between Europe and China, the paffage into the call: by 
 the cape of Good Hope being as yet undifcovered by the Pur 
 tuguefe ; there is no room to charge the Europeans with bor 
 rowing their art from the Chinefe : but each muft be owned to 
 have fallen on the fame thing, though at very different times. 
 Father Couplet aflures us, that Printing has been in ufe 1 
 China from the year 930. Father le Comte fpeaks more 
 largely ; faying, that it lias been there from almoft all ages : 
 he adds, that there is this difference between theirs and ours ; 
 that, whereas we have but a very fmall number of letters in our 
 alphabets, and by the various arrangement of thefe, are able to 
 form infinite volumes ; we have the advantage, by making 
 our characters moveable, to print the largeft works with an 
 Inconfiderable quantity of letter ; thofe that ferved for the firll 
 £heets, ferving over again for the fucceeding one : the Chinefe, 
 on the contrary, by reafon of the prodigious number of their 
 letters, are precluded this refoufce j and find ic more eafy, and 
 lefs expenuve, to cut all their letters on wooden blocks 
 thus to make as many blocks as there are pages in a book, and 
 thefe of no further ule but for that fingle woik. Their method 
 of printing fee hereafter. 
 Origin of Tr in ting. — Who the firff inventors of the European 
 Printing were, in what city, and what year, it was fiift fet on 
 foot, is a famous problem long difputed among the learned, 
 In effect, as the Grecian, cities contended for the birth of Ho- 
 mer, fo do the German cities for that of Printing. 
 Mentz, Haerlem, and Strasbourg, are the warmed on this point 
 of honour : Italy alfo would have entered the liifs ; but the 
 fuffrages being at firff divided between the firft. three preten- 
 ders, they are left in Poffeifion of the queftion, which, in rea- 
 lity, is not yet juftly decided ; though ir muft be owned, Mentz 
 has always had the majority of voices. 
 
 We fhall not here enter into a nice difquifition of the merits of 
 the caufe, but only propofe the pretentions of each. — John 
 Mantel of Strasbourg, John Guttemberg and John Full: of 
 Mentz, and L. John Kofter of Haerlem, are the perfons to 
 whom this honour is feverally afcribed, by their refpective coun- 
 trymen ; and they have all their advocates among the learned. 
 Mantel, a phyfician of Paris, enters the lifts in behalf of his 
 name- fake of Strasbourg ; and contends that it was he firft in- 
 vented Printing in the year 14.42. and that in confideration 
 hereof, the emperor Fredeuc III. gave him a coat of arms 
 correfponding thereto: he adds, that Guttemberg, whom he 
 had taken in as a partner or afTociate, carried it to Mentz. 
 where he took in Fuft a partner. 
 
 The Haerlcmers, with Boxhornius, Schrevelius, &c. refer the 
 firft invention to Laurenz.s Janzs Kofter of Haerlem, in thi 
 year 1430. adding, that his afTociate Guttemberg ftole away 
 hia tools while he was at church, and carried them to Mentz, 
 where he fet up for the firft inventor ; though others attribute 
 this theft, fcsy, to his partner Fuft. 
 
 Munfter, Polydore Virgil, Pafquier, tsV. will have Guttemberg, 
 or Guttemburgb, to have really been the inventor of Printing ; 
 and add, that he took in Fuft and Schoeffer for affociates. 
 Naude, in his Mafcurat, efpoufes the caufe of Fuft, or Fauft 
 or Fauftus ; and will have him to be the firft Printer in Europe, 
 and that he took in Guttemberg for a partner. His reafon for 
 putting Fuft in poffemon of this privilege, is, that the firft 
 books that were printed, appear to have been all of his impref- 
 fion. It is more than probable, had Guttemberg or Kofter had 
 a greater or an equal fhare in the invention, they would not 
 have allowed him to attribute the whole tohimfelf and his fon- 
 in-law Schoeffer, as he has done, without ever offering to do 
 the like, or in the leaft contradicting him, and afferting their 
 own right. 
 
 Thefe editions are, 1. The Catholicon Januenfts, dated in 1460. 
 and now in the king's library. Fuft's name, indeed, is not to 
 this ; but it is perfectly like the following ones, where it is. 
 
 2. The Latin bible of 1462. now in the French king's library. 
 
 3. Tully's Offices, in 4"*; (the reft being all folio's) in the year 
 1465. and 1466. for there are copies in the Bodleian, and the 
 library of C. C. college, Oxon, of both thofe dates. 4. Other 
 Bibles of 1 47 1. 5. St. Auguffine de dvitate Dei, 1473. 6. 
 Mercurius Trifmegiftus de poteflate $f fapientia Dei, in 1503. 
 7. Titus Livius, in 1518. 
 
 Add to this, that at the beginning of Livy, is a privilege granted 
 by the emperor Maximilian to Schoeffer, for the fole power of 
 Printing that author for ten years ; and for fix years, to all the 
 other books he nVnild pi hit thereafter, in confideration of his 
 father in-law, Fuft's, having invented the art of Printing. 
 This piivilege is dated 15 18. and figned Jac. Spiegel. 
 Erafmus, however, in the epiftle alter that privilege, does not 
 pofitively aver the fact ; he only obferves, that the firft, or the 
 chief inventor of that art is held to be J. Fuft. In the adver- 
 ti Cement to the faid book, Nic. Carbachius fpeaks to the fame 
 effect as the privilege, and Erafmus. 
 
 As to Guttemberg, Mantel, and Kofter, Naude obCcrve*, the 
 period is not yet born that can fay he has ever fecn bocks print- 
 
 P R I 
 
 ed by any of them, before, or as early as thofe of Fuft. All 
 that is urged on their behalf, is only founded on reports, con- 
 jeflures, probabilities, forged authorities, and the jealosies of 
 cities againft one another. 
 
 Yet Salmuth, in his additions to Panclrollus, cites a public aft, 
 whereby it appears, that Full, after having invented Printing, 
 and fuftained .1 a long time on his own footing ; at length took 
 in Guttemberg as a partner, to contribute to the expence : 
 which was very great, by reafon the firft books were moft of 
 them printed on velum, or at leaft on parchment, and after the 
 Chinefe way. 
 
 But the caufe is not thus decided : the advocates for Kofter 
 urge divers things, which feem to put him i„ the D | ace her . 
 aligned to Fult. Mr. Ellis, in the philosophical 
 fatners books on him prior to any of thofe above referred to 
 Fuft; and even fome as early as 1430, and 1432 It i s C er 
 tain, the Haerlcmers fhew printed books of that jate which 
 agreeing fo well with the account given by Theod. Schrevelius 
 and others, leaves Mr. Ellis little room to doubt, whether the 
 honour of the invention be his or the other's due All that 
 belongs to Fult, according to this writer, is the honour of cfta- 
 bluhing the art in greater luftre and perfection at another place 
 many years after. r 
 But the difficulty lies, either in (hewing why the praflice mould 
 be at a ftand from 1432, to the reviving of it at Menu by 
 Full and Schoeffer, in 1465, or elfe ,n giving fome account 
 of the condition and progrefs of this invention during that 
 interval. 6 
 Now, Boxhornius, Schrevelius, and other authors, expreuV 
 affirm that fo large a work as the De Spiegel, Speculum <4(». 
 ot Kofter ftevvn at Haerlem for the firft printed book, could 
 never be his firft efiay : he muft have had the art in its rougher 
 rudiments before, and have made many trials on lefier works ■ 
 no doubt his hrll : attempts were 0,1 loofe meets, which we may 
 fuppofe were eafily loft. In effeS, it muft be allowed no in- 
 considerable argument m Kofter's behalf, that the rudeft and 
 molt artlefs performances feem to be his : Mr. Ellis mentions 
 iome things of this kind without date, which he had feen in 
 the king s library at St. James's, in that of Bennet collet and 
 the Bodleian at Oxford, with all the marks of the utmol fim- 
 phcity, and which might fairly bid for firft efl'ays There is 
 lomething fo aukward and coarfe in them, that any body almoft 
 might have done them ; mere nature being fufficient with- 
 out any art or experience at all. The ink was only common 
 writing ink, unartlully fpread upon wooden blocks, very clum- 
 lily cut, C3V. 
 
 By this time we have traced up the art to fuch a ftate that it 
 may, perhaps, fcarce feem worth the coiltcftinc who it was in 
 vented it ; and no doubt, Printing, as it now ftands, owes more 
 to the genius and addiefs of fome of the later ' 
 it did to ' 
 The fair 
 
 pre- 
 
 many of 
 
 me confideration may make us more eafy under our 
 lent ignorance of the inventors of moft other arts 
 which had fuch fimple unmeaning originals, that you or I 
 mould, perhaps, think it no mighty credit to be efteemed the 
 authors ol inventions nothing lefs a ,tf u l a„d ingenious 
 ^rW'«/ Printing.— The firft printers, then, whoever they 
 were whether Kofter, Fuft, Schoeffer, or Guttemberg, made 
 their nrit eliays on wooden blocks, or forms, after the Chinefe 
 manner. 
 
 It is not improbable, fays Mr. Bagford, they might take the 
 hint from ancient medals and feals • but others rather imagine 
 it to have come from the method of making playing cards 
 which, it is certain, bears a near refemblance to the primitive' 
 procefs ol Frmtmg ; as appears from the firft fpecimens of that 
 art above-mentioned. 
 
 The book at Haerlem, the vocabulary called Catholicon, and the 
 pieces in the Bodleian and Bennet's college, are all performed 
 in this way ; and the impreffion appears toTiave been only oivert 
 on one fide the leaves; after which the two blank fides were 
 pp.fted together. 
 
 But they foon found the inconveniencies of this method ; and 
 therefore bethought themfelves of an improvement ; which was 
 by making fingle moveable letters, diftiiifl from one another. 
 Thefe being firft done in wood, gave room for a fecond im- 
 provement ; which was the making of them, at length, of 
 metal ; and, in order to that, cutting moulds, matrices, tic. 
 for calling them. 
 
 From this ingenious contrivance, we ought to date the origin 
 of the prefent art of Printing, as pradtifed throughout Europe ; 
 contradiftinguiftied from the methods of the Chinefe abroad, 
 and the card-makers at home, which were the fame art, only 
 pradtifed in a different place, or with a different view. 
 And of this, Schoeffer, or Scheffer, firft fervant, and after- 
 wards partner, and fon- in-law of Fuft, at Mentz, above-men- 
 tioned, is pretiv generally allowed the inventor : fo rhat he was 
 properly the firft printer ; and, in ftriclnefs, the bible which 
 was printed with moveable letters in 1450, was the firft printed 
 book ; the next was Auguftine di c'mitata Dei, then Tully's 
 Offices, tic. about the year 1 46 1. 
 
 But the art being yet in its infancy, there were fome imperfec- 
 tions in the books they printed ; among the reft was the want 
 of capital letters : hence they left the places of the initial letters 
 blank, and gave them to the illuminers to paint in gold, or 
 azure : though, others fay, this was done defigncdjy, to enable 
 them to r»fs off their books for manufcripts. 
 
 S:>m 
 
P R I 
 
 Some authors tell us, that Full carrying a parcel of his bibles to 
 Paris, and oSering them to fale as MSb. the French, upon con- 
 fideri'ng the number of books, and their exaft conformity with 
 one another, even to a point, and that the beft book-writers 
 could not be neat fo exact, concluded there was witchcraft in 
 the cafe ; and, by either actually indicting him as a conjurer, or 
 fcfareatmng to do fo, extorted the fecret. And hence the origin 
 of the popular (lory of Dr. Fauftus. 
 
 From Mentz, the art of Printing foon fpread itfelf throughout 
 a good part of Europe ; Haerlem and Strasburg had it very 
 early ; which, as the current of authors rcprefent it, occafioned 
 their pretending to the honour of the invention. 
 From Haerlem it palled to Rome in 1467. and into England 
 .in 1468. by means of Tho. Bourchier, archbifhop of Canter- 
 bury, who fent W. Turner, mafter of the robes, and W.Cax- 
 ton, merchant, to Haerlem, to learn the art. Thefe privately 
 prevailing with Corfeilles, an under workman, to come over, 
 a prefs was fet up at Oxford ; and an edition of Ruffinus on the 
 creed was printed the fame year in a broad odavo on paper. 
 From Oxford, Caxton brought it to London about the year 
 14.70 In the fame vear it was carried to Venice, and to Paris, 
 where Gerinf, Grantz, and Frihurger, all Germans, invited 
 thither by two doaors of the Sorbonne, let up a prefs in that 
 learned houfe. . 
 Hitherto there had been nothing printed but in Latin, and the 
 vulgar tongues ; and this firft in Roman charaaers, then in 
 Gothic, and at laft. in Italic. But in 1480. and, as fome fay, 
 in 1476. the Italians caft a fet of Greek types ; and it was at 
 Venice, or, as fome fay, at Milan or Florence, that the firft 
 Editions in that language appeared. 
 
 The Italians too have the honour of the firft Hebrew editions, 
 which were printed about the fame time with the Greek, at Sou- 
 cino a little city in the dutchy of Milan ; under the diredion 
 of two Jewifh rabbins, Jofhua and- Mofes, whofe works are 
 dated in the year of the world 5240. anfwering to the year 1480. 
 of the chriftian sera. 
 
 Towards the end of the 1 6th century, there appeared various 
 editions of books in Syriac, Arabic, Perfian, Armenian, Cop- 
 tic, or Egyptian characters ; fome to gratify the curiofity ol 
 the' learned, and others for the liturgic ufes of the Chriftians 
 of the Levant ; thefe were printed chiefly at Paris ; whither 
 puncheons and matrices were fent from Conftantinople by M. 
 Savary, then embafi'ador at the Porte. 
 
 Out of Europe, the art ot Printing has been carried into the 
 three other quarters of the world : for Afia, we fee impreflions 
 of books at Goa, and in the Philippines ; at Lima, Bofton, 
 Mexico, (s'c. for America ; and at Morocco for Africa. 
 The Turks, indeed, rigoroufly prohibit Printing throughout 
 their empire, as imagining that the too free communication 
 with books might occafion fome change in religion or govern- 
 ment ; yet the Jews have feveral editions of their books printed 
 at Conftantinople, ThelTdlonica, (3c. 
 Method a/" Printing. — The Printing letters, ciaraOere, or types, 
 as they are fometimes called, we have already fpoken of, under 
 the articles Letter and Character. 
 Of the method of forming and catling them, under the article 
 letter Foundery. ..... 
 
 And of the art of engraving the puncheons, matrices, BV. m 
 order thereto, under the atiicles Engraving, Puncheon 
 Matrice, C9V. . 
 The workmen employed in the art of Printing are of two kinds ; 
 compsfltm, who range and difpofe the letters into words, lint 
 pages, (s'c. according to the copy delivered them by the author : 
 And triffmen, who apply ink upon the fame, and take off the 
 jmprcflion. See Composition, (s'c. 
 
 Office of the ampifitmr.— -The types being caft, (sc. are chftri- 
 buted, each kind by itfelf, among the divifions of two long 
 wooden frames, an upper, and under one, called cafes; each 
 of which is divided into little cells, or boxes, of different hzes. 
 The boxes of the upper cafe are in number g8 ; and in thefe are 
 difpofed the capitals, fmall capitals, accented letters, (S'c. 
 In the cells of the lower cafe, which are fifty-four, are difpofed 
 the common running letters, with the points, comma's, fpaces, 
 quadrats, &c. ... ; ., ., a v hh a«! [i 
 
 .Each cafe is placed a little aflope, like a reading-desk ; that the 
 operator may reach the upper boxes the better, and be in lefs 
 darker of mixing the letters by ftretching his arm over them. 
 
 See Case. ' , . . .•>$ 1 
 
 The compofitcr's poft is againft the middle of the cafe, and he 
 works ftanding, holding an inftrument, ufually made of iron, 
 called the compnfing-Jiick, in one hand ; with the other he takes 
 the letters, points, comma's, (3c. as he needs them, out of the 
 boxes ; ranges them on a flip of brafs, called a rule, in his com 
 pofmg-ftick ; and, putting a fpace, to make a blank between 
 each two words, forms one line after another, till the ftick be- 
 ing full, he empties it out upon another inftrument, called the 
 galley ; feveral of which ranged in a frame, called a chafe, ate 
 ready for the prefs. 
 
 This ftiort view of compofing may need to be futther illuftrated 
 and inlarged upon. — The compafing-jlich, then, (reprefented 
 tab. Miscellany,^. 9.) confilts of a plate, or flip of iron, 
 brafs, wood, (Sc. more or lefs broad, and contrived fo as to be 
 made more or lefs long, according to the width of the page, and 
 the number of lines to be cc-mpofed in it. 
 
 P R I 
 
 From the right fide of this plate arifes a ledge a a, about half 
 an inch high, running the whole length of the place, and (crving 
 to fuftain the letters, the fides of which are to reft againft it ; 
 from the fame place likewife arife three other leifer pieces, It 
 and c c, two of which, c c, are contrived to Aide along it, that lb 
 the two pieces may be either approached or withdrawn at plea- 
 fure, to adjuft the length of the line to the meafure intended. 
 Add, that where marginal notes, references, &c. are required in 
 a work, the two Hiding pieces cc are opened in the compofing- 
 ftick, to a proper diftance from each other. 
 Ere the workman proceeds to compofe, a rule, or thin flip of 
 brafs plate, cut to the length of the line, and of the fame height 
 as the lecter, is placed in the compofing-iiick againft the ledge 
 thereof, for the letter to bear immediately againft. 
 Things thus prepared, the compofitor having the copy lying be- 
 fore him, and the ftick in his left hand, with the right he picks 
 up the letters, fpaces, &c. and places them againlt the rule ; 
 while with the thumb of the left he prefies thtm dole to the 
 upper fcrew, or check : and thus keeps them tight and Heady ; 
 while the other hand is conftantly employed in letting in mo.e 
 letters : the whole being performed with a degree of expedition 
 and addrefs, not eafy to be imagined. 
 
 A line being thus compofed, if it end with a word or fyllable, 
 and fill the meafure, there needs no further care ; otherwile more 
 fpaces are to be put between the feveral words to juiiify the lines, 
 i. e. to make the meafure quite full, lb that every line may end 
 even ; and thus he proceeds to another line. 
 The fpaces here ufed are a fort of blanks, of the like dim:n~ 
 fions as the letters, but lefs high ; and whofe faces, theretorc, 
 when fet, do not appear, nor give any imprellion. They are 
 of feveral kinds, according to the dimeniions of the whites or 
 intervals to be made by them, viz. quadrats, to fill up a break 
 at the end of a paragraph, or the like ; m quadrats, which are 
 fquare, and of the thicknefs of an m, ferving to make the di- 
 ftance after a period, or between fentence and fentence ; n qua- 
 drats, of the thicknefc of an n, to be placed alter colons, femi- 
 colons, and comma's j and thick or thin fpaces, to be uled be- 
 tween the words in juftifying, as above. 
 
 For marginal notes, in the (paces referved for them, between 
 the two Aiding- pieces of the compofmg-ftick, are put little qua- 
 drated pieces of metal, called quotutions ; which arejuftified by 
 other fmaller pieces ; a flip of fcaleboard being placed from the 
 top of the page to the bottom, to keep the note and text at 
 a due diftance. 
 
 The firft line being thus completely jnftified, the compofitor ad- 
 vances to the next ; in order to which, he moves the brafs rule 
 from behind the former, and places it before it, and thus corn- 
 poles another line againft it, after the fame manner as the for- 
 mer : and thus he goes on till his ftick be full, which he emp- 
 ties into the galley, after the manner following. 
 Taking the rule from behind the laft line, he places it before it ; 
 and with his two middle fingers fqueezes the linea in the fficlc 
 clofe ; his two fore-fingers at the fame time being applied on 
 the outfide of the rule : thus he lifts them out of the ftick, and 
 clapping his two thumbs beind the firft line, lifts them into the 
 galley ; taking care to dtfengagc his two thumbs without break- 
 ing the lines. 
 
 The compofitor having thus fet the proper number of lines in 
 the ftick, viz. four, five, fix, or more, and emptied them out into 
 the galley j he again fills, and empties, as before, till a complete 
 page be formed ; remembering at the bottom of every page to 
 fet a line of quadrats, and at the end thereof the firft wurd of 
 the page enfuing, for a catch-word ; and, if it be the firft page 
 of the fhect, one of the letters for a fignacure. 
 The galley is a flat wooden inftrument, in form of a long 
 fquare ; of a length and breadth proportionable to that of the 
 page : it confifts of two parts, the upper, called the Jlice, where- 
 by the pages of large volumes, when compofed, are fliddcn upon 
 the ftone ; the other, which is the body of the galley, is 
 ledged on three fides, to contain the ffice ; the inner ledge not 
 to exceed half an inch in height, that the compofed page riling 
 above it by one half the height of the letter, may be tied up, or 
 bound down, and removed without danger. 
 This galley is placed at the top of the cafe, and detained by two 
 wooden pins from Aiding down the boxes. See Galley. 
 The pae,e, then, compofed and ranged in the galley, he tics it 
 up therein with a cord or packthread, and fets it by j and pro- 
 ceeds to the next, till the number of pages of the fhect be com- 
 pleted : which done, he carries them to the impofing or correct- 
 ing ftone, there to range them in order, in a chafe ; which they 
 call impofing. 
 
 The chafe in a rectangular iron frame of different dimenfions, 
 according to the fizc of the paper to be printed on, having two 
 crofs pieces of the fame metal, called a long and foort crofs, 
 mortifed at each end, into the frame, fo as to be taken out oc- 
 cafionally. 
 
 By the different fttuations of thefe croffes, the chafe is fitted 
 for different volumes ; for quarto's and octavo's, one traverfes 
 the middle lengthwife, the other broadwife, fo as to interfecl: in 
 the centre ; which is the moft cuftomary fituation : for twelves 
 and twenty-fours, the fhort crofs is fhiftcd nearer to one end of 
 the chafe. For folio's, the long crofs is left intirely out, and 
 the fhort one placed in the middle ; and for broadfides, or Iheets 
 printed on one fide only, both croftes arc fet afide. 
 
 To 
 
P R I 
 
 P R I 
 
 To drefs the chafe, or range and fix the pages therein, they 
 make ufe of a fet of furniture, confifting of reglets, or flips of 
 wood of different dimenfions, and about half an inch high, 
 that they may be lower than the letters : fome of thefe are 
 placed at the top of the pages, called head-flicks ; others be- 
 tween them, to form the inner margin, called gutter-flicks ; 
 others at the fides, called fide-flicks; and others at the bottom, 
 called foot-flicks. 
 
 The pages, thai, being placed in order on the flone, the chafe 
 is put over them, and the reglets applied between the letter and 
 the chafe, in the pofition above-mentioned ; the whole is locked 
 up by means of fmall pieces of wood, cut in the wedge-form, 
 called quoins, which are driven with a mallet and Ihooting-ftick, 
 to a fufficient tightnefs. 
 
 Before the form be quite locked up, they prefs down the fame, 
 by pafling a fmooth piece of wood, called the plainer, over 
 the letters, to make their furfaces ftand flat and even ; and, 
 when locked up, they (hake it, to fee that nothing fUr. 
 In this condition the work is called a form, containing more or 
 fewer pages, according to the volume. See Form. 
 As there are two farms required for every fneet, when both 
 fides are to be printed, it is neceffary they be exactly of the 
 fame length and breadth ; i. e. the correfponding reglets, head- 
 rticks, &c. are to be equal in both forms, that the pages may fall 
 exactly on the back one of another, which is called regfler. 
 Here, then, properly ends the compofitor's office ; the form, 
 thus finifhed hiring to be committed to the prellman. 
 Indeed, 2s it is impoflible but there mull be miftakes in the 
 work, either through the overfight of the compofitor, or by 
 the cafual tranfpofition of the letters in the cafes. After draw- 
 ing off a proof, it is delivered to the corrector, who reading it 
 over, and rectifying it by the copy, it is remanded to the former 
 operator, to be corrected accordingly. — For the characters ujed 
 in correcting a flicet for the compnfitor, fee Correction. 
 The compofitor, then, unlocking the form upon the correcting- 
 ftone, bv knocking out or loofening the quoins ; and fpreading 
 his corrected proof lb, as that the lines thereof range with the 
 refpective ones of the metal ; by running his eye along both, he 
 eafily fpies where corrections are to be made : according to 
 which, he proceeds to pick out the faulty letters, points, tjfe. with 
 a (harp-pointed llecl bodkin, and puts others in their places. 
 Where the alterations arc confiderable, and particularly where 
 infertiuns or omiflions are to be made, there ufually arifes a 
 neceiiity of over-running ; in order to which they muft decom- 
 pofe, or return the lines back from the chafe into the galley, 
 and from the galley again into the compoling-ftick, to be new- 
 modelled and rectified accordingly. 
 
 If, e.gr. one or more words to be inferred in a line, cannot 
 be got in by changing the fpaces of the line for lefTer ones ; 
 part of the line mutt be put back into the clofe of the pre- 
 ceding one, or forward into the beginning of the fubfequent 
 one, or both, till room is got. If the infertion be large, feve- 
 ral lines will need to be over-run, either backward or for- 
 ward, till a break is arrived at ; when, if it he not got in, a 
 line is to be driven out ; and to get in that line, the next pages, 
 cither backward or forward, mull fometimes be over-run ere 
 it can come in. 
 
 When an omiffion is to be made, the contrary courfe muft be 
 taken. If it be but little, the compofitor takes it out, and drives 
 out the remaining matter, by either inl.irging his fp.^ccs, or 
 bellowing the beginning of the following, or the clofe of the 
 preceding line therein. If it be confiderable, he may be obliged 
 to over-run feveral pages ere it can be driven out. 
 
 Prejmans office, or Printing properly fo called.— To work off 
 the form thus prepared and corrected by the compofitor, there 
 are three things required, paper, ink, and a prefs. 
 To fit the paper for ufe, it is to be firit wetted or moifttned, by 
 dipping feveral fheets together in water : thefe are afterwards 
 laid in a heap over one another ; and to make them take the wa- 
 ter equally, they are all prciled clofe down with a weight a-ton. 
 As to the degree of wetting, it muft be according to the qua- 
 lity of the paper, and the fize of the letter ; fmall letters, and 
 ftiff p.ipcr, requiring moft wetting. 
 
 A Printing-house is a place deftir.ed for printing, and fitted 
 up for that purpofe with preffes, cafes, and other furniture. 
 The moft confiderable print'mg-houfes in the world are thofe of 
 the Louvre and Vatican. — The firit, begun under Francis I, 
 was carried to its utmoft perfection under Louis XIII, by the 
 care of cardinal Richelieu ; and removed into the galleries of 
 the Louvre by Louis XIV. 
 
 The Vatican printing-houfc, called alfo the apoftolical pr'tnting- 
 houfe, becaufe the pope's bulls, decrees, (sfc. are printed therein, 
 was begun by Pius IV. and furnifhed with great magnificence 
 by Sixtus V. See Vatican. 
 
 Out of both thefe printing- houfes have come forth very beauti- 
 ful and fplendld editions of the ancient authors. The Vatican 
 was the firft that printed books in the Arabic language. 
 The Clarendon printing- houft at Oxford (fo called, becaufe 
 built, in great meafure, with the profits arifing from the copy 
 of lord Clarendon's hiftory, which had been given to the uni- 
 verfity) promifes well : it has furnifhed us with a very fine 
 Englifh bible, EsY. 
 77;* Printing ink is of two kinds, black and red : the laft 
 occafionall)' ufed in title-pages, calendars, tfc. the firft for the 
 bddv of books. The compofition of each, though now rec- 
 VOL. II. 
 
 toned no part of the printers bufinefs, but ufualiy furniihed 
 them by other hands, is as fellows: 
 
 For black ink ; An hundred pounds of nut, or linfeed oil, be- 
 ing reduced, by boiling, to the confiflence of a fyrup, Is 
 cleanfed and puiified by throwing into it two pounds of coarfe 
 bread, and about a dozen onions. They then boil thirty cr 
 thirty-five pounds of turpentine apart, till fuch time as they 
 find, upon its cooling on paper, that it breaks clean, like glafs, 
 without pulverizing ; for if it pulverize eafily, it is a fign it is 
 burnt. The oil and turpentine being thus prepared, the firft is 
 gently poured, half cold, into the latter ; and the two flit red 
 together with a flick till they be well mixed ; after which, the 
 compofition, which is called the varnifh, is fet by, to be ufed 
 cccafionally. 
 
 Nov,', to proceed to make ink, they take a quantity of this 
 mixture, and add to it a certain quantity of lamp-black ; work- 
 ing it up with a kind of wooden mullet, or brayer, till the whole 
 be incorporated, and reduced into a kind of pulp; which ij the 
 ink for ufe. 
 
 Where, note, that its thicknefs or ftxength is always to be pro- 
 portioned to that of the paper, and the warmth of the weather ; 
 ftrong paper, and hot weather, requiring ftrong ink j and that 
 the ftrength or weaknefs of the ink depends on the greater or 
 lefs degree of coition of the varnifh. 
 
 For red ink : They ufe the fame materials as for black, except- 
 ing only that inftead of lamp-black they add a proper quantity 
 of vermillicn. Some hold, that by mixing and incorporating 
 the bignefs of a nut of fifh glue, or brandy, or the white of an 
 egg with the ink, the vermillion acquires a greater luftxe. 
 The ink is applied upon the forms by balls, which are a kind of 
 wooden funnels, the cavities whereof are filled with wool 
 covered with leather nailed to the wood. One of thefe 
 the prefTman takes in each hand, and applying them on the ink- 
 block, to charge them with ink, he rubs them one againft the 
 other to diftribute the ink equally ; and, at laft, fmears over the 
 form by beating or dabbing them feveral times over the whole, 
 face thereof: this leaves the form in a condition to be palled 
 under the prefs, with the moiftened paper laid thereon. 
 The printing prefs (reprefented tab. mi feel. fig. 8.) is a very 
 complex machine: its two principal pat ts, each whereof con- 
 lifts of feveral others, are the body of the prefs, which fcrves 
 to give the pinch or ftroke lor the impreilion ; and the car- 
 riage, on which the form is laid to undergo the fame. See 
 Press. 
 
 The body confifts of two ftiong checks b b, placed perpendicu- 
 larly, and joined together by four crofs pieces or pianks. See 
 Cheek. 
 
 The firft plank c c, called the cap of the prefs, is fixed, and 
 fcrves to keep the two cheeks together at the due diftance, at 
 top : the fecond d d, called the head, is moveable ; being fuf- 
 tained by two iron pins or long bolts, that pafs the cap : in 
 this plank is fixed a female fcrew or worm-, with a brafs nut, 
 (uftained by two fhort bolts, which keep it up \ the third 
 plank e e, called the Jhelves, ferves to keep fteady a part called 
 the hoje, in which the fpindle (to be fpoken of hereafter) is 
 inclufed : the fourth plank f f, called the vjinter, is move- 
 able ; it bears the carnage, and fuftains the effort of the prefs 
 beneath, as the head does above ; each giving way a little, 
 the one upwards, the other downwards, to make the pull 
 the eafier. 
 
 The fpindle g g is an upwright piece of iron pointed with fteel, 
 of different dmienfions ; having a male fcrew, which goes into 
 the Ictnale of the head about four inches. Through the eye h 
 of this fpindle, is rivetted the bar, by which the preflman 
 works the prefs. 
 
 The lower part of the fpindle pafTes through the fhelves, being 
 inclofed in a fquare wooden frame called the hofe ; and its point 
 works into the plug, fixed in a brafs pan fupplied with oil ; 
 which pan is fixed to an iron plate let into the top of the 
 platten. The preflman, then, by pulling or turning the bar 
 fixed in the eye by an iron key, preffes upon a fquare fmoolh 
 piece of wood called the platten, and enables it to comprefs 
 the form covered with the paper, tympans, and its blankets, 
 which, in order hereto, are brought under the platten. 
 At each corner of the hofe, there is an iron hook faftened to 
 thofe at each corner of the platten, with cords or packthread, 
 very exactly. 
 
 The carriage 1 11 /, which makes the fecond principal member 
 of the prefs, is placed a foot below the platten, having its fore- 
 part fupported by a wooden prop m, called the fore-flay, while 
 the other refts on the winter. On this carriage, which fuftains 
 the plank, are nailed two long iron bars, or ribs, a o ; and on 
 the plank are nailed fhort pieces of iron or fteel p p, called 
 cramp-irons, equally tempered with the ribs, and which fliiie 
 upon them when the prefs is turned in or out. 
 Under the carriage is fixed a fmall piece of iron called the [pit, 
 with a double wheel in the middle, round which leather girts 
 are faftened, nailed to each end of the plank. To the out- 
 fide of the fpit is fixed a handle, or rounce, by which the preff- 
 man turns the plank in or out at pleafure. 
 Upon the pliink is a fquare wooden frame or coffin qq, wherein 
 is inciofed a marble, or polifhed ftone for the form to be laid 
 on. To this coffin are faftened leather ftav-girts, one to each 
 fide ; whicii being again faftened to the cheeks of the prefs, 
 prevent the plank from running too far out, when drawn from 
 g P under 
 
PRI 
 
 under the platten. On the fore-part of the plank is a gallows 
 rr, which ferves to fuftain the tympans, when taken from oft 
 
 the form. ,- - / ' ' « *V VP* ~3- 
 
 On the front of the coffin are three frames much alike, though 
 ferving fur different purpofes, viz. the two tympans and frifket : 
 the tympans s s arc fquare, made of three flips of very thin 
 wood, and at the top a flip of iron, ftill thinner, called a bead- 
 band: that called the outward tympan is fattened witli iron 
 joints to the coffin. They arc both covered with parchment ; 
 2nd between the two are placed blankets, which ferve to make 
 the impreffion of the platten upon the furface of the letters 
 more equable; as alfo to prevent the letters from being broken 
 by the force of the prefs. The frifket t t is all of iron, very 
 thin, fattened at top to the great or outward tympan, and 
 fuftained, by a flip of wood hanging from the cieling, when 
 opened to take out the printed fhcets, and put in others. It is 
 alfo covered with parchment or paper, cut in the necefiary 
 places, that the fhect, which is between the great tympan and 
 frifket, may receive the ink, and that nothing may hurt the 
 margins. Oil the parchment of the great or outward tympan 
 it is, that the blank fheet is laid to be printed. 
 To regulate the margins, and make the lines and pages anfwer 
 each other when printed on the other fide ; in the middle 
 of the wood, in the fldes of this tympan, are two iron points, 
 which make two holes in the flieet, to be placed on the fame 
 pins, when the flieet is returned for an impreffion on the other 
 fide, which is called the reiteration. 
 
 Every thing now about the tympans being prepared for printing, 
 and the preflman having inked or beat his form now placed 
 on the ftone, lie brings the tympans and frifket down from 
 the gallows upon the form i and advancing the plank under the 
 platten by means of the fpit-handle, or rounce, gives two 
 ftroke3 or pulls with the bar ; and with the fame handle turned 
 the contrary way, brings back the plank, to take out the 
 printed fheet, and put in a frefh one ; and this he repeats till 
 he has taken oft" the full number of flicets the edition is to 
 confift of. 
 
 One fide of the flieet being thus printed, it is remanded to the 
 prefs for the other; and is fo dilpofed, as that the iron point 
 pafs through the holes already made in the flieet. 
 Sometimes it is required to cut the frifket afrefh, where the 
 fecond fide is to be more or lefs full of priming than the 
 firft ; as is frequently the cafe at the beginning and endin 
 of books, &c. 
 
 The number of fheets of the edition being complete, and the 
 form to be feparated, to reftore the letters into the caies, they 
 firfl: wafh it in a boiling he to take out the remains of the ink, 
 fcouring it with a brufh, and then with fair water. This done, 
 it is carried to a wooden frame to be unlocked, and the furni 
 ture, i. e. the flicks, cjV. taken oft' to difengage it from the 
 chafe. Then the compofitor taking out feveral hues at once 
 upon a little wooden ruler, he replaces each letter in its proper 
 box, to be again ufed in the remainder of the impreffion 
 which laft operation they call diftribution. 
 Befide the feveral kinds of letters and characters above-men 
 tioned, ufed in printing, they have likewife rules for blank lines 
 borders, and head and tail-pieces, accommodated to the feveral 
 kinds of letters. 
 
 The rules for blank-lines are of brafs, and are made exactly of 
 the height of the letter ; otherwife they will either hinder the 
 neighbouring letters from printing, or will themfelves be hin 
 . dered by them. Thefc the compofitor occafionally cuts into 
 proper lengths, as his work requires. 
 
 The borders are a kind of ornaments in form of long bars, 
 ferving for the divifions of books, chapters, c3V. Their depth 
 is proportioned to the letter, and their length adjufted to the 
 page ; for being compofed of feveral moveable pieces, it is eafy 
 lengthening or fhortening them. 
 
 The bead and tail-pieces, cut either in wood or pewter, are 
 co m parti men ts ufed at the beginnings and endings of books. 
 The initial letters are fometimes cut in wood, and figured ; 
 fometimes call: like the other characters. 
 
 For the conveniency of the binding, the printers had early rc- 
 courfe to fignatures, i. e. letters of the alphabet placed at the 
 bottom of the flieet, which fliew the order they are to be bound 
 in ; as well as whether the quires be complete. 
 The catch-words ferve nearly the fame purpofc : thefc are the 
 firfl: words of each page, which are infer ted at the bottom of 
 the preceding pages. The number of the pages are equally 
 ferviceable to the reader and the binder, to guide to references, 
 and to warrant the book duly bound and collated : fome 
 printers formerly put them at the bottoms of the pages 3 but 
 cuftom has now carried it for the tops. 
 
 In the infancy of printing, they had likewife a regiftrum cbar- 
 tarum for the convenience of the binders : to draw this, at the 
 end of each volume, they collected the fignatures, and the firfl 
 words of the four firfl fheets of each alphabet. To abridge 
 it, they afterwards contented themfelves to exprefs the figna- 
 tures, and how often each letter was repeated : but the regiftrum 
 has been now long difufed. 
 
 As to the faults which efcape the corrector and compofitor, 
 they are ufually noted in what we call errata. The ancient 
 editions had no errata ; but in lieu thereof they corrected the 
 faults in each printed copy with a pen \ which was eafy enough 
 
 P R I 
 
 in thofe days, though impracticable now. In effect, wc have 
 anciently bad printers who did not need an errata of above 
 five articles in a volume of five hundred fheets : how different 
 from fome of the prefent fet, who might make an errata of five 
 hundred articles in a book of five fheets ! 
 Chinefe Printing. — There are three opinions as to the anti- 
 quity of the Chinefe Printing, one fixing it 300 years before 
 Chrift ; another goo years after him ; and a third carrying it 
 ftill farther back, and making it coeval with that mighty 
 empire ; though it muft be allowed the laft is much the lea ft 
 probable of the three. 
 
 The manner of Printing we have already hinted to be very 
 different from that which now obtains among the Europeans : 
 it is true, it has fome advantage over ours in correctneis, and 
 the beauty of the character ; but in other refpects it comes far 
 fliort, the fingle advantage of moveable characters making 
 more than amends for all that is urged again ft us by fome zea- 
 lous advocates for this oriental Printing. 
 
 Books are printed in China from wooden planks, or blocks, cut 
 like thofe ufed in Printing of callico, paper, cards, &c, among 
 us. 
 
 Thefe blocks are made of a fmooth, firm, clofe wood, and 
 of the fize of the leaf required. On the face-fide they glue a 
 paper, upon which fome able penman draws out the feveral 
 letters and characters, with a Chinefe pen, which is a kind of 
 pencil. This is the principal part of the work, and that 
 wheron the fuccefs of the reft depends. 
 
 When finifhed, the block is put into the hands of a fculptor, 
 or cutter in wood ; who', following the feveral flrokes of the 
 writer with his gravers, and other fharp little inftruments, 
 makes them all appear in relievo on the wood. 
 When the carving or cutting is finifhed, they moiften what re- 
 mains of the paper, and rub it gently off. 
 
 The ink they ufe in Printing is the fame with the common 
 Chinefe ink, wherewith they alfo write ; and is made of lamp- 
 black, mixed up with other ingredients. 
 
 Their prefs refcmbles our rolling-prefs, much more than the 
 letter-prefs. 
 
 As to their paper, it is inferior to ours: it is made of the 
 inner bark or rind of a kind of rufhes, beat up with water 
 into a pulp or pafte, and formed in moulds, much like 
 ours. 
 
 The advantages of the Chinefe Printing confift in this, that 
 they are not obliged to take off the whole edition at once, but 
 print their books as they need them ; that the blocks are eafily 
 retouched, and made to ferve afrefli ; and that there needs no 
 corrector of the prefs. 
 
 Its difadvantages are, that a large room will fcarce hold all the 
 blocks of a moderate volume ; that the colour of the ink eafily 
 fades ; and that the paper is apt to tear, and is fubject to worms : 
 whence it is that we fee fo few ancient books in China. 
 Rolling-prefs Pringing is employed in taking off prints or im- 
 premons from copper-plates engraven or etched. 
 It differs, as we have before oblerved, from letter-printing ; in 
 that the marks and characters, whofe impreffions are to be 
 taken, in the former cafe, are indented, or cut inwards ; and 
 in the latter, are in relievo, or ftand out. 
 
 This art is faid to be as ancient as the year 1460. and to owe 
 its origin to Einiguerra, a Florentine goldfmith, who caff in g a 
 piece of engraven plate in melted brimftone, found the exact 
 print of the engraving left in the cold brimftone, marked with 
 black licked out of the ftrokes by the liquid fulphur. 
 Upon this he attempted to do the fame on filver plates with 
 wet pnper, by rolling it fmoothly with a roller ; and this fiic- 
 ceeded. 
 
 This novelty tempted Baccio Baldini, a goldfmith of the fame 
 city, to attempt the fame, which he did with fuccefs ; engrav- 
 ing feveral plates ofSandro Boticello's defign, and Printing them 
 oft" this new way : in which he was followed by Andrew Man- 
 tegna, then at Rome. 
 
 This knowledge getting into Flanders, Martin of Antwerp, a 
 famous painter, graved abundance of plates of his own in- 
 vention, and fent feveral prints into Italy, marked thus, M, C. 
 Alter him Albert Durer appeared, and gave the world a vaft 
 number of prints both in wood and copper. About this time 
 one Hugo de Carpi, an Italian painter, found out a way, by 
 means of feveral plates of wood, to make prints refemble de- 
 figns of chiaro fcuro ; and fome years after, the invention 
 of etching was difcovered, which was foon after made ufe of 
 by Parmeggiano. 
 
 The art was not ufed in England till the reign of king James I. 
 when it was brought from Antwerp, by Speed. 
 The fabric of the rolling-prefs, and the compofition of the ink 
 ufed therein, with the manner of applying both in taking off 
 prints, are as follow. 
 Structure of the rolling-prefs. — This machine, like the common 
 prefs, maybe divided into two parts ; the body and carriagc y 
 analogous to thofe in the other. 
 
 The body confifts of two cheeks of different dimenfions, ordi- 
 narily about four I feet high, a foot thick, and two {■ apart ; 
 joined at top and bottom by crofs pieces. The cheeks are 
 placed perpendicularly on a wooden ftand, or foot, horizontally 
 placed, and fuftaining the whole prefs. 
 
 From 
 
P R I 
 
 From the foot Iikewife rife four other perpendicular pieces, 
 joined by other crofs or horizontal ones ; which may be con- 
 fidered as- the carriage of the prefs, as ferving to fufiain a 
 fmooth, even plank, which is about four ; feet long, two | feet 
 broad, and an inch ± thick ; upon which the engraven plate is 
 to be placed. 
 
 Into the cheeks go two wooden cylinders, or rollers, about fix 
 inches in diameter, borne up at each end by the cheeks ; whofe 
 ends, which are lefTened to about two inches diameter, and 
 called trunnions, turn in the cheeks between two pieces of 
 ■wood, in form of half-moons, lined with polifhed iron, to facili- 
 tate the motion. 
 
 The fpace in the half-moons, left vacant by the trunnion, is 
 filled with paper, paftboard, {3V. that they may be raifed and 
 lowered at difcretion ; fo as only to leave the fpace between 
 them ncceflary for the paffage of the plank, charged with the 
 plate, paper, and blankets. 
 
 Laftly, to one of the trunnions of the upper roller is fattened 
 a crofs confifting of two levers, or pieces of wood, traverfing 
 each other. The arms of this crofs ferve in lieu of the handle 
 of the common prefs ; giving a motion to the upper roller, 
 and that to the under one : by which means the plank is pro- 
 truded, or paffed between them. 
 Preparation of the ink.— The ink ufed in rolling-prefs Printing, 
 is a compofition of black and oil mixed and boiled together in a 
 due proportion. 
 
 The black is a factious matter, made of the ftones of peaches 
 and apricots, bones of fheep's-feet, and ivory ; all well burnt, 
 beaten, lifted, and mixed together with fpirit of wine, and 
 fometi'mes only with water. 
 
 This black is ufually brought hither ready prepared from Franc- 
 fort on the Maine ; whence our printers call it Francfort black. 
 See Black. 
 
 The oil wherewith they dilute this black, is nut-oil ; which is 
 boiled up differently, according to the different works it is to 
 be ufed in. 
 
 They ufually make three kinds, thin, thick, and flrong ; only 
 differing in the degree of coftion : the ftrong is that ufed in 
 the fineft works, csV. 
 
 To make the ink, they pulverize the black very carefully, 
 and pafs it through a fine fieve ; then mix it up on a marble 
 ■with the proper oil, by means of a mullet, after the fame man- 
 ner as the painters do their colours. 
 Method of Printing from copper plates. — The Ink being pre- 
 pared, they take a li'tle quantify of it on a rubber, made of 
 linen rags, ftmngly bound about one another ; and therewith 
 fmear the whole face of the plate, as it lies on a grate, over a 
 charcoal fire. 
 
 The plate fufficiently inked, they firft wipe it coarfely over with 
 a foul rag, then with the palm of the left hand, then with that 
 of the right ; and, to dry the hand, and forward the wiping, 
 rub it from time to time on whiting. 
 
 In wiping the plate perfectly clean, yet without taking the ink 
 out of" the engraving, confifts a great part of the addrefs of the 
 workman. The French printers ufe no whiting, as being de- 
 trimental to the colour of the ink ; nor do they hy the plate on 
 the grate to warm, till after inking and wiping it. 
 The plate thus prepared, is laid on a thick paper, fitted upon 
 the plank of the prefs : over the plate is laid the paper, firft 
 moiftened to receive the imprefiion ; and over the paper, two 
 or three folds of blanketing, or other ftuff. 
 Thus difpofed, the arms of the crofs are pulled ; and by that 
 means, the plate with its furniture paffed through between the 
 rollers ; which pinching very ftrongly, yet equably, prefies the 
 moiftened paper into the ftrokes of the engraving, whence it 
 licks out the ink. 
 
 Some works require being paffed twice through the prefs, others 
 only once, according as the graving is more or lefs deep, or the 
 greater or lei's degree of blacknefs the print is defired to have. 
 It muft be obferved, that the ftronger and thicker the ink is, the 
 ftronEier muft the rollers pinch the plate : this tempts many of 
 the workmen to ufe a thinner oil, in 'order to fave labour ; 
 which proves very prejudicial to the impreflion. 
 The wetting of the paper ought to be done two or three days 
 before Primitig it, to render it the more fupple and mellow: as 
 the prints are drawn ofF, they are hung up to dry on lines, 
 &c. ™ ** ,tWll l ■'>*•"■'" lawrtw 1 !;'!^ j 
 
 Laftly, after the number of prints defired have been wrought 
 off from the plate, they rub it over with oil of olives, to pre- 
 vent its rufting, and fet it by againft a new impreifion. If the 
 ftrokes of the graving be perceived full of ink hardened therein, 
 in the courfe of the Printing, they boil it well in a lye, ere the 
 oi! be applied. 
 
 PRIOR, before, fomething that is nearer the beginning, than 
 
 another to which it is compared. 
 Prior is particularly ufed for a fuperior of a convent of monks, 
 
 or the fecond perfon after the abbot. 
 
 Priors arc either claujlral or conventual. 
 Conventual Priors are the fame as abbots; all the difference be- 
 tween them being in name ; both having the fame rights, and 
 
 both alike being governors of monafteries. 
 Clauflral Prior is he who governs the religious of an abbey, or 
 
 priory, in commendam ; fo called, bexaufe he has fuperiurity in. 
 
 tbc cloifter or monaftery. 
 
 P R I 
 
 His jurifdl&ion is wholly from the abbot ; and ends with the 
 abbot's death, unlefs he have been elected by the whole con- 
 vent. 
 
 Conventual Priors are of two kinds, viz. regular conventual 
 Priors, who govern religious living in community ; and fecu- 
 lar or commendatory-conventual Priors. 
 
 Conventual Priors are obliged to take up the priefthood within 
 a year, or at moft two, from the dates of their provifion ; in 
 default whereof, their benefices are declared vacant. 
 Priors muft be twenty-five years old, ere they can govern the 
 convent ; and twenty, if the convent be governed by another. 
 Grand Prior, is the fuperior of a large abbey, where feveral fupe- 
 riors are required ; as in the abbeys of Cluny and Fccam p. 
 In the monaftery of St. Denys, there were anciently five 
 Priors ; the firft whereof was called the grand Prior. —In 
 moft monafteries there is alfo a fub-prior. — There are alfo grand 
 Priors in the military orders ; as in that of Malta, or St. John 
 of Jerufalem, tsV. 
 Priors aliens, were certain religious, born in France and Nor- 
 mandy, fuperiors of religious houfes, erected for their country- 
 folks here in England. 
 
 Tbefe, Henry V. deeming no good members for this land, fup- 
 prell'ed ; and their livings were afterwards given by Henry VI. 
 to other monafteries, and houfes of learning ; but chiefly, as 
 Stow obferves, to the erecting of thofe two famous colleges, 
 called the king's colleges of Cambridge and Eaton. 
 Arch Prior, (ee the article Arch prior. 
 
 PRIORITY, Prioritas, the relation of fomething, confi- 
 dered as it is before, or prior to another, i. e. as it is nearer to 
 the beginning, or the firft. See Posteriority. 
 The principal modes of Priority are five, viz. in refpedt of 
 time ; as when we fay, that the Grecian empire was prior to 
 the Roman ; nature, as when we fay one is prior to two ; or- 
 der, dignity, and caufality : which are all fummed up in the 
 technical diftich ; 
 
 Tempora, natura, prius ordine, die £if honors J 
 Effetto caufam d'tcimus ejfe prius. 
 
 Priority, in law, denotes an antiquity of tenure, in compan- 
 ion of another lefs ancient. 
 To hold by Pi-iority, is to hold of one lord more anciently than of 
 another ; in refpect whereof the tenant is faid to hold in Po/le- 
 riority. The lord of the Priority fhall have the cuftody of 
 the body. Cromp. Jurifd. 
 PRISAGE, Prisagium, that fiiare which belongs to the king, 
 or admiral, out of fuch merchandizes as are taken at fea, as law- 
 ful prize: which is ufually a tenth part. See Prize. 
 Pr isa g E of wines, a cuftom in certain ports, whereby the king 
 challenges out of every vefiel laden with wine, containing 
 twenty tuns, or upwards, two tuns of wine, the one before, 
 the other behind the mail, at his own price ; which is twenty 
 ftiilling* per tun. 
 
 The cuftom varies a little, in various places : at Bofton, e.gr. 
 every bark laden with ten tuns of wine pays Prifage. 
 The term is now grown into difufe ; and in lieu of Prifage, 
 the cuftom, fays Cowel, is popularly called butlerage ; becaufe 
 it is the king's chief butler that receives it. 
 PRISClLLlANISTS, Prisci llianistje, ancient heretics, 
 who arofe in Spain, or rather were derived thither from Egypt, 
 towards the end of the fourth century, 
 
 1 he origin of this herefy is not well known ; but it appears to 
 have been brought into Spain by one Marcus of Memphis, who 
 had for his difciple the rhetor Helpidius, under whom Prifcil- 
 lian was educated. 
 
 What their particular tenets were, is not eafy to difcover ; but 
 they are charged by their adverfaries with indulging all kinds of 
 fecrct filthinefs, and noctural mixtures, under a religious no- 
 tion.— Among their dogmata, this is faid to have been one : 
 Jura, perjura, fecretum prodere noli. 
 
 They held, that fouls are of the fame nature and fubftance 
 with God : they admitted all the books of fcripture, but alle- 
 gorized them into their own fenfe. Forbes. 
 Prijcillian, their leader, was a man of great birth, fortune, parts, 
 and learning : he was condemned with fume bifhops his adhe- 
 rents, in a council at Saragofla, and in another at Bourdeaux ; 
 but he appealed to the emperor Maximus, and had a hearing at 
 1 reves ; where, being convicted of broaching novelties, he was 
 condemned to death, with feveral of his followers. 
 PRISE, or Prize, in navigation, a vefiel taken at fea from the 
 enemies of the ftate, or from pirates, by a man of war, or a 
 merchant-man, having commiiTion from the admiral. 
 Veflels are looked on as lawful Prife, if they fight under any 
 other ftandard than that of the ftate from whom they have their 
 commiflion ; if they have no charter-party, invoice, or bill of 
 lading aboard them ; if they be loaden with effects belonging 
 to the king's enemies, or with contraband goods. 
 Thofe of the king's fubjects recovered from the enemy, afrer 
 having remained twenty-four hours in their hands, are alfo 
 deemed lawful Prife. 
 
 Veflels that refufe to ftrike their fails, after having been fum- 
 moned thereto by the king's fhips, may be conftrained to do it; 
 and if they make refiftance, and fight, thev arc lawful Prife. 
 Prise, in our ftatutes, is ufed for tilings taken of the lubjects by 
 the king's purveyors. 
 
 Spelmarj 
 
p r r 
 
 Spelman deferibcs Prifes to be coin and other provifions taken 
 from the country people, at lower rates than ordinary, for the 
 maintenance of the king's houfhold,_garifons, &c, 
 Roger <le Monte alto, who married the fitter of Hugo de 
 Albeney, claimed the following privileges, viz. his caftle of 
 Refinge cum prifis \Q_dierum, with prifes of 40 days: which 
 phrafe the fame author underftands of the liberty of taking 
 provifions for the fupport of the garifon of his caftle, upon 
 paying for them within 40 days. See Jlat. 12. Car. II. 
 cap. 34. . 
 PRISM*, Prisma, in geometry, an oblong folid or body, 
 contained under more than four planes, and whole bafes are 
 equal, parallel, and alike fituated. 
 * It is thus called from the Greek v^ift fomething favnt, or 
 cut of. 
 
 The Prifm is generated by the motion of a rectilinear figure, as 
 ACB {tab. geom.ftg. 16.) defcending always parallel to itfelf, 
 along the right line AE. 
 
 If the defcribent be a triangle, the body is faid to be a trian- 
 gular Prifm ; if fquare, a quadrangular one, &c. 
 Fropi the genefis of the Prifm, it is evident it has two equal and 
 uppofite bales ; that it is terminated by as many parallelograms 
 as the bafe confifts of fides ; and that all the Onions of a Prifm 
 parallel to its bafe are equal. 
 
 Every triangular Prifm m±y be divided into three equal py- 
 ramids. . ' TS. . * 
 To meafure the furface and folidity of a Prism.— Find the area 
 of the bafe, e.gr. ABC, (fee Triangle) and multiply it 
 by 2 j find the areas of the planes or parallelograms, that in- 
 clude or circumfcribe it, and add their fum to the former pro- 
 daft. The fum is the whole furface of the Prifm, 
 Multiply then the bafe B A C, by the altitude CD ; the pro- 
 dua is the folidity of the cube ABCDEF. See Centro- 
 
 BARlC, .. . . —it* rv«y. -' ' , ■ 
 
 All Prifms are in a ratio compounded of their bafes and alti- 
 tudes : if then their bafes be equal, they are to each other as 
 their heights ; and vife verfa. Similar Prifms, &c. are in a 
 triplicate ratio of their homologous fides, as alfo of their alti- 
 tudes. •-• . . 
 
 Prism, in dioptrics, is a glafs in form of a triangular Pnjm, much 
 ufed in experiments about the nature of light and colours. 
 The phenomena and ufe of the Prifm arife from its feparating 
 the rays of light in their pafTage through it. 
 The more general of thefe pbamomena are as follow : for, to 
 enumerate all would be endlefs ; and even thefe are fufficient to 
 demonftratc, that colours do not either confift in the contorfion 
 of the globules of light, as Des Cartes imagined ; nor in the 
 obliquity of the pulfes of the ethereal matter, as Hook fancied ; 
 nor in the conftipation of light, and its greater or lefs concita- 
 tion, as Dr. Barrow conjeaured ; but that they are original 
 and unchangeable properties of light itfelf. 
 
 Phenomena of the Pais:.!.— i.The fun's rays tranfmittcd through 
 a Prifm to an oppofite wall, projea an image like the rainbow, 
 of various vivid colours; the chief whereof are red, yellow, 
 green, blue, and violet. 
 
 The reafon is, that the various coloured rays, which were before 
 mixed and blended together, are now, in virtue of their different 
 refrangibilities, feparatcd by reunion, in palling through the 
 Prifm, and thrown, each colour, by itfelf. 
 for the blue rays, e. gr. reprefented by the dotted lines, (tab. 
 opt. fig. 50.} beginning to be feparated from the reft in the fide 
 £ a 'of the Prifm a b c, by the firft refraaion in dd, are again 
 foparated further in the other face of the Prifm be, by a fe- 
 cond refraaion the fame way in e e : whereas in a plain glafs, 
 or even in a Prifm in a different pofition, the blue rays fepa- 
 rated by the firft refraaion in the fiift furface, are again mixed 
 by the fecond refraction at the other furface, which is made a 
 contrary way. ..cm/' jl 
 
 2. The image thus projeaed, is not round ; but when the 
 angle of the Prifm is 60 or 65 deg. is about five times as long 
 as broad. ff siffjfe 1 ■:i:'.tit~r. : Ta*y tWv .n 
 Bccaufe fome of the rays are refined more than others, and 
 therefore exhibit feveral images of the fun ftrctched out in 
 length, as if it were but one. 
 
 3. Thefe ravs which exhibit the yellow colour, fwerve more 
 from the reailinear courfe, than thole which exhibit the red ; 
 and the green more than the yellow ; and the violet moft 
 of all. . ■ ■ Yil'ii 
 
 4. If the Prifm, through which the rays are tranfmitted, be 
 turned about its axis ; fo as the red, yellow, green, &c. rays be 
 received in order on another Prifm about twelve feet diftant 
 from the former, through a little hole, and thence be projeaed 
 further, the yellow, red, cSV. rays, though they fall in the fame 
 manner on the fecond Prifm, yet will not be projeaed on the 
 fame place as the red, but will be deeded further that way to- 
 wards which the refraaion is. 
 
 And if, in lieu of the fecond Prifm, they be received on a lens 
 a little convex ; the yellow, green, Ufe, rays will be colled, 
 each in its order, into a nearer focus than the red ones. — The 
 leafon of which two laft phenomena is, that the yellow rays 
 ■are refrafted more than the red ones, the green ones more than 
 the yellow ones, and the violet ones moft of all. 
 
 5. The colours of coloured rays well feparated, can neither 
 
 P R I 
 
 be deftroyed, nor in any manner altered by repeated refracti- 
 ons through a number of Prifms ; nor by palling through an 
 illumined (pace, nor by their mutual decuffations, nor by the 
 neighbourhood of the lhade, nor by being refleaed from any 
 natural bodies. 
 
 Becaufe their colours are not modifications arifing from refrac- 
 tion, but original and immutable properties thereof. 
 
 6. All coloured rays colkaed together in any manner, either 
 by feveral Prifms, or a convex lens, or concave fpeculum, form 
 whitenefs ; but being again feparated alter decufiation, each 
 exhibits its proper colour. 
 
 Becaufe, as the ray was white ere its parts were feparated by 
 refractiun ; fo tfaofe parts being remixed, it recovers its white- 
 nefs ; and the coloured rays, when they meet, do not deftroy 
 one another, but only intermix. 
 
 Hence dufts, or powders, red, yellow, green, blue, violet, 
 &c. mixed in a certain proportion, become grey ; or of 
 the colour arifing from a mixture of black and white j and 
 would be perfectly white, but that fome of the rays are ab- 
 forbed. 
 
 Thus, if a circle of paper be fmeared with all thefe colours 
 apart, in a certain proportion, and turned fwiftly about its 
 centre, fo that the fpecies of the feveral colours may be con- 
 founded in the eye by the velocity of the motion, the feveral 
 colours will difappear, and the whole be feen of one uniform 
 colour between black and white. 
 
 7. If the fun's rays ftrike very obliquely on the inner fuper- 
 ficies of a Prifm, the rays refleaed will be violet colour'd ; 
 thofe tranfmitted, red. 
 
 8. If there be two Prifms, the one full of a red liquor, the 
 other of a blue one ; the two joined together will be opake ; 
 though, if both be filled either with a blue or a red liqour, 
 they will, together, be tranfparent : for the one tranfmitting 
 none but blue, the other none but red rays, the two together 
 will tranfmit none at all. 
 
 9. All natural bodies, cfpecially white ones, viewed through 
 a Prifm held to the eye, feem fringed or hemmed on one 
 fide with red and yellow, on the other with blue and 
 violet. 
 
 10. If two 'Prifms be fo placed, that the red of the one, and 
 the purple of the other, meet on a paper encompafl'ed with 
 darknefs, the image will be pale; but viewed through a third 
 Prifm held to the eye at a due diftance, will appear double, 
 red and purple. 
 
 And if two kinds of powder, the one perfeaiy red, the other 
 blue, be mixed, a little body being covered thick with the mix- 
 ture, will exhibit a double image, the one red, the other blue, 
 through a Prifm applied to the eye. 
 
 ir. If the rays tranfmitted through a convex lens be received 
 on a paper before they meet in the focus, the confine of light 
 and fliadow will feem tinged with a red colour ; it beyond the 
 focus, with a blue. 
 
 12. If the rays about to be tranfmitted through one part of 
 the pupil, be intercepted by the interpofition of fome opake 
 body near the eye, the extremes of bodies lying beyond it will 
 feem tinged with colours, as if feen through a Prifm, though 
 lefs vivid. 
 
 Becaufe the rays, tranfmitted through the reft of the pupil, are 
 feparated by refraaion into divers colours ; and the inter- 
 cepted rays, which would be refraaed a contrary way, are 
 prevented from mixing and diluting them : whence alfo it is, 
 that a body viewed with both eyes through two little holes made 
 in a paper, does not only appear double, but tinged with co- 
 lours too. 
 
 PRISMOID, Prismoides, in geometry, a folid figure, bounded 
 by feveral planes, whofe bafes are right-angled parallelograms, 
 parallel, and alike fituated. 
 
 PRISON. See the article Goal. 
 
 PRISONER, in law, one that is reftrained of his liberty upon 
 any aaion civil or criminal ; or upon commandment, 
 A man, again, may be Prifoncr either upon matter of faa, or 
 of record. 
 
 Prisoner upon matter of record, is he who being prefent in 
 
 court, is by the court committed to prifon. 
 Prisoner upon matter of faff is he who is committed upon 
 
 an arreft, be it by the fheriff, conftable, or other. 
 PRIST — Unques Prist. See the article Unques. 
 PRIVATE average, l ( Average. 
 
 Private charters, V See the articles < Charter, 
 
 Private fpirit, J CSpirit. 
 
 PRIVATION, Privatio, the abfence, want, or defea of 
 
 fomething needed, or neceffary. 
 
 In the canon law, Privation is ufed for an interdiaion or fuf- 
 penfion. 
 
 Myftic divines ufe the phrafe, Privation of God, for thofe 
 drineffes which the foul experiences, to whom God does not 
 make himfelf felt. 
 
 The church of Rome teaches, that children dying without 
 baptilm, go into a limbus, where they undergo a Privation of 
 the fight of God. 
 Privation, in pbyfics, is a negative principle, which, with 
 matter and form, the Peripatetics fuppofe, confpiie; to con- 
 llitute natural bodies. 
 
 Privation 
 
P RI 
 
 PRO 
 
 Privation fignifies no more than the ahfmce of the future 
 form: thus every thing, according to Aiifiotle, is formed of 
 this, that it was not that thing before; e.gr. a chick arifes 
 hence, that it was not a chick before it was generated ; which 
 is what the pliilofopher calls Privation. 
 
 Ariftotle is very angry with the ancients, for not admitting Pri- 
 vation as a principle, and imputes it to their ignorance thereof. 
 But it is an rnjuftice to reproach them with ignorance of what 
 it is impoilible to be ignorant of ; and it is an illufion to pro- 
 duce this poor principle of Privation as fiich a mighty myftery ; 
 there being nobody bis t fuppofes it a thing known, that a tiling 
 is not before it is made, 
 PRIVATIVE, in grammar, a particle, which, prefixed to a 
 word, changes it into a contrary fenfe. 
 
 Thus, among the Greeks, the a. is ufed as a Privative; as in 
 "-fesf, atheifl, accphalus, &c. — The Latins have their Privative 
 in ; as, incorrigibility indeelinabilis , &c. — The Englifh, French, 
 C3V. on occaiion, burrow both the Latin and Greek Pri- 
 •vathes. 
 
 Privative modes. See the article Mode. 
 Privative quantity, in algebra, denotes a quantity lefs than 
 
 nothing ; called alfo a negative quantity ; in oppofition to 
 
 affirmative or pofitive quantities. 
 
 Privative quantities are denoted by the character of fubtrac- 
 tion — prefixed to them. 
 
 PRIVILEGE*, PriviLEGium, in the general, any kind of 
 right, prerogative, or advjntage, attached to a certain perfon, 
 condition, or employment, exclufive of others. 
 * 1 he word is formed from the Latin privata lex. 
 
 Privtlece, in law, is a particular right granted to a fmgle per- 
 fon, place, community, or the like, whereby they are exempted 
 from the rigour of the common laws. 
 Privilege is either per/ami or real ; 
 
 Perfonal Privilege is that which is granted to any perfon cither 
 ag.iinft or beyond the courfe of the common law. 
 Such, e.gr, is that of a member of parliament, who may not 
 be arretted, nor any of his fervants, during the fitting of par- 
 liament, nor for a certain time before and after. 
 
 Real Privilege is a franchife granted to a place. 
 
 Such h that granted to our univerfities, by which none who are 
 members thereof may be called to Weftminfter-hall upon any 
 contract made within their own precincts. 
 
 So alfo, a perfon belonging to the court of chancery cannot be 
 fued in any other court, certain cafes excepted : and if he be, 
 he may remove it by writ of Privilege. 
 
 It is an ancient Privilege for men to be exempted from arrefts 
 within the verge of the court, i. e. in or near the palace where 
 the king is refident : becaufe, tti fuch cafes, quarrels frequently 
 happen ; and the peace ought to be ftrictiy kept there. See 
 
 Pax. 
 
 In the laws of Hen. L it is exprcfi'ed, that peace ought to be 
 maintained religioufly and reverently within four miles of the 
 king's doors towards the four quarters ; and forty-nine acres, nine 
 feet, nine palms, and nine barley-corns around. See Peace. 
 
 Attachment of Privilege. See the article Attachment. 
 
 Privilege, in commerce, is a permiflion from a pjince or 
 magiftrate, to make and fell a certain (merchandize, or to en- 
 gage in a certain commerce^ either cxdufively of others, or 
 concurrently with them. 
 
 The firft is called an exclufive Privilege ; the flitter, limply, 
 a Privilege. 
 
 Exclufive Privileges are to be granted rarely, by rcafon of the 
 hindrance they are of to trade ; yet they arc fomctimes very 
 juft and reafonable, by way of reward for the invention of 
 ufeful machines, manufactures, (Jc. 
 
 Exclufive Privileges far foreign commerce are ufually granted on 
 the following conditions : — That the commodities be brought 
 from remote parls, where there is no going without running 
 great rifques : that the Privilege be only for a limited time : 
 that the perfons privileged be not allowed to monopolize, t, e. 
 to raifeand lower their commodities at pleafure ; but that the 
 fale and price be always proportionable to the expence, inte- 
 relts, f$c and that the Privileges aflift the ftate, on occaiion, 
 with part of their gains. 
 Privilece for the impreffnn of fooks, is properly exclufive j 
 being a permiflion wiiich an author, or bookfeller, obtains 
 tinder a prince's feal, to have alone the impreflion of a book, I PRO confejfo, 
 with a prohibition of all others to print, fell, or diftribute the j PRO indivifo 
 fame, within a certain term of years, ufually 14, under the 
 claufes and penalties expreiTed therein. 
 
 Thefe Privileges were unknown till the beginning of the 1 6th 
 century, when they were introduced in France: the oldeft is 
 fcid to bear date in the year 1507. and to have been occafioned 
 by fome printers counterfeiting the works of others as foon as 
 they appeared. 
 
 But people were yet at liberty to take or let them alone at 
 pleafure, till the intercfts of religion, and the ftate, occafioned 
 the rcftraining of this liberty. 
 
 In 1563. Charles IX. puMifhed a celebrated ordonnance, for- 
 bidding any perfon, on pain of confirmation of body and goods, 
 to print any letter, fpeech, tif>. without permiflion. 
 The like has been fince done in England ; though, at pre- 
 fent, Privileges are not only not required, but by the late 
 ait for fecuring the iroperties of books, feem needkfs. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 Privileges of the clergy. See the article Clergy. 
 Privilege of the tabouret. See the article Taeouret. 
 Privileged debt. See the article Debt. 
 
 PRIVITIES, the genital parts of either (ex ; or thofe immedi- 
 ately miniftering to the buiinefs of generation. See Geni- 
 tals. 
 
 PRIVITY, an intimate freedom, or private familiarity between 
 two perfons. 
 
 The lawyers fay, if there be lord and tenant, and the tenant 
 hold of the lord by certain fervices j there is a Privity between 
 them in refpect of the tenure. 
 PRIUS.— Nift prius, in law. See Nisi. 
 PRIVY, in law, a perfon who is partaker, or has an intereft in 
 an action or thing. 
 
 In this fenfe they fay, privies in Mood: every heir in tail is Privy 
 to recover the land intailed. 
 
 In old law-books, merchants Privy are oppofed to merchants 
 ft rangers. 
 
 Coke mentions four kinds of Privies. — Privies in blood, as the 
 heir to his father ; Privies in rcprefentatian, as executors and 
 adminiftrators to the deceafed ; Privies in eflate, as he in re- 
 vcrfion, and he in remainder ; donor and donee ; lefibr and 
 lefTee ; laftly, Privy in tenure, as the lord by efcheat, /', e. when 
 land efcheats to the lord for want of heirs. 
 Privy council, a council of ftate, held by the king with his 
 counfellors, to concert matters for the public fervice, and foe 
 the honour and fafety of the realm. 
 
 The Privy council is, or ought to be, the primum mobile of the 
 ftate, and that which gives the motion and direction to all the 
 inferior parts. It is likewife a court of juftice of great anti- 
 quity ; the primitive and ordinary way of government in Eng- 
 land being by the king and Privy council. 
 
 It has been frequently ufed by all our kings for determining con- 
 troverfies of great importance : the ordinary judges have fome- 
 times declined giving judgment till they had confulted the kino- 
 and Privy council ; and the parliament h ve frequently referred 
 matters of high moment to the fame ; as being by long 
 experience better able to judge of, and by their fecrecy and 
 expedition, to tranfact, fome ftate-afLiirs, than the lords and 
 commons. 
 
 At prefent, the Privy council takes cognizance of few or no 
 matters except fuch as may not be well determined by the 
 known laws, and ordinary courts ; fuch as matters of com- 
 plaint, and fudden emergencies. 
 
 The oath of a Privy counfellor is, to the utmofl of his power 
 and difcretion, truly and juftly to counfel the king, and to keep 
 fecret the king's counfels. 
 
 Anciently, to itrike in the houfe of a Privy counfellor, or elfe- 
 where in his prefence, was grievoufly punifhed ; to confpire his 
 death, is felony ; and to effect it, is treafon. 
 With the advice of this council, the king iflues proclamati- 
 ons that bind the fubject, provided they be not contrary to 
 law. 
 
 In debates, the loweft delivers his opinion firft, the king iaft ; 
 and thereby determines the matter. 
 
 A council is never held without the prefence of a fecretary of 
 ftate. 
 
 The members of the Privy council in the year 1710. were in 
 number 57 j their officers, four clerks of the council, three 
 clerks extraordinary, three clerks in the council- office, a keeper 
 of the iccords, and two keepers of the council- chamber. 
 Lord frefufent of the Privy council. See President. 
 Privy jeal, a feal which the king ufes, previoufly, to fuch grants, 
 (£fc. as are afterwards to pafs the great feal. 
 Yet the Privy' feal is fometimes ufed in matters of lefs confe- 
 quence, which do not require the great feal. See Seal. 
 Lord Privy feal is the fifth great officer of the crown, through 
 whofe hands paf; charters and grants of the king, and all par- 
 dons figned by him, before they come to the great feal : alfa 
 matters of lefs moment, which do not pafs the great feal, v. gr. 
 for payments of money, &c. 
 
 Pie is a lord by office, and a member of the Privy council ; 
 he was anciently chief judge of the court of requefts. 
 Clerks of the Privy feal. See the article Clerk. 
 Privy chamber. See the article Chamber. 
 PRIZE. See the article Prise. 
 
 See the article Pro-con fesso. 
 See the article Pro-indi viso. 
 ROBABILISTS, a feet, or divifion, among the Roma- 
 nifts, who adhere to the doctrine of probable opinions ; hold- 
 ing, that a man is not always obliged to take the more pro- 
 bable fide, but may take the lefs probable, if it be but barely 
 probable. 
 
 The Jefuits and Molinifts are ffrenuous ProbabUifis. See 
 Jesuit, &c. 
 
 Thofe who oppofe this doctrine, and afTert, that we are obliged, 
 on pain of finning, always to take the more probable fide, are 
 called f robabiliorijh. 
 
 The Janfenifts, and particularly the Port-roya!ifts, are proba- 
 biliorifts. 
 
 PROBABILITY, in reafoning, v:rifimilitude ; or an appear- 
 ance of truth. 
 
 To define it philofopliically, Probability is the appearance of 
 the agreement or difagreement of two things by the intcrvtn- 
 Q Q, tion 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 lion of proofs, whofe connexion is not fixed or immutable, 
 or is not perceived to be So ; but is, or appears, for the moil 
 part, to be fo : fo as to fuffice to induce the mind to judge 
 the propofkion to be true or falfe, rather than the contrary. 
 That proposition, then, is probable, for which there are ar- 
 guments and prools to nuke it pais, or be received for 
 true. 
 
 The entertainment the mind gives to this fort of pjopofitions, 
 is called belief, ajfent, or opinion. 
 
 Probability, then, being to fupply the defect of our know- 
 ledge, is always converfant about piopofitions whereof we 
 have no certainty, but only foirie inducements to receive them 
 for true. 
 
 According to Ariftotle, a propofition is probable, if it feem 
 true to all or mod people, and thofe the wifer and more repu- 
 table fort : But by feem, he means, what, after a clofe inquiry, 
 fhall feem to be true. 
 
 Of Probability there are various degrees, from the confines of 
 Certainty and demonstration, down through improbability and 
 unlikencSs to the confines of impossibility ; and alio degrees 
 Ofaflent from certain knowledge, and, what is next to it, full 
 afiurance and confidence, quite down to conje&ure, doubt, 
 diftruft, and disbelief. 
 
 The grounds of Probability are, in fhort, thefe two following ; 
 viz. the conformity of any tiling with our own particular 
 knowledge, experience, or observation, called internal Proba- 
 bility ; and the teftimony of others vouching their observation, 
 or experience, called external Probability. 
 Probability, in poetry, denotes the appearance of truth in 
 the fable or action of a poem. 
 
 There are four kinds of actions.; for a thing may be either only 
 true, or only probable; or true and probable at the fame time; 
 or neither the one nor the other. 
 
 Thefe four kinds of actions are Shared between four arts : hi- 
 ftory takes the Sirftj ftill keeping to truth, without regard to 
 Probability. 
 
 Epic and dramatic poetry have the Second, and frill prefer Pro- 
 bability, though SalSc, to an improbability, though true : thus 
 the death of Dido, who killed her Self on her being deferred by 
 /Eneas, though faife in itfelf, is a fitter Subject for a poem, 
 than the action of SamSon, or the maid of Orleans. 
 Moral philofophy takes the third ; and the Sabulifts, as /ESop, 
 c5>. the fourth. 
 
 Boflu adds, that the cpopaela, in its nature and efience, ufes 
 truth and Probability like morality ; yet in its certainty and 
 exprefiions takes a liberty like that of JEfop : inflances of each 
 we have in the /Eneid. 
 
 Poetical Probability may be fo either in rcSpect of the rules of 
 theology, of morality, nature, reafon, experience, or opinion. 
 As to theology, there is fcarcc any thing but is probable, in 
 refpect hereof; becaufe nothing is impoflible to God. This is 
 an expedient the poets have frequent recourfe to, in order to 
 bring things feigned contrary to the order of nature, within 
 the bounds of Probability, See this confidereu under the arti- 
 cle Machine. 
 
 As to morality, we have obferved, it requires both truth and 
 verisimilitude : an ancient poet was condemned on the- theatre 
 for a flip herein, viz, for making a per Son, whom he repre- 
 sented as an honeft man, Say, that though his tongue fivore, his 
 mind did not. 
 
 Seneca accuSes Virgil of an offence againft natural Probability* 
 in Saving, that the winds were pent up in caves ; for, Says that 
 philofopher, wind being only air in motion, to Suppofe it at reft, 
 is to deftroy its nature. To which VoSfius anSwers, that the 
 poet only Speaks of the natural origin of winds ; which are pro- 
 duced in mountains by vapours, (Sc. pent there : juft as we 
 fhould fay, the winds arc incloSed in an aolipyle. 
 Virgil, hkewiSe, committed an offence againft natural Proba- 
 bility, by making /Eneas find deer in Africa ; becaufe that coun- 
 try produces none. 
 
 Indeed thefe faults arc excufable, becaufe, as Ariftotle finely 
 obferves,they ate not faults in the poet's art, but theyarife from 
 his ignorance of Something taught in the other arts. 
 However, care muft be taken they be not too grofs ; there be- 
 ing Some Probabilities of this kind, which /E Sop himfelf could 
 not diSpenfc withal ; he would never be forgiven, were he to 
 reprefent a lion fearful, a hare daring, a fox ftupid, c3V. 
 Probability, in reSpect of reafon, is frequently broken in upon 
 by thoSe who affect nothing but the merveilleux. Here Statius 
 is a notorious criminal : Tydeus, being Surprized In an ambuf- 
 cade by fifty bravoes, who had vowed his death, kills forty- nine 
 of them, and pardons the laft. 
 
 Again, two young kings, whereof this fame Tydeus was one, 
 the other Polynices, upon a quarrel, go together by the ears, 
 and box it out ; their (words all the while by their fides. 
 1 Scrutatur £3* intima vultus 
 Unca manus, penitufq; oculis cedentibus injiat. 
 Scaliger accuSes Homer of an offence againft experience, in fay- 
 ing, that 'Jupiter thundered and flowed at the fame time. This, 
 the critic Says, was never known ; and yet have there been 
 inftances hereof even in our time. 
 
 But the principal and moft important kind of Probability, is that 
 in refpect of common opinion. A thing is probable when it 
 looks like truth ; but Sometimes it fhall appear true to the peo- 
 
 ple, and falfe to the learned ; and vice verfa. When, then, the 
 learned and the people are divided, to which fide muft the poet 
 adhere? Suppofe, for inftance, the adventure of Penelope, the 
 hiftory of Medea, Helena, or the like: what Virgil and Homer 
 have written of them, fhall appear probable to the populace ; 
 yet the learned read the contrary in hiftory ; Some authors hav- 
 ing written, that Dido was chafte, and Medea innocent ; that 
 Penelope was divorced and banifhed by Ulyfles for abufing his 
 abfence ; and that Helena never Saw Troy. 
 This point is Soon decided : Homer and Virgil make no Scruple 
 of deviating from hiftory, to improve their fables : and Horace 
 does not fend the poets to the truths oS hiftory ; but either to 
 fables already invented, or to common fame. 
 All which is confirmed by Ariftotle ; where he fays, that a poet 
 does not tell, like an hiftorian, what kind of" perfon Alcibiades 
 was, nor what he really did or Said on this or that occafion ; but 
 what he probably might have done or Said. Add to this, that 
 Ariftotle approves of the fable of Oedipus and Iphigcnia, though 
 it can never be imagined the truth of thofe Stories was believed 
 by the learned in thoSe days. 
 
 In effect, every' one finds his account in this conduct : the 
 people think they See truth ; and the learned do really fee truths, 
 and more folid ones too, than thofe the people look for ; and 
 more certain than thofe of the hiftory, which the poet negleds. 
 The more undemanding they are, the leSs will they defire thefe 
 biltorical truths in a poem, which is intended for other and 
 deeper ends. Tiie truths they require, are moral and allegorical 
 truths, The /Eneid was not written to teach us the hiftory of 
 Dido, but to Shew, under that name, the genius and conduct 
 of ttie republick founded by her, and the fource and feries of its 
 differences with Rome. This we fee with pleafure ; and thefe 
 truths are more agreeable, more certain and notorious, than 
 any the poet could take from a hiftory fa little known in his 
 time. 
 
 To thefe kinds of Probability may be added another, which we 
 call accidental Probability : it confifts not in the ufing of feveral 
 incidents, each probable apart ; but in difpofing them So as to 
 hang probably together. 
 
 A man, e.gr, may probably die of an apoplexy; but that this 
 fhould happen juft in the nick, when the poet wanted it for an 
 unravelling, is highly improbable. 
 
 It is an offence againft this kind of Probability to produce an 
 incident all at once, and without any preparation, which yet 
 needed one. Virgil is wonderfully exadt in this point : Juno 
 prepares the tempeft raifed in the firSt book ; Venus in the fame 
 book prepares the amours of the fourth. The death of Dido 
 in the end of the fourth, is prepared on'the firft day of marriage ; 
 Helenus in the third difpofes the whole matter of the fixth ; and 
 in the fixth, the Sibyl predicts all the wars that follow. 
 PROBABLE opinion, a term long time controverted among the 
 Romilh c.tfuifts ; ufually defined an opinion Sounded on a grave 
 motive, or an apparently good foundation, and which has au- 
 thority enough on its fide to pcrfuade a wife difinterefted perSon 
 to aSTcnt to it. 
 
 Others define a Probable opinion to be that which being com- 
 pared to the contrary opinion, becomes problematical, by a per- 
 fect equality of the reafons on each fide ; fo that there is no- 
 thing in reafon or nature to determine a man to this fide rather 
 than that. 
 
 But the JeSuits go ftill farther, and maintain, that to render an 
 opinion Probable, it Suffices, that it be either built on a reaSon 
 of Some confequence, or on the authority of Some one grave 
 doctor. With theSe qualifications it is allowable to follow it, 
 even though it be lefs Probable, and lefs certain, than the con- 
 trary opinion : here it is that the venom of probability lies. — This 
 doctrine is attacked with infinite addrefs by M. Pafchal in the 
 provincial letters. 
 
 One of the twenty-four patriarchs of the JeSuits, Caftro Palaio, 
 afferts, that a judge, in a queftion of right, may give Sentence 
 according to a Probable opinion, againft a more Probable one ; 
 and this, contrary to the judgment and perSuafion of his own 
 mind ; imo contra propriam opinioncm. Efcobar, tr. 6. ex. 6. 
 ». 45. 
 
 So Vafquez maintains, that it is lawSul to follow the lefs Pro- 
 bable and lefs fecure opinion, discarding the more Probable, and 
 jnore fecure one. 
 
 Leffius and EScobar, treating of the queftion, Whether a man 
 may kill another for giving him a box on the ear ? decide it to 
 he a probable opinion, and Speculatively true ; though there may 
 be Some inconveniencies in the practice, for which it would be 
 as well to let it alone. In praxi tutam c3* probabilem judica- 
 runt — fed non facile adm'tttendam. Let. provinciales, p. 307, 
 308. 
 
 PROBANDA proprietate. See the article Proprietate. 
 
 PROBATE, of a villi, or tejlament, in law, is the exhibiting 
 and proving a will and teftamcnt, before the ecclefiaftical judges 
 delegated by the biShop, who is ordinary of the place where 
 the party dies. 
 
 The ordinary is known by the quantity of goods the deceafed 
 hath out of the diocefe wherein he departed ; for if all his goods 
 be in the fame dioceSe, then the bifhop of the diocefe, or the 
 archdeacon, according as their compofition leads, has the Pro- 
 bate of the teftament. — If the goods be difperfed in feveral dio- 
 cefes, fo that there be any fum of note, bona notabilia, as five 
 
 pounds, 
 
PRO 
 
 pounds, out of the diocefe where the party lived ; then is the 
 archhifhop of Canterbury the ordinary by prerogative. 
 This Probate may be made two ways; either in common form. 
 or per te/lcs. — The proof in common form is only by the oath of 
 the executor, or party exhibiting the will, who fwears upon his 
 belief, that the will exhibited by him, is the laft will and tefta- 
 inent of the deceafed. 
 
 The proof per tefles, by witnejfes, is, when over and befides 
 his own oath, he alfo produces witnefles, or makes other proof 
 to confirm, that it is the hi ft will of the deceafed ; and this in 
 the prefence of fuch as may pretend fume intereft in the goods 
 of the deceafed ; or at leaft in their abfence, after thev have 
 been lawfully fommoned to fee fuch a will proved, if they 
 think, fit. 
 
 The latter courfe is commonly taken when there is fear of 
 fome ftrife, or difpute about the deccafed's goods: for fome 
 hold, that a will proved in common form only, may be called 
 in queftion any time within thirty years after. 
 Where a will difpofes of lands and tenements of freehold, it is 
 now frequently proved by witnefles in chancery 
 
 PROBATICA pifcina. See the article Piscina. 
 
 PROBATION, in a monadic fenfe, a time of trial ; or the 
 year of noviciate, which a religious muff pafs in a convent to 
 prove his virtue and vocation, and whether he can bear the (e- 
 verities of the rule. 
 
 The year of Probation commences from the day of novices 
 taking the habit. 
 Probation, in the univerfiiies, denotes the examination and 
 trial of a ftudent who is about to take his degrees. See 
 Degree. 
 
 PROBATIONER, in the presbyterian difcipline, a perfon li 
 cenfed by a presbytery to preach ; which is ufually done a year 
 before he be ordained. 
 
 A ftudent in divinity is not admitted Probationer till after 
 feveral trials : the firrt, private, before a presbytery ; the fe 
 cond, public, before a congregation, the presbytery being 
 pre fen t. 
 
 The private trials are a homily and exegefis, i. e. a theological 
 fubjecr. is given in ro the presbytery in tbefes, and the candidate 
 anfwers any objections darted againft it. 
 
 The public trials are a popular iermon, and an exercife and ad 
 dition, i. c. a text is handled, half an hour, logically and cri- 
 tically ; and half an hour more, practically, 
 If he acquit himfelf to the fatisfaction of the presbytery, he 
 figns the confeffion of faith, and owns the presbyterian govern- 
 ment, &c. Upon which he receives a licence to preach. 
 
 PROBATOR, in law, an accufer, or approver ; one who un- 
 dertakes to prove a crime charged upon another : properly, an 
 accomplice in the crime, who impeaches others. 
 
 PROBATUM eft, q. d. it is proved -j a term frequently fubjoin- 
 ed to a receipt, for the cure of fome difeafe. 
 
 PROBE, a lurgeon's inftrument, wherewith to found and 
 examine the circum fiances of wounds, ulcers, and other ca- 
 vities. 
 
 PROBLEM*, Pp.oblema, in logic, a doubtful queftion; or 
 a proportion that neither appears abfolutely true, nor lalfo ; but 
 which is probable on both (ides, and may be after ted either in 
 the negative or affirmative, with equal evidence, 
 * The word is originally Greek, we^Gjaifi^ fiemfying the fame 
 thing. 
 
 Thus, that the moon and planets are inhabited by animals in 
 fome refpect like us, is a Problem : that the fixed flars are all 
 funs, and each the centre of a feveral fyftem of pjanets and co- 
 mets, is a Problem. See Planet, Star, fcrV. 
 Problem is alfo a propofitlon expreffing fome natural effect, 
 propofed in order to a difcovcry of its apparent caufe — Such are 
 the Problems of Ariftotle. 
 
 A logical or dialectical Problem, fay the fchoolmen, confifts of 
 two parts ; a fubject, or fubjedt-matter, about which the doubt 
 is railed ; and a predicate or attribute, which is the thing doubt- 
 ed whether it be true of the fubjeCt or not. See Subject and 
 Predicate. 
 
 There are four topical predicates, viz. genus, definitio, pro- 
 prium, and accidens \ whence arife four different kinds of dia- 
 lectical Problems. 
 
 The firft, when the thing attributed to the lubjed is in 
 the relation of a genus : as, whether fire be an element or 
 not ? 
 
 The fecond, when the thing attributed has the effect of a de- 
 finition : as, when it is asked, whether or no rhetoric be the art 
 of fpeaking. 
 
 The third, when the attribute imports a propriety : as, whe- 
 ther it belong to ju ft ice to give every one their due ? See 
 Proper. 
 
 The laft is when the thing attributed is adventitious ; as, whe- 
 ther Juftice is to be dented ? 
 
 Problems, again, may be divided into thofe relating to things to 
 be done, or avoided, called ethical ; thofe relating to the know- 
 ledge of nature, called phyftcal ; thofe relating to fpirits, called 
 mctaphvfical Problems, &c. 
 Problem, in geometry, denotes a proportion wherein fome 
 operation, or conftruction, is required ; a«, to divide a line, to 
 make an angle, to draw a circle through three points not in a 
 right line, ciJV. 
 
 PRO 
 
 Meflieurs of the Port Royal define a geometrical Problem, a pro-' 
 pofition given to be demonftrated, wherein fomething is re- 
 quired to be done ; and what is done, to be proved to be the? 
 thing required. 
 
 A Problem, according to Wolfius, confifts of three parts. The 
 propofition, which expreftes what is to be done. 
 The refolution, or folution, wherein the feveral itcps, where- 
 by the thing icquired is to be effected, are orderly re- 
 hearfod. 
 
 The demonftration, wherein is fhewn, that by doing the fe- 
 veral things preferred in the refolution, the thing required Is 
 obtained. ° 
 Accordingly, the general tenor of all Problems is this : The 
 things prcicribed in the refolution being done, the thini- re- 
 quired is done. 
 
 Problem, in algebra, is a queftion or propofition which re- 
 quires fome unknown truth to be investigated or difcovered - 
 and the truth of the difcovery demonftrated. 
 In this fenfe it is a Problem, to find a theorem. See Theo- 
 rem and Investigation. — Algebra is defined to be the art 
 _ of rcfolving all Problems that are refolvible. 
 
 Kepler's Problem, in aftronomy, is the determining of a planet's 
 place from the time ; thus called from the aftronomer Kepler, 
 who firft propofed it. 
 
 The Problem, ftated in form, ftands thus : To find the pofition 
 of a right line, which palling through one of the foci of an 
 elhpfis, mall cut off an area defcribed by its motion, which 
 fnall be in any given proportion to the whole area of the el- 
 h'pfis. 
 
 The propofer knew no way of folving the Problem directly 
 and geometrically ; and therefore had recourfe to an indirect: 
 method ; for which he was taxed with an uy^n^a, or 
 want of geometry ; and his aftronomy charged with not be- 
 ing geometrical. But the Problem has fince been folved di- 
 rectly and geometrically feveral way?, by feveral authors ; part- 
 icularly Sir Ifaac Newton, Dr. Keil], &c. See Planet and 
 Place. 
 
 Determinate Problem, *\ 
 
 Sec 
 
 Limited Problem, 
 Linear Problem, 
 Local Problem, 
 Plain Problem, 
 Solid Problem, 
 Surfolid Problem, 
 Unlimited Problem 
 Deliacal Problem, in geometry 
 
 Determinate. 
 Limited. 
 Linear. 
 Local. 
 Plain. 
 Solid. 
 Sursoid„ 
 V. Unlimited. 
 is the doubling of a cube. 
 
 1 his Problem was fo called from the people of Delos, who^ 
 upon confuting the oracle for a remedy againft a plague they 
 were then infefted with, were anfwered, that the plague fhould 
 ceafe, when Apollo's altar, which was in form of a cube, 
 fhould be doubled. 
 
 This 'Problem coincides with that for finding two mean pro- 
 portionals between two given lines; whence that alfo is called 
 the Deliac Problem. 
 PROBLEMATICAL refolution, in algebra, a method of fol- 
 ving difficult queftions by certain rules, called canons. 
 ROBOSCIS*, in natural hiftory, the trunk or fnout of an 
 elephant, and of fome other animals. 
 
 * The word is Greek, rge^raK, where it has the fame lignifi- 
 cation. 
 
 The Probofeis is a member iffuing out of the middle of the fore- 
 head, ferving inftead of a hand ; and having a little appendix 
 faftened to the end thereof, in form of a finger. - By the Pro- 
 bofcis the {he-elephant, it is faid, fucks heifelf ; and by the fame 
 conveys the milk to her young. 
 
 The Probfcis, Mr. Derjiam obferves, is a member fo admirably 
 contrived, fo curioufly wrought, and with fo great agility ap- 
 plied by that unweildy animal, that it may pafs as a great in- 
 ftance of the creator's skill, c?V. 
 
 All quadrupeds have the length of their neck equal to that 
 of their feet, the elephant alone excepted ; in whom the 
 fhortnefs of the neck is compenfated by the length of the 
 Probofcis. 
 
 The cameleon has alfo a kind of trunk or Probofcis, which is 
 its tongue ; and which it darts nimbly out of its throat, as if it 
 fpat it ; and draws it in again inftantaneoufiy. It ferves, like 
 the elephant's trunk, to lay hold on, and take in its food. See 
 Cameleon. 
 
 The microfcope fhews us a little trunk or Probofcis in flhs and 
 gnats, by means whereof they fuck the blood of animals, or 
 liquors, for their food. 
 PROCA TARCTIC * caufe, the original, primitive, or pre- 
 exilfent caufe, or occafion, of an effect. 
 
 * The word is Greek, wpanonet^nf^- ; formed from the verb 
 «7£oxa]rt£xw, I pre-exifl, I go before. 
 
 Such, e.gr. is a difeafe which co-operates with fome other dif- 
 eafe, fobfequent thereto. — Thus, anger, or heat of a climate, 
 bring on fuch a difpofition of the juices, as occafions a fever j 
 where the ill difpofition is the immediate caufe, and the heat or 
 anger, the Pro:atari~lic caufe. 
 PROCEDENDO, in law, a writ whereby a plea or caufe, 
 formerly called from an inferior court to the chancery, king's 
 bench, or common pleas, by writ of privilege, habeas corpus, 
 or certiorari, is rclcafed, and returned to the uther court to be 
 
 proceedt.i 
 
PRO 
 
 troceeded in ; upon its appearing that the defendant has no caufe 
 of privilege, or that the matter comprifed lil the party s allega- 
 tion is not well proved. v 
 PsbciDENbo arf r^< !»««/«/». See Non 
 
 PROCEDURE, Proceedings in law, the courle or roe re; 
 ver.il afls, expeditions, and mftruaions of a procefs, or law- 
 
 P%iiuu is either civil or criminal.— Chit Procedure is that 
 where the eflate. alone is concerned : criminal, or extraordinary 
 Procedure, is that where the perfon is profecuted. 
 
 PROCEED, among merchants, that which anfes from a thing. 
 — In which fenfe tHey fay, the act Proceed. 
 
 PROCELEUSMA'I'IC'US, in the ancient po- 
 
 etry, a foot confifting of four Ihort fyllables : as, arietat. 
 
 PROCESS, KoClMui, in law, isufedforall the proceedings 
 in any caufe or adion, real or perfonal, civil or criminal, trom 
 
 the original writ, to the end. -. 
 
 In France they carry on a formal Procefs agamd the memory 
 of people killed in duels ; or that have murdered themlelves. 
 Pirates, when taken in the faft, are hanged without any Pro- 
 cefs ; as are fometimes alfo robbers. ... , 
 
 Process is alfo ufed in a more reflrained fenfe, for that by which 
 3 man is firft called into any temporal court ; this being be 
 beginning, or principal part, and that by which the relt ot the 
 buiinefs is directed. , , 
 
 The difference between Procefs and precept or warrant ot the 
 iuftices, is this ; that the precept or warrant is only to attach 
 or convene the paity, before any indiflment or conviftion anJ 
 may be made either in the name of the king, or the jult.ee : 
 but Procefs is always in the king's name, and ufually alter an 
 indictment. 
 
 Process by attainder. See the article Attainder. 
 
 Process, Tn chymillry, the whole courfe of an operation, or 
 experiment. . . 
 
 Process, Procissus, in anatomy, is a term of equal import 
 with upopbyfis, prominence, protuberance, or production. bee 
 Apophysis, CSV. _ 
 Procefs is particularly applied to certain eminences of the bones, 
 and other parts ; diflinguifhed by peculiar names, exptefling 
 their place, form, or the like. 
 
 Such are the procrffus peritonei, procefus vermifirmcs, pro- 
 
 ceffus pqpillares, ciliures, &c. 
 Processus aliformis, 1 C Aliformis. 
 
 Processus comicularis, \ See ) Cornicularis 
 Processus pyrenoides, } ' I Pvrenoidis. 
 
 PROCESSION, Processio, hi theology, a term ufed tor the 
 
 manner wherein the Holy Spirit is conceived to iffue from the 
 
 Father and the Son, in the myflery of the Trinity. 
 
 The Greeks and Latins are not agreed about the Proccffun of 
 
 the Holy Spirit. 
 
 Procession alfo denotes a ceremony m the Romilh church, con- 
 fiding in a formal march of the clergy in their robes, and the 
 people afrcr them, putting up praveis, finging hymns, (ft; and 
 in this manner making a vifit to fome church, or other holy 
 
 There are general Tnceffions of all the people in Jubilees, and 
 the fame often in public calamities.— The Proceffions of the holy 
 facrament are very folemn.— They have alfo Proceffions, fre- 
 quently, around the church, at the falutations, (s'e. in the 
 mafs. Anciently, among us, there were, in each parifli, 
 cufto'mary Precefnns of the parifh prieft, and the patron of 
 the church, with the chief Hag, or holy banner, attended by 
 the other parifhioncrs, each afcenfion-week ; to rake a cir- 
 cuit round the limits of the parifh, and pray for a blcffing on 
 the fruits of the earth. — Of which cuflont there (fill remins 
 a fnadow in that annual perambulation, flill called procefion- 
 ing ; rhour;h the order and devotion of the ancient Proceffions 
 be almoft loft. 
 
 PROCESSUM contimiando, a writ for the continuance of a 
 procefs, after the death of the chief juftice, or other juftices in 
 the commiflion of oyer and teiminer. Reg.orig. 128. 
 
 Recordo (y PROCESSU mi'.tendis. 
 
 PROCHEIN amy, proximus amicus, in law, the nearrfl 
 friend, or perfon next a-kin, to a child in nonage ; and who, 
 in that refpeCT, is allowed in law to deal and negociate for 
 him, to manage his affairs, to fee him redrefl'ed of any 
 wrong, and to be his guardian, if he hold land in focage. 
 See Guardian. 
 
 By prochein amy is commonly underftood the guardian in foc- 
 age : though, in propriety, it is he who appears in court for 
 an infant who fucs any action, and aids the infant in purfuit 
 
 thereof. For, to Are, an infant is not allowed to make an in- 
 
 tomey ; but the court will admit his prochein amy, next friend, 
 as plaintiff; or his guardian, as defendant. 
 PROCIDENTIA, or prolapsus ani, in medicine, is when, 
 upon a difcharge by flool, the inteftinnm redlum is protruded 
 fo far, as that it cannot be drawn back again into the body ; 
 or when drawn back," falls but again. 
 
 This is fometimes a chronical difeafe, efpecially when it arifes 
 from a palfy: its caufes are a relaxation of the fibres of the 
 rectum, or of 'the fphincler mafcle ; either from the adffriclion 
 of the alvus, or from a diarrhcea, dvfenrery, or tenefmus. 
 It is very difficultly cured, when attended with haemorrhoids: 
 The principal cure is by aftringents. — External amftance is alfo 
 
 PRO 
 
 required to reduce the fallen gut; which, if it be not foon done 
 is apt to tumefv and mortify, by the contact or' the air. 
 It is fubject 60 relapfe after reduction in children, efpecially 
 upon violent crying ; and is difficult to keep up, in cafe of a 
 diarrhcea. See Supplement article Procidentia ani. 
 Procidentia uteri, the defcent, or falling down of the womb, 
 caufed by a relaxation of the ligaments which fhould hold it in 
 i;s place. 
 
 If the uterus fall into the vagina, fo that its orifice may be either 
 perceived with the finger within, or by the eye juft without, the 
 labia vulv:e ; it is called a bearing down of the womb. — If it 
 fall quite down, fo as to hang pendulous without the labia, but 
 fo as that no more of the inlide than the orifice is feen, it is 
 called a prolapfus, or Procidentia. — If falling thus low, it be 
 turned inlide out, and hang like a flefhy bag, with a rugged un- 
 equal furfacc, it is called a perverfio uteri. 
 
 Thefe diforders may proceed from violent motions, vehement 
 coughing, fneezing, and the fluor albus. They appear moft 
 frequent in women with child, from the weight prefllng and 
 bearing hard upon the uterus ; but efpecially if the foetus be 
 dead, lie in a wrong pofture, or be violently extracted. 
 After replacing the part, reftringents both inwardly and by 
 injection are here ufed ; fuch as obtain in diarrhoea's, he- 
 morrhoids, the gonorrhoea fimplex, is'c. 
 Procidentia, or Prolapsus, uvula:, the defcent or relaxation 
 of the uvula. 
 
 PROCLAMATION * , Proclamatio, an inftrument dif- 
 patched by the king, with the advice of his privy-council, 
 whereby the people are advertifed of fomething which his ma- 
 jefty thinks fit for them to know ; and whereby they are fome- 
 times required to do, or not to do, certain things. 
 
 * The word is of" Latin origin, formed from pnclamare, palam 13 
 malde clam are, 
 
 Proclamations have the force of laws ; but then they are fuppofed 
 to be confident with the laws already in being; otherwife they 
 are fuperfeded. 
 
 Proclamation is alfo ufed for a folemn denunciation, or decla- 
 ration of war or peace. 
 
 Proclamation alfo denotes the act of notifying to the people 
 the acceffion of a prince to the crown. See Accession. 
 The Proclamation does not inveft the prince with the regal au- 
 thority ; it fuppofes him already inverted therewith, and only 
 gives notice thereof to the people. 
 
 Proclamation of afine, is a notice openly and fulemnly given 
 thereof in the court of common pleas where it pafled, and at 
 ail the affizes in the county, held within one year after the in- 
 groffing it. See Fine. 
 
 Thefe Procla?nations, at the affizes, are made on tranferipts of 
 the fine, fent by juftices of the common picas to the juftices of 
 the affize, and of the peace. 
 
 Proclamation, in a monaffic fenfe, is the accufittion of a frier 
 or brother, by another brother, in open chapter, and in pre- 
 tence of the fuperior and community, for fome external crime 
 he has feen him commit. 
 
 PROCONDYLUS, ^oiftwJcT^ an appellation given to the firft 
 point of each finger. See Condylus and Finger, 
 
 PRO-CONFESSO, in law.— When, upon a bill exhibited in 
 chancery, the defendant appears, and is in contempt for not 
 anfwering, and in cuftody : upon an habeas corpus (which is 
 granted by order) to bring him to the bar, the court nffigns him 
 a day to anfwer ; which being expired, and no anfwer put in, a 
 fecond habeas corpus is granted, and a farther day affigned ; by 
 which d:iy, if he anfwer not, the bill, upon the plaintiffs mo- 
 tion, (hall be taken pro-confefjo, or as allowed, unlefs caufe be 
 fhewn by a day, which the court ufually gives. 
 For want of fuch caufe fhewed, upon motion, the fubftance 
 of the plaintiff's bill fhall be decreed, as if it bad been confejfed 
 by the defendant's anfwer : or, after a fourth infufficient anfwer 
 made to the bill, the matter of fail not fufficiently anfwercd 
 unto, fhall be taken pro-confejfo. 
 
 PROCONSUL, a Roman magiftrate, fent to govern a pro- 
 vince with a confular authority. 
 
 The Proamfuls were appointed out of the body of the fenate ; 
 and ordinarily, as the year of any one's confulate expired, he 
 was fent Proconful into fome province. 
 
 The Proconfuls had the fame honours, cirV. with the confu!>, 
 themfelves ; except that they had only fix li&ors and fafces be- 
 fore them. 
 
 The Proconfuls did not ordinarily hear and determine procefles 
 in perfon, but had that office performed by their afleflors, or 
 other judges, conftituted or delegated by them. 
 As the Proconfuls had the direction both of juftice, of war, and 
 of the revenues ; they had their feveral lieutenants in each capa- 
 city : thefe were called legati, and were ordinarily nominated 
 by the fenate. 
 
 The proconfular function only held a year. The charges of 
 their journey backwards and forwards, were borne by the pub- 
 lic, and were called viaticum. 
 
 After the partition of the provinces between Auguftus and the 
 people, thofe who prefided over the provinces of the people 
 Were called efpecially Proconfuls. 
 Proconsul, in our ancient law-books, is fometimes ufed for a 
 juftice in cyre t or jujlke errant. See Justice. 
 
 PRO- 
 
PRO 
 
 PROCREATION, Procreatio, the action of begetting and 
 
 bringing forth children. 
 PROCTOR, Procurator, a perfon commiffioned to act as 
 
 proxy, or delegate, in behalf of another. See Procurator. 
 Proctor, procurator, in the civil law, is an officer appointed to 
 
 appear in court, and manage the caules of parties who will 
 
 make ufe of his procuration. 
 
 Anciently every body was obliged to appear in perfon ; and 
 when the affair happened to be drawn out to a great length, 
 they were allowed to create a proclor, or proxy, in his caufe. 
 But this was a favour only granted for a certain time ; till to- 
 wards the middle of the 16th century, when it was decreed, 
 that all procuration mould hold till revoked. 
 Proctors of the commons, are perfons skilled in the civil and 
 ecclefiaftical laws, who exhibit their proxies, and make them- 
 felves parties for their clients, to draw up acts and pleadings, 
 produce witnefies, prepare caufes for fentences, and attend the 
 advocates with the proceedings. 
 
 They arc thirty-four in number ; are admitted by the arch- 
 biftiop's fiat 5 and wear black robes, and hoods lined with white 
 furs. 
 
 Proctors of the clergy, are deputies, or reprefentatives, chofen 
 by the clergy of each diocefe, two for each ; and by the cathe- 
 dral and collegiate churches, one for each ; to fit in the lower 
 houfe of convocation. 
 
 Proctors in the univerfity, are two officers, chofen from among 
 the ftudents, to fee good orders, and exercifes daily performed 
 there. 
 
 PROCUMBENT leaves, in botany, fuch leaves of plants as lie 
 
 flat, or trailing on the ground. 
 PROCURATION, or Procuracy, an ac"t, or inftrument, 
 
 whereby a perfon is impowered to treat, tranfact, receive, 
 
 ££<:. in another's name, as if he himfelf were actually pre- 
 
 fent. 
 
 When a man treats in behalf of another, the firft thing is to 
 examine his procuration, or procuracy. 
 
 Procuration is now little ufed in this fenfe, except in the cafe of 
 a perfon who collects the fruits of a benefice for another. 
 Procuration, in the cannon law, is ufed for the repair, or en- 
 tertainment anciently given to church- officers or ordinane?, 
 who came to vifit in churches or monafteries, whether they 
 were bifhops, archdeacons, or vifitors. 
 
 Procuration was due to the pope's legates, and even to popes 
 themfelves, when they came into France ; and the charge was 
 comprized in the bulls then granted. 
 
 Complaints were frequently made to the pope, of the ex- 
 ceffive charges of the Procurations of bifhops and archdea- 
 cons, upon which they were prohibited by feveral councils and 
 bulls. 
 
 That of Clement IV. mentioned in the Monafticon, is very 
 cxprefs ; wherein that pope tells us, complaint had been made, 
 that the archdeacon of Richmond, vifiting the diocefe, tra- 
 velled with one hundred and three horfes, twenty-one dogs, 
 anJ three hawks ; and did fo grievoufly opprefs a religious 
 houfe with that vaft equipage, that he caufed the monks to 
 fpend in an hour as much as would have maintained them a 
 long time. 
 
 Procuration is now ufed for a fum of money paid yearly 
 by parifh-priefts to the bilhop, or archdeacon, in lieu of this 
 entertainment, towards defraying the charge of their vifitation. 
 See Visitation, 
 
 PROCURATOR, Proctor, or Proxy, a perfon who has 
 a charge or office committed to him, to act in behalf of 
 another. 
 
 Thus the proxies of the lords in parliament, in our law-books, 
 are called procurators. 
 
 The word is alfo ufed for a vicar, or lieutenant, — Thus in 
 Petrus Blefenfis, we read of a Procurator regni. 
 Thofe who manage caufes in Doctors Commuiis, are alfo called 
 Procurators, or proflors. 
 
 The bifhops are fometimes called procuratores ecclejtarum, and 
 the reprefentatives fent by the clergy to convocation, procura- 
 tores cleri. 
 
 In our ftatutes, a perfon who gathers the fruits of a benefice for 
 another, is particularly called a Procurator ; and the inftrument 
 impowering him to receive the fame, is term'd a procuracy. 
 Procurator is alfo a kind of magiftrate in feveral cities of 
 Italy, who takes care of the public interefts. — There zxzProcu 
 rotors of St. Mark, at Venice, at Genoa, & c . 
 Originally there was but one Procurator of St. Mark at Venice : 
 In 1442. the number was augmented to nine, when the fenate 
 made a decree, appointing, that for the future none mould be 
 admitted to the dignity but after the death of fome of the nine. 
 But in the necefTities of the republic, the number was after- 
 wards inlarged to forty ; though of thefe there are only nine 
 that bear the title of Procurators, and whofe place is regularly 
 filled. They are adminiftrators of the church of St. Mark, and 
 of the revenues attached thereto, the patrons of orphans, and 
 the executors of teftaments. 
 
 This ofHce receives more luftre from the merit of thofe who dif- 
 charge it, than from its authority.— They are cloathed in black, 
 or violet, with ducal fleevcs. 
 Procurator rmr.aflms, anciently, was the advocate of a reli- 
 
 VOL. II, 
 
 PRO 
 
 gious houfe, who was to folicit the inrerefr, and plead the caufe3 
 of the fociety. See Advocate and Advouee. 
 Procuratores ectlefiee paroehialis, are the church -wardens, 
 whofe office is to act as proxies and reprefentatives of the 
 church. 
 
 PROCYON, in aftronomy, a fixed ftar of the fecond magnitude 
 in canis minor. See Cams miner, and Canicular. 
 
 PRODES hommes, q. d. wife or difcreet men, in our ancient 
 cuifoms, a title given to the barons, and other military tenants, 
 who are called to the king's council, and were to give advice 
 according to the heft of their prudence, and knowledge. 
 
 PRODICTATOR, among the Romans, a magiftrate who had 
 the power, and did the office of a dictator. 
 The Romans fometimes created a Prodiilator, in cafes where 
 they could not have a dictator. Fabius Maximus was Pra- 
 dictator. 
 
 PRODROMUS, tffoSgofW»», laterally denotes a forerunner, a har- 
 binger. — Hence, 
 
 Frodromus morbus, among phyficians, is ufed for a letter dif- 
 
 »eafe which precedes or foreruns a greater. 
 
 Thus a ftraitnefs of the breaff. is a Prodromus of a confumption, 
 a vertigo is fometimes a Prodromus of an apoplexy. 
 PRODUCE. — Net Produce. See the article Net produce. 
 PRODUCING, in geometry, denotes the continuing a right 
 
 line, or drawing it out farther, till it have any affigned length. 
 PRODUCT, in arithmetic and geometry, the factum of two 
 
 numbers ; or the quantity arifing from, or produced by, the 
 
 multiplication of two or more numbers, lines, &<;. into one 
 
 another. 
 
 Thus, if 6 be multiplied by 8, the Producl is 48. 
 In lines it is always (and fometimes in numbers) called the 
 refiangle between the two lines, multiplied by one another. 
 PRODUCTION, in anatomy, a continuation, or procefs. See 
 Process. 
 
 PROEDRUS, fffOE^®-, in antiquity. See Epistates. 
 PROEM, PRoyEMifM, a term anciently ufed far preface. See 
 Preface, 
 
 PROEMPTOSIS, in aftronomy, that which makes the new 
 
 moons appear a day later, by means of the lunar equation, than 
 
 they would dn without that equation. 
 PROFANATION, in religion, the doing of fomething which 
 
 is difrefpectful to holy or facred things. 
 PROFANE, a term ufed in oppofition to holy, facred. 
 
 Except churches, and church-yards, all places are efteemed 
 
 profane. — By the cannon law, a facred chalice, or cup, becomes 
 
 profane, by giving it a blow with an hammer. 
 Profane is alfo applied in general to all perfons who have not 
 
 the facred character, and all things which do not belong to the 
 
 fervice of religion. 
 
 In this fenfe, Xenophon, Seneca, CSV. are profane authors.— 
 The Heathen priefts, pontiffs, CSV. alfo pafs with us for profane, 
 
 PROFECTITIOUS. See Adventitious. 
 
 PROPER *, in law, the time appointed for the accounts of fee- 
 riffs, and other officers, to be given into the exchequer ; which, 
 by ftat. 51, Hen. 3. is to be twice in the year. 
 
 * The word is formed of the French preferer, to produce. 
 
 Profer is alfo ufed for an offer, or endeavour to proceed in an 
 action by a perfon concerned fo to do. 
 
 Trinity-term fhall begin the monday next after Tiinity-funday, 
 whenever it flial! happen to fall, for the keeping of the effoins, 
 Prefers, returns, and other ceremonies heretofore in ufe. Stat, 
 an. 32. Hen. 8. 
 
 Proper the half mark. See the article Half mark. 
 
 PROFESSED monk, or nun, one who having made the vow, is 
 admitted of a religious order. 
 
 In this fenfe the word is ufed in oppofition to novice. See 
 Novice and Religious. 
 PROFESSIO viduitatis. See the article Viduitatis, 
 PROFESSION, Professio, in a monaffic fenfe, the earring 
 into a religious order ; or an a&ion whereby a perfon offers 
 himfelf to God, by a vow of obferving three things, viz. obe- 
 dience, chaftity, and poverty, which he promifes inviolably to 
 maintain. 
 
 This is called fancies religionis profeffto, and the perfon a reli- 
 gious profeffed. 
 
 Perfons are not admitted to make Profeffton till after a year of 
 probation. 
 
 PROFESSOR, in the univerfities, a perfon who teaches, or 
 lectures publickly, fome art or fcience, in a chair efrabiifhed 
 for that purpofe. 
 
 The Profejfors in foreign univerfities teach the arts, and have 
 their dalles of pupils ; thofe in our univerfities only read pub- 
 lick lectures in term-time. 
 
 Of Profejfors we have a great number, fome denominated from 
 the arts they profefs, as cafuijlical Profejfor, Hebrew ProfcJjar y 
 phyjic Profejfor, divinity Profcffor, tfc. 
 
 Others from thofe who founded the profefforfhip, or affigned a 
 revenue for the fupport of the Profiffhr ; as the Savilian Pro- 
 fejfors of aftronomy and geometry, the Lucafian Profejfor of 
 mathematics, Margaret Profejfor of divinity, (&c, 
 Regius Professors. See the article Regius, 
 
 4 R PRO- 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 PROFTCISCENDUM. — Capias conduclos ad proficijcendum. 
 See Capias. 
 
 PROFILE, in architecture, the figure, or draught of a build- 
 ing, fortification, or the like, wherein are exprefled the ft vera) 
 heights, width?, and thick nefles, fuch as they would appear, 
 were the building cut down perpendicularly from the roof to 
 the foundation. 
 
 Whence the Profits is alfo called the feclion, fome times the or- 
 thographical fedim ; and by Vitruvius alfo, the Jciagraphy. 
 Profile, in this fenfe, amounts to the fame with elevation ; and 
 ftands oppofed to a plan, or ichnography. 
 Profile is alfo ufed for the contour, or out-line of a figure, 
 building, member of architecture, or the like; as a bafe, a 
 cornich, lSt t 
 
 Hence profiling is fometimes ufed for defigning, or defcribmg 
 the member with rule, compafs, &c. 
 Profile, in fculptuie and painting. — A head, a portrait, c5V. 
 are fatd to be in Profile, when they are reprefented fide-ways, 
 or in a fide-view. 
 
 As, when in a portrait there is but one fide of the face, one eye, 
 one check, csV. fhewn, and nothing of the other.— On almoft 
 all medals, the faces are reprefented in Profile. 
 
 PROFITS, pernor of. See the article Pernor. 
 
 PROFLUVIUM, in medicine, any kind of flux, or liquid eva- 
 cuation. Whence 
 
 Profluvium ventriS) flux of the belly, denotes a diarrhcea, 
 See Diarrhoea. 
 
 PROFUNDUS. Sec Muscle. 
 
 PROGNOSTIC*, Prognosis, in medicine, a judgment of 
 the event either of a ftate of health, or of a difcafe : as, whether 
 it fhall end in life, or death ; be long, or fhort; mild, or ma- 
 lignant, £5V. taken from certain fymptoms thereof. 
 
 * The word comes from the Greek pgoWlfe fort-knowledge : 
 whence alfo iz^yMrixo, a prognojlk fign. 
 In all continued fevers, Morton tells us, a ftrong equable pulfe 
 is a good Prognofik, and always prefages well, whatever other 
 threatning fymptoms attend it ; on the contrary, a quick, 
 feeble, intermitting pulfe is a Prognojlic of death, how much 
 foever the other fymptoms may flatter. 
 
 Hippocrates obferves, that all predictions and Prognoflics of 
 acute difeafes are very fallacious ; Diemerbroeck, however, 
 adds, that in the plague of Nimeguen, fixth day crifes were 
 cenftantly found fatal Prognofiics ; alfo to be infected about the 
 ' new, or full moon ; faintings in the beginning of the difeafe, 
 and palpitations of the heart, were found deadly Prognoflics ; 
 on the contrary, a pleurify, and fuppreflion of ftocl, were good 
 Progno/lics, 
 
 The prognofts is a part of femeiology. See Semeiology, 
 Prognostics of the weather. See the article Weather. 
 PROGRAMMA, anciently denoted a letter fealed with the 
 
 king's feal. 
 
 Program m a is alfo. a college term, ftgnifying a billet, or adver- 
 tifement poftcd up, or given into the hand by way of invita- 
 tion to an oration, or other college ceremony, containing the 
 argument, or fo much as is neceffary for the underftanding 
 thereof.— Programma' s are fent to invite people to affift at de- 
 clamations, dramatic performances, £sV, 
 
 PROGRESSION, Progressio, an orderly advancing, or go- 
 ing forward, in the fame manner, courfe, tenor, &'c. 
 
 Progression, in mathematics, is either arithmetical, or geo- 
 metrical. 
 
 Arithmetical Progression is a feries of quantities equidiftant 
 from each other; 'ii'f. either increafing or decreafing by the 
 fame common interval or difference. See Series. 
 Thus 3, 6, g, 12, 15, 18, 15c. make an arithmetical Progref- 
 fion ; becaufe increafing, or differing equally by 3 : Thus alfo 
 25, 20, 15, 10, and 5, are in arithmetical Progrejfion, decrea- 
 fing by a common difference, 5. 
 
 In every arithmetical Progrejfion, whether increafing or decrea- 
 fing, the fum of the firft and lalt term is equal to the fum of 
 any two intermediate terms equidiftant from the extremes ; as 
 alfo, if the number of terms be uneven, to the double of the 
 middle term. — For Inftancc ; 
 
 3, 6, g, 12, 15, 18, 21 
 12, g, 6, 3 
 
 24, 24, 24, 24 
 
 Hence l°. we find the fum of any arithmetical Progrejfion by 
 multiplying the fum of the firft and laft term by half the num- 
 ber of terms. ( 1 _ 
 2°. Having therefore the firft term, the difference, and the 
 number of 'terms given ; the fum of the Progrejfion is had by 
 multiplying the firft term by the number of terms, and to the 
 produa adding the product arifing from the difference multi- 
 plied into theYemi-difference of the number of terms from the 
 fquare of that fame number. 
 
 Thus, fuppofe the firft term 3, the number of terms 7, and the 
 difference 3 ; the product of 3 and 7 = 21 being added to the 
 product 63, of the difference 3 multiplied into the femi-differ- 
 ence of the number of terms 7, from the fqiure thereof 49, 
 ■— 2i s gives 84, the fum of the Progrejfion* 
 
 3°. The number of terms leffened by one, being multiplied by 
 the common difference, and the firft term added to the product, 
 the fum is the laft term. Thus in the Progrejfion of 52 places, 
 where the difference is 3, and the firft term 5 ; 51 being mul- 
 tiplied by 3, produces 153, to which adding 5, the fum 158 is 
 the laft term required. 
 
 4°. If the Progrejfion begin with 0, the fum of all the terms is 
 equal to half the product of the laft term multiplied by the 
 number of terms. 
 
 Whence it follows, that the fum, of a Progrejfion beginning 
 from 0, is fubduple the fum of fo many terms, all equal to the 
 greateft. 
 
 5 0 . In an arithmetical Progrejfion, as the difference of the fum 
 of the firft and laft term from double the fum of the Pro- 
 grejfion, is to the difference of the firft term from the laft ; 
 fo is the fum of the firft and laft terms to the progrejfional 
 difference. 
 
 Geometrical Progression, is a feries of quantities increafing or 
 decreafing in the fame ratio or proportion ; or it is a feries of 
 quantities that are continually proportional. 
 Thus 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, &c. make a geometrical Pro- 
 grejfion ; or 729, 243, 81, 27, 9, 3, r. 
 
 i°. In every geometrical Progrejfion, the product of the two ex- 
 treme terms is equal to the produft of two intermediate 
 terms equidiftant from the extremes ; as alfo, if the number 
 of terms be uneven, to the fquare of the middle term.— 
 For example ; 
 
 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96 
 12, 6, 3 
 
 288, 288, 288 
 
 2". If the difference of the firft and laft term of geometrical 
 Progrejfion be divided by a number lefs than the denominator 
 of the ratio, i. e. than the quotient of a greater term divided 
 by a lefs ; the quotient will be the fum of all the terms except 
 the greateft : Hence, by adding the greateft fum, we have the 
 fum of the whole Progrejfion. 
 
 Thus, in a Progrejfion of 5 terms, beginning with 3, and the 
 denominator being likewife 3, the greateft term will be 243. 
 If then the difference of the firft and laft term 240, be divided 
 by 2, a number lefs by 1 than the denominator ; the quotient 
 izo, added to 243, gives 363, the fum of the Progrejfion. 
 Hence 3°. the firft or leaft term of a Progrejfion, is to the fum 
 of the Progrejfion, as the denominator leffened by t , to its power 
 likewife leffened by 1 ; the exponent of which power is equal 
 to the number of terms. 
 
 Thus, fuppofing the firft term 1 , the denominator 2, and the 
 number of terms 8 ; the fum will be 25;. 
 4 0 . Hence alfo the difference between the laft term and the 
 fum is to the difference between the firft term and the fum, as 
 unity to the denominator : Wherefore, if the difference be- 
 tween the firft term and the fum, be divided by the difference 
 between the fum and the laft term, the quotient is the deno- 
 minator. 
 
 Arch of Progression. See the article Arch. 
 
 PROHIBITED goods, in commerce, fuch commodities as are 
 not allowed to be either imported or exported. See Con- 
 traband. 
 
 PROHIBITIO de vqfto diretla parti, is a writ judicial, direfted 
 to the tenant, prohibiting him from making wafte upon the 
 land in controverfy, during the fuit. — It is fometimes alfo di- 
 rected to the fheriff. 
 
 PROHIBITION, Prohibitio, the a£l of forbidding, or in- 
 hibiting any thing. 
 
 It is the Prohibition of the law that makes the fin : A teftator 
 frequently bequeaths things with a Prohibition to alienate. 
 Prohibition, in common law, denotes a writ iffucd out of 
 the chancery, the king's-bench, or common-pleas, to forbid 
 fome other court, either fpiritual or fecular, to proceed in a 
 caufe there depending ; upon fuggeftion, that the cognizance 
 thereof belongeth not to that court. 
 
 It is now ufually taken for that writ which lieth for one, who 
 is impleaded in the court Cfrriftian, for a caufe belonging to the 
 temporal jurifdiction, or the cognizance of the king's courts ; 
 whereby, as well the party and his council, as the judge him- 
 felf, and the regifter, are forbid to proceed any farther in that 
 caufe. 
 
 PROJECTILE, or Project, in mechanics, a heavy body, 
 which being put into a violent motion by an external force im- 
 preffed thereon, is difmiffed from the agent, and left to purfue 
 its couife. 
 
 Such e. gr. is a ftone thrown out of the hand or a fling, an 
 arrow from a bow, a bullet from a gun, £^c. 
 The caufe of the continuation of the motion of Projectiles, or 
 what it is determines them to perfift in motion, after the firft 
 caufe ceafes to aft, has puzzled the philofopbers. See Mo- 
 tion and Communication. 
 
 The Peripatetics account for it from the air, which being vio- 
 lently agitated by the motion of the projecting caufe, e. gr. the 
 hand and fling, and forced to follow the Projectile, while ac- 
 celerated therein, does, upon the difmiflion of the Projeflite, 
 
 prefs 
 
PRO 
 
 prefs after It, and protrude it forward, to prevent a vacuum. 
 The moderns account for the motion of ProjeCfiles on a much 
 more rational and eafy principle ; it being, in effect, a natural 
 confequence from one of the great laws of nature ; viz. That 
 all bodies being indifferent as to motion or reft, will necefXarily 
 continue the ftate they are put into, except fo far as they are 
 hindered, and forced to change it by fome new caufe. 
 Thus a project put in motion muft: continue to move eternally 
 on in the fame right line, and with the fame volocity ; were it 
 to meet with no refiftance from the medium, nor had any force 
 of gravity to encounter. 
 
 The doctrine of the motion of ProjeCliles is the foundation of 
 all gunnery. 
 
 Laws of the motion of Projectiles. — i. If a heavy body be 
 projected perpendicularly, it will continue to afcend or defcend 
 perpendicularly : becaufe both the projecting and the gravitating 
 force. are found in the fameline of direction. 
 
 2. If a heavy body be projected horizontally, it will, in its 
 motion, defcribe a 'parabola; the medium being fuppofed void 
 of refiftance. 
 
 For the body is equally impelled by the impreficd force, ac- 
 cording to the right line AR, {tab. Mechanics,/^. 4.6 )and 
 by the force of gravity according to the right line A C, perpen- 
 dicular thereto. While then the body by the action of the 
 impreffed force is arrived in Qj, by the force of gravity it will 
 be arrived in Q_M ; and, therefore will be found in M. But 
 the motion in the direction A R will frill be uniform (fee 
 Motion) ; and, therefore, the fpaces Q_A and q A are as the 
 times ; and the fpaces QJVI and qm, are Iffcewife as the fquares 
 of the times. Therefore, A : A j 1 : : Q_M : q m. That 
 is, P M : p 7fi : : A P : a p. 
 
 The courfe or path therefore, A M m, of a heavy body pro- 
 jected horizontally, is. a parabola. See Parabola. 
 Two hundred years ago, the pbilofophers took the line defcrihed 
 by a body projected horizontally, e. gr. a bullet out of a can- 
 non, while the farce of the powder exceeded the weight of the 
 bullet confiderably, to be a right line ; after which it became 
 a curve. 
 
 N. Tartaglia was the iirft who perceived the miftaJce, and main- 
 tained the path of the bullet to be a crooked line, throughout 
 its whole extent ; but it was Galileo who firft determined the 
 precife curve which the bullet defcribed ; and {hewed the path 
 of the bullet, projected horizontally from an eminence, to be 
 a parabola ; the vertex whereof is the point where the bullet 
 quits the cannon. 
 
 3. If a heavy body be projected obliquely, either upwards or 
 downwards, in a medium void of refiftance ; it will likewil'e 
 defcribe a parabola. 
 
 Hence, i°. the parameter of the diameter of the parabola AS 
 (fig. 4.7.) is a third proportional to the fpace through which the 
 body defcends in any given time, and the celerity, which is de- 
 fined by the fpace parted over in the fame time ; i. e. to A P 
 and A Q. — 2 0 . Since the fpace defcribed by a body falling per- 
 pendicularly in one minute, is 15 s \ Paris feet in a fecond ; the 
 parameter of the diameter of the parabola to be defcribed is 
 found, if the fquare of the fpace pafled over by the Projectile 
 with the imprelfed force in a fecond, be divided by 15 .V — 
 3 0 . If then the velocity of the ProjeCliles be the fame, the 
 fpaces defcribed in the fame time by the force imprcfll-d, are 
 equal; confequently the parameter of the paiabola's pafled over 
 by the compound motion, is the fame. — 4 0 . If from the para- 
 meter of the diameter be fubtradred quadruple the altitude of 
 A P, the remainder is the parameter of the axis ; the fourth 
 part whereof is the diftance of the vertex of the axis from the 
 focus of the parabola. Hence the celerity of the ProjeCtile 
 being given, the parabola defcribed by the ProjeCtile may be 
 laid down on paper. — 5". The line of direction of the Projectile 
 A R is a tangent to the parabola in A. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton fhews, m his principia, that the line a Pro- 
 jetlile defcribes, approaches nearer to an hyperbola than a 
 parabola. 
 
 4. A ProjeCtiU in equal times defcribes portions of its parabolic 
 path, as A M, A m, which are fubtended by equal fpaces of the 
 horizon AT, T/j i.e. in equal times it paflcs over equal 
 horizontal fpaces. 
 
 5. The quantity or amplitude of the path A B, 1". e. the range 
 of the ProjeCtile^ is to the parameter of the diameter A 3, as the 
 fine of the 3ngle of elevation R A B to its fecant. 
 
 Hence, 1. The femiparameter is to the amplitude of the path 
 A B, as the whole fine to the fine of double the angle of ele- 
 vation. — 2. If then the celerity of two Prcjetliles be the fame, 
 the parameter is the fame. Wherefore, iince the femipara- 
 meter of the path, in the one cafe, is to the amplitude, as the 
 whole fine to the fine of" double the angle of elevation ; and 
 the femiparameter of the path in the other cafe is to the ampli- 
 tude, as the whole fine to the fine of double the an^le of ele- 
 vation : we may fay farther, as the amplitude is to the fine of 
 the angle of double the elevation in the one cafe, fo is the am- 
 plitude to the fine of the angle of double the elevation in the ; 
 other cafe. The amplitudes therefore, or magnitudes of the! 
 paths, are as the fines of double the angles of elevation ; the: 
 velocity of the ProjeCtile remaining the fame. 
 
 6. The celerity of the PrcjtSiiU being the f.ime, the amplitude 
 A B is greateft, i. e. the range of the Projectile is greateft, at an 
 
 PRO 
 
 angle of elevation of 45= ; and the amplitudes or ranges, ac 
 angles of elevation equally diftant from 45", are equal. 
 This is found by experiment; and is likewife demonftrable 
 thus : Since the ratio of the fine of double the angle of eleva- 
 tion to the amplitude is always the fame, while the celerity of 
 the Proje£J,le remains the fame ; as the fine of double the angle 
 of elevation increafes, the amplitude will increafe. Where- 
 fore, fince the fine of double the angle of elevation of 45= is 
 radius, or the largeft fine ; the amplitude, or range in that ele- 
 vation, muft be thegreateft. Again, fince the fines of angles 
 equidiftant from right angles; e.gr. 80° and 100° are the 
 fame ; and the double angles muft be equidiftant from a right 
 angle, if the fimple ones be fo ; the amplitudes or ranges at 
 elevations equidiftant from 45?, muft be equal. 
 Hence, fince as the whole fine is to the fine of double the angle 
 of elevation ; fo is the femiparameter to the amplitude ; and 
 the whole fine is equal to double the fine of the angle of eleva- 
 tion, if that be 45° : Under the angle of elevation 45", the 
 amplitude is equal to the femiparameter. 
 
 7. The greateji range or amplitude being given ; to determine 
 the amplitude or range under any other given angle of tle~ 
 valion ; the celerity remaining the fame. Say thus ; As the 
 whole fine is to the fine of double the angle of any other eleva- 
 tion ; fo is the greateft amplitude or range, to the amplitude 
 required. 
 
 Thus, fiippofe the greateft range of a mortar at 45°, to be 
 6000 paces, and the length of the range at 30°, required ; it 
 will be found 5196 paces'. 
 
 8. The velocity of a Projeaile being given, to find its greateft 
 range or amplitude. Since the celerity of the Projectile is given 
 in the fpace it will pafs over by the impreffed force ; e.gr. in 
 one fecond ; there is nothing required but to find the parameter 
 of the path [by coral. 2. of the 3d law); for half of this is the 
 amplitude or range required. 
 
 Suppofe, e. gr. the celerity of the Projectile fuch as that in one 
 fecond it will run over 1000 feet, or 12000 inches: If then 
 144000000 be divided by 181, the quotient will give the para- 
 meter of the path 795580 inches, or 66298 feet. The range 
 or amplitude required, therefore, is 33149. Any object, there- 
 fore, found within this extent, may be ftruck by the ProjeCtile. 
 
 9. The greateft range or amplitude being given; to find the 
 velocity of the Projeclle, or the horizontal fpace, it will pafs 
 over in a fecond. Since double the greateft amplitude is the 
 parameter of the path ; between double the greateft amplitude, 
 and the fpace pafied over in a fecond by a body falling perpen- 
 dicularly, viz. 181 Paris inches, find a mean proportional; for 
 this will be the fpace defcribed by the ProjeCtile in the given 
 fecond. 
 
 Thus, if the greateft amplitude be rooo feet, or 12000 inches, 
 the fpace required will bt=.V (12000.181) = 120 feet and 4 
 Inches. 
 
 10. ^ To determine the greateft altitude to ivhich a body obliquely 
 projected will rife. The rule is ; bifect the amplitude A B in 
 /, and from the point t erect a perpendicular t m ; this / m will 
 be the greateft altitude to which the body projtiledy according 
 to the direction A R, will arife. 
 
 ir. The range or amplitude A B, and the angle of elevation 
 BAR, being given; to determine the greateji altitvde of the 
 Projeaile. It" A R be taken for the whole fine, B R will be 
 the fine, and A B the co-fine of the angle of elevation BAR: 
 Wherefore fay, As the co-fine of the angle of elevation is to 
 the fine of the fame; fo is the amplitude A B to a fourth num- 
 ber, which will be B R ; the fourth part whereof is the grcaeft 
 altitude required. 
 
 Hence, fince from the given velocity of a ProjeCtile, its greateft: 
 range or amplitude, and thence its range under any other angle, 
 Is found ; the velocity being given, thegreateft altitude of the 
 Projectile is likewife found. 
 
 12. The altitude of the range t m is to the eighth part of the 
 parameter, as the verfed fine of double the angle of elevation 
 to the whole fine. 
 
 Hence, 1. Since, as the whole fine Is to the verfed fine of double 
 the angle of trl.vation in one cafe ; fo is the eighth part of the 
 parameter to the altitude of the range : And as the whole fine 
 is to the veritd fine of double the angle of elevation in any other 
 cafe; fo is the eighth part of the parameter to the altitude : but 
 the velocity remaining the fame, the parameter, in different 
 angles of elevation, will likewife be the fame : The altitudes of 
 the ranges under different angles of elevations are as the verfed 
 fines of double their angles. — 2. Hence alfo, the velocities 
 remaining the fame, the altitudes of the ranges are in a dupli- 
 cate ratio of the fines of double the angles of elevation. 
 
 13. The horizontal diftance of any mark orobje ?, together with 
 its height above, or depth beneath the horizon, being given ; to 
 find the angle of elevation required to hit the fa : d object, 
 Wolfius gives us the following theorem, the refult of a regular 
 inveftigation : Suppofe the parjmeter of the diameter A S,=a ; 
 Inz^b, A I=f, the whole fine=r. Then, as c is to ' a 
 
 ('a = — ab — c l ;j fo is the whole fine r, to the tangent of the 
 angle of elevation required R A B. 
 
 Dr. Halley gives the following eafy and compendious geome- 
 trical conftrutlion of the problem i which he likewife ^educes 
 from an analytical inveftigation. 
 
 Having the right angle L D A, (fig. 48.) make D A, D F, the 
 
 greateft 
 
PRO 
 
 created range, D G the horizontal diftance, and D B, DC, the 
 perpendicular height of the objeft ; draw G B, and make 
 D E equal thereto. Then with the radius A C, and centre E, 
 fweep an arch, which, if the thing be pomble, will interfect 
 the line A D in H ; and the line D H being laid both ways 
 from F will give the points K and L i to which draw the 
 lines GL, G K. 
 
 Here the angles L G D, K G D, are the elevations required 
 for hitting the object B. — But note, that if B be below the 
 horizon, its defcent D C = D B, muft be laid from A, fo as 
 to have AC=toAD + DC. Note likewife, that if in de- 
 scents, D PI be greater than F D, and fo K fall below D ; the 
 angle KG D fhall be the depreffion below the horizon. 
 It may be here obferved, that the elevation fought conftantly 
 bifects the angle between the perpendicular and the object. 
 This the author was not aware of, when he gave the firll fbltt- 
 tion of the problem ; but upon difcovering it, he obferves, that 
 nothing can be more compendious, or bid fairer for the per- 
 fetfion of the art of gunnery ; fince it is here as eafy to moot 
 with a mortar at any object in any fit nation, as if it were on 
 the level ; nothing more being required but to lay the piece fo 
 as to pafs in the middle line between the zenith and the object, 
 and giving it the due charge. See Mortar. 
 
 14. The times of the projections or cafts under different angles 
 -of elevation, the velocity remaining the fame, are as the fines 
 of the angles of elevation. 
 
 15. The velocity of a Projectile, together with the angle of ele- 
 vation RAB, being given (fig. 47.) J to find the range or am- 
 plitude A B, and the altitude of the range t m, and defcribe the 
 path Am B. To the horizontal line AB ereft a perpendicular 
 A D, which is to be the altitude whence the ProjeCtHe falling, 
 might acquire the given velocity : on A D defcribe a femi- 
 circlc A Q_D, cutting the line of direction A R in Qj through 
 Qdraw C m parallel to AB, and make C Q_= Qffl. From 
 the point m let fall a perpendicular ml to A B : laftly, through 
 the vertex M defcribe the parabola A m B. 
 Here A m B is the path fought, 4 CQ_its amplitude or range, 
 ■tm the altitude of the range, and 4C D the parameter. 
 Hence, i°. The velocity of a ProjeQile being given, the ampli- 
 tudes and altitudes of all the poflible ranges are given at the 
 fame time. For drawing E A, we have under the angle of 
 elevation E A B, the altitude A I, and the amplitude 4 I E : 
 Under the angle of elevation FA B, the altitude A H, the am- 
 plitude 4 H F. 2°. Since A B is perpendicular to A D, it is a 
 tangent to the circle in A : hence the angle A D Q_ is equal to 
 the angle of elevation RAB; confequently AIM is double the 
 angle of elevation ; and therefore C Q^, the fourth part of the 
 amplitude, is the right fine ; AC the altitude of the range, the 
 vcrfed fine of double the angle of elevation. 
 
 16. The altitude tm of a caft, or its amplitude A B, toge- 
 ther with the angle of elevation RAB, being given ; to find 
 the velocity wherewith the Projectile firft moved, that is, the 
 altitude A D, in falling from whence it would acquire the like 
 velocity. Since AC = rm is the vcrfed fine, CQ_=yAB, 
 the right fine of double the angle of elevation AIQ; to the 
 verfed fine of double the angle of elevation, find the whole fine, 
 and the height of the caft. Or to the right fine of double the 
 angle of elevation, the whole fine, and the fourth part of the 
 amplitude, find a forth proportional. This will be the radius 
 1 Q_or I A, the double whereof A D is the altitude required. 
 
 PROJECTING table. See the article Table. 
 PROJECTION, in mechanics, the action of giving a projectile 
 its motion. See Projectile. 
 
 If the direction of the force whereby the projectile is put in 
 motion, be perpendicular to the horizon, the Projection is faid 
 to be perpendicular ; if parallel to the apparent horizon, it is 
 faid to be a horizontal Projection ; if it make an oblique angle 
 ■with the horizon, the Projeciion is oblique. 
 The angle ARB, {tab. mechan. fig. 47.) which the line of 
 direction A R makes with the horizontal line A B, is called 
 the angle of elevation of the projectile. 
 Projection, in perfpective, denotes the appearance or rcpre- 
 fentation of an object on the perfpective plane. See Plane. 
 The Projection, e.gr. of a point, as A, {tab. perfped. fig. I.) 
 is a point a, through which the optic ray OA pafles from the 
 objective point through the plane to the eye ; or it is the point 
 a, wherein the plane cuts the optic ray. 
 
 And hence is eafily conceived what is meant by the Projeciion 
 of a line, a plane, or a folid. 
 Projection of the fphere, in piano, is a reprefentation of the 
 feveral points or places of the furface of the fphere, and of the 
 circles defcribed thereon, or of any affigned parts thereof, fuch 
 as they appear to the eye fituate at a given diftance, upon a 
 tranfparent plane placed between the eye and the fphere. 
 Tor the laws of this Projection, fee Perspective ; the Projec- 
 tion of the fphere being only a particular cafe of perfpe&ive. 
 The principal ufe of the Projection of the fphere is in the con- 
 duction of planifpheres, and particularly maps and charts, 
 which are faid to be of this or that Projection, according to 
 the feveral fituations of the eye, and the perfpective plane with 
 regard to the meridians, parallels, and other points and places 
 to be reprefented. 
 
 The moft ufual Projection of maps of the world is that on the 
 plane of the meridian, which exhibits a right fphere ; the firft 
 
 PRO 
 
 meridian being the horizon : The next is that on the plane 
 of the equator, wherein the pole is in the centre, and the 
 meridians the radii of a circle, Cffc. This reprefents a parallel 
 fphere. 
 
 Set the application of the doClrine of the Projection of the 
 fphere, in the conjlrutiion of the various kinds of maps, under 
 the article Map. 
 
 Ihe Projeciion of the fphere is ufually divided into orthographic, 
 and Jleresgraphtc, to which may be added gnomonic. 
 Orthographic Projection is that wherein the fuperficies of the 
 fphere is drawn on a plane, cutting it in the middle j the eye 
 being placed at an infinite diftance vertically to one of the he- 
 rn ifp he res. 
 
 Laws of the orthographic Projection. — r. The rays by 
 which the eye at an infinite diftance perceives any object, are 
 parallel. 
 
 2. A right line perpendicular to the plane of the Projection is 
 projected into a point, where that right line cuts the plane of 
 the Projection. 
 
 3. A right line, as AB, or CD. {tab. perfpeCt. fig. 17.) not 
 perpendicular, but either parallel or oblique to the plane of the 
 Projection, is projected into a right line, asEF, or GH, and 
 is always comprehended between the extreme perpendiculars 
 AF, and BE. 
 
 4. The Projection of the right line A B is the greateft, when 
 A B is parallel to the plane of the Projection. 
 
 5. Hence it is evident, that a line parallel to the plane of the 
 Projection, is projected into a right line equal to itfelf; but if 
 it be oblique to the plane of the Projection, it is projected into 
 one which is lefs. 
 
 6. A plane furface, as A BCD, {fig. 18.) at right angles to the 
 plane of the Projection, is projected into that right line ; e. gr. 
 A B, in which it cuts the plane of the Projection. 
 Hence it is evident, that the circle BCAD, Handing at right 
 angles to the plane of the Projection, which paffes through its 
 centre, is projected into that diameter A B, in which it cuts the 
 plane of the Projection. 
 
 It is likewife evident, that any arch, as c c, is projected into 0 a 
 equal to Ca, Cb, which is the right fine of that arch ; and the 
 complemcntal arch c A is projected into 0 A, the verfed fine of 
 the fame arch c c. 
 
 7. A circle parallel to the plane of the Projection is projected 
 into a circle equal to itfelf ; and a circle oblique to the plane 
 of the Projection, is projected into an ellepfis. 
 
 Stereographic Projection, is that wherein the furface and circles 
 1 of the fphere are drawn upon the plane of a great circle, the 
 
 eye being in the pole of that circle. 
 ' Properties of the ftereographic Proj eCTION. — 1. In this Projec- 
 tion, a right circle is projected into a line of half tangents. 
 
 2. The reprefentation of a right circle, perpendicularly oppofed 
 to the eye, will be a circle in the plane of the Projection. 
 
 3. The reprefentation of a circle placed oblique to the eye, 
 will be a circle in the plane of the Projection. 
 
 4. If a great circle be to be projected upon the plane of another 
 great circle, its centre will lie in the line of meafures, diftant 
 from the centre of the primitive by the tangent of its elevation 
 above the plane of the primitive. 
 
 5. If a letter circle, whofe poles lie in the plane of the Pro- 
 jection, were to be projected ; the centre of its reprefentation 
 would be in the line of meafures, diftant from the centre of the 
 primitive, by the fecant of the leffer circles diftance from its 
 pole, and its femidiameter or radius be equal to the tangent of 
 that diftance. 
 
 6. If a leffer circle were to be projected, whofe poles lie not 
 in the plane of the Projection, its diameter in the Projection, if it 
 falls on each fide of the pole of the primitive, will be equal to 
 the fum of the half tangents of its greateft and neareft diftance 
 from the pole of the primitive, fet each way from the centre of 
 the primitive in the line of meafures. 
 
 7. If the leffer circle to be projected, fall intirely on one fide of 
 the pole of the Projection, and do not encompafs it ; then will 
 its diameter be equal to the difference of the half tangents of 
 its greateft and neareft diftance from the pole of the primitive, 
 fet off from the centre of the primitive one ; and the fame way 
 in the line of meafures. 
 
 8. In the fic r eographk '-Projection, the angles made by the circles 
 of the furface of the fphere, are equal to the angles made by 
 their reprcfentatives in the plane of their Projection. 
 
 Gnomonk Projection of the fphere. See Gnomonic Projection. 
 Mjrcator's Projection. See the article Mercator. 
 Projection of globes, &c. See the article Globe, Eifc. 
 Polar Projection. See the article Polar. 
 Projection of jhadows. See the article Shadow. 
 Projection, in alchymy, the cafting of a certain imaginary 
 powder, called pozuder of Projection, into a crucible, or other 
 veffel, full of fome prepared metal, or other matter, which is 
 to be hereby prefently tranfmitted into gold. 
 Powder o/Projection, or of the philofopher's ftone, is a pow- 
 der fuppofed to have the virtue of changing any quantity of an 
 imperfect metal, as copper or lead, into a more perfect one, as 
 filver or gold, by the admixture of a little quantity thereof. 
 The mark to which the alcbymifts direct all their endeavours, 
 is to find the powder of Projection ; which every one of them, 
 has b;en within an ace of, an hundred times, 
 
 Fur 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 Tor (hi charaRers, properties, virtues, Sec. of this powder, fee 
 PhilosopherV flow. 
 
 Projection in building. See Projecture. 
 
 PROJECTIVE dialing, a manner of drawing, by a method 
 of projection, the true hour-lines, furniture of dials, &c. on 
 any kind of furface whatfoever, without any regard had to the 
 fituation of thofe furfaces, either as to declination, reclination, 
 or inclination. See Dialling. 
 
 PROJECTURE, in architefture, the out-jetting, or promi- 
 nency, which the mouldings and members have, beyond the 
 plane or naked of the wall, column, &r>. See Naked, Co- 
 lumn, &c. 
 
 Thefe the Greeks call ecphorx, the Italians /parti, the French 
 failles, our workmen frequently failings over, and the Latins 
 projefta, from projkio, I caft forward ; whence the Engliib. 
 Projeclure. 
 
 Vitruvius gives it as a general rule, that all the projecting mem- 
 bers in buildings have their projeclures equal to their heights : 
 but this is not to be underftood of the particular members, or 
 mouldings, as dentils, corona's, the fafcia; of architraves, the 
 abacus of the Tufcan and Doric capital, &c. but only of the 
 projeclures of intire cornices, £$V. 
 
 The great point of building, according to fome modern archi- 
 tects, confifis in knowing how to vary the proportions of pro- 
 jectures. Sec. agreeably to the circumftances of the building. 
 Thus, fay they, the nearnefs and remotenefs, making a diffe- 
 rence in the view, requires different projectures ; but it is evi- 
 dent the ancients had no fuch intention. 
 
 The Projecture of the bafe and cornice of pedeftals, M. Per- 
 rault obferves, is greater in the antique than the modern build- 
 ings by one third ; which feems to follow, in good meafure, 
 from the ancients proportioning this Projecture to the height of 
 the pedeftals ; whereas the moderns make the Projecture the 
 fame in all the orders, though the height of the pedeftal be 
 very different. 
 
 The reafon of this change, which the moderns have made of 
 the antique, the fame author refers to a view to the appearance 
 of folidity. 
 
 PRO-INDIVISO, in law, a:poffeiTion or occupation of lands 
 or tenements, belonging to two or more perfons, whereof none 
 can fay which is his feveral portion, each having the whole, &c. 
 as co-parceners before partition, 
 
 PROKING, fee Fishing. 
 
 PROLABIA, fore-lips ; a term in anatomy for that part of the 
 
 labia or lips which jets out. 
 PROLATE, in geometry, an epithet applied to a fpheroid 
 
 produced by the revolution of a fund- el lipfis about its longer 
 
 diameter. 
 
 If the folid be formed by the revolution of a femi-ellipfis about 
 its fhorter diameter, it is called an oblate fpheroid ; of which 
 figure is the earth we inhabit, and, perhaps, ;;11 the planets too ; 
 having their equatorial diameter longer than their polar. 
 
 PROLATION, in mufic, the act of fhaking, or making feveral 
 inflections of the voice, on the fame fyllable. 
 
 PROLEGOMENA *, in philology, certain preparatory obfer- 
 vations, or difcourfes prefixed to a book, &c. containing fome- 
 thing neccfTary for the reader to be apprized of, to enable him 
 the better to underftand the book, to enter deeper into a 
 fcience, &c, 
 
 * The word is Greek, orgoXiyofi^cr, formed of frgo&ifw^ 1 preface, 
 or /peak before. 
 
 The generality of arts and fciences require fome previous m- 
 ftructions, fome prolegomena. 
 PROLEPSIS, ■ffi-f^i^J";, a figure in rhetoric, by which we an- 
 ticipate, or prevent what might be objected by the adver- 
 fary. 
 
 Thus : It may perhaps be objected, Sec. — Ton zuill afh. Sec. 
 But fome man will fay, how are the dead raifed, or with what 
 body do they come ? Thou fool, that which thou foweft, &f>. 
 Where the objection is turned into an argument againft the 
 adverfary, as in the laft infhnce, it is called antijlrophe, or 
 inverfio. — Where it is rejected as unfufferably ablurd, it is 
 called Apodioxis. 
 
 PROLEPTIC, ^oXr^liy.cq^ denotes a periodical difeafe, which 
 
 anticipates, or whofe paroxyfm returns iboner and fooner every 
 
 time; as is frequently the cafe in agues, tjfe. 
 PROLIFIC, in medicine, fomething that has the qualities necef- 
 ■ fary for generating. See Fecundity. 
 
 Some phyficians pretend to diftin^uifh whether or no the feed 
 
 be Prolific. 
 
 PROLIXITY, in difcourfe, the fault of entering into too mi- 
 nute a detail ; of being too long, prccife, and circumftantial, 
 to a degree of tedioufnefs. 
 
 Prolixity is the vice oppoftte to concifenefs and laconifm. — 
 Prolixity is a fault commonly charged on Guicciardini, Gaflen- 
 dus, ts'e. — Formal harangues at the head of an army, and deli- 
 berations, of naureousPrfl//A7/y, formerly fo frequent, are now 
 difufed in all the better htftories. 
 PROLOCU TOR of the convocation, the fpeaker, or chairman 
 of that ailtinbly. 
 
 The archbiftiop of Canterbury is, bv his office, prefident, or 
 chairman of the upper houie of convocation.— The Prolocutor 
 of the lower is an ufficer chofen by the members the firlb day 
 of their meeting, and is to be approved of by the higher. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 It is by the Prolocutor their affairs, debates, b'e. are to he di- 
 rected ; and their refolutions, meffages, &e. delivered to the 
 higher houfe : by him all things propounded to the houle are 
 read, fuffrages are collected, csV. 
 PROLOGUE*, Pr ologus, in dramatic poetry, a difcourfe 
 addreffed to the audience before the drama or play begins, 
 * The word is formed from the (Jreck, arg&o^j; prxhwum, fore- 
 fpeech, formed of tt^q, and Mynq, fermo. 
 The original intention of the Prologue was to advertife the 
 audience of the fubjedt of the piece, and to prepare them to 
 enter more eafily into the action ; and fometim'js to make art 
 apology for the poet. 
 
 This laft article feems to have almoft excluded the two for- 
 mer in the Englifh drama ; and to be in fole pofiefTiori of the 
 Prologue. 
 
 .The Prologue is of a much more ancient {landing than the 
 epilogue. — The French have left off the ufe of Prologues ; 
 thofe few they now-and-then make have nothing in them 
 of the genuine Prologue, as bearing no relation to the fubject, 
 but being mere flourifhes or harangues in praife of the king, 
 
 In the ancient theatre, the prologus Was properly the actor who 
 rehearfed the Prologue : the prologus was efteemed one of the 
 dramatis pcrfona?, and never appeared in the piece in any other 
 character ; fo that the learned are furprifed to find Mercury in 
 Plautus's Amphitryo, fpeaking the Prologue, and yet acting a 
 confidcrable part in the play afterwards. 
 
 1 he Prologue, therefore, among them, was a part of the piece ; 
 indeed, not an effential, but an acceffary part ; — with us, the 
 Prologue is no part at all ; but fomething intirely diftinct and 
 feparate : with them the drama was opened with the appear- 
 ance of the Prologue ; with us it is not opened till after the 
 prologus is retired : with us therefore the curtain is kept c!ofe 
 till after the Prologue ; with them it mult have been with- 
 drawn before. 
 
 Hence proceeds a frill more confiderable difference in the 
 practice of the Prologue : for with us the prohgus fpcaks in his 
 real or perfonal character ; it is Mr. Booth or Mrs. Oldfield 
 fpeaks, not Cato or Andromache : with them the Prologue 
 fpoke in his dramatic character, not as Turpius or Attilius, but 
 as prologus. 
 
 With us, he always directs his fpeech to the audience, conft- 
 dered as in a play-houfe j to pit, box, and gallery > with them, 
 he ought, in propriety, to have fpoken as to a chorus of by- 
 fhmders, or perfons to be prefent at the real action : but this 
 being In good meafure inconfiftent with the defign of the Pro- 
 logue ; their perfons fpoke in their dramatic capacity to the 
 audience in its perfonal capacity ; which was an irregularity 
 that either the good fortune, or the good fenfe of the moderns 
 have freed them from. 
 
 They had three kinds of Prologues ; the firft vvMuk®-, wherein 
 the poet delivered the argument of the piece ; the fecond 
 c-vTxruiQ; wherein the poet recommended himfelf or his piece 
 to the j people ; the third ma.<pc,px& J wherein objections were 
 obviated, &c. 
 
 PROLONGED face. See the article Face. 
 
 PROLUSION, Prolusio, in literature, a term applied to Cer- 
 tain pieces, or compofitions, made previoufly to others, , by 
 way of prelude or exercife, 
 
 Diomcdes calls the culex of Virgil, and his other opufcula, pro- 
 luftons ; becaufe written before the great ones. — The prolufions 
 of Strad3 are very ingenious pieces. The famous M, Huer, 
 bifhop of Avranches, had all Strada's prolufions by heart. 
 PROMETHEUS, in the ancient aftronomy, was the name of 
 a constellation of the northern hemifphere, now called Hercules, 
 or Engonafts. 
 
 PROMISE, in law, is when, upon a vafuable coiifideration, a 
 nun binds himfelf, by his word, to do or perform fuch an act 
 as is agreed on with another. 
 
 PROMONTORY, in geography, a high point of land, or 
 rock, projecting out into the fea j— the extremity of which to 
 the fea- ward is ufually called a cape, or headland. 
 
 PROMOTERS, Pr omotores, in law, thofe perfons, who 
 in popular and penal actions, do profecute offenders in then- 
 name and the king's ; and are intitled to part of the fines and 
 penalties for their pains. 
 
 Thefe, among the Romans, were called quadruplatores, or de~ 
 latores ; in Englifh alfo, informers. 
 
 Sir Tho. Smith obferves, that Promoters belong chiefly to the 
 exchequer, and king's-bench. My lord Coke calls them s 
 turbidum hominutn genus, 3 Lift. 
 
 PROMPT payment, ready money. See Payment. 
 In many cafes there is a difcount for prompt payment. 
 
 PROMPTER, in the drama, an officer potted behind the fcenes, 
 whofe bufinefs is to watch attentively the actors fpeaking on 
 the ftage, in order to fuggeft and put them forward when at 
 a ftand, to correct them when amifs, c5V. in their parts. 
 
 PROMULGATED, Promulged, Promulgates, fome- 
 thing publiihed, or proclaimed. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, the Jcwifh law was promulgated by Mofes ; 
 the promulgation of the new law was chiefly effected by the 
 apoltles and difciples. 
 PRONAOS, wj-aja©-, in the ancient architecture, a porch to 2 
 church, palace, or other fpacious building. 
 
 9 S PRO- 
 
PRO 
 
 PRONATION, among anatomifts. The radius of the arm 
 has two kinds of motions, the one called Pronation, the other 
 fupination. 
 
 Pronation * is, that whereby the palm of the hand is turned 
 downwards ; the oppofite motion hereto is called Jfapfitatiort, 
 whereby the back of the hand is downwards. 
 * The word is formed from the Latin pronus, prone, that which 
 lies on the forefi.de, or with the face downwards. 
 M. Winfiow has lately advanced, that the Pronation and fu- 
 pination of the hand are not effected folely by the motion of 
 the radius ; but that the cubitus in moft cafes contributes 
 equally thereto ; and that both thefe bones ufually move at the 
 fame time. Fid. mem. acad. R. /dene. an. 1729. p. 36. 
 There are peculiar mufcles whereby the Pronation is effected, 
 called pronators. — The radius has alfo two other mufcles, called 
 Supinators, which have an oppofite effect. See Supinator. 
 PRONATORS, Pronatores, in anatomy, two mufcles of 
 the radius, which ferve to turn the palm of the hand down- 
 wards. 
 
 They are diftinguifhed by the names of roW.ndits and qua- 
 dratics. 
 
 Pronator radii quadratus, or brevis, rifes broad and flelhy, 
 from the lower and inner part of the ulna ; and paffing tranf- 
 verfely over the ligament that joins the radius to the ulna, is 
 inferted into the fuperior and external part of the radius ; which 
 it helps to pull inwardly ; together with the 
 
 Pronator radii rotundas, or teres, a mufcle which rifes flefhy, 
 from the internal extuberance of the as humeri, where thofe 
 bending the carpus and fingers do arife ; and firmly adhering 
 to the flexor carpi radialis, defcends obliquely downwards to its 
 flefhy infertion a little above the radius, in the middle exter- 
 nally : its ufe is to move the radius and palm inwards. See 
 tab. anat. (rnyol.) Jig. 1, n. 27, Jig. 2. ». 15. 
 
 PRONOUN, Pronomen, in grammar, a part of fpeech ufed 
 in lieu of a noun or name. 
 
 Whence the denomination, from pro, and nomen, q. d. for- 
 noun, or name. 
 
 As it would have been difagreeable to have been always repeat- 
 ing the fame name, there are words invented in all languages, 
 called pronouns, to five the neceffity thereof, and to ftand in 
 the place of names ; as, /, thou, he, &c. 
 
 As nouns are the marks or figns of things, pronouns are the 
 ligns of nouns.' — Father Buffier, however, fhews, that pro- 
 nouns are real nouns or names : and that all the difference 
 between what the grammarians call nouns, and pronouns, is. 
 that the former, are more particular, and the latter more 
 general. 
 
 They are called pronouns, becaufe ufed in the place of parti 
 cular nouns. Indeed fometimes they do not fill the place of 
 nouns intirely, but need other words to affiff. them, to exprefs 
 the object fpoken of : fuch, e. gr. are who, whoever, &c. which 
 do not exprefs any determinate object whereof a thing may be 
 affirmed, unlefs accompanied with another word, efpecially a 
 verb : As, IVhoever labours, defcrves a reward. 
 Thefe father Buffier calls incomplete pronouns, to diftinguifh 
 them from thofe which exprefs an object completely ; as, I, 
 thou, he, &c. 
 
 The grammarians ordinarily diftinguifh. pronouns into four 
 claffes, with regard to their different fignification, formation, 
 &c. viz. pronouns perfonal, relative, pvffcffive, and demonjlra- 
 iive ; to which may be added, indeterminate pronouns. 
 
 Perfonal Pronouns are thofe ufed in lieu of names of parti- 
 cular perfons : fuch are, /, thou, he, we, ye, they. 
 
 Pronouns relative, which Buffier calls modificative, or deter- 
 minative, are thofe placed after nouns, with which they have 
 fuch affinity, that without them they fignify nothing : fuch 
 are, qui, who, that, &c. 
 
 Pronouns poffejfive are thofe which exprefs what each poffeffes, 
 or what belongs to him ; as, mine, thine, his, &c. 
 Thefe are pure adjectives, and only differ from the reft by 
 the relation they bear to promuns, whence they are derived, 
 and by fome particular infections, which they have in fome 
 languages. 
 
 Pronouns demonflrative, thofe which ferve to indicate or point 
 out the fuhj^'ct fpoken of j as, this* thofe, &c. 
 
 Pronouns indefinite, are thofe which exprefs their fubject inde- 
 terminately ; as whoever, any, &e. — Thefe coincide with what 
 F. Buffier calls incomplete pronouns. 
 
 Pronouns arc likewife divided into fubflantive and adjzBive. — 
 To the firft belong, /, thou, he: to the fecond, my, mine, 
 
 who, whatl &c. 
 
 Pronouns may alfo be confidercd in two flates ; the firft, or 
 foregoing irate, as /, we ; the fecond, or following one, as 
 
 me, us. 
 
 PRONOUNCING, Pronunciation, in painting, the mark- 
 ing and expreifing the parts of all kinds of bodies with that 
 degree of force neceffary to make them more or lefs diftinct 
 and confplcuous. 
 
 Thus the painters, in fpeaking of a piece, fay, thefe or thefe 
 parts are well pronounced ; which is a metaphorical way of 
 fpeaking ; as when we fay, that a man who talks well has a 
 fine pronunciation. 
 PRONUNCIATION, Phonuntiatio, in grammar, the 
 
 PRO 
 
 manner of articulating, or founding the words of a language 
 reprefented to the eye by writing and orthography. ° ' 
 
 From the definition it would feem, that the pronunciation were 
 only the image of the orthography : but as we pronounce before 
 we write, and only write to exprefs what we pronounce, it is 
 more juft to lay down the pronunciation as the rule and mode! 
 of orthography. 
 
 Pronunciation makes much the moft difficult 'article of a writ- 
 ten grammar : in effect, a book only expreffing itfelf to the 
 eyes in a matter that wholly concerns the ears ; the cafe 
 feems- next akin to that bf teaching the blind to diftinguifh 
 colours. 
 
 Hence it is, that there is ho part fo defeftive in the grammars 
 as that of the pronunciation ; for thewriter has frequently no term 
 whereby to give the reader an idea of the found he would 
 exprefs ; for want of a proper term, therefore, he frequently 
 fubftitutes a vitious or precarious one. 
 
 Thus the Frencli grammarians frequently tell us, that the 
 vowels a, e, i, &c. are pronounced in French the fame as in 
 Latin ; never confidering, that there is not any known and 
 determinate pronunciation of the Latin ; but each nation, now, 
 pronounces the Roman characters in the Latin, the fame as it 
 pronounces thdfe fame characters in its own language : thus 
 the Latin ccecus is pronounced by the Englifh, fekus ; and by 
 the Italians, tchekous, Sic. 
 
 Hence it appears, that the relation between founds and cha- 
 racters, as well as between things and words, is purely arbi- 
 trary and national. 
 
 Indeed, Plato feems of a contrary opinion, and will have a 
 natural relation between words and the things they exprefs, as 
 there is a natural relation between the figns made by mutes, 
 and the things they would intimate : fo that, according to Plato, 
 to every feveral word there muff be a feveral motion of the 
 mouth relative to the action expreffed by the word. 
 Whether or no there might be fuch a thing in the primitive 
 language, we dare not undertake to fay ; but it is certain fuch 
 a relation would require a facility of contortions in the mouthy 
 to which we are ffrangers. 
 
 To give a juft and prccife idea of the pronunciation of a lan- 
 guage, it feems neceffary to fix, as nearly as poifible, all the 
 fevera! founds employed in the pronunciation of that language : 
 this Mr, Lodwick: ha3 done in his attempt towards an uni- 
 verfal alphabet, where he enumerates forty-three feveral fimple 
 founds (fome of them, indeed, ftrangers to the Englifh lan- 
 guage) ; and F. Buffier, who gives thirty-three feveral founds 
 in the French tongue, twenty-nine in the Italian, thirty in the 
 German, twenty-two in the Spanifh, and twenty-four in the 
 Englifh. 
 
 The F rench language is clogged with a difficulty in pronun- 
 ciation, from which moft others are free; and it confifts in 
 this, that moft of their words have two different pronunciati- 
 ons ; the one in common profe, the other in verfe. 
 In profe, e, gr. they omit the pronunciation of the final j in 
 the plural of nouns, and of the t in the third perfon of the 
 plural of verbs, and of feveral other final confonants ; but in 
 verfe they pronounce all. 
 
 Thus, in el quoi bon reveiller tnes mufes endormies ? the final S 
 of ?nufes is pronounced; and in mille 13 mille douceurs y fem- 
 bknt attaches, the r of femblent is to be pronounced. 
 Add to this, that in profe they foften the found of a great many 
 words, pronouncing craire for entire ; but in poetry the gennine 
 pronunciation is retained. 
 Pronunciation is alfo ufed for the fifth and laft part of rhe- 
 toric, which confifts in regulating and varying the voice and 
 gefture agreeably to the matter and words ; fo as more effectu- 
 ally to perfuade and touch the hearers. 
 
 The pronunciation is of fuch importance, that Demofthenes 
 called it the firft, the ferond, and the third part of elo- 
 quence, 
 
 Quintilian defines the pronunciation, vocis, is* vultus, 13 cor- 
 poris moderatio cum venuftate ; a decent, agreeable manner 
 of managing the voice, gefture, and action of the whole body. 
 Cicero ibmewbere calls it quadam corporis ehquentia, a cer- 
 tain eloquence of the body ; and in another place, fermo cor- 
 poris, the language or fpeech of tlje body. 
 Pronunciation is the fame with what we othcrwife call atlion, 
 — Some writers, particularly Mr. Henley, confound it With 
 elocution, which is a very different thing. That author, 
 when he ftyles himfelf refiorer of the ancient elocution, means 
 of the ancient pronunciation. 
 
 There are three thi ngs which come under the pronunciation \ 
 the memory, voice, and gefture. See each under its proper 
 article. 
 
 Auguftus, to avoid being balked by his memory, and at 
 the fame time fave the trouble of getting off by heart, ufed 
 to harangue from a writing} as we are told by Dio and 
 Suetonius. 
 
 Pronunciation, in painting. See the article Pronouncing, 
 PROOF, Probatio, in arithmetic, an operation whereby 
 
 the truth and juftnefs of a calculation is examined and afcer- 
 
 tained. 
 
 The proper proof is always by the contrary rule : thus fub- 
 tra£tion is the proof of addition, and multiplication of divifion ; 
 
 and 
 
 v 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 and vice verfa. — The Proof of multiplication by g or by 
 7 is precarious. 
 
 There would need no Proofs in arithmetic, were it not that a 
 man is liable to make miflakes ; for all the rules and operations 
 being built on demonstration, it is thence we are affured of 
 their truth and certitude. 
 
 The Proof then, does not confirm the-rule, but only fhews us 
 whether or no we have applied it right. 
 Proof, in law, logic, (s?c. denotes the mediums, cr arguments, 
 ufed to evince the truth of any thing. 
 
 By the French law, a literal Proof or Proof in writing, C2l ' e(1 
 alfo dead Proof probatto mortua, -is preferable to a teftimo- 
 nial, or Proof viva voce, by witnefles; — The ordonnance de 
 Moulins excludes 2.W Proof by witnefles for loans of above 1000 
 
 livres. >i ■■■ 
 
 The Proof of crimes was anciently effected among our an- 
 ceftors divers ways, viz. by duel or combat, fire, water, 
 &c. 
 
 The Proof by red-hot iron was very frequent : the accufed, to 
 purge himfclf, was here obliged to make an oath, as he touched 
 the iron. The formula, ceremonies, prayers, fsY. made on 
 this occafton, are ffill extant in the notes at the end of the 
 capitularies of Cbarlemaign. 
 
 This cuftom was abrogated by the emperor Frederic ; but it flill 
 Obtains in Mingrelia ; as we are told by Lamberti, in his rela- 
 tion inferted in Thevcnot's voyages. 
 
 If they cannot have Proof of a crime, a crofs is laid at the 
 bottom of a caldron full of boiling water, out of which the 
 accufed is obliged to fetch it with his naked hand and arm : 
 this done, the arm is put up in a bag, tied, and fealcd, and 
 three days after opened ; when, if there be no marks of the 
 burn or fcald, the accufed is declared innocent. 
 In the kingdom of Siam, to have Proof of a crime, the party 
 is obliged to wafh his hands in boiling oil, or to walk on burn- 
 ing coals ; from either of which he muft come out untouched 
 to be reputed innocent. 
 
 Sometimes they oblige the two contending parties to plunge 
 under water ; and he who flays there longeff, gains the caufe ; 
 and fometimes to fwallow a grain of rice, prepared and charm- 
 ed by their doctors : he who is able to fwallow it, is declared 
 innocent, and carried home in triumph ; and the accufer pu- 
 nihhed. — This looks like an imitation of what was done among 
 the Jews to have Proof of adultery. 
 
 The Prozfby combat is likewife faid to fubfiff among the Min- 
 . grelians. 
 
 PROPAGATION, Propagatio, the act of multiplying 
 the kind, or of producing the like in the way of natural ge- 
 neration. 
 
 Some plants are only propagated by fowing, as wheat, pop- 
 pies, CaV. The reafon is, that the ffem in thefe plants withers 
 2nd dies away, and confequently is incapable of being planted : 
 and as to the root, the whole force and virtue thereof pafTes 
 up into the ear, or fpica, which being the ufeful part of the 
 plant, exhaufb the whole. 
 
 Some kinds of plants are propagated by the roots, as the ane- 
 monies, c3V. In which cafe there is a confiderable flock of 
 feminal or fpermatic virtue fiill referved in the root, fo as to 
 be in a condition for fhooting new fibres upon any favourable 
 occafion. 
 
 Sometimes a branch lopped off, and fet in the ground, (hall 
 moot into a new plant i as we fee in the willow, vine, poplar, 
 &c. and fometimes a truncheon fliall do the fame. In this 
 cafe, the plants being of a very porous texture, readily imbibe 
 nourifliment, and take root. — This method of Propagation, h 
 particularly remarkable in the vine, any part of which, put 
 any how in the ground, will become a plant. The little chips 
 of elm are faid to do the fame. 
 
 When a branch, or arm of a vine, fhoots too great a length, 
 or withers towards the extreme, or grows too fmall to feed its 
 grapes, it is ufual to cut pieces of it off, and put them in the 
 ground, which readily grow into thriving plants. 
 Nay, fometimes to bring up young plants, and make them 
 grow and advance the farter, efpecially lemon, orange, and 
 citron trees, they pafs a branch or fhoot of an old tree, with- 
 out cutting it off, through an aperture of a veffel filled with 
 good earth ; upon which, the pores opening by the moiifure 
 and warmth, roots prefently burft forth, which, being fur- 
 nifhed with food both from the earth and the parent plant, 
 grow at a great rate, and are foon in a condition to be feparated 
 from the parent, and ftiift for themfclves. Laftly, plants are 
 fometimes alfo propagated by bulbs. 
 PROPER, Proprium, fomething naturally and cffentially be- 
 longing to any being. 
 
 The fchool-pbilofopbers, after Porphyry, diftinguifti four kinds 
 of Propers, or mades of propriety, which are expreffed in the 
 following verfe.— Eft medicus, bipes,canefens, rftbilifque. 
 The fir It, called proprium ^r/ms mod's, is what asrees to a 
 iingle fpecie?, but not to ail the individuals : this^they call 
 foli, fed non omn'u — As, to be a geometrician, a phyfician, a 
 divine, &f. which are things proper to man; but not to all 
 men. 
 
 The fecond, proprium featndo modo, is what agrees to the 
 whole ipecies, but agrees Jilccwife to another ; which they call 
 
 omni, fed non foil. — Thus, to have two feet is proper to a man, 
 but is likewife proper to a bird. 
 
 The third, proprium tenia mods, is that which agrees to a 
 fingk fpecies, but not at all times ; omni ttfolijed non fctoper. 
 —As, to grow grey, according to Porphyry, is proper to a man, 
 but it is to an old man. 
 
 TheJaff, and higheff, proprium quarto modo, is that which 
 alone agrees to one kind, to all the individuals thereof, and at 
 all times; omni, foli, & femper. — Thus, the faculty of laugh- 
 ing is proper to man, of neighing to horfes, & c . And it is this 
 that Porphyry calls the true proper. 
 
 The firft three fpecies are only accidents of the fifth vulgar pre- 
 dicate, to which they directly belong. 
 
 The fourth is an univerfal agreeing to every individual, or fub- 
 ject of predication of any ipecies, in fuch manner as to be 
 always found abfolutely in the fpecies alone, but not at every 
 determinate time : thus man alone is naturally rifible ; not that 
 he is always laughing, but that he has the faculty of laughing 
 at all times. 
 
 Proper, in refptct of words, denotes their immediate and pecu- 
 liar fignifkaticn, or that directly and peculiarly attached to 
 them. 
 
 In which fenfe the word frauds oppofed to figurative and me- 
 taphorical. 
 
 Proper is alfo ufed in a moral fenfc, to denote fomething that 
 is ufually found in things : as, their particular or fpecifie vir- 
 tues, &c. 
 
 In which fenfc we fay, magnanimity is the proper virtue of 
 heroes. 
 
 Proper is alfo ufed for the natural qualities neceffary to fucceed 
 in a thing. 
 
 In which fenfe we fay, people of a hot vigorous temperament 
 are proper for the army ; the cold and phlegmatic are proper 
 for ftudy. The Romans became lefs proper lax war, in pro- 
 portion as they grew more learned and polite. 
 
 Proper, in grammar, is alfo applied to nouns or names, which 
 are diftinguifhed into proper and appellative. 
 Man is the appellative, Peter the proper name. 
 The proper name among Chriitians is that impofed at baptifin. 
 See Name and Baptism. 
 
 Proper fradfion is fuch an one whofe numerator is lefs than its 
 denominator. 
 
 Such is or f, which is really lefs than unity ; and therefore, 
 properly fpeaking, is a fraction. See Fraction. 
 Proper, in the civil jurifprudence,; is ufed In oppofition to 
 acquired, for an inheritance derived by direct or collateral fuc- 
 ceffion. 
 
 By the French laws, a teflator can only difpofe of one fifth 
 of his proper effects ; the paternal relations inherit the paternal 
 propria, and the maternal the maternal ones : fo that propria 
 always return to the line whence they proceed. 
 The origin of the law, which fixes this difference between pro- 
 per goods and acquefts, is not known ; neither the Greeks nor 
 Romans having ever made any fuch diftinction. 
 Indeed it feems founded on this principle of natural equity, 
 that men are ufually defuous to prefervc and attach to their 
 family the goods which they have received from their fore- 
 fathers, and to tranfmit them to thofe defcending from the 
 fame flock. 
 
 Proper fometimes alfo ftands as a reduplicative, ferving to mark 
 
 or defign a thing more exprefly and formally. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, Jefus Chrift came to redeem the world 
 
 in his proper perfon. The king did fuch and fuch a thin^ of 
 
 his own proper motion. 
 Proper motion. Seethe article Motion. 
 Proper objecls. See the article Object. 
 PROPERTY, or Propriety, Proprietas, that which con- 
 
 ftitutes or denominates a thing proper; or it is a particular 
 
 virtue or quality, which nature has bellowed on fomething, ex- 
 
 clufive of all others. 
 
 Thus colour is a Property o.f light ; extenfion, figure, divifibi- 
 lity, and impenetrability, are Properties of body. Every day 
 difcovers new Properties in the loadftone. 
 .opertv, or Propriety, inlaw, denotes dominion, or the 
 higheft right a man can have to a thing ; and fuch as no-wayi 
 depends on any other man's courtefy. 
 
 In this fenfe, none in our kingdom have the Property of any 
 lands or tenements, except the king, in right of his crown ; all 
 other lands being of the nature of fee, and held of the king 
 cither mediately or immediately. 
 
 Property or Propriety, however, is ufed for that right in lands 
 or tenements, which common perfons have; importing as much 
 as utile dominium, though not direftum. 
 
 There are three manners of right or Property, viz. Property 
 abfolute, Property qualified, and Property pofieffory. 
 Incumbents have not the Propriety ot benefices, they have only 
 the enjoyment thereof. The monks have a long time difputed 
 whether they had the Propriety of the bread ttiey eat, or only 
 the ufe ? 
 
 One may give the Propriety of an eftate, yet referve the ufu- 
 fruit ; in which cafe, by the death of the ufufructuary, the ufu- 
 fruit is confolidatcd to the Propritty % 
 
 PROPHECY, 
 
PRO 
 
 PROPHECY, ire»?»T.m, a prediflion, made by divine Wpi J 
 
 ration. 
 
 A late author obferves, that the Chriftians have this m common 
 with the Pagans, that they equally build their religions upon 
 Prophecy and divination. 
 
 He adds, That divination was an art learnt by the Romans in 
 fchools, or under difcipline ; as the Jews did prophefy'mg in the 
 fchools and colleges of the prophets. 
 
 In thefe fchools, as the learned Dodwell obferves, the candi- 
 dates for Prophecy were taught the rules of divination praaifed 
 by the Heathens ; who were in pofieffion of the art long be- 
 fore them. It is added, that the gift of Prophecy was not an 
 occafional thing, but a conftant and Handing matter of faS ; 
 and fome think they have difcovered an eftablifnment of an 
 order of prophets in the old teftament, in analogy to the Hea- 
 then diviners. 
 
 This is certain, from many paffages of fcripture, that there were 
 great numbers of prophets among them, who not only exercifed 
 their talents in matters of government and religion, but even 
 in the difcovery of loft goods, and in telling of fortunes. 
 One of the greateft difficulties in chriftianity turns upon the 
 manner of completion of the fcripture Prophecies. In the pro- 
 phets of the old teftament are frequent predictions of the Mef- 
 fiah ; which the writets of the new frequently urge to the Jews 
 and Heathens as fulfilled in Jcfus Chrift ; and on this principle 
 evince the truth of his million : but thefe texts thus urged from 
 the old, in the new teftament, are fometimes not to be now 
 found in the old ; and at other times are not urged in the new 
 in the literal and obvious fenfe which they fcem to bear in the 
 old ; whence moft of the Chriftian commentators, divines, 
 and critics, ancient and modern, judge them to be applied in 
 a fecondary, typical, allegorical, or myftical fenfe. 
 Thus, ex. gr. St. Matthew, after an account of the conception 
 of the Virgin, and the birth of Jefus, fays, " All this was done, 
 " that it might be fulfilled which was fpoken by the prophet, 
 " faying, BeTiold, a virgin fhall be with child, and dull bring 
 *' forth a fon, and they fhall call llis name Emanuel." But the 
 words, as they ftand in Ifaiah, whence they are fuppofed to be 
 taken, dp, in their obvious and literal fenfe, relate to a young 
 woman who was to bring forth a child in the days of Ahaz ; as 
 appears from the context, anil as is owned by Grotius, Huetius, 
 Caftalio, Curceliaeus, Epifcopius, Hammond, Simon, le Clerc, 
 Lamy, C9V. 
 
 This Prophecy then not being fulfilled in Jefus, in the primary, 
 literal, or obvious fenfe of the words, is fuppofed, like the other 
 Prophecies cited by the apoftles, to be fulfilled in a fecondary, 
 typical, or allegorical fenfe, i. e. this 'Prophecy, which was firft 
 literally fulfilled by the birth of the prophet's fon in the time 
 of Ahaz, was again fulfilled by the birth of Jefus, as be- 
 ing an event of the fame kind, and intended to be fignified 
 either by the prophet, or by God, who directed the prophet's 
 fpeech. 
 
 Grotius obferves this to be the cafe in moft, if not all the Pro- 
 phecies and citations quoted from the old in the new teftament ; 
 and Dodwell, with Sir John Marftiam, refer even the famous 
 Prophecy in Daniel, about the feventy weeks, to the time of 
 Antiochus Epiphanes ; fhewing, that the expreffions taken 
 thence by Chrift, and urged by him as prediaing the deftruc- 
 tion of Jerufalem by the Romans, have only in a fecondary 
 fenfe a refpe£t to that deft-ruction. 
 
 And even tint famous Prophecy in the Pentateuch, " A pro- 
 " phet will the Lord God raife up unto thee, like unto me ; 
 " to him fhall ye hearken which St. Luke refers to as 
 fpoken of Jefus Chrift, is, by Simon, Grotius, Stillingfleet, 
 SrV. underftood to fignify, in its immediate fenfe, a promife of 
 a fucceffioh of prophets. 
 
 It is allowed then, the apoftles applied the Prophecies which they 
 quote from the old teftament, in a typical fenfe ; but unhappily 
 the rules whereby they quoted them are loft. Dr. Stanhope la- 
 ments the lofs of the Jewifh traditions or rules for interpreting 
 fcripture received among the rabbins, and foliowed by the apof- 
 tles. But this lofs, Surenhufius, Hebrew profefior at Amfter- 
 dam, thinks he has retrieved from the Jewifti talmud, and the 
 ancient Jewifh commentaries ; and has accordingly publifhed 
 to the world the rules whereby the apoftles quoted the old 
 teftament. 
 
 But the truth is, thefe rules are too precarious, ftrained, and 
 unnatural, to gain much credit. See Quotation. 
 Mr. Whiflon condemns all allegorical explanation of the Pro- 
 phecies of the old teftament cited in the new, as weak, enthu- 
 fiaftic, fife and adds, that if a double fenfe of the Prophecies 
 be allowed, and there be no ether method of fhewing their 
 completion, than by applying them fecondarily and typically to 
 ■ our Lord, after having been in their firft and primary intention 
 long ago fulfilled in the times of the old teftament, we lofe all 
 the real advantages of the ancient Prophecies, as to the proofs 
 of Chriftianity. 
 
 He therefore fets up a new fcheme in oppofition thereto : he 
 owns, that taking the prefent text of the old teftament for 
 genuine, if is impoflible to expound the apoftles citations of the 
 'Prophecies of the old teftament, on any other than the allegori- 
 cal foundation : and therefore, to folve the difficulty, he is forced 
 to have recourfe to a fuppofition contrary to the fenfe of all 
 , .Chriftian writers before him, viz. that the text of the old 
 
 PRO 
 
 teftament has bctn greatly corrupted fince the apoftbHcal ag; 
 by the Jews. 
 
 His hypothefis is, that the apoftles made their questions out of 
 the old teftament rightly and truly from the Septuagint verfion, 
 which in their time was in vulgar Life, and exactly agreed witli 
 the Hebrew original ; and that, as they made exact quotations, 
 fa they argued juftly and logically from the obvious and literal 
 fenfe of the fud quotations, as they then flood in the old tefta- 
 ment : but that fince their times, both the Hebrew and Septua- 
 gint copies of the old teftament have been fu greatly corrupted, 
 and- fo many apparent difordcrs and di (locations introduced 
 therein, as to occafion many remarkable differences and incon- 
 fiftencies between the old and new teftament in refpect to the 
 words and fenfe of thofe quotations. See Septuagint, fife. 
 As to the manner wherein thefe corruptions were introduced, 
 he fays, the Jews in the fecond century greatly corrupted ami 
 altered both the Hebrew and Septuagint, efpecially in the Pro- 
 phecies ciled by the apoftles, to make their reafoning appear in- 
 conclufive : that in the third century, they put into Origen's 
 hand one of thefe corrupted copies of the Septuagint ; which 
 Origen miftaking for genuine, inferted in his Hexapla, and thus 
 brought into the church a corrupted copy of the Septuagint ; 
 and that in the end of the fourth century, the Jews put into 
 the hands of the Chriftians, who till then had been almoft uni- 
 verfally ignorant of the Hebrew, a corrupted copy of the He- 
 brew old teftament. 
 
 The difagrecment then between the old and new teftament, in 
 refpect to the faid quotations, he contends, lias no place be- 
 tween the genuine text of the old teftament, (now no-where 
 exifting) but only between the prefent corrupted text of the 
 old and new teftament : and therefore, tojuftify the reafonings 
 of the apoftles, he propofes to reftore the text of the old tefta- 
 ment, as it ftood before the days of Origen, and as it flood in 
 the days of the apoftles : from which text thus reftored, lie 
 doubts not it will evidently appear, that the apoftles cited exact- 
 ly, and argued juftly and logically from the old teftament. 
 But this fcheme of accomplithing Prophecies hbours under dif- 
 ficulties at leaft as great as the allegorical fcheme. Its founda- 
 tion is incredible, and its fuperfrruclure, from firft to la ft, preca- 
 rious. In effect, it is inconceivable that the old teftament mould 
 be fo corrupted ; and it may even be made appear, that the He- 
 brew and Septuagint difagrecd in the times of the apoftles : add 
 to this, that the means whereby he propofes to reftore the true 
 text, will never anfwer that end ; nor has he himfelf, from all 
 the means he is yet poffeffed of, been able to reftore one pro- 
 phetical citation, fo as to make that feem literally, which before 
 only feemed allcgorically applied. 
 PROPHET *, Propheta, 7j-£d<p>it»s, a psrfon infpired by God 
 with the knowledge of future events ; and commiftioned to de- 
 clare his laws, his will, is'c. to the world. 
 * The word is derived from the Greek wp, and pars;, faid ; 
 of pu/*t, I fay ; whence alio the Latins derive rheir falus, fpoken. 
 
 Among the canonical books are thofe offixtcen Prophets ; four 
 of which are denominated the greater '■Prophets, viz.. Ifaiah, 
 Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; fo called from the length or 
 extent of their writings, which exceed thofe of the others, viz. 
 Hofea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonas, Micha, Nabum, Habak- 
 kuk, Haggai, Zachariah, and Malachi ; who are called the Ujfer 
 Prophets, from the fhortnefs of their writings. 
 The Jews only reckon three greater Prophets ; Daniel they ex- 
 clude, as no more to be ranked among the Prophets than David : 
 not but that both the one and the other foretold many im- 
 portant things ; but becaufe their manner of life differed from 
 that of the other Prophets, David being a king, and Daniel a 
 peer. 
 
 In the Greek church, the letter Prophets are placed in order 
 before the great ones ; apparently becaufe many of the lefler 
 Prophets are more ancient than the greater. 
 Among the Greeks too, Daniel is ranked among the lefler 
 Prophets. — In the 48th chapter of Ecclcfiaft icus, Ifaiah is par- 
 ticularly called the great Prophet ; both on account of the 
 great things he foretold, and the magnificent manner wherein 
 he did it. 
 
 Spinofa fays, the feveral Prophets prophefied according to their 
 refpective humours ; Jeremiah, e. gr. melancholy and de- 
 jected with the miferies of life, prophefied nothing but mif- 
 fortunes. 
 
 Dacier obferves, that among the ancients the name poet is 
 
 fometimes given to Prophets ; as that of Prophet is at other 
 
 times given to poets. 
 PROPHETICAL types. See the article Type. 
 PROPHYLACTICE, wf^KKT.xi, that part of the art of 
 
 medicine, which directs the preventing or prefervhig from dif- 
 
 eafes, 
 
 PROPITIATION, in religion, a facrifice offered to God to 
 afiuage his wrath, and render him propitious. 
 Among the Jews there were both ordinary and public facrifices, 
 as holocaufts, fiSfo offered by way of thankfgiving : and extra- 
 ordinary ones offered by particular perfons guilty of any crime, 
 by way of Propitiation. 
 
 If it were a crime of ignorance, they offered a lamb or a kid ; 
 if done wittingly, they offered a fheep : for the poor, a pair of 
 turtles was enjoined as a Propitiation. 
 
 The Romifli church believe the mafs to be a facrifice of Pro- 
 pitiation 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 filiation for the living and the dead. The reformed churches 
 allow of no Propitiation, but that one offered by Jefus Chrift 
 on the crofs. 
 
 Propitiation alfo gives the name to a folemn feaft among the 
 Jews, celebrated on the tenth of the month Tifri, which is their 
 feventh month, and anfwers to our September. 
 Ir was inftituted to preferve the memory of the pardon pro- 
 claimed to their forefathers by Mofes on the part of God ; who 
 thereby remitted the punifhment due for their worfliip of the 
 golden calf. 
 
 PROPITIATORY, among the Jews, was the cover or lid of 
 the ark of the covenant ; which was lined both within and 
 without-fide with plates of gold ; infomuch that there was no 
 wood to be feen. 
 
 Some even take it to have been one piece of maffive gold. 
 The cherubims fpread their v/ings over the Propitiatory, 
 This Propitiatory was a type or figure of Chrift, whom St. Paul 
 calls the Propitiatory ordained from all ages. 
 
 PROPLASM, Proplasma, wgowWpa, is fometimes ufed for 
 a mould, wherein any metal or loft matter, which will after- 
 wards gcow hard, is call. 
 
 PROPLASTICE, ra?a**«ftt», the art of making moulds, for 
 cafting things in. 
 
 PROPOLIS, wgMroXij; a thick yellow odorous fubftance, fmell- 
 ing like ftorax, nearly akin to wax; wherewith the bees flop 
 up the holes and crannies of their hives, to keep out the cold 
 air, fife. 
 
 The Propolis is a friable matter, by fome eftecmed fovereign in 
 difeafes of the nerves. It is alfo ufed to make holes in abfcefle? ; 
 and being heated on the fire, its vapour is received for invete- 
 rate coughs. 
 
 PROPORTION, Proportio, in arithmetic, the identity or 
 fimilitude of two ratio's. 
 
 Hence quantities that have the fame ratio between them, are 
 faid to be proportional ; e.gr. if A be to B, as C to D ; or 8 
 be to 4, as 30 to 15 ; A, B, C, D, and 8, 4, 30, and 15, are 
 faid to be in Proportion, or are limply called Proportionals. 
 Proportion is frequently confounded with ratio ; yet have the 
 two, in reality, very different ideas, which ought by all means 
 to be diftinguifhed. 
 
 Ratio is, properly, that relation or habitude of two things, which 
 determines the quantity of one from the quantity of another, 
 without the intervention of any third ; thus we fay, the ratio 
 of 5 and 10 is 2 ; the ratio of 12 and 24 is 2. 
 Proportion is the famenefs or likenefs of two fuch relations : 
 thus, the relations between 5 and 10, and 12 and 24, being 
 the fame, or equal ; the four terms are faid to be in Proportion. 
 Hence ratio exifts between two numbers ; but Proportion re- 
 quires at leaft three. 
 
 Proportion, in fine, is the habitude or relation of two ratio's, 
 when compared together ; as ratio is of two quantities. 
 Proportion again is frequently confounded with progreffion. In 
 effect, the two often coincide ; the difference between them 
 only confiding in this, that progreffion is a particular fpecies of 
 Proportion, wherein the fecond of the three terms is a mean 
 proportional between the other two, or has the fame ratio to 
 the third, which the firft has to the fecond. 
 Add to this, that Proportion is confined to three terms, but 
 progreffion goes on to infinity (fo that progreffion is a feries or 
 continuation of Proportions) ; and that in four terms, 3, 6, 
 12, 24, Proportion h only between the two couples 3 and 6, 
 and 12 and 24; but progreffion is between all the four 
 terms. 
 
 Proportion is Cud to be continual, when the confequent of the 
 firft ratio is the fame with the antecedent of the fecond ; as, if 
 3 be to 6, as 6 to 12. 
 
 The Proportion is find to be difcrete, or interrupted, when the 
 confequent of the firft ratio differs from the antecedent of the 
 fecond ; as, if 3 be to 6, as 4 to 8. 
 
 Proportion, again, is either faid to be arithmetical, or geometri- 
 cal ; as the ratio's are. 
 Arithmetical Proportion 13 the equality of two or more arith- 
 metical ratio's, or the equality of difference between three or 
 more feveral quantities. 
 
 Thus, 1, 2, 3, and 2, 5, 8, ir, 14, are in arithmetical Pro- 
 portion ; becaufe there is the fame difference betwixt the num- 
 bers compared, which are 1 to 2, and 2 to 3 ; or 2 to 5, and 
 S to 8. 
 
 If every term have the fame ratio to the next, as the firft has 
 to the fecond ; the terms are faid to be in continual arithme- 
 tical Proportion ; as 5, 7, g, 12, 15. 
 
 If the ratio between any two terms differ from that of any 
 others ; the terms are faid to be in arithmetical Proportion dif- 
 crete, or interrupted ; as where 2 : 5 : : 6 : 9, the ratio's of 5 
 and 6 being different from that of 2 and 5. 
 A feries of more than four terms in arithmetical Proportion, 
 from an arithmetical progreffion. See Progression. 
 I. If tiiree numbers be in arithmetical Proportion, the fum of 
 the extremes is equal to double the middle term : thus, in 
 3, 7, 1 1 i the fum of 3 and 1 1 is equal to twice 7 ; viz. 14. 
 Hence we have a rule for finding a mean arithmetical propor- 
 tional between two given numbers j half the fum of the two 
 being the mean required : thus, half the fum of 1 1 and 3, viz. 
 '4* is 7- 
 Vol. II. 
 
 2. If four numbers be in arithmetical Proportion, the fum of 
 the extremes is equal to the fum of the middle terms : thus, 
 in 2 : 3 : 4 : 5 i the fum of 5 and 2 is equal, to the fum of 
 
 3 and 4, viz. 7. 
 
 Hence, four terms in arithmetical Proportion are ft ill proporti- 
 onal, if taken inverfely, 5:4:3:2; or alternately, thus, 
 
 2 : 4 • 3 : 5 J or inverfely and alternately, thus, 5:3:4:2. 
 
 3. If two numbers in arithmetical Proportion be added to other 
 two, the lefs to the lefs, Itfc. their difference is in a duplicate 
 ratio, h e. double that of the refpective parts added : thus, 
 if to 3 : 5 be added 7 : 9, the fums are 10 : 14 ; whofe diffe- 
 rence 4, is double the difference of 3 : 5, or 7 : 9. And if to 
 this fum you add other two, the difference of the laft fum will 
 be triple the fum of the firfl two, and fo on. 
 
 If two arithmetical proportionals be fubtracted from two others 
 in the fame ratio, the lefs from the lefs, t&c. the arithmetical 
 ratio of the remainder is o. Thus, fxom 9 : 7 taking 5 ; 3, 
 the remainders are 4, 4. 
 
 Hence, if arithmetical proportionals be multiplied by the fame 
 number, the difference of their products will contain the firft 
 difference as oft as the multiplier contains unity : thus, 3 : 5, 
 multiplied by 4, produce 12, 20, whofe difference 8 is equal to 
 
 4 times 2, the difference of 3 and 5. 
 
 4. If two numbers in arithmetical Proportion be added to, or 
 multiplied by, other two in another ratio of the fame kind, lefs 
 by lefs, &c. the fums are in a ratio which is the fum of the 
 ratio's added or multiplied : thus 2 : 4 and 3 : 9 being added, 
 the fums are 5 : 13, whofe difference is 8, the fum of 2 and 6, 
 the differences of the numbers given. 
 
 Geometrical Proportion is the quality of two geometrical ratio's, 
 or comparifons of two couples of quantities. 
 Thus 4:8:: 12 : 24, are in geometrical Proportion ; the ratio 
 of 4 and 8 being equal to that of 12 and 24 ; f; e. 4 is con- 
 tained as often in 8, as 12 is in 24. Again, 9, 3, 1, are in 
 geometrical Proportion, g being triple of 3, as 3 is of I. 
 If, in a feries of terms, there be the fame ratio between every 
 two terms, that there is between the firft and fecond ; they are 
 faid to be continual geometrical proportionals : as 1 : 2 : 4 : 8. 
 If any two terms have a different ratio from that of the firft and 
 fecond, they are faid to be in a disjunfi, or interrupted geometrical 
 Proportion ; as are 2 : 4 : 3 : 6 ; where 2 is to 4, as 3 to 6 i 
 but not fo as 4 to 3. 
 
 A feries or progreffion of more than four geometrical proportio' 
 nals is called a geometrical progreffion. 
 
 1. If three quantities be in continual geometrical Proportion, the 
 product of the two extremes is equal to the fquare of the 
 middle term : thus, in 6 : 12 : : 12 : 24, the product of 6 and 
 24 is equal to the fquare of 12, viz. 144. Hence we have a 
 rule, 
 
 2. To find a mean geometrical proportional between two num- 
 bers, e. grl 8 and 72. 
 
 Multiply one of the numbers by the other, and from the pro- 
 duct 576, extract the fquare root 24; this will be the mean 
 required. I 
 
 3. To find a fourth proportional to the three given numbers, e, 
 gr. 3, 12, 5 ; or a third proportional to two given numbers. 
 Multiply the fecond 12 into the third 5, in the firft cafe ; and 
 in the latter, multiply the fecond into itfelf : divide the product 
 by the firft 3, the quotient 20 is the fourth proportional fought 
 in the one, or the third in the other. 
 
 The folution of this problem is what we popularly call the 
 rule of Proportion, or the goldeft rule, or rule of three. See 
 Rule. 
 
 4. If four numbers be in geometrical Proportion, the product 
 of the extremes is equal to the product of the two middle 
 terms : thus, in 2 : 5 : : 4 : 10, the product of jo and 2 is 
 equal to that of 5 and 4, viz. 20. Hence, 
 
 5. If four numbers reprcfented a : h : : c : d be either in arith- 
 metical, or geometrical Proportion ; they will alfo be in the fame, 
 if taken inverfely, viz. d : c : : b : a ; or alternately, as a :'c : ;b:a'i 
 or alternately and inverfely, as d : b : : c ; a. 
 
 6. If the two terms of a geometrical ratio be added to, or 
 fubtracted from, other two in the fame ratio, the lefs to or from 
 the lefs, Sfr. the fums or differences are in the fame ratio : 
 thus in 6 : 3 : 10 : 5, where the common ratio is 2 ; 6 added 
 to 10, makes 16, as 3 to 5 makes 8 ; and 16 : 8 is in the fame 
 ratio as 6 : 3, or 1 0 : 5. Again, 1 6 being to 8, as 6 to 3, their 
 differences 10 and 5 are in the fame ratio. 
 
 The reverfe of which propofition is likewife true ; viz. if to 
 or from any two numbers be added or fubtracted other two, if 
 their fums or differences be in the fame geometrical ratio as 
 the firft two, the numbers added or fubtracted are in the fame 
 ratio. Hence, 
 
 7. If the antecedents, or the confequents, of two equal geo- 
 metrical ratio's, 3 : 6, and 12 : 24, be divided by the fame 3 ; 
 in the former cafe, the quotients I and 4 will have the fame 
 ratio's to the confequents, viz. 1 : 6 : : 24 ; and in the lat- 
 ter, the antecedents the fame ratio to the quotients, viz, 
 
 3 : I : : 12 : 4. 
 
 8. If the antecedents or confequents of fimilar ratio's, 2 : 6, 
 and 3 : 9, be multiplied by the fame quantity 6 ; in the former 
 cafe the fafla 12 and 18 have the fame ratio to the confequents, 
 viz. 12 : 6 : : 18 : 9 ; and in the latter, the antecedents have 
 the fame ratio to the products, viz. 2 : 6 : : 3 : 9, 
 
 9 T 9. If 
 
PRO 
 
 9- If in a geometrical Proportion 3:6:: 12": 24, the antece- 
 dents be multiplied or divided by the fame number 2 ; or di- 
 vided by the fame number 3 ; in the former cafe, the facta ; in 
 the latter, the quotients will be in the fame Proportion, viz. 
 6 : 18 : : 24 : 72, and 1 : 3 : : 4 : 12. 
 
 ic. If in a Proportion 4 ; 2 : : 10 : 5, the antecedent of the firft 
 ratio be to its confequent, as the antecedent of the fecond to its 
 confequent; then by compofition, as the fum of the antece- 
 dent and confequent of the flrft ratio is to the antecedent or con- 
 fequent of the firft, fo is the fum of the antecedent and confe- 
 quent of the fecond to the antecedent or confequent of the fe- 
 cond, viz. 6 : 2 : : 15 : 5, or 6 : 4 : : 15 : 10. 
 zi. If in a Proportion 6 : 4 : : 15 ; 10, as the antecedent of 
 the flrft ratio is to its confequent, fo is the antecedent of the 
 other to its confequent ; then, by divifion, as the difference of 
 the terms of the fir ft ratio is to its antecedent or confequent, fo 
 is the difference of the terms of the fecond ratio to its antecedent 
 or confequent, viz. 2 : 4 : : 5 : 10 ; or 2 ; 6 : : 5 : 15. 
 12. If in a Proportion 4:31:6:3, as the antecedent of the 
 flrft ratio is to its confequent, fo is the antecedent of the fecond 
 to its confequent : and as the confequent of the flrft is to 
 another number 8, fo is the confequent of the fecond to ano- 
 ther number 12 ; viz, 2 : 8 : : 3 : iz ; then will the antece- 
 dent of the flrft be to 8, as the antecedent of the fecond to 12; 
 viz. 4 : 8 : : 6 : 1 2 . 
 
 J 3. If in a Proportion 8 : 4 : : tz : 6, as the antecedent of the 
 flrft ratio is to its confequent, fo Is the antecedent of the fecond 
 to its confequent ; and as the confequent of the flrft is to ano- 
 ther number 16, fo is another number 3 to the antecedent of 
 the fecond ; viz. 4 : 16 : : 12 ; then will the antecedent of 
 the flrft be to 16, as 3 to the confequent of the fecond ; viz. 
 8 : 16 : : 3 : 6. 
 
 S4. Suppofe any four proportional quantities, viz. 3 : 6 : : r 2 : 24, 
 and any other four proportional quantities 1 : 3 : : 9 ; 27 ; if 
 you multiply the feveral terms of the latter into thofe of the 
 former, the products will Hkewife be proportional, viz. 
 3 : 18 : : 108 : 648. 
 
 J5. If there be feveral quantities continually proportional, 
 A, B, C, D, Wj t the firft A is to the third C, in a duplicate 
 ratio i to the fourth D, in a triplicate ratio, ts'c. of the flrft A 
 to the fecond B. 
 
 16. If there be three numbers in continual Proportion, the 
 difference of the flrft and fecond will be a mean proportional 
 between the difference of the firft and fecond term, and thi 
 difference of the fecond and third, and the firft term. 
 Harmonical or mifical Proportion is a third kind of proportion 
 formed out of the other two, thus : of three numbers, if the 
 firft be to the third as the difference of the firft and fecond to 
 the difference of the fecond and third ; the three numbers are 
 in harmonical Proportion. 
 Thus 2 : 3 : 6 are harmonical, becaufe 2 : 6 : : I : 3. So alfo 
 four numbers are harmonical, when the firft is to the fourth 
 as the difference of the flrft and fecond to the difference of the 
 third and fourth. 
 
 Thus 24 : 16 : : 12 : 9 are harmonica], becaufe 24 : g : : 8 : 3. 
 By continuing the proportional terms in the firft cafe, there arlles 
 an harmonical progreihon, or feries. 
 
 1. If three or four numbers in harmonical Proportion be multi- 
 plied or divided by the fame number ; the products, or quo- 
 tients, will alfo be in harmonical Proportion : thus, if 6, 8, 12. 
 which are harmonica], be divided by z, the quotients 3, 4, 6, 
 are alfo harmonical ; and reciprocally their products by 2 j viz 
 6, 8, 12. 
 
 2. To find an harmonical mean between two numbers given : 
 Divide double the product of the two numbers by their fum, the 
 quotient is the mean required ; thus, fuppofe 3 and 6 the ex- 
 treme), the product of thefe is 18, which doubled, gives 36 ; 
 this divided by 9 (the fum of 3 and 6) gives the quotient 4. 
 Whence 3 : 4 : 6 are harmonical. 
 
 3. To find a third harmonical proportional to two numb' 
 given. 
 
 Call one of them the firft term, and the other the fecond ; 
 multiply them together, and divide the product by the number 
 remaining after the fecond is fubtracted from double the firft ; 
 the quotient is a third harmonical proportional; thus, fuppofe 
 the given terms 3 : 4, their product 12 divided by z, (the re- 
 mainder after 4 is taken from 6, the double of the flrft) the 
 quotient is 6, the harmonical third fought. 
 
 4. To find a fourth harmonical Proportion to three terms given : 
 Multiply the firft into the third, and divide the product by the 
 number remaining after the middle or fecond is fubtracted 
 from double the firft ; the quotient is a third harmonical pro- 
 portional: thus, fuppofing the numbers 9 : iz : 16 ; a fourth 
 will be found by the rule to be 24. 
 
 5. If there be four numbers difpofed in order, whereof one 
 extreme and the two middle terms are in arithmetical Prop 
 tion ; and the fame middle terms with the other extreme, are 
 in harmonical Proportion; the four are in geometrical Proportion 
 as here, 2 : 3 : ; 4 : 6, which are geometrical j whereof 2:3:4 
 are arithmetical, and 3 : 4 : 6 harmonical. 
 
 6. If betwixt any two numbers you put an arithmetical mean, 
 and alfo an harmonical one, the four will be in geometrical 
 Proportion: thus, betwixt 2 and 6,, an arithmetical mean is 4, 
 and an harmonical one 3 ; and the four 2 : 3 : ; 4 : 6 are geo- 
 metrical. 
 
 PRO 
 
 We have this notable difference between the three kinds of 
 Proportion ; that from any given number we can raife a conti- 
 nued arithmetical feries increafing m infinitum, but not de- 
 creafmg ; the harmonical is decreafable in infinitum, but nut 
 increafable ; the geometrical is both. 
 Contra-harmonical Proportion is that relation of three terms, 
 wherein the difference of the flrft and fecond is to the diffe- 
 rence of the fecond and third, as the third to the firft. 
 Thus, 3, 5, 6, are numbers in contra-harmonical Proportion, 
 becaufe 2 : 1 : ; 6 : 3. 
 
 To find a mean in contra-harmonical Proportion between two 
 numbers : divide the fum of the two fquared by the fum of 
 the rootsj the quotient is the mean requiicd : thus, the fum of 
 the fquares of 3 and 6, viz, 45, divided by 9, the fum of the 
 roots, gives 5. 
 Extreme and mean Proportion,") 
 Inordinate Proportion, 
 
 Reciprocal Proportion, 
 Proportion of equality, 
 Compofition of Proportion, 
 Rule of Proportion, 
 Ter?ns of Proportion, 
 
 ["Extreme. 
 1 Inordinate. 
 I Reciprocal. 
 
 Equality. 
 j Composition. 
 I Rule. 
 LTerm. 
 
 Proportion is alfo ufed for the relation between unequal things 
 of the fame kind, whereby their feveral parts correfpond to each 
 other with an equal augmentation or diminution. 
 Thus, in reducing a figure into little, or in inlarging it, care 
 is taken to obferve an equal diminution, or inlargement, through 
 all its parts ; fo that if one line, e. gr. be contracted by one 
 third of its lengtli j all the reft ftiall be contracted in the fame 
 Proportion. ,. 
 The making of reductions of this kind is the great ufe of the 
 proportional compafTes, 
 Proportion, in law. See Pro rata and Oneranda. 
 Proportion, in architecture, denotes the juft magnitude of the 
 members of each part of a building, and the relation of the 
 feveral parts to the whole ; e. gr. of the dimenfions of a co- 
 lumn, &c, with regard to the ordonnance of the whole build- 
 
 One of the greateft differences among architects, M, Perrault 
 obferves, is in the Proportions of the heights of entablatures with 
 refpect to the thicknefs of the columns, to which they are 
 always to be accommodated. See Entablature. 
 In effect, there is fcarce any work, either of the ancients or 
 moderns, wherein this Proportion is not different ; fome enta- 
 blatures are even nearly twice as high as others : — yet it is cer- 
 tain, this Proportion ought of all others to be moft regulated ; 
 none being of greater importance, as there is none where- 
 in a defect is fooner fpied, nor any wherein it is more fhock- 
 
 ing. v- -rti moVt'wasfiiu sriT J .., v i',i on3 u»v« 
 Proportion is likewife underftood of the magnitudes of the 
 members of architecture, ftatues, or the like, with regard to 
 the diftancc whence they are to be viewed. 
 The moft celebrated architects are much divided in their opi- 
 nions on this fubject : fome will have it, that the parts ought 
 to be inlarged in Proportion to their elevation ; and others, 
 that they ought to remain in their natural dimenfions. See 
 Statue. 
 
 Proportion, in painting, is the juft magnitude of the feve- 
 ral members of a figure, a groupe, &c. with regard to one 
 another, to the whole figure, the graupe, and the intire 
 piece. 
 
 Proportion makes one of the moft important articles in the art 
 of painting, the principal fubject it is employed in being the 
 human body ; for which reafon, the curious in that art will 
 not be difpleafed with the following fcheme of the rules and 
 laws thereof. 
 
 By the way, let It be obferved, I. That to meafure and fet off 
 Proportions, they either divide the module into twelve parts, and. 
 fubdivide each of thefe into four ; or elfe they divide the face 
 into three lengths of the nofe, fubdividing each length into 
 twelve; or, laftly, divide the whole face into three, and fub- 
 divide each of thofe into four : which laft method is what we 
 ihall here follow. 
 
 2. That the multiplicity of little meafures are to be ftudioufly 
 avoided, becaufe they confound, and becaufe they require great 
 fkill in ofteology to hit juftly. 
 
 3. That in meafuring there be a regard had to the relievo, or 
 juttings out of figures. 
 
 Rules of Proportion in painting. — In the Proportions of a hu- 
 man figure, regard is had to the age,fex, and quality. 
 As to age ; we confider the ftages thereof, infancy, youth, and 
 manhood. For the firft, at three years of age, we count five 
 lengths of the face from top to toe ; viz, from the tip of the 
 head to the bottom, of the belly, three ; thence to the foot, two ; 
 breadth about the fhouldcrs, one face, one eighth ; and in the 
 place of the hips, one face. 
 
 At four years, the height is fix faces \ ; viz. from the top of 
 the head to the bottom of the belly, three faces \ ; thence to 
 the fole of the foot, three faces ; the breadth about the fhoul- 
 ders, one face % ; about the haunches, one face L 
 At five years, the height is fix faces {, { abated, the lower 
 being fhorter. 
 
 In youth at twelve years, we have two Proportions ; the one 
 from nature, which gives nine faces for the height ; for the hreadth 
 
 about 
 
PRO 
 
 about the fhoulders, two faces ; about the haunches, one face 
 The other from the antique ftatues, as that of Laocoon, Gfc. 
 which give the height, ten faces -| ; the breadth from one 
 fhoulder to another, one face 7 ; at the haunches 1 \ ; at the 
 place of the mufcle called vafius externus, 2 ; at the thigh 1 ; 
 the knee, |- and a fubdivifion ; and at the ankles, |. 
 In the fhte of manhood, when the proportions are arrived at 
 perfection, we reckon the height ten faces : the firft, from the 
 top of the head to the noftril ; the fecond, to the hole in the 
 neck between the clavicles ; the third, to the pit of the fto- 
 mach, called cartilago enfiformis ; the fourth, to the navel ; 
 the fifth, to the pyramidal mufcles ; thence to the knee, 2 i ; 
 and as much to the fole of the foot.— The extent of the arms 
 is the fame with the height, viz. from the tip of the long 
 finger to the joint of the wrift, one face; thence to the elbow, 
 J i ; thence to the juncture of the Ihoulders, 1 3 ; thence to 
 the hole in the neck, 1 -J ; in all, five heads ; which, with the 
 five of the other arm, gives ten : the thicknefs of the arms to 
 be adjufted by the quality or character. 
 
 As to the breadth of the figure leen frontwife, the width of 
 the fhoulders acrofs the deltoides is 2 faces \ ; breadth of the 
 pectoral mufcle, to the juncture of the arm, 2. About the 
 haunches, where the obliqui externi are, 1 \, and the fubdi- 
 vifions. The thighs, at the biggeft place, 1. The knee, \, 
 three fubdivifions i. The leg, at the thickeft, f, and one fub- 
 divifion. The extreme of the ankle, \, one fubdivifion \. The 
 feet, 4» and one half a fubdivifion. Their length, 1 face one 
 fubdivifion. 
 
 Others, meafuring by the length of the whole head, make 
 4>nly eight heads in height and breadth ; thus : The head, one ; 
 thence to the bottom of the breafts, one ; thence to the navel, 
 one ; thence to the yard, one ; thence to the middle of the 
 thigh, one ; thence to the lower parts of the knee, one ; thence 
 to the fmall of the leg, one j thence to the bottom of the 
 foot, one. 
 
 The breadth thus : From the end of the long finger to the 
 wrift, one ; thence to the bend of the arm, one ; thence to 
 the bottom of the moulder, one ; thence over to the other 
 fhoulder, two ; thence to the end of the other long finger, 
 three. 
 
 To thefe general Proportions may be added others, which ufually 
 obtain ; as, that the hand is to be of the length of the face ; 
 the thumb the length of the nofe ; and the great toe the fame : 
 the two nipples, and the hole in the neck, make a juft equila- 
 teral triangle : the fpace between the eyes is the breadth of an 
 eye ; the breadth of the thigh, at the thickeft:, is double that 
 of the thickeft part of the leg, and treble that of the fmalleft : 
 from the top of the head to the nofe, the fame as from the 
 top of the nofe to the chin. The diftance from the chin to the 
 throat-pit, is the breadth of the throat; the diftance of the 
 centre of the eye to the eye- brow, the fame as the prominence 
 of the noftrils, and the fpace between them and the upper lip : 
 the length of the fore-finger the fame as the fpace thence to 
 the wrift ; the fpace from the tip of the fore-finger to the wrift, 
 the length of the face. 
 
 For the fex : The Proportions of man and woman differ in 
 height, in that the woman has a longer neck ; the parts at the 
 breafts, and the lower parts of the belly, bigger by half a part; 
 which makes the fpace from the bread to the navel lefs by one 
 part ; and the thigh fhorter by a third part. 
 As to breadth, a woman has her breafts and fhoulders nar- 
 rower, and her haunches larger ; and thighs, at the place of 
 their articulation, larger ; arms and legs thicker, feet firait- 
 cr ; and becaufe women are more flat and flefhy, their muf- 
 cles are lefs feen, and therefore the contours are more fmooth 
 and even. 
 
 Young maids have little heads, long necks, low or down 
 fhoulders, fiender bodies, haunches big, legs and thighs long, 
 feet little. 
 
 Young men have the neck thicker than women, the fhoulders 
 and breafts larger, the belly and haunches narrower, legs and 
 thighs flenderer, and feet larger. 
 
 As to the quality of fubjects, we are either to follow fimple 
 nature, or fine and agreeable nature, or to chufe nature, or 
 exceed it. In folio win gfimple nature, in common and coun- 
 try fubjects, men of dull wit, and a moift temperament, are 
 to be of an heavier and rougher Proportion, the mufcles ap- 
 pearing but little diftinguilhed, the head big, neck fhort, 
 fhoulders high, ftomach little, knees and thighs thick, and 
 feet large. 
 
 In nature, as fine and agreeable, for ferious hiftories, &c. the 
 figures of the heroes to be well fhaped, the haunches high and 
 upright, the joints well knit, little and compact, and free from 
 flefh and fat. 
 
 Military men are to have the head little, neck thick and nervous, 
 fhoulders large and high, body and paps elevated, haunches 
 and belly little, thighs mufcly, principal mufcles raifed up and 
 knit together at the heads ; the legs fmooth, feet flendcr, foles 
 hollow. 
 
 Nature is fometimes to be fclcfied, i. e. made up of parts from 
 various good originals, to form extraordinary and perfect figures 
 for great and heroic fubjects, as in Roman hiftories ; giving, 
 thus, a character of force fufricient to execute aftions agreeable 
 to the defcriptions the poets, fsV. make. 
 
 Laftly, fometimes nature is to be exceeded, as in reprefen- 
 
 PRO 
 
 rations or fabulous deities, of heroes and giants : in thefe the 
 great pieces, which ferve to form the body, are to be fet out 
 in irieafures agreeable to the height ; only diverfifving them by 
 their bignefs. 
 
 In the rule of Proportions, it is to be obferved, that there h a 
 difference in the contours of fome parts, When put in different 
 poftures : thus, when the arm is bent, it is larger than when 
 ftrait ; and the fame is true of the foot and knee s as is (hewn 
 by Leonardo da Vinci. 
 Rule of Proportion, in arithmetic, a rule whereby we find a 
 fourth proportional to three numbers given. 
 This is popularly called the golden rule, and fometime the rufc 
 of three. See Rule of Three. 
 Compafs of Proportion, a name by which the French, and 
 after them, fome Englifh authors, call the fetlor. — See its co?l- 
 ftrutl'ion and ufe under the article Sector* 
 PROPORTIONAL, relating to proportion. Thus we fay 
 proportional compaffes, parts, fcales, fpirals, &c. See Com- 
 passes, &e. 
 
 Proportionals, in geometry, are quantities, either linear or 
 numeral, which bear the fame ratio, or relation to each 
 other. 
 
 Thus, if 3, 6, 12, be Proportionals, then will 3 : 6 : : 6 : 12. 
 To find a fourth Proportional to three given lines, A B, AC, 
 and B D, (tab. geom. fig. 62.) draw an angle F A G at 
 pleafure ; from A fet off the firft of the lines to B ; from A, 
 the fecond, to C ; and from B, to D, the third : draw BC ; 
 and in D made an angle equal to ABC: then is C E the fourth 
 Proportional fought ; and A B : A C : : B D : C E. 
 If a third Proportional be required to two given lines, AB and 
 AC; make BD equal to AC* i. e. let A C be repeated 
 twice : then AB : AC : : AC : CE. 
 To find a mean Proportional between two given lines, A B and 
 BE, (fig. 63. J join the two given lines into one continued 
 right line, and bifect it in C. From C, with the interval of 
 AC, defcribe a femicircle ADE ; and from B erect a per- 
 pendicular BD; this is the mean Proportional fought; and 
 AB: BD :: BD: BE. 
 
 The geometricians have been thefe two thoufand years in 
 fearch of a method, for finding two mean Proportionals. See 
 Mean. 
 
 The ancients performed it mechanically, by the mefolabe de- 
 fcribed by Eutochius ; and many of tbtm attempted to give 
 the demonftration ; fome by the folid loci, as Menechmus ; 
 others by the plain loci, as Nicomedes, Diocles, and, m our 
 times, Viety ; and others by implicit motions, as Plato, Ar- 
 chytas, Pappus, and Sporus ; others tentatively, by the de- 
 fcription of circles, as Hero and Appollonius, cifj, but all in 
 vain. 
 
 To find a ?nean Proportional between two numbers : Half the 
 fum of the two given numbers is an arithmetical mean Pro- 
 portional, and the fquare root of their product a geometrical 
 mean Proportional. See Proportion arithmetical and geo- 
 metrical. 
 
 To find a mean harmonkal Proportional. See Proportion har- 
 monica I. 
 
 Proportionals, in grammar. See Numerals, 
 ProPortionAl compajfes, an inftrument for the ready drawing 
 of lines and figures, in any given ratio to other lines or 
 figures, — See their conftruSlion and ufe under the article 
 Compasses. 
 Proportional part. See the article Part. 
 Proportional fcales, called alfo logarithmtcal fcales, are the 
 artificial numbers or logarithms, placed on lines, for the eafe 
 and advantage of multiplying, dividing, 6ft\ by means of com- 
 paffes, or of Hiding- rules. 
 
 They arc, in effect, only fo many lines of numbers, as they 
 are called by Gunter, but made fingle, double, triple, or qua- 
 druple ; beyond which they feldom go. See Gunte R'3 
 fcale, &c. 
 
 Proportional fpirals. See the article Spiral. 
 PROPORTIONALITY, a term ufed by Gtegory de St. Vin- 
 cent, for the proportion that is between the exponents of four 
 ratio's. 
 
 PROPORTUM, or Purport, in our kw-books, the inten- 
 tion or meaning of any thing,— Secundum proportum dtfli chi* 
 rographi inter eos eonfcEii, 
 PROPOSITION, ProPositio, in logic, part of an argument^ 
 wherein fome quality, either negative or pofitive, is attributed 
 to a fubjedt. 
 
 Chauvin defines Propofition, a complete, confiftent fentence, 
 indicating or expreffing fomething either true or falfe, without 
 ambiguity : As, Xanthippe is a bad wife. — If on afs fly, he muji 
 have wings. 
 
 Others, more philofophically, define Proportion, a fpeech ut- 
 tered or produced, to fignify fome judgment of the mind. 
 A Proportion confifts of two terms ; the one, that whereof we 
 affirm or deny, called the fubjecl \ the other, the thing affirmed 
 or denied, called the attribute or predicate. 
 Thefe two are either joined, or feparated, by the intervention 
 of fome copula or disjunctive. 
 
 Thus in the Proportion, God is juj} ; the fubjedt, God, is joined 
 with the attribute, juft, by the verb fubftamive, is. 
 The fcboolmen call the two terms tire matter, and the copula 
 the form of the Propofition. 
 
and 
 
 PRO 
 
 Now, as terms may be either Angular, or common and uni- 
 ver&l, if the fubjefl of a Propofition he a common term, taken 
 in all its extent, the Propofition is called umverfal ; as, livery 
 atheift is blind. . ■ f 
 
 If the common term be only taken in an indeterminate part ol 
 its extent, the Propofition is called particular : as, Some atbtijts 
 are wicked. r . • 
 
 If the fubjefl of the Propofition be fingular, the Propofition is 
 called fingular : as, George is king of England. 
 Thofe Propofitions which have only one fubjea, and one attri- 
 bute, are called fm,ple ; — thofe that have feveral fubjefls, or 
 attributes, are called compound. 
 
 A fyllogifm confifts of three Propofitions, major, minor, 
 conclufion. — An cnthytneme, of two. 
 The fchoolmen make feveral other fpecies and dmiions ot Pro- 
 pofitions ; as, a ,. 
 
 Proposition de prime adjacente, where the fubjea and predicate 
 are both included under the verb : fuch are, vim, mdt, via. 
 
 Proposition de fecundo adjaceme is, where either the iubjeu 
 or predicate is included in the verb : as, / Im,— or, J write. 
 
 Proposition de tertio adjacente is, where both the fubject and 
 predicate are exprefs, and ftand diftina from the verb : as, 
 The king it lull. - , 
 
 This Propofition is the rule or ftandard of all the other ; fo that 
 whatever Proportion can he reduced thereto, is legitimate ; and 
 what cannot, is not. 
 
 Propofitions, again, are divided into three dalles : the hrlt 
 regarding the matter j the fecond, the form ; the third, the 
 thought. . . . 
 
 Thofe of the firft clafs are fubJivided into finite and infinite, 
 diretl and indirect, fingle and manifold. 
 Finite or definite Proposition is that which declares fometlnng 
 determine on a fubjefl ) as, Man is bipede.—The wind is not 
 vifiblc. 
 
 Infinite or indefinite Proposition is that where either one or 
 both of the terms are infinite, or have a negative prefixed to 
 them : as, Non Homo eft albus — Homo ejl non albus. 
 
 DireCt Proposition is that wherein a higher or more general 
 thing is predicated of a lower and more particular : as, Alan 
 is an animal. 
 
 Others will have it that, wherein the fubjefl ftands as a matter 
 receiving, and the predicate as a form received: as, Peter is 
 learned. 
 
 Indirect Proposition, according to fome, is that wherein an 
 inferior is predicated of a higher: as, An animal is man.— 
 According to others, it is that wherein the fubjefl Hands as 
 the form, and the predicate as the matter : as, Every rational 
 is man. nt (ttifl etl*' v '*ol tnfcwsi t. Job* ' ! 
 
 Single Proposition is fuch, cither fimply, or by conjunflion.— 
 It is fimply fuch, when it affirms or denies one thing of one 
 other thing : as, The fun Jlsines— By conjunction, when feveral 
 Propofitions art: joined and coupled together. Thus, The Jun 
 Jhines, and it is day, are two Propofitions, which conjoined, make 
 this one, If the fun jhines, it is day. _ ' 
 
 Of fuch conjunct Propofitions there are divers kinds, viz. hypo- 
 thetical, disjunctive, copulative, &c. 
 
 Hypothetical Proposition is that confining of feveral fimple 
 ones, affefled with fome conditional one : as, If the fun bi 
 fet, it it night. . 
 
 Disjunctive Proposition is that confiding of feveral, affefled 
 with a disjunctive copula : as, It is either day, or night. 
 
 Copulative Proposition is that confiding of feveral affefled 
 with a conjunflion copulative : as, Peter docs not Jland, and 
 
 Some add difcrete or adverfative Propofition : as, He is rich, 
 
 but covetous. 
 
 Compound Proposition is that where one or both the terms 
 excite feveral ideas in the mind : as, A man is body and foul, 
 and both together or, a foundation, walls, and roof, are a 
 boufe. 
 
 Manifold Proposition is that confiding of feveral fubjefls; as, 
 Peter and Paul preached ; or of feveral predicates ; as, Simon 
 reads and walks, or both, as, Peter and Paul preach and 
 pray. 
 
 In refpefl of form, Propofuiotu are divided into affirmative and 
 
 negative, tme and fillfe, pure and modal. 
 Affirmative Proposition is that whole attribute is joined to the 
 
 i~ub\z& as, God is a fpirit. . . . 
 Negative Proposition is that whofe attribute is feparated from 
 
 the fubjefl ; as, Man is not aflone. 
 True Proposition is that which declares a thing to be what it 
 
 really is ; or not to be what it is not. 
 Falfe Proposition is that which flgninea a thing to be what 
 
 it is not ; or not to be what it is. 
 
 The truth of a Propofition, therefore, depends on the connecting 
 
 of the fubjefl with the attribute, which is done by that act of 
 
 the mind, called judgment. 
 Propositions are faid to be pure, when they imply or involve 
 
 nothing beftdes their matter and form : as, Man is rational. 
 Modal Proposition is that which, bcfide the pure matter and 
 
 form.-involves fume mode, or manner of difpofition : as, It is 
 
 neceffary man be rational. 
 
 Hence fuch Propofition is faid to confid of a mode, and a diflion 
 the mode denotes fome ciicumftance which affects the Propo 
 
 PRO 
 
 fit'ton ; as, It h mtejfary i the diclion is the reft of the Prsps- 
 fition, that man be rational. " " l; " ' " 
 
 There are four of thefe modes very famous, viz. ncceffary, 
 poffible, impojjible,^ contingent. Others produce other modes, 
 astrue,fa/fe, certain, uncertain, probable, &c. 
 To modal Propofitions, the philofophers refer exclufive, excep- 
 tive, and rejlritlive Propofitions ; all which are denoted by a 
 common name, exponible Propofitions, becaufe requiring fome 
 explanation to make them' clearly underftood. 
 Excluftve Proposition is that denoted by a fign, or character 
 of exclufion : as, only, folely, alone ; as, God alone is eternal ; 
 which is expounded thus, Gad is eternal, and no other being 
 befide him is fo : Peter only plays ; which we expound, Peter 
 plays, and does nothing elje. 
 
 Every cxclufive Propofition is expounded by two Projofitions, 
 one of which is affirmed, and the other denied. 
 Exceptive Proposition is that denoted by an exceptive fign ; 
 as, beftdc, tinlefs, &c. — Thus, Every animal, befide man, is 
 irrational. 
 
 Every exceptive Propofition is to be refolved, or expounded by 
 three Propofitions ; as that, c. gr. above-mentioned, by thefe : 
 Every animal that is not man is irrational ; every man is an 
 animal : no man is irrational. 
 Rejlritlive, or limitative Proposit ion, is that affetfed with a 
 reftriilive fign ; as, according to, fo far as, confidered as, qua- 
 tenus &c. Thus, man, quatenus an animal, perceives. 
 Complex Proposition, T r Complex, 
 
 Reduplicative Propositions, (See the J Reduplicative, 
 Relative Proposition, ( articles') Relative, 
 Reduaion of Propositions. J LReduction. 
 PROPOSITION, in mathematics, is cither feme truth ad- 
 vanced, and fhewn to be fuch by demonstration ; or fome 
 operation propofed, and its folution fhewn. 
 If the Propofition be deduced from feveral theoretic.il definitions 
 compared together, as this; A parallelogram is double of a tri- 
 angle, {landing on the fame bafc, and or' rhe fame altitude : it 
 is called a theorem. 
 
 If it be deduced from a praxis or feries of operations, it is 
 called a problem : as, to find a third proportional to two givtn 
 
 quantities. , 
 
 Indeed, in ftriftnefs, the Propofition is only part of a theorem, 
 viz. that which ihews what agrees to fuch a thing under fuch 
 conditions, and what not : in which fcnfe it is diftinguifhed 
 from the demsnfiration, which {hews the reafons why the un- 
 derstanding conceives that to agree to it. 
 
 Again, ftriCtly fpeaking, the Propofition is only a member of a 
 problem, viz. that wWch fhews what is required to be done : 
 in which feufe it is diftinguifhed from the folution, which re- 
 hcarfes the feveral things to be done in order to effect what is 
 required ; and from • the demonfiration, which proves, that by 
 doin^ the things enjoined in the folution, the thing required in 
 the Propofition is truly done. 
 Proposition, in poetry, denotes the firft part of an epic poem, 
 wherein the author propofes, or lays down, briefly and in ge- 
 neral, what he has to fay in the courfe of his work. 
 The Propofition, F. Boflu obferves, is to contain the bare mat- 
 ter of the poem, /. e. the adtion, and the perfons that are to 
 execute it, both human and divine. * 
 This is what we have both in the Iliad, the Odyfl'ee, and the 
 iEneid. Theat'tion propofed in the Iliad, is the wrath of 
 Achilles ; that of the Odyfl'ee, the return of Ulyfles ; and that 
 of the ^Eneid, the tranllation of the Trojan empire into Italy. 
 The fame author obferves, that the divine perfons are named in 
 all the three Propofitions. Homer, e.gr. declares, that what hap- 
 pens in the Iliad, is by the will of Jupiter ; and that Apollo 
 was the caufe of the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles : 
 the fame poet fays, it was Apollo prevented the return of 
 Ulyftes's companions ; and Virgil mentions the deftinies, the 
 will of the gods, and the anger of Juno,— But they all three 
 dwell chiefly on the perfon of the hero, as if he were the mat- 
 ter of the poem. 
 
 Yet there is fome difference, in this refpecr, in the three poems ; 
 in that Achillea is named in the Iliad ; but Ulyfles and Ericas 
 are not : they are only pointed at, and that in fuch general 
 terms, as if it were fuppofed they were known before. 
 This practice fcems to fall in with the firft intention of the 
 poet; who is to feign an action without names, and who, as 
 Ariftotle fays, does not relate the adfion of Achiiles, nor Ulyfles,^ 
 nor /Eneas, nor any particular perfon, but of an univeri'al, ge- 
 neral, and allegorical perfon. 
 
 Add to this, that the character which the poet is to give his 
 hero, and his whole work, is exprefled in the Propofition, both 
 by Homer and Virgil. 
 
 The whole Iliad is anger and violence ; it is Achilles's^ charac- 
 ter, and it is what the poem commences with : M w » xuSt. The 
 Odyfl'ee prefents us in the firft verfe with the prudence, difli- 
 mulation, and addrefs, which make the character of Ulyfles, 
 and the bufinefs of the poem : A>V tt^t^w. And we fee 
 the piety and mildnefs of -/Eneas in the beginning of the Latin 
 poem: Infignem pietatc virum. 
 
 As to the manner of the Propofition, Horace contents himfclf 
 to prefcribe modefty and fimplicity ; not to promife much, nor 
 raife great expeditions in the reader. Do not begin, favs_ he, 
 like that wretched poet, who fet out vj'tth, Eortunam PnamL 
 
 canubo, 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 cantabo, & nobile bellum. How much better is that of Homer, 
 Die mihi, mufa, virum ! &c. He does not fpend all his fi?e 
 at once, and leave nothing but fmoke : from this feeble begin- 
 ning, you Jhall foon fee him rife to the wonders of Antiphates, 
 Scylla, Charybdis, and Polypheme. 
 
 The lame modefty we find in the propof.tion of the iEneid : if 
 that of the Iliad be a little more furious, it is, perhaps, in 
 conformity to the character of the poem, which is a feries of 
 violences and extravagances. 
 
 Add, that if the poet be to fpeak with modefty of his hero ; 
 much more is he to do fo of himfelf : thus Virgil only fays, 
 I fing the aclisn of /Eneas. Homer begs his mufe to fay or to 
 fing. How far does Ciaudian fwerve from thefe examples ? 
 
 Audaci promere cantit 
 
 Mens conge fa jubet ; g'efiis removete, profani : 
 "Jam furor humanos mjlra de peclore fenfus 
 Expulit, & totum fpirant praco'dia Phcebum. 
 A fhort poem, e.gr. an ode, wherein the violent ftrain 
 could be purfued to the end, might admit of fuch a pompous 
 beginning. Thus we find Horace begin an ode much after the 
 manner of Ciaudian : 
 
 Odi prsfanum vulgus, & arceo 1 
 
 — Carmina non prius 
 Audita Mufarum facerdos 
 Virginibus purifque canto. 
 But the length of an epic poem quite excludes all pompous 
 proportions. 
 
 There is fcarce any fault wc have yet obferved a propofit'ion li- 
 able to, but there is an inftance of in the p>opofition of Statius's 
 Achilleid : he bids his mufe reheafe the deeds of the magnani- 
 mous [on of JEacus, who was formidable even to the Thunderer. 
 He adds, That he has worthily difcharged a former undertaking ; 
 and that Thebes efleems him a fecond Amphisn. 
 
 Magnan'tmwn JEacidem, fo'midatamque Tonanti 
 
 Progeniem, & patrio vetiiam fuccedere tcelo ) 
 
 Diva, refer. 
 
 Tu modo, ft vetefes digno deplevimus haujlu, 
 Da fontes mihi, Pbcebe, novas, &c. 
 PROPREFECT, Propr^efectus', among the Romans, the 
 prefect's lieutenant ; or an officer whom the prefect of the 
 pretorium commifiioned to do any part of his duty in his 
 place. 
 
 In Gruter, p. CCCLXX. the third infeription mentions pro- 
 prefecls of the pretorium under Gratian, in the city of Rome, 
 and the neighbouring parts. 
 PROPRETOR, or Proprietor, a Roman magiftrate, who 
 having difcharged the office of pretor at home, was fent into 
 a province to command there with his former pretorial au- 
 thority. 
 
 Pro pre tor was alfo an appellation given to thofe, who, with- 
 out having been pretors at Rome, were fent extraordinarily 
 into the provinces, to adminifter juftice with the authority of 
 pretors. 
 
 Propretor is alfo a denomination given by fome to thofe fent 
 by the emperors' into the provinces, which, upon partition in 
 Auguftus's time, fell to their lot : as the name proconful was 
 given to thofe fent into the provinces that fell to the people's 
 (hare. 
 
 PROPRIETARY monks, were fuch as had referved goods and 
 effects to themfelves, notwithstanding their formal renunciation 
 of all at the time of their profeffion. 
 They are frequently mentioned in the Monaft, Anglic. &c, 
 and were to be very feverely dealt withal ; to be excom- 
 municated, deprived of burial, csV. — Monachi proprietarii 
 excommuniceniur ab abbatibns, & Jt in morte proprietarius in- 
 ventus fuerit, eulefiaflica caveat fepultura, &c; Addit. ad 
 Matt. Par. 
 
 PROPRIETATE probanda is a writ to the fheriff to inquire 
 of the property of goods diftrained, when a defendant claims 
 a property upon a replevin fued. 
 
 "Where a property is proved by the defendant, a replegiari pro- 
 perly lies not. 
 
 Proprietatis elixir. See the article Elixir. 
 
 PROPRIETOR, or Proprietary, he who has the pro- 
 perty or propriety of any thing. 
 
 Proprietor, in law, is ffiictfy fuch an one as has or pofTefTes 
 any thing as his own in the utmoft degree : $%uee nullius ar- 
 bitrio ejl obnoxia. 
 
 The term was formerly applied in a particular manner to him 
 who had the fruits of a benefice to himfelf and his fucceflbrs ; 
 as in ancient time abbots and priors had. 
 PROPRIETY, in grammar, is where the direct: and imme- 
 diate fignification of a word agrees to the thing it is ap- 
 plied to. 
 
 In which fenfc propriety is ufed in oppofition to a figurative or 
 remote fignification. 
 PROPYL^UM*, the porch of a temple, or great hall. 
 . * The WOrd 15 Greek, which fignifies the fame. 
 
 Hence propjUum is alfo ufed figuratively in matters of learning, 
 for an introduction, apparatus, or prodromus to fome greater 
 work.— In this fenfe we fay, the prepyUum of the Jefuits at 
 Antwerp, CsV. 
 
 PROQUESTOR, Proqujcstor, the queftor's lieutenant, 
 a perfon who difcharged the office of queftor in his Head 
 Vol. II. 4 
 
 The word is chiefly applied to an officer appointed by the 
 governor of a province to difcharge the qucfture after the de- 
 ceafe of the queftor, tiit the fenate and people ftiould fend a 
 new one. 
 
 PRORiE os, in anatomy, a bone of the cranium, called alfo 
 as occipitis. 
 
 FRO RATA, in commerce, a term fometimes ufed among 
 merchants, for in proportion. 
 
 Thus, when in fpeaking of any undertaking they fay, Each 
 perfon muff, reap the profit; or fuftain the lofs^ pro rata to his 
 intereft ; it is meant, each mail gain or lofe, in proportion to 
 the fum he put in ftock. 
 Pro rata portionls, in law. See Okerando pro rata p:r- 
 tionis. 
 
 PROROGANDA affifa. See the article AssisA. 
 
 PROROGATION, Prorocatio, the aft of prolonging, 
 adjourning, or putting off to another time. 
 The difference between a prorogation and an adjournment of 
 parliament is, that by prorogation the feffion is ended ; and fuch 
 bills as palled in either houfe, or both houfes, and had nor the 
 royal alien t, muft at the next afTembly begin again ; for that 
 every feffion of parliament is, in law, a feveral parliament : 
 whereas, if the parliament be only adjourned, there is no new 
 feiEon ; and, confequently, all things continue in the fame ftate 
 they were in before the adjournment. See Adjournment.— 
 But this difference between prorogation and adjournment is 
 of no long Handing : anciently they were ufed as fynonymous, 
 Prorogctur curia de hora in horam t quoufque placitum termi- 
 netur. MS. de LL. 
 
 To prorogue the parliament, the king goes in perfon, with his 
 crown on his head, and fends the black rod for the houfe of 
 commons to attend him at the bar of the houfe of lords ; where, 
 after giving an anfwer to each bill fignified to him, he makes 
 a fpeech ; and the lord chancellor, by command, fignifies the 
 parliament to be prorogued. 
 
 The proroguing of the lower houfe of convocation is a power vefted 
 
 in the archbifhop with the confent of the fuffragaus. See Life 
 
 of Sheen Anne, p. 87. 
 PROSAIC numbers. See the article Number. 
 PROSENIUM, in the ancient theatre, was an eminence whereon 
 
 the actors performed their parts. 
 
 The profenium anfwered to our flage. — It confifted of two 
 parts among the Greeks ; one particularly fo called, where the 
 actors performed : the other was the logeion, where the fingers 
 and the mimics acted their parts.— Among the Romans, the 
 profenium and pulpitum were the fame thing. 
 PROSCRIPTION, Proscriptio, a publication made in the 
 name of the chief or leader of a party, whereby he pro- 
 mifes a reward to any one who fhall bring him the head of one 
 of his enemies. 
 
 Sylta and Maria by turns profcribed each other's adherents.™ 
 Under the triumvirate, a great part of the belt and braveft of 
 the Romans fell by profcription. 
 
 The term took its rife from the practice of writing down a 
 lift of the perfons names, and polling it in public j from pro, 
 and fcribo, I write. 
 PROSE*, Prosa, the natural language of mankind, loofe, and 
 unconfined by poetical meafures, rhymes, £sV. — In which fenfe 
 it flands oppofed to verfe. 
 
 * The word comes from the Latin profa, which fome will have 
 derived from the Hebrew foras, which fignifies expendit : others 
 deduce it from the Latin prorfa, of prorjas, going forwards; by 
 way of oppofition to vtrfa, or turning backwards, as is ncceffary 
 in writing verfe. 
 
 Though profe have its connections, which fuftain it, and a 
 ilructure which renders it numerous ; it ought itill to appear 
 free : its character confifts in running eafy and unreftrained. 
 Poets very rarely have the talent of prefe : the habit of wearing 
 chains fits faft upon them, even when the chains are off. 
 St, Evremond compares profe writers to foot-travellers, who 
 walk with lefs notfe, but more fecurity, than the cavaliers. 
 PROSECUTOR^ in law, is he that purfues a caufe in another's 
 name. 
 
 PROSELYTE *, Proselytus, a new convert to the faith. 
 See Convert. 
 
 * The word is pure Greek, nr^ff^vro^, which, in Latin, fignifies 
 advena ; in Engliih, Jl ranger, or one arrived out of another 
 country. 
 
 The term was much ufed in the primitive church. — The Jews 
 too had their profd)tes, who from Gentiles embraced Ju- 
 daifm. 
 
 PROSODY*, Pros odi a, that part of grammar, which 
 teaches and directs the pronunciation and manner of re- 
 hearfa! ; marks the accents, and diftinguiftics the long and fliort 
 fyllables. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek wgofrsJia, compounded of 
 
 and uSti, cantus, finging. 
 Pr-ofody is properly that branch of grammar which relates to 
 fyllables ; treating of their true pronunciation in refpect of ac- 
 cent, and time or quantity. 
 
 The Englifh profody turns chiefly on two things : numbers, that 
 is, a certain number of feet or fyllables. See Numbers : — ■ 
 and ryhme, or a funilitude of found between the laft fyllables 
 of words. 
 
 9» 
 
 Tli; 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 The Greek and Roman profodies were unacquainted with 
 rhyme ; but in lieu thereof had fomething to make their verfe 
 harmonious without, viz. quantity. 
 PROSONOMASIA, veotrmyMurtet, a figure in rhetoric, where- 
 by allufion is made to the likenefs of a found in feveral 
 names or words ; much the fame with paronomafia, or agno- 
 minatio. 
 
 PROSOPOPEIA *, wgwawownita, in rhetoric, a figure, whereby 
 we make perfons that are abfent, or dead, or even things which 
 are inanimate, as cities, CsV. to fpeak. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, vpmflRF, ftrfm, and 
 sroiea, I Make, or feign. 
 
 The poets, in their fictions, make frequent _ ufe of the profi- 
 popeeia ; as alfo do the orators, in their painting of violent 
 paflions, which feem to tranfport, and make them forget 
 themfelves. 
 
 There are two kinds of profopepxia s ; the one dire&, the 
 other indirect. — For an Inftance of the latter : Juji gods, pro- 
 testors of the innocent, permit the order of nature to be inter- 
 rupted for one moment, and let this car cafe refume the ufe of 
 Speech, &c. 
 
 Inftances of the former are found every-where among the ora- 
 tors and poets : that which follows is a very beautiful one, 
 found by way of epitaph on a tomb-ftone : the dead wife ad- 
 dreffes her furviving husband thus : 
 
 ■ Immatura peri : fed tit felicior, annos 
 Vive tUOfj conjux optir/ie, vive meos. 
 PROSPECT, i „ (Perspective. 
 
 PROSPECTIVE glafs, J bee I Perspective glafs. 
 PROSPHYSIS, fee Adhesion. 
 
 PROSTATA, «-for«Tc«, in anatomy, two white, fpongy, glan- 
 dulous bodies, fituate at the root of the penis, or juft below the 
 neck of the bladder, and about the fize of walnuts. — See tab. 
 anat. (fplanch.) fig, S. //'//. pp. fig. 15. Rt. cc. 
 Authors afcribe two kinds of fubftance to the proftates, the one 
 of which is giandulaus, the other fpungeous, or porous ; this 
 Jaft feems nothing but a congeries of minute vefTels and cells, 
 through the middle of which pafs the veficulx feminales, with- 
 out any communication therewith. 
 
 The froftatte have excretory duels of their own, pretty nu- 
 merous : Dc Graaf does not remember to have known them 
 fewer than ten in the proftates of a man ; in dogs they are fome- 
 times an hundred, each of which difcharges itfelf into the ure- 
 thra, fome above, fome below the caput gallinaceum ; each 
 having its proper caruncle. 
 
 Out of thefe there iffues a whitifh, flimy humour, fecrcted in 
 the glandular part of the pro/iata, and conveyed into the ca- 
 vity of the urethra. 
 
 The ufe of this humour is to line and lubricate the cavity of 
 the urethra, and prevent it from being annoyed with the acri- 
 mony of the urine in its paflitge through it ; and to ferve as a 
 vehicle to the feed, in the time of ejaculation. 
 Some take it for a third kind of feed, but without much rea- 
 fon. Boerhaave thinks it may ferve to nourifh the animalcule 
 during the firft moments after coition. — -This humour, he adds, 
 remains after caftration, but it is not prolific. 
 The fame author, from the memoirs of the French academy, 
 makes the proftates to confift of an aggregate of twelve glands, 
 each of which terminates by its excretory duel: in a little bag, 
 into which it difcharges its humour, Thefe twelve bags 
 open by as many excretory ducts into the cavity of the ure- 
 thra, fo as to encompafs the exit of the veficulie ; whence the 
 feed and the humour of the projiata are the more accurately 
 mixed. 
 
 PROSTHAPH/ERESIS • In aftronomy, the difference be- 
 tween the true and mean motion, or true and mean place, of a 
 planet ; called alfo equation of the orbit, or of the centre, and 
 Simply the equation. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek jrgiwSsj ante, fuper ; and 
 apet^tffn, ademptio. 
 
 Proflhaphccrefis amounts to the difference between the mean and 
 equated anomaly. 
 
 Thus, fuppofe the circle ALMPNR {tab. ajlron. fig. 51.) 
 the orbit of the earth, furrounded by the ecliptic t v, ss, 
 &c. and fuppofe S the fun, and the earth in R, the mean 
 anomaly will be the arch A P R, or cafting away the femt- 
 circle, the arch PR, or the angle PCR ; and the true ano- 
 maly, rejecting the femicircle, will be P S R, which is equal 
 to PCR and CRS : if then to the mean anomaly, we add 
 the angle CRS, we fhall have the true anomaly P S R, and the 
 earth's place, in the ecliptic. 
 
 And here the angle CLS, or CRS, is called the profthaphec- 
 
 refis or equation, by reafon it is fometimes to be added, and 
 
 fometimcs to be fubtracted from the mean motion, that we may 
 
 have the true motion or place of the earth. 
 PROSTHESIS, wgoirSicris, in grammar, a fpecles of metaplafm ; 
 
 being the prefixing of fome letter or fyllable at the beginning 
 
 or a word :■ — As in gnavtis, pro navus. 
 
 This is alfo called apportion. 
 Prosthesis, among furgeons, is the filling up of what was 
 
 before wanting, by the appofition of new matter. 
 
 Such, e, gr. is the filling up of fiftulous ulcers with new 
 
 fieffi. 
 
 PROSTYLE *, in the ancient Greek architecture, a 
 
 range of columns in the front of a temple. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek iffore, and re*®-, 
 column. 
 
 PROSYLLOGISTvt, Prosyllocismus, is ufed by fome 
 fchool-writers, for a reafon or argument produced to ftrengthen 
 or confirm one of the premifes of a fyllogifm. 
 Others define profylhgifm, an argument compofed of two fyl- 
 logifms, fo difpofed, as that the conclufion of the former is the 
 major or minor of the latter. — e. gr. Every rational is rifible : 
 but every man is rational, therefore every man is rifible 3 but 
 no afs is rifible, therefore no a(s is a man. 
 The major, or the fecund fyllogifm, may be omitted or under- 
 ftcTod ; and fume even contend that it ought to be fo : fo that 
 on their principle, a projylkgifm, or redundant fyllogifm, is 
 when two fyllogifms are fo contained in five propoiitions, as 
 that the conclufion of the former is the major or minor of the 
 latter. 
 
 PROTASIS *, K^cratnf, in the ancient drama, the firft part of 
 a comic or tragic piece ; wherein the feveral perfons of the play 
 are fhewn, their cnaracters and manners intimated, and the 
 action, which is to make the fubject of the piece, propofed, 
 and entred upon. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek w&mtm, pnrrigo, 1 bold 
 fink. 
 
 The ancient protafis might go about as far as our two firft 
 acts. See Act. — Where the protafis ended, the epitafis com- 
 menced. 
 
 PROTATICUS, Vfaretinx®', in the ancient drama, a perfon 
 who never appeared but in the protafis, or firft part of the play ; 
 as Sofia in Terence's Andria, 6fc. 
 
 PROTECTION, Protectio, the fhelter, defence, autho- 
 rity, and aid, employed by any one in behalf of the hclplefs 
 or unhappy. 
 
 Relive protection fuppofes power, intereft, favour, &c, in the 
 perfon that protects.- — Pajfivs proteclion, on the contrary, im- 
 plies neceffity, wcaknefs, and dependence, in the perfon pro- 
 tected. 
 
 Protection is alfo ufed for a privilege belonging to embaffa- 
 dors, members of parliament, hfc. whereby they and their do- 
 meftics are fecund from arrefts, &e. 
 
 Protection is fometimes alfo underftood of the perfon of the 
 protector. Such a cardinal has the protection of France. — 
 The protection of Spain is become vacant by the death of fuch 
 a cardinal. 
 
 Protection, in law, in its general fenfe, denotes that benefit 
 and fafety which every fubject, denizen or alien, fpecially fe- 
 cured, hath by the laws. 
 
 Protection, in a more fpecial fenfe, is ufed for an exemption, 
 or immunity, given by the king to a perfon, to fecure him 
 againft fuits in law, or other vexations, upon reafonable caufes 
 moving him thereunto, and for a certain time. 
 Of this, Fitzherbert makes two kinds : the firft he calls a pro- 
 teCiton, cum claufula volumus ; whereof he mentions four cafes : 
 ■ l°. A protection, quia profedurus, for him that is to pafs 
 over-fea in the king's fervice. — 2°. A protection, quia mora- 
 turns, for him who is already abroad in the king's fervice ; as an 
 embafiador, csV. — 3 0 . A protection for the king's debtor, that 
 he be not fued or attached, till the king be paid his debt. — 
 4°. A protection for a perfon in the king's fervice beyond fea, 
 or in the marches of Scotland. 
 
 The fecund, form of protection is cum claufula nolumus, which 
 is moft commonly granted to a fpintual company, for their 
 immunity from having their cattle taken by the king's minifters. 
 — But this may be alio granted to a fingle perfon, either fpin- 
 tual or temporal. 
 
 Protection extends not to pleas of dower, quare impedit, aflrze 
 of novel diffeifin, darrein prefentment, attaints, nor pleas be- 
 fore juftices in eyre, 
 PROTECTOR, a perfon who undertakes to fiielter and defend 
 the weak, helplefs, or diftreiTed. 
 
 God, and the magiftrate, are the protedors of the widow and 
 orphan. — Among the heathens, Minerva was efteemed the 
 proteCtrefs of arts. 
 
 Every catholic nation, and every religious order, has a protector 
 refidjng at the court of Rome, who is a cardinal, and is called 
 the cardinal proteCtor. 
 
 Protector is fometimes alfo ufed for a regent of a kingdom, 
 made choice of to govern it during the minority of a prince. 
 —Cromwell affumed the title and quality of lord protector of 
 we commonwealth of England. 
 
 PROTEST, in law, is ufed for a caution, or call of witnefs, 
 or an open affirmation, that a perfon does either not at all, or 
 but conditionally, yield his confent to any act ; or to the pro- 
 ceeding of any judge in a court, wherein his jurifdiction is 
 doubtful ; or to anfwer upon his oath farther than by law he 
 is bound. 
 
 Any of the lords in parliament have a right to proteft their dif- 
 fent to any bill palled by a majority ; which proteji is entered 
 in form. — This privilege is faid noE to be very ancient ; the 
 commons have no right to proteji. 
 
 Protest, 
 
 1 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 Protest, in commerce, is a fummons made by a notary public 
 to a merchant, banker, or the like, to accept or difcharge a bill 
 of exchange drawn on him, after his having refufed either to 
 accept or pay the fame. 
 It is called a proteft, becaufe containing a proteftation, that the 
 party will return the bill, and even take up money at intereft 
 and charge all cofts, damages, carriage and recarriage, on the 
 refufer. 
 
 There are two kinds of profefts ; the one for want of accept- 
 ance, the other for want of payment. 
 The firir. is to be made by the bearer of the bill at the time of 
 prefenting it, in cafe the perfon, on whom it is drawn, remfe 
 to accept it for the time, or the fum there exp retted. -r- The 
 latter is made as the bill falls due, whether it have been accepted 
 or not. 
 
 The bearers of bills of exchange, that have been accepted, or 
 which become payable at a ceriain day, are obliged to have them 
 either paid or prat eft ed within three days after due, on the pe- 
 nalty of anfwering for the omiffion : and it mull be obferved, 
 that if the third day happen to be a holy-day, the prole/} is to 
 be made on the eve thereof. 
 
 At Paris and Hambourg, the prate/} is to be made within ten 
 days : at Venice, where all bills are paid in banco, the proteft 
 for want of payment is to be made within fix days ; but then 
 the bank is fuppofed open, otherwife no proteft to be made : at 
 Rome protefis for want of payment are to be made within 
 fifteen days : at Leghorn, Milan, and Bologna, there is no 
 time fixed : at Amfterdam, they are to be made within five 
 days : at Venice, on the third day. : , 
 The negotiants of feme placer, as thofe of Rome, MfrSavary 
 obferves, do not look on themfelves as obliged to proteft in de- 
 fault of payment ; but this opinion is contrary to univerfal 
 cuftom, and natural reafon ; fince, till after proteftation, they 
 have no remedy or refource againft the drawer or indorfer, nor 
 any title to be reimburfed. 
 
 M. Ricard adds, that bills of exchange drawn from Amfterdam 
 or Antwerp, or Spain, are to be protejhd in default of pay- 
 ment within fourteen days after they fall due; after which time 
 the bearer ftands the rifque and chance of the non-protefted bill, 
 not the drawer or indorfer, in cafe the party happens to fail 
 after the faid fourteenth day. See Bill of exchange. 
 Protestant, a name firft given in Germany to thofe who 
 adhered to the doctrine of Luther; becaufe in 1529. they 
 protejfed againft a decree of the emperor Charles V. and the 
 diet of Spires ; and declared, that they appealed to a general 
 council. 
 
 The name has been fince alfo given to thofe who adhere to 
 the fentiments of Calvin, and is now become a common deno- 
 mination for all thofe of the reformed churches. 
 Great endeavours have been made to unite the Lutheran pro- 
 teft a fits with the Calvinifb ; but hitherto in vain. 
 PROTESTATION, a folemn declaration made by fome 
 judiciary act or proceeding, againft an oppreffion, violence, 
 or injuftice ; or againft the legality of a fentence, judg- 
 ment, decree, or other proceedurc ; importing, that the par- 
 ty is determined to oppofe it at the proper "time, ferV. See 
 Protest. 
 
 Proteftation is defined by juftice Walfh, a defence or fafe- 
 guard to the party that makes it, from being concluded by 
 the acl: he is about to do ; fo that iflue cannot be joined 
 upon it. 
 
 Proteftation is defined by Plowden, a form of pleading 
 when one does not either dire&Iy affirm or deny any thing 
 alledged by another, or which he himfelf alledges. Plowd. 
 fol. 276. 
 
 PROTHESIS, a little altar in the Greek churches, 
 whereon a ceremony is performed, called by the fame name 
 
 On this altar the prieft, with the other minifters, prepares every 
 thing necefi'ary to the celebration of mafs, viz. the bread, 
 wine, EsrV. — After which they go in proceffion from this to the 
 great altar, to begin mafs, carrying with them the fpecies thus 
 prepared. 
 
 PROTHONOTARY, Protonotarius, Protonotary, 
 a term properly fignifying firjl notary ; and which was an- 
 ciently the title of the principal notaries of the emperors of 
 Conftantinople. 
 
 With us, prothonotary, called alfo preignotary, is ufed for an 
 officer in the courts of king's-bench and common-pleas ; the 
 the latter whereof has three, the former one. See Court 
 
 Prothonotary of the king's-beneh records all a&ions civil fued 
 m that court i as the clerk of the crown-office doth all crimi- 
 nal caufes. 
 
 Prothosotaries of the ccftims-n-pkas enter and enroll all de- 
 clarations, pleadings, affixes, judgments, and actions : they alfo 
 make out all judicial writs ; as the venire facias, after iffue 
 joined ; habeas corpus, for bringing in of the jury ; diftrin^as 
 jurator, writs of execution and feifin, of fuperfedeas, of pri- 
 vdege, Gff. they enroll all recognizances acknowledged in that 
 common recoveries ; make exemplifications of re- 
 
 court, al 
 
 cords, d3" 
 
 Prothonotary, or Protokotary, 
 
 3 alfo an officer in the 
 
 court of Rome, 'who has a degree of pre-eminence over th* 
 other notaries. 
 
 There is a college of twelve proihonotarits, called bartid- 
 pontes, becaufe partaking i n the fees of the expeditions in 
 chancery. 
 
 They are ranked among the number of prelates* and wear the 
 violet rochet the hat &c, They affift at all grand ceremonies, 
 and have a place in the pope's chape] 
 
 Their office is to difpatch the afts in grand caufes; which the 
 hmple apofto heal notaries diTpatch in le/Ter caufes : they may 
 create apoftohcal notaries and doflors, to officiate out of the 
 city. 
 
 Thofe out of the college have none of the privileges of the others- 
 except the habit. ' 
 The prothonotaries were firft eftablifhed at Rome by pone Cle 
 
 PROTHYRIS, ,n the ancient architeSure, is Inmetimes ufed 
 lor a quoin, or corner of a wall ; otherwife called anco 
 Sometimes alfo lor a crofsbeam, or over-thwart rafter' 
 
 ProtMyris is alfo ufed by Vignola for a particular fort' of key 
 of an arch, an inftancc of which we have in his Ionic order 
 confifting ot a roll of water-leaves, b.tween two relets and 
 two fifes, crowned with a Doric cymatium ; its fiSi„ 
 much like that of a modillion. " s 
 
 TuTef™,'.^"' 3 ^" «* -ward door of an 
 
 ?R uJ,Z*' I W ° rd f com P°' itioh with divers terms in our 
 
 %2& &c! xprcfs a re,at,on of priorit ' : as 
 
 « It is formed of the Greek jt^t®., p rimu , fi rfl 
 
 PROTOCOLLUM, , term „ r . .' . 
 
 - '3l j r . „ ' erm u,wl ln the ancient 
 junfrudence, for the firft leaf of a book, wherein was the 
 mark ot the paper or parchment. 
 
 It was even fometimes ufed for tiie mark itfelf; which was ufu- 
 ally m the margin, but fometimes at the top of the page 
 The xhvth novel of Jullinian forbids cutting 
 
 cettm 
 
 the proto- 
 
 of charters, which fticw the year wherein "the paper or 
 parchment were made, and the officer commiffioned for the 
 delivery of them ; by means whereof frauds were frequently 
 detected. ^ 1 
 
 Protocoiium was alfo ufed for the firft minute, draught or 
 fumrnary, ot an ad to be pafTed ; which the notary drew up 
 KiC ' t0 be afterwards inlarged at 
 
 PROTO-FORESTARIUS was he whom our ancient kin.s 
 made chief of Wmdfor-foreft, to take cognizance of all caufcj 
 pf death or mayhem there ; after the manner of a lord chief 
 
 P&To'maRTYR*, the flrjmarljr, or witnefs, who fuf- 
 tercd death in teftimony of the truth ; as Abel in the old tefta- 
 rnent, and St. Stephen in the new. 
 * The word is compounded of mi^ and *x„ c , •Uhtafa 
 PROTONOTARY. See Prothonotary. 
 PROTOPLAST, Protoplastus, a title fometimes given to 
 our firft father Adam : from the Greek ^•rmrharo-, d. m ft 
 formed. 
 
 PROTOTYPE, !r,«TS*»«., (he original or model, whereby a 
 thing is formed. 
 
 It is chiefly ufed for the patterns of things to be engraven, 
 moulded, or caft. 
 PROTOTYPON, wfumm, in grammar, is fometimes ufed 
 
 for a primitive or original word. See Primitive. 
 PROTRACTING, or Protraction-, in furveying, the act 
 of plotting, or laying down the dimenfions taken in°the field, 
 by means of a pratraSlor, &c. 
 
 ProlraRmg makes one half of furveying. See Surveying-. 
 Protracting/.;/!, a mathematical inftrumenti or rather, an 
 appendage of an inftrument called a protraflar. 
 The pratriltirl^ pin is a fine needle, fitted into a handle, ufed 
 to prick off degrees and minutes from the limb of the prctraliar. 
 See Protractor. 
 PROTRACTOR, a name of an inftrument ufed in furgery, to 
 draw out any foreign or difagreeable bodies from a wound or 
 ulcer ; in like manner as the forceps. 
 Protractor is alfo an inftrument ufed in furveying ; whereby 
 the angles taken in the field with a theodolite, circumfercntor, 
 or the like, are plotted or laid down on paper. 
 This pTOIraBar confifts of a femicircular limb BAG (tab. 
 Surveying, fig. 29.) of brafs, filver, horn, or the like, di- 
 vided into 180", and fubtended by a diameter B A ; in the 
 middle whereof is a little notch or lip, 0, called the centre of 
 the protraEior. 
 
 On the limb of the protractor are fometimes alfo placed num- 
 bers, denoting the angles at the centres of regular pol)gons ; 
 thus, againft the number 5, denoting the fides of a pentagon, 
 is found 72, the angle at the centre of a pentagon. 
 Ufe of the Protractor. — 1. to lay down an angle of any given 
 quantity, or number of degrees. Suppofe, e. gr. an allele of 
 50 0 with the line A 0 B, required on the point 0. Lav the 
 centre of the protratlor on the given point, and the diameter 
 of the protratlor on the given line. Make a mark againft the 
 given degree 50, on the limb of thtproti aelor ; through which 
 Irom the given point, draw a line op : this gives the angle 
 required. 
 
 i. r. 
 
PRO 
 
 2. to find the quantity of a given angle : e. gr. the angle p 0 A. 
 Lay the centre of the provaftor on the point of the angle c, 
 and the diameter on the line. The degree of the limb cut 
 by the other line op viz. 50, is the number of degrees of the 
 angle required. _ , 
 
 %.To info ibe any given regular polygon, e.gr. a pentagon in a circle. 
 Lay the centre and diameter of the protrailor on the centre 
 and diameter of the circle ; and make a dot againft the num- 
 ber of degrees of the angle at the centre, viz. 72. Through 
 this dot, and the centre of the circle, draw a line cutting the 
 circumference of the circle. To the point of interfeaion, from 
 the point where the diameter cuts the circumference, draw 
 a right line : this line wiil be a fide o'f the pentagon, which 
 being taken in the compafles, and fet off as often as it will go in 
 the circumference, will give points, which being connected by 
 lines will form the pentagon required. See Polygon. _ 
 4. To defcribe any regular polygon, e. gr. an oilagon on a given 
 line. Subtract the angle at the centre, which the protrailor 
 gives 45^ from 180, the remainder 135 degrees is the angle 
 included between two fides of the oclagon ; one half whereof 
 is 67;. Applying then the diameter of the protrailor over the 
 given line, with the centre over one extreme ; make a dot 
 againft 677, to which from the centre draw a line. Apply the 
 protrailor to the other end of the line, fo as the centre be over 
 the extreme, and there fet oft" another angle of 67% From 
 the point where the two lines thus drawn interfeft as a centre, 
 defcribe a circle with the interval of the given line. The 
 given line will be one fide of the o&agon, which being fet off 
 as often as it will go in the circumference thus drawn, will 
 give points, which being conne&ed, will form the octagon 
 required. - 
 Protractor improved, is an inftrumcnt much like the former, 
 only furnifbed with a little more apparatus, whereby we are 
 enabled to fet off an angle to a minute ; which is impracticable 
 in the other. _. j , . . . « 
 
 The chief addition is an index fitted on the centre, and move- 
 able thereon; fo as to play ficsly and fteadily over the limb. 
 Beyond the limb the index is divided, on both edges, into 60 
 equal parts of the portions of circles, intercepted by two other 
 right lines drawn from the centre ; fo as each makes an angle 
 of one degree with lints drawn to the affumed points from the 
 centre. 
 
 To fet off an angle of any number of degrees and minutes 
 with this protrailor. Move the index, fo that one of the lines 
 drawn on the limb, from one of the fore-mentioned points, 
 may fall upon the number of degrees given ; and prick off 
 as many of the equal parts on the proper edge of the in- 
 dex, as there are minutes given : thus, drawing a line from 
 the centre to that point fo pricked off, you have an angle with 
 the diameter of the protrailor, of the propofed number of de- 
 grees and minutes. 
 
 Indeed, it may be of good ufe to lay down an angle to a mi- 
 nute when we are able to take it to a minute : but till we 
 have othei-guife needles, and jufler theodolites, than are yet 
 made, the old protrailor may ferve very well. 
 PROTUBERANCE, Protuberantia, in anatomy, de- 
 notes any eminence, whether natural or preternatural, that 
 projects, or advances out beyond the reft. 
 
 The orbicular protuberances of the third ventricle of the brain 
 are called nates ; and the apophyfes of the orbicular protube~ 
 ranees are called tefles. 
 
 The annular protuberance is a procefs of the medulla oblongata, 
 in form of a ring ; whence its name, firft given it by Willis. 
 See Medulla oblongata and Annular. 
 PROVEDITOR, Provebitour, or Proveditoke, an offi- 
 cer in feveral parts of Italy, particularly at Venice. 
 There are various kinds of proveditors in Venice : as proveditor 
 of the commons, who is nearly the fame with esdile among the 
 Romans, confu] in Languedoc, and efchevm in other cities. — 
 Of thefe proveditors there are three. 
 
 The preveditores alle ragioni veccbie, alia biavc, alia giufiitia, 
 &c. have the direction of matters relating to policy throughout 
 the fignory. 
 
 Proveditor general of the fea, is an officer whofe authority 
 extends over the whole fleet, when the captain-general is ab- 
 fent.- — He has, particularly, the difpofal of the cafli, and pays 
 the feamen and the foldiers. 
 
 The captain-general and proveditor are mutually fpies over one 
 another : though the proveditor be inferior to the general, yet 
 is the power fo divided, that one has authority without ftrength, 
 the other ftrength without authority. 
 PROVEND*, or Provender, is properly a fort of veffel 
 containing the meafure of grains daily given to a horfe, or 
 other heart of labour, for his fubftftence. 
 * Some derive the word from the Latin prabenda, or pre- 
 bend. 
 
 Hence, provender is alfo become a genera! name for all food of 
 cattle. — In monafteries, when the religious go to meals, they 
 are faid to go to prove/id. 
 PR OVER, in law, pi abator, an approver, or perfon who, 
 confeffing felony, appeals, or accufes another of the fame. 
 He is thus called, becaufe he muff, prove what he allcdges in 
 his appeal ; which proof is either by battle, or by the country, 
 at his election who is appealed. 
 
 PRO 
 
 39 Edw. 3. coram rtgc, rot. qy. Stiff", a man became an ap- 
 prover, and appealed five, who all joined battle with him, 
 and he overcame them all : four of them were accordingly 
 hanged, and the fifth pleaded he was a clerk. The prover was 
 pardoned. 
 
 PROVERB, Proverbium, is defined by Camden, a concife 
 witty and wife fpeech, grounded upon long experience, and con- 
 taining, for the mort part, fome ufeful caveat. 
 Such are, A clofe mouth catches no flies. — An high building, a 
 low foundation. — A carrion kite will never be a good hawk. — ■ 
 A fhort horfe is foon curried. — A man may love his houfe well, 
 though he ride not on the ridge. — A falle knave needs no bro- 
 ker. — Better to fpare at brim than at bottom, &c, • 
 PROVIDENCE, Providentia, the conduct and direction 
 of the feveral parts of the univerfe, by a fuperior, intelligent 
 being. 
 
 The notion of a providence is very ancient, even in the heathen 
 theology : we find Thales mentions it. — It is founded on this 
 fuppofition, That the creator has not fo fixed and afcertained 
 the laws of nature, nor fo connected the chain of fecond caufes, 
 as to leave the world to itfelf ; but that he ftill preferves the 
 reins in his own hands, and occafionally intervenes, alters, re- 
 ftrains, inforces, fufpsnds, bY. thofe laws by a particular pro- 
 vidence. 
 
 Some ufe the word providence in a more general fenfe, fignify- 
 ing by it, that power or action whereby the feveral parts of 
 the creation are ordinarily directed. 
 
 Thus, Damafcenus defines providence to be that divine will, 
 whereby all things are ordered and directed to the proper end. 
 — Which notion of providence fuppofes no laws at all fixed by 
 the author of nature at the creation ; but that he referved it at 
 large to be governed by himfelf occafionally. 
 The ancients called providence by the names of fate, fortune, 
 nature, dejliny, necejity, &c. 
 
 The ancient Egyptians feem to have been the fir ft who had the 
 notion of a divine providence. Arnobius obferves they rea- 
 foned thus : — " Providence is fo eflencial to a prince, that with- 
 il out it he cannot be, nor even be called, a prince ; and the 
 '* more auguft a prince is, the more perfecl: ought his provi- 
 " dence to be. Since then God is the greateft and molt au- 
 " guft of all princes, to him muft belong the moft perfect 
 " providence" 
 
 The Epicureans deny any divine providence, as thinking it in* 
 confiftent with the eafe and repofe of the divine nature to med- 
 dle at all with human affairs. 
 
 Others deny the exiftence of a providence from the feemingly 
 unjufl diftribution of good and evil, which appear to fall indif- 
 criminately on the juft and unjuft. 
 
 Simplicius argues thus for a providence : If God do not look to 
 the affairs of the world, it is either becaufe he cannot, or will 
 not: but the firft is abfurd ; fince to govern cannot be diffi- 
 cult, where to create was eafy ; and the latter is both abfurd 
 and blafphemous. See God. 
 PROVIDENTI^ * s in old law-books, were provifions of 
 meat and drink. 
 
 * Procidentia <oini ante advent um fuum in cellaria erat centum do- 
 Horum. Knighton, anno 1354. 
 
 PROVINCE*, Provincia, among the Romans, was a coun- 
 try conquered by them, without the bounds of Italy ; go- 
 verned by a deputy or lieutenant, and having peculiar laws and 
 privileges. 
 
 * Nicod derives the word a procul vrvexdo, living afar off; but 
 it is better deduced from pro and <vinco, I overcome. 
 
 Of thefe countries that part of France next the Alps was one, 
 and it ftill retains the name Provence. 
 Province is now chiefly ufed for a canton or divifion of a 
 kingdom or commonwealth, comprehending feveral cities, 
 towns, &e. all under the fame government, and ufually di- 
 flinguifhed by the extent either of the civil or ecclefiaftical ju- 
 rifdiaion. 
 
 The provinces were anciently dutchies, counties, EsV, which 
 have been fince all re-united under the fame chief. 
 The church diftinguiflies its provinces by archbifhopricks, each 
 containing a certain number of bifhopricks. 
 In this fenfe England is divided into two provinces, Canterbury 
 and York. 
 
 The monks make particular divifions of provinces, according 
 to the antiquity and number of convents in each. 
 The United Provinces are the feven northern provinces of the 
 Low- countries, who, revolting frorn^the Spanifti dominion, 
 made a firm and perpetual alliance, offenfive and defenfive, at 
 Utrecht, in the year 1579. 
 PROVINCIAL, Provincial is, fometbing relating to a pro- 
 vince. 
 
 Thus we fay, a provincial council or fynod, &c. See Synod 
 and Council. 
 
 Provincial, in the monaftic fenfe, denotes a perfon who 
 has the direction and fuperin tendency of the feveral con- 
 vents of a province, according to the divifion eftablifhed in 
 that order. 
 
 The general of, the order has feveral provinces under him ; the 
 provincial feveral priors, abbots, &c. 
 
 PRO- 
 
PRO 
 
 PRU 
 
 PROVINE, Provin, a branch of a vine laid in the ground to 
 take root. 
 
 PROVISION, Provisio, any tiling got or procured, as necef- 
 
 fary for the fubfi (fence of life. 
 Provision, in traffics, is fumetimes ufed for the wages due to a 
 
 factor. See Factorage. 
 Commiffary of Provisions. See the article Commissary. 
 Park of Provisions. See the article Park. 
 Provision, in the canon law, the title or inftrument by virtue 
 
 whereof an incumbent holds, or is provided of a benefice, 
 
 bifhoprick, or the like. 
 
 Ordinary collators give Provifions in cafe of vacancy by death, 
 pure and fimple demiffion and permutation. See Colla- 
 tion. 
 
 The court of Rome grants Provifions by refignation, devolu- 
 tion, and prevention. 
 Provisions by prevention are alfo called gratis expedlativa:, and 
 vnandata de providenda ; of the great abufe whereof throughout 
 England frequent complaint was made in our ancient itatutes, 
 and a remedy was provided for the fame by the ftatute of pre- 
 munire. 
 
 Provifions of final! benefices, in the court of Rome, are only 
 fimple iignatures, which are, as it were, minutes of the bull ; 
 becaufe the bulls themfelvcs difpatched on parchment would be 
 too expenfive. The fignature is no more than the petition of 
 the impetrant anfwered by the pope in thefe words, Conceffum 
 utl petitur in prtsfentia D. N. papa:, wrote in the hand of the 
 prelate who prefides over the fignature. 
 
 Extraordinary Provifions are itgned by the pope himfelf, 
 in thefe words, fiat ut petitur, with the firft letter of his 
 name. 
 
 PROVISO, in law, a condition inferted in a deed, upon the 
 obfervance whereof the validity of the deed depends. 
 
 Proviso, in judicial matters, is where the plaintiff defifts from 
 profecuting an action, by bringing it to trial in due time ; in 
 which cafe, the defendant may take out a venire facias to the 
 iheriff, having it in thefe words, Provifo quod, &c. to the 
 end that, if the plaintiff" take out any writ to that purpofc, the 
 fheriff* fhall fummon but one jury upon them both. — In which 
 cafe it is called going to trial by provifo. 
 
 Cafu Proviso. See the article Casu. 
 
 Proviso is alfo a fea- term. — A fhip is faid to moor a Provifo, 
 when fhe has an anchor out, and alfo a hawfer afhore ; and 
 fo is moored with her head to the fliore with two cables at 
 leaft. 
 
 PROVISOR is generally taken for him who hath the care of 
 providing things neceffary ; in which fenfe it coincides with 
 purveyor. 
 
 Provisor monaflerii is ufed for the fteward or treafurer of a 
 religious houfe. 
 
 Provisor *, in our ftatutes, alfo denotes a perfon who fued to 
 the court of Rome for a provifion, or expectative grace. See 
 Provision and Premunire. 
 
 * Proviforcs dicuntur, qui <vel epifiopotum, vel ecclefiaflicam aliam 
 dignitateta in Romar.a curia Jib/ ambicbanl de future, quod ex 
 gratia exfietlat!<va nuncuparunt, quia ujque dum vacant expe* 
 flandum effet. Spclm. 
 
 PROVOCATIVE, in phyfic, a medicine which ftrengthens 
 
 nature, and ftimulates or incites to venery. 
 
 Such are cantharides, fatyrion, &c. 
 PROVOST, Propositus, an officer, whereof there are divers 
 
 kinds ; civil, military, fcrV. 
 Provost of the city, or cf the merchants, is the chief municipal 
 
 magiftrate in feveral confidcrable trading cities, particularly 
 
 Edinburgh, Paris, and Lyons ; much the fame with the mayor 
 
 in other places. 
 
 The Provoft prefides at the city-courts, and, together with the 
 fheriffs, or bailiff";, decides all differences relating to trade and 
 merchandize ; he takes cognizance of the affairs of officers of 
 policy of the city with regard to their functions ; of the delin- 
 quencies of merchants, comrniffioners, and factors ; infpects 
 the ports, rivers, duties, impofls, iSc. 
 
 Authors attribute the inftitution of Provofl of the merchants of 
 Paris to Philip Auguffe. Du Haillan refers its epocha to the 
 year irgo. 
 
 The Provoft of Edinburgh has the title of lord : the bailiffs are 
 his deputies. He calls conventions of the boroughs by his 
 own miffives. 
 
 Provost, or Prevot royal, alfo denotes a fort of inferior judge 
 eftablifhed throughout France, for the taking cognizance of all 
 civil, perfonal, real, and mixt caufes, among the people ; but 
 without any jurifdiction in the caufes of nobles. 
 Thefe in the Bourbonnois, Auvergne, csV. are called chate- 
 lains ; in Normandy, viccmptes ; in Languedoc and Provence, 
 viguiers. 
 
 Grand Provost of France, or of the houjhold, has jurifdiction 
 in the king's houfe, and over the officers therein ; he looks to 
 the policy and regulation thereof, the rates of provifions fol- 
 lowing the court, CSV.— He was anciently called rat des 
 ribands. 
 
 Grand Provost of the cenflable, a jurlge of the fword, who 
 manages procefles agaiuif, the foldiers in the army, who have 
 committed any crime. 
 
 He has four lieutenants diftiibutcd throughout the armies, called 
 Vol. IL 
 
 Provofls of the army ; and particularly Provo/ts in (he feverai 
 regiments. 
 
 Provost marfiml of an army is an officer appointed to feizeand 
 fecure deferters, and all other criminals. 
 
 The Provofl marfiml is to go often abroad round the army to 
 hinder the foldiers from pillaging : it is his office to indift of- 
 fenders, and to fee the fentence palfcd upon them executed. 
 He likewife ^regulates the weights and meafures, and the price 
 of all provifions, &rV. in the army. — For the difcharge of his 
 office, he has a lieutenant, a clerk, and a troop of Provofls or 
 marffials men on horfeback ; as alfo an executioner. 
 There is alfo a Provofl ?narfhal in the navy, who hath charge 
 of the prifoners taken at fea. 
 
 The French have a Provofl general of the marines, who is to 
 profecute the marines when guilty of any crime, and to make 
 report thereof to the council of war ; befides a marine Provoft 
 in every veffel, who is a kind of goaler, and takes the prifoners 
 into his care, and keeps the veffel clean. 
 Provosts of the marfl>als are a kind of lieutenants of the mar- 
 fhals of France, effablifhed for the fecurity of the country 
 againft rogues, vagabonds, and deferters. 
 
 7 hey take cognizance of royal caufes ; which, for this reafon, 
 are called prevotal caufes : fuch are all crimes committed by 
 ftrollers, or people without any fixed abode ; robberies on the 
 high-way, infraction of fafeguard, burnings, £sV. They pro- 
 nounce en derneir reffort, or without appeal. 
 There are i8o feats of thefe Provofls in France : their chief 
 jurifdiction regards highwaymen, foot-pads, houfe-breakers, 
 cjrY. They correfpond to the officers eftablifhed by Auguftus 
 and Tiberius, called, as Cujas tells us, latrunculatores, to fliew 
 that their office was to purfue thieves. 
 
 Provost of the mint is a particular judge inftituted for the ap- 
 prehending and profecuting of falfe coiners. 
 
 PROW*, Prora, in navigation, denotes the head or fore- 
 part of a Ihip, being that which is oppofite to the poop or 
 frern. 
 
 * The word is formed -from the Latin prora, which fignifies the 
 
 fame thing. 
 
 In the front hereof is the beak that cuts the water to make 
 way for the veffel. 
 
 The Prow is lower than the poop, and contains fewer ftories or 
 decks. On the beak is ufually fome figure or hieroglyphic, 
 which often gives name to the veffel. 
 Prow, in ftrictnefs, is only that part of the forecaftle which is 
 aloof, and not in the hold, particularly that part between the 
 chafe and the loof. 
 
 The ancients reprefented beaks of birds in the Prows of their 
 fhips, whence they were called roftra. 
 PROXENETA*, or Proxenetes, a kind of broker or agent, 
 who txanfacts between two perfons. See Broker and 
 Agent. 
 
 * The word is Greek, OT s -o|fmTu ; , q. d, conciliator, or pararius, 
 reconciler or mediator. The Latins give them a more honour- 
 able appellation, calling them interpreters. 
 
 The term Proxeneta is chiefly applied to thofe who negotiate 
 offices, marriages, &c. 
 
 The Roman law grants the proxeneta: an action for recovery 
 of their hire or wages. 
 
 Thefe made a kind of office or college in Rome : to them the 
 fathtrs addreffed themfelves, to found and examine the inclina- 
 tions of the young men they intended for their daughters. 
 A commentator on the Digeft accounts it a great defect in the 
 modern policy, that there are not now any of thefe proxeneta: 
 or rmtch-makers eftablifhed by public authority. 
 
 PROXIMITY, Proximitas, denotes the relation of nearnefs 
 either in refpect of place, or blood, or alliance. 
 
 PROXY, Procurator, a deputy, or perfon who officiates 
 in the room of another. 
 
 Princes are ufually married by proxies or reprefentatives. 
 Proxy, Procuracy, among civilians, alfo denotes a commif- 
 
 fion given to a proctor by a client to manage a caufe in his 
 
 behalf. See Proctor. 
 PRUINA, in pbyfiology, hoarfrofl, a concretion of the dew 
 
 made by the violence of the external cold. 
 PRUNELLA, a name given by fome pbyficians to a drinefs of 
 
 the tongue and throat, happening in continued fevers, efpeci- 
 
 ally acute ones, accompanied with a heat and rednefs of the 
 
 throat, and a fcurf covering the tongue ; fometimcs whitifh, 
 
 and fometimes blackifh. 
 
 Some alfo give the name Prunella to the quinzy, and others 
 to the aphthae. Prunella is alfo the name of a plant called in 
 Englifo felf heal. See Supplement, article Prunella. 
 Prunella fal, in pharmacy, is a preparation of purified falt- 
 petre ; called alfo lapis prunella, and cryflal mineral. 
 It is prepared by feparating and abforbing fome of the more 
 volatile parts of the fak-petre, which is done by burning upon 
 it, when melted in a crucible over the fire, about a thirtieth 
 part of its weight of flower of brimftone. 
 
 It is given to cool and provoke urine in fevers and quinzies ; 
 though fome thmk, that falt-petre, purified three or four times, 
 would be a better medicine. 
 
 The fal Prunella: is faid to be frequently adulterated with 
 alum ; and that the deceit is known by its wbttenefs and 
 glittering. 
 
 g X PRUNES 
 
PRU 
 
 1 
 
 PRUNES*, Pruna, are plums dried and baked in an oven, 
 or in the fun. 
 
 * The word comes from the Latin, frunum, plum. 
 The Prunes chiefly ufed among us are black and large, brought 
 from Bourdeaux : great quantities are ufed by the Enghfh and 
 Dutch. — The pulp of Primes is efteemed laxative. 
 PRUNIFEROUS trees, or jbrubs, the plum-bearing kind, ate 
 thofe whole fruit is pretty large and foft, with a ftone in the 
 middle. 
 
 In this kind, the flower adheres to the bottom of the bafe of 
 the fruit. 
 
 PRUNING, in gardening and agriculture, the operation of 
 lopping or cutting off the fuperfluous branches of trees ; either 
 to difpofe them to bear better, to grow higher, or to appear 
 more regular. 
 
 Priming is one of the rnoft important branches of the gardeners 
 province, and that whereon the thriving or barrenneis of his 
 fruit-trees, as well as the form and regularity of his garden, m 
 great meafure depends. 
 
 It is fometimes practifed purely for the trimming or adjufting 
 of trees to the eye, by taking away irregular branches j as in 
 box, holly, yew, is'c. 
 
 Sometimes to make the ftem grow fairer, and rife higher, by 
 taking off all the large branches arifing out of it, and thus fend- 
 ing the fapj which would otherwife be expended by them, to 
 the top of the tree, to nourifh and prolong the fame. 
 But its more ordinary ufe is to render the tree more fertile, 
 and to mend its fruit, by retrenching fuch ufelefs branches as 
 might impoverifh the trunk, and confume the juice neceflary 
 to nourifii the branches that bear. 
 
 Pruning is an annual operation ; the amputation is ufually made 
 Hoping, fometimes ftump-wife. Its beft feafon is about the 
 end of February, though it may be begun as foon as the leaves 
 are off, viz. in November, and continued to the time when 
 frefh leaves come on, viz. in April. 
 
 As the gardener has ufually three kinds of trees to manage, viz. 
 fome too weak, others too ftrong, and others in a juft plight, 
 he will find Pruning work through all that fpace ; it being pro- 
 per to prune fome fooner, and fome later. The weaker and 
 more languilhing a tree is, the foner it ought to be pruned, to 
 cafe it of its oft'enfivc branches ; and the more vigorous the 
 tree is, the longer may the Pruning be deferred. 
 
 For Pruning a tree of the firji year, i. e. a tree planted the 
 year before : if it have only fhot one fine branch from the 
 middle of the ftem, it mult be cut to that branch, and the 
 branch fhortened to four or five eyes or buds ; the effect of 
 which is, that the next year there will be at leaft two fine 
 branches oppofite to each other. 
 If the tree produce two fine branches well-placed, with weak 
 ones among them, all required is to fhorten them equally, 
 to the compafs of five or fix inches in length ; care, how 
 ever, being taken, that the two laft eyes or buds of the ex- 
 tremes of the branches thus fhortened, look on the right and 
 left to the two bare fides, that each may bring forth at leaft 
 two new ones, and the four be fo well-placed, that they may 
 be all preferved. If one of the two branches be much lower 
 than the other, or both on one fide, or the like, only one is 
 to be prefe.rved : and that the fitteft to begin a fine figure ; the 
 other is to be cut off fo clofe, as that it may never be able to 
 produce thick ones in the fame place. — If a tree have put forth 
 three or four branches, all in the extremity, or a little beneath, 
 they mull be all pruned by the fame laws as the two above- 
 mentioned : if they be equally thick, they are to be ufed alike; 
 if fome of them be fmaller than the reft, they mud only be 
 pruned with a profpedt of getting a fingle branch each, taking 
 care to have it on that fide which mail be found empty ; in 
 order to which they mould be fhortened to an eye or bud that 
 looks on that fide ; and the fame care is to be taken in the 
 larger, in order to begin to fill up the better : if thefe fine 
 branches fhoct a little below the extremity, it is but fhortening 
 the ftem to them : on the contrary, if the branches be moft of 
 them ill ones, two at leaft, if poffible, are to be preferved, and 
 pruned in the fame manner as the two fine ones above. Good 
 weak branches are to be carefully preferved for fruit ; only 
 cutting them a little at the extremity, when they appear too 
 weak for their length, not tailing to take away all the faplefs 
 branches. — If the tree have produced five, fix, or feven branches, 
 it is fufficient to preferve three or four of the beft ; the reft 
 are to be cut quite off, at leaft if they be thick ; for if they be 
 weak, i. e, fit for fruit branches, they mould be kept till they 
 have performed what they are capable of doing ; and if among 
 the great ones there happen to be many fmall ones, two or 
 three of the beft only are to be preferved, pinching off the 
 ends of the longeft. 
 
 Pruning of a tree of the fecondyear. — If, having put out two 
 fine wood-branches, and one or two fmall ones, for fruit 
 the firft year, the fop have altered its courfe in the fecond year, 
 from the thick branches to the fmall ones, fo that the fmall 
 become wood, and the large fruit- branches, the productions 
 of the former muft be quite cut off to the mother- branch, 
 and thofe of the latter ufed as fruit- blanches. — If a tree, from 
 the firft year's Pruning, have produced four or five branches, 
 or more, it muft needs be very vigorous ; for which rcafon 
 
 PRU 
 
 it may be fometimes advifeable to preferve thofe branches, 
 even though they he not necefiary to the figure of the tree, 
 but only to confume part of the fap, which might otherwile 
 be prejudicial to the fruit-brancb.es. Thefe fuperfluous branches, 
 may be left long, without much ill confequence ; but thofe 
 effential to the beauty of the tree, muft be all pruned a little 
 longer than thofe of the preceding year, /. e. about two, or 
 at moft three eyes, or a good foot. This is making an ad- 
 vantage of the figure of the tree, which, without this, would 
 not yield fruit in a long time, the redundant fap converting 
 all the eyes into wood-branches, which, with a more fpare diet, 
 would have been fruit-branches. In the& vigorous trees, form.- 
 branches cut ftump-wife are to be left on, and even ftune 
 thick ones, though of falfe wood, especially where there are 
 any neceflary to the form of the tree, to employ the excels 
 of fap, and prevent its doing mifchief. Still more to afiuage 
 its violence, it may be neceflary to preferve many long, good^ 
 weak branches, when placed fo as to occafion no conluiion ; 
 and even on the thick branches, a good number of outlets 
 for the fap to range in. — Be it a general rule rather to fpare ti;^: 
 lower branches, and cut oft" the higher, than the contrary : bv 
 this means the tree fpreads more eafily to the bottom of the wall. 
 Pruning of a tree of the third year. — In a tree that has been 
 planted three years, and pruned twice, if it be vigorous, as 
 many old branches as poffible are to be preferved, efpecndly 
 for fruit : if it be weak, it muft be eafed of the burden of old 
 branches, as well thofe for fruit as wood. It muft Jikewrfe be 
 cut fhort, to enable it to flioot out new ones ; which if it 
 cannot do with vigour, let it be pulled up, and a new one, 
 with frefh earth, planted in its place. 
 
 In all Pruning, provifion is to be made for branches to proceed 
 from thofe now under the pruning- hit fe, to prepare fuch as 
 may be proper for the form ; with this ailurance, that when the 
 high branch is taken down from over the lower, this latter 
 being reinforced with the fap that would have gone to riie for- 
 mer, will certainly produce more branches, than it Would have 
 done without fuch reinforcement. 
 General rules of Pruning fruit-trees. — I .The more the branches 
 fhoot horizontally, the apter and better dilpofed the tree is to 
 bear fruit ; confequently the more upright the branches, the 
 more inclined is the tree to increafe in wood, and the lefs to 
 bear fruit. 
 
 Hence, ever take care to keep the middle of a tree from 
 wood or thick branches ; and as thofe increafe and grow upon 
 you, cut them out intirely ; for there is no danger but the 
 place will be foon filled with better and more fruitful wood. 
 In dwarfs you are to prune all open, and clear of wood, leav- 
 ing none but horizontal branches : and in wall-trees, if you 
 do but furnifh your walls with horizontal branches, nature will 
 provide for the middle. Chufe therefore fuch fhoots as are not 
 vigorous, to furnifh bearing branches. 
 
 a. Take care the tree be not left over-full of wood, not even 
 of bearing branches ; as is frequently feen in the management 
 of peaches, nectarines, and cherries. 
 
 Nature cannot fupply them all with juice enough ; whence 
 none will be fupplied well : the confequence of which is 
 that either the bloffoms will fall off, or the fruit will dwindle. 
 It is certain, a multitude of branches crowding on one another, 
 produce neither fo good, nor fo much fruit as where there is 
 a convenient fpace, befide the difagreeable effect of crofting one 
 another. 
 
 3. All ftrong and vigorous branches are to be left longer on the 
 fame tree than weak and feeble ones; confequently the branches 
 of a fickly tree muft be pruned fhortcr, and left fewer in num- 
 ber than thofe of a ftrong healthful tree. 
 
 4. All branches (hooting directly forward from trees that grow 
 againft a wall, are to be pruned clofe to the branch whence 
 they fpring, &c. 
 
 5. When a branch well-placed either againft a wall, or in a 
 dwarf, has fhot fome falfe wood, neither fit for the figure nor 
 the fru it, prune it off within the thicknefs ot a crown piece, or 
 flopingly ; though this is beft pinched off in the beginning of 
 fummer. 
 
 6. Cut off all branches arifing from hard knobs, whereon pcar- 
 llalks grew ; or from fliort ftrait branches like fpurs. 
 
 7. If a tree, in its firft years, have produced branches of mo- 
 derate vigour, and afterwards puts forth ftrong ones, well-placed, 
 though of falfe wood ; the latter may be ufed as the foundation 
 of the figure, and the other kept a time for bearing fruit. 
 
 8. When an old tree fhoots ftronger branches towards the bot- 
 tom than the top, and the top is in ill cafe ; cut it off, and 
 form a new figure from the lower ones. If the top be vigorous, 
 cut off the lower ones, unlefs well-placed. 
 
 9. The order of nature in the production of fhoots and branches, 
 is, that a branch is always lefs than that out of which it fhoots : 
 if this order be inverted, ufe them as falfe wood. 
 
 10. Regard is to be always had to the effects of former Pruning, 
 in order to correct its defects, or continue its beauties. 
 
 11. In vigorous trees, the weaker branches are the fruit-bearers. 
 In weak trees, the ftronger chiefly ; therefore, in the latter, 
 prune off the feeble and fmall. 
 
 12. In vigorous trees, three good branches may put forth at 
 one eye or bud : in which cafe the two fide branches are ge- 
 nerally 
 
PRU 
 
 PSA 
 
 jierally to be preferved, and the middlemoft cut off in May 
 or June. 
 
 13. It is difficult to ftrengthen a weak branch without cutting 
 off others above it : fometimes it can fcarce be done without 
 cutting off the end of the branch it flioots out of. 
 
 14. The Pruning of vigorous peach-trees is to be deferred till 
 they are ready to blofTom, the better to know which branches 
 are likely to bear fruit. 
 
 15. Fruit-buds next the ends of branches are commonly thicker 
 and better fed than others. In weak trees, therefore, it may 
 be beft to prune them early, that the fap may not wafte itfelf 
 in fuch parts as are to be retrenched. 
 
 16. The farther a weak branch is from the trunk, the lefs nou- 
 rifliment it receives ; and therefore the more it is to be fliorten- 
 ed : but thick branches, the more diftant they are from the 
 heart, the more they receive ; and they are therefore to be re- 
 moved, tiiat the vigour may extend itfelf to the middle or 
 lower part. 
 
 17. A branch for wood muft never be pruned without efpecial 
 occafion ; as where it annoys others. 
 
 18. If an old well-liking tree be difordered with falfe wood, 
 through ill Pruning, or want of Pruning ; take it lower, by cut- 
 ting off a branch or two yearly, till it be fufficiently reduced. 
 Some trees put forth fo vigorously, that they cannot be reduced 
 to compafs in one year ; but muft be allowed to extend them- 
 felves, otherwife they will produce falfe wood. 
 
 19. All trees have a predominant branch or two, if not more ; 
 yet the more equably the vigour is divided, the better : where 
 it runs much on one fide, it is faulty. 
 
 20. The buds of all ftone- fruit frequently form themfelves the 
 fame year in which the branch they grow on is formed : the 
 fame holds of pears and apples ; though it is, generally, at leaft 
 two or three years ere the latter come to perfection. 
 
 21. All fhoots that are put forth in autumn, are to be primed 
 off, as naught : the fame may be faid of all faplefs branches. 
 
 22. When a tree puts forth much ftronger flioots on one fide 
 than on the other, a great part of the ftrong ones muft be cut 
 off clofe to the body, or fame of them ftump-wife. 
 
 23. In all trees lefs length is to be allowed the weak than the 
 ftrong branches. 
 
 24. Upper branches are lo be cut off clofe to others, that they 
 may heal over : lower branches are to be cut floping, or at a 
 little diftance, that new ones may grow out of them. 
 
 25. If a young crooked tree produce a fine branch beneath the 
 crook, cut the head off clofe to the branch. 
 
 26. Though five, fix, or feven inches, be the ordinary lengths 
 wood-branches are left at ; yet muff: this be varied on occafion 
 of the vigour or weaknefs of the tree, thicknefs or fmallnefs of 
 the branch, the fullnefs or vacuity of the place, CSV. 
 
 27. Be careful not to prune many thick branches ftandingover 
 weak ones ; left the fap, which fed the larger, flow fo plenti- 
 fully into the lefs, as to occafion them to put forth much il! 
 wood and fuckers. 
 
 28. Branches fhot from the ends of others are ufually good 
 wood ; fometimes it happens otherwife, and then they muft 
 be pruned. 
 
 As to the grand yearly Pruning! : — Fruit-branches being of 
 ihort continuance, and perifhing the firft year wherein they 
 produce fruit, are to be cut off, unlefs they put forth flioots 
 for bloffoms the fucceeding year. In the fecond Pruning, about 
 the middle of May, where the fruit is fo clofe as to be like to 
 obftruct each other, feme of them and their branches are to 
 be taken off, as muft alfo the multitude of young fhoots that 
 caufe confufion. Branches more luxurious than others are to 
 be cut clear off. To preferve old trees, they muft be disbur- 
 dened by leaving few branches for wood on them, and thofe to 
 be fhortened to five or fix inches } and very few weak ones, 
 and none dry, and nigh wafted. 
 Pruning of forefi or timber trees. — For large trees, it is beft 
 not to prune them at all ; yet if there be an abfolute neceflity 
 for it, avoid taking off large boughs as much as poffible ; and 
 obferve the following rules. 
 
 1. If the bough be fmall, cut it fmooth and clofe, that the 
 bark may foon cover it 3 and cut it floping, that the water 
 may run off. 
 
 2. If the branch be large, and the tree old, cut it off at three 
 or four foot from the Hera, or where any young flioots are 
 found iffuing out of it. 
 
 3. Boughs growing upright, are not to be cut crofs over, but 
 floping upwards. In boughs leaning from the head, the ftope is 
 to be on the lower fide. 
 
 4. If the tree grow crooked, cut it off at the crook, floping 
 upwards j and nurfe up one of the moft promifing flioots for a 
 new Item. Indeed, in trees that have great piths, as the afli, 
 walnut, Wc. we muft be cautious of cutting off the heads. 
 
 5. If the tree grow top-heavy, its head muft be lightened ; and 
 that rather by thinning the boughs that grow out of the main 
 branches, than by cutting off the main branches themfelves. 
 But if you would have them fpting up high, it is beft done by 
 rubbing off the buds, as they put out in the fpring, and fhroud- 
 ing up the fide-fhoots. 
 
 6. If the fide-boughs ftill break out, and the top be able to 
 fuftain itfelf, give the boughs that put forth in fpring a Pruning 
 after Midfummer ; cutting them clofe. This will caufe the 
 bark to cover and kill them, fo as never to fhoot out again ; 
 
 j and this is the only method to make a tree fa ..-,, trfth a fine,) 
 
 ftrait, handfome body. See Supplement, article Pru NING. 
 'Pruning of vines. See the article Vine. 
 j PRURITUS, a painful, and yet pleafurable kind of fenfation of 
 the skin, popularly called itching ; which is fuppofed to arife 
 hence, that the extremities of the capillary veins being obftrudl- 
 ed, cannot take up the redundant blood of the limbs, to carry 
 it back again to the heart ; whence, as there is a frefli ftock of 
 blood continually fent into the part by the inceflaht pulfation of 
 the heart, the fibres become preternaturally fir etched or dtftend- 
 ed. — And hence the ufualiy titillating fenfe of itchin*. 
 PRYTANEUM, tycwoMW, in antiquity, a confiderable building 
 in Athens, where the council of prytanes affembled, and where 
 thofe who had rendered any fignal fervices to the common- 
 wealth, were maintained at the public expence. 
 PRYTANIS, or Prytanes, in antiquity, the firft magiftrate 
 in moft of the cities of Greece. 
 
 At Athens there were fifty prytanes ; at Corinth there was but 
 one, who was tiie fame with what the archan was at Athens. 
 TheP rytanes of Athens were the fenators who compoftd the 
 grand council that governed the ftate ; and correfponded to what 
 we now call, the ftates general of the United Provinces. 
 Fifty of thefe were chofe each year out of each tribe ; and to 
 thefe were nominated Bky more, to fupply the places of the 
 former, in cafe of death or male-adminiftration. 
 The tribes took the government by turns, each after other, for 
 the fpace of thirty-five days. — This was an eftablifhment of 
 Solon. Scaliger is miftaken, when he fays the tribes took their 
 turns every day. 
 
 All the fifty Prytanes of the tribe did not govern together during 
 thofe five weeks ; but in companies, ten at a time, chofen by 
 lot; feven days each company: after which another tribe came 
 into play, and had its five weeks after the fame manner. 
 PSALM*, a divine fong, or hymn. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek XJfag- 
 The denomination Pfalm is now appropriated to the cl. Pfahns 
 of David ; and the name canticle, or Jong, is given to other 
 pieces of the fame kind, compofed by other prophets and pa- 
 triarchs. 
 
 The ancients, as is obferved by St. Auguftin, made this differ- 
 ence between a canticle or fong, and 2, Pfalm, that the former 
 was fung folitarily, or by the voice alone, but the latter accom- 
 panied with a mufical inftrument. 
 
 The Pfalms, in the ancient editions, are divided into five books ; 
 nor is David's name found at the head of more than feven ty- 
 three of them ; though fome, and among the reft, St. Auguftin 
 and St. Chryfoftom, attribute all the hundred and fifty to him 
 without exception. 
 
 The Jews, however, were always of another opinion ; and 
 it is certain there are fome few, at leaft, that are riot his.— St. 
 Jerom obferves, among the number, feveral that were com- 
 pofed a long time after David. Du Pin gddg, that it is difficult 
 to afcertain the authors ; all we know of the book is, that it is 
 a collection of fongs compiled by Efdras. 
 
 Gradual Pfalms were thofe anciently fung on the fteps of the 
 temple. — The penitential Pfalms were not formerly the fame 
 with thofe now called by that name. 
 PSALMODY, the art of finging pfalms. 
 
 PSALTER, the book or collection of pfalms, afcribed 
 
 to David. 
 
 There are a multitude of editions of the Pfalter. — Auguftin 
 Juftinian, a Dominican, and bifhop of Nubo, puhlifhed a polyglot 
 Pfalter at Genoa 15 16. And Contarimu publifhed the Pfalter 
 in Hebrew, Greek, Chaldee, and Arabic, with Latin notes and 
 gloffes. 
 
 Psalter is alfo ufed among religious for a large chaplet or 
 rofary, confifting of 150 beads ; the number of the pfalms in 
 the Pfalter. 
 
 St, Dominic is faid to have been the inventor of this Pfalter. 
 See Rosary. 
 
 PSALTERY, Psa lterion, alfo denotes a mufical inftrurhent 
 much in ufe among the ancient Hebrews, who called it nebel. 
 We know but little of the precife form of the ancient Pfaltery : 
 that now in ufe is a flat inftrument, in form of a trapezium, 
 or a triangle truncated at top. 
 
 It is ftrung with thirteen wire chords, fet 10 unifon or octave, 
 and mounted on two bridges on the two fides. — It is ftruck 
 with a plettrum or little iron rod, or fometimes with a crooked 
 flick ; whence it is ufually ranked among the inftruments of 
 percuffion. 
 
 Its cheft, or body, is like that of a fpinet. It has its name a 
 pfallendo ; fome call it nablum, or nablium. 
 Papias alfo gives the name Pfaltery to a kind of flute, ufed in 
 churches, to accompany the finging ; called in Latin, fam- 
 bucus. 
 
 PSAMMISMUS*, 4*^^©-, in medicine, a term fometimes 
 ufed for a bath of dry and warm fand, to fet the feet of drop- 
 fical perfons upon. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek •^a.y.p&. > fand. 
 PSATYRIANS, Psatyriani, a fea of Arians, who in the 
 
 council of Antioch, held in the year 360, maintained, that the 
 Son was not like the Father, as to will ; that he was taken from 
 nothing, or made of nothing ; and that in God, generation was 
 not to be diftinguifhed from creation. See Ahian. 
 
 PSEUDO, 
 
' PSY 
 
 PSEUDO*, 3 Verm, or particle, ufed in the compofition of di- 
 vers Latin and Englifli words ; in the fenfe of falfe or 
 Jpurious. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek i^euSo?, lye, faljbood, of 
 $&3*>, decipta, /alio, I deceive. 
 
 We fay z. pfeudo-mariyr, q. d, a falfe witnefs ; pfeudo-prcphet, 
 pfeudo-apojlle, pfeudo-chrift, &c. 
 PSEUDO-DIPTERE, tM^sm^ in the ancient architeaure, 
 a temple with eight columns in front, and a fingle row of 
 columns all around. 
 
 The word fignifies falfe or imperfeft dipt ere i and is ufed to 
 diftinguifc this from the diptert i which had two rows of co- 
 lumns all around. 
 PSEUDONYMUS *, a name given by the critics to 
 
 thofe authors who publifh books under falfe or feigned names. 
 — As the name cryptonymus is given to thofe who publifh under 
 fecret and difguifed names s and anonymous, to thofe who pub- 
 lifh without any names at all. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek lye ; and 8»p», 
 name. 
 
 The apoftolical conftitutions, the greater epiftles of St. Ignatius, 
 &/V. are ufually fuppofed to be pfeudonymous. 
 PSEUDO-STELLA, in aftronomy, any kind of meteor or 
 phenomenon, appearing in the heavens, and refembling a 
 
 ftar. 
 
 PSILOTPIRON *, +»*uSg«, in medicine, depilatory ; an exter- 
 nal form of medicine proper to take off the hair. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek deglabro, I make 
 bald, or bare ; and Sgi|, hair. 
 
 Such are ftrong lixiviums, quick-lime, ants eggs, fandarac, or- 
 piment, and arfenic. 
 PSOAS magna*} or lumbaris, in anatomy, a found, hard, flefhy, 
 mufcle, which arifes from the internal fide of the tranfverfe 
 proceffes of the vertebra; of the loins, within the abdomen ; 
 and defcending upon part of the internal fide of the ilium, 
 is inferted into the lower part of the little trochanter. — It 
 is the firft of the flexors of the thigh. See Flexor and 
 Thigh. 
 
 Psoas parvus, arifes flefliy from the infide of the upper ver- 
 tebrae of the loins, and hath a thin and broad tendon, which 
 embraces the Pfoas magnus ; and which is inferted into the os 
 innominatum, where the os pubis and ilium join together. — 
 This, tho' ordinarily reckoned among the mufcles of the thigh, 
 properly belongs to the lower venter. 
 
 PSORA, in medicine, a cutaneous difeafe, called by the 
 
 Latins, fcabies ; by the Englifh, itch. 
 
 The Pfora is dclcribed by Cclfus as a reddifl) hardnefs and 
 roughnefs of the skin, from an eruption of puftules thereon ; 
 fome drier., other moifter ; and ouzing out a fanious matter, 
 whici) occahons a continual pruritus, or itching. 
 Thefe eruptions are moft frequent about the junctures of the 
 limbs, and between the fingers : in fome they fpread over the 
 whole body; in others they foon ceafe ; and in fome they re- 
 turn at certain feafbns of the year. 
 
 In youth, this difeaie frequently prevents others, or cures them, 
 — But it fometunes degenerates into a leprofy. 
 The dry is much more difficultly cured than the moi/i, which 
 arifes from a dilbrder in the humours or vifcera. Willis de- 
 rives the difeafe from a fharp, faline humour, occafioning an 
 itching. 
 
 Some of the later phyficians will have it to confift in a num- 
 ber of little animals preying on the skin : and hence, they fay, 
 it is that it becomes fo very contagious. — Willis obferves, 
 that in this refpect it is fecond to no other difeafe but the 
 plague, which many conjecture to arife in like manner from 
 animalcules. 
 
 For the cure, Borelli recommends anointing with black foap j 
 to poor people, feflr. But the foap to be foon wafhed off, left it 
 excoriate the skin. Where the difeafe is inveterate, recourfe 
 is had to falivation. See Supplement, article Psora. 
 
 PSORICA, ^«?tx*, medicines good againft the itch, fcabs, and 
 other cutaneous eruptions, efpecially thofe of the eye-lids 
 
 PSOROPHTHALMIA *, 4*e*ffa*t»*» a fcurfy eruption of 
 the eye- brows, attended with a pruritus, or itching of the 
 part. 
 
 * The word is formed from 4"^*, itch ; and op&ajy©., m , 
 
 PSYCHOLOGY * 4"*W«> the doctrine of the foul. See 
 
 Soul. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, &v%v, foul ; and ?,oy-&, 
 
 difcourfe. r 
 
 Anthropology, or the fcience which confiders man, confifts of 
 two parts ; the firft treating of the body, and the parts belong- 
 ing thereto, called anatomy ; and the fecond of the foul, called 
 
 pfychology. 
 
 PSYCHOMANCY *, a kind of magic, or divination, perform- 
 ed by railing the fouls of perfons deceafed, 
 
 * The word is formed of ^%n,foul ; and (**m»«, divination. 
 PSYCHROMETER *, an inftrument for meafuring the degree 
 
 of coldnefs of the air ; more ufually called a thermometer. See 
 Thermometer. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek ^vwGu coli\ and 
 f*ETfo», meafure. 
 
 PTO 
 
 PTARMICA *, vlapfuxx, medicines proper to promote freez- 
 ing ; more ufually called errh'ines and Jlernutatories. Ptarmica 
 is alio ufed as the name of a genus of plants. See Supplement, 
 article Ptarmica. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Greek B-laj/x®-, jlermtt amentum, 
 meezing. 
 
 PTERYGIUM*, wl egvyiou, in medicine, a difeafe of the eye, 
 much of the fame nature with what the Latins call unguis, 
 nail ; and fometimes, though improperly, pannus 3 web. See 
 Unguis and Pannus. 
 
 * The word is formed by diminution from the Greek arltgi^, ala, 
 a wing ; q. d. a little wing. 
 
 The cure is much the fame as that of the ophthalmia 
 Pterygium is alfo the name given to a ivhitloe, when feated 
 
 at the root of the nail. See Panaris. 
 PTERYGOIDES *, wltgvyotiSvq, in anatomy, two apophyfes of 
 
 the os fpenoides ; fo called from their refembling the wings 
 
 of a bat. See Sphenoides. 
 
 * From the Greek ar1*gij| f vlt^yot, wing, and eiSsc, form. 
 PTERYGOIDEUS internus t is a mufcle of the jaw, which 
 
 arifes from the internal part of the ptcrigoides procefs, and de- 
 fcends to be inferted into the inferior part of the internal fide 
 of the lower jaw, near its angle — When it acts, it draws the 
 jaw to one fide. 
 
 Peter ygoideus externus, is a mufcle which arifes from the 
 external part of the fame procefs, and goes backward to be in- 
 ferted between the condyloid procefs, and the corone, on the 
 infide of the lower jaw. This pulls the lower jaw forwards^ 
 and makes it fhoot beyond the upper. 
 
 PTEROPHORI, >&gofl>oget, in antiquity, a name given to fuch 
 of the Roman couriers as brought tidings of any declara- 
 tion of war, a battle loft, or any mifhap befallen the Roman 
 armies. 
 
 They were fo called, becaufe they bore wings on the points of 
 their pikes : from the Greek srfcgwj wing, and ?sgw, I bear. 
 PTERYGOPHARYNGiEI, a pair of mufcles arifing from 
 the proceftus pterygoides, where the tendon of the ptervgo/la- 
 phy Units is reflected — Some flefhy fibres of them do likewife 
 arife from the upper jaw-bone, behind the fartheft grinder, and 
 fome from the fides of the tongue, and os hyoides. 
 From all thefe places the flefhy fibres pafs femicircularly, and 
 meet with thofe of the oppofite fide in the middle line on the 
 back fide of the pharynx externally. 
 
 In the inner furface of the fauces is another order of flefhy 
 fibres, decuffating each other at acute angles. — They arife both 
 from the fides of the uvula, and fronTtbe root of the cartilage; 
 and defcend obliquely to their infertions in the glandulous mem- 
 brane of the pharynx. 
 
 This mufcle ferves both to conftringe the pharynx, and to 
 comprefs the tonfils, and force out the mucus ; whence its ufe 
 in hawking. 
 
 The various originations of the feveral parts of this mufcle have 
 caufed its being generally divided into feveral mufcles. — Thus 
 Valfalva calls that part fpringing from the tongue, the glojfo- 
 pbanngezus ; that immediately below it, the hyopharyngesus 
 Hence, in like manner, come the cephalopbaryngtzus, fpheno- 
 pbaryngattii &c. 
 
 PTERYGOSTAPHYLINUS *, in anatomy, the internal muf- 
 cle of the uvula ; called by Valfalva, novus tuba mufculus j as 
 being unknown to the ancient anatomifts. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek irTigM, wing, and rafyvM, 
 
 uvula. 
 
 It arifes flefhy near the fpenoftaphylinus, from the os petrofum, 
 where the tube from the palate enters that near an acute pro- 
 cefs of the fpenoides ; and afcending to the proceffus ptery- 
 goides, becomes a broad flat tendon, which expands itfelf on 
 the fore-part of the uvula. 
 
 Some of the tendinous fibres afcend to the lower edge of the 
 os palati, others defcend down the fides of the fauces ; the mid- 
 dle feries either unites with thofe of the other fide, or is loft in 
 two flefhy bodies that compofe the uvula. 
 This mufcle, with its partner, draws the uvula upwards and 
 forwards, and alfo raifes the amygdalae. 
 PTISAN, Ptisana, w-Ikmuuj, in medicine, a cooling potion, 
 ufually made of barley boiled in water, and fweetened with 
 liquorice, fcJV. 
 
 To thefe are fometimes added the roots of quich-grafs, and 
 fometimes fena, to render it laxative. — Moft of the decoctions 
 of phyficians are called Ptifans. Feverifh patients are prohibited 
 wine, (&c. and reduced to Ptifans. 
 
 PTOLEMAIC fyflem, or hypothecs, that order or difpofition of 
 the heavens and heavenly bodies, wherein the earth is fuppofed 
 to be at reft, in the centre, and the heavens to revolve round 
 it, from eaft to weft, carrying with them the fun, planets, and 
 fixed flars, each in their refpective fpheres. 
 This hypothecs took its name, from Ptolemy, the great Alexan- 
 drian aftronomer, becaufe maintained and illuftrated by him ; 
 not that it was his invention, for it was much older, as having 
 been held by Ariftotle, Hipparchus, See it further illuf- 
 
 trated under the article System. 
 
 Ptolemaic fphere. Seethe article Sphere. 
 
 PTOLEMAITES, a branch of the ancient Gnoftics, fo called 
 from their leader Ptolemy, a man of considerable learning. 
 
 Who 
 
PUL 
 
 who Improved greatly on the fyftem of the Gnoftics his prede- 
 ceflbrs, and inlarged it with a number of notions and vmons 
 of his own. 
 
 St. Epiphanius is very full on the fubjeft of the Piolemaites, 
 and produces a letter of Ptolemy to Flora, wherein that heretic 
 lays down his doctrine. — 'He maintained, that in the law of 
 Mofes there were three things to be confidered, inafmuch as it 
 did not all come from the fame hand ; but part of it, faid he, 
 from God, part of it from Mofes, and part of it from neither 
 of them, but from the pure traditions of the ancient debtors : 
 on which laft part it was that he founded his dreams. 
 PTYALISM*, Ptyalismus, in medicine, a /pitting; or a 
 difebarge of faliva by the glands of the mouth; whether it 
 amount to an abfolute falivation, or not. 
 
 * The word is Greek qAwftaJ^fe, formed from «rW» fpuo, exjpuo, 
 1 gat. 
 
 PUBERTY, Pub e rt as, in the civil law, a natural majority, 
 or the age wherein a perfon is allowed to con t raft marriage. 
 See Majority, £srV, 
 
 Boys arrive at Puberty at fourteen years of age, maids at twelve. 
 — Full Puberty is accounted at eighteen. 
 PUBES, a term ufed for the external parts of the pudenda , or 
 parts of generation, in both fexes. 
 
 This, from the age of puberty, is fuppofed to be covered, more 
 or lefs, w ith hair; whence the name. 
 PUBIS os, or os Pectinis, in anatomy, a bone of the hip, 
 fituate in the fore and middle part of the trunk, and making 
 the lower and inner part of the os innominatum. See tab. 
 anat. (Splanch.) fig. i. lit-y. (ofteol.) Jig. 3. n. 18. fig. 7. n, 
 19. fig. 12. lit. d. 
 
 It is joined to the other part by a cartilage, thicker, but loofer 
 in women than in men ; in the former whereof, rhe os Pubis 
 recedes, or gives a little in time of travel, to make way for the 
 foetus. 
 
 It has a large foramen, which makes room for the paftage of two 
 mufcles of the thigh, befides a fifaus, whereby the crural veins 
 and arteries pafs to (he thighs. — See tab. anat. (Ofteol.) fig. 3. 
 
 lit. S. S. 
 
 PUBLIC buildings. See the article Building. 
 Public road. See the article Road. 
 Public notary. See Notary public. 
 
 PUBLICAN, Puelicanus, among the Romans, a perfon who 
 
 farmed the impofts, taxes, and public revenues. 
 
 The appellation appears to have been odious to the Jews, &c. 
 
 apparently, becaufe of the exaftions of this fort of people. 
 Publicans was alfo a name given to the Arnoldi/h and Albi- 
 
 genfes. 
 
 PUBLICANDIS— Regula de puelicandis. See Rule. 
 PUBLICATION, Puelicatio, the aft of promulgating, or 
 making a thing known to the world. 
 
 By the canons, Publication is to be made of the banns of 
 marriage three times before the ceremony can be folemnized ; 
 without efpecial licence to the contrary. See Marriage. 
 
 PUCELLAGE, Pucellagium, in an ancient manufcript 
 written puellagium, denotes the ftate of virginity, or mai- 
 denhead. See Virginity. 
 
 PUDENDUM denotes a thing to be alhamed of. Hence, Pu- 
 dendum virile figuifies the penis, and Pudendum muHthre, the 
 cunnus. See Genital. 
 
 PUDICA planta. See Sensitive plant. 
 
 PUERI alimentarit. Seethe article Alimentarii. 
 
 PUERILE flyle. See the article Style. 
 
 PUERILITY, in difcourfe, is by Longinus defined to be a 
 thought, which, by being too far fetched, becomes flat and 
 infipid. — Puerility, he adds, is the common fault of thofe who 
 afFeft to fay nothing but what is brilliant and extraordinary, 
 
 PUERORUM epifcopus. See the article Episcopus. 
 
 PUGIL*, among phyficians, &c. a meafure of flowers, feeds, or 
 the like matters, containing fo much as may be taken up be- 
 tween the thumb and two fore-fingers. 
 
 * The word comes from the Latin, pngillus, little hand. 
 The Pugil is efteemed the eighth part of the manipule or hand- 
 ful ; though fome confound Pugil with ?nanipulus, and ufe it 
 for a handful. — The French frequently call it pincce, a pinch. 
 
 PUISNE*, Puny, in law, a younger-born; or a child born 
 after another. 
 
 * The word is f ure French, in which language it bears rhe fame 
 fignirication. 
 
 Puifne is not only applied to the fecond, third, fourth, &c with 
 
 regard to the firft ; but to the third with regard te the fecund, 
 
 C5V. — The laft of all is called abfolutely cadet. 
 
 In the like fenfe we fay a Puifne judge, a Puifne counfellor. 
 
 See Judge and Justice. 
 PUKING, a cant word for a naufea, or difpofition to vomit. 
 
 See Nausea and Vomiting. 
 PUL, in commerce, a general name which the Perfians give to 
 
 all the copper-moneys current in that empire ; particularly the 
 
 habefaui and demi-kabefqui. 
 
 Olearius, who was at Ifpahan in 1637, in the retinue of the 
 ambaflador of Iiolftein, afiures us, That each city in Perfia 
 has its feveral copper-money, marked with its particular badge, 
 which is only current in that diftrift, and is changed every 
 year. — At the beginning of each year, which is at the vernal 
 Vo l. II. 
 
 PUL 
 
 equinox, all the old money is cried down, and the new appears 
 
 in its place. 
 
 Both the emperor and the ftate find their intereft in this fre- 
 quent change : the firft, in that he only gives at the rate of 
 17 d. fterling per pound for copper ; yet delivers it out coined 
 in kabefqui and demi-kabefqui at above 2 s. per pound : the fe- 
 cond, in that the copper-money is by this means lefs abundant, 
 being reduced each year to nearly the fame quantity. 
 The fame author adds, that at the time when he was in Perfia, 
 the kabefqui at Ifpahan were ft ruck with the image of a lion, 
 at Schamachia with a devil, at Kafchan with a cockj and at 
 Kilan with a fifti. 
 PULLEY, in mechanics, one of the five mechanical powers ; 
 cenhftingof a little wheel, or rundle, having a chanel around 
 it, and turning on an axis ; ferving, by means of a rope which 
 Aides in its chanel, for the railing of v/eights. 
 The Latins call it trochlea ; and the feamen, when fitted with 
 a rope, a tackle. — An affemblage of feveral Pulleys is called a 
 polyfpofton. 
 
 The moveable wheel or rundle, is called the foeave or Jhiver ; 
 the axis on which it turns, the gudgeon ; and the fixed piece of 
 wood or iron, into which it is put, the block. 
 Daflrine of the Pulley. — 1°. If a power P, {tab. Mecha- 
 nics, fig. 49.) fuftain a weight Q. by means of a fingle Pulley 
 A B, in fuch manner as that the line of direction of each is a 
 tangent to the periphery of the rundle ; the weight and the 
 power are equal. 
 
 Hence, a fingle Pulley, if the lines of direction of the power 
 and the weight be tangents to the periphery, neither aflifts nor 
 impedes the power, but only changes its direftion. 
 The ufe of the Pulley, therefore, is, when the vertical direction 
 of a power is to be changed into an horizontal one ; or ah 
 afeenqihg direction into a defcending one ; and on the con- 
 trary. 
 
 This is found a good provifion for the fafety of the workmen 
 employed in drawing with the Pulley. — For fuppofe a large 
 weight EF^ required to be raifed to a great height by work- 
 men pulling a rope A B : if now the rope fhould chance to 
 break, the workmens heads underneath would be in immediate 
 danger ; but if by means of the Pulley B, the vertical direction 
 A B be changed into an horizontal one B C, there is no danger 
 from a breaking of the rope. 
 
 This change of direction by means of a Pulley has this further 
 advantage ; that if any power can exert more force in one 
 direction than another, we are here able to employ it in its 
 greateft force. 
 
 Thus, e. gr. an horfe cannot draw in a vertical direftion, but 
 draws with all its advantage in an horizontal one. By changing 
 the vertical draught, therefore, into an horizontal one, an horfe 
 becomes qualified to raife a weight. 
 
 But the grand ufe of the Pulley is, where feveral of them are 
 combined ; thus forming what Vitruvius, and others after him, 
 call polyfpafia ; the advantages whereof are, that the machine 
 takes up but little room, is eafily removed, and raifes a very 
 great weight with a very moderate force. 
 2°. If a power applied in E, {fig. 50.) according to the line 
 of direftion BE, which is a tangent to the Pulley in B, and 
 parallel to the rope A D, fuftain the weight F fufpended from 
 the centre of the Pulley C; the power is fubduple of the weight. 
 3 0 . The effect of polyfpafia is founded on the following theo- 
 rem : — If a power applied in B, {fig. 51.) fuftain (by means of 
 a pilyfpafton) a weight F, fo as all the ropes A B, H I, G F, E L, 
 C D, are parallel to each other ; the power will be to the weight 
 as unity to the number of ropes, H I, G F, E L, C D, drawn 
 by the weight F ; and therefore as unity to the number of Pul- 
 leys, higher and lower, taken together. 
 
 Hence the number of Pulleys and the power being given* it is 
 eafy to find the weight that will be fuftained thereby ; or the 
 number of Pulleys and weight to be fuftained, being given, the 
 power is found : or, the weight and power being given,' the 
 number of Pulleys the polyfpaflon is to confift of, is found. 
 4°, If a power move a weight by means of feveral Pulleys; the 
 fpace palled over by the power will be to the fpace palled over 
 by the weight, as the weight to the power. 
 Hence, the fmalier the force that fuftains a weight by means of 
 Pulleys is,_ the flower is the weight raifed : fo that what is faved 
 in force, is fpent in time. 
 PULMO, in anatomy. SeeLuNGS. 
 
 Pulmo marinus, fea-lungs, among naturalifls, a light fpongeous 
 body, of a fhining colour, like cryftal, intermixed with blue, 
 and ufually of a figure refembling the human lungs : whence its 
 name. — It is alfo called urtica marina, or the fea-nettle. 
 It fwims on the furface of the water, and is popularly reputed 
 to prefage a ftorm. — It is commonly fuppofed to be only a vif- 
 cous excrement of the fea, hardened by the fun : but Sir Robert 
 Sibbald and Dr. Merret rank it among the zoophytes. 
 It ftiines in the night-time, and communicates its luminous 
 property to a flick rubbed therewith. Being applied to the 
 flcin, it raifes an itching, and takes off" the hair. See Supple- 
 ment, article Urtica Marina. 
 PULMONARY vejfels, in anatomy, are thofe which carry the 
 blood from the heart to the lungs, and back again from the 
 lungs to the heart, 
 
 9 Y Thefc 
 
P U L 
 
 Thefe are two in number, viz. the Pulmonary artery 
 
 P U L. 
 
 The Pulmonary artery, which the ancients called vena arten- 
 ofa, the arterial vein, is, in reality, an arterv, and is compofed, 
 like the reft, of feveral tunics. — It arifes from the right ventri- 
 cle of the heart, and divides into two large branches ; which 
 fubdividing into feveral (mailer, diffufe thcmfelves throughout 
 the whole fubftance of the lungs.— See tab. anat. (Angeiol.) 
 jig. 8. lit. dd, &c. bb. fig. i z. lit. 1. 
 
 Pulmonary vein, which the ancients called artcria venofa, the 
 venous artery, confifts of four membranes like the other veins. 
 It arifes in the lungs from an infinity of little branches, which 
 uniting in one trunk, open into the left ventricle of the heart. 
 — See tab. anat. (Angeiol.) fig. 9. lit. a. b. c. d. d. d. See 
 alfo Heart. 
 
 For the office of thefe veflels, fee Circulation. 
 Mr. Cowper gives us an inftance of a polypus in the pulmonary 
 vein. See Polypus. 
 Pulmonary confumption, or confumption of the lungs, is what 
 ■we properly call zphthifts. See Phthisis and Consume 
 
 PTION. 
 
 PULMONUM anima. See the article AniMa. 
 
 PULP, Pulpa, in fruits, xhc flejb ; or that loft and fucculent 
 
 part between the rind and the nucleus or feed. 
 
 The Pulp of a tree or plant, is the parenchyma, which grows 
 
 and fwells by means of a juice, at firft very coarfc and difagrce- 
 
 able ; at length fwceter and more delicate. 
 Pulp, in pharmacy, denotes the foft part of fruits, roots, or 
 
 other bodies, extracted by infufion or boiling, and paifed 
 
 through a fieve, 
 
 Pulp, in medicine, denotes the fatteft, fulleft, and moll folid part 
 of the flefh. 
 
 Some people apply the word particularly to the upper part of 
 the belly, becaufe flefhy ; and becaufe it is here that they feel 
 animals *, to examine whether they be fat. 
 
 * This part the Latins caU pulpa, from pa/pare, to feel, handle. 
 PULPIT*, Pulpitum, a term now reft rained to an elevation 
 
 or apartment in a church, whence fermons are delivered. 
 
 * Some authors derive the word from publicum, becaufe people 
 are there cxpofed to open view. 
 
 Pulpitum, among the Romans, was a part of the theatre, cal- 
 led alfo profce/.ium, or what we now call the Jl age, whereon 
 the actors trod. 
 
 Though fume fay it was properly an eminence on the ftage for 
 the mufic, or a iuggeftum whence declamations, &c, were 
 fpoken. 
 
 The French ufe the word Pulpit, Pupitre, for a reading desk 
 
 in a church, library, or the like : thole large ( ones in churches 
 
 they properly Call lutrins. 
 PULSATION, PoLsat.io, in medicine, the motion of the 
 
 pulfe, or the beating of an artery. See Pulse. 
 PULSE, Pulsus, in the animal ceconomy, denotes the beating 
 
 or throbbing of the heart and arteries. 
 
 The Pulfe is that reciprocal motion of the heart and arteries, 
 whereby the warm blood, thrown out of the left ventricle of the 
 heart, is fo impelled into the arteries, to be by them diftributed 
 throughout the body, as to be perceivable by the finger. 
 The pulfation of the arteries arifes from that of the heart ; and 
 has, like it, a fyfiole and diaftole ; the fyftole of the one corre- 
 fponding to the diaftole of the other. 
 
 Galen tells us, that Hippocrates was the firft: who obferved the 
 motion of the Pulfe. — M. Homberg mentions a cafe of a 
 woman in Paris, who had a Pulfe in the veins, perfectly like that 
 we commonly obferve in the arteries. He adds, that he is the 
 firft author that ever mentioned fitch a thing. 
 The Pulfe is thus accounted for. —When the left ventricle of 
 the heart contracts, and throws its blood into the great artery 
 the blood in that artery is not only thruft forward towards the 
 extremities, but the channel of the artery is likcwil'e dilated ; 
 becaufe fluids, when they are preffed, prels again towards all 
 ftdes, and their picflure is always . perpendicular to the fides of 
 the containing veflels : but the coats of the artery, by any fmall 
 impetus, may be diftended ; therefore, upon the contraction of the 
 heart, the blood from the left ventricle will not only prefi the 
 blood in the artery forwards, but both together will diftend the 
 fides of the artery : and thus is a motion of dilatation effected, 
 And when the impetus of the blood againft the fides of the 
 artery ceafes, that is, when the left ventricle ceafes to contract, 
 then the Ipiral fibres of the artery, by their natural elafticity, 
 return again to their former ftate, and contract the chanel of 
 the artery, till it is again dilated by the fyftole of the heart : fo 
 that here is a motion of dilatation and contraction effected 
 The diaftole or dilatation of the artery is called its Pulfe, and the 
 time of the fpiral fibres returning to their natural ftate, is the 
 diftance between two Pulfes. 
 
 This Pulfe is in all the arteries of the body at the fame time ; 
 for while the blood is thruft out of the heart into the aorta; 
 that artery being full, the blood muff, be propelled in all the 
 arteries at the fame time; and becaufe the arteries are conical, 
 and the blood moves from the bafis of the cone to the apex, 
 therefore the blood is continually prefiing againft the fides of 
 the vcfiels ; and confequently, every point of the artery mull be 
 
 and l^^i^ed, at the fame time that the blood is ; 
 
 Irrrrcie of the heart ; and as foon as theWafticity of the fpiral 
 
 rown out of the left 
 city of the fpiral 
 the arteries are 
 
 fibres can overcome the impetus of the blo& 
 again contracted. 
 
 Thus, two caufes operating alternately, the heart and fibres 
 of the arteries keep the blood in a continual motion. 
 The obfervation of the Pulfe is of the utmoft importance to a 
 phyfician; both as it difcovers the ftate of the heart, the firft 
 mover in the animal frame ; and as it fliews the nature, quanti- 
 ty and motion of the blood, that univerfal humour whereon all 
 the reft depend ; and as it indicates the condition of the artery, 
 the primary vefiel of the whole body. 
 Ajlrang Pulse, then, denotes, j. A great mufcular force of the 
 contracting heart ; and, confequently, the ftrength of the con- 
 tracting caufe ; i. e. 2. A brisk and copious influx of the ner- 
 vous juice into the villi of the heart. 3. Plenty of blood. 4. 
 A laudable fecretion and circulation of humours. 
 A ftrong Pulfe, therefore, is a good prefage, if it be alike 
 throughout the whole body. Indeed it is frequently fallacious 
 in apoplectic, and fome other difeafes, where the pallage be- 
 tween the heart and the brain is free ; and in other parts, efpeci- 
 ally the vifcera, are obftructed. \ 
 A weak Pulse denotes the contrary of the former; though this 
 
 fometimes deceives, particularly in fat people. 
 A hard Pulse fignifics, r. That the membrane of the artery is 
 drier than ordinary ; and therefore, 2. Obftructions in the mi- 
 nute veficles, whereof the membranes of the artery are woven. 
 5. That the arteries are full : but, 4. That their capillary extre- 
 mities are obftructed with an inflammatory vifcidity. 5. That 
 the blood is very denfe and compact : hence, 6. That the circu- 
 lations, fecretions and excretions are depraved. 
 A foft Pulse denotes the contrary to all thefe ; yet is very fal- 
 lacious in an acute peripneumonia. 
 A flow Pulse denotes, 1. That the contractions of the heart arc 
 flow ; and therefore, 2. A flownefs of the influxes of the ner- 
 vous juice from the brain into the villi of the heart. 3. That 
 the blood has circulated a great number of times. 4. That all 
 the humours circulate eaJUy through their veflels. Indeed, if 
 the Pulje be thus from weaknefs, it is an ill fign. 
 A quick Pulse denotes the contrary to all thefe ; as acrimonies 
 
 fpirits agitated, fevers, and phrenfy. 
 An equable Pulse denotes a conftant tenor of the vital functions ; 
 
 an uneven one the contrary. 
 An intermitting Pulse fhews life in a flippery fituation. 
 
 An intermitting Pulje is either owing to a fault in the nervous 
 juice, which flows unequally into the heart; or in the veflel 
 which tranfmits the blood and humours, or to the humours 
 themfelves. 
 
 The caufe of this diforder is various, as convulfions, polypus's, 
 cacochymia's, inflammations, want of blood, bony or cartila- 
 ginous arteries, CSV, 
 
 A ftrong, equable, and, at the fame time, flow Pulfe, is of all 
 others the beft. A ftrong and great, or ftrong and flow Pulfe, 
 together, are good. A weak, fmall, hard, unequal intermit- 
 ting, quick Pulfe, is of all others the worft. 
 Yet in all thefe things, regard muft be had to the nature of 
 the particular artery, the age, fex, temperament, affections of 
 the mind, the fix non-naturals, habit of body, feafon, country, 
 fcfr. all which have an influence on the Pulfe. 
 A diminution or total fufpenfion of the Pulfe, is reducible 
 either to a- lipothymia, where it fails to fuch degree, as thai 
 there is fcarce ftrength left to fuftain the body. 
 Or to a lipopfychia, when it is attended with a fenfible dimi- 
 nution of the natural heat. 
 
 Or to zfyncope, when the heart fails, fo as the heat, motions, 
 fenfes and all, arc almoft deftroyed. 
 
 Or, laftly, to an afphyxia, where thofe are all abfolutely de- 
 ftroyed as^ to fenfe, and death itfelf feems in pofieflion. 
 Pulse is alfo ufed for the ftroke with which any medium Is af- 
 fected by the motion of light, found, tirV. through it. 
 Sir Ifaac Newton demonftrates, lib. 2. prop. 48. Princip. That 
 the velocities of the Pulfes in an elaftic fluid medium (whok 
 elafticity is proportionable to its denfity) are in a ratio com- 
 pounded of half the ratio of the elaftic force directly, and half 
 the ratio of the denfity inverfely : fo that in a medium whole 
 elafticity is equal to its denfity, all Pulfes will be equally fwift. 
 Pulse legumen, in botany, is a term applied to thofe grains or 
 feeds which are gathered with the hand : in contradiftinction to 
 corns, (sic. which are reaped or mowed. 
 Pulfe is the feed of the leguminous fpecies of plants. 
 The word is primarily underftood of grains that grow in pod? ; 
 as beans, peas, vetches, &e. but it is by fome alfo ufed by 
 extention tor artichoaks, afparagus, and other kitchen herbs 
 and roots, 
 
 PULSION * trufton, the act of driving oFimpelling a thing 
 forwards. See TrusioN. 
 
 * The word comes from pello, I drive. 
 PULTURA *, in our old law-books, denotes a previous de- 
 mand or examination : — on account of the monks, who beforo 
 they were admitted into the monafteries, pulfabant ad fores, 
 knocked at the doors for feveral days. — Et valo ut fwt quiet) 
 
 de 
 
PUM 
 
 de omnibus caufts, S3 querelis, Iff placitis UUivorum &f prcspofi- 
 torum hundredi, & a pultura ferjandVum, i. e. from the exa- 
 mination of ferjeants ; far de rewardo foreflarum, i. c. the visi- 
 tation of the forefts. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin pit/fare, to knock, to 
 ask. 
 
 PULVERIZATION, Pulverizatio, the art af pulverizing, 
 or reducing a dry body into a fine powder. 
 This is performed, in friable bodies, by pounding or beating in 
 a mortar ; but to pulverize malleable ones, other methods muft 
 be taken. 
 
 To pulverize lead, or tin, the method is this: Rub a round 
 wooden box all over the infide with chalk; pour a little of 
 the melted metal nimbly into the box, when, fhutting the Kd, 
 and making the box brifkly, the metal will be reduced into 
 powder. 
 
 PULVINATED, Pulvinatus, in the ancient architecture, 
 a term applied to a freeze, which fwells, or bulges out, in man- 
 ner of a pillow, pulvinus : whence the name. 
 
 VULVIS fulminant, or the thundering powder. SeeFuLMiNARis. 
 
 Pulvis patrum, the Jefuits powder. See CorTex. 
 
 PUMICE fione, Pumex, a kind of fpongeous Hone, very po- 
 rous and friable. _ 
 Naturalifts are not agreed about the nature and origin of Pumice. 
 — Some look on it as a fragment of rock half-burnt and calcin- 
 ed, caff, up in eruptions of volcanoes, particularly /Etna, and 
 Vefuvius, into the fea ; and which, by being there warned in 
 the falt-water, lays afide the black colour that the impreffion 
 of the fubterranean fires had given it, and becomes whitilh, or 
 fometimcs only greyilh, according as it has floated more or lefs 
 in the fea. Jfs 
 Dr. Woodward confiJers Pumice as onljflf f° rt of " or 
 cinder ; and affirms, it is only found elftcr where forges of 
 metals have anciently been, or near fanjjs volcano, or burning 
 mountain. 
 
 Other authors will have the Pumice to rife from the bottom of 
 the fea ; whence they foppofe it detached by fubterranean 
 fires : and hence account both for its lightnefs and poroflty, 
 and its faline tafte ; alledging, in confirmation hereof, that 
 Pumice is frequently found in parts of the fea far remote from 
 all volcanoes ; and adding, that fevcral parts of the Archipelago 
 are frequently found covered with it, all at once, after a few 
 inward makes and heavings of the bottom of the fea. 
 Pumice makes a very confiderable article in commerce, and is 
 much ufed in the arts and manufactures, to polifti and fmooth 
 feveral works. See Polishing, &c. 
 
 Its pieces are of feveral fizes : the parchment-makers and 
 marblers ufe the largeft and lighten 1 \ — the curriers the heavicft 
 and flatteft ; — pewterers the fmalleft. 
 
 Pliny obferves, that the ancients made confiderable ufe of Pu- 
 mice m medicine ; but it is out of the prefsnt praftice. See 
 Supplement, article Pumex. 
 PUMMEL. See the article Pommel. 
 
 PUMP, Antlia, in hydraulics, a machine formed on the 
 model of a fyringe, for the raifing of water. 
 Vitruvius afcribes the firft invention of pumps to Ctcfebes the 
 Athenian ; whence the Latins call it machina Ctefeb'tana, or 
 trganum Ctefeb'icum. 
 
 Pumps are diftinginfhed into feveral kinds, with regard to the 
 feveral manners of their acting. — As the 
 Common, fometimes called the fueling Pump, which acts by the 
 preffure of the air, and by which water is raifed out of a lower 
 into a higher place, not exceeding thirty-two feet. — Its ftruc- 
 ture and action may be conceived from what follows : 
 j, A hollow cylinder, or barrel, A BCD, [tab. hydroftrat. fig. 
 27.) is provided of any folid matter, ufuaily wood, and erected 
 perpendicularly in a fpring, or other fource of water ; the lower 
 bafe of the cylinder being firlt fitted with a valve I, which 
 opens upwards. 
 
 1. A pifton or embolus, called the fucker, E K, furnifhed 
 with a valve L, which -likewife opens upwards, is let clown 
 the cylinder ; and for the more" eafy working upwards and 
 downwards, is furnifhed with a lever or handle, as G H. 
 Now, the embolus E L, being drawn up from I to L, will 
 leave the fpace L I void of air, at leaft in a great meafure fo ; 
 the preflure, therefore, of the air on the furface of the ftag- 
 nant water prevailing, will, by the laws. of hydroftatics, lift 
 up the valve I, and raife it to fill the cavity L I. 
 
 If, then, the embolus be again let down, the lower valve being 
 now faft clofed with the weight of the incumbent water, upon 
 prefling the pifton, the water muff, open the upper valve, and 
 get into the embolus, by which it is raifed up and difcharged 
 out at the fpout H. 
 
 Thus is the embclus alternately raifed and depreffed, feff. See 
 the theory of the Pump more accurately laid down under the 
 article Syringe. 
 The forcing Pump, which acts by mere impulfe or protrufion, and 
 raifes water to anv height at pleafurc. — Its ftructure is as fol- 
 lows : — 1. A cylinder A B, {fig. 28.) is divided by a dia- 
 phragm, or tranfverfc piece, C D, fitted with a valve E, open- 
 in=> upwards ; and thus immerged in water. 
 
 2. An embolus F, furnifhed with a valve G, is fo fitted to 
 an iron rod I H, moveable on a hinge at each, as that it 
 
 PUN 
 
 may be conveniently raifed and depreffed by the hand ap ? !isd 
 in K. 
 
 Now, upon depreffing the embolus F, the water will opert 
 the valve G, and thus afcend into the cavity of the cylinder 
 BC: but upon raifing it again, the valve G is (hut, fo that 
 there is no paftage for it that way : the valve E therefore be* 
 comes opened, and the water mounts through it ; and, by re- 
 peating the agitation of the embolus, is at length driven out 
 through the fpout M. 
 
 The great difficulty of rectifying this Pump, when it happens 
 to be out of order, on account of the chief feat of action's 
 being under water,, makes , people decline the ufe of it when 
 they can do well without it, notwithftanding its advantage of 
 raifmg the water to any given height. 
 Ctefebes's Pump, the firft and fin eft of all the kinds, acts both by 
 fuction and pulfion,— Its ftructure and action are as follow : — 
 I. A brafs cylinder ABCD, {fig. 29.) furnifhed with a valve 
 in L, is placed in the water. 2. In this is fitted the cmboiu3 
 M K, made of green wood, which will not fweli in the water, 
 and adjufted to the aperture of the cylinder with a covering; of' 
 leather ; but without any valve. In H is fitted on another 
 tube N H, with a valve that opens upwards in I. 
 Now, the 'embolus E K being raifed, the water opens the valve 
 in L, and rifes into the cavity of the cylinder ■ — and when the 
 fame embolus is again depreffed, the valve I is opened, and the 
 water driven up through the tube H N. 
 
 This is the Pump ufed among the ancient?, and that from which 
 both the others are deduced. — Sir S. Morland has endeavoured 
 to incrcafe its force by leflening the friction ; which he has done 
 to good effect, infomuch as to make it work without almoft 
 any friction at all. 
 
 Pumps ufed in fhips are of feveral kinds : as the 
 
 Chain Pump, ufid by the Englilh in large velTels, this is a dou-"" 
 ble Pump, one of which rifes as the other falls : this yields a 
 great quantity of water, works eafily, and is eafily mended ; but 
 it takes up a great deal of room, and makes a dilagreeab'Je noife. 
 —See tab, Jl)ip. fig. 2. n. 59. 
 
 Bare Pumps are final) ones made of cane, or a piece of wood 
 bored through, ufed In lieu of cocks, iSc. to Pump beer or 
 water out of the calks. 
 
 Bur Pumps, called alfo bildge Pumps, are chiefly ufed by the 
 Dutch, who have them by their {hips-fides. In thefe is a Ions 
 ftaff, with a bur at the end like a gunner's fponge, to Pump up 
 the bildge water. SeeBiLDGE. 
 
 ^/VPump, in pneumatics, is a machine, by means whereof the 
 air is emptied out of veffels, and a fort of vacuum produced 
 therein.— For the invention, Jlruclure and ufe of this Pump, 
 fee Air Pump. 
 
 PUN, or Punn, a lufus verborum, the wit whereof depends on 
 a refemblance between the founds or fyllables of two words, 
 which have different, and, perhaps, contrary fignifications. 
 Such are, — Cane de cane, cane.— Far mole mole moles — Lex Dei, 
 lux diei. — h\\ houfes are ale-houfes,— - The holy ftate of matri- 
 mony, is become matter of money Some mens paradife is 
 
 a pair of dice.— Was it fo in the time of Noah ? Ah no.--- 
 Vordre tire du dijordi e, ou dijordre ordonne, is the title of a 
 French book. 
 
 Puns, when they come eafily, and arc very ingenious, poignant 
 and appofite, are allowed of in converfation, letters, epigrams 
 madrigals, and the like compofltions ; but they are absolutely 
 banifhed out of the grave, ferious, and fublimc, by reafun they 
 weaken its. force, and diminifh its beauty, which confifts in 
 , fomething great and elevated. The Greeks and Romans, it 
 is true, fometimes indulged themfelvcs the practice, and ufed 
 Puns as ornaments in the moft iferious difcourfes : but the 
 moft fevere and philofophical genius of cur age is by no means 
 fatisfied with fuch an outfide of wit.--Devices, f\mbuls, rebus's 
 motto's, tfc. are their proper fphere, wheie they fhine to moft 
 advantage. , 
 PUNCH, an inftrument of iron or fteel, ufed in feveral arts 
 for the piercing or ftamping holes in plates of metals, &rV. 
 being fo contrived, as not only to perforate, but to cut out 
 and take away the piece : whence the French call it, emporte* 
 piece, p. d. take-ofT-piece. 
 
 The Punch is a principal inftrument of tbemetal-button-makers, 
 wafer-makers, patch-makers, (hoe-makers, 6tf#, — The Punch 
 of the makers of plate-buttons ferves to cut and parcel out 
 the plates of gold and fifver wherewith they cover their 
 mould;-. — It is large, round, four or five inches high, the bot- 
 tom hollow for about halt' an inch, well Heeled, and the edge 
 very fharp. 
 
 To ufe it, they extend the plate of metal on a leaden table or 
 block, and with a pretty heavy hammer ftrike the head of the 
 Punch, ckc. See BuTTON-making, 
 Punch horfe, in the manage, is a wcll-fet, well-knit horfe, fhort- 
 backed and thick-lhouldered, with a broad neck, and well 
 lined with flefh. 
 
 Punch is alfo a name of a fort of compound drink frequent in 
 England, and particularly about the maritime parts thereof; 
 though little known elfewhere. 
 
 Its bafis is fpring-water, which being rendered cooler, brisker, 
 and more acid, with lemon-juice, and fweetened again to the 
 palate v*th fine fugar, makes what they call jherbit ; to which 
 
 a pro- 
 
PUN 
 
 PUN 
 
 a proper quantity of a fpirituous liquor, as brandy, rum, or 
 Uwac bein^ fuperadded, the liquor commences Punch. 
 Several authors condemn the ufe of Punch, as prejudicial to the 
 brain and nervous fyftem.— Dr. Cheyne infifts, that there is 
 but one wholfome ingredient in it, which fome now begin to 
 leave out, viz. the mere water. 
 
 The proportions of the ingredients are various ; ufually the 
 brandy and water are in equal quantities. — Some, inftead of 
 lemon-Juice, ufc lime-juice, which makes what they call Punch 
 royal, this is found lefs liable to affect the head, as well as 
 more grateful to the ftomach. 
 
 Some alfo make milk Ptateb, by adding near as much milk to 
 the fherbet as there is water, which tempers the acrimony of 
 the lemon,— Others prefer tea Punch, made of green tea inftead 
 of water, and drank hot. 
 
 Laftly, What they call Punch for chamber-maids is made with- 
 out any water, of lime-juice, fharpened with a little orange 
 and lemon-juice; twice as much white-wine as lime-juice, 
 and four times as much brandy, with fugar. 
 
 PUNCHEON. See the article Punchion. 
 
 PUNCHIN, or Punchion, in building. See the article Pun- 
 chion. 
 
 PUNCHION, or Puncheon, a little block, or piece of fled, 
 on one end whereof is fome figure, letter, or mark, engraven 
 either in creux, or in relievo ; impreffions whereof are taken 
 on metal, of fome other matter, by flriking it with a hammer 
 on the end not engraved. 
 
 There are various kinds of thefe Punchions ufed in the media- 
 nical arts. — Such, for inftance, are thofe of the gold-fmiths, 
 cutlers, pewterers, &c. 
 Punchion, in coining, is a piece of iron ireeled, whereon the | 
 engraver has cut, in relievo, the feveral figures, arms, effigy, j 
 infeription, cjfe. that arc to be in the matrices wherewith the . 
 fpecies are to be marked. 
 
 Minters diftinguifh three kinds of Punchions, according to the, 
 three kinds of matrices to be made ; that of the effigy, that of j 
 the crofs or arms, and that of the legend or infeription. 
 The firft includes the whole portrait in relievo, — The fecond 
 are ftgflH, each only containing a piece of the crofs or arms, 
 v. gr. a fleur-de-lys, a harp, a coronet, h'c. by the aflem- 
 blage of all which the intire matrice is formed. — The Purt- 
 chions of the legend only contain each one letter, and ferve 
 equally for the legend on the effigy-fide, and the crofs-fide. 
 See Coining. 
 
 For the manner of engraving, tempering, and jlamping thefe 
 Pnncbions, to form the matrices, fee Engraving on fleet, 
 Matrice, &e. 
 Punchions, in printing, are thofe ufed in ftamping the matrices, 
 wherein the types of printing characters are caft. See letter 
 Founder y. 
 
 Punchion is alfo ufed for feveral iron tools of various fizes and 
 figures, ufed by the engravers in creux on metals. — Seal-gravers 
 particularly ufe a great number, for the feveral pieces of arms, 
 (jfc to be engraven ; — and many (lamp the whole feal from a 
 fingle Punchion. 
 
 Punchion is alfo a common name for all the iron inftrumenrs 
 ufed by fione-cutters, fculptors, lock-fmiths, &c. for the cut- 
 ting, inciding, or piercing their feveral matters. 
 Thofe of fculptors and ftatuaries ferve for the repairing ftatues, 
 when taken out of the moulds. 
 
 The loc'i-fmitlis ufe the greateff. variety of Punchions; fome 
 for piercing hot, others for piercing cold ; fome flat, fome 
 fquare, fome round, others oval ; each to pierce holes of its 
 refpective figure in the feveral parts of locks. 
 Punchion, or Punchin, in carpentry, is a piece of timber 
 placed upright between two ports, whofe bearing is too great, 
 fenring, together with them, to fufiain fome large weight. 
 The Punchion is ufually lower and flighter than cither prick- 
 pofls or principal ports, and is joined by a brace, or the like, 
 of iron. See Post. — Thofe on each fide of a door are called 
 door Punchions. 
 
 Punchion is alfo a piece of timber raifed upright under the ridge 
 
 of a building, wherein the little forces, ESV. are jointed. — 
 
 Vitruvius calls the Punchion, eolumen. 
 Punchion is alfo ufed for the arbour or principal part of a 
 
 machine, whereon it turns vertically : as that of a crane, &c. 
 
 See Crane. 
 
 Punchion is alfo a mcafure for liquids, containing a bogfhead 
 and -j, or 84 gallons, or 4 of a tun. 
 
 The Paris Punchion is the fame with their demi-queue : at 
 
 Rouen it is three bufhels, &e, 
 PUNCTA lachrymalia. See the article Lachr ymalia. 
 PUNCTATED hyperbola, in the higher geometry, an hyper- 
 bola whofe oval conjugate is infinitely final], i. e. a point. 
 PUNCTION, or Puncture, in chirurgerv, an aperture made 
 
 in the lower belly, in dropfical perfons, to difcharge the water ; 
 
 called alfo paraccntefis. 
 PUNCTUATION, in grammar, the art of pointing; or of 
 
 dividing a difcourfe into periods, and members of periods. 
 
 by points expr effing the paufes to be made in the reading 
 
 thereof. 
 
 The points ufed herein are four, viz. the period, colon, femi- 
 colon, and comma. See the particular ufe of each under its 
 proper article. 
 
 PunSluation is a modern art : the ancients were mtirety unac- 
 quainted with the ufe of our comma's, colons, &c. and wrote 
 not only without any diftinction of members and periods, but 
 alfo without diftinction of words ; which cuftom, Lipfius ob- 
 ferves, continued till the hundred and fourth olympiad ; during 
 which time the fenfe alone divided the difcourfe. 
 There is much more difficulty in pointing, than people are 
 generally aware of. — In effect, there is fcarce any thing in the 
 province of the grammarians fo little fixed and afcertained as 
 this. The rules ufually laid down are impertinent, dark, and 
 deficient ; and the practice, at prefent, is perfectly capricious, 
 authors varying not only from one another, but Irom them- 
 felves too. 
 
 Indeed F. Buffier, and fince him Mr. Ward, have done feme- 
 thing towards a fixed and precife fyftem of pointing, from the 
 reafon and analogy of things. Their doctrine the reader will 
 find under the articles Comma, Colon, EsV. 
 In the general, we fhall only here obferve, that the comma is 
 to diftinguifh nouns from nouns, verbs from verbs, and fuch. 
 other parts of a period as are not nccellarily joined together. 
 ■ — The femi-colon ferves to fufpend and fuftain the period 
 when too long : — the colon, to add fome new, fupernume- 
 rary reafun, or confequence, to what is already faiJ : — and the 
 period, to ciofe the fenfe and confiruction, and to releafc the 
 voice. 
 
 PUNCTUM, in geometry, Wr. See the article Point. 
 In the fchools they have their 
 
 Punctum terminans, which is the indivifible extreme of a line, 
 beyond which no pait of the line extends. 
 
 Punctum continuans, an indivifible magnitude between conti- 
 guous points of a line, whereby they are connected, and irom 
 whence arifes a continuity. 
 
 Punctum in'uians, an indivifible point, from which the line 
 begins. 
 
 Punctum formatum, or generatum, in conies, is a point deter- 
 mined by the interfection of a right line drawn through the 
 vertex of a cone to a point in the plane of the bafe that con- 
 ftitutes the conic feet ion. See Cone and Conic. 
 
 Punctum ex comparatione denotes either of the foci of an ellipfis 
 and hyperbola ; thus called by Apoltonius, becaufe the rectan- 
 gles under the fegment of the tranfverfe diameter in the ellipfis, 
 and under that and the diftance between the vertex and the ' 
 focus in the hyperbola, are equal to one fourth part of what 
 he calls the figure thereof. 
 
 .Punctum linearis, in geometry, is a term ufed by fome authors 
 for that point of the generating circle of a cycloid, or epycy- 
 cloid, which in the genefis produces any part of the cycloidal 
 line. 
 
 Punctum faliens, in anatomy, the firft rudiments of the heart, 
 in the formation of the foetus, where a throbbing motion is 
 perceived. 
 
 This is eafily obferved with a microfcope in a brood-egg, where- 
 in, after conception, we fee a little fpect or cloud ; in the mid- 
 dle whereof is a fpot that appears to beat, or leap a confidera- 
 ble time, before the fcetus be formed for hatching. * 
 Punctum lachrymale, in anatomy, a little hole in the edge 
 of each eye-lid, opening into a bag called glandula lachry- 
 tnalis. 
 
 PUNCTURE, Punctura, in chirurgery, tsV. any wound 
 made by a pointed inftrument. 
 
 In phlebotomy, people are fometimes brought in danger of the 
 lofs of a limb, and even of life, by the punSlure of a tendon. 
 ■ — The patient here does not immediately feel any pain ; but 
 about twelve hours after the operation, complains thereof; not 
 in the puncture itfelf, but in the parts tending towards the 
 arm-pit. 1— The wounded part then fwells to the fize of a filbert, 
 and diftils an aqueous humour, or ichor, which is the chief 
 diagnoftic of the punclura tendinis. See Tendon. 
 
 PUNO-BRECH*, or Pound-breach, denotes the illegal 
 taking of cattle out of the pound ; either by breaking the pound, 
 picking the lock, or other wife. 
 * The word is compounded of the Saxon, p*nd, pound, and hrech, 
 frafture, breaking. 
 *— Si prund-brech fat in curia regis, plena wyta ft ; alibi quin- 
 que mancar. Leg, Hen. 1. See Pound. 
 
 PUNISHMENT, a penalty Impofed upon the commiffion of 
 fome crime or offence againft the laws. 
 
 It is effential to the nature of a law, that it import or decree 
 a Punijhment to the tranfgreffors thereof. 
 
 The forms and manners of Punijhment are various in various 
 countries and ages, and for various crimes \ as treafon, felony, 
 adultery, parricide, &c. 
 
 Among the Romans, the pecuniary Punijhments were the muffla 
 and confifcatio. — The corporal Punijhments were capitis dirninu- 
 tio, aqua & ignis interdiclio, profcriptio, deportatio, relcgativ, 
 furca, crux, career, culeus, equuleus, fcalts gemonies, damnatia 
 ad gladium, ad metallum, flagellatio, talio., &c, which fee de- 
 fcribed under their refpective articles. 
 
 Among us, the principal civil Punijhments are fines, imprifon- 
 ments, thejlochs, pillory, burning in the hand, whipping, duck'mg- 
 Jlool, hanging, beheading, quartering, burning, tranfportation, 
 &c. 
 
 The ecclefiajTical Punijhments are cenfurss, fufpenfions, depriva- 
 tions, 
 
PUR 
 
 tidks, degradations, excommunications, anathema's, penances, ice. 
 The military punijhments are, being Jhot, running the gantctope, ri- 
 ding the wooden borfe, the bilboes, kc. — Among the Turks, 0c. 
 impaling, bajTinadJ s on the foles of the feet, &c. obtain. See 
 Empalement, &e. 
 
 PUNITORY intcrcfi, in the civil law, fiich intereft of money 
 as is due for delay of payment, breach of promife, &c. 
 
 PUNN. See the article Pun. 
 
 Pupil, Pupillus, in the civil law, a boy or girl not yet arri- 
 ved at the age of puberty, i. e. under fourteen years of age the 
 boy, and under twelve the girl. 
 
 "While a minor remained under the direction of a tutor, he was 
 called a Pupil ; after puberty, a curator being affigned him, he 
 ceafed to be called a Pupil. 
 
 A tutor is obliged to pay intereft for what monies of his Pupil 
 
 lie idle and unemployed. — A tutor is allowed to do any thing 
 
 for his pupil, but nothing againft him. 
 Pupil is alfo ufed byway of extentionjnuriiverfities, 
 
 the fenfe of alumnus, for a youth under the education or difei- 
 
 pline of any one. 
 Pupil, Pupilla, in anatomy, denotes a little apeiture in the 
 
 middle of the uvea and iris of the eye, through which the rays 
 
 of light pafsto the cryftalline, in order to be painted on the 
 
 retina, and caufe vilion. 
 
 It isobferved, that as we are forced to ufe various apertures to 
 our optic glaJfes, lb nature has made a like provision in the 
 eyes of animals, whereby to Ihut out too much, and admit 
 Jufficient light, by the changes in the aperture of the pupil. 
 The itructure of the uvea and iris is luch, as that by their 
 aperture the Pupil is contraetrble and dilatable atpleafuie, fo as 
 to accommodate itfclf to objects, and to admit more or fewer 
 rays, as the object, being either more vivid and near, or more 
 obfcuie and remote, requires more or lefs light it being a 
 conftant law, that the more luminous the object, the fmaller 
 ■the Pupiil ; and again, the nearer the object, the fmaller the 
 Pupil, and vice verfia. 
 
 This Alteration oithiPupil is effected by certain mufcular fibres 
 on the outfide of the uvea, which arrive from nerves detached 
 hither from the fclerotica. — Thefe fibres proceeding ftrait 
 from their origin towards the centre, terminate in the orbicular 
 limb or verge of the Pupil, which confifts of orbicular fibres, 
 Whereby the figure and fpace of the Papillae defined.— The 
 firft, or longitudinal fibres, dilate die aperture of the papilla ; 
 the latter, or orbicular ones, conftringe it. 
 Some authors, however, attribute the motions of the Papilla 
 to the ligamentum ciliare ; and others think, that both this, 
 and the fibres of the uvea, concur herein.' — Dr. Derham adds, 
 that while the Pupil opens and fhuts, the ligamentum ciliare 
 dilates or compreifes the cryftalline, and brings it nigherto, 
 or farther from the retina, as the object is more or lefs remote. 
 The figure of the Pupil in various animals is wonderfully ad- 
 apted to their various circumftances and occafions : in ibme, 
 e.gr. in man, it is round, that form being fitteft for the polirion 
 of our eyes, and the various ufe we make of them in all di- 
 rections. 
 
 In others it is elliptical or oblong : in fome of which, e. gr. 
 the horfe, (heep, ox, &c, the ellipfis is tranfverfe, and the filTure 
 large, to enable them to fee laterally, and even with a little 
 light ;and thereby both to gather their food the better in the 
 night, and to avoid dangers on either tide. — In others, e. gr. 
 the cat, the ellipfis is erect, and is alio capable of opening very 
 wide, and (hutting very clofe ; by means of the latter of which 
 ftates,that animal can exclude all, but, as it were, a Jingle ray of 
 light, and fo avoid all the inconveniencies of the bright fun; 
 and by the former it can take in all the fainteft rays, and thus 
 avoid the inconveniencies of the night. An incomparable 
 provifion for thefe animals, which are to watch and way-lay 
 their prey both by day and night, to fee upwards and down- 
 wards, to climb, f!fy. See Eye. 
 
 PUPILLARITY, or Pupillage, the ftate of a pupil ; in op- 
 pofition to puberty. 
 
 PURA elemojyna, Pure alms, denotes a tenure whereby the 
 churchmen hold lands in Scotland, fomewhat on the footing 
 of the primitive clergy. 
 
 Pura hajla. See the article. Hast a. 
 
 PURBECK jhne. See the article Stone. 
 
 PURCELA1N. See $e article Porcelain. 
 
 PURCHASE, in law, the acquilition of goods, lands, tene- 
 ments, or the like, by means of money, in contradiftinction 
 to thole obtained by defcent, or hereditary right. 
 
 Purchase, in the fea language, has the fame fignification with 
 draw in, at land.— Thus, they faw, The capjlan purchafes apace, 
 i. e. draws in the cable apace : and when they cannot draw or 
 hale any thing in with the tackle, they fay, The tackle will not 
 purchafe. 
 
 PURE, fomething free from any admixture of foreign or hete- 
 rogeneous matters. 
 Pu re fire. See the article Fir e. 
 
 Pure hyperbola, in conies, is an hyperbola without any oval, 
 node, fpike, or conjugate point, 'bee Curve. 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 PUR 
 
 Pure mathematics. See the article Mathematics. 
 Pure proportion, -\ c Proposition, 
 
 Pure quadratics, jSee the articles} Quadratic, 
 Pure refignatiens, 3 (Resignation. 
 PURFLEW, a term in heraldry, expreffihg ermines, peans, or 
 
 any of the furs, when they compofe a bordure round a coat of 
 
 arms. 
 
 Thus they fay, he beareth gules a bordure, purfieiv, vairy : 
 meaning that the bordure is vairy. 
 
 PURGATION, Purgatio, the act of purging, fcowring, Or 
 purifying a tiling, by feparating and carrying off any impuri- 
 ties found therein. 
 
 Purgation, in pharmacy, is the cleanfing of a medicine by 
 retrenching its fupefftuities ; as taking the wood and feeds out 
 of cafha, and the ftones out of dates, tamarinds, and other 
 fruits. 
 
 Purgation is alfo ufed in chymiftry, for fevcral preparations; 
 of metals and minerals, intended to ciear them of their impu- 
 rit s ; more ulually called purification and refining. 
 The oidinary Purgation of Mercury is performed by patting ic 
 through a chamois flcin. See Mercury. — Gold is purged 
 by the coppel, cementation, c-fY. See Gold, CopPel, &fr.™ 
 Purgatioti in other metals is performed by repeated fufion, 
 &ri See Metal, Fusion, EsV. 
 
 PtritGATlon catharfis, in medicine, is an excretory motion, 
 ariiing from a quick and orderly contraction of the flefhy fi- 
 bres of the ftomach and inteftines ; whereby the chyle, corrupt- 
 ed humours and excrements lodged therein, are protruded far- 
 ther and farther, and at length quite excluded the body by ftool. 
 Purgation is one of the principal fpecies of evacuation. See E- 
 vacuation. — For the means and manner wherein it is effected, 
 fee Purgative. 
 
 Purgation, in law, is the clearing one's fclf of a crime, where- 
 of publickly fulpected or accufed before a judge, called alfo 
 judicium Dei. 
 
 Of thefe Purgations there was anciently much ufe in England, 
 efpecially touching matters of felony charged on clerks j and 
 there is fomething of them ftill retained^in the ecclefiaftical 
 court in fufpicion of incontinency, 5Y. 
 Purgation is either canonical or vulgar '< 
 
 Canonical Purgation is that prefcribed in the canon law, the 
 form whereof obtaining in the fpiritual court, is, that the party 
 fnall take his oath he is clear of the fact objected ; and bring fo 
 many of his honeft neighbours, not above twelve, as the court 
 (hall affign him, to fwear, on their confidences, that they be- 
 believe hefwears truly. 
 
 Vulgar Purgation, being the moft ancient manner, was by fire, 
 or water, or combat ; ufed by infidels, and by chrlftiana too, 
 till abolifhed by the canon law. 
 
 Combat, though now difufed, may yet be ftill practifed by the 
 laws of the realm in cafes Where evidence is Wanting and 
 where the defendant rather chufes combat than any other trial. 
 
 Terris bonis, &c. redhabendis pojl Purgationem. See Terr is. 
 
 Purgation, in tragedy, is a term which Ariftotle ufes for the 
 effect of tragedy on the mind. 
 
 That phi'ofopher obferves, that tragedy, by means of the ter- 
 ror and companion which it excites, purges paftions out of the 
 foul. 
 
 Indeed, Corneille adds, that tragedy frequently creates paf- 
 fions, inftead of purging them; fo that he takes Ariitotle's 
 Purgation to be no more than a chimera. See Tragedy. 
 Menftrml Purgations, the catamenia or menfes of women.- 
 See Menses. 
 
 PURGATIVE, or Purging medicine, a medicament which 
 evacuates the impurities of the body by ft'ool; called alio ca- 
 thartic. ■ 
 
 Purgatives are divided, with regard to their effect, into gentle, 
 moderate, and violent. — Gentle Purgatives are fuch as operate 
 very mildly, as tamarinds, caflia, manna, rhubarb, fena, and 
 moft of the mineral waters. 
 
 The moderate purge fomewhat more brisMy, as jalap, fcam- 
 mony, oV. — The violent operate excefiivciy, as coloquintida, 
 hellebore, laureola, &c. 
 
 Purgatives are, again, divided, with regard to the humour they 
 evacuate, into pbhgmagogues, chohgogues, melanagogues, and 
 hydragoiues ; each whereof fee under its proper article. 
 The modern phylicians reject this divifion ; and fhewthe 
 operation of all purgatives to be alike. 
 
 Purgatives make oneof the moft important articles in medicine. 
 — Their effect is produced by vellicating and irritating the 
 nervous fibres of the ftomach and inteftines, and thereby ur- 
 ging them to an expulfion. 
 
 An idea of the manner of their operation is thus given by Dr. 
 Cheyne. — A purgative medicine being received into the fto- 
 mach by the mouth, its particles do there vellicate or ftimulate 
 the fibres of the ftomach, and thereby inevcafe the digeftive 
 faculty, L e. they bring the mufcular fibres of the ftomach, and 
 the mufcles of the abdomen and diaphragma, into more fre- 
 quent contractions than ordinary, till the medicine is admitted 
 into the intcfttines ; the fibres and glands whereof being more 
 9 Z feu ft bit 
 
PUR 
 
 fenfible than thofe of the ftomach, (whofe parts, by the frequent 
 rough contacts of one againft another, and of the grofs bodies 
 often thrown into it, are, as it were, deadened) it eaffly moves 
 and brings them into frequent forcible contraflions, whereby 
 thefc glands are fqucezed, and fo emit a fluid matter, which lu- 
 bricates the [Ullages, and which mixing with the feculent mat- 
 ter of the inteftines, (which is rendered fluid by the fame active 
 and (limulating quality of the purgative medicine) renders it 
 more fluid ; by which, and by the uncommon contractions of 
 the inteftines, it panes more eafily and plentifully into the 
 inteftinum rectum, and is thence ejected by (tool. 
 Thus do gentle purges act, and only cleanfe the inteftines, few 
 of their particles entering in by the lacteal veins fo as to affect 
 the blood.— But in violent Purgatives the ftimulating particles 
 are mixed with the blood, and produce there, many times, 
 very great effects, by occafioning unnatural fermentations, by 
 feparating the natural cohefions of the fluids of the body ; and 
 they do alfo, by vellicating the fpiral fibres of the veins and ar- 
 teries, bring thofe into more forcible contractions, and thereby 
 accelerate the motion of the blood : — all which may have 
 fometimes a good, but fometimes a bad effect. 
 As to the effects of Purgatives on animal bodies, Dr.Quincy 
 adds, that every irritation of the inteftines either quickens the 
 periftaltic motion in its natural direction, or occafions lomc 
 little inverfions of it. — Now, in both cafes, any matters that 
 but fligluly adhere to the coats, or inner membranes, will be 
 loofened, and fhook off, and carried forward with the othei 
 contents ; and they will alfo be more agitated, and thus ren- 
 dered more fluid. , 
 Hence is manifeft, how a purging medicine haftens and m- 
 creafes the difchaiges by (tool ; but the fame manner of ope- 
 ration alfo carries its effects much farther, in proportion to 
 the force of the ftimulus : for where it is great, all the ap- 
 pendices of the bowels, and even all the vifecra in the abdo- 
 men, will, by a content of parts, be pulled or twitched fo as 
 to affect their refpective juices in the fame manner as the in- 
 teftines thcmfclves do their contents.— The confequencc of 
 which Olllft be, that a great deal will be drained back into the 
 inteftines, and made a part of what they difcharge.— And when 
 we confidcr the vaft number of glands in the inteftines, with 
 the outlets of thofe vifcera opening thereunto, and particularly 
 of the liver and pancreas, it will be no wonder, that vaft quan- 
 tities, efpecially in full conftitutions, may be carried off by 
 one purge. 
 
 As to thofe Purgative! diftinguifhed by the names of ibm- 
 gagua, hydragegucs, fhlegmagogues, on a fuppofition of an 
 elective quality therein, they may be accounted for upon more 
 intelligible principles : For when the difchaiges by ftool dis- 
 cover an over-proportion of any particular humours, it is al- 
 ways to be fuppofed there was a redundance of fuclr an humour, 
 ■whole difcharge any irritation would have occalioned. Thus, 
 in proportion to the proximity of fome humours in the intefti- 
 nal tube, and the difpofition of the paffages to convey them 
 that way, do they require greater or leller vibrations or fhakes 
 of the fibres to fetch them out. 
 
 For this rcafon, the briskercatharrics, which vellicate the mem- 
 branes moft of all, pump out, as it were, from all the mefente- 
 ric glands and neighbouring parts, their contents, which, be- 
 caufe they abound fo much with lymphatics, and vifcid watry 
 humours, make the dil'charges rhin and watry. 
 Thofe which act in a fomcwhat lower degree, yet irritate 
 enough to deteige and draw out a great deal of mucous and 
 vifcid" matter, which fometimes by lodgment and want of due 
 motion, changing into various colours, occafions the different 
 names of Phlegm or Choler : as the former therefore pafs for 
 hydragogues, fo do the latter for purgei s of phlegm and choler. 
 But there is another principle betides that of aftimulus, whereby 
 a purging medicine is enabled to anfwer its intention, viz. by 
 fufmg the humouis, and rendering them more fluid than be- 
 fore, whereby they are better fitted to pafs off by their proper 
 emunctories.— Thofe which confrft of very fubtile and active 
 parts are not fo fcniible in the larger paflages, becaufe of the 
 great quantities of matter, which lay too great a load upon 
 them, and make them unheeded ; but when they are got into 
 the blood in any confidcrable number, they divide and fufe 
 thofe cohefions which obftruct or move heavily along the ca- 
 pillaries, and fcour the glands ; infomuch that every puliation 
 throws fomething through the inteftinal glands, which goes 
 away by ftool, that the refluent blood had walhcd away and 
 brought back from all parts of the body. 
 Of this kind are all thofe cathartics which are faid to purge 
 the joints, and are prefcribed in rheumatifms, and arthritic 
 pains, as the radix turpethi, and all the aloeties. — And this is 
 the realbn why purging medicines of this fort are fo eafily 
 changed into themoft eflicacious alteratives ; for an alterative 
 is a cathartic in a lower degree, or of a more remifs operation. 
 Whatfocver biings fuch particles to a fecretory orifice, which 
 are fitted for its pall'aje, oftener, either by accelerating the 
 blood's motion, or breaking it into more particles of that par- 
 ticular fize and difpofition,'' will increafe the fecretion. Ac- 
 cording, therefore, to the difference of the pints where fuch 
 
 PUR 
 
 fecretions are inlargcd, as the glands of the inteftines, kidneys, 
 or (kin, are the medicines, which are the inftiumcnts theieiu, 
 called either cathartics, diuretics., or diaphoretics. 
 Quincy has made Tome improvements in the doctrine of pur- 
 ging medicines, their nature, manner of action, effe&s, and 
 analogy with other medicines ; with the circumftances of their 
 preparation, management, E3V. in a difcoui fe inferted in the 
 Pbilofoph. YranfaB. The fubftance of which we cannot do 
 better than here fubjoin. 
 
 In order hereto, it is to be premifed, i. That all thofe parts of 
 an animal body which are vafcular, or through which any fluid 
 panes from the inteftines to the minuteft fibre, are the teat of 
 the operation of medicines. 
 
 2. That this whole courfe of circulation, or animal motion, ii 
 naturally diftinguifhed into three different ftages, by the diffe- 
 rent capacities of the veffels, andmotions of their contents, 
 each having its proper outlet ; and that thefe are the feat of the 
 three concoctions fo often mentioned by phyfical writers : the 
 firft being the ftomach and bowels, and having the anus for its 
 emunclory: the fecond all that fpace within the blood's motion, 
 fo far as it retains its red colour, having the kidneys; and the 
 third, all beyond that circuit, having the Ikin for an excretory 
 organ. 
 
 3. That every medicine which caufes evacuation, is, in fome 
 lenfe, a Purge. 
 
 4. That every Purge operates either as a diflblvent, by fufmg the 
 juices, andincrealmg the quantity fit for expuliiou ; or as a 
 ftimulus, by accelerating their motions fo as to bring the mat- 
 ter fit for cxpullion oftener to the fecretory out-let ; or both. 
 Thefe poftulata are only premifed, in order to prove this grand 
 propoiition, that a change in the bulks, figures, and motions 
 of the component particles of a purging medicine, will change 
 the feat of its operation, and tit it for exertion in the larger 
 or fmaller veffels, as thofe mechanical affections are intended, 
 or remitted. 
 
 For illuftration hereof, it may be convenient to attend to the 
 common way of making a Purge operate, more or lefs, than it 
 other wife would do. 
 
 Subftances, then, which are grofs and heavy, as thofe confifting 
 chiefly of faline and eaithy particles, fuch as tartar, manna, and 
 the like, when reduced fmaller by triture, or by repeated iblu- 
 tions, operate more gently ; but when actuated by acids, or any 
 way made to cxpofe their angles more plentifully to the mem- 
 branes, they become rougher, and fooner take effect. 
 Refmous medicines, as fcammony, gamboge, jalap, and moft 
 vegetable productions, are more violent, and operate fooner, 
 when they are more tenacious and adhefive, as in their extracts ; 
 but are gentler, when divided by hard brittle fubftances, fuchas 
 fait of tartar, fugar, &c. 
 
 Medicines, which have in their compofition fulphur and fait, 
 are more or lefs rough and fpecdy in their operation, in pro- 
 portion to their greater or leffer participation of the faline 'in- 
 gredient, and the afperity of its angles. — Of this kind are moft 
 minerals, and their preparations : it may be fufficient to inftance 
 in the management of antimony and mercury ; the firft of 
 thefe is by chymical analyiis known to be a compofition of a 
 fubtile fulphur and fait ; and the more the faline part is fet loofe 
 by preparation, and openmg the fulphur, as it is commonly 
 termed, the fpeedier, and with the greater vehemence, will it 
 operate; whereas, in its more imperfect preparations, when the 
 falts are clofely wrapped up in their native fulphur, it will hardly 
 work at all, till it reaches the fartheft ftages of circulation. 
 ' Mercury per fe is little ufed as a medicine ; and its firft prepa- 
 ration, which makes it into a fublimate, fo loads it with faline 
 fpiculE, that it amounts even to a poifon ; but the more thofe 
 fpicula; are broken by triture, fublimation, Esfc the milder doth 
 it operate : and if to the comminution of its points be added a 
 fulphur fubtle enough tojoin it, it may be reduced to fo mild a 
 medicine, as not to be felt but in the laft ftage of operation. 
 This ftiort view may be fufficient to fhew, 1. That it is the 
 too great afperity and motion in a medicine, that will not fuffer , 
 it to pafs the ftomach, without irritating it into fuch convul- 
 fions, as will throw it up again by vomit. 
 
 2. That a farther comminution, and fmoothing its figure, willr 
 gain it admittance into the bowels, and caufe it to operate, as 
 a proper Purgative, by ftool. 
 
 3. That a yet farther remiftion of thefe properties will convey 
 it into the blood, and allow it there to promote evacuation by 
 urine. 
 
 And, laftly, that a ftill farther comminution will pafs it into 
 the minuteft canals, where, by the fame properties, only in a 
 lower degree, it will caufe fweat, or increafe perfpiration. 
 Hence it appears, that the more fubtile medicines operate in 
 the capillaries, and fmalleft fibres, by the fame mechanifm 
 that the more grofs ones do in the common ftream of the 
 blood, when they go off byurine ; or as the grolfeft of all do in 
 the greater paffages, when they promote evacuation by ftool. 
 Hence it is evident, that the Hull of preparing and adminiftring 
 of medicines confifts in proportioning their manifeft and known 
 properties to the capacity and circumftances of the part they 
 are to operate in; and to intend or remit their mechanical 
 
 affections, 
 
PUR 
 
 aftecflions, as they are fooner or later to take place in the great- 
 er or fmaller veffels. 
 
 Of thefirir clafs, or gentle purgingmedicines, there are few that 
 can be reducedfmallenoughto go beyond the larger patTages, 
 and none of them are worth the pains they require, to tit them 
 farther than for diurericks ; befides, their natural difpofltion to 
 attract, and join with the ferous part of the blood, whenever 
 they get into that ftage of motion, runs them off by the kid- 
 neys, before they can undergo comminution enough to get far- 
 ther: but if by frequent repetitions of fuch medicines, and an 
 uncommon laxity of the paffages, any parts are pafled into the 
 habit, their groffnefs fouls the delicate ftrainers, which are de- 
 fined for theirexpulfion ; and they lodge upon the glands and 
 capillaries in fuch manner, as to induce intermittents ; which 
 are obfervable in many perfons, after a long tife of cream of 
 tartar, the common cathartic falts, and the purging waters, ef- 
 pecially at the latter end of the fummer, when the heat of the 
 preceding feafon has debilitated the folids, and left them under 
 too great a relaxation. 
 
 Among the relinous purges, there are many very powerful 
 ones i but where their operation is defired in the vilcera,blood, 
 and remoter parts, they mult be extremely divided j and this 
 we find lpirituous menftruums will bed do, by taking up the 
 molt lubtile parts only, and carrying them into the veiy fmall 
 paffages, where they operate chiefly by f'ufion ; became the foft- 
 nefs of fugh fubftances cannot enable them, hardly in any de- 
 gree, to act as ftimuli, farther, at lead, than ordinary detergents. 
 And thus we lind that aloe, the chief of this tribe, goes fartheft 
 into the habit, and continues longeft betore it operates, when 
 managed with a fpirituous menftruum, as in the tinctura facra. 
 Therad. turpethi, and colocynth likewife, with all ofthe vege- 
 table kind, that will yield to a fpirituous liquor, may, by that 
 means, be carried into the fartheft fcenes of animal action ; 
 where they will prove efficacious medicines in cafes, which, 
 with other management, they would never be able to reach : 
 and on this account it muft undoubtedly have been, that wc 
 frequently meet, in practical writers, with many materials of 
 this fort mentioned as alterants ; the colocynth particularly by 
 Helmont : for all medicines which operate in the fartheft pal- 
 lages, they commonly include under that general appellation. 
 But the moil efficacious purges, and thole which require the 
 mod (kill in the managing, are procured from the mineral 
 kingdom ; thefe abound in folidity beyond any other mate- 
 rials, and therefore whete-ever they are brought into action, 
 they neceffarily excel in the quantity of impulfe : many of 
 thefe therefore want not only the utmolt comminution to carry 
 them into the farther fcenes of operation, but alio lome re- 
 ftraint of their afperities and motions, to fit them for many in- 
 tentions— Thus fublimate is not only to be much Iweetcned, 
 that is, fmoothed in its points, to make it a fafe purge in the 
 larger veffels ; but if it be intended to go farther than the blood, 
 and thofe glands, which in that circuit it is moft apt' to be lodg- 
 ed upon when it falivates, it muft not only be rendered very 
 fine, but alfo be covered with fuch fubftances as weaken its 
 points, and make it pais into the laft fubdivifions of the con- 
 stitution. To this purpofe, the common practice wifely con- 
 trives in diftempers, which, according to the courfe of circula- 
 tion, lie moft remote, to wrap up the bafis of this medicine in 
 fulphurs, and fuch-like fubftances, as follow it into its laft di- 
 vifion, without giving it any afperities to make it act as a fti 
 mulus. Thus, for all cutaneous foulneffes, and habitual 
 taints, the cinnabar, the sethiops, and all of that fortment, ar 
 in readinefs ; and that ordinary fulphurs will cover and deaden 
 the efficacies of mercurial preparations, fo that they fhall not 
 operate, but in fuch parts only, and in certain circumdances. 
 is demonftrable in ordinary falivations, which are to be low 
 ered by fulphureous medicines. 
 
 Medicines from fuch minerals where a fait and fulphur are uni- 
 ted by nature, as they are in feme mercurials by art, as antimo- 
 ny, the native cinnabar, fteel, &c. are manageable only up- 
 on the fame principles; and the more they are defigned to be 
 carried into the habit, the more are they to be reftrained by 
 their natural or adventitious fulphurs : fteel, when opened by, 
 and joined with, the points of acid liquors, operates the fooner, 
 and will fomerimes prove even emeric ; but when it is covered 
 with an additional fulphur, it will go farther, and anfwer inten- 
 tions much more remote ; as is manifeft in the common pre- 
 parations of fteel with tattar or vinegar, and with fulphur. 
 This way of reafoning on thefe occasions feems the more juft, 
 from confidering the texture of thofe fubftances, which by a 
 natural preparation are fitted for operation in the minuted part 
 of an animal body ; fuch as thofe of the aromatic kind, all 
 which, more or lets, according to their greater or leffer degree 
 ot fubtility and fmoothnefs, promote a diaphorefis : for thefe 
 confift of exquifitely fine falts, covered with a moft fubtile ful- 
 phur, as is demonftrable by chymical analyfis; and the com- 
 mon lal volatile oleofum is an admirable contrivance upon the 
 fame foundation, where a very volatile animal fait is covered 
 with a moft exalted vegetable oil ; whereby it is fitted to pal's 
 into the minuted fibres, and make, as it were, a pan of the 
 animal fpirits themfelves. 
 
 Andheie it may not be amirs to obferve, that all animal falts 
 are very volatile, or eafily rendered fo ; but when bare and 
 naked, juft as the fire draws them cut, with a mixture alfo of its 
 
 PUR 
 
 own particles in their compofition, they are too pungent to be 
 fe.t without painful fenfations ; and when foftencd with a fine 
 portion ot fomewhat of an oppofite texture, which is lhiooth 
 and yielding, they become moft efficacious and fafe fudorifics- 
 On thele conliderations it likewife ceafes, to be a wonder, why' 
 the fubtile falts ot cantharides are more fenfibly injurious ro the 
 bladder than to any other pairs, and why camphirc prevents 
 thofe injuues; for the exquifite fmallnefs of thofe fpicul e 
 
 makes them imperceptible but in the moft 
 
 .. , lU£ . - - „ . . — - — minute canals, into 
 which the fibres competing the membranes ofthe bladder are 
 
 tZl >° , ' de r L a ," d C3mphire blums ** irritations! 
 became its extreme fubtility enables it to follow them into 
 thole meanders, and there to fheathe their afperities 
 To.this purpofe is very remarkable what manynow commonly 
 practice in guarding even mercurials acainrt their dimulatini 
 properties, and fending them into the fineft pafl'agcs to operate 
 by fufion, and the bare force of impulfe : for not only calomel 
 and the mercunus dulcis may be reftrained from manifeft ope- 
 ration in the wider pallages, and the glands about the mouth- 
 but even the mineral turbith, which of itfjf, in a fmall dofe' 
 will operate powerfully by vomit and ftool, will not, when 
 mixed with camphor, be fo much felt in thofe refpects ; but 
 will go into the fartheft circuit of motion, and promote the cu- 
 taneous dilchargem a more efficacious manner, than any me- 
 dicine of lefs fpecitic gravity— In this management, the cam- 
 phor is to be mixed but a very little while before taking, other- 
 wife it has not the effect ; which appears to proceed from its 
 great volatility, which makes it in a great meafure exhale 
 while it Hands mixed in the medicine. 
 
 As to the doles of Purgqtha, Dr. Cockburn attempts to deter- 
 mine rhem on the following fuppolitions.— ,» That no part of 
 them operate out in the blood.-2°That they operate there, by 
 changing the blood, and other circulatimr. fluids derived from if 
 I rom which poftulata he concludes, that in the fame condi- 
 tion ot blood, the dofe required to produce the like effects 
 muft be proportionable to the blood's quantity ; fo that where 
 a certain dofe is required ro alter one pound of blood for in 
 ltance, to a certain degree, there will be requiied a double dofe 
 to alter two pounds to the fame degree, and a triple dofi, to 
 three pounds, feV And univerfally, if the quantity of blood 
 !> require the dofe d, the quantity m 6 requiics the' 'dofe md 
 for as b : d : : m b : m d. 
 PURGATORY, Purgatorivm, in the Romim church a 
 Place where the juft are fuppofed to fuffer the pains due to 
 their fins for which they have not fatistied in this world 
 I is by the mercy of God, the indulgences of the church, and 
 the prayers ofthe laithful, that people are fuppofed to be deli- 
 vered out ot Purgatory. " 
 In Ireland is a place called St. Pattic's Purgatory, where i, 
 the legend has ,t at the prayers of St. Patric, biflio pof the 
 place, there was made a vinble i eprefentation of the pains which 
 
 pr£% l "!, derg0 afttr dCa , th ' in order to deter finners, Vc 
 
 PURGE, in medicine, a term frequently ufedfor a dofe ofiome 
 
 purgative medicine. 
 Butler's Purging ale. See Ale. 
 
 PURIFICATION, in chymiftry, the act o( purifying or re- 
 fherefrom 11 ' ' ™ feparatin S the feces and impurities- 
 
 For the methods o! purifying metals, gold, filver, iron, copper, 
 tin, EsTir. See Metal, Gold, Silver, C3Y 
 For the Purification of femi-metals, minerals, and other matters 
 as antimony, fulphur, camphor, falt-petre, ac. See An timo- 
 ny, Sulphur, Camphor, SJV. 
 Purification, in matters of religion, denote 
 the prieft by women rifing out of childbed 
 mitted into the church. 
 
 By the law of Moles, a woman, after bringing forth a male 
 child, was unclean forty days ; after a female, eighty days - 
 during which time the was not to touch any thin? holv nor 
 to go near the temple; but was to continue within dooVs fe- 
 parate from all company and commerce of others 
 This term expired, fhe was to prefent herfelf at the temple, and- 
 at the door of the tabernacle to offer a lamb, as aholocauft 
 and a pigeon or turtle, which the prieft taking, offered to 
 God, and prayed for her, that fhe might be purified 
 This ceremony which confided of two things, a holocauft, 
 andafaenficeof expiation, was called niriD "lilD, purified, 
 lio, purgatio. 
 
 ' hey be re-ad- 
 
 f he holy virgin, though, according to the fathers, exempt 
 from the terms of the law, yet complied therewith ; and at the 
 time ptefenbed went to the temple, and accomplilhed the law ■ 
 in commemoration whereof, the church yearly folemnizes the 
 . fead of the purification of the virgin, on the 2d of Febtuarv • 
 called alfo the feajl of candlemas. ' ' 
 
 The Feajl ofthe Purification feems to be very ancient It 
 is ordinarily faid to have been indituted in the time of lufti 
 man in the year 542. and this, on occalion of a mortality 
 which that year difpeopled al moft the whole city of Conftan 
 
 ! ur° PIC '.i Zf* * e . re a ; e .' ome who ™agine it to have been 
 obferved before, though in another manner, and on a different 
 day, from that fixed by Juftinian, viz. between the circum- 
 c.lion and epiphany— The fame day is the prefentation of 
 our Saviour in the temple. 
 
 PURIM, 
 
PUR 
 
 PURIM *, a folemn feaft held among the Jews oil the 14th of 
 March, in memory of their deliverance from the confpuacy ot 
 Haitian by Efther. See Esther. 
 » The word is Hebrew, CS'Hia 1- d. lot'- 
 
 PURITANS, a term anciently ufed for the Calvinifts of Great 
 Britain, from their protefiing to follow the pure word of God, 
 in oppofition to all traditions, human conftitutions, and other 
 authorities. See Calvinism. 
 
 PURLIEU. See the article Purlue. 
 
 PURLINS, in building, thofe pieces of timber that he acrols 
 the rafters on the inlide, to keep them from finking in the 
 middle of their length. 
 
 By the aft of parliament for rebuilding London, it is provided, 
 That MParHmitom fifteen foot fix inches to eighteen toot fix 
 inches long, be in their fquare nine inches and eight inches.— 
 And all in length from eighteen foot fix inches to twenty-one 
 foot fix inchcs,"be in their fquare twelve inches and nine inches. 
 PURLUE *, Purlieu, or Pourallee, is all that ground 
 near any foreft, which being added to the ancient foreft by 0111 
 kings, was, by perambulation granted by fome of their tuc- 
 ceffors, fevered again from the fame, and made purlieu, i.e. 
 pure and free from the laws and obedience of the foreft. 
 
 • The word is formed from the French pur, pure, and luu, place. 
 A Purlieu, or Pourallee, is defined a circuit of ground adjoining 
 to the foreft, and circumfcribed with immoveable boundaries, 
 known only by matter of record ; which compafs ot ground 
 was once foreft, and afterwards was difafforefted by the peram- 
 bulations made for fevering the new foreft from the old. 
 Purlieus or Pourallee, commenced after the manner following ; 
 — King Henry I. at his acceUion to the crown in 1154, took 
 fo much delight in the forefts of this kingdom, that, not being 
 contented with thofe he found here, though many and large, 
 he began to inlarge divers of them, and to arforeft the lands ol 
 his fubjects near adjoining to the fame. 
 
 His mcceffors Richard I. and Henry II. far from retrenching 
 or reftoring any thing, made ftill further incroachments : and 
 thus did the lands continue till the 1 7th year of king John ; at 
 which time the grievance being grown notorious, and gene- 
 rally felt by all degrees of people, divers noblemen and gentle- 
 men befought the king to granr, that they might have all thole 
 new aftbreftations, made by his predecelfors aforefaid and by 
 himfelf, difafforefted again ; and the king, after much foUcita- 
 tation, was at length prevailed on to fubferibe and leal Inch 
 articles concerning the liberties of the foreft, as they then de- 
 manded ; being for the mod part fuch as are now contained 
 in the charter of the foreft. 
 
 Hereupon choice was made of divers noblemen, die. to the 
 number of twenty-five, who were fworn, with others their 
 affiftants, to fee the faid liberties, fo granted and confirmed by 
 the king, to be in every point obfcived. 
 
 But before any thing was done to the purpofe, king John died j 
 and king Henry III. fucceeding, frcih folicitations were made 
 to him ^wlio for the better accomplifhing of the laid difaflor- 
 eftarion, ordered inquifitions to be taken by fubftantial juries 
 for (fevering all the new forefts from the old : upon which two 
 commiflioners were fent to take thofe inquifitions ; in viitue 
 whereof, many great woods and lands were not only difaffor- 
 efted, but were improved to arable land by the owners thereof. 
 After this charter was made and confirmed, fome of thele new 
 aftbreftations were perambulated, and proper inquifitions ta- 
 ken and the certainty was determined by matter of record, 
 which were the old, and which the new : though it appears, 
 that the greateft part of the newalf breftations weie ftill remain- 
 ing durint; the life of king Henry III. 
 
 Under Ed":ard I. frefh petitions and folicitations being fet on 
 foot, three bilhops, three earls, and three barons were at 
 length appointed to fee thofe perambulations performed and 
 continued ; who caufed rhem to be made accordingly, and in- 
 quifitions to be taken thereupon, and returned into the court 
 of chancery ; and all thofe that were ancient foreft, to be 
 mecred, and bounded with irremoveable boundaries, to be 
 known by matter of record for ever. 
 
 Thofe woods and lands that had been newly affbreftcd, the 
 king likewife caufed to be feparated from the old, and to be 
 returned into the chancery by marks, meeres, and bounds to 
 be known, in like manner, by matter of record for ever. 
 Thus it appears how the Purlieus, or Pourallees, had their firft 
 beginning ; for all fuch woods and lands as were aftbrefted by 
 Henry II. Richard I. or king John, and by perambulations 
 fevered from the ancient forefts, were, and yet are called Pour- 
 allees, q. d. woods and lands fevered from the old forefts, and 
 difafforefted by perambulation^ Pourallee being the fame as 
 perambulatio in Latin. . 
 
 Butnotwithftanding fuch new aftbreftations were difafforefted 
 by perambulation, whereby the fame became Pourallee or Pur- 
 lieu, yet they wet e not thereby fo difafforefted as to every man, 
 but that they do in fome fenfe continue foreft ftill, as to others. 
 — For by the words of eharta de ferejla, if the king has affb- 
 reftcd any woods or lands of his fubjecls, to the damage of 
 the proprietors, they ihould forthwith be difafforefted again ; 
 
 PUR 
 
 that is, only as to thofe perfons whofe weeds ar.d lar.ds they 
 were ; who, as ihe proper owners theieof, might felt and cut 
 down their woods at their own pleafuie, without any licence 
 l"iom the king ; as alio convert their meadows and paftuies into 
 tillage, or othcrwiie improve their ground to the befl advan- 
 tage. So alio they might hunt, and chafe the wild hearts of 
 the foreft towaids the fame, fcrY. But no other perfon might 
 claim fuch benefit of hunting in the Pourallee, befide the pro- 
 per owner of the foil thereof, who is left at liberty to fuffer the 
 Pourallee to remain forcrt ftill; as fome, ineffetf, have thought 
 moll: expedient, became hereby intitled to the benefit of the 
 common within the foreft, which otherwife they weie exclu- 
 ded from. Hence, if the hearts chance to wander out of the 
 foreft into the Pourallee, the king hath a property to them ftill, 
 againft every man, but the owner of the gicund wheiein they 
 are, who hath a fpecial property in them, rations foli ; yet lo 
 as he may only take them by hunting, or dialing with his 
 grey-hounds or dogs, without any forertalling or forefetting 
 them in their courfe again towards the foreft. 
 Befide what hitherto has been faid of the difference between 
 foreft and Purlieu, or Pourallee, there is this farther diverfity, 
 that all the woods and lands within the regard of the foreft, 
 are abfolutely within the bondage or charge of the foreft, as 
 well in refpect of the owners thereof, as of any other pet fori ; 
 for no one may cut down his own woods, or improve his own 
 lands, within the regard of the foreft, without licence from the 
 king, or his chief julfice in eyre of the fcreft. — Neither (ball 
 any perfon hunt, chafe, or moleft the wild hearts of the foreft 
 in his own ground, within the regard of tire foreft, without 
 licence or warrant from the king, or his chief juftice of the 
 foreft, fo to do. 
 
 But thofe whole grounds are within the Pourallees, are not fub- 
 jeet to thefe reftritlions. — Yet are not the woods and lands in 
 the Pourallees aMolutcbj freed from the bondage of the foreft 
 in refpect of the wild be;ifts having their haunts therein, when 
 they happen to ftray out of the foreft ; but as they weie once 
 abfolutely foreft, fothey aie /till conditionally fo. 
 Purlue man, or Purlieu man 9 or Pourallee man, is one 
 who has land within the Purine; and is allowed or qualified to 
 hunt or courfe within the fame, though under ceitain reftric- 
 tions. 
 
 Byftat. i3Ric. IT. he who may lawfully hunt in any Pourallee, 
 ought to have woods or lands of rreu'hold within the Pourallee, 
 to the yearly value of 40 s. — By flat. Jac. I. he ought to have 
 lands of inheritance of the yearly value of 10/. or lands of 
 freehold of the yearly value of 30 /. or have goods worth 200 /. 
 or be the fon of a knight, or baron, or perfon of a higher de- 
 gree, or fon and heir apparent of an efquire. — But by a later 
 act, Car. II. no man may keep grey-hounds within the Poural- 
 lee, or clfewhere within England or W ales, unlcfs he have a 
 free warrant, or be lord of a manor, or fuch a freeholder as is 
 feized in his own right, or in right of his wife, of lands, tene- 
 ments, or hereditaments, of the clear yearly value of 40 /. over 
 and above all charges and reprifes of fuch cftatc of inhciitance; 
 or of lands, tenements, or hereditaments, in his own right, or 
 in right of his wife, for term of lite or lives, of the yearly 
 value of 80 /. over and above all charges and rept iles, or that 
 is worth in goods or chattels 400 /. 
 
 The Pourallee, or Purlieu, then, is faid to be for him that is fo 
 qualified : others, not qualified, and therefore not purlieu-men* 
 yet having land in the Pourallee, may, if they find any wild 
 hearts of the forerts in their own grounds within the Pourallee, 
 chafe them thereout with little dogs, but not with grey-hounds 
 or other dogs. 
 
 Nor is the purlieu-man left at large to hunt at his own discre- 
 tion, but he is tied down to feveial rules : as, 
 1. That he always begin his chafe in his own ground ; and that 
 though he find fuch wild hearts in his own Pourallee, and in 
 refpect thereof, hath a property in them, rations foli, againft 
 all peribns but the king ; yet fuch his pioperty is only on this 
 condition, that he can flay them with his dogs in chalc, with- 
 out forertalling them, before they can recover the foreft. — If 
 they be within the lift of the foreft, before the dogs faften on 
 them, they are the king's, or other owner of the foreft. 
 But if the pouralke-man firft make his chafe in his own free- 
 hold, he may purfue the fame through every man's ground, 
 within the Pourallee, and his dogs faften on a wild beaft, be- 
 fore he can get within the bounds of the foreft, and the bead- 
 draw the dogs into the foreft, and is there rtain by them ; here 
 the pourallee-man fhall not enter into the foreft:, nor take the 
 beaft fo killed, becaufe his courfe was irregular from the begin- 
 ning, as he could claim no property in the beaft, rations foli, 
 
 3. A pourallee '-man may hunt in his own Pourallee, with no 
 more company than his own fervants ; neither may he appoint, 
 licenfe, or warrant any other perfon, except his fervants, to 
 hunt by his commandment in his Pourallee, 
 
 4. Every pourallee-man is forbidden by the laws of the foreft, 
 to hunt in his own grounds within the Pourallee, every day, or 
 oftner than three days in any one week, Sunday excepted. 
 
 5. Nor 
 
PUR 
 
 j, Nor is any man to difturb, or make a courfe after any deerl 
 found in his pourallee, within forty days after the king hath 
 made a general hunting in the foreft adjoining thereunto ; be- 
 cause then the wild beafts of the foreft come not into the pour- 
 allees of their own accord ; but as they are forced into the 
 fame by the hunters, with clamours and blowing of horns : fo 
 that they fly thither for refuge. 
 
 6. No man mall hunt within feven miles of the borders of the 
 foreft, or in his own pourallee, within forty days next before 
 the king hath ifTued out his proclamation, declaring his royal 
 will and pleafure to make a general hunting in that foreft. 
 Inafmuch as the pourallees were once, and in fome fenfe ftill 
 are, foreft, it was neceflary to have officers to attend, and 
 take on them the charge of the prefervation of the game that 
 may happen to wander out of the foreft, into the pourallees ; 
 fince otherwife the laws of the pourallees could not be execu- 
 ted, but the foreft it felf would foon be deftroyed by the 
 pourallee men. 
 
 For this reafon rangers were fir ft appointed, who, though not 
 officers in the foreft, yet appertain thereto ; for all officers in 
 the foreft have charge of the vert and venifon of the foreft ; 
 but a ranger hath no charge of vert, but only of venifon com- 
 ing out of the foreft into the pourallees, his place of charge ; 
 from whence his office is to conduit the fame back again into 
 the foreft. 
 
 This officer is appointed by the king, or his chief juftice in 
 eyre, and is made by patent, with a fee commonly of 20, 30, 
 or 40/. or more, by the year, payable out of the exchequer, 
 as alfo certain fee- deer, both red and fallow, to be taken an- 
 nually, at proper feafons, out of the foreft. 
 The fubftance of his oath is, to rechafe, and with his hounds 
 drive back, the wild beafts of the foreft, as often as they range 
 out of the fame into his pourallee ; to prefent all unlawful hunt- 
 ing and hunters of wild beafts of venery and chafe, as well with- 
 in the pourallees, as within the foreft ; and to prefent thofe 
 and other offences* at the next court of attachments or fwani- 
 mote, which ihall firft happen. 
 
 Rangers, it is to be obferved, belong only to filch pourallees as 
 were once the woods and lands of the fubject, and were after- 
 wards difafforefted again, and fo became pourallees. Hence, 
 as there are fome foreifs in England, which never had any 
 inlargement by new afforeftations, and therefore have no pour- 
 allees at this day ; there can be no rangers belonging to them. 
 PURPLE, Purpura, w^i^a, a red colour, bordering on 
 violet ; now dyed chiefly with cochineal. 
 
 Purple was much efteemed among the ancients ; efpecially the 
 Tyrian Purple, which underwent more dyes than the reft, and 
 which was almofi peculiar to the emperors and kings. Yet this 
 Purple did not exceed that now in ufe ; the chief reafons why 
 the antienc Purple dye has been difufed, are, that the later is 
 both cheaper and finer. 
 
 The ancient Purple was tinged or given with the blood or juice 
 of a precious turbinated teftaccous fea-fifh, called by the Greeks 
 «sj$>itf«, and by the Latins purpura ; whereof we have defec- 
 tions in feveral authors, and fhells in moft of the cabinets of the 
 curious. 
 
 In the feas of the Spanifh Weft-Indies about Nicoya, is found 
 a fhell-fifh, which perfectly rcfemblcs the ancient purpura, and 
 in all probability is the very fame : this fifh, Gage tells us, 
 - ufually lives feven years; it hides itfelf a little before the dog- 
 days, and continues to difappear for 300 days running. 
 They are gathered plentifully in the fpring, and by rubbing 
 one againft another, they yield a kind of.faliva or thick glair, 
 refembling foft wax : but the Purple dye is in the throat of the 
 fifh ; and the fineft part is lodged in a little white vein ; — the 
 reft of the body is of no ufe.— He adds, that the chief riches of 
 Nicoya confift in this fifh. Cloth of Segovia, dyed with it, is 
 fold for twenty crowns the ell ; and none but the greateft Spa- 
 nifh lords ufe it. 
 
 Eefides the Indian Purple fifties, we have others much nearer 
 home. In the Philofopb. Tranfacl. we have an account of 
 Purple fifh difcovercd in 1686, by Mr. W. Cole, on the coafts 
 of Somerfetfliire, South-Wales, &c. where it is found in great 
 abundance. 
 
 The modern Punple fifh, M. Reaumur obferves, is a kind of 
 buccinum, a name given by the ancients to all fifties vvhofe 
 fhell bears any refemblance to a hunting-horn ; and it appears 
 from Pliny, that part of the ancient Purple was taken from 
 this kind of fhell-fifh : fo that this may be efteemed a recovery 
 of what had been fuppofed intirely loft. 
 
 The method of obtaining the colour, the author defcribes thus : 
 —The fhell, which is very hard, being broken, (with the mouth 
 of the fifh downwards, fo as not to crufti the body) and the 
 broken pieces being picked off, there appears a white vein 
 lying tranfverfely in a little furrow or cleft next the head of 
 the fifh. 
 
 In this vein is the Purple matter lodged ; fome of which being 
 laid on linen, appears at firft of a light green colour ; and it 
 expofed to the fun, foon changes into a deep green, and in a 
 few minutes into a fea-green, and in a few more into a blue ; 
 thence it foon becomes of a purplljh red, and in an hour more 
 of a deep purple red. 
 
 And here the fun's action terminates ; but by wafhing in fcalding 
 wdier and foap, and drying it, tile colour ripens to a moft bright 
 Vol. II. 
 
 P U R 
 
 and beautiful crimfon, which will bear wafhing admirably with- 
 out the addition of any ftyptic. 
 
 The fifh, he obferves, is good food ; and adds, that there are 
 feveral kinds of it differing in fize and fhell, and alfo in the colour 
 of the tinging liquor. — There are fome found on the coafts 
 of Poictou. 
 
 M. Reaumur has alfo difcovered another very different kind of 
 Purple. — This is produced in oval grains about a quarter of an 
 inch long, full of a white liquor bordering on yellow, 
 which cover certain ftones or fimds, about which the buccina 
 of Poidtou ufually affemble. 
 
 By the experiments M. Reaumur has made, it appears that 
 thefe grains are neither the eggs of the buccirium, nor the feeds 
 of any fea-phnts, nor any rifing plants, but the eggs of funic 
 other unknown fifh. 
 
 Thefe grains being bruifed on a white linen, at firft only tinge 
 it yellow, and that infenfibly ; but in three or four minutes 
 they give it a very beautiful Purple red, provided the linen be 
 expofed to the open air ; for the air of a room, even though 
 the windows be open, will not do. — This Colour fades how- 
 ever a little by repeated warnings. 
 
 M. Reaumur concludes from fome experiments he made, that 
 the effect of the air on the liquor does not confiit in its taking 
 away any particles thereof, nor in giving it any new ones, but 
 only in its agitating it, and changing the arrangement of the 
 parts that compofe it. — He adds, that the liquor of the buc- 
 cinum, and that of the grains, feem to be nearly of the fame 
 nature; except that the latter is more watry, and only faline ; 
 whereas the other is hot and pungent. 
 
 The Caribbec iflands have likewife their Purple fifh. — This is 
 called burgan, being of the fize of the end of tiie finger, and 
 refembling our periwinkles : its fhell is of a brownifh azure, 
 its fiefli white, its inteftines of a very bright red, the colour 
 whereof appears through the body j and it is this that dyes the 
 froth, which it cafts forth when taken, and which is at firft of 
 a violet hue, bordering on blue. 
 
 To oblige them to yield the greater quantity of froth, they 
 lay them on a plate, and fhake and beat them againft one 
 another ; upon which the plate is immedi.ur.-ly covered with 
 the froth, which is received on a linen cloth, and becomes, 
 Purple in proportion as it dries. 
 
 P. Labat obllrves, that if this be the real Tyrian Purple, the 
 fecret of prtpaiing and fixing it is loft ; this colour being found 
 to dwindle and diffipate, in proportion as the linen dyed with 
 it is wafhed. 
 
 The fame author gives us the defcription of another Purple dye 
 produced by a tree growing in the Antilles. — The juice of 
 this tree, when cut ftanding, is of a blood-red, and commu- 
 nicates the fame colour to cloths ; though, like the former, it 
 lofes much in often wafhing. 
 Purple, in medicine.— The Purple fetftr, febris purpurea, is a 
 kind of plague, or a malignant fever Oiicovering itfelf in erup- 
 tions on the fkin like the bites of bugs or fleas, or like grains 
 of millet, or the frjiall pox ; whence it is fometimes alfo called 
 the [potted and miliary fever. 
 
 The eruptions are red, orange, violet, azure, livid, or black ; 
 and when they rife in great quantity, it is efteemed a good 
 fign. — Sometimes they fpread to a great extent, like eryiipelas's, 
 according to the quality of the poifon. 
 PURPRESTURE, in our ancient law-book. See Pour- 
 
 PRESTURE. 
 
 FURPRISUM*, of the French pourpris^ denotes a clofe, or inclo- 
 fure: — alfo the whole compafs or extent of a manor or place. 
 * — DoHwvi eis meum purprifum de Kirkeham, fa" demos mens & 
 molendinum, £j pruta, &c, Charta Wakeri Efpec. Priorat. de 
 Kirkeham. 
 
 PURPURE, Pourpre, or Purple, in heraldry, according 
 to fome, is one of the five colours of armories, mixed or com- 
 pounded of gules and azure bordering on violet ; and according 
 to others, of a little black and much red colour. 
 It is by the Heralds fuppofed a fymbol of temperance, liberality, 
 dignity, authority, faith, and piety. — Moft authors in heraldry, 
 as Favyn, Geliot, Monet, and Meneftrier, do not allow Purple 
 for a colour, in regard it is not fimple, but compofed of a 
 mixture of other colours. — They rather efteem it a kind of 
 intermediate tincture, fometimes metal, and fometimes co- 
 lour : hence the Spaniards call it una miftian ; fo that one can- 
 not lay it on metal and colour without talfifving the arms. 
 Add, that many take the Purple, as it is accounted, on many 
 ancient bearings, by which fome of the moderns would evince 
 the regularity and legitimacy of this coluur in armory, to be no 
 other than filver tarnifhed. 
 
 Spelman, however, in his Afpilogia, allows Purple the prefe- 
 rence before all other colours, as having been an enfign of roy- 
 alty for manv ages ; yet even he allows it to have been exclu- 
 ded by the ancient heralds as only an imperfect colour. 
 It is reprefemed in engraving by diagonal lines drawn from the 
 finifter chief to the dexter bafe point. — Vid. tab. herald, fig. 81. 
 In the coats of noblemen it is called amethy/i, and in thofe of 
 princes, mercury. 
 
 PURPURATI, in our ancient hiftorians, denote the fons of 
 emperors and kings. Ncubrig. lib. 3. cap. 4. Malmfb. lib. 3. 
 
 PURREL, anno 35. Eliz. cap. 10. a lift ordained to be made at 
 the ends of kerfeysj to prevent deceit in diminifhing their length. 
 
 10 A PURSE, 
 
PUT 
 
 PURSE, a manner of accounting ; or, as fome call it, a fpecies 
 of money of account, much ufed in the Levant ; particularly 
 at Conftantinople. 
 
 The Par/e confifts of about 500 dollars, or 120 pounds fterhng. 
 It is fo called, becaufe all the grand fignior's treafure in the fera- 
 glio is kept in leather bags of tliis value. 
 
 This method of accounting the Turks derive from the Greeks, 
 and they from the Romans ; the emperors whereof brought it 
 to Conftantinople, as appears from a letter of Conftantinc to 
 Cecili-in bifhop of Carthage, quoted by Eufebius and Nice- 
 phorus, wherein is this paftage : — " Being refolved to give 
 " fomething for the fupport of the miniftera of the catholic 
 " religion throughout the provinces of Africa, Numidia, and 
 * c Mauritania ; I have written to Vefus, treafurer-generat of 
 " Africa ; and given him orders to pay you three thoufand 
 " foIUsfi i. e. Purfes : for, as M. Fleury obferves, we may call 
 that Purfe whicii the Latins called foilis, which was a fum of 
 250 filver denarii, amounting to about feven pounds fixteen 
 fliillings, of uur money. 
 
 PURSER, an officer aboard a man of war, who receives her 
 viftuals from the victualler, and is to take care that it be in 
 good condition, and well laid up, and flowed. 
 He is alfo to keep a lift of t he men and boys belonging to the 
 ,fhip, and to let down exactly the day of each man's admittance 
 into pay ; that the pay-mailer or treafurcr of the navy may 
 iflue out his disburfements, and pay off tiie men according to 
 the Purfer's book. 
 
 PURSIVENESS, or Pursyness, among farriers, thicknefs of 
 wind, a name common to all thofe difeafes in horfes which 
 arife from obft ructions in the paffages of the lungs. 
 Purfivenefs, fometimes alfo called broken zvind, may proceed 
 from an ulcer, or fome inward wafting of the lungs, wherein 
 the fmall veflels are worn or abraded by the fharpnefs or acri- 
 mony of the common difcharges. 
 
 The like diibr >er may alfo arife from a flagnation, hindering 
 the air from penetrating fo as to lift up the lungs in the act of 
 refutation ; or from fume tough and mucilaginous matter fcpa- 
 rated in the branches of the wind-pipe. 
 
 The ufiial occafions are cold, furfeits, and other difeafes not 
 thoroughly earned off. — Purftve diforders may alfo arife from 
 unwholfome food, bad air, and hard riding when a horfe is 
 full. The figns are commonly a heaving and beating of the 
 flanks ; a wheezing and rattling. Sometimes the kernels about 
 the throat will fwell, and there will be a glandulous running at 
 the nofe, which is the utmoll flage of the difeafe, and uiually 
 reputed defperate. 
 
 PURSUIVANT. See the article Poursuivant. 
 
 PURVEYANCE. See the article Pourveyance. 
 
 PURVEYOR. See the article Pourveyor. 
 
 PURVIEW*, a term frequently ufed by Sir Edward Coke for 
 the body of an act of parliament, or that part which begins 
 with Be it cnailed, OCC. as contradiftinguifhed from the 
 preamble. 
 
 * The word comes from the French pourveu, a gift, grant, pro- 
 
 vifion, &c. 
 
 The flatute of 3 Hen. 7. ftands upon a preamble and a purview. 
 
 12 Rtp. 
 
 PURULENT, Purui.entus, in medicine, fomething mixed 
 with, or partaking of, pus or matter. 
 
 Phthiftcal people frequently fpit a. Purulent matter. — In a 
 dyfentery, the {tools are Purulent : when there is an ulcer in 
 the reins or bladder, the urine is Purulent. 
 PUS*, in medicine, a putrid matter, white and thick, formed 
 of blood corrupted in a wound or ulcer, and iil'uing out of the 
 lips thereof. 
 
 * The word is Latin, pm t literally denoting fnot, oc. formed of 
 
 the GrtL'k wjqv, which figr.ifies the fame. 
 Wounds are alwavs to be kept open while they fuppurate, /. e. 
 while they generate pus ; for fear of (hutting up the wolf in 
 the fhecp-luld. 
 
 PUSTULE, Pustula, a little pimple, or eruption, on the 
 {kin, full of pus ; efpecially arifing in the fmall and gieat pox. 
 See Exanthema. 
 
 PUTAGE*, Putagium, in our old law-books, denotes whore- 
 dom or fornication on the part of the woman. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French pntte, whore ; putagium, 
 q.d. putam ageve. — Suited aut.m gencralnci filet did, putagium, 
 brfrcdhatem nan ad'tmit ; iilud inttlligcndum e/l dc patagio matris ; 
 quia filius btcres leghimus eft, qum nuptitS demonjlraitt . Glanv. 
 lib. 7. 'cap. l 2. 
 
 PUTANISVI, Pittanismo, an Italian term, naturalized by 
 fome Englilh writers, fignifying whoredom, or the life or con- 
 dition of a courtefan. 
 
 The word we borrow immediately from the French, putanifme, 
 and they from the Italian, putttina, whore; of putta, girl. 
 PUTATIVE, Jupp-jfitive, fomething reputed to be what it teally 
 is not. 
 
 The word is feldom ufed but in the phrafe putative father. — 
 Thus we fay Jufcph was the putative father of Jcfus Chrift. 
 PUTLOGS, or Putlocks, in building, fliort pieces of tim- 
 ber, about feven feet long, ufed in building fc.iffolds. — They 
 lie at right angles to the wall, with one of their end:, bearing 
 upon it, and the other upon the ledgers or poles which lie 
 parallel to the fide of the. wall of the building. 
 
 PUT 
 
 PUTREFACTION, or Putrif action, in phyfics, a flow 
 fort of corruption produced in natural bodies, generally by the 
 moifture of the air, or fome other ambient fluid, whicii pene- 
 trating the pores, and being agitated therein, diflulves and 
 fcts at liberty fome of the more fubtile parts, particularly the 
 falts and oils ; and thus loofens and diflocates the compages, 
 quite changes the texture, and fometimes even the figure of 
 the mixt. 
 
 How much the air contributes to PutrefaCkn, is evident 
 hence, that bodies buried deep under earth, or in water out 
 of any reach of air, mail remain for ages intire ; which yet 
 being expofed to the open air, fltall fuon rot and moulder 
 away. 
 
 The like appears from fucculent fruits, and other vegetable 
 matters, which, for all their aptnefs to putrefy, will remain a 
 long time unchanged in vacuo. 
 
 The perpetual ofcillations of fo claftic a fluid as air contained 
 or Glut up in the pores of a body, may be conceived fufficient 
 to induce this alteration in its form and texture ; yet fhould it 
 rather feem, that the water or vapoury matter wherewith the 
 proper air is impregnated, is the more immediate agent. 
 Hence Acofta obferves, that in Peru, and others have obfer- 
 ved the fame in Egypt, where it very rarely rains, every thing 
 will continue a long time uncorrupted ; unlefs we ihould ra- 
 ther afcribe this effect to the abundance of nitrous fait in the 
 air of thofe places, which is known to refift iulrefaclion. 
 In efftct, all Putrefactions, both of animal and vegetable bo- 
 dies, are affirmed by the learned Bocrhaave to be performed by 
 means of water alone : Take (fays he) a pound of firdh flfcfh, 
 and keep it in a heat like that of our body, and in a few da\s 
 the Putrefaftien will be completed ; but if you firft drain out 
 or exhale all the watry part from the fame in fome chymical 
 veffel ; though the fait and oil remain, the flclh will harden 
 like a fione, and may be kept for ages without Putrefaction. — 
 Though when thus hardened, water poured on it, or even the 
 common dew, will foon fet it a putrefying. 
 By fuch means, bread, flefli, or the like foods, may be pre- 
 lerved for many ages ; provided regard be had to the place ; 
 hence it is, that in dry countries, as Egypt, dead carcales never 
 putrefy, but dry and harden uncorrupted ; as we fee alfo in the 
 mummies found buried under the fand. 
 
 Even human blood, which naturally is fo prone to Putrefaction, 
 if you deprive it of its watry part, may be kept for fifty years. 
 Goat's blood we actually find kept fo long in the {hops, without 
 corrupting j though, if you diflblve it in water, and expofe it 
 to a gentle warmth, it ftill putrefies immediately. 
 Putrefaction, in chymiftry, denotes a fpontaneous kind of 
 operation, whereby vegetable or other fuhftances, in virtue of 
 their own heat and moifture, are diffolved, and as turned into 
 fubftances of a higher, e. gr. of an animal nature. 
 Procefs of vegetable Putrefaction. — Throw together any of 
 the tender, green, and fucculent parts of recent vegetables, whe- 
 ther acid or alkaline, in a large heap, in the warm open air, 
 and prefs them down with an additional weight, if their own 
 be inconfidcrable ; and the middle part of the heap will in a, 
 little time fpontaneoufly conceive a fmall degree of heat, and 
 pafs iucccflivcly through the other degrees, till it arrive at a 
 flare of ebullition, and be perfectly putrefied. 
 In the fpace of three days, from the firft putting them toeether. 
 they will yield a heat, perceivable by the hand, equal to that of 
 a human body in a healthy ftate ; by the fifth the heat will be 
 too great for the hand to bear without pain ; and, laftly, by 
 the fixth, feventh, or eighth day, the juices will generally ap- 
 pear ready to boil, and fometimes the matter will even flame 
 and burn away. 
 
 By this fpontaneous operation, the vegetable acquires an abo- 
 minably putrid, ftercoraceous, or cadaverous taftc and odour ; 
 and turns intirely into one foft, fimilar, pulpy mats, or crafia- 
 mentum, greatly rcfembltng fetid human excrements in the 
 fcent, and putrefied flefh in the tafte. 
 
 If now this fetid matter, thus obtained, be directly, whilft it 
 remains in its fetid ftate, committed to a glafs retort, and 
 diftilled with proper degrees of fire, there will come over, 
 I. A water impregnated with an urinous fpirit, perfectly like 
 that obtainable from animal fubjects, and feparable by a frefh 
 diftillation flowly made in a tall glafs, into elementary water, 
 and a large quantity of pure, white, volatile, dry, alkaline fait 
 not to be diftinguiflied from animal falts. 2. A volatile, alka- 
 line, oily fait, that flioots into glebes. 3. An exceedingly 
 volatile and thick fetid oil, both which are intirely like 
 thofe of animals. And, laftly, the remainder being calcined 
 in an open fire, affords not the leaft particle of fixt fait ; juft 
 as if the fubject had really been of the animal, and not of the 
 vegetable kingdom. 
 
 This procefs is truly univerfal, and holds equally in all kinds 
 of vegetables, though ever fo different in their nature and virtue. 
 Experiments have b^en made in the coldeft and moft fucculent 
 or watry plants, fuch as purflain, forrel, £^f, as well as with the 
 hotteft or moft acrimonious, fuch as the fpurges, EsV. and it 
 was always found to fucceed ; but that the fooner, as the vege- 
 table employed contained the greater quantity of oil : though 
 with the fame plia;nooiena. 
 
 \¥. - ■ ,x,\ 1 i?"W-rthir-h • >ll ft 
 
PUT 
 
 It will Iikewife fucceed with dry vegetables, provided they be 
 moiftened wirh water before they are thrown into heaps : and 
 thus we fometimes fee, that ftacks of hay will fpontaneoufly 
 take fire, and burn away ; efpecially if the hay was not well 
 dried in the making. 
 
 It is furpriling to confider, that by this means the difference be 
 twixt vegetables may be intirely taken away, and the wholi 
 kingdom thereof reduced to the fame common nature ; fo tha 
 wormwood and tanfey, for inftance, or forrel and fcurvygrafs 
 fhall appear as one and the fame thing ; and this thing appear 
 no otherwife than like putrefied flefh. 
 
 Though forrel be famed for its power of preferving the animal 
 fluids uncorrupted whilft they are circulating in the body, and 
 fcordium for its embalming virtue, as continuing them in a 
 irate of incorruption after death ; yet even thefe plants are 
 themfelves thus eahly corrupted and changed into fuch a kind 
 of putrefied flefh, as it is their virture to prevent. 
 This Boerhaave confiders as a general law of nature, wifely eft; 
 blifhed to produce wonderful changes in the world, and to pre- 
 vent the inaction and decrcafe of matter in our globe ; thi 
 active principle or medium giving an eafy and reciprocal trail- 
 fition of vegetable into animal fubftances, and of" animal into 
 vegetable. 
 
 Hence we are given to underfbnd the nature and ufes of Putt 
 faclion, with its difference from fermentation, both in regard of 
 the fubjedt, caule, and effort. — Vegetables alone, are the fub 
 j eel of fermentation ; but both vegetables and animals of Pu 
 trejaclion. Fermentation alfo requires, that its fubjedt be firft 
 reduced to the form of a liquid, or or leaft made capable of float- 
 ing in one, before it can obtain ; whereas Putrefaclton only fuc- 
 ceeds when its fubjedt is half dry, or barely moift : which is the 
 reafon why muft, put up in a wooden veffel, does not putrefy 
 whilft the grapes from which it was expreffed, being thrown i. 
 heaps, would prefcmly conceive heat, and run into a flare of 
 Putrefaclion. 
 
 We fee alfo, that vegetable Putrefaclion is begun and promoted 
 with heat, and finifhed with codtion, which requires a degree 
 of heat much greater than that excited by fermentation, as being 
 capable of caufmg an ebullition in the plant, and even of turning 
 it into flame < as, indeed, the immediate caufe of fermentation 
 is the motion of the air intercepted between the fluid and vif- 
 cous parts of the fermenting liquor ; but the caufe of Putre- 
 faction is fire itfelf, collected or included within the putrefying 
 fubjedt.. 
 
 Again, the efRcts of fermentation are the production of flowers 
 or yeaft, the converfion of the faline part of the fermenting 
 body into tartar, or an acrimonious, acid, and fixed kind of fait, 
 and of oils, into an inflammable fpirit retaining fomething of the 
 nature of the vegetable; but Putrefaclion makes all the acid falts 
 volatile and alkaline ; renders the oils not fpirituous, but abo- 
 minably fetid ; utterly deftroys what makes the fpecific dif- 
 ference between one fubjedt and another ; and converts them 
 wbully into a foft pulpy mafs, of an animal nature, without 
 the leaft figns of any fixed fait, though the recent vegetable 
 would, by calcination at the firft, have afforded a large pro- 
 portion of it. Putrefaction, in fine, makes nearly the fame 
 kind of alteration in the whole fubjedt, as it would undergo 
 by paffing through a found animal body, fuftering all the 
 adlions thereof, and being at length turned into the form of 
 excrement. 
 
 This operation may let us a little into the nature of animal 
 th'geftion, or the change which the aliment fuffers in the hu- 
 man body.— For the change our vegetable foods undergo in 
 the body, being fuch as brings them to be of the fame na- 
 ture, and to afford the fame principles with the change induced 
 by Putrefaction, is a prefumption, that digeftion is nothing 
 elfe ; at leaft, it apparently comes nearer thereto, than to 
 fermentation. 
 
 PUTRID, Putridus, fomething rotten or putrefied. See 
 Putrefaction. 
 
 Thus we fay, putrid flefh : — a putrid humour : — putrid limbs, 
 i. e. mortified ones, are to be cut off. 
 PuTRlD/fwr is a kind of fever, wherein the humours, or part 
 of them, have fo«little of their circulatory motion, that they fall 
 into an inteftine one, and putrefy. 
 
 This is frequently the cafe after great evacuations, or exceflive 
 heat ; where there is fuch a fcaicity of fpirits, that the folids do 
 not vibrate fufficiently to keep the fluids in their due velocity. 
 — In thefe cafes the pulfe is low, and the flefti cooler than na- 
 tural at firft. 
 Putrid ulcer. See the article Ulcer. 
 
 PUTTY fometimes denotes powder of calcined tin, ufed in po- 
 lifting, and giving the laft glofs to works of iron and fteel. 
 
 Putty is alfo ufed to denote fpodium. See Spodium. 
 
 Putty, in its popular fenfe, denotes a kind of parte compound- 
 ed of whiting and Hnfeed-oil beaten together to the coniiftence 
 of a tough dough :— ufed by gUfiers for fattening the fquares of 
 glafs in fafh windows, fcfY. and by painters, to ftop up the 
 crevices and clefts in timber and wainfcot, to prevent the wet 
 from getting in, and ruining the work. 
 
 PUTURA *, a cuftom claimed by the keepers of forefts, and 
 fometimes by bailiffs of hundreds,' to take man's meat, horfe's 
 meat, and dog's meat, of the tenants and inhabitants, gratis, 
 within the perambulation of the fureft, hundred, ts\-. 
 
 P YR 
 
 Johmwti elumat unam puturam in priarata de Penevofihax, qui 
 til quvdam cella ablatio: de Evejbam pro je ts> miniflns, cquti 
 & garcionibm fuis, per unum ditrn (S duas nudes, de triiiu ftfiti- 
 manis in ires JtflimaHas, viz. de 'vklualibus, ut & ifiuleaiis y 
 
 frtutenth, ad cojfas prioratui prardiai indebite. 1'lacit. apud 
 
 Pneiton. 17 Edv. 3. 
 
 This cuftom within the liberty of Knaresburg was long fince 
 turned into the payment of four pence, pro putura. 
 The land fubject to this fervice, is called terra futu'rata. The 
 learned Soinner has erred in his expofition of this word. 
 , A | NEPSIA ' in antiquity, a ttaft celebrated by the 
 
 Athenians in the month pyanepfion, which, according to the 
 generality of the critics, correfponded to our September. 
 Plutarch refers the inftitution of this feaft to Thefcus, who, at 
 his arrival from Crete, made a kind of facrifice to Apollo of all 
 the provifions remaining in his vefiel ; putting them all into a 
 kettle, boiling them together, and eating them with his fix 
 companion; ; which cuftom was afterwards continued. — The 
 fchohaft of Ariftophanes fays, this was done to acquit hinifelf of 
 a vow he made to Apollo in a tempeft. 
 
 • Baudelot writes the word puanepfia ; and takes it to be a 
 feaft inftituted in memory of Thefeus's return after killing the 
 Minotaur. 
 
 1 he Greeks vary as to the origin and bonification of the word 
 pyampfion, whence the feaft Ts denominated, — Harpocration 
 calls it ptcancpfta ; he adds, that others call it panopfta, becaufc 
 then the fruits all appear to the eye.— Hclych'ms writes Pyanep- 
 fia ; and derives it from bean, and s ^o, coquo ; becaufe 
 
 in this feaft the Athenians gathered their beans, and made a 
 kind of broth of them. 
 PYCNOSTYLE *, wwiwrrt**, in the ancient architecture, a 
 building where the columns ftand very clofe to one another ; 
 one diameter and a half of the column being only allowed for 
 the intercolumnation. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek vvxt&, clofe, d t nfe, and 
 rv7\&>, column. 
 
 The Pycnoflvle is the fmalleft of all the intercolumnatfons men- 
 tioned by Vitruvius. — Some make it the fame with fyfty/e ; 
 others dtffinguifh the latter, bv its allowing half a module more 
 in the Corinthian intercolumnation. 
 
 The Pycnoftyle, Mr. Evelyn obferves, chiefly belonged to the 
 compofite order, and was ufed before the moft magnificent 
 buildings ; as at prefent in the periftyle of St. Peter's at Rome, 
 confifting of near 300 columns, and fuch as yet remain of the 
 ancients among the late difcovered ruins of Palmyra. 
 PYCNOSTJCS *, incraffanu, or medicints of an aqueous na- 
 ture, which have the faculty of cooling and condenfing, or 
 thickening the humours. 
 
 * The word in its original Greek, wiaum 
 that has the power of thickening. 
 
 fignifies fomething 
 
 Purflain, the nenuphar or water-lily, folanum, csV. are ranked 
 
 among pyenstics. 
 
 PYGME, nvypr,, the length or extent between the elbow and 
 extremity of the hand, the fift being fhut ; called alfo a 
 cubit. 
 
 PY~GMY S , Pygmjeus, wuyftat©-, a dwarf, or perfon of ex- 
 ceeding fmall ftature, not exceeding a cubit in height. 
 
 • The word is formed of the Greek, -jrvypn, cubit. See Cubit 
 The appellation is given among the ancients to a fabulous na- 
 tion, faid to have inhabited Thrace, who generated and brought 
 forth young at five years of age, and were old at eight; famous 
 for the bloody war they waged with the cranes. 
 
 PYLING the ground for foundations. See Foundation and 
 
 Pa llification. 
 PYLORUS * in anatomy, the right and lower orifice of the 
 ftomach, whereby it difcharges itfelf into the inteftines. See 
 tab. anat. (Splanch.) fig. 2, lit. c, e. See alfo Stomach and 
 Intestines. 
 
 * The word is Greek, mhmm t where it primarily figaifies ja/dtar, 
 or door-keeper. 
 
 The Pylorus is fituate on the right fide of the ftomach, and 
 paffes by an oblique afcent to the duodenum, to prevent the 
 too precipitate paffage of the aliment out of the ftomach. 
 For this end it is Iikewife furnifhed with an extraordinary fe- 
 ries of fibres, to conftringe it more than any other part : 
 thefe running round it, ferve as a kind of fphinefher, which is 
 opened by the contrail ion of the ftomach, and the appulfe of 
 the chyle. 
 
 At the bottom of the Pylorus is a large cavity, which Willis 
 calls antrum pylori, he conceives its ufe to be, to keep the food 
 firft digefted, till the latter taken into the ftomach be digefted ; 
 though, if what Wharton obferves be true, viz. that there are 
 ladteals in the bottom of the ftomach, fuch a provifion fhould 
 fcem unneceffary. 
 PYONY water. See the article Water. 
 PYRAMID, *B(*fut, in geometry, a folid ftanding on a fquare, 
 tiiangular, or polygonal bafis, and terminating, at top, in a 
 point ; or a body whofe ttafe is a regular rectilinear fi^uie, and 
 whofe fides are plain triangles; their feveral vertices meeting 
 together in one point. 
 
 Euclid defines it a folid figure, confifting of feveral triangles, 
 
 whofe 
 
P Y R 
 
 whofe bafts are all in the fame plane, and have one common 
 vertex. . , . t-,,-. 
 
 Wolfius defines it a folid, bounded by as many triangles, A U 
 D C B, and A D B, terminating in one point D ; as the bale 
 A B C has fides. Tab. gurnet, fig. 78. 
 
 The Pyramid is faid to be triangular, quadrangular, qmnquan- 
 "ular, &c. according as the bafe is triangular, quadrangular, Eye. 
 —The Pyramid may be called a fquare, triangular, SV. cone ; 
 or the cone, a round Pyramid. 
 Properties of tin Pyramid.— 1. All Pyramids and cones Hand- 
 ing on the fame bafe, and having the fame altitude, are demon- 
 ftrated to be equal. 
 
 2. A triangular Pyramid is the third part of a prifm, Handing 
 on the fame bafe, and of the fame altitude. 
 o Hence, fince every multangular may be divided into tnan- 
 gulars ; every Pyramid is the third part of a prifm, Handing on 
 the fame bafis, and of the fame altitude. 
 
 A If a Pyramid be cut by a plane, a b c, parallel to its bate 
 A BC ; the former plane or bafe will be fimilar to the latter, 
 e All Pyramids, prifms, cylinders, (Sc. are in a ratio com. 
 pounded of their bafts and altitudes : the bafes, therefore, being 
 equal, they are in proportion. to their alutudes ; and the alti- 
 tudes being equal, they are in proportion to their bafts. 
 
 6. Pyramids, prifms, cylinders, cones, and other fimilar bodies, 
 are in a triplicate ratio of their homologous fides. 
 
 7. Equal Pyramids, &c. reciprocate their bafes and altitudes, 
 i.e. the altitude of the one is to that of the other, as the bafe 
 of the one to that of the other, Ore. 
 
 8 A fphere is equal to a Pyramid, whofe bafe is equal to the 
 furface and i:s height to the radius of the fphere. 
 To meafu're the furface and filidity of a Pyramid.— Find the fo- 
 lidity of a prifm, that has the fame bafe with the given Pyra- 
 m ;,/_And divide this by three ; the quotient will be the foli- 
 dity of the Pyramid.. 
 
 Suppofe, v. g r. the folidity of the prifm be found 67010328, 
 the folidity of the Pyramid will be thus found 22336770. 
 The furface of a Pyramid is had, by finding the areas both of 
 the bafe ABC, and of the lateral tiiangles A C D, C B D, 
 BDA. See Triangle. The fum of thefe is the area of 
 the Pyramid. ' 
 The external furface of a right Pyramid, Handing on a regular 
 polygonal bafe, is equal to the altitude of one of the triangles 
 which compute it, multiplied by the whole circumference of 
 the bafe of the Pyramid. 
 To defcribe a Pyramid on a plane. — r. Draw the baft, v.gr. 
 the triangle ABC (if the Pyramid required be triangular) ; fo 
 as that the fide A B, fuppoftd to be turned behind, be not ex- 
 preffed. 2. On A C and C B, conftrua the triangles ADC 
 and CDB, meeting in any afliimed or determined point, v.gr 
 D; and draw AD, CD, BD : then will ADBCbeatri 
 angular Pyramid. 
 To cmJlruB a Pyramid of pa/I- hard, &c— Suppofe, v.gr. : 
 triangular Pyramid required. 1. With the radius A B, defcribe 
 an arch BE, [fig. 79.) and thereto apply three equal chords. 
 BC, CD, and D E. 2. On CD conftrua an equilateral 
 triangle DFC ; and draw the right lines A D and AC. This 
 paft- board, i$c. being cut off by the contour of the figure, 
 what remains within will turn up into a Pyramid. 
 Truncated Pyramid. See the article Truncated. 
 Fruflrum of a Pyramid. See the article Frustum. 
 Pyramid *, in architeaure, denotes a folid maffive edifice, which 
 from a fquare, triangular, or other bafe, rifts di minmVlin g to a 
 point or vortex. 
 
 * Some derive the word from tti^os, •wheat, and af*«w, ealhge , 
 pretending, that the firft Pyramids were built by the patriarch 
 
 Jol'cph tor granaries. But Villalpandus, with much betier 
 
 reafon, derives the word frum vve, fire ; becauie of their end- 
 ing in a point like flame. 
 When they are very narrow at bottom, i. e. their bafe very 
 fmall, they are called abelifks, and needles. 
 
 Pyramids are fometimes erected to preferve the memory of fin- 
 gular events, and fometimes to tranfmit to pofterity the glory 
 and magnificence of princes ; but as they are the fymbol of 
 immortality, they are more commonly ufcd as funeral monu- 
 ments. 
 
 Such is that of Ceftius at Rome ; and thofe other celebrated 
 ones of Egypt, as famous for the hugenefs of their fize, as their 
 
 P Y R 
 
 felves are extracted from arithmetical progreffions. See Poly- 
 gonal number, &c. 
 
 Thefe are particularly called firft Pyramidals. — The ftims of 
 firft Pyramidals are called fecond Pyramidals. — And the funis 
 of thofe third Pyramidals, and fo on ad infinitum. 
 Particularly, thofe arifing from triangular numbers are called 
 prime triangular Pyramidals ; thofe arifing from pentagonal 
 numbers are called prime pentagonal Pyramidals, &c. 
 From the manner of fumming up pentagonal numbers it ap- 
 pears evidently, how the prime Pyramidal numbers are found j 
 
 (a— 2) n 3 -f~ p* — (a— sJff, 
 m ' 2- — ■ ■ 1 expreffes all the prime 
 
 antiquity. 
 
 Thefe laft are all fquare in their bafes ; and it is a thing that 
 has been frequently propofed, to eftablifh a fixed meafure from 
 them, to' be thereby tranfmitted to poiterity.— See their de. 
 fcriptions, meafures, &c. in Thevenot, Pietro deila Valle, 
 
 Graves, tfff. 
 
 Among the Egyptians, the Pyramid is faid to have been a 
 fymbol of human life ; the beginning whereof is _ repre- 
 fented by the bafe, and the end by the apex : on which ac- 
 count it was, that they ufed to ereft thein on fepulchrcs. 
 Herodotus. 
 
 Scenvgrapfy of a Pyramid. See the article Scenography 
 Optic Pyramid. See the article Optic Pyramid. 
 PYRAMIDAL fountain. See the article Fountain. 
 Pyramidal mirrors. Seethe article Mirrour. 
 Pyramidal numbers are the fums of polygonal numbers, col- 
 lected after the fame manner as the palygonjl numbers them- 
 
 Pyramidals. 
 
 PYRAMIDALE corpus, In anatomy, a plexus of blood-vef- 
 fels on the back of the tefficles, thus called from its form: 
 and from its ftrudture alfo called corpus var'tcofum and pam- 
 piniforme. 
 
 It confifts of innumerable little veins, communicating with 
 each other, and forming a kind of net-work ; which, at length 
 uniting, terminate in one vein, by which the blood is convey- 
 ed into them all. 
 
 The origin of this plexus is from the fpermatic veins, which, a 
 little above the tefticles, fplit into feveral branches ; which again 
 uniting feveral times form the corpus Pyramidale. 
 PYRAMIDALES papilla. See the article Papilla Pyraini- 
 dales. 
 
 PYRAMIDALIS, in anatomy, denotes a fmall mufcle of the 
 abdomen, lying in the lower part of the rectus. — It has its 
 name from its figure, and its origin from the margin of the os 
 pubis, with a pretty broad flclhy head, whence it grows gra- 
 dually narrower, till it end in a fmall round tendon in the linea 
 alba ; fometimes almoft at the navel. --See- tab. anat. (Myol.) 
 fig. I. n. 46. fig. 2. n. 31. y > . 
 This mufcle is fometimes fingjc, fometimes it has its fellow, 
 and in fome fubjects they are both wanting. 
 PYRAMIDOID, called alfo parabolic fpindle, a folid figure 
 formed by the revolution of a femi-parabola round one of its 
 ordinates. 
 
 According to the method of indivifibles, this may be conceived 
 to confift of an infinite feries of circles, whofe diameters are 
 all parallel to the axis of the revolving parabola. 
 The parabolic fpindle is equal to -^5, of its circumfcribing cy- 
 linder. 
 
 PYRATE. See the article Pirate. 
 
 PYRENOIDES *, procejfus, in anatomy, a procefs of the fe- 
 cond vertebra of the neck ; called alfo odentoides and denti- 
 formis, or the tooth-like procefs. 
 
 * The word is Greek, irvpvtwuSw;, formed of TOi^m*, nucleus, kernel 
 or berry, and no®-, figure. 
 PYRETHRUM, pellitory of Spain, an acrid medicinal root, 
 brought from Tunis and Italy ; of an hot, difcutient quality : 
 ufed as an alexipharmic and phlegmagogue ; as alfo to af- 
 fuage the tooth-ach, and fometimes in the compofitiun of 
 vinegar. 
 
 It is of a moderate length, of the thicknefs of (he little finger, 
 greyifh without, whitilh within, and of a fharp burning tafte. 
 It is pretended it took its name from Pyrrhus king of Epirus ; 
 but there is no great occafion for having recourfe to fuch a 
 myftery, its burning quality being fufficient to give it the 
 name Pyrethrum, from the Greek, fire. — It muft be 
 
 chofen new, dry, found, and hard to break, &c. 
 It is called a falivary root, becaufe, being held in the mouth, 
 its pungency promotes the evacuation of faliva. 
 PYRETICS*, medicines good againft fevers. 
 
 The word is formed from the Greek 7n.' s -fT©', fever, of trv^, 
 fir,. 
 
 PYRIFORMIS, in anatomy, a mufcle of the thigh, receiving 
 its name from its figure, which refembles that ol a pear,' — It is 
 alfo called iliacus externus, from its fituation, — See tab. anat. 
 (Myol.) fig. 7. n. 2i, 22. 
 
 lis beginning is round and flefhy, from the inferior and internal 
 part of the us facrum, where it refpedts the pelvis of the abdo- 
 men ; and defcending obliquely along the great finus of the os 
 ilium, above the acute procefs of the ischium, and joining with 
 the gluteus medius, is inferted by a round tendon into the fiipe- 
 rior part of the root of the great trochanter. — This moves the 
 os femoris fomewhat upwards, and turns it outwards. 
 PYRITES*, in pbyfu.lugy, a fulphurous inflammable kind of 
 flone or mineral, compofed of an acid fait, incorporated with 
 an oily or bituminous matter. 
 
 * The word is Greek, 7ri/gtT>K, q. d. firefione, formed of irvf>, fire ; 
 a denomination given it on account of it's inflammability, which 
 is fuch, that by collifion with fleel it will yield ("parks of fire. 
 Pyrites bears a near affinity to marcafite, with which the gene- 
 rality of authors confound it. — Dr. Woodward makes this 
 diftintEtion between the two, thzX. Pyrites is reftrained to the 
 nodules, or thofe pieces found lodged in ITrata of another kind ; 
 and marcafite to thofe compofing whole ftrata. — Add, that the 
 marcafite frequently contains arfenic, which the Pyrites does 
 rarely, if ever. 
 
 Pyrites has always a metalline part in it, and fometimes a cre- 
 taceous or ochreous part. — In proportion as either of thefe pre- 
 vails, the budy yields fulphur, alum, or vitriol. 
 
 The 
 
P Y R 
 
 The metal in Pyrites is moil frequently Iron; fometimes there 
 is copper in it, and fometimes a little gold or filver, but never 
 lead or tin. 
 
 Dr. Slare tells us of a heap of Pyrites confifting of two or 
 three hundred tons, which being covered up from the air live 
 or fix months, took, fire, and burnt for a week. Some of it 
 looked like melted metal, others like red-hot ftones. He adds, 
 that it emitted a njoft noifome fmoke. 
 
 Dr. Lifter attributes thunder, earthquakes, c3">. to the fulphu- 
 rotis and inflammable breath of the Pyrites. See Supplement, 
 article Pyriets. 
 
 Pyrites is applied by fome authors to the marcafitic ores of 
 all metals ; the names whereof are varied according to the 
 metals they partake of. 
 
 Thus chryjstis is that of gold ; argyritis that of fiiver; Jideritis 
 that of iron ; chakitis that of copper; and molybditis that of 
 lead, £s7. 
 
 PYROBOLOGY. See the article Pyrotechnia. 
 
 PYROENUS *, is a term fometimes ufed for rectified fpirit of 
 wine ; thus called becaufe made by fire, or rather becaufe ren- 
 dered of a fiery nature. 
 
 * The word is of Greek compofition, formed of tfvp, Jire, and 
 oi^-, ujine. 
 
 PYROET, Pyrouet, or rather Pirouette, in the manage. 
 
 See Pirouette. 
 PYROMANCY, *0gipsfti«, a kind of divination, performed 
 
 by means of fire. See Divination. 
 
 The ancients imagined they could foretel futurity by itifpect- 
 jng hie and flame : to this end they confidered its direction, 
 or which way it turned. Sometimes they added other matters 
 to the fire, e. gr. a vefiel full of urine, with its neck bound 
 about with wool, watching narrowly on which lide it would 
 hurit, and thence taking their augury. 
 
 Sometimes they threw pitch on it, and if it took fire imme- 
 diately, they efteerned it a good augury. 
 PYROTECHNY *, ■nvfaxna., the art of fire, or a fcience which 
 leaches the management and application of fire in feveral ope- 
 rations. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, wvp, fire, and tf^i, 
 art. 
 
 Pyroteehny is of two kinds, military and chymical. . 
 MiUtary Pyrotechny is the doctrine of artificial fire-works, 
 and fire-arms, teaching the ftructure and ufe both of thofe 
 ufed in war for the attacking of fortifications, iSc. as gun- 
 powder, cannons, bombs, granadoes, carcaifes, mines, fufees, 1 
 ijfe. and of thofe made for aJmuiement-fake, as rockets, liars, 
 ferpents, &e. 
 
 Some call Pyrotechny by the name artillery ; though that word is 
 iifually confined to' the inftruments ufed in war. — Others 
 chufe to call it Pyrobology, or rather Pyroballogy, q. d. the art of 
 miffile fires, from the Greek *™p, fire, and !3z?Auy, to call, or 
 throw. 
 
 Wolfius has reduced Pyrotechnia into a kind of mixt mathema- 
 tical art: indeed it will not allow of geometrical demonftra- 
 tions ; but he brings it to tolerable rules and reafons : whereas 
 before it had ufed to be treated by authors at random, and 
 without regard to any reafons at all. 
 
 Seethe elements of military Pyrotechny under the feveral inftru- 
 ments and operations; Cannon, Bomb, Rocket, Gun- 
 powder, (jfc. 
 
 Chymical Pyrotechnia, is the art of managing and applying 
 tire in diftillations, calcinations, and other operations of chy 
 mil try. 
 
 Some reckon a third kind of Pyrotechnia, -jtz. the art of fufing, 
 
 refining, and preparing metals. 
 PYROTECHNICAL fpunge. Seethe article Spunge. 
 PYROTICS *, TO^amKfc, in medicine, cauftics, or remedies either 
 
 actually or potentially hot ; and which, accordingly, will 
 
 burn the rleih, and raife an efchar. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek wu,>, fire. 
 PYROUET. See the article Pirouette. 
 PYRRHICHA, /Il'^^m, in antiquity, a kind of exercife on 
 
 horfeback ; or a feigned combat, for the exercife of" the cavalry. 
 It was thus called from its inventor Pyrrhichus, orPyrrhus in 
 Cydonia, who rirft taught the Cretans to march in meafure 
 and cadence to battle, and to obferve the pace of the Pyrrhic 
 foot. — Others derive the name from Pyrrhus fon of Achilles, 
 who inftituted this exercife at the oblequics of his father. Ari- 
 ftotlefays, that it was Achilles himfelf who invented it. 
 The Romans alio called it Indus Trojanus, the Trojan game ; 
 and Aulus Geilius. decurfus. — It is doubtlefs this exercife that 
 we fee repreiented on medals by two cavaliers in front running 
 with lances, and the word deeu.rjio, in the exergum. 
 
 PYRRICHIUS, Try^.^©-, in the Greek and Latin poetry, a 
 foot confifting of two fyllablcs, both Jhort ; — as deus. 
 Among the ancients this foot is alio called periambus ; by others 
 hegemona. Quintil. 1. 9. c. 4. Plot, demetr. p. 2665. 
 
 PYRRHONIANS, P yrrhoneans, or Pyrrhoni'sts, a] 
 feci: of ancient philofophers, fo called from their founder 
 Pyrrho. 
 
 The did ingui filing character of this philofopher was, that he 
 V« l. II. 
 
 P Y T 
 
 preferred to doubt of every thing, maintaining, that men oniy 
 judge of truth and fallhood from appearances which deceive. 
 On this principle he kept himfelf in continual fufpenuon of 
 mind, never determining on any thing ; to avoid the incon- 
 veniencies of error, and falfc judgments 
 
 Thofe now diftinguifhed by the name of Pyrrhonians, or 
 Sceptics, are perfons who, from the great number of things tha: 
 are dark and obfeure, and from the averfibn they bear to po- 
 pular credulity, maintain, that there is nothing certain in the 
 world. 
 
 The truth is, Pyrrhonifm has fome foundation in nature : we 
 do not judge of things from their real effences, but from their 
 relations to ourfelves. Mod: of our ideas we leceive by means 
 ofourfenfes ; but our fenfes are not given us to judge of the 
 eflences, but of the relations of things to ourfelves ; 7. e. how 
 they may affect lis fo as to do lis good or harm. 
 Tlius, e. gr, out eyes do not give us the real magnitudes of 
 objects, but their relative ones only. 
 
 The Academics differed from the Pyrrhsnians, in that they 
 owned there were fome things more like or more near akin 
 to truth than others, which the Pyrrhonians peremptorily de- 
 nied. See Academics. 
 
 Le Clerc obferves, that the Pyrrhonians, in affirming that 
 there is nothing certain, were the moft affirming and decifive 
 of all philofophers ; fine e they mud have rirft examined all 
 things, to be able to determine precifely, that all things are 
 uncertain. 
 
 It may he added, that the very principle ot the Pyrrhonians 
 deftroys itfelf: for if there be nothing certain, then mull that 
 dogma itfelf be precarious ; and if no one thing be more 
 probable, or liker to truth than another, why (hall the prin- 
 ciple of the Pyrrhcnians be believed preferably to the oppofite 
 one ? fince itfelf is cbme at in the fame way as our other 
 knowledge. 
 
 PYTHAGORAS' j table. See the article Table. 
 
 PYTHAGOREAN, or Pythagoric fyjhm, among the an- 
 cients, was the fame with the Copcrnican fyftem among the 
 moderns. See System. 
 
 It was tlius called, as having been maintained and cultivated by 
 Pythagoras and his followers; not that it was invented by 
 him, for it was much older. 
 
 PYTHAGOREANS, a feet of ancient philofophers, who ad- 
 hered to the doctrines of Pythagoras. 
 
 Pythagoras, the founder of this feet was of Samos, the fon 
 of a lapidary, and a pupil of Pherecydes, who iiouiilhed a- 
 bout the feventh olympiad, ;'. e. about 500 years befo; e Chrift. 
 This feet was alio called the Italic fe£t, or Italic jcoool, becaufe 
 Pythagoras, after travelling into Egypt, Chaldea, and even 
 into the Indies, to inform his undcriunding, returning home 
 to his own country, and there unable to bear the tyranny of 
 Polycrates, or Sylofon, retired into the eatrern part of Italy, 
 then called the Greater Greece, and there taught and formed 
 his feet. 
 
 He is held to have excelled in every part of fcience : La- 
 ertius fays, among the Chaldces and Hebrews he learnt divi- 
 nation, and the interpreting of di earns ; and that in Egypt he 
 learnt all the myfteries of the priefts, and the whole fyfteni 
 of fymbohcal knowledge, with ail their theology. — Porphyry 
 adds, that he learnt the mathematical fciences in his travels ■ 
 geometry from the Egyptians, the doctrine of numbers and 
 proportions from the Phoenicians, and aftronomy from the 
 Chaldeans : morality and theology he learnt chiefly from the 
 magi. 
 
 He was the firft who affumed the modeft title phihfopehr- 
 the.fages till his time having born the arrogant appellation 
 
 <rofei. 
 
 Jamblichus obferves, that in Phcenicia he Converted with the 
 prophets and philofophers, the fuccelfors of Mochus the phy- 
 fiologift ; which Mochus Seldenand fome others will have to 
 be Moles. 
 
 His fchool in Italy was at Crotona, where he is faid to have 
 been attended by no lefs than 600 fcholars.— His houfe was 
 called the temple of Ceres, and the ftreet where it flood, the 
 mufsurn. 
 
 Out of this fchool proceeded the greateft philofophers and 
 legfflators, Zaleucus, Charondas, Archytas, • — Porphyry fays, 
 as foon as he arrived in Italy, he had an auditory of two thou- 
 fand people, to whom he explained the laws of nature, rea- 
 fon and juftice. 
 
 He endeavoured to affuage the paffions of the mind with 
 verfes and numbers ; and made a practice of compofing his 
 mind every morning by his harp, frequently fin<rin'* the 
 pagans of Thales. — Exercifes of the body alfo made a confi- 
 derable part of his difcipline. 
 
 His fchool became fo popular, thatwholecitiesandpeoplecom- 
 
 mitted their republics to the government of his fcholars. At 
 
 length, Porphyry adds, envy ftirring up fedidon againft them, 
 they were opprelfed ; and, in time, their learning, which they 
 ever kept fecret, was loft; except fome difficult thincs iearnt 
 by rote by the crowd of hearers : for Pythagoras never com- 
 mitted any thing to writing. 
 
 io B Befide 
 
P Y T 
 
 Bende his publick fchool, Pythagoras had a college in his own 
 houfe which he called «™°i3..>, cambium : in this were two 
 orders or dalles of fcholars, •{•Tip*", exoterici, called alio 
 mfculLmca ; and w*Mp««, mtrmfecl— The former were 
 novices and probationers, who were kept under a long examen, 
 arid had even impofed a quinquennial iilence, to teach them 
 modelly and attention, according to Apuleius ; or, according 
 to Clemens Alexandrinus, to teach them to abftracl then 
 minds from fenfible objects, and enure them to the pure con- 
 templation of the deity. 
 
 The latter were called gamini, perfefr, mqttaMtta, and Fy- 
 tbagoream by way of eminence. Thefe alone were let into the 
 arcana and depths of the real Pythagorie difciplinc. 
 Clemens obferves, that thefe orders correfponded very exaflly 
 to thofc among the Hebrews : for in the fthools of the prophets 
 there weie two clades, viz. the fons of the prophets, who were 
 the fcholars ; and the doctors or mailers, who were alio cal- 
 led terfetH : and among the levites, the novices or tyro's, who 
 had their quinquennial exercifes, by way of preparation. Laft- 
 ly, even among the profelyt.es there were two orders ; attend, 
 or'profclytes of the gate j and intrinfeci or per/eSi, profelytes 
 of the covenant. He adds, it is highly probable, that Py- 
 thagoras himfelf had been a profelyte of the gate, if not of 
 the covenant. . 
 Gale endeavours to prove, that Pythagoras borrowed his phi- 
 lofophy from that of the Jews ; to this end producing the 
 authorities of many of the fathers and ancient authors, and 
 even pointing out the trails and footfteps of Mofes in feveral 
 parts of Pythagoras's doctrine. 
 
 Pythagoras taught, that God is one ; that he is a mod Ample, 
 incorruptible, and invifible being ; and therefore only to be 
 worlhipped with a pure mind, with the fimpleft rites, and 
 thole prefcribed by himfelf.— Laertius obferves, that he made 
 unity the principle of all things ; hence arofe duality, lie 
 In his convention with the Egyptians, he learnt abundance 
 of fecrets about numbers ; to which he attributed fo much, 
 that he even attempted to explain all things in nature _ by 
 numbers. .— Ineffecl, it was a common opinion of the ancient 
 philofophers, that the fpecies of things have to each other the 
 nature and relation of numbers ; and that the univerfe, and all 
 things therein, were produced according to certain numbers, 
 inherent in the creator's mind. 
 
 Hence Porphyry obferves, the Pythagsream ftudied the doctrine 
 of numbers with great attention : lince the incorporeal forms, 
 and firft principles of things, i. c. the divine ideas, could not 
 be delivered in words, they had recourle to demonftration by 
 numbers ; and thus called the common reafon and caufe of 
 unity, identity, and equality, by the name one. 
 Pythagoras further taught, that there is a relation or kinfllip 
 between the gods and man, and therefore that the gods take 
 care of man. — Which, Clemens Alexandrinus fays, is appa- 
 rently borrowed from the dodrine of providence. 
 Pythagoras alio afferted a metempfycholis, or tranfmigration 
 
 PYX 
 
 of luuls ; and .therefore the immortality of the fauh 
 He alio taught, that virtue is haimony, health, and every 
 good tiling j and that God, and the:efo:e all things conlift of 
 harmony. 
 
 PYTHAGORIC theorem, or propafition, is the 47th of the firft 
 book of Euclid. See Tria:;gle and Hypo thenuse. 
 
 Pvthagoric letraftys. See the article Tetractys. 
 
 Pythaooric abacus. See the article Abacus. 
 
 PYTHIA, or Pythian, in antiquity, the* prieftefs of' Apollo, 
 by whom he delivered oracles. 
 
 She was thus called from the god himfelf, who was intitled 
 rfpollo Pythias, from his flaying the ferpent Python ; or, as 
 others will have it, amo ru wSirSxi, becaufe Apollo, the fun, 
 is the caufe of rottennefs ; or, according to others, from 
 ■KufBa.it,[iLa. ti I bear, becaufe people went to hear and confulc 
 his oracles- 
 
 This prieftefs was to be a pure virgin. — She fat on the coverclc, 
 or lid, of a brazen veflel, mounted on a tripod ; and thence, 
 after a violent enthufiafm, delivered her oracles, or rather 
 explained thofe of the god ; i, e. fhe rehearfed a few ambi- 
 guous and obfeure veifes, which were taken for oracles. 
 All the Pythics did not feem to have had the fame talent at 
 poetry, or to have memory enough to retain their lellbn. — ! 
 Plutarch and Strabo make mention of poets, who weie kept 
 in pay, as interpreters of Jupiter, drV. 
 Pythia, or Pythian games, were folemn games inftitutcd in 
 honour of Apollo, and in memory of his killing the ferpent 
 Python witli his arrows. 
 
 The Pythia w ere celebrated in Macedonia, in a place called 
 Pythium. — They were the next in fame after the Olympic 
 games, but were more ancient than they ; for it is pretended 
 they were inftitutcd immediately after the defeat of the fer- 
 pent. — They were held every two years, about the month 
 Elaphebolion, which anfwered to our February. 
 The Pythia were alfo celebrated at Delphos ; and it was thefe 
 that were the raoft renowned. — A part of Pindar's poems 
 were compoied in praife of the victors in the Pythian games. 
 The critics are divided on the fubject of the ferpent Python. 
 ■ — The poets fay, that Juno made ufe of it to perfeeute Latona, 
 and prevent her bringing into the world Apollo and Diana, 
 whom file had conceived of Jupiter ; and that it was for this 
 reafon that Apollo afterwards killed it. 
 
 Strabo fays, it was no other than a famous villain, one Draco, 
 that Apollo ridded the world of. — Dickinfon, in his Delphi 
 Phcenicizantes, maintains the Python of the Greeks to be the 
 Typhon of the Phoenicians ; and theTyphon of the Phoeni- 
 cians to be the Og of fcripture ; and Apollo, who flew it, he 
 will have to be Jofhua. 
 PYXIS * fiautica, in navigation, the feaman's compafs. See 
 Compass. 
 
 * The word is Greek, <wfys, where it literally fignifies a box. 
 Pyxis, among anatomifts, is alfo ufed for the cavity of the hip- 
 bone. Sec Acetabulum, 
 
Q. 
 
 QUA 
 
 QUA 
 
 QA (ronfonant, and the fixtcenth letter of 'the alpha- 
 bet. 
 ^ The ^has this peculiar to It, that it is always fol- 
 lowed by an U. 
 
 *The is formed from the Hebrew p; Koph ; which moft 
 other languages have borrowed ; though fome of them have re- 
 jected it again, particularly the Greeks, who now only retain 
 it as a numeral character, Called ktfrir* tln**w 
 In effect:, there is that refemblance between the the C, 
 
 in fome languages, and the K in others ; that many gramma- 
 rians, in imitation of the Greeks, banifh the Q ? as a fupcrfluous 
 letter. Papias even affirms, that all the Latin words now wrote 
 with a Q, were wrote among the ancient Romans with a C : 
 but we want better authorities for this, For though that may 
 hold in many cafes, infomuch that fome write indifferently 
 vuur or cur, cum or quttm, quotidie or cotidie, &c. Yet does 
 it not thence follow-, that they ever wrote cis, ca, cid, for quis, 
 qua, quid. — What infcriptions authorize fuch a reading ? 
 Far from this* the ancients fometimes fubftituted Q^for C ; 
 and wrGte quojus, quos, for cujus, cus, &c. 
 Varro, however, and fome other grammarians, as we are told 
 by Cenforinus, E£Y . would never ufe the j^. The truth is, 
 its ufe or difuie feems to have been fo little fettled and agreed 
 on, that the poets ufed the or C indifferently, as beft fuited 
 their meafures ; it being a rule, that the ^joined the two 
 following vowels into one fyllable; and that the C imported 
 them to be divided. 
 
 Hence it is, that Lucretius ufes cuiret for three fvllables, in 
 lieu of qiiiret : acua for aqua ; and that Plautus ufes rclicuum 
 for reliquum ; as in quod dedi datum non vellem rclicuum non , 
 where the cuum muff be two fyllables, otherwile the Trochaic 
 verfe will be lame of a foot. 
 
 In the French the found of the Q^ and K are fo near akin, 
 that fome of their niceft authors think the former might be 
 fpared— Ramus adds, that till the dftabliihmcnt of royal pro- 
 feffors in the univerfity of Paris under Francis I. they always 
 ufed Qjn the Latin the fame as in the French ; pronouncing 
 Us, kalis, kantus, Sec. for quis, qualis, quantus. See K. 
 Some very learned men make i^a double letter, as well as K 
 and X — According to them, Q^is evidently a C and 1/ joined 
 together — It is not enough that the found is the fame ; but 
 they fee the traces of the C U in the figure of the Q ; the V 
 being only laid obliquely, lb as to come within the cavity of 
 the C; asC?<. 
 
 To confirm this, they fay the ancients wrote qi, q*e, qid. 
 Though Jof. Scaliger, Littleton, &c. think this no proof of 
 the point ; for in Gruter's infcriptions we find not only the 
 Qj but alfo the C, put for QU; as Cintus, Quintus, ficis 
 for fiquis, he. Yet no body ever imagined the C a double 
 letter. See Double Letter. 
 Q_among the ancients, was a numeral letter, fignifying 500 ; 
 as in the vevfe, 
 
 • Qjvelut A cum D quingentos vult numcrare. 
 A dafh over it, as j^, denoted it to fignify five hundred thou- 
 fand. 
 
 QJs alfo ufed as an abbreviature in feveral arts — J^. PI. in phy- 
 
 ikians bills, ftands for quantum placet, or quantum vis, as 
 
 much as you plcafe of a thing. 
 Q. S. for quantum fufficit, or as much as is neceffary. 
 
 E. D. among mathematicians, fignifies quod crat demon- 
 Jlrandum, which was to be demonftrated. 
 E. F. quod er at faciendum, which was to be done. 
 Q. D, is alfo frequently ufed among grammarians, &c. for 
 
 quafi dittum, as if it were faid, tfc. or as who Ihould fay. 
 Q_U A C K, in medicine. See Empiric. 
 Q_U A D R A, in building, any fquare border, or frame, incom- 
 
 paffing a baffo-rclievo, pannel, painters or other work. 
 
 The word is aCTo ufed abufively for a frame or border of any 
 
 other form ; as round, oval, or the like. 
 QUADRAGESIMA, a term fometimes ufed for the time 
 
 of lent; becaufc confuting of forty days. See Lent. 
 
 Hence, fome monks are faid to lead a Quadragefimal life ; 
 
 to live on Quadragefimal food all the year. 
 Quadragesima funday, is the firfl funday in lent ; fo called 
 
 becaufc it is about the fortieth day before eafter. See E ASTER, 
 
 On the fame account, the three preceding fundays are called 
 
 Quinquagefima, Scxagefima, and Septuagefima. See Qu 
 
 chjagesima, tffc. 
 QU ADRAGESIMALS, Quadragesim alia, denote 
 
 Mid-lent contributions, or offerings. 
 
 It was an ancient cuftom for people to vifit their mother 
 church on Mid-lent funday, and to make their offerings at 
 the high altar : and the like was alfo done in Whit fon- week 
 Vol U. 
 
 ■ — But as thefe litter oblations, Is'e. were fometimes co'irimtited 
 for by a payment of Pentecojlals, or IV hi tf on- far things : fo 
 were the former alfo changed into acuftomary payment, called 
 Quadragefimals, Denarii Qttadragefimahs, and fometimes 
 hectare Jerufalem, from a hymn fo called, lung on that day, 
 beginning, Jerufalem Mater omnium, &?<•« 
 QUADRANGLE, in geometry, a quadrangular, or qua- 
 drilateral figure ; or a figure which lias four fides, or four an- 
 gles. 
 
 To the clafs of Quadrangles, or Quadrangular figures, be- 
 long the Square, Parallelogram, Trapezium, Rhombus, and 
 Rhomboides. 
 
 A Square, tsV. is a regular Quadrangle — a Trapezium an ir- 
 regular one. 
 
 Quadrangular figures are not proper for fortification; the 
 flanks and flanked angles being too finalfc 
 QTJADRANS, in antiquity, the fourth part of the As or 
 Pound. 
 
 Quadrans, in our cuffoms, is the fourth part of a penny : 
 or, a farthing. 
 
 QUADRANT, Quadrans, in geometry, an arch of a 
 circle, containing 90 degrees, or one fourth of the entire pe- 
 riphery. 
 
 Sometimes, alfo, the fpacc or area included between this arch 
 and two radii, drawn from the centre to each extremity 
 thereof, is called a Quadrant, or more properly zQuadrantal 
 fpace ; as being a quarter of the entire circle^ 
 Quadrant, alfo denotes a mathematical inftrument, of 
 great ufe in navigation and aftronomy; for the taking of 
 altitudes, angles, C3V. 
 
 The Quadrant is varioufly contrived, and furnifhed with 
 various apparatus, according to the different ufes it is intended 
 for; but they have all this in common, that they confift of a 
 Quadrant, or quarter of a circle, whofe limb is divided into 
 90 degrees ; and that they have a plummet fufpended from the 
 centre, and are furnifhed with Pinnulas, or fights, through 
 whichtolook. See Sights, isfc. 
 
 The principal, moft ufual, and ufeful Quadrajits, are the 
 Common or Surveying Quadrant, the Agronomical Quadrant, 
 Herodiclkal Quadrant, Gunter's Quadrant, Sutton's or 
 Collins 's Quadrant, and the S'mical Quadrant. 
 The Common or Surveying Quadrant, (reprefented Tab. Sur- 
 veying, fig* 30.) is made of brafs, wood, or other matter ; 
 ufually 12 or 15 inches radius — Its circular limb is divided 
 into 90 0 , and each of thofe fubdivided into as many equal 
 parts as the fpace will allow ; either diagonally, or otherwife. 
 —On one edge, or femidiameter, are fixed two immoveable 
 fights : and in the angle, or centre, is hung a thread with a 
 plummet. To the centre is likewife t fometimesjfixed a label 
 or moveable index, bearing two other fights like the index of 
 a telefcope — And in lieu of the immoveable fights, there is 
 fometimes fitted a telefcope ; though this more peculiarly be- 
 longs to the aftronomical Quadrant. 
 
 On the under fide, or face of the inftrument, is fitted a ball 
 and focket ; by means whereof, it may be put in any por- 
 tion for ufe. 
 
 Bcfides the effentials of the Quadrant, there is frequently 
 added on the face near the centre, a kind of compartiment, 
 called the Quadrat, or Geometrical Square; as in the fi- 
 gure — This, in fome meafure, making a diftinct inftru- 
 ment of itfelf; fee its defcription and ufe under the article 
 Quadrat. 
 
 The Quadrant is to be ufed in different fituatlons, accord- 
 ing to the dimenfions to be taken — To oblerve heights and. 
 depths, its plane is difpofed at right angles to the horizon ; 
 but to take horizontal diftances, the plane is difpofed parallel 
 thereto. 
 
 Heights and diftances, again, may be taken two ways : viz. 
 by means of the fixed fights and plummet, and by the 
 label. 
 
 Ufe of the furveying Quadrant — To take the heigh, or 
 depth of an ohjeel, with the fixed fights and plummets— Place 
 the Quadrant vertically, and the eye under the fight next 
 the arch of the Quadrant : thus direct the inftrument to the 
 object, v. gr. the top of a tower, till the vifual rays thereof 
 ftrike through the fights upon the eye. 
 
 This done, the portion of the arch intercepted between 
 the thread and the femidiameter, whereon the fights are 
 fattened, fhews the complement of the object's height above 
 the horizon, or its diftance from the zenith; and the other 
 portion of the arch "intercepted between the thread and the 
 other femidiameter, fliews the height itfelf of the object above 
 the horizon. 
 
 jo A ■ - The 
 
 I 
 
QUA 
 
 QUA 
 
 The fame arch likewife gives the quantity of the angle made 
 by the vifual ray, and a horizontal line parallel to the bafe of 
 
 the tower. 
 
 Note, to obferve depths, the eye muft be placed over that 
 fight next the centre of the Quadrant. 
 
 From the height, or depth of the object, in degrees thus 
 found, which fuppofe 33 0 , 35', and the diftance of the foot 
 of the object from the place of obfervation carefully meafurcd, 
 which fuppofe 47 foot; its height or depth in feet, yards, &c. 
 is eafily determined by the molt common cafe in trigonome- 
 try. 
 
 For we have here, in a triangle, one fide given, viz. the 
 line meafured; and we have all the angles : tor that of the 
 tower is always fuppofed a right angle, the other two 
 therefore are equal to another right angle ; but the angle 
 obferved is 35 0 , 35'; therefore the other is 54 0 , 25'. 
 The cafe then will be reduced to this ; as the fine of 54 0 , 
 25', is to 47 feet; fo is the fine of 35°* 35', to a 4th term, 
 viz. 33-i feet: to which add the height of the obferver's eye, 
 fuppofed 5 foot, and the fum 38;- feet, is the height of the 
 tower required. 
 
 The further Ufe of the Quadrant in taking of altitudes of 
 objeSis, both acceffible and inacccffible ; fee under the article 
 Altitude. • 
 
 life of the Quadrant in taking heights and diflances by the 
 index and fights. — To take e. gr. a height, as that of a tower, 
 whofe bafe is acceflible — Place the plane of the inftrument at 
 right angles to the plane of the horizon, and one of its edges 
 parallel "thereto, by means of the plummet, which in that 
 cafe will hang down along the other — In this fituation turn 
 the index, till through the fight you fee the top of the tower ; 
 and the arch of the limb of the Quadrant between that 
 fide thereof parallel to the horizon, and the index will be 
 the height of the tower in degrees : whence, and from the 
 diftance meafured as before, its height in feet, C5V. may be 
 found by calculation, as in the former cafe; or without cal- 
 culation, by drawing, from the data, on paper, a triangle 
 fimilar to the great one, whofe bafe is the diftance, and 
 its perpendicular meafured on the feale, is the height of the 
 tower. 
 
 Ufe of the QUADRANT in meafuring horizontal dijlances. — 
 Though the Quadrant be a lefs proper inftrumcnt for this pur- 
 pofe than a theodolite, femicircle, or the like, by reafon 
 angles greater than Quadrants cannot be taken hereby ; yet 
 neceility fometimes obliges perfons to have recourfe to it. 
 The manner of its application herein is the fame with that 
 of the femi-circle ; all the difference between the two inftru- 
 ments confifting in this, that the one is an arch of 1 8o°, and 
 can therefore take an angle of any quantity ; and the other 
 is only an arch of go°, and is therefore confined to angles of 
 that quantity. See, therefore, Semi-Circle. 
 
 Ajh-onomical Quadrant, is a large Quadrant, ufually 
 made of brafs, fometimes of wooden bars, only faced with 
 plates of iron, or the like; having its limb curioufiy divi- 
 ded, diagonally or otherwife, into degrees and minutes, and 
 even feconds, if poflible ; with plain fights fixed to one fide 
 of it, or inftead thereof a telcfcope ; and an index mov- 
 ing about the centre, carrying either plain fights, or a tele- 
 fcope. 
 
 Thefe Quadrants are of principal ufe in taking obfervations of 
 the fun, planets, or fixed ftars. 
 
 The ancients ufed only plain fights ; but the moderns have 
 found it of great benefit to ufe telefcopes inftead of them. 
 Add, that the contrivance of moving the index, by the help 
 of a fcrew on the edge of the limb, and of readily and eafily 
 directing it, and the Quadrant upon its pedeftal, to any de- 
 fired phenomenon, by means of the fcrews and dented wheels, 
 is a ftill greater modern improvement of the inffrument. 
 The particulars of the mechanifm whereby this is effected, 
 would afford a very dry and intricate, as well as ufelefs 
 detail ; which we mall omit, as being fiirficiently known 
 among the inftrument-makers : and in lieu thereof, content 
 curfelves with giving a figure or reprefentation. See Tab. 
 Jfironomy, fig. 53. 
 
 The ufe of this inftrument is obvious— Being adjufted as 
 above, and turned horizontally round on its axis, till through 
 the moveable telcfcope the object be feen to fall in with the 
 point of interfection of the crofs bars ; the degrees cut by the 
 index give the altitude required. 
 Horodiftical Quadrant, is a pretty, commodious inftru- 
 ment, thus called from its ufe in telling the hour of the 
 day. 
 
 Its conftrudtion is fo fimple and eafy, and its application fo 
 ready, that we fhall defcribe both ; for the ufe of fome who 
 may want other conveniences. 
 
 Conjlruftion and ufe of the Horodiclical QUADRANT 
 
 From the centre of the Quadrant C, (Tab. AJlron. fig. 54.) 
 whofe limb A B is divided into 90 0 ; defcribe feven con- 
 centric circles at intervals at pleafure ; and to thefe add the 
 figns of the zodiac in the order they "".re reprefented in the 
 fcheuie. 2. Applying a ruler to the centre C, and the limb 
 
 A B, mark upon the feveral parallels the degrees correfjiond- 
 ing to the altitude of the fun when therein, for the given 
 hours ; connect the points belonging to the fame hour with 
 a curve line, to which add the number of the hour — To the 
 radius C A, fit a couple of fights, and to the centre of the 
 Quadrant C> tie a thread with a plummet, and upon the 
 thread a bead to flide. 
 
 If now the bead be brought to the parallel wherein the fun i«, 
 and the Qiiadrant be directed to the fun til! a vifual ray pais 
 through the fights, the bead will fhew thulium*. 
 For the plummet in this fituation cuts all the parallels in the 
 degrees correfponding to the fun's altitude : iince, then, the 
 bead is in the parallel which the fun then delcribes, and 
 through the degrees of altitude to which the fun is elevated 
 every hour there pafs hour-lines ; the bead mult fhew die 
 prefent hour — Some perfons who arc not very nice, repre- 
 fent the hour-lines by arches of circles, or even by ftraighr 
 lines ; and that without any fcnfible error. 
 Gunter's Quadrant, is a kind of Quadrant (reprefented 
 Tab. Jjlronomy, fig. 55.) invented by our countryman Ldm. 
 Guntcr. 
 
 This, befide the graduated limb, fixed fights, and a plum- 
 met, as in the other Quadrants, has, likewife, a ftercographi- 
 cal projection of the fphere on the plane of the equinoctial, 
 with the eye placed in one of the poles ; by which, befides the 
 common ufes of other Quadrants, feveral ufeful queftions La 
 aftronomy, &c. are eafily folved. 
 Ufe of Guntcr's Quadrant, i. To find the fun's meridian 
 altitude for any given day; or the day of the month for any 
 given meridian altitude. — Lay the thread to the day of the 
 month in the fcale next the limb ; and die degree it cuts in the 
 limb is the fun's meridian altitude. 
 
 Thus, the thread being laid on the 15th of May, cuts 59 0 , 
 30', the altitude fought — And contrarily, die thread being 
 fet to the meridian altitude, will fhew the day of the month. 
 
 2. To find the hour of the day — Having put the bead (which 
 Aides on the thread) to the fun's place in the ecliptic, ob- 
 ferve the fun's altitude by the Quadrant ; then, if the thread 
 be laid over the fame in the limb, the bead will fail upon the 
 hour required. 
 
 Thus, fuppofe on the 10th of April, the fun being then in 
 the beginning of Taurus, I obferve the fun's altitude by 
 the Quadrant, to be 36 0 ; I place the bead to the beginning 
 of Taurus in the ecliptic, and lay the dircad over 36* 
 of the limb ; and find the bead to fall upon the hour- 
 line mark'd 3 and 9 ; accordingly the hour is either 9 in the 
 morning, or three in the afternoon — Again, laying the bead 
 on the hour given (having firft rectified or put it to the fun's 
 place) the degree cut by the thread on die limb, gives the 
 altitude. 
 
 Note, the bead may be rectified otherwife, viz. by bringing 
 the thread to the day of the month, and the bead to the 
 hour-line of 12. 
 
 3. To find the fun's declination from his place given j and con- 
 trarywife — Set the bead to the fun's place in theecliptic; move 
 the thread to the line of declination E T, and the bead will 
 cut the degree of declination required — Contrarily, the bead 
 being adjufted to a given declination, and the thread moved 
 to the ecliptic, the bead will cut the fun's place. . 
 
 4. The funs place being given, to find his right afenfion ; or 
 contrarily — Lay the thread on the fun's place in the ecliptic, 
 and the degree it cuts on the limb is the right afcenfion 
 fought. — Contrarily, laying the thread on the right afcenfion, , 
 it cuts the fun's place in the ecliptic. 
 
 5. The fun's altitude being given, to find his azimuth; and 
 coutrarywife — Rectify the bead for the time (as in the fecond 
 article) and obferve the fun's altitude : bring the thread to the 
 complement of that altitude ; thus the head will give the azi- 
 muth fought, among the azimuth lines. 
 
 6. To find the hour of the night from j'ome of the five Jlars laid 
 down an the Quadrant — I. Put the head to the ftar you in- 
 tend to obferve, and find how many hours it is off the me- 
 ridian, (by article 2.) then from the right afcenfion of the 
 ftar, fubftract the fun's right afcenfion converted into hours ; 
 and mark the difference : which difference added to the ob- 
 ferved hour of the ftar from the meridian, fhews how many 
 hours the fun is gone from the meridian, which is the hour of 
 the night. 
 
 Suppofe, e. gr. on the 15th of May, the fun being in the 
 fourth degree of Gemini, I let the bead to Arcturus ; and 
 obferving his altitude, find him to be in the weft about 52° 
 high, and the bead to fall on the hour-line of two after noon : ' 
 then will the hour be 1 1 hours 50 minutes part noon, or IO 
 minutes fhort of midnight. 
 
 For 62 0 , the fun's right afcenfion converted into time, makes 
 4 hours 8 minutes, which fubftradted from 13 hours 58 mi- 
 nutes, the right afcenfion of Arcturus^ the remainder will 
 be 9 hours 50 minutes, which added to 2 hours, the ob- 
 ferved diftance of Arcturus from the meridian, ihews the hour 
 of the night to be 1 1 hours 50 minutes. 
 Sutton's Quadrant, fometimes, alfo, called Coll'ms's pocket 
 
 Quadrant 
 
QUA 
 
 QUA 
 
 Quadrant— One of the beft of Mr. Sutton's Quadrants, 
 (reprefented Tab. Ajlronomy, fig. 56) is the ftereograpluc pro- 
 jection of one quarter of the fphere between the tropics, 
 upon the plane of the equinoctial, the eye being in the north 
 pole. 
 
 This is fitted to the latitude of London — The lines running 
 from the right hand to the left are parallels of altitude, and 
 thole crofting them are azimuths : the lefs of the two circles 
 bounding the projectionist of the tropic of Capricorn, the 
 greater \ of that of Cancer — The two ecliptics are drawn 
 from a point on the left edge of the Quadrant, with the 
 characters of the figns upon them ; tind the two horizons 
 are drawn from the fame point — The limb is divided both 
 into degrees, and time ; and by having the fun's altitude, the 
 hour of the day may be here found to a minute. 
 The quadrantal arches next the centre contain the calendar of 
 months ; and under them, in another arch, is the fun's decli- 
 nation. 
 
 On the projection are placed feveral of the molt noted fixed 
 fears between the tropics, and next below the projection is 
 the Qitadrat, and line of fhadows. 
 Ufe of Sutton's or Co/tins' 's Qu adran T — To find the time 
 cf fun-rifmg or Jetting, his amplitude, azimuth, hour of the 
 day, &c. — Lay the thread over the day and the month, and 
 bring the bead to the proper ecliptic, either that of hammer 
 or winter, according to the feafon ; (which is called rectify- 
 ing) then, moving the thread, bring the bead to the horizon ; 
 in which cafe the thread will cut the limb in the time of the 
 fun's rifing or fetting, before, or after fix; and at the fame 
 time the bead will cut the horizon in the degrees of the fun's 
 amplitude. 
 
 Again, observing the fun's altitude with the Quadrant, and 
 fuppofing it found 45 0 on the 24th of April ; lay the thread 
 over the 24th of April ; bring the bead to the fummer eclip- 
 tic, and carry it to the parallel of altitude 45 0 . In which 
 cafe the thread will cut the limb at 55°, 15', antl the hour 
 ivill befeen among the hour-lines to be either 41 minutes part 
 nine in the morning, or 19 paft two in the afternoon. 
 Laftly, the bead among the azimuths fhews the fun's diftance 
 from the fouth, viz. 50 0 , 41'. 
 
 But note, that if the fun's altitude be lefs than what it is at 
 fix o'clock, the operation muftbe performed among thofe pa- 
 rallels above the upper horizon ■> the bead being redtified to the 
 winter ecliptic. » 
 Sinical Qu adsanTj is an inftrument of ufe in navigation 
 — It is reprefented Tab. Navigation, fig. 18. and confiits 
 of feveral concentric quadrantal arches, divided into eight 
 equal parts by radii with parallel right lines eroding each other 
 at right angles. 
 
 Now, any of the arches, e. gr. B C may be accounted a Qua- 
 drant of any of the great circles of the fphere, chiefly of the 
 horizon, and meridian ; if, then, B C be 'taken for a Qua- 
 drant, e. gr. of the horizon ; either of the fides:, e, gr. 
 A B, may reprefent the meridian ; and the other, A C will 
 reprefent a parallel, or line of eaft and weft ; and all the 
 other lines parallel to A B will allb be meridians ; and all 
 thofe parallel to A C, will be eaft and weft parallels, or eaft 
 and weft lines. 
 
 Again, the eight fpaces into which the arches are divided by 
 the radii, reprefent the eight points of the compafs in a quar- 
 ter of the horizon ; each containing n°, 15-. 
 The arch B C is likewife divided into 96°, and each decree 
 is fubdivided into 12' diagonal -wife. 
 
 To the center is fixed a thread, as AL; which being laid 
 over any degree of the Quadrant, ferves to divide the 
 horizon. 
 
 If the Strtical Quadrant be taken for a fourth part of the 
 meridian; one lide therefore, A B, maybe taken for the 
 common radius of the meridian and the equator; and 
 then the other, AC, will be half the axis of the world— 
 The degrees of the circumference B C will reprefent de- 
 grees of latitude, and the parallels to the fide A B, affumed 
 from every point of latitude to the axis A C, will be radii of 
 the parallels of latitude, as likewife the fine-complements of 
 thofe latitudes. * 
 
 Euppofe, then, it be required to find the degrees of lon- 
 gitude contained in 83 of the lefler leagues, in the parallel of 
 48 0 — Lay the thread 
 
 over 48° of latitude on the circum-l 
 ference, and count thence the 83 leagues, or A B, begin- 
 ning at A : this will terminate in H, allowing every fmall 
 interval, four leagues. Then tracing out the parallel H G, 
 from the point H to the thread; the part A G of the 
 thread fhews that 125 greater, or equinoctial leagues, make 
 6 , 15 ; and therefore that that 83 lefler leagues A H which 
 make the difference of longitude of the courfe, and are equal 
 to the radius of the parallel G I, make 6°, 15' of the 
 laid parallel. 
 
 If the (hip fail an oblique courfe, fuch courfe, befides the 
 north and fouth greater leagues, gives lefler leagues eafterly 
 andwefterly; to be reduced to degrees of longitude of the 
 equator— But thefe leagues being made neither on the parallel 
 
 of departure, nor on that of arrival, but in all the inter- 
 mediate ones ; we mutt find a mean proportional parallel be- 
 tween them. 
 
 To find this, we have on the inftrument a fait of crofs La- 
 titudes. Suppofe, then, it were required to find a mean 
 parallel between the parallels of 40° and 6o°. With your 
 compafles take the middle between the 40th and' 60th degree 
 on the fcale : this middle point will terminate againft the 51ft 
 degree, which is the mean parallel required. 
 Ufe of the SinisalQu adrant — This is to form triangles upon, 
 fimilar to thole made by a fhip's way, with the merfdians and 
 parallels ; the fides of which triangles are meafured by the 
 equal intervals between the concentric Qitadrauts, and the 
 lines N. and S. E. and W. 
 
 The lines and arches are diffinguifhed, every fifth, by a 
 broader line; fo that if each interval be taken for one 
 league, there will be five between one broad line and an- 
 other. 
 
 Now, fuppofe a fhip to have failed 150 leagues north-calf, 
 one fourth north; which is the third point, .'and makes an 
 angle of 33°, 45', with the north part of the meridian — 
 Here are given two things ; viz. the courfe, and the diftance 
 failed, by which a triangle may be formed on the inftrument, 
 fimilar to that made by the fhip's courfe, and her longitude 
 and latitude ; and hence may the unblown parts of the tri- 
 angle be found. 
 
 Thus, fuppofing the centre A to reprefent the place of depar- 
 ture; count, by means of the concentric arches, along the 
 point the fhip failed in, as A D, 150 leagues from A to D : 
 then is the point D the place the fhip is arrived at: which 
 note — This done, let D K be parallel to the fide ; and then 
 there will be formed a right angled triangle A E D, fimilar 
 to that of the fhip's courfe, difference of longitude, and lati- 
 tude : the fide A E gives 1 25 leagues for the difference of la- 
 titude northwards, which makes 6°, 15' : and the fide D E 
 gives 83 lefler leagues anfwering to the parallels ; which being 
 reduced^ as fhewn above, gives the difference of longitude — 
 And thus U the whole triangle found. 
 Quadrant, in Gunnery, called alfo the Gunner's Square* 
 is an inftrument fcrving to elevate or point cannons, mor- 
 tars, csV. according to the places they axe to be levelled or 
 directed toj 
 
 It confifts of two branches, made of brafs or wood ; one a- 
 bout a foot long, 8 lines broad, and- one line in thicknefs j 
 the other four inches long, and the fame thicknefs and "breadth 
 as the former — Between thefe branches is a Quadrant divi- 
 ded into 90 degrees, beginning from the fhorter branch; and 
 furnifhed with thread and plummet. See its figure reprefen- 
 ted Tab. Fortification, fig. 4. 
 
 The ufe of this inftrument is eafy ; nothing more being re- 
 quired but to place the longeft branch in the mouth of the 
 cannon or mortar, and elevate or lowcr'it, till the thread cuts 
 the degree neceflary to hit a propofed object. 
 Sometimes; alfo, on one of the furfaces of the long branch 
 is noted thedivifion of diameters, and weights of iron bul- 
 lets; as alfo the bores of pieces. 
 Quadrant of Altitude, is an appendage of the artificial 
 globe; confifting of a lamina, or flip of brafs, the length 
 of a Quadrant of one of the great circles of the globe ; and 
 divided into 90 degrees. 
 
 At the end where the divifions terminate,- there is a nut ri- 
 vetted on and furnifhed with a fcrew, by means whereof the 
 inftrument is fitted on to the meridian; and is moveable 
 round upu*\ the rivet, to all points of horizon. See its 
 figure in Tub. Ajlromfny, fig. 61, 
 
 Its ufe is to ferve as a fcale in mcafur'mg of altitudes, ampli- 
 tudes, azimuths, Izc. See the manner of its application under 
 the ufe of the Globe. 
 QUADRANTAL, in antiquity, aveflel in ufe among the 
 Romans for the mcafuring of liquids. 
 
 It was at firft called Amphora; and afterwards Qtiadraniak 
 from its form, which was fquare every way; like a die. 
 Its capacity was 80 libra?, or pounds of water, which made 
 48 fextaries, 2 urna?, or 8 congii. 
 Qu ADRAN tal Space, in geometry. See Qu adrant. 
 Quadrantal Triangle, is a fpherical triangle, one of whof* 
 fides at leaftis a quadrant of a circle; and one of its angles 
 a right angle. See Spherical Triangle. 
 QUADRANTATA7W, in our ancient law-books is 
 
 ufed lor a quarter of an acre ; now called a Rood. 
 QUADRAT, Ql'adratuM) called alfo Geometrical Square^ 
 and Line of Jbadows, is an additional member on the face 
 of the common Gunter's and Sutton's Qitadrants : of fome 
 ufe in taking altitudes, ts'c. See Quadrant. 
 The Qiiadrat KLH, (Tab. Ajhonomy, fig. 55.) has each of 
 its fides divided into 100 equal parti, commencing from he 
 extremes; fo that the number 100 falls on the angle, re> 
 prefenting tangents to the arch of the limb. 
 The divifions are diftinguifhed by little lines from 5 to 5, 
 and by numbers from 10 to 10; and the divifions being 
 
 occasionally 
 
QUA 
 
 tKcafionally produced a-crofs, form a kind of lattice, confift- 
 ine of ioooo little fquares. 
 
 The proportion here, is, as radios tt to the tangent of the 
 an"le of altitude at the place of observation («. ». to the parts 
 of "the J?™*** cut by the thread) fo is the diftance between 
 the ftatioh and the foot of the objea, to its height above the 
 eye. See Altitude. . 
 V re of the Quadrat, geometrical [pare, or ImeoJJtia- 
 J dmn—\- The Quadrant being vertically placed, and the lights 
 direaed to the top of the tower, or other objedt whole 
 height is required; if the thread cut the fide of the Jmf 
 drat marked 11* jbadmx, the diftance trom the tale ot 
 the tower to the point of ftation is lefs than the tower s height 
 —If the thread fall on the diagonal of the fquare, the diftance 
 is juft equal to the height-If it fall on that fide marked 
 virfed Jbadirws, the diftance exceeds the height. 
 Hence, mentoring the diftance, the height is found by the 
 Rait of three; inafmuch as there are three terms giyen^-ln- 
 deed, their difpofition is not always the fame; tor when 
 the thread cuts thef.de of right Jhadows, the hrft term in the 
 Rule of three ought to be that part of the fide cut by the 
 thread; the fecond the fide of the fquare; and the third 
 the diftance meafured— If the thread cut the other fide, the 
 nrft term is the whole fide of the fquare, the fecond the parts ot 
 the fide cut by the thread, and the third the diftance. 
 For an inftance of each— Suppofe, c. gr. in looking at the 
 top of a fteeple the thread cut the fide of right Jhadows rn the 
 Doint AO, and that the diftance meafures 20 poles ; the cafe 
 fo is 20 to a fourth 
 
 QUA 
 
 fquare thereof, will be compleated bv adding one fourth of 
 aa ; w hich done, the root of the fquare may be extracled thus : 
 
 x*+ax=.h 
 
 -aa \aa ado 
 
 =7 (>'■ ' r -) 
 
 point 40, and that the 
 then will ftand thus : as 40 is to 100, 
 
 term, which I find to be 50 ; the height of the fteeple 111 pole 
 Again, fuppofing the thread to fall on the other fide, 111 the 
 point 50, and the diftance to mcafure 35 poles ; the terms 
 are to be difpofed thus : as 100 is to 60 ; fo is 35 to a fourth 
 term, viz. 21, the height required. 
 Vfe of the Quadrat without calculation— The prcccd 
 cafes may be performed'without calculation where the divi- 
 fions of the fquare are produced both ways. '~ 
 area into little fquares. 
 
 Thus, fuppofe, 1. The thread to fall on 40 in the fide ot 
 right Jhadows, and the diftance be meafured 20 poles ; feek 
 among the little fquares for that perpendicular to the fide 
 which is 20 parts from the thread ; this perpendicular will 
 cut the fide of the fquare next the centre, in the point 
 50, which is the height required in poles, 
 1. If the thread cut the fide of verfed Jhadows in the point 00; 
 and the diftance be 35 poles ; count 35 parts on the fide of 
 the Quadrat from the centre ; count alio the divifions of the 
 perpendicular from the point 35 to the thread. 
 31, the height of the tower in poles. 
 
 Note, In ail cafes, the height of the centre of the inftrument 
 
 is to be added. See farther under Shadow. 
 Quadrat, in aftrology, called alio Quartile, an af- 
 
 pea of the heavenly bodies, wherein they are diftant from 
 
 each other, a quadrant, or ninety degrees. 
 
 This is held a malignant nfpeft. 
 Quadrat, in printing, is a fort of fpace; that is, apiece 
 
 of metal, caft like the letters, to be ufed occalionally in com- 
 
 pofing, in order to form the intervals between words, at tin 
 
 ends of lines, tifr. See Printing 
 
 There are Quadrats of divers fizes, as m Quadrats, n Qua- 
 drats, &c. which are refpeaively of the dimenfions of fuch 
 letters, 
 
 QUADRATA Lcgio, among the Romans, was a legion con 
 lifting of 4000 men. See Legion 
 
 QUADRATIC Equation , is an equation wherein the un 
 known quantity is of two dimenfions i. e. is the fquare of th 
 root, or number fought — As is, x^—a-{-b-. SeeEquA 
 
 TI0N. 
 
 Quadratic Equations are of two kinds ; fimplc, or pirre ; and 
 adfeoJed. 
 
 Simple, or pure Quadratics, are thofe where the fquare of 
 the unknown root is equal to the abfolute number given : as in 
 00=36 ; £17=146; ^=133225. 
 
 The refolution of thefe is eafy ; it being apparent that nothing 
 more is required than to extraa the lquare-root out of the 
 number or known quantity. 
 
 Thus the value of a in the firft equation is equal to 6 
 fecond f=l2, and a little more, as being a find root; and in 
 the third example ^=365. 
 Alficled Quadratics, are thofe which between the higheft 
 power of the unknown number, and the abfolute numbci 
 given, have fome intermediate power of the unknown num- 
 ber: as, aa-\-1 ha— 100. 
 
 All equations of this rank are in one or other of the followin: 
 forms ; viz. aa-r-ad—W. aa — ad—B.. ad — aa—K. 
 There are feveral methods of extracting the roots of adfeSed 
 Quadratics ; the moit convenient is that of Harriot. — Suppofe 
 x L -raxz=-\- 0 i ; here x being affirmed as a part of the root 
 tf, the known quantity of the fecond term, will be double fh< 
 ether part ; and therefore half of e is the other part — The 
 
 In lieu of the charaaers+and— , we here ufe points ; to 
 avoid the neceffity of .diftinguifhing feveral cafes. 
 ConflruSion of Quadratic Equations; See Construc- 
 tion. . , 
 QUADRATING of a piece, among gunners, is the 
 fecuw that apiece of ordnance be ducly placed, and poized 
 in its carriages ; and that its wheels be of an equal 
 
 height, &c. ' .1 
 
 Q U A D R A T O-C U BU S, Quadrato-Quadrato- 
 Cubus, and Quadrato-Cubo-Cubus, are names ufei 
 by Diophantus, Vieta, Oughtred, and others, for the 5th, 
 -th and 8th powers of numbers. See Powers. 
 Quadrato-Qu adr atum, or Biquadratum, the fourth 
 power of numbers ; or the produa ot the cube multiplied by 
 
 the root. . . ,. , 
 
 QUADRATRIX, in geometry, a mechanical line, by 
 means whereof we wou'd find right lines equal to the cir- 
 cumference of circles, or other curves and of the feveral 
 
 parts thereof. 
 
 Or, more accurately, the Quadratnx if a curve, is 11 
 tranfccndental curve defcribed on the fame axis, the femi- 
 ordinates whereof being given, the quadrature of the 
 correfpondent parts in the other curve, are hkewife given. 
 See Curve. , , , , 
 
 Thus, c gr. the curve AND, {Tab. Aualjfu, fg. 21,) may 
 be called the Quadratrix of the Parabola A M C, (nice it is 
 demonftrated that APMA is=PN S or APMA=AP. 
 PN, or APMA=PN. a, (Sc. 
 
 The moll eminent of thefe Quadratics are, that of Dinoftra- 
 tes, and that of Mr. Tfchirnhaufen for the circle; and that of 
 Mr Perks for the hyperbola. . 
 Quadratrix of Dinof rotes, is a curve, AM mm, (Tal , Arn- 
 lyfis, fig. 2.) whereby the quadrature of the circle is effected, 
 though not geometrically, but mechanically ; it is thus called 
 from its inventor Dinoftrates. 
 
 Its genefis is thus— Divide the Quadrantal arch ANB into 
 
 any number of equal parts ; in N », iSc. by a continual bif- 
 feftion— divide the radius AC into the fame number of parts 
 in the points Ps, Wr. Draw radii CN, c n, Jf c— Laffly, 
 on the points P p, (?c. ereft perpendiculars PM, p,n, tic. 
 the curve formed by cormefling thefe lines is the Quadratrix of 
 Dinoftrates. 
 
 Here, from the conftruflion, AB: AN: :AC: AP; 
 and therefore, if AB=«, AC=i, AN=i, AP=v ; ax 
 =by. See Quadrature. 
 Quadratrix Tfchirnbauflana, is a tranfccndental curve AM 
 m m B, (fig. 23.) whereby the quadrature of the circle is like- 
 wife effefted ; invented by Mr. Tfchirnhaufen, in imitation 
 of that of Dinoftrates. 
 
 Its ffenefis is thus conceived — Divide the quadrant ANB, and 
 its radius AC into equal parts, as in the former ; and from 
 the points P,p, tic. draw the right lines ¥M,pm, feV. paral- 
 lel toCB ; and from the points N, n, tic. the right lines NM, 
 nm (3c. parallel to AC— -The points AM«, tgc. being con- 
 neBed, the Quadratrix is formed ; wherein AB : AN : : 
 AC • AP 
 
 Here again, fince AB : AN : : AC : AP ; if AB^, 
 and AC=£, AN=*, and AP==y; ax-by- See Qua- 
 drature. 
 
 QUADRATUM Cubi, Qu adr ato-Quadr ato-Qu a- 
 dratum, and Quadratum &c. are names 
 
 ufed by the Arabs for the 6th, 8th, and 10th powers of num- 
 bers. See Powers. 
 QUADRATURE, Quadratura, In geometry, the aft 
 offquaring; or of reducing a figure to a fquare ; or finding 
 a fquare equal to fome other figure promoted. 
 Thus, the finding of a fquare containing juft as much furface 
 or area as a circle, an ellipfis, a triangle, or other figure, is 
 called the Quadrature of a circle, of an ellipfis, a triangle, or 
 the like. 
 
 The Quadrature of rectilinear figures comes under the 
 common geometry ; as amounting to no more than the 
 finding their areas, or fupcrficies which are in effect their 
 fquares. 
 
 Squares of equal areas are here eafily had, by only extracting 
 the roots of the areas thus found .■ and on fuch root as a fide 
 conftru£ting a fquare. Seethe particular methods of finding 
 the areas or fquares, under each particular figure, as, Tr*- 
 angle, Parallelogram, Trapezium, i$c. 
 The ghtadrature of curves^ that is, the meafuring of theix 
 area, or the finding ef 3 reftilinev fpace equal to a curvi- 
 linear 
 
QUA 
 
 QUA 
 
 linear fpacc, Is a matter of much deeper (peculation; and 
 makes a part of the higher geometry. 
 
 Though the Quadrature, efpeciallv of the circle, be a thine 
 many of the hrit-rate mathematicians among the ancients 
 were very follicitous about, .yet nothing in this kind has 
 been done fo confulerable, as in and fince the middle of. the 
 laft century ; when, viz. in the year 1657, Mr. Neil and my 
 lord Brounker, and afterwards, in the fame year, Sir Chri- 
 ftopher Wren, geometrically demonftrated the equality of 
 fome curves to a ftraight line. 
 Soon after this, others at home and abroad, did the like in 
 other curves ; and not long afterwards the thing was brought 
 under an analytical calculus, the firft fpecimen whereof 
 ever publifhcd was given by Mercator in 1688, in a de- 
 monftration of my lord Brounker's Quadr-aturc of the hy- 
 perbola by Dr Wallis's reduction of a fraction into an infi- 
 nite feries by dtviuon. 
 
 Though it appears by the way that Sir Ifaac Newton had he- 
 fore difcovered a method of attaining the quantity of all qua- 
 drable curves analytically by his method of fluxions, before 
 the year 1668. 
 
 It is contefted between Sir Christopher Wren and Mr Huveens 
 which of the two firft found the Quadrature of any detei mi 
 nate cycloidal fpace — Mr Leibnitz afterwards found that of 
 another Space ; and Mr Bernouilli in 1699 difcovered the 
 Quadrature of an infinity of cycloidal fpaces^ not only fe; 
 ments, but alfo fectors, tsV. 
 Quadrature of the circle, or the finding a fquare equal 
 to a given circle, is a problem that ' has employed the ma- 
 thematicians of all ages; but ftill in Vain. 
 It depends on the ratio of the diameter to the periphery, 
 which was never yet determined in prcciie numbers. 
 Were this ratio known, (which would imply the circumfe- 
 rence's being exprefl'ed by ibme affection of the diameter; and. 
 of confequence, that it were equal to a right line) the Qua- 
 drature of the circle were effected : ■ it being demonstrated, 
 that the area of a circle is equal to a rectangular triangle 
 whofe two fides comprehending the right angle, are th< 
 
 radius, and a right line equal to the circumference. 
 
 So that to fquare the circle, all that is required is to 
 ti fy it. 
 
 .Many have approached very near this ratio — Archimedes 
 feems to have been one of the firft who attempted it ; which 
 he did by means of regular polygons inferibed and circumfcri 
 bed ; snd by uiing polygons of 96 fides, he fixed the ratio as 
 7 to 22. 
 
 Some uf the moderns have come nearer, particularly Luth a 
 Ceulen, who with infinite induftry found, at length,- that 
 fuppoling the diameter I, the circumference is left than 
 3.14159265358979323846264538387950; but yet greater 
 than the fame number, if the iaft cypher be turned into 
 an unit. 
 
 Strict geometry here failing, authors have had rccourfe to 
 other means ; and particularly, to a fort of curves, called 
 Quadratrices ; but thefe being mechanical curves, inftead of 
 geometrical ones, or rather tranfccndental inftcad of alge- 
 braical ones, the problem is never fairly to be folvcd there- 
 by. 
 
 Hence, recourfe has been had, by others, to analytics — and 
 the problem has been attempted by three forts of algebraic cal- 
 culations — The firft gives a kind of tranfcendcntal Quadra- 
 tures, by equations of indefinite degrees : as if x be equal 
 to 30, and x be fought, it will be found to be 3; becaufe 3'- 
 + 3, is 27 + 3, or 30 — The fecond by vulgar numbers, 
 though irrationally fuch ; or by the roots of common equa- 
 tions, which for the general Quadrature, or its lectors, is 
 impofTible— The third by means of certain feries, exhibiting 
 the quantity of a circle by a progreflion of terms. 
 Arithmetic, in effect, affords us very accurate and intelligible 
 expreflions for all rational numbers ; but it is defective as to 
 , irrationals, which are infinitely more numerous than thi 
 former : there being e. gr. an infinity of them between r and 
 2. The root of 2, which is a mean proportional between 1 
 and 2, is a very Cbfcure idea : and its magnitude is fuch, as 
 that if you would exprefs it in rational numbers, which alone 
 are clearly intelligible, you may Hill approach nearer and 
 nearer its exact value, but never arrive precifely at it. 
 Thus, if for the value of the root of 2, you firft put 1, It is 
 vifibly too little ; if, then, you add l „ it is too much ; for 
 the fquare of i-fi, or of }, exceeds 2. If, again, you take 
 away {, you will find you have taken too much ; and if you 
 will return U,, the fum will be too great— Thus, may you 
 proceed to infinity, without ever finding a number to flop 
 at. 
 
 Now thefe numbers, thus found, being difpofed in their 
 proper order, make what we call an infinite feries. See 
 Series. 
 
 Farther, of infinite feries's there are fome which onlv yield 
 a unite fum, as^, a, s , i^c. and in general all fuch 'as de- 
 crcafc in S CQmetri«l progreflion— And there arc others, on 
 
 the contrary, which make an infinite fum ; as the armoin* 
 cal progreflion, \, l y fcfa 
 
 But, here, we have only to do with the former, as exprefting 
 a finite magnitude; yet cannot even the fum .of thefe be al- 
 ways found— Thus, we are certain, that it is impoflible to 
 find the fum of the feries exprcfling the root of 2. 
 Geometry, however, is free from the impoflibility arithmetic 
 labours under, of exprcfling irrational numbers.— Thus, the 
 diagonal of a fquare, whofe fide is 1, expreiles the root of 2. 
 Yet, in other magnitudes, geometry itfelf may fall under 
 the fame difficulty with arithmetic — For it is pofiible, there 
 may be right lines which cannot be exprefled but by an infinite 
 feries of fimilar lines, whofe fum it may be impoflible to find, 
 In effect, the right lines, which mould be equal to curves 
 are frequently of this kind — In feaiching, e. gr. for a right 
 line equal to the circumference of a circle, we find that the dia- 
 meter being put 1, the circumference will be \ — , +_|_, * — t 
 7+, *, £rr. making an infinite feries of fractions, whofe 
 numerator is always 4, and the denominators in the natural 
 feries of the uneven numbers; and ail thefe terms, alternately, 
 will be too great, and too little. 
 
 Could the fum ot" this feries be found, it would give the Qua- 
 drature uf the circle ; but this is not yet done; nor is it at all 
 probable that it ever will be djne — That, however, is not yet 
 dcmonflratcd ; nor of confequence, is the Quadrature of the 
 circle yet demonftrated impoflible. 
 
 To this it may be added, that as the fame magnitude may 
 be exprefled by feveral different feries, it is ppffiSe the cir- 
 cumference of the circle may be exprefled in feme other fe- 
 ries, whofe fum may be found — We have two infinite feries; 
 exprcfling the ratio of the circumference to the diameter, 
 though indefinitely, as above— The firft difcovered by Sir Ifaac 
 Newton ; where the diameter being put 1, the circum- 
 ference, is 4— J— 55— ttt, (Jc— The fecond, difcovered 
 by Mr; 'Leibnitz ; where the diameter being 1, the circumfe- 
 rence, is 4— — rK, &c. The inveiti nation of each 
 
 _ of which feries, by the calculus integrality is as follows. 
 
 'it Jfcac Newton's Quadrature of the circle; or the in- 
 veftigation of his (cries, for fquaring the circle. — If the radius 
 of the circle, AC-i {Tab. Analyf.s, fig. 24J CP = *, 
 y=V (i-a-'") and v' ( 1— **) =1— \x*~ l**— T ' zX *-^ 
 TiB* 8 — ir\z — x ic , (*fc. to infinity. Then will 
 ydx==dx — ix 2 dx — ^ x+ax — lx 6 dx — ^- — x *dx 
 — y?s — x to dx— , &b, to infinity. 
 
 fy? x =x-z*'—:»x'' — tUx 7 — n W *> ~~ *& ? #*\ to 
 infinity. 
 
 , When x becomes equal to the radius CA, the fpacc DCPM. 
 degenerates into a quadrant. Subftifuting, therefore,- 1 for 
 
 A-,the quadrantwill be 1 — \ — m — ttj — rVW Wr? &tr. 
 
 in infinitum. — Which fame feries will meafure the entire area 
 of the circle, the diameter being 1. 
 
 iMr.Leihttttfz Quadrature of the circle. — Let the tangent 
 K B {Tab. Atiahjh, fig. 25,) — x, BC = 1 ; and the fecant 
 A C, infinitely near another C K, and the little arch K L be 
 drawn with the radius CK; then will AK= d x, KC 
 = </ {1+ xK) Now fince the angles at B and L, are right 
 angles ; and by reafon of the infinitely fmall angle KCL 
 the angle BKC = KAC; we fhall have 
 KC : BC ; ; KA ; KL 
 
 dx- 
 
 V : I 
 farther, C K :KL 
 
 ✓ (i + #1 
 
 : C M 
 
 d x 
 
 V { : 
 ; m M 
 
 + ) 
 
 dx 
 
 Therefore the fector C Mm-^dx: = ■ 
 
 dx + x*dx —x"dx-\- x* dx—xiodx, feV.) whence by the 
 integral calculus, we find the fector B C M, whofe tangent 
 x z ff £ x<- - X i 4- ,V X*±*\ x", fcY in 
 
 infinitum. And therefore if B M be the octant'of the circle, 
 or an arch of 45 0 , the fector will be ^— H-,V- A , &c 
 mmjimtuvi. The double therefore, of this feries, 1 — 
 "'+T T^'.^ dj> ^' c - >nfi?iitU7ii, is the quadrant of the 
 circle; or it the diameter be — 1, the entire area of- the 
 circle. 
 
 Quadrature of the fonts— Though 
 
 of the entire circle 
 
 definite Quadrature 
 was never yet given ; yet there have been 
 various portions of it fquared— The firft partial Quadrature 
 was given by Hippocrates of Chio ; who fquared a portion 
 called, Irom its figure, the lune, or lur.ule. Sec Lune, 
 where the Quadrature is {hewn. 
 
 Th\s Quadrature has no dependance on that of the circle; 
 but then it only extends to the entirelune, or its half; if you 
 would fquare any portion thereof, at pleafure, the Quadra- 
 ture of the circle comes in the way. 
 
 Yet fome of the modern geometers have found "^Quadra- 
 ture of any portion of the lune at pleafure, independantly of 
 the Qiiadrature of the circle ; though ftill fubject to a certain 
 refraction which prevents the Qticdrature from being perfect, 
 and, as the geometricians call it, abfclute and indefinite, 
 
 10 B . . In 
 
QUA 
 
 QUA 
 
 In 1701, the marquis de l'Hipital pnbUDfM a new manner of 
 foS the parts of the lune taken different ways, and under 
 dlSt conditions-though this, too, is imperteit in the fame 
 manner as the other. 
 Q.™»AT«»E./ri. cl,ipfis-TV, ellipfis, alfo, is . 
 
 whofe precife Quadrature m dehn.te terms is not j et el 
 feftcd. We have here therefore, as before, recourfe to a 
 
 LttAC [Tab. Analyfis, fe. 26.) = .2 G C ==cPC=*. 
 Then will 
 
 y"-—c- "( — *' a 1 : <7- 
 
 8^3 
 
 i6«5 I2H<; : 
 HI infinitum. Thertfor^ydx^-cdx-^r - 
 
 zcx*dx "7cx 10 dx w 
 I20(jS 256fl lc 
 
 256^ 
 
 cx*dx 
 iba f ' 
 
 . infinitum. 
 
 if then for * he put « ; the quadrant of the el , pus will be 
 ' Which fame feries exhibits the entire area ol the ellip- 
 
 turn, 
 
 fis, if a denote the entire axis. 
 
 Hence, i. If ✓ ac=*i ; the area of the dfarfs - I - 
 , J_ , 5 _?„ y t -, i n infinitum : whence it 
 
 evident St an enlpfis'is' equal to a circle whofe fag 
 mean proportional between the conjugate axes of he dhpte 
 2. Hence, alfo, an cllipf.s is to a circle whofe diameter is 
 equal to the greater axis, as ac to a'i that is, as t to a. 
 as the lefs axis to the greater. Hence laltly, having the 
 of the circle, we will l.kewife have that ol the 
 ell'ipfis, and on the contrary. 
 Quadrature «A<'<'f>«™«»- F ° r the parabola we have . 
 £te,*<rtW* or tranfeendent curve, which gives as fquare. 
 But it may be likewifc had thus : 
 
 ax—j 1 . See Parabola. 
 
 '■ ' *' ' " = ) 
 ydxz=. a 1 : t *' : -dx 
 /W*=~* a' : 1 *> : i—\Jaxi=-ly/x'yi=\xy. 
 Hence, the parabolic fpace is to the rectangle of the fe 
 miordinate into the abicifle as f xy to xy ; 
 
 that is, as 2 
 
 this, too, we have 
 
 fife in Infinitum. Whofe fum=**j : 2 — * T * ' : •—■ . fi x' : , 
 
 1 : 2, &c. in infinitum, exprelles the fegment of the 
 
 cycloid AMQ; 
 
 If then m& ~g G—dx ^/ (x—xx) : x be multiplied into 
 G M = A Q_= x ; we lhall find the element GMHG 
 of the area AMG=dx J [x—xx). Which being the 
 fame with the element of the fegment of the circle A P Q, 
 the fpace A M G will be equal to the fegment of the cir- 
 cle A P Q_; and confequently, the area ADC equal to the 
 femicircle A P B. 
 
 Hence, fince C B is equal to the femiperiphcry of the circle; 
 if that=/> and AB = rt ; the rectangle B C D A — ap ; and 
 the femicircle A P B, and confequently, the external cycloi- 
 dical fpace ADC = 5 a p. Therefore the area of the femi- 
 cycloid ACB = J<jJ, and AMCBPA = i ap. Conle- 
 quently, the area of the cycloid is triple ot the generating 
 circle. 
 
 Quadrature of the b?ijlic, or logarithmic curve — Let the 
 fubtangent P T {Tab. Analyfis, fig. 28.) — a, fcld= 
 —dx; then will 
 
 y d x : dy—a 
 ydx — ady 
 'f ydx — ay 
 
 Wherefore the indeterminate fpace H P M I, is equal to the 
 rectangle of PM into PT. 
 
 Hence, 1. Let Q_S = z ; then will the indeterminate fpace 
 1SQ_H=(7Z; and, confequently, SMPQj=//r — a z 
 — a(y — z); that is, the fpace intercepted between the two 
 logiftic femiordinates is equal to the rectangle of the fub- 
 tangent into the difference of the femiordinates. 
 2. Therefore the fpace BAPM, is to the fpace PMSQ_ 
 as the difference of the femiordinates A B and PM, is to the 
 difference of the femiordinates P M and S Q. 
 Quadrature of des Cartel's curve, which is defined by the 
 the equation, b' : ** : : b — x : y. 
 
 Since, b~ y— bx* — x 3 . 
 
 ydx= (bx'dx — x'dx): b- 
 
 Note, If a curve be not fuppofed defamed, but only an eqi 
 tion to it given, fo as it does not appear e. gr. where the 
 origin of *is to he fixed, we are to put «=» in the in- 
 tegral, and expunging what are multiplied by*, add to it the 
 remainder, if there be any, under the contrary iign ; to have 
 the Qiiadrature fought. 
 Quadrature of the hyperbola — Ft 
 guadratrh; invented by Mr. Perks. 
 The analytical Quadrature was Slit given by N. Mcrcaror of 
 Holltein, the firli inventor of infinite fenes s. But Mcrca- 
 tor Undine his feries by divifion ; Sir Ifaac Newton and Mr. 
 Leibnitz unproved upon his method ; the one lecking them 
 by the cxtraffion of roots, the other by a feries prelup- 
 
 Mef^tlrs Quadrature of the hyperbola between its afymp- 
 / 5 to-Sincein an hyperbola within the afymptotes, a*=by 
 + *>■ ; or ifo=i=J, (which may be fuppofed, fince the de- 
 termination of b is arbitrary.) 
 
 l—y+xy 
 Then will ^ - (l+ , ;= ; 
 
 That is (the Divifion being aftually performed) 
 
 y— I —* +*«— *' + *-'— *' + *% 
 
 fydx=xl : 3*— a>* : 4 1,1 
 QttADRATURE of ail curves comprehended uj 
 equation, y= x m (* + «) 
 
 Since y= (*-f-fl ) 1 : " 
 ydx=.dx (*-|-tf) 1 : w 
 To render the element integrable ; fuppofe, 
 (* 4- a ) 1 : m =^v 
 Tlicn will * -f- a—v m 
 
 dx~mw — tdv 
 
 the general 
 
 ydx=: 
 
 <dv 
 
 The 
 
 -dx— xdx+x* dx—x' dx+x*dx 
 
 1 dx, He. 
 
 >— J ** + !*'— i* 6 + 
 
 TP (Tab. AnalyfiS; 
 
 fy d * = * — ; * 1 "f' 
 in infinitum. 
 Quadrature of the cycloid— Since 
 
 fy 2")=PM; in the triangle PMT, the angles M and 
 T will be equal ; and confequently, T PQ=2 M. But the 
 mcafiirc of the angle APQ_is the half arch AP; which 
 likewife matures the angle TP A. Therefore A P Q.= 
 TMP=MmS, by reafon MP and m q arc parallel. 
 Wherefore, fince the angles at S and Q_are right angles, we 
 
 haV£ AQ_: 0? : : MS : ™ s 
 
 Let, then, AQ=»", A B=i; then will PQ_= J (x—xx 
 and m S—dx ^ (x—xx) : x. But it is flicwn, that ■/ (, 
 —xx) =*' : 2— I *': *— i*' ■ * — «V*' : * •" 
 infinitum. Therefore, dx J (x—xx) : x = (the numerator: 
 of the exponents being diminifhed by two units in the divi- 
 fion by *) *— 1 : 1 dx—' : *' : » d x— I * J : 1 dx—^ x< : 2 
 dx, Eifc. in infinitum. Whofe fum 2 «' : * — t *' : 1 — n * 1 : * 
 
 ' *7 . i ; yr. in infinitum, is the femiordinate of the 
 
 cycloid QJVI referred to the axis A P. Hence, Q_M d x. 
 or the element QJVI S q of the cycloidical fpace A M Q_ 
 — 2x':*dx — \x';*dx — Vi x':'dx— T ' 
 
 Remainder — ^— a ■/"a. Whence, the area of the curve 
 
 + ■ 
 
 (* + a) J" (x+a) — ma v" 
 
 Quadrature, in aftronomy, that afpefl, or fituation of the 
 moon, when the is 90 0 dill'ant from the fun. 
 Or, the Quadrature is when (lie is in a middle point of her 
 orbit, between the points of conjunction and oppofition ; 
 which happens twice in each revolution, toz. in the firll 
 and third quarter. See Orbit, Opposition, and Con- 
 junction.- ' 
 
 When the moon is in her Quadrature, (he exhibits that phaiis 
 which we call the half moon, i. e. fhe fhines with juft half 
 her face ; and is laid to be bifiefted, or dichotomized. 
 In the moon's progrefs from the fyzygies to her Quadrature, 
 her gravity towards the earth is continually mcicahng by the 
 aftion of the fun ; and her motion is retarded for the lame 
 reafon— Her motion then, in her orbit is (lowed as her gra- 
 vity to the earth is rreateft when in the Quadratures. 
 In her recefs from the Quadratures to the iyzygics, the gravity 
 continually decrcafes, and the velocity incrcales. 
 The ratio is thus : as radius is to the fum, or difference of one 
 and an half the cc-finc of double the diftance of the moon 
 from the fyzygv, and half the radius ; fo is the addition of 
 gravity in the Quadratures to the diminution or increafe there- 
 of in any other Situation. See Syzygy. 
 Hence the moon's orbit is more convex in the Quadratures, 
 than in the fyzygies; said hence the circular figure ol the moon's 
 orbit is changed" into an oval, whofe greater axis goes through 
 t\\c Qtiadratures; and hence, alfo, the moon is lefs diftant from 
 the earth at the fyzygies, and more at the Quadratures. 
 It isno wonder, therefore, that the moon lhould approach near- 
 er the earth when her gravity is diiamifhcd; that accefs not 
 being the immediate effect of this diminution, but of the in- 
 flection of the orbit towards the Quadratures, 
 
 in 
 
QUA 
 
 QUA 
 
 In the Quadratures, and within 35 degrees thereof, the ap- 
 fides of the moon go backwards, or move in antccedentla ; 
 hut they move forwards in the Syzygies. See Apsides. 
 The moon's orbit undergoes various alterations in each revo- 
 lution — Its excentricity is the greateft. when the line of the 
 apfidcs is in the Syzygies j and die leait, when in the Qua- 
 dratures. 
 
 Confidering one entire revolution, the nodes move flower 
 and flower as the moon approaches the Quadratures, and ( 
 they reft when flie is therein : but confidering feveral revolu- 
 tions, the nodes go back faftefl: in the Quadratures. 
 The Inclination of the plane of the moon's orbit increafes as 
 the nodes go from the fyzyg'ies, and is greateft when the nodes 
 are in the Quadratures. 
 
 Qu adrature -lines, or lines of Quadrature, are two 
 lines frequently placed on Gunter's lector. 
 They are marked with the letter Q_, and the figures 5, 6> 7, 
 8, Q, 10 ; of which Q_fignifies die fide of a fquare, and 
 the other figures the fides of polygons of .5, 6, 7, £rf c, fides — 
 S there ftands for the (emi-diameter of a circle, and 90 for 
 a line equal to qo° in circumference. 
 
 QUADRATUS, in anatomy, a name applied to feveral 
 mufcles, in refpect of their fquare figure, as the Palmaris 
 and Pronators. 
 
 — There is alfo a Quadratus femoris, a member of the 
 mufcle Quadrigeminus, arifing from the apophyfis of the < 
 ifchium, and maintaining an equal breadth and bulk to its 
 infertion juft below the great trochanter. — See Tab. Anat. 
 
 (MyoL) fy. 7. ». 25. ■ . 1 
 
 This aflifts with the other mufcles of the Qimdnge minus, to 
 turn the thigh outwards*. See Qijadrigeminus. < 
 Quadratus gena, or maxilles inferiorts, called alfo man- 
 tanus, and (on account of its breadth) platyjma ragoides, is a ( 
 fquare mufcle lying immediately under the fliin oi the neck, 
 thence called alfo fubcutancus. — It arifes thin and membra- 
 nous from the upper part of the fpines of the vertebrae ot 
 the neck and the fkin of the fuperior parts of the cucullaris 
 and pectoral mufcle ; whence, fpreading over the neck, it 
 becomes flefhy, and is inferted partly into the os hyoides, and 
 partly into the under edge of the lower jaw — It adheres 
 firmly to the panniculus carnofus ; from which it is not fe- 
 parated without difficulty ; and therefore was not anciently 
 diftinguifhed from it — It ferves to pull the lower jaw down- 
 ward and awry. 
 
 QUADRELS, in building, a kind of artificial ftones, per- 
 fectly fquare, whence their name; they are made of a 
 chalky, or whitiih and pliable earth, is'c. dried in the (hade 
 for at leaft two years. 
 
 They were formerly in great requeft among the Italian archi- 
 tects. 
 
 QUADRIGA*, in antiquity, a carr, or chariot drawn by 
 four horfes. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, quafuor, four, and jugum, 
 
 yoak. 
 
 Various are the accounts we have of the author of the Qua- 
 driga — Cicero makes it the invention of Minerva.— Kyginus 
 attributes it to Erichthonius IV. king of the Athenians ; 
 which fentiment Virgil alfo follows in his Georgics, fib. hi. v. 
 113, ./Efchylus gives Prometheus the honour thereof — Ter- 
 tullian, de Speftac. 1. ix. fays it was invented among the Ar- 
 gians, by Trochilus, in honour of Juno ; and at Rome, by 
 Romulus, in honour of Mars, orQuirinus. AdoofVienne 
 Chronic. Act 3. will have it to have been invented by one 
 Procidus, about the time of the eltabifhment of the kingdom 
 of Athens. Laziardels, Hiji. Univerf. Ep'ttom. 1. xxiv. fays 
 the fame of Triptolemus. — Laftlv, if there be not opinions 
 enough already, Herodotus gives us another ; and fays the 
 Greeks borrowed it from the Lybians — Pliny tells us, that 
 his feal was a Quadriga, lib. xvi. 
 
 On the reveries of medals we frequently fee victory, or the 
 emperor, in a Quadriga, holding the reins of the horfes ; 
 whence thefe coins are called among the curious, nummi Qua- 
 drigati and vicloriati. 
 QUADRIGE^IINUS, in anatomy, a mufcle, or rather 
 an airemblage of four mufcles ; ferving to turn the thigh out- 
 ward. 
 
 The firft of the conftituent mufcles of the Quadrigcmlnus, is 
 the pyriformis ; the fecond and third are the gemini ; and the 
 fourth is the quadratus femoris. See each defcribed under its 
 proper article. 
 
 QUADRILATERAL, in geometry, a figure whofe peri- 
 meter confifts of four right lines, making four angles ; 
 whence it is alfo called a Quadrangular figure. See Qua- 
 DRANGULAR. 
 
 If the feveral angles be right, the figure is a reclan- 
 gvlar Quadrilateral — If oblique, an oblique-angular Qjta- 
 drilattral. 
 
 If the fides of a Qitadrilateralbe equal, and the angles right, 
 the figure is a fquare. 
 
 If the fides be equal, but the angles unequal, the figure is a 
 rhombus* 
 
 If the angles be equal, and the fides unequal, the figure is a 
 reclangle. 
 
 If only the oppofite angles and fides be equal, the Quadrilate- 
 ral is a rbomboides. 
 
 If the oppofite angles and fides be unequal, the Quadrilateral 
 is a trapezium- 
 
 The two oppolite angle? of any Quadrilateral figure inferibed 
 in a circle, always make two right angles. 
 QUADRILL *, Qy adrilla, a little troop or company of 
 cavaliers, pompouily dreded and mounted ; for the perform- 
 ance of carrouials, jufts, tuniameats, runnings at the ring, 
 and other gallant divertifements. 
 
 * The word fa borrowed from the Italian, being a diminutive of 
 Squadra, a company of foldiers ranged in a fquare : for 
 Stuadrart is, properly, to difpofe any thing fquare ; whence 
 tlieir S>uadriglia, the French Sqaadritlt and ^hmdrilh, and 
 our ^uadrill — It is not fifty years fince the French wrote 
 Squadrilu and Efquadrllle. 
 A regular carroufal is to have at leaft four, and at moft twelve 
 Quadrills. 
 
 Ot thefe Qitadrills, each is to confift of at lcaft three cava- 
 liers, and at moil of twelve. 
 
 The Quadrills are diftinguifhed by die form of their habits, 
 or the diverfity of their colours. 
 Qiiadrille is alfo a name of a game at cards. 
 QUADRIPARTITION, the dividing by four ; or stak- 
 ing of the fourth part of any number, or quantity. 
 Hence Quadripartite, &x. fomething divided into four. 
 QUADRIREME, Quadriremis, a galley, or veSelj 
 
 with four oars on a fide. 
 QUADRUGATA terra, in old law records, denotes a 
 
 team-land ; or fo much as can be tilled by four horfes. 
 QUADRUPED, Quadrupes, in natural hiftory, a four- 
 footed beaft : or a perfect, hairy, viviparous animal, having 
 four feet and no more. 
 
 There is a great analogy between the ftrudture of many of 
 the Quadrupeds, and that of man — The principal differences 
 refult from their different pofture ; and are feen in the legs, 
 heads, necks, ftomachs, hearts, and in the nerves. 
 Quadrupeds are divided by Mr. Ray, into thofe which arc 
 hoofed, ungulata, and thofe which are clawed or digitate, 
 unguiculata. 
 Hosfed-QuADRWEns, are either. 
 
 I. IVbole-hoofed, jolidipeda, MoiivtiXs, u.wu%*, folidungula 1 as 
 the horfe, and alk, the; onager or wild afs ; the mule, and 
 tiie zebra of Africa, or the fine liriped Indian or African aii, 
 almoft like a mule in turm and ftature. 
 
 Of the whole-hoofed kind, Ariftode has obferved, that no 
 one hath two horns — (he might have find any horns) no one 
 hath the talus, or aftragalus, nor have the males any appea- 
 rance of Teats. 
 
 II. Cloven-footed, and that either i°. into two divifions 
 only ; as the or biiidcate kind, which are again fub- 
 divided into iuch as are, firft, 
 
 Ruminant, M"p i ,»«£i»7*, that is, fuch as chew the cud ; and 
 thefe either have hollow and perpetual horns, as the bull, 
 fhecp, and goat-kind ; or deciduous horns, as the hart and 
 deer-kind, which ufuaily fhed their horns annually. 
 Of the bull-kind are reckoned thefe : the common bos or bul- 
 lock, of which the male is taurus, the female Dacca : the 
 German urus, urocbs, or aurochs : the bifon I the bonafus 1 
 the bubalus, or bufalo : and the bos Afr'tcanus of Belhnius, Obf 
 1. ii. c. 50. which he takes to be the bubalus of the an- 
 cients. 
 
 Of the Jljecp-kind, befides the common fort, are reckoned 
 the Arabian ovis laticauda, whofe tail is fometimcs of 30 
 pound weight ; the ovis Jlrepficeros cretica Bellonii ; the 
 ovis Afrleana, with fliort hair inftead of wool ; and the ovis 
 Guineenjis, or Angdenjis of Marcgrave, HiJl. BrafiL 1. vi. 
 c. x. 
 
 Of the goat-kind, arc, befides the common capra domejlica ; 
 the ibex, or German fteinbock, found on the tops of the 
 Alps; the ruphapra, French chamois, or German goms ; 
 the gazelle Africana, or antelope ; the gazella Indica ; the 
 capra fyhrjiris Africana GrimmU ; the capra ?nambrina, or 
 Syrlaca of Gefiter ; the bufelaphus, or mofchelaphus Caii in 
 Gefncr ; the tragrlaphus Caii in Gefncr ; EirV. 
 Of the hart or deer-kind are reckoned, the cervus, E\a«(f, 
 or red deer; the cervus platyceros or palmatus, the fallow 
 deer; alee or the elk; rangifcr, the rain-deer ; the axis 
 Plinii, according to Bellonius ; the eaprea Plinii, the cugu- 
 ; acu-etc, and euguacu-zapara of Marcgrave ; the caprea 
 Croen 'andica. 
 
 Secondly, of animals whofe feet are divided into two parts 
 only, and which do not chew the cud, there is only the hog and 
 fwine-kind : under this head, befides the common fwine, are 
 reckoned the wild boar, or fwine ; the Guineenfis Marc- 
 , gravii ; the porcus Indicus, the tajaca or aper mexicanus 
 mofchiferus of Dr. Tyfon, called by Marcgrave, tajaca 
 1 cunigoara, by others quauhtla eoymalt, and quapizotly and by 
 Acofta and tome others zatno, 
 
 2°. There 
 
QUA 
 
 QUA 
 
 2°. There arc fome .Quadrupeds, whofe hoof is cloven into 
 four divffiqns ; and thefc feem to be not ruminant : as the 
 rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the tapijerete of Braul, the 
 capy-bara of Brafil, and the animal mofchiferum. 
 
 Clawed or digitate Quadrupeds Of this kind, there 
 
 are, firft, a fort whofe claws are not divided or feparated, 
 but' adhere to one another) and are covered with one com- 
 mon (kin, but with obtufe nails, flicking out round the 
 margin of thtf foot; as the elephant, which is anomalous, 
 and not clearly referable to this kind, or to that ot cloven- 
 footed Quadrupeds* 
 
 A lecond fpecies of this digitate-kind of Quadrupeds? which 
 has only two claws, is the camel ; and though thele have no 
 horns, they both ruminate, and have alfo the four ftomachs 
 of horned ruminant animals* 
 
 Of the camel, or dromedary, there are two forts ; one hav- 
 ing but one bunch on the back, the other two. 
 To this kind alio belong the Peruvian glama, which fome 
 have reckoned among the fhecp-kind ; as alfo the pacos, the wis 
 Indica, or Peruviana vulgo, which is much lefs than OiegJama. 
 A third fpecies of this unguiculate-kind, includes fuch ani- 
 mals, as the Greeks called nuwnSt* and AtfpafWf*. which 
 have the foot divided into many claws, with broad nails 
 on them; as the ape and monkey kind. 
 
 Of thefe, fome have no tails, and are called fimia, or apes : 
 others have tails, and are called monkeys, eereopitheci ; and 
 fuch as have cither long or fhort tails, if they are of a larger 
 fize, arc called peptones, or baboons — There are great num- 
 bers and varieties of this fpecies of Qttadrupeds ; of which na- 
 turalifts have defcribed thefe: viz. the orang outang, or 
 homo jthejiris of Dr. Tyfon, defcribed by him in a particular, 
 difcouric : the guarita of Brafil, Marcgravii ; the cagui of 
 Brafil, greater and leflcr; the cay of the fame region, defcri- 
 bed by Lerius ; the caitaia of the fame country ; the cerco- 
 pitbecus barbatus Guineenfis, two or three forts of it ; the 
 cercopithecus angolenfis major; the cercopitbecus non barbatus 
 Clujii; the cercopitbecus Chtf. called fagmn: laftly, if apes 
 and monkeys have their fnouts very prominent like dogs they 
 arc called cynocephali. 
 
 A fourth fpecies of th\s ung/dcutate-kind, is, when though the 
 claws are many, yet are not covered at the end with 
 broad flat nails, like monkeys or apes ; but are rather iike 
 the talons of hawks, EifV. crooked, and fharp-pointcd. 
 Thefe, in rcfpc£t of their teeth, may be divided into fuch as 
 have many denies primorcs, or incifores, (that is, cutting 
 teeth) in each jaw, of which there are two forts ; a greater, 
 ■which either have a fhort, round head, as the cat-kind; or a 
 leflcr fort, having a long (lender body, with very fhort legs, 
 as the weafel or vermin-kind. — There are alio fome of this 
 fpecies of Quadrupeds, which have only two large remark- 
 able teeth in each jaw : thefe arc the hare-kind, and thefe 
 live only upon herbs, graft, 
 
 Of the cat-kind of Quadrupeds are reckoned to be the Hon, 
 the tyger, the pardalis, whofe male is pardus, and female 
 pantbera, the leopard ; the lupus cervarius, or lynx ; the 
 catus pardus, or cat-a-mountain ; the common cat; and 
 the bear. 
 
 Of die dog-kind are reckoned the wolf ; the lupus aureus or 
 jackall ; befides the common dog, of which kind they enu- 
 merate, the maflivc; the cants Venatieus graius, Graeus, or 
 Scoticus, the greyhound ; grains Hibernicus, or the Irifli 
 greyhound; the cams Venatieus fagax, indagator, feSIator fe- 
 rarum, &c. the hound ; cants Venatieus Hifpanicus or Avia- 
 rius, the fpaniel for land or water; vertagus or tumbler; 
 cants Oud/®', or domejlicus, the houfe-dog; cants metitarus, 
 or the lap-dog ; cams getulus or Ijlandicus, the fhock : and 
 of all thefe forts there are many varieties of mongrels, and 
 hybridous breeds. 
 
 Other fpecies of the dog-kind are the fox ; the animal zibe- 
 thicum, or civet-cat, as it is corruptly called, but by its 
 teeth and fnout is plainly of the dog-tribe ; the American 
 coati, or rackoon, or rattoon ; the yxquiepate ; the carigueya, 
 maritucaca, carigoy, ropoza or opoffum ; the taxus or meles \ 
 the badger, grey, or pate; the Intra or otter ; to thefe fome add 
 the ^>Ast(?,fea-calf, or feale; the equus marinus, mode, or fea- 
 horle, miflaken by fome for the hippopotamus; the Dutch call 
 him tualras, the Danes and Iflanders rofmarus; laflly, the manati 
 or vacca marina, the fea-cow. 
 
 Of the vermin, or weafel-klnd of Quadrupeds, is, firft, the 
 mvflela vulgaris, the common weafel, in Yorkfhirc called 
 foumart or fitcher, <y£m ; the viverra Indiea, called quel 
 and qmrpelc ; and another fort called mungo, and mungatlna, 
 of a reddifhgrey: the muftela, ermine, or jloat, and mujlela 
 fihejlris, the ferret ; putorius, the pole-cat ; martes or foyna, 
 the marten or martlet ; mujlela zibellina the fable; iaflly, the 
 genetta ; and the ichneumon Bellonii. 
 
 Of the bare-kind of Quadrupeds, are firft, lepus, or the com- 
 mon hare ; cuniculus, the rabbet or coney ; tapeti, or 
 Brafil coney, and the aperea of Brafil ; the byjlrix, or por- 
 cupine, and the hyjlrix Amerkanus, or cuanda of Brafil ; 
 
 caftor* fiber, or the beaver : fciurus vulg. or fquirrel ; thtf 
 Virginian, Zeylandic, Barbary, and American Hying fquir- 
 rel ; mus domejlicus, rp*jor and minor, the common rat and 
 monfe : to thefe alfo may be referred mus major aquatuus, 
 the water-rat ; the mufk-'ratj mus avellanarum, major and 
 minor; the dormoufe or deeper, vms nsricus, Cricetus, Al- 
 pinus feu Marmotta; the cavia cobaya, or cuniculus Ameri- 
 cans, the Guinea-pig ; the agat'i, and paca of Brafil ; the 
 mus Norivegicus, oileming; the gUs Gtjneii^ or the red; the 
 mus Indieus, &c, 
 Anomalous Quadrupeds — To thefe feverat kinds, the fol- 
 lowing anomalous ones muft alfo he added, 
 (j) Such four-footed viviparous animals, as have a Iongifh 
 fnout, with their feet divided into many claws, and toes, and 
 having teeth; as the echinus tcrrejlr'u, or common urchin, 
 or hedge-hog ; erhtuceus Indieus albus ; tatu or armadillo 
 prima of Marcgrave ; tatuete of Brafil, or the fecond fpecies 
 of the armadillo, according to Marcgrave : tatu apara, his 
 third fpecies of armadillo ; Tatu MujttUnuis Sec. Reg. Muf. 
 the weafcl-headcd flr?/W/Y/fl ; tcilpa, the mole, warp, or mold- 
 warp ;and the mt/S'antneus, fhrew, hardylhrew, ftirew-moufe. 
 
 (2) Quadrupedous and viviparous animals with a Iongifh 
 fnout, having their feet divided into many claws or toes, 
 but without teeth; as the tamandua-guaca of Braid, Marc- 
 gravii ; urfus formicarius Cardani, the great ant-hear ; the 
 tamanduats of Brafil, or Marcgra\e the leiler ant-bear. 
 
 (3) Anomalous flying Quadrupeds, with a fhorter fnout, and 
 their feet divided as above; being of the bat-kind, or 
 flitter-mice, ot which there are of ieveral fixes and different 
 forms. 
 
 {4) There is one very anomalous animal WW&has hut three 
 claws on each foot ; and that is the A'i, or ignavus of Marc- 
 grave, the floth or fluggard. 
 
 (5) Viviparous and fanguineous Quadrupeds, breathing with 
 lungs, but having only one ventricle in the heart; as tho 
 rana aquatica, the frog or frofh ; raw arborca, fu ranuncu- 
 lus viridis, the fmall tree or green frog ; bufo, fverubeta, tho 
 toad ; tejludo, the tortoife, in Greek ; of thefc there 
 are land and water ones, and many different fpecies in foreign 
 parts. See Tortoise. 
 
 (6) Oviparous Quadrupeds, with a long tail ftrctched out 
 horizontally, fuch are the li/.ard-kind ; as lacertus omnium 
 maximus, the crocodile; cordylus, five caudiverbera, uro~ 
 mafrix Gracis, larger than the green lizard ; iapuyaxin 
 Nova? Hifpania ; lacertus orbicularis of Herii-tudL-z ; lacer- 
 tus vulgaris, the common eft, fwift, or newt; lacer- 
 tus viridis, the green lizard; lacertus fucetanus Aldrovan- 
 di, at Rome and Naples called the tarantula ; Ltcertus 
 Indieus, called fe;iembi and inguana ; lacertus Braji!ienfn y 
 called tejuguacu, and temapara by Marcgrave ; the tara- 
 guira, ameira, taruguico Ayatraba, Amerieima, Curapopepa-, 
 Teiunbum, &C. of Marcgrave ; the lacertus Indieus ; the 
 fcincus, or croeodilus terrejlris ; the feps, or lacerta chal- 
 cidt'ea, a kind of footed ferpent ; flc/lio, the fwift, or 
 fpotted lizard ; falamandra call'd the Julamandra aquatica, 
 the water eft ; lacerta volans Indica ; and the ebamaleou, or 
 camel ion. 
 
 QUADRUPLE, a fum or number multiplied by four, or 
 
 taken four times. 
 Quadruple is particularly ufed for a gold coin, worth four 
 times as much as that whereof it is the Qttadruple. 
 The Quadruple of the Spanifh piflole is a piece of four piftolcs, 
 worth about three pounds twelve ihillings_lterling, called alio 
 the double doublcon. 
 
 The Quadruple of the louis d'or is only equal to two louis 
 d'ors or French pifloles, or one pound thirteen ihillings 
 fterling. See Pistole. 
 QUjE plura, a writ that anciently lay where Inquifition 
 had been made by an efcheator, of fuch lands or tenements as 
 any man died feifed of, and all was fuppofed not to be found 
 by the office. 
 
 This writ was to enquire what more land:; or tenements the 
 party died feifed of. — But it is now made ufelefs by taking 
 away the court of wards and offices. 
 QU./F, fervitia. See Per qua fervitia. 
 
 QU./ESTA, in our ancient writers denotes an indulgence, or 
 rcmilfion of penance ; expofed to fale by the popes. See In- 
 dulgence. 
 
 QU^STIONARII*, in our ancient law-books, were peo- 
 ple who went about with indulgences from door to door, 
 defiring charity cither for themfeives or others. 
 
 * Matt. Weft obferves, 1240, that the king, Terram fuavs per 
 Papalet Quxitionariof, debauperari, &c. permijtt. 
 
 QU^STUS*, inlaw, is that eftate, or thofe eMs which s 
 man bath by acquilition, or purchafc ; in contxadiftin£tion to 
 heereditas, which is what he hath bydefcent. See Acq^uest 
 and Goods. 
 
 * Glanv. lib. vii. ant habet hrtrcditatem tantam, w/ quEitum 
 
 tantum, out b&i cditatcm & qua'fhun. 
 
 QUAKERS, a religious fec~h who made their appearance 
 
QUA 
 
 QUA 
 
 In England, during the time of the inter-regnum. 
 They took their origin from George Fox, an illiterate perfon, 
 born at Draiton in Lcicefterfhire; and by pforeffion a {hoe- 
 makcr. 
 
 The accounts of thofe times tell us, that as he wrought at his 
 trade, he ufed to meditate much on the fcriptures ; which, 
 with his folitary courfe of life, improving his natural melan- 
 choly, he began at length to have a fort of vifions ; and, in 
 confequence thereof, fet up tor a preacher. 
 The new prophet propofed but tew articles of faith; he dwelt 
 moftly on morality; preached mutual charity, the love of 
 God, and a deep attention to the inner motions and fecret 
 workings of the fpirit — He would have a fimple wodhip, and 
 religion without any ceremonies; making it a principal point 
 to wait in profound filencc, the motion and direction of the 
 holy fpirit. 
 
 The genius of the times, the novelty of the doctrine, and 
 the great appearance of devotion in the man, foon gained him 
 difciples ; and fame unufual fhakings 'and convulfions which 
 they were feized withal at their firtt meeting*, procured them 
 the appellation £hiaktrs. 
 
 They profefs a great auftcrity of behaviour ; a ftngular pro- 
 bity and uprightnefs in their dealings ; a dernurenefs and gravi- 
 ty of countenance ; a cold nets and fparingnefs of difcourfe, 
 to have time to weigh what they fay ; a great deal of frugality 
 in their tables, and a remarkable plainnets in their drefs. 
 They declaim much againft the intereftcd views of the Eiu'lifh 
 minifters ; they blame all war, and fet afidc all ufe of oaths, as 
 prohibited under the gofpel. 
 
 According to the genius of rifing fedts, an eager zeal at firft 
 3ed them to fome extravagancies : they would run about the 
 Greets naked ; and were frequently put in prifon for interrupt- 
 ing the minifters in fervice time; 
 
 One of their company, Naylor, is faid to have had the im- 
 piety to allow his followers to call him fon of God, fon of 
 jufticc, and king of Ifrael ; to ftrew garments before him, 
 and hail him at his entry into Briftol, with Hofarina fon of 
 David. He had his trial for the fame, and was whipped for 
 blafphemy, and even excommunicated by the reft. 
 Eefidc other penalties inflicted on them, they were laughed at, 
 and rallied in writing, and expofed on the theatre : but they 
 'defpifed alike both the prefs and the prifon, and formed their 
 feci:, in fpite ot all oppoiition of both ; and under the direction 
 of Fox, Dewfbury, and others, they grew from a Ioofe,undi(ci- 
 plined multitude, into a regular body, with ftated laws and 
 polity ; which they retain with great ccconomy to this day. 
 The modern Quakers retain nothing of the extravagancies 
 charged on their leaders; having approved themfelvcs a fober, 
 quiet people, of exemplary morals, and remarkably charitable 
 and friendly to each other. 
 
 Their doctrines are not eafily collected ; at Icaft, not Cafily 
 Teprefented out of their own terms, which appear fomewha't 
 ambiguous. 
 
 They hold Chrift to be a light which hath lighted every man ; 
 and that whoever will foberly and fcrioufly turn into himfelt' 
 ■with a fincere defire to know and practife his duty, will not 
 fail to find there a fufficient director ; a ray from the fountain 
 of light illuminating the underftanding, and affifting to di- 
 fringuifh good from evil. 
 
 They add, that fuch as follow the directions and convicti- 
 ons of this light, fhall be holy and acceptable to God; and 
 that this was the end of Chrift's coming into the world — That 
 fo far as they follow this light, they Ih all be infallible ; and 
 that it is not opinions, or fpeculations, or notions of what 
 is true, or fubfenptions of articles or formula's of faith, how 
 foundly foever worded, that make a man a true believer or 
 achriftian ; but a conformity of 'mind and practice to the will 
 of God, according to the manifeftation and dictates of this 
 tiivine principle of light within them. 
 
 Our Savimir's injunction about baptifm they underftand in a 
 figurative fenfe, of a converfion and change of the heart ; 
 and wholly neglect the outward fign — Water-baptifm they 
 hold was only John's ; that it was no more than a type 
 or figure, fitted for the infant-Irate of the gofpel : and 
 therefore is now ufelefs, in a difpenfation, which is fpiritual 
 and inward. 
 
 The fame they hold of the fupper ; alledging, that both allude- 
 to old jewifh practices, and were ufed as types or fignifications 
 of a near and accomplishing work — They add, that the com- 
 munion of faints confifts only in a participation of the fame 
 divine principle, fhewing itfelf in an unity of fpirit. 
 As to miniftry and ordinances, they deny that any are 
 to be ufed of man's wit, or will, or carnal invention; or 
 imitation ; or other than what the inward principle directs 
 them to— Accordingly, they have no perfons fet apart for the 
 miniftry; but without diftihetion of quality or fex, everyone 
 who is of fober life, and approved convention, and believes 
 him or herfelf culled or moved thereto, is permitted to fpeak 
 in thetr aliemblies; 
 
 Theyuwn the fcriptures to be given by divine infpiration, 
 and allow them the appellation of the form of found words ; 
 Vol. II. 
 
 but they refute to call them die word of God, as being a deno- 
 mination properly attributed to Chrift alone — They add, that 
 what makes them the more fcrupulous in this refpectis, that 
 people are apt to be hereby led to think that if they have the 
 fcriptures, they have all ; and fo look for no farther word or 
 light. 
 
 They acknowledge the holy three that bear record in heaven, 
 father, word, and fpirit ; but they reject the fehool- terms, tri- 
 nity, diftincf, perfons,- hypoftafes, 6>. as not fcriptural, and 
 as apt to convey too grots ideas. 
 
 They have been even charged with denying the incarnation,' 
 our Saviour's humanity, divinity, plenary tatisfaction, and 
 the refurrection of the dead : but this is injurious to tl.em * 
 and all that can be juftly faid, is, that they do not allow of 
 them in the fame tenfc, or fpeak of them in the fame terms, 
 as is commonly done among others.— They allow the incar- 
 nation, and that the Godhead dwelt bodily in Jefus; and vet 
 many of them fay, there is no Chrift but what is within thcrn : 
 whence it fhould feem their notion of the incarnation only 
 implied this, that the light, which they call the Chrift with- 
 in, dwelt in the man jefus Chrift fully— Their reafoning, 
 here, is, that Chrift as God, not being divifible, the meafure 
 or manifeftation of the fpirit of Chrift in us, is a manifefta- 
 tion of the fame Chrift which dwelt bodily and fully in the 
 man Jefus Chrift. 
 
 They are fdent as to the hypoftatical union ; and fome of 
 them are charged with allegorizing away the whole hiftorv of 
 the crucifixion, the refurrection, and afcenfion ; though their 
 beftand moft approved writers have been very explicit in their 
 acknowledgment of the reality of this hiftory. 
 They decline the ufe of modes or forms of civility : expref- 
 fing their refpect to their fuperiors no other way but by obey- 
 ing all juft laws under their government. 
 
 The fyfterri of ^uakerifm is laid down in fifteen thefes, by 
 Robert Barclay, in a well writ apology addrefied to king 
 Charles II. Their hiftory, writ in Low Dutch bv Wiliam 
 Sewel, and fmce tranfiatcd into Englifh," traces them from the 
 beginning to theyear 17 1 7 — A hiftory of this people was 
 alfo publilhed An. 1695, by Gerard Croefe ; but that author 
 is by them accufed as having mifreprefentcd facts, and in many 
 refpects done them injuftict; 
 
 As to dilcipline and polity • the affairs of the communion! 
 are all managed under a democratica! government, by rules 
 eftabliftied by common confent; and this principally at their 
 meetings, whereof they have many kinds ; viz. monthly, 
 quarterly, yearly, feeond day's meetings t meetings of fuffer- 
 ingSi tfe. 
 
 Their monthly and quarterly meetings are held in their re- 
 fpective counties — To thefe deputies are fent from the feveral 
 particular meetings— Here enquiry is made into the ftate of 
 each meeting; who ftand faft to the rules and orders,- and 
 who backflide ; who pay tithes, and church rates, and who 
 tufter for non-payment of either; who are married by priefts, 
 ts'e. and accordingly they proceed to cenfure, or encou- 
 rage — Here, too, they excommunicate; and here receive again 
 into communion ; of all which things exact reo-ifters^are 
 kept. 
 
 From thefe meetings appeals lie to their yearly ones, which 
 are always held in London, and confift of three orders or 
 clafles; viz. reprefentatives fent from the quarterly meetings; 
 correfpon dents for the feveral counties, and foreign ountries; 
 and minifters, or preachers, — Hither are tranfmitted accounts 
 of what has been tranfaaed in all the monthly and quarterly 
 meetings over the world— Here are meafures concerted, and 
 directions given as to behaviour about tithes, and rates, pro- 
 viding for the poor, compofmg differences, tiff.— Here public 
 accounts are audited, and proper inftructions given to the de- 
 puties to be obferved at their return,- and a yearly epiftle of 
 admonitions difpatehed to be read in all their monthly and 
 quarterly meetings throughout the world. 
 The fecond days meetings is a ftanding committee confiffing 
 of the principal preachers in and about the city, who meet 
 every mondayi to concert particular cafes, and exigencies re- 
 lating to the body happening between the yearly meetings ; 
 particularly to examine, approve, licenfe, CjV. all books prin- 
 ted in their behalf. 
 
 The meeting of fufferings is held every week, and confifts of 
 the correfpondents for each county — Its bufmefs is to receive 
 complaints from fuch as have fuffered for non-payment of 
 tithes and rates, and to procure them relief, either by fending 
 them money, for which they have a fettled fund, or by folli- 
 citing their caufes above, or both. 
 QJJALE Jus, was an ancient writ judicial, which lay where 
 a religious perfon had judgment to recover land; before exe- 
 cution was made of the judgment. 
 
 This writ was ifiued forth to the efcheator between judgment 
 and execution, to enquire whether the religious perfon had 
 right to recover, or whether the judgment were obtained by 
 collufion between the demandant and tenant; to the intent 
 that the true lord were not defrauded. 
 
QUA 
 
 QUALIFICATOR, in the canon-la*, a divine appointed 
 to qualify, or declare the qualitv of, a proportion brought 
 before an ccclcfiaitical tribunal ; chiefly before the inquiii- 
 tion. , , , . 
 
 the qualtfcators of the office are not judges ; they only givi 
 
 ' their fentiments on the propofitions prefented to them— It is 
 the inquifitors that judge. 
 
 QUALITY, Qjialitas, that affection of a thing whence 
 it is denominated fuchj or that which occafions a thing to 
 afFefl our fenfes in this or that manner, and gives it this or 
 that denomination. 
 
 Thus, that power in fire, whatever it be, whereby it excites 
 in us the fenfation of heat, face it is that whence the tire is 
 denominated hot, is called the ApSfJr.of fire. 
 The word Quality, QunRtas, is faid to have been firft intro- 
 duced into the Latin by Cicero : till his time the Romans 
 ftudioully avoided ufing a term which denoted an nbftradt , 
 and in lieu thereof, only confidered the concrete, figmhed by 
 S$uak— The like is obferved of the ancient Greeks, who did 
 not ufe nj&fj but nm. 
 
 Quality, it is to be obferved, is an ambiguous term ; and has 
 been applied to fome things which ought rather to have 
 been looked upon as ftatcs of matter, or affcmblages of feveral 
 Qtialitiis; as life, health, beauty, Uc. 
 There are, alfo, other attributes, as fize, fhape, motion, 
 and reft, ufually reckoned among Qualities, which might 
 more conveniently be ranked among the primary modes of the 
 parts of matter ; fince from thefc fimple attributes all the 
 Qualities are derived. 
 
 The ancient fchool philofophers diftinguifh Quality in the ge 
 neral, which they call melhaphyfical and prmlicammtal Qua- 
 lity ; into effcatial and accidatal— The moderns, more uiual- 
 ly, divide it into fpirilual and corporeal. 
 Spiritual Qualities, or Qualities of thi foul, are af- 
 fections of the mind, confidered as in this, or that ha- 
 bitude or difpofition— Of thefe they make two kinds ; the 
 one belonging to the underllanding, the other to the will : 
 of the former kind are knowledge, opinion, certainty, 
 doubting, lit. Of the latter, are all the moral virtues and 
 vices. 
 
 Corporeal or phyftcal Qualities, are what we chiefly confider 
 under this denomination, and to which the definition above 
 laid down is accommodated. 
 
 Philofophers are divided as to the nature of thefc Qualities, 
 or what they arc in the body— The general language of 
 the peripatetic fchool, is, that they are thi. gs diftinct from the 
 bodies themfelves ; and are fuperadded to them, or flow from 
 their fubftantial forms : on which principle, they hold Qua- 
 lities to be real, and denominate them accidents ; fuppofing 
 them to be inherent in fubftances, though not in the rela- 
 tion of parts, but to be fuftained thereby as in a fubject, and 
 incapable of fubfifting without them — In effect, the Tho- 
 raifts define Qualities to be accidents following or arifing from 
 the form; in the fame manner as quantity is an accident fol- 
 lowing or arifing from the fubftance. 
 
 The moderns abfolutely explode the notion of Qualities di- 
 flina from the body : and infift, that the powers whereby 
 bodies excite in us the ideas of fuch Qitalities are no other 
 than the mechanical affections of the bodies themfelves, viz. 
 the figure, magnitude, motion, Ejii, of the parts whereof they 
 confift. 
 
 The principal confidcrations infilled on by the retainers to 
 real Qualities are, that thefe powers may be actually fepara- 
 ted from the fubftances they inhere in ; as we fee in light, 
 heat, CSV. That from thefe very Qualities confidered as fo 
 many determinations there arifes a very great divcrfity in bo- 
 dies : and that bodies, according to the diverfity of their Qua- 
 lities, affect our fenfes very differently. 
 The adherents to the experimental way, on the contrary, 
 account for all the Qiialitiis of bodies from mechanical 
 caufes. 
 
 Thus all the phenomena of a clock, the motion of its 
 wheels, its hands, &c. whereby it ftrikes the hour, points 
 the minute, day, moon's age, csV. do all evidently arife 
 from the fingle fpring; which we never imagine to have 
 any particular powers whereby it fhould be enabled to make 
 fuch difcoveries j nor any other principle but that one of cla- 
 fticity — Again, when the fmith who firft invented locks and 
 keys, had made his firft lock, it was only a piece of iron, 
 forced into a particular fhape; and when, afterwards, he 
 made a key to it, that alfo, confidered in itfelf, was no- 
 thing but a piece of iron of a determinate figure ; but as 
 thefe two pieces of iron might now be applied to one ano- 
 ther, after a certain manner, and, as there was a congruity 
 betwixt the wards of the lock and thofe of the key, they 
 now each obtained a new capacity ; and it became a prin- 
 cipal part of the notion and definition of a lock, that it wa 
 capable of being made to open or fhut, by that other piece of 
 iron called a key ; and it was looked on as a peculiar fa- 
 culty and power in the key to be fit to open and Hiut the 
 
 QUA 
 
 lock — An j yet by thefe new attributes there was not added 
 any. real or phyiical entity, either to the lock or the key ; 
 each of them remaining the lame piece of iron, juft fo Ihaped, 
 as it was before. And, again, when the fmith made other 
 keys of different fi7.es, or with different wards ; though the 
 firft lock could not be opened with any of thofe keys, yet, 
 that indifpofition was nothing new in the luck, or diflmct 
 from the figure it had before thefe keys were made. 
 Why, then, may we not conceive, as to fenfible Qita/ities, 
 that though, by virtue of a certain congruity or incongruity 
 in point of figure, texture, or other mechanical properties, 
 the portions of matter they modify are enabled to produce 
 various effects, on account whereof the bodies arc faid to be 
 endowed with Qualities ; yet, thefe are not in the hodics 
 endowed with them, any real or diftinct entities, or differing 
 from the matter itfelf of fuch a determinate bignefs, fhape, 
 and other mechanical modifications ? 
 
 Thus, though the modem goldfmiths and refiners reckon it 
 among the moft difringuifhed Qitalities of gold, that it is dif- 
 foluble in aquarcgia, whilft aquafortis will not work upon it; 
 yet thefe attributes are not in the gold any thing diftinct from 
 its peculiar texture; nor is the gold we have now of any 
 other nature than it was in Pliny's time, when aqua fortis and 
 aqua rcgia were unknown. 
 
 If another menllruum, of which Mr. Eoyle fuggcfls he was 
 pofleffed, fhould be brought into ufe to diliblve pure gold in 
 part, and change it into a different metalline body; there 
 would then ariic another new property, whereby to diftin- 
 guifh this from other metals : yet the nature of gold is nut 
 at all different now from what is was before the difcovery of 
 this laft menftruum. 
 
 There are bodies neither cathartic nor fudorific, with fome of 
 which gold being joined acquires a purgative virtue, and 
 with others a power to produce fweat. — Nature hcrieif fame- 
 times produces things that have no relations to others : and 
 art, efpecially if aliiftcd by chemiftry, may caule fo many 
 new productions, that no man can tell, but the moft lamiliar 
 bodies may have multitudes of Vitalities he dreams not of 3 
 which will hardly be imagined real phyiical entities. 
 We all know that the fun hath a power to harden clay, fof- 
 ten wax, melt butter, thaw ice, turn water into vapour, 
 make air expand itfelf in wcather-glafles, contribute to 
 blanch linnen, render the white Ikin of the face Iwarthy, and 
 mowed grafs yellow, ripen fruit, hatch the eggs of iilk-wtrms, 
 caterpillers, csV. and perform many other things, fome of 
 which feem contrary to others ; yet thefe are not diftinci: 
 powers, or faculties in the fun, but only the production of its 
 heat, diverfificd by the different textures of the body it chances 
 to work on, and thecondition of the other fubftances concerned 
 in the operation — And, therefore, whether or no the fun, in 
 fome cafes, has any influence at all diftinct from its light and 
 heat, we fee that all the phenomena mentioned, are produci- 
 ble by the heat of common fire, duly applied and regu- 
 lated. 
 
 Some of the ancients, and particularly the Peripatetics, have 
 diftinguifhed Qualities into fenfible and occult. 
 Senftble, or mamftft Qualities, arc thofe arifing from 
 certain modifications of matter, and which become imme- 
 diately the objects of our fenfes — Such arc all thnie above men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Though, in ftricrnefs, thofe only are faid to be fenfible Qua- 
 lities which affect fome one fenfe alone ; as colour does the 
 eye, found the ear, t£c. 
 
 Thefe are fometimes, alfo, called tangible Qualities, by rcafoo 
 that they only produce their effect, i. e. excite their idea in us 
 when contiguous, or in contact with the organ. 
 Occult Qualities, are certain latent powers arifing from the 
 fpecific forms of things, whereof no rational folutiuii can be 
 be given on any principles of phyfics. 
 
 Senfible Qualities are ufually fubdivided into primary and fi* 
 condary. 
 
 Primary, or general Qu alities, are fuch as are found in all 
 bodies ; or which agree to all matter, confidered as matter, 
 and therefore to the elements themfelves — Such are ex- 
 tension, figure, motion, reft, folidity, impenetrability, and 
 number. 
 
 Secondary, or particular Qualities, are fuch as rcfult from 
 a composition or mixture of elements, and do not agree to 
 body as body, but as a mixt — Such are light, heat, cold, 
 colour, found, taftc, fmell, hardnef , foftnets, fluidity, fitm- 
 nefs, roughnefs, fmoothnefs, opacity, tranfparency, cjfr. 
 According to Ariftotle and the Peripatetics, the primary, 
 or elementary Qiialities, are thoie of the four elements 
 themfelves ; viz. heat, cold, moifture, anddynefs. 
 The fccondaiy Qitalities, according to the fame, are all tho 
 reft ; which are combinations or alfemblages of the former 
 elementary ones; as colour, odour, tafte, is'c. 
 To give an idea of AriftotJe's method of accounting for 
 thefe fecondary Qualities from his primary ones, we fhall in- 
 ftance in his accoun; of colour— All colours then, fays he, 
 
 are> 
 
QUA 
 
 QUA 
 
 are generated of a mixture of the four elementary Qualities: 
 white, e. gr. is produced when the humidity furmounts the 
 heat, as in old men, whofc hair grows grey : black is pro- 
 duced when the humidity dries oft, as in walls, citterns, £sf& 
 red, &c. 
 
 Among the fchool-philofophers We meet with other divi- 
 fions of Qualities ; as nftive, and pajftve ; real and inten- 
 tional* 
 
 jfjfive Qualities, are thofe by virtue whereof effects and 
 operations are actually produced on other bodies duly diipo- 
 fed with refpect thereto— Such are the heat of fire, the moi- 
 fture of water, &c. 
 
 Pajftve Qualities arc thofe whereby bodies are difpofed 
 to receive the action of others — Such are inflammability 
 in oil, &c. 
 
 Real Qualities are thofe which remain in the fubjecl: ; and 
 
 only act on things adjacent thereto — As fire in a piece of iron 
 
 not ignited, iffc. 
 Intentional Qualities are thofe which iJTue from the fub- 
 
 jedf, and operate at a diftance — Such is the light emitted 
 
 from the fun, &c. 
 
 But the moderns are agreed that either all Qualities are real, 
 or all alike intentional — So that the diftinction is imperti- 
 nent. 
 
 However ignorant we may be of the nature of Qiialities, or 
 of the manner of their operation ; yet we know the laws of 
 their intention, and remiffion — Dr Keil demonftrates that 
 every Quality which is propagated in orbem, fuch as light, 
 heat, cold, odour, CSV. has its efficacy increafed, or abated 
 in a duplicate ratio of the diftances from the centre of radia- 
 tion, or exertion of the Quality, reciprocally. 
 Thus, let A (Tab. Geometry, fig, 80. J be a centre from 
 whence any Qitality exerts itfelf round about, according to 
 the right lines A e, A f, c^Y. The efficacy of the Quality, 
 be it heat, cold, odour, cjfY. will be (at equal diftances from 
 A) as the fpiffitude or denfity of tic rays A*, Ac, Ad. 
 But the rays within the inner circle, or rather fpherical fu- 
 perficies, b c d H, when they come to be extended to the 
 other fpherical furface, efgK, will be much lefs clofe than 
 they were before, and that in the reciprocal proportion of 
 the fpaces they take up ; that is, if the outer furface be the 
 double of the inner, the rays there will be but half as thick : 
 But fince fpherical fuperficies are as the fquares of their radii, 
 therefore the efficacy of the Qiiality in the inner furface will 
 be to that of the outer, As Ae fquare, to Ab iquare. 
 Q. E. D. 
 
 Sir Ilaac Newton lays it down as one of the rules of philo- 
 sophizing, that thofe Qualities of bodies which are incapa- 
 ble of being intended and remitted, and which are found to 
 obtain in all bodies wherein the experiment could ever be 
 tried, arc to be efteemed univerfal Qualities of all bodies. 
 See Philosophizing. 
 Chymkal Qualities — One may diftinguifh phyfical Qua- 
 lities^ with Mr Boyle,, into firjl, fecond, and third; to the 
 two 1 aft of which may be referred feveral Qualities not treat- 
 ed of by the writers of phyfical fyftems ; and thefc for di- 
 flin&ion fake, may, fome of them, be ftiied the chymical 
 Qualities of things, becaufc Ariftotle and the fchoolmen, 
 were unacquainted with them, and they have been princi- 
 pally introduced by means of chymical operations and expe- 
 riments : as fumigation, amalgamation, cupellation, vola- 
 tilization, percipitation, csV. 
 
 By thefc operations, among other means, corporeal things 
 come to appear volatile or fixed,, ibluble or infoluble in fome 
 menftrua, amalgamate or unamalgamablc, tJc. and thefe 
 as well deferve the name of Quality, as feveral other attri- 
 butes, to which it is allowed. 
 
 To thefe chymical Qualities fome others might be added, 
 which, becaufe of the ufe that phyficians principally make of 
 them, may be called medical Qualities, whereby fome Jub- 
 ilances received into the human body, are rcfolving, difcuf- 
 fmg, fuppurating, abfterfive, Cifr. For though fome faculties 
 of medicines, as thofe of heating, cooling, drying, attenu- 
 ating, purging, CSV. may be conveniently referred to the 
 firft, fecond, or third Qualities, mentioned by naturaliffs ; 
 whilft others are reckoned occult; yet as feveral of them 
 ought not to be referred to the Qiialities whereto they are 
 often afcribed ; fb the handling of them may be looked upon 
 as a defideratum, and deferves a diftinct place in natural phi- 
 lofophy. 
 
 Cofmical Qualities, fee Cosmical Quality. 
 
 Quality is alfo ufed for a kind of title given to certain 
 
 pcrfons in regard of their territories, fignories, or other pre- 
 
 tenlions. 
 
 Thus the king of Great Britain takes the Qiiality of king of 
 France: the king of Poland that of king of Sweden , the 
 king of Sardinia that of king of Cyprufs and Jerufalcm : 
 the czars of Ruflia and kings of Spain have whole pages of 
 Qualities— The emperor of China affiunes the Qualities of 
 fan of the fun, 
 
 QUAM m ft bene geffent, a cfaufe frequent in letters pa* 
 tent, or grants of offices, to fecure them fo long as the per- 
 fon they are granted to, fhall -not be guilty of abufing the 
 fame. 
 
 Thus, gr . we find it in thofe given to the barons of the 
 exchequer ; where it intimates (hat they fhall hold the fame 
 as long as they fhall behave thcinteives well : which is to be 
 reftrained to matters of their offices ; and Minifies no more 
 than the law would have implied, had the office been granted 
 exprefly for life. 
 
 A grant therefore with this claufe, is equivalent to a <»rant 
 for life* B 
 
 QUANTITY, Quantitas, any thing capable of efti- 
 mation, or menfuration; or, which being compared with an- 
 other thing of the fame kind, may be laid to be greater, or 
 Ids, than it ; equal, or unequal to it. 
 Mathematics is the fcience or doctrine of Quantity. 
 Quantity is a general attribute, applied in a very different 
 manner to things of very different nature ; where it is im- 
 poffible to give any univerfal definition thereof. 
 Qiiantity is applied both to things, and to modes • and this 
 either fingularly, to one ; or plurally, to feveral— In the firft 
 cafe it is called magnitude, in the latter multitude^ 
 Quantity may be reduced to four dalles, vizi 
 
 Moral Quantity, which depends on the manners 
 ot men, and the free determination of their wills — As 
 the prices and value of things ; degrees of dignity and 
 power, good and evil, merit and dement, rewards" and pu- 
 nifhments, dsV. 
 
 Notional Quantity, arifing from the operation of the un- 
 derftanding only— Such as thelargenefs or narrownefs of the 
 capacity of the mind, and its conceptions— In logic, univcr- 
 fals, predicaments, tsfc— In grammar, the Quantity or mea- 
 fure of fyllables, accents, tones, feffc 
 
 Phyfical, or natural Qy avstity, which is of two kinds) 
 I. That which nature ftirniih.es us with in matter, and 
 its extenfion, And, 2. In the powers, and properties of 
 natural bodies ; ae gravity, motion, light, heat, cold, ra- 
 rity, denfitv, fsV. 
 
 Transcendental Qiiaxtity, as duration, the continuation of 
 of any being, exiftencej time, &ct 
 
 Quantity is alfo popularly diftinguifhed into continued and 
 difcrete. 
 
 Continued Quantity, is when the parts are connected to- 
 gether — This, again, is of two kinds : either fucceffvus and 
 improper, as time ; 
 
 Difcrete Quantity, is when the parts whereof it confift?, 
 exift dilfinc~t]y and unconnected together; which makes what 
 we call number*. 
 
 * The notion of continued quantity, and its difference from di- 
 fcrete, appears to fome without foundation — Mr. IVIachin con- 
 siders all mathematical quantity, or that for which any fymbul 
 is put, as nothing elfe but number, with regard to fome mea- 
 fure which is coniidered as one. For that we cannot kuow 
 precifily how much any thing is but by means of number. 
 The notion of continued quantity without regard to any mca- 
 fure is indiitinft and confuied : And tho* fome fpecies of" fuch 
 quantity confider'd phyfically, may be defcribed by motion, 
 as lines by the motion of points, and furfaces by the motion 
 ofline5; yet the magnitudes or mathematical quantities are 
 not made by the motion, but by numbering according to a 
 meafure. Fid. Phil. Tranj. No. 447, p. 228, 
 
 Permanent Quantity is farther diftinguifhable into lennhj 
 breadth, and depth. 
 
 W olfius feenis to give us a more precife notion of mathema- 
 tical r_uanthy, and its two fpecies of difcrete and continued 
 —Whatever h referred to unity in the fame manner as one 
 right line. to .mother, is what we call Quantity ; or number 
 
 in general. 
 
 If, now, the thing be referred to 2 given unit, as 3, it is 
 called a determinate number : if to unity in the general, or 
 at large, it is called a Quantity; which, on this principle', is 
 the fame with indeterminate number. 
 
 Thus, e.jr. the breadth of a river is accounted a Quantity ; 
 If, then, it be enquired how great it is ; to conceive its 
 Quantity we take fome unit at pleafure, and fee the relation 
 of the breadth hereto ; and according to the different unit af- 
 firmed, we exprefs the breadth of the river in a different de- 
 terminate number. 
 
 The breadth of the river, therefore, is a Qttantity conii- 
 dered as referred to a vague unit, or to unitv at large ; but 
 the unit being determined, the thing is underflood by a de- 
 terminate number. 
 
 In this fenfe, algebra is the arithmetic of Quantities. 
 
 Quantity of motion, in mechanics, is of two kinds, viz, 
 of momentary motion, and of entire motion. 
 
 Quantity of entire motion — The Cartefians define the en- 
 tire motion as the momentary one, by the factum of the mafs, 
 or quantity of matter, into the velocity ; but fince motion is 
 a fucccffive being, and has no parts eo-exiitiiig together, its 
 
 Quantity 
 
QUA 
 
 QU A 
 
 foat&ty ought to be eftimated by the aggregate of the feveral 
 parts exifting fticceffively ; and is therefore equal to the factum 
 
 " ' ,. mnmpntS ifltn tllC time. 
 
 elo- 
 
 of the momenta into the time. 
 Quantity of momentary motion, is the factum of the 
 
 city into the mafs; or it is a meafure arifing from the joint 
 confideration of the Qiiantity of matter, and the velocity of 
 the motion of the body ; the motion of any whole being the 
 fum or aggregate of the motion in all its feveral parts, 
 Hence, in a body twice as great as another, moved with an 
 equal velocity, the Quantity of motion is double j if the ve- 
 locity be double alfo, the Quantity of the motion will be 
 quadruple. Hence the Quantity of momentary motion co- 
 incides with what we call the momentum, or impetus of a 
 moving body. 
 
 fa the collilion of bodies, the Quantity of momentary mo- 
 tion, which is found by taking the fum of motions tending 
 the fame way, or their difference if they tend towards con- 
 trary parts, is not at all changed by any aaions of the bodies 
 on one another. 
 Quantity of matter in anybody, is the product of the den 
 jity into the bulk ; or a Quantity arifing from the joint conn 
 deration of its magnitude and denfity. 
 
 As, if a body be twice as denfe, and take up twice as much 
 fpace as another, it will be four times as great. 
 This Quantity of matter is the belt difcoverable by the abfo- 
 lute weight of bodies. 
 Quantity infinite— Though the idea of magnitude nfinitcly 
 great, or fuch as exceeds any affignable Quantity, does in- 
 clude a negation of limits; yet are not all fuch magnitudes 
 equal amongft themfelves ; but befides infinite length, and 
 infinite area, there are no lefs than three feveral forts of infi- 
 nite folidity ; all of which are quantities fui generis ; and thofe 
 of each fpecies are in given proportions. 
 Infinite length, or a line infinitely long, is to be conftdered. 
 cither as beginning at a point, and fo infinitely extended 
 one way ; or elfe both ways from the fame point : in wtiich 
 cafe the one, which is a beginning of infinity, is one half of 
 the whole, which is the fum of the beginning and cea- 
 fing infinity, or infinity a parte ante, and a parte poft, which 
 is analogous to eternity in time or duration ; in which there 
 is always as much to follow, as is paft any point or mo- 
 ment of time. t 
 Nor does the addition or fubtraction of time, length or 
 fpace of time, alter thecafe* cither as to infinity or eternity 
 Jince neither the one or the other can be any part of the 
 whole. 
 
 As to infinite furface or area, any right line infinitely ex- 
 tended both ways on an infinite plane, divides that plane 
 into equal parts, the one to the right, and the other to 
 the left of the find line ; but if from any point in fuch a 
 plane, two right lines be infinitely extended, fo as to make 
 an angle; the infinite area, intercepted between thefe infi- 
 nite ii<dit lines, is to the whole infinite plane, as the arch of 
 a circle drawn on the point of concourfe of thofe lines as a 
 centre, intercepted between the fatd lines, is to the circum- 
 ference of the circle; or as the degrees of the angle to the 
 360 degrees of a circle. 
 
 For an example— Two infinite right lines meeting at a 
 right angle on an infinite plane, do include a quarter part 
 of the whole infinite area of fuch a plane : if two parallel 
 infinite lines be fuppofed drawn on fuch an infinite plane, 
 the area intercepted between them will be likewife infinite 
 but at the fame time it will be infinitely lefs than the fpace 
 intercepted between two infinite lines, that are inclined, 
 though with never fo fmall an angle, for that in the one cafe 
 the given finite diftance of the parallel lines diminifhes the 
 infinity in one degree of dimenlion ; whereas in a fe£b 
 there is infinity in both dimenfions; and confequently the 
 Quantities are one infinitely greater than the other, and there 
 h no proportion between them. 
 
 From the fame confideration arift three feveral fpecies of in- 
 finite fpace or folidity ; for a parallelepiped, or a cylinder 
 infinitely long, is greater than any finite magnitude, how 
 ereat foever ; all fuch folids fuppofed to be formed on 
 given bans, are in proportion to one another, as thofe baft 
 But if two of thofe three dimenfions are wanting, as in 
 the fpace intercepted between two parallel planes infinitely 
 extended, and at a finite diftance ; or with infinite length 
 and breadth, it have a finite thicknefs ; all fuch folids fhali be 
 as the given finite dittances one to another. 
 But thefe Quantities, though infinitely greater than the other, 
 are yet infinitely lefs than any of thofe wherein all the three 
 dimenfions are infinite — Such are the fpaces intercepted be- 
 tween two inclined planes infinitely extended; the fpace 
 intercepted by the furface of a cone, or the fides of a py- 
 ramid, likewife infinitely continued, &c- of all which, not 
 withftanding the proportions one to another, and to the 
 w* «»v, or vaft abyfs of infinite fpace (wherein is the locus of 
 all things that are, or can be) or to the folid of infinite 
 length, breadth, and thicknek taken all manner of ways) 
 
 are eafdy riflignable — For the fpace between two phnes i? 
 to the whole, as the angle of thofe planes to the 360 ce* 
 grees of the circle. As for cones aud pyramids, they are 
 as the fpherical furface intercepted by them, is to the fur- 
 face of the fphere ; and therefore cones are as the verfed 
 fines of half their angles, to the diameter of the circle: 
 thefe three forts of infinite Quantity are analogous to :t 
 line, furface, and folid ; and, like them, cannot be compared 
 or have any proportion one to another. See the article 
 Infinite. 
 
 Quantities, hi algebra, are indetrrminate numbers, or 
 things referred to unity in general. See Number. 
 Quantities are property the fuhjedt of algebra ; which is whol- 
 ly convcrfant in the computation of fuch Quantities. ■ 
 Given Ghiant'itees are ufed to be noted by the firft letters of 
 the alphabet a, b t c, d, &c. the Quantities fought by the 
 laft z, y, x, &c. See Characters. 
 
 Algebraical Quantities are chiefly of two kinds ; pcfitive, and 
 
 Pofitive or affirmative Quantities Kre thofe which anr 
 greater than nothing; and which are affected with the fign 
 -^-prefixed ; or fuppofed to be fo. 
 Negative, or privative Quantities are thofe lefs than no- 
 thing; which arc affec-ted with the fign — prefixed. 
 Hence, I. Since -J- is the fign of addition, and — the fign 
 of fubtraction ; a pofitive Quantity is produced by ad- 
 ding any real Qiiantity to nothing; e. gr. O ~h 3 — -f" 3 i 
 and o~\-a=-\-a. And a privative Quantity is produced 
 by fubtracting any real Quantity out of nothing ; e. gr. 
 0 — 3= — 3 ; and o — a— — a. 
 
 For an illultration— Suppofe when you are quite deftirutc of 
 money, fomebody gives you an hundred pieces ; you have then 
 an hundred pieces more than nothing ; which pieces confti- 
 tute a pofitive Quantity. 
 
 On the contrarv, fuppofe you have no money, yet owe an 
 hundred pieces ; you have then an hundred pieces lefs than 
 nothing; for you muff pay an hundred pieces to have juft 
 nothing. This debt is a negative Quantity. 
 Thus in local motion, progrefs may be called a pofitive 
 Quantity, and regrefs a negative one ; becaufe the firfl in- 
 creafes, and the fecond diminifhes the fpace palled over. 
 And in geometry, if a line drawn towards any part be ac- 
 counted an affirmative Quantity ; another the contrary way 
 will be a negative one. 
 
 Privative Quantities, therefore, are the defects of the po- 
 fitive Quantities whereby they are understood ; and, confe- 
 quently are no real Quantities : for we meafure the de- 
 feat by the Quantity defective - 3 and thus it becomes intel- 
 ligible. 
 
 Since one defect may exceed another, (e. gr. if feven be want- 
 ing, the defect is greater than if only three be wanting) and 
 fince privative Qiiantities arc the defect of real Quantities; 
 one privative Quantity being taken a certain number of times, 
 may exceed another. Wherefore privative Quantities are 
 homogeneous to one another. 
 
 But fince the defects of a pofitive Quantity taken any num- 
 ber of times can never exceed the pofitive Quantity, but grow 
 ftill the more deficient ; privative Quantities are heteroge- 
 neous to pofitive ones. 
 
 Since, then 3 privative Quantities are heterogeneous to pofi- 
 tives ones, and homogeneous to privative ones ; there can be 
 no ratio between a privative and a pofitive Qi/antity, but 
 there is a ratio between privative ones. E. gr. — 3° ■— 5 a : : 3 
 : 5. The ratio, here, is the fame as if the Quantities were 
 pofitive. But it mav be noted, that between 1 and — I, 
 and between — I and 1, the ratio is very difFerent. 
 Commenfurable Quantities. See Commensurable. 
 Compound Quantities. See the article Compound. 
 Exponential Quantity. Seethe article Exponential. 
 Like Quantity. See the article Like. 
 Simple Quantities. See the article Simple. 
 Tranfeendental Quantities. See Transcendental. 
 Variable Quantities. See the article Variable. 
 Addition of Quantities. — 1°, If the Quantities denoted 
 by the fame letter be affected with the fame fign, the num- 
 bers prefixed to them are added as in common arithmetic. 
 2°. If they be affected with different figns, the addition is 
 changed into fubtraction ; and to the remainder is prefixed 
 the fign of the greater. 
 
 3 0 . Quantities denoted by difFerent letters, are added by means 
 of the fign -f- ; as in the following example : 
 
 4a + 2 b — 7.c — 5^ — g a~b 
 5 a _ 2 b-\- bc + ld— ig c 
 
 ) a+ 4 c — 3>d- 
 
 % — b-yc 
 
 Subtraction ^Quantities. See Substr action. 
 Multiplication and Dtmfm of Quantities. See Multi- 
 plication and Division. i 
 Combinntm cf Quantities. See Combination. 
 
QUA 
 
 QUA 
 
 If a pofitive Qiiant'tty be mtiltipl'ed, or divided by another 
 pofitive Quantity, the refult is alio a poiitive Quantity. 
 
 2. If a negative Quantity be multiplied, or divided by a 
 pofitive, the re-fult is a negative. 
 
 3. If a negative Quantity be multiplied) or divided by ano- 
 ther negative, the refult is a pofitive. 
 
 ' 4. If a pofitive Quantity be multiplied, or divided by a nega- 
 tive, the refult is a negative Quantity, 
 
 Qu antitv, in grammar, denotes the meafure, or magnitude 
 of the fyllables'; or, that which determines them to be 
 called long, or fhort. 
 
 This Quantity is the object of profody ; and it is the regard 
 to this that dittinguiflies verfc from profe. 
 The ceconomy and arrangement of the Quantities, i. e. 
 the diftribution of long and fhort fyllables, make what we 
 call the number. 
 
 The Quantities are ufed to be diftinguifhed among gramma- 
 rians by the characters W Jhort, and — long. 
 ■The proportion between the long and fhort fyllables may be 
 generally fixed the fame as that between the crotchet and 
 quaver in mufic; viz. as 2 to 1. See Time. 
 In moft languages there are fome fyllables whofe Quantities 
 vary, as the meafure requires ; as in die Englifh record] and 
 record. 
 
 Some authors confound the Qitantities with the accent : but 
 the difference is very evident ; the former being the length 
 or fhortnefs of a fyllable, the latter the railing or falling of the 
 voice. fr\ 
 From two Quantities, viz. long and fhort fyllable?, arise all 
 the varieties of poetic feet, which arc very great. Horace 
 alone ufes no lefs than twenty-eight. Yet the Greeks went 
 vaftlv beyond the Romans in this relpect — In effect, as many 
 ways as two Qitantities may be varied by compulsion, and 
 tranfpofition from two to fix fyllables, fo many different feet 
 have the Greek poets contrived, and that under diftinct 
 names, to the number of 124. Tho' it Is the opinion of 
 fome of the learned, that poetical numbers may be lufficiently 
 explained from the feet of two or three fyllables, into which 
 the reft may be refolved. 
 
 The feet formed by the antients of the long and fhort fyllables 
 immediately, are the fpor.dec, confiding of two long fyllables ; 
 the pyrrhic, of two lhort onei ; the trochee, of a long and 
 fhort fyllable j and the iambick, of a fhort and long fyl- 
 lable. 
 
 Thofe of three fyllables are the mohffus, confifting of 
 three long fyllables ; the tribrach of three fhort ones ; the 
 daclyl of one long and two fhort fyllables ; and the anapejl of 
 two fhort and one long fyllable. 
 
 The Englifh tongue admits of no feet above two fyllables, 
 though both the Latin and Greek allow of fix. 
 Our heroic verfes coniift of live long and five fhort fyllables 
 intermixed alternately ; though not fo ftridtly but that the 
 order may be difpenfed withal. Dryden varies them with 
 admirable beauty ; frequently his heroic verfe begins with a 
 long fyllable followed by two fhort ones. 
 
 The truth is, the Quantity of the fyllables is but little fixed 
 in the modern tongues ; and there is ftill lefs regard had to it 
 in the compofition of modem verfes — The want of feet, or 
 rather the fhortnefs and uniformity of our feet, makes a world 
 of difference between the numbers of the ancient and mo- 
 dern verfe. Our poets are fettered, and their fetters are fo 
 ihort, confuting; of but two poor links, that it is no wonder 
 they can make no extraordinary motions. 
 The ancients fublifted by their Qitantities alonej'fo well 
 were they diftinguifhed, and fuch a variety and harmony did 
 they afford ! Our Quantities make fuch poor mufic, that we 
 are forced to call in the Gothic aid of rhime to diftinguifh 
 cur verfe from profe. 
 
 Yet have attempts been made to fettleourverfe on the ancient 
 and natural footing o£ Quantities, in cxclufion of rhime, and 
 with fuch fuccefs too, (witnefs the immortal Paradife Lsji) 
 as feems to leave the practice ol rhiming inexcuieabie — The 
 French have likewife attempted the fame in their tongue, 
 particularly Jodelet, and alter him Palquier, Pafferat, and 
 Rapin ; but they have all failed. 
 
 Quantity of a Degree. See the article Degree. 
 
 <^uantity of aneclipfe. See Eclipse. 
 
 OJJANTUM meruit, an action upon the cafe, grounded 
 upon a neceffity to pay a man for doing any thing fo much as 
 it deferve or merit. 
 
 QUARANTAIN*, in old law-books wrote Qitaren- 
 tenf, and Qu aran" ten A, denotes the fpace of forty days. 
 
 * zhtatiior Carucatas terra arabilt'j, cant meat ft in LettgitudtW 
 8 Quarentenas, ts" S Quarentenas in Latitudine. Chart. 
 Withkuu Reg. Merc, apud Ingulf. 
 
 Quarantena in London ponctur pro refpetlu babend. pro 40 
 Dies poji jummonitiantm per brt-ve "Regis ut conj'ulant, (sfc. 
 ji Jibi vidcrixttxpedire. MS. de temp. Ed. 3. 
 The term is borrowed from the French quarentain; and is 
 fometimes ufed for the time of lent. 
 Qy ARAN tain of the in France denotes atruceof forty days 
 appointed by St. Louis, during which it was exprefly 'forbid 
 
 to take any revenge of the relation or friends of people 
 who had fought, wounded, or affronted each other in words. 
 Quarantain is more particularly ufed for the term of forty 
 days, which veffels, coming from places fufpected of 
 contagion, are obliged to wait in certain places ap- 
 pointed, to air themlelves before they come into port. 
 Qu arantain, or Quarantine, Quarantena, in law, 
 denotes a benefit allowed by the laws of England to the 
 widow of a man dying feiled of land; whereby fhe may 
 challenge to continue in his capital mciluage, or chief man- 
 fiou-houle (fo it be not a cattle} for the fpace of forty days 
 after his deceafe. 
 
 If the heir, or any other perfon, attempt to eject her, fhe may 
 have the writ de quarajitena habenda ; which lies for a widow 
 to enjoy her Quarantain. 
 Quarantain is alfo ufed for a meafure or extent of land, 
 
 containing forty perches. 
 QUARANTlA, in the Venetian polity, a court of judica- 
 ture compafed of forty judges. 
 
 The Venetians have an old civil Qiwrantia, a new civil Qiia- 
 rantia, and a criminal Qjyarantia. 
 
 The criminal Qitttraniia takes cognizance of all crimes ex- 
 cept thofe againft the (rate, which belong to the council of 
 ten — The new civil Quarantia judges of appeals made from 
 fentenccs pafled by judges out of the city — 1 he old civil 
 Quara?itia takes cognizance of appeals from ' fentences of 
 fubaltern judges in the city. 
 QJJARE Ejecit infra terminum, a writ which lies for a 
 IefTee in cale he be caft out of his farm before his term tie 
 expired, againft the leffor, or feoffee that ejects him. See 
 Lease. 
 
 It differs from ejectione firmse, in that the former lies 
 where the leffor, after the leafe made, enfeuffees another who 
 ejects the leffee ; whereas the ejectione firma: lies againft any 
 other ftranger that ejects him. 
 
 The effect is the I'zmz in both, viz. the recovery of the 
 relidue of the term. 
 Qjj are Impedit, a writ which lies for him who has pur- 
 chafed an advowfon, againft him that difturbs him in the 
 right thereof, by prefenting a cleric thereto when the church 
 is void. 
 
 It differs from the affife of darrein prefentment, ulttmes pro;- 
 fentationis, which lies where a man or his anceftors formerly 
 prefented ; this other lying for him who is the purchaferhim- 
 iclf — Where a man may have the aflife, he may have this 
 writ ; but not contrary wife. 
 Qjjare In c u m er A v i t, a writ which lies againft the bi- 
 fhop, who, within fix months after the vacancy of a bene- 
 fice, confers it on his clerk, while two others are contend- 
 ing at law for the right of prefenting. See Presenta- 
 tion, &c. 
 
 Qjjare non admisit, a writ which lies againft the bi- 
 fhop for refuting to admit his clerk who has recovered in a plea 
 of advowfon ; on pretence of lapfc, tefc. 
 Quare non permittit, is a writ that lies for one who 
 
 has a right to prefent for a turn againft the proprietary. 
 Qu are obstruxit, a writ that lies for him who having right 
 to pafs through his neighbour's grounds, cannot enjoy the 
 fame by rcaiim the owner has fenced it up. 
 QJJARERA, or Quaratia. Sec Quarry. 
 QUARREL, Querela, in law. See Querela. 
 
 Quarrel feems properly to relate to perfoual actions, or at 
 moft to mixed ones, wherein the plaintiff is called Que- 
 rem* and in all declarations of trefpafs it is faid, Qi^~ 
 ritur. 
 
 Yet if a man rcleafe all Quarrels or Querels (a man's own 
 deed being taken moft ftrongly againft himfeif J Qitarrel in- 
 cludes all actions ; and accordingly all actions, both real and 
 pcrfonal, are hereby releafcd. 
 Q_u a r r e l * of gtafs. Sec the article Quarry. 
 
 * The Word is formed by diminution from the Latin quadra- 
 tiim, or the French quarrc, fquare ; or, p- rhaps, immedi- 
 ately from the Italian quadrello, little fquare. 
 
 QU A R R Y, a place under ground, out of which are dug 
 marble, frce-ftone, flate, Hmc-ftone, or other matters proper 
 for building. 
 
 For quarries of free- ftonc, inmany places they firft opena hole 
 in manner of a well, twelve or fourteen foot in diameter; and 
 the rubbifh drawn out with a windiafs in large ofier bafkets, 
 they heap up all around ; placingtheir wheel, which is to draw 
 up the ftones, thereupon. 
 
 As the hole advances, and their common ladder becomes 
 too fhort, they apply a particular ladder for the purpofe 
 — When they have got through the earth, and are arrived 
 at the firft bank, or ftratuni ; they begin to apply their 
 wheel and bafkets to difcharge the ftones as faft as they dig 
 through them. 
 
 They ufually find fix or (even of thefe different ftrata, or beds 
 of ftones, of" different heights, and ferving for different pur- 
 pofes ; though the number as well as order wherein they fol- 
 low is various. 
 
 10 D A3 
 
t them 
 
 QUA 
 
 As to the towing of the ftone, I e. the freeing it from 
 the bed ; they find that common ftones, at leait the loiter 
 kinds, as they lie, have two grains ; a cleaving grain running 
 parallel with the horizon, and a breaking gram running 
 perpendicular thereto— After uncoping, then, /. e. clear- 
 ing the earth from off it, they obferve by the grain where 
 the ftone will cleave, and there they drive in a good 
 number of wedges till they have thus deft it from the relt 
 of the rock. 
 
 This done, they proceed to break it : in order to which, 
 applying the ruler to it at both ends, (ten, e. gr. or twelve 
 inches a-part, according to the ufes the ftone is intended 
 for) they ftrike a line, and by this cut a little Chan, 
 nel with their ftone-ax ; and in the channel fet five orlix 
 wedges (fuppofing the ftone three or four foot) driving; them 
 in very carefully, with gentle blows, and Bill keeping 
 equally forward. 
 
 Having thus broke the ftone in length, (which they are able 
 to do to half an inch of anv foe) applying a Iquarc to the 
 ftraight fide, they ftrike a line, and proceed as before to 
 break it in breadth. 
 
 This method of drawing is found vaftly preferable to that 
 where the ftones arc broken at random— One load of the 
 former being found to do the bufincfs of a load and an hall 
 of the latter. * - V , 
 
 But it may be obferved, that this cleaving grain being gene- 
 rally wanting in the harder kinds of ftones, to break up thefc 
 in the Quarries, they have great heavy ftone-axes wherewith 
 they work down a deep channel into the ftone, and into tins 
 channel, at the top, lay two iron bars, driving their iron 
 wedges between thefe bars. 
 
 Some in drawing of ftone, efpccially the very hard kinds, 
 make ufc of gun-powder, and with very good cftedt — in 
 order to which, making a fmall perforation pretty deep into 
 the body of the rock, fo as to have that thicknefs of rock 
 over it judged proper to be blown up at once ; at the far- 
 ther end "of the perforation they difpofe a convenient 
 quantity of gun-powder, filling up all the reft with ftones 
 and rubbifh llrongly rammed in, except a little fpace for 
 the train — By this means is the rock blown into feveral 
 pieces, molt of them not too unwieldy for a workman to 
 manage. . L — | - - - 
 
 Quarry*, in glaziery, a pane, or piece of glafs cut in a 
 lozenge, or diamond form. See Glass. 
 
 * The word feems formed by corruption from Quarrel, (which 
 fee) unlefs wc will fuppoie it to come immediately from the 
 French quarre, fquare. 
 
 Quarries or Quarreh of glafs are of two kinds, viz. fquare 
 and long; each whereof is of different fizes, exprcficd by 
 the number of pieces which make a foot of glafs, viz 
 8ths, ioths, I2ths, I5ths, l8ths, and joths ; but all th. 
 fizes are cut to the fame angle, the acute angle being 77" 
 19/ in the fquare gharries, and 67 0 22' in the li 
 ones. 
 
 Quarry, in falconry; is the game or fowl which the 
 
 hawk is in purfuit of, or has killed. 
 Quarry among hunters, is fometimes ufed for part of the 
 
 vifcera of the beaft taken ; given by way of reward to the 
 
 hounds. 
 
 Q_U ART, q. d. fourth, in mufic, fencing, gaming, 
 tic. See Music, tie. 
 
 Quart is particularly ufed for a diminutive meafure, con- 
 taining one fourth or quarter of fome other meafure. See 
 Measure. 
 
 The Englifh Quart is a fourth of a gallon, or two pints ; 
 the Roman Quart, or Quartarius, was the fourth part of 
 their congius. 
 
 The French, from whom we borrow the word, befide; 
 their Quart, or pot of two pints, have various other 
 Quarts, diftinguiftled by the whole whereof they 
 quarters ; as Quart de Muid, and Quart ile BoiJJeau. 
 Muid and Bushel. They have alio their 
 yard, tic. 
 
 Q_U A R T A N, Quartana, in medicine, an intermit- 
 ting fever, or ague, where the fit returns every third day 
 See Fever, Ague, tie. 
 
 It is called Quartan, that is, fourth, by reafon the two 
 fick days are reckoned, which, with the two intermitting ones : 
 make four. 
 
 QU ARTATION, among refiners, a method of purifying 
 gold, by melting three parts of filvcr with one of gold ; and 
 then cafting the mixture into aqua fortis ; which dillblving 
 the filver, leaves the gold at bottom, in form of a black 
 powder. See Refining. 
 
 Qtiartation, is what we more ufually call parting, or the de- 
 part. See Supplement Article Quartatio. 
 Q.U ARTE LOIS, Cartelois, or cortucce, fur- 
 touts, or upper garments with coats of arms quartered 
 
 QUA 
 
 on them, wore by the ancient knights in their military 
 
 expeditions. ' si V. . ' .VI -■-**», t : :r.e- ■ 
 
 Q_U A R T E R, the fourth part of a whole, or integer divided 
 into four equal portions. 
 
 In working of fractions the Quarter is cxprefied by i, three 
 
 Quartcrsby .nmrgarr.l^Li 
 Quarter, in weights, is a fourth part of the quintal, or 
 hundred weight. 
 
 The Quarter is 28 pounds, avoirdupois. 
 Quarter * is alfo a dry meafine containing of corn 8 
 bulhels flriked ; and of coals the fourth part of a chaldron. 
 • ggarhriu* frmdui cm/Mac tSi BuftlBs. Has. Lz. 
 
 are 
 Sei 
 
 Quart of a 
 
 Quarter in law, Quarterium anr.i, is the fourth part 
 of a vear. 
 
 Henc'e the days whereon thofe Quarters ftatedly commence, 
 are called Quarter-days. , 
 Quarter-clays are the 25th of March called Lady-day ; the 
 24th of June, called Midfummer-day ; tile 29th of Septem- 
 ber, called Mkhaclmals-day ; and the 25th of December, or 
 ■ Chriftmafs-day. . 
 Quarter in aftronomy — The moon s period, or lunation, 
 is divided into four ftages, or Quarters ; containing each from 
 " feven to eight days. 
 
 The firft Quarter is from the new moon to the quadrature ; 
 the fecond thence to the full moon, tie. 
 Quarter in heraldry, is fometimes ufed for a fcutcheon, or 
 coat of arms. 
 
 In this fenfe there arc fixteen Quarters required to prove no- 
 bility, in companies or orders where none but nobles aie ad- 
 mitted. 
 
 The word Qiiarters, required as a proof ot nofciiity, la 
 deiived hence, that they ufed anciently to put the 
 coats of arms of the father, mother, grand-lather, and 
 grand-mother, on the four corners of the tomb of the 
 deceafed. — In Flanders and Germany wc frequently fee 
 tombs that have eight, fixteen, and even thirty-two Quar- 
 
 Qu'arter is alfo apolicd to the parts, or members of the firft 
 divilion of a coat* that is quartered, or divided into four 
 Quarters ; as in Tab. Herald, fig. 45. 
 
 The king of Great Britain in the firft Quarter bears gules 
 three lions paliant or, Wc— In the fecond Quarter he bean 
 azure three flowers de lys, tie. ... 
 Franc Quarter, is a Quarter fingle, or alone; which is to 
 poffefs one fourth part of the field. 
 
 This makes one of the honourable ordinaries of a coat. See 
 Ordinary. 
 
 Qu A R T E R in navigation — A Qiiarter of a point, wind, 
 or rhumb, is the fourth part of a cardinal point, wind or 
 rhumb: or of the diftance between two cardinal points, 
 winds, tic 
 
 The Quarter contains an arch of II degrees 15 mi- 
 nutes.— The Quarter is what Wolfius, with regard to the 
 other divifions, calls a fecondary point of the fecond 
 
 Quarter of a flip, is that part of the (hip's hull, which 
 
 licth from the fteerage-room to the tranfom. 
 Quarter is alfo uled for a canton, or divifion of a city; 
 confiding of feveral ranges of buildings, tie. feparatcd 
 from fome other Quarter by a river, 'a great ftreet, or by 
 fome other boundary. _ ■ 
 
 Such are the twenty Qiiarters of the city of Pans — Antient 
 Rome was divided feveral times, under its levcral augmenta- 
 tions, into Quarters which were called regions; as may be 
 obferved in the'topographies of Aurelius Nictor, Onuphrius 
 Panvinius, Marillan, Pyrro Ligorio, Boifiard, and other an- 
 tiquaries. ' . . 
 
 In many cities there are commiflaries of the Quarter, ap- 
 pointed to look to the policy thereof— The prior of the Ca- 
 porions accounts himfelf the chief, and colonel of the four- 
 teen regions, or Quarters of Rome. Mufeartit, p. 134. 
 Franchife ./Quarters. See the article Franchise. 
 Quarter in war, the place allotted to certain forces to 
 live, lodge, and incamp upon, during a fiege, or the like. 
 See Camp. 
 
 The general's Quarter is that where the general lodges and 
 incamps in perfon— They ufed to make lines of communica- 
 tion, to join the feveral Quarters together. 
 Quarters at a fiege are the incampmcnts on the principal 
 paffages about a place, ferving to Hop the avenues and to 
 prevent relief and convoys. 
 Quarter is alfo ufed for any lodgment made in the field 
 or campaign out of a fiege— Thus they fay, the general has 
 extended his Quarters a good way— The enemy coming by 
 made him contract his Qiiarters. 
 IVinter Quarters, is the place allotted troops to pafs the 
 winter feafon in— Wherein thefc difti from garrifons, fee 
 Garrison. 
 
 frinter 
 
QUA 
 
 QUA 
 
 IVinitr Quarters is alfo ufed for the time the troops con- 
 tinue in this lodgment ; and for the advantage the captains 
 make thereof — Thus they fay, fuch a regiment was put to 
 Winter-quarters in fuch a village — The Winter-quarters only 
 held three months — Each captain will make at leaft a thoufand 
 crowns of his Whiter-quarters. 
 In Spain they have alio Summer-quarters. 
 
 Quarter of ajfembly, is the place of rendezvous, where the 
 troops are to meet and draw up to march in a body. 
 
 Quarters of rejrejhment, is fome well-provided fertile 
 fpot, to which troops that have been much fatigued and ha- 
 railed, are fent to recover their ftrcngth, or health ; even 
 during the feafon of the campaign. 
 
 There are alfo Quarters affigned for the huckfters, and their 
 equipage. 
 
 Quarter alfo denotes the fafety, and good treatment promi- 
 fed to perfons, or troops that furrender, and lay down their 
 arms — Thus they fay, the enemy begged Quarter. 
 The phraie took its rife from an agreement anciently made be- 
 tween the Dutch and Spaniards, that the ranfom of an offi- 
 cer or foldicr, fhould be a quarter of his pay— Hence, to beg 
 Quarter was to offer a quarter of their pay for their fafety; 
 and to retufe Quarter was not to accept of that composi- 
 tion for their ranfom. 
 
 Quarters in building, thofe flight upright pieces of timber, 
 placed between the punchions and ports ; ufed to lath upon. 
 They are of two kinds, /ingle and double — The Jingle Quar- 
 ters arc fawn to two inches thick and four inches broad ; the 
 double arc four inches fquare. 
 
 Quarters in a clock, are little bells which found the Quar- 
 ters of an hour. 
 
 Quarter-Bullet, a bullet quartered into four or eight 
 parts. 
 
 Quarter-Da y, fee the article Quarter. 
 
 Quarter-Deck, of a fhip, is that aloft the ftee- 
 
 rage, reaching to the round-houfe. SceTab.Sbh. fi>r 2 
 
 lit. O. - v.- fi: J& ' 
 
 Quartered Counter. Sec the article Counterquar- 
 tered. 
 
 QUARTERIDGE, money paid quarterly, - or by the 
 quarter. 
 
 QUARTERING, in the fee-language— When a fhip 
 under fail goes at large, neither by a wind nor before a 
 wind, but as it were betwixt both ; fhe is faid to go Quar- 
 tering. See Sailing. 
 
 The term is alfo ufed when a fhip fails with quarter 
 winds. 
 
 Quartering, in gunnery, is when a piece of ordnance is 
 fo traverfed, that it will ihoot on the fame line, or on the 
 fame point of the compafs as the fhip's quarter bears. 
 
 Quartering in heraldry, the act of dividing a coat into 
 four or more quarters, or Quarterings ; by parting, couping, 
 &c. i.e. by perpendicular and horizontal lines, Gfo See 
 Quartering and Quarterly. 
 
 The king of Great Britain quarters with Great Britain, 
 France, Ireland, Brunfwick, isc. 
 
 Colombicre reckons twelve forts of Quartering!; but other 
 authors give us more — iz/z.-Party per piile, dividing the cfeut- 
 cheons from top to bottom. See Pale. — Party per 
 crofs, dividing it from fide to fide. See Cross.— Party 
 of fix pieces, when the cfcutcheon is divided into fix parts 
 or quarters — Party of ten; of iwelve; of fixteen ; of 
 twenty; and of thirty-two, when there are fo many parti- 
 tions refpectively. 
 
 Others give the divifions in another manner : as — Party per 
 crofs — per pale — per chief— per pale inclave— per bend dex- 
 ter — per bend finifier — per chevron — barry bendy of ei^ht 
 pieces — paleways of fix pieces — barry of fix pieces — barry 
 of eight pieces — bendy of fix — cheeky — fufilly, or lozeney — 
 pale bendy, or bendy lozengy— barry bendy lozeney, or bend 
 lozengy— gyronny — barry lozengy counterchanged — waved 
 of fix pieces — bary nebule of fix "pieces — party per faltier — 
 and party per pale in point. See Jarther under their rejuttive 
 'articles. 
 
 Counter Quartering a coat, is when the quarters are quarter- 
 ed over again, or fubdivided each into four. 
 There are counter-quartered coats which have twenty or twen- 
 twenty-five quarters. 
 
 Quartering is alfo applied to the partitions or compartments 
 thcmfelves, that is, the fcveral coats borne on an efcutchcon, 
 or the fcveral divifions made in it, when the arms of fevcral 
 families arc to be placed on the fame fhield, on account of 
 intermarriages, or the like. 
 
 Colombicre obferves, that thirty two is the greateft number 
 ufed m France, but that the Englifh and Germans fome- 
 times extend to forty ; as a teftimuny of the truth whereof, 
 he fays, he faw the cfcutcheon of the ear] of Leiccfter, em- 
 baflador extraordinary in France in the year 1639, divided 
 into the number of forty ; and fome, he affirms, do go on to 
 fixty four kvcral coats. 
 
 But a multitude of quarters makes a confufion ; and accor- 
 dingly all the writers of armoury cry out againit it as an 
 abufe— The firft irdtance of Shat tering whereof we have any 
 account, is faid to be in the arms of Renatus, king of Sicily, 
 cjfc in the year 1435, who quartered the arms of bicily, A'r- 
 ragon, Jerufalem, csV. 
 
 William Wickly obferves, that fuch Qi/artcrhi^s are much 
 properer for a pedigree to be locked up in a elicit, and occa- 
 sionally produced as an evidence for the clearing or afceitaiu- 
 ing of alliances of families, or titles to lauds, &c. than to be 
 borne as a cognizance. 
 
 In blazoning, when the Quartering is performed per crofs, 
 the two quarters a-top are numbered the firft and iccond ■ 
 and thofe at bottom the third and fourth; beginning to tell 011 
 the right fide — When the Quartering is by a faltier, &c. the 
 chief and point are the firft and fecoiid quarters, therirht fide 
 the third, the left the fourth. 
 Quartering is fometimes alfo ufed for the dirtinguifhiir' of 
 
 younger brothers from elder. See Difference. 
 QUARTERIZATION*, Quartering, part of the 
 punifhment of a traytor, by dividing his body into four 
 quarters. 
 
 * IValJtngham in Ric. 2. Auditum &f Confefum turpljjima fec- 
 iera traclationi, Juj'pcntUo, decollatioiii, exenttrutiom o* 
 Quarter! zarioiii adjudica'vit 
 QUARTERLY, in heraldry. A perfon is faid to bear 
 Quarterly, when he bears arms quartered. 
 The king of Great Britain bean. Quarterly of four; in the 
 firft quarter, gules, £?r. Great Britain : in the fecund, azure, 
 &c. Ireland, Life. 
 Quarter-Master, an Officer in the army, whofe bufi- 
 neis is to look after the quarters of the foldiers, whereof there 
 are fevcral kinds ; viz. — The 
 Quarter-Master general, whofe bufme& is to provide 
 
 good quarters for the whole army . 
 Quarter-Master of Jsot, he who is to provide quarters 
 
 for a regiment of root. 
 Quarter-Master oj borfe, he who is to provide quarters 
 
 for a truop of horfe. 
 Quarter-Master, is alfo an Officer aboard a fhip of 
 which there are more or fewer according to her burthens, 
 Their bufinefs is to rummage in the hold on all occafions, 
 to overlook the iteward in his delivery of victuals to the cook, 
 and in his pumping and drawing out the beer; and in general 
 to take care there be no wafte. 
 
 The Quarter --majer, or Quarteer, is alfo to mind the 
 fhip's loading, which is the bufinefs he is chiefly employed 
 about. 
 
 QUARTERN, Quarteron, a diminutive of Quart; 
 fignifying a quarter of a pint ; as a quart does a quarter of a 
 gallon. 
 
 Quarter-Round, in architecture, is a term ufed by 
 the workmen for any projecting moulding in general, 
 whofe contour is a perfect quadrant, or quarter of a circle, 
 or which approaches near that figure — See Tab. Jrchit. 
 
 The architects ufually call it ovok\ and Vitruvius, the echinus. 
 Quarter-Sessions, acourt held quarterly, by the juftices 
 of peace of each county, alternately in the chief towns there- 
 of as appointed by the cuitos rotulorum. 
 
 Hither the grand inquefl, or jury of die county is fummon- 
 ed to appear, who upon oath are to inquire of all tray tors, 
 heretics, thieves, murderers, coiners, rioters, is'c. 
 Thofe who appear to be guilty are by the faid juitices com- 
 mitted to prifon, to be tried at the next aflizes, when the 
 judges go their circuits. 
 Quarter-Staff, a longflaff or pole, borne by forefters, 
 parks-keepers, & c . as a badge of their office; and occafionally 
 ufed as a weapon. 
 Quarter-Wheeling, or Quarter a/" convejon, in the 
 military art, is a motion whereby the front of a body of men 
 is turned round to where die flank was ; this making a quar- 
 ter of a circle. 
 
 If it be done to the right, the man in the right-hand angle 
 keeps his ground, and faces about, while the reft wheel; if to 
 the left, the left-hand man keeps his place, dfc. 
 Quarter-Wind, at fea, is a lateral, or fide wind ; or a 
 wind which does not blow in ftern, but a little afide of it. 
 Properly the Quart ir-wir.d is that which comes in abaft the 
 main malt fhrouds, even with the quarter of the fhip. 
 'J he Qumter-iv'tnd is the beft of ail winds, as bearing into 
 all the (ails ; whereas a wind blowing full in ftern, is kept off 
 by the fails of the mizzen. 
 QUARTILE, an afpect of the planets when they arc three 
 figns or 90 degrees diftant from each other. 
 The Quartile afpect is marked thus □. See Character, 
 QUARTO, or $to, a book whereof four leaves, or eight 
 
 pages, make a fheet. 
 QUaRTO-DECIMANS, Quarto-Decimani, an 
 ancient feet in the church, who maintained that Earter 
 
 was 
 
QUA 
 
 *as always » ^ celebrated conformably to the cuitoM of 
 the Jews, ™ the fourteenth day of the moon m the month of 
 March, whenfoever that day fell out. _ _ 
 And hence their name "hiarto-deamam. 
 teenthers. 
 
 q. d. four- 
 
 The Afiatics were mightily attached to this opinion, pretend 
 ing that is was built on Ae mlhority, of St. John - 
 
 who was 
 
 and pope Viaor'could nev« bring them to 
 
 : he con 
 Ions and 
 
 their apoftlc ; aiiu iiujil.- 
 
 obedience in this article, though he was upon the point of 
 excommunicating them— Some arc of opinion he actual)) 
 did excommunicate them, but it is more profs 
 tented himfelf with menaces. 
 It is raid Polycrates, bifbop of Epheuis, wrote 
 warm letter/in the name of all the bifl.ops of Alia, to V 
 tor and the church of Rome, wherein he explained at Urge 
 the ulage of thofe churches with regard to the celeb a ton 
 ot EallcV; and maintained, that herein they only followed 
 a content tradition that had obtained immutably among them 
 from the time of the apoille St. John, who died at 1 Lph - 
 But the pope not fatisfied with this anlwer Polycrates 
 had proceeded to excommunication, but that fome ot the 
 moft eminent bifhops, among the reft Irenes interpofed 
 and diffuaded him from difturbing the peace ot the church 
 by excommunicating a people for adhering to what they ac- 
 
 /, the overthrowing, and annulling ■ 
 
 the 
 
 counted a tradition 
 QUASHING, in E 
 
 An array returned by one that has nofranchife, fhall b 
 
 Suajhid. ctkmtMii. F0I.15& „•„.,:, 
 
 QUASI-CONTRACT, in the civil-law, an act WWCI 
 has not the Uriel form of a contract, but yet has the force 
 
 InT°contract there muff be the mutual confent of both par- 
 ties; whereas in a Shmft-eontratl, one party may be bound or 
 obligated to the otiicr without having given his confent to the 
 act whereby he is obliged. . 
 For an example — I have done your bufinefs, in your abfence. 
 without your procuration ; and it has fucceeded to your ad- 
 vantage : I have then an action againft you for the recovery 
 of what I have difburfeJ, and you an action againft me to 
 make me give an account of my adminiftration : which 
 mounts to a ghieift-contracl. 
 
 Quasi-crime, or Quasi-delict, 
 
 law, the aaion of a perfon who does damage, 
 involuntarily. _ ' , , . 
 
 The reparation of ^uafi-crima conufts in making goi 
 damages with intereit. 
 
 Q.jasi-modo fimday, low Eajlcr-fuudcy, or the next funday 
 after Ea'ler; thus called from the initial words ot the 
 introit of the mafs for the day, %*<lfi-m>dl gmtl hfan- 
 
 In 'ancient deeds thefe words-were fignified by q. m. jr. 
 
 QUATER-COUSINS, Quatre-cousiks; fourth coulins, 
 or the lad degree of kindred. .... 
 Hence, when perfons arc at variance, it is faid they are not 
 9uater y or cater-coujim. 
 
 QUATRE -NATIONS, q. d. four mrnwu, the denomi- 
 nation of a college founded in 1661, by cardinal Mazann j 
 for the education and maintenance of lixty children, natives 
 of the four countries conquered bv the king, in*, nfteen tor 
 Pignerol and Italy, fifteen for Alfatia, twenty for I landers, 
 and ten for RouliiUon, 
 
 QVATU OR homines prapofti. 
 
 QUATUOR-VIR, in antiquity, frequently wrote IUL 
 VIR, a Roman magiftrate who had three colleagues joined 
 with him in the fame adminilfration. 
 
 To the Shuttuor-viri was committed the charge of 
 condutling and fettling the colonies fent into th 
 provinces. ■ , ' ■ \ 
 
 Upon unlucky accidents, and other dangerous affairs, it was 
 ufual to create Shmtuor-viri with commimon to take care ne 
 quid detriment! Rtfpublica caperit, that the republic were not 
 prejudiced. . ~ , 
 
 There were alfo Shmtuor-viri appointed to infpect and take 
 ' tare of repairs, iSc ".'"'"i''."- , "°i 'A 
 QUAVER, iniHUUC, a meafure of time, equal to one halt 
 of the crotchet, or one eighth of the femibreve, 
 The SutKer is marked by the charafler if . 
 The En»lilh Shiaver makes what the French call crochue 
 crotchet 5 becaufe of the hook at bottom. See Crotchet. 
 The Quaver is divided into two femiquavers noted \f , and 
 four demifemiquavers marked (f . 
 QUAVERING, in mulic, the acl of trilling, or ma- 
 king! or the running a divifion with the voice. See 
 Division. 
 
 QUAY, Kay, a fpace of ground paved on the fhorc of a river, 
 or port; deftined for the loading and unloading of merchan 
 dize. See Wharf and Kay. 
 
 QUA 
 
 QUEEN* Regina, a woma-i who holds the crown of a realm, 
 fingly and by right of blood. 
 
 * The word 0*te* is derived from the Saxon, Open, twm, 
 uxor, the wife of anv one, but applied by way of excel- 
 lency to the wife of'th; king only - whence Ihe was anli- 
 ently called the Kings Queen; the Weft-.axcns having no 
 other name for a zhtem, but the king's nvife. /Ipr. de 
 jElfred. rebus, ts'c— She alio was called lady, in Saxon,. 
 y\c£pnz : juft as madame, or madimoijdle, are ilill ufed 
 in France for the wife and daughter of the duke of- 
 Orleans 
 
 The name Queen Is alfo given by way of courtefy to her that 
 is married to the king ; called, by way of diftinction, Quefn 
 co»fort—ln refpeift whereof the former is called Queen reg* 
 nant or regent. 
 
 The widow of a king is alfo called Queen, but with the 
 addition of Dowager. 
 
 In the firfc fenfe, Queen is in all conftruction the fame with 
 king, and has the fame power and prerogative in all refpefts 
 that the king has. 
 
 The Queen confort is inferior, and a perfon diftinct from and 
 a fubjedt of the king — In England, though fhe be a feme 
 covert, yet may flic fue, and? be fued in her own name, 
 and may make leafes, and grants, tsfc. as a feme fole. 
 She has feveral other prerogatives — Though an alien, (he may 
 purchafe lands in fee iimpie, without either naturalization, or 
 denization ; fhe may prefent to a benefice ; nor is pienarty a 
 bar againft her more than againft the king — She fliall not be 
 amerced if fhe be non-fuited in any ail ion ; and may not be 
 impleaded till firft petitioned. 
 
 To confpire her death, or violate her chaftity, is high-treafon. 
 She has an ancient peculiar revenue, called Quecu-gold.— Bs~ 
 fides a very large dower, with a royal court, and officers 
 apart.. 
 
 The Qi/een dotvagcr has this particular, that fhe lofes not her 
 dignity though fue marry a private gentleman— Thus queen 
 Katherine, widow of Henry V. being married to Owen 
 ap Tudor, Efq ; maintained her adion as queen of Eng- 
 land—Much lei's docs a Queen regnant, follow her hufband's 
 condition, or is fubjea to other ghicens, but fhe is fovereign 
 to her own hufband, as queen Mary was to king Philip ; un- 
 lets it be othcrwife appointed by parliament. 
 QUEEN-GOLD, aurum regina, a royal revenue, belongir 
 
 to the queen of England, during her marriage to the king, 
 and payable by divers perfons (upon feveral grants of the king) 
 by way of oblation out of fines, amounting to ten marks, or 
 upwards, viz. one full tenth part above the entire fine, or 
 ten pounds for every hundred pounds fine, on pardons and con- 
 traits, or agreements. 
 
 This becomes a real debt to the %f«, by the name of au- 
 rum regina, upon the party's bare agreement with the king 
 for a fine, and recording it; without any faither promife or 
 contract for this tenth part extraordinary. 
 Queen's bench. See King's bench, &c. 
 
 QUE-ESTATE, in law, a plea whereby a man entitling 
 himfelf to land, EirV. faith, that the fame cftate which another 
 had, he now has from him. 
 
 Thus, e. gr. the plaintiff alledgcs, that fuch four perfons 
 were fei fed of lands, whereunto the advowfon in qucftion be-* 
 longed in fee; and who did prefent to it, and that afterwards 
 the church was vacant, que ejlate — i. e. which ejlate he now 
 has, and by virtue thereof he prefents, fac 
 QUE EST MEME, in law, a term ufed in a&ions of tref- 
 pafs, &c. for adiredt juftiheation of the very ac~t complained 
 of by the plaintiff as a wrong. 
 
 Thus in an action upon the cafe, the plaintiff faying the lord 
 threatened his tenants at will in fnch fort, as he forced them 
 to give up their lands ; the lord in his defence pleads, that he 
 faid to them, if they would not depart, he would fue them at 
 ] aw — Que eji meme, i. e. this being the fame threatning that 
 he ufed, the defence is good. 
 QUERELA, ghiarrel, inlaw, denotes an a&ion or declara- 
 tion preferred in any court of juftice. 
 
 In an action where the plaintiff is called Qucrens, i. e. 
 complainant, his brief, complaint, or declaration, is called 
 Querela. 
 
 Querela audita. See the article Audita. 
 
 Querela coram rege & conciiio, a writ whereby one is called 
 to juilify a complaint of a trefpafs made to the king him- 
 felf ; before the king and his council. 
 
 QUERPO. See thearticle Cuerpo. 
 
 QJJERRIES, or Equerries. See Equerry. 
 
 Gentleman of //jcQuerry, is an officer appointed to hold the 
 king's ftirrup, when he mounts on horfeback. 
 
 QUEST*, or Inquest, an inquifition, or inquiry made up- 
 on oath of an impannelled jury. See Inquest. 
 
 » The word is formed of the French quite, fearch, of the Latin 
 quafitum, a thing fought. 
 
 Quest, in hunting, the feeking out of hounds j or the 
 
 venting 
 
QUE 
 
 QU I 
 
 venting and winding cf fpaniels. See Hound. 
 QJU ESTION, Qujestio, in logic, bfc. a proportion, 
 whofe truth a perfon being inquifitive about, propofes it, by 
 way of interrogation, to another. 
 
 Ltgical quejlions are varioufly distributed ; the ordinary divi- 
 fion is into firjl or primary Shijiions ; as, quid ejl i what is 
 fuch a thing \ — And fecondary, which arife out of the for- 
 mer; as, how is it f 
 
 gh/odlibetical Question. See Quqdlibetical. 
 
 Question, inlaw — The ghtejlio de jure is generally to bc 
 diftinguifhed from the Shtejiio de fa£io. 
 
 QJJ E S T-M E N, perfons chofe yearly in each ward, to en- 
 quire into abufes, and mifdemeanors, efpecially fuch as re- 
 late to weights and meafures. 
 
 QJJ EST OR*, Quaestor, an officer in antient Rome 
 who had the care of the public treafure. 
 
 * The word is formed a quarendo, feeking, fearching. 
 
 The Shujlorjhip, ^uajlura, is very antient, as having been 
 eftablifhed under the kings — In the time of the republic, the 
 fenate appointed ^ucjlors in each province, to affift the pro- 
 confuls, as lieutenants or treafurers, in the administration of 
 the revenues : but under the emperors, there was properly 
 but one quejlor, or treasurer general of the empire : thofe 
 other inferior, or fubordinate quejlors were then called af- 
 liftants of the quejlor, adjutorcs quajloris. 
 The quejlors office was originally confined to the army. — 
 They paid the foldiery, and took charge of moneys coming 
 by fpoil and plunder, &c. 
 
 At length there were new ones creeled to refidc in the city , 
 and to receive the public money* taxes, tribute, &c. — Their 
 number was increafed as the empire encreafed : Sjjlla augment- 
 ed it to twenty. 
 
 There was alfo another kind of quejlors; whofe office was to 
 enquire into and take cognizance of capital crimes; 
 Q7ESTOR facrt palatU, or of the facred palace, was one of the 
 hrft dignities under the emperors of Conftantinople. 
 It was this quejlor that fubferibed the refcripts of the emperor, 
 and the anfwers to the petitions and fupplications prefented 
 to him. — He alfo drew up and figned the laws and confuta- 
 tions which the emperor thought fit to publifh ; and took care 
 of the adminiltradon of juftice. 
 
 Some compare his function to that of our lord high chancel- 
 lor — It was ufually one of the juris confulti that was charged 
 with this office ; it being required that he fhould know the 
 laws of the empire, be able to prefcribe and fee them ex- 
 ecuted, and judge of caufes brought by way of appeal before 
 the emperor. 
 
 Conftantine was the firft who erected quejlors of the facred 
 palace. 
 
 Q_U E S T US, or Qu jest us. See Qu je s t u s. 
 
 Qu estus ejl nobis, a writ of nufance, which by Stat. 15. 
 Edw. I. lies againft him to whom a houfe, or other thing 
 that breeds a nufance is defcended, or alienated; whereas 
 before that fiatute, the action lay only againft him who firft 
 levied, or caufed the nufance, to the damage of his neighbour. 
 See Nusance. 
 
 Q^U E U E, in heraldry, the tail of a beaft. 
 
 If a lion have a forked tail, he is blazoned by double-queued. 
 
 Queue d'aronde, q. d. Swallow' s-tail, in fortification, 
 a term applied to outworks, when narrower at the gorge 
 than at the face or front; i. e. where the fides open to- 
 wards the campaign, and contract towards the gorge. 
 The name is occafioned by its refemblance in figure to a fwal- 
 low's tail, which the French call queue d'aronde. 
 Of this kind are fome fingle as well as double tenaillcs ; and 
 ibme horn-works whofe fides are not parallel. See Te- 
 
 NAILLE. 
 
 -On the contrary, when the fides are lefs than the gorge* the 
 
 work is called centre queue d'aronde. 
 Queue d'aronde, in carpentry, a method of jointing, called 
 
 alfo Dove-7«7. 
 QUIA, in logic. See the article Reason. 
 Q_U I A improvide, a fuperfedeas granted in many cafes where 
 - a writ is erroneoufiy fued out, or mil-awarded. 
 
 Such is that granted in behalf of a clerk of the chancery fiied 
 
 againft the privilege of the court, in the common-pleas, and 
 
 purfued to the exigent. 
 Q_U ICKEST "defcent, line. See Descent. 
 QU I C K-lime. Sec Lim E. 
 Q_U ICK pulfe. See the article Pulse. 
 QU ICKSET hedge. See the article Hedge. 
 QUICKSILVER, a very ponderous fluid mineral, by the 
 
 chemifts called mercury — For the method of gaining, preparing 
 
 it, dift. with its properties, ufes, 5jfc, See Mercury. 
 Virgin Quicksilver. See the article Virgin. 
 QJJ I D, what, in the fchools, is ufed to denote the definition 
 
 of a thing. 
 
 It is thus called by reafon the definition anfwers to the 
 queftion, quid ejl, what is it ? 
 
 Vol, XI* 
 
 Hence we hive fwo kinds of quids ; nominal, quid ncmi- 
 n'ts ; and real, quid rei. 
 Quid pro quo, in law, q. d. what for what, denotes the gi- 
 ving one thing of value for another : or the mutual 
 cormderation and performance of both parties to' a con- 
 tract. 
 
 Quid pro quo, or Qui pro quo is alfo ufed in phyfic to ex- 
 prefs a miftake or cheat ot an apothecary, in adminiltring one 
 medicine for another; or in ufingan ingredient in a compo- 
 lition different from that prefcribed. 
 
 In propriety, quid pro quo is a miftake in the pnyficims bill, 
 where quid is wrote for quo, one thing fur another ; of of die 
 apothecary in reading quid far quo, and giving th, patient the 
 wrong medicine. 
 
 Hence the term is in the general extended to all cheats 
 and all blunders or miftakes committed in medicine, cither 
 in the prefer ipt ion, the preparation, or application of re- 
 medies. 
 
 A northern phyficisn in a printed thefts on quid pro quo's owns 
 ingenuoufly, that they are very frequent — He diitinguifhes 
 very accurately a great variety of kinds of quid pro quo's ; fome 
 With regard to the operation, others with regard to the fubjecty 
 and others with regard to their form, or effects. 
 The firft comprehends the quid pro quo's of the phyfician, 
 the fecond thole of the patient, the third thofe of the apo- 
 thecary. 
 
 He adds quid pro quo's of the chirurgion, quid pro quo's of 
 the cook: quid pro quo's of the nurfe, fcfff. Nor does he 
 omit that there are ialutary quid pro quo's j dangerous quid pro 
 quo's, ii. different quid pro quo's, fcfc, — God preferve us from 
 quid pro quo's f 
 
 Q_U I D D E N Y, Quiddeny, (of the Latin cydonium, or 
 cydoniatuni) a conferve of quinces, called alfo Marmelade. 
 QLJIDDITY, Quiddit as, in the fchools, a word of 
 the fame fignification with ejfence. 
 
 The name is derived hence, that it is by the eftence of 
 a thing that is tale quid\ fuch a quid, or very thing ; 
 and not another — When upon feeing, or hearing the name of 
 a thing whofe nature, &c.. we are unacquainted withal, we 
 afk, quid ejl ? what is it ? we mean no more by the inter- 
 rogation, but that we defire to have its nature and effence 
 explained by a Definition — Whence quiddity is ufually de- 
 fined the eftence known or exprefi'ed in a Definition. 
 And hence what is eflential to a thing is faid to be quiddativg 
 — As quiddaihe, knowledge, 6fr. 
 QUID PRO QUO. See the article Quid.' 
 QU IE S C EN T, fomething at reft. See Rest. 
 QJJIETISM, the fentiments of the Quietijls, a religious 
 feet which made a great noife towards the ciofe of the laft 
 century. 
 
 Molinos, a Spanifh prieft, who died at Rome in the prifon 
 of the inquilition, paries for the author of quictifm ; and yet 
 the Illuminati in Spain had taught fomething like it before. 
 The name is taken from a fort of abfolute reft, and inaction, 
 which the foul is fuppofed to be in, when arrived at the 
 ftate of perfection, which in their language is called the uni- 
 tive life — To arrive at this, a man is firft to pafs through 
 the purgative way ; that is, through a courfe of obedience, 
 infpired by the fear of hell : hence he is to proceed into the 
 illuminative way, before he arrives at perfection; to go 
 through cruel combats* and violent pains; /. e. not only the 
 ufualdryneftes of the foul, and the common privations of grace, 
 hut infernal pains : he believes himfelf damned ; and the per- 
 fuafion that he is fo continues upon him very ftrongly fever. 1 
 years : St. Francis de Salis, fay the quietijls, was fo fully con- 
 vinced thereof, that he would not allow anybody to contra- 
 dict: him therein — But the man is, at length, fufficiently paid 
 for all this \ by the embraces of God, and his own deifica- 
 tion. 
 
 The fentiments of the quietijls, with regard to God, are 
 wonderfully pure and dilinterefted — They love him for him- 
 felf,- on accountof his own perfections, independently of any 
 rewards or punifhments : the foul acquiefces in the will of 
 God, even at the time when he precipitates it into hell ; info- 
 much that inftead of flopping him on this occakon, B. Angelo 
 de Foligny cry* d out, Hajlc, hard, to cajl me into hell : do not 
 delay, if thou hajl abandoned me, but Jimp my dejlruclion, and 
 plunge me into the abyff. 
 
 At length, the foul, after long travail, enters into reft, into 
 a perfedt quietude — Here it is wholly employed in contempla- 
 ting its God; it acts no more, thinks no more, dciires 
 no more ; but lies perfectly open, and at large, to receive 
 the grace of God, who by means thereof drives it where it 
 will, and as it will. 
 
 In this ftate, it no longer needs prayers or hymns, or vows; 
 prayers where the fpirit labours, and the mouth opens, are the 
 lot of the weak, and the imperfect : the foul of the faint is, as 
 it were, laid in the bofom, and between the arms of its God, 
 where, without making any motion, or exerting any action, 
 it waits, and receives the divine graces — It, then, becomes 
 10 E happy; 
 
QU I 
 
 QUI 
 
 happy : quitting the cxiftence it before had, it is now chang- 
 ed it is transformed, and ? as it were, funk and fwallowed up 
 iU the divine being, infomuch as not to know or perceive 
 its being diftinguilhed from God himfelf. Fend. Max. da 
 
 'faints. , " . 
 
 QU1ETISTS, thcdifciples of Mich. deMolinos; or the ad- 
 herents to the opinions delivered in the article Quietism. 
 
 QU I E T U S, freed, or acquitted ; a term ufed by the clerk 
 of the pipe, and the auditors in the exchequer, in their ac- 
 quittances or dlfcharges given to accomptants ; which ufu- 
 ally conclude with the words ah'mde recejftt quietus : which is 
 called a quietus eft. ' 
 A quietus eft granted to a fheriff difcharges him of all accounts 
 due to the king. 
 
 QU I N A QJJ I N A. Sec the article Quinquina. 
 
 QUINARIUS, Quinary, in antiquity, a little Roman 
 ~ coin, equal to half the denarius. See C o i n. 
 The quinarius was properly the Roman half-penny. 
 Medalifts indeed ufe the term quinarius in the general for a 
 medal of any matter, not exceeding the fize of our fix-pence 
 butF. Chamillart, in an exprefs diilertation, ihews this to be- 
 an abufe— The fifver coins, current under the republic, he 
 Ihews, were two : the one weighing a drachm, and cahed 
 denarius, as containing ten as's ; the other weighing half a 
 drachm, and called quinarius, as containing five as's: which 
 coins continued on the fame footing under the empe 
 rors. 
 
 Hence the origin of the word quinarius: and hence, u 
 propriety, it is only the filver medal of the weight of halt 
 a drachm that the name belongs to ; the Romans having 
 never given it to any other fpecies of the fame lize there- 
 with— It is only by way of analogy, therefore, that the 
 moderns apply it to the medals of gold, or copper, of th< 
 lame fizc with the filver quinarius ; thofe of gold being hxed 
 at a value much above, and thofe of brafs much below 
 
 fiveas*s. ' M 5S! . fc 
 
 The only relation between thefe qmnani, is, that the gold 
 quinary is the half of a gold medal as to weight and value, 
 and the brafs quinary half a brafs medal, as the filver quinary 
 is half a filver one. 
 
 Hence a fenes of quinaries fhould fcem at leaft as necefiary 
 in the cabinets of the curious, as the feries of great medals ; 
 they being all equally different fpecies of money, which teach 
 us how many kinds of pieces there were of any metal current 
 
 in commerce. 
 
 Add to this, fays our author, that the quinaries were of a 
 finer and more finifhed coin than the other medals, being 
 wrought by the hands of the matters; which feems owing 
 to the nicety required in engraving whole figures in fo fmall 
 compafs. He adds, that though quinaries are very fcarce, 
 yet M. the duke of Maine had almoft a compleat fet of 
 them. . 
 
 QJJ I N C U N X, quinque uncia?, denotes a thing that con- 
 fills of five twelfth parts of another. 
 
 Q_u incunX] is chiefly ufed in gardening, for a plantation 
 of trees, difpofed originally in a fquare; confifting of five 
 trees, one at each corner, and a fifth in the middle; which 
 difpofition repeated again and again, forms a regular grove, 
 wood, or wildernefs, and then viewed by an angle of the 
 fquare, or parallelogram, prefents equal and parallel alleys. 
 Or, the quir.cunx is the figure of a plantation of trees diipofed 
 in fevcral rows, both length and breadthwife ; in lbch man- 
 ner as that the firft tree of the fecond row commences in 
 the centre of the fquare formed by the two firft trees of the 
 firft row, and the two firft of the third : refembling the fi- 
 gure of a five at cards — The fineft manner of planting trees 
 to form a grove, is in the quincunx. It is of this kind of 
 quincunx that Cicero fpeaks in his Catomajsr ; and Quinti- 
 lian, lib. 8. cap. 3. 
 
 The modern quincunces, Daviler obferves, arc made like 
 thofe of the ancients, except for the fifth tree, which is now 
 generally difufed ; fo that, being as it were, netted, and their 
 alleys viewed by the fide of the rectangle, they form a perfect 
 chequer. 
 
 Quincunx, in aftronomy, csV. denotes a pofition, or af- 
 pectof the planets whendiftant from each other 150 degrees, 
 
 or five figns. 
 
 QUIND ECAGON *, in geometry, a plain figure which 
 has fifteen fides and fifteen angles. 
 
 * The word is formed fomewhat irregularly, from the Latin 
 quinque, five ; and the Greek, /j^, ten ; and )M/a , angle, 
 — Tentedecagon would be a more regular Term. 
 
 If the fides be all equal, it is a regular quindecagm. 
 Euclid fhews how to inferibe it in a circle, Prop. 16. I. 4. 
 And the fide of a regular quindecagon fo defcribed, is 
 equal in power to the half-difference between the fide ol 
 the equilateral triangle, and the fide of the pentagon ; and 
 alio to the difference of the perpendiculars let fall on both 
 fides, taken together. 
 
 QUINDECIM-VTR, XV-VTR, a Roman magistrate, 
 who had fourteen colleagues joined with him in the iame 
 function. 
 
 Under Tarquin the Proud, there were firft two magi- 
 ftrates erected to take care of the facrifices to be per- 
 formed ; thefe were called duumviri. Their number, at 
 length, grew to ten, and then they were called duumviri. 
 In the time of Cicero it had reached to fifteen, when they 
 aflumcd the name of quindeccv.viri : and though their number 
 grew to forty afterwards, yet Servius obierves, on the fixth 
 of the /Eneid, that their name never after changed, but they 
 ftill continued to be called quindfcemviri. 
 It was they who examined the Sibyl 1 ; books, and were the in- 
 terpreters thereof ; vet they never did this but by exprefs or- 
 der of the fenate, declared by a fenatus -con ful turn — They 
 alio prefided at the facrifices, and all other extraordinary cere- 
 monies of 'religion. 
 
 On medals, a dolphin joined with a tripod marks the priclt- 
 hood of the qu'mdecemviri ; who, to publilh th^-ir fdema 
 facrifices, ufed, on the eve thereof, to carry a dolphin at the 
 end of a pole, throughout the city ; that fifh being efteemed 
 facred to Apollo, as the crow was among birds. 
 QUINI-SEXTA, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, denotes a council 
 held at Conftantinople in the year 692 ; called alfo the council 
 in Truilo, and by the Greeks PentheBe, q. d. five fixth ; as 
 intimating that it was only a fiinplement of the two preceding 
 councils. Though, iji propriety, Fleury obferves, it was a 
 council itfelf, 
 
 Marfhall obferves, that the fifth and fixth general councils 
 having made no canons, the Orientals judgtxl it necefiary 
 to fupply that defect: by this ; fo that the 102 canons falfly 
 attributed to thofe, were, in reality, made hem S<-e 
 Trullo. 
 
 QUINQUAGENARIUS,, among the iv 
 
 officer in the army who had the command 01 a L.>;. r ii.. 
 of fifty men. ' 
 Quincjuacenarius was alfo an officer of policy, who had 
 the inflection of fifty houfes, or families. 
 And in the ancient monasteries, quinquagenarius was a fupe- 
 rior who had fiftv monks under his guidance. 
 QJJ I N QU A G E'S I M A - S U N D A Y, jhrove-furutey ; It is 
 thus called as being about the fiftieth day before carter. 
 Anciently they ufed quinquageftma for whitfunday, and for 
 the fifty days between eafter and whitfunday ; but to diftin- 
 guifh this quinquageftma from that before eafter, it was called 
 the pafcal quinquageftma. 
 QU I N QJJ A N N I ON, Quinqiienkium, in the French 
 cuftoms, a refpite of five years which infolvent debtors for- 
 merly obtained by virtue of the king's letters, to have time 
 for the payment of their debts. 
 
 When the thing intended was only to prevent the fide of their 
 effects at an under value, the term of one year was ordinarily 
 granted, and this was called the benefit of anr.ion. 
 But when the debtor would avoid the furrendring of his eftects, 
 upon proving that he was reduced by poverty, lofles, iJc. to 
 make ufe of this expedient, the term of five years was grant- 
 ed, and called the benefit of quinquannion. 
 QUINQUATRIA, in antiquity, aname given to the feafts 
 of Minerva, otherwife called Panathcna:a. See Pana- 
 THEN MA. 
 
 Some think they were termed qu'mquatria, hecaufe they 
 lafted five days; but others, with more reafon, think it 
 was becaufe they fell out five days after the ides of the 
 month. 
 
 QJJ IN QUE N A LI A, in antiquity, games, or feafts 
 celebrated every five years, in honour of the deified em- 
 perors. 
 
 The quinquennalia began to beexpreflcd on medals about the 
 middle of the third century — F. Pagi produces a medal where- 
 in are engraven thofe of the emperor Pofthumus ; they are not 
 found in any medals of his predecefibrs. 
 QJJ I N QJJ E N N A L I S, in antiquity, a magiftrate in the 
 colonies, and municipal cities of the Roman commonwealth; 
 much the fame with a?dile at Rome, 
 
 They were not thus called from their continuing in their of- 
 fice five years ; but becaufe they were elected every fifth year, 
 to prefide at the cenfus, and to receive the declaration each 
 citizen made of his effects. 
 QU I N QU E Partus, the five cinque ports ; which are, Haft- 
 ings,Roinney, Hythe, Dover, and Sandwich — To the firfi 
 hereof alfo belong Winchelfea and Rye, which are efteemeti 
 members of the cinque ports. See Cinque-Ports. 
 
 * Servitium quod baronet quinque portuum prafcriptorum recog- 
 nofcunt facere ad fummonitionem regis per annum, fi ctmtigerit 
 per I ; diet ad cuflum eorum praprittm ; ita quod primus dies 
 tomputatur a die qua -vela navium erexerunt, ufqut partes ad 
 qua: tendere debrnt, nisi ulterius quam diu rex wluerit ad 
 <:ijlum ejus- Thorn. 
 
 QJJ IN- 
 
QUI 
 
 Q U I 
 
 QUINQUE-VIR, frequently wrote V-VIR, a Roman 
 magiftrate, who had four colleagues joined with him in the 
 fame function. 
 
 There were various kinds of officers thus denominated — Pom- 
 ponius the lawyer mentions quinqueviri on this, and on that 
 fide of the Tiber, eftablifhed forthcadrniniftration of juftice 
 - in the night-time, in lieu of the ordinary magiftrates who 
 ' were not judged proper to run up and down the ftreets in 
 the dark. 
 
 Rofinus tells us, that it was fometimes the quinqueviri who 
 conducted the Colonies, and divided the lands affigued to 
 them, among the feveral families. 
 
 Sometimes the Epulones were five in number; in which Cafe 
 they were called quinqueviri. See Epulo. 
 Quinqueviri monetarii were officers firft erected under the 
 conlulate of Valerius Poplicola, to moderate the exceffive ufu- 
 ry, or intereft, which creditors or bankers ufed to exadtfrom 
 the people. 
 
 QUINQUINA, Quinaquin'a, called alfo China China, 
 and Kin Kina, a medicinal bark brought from the Weft 
 Indies; called alfo by way of eminency, the bark, and 
 
 , cortex Peruvianus, the Peruvian bark, from the country 
 whence it is brought ; and popularly the jefuits bark, becaufe 
 at its firft introduction it was chiefly fold and adminiftrcd by 
 the jefuits. 
 
 The tree which yields this bark grows in divers provinces of 
 Peru, but chiefly Quenca, Ayavaca, and Eoxa, The beft 
 and fineft comes from the mountains 14 leagues round the 
 city of Loxa. 
 
 The tree that produces the quinaquina is tall, and its trunk 
 thicker than a man's thigh, tapering from the root up- 
 wards, but without any branches till near its top, where they 
 grow regular as if lopped by art, and with the leaves form an 
 exact hemifphere — The bark is blackiftl on the outfide, but 
 fometimes variegated with white (pots, where grows a kind of 
 mofs by the Spaniards called Bai'bas— Its leaves refemble the 
 leaves of our plumb-trees. 
 
 The Spaniards diftinguifti four forts of this precious bark, 
 viz. the Cafarilla colerada, or reddifh bark: Amanita, 
 or yellowifh : Crefpilla or curling : and Blanca, or whitifh. 
 The Colorada-, and Amarylla* are reckoned the beft : The 
 Crefpilla is the produce of the fame fort of tree, only growing 
 in a cold, frofty climate, which impairs the quality of the 
 bark, and renders it whitifh on the outfide, and cinnamon 
 colour'd within, and unfit for medicinal ufc. — For the blanca, 
 it is procured from another fpecies of the tree of a much 
 larger trunk, the leaves of a lighter green colour, and the 
 bark of a very thick fpungeous fubftance, whitifh on the out- 
 fide; being withal fo tough as to require the force of an ax 
 to (lice it from the tree — When firft cut down it is as bitter 
 as the beft fort, and has then the fame virtue in the cure of 
 intermitting fevers ; but when dry and kept any length of 
 time it grows inftpid and good for nothing. In reality, both 
 forts are found to have much furer and quicker effects when 
 green, than when dry ; fo that the Europeans only come in 
 for the fecond rate virtues : what is worfe, the bad fort is in 
 great plenty, and the good is very fcarce, and hard to come 
 at : for which reafon, with a little of the fine bark fent year- 
 ly to Panama for Europe, large quantities of the worfe fort 
 arc ufually mixed. 
 
 * The fmall bark which curls up like iticks of cinnamon, and 
 which in England is much efteemed as being fuppofed to be taken 
 from the branches of the tree, and therefore more efficacious in 
 the cure of Fevers, is only the bark of the younger trees j which 
 being very thin curls in this manner— For the bark of the bran- 
 ches it is never gathered : It would not compenfate the charge 
 of cutting. 
 
 The feafon for cutting the bark is in Auguft, the only fettled 
 dry time in the country. The cutters are Indian-, and are 
 provided each with a large knife and 2 bag. When they have 
 fliced down the bark as high as they can reach, they 'fatten 
 fhort ft icks with withs to the tree at proper diftances, like 
 the fteps of a ladder, and thus mount and flice to the very 
 top ; when the bag is full they carry it to the low country to 
 a neighbouring hut to dry, which is done by fpreading it in 
 the open air, and frequently turning it — If it happen to have 
 been cut wet, they always carry it directly as they cut it to 
 the low country to dry ; other wife it lofes its colour, turns 
 black and rots— After a tree has been barked it requires 18 cr 
 20 years for a good bark to grow again. 
 
 Mr Arrot, a fcots furgeon, who had gathered the bark in 
 the place where it grows, and from whom we received this 
 account by means of Mr Gray, now at Carthagena, is of 
 opinion that the gathering* the better fort of bark will foon be 
 at an end, or at leaft very much reduced, partly by reaion of its 
 diftance from any inhabited place, and the impenetrability 
 of the woods where it grows, and partly by the want of 
 Indians to cut it, whofe race thro' the cruelties of the Spa- 
 niards is like to he totally extincl. Sec PhiioC Tranfail. 
 N°. 446. p. 81. feq. 1 1 
 
 The quinquina was but little known in Europe till the year 
 1640— 1 he jpfmts of Rome firft brought it in vogue in Spain 
 and Italy m 1640 ; and in 1650 the cardinal de Lugo, of 
 that order, brought it into France. 
 
 It was at firft fold for its weight in gold : when reduced into 
 powder it is by foreigners called die cardinal 1 s powder; and 
 among us often, the jefuits powder, pulvis patrum. 
 It met with a world of" oppoiition at firft— Chiflet and Plcm- 
 pius diitinguifiied themfclves againft it. But it is nowalmoft 
 univerfally allowed one of thegreatelt and beft remedies with- 
 in the whole province of medicine. 
 
 Some call the gentian-root the European quinquina, becaufe 
 good againft intermitting fevers. 
 QUINSEY, Qijinzv, or Quincy, in medicine. See 
 Quinzy. 
 
 QUINSIEA1E, or Qjjinkieme, in our old law-books. 
 See Fifteenth. 
 
 QUINT, afeq uence of iive cards of the fame colour; See 
 Sequence. 
 
 QUINTA Essentia ; fee Quintessence* 
 
 QUINTAIN, Quintena, in ancient cuiloms, a pott dri- 
 ven into the ground, with a buckler fixed to it, for the per- 
 formance of military exercifes on horfeback, the throwing of 
 darts, breaking of lances, &t. 
 
 Match. Paris defcribes the quintain as a kind of mark, form'd 
 like a man from the navel upwards, holding a ftiiekl in bis 
 left hand, and in his right a fword or (lick: the whole fo 
 fitted as to turn round on its foot, and fo as that a cavalier 
 running a-tilt againft it with a lance, if he hit it in tile brcalf, 
 it whifk'd round, and, unlefs he were very dextrous, ftruck 
 him with the fword held in the other hand. 
 In other places, at the top of a poll was erefted a (lender 
 beam fitted to turn round a fpindle ; at one of whole ends 
 was a (loap or Hat board, and at the other a bag of ('and, or 
 ™t— The fport was, with a long (taff, or wooden lame, to 
 ride a-tilt at the board, and to be either fo fkilful or lucky as 
 to efcape the blow of the fand-bag. 
 
 This fome take to be the fame with the arietum le-jatio, fre- 
 quently prohibited in our old fynods and cpifcuua! conft.tu- 
 tions. 
 
 The cuftom is ftill retained in Shropfhire, and fome other 
 counties, among the nuptial folemnities— He that breaks the 
 moft poles againft the quintain has the prize, which was an- 
 tiently a peacock, but is now a garland. 
 Some derive the word from an antient game called quintus ; 
 others from a man of the name Qiiintus. 
 The Vallus and Paffus mentioned in Czfar, are taken, by 
 Vigenere, for a kind of quintain, or wooden man fix'd up 
 as an adverfary, or man of flraw, to prove one's dexterity 
 againft. ' 
 Mention is made of this exercife in the Code, de alutmfas, 
 and in the Paratitles of Cujas on the fame— Juvenal fpeaks of 
 women engaging therein : 
 
 Jut quit rum vidit vulnera Pali I fjr>. 
 Quintain was alfo a right which the lord had to oblige all 
 the millers, watermen, and other young people unmarried, 
 to come before his caflle every rhree years, and break feveral 
 lances, or poles, againft a poll, or wooden man for his di- 
 verfion. 
 
 QUINTAL, in commerce, the weight of an hundred 
 pounds. 
 
 The quintal admits of fome difference in different places, ac- 
 cording as the pound confifts of more or fewer ounces, and as 
 the ounce is lighter or heavier. 
 
 Thus, e. «r. the Paris quintal, or hundred, yields 123 pounds 
 atMontpelier; and the Montpelier hundred only 81 pounds 
 at Pans— The quintal of Conllantinople is efteemed the hea- 
 vier! of all thofe ufed in the Levant. It contains 45 ocquas 
 the ocquas weighing two Dutch pounds -,*„ ; fo that the quin- 
 tal is equal to 112 pounds } of Amfterdam, 124 pounds of 
 Venice, and 160 of Leghorn. 
 
 TheEngliih quintal ufually confifts of 112 pounds avoirdu- 
 pois, and is divided into lour quarters. 
 
 Quintal was alfo formerly ufed for a weight of lead, iron, 
 or other common metal, ufually equal to an hundred pounds, 
 at fixfeore to the hundred, 
 
 QUINTESSENCE, Qjjinta-essentia, in chemiftry, a 
 preparation confining of the effential oil of fome vegetable 
 lubltance, mixed and incorporated with fpirit of wine. 
 Thus, on a proper quantity, e. gr. of effential oil of fennel 
 pouring twelve times the quantity of pure alcohol prepared 
 ptr j£-, they inftantly unite into one fimilar liquor, which is 
 the quintejfence of that plant. 
 
 The ancients were perfectly unacquainted with the method of 
 dillolving oil in fpirit of wine ; and even fome of the moderns 
 have queftioned its reality : but trie certainty of the tiling is 
 eafily proved from the inftance above, and from a thoufand 
 others. 
 
 If fuch quintejftnte he feveral times digefted, cohobated, cifc. 
 the oil will at length be broke fo fine, as, like the fpirit it- 
 
 fclf, 
 
Q U I 
 
 QUO 
 
 ; then 
 
 fclf, perfectly to mix with water ; which is one of the mofl 
 extraordinary eft'cSs in all chemiftry. 
 
 After the like manner is made a tjtantefenct of camphor, By 
 only pouring on it fpirit of wine. 
 
 kimsejmtis thus prepared have great medicinal yrrtues; as 
 may appear from the pure and potent ingredients uM in their 
 competition, which retain, in a great degree, all the virtues 
 of the plants they are procured from : and hence their deno- 
 mination. 1 1 r 1 
 Boerhaave thinks they might properly he called vegetable tul- 
 phurs made potable, and raifed to their utmoft degree of power 
 and efficacy. .... . j 
 
 Dry qumteiremes may be made from the liquid ones, by ad- 
 ding to them fome more effcntial oil of the fame vegetab c 
 from whence the liquid quinteffeme was procured, with a little 
 fugar; all mixed together, and diftilledby avery gentle heat till 
 all the moifture is come over : the matter remainin; 
 a dry quinteffenee. 
 
 This form'is principally ureful for travellers, Tailors, bV. 
 afmuch as it renders the quinteffem portable ; fo that the 
 quantity, e. gr. of a pin's point, fhall be an efficacious me- 
 dicine. . - 
 
 Quintessence, in alchymy, is a myftcrious term Signi- 
 fying the fifth, or lafl and higheft efl'ence, or power ot a na- 
 tural body. ■ , 
 This is fuppofed to be, as it were, the foul drawn from the 
 K roft body and its four elements, by a mod: perfect diltil- 
 fation ; and by means hereof, the thing is faid to be fpiri- 
 tualizcd, /'. e. rendered exceedingly pure, fpirituous, and, as 
 it were, incorruptible. Ditl. Hermctique. 
 The ancients, who allowed nothing to be real but what has 
 a body, would have the foul of man to be a fifth element, 
 a kind of quinteffenee without a name, unknown here 
 below, indivifible, immoveable, all cceleftial, and divine. 
 Feneltm. *■ T^V, 
 
 Quintessence of the elements, is the hermetical mercury 
 See Mercury. 
 
 QUINT-EXACT, in old law-books, the lalt call ot the 
 defendant fued to an outlawry - If he appear not to it, Ire ii 
 by the judgment of the coroners returned outlawed 
 feme, waived. 
 
 QUINTILE, Quintilis, in afttonomy, an aipect ot the 
 planets, when they are 72 degrees diftant from one another; 
 or a fifth part of the zodiac. 
 
 QUINTILIANS, Quintiliani, afeftof ancient heretics 
 the fame with die Pepuzians; thus called from their prophetel 
 
 JQuintilia. -' : $$*"*f*l "*.„"? C \ *1*a?JH*Jju~ 
 In this fefl the women were admitted to perform the iacer- 
 dotal and epifcopal functions; grounding their praflice on that 
 pallage of St Paul to the Galatians, where he fays, That — 
 Chrijl there is no diJlinClion cf males and females. 
 They attributed extraordinary gifts to Eve, for having firft 
 eaten of the tree of knowledge ; told mighty things of Mary 
 thefifterof Mofes, as having been a phophetefs, Eifr. the; 
 added, that Philip the deacon had four daughters, who were 
 all prophetefl'es, and wcredoubtlefs of their left. 
 In their aflemblies, it was ufual to fee the virgins enter 1 
 white robes perfonating prophetefl'es— The ghiintilians bore 
 good deal of refemblance to the modern quakers. 
 QUINZY*, adifeafe which flops the freedom of refpiratior 
 and deglutition. 
 * The word is formed from the French fquinancc, or Itali 
 
 fatinmtia, or efquinmeih ; and thefe again from the Greek 
 
 rMN&p, of «I>, I fufFocate. 
 The etiinzy, by phyficians alfo called angina, confifts in an 
 inflammation of the throat, and particularly of the mufcles 
 of the larynx or pharynx, which exactly clofing the chink 
 thereof, prevent the air from pafling in and out of the trachea 
 and the food from being fwallowed and conveyed into th 
 Itomach. 
 
 If any fymptoms appear on the outfide of the throat, thi 
 Qiiinzy is faid to be external — If none appear there, internal. 
 The qninzy is alfo divided aetSStnu^aslJpurious — the true is 
 always accompanied with a fever : the baftard or fpurious 
 cuinxy is free from it. 
 
 They arecaufed by a defluxion of blood, either pure or bll 
 ous from the branches of the carotid arteries ; and there 
 caufing a phlegmon, either a fimple or an cryfipclatous om 
 In the external jmnzy before any fuppuration appears, recour 
 is had to repeated venefeflion in the jugulars — Veficatories 
 and cupping arc alfo ufed with emollient gargles, He. 
 The quinzy is of all others the moll dangerous, when the tu- 
 mour is neither perceivable on the infide nor on the out. Th; 
 appearing on the outfide is the molt eafily curable. In violent 
 {s;»ziVj, 0 recourfe fhould be had to laryngotomy or broncho- 
 tomy, which though rarely praflifed, may yet be ufed with 
 fafety. 
 
 QUIRE of paper, of the French Cahier ; the quantity of 24 
 or 25 fheets. 
 
 QUIRISTER, or Chorister, Chorifla, a pcrfcn ap 
 
 e, were held on 
 on our 17th of 
 
 pointed to fing in the quire, or choir of a cathedral. See 
 Choir, Chantor, Cathedral, Anthem, 
 
 QUIRINALIA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated among the 
 Romans in honour of Romulus, who was called Qiiirinus, 
 
 See Quirites. 
 
 The quirir.alia, called alfo ftultcrum feri, 
 the 13th of the kalends of March, t. e 
 February. ' ' 
 
 QUIRITES, in antiquity, an appellation given to the peo- 
 ple of Rome, chiefly the common citizens, as diftinguiLhed 
 from the foldiery. 
 
 It took its rife from the Curites, the inhabitants of thebabinc 
 tjwnCmwi Dii this occafion Romulus, and Tatius king of 
 the Sabines, having united their two people, and their two 
 ftates into one ; upon Romulus's death and deification, the 
 Sabines, outdoing the Romans in number, became malters of 
 the councils ; and accordingly appointed that Romulus fhould 
 be denominated gmrimh fiom Cures a city of the Sabines, 
 or rather from £hiirinus, the name of a god worshipped in 
 that city. '.. . ,V*j/ ■* . 
 
 From the new Quirinus, all the people came afterwards 
 to be called quirites ; unlefs we will fuppofe that the lame 
 authority which denominated Romulus £>uirmus, from 
 Cures, did alfo denominate the peopie quirites, immediately 
 from the Curites. . . 
 
 Some authors derive the word quirinus from runs, which in 
 the Sabine tongue fignified a pike or halbert— Struvms adds, 
 that Romulus was always painted with a pike in his hand. 
 QUIRK, in building, a piece of ground taken out of any re- 
 gular ground-plat, or floor. 
 
 Thus, if the ground-plat were fquare, or ohlong, and a 
 piece be taken out of a corner, to make a court, or yard, tie. 
 the piece is called a quirk. 
 QUIS, in natural hiftory, a kind of marcafitc of iron or copper, 
 from which vitriol is drawn. See Marcasite and 
 Vitriol. < .* W. , . 
 
 It is more frequently called Pyrites. See Pyrites. 
 QUIT-CLAIM, areleafe, or quitting ones claim or preten- 
 fions to a thing. 
 
 QUIT-RENT, c\. d. quiet-rent, a certain final! rent, pay- 
 able yearly, by the tenants of moft manors in token of fub- 
 je<ftion ; upon the payment whereof they are quiet 
 
 and free. ... ' ' ■ .; .... ... ,v , ., 
 
 In fome ancient records it is written white-rent ; becaule paid 
 in fdver, to diftinguilh it from rent-corn, rent-pepper, tic. 
 QUITTANCE. See the article Acquittance. 
 QUITTER-BONE, among farriers, a hard, round fuel- 
 ling, upon the coronet of a horfe's foot ; or between the heel 
 and the quarter. 
 
 Or, it is an impofthumc breeding between the hoof and coffin- 
 bone, on the upper part ; and lhewing itfclf by a fwejling on 
 the coronet. 
 
 Sometimes it is occafioned by gravel under the fhoe, or by 
 a bruife, flab, or a prick of a nail ; or from peccant humours 
 defending to that place ; or a blow, ftrain, or over-reach, 
 fcfr. It occafions the horfe to halt much, and the fwellmg 
 grows vifible, and comes to ahead in four or five days, and 
 breaks out with matter at a little deep hole, like a fiitula. 
 QUOD clerici non eligantur in officio, is a writ that lies for 
 a clerk, who by reafon of fome land he hath, is made, or 
 like to be made, a bailiff, beadle, reeve, or fuch like officer, 
 Qyan medium. See the article Medium. 
 Quod nan permittat. See Consuetudinibus (if Sermtus. 
 Quod perform nee prrtpendarii, &e. a writ that lies for fpintual 
 perfons, when diftrained in their fpintual pofl'effions, for the 
 payment of a fifteenth, with the reft of the parifh. 
 QUODLIBETICAL queflion, quaflio Quodlibetica, 
 a college term for a thefis, or problem, antiently propofed 
 to be debated in the fchools, out of curiofity and entertain- 
 ment, rather than for the fettling of any ufeful point. 
 The term is formed from the Latin quodlibet, any thing, 
 what you pleafe ; and fo well fatisfied were the public of 
 the impertinences of thefe queflrons, that the term quodlibet 
 has been fince retained to figuify any little ridiculous 
 
 Siibble. 
 OIL, QyoYL, or Coile, in the fea-language— A 
 ""cable is faid to be quoilrd, when it is laid round in a ring, one 
 turn over another on the deck of a fin;-. 
 The middle of fuch ring or quoile, is a good place to lay fhot 
 in, they are more fate there than in lockers along the fide, 
 where the enemy's fhot may fall into them. 
 QUOIN*, or Coin, a-board a fhip, is a wedge faltened 
 on the deck, clofe to the breech of the carriage of a gun, 
 to keep it firm up to the lhip's fide, and prevent its 
 rolling. 
 
 * . The word is formed from the French coin, of the Latin cutieui, 
 wedge. See Wedge. 
 Cantic Quoins are fhort, three-legged quoins, put between 
 cafts to keep them fteady. 
 
 Quoins, 
 
QUO 
 
 Quoins, in architecture, denote the corners of brick or ftone 
 walls. 
 
 The word is particularly ufed for the ftones in the corners of 
 brick buildings — When thefe Hand out beyond the brick-work 
 (their edges being chamferred off) they are called ruflic quoins. 
 
 QUOITS, a kind of exercife or game, known among the 
 ancients under the name of the dijcus. See Disc. 
 
 QUO Jure, a writ that lies for him who has land, where- 
 in another chaliengeth common of pafture time out of mind : 
 its defign is to compel the party to Ihew by what right or 
 title he chaliengeth it. 
 
 QJJO Minus is alfo a writ which lies for the king's farmer 
 or debtor in the court of exchequer, againft him to whom he 
 felleth any thing by way of bargain, touching his farm; or 
 againft whom he hath any caufe of perfonal action — For that 
 by the vendee's detaining any due from hiir^ the farmer is 
 made lefs able to pay the king's rent. 
 
 Quo minus, is alfo a writ that lies for him who has a grant 
 of houfe-bote in another man's wood, againft the grantor 
 making fuch wafte, as that the grantee cannot enjoy his grant. 
 QUORUM, a term frequently mentioned in our ftatutes, and 
 often ufed in commiilions, both of peace, and others. 
 It is thus called from the words in the commiffion, quorum 
 A. B. unum effe volumus. 
 
 'For an example — Where a commiflion is directed to feven 
 perfons, or to any three of them, whereof A. B. and C. D. 
 
 "are to be two ; there A. B. and C. D. are faid to be of the 
 quorum, becaufe the reft cannot proceed without them. 
 So ajuftice of the peace and quorum is one without whom 
 the reft of the juftices in fome cafes cannot proceed. 
 QUOTATION, in 1 iterature, a citation; or a paffage re- 
 hearfed exprefly in one author from another. 
 Quotations are ufed to be diftinguifhed by inverted comma's, 
 thus ; " Half an age ago quotations were wonderfully com- 
 c< mon ; and Ovid and Catullus came every day with the 
 " pandects to the affiftance of the widow and the orphan." 
 — La Bruyere. 
 
 The manner of quoting by book, and chapter, or fection, 
 is chiefly affected by men of erudition : But it is ahufed : 
 This method ought only to obtain where the whole chapter 
 or fection is exprefly on the fubject. On other occafions, 
 quoting by page is more commodious ; except in claflicks 
 and 6ther ancient writings, whereof there are many editions 
 in different forms, where this method is of little life, unlefs 
 the edition be alfo fpecified. 
 
 The quotations from the old tcftamcnt-, found in the new, 
 have occafioned infinite doubt, difpute, and criticifm — The 
 apoftles are frequently referring to the old teftament, and 
 quoting paftages, and prophecies thence as fulfilled in our 
 Saviour ; yet thefe paftages thus quoted, are frequently either 
 not found in the old teftament at all, or they are not urged in 
 the new according to the literal and obvious fenfe they feem 
 to bear in the old. 
 
 A late ingenious author, in an eflay upon the truth of the 
 chriftian religion, frankly owns, that the Evangelifts fome- 
 times apply to the Meftiah paftages of the old teftament, 
 which, as they lie in our prefent copies, plainly relate to fome 
 other perfon, or thing— This is evident, e. gr. in the paffage, 
 Matth. ii. 15. Out of Egypt have I called my fan ; which is 
 quoted from Hofea xi. where it is plainly underftood of the 
 coming of the Ifraelites out of Egypt. 
 
 This proves to many a heavy obftacle in the way of chriftia- 
 nity, which the divines, commentators, critics, &c. have 
 long laboured to remove, though by very different means. 
 Some have recourfe to a double completion ; and imagine, 
 that though the prophecies were primarily accompliihed in 
 other events, yet they might have a fecondary accomplim- 
 ment in the MefTiah : but others fet afide a double completion, 
 except wheie the prophet himfelf declares as much, this other- 
 wife making all prophecy ufelefs. 
 
 The generality chufe therefore to have recourfe to an allego- 
 rical, typical, or fpiritual meaning in the prophecies, £sV. 
 and fuppofe them to have been thus underftood among the an- 
 cient Jews, thus fulfilled in our Saviour, and thus applied by 
 the apoftles. 
 
 In effect, the Jewifh rabbins, it is allowed, took a world 
 of liberty in quoting and interpreting fcripture; and it is 
 fuppofed the apoftles might follow thefe rules in their 
 quotations. 
 
 Accordingly, M. Surenhufius, Hebrew profeflbr at Amfter- 
 dam, has endeavoured to retrieve thefe rules, long fince 
 loft, in an exprefs treatife on this fubject, publifhed in 1713. 
 This author obferves a great deal of difference implied in the 
 different forms of quoting ufed by the facred writers ; as, 
 It has been faid ; it is written ; that it might be fulfilled which 
 ■was fpoktn by the prophets ; the fcripture fays ; fee what is 
 
 QUO 
 
 faid ; the fcripture forefeeing ; Is it fist written, &c. — He 
 adds, that the books of the old teftament having been dif- 
 pofed in a different order at different times, and having had 
 different names, it is thence that one book or writer is fome- 
 times confounded with another. 
 
 For the rules of quoting and interpreting practifed among the 
 rabbins, he gives us ten ; recovered with much ftudy front 
 the Thalmud, and the ancient Jswifh doctors : inftances 
 whereof he give's us in the writings of the apoftles ; and by 1 
 thofe rules he endeavours to explain and jufHfy all die quota- 
 tions made from the old teftament in the new. 
 The rules are 1. reading the words not according to the 
 points placed under thein, but according to others fjbftituted 
 in their ftead ; as is done by St Peter, Acts iii. 3. by Stephen, 
 Acts vii. 43. and by Paul, I Cor. xv. 54. 2 Cor. viii. 15, yc. 
 The fecond is by changing the letters ; as is done by Paul, 
 Rom. ix. 33. 1 Cor. xi. 9. Heb. viii. 9. and x. 5. and by 
 Stephen, Acts vii. 43. 
 
 The third is by changing- both letters and points, as is done 
 by Paul, Acts xiii. 41. and 2 Cor. viii. 15. — The fourth is 
 by adding fome letters, and taking away others. 
 The fifth is bytranfpofmg wordsandletters — The fixth is by di- 
 viding one word into two — The feventb, adding others words 
 to make the fenfe more clear — The eighth, changing the or- 
 der of the words — The ninth, changing the order of the 
 words, and adding other words. Both of which are done by- 
 the apoftles — Laftly, changing the order of words, adding 
 words, and retrenching words ; which is a method often ufed 
 bv St Paut 
 
 dther authors,- asbifhop Kidder, M. Ie Clerc, Mr Sykes, csV. 
 folve the difficulty another way — That ufual form of quota- 
 tion among the evangelifts, <c That it might be fulfilled 
 ** which was fpoken by the prophets," according to thefe 
 authors, means ho more than an accommodation of the pro- 
 phets words to the cafe in hand. 
 
 The word ctmiwSh, fulfilled, does fio't nece'flarily determine 
 us to fuch a fenfe, as if the evangelifts defiglfed to fpeak of a 
 prediction of future events acco?hpliJJjcd ; but may barely 
 exprefs an accommodation of borrowed words— In effect, fays 
 biihop Kidder, a fcripture may be faid to be fulfilled two ways j 
 properly, as when that which was foretold comes to pafs j 
 and improperly, by way of accommodation, as when an event 
 happens to any place or people like to what fell out fome time 
 before — And thus it is that St Matthew fays on occafion of 
 the murder of the innocents, that te then was fulfilled what 
 was fpoke by the prophet Jeremy, In Rama was a voice 
 beard, &c. 
 
 This interpretation is cohfirrhed by M. le Clerc, who oh- 
 ferves that the Jews, in their language, ufed to fay, that a 
 paffage of fcripture was fulfilled, as often as any thing hap- 
 pened which it might be applied to : fo that the evangelift 
 Matthew, who was a Hebrew, and wrote, as it is commonly 
 fuppofed, in that language, intended no more in the paftVe 
 juft cited, but that a thing happened to which one might 
 apply what Jeremy had formerly faid on another occafion. 
 Accordingly, fays Mr Sykes, the evangelifts in citing that 
 paffage of Ifaiah, Beheld a virgin Jhall be with childj &c. only 
 ufe it as words of that prophet remarkably agreeing to the mi- 
 raculous birth bf Jefus, and not as a prophefy of his birth. 
 It may be added, that this way of fpeaking was not un- 
 known among the heathen writers — Thus in ./Elian, Dio- 
 genes Sinopenfis ufed continually to fay of bimlelf, that he 
 fulfilled and underwent all the curfes of tragedy. 
 
 QUOTIDIAN, Quotidian a, in medicine, an inter- 
 mitting fever, or ague, the accefs whereof returns every 
 day. See Ague. 
 
 QUOTIENT, Quotiens, in arithmetick, the number 
 refulting from the divifion of a greater number bv a fmailer ; 
 and which fhews how often the fmailer is contained in the 
 greater, or how oft the divifor is contained in the dividend. 
 See Division. 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, quotics, q. d. How often 
 is fuch a number contained in fuch another ? 
 In divifion, as the divifor is to the dividend ; fo is unity to 
 the quotient — Thus the Quotient of 12 divided by 3 is 4 % 
 which is thus difpofed, 3) 12 (4 Quotient. 
 
 QUOUSQUE — Execution with a Quousque. See Exe- 
 cution. 
 
 QUO WARRANTO, a writ that lies againft him who 
 ufurps any franchife, or liberty againft the king; as to have 
 waife, ftray, fair, market, court-baron, leet, or fuch like, 
 without good title. 
 
 It alfo lies for mif-ufer or non-ufer of privileges granted — 
 And even, according to Bracton, againft him that intrudeth 
 himfelf as heir into land. See Intrusion. 
 QUOYL, fee the article Qyoii,. 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 10 F 
 
R. 
 
 R A B 
 
 RAC 
 
 A liquid consonant, and the fevcnteenth letter of the 
 
 alphabet. 
 
 -3 The grammarians hold it a femi-vowel ; efpecially 
 in the Greek, where, in common with the other 
 vowels> it admits an afpirate, &c. though whether the afpi- 
 rate fhould be founded before or after it, is fome doubt. We 
 find inftances of each. 
 Thus pif* the Latins wrote rheda \ and (W>* the ^Eolians 
 \vrote PfiSn — The antient Goths, and Teutones, Littleton 
 obferves, always prefixed h to r. See H. 
 The Hebrews allow the r the privilege of a guttural, that 
 is, they never double it, which yet is done by the Arabs, 
 Greeks, and Latins, fsV. 
 
 Perfius, calls the rjitera canina, becaufe the dogs feem to pro- 
 nounce it in fnarling : Yet it mould feem to have had a fofter 
 found among the Romans than among us, by its being fre- 
 quently interpofed to prevent the claming of vowels : as in 
 rartis from nurus from r*@*, murex from fxv^, mus 
 
 marts from «« v©- '■> 2nd this foftnefs was fuch as trequently 
 occafioned its being dropt as ufelefs in writing. 
 Thus for Hetrufci they frequently wrote Thuja* and even 
 Tufct ; and for fur/urn, rurfvs, prorfus : fufuJtty rufus, profits. 
 In effect there was that agreement between the found of the 
 s and r, that as the Romans avoided the doubling of their 
 confonants, it was no wonder they here dropped the r in fuch 
 words ; the s fupplying the place of both. Hence too it 
 came to pafs, that what they at firft pronounced, A/a, A- 
 fena, Cafmen j was afterwards, Ara, Arena, Carmen ; and 
 thofe firft named Fufii and Valefn were afterwards called 
 Furii and Valeri't. Cicero tells us, the Papjrji were firft 
 called Papijii; and even fixes the time when the change 
 was made, viz. in the year of Rome 415. Feftus adds, 
 that olera, pignora, plurima, were anciently written ok/a- 
 pignofa, plujima. 
 
 From the fame foftnefs of the found of the r, it came to be 
 ufed indifferently with the /, in many words, e. gr. latiaris 
 and latialis, palilla and par ilia, &c. 
 Though the r more frequently degenerated into/; thus 
 mures became changed into lemures, interlego, pefluceo into 
 intelligo and pettuceo, /rater into fratellus, fyc. and the fame 
 is fometimes done between n and as areus and tsneus, 
 Z?e. 
 
 R, was antiently a numeral letter, fignifying 80; according to 
 the verfe, 
 
 Odoginta dabit tibi R, fiquis numerab'tU 
 When a dafh was added a top, as R, it fignified eighty 
 thoufand. 
 
 The Greek r, j>, fignified an hundred. 
 R, or in medicinal prefcription, ftands for recipe, take. 
 R AB ATE, in faulconry— A hawk is fometimes laid to rabate, 
 
 when by the motion of the hand of the bearer, the lure, call, 
 fhe leaves purfuing her prey, or quarry; and recovers 
 
 thefift. 
 
 Rahate in commerce. See Rebate. 
 
 RABBETING, in carpentry, the planing or cutting of 
 channels, or grooves, in boards. 
 
 In fhip-carpentry, it fignifies the letting in of the planks of 
 the fhip into the keel ; which in the rake, and run of a fhip, 
 is hollowed away, that the planks may join the clufer. 
 
 RABBET-^W. See the article FLabbet-J?LAKE. 
 
 RABBI*, or R A b b 1 n, a doctor of the Jev/ifh law. 
 * The word in its original -Q-| fignifies mafier. 
 The words rabbi UX&rabbm* have the fame fignification ; yet 
 is there fome difference in their ufe. — When we fpeak abfo- 
 lutely, and without applying the term to any proper name, 
 we iay rabbin, not rabbi. Thus, we fay, it would be unjutt 
 to attribute to the antient rabbins all the notions of the mo- 
 dern ones. 
 
 On the other hand, when we prefix the term to the proper 
 name of fome Jewifh doctor, we fay rabbi, not rabbin : 
 rabbi Saloman Jarchi is of this opinion. 
 
 Yet rabbi having no plural, we fay, the rabbins Juda Chiug, 
 and Juda ben Chabin, are the authors of two antient He- 
 ■ brew grammars. 
 
 The modern rabbins are entitled to a good deal of refpect 
 among the Jews : they have the firft places in the lynagogues ; 
 they determine all matters and controverfies of religion, and 
 very frequently pronounce upon civil affairs. They have even 
 a power to excommunicate the difobedient. 
 Thev retain a vaft number of fuperftitious traditions, from 
 the writings of their prcdecefTors ; which they obferve as fcru- 
 puloufly as they do the law of Mofes. 
 
 I The antient rabbins were infinite dealers in allegories. Their 
 writings are almoft wholly allegorical, particularly their com- 
 ments and interpretations of the fcripture. 
 They had a great number of rules, and forms of interpreting 
 and quoting, which fome modern writers fuppofe to have been 
 followed by the apofiles, in their interpretation, and quotation 
 of theprophefies of the old teftament, in the new. See Quo- 
 tation. 
 
 The lofs of thefe rules Dr Stanhope, Dr Jenkins, ts.c. lament, 
 as what in all probability would perfectly reconcile the jarring 
 pafiages in the old and new teftament. Surenhufius, Hebrew 
 profeffor at Amfterdam, imagines he has retrieved thofe rules 
 from the antient Jewifh writers. 
 
 The rabbins, he obferves, interpreted fcripture in fuch a man- 
 ner as to change the literal fenfe into a more noble and fpiri- 
 tualone. To this end, he fays, they ufed ten ways of quot- 
 ing and explaining the old teftament; inftances of each where- 
 of he gives in the writings of the apoftles. 
 They confift in changing the points ; the letters; both let- 
 ters and points ; adding and taking away letters ; tranfpofing 
 words and letters ; dividing one word into two; adding 
 words ; changing the order, i$ c. 
 
 Rabbinical character. Seethe article Character. 
 
 Rabbinical Hebrew. See thearticle Hebrew. 
 
 RABBINIST, a follower of the doctrine of the rabbins ; a 
 term ufed in contradiftinction to caraite. 
 
 Father Simon contends for rabbanijl, or rabbanite, inftead 
 of rabbinijt ; in effect, the former readings are apparently 
 preferable to the latter; the word being derived from the 
 Hebrew ralbanim, which is the name of the feet, and which 
 the Jews ufe to diftinguifh their doctors from thofe of the 
 caraite Jews. 
 
 Rabbtnijl, then, fignifies a Jewifh doctor who adheres to the 
 traditions of his fathers ; not fimply a rabbin or doctor ; for 
 the carahes who oppofe thofe traditions, have their rabbins 
 as well as the other Jews. 
 
 R ABDOIDES, } f Rhabdoides. 
 RABDOLOGY, > See < Rhabdolocv, 
 RABDOMANCY, 3 t Rhabdomancv. 
 
 RABINET, a final] piece of ordnance, between a falconet 
 and a bafe. Its dimenfions, &e. See under Cannon. 
 
 R A C A, or Racha, a Syriac term, found in the gofpel of 
 St Matthew, ch. v. 22. and preferved in moft tranflations. 
 Father Simon obferves that the Greek tranflator of St Mat- 
 thew's gofpel retained the Syriac raca which he found in the 
 original, by reafon it was very common among the Jews. 
 And St Jerom, Luther, the Englifh tranflators, thofe of 
 Geneva, Louvain, Port-Royal, £sV. ftill preferve it in their 
 refpective languages. 
 
 F. Bouhours chufes rather to exprefs the fenfe thereof in a fort 
 of paraphrafe, thus : he that fays to his brother, homme de 
 pen de fine, man of little under/landing, fhall deferve to be 
 condemned by the tribunal of the council, fefV. 
 Moft tranflators, except the Englifh, and F. Simon, for raca 
 write racha , but the former orthography feems the beft 
 founded . all the Latin copies having raca, and ail the Greek 
 ones px*Jor, with Hefychius, (oxx*, which is the fame: all 
 we mean, but St Irenaeus, and Beza's copy, now at Cam- 
 bridge, which have — In effect, the origin of the word, 
 fhews it fhould be raca; as coming from the Syriac jfp-j, 
 raca> of the Hebrew p~I r«*i empty, fhallow. 
 RACCOURCY, in heraldry, fignifies the fame as coupy, 
 that is, cut off, or fhortened ; and denotes a crofs or other 
 ordinary, when it does not extend to the edges of the efcut- 
 cheon, as they always do when abfolutely named, without fuch 
 diftinction. 
 
 RACE*, in genealogy, a lineage, or extraction continued from 
 father to fon. See Line. 
 
 * The word is French, formed from the Latin, radix, root ; & 
 intimating the root of the genealogical tree. 
 
 In feveral orders of knighthood, as in that of Malta, b'c the 
 candidates muft prove a nobility of four races or defcents. 
 In fome republics the magiftrates are to prove themfelves of 
 plebeian race, to be qualified. 
 
 The French reckon their kings by races; as, the firft race, the 
 fecond race, the third race. We alfo fay the race of the Otto- 
 mans, theArfacides, the Ptolemys, t3V. 
 
 D'Hervieux obferves, that it is ufual to put the female canary 
 bird to the male goldfinch, linnet, or the like, to breed ; but, 
 for his part, he Ihould chufe to put the male canary-bird to 
 
 the 
 
after 
 
 RAD 
 
 the female goldfinch, linnet, £jfo becaufe the male iifually 
 faces more than the female, i. e, the young ones take more 
 after the male than after the female. 
 RACHA. See the article Raca. 
 
 RACHITIS, or rather Rhachitis, in medicine, a difeafe 
 affecting the bones of children ; more ufually called the rickets 
 See Rickets. 
 
 RACK, an engine of torture furnifhed with cords, C3\r, for ex- 
 torting confeilion from criminals. 
 
 The duke of Exeter, conftable of the tower under Henry VI. 
 With the duke of Suffolk, and others, having a defign to in- 
 troduce the civil law into England ; for a beg?nning,°tbe rjack, 
 or brake, allowed in many cafes by the civil law, was firft 
 brought to the tower, where it is fttll preferved.— In thofe 
 days, the rack was called the duke of Exeter's daughter. 
 
 Rack, in the manage, a pace wherein a horfe neither trots nor 
 ambles, but muffles, as it were, between both. 
 The racking pace is much the fame as the amble ; only that it 
 is a fwifter time, and a fhorter tread. 
 
 To Rack wines, &c. is to draw them from off their Ice: 
 their having Hood long enough to clear and fettle. 
 
 Hence sXAZK-vintage is frequently ufed for the fecond voyage 
 our wine merchants ufed to make into France for racked 
 wines ; whence they ufed to return about the end of De- 
 cember. 
 
 RACKET*, a kind of bat, to ftrike the ball withal at ten- 
 nis ; confifting ufually of a lattice, or net-work of cat-gut 
 ftrained very tight over a circle of wood, with a handle oj 
 Ihaft of a moderate length. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, raquette, which Me- 
 nage derives from the Latin, retetta, a diminutive of rete. 
 net; whence alfo rcticum, and reticulum. 
 Pafquier obferves, that antiently they ufed no rackets at ten- 
 nis, but plaid with the palm of the hand ; and hence, he con- 
 jectures, it is, that the French call tennis-play, jeu de paume— 
 He adds, that rackets were not introduced till a little before 
 his time. 
 
 Racket is alfo a machine, which the favages of Canada bind 
 to their feet, to enable them to walk more commodioufly over 
 the fnow ; made much in the manner of a tennis-racket. 
 Its figure is a lozenge, whereof the two obtufe angles are 
 rounded off. It is bound about with very fine thongs of lea- 
 ther, and the mafhes of it are much fmaller and clofer than 
 thofe of our rackets. 
 
 In the middle is fitted a kind of flioe, lined with wool 
 hair ; to be tied on to the ankle : by which means the feet are 
 prevented from finking in the fnow. — Rackets oblige the per- 
 fon to take very long fteps, and, as we fay, to walk a great 
 pace, to keep them from knocking againft each other. 
 
 RADIAL curves, is a denomination given by /ome authors to 
 curves of the fpiral kind, whofe ordinates, if they may be fo 
 called, do all terminate in the center of the including circle, 
 and appear like fo many radii of that circle ; whence the 
 name. See Curve. 
 
 RADIALIS, or Radijeus extenfor, in anatomy. See Ex- 
 ten sua carpi. 
 
 Radialis, or R adi jeus flexor. See Flexor carpi. 
 
 RADIANT point, or Radiating point, is any point of 
 vifible object, whence ravs proceed. See Ray, and Point, 
 Every radiant point diffufes innumerable rays all around : but 
 only thofe radiants are vilible, from which right lines may be 
 drawn to the pupil ; becaufe the rays are all right lines. 
 AH the rays proceeding from the fame radiant continually d 
 verge ; the cryltallin collects or re-unites them again. St 
 Diverging. 
 
 Every ray is fuppcied to carry with it the fpecies, or image of 
 the radiant. 
 
 RADIATED, in botany, an epithet applied to round flat 
 flowers, confifting of a difk, and a fingle row of longifh 
 pointed leaves, ranged all around it in manner of ray 
 fpokes. 
 
 Radiated flowers are properly fuch as have feveral femi-florets 
 fet round a difk, fo as to refemble a radiant ftar : fuch are 
 daizies, cammomile-flowers, &e. Thefe are fometimes alfo 
 called radiated difcous-fliwers. 
 
 The word is alfo ufed in fpeaking of medals, and in heraldry, 
 where the anticnt crowns are called radiated crowns, corona; 
 radiates. 
 
 RADIATION, in phyfics, the aftion of a body diffufing 
 rays of light as from a center. 
 
 Every vilible body is z radiating body; it being purely by 
 means of its rays that it affecls the eye. 
 
 Yet no body can radiate, unlefs it be either luminous, or 
 illuminated ; fince the rays it diffufes muff either be it: 
 own, or it muft receive them from another body. There 
 fore no body is viable, unlefs it be either luminous, o. 
 illuminated. 
 
 The furface of a radiating body may be conceived as confift- 
 ing of radiant points. 
 Place of Radiation is that fpace in a tranfparent body, or 
 
 RAD 
 
 medium, through which a vifible body radiates. Sec Medh 
 um, &e. See alfo Place. 
 Radiation, or Irradiation, is alfo ufed by fomc authors 
 to exprefs the manner of the motion of the animal feints: on 
 a fuppohtion that they are dHFufed from the brain towards all 
 parts of the body, through the Uttie canals of the nerves, as 
 light is from a lucid body. 
 
 But in lieu of a radiation, the moderns rather incline to the 
 opinion of the circulation of the fpirits. 
 RADICAL, Radicalis, in phyfics, tiff, fomethlng ferving 
 as a bafis or foundation ; or which, like a root, Is the f.jui.e 
 or principle whence any thing arifes. 
 
 The fchools talk much of a radical moiJJure inherent in the 
 feeds of all animals, which nouriihes and preferves the vital 
 heat or flame, as oil does a lamp ; and which when exh tufted 
 hie is extinguiiht'd. 
 
 Dr. Quincy obferves, that this radical moifiure is a mere 
 chimera ; unlefs we thereby mean the mate of blood, 
 which is the promptuary whence all the other juices and 
 humours are derived ; and which 3 while it circulates, in- 
 ftams life, fcfe. 
 
 In grammar, we ufe the term, radical words, for roots 
 and primitives ; in oppofition to compounds and deriva- 
 tives. 
 
 Radical/^, in algebra, the fign or charafter of the root of 
 a quantity. 
 
 •/ is the character of radically, and expreffes the fquare root j 
 s \/ the cube root, (sc. 
 RADICATION, in phyfic, the a&ion whereby plants take 
 root, or fhoot out roots. 
 
 1 he French royal academy of fciences have made a great 
 number of curious obfervations on the germination and radi- 
 cation of plants. 
 
 RADICLE, Radicula, little root; in botany, is a little 
 point dilcovered by the microfcope in all feeds, which, in the 
 growth of the plant, becomes the root. 
 
 When, in fowing, the radicle happens to light loweff, it is 
 no wonder the root fhould fpread jtfeif under ground, and 
 that the ftem of the plant fhould rife up perpendicularly ; 
 but when the radicle falls uppcrmoft, by what means it is 
 that it changes its pofition to favour the afcent of the 
 ftem is one of the wonders of vegetation : a more parti- 
 cular account whereof fee under the article Perpendicu- 
 larity. 
 
 RADII brevis. See the article Brevis. 
 
 RADIOMETER, a name which fome writers gi i-e to the 
 
 radius ajironomicus, or Jacob' sflafll See Cross-Staff. 
 RADIUS*, Ray, in geometry, the femidiameter of a cir- 
 cle ; or a right line drawn from the center to the circumfe- 
 ference. 
 
 The word is derived from the Greek rod.- 
 ufes the word radius, for a furrow. 
 
 Flera 
 
 The radius is alfo called, efpecially in trigonometry, flnus /a- 
 tus, the zvbole Jine, 
 
 It is implied in the definition of a circle, and it is apparent 
 from its conftru&ion, that all the radii of the fame circle are 
 equal. 
 
 Radius, in the higher geometry— Radius of the evoluta, 
 Radius airuedinis, or Radius ofculi, is the right line CM, 
 Tab. Analyfis, fig. 12. reprefenting a thread, by whofe evo- 
 lution from off the curve BC, whereon it was wound, the 
 curve AMm is formed. 
 Radius aflror.omicus, an inftrument ufually called Jacob's 
 
 flaff, or the crofs-jinff'. See OROSS-flajf. 
 Radius, in optics. See the article Ray. 
 
 Radius, in mechanics, is applied to the fpokes of a wheel; 
 
 becaufe ifliiing like rays from the center thereof. 
 Radius, in anatomy, is a long /lender bone of the arm, de- 
 fending along with the ulna from the elbow to thewrift; 
 called alfo facile minus, the lejflr focil. — See Tab. Arat 
 (Oflecl.) fig. 3 . n. 7. 7. ** &c. fig. 7. ». 9. 
 The radius only touches the ulna at its extremities; at the 
 upper whereof it is both received by, and alfo receives it ; 
 making, by both articulations, an imperfect, kind of gingly- 
 mus. 
 
 The upper end, rolling upon the ulna, is covered with a car- 
 tilage, and has, at the top, a fmall round finus, which receives 
 the outer procefs of the humerus : the lower end is thicker 
 than the upper, and has, betides the lateral finus, two other 
 fmus's at its extremity, which receive the bones of the 
 wrift. 
 
 The radius and ulna are both a little crooked ; by which 
 means they are kept a-part, excepting at their extremities ; 
 and are tied together by a ftrong membranous ligament. 
 The radius has four proper mufcles, befides the biceps, com- 
 mon to it and the ulna : the proper are two pronators, and 
 two fupina:ors. See Pronator and Supinator. 
 RADIX, ttfa root. See the article Root. 
 Radix ia tiled among fome anatomifb for the foal of the 
 foot. 
 
 Radix, 
 
R A I 
 
 Radix; among grammarians. SeeRAniCAL. 
 
 RAD -KNIGHTS. See the article Redmans. 
 
 RADMANS. See the article Redmans. j-- v 
 
 RAFFLING*, a fort of game with three dice, wherein ne 
 who throws the greateft pair, or pair royal, in three calts, 
 wins the prize or itake. 
 
 « The word probably comes from the bafe Latin, rieflari, to 
 rifle, plunder, take all away, 
 The raffle is properly the doublet or triplet : a raffle of aces, 
 or duces carries it againft meer points. 
 
 Raffling is alfo ufed when a company of pcrfons club to 
 the purchafe of a commodity ; and he that throws the highelt 
 on three dice takes it. , 
 
 RAFTERS, in building, are pieces of timber, which ltan- 
 dine by pairs on the reafon piece, or railing piece, meetm 
 an angle at the top, and form the roof of a hu.ld.ng. 
 It is a nile in architecture, that no rafters fhould ftand far 
 ther than twelve inches from one another. _ 
 For the fees or famtlings of rafters, It is provided by act 
 of parliament, that frinci^l rafter! from 12 foot 6 inches 
 to i 4 foot 6 inches long, be 5 inches broad a-top, and 8 at 
 the bottom, and 6 inches thick- The* from 14, 6, to 18, 
 6 long, to be 9 inches broad at the foot, 7 a-top, and 7 
 thick-And thofe from 18, 6, to 21, 6, to be ten inches broad 
 at the foot, 8 a-top, and 8 thick. , • , • 
 
 Single rafters, 6 foot 6 inches long, to be 4 and 3 mches ,n 
 their fquare— Thofe 8 foot long muft be 4 i and 3 -J inches 
 fquare. , ■ 
 
 RAG, or Rake, among hunters, denotes a company, or herd 
 
 of young colts. / , , . _ , 
 
 RAGGED hawk, in falconry, is a hawk that hath its feathers 
 broken. See Hawk. 
 
 Ragged, in heraldry. See the article Raguled. 
 
 RAGGULED. See the article Raguled. 
 
 RAGMAN's-rs//, or Ragimund'j-™//. See Roll. 
 
 RAGOuT, or Raooo, a fauce, or feafonmg, to intended roule 
 or recover the appetite when languishing, or loft. 
 The term is French, but naturalized— It is alio ufed for any 
 hieh-feafoncd dilh, prepared of fleih, nth, greens, or the like, 
 by ftewing them with the addition of bacon, fait, pepper, 
 cloves and the like high flavoured ingredients. 
 We have ragoes of beef, ofcray-flfh, of gibblets, of afparagus. 
 of endive, of cocks-combs, of gammon, of celery, tic. 
 The ancients had a ragout, called garum, made of the putre- 
 fied »uts of a certain filh, which they kept till it diilolved by 
 meer force of corruption into a fanies : this was held fuch a 
 valuable dainty among them, that Pliny obferves, its price 
 equalled that of the richeft perfumes. 
 
 RAGULED, or Ragged, in heraldry, is applied to ai 
 ordinary, e. gr. a crofs, whofe out-lines are jagged or knotted 
 'Tat. Herald, fig. 48.) 
 
 He beareth fable, a crofs raguled, or, by the name of 
 Skivay. . 
 Ragged differs from indented, in that the latter is regular, and 
 the former not. 
 
 The bearing is very ancient : Julius Caefar gave for his badge 
 a boar's head, on a ragged ftaff. 
 
 Raguled is fometimes alfo ufed in the fenfe of truneatid, or 
 ceuped, and applied to a branch that is fawed from the tree ■ ™ 
 a Mock fawed from its root. 
 
 RATA, an Indian appellation given to a kind of idolatrous 
 princes, the remains of thofe that ruled there before the con- 
 queft of the Moguls. .':..„ 
 There are fome Rajas who Hill retain a kind of lovereignty 
 in the mountains :' the Indians call them Rat ; the Perfians. 
 plurally, Raian ; our travellers Rajas, or Ragias. 
 The chief lords of the Moguls, viz. the vice-roys, gover- 
 nors of provinces, and chief minifters of ftate, F. Catrou ob 
 ferves, are called Omhras ; and the idolatrous Rajas, or 
 Indian lords who governed petty ftates before the conqueft 
 of their country, hold the fame rank at court with the 
 Omhras. 
 
 All the difference is, that the children of the Rajas fucceed 
 their fathers in the (hew of the fovercignty left them; where- 
 as the children of the Mahometan lords lofe all in lofing their 
 fathers. . , 
 
 The Indians account four ages from the beginning of the 
 world ; and in the fecond, which laftcd 1 296000 years, they 
 hold the Rajas or Kchatrys had their rife ; a noble caft ; 
 though inferior to the Bramins.— Vice then they fay 
 be<*an to creep into the world ; men only lived to 300 years, 
 and their ftature was reduced, (Sc. Lett. Edif. ti Cur. 
 
 RA^L, 0 in architecture, is applied varioufly ; particular 
 ly, to thofe pieces of timber, which lie horizontally be 
 tween the pannels of wainfcot, and over and under 
 "them. ' 
 The word is alfo applied to thofe pieces of timber which lie 
 over and under balluiters in balconies, flair-cafes, tic. Ser 
 Balluster. 
 
 R A I 
 
 Alfo, to the pieces of timber that lie horizontally from poft 
 to poft in fences with pales or without. 
 A I N, a very frequent and ufeful meteor, defcending from a- 
 bove in form of drops of water. 
 
 Rain is, apparently, a precipitated cloud ; as clouds are no- 
 thing but vapours raifed from moifture, waters, tic. 
 And vapours are demonftratively nothing clfe but little bub- 
 bles or veficulre derached from the waters, by the power of 
 the folar, or fubterraneous heat, or both. 
 Thefe veficulie being fpecifically lighter than the atmofphere, 
 are buoyed up thereby, until they arrive at a region where the 
 air is a juft balance with them ; and here they float, till by 
 fome new agent they arS converted into clouds, and thence 
 either into rain, fnow, hail, mift, or the like. 
 But the agent in this formation of the clouds into rain, &c. 
 is a little controverted : the generality will have it the cold, 
 Which conftantly occupying the fupetior regions of the air, 
 chills and condenfes the veficulae, at their arrival from a 
 warmer quarter ; congregates them together, and occafions 
 fevcral of them to coalefce into'little manes: and by this means 
 their quantity of matter increafing in a greater proportion 
 than their furface, they become an overload to tile thin air, 
 and accordiigly they defcend in rain. 
 
 Mr. Derham accounts for rhe precipitation, hence; that the 
 veficulae being full of air, when they meet with a colder air 
 than that they contain, their internal air is conti acted into a 
 lefs fpace, and confequently the watery fhell or cafe is ren- 
 dered thicker, fo as to become heavier than the air, tic. 
 Others only allow the cold a part in the act ion, and bring 
 in the winds as fharers with it : indeed it is clear, that a 
 wind blowing againft a cloud will drive its veficulre upon 
 one another, by which means feveral of them coalescing 
 as before, will be enabled to defcend ; and the effect will be 
 ftill more confiderable if two oppofite winds blow together 
 towards the fame place. Add to this, that clouds already 
 formed, happening to be aggravated by frefh acceffions of 
 vapour continually attending^ may thence be enabled to de- 
 Yet, the grand caufe, according to Rohault, is ftill behind ; 
 that author conceives it to be the heat of the air, which 
 after continuing for fome time near the earth, is at length 
 carried up on high by a wind, and there thawing the fnowy 
 villi, or flocks of the half frozen veficulae, it reduces them into 
 drops ; which coalefcing, defcend, and have their difiolution 
 perfefled in their progrefs through the lower and warmer 
 ftages of the atmofphere. 
 
 Others, as Dr Clark, tie. afcribe this defcent of the clouds 
 rather to an alteration of the atmofphere, than of the veficulre ; 
 and fuppofe it to arife from a diminution of the fpring or ela- . 
 ftic force of the air. 
 
 This elafticity which depends chiefly or wholly on the dry ter- 
 rene exhalations, being weakened, the atmofphere finks un- 
 der its burthen ; and the clouds fall, on the common princi- 
 ple of precipitation. 
 
 Now, the little veficulre by any, or all, thefe means, being 
 once upon the defcent, will perfift therein, notwithftandino 
 the increafe of refiftance they every moment meet withal in 
 their progrefs through ftill denfer and denier parts of the at- 
 mofphere. 
 
 For, as they all tend toward the fame point, viz. the 
 centre of the earth, the farther they fall, the more cor. 
 litions will they make; and the more coalitions, the mo:e 
 matter will there be under the fame furface ; the fur- 
 face only increafing as the fquares, but the folidity as 
 the cubes ; and the more matter under the fame furface, 
 the lefs friction or refiftance there will be to the fame 
 matter. 
 
 Thus, if the cold, the wind, tic. happen to aft early enough 
 to precipitate the afcending veficulre, before they are arrived 
 at any confiderable height ; the coalitions being few in Co 
 fhort a defcent, the drops will be proportionably fmall : and 
 thus is formed what we call dew. 
 
 If the vapours prove more copious, and rife a little higher, we 
 have a mift or jog. 
 
 A little higher ftill, and they produce 2. fmall ram, tic. 
 If they neither meet with cold, nor wind enough to condenfe 
 or diffipate them; they form a heavy, thick, dark fky ; which 
 lafts fometimes feveral weeks. 
 
 Hence we may account for many of the phenomena of the 
 weather ; 1. gr. why a cold is always a wet fummer ; 
 and a warm a dry one > becaufe the principle of pre- 
 cipitation is had in the one cafe, and is wanting in the 
 other. . , 
 
 Why we have ordinarily moft [rain about the equinoxes .' 
 becaufe the vapours arife more plentifully than ordinarily in 
 the fpring, as the earth becomes loofened from the brumal 
 conftipations ; and becaufe as the fun recedes from us in au- 
 tumn ; the cold increafing, the vapours that had lingered a- 
 bove during the fummer heats, are now difpatched down, tic. 
 Why a fettled, thick, clofe Iky fcarce ever rains tail it have 
 ' been 
 
R A I 
 
 R A I 
 
 been firft dear ? becaufe the equally diffufed vapours : muft 
 firft be condenfed, and congregated into feparate clouds, to 
 Jay the foundation of rain ; by which means the reft of the 
 face of heaven is left open, and pervious to the rays of the 
 fun, tsV. 
 
 For other phenomena of rain, as they relate to the weather- 
 glafs, fee Barometer. 
 
 As to the general quantity of rain that falls, and its proportion 
 in feveral places at the fame time, and in the fame place at 
 feveral times, we have ftore of obiervations, journals, C2V. in 
 the Memoirs of the French academy, the Philof. Tranf. &c. 
 an idea whereof may not be unacceptable. 
 Upon meafuring, then, the rain falling yearly, its depth at a 
 medium, is found as in the following table : 
 
 Depth 5/" RAIN falling yearly, and its proportion in feveral places. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 At Townley in Lancafhire, obferved by Mr. Townley - - 
 
 4zi 
 
 Upminfter in Efiex, by Mr. Derham 
 
 
 
 
 Zurich in Switzerland, by Dr. 
 
 Scheuchzer 
 
 
 
 3 2 i 
 
 Pifa in Italy, by Dr. Mich. Ang. TiUi 
 
 
 
 43i 
 
 Paris in 
 
 France 
 
 by M. de la Hire 
 
 
 
 '9 
 
 Liile in 
 
 Flanders, by M. de Vauban 
 
 
 
 z + 
 
 Proportions 
 
 of the Rain of feveral years to one another. 
 
 At Upmi 
 
 liter. 
 
 
 At Paris. 
 
 
 
 1700 
 
 19 Inch, 0: 
 
 Cent. 
 
 21 Inch. 38 Cent. 
 
 
 1701 
 
 18 
 
 69 
 38 
 
 
 27 7 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 1702 
 
 20 
 
 
 17 42 
 
 
 
 1703 
 
 23 
 
 99 
 
 
 18 51 
 
 
 
 1704 
 
 15 
 
 81 
 
 
 2r 20 
 
 
 
 1705 
 
 16 
 
 93 
 
 
 
 
 
 Proportion of the Rain cf the feveral feafans to one another. 
 
 
 Dcoth at 
 
 Depths 
 
 Depth at 
 
 1708 
 
 Dtpthat 
 
 Depth at 
 
 Depth at 
 
 1708 
 
 Pifa. 
 
 
 Zxiub. 
 
 P.p. 
 
 Upn.f. 
 
 Zurich. 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Indl. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 6 41 
 
 2 88 
 
 I 64 
 
 Jul. 
 
 0 00 
 
 Ill 
 
 3 50 
 
 Febr. 
 
 3 28 
 
 0 46 
 
 1 65 
 
 Aug. 
 
 2 27 
 
 2 94 
 
 3 15 
 
 Mar. 
 
 2 65 
 
 2 OT 
 
 1 51 
 
 Sept. 
 
 7 21 
 
 I 46 
 
 3 02 
 
 Apr. 
 
 1 25 
 
 O 96 
 
 4 69 
 
 Oil. 
 
 5 33 
 
 0 23 
 
 2 24 
 
 May. 
 
 3 33 
 
 0 02 
 
 1 91 
 
 Ncv. 
 
 0 13 
 
 0 86 
 
 0 62 
 
 
 4 9° 
 
 2 32 
 
 _5 9' 
 
 Da. 
 
 0 oc 
 
 11 97 
 
 2 62 
 
 Half-year. 
 
 28 82 
 
 10 67 
 
 ■7 3i 
 
 Half-year. 
 
 14 94 
 
 « 57 
 
 15 35 
 
 Pratematural-R ains, or Jhowers, as of bloody &c. are very fre- 
 quent in our annals, and even in natural hiftories ; yet if ftrict- 
 ly inquired into, they will be all found other things than 
 
 rain. 
 
 Bloody rains, Dr. Merret obferves, arc certainly nothing elfe 
 but the excrements of infects. — Accordingly, GafTendus gives 
 an inftance of a bloody rain in France, which terrified the 
 people ; but which Peirefc found to be only ret! drops coming 
 from a fort of butterflies that flew about in great numbers. 
 This he concluded from feeing fuch red drops come from them ; 
 from the drops not being laid on buildings, or the outer fur- 
 faces of ftones, Jiff, but in cavities and holes ; and from thofe 
 walls only being tinged therewith that were next the fields, 
 not thofe in the ftrects ; and the former only to a little height, 
 fuch as butterflies are ufed to fly to. 
 
 Dr. Merret adds, that it is moll evident the rains of wheat 
 are nothing but the feeds of ivy-berries, fwallowed by the ftar- 
 
 Iing, and again caft forth by ilool An inftance of fuch a 
 
 rain we have in the Philof. Tranf. from the country about 
 Briftol, by Mi*. W. Cole ; who, upon examining the drops, 
 found them to be the feeds of ivy-berries, blown down by 
 fierce winds from towers, churches, chimneys, walls, isc. 
 where they had been left by birds, chiefly ftarlings and 
 choughs. 
 
 The French have a tradition of a rain of Jlcnes, in a plain fix 
 or feven leagues long, between Aries and Marfeilles, called la 
 Crau, which is now quite covered therewith — The fable has 
 it, that Hercules, in his engagement with Albion and Bregion, 
 in favour of Neptune, wanting darts, was aflifted by Jupiter 
 with afhower of thefe ftones, which arefeen there to tins day — 
 Another account of their origin, fee under the article Stone. 
 Freezing Rain. See the article Freezing. 
 Rains, in the fea-languagc, denote all that tract of fea to the 
 northward of the equator, between 4 and 10 degrees of lati- 
 tude ; and lying between the meridian of Cape Verde, and 
 that of the eaftermoft iflands of the fame name. 
 It takes its name from the almoft continual calms, conftant 
 rains, and thunder and lightning to a great degree, always 
 found there. The winds, when they do blow, are only fmall 
 uncertain gufts, and fhift about all round the compafs ; fo that 
 flu ps are fometimes here detained a long while, and can make 
 but very little way. 
 RAIN-BOW, Iris, or fimply the Bow, a meteor in form of 
 a party-coloured arch or femicirclc, exhibited in a rainy iky., 
 ■oppofite to the fun, by the refraaion of his rays in the drops 
 of falling rain. 
 
 There is alfo a fecondary or fainter bow, ufuaily feen inverting 
 Vol. II. 
 
 the former at fome diftance. Among naturalhts wc alfo read 
 of lunar rainbows, marine rainbows, &C. 
 
 The rainbow, Sir Ifaac Newton obferves, never appears but 
 where it rains in the fun^ftiinc ; and it may be reprcfented 
 artificially, by contriving water to fall in little drops like 
 rain, through which the fun fhining, exhibits a bow to a 
 fpectator placed between the fun and the drops ; efpecially 
 if a dark body, e. gr. a black cloth, be difpofed beyond ths 
 drops. 
 
 Anton, de Dominis fTrft accounted for the rainbow in 1611 : 
 he explained at large how it was formed, by refraction and: 
 reflexion of the fun-beams in fpherical drops of water ; and 
 confirmed his explications by experiments made with glafs 
 globes, full of water. Wherein he was followed by 
 Des Cartes, who mended and improved on his account : but, 
 as they were both in the dark as to the true origin of colours, 
 their explications are defective, and in fome things erroneous. 
 This it is one of the glories of the Newtonian doctrine of 
 colours to fupply and correct. 
 Theory of the Rainbo w — To conceive the origin of the 
 rainbow, let us confider what will befal rays of light co- 
 ming from a very remote body, e. gr. the fun, and falling 
 on a globe of water, fuch as we know a drop of rain 
 to be. 
 
 Suppofe then ADKN (Tab. Optics, fig. 45.)' to be a drop 
 of rain, and the lines EF, BA, ON, to be rays of light 
 coming from the centre of the fun ; which, by reafon of 
 the immenfe diftance of the fun, we conceive to be pa- 
 rallel. 
 
 Now the ray BA being the only one that falls perpendicularly 
 on the furface of the water, and all the reft obliquely, it is 
 eafily inferred, that all the other rays will be refracted towards 
 the perpendicular. See Refraction. 
 
 Thus, the ray EF, and others accompanying it, will not go 
 on ft rait to Gj but, as they arrive at HI, they will deflect 
 from F to K, where fome of them, probably, efcaping into 
 the air, the reft are reflected upon the line KN, fo as to make 
 the angles of incidence and reflexion equal. 
 Farther, as the ray KN, and thofe accompanying it, fall ob- 
 liquely upon the furface of the globule, they cannot pafs 
 out into the air, without being refracted, fo as to recede from 
 the perpendicular LM ; and therefore they will not proceed 
 ftrait to Y, but will deflect to P. 
 
 It may be here obferved, that fome of the rays arriving at 
 N, do not pals out into the air, but are again reflected to Qjr 
 where being refracted like the reft, they do not proceed right 
 to Z, but declining from the perpendicular TV, are carried 
 to R ; but fince wc here only regard the rays as they may 
 affect the eye placed a little below the drop, e. gr. at P, thofe 
 which deflect from N to Q, we fet afide as uielefs ; becaufe 
 they never come at the eye. On the contrary, it is to be 
 obferved, that there are other rays, as 2 3, and the like ; 
 which being reflected from 3' to 4, thence to 5, and from 
 5 to 6, may at length arrive at the eye placed beneath th.3 
 drop. 
 
 Thus much is obvious : but, to determine precifely the quan- 
 tities of refraction of each ray, there muit be a calculation ; 
 by fuch calculation it appeal's, that the rays which fall on 
 the quadrant AD, are continued in lines, like thofe here 
 drawn in the drop ADKN; wherein there are three things 
 very confiderable : Firff, That the two refractions of the rays 
 in their ingrefs and egrefs are both the fame way ; fo that the 
 latter does not deltroy die effect of the former. Secondly, 
 That of all the rays pafling out of AN, N P, and thofe 
 adjoining to it, are the only ones capable of affecting the 
 fenfe ; as being fufficiently clofe or contiguous ; and becaufe 
 coming out parallel : whereas the reft are divaricated, and 
 difperfed too far to have any fenfible effect, at leaft to pro- 
 duce any thing fo vivid as the colours of the bow. Thirdly* 
 That the ray NP has fiiade or darknefs under it : for fince 
 there is no ray comes out of the furface N 4, it is the fame 
 thing as if the part were covered with an opake body. We 
 might add, that the fame ray NP has darknefs above it; 
 fince the rays that are above it are ineffectual, and fignify na 
 more than if there were none at all. 
 
 Add to this, that all the effectual rays have the fame point 
 of reflexion, t. e. the parallel and contiguous rays, which 
 alone are effectual after refraction, will all meet in the fame 
 point of the circumference, and be reflected thence to the 
 eyes. 
 
 Farther, it appears by calculation, that the angle ONP, in-= 
 eluded between the ray N P, and the line O N drawn fromr 
 the centre of the fun, which is the angle whereby the rainbow 
 is diftant from the oppofite point of the fun, and which makes 
 the femidiameter of the bow, contains 41 0 30'. The method 
 of determining it fee hereafter. 
 
 But fince, befides thofe rays coming from the centre of the fun 
 to the drop of water, there are many more from the feveraf. 
 points of its furface ; there are a great many other effectual 
 rays to be confidered, efpecially that from the uppermoft, and 
 that from the loweft part of the fun's body. 
 Since then, the apparent diameter of the fun is about 1 6 feconds* 
 10 G I 
 
R A I 
 
 R A I 
 
 it follows that an effectual ray from the upper part of the fun 
 will fall higher than the ray E F, by 16 fecfencfe : thus does 
 the ray GH, {fig- 46.) which being refracted as much as 
 E F ; deflects to I, thence to L, and at length emerging 
 equally refracted with the ray N P, proceeds to M ; and 
 makes an angle ONM, of 41 0 14', with the line ON. 
 In like manner the effectual ray Q_R coming from the lowcft 
 part of the fun, falls on the point R, 16 minutes lower than 
 the point F, on which the ray E F falls ; and this being refracted 
 declines to S; whence it is reMeded to Tj where emerging 
 into the air, it proceeds to V ; fo, that the line T V, and the; 
 ray OT contain an angle of 41 0 and 46'. 
 Again, upon computing the deflexions of the rays, which, like 
 that 23 (fig. 45.) coming from the centre of the fun, and be- 
 ing received into the lower part of the drop, we have fuppofed 
 to be twice reflected, and twice refraaed, and to enter the eyei 
 by lines like that 67 (Fig. 47.) ; we find that which may be; 
 accounted effectual, as 67 with the line 86 drawn from the, 
 centre of the fun, contains an angle 867, of about 52 d< 
 grees ; whence it follows that the effectual ray from the higheft 
 part of the fun, with the fame line 86 includes an angle lefs 
 by 16 minutes j and that from the loweft part of the fun, ani 
 angle greater by 16 minutes. 
 
 Thus, fincc A B C D E F is the path of the efficacious rayj 
 from the higheft part of the fun to the eye in F ; the angle 
 86 F becomes of about fifty one degrees, and forty four mi- 
 nutes. In like manner, mice G H~I K L M is the way of 
 an effectual ray from the loweft part of the fun to the eye, th< 
 angle 86 M becomes nearly of fifty two degrees, and fixteei 
 minutes. 
 
 Since then we admit feveral rays to be effectual, befides thofe 
 from the centre Of the fun ; what we have faid of the jhade 
 wil! need fome alteration ; for of the three rays defcribed 
 (Fig, 45 and 46.) only the two extreme ones will have aj 
 ihadow joined to them, and that only on the outer fide. 
 Hence it is evident that thefe rays are perfectly 'diipofed toi 
 exhibit all the colours of the prifm. 
 
 For the great quantity of denfe or intenfe light, :'. e. thi 
 bundle of rays collected together in a certain point, v. gr. in 
 the point of reflection of the effectual rays, may be accounted 
 as a. lucid or radianrbody, terminated all around by Jhade. 
 But the feveral rays thus emitted to the eye are both of diffe- 
 rent colours, that is, they are fitted to excite in us the ideas 
 of different colours, and are differently refracted out of thi 
 water into the air, notwithstanding their falling alike upon the 
 refracting furface. 
 
 Hence it follows that the different or heterogeneous rays will be 
 fep rated from one another, and will tend feparate ways ; and 
 the homogeneous rays will be collected, and tend the fame way 
 And therefore this lucid point of the drop, wherein the re- 
 fraction is effected, will appear fringed, or bordered with fe- 
 veral colours; that is, red, green and blue colours will arife 
 from the extremes of the red, green and blue rays of the fun 
 tranfmitted to the eye from feveral drops one higher than 
 another ; after the fame manner as is done in viewing lucid, 
 or other bodies through a prifm. 
 
 Thus, adds Sir Ifaac Newton, the rays that differ in refran- 
 gibility, will emerge at different angles ; and confcqucntly 
 according to their different degrees of refrangibility, emerging 
 moft copioufiy at different angles, they will exhibit different 
 colours in different places. 
 
 A great number then of thefe little globules being diffufed in 
 the air, will fill the whole fpace with thefe different colours ; 
 provided they be fo diipofed as that effectual rays may come 
 from them to the eye; and thus will the rainbow at length 
 arife. 
 
 Now to determine what that difpofithn muft be ; fuppofe ; 
 right line drawn from the centre of the fun through the ey< 
 of the fpectator, as the line V X, (Fig. 46.) called the line of 
 afipeil: being drawn from fo remote a point, it may be efiee- 
 med parallel to all other lines drawn from the fame point 
 but a right line falling on two parallels makes the alternate 
 angles equal. 
 
 If, then, an indefinite number of lines be imagined drawn 
 from the fpectator's eye to a part oppofite to the fun where 
 it rains ; which lines make different angles with the line 
 of afpect, equal to the angles of refraction of the differently 
 refrangible rays, e.gr. angles of 41 0 , 46', and of 41", 30', and 
 of 41", and4o'. Thefe lines falling on drops of rain illumined 
 by the fun, will make angles of the fame magnitude with ray 
 drawn from the centre of the fun to the fame drops. And 
 therefore the lines thus drawn from the eye will reprefent the 
 effectual rays that occafion the fenfation of any colour. 
 That e. gr. making an angle of 41 0 , 46', reprefenting the 
 leaft refrangible or red rays of the feveral drops, and of 41°, 
 40', the moft refrangible or violet rays : the intermediate 
 colours and refrangibilities will be found in the intermediate 
 fpace. 
 
 Now, it is known that the eye being placed in the vertex 
 of a cone, fees objects upon its furface, as if they 'were in a 
 circle ; and the eye of our fpectator is here in the com- 
 
 mon Vertex of feveral cones, formed by the feveral kinds of 
 efficacious rays, with the line of afpect. Now in the furface 
 of that whofe angle at the vertex or eye is the greateft, 
 and wherein the others are included, are thofe drops or parts 
 of drops which appear red; and in the furface of that cone 
 whofe angle is leaft, are the purple drops : and in the inter- 
 mediate cones are the green, blue, ks'c. drops. Hence then 
 feveral kinds of the drops muft appear as if difpofed into 
 fo many circular coloured fafciie or arches, as we fee in the 
 rainbow. 
 
 This part of the folution Sir Ifaac Newton expreffes more 
 artfully thus: fuppofe O (Fig. 48.) the eye, and OP a 
 line parallel to the fun's rays, and let P O E, POF be 
 angles of 40 0 , 17', and 42^, 2'. And fuppofe the angles 
 to turn about their common fide O P, with their other hues 
 O E and O F, they will defcribe the bounds or verges of the 
 rainbow. 
 
 For, ifE, F be drops placed any where in the conical fur- 
 face defcribed by O E, OF; and be illuminated by the fun'? 
 rays S E, S F ; the angle S E O being equal to the angle 
 P O E or 40°, 17', fhafi be the greateft angle in which the 
 moft refrangible rays can, after reflection, be refracted to 
 the eye ; and therefore all the drops in the line O E fhall fend 
 the moft refrangible rays moft copioufiy to the eye, and there- 
 by ftrike the fenfes with the deepeft violet colour in that 
 region. 
 
 And in like manner the angle S F O being = to the angle 
 POF = 42°, 2', fhall be the greateft in which the leaft 
 refrangible rays after one reflection can emerge out of the 
 drops ; and thefe rays fhall come moft copioufiy to the eye, 
 from the drops in the line O F, and ftrike the fenfes with the 
 deepeft red colour in that region. 
 
 And by the fame argument the rays, which have intermediate 
 degrees of refrangibility, fhall come moft copioufiy from 
 drops between E andF, and fo ftrike the fenfes with the in- 
 termediate colours, in the order which their degrees of refran- 
 gibility require; that is, in the progrefs from E to F, or 
 from the infide of the bow to the outride, in this order, violet, 
 indico, blue., green, yellow, orange, red : though the violet, 
 by the mixture of the white light of the clouds, will appear 
 faint, and incline to a purple. 
 
 And fince the lines OE, OF may be fituated any where 
 in the abovementioned conical furface ; what is faid of the 
 drops and colours in thefe lines is to be underftood of the drops 
 and colours throughout the whole fuperficies. Thus is the 
 primary or inner bow formed. 
 Secundary, or outer Rain-boW — As to the fecundary or famter 
 bow ufually furrounding the former; in affigning what drops 
 would appear coloured, we excluded fuch as lines drawn from 
 the eye, making angles a little greater than 42 0 , l>, fhould 
 fall upon ; but not fuch as fhould contain angles much 
 greater. 
 
 For, if an indefinite number of fuch lines be drawn from the 
 fpectator 's eye, fome whereof make angles of 50 0 , 57', with 
 the line of afpect 1 ; e.gr. OGj other angles of 54°, 7', 
 e gr. O H ; thofe drops whereon thefe lines fall, muft of ns- 
 ceffity exhibit colours. Particularly thofe of 50°, 57'. 
 E- gr. the drop G will appear red ; the line G O being the 
 fame with an effectual ray, which after two reflections, and 
 two refractions, exhibits a red colour. Again, thofe drops 
 which receive lines of 54 0 , 7', e. gr. the drop H will appear 
 purple, the line O H being the lame with an effectual ray 
 which after two reflections, and two refractions, exhibits 
 purple. 
 
 Now there being a fufficient number of thefe drops, it is 
 evident there muft be a fecond rainbnuj formed after the like 
 manner as the firft. 
 
 Thus Sir Ifaac Ne\vton : in the leaft refrangible rays, the 
 leaft angle at which a drop can fend effectual rays after two 
 reflections, is found by computation to be 50°, 57', and hi 
 the moft refrangible the leaft angle is found 54 0 , 7'. 
 Suppofe, then, O the place of the eye, as before, and P O G, 
 POH to be angles of 50°, 57', and 54°, 7'. And thefe 
 angles to be turned about their common fide O P ; with 
 their other fides OG, OH, they will defcribe the verges or 
 borders of the rainbow, CHDG. 
 
 For if G H be drops placed any where in the conical fuper- 
 ficies defcribed by OG, OH, and be illuminated by the 
 fun's rays ; theangles S G O being equal to the angle P O G 
 or 50°, 57', fhall be the leaft angle in which the then 
 leaft refrangible rays, can, after two reflections, emerge 
 out of the drops ; and therefore the leaft refrangible rays 
 fhall come moft copioufiy to the eye from the drops in the 
 line O G, and ftrike the fenfes with the deepeft red in that 
 region. 
 
 And the angle S H O being equal to POH, 54°, 7', fhall 
 be the leaft angle in which the moft refrangible rays, after 
 two reflections, can emerge out of the drops ; and therefore 
 thofe rays fliall come moft copioufiy to the eye from the 
 drops in the line O H, and fo ftrike the fenfes with the deepeft 
 violet in that region. 
 
 And 
 
R A I 
 
 R A 1 
 
 And by the fame argument, the drops m tbe region between 
 O and H fhall ftrike the fenfes with the intermediate colours, 
 in the order which their degrees of refrangibility require; 
 that is, in the progrefs from G to H, or from the infide of the 
 bow to the outer, in this order : red, orange, yellow, green, 
 blue, indtco, violet. 
 
 And fmce the lines O G, OH, may be fituated any where 
 in the conical furface; what is faid of the drops and colours 
 in thefe lines is to be underftood of the drops and colours 
 every where in thefe fuperficies. 
 
 Thus are formed two bows, an interior and ftronger, by 
 one reflection ; and an exterior and fainter by two ; the light 
 becoming weaker and weaker by every reflection. 
 Their colours will lie in a contrary order to one another; 
 the firft having the red without, and the purple within : and 
 the fecond the purple without and red within; and fo of 
 the reft. 
 
 Artificial Rain -bow — This doftrine of the rainbow is con- 
 firmed by an eafy experiment : for upon hanging up a glafs 
 globe lull of water in the fun-mine, and viewing it in fuch 
 a pofture as that the rays which come from the globe to the 
 eye, may, with the fun's rays include an angle either of 42**. 
 or 50°; if e.gr. the angle be about 42", the fpectator > 
 fuppofed at O, Will fee a full red colour in that fide of tbe 
 globe oppofite to the fun, as at F. And if that angle be 
 made a little lefs, fuppofe by deprefling the globule to E, 
 the other colours, yellow, blue and green will appear fuc- 
 ceffively, in the fame fide of the globe, alfo exceedingly 
 bright. 
 
 But if the angle be made about 50 0 , fuppofe by railing the 
 globule G, there will appear a red colour in that fide of the 
 globe towards the fun ; though that fomewhat faint; and if 
 the angle be made greater, fuppofe by raifing the globe to 
 H ; this red will change fucceflively to the other colours, 
 yellow, green, and blue. 
 
 The fame thing is obferved in letting the globe reft, and 
 raifing or deprefling the eye fo as to make the angle of a 
 juft magnitude. 
 
 D'wienfion of the Raiv-bow — Des Cartes firft determined its 
 diameter by a tentative, and indirect method; laying it 
 down that the magnitude of the bow depends on'thede- 
 gree of refraction of the fluid; and affuming the ratio of the 
 fine of incidence to that of refraction, to be in water a* 
 250 to 187. 
 
 But Dr. Halley has fince, in the Philofepb. Tranf. given us a 
 fimple, direct method of determining the diameter of the rain- 
 bow from tbe ratio of refraction of the fluid being given ; or 
 vice verfa, the diameter of the rainbow being given, to deter- 
 minethe refractive power of the fluid. The praxis is as follows. 
 Firft, The ratio of refraStion being given; to find the angles of 
 incidence, and refraclion of a ray which becomes effectual after 
 any given number of reflections — Suppofe any given line as A C 
 {Tab. Optics, Fig. 49.) which divide in D ; fo, as that A C 
 be to A D in the ratio of refraclion ; and again divide it 
 in E, fo as A C be to A E as the given number of re- 
 flections increafed by unity, is to unity; with the diameter C E 
 defcribe a femicirele C B E, and from the centre A with 
 the radius A D defcribe an arch D B interfecting the femi- 
 cirele in B. Then drawing A B, C B ; ABC'or its com- 
 plement to two right angles, will be the angle of incidence ; 
 and A C B the angle of refraction required. 
 Secondly, The ratio of refraclion, and any angle of incidence 
 being given to find the angle which a ray of light e?nerging out 
 of a rej railing fphere, after a given number of reflections, ?nakes 
 with the line of ajpccl, or an incident ray ; and confequently to 
 find the diameter of the rainbow — The angle of incidence, 
 and the ratio of refraction being given, the angle of re- 
 fraction is given ; which angle being multiplied by double the 
 numher of reflections increafed by 2. and double the ano-Je of 
 incidence fubtracted from the product, the angle remaming 
 is the angle fought. 
 
 Thus fuppofing the ratio of refraction to be, as Sir Ifaac 
 Newton has determined it, viz. as io8to8i, in the red rays, 
 as 109 to 81 for the blue rays, (s'c. the preceeding problem 
 will give the diftancc of the colours in the 
 
 I. Ra.n-bow, { The fetor's back 
 
 (d.j Z n r Q ( being turned to the 
 Rain-bow, { ^ S« J fun .= 
 
 If the angle made by a ray after three or four reflections, 
 were required, and therefore the diameters of the third and 
 fourth rainbow, (which are fcarce ever feen, by reafon of the 
 great diminution of the rays, by fo many repeated reflections] 
 they will be fuund. 
 
 III. Rain-eow, 
 
 IV. Rain-bow, 
 
 [Red 
 
 4i v 37 
 
 The fpectator being 
 turned towards the 
 fun. 
 
 ( Red +3 J2 
 I Vioiet49 34 
 
 Hence, the breadth of the rainbews is eafily found : for the 
 ereatelt femidiameter of the firit bow, r, e. from red to red 
 being 42 0 , 11', and the leaft, viz. from violet to violet 40°, 
 
 16'; the breadth of the fafcia or bow, meafured a-crofs from 
 red to violet will be i°, 45', and the greateft diameter of the 
 fecond bow being 54 0 , a; and the leaft 50 0 , 58' the breadth 
 of the fafcia will be 3 0 , 10'. Ami hence the diftance be- 
 tween the two will be found 8°, 15', 
 
 In thefe meafures the fun is only efteemed a point ; where- 
 fore as his diameter is really about 30' fo much muff be added 
 to the breadth of each, fafcia or bow, from red to violet, and 
 fo much mult be fubtracted from the diftance between them. 
 This will leave the breadth of the primary bow, 2 0 , 15', that 
 of the fecondary biw 3 0 , 40', and the interval between the 
 bows 8°, 25' ; which dimenfions deduced by calculation,- 
 Sir Ifaac Newton allures us from his own obfervations, aoree 
 very exactly with thofe found by actual menfuratiun in the 
 heavens. 
 
 Particular ^hanomtna of the Rain-bow— from this theory of 
 the r'ainbow all the particular phxnomena of it affi eafily de< 
 duced : hence we fee why the Iris is alwavs of the lame 
 breadth; by reafon the intermediate degrees of refrangibi- 
 lity of the rays between red and violet, which are its extreme 
 colours, arc always the fame. 
 
 Secondly, Why it is more diftinctly terminated on the fide of 
 the red, than on that of the violet ? there being no effi- 
 cacious rays in the fpace adjoining to the red drops, e. to the 
 fpace between the bows ; whence it terminates abruptly ; 
 whereas in the fpace on the fide of the violet ones there are 
 fome rays emitted to the eye, which though too feeble to 
 affect it ftrongl)-, yet have this effect, that they fatten the 
 violet edge inl'enfibly, lb that it is difficult to determine pre- 
 cifely where it terminates. 
 
 Thirdly, Why the bow fhifts its fituation as the eye does j 
 and, as the popular phrafe has it, flies thofe who follow it, 
 and follows thofe that fly it ? the coloured drops being difpofed 
 under a certain angle about the line of afpect, which h diffe- 
 rent in different places : whence, aHb| it follows that every 
 different fpectator fees a different bow. 
 
 Fourthly, Why the bow is fometimes a larger portion of a 
 circle, fometimes a lefs ? its magnitude depending oh the 
 greater, or lefs part of the furface of the cone* above the fur- 
 face of the earth at the time of its appearance; and that 
 part being greater or lefs as the line of afpect is more inclined 
 or oblique to the furface of the earth ; which inclination, or 
 obliquity, is greater as the fun is higher: whence, alfoj the 
 higher the fun, always the lefs the rainbow. 
 Fifthly, Why the bow never appears when the fun is above a 
 certain altitude? the furface of the cone wherein it fhould be 
 feen being loft in the ground, at a little diftance from the 
 eye, when the fun is above 42 0 high. 
 
 Sixthly, Why the bow never appears greater than a femicirele, 
 on a plane p fince be the fun never fo lowj and even in the 
 horizon, the centre of the bow is ftill in the line of afpect ; 
 which, in this cafe, runs along the earth, and is not at all 
 raifed above the furface. 
 
 Indeed, if the fpectator be placed on a very confiderable e- 
 minence, and the fun in the horizon, the line of afpect where- 
 in the centre of the bow is will be notably raifed above the 
 horizon, (confidering the magnitude of the circle whereof 
 the bow ufes to be a part.) Nay, if the eminence be very 
 high, and the rain near, it is poflible the bow may be an 
 entire circle. 
 
 Seventhly, How the bow may chance to appear "inverted- i. e, 
 the concave fide be turned upwards ? to wit, a cloud hap- 
 pening to inte cept the rays, and prevent their fhining on the 
 upper part of the arch; in which cafe only the lower part 
 appearing, the bow will feem as if turned upfide down : 
 wbich probably has been the cafe in feveral prodigies of this 
 kind, related by authors. 
 
 Indeed the bow may appear inverted from another caufe : for, 
 if, when the fun is 41 °, 46' high, his rays fall upon the 
 fmooth furface of fome fpacious lake, in the middle whereof 
 a fpectator is placed; and if at the fame time there be rain 
 falling to which the rays may be reflected from the lake: 
 it will be the fame as if the fun fhould fhine below the 
 horizon, and the line of view be extended upwards : thus 
 the furface of the cone wherein the coloured drops are to 
 be placed, will be wholly above the furface of the earth. 
 But fince the upper part will fall among the unbroken clouds, 
 and only the lower part be found among the drops of rain, 
 the arch will be inverted. 
 
 Eighthly, Why the bow fometimes appears inclined ? the ac- 
 curate roundnefs of the bow depending on its great diftance, 
 which prevents us from judging of it exactly : if the rain 
 which exhibits it chance to be much nearer, we fhall fee 
 its irregularities ; and if the wind in that cafe drive the rain 
 fo as the higher part be farther from the eye than the lower, 
 the bow will appear inclined. 
 
 Ninthly, Why the legs of the rainbow fometimes appear un- 
 equally diftant ? If the rain terminate on the fide of the fpec- 
 tator, in a plane fo inclined to the line of afpect as to make 
 an acute angle on the left hand, and an obtufe angle on the 
 right, the furface of the cone which determines what drops 
 
 will 
 
R A I 
 
 RAM 
 
 ■will appear, will fall upon them in fuch manner as that thofe 
 on the left hand will appear farther from the eye than thofe 
 on the right. For the line of afpect being perpendicular to 
 the plane of the bow, if youfuppofe two rectangular triangles, 
 a rio-htand left, the cathetus of each to be the line of view, 
 and thebafe of the femidiametcr of the bow, inclined as above : 
 it is evident, fince thofe angles of the triangles, next the eye, 
 muff always be the fame, (viz. 43 0 in the inner bow) the bafis 
 of the right-hand triangle will in this cafe appear much longer 
 than tnat or " tne ' eu "- 
 Lunar Rain-Bow — The moon, fometimes, alfo, exhibits the 
 phenomenon of an Iris, or bow j by the refradtion of her 
 rays in the drops of rain in the night-time. 
 Ariftotle fays, he was the firft that ever obferved it ; and adds 
 that it never happens, i, e. is never vifible, but at the time 
 of the full moon ; her light at other times being too faint to 
 affect the fight after two refractions, and one reflection. 
 The lunar Iris has all the colours of the folar, very diftina 
 and pleafantj only faint, in comparifon of the other; both 
 from the different intenfity of the rays, and the different 
 difpofition of the medium. 
 
 In that mentioned Pbilof. Tranfacl. N°. 331. Mr. Thorefby 
 obferves, the largenefs of the arch was not fo much lefs than 
 that of the fun, as the different dimenfions of their bodies, 
 and their diftances from the earth fliould feem to require : but. 
 as to its intirenefs and the beauty of its colour, it was ad- 
 mirable. This continued about 10 minutes before the inter- 
 pofition of a cloud hindered its obfervation. 
 Marine RAIN-Bow. — The marine at fea-bow, is a phenome- 
 non fometimes obferved in a much agitated fea ; when the 
 wind fwceping part of the tops of the waves, carries them a- 
 loft; fo that the fun's rays falling upon them, are refracted, £sV, 
 as in a common fliower ; and paint the colours of the bow. 
 F.Bourzes, in the Pbilof. Tranfacl. obferves, that the colours 
 of the marine rainbow are lefs lively, lefs diftinct, and of lels 
 duration than thofe of the commonbow; that there arc fcarce 
 above two colours diftinguifliahle, a dark yellow on the fide 
 next the fun, and a pale green on the oppofite fide. 
 But thefe bows exceed as to number, there being fometimes 20 
 or 30 feen together : they appear at noon-day, and in a pofi 
 tion oppofite to that of the common bow, i. e. the concave 
 fide is turned upwards, as, indeed, it is necefi'ary it fhould be, 
 from what we have fhewn in accounting for the phenomena 
 of the folar bow. 
 
 Tothisclafs of bows may be referred a kind of white or colour- 
 tejs rainbows.) which Mentzelius, and others, affirm to havt 
 feen at noon-day. M. Mariotte in his fourth Effai dc Pbyftque, 
 fays, thefe bows are formed in miffs, as the others are in 
 fhowers ; and adds, that he has feen feveral both after fun-fifing, 
 and in the night. 
 
 The want of colours he attributes to.the fmallnefs of the va- 
 pours which compofc the mift : but we fhould rather account 
 for it from the exceeding tenuity of the little veficulee of the va- 
 pour ; which being in effect only little watery pellicles bloated 
 with air, the rays of light undergo but little refraction in paf- 
 fing out of air into them ; too little to feparate the differently 
 coloured rays, CSV. 
 
 Hence the rays are reflected from them, compounded as they 
 came, that is, white. 
 
 Rohault mentions coloured rainbows on the grafs ; formed by 
 
 the refractions of the fun's rays in the morning dew. Trait. 
 
 dePbyf. ' 
 
 RAIN -water. See the article Water. 
 
 RAISED-a/Vj. K , . , S Air. 
 t, , > See the articles ■* j-. 
 
 Raise n-plan. S I Plan. 
 
 RAISER, in building, aboard fet on-edge under the fore-fide 
 
 of a ftep, affair, E!V. See Stair, &c. 
 RAISING, in the manage, one of the three actions 
 
 of a horfe's legs ; the other two being the flay, and the 
 
 tread. 
 
 The ratfing or lifting up of his leg in caprioles, curvets, EsV. 
 is eftemed good, if he perform it hardily and with eafe ; not 
 crofling his legs, nor carrying his feet too much out or in ; yet 
 bending his knees as much as is needful. 
 Raisin G-pieces, or Re a son-pieces, in architecture, are 
 pieces that lie under the beams, and over the polls or 
 puncheons. 
 
 RAISINS, grapes prepared by drying them In the fun, or 
 jn the air ; to fit them for keeping, and for fome medicinal 
 purpofes. 
 
 Of thefe there are various kinds : as, raiftns of Damafcus, 
 thus called from the capital city of Syria, in the neighbour- 
 hood whereof they are cultivated. They are much ufed 
 in the compofition of ptifans, together with jujubes and 
 dates; they are brought flat and feeded, of the fize of 
 the thumb ; whence it is eafy judging of the extra- 
 ordinary bulk of the grape, when frefh. Travellers tell us 
 of bunches weighing 25 pounds. Their tafte is faintiin and 
 difagreeable. 
 
 Raifins of the fun, are a kind of rai/ins brought from Spain, 
 of a reddifli or blueifli colour, feeded, and very agreeable 
 to eat. 
 
 There are various other forts, denominated either from 
 the place where they grow, or the kind of grape, EsV. as raijhs 
 of Calabria, Mufcadine rqifins, &c, 
 
 RAITING, or Rating, the laying of hemp, flax, tim- 
 ber, csV. when green, in a pond or running water, to feafon 
 and difpofe it for future ufes. 
 
 RAKE, of a fhip, is fo much over her hull as over-hangs 
 at both ends of her keel. 
 
 That part of it which is before, is called the rake forward on: 
 and that part which is at the fetting on of" the ftern-poft, is 
 called her rake-aft, or aftward-on. 
 
 When a fhip hath but a (mall rake forward on, but is built 
 with her ftern too ftraightup, fheis called bluffe-headed. 
 
 Rake of the rudder, is the hindermoft part of it. 
 
 Rake, among hunters. See the article Rag. 
 
 RAKING, of a horfe, is the drawing his ordure with the 
 hand out of the fundament, when he is coftive and cannot 
 dung. In order to do this the hand muff: be anointed with 
 fallet-oil or butter. 
 
 A horfe is alfo faid to rake, when being moulder-fplaid, or ha- 
 ving ftrained his fore-quarters, he goes fo lame as to drag one 
 of his fore-legs in a circle. 
 
 Raking or Raked table, among architects, a mem- 
 ber hollowed in the fquare of a pedeffal, or elfewhcrc. See 
 Cavetto, and Scotia. 
 
 RALLYING, in war, the re-afiembling, or calling together 
 of troops, broken, routed, and put to flight. 
 
 RAM, in aflronomy. ) See ^ Mide ARIESp 
 
 Battering Ram. } 
 
 RAMADAN, a fort of lent obferved by the Mahometans; 
 during which they faff the whole day, with fuch extreme 
 fuperffition, that they dare not waih their mouth, nor even 
 fwallow their fpittle. 
 
 The men indeed are allowed to bathe themfelvcs ; but it is 
 on condition they do not plunge the head under water, left 
 fome drops enter by the mouth or ears, &c. — But for the 
 women they are ftrictly forbid bathing, for fear of taking in 
 water at the pudendum— To make amends, they feaft all 
 night ; and ufually fpend more in this month than in fix 
 others. 
 
 RAM AGE, a term ufed for the boughs or branches of trees. 
 See Branch, c3Y. Hence 
 
 Ram age hawk, or falcon, one that is wild and coy, as having 
 been long among the boughs, preying for itfelf. 
 All falcons retain this name till they have left the aery ; being 
 fo called in May, June, July, and Auguff — Thefe are very 
 rarely reclaimed. 
 
 Ramage velvet. See the article Velvet. 
 
 RAMIFICATION, the produaion of boughs or branches j 
 or of figures refembling bl anches. 
 
 Ramifications, in anatomy, are the divifions of the arteries, 
 veins and nerves, arifing from fome common trunk — See 
 Tab. Anat. (Angeiol.) fig. %. n. 18. lS.fg.^.fg. 5. 
 
 RAMMER, or Beetle, an inftrument ufed for driving 
 downftones or piles into the ground; or for beating the 
 earth, and making it more folid for a foundation. 
 
 Rammer of a gun, the gun-Jiick ; a rod or ftafF ufed in char- 
 ging a gun, to drive home the powder to the breech, as 
 alfo the mot, and the wad, which keeps the fhot from rolling 
 out. 
 
 The rammer of a great gun has a round piece of wood at one 
 end ; the other is ufually rolled in a piece of fheep-ikin, fitted 
 to the bore of the piece, in order to clear her after fhe has been 
 discharged : which they call fpunging the piece. 
 RAMPANT*, in heraldry, is applied to a lion, bear, leopard, 
 or other beaft, in a pofture of climbing, or ftanding upright 
 on his hind-legs, and rearing up his fore-feet ; fhewing only 
 half his face, as one eye and one ear. 
 
 * The term is french, and fignifies literally, creeping. 
 
 It is different from faliant, which denotes a pofture lefs erect, 
 or fomewhatftooping forwards, as if making a fally. 
 This pofture is to be fpecified in blazoning in all animals, 
 except in the lion and griffon ; it being their natural fili- 
 ation. 
 
 RAMPART*, or Rampier, in fortification, a maffy bank, 
 or elevation of earth about the body of a place, to cover it 
 from the great fhot ; and formed into baftions, curtains, tfc. 
 See Tab. Port. fig. 21. tit. rr. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Spanifh A?nparo, defence, or 
 covering. 
 
 Upon the rampart the foldiers continually keep guard, and 
 pieces of artillery are planted there for thedefence of the place- 
 Hence, to fhelterthe guard from the enemies fhot, the out- 
 fide of the rampart is built higher than the infide, /. e. a 
 parapet is raifed upon it with a platform. See Parapet, and 
 Platform — Hence,alfo,earth not being capable to be raifed 
 perpendicularly, like ftone ; the rampart is built with a talus 
 or flope, both on the inner and outer-fide. 
 The rampart is fometimes lined, i. e. fortified with a ftone 
 wall within fide, otherwife it has a berme. See Berme — 
 It is encompaffed alfo with a moat or ditch, out of which the 
 earth that forms the rampart is dug. 
 
 The 
 
Ran 
 
 The height of the rampart fhould not exceed three fathom, 
 this being fufficient to cover the houfes from the battery of 
 the cannon : neither ought its thicknefs to be above ten or 
 twelve, unlefs more earth be taken out of the ditch, than can 
 be othcrwiie heftdwed. 
 
 The ramparts of half-moons are the better for being low, that 
 the fmall fire of the defendants may the better reach the bottom 
 of the ditch ; but yet they nmft be fo high, as not to be com- 
 manded by the covert-way. 
 
 Rampart is alfo ufed, in' civil architecture, for the fpace left 
 void between the wall of a city and the next houfes. 
 This is what the Romans call fomarluriii wherein it was for- 
 bid to build, and where they planted rows of trees, for the 
 people to walk and amufe themfclvc? under: 
 
 RAMUS, in anatomy, fsV; a branch of a greater veffcl. 
 
 Ramus anterior is particularly ufed for a branch of the fubcu 
 tancous vein, paffing under the mufcles of the ulna. 
 Ramus pojierior denotes a branch of the fame vein, running 
 near the elbow. 
 
 RAN A. See the article Ranula. 
 
 RANCID*, Rancidus-, denotes a fatty fubftance that „ 
 become rank, or mufty ; or that has contracted an ill fmcll by 
 being kept clofe. 
 
 * The word is particularly imderftood of old nifty bacon, jt 
 comes from the Latin ranaius, of ranceo, to be rank. 
 
 RANDOM-./W, a fhot made when the muzzle of a gun is 
 raifed above the horizontal line, and is not defigiled to ' fllOo't 
 directly, or point-blank. 
 
 The utmoft random of any piece is about ten times as far as 
 the bullet will go point-blank ; and the bullet will go fartheft 
 when the piece is mounted to about 45 degrees above the 
 level-range. 
 
 1 he fpace or dirtance of the random is reckoned from the 
 
 plat-form to the place where the hall firft grazes. 
 RANFORCE ring. See Re-in-forced ring. 
 RANGE, in gunnery, the path of a bullet, or the line it 
 
 defcribes from the mouth of the piece to the point where it 
 
 lodges. 
 
 If the piece be laid in a line parallel to the horizoh,' it is called 
 the right or level range. 
 
 If it be mounted to 45 degrees, the ball is faid to have the 
 utrnojl range; and fo proportionably, all others between 00 
 degrees and 45 degrees being called the intermediate ranges. 
 Amplitude of the Range of a projeBile. See Amplitude. 
 RANGER, a fWorn officer of a foreft, whofe bufinefs it is 
 to walk daily through his charge, to drive back the deer out 
 of the purlieus or difaforefted places into the forcft-lands 
 and to prefent all trefpafles done in His bailiwick at the next 
 court held for the foreft. 
 
 The ranger is made by the king's letters, and has a fee 
 paid yearly out of the exchequer, and certain fee-deer.— In 
 the charter de forefta mention is made of twelve kind of 
 rangers. 
 
 RANGES in a fhip are two pieces of timber goino- a-crofs 
 from fide to fide ; one aloft on the fore-cattle, a little abaft 
 the fore-mall ; and the other in the beak-head; before the 
 wouldings of the bow-fprit. 
 
 RANGING, in war, the difpofing of troops in a condition 
 proper for engagement, or for marching. 
 TKe army was ranged in form of battle to receive the enemy; 
 ranged in three columns for a march, fisfa 
 In building, the fide of a work that runs ftraight, without 
 breaking into angles, is faid to range, or run range. 
 
 RANK, a due order, or a place allotted a thing fuitably to its 
 nature, quality, or merit. 
 
 Kings are perfons of the firft rank on earth : In cavalcades, 
 proceffions, &c. every perfon is to obferve his rank. 
 Rank, in military difcipllne, denotes a feries or row of fol- 
 dicrs, placed fide by fide ; a number of which ranks form the 
 depth of the fquadron or battalion, as a number of files does 
 the width. 
 
 To clofe the rank, is to bring the men nearer : to open it; is to 
 fet them farther apart, — To double the ranis, is to throw two 
 into the fpace of one, by which the files are thinned. 
 
 Rear Rank. See the article Rear. 
 
 RAr;k, in refpect of fhips. See Rate!. 
 
 RANSOM, a fum of money paid for the redemption of a 
 perfon out of flavery ; or for the liberty of a prifoner of 
 war. 
 
 In our law-books,- ranfom is a!fo ufed for a fum paid for the 
 pardoning of fome notorious crime. 
 
 Horn makes this difference between ranfom and amerciament, 
 that ranfom is the redemption of a corporal punifhment due 
 to any crime. 
 
 When one is to make a fine and ranfom, the ranfom fhall be 
 treble the fine. Crompt. Jufl. 
 RANT, in the drama, an extravagant flight ofpaffion, over- 
 fhooting nature and probability. 
 
 Lee's tragedies abound with rants : yet the rankeft, it is ob- 
 ferved, frequently meet with applaufe on the ftaee. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 RAP 
 
 We find inftances of Rants, even in our fcvereft poets. 
 Such, e. gr. is that in the beginning of Ben Johnfon's 
 Catiline, where the parricide in (peaking to Rome, fays, £d 
 plough up rocks, Jieep as the alps, in du/l ; and lave the Tyr- 
 rhene waters into clouds, but I would reach thy head f 
 RANULA, or Ran a, in medicine, a tumour under the 
 tongue, which like a ligature hinders a child from fpcaking, 
 or fucking. 
 
 The Ranula fub lingua, is fometimes the fame with what we 
 popularly call being tongue-tied : a defect which is ufually 
 caufed by a Ihort fnenum not permitting the tongue to 
 perform its proper motions. — Though at other limes; 
 there is a ftrong concretion, or rather impofthume under 
 the toiigiie, which is the proper ranula, by the Greeks 
 
 Called BaT^ys,. 
 
 This impofthume contains in a bag a matter that is 
 fometimes cedematous, at other times melicerous; fcirrhous, 
 black, or livid ; in which cafes the operation of cutting is 
 dangerous it ufually grows to the magnitude of a bean or 
 chefhut. Shaw. 
 R ANULARES, or Raninje vents, in anatomy," two 
 veins under the tongue, arifmg from the externa) jugular, 
 and running on cither fide the linea mediana. 
 Thefe veins are opened with good fuccefs in quinzies. — They 
 take their denomination from a refemblance of their ftate 
 to that c'f little frogs, called in Latin, ranula^ becaufc ne- 
 . ver out of water. 
 
 RAPACIOUS animals, in the general; are fiich as live 
 upon prey. 
 
 Nattiralifts divide birds into rapacious, carnivorous, and fru- 
 givoi'ous'. 
 
 The ch'aracteriftic notes of rapacious birds are, that they 
 have a great head, and a fhort neck; hooked, ftrong, 
 and fharp pointed beak and talons_, fitted for tearing of 
 flefh; ftrong and brawny thighs, for ftriking down their 
 prey ; a broad thick flelhy tongue like that of man : 
 1 2 feather* in their train; and 24 flag feathers in each 
 wing. And the two appendices, of blind guts, arealwa ; s 
 very ftiort. 
 
 Rap acious birds have a membranous ftomach ; and not 3 
 mufculoUs one, or a gizzard, fuch as birds have which 
 live' on grain.' 
 
 They are very fharp fighted ; and gather not in flocks, but 
 generally fpeaking, are folitafy ; though vultures will fly 50 
 or 60 in a company. 
 RAPE, Raptus, in law, a ravijhing; bt the having 
 carnal knowledge of a woman by force, and againft her will. 
 If the woman conceives, the law efteems it no rape; from 
 an opinion that fhe cannot conceive unlefs fhe confent. 
 Coke en Litt. lib; 2. cap. li. 
 
 This offence is felony in the principal and in his aiders, by fe- 
 vcral ftatutes ; and the criminal is excluded from the benefit 
 of his clergy. 
 
 By the civil law; C. de raptu virginum^ ravifhing is decreed 
 capital, even though the woman, being a maid, or widow, 
 confent to marry the raviftier. In France, the civil law con- 
 ftitution obtains, though it was fufpended fome time by 
 the ordonances, which allowed the man to marry the woman 
 with her confent. By an ordonance in 1639, the rape of a 
 girl or a boy are put on the fame footing. Fleta obferves 
 that by our law the complaint rrtuft be made Within forty- 
 days, elfe the woman m?y not be heard, lib. 3. cap. 5. AH 
 carnal knowledge of a maid before ten years of age, is deem- 
 ed by the law a rape. Stat. An. 8. EUz. cap. 6. 
 In Bra&on's time, the raptor or ravijher, was punifhed with 
 the lofs of his eyes and tefticles, quia colore/nflupri hiduxe- 
 runt. 3 Inft. fol. 60. 
 
 The civilians make another kind of rape, called fubornatio, 
 rape of fubornation, or feduclion; which is when a perfon 
 feduces, or intices a maid to uncleannefs, or even marriage, 
 and that by gentle means; provided there be a confiderable 
 difparity in age or condition between the parties. In this 
 cale, the father and mother intend their adtion reciprocally 
 for the crimen raptu:, or fuhornationis. 
 
 The French laws make no difference between the rape of 
 violence and that of follicitation, or fubornation ; they 
 make both capital. — This kind of rape oni laws call ravfi- 
 ment. 
 
 Rape, of the foreft, is a trefpafs committed in the forcft by 
 violence. 
 
 This' is mentioned in the laws of Henry I. as one of the 
 crimes cognizable alone by the king. 
 Rape, is alfo a name given the wood or ftalks of the dufters of 
 grapes, when dried and freed from the fruit. 
 The rape is ufed in making vinegar ; fervifig to heat, and 
 four the wine : but it is firft put into a place to four itfelf, be- 
 fore it hecaft into the vinegar veiled ; to which end, prefently 
 after the vintage, it is carefully put up in barrels, left it take 
 air, otherwife it would heat itfelf, and be fpoiled : There is 
 no other way of keeping rape, hitherto difcovered, but to fill 
 the veffel, wherein it is contained, with wine or vineo-ar. 
 M H *Rapz % 
 
i fmall 
 
 R A R 
 
 RapS, Rapa, is alio ufed for a part, or diviiion of a county j 
 femfying as much as a hundred. ■ ■ r 
 
 Though" fometimes rape is taken for a divifion containing le- 
 veral hundreds— Thus Suflex is divided into fix ropes, viz. 
 thole of Chichefter, Arundel, Bramber, Lewes, Pevency, 
 and Haftings ; every one of which, befides its hundreds, has 
 a caftie, a river, and foreft belonging to it. 
 The like parts in other counties are called tithlngs; lathes, or 
 wapentakes. , . j 
 
 RAPIER, properl •/ denotes along, ordinary, ojd. tajtuonca 
 cutting fword, fu'ch as thofe wore by the common foldiers. 
 •"The word is formed from the French rapiere, of the Greek 
 ,'-«j<i>>, cederc, to finite, or itrike. 
 In this fenfe do the French dill ufe the term : fo that among 
 them to take the rapier, is to enter in the army. 
 
 Rapier, in a modern fenfe among us, ufually denotes 
 fword— as contradidinguiflied from a back-fword, or cuttin 
 
 RAPINE, Rapina in law— To take a thing in private 
 againft the owner's will, is properly theft; but to take it 
 openly, or by violence, is rapine, or robbery. 
 
 RAPSODIST.j - JRhapsodist. 
 
 RAPSODY, I SRhapsodt 
 
 RAPTU hxredls, an antient writ which lies for the taking 
 away an heir, holding in focage; of which there are two 
 forts ; one when the heir is married, the other when not 
 See Ravishment. . , 
 
 RAPTURE, Raptura, an extafy, or tranfport ol mina. 
 See Extasv, Enthusiasm, Rhapsody, He. 
 
 RARE, in phyfics, denotes a body that is- very porous 
 whofe parts are at a great diftance trom one another 
 and which contains but little matter under a great deal 
 of bulk. 
 
 In this fenfe rare damls oppofed to denje. 
 The corpufcular Philofophers, viz. the Epicureans, Cral- 
 fendifts, Newtonians, He. aft'ert that bodies are rarer feme 
 than others, in virtue of a greater quantity of vacuity 
 included between their pores.— The Cartcfians hold, that 
 a greater rarity only confifts in a greater quantity of 
 materia fubtilis, included in the pores— Laftly, the Pen- 
 pateticks contend, that rarity is a new quality iuperui- 
 duced upon a body, without any dependance, either or 
 vacuity or fubtile matter. , a 
 
 RAREFACTION, Rarefactio, w phyfics, the act 
 whereby a body is rendered rare ; that is, is brought to 
 pollers more room, or appear under a larger bulk, without 
 accefiion of any new matter. 
 Rarefaction is oppofed to condenfation. 
 
 Our more accurate writers reftrain rarefaction to that ex- 
 panfion of a mafs into a larger bulk, which is effected by 
 means of heat— All expanfion from other caufes they call 
 dilatation. . . , 
 
 The Cartefians deny any fuch thing as abfolute rare- 
 faction: cxtenfion with them, condituting the cfiencc 
 of maf 
 ly full 
 
 and 
 
 taction: cxieiiiiuu wm. — - 0 
 
 of matter, they arc obliged to hold all cxtenfion equal- 
 ly Ml v 
 Hence, tlicy make rarefaction to be no other than an ac- 
 ceffion of frefh, fubtile, and infenlible matter, which 
 entring the parts of a body, fenfibly diftends them, bee 
 this difproved under Vacuum. ' 
 It is by rarefaClien ' that gunpowder has its effect 
 to the fame principle alfo we owe our seolipiler, thermo- 
 meters, ... 
 The decree to which the air is rarefiable exceeds all ima- 
 gination"': Mc-rfennus, long ago, by means of an intenfe 
 heat, found that air might be rarefied, fo as to poiieis 
 more than 70 times its former fpace. 
 Mr. Boyle afterwards found, that air, by its own elafh- 
 d without the help of any heat, would dilate 
 * ace 
 
 city, 
 
 itfelf fo as to take up 9 times its former fpace; then 
 31 times; then 60; then 150: at length, by many de- 
 grees he found it would reach to Soot) times, then 10000, 
 and finally to 13679. 
 
 Such is the rarefaction of common air, from its owr 
 principle of elafticity, and without any previous conden- 
 sation ; but if it be compretTed, the fame author found its 
 greatcit fpace when moll rarified, is to its lead when mod 
 condenfed, as 55000 to I. 
 Such an immenfe rarefieation, Sir Ifaac Newton fhews, is 
 inconceivable on any other principle than that of a repelling 
 force inherent in the .air, whereby its particles mutually 
 fly from one another. 
 
 This repelling force, he obferves, is much more confide- 
 rablc in air than in other bodies, as being generated from 
 
 RAT 
 
 Mariotte eftablifhed this as a principle, from experiment!, 
 that the different rarefaliions or condenfations of the air 
 follow the proportion of die weights wherewith it ^ 
 prelled. '■' ' 
 
 Hence, fuppofing the mercury in the level of the fea fui- 
 pended to 28 inches, which is the weight of the whole at- 
 mofphere ; and that 60 feet height of air are equivalent to a 
 line, or ■& of an inch of mercury ; fo that the barometer, at 
 the height of 60 feet from the fea, would fall a line ; it is 
 eafy rinding what height of air would be equal to a fecond, 
 or any other line of mercury : for as 28 inches of mercury 
 A are to 28 inches, fo is the height of 60 foot of air to a 
 fourth term ; which is the height of air correlponding to a 
 fecond line of mercury. 
 
 And after the fame manner mav the heights of air corre- 
 fponding to each line be found ; 'which will make a geome- 
 trical progreflion, the fum whereof will be the whole height 
 of the atmofphere ; and of confequence a certain part of that 
 fum will be the height of a mountain, at whofe top the baro- 
 meter fhall have funk a certain quantity. 
 
 MelT. Caffini and M.naldi, upon meafuring the heights of 
 feveral mountains, found, that this progreffion of M. Mari- 
 otte was defective ; that it always gave the height of the moun- 
 tains, and coufequently the rarefactions, lels than they really 
 were ; and from fome farther experiments M. Amontons 
 found, that the principle will only hold in the mean rare- 
 factions, not in the extremes. 
 RAR.EE ACTIVES, RarefacientIA, in medicine, 
 remedies which open and inlarge the pores of the lkin, to giv« 
 an eafy vent to the matter of perfpiration. ■ 
 Such are anife, mallows, pellitory, camomile-flowers, lin- 
 feed, &c. r ■ ' . j+i'i ?n 
 
 R AS ANT, or R A 7. A NT, in fortification R AS ANT 
 
 Hani, or line, is that part of the curtin, or flank, whence the 
 mot exploded raze or glance along the face of the oppohte 
 baftion. 
 
 The defence of the baftion is rafant. 
 RASH, in clock-work. See the article Ratcii. 
 Rash, in medicine, an eruption or efflorefcence upon the fklll, 
 
 thrown out in fevers or forfeits. 
 RASP, a tank fort of file. See File. 
 
 RASPATORY, a chirurgeon's inftrument, wherewith they 
 
 fcrape foul, carious, or fractured bones. 
 RASPHUYS, or RAse-houfe, a celebrated work-houfe, or 
 
 houfe of correction, at Amftcrdam. See WoRK-iua/i. 
 RATA pro Rata. See the article Pro rata. 
 
 Oneranda pro Rata portionis. See Onerando. 
 RATAFIA, a fine fpirituous liquor, prepared from the ker- 
 nels, Uc. of feveral kinds of fruits, particularly of cherries and 
 apricocks. « 
 
 Ratafia of cherries is prepared by bruifing the cherries, and 
 putting them into a vefl'el wherein brandy has been long 
 kept ; then adding to them the kernels of cherries, with ftraw- 
 berries, fugar, cinnamon, white pepper, nutmegs, cloves ; and 
 to 20 pound of cherries, 10 quarts of brandy.— The vcflel is 
 left open 10 or 12 days, and then flopped clofe for two months 
 before it be tapped. 
 
 Ratafia of apricocks is prepared two ways ; viz. either by 
 boiling the apricocks in white wine, adding to the liquor art 
 equal quantity of brandy, with fugar, cinnamon, mace, and 
 the kernels of apricocks ; infufing the whole for eight or ten 
 days ; then draining the liquor, and putting it up tor ufe : or 
 elfe by infufing the apricocks, cut in pieces, in brandy, for a 
 day or two ; palling it through a draining bag, and then put- 
 ting in the ufual ingredients. 
 RATCH, or Rash, in clock-work, a fort of wheel having 
 twelve fangs, which ferve to lift up the detents every hour, 
 and to make the clock ftrike. 
 RATCHETS, in a watch, are the fmall teeth at the 
 bottom of the fufy, or barrel ; which dop it in winding 
 
 up. w 
 RATE, a dandard or proportion, by which either the quan- 
 tity or value of a thing is adjufted. 
 
 The rates of bread, tic. in London, are fixed by authority. - 
 
 See Assise. 
 
 The rate of intered, as now edablifhed by law in England, 
 is 5 per cent. The rate of intered in Italy is 3 per cent. In 
 Sweden 6. In France 5. In Spain 10. In Barbadoes ig. 
 In Ireland 12. In Turky 20.— Low rates of intered advance 
 the prices of land. 
 
 The rates or fares of hacknev-coachmen, chairmen, and wa- 
 termen, are fixed by aft of parliament, 14 Car. II. See Haci- 
 
 WthCoACH, ii.e. 
 
 The rates of exchange, faflorfhip, He. are different, bee 
 Exchange, Factorage, iic. 
 
 the mod fixt bodies, and that with much difficulty, and , ■ „ - h are ke t in a 
 
 fcarce without fermentation; thofe particles being always K-ATE^.W. wnen m p, ^ ^ 
 
 found to fly each other with the : molt force, which when, grAfe^ ^^CcordiS "udom of % 
 in contact, cohere the molt tirmly 
 
 world of attention on the different rarefactions, or 
 the diffeient rarities of the air at different heights 
 
 j tithe for them pro rata, according to 
 place. 
 
 vrE ofafhip of war is its 
 M.j magnitude, burthen, He. 
 
 Th7membe;ro?",heFrench royal' academy have beftowed » ^phce^ % ft . p ^ ^ „ WMlm> « to 
 
 The 
 
RAT 
 
 RAT 
 
 The rate is ufually accounted by the length and breadth of 
 the gun-deck, the number of tuns, and the number of men 
 and guns the veiie) carries— There are fix rules : 
 
 ■A firjl Rate man of war has its gun-deck from 159 to 174 
 feet in length, and from 44 to 50 feet broad ; it contains 
 from 1 313, to 1882 tuns ; has frujji 70& to 800 men; and 
 carries from 96 to 100 guns. 
 
 Second Rate Jhips have their gun-decks from 153 to 1,65 
 feet long ; and from 41 to 46 broad ; th?y contain from 1086 
 to 1482 tuns; and carry from 524 to 640 men, arid from 
 84 to 90 guns, 
 
 Third Rates have their gun-decks from 140 to 158 feet in 
 length; from 37 to 42 feet broad ; they contain from 871 
 to 1262 tuns : carry from 389 to 476 men ; and from 64 to 
 
 80 guns, 
 
 Fourth Rates axe in length on the gun-deck, from 11S to 
 146 feet; and from 29 to 38 broad; they contain from 
 448 to 915 tuns : carry from 226 to 346 men ; and from 
 4$ to 60 guns. 
 
 Fifth Rates have their gun-decks from iOO to 120 feet long : 
 and from 24 to 31 broad; they contain from 259 to 542 
 tuns ; carry from 145 to 190 men ; and from 2.6 to 44 
 gyng. 
 
 Sixth Rates have their gun-decks from 87 to 95 feet long ; 
 and from 22 to 25 broad ; they contain from 152 to 
 256 tuns; carry from 50 to 1 10 men: and from 16 to 24 
 
 guns. 
 
 Note, The new-built fhips are much larger, as well as better 
 than the old ones of the fame rate ; whence the double num- 
 bers all along ; the larger of which exprefs the proportions of 
 the new-built {hips,as the Ids thofe of the old ones. — For the 
 number of each rate in the Englifh fleet. See Navy. 
 RA7"EEN, or Ratten, in commerce, a thick woollen 
 fluff, quilled, wove on a loom with four treddles, like ferges 
 and other fluffs that have the whale or quilling. 
 There are fome rattens dreJled and prepared like cloths ; others 
 left fimply in the hair ; and others where the hair or nap is 
 frized. 
 
 Raieens are chiefly manufactured in France, Holland, arid Italy; 
 and are moftly ufed in iupaoBt 
 
 The frize is a fort of coarie ratetn\ and the drugget is a ra- 
 tten half linen, half woolen. 
 RATIFICATION, Ratificatio, an act, approv- 
 ing of, and confirming fomething done by another, in our 
 name. 
 
 A treaty of peace is never fecure till the princes have ratified 
 it. 
 
 All procuration imports a promife of ratifying and approving 
 what is done by the proxy or procurator. After treating 
 with a procurator, agent, factor, CSV. a ratification is fre- 
 quently necefiary on the part of his principal. 
 
 Ratification, is particularly ufed in our laws, for the con- 
 firmation of a clerk in a benefice, prebend, tsc. formerly 
 given him by the bifbop, crY. where the right of patronage 
 is doubted to be in the king. 
 
 Ratification is alfo ufed for :m aft confirming fome- 
 thing we ourftlves have done in our own name. 
 An execution, by a major, of an ac~t pafled in his minority, 
 is equivalent to a ratification. 
 
 Rating. Sec the article Raiting. 
 
 RATIO, Reason, in arithmetic and geometry, that re- 
 lation of homogeneous things which determines the quantity 
 <jf one from the quantity of another, withuut the interven- 
 tion 'of any third. 
 
 The homogeneous things thus compared, we call the terms sf 
 the ratio; particularly, that referred to the other, we call 
 the antecedent ; and that to which the other is referred, the 
 confequent. 
 
 Thus, when we confider one quantity, by comparing it with 
 another, to fee what magnitude it has in comparifun of that 
 other ; the magnitude this quantity is found to have in com- 
 parifon thereof is called the ratio, reafon, of this quantity to 
 that ; which fome think would be better exprefied by the 
 Word comparifon. 
 
 Euclid defines ratio by the habitude or relation of magnitudes 
 of the fame kind in rejpeel of quantity —But this definition is 
 found defective ; there being other relations of magnitudes 
 which are conflant, yet are not included in the number ot 
 ratio's ; fuch as that of the ri^ht fine, to the fine of the com- 
 plement in trigonometry. 
 
 Hobbs endeavoured to mend Euclid's definition of ratio, but 
 unhappily ; for in defining it, as he does, by the relation 
 of magnitude to magnitude, his definition has not only the 
 fame defect with Euclid's, in not determining the particular 
 kind of relation ; but it has this farther, that it does not exprefs 
 the kind of magnitudes which may have a ratio to one another. 
 Ratio is frequently confounded with proportion; yet ought 
 they by al! means to be diitinguifiied, as very different things. 
 Proportion, in effect, is an identity, or fimilitude of two 
 ratio's. 
 
 Thus, if the quantity A be triple the quantity B ; the re- 
 lation of A to B, ;'. e . of 3 to 1 , is called the ratio of A to 
 
 B. If two other quantities, C, D, have the fame ratio to one 
 another that A andB have, /'. & be triple one another; this 
 famenefs of ratio conftitutes proportion : and the four quanti- 
 ties A : B : : C : D, arc in proportion, or proportional to one 
 another. 
 
 So that ratio exifts between two terms, proportion requires 
 more. 
 
 There is a twofold comparifon of numbers: by the firfr, we 
 find how. much they differ, e. by how many units the an- 
 tecedent exceeds, or comes fhort of, the confequent. 
 This difference is called, the arithmetical ratio, or exponent 
 of the arithmetical relation or habitude of the two numbers. 
 Thus if 5 and 7 be compared, their arithmetical ratio is 2. 
 By the fecond comparifon, we find how oft the antecedent 
 contains, or is contained in the confequent; /'. e. as before, 
 what part of the greater is'equal to the Iefs. 
 This ratio, being common to all quantity, may be called ra- 
 tio in the general, or by way of eminence. But it is ufually 
 called geomtrical ratio ; becaufe exprefied, in geometry, by 
 a line, though it cannot be exprefied by any number. 
 Wolfius better tHftmguifbes ratio, with regard to quantity in 
 the general, into rational and irrational. 
 Rational Ratio, is that which is as one rational number to a- 
 
 nother, e. gr. as 3 to 4. 
 Irrational Ratio, is that which cannot be exprcfTed by ratio- 
 nal numbers, 
 
 Suppofe, for an illuftration, two quantities A and B j and let 
 A be lefs than B. If A be fubtra&ed as often at it can be, 
 from B, e. gr. five times, there will either be left nothing or 
 fomething. In the former cafe A will be to B, as 1 to 5 ; 
 that is, A is contained in B five times 3 orA=^B. The 
 ratioi here, therefore, is rational. 
 
 In the latter Cafe; either there is fome part, which being 
 fubmifttd certain times from A, e. gr. three times, and like- 
 wife from B, e.gr. 7 times leaves nothing; or there is no 
 fuch part : if the former, A will be to B, as 3 to 7, or A—lBj 
 and therefore the rath, rational. If the latter, the ratio of 
 j A to B, /. e. what part A is of B, cannot be exprefled by 
 rational numbers ; nor any other way than either by lijies, or 
 by infinite approaching ferics. 
 
 The exponent of a geometrical ratio is the quotient arifing from 
 ■ the divifion of the antecedent by the confequent — Thus the 
 exponent of the ratio of 3 to 2, is 1 £ ; that of the ratio of 
 2 to 3, is * ; for when the lefs term is the antecedent, the 
 ratio, or rather the exponent, is an improper fraction. Hence 
 the fraction ? =3 : 4. If the confequent be unity, the ante- 
 cedent kfelf is the exponent of tht ratio: thus the exponent 
 of 4 to 1 is 4; See Exponent. 
 
 If two quantities be compared without the intervention of a 
 third; e.ther the one is equal to the other, Or unequal : Hence, 
 tht ratio is either of equality or inequality. 
 If the terms of the ratio be unequal, either the lefs is referred 
 to the greater, or the greater to the lefs : That is, either the 
 lefs to the greater, as a part to the whole ; or the greater to 
 the lefs as the whole to a part : The ratio therefore deter- 
 mines how often the lefs is contained in the greater* or how 
 often the greater contains the lefs, it e. to what part of the 
 greater the lefs is equal. 
 
 The ratio which the greater term has to the lefs, el gr. 6 to 
 3,. is called the ratio of the greater inequality. The ratio whicK 
 the lefs term has to the greater, e. gr. 3 to 6, is called the 
 ratio of the lefifer inequality. 
 
 This ratio correfponds to quantity in the general, or is ad- 
 mitted of by all kinds of quantities, difcrete or continued,* 
 commenfurable, or incommenfurable. But difcrete quantity* 
 or number does likewife admit of another ratio. 
 If the lefs term of a ratio be an aliquot part of the 
 greater, the ratio of the greater inequality is faid to be 
 multiplex, multiple : and the ratio of the lefs inequality* 
 fuhmultiplei . . 
 
 Particularly, in the firff. cafe, if the exponent be 2, the ra~ 
 tio is called duple ; if 3, triple, &c. In the fecond cafe, if the 
 exponent be £4 the ratio is called jubduple; if j, fubfriple, &c; 
 E. gr. 6 to 2 is in a triple ratio ; becaufe 6 contains two 
 thrice. On the contrary, 2 to 6 is in a fubtriple ratio, becaufe 
 2 is the third part of 6. 
 
 If the greater term contain the lefs once ; and over and above* 
 an aliquot part of the fame, the ratio of the greater in- 
 equality is called fuperpartiadaris ; and the ratio of the lefs 
 fidij uperparticularis. 
 
 Particularly ^ in the firft cafe, if the exponent be 1 1, ft is called 
 fefquialterate ; if 3 & fefquitertial, &c. In the other, it the 
 exponent be |, the ratio is eallqd fubfefquialtera j if \ fubfif- 
 quitertialj &c. 
 
 F> g r - 3 to 2 is in a fefquialterate ratio ; 2 to 3 in a fubfefqui- 
 alterate. 
 
 If the greater term contain the lefs once, and over an 1 above 
 feveral aliquot parts ; the ratio of the greater inequality is 
 called fttperpartiens ; that of the lefs inequality is fubjiperpar- 
 tiens. 
 
 Particularly, in the former cafe, if the exponent be 1 | s the 
 ratio is called fuptrlipartiens tertias ; if the exponent be 1 } s 
 (■ fuptr* 
 
RAT 
 
 RAT 
 
 f.hertnmtmuquartas-, if 1* fuperquadr,partiefls fipums, 
 Vt* in the latter cafe, if the exponent be J, the ratio is cal- 
 led fv.H'npcrUptirtum tertias s if h ftibfipertnpartiem par- 
 ins ■ if V". ■ Jidpperquadripartiens feptimas: 
 E. gr. the nA of 5 to 3 is fuperbipartiens tertias j that of 3 
 fc, 5, fubfuperbipartiem tertian .. . 
 If the Rteater term contain the lefs feveral times ; and, be- 
 fides fome quota part of the fame ; the ratio of the greater 
 inequality is called multiplex juperpeirtiaiiaris ; and the ratio 
 of the lefs inequalitv, fubmultipkx fubfuperpartieitlarit. 
 Particularly, in the'former cafe, if the exponent be 2„ the 
 ratio is called dupla fefquiallera : if 3i, tripla fefauQurte, 
 He. In the latter cafe, if the exponent be i, the ram is 
 called Juldupla fubfefquiallera; if ft, frbtnpla frbjejqm- 
 guartal &c. . , c 
 
 E.gr. thereof 16 to 5 is tripla fefqmqumta ; that of 4 
 to q fubdupla fubfefquiquarta. ; 
 i^/v, if the term contain the lefs feveral times, and 
 
 feveral aliquot parts thereof befides ; the ratio of the greater 
 inequality is called multiplex fuperpartlens -, that of the Ids 
 inequality, fubmultipiex jubfuperpartiens. 
 
 Particularly, in the former cafe, if the exponent be ^ th< 
 ratio is called dupla fuperbipartiens tertias; if 3?, fnp.aju- 
 perblquadripartlens fptimas, &c. In the latter cafe, if the 
 exponent be & the ratio is called, /afcfyb fubfupcrbipar- 
 ■tiern tertias; if & fubtripla fubfuperquadripcrtiens feptimas, 
 &c 
 
 £.pt. there's of 25 to 7 is tripla fuperquadripartiens fepti- 
 mas ; that of 3 to 8, fubdupla fubjuperbipm -turn tertias. 
 Thele are the various kinds of rational ratios ; the names 
 whereof, though they occur but rarely among the modern 
 ■writers, (for in lieu thereof they ufe the fmalleit terms of the 
 ratio'!, e. gr, for duple 2: I, for fefquialterate, 3 : 2) yet 
 arc they abfolutely neceffary to luch as converfe with the an. 
 tient authors. , . , 
 
 Clavlus obferves, that the exponents denominate the ratios of 
 the c reater inequalitv, both in deed and name ; but the ratio : 
 of the lefs inequality, only in deed, not in name. But it 1: 
 eafy finding the name in thefe ; if you divide the denomtna- 
 tor of the exponent, by the numerator. 
 E.gr. if the exponent be |, then 5:8 = 1}; whence it ap 
 pears the rath is called fubfupcrtrlpartlens quintas. 
 As to the names of irrational ratios, nobody ever attempted 
 them. 
 
 Same* or identic ratio's, are thofe whofe antecedents nave 
 an equal refpect to their confequents, e. whole antece- 
 dents divided by their confequents, give equal exponents— And 
 hence may the identity of irrational ratios be conceived. 
 Hence, frfl, as oft as the antecedent of one ratio contain: 
 its confequcnt, or whatever part it contains of" its confequent. 
 fo oft, or fuch part of the other confequent does the antece- 
 dent of the other ratio contain : or, as oft as the antece- 
 dent of the one is contained in its confequent, fo oft is the 
 antecedent of the other contained in its confequent. 
 Secondly, If A be to B as C to D, then will A : B : : 
 C : D ( or A : B=C ; D. The former of which is the 
 ufual manner of reprefenting the identity of ratio's ; the lat- 
 ter is that of the excellent Wolfius ; which has the advan- 
 tage of the former, in that the middle character =, which 
 denotes the famenefs is fcientifical, /'. e. it exprefTes the rela- 
 tion of the thing reprcfented, which the other : : does not. 
 See Character. 
 
 Two equal ratio's; e. gr. B : C=D : E, we have already 
 obferved, do conftitute a proportion; of two unequal ratios, 
 e.gr. A : B and G ; D we call A: B the greater, if A : B ~ 
 C : D ; on the contrary we call C : D the lejj'er, if C : D 
 LA:B. ' . '■ vH^*t »s<or*.i 
 
 Hence, weexprefs a greater and lefs ratio thus. E. gr. 6 to 
 3 has a greater ratio, than 5 to 4; for, 6 : 3 (=2) 1 5 : 4 
 (= 1^). But 3 to 6 has a lefs ratio than 4 to 5, for|=lL £• 
 Compound ratio is that made up of two or more other 
 ratio's*, which the factum of the antecedents of two or more 
 ratio's has to the factum of their confequents. Thus 6 to 72 
 is in a rath compounded of 2 to 6, and 3 to 12. 
 Particularly, if it be compounded of two, it is called a 
 duplicate ratio ; if of three, a triplicate, if of four, quadru- 
 plicate ; and in the general niullipllcate, if it be compofed of 
 feveral fimilar ratio's. Thus 48 : 3 is a duplicate ratio of 
 4; 1 and 12 : 3. 
 Alternate Ratio, is where the antecedent of one ratio is to 
 its confequent, as the antecedent of another is to its confe- 
 quent ; the very fame ratio, in this cafe, holding alternately 
 mTefpect of the antecedents to each other, and the confe- 
 quent* to each other.— Thus if A : B : : C:D; then, al- 
 ternately, A : C : : B : D. 
 Ordinate Ratio, is that wherein the antecedent of the firft 
 ratio is to its confequent, .as the antecedent of the fecond is to 
 its confequent. 
 Denominator of a Ratio. See Denominator. 
 properties of Ratio's— Fhjl t ratio's iimilar to the fame third 
 
 arc alfo fimilar tb one another; and thofe fimilar to fimilar; 
 are alfo fimilar to one another. 
 
 Secondly, If A : B = C : D ; then, inverfely, B : A = D 
 
 :C. rtAr- >.MV.-r~ R ■ 
 
 Tlilrdly, Similar parts P and p have the fame ratio to whole 
 T and t; and if the wholes have the fame rath,' the parts 
 are fimilar. 
 
 Fourthly, If A : B = C : D ; then alternately, A : C 
 — B : D. And hence, if B = D : A = C ; hence, alfo, if 
 A : B=C : D ; and A : F = C:G ; we fhall have B : F 
 = D : G. Hence, again, if A : B = C : D ; and F : A 
 =G :Cj we fhall Have F : E=G : D. 
 
 Fifthly, Thofe things which have the fame rath to the fame, 
 or equal things, are equal : and vice verfa. 
 Sixthly, If you multiply any quantities, as A and B, by the 
 fame oreq-isl quantities} their products D and E will be to 
 each other as A and B. 
 
 Seventhly-s If you divide any quantities as A and B, by the 
 fame or equal quantities, the quotients F and G will be to 
 each other as A and B. 
 
 Eighthly, The exponent of a compound ratio is equal to the 
 factum of the exponents of the fimple ratio's: 
 Ninthly, If you divide either the antecedents, or the con- 
 fequents of fimilar ratio's, A : B and C : D by the fame E ; 
 in the former cafe, the quotients F and G will have the 
 fame ratio to the confequents B and D; in- the latter, the 
 antecedents A and B will have the fame ratit to the quo- 
 tients H and K. 
 
 Tenthly, If there be feveral quantities in the fame conti- 
 nued rath A, B, C, D, E, &c. the firft, A is to the third, 
 C, in a duplicate ratio, to the fourth, D, in a triplicate, to 
 the fifth, E, in a quadt uplhate, Stc. rath of the ratio oi the 
 firft, A, to the fecond B. 
 
 Eleventhly, If there be any fcries of quantities in the fame 
 rath, A, B, C, D, E, F, &c. the ratio of the firft, A, to 
 the laft, F, is compounded of the intermediate ratios, A : 
 B, B : C, C : D, D: E, E:F, faff. 
 
 Twelftbly, ratio's compounded of ratio's, whereof each is c- 
 qual to each other, are equal among themfelves. Thus the 
 ratio's 90 : 3=960 : 32 compounded of 6 ; 3=4 : 2, 
 and 3 : 1 = 12 : 4; and 5 : i=:2Q : 4. 
 
 For other properties of Iimilar or equal ratios, fee Propor- 
 tion. 
 
 Ratio, in our law writen> is ufed for a judgment given it* 
 
 > a caufe. 
 
 Hence, poncre ad rathnem is to cite one to appear in judg- 
 ment. Walfingh. 88. 
 
 RATio-fiatus, Ragione dijiato. See Reason of Jlate. 
 
 Ratio viSius. See the article Victus. 
 
 RATIOCINATION, the aa of reafoning. See Reason- 
 ing. 
 
 RATION*, or Ratian, inthearmy, a pittance, or pro- 
 portion of ammunition, bread, drink, or forage, diftributed 
 to each foldier for his daily fubiiftence. 
 
 * Some write the word raciov, and borrow it from the Sp;i- 
 nifh radon. But they both come from the Latin, ratio : 
 in fome parts they call it a rea/bti. 
 The horfe have rations of hay and oats, when they cannot 
 go out to forage. 
 
 The rations of bread are regulated by weight — The ordinary 
 ration of a foot foldier is a pound and half of bread per 
 
 day. 
 
 The ofKcers have feveral rations according to their qua- 
 lity, and the number of attendants that they are obliged to 
 keep. 
 
 When the ration is augmented on occafions of rejoyemg, it is 
 called a double ration. 
 
 Thcfhip's crews have alfo their rations or allowances of bif- 
 ket, pulfe, and water, proportioned according to their frock. 
 The ufual ratio at fea, particularly among the Portuguefe, &c. 
 is a pound and half of bifket, a pint of wine, and a quart 
 offrefh water per day, and each month an arrobeor 31 pound 
 of fait meat, with fome dried fifh and onions. 
 RATIONABILES expenfr, reafonable expends. The 
 commons in parliament, as well as the proitors of the dergy 
 in convocation, were anciently allowed rathnablles expenfas; 
 that is, fuch allowance as the king, confidering the prices of 
 all things, fhall judge meet to impofe on the people to pay 
 for the fubfiftence of their reprefentatives. 
 This, in the 17th of Edward II, was fettled at 10 groats per 
 day for knights, and 5 for burgeftb. Afterwards 4 fl.illings 
 a day for knights, and 2 fhillings for burgefles ; which was 
 then deemed an ample retribution both for expences, for la- 
 bour, attendance, neglect of their own affairs, &c. See 
 Parliament. 
 
 RATIONABILI parta bonorum, a writ which lies for the 
 wife, againft the executors of her hufband denying her the 
 third part of her hufband's goods, after debts and funeral 
 expences paid. 
 
 Fitzherbeit quotes Magna Charta and Glanvillc, to prove 
 
 that 
 
RAT 
 
 RAY 
 
 that, by the common law of England, the goods ■ of the 
 dcceafed, his debts firft paid, fliould be divided into three 
 parts j whereof his wife is to have one, his children a fe- 
 cond, and the executors a third. Adding, that this writ 
 
 lies as well for the children, tjfe. as the wife. But it 
 
 feems only to obtain where the cullom or the country makes 
 for it. 
 
 Reilo de RatI0NABILI parte. See Recto. 
 
 RATIONABILI13US divifis is a writ that lies where two 
 lords have feigniories joining together, for him that finds his 
 wafte encroached upon, within the memory of man, againft 
 the encroacher, thereby to rectify the bounds of the feigni- 
 ories : in which refpedt, Fitzherbcrt lays, it is of the nature 
 of a writ of right. 
 
 RATIONAL, reasonable. See Reason. 
 
 Rational fable. See the article Fable. 
 
 Rational fratlion, or broken number-, is that equal to fome 
 aliquot part or parts of unity. See Fraction. 
 
 Rational or true horizon is that whofe plane is conceived to 
 pafs through the centre of the earth ; and which therefore 
 divides the globe into two equal portions, or hemifphcrcs. Sei 
 Horizon. 
 
 It is called the rational horizon, becaufe only conceived by th< 
 the undcrftanding ; in oppofition to the j'enjible or apparent 
 horizon, which is vifible to the eye, 
 RATIONAL integer, or zvhale manlier, is that whereof 
 unity is an aliquot part. See Number and Aliquot 
 part. 
 
 Rational mixt number is that confifting of an inte- 
 ger and a fraction j or of unity and a ^broken num- 
 ber. 
 
 Commenfurable quantities are defined by being to one another 
 as one rational number to another. 
 
 For unity is an aliquot part of a rational number ; and a fra- 
 ction has fome aliquot part common with unity : in things,, 
 therefore, that are as a rational to a rational number, cither the 
 one is an aliquot part of the other, or there is fome common 
 aliquot part of bo'.h : therefore they are commenfurable. 
 Hence, if a rational number be divided by a rational, the 
 quotient is always a rational. 
 
 Rational phyftdans. Sec Physician. 
 
 Rational quantity or number, a quantity or number commen 
 furable to unity. 
 
 Suppofing any quantity to be i, there are infinite other quan 
 tities, fome whereof are commenfurable to it, either amply 
 or in power : thefe Euclid calls rational quantities. 
 The reft, that are incommenfurable to i, he calls irrational 
 quantities, or funis. 
 Rational ratio is a ratio whofe terms are rational quantities ; 
 or a ratio which is as one rational number to another, e. gr, 
 as 3 to 6, 
 
 The exponent of a rational ratio is a rational quantity. 
 Rational foul. See the article Soul. 
 
 RATIONALE, a folution or account of the principles of 
 fome opinion, a&ion, hypothefis, phenomenon, or the like. 
 See Principle, Phenomenon, caV. — Hence, 
 
 Ration- ale is alio the title of feveral books — The moft con- 
 fide; able is the Rationale of divine offices, by Guil. Durandus, 
 a ccieb atcd fchool divine, bifhop of Mehde, finifhed in 1286, 
 as he . imfeli tells us. 
 
 Rationale aiiu denotes an antient facerdotal veftment, wore 
 by the high-prieft under the old law ; and called by the He- 
 brews f'i? hhofeben ; by the Greeks M^m ; by the Latins ra- 
 tionale and peel 'or -ale ; and, by the Engluh tranflators, breafl- 
 plate. • 
 
 The rationale was a piece of embroidered fluff wore on the 
 breaft, about a fpan-fquare — Du Cange defcr'ibes it as a doubl 
 fquare of four colours, interwove with gold, and fet with 
 twelve precious ftones in four rows, whereon were engraven 
 the names of the twelve tribes, and faftcned to the fhoulder 
 by two chains and two hooks of gold — The form of the ra- 
 tionale was prefcribed by God himfelf, Exod. xxviii. 
 
 ./? Rationale appears alfo to have been antiently wore by 
 the biihops under the new law — But authors are in doubt a- 
 bout it, form ; fome will have it refemble that of the Jews ; 
 others take it to be only the pallium. Sec Pallium. 
 
 RATIONALIS, an officer mentioned in feveral antient in- 
 fcriptions. 
 
 Lampridius, in the life of Alex. Scverus, ufes rationalis as 
 fynonymous with procurator. 
 
 The rationales were intendants or furveyors under the em- 
 perors ; and though Lampridius pretends they were firft 
 cftablifhcd by Sevcrus, it is evident there were fome under 
 Auguftus. 
 RATIONIS. See the article Ens. 
 
 Diflinclio Rationis. See the article Distinctio. 
 
 Rationis as, in anatomy, the bone of the forehead, other 
 wife called as frontis. See Frontis. 
 
 RATLINES, or, as the feamen call them, Ratlins 
 Vol. II. 
 
 thofe lines which make the ladder flops, to get up the fhroLitb 
 and puttocks : hence called the ratlines of the jhrouds. 
 R A TTEN. See the article Rateen. 
 RATTLE, among the antients, a mufical inflxument, 
 called by the Romans crepitacidum. 
 
 Mr. Malcolm takes the tintinnahulum, crotalum, and fif- 
 trum, to have been only fo many different kinds of rat- 
 
 t&tl * ;*■• y ,/'' ■■* ^*~ ,J ' " 7.' -" ■ 
 The invention of the rattle is afcrihed to the famous mathe- 
 matician Archytas; whence Ariftotle calls it, a^t* w^thjb, 
 Archytas's rattle — Diogenianus adds the occalion of the in- 
 vention ; viz. that Archytas having children, he contrived 
 this inftrument to prevent their tumbling other things about 
 the houfe. So that how much foever fome inftruments 
 ha?e changed their ufes, the rattle we are fure has pre- 
 ferved its. 
 
 RAVELIN, in fortification, was antiently a flat baftion, 
 
 placed in the middle of a curtain. 
 Ravelin is now a detached work, compofed only of two 
 faces, which make a faliant angle, without any flanks ; and 
 raifed before the curtain on the counterfcarp of the place. 
 A ravelin is a triangular work rcfembling the point of a ba- 
 ftion, with the flanks cut ofF— See Tab. Fort'tf. fig. 21. lit. iii. 
 Its life before a curtain, is to cover' the oppoiue flanks of 
 the two next baftions. It is ufed alfo to cover a bridge or 
 a gate, and is always placed without the moat. 
 What the Engineers call a ravelin, the foldiers generally call 
 a dcmi-lune, or half moon. 
 
 There are alfo double ravelins, which ferve to defend each 
 other— They are faid to be double when they are joined by a 
 curtain. 
 
 RAVISHMENT, in law, denotes an unlawful feducing 
 either a woman, or an heir in ward. 
 Sometimes it is alfo ufed in the fame fenfe as rape. 
 Ravishment de gard, is a writ which antiently lay for the 
 guardian againft him who took from him the body of his 
 ward. 
 
 RAW hide. See the article Hide. 
 RAW filk. See the article Silk, 
 
 RAY, Radius, in optics, a beam or line of light, pro- 
 pagated from a radiant point, through an unrehft ng me- 
 dium. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton defines rays to be the leaft parts of light, 
 whether fucceflive in the fame line, or contemporary in feveral 
 lines. 
 
 For, that light confifts of parts of both kinds, appears hence, 
 that one may flop what comes this moment in any point, and 
 let pafs that which comes the next; and again one may flop what 
 comes in this point, and let pafs that in the next— Now, the 
 leaft light, or part of light which may be thus flopped alone, 
 he calls a ray of light. 
 
 If the parts of a ray of light do all lie ftraight between the 
 radiant and the eye, the ray is faid to be direel ; the laws and 
 properties whereof make the fubject of optics. 
 If any of them be turned out of that direction, or bent in their 
 paflage, the ray is faid to be refraHed. 
 
 If it ftrike on thefurface of any body, and be driven back, 
 it is faid to be refecled. 
 
 In each cafe, the ray, as it falls either direflly on the eye, or 
 on the point of reflection, or of refra&ion, is faid to be in- 
 cident. 
 
 Again, if feveral rays be propagated from the radiant 
 equidiftantly from one another, they are called parallel 
 rays. 
 
 If they come inclining towards each other, they are called 
 converging rays. 
 
 And if they go continually receding from each other, they 
 are called diverging rays. 
 
 It is from the circumftances of rays, that the feveral kinds 
 of bodies are diftinguiflied in optics. A body, e. gr. that 
 diffufes its own light, or emits rays of its own, is called 
 a lucid, or luminous body. 
 
 If it only reflect rays which it receives from another, it ia 
 called an illuminated body. 
 
 If it only tranfmit rays, it is called a trarfparent 
 
 body. 
 
 If it intercept die rays, or rcfufe them pafTagc, it is called 
 an opake body. 
 
 Hence no body radiates, i. e. emits rays, unlefs it be either 
 luminous, or illumined. 
 
 It is by means of rays reflected from the feveral points of 
 illumined objects to the eye, that they become vifible, 
 and that vifion is performed ; whence fuch rays are called 
 vifual rays. 
 
 In effect we find that any point of an object is feen in all 
 places to which a right line may be drawn from that point : 
 but it is allowed, nothing can be feen without li^ht, there- 
 fore every point of an object diffufes innumerable rays every 
 way. Again, from other experiments it appears that the images 
 10 I g 
 
R AY 
 
 of ft objea?, whence right lines may be drawn to the eye, 
 are painted in the eye, behind the cryflallin, very imall, but 
 
 very diftina. 
 
 And ratify, from other experiments, that each ray carries 
 with it the (pedes, or image of the radiating point: and that 
 the fcveral rays emitted from the fame point are again 
 united in one point, by the cryftallin, and thus thrown 
 on the retina. 
 
 It is the fpiffitude or clofenefs of the rays emitted from a lu- 
 minous body, that conititutcs the intenfenefs of the light. 
 Yet the direction wherein the rays ftrike the eye, has a 
 great fway. In eflta, a perpendicular ray, ftriking with more 
 force than an oblique one, in the ratio of the whole fine to 
 the fine of the angle of obliquity, (as follows from the laws oi 
 percuffion) a perpendicular ray wilt affba the eye more vi- 
 vidly than an oblique one in that ratio. 
 If then the fpiffitude of the rays be equal, the intenfity will 
 be as the direction ; if the direction be the fame, the intenfe- 
 nefs will be as the fpiffitude. If both differ, the intenfenefs 
 will be in a ratio compounded of the direSion and the fpiffi- 
 tude. , 
 Hence, f.rft, if light be propagated in parallel rays through 
 an unrefifting medium, its inteniity will not be varied by 
 
 diftance. „ , ( - .stTitl/ '£ T- i 
 
 Secondly, If light he propagated in di verging rays, through an 
 unrefifting medium, its intenfity will decreafe in a dupli- 
 cate ratio of the diftances from the radiant point, recipro- 
 cally. unin^Q ti^rawollo^ a^JUti' it Ju 
 Thirdly, If light be propagated in converging rays, through 
 an unrelilling medium ; its intenfity will increafe in a du- 
 plicate ratio of the diftances from the point of concourfe, re- 
 ciprocally. 
 
 Fourthly, If the breadth of an illuminated plane be to the di- 
 ftancc of the radiant point, as I to 200000O, it is the lame 
 thin" as if the rays (truck upon it parallel : and hence, fince 
 Ihc diameter of the pupil of the eye, when large!!, fcarce 
 exceeds ^ of an inch; the rays will tall upon it parallel, as 
 to fenfe, at the dirtancc of 3860 Englifh feet, which is nearly 
 6 furlongs. See Light. 
 
 The effect of concave lenfes, and convex mirrours, is to 
 make parallel rays diverge ; converging rays become parallel 
 and diverging rays to become more divergent. 
 The efteci of convex lenfes, and concave mirrours, is to 
 make diverging rays become parallel ; parallel rays become 
 convergent, and converging rays to converge the more. 
 The rays of light are not homogeneous, or funihir, but dif- 
 fer in all the properties wc know of, viz. rcfrangibility, rc- 
 flexibility and colour. 
 
 It is probably from the different rcfrangibility, that the other 
 
 differences have their rife ; at leaft it appears, that thofe rays 
 
 which acrec or differ in this, do fo in all the reft. 
 
 Thus from the different fenfations the differently difpo- 
 
 fed rays excite in us, we call them, red rays, yellow rays, 
 
 &c-. 
 
 The effect of the prifin is to feparate and fort the different 
 kinds of rays, which come blended promifcuouily irom the 
 fun ; and to throw each kind by itfelf, according to its 
 degree of rcfrangibility and colour, red to red, blue to blue, 
 
 Befides, refrangibility, and the other properties of the rays of 
 light already afcertain'd by obfervation and experiment, Sir 
 Ifaac Newton fufpects they may have many more ; particu- 
 larly, a power of being inflected, or bent, by the action of 
 diftant bodies ; and thofe rays which differ in refrangibility, 
 he conceives Hkewife to differ in this flexibility. 
 In palling by the edges and fides of bodies, he conceives that 
 the rays may be bent feveral times backwards and forwards, 
 with a motion like that of an eel ; and that thofe rays which 
 appear to fall on bodies, are reflected or refracted before they 
 arrive at the bodies. And adds, that they may be refracted, 
 reflected and inflected, all by the fame principle acting in 
 different circumftances. 
 
 Again, do not the rays falling on the bottom of the eye ex- 
 cite vibrations in the retina ; which being propagated along 
 the fibres of the optic nerve into the brain caufe vifion ; and 
 do not feveral forts of rays make vibrations of feveral big- 
 neffes, which excite fenfations of feveral colours, much after 
 the manner as the vibrations of the air, according to their 
 feveral bignefles, excite fenfations of feveral founds ? 
 Particularly, do not the moil: refrangible rays excite the 
 fhorteft vibrations, to make a fenfation of a deep violet j and 
 the leaft refrangible, the largeft, to make a fenfation of a 
 deep red? and the feveral intermediate kinds of rays, vibra- 
 tions of inttimediate bigneffes, to make fenfations of the in- 
 termcdiate colours ? 
 
 And may not the harmony and difcord of colours arife from 
 the proportion of thefe vibrations ; as thofe of found depend 
 on the vibrations of the air ; for fome colours, if viewed to- 
 gether, are r.grctable, as gold and indigo i others difagrec- 
 
 ' able. 
 
 REA 
 
 Affam, have not the rays of light feveral fides endued, with 
 feveral original properties ?— It is certain we find, that every 
 ray of Ii"ht has two oppofite fides, originally endued with a 
 property,' whereon the unufual refraftion of ifland cryftal 
 depends, and other two oppofite fides not endued with that 
 
 V L°jt%m not the rays of light very fmall bodies emitted 
 from mining fubftanccs ? 
 
 Such bodies mav have all the conditions of light: and there 
 is that affion aiid re-aflion between tranfparent bodies and 
 light, which very much refembles the attraflive force be- 
 tween other bodies. Nothing more is required for the pro- 
 duaion of all the various colours, and all the degrees of re. 
 frangibility, but that the rays of light be bodies of different 
 fizes ; the leaft of which may make violet, the weakeft and 
 darke'ft of the colours, and be the moft eafily diverted by re- 
 fraain' furfaces from its reailinear courfe ; and the reft, as 
 they are bigger and bigger, may make the ftronger and more 
 lucid colours, blue, green, yellow, and red. 
 Nor is any thing more rcquifite for the putting of the rays 
 into fits of eafv refleaion, and eafy tranfmilhon, than that 
 they be fmall bodies, which, by attraaion, or fome other 
 force, excite vibrations in the bodies they HI upon ; which 
 vibrations being fwifter than the rays, overtake them fuc- 
 ceffivcly, and agitate them fo as by degrees to increafe and 
 dimmiih their velocity, and thereby put them into thofe fits. 
 Se Transmission. 
 
 Laftly, the unufual refraaion of idand cryftal looks very much 
 as if it were performed by fome attraaivc virtue lodged in - 
 certain fides both of the rays and of the cryftal. 
 Common Ray, in optics, is fometimes ufed for a right line drawn 
 from the point of concourfe of the two optical axes, through 
 the middle of the right line which pafl'es through tire middle ot 
 the centres of the pupils of the two eyes. 
 GWs/Rays. T (" Cone. 
 
 Deflection of 'Rays. 
 Inclination of incident I 
 Optic Rays. 
 
 Aeftxtbility of the Rays. See Reflexibility. 
 Principal Ray, in perfpeaive, is the perpendicular diflancc be- 
 tween the eye and the vertical plane or table, as fome call it. 
 See Perspective. 
 
 - ( Pyramid of rays, 
 bec t Pencil of rays. 
 ~t f Rasakt. 
 > See < Flank, 
 nt. J (Line. 
 
 an infeparable particle, or prepofitic 
 
 pupils ot the two eyes. 
 
 "1 f Cone. 
 I p \ Deflection. 
 [Rays, f- j Inclination. 
 J LOptic. 
 
 Pyramid of Rays 
 Pencil of 'Rays. 
 RA ZANT. 
 Razant flank. 
 Line of defence Raza 
 RE, in grammar, y. 
 
 added to the beginning of words, to vary, double, or other- 
 wife modify their meaning. 
 
 The modificative re was firft introduced by the Latins, from 
 whom it is borrowed into moft of the modern tongues : 
 Prifcian derives it from retro, backwards ; others rather de- 
 rive retro from re ; others derive re from the Greek h±, eafy, 
 or from pi*, I flow. 
 
 The effea of the re is various : ufually it figmhes again, ritr- 
 fiim, =»«; as in re-joyn, rt-fign, r«-fume, re-courfe, re- 
 bound, ™-cite, r.-hcar, ,-f-cognize, rt-compare, rt-'double, 
 re-linquifh, CSV. 
 
 Sometimes it ftands for contra, «'", againft ; as in re-luaance, 
 m-cumbent, re-cline, C9Y. 
 
 Sometimes for 'n-t, fuper, over, as in rf-dundant ; fometimes 
 
 for irapVa, longe, far, as in rf-moving, C5 c. 
 Wl, in mufic. See the article Note. 
 Re, in matters of monies. See the article Ree. 
 REACH, in the fea-language, the diftance between any two 
 
 points of land that lie in a right line one from another. 
 RE-ACTION, in phyfics, the aaion whereby a body aaed 
 
 upon, returns the action by a reciprocal one upon the 
 
 agent. : j .1 . F^f-L^T . *r. ' 
 The Peripatetics define re-aBim to be that which a paffive 
 body returns upon the agent, by means of fome quality con- 
 trary to that received therefrom, in the fame part where- 
 with the agent aacd, and at the fame time as if water, 
 
 while it is heating by the fire, docs, at the fame time, cool 
 the fire. _ 
 It was known, even in the fchools, that there is no aaion m 
 nature without ri-aclion ; and it was a maxim among them, 
 omne agens, agendo repatitur. 
 
 But the equality of the aaions was not known : Sir Ifaac 
 Newton eftabliihcd it as one of the laws of nature, that 
 atlion and re-aflion are equal and contrary ; or that die mu- 
 tual aaions of two bodies, linking one againft another, are 
 exaaly equal, but in contrary direaions ; or, in other words, 
 that, by the aaion and rc-aelion of bodies one on another, 
 tliere are produced equal changes in each ; and thofe changes 
 are imprelled towards directly contrary parts or ways. See 
 Law o/'Nature. 
 
 Thus, 
 
R E A 
 
 RE A 
 
 Thus, whatever body prefles or draws another, is equally 
 preiled or drawn by it again : if any one prefs a ftone with 
 his finger, his finger is as much preiled by the ftone: 
 If a horfe by a rope, draw a ftone; the horfe will be 
 equal] y drawn by the ftone ; for the rope being ftretched both 
 ways alikei endeavours to relax itfelf again, and by that means 
 draws the horfe towards the ftone, and hinders the progreflion 
 of the horfe, as much as it forwards that of the ftone. 
 If any body ftriking againft another, doth by its force any 
 way change its motion, itfelf will undergo the fame change 
 in its own proper motion, but that towards a contrary part ; 
 from the re-aftion of that body, and the equality of its 
 mutual preifion. 
 
 By thefe actions are produced equal changes, not indeed of the 
 velocities} but of the motions of bodies ; (that is of fuch bo- 
 dies as have no impediment any other way) for the changes of 
 their velocities being made towards contrary parts, (becaufc 
 the motions are equally changed) are reciprocally proportional 
 to the bodies themfelves. 
 
 Some of the fchool philofophers deny any fuch thing as 
 re-aftion^ properly fo called, at all; urging that action arifes 
 only from the ratio of the greater inequality ; that is, we are 
 only to account for action the excefs of action, or what 
 the agent does more than is returned by the patient. But 
 the equality between action and re-aftion^ lets ailde this ex- 
 ception, fc 
 
 READINGS, in critic \^m— Various Readings, varite 
 leftiones, :Lre tnc different manners of reading the text of au- 
 thors in antient manufcripts ; where a diverfity has arifen 
 from the corruption of time, or the ignorance of copifts. 
 A great part of the bufinefs of the critics lies in fettling 
 the readings, by confronting the various readings of the fe- 
 vcral manufcripts, andconiidering the agreement of the words, 
 and fenfe — The various readings in the bible and in the cfajflic 
 authors, arc almoft innumerable. 
 
 Readings are alfo ufed for a fort of commentary or glofs on 
 a law, text, paflage, or the like ; to mew the fenfe an au- 
 thor takes it in, and the application he conceives to be made 
 of it. 
 
 RE-AF FORESTED, is where a foreft having been dif- 
 afforcfted, is again made a foreft — As the foreft of Dean 
 was, by an act parliament in the 20th of King Charles II. 
 See Forest. 
 
 RE-AGGRAVATION, in the romifh ecclefiaftical law, 
 the laft monitory, publifhed after three admonitions, and be- 
 fore the laft excommunication. 
 
 Before they proceed to fulminate the laft excommunication, 
 they publifh an aggravation, and a re-aggravation — Fevret 
 obferves, that in France the minifter is not allowed to come 
 to re-aggravation, without the permjffion of the bifhop or of- 
 ficial, as well as that of the lay judge. See Excommuni- 
 cation, 
 
 REAL, Reale, is applied to a being that actually exifts ; in 
 
 which fenfe it coincides with atfual. 
 Real, inlaw, is oppofed toper/anal. See PERSONAL. 
 Real aftion, that whereby the plaintiff lays title to land, 
 
 Cuftoms are faid to be real ; that is, they determine all inhe- 
 ritances within their extent j and none may difpofe of them, 
 but according to the conditions allowed by the cuftoms where 
 they are fituate. 
 
 Real altitude. See the article Altitude, 
 
 Real char after. 
 
 Real chattels. 
 
 Real covenant. J" See the articles 
 Real diflinftion. 
 Real dtjhefs. 
 
 Real ejiate, is that confifting in lands, tenements, fsV, 
 Real horizon. See Horizon. 
 Real optic place. 
 Reaj, patronage. 
 Real privilege. 
 Real qualities. 
 Real root. 
 Real fervices. 
 Real ft/it. 
 Real writs. J 
 Real, Rial, or Ry a l in commerce. 
 REALGAR, Risigallum, a red friable factitious fubftance. 
 popularly called Cbinefe red arfenic. 
 
 Realgar is fometimes prepared from orpiment, by fufing it 
 over the fire in a clofe veffel. 
 
 It is of an acrimonious nature, and reputed poifonous, though 
 not in any great degree. 
 
 Boerhaave takes it for the fame with the fandarazha of the 
 antients. 
 
 In the hiftory of the French academy, we have an account 
 of a cup brought to Paris by the embaffadors of Siam, and 
 prefented there, as a remedy ufed by that people againft all 
 difeafes. 
 
 the article Altitude 
 ^ See the articles ^ 
 
 Character. 
 
 Chattels. 
 
 Covenant. 
 
 Distinction. 
 
 Distress. 
 
 See the articles 
 
 Place. 
 Patronage. 
 Privilege. 
 Quality. 
 Root. 
 Service. 
 Suit. 
 Writ. 
 See Rial. 
 
 Upon an examination, which had like to have coft M. Bom- 
 berg dear, he found it to be a kind of realgar, or red arfe- 
 nic, much more cauftic than ours. 
 
 Its iife ambng the Siamefe, he takes to have been the fame 
 with that of regulus of antimony, vi% t to give an emetic 
 quality to the wine drank out of it. 
 
 As the dofe of medicines is much ftrongtr in the torrid zone 
 than among us, (the quantity of ipecacuanha, e. gr. ordina- 
 rily taken by the Indians j being twenty times as great as 
 that among us) it is very pofiible a cup of realgar^ though 
 enough to poifon an European, may prove a gentle me- 
 dicine to a Siamefe. See Supplement article Real- 
 gar. 
 
 R E A L I S Ej in commerce, a term little known in trade be- 
 fore the year 1719, when thole immenfe fortunes began to 
 be made in France and England, by the bufinefs of actions or 
 ftock. 
 
 By realifing is meant the precaution many of thofe who had 
 gained molt, took, to convert their paper into real effects 3 
 as lands, houfes, rich moveables, jewels, plate ; but above all 
 into current fpecies. A precaution^ capable of ruining the 
 ftatej but the French regency had the wifdom to fru- 
 strate it, by taking proper meafufes to have the money thus 
 ready to be hoarded up, returned to the public. 
 REALISTS, Realists, a feet of fchool philofophers, 
 formed in oppofitioh to the Nominalifts. See Nomina- 
 lists. 
 
 Under the Realijls are included the Scotiftsj Thorhifts, and 
 all excepting the followers of Ocham; 
 
 Their diftinguifhing tenet is, that univerfals are realities* 
 and have an actual exiftence, out of an idea and imagina- 
 tion j or, as they exprefs it in the fchool language, a parte td\ 
 whereas the Nominalifts contend that they exift only in 
 the mind j and are only ideas, or manners of concei'vino- 
 things. 
 
 Doctor Odo, or Oudartj a native of Orleans, afterwards 
 abbot of St. Martin deTournay, was the chief of the feet of 
 the Realijls he wrote three books of dialectics ; where, ort 
 the principles of Boethius and the antients, he maintained 
 that the object of that art is things* not words : whence 
 the feet took its rife, and name. 
 REALITY, Realitas, in the fchools* a diminutive 
 of res, thing, firft ufed by the Scotills to denote a thing 
 which may exift of itfelf, or which has a full and abfo- 
 lute being of itfelf, and is not conhdered as a part of 
 any other. 
 
 Yet a reality is conceived as forhethirig lefs than res j and 
 accordingly every res is fuppofed to contain a number of tea* 
 lities, which they otherwife call formalities. 
 Thus, e. gr< in a man ; according to the doctrine of the Sco- 
 tifts, are a number of realities, viz. a fubftance, life, ani- 
 mal, arid reafon. 
 
 Some diftinguifh reality into fubjeetive and objective; 
 REALM*, Regnum, kingdom, a country which gives its 
 head or governor the denomination of king. 
 
 * The word is formed of the French, Royaume, which de- 
 notes the fame. 
 
 REAR*, a term frequently ufed in compofition, to denote 
 fomcthing behind or backwards in refpect of another : in op- 
 poiition to van, or vaunt, before. 
 
 * It is formed by corruption of the French, Arr'ure, nu- 
 llifying the fame. 
 
 Rear, in a military fenfe* is ufed for the hind-pprt of an 
 army, £5V. in oppohtion to the front, of face thereof. 
 
 Rear-Guard* is that part of an army which marches 
 laftj following the main body, to hinder or flop de- 
 
 lertjers. 
 
 Re ar-h alf-files* are the three hindmoft ranks of a bat- 
 talion, when it is drawn up fix deep. 
 
 Rear- LINE> 0 f an arm y encamped, is the fecond line; it 
 lies about four or five hundred yards diftant from die firft 
 line, or front. 
 
 Rear-Rank* is the laft rank of a battalion, or fquadron, 
 
 when drawn up* 
 Rear-admiral, is the admiral of the third and laft 
 
 fquadron of the royal fleet. 
 REASON, Ratio, a faculty, of power of the foul, 
 whereby it diftinguifhes good from evil, and truth from falfe- 
 hood. 
 
 Or, reafen is that principle, whereby, comparing feveral 
 ideas together, we draw confequences from the relations they 
 are found to have. 
 
 Some of the later fchool philofophers define reafon to be the 
 comprehenfion of many principles which the mind fucceffiveiy 
 can conceive, and from which conclufions may be drawn. 
 Others conceive reafon as no other than the u derftanding 
 itfelf,confidcred as it difcomfes. — Chauvin thinks it better de- 
 fined, an innate notion or idea, farther diffufed, and arifing 
 from a cortfiniwd attention. 
 
 Reafoxr 
 
R E A 
 
 R E A 
 
 .jfaafi*, Mr Lock obferves, comprehends two diftinft fa- 
 culties of the mind, viz. fagacity, whereby it finds in- 
 termediate ideas; and illation, whereby it fo orders and 
 difpoies of them as to difcover what connection there is in 
 each link of the chain, whereby the extremes are held 
 together, and thereby, as it were, draws into view the 
 truth fought for. 
 
 Illation, or inference, confifts in nothing but the perception 
 of the connection there is between the ideas in each ftep of 
 the deduction, whereby the mind comes to fee either the cer- 
 tain agreement or difagrcement of any two ideas ; as in de 
 mon Oration, in which it arrives at knowledge : or their pro- 
 bable conneftion, on which it gives or withholds its affent ; as 
 in opinion. 
 
 Senfe and intuition reach but a little way I the greateft 
 part of our knowledge depends upon deductions and in- 
 termediate ideas. In thofe cafes, where we rnufr. take pro- 
 portions for true, without being certain of their being fo, 
 . we have need to find out, examine, and compare the 
 grounds of their probability : In both cafes, the faculty 
 which finds out the means, and rightly applies them to dil- 
 cover certainty in the one, and probability in the other, is that 
 which we call reafon. 
 
 In reafon, therefore, we may confider four degrees : firjl^ 
 the difcovering and finding out of proofs. See Inven- 
 tion. 
 
 Secondly, the regular and methodical difpofition of them, and 
 laying mem in fuch order, as their connection may be plain- 
 ly perceived. 
 
 Tbird.'y, The perceiving of their connect ion ; and, 
 Fourthly, The making a right conclufion. 
 Reafon (ids us in fevers! inftances : as, fir/I, Where our 
 ideas fail. 
 
 Secondly., It is often at a lofs becaufe of the obfeurity,, con- 
 fufion, or imperfection of the ideas it is employed about 
 
 Thus, having no perfect idea of the leaft extenfion of 
 
 matter, nor of infinity* we arc at a lofs about the divi- 
 bility of matter. 
 
 Thirdly, Our reafon is often at a ftand becaufe it perceives not 
 thofe ideas which would ferve to fhew the certain or probable 
 agreement or dhagreernent of any two other ideas. 
 Fourthly,. Our reafon is often engaged in abfurdities and diffi- 
 culties, by proccding upon falfe principles, which being fol- 
 lowed, lead men into contradictions to thcmfelves, and incon- 
 Jiftency in their own thoughts. 
 
 Fifthly, Dubious words, and uncertain figns, often puzzle 
 men's reafon, and bring them to a non-plus. 
 Though the deducing one propofiticm from another, be a great 
 part or the office of reafon, and that about which it is ufually 
 employed; yet the principal act of ratiocination is the finding 
 the agreement or difagreement of two ideas one with another, 
 by the intervention of a third. As a man, by a yard, find: 
 two houfes to be of the fame length, which could not be 
 brought together to mcalure their equality by juxta-pofition 
 Words have their conlequences as the figns of fuch ideas and 
 things agree, or difagree, with what they really are , but we 
 obferve it only by our ideas. 
 
 Hence we may be able to form an idea of that ordinary 
 diftinction of things, into fuch as are according to, thofe that 
 are above, and thofe contrary to reafon. 
 
 Thofe according to reafon, are fuch propofitions, whofe 
 truth we can difcover by examining and tracing thofe ideas 
 we have from fenfation and reflection, and by natural deduc- 
 tion find to be true or probable. 
 
 Thofe above reafon are fuch propofitions, whofe truth or 
 probability we cannot by reafon derive from thofe principles. 
 Thofe contrary to reafon, are fuch propofitions as are 
 inconfiftcnt with, or irreconcileable to, our clear and dif- 
 tindt ideas. 
 
 Thus the exiftence of one God, is according to reafon : the 
 exiftence of more than one God, is contrary to reafon : and the 
 refurredtion of the body after death, above reafon. 
 Above reafon may be alfo taken in a .double fenfe ; viz. above 
 probability, or above certainty. 
 
 They who difpute mod againft the power and privileges of 
 human reafon, do it becaufe their own reafon perfuades them 
 to that belief; and fo, whether the victory be on their or 
 our fide, thev are equally defeated. 
 
 They feek to terrify us with the example of many great wits 
 who by following this ignis fatuus, (fo they call the only pole- 
 ftar God has given us to direct our courfe by) have fallen into 
 wild and ridiculous opinions, and increafed the catalogue of 
 herefies to fo great a number : but thefe men either followed 
 not their reafon, but made it follow their will ; or elfe they firft 
 hoodwinked it by intereff: and prejudice, and then bad it fhew 
 them the way; or were wanting in thofe neceffary diligences 
 required for fo doubtful a paffage : or, if, without any of 
 thefe, the weaknefs of their underftanding had deceived them, 
 the crrror is neither hurtful to thcmfelves, nor would be to 
 others, if this doctrine of governing ourfelves by our own 
 
 reafon, and not by authority and example, were generally 
 eftablifhed. Difc. concern* Hum. Reaf. 
 
 It is not the ule of fuch liberty, but the appropriating it to 
 ourfelves, that is the caufe of all the diforders charged there- 
 on : for thofe who lay a rcftraint on other men's reafon, have 
 firft made ufe of their own to fettle them, and do make ufe 
 of it in this very reftraining of others, ibid. 
 Reason, in matters of religion, is ufed in oppofition to 
 faith 
 
 This ufe of the word, Mr Lock takes to be in itfelf very 
 improper : for faith ia nothing but a firm affent of the mind ; 
 which if it be regulated, as it is our duty, cannot be afforded 
 to any thing but upon good reafsn, and fo cannot be oppo- 
 fite to it. See Faith. 
 
 He that believes without having any reafon for believing, may 
 be in love with his own fancies, but he neither fecko truth, as 
 he ought, nor pays the proper obedience due to his Maker, 
 who would have him ufe thofe difcerning faculties he has given 
 him, to keep him out of miftakc and error — But fince reafon 
 and faith arc by fome men oppofed, it may be neceffary to 
 confider them together. 
 
 Reafon, as contradiftinguifhed to faith, is the difcovery of the 
 certainty or probability of fuch propofitions, or truths, which 
 it has got by the ufe of its natural faculties, viz. by fenfation 
 or reflection. 
 
 Faith, on the other hand, is the affent to any propofition upon 
 the credit of the propofcr, as coming immediately from God ; 
 which we call revelation. 
 Reason, in logic and rhetoric, denotes a neceffary or proba- 
 ble argument; or an anfwer to the queftion, cure]}? Why 
 is it? 
 
 As if it be enquired, why do the fubject and predicate agree ? 
 And it is anfwered, becaufe they are fpoke of the lame tiling : 
 This Iaft enunciation is a rcajon. 
 
 Hence, fay the fchoolmen, becaufe, quia, is the fign or cha- 
 racter of a reafon, as nan, no, of a negation, and ejl, is, of 
 an affirmation. 
 
 They make three kinds of reafon, rationes ; viz. ratio ut> 
 that; ne, leaft : and quia, becaufe. For, anfwering to a 
 queftion, cur, why ; we begin with becaufe, quia ; as, why 
 do you ftudy ; that I may become learned ; which is the ra- 
 tio ut. Again, why do you ftudy ? Left I (hould be igno- 
 rant ; which is the ratio ne. Laftly, why is a body tangi- 
 ble ? Becaufe matter is impenetrable ; which is the ratio 
 quia. 
 
 The reafon ut, properly denotes the end, or final caufe ; and 
 reajon ne, the beginning : accordingly the one is called the 
 beginning, the other the end; fo that tile reafon quia, is left 
 the only reafon, properly fo called. 
 
 Among metaphyficians, Reason is ufed in the fame fenfe 
 with ellence ; or that whereby any thing is what it is. 
 This is fometimes alfo called formal reafon, as rcprefenting 
 the thing under that form or nature under which it is con- 
 ceived. 
 
 Reason, in mathematicks, See the article Ratio. 
 Reason of fate*, Ratio flatus, in matters of policy, de- 
 notes a rule or maxim, whether it be good or evil, which may 
 be of fervice to the ftate. 
 
 * The phrafe is borrowed from the Italians, who firfl ufed re- 
 gions di jlato in this fenfe. 
 Reafon of fate, is properly underflood of fomcthing that is 
 neceffary and expedient for the intereft of the government, 
 but contrary to moral honefty, or juftice. 
 Politicians have a long time diiputed about the ratio flatus : 
 whether ftates and governments are tied down to the fame 
 laws of morality with individual perfons ; or whether thincr S) 
 otherwife immoral and unlawful, may not be practifed on 
 urgent occafions, by way of reafon of ftate ? 
 The queftion is, whether any thing be unlawful, or 
 prohibited a ftate, that is neceffary to the prefervation of 
 that ftate, or whether it be allowed to preferve itfelf on 
 any terms ? 
 
 Challenge upon REASON. See CHALLENGE. 
 
 REASONABLE aid, a duty which the lord of the fee an- 
 tiently claimed of his tenants holding in knight's lervice, or 
 on focage : towards the marrying his daughter, or the making 
 his eldeli fon knight. 
 
 This is taken away by Stat. 2. Car. II. See Aid. 
 REASONING, Ratiocin ation, the exercife of that 
 faculty of the mind called reafon, or it is reafon deduced into 
 difcourfe. 
 
 The agreement or difagrecment of two ideas, does not ap- 
 pear from the bare conlideration of the ideas themfelves, un- 
 lefs fome third be called in, and compared, either feparately 
 or conjointly therewith : the act, then, whereby from ideas 
 thus difpofed and compared we judge this or that to be fo or 
 not fo, is called reafoning. 
 
 Rohault defines reafoning to be a judgment depending on 
 fome antecedent judgment : thus; having judged that no even 
 number can be compofed of five uneven numbers; and that 
 
 ten 
 
Re fi 
 
 R E B 
 
 ten is an even number i to conclude, that ten cannot be di- 
 vided into live uneven parts, is a ratiocination, or reafoning. 
 This agrees with father Malebranche's doctrine^ one of the 
 great point* whereof is, that reafoning, on the part of the 
 understanding, is only a mere perceiving. 
 
 That ingenious author endeavours to ibew, that, as to the 
 underftanding, there is no difference between a iimple^r- 
 ception, a judgment, and a reafoning, except in this, that 
 the underftanding perceives a iimplc thing without any re- 
 flation to any thing elfe, by a limple perception — That it 
 perceives the relations between two or more things in a 
 judgment — And laftly, that it perceives the relations that are 
 between die relations of things in a reafoning. So that all 
 the operations of the underftanding are no more than mcer 
 perceptions. 
 
 Thus, ex.gr. when we conclude, that' 4 being Icfs than 6, 
 twice 2 beiiig equal to 4, are of confequence leis than 6, we 
 do no more than perceive the relation of the inequality be- 
 tween the relation of twice 2 and 4, arid the relation of 4 
 and 6. 
 
 The manner of proceeding juftly in reafoning-, fo as to ar- 
 rive with the greater fatety at the knowledge of truth, makes 
 what we call method. 
 
 For the re;d benefit of logic to reafoning. See Logic and 
 Syllogism. 
 
 RE-ATTACHMENT, in law, a fecond attachment of 
 him who" was formerly attached, and difmiffed the court 
 without day, by the not coming uf the juftices, or the like 
 cafualty. 
 
 Erook makes re-attachment either general or fpecial — General 
 is where a man is re-attached for his appearance on all writs 
 
 of affize lying againft him Special, for one or more 
 
 tain writs. 
 
 RE-BAP TIS ANTS, a religious feet, who maintain, 
 that perfons irregularly baptized, are to be baptized 
 
 frefli. i.u . *V p'--* . <f ^V" 13 . 
 
 The anabaptifts are re-baptifants, inafmuch as they bap- 
 tize thofe at maturity, who had been before baptized in 
 childhood. 
 
 St. Cyprian and pope Stephen had mighty differences about the 
 rebaptifation of converted heretics. 
 
 Donatus was condemned at Rome in a council, for having 
 re -baptized foine perfons who had fallen into idolatry after 
 their brft baptifm. 
 REBATE, Rebatement, in commerce, a term much 
 ufed at Amfterdam fur a difcount or abatement in the 
 price of certain commodities, when the buyer advances the 
 fum in hand, for which he might have taken time. See D 
 COUNT. 
 
 Rebate (among us ufually called prompt payment) is cfiimated 
 by months, and is only allowed for certain kinds of mer- 
 chandizes, which, according to the cuttom of Amfterdam 
 are, ;.. ■. s . 
 German wools, 
 Arties and pot-afhes. 
 Italian fdks, 
 Sugars of Brafil, 
 Spanifh wools, 
 
 That is, thofe commodities are fold 
 
 deducting or rebating the intereft of the money, which ought 
 not to be paid till the end of 15, 18, life, months. 
 This intereft, called rebate, is ufually regulated on the footin 
 of 8 per cent, per annum. 
 
 The reafon of this expedient is, that the merchants having not 
 always wherewithal to pay fur their goods in band, by means 
 of the rcbatement, fuch as have, will find their account in it; 
 and fuch as have not, will be engaged to difcharge themfelves 
 as foon as poffible, for the fake of the difcount. 
 
 REBATEMENT, in heraldry, a diminution or abatement 
 of the dignity of the figures or bearings in a coat of arms. 
 See Abatement. 
 
 REBELLION originally fignified a fecond refiftance or 
 rifing of fuch as had been formerly overcome in battle by tin 
 Romans, and had yielded themfelves to their fubjection. 
 It is now generally ufed for a traiterous taking up of arms 
 againft the king, either by his own natural fubjects, or by 
 thofe formerly fubdued. 
 
 Rebel is fometimes alfo ufed, in our antient ftatutes, for 
 perfon who wilfully breaks a law; and fometimes for a villain 
 difobeying his lord. 
 Cimmiffm 0 f Rebellion. See Commission. 
 RE3ELLIOUS ajfe?nbly, a gathering of twelve perfons, o 
 going about, or practifmg, unlawfully 
 
 which are 
 fold at 
 
 :> months rebate. 
 
 ready money, only 
 
 more, 1 intendi 
 
 and of their own authority, to change any laws of the realm 
 or to deftroy the inclofure of any park or ground inclofed. 
 banks of hfh-ponds, pools, conduits, &c. to the intent the 
 fame fhall remain void, or that they fhall have way in any of 
 the faid grounds ; or to deftroy the deer in any park, filh in 
 ponds, coneys in any warren, dove-houfes, &c. or to bu: 
 ftacks of corn, or to abate rents, or prices of victuals. Sec 
 Riot. 
 
 REBOUND. Sec the article Recoil. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 REBUS, a name-device, as Cambden cnglifhes it; or an 
 enigmatical reprefentation offomenamc, te'e. by ufing figures 
 or pictures, inftead of words, or parts of words. 
 Such is that of the gallant mentioned by Cambden, who ex- 
 preil'ed his love to Rofe Hill, by painting in the border" of his 
 gown a rofe, a hill, an eye, a loaf, and a well j which, in the 
 r^ttr-ftile, reads, rofe }ii 11 1 love well. 
 
 The Picards have the honour of the invention of this notable 
 kind of wit; whence the French, to this day, call it rebus 
 de Picardie. Cambden adds, that the Engl ifh firft learnt it 
 of them in the reign of our Henry III. by means of the "ar- 
 rifons we then had in Calais, Guienne, ahd other places bor- 
 dering on Picardy. 
 
 Its origin is by Menage, c3V. afcribed fo the pricfts of Picar- 
 dy, who, it feems, antiently in carnival-time, ufed every year 
 to make certain libels, entitled, de rebus qua: gev.mtur, bchicr 
 railleries on what intrigues and transitions had pafied (bout 
 the city ; wherein they made great ufe of fuch fort of equivo- 
 ques and allufions, breaking and joining words, and fupplying 
 them with paintings. 
 
 Thus, in the relit s of Picardy, fays Marof, a curry-comb 3 
 etril/e, a fcythe, faux, and a calf, veau, make et; illc fau- 
 veau. But this practice has been fince prohibited there, by 
 reafon cf the fcandal. 
 
 Cambden tells us, the rebus was in wonderful efteem among 
 our forefathers; and that he was nobody who could not 
 hammer out of his name an invention by this wit-craft, and 
 picture it accordingly. 
 
 The fieur Dcs Accords has made an ample collection of the 
 moft famous rebus's de Picardy. And Mr. Cambden has 
 
 done fomething of the fame kind in his Remains The 
 
 abbot of Ramfey, he tells us, engraved in his feal a ram 
 in the fea, with this vcrfe, to fhew he was a right ram^ 
 
 cujus figna gero, dux gregis efl ut ego Sir Thomas Ca- 
 
 val (Cava! Signifying a horfe) engraved a galloping horfe in 
 his feal, with this limping verfe, Thomts creditis, cum cernhis 
 
 ejus cquum So John Eaglefhead bore in his feal an eagle's 
 
 head, with tli is motto around it, Hoc' a qui la caput ejl, fig- 
 numq; ftgura 'Jnhanms. 
 
 Bolton, prior of St. Bartholomew's, fignifTctT his' name by 
 
 a bolt thru ft through a tun Blip, abbot of Weftminfter^ 
 
 a man highly in favour with Henry Vfl, had a quadruple 
 rebus for his Single name ; fometimes he fet up in his win- 
 dows the figure of an eye, with a flip of a tree ; fometimes the 
 letter I, with the faid ilip ; in other places, one flipping boughs 
 in a tree ; and in others, one flipping from a tree, with the' 
 word, I-fiip. 
 
 Thomas earl of Arundel fignified his name by a capital A 
 in a rundle. Morton, the great archbifhop of Canterbury, 
 was contented to ufe mbr upon a tun ; and fometimes a mul- 
 berry, called tnorus, out of a tun. So Luton, Thornton* 
 Afhton, C3V. fignified their names by a lute, a thorn, an aih, 
 Upon a tun. So a hare on a bottle was the device of Hare- 
 bottle ; a magpye on a goat, of Pigot ; a hare by a fheaf of 
 rye in the fun, of Harrifon. Lionel Ducket ufed a lion with' 
 an L on its head ; whereas, fays Cambden, it fhould have been" 
 on its tail : had the lion been eating a duck, adds the fame 
 author, it hatl been a rare device, worth a ducat or a duck- 
 egg. Garret Dews fignified his name on his fign by two men 
 in garret cafting duce at dice. 
 
 Abel Drugger"s device in Ben. Johnfon's Alchyrnift, and Jack 
 of Newberry in the Spectator, are known to every body.-- But 
 the rebus, being once raifed to fign-pofts, grew out of fafliion 
 at court, and has been left to han^; there ever fince. Indced,- 
 attempts have been fome years fmcewnade for its refcue by a 
 reverend divine, in his Tunbridge-Cove-Letters, he. 
 Vet has rebus antiquity on its fide, as having been in ufe 
 in the pure Auguftan age : Cicero, in a dedication to the 
 gods, inferibed Marcus Tullius, with a little pea, called by 
 the Latins cicer, by us a chich-pea. And Julius Ca;far,- 
 in fome of his coins, ufed an elephant, called Cesfar in 
 the Mauritanian tongue. Add to thefe, that the two mint- 
 mafters in that age, L. Aquilius Florus, and Voconhis Vitu- 
 lus, ufedi the firft a flower, the fecond a calf, on the reverfe 
 of their coins. 
 
 REBUTTER *, inlaw, the anfwer of the defendant in a 
 caufe to the plaintiff's fur-rejoinder. 
 
 * This is called a rebutter, from re, and the French hoUtcr t 
 to repel, or Jaar. 
 
 The plaintiff's anfwer to the defendant's rebutter., is called 3, 
 fur-rebutter. 
 
 Rebutter is alfo when a man warrants any land or heredita- 
 ment to another, and the perfon making the warranty, or 
 his heir, fues him to whom the warranty is made, or his heir 
 or aflignee, for the fame thing : it he, who is fo fued, plead 
 the deed or fine with warranty, and pray judgment if the 
 plaintiff" ihall be received to demand the thing which he ought 
 to warrant to the party, againft the warranty in the deed y 
 &c. this is called a rebutter Term de Ley, 511. 
 Again, if I grant to the tenant to hold ji;:e impetithnc va/7:\ 
 and afterwards implead him for wafte, he may debar me of 
 10 K tb9 
 
R E C 
 
 R E C 
 
 grant : which is likewife a re- 
 
 -\ f Resc] 
 L See s Kx-ch 
 ) t Recii 
 
 Resceit. 
 
 EQUER. 
 
 i the article Auditor. 
 
 pneumatics, 
 
 tic. Sci 
 
 fat aaion, by (hewing my 
 
 hulier. ....... jt,iMm ha.^ii ckiL'-i; i: 
 
 RECANTATION. See Palinody, or Retrac 
 
 RECAPITULATION, in oratory, tic. a part of the 
 peroration ; called alfo, anacephaUofis. See Peroration, tiff. 
 Recapitulation is a fummary of the preceding difcourfe; or a 
 concife, tranlient enumeration of the principal things minted 
 on at large therein ; whereby the force of the whole is col- 
 lected into one view. , 
 An inftancc of this may be given in the peroration ol Cicero s 
 Manilian : $uare cum lellum ita neceffarium Jit ut negltgi 
 mn tofiit : ita magnum ut accural ifftmt fit admmtjlrandumi 
 U cum a imperahrem pra-ficcre fWlis, m fulfil OW bell 
 fcientia, fingularis virtus, clartffmia auClorttas, egregm for 
 tuna : dubitabilis, ^uirites, quia, tic. 
 RECAPTION, Recaptio in law, the taking a lecond 
 dilirefs of one formerly diflrained for the fame caufe, and alfo 
 during the plea grounded on the former diftrefs. 
 Recaptions alfo the name ot a writ lying for. the party thus 
 diftrained, to recover damages. 
 RECEIPT, or Receit, in commerce, an acquittance or 
 difcharge; or an aft whereby it appears, that a thing has been 
 paid off, or acquitted. . . 
 
 Where the receipt is on the back of a bill, We. it is ufually 
 called an indorfement. See Endorsement. 
 Among traJelmen Receipt ufually makes the fecond of 
 the three articles of an account: the receipt contains the 
 moneys received ; the two others the expence, and the re- 
 turn or balance. 
 
 Receipt, or Resceit, in law, denotes alfo an admilli- 
 on, or receiving of any perfon to plead his right, in a caufe 
 formerly commenced between two other pcrfons. See 
 Resceit. 
 Receipt of homage. 
 Receipt of the Exchequer 
 Receipt in medicine. 
 Audita ^/Receipts. Si 
 RECEI V ER, a veffd ufed in chemiftry, 
 
 Recipient and Exhausted. 
 Receiver, Receptor, or Receptator, in law, is 
 ufed commonly in the evil part, for fuch as knowingly re- 
 ceive ftollcn goods from thieves, and conceal them — This 
 crime is felony, and the punifhment tranfportation. 
 Receiver, alfo" denotes an officer; whereof there are va- 
 rious kinds denominated from the particular matters they 
 receive, the places where, or the pcrfons for whom, & c. 
 As receiver of rents : receiver general of the cuftoms. See 
 Customs— Receiver of the fines, upon original writs in 
 
 chancery, cifr. . ^ . * ' _ 
 
 Receiver general of the dutchy of Lancaitcr, is he who 
 ■rathers all the revenues and lines of the lands of the faid 
 dutchy, all forfeitures, aflefimcnts, tic. 
 RECENT fruits. See the article Fruit. 
 RECEPTACULUM chyli, Receptaculum commune, 
 or cifterna chyli, in anatomy, a refervoir or cavity near 
 the left kidney, into which the lacteal vellels do all difchargt 
 their contents. wV'nw* 
 This receiver, called alfo from its inventor dutlus Pecqtieticus, 
 lies under the emulgent and great arteries, between the two 
 oririns of the diaphragma. Hither do the lacteal vellels of 
 the° fecond order bring the chyle after its being diluted, and 
 rendered thinner by the lympha in the glands of the mefen- 
 tery. 
 
 In a preparation of thU part, by filling it with mercury, M 
 Cowper found it to confift of three feveral large trunks ; twe 
 of them more than a quarter of an inch in diameter. 
 This divifion is only obferved in human bodies, in whon 
 Dr Drake thinks its erect pofition makes it neceflary, in ordei 
 to take off the refinance which would arife from the preffurc 
 of the chyle and lympha, were it contained in a fingle recei- 
 ver. In quadrupeds, its horizontal pofition may make ont 
 trunk fufficient. 
 
 Its ofculum, or exit is upwards in the thorax, and thenct 
 is called the thorarcic duel. See Thoracic duel. 
 
 RECEPTION, Receptio, in philofuphy, denotes the 
 fame with paffion, confidered as oppofed to anion. 
 The fchoolmen, however, make fbme difference : The re- 
 ceptive paffion, fay here, docs not tend to the deftruction ol 
 the being, as paffion does ; but to the perfection thereof. It 
 is conceived as the acquifition of fome new reality or mo- 
 dification, by means of the action ot another. 
 
 Reception is alfo properly ufed for the manner of treating 
 or entertaining a perfon ; and the fulemnities and ceremo- 
 nies praclifed on that occafion. See Entry. 
 The queen of Sweden's reception into Paris was one of the 
 moff magnificent thefe ages have feen. The reception of em- 
 bafiadors is ufually performed with a great deal ot pomp. 
 
 Reception, is fometimcs alfo ufed for the act of approving, 
 accepting, and admitting a thing. See Acceptance. 
 
 The canon law only binds where it is received : The civil 
 law is received in fome countries, not in others. 
 The French would never receive the council of Trent, the 
 Spanifh inquifition, nor the dogmata of the ultramontane 
 canonifts. 
 
 Reception, in aftrology, is a dignity befalling two planets 
 when they exchange houfes : e.gr. when the lun arrives m 
 cancer, the houfe of the moon ; and the moon, in her turn* 
 arrives in the fun's houfe, 
 
 The fame term is alfo ufed, when two planets exchange 
 exaltation. 
 
 RECEPTITIOUS goods. Seethe article Goods. 
 RECESSION, of the equinoxes. 
 
 RECESSUS imperii. Recess of the empire, a phrafe ufed 
 in fpeakingof the affairs of Germany ; fignifying a collection, 
 of the votes or determinations of a diet. 
 At the end of each diet, before it breaks up, they gather to- 
 gether all their refolutions, and reduce themjnto writing ; 
 the aft which contains them they call the reeeffus imperii, be- 
 caufe made when on the point of retiring. 
 There being, now, no articles of fuccours for the war againft 
 the Turks, which ufed to make the greateft part of the re- 
 cefus imperii ; they are at a lofs for matter to fill them withall, 
 as well as for the manner of drawing them up. Afczambane. 
 The difbrdcrs in the imperial chamber of Spires were fo great, 
 that in 1654 they made feveral regulations therein; micrted 
 in the receflus imperii. Id. 
 RECHABITES, a kind of religious order among the an- 
 tient Jews, inftituted by Jonadab the Son ot Rechab ; and 
 comprehending his family and poftcrity. 
 
 Their founderprefcribed them three things ; firft, not to drink 
 any wine. Secondly, not to build any houfe: , but to dwell 
 under tents. Thirdly, not to fow any corn, or plant any vines. 
 The Rechabites . bferved thefe rules with a great deal ot ftrict- 
 nefs, as appears from Jeremy xxxv. 6, tic— Whence, St. Je- 
 
 rom in his xiiith cpiftle to Paulinas, calls them Monachi, 
 Monks. Jonadab, their founder, lived under Jeht.afli, king 
 of Judah, cotemporary with Jehu king of Ifrael ; his father 
 Rechab, from whom his poftcrity were denominated, de- 
 ft-ended from Raguelor Jethro, father-in-law to Mofes, who 
 was a Kenitc, or of the race of Ken ; whence Kenite and 
 Rechabite are ufed as fynonymous in fcripture. 
 RECHACING, in hunting, the driving back of the deer, 
 or other beads, into the forefts, chaces, tic. which had 
 ftraggled out into the copfes, or thickets, tic. 
 Autiently there were offices of rechacers of the deers beftow- 
 ed by the king on gentlemen, or old hunters, with falaries 
 for the keeping of running dogs to reehace the deer into the 
 forefts, and then to beat the dogs off, without purfuing 
 any farther. 
 
 RECHANGE in commerce. See Re-exchange. 
 RECHANGE is alfo ufed at fea for fuch tackle as is kept in 
 referve aboard the fhip, to ferve in cafe of failure of that 
 already in ufe. See Tackle. 
 
 The Levantines ufe the word refpeff or re/pit in the famefenfe. 
 RECHARGE, of a fire arm, is a fecond loading or charge. 
 The recharge mould never be fo deep as the firft charge, left 
 the piece being overheated (hould burft. 
 RECHEAT, inhuming, a leffon which the huntfman winds 
 on the horn, when the hounds have loft their game; to 
 call them back from purfuing a counter-fcent. 
 RECIPE, in medicine, a prefcription, or formula of a re- 
 medy, appointed to be adminiftred to a patient. See Pre- 
 scription. 
 
 It is thus called, becaufe always beginning with the word re- 
 cipe, take ; ordinarily exprefied by the abbreviation R. 
 RECIPIANGLE, or Recipient-angle, a mathema- 
 tical inftrument, ferving to take the quantity of angles; 
 ufed efpecially in the drawing plans of fortifications. 
 The recipiangle is a popular inftrument among the French, 
 but little known among us : it is ufually very funple, in form 
 of a fquare, or rather a bevel ; confifting of two arms or 
 branches, riveted together, and yet moveable, like a fector 
 on the centre or rivet. 
 
 To take an angle with it, they lay the centte of a pro- 
 traitor to thejoint, and the degrees cut by the edge fhew the 
 quantity of the angle : otherwife the angle made by the two 
 rulers is drawn on paper, and then meafured with a pro- 
 tractor. 
 
 Sometimes there is a circle divided into degrees added over 
 the centre or rivet, with an index to fhew the degrees with- 
 out a protractor — At other times the under branch is divided. 
 To meaf'ure a falient angle with any of the recipiangles, ap- 
 ply the infides to the lines that form the angle ; for a re- 
 entring angle, apply the outfides, tic. 
 RECIPIENDO excommunicato. See Excommunicato. 
 Recipiendo ti faciendo atlurnato. See AttuRNATO. 
 RECIPIENT, Receiver, in chemiftry, an appendage 
 of an alembic, retort, tic. being a veflel luted to the beak 
 thereof, to receive the liquor raifed in -diftillatien, tic. 
 
 Recipient 
 
R E C 
 
 REC 
 
 Recipient is alfo part of the apparatus of an air-pump ; be- 
 ing a glafs veflel placed on {he. top of the plate, for the air 
 to be exhaufted from. See Air-pump. 
 To an air-pump belong various recipients, of various forms 
 and fizes, and ferving for various purpofes. 
 
 RECIPROCAL, Reciprocus, fomcthing that is mu- 
 tual, or which is returned equally on both fides, or affects 
 both parties alike. 
 
 The end of human fociety is to afford each other reciprocal 
 aid : there are reciprocal duties between the prince aud his 
 fubjects, the hufband and wife, Ejtfr. There is a reciprocal 
 action between the agent and patient. 
 
 The lex talionis eftablifhes a kind of reciprocation of ju- 
 
 ftice.. 
 
 If two fimilar triangles be cut by parallel lines, the feclions 
 of the fides will be proportional ; and reciprocally, if the iides 
 be cut proportion ably, the triangles are hmilar. 
 Reciprocal, in logic, is applied to terms which have the 
 fame bonification, or are convertible — as, reajonable animal, 
 and man. 
 
 Schoolmen define reciprocation, a converfion of the feveral 
 terms in an enunciation — And terms are faid to be converted 
 in an enunciation, when the predicate is put in the place of 
 the fubject, and reciprocally, the fubjedt in that of the pre- 
 dicate. 
 
 Thus rationality and rifibility are faid to reciprocate ; for we 
 fay equally, a rational is riftble, and a rifible is rational. 
 Reciprocal, in grammar, is applied to certain verbs and 
 pronouns in fome of the modern languages ; in regard of their 
 turning or reflecting the noun, or perfon upon himfehS 
 Thus the pronoun-relative himjelf, refers Cato to Cato'a 
 feif. 
 
 The abbe de Dangcau defines reciprocal verbs to be thofc 
 whofe nominative is plural, and denotes perfons acting mu 
 tually on one another : as, Ces quaire hommes s'entrebattcient 
 thefe four men fought together. Pierre & tsi vow vans louez 
 peter and you praiie one another, is'c. 
 
 Reciprocal verbs areafpecies of thofe which that author 'calls 
 promminals, and which he diftinguifties into reciprocal and 
 identical. 
 
 Reciprocal, in poetry^ is applied to verfes which run 
 the fame both backward's and forwards ; called alfo recur- 
 rents. Ji 
 Reciprocal figure*, in geometry, are fuch as have the 
 antecedents and confequents of the fame ratio in both figures, 
 See Tab. Gcom. fg 22. n°. 2. Here, 
 
 A : B : : C : £>, or, 
 12 : 4 : : g : 3 
 
 That Is, as much longer as the fide A, in the firft rectangle, 
 
 is than B; fo much deeper is the fide C in the fecond redtan- 
 
 gle, than the fide D in the firft : and confequently, the length 
 
 of one is compenfated by the depth of the other. 
 
 Alfo, as the fide A is \ longer than the fide C, fo the fide B 
 
 is ( longer than D : wherefore the rectangles mult needs be 
 
 equal. 
 
 This is the foundation of that catholic theorem ; that the 
 redia/igle of the extremes mult always be equal to that of the 
 means: and confequently, the reafon of the rule of three, or 
 golden rule. 
 
 For, fuppofe there were given any three numbers,or quantities, 
 geometrically proportional, as A, B, and C ; and that it 
 Were required to find a fourth, D, proportional to them : 
 fince A ; B : : C : D, therefore A B— B C, and confequent- 
 ly, D =: that is, the fourth term is equal to the quo- 
 tient of the fecond, multiplied by the third term, divided 
 by the firft. 
 
 Or thus in numbers : fuppofe given 12, 4, and q ; re- 
 quired a fourth proportional. Now as 1: 
 
 But 120=4X9=36. Therefore Q=A2L2 f : by 
 
 12 
 
 dividing both fides by 12. 
 
 And hence it follows, that if any two triangles, parallel 
 grams, prifms, parallepipeds, pyramids, cones, or cylin- 
 ders, have their bafes and altitudes reciprocally proportional, 
 thofe two figures or folids are equal to one another ; and 
 ■vice verfa, if they are equal, their bafes and altitudes are 
 reciprocally proportionable. 
 Reciprocal proportion, is when in four numbers, th 
 fourth is leffer than the fecond, by fo much as the third 
 is greater than the firft ; and vice verfa. 
 
 This is the foundation of the invcrfe, or indirect rule of 
 three. Thus; 4 : 10 : 8 ; 6. 
 
 Great ufe is made of this reciprocal proportion, by Si 
 Ifaac Newton, and others, in demonftrating the laws of 
 motion. 
 
 Reciprocal theorem. See the article Theorem. 
 RECITATION, the act of reciting, or delivering a dif. 
 
 courfe, either in the way of narration, rehearfal, declama- 
 tion, or reading; 
 RECITATIVO, or Recitative muf.c, a kind 9/ figging ; 
 which differs but little from ordinary pronunciation : fuch as 
 that wherein feveral parts of the liturgy are rehearfed in cathe- 
 drals, or that wherein the actors ordinarily deliver themfelves 
 on the theatre, at the opera, t5V. 
 
 The Italians value themfelves on their performance in the reci- 
 tative way. The recitative's, or recitativo's, in our operas, 
 ufually tire the audience, by reafon they do not Underftahd the 
 language ; but the fongs make them amends. 
 
 Recitative jlyle, is the way of writing accommodated to 
 this fort of mufic. 
 
 RECKONING, in navigation, the act of eftimating the 
 quantity of a Ihip's way; or of the diftance run between one 
 place and another. 
 
 This is ufually performed by means of the log line : the man- 
 ner of applying which fee under its proper article, LoG- 
 
 1IKE. 
 
 Yet is this liable to great irregularities — Vitruvius advifts an 
 axis to he palled through the fides of the ftiip, with two large 
 heads propending out of the ftiip, wherein are to be included 
 wheels touching the water, by whofe revolution the fpace paf- 
 fedover in any given time, may be meafured. The lame has 
 been lately recommended by Snellius : but there are few who 
 have wrote of navigation, but have fhewn the infuificiency of 
 this method. 
 
 Dead Reckoning. See Dead reckoning. 
 
 RECLAIMING, or Reclaiming, in our antient cu- 
 ftoms, the ad-ion of a lord purfuing, profecuting, and recalling 
 his vaJlal, who had gone to live in another place, without his 
 permiflion. 
 
 Reclaim inc is alfo ufed in a fimilar fenfe, for the de- 
 manding of a perfon or thing to be delivered up, or furrendercd^ 
 to the prince or ftate it properly belongs to ; whenj by any 
 irregular means it has come into the pofleffion of another. 
 An officer was fent to reclaim the vellel feized by the Alge- 
 rines, contrary to the terms of the treaty of peace. The 
 government reclaimed the late caftiier of the South-fea com- 
 pany, who had refuged himfelf in Flanders, but in vain. 
 
 Reclaiming, in falconry, is the calling of a hawk, or 
 bird of prey back to the fift; 
 
 The fpar-hawk, gos-hawk, &c. are reclaimed with the voice : 
 the falcon only by fliaking the lure — So that the term luring 
 with regard to the falcon, is more proper than reclaiming. 
 The partridge is alfo faid to reclaim 1 her young ones, when (he 
 calls them together upon their fcattering too much from her. 
 
 RECLINA7TON, of a plane, in dialling,- the number 
 of degrees which a dial-plane leans backwards, from an ex- 
 a6Uy upright or vertical plane, i. e. from the zenith. 
 The rcclinatlon is eafily found, by means of a ruler and a 
 quadrant; for having drawn an hor.zontal line on the 
 plane by a level or quadrant) and to it another line at right 
 angles ; apply a ruler, fo that one end of it may hang over, 
 or reach beyond the plane I then will a quadrant, applied to 
 the under edge of theruler ftiew the degrees and minutes of the 
 plane's rcclination; accounting from that fide of the quadrant 
 that is contiguous to the edge of the ruler. 
 
 RECLINE R, or Reclining dial, is a dial whofe 
 plane reclines from the perpendicular ; i. e. leans from you 
 when you ftand before it. 
 
 When this reclination is equal to the height of the pole, the 
 dial is faid to be equinoctial. 
 Declining Recliner, or declining Reclining dial, is a 
 dial which neither (lands perpendicularly, nor oppofite to one 
 of the cardinal points. 
 RECLUSE, among religious, a perfon clofe fhut up in 
 a very narrow cell of a hermitage, or other religious houfe ; 
 and cut off, not only from all converfation with the worldj 
 but even with the houfe. 
 
 The word is chiefly ufed for fuch as thus imprifon themfelves 
 out of devoiton, to do penance — It is fometimes alfo ap-' 
 plied to incontinent wives, whom their hufbands procure to 
 be thus kept in a perpetual prifon in fome convent. 
 Reclufes were antiently very numerous : they were then a kind 
 of folitarics who ftiut themfelves up in fome little cell, with a 
 vow never to ftir out of it. 
 
 None were admitted to this oath until they had given 
 fufficient proofs of their abftinence, and had leave from 
 the biftiop, or the abbot of the monaftery where they 
 were ftiut up: for the cells of the reclufes were always to 
 join to fome monaftery. 
 
 The prelate's permiffion being obtained, they were tried 
 for a year in the monaftery : out of which, during that time, 
 they never ftirred. 
 
 They were then admitted to their vow of liability in 
 the church before the biftiop; which being done, and the 
 reclufe having entered his little cell, the biftiop fet his fcal 
 on the door, 
 
 the 
 
R E, C 
 
 REG 
 
 The cell war. to be very fmall, and very exaAly clofed. _ Sie 
 
 (j(.- fiL The rcclufe was to have every thing within it ne- 
 
 ccflary to life; and even, if he were a prieit, an oratory 
 confLcr^ted bv the bifliop, with a window which looked into 
 the church, through which he might make his offerings at the 
 mals, hear the fffiging, fing himfelf with the community, 
 and anfwer thofe who talked to liim. But this window was 
 to have curtains before it* both within-fide and without; io 
 that the rerfufe might neither lee rfor be fecn. 
 Indeed he was allowed a little garden in his rerfuf.on, to plant 
 a few herbs and take frefh air : adjoining to his cell was that 
 of his difciples, which he was very rarely without ; _ with a 
 •window, through which they ferved him with neceUancs, and 
 received his inihructions. 
 ' When it was judged proper to have two or three rectujes to- 
 eether, their ceiL were made contiguous to each other, witt 
 windows of communication : if any woman would confult 
 ' them, or confefs to them, it was to be in the church, and 
 in the face of all the world. 
 
 Where there were two or three recMfei together, they wer 
 never to hold any conference, but on fpiritual matters ; and 
 to confefs to each other : where there was but one, he was 
 to confefs and examine himfelf. 
 
 If the redttft fell fick, his door was opened for people to come 
 in and affift him ; but he was not allowed to Air out on 
 any pretence whatever. 
 
 Thefe articles are extracted from the rule, compiled for the 
 rielafes, by Grimlaic, a priefr, in the IXth century. 
 There were alfo women rerfufes, who led the fame life, in 
 proportion. St Viborade lived a rerfufe at St Gail, and was 
 there martyred by the Hungarians in 825. 
 PvECLUSION, the Hate of areclufej or the cell and other 
 appurtenances thereof. ■ See Recluse. 
 
 F. Helyot gives a particular account of the ceremonies prao 
 tiled in reditfiou of a woman, in that of mother de Cam- 
 bray, inftitutrix of the order of the rcprefentation of Notre 
 Dame. A cell being built for her in 1625, adjoining to the 
 church of St Andrew in Tournay : the bilhop waited for her 
 early in the morning at the church door. Upon her arrival, 
 prottrating hcrfelt at [he feet of that prelate, he gave her his 
 benediction, conducted her to the grand altar ; and there 
 bldiing a mantle,, veil, and fcapular, he put them on her, 
 and gave her a new name. 
 
 Having here made her vow, and the bifhop having harangued 
 the people in praife of the new rerfufe ; he conducted her 
 proccmonally to her rerfufion ; the clergy all the way finging 
 Veni,fponfa ChrijH, &C. 
 
 Here the bifliop bfeftng her a-frefh, confccratcd the reclufion, 
 and Ihuthcrupin perpetual confinement. 
 
 RECOGNISANCE. See the article Recognizance. 
 
 RECOGNITION, Recognitio, denotes an acknow- 
 ledgment — The word is particularly ufed in our law-books, 
 for the title of the firrt chapter of the Stat, r Jac I, where- 
 by the parliament acknowledged tlte OTOWn of England, after 
 the death of queen Elizabeth, to have rightfully dei'cended 
 to king James. 
 
 Recognition, in the drama. See Discovery. 
 
 RECOGNITIONS admdlanda per vim & duritiem facia, 
 js a writ to the juirices of the common-bench, tor lending a 
 record touching a recognizance, which the recognizor lug- 
 gerts to have been acknowledged by force and hard dealing: 
 that if it fo appear it may be difannulled. 
 
 Tranfcriptio Recognitions fatlis coram jnjlidariis iti- 
 ruranttbus. See Transcriptio. 
 
 RECOGNIZANCE, or Recognisance, in law, a 
 bond, or obligation of record acknowledged to the king ; tes- 
 tifying the recognizer to owe to the recognizee a certain fum 
 of money. 
 
 It is thus called, becaufe recognized, or acknowledged in forhe 
 court of record, or before fome judge, matter in chancery, 
 or juftice of the peace. 
 
 Mcer recognizances are not fealed, but enrolled ; and execu- 
 tion) by force thereof, is of all the recognizor's goods or 
 chattels, (except draught hearts, or implements of husbandry) 
 and the moiety of his land. 
 
 There are alfo rccogniztmces for bail, others for appearing 
 at the feffions to profecnte a felon, others for good beha- 
 viour, &c. 
 
 Recognizance is alfo ufed in our antient ftatutes, for 
 the verdict of the twelve jurors impanelled upon an attize ; 
 hence called recognitors. 
 
 RECOGNIZEE, is he to whom one is bound in : 
 
 recog- 
 
 nizance — He that is fo bound is called Recognizor 
 RECOIL, or Rebound, the refilition of a body, chiefly 
 a fire-arm ; or the motion whereby, upon cxplofton, it 
 Itarts or flies backwards. 
 
 The greater the charge, ceteris paribus, the greater the re- 
 bound — By an experiment made before the royal fociety, and 
 related in the Phihf. Tranfafi. it was found that cannons 
 
 charged to a certain degree, throw the ball from right to left 
 of their own direction j but tha^ the cannons themfelves re- 
 coil from left to right; 
 
 Some of the gentlemen of the French academy, doubling 
 the juftnefs of the obfervation, Mr Cafiini, the younger, 
 undertook to repeat the experiment ; which he did by means 
 of a machine, as like that ufed in England as he could ; and 
 that tried over, and over again. 
 
 The refult was, that the ball, when the gun had liberty to 
 recoil, was always thrown to the right of the point to which 
 it was thrown when the gun was fixed without a poflibilitv' 
 of rebounding; but then the recoil was always made the fame 
 way, viz. to the right ; and he never found that tiontrariety 
 of directions between the ball and the rebound, obferved in 
 the Englifh experiment. See Hijh Acad. R. Science. A. 
 1703. p. 120, £&. 
 
 The caufe of the phenomenon feems very difficult to afiign : 
 for fuppofing the guns of a common make, with the touch- 
 hole on the top, we cannot fo much as guefs what caufe 
 Ihould conftantly determine the ball from right to left — Un- 
 lefs fome very material circumifances be omitted in the re- 
 cital they have given us of the experiment. 
 RECOLLECTION, a mode of thinking, whereby thofe 
 ideas fought after by the mind, are with pain and endeavour 
 found, and brought again to view. 
 RECOLLECTS, a congregration of reformed Fran- 
 cifcans, called alfo Friars minor of St Fr ancis, of the JlriSi 
 ■obfervanct. ' 
 
 They were eftablifhed about the year 1530 ; when fome re- 
 ligious of the order of St Francis, being willing to keep his 
 rule to the letter ; Clement VII. gave them houfes, parti- 
 cularly Tulles in the Limofin, and Murat in Auvergne, whi- 
 ther they might retire, and receive fuch as were difpofed to 
 follow them — The fame year he approved the reform ; and 
 in 1584. it was carried into Italy. 
 RECOMMEND ATI. See Affidatus. 
 RECONCILIARI, .in our law-books, fcrV. — A church is 
 faid reconciliari, to be reconciled, when it is confecrated a- 
 frefh, after having been polluted or profaned j as by the pol- 
 fefllon of pagans, heretics, csV. 
 RECONN OITRE*, in war, to go to view and examine 
 the Hate of things, in order to make a report thereof. 
 
 * The word is pure French, fignifying laterally, to knmv, 
 recollect. 
 
 We fay, to reconnoitre the coafts, to reconnoitre a port, fyc. — - 
 A body of horfe was fent to reconnoitre their camp, die ground, 
 the condition of the roads, rivers, isfc. 
 
 A general ought to go to reconnoitre, in perfon, the place to be 
 beiicged, inordcrtolearn itsiituation, andavenues, its ftrengths 
 and weaknelles. 
 
 Reconnoitre is alfo ufed at fea — To reconnoitre a vcffel, a 
 fleet, £jV. is to approach near enough to examine the rate and 
 burthen of a vefiel, &c. the force it may have a-board 3 
 what nation it is of, (sfc. 
 
 To reconnoitre a land, or fhore,- is to obferve its fituation, 
 in order to find what land it is. 
 RECORD, Recordum, in law, an authentic teftimc- 
 ny of any thing in writing, contained in rolls of parch- 
 ment, and preferved in a court of record. 
 Records are laid to be vetajlatis iff verhatis veftigia — An 
 act committed to writing in any of the king's courts, during 
 the term wherein it is written, is alterable; being no record: 
 but that term once ended, and the act enrolled, it is a record? 
 and of fuch credit, as admits no alteration, or proof to the 
 contrary. 
 
 Lawyers reckon three forts of records : viz. a judicial record, 
 as attainder, ts'c. — a mtnijlerial record upon oath, as an of- 
 fice of inquifition found — and a record made by conveyance 
 and confent, as a line, or deed enrolled, and the like. 
 Matter of Record. -) f Matter. 
 
 Mufer of Record. 
 Oyer de Record. 
 Prifoner upon matter of 'Record. 
 
 Record, among fowlers: a bird is faid to record, when it 
 begins to tune or fing within itfelf ; or to form its notes, and 
 dilpofe its organs for finging. 
 
 The cock thrufh is dirtinguifhed from the hen in recording ; 
 the firft being more loud and frequent in it than the fecond. 
 RECORDARE facias, a writ directed to the fherift" tore- 
 move a caule depending in an inferiour court,' as hundred- 
 court, county-court, court of antient demefnc, fcrV. to the 
 king's bench, or common-pleas. 
 
 It is thus calkd, becauie it commands the fheriff to make a 
 record of the proceedings either by himfclf, or others $ and 
 then to fend up the caufe. 
 RECORDER, Recordator, a perfon whom the 
 mayor, or other chief magiftrate of any city or town 
 corporate having juriidich'on and a court of record within 
 their precincts, docs allbciatc with him s for his better direction 
 
 -j (-Matter. 
 I e \ Muster. 
 \ Ece \ Over, 
 d. .) (.Prisoner. 
 
R EC 
 
 R EC 
 
 in matters of juftice, and proceedings' according to 
 law. 
 
 He is ufualty a man verfed and experienced in the com- 
 mon law. In fume towns, which have their particular 
 
 affizes within themfelves, and no mayor, the recorder is the 
 judge. 
 
 RE CORD O fif procefjo mtttettiBs m a writ to call a record, 
 
 together with the whole proceedings in the caufe, out of an 
 
 inferior court into the king's court. 
 RECOVERY, in a legal fenfe, an obtaining of any thing by 
 
 judgment, or trial at law ; anfwering to cviclio among the 
 
 civilians. 
 
 There is a true and a feigned recovery. 
 True Recovery is an actual or real recovery of any thing, 
 or of the value thereof, by judgment— as if a man fue for any 
 land, or other tiling, and have a verdict or judgment for 
 him. 
 
 Feigned or common Recovery is a fort of ficlio juris-, be- 
 ing a certain form or courfe prefcribed by law to be ob- 
 ferved for the better alluring of lands and tenements to 
 us ; the end and effect whereof is to difcontinue and de- 
 ltroy eftates tail, remainders, and rcverfions, and to bar the 
 intails thereof. 
 
 This recovery is either with a Jingle or a double voucher. 
 
 In Recovery with a fingle voucher? there are three parties re- 
 quired, the demandant, the tenant, and the vouchee. 
 The demandant is he who brings the writ of entry, and may 
 be termed the recoverer — The tenant is he againft whom the 
 writ is brought, and may be called the recoveree — The vou- 
 chee is he whom the tenant vouchcth, or calls to warrant for 
 the land in demand. 
 
 Recovery -with double voucher is where the tenant voucheth 
 one, who vouchcth another, or the common vouchee. 
 The point is a little quaint and perplexed : to explain it ; 
 fltppoie a man defimu- to cut off an eitate tail in lands or te- 
 nements, to the end that he may fell, give, or bequeath them ; 
 the firft: thing he does, is to caufe a feigned writ of entry fur 
 iejfeifin in le pji to be brought of the lands, of which he in* 
 tends to dock, ihe intail ; and, in a feigned declaration there- 
 upon made, he pretends he was difieifed by him, who, by a 
 feigned fine, or deed of bargain and fale, is named and fup- 
 poied to be tenant of the lands. 
 
 This feigned tenant, if it be a fingle recovery? is made to 
 appear, a:td vouch a poor fellow, the bag-bearer of writs of 
 the cuftos brevium of the common-pleas ; (where alone thefe 
 common recoveries are allowed) who makes default: upon 
 which a judgment is, by this fiction, entered, that the de- 
 mandant Jhail recover, and have a writ of feifm for the pof- 
 fc&on of the lands in queftion ; and that the tenants mall 
 recover the value of the land; againft tfic lands of the vouchee 
 bag-fc carer, (who has not a foot of land) which is an imagi- 
 nary fati, taction for the heir in tail, though he is to be never 
 the better tor it. 
 
 By this means, one Edward Howes, a bag-bearer, and 
 common vouchee, in the fpace of twenty years, paffed, 
 or fuftered to be recovered againft him, a great part of the 
 lands of England ; obliging his own lands to anfwer the 
 yalue_ of thole recovered againft the tenants or remainders 
 in tail. 
 
 Clerk of enrollments of Recoveries and fines. See Clerk. 
 RECOUPE*, in law;, to rebate or difcount. See Dis- 
 count. 
 
 * The word is pure French, formed of re and couper, to 
 cut again. 
 
 Thus, if a man have ten pounds ifTuing out of certain lands, 
 and he diffeifes the tenant of the land ; in an aflize brought 
 by the diffeifce, the difieiflbr lhall rccoupe the rent in the 
 damages. 
 
 Rccoupe alio denotes a quick, fharp reply to a peremptory de- 
 mand. See Repartee. 
 
 RECREANT, m our old law-books, implies cowardly, faint- 
 hearted. 
 
 Hence recreant/fir. See the article Craven". 
 Recreant was fo reproachful a word, that Glanville would 
 not defcribe it — Recreantcs cqui is ul'ed by Fleta, lib. 2. c. 2. 
 for dull, jaded horfes. 
 RECREMENT, Recrementum, in medicine, fome 
 fuperfluous matter feparated from fome other that is ufe- 
 
 tat. 
 
 In which fenfe it amounts to much the fame with faces, or 
 
 excrement. See Fjeces. 
 Recrement is fometimes al fo ufed to denote fuch fecrcted 
 
 juices in the body, as are afterwards of ufe to the ceconomv ; 
 
 as the lympha, gall, faY. —which are thus called in contra- 
 
 diftmction to excrements, which are expelled out of the body, 
 
 as of no farther ufe. 
 RECRIMINATION, a pofterior accufation brought by 
 
 the accufed againft his accufer, upon the fame fact. 
 
 When two parties have made their mutual complaint at the 
 Vol. IT. 
 
 fame time, the bufmefs is, firft to determine who mail b? 
 the accufer, and who the accufed ; /'. e. on whom ft all fall 
 the recrimination. 
 
 By the French laws, recrimination is of no force till the cri- 
 minal have been purged legally, 
 RECRUDESCENCE, Recrudescentia, in medi- 
 cine, is a relapfe, when a difeafe that was gone off returns 
 again. 
 
 RECTANGLE, in geometry, called alfb obhng, and long 
 fquare, a quadrilateral rectangular figure, (MLIK, Tab. 
 Geometry, fig. 60.) whofe oppofite fides (OP and NO as 
 alfo ON andPQj are equal. 
 
 Or, a rectangle is a parallelogram^ whofe fides are unequal* 
 but its angles right. 
 
 To find the area of a reclangle ; meafure the length of the fides 
 ML and MI, and multiply them by one another; the pro- 
 duct is the area of the reSlangle. 
 
 Thus, ML bcing=345 feet, and MI= 123 feet, the area 
 will be found 42435 fquare feet. 
 
 Hence, i°. reclangles are in a ratio compounded of that of 
 their fides ML and IK; and therefore reEHxngles*, which have 
 the fame height, are to each other as their bafes ; and thofe 
 which have the fame bafe, are to each ether as their heights. 
 2 . If therefore there be three lines in continual proportion^ 
 the fquare of the middle one is equal to the reclangle of die 
 two extremes. 
 
 3°. It there be four right lines in continual proportion, the 
 reclangle under the extremes is equal to the rcttanrle under the 
 middle terms. 
 
 4 y - It from the fame point A, fig. 61. be drawn two lines, 
 one whereof, AD, is a tangent to a circle, the other aje- 
 cant AB; the fquare of the tangent AD will be equarto 
 the reclangle under the fecant Ar£ and that part of it with- 
 out the circle AC. 
 
 5°. If two or more fecants A a, AB, &e t be drawn from 
 the feme point A j the reclangles under their wholes, and their 
 parts without the circle, will be equal. 
 
 t?4 If two chords interfe£t each other, the reclangles under 
 
 their tegme n t a will be equal. 
 Similar Rectangles. See the article Similar, 
 Rectangle, in arithmetic, is the fame with producl or hffum 
 
 See Product. 
 
 RECT ANGLED, Right-angled, triangle^ is a triaogta 
 one of whofe angles is right* or equal to 90 0 . 
 There can be but one right angle in a plain triangle ; there- 
 fore a reclangled triangle cannot be equilateral. 
 
 RECTANGULAR, in geometry, is applied to figures and 
 folids, which have one or more angles right. 
 Such are fquares, rectangles, and reclangled triangles, amon°- 
 plain figures; cubes, parallelepipeds, &f« amongYolids. ° 
 Solids are alfo faid to be retlangidar with refpedt to their fitu- 
 atton: thus, if a cone, cylinder* csV. be perpendicular to the 
 plane of the horizon, it is called a reclangidar or right cone, 
 cylinder, 
 
 The antients ufed the phrafe rectangular feclion of a cone, to 
 denote a parabola; that conic lection, before Apollonius, be- 
 ing only confidered in a cone, whofe fection by the axis mold 
 be a triangle, right-angled at the vertex. 
 
 Hence it was that Archimedes entitled his book of the 
 quadrature of the parabola, by the name of reclanguli com 
 
 Rectangular barometer. \ n C Barometer. 
 Rectangular windmills, J \ Windmills 
 RECTIFICATION *, the act of retlifytng, i.'e. of cor- 
 recting, remedying, or redrelling fome defect or error, in 
 refped: either of nature, art, or morality. 
 
 * The word is compounded of rcelus, right, direfl, and ju t 
 I become. 
 
 Rectification, in chemiftry, is the repeating of a df- 
 ftUIation or fublimation fcvcral times, in order to render the 
 fubftance purer, finer, and freer from aqueous and earthy 
 parts. 
 
 Rectification is a reiterated depuration of a difiilled matter, 
 e.gr. brandy, fpirits, or oils, by diltilling them over again, 
 to render them more fubtile, and exalt dieir virtues. Sec 
 Supplement article Rectification. 
 
 Fixed falts are rectified by calcination, difTolution, or filtra- 
 tion. 
 
 Metals are reclified, i. e. refined, by the coppel; and regulus's 
 by repeated funons, £5V. 
 Rectification, in geometry, is the finding of a right line 
 equal to a curve. 
 
 All we need to find the quadrature of the circle, is the retli- 
 fication of its circumference; it being demonfirated, that the 
 area of a circle U equal to a reclangled triangle, whole two 
 fides, comprehending the right angle, are the radius, and a 
 right hne equal to the cirtumlerence. 
 
 To rectify the circle, therefore, is to fquare it : or rather, 
 both the one and the other are impouibie— For the various at- 
 10 L tempts 
 
R EC 
 
 REG 
 
 tempts to rcaify *S circle, in order to the quadrature, W c. 
 
 fee Qu adrature of I hi circle. 
 
 The rcilif cation of curves is a branch of the higher geome- 
 try, wherein the ufe of the new-invented integral calculus, 
 or invcrfe method of fluxions* is very confpicuous— For, fines 
 a curve line may be conceived to conflft of innumerable right 
 lines, infinitely fmall ; if the quantity or one of them be 
 found, by the differential calculus , theit fum, found by the 
 integral calculus, gives the length of the curve. 
 Tjltfe, if M R (Tab. Jaalyf. fig. 18.)= dy, and m R = 
 M m, or the element of the curve will be v' dx 1 + 
 EtEMENT. 
 
 If then, from the differential equation, to the particular ctirv 
 we fubftitute the value either of or of dy', we fhall 
 have the particular element, which being integrated,, gives 
 the lencth of the curve. See Fluxions. 
 
 Indeed the element of the curve is fometimes more comma- 
 dioufly determined from feme particular circumftances ; in- 
 flates whereof we fhall give in the rttlification of the parabola 
 
 and cycloid. 
 
 To Rectify the parabola— -For this we have 
 
 adx = 2ydy ' 
 
 + » 
 
 -yy 
 
 And confequently, if rr — yy be thrown 
 
 : 4r g 
 
 >#* <fy' '■ 
 
 <S(dx' + dy') — ^ (dy* + 4./ if : «*) =dy / {aa + 4 yy : a) 
 To render this element of the curve integrable ; let it be re- 
 folved into an infinite feries ; (fee Series.) Then in the ge- 
 neral theorem. 
 
 (^ = ^I>I = IP = a , Q_= 4J'* : a' P» : " = a = A 
 a = B 
 
 3& = C 
 
 : — ZSL Sifr. in infinitum. 
 
 al 
 
 . , 2v 5 dy 2v4 dy . 
 
 Wherefore, dy J (aa + t,yy) ■ a = dy + ~~ -»g r 
 
 Af _ t£$i Uc. Whofe integral y + V- — S£ + 
 
 ya 6 C)a° 
 arch AM. 
 
 In infinitum expreffes the parabolic 
 
 Hence, fir/1, let AC, and DC (Tab. Analyfis, fig. 19) be Rect1likkae «,;,„•«„',. 
 
 into an infinite feries, and the feveral members of it be mul j 
 tiplicd into ry, and then the flowing quantity of each be taken, 
 we mall have the length of the arch AC. 
 RECTIFIED fpirits, &c. are fuch as have undergone the 
 operation of rectification, or have been diftilled over and 
 over, to feparate from them any heterogeneous matter, 
 which might have arifen with them in the former diftil- 
 lations. 
 
 Hence we fay, fpirit of wine twice rectified, thrice rttlified, 
 
 It is the rectification that makes the difference between brandy 
 and rectified fpirits of wine. 
 
 RECTIFIER, in navigation, is an inftrument nfed for de- 
 termining the variation of the compafs, in order to rectify the 
 ihip's courfc, tsfc. See Variation and Course. 
 It confifts of two circles, either laid upon, or let into, one 
 another, and fo fattened together in their centres, that they 
 reprefent two compafles, the one fixed, the other move- 
 able : each is divided into 32 points of the compafs, and 360 
 decrees, and numbered both ways, from the north and the 
 fouth, ending at the eaft and weft in go degrees. 
 The fixed compafs reprefents the horizon, in which the north, 
 and all the other points, are liable to variation. 
 In the centre of the moveable compafs is fattened a filk thread, 
 long enough to reach the outttde of the fi*cd compafs. But, 
 if the inftrument be made of wood, an index is ufed inftead 
 of the thread. See Compass. 
 
 RECTIFYING of curves. See Rectification. 
 
 Rectifying of the globe or fpbere is a previous adjufting 
 of the globe or fphere, to prepare it for the folution of 
 problems. 
 
 It is done by bringing the fun's place in the ecliptic., on 
 the "lobe, to the graduated fide of the brafs meridian j ele- 
 vating the pole above the horizon, as much as is the latitude 
 of the place; fitting the hour index exactly to twelve at noon, 
 and fcrew'mg the quadrant of altitude (if there be occafionj to 
 the zenith. 
 
 All this is comprehended under the term, rectifying the globe. 
 When this is done, the celeftiol globe reprefents the true po- 
 fture of the heavens, for the noon of that day which it is 
 rectified for. 
 
 RECTILINEAR, Right-lined, in geometry, is applied 
 
 to figures, whofe perimeter confifts of right lines. 
 Rectilinear < 
 Rectilinear maps. 
 
 the conjugate femi-axes of" an equilateral hyperbola; thi 
 will AC^DCna. Suppofe MP — 2y, QM:=*; then 
 willAP=* — a: confequently, by reafon of PB. AP 
 = P M l xx — aa = 4ry, and hence xx = 417 -f- aa ; confe- 
 quently, *s="V (4vy + aa -) Ifthen 1 m be {u PP° {cd '"fi- 
 nitely near QJVI, we fhall have Q_ ? = dy ; and therefore 
 the clement oi the area C QJV1 A = dy J [aa -f 4yy.) The 
 rectification of the parabola therefore depends on the quadra- 
 ture of the hvperbolic fpace C Q_M A. 
 
 It is to be here noted that al! integrations or fummations are 
 reduced to the quadratures of curves ; in what cafes foevi 
 they be uied : fo that to have them perfect, the rule laid down 
 under quadrature of the-hgiflic curve, muff, be obferved 
 throughout. ' tourcri to /iwr'vo. ".'ftv' aJR' 
 
 To Rectify the cycloid— Let A Qj= x, A B = 1, {fig. 27). 
 then will Q. ? = MS=^, P Q_= </ (x — xx.) And 
 hence : A. P =3 «/ I confequently by reafon of th 
 
 fnnilitude of the triangles A P Q and M m S, 
 AQ_:AP::MS:Mw 
 x:x 1 : 1 ::dx :x- 1 •■*!*. 
 Therefore M ffl is the differential of the cycloidal arch A M 
 = ; %dx. Wherefore fx — 1 : 2dx — 2x ' - = 2 A P 
 is the arch A M. 
 
 The rectification of curves Mr de Moivre fhews may be ob- 
 tained by confidering the fluxion of the curve as an hypote- 
 nufe of a rectangular triangle, whofe fides are the fluxions 
 of the ordinate and abfeiffa : care being taken in the expreffion 
 of this hypotenufe, that only one of the fluxions be remain- 
 ing, as alfo only one of the intermediate quantities, viz. that 
 whofe fluxion is retained : an example will render this clear. 
 The right fine C B (fig. 20) being given, to find the arch A C, 
 
 L e t A B — x, C B 1=: y, O A — r. C E the fluxion of the 
 
 abfeiffe, ED the fluxion of the ordinate, CD the fluxion of 
 the arch, C A. From the property of the circle 2? x— xx=yy. 
 
 whence ar* — 2xx == 2yv» and therefore x =z yy. But 
 
 C D a = y + a = « + 7-^>lA^Jl 
 
 1 TAngle. 
 > See SMaps. 
 
 J J SUTERFICIE 
 
 — rr yy ; 
 
 therefore CD=. 
 
 V rr —yy V rr —yy 
 
 RECTITUDE, Rectitudo, Rectum, in matters of 
 philofophy, refers either to the act of judging, or of willing; 
 and therefore, whatever comes under the denomination of 
 rectitude, is either what is true, or what is good ; thcie being 
 the objects about which the mind cxercif.s its two faculties 
 of judging and willing. 
 
 ReStitudc of the mind confulered as it judges, u e. ref.litude of 
 the faculty of judgment, confifts in its agreement and con- 
 formity to the nature and reafon of things, and in its deter- 
 mining and deciding about them according to what their con- 
 ftitutions, properties, ufes, l5c. really are. 
 Reelitude >f the mind, confidered as it wills, called alfo moral 
 reftitude, or upright 11 rfs, confifts in the choofing and purfuing 
 of thofe things which the mind, upon due inquiry and atten- 
 tion, clearly perceives to be good ; and avoiding thole that 
 are evil. 
 
 RECTITUDENES, inlaw, right?, or legal dues, belong- 
 either to God or man. See Right. 
 RECTO, in law, a writ ufually called a. writ of right; of 
 fo high a nature, that whereas other writs in real action are 
 only to recover the poflefJion of the lands, csV. in queftion, 
 loft by the plaintiff, or Ids anceflor : this aims to recover both 
 the feifin thus loft, and the property of the thing ; fo that 
 both rights are here pleaded together ; that of pnpei ty, and 
 that of poffejfion. 
 
 If a man lofe his caufe upon this writ, he is without all re- 
 medy. 
 
 There are two kinds of this writ ; breve magmtm de re£to, or 
 breve de redo patens, a writ of right patent ; and recto clanfum, 
 a writ of right clofc. 
 
 The firft is fo called, becaufe fent open — It lies only for him 
 that hath fee-fimple in the lands fucd for, againlt the tenant 
 of the freehold at Ieaft. 
 
 Indeed, the writ of right patent is extended in practice be- 
 yond its original intention ; for a writ of right of dower, 
 which lies for the tenant in dower, is patent ; and fo in feve- 
 ral other cafes. Fiizherb. 
 
 The writ of right clofe, called alfo breve panmm de redo, is 
 directed to the lord of antient demefne, or the bailiff of the 
 king's manors, and lies for thofe who hold lands and tene- 
 ments by charter, in fce-fimple, or in fee-tail, or for term of 
 life, or in dower, if they be ejected out of fuch lands, or difleifed. 
 
 In 
 
REG 
 
 R EC 
 
 In fuch cafe a man or hia heirs may fuc out the writ of right 
 Clofe, directed to the lord of antient demefne, commanding 
 him to do him right in his court. 
 
 Recto de advocaikne ecclfiec, a writ of right, lying where a 
 man has right of advowfon in fee to him and his heirs, and 
 the incumbent dying, a ft ranger prefenfe his clerk to the 
 church; and he not having brought his action of quart im- 
 pcdit nor darrein prcfer.iment within fix months, has fuhered 
 the ftranger to ulurp upon him. 
 
 Recto de cujhd'ta terra iff heredis, a writ which lies for him 
 whofe tenant dying in his nonage, a flranger enters and takes 
 the body of the heir. 
 
 Tne writ as to lands holden in capite, or by knights fervice, 
 is become ufelefs by the Stat. 12 Car. II. But not where 
 there is a guardian in focage, or appointed by the laft will of 
 the anceftor. 
 
 Rfxto dt dotty a writ of right of dower, which lies for a 
 woman that has received part of her dower, and proceeds to 
 demand the remnant in tnc fame town againft the heir or his 
 guardian. 
 
 RZcto do dsteundt nihil habet, is a writ of right which lies in 
 cafe where the huiband having divers lands and tenements, 
 has allured no dower to his wife ■ and fhe is thereby driven to 
 fue for her thirds againft the heir, of his guardian. 
 
 Recto de ratior.abili parte, a writ that lies between privies of 
 blood, as brothers in gavel-kind, or fiftcrs, or other copar- 
 tcners, as nephews and nieces ; and fop land in fee-fimple. 
 If a man leafe his land for life, and afterwards die, leaving 
 ifiue two daughters, and after, the tenant for life likewile 
 dies j the one lifter entering on all the land, and fo deforcing 
 the other, the fifter fo deforced ihall have this writ to re- 
 Cover her part. 
 
 Recto quando ckminus remifit, a writ of right, which lies in 
 cafe where lands or tenement-, in the feigniory of any lord, 
 are in demand by a writ of right. 
 
 If the lord hold no court \ or at the prayer of the demandant 
 or tenant, fend his writ to the king's court, td put the caufe 
 thither for that time ; this writ ifiucs for the other party, and 
 has its name from the words comprifed, which is the true oc- 
 cafion thereof. 
 
 Recto fur difclauntr, a writ which lies where the lord* in 
 the court of common pleas, does avow upon his tenant, and 
 the tenant difclaims to hold of him ; upon which difclaimer 
 the lord fhall have this writ. 
 
 Recto folio. See the article FdL 10. 
 
 RECTOR, of a parifti, the parfon ; or he who has the 
 charge or cure of a parifti church. 
 
 If the predial tythes of the parifh be impropriated, or ap- 
 propriated, t. either in lay hands, or in thofe of fome ec- 
 cleiiartkal community, then inftead of reclor, the parfon is 
 called Wear. In England are reckoned 3485 rectories. 
 The name rtclor denotes him governor, or ruler, quia tan- 
 turn jus in ecclefia paroch'iali habet, quantum pralatus in ecclefia 
 coUegiata. 
 
 Rec T OR, alfo denotes the chief elective officer in feveral fo- 
 reign univcrfities, particularly in that of Paris. 
 The rector is chofen a-frcfli every three months : antiently 
 he was chofen every fix weeks. The alteration was made by 
 the legate of pope Nicholas HI. in 1278. 
 The rtttor \"> chofen out of the faculty of arts — While that 
 faculty and the faculty of theology were united, one of- 
 ficer had theinfpeclioil of both, under the title ot chancellor ; 
 upon their divilion, a reclor was created. 
 The reclor nUkes a folcmn proceffion four times a year, at- 
 tended by the doctors, bachelors, &c. in their formalities. 
 
 Rector is alfo ufed in feveral convents for the fuperior, 
 or officer who governs the houfe. 
 
 The Jefuits u(e it for the fuperiors in fuch of their houfes, 
 
 as are either feminarics, or colleges. 
 RECTORY, or Rectorate, Rectoria, a pa- 
 
 rifti-church, parfonage, or fpiritual living, with all its rights, 
 
 glebes and tithes. 
 RECTUM, in law. See R e c t o. 
 Rectum, in our old law writers, is alfo ufed for a trial 
 
 oraccufation. See Trial, &c. 
 Commune Rectum, denotes a trial at law, or in the common 
 
 courfe of law — Stare ad reffum, denotes to ftand a trial — 
 
 Reflum rogare, to petition the judge to do right. 
 Rectum, in anatomy, denotes the third and laft of the large 
 
 interlines or guts— See Tab. Anat. ( Splanch ) fig. 9. 
 
 Jk^w\l iuusjgtfi i. JHfc,-* Ki-jfomil- £;fi£iJwb 
 It is thus called, becaufe it paffes ftraight from the os facrum 
 to the anus ; without making any turns or circumvolutions, 
 as all the other guts do. 
 
 Its length is ufually about a hands-breadth ; and its capacity 
 the thicknefs of three fingers — Its upper part is tied faft to 
 the ofia facrum and coccygis, by means of the peritonaeum ; 
 and in men to the neck of the bladder, in women to the va- 
 
 gina uteri: its lower end, the anus, is furnifhed with three 
 mufcles. 
 
 The firir, is the fpbindter ani ferving to fhut it, and prevent 
 the excrements from pafling out involuntarily. 
 The other two, are the levatorcs ani, which ferve to raife or 
 pull back the feclum after the expuliion of the excrements ; 
 which efDecially after hard ftools, is apt to be too far protru- 
 ded. 
 
 RECTUS, in anatomy^ a name common to feveral muf- 
 cles j on account of the (trai^htnefs of the courfe of their 
 fibres, from their origin to their infertion ; having particular 
 denominations from the parts to which they miniiter, fuch 
 are the Reclus abdominis, reclus femoris, rtdus capitis lateral 
 /is, major externus, minor externus, major intermis, minor in- 
 ternus, and reclus palpebra. 
 Rectus abdominis, is a mufcle of the lower belly, which a- 
 rifes from the fternum, and the extremity of the laft two ribs, 
 and goes ftraight down the fore-part of the abdomen, to be 
 inferted in the os pubis. — See Tab. Anat. (Alycl.) fig. I. ?i. 
 47. fig. 2. n. 28. 
 
 It hath three or four innervations, or rather tendinous co- 
 arctations of its flefhy fibres, which divide the belly of it, as 
 it were, into fo many diftinct mufcles. 
 
 It has veins and arteries, which creep on its infide from the 
 mammillary and epigaftric veifels ; thefe communicate toge- 
 ther, that the blood may return by the mammillary veins* 
 when the paftage is (topped by the epigaftric which are com- 
 preiled in women with child. 
 Rectus ftmoris, is a mufcle of the leg, which arifing from 
 the lower part of the fpine of the ilium, and delccnding be- 
 tween the two vafti, is inferted into the patella — See Tab. 
 Anat. (Myol.) fig. I. n. 52. See alfo Femur. 
 Rectus palpebra, is a mufcle which lifts up the eye-lid: It 
 arifes from the bottom of the orbit of the eye, where 
 the optic nerves pierce the cranium* and parting above 
 the fuperbus, is inferted by a large tendon into the border of 
 the eye-lid. 
 
 Rectus capitis lateralis, a pair of fhort thick flefhy muf- 
 cles, rifing from the fuperior p^rt of the tranfvcrfe procelles 
 of the firft vertebra of the neck, whence it afcends, and is 
 inferted into the os occipitis. 
 
 Its ufe is to move the head laterally towards either fhoulder : 
 when they ait together, being antagonifts, they keep it 
 fteady. 
 
 Rectus cxternus capitis major, the third of the mufcles of the 
 head, arifing fleihy and tendinous from the upper part of 
 the double fpine of the fecond vertebra of the neck, and 
 fpreading in its afcent, is inferted into the pofterior part of 
 the os occipitis — It ferves to draw the head directly back upon 
 the firft vertebra. 
 Rectus extcrnus minor,- a fnufcle arifing from the hind- 
 part of the firft vertebra of the neck 5 and inferted into the 
 middle of the os occipitis. 
 
 It ferves likewife to draw the head direftly backwards. 
 Thefe two mufcles are otherwifc called renuentes. 
 Rectus tntcrnus capitis ?najor, a pair of mufcles arifing from 
 the fore-part of the five interior tranfverfe procelles of the 
 firft vertebra of the back, near its great hole. 
 Rectus internus minor, arifes from the fore-part of the firft 
 vertebra of the neck ; and is inferted into the anterior ap- 
 pendix of the os occipitis, immediately under the former. 
 Thefe ferve to nod the head forwards, being antagonifts to 
 the reclus externus, or renuens, on the back of the head ; and 
 they are hence alfo called annuentes. 
 Rec t u s in curia, in law, one who ftands at the bar, and 
 no man objects any thing againft him. 
 
 When a man hath reverftd the outlawry, and can parti- 
 cipate of the benefit of the law, he is faid to be reclus in 
 curia. 
 
 RECURRENT, Recurrens in anatomy, a nerve 
 arifing from the par vagum, and diftributiug feveral 
 branches to the larynx, to aflift in the formation and 
 modulation of the voice ; whence it is alfo called the vocal 
 
 nerve. 
 
 It has its name recurrent, from its reafcending or running 
 back again from the thorax to the larynx. 
 There are really two recurrents, right and left : the left 
 arifes from the trunk of the vagum ; the right from a plexus 
 thereof, immediately under the clavicle — They both run up 
 along the trachea, to which they impart fome twigs, and 
 end at laft in the mufcles of the larynx. 
 Their office appears partly hence, that a dog is not able to 
 bark after they are cut. 
 RECUSANTS, perfons who refufc to acknowledge the 
 king's fupremacy. 
 
 Such are the Roman catholics, who hold the pope to be' 
 over him : and are hence called popifh reatfants. 
 
 The 
 
1! E D 
 
 R E D 
 
 The romanife arc net charged with double taxes, S#f. meer- 
 ly as romanifts, but as recufants. 
 RECUSATION, Recusatio, an a£l whereby a judge 
 is defirei to refrain from judging fome certain caufe, on ac- 
 count of his relation to one of , the parties ; or of fome cap- 
 pital enmity, or the like, 
 
 Bv the French laws kinfhip within the fourth degree, is 
 deemed a legal caule of recusation; as alio the judge's being 
 god-father, <3c. of one of the parties. 
 RED, in phyfics, one of the iimple or primary colours o. 
 natural bodies, or rather of the rays of light. 
 . The red rays are thofe which are of all others the lead re- 
 frangible : hence, as Sir Ifaac Newton fuppof'es the different 
 degrees of refrangibilitv to arifc from the different magnitudes 
 o^the luminous particles whereof The rays confiftj the red 
 rays, or relight, is concluded to be that which confifts of 
 the largeft particles. , 
 Authors dtltinguife three general kinds of red; one bordering 
 on the blue, as colombine, or dove colour, purple, and 
 crimfon. Another bordering on yellow, as flame-colour 
 and orange. And between thefe extremes is a medium par- 
 taking neither of the one nor the other; which is what 
 we properly call red. 
 
 Acids generally turn black, blue, and violet into red; and 
 red into yellow ; and yellow into avery pale yellow — Alcali'* 
 change red into violet, or purple, and yellow into feuill 
 mort, or dead leaf colour. 
 
 Terrcffrial and fulphurous matters become red by extreme 
 heat ; and fome, at length, black, as we fee in brick, red 
 bole, red chalk, flate, all thefe when vitrified by 2 
 burning glafs, become black. 
 
 Lobfters become red by a moderate fire ; and by a violent 
 one, black. Mercury and fulphur mixed and heated 
 over a moderate fire, make a beautiful red, called artificial 
 cinnabar. 
 
 An acid fpirit, as lemon juice, being poured on a blue folu- 
 tion of turnfole, turns it into a beautiful red— Alcali reffores 
 it again to its original blue. Filtrating of fome reddifti 
 wines takes from them all their red colour. 
 M. de la Hire obferves, that a very luminous body viewed 
 through a black one, always appears red: as when the fun i 
 feen mining through a black cloud. He adds, that fome peo- 
 ple who fee all the other colours perfectly well, yet have no 
 idea of red, and only fee it as black. See Blue. 
 Red, in dying, is one of the five fimple, or mother colours of 
 the dyers. 
 
 Some reckon feven kinds, or cafts of red: viz. fcarlet red, 
 crimfon red, madder red. half-grain red, lively orange red, 
 and fcarlet of cochineel. But they may be all reduced to three ; 
 according to the three principal drugs which give the colours 
 which are kermcs, cochineel, and madder. 
 The fine fcarlet, called fcarlet of the gobelins, is given 
 with agaric, bran-water, woad and fcarlet grain, or kermes. 
 Same dyers add cochineel, and others fenugreek; brighten- 
 ing it with bran-water, agaric, tartar, and turmeric. See 
 Scarlet. 
 
 Crimfon red is dyed with bran-water, tartar, and meftique 
 cochineel. 
 
 Madder red is dyed with madder; to which fome add real- 
 gar, or r?i/arfenic; ethers common (alt, or other falls, with 
 wheat flower; or agaric with fpirit of wine, with gall: 
 or turmeric. 
 
 The half-grain is made with agaric and bran-water, half 
 fcarlet-grain, half madder, and ibmetimes turmeric. 
 The half crimfon is made of half madder, half cochineel. 
 As to the lively orange red, the ftuff muff be firft put in yel 
 low, then in a liquor made of goat's hair, (which has been 
 boiled feveral times with madder,) difiblved over the fire 
 with certain falinc liquors, as urine, tartar, &c. 
 The fcarlet of cochineel, or dutch fcarlet, as the French call 
 it, is made with fiarch, tartar,, and cochineel ; after firft boil- 
 in^ it with alum, tartar, fal-gemma, and aqua-fortis wherein 
 pewter has been difiblved. 
 Befides thefe feven reds, which are good and allowed 
 colours, there is alfo a brafil red; which is difcouraged, as 
 fading cafily. ' 
 
 Of the feven good reds, only four have particular caffs 
 or fhades : the madder red, crimfon red, lively orange red, 
 and fcarlet of cochineel. 
 
 The caffs or fhades of crimfon, are flefh-colour, peach-colour, 
 carnation-rofe-colour, and apple-tree- flower-colour— Thofe 
 of madder, are flefti-colour, onion-peel-colour, and flame- 
 colour — Thofe of orange are the fame with thofe of crimfon. 
 Scarlet, befides the ihades of all the reft, has fome peculiar 
 to itfelf, as cherry -colour, fire-colour, isc. 
 Red, in painting — Fur painting in oil colours they ufe a red 
 called cinnabar or vermillion ; and another called lacca. See' 
 each in its place. 
 In limning, and frefco, for a violet red, inftcad of lacca they 
 
 ufe reddle a natural earth found in England ; for a brown red. 
 they ufe burnt sker. 
 
 Red, in heraldry. See the- article Gules. 
 
 Red, in cofmetics, a fucus or paint wherewith the ladies en- 
 liven their cheeks and lips. 
 
 There are two kinds of reds; the one in leaves, called Spa- 
 nifh red ; the other a liquor, which is an extract of a 
 fcarlet dye. 
 
 See the article Arsenic. 
 
 Chalk. 
 
 >See the articles^ Lead. 
 
 Star. 
 
 Red arfenic. 
 Red chalk. 
 
 Red deer. Hunting. 
 Red fifb, Fis 
 Red lead. 
 Red Jiar. 
 
 Red Jlorax. Storax. 
 
 Red tartar. J J Tartar. 
 
 Redans or Redant. See Redens. 
 
 REDDAT— Precipe quod Reddat. See Precipe. 
 
 REDDANDIS ehartis. See the article Chartis. 
 
 REDDENDUM, inlaw, a claufe in a leafe, csY. where- 
 by a rent is referved to the leflbr. 
 
 REDDITARIUM, an ancient law term, for a tarrier, 
 roll, or rental, in wrich the rents and fervices of a manor 
 are fet down. 
 
 REDDITION, Redditio, a furrendering or rcftoring. 
 
 In law it alio denotes a judicial acknowledgment that a thing 
 
 in queftion belongs to the demandant. 
 REDDLE, Ruddle, or Red oker, a red foflile earth, 
 
 which has its particular mine or quarry ; and is ufed by 
 
 painters, (ffc. 
 
 Tile bell is the produce of England ; it is foft to the touch 
 and ftains the hands — Some call reddle, lapis hematites, but 
 the real haematites is another thing. See Supplement ar- 
 ticle Rubrica. 
 
 REDEEMABLE S, are lands, funds, &e. fold with a 
 refervation of the equity of redemption. Sec Redemp- 
 tion. 
 
 Crown lands are redeemable for ever ; others only for a cer- 
 tain time. 
 
 REDEMPTION, Redemptio in law, a faculty or 
 right of re-entering upon lands, &c. that have been fold, 
 and afligned i upon re-imburfing the purchafe-money, with 
 legal cofts. 
 
 Bargains wherein the faculty, or as fome call it, the equity 
 of redemption is referved, are only a kind of pignorative 
 contrails. 
 
 A certain time is limited, within which the faculty of redemp~ 
 tion lhail beexercifed; and beyond which it fhall not extend. 
 
 REDEMPTIONS, Redemptiones, in our old law- 
 writers, denote grievous mulcts impofed by way of commuta- 
 tion for the head or life of the delinquent. 
 
 REDENS, Redans or Redant, 'in fortification, a kind 
 of work indented in form of the teeth of a faw, with faliant 
 and re-entring angles ; to the end that one part may flank or 
 defend another. 
 
 It is alfo called fazv work, and indented work. The faces 
 in this flank one another. 
 
 Rcdens are frequently ufed in the fortifying of walls, where 
 it is not neceflary to be at the expence of building baftions ; 
 as when they rtand on the fide of a river, a marfh, the fea, dsV . 
 The parapet of the corridor alfo is frequently redented, or 
 carried on in the way of redans. 
 REDHIBITION, Redhibitio, in the civil law, 
 an action allowed a buyer, whereby to annul the fale of fome 
 moveable, and oblige the feller to take it back again, upon the 
 buyer's finding it damaged, or that there was fome perfonal 
 cheat, &c. 
 
 The redhibition, or redhibitory aclion, has place in feveral 
 cafes, in the body of the civil law — If a horfe was fold that 
 had the glanders, were broken-winded, or foundered, it was 
 a redhibitory cafe ; and the buyer might be obliged to take 
 him again within nine days. ' 
 
 REDINTEGRATED medals. See the article Medal. 
 
 REDINTEGRATION, Redintegratio, in the 
 civil law, the act of reftoring a perfon to the enjoyment of a 
 thing whereof he had been illegally difpoflcfled. 
 In France, where a perfon is defpoilcd of his property, he 
 claims it again by a redititegrand, or aclion of reftitution — > 
 But the redintegrand muff be demanded within a year and a 
 day, otherwife it is precluded. 
 
 Redintegration, in chemiftry, the reftoring of any 
 mixt body, or matter, whole form has been deftroyed by cal- 
 cination, corroiion, fublimation, or the like, to its former 
 nature and constitution. 
 
 The redintegration of mercury is properly called revivi- 
 fication. — Mr. Boyle has an exprefs treatife on the re- 
 dintegration of fait petre ; where he Lhews that after 
 reducing it by fluxion into fixed nitre, which is next of 
 kin to fidt of tartar in all its properties, he could prefently 
 
 redintegrate 
 
RED 
 
 RED 
 
 redintegrate it, by pouring a fufficient quantity of fpirit of nitre 
 to it i i. e. he could re-produce true crytrals ot the uiua] form 
 and virtue of falt-petre. 
 
 It is a ftfong objection againft the chemical principles, that 
 we cannot redintegrate the body they were procured from, by 
 re-mixing them; 
 
 This (terns to argue, tb&t the body did not properly confift of 
 fueh elements ; or that they were not originally contained in ' 
 it, but were rather produced by the fire. 
 
 REDIRE ad paeem. See the article Ad pneem. 
 
 REEMSSEISIN, in law, a difleifm made by him who once 
 before was found and adjudged to have diffeifed the fame man 
 of his lands or tenements ; lor which there lies a fpecial writj 
 called a writ of redijjeifm. 
 
 RED-MANS, or Rahman's, mdoomtdayand other antient 
 books, are probably the fame with rod, or rad-nights ; viz, 
 men who, fey the tenure or cuftom ot their lands, were 
 to ride with, or for, the lord of the manor about his bu- 
 finefs. 
 
 REDOUBT*, or Redoute, Reductus, in fortification, 
 a fmall fquare fort, without any defence but in front, uled in 
 trenches, lines of otrcurm ailation, contravallation, and ap- 
 proach ; as alio for the lodging of corps de garde, and to de- 
 tend paflages. See Eort. 
 
 * The word is French, formed from the Latin, reduJhcj. 
 
 In marfhy grounds, redoubts are often made of frone-work. 
 lor the fecun'ty of the neighbourhood : their face confiits of 
 from ten to fifteen fathom ; the ditch round them from eight 
 to nine foot broad and deep ; and their parapets have the fam 
 thicknefs. 
 
 REDRESSING, the rectifying or fctting any thing Uraight 
 again. 
 
 Trees, and other plants, have a natural faculty of redrejfuig 
 themfclves, when, by any external caufe, they are forced out 
 ot the perpendicular. See Perpendicularity. 
 In die moral fenfe, to rcdrejs grievances, is to reform or re- 
 move them. 
 
 To redrefs a flag, among hunters, is to put him off hi:, 
 changes. 
 
 REDSEAR. See the article Iron. 
 
 R E D U Ii B O R S, tliofe who buy ftolen cloaths, and, to 
 the end they may not be known, turn them into fome 
 other falhion, tjfe. See Frippery and Regra- 
 
 REDUCE in chemilrrr, See the article Reduct. 
 
 RED ETC TED chart'. See the article Chart. 
 
 REDUCING JceU is a thin broad piece of box, with 
 fevcral lines and icales of equal parts thereon, for turning 
 chains and links into acres and rods, by infpeetioii. 
 It is ufed by furvcyors to reduce maps or draught* from one 
 dimenfion into another : it is lometimes alio called the jur- 
 veyi?ig fcale. 
 
 REDUCT, or Reduit, a military term, fignifying an ad- 
 vantageous piece of ground, entrenched and fepatated from the 
 reft ot the place, camp, &c. for an army, garrifbn, &c. to re- 
 tire to in cafe of a furprize. 
 
 Reduct, in building, a quirk or little place, taken out of a 
 larger, to make it more uniform and regular; or for fume 
 other convenience, as fur a little cabinet atide of a chimney, 
 for alcoves, &c. 
 
 Reduct, or Redux, among chemifts, is a powder by which 
 calcined metals and minerals are reduced a?ain to their regu- 
 !us, or pure fubftance. See Supplement article Flux. 
 
 REDUCTION, Reductio, in the fchouls, a manner of 
 hringing a term or proportion, which before was oppolite to 
 fome other, to be equivalent to it. 
 
 Rediitlion is effected by the addition or retrenchment of a 
 
 negative particle Thus, to reduce this proportion : no 
 
 man is an animal, to be equivalent to its oppolite, every 
 man is an animal, I drop the negative, and fay, man is an 
 
 animal After the like manner might the term, every 
 
 man y be reduced, by adding the negative, and faying, there 
 is no man. 
 
 Reduction of proportions is ufed in a more general fenfe, for 
 any exprefnon of one proportion, by another propofition equi- 
 valent thereto. 
 
 To a reduction, therefore, there are two propofttions required, 
 the reduced, and the reducing; which are confidered as the 
 extremes thereof, and to be connected in the reduclion, by 
 means of the particle that is, which here has the effect of a 
 copula. 
 
 As here, only animals think ; that is, animals think, and no- 
 thing bcfide animals think Where the propofition preceed- 
 
 wg the particle is reduced, and the fubjecr. of the reduclicn ; 
 that following the particle reduces y and has the effect of the 
 predicate of the reduction ; and the particle that is acts as a 
 copula, importing, not barely that the propofition is expreffed 
 by another, but by another equivalent one, or as it were the 
 fame. 
 
 Reduction cf fyllogifms is a regular changing or tranf- 
 Vol. n. 
 
 forming of an imperfect fyllogifm into a perfect one Or,* 
 
 it is a change of a fyllogifm in refpect of form, whereby 
 the ncceffity of the illation or inference is made more evi- 
 
 .dfinr.,. - v ... , . .-. i - >-Vr - 
 
 Reduction obtains in fyllogifms of the fecorid and third figure ; 
 as alfo in tire indirect modes of the firft— By it; thefe are all 
 brought to the firff. 
 
 There are two kinds of this reduction, the one direct ot often- 
 filft performed merely by a converfion of one or both the pre- 
 mifes, or by a tranfpofition thereof ; as when Camestres 
 is reduced to Celarent. 
 
 The other indirect, called per impoffitile, or ad cibfiirdum ; 
 whereby the pcrfon who de nies the goodneis and legitimacy 
 of an imperfect fyllogifm, is reduced to alien or grant fomc- 
 thing abfurd and impomble, or contradictory to fome other 
 thing maintained by him. 
 
 Suppofc, e. gr. a perfon granting the premifes of the follow- 
 ing fyllogifm, denies the concluJion— Ml fraud is prohibited^ 
 but jome trading is not prohibited; therefore fome trading is 
 not fraud — We thus proceed againft him : if the fyllogifm be 
 not good, the antecedent is jure, but the confequent falfe ; 
 and therefore the contrary of the conclufion muit be true : 
 now, I take the contrary of the conclufion, which you thus 
 givej viz. all trading is fraud ; and of that, with the other 
 premife of the former fyllogifm, viz. the major, which you 
 hkewife grant, make a new fyllogifm ; thus, all fraud is pro- 
 hibited; all trading is fraud; therefore all trading is prohi- 
 bited. But this propohtion, all trading is prohibited, and, the 
 other, feme trading is prohibited, which you granted me in 
 the ttrlt fyllogifm, are con trad ictories. 
 Reduction, in arithmetic, is the converting of monies, 
 weights, or meafures, into the fame value in other denomi- 
 nations ; e. gr. pounds into millings and pence; br ihiihngs 
 and pence into pounds. 
 
 The reductions of the principal monies, coins, weights, and 
 meafures antient and modern, foreign and domeftic, are 
 found under the refpect ive articles, Money, Coin,Weight, 
 Measure, Pound, Foot,- cjf& 
 
 Reduction is of two kinds : i °. defending^ when a quantity is 
 to be brought from a higher denomination to a lower. 
 This is done, by confidering how many of the next lefs de- 
 nomination are contained in the next greater before^ and by 
 that number multiplying the greater. 
 
 1 nus pounds arc reduced into millings by multiplying by 20 ; 
 millings into pence by multiplying by 12; and' pence into 
 farthings by multiplying by 4. 
 
 Troy pounds are reduced into grains by multiplying by 12, 
 20, and 24. And averdupois hundreds into ounces by 4, 28, 
 
 and 16, 
 
 The 2° afcer.ding, when a lower denomination is to be re- 
 duced to an higher. 
 
 In order to this, the bufinefs is to divide the leaf! by fo many 
 ot its denomination as ai e contained in the next greater : thus 
 24720 pence, divided by 12, and the quotient by 2c, give 
 103 pounds. 
 
 If there remain any thing in each divifion, it is refpectively 
 either odd pence, or Ihillings: thus, 6713 pence reduced, 
 give 27 L 19 s. $d. cut off the laft, the reft are the pounds 
 required. 
 
 To expedite the practice, feveral compendious ways of re~ 
 duction have been invented. Sec Practice; 
 Thus, yards are turned into ells by fubtracting a fifth ; and 
 into ells Flemilh by adding a fifth — Ells Fiemilh are reduced 
 into yard^ by fubtracting a quarter— Ell Flemilh reduced to 
 ells Englifh by multiplying by 6, and cutting off the right 
 hand figure. 
 
 Great pounds cf filk of 24 ounces are reduced to pounds of 
 1 6 ounces, by adding one half ; and pounds of 1 6 ounces into 
 pounds of 24, by fubtracting one third. 
 Reduction of fractions. See the article Fraction, 
 eduction of equations, in algebra, is the clearing them from 
 all fupcrfluous quantities, bringing down the quantities to their 
 lowelt terms, and feparating the known quantities from the 
 unknown ones, till at length only the unknown quantity is 
 found on one tide, and known ones on the other. 
 The reduction of an equation is the laft part of the refolutiorl 
 of the problem. 
 
 The end of all algebraical operations is to have the unknown 
 letter alone in one member of the equation ; and in the other, 
 all the known letters,- without anv mixture of unknown ; for, 
 in this cafe, it is evident the value of the unknown quantity 
 is found. 
 
 This reduction is effected by adding the quantities fubtracted, 
 fubtracting thole added; multiplying thofe divided, and di- 
 viding thole multiplied ; extracting the roots out of powers, 
 and raifing roots to powers ; fo as liill to preferve an equality. 
 This fufEces for the reduction ot ltmple equations ; but, for 
 higher equation-, the procefs is lefs obvious. 
 From the manner wherein powers are formed, it is evident, 
 that, as the unknown letter is raifed to a higher power, it will 
 be found, in its lower powers, mixed and combined fo many 
 10 M more 
 
RED 
 
 REE 
 
 more times with known quantities, and of confequence H 
 will be fo much the more difficult to be difengaged there- 
 from And the difficulty is the fame, where there are feve- 
 ral unknown letters multiplied fingly one into another, and 
 again multiplied by known letters. 
 
 The reduclion of the equation being made ; from the lait 
 quantity thus gained, the geometrical conftruction is to be 
 deduced. 
 
 Reduction of curves* See the article Curve. 
 Reduction ef a figure, defign, or draught, is the making a 
 
 copy thereof either larger or fmaller than the original j itil) 
 
 preserving the form and proportion. 
 
 The great ufe of the proportional compaffes is in the reduc- 
 tion of figures, C5V. whence they are alfo called compaffes oj 
 reduclion. See Compass. r 
 There are various methods of reducing figures, && the molt 
 eafy is by means of the pentagraph or parallelogram ; but this 
 has its defers. See Pentagraph— The bell and moli 
 ufual methods of reduclion are as follows : 
 To Reduce a figure: As A B C D E, (Tab. Geometry, fig. 64.) 
 into a Ids compafs : about the middle of the figure, as * 
 pitch on a point ; and from this point draw Unci to its feye- 
 rat angles, A, B,C, tsV. then drawing the line a b, parallel 
 to A B, be parallel to B C, (3c. you will have the figure 
 cibcde fimilar to ABCDE. 
 
 If the figure *b t4* had been required to be enlarged, there 
 needed nothing but to produce the lines from the point be- 
 yond the angles, aszD, asGj C3V. and to draw lines, viz. 
 D C, DB, &C parallel to the fides d c , db. &c. 
 To Reduce a figure by the angle of proportion— Suppofe the 
 figure ABCDE {Fig. 65.) required to he dimmifhed in the 
 proportion of the line A B, to a b. {Fig. 66.) Draw the in- 
 definite line G H, (Fig. 67.) and from G to H fet oft the 
 Line AB : on G defcribe the arch H L Set off the line a b 
 
 M a cliord on H I, and draw G L Then with the angh 
 I G H you have ail the meafures of the figure to be drawn 
 Thus to lay down the point e, take the interval B C, and 
 upon the point G defcribe the arch K L \ alio, on the point 
 G defcribe M N ; and upon A with the diftance M N de- 
 fcribe an arch cutting the preceding one in c, which will de- 
 termine the fide bc~ And after the fame manner are all the 
 other fides and angles to be defcribed— The fame procefs will 
 alfo ferve to enlarge the figure* 
 To Reduce a figure by a fcale— Meafurc all the fides of the 
 figure, c. gr. ABCDE, by a fcale, and lay down the fame 
 meafures, refpe&ivcly from a fmaller fcale in the proportion 
 required. " 
 To Reduce a map, defign, or figure, by fquarcs — Divide the 
 original into little fquarcs, and divide a Ircfh paper of the di 
 mentions required, into the fame number of fquarcs ; which 
 are to be larger or lefs than the former, as the map is to be m- 
 larged or diminifhed. 
 
 This done, in every fquare of the fecond figure, draw what 
 you find in its correfpondent one in the firlt. 
 Reduction to the ecliptic, in attronomy, is the difference be- 
 tween the argument of latitude, as N P, (Tab. Ajlroiu fig. 26.) 
 and an arch of the ecliptic N R, intercepted between the plane 
 of a planet, and the node N. 
 
 To find the reduclion : the angle of inclination P N R, and the 
 argument of latitude N P being given ; find, by the doarine 
 oHpherics, the arch N R : fubtract N R and N P from each 
 other, the remainder is the reduclion. 
 
 Reduction inio firjl matter, is a term which alchymiffs ufe 
 when they find their fubftances putrify, and grow black. 
 
 Reduction is more particularly ufed for the converting of a 
 dry matter into a liquid, particularly into water ; which by 
 the alchymiffs is held the principle of all things. - 
 The reduction of metals into their firft matter or principles, 
 according to thefe philofophers, can only be effected by mer- 
 cury ; nothing clfe being able to loofen the fixt fulphur of 
 metallic bodies, which binds them together. 
 
 Reduction, in chirurgery, denotes an operation whereby 2 
 diflocated, luxated, or fractured bone, is reffored to its for- 
 mer place — Reduction or repofiticn, is always to be performed 
 before any remedy be applied. 
 
 REDUIT, in military affairs. See the article Reduct. 
 
 REDUNDANCY, or Redundancy, a fault in dif- 
 courfe, confifting in the ufe of a fuperfluity of words. 
 Words perfectly fynonymous, are redundant, and ought to be 
 retrenched — Redundancy neccfiarily makes the ftyle weak and 
 languid. 
 
 REDUNDANT hyperbola, is a curve of the higher kind, 
 thus called, becaufe it exceeds the conic fection of that name 
 in the number of its hyperbolical legs i being a triple hyper- 
 bola, with fix hyperbolical legs. 
 
 REDUPLICATION, in rhetoric, a figure whereby a 
 . verfe begins with the fame word as the preceeding one ends 
 with. See Anadiplosts. 
 
 Reduplication, in logic, is a kind of condition expref- 
 fed in a proportion, indicating or aligning the manner 
 wherein the predicate is attributed to the iubjecL 
 
 The ufual reduplicating words are quatenus, as, fo far as, con- 
 fidered as, inafmuch as, is'c. Hence, 
 REDUPLICATIVE propofitions, are fuch wherein the 
 fubjeci is repeated, with fome circumftance or condition — 
 Thus, men, as men, are rational : kings, as kings, are fubjeet 
 to none but God. 
 REDUX, inchymiftry. See the article Reduct. 
 REE, Re, Reis, or Res, a little Portugucze copper coin, 
 nearly equal to the late French denier tournois, or to a third 
 part of the Englifh farthing. 
 
 The ree is both a current and an imaginary money ; the 
 Portugueze ufually reckoning by rees, as the Spaniards by 
 maravedis. 
 
 Strangers in treating with them, are frequently furprized with 
 demands of feveral thoufand rees, when the matter betwixt 
 them is only of a few pieces of eight ; the mhru or thousand 
 rees, only making 6s. 3d Jlcrl. — 750 of them are equal to 
 the piece of eight. 
 REED, an antient Jewifh meafure. See Measure. 
 
 Anfwerablc to this is the canna or cane ol fome modern na- 
 tions. 
 
 Ezekiel's Reed. See Ezekiel's Reed. 
 REEF, a term in navigation — When there is a great gale of 
 wind, they commonly roll up part of the fail below, that by 
 this means it may become the narrower, and not draw fo 
 much wind ; which contracting or taking up the fail, they 
 call a reef, or reefing the fail. 
 
 So alfo when a top-malt is fprung, as they call it, that is, 
 when it is cracked, or almoft broken in the cap ; they cut oft 
 the lower piece that was near broken off, and fettmgthe other 
 part, now much fhorter, in the ftep again, they call it a 
 reefed top-majl. 
 
 REEL, in the manufacturies, a machine ferving for the office 
 
 of reeling. 
 
 There are various kinds of reels ; fome very Jimple, others 
 very complex j of the former kinds thole moft in ufe are, 
 l°. A little reel, held in the hand, confifting of three pieces 
 of wood ; the biggeft and longeft whereof (which does not 
 exceed a foot and "a half in length, and £ of an inch in diame- 
 ter) is traverfed by two other pieces difpofed differ ent ways. 
 2 U . The common reel, orwindlace, which turns upon a pivot 
 and has four flights, traverfed by long pins or flicks whereon 
 the fkain to be reeled is put, and which are drawn clofer, or 
 opened wider, according to the fkain. 
 
 Other reels ufed in particular arts are explained under their 
 particular articles ; as the reel ufed in milling of filk, under 
 the article Millinc : and that in the reeling or winding of 
 filks, under the article of Silk, c5V. 
 REELING, in the manufaaurles, the winding of thread, filk, 
 cotton, or the like, into a fkain, or upon a bottom j to pre- 
 vent its intangling. 
 
 It is alfo ufed for the charging or difebarging of bobbins or 
 quills, to ufe them in the manufacture of different ftuffs, as 
 thread, filk, cotton, fcf>. — Reeling is performed different 
 ways, and by different engines. 
 RE-ENTR1NG angle, in fortification. See Angle. 
 R E-E N T R Y, in law, the reluming or retaking that pof- 
 feflion which any one had lately fore-gone. 
 As, if I make a leafe of land, or tenement, I do thereby forego 
 the poffeffion : and if I condition with the ieffee, That for 
 non-payment of the rent at the day, itfhallbe lawful for me 
 to re-enter ; this is as much as if I conditioned to take again 
 the lands, Ejte into my own hands, and to recover the pof- 
 feffion by my own aft, without the ailiftance of judge, or 
 other procefs. 
 R E E R county. See the article R 1 e r . 
 
 REEVE of a church, is the guardian of it ; or the church- 
 warden. 
 
 So, Jhire-reeve is the fheriff, or guardian of a county. See 
 Sheriff — And port-reeve, the warden of a port or haven. 
 REEVING in the fea language, is the putting a rope 
 through a block — Hence to pull a rope out of a block, is 
 called unreeving. 
 
 RE-EXCHANGE, in commerce, a fecond payment of 
 the price of exchange -, or rather the price of a new exchange, 
 due upon a bill of exchange that comes to be protefted ; and 
 to be refunded the bearer, by the drawer or endorfcr. See 
 Exchange. 
 
 The occation of re-exchange is, when the bearer of a bill of 
 exchange, after protefting it for want cither of acceptance, or 
 of payment, borrows money on his own promife, bond, or 
 the like; or draws a bill of exchange in the place where the 
 payment was to be made, on the perfon who furnifhed the 
 firft i for which he pays a fecond exchange, which being ad- 
 ded to the firft already paid, the drawer of the firft bill is an- 
 fwerablc for two exchanges, properly called exchange and re- 
 exchange. 
 
 The bearer of a protefted bill has a right to recover both the 
 one and the other on the drawer. Yet the fimple protefta- 
 tion which the bearer makes in the ait of proteft, that he will 
 
 take 
 
R E F 
 
 R E F 
 
 iakc up a like fum at re -exchange, for want of his bill being 
 accepted or paid, is not fufficicnt to entitle him to demand 
 the re-imlmriement of his rc-exchange ; uulefs he make it ap- 
 pear that he lias actually taken up money in the place where- 
 on the bill was drawn. 
 
 Otherwise, the rc-exchange will only amount to the reflitu- 
 t on oi the firft exchange, with intcrefl, the expences of prote- 
 fting, and thofe of the journey, if there have been any. 
 ff a bill of exchange, payable to the bearer or order, come 
 to be protefted, the re-exchange is only due upon the drawer 
 for the place where the remittance was made; not for thofc 
 places where it may have been negotiated ; at leaft, the draw- 
 er has a right to be refunded his re-exchange for thofe places, 
 by the endorfer. 
 
 Indeed the re-exchange is due Cu.,m the drawer upon all places 
 where a power of negotiation is given by the bill, and upon 
 all others, if the power of negotiating be indefinite. 
 Laftly, the intereft of the re-exchange, of the expences of the 
 prutcit, and the journey, are only due from the day of the de- 
 mand. 
 
 It is fuppofed to be Gibchns driven out of Italy by the 
 faction of the Guelphs, and fhelter'd at Amfterdam, who firft. 
 eftablifhed the cuftom ot re-exchange ; on pretence of the in- 
 terelts, damages and expences they underwent, when the 
 bills given them for the effects they had been obliged to aban- 
 don, were not accepted, but came to be protefted. 
 
 R E-E X T E N T, in law, a fecond extent made upon lands 
 or tenements, on complaint that the former extent was par- 
 tially made. See Extent. 
 
 REFECTION, Ref ectio, among monk and ecclcfi- 
 aftics, a fpare meal or rcpaft, julr. fufficing for the.fupport of 
 life. ■ n . ' 
 
 Refection is alio ufed in antient authors for a duty or fer- 
 vice incumbent on any perfon to provide meals, for eccle- 
 fiaftics, or even for princes. 
 
 REFECTORY, or Refectuary, Refectori- 
 um, a fpacious hall in convents, and other communities, 
 where the monks, nuns, is'c. take their refections or meals in 
 common. 
 
 1 he refeelory of the Benedictines of St. George at Venice, 
 defigned by Palladio, is one of the fineft in the world. 
 Daviler. 
 
 REFERENCE, in writing, fcfr. a mark relative to an- 
 other fimilar one in the margin, or at the bottom of the page ; 
 where fomething omitted in the text is added j and which is 
 to be inferted either in reading or copying. 
 A copift muft be very expert at taking references. 
 References are alfo ufed in books, where things being but im- 
 perfectly handled, the reader is directed to fbmc other part or 
 place where they are more amply explained. 
 Dictionaries are full of references denoted by fee, or vide — 
 Hy means of thefe references the dictionary writer fettles a 
 torrefpondence between the fcveral parts of his work; and 
 may give his dictionary molt of the advantages of a continued 
 treat he. 
 
 Indices or tables are only references to the fevcral parts of the 
 work, where the feveral matters are handled. 
 
 REFERENDARY, Referendarius, in antient 
 cuftoms, an officer who exhibited the petitions of the peo- 
 ple to the king; and acquainted the judges with his commands. 
 An officer of this kind, Spclman obferves, we had in England, 
 in the time of the Saxons— The like office was afterwards 
 difcharged by other?, called mafters of rcquefts. 
 
 REFINING, the art or act of purifying a thing ; or 
 of rendering it finer, clearer and purer. 
 
 Refining is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of metals, fugar and 
 fait. 
 
 The Refining of gold is performed three ways: either with 
 antimony, with fublimate, or with aqua-fortis ; which laft 
 method, much the moft ufu^l and leaft dangerous of the three, 
 is called departing or parting i the procefs whereof fee under 
 the articles Gold and Departing. 
 
 Rf.fining of gold with antimony — They here ufe a wind- 
 furnace ; (a defcription whereof may be feen under the article 
 Furnace) with an ordinary crucible, of a fize anfwerable 
 to the quantity of gold to be refined ; obferving that the gold 
 and antimony together do not above half fill it. 
 The gold being melted in the crucible, the antimony is 
 thrown in, in powder — The proportion of the mineral to 
 the metal is about a pound to eight ounces, if the gold be 
 between 22 and 16 carats fine : if it be beneath 16 carats, 
 they ufe about five quarters of a pound to eight ounces : the 
 coarfer the gold is, ftill the more antimony is required. 
 As foon as the antimony is in the crucible, it is covered up ; 
 and after charging the furnace with charcoal, they put on its 
 head or cover ; which ftands till fuch time as the crucible be 
 left quite bare; then the head being taken off, and the cruci- 
 ble left to cool in the furnace itfelf, till fuch time as it may be 
 taken out by the hand, they break it, to get out the bottom 
 or culot, which is a mafs of fine gold remaining at the 
 bottom, with the faeces of the antimony, the filver and 
 
 copper alloy, and fometimes little particles of gold itfelf, 
 over it. 
 
 Though the gold thus prepared be very pure, yet the antimp- 
 ny gives it fuch a harfh brittle quality; tbat it ceafes to be 
 ductile; and muft be foftened by fufion with falt-petrc and 
 horax, to bring it to itfelf. 
 
 For this operation they prepare what thev call a dry-coppel\ 
 that is, a coppel made of crucible earth, which does not im- 
 bibe like the coppels made of aftics. 
 
 The coppel being fufficicntly heated in the refining furnace, 
 they put the gold in it, and cover it up with charcoal. 
 As foon as the gold isdiflblved, which is very foon, by reafon 
 of the remains of the antimony, they blow it with the bellows 
 to drive that mineral entirely away, which now goes off in 
 fmoak , adding to it, as foon as the fumes ceafe, a little fait- 
 petre and borax, in powder ; which collect the impurities re- 
 maining upon the diffolution, and fix the gold in the coppel, in 
 form of a plate. 
 
 The gold being taken out of the coppel, and melted a-frcfh in 
 a crucible, with an addition of two ounces of falt-petre and 
 as much borax in powder, to each eight ounces of gold, as 
 foon as it ceafes to fume, they caft it into an ingot ; and this 
 upon trial is found 23 carats, 26 thirty-feconds hue. 
 As to the particles of gold which may have been left behind 
 with the alloy in the fa;ces of the antimony, they get them out 
 by a dry coppel, with the fame meltings and ingredients as are 
 ufed in fofteningthe former — And when they are aflured, by 
 the effay, of tbefhareof gold that matter contains, they re- 
 fine it, to feparate the copper ; and afterwards make the de- 
 part. 
 
 As to the gold which may be left flicking to the dry coppels, 
 they get it out by breaking and pulverizing the vtflels, and 
 by repeated lotions of the powder thereof in feveral waters : 
 after the manner defcribed under the article wajhing. See 
 Washing. 
 
 Refining of goldhy means of fublimate — The procefs is begun 
 like that with antimony : i. e. in the fame furnace, with the 
 fame coal, the fame fire, and the fame crucibles. 
 The gold being melted in the crucible, they caft in the fub- 
 limate, not pulverized, but only broke in pieces — As to the; 
 proportion ; to 8 ounces of gold to be refined they put an 
 ounce or ounce and a half, or even two ounces, if the gold 
 be of 22 carats ; three ounces, if of 20 carats ; and 4 or 6 
 ounces, if it only be from 18 to 20 carats. In which laft 
 cafe they part the fublimate into two; putting half at a time, 
 with the gold, into a new crucible ; which when the opera- 
 tion is over, leaves the gold from 18 to 23 carats, according 
 to Its finenefs before — After this, thev raife it former by the 
 fire* as follows : 
 
 The broken fublimate being put into the crucible with the' 
 melted gold, the crucible is immediately covered up, to ("mother 
 themineral : which done, the furnace is filled with charcoal, 
 and the head put on— A quarter of an hour afterwards they 
 take off the head, lay the crucible bare, and give the gold 
 air, i.e. blow off all the allies, and other impurities that may 
 be floating on the liquid gold, with a pair of bellows, the 
 nozzle whereof is crooked. 
 
 This they repeat again and again, till all the impurities of the 
 gold being carried off, by virtue of the fublimate, it be found 
 of a bright glittering coluur ; after which it is taken out of the 
 crucible, and the gold is caft into an ingot. 
 The method of refining by fublimate is both more complete 
 and cheaper than that by antimony : but they arc both exceed- 
 ingly dangerous, by reafon of their fulphurous and arfenical 
 exhalations : the only difference in their malignity conhfting 
 in this, that the poifon of the antimony is flower than that of 
 the fublimate* 
 
 Gold may alfo be refined with lead and afhes; but this is a 
 method leldom ufed, excepting in effays. 
 Refining of filver — There are two ways of refining filver; 
 the one with lead, the other with falt-petre. The heft and 
 cheapen: is that with lead ; though that with falt-petrc ftill ob- 
 tains in many places, for want of workmen who understand 
 the procefs of the latter. 
 
 We ihall here only give that with falt-petre ; referring for the 
 other to the article Silver. 
 Refining -with falt-petre is performed in a wind-furnace — 
 The filver tOube refined having been reduced into grains, of 
 the fize of little peas, by pouring it, when melted, into a 
 tub of common water ; it is heated over again in a boiler. 
 After this they put it in a crucible, and along with it, to every 
 eight ounces of metal they put two ounces of falt-petre. 
 The crucible is now covered up with an earthen lid, inform 
 of a dome, exactly luted ; which lid, however, is to have a 
 little aperture in the middle. 
 
 The crucible being put in the furnace, and covered with char- 
 coal, which is only to be lighted by degrees, at length they 
 give it the full force of the fire to put the metal into a per- 
 fect fufion. This they repeat three times fucceflively, at an, 
 interval of a quarter of an hour. 
 
 After the third fire they uncover the furnace, and let the cru- 
 cible 
 
II E F 
 
 Then 
 
 and the furnace charged 
 
 and then givins 
 
 Se. 
 
 Cible cool; and at length break it, to get out the filveiy 
 which is found in a button or culot; the bottom whereof is 
 very fine filver; and the top mixed with the feces of the 
 falt-pctre, and the alloy of the filver, and among thefe tome 
 particles of the fine filver. , 
 The culot being feparated from the impurities, is melted in 
 a new crucible, and into the diflblution is thrown charcoal 
 duft, and the whole is then brifkly worked together 
 the crucible being covered up again, 
 with coal, a fecond fire is given it. 
 
 This done, the afties and other impurities arc blown from 
 the top of the metal, till it appear as clear as a looking- 
 glafs ; and then an ounce of borax broke in pieces is thrown 
 in. ... 
 Laftlv, the crucible being covered up again, they give it the 
 laft fire ; after which it is caft into ingots ; wh.ch are found 
 eleven penny-weights, and fixtecn grains fine. 
 To recover the filler that may or left in the faeces, or fcoria, 
 they pound them, and give them repeated lotions in freih 
 waters. . 
 
 Refining cf capper, is only performed by giving the 
 matter feveral lotions before the melting it 
 it feveral repeated fuftons. See Copper. 
 
 Refining of tin is performed much after the fame manner as 
 that of copper. See Tin. 
 
 ThouTh we may diftinguifh two kinds of finenefs of Bin 
 metal T the one ariftng from its fufion ; that tin taken firft 
 out of the furnace wherein it is melted, being always purer 
 than that towards the bottom. 
 
 The other kind of finenefs is that given the tin by adding 
 jbme other metal or mineral to it, to render it more 
 fonorous, as well as brighter : fuch is tin with antimony 
 pewter, &c. 
 
 Refining of iron begins likewife by the melting it, 
 Iron. 
 
 The greater degree of fufion the mineral has, the more the 
 metal is purified : but this firft fufu-n is not fufficient — To 
 render the iron malleable, and fit it to endure the file, it mult 
 be melted a fecond time; then forged or beaten a long time 
 with huge heavy hammers, which are wrought by water 
 then heated in the fire, and at lalt reduced on the anvil, into 
 bars of feveral thickneifes. 
 
 The more the iron is heated in the fire ; and the more 
 it is beaten, whether hot or cold, the finer it always 
 becomes. 
 
 Steel is only iron refined to a great degree by heating it, with 
 fome other ingredients which dole up the pores, and heighten 
 ■ the grain thereof. 
 Refining of lead, is performed like that of moft other im- 
 perfect metuis, by frequent melting, (till i'cumming it before 
 it be cold, and cafting in tallow, and other kinds ol fat. 
 They alfo make ciiays of lead; not to refine it, but to 
 fee if it be pure, and without mixture of any 
 metal. 
 
 Refining of fugar — This operation is begun by feveral ftrong 
 lixiviums or lyes of I, me- water and e< 
 mixed and beaten together. 
 
 This firft refining is performed in the Caribees and other 
 places where the i'ugar-cancs are cultivated ; and only ferves 
 to make the brown or coarfe fug; 
 
 When thefe are imported into Europe, the fugar-bakers 
 take them up, and refine them farther, by a fecond operation, 
 or rather a repetition of the firft. 
 
 To render the fugar very fine, fit for confections, csV. they 
 give it a third refining; wherein they only ufe the whites of 
 eggs, and their fhells beaten together, and thrown into the 
 melted fugar ; which is called clarifying the fugar. See 
 Sugar. 
 
 Refining of falt-pctre — The fait being put in an earthen 
 or iron vcncl, Bs much fpring-water is poured on it as fuffices 
 to diflblve it. The veflel is then put over a gentle fire ; and 
 as foon a^ the water begins to. boil, alum-powder is thrown 
 into it : the proportion is, one pound of alum to 128 pound 
 of falt-petre; and a little vinegar is added. As it boils, the 
 fcum is to betaken oft'; and it is to be evaporated till a pel- 
 licle appears on it, and then fet to fhoot. 
 
 For the Refining of other matters, as camphor, cinnabar, ful- 
 phur, fait, borax, &c. See Camphor, Cinnabar, Sul- 
 phur, Salt, ISc. 
 
 REFLECTED vifion. Seethe article Vision. 
 
 REFLECTING, or Reflexive dial, is a fort of dial, 
 which fhews the hour by means of a thin piece of looking- 
 glafs plate, duly placed to caft the fun's-rays, to the top of a 
 cieling, on which the hour-lines are drawn. 
 
 Reflecting micro/cope. } f Microscope. 
 
 Reflecting level. £ See < Level. 
 
 R ' F .RCTING tele/cope. ) t TELESCOPE. 
 
 REFLECTION, or Reflexion, in mechanics, there- 
 turn, or regreffivt motion of a moveable, occalioned by the 
 rehftance of a body, which hindered its purfuing its former 
 direction. 
 
 It is controverted, whether there be any moment's reft or in- 
 
 R E F 
 
 terval between the incidence and the reflexion ? for the affir- 
 mative, ftand the peripatetics, and all who conceive the re- 
 flected motion to be different from the incident one of the 
 fame body — The motion of incidence, according to thefe 
 -i-uthors, is wholly loft, and deftroyed by the rehftance of the 
 obftacle ftruck againft ; and the moveable is thus rendered 
 abfolutely quiefcent in the pointof contact ; till anew motion 
 of reflection is produced therein, from a contrary caufe. 
 The Cartefians aftert the negative; abfoiuiely denying any 
 reft at all between the incidence and refietlion : urging that 
 if the motion were once deftroyed, though but for a moment, 
 there would be nothing to excite it again; but the body- 
 would perfevere in that new ftate, as much as if it had been at 
 reft a thoufand years. 
 
 Accordingly Rohault, and others, define ref.eclion to be no 
 other than a change of determination; or a continuation of 
 the former motion in a new direction. 
 As, fay they, a pendulum, when arrived at its greatcft 
 fweep, does not ftop ; fo a hard body, ftriking on another 
 hard one, does not reft, but purfues its motion the contrary 
 way, according to the eftablifhed law of nature; and this 
 from the immediate influence or impulfe of the caufe that firft 
 moved it — But this doctrine is now generally fet afide. 
 Reflection is conceived by the lateft and beft authors as a 
 motion peculiar to elaftic bodies, whereby after firikin" on 
 others which they cannot remove, they recede, or turn back 
 by their elaftic power. 
 
 On this principle it is averted, that there maybe, and is a 
 period of reft between the incidence and reflection ; fines the 
 reflected motion is not a continuation of the other, but a new 
 motion, ariiing from a new caufe or principle, viz. the power 
 of elafticity. 
 
 It is one of the great laws of reflection, that the angle a reflec- 
 ted body makes with the plane of a reflecting obftacle, is equal 
 to that wherein it ftruck on that obftacle. For the feveral 
 laws of motion obferved in the Reflections of bodies, fee the 
 article Percussion. 
 Reflection of the rays cf light, in optics, is a motion of 
 the ravs, whereby, after impinging on the folid parts of bo- 
 dies, or rather, after a very near approach thereto, they re- 
 cede or are driven therefrom. 
 
 Thcreflecthn of the rays of light from the furfaces of bodies, 
 is the means whereby bodies become vifible. 
 And the difpofition of bodies to reflect this or that kind of 
 rays moft copioufly, is the caufe of their being of this or 
 that colour. 
 
 The reflexion of light from the furfaces of mirrors, makes the 
 fubject of catoprics. 
 
 The reflcaion of light, Sir Ifitac Newton has fhewn, is not 
 effected by the rays ftriking on the very parts of the bodies ; 
 but by fome power of the body equally dift'ufed throughout its 
 whole furfacc, whereby it adts upon the ray, attracting or re- 
 pelling it without any immediate contact. 
 This power he (hews to be the fame whereby, in other cir- 
 cumftanccs, the rays are refracted ; and whereby- they are at 
 firft emitted from the lucid body. 
 
 The arguments he produces to prove this are as follow — 
 i u . Becaufe the furfaces of polifhed glades, which to the eye 
 appear fmooth, are yet in reality very rugged and uneven ; 
 (polifhing being nothing but the grating, fcratching and 
 breaking oft" the coarfer protuberances, by means of fand, 
 glafs, putty or tripoly.) If the rays of light, therefore, were 
 reflected by ftriking on the folid parts of the glafs, the reflec- 
 tions would never be fo accurate as we find they are ; but the 
 rays would even be as much fcattered by the moft polifhed 
 glafs, as by the rougheft — Itremains, therefore, a problem how 
 glafs poblifhed by fretting fubftances can reflect light fo regu- 
 larly as it does, which problem is fcarce otherwife to be 
 folved than by faying, that the reflection of a ray is effected, 
 not by a fingfc point of the reflecting body, but by fome power 
 of the whole body, evenly dift'ufed all over its furface, and 
 by which it acts on a ray without immediate contact : fur 
 that the parts of bodies do act upon light at a diftance, is 
 already fhewn under the article Inflection. 
 2°. If the colours feparated by a prifm placed at the entrance 
 of a beam of light into a darkened room, be fucccflively 
 caft on a fecond prifm placed at a greater diftance from 
 the former, in fuch manner as that they all fall alike, or 
 with an equal obliquity upon it; the fecond prifm may 
 be fo inclined to the incident rays, that thofe which are of 
 a blue colour fhall be all reflected by it ; and yet thofe of a 
 red colour pretty copioufly tranfmitted— Now, if the reflec- 
 tion were caufed by the parts of the air or glafs, we would 
 afk, why, at the fame obliquity of incidence, the blue 
 ihould wholly impinge on thofe parts fo as to be all reflected, 
 and yet the red find pores enough to be in a great meafurc 
 tranfmitted. 
 
 3 0 . Where two glafies touch one another, there is no fen- 
 Hbk reflation, and yet we fee no reafon why the rays ihould 
 not impinge on the parts of the glafs, as much when conti- 
 guous to other gkif , as when contiguous to air. 
 4°, When the top Of a water- bubble, by the continual fub- 
 
 fiding 
 
R E F 
 
 REF 
 
 fiding and c^halin^ of the water, grows very thin, there is 
 fuch a. little, and almnit infenliblc, quantity of light reflected 
 from it, that it appears intenfely black; whereas round 
 about that black ipot, where the water is thicker, the reflec- 
 tion is fo ftronc, as to make the water feem very white 
 
 Nor is it only at the lead thicknefs of thin plates or bubbles 
 that there is no man. felt reflection, but at many other thick- 
 neiles gradually greater and greater. For, in one of our an- 
 thot'B obfervations, the rays of the lame colour were, by turns, 
 tranlmitted at one thicknefs, and reflected at another thick- 
 nels, for an intermediate number ot fucceffions : and yet rn 
 the fuperficies of the thinned body, where it is of one thick- 
 neis, there are as many other parts for rays to impinge on, as 
 where it is of any other thicknefs. 
 
 5 U . If the rc-d and blue rays, Separated by a prifm, fall fuccef- 
 ftvely on a thin plate of any pellucid matter, whofe thick- 
 nels inereafes in continual proportion, (fuch as a pkte of air 
 between two glaffes, the one plain, and the other a little con- 
 vex) the fame plate will, in the fame part, reflect all the rays 
 of one colour, and tranfmit all thofe of the other ; but, in 
 different parts, will reflect the rays of one and the fame colour 
 at one thicknefs, and tranfmit them at another ; and thus al- 
 ternately, and m infinitum— Now, it can never be imagined, 
 that at one place the rays, which, for inftance, exhibit a blue 
 colour, fhould have the fortune to ftrike on the folid part.-, 
 and thofe which exhibit a red, to hit on the void parts of 
 the body ; and at another place, where the body is either a little 
 thicker, or a little thinner, that, on the contrary, the Lluc 
 iboukl hit on the pores, and the red upon the folid parts. 
 6'\ In the pafiage of light out of glafs into air, there is a Ye- 
 flection as ftrong as in its paiTage out of air into glafs, or ra- 
 ther a little ftronger, and by many degrees ftronger than in 
 itt paffage out of glafs into water. 
 
 Now, it feems improbable, that air fhould have more reflecting 
 parts than water or glafs : but H that fhould be fuppoled, yet 
 it will avail nothing; for the reflection is as ftrong, or ftronger, 
 when the air is drawn from the glafs by the air-pump, a> 
 when it is adjacent to it— If any fhould here objeir, on Dcs 
 Cartes's hypothecs, that, tho' the air be drawn away, there is a 
 fubtlc matter remaining to liipply its place, which being of a 
 denfer kind, is better fitted for the reflection of light than any 
 other body : befides that, we have eliewhere fhevvn fuch fubtl'e 
 matter to be fictitious; and that, fuppofing its exiltence, and 
 its reflecting power, no light could ever have been propagated, 
 but mult have been all reflected back to the lucid body* imme- 
 diately after it was firft emitted. The following experiment 
 docs evidently convict it of falfiry. 
 
 7°. If light, in its paffage out of glafs into air, ftrike more 
 obliquely than at an angle of 40 or 41 decrees, it is then 
 wholly reflected ; if lefs obliquely, it is in great mcafure tranf- 
 mitted — Now, it is not to be imagined, that light at one degree 
 of obliquity fhould meet with pores enough in the air to tranf- 
 mit the greater part of it, and at another degree fhould meet 
 with nothing but parts to reflect it wholly ; clpecially confide- 
 ring, that, in its pafiage out of air into glafs, how oblique 
 focver be its incidence, it finds pores enough in the glafs to 
 tranfmit a great part of it— If any fuppofe, that it is not re- 
 flected by the air, but by the outmoft fupcrficial parts of the 
 glaf-;, there is ft ill the fame difficulty : betides, that fuch a fup- 
 pofition is unintelligible, and will alfo appear to be falfe, by 
 applying water behind fome part of the glafs, inftead of air: 
 for lb, in a convenient obliquity of the rays, fuppofe of 45 or 
 46 degrees, at which they are all reflected? where the air is ad- 
 jacent to the glafs, they fhall be in gicat mcafure tranfmitted 
 where the water is adjacent to it; which argues, that their 
 reflection or tranfmifTion depends on the conftitution of the air 
 and water behind the glafs, and not on the ftriking of the rays 
 upon the parts of the glafs, the rays not being reflected until 
 they have reached the laft part of the furface, and are begun 
 to go out. For if, in going out, they fall upon a furface 
 of oil and water, they proceed, the attraction of the glafs 
 being balanced by an equal force the contrary way, and pre- 
 vented from having its effect by the attraction of the liquor 
 adhering to it : but if the rays, in palling out of this iaft fur- 
 face, fall into a vacuum, which has no attraction, or into air, 
 winch has but little, not enough to counter-balance the effect 
 of the glafs ; in this cafe, the attraction of the glafs draws 
 them back, and reflects them. 
 
 This will appear ftiil more evident, by laying two glafs prifms, 
 or the object glafies of two telefcopes, the one plane, and the 
 other a little convex, upon each other, fo as they may neither 
 touch, nor yet be too far a-part ; for that light, which falls on 
 the hind furface of the firft glafs, where the glaffes are not 
 above -r^-scc^o part of an inch a-part, will be tranfmitted 
 through the furface, and through the air or vacuum between 
 the glaffes, and will pafs into the fecond glafs : but, if the fe- 
 cond glafs be taken away, then the light palling out of" the 
 fecond furface of the firft glafs into the air or vacuum, will 
 not proceed, but will return into the firft zlafs, and be re- 
 flected. 
 
 Whence it follows, that the rays are drawn back again by 
 
 fome force in the firft glafs, there being nothing clfe to oc- 
 cafion their return — And hence too it follows, that the re- 
 flection is not effected by means of any fubtlc matter conti- 
 guous to the hind furface, according to the principles of Dcs 
 Cartes ; fincc that matter ought to reflect them when the 
 glaffes were nearly contiguous, as well as when the fecond 
 glafs is quite removed. 
 
 Laflfy, If it be allied; how fome of the rays come to be re- 
 flected, and others tranfmitted ; and why they are not all 
 alike reflected, fuppofing the reflection owing to the action 
 of the whole furface ? the fame great author fhews, that 
 there are, both in the rays of light, and in the bodies 
 themfelves, certain vibrations, (or fome fuch property) im- 
 preffed on the rays* by the action either of the luminary 
 that emits them, or of the bodies that reflect them ; by- 
 means whereof it happens, that thofe rays, in that* part 
 ef their vibration which confpires with the motion of the' 
 parts of the body, enter the body, are refracted and tranf- 
 mitted ; but thofe in a contrary part of their vibration, are 
 reflected. 
 
 Add, that every ray of light, in its paiTage through any re- 
 fracting furface, 15 put into a certain tranfient conftitution or 
 ftate, which, in the progrefs of the ray, returns at equal inter- 
 vals, and difpofes the ray, at each return, to be eaiily tranf- 
 mitted through the next refracting furface ; and between each 
 return, to be eafily reflected by it. 
 
 Thefe alternate difpofitions, which Sir Ifaac Newton calls 
 fits of tafy reflection, and of eafy tranfmijfion, he accounts 
 for by iuppoling, that the rays of light, in impinging on 
 bodies, excite vibrations therein, which happening to move 
 fafter than the rays, when a ray is in that part of the vi- 
 bration which confpires with its motion, it paffes through; 
 but when in the contrary part of the vibration, it is beat 
 back again : whence every ray is fucceffively difpofed to be 
 eaiily reflected, or eafily tranfmitted, by every vibration which 
 overtakes it. 
 
 Reflection, in catoptrics, is the return of a ray of light from 
 the polifhed furface of a fpeculum or mirror* as drhen thence 
 by fome power refidino- therein. 
 
 The ray thus returned is called a reflex, of reflected ray, or ik 
 ray of reflection; and the point of the fpeculum, whence the 
 return commences, is called the point of reflection. 
 Thus the ray AB (Tab. Optics, fig. 26.) proceeding from the 
 radiant A, and ftriking on the point of the fpeculum B, being 
 returned thence to C, B C rcprefents the reflected ray, and B 
 the point of reflection; in rcfpcCt whereof A B rcprefents the 
 incident ray, or ray of incidence, and B the point of incidence. 
 Sec Point and Ray. 
 
 Again, a line C G drawn from any point, as C of the reflected 
 ray BC, perpendicular to the fpeculum, is called the cathetus 
 of reflection) or cathetus of the eye : as a line A F, drawn from 
 the radiant perpendicular to the fpeculum, is called the cathetus 
 of incidence. 
 
 Of the two angles which the reflected ray BC makes with the 
 mirror, the fmalleft, C B E, is called the angle of reflection : 
 as of the two angles the incident ray makes with the fpecu- 
 lum, the fmalleft^ A B D, is called the angle of incidence. 
 If the mirror be either concave, or convex, the fmalleft angles 
 the ray makes with a tangent to the point of reflection and'm- 
 cidence, are the angles of reflection and incidence. 
 The angle CBH, which the reflected ray makes with a per- 
 pendicular to the point of reflection, is called the inclination of 
 the reflected rays : as the angle A B H is called the inclination 
 of the incident ray. 
 General laws a/Reflection— I. If a fay of light he reflected 
 from a fpeculum of any form, the angle of incidence is ever equal 
 
 to the angle of reflection This law obtains in pcrcullions 
 
 of all kinds of bodies, and confequently muft do fo in thofe 
 of light. Sec /<?«.*fo/" Percussion j fee' alfo Angle. 
 It might therefore be here affumed as an axiom: but it is of 
 that importance, and its demonftration fo beautiful, that we 
 cannot omit it— Suppofe, then, D C (Jig. 54.) an incident 
 ray, propagated from the radiant D: here, though the motion 
 of the ray be flmple, yet its determination in the Una D C be- 
 ing oblique with refpect to the obftacle, is really compounded 
 of two determinations; the one along DE, the other along 
 D G. See Compound motion. 
 
 The force alongD C, therefore, is equal to the two force.? 
 along D G and DH. But the obftacle G F only oppofes one 
 of me determinations, viz. that along D G, '(for it cannot 
 oppofe a determination parallel to itfelf, as D E ;) therefore 
 only the force along D G will be loft by the ftroke, tiiat along 
 DH or G C remaining entire — But a body perfectly elaftic, 
 (fuch as we fuppofe the ray of light) will recover by its elafti- 
 city the force it loft by the fhock. 
 
 The ray, therefore, will recover the force D Gj or C H : 
 thus, retaining both its forces, and both its former de- 
 termination HC and CF, after percuffion, it will be im- 
 pelled along C F and CH by the fame forces as belore alon<r 
 DH and D G. By its compound motion, therefore, it wiU 
 defcribe the right line C E, and that in the fame time as 
 10 N DCj 
 
R EF 
 
 R E F 
 
 b C ; and H E and D H will be equal, as being dcfcribed bv | 
 the fame force. Now, the two triangles DCH and CHE 
 are equal, and confequently their fimilar angles are equal. 
 Since then, HCA=HCF;DCA the angle of incidence, 
 is equal to E CF the angle of reflection. ^. E. D. 
 This law is confirmed in light by an eafy experiment. For a, 
 ray of the fun falling on a mirrour, in a dark room, through 
 a little hole ; you will have the pleafurc to fee it rebound, fo 
 as to make the angle of reflection equal to that of incidence. 
 See Camera obfeura. 
 
 The fame may be fhewn various other ways : thus, e. gr. 
 placing a femicircle F i G {Tab. Optics, fig. 26.) on a mirror 
 D E, its centre on B, and its limb perpendicular to the 
 fpeculum ; and a/fuming equal arches, F a and G e ; place 
 an object in A, and the eye in C : then will the objett be 
 fecn by a ray reflected from the point B. And if Bbe covered, 
 the object will ceafe to be feen. 
 
 Hence, i°. If a ray of licht, as HB, fall perpendicularly on 
 the furfaca of a fpeculum ~D £, it will be reflected back upon 
 ltfelf. 
 
 2°. From the fame point of a fpeculum, feveral rays cannot 
 be reflected to the fame point ; for in that cafe all the feveral 
 angles of reflection would be equal to the fame angle of inci 
 dence ; which is abfurd. 
 
 3 9 One ray as A B cannot be rejected to two or more points ; 
 for in that cafe all its angles of reflection would be equal to the 
 fame angle of incidence ; which is as abfurd as before. 
 
 II. Each point of a fpeculum reflects rays falling on it-, from 
 each part of an object — Hence fince feveral rays coming from 
 feveral darts of a radiant object, cannot be reflected from the 
 fame point of a fpeculum to the fame point; the rays that 
 flow from different points of the object, are feparated after 
 reflection : and hence each ray fhews the point whence it pro- 
 ceeded. 
 
 On this principle it is that the rays reflected from mlrrours 
 or looking-glafles, exhibit the appearances of objects placed 
 before them. 
 
 And hence we esfily conceive why rough bodies exhibit no 
 images ; in regard they reflect the light in fuch manner, as to 
 confound rays which proceed from different points, by means 
 of their eminences and cavities, or their alternate rifings and 
 fallings — Bat for this, all hard bodies would be mirrors. 
 
 III. If the eye C, and the radiant point A change places ; the 
 point ivill continue toradiatc upon the eye, in the fame courfe or 
 path as before. 
 
 For if the object be removed from A to C, it will ftill radi- 
 ate on its former point of reflection B ; but there can be but 
 one right line drawn between the two points G and D; 
 and the rays are right lines. Therefore that which was be- 
 fore the ray of reflection^ will now be the ray of incidence, 
 and iince it will be reflected under the fame angle as that under 
 which it fell, that which was before the ray of incidence, will 
 now be the ray of reflection. So that the object removed to 
 C will radiate on the eye placed in A, by the right lines C B 
 and BA. Q.E.D. 
 
 Hence, an object is feen by the reflected ray A B, with the 
 eye placed in A, the fame, as if the eye were in A C, and 
 the object in A. 
 
 The truth of tins theorem is fo eafily confirmed by experi- 
 ment, that fome, with Euclid, afiume it as a principle ; and 
 demonftrate the great law of reflection therefrom — Thus ; 
 fuppofe the angle of incidence a little greater than the angle 
 of reflection ; then will the angle AB F be greater than that 
 C B E. Wherefore, changing the places of the eye and the 
 object, the angle C B E will become the angle of incidence : 
 and therefore C B E greater than A B F, by the fuppofition. 
 So that the fame angle ABF will be both greater and fmaller 
 than the other C B E ; which being abfurd, ABE cannot be 
 greater than CBE. — The fame abfurdity will follow, if you 
 fuppofe the angle of incidence lefs than the angle of reflection 
 - — Since then the angle of incidence can neither be greater nor 
 lefs than that of reflection, it muft be equal to it. 
 
 IV. The plane of reflection, that is, the plane wherein the in- 
 cident and reflected rays are found, ts perpendicular to the fur- 
 face of the fpeculum ; and, in fpherical fpecula, it pajfes through 
 the centre. 
 
 Hence the cathetus, both of incidence and reflection, is in th 
 plane of reflection. 
 
 That the plane of reflection is perpendicular to the fpeculum, is 
 aflumed by Euclid, Alhazen, and others, as a principle, with- 
 out any demo nitration ; as being evident from all obfervation 
 and experiment. 
 
 V. The image of an object feen in a mirrour, is in the cathetus 
 of incidence — This the antients aflumed as a principle ; and 
 hence, fince the image is certainly in the reflected r^y, they in- 
 ferred it muft appear in the point of concourfe of the reflected 
 ray with the cathetus of incidence; which indeed holds uni 
 verfally in plane and fpherical mirrours, and ufuallyalfo in con 
 
 cave ones ; a few cafes only excepted, as is fhewn by Kepler. 
 For the particular laws of Reflection, arifsng from the 
 circumjlajices of the feveral kinds of fpecula, cr mirrors, plane, 
 concave, convex^ &c . fee them laid down under the article 
 Mirror. 
 
 Point ^Reflection. See the article Point. 
 Reflection of the moon, is a term ufed by fome authors, 
 for what we otherwife call her variation; being the third 
 inequality in her motion, whereby her true place out of 
 the quadratures differs from her place twice equated. 
 Reflection is alfo ufed in the Copernican fvftem, for the 
 diftance of the pole from the horizon of the difk ; which is 
 the fame thing as the fun's declination in the Ptolemaic 
 fyftcm. 
 
 Reflection is alfo ufed figuratively for an operation of the 
 mind, whereby, turning as it were back upon itfelf it makes 
 itfelf and its own operation its object ; and coniiders or con- 
 templates the manner, order, and laws which it obferves in 
 perceiving, reafoning, willing, judging, doubting, believing, 
 Is'c. and frames itfelf new ideas of the relations difcoveruJ. 
 therein. 
 
 REFLEX, Reflect, in painting, is undcrftood of thofe 
 places in a picture which are fuppofed to be illuminated by a 
 light reflected from fome other body rcprefented in the lame 
 piece. See Light. 
 
 Or, reflexes may be defined thofe places which, befide the ge- 
 neral light that illumines the whole piece, receive fome par- 
 ticular light, from their lituatinn with relpect to fume more 
 illuminated poliihed body that reflects part of the rays it re- 
 ceives upon them, 
 
 Reflexes are fcarce fenfible except in the fhadowed parts — The 
 management of the reflexes requires a world of accuracy aiid 
 fkill — All reflected light is fuppofed to carry with it part of 
 the colour of the body which reflects it; fo that thofe places 
 which receive this light, muft have their colour mixed or 
 tinged with that colour. But the fame place may receive re- 
 flexes from different objects differently coloured, and thofe 
 again receive reflexes, from others — The painter thereforemult 
 have a view to every circumftance of the colour, light and po- 
 fition of each figure ; he muff confider what effect each lias 
 on others, and purfue nature through all the variety of mix- 
 tures. 
 
 Reflex vifion, or Reflected vifion, is that performed by 
 means of rays reflected from the polifhed furfaces of objects 
 to the eye. 
 
 Reflex vifion is the fubject of catoptrics — Under Reflex vi- 
 fion come all the phenomena of ipecula or mirrors of all 
 kinds. 
 
 REFLEXIEILITY of the rays of light, is that property 
 whereby they arcdifpofed to be reflected. See' Reflection. 
 Or, it is their difpolition to be turned back into the fame me- 
 dium, from any other medium on whofe furface they fall — 
 Hence thofe rays are faid to be more or lefs reflexibk, which 
 are returned back more or lefs cafily under the fame incidence. 
 See Ray. 
 
 Thus if light pafs out of glafs into air, and by being inclined 
 more and more to the common furface of the glals and air, 
 begins at length to be totally reflected by thatfuiface; thole 
 forts of rays which at like incidences are reflected moft copi- 
 oufly ; or the rays which by being inclined begin fooncft to 
 be totally reflected, are the molt reflexible rays. 
 That rays of light are of different colours, and endued with 
 different degrees of reflcxibility, was firft difcovered by Sir 
 Ifaac Newton ; and is fhewn by the following experiment 
 — Applying a prifm D F E, {Tab. Optics, fig. 55.) whofe 
 angles are each 45 0 , to the aperture C of a darkened room, 
 in fuch manner as that the iight is reflected from the bafe 
 inG: the violet rays are feen firft reflected in HG; the 
 other rays continuing ftill refracted in I K— After the violet, 
 the blue are all refracted, thegreen, (Sc. See Prism. 
 Hence it appears, that the differently coloured rays, differ in 
 degree of reflexlbility. 
 
 From other experiments it appears, that thofe rays which are 
 more reflexible, are alfo moft refrangible. 
 REFLEXION. See the article Refflection. 
 REFLUX of the fea, the ebbing of the water; or Its 
 return from the fhore. It is thus called, as being the oppofitc 
 motion to the flood, or flux. 
 REFORM., a re-cltabhfhment, or revival of former neglected 
 difcipline; or a correction of fome reigning abufes therein. 
 The term is much ufed in a monaftic fenfe, for the reducing 
 an order or congregation of religious to the antient feverity 
 of the rule from which it had gradually fwerved ; or even 
 for the improving on the antient rule and inftitution itfelf, 
 and voluntarily making it more feverc. 
 
 In this fenfe the order of St. Bernard is faid to be only a reform 
 of that of St. Benedict. See Bernardin and Benedicti n. 
 To Reform, in a military fenfe, is to reduce a company, 
 
 regiment, 
 
REF 
 
 R E F 
 
 regiment, or other body of men, either by difbariding the 
 whole, or only breaking a part, and retaining the reft ; or 
 Sometimes by incorporating them in other regiments — Hence, 
 R.EFORMADO, or Reform ed officer-, one whofe troop or 
 company is fuppreiled in a reform,, and he continued either in 
 whole or half pav, doing duty in the regiment. 
 A reformed captain of foot follows the company,- and affifls 
 the ftanding officer as a fecond ; but he ftill maintains his de- 
 gree and precedence. 
 
 Reformation, reformatio, the of 
 
 formings or correcting an error, or abuie in religion, dis- 
 cipline, or the like. 
 
 The reformation of the Roman calendar by Pope Gregory, 
 was effected in the year 1582, chiefly by the advice of Aloy- 
 fius Lilius, and Clavius. 
 
 The reformation of religion, called by way of eminence, the 
 reformation, was begun by the elector of Saxony, at the Sol- 
 icitation of Luther, about the middle of the Sixteenth 
 
 century. • 
 
 King Henry VIII. of England, happening to have then a 
 pique againll pope Clement VII. by reafon ot his perfifting 
 in not allowing of his divorce from queen Catherine of Auftria, 
 fell in with the torrent, abolifhed the pope's fupremacy, feized 
 the monafteries, and other religious houfes, and divided their 
 lands among the nobility and gentry. 
 
 In every thing elfe he perfevered a papift — So that the Rcfor- 
 ?nation went on but lamely in his time — Under his Son 
 Edward VI. it went much farther ; but was all undone again 
 by his Succefior queen Mary, who fully rc-eftablifhed the an- 
 tient Superstitions. 
 
 But the executions of above 500 people, who were burnt for 
 the proteftant faith in the five years of her reign, So alienated 
 the people from popery, that queen Elizabeth, her lifter, 
 found it no hard matter to carry the reformation to its full 
 length, and to Settle it on the Soot whereon it now Stands 
 among us. 
 
 Right ^"Reformation,^ Reformations, is a right 
 which the princes of Germany claim to reform the church 
 in their rcipeCtive territories ; as being inverted with the Spiri- 
 tual as well as the temporal power. 
 
 The jus reformat lonls is annexed to the Sovereignty ; by this 
 they have the power of confcicnce, the dilpoiition of eccle- 
 Siaftical revenues, (s?c. as they enjoyed the Same at the treaty 
 of MunSter in 1624, 
 
 REFORMED calendar. 1 ^Calendar. 
 
 Reformed church. >■ See the articles >Chejkch. 
 
 Reformed officer. 3 JReformado. 
 
 REFRACTED dials, are Such as mew the hour by means 
 of fome refracling tranfparent fluid. 
 
 If a pin or Stick he Set up, or any point be afligned in a 
 concave bowl or difh, for the centre of the dial, and a hori- 
 zontal dial be applied over the fame, afTigmiig the meridian 
 line on the edges of the bowl, and marking out rhe reft of 
 the hour lines alfo on the edges of the bowl ; then taking 
 away the horizontal dial, and elevating a if ring or thread from 
 the end of the faid pin over the meridian line, as much as is 
 the latitude or elevation of the pole of the place — Then, by 
 bringing the thread to caff a lhadow on any hour-point for- 
 rnerly marked out on the edges of the bowl, by a candle or 
 the like ; that fhade in the bowl is the true hour-line ; and 
 if the bowl be full of water, tiff, when this is done, it will 
 never Shew the true hour by the Shadow of the top oi the pin 
 but when it is filled again with the fame liquor. 
 
 Refracted ray, or ray of Refraction. See Ray and 
 Refraction. 
 
 Refracted "ulfon. Sec the article Vision. 
 
 REFRACTION, R efractio, in mechanics, the de- 
 viation of a moving body from its direct courSe, by reafon of 
 the different denfity of the medium it moves in ; or a flexion 
 and change of determination, occaSioned by a body's falling 
 obliquely out of one medium into another of a different den- 
 fity. 
 
 Thus a ball A, (Tab. Mechanics, fig. 52,) moving in the air 
 in the line A B, and falling obliquely on the Surface of the 
 water C D, does not proceed Straight to E, but deviates or is 
 inflected to F— Again, if the ball moving in water in the 
 lame line AB mould fall obliquely on a Surface of airCD; 
 it will not proceed Straight to E', nor yet deflect to F, but to G. 
 Now the defkaion in each cafe is called the refraclion-; and 
 the two cafes are diftinguifhed by means of the perpendicular 
 MI; that, B G being called refraclion towards the perpendicu- 
 lar, or tothe^jm of refraclion; and the other B F, refraclion 
 from the perpendicular, or from the axis of refraclion. 
 TbcSe refractions are SuppoSed to ariSe hence, that the ball ar- 
 riving at B, in the firft cafe, finds more reliftance or oppoSition 
 on the Side 0, 1. e. from the Side of the water, than it did from 
 the fide P, or that of the air ; and in the latter more re- 
 fiftance from the fide P, which is now the fide of the water, 
 than the Side O which is that of the air. 
 
 The great law of refraction, then, which holds in all bodies, 
 and all mediums, is, that a body palling obliquely out of a 
 
 medium which reSifb it more into another, which refifrs it 
 leSs, is refracted towards the perpendicular ; and in parting 
 out of a medium which oppofes it lefs into another which 
 oppofes it more, it is refracted from the perpendicular. 
 Hence the rays of light falling out of air into water are re- 
 fracted towards the perpendicular; whereas a ball thrown into 
 the water is refracted from it ; by reafon water, which refifts 
 the motion of light lefs than air, refifts that of the ball 
 more: or, to Speak more juStly, by reaSon water, by its 
 greater attraction, accelerates the motion of the rays of 'light 
 more than air does ; for that this is the true caufc of re- 
 fractioni at leaft in light, fhall be Shewn under Refrac- 
 tion of light. 
 
 To have a body refracted, it is neceffary it Sail obliquely on 
 the Second medium — In perpendicular incidences there is no 
 refraction. 
 
 Voflius indeed, and Snellius, imagined they had obferved a per- 
 pendicular ray of light undergo a refraction ; a perpendicular 
 object appearing in the water nearer than in reality it was ; 
 but this was to attribute that to a refraction of the perpendi- 
 cular rays, which was owing to the divergency ot the oblique 
 rays after refraction, from a nearer point; 
 Yet there is a manifeft refraction even of perpendicular rays 
 found in ifandcryflal. See If and Crystal. 
 Rohault adds, that though an oblique incidence be necefTary 
 in all other mediums we know of; yet the obliquity mult 
 not exceed a certain degree — If it do, the body will not 
 penetrate the medium,' but will be refected, inltead of being 
 refracted — 
 
 Thus cannon balls infea engagements, falling very obliquely 
 on the Surface of the water, are obferved to mcmnt a-Ioft 
 again, and frequently to Sweep the men from off the oppoiite 
 decks ; and the like happens to the little Hones wherewith 
 children make their ducks and drakes. 
 
 The antients conSounded refraction with refection; and it 
 was Sir ISaac Newton who nrft taught us the juft difference 
 between them — He fhews withal, that there is a good 
 deal of analogy between them ; and particularly in the 
 cafe of light. 
 
 The laws of refraction of the rays of light rn m-dicms dif- 
 ferently terminated, i. e. whofe Surfaces are plain, concave, 
 convex, iffe. make the Subject of dioptrics. 
 By refraction it is, 1 that convex glafles, or lenSes colled: the 
 rays, magnify objects, burn, &c. and hence the founda- 
 tionoS microfcopes, teleScopes, csY. 
 
 By refraction it is, that all remote objects are Seen out of 
 their real places ; particularly,' that the heavenly bodies are 
 apparently higher than they are in reality, & c. 
 Refraction of light, in optics, is an inflexion or devia- 
 tion of the rays from their rectilinear courSe upon Sailing 
 obliquely out of one medium into another, of a different 
 denfity. 
 
 The refraction of light Sir ISaac Newton Shews is not per- 
 formed by the rays falling on the very Surface of bodies ;■ 
 but it is done without any contact, by the action of Some 
 power in bodies equally diffufed throughout their SurSaces ; 
 by which SKme power acting in other circumstances, they are 
 alSo emitted and reflected. m 
 
 The Same arguments whereby we have proved that refection 
 is performed without immediate contact, go' a great way to- 
 wards demonstrating the Same of refraction : to which may be 
 added the following ones. 
 
 i p . Becaufe if when light falls out of glafs into air, with the 
 utmolt obliquity it wiH be transmitted at, it be then made to 
 Sail a little more obliquely, it becomes wholly reflected — For, 
 the power oS the glafs after it has refracted light emerging 
 as obliquely as poSfible, SuppoSing the rays to fall ftill mere 
 obliquely, will be too Strong to let any of the rays pafs ; 
 consequently inftead of being refracted they will be all re- 
 flected. 
 
 2°. BecauSe in thin lamella?, or plates oS glafs, light is re- 
 flected and refracted Several times alternately, as the thickncls 
 of the lamellx increafes in arithmetical progression — For here 
 it depends on the thickneSs of the lamina which of the two 
 the glafs fhall do ; whether reflect it, or let it be tranfmitted. 
 3 0 . BecauSe whereas the power of other bodies both to reflect 
 and refract light are very nearly proportional to their denfi- 
 tiesj yet unctuous and Sulphurous bodies are found to reflect 
 more llrongly than according to their mere denSities— For as 
 the rays aft more Strongly on thofe bodies to kindle 
 them, than on others ; So do they again, by their mu- 
 tual attraction, aft more Strongly on the rays to refract 
 them. . 2 * . 
 
 Lqfily, Becairfe not only thoSe rays tranSimtted through 
 glaSs are found to be refracted, but alfo th... e paSTing in 
 the air, or in a vacuum near its extremities, or even near 
 the extremes of many opake bodies, e. gr. the edge of a 
 knife, undergo a Similar inflection, from the attraction of 
 the body. 
 
 The manner wherein refractlsn is performed by meer at- 
 traction a - 
 
R E F 
 
 REE 
 
 traction, without contact, may he thus accounted for — Sup- 
 pose H I [Tab. Optics, Jig. 56.) the boundary of two me- 
 diums, N and O ; the firft the rarer, e. gr. air ; the fecond 
 the denfer, e. gr. ghns'j the attraction of the mediums here 
 will he as their d entities— Suppofe PS to be the diftance to 
 which the attracting force of the denfer medium exerts itfelf 
 within the rarer. 
 
 Let now a ray of light A a fall obliquely on the furface which 
 fepafatcs the mediums, or rather on the furface PS, where 
 the action of the fecond and more refining medium com- 
 mences. All attraction being performed in lines perpendicu- 
 lar to the attractive body, as the ray arrives at a, it will begin 
 to be turned out of its reailincar courfe by a fupcrior force, 
 wherewith it is attracted by the medium O, more than by 
 the medium N, f. e. by a force wherewith it is driven towards 
 it in a direaion perpendicular to its furface— Hence the ray 
 is bent out of its right line in every point of its pafiage be- 
 tween P S and R T, within which diftance the attraction acts. 
 Between thofe lines, therefore, it defcribes a curve a B h ; 
 but beyond R T, being out of the fphere of attraction of the 
 medium N, it will proceed uniformly in a right line, accord- 
 ing to the direction of the curve in the point h. 
 Again, fuppofe N the denfer and more refitting medium, O 
 the rarer, and H I the boundary, as before ; and let R T be 
 the diftance to which the denfer medium exerts its attractive 
 force within the rarer: even when the ray has palled the 
 point B, it will be within the fphere of fuperior attraction of 
 the denfer medium; but that attraction acting in lines per- 
 pendicular to its furface, the ray will be continually drawn 
 from its ftraight courfe B M perpendicularly towards H I : 
 thus, having two forces or directions, it will have a com- 
 pound motion, whereby, inftead of BM, it will defcribe 
 Bm 1 which B»i will in ffrictnefs be a curve. 
 La/fly, After it has arrived in m, being out of the influence 
 of "the medium N, it will pcrfift uniformly, in a right line, in 
 the direction wherein the extreme of the curve leaves it. 
 Thus we fee how refratlion is performed, both towards the 
 perpendicular, and from it. 
 
 But note, the attraction of the denfer medium, e. gr, N, is 
 continually diminifhin<z; as the ray proceeds from B, towards 
 the limit of attraction R T ; in regard fewer and fewer parts 
 itill come to act ; at I H, e. gr. alfthe parts between that and 
 PS attract, butatRT, none but thofe in the line H I— Note, 
 alfo, that the diftance between P S and R T being fmall, 
 when we contider refractions, no notice is taken of the curve 
 part of the ray, but we contider it as confiding of two 
 ftraight lines, CB, AB, ormB, AB. 
 Refraction, in dioptrics, is the inflection or bending of 
 the rays of light, in paffing the furfaces of glaffes, lenies, and 
 other tranfparcnt bodies of different dentities. 
 Thus a ray, as A B, {Teh. Optics, fig. 56.) falling obliquely 
 from the radiant A, upon a point B, in a diaphanous furface, 
 H I rarer or denfer than the medium along which it was pro- 
 pagated from the radiant; it has its direction there altered by 
 the action of the new medium, and inftead of proceeding to 
 M it deviates, e. gr. to C. 
 
 This deviation is called the refratlion of the ray : B C the re- 
 fracted ray, or line of refraction ; and B the point of refrac- 
 tion. 
 
 The line A B is called the line if incidence, ox ray of inci- 
 dence ; and in refpect hereof B is alfo called the point of inci- 
 dence. 
 
 The plane wherein both the incident and refracted fays art 
 found, is called the plane of refraction ; a right line B E 
 drawn in the refracting medium perpendicular to the refrac- 
 ttng furface in the point ot refraction B, is called the axis of 
 refraction — And a right line D B drawn perpendicular to the 
 refracting furface, in the point of incidence B, along the 
 medium through which the ray fell, is called the axis of in- 
 cidence. 
 
 The ancle A B I included between the incident ray, and the 
 refracting lurface, is called the angle of Incidence; and the 
 angle ABD included between the incident ray, and the axis 
 of incidence, is called the angle of inclination — The angle 
 M B C which the refracted ray makes with the incident, is 
 called the angle of refraction ; and the angle C B E which the 
 refracted ray makes witli the axis of refraction, is called the 
 refracted angle. 
 
 General laws of Refraction — ;°. A ray of light in its 
 faffage out of a rarer, into a denjer medium, e. gr. out of air 
 into glafs, is refracted towards the perpendicular, i. e. towards 
 the axis of refraction. 
 
 Hence, the refracted angle is lefs than the angle of inclination : 
 and the angle of refraction lefs than that of incidence \ as they 
 would be equal, were the ray to proceed ftraight from A to M. 
 Hence, alio a ray perpendicular to the refracting furface, will, 
 pal's through without being refracted; as it cannot be refrac- 
 ted to the perpendicular. The phyfical caufc thereof is, that 
 the attraction of the denfer medium, which in'an incidenceob- 
 lique to its furface acting perpendicular to' that furface, draws 
 the ray out of its courfe : this attraction, we fay, in a per- 
 pendicular incidence, aits in the direction of the ray. 
 
 2°. The ratio of the fine of theangle of inclination, to tie fine 
 of the refracted angle, is fixed and conjlant ; viz. if the refrac- 
 tion be out of air into glafs, it is found greater than as 1 14. 
 to 76 ; but lefs than 1 15 to 76 ; that is, nearly as 3 to 2. 
 This ratio, aftigned by Huygens, agrees with another of Sir 
 Ifaac Newton, who makes the tine of the angle of incli- 
 nation to the tine of the refracted angle, as 31 to 20 ; which 
 is, likewife, nearly as 3 to 2 — Indeed there is fome diffe- 
 rence in the quantity of refraction, in different kinds of glafs ; 
 but in phyfical matters, precifenefs is not neccfTary— In rain 
 water, Des Cartes found, the ratio of the tine ot the angle 
 of inclination, to the line of the refracted angle, ss 250 to 
 187, that is, nearly as 4 to 3; which agrees with Sir Ifaac 
 Newton's obfervarion, who makes it as 529 to 396 — In fpirit 
 of wine, the fame great author makes the ratio as 100 to 73 ; 
 which is not far from the fciqui tertian ratio — In air he mikes 
 it as 3851 to 3850. 
 
 Wfience the different refractk'c power in different fluids arifes, 
 is not determined — Clear water, of all fluids, refracts the 
 leaft ; and if impregnated with felts, its refraction is increadd 
 in proportion to the quantity of fait. Sir Ifaac Newton 
 fhews, that in many bodies, e.gr. glafs, chryftal, a felcnites, 
 pfeudo-topaz, t3'c. the refractive power is proportionable to 
 their dentities ; only in fulphurous bodies, as camphire, oil, 
 olive, amber, fpirit of turpentine, tsc. the power is two or 
 three times greater than in other bodies of equal dentity ; yet 
 even thefe have the refractive power with refpect to each other 
 nearly as their dentities — As to air, he fhews that a ray of 
 light in traverting quite through the atmofphere, is refracted 
 the fame as it would be were it to pafs with the fame obliquitv 
 out of a vacuum into air of equal dentity with that in the 
 loweft part of the atmofphere. 
 
 From the law juft laid down, it follows that, one ansje of 
 inclination, and its correfponding refracted angle being found 
 by obfervation ; the refracted angles correfponding to the 
 fevcral other angles ot inclination, are eatily computed — 
 Now, Zahnius and Kircher have found, that if the angle of 
 inclination be 70°, the refracted angle will be 38°, 50' ; on 
 which principle Zahnius has constructed a table of refractions 
 out of air into glafs, for the feveral degrees of the angle of in- 
 clination ; a fpecimen whereof follows : 
 
 Ang. ot 
 Inclin. 
 
 Refrafled 
 Angle. 
 
 Angle of 
 Refraction. 
 
 
 Ang. of 
 Inclin. 
 
 Refrafled 
 Angle. 
 
 Angle of 
 Refraction. 
 
 \" 
 
 °° 4°' 5" 
 
 °° >9'SS" 
 
 
 10° 
 
 6° 59' 16' 
 
 3°2o' 44' 
 
 2 
 
 1 20 6 
 
 ° 39 54 
 
 
 20 
 
 13 11 35 
 
 6 48 25 
 
 3 
 
 2 03 
 
 o 59 56 
 
 
 3° 
 
 19 29 29 
 
 10 30 31 
 
 4 
 
 2 40 s 
 
 ' "9 55 
 
 
 4S 
 
 28 9 19 
 
 16 50 41 
 
 5 
 
 3 z° 3 
 
 ■ 39 57 
 
 
 90 
 
 41 51 40 
 
 48 8 20 
 
 Hence it appears that if the angle of inclination be lefs than 20°, 
 the angle of refraction out of air into glafs is almoft \ of the 
 angle of inclination : and therefore a ray is refracted to the 
 axis of refraction, by almoft a third part of the quantity of 
 its angle of inclination — And on this principle it is that 
 Kepler and moft other dioptrical writers, demonftratc die re- 
 fractions in glaffes. 
 
 The conftant ratio of the fines of the angles of inclination 
 and the refracted angles was firft difcovered by Willeb. Snel- 
 lius — It is vulgarly attributed however to Des Cartes ; who 
 having fcen it in Snellius's MS. firft publifhed It in his diop- 
 trics, without naming Snellius ; as we are informed by Huvgens-. 
 Indeed, as the rays of light are not all of the fame degree of 
 ref-angibility, this conftant ratio muft be different in diffe- 
 rent kinds— The ratio therefore obferved by authors is to be 
 underftood of rays of the mean refrungibiiity, i. e. of green 
 rays. The difference ot refraction between the leaft and moft 
 refrangible rays, that is between violet and red rays, Sir tfeac 
 Newton fhews is about i' 7 part of the whole refraction of 
 the mean refrangible ; which difference he owns is fo final! 
 that there feldom needs to be any regard paid to it. 
 3 0 . When a ray pqffcs out of a denfer into a rarer medium, 
 e. gr. out of glafs into air, it is refracted from the perpendicu- 
 lar, or from the axis of refraction — And hence the angle of 
 refraction is greater than the angle of inclination. 
 Hence, alfo, it the angle of inclination be lefs than 30° ; 
 M B C is nearly equal to \ of M B E — Therefore M B C is 
 one half of CBE: confeqiiently, if the refraction be out of 
 glafs into air ; and the angle of inclination lefs than 30° ; the 
 ray is refracted from the axis of refraction by almoft one half 
 part of the angle of inclination — And this is the other diop- 
 trical principle ufed by moft authors atter Kepler, to demon- 
 ftratc the refractions of glaffes. 
 
 If the refraction be out of air into glafs, the ratio of the 
 tine of inclination to the fine of the refracted angle is as 
 2 to 3 ; if out of air into water, as 4 to 3 , therefore, if the 
 refraction fecthe contrary way>;w'«. out of glafs or water into 
 air, the ratio of the fines in the former cafe, will be as a to 
 3, and in the latter as 4 to 3. 
 
 4. 0 . A ray falling on a curve furface, whether csneave or ccn- 
 •vex, is refracted after the fame manner as if it fell or. a piaie 
 which is a tangent ts the curve in the point of incidence. 
 
 For 
 
R E F 
 
 REF 
 
 For the curve and plane furface touching it, have an infinitely 
 fmall part common to them both, (each being originally ge- 
 nerated by die flux ot" a point.) But a ray is ref railed in fuch 
 a little part ; therefore it i i the fame as if it were ref railed in 
 fuch a plane. 
 
 5 0 . If a right line EF (fig. 57. J cut a refracting furface 
 G H at right angles ; and if from any point in the denfer 
 ntediwn as D, be drawn D C parallel to the incident ray 
 A B ; wis will meet the ref railed ray in C ; and will be to it 
 a the fine of the refraCled angle to the fine of the angle of in- 
 clination. 
 
 Hence, if BC pals out of glafs into air, it is in a fubfefquial- 
 terate ratio to CD; if, on the other hand, it paflcs out of 
 air into glafs, it is in a fefquialterate ratio to C D. 
 Hence alfo, if light pais! out of water into air, C B is in a fub- 
 fe (qui tertian ratio to CD; if out of air into water* in a fef- 
 quitertian. See fig. 57. and 58, 
 
 \aws of Refraction in plane furfaces— l°. If parallel rays 
 
 be refracled out of one tran (parent medium into another of 
 a different denfity, they will continue parallel after refrailiort. 
 The phyfical rcafbn is, that being parallel, their obliquity, or 
 angle of incidence, is the fame : but, at equal obliquities, we 
 have fhewn the refraction is equal ; confequently the paralle- 
 lil'm, which they had before the refratlion, will be retained 
 after it. 
 
 But this may be alfo demonftrated geometrically : thus, if the 
 rays be perpendicular to the refracting furface, they will pafs 
 without any refraction ; confequently, being parallel before 
 their pafiage, they will be fo after it. If they fall obliquely, as 
 AB and DC, the angles of incidence 0 and u, and confe- 
 quently alfo the angles of inclination x and_j>, will be equal, 
 But the fines of the angles of inclination x and y have the lame 
 ratio to the fines of the refracled angles m and n ; therefore 
 the refracled angles m and n are alfo equal ; confequently the 
 refracled rays are parallel. 
 
 Hence a glafs, plain on both fides, being turned directly to the 
 fun, the light paffing through it will be propagated after the 
 fame manner as if the glafs were away : for the rays being per- 
 pendicular, will pafa without refraction — If the glafs be turned 
 obliquely to the fun, the light after refraction will be of the 
 fame intenfity as before, the intenfity depending on the fpif- 
 litude or clofenefs of the rays, and on the ancle wherein 
 they ftr!ke the object, or the eye; both which are here unva- 
 ried. 
 
 2. If two rays CD and CP, {fig. 59.) proceeding from the 
 fame radiant C, and falling on a plane furface of a different 
 denfity, fo as the points of refraclion D and P are equally di- 
 ftant from the cathetus of incidence G K, the refracled rays 
 D F and P Q_have the fame virtual focus, or the fame point 
 of difperfion G. 
 
 Hence, i°. Since, in rays very near each other, the diflancc 
 from the cathetus is the lame as to fenfe, very near rays will 
 diverge from the fame point G ; u e. they will have the fame 
 virtual focus G — And hence 2 0 . When refracled rays falling 
 on the eye placed out of the cathetus of incidence, are either 
 equally diftant from the cathetus, or very near each other, 
 they will flow upon the eye, as if they came to it from the 
 point G ; confequently the point C will be feen by the re- 
 fracled rays as in G. 
 
 3. If a ray CD fall obliquely out of a thinner into a denfer 
 medium, having a plane furface, the diftance of the radiant 
 point CK will have a lefs ratio to the point of difperfion, or 
 virtual focus KG, than the fine of the refracted angle to the 
 fine of the angle of inclination — But if the diftance of the 
 point of refraction from the cathetus of incidence K D be lefs 
 than the eleventh or nineteenth part of the diftance of the ra- 
 diant point CK ; and if in the former cafe the tenth, and in the 
 latter the hundredth part thereof be fo fmall, that it cannot be 
 afligned, or need not be minded, then will CK be to KG, 
 as to fenfe, in the ratio of the fine of the refracted angle, to 
 the fine of the angle of inclination. 
 
 Hence, i°. If the refraction be out of air into glafs, the di- 
 ftance of the point of difperfion of rays near the cathetus is 
 fcfquialterate of the radiant point; of more remote rays 
 greater than fcfquialterate. 
 
 Hence, 2 0 . If the eve be placed in a denfe medium, objects 
 in a rarer will appear more remote than they are ; and the 
 place of the image in any given cafe may be determined from 
 the ratio of the refraction. — Thus, to fi/hes jwim?ning under 
 ■water, oljects out of the water mujl appear farther dijlant than 
 in reality they are. 
 
 4. If a ray D G fall obliquely out of a denfer into a rarer 
 medium AB, the diftance of a radiant point GK has a 
 greater ratio to the diftance of the point of difperfion KC, 
 Sen the fine of the refracted angle has to the fine of the 
 
 angle of inclination In the other cafe of the preceding 
 
 theorem, KG frill be to KC, as to fenfe, in the ratio of 
 the fine of the refracted angle, to the fine of the angle of in- 
 clination. 
 
 Hence, i°. If the refraction be out of glafs into air, the di- 
 ftance of the point of difperfion of rays near the cathetus of 
 incidence is fefquialterate of the diftance of the radiant 
 Vol. II. 
 
 point ; that of the more remote rays is lefs than fubfefquial- 
 terate. 
 
 But, 2°. If the refraction be out of water into air, the di- 
 ftance of the point of difperfion of rays near the cathetus is 
 fubfefquitertian ; of thofe more remote lefs than fubfefquker- 
 tertian. 
 
 And, 3 0 . The eye therefore being placed in a rarer medium, 
 objects placed in a denfer, appear nearer than they are ; and 
 the place of jhe image may be determined in any given cafe 
 by the ratio of refraction — Hence the bottom of a vefiel full 
 of water is raifed by refraction to a third part of its height, 
 with refpedt to an eye perpendicularly over the refracting fur- 
 face ; and hence fijhes, and other bodies under water, appear 
 nearer than they really are. 
 
 5. If the eye be placed in a rarer medium, an object, feen En 
 a denfer medium, by a ray refracted in a plane furface, will 
 
 appear larger than it really is If the object be in a rarer, 
 
 and the eye in a denfer medium, the object wili appear lefs 
 than it is — And in each cafe, the apparent magnitude is to the 
 real one in a ratio compounded of the diftance of the point 
 to which the rays tend before refraction, from the refracting 
 furface FL {fig. 60.J to the diftance of the eye G L, from 
 the fame, and of the diftance of the object from the eye GM, 
 to its diftance from a point to which the rays FM tend before 
 refraction. 
 
 Hence, i p . If the object AB be very remote, FM will 
 be phyfically equal to GM; and therefore the real magnitude 
 MB to its apparent one M H, as GL to FL, or the diftance 
 of the eye G from the refracting plane to the diftance of the 
 point of convergence F from the fame plane. 
 Hence, 2°. Objects under water, to an eye in the air, appear 
 larger than they are ; and to fifijes under water, objects in the 
 air appear lefs than they are. 
 Laws of .Refraction m fpherical furfaces, both concave and 
 
 con-vex 1. A ray of light DE (fig. 61.) parallel to the 
 
 axis of a denfer fphere, after a fingle refraction in E, fails in 
 with the axis in the point F, beyond the centre C. 
 For the femidiameter CE, drawn to the point of refraction E, 
 is perpendicular to the furface K L, and is therefore the axis 
 of refraction ; but a ray out of a rarer into a denfer medium, 
 we have fhewn, is refracted towards the perpendicular, or the 
 axis of refraction; therefore the ray DE will converge to the 
 axis of the fphere A F, and will* therefore, at length concur 
 with it, and that bevond the centre C, in F, becaufe the 
 angle of refraction FEH is lefs than the an^le of inclination 
 CEH. 
 
 2. If a ray D E fall on a fpherically convex furface of a denfer 
 medium, parallel to its axis AF the femidiameter C E will 
 be to the refracted ray EF in the ratio of the fine of the re- 
 fracted angle, to the fine of the angle of inclination : but the 
 diftance ot the focus, or point of concurrence, from the centre 
 CF is to the refracted ray FE, in the ratio of the fine of the 
 refracted angle to the fine of the angle of inclination. 
 
 3. If a ray DE fall on a denfer fpherical convex furface KL, 
 parallel to the axis AF, the diftance of the focus from the re- 
 fracting furface F B mult be to its diftance from the centre 
 FC, in a ratio greater than that of the fine of the angle of 
 inclination to the fine of the refracted angle — But if the rays 
 be very near the axis, and the angle of inclination BCE be 
 only of a few degrees, the diftances of the focus from the fur- 
 face, and the centre FB and FC, will be nearly in the ratio 
 of the fine of the angle of inclination to the fine of the re- 
 fracted angle. 
 
 Hence, i lJ . If the refraction be out of air into glafs ; in the 
 cafe of rays near the axis, BF : FC : : 3 : 2. And in 
 the cafe of the rays remote from the axis, BF : F C~l 
 3 : 2. Confequently in the former cafe, B C ; B F : : 1 
 : 3 ; and in the latter B C : C F L I : 3. 
 And, 2 0 . If the refratlion be out of air into water; in the 
 former cafe, B F : F C : : 4 : 3 ; and in the latter, BF 
 : FCl 4 : 3. Confequently in the former, BC : BF 
 : : 1 : 4 ; and in the latter B C : B F [_. I : 4. 
 Hence, 3 0 . Since the fun's rays are parallel as to fenfe, if 
 they fall on the furface of a folid glafs fphere, or of a fphere 
 full of water, they will not concur with the axis within the 
 fphere : fo that Vitellio was miftaken, when he imagined, 
 that the fun's rays falling on the furface of a cryftalline fphere, 
 refracled to the centre. 
 
 4. If a ray D E {fig. 62.) parallel to the axis FA, fall out of 
 a denfer into a rarer fpherical medium, after refratlion, it will 
 diverge from the axis ; and the diftance of the point of difper- 
 fion, or the virtual focus from the centre of the fphere, F C, 
 will be to its femidiameter C E in the ratio of the fine of the 
 refracled angle to the angle of refraction ; but to the portion 
 of the refracted ray drawn back, F E, it will be in the 
 ratio of the fine of the refracted angle to the fine of t e angle 
 of inclination. 
 
 5. If a ray ED fall parallel to the axis A F on the fpheri- 
 cally convex furface KL of a rarer medium, out of a denfer ? 
 the diftance of the point of difperfion from the centre FC, 
 is to its diftance from the furface FB, in a ratio greater 
 than that of the fine of the refracted angle to the fine of the 
 
 10 O angle 
 
R E F 
 
 R E F 
 
 an ,Ic „f inclimition-Butifthcrays D E be very Brar the 
 axfs FA, the ratio will be very nearly the fame with mat 
 
 refract 
 
 nsle to the hue of the angle of inclina- 
 
 of the 
 tion. 
 
 Hence, i°. It" the refraction he out of glafs into air ; in 
 cafe of rays near the axis, FC:FB:: 3 :2. Gonlequent- 
 ly B C . "F B ; : I : 2. Therefore in the cafe of rays more 
 remote from the axis, BC:FB i i:2. , 
 2°. If the refraction be out of water into air ; in the for 
 mercaleF C : F B : : 4 - 3- Confequently B C : if tS 
 : ; 1 : 3 ; in the latter cafe, therefore, B C : b a 1 Li 
 
 Since then the point of difperfion 
 from the refracting furface K L, if the rays proceed out ol 
 water, than if they pafs out of glafs into air ; parallel rays are 
 lets difpeifed in the former cafe than in the latter. 
 
 6. If a ray H E (fig. 61.) fall parallel to the axis t A. 
 of a rare?, on the furface of a fpherically concave denfe. 
 medium; the refracted ray E N will be driven _ from the 
 point of the ax.. F; fo as F E will be to F C in the ra- 
 tio of the fine of the angle of inclination; to the fine of the 
 refracted angle. _ _ , 
 
 7. if a ray E H fall parallel to the axis F B on the concave 
 furface K L of a fphcrical denfer medium, from a rarer ; the 
 diftance of the point of difperfton from tie refracting iur- 
 face F B ; is to its diftance from the centre, F C, in a ratio 
 greater than that of the fine of the angle of inclination, to 
 The fine of the refracted angle. But if the rays be very pear 
 the axi., and the angle B C E be very fmall ; B I will be to C F 
 very nearly in the ratio of the fine of the angle of inclination, 
 to the fine of the refracted angle. 
 Hence, i°. If the refraction be out of air into 
 the cafe of rays near the axis, F B : FC 1:3:2; ' 
 of rays more remote from the axis F B : F C 7 3 
 fcquently in the former, B C : C : : 
 latter BC:FCii:a. 
 
 Hence alfo 2 Q . If the refratlion be out of air into water ; 
 in the cafe of rays near the axis ; F B : F C : : 4 : 3. In the 
 cafe of rays more remote from the axis F B : F C 7 4 : 3. 
 Confequently in the firft cafe, B C : F C : : 1 : 3. And hence, 
 in the latter, B C : F C 7 I : 3- (J'.-ij 
 And hence 3 0 . fince the point of difperfion F, is tarther 
 from the centre C, if the refratlion be in water than in air ; 
 the rays will be lefs difperfed in the latter cafe than in the 
 former. 
 
 8. If the ray HE {fig. 62.) fall parallel to the axis A F, from 
 a denfer, upon the furface of a fpherically concave rarer me- 
 dium, there/rafted ray will concur with the axis A F, in 
 the point F ; fo as the diftance of the point ofconcourfu 
 from the centre C F, may be to the refracled ray F E in the 
 ratio of the fine of the refracled angle, to the fine of the angle 
 of inclination. ' „ 
 
 Refraction"*'* a glafs prlfm- If a ray of light B 
 
 62 n°. 2.) fall obliquely out of air on a pnfm ABC; being 
 refracted towards the perpendicular, inftead of proceeding to 
 F it will decline to G, i. e. towards a line H I, drawn per- 
 
 i th< 
 
 F is more remote 
 
 . out 
 
 _ afs ; 
 2; in the cafe 
 con 
 
 And hence, in thi 
 
 pellicular to the furface A B in the point of refraction 
 Again* fince the ray E G patting out of the glafs mto air 
 falls obliquely on C B ; it will be refracted to M : fo as to 
 recede from the perpendicular N G U. And hence artfe the 
 various pbanomina of the prlfm. 
 Refraction in a convex lens — If parallel rays A B, CD, 
 and E F. (fig. 63) fall on the furface of a lens 2 B 3 K 
 the perpendicular ray A B will pafs unrefratted ic,K, where 
 emerging into air perpendicular, as before, it will proceed 
 ftrah'ht to G. But the rays C D and E F falling obliquely 
 out of air into glafs, in D and F, will be refracted toward:, 
 the axis of refraction, (;. e. towards lines H I and^ L M 
 drawn perpendicular to the refrafling turface in the points of 
 refratlion F and D;) and decline to P and C^-Again, 
 emerging obliquely out of the glafs into the furface of the 
 air, they will be refracted from the perpendicular; and there- 
 fore D C^will not proceed to X but to G ; and F P, not to 
 V but to G: thus likewife might all the other rays falhng on 
 the furface of the glafs, he ftiewn to be refrafted fo as to meet 
 the reft about the point G. See Focus. 
 Hence the great property of convex glafles ; viz. that 
 they collect parallel rays, or make them converge into a 
 point. . 
 
 Refraction in a concave lens — Parallel rays A B, CD. 
 andEF, (/%■• 64.) falling on a concave lens GBHIMK 
 the ray A B falling perpendicular on the glafs at B, will 
 pafs vurtfraetedto Mj where being ftill perpendicular, it will 
 pafs into the air, without refraction, to L. But the ray C D 
 falling obliquely on the furface of the glafs, will he refracted 
 towards the perpendicular N D O, and proceed to Q, and the' 
 rayDQj, again, falling obliquely out of the glafs upon the 
 furface of air, will be refracted from the perpendicular R QjS, 
 and proceed to V. After the fame manner might the ray 
 \i F be iliewn to be refracted to Y, and thence to Z, 
 
 Hence the great property of concave glafies, viz. That they 
 dtfperfe parallel rays, or make them diverge. 
 Refraction in a plane glafs — If parallel rays E F, G H, 
 I L, {fig. 65.J fall obliquely cn a plane glafs ABCD; the ob- 
 liquity being the fame in all, by reafon of their parallelifm, 
 they will be all equally refracled towards the perpendicular : 
 and accordingly being ftill parallel at M, O, and Q_, they 
 will pafs out into the air equally refracled again, from the 
 perpendicular, and ftill parallel. 
 
 Thus will the rays E F, G H, and I L, at their entering 
 the glafs, be inflected towards the right; and in their going 
 out as much inflected to the left j fo that the firft refratlion 
 is here undone by the fecond ; though not fo as that the 
 object is feen in its true place— For the ray B QJieing pro- 
 duced back again, will not coincide with the ray LI; but will 
 fall to the right thereof ; and this the more as the glafs is thick- 
 er: however as to matter of colour, the fecond refratlion does 
 really undo the firft. 
 Refraction inlfland cry/lal— The laws of refraction in iflsnd 
 cryftal differ very much from thofe laid down in other fub- 
 ftances ; for here is a double refraction, contrary ways, 
 whereby not only oblique rays are fplit or divided into two, 
 and refracted to oppoiite parts, but even perpendicular rays, 
 are alio fplit, and one half of them are icfracted — For the 
 theory hereof fee ifiand Crystal. 
 The particular laws of Refraction in the feveral kinds of 
 
 letfes, fee under Lens. 
 Refraction, in aftronomy, or Refraction of the Jlars, 
 is an inflection of the rays of thofe luminaries, in paffing 
 through our atmofphere ; whereby the apparent altitudes of 
 the heavenly bodies are increafed. 
 
 This refraction arifes hence, that the atmofphere is unequally 
 denfe in different ftages or regions ; rareft of all at the top 
 and denfeft of all at bottom ; which inequality in the fame 
 medium, makes it equivalent to feveral unequal mediums. 
 Sir Ifaac Newton has fhewn that a ray of light in pafling 
 from the higheft and rareft part of the atmofpbere,_ down to 
 the loweft and denfeft, undergoes the fame refraction that it 
 would do in pafling immediately, at the lame obliquity, 
 out of a vacuum into air of equal denfity with that in the 
 loweft part of the atmofphere. 
 
 The effect of this refraction may be thus conceived. Suppofe 
 Z V {Tab. Jjlronom. fig. 57. n°. 2.) a quadrant of a vertical 
 circle defcribed from the centre of the earth T, under which 
 is AB a quadrant of a circle on the furface of the earth, 
 and G H a quadrant of the furface of the atmofphere : and 
 fuppofe S E a ray of light emitted by a ftar at S, and fal- 
 ling on the atmofphere at E — This ray coming out of the 
 anherial medium, which is much rarer than our air, or per- 
 haps out of a perfect vacuum, and falling on the furface of 
 the atmofphere , will be refracted towards the perpendicular: 
 and fince the upper air, again, is rarer than that near the 
 earth, and crows ftill denfer as it approaches us : the ray, 
 in its progrefs will be continually refraked, fo as to arrive at 
 the eye in the curve line E A. 
 
 Suppofmg, then the right line A F to be a tangent to the arch 
 in A, the ray will enter the eye A, according to the di- 
 rection of A F — And fince objects are always feen in that line, 
 according to the direction whereof the rays enter the eye, the 
 ftar will appear in A F ; that is, in the heavens at Qj which 
 is nearer the zenith than the ftar really is. 
 Hence arife the phzenomena of the crepufculum, or twy- 
 light. 
 
 And hence alfo it is that the moon is fometimes feen eclip- 
 fed, when fhe is really below the horizon, and the fun above 
 
 That there is a real refraction of the ftars, £5Y. is deduced 
 not only from phyfical confiderations, and from arguments a 
 priori, and a nmilitudine j but alfo from precife aflronomical 
 obfervations ; thus, 
 
 The diftance of the two ftars, Spica Virginis, and the Lion's 
 Tail, when near the meridian, or even when near the weft, 
 is conftantly found 35°, ?/. But when the Lion's Tad is 
 rifen in the eaft 34°, o', high, Spica Virginis is obferved 
 to be in almoft the fame vertical circle— Adu to this, an ob- 
 fervation of the Dutch, who wintered at Nova Zembla in 
 1597, from whom the fun totally difappeared on the 14th of 
 November; and again began to appear on the 24th of Ja- 
 nuary, which was fix days fooner than he Ihould have re- 
 turned, according to aflronomical calculations ; as is obfer- 
 ved in the acta Eruditorum, A. 1697— Nor muft it be 
 omitted that Charles XI. King of Sweden, being ^1694 
 inTornou, in Weft-Bothnia, in the latitude of 65" 33', ob- 
 ferved that the fun never fet between the 14th and 15th 
 day of June, but was vifible in the middle of the night : 
 the following year he appointed two mathematicians, 
 Bilembergius and Spolius, to obferve the fame mure 
 accurately ; who accordingly found that at Tornou in 
 the middle of the night, between the 10th and nth of 
 June the fun was | of his diameter above the horizon ; and 
 
R E F 
 
 R E F 
 
 on the 14th ofJuheatKangis, in the latitude df 66°, 15', 
 they found the Tun at midnight, two diameters above the ho- 
 iizon. 
 
 Hence it is argued,- that as light is propagated in right 
 lines, no rays could reach the eye from a luminary below the 
 horizon, unlefs they were deflected out of their courfe at 
 their entrance into the atmofphcre: it is evident therefore, 
 that the rays are refracted \n patting through the atmofphere. 
 Hence the ftars appear higher by refraction than they really 
 are ; fo that to bring the obierved or apparent altitudes to 
 the true ones, the quantity of refraction mult be fubtradted. 
 And hence, as the antients were unacquainted with the re- 
 fraction ; reckoning upon too great altitudes, it is no wonder 
 they fometimes committed coniiderable errors. 
 From the doctrine of refractions h appears that we never fee 
 the real fun rifing or fetting, but only a phantom, or image 
 thereof; the fun himfelf being at that time hid below the ho- 
 rizon. 
 
 And from the obfervations jufr. mentioned, it follows, that the 
 refractions are greater nearer the pole, than at letter latitudes ; 
 doubtlefs from the greater denfity of the atmofphere, and the 
 greater obliquity of the incidence. 
 
 M. delaHire affures us, he could never find any difference in 
 the meridian altitudes of the ftars : fo that the refractions re- 
 
 main always the fame— Though he owns, near the horizon,' 
 thedifterentconftitution of the air, &c. may occafion fome 
 variations in the refractions. 
 
 Stars in the zenith are not fubjecl to any refraSlion— Thofe 
 in the horizon have the greateft of all— From the horizon the 
 refraction continually decreafes to the zenith : all which fol- 
 lows hence, that in the firft cafe the rays are perpendicular ; 
 in the fecond their obliquity is the greateit ; and in the third, 
 it is continually increafing. 
 
 At the fame altitudes, the fun and ftars all undergo the fame 
 refraction ; for at equal altitudes the incident rays have the 
 fame inclinations : but the fines of the refracted angL-s are as 
 the fines of the angles of inclination, ts?c. 
 Indeed Tycho Brahe, who firft deduced the refractions of the 
 fun, moon, and fixt ftars from obfervarion ; makes the folar 
 refractions greater than thofe of the fixt ftars ; and the lunar 
 refractions fometimes greater than thofe of the ftars; and fome- 
 times lefs — Eut the theory of refractions (which we have 
 obferved is owing to Snellius) was not fully underftood in 
 his age — De la Hire and Caffini, find the refraction the fame 
 in all. 
 
 M. de la Hire gives us a table of the refractions of the ftars, 
 in their feveral degrees of altitude ; deduced from the fureft 
 and moft accurate obfervations, as follows : 
 
 Table of the Refractions of the heavenly bodies, at the feveral degrees of altitude. 
 
 Alt. 
 
 Refraft. 
 
 Alt. 
 
 Refraft. 
 
 Alt. 
 
 Refraft. 
 
 Alt. 
 
 Refraft. 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 32' 0" 
 
 16 
 
 3' 26" 
 
 3° 
 
 I' 51" 
 
 46 
 
 1' 9" 
 
 X 
 
 26 35 
 
 
 3 23 
 
 31 
 
 ' 47 
 
 47 
 
 1 7 
 
 2 
 
 20 43 
 
 
 3 12 
 
 32 
 
 1 43 
 
 48 
 
 1 6 
 
 3 
 
 ■5 44 
 
 '9 
 
 3, i , 
 
 33 
 34 
 
 1 40 
 1 36 
 
 49 
 50 
 
 1 4 
 
 4 
 
 12 26 
 
 20 
 
 2 51 
 
 1 2 
 
 5 
 
 10 26 
 
 21 
 
 2 44 
 
 35 
 
 1 33 
 
 51 
 
 1 0 
 
 6 
 
 g 8 
 
 22 
 
 2 38 
 
 36 
 
 ' 1 3° 
 
 52 
 
 0 58 
 
 7 
 
 8 2 
 
 2 3 
 
 2 31 
 
 37 
 
 1 27 
 
 53 
 
 56 ' 
 
 8 
 
 7 1 
 
 24 
 
 2 24 
 
 38 
 
 1 24 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 9 
 
 6 i 7 
 
 25 
 
 2 iB 
 
 39 
 
 1 22 
 
 55 
 
 52 
 
 10 
 
 5 4» 
 
 26 
 
 ia" 
 
 40 
 
 1 19 
 
 56 
 
 5° 
 48 
 
 it 
 
 5 'i 
 
 H 
 
 2 7 
 
 4t 
 
 1 17 
 
 57 
 
 12 
 
 4 46 
 
 28 
 
 2 3 
 
 42 
 
 1 15 
 
 58, 
 
 46 
 
 13 
 
 4 25 
 
 29 
 
 1 59 
 
 43 
 
 1 13 
 
 59 
 
 44 
 
 
 4 7 
 
 30 
 
 1 55 
 
 44 
 
 1 11 
 
 60 
 
 42 
 
 '5 
 
 3 5' 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 
 Refraft. 
 
 Alt. 
 
 Refract 
 
 o' 40" 
 
 77 
 
 o' 17" 
 
 39 
 
 78 
 
 15 
 
 37 
 
 7, 9 
 
 
 35 
 
 80 
 
 12 
 
 33 
 
 81 
 
 11 
 
 32 
 
 82 
 
 10 
 
 3 1 
 
 83 
 
 
 30 
 
 84 
 
 
 28 
 
 85 
 
 I 
 
 26 
 
 86 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 87 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 88 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 89 
 
 X 
 
 21 
 
 go 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 18 
 
 
 
 Tycho Erahe will have the refractions of the fun to vanifh at 
 the altitude of 46 0 , thofe of the moon at 45 0 , and thofe of 
 the fixt ftars at 10 Q ; but Caffini has found that they reach 
 even to the zenith— Indeed Tycho reprefented all the refrac- 
 tions lefs than they are ; except the horizontal one, which 
 he made too great ; for he makes the horizontal refraction in 
 the fun 34' ; in the moon 33' j in the fixt ftars 30'. De la 
 Hire and Caffini make it 32' in all the heavenly bodies. Tycho 
 again, makes the refraction of the fun at 33^ altitude, to be 
 55" ; but Caffini i' 43'''. 
 
 Fa. Laval in 1 7 10, 22 0 Jan. obferved the meridian altitude 
 of the fun to be 70 0 , 25', 50" ; and oh the 23d of June, 
 he obferved the fame to be 70 0 , 16', o", which is 10" more, 
 that fhould be lefs — Having met with fome like obfervations 
 before, he takes occalion to fufpectthe refraction to be varied 
 according to the different winds which blow from the diffe- 
 rent quarters — When the nortb-weft wind blows, he thinks 
 the refraction is the greateft; and adds, from obfervations 
 made at St Baume and St Pilon, that the refraction at 24 
 fathoms above the furface of the fea, is double that at 600 
 fathoms. Huygens long ago obferved the refraction to be 
 changed ever}' hour ; though his experiments were made at 
 very little altitudes, and in terreftrial objects. 
 The refraction diminifhes the right and oblique afcenfions of 
 a ftar, and increafes the defcenlions ; it incrcafes the nor- 
 thern declination, and diminifhes the fouthern. 
 Refraction, in the eaftern part of the heavens, diminifhes the 
 longitude of a ftar, but it increafes the fame in the weftern 
 part of the heavens; it diminifhes the fouthern latitude alfo, 
 and increafes the northern. 
 
 The refraction therefore, is by no means to be overlooked in 
 artronomy — It is abfolutely neceffary to the determining oi 
 the phenomena of the heavenly motions, to any degree of ac- 
 curacy ; fo that the antient a!tronomy,where no regard was had 
 to it, muft of neceffity have been exceedingly defective on this 
 •very account. 
 
 To obferve the Refraction of a flar, &c. — 1°. Obferve the 
 meridian altitude of a ftar near the zenith ; whence the latitude 
 of the place being known, the true declination of the ftar is 
 eafily had, the ftar being now void of any fenfible refraction. 
 a 0 . Obferve the altitude of the fame ftar in any other degree, 
 and note the time by a pendulum. 3 0 . For the given time 
 of obfervation, from the declination of the ftar compute its 
 true altitude. 
 
 This being thus found lefs than the alitude ohferved ; fuh - 
 trade tne one from the other ; and the remainder is the refrac- 
 tion for that moment, in that decree. 
 
 Refraction ^ of altitude, is an arch of a vertical circle, as 
 t>_/, (Tab. JJlronomy, fig. 28.) whereby the altitude of a ftar 
 a E, is increafed by the refraction. 
 
 Refraction of declination, is an arch of a circle of declina- 
 tion, as/f, whereby the declination of a ftar D S is increafed 
 or diminifbed by the refraction. 
 
 Refraction of afcenfon and defcenfm, is an arch of the 
 equator D d, whereby the afcenfion and defcenfion of a ftar, 
 whether right or oblique, is encrcafed or dimmifhed, by mean* 
 or the refraction. 
 
 Refraction of longitude, is an arch of the ecliptic T; 
 fig.2 9 whereby the longitude of a ftar is encreafed or dimi- 
 niihed by means of the refraction. 
 
 Refraction of latitude, is an arch of a circle of latitude /T 
 whereby the latitude of a ftar T S, is increafed or diminifhed 
 by means of refraction. 
 
 Refract!on, in commerce, is a term fometimes 
 ufed by merchants, where there has been an overfi^ht 
 in an account, to the prejudice of a perfon, who there- 
 upon demands reftitution of fo much, added or omitted 
 by miftake. 
 
 You muft make me a refraction of five pounds forgot in your 
 account— I wdl deduct or make you a refraction of 30 s. 
 charged inadvertently in my bill. 
 REFRANGIBILITY of light, the difpofition of the rays 
 to be refracted. 
 
 A ^ r T e I 01 re f ran Z imt y is a difpofition to be more or lefs 
 refraaed, in paffing at equal angles of incidence, into the fame 
 medium. 
 
 That the rays of light are differently refrangible, is the foun- 
 dation of Sir Ifaac Newton's whole theory of light and co- 
 lours— The truth of the principle will appear from the follow- 
 ing experiments. 
 
 1 . A ray of light being received through a little round hole 
 into a dark room, upon a glafs prifm, ABC, (Tab. Optics, 
 fig-b§- n°. 2.) in iuch manner as to pafs through it near the 
 angle C; the various colours of the rainbow will he feen 
 painted in all their fplendor on a white paper, E F ; 
 vix. the red in E, then the yellow, then green, blue, and 
 at laft purple, or violet; and on whatever body you receive 
 the light, ftiil the colours will be the fame. 
 
 Yet, 
 
R E F 
 
 REG 
 
 At Paris there is an hofpital called the therein difl'oluip 
 
 women are ihut up. 
 
 their country, and retire for refuge into Holland, Germany 
 
 green, blue, and purple rays mixed tcgc 
 conftimte a refplendent 
 
 all of the 
 of the fame 
 
 Yet this coloured light is Mill propagated, like other light, in 
 right lines-, itisretk-aed, too, like other light, from a mir- 
 ror and refracted through a lens ; yet it retains its colour: 
 both after refraftion and reflection— When collected into 
 a focus, the rays degenerate into a very bright white ; but 
 upon diverging again from the focus, they relume their former 
 
 colours. ' " . "• ^ Jt . ■ , J . jta^i'iui - -«,r 
 Hence, 1°. Since nothing here happens to the rays in pu- 
 firuz the prifm, but that they are refracted, both in entering, 
 and in quitting it: (See Prism.) Light is converted into 
 thofe colours by mere refraction. _ 
 2°. Since the coloured rays are flill propagated in right lines, 
 both when reflected from mirrors, and when retracted in 
 lenfes ; they ffill retain all the properties of light, and there- 
 tore are ftill light. _ , . - , 
 Since the feveral coloured rays decuffated and mixed 
 iUther in the focus, appear white ; but after reparation, 
 beyond the focus, recover their former colours; 1 
 red, yelloW; 
 
 ther in a convenient proportion 
 white. 
 
 Note, The experiment will fuccced if the room be not dark, 
 only the colours will be lefs vivid. 
 
 2 A prifm DEF (fig. 66.) being fo difpofed as that the re- 
 fractions of the rays both at their entrance and exit, are e- 
 ciual ; (which is obtained, by turning it llowly round its 
 axis till the coloured light, which now rifes, and now falls, 
 appear flationary between the two.) In the middle fpace 
 between the prifm and the coloured light painted on the 
 wall, place another prifm G H to receive the coloured light 
 LM After a fecond refraction in this fecond prifm the 
 coloured light painted on the wall, I K, will be inclined 
 to a like light N O, feen there, even when the pnlm G H is 
 removed ; fo as the blue extremities N and I will be further 
 a-part than the red ones K and O. 
 
 Hence, 1°. The blue rays mud of neceffity be more refrac- 
 ted than the red ones ; and there is, likewife, an unequal re- 
 fraction in the intermediate rays. 
 Hence, therefore, the fun's rays are not 
 fame refrangibility ; confequcntly, not 
 
 i Thofe rays are molt refrangible, which are moll reflexiblc. 
 See this proved under Inflexibility. 
 The difference between refrangibility and reflexibility was firft 
 difcovered andpublifhed by Sirlfaac Newton in 1675, in the 
 Phil. Tranfact. and from that time vindicated by him, from 
 the objections of feveral authors; particularly F. Pardies, 
 M. Mariotte, Fr. Linus, or Lin, and other gentlemen of 
 the Englifh college at Liege : and at length it was more fully 
 laid down, illuftratcd, and confirmed by great variety of ex- 
 periments in his immortal optics. 
 
 But, further, as not only thofe colours of light produced by 
 refraction in a prifm, but alfo thofe reflected from opake bo- 
 dies, have their different degrees of refrangibility and reflex- 
 bility ; and as a white light arifes from a mixture of the fe 
 veral coloured rays ; the fame great author concluded all ho- 
 mogeneous light to have its proper colour, correfponding to 
 its degree of refrangibility, and not capable of being 
 chaneed by any reflexions, or any refractions ; that the fun's 
 ]i<mt"is compofed of all the primary colours ; and that all com- 
 pound colours arife from a mixture of the primary ones, 
 &fr. 
 
 The different degrees of refrangibility, he conjectures to arile 
 from the different magnitude of the particles whereof the dif- 
 ferent rays conlift — Thus the moft refrangible rays, t. e. the 
 red ones, he fuppofes to confift of the largeft particles ; the 
 leaft refrangible, i. c. the violet rays, of the fmallcft particles ; 
 and the intermediate rays, yellow, green, and blue, of par- 
 ticles, of intermediate fizes. 
 
 REFRESHMENT, quarters cf. See Quarters. 
 
 REFRET, in mufic. See the article Ritornello. 
 
 REFRIGERATIVE, in medicine, a remedy, which refrefhes 
 the inner parts by cooling them — Such, ufually, are ptifans, 
 clvfters, Gff. 
 
 REFRIGERATORY, Refrigeratorium, in chemiftry, 
 a veffel, filled with cold water, placed about the head of an 
 alembic, to cool and condenfe the vapours raifed thither by 
 the fire, and to convert them into a liquor, to be difcharged 
 thence through the beak. 
 
 The water in the refrigeratory is to be changed from time to 
 time, as it begins to grow warm. 
 
 Sometimes they content themfelves with wrapping a wet cloth 
 about the head of the alembic, inftead of a refrigeratory : 
 but the more ufual method now is, to fupply the place of 
 the refrigeratory by a worm or fpiral pipe running throu] ' 
 a tub of cold water. 
 
 Diftillation chiefly confifts in evaporation and refrige- 
 ration. 
 
 REFUGE, Refugium, in our old cuftoms, 
 afylum. See Sanctuary and Asylum. 
 
 England, He. to fave themfelves from the neceffity of aban- 
 doning their religion. 
 REGAL, Regius or Regalis, fomething belonging to a 
 Hng. , . 
 
 Regal is of the fame import with royal ; the former being 
 formed of the Latin rex ; the other of the French, rey, king. 
 See Royal. 
 Regal fifties. See the article Royal fijhes. 
 Regal fait. See the article Suit. 
 
 REGALE, in the French jurifprudence, is a right belong- 
 ing to the king over all benefices in that kingdom. 
 The resale confifts in enjoying the revenues of bifhopnes 
 during the vacancy of their fees, and of prefenting to the 
 benefices dependant thereon, which become vacant during 
 that time, and till a fucceffor have taken the oath of fide- 
 lity, and have procured letters patents, to fecure him from the 
 
 The 'enjoyment of the fruits of the fee is called the temporal 
 regale ; that of prefenting the benefices, the fpintual regale. 
 Some refer the origin of the regale to the time of Clovis, 
 and fay the clergy granted this privilege to the king, upon 
 his defeating the Vifigoths; others alledge, that pope Adri- 
 an I. gratified Charlemaign with it, in a council held at. 
 Rome— It is obferved by others, that the regale was origins ly 
 no more than a ward, or adminiftration ; and that the 
 kings were only depofitaries of the fruits of the vacant br- 
 fhoprics, and appointed ceconomi to look to them during the 
 vacancy. 1 \ ' 1 
 It is added, that the kings of the firft and fecond race never 
 enjoyed any fuch privilege, and that it was only introduced in 
 the twelfth century, in favour of inveftitures. 
 Regale, Regalio, a magnificent treat or entertainment, 
 given to embafi'adors, or other perfons of diftinaion, to 
 entertain or do them honour. 
 
 In Italy, it is ufual at the arrival of any traveller of eminence, 
 to fend him a regale ; that is, a prefent of fruits, fweet-meats, 
 t$c. by way of refrefhment. 
 REGALIA, inlaw, the royal rights, 01 prerogatives of a 
 
 king. rH| 9~* ■tworbtorfl; tHy^m-j-.-vi yt 't**,i . 
 Thefe are reckoned by civilians to be fix i 1°. power of ju- 
 dicature. 2°. power of life and death. 3 0 . power of war and 
 peace. 4°. mafterlefs goods. 5 0 . affeffments. 6°. mint- 
 ing of money. 
 
 Regalia is alfo ufed for the feveral parts of the apparatus 
 of a coronation ; as the fceptre with the crofs ; fceptre with 
 the dove ; St Edward's ftafT : four feveral fwords ; the globe ; 
 and the orb with the crofs, fcY. ufed at the coronation of our 
 
 kings. 
 
 Regalia, of the ebttreb, are thofe rights and privileges 
 which cathedrals, 'Sc. enjoy by grants, and other conceffions 
 of kings. 
 
 Regalia is fometimes alfo ufed, for the patrimony of a church : 
 as, regalia faneti Petri — And more particularly, for fuch 
 lands and hereditaments as have been given by kings to the 
 church. . 
 Cepimus in memum mjlram baroniam bi regalia quae arehiepif- 
 coptts Eborum de nobis tenet. Pryn. lib. Ang. 
 Thefe regalia, while in poffeffion of the church, were ftlb- 
 jca to the fame fetvices as all other temporal inheritances ; 
 and after the death of the bifhop they reverted to the king, 
 'till he inverted another with them ; which in the reigns ot 
 William the conqueror, andfome of his immediate fucceffors, 
 was frequently delayed, and as oft did the bifhops make 
 complaint thereof as appears from Malmefbury, Neubregen- 
 fis, tsto'l 9fe :*« ..-!',.'!''<.- '. -'.u,:: ^<'Bj W'.' . 
 This laft author fays, that great complaint was made againft 
 Henry II. Shod epifcopatus uatantes, W prevenientia pereipe- 
 ret eommoda, diu vaeare ■voluit, ti eceleftajlieis potius ufibus ap- 
 plicanda in fiifcum redegit. 
 Regalia facere, is ufed fora bifhop's doing homage or fealty 
 to the king, when he is inverted with the regalia. 
 Thus Malmefbury, in Anfelm. Regalia pro more ijlius tctrt- 
 poris faeiens principi 7 kalend. octobris, Cantuarice affedit. 
 REGALITIES. See the article Royalties. 
 REGARD, of the foreft, the over-fight, or infpection there- 
 of; or the office, and province of the regarder ; which is 
 to "o through the whole foreft, and every bailiwick there- 
 of," before "the holding of the feffions of the foreft, or 
 juftice feat ; to fee and enquire of the trefpaffes therein. *See 
 Forest. 
 
 » Ad videm/ua, ad inquirendum, ad certif.candum. Sec. See 
 Recarder. 
 
 Regard is alfo ufed for the extent of the regarder's charge, 
 fancmary or i, e. for the whole foreft, or all the ground that is parcel 
 
 REGAR- 
 
II E G 
 
 Reg 
 
 REGARDANT, in heraldry, is underftood of a lion, or 
 other beail of prey, borne in a pofture oflooking behind him, 
 with his face toward;, his tail. 
 Others apply it t!> a beaft which only {hews the head, and 
 fome part of the neck, as moving from out of fome divifion 
 ot the coat into another — He bears azure, three bends or, in 
 a chief argent, charged with a lion regardant gules, 
 
 W/fliM Regardant, or Regardant to the manor, denotes 
 an antient fervant or retainer to the lord ; thus called, becaufe 
 charged to do ali bafe Cervices within the manor, to fee the 
 fame freed of all filthy and Ioathfome things that might an- 
 noy it, &c. Coke on Littleton, fol. 120. 
 
 REGARDER of a for eft, Regardator _/ir^<f, an an- 
 tient officer of the king's foreft, whofe buhnels was every 
 year, upon oath, to make a regard, i. e. to take a view 
 of the foreft limits j alfo to inquire of all offences and de- 
 faults committed by the foreirers within the foreft, and 
 of all the concealments of them ; and whether all the other 
 officers did execute their refpective duties, or not. 
 Manwocd refers this inflitution to King Henry II. but Spel- 
 man thinks the name, at leaif, was given fince ; and that 
 they were the fame with thole uincers called cujlodcs venatio- 
 nis. 
 
 REGE, querela coram. See QUERELA. 
 
 REGEL, orRiGEL, a fixed ltar of the ftrft magnitude, in 
 
 orion's left foot— Its longitude, latitude, csY. fee among the 
 
 reft of the conitellaticm Orion. 
 REGENERATION, in theology, the act of being 
 
 born again by a fpiritual birth, or becoming a child ot 
 
 God. 
 
 Regeneration is performed by the warning of the Holy 
 Spirit, whereof baptifm is the fign. When an infidel is 
 converted, baptifm is always adminiftred as a fign of regene- 
 ration. 
 
 REGENT, Regeks, a perfon who governs a kingdom 
 during the minority or the abfence of a king. 
 In France, the queen mother has the regency of the kingdom, 
 under the title of queen regent, while the king is a minor — 
 Some have urged, that women being incapable of fucceedin" 
 to that crown, were incapable of the regency > but cuftom has 
 declared in their favour. 
 
 Regent is alfo ufed for a profefior of arts or fcienccs, who 
 holds a clafs, or let of pupils, in a college. 
 The foreign univerfitics arc generally compofed of doctors, 
 profefibrs, and regents. — Regent and fcholar are relative terms. 
 See Tutor. 
 
 Regent is generally retrained to the lo-tver clafl'es, as regent 
 
 of rhetoric, regent of logic, csV. thofe of philofophj are rather 
 
 called profeffors. 
 REGIA aqua, f {Aqua. 
 Via Recia. > See the articles -j Via. 
 
 (■■'ilia Regia. J C Villa. 
 
 REGICIDE, Regicida, a /;ing-k'dler — The term is alfo 
 
 ufed for the act itfelf of murdering a king : of rex, king, and 
 
 credo, I fiay. 
 
 Regicide is chiefly ufed with us in fpeaking of the perfons con- 
 cerned in the tryal, condemnation, and execution, of king 
 Charles the firft. 
 REGIFUGE, Regifugium, a feaft held in an- 
 tient Rome on the lixth of the calends of March, £. e. 
 1 our 24th of February, in memory of the expulfion of 
 cir king , particularly of Tarquin's 
 
 flying out of Rome 
 
 th. 
 
 on that day. 
 
 Some will have the fcaft to bear this name from the rex fa- 
 crorttm, king of the iacrifices, flying out of the comitia, or 
 place of affembly, as foon as the facrifice was over, in imita- 
 tion of the flight of Tarquin the proud. 
 Some critics and antiquaries will have regifugium the fame 
 With fugalia ; others hold them to be different. 
 REGIMEN *, in medicine, a rule or courfe of living, with 
 regard to eating, drinking, cloathing, and the like, accom- 
 modated to fome difeafe, and to the particular courfe of me- 
 dicine the patient is under. 
 * The word is pure Latin, and fignifics government, or rule. 
 
 It is doubted whether the hot or cold regimen be moft con- 
 venient in fevers. The hot regimen, which antiently ob- 
 tained in the fmall-pox, begins to be difufed TWl rep 
 
 men is very different in different countries. Bartholin fays, 
 a flice of Bacon in Denmark is an ufual dim for a perfon in a 
 high fever. 
 
 Regimen, in chymiftry and alchymy, is the method of or- 
 dering and conducting any thine, that it may anfwer its in- 
 tention. Mf) 1o isnjV'jfi' 
 Thus, regimen of fire, is the manner of making and or- 
 dering fire, and the degrees thereof. See Fire and De- 
 gree. 
 
 Regimen of the work, thatis, of the philofopher's ftone, called 
 the work of patience, is the rule and conduct to be obferved to 
 attain projection. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 There are three things, they fav, to be chielv regarded in the 
 regimen of the work— The firft to adminifler a gentle, cafy heat 
 at the beginning of the coition. 
 
 The fecond to continue this external heat according to the 
 fcafon of the work, always obferving four feafons, as in the 
 common and aftronomical year ; the beginning being the 
 winter, the progrefs the fpring; then fummer, and, feftly au- 
 tumn, which is the time of maturity and perfe&ion of the 
 ftone ; in all which the heat is to be augmented in proportion 
 to the augmentation obferved in nature. 
 It is to be added, that the work may not be begun in any 
 feafon, but regard is to be had to the feafons of nature, left 
 the winter of the work be found in the fummer of the 'year, 
 fcfe. Which, however, is to be underftood of the day wherein 
 the mercury is put in the ovum philofophicum, not of that 
 when it is begun to be fet at liberty from the prifons which 
 nature had inclofed it in. 
 
 The third is that in augmenting the fire, the augmentation 
 be not of a whole degree at once, the fpirits bcinf unable 
 to bear fuch violence ; but a degree is to be divided into four 
 parts, and one part is to be taken at a time. 
 All the operations of the firft regimen are occult and invifiblc : 
 in the fecond regimen comes putrefaction, which, they fay, is 
 the firft fenfible change, fhewing itfelf by its black colour. 
 ■K e G 1 m E n, or govirnment, In grammar, is that part of 
 fyntax or conftruction, which regulates the dependency of 
 words, and the alterations which one occafions in an- 
 other. 
 
 Thus, we fay, the regimen of a verb active is an accufa- 
 tive, /. c , a verb active governs an accufative ; or requires, 
 that the noun, which receives its action, be in the accuia- 
 tive cafe.' 
 
 Prepofitions have a regimen, 1. e. they require certain cafes in 
 the nouns they -arc prefixed to; by which they are diftin- 
 guifhed from adverbs, which have none; 
 1 he regimen, or conftruction of government, is entirely 
 arbitrary, and differs in all languages ; one language form- 
 ing its regimen by cafes, as the Latins and Greeks i o- 
 thers by particles in lieu thereof, as the Englifh by of, 
 to, &c. the French, Spaniards, and Italians, by .;, $ a 
 *$E*™ 'Mil' lo iaa • vfltia hi* V^a****^ ^Sjly^ 
 There are, however, fome general maxims, which hold good 
 in all languages, — as, i°. That there is no nominative caS in 
 any fentence but has a reference to fome verb, either exprefied 
 or underftood. 
 
 2°. That there is no verb but has its nominative cafe, 
 
 either exprefied or underftood Indeed, in languages which 
 
 have proper aecufatives, as the Latin, before infinitives there 
 is an accufative, not a nominative cafe; as Jai Petrum ejfe 
 dotlum. 
 
 3 0 . Thaf th*re is no adjective but has a relation to fome fub- 
 ftantive. 
 
 4 0 . That there is no genitive cafe but is governed by fome 
 other noun ; inafmuch as that cafe always expreffes the pof- 
 {k^'or, which mult be governed by the pollened — This rule 
 does not hold fo apparently in the modern as it does in the an- 
 tient languages ; in regard the particles of, de, &c. which are 
 the proper fighs of the genitive cafe, are frequently ufed as 
 prepofitions. See Genitive. 
 
 5 0 . That the regimen of verbs is frequently laid on different 
 kinds ot relations, according to cullom or ufage J which yet 
 does not change the fpecifie relation of each cafe, but only 
 mews, that cuftom has made choice of this or that, according 
 to fancy — Thus, the Latins fay, juvare aliquem, & epitulari 
 
 aVuui, to help one So the French fay, fervi'r quelqu' Mtj 
 
 & fervir a quelqu' un, to ferve one Thus the Enghfti fay, 
 
 fight one, or fight with one — And thus, in Spanifh, moft of the 
 verbs adive govern indifferently either a dative or an accufa- 
 tive. Sometimes, alfo, the verb admits of feveral regimens ; 
 zspraftare aliquem, or alicui, cripere morti aliquem, or aliquem 
 a mortt. 
 
 Indeed, the different regimen femctimes makes an alteration in 
 the fenfe ; in which, particular regard is to be had to the 
 
 ufage of the language Thus, the Latin cavere alicui figni- 
 
 fies to watch, or be careful of the prefervation of any one : 
 cdvere aliquem fignifies to beware of him. 
 There is one very common fault in regimen, which our accu- 
 rate writers mould be careful to avoid; viz. the ufing of 
 two verbs that require different cafes together, as only go- 
 verning one cafe; as in this example ; after embracing and 
 giving his blcjfing to his fan ; where embracing requiring an 
 accufative, and giving a dative cafe, the regimen or conftruc- 
 tion of the firft verb with the noun is irregular : embrace to a 
 fan. 
 
 The fame may be obferved in nouns ; as I conjured him by the 
 memory and the friend/hip he bore my father ; where tr.smory 
 does not agree with the verb he bore. 
 REGIMENT, in war, a body confuting of feveral troops 
 ofhorfc, or companies of foot, commanded by a colonel. 
 
 ™ P The 
 
R EG 
 
 REG 
 
 The number cf men in a rtprnejfa is as undetermined a: that 
 of the men in a troop, or company. 
 
 There are regiments of hbrfei that have not above 300 men ; 
 anil there are fome in Qerrnany of 2OC0 ; and the regiment of 
 Picurdy in France confifts of iao companies, or 6000 men; 
 The French regiments of horfe are not commanded by a colo- 
 nel, as the foot are, but by a meftre de camp. 
 Some pbferve, that there were no regiments of horfe before 
 the year 1637. Till then the troops were loofe and indepen- 
 dent of each other, and not incorporated into a body or regi- 
 ment. , , 
 
 REGIO trjenfu, is a writ whereby the king gives his royal 
 affent to the election of a bifhop. See Bishop. 
 
 REGION, Recio, in geography, a country* or particular 
 divihon of the earth ; or a tract of land inhabited by people of 
 the fame nation. i 
 The modern aftronomers divide the moon into feveral rv runs 
 or provinces, to each whereof they give its proper name. 
 See Moon. 
 
 Region in phyfioIoEry— Authors divide the atmofphere into 
 
 three frages, called"thc upper, middle, Slower regions. 
 
 Atmosphere. t. VV v\jJ It: 
 
 The hwcfl Region is that wherein we breathe; and isboun- 
 
 dedbythe reflection of the fun's rays; that is, by the height 
 
 to which they rebound from the earth. 
 The middle Region, is that wherein the clouds refide, where 
 
 meteors are formed, tjfe. extending from the extremity of the 
 
 loivefl, to the tops of the higheft mountains. 
 The upper Region, commences from the tops of the moun 
 
 tain.s, and reaches to the utraoft limits of the atmofphere— 
 
 In this reigns a perpetual, equable calmnef;., clearnef;, and 
 
 ferenity. See Air. W 
 Some authors ufe the term elementary Region for the fpace 
 
 of the whole atmofphere, from the earth to the fphere or 
 
 heaven of the moon ; becaufe within this are contained the 
 
 four elements, and all elementary bodies. 
 Mtherial Region is ufed for the whole extent of the univerfe, 
 
 including the orb of the fixed ftars, fcff. See Universe. 
 Region, in anatomy, denotes alfo a divihon of the human 
 
 body. See Body — Anatomifts divide the body into three 
 
 regions, or venter's. 
 
 Tlx: upper region is- that of the head ; reaching as low as the 
 firft vertebra ; and comprehending the animal organs, the 
 brain, tsfc. See Head, is>c. 
 
 The middle region is that of the thorax or brcaft, which Hip- 
 pocrates calls the upper venter, and which reaches from the 
 clavicles to the diaphragm; in this are contained the vital 
 parts, as the heart, lungs, Uc. Sec Heart, Lungs, CSV. 
 The third or lawerregim is the abdomen or belly, fcfc con- 
 taining the natural parts, deftined for digeftion, purgation, 
 and generation. See Abdomen 
 Epi colic Region, 
 
 Epigajlric Region. > See the articles 
 Umbilical .... 
 
 REGIONARY, Regionarius, in ecclefiaftical Kutory 
 a title given from the fifth century, to perfons who had the 
 charge aha" adminiftration of the thurch affairs within a cer- 
 tain diftrict or region. 
 
 At Rome there were antiently feven regionary deacons* who 
 prehded over a kind of hoipitals, and looked to the diftribution 
 of alms. 
 
 Tliere were alfo regionary fubdeacons, and regionary notaries, 
 as alfo regionary hi/hops, &c. 
 
 A regionary Bishop was properly a miffionary inverted with 
 an epifcopal character, but without being attached to any parti- 
 cular fee ; that he might be at liberty to go preach, and per- 
 form other functions of his miniltry, whitherfocver the Spirit 
 of God, and the wants of the people fhould call him. 
 
 REGIS/Ww. ) n j Pondus. 
 
 Regis villa. J I Villa. 
 
 REGISTER*, Recistrum, a publick book Raying to 
 enter and record memoirs, acls, and minutes, to be had re- 
 cou:feto, occafionally, for the juftifying of matters of fact, 
 
 * Menage derives the word by corruption, from rcgr/lum, a 
 book containing extraftsof feveral books, t&c. collected to- 
 gether : Dicitur rcgfjlttm quaff iterum gefium — Odiers de- 
 rive it from the old French gifier, to lie down In a 
 bed, &c. 
 
 The law of Scotland is rendered very eafy and regular, by 
 means of the great number of reg(/t&s> for recording the 
 conveyances of lands, fc*V. of private perfons— Of thefe there 
 are two kinds : the one general, fixed at Edinburgh, under 
 the direction of the lord regi/ler, who before the union was 
 the fifth officer of ftate, and befides the regiflry, was clerk 
 of the parliament, treafury, exchequer, and feffion. 
 • The other is particularly kept in the feveral (hires, ftewar- 
 ties 3 and regalities -The clerks hereof are obliged to 
 
 nidation, oee /ibdomais. 
 
 Region. 1 TEpicolic 
 
 if Region. \ See the articles ^Epigastric 
 
 /Region. 3 * Umbilical. 
 
 tranfmit the regijlers of their refpective courts tb the gene- 
 ral regi/ler ; and the notaries their protocols : and here 
 they are fo difpofed, that, on demand, the lieges can have 
 a view of any writs, which the law requires to be regi- 
 Jlered, or which parties, for their fecurity, have thought fit 
 to record. 
 
 The regijlers were firft fet on foot by act of parliament 
 under king James VI. to the unfpeakable advantage of the 
 fubjea. 
 
 No man can have a right to any cftate, but it muft be regi- 
 Jiered within forty days of his becoming feifed of it, other- 
 wife it is null; and by this means all lecret conveyances are 
 cut off. 
 
 Register, Registrarius, is alfo ufed for the clerk or keep- 
 er of a regi/ler or regijlry. 
 
 Of thefe we have fcveral, denominated from the regijlers they 
 keep — as regi/ler of the high court of delegates ; regi/ler of the 
 arches court of Canterbury ; regi/ler of the court of admiralty ; 
 regi/ler of the prerogative court; and regi/ler of the garter ; 
 who is always dean of Windfor. 
 Register of a parijh church is a book, wherein the yearly 
 baptifms, marriages, and burials of each panlh are orderly 
 rcgiftered. 
 
 This practice was laudably inffituted by that great but unfor- 
 tunate perfon Thomas Cromwell, earl ofEflex, anno 153^ 
 while he was vicar-general to king Henry VIII. 
 Register is alfo the title of a book, containing the forms of 
 moll of the writs ufed in common law. This is called the 
 regifter of writs. 
 
 This regifter, Coke on Littleton obferves, is one of the molt 
 antient books of the common lawi t 
 Register foips, or Jhips cf Register, in commerce, are 
 veuels to which the king of Spain, or the council of the In- 
 dies, grants permiffions to go and traffick in the ports of the 
 Spanilh Welt-Indies. 
 
 They are thus called, becaufe the fhips are to be regijlcred 
 before they fet fail from Cadiz, which is the place where they 
 ufually load lor Buenos Ayres. 
 
 Thefe veii'els, by the tenor of the cedula or permit, are not 
 to exceed three hundred tuns ; but there is that good un- 
 derstanding between the merchants and the council of the 
 Indies, that lhips of five or fix hundred tuns frequently pals 
 un-noted. 
 
 The permiffions coft thirty thoufand piece; of eight each : but 
 were they to coft an hundred thoufand, the merchants would 
 
 be gainers, and the king of Spain a lofcr For though the 
 
 quantity and quality of the merchandizes on board be always 
 expreiled ; yet, by force of prefents, the officers both there 
 and in the Indies, allow them to load and unload vallly more 
 than the permiJhon exprciles — VefTcls, whofe certificate only 
 mentions twelve thoufand fkins, and an hundred thoufand 
 pieces ot eight, have been known to have on board above tour 
 millions in gold and iilver, twenty-fix thoufand fkinsj t?c. fo 
 that the kinu; ot Spain's tilth, and his other dues, were almoft 
 nothing to what they fhould be. 
 
 Add to this, that in the years 1702, 1703, fijff. thefe regifler 
 veiTels, countenancing and backing each oilier, fold their com- 
 modities for above three hundred per cent, profit — At that 
 time a hat was lold for iS 1 pieces ot eight; an ell of ordinary 
 cloth for 12 pieces of eight, &c. 
 
 Among the regi/ler veflels mav be reckoned a fliip of five hun- 
 dred tuns, which the king of Spain allows the Englifh South 
 Sea Company to fend each year to tlx fairs held at Porto 
 Bello, Cartlugena, and Vera Cruz, £rV. 
 Register, among letter founders, is one of the inner parts 
 of the mould wherein the printing types are caft. See Let- 
 ter. 
 
 Its ufe is to direct the joining of them juftly together 
 again, after opening them to take out the new calt letter. 
 Registers, in chymiftry, are holes, or chinks, with ftop- 
 ples to them, contrived in the fides of furnaces, to regu- 
 late the fire, i. e. to make the heat immediately more intenfe, 
 or remifs, hy opening them to let in the air, or keeping them 
 clofe to exclude it. 
 Register, in printing, the difpofmg the forms of the prefs 
 fo as that the lines and pages printed on one fide of the iheet, 
 meet exactly againft thofe on the other; which is done by 
 means of two points in the greater or outward tympan. 
 REGISTRY, Registrum, comprehends the office, books, 
 and rolls, wherein the proceedings of chancery, or any 
 fpiritual court, are regi/lred, or recorded. 
 REGIUS-^-c/^firj— King Henry Vlil. founded five lectures 
 in each of our univerfities ; viz. of Divinity, Hebrew, Greek, 
 Law, and Phyfic ; the readers of which lectures are in the 
 univerfity flatutes, called regii profefjbres. See Prof£;>- 
 
 Regius morbus, See the article Jaundice. 
 
 REGLET 
 
11 E Gt 
 
 REG 
 
 REGLET*, or Riglet, in architecture, a little flat 
 narrow moulding, ufed chiefly in compartiments, and pan- 
 nels, to leparate die parts or members from one another, and 
 to form knots, frets, a:id other ornaments — See Tab. Archit. 
 fig- I. fig- 26. lit. y. fig. 28. Ut. 1. m. fig. 32. lit. m. fig. 24. 
 tit. N. z. 
 
 * The word is a diminutive of the French, regie, rule. 
 
 The reglct, according to Daviler, differs from the fillet and 
 Hjlelj in that it projects equally, like a ruler. 
 Reglets, orRiGLETs, in printing, arc thin rulersj or flips 
 of wood of different dimenfions, placed in the chafe, be- 
 tween the pages, and at the extremes thereof, to keep them 
 afunder and to hold them tight. 
 
 The reglets make the chief part of what they call the furniture 
 of the chafe. See Chase. 
 
 They are particularly denominated from the place they hold 
 in refpea of the pages, head-Jlicks, foct-jlicks, gutter-flicks, 
 
 &C. *■ ■■^i- <^'- 
 
 The term Reclet is alfo ufed abroad for a ruler of metal, 
 £ of an inch long, but which may be lengthened out by join- 
 ing fcveral together ; ufed to leparate the columns, in books 
 that have feveral in the fame page; as alfo for lines to place 
 the notes on in printing of muftc. 
 
 Reglet, is alfo ufed for a little thin flip of wood ufed by 
 fomc compofitors for the prefs to take off the lines from 
 the cbmpofick-fHck, and place them on the galley, as faff, as 
 com po fed. 
 
 REGNANT queen. See the article Queen. 
 
 R E G R A T E R, Regratarius, a law word, formerly 
 
 ufed for one that bought wholefale, or by the great, and fold 
 
 ag;iin by retail. See Engrosser, tffc. 
 
 The term is now chiefly ufed to denote one that buys any 
 wares or victuals, and fells them again in the fame market 
 or fair* or within five miles of it. See Fore s t a l- 
 
 L I N G. 
 
 R e o r a t e r is alfo . ufed for a perfon who furbifhes up 
 old moveables, to make them pafs for new. See Frip- 
 PERYj 
 
 Among mafons, (ft, to Regrate, is to take off the outer 
 furface of an old hewn ffonc, with the hammer and ripe, in 
 order to whiten and make it look frefh again. 
 
 REGRESSION, or retrograddtion of curves, csV. See Re- 
 
 TROGRADATiON. 
 
 REGULA. See the article Rule. 
 
 Re g u l Aj in architecture. Sec the article Reg- 
 let. 
 
 REGULAR, Regularise denotes the relation of 
 any thing that is agreeable or conformable to the rules 
 of art. 
 
 In this fenfe the word Hands oppofed to irregular, or ano- 
 malous. 
 
 Thus we fay, a regular proceeding, a regular building, regular 
 poem, regular verb, csv. 
 Regular figure, in geometry, is a figure which is both equi- 
 lateral and equiangular ; i. e. whole tides, and confequently 
 its angles, are all equal. 
 
 The equilateral triangle and fquare vie regular figures. See 
 S q^u are and Tsiangl e — All other regular figures 
 conlifting of more than four fides, are called regular poly- 
 gons, t " . ' 
 Every regular figure may be inferibed in a circle. See Cir- 
 cle— For the climenfions, properties, ifa of Regular fi- 
 gures, fee Polygon. 
 Regular body, called *\(o platonic body, is a folid terminated 
 on all fides by regular and equal planes, and whofe folid angles 
 are all equal. 
 
 The regular bodies are five in number; viz. The cube, 
 which coniifis of fix equal fquares ; the tetrahedron of four 
 equal triangles ; the oBahedron of eight ; the dodecahedron 
 of twelve ; and the icofihedron of twenty ; fee each under its 
 proper article. Bcfides thefe five there can be no other regu- 
 lar bodies in nature. 
 To meafure the furface and foil dlty of the five Regular bo- 
 dies — The folidity, &e. of the cube is fhewn under the article 
 Cube — The tetrahedron being a pyramid, and the o&ahedron 
 a double pyramid ; and the icofihedron conlifting of twenty 
 triangular pyramids ; and the dodecahedron of twelve quin- 
 quangular ones, whofe bafes are in the furface of the icofihe- 
 dron and dodecahedron, and their vertices meeting in a centre ; 
 the folidities of thefe bodies are all found from what we have 
 fhewn under the article Pyramid. 
 
 Their furface is had by finding the area of one of the planes, 
 from the lines that bound it ; and multiplying the area 
 thus found by the number from which the body is denomi- 
 nated ; e. gr.fos the tetrahedron by 4 ; for the hexahedron or 
 cube, by 6 ; for the octahedron, by 8 , for the dodecahedron, 
 by 1 a t| and for the icofihedron, by 20— The product is the 
 fupcrncial area. 
 
 Proportions of the fphere, and of the five Recular bodies hi- 
 fcribed therein : the diameter of the fphere being 2. 
 
 The circumference of a great circle is <- 6. 2S31S 
 
 Surface of a great circle, . 3. 14159 
 
 Surface of the fphere, J2 . 56637 
 
 Solidity of the fphere^ 4, 18859 
 
 Side of the tetrahedron, j # 62299 
 
 Surface of a tetrahedron, . ^_ 6i8S 
 
 Solidity of a tetrahedron," • 0> 15132 
 
 Side of a cube or hexahedron, — . r. 1547 
 
 Surface of the hexahedron,' S. 
 
 Solidity of the hexadredon, . j- 5396 
 
 Side of an octahedron, ■ 1. 41421 
 
 Surface of the octahedron, — 6. 9282 
 
 Solidity of the octahedron,' — — - 1. 33333 
 
 Side of the dodecahedron, — - — o. 71364 
 
 Surface of the dodecahedron, ■ — — 10. 51462 
 
 Solidity of the dodecahedron, 2. 7S516 
 
 Side of the icofihedron, ■ ■ ' 1. 05146 
 
 Surface of the icofihedron, j§. 57454 
 
 Solidity of die icofihedron, : 2. 53615 
 
 If one of thefe bodies be required to be cut out of the fphere 
 of any other diameter ; fay, as the diameter of the fphere 2, 
 is to the fide of any one folid inferibed in the fame, (fuppofi* 
 thecube I. 1547.) to is the diameter of any other fphere 
 (fuppofe 8.) to 9. 2376, the fide of the cube inferibed in this 
 latter fphere: 
 
 Let dr, then, (Tab. Geometry, fig. 81.) be the diameter of 
 any fphere, and da 7 of it, — a b— br. Erect the perpen- 
 diculars ae, cf, and bg ; and draw de, df, er,fr, and gr ; then 
 will (1) re be the fide of the tetrahedron; (2) df the 
 fide of the hexahedron : (3) de the fide of the octahedron. 
 (4.) And cutting de in extreme and mean proportion in h, 
 dh will be the fide of the dodecahedron. (5) Setting the 
 diameter dr up perpendicularly atr j from the centre c, to 
 its top, draw the line eg, cutting the circle in g — Let fall 
 the perpendicular^; fo is br the fide of the icofihedron. 
 Recular curves, are fuch whofe curvity proceeds continually 
 in the fame uniform geometrical manner — Such are the peri- 
 meters of the conic lections. See Curve, Conic fec- 
 tion, CsV. 
 
 Such as have a point of inflection, or regreffion, and which 
 being continued to a certain point, turn themfelves a contrary 
 way arc called irregular curves — Such are the conchoid, and 
 the folid parabola, which has a fquare for its parameter. See 
 Flexion and Retrogression. 
 
 Regular architecture, fortification, Sic. See Architecture 
 and Fortification. 
 
 Regular Bajliom Sec the article Bastion. 
 
 Regular Place, See the articlePLACE. 
 
 Regular, in the monaftic fenfe, denotes a perfon who has 
 made the vows in fome religious houfe. See Religious 
 and Vowi 
 
 Under regulars are comprehended the whole body of monks, 
 fryars and mendicants, (fc. 
 
 The denomination of regulars, in this cafe, arifes hente, that 
 they are bound to obferve the regula or rule of the order they 
 are entered into. Hence, 
 Regular priefi is ufed for a prieft who is in fome relifious 
 order, in oppofition to a fecular prieft, who lives in the world, 
 or at large. 
 
 A cardinal is reputed both regular and fecular and is entitled 
 to the privileges of both dates. 
 
 Regulars may be promoted to bishopries and archbifho pries, 
 as well as feculars ; but their promotion fecularizes them ; the 
 epifcopal dignity difpenfing them from the obfervation of the 
 rule whereof they had before made profeffion. 
 
 Regular abbots. See the article Abbot. 
 
 Regular benefices, are fuch as can only be held by monks or 
 religious : or at leaft, per cupientem profitcri, by a perfon defi- 
 rous to embrace the monaftic life. See Benefice. 
 It is a maxim in the Romifh canon law, — regularia regulari- 
 bus f i. e. regular benefices are to be conferred on regular 
 priefts— The abbies that are chiefs of their refpedtive orders 
 are all regular, and can only be fcrved by monks and cardinals. 
 See Abey — All benefices arc prefumed to be fecular, unlefa 
 they be proved regular. 
 
 Anticntly, the regular benefices were almoft all conferred by 
 way of adminiftration or curacy; the religious incumbents 
 being always ad manum of their fuperiors, who difplaccd them 
 at pleufure — Hence the common maxim among the canonifts, 
 onine beneficium regulare manuale. 
 
 The benefices appropriated to regulars are abbies, conventual 
 
 priories, fimple priories, and claufteral offices — The ; may hi 
 
 conferred on feculars in commendam. 
 Regular canons. See the article Canon, 
 Regular places, are thofc within the boundary or inclofure 
 
 efthe- convent; as the clciiler, dormitory, chapter, and refec- 
 tory 
 
11 E G 
 
 R E I 
 
 Let 
 
 tory— In oppofkion to thofc deftined for gueils, and for tht 
 neccflarics of the houfe, which are .reputed without the in- 
 cloture. . 
 
 Regular corporation. See the article Corporation. 
 
 Regular fmall pox. See the article Pox. 
 
 REGULATION, a rule or order prefcribed by a fupcnor : 
 for the uniform and orderly management of fome branch of 
 policy,- juftice, or the like. 
 
 REGULATOR of aluatcb,'\s a final] fpring belonging 
 the balance ; ferving to adjuft the going, and to mat 
 eo either fafter or flower. 
 
 REGULO, a title given to the Tons of the emperors ot 
 China— The emperor's eldcft fon, whom wc call the firft 
 mule, was the only one of all his children not in favour ; 
 till, of a fudden, matters took a new face. From fome new 
 intelligences, the emperor learnt the innocence oi the here- 
 ditary-prince whom he had depofed, and the artifices that had 
 beenufed to ruin him: particularly, that the fecond rcguio, 
 to fuccced therein, had had rccourfe to magic, and at the in- 
 dication of certain lame, or Tartar priefts, had procured a 
 ftatue to be buried in Tartary ; accompanying the ceremony 
 with feveral magical operations. Upon tills, orders were 
 inftantly fent to ferae the lams, and to dig up the ftatue : 
 the reguk had his palace affigned him for a pnfon. 
 Edif.UCxr. -../4'Jf •"- V- . 
 
 REGULUS, petty king, in our antient cuitoms. 
 term frequently ufed in the Saxon councils, for conns or 
 count. 
 
 Hence fuh-regulus, was alfo ufed for a vice-comes or viicount— 
 Though in many places the two feem ufed indifferently for 
 the fame dignitary— Thus in the archives of the cathedral of 
 Worcefter,° Uthrcdus fometimes ftyles himfelf reguh 
 fometimes fnb-regulus of the city of Worcefter. 
 But in other places we find a diftinaion— Oft'a rex Mercierum; 
 Uthrcdus, regulus; Aldredus, fubregulus, he. 
 EiCOLU s, in chymil'try, denotes the fincft and purcft part 
 of a metal or mineral, which finks or precipitates to the 
 bottom of the crucible or furnace, in melting the mineral 
 or ore. 
 
 To procure the regains, that is, the mercurial parts ot metals, 
 fcjr. flux powders are commonly ufed ; as nitre, tartar, CSV. 
 Which purge the fulphurous part adhering to the metal, by 
 attracting and abforbing ir to themfelves. 
 Regulus is principally ufed for that of antimony, which is a 
 ponderous metallic mafs, that upon fufing fome of the 
 mineral in its crude ftate, finks to the bottom, leaving tor 
 fcoria or impurities at the top. 
 
 The alchymills will have this matter called reguhts, t. e. little 
 king, as being the firft born of the royal metallic blood ; 
 which is, as they exprefs it, really a Ion, hut not a perfea man, 
 !. e. not yet a perfect metal for want of time and proper 
 nourifhment. -ih ^' ' ■ 
 
 Antimony purify'd by fimplc fufion, is called reguhs of an- 
 timony; or regtdus anthmnii philofophorum— Rut the more 
 common way of reducing it into a regulus, is with the ad 
 dition of flux powders, as tartar and nitre. See Flux 
 
 The fcoria found at the top of this regulus is violently emetic, 
 as well as the regulus itfelf, whereof if cups or drinking 
 vefl'els be call, the wine put into them will become rtrongly 
 
 vomitive. 
 
 Of this regulus cad in moulds are made thofe commonly cal- 
 led the antimonial pills, weighing about eight or ten grains 
 each, one of which being fwallowed, will operate couhder- 
 ably both by vomit and ftool. 
 
 Thefe pills having thus performed their office, and been dif- 
 charged the body, will ferve tlie fame purpofe again and 
 aoain ; whence thev have obtained the name of perpetual 
 
 pjlh — The virtue of this regulus is not however mex- 
 hauttible, as has been imagined ; for by repeated infulions 
 in wine, though the liquor be made violently emetic at firft, 
 yet by degrees it lofes its force, and at length ceafes to be 
 vomitive. 
 
 Martial Regulus of antimony, is made by a mixture of little 
 bits of iron, as the nails of horfes fhoes melted with the 
 regulus. 
 
 In this operation the iron difiolving and abforbing the fulphu- 
 rous parts of the antimony, more ltrongly than the fluxes in 
 the former cafe, and turning it into a crocus, the antimony 
 is hereby brought to a greater degree of purity, and rendered 
 more efficacious than in the common regulus. 
 This regulus is fometimes farther purify'd by repeated fufions 
 and detonations, with the addition of freih antimony, and 
 more nitre, alternately : in which cafe it becomes regulus an- 
 timonii jlellatus, or the Jlarry regulus of antimony. 
 Regulus of arfenic. Seethe article Arsenic 
 Regulus, in autonomy, is a ftar of the firft magnitude, 
 in the conftellation leo; called alfo from its fituation, cor 
 honis : or the lion's heart ; by the Atabs, alhabor : and by 
 the Chaldeans, kalkllted, or kalbikiiid, from an opinion of 
 
 its influencing the affairs 'of the heavens ; as is obferved by 
 Theon. - ' 
 
 The longitude of regulus, as fixed by Mr Flamfteed, is 25 0 , 
 31', 20"; and its latitude 0°, 26', 38" North. . See Leo. 
 REHABILITATION, Rehabilitate, in the 
 civil and canon law, an action whereby a prince or pope, by 
 difpenfations or letters patent, reftorcs a delinquent to the 
 condition he was in before his delinquency. See Degra- 
 dation. 
 
 The king alone can rehabilitate an officer noted, -condemned 
 and degraded ; or a gentleman who has derogated from his 
 
 rank. 
 
 The pope alone pretends to rehabilitate, i. c. to render capable 
 of benefices and orders, fuch as had fallen into hercly, or 0- 
 ther irregularities. 
 
 In Romilh countries, an ecclefiaftic who affiftV at the execu- 
 tion of a fentence of death, is to be rehabilitated, by an ablb- 
 lution, called a fitvis. 
 REHEARSAL, in mufic and the drama, an efiay, . or expe- 
 riment of fome compofition, which is made in private, pre- 
 vious to the reprefeutation or performance rhereof in public ; 
 to habituate the adlors or performers, and make them more 
 ready and perfect in their parts— There is a new tragedy in 
 rchearfal — the rchcarfal of the anthem, tjtc. 
 REI domefticx dampens. See Domesticus. 
 REIMBURSEMENT, in commerce, the aft of repay- 
 ing, or returning what monies a perfon had received, by way 
 of^advance, &c. or what another has difburfed or paid for us, 
 A perfon who gives a bill of exchange 111 payment, is to re- 
 imburfe it, if it come to be protefted, tor want of being ac- 
 cepted or paid. 
 
 Reimbursing is alfo ufed for paying the price a com- 
 modity cofts its owner— Thus, he has tu rendered to me 
 the lot of merchandize adjudged to him at the (ale at London 
 by the direitors of the Ealr-India company, on condition ol 
 reimburfmg the price of the purchafe, with the expences of 
 carriage, and a profit of 5 pet cent. 
 REINFORCED, or Renforced, ring, of a cannon, is 
 that next after the trunnions, betwixt them and the touch- 
 hole. 
 
 REINFORCEMENT, in war, a fupply, or new provifion ot 
 
 men, arms, ammunition, csV. 
 REINTEGRATION. See the article Redintegra- 
 tion. 
 
 REINS*, in anatomy, the kidneys ; or that part of an ani- 
 mal whereby the urine is feparated from the blood. See Kid- 
 neys. 
 
 • The word, according to Varro, is formed from the Greek, 
 ,„„, q „ c fi riui ob/ceni humoris ab iis aiantm — The Greeks 
 call the rein, nn&-, from the verb, >«">, to rain, fnow, tic. 
 
 In the manage they fay, ahorfe ihould have double reins; 
 that is, he fhould have them a little more elevated on each fide 
 of the back-bone, than upon it; fo that paffing your hand 
 alone it, you find it large, well furnilhed and double, by the 
 holtow that goes all along the back-bone— The back fhould 
 be firm, and not hollow, or bending from the withers to the 
 croup, but ftraight. 
 Reins, of a bridle, alfo denote two ftraps of leather meeting 
 in the bridle-hand of the horfeman, in order to make the bit 
 bear, and keep the horie under fubjeaion. See Bridle. 
 Falfe Reins is a lath of leather, palled (ometimes through the 
 
 arch of the banquet, to bend the horfe's neck. 
 Reins of a vault. See the article Vault. 
 REINSTATING, the reftoring of a perfon or thing to its 
 former ftate or condition, from whence it had been difturbed 
 or difplaced. See Rehabilitation. 
 REJOINTING, or Rejoynting, in architecture, the 
 filling up the joints of the ftones in old buildings, isc. when 
 worn hollow by courfe of time, or by wcarher. 
 Rejointing is to be performed with the beft mortar ; as that 
 of lime, and cement ; fometimes, alfo with plaifter, as in 
 the joints of vaults, Cvr. p ■ 
 
 REJOYNDER, in law, the defendants anfwer to the plaintiff s 
 replication. . 
 The order in the court of chancery is thus— Fifir, the defend- 
 ant puts in an anfwer to the plaintiff's bill, which is fome- 
 times alfo called an exception : the plaintiff's anfwer to this is 
 called a replication ; and the defendant's anfwer ro that, a re- 
 joyndcr ; anfwering to what the civilians call duplkatio. Sec 
 Chancery, tsV. 
 REIS, Re, or Res. See the article Ree. 
 REITERATED grafting. See Engrafting. 
 REITERATING, in printing. See Printing. 
 REITERATION, the ad of repeating thing. 
 
 it a fecond time. SrQM , c 
 
 The church does not allow of the reiteration of baptilm. oee 
 Baptism— St Gregory obferves, that it k no reiteration 
 when there ate wanting proofs of the thing's having been 
 regularly dons'before. 
 
 doin^ 
 
 1.1 
 
REL 
 
 R EL 
 
 in p] cur: lies, the phyhcians order the bleeding to be reiterated 
 
 fix or feven times. 
 REITTERS, an antient title given the German cavalry — 
 
 The word is originally High Dutch, and Signifies a horfeffian, 
 
 cavalier; or even knight. 
 RELAPbEj a return or back -Aiding into a danger or evil, out 
 
 of which a perfon had eScaped. 
 
 Fevers, tfrbpiies, &e. are difeafes into which rehpfes are very 
 frequeiit and dangerous— Such a perfon is relapfed into a herefy 
 he hui abjured. 
 
 RELATION"*, Relatio, in philofophy, the mutual 
 refpect of two things ; or what each is with regard to the 
 other. 
 
 * The word is formed a referenda ; relation confiding in this, 
 -that one thing is referred to another ; whence it Is alio call- 
 ed re/fid, habitude, and comparifm. 
 
 The idea of relation we acquire, when the mind fo confiders 
 any thing, that it doth, as it were, bring it to, and fet it by, 
 in; ther, and carry its view from the one to the other— 
 Hence the denominations given to things intimating this re- 
 fpect, are called relatives ; and the things fo brought together 
 are laid to be related. 
 
 Thus, when I call Cains husband, or this wall whiter, I 
 intimate fome other perfon or thing in both cafes, with 
 
 which I compare him or it Hence the wall is called 
 
 by the fchoolmen the fubjed, the thing it exceeds in whi te- 
 nds the term, and the whiteneis the foundation of the rela- 
 tion. >^r:jof is> isnwiu .it} t 'XHV-'iQ& *o 
 delation may be confidcred two ways ; either on the part of 
 the mind referring one thing to another : in which fenfe refac- 
 tion is only a mode or affection of the min.1, whereby we 
 make fuch comparifon : or on the part of the tilings referred, 
 which being no other than ideas, relation, in this fenSe, i: 
 only a new idea refulting or arifmg in the mind upon confi- 
 dering of two other ideas— So that relation, take it as you will, 
 is only in the mind, and has nothing to do with the things 
 themSclvcs. 
 
 Any of our ideas, Mr Lock ohferves, may be the foun- 
 dation of relation Though, where languages have failed 
 
 to give correlative names, the relation is not ealily taken 
 notice of; as in concubine, which is a relative name, a; 
 well as wife. 
 
 There is, in effect, no idea but is capable of an infinite num- 
 ber of relations : thus, one Single man may at once fuftain the 
 relations of father, brother, fon, hufband, friend, Subject, 
 general, European, Englilhman, iflander, matter, fervant, 
 bigger, lefs, i$c, to an almoft infinite number ; he being ca- 
 pable of as many relations as there can be occaiions of com- 
 paring him to other things in any manner of agreement or 
 di (agreement, or any refpect whatfoever. 
 The ideas of relations are much clearer and more diftmct 
 than thofe of the things related; becaufe the knowledge of one 
 fimple idea is oftentimes fufficient to give the notion of a re- 
 lation; but, to the knowing of any fubitantial being, an ac- 
 curate collection of feveral ideas is neccSiary. 
 The perception we have of the relations between various 
 ideas wherein the mind acquieSces, makes what we cal 
 
 judgment Thus, when I judge 2 times 2 make 4, o 
 
 does not make 5, I only perceive the equality between : 
 times 2 and 4, and the inequality between 2 times 2 and 
 5- 
 
 i he perception we have of the relations between the rcla 
 lations of various things, conftitutes what we call reajbni>.g 
 
 Thus, when from this, that 4 is a fmaller number 
 
 than 6 ; and that twice 2 is equal to 4, I gather, that 
 twice 2 is a lefs number than 6, I only perceive together the 
 relation of the numbers twice 2 and 4, and the relation of 4 
 and 6. 
 
 The ideas of caufe and effect, wc get from our obfervation of 
 the viciUitude of things, while we perceive lome qua] -ties or 
 Jubilances begin to exitt, and that they receive their exiflence 
 from the due application and operation of other beings — 
 That which produceth, is the caufe ; that which is produced, 
 is the effect. 
 
 Thus, fluidity in wax is the effect of a certain degree of heat, 
 which we obferve to be conftantJy produced by the application 
 of fuch heat. 
 
 The denorhi nations of things taken from time, are, for the 
 moft part, only relations — Vims, when it is laid, that queen 
 Elizabeth lived lixty-ninc, and reigned forty-five years, no 
 more is meant, than that the duration of h.r existence was 
 equal to hxty-nine, and of her government to forty-five, an- 
 nual revolutions of the fun; and fo are all words anfwering to 
 how long. 
 
 Young and old, lr.d other words of time, that are thought to 
 ftand tor pofitivc ideas, are indeed relative, and intimate 
 ulation to a certain length of duration, whereof we have the 
 idea in our minds— Thus, we caii a man young or old, that 
 hath lived little or much of that time, which men ufually 
 Vol. II. 
 
 1 voting at twenty, but ah 
 
 attain to : and thus a man is called ■ 
 horfe old at the fame period. 
 
 There are other ideas; that are truly relative, which we 
 fignify by names that are thought politive and abfolute ; fuch 
 as great and little, ttrong and weak— The tilings thus deno- 
 minated, are referred to fome Standards, with which we com- 
 pare them : thus, we call an apple great, which is bigger 
 than the ordinary fort of thofe we have been ufed to ; and a 
 man weak, that has not fo much Itrength or power to move 
 as men ufually have, or as others of his own fize have. 
 Authors give various divifions of relations — The fchool philo- 
 sophers commonly divide them into thofe of origination, under 
 which are comprehended the relations of caufe and effect ; 
 thofe of negation, which are between oppolite things ; and* 
 thofe of affirmation, which are relations of agreement between 
 whole and part, the Sign and thins: Signified, the adjunct and 
 fubject — This div:fion is founded upon this* that the mind 
 can only compare things three ways, viz. by inferring, de- 
 fying, and affirming. 
 
 Others divide relations into thofe of origination ; thofe of agree* 
 reient, e. gr. fimilitude, parity, &c, thofe of diverf.ty j and 
 thofe of order, as priority, posteriority, &e. 
 Others divide them into predieamenial and trarfcendental.— 
 Under the firft come thofe relations between things that be- 
 long to the fame predicament* e. gr. between father atid fon. 
 To the latter belong thofe which are more general than the 
 predicaments, or are of different predicaments ; as the rela- 
 tions of fubftance and accident; of caufe and effect ; and of 
 creator and creature. 
 
 Mr Lock gives us a distribution of relations on a different 
 bottom— All Simple ideas, he obferves wherein are parts or 
 degrees, afford an occaSion of comparing the Subjects, wherein 
 they are to one another in refpect of thofe Simple ideas ; as 
 
 whiter, Sweeter, more, lets* TheSe, depending on 
 
 the equality and excels of the Same Simple idea* in Several Sub- 
 jects, may be called proportional relations. 
 Another occafion oS comparing things being taken from the 
 circumstances of their origin, as father, Son, brother, tifV; 
 theSe may be called natural relations. 
 
 Sometimes the foundation of confidering things is fome act 
 whereby any one comes by a moral right, power, or obliga- 
 tion, to do fomcthing : Such are general, captain, burgher ; 
 theSe are injiituted and voluntary relations^ and may be diftin- 
 guifhed from the natural, in that they are alterable and Sepa- 
 rable from the perfons to whom they Sometimes belonged, 
 though neither of the fubftances So related be deftroyed. ° 
 But natural relations are not alterable, but are as lafting as 
 their Subjects. 
 
 Another relation is the conformity or disagreement of mens 
 voluntary actions to a rule, to which they are referred, and 
 by which they are judged of : thefe may be called moral rela- 
 tions, 
 
 It is this conformity or disagreement of our actions to fome 
 law (whereby good or evil is drawn on us from the will and 
 power of the law-maker, and is what we call reward or pu- 
 niflmient) that renders our actions morally good or evil. 
 Of thefe moral rules of laws there Seem to be three Sorts, 
 with their different enforcements. Firft, the divine law : fe- 
 condly* civil law: thirdly) the law of opinion or reputation. 
 By their relation to the firft, our actions are cither fins or du- 
 ties J to the Second, criminal or innocent ; to the third, vir- 
 tues or vices. 
 
 Relation, in logic, is an accident of Subftance, accounted 
 one of the ten categories or predicaments. 
 Each fubftance admits of an infinity of relations — Thus, the 
 fame Peter, confidered with regard to Henry* is in the rela- 
 tion of a matter; with regard to John, in that of a tenant ; 
 with regard to Mary, in that of a hufband, fsV. Agaifi, with 
 regard to one perfon he is rich; with regard to another poor; 
 with regard to another he is far, near, tall* Short, a neigh- 
 bour, Stranger, learned, unlearned, good, ba r! , equal, (Jhtt 
 is diSputed among the School philoSophcrs, whether or no the 
 relation be a thing formally and reaily diftinct from the foun- 
 dation of the fubftance. 
 Relation is alfo ufed, in the fchool theology, to denote cer- 
 tain of the divine perfections, called perfonal ones ; in regard, 
 by thefe one divine perfon is referred to another, and diftin- 
 guiShed from it. 
 
 Hence they teach, that in God there is one nature, two 
 proceffions, three perfons, and four relations. 
 Thefe relations are paternity, filiation, active Spiration, and 
 paflive Spiration. See Paternity. 
 Relation, in geometry, arithmetic, &V. is the habitude 
 or refpect of two quantities to one another, with regard to 
 their magnitude — This we more ufually call ratio, or reafsn. 
 See Ratio. 
 
 The equality or famenefs of two Such relations we call pro- 
 portion. 
 
 Relation, in grammar, is the correspondence which words 
 have to one another in construction. 
 
 io Faulty 
 
R EL 
 
 R EE 
 
 Sirflw and irregular rdalkns are the things chiefly to be 
 guarded arainft, in writing correal)- i they make the fenle 
 oblcure, arid frequently equivocal— Thus : the orator was 
 attended to with a coldnels, which was the more remark- 
 able, as the audience were under fomc emotion belore he 
 began— Here aUmfl being put indeterminately, the rela- 
 tive which can have no juft and regular nhhm there- 
 
 ReTation is alfo frequently ufed for analogy, or what feveral 
 
 things have in common. 
 
 In painting, architecture, £sY. a certain 
 
 parts and members of the building or picture, conltitutes 
 
 what we call Jymmetr\. 
 Relation, inharmmkaU in unified compofmon, is that wnole_ 
 
 extreams form a falfe, or unnatural interval, ui 
 
 This B is"oti'erwife called a falfe relatum, and ftands oppc 
 a jujl or true relation. 
 Rflation, in law, is where two things, as tunes, 
 
 confidered as if they were one; the thing fubfequent 
 being confidered as taking effect, by relation, at the tune 
 
 Sftf ^deliver a writing to B, to be delivered to C, 
 as the deed of A\ the writing fhall be deemed to be de- 
 livered to 6', at the time when it was given to B, by 
 relation. , n . .1 
 
 So bills in parliament to which the king affents on the 
 laft day of parliament fhall relate, and be of force from 
 the firft dav thereof. Coke calls this ficlio juris. 
 RELATIVE proportions, are fuch as include fome relation 
 and comparifon. ' • , . 
 
 Thus, where the trcafurc is, there will the heart be— As 
 much as thou hall, Co much thou art worth, ffa are rela- 
 tive propofiti'jns. 
 
 relation of the feveral 
 
 Relative gravity. 
 Relative levity. 
 Relative motion. 
 Relative nezcffity 
 Relative pit 
 
 See Gravity. 
 
 See Levity. 
 
 See Motion. 
 , See Necessity. 
 See Place. 
 
 1 relation. 
 
 Relative jpace. See Space* 
 Relative time. See Time. 
 Relative velocity. See* Velocity. 
 Relative terms, in logic, are words which impi; 
 or a thine coniideied as compared to another. 
 Relative terms include a kind of oppofition between 
 tHem; yet fo, as that the one cannot be without the 
 
 other. , i'r 1 
 
 Such are father and fon, husband and wijfa king and jub- 
 jefis, faV. . ' 
 
 Relative, in grammar, is a word or term which in tin 
 conftruction anfwers to fome word fore-going, called the 
 antecedent. 
 
 Pronoun Relative, which Buffier chufes rather to call mo- 
 difuative or determinative, is a particle added after a noun, 
 or perianal pronoun, with which it has an affinity, lo that 
 without them it fignifies nothing ; its only ufe being to ex- 
 prefs in what view they are confidered. 
 Of this kind, in the Latin, are qui, qua, quod, &e. m the 
 EngHfb, who, which, whom, &c. As in the book which you 
 are reading ; the man whom you feek ; he who told it, faf, 
 ~Wpere which, whom, and who only follow the noun or 
 pronoun, to refer or determine them to fome particular thing 
 as to feeking, reading, &c. « « ' 
 
 Frequently, the noun or pronoun wherewith the 
 five is joined, is undeiftood : 
 Where it is evident I mean, 
 did, &c 
 
 RELAXATION, Relaxatio, in medicine, V* the 
 
 a£b of loofening or llackening the tone or tenfion of the 
 fibres, nerves, mufcles, effc. 
 
 The relaxation ofamufcle is fuppofed to be effected, either 
 by the perfpiration of the nervous fpirits, or the regref, 
 of the fpirits, blood, ts'c. which inflated its fibres ; or by 
 the contraction of the air, in the globules of blood beft 
 expanded by the fudden influx and admixture of the fpi- 
 rits, &c. 
 
 Relaxation, in chirurgcry is a preternatural extcnfion, 01 
 ftraininf 'of a nerve, tendon, mufcle, or tlie like 5 either 
 through violence, or weaknefs. 
 
 Hernias are defcents or relaxations of the inteftines, &c. 
 From the fame caufe arife defcents or prolapfions of the 
 anus, &c. 
 
 Relaxation, in law, is ufed for a reieafing. 
 lease. 
 
 In this fenfe we hy the relaxation of an attachment in the 
 court of admiralty. 
 
 The tenor of indulgences is a relaxation, or diminution of 
 the pains of purgatory. 
 RELAY, a freih equipage, horfe, £gf. fent before, or appoint 
 ed to be ready, for a traveller to change j to make the 
 greater expedition ; as in riding port, 
 
 The term is borrowed from the French, retais, which figfri- 
 fies the fame thing In France, the general of the ports en- 
 titles himfelf fuperintendant of the relays. 
 Relays, in hunting, are frefh fets of dogs, or horfes, or 
 both, difpofed here and there for readinefs, in cafe the 
 game come that way, to be caff off, or to mount the hunt- 
 ers in lieu of the former, which are fuppofed to want re- 
 fpite. 
 
 Relay, in tapeftry, is an opening left in a piece of tapefiry, 
 where the colours or figures are to be changed ; becaufe, on 
 thofe occafions, the workmen arc changed ; or elfe the places 
 are left to be filled up till the reft of the work is done. See 
 Tapestry. 
 
 RELEASE, Relaxatio, in law, denotes an mftru- 
 ment, whereby eftates, rights, titles, entries, actions, and 
 other things, are fometimes extinguished and annulled, 
 fometimes transferred, fometimes abridged, and even fome- 
 times inlawed. A Releafe is either in fail or in law 
 
 A releafe in fa£i is that which the very words do exprefly 
 declare. 
 
 A releafe in law is that which acquits by way of confequence, 
 or intendment of law. 
 RELEGATION, Relecatio, a kind of exile or ba- 
 nifhment, wherein the obnoxious perfon is commanded fo re- 
 tire to a certain place prefcribed, and to continue there till he 
 be recalled. 
 
 Lord Coke calls relegation a banifhmcnt for a time only : 
 Courtin more adequately defines relegation a banifliment to a 
 certain place for a certain term. 
 
 In Rome, relegation was a lefs fevcre pumfhment than depor- 
 tation, in that the relegated perfon did not thereby lefe the 
 rights of a Roman citizen, nor thofe of his family, as the 
 authority of a father over his children, fcfe. See Banish- 
 ment. 
 
 RELICKS, RelichJ-^, in the Romifh church, certain re- 
 mains of the body or clothes of fome faint or martyr, de- 
 voutly preferved in honour to his memory, carried at procef- 
 nons, killed, revered, 6ff. 
 
 The abufes of that church in point of relicts are very flagrant: 
 F. Mabillon, a Benedictin, complains of the great number of 
 fulpected relicks expofed on altars : he owns, that, were there 
 to be a ftritt inquifition into the relicks, vaft numbers of 
 fpurious ones would be found offered every-where to the piety 
 and devotion of the faithful \ and adds, that bones are fre- 
 quently confecrated, fo far from belonging to faints, that, in 
 all probability, they do not belong to chriitians. 
 The catacombs are an inexhauflible fund of r clicks ; yet 
 it is ltill difputed who were the perfons interred there- 
 
 ■ela- 
 
 1 know who did that, 
 know the perfon who 
 
 See Re- 
 
 In the eleventh century, a method was introduced of trying 
 fuppofed rclkks by fire — Thofe which did notconfume in the 
 fire, were reputed genuine ; the reft not. 
 It is an antient cuftom, which fiill obtains, to preferve 
 
 the relicks in the altars whereon mafs is celebrated To 
 
 this purpofe, a lquare hole is made in the middle or the altar, 
 big enough to receive the hand ; and herein is the relief; depo- 
 fitcd, being rirfl wrapped in red filk, and inclofed in a leaden 
 
 box. 
 
 The Romanifts alledge a good deal of antiquity in behalf of 
 
 their relicks The Manichees, it feems, out of hatred to 
 
 the flefh, which they held an evil principle, are recorded 
 as refufing to honour the relicks of faints ; which is efteem- 
 ed a kind of proof, that the catholicks did it in the firft 
 ages. 
 
 Indeed, folly and fuperftition got into religion but too early. 
 
 Even the touching of linen cloths on relicks, from an 
 
 opinion of fome extraordinary virtue derived therefrom, ap- 
 pears to be as antient as the firft ages, there being a hole made 
 in the coffins of the forty martyrs at Constantinople, exprefly 
 for this purpofe. 
 
 RELICT, Relict a, in law. See the article Wi- 
 dow. 
 
 REXICTA verification?* inlaw, is when a defendant rclin- 
 quifhes his proof or plea, and thereupon judgment is entered 
 for the plaintiff. 
 
 RELIEF, Relevium, levamen, in law, a fine paid to the 
 chief lord, by a perfon at his coming to the inheritance of 
 land held in capite, or by military fervice. 
 This was laid relevare httreditatem caducam, and the money 
 
 thus paid was called rekvanien, relevium, or relief- Relief 
 
 is ufually to the value of a year's rent or revenue. 
 The origin of the cuftom is thus — A feudatary or beneficiary 
 eftate in lands, being at firft only granted for life, after the 
 death of the vafi'al, it returned to the chief lord ; and wa* 
 hence called fcudum caducum, q. d. fallen to the lord by the 
 death of the tenant. - 
 In courfe of time, thefe feudatary eftates, being converted in- 
 to inheritances by the connivance and confent of the lord ; 
 when the poffellbr of fuch eftate died, it was called haredjtai 
 caduca, q. d. an inheritance fallen to the lord, from whom it 
 was to be recovered, by the heirs paying a certain fum of money. 
 
 This 
 
r e r 
 
 REL 
 
 This tvHtf waa clla'olifliec! after the cbnqucft — Fot till that 
 time bariots wetf? paid the lord, at the death of his tenant; 
 confuting j»f horfes, arms, fcfi. 
 
 But upon the conqueft the poor people being deprived of 
 all fnch things by the Normans, a fum of money was flib- 
 ftituted in lieu thereof, which was called a relief; and this 
 Continues in fume places to this day — However, it is true, 
 that relief and bariot arc frequently confounded in antient 
 writers. 
 
 Relief rettfonablti, called alfo lawful., and antient relief is 
 that enjoined by fbme law, or fixed by antient cuftom ; and 
 which docs not depend on the will of the lord. 
 Thus in a chatter of king John, mentioned by Matt. Paris 
 Si quis eomitum vel haronum nojlrorum five aliorum tenentium 
 de nobis m capiteper jer-vitium militare, murium fuerit & cum 
 deeefferit, bares fuus plena artatis fuerit, C3 3 relevium debet, 
 babcat heereditatem fuam per antiquum relevium. 
 
 What this was may be feen in the laws of William the Con- 
 queror, cJc'. — Bract on fays, this fine was called a relief quia 
 bizreditas qua jcTeens fuit per antecejjoris decefj'um relcvatur in 
 manus htvredum^ he. 
 
 A relief is alfo paid in focage tenure, or petit fcrjeanty ; 
 where a rent or other thing is paid by rendering as much as 
 the rent or payment referved. 
 
 By the cuftom of Normandy, relief is due (or lands held in 
 villainage, as well as in fee — By the cuftom of Paris, relief is 
 not due upon inheritances in the direct line. 
 The quantity of the relief is very different ; there are fingle 
 reliefs, double reliefs, he. The quality, too, is diverfe ; 
 there arc reliefs of property, paid by the heir : reliefs of bail, 
 or tutorage, paid by a guardian for his minor, or by the 
 hufband for the fiefs of his wife, fjto Relief of borfe and 
 arms, he. 
 
 By the laws of king Canutus, the relief of an earl, paid to 
 the king, was eight war-horfes with their bridles and faddles, 
 four cuirafies, four helmets, four fwords, four huntihg-hories 
 and a palfrey — The relief of a baron or thane was four 
 
 . horfes, &c. 
 
 -Relief, in chancer)', denotes an order fued out for the dilTolv- 
 ing of contracts, and other acts, on account of their being 
 unreafonablc, prejudicial, grievous, or from fome other nul- 
 lity, either de jure, or de faclo. 
 
 Minors obtain relief againft: a£ts paffed in their minority 
 — Majors have relief in cafes of enormous damage, deceit, 
 violence, over-reaching, extravagant bargains, tfe. 
 Among the Romantits it is a rule, that the church obtains 
 relief any time, and againft all acts palled in its prejudice ; 
 no prefcription prevailing againft it. 
 /idde Relief. See the article Aid. 
 
 Relief of a hare, among hunters, is the place where me 
 goes ci feed in the evening. 
 
 Relief, in fculpture. See the article Relievo. 
 
 RELIEVE, in the military fenfe— To relieve is to take 
 the poft of another body— Hence, to relieve the guard, to 
 relieve the trenches, is'c. is to bring frefh men upon the guard, 
 or to the trendies, and to fend thofe to reft who have been 
 upon duty before. They alfo fa}', relieve a fentinel, relieve 
 the fteers-man, t&c. 
 
 RELIEVO, or Relief, imbojfment, is applied to a figure 
 which projects or ftands out, prominent, from the ground 
 or plane whereon it is formed, whether that figure be cut 
 with the chiffel, moulded or caft. There are three kinds of 
 relievo : viz. alto, bajfo and ekmi-relievo. 
 
 JI/o-Kelievo, haut relief, or high relievo, is when the figure is 
 formed after nature, and projec-ts as much as the life. 
 
 .B^-Relievo, bas-relief or low relievo, is when the work 
 is but railed a little from its ground , as we fee in medals, 
 and in the frontifpieces of buildings, particularly the hiftorics, 
 feftoons, foliages, and other ornaments in friezes. 
 
 DcW-Relievo is when one half of the figure rifes from the 
 plane, i, e. when the body of a figure feems cut in two, and 
 one half is clapped on a ground — When in a bafjb relievo 
 there arc fome parts that ftand clear out, detached' from the 
 reft, the work is called a demi-boj/e. 
 
 Relievo, in architecture, denotes the fally or proje&ure of 
 any ornament. 
 
 This, Daviler obferves, is always to be proportioned to the 
 magnitude of the building it adorns ; and the diftance at which 
 it is to be viewed. 
 
 If the work be infulate and terminated on all fides, it is 
 called a figure in relievo, or a round imboffment. Such are 
 ftatues, acrutcrs, csV. 
 Relievo in painting, denotes the degree of force or boldnefs 
 whereby a figure feems, at a due diftance, to ftand out from 
 the ground of the painting, as if really imboffed. 
 The relieve depends much on the depth of the fhadow, and 
 the ftrength of the light ; or on the heighth of the diffe- 
 rent colours bordering on one another ; and particularly on the 
 
 difference of the colour of the figure from that of the 
 ground. 
 
 When the light is well chofen, to make the neareft part^ 
 or figures advance ;■ and well diffufed ion the mafic?, ftiil 
 diminifhing infeiiliblyj and terminating in a large fpecious 
 fhadow, brought off infenfibly ; the relievo is faid^to be bold, 
 and the elare-obfeure, well underflow!. 
 RELIGION, Religio, that worfhip or homage due to 
 God, confidered as creator, prefcrvcr, and, with chrifHans, 
 as redeemer of the world. 
 
 The foundation ©f all religion is, that there is a God, and 
 that he requires fbme fervice at the hands of his creatures 
 — From the different manners wherein we arrive at the 
 knowledge of this fervice religion is divided into natural 
 and revealed. 
 
 Xatural Rz-ligiok is whatever we defcry to be due and meet 
 by the meer dictates of natural reafon; as to love and ho- 
 nour God, not to abufe his creatures, ts\\ 
 
 Revealed Religion is what we learn to be due by fome fu- 
 pernatural means ; as by an exprefs declaration of God him- 
 felf, by the mouths of prophets, t3c. 
 
 The nrft flows immediately from the relation between the 
 creature and the creator; the latter does not follow from fuch 
 a relation, but is fuper-added from the mere will and pleafurc 
 of the creator. 
 
 The firft we ordinarily call morality? or ethics; becaufe im- 
 mediately converfant about the manners and duties of men 
 towards one another; and towards themfelves, confidered 
 as creatures of that being. 
 
 The latter we call byway of eminence religion, as being 
 the rule of our duty immediately to God himfelf. 
 The firft fuppoies a God, a providence, a future ftate, re- 
 wards and punifhments; the latter likewife fuppufes ari 
 immediate million from God himfelf, attcfted by miracle:;, 
 Religion is more particularly ufed for that fpccial fyftcm of 
 faith and worfhip, which obtains in this or that country ; in 
 this or that feci ; this or that age, bfc. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay the Romifh religio?}, the Reformed reli- 
 gion, the religion of the Greeks, the Mahometan religion, 
 the Jewifh religion, he. See Judaism, Mahometanisiv:., 
 and the reft, under their proper heads. 
 
 The Siamcfe hold the diveriity of religions, i. e. the different 
 manners of honouring God, to be pleating to him; inaf- 
 much as they have all the fame object, and all tend to the 
 fame end, though by different means. Claude. 
 This fentiment of thefe idolaters is doubtlefs morcjuft than 
 that of our zealots, who hold all but thofe of their own 
 religion odious to God — Thefe fcveral feels in religion fee un- 
 der their proper articles ; fee alfo Sect. 
 
 The religion of the ruling part of the world— You may 
 find a lively defcriptioh of it in a chorus in Seneca's 
 Troas, at the end of the 2d aft ; beginning thus : fa-rum ejl, 
 an timidos fabula decipit ?. Umbras corporibus vivere conditis 
 he. This, according to Patin, is the religion of princes, and 
 great men, of magistrates, monaftic fupcriors, and even fome 
 phylicians and philofophers. . M. du Maine, head of the 
 leaguers in France, ufed to fay, that princes have no religion till 
 after they are turned of 40— Cum numine nobis j/iors injlans 
 ynajore facit. Patin. Lett. Choif. 106. 
 
 Religion, again, is applied to a military order, confuting of 
 knights who live under fome certain rule, c?Y. 
 In tiiis fenfe we fay the religion of A'lalta, &c See Malta. 
 
 Religion, is fomctimes alfo ufed for a convent — Thus we 
 faj-, there are religions of men, t, e. monks ; religions of 
 women, e. nuns — There are new religions eftablilhed 
 every day, /. e. there arc continually new monalieries 
 built. 
 
 77;i'Relicion ufed abfolutely denotes the reformed in France 
 -—7 hus, they fay, d'Ablancourt and Dacier were of the reli- 
 gion. See Huguenot. 
 
 RELIGIOUS, ina general fenfe, fomething that relates to 
 
 religion. 
 
 We fay, a religious life, religions fociety, Esfe. See Society. 
 —Churches and church-yards are religious places — A religious 
 war is alfo called a croifade. 
 Religious, is more particularly ufed for a perfon engaged 
 by lolemn vows to the monaftic life; or a perfon fhut up in a 
 monaftery, to lead a life of devotion and auftcritv, under 
 fome rule or inftitution. 
 
 The male religious we popularly call monks and friars; 
 the female, nuns and canonejfes. See Nun, Monk, 
 Canon, tiff. 
 
 M. Nicole obferves, that fome domeftic chagrins, and a 
 certain pride, which leads people to abfeond^ when they 
 cannot make a figure to their mir.d, makes a: many religious 
 as real piety — He adds, that a girl muft often be made a 
 religious for no other reafon, but becaufe flie cannot be mar- 
 ried anfwerable to her condition, 
 
 . Artli- 
 
REM 
 
 A t&pm cannot make any will-By the council of Trent, a 
 nBpm may reclaim his vows within five years, bee K£- 
 
 AntientJv the rlRgims were all laymen, and it was even 
 prohibited them to take up orders-In l 5 57 .*<= parhament 
 of Paris made a difficulty of receiving a bifhop of Eaon 
 to the oath of a duke and peer; by reafon of his being a 
 relinom : yet a religious being promoted to a bifhopnc, is 
 thenceforth' fecularized or difpenfed fromtne obfervat.on ot 
 his rule. . r. , . 
 
 1,1 ancient deeds and conveyances of lands, we often hnd tne 
 from giving or alienating it, v,r,s rthgujis vcl 
 
 REM 
 
 s thofe 
 
 feller reftrained from giving or alienating . 
 Judaks to religious or to Jews i to die end the land might not 
 fall into mortmain. , 
 In a memorial directed by king John to hu vifcounts, they 
 are ordered to proclaim through their refpcciive counties, tna 
 no body, as they love their bodies and cattle, injure the «* 
 AV/W or clerks, either in word or deed ; on penalty of ben^ 
 hanged up on the next oak-WW/i fuut dihgunt corpora £tf 
 catalla fua malum faciant vcl dicant vins rehgtulis vel cle- 
 rfds-ii quern inde aitlngere fxflhws ad proximam quercum 
 eum fufpendi fademus. 
 Religious order. See the article Order. , 
 Moft military orders pretend, likewiie to be religious 
 of Malta, who make vows, &c. See Malta. 
 RELIQUA, the remainder or debt, which a perfon finds 
 hunfelf debtor in, upon the balancing and liquidating an 
 account. 
 
 Hence, reliquiiary, the debtor of a rehqua ; as alio a per- 
 fen who only pays piece-meal— The term reliqua is pure 
 Latin. ■;. ' .'. 
 
 RELIQUARY, a fhrinc or cafket, in which the reheks ot 
 
 a dead faint are kept.. 
 RELIQUL/E, Relicks, in antiquity, the alb.es and bones 
 of the dead, which remained after burning their bodies ; and 
 which they very religiouily gathered and put in urns, and 
 afterwards depofited in tombs. 
 REMAINDER, Remanentia, in law, an eftate limited 
 in lands, tenements, or rents, given to a perfon at fecond 
 hand, to be enjoyed after the deceafe of another, to whom 
 the fame is given immediately, or at firft hand. 
 A man grants lands to one for term of life, the remainder to 
 another for the term of his life; which remainder may be 
 either for a certain time, or in fee Ample, or fee tail. 
 Spelman makes the difference between a remainder or rever 
 fnn to coniift in this; that by arevcrfion, after the appoint- 
 ed term, the eftate returns to the donor, or his heirs, as the I 
 
 debts, for appearance ; or for obferving orders ; and makes 
 out procefs againft the collectors of cuftoms, fubfidies, and 
 fifteenths, for their accounts — All informations upon penal 
 ftatutes are entered in this office, and there all matters upon 
 Englifh bills in the exchequer-chamber remain — He makes 
 the bills of compofition upon penal laws, takes the itatement 
 of debts ; has delivered into his office all manner of inden- 
 tures, rines, and other evidences whatfoever that concern 
 the affuring of any lands to the crown : he every year in 
 crafi'tna animarum, reads, in open court, the ftatutc for elec- 
 tion of fheriffs, and gives them their oath, and reads the 
 oath of all the officers of the exchequer, when they are ad- 
 mitted. - 
 The lord trcafurer's Remembrancer, is charged to make 
 procefs againft all fheriffs, cfcheators, receivers, and bailiffs, 
 for their account: procefs of fieri facias, &c extent for 
 any debts due to the king, either in the pipe, or with 
 the auditors, and procefs for all fuch revenues as are due 
 to the king, by reafon of his tenures — He alfo makes re- 
 cord, whereby it appears whether fheriffs, or other ac- 
 comptants, pay their proffers due at Eaftcr and Michaelmas — 
 He makes another record, whether fheriffs or other accomp- 
 tants keep their days of prefixion ; all eftreats or fines, 
 ifiues, and amerciaments, fet in any of the courts of Welt- 
 minfter, or at the affizes or feffion.-:, arc certified into his of- 
 fice, and ate by him delivered to the clerk of the eftreats to 
 write procefs upon them, ts'c. 
 The Remembrancer of the firjl fruits takes all compo- 
 fitions and bonds for firft-iruits and tenths ; and makes procefs 
 againft fuch as do not pay the fame. 
 REMINISCENCE, Reminiscentia, is that power of 
 the human mind, whereby it recollects itfelf, or calls again 
 to its remembrance fuch ideas or notions as it had really 
 foro-ot : in which it differs from memory, which is a treafu- 
 ring up of things in the mind, and keeping them there, with- 
 out forgetting them. 
 
 Hence memory may be confidered as a continual re- 
 membrance ; and reminifcence, as an interrupted memory. 
 How near a-kin foever the two faculties may feem, yet they 
 are generally found fcparated ; fo that they who excel! in the 
 one, are ufually defective in the other. 
 
 The anticnt Platonifts were of opinion, that all learning and 
 knowledge confifted in the reminifcence or recollection of no- 
 tices which had been in the foul before its union with the* 
 
 body. ' V* ."WiiiVT .IuIhPi 'S,Av z£u.<?\t 10 tooo iflt 
 
 REM1NISCERE, the fecond funday in Lent ; antiently thus 
 ailed from thefirft word of the introit of the mafs faid for 
 
 term, mi'i-ULUciami^ w u». 11™, >" w — ■ , 
 
 proper fountain , whereas by r*** it goes to fome ^ ^^^'^'ZZX^. 
 
 SIanv'lir„ble'rZ'that bifhops and abbots, in regard their REMISSION, REMiss.o 
 
 See Recto. 
 
 baronies are the king's alms, cannot give any part thereof by 
 way of remainder. 
 Remainder, in mathematics, is the difference ; or that which 
 is left after the taking a lefler number, or quantity, from 
 
 the power or efficacy of any quality — In oppofition to the 
 increafe of the fame, which is called its intenfion. 
 In all qualities capable of intenfion and remijfion, the intenfion 
 decrcales reciprocally as the fquares of the diftance from the 
 centre of the radiating quality increafe. 
 REMARRYING, the repeating of a marriage ; or'REMlssioN, in medicine is when a diftemper abates, but 
 The goin' through the folemnities of a'fecond marriage. I does not go quite oft, before tt returns again , as is common 
 Clandeftfne and uncanonical marriages are deemed null ; and in fevers which do not quite intermit. 
 
 rhepa ric are to be r, -» M mW in form ; at lead it had always RnMrssroK, inlaw, denotes the pardon of a crime, or 
 
 better be fo to avoid difputcs. the giving up the punifhment due thereto 
 
 fc^iL.dyexp««yfori»ato re-marr, in thefirft year'REMIT, in commerce-To rm.t a fuffl of money, bill, 
 Of viduity — M, Bayle obferves, that a perfon who does not 
 
 fe-marry, is aiifwerable to the public for all the time loft 
 his viduity, or widowerhood. 
 REMEDY, Keviedium, in phyfic, a medicine, or pre- 
 paration applied either internally or external!)', for the cure of 
 a difeafc. 
 
 Emplafters, unguents cataplafms, Uc. are topical remedies. 
 
 -Mercury and the bark are jpecific remedies. Mineral waters, 
 and afles milk, and country-air, are ufually the lajl remedies 
 — Salivation is fome times called by way of eminence, the 
 remedy. 
 
 When remedies are {tufted with too many ingredients, they 
 Joad the ftomach with a flimy mucilage, which fwelis, ob- 
 ftructs, and docs more hurt than good. 
 
 Remedies appended. See the article Appended. 
 
 REMEMBRANCE, is when the idea of fomething 
 formerly known, recurs again to the mind, without the 
 operation of a like object, on the external fenioiy, Seej 
 Memory, Reminiscence, and Recollection... 
 
 REMEMBRANCERS of the exchequer, are tnree of-! 
 ficers, or clerks therein, former called clerks of the remem- 
 trance. 
 
 They are now diftinguifhed by the appellations of the kings, 
 remembrancer ■, the lord treafurers remembrancer, and the, 
 remembrancer of the firjl fruits— Their buunefs is to put! 
 the lord treafurcr andjuftices of the court in remembrance of 
 fuch things as are to be called upon, and dealt in fur the king's 
 benefit. 
 
 The king's Remembrancer enters into his edifice all re-, 
 cognizances taken before the barons, for any ot the king's 
 
 the like, is to fend a fum of money, &c. 
 To remit is alfo ufed among bankers for what is accuftomed 
 to be given a banker, or, as it were, difcounted with him, for 
 his giving a bill of exchange. 
 
 To remit is alfo to give up part of one's due to a debtor; as, 
 I would remit you a fourth of what you owe on condition of 
 paying me the reft in hand. 
 
 j, REMITTANCE, in commerce, the traffic or return of money 
 
 from one place to another, by bills of exchange, orders, 
 the like. v.u , t - &w »1- 
 
 A remittance is properly a bill of exchange, or the 
 like, fer.t to a correfpondent, and the content thereof to 
 be received by him or fome other perfon, on whom it is 
 drawn, v i.n,. r ! i; . : :> '.. ■ , . ■■* 
 
 Such a merchant has remitted, or made a remittance of five 
 thoufand pounds in bank notes, to his correfpondent at Lon- 
 don — I will remit you, or make you a remittance of five hun- 
 dred crowns in three bills of exchange, drawn on N. banker 
 in your city, and payable at fight. 
 
 By means of thefe remittances, large fums of money are re- 
 turned from one city to another, without danger, without 
 carriage, &c. 
 
 In London it is eafy getting remittances upon any city in the 
 world ; in the country it is more difficult. Remittances are 
 not eatily had upon Copenhagen. 
 
 Bosk of Remittances. Seethe article Book. 
 
 Remittance is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the payment of a 
 bill of exchange— Thus, I have received an hundred piftoles 
 on your remittance— Mr. N. banker in your city, fhould have 
 paid you two hundred crowns on my remittance* 
 r ; Remit- 
 
REN 
 
 REN 
 
 Remittance alfo denotes the due or fee allowed the banker, 
 both of his wages, and the different value of the fpecies 
 in the place where you pay the money, and where he re~ 
 mtts it. 
 
 The remittance at London is very high — This remittance is 
 more ufually called change and rechange. See Rechange. 
 REMI T T E R, in law — Where a man has two titles to 
 land, and h feifed by the latter, and that proving detective, 
 he is remitted or rcftored to the former more antient title : 
 this is called a remitter, from the Latin, remittere, to fend 
 back. 
 
 If land defcend to him that had right to it before, he ftiall be 
 remitted to his better title, if he pleafe. 
 
 REMITTING f»er. See the article Fever. 
 
 REMONSTRANCE, an expo nidation, or humble Appli- 
 cation, addrefied to a king, or other fuperior, to befeech him 
 to reflect on the inconveniences, or ill confequences, of fomc 
 order, edict, or the like. 
 
 The parliament of Paris went in a body to make humble 
 rcmonjirames to the king, on the fubject of fuch a declara- 
 tion. 
 
 Remonstrance is alfo ufed for an expoftulatory council or 
 advice ; or a gentle and handfome reproof, made cither in ge- 
 neral or particular, to apprize or to corredf fome fault — A 
 mother makes remonjl ranees to her daughter, &c. 
 
 REMONSTRANTS, Remonstrantes, a title given 
 to the Armenians, by reafon of the remonjirance they made 
 in 1610, againftthe fynodof Dort, wherein they were con- 
 demned. 
 
 Epifcopius and Grot'ius were at the head of the remonjlrants. 
 Sec CoNTR A-REMONSTR A NTS. 
 REMORA, in natural hiftory, the fucking fifij ; a little fifh, 
 rcftmbling a herring, called by the Greeks ccheneis, famous 
 for flicking to the fides of fhips. 
 
 It is much talked of by the antients, who, as we find from 
 Pliny, lib. ?a. c. i. unanimoufly believed it had the force to 
 flop a veflel in full fail, or a whale in fwimming ; and hence 
 
 called it remora, a remarando But Mr. Catciby obferves, 
 
 that even feveral of thofe fifties together can do no more than 
 fhells or corals, and other foulneifes of the fame bulk, which 
 make a lliip fail Ibmewhat the flower — And in the fame man- 
 ner only they may be fome fmall hindrance to a whale. The 
 2Uthor laft-mentioned alfures us he has taken five of them off 
 the body of a fhark. Vide Philof. Tranf. N°. 438. p. 113. 
 See Supplement article Remora. 
 Remora, among furgeons, is alfo an inftrument to fet broken 
 bones withal. 
 
 REMOUNT, in war — To Remount the cavalry, is to 
 furnifh troopers or dragoons with frefh horfes, in lieu of fuch 
 35 have been killed or difablcd in the fervice. 
 
 REMPLY, in heraldry, fomething filed up— The term is 
 chiefly ufed to denote, that the chief is quite filled up with a 
 fquare piece of another colour, leaving only a bordure of the 
 proper colour of the chief about the faid piece. 
 
 RENAL, Renalis, fomething belonging to the reins or 
 kidneys. 
 
 Renal glands, glandules R e N a L e s, in anatomy, are 
 glands thus called, becaufc fituate near the reins or kidneys, 
 nrft difcovcred by Bar. Euftachio, native of San Severino in 
 Italy. 
 
 Th ey arc alfo called eapfula atrabilares, in regard their cavitv 
 is always found full of a btackilh liquor; and by others rer.es 
 fuccenturiati, becaufe rdembling kidneys in form. See Re- 
 nes luccenturtati. 
 RENCOUNTER*, in the military art, the encounter of 
 two little bodies or parties of forces. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, rencontre, meeting. 
 
 In which fenfe, rencounter is ufed in oppofition to a pitched 
 battle — It was no battle ; it was only a rencounter. 
 Rencounter, in tingle combats, is ufed by way of con- 
 tradiftinclion to duel. 
 
 When two perfbns fall out, and fight on the fpot, without 
 having premeditated the combat, it is called a rencounter — It 
 is no duel, it is a rencounter. See Duel. 
 Rencountre, or Rencontre, in heraldry, is applied to ani- 
 mals when they fhew the head in front, with both eyes, C3V. 
 or when the face ftands right forward, as if they came to meet 
 the perfon before them. 
 
 Indeed, in deer, this is called majacre; and, in the leopard, 
 it is the natural lituation — He bears fable, in rencountre, a 
 golden fleece. 
 
 RENDER, in law, a term ufed in levying a fine— A fine 
 with render, is that whereby fomething is rendered back again 
 by the cognifee to the crTnifor. 
 
 The lawyers alfo fay, there are certain things in a manor, 
 which he mprender, i.e. which may be taken by the lord, 
 or his officers, when diey pleafe, without the tenant's leave ; 
 and others which l:e in render, that is, muft be rendered or 
 anfwered by the tenant, as rents, reliefs, heriots, and other 
 ferviccs. See Prender— Some fervice confifts in feifajice, 
 fome in render. Perkins, 
 Vol. II. 
 
 RENDERING, in building. See Pargetting. 
 RENDEZ-VOUS, or Rendevous, a place appointed lb 
 meet in at a certain day and hour. 
 
 The word is French, and is found fo commodious, that 
 moft nations ufe it in its purity, for want of a word of eaual 
 import in their rei'pe£tive languages— The virtue of a woman 
 is already ihaken when fhc grants a rendezvous. St. Evre- 
 mont. 
 
 A general rendezvous of the army— The regiments have their 
 particular rendezvous, called quarters ofaf/ernbly. 
 RENEGATE, Renegado, a perfon who has apoftatized, 
 or renounced the chriftian faith, to embrace fome other reli- 
 gion, particularly Mahometanifm. 
 
 It is the renegadoes who prove the moft barbarous to the cbri- 
 ftians when they fall into their hands — The renegate is thus 
 called, quaf re-ne-gat-Cbriflum — Hoveden mentions this in 
 the year 1192, under the name of reneer, from the French 3 
 renier, to deny again. 
 RENES fuccenturiati, in anatomy, are glands thus called, as 
 refembling the figure of kidneys ; and hence accounted a 
 kind of fecondary reins j fucccnturiatus fignifying fomething in 
 the place of another. 
 
 They are alfo called capful^ renales, and glandula rena- 
 les. 
 
 RENEWING of leafes and lives. See Reversion, An- 
 nuity, Political arithmetic, &c. 
 
 RENITENCY, Renitentia, or Renisus, among pbi- 
 lofophers, that force in fulid bodies, whereby they refill the 
 impulfc of other bodies j or re-ad as much as they are 
 acled on, 
 
 RENNET. See the article Runnet. 
 
 RENT *, Redditius, in law, a fum of money, or other 
 confederation, iuiiing yearly out of lands or tenements, alie- 
 nated on that condition. 
 
 * It is thus called from the corrupt Latin, rendita, for rei- 
 difa, of redditus ; beeaufe, as Fleta tells us, rctroit £3" quo- 
 tannis redit. 
 
 The rents of all the lands of England and Wales appear, 
 by the computations of Dr Davenant and Mr King, from the 
 late land-tax, to be nearly ten millions per annum" ; thofe of 
 the houfes, not let with the lands, two millions more; and 
 thofe of all other hereditaments two millions more : in all 
 fourteen millions. 
 
 The lawyers ordinarily reckon three forts of rent ; viz. rent- 
 fervice, rent-charge, and rent-feck. 
 RENT-fervice is where a man holds lands of his lord by 
 fealty, and certain rent, or by fcalty-fervice, and certain 
 rent; or that which a man making a Icafe of lands to 
 another for term of years, referveth to be yearly paid for 
 them. 
 
 RENT-^f is where a man makes over his eftate to another 
 by deed indented, either in fee, or fee-tail, or for term of 
 life ; yet referves to himfelf, by the fame indenture, a fum of 
 money yearly to be paid to him, with a caufc of diftrefs fur 
 non-payment. 
 
 R-ENT-fecA, or ZVv-Rent, is that which a man making over 
 his eftate by a deed indented, referveth yearly to be paid to 
 him, without any caufe of diftrefs mentioned in the inden- 
 ture. 
 
 Rents of affize are the certain rents of freeholders, and an- 
 tient copyholders ; thus called, becaufe ailized and certain, in 
 oppofition to redditus mobiles. 
 
 Rents refolute are reckoned among the fee-farm rents to be fold 
 by the Stat. 22. Car. II. being fuch rents or tenths as were 
 antiently payable to the crown from the lands of abbies, and 
 other religious houfes; which lands, upon the diftblution of 
 abbies, being demifed to others, the faid rents were ftill re- 
 ferved and made payable to the crown. 
 
 Mart Rents. ^ ( Assart. 
 
 Cbanntry Rents. I 
 
 Gild Rents. I c , . . | Gild 
 
 r ajcbai pleats. i > Paschal. 
 
 gw/ Rents. J Quit. 
 
 White Rents. 9 i^White. 
 
 RENTER-wAw, an officer in moft of the companies of 
 London ; whofe bufinefs is to receive the rents or profits be- 
 longing to the company. 
 
 REN FERING * and Fine-drawing, in the manufactu- 
 ries, the fewing of two pieces of cloth, edge to edge, with- 
 out doubling them ; fo as that the feam fcarce appears at all : 
 hence it is called fine-drazuing. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, rcntrairc, which fig- 
 nifies the fame thing; and which Menage, after Sahnafius, 
 derives from the Latin rctraberc, of re, in, and trahere , by 
 reafon the feam is drawn out of fight, and covered. 
 
 Serges, l$c. are to be fewed ; cloths fine-drawn. The 
 
 author of one of the Lett. Edif. (S Cur. fpeaking of the 
 great dexterity of the fine-drawers in the Eaft-Indiesi aflures 
 us, that, if you tear a piece of fine m\;flin, and give it one of 
 them to mend, it fliall be impoffible for you to difcover the 
 10 R place 
 
 ('Assart. 
 
 Chauntry. 
 .! Gild. 
 
R E O 
 
 REP 
 
 place where it is rejoined, even though you had made a mark 
 to know it by. 
 
 The dexterity of our own fine-drawers though inferior to that 
 above mentioned is neverthelefs fuch, as puts them in a con- 
 dition to defraud the king, by fowing a head or flip of Englifh 
 cloth on a piece of Dutch, Spaniih, or other foreign cloth ; 
 or a flip of foreign cloth on a piece of Englifh, fo as to pais 
 the whole, as of a piece j and by that means avoid the duties, 
 penalties, &c. This trick was firft difcovercd in France, by 
 M. Savary, author of the Diclion. de Com?nerce. 
 To renter in tapeftry, is to work new warp into a piece of 
 tapeftry damaged, eaten by.tlie rats, iJc. and on this warp to 
 rcftorc the antient pattern, or defign — The warp is to be of 
 woollen, not linnen— Among thc tides of the French tapeftry 
 makers* is included that of renterers. 
 Fine-drawing is particularly ufed for a rent, or hole 
 happening in the drefling or preparing of a piece of clotlv 
 artfully fewed up or mended with filk. 
 
 All fine-drawings are reputed defects or blemifhes ; and ought 
 to be allowed for in the price of the piece — Hence, M. Sa- 
 vary ertablifhes it as a rule, which is certainly founded on 
 natural equity, that every manufacturer mark the fine-draw- 
 ings of his cloths with a piece of packthread tied to the lift; 
 to direct, the draper to the fpot : and that the draper apprize 
 the taylor or other perfon, to whom he fells it, of the fame ; 
 that he may not come to damage in the cutting ; there being 
 inftances of drapers condemned to take back their cloth, when 
 cut to pieces, for omitting to mention the fine-drawings, 
 and other flaws. 
 
 On this occafion M. Savary exto'ls the procedure of 
 Englifh merchant, who fending a piece of cloth damaged 
 in one fpot$ to his correfpondent at Paris, put a piece oi 
 gold in the damaged place, to make up the damage— But 
 as this example is perhaps the only one of its kind, that 
 author recommends it to the merchant or draper 'to unfold 
 all the pieces intirely, as they come to him ; to difcovcr the 
 fine-drawings and other flaws, in order to make the clothici 
 accountable for them. 
 RENVERSE, inverted in heraldry, is when any thtnj 
 is fet with the head downwards, or contrary to its natu- 
 ral way of ftandintr,. — Thus a chevron renverje is a chevron 
 with the point downwards. 
 
 The fame term they alfo ufe when a beaft is laid on its 
 back, 
 
 REN VERSED volt, \ Q . T ( Volt. 
 
 RENVERSING. f See thc articles i Reversing. 
 RENUENTES, in anatomy, a pair of mufcles of thc 
 
 head, thus called as being antagonists to the annuentes ; 
 
 and ferving to throw the head backward, with an air of 
 
 refufal . 
 
 From their fituation they arc alfo called reclus capitis^ ?najor 
 & minor. Sec Rectus capitis. 
 RENUNCIATION, Renunciatio, the act of re- 
 nouncing, abdicating, or relinquifhing any right, real or 
 pretended. 
 
 Rewnciat'ions are fometimcs cxprefs; as by contracts, CSV. 
 fometimes tacit) as by contrary acts. 
 
 Dioclefian renounced the empire, to live as a philofopher. 
 —The late king Philip of Spain, by thc treaty of Utrecht, 
 was obliged to renounce the fucceffion of the crown of 
 France; to which he was heir prefumptive : and has fince 
 by a voluntary act renounced his own crown, in iavour of hi: 
 fon — Renunciations of kings are always fufpeeted of fome 
 view or motive not to be avowed. 
 
 To renounce an inheritance, a community, £sV. is to pafs a 
 folemn act before a notary, or public officer, whereby a per- 
 fon declares he will not intermeddle in an inheritance, or 
 profit in a company ; but furrenders his part, and quits all 
 pretentions. 
 
 REORDINATION, Reordinatio, the act of conferring 
 orders on one already ordained. 
 The cercmony of ordination imprefles what the divines call 
 an indelible character; and cannot, therefore, be repeated: 
 yet is reordinat'ion practifed in England, with regard to the 
 dilTenting miuiftcrs, who conform to the church; the bi- 
 fhops pretending that they alone have right to confer holy 
 orders, and that every prieft or minifter who does not re- 
 ceive them at their hands has no lawful or regular voca- 
 tion. 
 
 This proves a great obftacle to the re-union of thofe 
 minifters to the church of England ; many of whom, other- 
 wife difpofed to conform, have fcrupled to be rcordained ; 
 inafmuch as reordinat'ion implies their former vocation to 
 be null ; that they had adminiftered the facraments without 
 any right thereto ; and that all their minifterial acts were in- 
 valid. 
 
 In the eleventh century, the crime of fimony having been 
 very flagranti many people fell into the error to believe that 
 the fimoniacal biihops could not ordain validly ; and that 
 thofe who had received orders at their hands fhould b< 
 mrdained—Thz people of this opinion made a party 
 
 of themfclves i and were diftinguifhed by thc title of rcordi- 
 nantes, 
 
 REPAIRING, in building, £sfr. See Reparation, and 
 Restauration. 
 
 The repairing of large walls, doors, cielings, coverings, &jV. 
 belongs to the proprietor or landlord — The tenant is only 
 charged with fmall repairs., as glafs windows, locks, CSV. by 
 the French called locative rep'airs. 
 To Repair a /latue, or other piece of fculpture, is to touch 
 up a ftatuc, tztc. {caft in a mould) with a chificl, graver, or 
 other inftrument; to finifh the places which have not come 
 well off". 
 
 To Repair a cajl^ figure or the like, they clear off the barb, 
 and what is redundant in the joints and prefectures. ScL 
 Statue. 
 
 To Repair a medal, is to retouch it: fo as from rufty and 
 defaced as it was, to render it clean, neat and perfect — In 
 order to this, they take off" the ruft with a graver, touch up 
 the letters, polifli the ground, and raife and reftore the figures 
 which before were fometimes fcarce feen. 
 When the figures are eroded or broke, they fit a piece of 
 cement on the fpot ; and on this cut with a graver fo 
 dexteroufly that the figures appear entire and well kept — Yet 
 nothing fpoils medals fo much as repairing them. See Me- 
 dal. 
 
 REPAIRERS, artificers who chace figures, and beautify 
 
 fword hilts, fifei 
 REPAIRS, in hunting, are the haunts and places which the 
 
 hare runs to. 
 
 REPARANDIS pontikis. See the article Pontibus. 
 REPARATION, Reparatio, the act of repairing, re- 
 
 eftablifliing, retrieving, or mending a building, or other 
 
 work, damaged or gone to decay. 
 
 Thc enemy repaired the breach as foon as it was made. — The 
 eftabliftiment of turn-pikes is for repairing of the roads. 
 — An eccleftaftical patron is by antient cuftom obliged to re- 
 pair the choir or chancel of a church, and die parifni oners the 
 nave. 
 
 REPARATIONE fadenda, is a writ which lies in divers 
 cafes ; e. gr. where there are tenants in common, or joint 
 tenants of an houfe, &c. which is fallen to decay, and thc 
 one being willing to repair it, the other two will not : 
 in this cafe the party willing fhall have this writ againft thc 
 other two. 
 
 REPARTEE. See the article Reparty. 
 REPARTITION, Repartitio, a dividing or fharing a 
 thing a fecond time. 
 
 There arc fo many deficiencies found this year in the taxes of 
 this parifh, that there mult be a repartition on the inhabitants ; 
 or a new impofition. 
 REPARTY*, or Repartee, a ready, fmart reply ; cfpecially 
 in matters of wit, humour, or raillery — It is dangerous at- 
 tacking this lady, her repartees are fo keen. 
 
 The word in the original French, rcpartie, has the fame fig- 
 nification. 
 
 Wicquefort obferves a world of difference between a free, 
 fprightly reparty, and an offenlive farcafm. See Sar- 
 casm. 
 
 REPAST, Repastum, a meal, or refection, taken at a 
 ftated hour. 
 
 In old law-books Repast is particularly ufed for a meal's- 
 meat given to fervile tenants, while at work for their lord. 
 Thc French call their meal, repajl ; thc Latins, pa/lus ; the 
 Italians and Spaniards, pajlo — The repajls whereof the icrip- 
 ture has prefcrved the memory, fhew that the ancient He- 
 brews were not very delicate in their eating — Abraham, a 
 man of wealth and eminence, entertaining the angels, ferves 
 them with cakes baked under the afhes, a fatted calf haftily 
 dreficd, and milk and butter — But the quantity makes a- 
 mends for the quality : three meafures of flower, and a 
 whole calf, for three perfons ! 
 
 Jofeph to Ihew his refpect to his brother Benjamin, ordered 
 him a portion of meat five times as big as that of his other 
 brothers. 
 
 In antiquity thc repajls were frequently facrificcs ; for 
 which reafon we find them often prepared by kings rhem- 
 felves. 
 
 REPEALING, in law, the revoking or annulling of a fla- 
 tute, deed, or the like. See Abrogation, Revoca- 
 tion, £frY. 
 
 No act of parliament Oiall be repealed in the fame feflion it 
 was made in. A deed or will may be repealed for a part, 
 and ftand good for the reft. 
 
 Brook ufes the word repellance in the fame fenfe. 
 REPEAT, in mulic, a character Viewing that what 
 was laft played or fung, muff be repeated, or gone over 
 again. 
 
 The repeat ferves inftcad of writing the fame thing twice over. 
 — There are two kinds of repeats ; the great and the fmall. 
 71)e great Repeat, is only a double bar, dotted on each lidej 
 or two parallel lines drawn perpendicular acroii the ftafF; with 
 
 dotts 
 
REP 
 
 REP 
 
 lee its form under Characters of 
 
 dotts on cither hand 
 
 nitijic. '.'u 9 
 
 This mark (hews that the preeeeding ftrain is to be repeated; 
 that is, if it be near the beginning of the piece, all hitherto 
 fung or played is to be repeated ; or if towards the end of a 
 piece all from fuch another mark. 
 
 In gavots, we ufually find the repeat at about the third part 
 of a piece— In minuets, borecs, coarants, tsV. towards the 
 end. 
 
 Some make this a rule, that if there be dotts on each fide the 
 ' bar, they dircfl to a repetition both of the preeeeding and the 
 following ■ ftrain ; if there be only dotts on one fide, then 
 only the drain on that fide is to be repeated. 
 Tkfmall Repeat is where only fome of the laft meafiires 
 of a ftrain are to be repeated— This is denoted by a cha 
 ractcr fet over the place where the repetition begins, (lie 
 Characters in tiiufie) and continues to the end of the 
 ftrain. 
 
 When the fong ends with a repetition of the firft ftrain, or 
 part of it, inftead of a repeat, they ufe the word da capo, ' 
 from the beginning. 
 REPEATING wauffL See the article Watch. 
 REPELLENT*, Repellens, in medicine, a remedy 
 which repels or drives back a morbid humour into tile mafs of 
 blood, from which it was unduly fecreted. 
 Repellents are medicines which prevent fuch an afflux of the 
 fluids to any particular part, as might raife it into a tumour 
 or drive them back when they are collected. 
 
 * The greek name, given by fome writers, to what (from the 
 Iatm) are called repellents : is fpieyuffci, ffM com- 
 pounded of .m, from i and vpjl, to beat. 
 
 To form an idea of the manner of their operation, it may be 
 oMcrved, that all tumors arile either from an increafe in the 
 velocity or quantity of the fluids, or a weakoeP, in fome par- 
 ticular part, though fomctimes both concur— Now an in- 
 creafe in the velocity of the fluids makes them more forciblv 
 pufh againft, and diftend all the parts in their circuit - if 
 therefore any part be unequally prelied or relaxed by external 
 injuries that will be more elevated than any other ; and for 
 want of equal tefiftance with the reft of the body, it will at 
 length receive fuch a quantity of fluid, as will raife it into 
 a tumor, efpecially if any of its veffcls be obftructed be 
 caufe the protufion of freih matter, a tergo, will continue 
 to add thereunto, till the part is on the utmoft ftrctch 
 and can hold no more. 
 
 In this cafe all thole means are faid to be repellent, which R 
 
 chert: fhe <Ti-MMrrli nf .1^ . i _/rn 1 „ .. . 
 
 >. i .u i i "ti.rf. Ic "» Dc repellent, which 
 
 check the growth of the tumor, and affiil the refluent blood 
 in taking up the obftrucled matter, and warning it a^ain into 
 the common ftream. 
 
 This intention is chiefly favoured by evacuation and revul- 
 iion ; tor whatsoever lellehs the quantity of the fluid, will 
 dimmifh the force upon the tumefied part— But it concerns us 
 molt to know how external application to the part itfclf 
 helps this affair. 
 
 ?, h ei £k,' 1 mCdiCine C ° mCS to be "P'"'"'' b y tonfifting of 
 fuch fubt, e parts, as may tranfmit fome of them through the 
 pores, and help to render the obltrufted matter more fluid, 
 fo that it comes the more eafy to be loofened, and fall .wain 
 into the circulating current-But in this cafe there is a "ha- 
 zard of fuch things likewife putting the obftruded humour 
 into a ferment, whereby it turns fooner into pus, and then 
 they come under the denomination of Suppurative, or 
 rtpeners. r 
 What* therefore, in the moll ftria fenfe is to be reputed a 
 repeller u that which aftringes and ftrengthens the par , fo as 
 to make it refift any fuch lodgment. 
 
 Thefe are fuch whofe qualities are mod manifeft in their 
 coldnefs and drying properties ; bur there are fo few inftances 
 wherein bandage „ m* better than any fuch application 
 that very little comes to be ufed for thit purpofc In h". 
 morrhages and ouzings out of ferum, fo i to deform the 
 lkin, iimples of this nature moftly take place; which anfwer 
 then ends in aftringing the fibres, whereby' thei p TrZZ 
 &ch fluid aSI " >t t0admit thr0Ugh th ™ Awards any 
 Some things 'alfo anfwer this end only by Simulating the 
 fibre, of the tumefied part, fo as to give'them fudden and for 
 cibles twitches, whereby the obiWfion is fometimes loofened 
 and fhook away, as ,t were, into the refluent current-Such 
 a fort of motion will be occafioned by the fudden t plication 
 ot any thing extreamly cold, as common water but , he 
 
 confequence of winch is weakening the part, which will 
 render the tumor more obftinate 
 REPELLING power, V n R „ ElLENS; in ^ ^ 
 
 certain power or faculty rending in the minute particles of 
 natura bodies, whereby under certain circumftances they 
 mutually fly from each other. 
 This power is the reverfe of the attractive power. 
 Sir Ifaac Newton having eftablilhed the attractive power of 
 matter from obfervation and experiment, argues, that as in 
 algebra, where pofitive quantities ceafe, there negative ores 
 commence ; fo in phyfics, where the attractive force ceafe* 
 there a repelling force muft begin, and adds, that there is 
 luch a force does likewife appear from obfervation. 
 As the repelling power feems to arife from the fame princiole 
 as the attractive, only exercifed under different circumftances ■ 
 it is governed by the lame laws: now the attractive we find 
 isftronger in finall bodies than in great ones, in proportion to 
 the malics— Therefore the repelling is fo too. But the ravs 
 of light are ot all others the molt minute bodies we know 
 of; therefore of all others their repdling force muft be the 
 greateft. ? 
 Sir Ifaac Newton computes that the attractive force of the 
 rays of light is above loooooocooooocoo times as ftrono -s 
 the force of gravity on the Surface of the earth; hence atifes 
 that inconceivable velocity wherewith light muft mote to 
 reach from the fun to our earth in feven minutes. For 'the 
 rays emitted from the body of the fun by the vibrating motion 
 of its parts are no fooner got without the fphere of attraction 
 ot the lun, than they come within the action of the rtSuirr 
 power. i 
 The elafticity, or fpringinefs of bodies, or that property 
 wherebv, after having their figure altered by an §0 
 force, they return to tlieir former figure, follows from the 
 repelling power 
 
 REPERCUSSION, in mechanics. See Reflects 
 Repercussion, in mufic, a frequent repetition of the fame 
 founds. . 
 
 This often happens in the modulation; where the efTen- 
 t.a chords of each mode, or of the harmonical triad, are 
 to beftruck oftener than the reft; and of thefe three chords 
 the two extremes, the final and the predominant rne 
 (which are properly the repereuj/ion, of each mode) oftener 
 than the middle one. 
 REPERTORY, Repertory, a place wherein 
 warned!" °t 7 *° M ' f ° " '° ^ ^ thmi ' wi ™ 
 The indices of boob are repertories, (hewing where thr 
 matters fought for arc treated of. Common places are a kind" 
 of repertories, very ufeful to the learned. 
 
 . — j u» >..«.. ...u. 
 
 (.epertorium aiialomicum, denotes a iarre hall near in 
 amphitheatre of difMions, wheie fkeletons, both hum™ 
 and brutal; are orderly preferved-Sueh is the referl ™ 
 the Trench king s garden at Paris: * 
 REP E TIT ION, Repetitio, the reiterating of an 
 aftion. See Reiteration. ° 
 
 HABIT-Muficans and comedians make feveral repetition, 
 or rehearlals of their concerts and comedies, before they per" 
 torm them for good. J * 
 
 School philolbphers call the repetition of the fame no . 
 merical efleft in another place, the replication of That rf- 
 
 Repetition in muf.c, denotes a reiterating or pla y i„ e 
 
 I wbtT 5 ' amC TV f 2 Wfpofition, whether S bl 
 a whole ftram, a part ot a ftrain, or a double ftfij„ 
 II M repmtion is denoted by a character, called a repeat 
 
 !o astoexprefs * e varbus <**mS£i 
 
 When the fong ends with a repetition of the firft ftrain 
 or a part of it, the repetition is denoted by da 1 X' 
 is, from the beginning. ' P ' at 
 
 Repetition, Reply, is alfo ufed in mufic, when after 
 a tittle fflence one ?m repeats or runs over the fame no"" 
 the fame intervals the fame motions, in a word, the fame 
 fileSerf this. 3 foft ^ ^ r « d 7 g-e over during *e 
 Repetition, Reply, i, a , f o a doubIi or 
 dllLd. ' m 3 rciKm:on ° { Sb* concord or 
 
 octave or fecond oaave. 
 
 rd^S'i' r' n rhetoric ' is * fignt= wherebv the orator 
 Khearies the fame word or phrafe over a»ain. 
 Ut this there are two kinds-In the firft, the word i, rei 
 peatedprec.fely in the fame fenfe ; As, Oh, Jerujaie,,:, Jell 
 
 J ^}or^n t * G °"> * 
 
 Such repetitions have the fame effeft in difcourfe, with fecond 
 foonga^live^"' 1 -ore 
 ometimes the orator begins again and again with the fame 
 S«ri. of which we have ah inftance in the beginlg of 
 
 Cicero'^ 
 
REP 
 
 Cicero's firft oration againft Cataline : 
 
 tr*fi£m pal'-ti', *'*< 7 urh " v 'S< lU < mhd """ r t'f" 1 '' f' 
 fmfenjm bonorum omnium, nihil hie mumtijfmms heibendi Jena- 
 tui hem, '"hil hirum ma vultufoue mrutfom ! Where the 
 word nihil fo often reiterated gives an a.lmirable force and 
 vehemence to the difcourfe— Again, the fame author : quern 
 J'e>.eitus damnarit, quern pipulus R. damnarit, quern omnium ex- 
 ijliiiuitie aamnarit, eum mot fentenliis vejlrit abjolvct'u ? again ; 
 non feram, non patiar, non Jmerm. 
 
 The fecond kind of repetition, called ploee, is a re- 
 
 ndition of the fame word, in the fame phrafe ; but in fuch 
 i . /• -i ... _i a :» iAApA to the 
 
 REP 
 
 exception of the fecond de- 
 [ 6tft anfwer of the 
 
 See 
 
 1 manner as that Tome new idea or chafer is added to 
 word, in the fecond, which it had not in the firft. 
 As Corydon is always Corydon : ex Ulo Corydon, Corydon eft 
 teml ore nobis ; by which we fignify that Corydon is no or- 
 dinary perlbn ; and that nothing can diftinguifh him but 
 the refetition of his own name : as if we fhould fay. _ 
 Corydon, that is enough— By the fame figure our Saviour 
 fpeakv, when he fays: let your language be yea, yea, and nay, 
 
 REPLANTING, in gardening, the act of planting a fecond 
 time. See Planting. 
 
 The gardeners ufe to difplant their tulips every year, and re- 
 plant them— Lettices muft be difplanted and replanted yearly, 
 to make them head and knit— If ftrawberries, ts'c. be not 
 difplanted and replanted once in a few years, they dege- 
 nerate. ■ 
 It ifea proverb among gardeners, that if the devil were to re- 
 plant his wife, he would cut off her head. 
 
 RFPLEADER, Replacitare, in law, is to plead over 
 again what was once pleaded before. 
 
 REPLEGIARE de averiis, a writ brought by one whofe 
 cattel are diftrained, and put in a pound by another upon 
 fecurity given the iheriff to purfue, or anfwer the a£tion at 
 law againft the diftrainer. 
 
 REPLETION, in medicine, a plenitude, or plethora. 
 Plethora. _ _ 
 
 Repletion is more dangerous than inanition— Bleeding and 
 diet are the great refjurces when a perfon is incommoded 
 with a repletion. 
 
 Repletion is fometimes alfo ufed where the ftomach is o- 
 verloaden, with too much eating or drinking — The phyfi- 
 cians hold all repletion prejudicial ; but that of bread is of all 
 others the worft. 
 
 Repletion, in the canon law, is where the revenue of a 
 benefice or benefices is fufficient to fill or occupy the whole 
 rieht or title of the graduate who holds them. 
 When there is a repletion-, the party can demand no more by 
 virtue of his degrees — In England, where benefices are not 
 appropriated to degrees, repletion, ftriclly fpeaking, has no 
 place. 
 
 In France, 6oo livres, or 45/. fterling per annum, make a 
 repletion, when the benefice is obtained otherwife than by 
 degree ; and 30/. per annum, when it is obtained by virtue 
 of a degree. 
 
 REPLEVIN, Plevina, a remedy granted on a diftrefs 
 being a re-deliverance of the goods diftrained to the firft 
 pofielior, on fecurity or pledges given by him to try the 
 right with the diftrainer, and anfwtr him in the courfe of 
 law. 
 
 If a perfon diftrain another's goods or cattle for rent, or 
 damage fefant, tsff. the owner, upon giving fecurity to the 
 fheriff that he will profecute bis a£tion againft the party 
 diftraining, and return the goods or cattle again, if the 
 feizure (hall be adjudged good ; may have a writ of replevin or 
 replegiari facias. See Distress. 
 
 REPLEVISH, in law, is to let one to mainprife, upon furety 
 See Mainprise. 
 
 REPLEVY, Replevie, in law, (from the Latin reple- 
 giare, to re -deliver to th* owner upon pledges of furety) 
 is the bringing of a writ of replevin, or replegiari fa- 
 cias, by him whofe cattle or goods are diftrained by ano- 
 ther upon any caufe ; ha\ ing firft given fecurity to the 
 fheriff, that on the delivery of the thing diftrained, he 
 will profecute the aftion againft the perfon who made the 
 diftrefs. 
 
 In the Stat. 24. of Henry VIII. we read of canes replegiari 
 hounds replevied, in a cafe between the abbot of St Albans, 
 and Geoffery Childwic. 
 
 Goods may be replevied two ways ; viz. by writ, which is 
 that ufed by the common law — And by plaint ; which is that 
 by ftatute law, for the more fpeedy having again the cattle 
 and goods, and is brought in the iherifPs court. 
 REPLICATION, Replicatio, in logic, the afi'uming 
 ufing the fame term twice in the fame propoiition : otherwife 
 called reduplication. 
 
 Some philofonhers ufe the phrafe replicatio rnundi, replication 
 of the world, for its converhon, or turning round — The 
 human foul is faid to be in a place replicatively, replicative, 
 when conceived to be all in the whole, and all in every part 
 thereof. 
 
 nihihete ^ww^Replication, inlaw, is an 
 
 gree, made by the plaintiff to the plea ot t 
 defendant. \>± -\ .. a 
 
 The replication is particularly that which the plaintiff replies 
 to the defendant's anfwer in chancery ; and which is either 
 general or fpecial— The /pedal Is grounded upon matter arifing 
 out of the defendant's anfwer, &f\ T\\z general is fo called 
 from the general words therein ufed. - 
 REPORT, the relation made upon oath* by officers or 
 perfons appointed to viiir, examine, ftate or eftimate any 
 A thirig. ■ ■ , . J ' 
 
 Damages, repairs, &c. are judged from the reports of expe- 
 rienced perfons— Provifion for perfons wounded are only 
 granted on the reports of chirurgeons, &c : — In cafes of rapes 
 a report of matrons is to be had. 
 Report in law, is a publick relation, or bringing to memory 
 of cafes judicially argued, debated, reiblvcd, or adjudged in 
 any of the king's courts of juftice, with the caufe and realou 
 of the fame delivered by the judges. 
 
 When the chancery, or any other court, refers the ftatmg of 
 fome cafe, or comparing an account, tiff, .to a matter in 
 chancery, or other referee, his certificate therein is alio Lulled 
 
 ^report. ■ 'v ; v ? T Px3K* - 
 
 Pinion of Report. See the article Pinion. 
 REPOSE, in poetry, fete 
 We 
 
 Repose in painting is applied to certain maffes, or large fy- 
 items or aflembfages cf light and ihade : which being well 
 Londuaed, prevent the confufwn of objects and figures ; by 
 ending and taking up the eye fo as it cannot attend to the 
 other parts of the paintins, for fome time : and thus 1 jj.ng 
 it to confider the feveral groups gradually, and at u were to 
 proceed from ttage to ftage. ' 
 REPOSITION* of the forejl, an aft whereby certain grounds 
 before made purlieu, are upon a fecond view laid to (he 
 foreft again. . „ . , . 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin re and poncre, to lay 
 
 See the articles Rest, Pause, 
 
 the reduction of a bone. See Re- 
 
 Reposition In furgery, 
 
 DUCTION. 
 
 REPOSITORY, Repositorium, a ltore-nome or 
 place where things are laid up, and kept— In which fenfc 
 we fay the repefttory of the royal fociety, fcfr. See Mu- 
 
 sjeum. ... . 
 
 REPRESENTATION, Represent atio, in the drama, the 
 exhibition of a theatrical piece j including the fcenes, ma- 
 chines, recitation, tiff. 
 
 Sir Richard Steel's principle is, that the defign of a play 13 
 not to be read but reprefented ; fo that it is on the ftage, 
 not in the prefs, it is to be judged of : and the pit, not the 
 public, are the proper judges. 
 REPRESENTATIVE, one that perfonates, or fupplies 
 the place of another j and is invetted with his right, and au- 
 thority. J 
 
 The word reprefmtathe is equivalent to procurator or 
 proxy. 
 
 Thus we fay the king is the reprefentative of God on earth ; 
 magiftrates are reprefentatives of the king. 
 — The commons are the people's reprefentatives in parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 There is this defeat in the conftitution of our parliament ; 
 that whereas all Englilhmen who have coniiderable eftates, 
 ought not to he taxed without their own confent in parlia- 
 ment, by themfelves or their reprefentatives; copy-holders, 
 whereof fome have a thoufand pounds a year, have no voice 
 in the election of knights of the fhire. Chamberl. 
 REPRIEVE, or Reprive, in law, a fuf pending or de- 
 ferring the execution of the law upon a prifoner, for the 
 prefent time. 
 
 A reprieve is properly a warrant from the king, for fui- 
 fpending the execution of a perfon condemned — The king 
 cannot pardon a condemned perfon without the concurrence 
 of parliament, but he frequently reprieves him for 99 
 years. : " j M ' 7 -_' l, > ■ - 
 
 REPRIMAND, a Iharp authoritative reproof— Such a perfon 
 
 was reprimanded in court by the bench, ftf c. 
 REPRISALS*, or Reprizals, Represalia, in the civil 
 law, a right which princes have to retake from their enemies 
 fuch things as they juftly detain from themj or other things 
 equivalent thereto. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Italian, reprefaglia, which 
 fignifies the fame thing. 
 When a place is taken or held from a prince, hefeizes an- 
 other by way of repnfal — Sometimes he takes men of the op- 
 pofite party, by right of reprifals. 
 
 The Romans called this clarigatio : and the Greeks had tome- 
 ttimg like it under the name of aridrolepfia. See Clariga- 
 tio and Androlepsia. 
 Reprisals is alfo ufed for a letter or permiffion which a 
 prince fometimes gives a fubjedt, upon a full cognizance of 
 the caufe s authorizing him to retake from the firft perfons he 
 
REP 
 
 REP 
 
 Hicets withal of the oppofite party* as many effects as make 
 an equivalent to what have been violently forced from him, 
 and for Which the oppofite prince has refufed to do him ju- 
 ftice. 
 
 Thefe permiffions are alfo called Utters of mark, or mart, and 
 in the Stat. 27 Edw, III. law of marque; in regard a perfon 
 denied juftice in another man's territorv, rcdreiles himfelf by 
 goods belonging to men in that territory; 
 
 I'his merchant has (cized the effects of the Spaniard don 
 
 by way of reprifal, becaufe ihe Spaniards had feized his, and 
 no redrels could be had at the court of Madrid. 
 REPRISE*, or Reprize, in the commerce by fea, a mer- 
 chant (hip, which having been taken by a corfair, privateer, 
 or other enemy* is retaken or recovered by a veflel of the con- 
 trary party. 
 
 * The word is French, and figniiies a re-fumption or re-taking. 
 
 When a vefTel thus retaken has been 24 hours in the hands 
 
 of the enemy, it is deemed a lawful prize If the reprife 
 
 have been made within 24 hours, the veiled is to be reftored 
 to the proprietor, with every thing therein, upon his allow- 
 ing one third to the veflel who made the reprize. 
 If the reprize have been abandoned by the enemy, either 
 in a tempeft, or from any other caufe, before it have 
 been led into any port, it is to be reftored to the pro- 
 prietor. 
 
 Reprizes, in law, are deductions, drawbacks, or du- 
 ties paid yearly out of a manor, or lands Such are rent- 
 charges, pcnfions, fees of flewards or bailiffs, 5tfa The 
 
 manor ot Doll yields 40 /. per annum, ultra reprizas, befides 
 all reprizes. 
 
 REPRIVE. See the article Reprieve. 
 
 REPROBATION, Reprohatio, in theology, a decree 
 or refohr, which God has taken from all eternity to punifh 
 finners, who fljatl die jn impenitence. 
 Reprobation Hands in direct oppofition to election. 
 Divines hold it a fymptom ol n probation when a finner is har- 
 dened fo as not to feel any farther remorfe or mifgivings of 
 coufcience. 
 
 The cafuifh difiinguifli two kinds of reprobation, pefttive 
 
 and negative, 
 
 Pojithe Reprobation is that whereby God is fuppofed to 
 create men with a pofitive and abfolute refolution to damn 
 them eternally. 
 
 This opinion of reprobation is countenanced by St Augu- 
 ftin, and others of the fathers, and is ftrongly maintained 
 
 by Calvin, and mod: of his followers Something like it is 
 
 alfo found in the XXXIX articles of the church of England ; 
 but it is now generally exploded, as injurious to the juftice of 
 
 . God. ' 1 'i -1 ( - 1 j W Dii'J:!-. 
 
 Negative or conditional Reprobation is that whereby God, 
 though he creates all men with a fincere defire to fave them, 
 and furnilhc:; them with the neceflary means thereto, fo as all 
 may be faved if they will ; yet fees there are feveral who will 
 not do it, with the aids he Ihall afford them, how powerful 
 foever ; and fees, at the fame time, they would do it with 
 certain other aids, which he fees, but" will not give them — 
 O althudo ! he. 
 
 REPRODUCTION, Reproductio, the zft 
 whereby a thing is produced anew, or grows a fecond 
 time. 
 
 When the flock of an oak, a fruit-tree, or the like, is cut off 
 ihorr, it reproduces an infinity of young fhoots. 
 By reproduction is ufually und'jrftood the rertoration of a thing 
 before exifting, and iince dellroycd. 
 
 The reproduction of feveral parts of lobfters, crabs, iffc. makes 
 
 one ol the grcatell curiofities in natural hiftory That, in 
 
 lieu of an oiganic.il part of an animal broken off, another 
 Shall arife perfectly like it, may feem incontinent with the 
 modern fyfrcm of generation, where the animal is fuppofed to 
 be wholly formed in the egg. 
 
 Yet has the matter of fact been well attefted by the fHher- 
 men, and even by feveral virtuofo's, who have taken the 
 point into examination, particularly M. de Reaumur, and M. 
 Perrault, whole fkill and exactnefs in things of this nature 
 
 will hardly be qaeftioned The legs of lobiters, csV. confift 
 
 each of five articulations : now, when any of the legs hap- 
 pen to break by any accident, as in walking, &c. which 
 frequently happens, the fracture is always found to be in a 
 part near the fourth articulation ; and what they thus lofe, 
 is precifcly reproduced in fome time afterwards ; that is, a part 
 of a leg fhoots out, confuting of four articulations, the firft 
 whereof has two claws as before : fo that the lofs is entirely- 
 repaired. 
 
 If a lobfter's leg be broken off by defign at the fourth or 
 fifth articulation, what is thus broken oft, always comes again 
 —But it is not fo if the fradure be made in the firft, fe- 
 cond, or third articulation. In thofe cafes, the reproduclion 
 is very rare, if things continue as they are — But what is ex- 
 ceedingly furprifing is, that they do not : for, upon vifiting 
 the lobfter maimed in thefe barren and unhappy articulations, 
 
 at the end of two or three days, all the other articulations are 
 found broken off to the fourth ; and it is iufpe&ed they have 
 have performed the operation on themfclves, to make the re- 
 production of a leg certain. 
 
 The part reproduced is not only perfectly like that retrenched, 
 but alfo* in a certain fpace of time, grows equal to it — Hence 
 it is* that we fiequentfy fee lobfters, which have their two 
 big legs unequal* and that in all proportions— This fhews the 
 fmalier leg to be a new one. 
 
 A part thus reproduced being broke, there is a fecond repro- 
 duction — The fummer, which is the only feafon of the year 
 when the lobfters eat, is the moft favourable time for the' re- 
 production. It is then performed in four or five weeks : 
 whereas it takes up eight or nine months in any other fea- 
 fon. 
 
 I he firiall legs are fometimes reproduced, but more rarely, as 
 well as more flowly, than the great ones : the horns do the 
 fame. Vide Mem. Acad. R. Scienc. ann. 1712. p, 295. 
 Hift. p. 45. feq. item ann. 1718. p. 31. The experiment is 
 moft eafily tried on the common crab. See Supplement article 
 Reproduction. 
 REP-SILVER* money antiently paid by fervile tenants 
 to their lord, to be quitted of the duty of reaping his 
 corn. 
 
 REPTILES * in natural hiftory, a kind of animals* fo de- 
 nominated from their creeping or advancing on the belly — 
 Or, reptiles are diftinaiy a genus of animals and infect, 
 which, inftead of feet* reft on one part of the body, while 
 they advance forward with the reft. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, repo, I creep. 
 
 Such are earth-worms, fnakes, Isc. — Indeed, many of the 
 ordinary clafs of reptiles have feet, only thole very final!, and 
 the legs fhort in proportion to the bulk of the body. 
 Naturalifts obferve a world of artful contrivance for the mo- 
 tion of reptiles Thus, particularly in the earth-worm, 
 
 Dr Willis tells us* the whole body is only a chain of annul.ir 
 mufcles ; or, as as Mr Derham fays* it is only one continued 
 fpiral mufcle, the orbicular fibres whereof, by being con- 
 tracted, render each ring narrower and longer than before ; 
 by which means it is enabled, like the worm of an augre, 
 
 to bore its paflage into the earth Its reptile motion may 
 
 alfo be explained by a wire wound on a cylinder, which when 
 flipped off, and one end extended and held faff, will brincr 
 the other nearer it. So the earth-worm having fhot out 
 or extended its body, (which is formed with a wreathing) it 
 takes hold by thofe fmall feet it hath, and fo contracts the 
 hinder part of its body — Dr Tyfon adds, that, when the fore- 
 part of the body is ftretched out, and applied to a plane at a 
 diftance, the hind-part relaxing and fhortening, is eafily drawn 
 towards it as a centre. 
 
 The little feet of this creature are difpofed in a quadruple row 
 the whole length of the worm ; with which, as with fo many 
 hooks, it fattens down fometimes this* and fometimes that, 
 part of the body to the plane, and at the fame time ftrctches 
 out, or drags after it, another. 
 
 The creeping of ferpents is effected after a fomewhat differ- 
 ent manner, there being a difference in their ftructure * in 
 that thefe laft have a compages of bones articulated to- 
 gether. 
 
 The body here is not drawn together, but, as it were, compli- 
 cated, part of it being applied on the rough ground, and the 
 reft ejaculated and fhot from it; which being fet on the 
 
 ground in its turn, brings the other after it The fpine of 
 
 the back, varioufly wreathed in thefe creatures, has the fame 
 effect in leaping, as the joints of the feet in other animals* 
 they making their leaps by means of mufcles that extend the 
 plica?, or folds. 
 
 Reptile is likewife ufed, abufively* for plants which creep on 
 the earth, or on other plants, as wanting ftrength of ftalk to 
 fuffain themfclves. 
 
 Such are cucumbers, melons* &c. fuch alfo are ivy, the vine a 
 and bryony. 
 
 REPUBLIC, Respuelica* commonwealth, a popular ftate 
 or government : or a nation where the people have the go- 
 vernment in their own hands. 
 
 This amounts to the fame with what we otherwife call a 
 democracy. 
 
 The celebrated republics of antiquity* are thofe of Athens ( 
 Sparta, Rome, and Carthage — At prefent, there is fcarce any 
 
 fuch thing as a real republic^, i. c. a ftriclly popular ftate — 
 
 Indeed, the Venetians and Genoefe call their ftates republics \ 
 
 but their government is apparently oligarchic. 
 
 The Dutch come the neareft to the character of a republic ; 
 
 yet they are very defective, at leaft in the fenfe and feverity 
 
 wherewith Rome, Carthage, C5V. were republics. See States- 
 
 general. 
 
 It^is a remark of M. St Evremont, that, if the Dutch love 
 the republican form, it v> more for the fake of their trade than 
 of their liberty. 
 
 10 S Re pub- 
 
RES 
 
 RES 
 
 Republic of letters is a phrafe ufed in fpeaking coUeSively of 
 the whole body of the people of ftudy and learning. 
 There is a journal begun in Holland by M. Bayle, and con- 
 tinued bv M. Bernard, conflJftwg of extracts of books printed 
 in the courfe of the year, called nouvcl/es de la republique des 
 letires, news from the republic or letters. 
 
 REPUDIATION, Repudium, in the civil law, the a& 
 of divorcing. 
 
 REPULSION, Repulsio, in phyfics, the act of a repelling 
 power, whereby natural bodies, under certain circumftanccs, 
 mutually fly from each other. See REPELLlNC-^fr. 
 Repulfion is the counter part to attrafilon— Attraction only 
 reaches to a little diftancc ; Where that terminates, there repul- 
 fion commences. 
 
 Indeed, we meet with many obvious inflanccs of repul/ion a- 
 mong bodies, as between water and oil, and, in general, be- 
 tween water and all unfluous bodies ; between mercury and 
 iron, as alfo between the particles of duft, 
 Thus, if a fat body, lighter than water, he laid on the fur- 
 face thereof, or if a piece of irbn be laid on mercury, the 
 furface of the fluid will he deprefled about the bodies laid on 
 it. This is a plain indication of repulfion ; as the riling up 
 of the fluid about the furfaccs of other incumbent bodies, is of 
 attraction. 
 
 In the latter cafe, the fluid is fufpended, by an attractive 
 power, above the level, and kept from falling by its gravity : 
 in the former, a depreflion is made by the repelling power, 
 which the liquor, notwithftanding its gravity, cannot rur 
 down into, and fill up. 
 
 Upon this depend all the phenomena of very light glafs 
 bubbles floating on water, about which, when clean, the wa- 
 ter rifts ; hut when <rreafed, the water finks into a chanel 
 all around Attft— ftence aifo it is, that, in a glafs-vcfiel of 
 water, the fluid Hands higher all about the edges near the 
 glafs than towards the middle; but, when the glafs is filled 
 till the water run down on all fides, then it ftands higher at 
 
 the middle than at the fides Hence alfo, in a glais not 
 
 full of water, a clean glafs bubble always runs to the _ fide, by 
 reafon the prefl'urc, which is upon it towards the middle, is 
 partly taken off by the attractive force wherewith the water 
 is raifed near the edge. If the glafs be fo full as to be ready 
 to run over, the bubble returns from the fide towards the 
 middle, the force wherewith the water is raifed in the middle, 
 taking off part of the preffure. 
 
 Juft the reverfe happens, if the bubble be greafy ; in regard 
 there the force, whereby the water and the bubble repel each 
 other, is greatefb where the water is higheft. Two clean 
 bubbles and two greafy ones always run towards each other 
 as being attracted ; and a greafy and a clean one always fly 
 each other, as being repelled. 
 REQUEST, in law, a fuppHcation or petition preferred to 
 a prince, or a court of juitice, begging relief in fomc con- 
 fctonablC cafes, where the common law grants no immediate 
 redrefs. 
 
 The term requejl is now, fince the inftitution of chancery : 
 much difuled ; together with the court of requejls, where 
 requejls were cognizable. 
 The Court of Requests was an antient court of equity, 
 inftituted about the 9th year of Henry VII. of like nature, 
 though inferior authority, with the court of chancery ; being 
 appointed chiefly for the' relief of petitioners, who, in confci- 
 onable cafes, Ihould addrefs themfelves, by way of requejl, to 
 his majefty. 
 
 The chief judge of this court was the lord privy few, affiftcd 
 by the matters of requejls-, who correfponded to our matters of 
 chancery. 
 
 In the 40th and 41ft year of queen Elizabeth, it was adjudged, 
 upon l'olemn argument in the court of common pleas, that the 
 court of requejls was then no court of equity. 
 In France, requetes civiles, civil requefts, mil obtain fo 
 annulling of contracts, &c. made by furprize. 
 They have eighty majlers of requejls to take cognizance of 
 caufes between the officers of the crown, the fervants of the 
 houfhold, {iff. 
 
 Request, in hunting, is when the dogs have loft the queft 
 or track of the bcaft, and muft requejl, or qucjl it again. 
 
 See Quest They fay, to call to the requejl, come to the 
 
 requejl, &c. 
 
 To reqvejl the game is chiefly ufed, when, after having run 
 it down the night before, they feek it again the next morning 
 with the blood-hound, or the like. 
 REQUIEM, a mafs lung in the Romifh church for the reft 
 of the foul of a perfon deceafed. 
 
 It is thus called, becaufe the introit begins with Requiem ester- 
 
 nam dona eis dom'me, &c. 
 RE RE-WARD, arrieregarde. See Rear and Guard. 
 RES, thing. See Reality, Ens, Esse, Substance 
 
 Res Mancipi. See Abalienation. 
 Res Nuturales. \ „ (Naturals. 
 
 Res Nm Naturah, &c. J bce INqn Naturals, &c. 
 
 RESCEIT, Receptio, in law, an admiffion or receiving 
 of a third perfon to plead his right,in a caufe formerly com- 
 menced between other two. 
 
 As, where an action is brought againft a tenant for life or 
 years, and he makes default ; in fuch cafe he in the reverfion 
 may come in and pray to be received, to defend the land, and 
 to plead with the demandant. 
 Resceit is fometimes alfo applied to an admittance of plea, 
 though the controverfy be only between two — He in reverfion 
 may come into court and piay to be received in a fuit againlt 
 his particular tenant. 
 Resceit of homage, Receptio homagH, denotes the 
 lord's receiving homage of his tenant, at his admiffion to the 
 lands. 
 
 RESCISSION*, Rescissio, in the civil law, an action 
 intended for the annulling or fetting afide of any deed, con- 
 tract, or the like. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, re and fdndo, q. d. I 
 cut or divide again. 
 
 A thing's being found damaged or fold at above double the juft 
 value, is a good caufe of refcijfion. 
 
 The deed or contract thus annulled or refcinded, is fometimes 
 called a refdjfory : though that denomination be more pro- 
 perly given to the action brought for refcinding or fetting it 
 afide : which is properly called aclio refejforia. 
 RESCOUS, or Rescue, Rescussus, inlaw, an illegal 
 taking away and fetting at liberty a di ftrds taken, or a perfoit ^ 
 arrefted, by procefs, or courfe of law. 
 
 This is properly a refcous in fa£l — If one diftrain beafts for 
 damage feafant in his ground, and as he drives them along the 
 highway towards the pound, they enter into the owner's houfe, 
 and he witholds them there, and will not deliver them upon 
 demand: this detainer is a refous inlaw. 
 Refcous, in matters relating to trcafon, is deemed treafon ■> and 
 in matters concerning felony, is felony. 
 
 — He that commits fuch a refcue or refcous, is called the 
 refcuffor. 
 
 Rescous is alfo ufed for a writ which lies for this fact, called 
 
 breve de refcuffu. 
 
 RESCRIPT, Rescriptum, an anfwer delivered by an 
 emperor, or a pope, when confulted by particular perfons, on 
 fomc difficult queftion or point of law, to ferve as a decifion 
 thereof. 
 
 The civil and canon laws are full of fuch refcripts. 
 When the refcript was made in anfwer to the inquiry of a 
 community, it was called a pragmatic fan£lion. 
 The papal refcripts are a kind of bulls or monitories, be- 
 ginning with thefe words, fgnificavit nobis dileclus fili- 
 us, &c. 
 
 They never obtained either in England or France, when con- 
 trary to the liberties of the Englilh and Gallican churches ; 
 but were declared abufive. 
 
 Among the Romans the contending parties, and even the 
 magiftrates themfelves, frequently confulted the emperor on 
 the meafures they were to take in certain nice and difficult, 
 cafes ; and the anfwers returned by the emperors on fuch con- 
 fultations, were called refcripts — Thefe had not, indeed, the 
 full force of laws, but they were deemed a ftrong prejudice or 
 prefumption. 
 
 Juftinian has inferted a great number of them in the Code ; 
 and by that means given them the authority they before 
 wanted. 
 
 The author of the life of the emperor Macrinus obferves of 
 that prince, that he would have his officers judge by laws, 
 not by refcripts ; as efteeming it abfurd to admit the wills of 
 Ignorant men, fuch as Commodus, and Caracalla, fur rules 
 of judging; and becaufe Trajan never gave any refcripts at 
 all, as being loth to countenance a cuftom, where what is 
 ' frequently granted as a favour, in particular cafes, might be 
 afterwards pleaded as a precedent — 'Tis added, that Macrinus 
 had a defign to ftrip the refcripts of all their authority. 
 M. Schulting, in his diffcrtations, does not at all approve of 
 this defign ; and to the emperor's reafons anfwers, that indeed 
 all refcripts are not to be admitted ; that thofe which appear 
 dictated out of favour, are to be thrown afide : hut thofe 
 which appear founded inreafon, and natural equity are, with 
 Juftinian, to be allowed — He adds, that it cannot be denied 
 but the worft emperors have frequently made good laws, and 
 ufeful refcripts. 
 
 As to what is urged of the emperor Trajan's never giving any 
 refcripts ; it appears but ill fupported — For what is it but a 
 refcript that he delivers to Pliny on the fubject of the Chii- 
 ftians, lib. 10. epijl. 28? Or that on the lfelaftici, lib. 10. 
 epijl. 120? TheDigeft, and Pliny's epiftles, need only to be 
 opened and compared, to find refcripts of Trajan. 
 RESCUE. See the article Rescous. 
 
 RESEANTISSA, or Reseantisa, inlaw. See Essoin. 
 RESEARCH*, a diligent fearch or inquiry into any thing. 
 
 * The word is formed of the French, recherche, and literally 
 denotes a fecond fearch. 
 
 Re- 
 
RES 
 
 Research, in mufic, is a kind of prelude or voluntary 
 played on the organ, harpficord, violin, (fc. Wherein the 
 compofer feems to fearcb or look out for the ftrains and 
 touches of harmony, which he is to ufe in the regular piece 
 to be played afterwards. ■ 
 
 This is ufually done off-hand, andconfequently it requires a 
 mailer's fkill — When in a motetto the compofer takes the 
 liberty to ufe any thing that comes in his head, without ap- 
 plying any words to it, or (itbjeamg himfelf to the fenfe or 
 paffion thereof ; the Italians call it fantafia rkercata ; the 
 rrench recherche, and the EngliQi relcarch and 
 tary. 
 
 RESEARCHING, in fculpture, the repairing of a caft 
 figure, isle, with proper tools ; or the finifhing it with ar: 
 suid cxaclnefs, fo as that the minuted parts may be well de- 
 
 RESEISER, Reseisire, in law, a taking of land; 
 
 into the king's hands, where a general livery, or oufter It 
 
 main, was formerly mifufed, contrary to order of law. 
 RESEMBLANCE. See the article Similitude. 
 RESERVATION, Reservatio, inlaw. 
 
 claufc whereby fomething is refervid, 
 
 or fecured to one's felf. 
 
 Thus when a man lets his land, he referves a rent to be paid 
 to himfelf for his maintenance, CSV. 
 
 William the conqueror getting all tile lands of England, 
 except thofe belonging to the church and religious houfes, 
 U into his hands by right of conqueft, bellowed a r;reat part 
 thereof among his followers, rcferving fome retribution of 
 rents and fervices to him and his heirs ; which reservation 
 is now, as it was before the conqueft, called the tenure of the 
 lands. 
 
 an action or 
 is retained, kept 
 
 Sometimes refervatim fignifics as much as an exception 
 ■when a man lets an houfe, and refermi to himfelf one p 
 that room is excepted out of the demife. 
 Mental Reservation is a propofition which, ftriaiy taken, 
 and according to the natural import of the terms, is falfe ; but 
 it qualified with Ibmttbing referred or concealed in the mind, 
 becomes true. 
 
 Mental nfirvatims are the great refuge of religious hypo- 
 crites, who ufe them to accommodate their confciehces with 
 their interefts ; the Jefuit* are zealous advocates for mental 
 rcftrvatitns ; yet are they ftriaiy all real lies, as including an 
 intention to deceive, 
 RESERVE, in law, the fame with refervation. 
 
 He has fettled the whole eftate on his Ion, and has not made 
 any referve — Benefices are fometimes refigned with referve of 
 a penlion — By the canon law, no perfon may rifirve to him- 
 felf a penlion out of a benefice, unlefs he hath ferved it ten 
 years. 
 
 In the Romifh church, the ordinary priefts have only a power 
 to abfolve, in referve of certain cafes, hence called re ferved 
 cafes, as being referved to the biftiop. 
 The court referves the cognizance of fiich an affair to 
 fc tf— The lawyers fay, that no prince ever grants fuch . 
 power by his letters or patents, but that he referves to himfelf 
 a greater. 
 
 Body of Reserve, corps de Reserve, in war, the forces 
 difpofed in the third or laft line of an army drawn up for 
 battle. 
 
 They are thus called, becaufe referred, or deftined 
 fuftain the reft as occafion requires ; and not to engage but 
 in cafe of neceftity. 
 Reserved cafes. See the article Case. 
 
 RESERVOIR, Receptacle, a place where water is 
 collcaed and referred, to be conveyed occafionally, through 
 pipes, C3V. or to be fpouted up, fjV. 
 
 The refervoir in a building is a large bafon, ufually of wood, 
 lined with lead, where water is kept to fupply the occafions 
 of the houfe— At Cannons, the late noble feat of the duke of 
 Chandos, there was a very large refervoir at the top of thi 
 houfe, to which the water was railed by a very curious en 
 gine contrived for the purpofe— This refervoir was of fuch 
 capacity, as that bolides (applying all parts of die houfe by- 
 means of pipes and cocks, it likewife turned a mill. 
 The refervair is fometimes alfo a large bafon of ftrong ma- 
 ionry, clayed or paved at the bottom, where the water is 
 referved to feed jets d'eau or fpouting fountains. 
 Such is that huge one on the top of Marly, called troll d'en- 
 fer, hell-mouth, whole furface, Daviler tells us, contains 
 fifty acres, and its depth is fuch, as under that fuperficies to 
 contain a hundred thoufand cubic fathom of water. 
 
 Reservoir, in anatomy. See the article Receptacle. 
 
 R E S E T, in law, the receiving or harbouring an outlawed 
 perfon. Hence a receiver of an outlawed perfon, is called 
 a refctter. 
 
 RE S I AN CE, Resiantia, in law, a man's abode or 
 continuance in a place. 
 
 RES 
 
 The word has the lame figmfication with regard to lay-meit 
 
 as refidence with regard to ecclefiaftics. 
 
 Glanvile obferves, that in the antient law, refianct properly 
 fignified a difeafe, whereby the perfon was difabled from ftir- 
 rmg out of doors— Whence their ejfiin de refidntifa, was the 
 fame as our ejfoin de mala lefto. 
 RESIDENCE, Residefttia, In canon and common 
 law, the abode oi a parfon or incumbent upon his benefice; 
 and his afliduity in attending on the fame. 
 The default of refidence, called non-reftdence, unlefs where 
 the party has a difpenfation for the fame, with us is the 
 forfeiture of ten pounds for each month. 
 
 By the canon law, beneficiaries are obliged to refidence, under 
 pain of deprivation of their benefices — The original reafon is, 
 that in the primitive church none were promoted to holv or- 
 ders, but fuch as had a benefice in promptu ; which 'they 
 were obliged to ferve ; fo that this fcrvice was necefiarily at- 
 tached to the orders; and whoever was honoured there- 
 with, at the fame time was obliged to perfonal fer- 
 vicei 
 
 But this ftrict difc'ipline was not obferved Jon^ The 
 
 beneficiaries by degrees got difpenfations from fen-inn- their 
 benefices themfelves; and thus pluralities very fuon got 
 footing. 
 
 France, of all other countries, feems to be that where refi- 
 dence is the molt ftrictly regarded— All their cures, or mi- 
 nifters who have cures of fouls, are obliged to actual reft- 
 dence; and the parliaments have declared all the difpenfations 
 granted by popes, isfc. abulive, as efteeming the obligation of 
 refidence to be jure divino. 
 
 Under Charles IX, there was even a defign to re-eftahliih 
 the primitive difcipline in all its feverityj and in 1651, a 
 declaration was regiftered, appointing all bilhops to nf;dc t 
 conformably to the antient canons^ in their bifhoprics — ■ 
 The fame parliament alfo forbad the bilhops to aflume the 
 quality of councellors of the king; in regard fuch a quality 
 was deemed inconfiflent with the indilpenfible obligation they 
 were under to reftde in their bilhoprics. 
 
 Du Pin adds, that the procureur general, or attorney general 
 Buordin, even feized the temporalities of fuch bifhops as con- 
 tinued in Paris fifteen days after this declaration ; having firif. 
 certified them, that if they had any bufmefs there, he would 
 undertake the management thereof. 
 
 Residence, in chymiflry, &c. the fettling or what remains of 
 a liquor or other fubftance in the veflel, after the chief part 
 of it has been poured or taken out ; to change the manner of 
 the operation on what is left. 
 
 RESIDENT, a public minifrer, who manages the affairs 
 of a king in the court of a prince, or petty ftate ; or the 
 affairs of a prince or petty ftate, in the court of a king 
 or prince. 
 
 Thus the king of England has rcfidenti in the courts of the 
 electors, and other princes of Germany and Italy ; at the re- 
 publics of Genoa and Lucca ; and they, reciprocally, have 
 reftdents in the court of Great Britain. 
 
 Reftdents are a clafs of public minirters inferior to embafiadors 
 and envoys ; but like them they are under the protection of 
 the law of nations. 
 Resident, Residens, in our antient cuftoms, was a tenant 
 who was obliged to refide on his lord's land, and not to de- 
 part from the fame ; called alfo Imnme levant and ceuchant, and 
 in Normandy reffiant du fief* 
 
 Vuantumque de aliis teneat ei magi's ohnoxius efi, & ejus refidens 
 ejj'e debet cujus legius eft. Leg. H. I , 
 
 fo 
 
 RESIDENTIARY, Residentiarius, a canon in- 
 flailed to the privileges and profits of refidence. 
 
 RE S ID U A L figure, in geometry, the figure remaining 
 after fubtraction of a letter from a greater. 
 
 Residual root, is a root compofed of two parts or members, 
 only connected together with the fign — . 
 Thus, a — b, or 5 — 3, is a refidual root ; and 
 called, becaufe its true value is no more than its re- 
 fidue or difference between the parts a and b, or 5 
 and 3. 
 
 RESIDUE, Residuum, the remainder or reliqua of an 
 account, debt or obligation. 
 
 StP aul, in his epiftle to the Romans, fpeaks of a refidue ac- 
 cording to the election of grace ; meaning a remnant or fmall 
 number of people preferved from idolatry by an effect of the 
 grace of God. 
 
 RESIGNATION, Resign atio, in the canon law, 
 the furrender or giving up of a benefice into the hands of the 
 collator or bifhop. 
 
 Refignation is of equal import with furrender ; only the for- 
 mer is reftrained to fpiritual benefices, and the latter to tem- 
 poral offices or employments. 
 
 Reft- 
 
RES 
 
 RES 
 
 Refanathm arc either firnple, or conditional _ 
 $:mi&'OT pure Resignations are thofe, whereby the in- 
 cumbent : itrips himfelf of all his right, abfolutely, and with- 
 out any conditions or referve of pennon— Thcle are made to 
 • the bifhop, or collator. 
 
 Resignations in favour, or conditional Resignations, 
 are fuch as are only made on condition that foch other 
 pcrfons ihall be inverted therewith ; fo that the refignaUons 
 arc null, unlefs the conditions be punctually executed. 
 Thcfe refignations in favorem are not of above 200 years 
 ftanding— Strong opposition was at firft made to them, they 
 being efteemed a kind of fuccellion or tranfmiilion of bene- 
 fices, as of patrimonies belonging to a family. According- 
 ly, thefe reflations are not made into the hands of the ordi- 
 nary, or collator, as pure; rtfanatw$ aw j but to the colla- 
 tor paramount, who in the Rcmifh church is the pope , there 
 being a fufpicion of fimunv, or other unlawful paction there- 
 in, where admitted of in prejudice to the lay-patron. _ 
 
 RESIGN EE, in law, the party to whom a thing 1: 
 refigned." 1 - ' W' ' 
 
 RESIN, Resina, a fat, vifcid, fulphurous juice, oozing ei- 
 ther fpontancouily, or by incilion, from feveral kinds of trees, 
 particularly the pine, fir, cifr. « 
 Camphor is a kind of refm.— Maftic is the refm of the len- 
 
 tifk. The beft of all the clafs of refins is turpentine. — The 
 
 coarfeft is what we commonly call rofin. 
 Refm is properly a juice of the bark of a tree only. 
 Boerhaave will have it to be the oil of the bark farther in 
 fpifiated by the heat of the fun, CSV. fo as to become friable 
 He add:;, that rejin may be produced from any vegetable oil, by 
 boiling it much and long. 
 
 If turpentine be let over a gentle fire, it firft diflblves and 
 becomes an oil, then a balfam, then pitch, and then rofin ; in 
 which ftate it is friable in the cold, futible by nre, and with- 
 all inflammable and comburtible, and difl'oluble in fpirit of 
 wine, but not in water, which arc all the characters of a 
 
 There are two kinds of re/fat the one liquid, the other dry 
 and hard — The nrft is the natural refm as it flows from the 
 tree — The fecond only differs from the firft in that it is 
 condenfed by the heat of the fun, or by that of a culinary 
 fire. 
 
 Rcftns will incorporate with oil, or rectified fpirit?, but not 
 with an aqueous menftruum. 
 The difference between refir.s and gutnsy confifts in this, that 
 refim arc more fulphurous, and gums more aqueous ; fo that 
 the firft diflblvc in oil or fpirit of wine, and the laft readily 
 in water. -, c. v.. ; - V. ... is -.a-) ' -~ 
 
 M. Tournefort makes a kind of intermediate clafs of vege 
 table juices which he calls gum-refim; which diflblve partly 
 in fpirit of wine, partly in water — Such are galbanutriy 
 Hum, opopanax, /eigapenum, &c. 
 The refins of feveral vegetables which abound with refinous 
 particles, but not fo as to yield any by incifion, as jalap, 
 benzoin, fcammony, turbith, d?Y. are thus obtained — The 
 vegetable being groily powdered, is put into a matrafs, and 
 rectified fpirit of wine is poured on it, to the height of four 
 fingers above the matter. Then the neck of another matrafs 
 being luted into the termer, to make a double veiltl, the mat- 
 ter is digefted three or four days in a fand heat, till it have 
 given a good tincture to the fpirit of wine. Then the diflblu- 
 tion is filtrated, and two thirds of the clear liquor evaporated 
 off, and the remainder poured into a large veflel of water, 
 where it turns into a kind of milk ; whence the rejin, in time, 
 precipitates to the bottom in form of a white powder — This 
 when wafhed and dried in the fun, grows into the ordinary 
 confidence of a refm. 
 RESISTENCE, or RESisTiNc-/ar«, in phyfics, any 
 power which acts contrarily to another, fo as to deftroy or di- 
 minifh its effect. 
 
 Qf refijlence, there are various kinds, arifing from the various 
 natures and properties of the refilling bodies, and governed 
 by various laws : As, the refijlence of folids, the refijlence of 
 fluids, the refijlence of the air, ifc. The doctrine of each 
 whereof will be feen under the following articles. 
 Resistence if folids, in mechanics, is the force wherewith 
 the quiefcent parts of folid bodies oppofc the motion of others 
 
 contiguous 
 
 therewith. 
 
 Of this there are two kinds — The firft, where the refifling 
 and the refijledpiwts, i. e. the moving and quiefcent bodies, are 
 only contiguous, and do not cohere ; i.e. where they confti 
 tute feparate bodies or mafles. 
 
 This refijlence is what M. Leibnitz calls refijlence of the fur- 
 face ; and we, properly, friclion \ the coniideration whereof, 
 
 being of the laft 
 
 importance in 
 
 the doctrine of machines, fee 
 
 its laws under the article Friction. 
 The fecond cafe of refijlence is where the refifling and rcfifled 
 parts are not only contiguous but cohere, i. e. are parts of 
 the fame continued body or mafs — This refijlence is what 
 we ma)' properly call renitency ; and was nrft confidered by 
 Galileo. 
 
 Theory of the Resistence of the fibres of folid bodies — To 
 
 concede an idea of this refijlence or renitency of the parts, 
 fuppofe a cylindrical body fufpended vertically by one end- 
 Here, all its parts being heavy, draw downwards ; and tend 
 to feparate the two contiguous planes, where the body is the 
 weakeit: but all the planes reft/1 this feparation by the force 
 wherewith they cohere, or are bound together : here then 
 are two oppofite powers; viz. the weight of the cylinder which 
 tends to break it, and the force of cobelion or the parts which 
 refills the fracture. 
 
 If "the bafe of the cylinder be increafed, without increafing 
 its length; it is evident the refijlence will be encrafed in the 
 fame ratio as the bafe ; but the weight alio encreafes in the 
 fame ratio; whence it is evident that all cylinders of the 
 fame matter and length, whatever their bafes be, have an 
 equal refiftence, when vertically fufpended. 
 If the length of the cylinder be encreafed without increafing 
 the bafe, its weight is increafed without increafing its refi- 
 ftence \ confequently the lengthening it weakens it — To find 
 the greateft length a cylinder of any matter may have without 
 breaking, there needs nothing but to take any cylinder of 
 the fame matter, and faften to it the greateft weight it will 
 fuftain before it break ; and then fee how much it muft be 
 lengthened by the addition of its weight, till it equals its 
 former weight with the addition of a foreign weight— By this 
 means Galileo found a copper-wire, and of confequence any 
 other cylinder of copper, might be extended 104801 braccio's 
 or fathoms of fix foot each. 
 
 If one end of the cylinder were fixed horizontally into a wall, 
 and the reft fufpended thence, its weight and rjijlence would 
 then act in a different manner ; and if it broke by the 
 action of its weight, the rupture would be at the end fixed 
 into the wall. A circle or plane contiguous to the wall, and 
 parallel to the bafe, and confequently vertical, would be de- 
 tached from the contiguous circle within the plane of the 
 wall, and would defcend. Allthe motion is performed on the 
 loweft extremity of the diameter, which remains immove- 
 able, while the upper extremity defcribes a quadrant of a 
 circle, and till the circle which before was vertical become 
 horizontal : ;'. c. till the cylinder be entirely broken. 
 In this fracture of the cylinder it is vifible two forces have 
 acted, and the one has overcome the other: the weight of the 
 cylinder, which arofe from its whole mafs, has overcome the 
 nfi/lence which arofe from die largenefs of the bafe ; and 
 as the centres of gravity are points wherein allthe forces 
 arifing from the weights of die feveral parts of the fame 
 bodies, are conceived to be united, one may conceive the 
 weight of the whole cylinder applied in the centre of gra- 
 vity of its mafs, e. in a point in the middle of its axis ; 
 and the refijlence of the cylinder applied in the centre of gra- 
 vity of its bafe, L e. in the centre of the bafe : it being the 
 bafe which refijls the fracture. 
 
 When the cylinder breaks by its own weight, all the motion 
 is on an immoveable extremity of a diameter of the bafe — 
 This extremity therefore, is the fixed point of a lever, whofe 
 two arms are the radius of the bafe, and half the axis ; and 
 of confequence the two oppofite forces do not only act of 
 themfelves, and by their abfolute force, but alfo by the re- 
 lative force they derive from their diftance with regard to the 
 fixed point of the lever. 
 
 Hence it evidently follows, that a cylinder, e. gr. of cop- 
 per, which, vertically fufpended, will not break by its own 
 weight if lefs than 480 fathom long, will break with a lefs 
 length in a horizontal fituation ; in regard the length in this 
 latter cafe contributes two ways to the fracture ; both as it 
 makes it of fuch a weight, and as it is an arm of a lever to 
 which the weight is applied — Hence, alfo, the fmalier the 
 bafe is, the lefs length or weight will fuffice to break it ; both 
 bccaul'e the refijlence is really lefs, and becaufe it acts by a lefs 
 arm of a lever. 
 
 If two cylinders of the fame matter, having their bafes and 
 lengths in the fame proportion, be fufpended horizontally ; 
 it is evident that the greater has more weight than the 
 lefi'er, both on account of its length, and of its bale. 
 But it has lefs refijlence on account of its length, confidered 
 as a longer arm of a lever, and has only more refijlence on 
 account of its bafe — Therefore it exceeds the Seller in its 
 bulk and weight, more than in rcjijlence ; and confequently it 
 mull break more eafily. 
 
 Hence,- we fee why 'upon making models and machines in 
 fmall, people are apt to be miftaken as to the refi/lence and 
 ftrength of certain horizontal pieces, when they come to exe- 
 cute their defigns in large ; by obfcr.ving the fame proportion 
 as in the fmall — Galileo's doctrine of refijlence therefore is 
 no idle fpeculation, but becomes applicable in architecture and 
 other arts. 
 
 The wcieht required to break a body, placed horizontally, be- 
 in» always lefs than that required to break it in a vertical fitua- 
 tion ; and this weight being to be greater or lefs according to 
 the ratio of the two arms of the lever: the whole theory is 
 always reducible to this ; viz. to find what part of the abfo- 
 lute weight the relative weight is to be, fuppofing the figure 
 of the body known - t which indeed is neceflary, becaufe it 
 
RES 
 
 RES 
 
 is the figure that determines the two centres of gravity, or the 
 two arms of the lever — For if the body, e. gr. were a cone, 
 its centre of gravity would not be in the middle of its axis, 
 as in the cvlinder ; and, if it were a femi- parabolical folid, nei- 
 ther its centre of gravity would be in the middle of its length 
 or axis, nor the centre of gravity of its baft in the middle of 
 the axis of its bafe. But frill, wherefcever thefe centres fall 
 in the feveral figures, it is thefe that regulate the two arms of 
 the lever. 
 
 It may be here obferved, that, if the bafe, whereby the body 
 is fattened into the wall, be not circular, but, e. gr. parabo- 
 lical, and the vertex of the parabola be at the top, the motion 
 01 the fracture will not be on an immoveable point, but on a 
 whole immoveable line ; which may be called the axis of equi- 
 librium: and it is with regard to this that the diftances of the 
 centres of gravity are to be determined. 
 
 Now, a body horizontally fufpended, bein!: fuppofed fuch, as 
 that the fmallcft addition' of weight would break it, there is 
 an equilibrium between its pofitivc and relative weight j and 
 of confequence thofe two oppofite powers arc to each other 
 reciprocally as the arms of the lever to which they are ap- 
 plied On the other hand, the rcftjlance of a body is always 
 
 equal to the greateft weight which it will fuftain m a verti- 
 cal fituation, without breaking, /'. e. is equal to its abfolute 
 weight. Therefore, fubftltutyig the abfolute weight for the 
 rejiftmcu lt appears, that the abfolute weight of a body fuf- 
 pended horizontally, is to its relative weight, as the diftance 
 of its centre of gravity from the axis of equilibrium is to the 
 diftance of the centre of gravity of its bafe from the fame 
 axis. 
 
 The difcovcry of this important truth, at Icaft of an equiva- 
 lent hereto, and to which this is reducible, we owe to Galileo 
 — From this fundamental proportion are eafily deduced fe- 
 
 veral confequences As, for inftancc, that, if the diftance 
 
 of the centre of gravity of the bafe from the axis of equili- 
 brium be half the diftance of the centre of gravity of the 
 body, the relative weight will only be half the abfolute 
 weight ; and that a cylinder of copper horizontally fufpended, 
 whole length is double the diameter, will break, provided it 
 weigh half what a cylinder of the fame bafe 4801 fathoms long 
 weighs. 
 
 On this fvftcm of rfjijhnce of Galileo, M. Mariotte made a 
 very fubtile remark, which gave birth to a new fyftem — Ga- 
 lileo fuppofes, that, where the body breaks, all the fibres break 
 at once; fo that the body always rtflfts with its whole abfolute 
 force, r. e. with the whole force that all its fibres have in the 
 place where it is to be broke — But M. Mariotte finding, that 
 all bodies, even glafs itfelf, bend before they break, t fhews, that 
 fibres are to be cunfidered as fo many little bent fprings, which 
 never exert their whole force till ftretched to a certain point, 
 and never break till entirely unbent. Hence, thofe nearcft 
 the axis of equilibrium, which is an immoveable line, arc 
 ftretched lefs than thofe farther off -, and of confequence employ 
 a lefs part of their force. 
 
 This confideration only takes place in the horizontal fituation 
 of the body : in the vertical, the fibres of the bafe all break at 
 once ; fo that the abfolute weight of the body muft exceed the 
 united refijience of all its fibres : a greater weight is therefore 
 required here than in the horizontal fituation, i. e. a greater 
 weight is required to overcome their united rejijience, than to 
 overcome their feveral rejijienccs one after another — The dif- 
 ference between the two lituations arifes hence, that, in the 
 horizontal, there is an immoveable point or line, a centre of 
 motion, which is not in the vertical. 
 
 M. Varignon has improved on the fyftem of M. Mariotte, 
 and fhewn, that, to Galileo's fyftem, it adds the confideration 
 of the centre of percuilion — The comparifon of the centres 
 (if gravity with the centres of perculiion, afford a fine view, 
 and fet the whole doctrine in a mod agreeable light. 
 In each fyftem, the bafe, whereby the body breaks, moves on 
 the axis of equilibrium, which is an immoveable line in the 
 fame bafe ; but in the fecond, the fibres of this bale are con- 
 tinually ftretching more and more, and that in the fame ra- 
 tio, as they recede farther and farther from the axis of equili- 
 brium ; and of confequence are ftill exerting a greater and 
 greater part of their whole force. 
 
 'J hefe unequal extcnfions, like all other forces, muft have 
 fume common centre where they all meet, and with regard 
 to which they make equal efforts on each fide ; and as they 
 are precifely in the fame proportion as the velocities which the 
 feveral points of a rod moved circularly would have to one 
 another, the centre of extenfion of the bafe, whereby the body 
 breaks, or tends to break, muft be the fame with its centre 
 of percuffion— Galileo's hypothecs, where fibres ftxetch equal- 
 ly, and break all at once, correfponds to the cafe of a rod 
 moving parallel to itfelf, where the centre of extenfion or 
 percuflion does not appear, as being confounded with the cen- 
 tre of gravity. 
 
 The bafe of fraction being a furface, whofe particular nature 
 determines its centre of percuflion, that is ncceffary tobefirft 
 known, to find on what point of the vertical axii of that bale 
 Vol. II. 
 
 it is placed, and how far it is from the axis of equilibrium 
 —Indeed, we know in the general, that it always acts with 
 fo much the more advantage as it is farther from it ; in regard 
 it acts by a longer arm of a lever ; and of confequence it/is 
 the unequal refijience of the fibres in M. Mariotte's hy- 
 pothecs, which produces the centre of percuflion ; but this 
 unequal refijience is greater or lefs, according as the centre 
 of percuflion is placed more or lefs high on the vertical 
 axis of the bafe, in the different furfaces of the bafe of 
 the fracture. 
 
 To exprefs this unequal rejijience,, accompanied with all die 
 variations it is capable of, regard muft be had to the ra- 
 tio between the diftance of the centre of percuflion from 
 the axis of equilibrium, and the length of the vertical axis 
 of the bafe In which ratio, the firft term, or the nume- 
 rator, is always lefs than the fecond, or the denominator ; 
 fo that the ratio is always a fraction lefs than unity ; and 
 the unequal rcfijhnce of the fibres in M. Mariotte's hypo- 
 thefts is fo much the greater, or, which amounts to the fame, 
 approaches fo much nearer to the equal refijience in Gali- 
 leo's hypothefis, as the two terms of the ratio are nearer to an 
 equality. 
 
 Hence it follows, that the refijience of bodies in M. Ma- 
 riotte's fyftem is to that in Galileo's, as the lead of the 
 
 terms in the ratio is to the greateft Hence alio, the re- 
 
 Jijlence being lefs than what Galileo imagined, the relative 
 weight muft alfo be lefs ; fo that the proportion already 
 mentioned between the abfolute and relative weight, cannot 
 fubfift in the new fyftem, without an augmentation of the 
 relative weight, or a diminution of the abfolute weight ; 
 which diminution is had by multiplying the weight by the 
 ratio, which is always lefs than unity. This done, we find 
 that the abfolute weight, multiplied by the ratio, is to the re- 
 lative weight, as the diftance of the centre of gravity of the 
 body from the axis of equilibrium is to the diftance of the 
 centre of gravity of the bafe of fracture from the fame axis : 
 which is precifely the fame thine; with the general formula 
 given by M. Varignon for the fvftcm of M. Mariotte. In 
 effect, after conceiving the relative weight of a bodv, and 
 its reji/fence equal to its abfolute weight, as two con- 
 trary powers applied to the two arms of a lever, in the hypo- 
 thefts of Galileo, there needs nothing to convert it into 
 that of M. Mariotte, but to imagine, that the refijience, or 
 the abfolute weight, is become lefs, every thing clf'e remain- 
 ing the fame. 
 
 We have here only confidered bodies as to be broke by their 
 
 own weight It will amount to the fame, if we fuppofc 
 
 them void of weight themfelves, and to be broken by a weight 
 applied to their extremities : only it is to be obferved, that a 
 foreign weight aits by an arm of a lever equal to the whole 
 length of a body ; whereas their own weight being all united 
 in their centre of gravity, is only the diftance of that centre 
 from the axis of equilibrium. 
 
 One of the moft curious, and perhaps the moft ufeful, que- 
 stions in this rcfearch is, to find what figure a body muft 
 have, that its refijience may be equal in all its parts, whe- 
 ther it be conceived as loaden with a foreign weight, or 
 as only fuftaining its own weight — We fhall here only con- 
 lider the latter cafe, from which the former will be eafily de- 
 termined. 
 
 For a body, then, fufpended horizontally, to rcfift equally 
 in all its parts, it is neceffary, fbme part of it being conceived 
 as cut oft' in a plane parallel to the bafe of fracture of the 
 body, the weight of the body retrenched be to its rejijience 
 in the fame ratio as the weight of the whole to its rejijience ; 
 thefe four powers acting by arms of levers peculiar to them- 
 felves — —Now, the weight of any body thus conceived, is 
 its whole weight multiplied by the diftance of the centre of 
 gravity of the body from the axis of equilibrium ; and the 
 rejijience is the plane of the bafe of fracture multiplied by 
 the diftance of the centre of gravity of the bafe from the 
 fame axis ; confequently thefe four quantities are to be pro- 
 portional hi the whole, and in each part, of a folid of equal 
 refijience. 
 
 From this proportion, M. Varignon eafily deduces two folids, 
 which fhall refit/l equally in all their parts. Galileo had found 
 one before : that difcovered by M. Varignon is in form of a 
 trumpet, and is to be fixed into a wall at its greater end ; fo 
 that its bignefs and weight is always diminifhed in proportion 
 as its length, or the arm of the lever whereby its weight acts, 
 incrcafes. It is added, (which feems very remarkable) that, 
 howfocver different the two fyftems may be, the folids of 
 equal refijience are the fame in both. 
 
 For the Resistence of a foiid fitpported at each extreme, as of 
 a beam between tiuo wails, fee Beam. 
 
 Resistence of fluids, in hydroftatics, is the force wherewith 
 bodies, moving in fluid mediums, are impeded and retarded 
 in their motion. 
 
 Laws of Resistence of the fluid mediums A body move- 
 
 ing in a fluid, is refi/led from two caufes ; the firft, the co- 
 hefion of the parts of the fluid— For a body, in its motion, 
 10 T fepa- 
 
RES 
 
 RES 
 
 feparating the parts of a liquid, mutt overcome the force with 
 Which thofe parts cohere. 
 
 The fecond is the inertia, or inactivity of matter, whereby a 
 certain force is required to move the particles from their places, 
 in order to let the body pafs. 
 
 The retardation from the firft caufe is always the fame in the 
 lame (pace, the fame body remaining, be the velocity what it 
 will— Hence, the refijience increafes as the fpace run through ; 
 in which ratio the velocity alfo incrcafes ; and therefore die 
 refijience is as the velocity itfelf. 
 
 The refijience from the fecond caufe, when the fame body 
 moves through different fluids with the fame velocity, follows 
 the proportion of the matter to be removed in the fame time, 
 which is as the denfity of the fluid. 
 
 When the fame body moves through the fame fluid with dif- 
 ferent velocities, this refijience increafes in proportion to the 
 number of particles ftruck in an equal time ; which number 
 is as the fpace run through in that time, that is, as the velo- 
 
 ' city. But farther, .it increafes in proportion to the force 
 With which the body ftrikes againft every part; which force 
 
 ' is alfo as the velocity of the body ; and therefore, if the 
 velocity be triple, the rcftjicr.ee is triple, from a triple number 
 
 of parts to be removed It is alfo triple from a ftrolce three 
 
 times ftronger againft every particle ; therefore the whole re- 
 fijience is ninefold, that is, as the fquare of the velocity. Hence, 
 a bodv moved in a fluid, is refjled partly in a ratio of the ve- 
 locity, and partly in a duplicate ratio of it. 
 The refjhnce from the cohefion of parts in fluids, except 
 glutinous ones, is not very fenfible in refpect of the other fe r 
 jjience, which incrcafes in the ratio of the fquares of the 
 velocities ; but the firft in the ratio of the velocity itfelf. By 
 how much the velocity increafes, bv fo much more do 
 thefe refjlences differ ; wherefore, in fwifter motions, the re- 
 fijience alone ia to be confidered, which is as the fquare of the 
 velocity, 
 
 If a fluid be included in a veffel of a prifmatic figure, and 
 there be moved along in it, with equal velocity, and in a di- 
 rection parallel to the iides of the prifm, two bodies, the one . 
 fpherical, the other cylindric, fo that the diameter of the bafe 
 of the latter be equal" to the diameter of the fphere, and the 
 cylinder be moved in the direction of its axis, thefe bodies will 
 fuffer the fame refjlcnce. 
 
 To demonftrate this, fuppofe the bodies at reft, and that the 
 fluid moves in the veffel with the fame velocity that the bo- 
 dies had ; by this, the relative motion of the bodies and the 
 fluid is not changed : confequently the actions of the bodies 
 on the fluid, and of the fluid on the bodies, are not changed 
 — The retardation, which the liquor fufters in paffing by the 
 body, arifes only from this, that, in that place, it is reduced 
 to a narrower fpace ; but the capacity of the veffel is equally 
 diminifhed by each body; therefore each body produces an 
 equal retardation. And becaufe action and re-action are equal 
 to one another, the fluid acts equally upon each body ; where- 
 fore alfo each body will he equally retarded, 1 " when the bodies 
 are moved, and the fluid is at reft. 
 
 Rejijlence and retardation are ufed indifferently for each other, 
 as being both in the fame proportion ; and the fame refijience 
 always generating the fame retardation — But, with regard to 
 different bodies, the fame refijience frequently generates dif- 
 ferent retardations ; the refijience being the quantity of motion, 
 and the retardation the celerity — For the difference and ?ncajurc 
 of the two, fee Retardation. 
 
 The retardations from this refijience may be compared toge- 
 ther, by comparing the refijience with the gravity — It is de- 
 monftrated, that the refijience of a cylinder, which moves in 
 the direction of its axis, (to which the refijience of a fphe e 
 of the fame diameter is equal) is equal to the weight of a 
 cylinder of that fluid through which the body moves, having 
 its bafe equal to the body's bafe, and its height equal to 
 half the height, from which a body falling in vacuo, may 
 acquire the velocity with which the cylinder moves through 
 the fluid. 
 
 From the given celerity of the body moved, the height of the 
 fluid cylinder is found, as alfo the weight of it from the known 
 
 fpecific gravity of the liquid, and diameter of the body 
 
 Let a ball, for inftance, of three inches diameter be moved in 
 water with a celerity wherewith it would go ftxteen feet in a 
 fecond : from experiments on falling bodies, and others made 
 on pendulums, it has been found, that this is the celerity 
 which a body acquires in falling from a height of four feet ; 
 therefore the weight of a cylinder of water of three inches 
 diameter, and two feet high, that is, a weight of about fix 
 pounds and three ounces is equal to the refijience of the afore- 
 faid ball. See Descent. 
 
 Let the refijience fo difcovered, be divided by the weight of 
 the body which determines its quantity of matter, and you 
 will have the retardation. 
 Resist ence of fluid mediums to the motion of pendulums — 
 The arch defcribed by a pendulum ofcillating in vacuo with 
 the celerity it has acquired in defcending, is equal to the, 
 arch defcribed by the defcent i but the fame does not happen 
 
 in a fluid, and there is a greater difference between thofe 
 arches, the greater the refijience :s ; that is, the greater the 
 arch is which is defcribed in the defctnt. 
 
 Let the refijience of the fluid be in proportion to the ve- 
 locity ; and let two pendulums, entirely alike, ofcillating in 
 a cycloid, perform unequal vibrations, and begin to fall the 
 fame moment : they here begin to move by forces that are as 
 the arches to be defcribed. If thofe impreflions alone, which 
 are made the firft moment, be confidered ; after a given 
 time the celerities will be in the fame ratio, as at the 
 beginning: for the retardations, which are as the velocities 
 themfelves, cannot change their proportions, the ratio be- 
 tween quantities not being changed by the addition and fub- 
 traction of quantities in the fame ratio. Therefore in equal 
 times, however the celerities of bodies are changed in their 
 motion by the refijience, the fpaces gone through, are as the ■ 
 forces in the beginning ; that is, as the arches to be defcribed 
 by the defcent : therefore, after any times the bodies are in 
 the correfpondent point of thofe arches. But in thti'e points 
 the forces generated are in the fame ratio as in the be- 
 ginning, and the proportion of the celerities, which is not 
 varied by the refijience, fufters no change from the gravity. 
 In the afcent, gravity retards the motion of the body ; but 
 in correfpondent points, its actions are in the fame ratio as 
 in defcents. And therefore every where in correfpondent 
 points, the celerities are in the fame ratio. But as in the 
 fame moments the bodies are in their correfpondent points, 
 it follows that the motion of both is deftroyed in the fame 
 moment, that is, they finifh their vibrations in the fame 
 time. The fpaces run through in the time of one vibration , 
 are as the forces by which they are run through ; that is, 
 the arches of whole vibration are as the arches defcri- 
 bed by the defcent, the doubles whereof are the arches to be 
 defcribed in vacuo. The deficiencies of the arches to be de- 
 fcribed in fluids, from the arches to be defcribed in vacuo, are 
 the differences of quantities in the fame ratio, and are as the 
 arches defcribed in the defcent. 
 Resistenxe ofi fiuid mediums to the motion of falling lod.'es 
 — The refijlenees are as the fquares of the celerities, and 
 therefore every where in correfpondent points, as the fquares of 
 the arches defcribed by the defcent ; in which ratio alfo, the 
 retardations are : but as each of them retain the fame propor- 
 tion in correfponding points, the fums of them all will be 
 in the fame proportion ; that is, the whole retardations, 
 which are the defects of the arches defcribed in the fluid, 
 from the arches to be defcribed in vacuo, or which is the 
 fame, the difference between the arches defcribed in the 
 defcent, and the next afcent. Therefore thefe differences, if 
 the vibrations are not very unequal, are nearly as the fquares 
 of the arches defcribed by the defcent: which is alfo con- 
 firmed by experiments in greater vibrations ; for in thefe the 
 proportion of refijience, here confidered, obtains. 
 A body freely delcending in a fluid is accelerated by the rc- 
 fpecthe gravity of the body, which continually acts upon 
 it, yet not equably, as in a vacuum : the refijience of the 
 fluid occaftons a retardation, that is, a diminution of acce- 
 leration, which diminution increafes with the velocity of the 
 body. Now there is a certain velocity, which is the greatelt 
 a body can acquire by falling: for it its velocity be fuch 
 that the refijience arifuig from it becomes equal to the re- 
 fpective weight of the body, its motion can be no longer 
 accelerated ; for the motion here continually generated by the 
 refpective gravity, will be deftroyed by the refijience, and the 
 body forced to go on equably. A body continually comes 
 nearer and nearer to this greateft celerity, but can never at- 
 tain to it. 
 
 When the denfities of a fluid body are given, the refpective 
 weight of the body may be known ; and by knowing the 
 diameter of the body, it may be found from what height a 
 body falling in vacuo, can acquire fuch a velocity, as that 
 the refijience in a fluid fhall be equal to that refpectivL- 
 weight, which will be that greateft velocity above men- 
 tioned — If the body be a fphere, it is known that a fphere is 
 equal to a cylinder of the fame diameter, whole height is two 
 third parts of that diameter ; which height is be increafed 
 in the ratio wherein the refpective weight of the body ex- 
 ceeds the weight of the fluid, in order to have the height 
 of a cylinder of the fluid, whofe weight is equal to the refpec- 
 tive weight of the body; but if you double this height, 
 you will have a height from which a body falling in vacuo, 
 acquires fuch a velocity as generates a rejijlence equal to this 
 refpective weight, and which therefore is the greateft velocity 
 which a body can acquire by falling in a fluid from an infinite 
 height, Lead is eleven times heavier than water, wherefore 
 its refpective weight is to the weight of water as ten to one : 
 therefore a leaden ball, as it appears from what has been 
 faid, cannot acquire a greater velocity in falling in water, 
 than it would acquire in falling in vacuo, from an height 
 of 134 of its diameters. 
 
 A body lighter than a fluid, and afcending in it by the 
 action of the fluid, is moved exactly by the fame laws as 
 
 an 
 
RES 
 
 an heavier body falling in the fluid. Wherever you place 
 the body, it is fuftained by the fluid, and carried up with 
 a force equal to the difference of the weight 'of a quanti- 
 ty of the fluid of the fame bulk as the body, from the 
 weight of the body. Therefore you have a force that conti- 
 ally acts equably upon the body ; by which not only the 
 aiStibn of gravity of the body is deftroyed, fo as that it is 
 not to be confidered in this cafe, but the body is alfo carried 
 upwards by a motion equably accelerated ; in the fame man- 
 ner as a body heavier than a fluid defcends by its refpectivc 
 gravity; but the equability of the acceleration is deflxoyed 
 in the fame manner by the vefiflenee, in the afcent of a body 
 lighter than the fluid, as it is deftroyed in the defcent of a 
 body heavier. 
 
 When a body fpecifically heavier than a fluid is thrown 
 in it, it is retarded upon a double account, on account of 
 the gravity of the body, and on account of the re/ijience of 
 the fluid ; confequently, a body rifes to a lefs height than 
 it would rife to in a vacuo with the fame celerity. But the de- 
 fects of the height in a fluid from the height to which a body 
 would rife in vacuo with the fame celerity, have a greater 
 proportion to each other than the heights themfelves ; and 
 in lefs heights the defects arc nearly as the fquares of the 
 heights in vacuo. 
 Resistence of the air, in pneumatics, is the force where- 
 with the motion of bodies, particularly of projectiles, is retarded 
 by the oppofition of the air or atmofphcre. See AlR and 
 Projectile. 
 
 The air being a fluid, the general laws of the refiflence of 
 fluids obtain therein ; only the different degrees of denfitv 
 in the different fhigcs or regions of the atmofphere, occa- 
 fion fome irregularity. 
 Different Resistence of the fame medium to bodies of dif- 
 ferent figures— Sir Ifaac Newton fhews, that if a globe and 
 a cylinder of equal diameters be moved with equal velocity 
 in a thin medium, confifling of equal particles, difpofed at 
 equal diftances, according to the direction of the axis of 
 ■ the cylinder; the rcfijhnce of the globe will be lefs by half 
 
 than that of the cylinder. 
 Solid of the leaf Resistence— From the laft propofition 
 the fame author deduces the figure of a folid, which fhall have 
 
 RES 
 
 the leaf 'refiflence of any containing the fame quantity of mat- 
 ter and furface. 11 ... . | 
 The figure is this— Suppofe DNFG (Tab. Mechanics, fig. 57.) 
 to be fuch a curve* as, that if from any point N, be let fall 
 a perpendicular NM$ to the axis AB.- and from a given 
 point G, be drawn a right line GR, parallel to a tangent to 
 the figtirfe in N, and cut the axis when continued, in R : MN 
 be to GR as GR cub. to 4 BRXGB ? ! a folid defcribed by 
 the revolution of this figure about its axis AB, moving in a 
 medium from A towards B, is lefs reffed than any other 
 circular folid of the fame area, bV. Newt. Princ. p. 300. 
 
 Re?istence of a globe, perfeftly hard and In a medium, 
 whofe particles are fo too ; is to the force wherewith the 
 whole motion may either be deftroyed or generated which 
 it has at the time, when it has defcribed four thirds o 
 its diameter, as the denfity of the medium, to the den- 
 fitv of the globe — Hence alfo Sir Ifaac Newton infers, that the 
 refiflence of a globe is, ceteris paribus, in a duplicate ratio of 
 its velocity. Or its refiflence is, cxtcris paribus, in a du 
 plicate ratio of its diameter. Or, ceteris paribus, as the 
 denfity of the medium. Laftly, that the actual refflence of 
 a globe is in a ratio compounded of the duplicate ratio 
 of the velocity, and of the duplicate ratio of the diameter, 
 and of trie ratio of the denfity of the medium. 
 Inthefe articles the medium is fuppofed to be difcontinuous, 
 as air probably is ; if the medium be continuous, as water, 
 mercury, iSc. where the globe does not ftrike immediately 
 on all the particles of the fluid generating the refflence, but 
 only on thofe next it, and thole again on others, Gfr. the 
 refiflence will be lefs by half. And a globe in fuch a medium 
 undergoes a refiflence which is to the force wherewith the 
 whole motion it has after defcribing eight thirds of its dia- 
 meter, might be generated or taken away, as the denfity of 
 the medium to the denfity of the globe. 
 
 Resistence of a cylinder moving in the direction of its 
 axis is not altered by any augmentation or diminution of its 
 length, and therefore is the fame with that of a circle of the 
 fame diameter moving with the fame velocity in a right line 
 perpendicular to its plane. 
 
 The refiflence of a cylinder moving in an infinite unelafiic 
 fluid, arifing from the magnitude of a tranfvcrfe fection, is 
 to the force wherewith its whole motion while it dc- 
 feribes four times its length may be taken away or ge- 
 nerated, as the denfity of the medium to that of the cylinder, 
 very nearly. 
 
 Hence, the reflflences of cylinders moving length-wife, in in- 
 finitely continued mediums, are in a ratio compounded of 
 the duplicate ratio of their diameters, the duplicate ra- 
 tio of their velocities, and the ratio of the denfity of the 
 mediums. 
 
 The refflence of a globe in an infinite unclaftic medium is to 
 the force whereby its whole motion while it defcribes eight 
 thirds of its diameter, might be either generated or taken 
 away, as the denfity of the fluid, to the denfity of the globe, 
 quam proxime. 
 
 Mr. James Bernouilli demonurates the following theorems. 
 Resistence of a triangle — If an ifofceles triangle be moved 
 in a fluid according to the direction of a line perpendicular 
 to its bale ; firft; with the vertex foremoft, and then with 
 its bafe ; the reftftenees will be as the legs, and as the fquare of 
 thebafe, and asthefumof the legs. 
 The Resistence of a fquare moved according to the direc- 
 tion of its fide, and of its diagonal, is as the Jia-'oiial to the 
 fide. i - 
 
 Resistence of a circular figment, lefs than a femicirde 
 carried in a direction perpendicular to its bafis, when it woes 
 with the bafe foremoft, and when with its vertex foremoft- 
 (the fame direction and celerity continuing) is as the fquare* 
 of the fame diameter, to the fame, lefs *- of the fquare of the 
 bafe of the fegment — Hence the reflflences of a femirircle 
 when its bafe and when its vertex go foremoft, are to one 
 another in a fcfquialterate ratio. 
 Resistence of a parabola — A parabola moving in the direc- 
 tion of its axis, firft with its ban?, and then its vertex fore- 
 moft, has its reflflences as the tangent to an arch of a circle 
 whofe diameter is equal to the parameter, and the tan^ert 
 equal to half the bafis of the parabola. 
 
 The refiflence, if the vertex go foremoft, may be thus com- 
 puted—Say, as the fum (or difference) of the tranfvcrfe axis 
 and latus re&um is to the tranfvcrfe axis, fo is the fquare of 
 the IatU? redum to the fquare of the diameter of a certain 
 circle, in which circle apply a tangent equal to half the bafis 
 of the hyperbola or elliplis— Then fay again, as the fum (and 
 difference) of the axis and parameter is to the parameter, fo is 
 the aforefaid tangent to another right line. And farther, as the 
 fum (or difference) of the axis and parameter is to the axi- ■ 
 fo is the circular arch correfponding to the aforefaid tan- 
 gent to another arch. This done, the reflflences will be as 
 the tangent to the fum (or difference) of the right line thus 
 found, and the arch laft mentioned. 
 
 In the general, the reflflences of any figure whatever, goin-r 
 now with its bafe foremoft, and then with its vertex, are as 
 the figures of the bafe to the fum of all the cubes of the ele- 
 ment of the bafe, divided by the fquares of the element of 
 the curve line. 
 
 All which rules may be of ufe in the conftruaion of 
 fhips, and in perfecting die art of navigation univerfally ■ 
 as alfo for determining the figures of the balls of pendulums' 
 for clocks, £sV. 
 
 RESOLUTION, Resolutio or Solutio, in phyfics 
 the reduaion of a body into its original or natural Irate' 
 by a dtlTolution or feparation of its aggregated parts. ' 
 Thus mow and ice are faid to be refohed into water • 
 and a compound is rcfiohed into its ingredients, ciff. Water 
 rcfohes into vapour by heat ; and vapour is again refohed into 
 water by cold. 
 
 Some of the modern philofophers, particularly Mr Boyle 
 M. Mariotte, Boerhaave, t-fc. maintain, that the natural 
 ftate of water is to be congealed, or in ice ; inafmuch 
 as a certain degree of heat, which is a foreign and vio- 
 lent agent, is required to make it fluid ; fo that near the 
 pole, where this foreign force is wanting, it conftantly 
 retains its fixed or icy ftate. On this principle, the 
 reflation of ice into water, mud be allowed an improper 
 exprellion. 
 
 Resolution, in chyrniftry, is the reduaion of a mafs or 
 mixed body into its component parts, or firft principles, by 
 a proper analyfis. ' 
 The refiolution of bodies is performed varioufly, by diftillation, 
 fubhmation, diflolution, fermentation, t$c. See each opera- 
 tion under its proper article. 
 
 Resolution, in logic, is a branch of method, called alfo ena- 
 lyfis. 
 
 I he bufinefs of reflation is to inveftigate or examine 
 the truth or falfhood of a propofition by afcending frorri 
 fome particular known truth, as a princ/ple, by a chain 
 of confequencesj to another more general one in que- 
 ftion. 
 
 Refiolution, or the analytic method, Hands in direct oppo- 
 fition to compofthn, or the fynthetic method ; in which laft 
 we defcend from fome general known truths to a particular 
 one in queftion. 
 
 For an inftance of the method of refiolution — Suppofe the que- 
 ftion this; whether on the fuppolition of man's exiftence 
 we can prove that God exifts ? 
 
 To refiolve this, our method is thus— « Mankind did not al-* 
 " ways exift. It is evident from a thoufand confiderations, 
 " the fpecies had a beginning ; and that according to al) liifto- 
 " ry not 6000 years ago; but if it had a beginning, there 
 " rhuft be fome caufe of its beginning; fomething°to in- 
 
 " dues 
 
RES 
 
 RES 
 
 l effefl there 
 lo- 
 rn uft 
 
 into a 
 nd the 
 
 ice in the following 
 
 M Jure it to exift then morcthan it did before ; in 
 « muft be a caufe or author of its exiftence, for from 
 " thinz nothing arifes: this caufe, whatever 
 • < at ItTift have ail the faculties we find in ourfelves ; tor none 
 u can p, e more than he has : nay, he muft have others 
 " which we have not, fince he could do what we cannot 
 " do, l. «. create, make man exift, Sift.— Now, this caufe 
 " cither cxiits ftill, or has ccafed to do fo : if the former, he 
 « did not exift from eternity ; for what is from eternity is 
 " neccfl'arv, and can neither by itfelf nor any other caufe be 
 « reduced to nothing: if the latter, it mult have been pro- 
 " duced from fome other; and -then the fame qucllion wil 
 << return upon the producer— There is then fome hrft caufe 
 << and this caufe has all the properties and faculties we have 
 « nay more, has exifted from eternitv, is?c- Therefore, from 
 '< the fuppofition of man's exiftence, it follows there I 
 
 Resolution, or Solution, in mathematics, is an orderly 
 enumeration of the feveral things to be done, to obtain what 
 is required in a problem. rii' el. . Ti „ 
 
 Wolfius makes a problem to confift of three P^-The 
 prMJHbn, (which is what we properly call the problem • 
 lUmlHtj * ni the demonjlration. , , . , . 
 
 The general tenor of all problems i.s, thofe things being done 
 which are enjoyned by the refilntion,- the thing is done which 
 was to be done, ;'h omivuj to 
 
 As foon as a problem is demonftrated, it is converted 
 theorem ; whereof the nftbgim is the hypotliefis ; a 
 propofition the thefts. 
 The procefs of a mathematical rrfilutian. 
 article. . , 
 
 Resolution', in algebra, or algebraical, is ot two kinds 
 the one praftifed ill numerical problems, the other m geome 
 trical ones. 
 
 To refilve a fhllll numerical prMtm algebraically, the method 
 is thus- 1°. dillinguifh the given quantities from the quan- 
 tities fought ; and note the former with the firft letters of the 
 alphabet; and the latter with the laft. 
 
 2°. Find as many equations as there arc unknown quanti- 
 ties : if that cannot be, the problem is indeterminate; and 
 one or more of the fought quantities may be aflumcd at 
 plcafurc — The equations, unlefs they be contained in the 
 problem itfelf, are found by theorems relating to the equality 
 of quantities. 
 
 3°. Since, in an equation, the unknown quantities are 
 mixed with the known ; it muft be reduced, in fuch manner 
 as that only one unknown quantity be found on one fide, 
 and none but known quantities on the other— This rcduc- 
 tion is performed by adding the fubtradted quantities, dl- 
 viding the multiplied quantities, and multiplying the di- 
 vided ones, extrafting the roots out of powers, raifui^ 
 roots to their powers, (Sc. fo as that the equality may be ftill 
 preferved. , 
 To Resolve a geometrical problem algebraically — the procefs 
 in the former article is to be obferved throughout : but as it 
 rarely happens we come at an equation in geometrical problems 
 by the fame means as in numerical ones, there are fome farther 
 things to be noted : firft then, fuppofe the thing done which 
 was propofed to be done— 2°. Examine the relations of all 
 the lines in the diagram, without any regard to known or 
 unknown ; in order to find which depend on which ; am' 
 from which being had, what others are had, whether by li- 
 milar triangles, or redtangles, WV.— 3 0 . To obtain the firm- 
 lar triangles or rectangles, the lines are to be frequently pro- 
 duced, till they become either directly or indirectly equal to 
 oiven ones, or inccrfeet others, (Sc. Parallels and perpendi- 
 culars to be frequently drawn: points to be frequently connec- 
 ted : and angles to be made equal to others. 
 If thus you do not arrive at a neat equation ; examine the 
 relations of the lines in another manner — Sometimes it is not 
 enough to feek the thing directly, but another thing muft b. 
 fought, whence the firft may be found. 
 The equation being reduced, the geometrical conftruction 
 to be deduced therefrom, which is done in various manners 
 the various kinds of equations. 
 Problematical Resolution. See Problematical. 
 Resolution, in medicine, that coetion, or alteration of 
 the crude, peccant matter of any difcafc, cither by the natuial 
 ltrength of the patient, or of its own accord, or by the ap- 
 plication of remedies ; whereby its bulk, figure, cohefion, 
 CSV. are fo far changed, as that it ccafes to be morbid, and be- 
 comes laudable. 
 
 This, the learned Bocrhaavc obferves is of all others the 
 molt perl'eft cure, where it is effcf ted without any evacuation j 
 as fuppofing the matter favourable, the conttitution excellent 
 and the medicines good. 
 Resolution, in mufitr, is when a canon or perpetual 
 fugue is not wrote all on the fame line, or in one part ; but 
 all the voices that are to follow the gtiida, or firft voice, 
 are wrote feparately, either in fcorc, i.e. in fcparate lines 
 
 the 
 
 or feparate parts, with the paufes each is to obferve, 
 beginning and in the tone proper to each. 
 RESONANCE, Resounding, in mufic, jjTt, a found 
 returned by the air inclofcd in the bodies ot fcng-mufical- 
 inftruments; as lutes, (Sc. or even in the bodies ot wind- 
 iiiftruments, as flutes, (Sc. i. j 
 
 Elliptic and parabolic vaults refiund ftrongly, e. tticy 
 ftrongly reflect or return the found. 
 
 The mouth, and the parts thereof, as the palate, tongue, 
 teeth, nofe, and lips, Monf. Dodart obferves, contribute no- 
 thing to the tone of the voice ; but their eft'ed is very great 
 as to the rejonance. , 
 Of this we have a very fcnfible inftance in that vulgar liitlru- 
 ment called the Jcws-liarp, or trompe lie Beam : for, it you 
 hold it in your hand, and ftrike the tongue or ipnng thereof, 
 which yields all the found of the inftrument, it tcarce makes 
 any noife at all. But, holding the body of the inftrument 
 between the teeth, and linking the fpring as before, it makes 
 a mufical buzz, which is heard to a good durance, and efpe- 
 cially in the lower notes. 
 
 So alfo in the hautboys, the tone of the reed is always 
 the fame ; being a fort of drone : the chief variety is 
 in the tone of the refinance, produced in the mouth by 
 the greater or lets aperture, and the divers motions of the 
 
 lips. ' .... 
 
 RESOLVENTS, Resolventia, in medicine, re- 
 medies proper to rcfolve and ditlipate tumours and gather- 
 ings, to (often indurations, and by their tenuity and 
 warmth, evacuate redundant or peccant humours through the 
 
 pores. „ 
 Under this clafs come various unguents, emplalters, c>i-. 
 RESOR T. See the article RESSORT. 
 
 RESPECTU computi vicecomitis babemlo, a writ for 
 the refpiting a fterift's accompt, upon juit occafion, direacd 
 to the treafurer and barons of the exchequer. 
 RESPECTUANDO homagio. SceHoMACIo. 
 RESPIRATION, Respiratio, the act of refpiring, or 
 breathing the air. 
 
 Refpiration is an involuntary motion ot the breatt, where- 
 by the air is alternately taken in and thrown out : it there- 
 fore includes two contrary motions; the oue called m- 
 fpiratim, whereby the fluid is received into the cavity ot 
 the lungs— The other, expiration, whereby it is again 
 expelled. . b^.'rrJMfrM9n ail) {.1 ,3d ct Miwiivci 
 The principal organs of rcfplrahtn arc the lungs, trachea, la- 
 rynx, (Sc. the descriptions whereof fee under their proper ar- 
 ticles, Luncjs, Trachea, and Larynx. 
 ■or the manner vsherein Respiration 11 performed— -It is to 
 be obferved, that the lungs, when fufpended m ti e open air, 
 by the contraftive power of the mufcular fibres which tie 
 together the lquamous parts of the bronchia, are reduced to 
 lets fpace than thev pollened while in the cavity ot the 
 thorax : and when thus contracted, if a quantity of new air 
 be injected through the glottis, they again become diftendcd 
 fo as to poflefs an equal, nay a greater fpace, than that afiigned 
 them in the thorax. ; 
 Hence it appears, that the lungs by their proper force, are 
 always endeavouring to contract themfelves into lefs com- 
 pafs than they poflefs when inclofcd in the thorax ; and 
 that therefore they arc always in a ftate of violent dilatation 
 while the man lives— For the air that encompafles them 111 
 the thorax, fhut up between their external membrane and the 
 pleura, is not of equal dcnlity with common air. 
 In eftea, the ingreis of the air through the glottis into the 
 lungs, is always "free, but that on the out-fide wherewith thev 
 arc comprefled, is impeded by the diaphragm, fo as it cannot 
 enter the thorax in quantity fufneient to make an equili- 
 brium. . , , 
 Since then, in infpiration, the air enters the lungs in greater 
 quantity than it was before ; itwill dilate them more, and will 
 overcome their natural force— The lungs theietore are wholly 
 paffivc in the matter : what it is that acts muft be learnt from 
 the phenomena. 
 
 1° Then, it is obferved, that in infpiration, the nine upper 
 rib's articulated to the vertebra and the llernum, rife archwifc 
 towards the clavicles ; and the three lower arc- turned down- 
 wards ; and the eighth, ninth, and tenth, are drawn inwards. 
 2". That die abdomen is dilated. And, 
 2°. The thorax enlarged. 
 
 4". The diaphragm is brought from its convex and luiuous 
 pofition to a flat figure. . 
 Now, as thefe are the only vifible aflions in infpiration, the 
 caufe of the operation mult be referred to them, or rather to 
 the mufcles of thefe parts, which are the intercoftals, the fub- 
 clavian, CSV. * 11 ■' n . 
 
 The capacity of the thorax being enlarged by the action 
 of thefe mufcles on the ribs, (Sc. a fpace is left between the 
 pleura and thefurface of the lungs; fo that the air entering 
 the steal! inflates them till fuch time as they become con- 
 tiguous tu the pleura and diaphragm— In this cafe, now, the 
 
RES 
 
 RES 
 
 air prefTcs the !ur.gs as much as the thorax refills them. And 
 
 hence the lungs become at reft ; the blood pailes lefs freely, 
 and is forced in !efs quantity into the left ventricle of the heart, 
 and fo lefs comes into the cerebellum, and its nerves, and 
 the arterial blood acts lefs on the intercoftal mufcles and dia 
 phragm. 
 
 The caufes, therefore, which, at firth, dilated the thorax, 
 grow weaker , confequently the ribs become deprefled . 
 the diftended fibres of the mufcles of the abdomen refton 
 thcmfelves ; the vifceni thruft the diaphragm up ag in im< 
 the thorax, the fpace whereof being thus contracted, the ai. 
 is drove out of the lungs ; and thus is expiration performed. 
 Immediately, the blood being quickened in its motion, begins 
 to flow wronger and more plentifully to the cerebellum am' 
 mufcles i and thus the caufes of the contraction of the inter- 
 coftals and diaphragm being renewed, infpiration is repeated 
 — Such is the true, immediate, adequate, manner of vital re- 
 fpiration. 
 
 For the ufes and effects of refpiration 9 they are greatly dif- 
 
 puted among anatomifb The learned Boerhaave takes the 
 
 principal tffes thereof to be the farther preparation of the chyle, 
 its more accurate mixture with the blood, and its conver- 
 fion into a nutricious juice proper to repair the decays of the 
 body. 
 
 Borelli takes the great ufe of refplratlon to be the admiffion 
 and mixture of air with the blood in the lung. 1 ;, in order to 
 form thofe elafHc globules it confifts of ; to give it its red flo- 
 rid colour} and to prepare it for many of the ufes of the ceco- 
 nomy: but how fuch admiffion mould be effected, is hard to 
 
 fay It is impoffible it fhould be done in the pulmonary 
 
 arteries ; nor can it be proved in the pulmonary veins 
 
 In effect, fuch a communication mult be hindered and 
 
 obftrudted by the air's diftending the veficult, and compref- 
 fing the veins in infpiration, and by the flimy humour that 
 lubricates the membrane lining the inhde of the trachea. Add 
 to this, the difficult paffage of air through fuch fmall pores 
 as will admit water, and the ill effect which air ordinarily has 
 when admitted into the blood. 
 
 As to the arguments for fucli communication ; viz. the florid 
 colour which the blood here firft affumes, and the abfolute ne- 
 edn't;.' of refpirathn to life, they are both well accounted for 
 otherwife. 
 
 Other authors, as Sylvius, Etmuller, &\\ take a great ufe of 
 refpiratlon to be, by the neighbourhood of the cold nitrous 
 air, to cool the blood, coming reeking hot out of the right 
 ventricle of the heart through the lungs, and to act as a re- 
 frigeratory. 
 
 Mayow, and others, affcrt one rrand ufe of expiration to be, 
 to throw off the fuliginous vapours of the blood along with 
 the expelled air ; and for infpiration, he afferts, that it con- 
 veys a nitro-aerial ferment to the blood, to which the animal 
 fpirits, and all mufcular motion, are owing. 
 But Dr Thurfton rejects all thefe from being principal ufes of 
 refpiratior. ; which he fhews to be, to move or pafs the blood 
 from the right to the left ventricle of the heart, and fo to effect 
 the circulation. 
 
 Whence it is that perfons hanged, drowned, or ftrangled, fo 
 fuddenly die^ viz. becaufe the circulation of the blood is 
 flopped ; and for the fame reafon it is, that animals die fu 
 fpeedily in the air-pump. 
 
 He inftances an experiment made by Dr Croon before the 
 royal fociety ; who, after ftrangling a pullet, fo as not the leaf 
 fign of life appeared, yet, by blowing into the lungs through 
 the trachea, and fo letting the lungs a playing, he brought the 
 
 bird to life again Another experiment of the fame kind is 
 
 that of Dr Hook, who, after hanging a doe, cut away the 
 ribs, diaphragm, and pericardium, as mo the top of the wind- 
 pipe, that he might tie it on to the nofe of a pair of bellows ; 
 and thus, by blowing into the lungs, he reitored the dog to 
 life, and then ceafmg to blow, the dog would foon fall into 
 dying fits, but recover again by blowing; and thus alter- 
 nately, as long as he pleafed. 
 
 This ufe of rejpiration Dr Drake not only confirms, but car- 
 ries farther, making it the true cauf'e of the diaftole of the 
 heart ; which neither Borelli, Dr Lower, nor Mr Cowper, 
 had well accounted for. 
 
 The weight of the incumbent atmofphere, he fhews, is the 
 true antagonift to all the mufcles, ferving both for ordinan 
 
 infpiration, and the contraction of the heart As in the 
 
 elevation of the ribs, that author obferves, the blood, by the 
 paffage opened for it, is, in a manner, follicited into the lungs 
 fo in the deprefhon thereof by the fubfidence of the lungs, 
 and the contraction of the blood veflels confequent thereon, 
 the blood is forcibly driven through the pulmonary vein into 
 the left ventricle of the heart ; and this, together with the 
 general compreffion of the body by the weight of the atmo- 
 fphere, is that power which caufes the blood to mount in the 
 veins, after the force imprefled on it by the heart is fpent, 
 and which forces the heart itfeli'irom its natural ftate of con- 
 traction to that of dilatation. 
 
 The reciprocal dilatation and contraction of the fupcrficial 
 dimcnfions of the body confequent on refpiration 3 arc fo ne- 
 
 cefiary to animal life, that there is no animal fo imperfect as 
 to want it. 
 
 Though moit kinds of fifties and infects want both lunes and 
 moveable ribs, and confequently have no dilatable thorax, 
 yet that want is made up to them by an analogous mechanifm. 
 Fifties, for inftance, have gills, which do the office of iungs, 
 receiving and cupelling alternately the water, whereby the 
 blood-veflels futter the fame alteration of dimcnfions as they 
 do in the lungs of more perfect animals. 
 
 Infects having no thorax or feparate cavity for the heart and 
 lungs, or air-veflels, have the latter diftributed through the 
 whole trunk of their bodies; by which they communicate 
 with the external air. through feveral fpiracles or vent-holes, 
 to which are faftened fo many little trachea, or wind-pipe.^ 
 which fend their branches to all the mufcles and vifeera, and 
 feem to accompanv the blood-veffels all over the bndy, as they 
 do in the lungs only, of the more perfect animals — By this 
 difpofition, in every infpiration, the whole body of thclc litdc 
 animals is inflated, and in every expiration compreiied ; and 
 confequently the blood-velTcls mult futier a viciffitude of ex- 
 tenfion and compreffion. 
 
 The only animal exempted from this neceffity of breath- 
 ing, is a foetus : but this, while included in the vomb, 
 feems to have little more than a vegetative life, and ought 
 fcarce to be reckoned among the number of animals : it is ra- 
 ther a graft on, or a branch of, the mother. 
 The iaius of Respiration are of the laft importance to a 
 right undemanding of the animal ceconomy ; for which 
 reafon, a computation of the force of the rejpiring or- 
 gans, and of the ftrefs and preffure of the air upon the 
 
 fame, may not be unacceptable It may theiefore be 
 
 obferved, that, by blowing into a bladder, a comiderable 
 weight will be railed by the mere force of the breath : 
 for, with a bladder that is oblong, nearly of a cylindri- 
 cal figure, aud tied at both ends, if a pipe be fixed at 
 one endj and a weight at the other, and the pipe faft- 
 ened at fuch a diftance from the ground, as juft allows the 
 weight to reft upon the ground, the bladder, by an eafy 
 infpiration, will raifefeven pound weight, and by the <rreateft 
 infpiration of a pretty ftrong man, twenty-eight pound weights 
 Now, the force by which the air enters this pipe, is that 
 force by which it is driven out of the lungs ; if therefore the 
 force, by which the air enters the pipe, can be determined, 
 we fhall have the force by which the air is drove into the 
 
 trachea But the preflure of air upon the bladder is equal 
 
 to twice the weight it can rflfe ; becaufe the upper part of the 
 bladder being fixed, it refills the force of the air juft as 
 much as the weight at the other end* And again, ftnee 
 the air prefles every way equally, the whole preffure will be 
 to that part of it which preiles on the orifice of the pipe, as 
 the whole furface of the bladder is to the orifice of the pipe ; 
 that is, as the furface of a cylinder, whofe diameter, for 
 inftance, is four inches, and axis feven, is to the orifice of 
 the pipe. 
 
 Thus, if the diameter of the pipe be o. 28, and its orifice 
 o. 616, the furface of the cylinder will be 88. Therefore, 
 as 88 : 0, 616 : : 14. double the leaft weight raifed, to c. 
 098. which is almoft 2 ounces ; and, in railing the greateft 
 weight, it is near 7 ounces. 
 
 Thefe, therefore, are the forces by which the air is drove 
 through the trachea in an eafy and "ftrong infpitation-^Now, 
 if we confider the lungs as a bladder, and the larynx as a pipe, 
 the preflure upon the orifice of the trachea, when the air is 
 drove out, will be to the preflure upon the lungs* as the whole 
 furface of the lungs is to the orifice of the trachea. 
 Suppofe, f. gr. the diameter of the larynx to be 5 ; the ori- 
 fice of the larynx will be 0. 19. and fuppofe the two lobes 
 of the lungs to be two bladders, or fpheres, whofe diameters 
 are each fix inches, their furfaccs are each 113 inches, and 
 the preflure 011 the larynx will be to the preflure upon tiie 
 whole external furface as o. 19 to 226, which is as r to 
 1 1 89 ; and therefore, if the preflure upon the larynx in an 
 ordinary breathing be two ounces, the preffure 'upon the 
 whole external furface of the lungs will be 148 pounds; and 
 the utmoft force, when the preflure upon the larvnx is feven 
 ounces, will be equal to 520 pounds — But the ltmgs p.re not 
 like an empty bladder, where the air preiies onlv upon the 
 furface ; for they are full of veficles, upon the furface of each 
 of which the air preiles, as it would upon the furface of an 
 empty bladder : and therefore, to know the whole preffure 
 of the air, we muft determine the internal furfaces of the 
 lungs. 
 
 To do this, fuppofe that 4 part of the lungs is taken up with 
 the branches of the trachea, that another third part the 
 blood-veflels fill, and the remainder is veficles, where we 
 fuppofe the chief preflure upon the blood-veflels to be made ; 
 now, both lobes of the lungs contain 226 folid inches*, of 
 which one third, or 75 inches, are full of veficles— Let the 
 diameter of each veficle be jfo part of an inch, the furface of 
 a veficle will be .001256, and the folidity C000043, by 
 which fum if we divide 75 (the fpace filled by the veficles) 
 the quotient gives us 17441860 for the number of veficles 
 10 U in 
 
RES 
 
 both lobes of the lungs— This number multiplied by 
 veucle gives the fum di the lur- 
 
 RES 
 
 RESPONDENT, Respondens, in the fchools, a perfon 
 
 .OC125S, the furface of . --- - 
 
 faces of 0 the veficles, to wit, 21906.076 inches And 
 therefore the preffiire upon the larynx will be to the preiiure 
 upon the whole 1'urface of the lungs, as o. 19 to 21906.970 ; 
 •lid confetmently, when in an ordinary expiration the preiiure 
 upon the larynx is two ounces, the preflurc on the whole in- 
 ternal ("urfaces of the lungs will be 14412 pound weight ; and 
 the utmoft force of the air in breathing, when the preiiure 
 upon the larynx is feven ounces, will be 504+3 P° und TOE. 
 Thoush thefc fcem to be prodigious weights, yet it mult ltill 
 be underftood, that the prell'ure upon each part of the iurtace 
 of the lump equal to the orifice of the larynx is not greater 
 than it is at the larvnx ; and that thefe vaft weights ar,le 
 from the vaft extent of the furfaces of the veficles upon M 
 it was necefl'aiv that the blood fhould be fpread m the fmallelt 
 capillary veflels, that each globule of blood might, as it were, 
 immediately receive the whole force and energy ot the air, 
 and by thai be broke into fmajler parts fit for fecretion and 
 circulation. . , „ 
 
 And hence we may learn the mechanical rcafon ot the ttruc- 
 tore of the lungs: for, fince the whole blood of the body 
 was to P afs through them in order to receive the eftect ot the 
 air and that this could not be unlefs the blood were dittuied 
 in fmall capillary vcflcls j it was necell'ary that the furfaces 
 upon which they were to be fpread, fhould be proportioned 
 to their number : which is admirably well provided for by 
 the wonderful fabric of the lungs. 
 
 If the gravity of the air was always the fame, and if the dia- 
 meter of the trachea, and the time of every expiration were 
 equal in all ; this weight upon the lungs would be always the 
 lame. But lince we find by the barometer, that there is 
 three inches difference between the greateft and die leaft 
 gravity of the air, which is a tenth part of its greateft gra- 
 vity : there mult be likewife the difference of a tenth part ot 
 its prell'ure upon the lungs at one time and another : tor the 
 momenta of all bodies, moved with the fame velocity, arc 
 as their gravities. 
 
 This is a difference which fuch as are afthmatic mud be very 
 fenl'ible of; cfpccially if we confiderthat they likewile breath 
 thicker, that is, that every expiration is performed in lets time 
 if in half the time, and'the fame quantity of air be drawn in 
 then the weight of the air upon the lungs mull be 57648 
 pounds, of which a tenth part is 5764 pounds : and confe- 
 nucntly afthmatic people upon the greateft rife or fall o: 
 the barometer, feel a difference of the air, equal to above 
 one third of its prell'ure in ordinary breathing. See Asthma 
 Weather, csV. 
 
 Again, if the trachea be fmall, and its aperture narrow, 
 the preflurc of the air increafes in the fame proportion as it 
 the times of expiration were lliorter ; and therefore a thrill 
 voice is always reckoned among the prognoftic iignsof a con- 
 fumption, inafmuch as that proceeds from the nairownefs ot 
 the larynx or trachea ; and confequently increafes the pref- 
 fure of 'the air upon the lungs, which upon every expiration 
 beats the vefl'els fo thin, that at laft they break, and a fpitting 
 of blood comes on. 
 RESPITE,* Respectus, in law, i?c. a delay, forbear- 
 ance, or prolongation of time, granted any one for the pay- 
 ment of a debt, or the like. 
 
 * Menage derives the word refpite from the Latin, refpeflui ; 
 as Mpttc from defpefiiu — Du Cange will rather have it 
 come from rrfpirarc, to breathe ; refpite being, in effect, 
 a breathing'While, granted a debtor, cif e. 
 
 Litter: 0/ Respite, or Credit, are inftruments anciently 
 granted by fovereign princes to honeft, but unfortunate 
 debtors, to fcreen them from their too rigorous creditors. 
 Thefe ftill obtain in France — They were tirft introduced 
 by pope Urban II. in favour of the Croifes, i. e. of perfons 
 who went to the holy war. 
 
 S. Louis granted three years refpite to all who made the 
 voyage of the holy land with him. — In the cuftomary of 
 Normandy, refpite is a judicial delay, or demur, given to 
 procedures. 
 
 Respite of homage, is a forbearance of the homage due from 
 the vafl'al or tenant holding by homage, or by knight-fervice 
 
 to his lord. 
 
 Antiently thofe who held by thefe tenures, paid a fmall fum 
 every fifth year into the exchequer, to be refpited doing 
 their homage or fervice. 
 
 By Stat. 12. Car. II. this refpite of homage is taken away, as 
 3 charge arifing from knight-fervice ; which is thereby like- 
 wife annulled. 
 
 RESPONDEAT fuperior, a law phrafe.— Where the fhe- 
 riffs are removeable, as in London, for infufEciency ; refptm- 
 deat fuperior, that is, the mayor and commonality arc to an- 
 fwet for them. 
 
 For the infufEciency of a bailiff of a franchife, refpmideat 
 Juperior, that is, the lord of the franchife, is to alifwer. 
 
 who maintains a thefis in any art or fcience. 
 He is thus called as being to anjvjer all objections propofed by 
 the opponent or impugner, &c. 
 
 The rejionJeut's bulinefs is to fee whether the oppofition 
 made by' the contrary party be juft and legitimate ; or whe- 
 ther fome of the laws and conditions of oppofition be not 
 broke, which is called igmmtii eler.chi. — He is alio to exa- 
 mine the moods and figures of the fyllogifms, to fee whether 
 the premifes be juft, g». And through the whole to anlwer 
 rather by diitinguo's than by direct negation. 
 Respondent,* in law, a perfon who undertakes to anfwer 
 for another ; or binds himiclf as fecurity for the good beha- 
 viour of another. 
 
 * The word is forrhed from the Latin, refpondere, to anfwer; 
 q. d. pro alio jpondcre, to promiie for another. 
 The respondent is to anfwer for the damages done by the per- 
 fon for whom he refporids. — There are four ordonnances of 
 the kings of France, whereby the citizens are exprefly 
 forbid to take fervants without refpo?idents, bound in 
 writing. 
 
 RESPONSALIS, in law, he who appears for another in court 
 at a day afligned. 
 
 Fleta makes this difference between nfponfalis atturncitm> and 
 ejfoniator : that the effomator came only to alledge the _aule 
 bf the party's abfencc, be he demandant or tenant ; whereas 
 refponfalis came for the tenant, not only to excufe his ab- 
 fencc, but to fignify what trial he means to undergo, the 
 combat or the country. 
 RESPONSARY Jong, an anthem in which the chonfters 
 ling bv turns. 
 
 RESPONSE, Responsal, Responsatio, an anfwer, reply, 
 
 or repartee. 
 
 The word is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the anfwer? made to 
 the pricft, by the people, in the litany, the pfalms, and other 
 parts of the office. 
 
 It has its ufe too in fpeaking of the opinions or anfwers 
 of the antient jurifconfulti ; when confulted on points of 
 law. 
 
 The fifty books of the digeji are compofed of refponfa pru- 
 dentum* the refponfa of Papinian, L'lpian, Scxvola, t$c. 
 collected by Juitinian, who afterwards gave them the force 
 of Jaws. 
 
 The refponja of the emperors were more properly called re- 
 fcripts. 
 
 RESPONSIONS, Responsiones, a term ufed in the 
 military orders for certains penfions or charges which the 
 knights, or the commanderies they held, paid to the order. 
 Such a knight-templar paid a rejponfeon of fifty pounds pir 
 an<um to his order, on account of fuch a commandery. See 
 
 CoMMANDERY and CONVENTUAL. III Rot. Pari. 9 Ri- 
 
 chardW. it is written refponcies. 
 RESSAULT*, in architecture, the effect of a body which 
 either projects or falls back ; i. e. Hands either more out or 
 in than another ; fo as to be out of the line, or range there- 
 with. 
 
 * The term is French ; and but little ufed in Englifh ; though the 
 want of a word of euual import pleads for its naturalization. 
 
 RESSORT, or Resort, a term purely French, yet fre- 
 quently ufed by our late writers, to fignify the jurifdiction or 
 authority of a court. 
 ' The word in its popular meaning fignihes fprhg, or the 
 force of elaflicity— Hence it is alfo ufed for a jurifdiction, 
 and the extent or diftrict thereof ; as, when we lay fuch a 
 thing belongs to his rejfort, a judge out of his rejjhrt has no 
 authority. But its chief ufe among us is in fpeaking of a 
 court or tribunal, where appeals are judged ; or of a court or 
 perfon who judges finally and ultimately, and whence there is 
 no appeal. 
 
 The houfe of lords judge in the laft rejfort, en dernier rcjfort 
 — Prefidials judge in the laft reffort of all criminals profecuted 
 by the provufts of the marfhals. 
 Reseort, or Resort, is alfo ufed in a writ of aycl or 
 coufenage, in the fame fer.fe, as defcent in a writ of right. 
 RESOURCE,* a term purely French, yet ufed by Enghfh 
 writers, to denote a means or foundation of a man's recover- 
 ing himfelf from his fall or ruins or an after-game for the 
 repairing his damages. 
 
 * Skinner derives the word from the French rrfoudre, to refolve 
 a reffource ftridly and literally exprefles a means which pre-: 
 fents itfelf a-freih. 
 
 This merchant has credit and friends ftill left ; he has great 
 resources. — His laft rejjoune was to throw himfeii into a con- 
 vent. — The jargon of a diiiin&ion, is the ordinary rejource 
 of a divine at a pinch. 
 REST, qt/iesi in phvfics, the continuance of a body in the 
 fame place : or its continual application or contiguity to t:.e 
 fame parts of the ambient and contiguous bodies, bee Space. 
 Rejt is either abfohite^ or relative; as place is. See Place. 
 Some deiine rtL the ftatc of a thing without motion ; and 
 
RES 
 
 RES 
 
 hence, again, rejl becomes either abfolute or relative, as mo- 
 tion is. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton defines true or abfolute rejl to be the conti- 
 nuance of a body in the fame part of abfolute and immove- 
 able fpace ; and relative rcjl to be the continuance of a bod) 
 in the fame part of relative fpace. 
 
 Thus, in a fhip under fail, relative reft is the continuance ol 
 a body in the fame region of the fhip, or the fame part of its 
 cavity — True, or abfolute rejlh its continuance in the fame 
 part of univerlal fpace, wherein the fhip with its cavity and 
 
 contents are all contained. 
 
 Hence, if the earth be really and abfolutely at reft, the body 
 relatively at rejl in the fhip, will really and abfolutely move; 
 and that with the velocity wherewith the veftel moves — 
 But if the eartli do likewife move, there will then arife a real 
 and abfolute motion of the body at reft, partly from the real 
 motion of the earth in abfolute fpace ; and partly from the 
 relative motion of the fhip on the fea — Laftly, if the body 
 be lilcewife relatively moved in the fhip, its real motion will 
 arife partly from the real motion of the earth in immoveable 
 fpace, and partly from the relative motion of the fhip on the 
 fea, and of the body in the fhip. 
 
 Thus, if that part of the earth where the fhip is, move eaft- 
 ward with a velocity of iooio parts ; and the veflel be car- 
 ried by the wind weftward 10 paits j and at the fame time a 
 feaman aboard walk with a velocity of r part ; the feaman will 
 be moved really and abfolutely in immoveable fpace eaitwards, 
 with ioooi parts of velocity ; and relatively on the earth, 
 with nine parts of velocity weftwards. 
 
 It is an axiom in philofophy, that matter is indifferent as to 
 reft or motion. Hence, Sir Ifaac Newton lays it down as 
 a law of nature, that every body perfeveres in its Irate 
 either of reft or uniform motion ; except fo far as it is di- 
 fturbed by external caufes. 
 
 The Cartcfians will have firmnefs, hardnefs, or folidity of 
 bodies to confift in this, that their parts are at reft-, with re- 
 gard to each other ; and this rejl they eftablifh as the great 
 nexus, or principle of cohefion, whereby the parts are con- 
 nected together. 
 
 Fluidity, they add, confifts in a perpetual motion of the parts, 
 (Sc. — But the Newtonian philofophy furnifhes us with 
 much better folutions. See Solidity, Fluidity and 
 Cohesion. 
 
 Rest, repofe or paufe, in poctrvj is ufed for the ca?fura, which in 
 Alexandrine vcrfes falls on the fixth fyllable ; and in verfes of 
 ten or eleven fy liable*, on the fourth. 
 
 This verfe is naught, there wants a rejl or paufe in it — The 
 rejl fhould never fall on a monofyllable, whereon the voice 
 may not dwell : It is called rejl, becaufe the ear, and the pro- 
 nunciation have both a repofe or refpite. 
 Kest, in muftc, is a caufe or interval of time, during which 
 there is an intermiflion of the voice or found. 
 Refts are fometimcs ufed in melody, that is, in muficof a An- 
 gle part, to exprefs fome hmplc paffion, or even for variety 
 lake ; but more frequently in harmony, or compofitions of 
 feveral parts, for the fake of the pleafure of hearing one part 
 move on while another refts ; and this interchangeably. 
 Refts are either for a whole bar, or more than a bar, or but 
 for a part of a bar — When the rejl is for a part, it is ex- 
 prefled by certain figns correfponding to the quantity of cer- 
 tain notes of time ; as minim, crotchet, (Sc. and is accord- 
 ingly called m'mim-rejl, crotchet-rejl, &c. 
 The characters or figures whereof, fee under Characters 
 cf mafic; where the notes and correfponding refts are found 
 together. 
 
 When any one of thofp characters occurs either on aline or 
 fpace, that part is always filent for the time of a minim, or 
 crotchet, (Sc. — Sometimes a rejl is for a crotchet and quaver 
 together ; or for other quantities of time, for which there is 
 no particular note : In which cafe the figns of filence are not 
 many jv/?i,but fuch filence is expreffed by placing together as 
 multiplied; of different time, as make up the defigned rejl. 
 When the rejl is for a whole bar, the femibreve rejl is al- 
 ways ufed — If the reft be for two meafures, it is marked hy- 
 aline drawn a-crofs a whole fpace — For three meafures it is 
 drawn a-crofs a fpace and a half ; and for four meafures a- 
 crofs two fpaces. But to prevent ambiguity, the number of 
 bars is ufually writ over the fign. 
 
 Some of the more antient writers in mufic make thefe rejls of 
 different value in different fpecies of time — E. gr. The 
 character of a m'unm-reft, in common time, fay they, ex- 
 preffes the reft of three crotchets in triple time , in that of the 
 triples \, T 6 ,, j 1 , .J|, it always marks an half mealure, how 
 different foever thefe may be among themfelves. 
 They add, that the rejl of a crotchet in common time is a 
 rejl of three quavers in the triple \ ; and that the quaver rejl 
 of common time is equal to three lemi-quavers in the tri- 
 ple But this variety in the ufe of the fame character is 
 JUu w Laid alide. 
 
 REST AUR, Restor, in antient cuftoms, the remedy or 
 recourfe which affurcrs have againft each other, according 
 to the date of their affurances ; or againft the mafters, if the 
 average arife through their default, as through ill loading, 
 want of caulking, or want of having the veflel tight. 
 1 he word is alio ufed for the remedy or recourfe a perfon 
 has againft his guarantee or other perfon, who is to indemni- 
 fy him from any damage fuftamed — Hence rejlaurant and 
 rejlauration — In the lower Latin they alfo ufe the words 
 rejlor and rejlaur. 
 
 RESTAURATION, Restauratio, Restoration* 
 the act: of re-eftablifhing, or fettling a thing in its former 
 good eftate. 
 
 Thus we fay, the rcjlauraticn of a rflinor to the pofTeflion of 
 his effects, alienated in the time of his minority. In the 
 French laws is an antient formula^ ufed for the ;eftoring a 
 perfon to his good name* after he has been wrongfully accu- 
 fed and condemned. 
 
 Sour and decayed beer and ale are rcjlored various ways. 
 — By a handful of wheat thrown into the veilel, or by fait 
 made from the allies of barly ftraw, put into the veflel and 
 ftirred. 
 
 Glauber commends three or four handfuls of beech afiies up- 
 plied in the fame manner.— Chalk fcraped into it renders it 
 drinkableimmediately. The fame effect is alfo produced by cal- 
 cined oyfter-fhells, burnt egg-fhelk; fca-fhells, or crab's eyes. 
 In England we fay* the R esta uration, byway of emi- 
 nence, for the return of king Charles II. in 1660 i after the 
 civil wars. 
 
 The 29th of May is an anniverfary feftival held in comme- 
 moration of the rejloration \ the rejlauration of regal and 
 epifcopal government. 
 Restauratio n* in architecture, tho act of repairing 
 all the parts of a building gone to decay, either through the 
 courfe of time, or other injuries j in fuch manner, as that 
 it is not only re-eftablifhed in its firft form, but confiderably 
 augmented. 
 
 It is evident from the plinths of the corinthian columns of 
 the Pantheon, which are almoft wholly under ground, that 
 the pavement of this temple is only a rejlauration made in the 
 time of Septimius Severus. Daviler. 
 
 The temple of concord, behind the capital at Rome, having 
 been burnt long after it was built, and having angular bafes 
 different from the reft, feems to have been rejhred from the 
 ruins of feveral antient buildings* 
 Restauration, in fculpturc, is the repairing of a mu- 
 tilated ftatue, (Sc. See Repairing. 
 
 Moft of the antique ftatues have undergone a rejlauration ; 
 as the Farnefe Hercules, the Faunus in the Villa Borghefe at 
 Rome, the wreftlers in the gallery of the great duke of Flo- 
 rence, the Venus of Aries in the gallery at Verfailles- But 
 
 thefe rejlaurations have all been made by the ableft fculptors. 
 Daviler, 
 
 RES TINCTION, Restinctio* in cbymiftry, the 
 quenching of a metal or mineral in fome liquor, in order 
 either to correct, or to exalt it, by giving it fome new quality, 
 
 power, (Sc. 
 
 RESTITUTION, Restitutio, in phyfics, the re- 
 turning of elafh'c bodies forcibly bent to their natural ftatP, 
 by fome ealled the motion of rejlitution. See Elasti- 
 city. 
 
 Contraction being the proper and natural action of mufculaf 
 fibres, fome authors afcribe dilatation to a motion of rejlitu- 
 tion ; but the expreffion, as well as the idea, are very 
 faulty. 
 
 Restitution, in a moral and legal fenfe, is the act of rc- 
 ftoring a perfon to his right ; or of returning fomething un- 
 juftly taken or detained from him. 
 
 Rejlitution is reducible to commutative juftice ; and till it be 
 made, the cafuiih determine the party all the while guilty of 
 theft. 
 
 The illegal incumbents of benefices are condemned to a. rejli- 
 tution of the fruits of the benefices — In the Romifh church 
 uiiirers, (Sc. are obliged to a rejlitution of their ill-gotten 
 goods, otherwife the prieft has no authority to give them ab- 
 solution. 
 
 Restitution in integrum, is ufed for what is otherwife called 
 
 '- refciffion. 
 
 Religious obtain rejlitution againft their vows, tit, they are 
 freed from their obligation, when they proteft againft them 
 within five years of their profeffion. 
 
 In the hiftory of Germany for the XVIIth century, the firft 
 day of January 1624. is called the term of rejlitution; be- 
 caufe by the peace of Munfter, then concluded, the Lutheran 
 and Calvinift princes were obliged to rejlitute, reftore what 
 they had taken from the Roman catholic churches in their 
 tcrritork-s till that day. 
 Restitutions of medals, or Restituted medals, is a 
 phrafe ufed by antiquaries, for fuch medals as were ftruck by 
 
 th« 
 
RES 
 
 RET 
 
 pe 
 
 the emperors, to renew or retrieve the memory of their pre- 
 
 Ht-nce it is that in feveral medals we find the letters REST. 
 —Claudius was the firft: who begun this practice, by linking 
 a-frefh feveral medals of Auguftus. Nero did the lame ; and 
 Titus, after the example ot his father, ftruck rejlitunans of 
 moft of his predecellbrs. 
 
 Gdlicnus ftruck a general recitation of all the preceding em- 
 TPH in two medals, the one bearing an altar, the other an 
 agle, without the REST. — F. joubert chufes rather to 
 :.,S them anverjatiom than rcjlitutiotu ; as being done quite 
 a- new. .„ .;_j- tk._;-./ * 
 
 RFSTITUTIGNE extraBi ah txxk/tA, a writ antiently granted 
 for the rcftoring a man to the church or fanetuary from which 
 he had been forced away. 
 Restitutions ttn$oraUum, a writ which lies where 
 , a man is elected and confirmed bilhop of a dioccle 
 for the recovery of the temporalities or barony of the faid 
 bifhoprick. 
 
 It is directed from the king to the efcheator 
 
 of the county. 
 
 RESTIVE, or Rest Y, a term applied to a horle, ef< 
 flops, or runs back, initead of advancing forwards. 
 In the manage, a re/live horfe is a rebellious, refractory, 
 broken horte; which only goes where it will, and when 
 will,— The word is formed irom the Latin, rejiivus, which 
 fignifies the fame thing. 
 
 RES TOR. See the article Restaur. 
 
 RESTORATION, dee the article Restauration. 
 
 RES W RA'I IVE, in medicine, a remedy proper for the reftor- 
 frig and te rieving of ftrength and vigour. 
 fajhratives beiuiig to the ciafs of balfamics ; and are other- 
 wife called analeptics. 
 
 The medicines that come under this denomination are of an 
 emollient, fofteumg nature, but nutritive withal ; and are 
 rather adminiltred to repair the waftefl of the conftitution : 
 than to alter and rectify its diforders. 
 
 Such are the leaves of white, and black maiden-hair. 
 
 fcabius; colts-foot; bohea-tea ; chich- 
 balfam cl 
 
 or rather fherifl 
 
 that 
 
 ill. 
 
 rocket^ ' . . 
 
 peas; hops; chocolate; piftachia-nuts 
 'Tolu; bdellium; benzoin; ftorax ; eryngo; iris; fatynon : 
 
 RESTRAINT, is when an action is hindered 01 
 flopped, contrary to volition, or the preference of the 
 mind. 
 
 RES TRICTION, the act of modifying, limiting, or remain 
 ing a thing to narrower bounds. 
 
 General laws always bear fome rcjlrifiion. — In contracts 'ti: 
 
 ufual to have reJlriElive clctufes, which bind the cov enants 
 
 down to certain bound s 
 Mental Restriction. See Reservation. 
 Restriction, among logicians, is underftood of the 1 
 
 miting a term, fo as to make it fignify lefs than it ufually 
 
 does. 
 
 In which fenfe the name Philofophcr is retrained io Ariftotle 
 Great to Alexander ; City to Rome, &e. 
 It is. obferved to be good arguing affirmatively from a non- 
 reft' ained to a reftrained term; but not contrarily : And ne- 
 gatively, from a reftrained to a non-relbr ained term ; but not 
 contrarily. 
 
 RESTRICTIVE prcptjhion. See the article Proposition. 
 Restrictive future. See the article Suture. 
 RESTRINGENT, in medicine. See Astringent. 
 RESTY. See the article Restive. 
 
 RESULT, what is gathered from a conference, an inquiry, 
 meditation, difcourie, or the like; or the conclufion and 
 effect thereof. 
 
 The aflembly was fo tumultuous that there was no knowing 
 the rejult. — The ufual refult of difputes, Mr Bayle obferves, 
 is that each perfon remains more attached to his own 
 opinion. 
 
 RESUMMONS, Resummonitio, a fecond fummons, or 
 calling a man to anfwer an action where the firft fummons 
 is defeated, or fufpended by any accident ; as the death of a 
 party, csV. 
 
 RESUMPTION, Resumptio, in a law fenfe, figni- 
 fies the taking again into the king's hands fuch lands or 
 tenements as before, upon falfe fuggeftions, or other error,- 
 he had delivered to the heir, or granted by letters patent to 
 any man. 
 
 Resumption, in the fchools, a fummary repetition, or run- 
 ning over of an argument, or of the fubftance thereof, in 
 order to refute it. 
 : Therefpondent rcfumed d\\ the points of the objection, and 
 anfwered them one by one. 
 
 Resumption is alfoufed by logicians for the reduction of fome 
 figurative or cpjaint propoiltion, to a more intelligible and 
 fignificant one, 
 
 As, Peter is half-teas over ; that is, he is half fuddled. — 
 The meadows fmiic ; that is, they look pleafant. 
 
 RESUMPTIVE, in pharmacy, an epithet given to a 
 kind of unguent, ufed to recruit and reftore arid jan- 
 guifhing conmtutions, and to difpofe the dry body to re- 
 ceive nourifhment — It is called in Latin, unguentum re- 
 fumptivum. 
 
 RESURRECTION, Resurrectio, Resuscitation, 
 the act of returning, to a new, or fecond life, after having 
 been dead. 
 
 The great argument for the truth of chriftianity, and 
 that urged with the moft force and conviction for the 
 fame, is drawn from the refurreftlon of our Saviour. — 
 The circumltances thereof are fuch as almoft admit of a de- 
 monstration ; which has accordingly been attempted on the 
 ftrict principles of the geometricians. See Ditton on the 
 refurrefiion. 
 
 The chriltians generally believe the refurrefiim of the fame 
 identic body, the very fame flcih and bones at the day of 
 judgment — The two principal philufopl ileal objections againil 
 it are thefe. 
 
 l°. That the fame piece of matter or fubftance may happen to 
 be a part of two or more bodies — Thus a fifh feeding on a 
 m.tn, and another man afterwards feeding on the fifh ; part 
 of the body of the firft man becomes hrlt incorporated with 
 the fifhj and afterwards in the fifih, with the laft man. Again, 
 inltances have been known of one man's feeding immediately 
 on another ; and among the cannibals of the VV eft-indies u:c 
 practice is frequent. 
 
 Now* where the fubftance of one is thus converted into the 
 fubftance of another, each cannot arife with his whole body ; 
 and to which fhall the common part be allotted ? 
 To this objection fome anfwer, that as all matter is not fit 
 or difpofed to be ailimilated to the body, and incorporated 
 with it : human fleih may very probably be of this kind, 
 and therefore what is thus eaten, may be again excreted and 
 carried oft— But Mr Leibnitz's anfwer feems the more folid — 
 All that is effential to the body, he urges, is the original {ta- 
 rn en, which exifted in the femen of the father; nay, and on 
 the footing of the modern theory of generation, which exi- 
 fted in the femen of the firft man. This we may conceive 
 as the moft minute fpeck or point imaginable, and therefore 
 not to be feparaied, or tore afunder, and any part of it united 
 with the ftamcn of any other man. Ail this bulk we fee in 
 the body, i= only an accretion to this original ftamcn ; an 
 addditionof foreign matter, of new juices to the primary, 
 folid ftamcn. There is therefore no reciprocation of the pro- 
 per matter of the human body. 
 
 The fecond objection is this — The human body, we know by 
 the late difcoveries in the animal ceconcmy, is continually 
 changing: a man has not entirely the fame body, to day 
 as he had yefterday ; and it is even computed, that in left 
 than feven years time, his whole body undergoes a change, 
 and not a particle of the fame body remains — Which of thofe 
 many bodies, then, which the fame perfon has in the courfe 
 of his life, is it that fhall rife ? or does all the matter that has 
 ever belonged to him, rife again ? or does only fome particu- 
 lar fyftem thereof ? the body, e. gr. he had at 20, at 30, 
 or at 60 years old ? if only this or that body arife, how 
 fhall it he rewarded or punifhed for what was done by the 
 other ? with what juftice does one perfon fuffer, &c. for a- 
 n other ? 
 
 To this it may be anfwered, on Mr Lock's principles, that 
 perianal identity, or the famenefs of a rational being, can- 
 lifts in felf-confcioufnefs ; in the power of conlidering it 
 
 (elf the fame thing in different times and places By 
 
 this every one is to himfelf what he calls jelf ; without 
 conlidering whether that felf be continued in the fame or 
 divers fubftances. So far reaches the identity of that perfon. 
 It is the fame felf now it was then, and it was by the 
 fame felf which now reflects on an action, that action was 
 performed. 
 
 Now, it is this perfisnal identity that is the object: of reward* 
 and punifhments, which we have obferved may exift in dif- 
 ferent fucceffions of. matter ; fo that to render the rewards 
 and punifhments juft and pertinent, nothing needs but that 
 we rife again with fuch a body as that we retain the coniciouf- 
 nefs of our paft adtions. 
 RESUSCITATION. See Resurrection and Revivifi- 
 cation. 
 
 RETAIL, in commerce, 6f!f. the buying of goods in the 
 great, or by wholefalc, and felling them out again in fmall 
 parcels — $>ui rem integram mentis, per minutiores earn partes 
 dijh'abebant. 
 
 To RETAIN, fpoken of mares, fignifies to hold, /'. e. to con- 
 ceive after covering. 
 RETAINER, in law, a fervant not menial or domeftic, that 
 is, not continually dwelling in the houfe of his lord 
 or matter, but only wearing his livery, and attending 011 
 fpccial occafions. 
 
 This livery was antiently given by a great man, and frequent- 
 ly for the maintainancc of quarrels ; whence it wasjuftly pi*o- 
 ' hibited 
 
RET 
 
 RET 
 
 hibited by feveral fettles ; as under Richard II. on pain of 
 imprifonment, and grievous forfeiture to the king. 
 It was farther prohibited by other ftatutes of the fucceeding 
 kings, whereby the delinquents were fubjected to make ran- 
 fom at the king's pleafure ; and knights and efquires hereof 
 duly attainted, were to lofe their faid liveries, and forfeit their 
 fees for ever. 
 
 Edward IV. added a fpecial penalty of five pounds per 
 month on every man that gave fuch livery, and as much 
 on every perfon fo retained, either by writing, word, or 
 oath— But mofl of theft ftatutes are repealed by a flatute ? 
 Car. % 
 
 RETAINING-/™ is the firft fee given in any caufeto a ftr- 
 jeant or counftllor at law, whereby to make him fure, that he 
 fhall not be on the contrary fide. 
 
 RETALIATION, Retaliatio, the aft of returning 
 like for like. See Talionis lex. 
 
 RETARDATION, Retardatio, in phyfics, 
 the aft of retarding ; that is, of delaying the motion or 
 progrefs of a body, or of diminifhing its velocity, 
 The retardation of moving bodies arifes from two great 
 caufts, the refiftencc of the medium, and the fores of gra- 
 vity, iiitivmlt/. \r ti> i - ; 
 
 The Retardation from the refiftence is frequently 
 confounded with the rellftence itftlf; becauft, with re- 
 fpect to the fame moving body, they are in the fame pro- 
 portion. 
 
 With refpect to different bodies, however, the fame re- 
 fiftence often generates different retardations For, if bo- 
 dies of equal bulk, but different denudes, be moved thro' 
 the fame fluid with equal velocity, the fluid will ait equally 
 on each ; ft. that they will have equal refiftences, but diffe- 
 rent retardations : and the retardations will be to each other 
 as the velocities which might be generated by the fame 
 forces in the bodies propoled ; that is, they are inverftly 
 as the quantities of matter in the bodies, or inverftly as the 
 denfities. 
 
 Suppofe, then, bodies of equal denfity, but of unequal bulk, 
 to move equally faff through the i'ame fluid, their refift- 
 ences increafe according to their fuperf'icies ; that is, as 
 the fquares of their diameters. But the quantities of 
 matter are incrcafed in proportion to the cubes of the 
 diameters : the refiftences are the quantities of motion ; 
 the retardations are the celerities arifing from them ; and 
 dividing the quantities of motion by the quantities of mat- 
 ter, you will have the celerities : therefore the retardations 
 are directly as the fquares of the diameters, and inverftly as 
 the cubes of the diameters ; that is, inverftly as the diame- 
 ters themfelves. 
 
 If the bodies be equal, move equally fwift, and are of the 
 fame denfity, but moved through different fluids, their retar- 
 dations are as the denudes of thoft fluids. 
 And when bodies equally denfe, and of bulk equal, are 
 carried through the fame fluid with different velocities, 
 the retardations are a; the fquares (f the velocities. 
 The Retardation from gravity is peculiar to bodies 
 
 projected upwards A body thrown upwards, is retarded 
 
 after the lame maimer as a falling body is accelerated ; 
 only, in the one cafe, the force of gravity confpires with 
 the motion acquired j and in the other, it acts contrary to 
 
 As the force of gravity is uniform, the retardation from that 
 caufe will be equal in equal times. 
 
 Hence, as it is the fame force which generates motion ii 
 the falling, and diminifhes it in the riling body, a bod' 
 rifes till it has loft all its motion ; which it does in the 
 fame time wherein a body falling would have acquired a 
 velocity equal to that wherewith the body was thrown up. 
 Thus alfo, a body thrown up, will rife to the fame height 
 from which falling it would acquire the velocity wherewith 
 it is thrown up ; therefore the heights which bodies thrown 
 up with different velocities can rift to, are to each other as 
 the fquares of the velocities. 
 
 Hence, the retardations of motions may be compared to- 
 gether : for they are, firft, as the fquares of the velocities ; 
 fecondly, as the denlities of the fluids through which the 
 bodies are moved ; thirdly, inverfely, as the diameters of 
 thoft bodies ; laftly, inveriely, as the denfities of the bodies 
 themfelves. 
 
 'I he numbers in the ratio compounded of thoft ratio's, exprefs 
 the proportion of the retardations ; multiplying the fquate of 
 the velocity by the denfity of the fluid, and dividing the pro- 
 dufl by the product of the diameter of the body multiplied 
 into its denfity ; and working thus for feveral motions, the 
 quotients of the divifions will have the fame compound ratio 
 to one another. 
 
 Laws of Retardation of motion 1°. If the motion of 
 
 a body be uniformly retarded, that is, if its celerity be di- 
 minifhed equally in equal times, the fpace it paffes over is 
 one half of that it would pafs over in the fame time by an uni- 
 form motion. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 2 . The fpaces defcribed in equal times by an uniformly re- 
 tarded motion, decreafe according to the uneven numbers 9 ; 
 7) 5> 3> & c - — See further under Accelerationi 
 
 RETCHING, or Reaching; the effort or endeavour to 
 vomit. See Nausea. 
 
 RETE mirabite, in anatomy, a final! plexus or net-work 
 of veffels m the brain, furrounding the pituitary gland. 
 The rete mirabile is very confpicuous in brutes i but it is ei- 
 ther not exiftent in man, or is fo very minute, that its exift- 
 ence has been doubted. 
 
 Willis will have it to confift of arteries, veins, and nerves; 
 Vieuflens of arteries oniy ; and others of arteries and fmall 
 
 veins, 
 
 Vieuflens afferts, with many other anatomifts, that there is 
 no rete mirabile in man, in the horft, dog, &ct But that it 
 is found in the calf, fheep, goat, cjV. 
 
 It was obferved and defcribed by Galen ; who, upon findinp- 
 it in fome brutes, concluded it to be iikewife in m2n ; but 
 all we fee like it in man is; that on the fides of the pituitary 
 gland, where its place fhould be, the carotid arteries make "a 
 double flexure, in form of ce>, before they penetrate thedur' 
 mater. 
 
 The ufe of the rete mirabile Galen takes to be for con- 
 cocting and elaborating the animal fpirirs ; as that of the 
 epididymides is for elaborating the feed. See Spirit and 
 Seed. 
 
 Dr Willis thinks, with more probability, it may ferve to 
 bridle the too rapid incurfions of the btood into the brain 
 of thoft creatures, whofe head hansis down much - to fc- 
 parate fome of the fupcrfluous ferous parts of the blood, 
 and fend them to the falival glands, as the blood enters the 
 brain ; and to obviate obftruOtions which may happen in the 
 arteries. 
 
 Rete penny, in antlent records, a cuftomary due of one penny 
 
 for every perfon to the parifh-prieft. 
 RETEINER or Retainer. See Retainer. 
 RETENTIO, Re tine nt 1 a, in our law books, is 
 
 iometimes ufed to fignify retinue. See Retinue. 
 RETENTION, Retentio, a faculty of the human mind, 
 
 whereby, in order to a farther progrefs in knowledge, it keeps 
 
 or retains thofe funple ideas, which it before received by fen- 
 
 fation or reflection. 
 
 This is done two ways— Firft, by keeping the idea which is 
 brought into the mind for fome time actually in view. This 
 is called contemplation. 
 
 Secondly, by reviving thofe ideas in our minds, which have 
 difappeared, and have been, as it were, laid out of fwht, 
 This is memory, which is, as it were, the repofitory of our 
 ideas. 
 
 Our ideas being nothing but adfual perceptions in the mind, 
 which ceafe to be any thing when there is no perception of 
 them, this laying up of our ideas in the repofitory of the me- 
 mory amounts to no more than this, that the 'mind has a 
 power, in many cafes, to revive perceptions it once had; witli 
 this additional perception annexed to them, that it has had 
 them before. 
 
 It is by the affiftancc of this faculty that we are faid to have 
 all thole ideas in our undcrftanding, which we can brinf in 
 fight, and make the objefls of our thoughts, without the 
 help of thofe ftnfible qualities, which firlt imprinted them 
 there. * 
 Attention and repetition help much to the fixing ideas in our 
 memories ; but thofe which make the dcepeft and mod laftiae 
 impreffions, arc fuch as come accompanied with pleafure and 
 pain — Ideas but once taken, and never again repeated, are 
 foon loft j fuch are thofe of colours in fuch as loft their fight 
 when very young. 
 
 The memory in fome men is tenacious, even to a miracle ; 
 but yet there ftems to be a conftant decay of all our idcas| 
 even of thofe which are ftruck deepeft, and in the minds the 
 mo{k retentive ; fo that, if they be not fometimes renewed, 
 the print wears out, and at laft there remains nothing to bo 
 perceived of it. 
 
 Thoft ideas, which are often renewed by a frequent return 
 of the objeas or aftions that produce them, fix themfelves 
 bed 111 the memory, and remain longeft there : fuch are the 
 original qualities of bodies ; to. folidity, extenfion, figure, 
 motion, CSV. and thoft that almoft conftantly afib£t us, as 
 heat and cold ; and thofe that are the affections of all 
 kinds of beings, as exiftence, duration, and number ; which 
 are feldom quite loft, while the mind retains any ideas 
 at all. 
 
 Retention is alfo ufed in medicine, t>V. for the 
 Mate of contraction in the folids, or vafcular parts of 
 the body, which makes them hold fait their proper con- 
 tents. 
 
 In this fenfe, retention ftands oppoftd to evacuation and excre- 
 tion. 
 
 Retention and excretion make two of the non-naturals. 
 Retention is alfo frequently confidered as a diforder, and 
 10 X defined 
 
RET 
 
 defined the aft of retaining the excrements, humours, tff. to 
 as they cannot be voided out of the body, 
 it is the retain™ of peccant humours which caufes luch a 
 (ijfeafe A rt/fitftM of urine is very painful and danger- 
 
 R ETI \ RII *, in antiquity, a kind of gladiators, thus deno- 
 ' niinatwl from a net, which they made ufe of againft their an- 
 tagdmfts, who were called/ccsto-rj, and fometimes rmrtmUmts. 
 See Gladiator. 
 
 The word is formed from the Latin, rete, net ; or perhaps from 
 rmjacuUm ! for they called their net>r«/<™, and fometimes 
 in one word retcjaculiim. 
 This net they carried under their buckler, and, when oppor- 
 tunity ferved, caft it over the head of their antagonist, and, 
 in this condition, killed him with a trident, which they bore 
 in the other hand. - , . . _ , 
 
 Lipiius and others obferve, that they fought ,n tunics and 
 were furnifheJ with fpunges to wipe off the Iweat, blood, Vc 
 and to flop their wounds. , . 
 
 RFTICENCY, ReticeKtia, a figure in rhetoric, wnere- 
 by we make oblique mention of a thing, in pretending to pals 
 it oyer unmcntioncd. 
 
 Thus: To h nothing of the nolnhty of his anchors. J for- 
 bear to fpcatofhis courage, and pafs over the fount; of his 
 
 morals. . 
 RETICULA Reticule, in autonomy, a contrivance 
 foi the exact meaf.uing the quantity of eclipfes introduced 
 about fifty years ago by ths royal academy of Pans, bee 
 
 The'nW.: is a little frame, confining of thirteen fine 
 fi]k-n threads equidiitant from each other, and parallel ; 
 placed in the locus of objeft glades of telefcopes ; that is, in 
 in the place whew the image cf the luminary is painted in 
 
 its full extent Of conference, thereiore, the Diameter 
 
 of the fun or moon is hereby feen divided into twelve equal 
 carts or dieits ; to that, to find the quantity of the ecliple, 
 there is nothing to do, but to number the luminous and the 
 
 dark parts. „ . t . L , . * cl 'JSL 
 
 A' a fquare rclku'r is only proper for the diameter, not tor the 
 circumference of the luminary, it is fometimes made cir- 
 cular, by drawing fix concentric cqui-diftant circles, i his 
 reprcfents the phafes of the eclipfe pcrfcaiy. , 
 But it is vifiblc, that the reticule, whether fquare or circular, 
 ourrht to be perfectly equal to the diameter or circumference 
 of the fun or fiar, Inch as it appears in the focus ot the glals, 
 otherwife the divifion cann.it be juft. 
 
 Now, this is no cafy matter to effea, by reafon the apparent 
 diameter of the fun and moon differ in each eclipfe ; nay, 
 that of the moon differs from itfelf in the progrefs ot the fame 
 
 Another imperfection in the reticule is, that its bignefs is de- 
 termined by that of the image in the focus ; and ot conle- 
 quence it will only lit one certain magnitude. , 
 But M de la Hire has found a remedy for all theie inconve- 
 niences, and contrived, that the fame reticule lhall ferve for 
 all telefcopes, and all altitudes of the luminary in the lame 
 ecliple— The principle whereon his invention (lands, is, that 
 two obiea glades applied againft each other, having a com- 
 mon focus, and there farming an image of a certain magni- 
 tude, this image will increal'e in proportion as the diltance 
 between the two glaffes is increafed, as far as a certain h- 
 
 Xf' then a rtfiatle be taken of fuch a magnitude, as juft to 
 comprehend the greateft diameter the fun or moon can 
 ever have in the common focus of two ohjeft glafles applied 
 to each other, there needs nothing but to remove them 
 from each other, as the ftar comes to have a lefs diameter, to 
 have the image ftill exadly comprehended in the fame re- 
 
 Another improvement is, that whereas the filken threads are 
 fubject to fwerve from tire paralleling Vc. by the different 
 temperature of the air ; a reticule may be made of a thin 
 ]ookin"-clafs, by drawing lines or circles thereon with the 
 rine poult of a diamond ; which lhall be fafe from any alte- 
 ration of the air. 
 RETICULAR iii/y, corpus Reticulars, in anatomy, 
 a body of veffels lying immediately under the cuticle or fcarf- 
 
 Thefc veffels contain a mucous liquor, from the tin£lure 
 whereof Malpighi imagines the colour of the fkin to be de- 
 rived ■ founding his conjecture on this that the cutis, as well 
 as cuticle of Hacks, is white ; and that they differ in no 
 other circumftance from thofe of Europeans, but in this par- 
 ticular. . -, ... r .r i ,h 
 
 Reticular plexus, pllxis Reticularis, fometimes denotes 
 the choroides, which is thus called, becaufe its fibres are in- 
 terwoven like a net. See Choroides. 
 
 RETICULUM, the caul,- or omentum ; a name fome- 
 times given this part from its net-like ftradturc. See Omen- 
 
 RET 
 
 :ETIFORMIo7«rii, in anatomy, the fame with rete mi- 
 
 labile. See Rete. . 
 1ETINA, in anatomy and optics, one of the tunics of the 
 eye ; called alfo amphiblejlroides, retiformis, and reticularis 
 tunica, as being woven in manner ol a net. 
 The retina is the laft or innermoft of the coats of the eye, 
 lying immediately under the choroides. 
 
 It is formed of an expanlion of the medullary part of the 
 optic nerve j whence it is very thin, foft, white, i$c. 
 refembling the fubftance of the brain, with the tran- 
 
 fparency of the horn of a lantern. When fepa- 
 
 rated from the choroides, it runs into a mucous mafs, or 
 lump. ■ *i 1° ,>i;,ji .s ^iruwdil* 1 * n < ' ' . , 
 The retina is ufuallv fuppofed to be the great organ of vi- 
 fion, which is effeaed by means of the rays of light reflec- 
 ted from each point of objects, refrafted in their pafi'age 
 through the aqueous, vitreous, and cryftallin humours, and 
 thus thrown on the retina ; where they paint the image of 
 the objea ; and where they make an imprelfion, which is 
 continued thence, by the fine capillaries of the optic nerves, 
 to the fenfory. See Vision. 
 
 Indeed, whether the retina or the choroides be the prin- 
 cipal organ of vifion, and that whereon the images of objeas 
 are represented, has been much controverted between ieve- 
 ral members of the royal academy ; particularly Men". Ma- 
 riotte, Pecquet, Perrault, Mery, and de la Hire— Manotte 
 firft flood up for the choroides, and was feconded by Mery : 
 the reft aliened the caufe of the retina. 
 
 The retina was always judged to have all the charaaers of 
 the principal organ— It is fituate in the focus of the redac- 
 tion of the humours of the eye ; and of confequence re- 
 ceives the vertices of the cones of rays, proceeding from 
 the feveral points of objefls. It is very thin, and confe- 
 quently very fenfible. It has its origin from the optic nerve , 
 and is itfelf wholly nervous, and it is the common opinion 
 that the nerves are the vehicles of all fenfations. Laftly, it 
 communicates with the fubftance of the brain, where all fen- 
 fations terminate. 
 
 As to the choroides, its ufe was fuppofed to be to Itop the 
 rays, which the extreme tenuity of the retina fhould let pafs ; 
 aiid to do the fame office to the retina which the quickfilver 
 does to a looking-glals; especially in thofe animals wherein it 
 is black. , 
 But from an experiment of a cat plunged into water, M. Me- 
 ry conceived a different opinion— He obferved the retina to 
 difappear abfolutely on that occafion, as well as all the 
 other humours of the eye; while the choroides ftill 
 appeared diflinaly, and even with all the lively colours 
 which it has in that animal— Hence he concluded, that 
 the retina was as tranfparent as the humours, but the cho- 
 roides opake : confequently the retina was not a proper in- 
 ftrument to terminate and'ftop the cones of rays, or to re- 
 ceive the images of objeas : but that the light muft pafs 
 through it, and could only be flopped on the choroides ; 
 which therefore would become the principal organ of vifion. 
 The black colour of the choroides in man is extremely 
 favourable to this opinion: the principal organ fhould 
 feem to require that the aflion of the light fhould termi- 
 nate on it, as it arrives ; which it is certain it here does 
 in the black that abforbs all the rays, and refleas none ; 
 and it fliould alio feem neceflary that the aaion of the 
 li^ht mould be ftronger on the organ of fight than any 
 where elfe : now, it is certain that the light being received 
 and abforbed in a black body, muft excite a greater vibra- 
 tion there than any where elfe ; and hence it is that black 
 bodies are kindled by a burning glafs much fooner than white 
 i SfteVii-" SiCliWCVldl Jfidj. .'-"Ui i- ■ '■ "/. , 
 The Situation of the choroides behind the retina is another 
 circumftance on its fide ; M. Mery having obferved the fame 
 pofition of the principal organ behind a mediate organ in the 
 other fenfes : which makes a happy analogy— Thus the cu- 
 ticle extended over the fkin, is the mean organ of feeling , 
 but the cutis underneath is the principal organ. The like is 
 obferved in the ear, nofe, {iff. 
 
 The retina, therefore, fliould feem a kind of mediate or 
 fecondary organ, ferving to break the too ftrong imprefli- 
 on of the light on the choroides, or to preferye it ; which 
 is the ufe afcribed to the cuticle— Add to all this, that 
 the retina is infenfible,' as having its origin from the me- 
 dullary fubftance of the brain, which is to too ; and the 
 choroides, on the contrary, is very fenfible, as arifing 
 from the pia mater, which is certainly fenfible in a great 
 degree. 
 
 This laft argument being doubted of, M. Mery was en- 
 gaged to prove it ; which he did before the royal aca- 
 demy, where he fliew'd that the optic nerve is not com- 
 pof d like the other nerves, of fibres ; that it is only a train 
 of die medulla inclofed in a canal, out of which it is eafily 
 Separable. „ 
 This ftmaure of the optic nerve, hitherto unknown, lhews 
 that the retina can be no membrane ; it is only a dilatation of 
 
 the 
 
RET 
 
 R E T 
 
 the medulla, inciofed under two membrane^ and a pith or 
 medulla fcetris no proper fubftance to be the feat of fenfiition — 
 It can fcar'ce ferve for any thing but to filtrate the fpirits 
 neccflary for the action of vilion — The vibration where- 
 by the fenfation itfelf is effeSled, muft be made on a part 
 more folid, niore firm, and more fufceptible of a brifk 
 imprefliori. 
 
 RETINUE, Retine.n'tia, the attendants or followers of 
 a prmce, or perfon of quality, chiefly in a journey. 
 In law, thofe perfons are properly faid to be of a nobleman's 
 retinue who belong to him in quality either of fervants or re- 
 tainers. 
 
 RETIRADE, in fortification, a kind of retrenchment 
 made in the body of a baftion, or other work, which 
 is to be diiputed inch by inch, after the firft defences are 
 difmantled. 
 
 It ufually confifts of two faces, which make a re-entering 
 angle When a breach is made in a baftion, the ene- 
 my may alio make a retired*, or a new fortification behind 
 it. 
 
 RETIRED fianky in fortification. See Flank. 
 
 R E T O R N 0 faljo brevium. See the article Fai.so. 
 
 RETORT, Retorta,, in chymiftry, a kind of crooked 
 matrafs, or a round-bellied veflel, cither of earth or glafs, 
 with a (lender crooked beak or nofe to which the recipient 
 is to be fattened. See Matrass. 
 
 When the retort is of glafs, it is ufually covered with 
 a lute of loam, & c . an inch thick, to enable it to bear the 
 fire the better. 
 
 The retort ferves to draw fpirits and oil from woods, gums, 
 minerals, earths, and other matters which require a itrone 
 lire. ^ & 
 
 The retort is a kind of compendium or improvement on the 
 cucurbit and bolt-head; anfwering all the purpofes of both, 
 without the affiftance of a capital or head, which the other 
 require. 
 
 RE TRACT A TION, Retractatio, the act of unfaying 
 
 what a perfon had faid or wrote. 
 
 Galileo made a public rctratlalion of his doftrine of the world, 
 4$m*k, after its being cenfured and condemned by the 
 pope. Among St Auguftin's works is a book of retradations ; 
 where, however, the word is to be underftood in a new fenfe ; 
 not as if he recanted or unfaid any thing he had taught, 
 but only treated of the fame matter, or handled the fame 
 lubject a fecond time— This fenfe the word will very well 
 bear; being a compound of re, again, and trails, I handle, 
 treat of. 
 
 RETRACTION,* ReTractio, in anatomy, the con- 
 traction or fhortcning of a part. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, retrahere, to draw back. 
 
 A ntraaim of the nerves takes away the life of the limbs. 
 RETRACTS, among horfemen, pricks in a horfe's feet, 
 anfing from the fault of the farrier in driving nails that are 
 weak, or in driving them ill-pointed or amils. 
 Thefe, unlefs timely prevented, fefter, and prove very dan- 
 gerous-When the farrier, in fboeing, perceives the horfe 
 to Ihrinkat every blow on the nail ; it is a fign of a retracl 
 and the nail is to be pulled out again, which is done without 
 any harm. 
 
 When the horfe halts immediately after he is fhod, it is con- 
 cluded fome of the nails prefs the veins, or touch him in the 
 quick. 
 
 'To find where the grievance lies, they knock the nails round 
 with a hammer, till the horfe's fhrinking upon hitting a par- 
 ticular nail dilcovers the place. 
 
 Some farriers give this as a rule, that throwing water on the 
 hoof the place where he is hurt will be dry fooner than any 
 ct the reft. The places where the horfes are molt ufually 
 pricked, are the heel in the fore-foot, and the toe in the 
 hmd-foot. " 
 
 R E . R T A C T O R alx nap, i„ anatomy, a mufcle called alfo 
 elevator Icihu /i:f,enor;s. See Elevator 
 
 RETRAHENS aurladam, in anatomy, a mufcle of 
 the external ear, confiding of a parcel of flefhy fibres 
 which in tome bodies are divided into three diftinft muffle* 
 anlingfrom theos temporale, and fixed to the hind part of 
 tne concha. 
 
 But thefe mufcles are fo fmall in men, that the auricle is fel- 
 dom moveable at all. See Ear. 
 
 R ^,Tr R A 5 1 T ', IaW ' ' S wherc the P ,aIntiff ™es into 
 court n perfon, alone or with the defendant j and declares 
 he will proceed no further in his aftion. 
 A r.W< is peremptory, and a perpetual bar, and may be 
 
 R F TR F A I t0 * "'"I" iff in ,hc W fi* 
 
 '" war ' the retiring or moving back again of 
 an army or part thereof. B 6 
 
 We fay, to found a retreat, fecure a retreat, (sfc. What 
 they call a, ■„„„,,„ the armies, is really a flight • only a 
 flight made bydefign, and with conduft S ! 
 
 The (fall and ability of the general is known by his rctrem, 
 
 more than his engagements — The retreat of the ten tliou- 
 fand Greeks under the command of Xenophon, lias been ad- 
 mired in ali antiquity. 
 Retreat or Relay, in mafonry, denotes a little reeefs 
 or diminution of the thicknefs of a wall, rampart, &t, in 
 proportion as it is raifed. 
 
 The retreat is properly the diminution of a wall, without 
 fide, or the contraction of its upper courfes more than (he 
 foundation — Where the foundation is very lar<*e, they ufu- 
 ally make two or three rttrtats— Parapets arc" always built 
 with retreats. 
 
 RETRENCHMENT*, literally fignifes fomething cut 
 off, or taken from a thing : In which fenfe it coincides with 
 fubtracfion, diminution, csY. 
 
 * The word is French, retrenchement, formed of re and trenckr 
 
 tfl CUt. . faliilM :!!!.. 
 
 By a gradual retrenchment of the ordinary quantity of food, 
 a man may bring himfelf to a furprifing degree of abfti- 
 nence. 
 
 The reformation of the calendar in 1582, occafioncd a re- 
 trenchment of ten days which had crept into the account more 
 than there fhould have been. 
 
 The frugality' fo much boafted of among the ancient Romans 
 St Evremont obferves, did not fo much confifl in a voluntary 
 abftinence or retrenchment of things fuperfluous, as a co3rle 
 and fordid way of employing or uling them. 
 Retrenchment, in architecture, carpentry, feY. is'ufed 
 not only for what is cut off from a piece when too lap>e, 
 in order to a better proportioning it, or fome other conve- 
 nience ; but alfo for the prefectures taken out of ftreets, 
 public ways, BV. to render them more even, and in a 
 line. 
 
 Retrenchment, in war, denotes any kind of work caft up 
 to ftrengthen or defend a port againft the enemy. 
 Such are ditches with parapets, gabions, fafcincs, (jfr. for a 
 covering, cs'e. 
 
 The enemy came with defign to oblige them to raife the 
 fiege, but could not force the retrenchments. 
 
 Retrenchment is more particularly ufed for a fimple re- 
 tirade made on a horn-work or baftion, when it is intended 
 to difpute the ground inch by inch. SccRetirade. 
 It is ufually a re-entering angle, whofe faces flank each other, 
 and is fortified with ditches, narapets, gabions, cSV. 
 
 RETRIBUTION, Retribute, a handfo'me prcfent, 
 gratuity or acknowledgment, given in lieu of a formal fa- 
 lary or hire, to perfons employed in affairs that do not fo 
 immediately fall under eflimation, nor within the ordinary 
 commerce in money. 
 
 Thofe who minillred at the altar anciently lived of retribu- 
 tions, which they received for the fervices they did the church. 
 But thefe retrihulions were afterwards judged proper to be 
 fixed to precifefums. 
 RETRIEVE, Retrouver, to recover, get again, or 
 repair a thing loft or damaged. 
 
 To retrieve in falconry, fignifies to fpring ot find partridges 
 again which have been once fcrung before 
 
 R E T R O ACTIVE, * in law, that which has an influence 
 or effect on time paft. 
 
 * The word is compounded of the Latin, retro, backwards, 
 and ago, I act. 
 
 New laws and ftatutes, we fay, have no retroaelhe effeef • 
 that is, they have 110 force or eftia as to what is already 
 palled ; nor can be alledged as rules for any thing done before 
 their promulgation— Their authority is wholly as to what is 
 to come. 
 
 Indeed we have fome inftances of laws that have a retrofpecl 
 or retrmdim, >■ e. are made with exprefs defign to extend 
 facie S ^ pa<red— Thefe we ufua % cal1 laws "P'Jt 
 
 RETROCESSION, Retrocess.o, the afl of going 
 backward*, more ufually cxprcfled by retrogrefflon or retrT- 
 graaation. ,, " 
 
 Retrocession of the equinox. See Precession. 
 
 Retrocession of curves, tit. See Retrocra- 
 
 DA T ION. 
 
 RE TROGRADATION or Retrogression", the 
 act or effect of a thing moving backwards. 
 
 Retrooradation, in aftronomy, is an apparent motion of 
 the planets, wherein they feem to go backwards in the eclip- 
 tic, and to move contrary to the order or fucceffion of the 
 figns. 
 
 When a planet moves in cmfcquentla, i. e. towards the follow- 
 ing figns, or according to the order of the figns, as from 
 Aries to Taurus, from Taurus to Gemini, csV. that is from 
 weft to eaft, it is faid to be direct. 
 
 When it appears for fome days in the fame point of the 
 heavens, it is faid to be Jlatlonary. 
 
 And when it goes in antecedents, i. e. towards the antece- 
 dent figns or contrary to the order of the figns, viz. from 
 ealt to weft, it is laid to be retrograde. 
 
 The 
 
RET 
 
 RET 
 
 The fun and moon always appear direct.— Saturn, Jupiter, 
 Mars Venus, and Mercury, fometimes direct, iomctimes 
 Itationary, and fometimes retrograde. 
 
 The fiiperior planets are retrograde about their opposition with 
 the fun ; the inferior ones about their conjunction. 
 The intervals of time between two rctrogradations of the 
 Several planets, are unequal. — In Saturn it is a year and 13 
 days ; in Jupiter a year and 43 days ; in Mars two years 50 
 days; in Venus one year and 220 days ; and in Mercury 1 15 
 days. Again, Saturn continues retrogade 140 days, Ju- 
 piter 120, Mars 73, Vcnus42, Mercury 22 : yet are not 
 the feveral rctrogradations of the lame planet conftantly 
 equal.- ! r.o bs3ivfti x -r.hd bl'ow jJ '^l ' 
 
 Thcfe changes of the courfes and motions of the planets are 
 not real, but only apparent: when viewed from the centre of 
 the fyftem, n e. from the fun, they appear always uniform 
 and regular.— The inequalities arife from the motion and 
 pofition of the earth whence they are viewed, and are thus 
 accounted for: 
 
 Suppofe PNO (Tab. Ajlronomy, Fig. 58.) a portion of the 
 zodiac, ABCD the earth's orbit, and EMGHZ the orbit 
 of a fuperior planet, e. gr. Saturn ; and fuppofe the earth in 
 A, and Saturn in E i in which cafe he will appear «i the 
 zodiac at the point O.— If now Saturn remained without 
 any motion, when the earth arrives at B, he would be feen 
 in the point of the zodiac L, and would appear to have de- 
 ferred the arch O L, and to have moved according to the 
 order of the figns from weft to eaft. But becaufe while the 
 earth is palling from A to B, Saturn likewiSe moves from E 
 , to M, where he is feen in conjunction with the fun, he will 
 appear to have defcribed the arch O Q_greater than that O L. 
 In this State the planet is direct, and its motion is 
 from weft to eaft, or according to the order of die figns. 
 And its motion, now that it is in conjunction with the 
 fan, and moft remote from us, is quicker than at any other 
 time. 
 
 The earth arriving at C, while Saturn defcribes the arch 
 MG, he will be obierved in the zodiac at ft. But the earth 
 bein" advanced to K, and Saturn to H, fa as the line K H 
 joining the earth and Saturn, be for fomc time parallel to it- 
 felf, or nearly So, Saturn will be feen all that time in the 
 fame point of the zodiac at P, and with the fame fixed ftars ; 
 and is therefore at this time ftationary. 
 
 But the earth being come to D, andSaturn arrived in oppo- 
 fition to the fun in Z, he will appear in the zodiac in V, 
 and will feem to have been retrograde-, or to have gone back- 
 wards through the arch PV — Thus the fuperior planets, on 
 optical confirierntions, arc always retrograde-, when in oppoli- 
 tion to the fun. 
 
 The arch which the planet defcribes while thus retrograde, 
 is called the arch of retrogradation. 
 
 The arches of retrogradation of the feveral planets are not 
 equal. — That of Saturn is greater than that of Jupiter ; that 
 of Jupiter than that of Mars, ts'c. 
 Retrogradation of the nodes, is a motion of the line 
 of the nodes, whereby it continually Shifts its Situation 
 from eaft to weft, contrary to the order of the figns ; com- 
 pleating its retrograde circulation in the cornpals of about 
 1 9 years: after which time, either of the nodes having re- 
 ceded from any point of the ecliptic, returns to the fame 
 again. 
 
 Retrogradation of the fun — When the fun is in the 
 torrid zone, and has his declination AM, (Tali. Jjlro?iomy, 
 fig. 59.) greater than the latitude of the place A Z, but 
 either northern or Southern as that is, the Sun will appear 
 to go backwards, or to be retrograde both before and after 
 noon. 
 
 For, draw the vertical circle Z G N to be a tangent to the 
 Sun's diurnal circle in G, and another ZON through the iun 
 riling in O — It is evident all the intermediate vertical circles 
 cut the Sun's diurnal circle twice : firft, in the arch GO, and 
 the Second time in the arch GL— Wherefore, as the fun af- 
 cends through the arch GO, it continually arrives at farther 
 and farther verticals. But as it continues its afcent through 
 the arch GI, it returns to its former verticals; and therefore 
 is Seen retrograde for fome time before noon. — The Same, it 
 may be Shewn aSter the fame manner, it does for fome time 
 after noon. 
 
 Hence, as the fhadow always tends the oppofite way to that 
 of the fun, the fhadow will be retrograde twice every day in all 
 places of the torrid zone, where the Sun's declination exceeds 
 the latitude. 
 
 Retrogradation, or Retrogression, in the higher 
 geometry, is the Same with what we otherwile call contrary 
 flexion. See Contrary FlEXION. 
 
 The retragrcjfton of curves may be thus conceived. — Sup- 
 pofe a curve line AFK, (Tab. Geometry, fig. 82.) to be part- 
 ly concave, partly convex, in refpect of the right line A B, 
 or in refpect of the determinate point B, the pointF, which 
 Separates the concave part of the curve from the convex, or 
 which makes the end of one, and the beginning of the other, 
 is called the point of contrary flexion, when the curve is con- 
 
 tinued from F towards the Same fide as before— When the 
 curve is continued backwards towards A, then is F the point 
 of retrogreffion. 
 
 RETROGRADE*, Retrogradus, Something that goes 
 backwards, or in a direction contrary to the natural one 
 — Such is fometimes the motion of the gryllotalpa or mole 
 cricket. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, retro, backwards, and 
 gradiar, I go. 
 
 If the eye and the object move both the Same way, but 
 the eye much fafter than the object, the object will appear to 
 be retrograde^ i. e. to go back, or to advance the contrary 
 way Srum what it really does. 
 
 Hence it is that the planets in Some parts of their orbits ap- 
 pear to be retrograde. 
 
 Retrograde order, in matters of numeration, is when in 
 lieu of accounting 1 , 2, 3, 4, we count 4, 3, 2, 1. 
 
 Retrograde verjes are Such as give die Same words, whe- 
 ther read backwards or forwards ; called alSo reciprocal verfes, 
 and recurrent!. 
 
 Such is — Signa te ftgna tcmere me langis et angis. 
 
 RETROGRESSION, or Retrocession, the lame with 
 retrogradation. See RetR0GRADATI0Ni 
 
 RETROMINGENTS*, in natural hiftory, a claSs or 
 diviftons of animals, whofe character i ft ic is, that they ftale, or 
 piSs backwards ; both males and females. — Such are lions, 
 cats, csV. ' 
 
 * The word is compounded of the Latin, retro, backwards and 
 mivgo, I make water. 
 
 RETROPANNAGIUM*, Retropannage, in our 
 ancient law-books, afterpannage ; or what is left when the 
 bcafts have done, or eat the belt. See Pannage. 
 
 * Et debent habere retropannagium a flfio fanSi Martini ufyuod 
 fejlum pur. beatar Maria. Petit, in pari. temp. Eikv.lll. 
 
 RETROSPECT, alookor view backwards. Sec Re- 
 troactive. 
 
 RETURN, Returna or Retorna, in law, hath divers 
 acceptations. — A 
 
 Return of writs by Sheriffs and bailiffs is a certificate made 
 to the court by the fheriff", bailiff, &c. of what is done with 
 regard to the execution of the writ directed to them. 
 Such alfo is the return of a commijflon, whicli is a certificate, 
 or anfwer of what is done by the commiiiioners, to whom 
 Such commiifions, precepts, mandates, or the like, are di- 
 rected. 
 
 Return is alSo ufed in caSe of a replevin. If a man diftrain 
 cattle for rent, isc. and afterwards jultjfy orav^w hi:, act, 
 fo as it is found lawful, the catde before delivered un- 
 to him that was diftraincd, upon Security given to proSecute 
 the action, Shall now be returned to him diat diftraiiicd 
 them. 
 
 Returns, R e t u r w-day, or days in bank, are certain days in 
 each term, peculiarly Set a-part for the Several kinds of pro- 
 ceedings )n anycauSeto be determined. 
 
 Hillary term has four Such returns — viz. oclabis hillarii, eight 
 davs after hillary day ; qv.indcna hillarii, fifteen days ; era- 
 Jlina purifications, the day after the purification ; and oftabis 
 purificationis, eight days after, inclulive. 
 
 Ealter term has five returns, viz. quindena pafches, fifteen 
 days after eafter ; tres pafchec, three weeks after; ntenfe pnf- 
 cba, the day-month after eafter ; quinque pajcha:, the day 
 five weeks from eafter ; and crajlino djcenjiems domini, the 
 day after aSccnfion-day. 
 
 Trinity term has four returns ; viz. crajlino trinitatis, the 
 day after trinity ; oclabis trinitatis, eight days after, inclu- 
 five ; quindena trinitatis, fifteen days after ; and tres trini- 
 tatis, three weeks after. 
 
 Michaelmas term has fix returns ; viz. tres micha.-lis, three 
 weeks after michaelmas ; vienfe michadis, the day month alter 
 michaelmas ; crajlino animarum, the day after all-Souls ; cra- 
 jlino martini, the day after martiumas day, oclabis mar- 
 tini, eight days after, inclufive; and quindena martini, fifteen 
 days after. 
 
 Return, in building, denotes a fide, or part that Sails away 
 Srom the Sorefide of any ftraight work. 
 
 Returns of a trench, in fortification, are the turnings and 
 windings which form the lines of a trench. 
 
 RETURNO habends, or RetuRNUM averiorum, a writ 
 which lies for him who has avowed a diftreis made of cattle, 
 and proved his diftrefs to be lawfully taken ; for the return 
 of the cattle diftraincd unto him, which before were reple- 
 vied by the party diftraincd, upon furety given to purfue the 
 ' action. 
 
 The Same writ is granted when the plaint or action is removed 
 by recordare, or acccdas ad curiam, into the court of com- 
 mon-pleas ; and he whofe cattle were diftrained, makes de- 
 fault, and does not profecute his action. 
 RETURNUM ;Vr^/flii7f, a judicial writ, fent out of 
 the common-pleas to the fheriff, for the final restitution or 
 
 return 
 
REV 
 
 REV 
 
 return of cattle to the owner, unjuflly diftrained damage- 
 fefant, and fo found by the Jury before juftices of affize in 
 the county, or othcrwife through default or profecu- 
 tion. 
 
 RE VE, * Reeve, or Greve, in ancient cuftoms, the 
 bailiff of a franchife, or manor ; tlius called, efpecially in the 
 weftern part?. 
 
 * M. da Cange derives the word from theLatin, roga, of rogare, 
 toafk ;the word formerly iignifyinga tribute anciently granted 
 princes at their requeft, as a free -gift. 
 
 Hence, jhire-rcve, fherifF, port-grcve, church-reve, &c. Sec 
 Sheriff, Port-Greve, 13c. 
 
 Reve, Reva, is alfo ufed in antient cuftoms for a duty or 
 impofition on merchandizes imported. 
 
 REVEALED religion. See Religion and Revela- 
 tion. 
 
 Revealed theology. See the article Theology. 
 REVEILLE*, a beat of drum in the morning, intended to 
 
 give notice that it Is day-break ; and that the foldiers are to 
 
 rife, and the ceiitries forbear challenging. 
 
 * The word is French, formed of the verb re-veiller, to awake. 
 
 REVELATION*, Revel atio, the aft of revealing, 
 or making a tiling public which before was a fecret, or mi- 
 known. 
 
 * The word is farmed from the Latin, revelo, of re and r Jelum, 
 q. d. to unvaii. 
 
 The revelation of a confeffion made bv the confeflbr is ad- 
 judged, in the Romiih church, to deferve the moll exemplary 
 punifhment. 
 
 Revelation is ufed, by way of eminence, for the dis- 
 coveries made by God to his prophets, tfrV. and by them to the 
 world. 
 
 The Romanifts have two huge volumes of the revelations of 
 St Bridget. 
 
 Revelation is more particularly ufed for the difcovery 
 which God has made to the world, by the mouths of his 
 prophets, of certain points of faith and duty, which they 
 could not learn from natural reafon. 
 
 Religion is divided into natural religion and revelation, or 
 revealed religion. 
 
 The Chriftian revelation is that m;ide byChrift, and his apo- 
 ftles, in the new teftament — The Jewifh revelation is 
 that made by Mofes and the prophets, in the old tefta- 
 ment. 
 
 A late author obferves, fomewhat invidioufly, that it is the 
 common method of all new revelations-, to be built on pre- 
 cedent ones Thus, the miffion of Mofes to the Ifraclites, 
 
 fuppofes a former revelation to Abraham, iffc. The miffion 
 of Chriff. fuppofes that of Mofes ; and the pretended miffion 
 of Aiahomet fiippofes the miffion of Chrift. The miffion 
 of Zoroafter to the Perfians fuppofes the religion of the 
 Magi, life. 
 
 The. general foundation of all revelation is this, that God 
 is plcafed man Ihould know fomething relating to himfelf, 
 his own nature, difpenfation, &c. which the natural facul- 
 ties he was pleaied to create him withal could not attain to ; 
 and that he requires fome duty or fervice at our hands more 
 than what neccilarily Jollows from the relation we are unJer 
 to him as our creator, preferver, &c. 
 
 Particular or occafiunal revelations have their particular ge- 
 nius's, character iff ics and defigns — That made by Mofes and 
 the prophets chiefly related to the nation .of the Jews, con- 
 fidered as the defendants of Abraham ; its defigu feems to 
 have been to refcue that people from their llavery ; to fettle 
 them in a new plantation ; to give them a fet of laws ; to 
 new form their manners ; to fupport them under difficulties 
 and dangers of their enemies, from an opinion of their being 
 under the immediate direction and appointment of God ; to 
 keep them from intermixing attain with their neighbours, 
 from an opinion of their being a chofen people, and of a 
 Meffiah to be born among them ; and to lay a foundation for 
 a reftoration, in cafe of their being opprcfied, from the opi- 
 nion of a deliverer — To fome or other of thele ends do all the 
 old teftament prophefics feemto tend. 
 1 he Chriftian revelation is founded on a part of the Jewifh. 
 The Meffiah prom i fed in the one is revealed in the other. 
 All the reft of the Jewifh revelation, which related peculiarly 
 to the Jewifh people, is here ict afide, and only that part 
 of it which was to affect the world in general, We mean 
 that relating to the coming of the Melfiah, is here built 
 upon. 
 
 Indeed, it muft be owned the Jews ever looked on this to be as 
 peculiar to themfelves as any of thercft; the Meffiah was pro- 
 mifed to them ; he was to be their deliverer, their reftorer, 
 Uc. — But upon the taking place of this new revelation, a new 
 fceue was opened — This part of the old revelation, it was 
 fhewn, was all typical or allegorical, and the prophelies rela- 
 ting hereto, were not to be underftooJ in their primary or literal 
 fenfe. The Meffiah was not to be the reftorer of the Jewifh 
 Vol U. 
 
 fovereignty and liberties, which were now fallen into the 
 hands of the Romans, but he was to reftore and re-eftablifhthe 
 world, who had loft their original righteoufnefs, and wefe 
 becomes flaves of fin ; to preach repentance and remiffion ; 
 and at laft to fuffef death, that all who' believed in him 
 might not die, but have everlafting life. >, 
 
 Such is the tenor and defign of the Chriftian revelation^ 
 which, in the event, was fo far from being what it had been 
 apprehended to be by the people to whom it was hrlt pro- 
 mifed, that it proved the very reverfe, and inftead of re- 
 eftablifhing and confirming the other branches of their revela- 
 tion, itfuperfeded, and fet them all afide— The pale was now 
 broken down, and the being of the feed of Abraham ceafed 
 to be^ privilege, all the world being invited on the fame 
 terms with the Jews. 
 
 The confequence was, that the Jews denying this to be the 
 Meffiah that had been promifed to them, as not able to fee 
 the prophefies fulfilled in him, for want of the typical mean- 
 ings thereof, were generally excluded from the privileges of 
 that miffion which had been fuppofed wholly intended for 
 them; and had their ruin compleated from the very means 
 whence they expected their redemption. 
 REVELS*, entertainments of dancing, mafking, gaming, 
 acting comedies, farces, &c. antiently very frequent in inns 
 of courts, at certain feafons, and in rioble'meils houfes, tjfe. 
 but now much difufed. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French reweiller, to awake, as 
 alluding to the night feafon, when they were chiefly held. 
 
 The officer who has the direction, or ordering of the revels 
 at court, is called tixcmafler of the revels. 
 REVENUE *, the yearly rent or profits arifing to a man 
 from his lands, pofleffions, Uc. 
 
 * The word is French, formed from revenir, to return— Whence 
 revenue is fometimes alfo ufed in antient authors for a return ; 
 as the revenue of Eafter. 
 
 The revenue of this manor confifts in tithes, rents, C3*r. 
 The revenues of the Englifh clergy were nrft fixed by king 
 Ethelwolf, anno 855 ; who granted them for ever the tithe 
 of all goods, and the tenth part of all the lands of England, 
 free from all fecular fervice, taxes, impofitions, &c. 
 The certain revenues of the king of England were anti- 
 ently greater than thofe of any king in Europe ; and till the 
 time of the civil wars they enjoyed in domains and fee- 
 farm rents alrnoff. enough to difeharge all the ordinary 
 expences of the crown, without any tax or impofition on 
 the fubject. 
 
 Upon the reftauration, the crown revenues being found much 
 alienated, and the crown charges increafed, the parliament 
 fettled a yearly revenue of 1,200,000/. upon the king; fo 
 much as the former crown revenues fell fhort of that fum, 
 to be raifed on goods exported and imported; and upon li- 
 quors and fire-hearths. 
 
 At the death of king Charles II. the revenue amounted to 
 1,800,200 /. per ann. — In king James the fecond's time, it 
 was raifed to 2;ooc,ooo 1. which was computed to be one 
 tenth of the revenues of the whole kingdom. 
 At the fame time the revenues of the king of France were 
 computed at feven millions fterling; and thufe of the ftater 
 of Holland, at three millions— .fV more particulars of this 
 kind, fee Political arithmetic. 
 
 Auditors ef //^ Revenue. See Auditor. 
 
 Revenue, Revenu, in hunting; a flcftiy mafs or lump Form- 
 ed chiefly of a clufler of whitiih worms on the heads of deer, 
 and fuppofed to occafion them to caft their horns, by thofe 
 worms gnawing the roots thereof. 
 The revenue diftilled^ is faid to help women in travail. 
 
 Revenue is alfo ufed for a new tail of a partridge, growing 
 out after the Iofs of a former — The revenue is meafurcd by 
 fingers ; thus they fay a partridge of two, three, four fin- 
 gers revenue. 
 
 REVERBERATION*, Rever.beratio, in phyfics, 
 the act of a body repelling or reflecting another, after its im- 
 pinging thereon. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin,, re and vcrhero, q.d. I beat 
 again. 
 
 In the glafs-mens furnaces the flame reverberates or bends 
 back again to burn the matter on all fides. Ei-hoes are 
 occafioned by the reverberation of founds from arched ob- 
 ftacles. 
 
 Reverberation and refilltion refer to the fame action ; only the 
 one to the agent, the other to the patient — A polifhed body 
 reverberates the rays all around ; the refdition of the rays does 
 not arifefrom their ftriking againft the folic! parts of bodies. 
 See Reflection. 
 Reverberation, in chymiftry, denotes a kind of circula- 
 tion of the flame, by means of a reverberatory; or the return 
 of the flame from the top of the furnace back to the bottom, 
 chiefly ufed in calcination. 
 
 Reverberation is of two kinds — The firft with a clofe fire- y 
 10 Y that 
 
R E V 
 
 REV 
 
 Ki.it is, in a rcvtrfaratory furnace, where tlie flame has no 
 vent a-top ; being covered with a dome, or capital, which 
 repels its action back on the matter, or the vcflel that contains 
 it, with incrcafed vehemence. 
 
 After this manner are refining, the diftillation of aci$ fp^ntsj 
 
 £?f. performed. 
 
 Reverberation with an open fire is that performed in a fur- 
 nace or reverberafory, whole regifters arc all open ; ufed in cal- 
 cination, csV. 
 
 RE VERBER ATORY, or Reverberating furnace, 
 is a chymical furnace built clofe all around, and covered at the 
 top with a capital of brick or tiles, fo as not to give any vent 
 to the heat or flame, but to determine it to reverberate or turn 
 back from the brick work with new force, upon the mattters 
 placed at bottom. 
 
 When the fire has no vent or paflagc a-top, it is a whole re- 
 verberafory ; when the middle of the capital is open, and on- 
 ly the fides clofc, fo that there is only a half circulation of 
 the flame, it is called a half reverberatory. 
 The reverberating furnace is chiefly ufed in the fufion and 
 calcination of metals and minerals, and on other occafions, 
 where the moll interne heat is required, as in allaying, &c. 
 Whence it is alfo called the inciting furnace, and ajfaying fur- 
 
 REVEREND, Reverendus, a title of refpect given to 
 ecclefiaftics. 
 
 The religious abroad are called reverend fathers ; and abbefles, 
 prioreilcs, Isfc. are called reverend mothers. 
 With us, bifhops are right reverend ; and archbifhops mojl 
 reverend— In France, their bifhops, archbifhops, and abbots, 
 are all alike reverendijjiine's, mojl reverend. 
 REVERIE, a term purely French, frequently ufed of late in 
 Engtiih, to fignify a delirium, raving, or diffraction — It is an 
 ill ugn in fevers when the patient falls into a reverie. 
 Hence alfo Revery comes to be ufed for any ridiculous, 
 extravagant imagination, action, or propofition, a chimera 
 orvifion — Thus we fay, authors obtiude abundance of their 
 reveries upon us for folid truths. 
 
 But the moft ordinary ufe of the word revery among Englifh 
 writers is for a deep, diforderly mufmg or meditation, equi- 
 valent to what we popularly call a brown-Jludy — Thus, a little 
 diftraction I would allow ; but for that continued feries of 
 reveries fome people are guilty of, who are ever abfent from 
 the place where you fee them, and are never prefent any 
 where, it is inexcufeable. 
 
 REVERS, Battery de Revers. See the article Battery. 
 
 REVERSATA arma. Seethe article Arma. 
 
 REVERSE*, inlaw, ISc. — To reverfe, fignifics to undo, re- 
 peal, or make void. 
 * Theword is formed of the Latin, re, again, and verfui, turned. 
 
 Reverse, of a medal, coin, EsV. denotes the fecond, or 
 backfide ; in oppofition to the head or principal figure. 
 F. Chamillart, ajefuit, has an exprefs diilertation on this 
 point, whether or no the reverfes of medals have always a re- 
 gard to the emperors or empietfes whole heads are reprefenteu 
 on the front-fide of the medal ? he fays, that till of late the 
 antiquaries have made no doubt of it, but that there are now 
 feveral authors of another opinion. 
 
 Reverse, in fencing, a back-ftroke. 
 
 REVERSED, in heraldry, a thing turned backwards, or 
 upfide down. 
 
 Reversed tahn, in architecture. SccTalon. 
 
 REVERSING, or Renversing, in mufic, the inverting 
 the order of the parts ; that is, placing the higher part or 
 treble, in the room of the lower partorbafs. 
 Rcverfmg is frequently practifed in figurative counterpoint, 
 where the bafs fcrves as treble; and the treble, at the fame 
 time, as bafs; and al! this, in fuch manner, as that the har- 
 mony, though very different, is yet as correct as before the 
 reverfwg, when the parts were in their natural order. 
 To know how to difpofe the parts, fo as that the reverfmg 
 may not do any damage, is a fecret, whereon M. Proflard has 
 . promifed a treatife exprefs. 
 A reverfed fugue or counterfugue, called by the Italians, per 
 contrarii movement'!, is when the guida falls, and the other, in- 
 ftead of imitating by falling, imitates by rifing ; or it is a 
 figure perarfn and thefm. 
 
 REVERSION, Reversio, inlaw, is defined by Coke, 
 a returning of lands, csV. into the pofTeflion of the donor, or 
 his heirs, after the expiration of the term for which they were 
 given or granted to another, 
 
 The word has a double acceptation — The firft is, jus rever- 
 tendi cum flatus pojfejfionis defecerit, which is no more than an 
 intereft in the land, when the occupation or poilelhon of it 
 fhall fall. 
 
 The fecond is, when the pofleffion and eftate, which was 
 . parted with for a time, ceafeth, and is determined in the per- 
 fon of the alienees, alhgnees, grantees, or their heirs ; or 
 effectually returns to the donorj his heirs or afligns, whence 
 it was derived. 
 
 This is ..ic moft proper fignincation of the word, which is de - 
 rived from reverter : Et apte did non potcjl rcverfto anicquanx 
 revertaiur in faelo. Littlet. 
 
 The difference between a reverfion and a remainder confifts in 
 this, that a remainder is general, and may remain or belong 
 to any man but hirh that granteth or conveyeth the land, &c. 
 Whereas a reverfion is to himfelf, from whom the convey- 
 ance of the- land, fcfc proceeded, and is commonly perpetual 
 as to his heirs alfo — And yet fometimes reverfion is confounded 
 with remainder. 
 
 For the values of reverftons, or eftates in reverfon, the little 
 book of tables for renewing and purchafing college and church 
 leafes, printed at Cambridge in 1700, and recommended by 
 Sir Ifaac Newton, furnifhes us with a very uleful table, which 
 fliews what one pound due at the end of any number of years 
 to come, not exceeding 40, is worth in ready money, at 5, 
 6, 7, 8, and 10 per cent, per annum. 
 
 Suppofe it required what 1 /. due a year hence is worth in 
 ready money: to find this by the common operations, the me- 
 thod is this— Let 100/. with the intereft of a year added to 
 it, be the firft term in the rule of three ; 100 /. the fecond ; 
 and 1 /. the third; (for as 100/. with its intereft going on to 
 the end of the year, is to a bare 100 /. then due ; fo nuift 1 /. 
 with its growing intereft, be to the decreafe of I /. at the year's 
 end) then, at 6/. e. gr. and 10/. per cent, the work will 
 ftand thus : 
 
 As 106 . 100 : : 1 . . 0,94.33071, or 18 s. lOd. J. 
 110 . 100 : 1 1 . . 9,0909, or i8r. 2 d. 
 
 Whence it appears, that I /. due a year hence, at 6 /. per 
 cent, is worth 18 j. 10 d. i; and at 10 per cent. 18 j. 2 d. 
 fo that 18 j. 10 d. ^ ready money is worth 20 s. to he paid a 
 year hence at 6 per cent, and 1 8 j. 2d. ready money is worth 
 20 j. to be paid a year hence, at 10 per cent. 
 But this table fhortens the work— To find by it how to renew 
 a leafe of 21 years, that hath but one year lapfed, at the rate of 
 10 per cent, look into the fame, and undcrtherate of intereft 
 mentioned, and right againft 21 years, in the common angle 
 of meeting, you have 2 s. 8 d. f, which is the fine to be paid 
 to renew one year lapfed in the faid leafe, fuppofmg the rent 
 fo be I /. per annum : for it is 21 years before the leafe is com- 
 plcated, in which time, the fine of 2 j. 8 d. £ will amount to 
 20 s. and therefore, by paying that fine, the leafe may fairly 
 be made up again. 
 
 Suppofe again, an eftate in fee-fimple, whofe real value is 
 100 /. be mortgaged, or leafed out for 20 years ; what is the 
 reverfion of it now worth at 6 /. per cent, intereft ?— By the 
 table vou find, that I /. to be paid 20 years hence, is worth 
 but 6 s. 2 d. and multiplying that with 100, you will find 
 100 times 6 j. is 30/. 00 j. 00 d. 100 times 2 d. or 200^. 
 make 00/. ltd. 8 d. and 100 times L or 300 k make 00 L 
 6 s. 3 d. the fum is 3 1 /. 2 s. lid. which is the prefent value 
 of ioo /. to be paid 20 years hence. 
 
REV 
 
 RHA 
 
 A Table ot reverfions-, {hewing what i /, due any number of 
 years hence, under 41, is worth in ready money, at 5, 6, 
 7, 8, and 10 per cent. 
 
 ^ 1 5 per Cent, j 6 per Cent. | 7 per Cent. J 8 per Cent.' 10 pcrCent. 
 
 s. d. q. 1 s. d. q. | s. d. q. j s. d. q. j s. d. q. 
 
 19 0 2 
 l8 I 2 
 
 17 3 % 
 16 5 1 
 15 8 0 
 
 18 10 1 
 17 9 1 
 16 9 2 
 15 10 □ 
 14 11 1 
 
 18 8 0 
 17 5 2 
 16 3 3 
 IS 3 0 
 H 3 1 
 
 18 6 0 
 
 '7 1 3 
 15 10 1 
 14 8 1 
 '3 7 i 
 
 18 2 0 
 16 6 1 
 
 15 0 3 
 13 8 0 
 12 5 0 
 
 14 11 0 
 14 2 2 
 
 11 6 1 
 
 12 10 z 
 
 12 3 I 
 
 14 1 0 
 
 13 3 2 
 12 6 2 
 11 10 0 
 11 20 
 
 13 4 0 
 12 51 
 11 72 
 10 10 2 
 10 20 
 
 12 7 0 
 11 8 0 
 10 9 2 
 10 0 0 
 9 3° 
 
 11 3 2 
 10 3 0 
 940 
 
 8 5 3 
 7 8 2 
 
 11 S 0 
 11 12 
 10 7 1 
 10 1 0 
 972 
 
 10 6 1 
 9 11 1 
 942 
 8 10 0 
 8 4 0 
 
 9 60 
 8 10 2 
 832 
 
 . % . 9 0. 
 7 3 0 
 
 8 6 3 
 
 7 n 1 
 
 740 
 692 
 632 
 
 700 
 642 
 592 
 
 5 3 0 
 4 9 1 
 
 920 
 8 1 2 
 840 
 7 1 1 0 
 7 6 i 
 
 7 10 2 
 
 ? S Q 
 7 00 
 
 • 6 7 p„ 
 623 
 
 . 9 
 
 6 40 
 S 11 0 
 5 6 1 
 5 20 
 
 5 10 0 
 
 5 4 3 
 
 5 0 .0" 
 
 * 7 * 
 4 1 2 
 
 4 4 1 
 3 11 r 
 
 3 7 0 
 3 3 0 
 2 1 1 2 
 
 7 20 
 6 10 0 
 660 
 6 2 1 
 5 10 3 
 
 5 10 2 
 5 62 
 
 S3o 
 4 11 1 
 
 480 
 
 4 10 0 
 460 
 422 
 3 11 1 
 3 § 1 
 
 3 I' 3 
 3 8 0 
 3 4 3 
 3 1 3 
 2 11 0 
 
 282 
 252 
 223 
 201 
 1 10 0 
 
 < 7 1 
 
 5 4 1 
 5 1 0 
 4 10 1 
 472 
 
 4 4 3 
 
 4 1 3 
 3 10 3 
 
 3 8 1 
 3 6 1 
 
 3 5 r 
 322 
 300 
 2 92 
 272 
 
 281 
 2 60 
 233 
 2 I 3 
 1 11 3 
 
 1 80 
 1 6 1 
 1 4 2 
 1 3 0 
 1 1 3 
 
 4 5 1 
 4 2 1 
 
 400 
 
 3 9 2 
 3/2 
 
 3 3 1 
 
 3 oa 
 a 10 1 
 
 i $ 3 
 
 i 62. 
 
 ,,2 1 
 232 
 212 
 2 00 
 I 10- 2 
 
 1 10 0 
 1 8 1 
 1 63 
 
 1 S 1 
 
 1 40 
 
 1 10 
 
 Oil 1 
 
 0 10 1 
 091 
 082 
 
 3 5 1 
 3 3 1 
 
 3 1 2 
 2 11 3 
 2 10 0 
 
 2 5 1 
 232 
 2 20 
 2 00 
 j 11 0 
 
 - 190 
 1 7 2 
 1 62 
 1 5 0 
 1 40 
 
 1 3 0 
 120 
 1 1. 0 
 I 0 0 
 0 11 0 
 
 0 7 3 
 070 
 061 
 
 0 5 3 
 0 5 1 
 
 Reversion of fines, in algebra, is a method of finding a na- 
 - rural number from its logarithm given ; or the line from its 
 
 arch ; or the ordinate of an ellipfis from an area given to be 
 
 cut off from any point in the axis . 
 Re vert, in law — A thing is faid to revert, when it returns or 
 
 falls back to its firfl owner. 
 
 All honours and royal fees, alienated, revert to the crown, 
 or are revertiile— Apanages, or portions of younger fons of 
 kings, are granted on condition of rever/Sm. 
 
 REVESTIARV, orREVESTRY. 
 
 REVIEW, in war, the (hew or appearance of a body of 
 troops ranged in form of battle, and afterwards made to file 
 off, to fee rt the companies be compleat as to number and 
 good condition ; or to receive their pay, or the like. 
 ■ The general always reviews his troops before they tro into 
 winter-quarters, &e. 
 
 Review, in chancery A bill of Review is, where the 
 
 cauie has been heard, and a decree therein figned and enrol- 
 led ; but Tome error in law appears in the body of the de- 
 cree, or feme new matter is difcovercd in time after the de- 
 cree made — A bill of review is not exhibited but by leave of 
 the court. 
 
 REVISE, among printers, a fecond proof of a flieet to be print- 
 ed, taken oft' after correcting the firir. 
 
 REVIVER. See the article Revivor. 
 
 •REVIVIFICATION, or Resuscitation, in chymiftry, 
 the art of reftoring a mixed body to its firft ftate, after'it 
 had been altered and difguifed by diflbluuon, calcination, or 
 the hke. - 
 Thus, cinnabar and other preparations of mercury are revi- 
 ved, or revivified into fluid mercury Olaus Borrichiur, 
 
 allures us, that, having tormented mercury with feveral fires 
 for the fpace of a whole year, having reduced it into water, 
 into turbith, into aihes, (jfc it revivified, and re f umed its firft 
 
 form in the middle of the flames, by the attra&ion of fait cf 
 tartar. 
 
 Gold, and other metals, it is faid; may be recovered or revi- 
 vified into running mercury, by the ufe of certain felts* 
 which penetrating the fubft'ance of the metals* abforb the 
 fixing fulphur or cement, by which the mercury was before 
 bound into a malleable mate. 
 
 Revivified antimony. See the article Antimony; 
 
 REVIVING, in law, a renewing of rents and actons after 
 they had been extinguished. 
 
 REVIVOR, or Reviver* in law A hill of Revivor, is 
 
 where a bill has been exhibited in chancery agamft one who" 
 anfwers j but, before the caufe is heard, or atleafl before the 
 decree is enrolled, one of the parties dies. 
 In this cafe, a bill of revivor mull be brought, praying the 
 former proceedings may fland revived^ and be put in the fame 
 condition as at the time of the abatement. 
 
 REVOCATION, Revocatio, in law, the t&'ofrt- 
 voknig, calling back, or annulling; a poweij grant* £sY. made 
 before; 
 
 The revocatiSn of an offer* after it ts accepted of* is invalid 
 
 All preceding wills or teitaments are revoked by the lail 
 
 — A prior clauftnil is revokable at pleafure The revoca- 
 tion of the edict of Nants was fatal to the French prote- 
 flants. 
 
 REVOLUTION *i in politics* denotes a grand turn or 
 change of government. 
 * The word 
 wards. 
 
 s formed from the Latin, re-voho; to roll back- 
 
 There are ho (rates in the world but have undergone frequent 
 revoluiisns — The abbot de Vertot has furniflied us with two or 
 three good hiftorics of the revolutions of Sweden, the revolu- 
 tions ot Rome, £_jV. 
 The Revolution, ufed with lis by way of eminence, denotes 
 the great turn of affairs in England in 16S8 ; when king 
 James II. abdicating, the prince and pnncefs of Orange were 
 declared king and queen of England, &a 
 Revolution* in geometry. The motion of any figure quite 
 round a fixed line, as ah axis* is called the revolution of that 
 figure j and the figure fo moving, is faid to revblve. 
 Thus, aright-angled triangle revolving round one of its legSj 
 as an axis, generates, by that revolution^ a cone." 
 Revolution, in aftronomy, denotes the period of a ftar, pla- 
 net, comet, or other phenomenon ; or its courfe from any 
 point of its orbit,- till it return to the fame. 
 The planets have a twofold rroalation — the one about their 
 own -axis, ufually called their diurnal rotationf which coniK- 
 tutes what we call their day. 
 
 The other about the fun, called their annual rrjolution or 
 period) conflituting their year. 
 
 Saturn* according to Kepler, makes his annual revolution iri 
 the fpace of 29 years* 174 days, 4 hours, 58' 25" 30'"; 
 Jupiter in 11 years, 317 days, 14 hours, 49' 31" 56'"; 
 Mars in 1 year,- 321 days, 23 hours, 31' 56" 49'" ; Venus 
 in 224 days* 17 hours, 44' 55" 14^* and Mercury in 87 
 days, 23 hours, 14' 2 4". 
 REVULSION, Reyulsio, in medicine the turning a flux 
 ofhumours from one part of the body to another either neigh- 
 bouring or oppofite part. 
 
 In very dangerous Wounds, where the lofs of blood is great,, 
 and the flopping it fpeedily enough is impracticable, it is ufual 
 to open a vein in fome remote part, to caufe a revulfion ; that 
 is, to turn the courfe of the blood from the former part to that 
 where the aperture is made. 
 Revulfions are alio caufed by cupping, friction, 
 Revulsion is alfo ufed for a fpontaneous turn or reflux 
 ot humours in the body,— Sudden difeafes are occafioned by 
 great revulfions of humours, which fall all at once on certain 
 parts. 
 
 RHABDOIDES *, - v*!-StuS rs , in anatomy, a name oiven the 
 fecond true future of the fkull, called alfo the jagittal future. 
 See Suture. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, rod, or ftaff f 
 audi//©-, form. 
 
 RHABDOLOGY, or Rabdology, in arithmetic, a name 
 fometimes given to the method of performing the two moft 
 difficult and operofe rules, viz. multiplication and diviiion, 
 by the two cafieft, viz. addition and fubtraclion, by means 
 of two little rods or laminae* whereon are inferibed the 
 fimple numbers, and which are to be fliifted according to cer- 
 tain rules. 
 
 Thefe rods are what we popularly call Nepair's hones, from 
 their inventor, a Scotiih baron, who likewife invented loga- 
 rithms. — For their delcription and ufe, fee TSSEPAiR's-hones. 
 RHABDOMANCY*, an antient method of divination, per* 
 formed by means of rods or Haves. 
 
 * Whence its name, from the Greek, fx/SiQ', rod, and taar*u, 
 divination. 
 
 St, 
 
RHA 
 
 St Terom makes mention of this kind of divination, in his 
 commentary on Hofeah, chap, to* 12, where the prophet fays 
 in the name of God, my people ajk council at their jheks ; am. 
 1 their Jlaffdeclarcth unto them ! which pafiage that father un- 
 derftands of the Grecian rhabdmancy. 
 
 The fame he finds over agSUi in E/ckiel xxi. 21, 22, where 
 the prophet fays, for the king of Babylon food at the parting 
 of the way-, at the head of the two ways, to ufe divina- 
 tion ; he made his arrows bright : or as St Jcrom renders it, he 
 mixed bis airows, be conjultcd with images, he looked in the 
 
 If Tt'be the farhe kind of divination tlr.it is mentioned in the 
 two paffages, rhabdomaney mull have been alfo the Tame fu- 
 perftition with bekmancy. 
 
 In effect the two tttk ordinarily confounded— The feventy 
 themfelvea tranflate the Cfcfri of Etektel by f v*®*» a rod * 
 though in ftridinefs it iignifies an arrow. 
 
 This, however, is certain, the inftrumehts of divination men- 
 tioned by Hofeah, ar e different from thofc of Ezekiel, In 
 the former, it is, «fy etfo, V*X5fc**A, his wood, his toft: in 
 the latter, Cfjl hhitfim, arrows. Though it is poffible they 
 might ufe rods or arrows indifferently ; or the military men 
 might ufe arrows, and the reft rods. ■ ■ 
 
 It appears by the laws of the Frifbties, that the antient inha- 
 bitants of Germany pra&ifed rhabdomaney — The Scythians 
 were likewiie acquainted with the ufe hereof : and Herodotus 
 obferves, lib. to. That the women among the Alani fought 
 and gathered together fine ftraight rods or wands, and ufed 
 them in the like fuperftition, 
 
 R rachitis, 'p 3 ^T(t, in medicine. See Rickets. 
 
 RHAGADKS, SumMI, in medicine, a Greek term ufed for 
 the chaps or clefts in the lips, hands, anus and other foft parts 
 of the body. 
 
 Rhagades are a fort of nfiiires, and little chapped ulcers of the 
 oedematcus kind ; formed of a fhavp faline humour, and oc- 
 cafioning a great contraction and Itrcightening of the part, 
 which is by this means ihrivelled up like a wet parchment 
 when held to the fire. 
 
 They arc chiefly found on the fundament, the neck of the 
 womb, the prxputium, lips 6fc fometimes even in the 
 mouth | in which cafe the patient is not able to fpeak, chew, 
 or the like. 
 
 They are fometimes moift, and of a cancerous nature, eating 
 deep, and difficult of cure: but they are more commonly of 
 a lefs malignant tendency, being often in the anus the COnfe- 
 quences of a diarrhoea, dyfentcry, or the like. 
 RBAGOIDES*, -p^^c, in :matomy, the fecond coat, or 
 tunic of the eye ; more ufually called uvea. 
 
 * It has its name rbagotdet, as refembling a grape-flonc. 
 In the tunica rhagoides is the hole called the pupil. See Pupil. 
 
 RHAPONTICLlM* amedicinal root, inform refembling 
 rhubarb ; and nearly of the fame virtues, whence it is fome- 
 times called Turkiih rhubarb. 
 
 * It was called rhapoaiicum, q. d. root of Pontus ; becaufe chiefly 
 produced in the country of Poncus in Afia. 
 
 It is frequently mixed with rhubarb by thofe who fend that 
 drug into Europe: they are dininguifhed by this, that the 
 rhubarb is ufually in roundifh pieces, the internal ftreaks or 
 lines whereof mn tranverfe, and rhapontiewn in longifh 
 pieces, having its ftreaks running lengthwife — Befides, that 
 rhapnnticum chewed in the mouth, leaves avifcidity behind it 
 which rhubarb does not. 
 
 The fcarcity of the rhaponticnm of the Levant occafions the 
 mountain rhaponticu/n, or monk's rhubarb, to be frequently 
 fuhititutcd for it, which is a wild fort of lapathum, by botaniffs 
 called alp'mun — They are diftinguiflicd by this, that the for- 
 ■ mrr is yellow without, and reddifh within ; but the latter 
 blackifh without and yellow within. 
 
 Quincy, however, confounds the two, when he favs, the 
 rhaponticnm grows plentifully in England ; and that 
 only ufed as an alterative, and does not come up to a ca- 
 thartic. _ *'** sV ' r \i i3 
 . It is certain, what now obtains in the (hops, under the name 
 of rhaponticnm, is no other than the mountain rbaponiic, 
 monk's rhubarb ; and is much inferior in virtue to the rha- 
 penticum verum. 
 
 R HAPS GDI, *p*4»/'«i, Rhapsodists, in antiquity, 
 perfons who made a bufmefs of lmging pieces of Homer's 
 poems. 
 
 Cuper informs us, that the rhapfodi were clothed in red 
 when they lung the Iliad ; and in blue when they fung the 
 Odyffee. . ' ~f / - f "< '■ ' f % 
 
 They performed on the theatres ; and fometimes ftrove for 
 prizes, in contefts of poetry, finging, £?r. 
 After the two antagonifts had finifhed their parts, the two 
 pieces, or paners they were wrote in, were joined together 
 again; whence the name, viz. from partn** juo y Ijointo- 
 .■ gether; and ode, fong. " 
 
 nut there feem to have been other rhapfodi of more antiquity 
 
 R H E 
 
 - 
 
 than thefe; people who compofed heroic poems, or fongs in 
 praife of heroes and great men, and fung their own compofi- 
 tions from town to town for a livelihood: of which profeffion 
 was Homer himfelf. 
 
 Hence, fome critics inftead of the former origin, fetch the 
 word rhapfodifi from ; a CJ« «<fi«, to fsng with a lawrel rod in. 
 the band, which it feems was the badge of the primitive 
 
 rhapfodi. 
 
 Philochorus, again, derives the word from a/Vt, 
 q. d. utey-rifeMfj to compofe fongs or poems, as if they were 
 the authors of the poems they fung. This opinion, to 
 which Scaliger inclines, reduces thefe rhapfodi to the fecond 
 kind. 
 
 In effect, it is probable that they were all of the fame clafs, 
 whatever diftinction fome authors may imagine among them; 
 and that their bufinefs was to fing or rehearfe poems, either of 
 their own, or other people's compofition, as might beft ferve 
 their purpofe, which was the getting of a penny — So that we 
 do not apprehend it any injury to them, to fet them on the 
 foot of our ballad-fingers: many of whom, no doubt, pen 
 their own ditties. After Homer's time, it is no wonder they 
 confined themfelves altogether to his pieces, for which the 
 people 1 had the utmoft veneration ; nor is it furprifing that they 
 ihould erect ftages, cSV. and dilpute the point of recitation in 
 fairs and markets, 
 RHAPSODOMANCY, &*+»Hpm** t an antient kind of 
 divination performed by pitching on a pafiage of a poet at 
 hazard, and reckoning on it as a prediction of what was ta 
 come to pafs. 
 
 There were various methods of practifing this rhapfodomancy — 
 Sometimes they wrote feveral verfes or lentences of a poet, on 
 fo many pieces of wood, paper, or the like: fhook them to- 
 gether in an urn, and drew out one, which was accounted 
 the lot. 
 
 Sometimes they cafr. dice on a table, whereon verfes were 
 wrote ; and that whereon the die lodged, contained the pre- 
 diction. 
 
 A third manner was by opening a book, and pitching on 
 fome verfe, at firft fight. This method they particularly called 
 the fortes presneji'tnts , and afterwards, according to the poet 
 thus made ufe of, fortes homerictc, fortes virgiliana, &C*. 
 RHAPSODY, "p«4«/i«, in antiquity, a difcourfe in verfe, 
 fung or rehearfed by a rhapfodift. 
 
 Others will have rhapfody properly to fignify a collection of 
 verfes, efpecially thofe of Homer ; which having been a long 
 time difperfed in pieces and fragments, were at length by Pi- 
 fiftratus's order, digefted into books, called rbapfodies : from 
 the Greek jimn, feio, I few ; and fong. 
 Hence among the moderns, rhapfody is alfo ufed for an aflem- 
 blage of pafiages, thoughts, and authorities, raked together 
 from divers authors, to compofe fome new piece. — Lipfius's 
 politics makes fueh a rhapfody, wherein there is nothing of the 
 author's own, but conjunctions, and particles. 
 RHETORIANS, Rhetorii, a feet of heretics in Egypt, 
 fo denominated from their leader Rhetorius. 
 The diliinguifliing doctrine of this herefiarch, as rcprefentcd 
 by Philanrius, was, that he approved of all the herefies before 
 him : and taught that they were all in the right. — But what 
 Philaftrius mentions of him appears fo abfurd and ridiculous, 
 that St Augultin, Hesref. 7. could not perfuade himfelf it was 
 true. 
 
 RHETORIC*, Rhetorica, the art of fpeaking copi- 
 oufiy on any fubject, with all the advantages of beauty and 
 force. 
 
 * The word is Greek, formed from 'Pht^wh, of ?u, dico, I 
 fpeak ; whence ftnn/, fpeaker, orator, &c\ 
 
 Lord Bacon defines rhetoric, very philofophically, to be the 
 art of applying and addreffing the dictates of reafon to the 
 fancy, and of recommending them there, fo as to affect the 
 will and defires. — The end of rhetoric, the fame author ob- 
 ferves, is to fill the imagination with ideas and images, which 
 may affift nature, without opprefling it. 
 
 Voffius defines rhetoric the faculty of difcovering what every 
 fubject affords of ufe for perfuafion. — Hence, as every author 
 mult invent arguments to make his fubject prevail; difpofe- 
 thofe arguments thus found out in their proper places ; and 
 give them the embcllilhmcnts of language proper to the fub- 
 ject; and if this difcourfe be to be delivered in public, utter 
 them with that decency and force which may ftrike the reader : 
 rhetoric becomes divided into four parts, invention, difpofitionj 
 elocution, and pronunciation ; each whereof fee under its proper 
 head. . ! 
 
 Rhetoric and oratory differ from each other as the theory from 
 the practice ; the rhetorician being he who defcribes the rules 
 of eloquence; and the orator he who ufes them to advantage 
 and fpeaks elegantly, b?c. — Ordinarily, however, the two are 
 ufed indifferently for each other. 
 Characters in Rhetoric. Seethe article Character. 
 Rhetorical Numbers. See the article Number. 
 
 RHEUM, 
 
R H E 
 
 R H U 
 
 RHEUM *, Rheuma, 'vwpa, a thin ferous humour, "occa- 
 fionally oozing out of the glands about the mouth and throat. 
 See Humour. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, h ,J " fi'io, I flow. 
 
 A fluxion of rheum, ufually happening after taking cold, occa- 
 fions excoriations and inflammations of the fauces, &c. 
 Rheum is alfo ufed for a catarrh, or a defluxion of fuch hu- 
 mours on the trachea, and the neighbouring parts, occafion- 
 ing a coughing, fpitting, hoarfenefs, running at the nofe, ts\: 
 The rheum is not caufed from a pituita falling from the brain 
 on thefe parts, as the anticnts imagined, there being no paf- 
 fagc from the brain thither; but from a thin, fharp, ferous 
 humour oozing out of the extremities of the glands about the 
 fauces and throat. 
 
 The moft ordinary occafion of rheums is external cold, efpe- 
 cially the -being cxpofed to it when the body is much heated. 
 • — And hence the diforder itfelf is popularly called a cold. 
 Rheums falling on the brcaft, lungs, tfc. are dangerous; others, 
 not very violent, ferve to clear the head, &c. The ufual re- 
 medies lor them are afrringents, agglutinants, and abforbents. 
 See Supplement article Catarrh. 
 RHEUiVI AT'ISM, 'v^yan<ry@-, in medicine, a painful dif- 
 order felt in various parts of the body, accompanied with 
 heavinefs, difficulty of motion, and frequently with a wander- 
 ing fever. 
 
 A rheumatifm is a pain ufually wandering, but fomctimes fixed 
 in the mufcular and membranous parts of the body, happening 
 chiefly in autumn. 
 
 The proper feat of the rheumatifm is fuppofed to be in the 
 
 membrana communis of the muicies, which it renders rigid, 
 
 and unfit for motion, without great pain. 
 
 The rheumatifm is either univerfal or particular. 
 ?/»iW/tf/RH£UMAT]jM is that which attacks all the parts of 
 
 the bodv, even the internal ones. 
 Particular Rheumatjsm is that which is confined to particular 
 
 parts* 
 
 In which cafe, the pains arc ufually erratic, pafling from one 
 fide to another ; but fometimes fixed. This is alfo called ibme- 
 times a windy, and fometimes a fcarbutk rheumatifm. 
 The rheumatifm bears a great analogy to the gout; whence 
 fomecall it the univerfal gaut. — The difference between them 
 confifts chiefly in this, that the rheumatifm attacks not only 
 the joints, as the gout does, but alfo the mufcles and mem- 
 branes between the joints. 
 
 A fit of the rheumatifm is frequently preceded by a fever of 
 two or three days, and fometimes byafhivering. — The at- 
 tack happens in various parts of the body, as the hands, arms, 
 thighs, legs, feet, &c. a rednefs, fwelling, and lanienefs often 
 lucceeding. 
 
 The pain fomctimes fixing on the loins, and reaching as far 
 as the os facrum, this diforder is called lumbago, and bears a 
 near refemblance to ti e nephritis, being only diftinguifhable 
 therefrom by this, that the latter is attended with a vomiting, 
 which the former is not. 
 
 The rheumatifm is fuppofed to arife from a fharp, ferous hu- 
 mour thrown on the fenfible parts, and occafioning a pain by 
 its vellication — Quincy fays, it proceeds from the fame caui'e 
 as that whereby the mucilaginous glands become ftiff and 
 gritty in the gout. 
 
 Mufgrave takes it to be occafioncd by a fharp alcaline fait, 
 rather than an acid one ; from this confideration, that the urine 
 of rheumatic people does not afford above the thirtieth part of 
 the alcaline fait found in that of healthful perfons. 
 Hence, he conjectures, that the fait, which fhould go off this 
 way, is retained in the blood, implicated and cmbarraffed in 
 the pituita ; by which means it forms a vifcidity, which occu- 
 fions all the pains and tumors of the rbeumatifm. 
 The expofing of the body too fuddenly to the cold air, after 
 having heated it to a great degree, is the moft ufual remote 
 caufcof rheumat 'tfms. — The cure is by evacuation; chiefly, ac- 
 cording to Sydenham, by repeated phlebotomy, with a plen- 
 tiful ufe of volatiles and diluters. — Schmitzius recommends 
 fudorifics ; and Mufgrave, cathartics and emetics. 
 The rheianatipn ufually proves a tedious, lalfing difeafe, hold- 
 ing for feveral months, fometimes years ; not continually, but 
 by paioxyfms. In aged perfons, and thofe of weak conftitu- 
 tions, and decayed vifcera, it fometimes feizes the head. See 
 Supplement article Rheumatism. 
 RHEXIS *, or Rhegma, among occulifts, denotes a rupture 
 of the cornea of the eye. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, e^i; t rapture, f'y^yi, 
 frarrgo, I break. 
 
 RHIME, or Rime, in poetry. See Rhyme. 
 RHINE-Grave, in Germany, a count palatine of the Rhine. 
 
 See Grave and Palatine. 
 RHINE-Land-^^, in fortification, &c. a meafure of two 
 
 fathom, or 12 feet, ufed by the Dutch and German engineers, 
 
 Wet 
 
 RHODIUM lignum, rhodian-wood, See Aspalathum. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 RHODON, in pharmacy, from h* n , rofa 1 a name applied 
 to fome compofitions, wherein rofes are the chief ingredient, 
 as diarrhodon, &c. — Hence alfo RhddosacCHARUM, i. e. 
 fugar of rofes, &c. See Rose. 
 
 RHOMBOIDES, in geometry, a quadrilateral figure,, 
 whofe fides and angles are unequal ; but the oppofite ones 
 equal. 
 
 Or, rhomhoides is a quadrilateral figure, whofe oppofite fides 
 and angles are equal j but which is neither equilateral nor 
 equiangular. 
 
 Such is the figure N O P Tab. Geometry, fig. 24. 
 
 For the method of finding the area of a rhombsidesj fee 
 
 Rhombus. 
 
 Rhomboides, in anatomy, a mufcle thus called from its figure. 
 — See Tab. Anat. (Myol.) fig. 6. n. 29. 
 It lies under the cucullaris, and arifes from the two inferior 
 fpines of the neck, and four fuperior of the back ; and is in- 
 ferred flefhy into the whole bafis of the fcapula, which it draws 
 backwards, and a little upwards. 
 
 RHOMBUS*, 'Fo i M/S©', in geometry, an obliqueangular pa- 
 rallelogram ; or a quadrilateral figure, whofe fides are equal 
 and parallel ; but the angles unequal : two of the oppofite ones 
 being obtuie, and the other two acute. — Such is the figure 
 ABCD, Tab. Geometry, fig. 83. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Greek, , of ftfijUk, to in- 
 compafs or turn round. 
 
 TO find the area of a rhombus, or rhomboides; — Upon C D, 
 which is here affumed as a bale, let fall a perpendicular Ae; 
 which will be the altitude of the parallelogram : multiply 
 
 the bafe by the altitude, the producl: is the area Thus, if 
 
 CD be =456, and Ae~234* the area will be found 
 102704. 
 
 For it is demonstrated, that an obliqueangular parallelogram 
 is equal to a rectangle upon the fame bafe C D, fig. 25. and 
 of the fame altitude AE. (See Parallelogram.) But the 
 area of a rectangle is equal to the factum of the bafe into the 
 altitude : therefore the area of an obliqueangular triangle is 
 equal to the fame. See Rectangle. 
 
 Rhombus* among furgeons, denotes a fort of bandage of a 
 rhomboidal figure. See Bandage. 
 
 RHOPALIC verfes, among the antients, a kind of verfes 
 which began with monofyllable^, and were continued in words- 
 growing gradually longer and longer to the lait, which was 
 the longett of all. 
 
 They had their name from the Greek a club, which, 
 
 like them, begins with a (lender tip, and grows bigger and big- 
 ger to the head. — Such is that verfe of Homer n krmti 
 
 And this Latin one of Aufonius : Spes deus at ernes jlatioms 
 conciliator. 
 
 RHOPOGRAPHI *3 'Pwyfatet, irt antiquity, an appellation 
 given to certain painters, who confined themfelves to low fub- 
 jeets ; fuch as animals, plants, landfchapes, dsV. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Greek, p^Qr, toys, dr odd ware, 
 and if*p», I write, I paint. 
 
 The fame appellation has been alfo given to fuch as cut figures 
 of men, £_<<:. in box, phyleria, yew* tjfe. in gardens. 
 RHUBARB, Rhabarbarum, a medicinal root, large, 
 compact, and heavy ; yellow without ; of a nutmeg colour 
 within ; of an aflringent, bitterifh taffe j and an agreeable, 
 aromatic fmell : of great ufe in medicine as a purgative. 
 Confidering the mighty ufe of this drug, it is furprifmg we 
 Ihould know fo little of the place where the plant grows~that 
 produces it — Some fay it comes from the kingdom of Boutan, 
 in the extremities of India; others^ that it is found in the 
 province of Xenfi and Suchen in China. Others will have 
 it only grow in Pcrfia j and others on the confines of Muf- 
 covy ; deriving its name from rha, the river among us called 
 JVolga, and barbarum^ q. d. root found by the barbarians on 
 the river rha. 
 
 Rhubarb, in Latin, rhabarbarum o/ficinarum, was not known 
 to the antients ; and their rhaponticum, which indeed re- 
 fembles it, is not the ufual rhubarb. 
 
 Good rhubarb freeped in water, gives it a faffron colour; and 
 when broke, looks bright, with fomewhat of a vermillion 
 caff. — Some dfuggifts have the art of renewing; their old roots 
 of rhubarb, by dying them of a yellow hue; but the cheat ia 
 eafily known by handling them, the powder wherewith they 
 colour them flicking to the fingers. 
 
 RJjubarb is efteemed an excellent cathartic; and is proper 
 in diarrhoeas, to fortify the flomach, and to create an appe- 
 tite. 
 
 M. Boulduc informs us, in the memoirs of the royal aca- 
 demy, that he drew extracts from the rhubarb both with water 
 and fpirit of wine ; but the purgative virtue, he fays, was 
 muchmorevifible in the formerthan in the latter; which fhews, 
 that it confifts more in a fait than an oil — He obferves, how- 
 ever, that rhubarb taken in fubftance has a ftill better effeft ; 
 and adds, that, of all the operations he performed on it, 
 10 % non« 
 
RHU 
 
 R H U 
 
 none gave any credit to the common opinion, which afcribes 
 aii ahVingent quality to rhubarb. 
 
 Monks Rhubarb. See the article Rhaponticum. 
 
 JVhiu Rhubarb. Seethe articie Mechoacan. 
 
 RHUMB, RuMBj or Rum, in navigation, a vertical circle, 
 of any given place ; or the interfection of a part of fuch a cir- 
 cle with the horizon. 
 
 Rhumbs therefore coincide with points of the world, or of the 
 horizon. 
 
 And hence the mariners diftinguifh the rhumbs by the fame 
 names as the points, and winds; 
 
 They ufuaDy reckon 32 rhumbs ; which are reprefented by the 
 32 lines in the rofe, or card of the compals. 
 Aubin defines a rhumb to be a line on the terreftrial globe, 
 fea-compafs, or lea-chart, reprcfenting one of the 32 winds 
 which feive to conduct a velfel — So that the rhumb a vefle] 
 purfucs is conceived as its rout, or courfe. 
 Rhumbs arc divided, and fubdivided like points— Thus,- the 
 whole rhumb anfwers to the cardinal point — The half rhumb, 
 to a collateral point, or makes an angle of 45 degrees with 
 the former—The quarter rhumb makes an angle of 22° 30' 
 therewith — And the half-quarter rhumb makes an angle ot 
 II 0 15'. 
 
 A table of the rhumbs, or points, and their diltances from the 
 meridian. See under the article Wind. 
 Rhumb-Line, hxodromia, in navigation, is the line which a 
 fhip, keeping in the fame collateral point or rhumb, delcribes, 
 throughout its whole courfe. 
 
 The great property of the rhumb-line, or loxodromia, and 
 that from which fomc authors define it, is, that it cuts all the 
 meridians under the lame angle. 
 
 This angle is called the angle of the rhumb, or the loxodrom'tc 
 angle. 
 
 The angle which the rhumb-line makes with any parallel to 
 the equator is called the complement of the rhumb. See Com- 
 plement. 
 
 An idea of the origin and properties of the rhumb-line, the 
 great foundation of navigation, may be conceived thus — A 
 vefiel beginning its courfe, the wind wherewith it is driven 
 makes a certain angle with the meridian of the place ; and as 
 it is fuppoled the veilel runs exactly in the direction of the 
 wind, it makes the fame angle with the meridian which the 
 wind makes. 
 
 Suppoiing, then, the wind to continue the fame; as each 
 point or inftant of the progirefs may be efteemcd the begin- 
 ning, the vellel slwavs makes the fame angle with the meri- 
 dian of the place where it is each moment, or in each point of 
 its courfe, which the wind makes. 
 
 Now, a wind, e. gr. that is north-cart, anJ which of con- 
 sequence make an angle ot 45 0 , with the meridian, is 
 equally north-eaft wherever it blows; and makes the fame 
 angle of with all the meridians it meets — A vefiel 
 
 therefore driven by the fame wind, always makes the fame 
 angle with all the meridians it meets withal on the furface of 
 the earth. 
 
 If the velfel fail north and fouth, it makes an angle infinitely 
 acute with the meridian, i. e. it is parallel to it, or rather 
 fails in it — If it run eafl and welt, it cuts all the meridians at 
 right angles. 
 
 In the full cafe it defcribes a great circle ; in the Second, 
 cither a great circle, viz. the equator, or a parallel to it. 
 — If its courfe be between the two, it does not then defcribe 
 a circle ; fince a circle drawn in fuch a manner would cut 
 all the meridians at unequal angles, which the veliel cannot 
 do. 
 
 It defcribes, therefore, another curve, the effential property 
 whereof is, that it cuts all the meridians under the fame 
 angle. — -This curve is what we call the loxodromic curve, 
 rhumb-line, or hxodramy. 
 
 It is a kind of fpiral, which, like the logarithmic fpiral, makes 
 an infinity of circumvolutions without ever arriving at a cer- 
 tain point to which it yet llill tends, and towards which it ap- 
 proaches at every ttep. 
 
 This afymptotic point of the rhumb-line is the pole : at which 
 were tt polfible for it to arrive, it would find all the meridians 
 conjoined, and be loft in them. 
 
 The courfe of a vefTel, then, except in the two firft cafes, 
 is always a rhumb-line ; which line is the hypothenufe of a 
 rectangle-triangle, whole two other fides are the (hip's way or 
 durance run in longitude, and latitude. Now the latitude is 
 ufually had by obfervation, (fee Latitude) ; and the angle 
 of the rhumb-, with one or other of the two fides, by the com- 
 pafs. See Compass. 
 
 All therefore that is required by calculation in failing, is 
 the value of the length of the rhumb-line, or the diitance 
 
 run. 
 
 But as fuch curve line would prove very perplexing in the 
 calculation, it was neceffary to have the ihip's way in a right 
 line ; which right line however mult have the eflential proper- 
 ty of the curve line, viz. to cut all the meridians at right an- 
 
 gles — The method of effeftmg which fee under the article 
 Chart. 
 
 If PA, PF, PG, &c. (Tab. Navigation, Jig. 19.) be fuppofed 
 meridians, AI the equator, and AE another great circle of the 
 fphere : AO will reprefent a rhumb-line, the angles whereof 
 with the feveral meridians, being lefs than thofe of the great 
 circle ; it follows, that the rhumb is not a great circle of the 
 fphere — If a fhip therefore be at hrft directed towards E, and 
 constantly perfill in the fame rhumb, it will never arrive at the 
 place E, but at the place O, which is further from the 
 equator AI. 
 
 Hence, as on the furface of a fphere, the fhortelt way be- 
 tween A and O is an arch of a great circle between A and 
 O ; the rhumb-line is not the fhorteft way, or lealt diitance 
 from one place to another. 
 life of the Rhumb-Lines in navigation. i°. If the meri- 
 dians PA, PC, PD, CsrV. (Jig. 20.) be not very far apart, 
 the rhumb-line AIHG is divided by the equidistant paral- 
 lels BI S KH, FG, &c. into equal parts. 
 Hence i°. the parts of the rhumb AI and AG, are as the 
 latitudes AL and AN of the places I and G — 2°. Since the 
 arches AB, IK, HF, are equal in magnitude, and therefore 
 unequal in number of degrees ; the fum of the arches, called 
 the latus mecodynamicum, ox miles of longitude, is not equal to 
 the difference of longitude AB of the places A and G. 
 1°. The length of the rhumb-line AG is to the change or 
 difference of latitude GD, in the fame ratio, as the whole 
 fine to the co-fine ot the angle of the rhumb. 
 Hence i°. the rhumb failed on being given, together with 
 the difference or change of latitude, turned into miles ; the 
 length of the rhumb-line, or the diitance from the place A 
 to the place G upon the fame rhumb, is had by the rule of 
 three — 2 V . The rhumb being given, together with the quan- 
 tity of the Ihip's way on the fame rhumb, i. e. the length of 
 the rhumb AG ; the difference of latitude DG, is had by 
 the rule of three, in miles to be converted into degrees of a 
 great circle— 3°. The difference of latitude DG being given 
 in miles, as alfo the length of the rhumb-line AG; the 
 angle of the rhumb, and confequently the rhwnb failed on is 
 had by the rule of three — 4 0 . Since the co-fine is to the whole 
 fine as the whole line to the fecant, the difference of latitude 
 GD, is to the length of the rhumb-line AG, as the whole 
 line to rhe fecant of the angle of the rhumb. 
 3 0 . The length of the rhumb-line, or of the Ihip's way in the 
 lame rhumb AG, is to the latus mecodynamicum or mecodyna- 
 mie fide AB-J-IK4-HF, as the whole fine to the line of the 
 loxodromic angle GAP. 
 
 Hence i v . the rhumb or angle of the rhumb being given, 
 as alfo the fhip's way in the lame rhumb-line AG, the mece- 
 dynamie fide is had by the rule of three in miles ; u e. in the 
 lame meafure wherein the length of the rhumb is given — 2 t> . 
 In like manner the mecodynamic fide AB-}-IK-f-HF being 
 given as alfo the rhumb-line or fhip's way A G ; the rhumb 
 failed in is found by the rule of three. 
 
 4 0 . The change of latitude GD, is to the mecodynamic fide 
 AB-j-IK-f-HF ; as the whole fine to the tangent of the 
 loxodromic angle PAG or AIB. 
 
 Hence the rhumb or loxodromic angle PAG, and the change 
 of latitude GD being given, the mecodynamic fide is found 
 by the rule of three. 
 
 5 L '. The mecodynamic fide AB-f-IK-f-HF is a mean propor- 
 tional between the aggregate of the rhumb AG, and the 
 change of latitude GD and their difference. 
 Hence the change of latitude GD, and the rhumb-line AG 
 being given in miles, the mecodynamic fide is found in the 
 fame meafure. 
 
 6°. The mecodynamic fide AB-J-IK-J-HF being given, to 
 find the longitude AD, 
 
 Multiply the change or difference of latitude GD by fix, 
 which reduces it into parts of ten minutes each ; divide by 
 the product of the mecodynamic fide; and the quotient gives the 
 miles ot longitude anfwering to the difference ot latitude in 
 ten minutes. Reduce thefe miles of longitude in each parallel 
 into differences of longitude from a loxodromic table, and the 
 fum of thefe is the longitude required. 
 
 j Q . If a fhip fail on a north or fouth rhumb, it defcribes a 
 meridian ; if on an ealt or weft rhu?nb, it defcribes cither the 
 equinoctial or a parallel thereto. 
 
 8". To find the rhumb betiveen two places by calculation tr 
 geometrically. We have two canons, or proportions ; the 
 firft, — As the radius is to the co-fine of the middle latitude, 
 fo is the difference of longitude to the whole departure from 
 the meridian, in the courle between the two places propofed. 
 The fecond, — As the radius is to the half fum of the co-fines 
 of both latitudes, or (rather for geometrical fchemes) as the 
 diameter is to the fum of the co-lines of both latitudes, fo is 
 the difference of longitude to the departure from the me- 
 ridian. 
 
 For an example of the former proportion — Let the rhumb 
 be required between Cape Finifterre, latitude 43 0 , longitude j Q 
 
 20, and 
 
RHY 
 
 20', and St Nicholas IJlc, latitude 38°, longitude 352 c 
 The middle latitude is 40 0 30*, the complement 49 
 30'; 2nd the difference of longitude 15° 20'. Out of 
 thefe leflcr equal parts, prick down 15° from C to L, 
 {fig. 21.) and dcfcribc 'the arch B D with 6o° of the 
 chords, and make it equal to 49 c 30', and draw CD con- 
 tinued farther to A— From L take the neareft diftance to 
 A C which is equal to LM, and make it one leg of a right- 
 angled triangle ; make the other leg the difference of latitude 
 5 0 , which prick from the equal parts from L to B — 
 Then the extent MB mcafured on the faid parts, fhews 
 the diftance to be 13 s5 24', which allowing 20 leagues to 
 a degree, is almoft 268 leagues — Then with the radius 
 CB fetting one foot at M, crofs the rhumb triangle at 
 G H ; which extent mcafured on the greater chord is 
 almoft 22°, the complement whereof is 68° } and fo 
 much is the rhumb from the meridian between the two 
 places, amounting to 6 points, and upwards of So mi- 
 nutes. 
 
 For an inftance of the latter proportion — Let it be re- 
 quired to find the rhumb and diftance between the Li- 
 zard and Bermudas. The latitude of the Lizard being 
 56 0 and that of Bermudas 32 0 20', or 32 0 41 cen- 
 tefms, and their difference of longitude 55 decrees ; 
 draw the lines AC and CD (fig. 21. N°. 2.) at right angles, 
 and with 6o° of the leller chords defcribs the quadrant 
 HI, and prick the radius from I to D, fo is CD the 
 diameter ; then count both latitudes from H to F and G, 
 the neareft diftance from F to C I, is the co-fine of Ber- 
 mudas latitude, which prick from C to E : Again, the neareft 
 diftance from GtoC 1, is the co-fine of the Lizard's latitude, 
 which place from C to S, fo is C S the fum of both c6-fines ; 
 draw D S, and prick down 55 degrees, the difference of lon- 
 gitude from C to V, out of the greateft equal parts, and 
 draw VB parallel to DS, fo is CB the departure from the 
 meridian in the courfe between both places— Making that 
 therefore one leg of a right-angled triangle, prick down 17°, 
 $9 ccnte'l'ms, the difference of latitude between thofe places 
 out of the fame equal parts from C to L, and draw BL— 
 This reprefents the courfe and diftance between the Lizard 
 and Bermudas, and the extent L B meafured on the fame 
 equal parts, ftiews the diftance to be 44 ^ 31 centefms, which, 
 allowing 20 leagues to a degree, is 886 leagues. 
 Then to find the courfe— With 6o° of the chords, fetting 
 one foot in L, with the other make marks at Y and Z ; then 
 the extent ZY, meafured on the chord, fhews the rhumb to 
 he 66° 37' from the meridian. This proportion in the 
 prefent example holds very juft, according to Mcrcator's 
 chart; whereas the former proportion, by the middle latitude, 
 would have given fas rhumb 67° 2' from the meridian, and the 
 diftance 902 leagues. 
 
 Again, making C A equal to C V, a line joining L A would 
 be the courfe and diftance according to the fame longitudes 
 and latitudes laid down on the plain chart, whereby the 
 courfe fhould be 72 0 , 17' from the meridian, and the di- 
 ftance 1 1 $5 leagues. 
 RHYAS*, Tudc in medicine, a diminution or confumption 
 of the caruncula lachrymalis fituate in the great canthus or 
 angle of the eye. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, to flow. 
 
 RHY 
 
 1 he rhyas is ufed in oppofition to the entanthis, which is an 
 
 exceffive augmentation of the fame caruncle. 
 
 The caule of the rhjas is a fharp humour falling on this part, 
 
 anil gnawing and confirming it away by degrees ; though 
 
 it is fonrctlmes alfo produced by the too great ufe of ca- 
 
 therctics in the fiftula lachrymalis— It is to be cured by in- 
 
 carnatives. 
 
 RHYME, Rhime, Ryme or Rime, in poetry, the fitni- 
 lar found, or cadence and termination of two words which 
 end two verfes, fifr. 
 
 Or, rhyme is a limilitude of found between the lad fyllable or 
 fyllables of one verfe, and the laft fyllable or fyllables of a 
 verfe fuccecding cither immediately or at a diftance of two or 
 three lines. 
 
 Rhyme is amodern invention, and theproduflpfa Gothic age ■ 
 Milton calls it the modern bmlkie. Yet Come authors will 
 have a that the EngjHh, French, Ve. borrow their rhyme 
 from the Greeks and Latins— The Greek orators, fay they, 
 who endeavoured to tickle the cars of the people, affected a 
 certain cadence of periods which ended alike, andcalled them 
 IpHnojttT* The Latins, who imitated them, called thefe 
 chiming terminations, f milker defmentia. 
 This aftectation increafed as the Latin tongue declined ; fo 
 that in the later Latin writers, fcarce any thing is more com- 
 mon than rhyming periods. 
 
 The French and from them the Englifti, adopted this 
 cadence of rhyme, which Teemed to them more pretty and 
 agreeable than the metrical verfes of the Greek and Roman 
 puets. 
 
 This kind of Latin poetry in rhyme was much in vogue in 
 
 rfe XITth century ; and the verfes thus running were railed' 
 Lamm verfes; for what reafon Camden owns he does not 
 know; (for a lion's-tail, fays he, does notanfwer to the 
 middle parts as thefe verfes do) but doubtlefs they had their 
 name from a canon called Letfmnw, who firft compofed them 
 with fuccefs, and of whom we have feveral pieces in themre- 
 mainmg, addrefled to pope Adrian IV. and Alexander in. 
 oee Leonine verfes. 
 
 Camden has given us a collcflion of Latin rhymes of our an- 
 tienttnglifh writers ; among whom Walter de Manes arch- 
 deacon of Oxford, in the time of king Henry II. makes a 
 principal figure, efpecially for two pieces, the one in praife 
 of wine, beginning 
 
 Mihi eji propofitum in taberna mori, 
 Pirnim Jit appofitum morientis ori ; 
 Ut decant, cum venerint, angelorum chori, 
 Deus fit propitius huie potatori. 
 The other againft the pope, for forbidding the clcro-y tohavS 
 wn'es; beginning 0011 
 Prifciani regula penitus caffatur, 
 Sacerdosper hie ii ha:c dim declinature 
 Sid per hie folummodo, nunc eirticulatur,\ 
 Cum per noftrum prxfulem hxn amoveafur. 
 Since the reiteration of learning in the 16th century, attempt! 
 have been made to banifh rhyme out of the modern poetry, 
 and to fettle the Englifh and French verfes on the footing of 
 the antient Greek and Latin ones, by fixing the quantities 
 of the fyllables, and truftmgwholly to thofe andtothenumbcrs 
 or meafure. 
 
 This Milton has done with great fuccefs in his Paradife Lo/l, 
 and other pieces , and after him Philips, Addifon, and fome 
 others— Verles of this kind we call blank verfes. 
 } lie frtndibme attempted the fame; but not with the fame 
 fuccefs— Jodelet made the firft efl'ay, and after him Pafquier - 
 but they both failed. Paerffat and Rapin followed them, and' 
 tailed like them. Their hexameter andfapphic verfes were nei- 
 ther imitated nor approved ; and the cadence o{ rhyme was e e- 
 nerally preferred to quantity, or the ufe of long and inert fylla- 
 bles Dcs Portes likewife made fome efi'ays of verfes con- 
 ftructcd ot long and fnorf lines without rhyme, but the at- 
 tempt only fer.-ed to convince the world that this kind of 
 mealure is incontinent with the genius of the French tongue 
 To fucceed in fuch kind of verfes there muft be a liberty of 
 varying the order of the words, or of changing their fitua- 
 tion, asmaybeft fuit the occafions of the poet; of makino- 
 the fubftantive either go before or follow after the verb, as thS 
 verfe requires, fcrV. Now none of the modern tongues will 
 admit of fuch an arbitrary fituation of the words, equally with 
 theantients; yet none will allow this more than theEiwlifh 
 nor any lefs than the French. ° ' 
 
 Phyme, are either/^/,, or double or treble, though the two 
 laft arc now much difufed. 
 Single Rhymes are divided into perfect of whole rhymes and 
 
 imperfect or half rhymes. 
 A whale or perfeel Rhyme is where there is a fimilitude of 
 found without any difference s or where a thorough identity 
 of found appears in the pronunciation of the two fvllables- 
 notwithftanding that thefe may be fome difference in ' the 0/- 
 thography. 
 
 An imperfect or half Rhyme is where there is a fimilitude 
 with a difference cither in refpefl of the pronunciation or the 
 orthography, but chiefly the former. 
 
 In the time of S. Louis, the French began to be more exaft 
 in their verGficationj and to diftinguifh their rhymes into 
 mafcultne and feminine ; and to obferve a regular mixture of 
 the two in their verfes— The invention of this mixture is 
 ufually attributed to Marot ; however, it was Roufard who 
 firft pradtifed it with fuccefs. 
 
 The feminine Rhyme is that where the laft fyllable of the 
 ruyme ends with an e mute or quiefcent ; as in dove, belle &c 
 
 Mafetdwe Rhymes are thofe of all other words. ' 
 Menage oblerves, that mafculine rhymes clofe 'the periods bet- 
 ter ; but that femimnes, being the fofter and more Wuifhing, 
 end more agreeably, efpecially in mournful fubiecls ° 
 
 Double Rhymes, by the French called rich rhymes, are thofe 
 where the two words terminate alike through the whole two 
 laft fyllables, as fquabble and rabble, &e. " 
 
 Plan Rhymes are thofe where the two rhyming verfes fuc- 
 ceed immediately to each other. 
 
 Craft Rhymes are thofe where the verfes are fo difpofed as 
 that the firft rhymes with the third, and the fecond with the 
 fourth, CSV. 
 
 Affanant Rhymes. See the article Assonant. 
 
 RHYPTICS, Rhiftics, -p*oti»« in medicine, deter- 
 gent remedies or cleanfers. See Detergent. 
 
 RHYTHM, Rhythmus, in mufic, the variety in 
 
 the movement as to the quicknefs or flownefs, and length and 
 fhortnefs of the notes. a 
 Or, the rhythmus may be defined more generally, the pro- 
 portion which the parts of a motion bear to each other. 
 Ariftides, among the antient muficians, applies the word ryth- 
 
R H Y 
 
 R I C 
 
 mus three ways: viz. either to immovable bodies, when 
 their parts are rightly proportioned to each other; as a well- 
 made ftatue, fSfd or to things that move regularly, as in 
 ha'ndfome walking, in dancing, in the dumb fhews of the 
 pantomimes, &C. or thirdly, to the motion of found, or the 
 voice ; in which, the rhythmus confifts of long and fhort iyl- 
 hblcs'or notes joined together in fucceffion in fome kind of 
 order, fo as their cadence on the ear may be agreeable. 
 This, in oratory conftitutcs what we call a numerous Jtyle, 
 and when the tones of the voice arc well chofen, an harmonious 
 
 rhythmus in the general is perceived either by the eye 
 or ear; and may either be with or without metre : but the 
 ftrict mufical rhythm is only perceived by the ear, and cannot 
 exift without it-The firft either ekifts without found, as in 
 nth founds ; it may be either without any dirre- 
 " i drum, or with a variety of 
 
 dancing ; or w: 
 
 rence of acute and grave, as in 
 thefe, as in a long. 
 The rhythms of the antients, — 
 
 very different from that of the moderns— The former _was_ only 
 
 Mr. Malcolm obferve 
 
 that of the long and fhort fyllables of the words and verfes : it 
 depended altogether on the poetry, and had no other forms or 
 varieties than what the met. ical art aftorded. The changes 
 therein are none but thofe made from one kind at metre to 
 another, as from Iambic to Chorak, &c. 
 In the modern mufic, the conflitution of the rhythmus (litters 
 from that of the vcrfe, fo far, that in fctting mufic to word., 
 the thine chiefly regarded is to accommodate the long and 
 fhort notes to the fyllables in fuch manner, as that the words, 
 be well feparatcd, and the accented fyllable of each word 
 fo confpicuoiu, that what is fung may be diftinaly undei- 
 
 ftood. , l t • 
 
 Voffius in his book dt pocmatum cantu <3 viribus rbytbmi, ex- 
 tols the antient rhythmus —Though he owns it was confined 
 to the metrical feet; yet, fo well did they cultivate then 
 language, cfpccially in what relates to the rhythmus ; that the 
 whole effect of the mufic was afcribed to it, as appears by 
 that faying of theirs, w*p. M *rmu IfA/ifr* See Supple- 
 
 ment article Rhythmus. 
 Rhythm, Rhythmus, in the antient poetry, de- 
 notes the meafure of the feet, or the number and combina- 
 tion of long and fhort fyllabcs ; called alfo metre and quart- 
 
 Voffius attributes the whole force of the antient mufic to 
 their happy rhythmus* but this is fomewhat inconcdveable, 
 Mr Malcolm rather takes it, that the words and fenfe of 
 what was fung had the chief efFeft ; and that hence it was that 
 in all the antient mufic the greateft care was taken, that not a 
 fyllable of the words fhould be left, left the mufic mould be 
 fpoiled. u ■ - . 
 
 Pandrollns fecms of this opinion ; and the reafon he gives 
 why the modern mufic is kfs perfect than the ancient, is, that 
 we ufually hear founds without words. 
 
 Voffius favs, the rhythm which does not exprefs the very forms 
 and figures of things, can have no effett i and that the an- 
 tient poetical numbers alone arcjuftly contrived for this end 
 —He adds, that the modern languages and verfe is altogether 
 unfit for mufic; and that we {hall never have any right vocal 
 mufic till our poets learn to make verfes capable of being fung, 
 h e. till wc new model our language, reftore the antient 
 quantities and 'metrical feet, and banifh our barbarous 
 rhymes^ . . . 
 
 Our verfes, fays he, run all as it were on one foot ; fo that 
 We have not any real rhythmus at all in our poetry : he add: 
 that we mind nothing farther than to have fuch a number of 
 fyllables in a verfe, of whatever nature, and in whatever or- 
 der. But this is an unjuft exaggeration. 
 RHYTHMICA, Rhvthmice, "p^mm in the anti- 
 ent mufic, that branch of mufic which regulated the rhyth- 
 
 The rhyihm'ua confidered the motions; and regulated their 
 meafure, order, mixture, &c. fo as to excite the paflions, 
 keep them up, augment, diminifh, or allay them. 
 Ariftides and other antient mufical writers, divided artificial 
 mufic into harmonica, rhythmica, and metrica. 
 But the rhitbmka with them likewife comprehended dumb 
 motions, and in effect, all rythmical, i. e. aft regular motion. 
 Porphyry divides mufic into harmonica, rhythmica, metrica, 
 erganica, poctica, and hypocritka. 
 
 The antients feem to have had no rhythm in their mufic be- 
 fide the long and fhort fyllables of their words and verfes, 
 which were fung, and always made a part of their mufic ; 
 fo that the rhythmica with them Was only the application of 
 the metrical feet, and the various kinds of verfes uled by them 
 — The modern goes much farther. 
 
 RHYTHMOPCEIA, one of the mufical faculties, as 
 they are called, which prefcribes rules for the motions, or 
 
 ■ rhythm. 
 
 The antient rhytbmopceia is very defective — We find nothing 
 of it in the books of the antients but fome general hints ; 
 winch can fcarce be culled nilcs. In their explications there 
 
 appears nothing but what belongs to the words and verfes of 
 their fon°-s, which is a ftrong preemption they had no other; 
 See Rhythmica. 1 
 R I A L*, or Ryal, a Spanifk filver coin ; being the eighth 
 part of the piafter or piece of eight. See Piece of eight. 
 
 The word in the original Spanifh, real, fignifies royal. 
 The rial'a equal to about fix pence | fterling. 
 The Elver rial is equal to 34 filver maravedis; the copper 
 rial to 44 copper maravedis, which only amount to 1 8 filver 
 maravedis. 
 
 There are alfo rials of eight, rials of four, rials of two, and 
 half rials — The rials of eight are the piafters ; thofe of four, 
 are half piafters, t^c. 
 
 Great quantities of rials, or rials of eight, are carried into 
 the Eaft-Indies, where they are divided into three claffes, 
 and received on different footings, viz, the old rial, known 
 by the chaplet around, whereof 100 are current for 215 ru- 
 pees : the Jlrond, known by the largencfs of its bead, current 
 at 212 £ rupees for 100; and the nevj at 208-i rupees for 100 
 rials. See Rupee. 
 Rial or Royal is alfo the name of a piece of gold, an- 
 tiently current among us for ten {hillings. 
 In 1 Henry VI. by indenture of the mint, a pound weight of 
 gold of the old ftandard was coined into 45 rials, going for 
 ten fhillinfs a-picce, or a proportional number of half rials, 
 going at five ftiillings a-piece : or rial farthings, which went 
 at 2 s. and 2d. 
 
 In I Henry VITI. the gold rial was ordered to go at 1 r s. 
 yi — l n j Elizabeth gold rials were coined at 15;. a-piecc, 
 when a pound weight of old ftandard gold was to be coined 
 into 48 rials — In 3 James I. rofe rials of gold were coined 
 at 30J. a-picce, and fpur-rial: at 15J. See Money. 
 RIBBAND, or Ribbond, a narrow fort of filk, chiefly ufed 
 for head ornaments, badges of chivalry, Gf*. 
 The knigfrtS of the garter wear a h\uc ribband, thofe- of the 
 thiffle, a green ribbond, ice. fcarfwife. See Collar, Gar- 
 ter, C5V. 
 
 Ribband, or Ribbon, in heraldry, is the eighth part of a 
 bend. See Tab. Herald, fig. 82. See alfo the article Bend. 
 It is born a little cut off from the out-lines of the efcutcheon ; 
 thus ; he beareth or, a ribband gules. 
 RIBBING nails. See the article Nail. 
 RIBS, coJU, in anatomy, certain long, arched bones ; ferving to 
 form orfuftain the inner fides of the thorax, or breaft — See Tub. 
 Anat. [OJleol.) fig. J . lit. p. p. p. &c. 
 
 The ribs arc in number 24 ; twelve on each fide— Their 
 figure is an imperfect fegment of a circle, they are harder, 
 rounder, and more incurvated towards their articulation with 
 the vertebra:, than at the other extremity towatds the ftcrnum, 
 which is thinner, broader, and more fpungy. 
 The ribs are divided into true or genuine, and fpurtous. 
 The true Ribs are the feven upper pair, which arc thus diftin- 
 guifticd, as forming the moft perfect arches, and as having a 
 ftrong articulation with thefternum — See Tab. Anat. (O/h-ol.) 
 fig. 3. lit. a. a. &c. 
 The five lower are called notha, or fpurious Ribs, as being 
 (mailer, (hotter, and more cartilaginous than the reft, and 
 not reaching fo far as the fternum, which makes their articu- 
 lation very lax ; in regard they terminate in long, foft carti- 
 lages, which bending upwards are joined to the upper ribs. 
 —i Sec Tab. Anat. (Ofieol.) fig. 3. St. c.c. &c. 
 On the infide of all the true ribs, except the loweft,- and fome- 
 times the next to it, runs a pretty deep finus, reaching from 
 the end next the fpine, almoft to its juncture with the 
 cartilage. 
 
 All the ribs, together with the ftcrnum, are raifed by the re- 
 fpiratory mufcles, in the action of infpiration j by which 
 means, and by the defcent of the diaphragm in that action, the 
 cavity of the thorax is enlarged for the more commodious ex- 
 panfion of the lungs. 
 Ribs of a Jhip, are the timbers of the futtocks, when the 
 planks are off, fo called becaufe they are bent like die ribs of 
 a carcafe or fkeleton. 
 RICE, oriza, a grain or feed of a plant of the fame name ; 
 frequent in the Eaft-Indies, in Greece, and Italy, and other 
 places.- 
 
 The grains of rice grow in clufters each terminated with a 
 fpica or beard, and are inclofcd feverally in yellow rough 
 capfube, or cafes. When ftript of their fkin they appear 
 almoft oval ; of a fhining white colour and as it were trans- 
 parent. Rice grows belt in moift marftiy places. 
 Throughout the Eaft, and a great part of the Levant, rice 
 is the principal food, and ferves for bread — In the Indies the 
 women thrafh and drefs all the rice, which is a very painful 
 office, that the men leave to them either out of idlcneis, or, 
 difrepect. 
 
 Rice is a great food in the Roman Catholic countries in time 
 Q f Lent — The ordinary preparation is by firft fteeping it in 
 water, then boiling it in milk — Some make it into a fort of 
 farina, or flower, by pounding it in a mortar, after having 
 firft put it in hot water, and again wafhsd it out in cold. 
 
 Rut 
 
R I D 
 
 R I G 
 
 Rite is of fome ufe in medicine, being efteemcd proper to 
 fofcn and thicken fharp humours, to moderate fluxes of the 
 fcJiy, £sTf. — The nortnen nations cat their fowls and other 
 meats with nee and faffron — The Chinefc make a wine of 
 rice, which is of an amber colour, and taftes like Spanifh 
 wine, and ierves them for their common drink — In fome parts 
 of Europe they alfu draw a very ftrong brandy or fpirit from 
 rice. 
 
 RICKETS. Rh a chit is, in phyfic, a diforder affect- 
 ing ihe bones of children, and cauiingaconfiderable protube- 
 rance, incurvation, or diftortion thereof. 
 It fumetimes arifes from a fault in fwathing the child, rolling 
 it too tight in fome places, and too loofe in others j placing 
 it in an inconvenient, or too often in the fame porture ; or 
 fuhVring it to be long wet — It is likcwife attributed to the 
 want of proper motion, and to the uiing of the child to be 
 borne in one arm only ; whence the legs and knees remain 
 too long in the fame incurvated fituation. 
 Or it may be occafioncd by fome fault in the digeftion, occa- 
 fioning the aliment: to be unequally applied to the body ; by 
 which fome parts of the bones increafe in bulk more than the 
 reft. 
 
 1 he rickets ufually appear between the firft eight months, 
 and the fixth year of the child's age : the part thi:> dlfeaie 
 afreets, grows lax, flaccid, and weak ; and, if it be the Ices, 
 
 they become unable to fupport the body All the part- 
 
 fubfervient to voluntary motion are likewife debilitated and 
 enfeebled ; and the child grows pale, fickly, flothful, and can- 
 not lit erect. 
 
 His head generally becomes too large for the trunk, and can- 
 not be fupported or managed by the mufcles of the neck, 
 which gradually wear away. Swellings, and knotty excrcf- 
 cences, appear in the wrifts, ancles, and tips of the ribs ; 
 and the bones of the legs and thighs grow bowed or crooked 
 
 The like diforder fometimes alfo feizes the bones of the 
 
 atms. 
 
 It the fymptoms continue long, the thorax becomes ftrait ; a 
 difficulty of refpiratioji enfucs, as alfo a cough, and a he&ic 
 fever ; the abdomen fwclls ; the pulfe grows weak and lan- 
 guid ; and the fymptoms increaling, at length prove mor- 
 ' tah 
 
 When the child is able to talk before he can make ufe of his 
 legs, he is commonly prcfumcd to have the rickets. 
 When the diforder is taken early, it may be remedied by 
 proper bolflcrs and bandages, fuited to the parts affe&ed ; but, 
 when the bones are grown rigid and inflexible, other mecha- 
 nical contrivances, as padding, ftrait boots, and feveral forts 
 of machines or engines made of pafte-board, whale-bone, tin, 
 t3V. are made ufe of, to rcftorc the diftorted bones to their 
 natural ftraitnefs. 
 
 Cold bathing is alfo found of fcrvice in the tickets, before the 
 diftemper comes to be too much confirmed. This is beft done 
 during May and June, continuing the child in die water two 
 or three feconds at each plunge. 
 
 Others choofe a liniment of rum and palm-oi! ; and others a 
 plafl er of the de minio and oxycroceum applied along the back, 
 to cover the whole fpine— Dry fri&ions over the whole body, 
 with a warm linen cloth before the fire, elpecially on the 
 parts affected, are found of fervice. What is called the oil 
 of fhails is very famous for the fame intention : this is what 
 drops from them, after bruifing and fufpending thcrn in 
 flannel bag. With this the limbs and fpina! bone are te be 
 anointed. 
 
 RIDDLE. See the article Enigma. 
 
 RIDEofhazlc, or other wood, is a group or clufler of fpri^s 
 fhooting out of the fame root or foot. 
 
 Ride, in the manage — To ride fignifies to learn to ride — 
 Thus, he ricks under a good maftcr. See Horse. 
 
 Ride, in the fca-language, is a term varioufly applied— Thus, 
 a fhip is faid to ride, when her anchors hold her faff, fa that 
 fhe drives not away by the force of the wind or tide. 
 A fhip is faid to ride well, when fhe is built fo as not to over- 
 beat herfelf in a head fea, fo as that the waves over-rake her 
 (that is, ovcr-wafh her) from ftem to ftern. 
 A fhip rides acrofs, when fhe rides with her main-yards and 
 fore-yards hoifted up to the hounds, and both yards and arms 
 topped alike. 
 
 She is faid to ride a peek, when one end of the yard is 
 peeked up, and the other hangs down : this is alfo laid of 
 a lhip, when, in weighing, fhe is brought direaiy over her 
 anchor. 4 
 She is faid to ride athwart, when her fide is to the tide— 
 and to ride betwixt wind and tide, when the wind hath equal 
 
 force over her one way, and the tide another If the wind 
 
 have more power over her than the tide, fhe is faid to ride 
 •wind road. 
 
 She is faid to ride hawfe/ul, when, in ftrefs of weather, fhe 
 falls fo deep, that the water runs in at her hawfes. 
 She ,s laid to ruUpm,,/, when her yards are ftruck down 
 upon the fck, or when they are down a-port-laft. 
 
 RIDEAU*, in fortification, a fmall elevation of earth, ex- 
 tending itfelf lengthways on a plain ; ferving to cover a camp, 
 or give an advantage to a poft. 
 
 » I he word, in its original French, fignifies a curtain or 
 
 cover, formed from the Latin, ridellum Eorel derives 
 
 It from ridere. 
 
 A rideau is alfo convenient for thofe who would befiege a place 
 at a near diftance, and to fecure the workmen in their ap- 
 proaches to the foot of a fortrefs. 
 Rideau is fometimes alfo ufed for a trench, the earth whereof 
 is thrown up on its fide, to ferve as a parapet for covering the 
 men. n 
 RIDERS, in a fhip, are great timbers both in the hold and 
 aloft, which are bolted on to other timbers, to ftren^then 
 them, when the fhip is difcovered to be too {lightly built " 
 See Tab. Ship, fig. 2. n. 47. 49. 50. 
 Rider is alfo ufed for after-claufes added to bills, whilft they 
 
 are depending in parliament. 
 Ow-Ribees. See the article Our-riders. 
 RiDEK-ro//. See the article Roll. 
 
 RIDGE, in building, the higheft part of the roof or covering 
 of a houfe. & 
 Ridge is particularly ufed for the piece of wood wherein the 
 rafters meet. 
 RIDGE-Tv i.e. S ee the article Xvle. 
 
 n n?? S °f " h ° r l 7s are wrillk,es ° r rifuigs of the 
 
 ifeln in the roof ot the mouth, running acrofs from one 
 * of J»» to the other, with interjacent furrows. Sec 
 Horse. 
 
 It is commonly in the third or fourth ridgt that the farrier! 
 hnke with the horn, in order to bleed a horfe, whofe mouth 
 is overheated. 
 
 RIDGLING, or Ridgel, among farriers, (Sc. the male of 
 
 any bead that has been but half gelt. 
 RIDICULE. See Laughter, Risibility, 
 
 CSV. ' 
 RIDING, adivifion ofYorkfhire, whereof there are three; 
 WSS. the Kail-riding, Well-riding, and North-Wrft^. 
 In mdiflments in that county, it is neceflary the town and 
 riding be cxprcfled, 
 RIDING-CLERK, one of the fix clerks in chancery, who 
 in his turn, for one year, keeps the controlrnent-books of all 
 grants that pafs the great feal that year, 
 RIENS arrcar, in law, a kind of plea ufed to an aaion of 
 debt upon arrearages of accounts ; whereby the defendant 
 alledges, that there is nothing in arrear. 
 KlEmpaJipar lefuit, nothing paffes by the deed, is the form 
 
 of an exception taken in fome cafes to an action. 
 Riens par defeent, nothing by defcent, is the plea of an heir 
 when bred tor his anceftor's debt, though he had no lands 
 from mm by defcent, nor has afl'ets in hand. 
 RIER, or Reer-county, Retro ComitaTus, is ufed in 
 our law books in oppofition to open county. 
 This appears to be fome public place, which the fheriff ap- 
 points for the receipt of the king's money after the end of 
 
 the county court Eleta fays, it is dies crajlinm toll comi- 
 
 tatum. i<»-,y bfUT MsctSttili t: .j*. - 
 RIGADOON*, a kind of dance, borrowed originally from 
 
 1 rovencc performed in figure by a man and a woman 
 
 Ihe rigadoon is gay, merry, csV. 
 
 " ^ fa ™ 0 c rdisforn,cdfr<,mth<:Fr ™A. which fignifies 
 
 RIGEL. See the article Regei. 
 
 RIGGING, of a Jhip, includes her whole cordage; or all 
 the ropes belonging to her malts, yards, (Sc.— See Tab. Ship, 
 fig- «' " 
 A lhip is faid to be well-rigged, when all her ropes are of their 
 ht lize, in proportion to her burden— She is faid to be o-vcr- 
 rigged, when her ropes are too big for her ; which wrongs her 
 much 111 her failing, and is apt to make her heel. 
 RIGHT, in geometry, fomething that lies evenly, and with- 
 out inclining or bending one way or another. 
 Thus, a right line is that whofe feveral points all tend the 
 lame way. 
 
 In this fenfe, right fignifies as much as freight, and Hands 
 oppofed to curved ot crooked. 
 Right angle is that formed by two lines falling perpendicu- 
 larly on one another. 
 
 The quantity or meafure of a right angle is a quadrant of a 
 circle, or 90 0 — All right angles therefore are equal. 
 In this fenfe, the word right ffands oppofed to oblique. 
 Wian-v-angled is undcrftood of a figure, when its fides are at right- 
 angles, or ftand perpendicularly one upon another. 
 This fometimes holds in all the anglss of the figure, as in 
 fquares and rectangles ; fometimes only in part, as in right- 
 angled triangles. 
 RicHT-rmt. See the article Cone. 
 
 10 A a 
 
 Right- 
 
R 1 M 
 
 R I N 
 
 See 
 
 See A s c £ n- 
 
 See Parallax. 
 
 Richt-/;>k» angle, See the article Ancle. 
 BjGHTVSw. See the article SrNE. 
 ' The word here Hands coiHraaiftinguifhcd to verjed. 
 
 Versed. . , v .. ,-,.'jLsta> m' tiiw'uiii ^ * . 
 Right fpbere is that where the equator cuts the horizon at 
 ri'i-ht an^es— Or, that wherein the poles arc in the horizon, 
 and the equator is in the zenith. 
 
 Such Is the pofition of the fphcre with regard to thole 
 
 who live directly under the equator The conferences 
 
 hereof arc, that they have no latitude, nor elevation of 
 
 ^ po ] e .They can fee .nearly hoth p61es of the 
 
 world ; all the 'ftars rife, culminate, and fet with them j 
 and the fun always rifes and defcends at right angles 
 to their horizon, and makes their days arfd nights equal. 
 In a right fphcre the horizon is a meridian ; and, if the fphere 
 be fuppofed to revolve, all the meridians fucceffively become 
 horizons, one after another. 
 Right afcenfion of the fun, or a ftar, is that degree of 
 the equinoctial, accounted from the beginning of aries, which 
 rifes with the fun or ftar in a right iphere, 
 
 SIGN. 
 
 Angle a/Rioht afcenfion. See Angle. 
 Parallax of Right afcenfion. 
 Right defcenfion. See the article DescensioN. 
 Parallax of Right defcenfion. See Parallax 
 Right failing is when a voyage is performed on fome one of 
 the four cardinal points. 
 
 If a fhip fail under the meridian, that is, on the north or 
 Couth points, fhe varies not in longitude at all, but only 
 changes the latitude, and that juft fo much as the number oi 
 degrees ftie bath run. 
 
 If a fhip fail under the equinoctial, upon the very call or weft 
 points, (be altera not her latitude at all, but only changes the 
 longitude, and that juit fo much as the number of degrees five 
 has run. " . ■ ,- ; ■» jj. ,\ itfr.jtfr • L > ^_ 
 
 If flie fatl dircctiy eaft or weft, under any parallel, fhe there 
 alfo altereth not her latitude, but only the longitude j yet that 
 not according to the number of degrees of the great circle me 
 hath failed in, as under the equinoctial, but more according 
 as the parallel is remoter from the eqfflnoctial towards the pole. 
 For the lefs any parallel is, the greater is the difference of 
 longitude. 
 
 Right circle, in the ftcreographical projection of the 
 fphere, is a circle at right angles to the plane of projection, or 
 that which paffes through the eye. See Circle and Pro- 
 jection. 
 
 Right, Rectum, in logics and ethics. 
 
 In this fenfe, the word ftands oppofed to wrong, erroneous, 
 
 falfe, &C . 
 
 Right, jus, in law, fignifies not only a property, for which 
 a writ of right lies, but alfo any title or claim, either by vir- 
 tue of a condition, mortgage, or the like, for which no action 
 is given by law, hut only an entry. 
 
 Such arc, jus proprietatis, a right of property ; jus pojf-ffionis, 
 a right of poflcmon; and jus proprietatis & pojejfionis, a right 
 both of property and poflemon. 
 
 This laft was formerly called jus duph'catum—As, if a man 
 be diiTcifcd of an acre of land, the diffeifee hath jus proprie- 
 tatis; the difieifor hath us poffejfionis ; and, if the difleifeere- 
 lcafeto the difieifor, he hath jus proprietatis £jT pojjijfionis. 
 
 Hereditary Right. - See the article Hereditary. 
 
 Pretenfed Right. SccPretensed. 
 
 Right of 'reformation. See Reformation. 
 
 Writ of Right. See the article Writ. 
 
 Right in court. See Rectus in curia. 
 
 Right di/liUation. See Distillation. 
 
 Right the helm, a fea phrafe, ordering to keep the helm even 
 with the middle of the fhip. 
 
 RIGID marble. Sec the article Marble. 
 
 RIGIDITY, among philofophers, a brittle-hard nefs ; or 
 that kind of hardnefs fuppofed to arife from the mutual inden- 
 tation of the component particles within one another. See 
 Hardness. 
 
 Rigidity is oppofed to ductility, malleability, is'e. 
 RIG LET. See the article Reglet. 
 
 RIGOL, a kind of mufical inftrument, confiding of feveral 
 
 fticks bound together, only fcparated by beads- It makes a 
 
 tolerable harmony, being well ftruck with a ball at the end 
 of a ftick. 
 
 RIGOR, in medicine, a convulfive fhuddering from fevere 
 
 cold, an ague-lit, or other diforder. 
 RILL, or Rivulet. See the article River. 
 RIM, in a watch or clock, the circumference, or circular part 
 
 of a wheel. 
 
 RIMA, literally denotes a fiflure, or chink. See Fissure 
 
 and Rhagades. 
 
 Hence, it is applied to feveral parts of the body that bear a 
 refemblance thereto : as rima pudemli, fiflura magna, the fame 
 with vulva ; and rima laryngis, the aperture of the larynx : 
 called the glottis* 
 
 Rima, is alfo ufed for a narrow aperture of a fmall cavity 
 under the fornix, opening into the infundibulum ; called alio 
 the third ventricle of the brain. 
 RIME in poetry. See the article Rhyme. 
 RIND, the fkin of any fruit that may be cut off, or 
 
 The outer coat of the chefnut, fet with prickles, is particu- 
 larly called the urclnn-lih rind. 
 Rind, is alfo ufed for the inner bark of trees ; or that 
 foft, whitifh, juicy fubftance, adhering immediately to the 
 wood. 
 
 Through this it is that the fap, in the modern theory of ve- 
 getation, is fuppofed to return from the extremities of the 
 branches to the root ; the veJIels hereof are by fome alfo fup- 
 pofed to do the office of arteries j whence Mr Bradley calls 
 them arterial velfels. 
 Grafting in the Rikd. See Engrafting. 
 RING, annulus, a little moveable, put on the finger, cither 
 by way of ceremony, or of ornament. 
 
 The hifhop's ring, makes a part of the pontifical apparatus ; 
 and is efteemed a pledge of thefpiritual marriage between the 
 bifhopand his church. 
 
 Theepifcopal ring is of a very antient {landing — The fourth 
 council of Toledo, held in 633, appoints, that a bifhop con- 
 demned by one council, and found afterwards innocent 
 by a fecond, (ball be reftored, by giving him the ring, ftaff, 
 
 csV. 
 
 From biftiops, the cuftom of the ring has paffed to cardi- 
 nals, who are to pay a very great fum, pro jure annuli car- 
 dinalitii. 
 
 Origin of Rings — Pliny, lib. xxxvii. cap. 1. obferves, that 
 we are in the dark as to the perfon who firft invented, or 
 wore the ring ; for that what is faid of Prometheus:, as alfo of 
 Midas's ring, are fables. The firft people among whom we 
 find foe ring in ufe, are the Hebrews, Gen. xxxviii. where 
 Judah, Jacob's fon, gives Tamar his ring or fignet, as a pledge 
 of his promife : but the ring appears to have been in ufe at 
 the fame time among the .Egyptians, from Gen. xli. where 
 Pharaoh puts his ring upon Jofeph's hand as a mark of the 
 power he gave him. And in the firft book of Kings, chap. xxi. 
 Jezebel feals the warrant fhefent fur the killing of Naboth 
 with the king's ring. 
 
 The antient Chaldeans, Babylonians, Pcrfians and Greeks, 
 had likewife the ufe of the ring ; as appears from fe- 
 veral paffages in Scripture, and from Quintus Curtius, 
 who tells us that Alexander fealed the letters he wrote into 
 Europe, with bis own leal} and thofe into Alia with Darius's 
 ring. 
 
 The Perfians will have Guiamfchild the fourth king of the 
 firft race, to have firft introduced the ring, to feal his letters 
 and other acls withal — The Greeks, Pliny thinks, knew no- 
 thing of the ring in the time of the Trojan war : the reafon 
 he gives is, that we find no mention thereof in Homer, but 
 that when letters, tsfe. were to be feat away, they were tied 
 up, and the firings knotted. 
 
 The Sabins had rings in Romulus's time ; and it is to them 
 probably, the practice firft came from the Greeks ; and from 
 them that it palled to the Romans, though it was fome time 
 before it got footing there— Pliny cannot learn which of the 
 kings of Rome firft adopted it ; but there are no figns of it in 
 any of their ftatues, before thofe of Numa, and Serviu Tullus. 
 He adds, that it was alfo in ufe among the antient Gauls and 
 Britons: 
 
 Matter of antient Rings — There were fome of one fingle metal, 
 and others of a mixture, or of two. For the iron and ftlver 
 were frequently gilt ; or at leaft the gold part was fixed with- 
 in the iron, as appears from Artemidorus, lib. ii. cap. 5. 
 
 The Romans w~ere contented with iron rings a Jpng 
 
 time; and Pliny aftures us, that Marius firft wore a gold 
 one in his third confuhte, which was in the year of Rome 
 650. Sometimes the ring was iron, and the feal gold ; 
 form-times it was hollow and fometimcs folid ; fometimes 
 the ftone was engraven, and fometimcs plain ; and the 
 graving fometimcs was in relievo, and fometimcs in creux : 
 the laft were called gemma: eclypa; the former gemma feulp- 
 tura prominente. 
 
 The manner of ivearbig the Ring has been various: from 
 Jeremy, chap. xxii. it appears that the Hebrews wore it on 
 their right hand. Among the Romans, before they came 
 to be adorned with ftones, and while the graving was yet on 
 the metal itfeif, every one wore them at pleafure, on what 
 hand and finger he lifted — When ftones came to be added, 
 they wore them altogether on the left hand ; and it would 
 have been held an excefiive foppery to have put them on the 
 right. 
 
 Pliny fays, they were at firft wore on the fourth finger, then 
 on the fecond or index; then on the little finger ; and at 
 laft on all the fingers, excepting the middle one — The Greeks 
 wore them altogether on the fourth finger of the left hand, 
 as we arc informed by Aul. Gellius, lib. x. and the reafon he 
 
 gives 
 
R I N 
 
 R ! O 
 
 gives for it is, that having Found from anatomy, that this 
 finger had a little nerve that went itraight to the heart, they 
 effeemed it the moll honourable, by reafon of this commimi 
 cation with that noble part — Pliny fays, the Gauls and an 
 cient Britons wore the ring on the middle finger. 
 At firft they only wore a Angle ring, then one on each fin 
 ger, and at length feveral on each finger. Martial, lib. xi 
 Epig. 60. At lift one on each joint of each finger. A] " 
 floph. in Nub. &c— Their foppery at length went to that 
 pitch that thev bad their weekly rings. Juvenal. Sat. VII. 
 fpeaks of awiuli femejlres ; as alfo. of winter and fummer 
 rings. But of all others Lampridius, cap. 32. obferves, that 
 Helioaabalus carried the point fartheft, who never wore the 
 fame ring, or the fame fhoe twice. 
 Rings have been alfo wore in the nofe, as pendants in the ears 
 — Bartholin has an exprds treatife, dc cumuli s r.arium, of rings 
 ef the hafirils. St Auguftin allures us, it was in his time the 
 faihion of the Moors ; and Pietro della Vaile obferves the fame 
 of the modern Orientals. 
 In cffe£t, there is no part of the body where rings have not been 
 worn — Several Eaft-Lndia travellers affirm, that the natives 
 now commonly wear them on their nofe, Hps, cheeks and 
 chin. Ramulio tells us, that the ladies of Narfingua in the 
 Levant, and Diodorus Siculus, lib. 3. that thole of Ethiopi; 
 ufed to adorn their hps with iron rings. 
 
 As to the ears, the cuftom ftill obtains of wearing rings 
 therein, both by men and women, almofl all over the 
 world. ' 
 
 The Indians, particularly the Guzzerattes, have wore rings 
 on their feet — And when Peter Alvarez had his firft audience 
 of the Icing of Calicut, he found him all covered with ftones 
 fet in rings, having bracelets and rings both on the hands and 
 fingers, and even on the feet and toes. Louis Bartomc re- 
 prefents a king of Pegu as ftill more extravagant, having rings 
 let with precious ftones on every toe. 
 Ufe of Rings — The anticnts had three different kinds ; the 
 firft ferved to diftinguifh conditions or quality. Pliny af- 
 fures us, that the fenators at firft were not allowed to wear 
 the gold rings Ulltefe they had been embafiadors at fomc fo- 
 reign court. Nor was it even allowed them to wear the gold 
 ring which was given them in public, except on public 
 occafions. At other times they wore an iron one. And 
 thoic who had a triumph obferved the fame rules. 
 At length the fenators and knights were allowed the com- 
 mon ufe of the gold ring; but Acron on Horace, lib. ii. 
 fat. vii. obferves, they could not do it unlefs it were given them 
 by the praetor. 
 
 In alter days the gold ring became the badge of the knights, 
 the people wearing filver rings, and the Haves iron ones. 
 Though the gold ring was fometimes alfo allowed the peo- 
 ple, and Severus granted it to bis common foldiers. Auguttu; 
 allowed it the liberti or freedmen ; and though Nero 
 made a regulation to the contrary, yet it was foon fet 
 aiide. 
 
 A fecond kind of rings were the annuli fponfalitii, wedding- 
 rings. Some carry the origin of this cuttom as far back a: 
 the Hebrews, on the authority of a text in Exodus xxxv, 
 22 — Leo of Modena, however maintains, that the antient 
 Hebrews did not ufe any nuptial ring. Selden, in his Uxor 
 Ebraica, lib, ii. chap. xiv. owns, that they gave a ring in the 
 marriage, but that it was only in lieu of a piece of money of 
 the fame value which had ufed to have been given before — 
 The Greeks and Romans did the fame, and from them the 
 chriftians took it up very early, as appears from Tertullian, 
 and in fomc ancient liturgies, where we find the form of 
 bleffing the nuptial ring. 
 The third kind of rings were thofe ufed as feals, called cero- 
 graphi or cirograpbi ; an account whereof fee under the ar- 
 ticle Seal. 
 
 Richard bifhop of Salifbury, in his conftitutions anno 1217, 
 forbids the putting of rujh-rings, or any the like matter 
 on womens fingers, in order to the debauching them 
 more readily ; and he infinuates the reafon of his prohibition, 
 that there were fume people weak enough to believe that 
 what was thus done in jeft was a real marriage. 
 De Breveil in his antiquities of Paris, fays, it was an antient 
 cuftom to ufe a rvfly-ring in the marriage of fuch as had had 
 an affair together before their marriage. 
 Ring, in aftronomy — The ring of Saturn is a thin, lumi- 
 nous circle incompafiing the body of that planet, but with- 
 out touching it. 
 
 The difcovery hereof is owing to M. Huvgens, who after 
 frequent obfervation of Saturn, perceived two lucid points or 
 anja, ariiing out from the body in a risbt line. See 
 
 Ajxsm. 
 
 Hence, as in fubfequent obfervations, he always found the 
 fame appearance, he concluded that Saturn Was incompafTed 
 with a permanent fcnjfj and accordingly produced his new 
 fvftem of Saturn in 1659. 
 
 The plane of the ring is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic 
 in an angle of 33° 30— It fometimes appears oval, and ac- 
 
 cording to Campanii its greatefl: diameter is double its leaf!. 
 See Saturn. 
 
 Ring, is alfo the name of an inftrument ufed in navigation 
 for taking the altitudes of the fun, bV. 
 It is ufually of brafs, about g inches diameter, fufpended by 
 a little fwivel, 45 0 from the point whereof is a perforation, 
 which is the centre of a quadrant of 90 0 divided in the inner 
 concave furface; 
 
 To ufe it, they hold it up by the fwivel, and turn it fo the 
 fun, till the fun-beams falling through the hole, make a fpot 
 among the degrees, which marks the altitude required. 
 This inftrument is preferred to the aftrolabe by reafon the di- 
 vifions are here larger than on the aftrolabe. 
 Ring is alfo ufed for the found or tone of a bell. See 
 Bell. 
 
 Bafe Ring. See the article Base. 
 
 RiNG-Bone, among farriers, lsc a hard callous fubftancc, grow- 
 ing in the hollow circle of the little paftcrn of a horfe, above 
 the coronet. 
 
 It fometimes goes quite round, like a ring, whence its name; 
 fometimes it is hereditary, derived from the ftallion or mare s 
 but it oftener comes by accident, as from a ftrain, a blow of a 
 horfc, tiff. 
 
 Comiche Ring. See the article Corniche. 
 
 RlNG-^/, is a kind of dial, ufuaily fmall and portable, 
 confifting of a brafs ring or rim, feldom exceeding 
 two inches in diameter, and one third of an inch in 
 breadth. 
 
 In a point of this rim there is a hole, through which the fun- 
 beams being received, make a lucid fpeck on the concavity of 
 the oppofite femicircle, which gives the hour of the day in 
 the divifions marked therein. 
 
 But it only holds good about the times of the equinox — To 
 have the dial perform throughout the whole year, the bole is 
 made moveable, and the figns of the zodiac, or the days of 
 the month are marked on the convex fide of the rmg, by 
 means whereof the dial is rectified for the time. 
 To ufe it put the moveable hole to the day of the month, 
 or the degree of the aodiac the fun is in ; then fufpcndmg it 
 by the little ring, turn it towards the fun, till his rays, as 
 before, point out the hour among the divifions on the infide. 
 Unherfal or agronomical RiKG-dial, is a ring-dial which ferve3 
 to find the hour of the day in any part of the earth ; whereas 
 the former is confined to a certain latitude — Its figure fee re- 
 prcfented in Table Dialling, fig. 7. 
 
 Itconfiftsof two rings or flat circles, from two to fix inches 
 in diameter, and their breadth, I3c. proportion ablc^The 
 outward ring A reprcfents the meridian of anyplace you are 
 at, and contains two divifions of 90° each, diametrically 
 oppofite to one another, ferving the one from the equa- 
 tor to the north, the other to the fouth pole — The inner 
 ring reprefents the equator, and turns exactly within the 
 outer, by means of two pivots in each ring at the hour 
 of 12. 
 
 A-crofs the two circles goes a thin' reglet or bridge, with 
 a curfor C, that Aides along the middle of the" bridge. 
 In the curfor is a little hole for the fun to fhine through. 
 The middle of this bridge is conceived asthe axisof the world, 
 and the extremities ae the poles; and on the one fide are 
 drawn the figns of the zodiac, and on the other the days of 
 the month. On the edge of the meridian Aides a piece, to 
 which is fitted a ring to fufpend the inftrument by. 
 Ufe of the univerfal RiNC-affa/— Place the line a (on the middle 
 of the Aiding piece) over the degree of latitude of the place 
 (e. gr. 51 0 for London) put the line which crofies the hole of 
 the curfor to the degree of the fign, or day of the month. 
 Open the inftrument fo as that the two rings be at right angles 
 to each other, and fufpend it by the ring H, that the axis of 
 the dial, reprefented by the middle of the bridge, may be pa- 
 rallel to the axis of the world. Then turn the flat fide of the 
 bridge towards the fun, fo as his rays ftriking through the 
 little hole in the middle of the curfor, fall exactly on a line 
 drawn round the middle of die concave furface of the inner 
 ring ; in which cafe the bright fpot fhews the hour of the 
 day in the faid concave furface of the ring. 
 Note, The hour of 12 is not fhewn by this dial, by reafon 
 the outer circle being then in the plane of the meridian, 
 hinders the fun's rays from falling on the inner; nor will 
 this dial fhew the hour when the fun is in the equinoctial, by 
 reafon his rays then fall parallel to the plane of the inner 
 circle. 
 
 Fairy Ring. ~) ("Fairy. 
 Natal Ring. ( c , . . \ Natal. 
 Enforced Ring. ( Seethe articles ') Reinforced. 
 runnion Ring. J (.Trunnion. 
 
 Tri 
 
 R 1 n G-walk, among hunters, a round walk. See Hunt- 
 ing. 
 
 R 1 n G-worm, in medicine. Sec the article Serpigo. 
 RIOT, inlaw, the forcible doing of an unlawful thin°-, of a 
 
 private nature, by three or more perfons aflembled together 
 
 for that purpofc. 
 
 The 
 
R I T 
 
 RIV 
 
 The word is formed from the Latin, riofo of arictare, to 
 fun at each other as rams do. Though, from an ancient 
 Gaulifh vcrlion of the bible, quoted by Skinner, riot ihoulu 
 rather Teem originally to fignify luxury and excefs : whence 
 our law riot might proceed ; in regard thefe are frequently at- 
 tended with quarrels. 
 
 For the difference between a riot, rout, and unlawful affem- 
 fcly. See Rout and Unlawful Affembly. 
 Kitchen gives us the following cafes of Hots, Vt%* — 
 The breach of inclofures, banks, conduits, parks, pounds, 
 barns, the burning of flacks of corn, ts'c. _ Lambard 
 adds, the beating a mar), and entering on a pofleffton for- 
 cibly. 
 
 By a late act of parlivunrht, made on occafiori of the fre- 
 quent pulling down of meeting-houres, ffel by mobs, or rio- 
 tous affemblies, about the time of the rebellion in 1715, a Hot 
 was made felony, if the rioters did not diiperfe after reading a 
 'proclamation made for that purpofe. 
 RIPENERS, in medicine, a fort of topical remedies, 
 called alio drawers, digejUves, maturantia, fuppuratives, 
 "&c. 
 
 RIPENING. See Maturation. 
 
 -RISIBILITY, the faculty of laughter. See Laughing. 
 Rifihiltty is commonly fuppofed an attribute peculiar to man ; 
 as being the only creature capable of judging what is ridi- 
 culous — Some philofphers go fo far as to allcrt, that the de- 
 gree of judgment is always feen in that of laughter, fools al- 
 ways either have too little or too much of it. 
 Authors do not agree as to the peculiar mechanifm in man, 
 Whereby laughter is railed — It is uftially attributed to the 
 communication between the plexus nervofus, and the dia- 
 phragmatic nerves. 
 
 RISING, in aftronomy, the appearance of the fun, a ftar, 
 or other lumimry above the horizon, which before was hid 
 beneath it. 
 
 By reafon of the refraction of the atmofphere, the heavenly 
 bodies always rife before their time, /. c. they are feen as above 
 the horizon, while they really are below it. 
 There are three poetical kinds of rifmg of the ftars — The 
 csfmical Rising, when a ftar rifes at the fame time with 
 the fun. 
 
 Acronycal Rising is when the ftar rifes at the fame time that 
 the fun fets. 
 
 Heliacal, jolar, or apparent Rising, is when the ftar e- 
 merges out of the fun's rays near the horizon, and is no 
 longer hid in his brightnefs ; which happens about 20 
 days after the conjunction uf fuch ftar with the fun; more 
 or lefs, according to the magnitude of the ftar, its diftance, 
 CSV. ' 
 
 Heliod long ago obferved, that Sirius was hid 40 days : viz. 
 10 davs before his eojmical rijing, and 20 after — Some na- 
 tions of America, and among others the favages of Cayenna, 
 regulate their civil year by the courfe of Sirius ; beginning it 
 with the heliacal rijing of that ftar. 
 
 To find the fifing, &c. of the fun and flars by the Globe. See 
 Globe. 
 
 -RISK, or Risque, the hazard or chance of a lofs, damage, 
 
 &c. 
 
 There is a great rifk run :n letting goods go upon credit to 
 great lords, wives not authorifed by their hufbands, and 
 young people not yet arrived at the age of majority. 
 Skinner derives the word from the Spanifti, rifco, fteep : Co- 
 varruvias, from rigeo. In the barbarous Greek, they fay, 
 pi'ZtKxpti, for pe riclitor, I hazard; and pi^xn, for lot or chance ; 
 which words as well as rifque, Skinner thinks, may be de- 
 duced from fiirltr-, for mifpirlw tv» wfa,, I caff, the dye. 
 To prevent any rijk in invoices of merchandizes by fea, it is 
 ufual to infure them. 
 
 The rifk of merchandizes commences from the time they 
 are carried aboard — In matters of infurance, it is a maxim, 
 that all is never to be rijked on one bottom, or in the fame 
 veffel ; to denote, that aftiirers muft act with difcretion 
 in the figning of policies, and not hazard too much on 
 each veflel ; there being more to be expected from feveral than 
 from one. 
 
 R I S U S, laughter. See the article Laughter. 
 
 Risus caninus is a kind of laughter wherein the lips are con- 
 tracted, fo as to fhew all the teeth. 
 
 Risus fardonius, fardonian laughter, is a forced, fpightful 
 laughter ; or a laughter that does not go beyond the teeth. 
 The phrafe is by fome faid to be founded on this, that in 
 Sardinia there is a venomous plant, which occafions fuch a 
 contraction of the mufcles of the face in perfons it kills, that 
 they feem to die laughing in this manner. 
 
 RITE, Ritus, in fchool divinity, denotes the particular 
 manner or form of celebrating or performing the religious 
 ceremonies, which obtains in this or that place. 
 The Eaftern people, Armenians, c37. celebrate divine fervice 
 according to the Greek rite — The Weft ern world follow the 
 Latin rite; or that of the Roman church. 
 
 The Englifh obferve the rite of the church of England, pre. 
 fcribed in the book of Common-prayer, &c. 
 RITORNELLO, or Re fret, in mufic, the burthen of a 
 fong, or a repetition of the firft or other verfes of the fong, 
 at the end of each ftanza or couplet. 
 
 The word is Italian, and fignifies properly a little return, or 
 a fhort repetition, fuch as that of an eccho, or of the laffc 
 words of a fong ; efpecially when the repetition is made after 
 a voice, by one or more inftruments. 
 
 But cuftom has extended the ufe of the word to all fympho- 
 nies, played before the voices begin, and which ferve by way 
 of prelude or introduction to what follows. 
 In the partitions or fcore of the Italian mufic, we frequently 
 find the ritorneUJs fignified by the words ft fuona to inew that 
 the organ, fpinnet, or the like, are to repeat what the voice 
 has been finging. 
 RITUAL, Rituale, a church-book, directing the order 
 and mannnerof the ceremonies to be obferved in celebrating 
 divine fervice, in a particular church, diocefe, religious order, 
 or the like. 
 
 The ancient heathens had, likewife, their rituals, or rituales 
 libri ; whereof thofe of the Hctrurians were much famed — 
 Thefe books contained the rites and ceremonies to be ob- 
 ferved in the building a city, in the confecrating a temple or 
 an altar, in facrifking, and deifying, in dividing the curise, 
 tribes, centuries, and in general in all their religious cere- 
 monies. 
 
 There are feveral paffages in Cato's books, de re ru/lica, which 
 may give us fome idea of the rituals of the antients. 
 RIV AGE, Rivagium, a toll antiently paid to the 
 king on fome rivers, for the paffage of boats or veffels 
 therein. 
 
 RIVAL, Rivalis, a term of relation, applied to two per- 
 fons who have the fame pretenfion. 
 
 It is properly ufed for a competitor in love; and figuratively 
 for an antagonift in any other purfuit — The intrigues of co- 
 medies and romances ufually turn on the jealouhes of rivals^ 
 who difpuic for the fame miftrefs. 
 
 The lawyers derive the word from the Latin, rivus, ftream, 
 quod ab eodem rvoo aquam hauriant, Donatus fuppofes it to 
 have been formed hence, that beaffs coming to drink at the 
 fame brook, or fountain, frequently quarrel. 
 Oelius fays, that rivales were originally fuch whofe fields 
 were parted by a brook or rivulet ; the courfe whereof being 
 liable to be varied feveral ways, occafioned frequent dilputes 
 and law-fuits. 
 
 RIV ER, fluvhts, or fumen, in geography, a ftream or current 
 or frefh water, flowing in a bed or channel, from a fource 
 or fpriiig, into the fea. 
 
 If the ftream be not large enough to bear boats, or fmall vef- 
 fels, loaden ; it is properly called in Englifh, by the diminu- 
 tive, rivulet or brook ; by the Latins, rivus; and by the 
 French, riviere — If it will only bear fuch veffels, the Latins 
 call it amnis — If it be considerable enough to carry larger vef* 
 fels, it is called by the general name river; by the Latins, 
 fiuvius, and flumen ; and by the French, flcuve — between all 
 which the difference is only as to greater and lefe. 
 Some will have none to be properly rivers, except thofe 
 which bear the fame name from their fource to their 
 mouth. 
 
 Others, none but thofe which empty themfelves immediately 
 into the fea ; and not into any other river. 
 Rivulets have their rife, fometimes, from great rains, 
 or great quantities of thawed fnow ; efpecialfy in moun- 
 tainous places; as in the long ridges in Africa, India, 
 Sumatra, tsV. But the generality of rivulets arife from 
 fprings. 
 
 Rivers themfelves all arife either from the confluence of fe- 
 veral rivulets, or from lakes : nor is there any great river, 
 fuch as the Rhine, Elbe, C5Y. known to flow from a finale 
 fpring — The Volga, e. gr. confifts of above two hundred ri- 
 vulets, all flowing into it, before it reach the Cafpian : and 
 the Danube receives as many. Pliny, indeed, and Cardan, 
 fay, that the Nile receives none; but the later travellers into 
 the Abyffinia allure us of the contrary. 
 
 The Rhine, Rhone, Danube, Boryfthenes, &c. arife origi- 
 nally from fprings in the mountains ; and the Nile, the Volga, 
 the great river of St Laurence, &c. from lakes. 
 Phenomena and variations of Rivers — Rivers are found fub- 
 ject to great alterations, as different feafons of the year, day, 
 &c. from frequent rains, and melted fnow — Thus in Peru 
 and Chili many of the rivers are almoft infenfible in the night- 
 time, and only flow by day, as being then augmented by 
 the diffolution of the fnow on the mountains Andes — Thus 
 the Volga abounds in water in May and June, fo as to 
 cover-the fand-banks, fefr, which all the reft of the year lie 
 bare, fo as fcarce to allow a paffage to the loaden fhips. 
 — Thus alfo the Nile, Ganges, Indus, tsV. are frequently 
 fo increafed as to overflow; and that either in the winter, 
 from ram, or in the fuminer, from the melting of the fnow. 
 
 » Some 
 
R I V 
 
 R I V 
 
 Some rivers bury themfelves under ground in the middle of 
 their courfe, and break out again in other places like new 
 rivers — Thus the Niger; which ibme cofmographers derive 
 by a fubtemmeous chanc-1 from the Nile, becaufe it fwells at 
 the fame time with the Nile, without any other apparent caufe 
 of its {welling: the Niger itfelf, meeting the mountains of 
 Nubia, is hid under them, and riles again on the wellern fide 
 cf thole mountains. Thus alfo the Tygris is loft in the moun^ 
 tain Taurus, dsV. 
 
 Ariftotle and the poets mention feveral fuel, rivers about Ar 
 cadia: Alpheus, a river of Arcadia, is particularly famed.— 
 This, being fwallowed up in the ground, is fuppofed, by thi 
 Greek authors, to continue its progrefs under earth, and under 
 the bottom of the fea, into Sicily ; where breaking up near 
 Syracufe, it forms the river Arethufa. The great reafon of 
 this opinion was, that, every fifth fummer, the river Arethufa 
 in Sicily caft up the dung of cattle about the time of the cele- 
 bration of the Olympic games in Achaia, when the dung of 
 vi&ims was ufed to be caft into the Alpheus. 
 Some rivers empty themlelves into the fea by one mouthy 
 fome by fevera! — Thus, the Danube opens into the Euxine 
 fea by feven mouths, the Nile by feven, and the Volga by at 
 Jeait feventy. The caufe of this variety of mouths Varenius 
 attributes principally to banks of fand, \3c. formed therein, 
 which gradually increafing, form iflands, whereby the chanel 
 js divided into feveral branches — Indeed, the antients tel! us, 
 that the Nile formerly only emptied itfelf at one mouth, 
 called the ojlium cambicum ; and add, that the other fix are 
 adventitious or artificial. 
 
 The chanels of rivers, except fuch as were formed at the crea- 
 tion, Varenius endeavours to- prove to be all artificial, and 
 dug by men— His reafons are, that, when a new fpring breaks 
 forth, the water does not make kf:lf a chanel, but fpreads over 
 the adjacent land ; fo that the people have been neceffitated 
 to cut it a chanel, to fecure their grounds ; and that a great 
 number of chanels of rivers are certainly known, from hiftory, 
 to have been dug by men, &c. 
 
 As to the qucftion, whether thofe rivers, which run into 
 others, have made themfelves that way by their own motion, 
 or have been turned thither in canals cut by men ? he take* 
 the latter to be the mofe probable ; and concludes the fame 
 of the arms or branches of rivers, and of the turn:, whereby 
 iflands are formed in the Tanais, Volga, cSV. 
 To the qucftion, why we have no fait rivers, when there are 
 fo many fait fpnngs ? he anfwers, that it is becaufe men hav- 
 ing no occafion for fait water, have not dug chanels to con- 
 duct the water of fait fprings ; fait being procureable at Iefs 
 cxpence. 
 
 The water of moft rivers carries with it particles of metals, 
 
 minerals, fands, or oily and fat bodies, ceV. Thus, fome 
 
 rivers bring fands intermixed with grains of gold ; of which 
 kind is, j". A river in Japon. 2°. Another in the ifland 
 Lequeo, near Javon. 3". A rivulet in Africa called Arroe, 
 breaking out of the roots of the mountains of the Moon, 
 wherein there are gold mines. 4 0 . A river in Guinea, where 
 the negroes feparate the gold-duff from the fand, and fell it 
 to the Europeans, who traffic hither for that verv purpofe. 
 5 0 . In fome rivulets near the ctty of Mexico there' are grains 
 of gold taken up, efpccially after rain ; which is alfo to be un- 
 derlf ood of all the other rivers, none of which vield any thing 
 confiderable, except in rainy feafons. 6°. In Peru, Sumatra, 
 Cuba, Hifpaniola, and Guiana. Laftly, there are feveral 
 brocks in the countries about the Alps, efpecially Tirol, out 
 of the fediment of whofe waters gold is drawn, though there 
 be no grains confpicuous therein. Add to this, that the 
 Rhine alfo in many places affords a golden mud. 
 As to rivers that bring grains or particles of filver, iron, cop- 
 per, lead, & e. we find no mention of them in authors, though 
 doubtlefs there are great numbers of each : and manv of the 
 „n"..ix--r„: 1 . . 1 . , - . 1 
 
 medicinal effect s of mineral waters arc douotlefs 
 
 owing to par- 
 
 ticles of thefe kinds. 
 We muff not here omit a water in Germany, which is ordi- 
 narily fuppofed to change iron into copper The truth is, 
 
 there is no real converiion of the metal ; all that is done is', 
 that the cuprine, and vitriolic particles in the water, corrode 
 the iron, and detaching parts thereof by means of the motion 
 of the water, coppery particles fucceed in their room. 
 From this variety in the mixture of river water, refult va- 
 rious qualities, different fpecihe gravities, different colours, 
 fcrY. 
 
 Some rivers, at certain feafons of the year, fwell fo as to 
 
 overflow their banks, and drown the neighbouring lands 
 
 Of thefe the moft eminent is the Nile, which rifes fo as to 
 cover all Egypt, except the hills. The inundation begins 
 about the 17th day of June, and increafes for the (pace of 
 forty days, and decreafes for as many ; during which period, 
 the cities ot Egypt, which are all built on hills, appear as fo 
 many iflands. 
 
 To thele inundations Egypt owes all its fertility ; the heavens 
 there affording no ram, or at leaft none in any refpect confi- 
 derable— Hence, as the inundation is ereat or final), Egypt 
 fer that year is fruitful or barren. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 The antient Greeks, &v. were mHraken as to the raijfe of 
 this inundation, no body in thofe days havinff travelled up 
 to the fomce of the river : but the modern Englifh and Por- 
 tuguese traders into Congo, Angola, Moriomotapa, frjV. have 
 
 let us into the fecret From them we learn, that the fprino 
 
 or fource of the Nile is in a large lake called Zaire, round 
 which are a great number of huge mountains, called the moun- 
 tains of the Moon. Now, as thefe lie in the fouthern hemi- 
 fphere, their winter will be at the time ofoui fummer: but, 
 by reafon of their nearnefs to the equator, (being only 10 0 ' 
 diftant from it) they never feel any notable cold : hence it is, 
 that, inftead of fnow in the winter, they have rain every day! 
 at leaft two hours before, and two hours after noon. In effect' 
 the tops of thefe mountains are always covered with clouds^ 
 and the rains are at the proper feafon almoft continual. Hence 
 torrents are conftantly gulhing down from the mountains, all 
 ending in the lake of Zaire ; whence they flow into the cha- 
 nel of the Nile, and other rivers arifing from the fame lake, as 
 the Cuamar, the Zaire, isle, and hence the inundation of the 
 Nile. 
 
 The ofber rivers, which have any notable ftated inundations, 
 are, the Niger, or Gambia, which overflows at the fame time 
 with the Nile. Leo Africanus fays, it begins on the 15th 
 day of J une, increaies for forty days, and decreafes as long— 
 The Zaire, a river of Congo, proceeding from the fame lake- 
 with the Nile, and therefore affefied in the fame manner : 
 the Rio de la Plata in Brafil, which, Maffeus obferves, over- 
 flow at the fame time with the Nile : the Ganges : and the 
 Indus ; both which laft overflow in June, July, and Augufl, 
 at which times the natives fave great quantities of the water 
 in ponds, to ferve them the reft of the year : feveral rivers 
 flowing out of the lake Chiamay into the bay of Bengal, which 
 overflow in September, October, and November. Thefe all 
 bring a very great fertility with them to the ground : the 
 ™«-Macoa inCamboia; the river Parana, or~Paranguafa, 
 which fome will have to be the fame with the filver river ; 
 feveral rivers in Coromandelia, a part of India, which over- 
 flows in the rainy months, from the great quantity of water 
 ifluing from the mountain Galis; the Euphrates, which 
 overflows Mefopotamia certain days in the year; and, lalLiyj 
 the river Sus in Numidia. 
 
 The rivers moft celebrated for their length, breadth, fwift- 
 nefs of current, Isfc. are,— the Nile, which runs almoft in a 
 ftraight courfe 2520 geographical mi!e; ; the Niger, which 
 runs 2400 miles ; the Ganges; 1200 miles; the Ob, 1600 
 miles ; the Jenifcea in Afia, about the fame length with the 
 Ob ; the river Orellana in America, 60 miles broad at its 
 mouth, and 5000 miles long ; the Rio de la Plata, 80 miles 
 broad at the mouth ; the Omarannan; another river of Brafil ; 
 and the great river of St. Laurence, near 2500 miles long. 
 
 River, in phyfics, denotes a ftream of water running by its 
 own gravity, in a chanel open above— Sucli as A E Tat. 
 Hydroflatics, jig. 34. — See alfo Wave. 
 
 Laws tjf the mition 0/ Rivers— The moderrl philofophers en- 
 deavour to bring the motion and flux of rivers to precife laws, 
 and, with this view, they have applied eeometry and mecha- 
 nics thereto ; fo that the doctrine of rivers is become a part of 
 the new philofophy. 
 
 The Italian authors have diftinguifhed themfelves herein, and 
 it is chiefly to them we are indebted for the improvement ; 
 particularly S. Guglielmini, who, in his treatife eklla Katuret 
 ele Fiumi, has abundance of new obfervations and difcoveries 
 relating thereto. 
 
 Rivers, he obferves, ufually have their fources in mountains, 
 or elevations of ground ; and it is in their defcent from tliefc 
 that they acquire the velocity or acceleration, which maintains 
 their future current— In proportion as they advance farther, 
 this velocity diminifhes, by reafon of the continual friaion 
 of the water againff the bottom and fides of the chanel, of the 
 various obftacies they meet withal in their progrefs, and of 
 their arriving at length in plains, where the defcent is lefs, 
 and their inclination to the horizon, of confequence, greater 
 —Thus the Reno, a river of Italy, which 0 ave occafion, in 
 fome meafure, to thefe fpeculations, is found, near its mouth, 
 to have fcarce a defcent of 52 feconds. 
 
 If the acquired velocity be quite fpent through the many 
 obftacies, fo that the current becomes horizontal, there 
 will then nothing remain to propagate the motion, and 
 continue the ftream, but the depth, or the perpendicular pref- 
 fure of the water, which is always proportional to the depth — 
 And, happily for us, this refource increafes as the occafion 
 for it increafes ; for, in proportion as the water lofes of 
 the velocity acquired by the defcent, it rifes and augments 
 in depth. 
 
 The upper parts of the water of a river, and thofe at a di- 
 ftance from the banks, may continue to flow from the fingle 
 caufe or principle of declivity, how fmall foever it be ; for 
 not being detained by any obftacle, the minuteft difference of 
 level will have its effect : but the lower parts, which roll along 
 the bottom, will fcarce be finfible of fo fmall a declivity, and 
 will only have what motion they receive from the prelfion of 
 the fuperincumbent, waters. 
 
 jo B b The 
 
R I V 
 
 R I V 
 
 The natural vifcidity and cohefion of the particles of water, 
 and that implication, as it were, which they feem to have 
 with one another, makes the lower, which are moved_ by 
 means of the depth, carry along with them the upper, which, 
 in a horizontal chanel, would have no motion at all, or in a 
 chanel very little inclined, next to none ; fo that the lower, 
 in this cafe, communicate to the upper a part of the motion 
 they have received from the preflure of it. Hence, from the 
 preffurc, it frequently happens, that the greateft velocity of a 
 rher is about the middle ot its depth j fuch middle parts hav- 
 ing the advantage of being preffed with half the depth of the 
 river, and of being free, at the fame time, from the friction 
 of the bottom. 
 
 To find whether the water of a river, almoft horizontal, flows 
 by means of the velocity acquired in its defcent, or by the 
 prefi'ure of its depth ; fet up an obftacle perpendicular thereto ; 
 if the water rife and fwell immediately againft iuch obiracle, 
 it runs in virtue of its fall ; or, if it flop a little while firftj in 
 
 virtue of its preflion. 
 
 Rivers, according to this author, almoft always make their 
 own beds— If the bottom have originally been a large decli- 
 vity, the water, in conl'equence hereof, falling with a great 
 deal of force, will have fwept away the moft elevated parts of 
 the foil, and carrying them lower down, will gradually render 
 the bottom horizontal ; where the ftream is fwifteit, there 
 will the earth be moft dug up, and confequently there the 
 greateft cavity will be made. 
 
 The water having made its bed horizontal, becomes fo itfclf, 
 and confequently rakes with the lefs force againft the bottom, 
 till at length that force becomes only equal to the refiftence 
 of the bottom. The bottom is now arrived at a ftate of per- 
 manency, at leaffc for a confiderable time ; and the longer, 
 according to the quality of the foil, clay and chalk refitting 
 longer than fand or mud. 
 
 On the other hand, the water is continually gnawing and 
 eating off the brims of its chanel, and this with the more 
 force, as, by the direction of its ftream, it impinges more 
 pcrpendicula:Iy againft them. By this means, it has a conti- 
 nual tendency to render them parallel to its own courie ; and 
 when it has arrived as near that as poffible, it ceafes to have 
 any effect that way. At the fame time that it has thus recti- 
 fied its edges, it has inlargcd its own bed ; that is, it has loft 
 of its depth, and confequently of its force and preflure : this it 
 continues to do till there is an equilibrium between the force 
 of the water and the refiftcnce of its banks, upon which they 
 will remain without farther mutation— And it is evident from 
 experience, that thefe equilibriums are all real ; inafmuch as 
 we find, that rivers only dig and widen to a certain pitch. 
 The very revcrfe of all thefe things does alfo, on fomc occa- 
 fions, happen — Rivers, whofe waters ar» thick and muddy, 
 raife their bed, by letting part of the heterogeneous matters con- 
 tained in them fall to the bottom: they alfo contract their 
 banks by a continual apportion of the fame matter in brufhing 
 over them. This matter being thrown afide far from the 
 ftream of water, might even ferve, by reafon of the obfeure- 
 nefs of the motion, to form new banks. 
 
 Now, thefe oppolite effects feem almoft always to concur, 
 and arc differently combined, according to the circumftances ; 
 whence it is very difficult judging of" the refult. Yet mutt 
 this combination be known very accurately, before any mca- 
 fures can be taken about rivers, efpecially as to the diverting 
 
 their courfes The Lamona, which emptied itfelf into the 
 
 Po, being turned another way, to make it difcharge itfelf into 
 the Adriatic, was fo altered, and its force fo far diminifbed, 
 now that its waters were left to themfelves, that it raifed its 
 bed a great heighth, by continual depofitions of mud, till it 
 became much higher than the Po in its utmoft accretions, 
 and needed very high banks or dykes to keep it from over- 
 flowing, 
 
 . A little river may be received into a large one, without either 
 augmenting its width or depth — This iecming paradox arifes 
 hence, that the addition of the little river may only go to- 
 wards moving the waters before at reft near the banks of the 
 large one, and thus augmenting the velocity of the ftream, in 
 the fame proportion as it doei that of the quantity of water — 
 Thus, the Venetian branch of the Po fwallowed up the Fer- 
 rarefe branch, and that of Panaro, withowt any Inlargcnient 
 of its own dimenfions. And the fame may be concluded pro- 
 portionably of all other acceflions to rivers^ and, in the gene- 
 ral, of all new augmentations of water. 
 
 'A river offering to enter into another, either perpendicularly, 
 .or in an oppolite direction, will be diverted by degrees from 
 that direction, and obliged to make itfclf a new and more fa- 
 vourable bed towards the mouth. 
 
 The union of two rivers into one makes the whole flow the 
 fwiftcr : by reafon, in lieu of the friction of four fhores, they 
 have only two to furmount; and that the ftream, being farther 
 diftaht from the banks, goes on with the lefs interruption ; 
 befuie, that a greater quantity of water moving with a greater 
 velocity, digs deeper in the bed, and, of courfe, retrenches 
 
 of its former width— Hence alfo it is that rivers, by being 
 
 United, take up lefs fpacc on the furfacc of the earth, and are 
 
 more advantageous to low grounds which difcharge their fuper- 
 fluous moifture into them, and have likewife lefs occafion for 
 dykes to prevent their overflowing. 
 
 Thefe advantages are fo confiderable, that S. Guglielmini 
 thinks them worthy of nature's having had a view to them in 
 her contriving to make the confluences of rivers fo frequent 
 as we find them. 
 
 To determine more precifely the general laws of the motion 
 of rivers, it may be obferved that a river. is faid to remain in 
 the fame Jiate, ot to be in a -permanent Jlate, when it flows 
 uniformly, fo as to be always at the fame heighth in the fame 
 place. 2 Q . That a plane, which cutting a river is perpendi- 
 cular to the bottom, 2&po)iq, is called the Jett'ion of a river 
 Sec Tab. Hydroflat.fig. 34. 
 
 Hence, when a river is terminated by flat fides, parallel to 
 each other, and perpendicular to the horizon, and the bottom 
 alfo is a plane, either horizontal or inclined, the fection of 
 the river with thefe three planes makes right angles, and is a 
 parallelogram. 
 
 Now in every river that is in a permanent ftate, the fame 
 quantity of water flows in the fame time through every 
 fection; for unlefs there be in every place as great a fupply 
 of water, as what runs from it, the river will not remain in 
 the fame ftate. This will hold good, whatever be the irre- 
 gularity of the bed, or chanel, from which in other refpects. 
 feveral changes in the motion of the river may arife : for ex- 
 ample, a greater friction^ in proportion to the inequality of 
 the chanel. 
 
 The irregularities in the motion of a river may be infinitely 
 varied, nor can any rules be given to fettle them. — To alcer- 
 tain their general courfe, all irregularities muft be fct aiide j 
 only the general tenor or flux be confidered. 
 SupDofe then, the water to run in a regular chanel, without 
 any'fenfible friction, and that the chanel is terminated with 
 plane fides, parallel to one another, and vertical -, and alfo 
 that the bottom is a plane, and inclined to the horizon — Let 
 AE be the chanel, into which the water runs from a greater 
 receptacle or head ; and let the water always remain of the 
 fame depth at the head, fo that the river may be in a perma- 
 nent ftate : the water here defcends along an inclined plane, 
 and is accelerated; whereby, becaufe the fame quantity oi water 
 flows through every fection, the depth of the water, as yon 
 recede from the head of the river, is continually dimimfhed, 
 and its furface will acquire the figure if s. 
 To determine the velocity of the water in different placet ; 
 fuppofe the aperture of the chanel A D C E to be lhut up 
 with a plane ; if there be an hole made in the plane, the 
 water will fpout the fafter through the hole, as the hole is 
 morediftant from the furface of the water hi; and the water 
 will have the fame celerity that a body falling from the fur- 
 face of the water to the depth of the hole below it would ac- 
 quire; all which regularly arifes from the preffurc of the fuper- 
 incumbent water— There is the fame preflure, that is, the fame 
 moving force, when the obltacle at AC is taken away, upon 
 which every particle of water enters into the chanel with 
 the celerity a body would acquire in fallingfrom the furface of 
 the water to the depth of the particle. This particle is moved 
 along in an inclined plane in the chanel, with an accelerated 
 motion; and that in fame manner, as if falling vertically, 
 it had continued its motion to the fame depth below the fur- 
 face of the water in the head of the river. 
 So, if you draw the horizontal line 1 t, the particle at r 
 will have the fame celerity as a body falling the length i C> 
 and running down C r, can acquire ; which is the celerity 
 acquired by "the body in falling down tr. Therefore the ce- 
 lerity of a particle may be every where meafured, by drawing 
 from it a perpendicular to the horizontal plane, which is con- 
 ceived to run along the furface of the water in the head of the 
 river : and the velocity which a body acquires in falling down 
 that perpendicular, will be the celerity of the particle; which 
 is greater, the longer the perpendicular is. From any point, 
 as r, draw rs perpendicular to the bottom of the river ; 
 
 this will meafure the heighth or depth of the river. Since 
 
 r s is inclined to the horizon, if from the feveral points of 
 that line, you draw perpendiculars to i t, they will be fhorter, 
 the more diftant they are from r, and the fhorteft of them 
 will alio be s v : therefore the celerities of the particles in thb 
 line rs, are fo much the lefs, the nearer they are to the fur- 
 face of the river, and the lower water is moved fafter than the 
 upper water. 
 
 Yet the celerities of thofe waters, as the river runs on, con- 
 tinually approach nearer and nearer to an equality : for the 
 fquares of thofe celerities are as rt to s v, the difference of 
 which lines as you recede from the head of the river is con- 
 tinually leffened, becaufe of the depth r s, which is alfo con- 
 tinually diminifhed as the lines themfelves are lengthened. 
 Now as this obtains in the fquares, it will much more obtain 
 in the celerities themfelves, whofe difference therefore is dimi- 
 nifhed as they increafe. 
 
 If the inclination of the bottom be changed up to the head of 
 the river, fo as to become y Z, and a greater quantity of 
 water flow into the chanel, it will be deeper every where in 
 
 1 the 
 
R O A 
 
 ROB 
 
 the river, but the celerity of the water will not be changed Double-WoAn 
 — For this celerity docs not depend on the depth of the water 
 in the river, bat, on the diftance of the moved particle from 
 the horizontal plane of the furfacc at the head continued over 
 the (aid particle, which diftance is meafured by the perpen- 
 dicular r t, or s v ; but thefe liiies are not changed by the 
 afflux of water, provided the water remain at the fame height 
 in the bafon or head. . . 
 
 Suppofe the upper part of the chanel flopped by an obftacle, 
 as X, which defcends a little way below the furface of the 
 water ; here the whole water which comes cannot run ' 
 through, therefore it muft rife ; but the celerity of the water 
 below this cataratt is hot increafed, and the water that comes 
 on is continually heaped up, fo that at laft it nruft rife fo as 
 to flow over the obftacle, or the banks of the river. If the 
 banks be raifed, and the obftacle be continued, the height 
 of the water would rife above the line i t : but before 
 that, the celerity of the water cannot be increafed ; in 
 which cafe the heighth of all the water in the head will be 
 increafed ; for as we fuppofe the river in t a permanent ftate, 
 there mult continually be as great a fupply of water to 
 the head as there runs from it down the chanel ; but if 
 lefs water runs down, the heighth muft: neceffarily be in- 
 qreafed in the head till the celerity of the water flowing un- 
 der the obftacle be increafed to fuch degree, that the fame 
 quantity of water fhall run under the obftacle, as ufed to 
 run in the open chanel before. . 
 
 RIVULET, a diminutive of river. See River. 
 
 RIXDOLLAR or Rixdaller, a filver coin, ftruck in 
 feveral ftates and free cities of Germany, as alfo in Flanders, 
 Poland, Denmark, Sweden, cjte 
 
 There is but little difference between the rixdollar and thedol- 
 lar, anotherfilvcr coin ftruck in Germany, each being nearly 
 equal to the French crown of three livres, or the Spanifh piece 
 of eight, or £ s. 6 d. fteriing. 
 
 The rixdollar is one of the inoft current and univerfal coins 
 in the world — It is ufed equally in the commerce of the 
 Levant, the North* Mufcovy, and the Eaft-Indies. 
 
 ROAC H-fi/hing. See the article Fishing. 
 
 ROAD, Via, an open way or paftage, forming a commo- 
 dious communication between one place and another. 
 The Romans, of all people; took the moft pains in their 
 roads ; the labour and expenccs they were at to render 
 them fpacious, ftraight, fmooth and agreeable to the very 
 extremities of their empire are incredible. See Bergier's 
 Hijhry of the great roads of the Roman empire. 
 Ufu;dly they ftrcngthened the ground by ramming it, lay- 
 ing it with flints, pebbles or fand, fometimes by a lining of 
 mafonry, rubbifh, bricks, potfhreds, tfc bound together 
 with mortars. 
 
 F. Mencftrier obferves, that in fome places in the Lyonnois 
 he has found huge duffers of flints cemented witli lime, 
 reaching 10 or 12 feet deep, and making a mafs as hard and 
 compact as marble itfelf ; and which, after rcfifting the in- 
 juries of time for 1600 years, is .ftill fcarce penetrable by all 
 the. force of hammers, mattocks, isc. and yet the flints it con- 
 iifts of are not bigger than eggs. 
 
 Sometimes they even paved their roads regularly with large 
 fquare frce-ftoncs, fuch are the Appian and Flaminian ways, 
 
 C7r. 
 
 The roads paved of very bard ftones they ufually called 
 Vtte ferret either becaule they refembled iron, or becaufe 
 they refifted the iron of the horfes feet, chariots, bY. 
 Roads are either natural or artificial, terrejlrial or aquatic, 
 public or private. 
 
 NaturalRoAD is that which has been frequented for a long fuc- 
 cefiion of time, and fubfifts with little expence by reaton of 
 its difpofition, fifc, 
 
 Artificial Road is that made by labour of the hand, either of 
 earth or mafonry, and in the making whereof feveral diffi- 
 culties were to be furmounted, fuch are moft of thofe along 
 the banks of rivers, and through marfhes, lakes, &e. 
 
 Terrejlrial or land Roads i are not only thofc made upon the 
 ground but alfo thofe formed of earth heaped up in man- 
 ner of a bank, and fuibined by fpurs, buttrcfles and counter- 
 forts. 
 
 Aquctic Road, is a road made in the waters, whether current, 
 as thofe of rivers, csV. or ftagnant, as banks and caufeways, 
 or over morafi'es, &e. 
 
 Under this denomination are alfo comprehended navigable 
 rivers and artificial canals, as thofe in Italy, Holland, iffc . 
 
 Public Road or grand road, in any common road, whether 
 ftraight or a-crofs, military or royal, &c— Private road is 
 that made for die convenience of fome particular houfe, t?c. 
 
 Military Roads, fo called among the Romans, were grand 
 roads appointed for the marching of their armies into the 
 provinces of the empire, for the affiftance of their allies. 
 
 The principal of thefe reads in England, are Watling-ftreet, 
 Jkenild-ftreet, Fofs-way and Erminage-ftreet ; which' fee 
 under the article Way. 
 
 among the Romans, were roads for carriagcs-i 
 having two pavements or caufeways, the one for thofe 
 going one way, the other for thofe returning the other B 
 to prevent clafhing, flopping and confufion. 
 Thefe two ways were feparated from each other by a barik. 
 raifed in the middle, paved with bricks, for the convenience 
 of foot-people, with borders and mounting ftones from fpace 
 to fpace, and military columns to mark the diftance— 
 Such was the had from Rome to Oftia, called Via Per- 
 tuenjis, 1 ' ' " 1 ' 
 
 Subterraneous Road, is that dug in a rock with the CruflSlJ 
 and left vaulted — Such is that of Puzzuoli near Naples, 
 which is noar half a league long, and is fifteen foot broad 
 and as many high. 
 
 Strabo fays It was made by one Cocccius, a relation pro- 
 bably of Ncrva, but it has fince been widened by Alphon- 
 fus king of Arragon and Naples, and made ftraight by the 
 viceroys — There is arfother of the fame kind in the fame 
 kingdom, between Bala? and Cunise, called the Grotto of 
 Vtrgil, becaufe mentioned by that poet in the fixth book of 
 his .#£neid. 
 
 Road, in navigation, denotes a place of anchorage at fome 
 diftance from lhore, and flickered from the winds, where: 
 veflels ufually moor to wait for a wind or tide proper to 
 carry them into harbour, or to fet fail. 
 
 When the bottom is clear of rocks," and the 1 hold firm, and 
 the place well covered from the wind, the road is faid to 
 be good — An open road is one which has but little land on 
 any fide. 
 
 The roads with!n his majefty's dominions are free to all mer- 
 chant veflels, either of his fubje£ts or allies— Captains and 
 matters of fhips who are forced by ftorms, £#r. to cut their 
 cables, and leave their anchors in the roads, are obliged to 
 fix up marks or buoys, on pain of forfeiture of their an- 
 chors, &c. 
 The matters of fliip: 
 
 ^ coming to moor in a road, triuft caft 
 anchor at fuch diftance as that the cables, t3Y. may not 
 mix\ on pain of anfwering the damages ; when there arc 
 feveral veflels in the fame road, the outermoft to the fea- 
 ward is obliged to keep a light in his lan thorn, in the night- 
 time, to apprize veflels. coming in from fea. 
 Cod Road. See the article CocK-road. 
 ROADE.R, among failors, a fhip that rides at anchor in a 
 road; 
 
 ROB, in pharmacy, fapa, a preparation anciently much 
 ufed, confuting of the juices of fruits, purified and boiled 
 to a confumption of two thirds of their moifture, or to the 
 confiftence of a jelly. 
 
 There are robs made of quinces, floes, cherries^ mulberries,; 
 elderberries, barberries, goofeberries, and other fruits, for 
 various difeafes — Thejuice of grapes thus prepared is more 
 particularly called rob or fapa jhnplex i this is almoft of the 
 confiftence of honey. 
 
 When only one third of the humidity is boiled away, it is cal- 
 led dcfrUtum ; and when only boiled to the confiftence of a 
 foft electuary, a refiu. 
 
 The word rob is pure Arabic ; and fignific* originally a 
 juice dried in the fun, or over the fire, that it mar keep the 
 longer without damage. 
 
 Sometimes it alfo denotes a compoiition of fome juice made 
 up with honey or fugar, in which fenfe it is confounded with 
 Ioche or lohoc. 
 
 The rob is a form now much out of ufe, though there are 
 feveral directed in the college difpenfatory ; as robs of black 
 cherries, of floes, of quinces, £sV. the rob of elder is now 
 moft ufed. 
 
 ROBBERY, Robberia or Roeeria, in law, a felo- 
 nious taking away another man's goods, from his perfon, 
 prcfence or eftate, againft his will, with putting him in 
 fear, &c. — This is fometimes alfo called violent theft, and its 
 punifhment, be the value of the thing taken ever lb final], is 
 death. 
 
 The word is faid to have taken its rife hence* that ancientJy 
 robbers only took away the robes or clothes from travellers. 
 Though my lord Coke, in the third of his Inftitutes, take* 
 the nnme to have had its rife from Robin Hood, who lived 
 under Richard I. in the borders of England and Scotland, by 
 robbery, burning houfes, rape and fpoil — Hence alfo 
 Robers-men or robcrds-men^ mentioned in feveral itatutes for 
 mighty thieves. 
 
 ROBBING. See the article HovsE-robbing. 
 
 ROBE, Roba. See thearticle Gown. 
 
 Mafter of the R o B E s, is an officer of the houfhold, who 
 has the ordering of all his majefty's robes ; as thofe of the 
 coronation, thofe of St. George's feaft, of parliament, ls r c. as 
 alfo of his wearing apparel, collar of SS's, &c. 
 He has feveral officers under him, as a clerk of the robes, a 
 yeoman, three grooms, a page, a bruiher, fempftrefs, laundrefs, 
 ftarcher, keeper of the wardrobe at Whitehall, fcft. See 
 Wardrobe. 
 
 ROBERVALLIAN lines, a name given tg certain lines, 
 
 ufed 
 
ROC 
 
 tiled for the transformation of figures , thus called from their 
 inventor M.deRoberval. ; 
 
 The abbot Gallois, in the memoirs of the royal academy, an. 
 l6q; oMerves, that the method of transforming figures, 
 explained at the latter end of M. de Roberval'i treatife of in- 
 diliftbles, is the fame withtb.it fince puhlilhed by Mr James 
 Gregory, in his fai/rat/i/ geometry; and that, by a letter of 
 Torricelli's, it appears that Roherval was the inventor ot this 
 manner of transforming figures, by means of certain lines 
 •which Torricelli therefore called Robervallian lines. 
 He adds, that it is highly probable that J. Gregory firft learned 
 the method in the journey he made to Padua in 1668 , the 
 method itfelf having been known in Italy from the year 1640 ; 
 thoueh the book was not publifhed till the year 1692. 
 This"accountDr David Gregory has endeavoured to refute, 
 in vindication of his brother— His anfwer is infeited m the 
 Phil. Ira, fail, an. 1694, and the abbot has rejoined m the 
 French memoirs of the academy, an. 1703. 
 ROBIGALIA, or Ruiiigalia, in antiquity, bee Kuei- 
 
 .Aif&M^Wi. ' " ! - " liv : " ' ' 'f'^'i- - '2 r v 
 
 JIOBORANTIA, in medicine, Jtrmpbm&s; or lucn 
 
 medicines as ftrengthcn the parts, and give new vigour to the 
 
 confutation. . , - 
 
 ROCAMBOLES, amild fort of garlic, by fome called bpa- 
 
 nifh garlic; being much of the nature of fhalot; and well 
 
 known in cookery, in quality of a fauce. 
 ROCHE, or Roch alum. See the article AtLUM. 
 ROCHET, or Rocket, a lawn garment, worn by bifhops 
 
 and abbots, refembling a furplice, except in this, that the 
 
 fleeves are gathered at the wrilf; whereas the furplice is quite 
 
 open. 
 
 * Menage derives the word from the Latin, rocbeltm, a diminu- 
 tive of mch'ui, ufed in writers of the lower Latin for tunica, 
 and formed originally from the German rak. 
 
 The regular canons of St Auguftin do alfo wear rochets under 
 
 their copes. 
 
 Rochets alfo denote the mantles wore on days of ceremony, by 
 the peers fitting in the Englifh parliament. See Peek and 
 Parliament. 
 
 Thole of vifcounts have two bands or borders and a half; Jiofe 
 
 of earls, three; thofc of marquiiTcs, three and a half ; and 
 
 thofe of dukes four. Larrey. 
 Rochet fijhing. SecthearticleFisHlNC. 
 ROCK*, Rupes, a large mafs or block of hard ftone, rooted 
 
 in the ground. 
 
 * The v/ord is formed of the Greek rime, cleft, chink ; and 
 fui iioin iwywpjv* 1 break; whence U*t&, a ltony fliore. 
 
 There are various ways of breaking rods with wood, gun- 
 powder, itfe. 
 
 We have roads, grotto's, labryrinths, fe'r. dug through 
 
 rocks. 
 
 Rock-o&ot. See the article Allum. 
 
 RocK-eryJal, or cryjlal of the rock, is that fuppofed to be 
 formed by a congelation of the lapidific juice which trickles 
 down in rocks and caverns. See Supplement article 
 Crystal. 
 
 R6cK-5Vr. See the article Salt. 
 
 •R O C K E T, in pyrotcchny, an artificial fire-work, confift- 
 ing of a cylindrical cafe of paper, filled with a compofition 
 of certain combuftible ingredients ; which being tied to a 
 ftick, mounts into the air to a conliderable heighth, and there 
 
 burfts. 
 
 The rocket has .a great part in all fire- works of entertainment, 
 being not only ufed fingly, but fometimes alfo as an ingre- 
 dient in others.. 
 
 Beiides the rocket here defined, which is properly called 
 the fky-racket, there is another,, which from the fphere it 
 moves in, the water, is denominated water-rocket — The me- 
 chanifm, preparation, cSe. of each whereof, we lhall here 
 defcribe. 
 
 Method of making S-fj-HocKETS — 1°. A concave cylindrical 
 mould, or frame, AB, {Tab. Mifcellany, fig. 7.) is turned, of 
 hard wood, wirh a bale B D, and a capital H C, ufually 
 adorned with architectonical moulding — The cylinder is to 
 be open at both ends, and its dimenfions, for rockets of vari- 
 ous fizes, as in the following article — When large, it is 
 fome.imcs alfo made of brafs or tin ; and when fmall, of 
 bone, • - : . • <" > — - -viiVgy 
 
 2°. Of the fame matter with the cylinder, is prepared a 
 quadra, or foot E ; in the middle whereof is turned a hemis- 
 phere G, confiderably lefs than that of the cavity of the 
 frame ; making the cap or head of another cylinder I K, and 
 reaching up within the cafe ; where it is kept fteady by a pin 
 L M. 
 
 Authors do not agree about the proportions — Simionowitz 
 prefcribes thofe that follow. If the diameter of the aper- 
 ture HN be equal to that of a leaden-ball of a pound, or at 
 moll two pound weight ; the heighth of the cylinder, with 
 the bafe and capital H C, to be feven diameters, and the 
 heighth of tile quadra FE il. The altitude of the cylinder 
 K.I, I. The diameter IN 1?. The diameter of the hemi- 
 fphere G, The heighth of the capital AC, I — The fame 
 
 ROC 
 
 author adds, that he finds by abundant experience, that if the 
 diameter of the aperture bfi divided into 100 parts, according 
 to the different weight of the leaden-balls to whofe diameter 
 it is equal, the following numbers being multiplied by 7 give 
 the heighth HE. 
 
 Weight of SubfeptupSe of Weight of Supfeptuple of 
 Leaden-Ball. Altitude H E. Leaden-Eall. Akitude H E. 
 
 15 
 
 9 & 
 94 
 9* 
 
 3° 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 86 
 82 
 78 
 75 
 67 
 57 
 
 The mould being ready, a wooden cylinder or mould A B 
 {Fig. 8.) is provided, whofe diameter is | of the aperture of 
 the frame, and its length equal to the heighth of the fame ; 
 to which is fixed a haft or hilt AD. About this mould is a 
 thick ftrong paper rolled, till fuch time as it fill the cavity oi 
 the frame. This done, where the haft is joined to the cy- 
 linder, as at A, it is choaked, u e. firmly bound round with 
 fine pack-thresd, fo as to conftrmge or ftreighten the cavity 
 thereof— The part thus choaked or bound up FG, {fig. 9-) 
 to be equal to the hemifphere G. (Jig. 7.) 
 The cafe is now taken off the mould, and put into the ca- 
 vity of the frame, fig. 7. the choak G F upon the hemif- 
 phere ; and in this difpofition is filled with a compoiiticn 
 defcribed in the following article, rammed ftrongly in by 
 means of a wooden cylinder or rammer fitting the cavity, and. 
 a mallet. 
 
 When filled, a paper cap of a conical form is glued over the 
 end of the cafe filled laft; and the fpace left a-top is filled 
 with whole gun-powder, to the heighth of about one diame- 
 ter; then the rocket is bound, or choaked in E, as before in G. 
 Laftly, the rocket is bored, as is reprefented in AL Jig. 9. 
 care being taken to do this in the middle — Some, indeed, 
 bore the rocket as they fill it, by thrufting a long, fharp 
 fpike through the lower bafis, and drawing it out again when 
 the rocket is full : But it is beft not to bore till the rocket be ufed. 
 The boring is to go two thirds of the heighth of the rackety 
 abating one diameter of the cavity. The diameter of the bore 
 in G is to be £ of the diameter of the cylinder; and in L 
 the lower diameter. 
 
 To make the rocket mount ftraight up, it is tied faff, to the 
 end of a long {lender ftick, MD, eight times as long as the 
 rocket ; in fuch manner as that when poifed on the finger 
 near the touch-hole F, the ftick (which is ufually made big- 
 geflr at this end, and floping gently to the other) may prepon- 
 derate, though very little — The rocket thus equipped, is hung 
 at freedom, and lighted with port-fire. 
 
 Note, Some inftead of a ftick to make the rocket mount, fur- 
 nifh it with two wings, as MN, (Jig. 10.) which have the 
 fame effect : and inftead of paper fome make the cafes of 
 wood covered with leather ; others of a thin iron plate. And 
 fome, inftead of a wooden ftick ufe an iron wire, with a 
 plummet at the end of it. 
 
 The compofition wherewith rockets arc filled, confifts of the 
 three following ingredients, viz. Salt-petre, charcoal and 
 fulphur; all well ground: but the proportions of thefearc 
 various for rockets of various fizes: as in the following table. 
 Noting, that in fmall rockets gun-powder dull is added, 
 
 Compofitiom for Rockets of various fixes. 
 
 of 
 
 Weight of | 
 
 Salt- 
 
 Sul-| 
 
 Char- 
 
 jun-powder 
 
 Rocket. 1 
 
 pet. 
 
 ihur. 
 
 coal. 
 
 Duft. 
 
 
 16 
 
 lb 
 
 lb 
 
 
 100 or 60 
 
 3° 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 3° 
 
 i 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 20 18 
 
 4* 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 
 15 12 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 
 10 9 
 
 62 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 
 9 6 
 
 35 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 
 5 4 
 
 6+ 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 
 3 » 
 
 60 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Oun 
 
 Oun 
 
 Oun. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 1\ 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 '5 
 
 Note, {neral rockets being difpofed round the circumference of 
 a wheel, whether circular or polygonous, the head of the one 
 applied to the tail of another, and the wheel put in motion ; 
 as one rocket is fpent another will take fire, and the wheel be 
 continued in its rotation, 
 
roe 
 
 R O L 
 
 As an additional ornament to rockets, it is ufual to furnifh 
 them either with flars, or with ferpents, or fparks , which take 
 iire when the rocktt burfts ; and fometimes little rockets are 
 hxlofed in great ones : thefe are to take fire when the great 
 one is at MB ureatelt height. 
 
 To m*h jlars for Rockets — Mix 3 pound of falt-petre with 
 1 1 ounces of fulphur, 3 ounces of beaten gun-powder, and 
 10 of antimony. Moiften the mals with gum-water, and 
 ■ iorm them into little balls of the fizc of filberds, drying them 
 well, either in the fun or an oven. When dry, inclofe a 
 number of them in the conical t ap of the rocket. 
 
 Method of making a ii.wfir-RocK.ET — Make a racket AB after 
 the ufual manner, excepting in the number of choaks, ex- 
 
 preiled in fig. 1 1 Let its diameter be equal to that of a 
 
 leaden-ball of two or three inches diameter, and let it be bored 
 to a third part of its height. Indole the rocket in a hollow 
 paper cylinder, which linear over with melted pitch, or wax, 
 that it may refill the moifture. 
 
 Nate, The weight of the rocket is to be fo proportioned to 
 that of the water, that the whole cylinder may be immerged. 
 - — Some, inllead of a cylinder, ule a truncated cone, or even 
 a fpheriud j and fume hang a weight to the end at which it is 
 lighted. 
 
 Theory of the fight of j/v-Rockets Mariotte takes the 
 
 rife ot rock-:!s to be owing to the impuli'e or reliftence of the 
 air againit the flame. Dr. Deiaguliers accounts for it other- 
 wife. 
 
 Conceive the rocket to have no vent at the choak, and to be 
 fet on fire in the conical bore ; the confequence would be, 
 either that the rocket would borlt in the weakeft place, or that, 
 if all its parts were equally ftrong, and able to fuftain the im- 
 puife of the flame, the rocket would burn out immoveable — 
 Now, as the force of the flame is equable, fuppofe its adtion 
 downwards, or that upwards (efficient to lift 40 pounds ; as 
 thefe forces arc equal, but their directions contr ry, they will 
 deftroy each other's action. 
 
 Imagine, then, the rocket opened at the choak ; by this means 
 the ac-tion of the flame downwards is taken away, and there 
 remains a force equal to 40 pounds acting upwards, to carry 
 up the rackety and the Hick it is tied to — Accordingly, we 
 find, that, it the compolition of the rocket be very weak, fo 
 as not to give an'impfilfe greater than the weight of the rocket 
 and flick, it does not rife at all ; or, if the composition be 
 flow, fo that a lhialt part of it only kindles at firft, the rocket 
 will not rife. 
 
 The ftick ferves to keep it perpendicular; for if the rocket 
 ihould begin to tumble, moving round a point in the choak, 
 as being the common centre of gravity of rocket and Hick, 
 there would be fo much friction againit the air, by the 
 flick between the centre and the point, and the point 
 would beat againft the air with fo much velocity, that the 
 re-ait ion of the medium would reflore it to its perpendicu- 
 larity. 
 
 When the compofition is burnt out, and the impulfe upwards 
 is teafed, the common centre of gravity is brought lower to- 
 wards the middle of the flick ; by which means, the velocity 
 ot the point of the flick is decrialed, and that of the point of 
 the rscket is increafed; fo that the whole will tumble down, 
 with the rocket end forcmoil. 
 
 All the while the rocket burns, the common centre of gravity 
 is ihifting and getting downwards, and Hill the falter and the 
 lower as the flick is the lighter ; fo that it fometimes begins 
 to tumble before it be burnt out : but when the flick being a 
 little too heaw, the weight of the rocket bears a lefs propor- 
 tion to that of the flick, the common centre of gravity will 
 not get fo low, but that the rocket will rife ftrait, though not 
 fo tall. 
 
 Rocket ufed for a habit. Sec Rochet. 
 ROD, Virga, Verge, a wand, or long (lender flick or fiaC 
 See Verge. 
 
 Rod is alfo uled for a land-meafure of 1 6 feet ~ : the fame with 
 
 perch and pole . 
 Rod, in gauging. See GAUGiNG-rarf. 
 RoD-kn/gbts, in antient culloms. See Redmans, 
 Bltick-RoT). See BhACK-rod and Usher. 
 ExtcbieT s Rod. See the article Ezechiel. 
 fi/hing-Roo. See the article Fishing. 
 Rkitu lt m t'R Qto . Seethe article Rhineland. 
 R O K of a fifh is that part which contains the fpawn or feed 
 thereof. 
 
 Thai ot male-fillies is ufually diftinguilhed by the name of 
 foft roe, or milt; that of the female by hard roe, or fpawn. 
 The loft roe, when fqueezed, yields a liquor relembling 
 milk; whence its name milt: the French call it exprelly 
 milk, laiti. 
 
 M. Petit found 342144 ovula or little eges in the bard roe 
 of a carp 18 inches long. Leewenhoek, Tom. 1. p. 216. 
 •nly found 211629 eggs in a carp ; but four times the num- 
 ber in a cod ; and p. 188. he fays, that a common cod con- 
 tains 9344000 eggs j and that the eggs of a filh of one year 
 Vol. II. 
 
 old are as big as thofe of a fifh of 25 years old, Mem. Aca& 
 R. Scien.an. 1 733. p. 29O; 
 R 0 e is alfo one of the b'cafts of chafe. See Beast and 
 Game. 
 
 Roe-Buck, a Dealt: of chafe or forcfir. Sc* Beast* Game' 
 &c. 
 
 The Roe-luck is called an hind the firft year ; gyrle the fecond • 
 henufe the third J roe-buck of the firjl head die fourth j and U 
 fdir roe-buck the fifth. 
 
 The roe-buck is a deer well known in Germany; and feems 
 to have alfo been formerly found in England, though now the 
 race be extinct. 
 
 R0FFENS1S textus. See the article Textus. 
 
 ROGA *, 'P'ji, in antiquity, "a donative or prcfent, which the 
 augufli or emperors made to the fenatorsj magiilrates and 
 even to the people j and the popes or patriarchs t6 their 
 clergy. 
 
 * The word is derived by fome from the Latin, trorarlr, to give, 
 or diftribute ; according to others, from rege, 1 aik : hem e, fay 
 they, it is that St Gregory the Great calls fuch diftiiburioLS 
 
 precaria, as being to be demanded, in order to be had 
 
 Others, again, derive it from the Greek />>©-, fometimps ufed 
 for corn; becaufe it antiently confifted in com diilributcd 
 among the populace, the foidiery, &c . 
 
 The emperors ufed to diftribute thefe tog* on the firft day of 
 the year, or on their birth-day, or on the natalis dies of" the 
 cities — The popes and patriarchs in paflion-wcek. 
 This cuftom of rogee, or largeftes, was firft introduced by the 
 tribunes of the people, to gain the populace more effectually 
 over to their intereft. The emperors at length took it up, 
 and made fuch dillributions to the people, and even to the foi- 
 diery, who are hence called by the Greek writer;, of the middle 
 age "porATOPES. 
 
 Roc a is alio ufed for the ordinary pay of the foidiery. 
 
 ROGATIO, Rogation, in the "Roman jurifprudence, a 
 demand made by the confuls, or the tribunes, of the R^man 
 people, when a law was propofed to be patted. See Law. 
 The demand was made in thefe terms : do you will and ap- 
 point that (for inflance) war be declared again/1 Philip ? this 
 was the rogatio ; and what the people returned in anfwer, as 
 the Roman people do appoir.t war to be made again/l Philip, was 
 the decrctum, decree, or refolve. 
 
 The word Rogatio is frequently alfo ufed for the decree it- 
 felf, to diilinguifh it from a fenatus confukum, or decree of 
 the fenate. 
 
 Frequently, alfo, Rogatio is ufed in the fame feme with law I 
 becaufe there never were any laws eftabliflied among the Ro- 
 mans, but what was done by this kind of ngetian — Otherwifo 
 they were null. 
 
 ROGATION-ww/-, the week immediately preceeding Whit- 
 fund ay ; thus called from three faffs therein; viz° on the 
 Monday, Tuefday, and Wcdncfday, called alfo rogations, or 
 rogation days, becaufe of the extraordinary prayers, and pro- 
 ccflions then made, for the fruits of the earth. 
 The firft who appointed thefe rogations was St Mamertus 
 bifhop of Vienne, who, in 474, afiembled feveral bifhops, to 
 implore ft» mercy of God by a fall of three days, on occa- 
 fion of an incurfion then made into the country by a great 
 number of wild bealls— Others fay, it was firft fet on foot by 
 the fame Mamertus in 468, on occafion of fome «reat public 
 calamities. 
 
 ROGUE, in law, an idle and fturdy beggar; who, by an- 
 tient flatutes, for the firft offence, is called a rogue of the fr/i 
 degree, and punifhed by whipping, and boring through the 
 griftle of the right ear with an hot iron an inch in v-ompafs ■ 
 and, for the fecond offence, is called a rogue of the fecond de- 
 gree, and ordered to be put to death as a felon, if he be above 
 eighteen years of age. 
 
 ROLL, in the manufactories, fomething wound and folded up 
 in a cylindrical form. 
 
 Few fluffs are made up in rolls, except fattins, gawfes, and 
 crapes, which are apt to break, and take plaits not eafv to be 
 got out, if folded otherwife— Ribbonds, however, and laces* 
 galloons, and paduas of ali kinds, are thus rolled. 
 To roll tit— By an arret of council in 1698, fullers, fhearmen, 
 tic. in Poifiou, arc prohibited to roll any fluff hot, either by 
 having fire over or under it, or by heating the rollers, or other- 
 wife, on forfeiture of 100 livres for the firft offence; or of being 
 degraded from the privileges of mafterfhip, in caie of a fecond 
 fault. 
 
 The antients made all their books up in form of rolls, or 
 little columns ; and, in Cicero's time, the libraries coniifted 
 wholly of fuch rolls — The dearnefs of parchment, and the 
 cheapnefs of papyrus, whereof the rolls were made, was the 
 reafon that fcarcc any but paper rolls were ufed. 
 Voffius fays, they parted feveral fneets enj to end, when 
 filled on one h-e, and railed them up together, begin- 
 ning with the Lit, which they called uwSll'uus, and to 
 which they fattened an ivory or boxen flick, to fuftain 
 loCi ,h 4 
 
ROL 
 
 ROL 
 
 the ra //_To the other extremity they paired a piece of 
 parchment to cover and preferveit. " 
 Thefe rsAV were placed in the libraries perpendicularly to 
 the horizon— The Jews ftill prefervc the antient ufage ot 
 nils for the books they read in their fynagogiles. 
 
 Roll of tobaccs, is tobacco in the leaf, twilled on the mill, 
 and wound twift over twift, about a (tick or roller. 
 The »«h*anty of tobacco in America Is there fold in rolls 
 of various weights, and it is not till after its arrival in 
 EnHSrVdS Spain, France and Holhnd, that it is cut— KM 
 tobicco is what is chiefly ufed both for chewing and rafp.ng. 
 See Tobacco. , , r 
 
 R o L L, R o t u L u s, in law, denotes a fchedule of paper or 
 parchment, which may be wound up by the hand 1MB the 
 falhion of a pipe. , t . , . 
 
 Of thefc there are in the Exchequer feveral kinds ink. 
 the great wardrik+M, the coferer' Scroll, the fubfidy-roll, 
 
 The word is formed from the french rclle, of the latin rotu- 
 1& becaufe moft inftruments and expeditions in law were 
 antiently wrote on papers, or parchment, fewed or glued 
 together, and thus rolled up ; whence the word enroll, and the 
 
 Roll's' of parliament arc the manufcript regifters of the pro- 
 ceedings of our ancient parliaments. _ • 
 Before the ufe of printing, and tdl the reign of henry Vll, 
 our ttatuteswere all engroffai in parchment, (and by virtue 
 of the king's writ for that purpcle) proclaimed openly m 
 every county. _ ,._ . 
 
 In thefe rolls we have alfo a great many decifions of difficult 
 points of law, which were frequently in former times re- 
 ferred to the decilion of that high court. 
 
 JC'^v-Rcll, a fchedule or fifcdl piece of parchment, frequently 
 fewed or added to fome part of a roll, or record. 
 Nov obferves that the court ex officio, may award a certio- 
 rari, ad hfofmdndam confwitiam; and that which is certi- 
 fied ihall be annexed to the record, and called a rtder- 
 
 R ol tl is alfo ufed For a lift of the names of feveral pcr- 
 fons of the fame condition, or entered in the fame en- 
 casement. . 
 
 Court-R oU, of a manor, is that wherein the names, 
 rents and fervices of each tenant are copied and en- 
 rolled. . , , 
 
 MuJler-RoLL, that wherein are entered the foldiers of every 
 troop, company, regiment, fete. „ ■ ■ 
 
 As foon as a foldier's name is wrote down on the roily it is 
 ' death for him to defcrt. 
 
 Calves -had Roll, isara'/inthe two Temples wherein every 
 bencher is taxed yearly at 2 s. every barrifter at if. bd. 
 and every gentleman under the bar, at I s. to the cook, 
 and other officeis of the houfe, in confideration of a dinner 
 of calves-heads, provided in Eafter term. 
 
 Rawan's-R o L L, or Ragimund's-R o l t, is a roll denomi- 
 nated from Ragimund, a papal legate in Scotland, who cal- 
 ling before him all the people who held benefices in that king- 
 dom, caufed them upon oath to give in the value of their 
 eftates, according to which tliey were taxed in the court of 
 
 R 01tle ' ~, • T J 
 
 Rolls, or#««/RoLLS, in Chancery-lane, London, 
 is an office appointed for the cuftody of the rolls and records in 
 
 chancery- " ~ ^, tI _ u ... .j^-i*™. 
 
 The maftcr of this office is the fecond perfon in that court; 
 and in the abfence of the lord chancellor he fits as judge. 
 This houfe or office was anciently called damns canucrforum, 
 as being appointed by king Henry III. for the ufe of con- 
 verted Jews ; but their irregularities occafioned king Ed- 
 ward III. to expel them thence ; upon which the place 
 was deputed for the cuftody of the rolls. 
 
 Roll or Roui. among military men. See Rota, 
 
 ZW-Roll. See the article BbaD-w//. 
 
 67;a-£-Roll. See the article Check-™//. 
 
 Cbunter-RoLt. See the article Counter-™//. 
 
 Roll of paYcbment, properly denotes the quantity of fixty 
 
 Roll, in antiquity — From the time of Anaftafms, we find 
 in the hands of the emperors, on medals, a kind of narrow 
 long roll or fachel, the meaning whereof has greatly puzzled 
 the antiquaries. 
 
 Some lmaglrie it to be a roll or bundle of papers, memoirs, 
 petitions,!^, prefentcd occafionally to princes, confuls and 
 the like— Others take it to be a plaited handkerchief, which 
 the perfons who prefided at the games caft forth as a fignal 
 for their beginning— Others will have it a bag of duft and 
 afhes, prefentcd the emperor at the ceremony of his coro- 
 nation, and called AKAK.IA, q. d. a means of preferving 
 innocence, bv the remembrance of duft, fifj. 
 Roll or Roller, is alfo a piece of wood of a cylindrical 
 
 form, ufed in the conftruftion of feveral machines, and is 
 feveral works and manufactures j though fometimes under 
 other names. 
 
 It is on fuch rolls, properly called beams, that the woollen, 
 filkcn, and other threads are wound, whereof the weaver's 
 Works confift — For which end each loom has ufually twq, 
 and that of the gawfe-weavers three. 
 
 In the glafs manufacture they have a running roll, being a 
 thick cylinder of caft brafs, ferving to conduct the melted 
 glafs to the end of the table whereon large looking-glattb, 
 &f. are to be caft. 
 
 The founders alfo ufe a roller to work the ftnd which they 
 ufe in making their moulds. 
 
 The prefies called calenders, 'as ferving to calender fluffs 
 withal, confift, among other efiential parts, of two rol- 
 lers. 
 
 It is alfo between two rollers that the waves, are given 
 to filks, mohairs, and other fluffs proper to be tab- 
 bied. 
 
 Prints, or impreffions from copper-plates, are alfo taken by 
 paffing the plate and the paper between two rollers. Sec 
 Print and Rollin c-prefs-printing. 
 
 Rolls, in coining, are two iron inftruments of a cylindrical 
 fio-ure, which ferve to draw or ftretch out the plates ot gold, 
 fiFver and other metals, whereof the planks or pieces are to 
 be formed for the fpecies. 
 
 Rolls, in printing, are two large cylinders or barrels of wood 
 fattened in the middle of what they call the cradle or gal- 
 lows of the prefs ; and which, by means of a cord or girt 
 paffing over each, and a handle which gives motion to one 
 of them, draw the carriage of the prefs backwards and for- 
 wards. See Printing. 
 
 Rolls, in the fugar-works, are two large iron barrels which 
 
 ferve to bruife the canes, and exprefs the juice —They 
 
 are caft hollow, and their cavities are filled up with 
 wood, the cylinders of which are properly the rollers. 
 
 Rolls or Rollers, among carpenters, mafons, bV. ate 
 plain cylinders of wood, feven or eight inches in diameter, 
 and three or four foot long, ufed for the removing of beams, 
 huge ftones, and other like burdens, which are cumberfome 
 but not exceeding heavy. 
 
 Thefe rollers are placed fucceffively under the fore-part of 
 the mattes to be removed ; which, at the fame time, are 
 puttied forwards by levers, tff, applied behind. 
 Endkfs Rolls — When blocks of marble, or other exceffiva 
 heavy loads are to be removed j they ufe what they call end- 
 lejs-rolls. 
 
 Thefe to give them the greater force, and prevent their 
 burfiing, are made of wood joined together by crofs-quar- 
 ters ; they are about double the length and thicknefs of the 
 common roller ; and befides are girt with feveral large iron 
 hoops at each end— At a foot's diftance from the ends are 
 four mortifes, or rather only two, but pierced through and 
 through, into which are put the ends of long levers, which 
 the workmen draw by ropes fattened to the ends, ftill 
 changing the mortife as the roll has made a quarter of a 
 turn. . rami;aintji.iuftfr^toaasnJ 3yi ° i ff t>: '™^j' P ^Lj^3w 
 RoLL-rich-/lones, in antiquity, a feries of huge ftones, ranged 
 in a circle near Morton in Marfh, in Oxfordftiire — There 
 are a world of fabulous traditions about them — Among the 
 antiquaries fome take them to be a monument of a victory, 
 others a burying-place, and others a place for the coronation 
 of the Daniih kings. 
 
 Near Penros in Cornwall is a like monument. 
 ROLLER. See the article Roll. 
 
 Roller, infurgery, a long and broad ligature, ufually of linen 
 cloth, ufed for binding, furrounding and containing the parts of 
 the human body, and keeping them in, or diipohng them to 
 a ftate of health. 
 
 A Roller confifts of two parts, the body, and the two extre- 
 mitiesj which fome call heads or chiefs, and others tails— 
 There are fmgle headed rollers, that is, fuch as are rolled at 
 one head only, double headed rollers, Is'c. 
 Again, fome are equally rolled and gathered together, as 
 
 thefe applied to fractures and diflocated joints Others 
 
 are cut into feveral chiefs or heads ; as thofe for the head, 
 chin, tsV. — Others are compofed of feveral fwaths ga* 
 thered and ftitched together, as thofe for the tefticles, tsfc. 
 —Some again are bread, as thofe for the breaft, belly, (£c, 
 
 Others narrow, as thofe for the lips, fingers, Guidon 
 
 directs the roller for the fhoulder to be fix fingers broad, that 
 for the thigh five, for the leg four, for the arm three, and 
 the finger one. 
 
 ROLLING, Rotation, in mechanics, a kind of circu- 
 lar motion, wherein the moveable turns round its own axis 
 or centre, and continually applies new parts of its furfacs 
 to the bodv it moves upon. 
 
 Such is tint of a wheel, a fphere, or the like— Such, par- 
 ticularly 
 
ROM 
 
 ROM 
 
 particularly are the motions of the earth) the planets, 
 
 fnitiixnui -.SBtfojtJ 4 wjpwtownii brw...d;to#- Urns). 
 The motion of rolling is oppofed to that of Jliding, where- 
 in the faiiie furface is continually applied to the plane it moves 
 along. 
 
 It mull be noted, that in a wheel it is only the circum- 
 ference that properly rolls, the reft proceeds in a compound, 
 angular kind of motion, and partly rolls, partly Hides — 
 The not diftinguifhing between which two, occafioned the 
 difficulty of that celebrated problem the rota Arijlotelica, 
 Ariftotle's wheel. See Rota Arijlotelica. 
 The friction of a body in rolling, or the rcfiftence made 
 to it by the roughnefs of the plane it moves on, is found 
 to 1 be much Ids than the friction in Hiding. 
 Hence the great ufe of wheels, rolls, ts'c. in machines , as 
 much of the action as poifible being laid thereon, to make 
 the rcfiftence the lefTer. 
 
 For the laws of bodies Rolling on inclined planes, fee Incli- 
 ned Plane and Descent. 
 
 Rolling -prefs-prmting. See Printing. 
 
 ROMAN, fomething belonging to the city of Rome — The 
 Roman commonwealth lafted from the expulfion of the 
 Tarquins to the battle of Pharfalia, 460 years . The Roman 
 empire, from die battle of Pharfalia to the building of Con - 
 Itantinople by Conftantine in the year 330, lafted 378 years ; 
 from the building of Conftantinople to die taking of it by 
 the Turks in 1453, was a farther period of 1123 
 years. 
 
 A Roman citizen, at firft, was only a citizen of Rome ; 
 at length the right of citizeufhip was given to other cities and 
 people, both in Italy and the provinces — It was thus St Paul 
 was a Roman citizen, Acts xvi. 21, 37, 38. xxii. 25, 
 26, 27. xxiii. 27, the city of Tarfus in Cilicia, a native 
 of which he was, having the right of Roman citi- 
 zens. 
 
 For the Roman fenate, their magiftracy, confuls, foldiery, 
 tribes, courts names, weights, meafures, coins, and other 
 matters relating to the antiquities of that people, their policy, 
 religion, law, cuftoms, ts'c fee the refpective articles in this 
 work. 
 
 Roman purple, now denotes the dignity of acardinal. 
 Roman or Romish church, is that whereof the 
 
 pope is head ; fo called m oppofition to the reformed 
 
 churches. 
 
 The Reman law Is the civil law or the written law, as 
 compiled by the emperor Juftiman. 
 A Roman charity among painters, is a picture of a wo- 
 man fuckling an old man — Roman knight, CSV. See 
 Knight, caV. 
 
 King of the Romans, in our age is a prince elected and de- 
 figned fucceilbr to the German empire. 
 
 Roman games, ludi Romani, were folemn games held in 
 antientRome, thus called by way of eminence, and on ac- 
 count of their antiquity, as having been inftituted by Ro- 
 mulus. 
 
 They were fumetimcs alfo called magni ludi, from the 
 great pomp and expence thereof, and fometimes confualia, 
 becaufe performed in honour of the god Neptune, who 
 was alfo called conjus, in his quality of god of fecret 
 councils. 
 
 They alfo bore the denomination of ludi circenfes, becaufe held 
 in the Circus. 
 
 This folemnity. Halicarnafleus obferves, was originally infti- 
 tuted by Evander, in honour of Neptune, under the name of 
 io-m®-) whence the feftival itfelf was called firwimfniij ; 
 and was afterwards renewed by Romulus in honour of the 
 fame deity, only under another name. 
 
 For Romulus, needing the advice of a god to council him 
 in the defignhe had to furnifh his new citizens with wives, 
 applied to the god of fecret council himlelf, Confus ; pro- 
 claimed the confualia, and invited his neighbours all around 
 to the firft celebration thereof — The confequence was, the 
 rape of die Sabine women, who came to be fpedtators 
 thereof. 
 
 The great ceremony in thefe games confifted in a cavalcade 
 of hories and afles, adorned with garlands, Neptune being 
 reputed the firft author of riding on horieback. 
 Their horfes here were of two kinds, viz. n^Hirmu, or fuch 
 as were merely led up and down for ftate j and J>s,u«o/, which 
 were for race and exercife. 
 
 The other diverfions were fencing, and fhat'till one of the 
 combatants was killed on the fpot, righting with beafts and 
 with ciftus or whirlbats ; wreftling, running, leaping, fea- 
 fights, horfe-races, chariot-races, £sV. 
 
 Thefe games, Livy tells us, were improved and rendered 
 much more magnificent by Tarquinus Prifcus— Manutius 
 fays, they were held on the eve of the nones of September, 
 L e. on the 14th day of the month. 
 Roman order, in architecture, is that more ufuafty called the 
 compofitc, See Composite, 
 
 Roman bdllance, Jlatsra Romana, the fteel-yardi See 
 Steelyard. 
 
 Roman inditiion. ~\ TIndictioni 
 
 Roman year, &c. VSce the articles > Year, &c. 
 
 Roman /Dn^^j &c. J 3 Latin, &c. 
 
 ROMANCE, antiently Romaunt and Romant, a fa- 
 bulous relation of certain intrigues and adventures in the: 
 way of love and gallantry, invented to entertain and inftruct 
 the readers. 
 
 M. Fontcnelle calls romances poems in profe ; and BoiTu is 
 not averfe to their being admitted as poetical pieces, though 
 not written in vcrfe. 
 
 Setting afide the verification, it is certain an epic poem and 
 a romance are almoft the fame thing — The juft notion there- 
 fore of a romance is, that it is a difcourfe invented with art 
 to pleafe and improve the mind, and to form or mend the 
 manners, by inftrudiions difguifed under the allegory of an 
 action or feries of actions, related in profe in a delightful and 
 probable, yet furprizing manner. 
 
 A juft rornance confifts of two parts, m'z. a moral, as its foun- 
 dation and end, and a fable or action, as the fuperftructure 
 and means. 
 
 It muft alfo have the manners, that is, the characters muft 
 be diftinguiflied, and the manners muft be neceflary, and it 
 muft have all the other qualities of poetical manner?. 
 The incidents muft be delightful, and to that end rightly djf- 
 pofed and furprizing — The fentiments fall under the fame 
 rules as in the drama. 
 
 But the diction is allowed to be more lofty and figurative, as 
 being a narration, and not having terror or pity but admira- 
 tion for its end. 
 
 As compofitions of this kind have a long time been little elfe 
 but hiftories of amorous adventures and feats of knight- 
 errantry, the origin of romances is referred to that of love hi- 
 ftories, and accordingly Dearchus, a difciple of Ariftotle, who 
 firft wrote of thofe matters, is ufually efteemed the original 
 author of romances — Though Photius is of opinion that Anto- 
 nius Diogenes *s book on the errors and amours of Dinias 
 and Dercyllii, gave birth to moft of the works of this kind. 
 Be this as it will, it is certain the antients have had their 
 romances as well as we — Such are the amours of Rhodanis and 
 Sinonides, defcribed in Iambics ; fuch is the romance of Leu- 
 cippe and Clitophon, compofed by Achilles Tatius, a Greek 
 writer, afterwards a biftiop ; fuch are the four books of in- 
 credible things, wrote by Damafcius ; fuch are the Eriiicpics 
 of Heliodorus, wherein he relates the amours of Thcagenes 
 and Chariclca — Laftly, under the fame clafs may be ranked 
 
 . the fables of Parthcnius Nicenus of Athenagoras, Theodorus 
 
 { Prodromus, Euftathius and Longus. 
 
 Indeed antiquity could fcarce be reconciled to fuch pieces^ 
 and always looked on them as abufes — Photius, in his Biblio- 
 theca, Cod. LXXXVTI. gives a frightful account of that of 
 Tatius ; and the Ethiopics of Heliodorus, though one of 
 themodefteft and moft referved pieces of the kind, met with 
 very fevere treatment — That author was bifhop of Tricca 
 in Theftalia in the fourth century. Nicephorus tells us, 
 that a fynod, confidering the danger which might accrue to 
 youth from reading his romaiue, authorized as it was by the 
 dignity of its author, propofed it to him either to fupprefe 
 his book, or renounce his bifhopric ; and that he chofe the 
 latter — But this hiftory is a little doubtful. 
 Be this as it will, Heliodorus has ferved as a model to all the 
 romances wrote fince; and the marriage of Theagenes and 
 Chariclea, has produced a very uumerous iflue, even all the 
 romances now extant in the world. 
 
 In imitation of the archbiftiop Turpinus, who pafied for 
 author of the romance of the feats of Charlemaign and Or- 
 lando, a great nun*ber of hiftories of the like kind were 
 wrote in France, during the time of Philip the fair; the 
 authors whereof feemed to improve on each other, contend- 
 ing who fhould go fartheft in the merveiileux — Thefe books 
 being intended for the polite people, were wrote in the court 
 language of that age, which was called the remans, romant 
 or romanic ; whence the books themfelves were called by 
 thofe names ; and thus by degrees romans, Sec. became the 
 general name of all books of this kind j whence at length our 
 romance. 
 
 Others derive the word from the Spanifh romanfero, I invent, 
 as intimating romances to be meer fictions — And hence it is 
 that the antient poets of Provence, who were the firft great 
 dealers in romances, are called troubadours, q. d. finders or 
 inventors. 
 
 The French, above all other nations, have applied themfelves 
 to this kind of writing ; whether it be owing to the na- 
 tural tafte and genius of the people, or to the freedom, bY. 
 wherewith they converfe with the women — They began 
 chiefly with romances of chivalry ; hence their Amadis, in 
 24 volumes ; Palmerin d'Oliva, and of England king Ar- 
 thur, csV. whereof we fcave an agreeabJc critique in Don 
 Quixot- 
 ic 
 
ROO 
 
 The later faiia&ea arc much more polite ; the beft of which 
 are the Aftrea of D'Urfe; the Cyrus and Clelie of made- 
 moifdlfc de Scuderi ; the Caflandre and Cleopatre of la Gal- 
 prcnede; Ariane, Francion; and the Adventures of " cle- 
 mathus by the late archbifhop of Cambray, worth all the 
 reft. 
 
 The Germans', too, have their romances ; efpecially Hcrcu- 
 ies and Herculifcus, the Aramena, Octavia-, Arminius Ot- 
 bert, &c ' ' ' A .3"^!3j I 
 
 The Italians have their Eromena, by Biondi ; the works ot 
 Loredano-, Marino, &c— The Spaniwdsj their Diana* and 
 Don Quixot— The Engl ifh their Arcadia, tfe. The Arge- 
 nis of Barclay is rather a fatyr than a romance. 
 ROMANS, Rom ant, or Romanic, the polite language 
 formerly fpoke at the court of France ; in contraduhntfion 
 to the Walum, or antfcnt Gaulifh, fpoke by the common 
 people. See Language andWALooN. 
 The Romans having fubdued the Gauls introduced part 
 of their language among them ; and a mixture of half 
 Latin, half Gaufifc, or Celtic, conrtituted the Romans 
 ■whereof the modern French is only an improvement. 
 Hence to enromance, was to write in remans, &c. See Ro- 
 mance. 
 
 ROME-/«r. ) Sce theartic!e PfTER-;^. 1 
 ROMZ-petmy. J 
 
 ROMPEE, or Rompu, in heraldry, is applied to ordu 
 ries, that are reprefented as broken ; and to chevrons whofe 
 upper points are cut off— As in Tab. Herald, fig. 83— He 
 bcareth a chevron rompee, between three mullets, argent, by 
 the name of Sauk, 
 
 RONDEL, in fortification, a round tower, fometimes e- 
 redted at the foot of a baft ion. Sce Tower. 
 
 ROOD, a quantity of land, equal to the fourth part of an 
 acre ; and containing 40 fquare perches or poles. 
 
 ROOF, in architecture, the uppermoft part of a building; 
 being that which furms the covering of the whole. 
 Thereof contains the timber-work and its furniture of flate 
 or tile, wherewith a houfe is covered, or that which ferves it 
 as a cover. — Though carpenters ufually reftrain roof to the 
 timber-work only. 
 
 The form of the roof 'is various : fometimes it is pointed, in 
 which cafe the moft beautiful proportion is to have its profile 
 an equilateral triangle. 
 
 Sometimes it is fquare, that is, the pitch or angle of the ridge, 
 is a right angle; which, therefore, is a mean proportion be- 
 tween the pointed and the flat form. 
 
 A fat-roof, is that in the form and proportions of a triangu- 
 lar pediment. This is chiefly pra&ifcd in Italy, and the hot 
 countries, where little fnow falls. 
 Sometimes the rorfis in the pinnacle form. 
 Sometimes it has a double ridge — Sometimes it Is cut, or 
 mutilated, that is, confifts ot a true and a falfe roof which 
 is laid over the former: this laft is particularly called a man- 
 fard, from its inventor M. Manfard, a famous French 
 architect. 
 
 Sometimes, again, it is in form of a platform ; as in moft of 
 the eaftern buildings. 
 
 Sometimes it b truncated ; that is, inftead of terminating in 
 a ridtre or angle, it is cut fquare off at a certain heighth, 
 and covered with a terrace, and fometimes this alfo incom- 
 pafiedwith a ballurtrade. 
 
 Sometimes it is in manner of a dome, that is, its plan is fquare, 
 and the contour circular. 
 
 Sometimes it is round, that is, the plan is round or oval, 
 and the profile fpherical— Sometimes the bafe being very 
 large, it is cut oft" to diminifh its heighth, and covered with 
 a terrace of lead, raifed a little in the middle, with fky-lights 
 from fpace to fpace, to give light to fome corridore, or other 
 intermediate piece, which without luch an expedient would 
 be too dark. 
 
 RooF-to, or RvFF-trees, are the timbers In a fhip which 
 go from the half-deck to the fore-caftle. 
 The term is alfo ufed for the upper timbers of any build- 
 in* ; whence in the northern counties, it is common to lig- 
 nify a whole family, by faying, all under fuch a-one's roof- 
 tree. 
 
 Falfe Roof. *) ("False. 
 Hip Roof. ( s ) Hip-roof. 
 Attic of a Root. { ] Attic 
 RooF-fy/«. y LTyle. 
 ROOM, in building— See Building. 
 CooJc-Room. See the article CooK-room. 
 Flight o/Rooms, See the article Fugue. 
 ROOMER, in the fca language: A fhip is faid to be a roomer, 
 
 when fhe is larger than ordinary. 
 ROOT, Radix, in botany, that part of a plant which 
 
 mediately imbibes the juices of the earth, and tranfmits them 
 
 to the other parts, for their nutrition 
 
 ROO 
 
 The root conufts of woody fibres, covered with bark, mofc 
 or lefs thick — It ariles from a little point in the feed, called 
 the radicle. 
 
 It is no fntall difficulty to conceive, how the root fhould 
 always get downwards, and turn up the ftem perpendicu- 
 larly i conftdering that in the lowing of plants the radkie 
 mult frequently happen to be upwards, and the piumuk- 
 downwards ! See Perpendicularity. 
 The root is always found in the ground, in tcrreftrial plant;., 
 except in a very few cafes : the ivy and cufcuta being per- 
 haps the only plants where part of the root lies bare. 
 The root in plants has been obferved to do the office of the 
 ftomach in animals ; that is, to make the ftrft and principal 
 digeftion of the alimentary matter — M. Reneaume fhews 
 that the root docs the office of all the parts in the belly of 
 animals deftined for nutrition; it being the root that receives 
 the nourrfhment, that prepares it, digefts it, and alters and 
 changes it into fap, to be afterwards diltributed to all the parts 
 of the plant. 
 
 The fm ell, colour, and even taftej fhew how confiderable an 
 alteration the juices undergo in the root ; fo that the root may 
 be laid down as the great principle of vegetation. 
 Plants growing at the bottom of the fea have this peculiar to 
 them, that they have no roots ; at leaft the parts which do 
 the office of roots have nothing of the ufual figure of other 
 roots — Thefe plants are ufually fattened to fome folid body ; 
 adhering to it by a very fmooth polifhed lamina, which does 
 not fend forth .any fibre. Add to this, that the body to 
 which they adhere, being frequently a rock or flint, appears 
 very unfit to feed them, in cafe they had roots. M. Tour- 
 nefort, therefore, conjectures that they are fed by a juice 
 afforded them by the thick oily mud at the bottom of the 
 fea, which they receive by the pores or the exterior fur- 
 face of this lamina, but it is more probable that they are 
 all over root and take in nourifhment from the water at all 
 parts. 
 
 Boerhaave obferves, that the root may have any fituation at 
 pleafure, with refpecl to the body of the plant; nor needs to 
 be either loweft, or higheft — Accordingly in the aloe, coral, 
 molfes, fungufes, &c. the root is frequently uppermoft, and 
 its growth downwards. 
 Roots are generally divided by botaniffs into 
 1". Fibrous, which fend out only fmall ftrings from the bot- 
 tom of the plant, diftinct from each other — Such are thofe of 
 moft fpecies of grafs. 
 
 2°. More thick and grofs, which have a body thick and large 
 either branched out into fubdivifions or clfe fending out fibres, 
 from it all along. 
 
 Thefe laft are either carnous, which again are either, 
 f 1. Broad and fwelling, or 
 2. Long and flender, which are commonly harder and more 
 woody. 
 
 ' and fwelling roots are either 
 f I. Bulbous, which confirt but of one globe or head, 
 and fend out fibres from the bottom, and are 
 either. 
 
 f Squammofe, and fcaly, as thofe of lillics, martagon, tiff. 
 -( Coated, which are involved in fkins or coats, as in 
 l^the cepa, hyacinthus, allium, fcfy. 
 2. Tuberous, which are of a carnous, folid, and con- 
 tinued confiftence, and thefe either 
 '. Simple, with but one globe or head, as rapa a 
 crocus, &r. 
 
 '. Manifold, as afphodelus, pa^onia, tiff. 
 Long roots are either, 
 
 r 'i) Sarmentous, i. e. twiggy, or branching, which 
 fhoot or creep out tranfverfly or in breadth , of thefe 
 fome are gcniculated, knotty or jointy ; as thofe of 
 couch-grafs, mints, tiff. 
 (2) Cauliformes, i, e. ftemmy or ftalky, which 
 fhoot down deep directly, though often fending 
 out fibres and ftrings from the great ftem ; 
 which alfo itfelf is fometimes divided or branch- 
 ed. • ;' : \ jriiWitf- 
 Roots, in medicine — The principal roots ufed in the practice 
 of phyftc, are rhubarb, rhaponticum, farfaparilla, ipecacu- 
 anha, jalap, zedoary, galangal, caffumenar, gentian, tur- 
 meric, liquorice, madder, ffft. See each defcribed under its 
 proper article Rhubarb, Rhapontic, Sarsaparill a, 
 Ipecacuanha, tsV. 
 Roor-grafting. See the article Engrafting. 
 Root, in mathematics, denotes a quantity which is multiplied 
 by itfelf ; or a quantity confidered as the bafis or foundation 
 of a higher power. 
 
 Thus if any number, as 2 be multiplied by itfelf, the produ£l 
 4 is called the fquare, or fecond power of 2 ; and 2 itfelf, 
 with regard to that power, it called the root ; or particularly 
 the fquare root of 4. See Sq^t ARE-nwtf. 
 
 " Since, 
 
R O P 
 
 ROS 
 
 Since, as unity is to the fquare rooty fa is the root to the 
 iquate ; the root is a mean proportional between unity and the 
 - fquare — Thus I : 2 : : 2 : 4. 
 If a fquare number, as 4, be multiplied by its root 2, the 
 product 8 is called the cube, or third power of 2 ; and with 
 relpcct to this cubic number 8, the number 2 is called root ; 
 or particularly the cube-root. 
 
 Since as unity is to the root, fo is the root to the fquare ; 
 and as unity is to the root, fo is the fquare to the cube ; the 
 . root will be to the fquare, as the fquare to the cube, e. 
 unity, the root, the fquare, and the cube, are in conti- 
 nual proportion : thus : I : 2 : : 4 : 8. And the cube-root is 
 the firft of the two mean proportionals between unity and 
 the cube. 
 
 To extrai't the Root out of a given number, or power, as 8, 
 is the funic thing as to find a number, as 2, which being mul- 
 tiplied by itfeif a certain number of times, v. gr. twice, pro- 
 . duces the given number, 8. 
 A root, whether fquare or cubic, or of any higher power ; 
 If it conlift of two parts, is called a binomial root, or amply a 
 binomial; as 24, or 20+4. 
 
 Ifitconfift of three, a trinomial ; as 245, or 240+5: Or 
 1 00-}- 1 40+5. — If of more than three, it is called Multi- 
 nomial; as 2456, or 2450-7-6, or 24004-56, or 2000-I-456, 
 or 2C0O-f-40O-f-50-f-6- 
 Root of an equation, in algebra, denotes the value of the un- 
 known quantity in an equation. 
 
 Thus, it the equation be a l -{-b r =x l , the root of the equa- 
 tion is the fquare root of a, and that of b ; exprellLJ thus, 
 
 V (*'+*'.) 
 
 Real Root — If the value of x be pofuive, n e. if * be a 
 pofitive quantitityj e. gr. x=r, the root is called a real or 
 - true root. 
 
 Falfe Root — If the value of x be negative, e. gr. 5, the 
 
 root is laid to be faife. 
 Imaginary Root — If the value of x be the root of a negative 
 
 quantity, c. gr. — 5 j it is laid to be imaginary. 
 
 The great ufe of algebra is to bring problems to equations ; 
 
 then to reduce thofe equations, or to exhibit them in the molt 
 
 fimple terms. 
 
 What rem.iim after this to the folution of the problems, is 
 
 to extradt the roots of the equations thus reduced, be they lines 
 
 or numbers. 
 Reftdual Root. See the article Residual. 
 Extraction of the Roots of equations. See Extraction. 
 Roots, Radices, in grammar, are the primitive 
 
 Words of a language, whence others are compounded or 
 
 derived. 
 
 Thus the Latin fiuo is the root of fluclus, fluxio, Jlumen, fiu- 
 vialis, influxus, reft/ens, fiuftifer, fiutiifomis, Jiufiivagus, 
 &c. — Thus alfo the Greek, Ss@-, is the root of «W>** 
 
 And thus alfo, though in a left proper fenfe, the Danifh rood 
 is the root of the Englifh word root ; the Latin radix the root 
 of the French racine, as rado is the root of radix; and pet- 
 . haps mJ-j©- the root of rado. 
 The Greek and Hebrew tongues are learnt by roots — Of 
 dictionaries, feme ate in alphabetical order, others are difpo- 
 fed by nets, as Scapula, Faber's Thefaurus, and the firft 
 edition of the dictionaiy of the French academy : in the 
 edition of j 7 1 8, this lait is thrown into the ufual alphabetical 
 order. 
 
 ROPE, an afiemblage of feveral twin's or firings of hemp, 
 twitted together by means of a wheel ; of various ufes, as in 
 binding, fraying, drawing, fufj -idina;, &c 
 When the rope is made very thick, it is called a cable, and 
 when very fmall, a cord. 
 
 The grcateit confumption of ropes is in navigation, for the 
 tackling of Clips j wiiere, though ropes include the whole 
 cordage, 
 
 Yet there are feveral ropes particularly fo denominated ; as, 
 the entering rope, hung at the ladder to help people up — 
 The top-rope — A bolt-rope, wherein the fail is fowed — Buoy- 
 rope, to Which the buoy of the anchor hangs — Guejl-rope, to 
 tow the long-boat — The keel-rope — The bucket -rope— -Rud- 
 der-rope, to fave the rudder if it ihoukl chance to be beat off 
 — Preventor-rope, to fave the yard in cafe any part of the 
 tycs fhould be broke — Breajl-rcpe, to lafh the pannels to 
 the marts — Guy-rope, to keep the foreman: forwards, directly 
 over the hatch-way — And boat-rope, by which the boat 
 hangs, or is fattened a-fte.n of the ihip — Port-ropes. See 
 PoRT-ropes. 
 
 Rope, cord, or flrap, in the manage, is any of thefe tied 
 round a pillar to which the horfe is fattened when they begin 
 to quicken and fupple and teach him to Hy from the fham- 
 bner, and not gallop faifly or incompacfly. 
 In thofe manages where there is no pilla. , a man ftands in the 
 centre ct the ground, an 1 holds the end of the rope. 
 
 Ropes of two pillars, are the ropes or reins of a cavezon, 
 Vol. II. 
 
 ufed^to a horfe that works befAveen two pillars* Ses 
 Pillar. 
 
 Rope dancer. See the article Daxceh. 
 Rope deck. See the article Deck. 
 
 Rope yam, is the yarn of any rope untwifted— It common'/ 
 confifts of Cable-ends, which arc worn out ; and are called 
 junks of the cables— It ferves for many purpofes am-.ng the 
 failors. 
 
 RORIFEROUS-<r/«ff, q. d. deiv dropping pip e - y a name 
 given by fome to the thoracic du£t; from its How manner of 
 conveying, and as it were, infilling, the chyle into the com- 
 mon ftream of blood. 
 
 ROS, dew. See the article Dew. 
 
 Ros vitrioli, among chymifts, is fometimes ufed for the firft 
 
 phlegm diftilled from vitriol in balneo marite. 
 ROSADE, a kind of liquor, prepared of pounded almonds 
 
 and milk, mixed with clarified fugar. 
 ROSARUM acetum. Sec Acetum. 
 
 ROSARY, in the Romifh church, a chaplct confuting of five 
 
 or fifteen decads of beads, to direct the recitation of fo many 
 
 avemaria's, in honour of the virgin. 
 Rosary, alfo denotes a particular maf; or form of devotion 
 
 addrefied to the virgin, to which the chaplet of that name is 
 
 accommodated. 
 
 Some attribute the inftitution of the rofary to St Dominic ; 
 but F. d'Achery fhews it was in ufe in the year 1100; fb 
 that St Dominic could only make it more celebrated — Others 
 attribute it to Paulus Libycus, and others to St Benedict j 
 others totbeChartreux; others to venerable Bedcj and, finally, 
 others to Peter the hermit. 
 
 Thofe who afcribe it to St Dominic, differ as to the particu- 
 lar time of its infiitution ; fome referring it to the year 1208, 
 when he preached againft the Albigenfes ; others will have 
 him to havefet it on foot in thecourfe of his mifnonsin Spain, 
 before he palled into France. 
 Order of the Rosary, or of our lady of the Rosary, is an 
 order of knights, fuppofed by Schooncbeck, and the jefuit 
 Bonanni, to have been inftituted by St Dominic; but by mif- 
 take : for that faint never inftituted any order under this name, 
 and thefe authors apparently make a military order of an army 
 ofcroifecs, who under the command of the count de Mont- 
 fort, fought againft the Albigenfes. 
 
 The abbot Juftiniani, and M. Hermant, will have this order 
 to have been cftablifhed by an archbifhop of Toledo, named 
 Frederick, after St Dominic's death ; and to have bore for 
 a badge, a black and white crofs, in the middle whereof 
 was reprefented our lady, holding her little fon in one hand, 
 and in the other a rofary— F. Mendo adds, that they were 
 obliged to rehcarfe the rofary on certain days — After all, F. 
 Helyot doubts whether or no fuch an order in reality ever 
 exifted. 
 
 ROSATA aloe. t (-Aloe. 
 
 ROSATUM acetum. \ gee J Acetum. 
 RosaTum arojnaticum. f | Aromaticu'M. 
 
 Rosatum vinum. J (.Vinum. 
 ROSE, Rosa, t- 4 /o,, a medicinal flower, produced by a fhrub 
 
 of the fame name ; which gives the denomination to feveral 
 
 preparations in pharmacy. 
 
 The kind of rofes are various : thofe chiefly ufed in medicine 
 are the red and damafk rofes — The damafk arc a good and fafe 
 gentle purgative, adminiftred in infuiion, or by way of fyrup 
 — The red are aftringent; and the confervc thereof is ufed with 
 fuccefs againft diftempers of the breafts and lungs, and in dis- 
 orders of the eyes. 
 
 It is a tradition among the antients, that the god of love 
 made a prefent to Harpocrates the god of filence, of a beauti- 
 ful rofe, the firft that had been known : to engage him not 
 to difcover any of the private practices of his mother Venus 
 — And hence it became acu'lom to have a rofe placed in their 
 rooms of mirth and entertainment, that under the aliurance 
 thereof they might be induced to lay aiide all conftraint, and 
 fpeak what they pleafed — Thus did the rofe become a fymbol 
 of filence; fo that to be fub rofe, under the rofe, denotes as 
 much as (o be out of danger of having any convention 
 divulged. 
 
 Sugar of Roses, is made of red rofe leaves, dried in an 
 oven, pulverized, and put into a proper quantity of fugar 
 diftblved with a little water in a chafing-dilh over the 
 fire. 
 
 Rose-water, a water drawn by diftillation from damafk 
 rofes. 
 
 It is a good cordial, and was formerly highly eftcemed ; 
 but is fince fallen from its reputation, and is now little 
 ufed but in difeafes of the eyes, and in perfumes and 
 wafhes. 
 
 It is however, in great efteem throughout the Eaff, parti- 
 cularly in China and Pcrfia, where the trade thereof is very 
 confiderable. The rofe-leaves remaining at the bottom of 
 the ftill, are kept under the name of rofe cakes for a perfume, 
 10 Dd Giklen 
 
ROS 
 
 Golden Rose, is a rofe which the pope blelfes at mafs on the iiA 
 funday in Lent, while they fife tetare Jemfalem; and which, 
 after rnafs, he carries in proceflion ; and then feiids as a pre- 
 fent to fomefovereign prince. . 
 The faBions of the red and while Rose, are famous in our JSng- 
 liih hiftories— They had there rife in 1454, under Henry V I. 
 between the houfes of York and Lancafter, and ended m 
 
 L ~ife of 
 
 white 
 
 ROT 
 
 UCLVYCCI1 till- jiuui^o .... . '-" ' , - 
 
 Henry VII. who united the two branches— 7 he noute 
 Lancailer had for its badge a red rofe ; that of York a m 
 
 See Aspa- 
 
 ornament cut 
 ISee'S Archit. fg- 54- ft- «*• 
 and vaults of churches, 
 
 Rose-wood, lignum rhodium, or eifpakthum. 
 
 LATH. 
 
 Rose, in architcfture and fculpturc. 
 in refernblance of a rofe- 
 lit. b. 
 
 It is chiefly ufed in frizes, corniches, 
 
 and particularly in the middle of each face of the connthian 
 abacus. See AuAcus-And in the fpaces between the mo- 
 dillions ; under the plafonds of corniches. 
 
 Rose nails. See the article Nail. 
 
 Rose diamond. See the article Diamond. 
 
 Rose-Noble, an antient Englifh gold coin, firft (truck in the 
 rei^n of Edward III. and then called the penny of gold ; lince 
 raffed rofe-noble, becaufe ftamped with a rofe: It was current 
 at 61. Sd. j , , . 
 
 ROSEMARY, Rosmarinus, a medicinal plant, whole 
 flower, called antbos, is of confiderable ufe in the prefent 
 practice. . r 
 
 Rofemary flowers are efteemed the principal aromatic ot our 
 growth— Qiiincy fpeaks of them as good in mod nervous 
 complaints, especially in filch are arife from too great moifture 
 and cold, as theyarehot and drying— In epilepfies, apoplexies, 
 palfies, Wc. they are rarely omitted in prefcription, under one 
 form or other. 
 
 They abound with a fiibtile detergent oil, which makes them 
 deobftruent and opening, whence their ufe in uterine ob- 
 ftrudtions, the jaundice, fjfr. . 
 They are the balls of the celebrated Hungary water ; with a 
 fmall quantity of which, diluted in common water, the con- 
 feftioncrs make water of rofemary flowers, effence of rofemary- 
 water, &rV. 
 
 ROSICRUCIANS. Seethe article Rosycrucians. 
 
 ROSIN, Resina, in pharmacy. See Resina. 
 
 Rosin, is particularly ufed for a refinous matter prepared 
 from the juice of the pine-tree ; in ordinary ufe for the 
 making of ointment, plafters, and for other purpofes. 
 Mr Bent in the Phil. Tranf. N°. 243, gives us the manner 
 of preparing this coarfe drug, in the fouthern parts of France ; 
 thus— The bark being pared off from the pine, to make the 
 fap run down into a hole made at bottom to receive it ; as the 
 juice runs, it leaves a cream or cruft a-top ; which being 
 tempered with water, is fometimes fold, by a cheat, for white 
 bees-wax. 
 
 When they have got a quantity of the juice they flrain it 
 through a bafket, and what runs through is the common tur- 
 pentine. . , 
 What flays behind, they mix with water, and diftilling it in 
 an alembic, the matter that rifes is the oil of turpentine; and 
 the calx that remains is the common rojin. 
 ROSOLIS, orRos-sOLis, popularly, Rosa-solis, fun-dew, 
 an agreeable fpiritous liquor formerly much in repute, chiefly 
 taken after meals, by way of dram, to aid digeftion : being 
 compofed of burnt brandy, fugar, cinnamon, and milk-water, 
 and fometimes perfumed with a little mufk. 
 It had its name, becaufe antiently prepared wholly of the dif- 
 tilled water of the plant ros felh ; but that plant was at length 
 no ingredient therein. 
 
 The beff was that of Turin — The French have now a parti 
 cular kind not called ros folis, but du roy : becaufe ufed with 
 good effecl: by the late king Lewis XIV. — It is compofed of 
 Spanifh wine, wherein are infilled anile, fennel, aneth, corian- 
 der, fife, for three weeks. 
 
 ROSTING. See the article Dressing, Food, cifr. 
 
 ROSTRA, in antiquity, a part of the Roman forum, 
 wherein orations, pleadings, funeral harangues, C3V. were 
 delivered. Q r. riijx 
 
 The rojlrum was a kind of chapel, taken out of the fo- 
 rum, and furnilhed with a fuggeftum, or eminence called 
 more particularly the roflra, where the orators flood to 
 (peak. 
 
 It was adorned, or as Livy fays, built with the beaks of mips 
 taken from the people of Antium, in a naval engagement ; 
 whence the name. 
 ROSTRALIS corona, Rostral crown, in antiquity. See 
 Crown. 
 
 Rostralis columna, Rostral column. See Column. 
 ROSTRI-FORMIS preceffus, in anatomy, the fame as co- 
 
 racoides. See Coracoides. 
 ROSTRUM litterally denotes the beak or bill of a bird, 
 
 Hence the word is alio figuratively applied to the beak, or 
 fore-part of the head of a fhip. 
 Rostrum, in chymiftrv, fignifics the nofe, or beak of the 
 common alembic, which conveys the liquor diftilled into its 
 
 receiver. . . ^ . ' ■ . . 
 
 Rostrum, is alfo a fort of crooked fcifiars, which the 
 furgeons in fome cafes , make ufe of for the dilation of 
 
 wounds. -w, -j 
 
 ROSYCRUCIANS, ROSICRUCIANS, or brothers of the 
 Rosy-cross, a name affumed by a feci or cabal of herme- 
 tical philofophers ; who arofe, or at leaft became firft taken 
 notice of in Germany, in the beginning of the fourteenth 
 century. 
 
 They bound fhemfelves together by a folemn fecret, which 
 they alf fwore inviolably to preferve ; and obliged themfelves 
 at their admiffion into the order, to a Uriel obfervancc of cer- 
 tain eftablifhed rules. 
 
 They pretended to know all fciences, and chiefly medi- 
 cine : whereof they publifhed themfelves the reftorers — They 
 pretended to be mailers of abundance of important fecrets ; 
 and among others, that of the philofopher's ftone ; all 
 which they affirmed to have received by tradition from the 
 antient Egyptians, Chaldeans, the Magi, and Gyranofo- 
 phiftj. 
 
 Their chief was a German gentleman, educated m a mona- 
 flery, where he learnt the languages— In 137S he went to 
 the Holy Land, where falling fick at Damafcus, he confulted 
 the Arabs, and other Eaftern philofophers, by whom he was 
 fuppofed to be initiated into this wonderful art— At his return 
 into Germany he formed a fociety, to whom he communi- 
 cated the fecrets he had brought with him out of the Lalt, 
 and finally died in 1484. 
 
 They have been diflinguifhed by feveral names, accommo- 
 dated to the feveral branches of their doctrine Becaule 
 
 they pretended to protraft the period of human life, by 
 means of certain noflrums, and even to reftore youth ; they 
 were called immortales. 
 
 As they pretended to know all things, they have been called 
 illuminati ; and becaufe they have made no appearance for fe- 
 veral years, but have kept altogether incognito, they have been 
 called the invifible brothers. 
 
 Their fociety is frequently fignified by the letters i. K. C. 
 which fome among them interpret _/rirtr« roris colli, it being 
 pretended that the matter of the philofopher's flone is dew 
 concocled, exalted, IS 'c. 
 
 Some, who are no friends to free mafonry, make the pro- 
 fent flourifhing fociety of free mafons a branch of Rtji- 
 crucians; or rather the Roficrucians themfelves under a 
 new name, or relation; viz. as retainers to building— 
 And it is certain, there are fome free mafons who have 
 all the characters of Roficrucians; but how the zra and 
 original of mafonry, as traced by Mr Anderfon, and that 
 of Roficrucianifm, here fixed from Naudaius, who has 
 wrote exprefly on the fubjea, confill, we leave others to 
 
 RCnf\'adifeafe, which in moifl years is incident to fheep, 
 in the fame ground where in drier years they are free 
 from it; which, yet, arifes, not only from the moifture, 
 but from a certain principle of putrefaaion, both in the air 
 and the grafs. 
 ROTA, in mechanics. See the article Wheel. 
 Hot. \ Jri/lotelica, Ariflotle' s wheel, is the name of a celebrated 
 problem in mechanics, founded on the motion of a wheel 
 about its axis ; thus called, becaufe firft, that we know of, 
 taken notice of by Ariflotle. 
 
 The difficulty is this— While a circle makes a revolution 
 on its centre, advancing at the fame time in a right line 
 along a plane ; it defcribes, on that plane, a right line 
 equal to its circumference. Now if this circle which we 
 may call the deferent, carry with it another fmaller circle 
 concentric with it, and which has no motion but what it 
 receives from the deferent ; which is the cale of the nave 
 of a coach-wheel carried along by the wheel ; this little 
 circle, or nave, will defcribe a line in the time of the re- 
 volution, equal, not to its own circumference, but to that of 
 the wheel : for that its centre advances in a right line, 
 as fad as that of the wheel does ; as being in reality the fame 
 therewith. 
 
 The matter of fafl is certain— But how it Ihould be, (eems 
 a myftery— It is obvious, that the wheel advancing during 
 the revolution, mull defcribe a right line equal to its cir- 
 cumference ; but how would the nave, which revolves like 
 the wheel, defcribe a right line fo much greater than its cir- 
 cumference ? 
 
 The folution Ariflotle gives is no more than a good ex- 
 plication of the difficulty— Galileo, who next attempted it, 
 has recourfe to an infinity of infinitely little vacuities 111 
 the right line defcribed by the two circles ; and imagines 
 that the little circle never applies its circumference to thole 
 
 vacuities } 
 
ROT 
 
 R O U 
 
 vacuities ; but in reality only applies it to a line equal to 
 its own circumference ; though it appears to have applied it 
 to a much larger. 
 
 But it is evident that this is all gratis diaum— The vacuities 
 are imaginary ; and why does not the great circle apply 
 iK circumference to them ? laftly, the magnitude of theie 
 vacuities mud be augmented or diminimed according to the 
 different proportion of the two circles. 
 F, Tacquet will have it, that the little circle making its 
 rotation more flowly than the great one, does on that ac- 
 count defcribe a line longer than its circumference; yet 
 without applying any point of its circumference to more 
 than one point of its bafe— But this is no more allowable 
 than the former; 
 
 The attempts of fo many great men proving vain, M. 
 Dortous de Meyran, a French gentleman, had the good 
 fortune to hit on a folution, which he fent to the royal 
 academy of fciences, where being examined by Men. de Lou- 
 ville and Saulmon, appointed for that purpofe, thc-y made their 
 report that it was fatisfadtory— The folution is to this effect. 
 The wheel of a coach is only acted on, or drawn in a 
 .right line; its circular motion or rotation arifes purely 
 from the refiftance of the ground whereon it is applied 
 Now this refiftance is equal to the force wherewith the 
 wheel is drawn in the right line, inafmuch as it defeats 
 that direction ; of confequence the caufes of the two mo- 
 tions, the one right, the other circular, are equal, and 
 therefore their effects, i. e. the motions are equal. And 
 hence the wheel defcribes a right line on the ground equal 
 to its circumference. 
 
 For the nave of the wheel, the cafe is otherwife — It is 
 drawn in a right line by the fame force as the wheel, 
 but it only turns round becaufe the wheel turns, and 
 can only turn with it, and at the fame time therewith. 
 Hence it follows, that its circular velocity is lefs than that 
 of the wheel in the ratio of the two circumferences; and 
 therefore its circular motion is lefs than its rectilinear 
 one. 
 
 Since then it neccftarily defcribes a right line equal to that 
 of the wheel, it can only do it by Hiding, or what they 
 call the motion of ration — That is, a part of the circular 
 nave cannot be applied to a part of a right line greater 
 than itfelf but by Hiding along that part, and that more or 
 lefs, as the part of the nave is lefs than that of the cir- 
 cle. 
 
 Rota, is alfo ufed for a particular court or jurifdidtion in 
 Rome, efiablifhed for taking cognizance of beneficiary mat- 
 ters, &c. 
 
 The rota confifts of twelve doctors, chofen out of the four 
 nations of Italy, France, Spain and Germany ; three of 
 them being Romans, one a Florentine, one a Milaneze, 
 one of Bologna, one of Ferrara, one a Venetian, one a 
 Frenchman, two Spaniards, and one a German, each having 
 four clerks or notaries under him. 
 
 Their office is to judge of all beneficiary caufes, both within 
 Rome, and throughout the ftate of the church, in cafe of 
 appeal, and of all civil proceffes which are for above 500 
 crowns. . 
 They are alfo called chaplains of the pope, as fucceeding 
 the antient judges of the facred palace, who held their court 
 in his chapel. 
 
 The denomination rcra, wheel, fome will have derived hence, 
 that they officiate by rotation; others, becaufe the moft im- 
 portant affairs of the Chriftian world turn upon them— Du 
 Cange derives it from rota porphyretica, becaufe the pavement 
 of the chamber where they formerly fate was of porphyry ; 
 and fafhioned like awheel. 
 ROTATION, Rollinc, in mechanics, See Rol- 
 ling. 
 
 rotation, in geometry, the circumvolution of a furface 
 round an immoveable line, called the axis of rotation. 
 By fuch rotation of planes, folids are formed or generated 
 See Genesis, Solid, &a 
 
 The method of cubing folids, generated by fuch rotation, is 
 laid down by M. de Moivre, in his fpecimen of the ufe 
 of thedodtrine of fluxions— For the fluxions of fuch folids 
 take the product of the fluxion of the abfeiffa, multiplied 
 by the circular bafe ; and fuppofe the ratio of a fquare to the 
 
 circle infcribed, be as '—: the equation exprelfing the nature 
 
 or property of any circle, whofe diameter is d, is yy~dx 
 
 —xx. Therefore — — ^— — is the fluxion of a portion 
 
 r dxX 
 
 of the fphere, and confequently the portion itfelf 4, 
 
 — jt^a- 3 , and the circumfcribed cylinder is 4——- • therefore 
 
 the portion of the fphere is to the circumfcribed cylinder as 
 i d— \x to d—*. PhUof. Tranfafi, N°. 216. 
 
 Rotation, Revolution, in aflronomy* See 
 
 Revolution. 
 Diurnal Rotation. See Diurnal Rotation and 
 
 Earth. < 
 Rotation, in anatomy, the action of the mufculi rotatores ; 
 or the motion which they give to the parts they are fixed 
 to.' * X™*"^*^' r*cM i " =mrfj Urf wn'T — sjiioflfd 
 There are two mufcles, the great and the little obliquus, 
 ufed to perform the rotation of the eye — The obturator inter- 
 nus and externus effect the rotation of the thighs. 
 ROTATOR, in anatomy, a name given the oblique mufcles 
 of the eye, called alfo from the diredtion of the fibres ditcU* 
 lares-, and from the efFect of their action amatori'u 
 ROTHER-eeasts, awordufed in old fhitutes, and ftill in 
 the northern parts of England, for anyborned beafts; as oxen, 
 cows, fteers, heifers, Isc. 
 
 Whence rother-foil, in Herefordmire, is taken for the dung or 
 foil of fuch cattle. 
 Rother-nails, are fuch as have a very large head, and are 
 
 ufed to fatten the rudder-irons in fhips. 
 ROTONDO, Rotundo, in architecture, a popular term 
 for any building that is round both within and without Fide, 
 whether it be a church, a falon, a veftible, or tire like, 
 ; The moft celebrated rotundo of antiquity is the pantheon 
 at Rome, dedicated to Cybele and all the gods, by Agrippa, 
 fon-in-law of Auguftus, but Fince confecrated by pope Boni- 
 face IV. to the virgin and all the faints, under the title of Sta. 
 Maria della rotonda. 
 
 The chapel of the Efcurial, which is the burying place of 
 the kings of Spain, is alfo a rotondo ; and in imitation of that 
 of Rome is alio called pantheon. 
 ROTTENNESS, putredo. See Putrefaction. 
 ROTULA, in anatomy. See the article Patella, 
 ROTULI magni higrojfator. See Incrossator. 
 ROTULORUM cujlos. See the article Custos. 
 ROTULUS, a roll See the article Roll. 
 Rot u lu s contrarientium — The earl of Lancafter taking part 
 with the barons againft king Edward II. it was not thought 
 fit, in refpect of their power, to call them rebels ortraytors, 
 but only contrarients ; accordingly, we have a record of thofe 
 times called rotulus contrarientium. 
 Rotulus wintonies, an exact furvey of all England, by coun- 
 ties, hundreds and tithings, made under king Alfred, not 
 unlike that of domes-day. 
 
 It was thus called, becaufe antiently kept at Wincheftef 
 among other records of the kingdom. 
 ROTUNDO. See the article Rotondo. 
 ROT UNDUSjin anatomy; a name given to feveral muf- 
 cles, from the roundnefs of their body. 
 
 Such are the rotundas major, called alfo teres major, and the 
 rot undus minor, called alfo teres minor, and tranfvajalis — See 
 Tab. Jnat. (Myol.) fig. 2. n. 13. fig. 6. n. 12, 1^. fig. J. ifa. 
 14, 34 and 35. 
 Pronator radii Rotundus. Sec Pronator. 
 ROUAGE, Battery en Rouage. See Battery. 
 R O U G JL-crofs, q. d. red-crofs. See Poursuivants. 
 RoOGE-c/r/j^n, q. d. red-dragon. See Poursuivants. 
 ROUGH, Roughness, in mechanics. See Friction and 
 
 Resistence. 
 Rough cajl'mg. Sae Plaisterino and Mortar. 
 Rough diamond. See the article Diamond. 
 Rough emerald. See the article Emerald. 
 Rough leaved plant ft See the article Plant* 
 Rough tajle. See Taste; 
 
 ROUL, Roll or Rowl 4 in the military art — Officers 
 of the fame rank, who mount the fame guards, and take 
 their turns in relieving one another, are faid to roul or roll. 
 ROULADE, in mufic, a trilling or quavering. 
 ROUND, Rotundus, in geometry. See Circle, Globe 
 
 and Sphere. 
 Round, in anatomy. See the article Rotundus. 
 Round, in mufic — The Italians call b round, what we call a 
 fiat, and the French b mol, and b fquare, what we call a 
 Jharp. See FlAt and Sh arpe. 
 Round, is alfo a military term, Fignifying a walk or turn 
 which an officer, attended with fome foldiers, takes in a 
 garrifon or fortified place, around the ramparts in the night- 
 time, to liften if any thing be ftirring without the works, 
 and to fee that the centries are watchful) and do their duty, 
 and all things are in good order. 
 
 In ftrict garrifon the rounds go every quarter of an hour, that 
 the rampart may be always furnifhed — The centries are to 
 challenge at a diftance, and to reft their arms as the rounds 
 pafs, and let no one come near them. 
 
 When the round is near the corps de garde, the centry calls 
 aloud, who comes there ? and when theanfwer is, the rounds, 
 he faysj Jiand ; then calls for the corporal of the guard, who 
 draws his fword, and calls alfo, who tomes there ? and when 
 
ROU 
 
 R O Y 
 
 k is nnfwcrcd, the rounds, he that has the word advances and 
 
 delivers it to the corpora], who receives it with his fword 
 
 pointed at the giver's breath See Word. 
 fVey of the Rounds. See the article Way. 
 Counur-llov nds. See Cou N TER-round. 
 .'Quarter -Round. See the article Qu art ZK-round. 
 Ruunds, among mafons, denotes the broken pieces of fta- 
 
 tues. 
 
 RoVKD-hcads. See Whig and Tory. 
 
 Roukd-^o^ nails. See the article Nail. 
 
 Round-house, in a fhip, is the uppermoft room or cabin on 
 the flern of a fhip, where the matter lies. 
 
 Round-W* alfo denotes a kind of prifon, for the nightly- 
 watch to fecure perfons in, till they can be earned before a 
 fnagiftrate. See Watch. 
 
 Round niched f Niche. 
 
 Round roof S-See the articles < Roof. 
 
 Round fAJ (.Table. 
 
 Round, in the academies, denotes a circular pilte or tread. 
 
 To Round a horfe, is a general term for all forts of ma- 
 nages upon a volt*. Of circular tread.— Hence to round a. 
 horie upon a trot, gallop, &c. is to make him carry his 
 fhoulders and haunches roundly or compactly, upon a 
 lar<*e or fmallcr circle, without traverhng or bearing to a 
 fide. 
 
 ROUNDLAY*, or Roundo, a kind of antient poem, 
 thus called, acording to Menage, from its form ; and be- 
 caufe it ftill turns back again to the firir vcrfe, and thus goes 
 round. 
 
 * The word is formed from round and lay — The French call it 
 rondeau. The Spaniards glojh. 
 
 The common roundelay, confifts of thirteen verfes, eight 
 whereof are in one rhvrne, and five in another — It is divided 
 into couplets ; at the'end of the fecond and third whereof, 
 
 .the beginning of the roundelay is repeated; and that if pofhble, 
 
 - in an equivocal or punning fenfe. 
 The roundelay is a popular poem among the French, but little 
 
 'known among us — Marot and Voiture have fucceeded the 
 be'ft in it. 
 
 Rapin obferves, that if the roundelay be not very exquiiite, 
 "it is ftark nought — In all the antient roundelays. Menage 
 obferves, that the verfe prccccdinghas a compleat fenfe ; and 
 yet joins agreeably with that of the clofe ; without de- 
 pending; neceffarily thereon. This rule well obMrvcd makes 
 the roundehy more ingenious ; and is one of the fmefl'es of the 
 poem. 
 
 R O UNDELET. Sec the article Rundlet. 
 ROUNDNESS, Rotundity, in phyfics. See Spheri- 
 
 ; CITY.' i'." '*• " • •' ' ' ' "- '' '• ' •. 
 
 ROUNDO, or Roundelay, in mufic, a kind of burden 
 or ritornello ; where the beginning of each couplet is repeated 
 at the end thereof. 
 
 ROUPIA, orRur-EE. See the article Rupee. 
 
 ROUSE up a hart, among hunters. See Hunting. 
 
 To Rouse, anions falconers, is when a hawk lifts up and makes 
 himfelf. 
 
 Rouse a hawfer, or cable, in the fea phrafe, fignifies to 
 hale hi part of the hawfer or cable, which lies Hack in the 
 water. 
 
 ROUT*, Route, a public road, highway, orcourfe; efpe- 
 icially that which military forces take. 
 
 * The word is French, route, formed from the Latin, rupta, or 
 rut a or the French, rotix, an old word for horfe ; or rather 
 from the old Celtic; rout, road. 
 
 Sanfon and Ogdby have made maps of the routs and 
 poft-roads of France and England: foldicrs are prohibited 
 going out of their routs — Routs are frequently cut in parks, 
 forefts, csV. both for ornament and for the conveniences of 
 hunting. 
 
 Some ufe rout for a path cut a-crofs a wood ; in oppofition to 
 
 may, which is a great road. 
 Rout, in navigation. See the article Course. 
 Rout is alfo ufed for the defeat and flight of an army 
 The ferjeants endeavour to rally the foldiers in a 
 
 rout. 
 
 Rout, in law, is an afiembly or combination of three, or 
 more perfons, going forcibly to commit an unlawful acr. ; 
 though they do not actually perform it. 
 
 If they go, ride, or move forwards, after their meeting, it 
 is a rout) though they do not put their purpofe in execution; 
 if they do, it is a riot. 
 
 A rout, therefore, feems to he an unlawful . afiembly ; 
 and a riot the diforderly fail committed thereby. See 
 Riot. 
 
 Two things, however, there are in common to rout, riot, 
 and unlawful ajfembly : the one, that there be at lean; three 
 perfons together ; the other, that, being together, they dif- 
 
 tuib the peace, either by words, fhew of arms, turbulent 
 gelture, or actual violence. 
 Rout of wolves, among hunters, denotes a herd of thofe wild 
 beafts. 
 
 ROU TIER, in navigation. See Waggoner. 
 ROWEL, among farriers, a kind of ifl'ue, made by drawing 
 a fkain of filk, thread, hair, or the like, through the nape of 
 the neck, or other part of an horfe ; anfwering to what in 
 chirurgery is called a feton. 
 The Rowelling of horfes is a method of cure frequently 
 had recourfe to in cafes of inward ftrains, efpecially about the 
 moulders or hips ; as alfo for hard fwellings not eafy to be 
 refolved. 
 
 The operation is thus — A little flit being made through 
 the fiiin, about a handful below the part aggrieved, big 
 enough to put a fwan's quill in ; the fkin is railed from 
 the flein, the end of the quill put in, and the fkin blowed 
 from thefiefh upwards, and all over the moulder — Then the 
 hole being flopped with the finger, the place blown is beaten 
 with a hazel-ltick, and the wind fpread with the hand all 
 over ; and then let go. 
 
 This done,a fkain of horfe -hair, or red farfenet, half the thick- 
 nefs of the little finger, is put in a rowelling needle feven or eight 
 inches long ; the needle is put into the hole, and drawn 
 through again fix or feven inches higher ; then the needle is 
 drawn out, and the two ends of the roivel tied together : a- 
 nointing it every day, as well as before the putting it in, 
 with fweet butter and hog's greafe, and drawing it backwards 
 and forwards in the (kin, to make the putrid matter difcharge 
 itfelf more plentifully. 
 
 Others, difliking thefe rowels, as making too great a fere and 
 fear, ufe the French rowel, which is a round piece cf Itiff 
 leather, with a hole in the midlt ; laying it flat between the 
 flefli and fkin, the hole of the rowel]u& againfi: that in the 
 fkin ; fow'mg it with a needle and thread drawn through the 
 hole and the flun ; cleaning it once in two or three days, and 
 then anointing it afrefh. 
 ROWING. See Oar, Boat, CsV. 
 ROWS cf trees. See the article Parallelism. 
 ROYAL*, Regal, fomething relating to a king. 
 
 * The word is French, formed from the Latin, regaUs, of rex, 
 king. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, the royal family, the royal blood, royal 
 line, &c. ' : 
 
 In England the prince and princefs of Wales, the king's bro- 
 ther, ts'c. are addrefled under the title of royal highmfs.— 
 The duchefs of Savoy is called madame royale. 
 Royal eibby, denotes an abby founded by a king, or by a prince 
 
 who is fucceeded by a king. 
 Royal academy of fciemes, Sec. See Academy, 6sV. 
 Royal antler among hunters, expreffes the third branch of the 
 horn of a hart or buck, that flioots out from the rear or main 
 horn above the back antler. 
 Royal army, is an army marching with heavy cannon ; capa- 
 ble of belicging a ftrong, well fortified city — It Is ufual to 
 hang up a governor who has the aflurance to hold out a petty 
 place againfla royal army. 
 Royal affent, is that allent or approbation which the king 
 gives to a thing done by others; as the election of a bifhop 
 by dean and chapter ; or a bill palled in both houfes of 
 parliament.. 
 
 The royal affent in parliament being given, the bill is endorfed 
 with thefe words, Leroy le veult ; that is, it pleafcs the king 
 — If he refufes it, thus, Le roy s'ayijira, q. d. the king will 
 advifc upon it. 
 Royal boroughs. Seethe article Borough. 
 Royal crown, is that worn by kings. 
 
 This they alfo call an imperial crown, being clofed a-top. 
 The Englifh crown is clofed by femicircles of gold meeting 
 at. the monde or globe, on which the crofs ftands ; and thofc 
 femicircles adorned with croffes and fleur-de-lifes : the whole 
 embellifhed with precious ftones. 
 Royal charter. See the article Charter. 
 Royal African company. See the article Company. 
 Royal Exchange, the burfe or meeting place of the merchants 
 in London. 
 
 It was firft built in 1566, at the charge of Sir Thomas 
 Grefham; and v.\ a folemn manner, by herald with found of 
 trumpet, in prefence of queen Elizabeth, proclaimed the royal 
 exchange — Till that time the merchants met in Lombard- 
 ftreet. 
 
 It was built of brick ; yet then efteemed the moll fplendid 
 burfe in Europe — An hundred years after its building, at the 
 great fire, it was burnt down ; but it was foon raifed again, 
 in a ftill more magnificent manner ; the expence thereof a- 
 mountingto 50000/. 
 
 One half of this fum was difburfed by the chamber of 
 London, the other by the company of Mercers ; who, 
 to rcimburfe themfelvts, let to hire 190 ihops above flairs, 
 
 at 
 
ROY 
 
 RUB 
 
 at 20 pound each % which with ether (Hops, (Sc. on the 
 ground, yielded a yearly rent of above 4000 pounds, yet 
 the ground it ftands on does not exceed J of an acre : 
 whence it is obferved to be much the richcft fpot of ground in 
 the world. 
 
 It is built quadrangular, with walks a-round, wherein the 
 merchants of the refpective countries aflbeiate themfelves. 
 In the middle of the area or court, is a fine marble ftatue of 
 king Charles II. in the habit of a Roman Ca?far ; erected by 
 the fociety of merchant adventurers; the workmanlhip of 
 Grinlin Gibbons. Around are ranged the ftatues ofthefeveral 
 kings fince the Norman conqueft. 
 
 Royal fijhes, are whales and ft urgcons, and, fomc add, 
 porpoifes too, which the king, by his prerogative, is to 
 have whenever caft on fhore, or wrecked, in all places 
 of the realm, unlefs granted to fubjects by exprefs words. 
 
 Royal Foot. See the article Foot; 
 
 Royal Fort. See the article Fort. 
 
 TLoy At. franchife. See the article Franchise. 
 
 Royai, hofpital. See the article Hospital. 
 
 27j c -Royal oak was a fair fpreading tree at Bofcobel in the parifh 
 of Donntngton in Stafford (hi re, the boughs whereof were 
 all covered with ivy $ in the thick of which king Charles II. 
 latin the day time with colonel Carelefs, and in the night 
 lodged in Bofcobel-houfe : fo that they are miftaken who 
 fpeak of it as an old hollow oak ; it being then a gay flou- 
 rifhingtree, furrounded with many more — The poor remains 
 hereof are now fenced in with a handfome wall, with this 
 infeription over the gate, in gold letters — F&licijfimam arbo- 
 rem quam in afylum potentijfimi regis Caroii II. Deus op. max. 
 per quern regis regnant, hie crcfccrc voluit, &c. Philofoph. 
 Tranfaft. N°. 310. 
 
 Royal officers. See the article Officer. 
 
 Royal Parapet, or parapet of the rampart, in fortification, it a 
 , bank about three fathoms broad, and fix foot high, placed 
 upon the brink of the rampart, towards the country j to co- 
 ver thofe who defend the rampart. 
 
 Port Royal. See the article Port royal. 
 
 Royal Society of England, is an academy, or body of pcrfons 
 of eminent learning; inftituted by king Charles II. for the pro- 
 moting of natural knowledge. 
 
 This illuftrious body had its original in an affembly of 
 ingenious men, who before the reftauration met weekly 
 in Wadham-college, in Oxford, at the lodc-in^s G f Dr 
 Wilkins. 
 
 Afterwards, from about the year 1658, many of them 
 living in London, held meetings at Grefham-college ; till 
 they were at length taken notice of by the king, who 
 was pleafed to grant them an ample charter dated the 
 22d of April, 1663; whereby they were erected into a 
 corporation, conjijling of a prefident, council and fellows, 
 for promoting the knowledge of natural things, and ufeful ex- 
 periments. 
 
 Their manner of electing fellows is by balloting. Their 
 council are in number 21, eleven o£ which are continued 
 for the next year, and ten more added to them, all chofen on 
 St Andrew's day. 
 
 Each member at his admiffion fubferibes an engagement, that 
 he will endeavour to promote the good of the fociety ; from 
 which he may be freed at any time, by fignifying to the prefi- 
 dent, that hedefires to withdraw. 
 
 The charges are 401. paid to the treafurer at admiffion; 
 and 13J. per quarter, fo long as the perfon continues a 
 member. 
 
 Their defign is to « make faithful records of all th 
 . " works of nature or art, which come within their reach , 
 " fo that the prefent as well as after ages may be enabled to 
 " put a mark on errors which have been ftrengthened by lorn 
 " prefcription, to reftore truths that have been neglected', 
 to puih thofe already known to more various ufes ; to 
 " make the way more paflable to what remains unre 
 *' vealed, (Sc. 
 
 To this purpofe they have made a great number of experi 
 ments and obfervations on moit of the works of nature ; e 
 clipfes, comets, meteors, mines, plant's, earthquakes, inun 
 ilations, fprings, damps, fubterraneous fires, tides, currents, 
 the magnet, (Sc. — Alio, numbers of fhort hiltories of nature, 
 arts, manufactures, ufeful engines, contrivances, fisfc. The 
 
 fervices they have been of to the public are very great They 
 
 have improved naval, civil, and military architecture; ad- 
 vanced the fecurity and perfection of navigation ; improved a- 
 griculture; and put not only this kingdom, but alio Ireland, 
 the Plantations, (Sc. upon planting. 
 
 They have regiftered experiments, hiftories, relations, obfer- 
 vations, (Sc. reduced them into one common ftock ; and 
 have from time to time publifhed fome of the moft immediate 
 ufe, under the title of Philofopbical Travfaelions, &c. and 
 laid the reft up in public regiiters, to be nakedly tranfmirtcd 
 to poftenty, as a fohd ground-work for future fyftems. See 
 Transactions. 
 Vol. II, 
 
 They have a library adapted to their inftitution ; towards 
 which the late earl-marfhal contributed the Norfolcian li- 
 brary, and a mufa;um, or repofitory of natural and artificial 
 rarities, given them by Daniel Colwal, Efq ; and fince en- 
 riched by many others.— Their motto is, Nullius in Verba* 
 
 Royal Spanijh academy. See the article Academy; 
 
 Royal fugar. See the article Sugar. 
 
 ROYALTIES, Regalties, the rights of the king ; 
 otherwife called the king's prerogative, and the regalia. Sec 
 Prerogative and Regalia. 
 
 Of thefe, fome the king may grant to common perfons j 
 others are infcparable from the crown. See King, Grant 
 
 RUBARB, Rhabarbarum, 
 
 medicine. See Rhu- 
 
 RUBBING. See Attrition and Friction. 
 RUBIA Tin&orum, a root or drug popularly called madder, 
 See Madder. 
 
 RUBIFYING*, in chymiftiy, (Sc. the act df turning a 
 thing red by force of fire, (Sc. 
 
 •* Theword is formed of the Latin rsbeus, ruddy, and/o, I be- 
 come. 
 
 Red arlenic is common white arfenic rubified by a mixture of 
 fulphur and copper; 
 RUBIGALIA, or Robigalia$ in antiquity; a feaft ce- 
 lebrated by the Romans in honour of the god Rubigus, or the 
 goddefs Rubigo ; to engage thofe deities to pi eferve the corn 
 from blafting, and mildews. 
 
 The rubigalia were inftituted by Numa in the eleventh year 
 of his reign ; and were held on the 7th of the calends of May, 
 which is our 25th of April ; being about the time when the 
 blight or mildew, called by the Latins rubigo, ufes to attack the 
 corn. 
 
 Varro fixes it to the time when the fun enters the 16th de- 
 gree of Taurus — Indeed the true time feems rather to have 
 been on the eighteenth day before the equinox ; and the true 
 reafon, becaufe then canicula, or the little dog; fees ; which 
 is eftcemed a malific conftcllation. 
 
 Hence they facrificed a dog to rubigo : Ovid favs, the 
 entrails of a dog, and thofe 'of a fheep : Columella,' only a 
 fucking puppy. Feftus infinuates, that the victim mult alto 
 be red. 
 
 RUBIGO, or Robigo, a difeafe incident to corn, popularly 
 called mildew. 
 
 The wbigo is a fpeciesof blight. See Blight, 
 RUBRICK, Rubric a, in the canon law, denotes a tide 
 or article in certain antient law-books; thus called, becaufe 
 wrote, as the titles of the chapters in our antient bibles arCj 
 in red letters.— You'll find fuch a law under fuch a rubrick. 
 Rubricks, alfo denotes the rules and directions given at the 
 beginning, and in the courfe of the liturgy ; for the order, and 
 manner wherein the feveral parts of the office are to be per- 
 formed. 
 
 There are general rubricks, and fpecial rubricks, a rubrick far 
 the communion, Sec — In the Romifh miffal and breviary are 
 rubricks for mattins, for lauds, for tranfiations, beatifications, 
 commemorations, (Sc. 
 
 They are called rubricks, from the Latin* ruber, red; becaufe 
 formerly printed in red-ink, to diftintruifh them from the reft 
 of the office, which was in black; as~they ftill are in the Ro- 
 mifh miiTals, (Sc. 
 
 The great rubrick for the celebration of Eafter, prefcribed by 
 the Nicene council, is to this purpofe— Eafter-day to he the 
 Sunday which falls upon, or next after the firft full moon 
 which immediately fucceeds the vernal equinox. 
 — Dr Wallis has a particular difcourfe on the antient rubricks 
 for the feat of Eafter ; in the Philcfrph. Tranfaaions. 
 RUBY, Rubinus, a red coloured, fparkling gem^ of the 
 firlt rank among precious ftones. 
 
 There are but two places in the Eaft where the ruby is found * 
 The kingdom of Pegu, and the i fie of Ceylon— The mine 
 in Pegu, where it is found in greateft plenty, is in the moun- 
 tain Capelan, 12 days journey from Siren, the refidence of 
 
 the king of that country The fineft rubies brought hence 
 
 do not exceed three or four carats ; the king referving all the 
 larger to himfelf. 
 
 In Ceylon, the rubies are found in a river which defcenda 
 from the mountains towards the middle of the ifiand : Some 
 few are alfo found in the ground— The rubies of Ceylon are 
 ufually brighter and more beautiful than thofe of Pegu ; but 
 they are rare ; the king of Ceylon prohibiting his people to 
 gather them, or traffick with them. 
 
 There zxerubies alfo found in Europe, particularly in Bohemia 
 and Hungary j efpecially the former, wherein is a mine of 
 flints of divers fizes, which upon breaking, are fometimes 
 found to contain rubies pretended to be as fine and hard as 
 any of the Eaftern ones. 
 
 The Greeks call the ruby bw/i^, q. d. refilling the fire 
 — The antltnts out of their credulity and fuperftition attri- 
 buted many virtues to the ruby; as, that it expels poifons, 
 10 E e Cljre t 
 
RUD 
 
 R U I 
 
 cures 'the plague, abates luxury and incontinence, taiilhes 
 
 Lapidaries ufualh'di.'tinguilh three kilids of rubies; the rackruby, 
 balaj's, and /pine, 1 '/: Some add a fourth kind, raz. the rubacelle. 
 It is 'the different degree of colour which makes their diffe- 
 rent value and beauty The babfs ruby is of a crimfon 
 
 colour with a calf of purple : The fpinell ruby is of a bright 
 • rofy rsd. . 
 It is faid the inhabitants of Pegu have the art of heightening 
 the rednefs and brilliancy of nc'nes, by laying them in the lire, 
 and giving them a proper degree of heat, but this feems 
 a very erroneous account. 
 
 The ruby is formed in a ftony fubftance or bed of a role 
 colour, called mother of ruly ; it has not all its colour and lu- 
 ftre at once ; but comes to it by degrees— At firft it is whitifh, 
 and as it approaches to maturity, becomes red. Hence we 
 have white rubies, others half white, half red ; and others 
 blue and red, called fappbire rubies. 
 
 When a ruby exceeds twenty carats, it may be called a car- 
 buncle, the name of an imaginary ftone, whereof the an- 
 tients and moderns have given us fo many defcriptions. See 
 Carbuncle. 
 
 They have feveral manners of counterfeiting rubies, and fome 
 have carried the imitation to that length, that the molt able 
 lapidaries till they come to try the hardnefs are fometimcs 
 over-fean. *'* ■ 
 
 Furetiere affures us, very poitively that there have 
 
 been rubies in France of 240 carats Tavemier tells 
 
 us, he faw one in the Indies of i f y carats, which he 
 had a mind to have bought. He adj.,, that the king of 
 France has finer and larger rubies than any in the poffeilion of 
 the Great Mogul. 
 
 The value of rubies from one carat, or four grains, to ten 
 carats, is thus given us in the dielionaire de commerce, from a 
 good hand 
 
 
 
 /. 
 
 Si 
 
 d. 
 
 A ruby of one carat, 
 
 s worth 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Of two C. 
 
 
 9 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 Of three C. 
 
 
 22 
 
 JO 
 
 0 
 
 Of four C. 
 
 
 33 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Of five C. 
 
 
 45 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 Of fix C. 
 
 
 67 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Of feven C. 
 
 
 84 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Of eight C. 
 
 
 I06 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 Of nine C. 
 
 
 150 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 Of ten C. 
 
 
 2l6 
 
 00 
 
 .a 
 
 Sat>ph;'rc Ruby, See the article Sapphire. 
 
 &uby, in chymiftry, is a name given to feveral prepara- 
 tions of natural bodies, became of their red colour j as, ruby 
 of arfenic, &c. 
 
 Ruby, in heraldry, denotes the red colour wherewith the arms 
 
 of noblemen are blazoned ; being the fame which in the arms 
 
 of others not noble, is called gules. 
 RUCTATION, belching, a ventofity arifing from indi- 
 
 geflion, and difcharging itfelf at the mouth, with a difagree- 
 
 able noife. 
 
 There are belches owing to repletion, and others to inanition, 
 or emptinefs, 
 
 Quincy fays, hypochondriac and hyftcric people are par- 
 ticularly liable to this diforder They are rather to be 
 
 cured with proper ftomachics, than carminatives and hot 
 liquors— Burnet recommends the iliac pills of Rhafis againft 
 
 Titration. 
 
 RUDDER, in navigation, a piece of timber turning on 
 hinges in the ftern of a fhip, and which oppofing fometimes 
 one fide to the water, and fometimes another, turns or 
 directs the vefTel, this way or that See Tab. Ship, fig. 2. 
 
 n. 106. 
 
 The rudder of a fhip is a piece of timber hung on the ftcrn- 
 pofts, by four or five iron hooks called pintles ; ferving, as it 
 were, for the bridle of a fhip ; to turn her about at the pleafure 
 of the fteer's-man. 
 
 The rudder beins; perpendicular, and without fide the fhip, 
 another piece of timber is fitted into it at right angles, 
 which comes into the fhip ; by which the rudder is managed 
 and directed — This latter properly is called the helm, or tiller ; 
 and fometimes, tho' improperly, the rudder itfelf. 
 The power of the rudder is reducible to that of the 
 lever. 
 
 As to the angle the rudder fhould make with the keel ; the 
 author of a late book on the working of mips, fhews, that, 
 in order to ftay or bear up the fooneft poifible, the tiller 
 of the rudder ought to make an angle of near 55 0 with the 
 keel. 
 
 A narrow rudder is belt for a fhip's failing, provided fhe can 
 feci it, that is, be guided and turned by it ; for a broad rud- 
 der will hold much water when the helm is put over to any* 
 fide : but if a fhip have a fat quarter, fo that the water cannot 
 come quick and itrong to her rudder, flic will require a. broad 
 rudder. 
 
 The aft-moft part of the rudder is called, the rah of the 
 
 rudder. 
 
 RUDDLE, Rubric a, a fort of dufky red chalk or earth 
 found in divers parts of England; chiefly in iron mines, of 
 which mineral it has a copious mixture, it is ufed to mark 
 cattle, and in painting. See Supplement article Rubrica. 
 
 RUD EN TED column. Seethe article Column. 
 
 RUDENTURE, in architecture, the figure of a rope 
 or ftaff, fometimes plain, fometimes carved, wherewith a 
 third part of the flutings of columns are frequently filled 
 up. 
 
 It is thus called from the Latin, rudens b cable ; whence fome 
 call it a cabling, and the columns whofe flutings are thus 
 filled, they call rudented, or cabled columns. 
 There arc alfo rudentitres in relievo, laid on the naked of pi- 
 lafters not fluted ; an inftance of which we have in the 
 church of St Sapienza at Rome. 
 RUDERATION, Ruderatio, in building, a term 
 ufed by Vitruvius for the laying a pavement with pebbles or 
 little ftones. 
 
 To perform the ruderation, it is neceflary the ground be 
 firft well beaten, to make it firm, and to prevent its crack- 
 ing — Then a firatum of little ftones is laid, to be afterwards 
 bound together with mortar made of lime and fand, called by 
 Vitruvius, jlatumen. 
 
 If the fand be new, its proportion to the lime may be 
 as 3 to 1 ; but if dug out of old pavements or walls, as 5 
 to 2. 
 
 Ruderation, Davilcr obferves, is alfo ufed by Vi- 
 truvius, lib. 7. cap. 1. for the coarfeft and moft art- 
 lefs kind of mafonry ; where a wall is, as it were, cob- 
 led up. 
 
 RUDIARIUS, in antiquity, a veteran gladiator, who had 
 
 got a difcharge from the fervice. See Gladiator. 
 
 He was thus called, becaufe as a mark of difmiilion a rod was 
 
 put into his hand called rudis. 
 
 The rttdiariiwere alfo called fpcelatores. 
 RUDIMENTS, Rudiment a, the firft principles or 
 
 grounds of any art or fcience ; called alfo the elements thereof. 
 
 See Elements. 
 RUDIS, a knotty rugged flick, which the praetor among the 
 
 Romans gave the gladiators, as a mark of their freedom and 
 
 difmiflion. 
 
 Hence the Latin phrafe, rude donare, to make a gladiator free, 
 to difcharge him from righting any more— They were hence 
 called rudiarii. 
 
 RUE, Ruta hartenfis, a medicinal plant, much ufed in the 
 prefent practice — Schroder commends it as an alexipharmic, 
 and cephalic; fays it refills poifons and malignities, and is 
 therefore to be ufed in fevers ; and that it is good in all con- 
 vullive cafes. 
 
 It is replete with a fat vifcous juice, and by that means yields 
 little to any purpofe in diftillation, unlefs where firft digefted 
 in a fpiritous menftruum — Hence its fimple water in the 
 fhops, according to Dr Quincy, is nothing worth, though 
 others are of a very different opinion. It ought to be raifed 
 with a fpiritous liquor, or ufed in conferve ; or which is bed 
 of all, the plant may be eat alone frelli gathered, with 
 bread and butter. It is of fervice in nervous cafes, particularly 
 fuch as arife from the womb, as it deterges the glands, and by 
 its vifcidity, bridles thofe inordinate motions, which frequent- 
 ly begin there, and affect the whole confutation, the generi- 
 cal characters and feveral fpecies of rue, fee in the Supple- 
 ment article Ruta. 
 RUELLE, a French term, lately introduced into our lan- 
 guage : it is a diminutive of rue, ftreet ; and fignifies, lite- 
 rally, a little-Jlreet. 
 
 Its ufe among us, is for an alcove, or other genteel apartment, 
 where the ladies receive vifits either in bed or up — The poets 
 go reading their works from ruelle to ruelle, to befpeak the 
 approbation and intereft of the ladies. 
 RUFF-TREES. Seethe article Roof-Trees. 
 RUFTER-HOOD, among falconers, a plain leather-hood, 
 large and open behind, to be worn by an hawk, when fhe is 
 firft drawn. 
 
 RUINS, a term particularly ufed for magnificent buildings* 
 fallen to decay by length of time ; and whereof there only re- 
 mains a confufed heap of materials. 
 
 Such are the ruins of the tower of Babel, of the tower of Belus, 
 two days journey from Bagdat, in Syria, on the banks of the 
 Euphrates ; which are now no more than a heap of bricks, 
 cemented with bitumen ; and whereof we only perceive the 
 plan to have been fquare. 
 
 Such, alfo, are the ruins of a famous temple or palace near 
 Schiras in Perfia ; which the antiquaries will have to have been 
 built by Ahafhuerus ; and which the Perfians now call Tchel- 
 minar, or Chelminar, q. d. the forty columns ; becaufe there 
 are fo many columns remaining pretty entire, with the traces 
 of others; a great quantity of baflb relievo's, and unknown 
 characters, futEcieut to fliew the magnificence of the antique 
 arcliitedlure, 
 
 RULE, 
 
RUL 
 
 R U L 
 
 .RULE, or Ruler Regula, a very fimple mftrum.cn t, 
 orilin;iniy oi hardwood, thin, narrow and itrajt, ferving to 
 direct the drawing of right lines. 
 
 Tlie rule is ot" principal ufe in ail the mechanical arts — To 
 prove whether or no it be jut, draw a line by it on paper, 
 then turn the rule about, the right end to the left, and apply 
 the fame edge this way to the line, if the edge now agree 
 exa£Hy with the line, the ruler is true. 
 
 DeGnarets has a fine poem on the amours of then//? and com- 
 pafs — The (tone- cutters -?"«/£ is ufually four foot long j and 
 divided into feet and inches. 
 
 The Mafon's rule is 12 or 15 foot long, and is applied under 
 the level to regulate the courfes, to make the piedroits equal, 
 
 Parallel Rule or Ruler. See Parallel. 
 
 Rule is alfo applied to certain inftruments which have 
 other confiderable ufes befides that of drawing lines- 
 Such are the carpenters joint -rule-, -Everard's and Coggcfhal's 
 Jli ding -rules, &c. 
 
 Carpenters joiut-RuLE, is an inftrument ufually of box, 24 
 inches long, and one and a half broad, each inch being fub 
 divided into eight parts — On the fame fide with thefe divifions 
 is ufually added Guntcr's line of numbers. 
 On the other fide are the lines of timber and board-meafure, 
 the firft beginning at 82, and continued to 36, near the other 
 end ; the hitter is numbered from 7 to 36, four inches from 
 the other end. 
 
 Xlfe of the Carpenters joint-RvLE — The application of the 
 inches in meafuring lengths, breadths, fcjrif. is obvious — 
 That of the Guntcr's line, fee under Gunter's line 
 — The ufe of the other fide is all we need here meddle 
 wkh. 
 
 1. The breadth of any furface, as board, glafs, &c. be- 
 ing given, to find hozu much in length makes a jquare foot— 
 Eind the number of inches the furface is broad, in the line of 
 board meafure, and right againft. it is the number of inches 
 required. 
 
 Thus if the furface were 8 inches broad, 18 inches will 
 be found to make a f iperficial foot. 
 
 Or, more readily thus — Apply the rule to the breadth of the 
 board or glais, that end marked 36 being even with the edge ; 
 the other edge of the furface will lhew the inches and quarters 
 of inches which go to a fquare foot. 
 
 2. Ufe of the table at the end of the board meafure — If a 
 furface be one inch broad, how many inches long will make 
 a fuperficial foot? Look in the upper row of figures for one 
 inch, and under it in thefecond row is 12 inches, the anfwer 
 to the queftion. 
 
 3. Ufe of the line of timber meafure — This refembles the for- 
 mer, for having learnt how much the piece is fquare, look 
 for that number on the line of timbcr-meafure : The fpace 
 thence to the end of the ride is the length, which at that 
 breadth makes a foot of timber — Thus, if the piece be 9 
 inches fqitare, the length neceffary to make a folidfoot of 
 timber is 21 \ inches — If the timber be fmall, and under 9 in- 
 ches fquare, feck the fquare in the upper rank of the table, and 
 immediately under it is the feet and inches that make a folid 
 foot — Thus, if it be 7 inches fquare, 1 foot 1 1 inches will 
 be found to make a folid foot. 
 
 If the piece be not exactly fquare, but broader at one end 
 than another, the methud is to add the two together, and take 
 half the !um for the fide of the fquare— For round timber, 
 the method is to girt it round with a ih'ing, and to allow the 
 fourth part for the fide of the fquare— But this method is er- 
 roneous, for hereby you lofe above f of the true folidity. See 
 Timber. 
 
 Caliber-Ru le. See Caliber meafure. 
 Everard's fliding-RwLE. ) r, , . , 7 c 1 
 r- an n-j- o ,,, 7 Sec the article ybLiDiKG-ru/e. 
 Coggejbal s J/iding-Ru LE. J ) 
 
 Rule, Regula, alfo denotes a certain maxim, canon or 
 precept, to be obferved in any art or fcience. Thus we 
 fay, the rules of grammar, of logic, of philofophizing, 
 We, 
 
 School philofophers diflinguifh two kinds o£rules± viz. theore- 
 tical, or rules of knowing, which relate to the understanding, 
 being of ufe in the difcovery of truth ; and praclical or rules 
 of acling, which relate to the will, and ferve to direct it to 
 what is good and right. 
 
 For the management and application of thefe two forts 
 of rules there are two diftinct arts, viz. logic and 
 
 ethics. 
 
 Rules of knowing, regula fcienill, are fuch as direct 
 and affift the mind, in perceiving, judging and reafon- 
 
 in s- 
 
 Rules of ailing, regula agertdi, are thofe whereby the mind 
 is guided in her detires, purfuits, t$c. 
 
 Authors are extremely divided about the regard to be had 
 to the Rules of pastry fixed by the ancients, Ariftotfe, 
 
 Horace, Longinus, cifr. and admitted by the modern cri- 
 tics, as Boffu, tsV. fome contended that they muft be invio- 
 lably obferved; others pleading for liberty to fet them, 
 afide on occafion— Rules, it is complained* are fetters 3 
 rank enemies to genius ; and never religiouuy obferved by 
 any, but thofe who have nothing in themfelves to de- 
 pend on. Vbiture frequently neglected all the rules of 
 poetry, as a mailer who fcorned to be confined by 
 them. 
 
 The theatre has its particular rules + as the rule of 24. hours, 
 the unities of action, time and place, csV. 
 If it be true, fays Moliere, that plays conducted according 
 to the rulesj do not pleafe ; but thofe which are not, do : 
 The rules muft be naught — For myfelfj when a thing 
 hits and diverts me, I do not enquire' whether I have done 
 amifs, nor whether Ariftotle's rules forbid me to laugh. 
 
 Rules of philofophizing. See Philosophizing. 
 
 Rule, in arithmetic, denotes a certain operation with figures 
 to find fums or numbers unknown, and to facilitate compu- 
 tations, mercantile, aftronomica!, £tfr. 
 
 Each rule in arithmetic has its particular name, accofding to 
 the ufe for which it is intended — The four firft, which ferve 
 as the foundation of the whole art, are called addition, fub- 
 traclion, multiplication and divifion ; each whereof fee under 
 its proper article Addition, &c 1 
 
 From thefe arife feveral other rules ; as the rule of three, or of 
 proportion ; called alio the golden rule, and diftinguifhed into 
 
 direct and inverfe, fimple and compound Alfo, the rule of 
 
 five numbers rule of fellowfinp, fimple and with time—rule 
 
 of allegation, medial and alternate rule of exchange ■ 
 
 rulcoffalfepofition,fmgk and double To which add ap- 
 proximation, barter, combination, equation, exchange, extra&ion, 
 involution, progrejfton, rebate^ reducl'ion, &c. See Fellow- 
 ship, fcfr. 
 
 Rule of three or of proportion, commonly called the golden-^ 
 rule, is a rule which teaches how to find a fourth propor- 
 tional number to three others given; 
 
 As, if three degrees of the equator contain 70 leagues, how 
 many do 360 degrees, the circumference of the earthj con- 
 tain ? 
 
 The rule U this — Multiply the fecond term 70 by the third 
 360 ; divide the producl 25200, by the firfi term 3, and the 
 quotient 8400 is the fourth term required. 
 The ufe of this rule is of vaft extent, both in common life, 1 
 and the fciences, but has no place except where the pro- 
 portion of the given numbers is known— — Sappofe e. gr. 
 a large veflel full of water to empty itfelf by a litde a- 
 perture; and fuppofe 3 gallons to flow out in 2 mi- 
 nutes, and it were required to know in what time" 100 
 
 gallons would be thus evacuated ? Here indeed are three 
 
 terms given, and a fourth required : But, as it is evident 
 from experience, that this water flows fafter at firft than after- 
 wards, the quantity of flowing water is not proportional to 
 the time ; and therefore the queftion does not come under the 
 rule of three. 
 
 T-he things which come under commerce are proportionable 
 to their prices, twice as much of any commodity always 
 cofting twice as much money, csV. The price therefore of 
 any quantity of a commodity being given, the price of any 
 other quantity of the fame, or the quantity of the commo- 
 dity a'lfwering to any other given fum, is found by the rule 
 of three— e. gr. If 3 pounds coft 1 7 s. what will 30 pounds 
 coft ? Since as 3 pounds are to 30 pounds, fo is the value 
 of the former 1 7 s. to the value of the latter. The queftion 
 ftands thus: 
 
 -30 lb . IJSi 
 
 3)510(1701. 8/. 10 u 
 
 Again; if 3 pounds be bought for 17s. how many will 
 1701. buy? Since as 17 s. is to 170 s. fo are 3 pounds 
 to the pounds required; The number will be found 
 thus : 
 
 lis, 
 
 -3& 
 
 — 170J. — 
 3 
 
 I7)5io( 3 o«. 
 
 If the given terms be heterogeneous, :'. e. have broker! num- 
 bers among them, they do not bear the fame proportion to 
 each other which the things they exprefs bear — They muft 
 therefore be reduced to homogeneous ones, or to the fame 
 denomination, as pounds into fJlillings, fbjjlings into pence, 
 ate hours into minutes, (SV, 
 
 S. gr. 
 
RUL 
 
 RUM 
 
 E.gr. If 3 pounds and jounces coft 25.41!. what Will 2 
 pounds coft? The operation will be thus : 
 
 3 lb. 4 a. 2 ll>. 2 1. 4 A 
 
 16 
 52 
 
 28 
 
 (17 J-j of a penny. 
 
 In many cafes of commerce and accounts, we have more 
 compendious ways of working queftions that come under 
 the rule of three than by the rule itfelf ; which, by reaion 
 of their expediting praaice, are called practice ; and eonfti- 
 tute a particular rule of themfelves. See Practice. 
 Rule of three imerfe, is where the natural order of the 
 terms is inverted — As, if 100 workmen build a houfe 
 in two years, in how long time will 200 workmen build 
 the fame ? ..... 
 This is ufually considered by the writers of arithmetic, 
 and taught in the fchools as a particular rule ; being wrought 
 by multiplying the firft term too by the fecond 2, and divi- 
 ding the produft 200 by the third term 200, the quotient 
 I is the number required. 
 
 But there is no neceffity for making a particular rule for 
 the matter ; this coming naturally enough under the former, 
 by only ranging the terms as the nature of the queftion 
 requires. ■■ " .-i l>£afl|fi 
 
 Thus it is evident, that as the number of men 200 is to 
 IOO, fo is the fpace 2 years, wherein 100 build the houfe, 
 to the fpace wherein 200 will build the fame — For the lefs 
 time the more hands are required. The queftion then will 
 ftand thus : 
 
 200 M. too M. 2 Y. 
 
 Rule, in the canon law — The Rule, dc verifimili notitia, of 
 probable notice, in the romifh church, renders all provifions to 
 a benefice vacant by death, null ; if it appear that from the 
 day of the deceafe, to the day of the date of the provifions, or 
 to the day when the courier arrives from Rome, there has not 
 been time fufficient for regular notice of the perfon's deceafe 
 to be conveyed to the pope. 
 
 Provifions are even null if it be proved the courier fet out be- 
 fore the perfon was deceafed — This rule is ftricily obferved in 
 France, in other countries the pope finds frequent occafions 
 to difpenfewith it. 
 R u L e of twenty days, regula viginti dicrum. By this rule, if 
 an ecclefiaftic refign his benefice, to make the refignation 
 valid, the refigner muft furvive its admiffion in the court of 
 Rome twenty days — If he die before the expiration of the 
 twenty days, the refignation is void, and the benefice be- 
 comes vacant by death. 
 
 This rule does not hold of the provifions of ordinary colla- 
 tors, nor of fimple and pure resignations into the hands 
 of the ordinary, but only in cafe of provifions of the pope, 
 difpatched on refignations in favorem. 
 
 This rule antiently extended to fuch as refigned in time of 
 health as well as of ficknefs— Pope Boniface reftrained it to 
 the latter, whence it is commonly called regula de infirmis 
 refignantibus. u - •f-^Li.v . T T 
 
 R U L E de publicandis — By this rule the refignee of a benefice, 
 if he have a provifion from the court of Rome, is obliged 
 to publifh the refignation and take pofieffioM within fix 
 months, or if he have it from the ordinary collator, within 
 one month. Otherwife, if the refigner die, the refignation 
 becomes null. 
 
 RUM*, a fpecies of brandy, or vinous fpirit, drawn by diftil- 
 lationfrom fugar canes. 
 
 * The word rum is the name it bears among the native Americans. 
 
 200)200(1 years. 
 
 Rule of 'five numbers, or compound rule of three, is where two 
 rules of three are required to be wrought, before rhe num- 
 ber fought be found— As if 300 /. in 2 years yield 30/. in- 
 tereft, how much will 1000/. yield in 12 years? 
 Here the firft thing to be done is to find by the rule of three. 
 what intcreft 1000/. will give in 2 years, and then by the 
 fame rule what it will give in 12 years. 
 
 This alio is confidered by the writers, tic. of arithmetic, as a 
 particular rule, but without any neceffity, a double opera- 
 tion folving it better, as in this example : 
 
 300 1. ; J000 /. 30 int. 
 
 130 
 
 2Y- 
 
 3100)300)00(100 int. 
 12 100/. 
 
 2)12000(600 int. 
 
 do 
 
 But in queftions of this kind a fingle rule of three may 
 thebufinefs; for 300 /. give the fame intcreft in two years 
 which twice 300 give in one year ; and twelve times 1030 /. 
 give the fame intereft in one year that 1000 give in 12; 
 omitting therefore the circumftances of time, fay, if twice 
 300 ("that is, 600) give 36 /. intereft (in one year) what 
 will 12 times 1000 (that is, 12000) give (in one year) ? 
 
 600- 
 
 36 
 
 72O00 
 36OOO 
 
 -36 
 
 6]oo)432loo(720 /. int. 
 
 OnnWRuLE. Seethe articleCENTRAL. 
 
 Rule, in a monaftic fenfe, is a fyftem of laws or conftitu- 
 
 tions, whereby religious houfes are eftablifhed and regulated ; 
 
 and which the religious make a vow to obferve , at their 
 
 entrance. 
 
 The monaftic rules are all to be approved of by the pope, 
 in tirder to make them valid— The rule of St Benedict, is by 
 Tome authors called the holy rule. 
 Thofe of St Bruno and St Francis, are of all others the 
 moft auftere. See Carthusians.— When a religious 
 cannot fupport the aufteritics of his rule, he fues for a dif- 
 penfation. 
 
 Rum is very hot and inflammable, and is in the fame life 
 
 among the natives of the fugar countries, as brandy among 
 
 the French. See Supplement article Rum. 
 RUMB, Rum or Rhumb, in navigation. See Rhumb. 
 RuMB-Iiiif, or loxodromia. See RwuMB-Iiw. 
 RUMEN, the firft ftomach of animals which chew the cud, and 
 
 which are hence called ruminants. 
 
 The food is tranfmitted into the rumen without any other 
 alteration in the mouth, than being a little rowled and wrap- 
 ped up together. 
 
 The rumen or paunch is much the iargeft of all the fto- 
 machs, as being to contain both the drink, and the whole 
 crude mafs of aliment, which there lie and macerate toge- 
 ther, to be thence remitted to the mouth, to be re-chewed 
 and comminuted, in order to their farther digeftion in the 
 other ventricles. 
 
 In the rumen, or firft ventricle of camels, are found divers 
 facculi, which contain a confiderable quantity of water ; an 
 admirable contrivance for the necelhties of that animal, which 
 living in dry countries, and feeding on dry hard food, would 
 be in danger of perifhing, but for thefe refervoirs of li- 
 
 i quor. j(fly»'Avvi...*a ' ' '* aj.Lj 4«^.t 
 
 RUMINANT, Ruminans, in natural hiftory, an animal 
 which chews over again what it has eat before; this is po- 
 pularly called chewing the cud. 
 
 Joah. Con. Peyer has an exprefs treatife de ruminanhbus IS 
 rumination!, where he lhews, that there are fome animals 
 which do really ruminate ; fuch arc oxen, fheep, deer, goats, 
 camels, hares and fquirrels ; whereas others only appear to 
 ruminate, which he calls ruminantia fpuria ; of which num- 
 ber are moles, crickets, bees, beetles, crabs, mullets and 
 feveral other fifties. 
 
 This latter clafs, he adds, have their ftomachs compofed of 
 mufcular fibres, by means whereof tli« food is ground up and 
 down, much as in real ruminants. 
 
 Ruminants, Mr. Ray obferves, are all quadrupedal, hairy 
 and viviparous, fome with hollow and perpetual horns, 
 others wirh deciduous ones. _ 
 The horned ruminants have all four ftomachs, appropriated 
 to the office; viz- 1°. The .uu. W «M of Arittotlc, the 
 rumen, venter magnus, or what we call the paunch or inward* 
 which receives the meat (lightly chewed, retains it a-while, 
 and then delivers it back again into the mouth, which is 
 what we call the cud, to here-chewed — 2°. The «i» f x«>.S- 
 or reticulum, which we call the honey-comb, from its internal 
 coat being divided into cells, like honey-combs — 3 0 . The 
 •X"®-. which Mr. Ray thinks hath been wrong tranflated 
 omafus, and which he chufes to call the echinus : This being 
 difficult to clear, our people throw it away, and call it the 
 manifold— 4°. The „„„„, of Ariftotle, by Gaza called the 
 etbomafus, and among us the maw. 
 
 Again, all the horned ruminant animals want the denies prsrm- 
 res, or broad teeth in the upper jaw ; and they aftof d that hard 
 kind of fat, called fuetjebum, which is firmer, and lets 
 
 liquifiablein them, than the adeps of other animals. 
 RUMINATION, Ruminatio, an action peculiar to a 
 
 clafs of animals called 
 
 ■umimnts, whereby they return the 
 food 
 
RUN 
 
 food they have formerly fwallowed, to be chewed over-again, 
 and rendered more fit for chyle; by this fecond grindintr in the' 
 (Booth. 
 
 Peyer defines rumination, a natural motion of the ftomach, 
 mouth, and other parts ; by means of which the food eaten, 
 at firft, huffily, is returned back again to the mouth; where 
 it is re-chewed and ("wallowed a fecond time; and that much 
 to the benefit of the animal. 
 
 Burnet, in his Tbefaur. med. gives feveral inrtances of men 
 that rmmmted, from Salmuth, Rhodius, (Sc.— Dr Slare in 
 the Phil,/. Tranfacl. gives us a frefher inftance in one of our 
 own countrymen, living at Briftol. His account, as it is cu- 
 mm, and may let us fee a little how it fares with ruminating 
 animals, we ihail here add. 
 
 " He begins to chew his meat over again within a quarter 
 * «*« huar a ft» meals, if he drink with it; if not, fome- 
 what laEer - His chewing after a full meal lafts about 
 " an hour and a half : and if he go to bed prcfently after 
 " meab, he cannot deep till the ufual time of chewing be 
 " over. The viftuals, upon the return, tafte fomewhat 
 " more plealantly than at firft. Bread, meat, cheefe, and 
 " drink, return much of fuch colours as they would be of 
 " were they mixed together in a mortar. Liquids, as fpoon- 
 " meat, return to his mouth in the fame manner as dry and 
 " folid food. The vifluals feem to him to lie heavy till thev 
 " have palled the fecond chewing | after that they pafs clean 
 ' ™*f- .» he eat varirt y of things, that which pafles 
 down firft, comes up again firft. If the ruminatin, fa- 
 culty chance to leave him, it fignifies ficknefs ; and it is 
 " never well with him, till it returns. He is about twenty 
 " years of age, and was always thus fince he can remember, 
 " His father does the like, fometimes; but only in fmall 
 " quantities. 
 
 RUMMAGE*, in the fea language, fignifies to clear a 
 ihip s hold, or remove goods or luggage from one place to 
 
 another. . . «. - 
 
 • The Word is probably derived from the Saxon, room, room, 
 
 or Ipace. 
 
 RUN of a Jhip, fo much of her hull as is always under water • 
 growing thinner and lanker by degrees, from the floor timber 
 to the ftern-pofts. 
 
 This is alfo called the jhip's way aftward. 
 A fhip is faid to have a good run, when it is W, and the 
 water pa/Tes eafily to her rudder, her tuck not lying too 
 low, which is of great importance to her failing— If the 
 water do not come ftrongly to her rudder, by reafon of her 
 being built too broad below, fhe cannot fteer well ; and a 
 ihip that cannot fteer well, cannot keep a good wind, nor 
 will have any frefh way through the fea, but will always be 
 tailing to leeward. 
 
 And yet a Chip with a large and good run, lofts much ftowage, 
 becaufe made narrow below. 
 
 RUNDLES, or Roundles, in heraldry, the fame as balls 
 or pellets. See Pellets, 
 
 RUNDLET, Ronlet, or Roundlet, a fmall veffel, 
 containing an uncertain quantity of any liquor, from three 
 to twenty gallons. 
 
 R UNIC, a term applied to the language and letters of the anci- 
 ent Goths, Danes, and other northern nations. 
 Some have been of opinion that Gulphilas, or Ulphilas, a 
 Gothic bifhop about the year 370 was the firft inventor of 
 the rumc dorado- : but Olaus Wormius fhews at lar»e that 
 Ulphilas could only be the firft who taught it to foreigners ; 
 tor that the rim* or characters themfclves were older than he' 
 bee Wormius ttt liter, run. c. 4. citante Becman, Hilt, iri 
 tirr. c. 9. fefl. 3. §. 15. . 
 In reality, Ulphilas, according to other authors, was fo far 
 even from teaching the charailer, that he invented an Al- 
 phabet of his own, on purpofeto put the runic characters 
 which had been made fubfervient to the fuperftitions of hea- 
 then ifm, out of ufe. V. Shirringb. de Anglor. Get. Or it 
 p. 174. * 
 It U Alppofed they were called runic, as being mvftcriolis and 
 fciciitihcal like the Egyptian hieroglyphics. See Wormius 
 de hteratura runica ; and Hiclcs's fhefaurus of the ancient 
 northern languages. 
 
 T here are Tome runic medals in the clofets of the curious; and 
 fome modern Danifli and Englifh medals, the inferiptions 
 whereof are Latin, and the character runic. 
 I RUNNER in the fea language, a rope belonging to the 
 garnet, and to the two bolt tackles— It is reeved in a An- 
 gle block feifed to the end of a pennant, and has at one end 
 anoofeto hitch into any thing, and at the other end a dou- 
 ble block, into which is reeved the fall of the tackle or the 
 garnet, by which means it purchafes more than the tackle 
 or garnet could allow— See Tab. Ship. fig. I. n. 30. 73.82. 
 
 Toeverhale the runner, is to pull down the hooked end, and 
 hitch it into the fling, 
 f RUN NET, or Rennet, an acid juice, found in the ftomachs 
 of calves that have fed on nothing but milk, and are killed be- 
 fore the diceltion be perfected. 
 Vol. 1L 
 
 R U S 
 
 cheefe'" 5 f*"' ** H »« to curdle or turn milk for 
 
 Its proper place Is the abomafus-The like matter is alfd 
 laid to be found in goats and hares. 
 
 The longer then™, is kept the better it is-Tbough it 
 readily coagulates mdk; yet if put into it when already coa- 
 gulated, it diftblves it. * 
 If fait be put in the milk before the runnel be applied it 
 prevents its coagulation- ; but if the fait be put in afterwards 
 it hardens the coagulum. 
 
 Ariftotle will have the runnel to be the proper fubftance of the 
 milk, but he is miftaken when he fays it is found in all ani 
 r> t,It ^ ,'S gIve m,lk > ef P eciall V in all ruminants. 
 RUNNING of goods, a clandeftine landing of goods with 
 out paying the legal cuftoms or duties for the fame See 
 Smuggling. 
 Running-/^/,. See the atticle Saddle. 
 RUPEE, RoupiAorRoupiAs, a coin very current in the 
 territories of the Great Mogul, and in feveral other parts of 
 the Laft-Indies. 
 
 Rupees are ftruck both of gold and filver, and both the one 
 Tupea & rhavelhe! r diminutions, as hdlf-rupce^ quarter- 
 
 The gold rupee is worth is.bd. fieri. The value of the 
 l.lver rupee is various, according to its quality and the place 
 where it is coined. A general obfervatiun is, that the rupees 
 are always current for more at the place where they are 
 ftruck than elfewhere; and the new rupees for more than 
 the old ones— The reafon of this laft difference is, that the 
 Indians being very fond of filver, to fave it, ufe, as foon as 
 they have got a few rupees together, to hide them under 
 ground. To prevent which inconvenience, tending to drain 
 the ltate of current monies, the princes and rajas ftrike new 
 rupees every year, ftill augmenting the value thereof, without 
 any augmentation of the weight. 
 
 Befides this difference of ne°w and old rupees, the Indians 
 make three other clafl'es-The firft a\kd rupees fieeas, which 
 at Bengal are worth 2 s. I id. fterl. The fecond, rupees of 
 Sural worth i - s. 6d. ftetl.-The third rupees of Madera^ 
 worth 2 s. 5 d. fterl. All which is to be underftood of the 
 new rupees-. 
 
 As to the old ones, thofe of Maderas arc only current at 
 
 1 s. 11 ■ d. Tlerl. Thofe of Sural at %,. and the Siceas at 
 
 2 r. 4 d. \a m other places the order and prices vary ■ at 
 Surat, thofe ftruck rhere have the firft place ; the Siceas 'the 
 fecond ; and thofe of Maderas the third. AI0110- the coaft of 
 Coromandel the Maderas have the firft place, and the Siceas 
 the fecond, (Sc. 
 
 RUPTURE, in medicine, called alfo hernia, and popularly 
 burj/ennefs, ,s when the rim, thin film, or caul which holds 
 up the lntelhnes, is broken or over-ftrained or ftrctched fo 
 as that the guts fall down either into the groin, cod' or 
 elfewhere. See Hernia. 
 
 According as the rupture happens in the abdomen, or insert, 
 or fcrotum, it ,s called eamphalus, hernia inguinalis, or tenia 
 fcrotl. 
 
 R try RAL *' 0tRuSTIC ' fom «hing that relates to the coun- 
 
 * The word Is form'd of the Latin rus, ruris, country. 
 
 Rural dean, in the antient church was a temporary dean ap- 
 pointed by the bifhop or archbifhop, for fome particular 
 mmilfry, without canonical inftitution. 
 The rural dean is the fame with what in the laws of Ed- 
 ward the confeffor, is called decanus epifcopi, the bilhob', 
 dean- In fome places thefe deans feem to have been called 
 chorepijeopt. 
 
 Heylin obferves, that each dioccfe has in it one or more arch- 
 deaconries for difpatch of ecclefiaftical bufinefs ; and each 
 archdeaconry is iubdivided into rural deaneries, fewer or 
 more, according to the extent thereof, the deans whereof 
 D tTcct , orchpreshyterixaA decani chriftianitatis. 
 
 K U i> is I A-csmpany. See the article Company, 
 RUST of a metal, the flowers or calx thereof, procured by 
 corrodmg and diflolving its fuperficial parts by fome men' 
 itruous fluid. 
 
 Water Is the great inftrument or agent in producing mfl; 
 the air apparently rufts bodies, but it is only in virtue'of the 
 water it contains, 
 
 Hence, in a dry air, metals remain a long time without con- 
 tracting ruft ; and hence oils and other fatty bodies fecure me- 
 tals from rujl ; water being no menftruum to oil, lie. and 
 therefore not able to make its way through it. 
 All metals are liable to ruft ; even gold itfelf, though gene- 
 rally held incapable thereof, crows rujl] if expefed to the 
 fumes of fea-falt. 
 
 T j\ C "afon why gold is fo rarely found to rujl, is that fea-falt 
 which is the only fait that will prey upon it, is of a very 
 fixed nature, and therefore little of its effluvia or exhalations 
 are round floating in the air. 
 
 Rujl is ufually fuppofed a corruption of the metal, but with- 
 sut much foundation ; it is the very metal itfelf, only under 
 19 * ■ another 
 
RUS 
 
 another form ; and accordingly wc .find that fuft of copper 
 may be aglin turned intocoppcr. 
 
 The rull of copper, called <« makes what we call 
 iS}. 7 Cerufs Is made of lead cohverted into re/2 by v m 
 far Iron, in time, turns wholly into ruji, unlels preferve, 
 from the air by paint or varnifh. tC'^l 
 RUSTICS, in antiquity, &t Rust I CI, were the god 
 of the country, or thofe who prefided over agriculture, tic. 
 Varro invokes the twelve diicmfenUs, as the principal among 
 the rijUi Gods; Hz. Jupiter, Tellus, the Sun Moon, 
 Ceres, Bacchus, Rubigus, Flora, Minerva, Venus, Lym- 
 pha and Good Luck-Befides thefe twelve "cb-™A^ 
 there were an infinity of leffcr ones ; as, Pales, Vcrtumnus, 
 Tutelina, Fukor, Sterctilius, Mellona, Jugat.nus Coll, 
 nrn Val onia, 0 Terminus, Sylvanus and Pnapus-Struvius 
 adds, the Sa, rs, Fauns, Silclu, Nymphs, and even Tn 
 tons! and gives the empire over all the ruji.c gods to the 
 
 Jt££ic"to architeaure, expreffa a manner of building in imi 
 ration of limple or coarfe nature, rather than according to the 
 rules of art. r " 
 
 Rustic fifli. See the article Fasti. 
 
 Rustic fmntnin. See the article Fountain. 
 
 Rustic freeze. Seethe article Freeze. 
 
 Rustic qmim, by Vitruvius called kptdt: mtnantes. bee 
 
 RuT'i?S 0 is"wherc fheftones in the face, &c. of a building 
 inllead of being fmootti, are hatched or picked with the point 
 of an inftrument. : ■ al 
 
 Rustic order, is an order decorated with ™_/ric quoins, tsu/hi 
 
 work, csfc. „ . , . , r 
 
 Felibicn fays, it is properly where the feveral parts of the five 
 
 R Y P 
 
 orders are not exaaly obferved ; but this confounds ruftic 
 with Gothic. 
 
 RUT, in hunting, «f. a term ufed for the venery or copu- 
 lation of deer— Fir the Urms which ihtaiu in refpeit of this and 
 ithcr hcajis of game, with tlx noifc they make during the alls, fee 
 Hunting. 
 
 The ™«>'aj-time with the hart begins about the middle of 
 September, and holds two months : the older they are, the bet- 
 ter, and the more beloved they are by the hinds, and the earlier 
 do they go to rut — At this time they will turn head, and 
 furioufly make at any living creature. It is eafy killing them 
 at this time ; their whole bufinefs being to fcent and purfue 
 the track of the females ; fcarce feeding at all. The young 
 herd are forced to fly with great precipitancy when the hart 
 comes in fight of his mater If there be any other of bulk, 
 
 they will dTfpute it very hotly with their horns As the 
 
 feafon expires, they withdraw and dig themfelves holes where- 
 in to lie to aflwagethe ftrong fervour of their luft : when 
 become a little fweet, they return to their pafture, and live 
 in herds. ■ . 
 The rutting or tourning-time of the roe-buck begins in 
 Odfober, and only lafts 12 or 15 days. This over, he cafts 
 his horns.— After the hind is filled, fhe keeps no more com- 
 pany with the male till fhe be delivered But the doe 
 
 always accompanies her paramour, till her time approaches ; 
 when file retires, for the fafety of her young, which he would 
 otherwife kill. 
 
 RUYSCHIANA. See Tunica. 
 
 RYAL. Seethe article Rial 
 
 RYME. See the article Rhyme. 
 
 RYPTICKS, in medicine. See Rhvpticks. 
 
SAB 
 
 SAB 
 
 ^""N A confonant, and the eighteenth letter of the 
 ^fc. alphabet. 
 
 S is accounted one of the three hiffing confonants ; 
 n^_^@k the other two being Z and J. — It is alfo held a femi- 
 ^ vowel, as forming a kind of imperfect found, with- 
 out the afliftance of any of the vowels. 
 
 Some of the Ancients avoided all ufe of the S very ftudioufly ; 
 particularly Pindar, who has whole poems without once men- 
 tioning it. And hence alfo in Plautus, and fome others of 
 the Latin poets, we find it cut abruptly off, as in dignu\ om- 
 nibu\ &c— Others, on the contrary, affected the ufe of it 
 every where, inferting it where 'twas not wanted j as Caf- 
 mena for Camena, dufmofs for dumofts, cesfna for carta, &c. 
 Of all other Letters, the S is neareft a-kin to the R ; 
 whence it was frequently changed, by reafon of its difagree- 
 able found, into R. — Thus the Falerii, Furii, &c. were at 
 firft call'd Valefii, Fufti, &c. and what we now call ara, 
 arena, carmen, ferits, lares, &c. were antiently wrote afa, 
 afena, cabmen, fesies, lafes, &c. Add to this, that the 
 Latin nouns now terminated in or; as arbor, labor, &c. all 
 anciently ended in s, as arhs, labos, See. 
 In the inflections of nouns, S is varioufly changed ; fome- 
 times into r, as flo$, fious ; fometimes into n, as Janguh 
 fangmms ; fometimes into d, as pes pedis ; fometimes into t, 
 as nepes nepotis. — On the contrary, in verbs, it is frequently 
 put for other letters; for b, as mjuheojusf; (ore, as in 
 parco parsi ; for d, as in ludo lusi ; for g, as in fpargo fpar- 
 s/', &c. 
 
 The Latins alfo frequently changed the Greek s into /, as 
 Aw£*$ Annibal ; into d, as /*s<r« medium, &c. — The double 
 s was frequently changed into a-, as snirr* pix ; and fome- 
 times even the hngle one, as A<«s Ajax. 
 The old and the new orthography . of the French, differ 
 chiefly in the ufe of the s ; the latter omitting it in writ- 
 ing, where it is not heard in the pronunciation, and the 
 former retaining it: thus the followers of the one, particu- 
 larly the academy in their dictionary, write tempcjle, huijlre, 
 fiufle; thofeof the other, tempete, huitre, flute, &c. 
 
 S was a numerical letter among the Ancients, lignifying feven : 
 according to the verfe, 
 
 S vera feptenos numerates fignificabit. 
 
 S, in books of navigation, &c. fignifies South.— S. E. South- 
 Eaft.— S. W. South-Weft.— 5. S. K. South South-EafL 
 &c. 3 
 
 S fometimes alfo ftands far foetus, fellow, or member; and fome- 
 times for/ccietas ; as R. S. S. regies jhcietatis focius, fellow of 
 the royal fociety. 
 
 S. A. in medicinal prefcriptions is an abbreviature of fecundum 
 artem, according to the rules of art ; it is chiefly ufed where 
 fume uncommon care or dexterity is required. 
 
 SAB^ANS*, Sabjei, the adherents to Sabaifm ; a tea of 
 idolaters, much ancienter than Mofcs and the Tewifti 
 law. 
 
 * The word is fometimes alfo written Sabiant, Sabaites, Za- 
 b<tans, Zabiam, Zabetitts, Tfabaam, Ifabians And Ifabaifis. 
 The Sabtzans were very numerous throughout the eaft : in 
 later times they have mixt fomething of chriilianity with 
 their fuperftition. They fet a great value on the baptifm of 
 St. John ; whence they have been alfo denominated chrifti- 
 ans of St. John. 
 
 Some, indeed, doubt whether the Sabaans be the fame witli 
 the chriftians of St. John ; but Father Angelo de St. Jofcph, 
 a Carmelite miifionary, and Maracci, in his notes on the" 
 Alcoran, afiert it cxprcfly. Be this as it will, Mahomet, 
 in his Alcoran, and the Arabian authors fince him, make 
 frequent mention of them. Beidavius, in his comment on 
 the Alcoran, reprefents them as a kind of mean between 
 the Chriftians and the Magufians, who are the followers of 
 the Magi, among the Pcrfians : he adds, that they pretend 
 to be of the religion of Noah.— Kcflkus notes, that they 
 pretend to be in pofleffion of the Books of Scth and Enoch ; 
 though they own none of the books of fcripture. 
 Some charge them with worfhipping the ftars ; and others, 
 the angels, or demons. Maimonides attributes both to 
 them ; as is obferved under the Article Sabaism. 
 Abu Jofeph Afcha;us, and Kcfl'aeus place the SaUam about 
 Charan, or Charm, and Ghezira in Mefopotamia ; which 
 Opinion is confirmed by this, that all their books arc in the 
 Chaldce tongue, though in a character very different from 
 the Chaldee. 
 
 Hottinger fets afide the common derivation of Saltan from 
 Nasr mktta, hofl ; and will not have it the name of a feet 
 of religion, but of a people in Arabia Felix, the defen- 
 dants of Saba, Grandfon of Cham— But the criticks, to 
 a man, confpire againft this opinion. 
 SABAISM, an ancient kind of idolatry; the firft that ever 
 entered into the world. 
 
 Sabaifm confifted in the worfhip and adoration of the ftars ■ 
 or as the fcriptures call them enow hOS tfeba fchamaim, or 
 febafebamnm, i. e. haft, or militia of heaven; whence 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 fome Moderns have formed the word Sabaifm, to deno'ti 
 the worfhip of the heavenly bodies, and that of Sahteani 
 for the worfhippers. But as the Hebrew word, whence 
 thefe are formed, is wrote with a S? tzade, which fome ex- 
 prefs in the modern tongues by an s, fome by an z, others 
 by ts, and others by tz ; ' hence arife a great many different 
 manners of writing the word among different authors. 
 Some c. gr writing Sabarans, others Zabiam, or Zab<sans, 
 or Zabaijls, as Buxtorf ; others Tfabiaiu, others Tfa- 
 baans, &c. 
 
 Maimonides makes frequent mention of this idolatry in his 
 More Nevochim : it was very general, he obferves, in the time 
 of Mofcs. Some of the retainers hereto taught, that God was 
 the fpirit of the fphere, that is the foul of the world. A- 
 braham, he adds, was brought up in the doctrine of the Sa~ 
 b<zans, who admitted no other gods but the ftars, and who 
 in their books, many of which have been tranflated into 
 Arabic* maintain exprefty, that the fix'd ftars and planets, 
 are inferior gods, and the fun and moon the fuperior ones. 
 Abraham at length, he tells us, oppofing thefe errors, firft 
 affertcd the exigence of a creator diftmct from the fun. 
 The king of the Cuthasms clapt him up in prifon ; but he 
 ftill perfifting, that prince, from an apprchenfion of his 
 difturbing the ftate by teaching a new religion, confifcated 
 his goods, and banifhed him to the extremities of the eaft. 
 — This relation, he tells us, is found in a book imitled, 
 rmKon rriOpti U* religion of the Nabathieans. 
 He adds, That the Sabaans, to the adoration of the ftars, 
 joined a great refpect for agriculture ; they fet a high value 
 on cattle and ftieep ; and taught, that it was unlawful to kill 
 them. He even adds, that they worfliipped daemons, under 
 the form of goats, and that they eat the blood of animals, 
 (though they judged it unclean,) merely becaufe they ima- 
 gined it was the food of dxmons. 
 
 This is a fummary of what that Rabbin gives us concern- 
 ing Sabaifm ; from whence, it is eafy judging of what fome 
 people tell us, that Sabaifm is a mixture of judaifm, Chrif- 
 tianity, Mahometanifm, and Paganifm. The truth is, the 
 worihip of the ftars was efiablifhed long before not only 
 Chrirtianity, but even before the law of Mofes. Not but 
 fome of the later Sabaans have, in later ages, given into 
 divers articles of almoft all religions. 
 SABBATARIANS, a feft of Anabaptifts, in the XVIth 
 century; thus called, becaufe they obferved the Jewifli or 
 faturday-fabbath, from a perfuafion that it was never abro- 
 gated in the NewTeftament by the infiitution of any other. 
 SABBATH*, Sabbatum, the feventh day of the week, 
 held as a feaft among the Jews, in memory of God's reft- 
 ing on the feventh day of the creation. 
 * The word is pure Hebrew, rQW, and fignifies cefathn or 
 
 reft. Philo calls it, Ta k 
 
 , The world's birth-Day. 
 
 The Sabbath was appointed from the beginning, by God hit 
 felf, Gen. ii. 2, 3. and by him 'twas fet apart for the com- 
 memoration of the great work of the creation; and when it 
 had fallen into neglect after the flood, it W2S re-efiaclifhed 
 by him, upon his fettling the JewUh polity after the return 
 out of Egypt. 
 
 The Chriftians alfo apply the word Sabbath by extenfioh, to 
 the firft day of the week, popularly called Sunday, or the 
 Lordy-Day ; as inftituted by the apoftles to take place of the 
 Jcw'yfh Sabbath, and by us obferved in remembrance, not of 
 the creation, but of the work of redemption's being com- 
 pleted by our Saviour's refurrection on that day. 
 Thole who difpute the divine appointment of a Chnfthn 
 Sabbath, yet allow the moral neceflity thereof, as a wife de- 
 fignation of time for the recruiting of our bodies, and at 
 the fame time, keeping up a fenfe of the great benefits we 
 have received from God, and a fpiritual temper of mind* 
 By allowing fix days to labour, the poor has time to earn, 
 his bread, and the man of bufinefs has time to difpatch his af- 
 fairs. Had more time been allotted to labour and bufinefs, 
 and none to reft ; our bodies would have been too much fa- 
 tigued and wafted, and our minds too long engaged about 
 worldly matters, fo as to have forgotten divine things. 
 Greedy people, without fuch an injunction, would fcarce 
 have fpared their own bodies, much lefs their fervants, 
 Haves, cattle, &c. — The creation, therefore, would have 
 fuffered, had it not been provided for by the inftitution of 
 a Sabbath. 
 
 The Jews had alfo their Sabbatick Year, which Was 
 every feventh year; wherein they were obliged to fet 
 their flaves at liberty, and to let their lands lie iJIc. See 
 Jubilee. 
 
 Sabbath, is alfo ufed for a nocturnal affemblv which 
 Witches are fuppofed to hold on faturdays, where the de* 
 vil appears in form of a goat, around whom thev make fe* 
 veral dances, and magick ceremonies, amply defcribed in 
 the books of Dxmonomania. 
 
 To prepare themfelves for this meeting, it is pretended, they 
 take certain foprrific drugs; after which they are faid to fly 
 
 11 A 
 
 up 
 
SAC 
 
 tip the chimney, and to be fpirited through the air to the 
 Sabbath on a fwitch. 
 5ABBATH-&/i-i>»r»J, is ajewifh itinerary meafure, hxeu 
 bycriticks to the fpace of 750 paces; or 2000 Jewilh cu- 
 
 SAr^BATIANS, Sabbatiani, a ft£l of hercticks thus 
 called from Sabbaths, their leader, who lived under D10- 
 clefian ; he was firft a Jew, then converted, and made a 
 pricft byMarcion; but he afterwards left the fed of Mar- 
 cionites, on account of the celebration of Eafter, which he 
 would have to be on the fourteenth day of the moon ; 
 whence he, and his adherents, were called alfo Shtarto- 
 dtcimans. . 
 The Sabbatians are recorded by ecclefiaftical hiftonans, as 
 having a great abhorrence of the left-hand ; fo as to make it 
 a point of religion, not to receive any thing with it.— I his 
 cuftom, which is now become a piece of manners among us, 
 was then eftecmed fofingular, that the Sabbatiam were thence 
 denominated Af'np", q. d. fmiflri, or left-hand-men. 
 SABELLIANS, a feft of ancient hercticks in the ealt, who 
 reduced the three perfons in the Trinity, to three ftates or 
 relations ; or rather reduced the whole Trinity to the one 
 perfon of the Father; making the Word and the Holy Spirit 
 to be only virtues, emanations, or functions thereof. ^ 
 Saiellius, their chief, firft broached this deArine, in the 
 third century, in a city of Lybia, called Ptolcmais: he 
 taught, that he, who in heaven is the Father of all things, 
 defended into the virgin, became a child, and was born of 
 her as a Son; and that, having accomplished the myftery of 
 our falvation, he diffufed himfelf on the apoftles, in tongues 
 of fire; and was then denominated the Holy Ghoft. 
 Epiphanius tells us, that the God of the SattWans, whom 
 they called the Father, refembled the fun, and was a mere 
 fubftratum ; whereof the Son was the illuminative virtue or 
 quality, and the Holy Spirit the warming virtue. 
 The Word, they taught, was (hot or darted forth like a di- 
 vine ray, to accomplish the work of redemption ; and that 
 being re-afcended to heaven, as the ray returns to its fource, 
 
 the warmth of the Father was communicated, after 
 manner, to the apoftles. 
 
 The council of Antioch, held by the Eufebians in 345, tells 
 us, that, at Rome, thofe were called Patripajftam, who in 
 the eaft, were called Sabellians. 
 SABLE*, in heraldry, the black colour, in the arms of gen- 
 tlemen. 
 
 * The name is borrowed from the little animal called Sabli, 
 which is of a black colour. 
 
 In thofc of nobility, it is called Diamond \ and in the coats 
 of Ibvereign princes, Saturn. 
 
 It is expicfled in engraving by perpendicular and horizontal 
 hatches drawn a-crofs each other— as reprefented in Tab. 
 Herald, fig. 27. 
 SABRE*, a kind of cutting fword, or fcimitar, having a 
 very broad, heavy blade ; thick at the back, and a little 
 crooked towards the point. 
 
 * The word is formed from the German Sukei, which fignifies 
 the fame, of the Sclavonic Sab/a, a fword or hanger. 
 
 The Turks arc very expert in the ufe of the Sabre, which 
 is the weapon they ordinarily wear by their fide, Wc— With 
 this, it is laid, they can cleave a man quite down, at a lingle 
 flroke. 
 
 SAC*, orSAK, Saca, or Sacha, inlaw, a royal privilege 
 which a lord of a manor claims in his court, of holding 
 plea in caufes of debate arifing among his tenants and valTals, 
 and of impofmg and levying fines and amercements touching 
 the fame. 
 
 * The word is Saxon, Sac, and literally fignifies caufi, eon/eJi.tiC. 
 Raftal defines Sac by the forfeitureor amercement itfelf. 
 
 SACiEA, SAKAIA, in antiquity, a feaft which the ancient 
 Babylonians, and other Orientals, held annually in honour 
 of the god Anaitis, 
 
 The Sacatawete in theeaftwhattheStftarMfl/mwercatRome, 
 viz. a feaft for the flaves. One of the ceremonies hereof, 
 was to chufe a prifoner condemned to death, and allow him 
 all the pleafures and gratifications he would wifh, before he 
 were carried to execution. 
 SACCADE, in the manage, a jerk or violent check which 
 the rider gives his horle, by drawing both the reins very 
 iuddenly; it is ufed when the horfe bears too heavy on the 
 hand, or obftinately arms himfelf. 
 
 The Saccate is a kind of correction rarely to be ufed ; for 
 fear of fpoiling the horfe's mouth. 
 SACCHARUM, or Sacchar. See Sugar. 
 SACCO BENI TTOjOrSACo Benito. See San-Benj. 
 SACCOPHOR1*, a feci of ancient hereticks, thus called, 
 becaufethL-y always went cloathed in fackcloth, and affected 
 a great deal of aufterity and penance. 
 * The word is Creek^KKxa^efoi ; formed of <r«**e?, a lack, and 
 «?:(>?", I bear. 
 
 . We know but little of their tenets : in all probability they 
 
 were the fame with the Maffalians. See Mass alian. 
 
 The emperor Theodofius made a law againft the Saccopbori, 
 and Manichees. 
 
 SACCULUS, a diminutive of Saccus ; ufed in anatomy, to 
 
 SAC 
 
 exprefs feveral parts of the body, bearing fome refemblance 
 
 to bags ; as, 
 
 Sacculus Chyliferus, or Roriferus, a paffage which makes 
 the beginning of the thoracic duct: called alfo receptaculum 
 chyli; ,/ * a4 '' ' 
 
 Sacculus Cordis, the pericardium. See Pericardium. 
 
 Sacculus Lacrynialis, a little membranous bag, into which 
 the puntfa lacrymalia of the eye open ; and which is, itfel., 
 the entrance of a canal, by which the liquor feparated ih the 
 glandula lacrymalis, is difcharged into the cavity o! the nofe. 
 It is the ulceration of this Saccus, that makes the fiftula la- 
 crymalis. See Fistula. 
 
 Sacculi Adipoft, little cells or veficles, in the membrana a>- 
 dipofa, wherein the fat of the body is contained. 
 
 Sacculus Mtdicinalis, denotes a topical medicine, applied 
 to the fide, ftomach, or other pained part ; eonfrfting of 
 herbs, or drugs inclofed in a linen bag. 
 
 Sacculus Meilicinalis, is alfo a name given to a bag of in- 
 gredients fufpended in a liquor, in making diet-drinks ; call- 
 ed alfo Nodule. 
 
 SACER, or Sacer Dorsi, in anatomy, a mulcle arifing 
 from the hind-part of the os factum, and running along 
 
 under the lungiihmus dorfi With its feveral tendons, It 
 
 lays hold on The fpinc, and every tranfverfe proccls of the 
 loins, and the loweft of the back.--It alfifts in erecting the 
 trunk. 
 
 Sacer/.?™, 7q„ thc art ; clcs ( Erysipela s. 
 
 SACERDOTAL*, Sacerdotalis, fomethmg belonging 
 to the priefthood- _ . 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, Sacerdoj pridt, ot bactr 
 
 Sacerdotal Benefices, are filch as cannot be legally held by 
 any but perfons in holy orders : i'uch are all cures of fouls, 
 bifhopricks, He. . '• " ' . „ 
 
 Thc Sacerdotal Ornaments, are thofe wherewith the pnelts 
 
 are cloathed when they officiate, tffc. 
 SACK of IVool, is a determinate quantity, containing jult 
 26 done; and every ftone 14 pounds. 14 E. 3. Stat. 1. 
 
 In Scotland, a Sack is 24 ftone 
 pounds. 
 
 each ftone containing 16 
 
 A Sack of Cotton Wool, is a quantity from an hundred and 
 
 half to 400 weight. _ 
 S^cks of Earth, Sacs a Ttrrc, in fortification, are canvafa 
 bags full of earth, the largeft about a cubic-foot wide, and 
 the lefTer fomewhat more than half a foot. 
 They are alfo called Earth-bags and Canvafs-lags, and are 
 ufed on feveral occafions ; particularly for making retrench- 
 ments in hafte, to place on parapets, or the heads of thc 
 breaches, &c. or to repair them when beaten down. 
 They are of good ufe alfo, where the ground is rocky, and 
 affords not earth to carry on the approaches, becaule they can 
 eafily be brought on, and carried off. 
 
 The fame bags, on occafion, are ufed to catry powder 111, 
 of which thev hold about fifty pounds a-picce. 
 SACKBUT, a'mufical inftrumcnt of the wind kind ; being 
 a kind of a trumpet, though different from the common 
 trumpet both in form, and fixe. ■ . r 
 
 The SacUut is very fit for playing baft ; and is contrived fo 
 as to be drawn out or (horten'd, according to thc gravity or 
 acutenefs of the tones.— The Italians call it Trombone, the 
 Latins, Tuba DuClilis. 
 
 It takes afunder into four pieces, or branches ; and hath fre- 
 quently a wreath in the middle ; which is the fame tube, 
 only twitted twice, or making two circles in the middle of 
 the inftrument; by which means, it is brought down one 
 fourth lower than its natural tone. It has alio two pieces or 
 branches on the infide, which do not appear, except when 
 drawn out by means of an iron bar, and which lengthen it 
 to the decree requifite to hit the tone required. 
 The Sackbut is ufuallv eight foot long, without being drawn 
 out, or without reckoning the circles. When extended to 
 its full length, it is' ufually fifteen foot. The wreath is two 
 foot nine inches in circumference. It ferves as baft in all 
 concerts of wind mufick. _ 
 There are Sackbuts of different fizes, fervmg to execute : dif- 
 ferent parts ; particularly a fmall one, called by the Italians, 
 Trombone piccielo, and by the Germans, Clem, a!t-po/aune, 
 proper for a counter-tenor. The part affigned it, is ufually 
 called Trombone primo, oe V. There is another large kirn), 
 called Trombone maggiori, which may fcrve as a tenor : its 
 part is ufually called Trombone feeondo, or 11". or 2°. There 
 is a third Hill bigger, called Trombone grejfe ; its part is call d 
 Ttembenc terror 111", ot 3". Daftly, there is another, 
 which exceeds all the reft, and which is much heard in the 
 ■lie, efpecially in the baft ; its part is called Trombone quar- 
 to or IV. or 4'°. orfimply Trombone. It has ufually the 
 kev of F ut, fa on the fourth line ; though frequently alio 
 on the fifth line from the top, by reafon of the gravity or 
 depth of the founds. ' c- u 
 
 SACRA Arteria, a branch of the aorta defcendens, which 
 ' defcends through the middle of the os factum to the pelvis. 
 See Aorta and Artery. Sacra 
 
SAC 
 
 SAC 
 
 Sacra Vena, a vein arifing from the os facrum, and termi- 
 nating ufually in the iliac vein ; fome times in the place 
 where the two iliacs meet the afcending aorta. 
 
 SACRAMENT*, Sacr amentum, in the general 
 denotes a fign of a holy, or facred thing. See Sign and 
 Symbol. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, Sacramcntum, which 
 fignified an oath, particularly that which the foldiers took, 
 to be true to their commanders ; the words whereof accord- 
 ing to Polybius, were OtFtmperaturus /urn fef faSturus euic- 
 auid mandabitur ab imptratarihus juxta -vires. 
 
 Inthisfenfe, the word includes both the Sacra?nents of the 
 law cf nature, as found morality, the manner of offering the 
 bread and wine practifed by Melchifedech, ?Sk, and thole of 
 the law of Mofes, as the circumciiion, the pafchal lamb, pu- 
 rifications, order of priefthood, &c. 
 Sacrament, with regard to the Chriflian church is de- 
 fined, a viable fign of a fpiritual grace annexed to the ufe 
 thereof. 
 
 t here are two objects in a Sacrament ; the one a material 
 fign, the object of the fenfes ; the other the thing fignified, 
 which is the object of faith. — Thus it has pleall-d God to 
 give as it were a body or fubftance to fpiritual myfteries, 
 that our faith might have the affiftance of fenfible figns. 
 Roman Catholicks own feven Sacraments, viz. baptifm, con- 
 firmation, the eucharift, penance, extreme unction, ordina- 
 tion and marriage. See each under its proper article.— The 
 Proteftants admit of only two, via, baptifm and the eucha- 
 rift, or Lord's fupper. 
 
 The Romanifts, however, call the eucharift, by way of emi 
 nence, the Holy Sacrament. — Thus to expofe the //. Sacra- 
 maf, is to lay a confecrated hoft on the altar to be adored. 
 The proceftion of the H. Sacrament, is that wherein this 
 hoft is carried about the church, or about the town. 
 In a like fenfe they fay, the feaft of the H. Sacrament, the 
 congregation of the H. Sacrament, &c. 
 
 Sacrament, was alfo ufed in the Roman law, for a pledge 
 or gage of money, which both the plaintiff and defendant, ui 
 a real action, laid down in court to be forfeited by him who 
 lhould lofe the caufe.— This was particularly called, Sacra- 
 mento provocate, rogare, Jlipulari, &c. 
 
 SACRAMENTARIANS, a general name give to all 
 fuch as have publifhed, or held erroneous doctrines of the fa- 
 crament of the Lord's fupper. 
 
 The term is chiefly applied among Roman Catholicks, by 
 way of reproach, to the Lutherans, Calvinifts, and other 
 Proteftants. 
 
 SACRAMENTAR Y, Sacr amentarium, an ancient 
 church-book, comprehending all the prayers and ceremonies 
 practifed at the celebration of the fiicraments. 
 Pope Gelafius was the firft author of the Sacrammtarium : it 
 was afterwards revifed, corrected and abridged by St. Gre- 
 gory.— It was the fame with what the Greets now call Eu- 
 chologium. 
 
 SACRED, Sacer, fomething holy, or, that is folcmnly of- 
 fered, and cenfecrated to God with ceremonies, benedictions, 
 unctions, &c. 
 
 Kings, prelates, and priefts, are held /acted perfons ; abbots 
 are only blelfed.— The deaconhood, fub-deaconhood, and 
 priefthood, are all /acred orders, and imprefs a /acred, indeli- 
 ble character. 
 
 The cuftom of confecrating kings with holv oil, is derived, 
 according to Gutli ngius, from the Hebrews , jmon' whom, 
 he agrees with Grotius, it was never ufed but to tings who 
 had not an evident right by fucceffion. He adds, that the 
 Chnrtian eniperois never ufed it before Juffin the younger ; 
 from whom he takes it to h.ive paired to the Goths, bit. 
 Sacred, is alfo applied to things belonging to God, and the 
 church. 
 
 Church lands, ornaments, fife 
 college is that of the cardinals 
 
 Sacred Majefty, is applied to the emperor, and to the Icing 
 of England ; yet Lovfeau fays it is blafphcmy. See 
 Majesty. . ' 
 
 The Ancients held a place (truck with thunder as fiend. 
 In the civil law, fiend place chiefly denotes that, where a 
 perfon deceafed, has been interred. 
 
 SACRIFICE, Sacrificium, an offering made to God 
 on an altar, by means of a regular minifter, as an acknow- 
 ledgment of his power, and a payment of homage. 
 Sacrifice: differ from mere oblations, in this, that in a Sacri- 
 fice there is a real deftruftion or change of the thing offered ; 
 whereas an oblation is only a fimplc offering or gift, without 
 any fuch change at all. 
 
 Divines divide Sacrifice! into Used); fuch as thofe of the old 
 law i and llaedlefi, fuch as thofe of the new law. 
 1 bey alfo divide them again into impelratery, which are 
 thofe offered, to obtain fome favour of God, or to thank 
 him for fome already received : and prefiiiatcry, which are 
 rhofe ofiered to obtain forgivenefs of fins. 
 The Phoenicians are ufually held to have been the firft 
 authors of Sacrifice! .- Porphyry, indeed, attributes the in- 
 vention to tire Egyptians ; who, he fays, firft offered the 
 
 : held ficred.— The fiered 
 
 feft-ftuits of their grounds, to the gods; burning them 1 
 upon an altar of turf. At length they came to burn perfumes, 
 and at laft, he fays, they facrificed animals ; obferving 
 that they hrft eat fome herbs, or fruits regularly offered on 
 the altars.— He adds, that libations were very frequent 
 before the Sacrifice! of beafts got footing. 
 Ovid obferves, that the very names victim and hcjlia import, 
 that they were not gain, till fuch time as victories were ob- 
 tained over enemies : indeed, while men lived on herbs and 
 pulle, it is no wonder they abftaincd from Sacrifice! cf 
 beafts : fince the law of Sacrifice: required, that they fhoulj 
 eat fome part thereof. In effect, it is I'uppofed to be this 
 that firft introduced flefh as a food, and made man a carni- 
 vorous animal. 
 
 The truth is, in all antiquity, both facrcd and profane, 
 Sacrifice: were ordinarily nothing elfc but holy banquets. 
 The fcriptures furnifh us a fomewhat different account ; 
 Noah certainly facrificed animals at his coming out of the 
 ark; and it is even fuggeftcd, that Abd himfSf fiurifctd 
 the beft and fatteft of his flocks : though Grotius thinks it 
 more probable, he contented himfelf with making a mere 
 oblation of his Iambs, blc. to God without ficrifimg them. 
 Macrobius tells us, that the Egyptians, long accuftomed to 
 bloodlcfs Sacrifice!, being at length obliged to admit the wor- 
 fhip of Serapis and Saturn, to whom Victim: were to be facri- 
 ficed ; would not allow their temples to he built in the cities. 
 Thefe Victim:, however, or bloody Sacrifice:, at length ob- 
 tained, in exclufion of almoft all the reft: the moft ufual 
 of thefe among the Ancients, were bulls, oxen, cows, 
 fhecp and lambs, in regard thefe were the moft ordinary 
 food of man. 
 
 1 he manner of ficrificirig among the ancient Hebrews, is 
 amply defcribed in the books of Mofes. That in ufe among 
 the Romans, is as follows. — In the choice of the Victim, care 
 was taken it were without blemifh or imperfection, it's tail 
 not too fmall at the end ; the tongue not black, nor the 
 ears cleft; and the bull fuch as had never been yoked. 
 The Victim being pitched upon, they gilt his forehead and 
 horns, efpecially if a bull, heifer, or cow. The head 
 they alfo adorned with a woollen infula, whence hung 
 two rows of chaplets with twilled ribbons ; and on the 
 middle of the body a kind of ftole, pretty large, hung 
 down on both fides : the leffcr Viclimi were only adorned 
 with bundles of flowers and garlands, together with white 
 tufts or wreathes. 
 
 The Victim: thus made ready, were brought before the altar ; 
 the leffer were not led in a firing, hut driven to the place : 
 the greater were conduded in an halter; if they made any 
 ftrugglc, or rcful'cd to go, the refiftance was taken for an ill 
 
 augury, and the Sacrifice was often fet afide The Viclim 
 
 thus brought before the altar, was examined very circum- 
 fpeaiy, to fee if there were no defect in it : then the prieft, 
 being clad in his facerdotal habit, and accompanied with the 
 Sacrificer: and other attendants, and being wafrred and 
 purified according to the ceremonies prefcribed, benan the 
 Sacrifice, with making a loud confeffion of his unwonhinefs, 
 acknowledging himfelf guilty of divers fins; for which 
 he begged pardon of the gods, hoping they would be 
 
 plealed to grant his rcqucfts The confeffions were like 
 
 thofe ol the Hebrews ; with this difference, that the Pagans 
 confcn"cd the frailty of mankind, and owned their faults ; 
 the Jews confened chiefly the greatnefs of God, accom-' 
 panying it with hymns and mufical inftruments. 
 The confeffion over, the prieft cried aloud, hoc age, i. e. 
 compofc yourfelves, and mind your bufiners ; and prefently 
 an uflier, holding a rod in his hand, called Ccmmcntaculum 
 went tnrough the temple, and made all thofe withdraw, 
 who were not initiated in the myfteries of religion, or 
 fuch as were excommunicated. 
 
 The cuftom of the Greeks, from whom the Romans bor- 
 rowed theirs, was, that the prieft coming to the altar, mould 
 afk aloud, T, t ti e\> Who is here? The people anfwered, 
 m>> " r i Many good perfons : then the ufher went 
 
 through the temple, crying, 'E*a s , i» s (5 -, that is. 
 
 Out with the wicked. The Romans commonly ufed the 
 words, Necente:, prefani, abfcedile.—h\\ thofe who were 
 driven out of the temples among the Greeks, were compre- 
 hended under thefe general words, ^jtfst, a^nrrei, *KuH^f,.. 
 T he profane being withdrawn, they cried, Favete iingui:, or 
 ammi:, and Pafcite linguam, to require filence, and attention 
 during the Sacrifice. 
 
 Thefe ceremonies ended, the chief Sacrificer being fate 
 down, and the reft of them {landing, the magiftrates or pri- 
 vate perfons, who offered Sacrifice, came before him, and 
 prefented him with the firft-fruits and victim, and fometimcs 
 made a fliort difcourfe, by way of compliment; as we find 
 Homer 'makes Ulyfles do, when he prefented the hiph-pneft 
 with Iphigcnia to he facrificed.— As any perfon came to pre- 
 fent his offering, he wafhed his hands in a place appointed in 
 the temple fur that purpofe. 
 
 Laftly, when the offering was made, the prieft that officiated, 
 perfumed the vidim with incenfe, and fprinkled it w ith the 
 luff ral water ; and having wafhed his hands, and got up again 
 to the altar, he prayed to the god to whom he prefented the 
 
 Sacrifice, 
 
SAC 
 
 Sacrifice, with a loud voice, that he would accept of thcfe 
 offerings, and be pleafed with the victim he facrificed to 
 him for the publick good, and for fuch and fuch things in 
 particular. — In the clofe of the offertory and prayer, made 
 by the prieft to the gods, he came down the ftcps of the 
 altar, and from the hand of one of his alliftants, received 
 the facred pafte, called msla falfa, made of barley or wheat 
 flour, mixed with fait and water, which he threw upon 
 the head of the victim, fprinkling a little wine upon it, 
 which was called imnrAatio. — Servius fays, the prieft fcat- 
 tered little bits of this pafte upon the head of the viftim, 
 and alfo on the altar where the facred fire burned, and 
 on the knives, by way of confeeiation. 
 He then took wine in a vcflel called fimpulttm, and having 
 tafted it himfelf fiift, and made his afliftants do the fame, 
 to mew that they partook of the Sacrifice, he poured it be- 
 tween the horns of the victim, pronouncing thefc words of 
 the confeeration, Mattus hoc vino inferis ejlo. This done, 
 he pulled off the hairs from between the horns, and threw 
 them into the fire ; and commanded the vi&imarius (who 
 afked him, Agon', Shall I ftrike ?) to knock down the vic- 
 tim with a blow on the head with an hammer or ax ; upon 
 which, another affiftant, named Papa, prefently thruft a 
 knife into its throat ; whilft a third received the blood, 
 wherewith the prieft fprinkled the altar. 
 When the victim was flain, they flead him, if it was not a 
 burnt-offering; (for then they burned fldfl and all,) they then 
 took the flefh off the head, and adorning it with garlands and 
 flowers, fattened it to the pillars of the temples, as well as the 
 fkins, as enfigns of religion ; carrying them about in procef- 
 fion in publick calamities.— Not but that the priefts oft wore 
 the fkins, and others went to fleep upon them in the temples 
 of ^fculapius and Faunus, that they might receive favour- 
 able refponfes in their dreams, or be cured of their maladies. 
 They then opened the victim's entrails, and after circum 
 (pectiy viewing them, to draw prefages therefrom, accord- 
 ing to the art of the arufpices, they flowered them with 
 meal, and fprinkled them with wine, and made a p re fen t of 
 them to the gods, reddebant exta diis, by throwing them 
 into the fire in fmall bits, boiled or parboiled ; and hence 
 the entrails were called porriac. 
 
 The entrails being burned, and the other ceremonies finifh- 
 ed, they believed the gods to be fatisfiedj and that they 
 could not fail to find the vows accomplifhed, which they 
 expvcflcd by the word litem, q. d. all is finifhed, and well 
 done; whereas non li tare, on the contrary, intimated there 
 was fomething wanting to the perfection of the Sacrifice, 
 and that the gods were not appeafed.— The pricit afterwards 
 diimiffed the people with thefc words, Meet. 
 Hence it may be obferved, that the Sacrifices confifted of 
 four principal parts ; the firft called Vibalio, or the pouring a 
 little wine upon the victim ; the fecond tmmolatio, when, 
 after they had fcattcred the crumbs of falted pafte thereon, 
 they killed it ; the third redditio, when they offered the en- 
 trails to the gods ; and the fourth litatic, when the Sacrifice 
 was perfected, and accomplifhed without any fault. 
 SACRILEGE, Sacrilecium, the crime of profaning 
 facred things, or things devoted to God ; or of alienating to 
 laymen, or common purpofes, what was given to religious 
 perfons, and pious ufes. 
 
 Our fore-fathers were fo tender in this cafe, that, when the 
 order of knights templars was diflblvcd, their lands, C5\ 
 were all given to the knights hofpitallers of Jerufalein, for 
 this reafon, Ne in pios ufus erogata, contra donatorum 
 voluntatem, in alios ufus dijlraherentur. 
 SACR I STA, or Sacristan, a church officer, otherwife 
 
 called Sexton. See Sexton. 
 SACRISTY, Sacristia, a place or apartment in a 
 church, where the veffels and other utenfils, and orna- 
 ments of the church, are preferved ; and where the mi- 
 niftcrs drefs and undrefs themfelves before and after the 
 fervice. 
 
 T/je Sacrijly is alio called in ancient authors, Swreiarium. — 
 Among us the Vefiry. 
 5ACROLU M B ARIS, or Sacrolumbus, in anatomy, 
 a mufcle, that arifes flefhy from the fuperior part of the os 
 facrum, the pofterior part of the ilium, and from all the 
 fpines and tranfverfe proceffes of the vertebra? of the loins. 
 — It gives a fmall tendon to the poftcrior part of each rib 
 r,cr.r its root, where a fmall bundle of flefhy fibres arifes 
 and unites with each afcending tendon, to the third, fourth, 
 fifth, and fixth vertebra; of the neck.— See Tab. Anat. 
 (Vivo!. )_/!£. 6. ». 30. 30. fig. 7. n. 16. 16. 
 This with the ferratus pofticus inferior, and triangularis, 
 help to contract the ribs in expiration. But they are but 
 of fmall force j and fecm only to accelerate the motion of 
 the ribs, which fall down chiefly by their own gravity, and 
 the elafticity of the ligaments, by which they are tied to 
 the vertebrae. 
 
 SA C RUM OS, in anatomy, the lower extremity of the fpina 
 dorfi i being that part whereon we fit. — See Tab. Anat. 
 (Ofteol.) fig. 3. n. 15. fig. 7. n. 20. 
 
 It is doubted whence this name mould arife ; fome think it 
 is becaufe the Ancients offered it in facrihee to the gods ; 
 
 SAD 
 
 others, becaufe it is very large ; and others, becaufe it in- 
 clofea the natural parts. 
 
 Its figure is triangular: it is hollow within-fide, and by that 
 means contributes to the forming of the cavity at the bot- 
 tom of the hypogaftrum, called the pelvis. Its fore-part is 
 fmooth, by which means, the parts it contains, are fecured 
 from being wounded ; and its hind-part is rough, that the 
 mufcles nlay fatten the better to it. 
 
 It has three different articulations : the firft is with the latt 
 of the vertebne of the loins, and is like that of the other 
 vertebrx : the fecond with the os coccygis, by fynchon- 
 drolis : the third, is with the bones of the hips. 
 The os facrum is ufually divided into five parts, which are 
 ranked among the number of vertebras : the higheft is the 
 grcatcft ; the reft growing lefs as they go lower. Theft 
 vertebra: are eafily feparated in children, by reafon the car- 
 tilages which join them, are not yet offified. But in adults, 
 they are fo firm, that they only make one bone. 
 It is in the os facrum, that the cavity which contains the 
 fpina! marrow, terminates. 
 SADDLE, in the manage, a kind of fluffed feat, laid on 
 the back of a horle, for the convenience of the rider. 
 The originof the Saddle is not well known : Gorop. Be- 
 canus attributes its invention to the Salii, a people among 
 the ancient Franks ; and hence, fays he, came the Latin 
 Sella fiddle. 
 
 It is certain, the ancient Romans were unacquainted with 
 the ufe either of Saddle or ftirrups ; whence Galen obferves 
 in feveral places, that the Roman cavalry, in his time, were 
 fubjedt to feveral difeafes of the hips and legs, for want of 
 bavins their feet fuftained on hcrle-back. And long before 
 him, Hippocrates had noted, that the Scythians, who were 
 much on horfe-back, were frequently troubled with defluxi- 
 ons in their legs, becaufe of their hanging down. 
 The firft time we hear of Saddles among the Romans, was 
 Anno 340; when Conftantius, endeavouring to deprive his 
 brother Conft.intine of the empire, made head p&ainft his 
 armv, and entering the fquadron where he himfelf was, 
 threw him off his Saddle, as we arc informed by the hifto- 
 rian Zonaras. — Before this time, they made ufe of fquare 
 panncls ; fuch as we fee in the ftatue of Antonnius in the 
 capitol. 
 
 The ufe of Saddles was firft eftablifhed in England, by a 
 law of Henry VJL whereby the nobility were obliged to 
 ride on Saddles.~lt is but very lately that the Irifh have 
 taken to it. 
 
 There are various kinds of Saddles ; as the 
 Running Saddle, a very fmall one, with round fkirts. 
 Burford Saddle, which has the feat and fkirts plain. 
 Pad Saddle, of which there are two kinds ; the one made 
 with burs before the feat, the other with bolfters under the 
 thighs. 
 
 French Pad Saddle, the burs whereof came all round the 
 
 feat. 
 
 Porttmntua Saddle furnifhed with a cantle behind the feat, 
 
 to keep a carriage off the rider's back. 
 War Saddle, furnilhcd with a cantle, and a bolfter both 
 
 behind and before. 
 Saddle-galled, is when a horfe's back is hurt, or fretted 
 with the Saddle. 
 
 It is to be cured by bathing the part with urine, or 
 warm wine: when the fore is large, they bathe it with 
 aqua fecunda, ftrewing over it the powder of old ropes 
 or flax, and confuming the proud flefh with vitriol or 
 colcothar. 
 
 SADDUCES, or Sadducees, Saduc^i, a feet among 
 the ancient Jews, efteemed as deifls, or free-thinkers, ra- 
 ther than real Jews; though they aflifted at ail the ceremo- 
 nies of the worfhip in the temple. 
 
 St. Kpiphanius will have the Sadduces to have taken their 
 rife from Dofithcus, a Samaritan fectiiry ; and Tertullian i3 
 of the fame opinion, St. Jerom, and other writers add, that 
 the Sadduces came near the Samaritans in many things; 
 particularly in this, that they allowed no books of fcripture, 
 but the five books of Moles. The Jefuit Serrarius has alfo 
 embraced this opinion, as feeming to be fupported by the 
 authority of Jofephus. But Jofephus fays only this, that they 
 admitted all that was written, ;'. e. all the books of fcrip- 
 ture ; intimating hereby, that they difowned the unwrit- 
 ten traditions of the Pharifees. — In effect, St. Epiphanius 1 
 forced to own, that the Sadduces were Jews, and not 
 Samaritans; inafmuch, as they aflifted at the worfhip and 
 facritices of the temple at JeruAilcm : whereas the Samari- 
 tans facrificed on Mount Gerizzim. 
 
 Some authors aicribe the origin of this feci: to one Sadoc, a. 
 difciple of Antigonufl Soehaeus, who frequently inculcated it 
 on his fcholais, that God is to be ferved for his own fake, 
 and not out of view to any reward from him in the next 
 world, as flavcs furve their matters merely for recompence. 
 
 Sadoc, add they, putting a falfe interpretation on thefc 
 
 words of his matter, puhlilbed, that there was no reward 
 allotted to good actions done in this world. And hence a- 
 rofe the feci of Sadduces ; thus denominated from their leader 
 Sadoc, — Though St. Epiphanius, and fome modern writers 
 
 after 
 
S A F 
 
 SAG 
 
 after him, take the Sadduces to have keen thus called from 
 the Hebrew, Sadec, jiift, or Sedec, juftice, in regard of the 
 great juftice and equity which they (hewed in all their ac- 
 tions. 
 
 It is obferved, Acls xxiii. S. that the Sadduces fay, there is 
 no refurreciion, neither any angel or fpirit ; but that the 
 Pharifces believe both the one and the other. Thefe words 
 The one and the other, feem to infinuatc, that angel and fplrit 
 are one and the fame thing. But (as Oecumenius obfei +es 
 on that paffiige) as the apoftles do not always ufe the exacteft 
 terms, one may underftand by fpirit, all Spiritual fubftan- 
 ces ; as it the Sadduces had believed that God himfelf was 
 corporeal. — This, however, is not Oecumeniua's opinion : 
 he afks, why the fcripture lays, The one and the other, 
 though it (poke of three things, refurreCtion, angel, and 
 fpirit ? and he anfwers, that it~is either becaufe angel and 
 fpirit are the fame thing ; or that one and the other, which 
 is only properly underftood of two things, is, perhaps, here 
 Spoke of three : exact propriety of words not being to be 
 required in books wrote by illiterate fifhermen. It is true, 
 in explaining what goes before, he obl'erves, that the Sad- 
 duces, being very ignorant, might poffibly difbelieve the ex- 
 iftence of a God ; and on that account, might be repre- 
 sented as denying a refurreciion, &c. But he does not fay, 
 that by fpirit, they might mean all Spiritual fubftance. It 
 is probable, all meant by it, is the immortality of the foul j 
 it being the opinion of the Sadduces, that there was nothing 
 immortal in man. 
 
 Itiscertain, they denied all refurreciion ; and allowed of no 
 happinefs but what is enjoyed in this life ; believing, that every 
 thing told of the other world, had been artfully invented by 
 the Fharifees.-— Hence, alfo, they denied a divine providence, 
 and attributed all things to free-will ; in which, they op- 
 pofed the opinion of the Pharifces, who admitted a kind of 
 deftiny, or fatality, in all our actions. See Pharisees 
 SAfh-CONDUCT, Sal vus Con ductus, a fecunty 
 given by the prince under his great fehJj to a Stranger, for 
 his quiet coming in and palling out of the realm. 
 The Safe Conduct is granted to enemies, the pafiport to 
 friends. 
 
 Judges fomctimcs give Safe-Conducls to delinquents, or pri- 
 soners, to enable them to act in their affairs. 
 
 SM'E-GUARD, Salva Guardia, in a law fenfe, a 
 protection given by the king to a perfon fearing the violence 
 of fome other, for Seeking his right by courfe of law. 
 
 Safe-Guard, at fea, denotes a rope which faves, and fe 
 cures any thing : for inftance, that whereby perfons walk 
 Securely over the bolt-Sprit. 
 
 Safe-Guard of the Helm, is a rope which goes rhroush the 
 helm, and is faftened to the futtocks of the Ship. See Helm. 
 
 SAFE-PLEDGE, Sa lvus Plecius, in law, a fecurity 
 given for a man's appearance on a day atfigned. See Pledge. 
 
 SAFFRON*, Crocus, a plant which produces a flower of 
 the Same name; whence, alfo, a drug called Saffron, or 
 Crocus is collected. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Arabic, Zaphemn, which figni- 
 fiei the fame. Botanills call the plane Crocus autumnalis fativus. 
 The root which produces the Saffron plant, is a kind of bulb, 
 covered with feveral hollow ikins : its graffy leaves are loiig, 
 narrow, thick and Soft to the touch: its flower, which 
 appears Sometimes before the leaves, and fometimes after 
 them, is of a pale purple, ftreaked with whitifh lines : but 
 towards the bottom of thepetalathe purple is deeper. From 
 the middle of the flower there arife three long flame-coloured 
 Stamina or chives, crowned with their apices. Under thefe 
 is the ovary or vafculum Seminale, by fome called the Piftil 
 of the plant: it is divided into three capSuIa?, wherein the 
 feeds are formed. From the upper part of the ovarium a- 
 rifes theftylus, a long (lender tube inclofed within the fiftu- 
 lar part of the flower, where it is of a whitifh colour, but 
 changes into a yellow before its divifion, which is into three 
 parts, oppofite to the tops of theftamina: 'tis thefe three 
 parts only that make the true Saffron oS thefhops, So r the 
 fake of which alone the plant is cultivated. They are of 
 a yellow colour juft at the beginning from the Stylus, but 
 afterwards are all of a deep red colour, only their jagged 
 extremities are tipp'd with white inclining to yellow. See a 
 figure and defcription of the plant by Dr. Douglas in Phil 
 Tranf.N** 380. p. 441. 0 
 As !oon as the flower is gathered, they Separate the ftylets and 
 lay them on hurdles, or in large fieves, or on a little kiln for 
 thatpurpofe, with a little coal-fire underneath to dry them. 
 When dry, the Saffron is in its perfection, and fit for uSe. 
 It is obfeived, that five pounds of frefh ftyles, which 
 fome miftakenly call the chives, only make one pound of 
 dry Saffron. 
 
 The good qualities of Saffron are, that its ftyles be W and 
 broad, that they be vdveted over, of a fine red, of an a- 
 greeable fmell, free of yellow threads, and verv dry. 
 The beft Saffron in Furope is that of England : It is cultiva- 
 ted chiefly about W alden in Eflex : that brought from hpain 
 is good for nothing ; becaufe of the oil the'Spaniards mix 
 with it to make it keep. 
 
 Saffron is ufed both in food and medicine, to chear forti'V 
 . Vol. II. N« CXXXVI. 7 ' 
 
 and revive. It i s the greateft cordial in medicine ; and a 
 lure promoter of a d^phorefis.— It is alfo ufed by ilhjrai- 
 ners, to make a golden yellow colour. 
 
 Saffron is alfo a name given to feveral chymical prepara- 
 tions, from the refembhnce of their colour to that of the 
 vegetable Saffron, but more ufually called Croci. Such are 
 
 Saffron of Ve?.u>. See Copper and Venus. 
 
 Saffron of Man. See Crocus Martis. 
 
 Saffron of Cold. See Aurum Fulminans. 
 
 SAGAPF-NUM, a medicinal gum, whofe Smell 
 
 comes very near that of the pine ; whence its name. 
 It flows by incifion, from the trunk of a ferulaceous plant 
 growing in Perfia : the beft is in bright tranfparent tears, of 
 3 ftrong, pungent, porraceous fmell ; and the whiter and 
 freer of dirt, the better. Sometimes it is found as white, both 
 within and without fide, as milk ; though this is very rare. 
 It is efreemed aperitive and purgative, and is good in the ep 
 lepfy, afthma and palfy ; and" is alfo ufed externally to af- 
 fuage pains, and refolve tumours. 
 
 SAGA THEE*, in commerce, a flight woollen ftufF; being a 
 kind of Serge, or ratteen ; fometimes mixed with a little 
 filk. — ft is manufactured chiefly at Amiens ; though we have 
 our mar" of it in England. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, Sayette, a diminutive 
 of Sayri Say. See Say. — The French name Sayeite again 
 J s derived fiom that of the thread ufed herein, which. i* 
 chiefly prepa-cd and fpun in FknderE, abont Turcoing, &c. 
 and called Fit de Sayette. 
 
 SAGE, Salvia, a medicinal herb of an agreeable, aromatic 
 tatte ; eftccmed an excellent cephalic of the detergent kind ; 
 and on that Score Hkcwife ufed as a vulnerary and diaphoretick. 
 I here are feveral kinds of Sage; thofe ufed and cultivated 
 by us arc the Tea-Sage, or Sage of Virtue, the Red Sage, and 
 the Wormwood Sage. 
 
 f he firlt, Jiihia vlrtutis, or falvia hortenfis minor, has the 
 moft agreeable flavour; and on that fcore is cut when young 
 and full of juice, to be dried, and kept for tea.— The Dutch 
 dry and prepare this Sage like other teas, and carry it to the 
 Indies as a very precious thing. They there find a good 
 market for it ; the Chinefe preferring it to the beit of their 
 Indian teas ; and for every pound of Sage giving in ex- 
 change lour pounds of their tea, which they iell again very 
 dear in Europe. 
 
 1 he common Sage, falvia hortenjis major, is efteemcd 
 of the moft efficacy in medicine, and is that alone ufed in 
 
 the fhops. It makes an excellent gargarifm, efpecially 
 
 if fharpened with a little acid. Its decoction is very grate- 
 ful and cooling, with the addition of a little lemon-juice. 
 It is both detergent and abforbent, and as fuch, finds place in 
 diet drinks, and medicated ales, intended for fweetners and 
 cleanfers of the blood. 
 
 The fchool of Salernum recommend Sage as a remedy in 
 all difeafes : hence the verfe, 
 
 Cur moriatur homo, cut falvia crefcit inhorto? 
 " Why Should a man die, while he has Sage in his garden ?" 
 Sage, when viewed with a microfcope, often appears covered 
 all over with little fp id ers, which are Seen to walk, &c, about. 
 —It yields, by diftiilation, a very agreeable, aromatic oil, of 
 Some ufe in the Shops. 
 SAGITTA, in aitronomy, the arrow or dart, a conftclla- 
 tion of the northern hemisphere near the eagle. See Con- 
 stellation. The ftars in the tonfteliation Sagitta, in 
 Tycho's catalogue are five, and as many in Ptolemy's. In Mr. 
 Hamfteed's catalogue thev are twenty three ; the longi- 
 tudes, latitudes, &c. whereof are as follow. 
 
 Names and fituation of the 2* Longitude Lat.Nort. 
 liars. 3 
 
 Informes over Sagitta, and pre- 
 ceding it. 
 5 
 
 Preced, gJyphis or nib tow. S, 
 Preced. of three in the fluff 
 ro 
 
 In the extremity of the nib 
 In the middle of the Shaft 
 Lafl of three in the fWt 
 
 '5 
 
 In the point of the arrow 
 In the triangle under J nor;h 
 the point £fomh 
 Middle and pofl 
 20 
 
 Preced. of 3 following the point 
 
 Middle 
 
 Laft 
 
 11 B 
 
 vt 20 00 08 
 
 20 20 24 
 
 21 45 45 
 
 21 S3 27 
 
 22 +7 43 
 
 23 07 32 
 
 24 °7 59 
 
 2 5 35 5° 
 
 25 2 9 4 2 
 
 26 45 16 
 
 26 S3 23 
 29 04 40 
 29 43 47 
 ~ ° 35 4' 
 1 02 13 
 
 43 °7 45 
 43 1 5 10 
 
 38 31 2S 
 38 31 18 
 41 l6 27 
 
 4' 3 2 45 
 41 34 28 
 40 49 26 
 
 37 27 09 
 3 s 49 5 2 
 
 38 i S 17 
 
 38 56 52 
 
 39 2 7 05 
 38 48 23 
 36 36 54 
 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 I' 
 5 
 
 * - 
 4 
 
 4 S 
 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 
 34 S3 3 6 39 43 6 
 42 58 39 13 39 
 37 n 03 
 
 35 35 "6 
 
 36 35 02 
 
 2 28 06 
 
 3 00 24 
 3 33 1° 
 
 4 46 28 
 6 29 S3 
 8 37 48 
 
 39 18 22 6 
 
 39 S 2 SS 6 
 
 40 07 17 16 
 
 Sacitta, 
 
SAG 
 
 S A I 
 
 Sagitta, in botany, fignifies the top of any fmall twig, 
 
 cyon, or graft of a tree. 
 Sagitta, in geometry^ is a term which fome writers ufe 
 
 for the abfcilTe of a curve. 
 Sagitta, in trigonometry, £fff. is the fame as the verfed 
 
 fine of any arch ; and is'fo called by fome writers, becaufe 
 
 it is like a dart, or arrow, ftanding on the chord of the 
 
 arch. 
 
 SAGITTAL, Sagittalis, Sutura, in anatomy, the 
 fecond of the genuine Sutures of the Cranium, — See Tab. 
 Ant. (Myol.) fig. i. lit. f. fig. 2. tit. i. 
 
 It reaches the whole length of the head ; and has its name 
 from the Latin, Sagitta, as being ftreight, like an arrow.— 
 Whence it is alfo called Refia, and fometimes alfo Rhab- 
 doides. 
 
 SAGITTARIUS, in aftronomy, the archer, one of the 
 figns of the zodiac ; the ninth in order. 
 The ftars in the conftellation Sagittarius, in Ptolemy's ca- 
 talogue are thirty one ; in Tycho's fixteen ; in the Britan- 
 nic catalogue fifty. The longitudes, latitudes, magnitudes, 
 l$c. whereof are as follow : 
 
 Names and fiwations of the Kl Longitude Latitude, 
 ftars. gj 0 ' 
 
 Inform, preced. the bow % 
 
 Nebulous ftars < 
 
 That in point of the arrow 
 
 More north in u>p of the bow 
 Sub icq. 
 
 In handle of bow againft hand VP 
 In the fouth part of the bow 
 
 South, in north part of bow 
 Preced. the clara humeri 
 
 '5 
 
 lit of contig. liars in the eye 
 
 Bright ft. in preced. mould. 
 Subfeqt. of CQntig. in the eye 
 
 Preced. of three in the head 
 'That nnder the arm-pit 
 Middle one in the head 
 That under preced. ihould. bone 
 
 Zy 
 
 I, aft of three in the head 
 
 Between the (boulders 
 
 Jn north part of the 5 r outh 
 
 Ephaptis of three £ middle 
 Contiguous to that 
 
 North of 3 in the Epli 
 In the hind fiealder 
 Contiguous to that 
 A third more north 
 
 iptis 
 
 In the cubitus of foL arm 
 
 Thofe following the n. J preced. 
 part of Ephapt. of 2 ^fubfecp 
 
 40 
 
 Preced in fouth Ephaptis 
 
 Preced. in the root of tail 
 Of four middle ones in 5 fouth 
 the root of the tail £ north 
 
 iS 28 04 
 
 19 53 56 
 
 20 20 29 
 
 20 37 36 
 22 06 02 
 zi 29 46 
 
 zi 35 '5 
 22 13 16 
 
 2 d . and north in fouth Ephaptis 
 2 A . in the root of the tail 
 
 4 22 42 S 
 o 19 45 S 
 o 47 41 S 
 o 47 50 S 
 6 55 51 S 
 
 2 zz 54 N 
 z 42 28 N 
 
 6 25 21 S 
 10 59 54 S 
 
 7 24 47 S 
 
 2 48 39 N 
 
 2 04 01 S 
 
 3 5+ 35 S 
 
 2 39 12 N 
 
 0 48 34N 
 
 1 01 30 N 
 
 0 09 12N 
 
 1 32 03N 
 
 3 23 32 s 
 
 0 ta 33N 
 
 2 09 25 N 
 
 1 42 12N 
 7 07 55 S 
 
 0 54 38N 
 
 5 OI 12 S 
 
 1 28 59 N 
 
 2 52 57 S 
 
 3 17 59N 
 
 4 '5 43 N 
 3 48 43N 
 
 6 08 42 N 
 2 26 17 S 
 
 2 21 05 S 
 1 54 36 S 
 
 0 12 ZON 
 
 3 01 53 s 
 3 13 01 S 
 
 1 54 04 S 
 
 5 05 5 + N 
 5 11 26 N 
 
 1 27 02 N 
 1 54 03N 
 
 5 22 55 S 
 
 6 16 34 S 
 5 24 44 S 
 
 24 07 49 
 
 22 43 30 
 
 2; 27 19 
 26 38 01 
 
 26 29 27 
 
 medicinal fubftancc brought from the Eaff 
 conhderable ufc in diet, as" a nouriftier, and 
 
 5 08 03 N 
 
 7 03 48 S 
 
 6 54 32N 
 
 8 44 40 N 
 3i 45N 
 
 50 yf 
 
 SAGO, 
 Indies ; 
 reftorat: 
 
 Sago is a fort of bread procured from a tree called Landan, 
 growing in the Molucco's. 
 
 When the tree is felled they cleave it into two in the mid- 
 dle, and take out the pith, which is even eatable when it 
 comes frefh out of the tree. They pound this very fmall in 
 a mortar, till it is reduced into a kind of powder fomewhat 
 like meal. This done, they put it in a fearce made 
 of the bark of she fame tree, and place the fearce over 
 a cittern, pouring water upon it, and by this means fcparat- 
 ing the pure part of the powder from the veins of wood 
 wherewith the pith abounds. 
 
 The flour thus filtrated, they call Sagu ; they make it into 
 parte, and bake it ir, earthen furnaces j and this ihey do 
 
 with fo much expedition, that in three or four hours a niai 
 makes as much bread as will feed an hundred penons .1 dav . 
 From the fame tree they alfo draw a liquor, as agreeable to 
 drink as the European wines. 
 
 The leaves alfo, when they are young, are covered with a 
 kind of cotton, whereof they make their cloth ; and as they 
 grow older they ferve them to tile their hcufes. The larger 
 veins of thefe leaves ferve them for flakes in building ; 
 and of the fmajler they make a kind of hemp, wherewith 
 they make very good ropes. 
 3AGUM, in antiquity, a military garment wore by the 
 Greeks, Romans and Gauls, in manner of a cloak or caf- 
 fock ; covering the moulders and back, as low as the hips ; 
 where it was faftencd to the cuiras. 
 
 It was ufually made of coarfe wool, and fquare. — They had 
 one for the winter, and another lighter for fummer. 
 SAICK, orSAiquE, a Turkifh veiled, very proper for the 
 carriage of merchandizes. 
 
 It has fquare fails on the middlc-maft ; without either miz- 
 zen, top-gallant, or fhrouds : only a main-mail, with a 
 main top-mail, both very high ; with a bolt-fprit, and a 
 little mizzen-maft. 
 
 The height of the main-maft makes the Saicks vifible at 
 a great diftance: their make renders it impoffible for them 
 to go with a fide- wind ; but when they have the wind be- 
 hind them, nothing can out-go them. — The generality of 
 them carry no guns. 
 SAIGNLR, in fortification, a French term, fignifying to 
 empty or drain. 
 
 Hence jaigner la foffe, is to empty or drain the water out of 
 the moat, by conveyances under ground ; that it may be 
 palfed over the more eahly ; by laying hurdles or rulhcs on 
 the mud remaining. 
 SAIL, in navigation, an affemblage of feveral breadths of 
 canvas, or ftrong hempen cloth, fewed together by the lifts, 
 and edged round with a cord ; fattened to the yards and 
 flays of a veffel, to make it drive before the wind which 
 bears thereupon. 
 
 There are two kinds of Sails ; the one fquare, generally 
 ufed in high-bottomed vefTels. — This fort has various names, 
 according to the various marts it is faftened to ; as the Main- 
 fail, Fore-fail, the Mi-zzen-fail, the Sprit-fail, &c. 
 The others are triangular, and are called Smack-fails, and 
 by fome Latin-fails, becaufe chiefly ufed in Italy, and in 
 flat-bottomed vefTels ; though they are alfo ufed on the 
 mizzen-mafts and flays of other vefTels. — They need but 
 few ropes, and little wind ; but they are dangerous, and not 
 to be ufed in foul weather. 
 
 There are ordinarily ten Satis in large vefTels ; which num- 
 ber is increafed at bottom by the addition of bonnets, and 
 at fides by Cafe-fails. — See Tab. Ship. fig. 1. n. 2. 17. 20. 
 44. 65, 67. 86. 107, 109. 126. 138. 
 
 A veffel is faid to fet fail, to go with full fail, to make all 
 her fail, that is, to open all her Sails. To be under fail, is 
 to be ready to fet fail, &c. 
 Sails, alfo denote the vanes of windmills; or the arms or 
 flights, whereby the wind has its effect, on them. 
 Thefe arc either horizontal or perpendicular. See W|ND- 
 
 MlLL. 
 
 Sails, in falconry, denote the wings of an hawk. 
 
 SAILING, in a general fenfe, is ufed for the art, or act of 
 navigating ; or of determining all the cafes of a fhip's mo- 
 tion, by means of fea-charts. 
 
 Of this there are three kinds, plain, Afcrcafor's, and cir- 
 cular. 
 
 Plain Sailing, is that performed by means of rhumbs drawn 
 
 on a plain chart. See Plain Chart, and Rhumb. 
 Msrcator's Sailing, is that performed by rhumbs drawn on 
 
 a Mercator's chart. See Mercatok's Chart. 
 Circular Sailing, is that performed by the arch of a great 
 
 circle ; which, of all others, where practicable, is the 
 
 Ihortcft. Sec Circular Chart. 
 
 Doclrine of plain and Mercator^s Sailing. — I. The longitude 
 and latitude of two places given ; to find the departure, or 
 miles of longitude. 
 
 In plain Sailing. i°. If both places be more eafterly than 
 the firft meridian, fubtracf. the lefs longitude from the great- 
 er, the remainder is the difference of meridians. If one of 
 the places be more eafterly, and the other more wefterly 
 than the firft meridian, add the longitude of the more eafter- 
 ly to the complement of the longitude of the more wefterly 
 to a whole circle; the fum is the difference of meridians. 
 2°. Divide the difference of meridians into fo many parts as 
 there are degrees in the difference of latitude : or, if the 
 difference of latitude be greater than that of the meridians, 
 into fo many fewer. 3 0 . Reduce the minutes of longitude 
 anfwering to one part, into miles of the feveral parallels, in 
 the former cafe; or into miles of the parallel, which is an 
 arithmetically mean proportional between the two, in the 
 latter cafe. 4''. The aggregates of thefe parts collected into 
 one fum, exhibit the departure, or miles of longitude. 
 E. gr. Suppofe the longitude of the one place 35 0 . and that 
 of the other 47 0 . the difference gf meridians is 12°. Sup- 
 pofe 
 4- 
 
S A I 
 
 ■pofe the latitude of the firft 4°. and that of the latter 8°. 
 the difference will be 4 0 . confequently we have failed from 
 the 4th to the 8th parallel. Therefore divide 12 by 4, and 
 reduce the quotient 3 0 . into miles in the feverul parallels 4, 
 5, 6, and 7. (fee Degree) the feveral quotients will be 
 43 0 . 71'. 43 0 . 68'. 43 0 . 65'. 43 0 . 59'. the fum of which 
 i> 174, the departure or miles of longitude required, 
 In Ma -cat 'or 's Sailing. The reduction is much more commo- 
 dioufly performed in Mercator's charts ; wherein the arch 
 intercepted between the two meridians, is applied to an arch 
 of the meridian intercepted between the two parallels ; and 
 the diftance it there meafures, gives the departure, or miles 
 of longitude required. 
 
 II. 77<f longitude and latitude cf two places, to and from which, 
 a fhip is to fail, being given ; to find the rhumb to be failed 
 en, and the dijlance to be run. 
 
 In plain Sailing. 1. Find the departure by the laft cafe. 
 
 2. From the departure, and difference of latitudes, find the 
 loxodromic angle or rbumb-Iine ; which is done by this pro- 
 portion : as the difference of latitude is to the departure, fo 
 is the whole fine to the tangent of the angle of the rhumb- 
 line. The diftance then, to be run on this rhumb, is to 
 the departure, as the whole fine to the fine of the angle of 
 the rhumb. 
 
 In Mercator's Sailing, f. Apply the center of the mariners 
 compafs on the place failed from, on the Mercator's chart, 
 as a, (Tab. Navigation, fig. j.) and fo as that the north and 
 fouth line thereof be parallel to fome of the meridians. 2. 
 Mark the rhumb of the compafs, wherein the place failed 
 to, as b, is placed. For this is the rhumb to be failed on. 
 
 3. The fame rhumb is likewife found by drawing a right 
 line from a to b, and with a protractor, finding the angle 
 the rhumb makes with any meridian which it cuts. 4. The 
 quantity or diftance a b is found by applying the part a 1 to 
 
 IK, 1 2 to k i, %h to lm. 
 
 Note, the rhumb and diftance may alfo be found after the 
 fame manner on a plain chart. 
 
 The fame may likewife be found by loxodromic tables ; 
 thus, 1. Chufe a rhumb at pleafure, and under the fame, 
 in the tables, find the longitudes correfponding to the ^iven 
 latitudes. The difference whereof, if it coincide with the 
 difference of the given longitudes, the rhumb is well chofen ; 
 otherwife another muff, be pitched on, either more or Iefs 
 oblique, till the tabular difference agree with the given dif- 
 ference. 2. The rhumb thus found, the diftances anfwenng 
 to the given latitudes, muff be taken from the tables, and 
 the lefs being fubtradted from the greater; the remainder is 
 the diftance fought. 
 
 III. TJ.-e rhumb and dijlance failed being given; to find the 
 
 longitude and latitude of the place arrived at. 
 In plain Sailing, j. From the data, find the difference of 
 latitude of the two places : (by the proportion delivered un- 
 der the article Rhume-ZiW-J This difference added to the 
 latitude of the place failed from, or fubtrj&ed from the 
 fame, the fum, or the remainder, leaves the latitude of the 
 place failed to. 2. From the fame, find the departure; and 
 thence the_ latitudes of the place failed to (as directed under 
 
 RHUMB-/ikJ 
 
 /;/ Mercator's Sailing. 1. Place the mariner's compafs on 
 the chart, with the center over the place a ; and the meri- 
 dian, and north or fouth line, parallel to the meridian there- 
 of. 2. From the point a, draw a right line, as a b, for the 
 fhip's courfe. Take the diftance by parts, in parts of the 
 meridian I K, K I, &e. and fet it off upon the right line 
 a by e. gr. from a to c ; then will c be the place the fhip is 
 arrived at ; the longitude and latitude whereof are given by 
 the chart. See Chart. 
 
 By the loxodromic tables. 1. Under the given rhumb, feek 
 the diftance anfwering to the latitude of the place failed 
 from; and cither add it to, or fubtra& it from the given 
 diftance ; as the latitude of the place failed to is neater 
 orlefs, than that failed from. 2. Under the fame rhumb' 
 aicend or defcend further, till you meet with the diftance 
 correaed. 3. The latitude anfwering thereto in the firft 
 column, is the latitude of the place failed to. 4. From the 
 fecond column of the table take the longitudes correfpond- 
 ing to the latitudes of the places failed to and from. Their 
 difference is the difference of longitude of the places failed 
 to and from. 
 
 IV. The latitudes of ,h, places failed to and from, together with 
 the rbumkfaUd ,n, being gtven ; „ find thl di Jlane, and dif- 
 ference of latitudes J 
 
 In plain Sailwg From the difference of latitude and the 
 rnumb g,ven, find the diftance; and from the fame data, 
 the departure. This converted into degrees of a great 
 circle, exhibits the difference of longitudes Vou-ht. 
 In Mercator's Sa.lmg. 1. Place the compafs on the chart, 
 as in the preceding cafe. From the place failed from, a, 
 draw the rhumb-line a b, failed in ; till it cut the parallel of 
 the given latitude, a. The point of interfeflion will be the 
 
 S A I 
 
 place arrived in. 3. Hence its longitude is eafily found i and 
 the diftances. 
 
 By the tables. 'Fake both the longitudes and the diffanccs 
 anfwering to the latitudes of the given places, out of the 
 tables ; then fubtradt both the longitudes and the diftauces 
 from each other. The firft remainder is the difference of 
 longitude, the latter is the diftance of the places. 
 
 V. Tbe latitudes of the places failed from, and to, with thl dif- 
 tance given ; to find the rhumb and the difference of longitude. 
 In plain Sailing. From the difference of latitude, and the 
 diftance, find the rhumb, and from the fame data find the 
 departure; which may be alfo determined from the rhumb 
 now found, and tile difference of latitude, or from the 
 rhumb and the diftance run. Laftly, from the departure 
 find the difference of longitude. 
 
 In Mercator's Sailing. On the map draw the parallel tbe 
 (hip arrives at, C D. Reduce the diftance run into parts 
 proportional to the degrees of the map. The diftance redu- 
 ced, being a 2 ; from a defcribe an arch touching the paral- 
 lel C D in 2 : then will 2 be the place in the map ; whole 
 longitude accordingly is eafily found. 
 
 By the tables. Subtract the given latitudes from each other ; 
 and in the tables feek the rhumb ; under which, the diftance 
 run anfwers to the given difference of latitude. Subtract 
 the longitude under the rhumb, anfwering to the latitude 
 of the place failed to ; and that under the fame rhumb 
 againft the latitude of the term failed to, from each other • 
 the remainder is the difference of longitude fought. 
 
 VI. The difference of longitudes of the places failed to, and from i 
 with the latitude of one of the places, and the dijlances run, 
 being given; to find the rhumb, and tbe latitude of the 
 other. 
 
 In plain Sailing. Convert the difference of longitudes into 
 miles of longitude for the dtparture; from tbe given depar- 
 ture and diftance run, feek the rhumb : and from the fame, 
 and the rhumb, feek the difference of latitude ; which, and 
 the latitude of one place being had, the latitude of the 
 other readily follows. 
 
 In Alcrcalor's Sailing. Through the given place a in the 
 map, draw a right line E F parallel to the meridian I H i 
 and make F L equal to the difference of longitudes. From 
 F draw L M parallel to E F, which will be the meridian the 
 fhip is arrived at. Then from a, with the interval of the 
 diftance run, a c, defcribe an arch interfecting the meridian 
 M L ; the place fought will be in c. If then a compafs be 
 placed on the map, as before directed, the rhumb-line will 
 fail in with a c ; and confequently the rhumb will be known, 
 Laftly, if through c be drawn N O, parallel to A B ; N A 
 will be the latitude of tbe place required. 
 By the tables. Take a rhumb at pleafure, and under the 
 fame in the tables, find the longitude, and the diftance an- 
 fwering to the given latitude. A^dd the given diftance to tbe 
 diftance found in the tables, if the veffel failed from the 
 equator ; or fubtract it therefrom, if it failed towards the 
 fame. With the fame fum, or the difference, enter the ta- 
 bles ; and the longitude found againft it, fubtraft or add 
 from that juft found. If the remainder be found the given 
 difference of longitudes, the rhumb is then well taken. 
 Otherwife, it muft be changed for a more or lefs oblique 
 one, till the fame operation being repeated, the remainder 
 be found the difference of longitudes ; then the latitude in 
 the firft column, correfponding to the diffance, will be the 
 latitude of the other place. 
 
 VII. The difference of longitude, and the latitude of one cf the 
 places, being given, together with tbe rhumb ; to find the dif- 
 tance run, and the latitude of the ether place. 
 
 In plain Sailing. Reduce the difference of longitude into 
 miles of longitude, or departure, as under the° firft cafe, 
 from the departure and the rhumb, find the diftance run. 
 And from thefe, or from the rhumb, and the diftance run, 
 find the difference of latitude. This done, as the latitude 
 of the one is already had, that of the other is fo too. 
 In Mercator's Sailing. Place the compafs on the chart as be- 
 fore ; and by the given rhumb, draw the rhumb-line, a b. 
 Draw a meridian E F through tbe given place a \ and with 
 the interval of the difference of longitude F L, draw ano- 
 ther, L M, for that the veffel is arrived at. Where this in- 
 terfedts the rhumb-line, is the place c that the veffel is arri- 
 ved at. Wherefore, if through c be drawn N O parallel 
 to A B ; N A will be the latitude of the place. The dif- 
 tance run a c is eafily reduced into miles by the fcale. 
 By the tables. Under the given rhumb, feek the diftance 
 run, and the difference of longitude anfwering to the "iver. 
 latitude. If the veffel have failed towards the pole,^ the 
 difference of longitude is to be added to the given diffe- 
 rence of longitude ; if towards the equator, it h to be fub- 
 tra&cd from "the fame. In the former cafe, d-icend in the 
 table, and in the latter, afcend ; till in the fiift, the a2"re- 
 gate, in the^ latter, the difference be feer. in the column o*' 
 longitude. The latitude anfwerins; hereto in the firft o> 
 
S A I 
 
 S A K 
 
 lumn, is that fought. And from the diftance anfweiing to 
 this latitude in the firft cafe, the tabular diftance is to be 
 fubtracted ; or in the latter cafe, that diftance is to be fub- 
 tracted from the tabular diftance. What remains, is the 
 diftance run. 
 
 From the fohition of thefe cafes in Sailing, it is evident, fome 
 are more eafily performed by the charts than the tables ; and 
 that the Mcrcator's charts are greatly preferable to the plain 
 ones; fince in the latter, the diftance is not reduced by the 
 map, but by a particular fcale for that purpofe. 
 Doflrine of circular Sailing. — I. The latitude and longitude 
 of the places failed to, end front, being given; to find the an- 
 gie M (fig. 8.) which a Jkifs way M O proceeding in a circu- 
 lar courfe, includes with the meridian P M of the place failed 
 from. , 
 Since in the triangle P M N, we have P M and P N, the 
 complements of the given latitudes H M, and I N, toge- 
 ther with the angle M P N, meafured by the arch H T, 
 the difference of the given longitudes H and T ; the angle 
 PMN is found by fpberical trigonometry. See Tri- 
 angle. 
 
 II. The latitude H M, and the longitude H, of the place failed 
 from, M, with the dij/ance run, and the latitude of the place 
 
 L S thi Jhip in a circular voyage arrives at, being given j to 
 find the longitude of the place L, end the angle PLM 
 
 comprehended between the Jhip's zvay M L, and the meridian 
 
 P S. 
 
 In the triangle P M L, wc have given P M the complement 
 of the latitude H M, and P L the complement of the lati- 
 tude L S. Wherefore, if the fbip's way M L be turned 
 into degrees of the equator ; we ftiall find the angle M PL, 
 which is equivalent to the difference of longitudes H S ; and 
 Nice wife the angle P L M by fpberical trigonometry. 
 After the like manner may other problems be folved ; but as 
 it is eafier and better Sailing by rhumbs, than by circles, and 
 as this latter way is but very little in ufc ; we chufe to pals 
 them over. 
 
 Sailing, in a more confined fenfe, is the art of conducting 
 a veuel from place to place, by the working or handling of 
 her fails and rudder : though what is done by means of this 
 latter, is more properly called Steering. 
 
 To bring Sailing to certain rules, M. Renau computes the 
 force of the water, againft. the (hip's rudder, ftcm, and fide ; 
 and that of the wind againft. her fails. — In order to this, he 
 l°. confiders all fluid bodies, as the air, water, &c. as com- 
 pofed of little particles, which, when they aft upon, or 
 move againft any liirfr.ee, do all move parallel to one ano- 
 ther, or ill ike ag.ur.ft the In r face after the fame manner. 
 2°. That the motion of any body* with regard to a furface 
 on which it is to ftrike, muft be either perpendicular, paral- 
 lel, or oblique. In the firft cafe, the body ftrikes with all 
 ks force, which will be greater or lefs, according as the bo- 
 dy moves fwifter or flower. In the fecond cafe, the line of 
 motion a b, {Tab. Navigation, fig. will not affect the fur- 
 Jace at all, becaufe it is no way oppofed to it ; nor can the 
 moving body ftrike upon it, or touch it. In the third, if 
 the line of motion, A D, be oblique to the furface D C, fo 
 that the an^le of incidence be A D C, then the motion of 
 the body in the line A D may be reiblved into two directi- 
 ons, viz- into A L', or B D, and into A B. But the direc- 
 tion or line of motion A E being parallel to the furface D C, 
 cannot affect it at all ; fo that the whole motion of the body 
 A in that oblique manner of ftriking on the furface, will be 
 expounded by the perpendicular line, A B. And if D A be 
 made the radius of a circle, whole center is at D, B A will 
 be the fine of the angle of incidence, A D C. 
 Hence it is deduced, that the force of a particle of air or 
 water, as A, fbriking againft the furtace D C, which may 
 reprefent, either a fail or the rudder of a fhip, in the oblique 
 direction A D, will be to the perpendicular force thereof, as 
 13 A is to D A : that is, as the fine of the angle of incidence 
 is to the radius. 
 
 And fince what is thus true of one particle, fingly confi- 
 dered, will be true of all the particles of any fluid body col- 
 lectively ; it will follow, that the force of the air or water 
 ftriking perpendicularly upon a fail or rudder, to the force 
 of the fame, in any oblique impingency, will be, as the 
 fnuare of ti'ie radius, to the fquare of the fine of the angle 
 of incidence : and confcquently, that all oblique forces of 
 the wind againft the fails, or of the water againft the rud- 
 der, will be to one another, as the fqnares of the fines of 
 the angles of incidence. 
 
 If the different degrees of velocities be confidered, it will be 
 found, that the forces will then be as the fquares of the ve- 
 locities of .the moving air or water; that is, a wind that 
 blgWs thrice as ftrong, or moves thrice as fwift as another, 
 v ill have nine times the force upon the fail. — And it being 
 alfo indifferent, whether you coniider the motion of a folid 
 in a fluid ivhofe particles are at reft ; or of thofe particles 
 moving all parallel againft a folid that is at reft; the recipro- 
 cal impreftions being always the fame : if a folid be moved 
 With different velocities in the fame fluid matter (as fuppofe 
 
 watcrj the different refinances which it will receive from 
 that water, will be in the fame proportion, as the fquares of 
 the velocities of that body. 
 
 Let HM (fig. 4.) reprt.fi.-nt a {hip, C D the pofition of the 
 fail, and A B the courfe of the wind blowing towards B. 
 Draw 13 G perpendicular to the fail, and G KL perpendicular 
 to the line of the keel produced H M K. By what is faid 
 above, the fail C D, will be driven by the wind A B, ac- 
 cording to the direction of the line B G. So that if fine 
 could divide the water every way with the fame facility, as 
 fhe doth with her head, the fhip would go directly to the 
 point G, along the line B G. And if H K reprefent her 
 direct courfe, fhe would have got forward the length B K, 
 and Tideways fhe would have gone the quantity G K, But 
 as her length is much greater than her breadth, fo fhe will 
 divide the water, or make her way in it with more difficulty 
 with her fide, then with her head or ftern ; on which account, 
 file will nut run Tideways fo far as K G, but will fall ftiort of 
 it in proportion to the faid difficulty of dividing the water 
 with her fide, that is, if the refliftance fhe finds in her paffing 
 through the water Tideways, be to that of paffing lengthways, 
 fuppofe, as ten to one, then will not the (hip get Tideways a- 
 bove a tenth part of the line G K. 
 
 Wherefore, if Iv G be found to G L, in the ratio of the re- 
 fiftance of the fide to that of the ftern, and the line B L be 
 drawn ; the fhip will go to the point L, along the line, B L, 
 in the fame time as it would have gone to G, if it could 
 have divided the water every way equally. — This part, K L. 
 is called the drift, or lee-way of a fhip, and the angle KBL 
 is her degrees of lee-way ; as the angle ABK, exprelTes how 
 near the wind flie lies. 
 
 After this, the Author proceeds to demonftrate, that the beft 
 pofition or iituation of a fhip,- fo as fhe may make the belt 
 lee-way, but go wind- ward as much as poihble, is this: 
 that, let the (ail have what fituation it will, the fhip be al- 
 ways in a line benefiting the complement of the wind's angle 
 of incidence upon the fail ; that is, fuppofing the fail in the 
 pofition B C (fig. 5.) the wind blowing from A to B, and 
 yponfequently, the angle of the wind's incidence on the fail 
 A B C, and its complement CB£; then muff the fhip be 
 put into the pofition B IC, or move in the line B K, biflect- 
 ing the angle C B E. 
 
 He fhews farther, that the angle which the fail ought to 
 make with the wind, i. e. the angle ABC, ought to be 
 but 24 degrees ; that being the moft advantageous fituation 
 to go to wind-ward, the moft that is poffible. And in order 
 to bring this to bear in practice, he directs to put marks 
 to the fheets, braces, and bow-lines of the lower fails, to 
 know when they are in their beft fituation ; and then, even 
 in the night, when the marks of a brace or of a fheet fhall 
 come to the cleat, one may be pretty well allured, that the 
 fail trims well. 
 
 To this might be added, many curious things from Borellt 
 de Vi Percujfionis concerning the different direction given to 
 a veffel from the rudder, when failing with a wind, or float- 
 ing without fails in a current ; in the former cafe, the head 
 of the fhip always coming to the rudder, and in the latter 
 always flying off from it. 
 
 SAILORS, the elder feamen, who are employed in working 
 or managing the fails, the tackle, fleering, (sc. 
 
 SAINTS, Sancti, in the Romifli church, holy perfons 
 deceafed, and fince their deceafe, canonized by the pope; 
 after feveral informations and ceremonies. 
 One of the points wherein the Roman cathoheks and Pro- 
 teftants differ, is, that the former addrefs, invoke, and 
 fupphcate faints, C5V. to intercede for them ; whereas the 
 latter hold it fufficient to propofe their good examples for 
 our imitation. 
 
 The number of Saints, allowed as fuch, in the Romifli 
 church, is prodigious : Father Papebroche reckons feventeen 
 or eighteen hundred to have died on the firft of June, only. 
 Indeed, the crowd of Saints wherewith their martyrologies 
 are flocked, is fcandalous, even to the more fober of 
 their own communion. Father Mabillon, in an exprefs 
 differtation on the worfhip of unknown Saints, obferves, 
 that honours are given to Saints, who perhaps, were not 
 Chriftians ; and whofe very names were never known. 
 Hence, being under a neceffity of giving them names, they 
 are therefore called Baptized Saints. He adds, that they 
 every day befcech Saints to intercede for them with God ; 
 when, it is much doubted, whether they themfelves be in 
 heaven. 
 
 Father Papebroche and his aflociates have been a long time 
 employed in writing the lives and acts of the Saints ; they 
 range them each on the day of the year wherein they died : 
 for the firft fix months they have publifhed twenty-four vo- 
 lumes in folio; and lince Papebroche's death, in 1714, his 
 fucccflors have publifhed more. 
 
 SAKER, a (mall fort of cannon; whereof there are three 
 fpecies : extraordinary, ordinary, and leaf} fixed. 
 
 Saker Extraordinary, is about four inches diameter -at the 
 bore, 1800 pound weight, 10 foot long ; its load 5 pounds, 
 {hot 3 inches and half diameter, and fomething more than 7 
 
 pound 
 
SAL 
 
 SAL 
 
 pound and a quarter weight j its level range is 163 
 paces. 
 
 Saker Ordinary, is a foe lefs, 3 inches 3 quarters bore, 9 
 foot long, 1500 weight ; its charge, 4 pounds of powder; 
 bullets diameter 3 inches and a half, weight 6 pounds, its 
 level range is 160 paces. 
 
 Saker of the leajl Size, is 3 inches and a half diameter at 
 the bore, 1400 pound weight, 8 foot long, its load near 
 3 pounds and a half ; fhot 4 pounds 3 quarters weirht, and 
 3 inches and a quarter diameter. 
 
 SAL, in chymiftry, &c. 
 Sal Annoniac, or Ammoniac 
 Sal Petra, or Nitri, 
 Sal Prunella , jSee 
 Sal TartarL 
 
 Sa L Pohchrcftum, 
 Sal Gemma. 
 
 'Salt. 
 Armoniac. 
 Salt-Petre,& Nitre, 
 1 Prunellje. 
 Tart a r . 
 polychrest. 
 Gemma. 
 
 Sal Volatile Qleofitm; is the name of an aromatic volatile li- 
 quor, firlf. prepared by Sylvius de la Hoe, and found a very 
 notable medicine, chiefly as a cephalic, and cordial. 
 It is made thus: to an ounce of volatile fait of fal ammo- 
 niac, diftilled with fait of tartar, and dulcified with fpirit of 
 wine, put a dram and half of fome aromatic oil, or ellence, 
 drawn from fome generous aromatic vegetable, as cinna- 
 mon, cloves, rofemary, balm, &e* And when the fpirit and 
 oil are well ftirred and incorporated together, draw oft" the 
 volatile fait and fpirit in a cucurbit. Some, inftead of this, 
 jnix all the ingredients together at firft, viz. the fal ammo- 
 niac, fal tartari, fpirit of wine and powder of cinnamon or 
 cloves, with other aroma ticks, and diflil off the volatile 
 fpirit and fait at once ; but the former w:iy is preferred. 
 
 SALAD1NE, a tax, impofed in England and France, in 
 the year 11S8, to raife a fund for the cruzade undertook by 
 Richard I. of England, and Philip Auguftus of France, a- 
 gainft Saladin fultan of Egypt, then going to befiege Jeru- 
 falem. 
 
 The Saledm^tXt was thus- laid : that every perfon who did 
 not enter himfelf a croife, was obliged to pay a tenth of 
 his yearly revenue, and of the value of all his moveables, 
 except his wearing apparel, books and arms. 
 The Carthufians, Bernard ines, and fome other religious, 
 . were exempted from the Saladine. 
 
 SALAMANDER'S Blood, a term which chvmifts give 
 to the red vapours, which in diftilling fpirit of nitre, 
 rife towards the latter end, and fill the receiver with red 
 " clouds. 
 
 They are the moll fixed, and the ftrongeft part of the fpi- 
 rit ; nothing but nitre yields a red vapour in diftillation. 
 
 SALARY, Salarium, a flipeild, or wages allowed any 
 perfon in confide rat ion of his pains, induftrv, or fervice in 
 another man's bulmefs. 
 
 SALET*, Sallet, or Salade, in war, a light covering, 
 or armour for the head, anciently wore by the light horfc ; 
 only differing from the cafk, in that it had no creft, and was 
 little more than a bare cap. 
 
 *Nicod derives the word from Sila, which had the fame fig- 
 nification among the Latins : oihers from Saladhnis, alfedg- 
 ing, that it was borrowed from the orientals ; others from 
 the Italian Celtta t as if the hcr.d were hid hereby. Others 
 fiora the Spanifh Ctlada, a little cails, 65V. 
 
 JjALIANT*, in fortification, denotes projcEl'tng. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French Saillant, which figni- 
 fies the fame thing ; of f tiller, to project, advance outwards, 
 and that, of the Latin falire, to leap. 
 There are two kinds of angles ; the one Sattanf, which are 
 thofe that prefent their point outwards.— The other Re- 
 entr'mg, which have their points inwards. Infiances of both 
 kind?, we have in tenailles, and ftar-works. 
 SALIENT, Saliant, or Saillant, in heraldry, is 
 applied to a lion, or other beaft, when its fore-legs are raif- 
 ed in a leaping pofture. 
 
 A lion Salient is that which is erected bend-ways: Handing 
 fo as that his right fore-foot is in the dexter chief point, 
 and his hinder left-loot, in the finifter bafe point of the 
 efcutchcon. — By which it is diftinguifhed from rampant. 
 See Rampant. 
 SALIC*, or Salique Laiv, Z^a Salica, an ancient ami 
 fundamental law of the kingdom of France, ufually fuppofed 
 to have been made by Pharamond, or at leaft by Clovisj in 
 virtue whereof males only are to inherit. 
 
 * Some, as Poilellu*, will have it to have been called Salic, 
 f. d. Gallic, becaufe peculiar to the Gauls. Canal takes 
 the reafoa to be, that the law was only ordained for the 
 royal /alia, or palaces : Claud. Seiffel fays, it was thus 
 called, becaufe of the fait and the prudence it abounds 
 withal: Fer. Montanus infifls, it was becaufe Pharamond was 
 at firft called Saliew. Others, with the abbot L'fpcrg, de- 
 rive its name from Sal-'gcji, Pharamond's principal miuifler ; 
 and others from the frequent repetition of the words Si 
 aliqxa, at the beginning of the articles. Genebr::rd fays, it 
 way called Snlic for Saivmonic, by reafon Solomon fet the firft 
 '-example of it. Davifon derives it from the German word: 
 Salts and Lick* d. like to fait. — The raoft probable op 
 Vol. II. N°. 136; 
 
 4j| nion is, that which derives the word from the ancient: 
 > Franks, who were called Sali, Srlici, and Sa/h.-gi, on ac- 
 count of the Sala, a river of ancient Germany : this is 
 the fcnrirnent of Rhenanus and ^Emilius, who are followed 
 by feveral others; among the reft, Menage, Pafquier, -Bo- 
 nd, and juocker. Bouteroue gives another plaufible origin 
 of the word : he fays, it comes from the word Salicb, which, 
 in the old Teutonic language, fignified fiJutary ; and that 
 the French in this law imitated the policy of the ancient 
 Romans, who made falutary laws, which the magiftrates 
 were to have before them when they adminiifred Jullice. 
 This he confirms from a curious figure taken out of the 
 Aatitia Imperii, where the book is reprefented covered with 
 gold, with this Infciiption, fygp Snlutares . 
 Du Haillan, after a critical examination of the Salic Law, 
 declares it to have been an expedient of Philip the Long, in 
 1 316, for the exclufion of the daughter of Louis Hurin, 
 from inheriting the crown. Father Daniel, on the other 
 hand, maintains, that it is quoted by authors much mure an- 
 cient than Philip the Long ; and that Clovis is the real au- 
 thor of it. The ftyle, which is fcarce intelligible, and which 
 is in a latinized dialc£t, is a mark of its antiquity. 
 T his law has not any particular regard to the crown of 
 France: it only imports in the general, tha't in Salic land . 
 no part of the inheritance fhall fall to any female; but 
 the whole to the male (ex, De terra Salica nulla poi'tio h<s- 
 rcditatis mulieri veuiat ; fed ad virilem fexum tola terra: heert' 
 ditas perveniat. — 80 that it is a popular error to fuppofe, that 
 the Salic Law was elrahliflied purely on account of the fuc- 
 ceffion to the crown : iince it extends to private perfons as 
 much as to thofe of the royal family. 
 
 Part of it fecms to have been borrowed by our Henry I. in 
 compiling his laws, cap, 89. jfyui hue fecerh fecundum legem 
 Salicam moriatur. 
 
 By Salic lands or inheritances were anciently denoted all 
 lands, by whatever tenure held, whether noble or bafe, 
 from the luccefiion whereto, women were excluded by the 
 Salic Law, for they were by it admitted to inherit nothing 
 but moveables, and purchafes ; whenever there were any 
 males. — Indeed M. Fenelon obferves, that there were origi- 
 nally Salic lands, diftinguifhed from all others, and deftined 
 for the military people of the nation ; and to thefe, it is fup- 
 pofed, the law was originally intended to be confined. 
 M. Eccard, a Hanoverian, is faid to have recovered an an- 
 cient MS, of this famous law, containing a third part there- 
 of, much more amply than any yet difcovered, with a very 
 curious chronology of the fame law, hitherto unknown. 
 SALII, in antiquity, priefts of Mars, whereof there were 
 twelve, inftitutcd by Numa ; wearing painted, parti-coloured 
 garments, and high bonnets, with a fteel cuirafle en the 
 breaft. 
 
 They had their name $attl from faltare, to dance ; becaufe, 
 after affifting at facrifices, they went dancing about the 
 ftreets with ancylia, or bucklers in the left hand, and a rod 
 in the right, ft ri king mufically on one another's bucklers 
 with their rods, and finging hymns in honour of the gods. 
 There were two companies or colleges of the Sa/ii ; The 
 ancient eftebliihed by Numa, called Fahlini ; the latter by 
 Tullus Hoftilius, called ColUni, and Agonales, Though Ser- 
 vius tells us, there were two kinds inttifuted by Numa, the 
 Colli 'ni and £>uirinales ; and two others by Tullus, the Pa- 
 vorit and Palorii. 
 
 In finging, they ufed a peculiar ancient fong, called Saliare 
 Carmen \ and after the ceremony, they were entertained with 
 a feaft : whence Saliares Epula, and Saliares Dapes, palled 
 into a proverb for good eating. 
 
 7 heir chief, called Pfeiful, and Mcgijler Saliorum, was one 
 of their number : it was he that led the band, and bc^un the 
 dance ; the reft imitating all his fteps and motions. — The 
 whole company was called Collegium Salicrum, 
 Scxt. Pompeius makes mention of Nation Maids, Vtrglr.es 
 Saliares, hired for the purpofe, and jointd with the Salii, 
 wearing a kind of military garb, called Paludamtntum, with 
 high round bonnets like the Salii, and, like them, perform- 
 ing facrifi'ce with the pontifices in the palaces of kings. 
 M. Patin takes it, that there is a figure of one of the Salii 
 a medal of the Saquinian family ; who, befides the buckler 
 in one hand, holds the caduceus in the other. — But his look 
 appears too grave, and fedate : and befides, the buckler he 
 holds, does not feem to be an ancyle, as being quite round, 
 arid not indented any where. And again, why fhould a 
 prieft of Mars, the god of war, be reprefented with a cadu- 
 ceus the emblem of psace ? It is probable therefore, this* is 
 no figure of any Sdihts. 
 SALIVA, fpittle, a thin, pellucid humour, feparated from 
 the arterial blnod by the glnnds about the mouth and fauces ; 
 and' conveyed bv proper falival ducts intu the mouth, for fe- 
 veral ufes. 
 
 It confifts of a great deal of water or phlegm, and a volatile 
 fait; and fome add, a fubhurous fpirit. 
 
 The Saliva, Boeihaave obferves, is Void both of tafte and 
 fmell ; it does not harden by heat ; it is more copious, fluid, 
 fharp, penetrating, and detergent, as a perfon has fafted 
 longer ; and.it is feparated from the pure iifteriai blood. 
 1 1 C The 
 
SAL 
 
 SAL 
 
 The glands wherein the Saliva is fepaiated from the bVpd, 
 arc the parotides; the maxillary glands ; the fublingualf-s, or 
 thofe under the tongue ; the amygdala, or almonds of the 
 cars, and the palatini, or glands of the palate. Sec each 
 under its proper article. 
 
 'J 'he great ufe of the Saliva, is in mafticating and diluting 
 the food, and making the firft digeftion thereof. The other 
 ufes are to moiften the tongue, to render its motion more 
 quick and eafy ; to lubricate the thruat and ocfbphagus, in 
 ■ order to facilitate deglutition ; to prevent thirft: ; and to af- 
 fift in the fenfation of taftes, bydillblving the falts. 
 Some imagine it to do the office of a menftruum, by mixing 
 the oily and aqueous parts of the food more intimately, dif- 
 Iblving the faline parts, and procuring a fermentation in the 
 ftomach. But Dr. Drake will not allow it fit for that pur- 
 pofe. Were the Saliva, fays he, acrimonious enough for 
 thts, it would be impofliblc but it mull offend the ftomach ; 
 efpecIaHy, confidering the quantities of it that many fwal- 
 low, even upon an empty ftomach. 
 
 M. Gaftaldy, in a thefts on the Saliva, obferves, that it 
 takes its name from the fait it contains; which fait he will 
 have to he partly a volatile acid, and partly alcalious. He 
 adds, that it contains fome oleaginous parts, and a little 
 earth. By being compounded of fo many different kinds 
 of parts, it becomes a dillblvent proper for all the different 
 kinds ol foods whereof we live. — Its natural and laudable 
 ftatc, is to be a little more vifcid than common water, and 
 much lefs fo than milk. And it is preferved in this ftate by 
 the application of thefpirits, and of the particles of air which 
 infinuate into it. 
 
 According to all appearance, the Saliva is derived from the 
 blood of the arteries : part of the arterial blood brought to 
 the falival glands, ferves to feed them ; another part is re- 
 turned into the veins, and continues the circulation ; and a 
 third part, which is the ferum, receiving a fub-acid quality 
 from them, is there converted into Saliva. 
 Some authors have imagined, that the nervous juice contri- 
 buted to the compofitlon of the Saliva ; and the rather be- 
 caufe larger and more numerous twigs of nerves arc com- 
 municated to thefe glands, than to molt other parts, which 
 yet have a more exquilite feeling than thefe. But Dr. Nuck 
 has refuted this opinion by feveral experiments. 
 Too great an excretion of Saliva, Boerhaave obferves, dif- 
 ordcrs the firft digeftion ; and hence caufes thirft, drinefs, a 
 black bile, and finally confumption, and atrophy. — On the 
 contrary, if no Saliva be difcharged into the mouth, or if only 
 lefs than ordinary, it fpoils both the manducation of the food, 
 and its tafte, fwallowing, and digeftion; and withal, occa- 
 ftons thirft. 
 
 SALIVAL, or Salivary Duels, in anatomy, certain little 
 lymphatic canals lately difcovered ; whereby the faliva falls 
 into the mouth. 
 
 'The Lower Salival Duel comes from the maxillary glands, 
 fititated under the lower jaw, and terminated behind the den- 
 ies incifores. — It was firft delcribed by our Dr. Wharton 
 in his trcatife of the glands, in 1656. 
 
 The Upper Salival Duet was difcovcred by Nicolas Steno, in 
 1660. — It comes from the parotid glands ; whence perfo- 
 rating the buccinator, it terminates near the third upper 
 grinder. 
 
 Cafp. Bartholine, in 1682, difcovcr'd another Salival Duel 
 coming from the glands fituate on the fide of the tongue ; 
 and Rivinus, a phyfician of Leipfic, had mentioned it 
 before, in a difl'crtation printed in 1679. 
 Ant. Nuck, profefibr at Leyden, difcovered a fourth Salival 
 Duel, arifing from a gland fituate in the orbit of the eye, 
 between the mufculus abductor, and the upper part of the 
 os ju gale. 
 
 Thefe duels are all double, there being one of each kind on 
 either fide.— But it is pretended, the two Lift are only found 
 in fome brutes, and not in man. 
 
 As the demand of faliva is greateft in maftication, degluti- 
 tion, talking, SV, the difpofition of the Salival Duels, to 
 favour the difcharge on thofe occafions, is very remarkable: 
 thus the ducts of the parotides pafs clofe over the mufculi 
 maficteres, and through the huccinatorcs : the Salival Duds 
 of the maxillary glands pafs clofe under the mylohyoideus, 
 where the fublingual glands are placed ; by means whereof 
 the intumefcence of the maffcters, in chewing accelerates 
 thefpittle in theparotid Salival Duels ; as the mylohyoideus 
 does in the action of deglutition, by drawing the hyoides 
 upwards. — The agitation of the cheeks and°Iips, is fully 
 fufficient to promote the djfeharge from the glands of the 
 lips, is~e. 
 
 SALIVATION, Sai.ivati'o, in medicine, a promoting 
 of the flux of faliva, by iv.-^ns of medicines ; chiefly by mer- 
 cury. 
 
 The chief ufe of Salivation is in difeafes belonging to the 
 glands, and the mcmbrana adipof'a; and principally in the 
 cure of the venereal difcafc. Though it is fome times alfo 
 tiled in epidemic cafes. 
 
 The body is prepared for Salivation by a copious and conti- 
 nued ufe of attenuating, diluting, foftening decoctions ; as 
 
 offcabious, pellitory, china, farfaparilla, faflafras, and faunders. 
 Salivation is either partial or univerfal. By the firft, only, 
 the humours of fome part of the body are to be difcharged ; 
 as in catarrhs, tooth-ach, c?V. — By the fecond, the whole 
 mafs of blood is to he purged. 
 
 "I he firft is raifed either by a flow continued chewing 
 of fome tenacious matter, as fnaftich, wax, or myrrh j 
 eipecially if other iharp things be mixed with them, as 
 pyrethrum, ginger, or pepper : or by drawing in fharp 
 irritating vapours, as thofe of tobacco, rofemary, thyme, 
 marjoram, csV, 
 
 The latter is effe£ed by the aaion of fuch medicines as 
 create fome flight but conftant naufea ; as ftibium not quite 
 fixed, nor yet quite emetic ; a little common vitriol, &c. — 
 But chiefly by fuch as difiblve all the parts of the mafs of 
 blood, turn them into lympha, and thus caufe a ptyalifm : 
 fuch are crude quickfilver, cinnabar, a folution of quickfiiver 
 in aqua-fortis, white and red precipitate, turbith mineral, 
 fweet fublimate of mercury, &e. 
 Mercurial Salivation", is now a very ufual method of cure; 
 efpecially in venereal, fcrophulous, and hypochondriac cafes. 
 In effect, it proves the fureit remedy yet difcovered for the 
 Gallic lues ; though the difcovery hereof, as that of moft 
 other remedies, was owing to chance. Jac. Carpi, a phyfi- 
 cian of Bologna, having read in Avicenna, and Mefve, two 
 Arab authors, that mercury applied externally, was proper 
 for the lepra, and fome kinds of puftules, particularly the 
 fcabies or itch ; had a mind to try it in a pocky itch : a 
 Salivation was hereupon unexpectedly raifed, and the pa- 
 tient was unexpectedly cured not only of his itch, but of 
 his pox — The fame method he afterwards ufed for the pox 
 itfelt ; and meeting with great fuccefs therein, others were 
 induced to follow him; and thus did it arrive at its prefenr. 
 height. 
 
 There are two manners of applying mercury to raife a 
 Salivation : the one external, or in the way of unction ; by 
 mixing it up With fome unguent, and then rubbing it on 
 the joints, &c. — The other internal, where it is taken at 
 the mouth. 
 
 In each cafe, the mercury infinuates itfelf into the mafs of 
 blood, and mixing with the venereal poifon, the two bodies 
 thus locked together, arc drawn, with the ferofity, into the 
 falival glands, where they are feparated and difcharged, as 
 finding the pores of thofe glands proportioned to their figures* 
 and proper to receive them.— For the manner wherein 
 the mercury acts to raife the Salivation, fee further under 
 Mercurials. 
 
 Dr. Quincy will have the internal to be much the fafer and 
 better method : the mineral globules, bethinks, being inti- 
 mately combined with falts, in the preparations given in- 
 wardly, will, by the irritation thereof, be cafily and fully 
 thrown off" by the fecretory organs, till the blood is quite 
 difcharged of its load.— Whereas, in mercurial frictions, it 
 is poftible, fome of the heavy particles may be left lodged 
 in he interfHces of the fibres, or cells of the bones. Add 
 to this, that by computing the proportion of mercury in all 
 the dofes neceflary to promote a fpitting, internally ; and 
 the weight of the fame mineral ufed when it is done by 
 unction ; the quantity ufed in the latter cafe, far exceeds 
 that in the former ; confequently, the ill eff ects apprehended 
 from that dangerous medicine, mull needs be mure fenfible; 
 in the one cafe than the other. 
 
 The externa! application, therefore, is only to be allowed! 
 of, where cither the cafe requires the violence of fuch a 
 management; or outward ulcers and tumours require a par- 
 ticular cure by liniments. Thus Quincy. 
 But a learned French Phyfician, M. Chicoyneau, chan- 
 cellor of the univerfity of Montpellier, has lately done 
 fome difcredit to the practice of falivating in any man- 
 ner ; and that, in a little trcatife, where he endeavours 
 to prove, that the Salivation itfelf contributes nothing 
 to the cure, but is rather prejudicial thereto : that the falu- 
 tary effects of the mercury are independent of any evacu- 
 ation at all ; and that it acts purely as a fpecific. It 
 is without reafon, therefore, he urges, that venereal patients 
 are put to the torture of a Salivation, fince the full effect of 
 the medicine may be had without carrying matters to that 
 extremity. The Salivation is only an accident to the cure ; 
 which is effectually obtained by a mercurial unguent rubbed 
 on the joints in fuch quantities, and at fuch intervals, as not 
 to raife any Salivation. He fupports the whole by the expe- 
 rience of forty or fifty cures wrought in one year, by this 
 new method. The fame method, it fecms, has been lately 
 too, tried in England, and with fuccefs ; as appears from a 
 tranllation of Chicoyneau's piece fir.ce publifhed with notes, 
 by an Englifh phyfician. 
 SALLET*, orSALLAD, a difh of eatable herbs ordinarilv 
 accompanying rcaft-meat, compoftd chiefly of crude, frein, 
 herbage, feafoned with fait, oil, and vinegar. 
 
 * Menage derive; the word from the Latin, Salata, of Sal 
 fait; others from Salctdo : Du Cangc from Scit'gama: which 
 is ufed in Aufonius, ar.d Columella in the fame tenfe. 
 Some add muftard, hard eggs, and fugar ; others, pepper, 
 and other fpices, with orange-peel, faffron, tf,<, 
 
 Some 
 
SAL 
 
 SAL 
 
 Some define Sallet more generally, a compofition of plants 
 an-i roots, of feveral kinds, to be eaten either raw or green ; 
 blanched or candid, by themfelves, or mixed with others ; 
 and even, occafionally boiled, pickled, or otherwiiu prepared 
 and modify 'd, to render them more grateful to the palate.. — ■ 
 But this definition includes pot-herbs, &c. which the gene- 
 rality of authors deny to be proper Salleting. 
 
 The principal Sall e T-herbs, and thofe which ordinarily make 
 the bafis of our Englifh Sallets, are lettice, fellery, endive, 
 crefles, radifh, and rape. Along with which, by way 
 of furniture, or additional, are ufed purfiane, fpinage, for- 
 rel, tarragon, burnet, corn-fallet, and chervil. 
 The different taftes of mankind will not allow any certain 
 mixture of thele to be prefcribed as moll agreeable ; but, 
 {till, in mixing them, the rclifh of the feveral herbs is to be 
 confidcred : thofe, for inftance, which are rrioft hot and 
 biting; as crefies, muftard, fellery, tarragon, chervil, &c. 
 with thofe that are more cool and infipid to the tafte ; as 
 turnips,. rape, fpinage, lettice, corn-fallet, purfiane, &c. by 
 this means the herbs may be fo judicioufly mixed, that the 
 too ftrong tafte of one kind may not over-power all the reft ; 
 and the infipid kinds be difcretely ufed to moderate and qua- 
 lify the heat and pungency of the others, as the feafon of the 
 year is more hot or cold ; fo as every Sallet may not only be 
 agreeable to the tafte, but alfo phyiic to the body. 
 The gardeners call fome plants jmall herbs, in Sallets, thefe 
 fhould always be cut while in the leed leaf ; as creffes, muftard, 
 radifh, turnip, fpinage, and lettice ; all which are raifed from 
 feeds fawn in drills or lines, from the middle of February to 
 the end of March, under glafies or frames, and thence to 
 the middle of May, upon natural beds, warmly cxpofed ; 
 and during the fummer-heats, in more fhady places; and 
 afterwards, in September, as in March, Is'e. and laftly, in 
 the rigour of the winter, in hot beds. . If they chance to 
 be frozen in very frofty weather, putting them in fpring- 
 water two hours, before they be ufed, recovers them. 
 In gathering final 1- herbs, the heft way is to pull them up by 
 the roots from the hot beds. If the roots be left, and a fe- 
 cond crop of Sulfating fown on the fame bed, it will not 
 profper. — In Cowing fecond crops, it is alfo to be obferved, 
 that feeds of the fame kind be not fown in the fame place ; 
 but the ground is to be eafed by varying its burden, putting 
 hot feeds where cold ones grew before, tsc. A very 
 effential rule is, that no plant be placed in the fame fpot 
 where the fame kinds have grown before. 
 ~Wintcr-SaUcts are greatly improved by blanched fellery, 
 which is a hot herb, of a very rich flavour ; raifed from 
 feed fown in March, and April, in a well-expofed place, 
 and tranfplanted, fix weeks after its firft appearance, into 
 beds, where it remains till the middle of June, and then 
 planted in trenches eight or ten inches wide, and as many 
 deep, firft pruning off the tops and roots. As they grow 
 large, they are earthed up within four or live inches of the 
 top, which is repeated feveral times, till they be fit for ufe. — 
 Lndive blanched is aifo much ufed in winter Sallets, though 
 it have neither tafte nor flavour ; it is cultivated much alter 
 the fame manner as fellery. — Of lettice there are various 
 kinds, the beft are the Roman, Dutch brown, Imperial, and 
 Eilefia-kinds, all which cabbage well. They are all com- 
 monly fown with other crops in March, for fum frier Sallets ; 
 and in Auguft, they are to be tranfplanted ; or in Septem- 
 ber,' to ftand the winter ; either to be cut for winter Sallets, 
 or to cabbage early the next fpring, or for feeds. 
 
 For the additional, or fecondary SM.LBT-berbs ; burnet is a 
 cool perennial herb, whole tender leaves, mixed with other 
 herbs in winter, give the agreeable flavour of a cucumber: 
 It is propagated by feed fown in March. Corn-fallet, raif- 
 ed at the fame time, and in the fame manner, makes a good 
 winter-Sfl//if furniture ; purfiane, an infipid, yet cooling 
 herb, is admired by fome in fummer-S<7&/; • it is raifed by 
 feeds fown in March in a warm place. — Sorrel is chiefly ufed 
 in the fpring, when the young leaves are very agreeable. It 
 is raifed from feeds fown in March, ufually in rows or drills. 
 Spinage is fomctimes an ingredient in raw Sallets, to be cut 
 in the ear-leaf; hut it is better for boiling in the 
 winter and fpring. It is fown in March, April, and May ; 
 and again in Auguft, in a place well cxpofed to the fun, that 
 the leaves may be large enough for boiling in the winter. — 
 Tarragon, of all others, fhould never be wanting ; it is a 
 cordial herb alone, though not the moft agreeably taftcd ; and 
 yet a few leaves, or three or four of the tender tops, give a 
 Pallet a good relifh. It is propagated from flips, and 
 planted in March. — Note, in the fpring dandelion blanch- 
 ed, which is gathered in almoft every ploughed field, 
 makes an excellent Sallet mixed with other herbs. Some 
 likewife gather violet flowers, cowflips, and bloffoms of 
 burrage, as part of the Sallet furniture ; and others, fennel, 
 and parfley. 
 
 Dreffing of Sallets. — The feller) 1 ' and endive are to have 
 their hollow, green Item, or ftalk, ftripped of all its out- 
 fide leaves, and fliced in the blanched part, cutting the root 
 into four parts. The other ingredient herbs being exquifitely 
 culled and cleanfed, of all faulty leaves, &c. are wafhed 
 rather by fprinJth'ng, then foaking them in fpring- water ; 
 
 !>! to drain of all fuperfluous moifture, then fhook and 
 fqc.eezed together gently, in a coarfe cloth, to difpofe them 
 to receive the feafonings, viz. the fait, vinegar, oil, tsY. 
 The oil is not to be yellow, or high-coloured, but of a pale 
 olive green, without either tafte or fmell. The vinegar 
 perfectly clear, neither mufty nor palled. • The fait is to be 
 the beft ordinary or bay-falt, clean, bright, and dry. 
 Some indeed recommend the effential fairs and fpirits of ve- 
 getables, with a little of the alcalizate and fixed kind, ex- 
 traited from the calcination of balm, rofemary, wormwood, 
 and affirm, that, without eating the grofs '/tf//*/ -herbs 
 themfelves, we might thus have healing, cooline, onerous 
 fallets, wholly out of the falt-feller. 
 
 Note, in the proportion of the fait, pepper, and vinegar* 
 regard is to be had to the feafon, constitution, &c. the two 
 firft being beft for cold, the fecond for hot.ftomachs and fea- 
 fons. — For a moderate oxaline, or j^/w-vehicle, to three 
 parts of oil, put one of vinegar, or lemon, or orange juice, 
 and in the mixture, fteep flices of horfe radifh with a little 
 fait-; occafionally, add a little Guinea pepper, and muftard, 
 with the yolks of two eggs boiled, fqueezed, and bruifed into 
 a mafh therein. Pour the whole on the herbs, ftirriug and 
 mingling them till they he thoroushly imbibed. 
 
 SALLY, in architecture, from the French Saillie, is what we 
 more ufually call ProjcSlure. . - 
 
 Sally, in the military art, the iffuing out of the befteged from 
 their town or fort, and falling upon the befiegers to cut them 
 off, nail their cannon, hinder the progrefs of their approaches, 
 deftroy their works, &e. 
 
 We fay, to make a Sally, to repulfe a Sally, &c. 
 To cut off a Sally, is to get between thofe who made it and 
 the town. . 
 SALON, or Saloon, in architecture, a grand, lofty, fpa- 
 cious fort of hall, vaulted at top, and ufually comprehend- 
 ing two ftories, with two ranges of windows. 
 1 he falon is a grand room in the middle of a building^ or at 
 the head of a gallery, csV. Its faces, or fides, are all to have 
 a fymmetry with each other ; and as it ufually takes up the 
 height of two ftories, its cieling, Daviler obferves, fhould be 
 made with a moderate fwecp. 
 
 '1 he falon is a ftate-room : it is much ufed in the palaces in 
 Italy ; and from thence the mode came to us. Fmbafladors, 
 and other great vilitors, are ufually received in the falon. 
 It is fomctimes built fquare, fometimes round or oval, fome- 
 times odtogonal, as at Marly, and fometimes in other forms. 
 SALT, Sal, in chymiftry, a fimple, fubftance, which enters 
 the compofition of all bodies, and is held one of the five 
 principles, or elements thereof ; and may always be extracted 
 by fire. 
 
 Salt, M. Homberg obferves, is an ingredient in all animal, 
 vegetable, and mineral bodies, excepting perhaps fome me- 
 tals, and ftones. In vegetables and animal bodies, that have 
 undergone a fermentation, the fait rifes firft in the alembic, 
 then the phlegm: if the mixt have not undergone a fermen- 
 tation, the fait rifes after the phlegm. 
 
 Salts are diftinguifhed, with regard to the manner of extract- 
 ing them, c9V. into volatile, fixed, and effential. 
 
 Volatile Salts, are thofe light, fubtile ones, which rife eafily 
 upon diftillation, or are even exhaled by a flight heat, and 
 rendered fenfible to the fmell. 
 
 FixedSALTs, are fuch as, being more grofs and material, rc- 
 fift and fuftain the fire ; and are not raifed by it, but re- 
 main, after calcination, or diftillation, in the earthy parr, 
 at the bottom.— For the manner of extracting them, &c. 
 fee Fixed Salt; 
 
 Effi-ntial Salts, are thofe drawn from vegetables, without the 
 ufe of fire j as by cryftallization, and other eafy, natural 
 means. 
 
 Volatile falls become diftinguifhable to the nofe, tongue, arid 
 brain, by their tenuity and brifknefs : fixed falls by their bh> 
 tcrnefs^ and heat in the mouth. To thefe may be added an 
 intermediate kind of fait, under the title of 
 
 Mixed Salts, which are thofe refulting from a mixture of a 
 volatile with a fixed fall. 
 
 Salts again are of different kinds, according to the different 
 matters wherewith they are found mixed ; fome are mixed 
 bodies themfelves, and their mixture feparable by fire, and 
 hJdvation.— Such are all effential falls of plants, and all 
 foK\\efahs y &c. but thefe are no proper chvmica! principles. 
 There are others which we are fenfible are mixed, and 
 Whofe mixture we know pretty nearly, though we are not 
 yet able to decompound them: it is thefe which make the 
 chymical principle fall ; for our anal yfes will not render them 
 more fimple, which is the character of a principle. — And in 
 this fenfe, fait is defined, a matter diffoluble by water, and 
 unchangeable by fire ; to which fome add, of a pungent tafte. 
 There are three kinds, or claffes, of falls, which come un- 
 der this definition ; two whereof arc volatile, and the third 
 fixed. — The volatile ones, are acid falls, and urinous falls . 
 the fixed, are thofe drawn by a lixivium, after calcination, 
 and called Li xivious falls. Nature produces none of thefe 
 jolts fimple and unmixed ; but we eafily extract them bf 
 art, from the mixts wherein fhe has placed them. 
 The principal natural falts may be redi-.ctd to Salt petre, 
 
SAL 
 
 SAL 
 
 Sea-Salt, and Vitriol. Each whereof has Its different tdttj}s ; 
 of the various combination whereof, with differcntJ'bily 
 matters, all the natural Salts, we know of, are com- 
 pounded. 
 
 Thefe Salts are found, hy chymical analyfes, to confift of 
 aqueous, earthy, oily, fulphurous, and acid particles. — The 
 acid matter is the pure Salt, qjr Saline principle, and is the 
 bads of all the reft. This M. Homberg ob'ferves, is pretty 
 uniform, 'ind nearly the fame in all Salts, before the parti- 
 cular determination to form this or that Salt, by the parti- 
 cular admixture of the fulphur, &.c. 
 
 Salt-petre, Sea-Salt, and the reft, therefore are not princi- 
 ples i but the acid Salts diftilled from them are : and the 
 water wherein thefe Salts fwim, and the earth, or fixed Salt 
 remaining in the retort after diftillation, are other chymicai 
 principles. 
 
 The principle Salt is held a mean between the active and 
 paftive principles. The pure acid, though accompanied with 
 its fulphurous determinating matter, never becomes fenfible 
 but when lodged cither in fome earthy matter, or artificially 
 in fome fimplc aqueous fluid. In the firft cafe, it appears, 
 under the form of a cryftallized Salt, ss Salt-pet re, &c. In 
 the fecond cafe, it appears in the form of an acid (jsiritj 
 which, according to the determination of the fulphur that 
 accompanies it, is cither fpirit of nitre, or fpirit of common 
 Salt, or fpirit of vitriol. — And what we have here obferved 
 of the three fimple, or foffile Salts, may be applied to all 
 other more compound Salts of plants, animals, c5V. with 
 this difference, that when in form of a concrete Salt, thefe 
 laft always have a greater quantity of earthy matter, and 
 when in form of an acid fpirit, a greater quantity of aqueous 
 matter, than the fimple ones. Whence it follows, that the 
 acid fpirits of compound Salts are always weaker, lighter 
 and fefs penetrating than thofe of foffile Salts ; and after 
 diftillation leave a greater quantity of earthy matter behind 
 them. 
 
 We do not know precifcly what figures the three Salt-prin- 
 ciples, acid, urinous, and lixivial, really have: But to judge 
 by their effects, one would conclude, the acids to be point- 
 ed, only the points fiieathed in fome fulphurous matter ; the 
 urinous Salts to be fpunges, containing fome of the acid, 
 and fome of the ftetid oil of the animal or plant , and 
 the lixivious Salts to be fpunges only containing the re- 
 mainder of the acid, which the calcining fire could not expel. 
 Acid fpirits may be conceived as pure, and without any 
 mixture ; in which cafe all acids will be found of the fame 
 nature : but if we confidcr them as diftillation gives them, 
 we fhall always find them accompanied with fome fulphu- 
 rous matter, which we cannot feparate from them, and 
 which gives the degree of activity to the acid fpirits. It 
 is this fulphurous matter which characterizes them, and 
 makes all the difference we find between them. M. Hom- 
 berg ranges all the kinds of acid fpirits under three dif- 
 ferent claffes, according to the different fulphurous matters 
 which accompany them. — The firft clafs is of thofe which 
 contain animal or vegetable fulphur ; under which come all 
 acids, diftill'd from plants, fruits, woods, &c. as alfo fpirit 
 of nitre. 
 
 It is eafy to conceive, that the acids of plants may have re- 
 tained a part of the oil of the plant, which is their fulphur; 
 fince in reducing thefe acids into Salts, we always find a 
 little oil therein ; which can be nothing elfe but that of the 
 plants themfelves. And for Salt-pctre, as this is always 
 drawn from earths moiftened with the excrements of ani- 
 mals, or from old walls, plaifter, Esfr. full of the fulphurous 
 matters of the animals that have lived within them, the foot, 
 csV. it is thence, doubtlefs, Salt-petre borrows its fulphur. 
 The fecond clafs is of thofe which contain a bituminous ful- 
 phur: under which come the acids of vitriol, common ful- 
 phur, and alum. For thofe are all ufually drawn from the 
 fame mineral ftone, wherein the bituminous matter, which 
 makes one of the principal parts of common fulphur, predo- 
 minates. 
 
 The third clafs is of thofe which contain a more fixed mine- 
 ral, fulphurous matter; approaching nearer the properties of 
 a metalline fulphur under which clafs come the acids drawn 
 from feveral kinds of Sea-Salts, Rock-Salts, Sic. For the 
 Rock-Salt, or Sal-Gemma, is always found in places near 
 metallic mines ; and Sea-Salt, in all appearance, is nothing 
 but Rock-Salt, the quarries whereof have been penetrated 
 by the fea-water, which has extracted all the faltnefs there- 
 from. 
 
 The fulphurous matters of the firft clafs of acids being very 
 light, and taking up a deal of fpacc, muft augment the bulk 
 of the points of the acids to which they are joined. And 
 hence thefe acids become difabled from penetrating very 
 compact bodies ; but their furface being increafed from the 
 fame caufe, the flame will have the greater hold to impel 
 them: And hence the acids of this clafs act more fwiftly 
 than any of the reft. 
 
 The bituminous fulphur is the leaft adive of all the fulphurs 
 we know, as being loaden with a great quantity of earthy 
 matter, which ferves it as a matrix. Hence it unites more 
 difficultly with feline matters than any of the other fulphurs j 
 
 fo that a left quantity of it may be conceived to adhere to 
 the acids of this, than of either of the other claffes. — Ac- 
 cordingly we find, that the acids of this clafs, ufed alone, 
 fcarce diffolve any metals ; but mixed with the others, they 
 partake of their fulphur, and thereby become enabled to 
 diffolve all metals. 
 
 The metallick-fulphur is of all others the moft fixed ; that is, 
 its parts are the imal'left, and moft compact. 
 Hence the points of this clafs of acids will not be much 
 fwelled by it, and of confequence will be able to infmuate 
 themfelves into the molt compact bodies, or thofe whofe 
 pores are the fmalleft. And for the fame reafon they will 
 not give much hold to the flame that agitates them, and 
 will therefore "act with lefs violence than thole of the firft 
 clafs of Salts. 
 
 Acids joined to fixed Salts, corripofe mixed Salts : thus fpirit 
 of nitre, with Salt of tartar, make Salt-petre ; and fpirit of 
 Salt, with Salt of tartar, make a true common Salt ; and 
 fpirit of vitriol, with Salt of tartar, a true vitriol. 
 However, the two ingredient Salts ftiil lemain, the one 
 fixed, the other volatile : acids joined with urinous Salts, 
 compofe another kind of Salts, called Sales Amvisniaci, 
 which are always volatile. 
 
 Lixivial and urinous Salts are called Alcalies ; the firft a 
 fixed alcali, the fecond a volatile alcali. 
 
 Thefe alcalies are ufually efteemed antagdnifts to the acid 
 Salts, becauie their mixtures always occalion a hidden ebul- 
 lition. But it is more probable this ebullition is not the ef- 
 fect of a combat, but rather a proper junction and union of 
 two matters which had been naturally united together, and 
 only feparated by the fire, and which now re-place them- 
 felves in the fame parts whence the flame had tore them off. 
 Hence, the one are compared to fheaths, and the other Lit 
 points, fit to be fiieathed- therein. Now, the precipitation 
 wherewith the points of the acids enter the pores of the 
 alcalies, tears afunder their contexture, and reduces them 
 into minute parts invifible to the eye ; and thus is the bufi- 
 nefs of diflolution accounted for. 
 
 Thus far will the mere doctrine of alcali and acid go to - 
 wards accounting for fome of tlic great phaenomena of na- 
 ture. But the theory is made vallly more compleat and 
 adequate, by Sir Ifaac Newton's principle of attraction, fcr 
 which wc refer the reader to the articles Acid, ami 
 Menstruum, where the operations of Salts, or acid fpirit.-, 
 are perhaps more fat tsfact only accounted for. 
 The principal chymical Salts of ufe in medicine are ; Salt of 
 urine, of viper, of human blood, of wormwood, ofguaiac, 
 of quinquina, of tobacco, of rhubarbj of rofemary, of 
 fage, of juniper, of vitriol, of amber, of faturn, 
 c. moft of which, with many others, are explain- 
 ed under the articles of the refpectivc drugs, tstc. 
 whence they are drawn: to which the reader may have 
 recourfe. 
 
 ■ ALT, in its popular fenfe, denotes a kind of faline crj'fralli- 
 zation ; or a fharp, pungent, detergent and aftringent fui>- 
 ftance, ufed to feafon flefh, hth, butter, hides, and other 
 things that are to be kept 3 as alfo to give a relifh to 
 meats, &c. 
 
 This we ufually call Common Salt, in contra-diftinction to 
 the chymical Salt. 
 
 M. Guglielmini, in an exprefs differtation ele Salil<us, lays it 
 down as a fundamental, that the firft principles of commc-:i 
 Salt, Salt-petre, vitriol, is'c. had their figures unalterably 
 fixed at their firft creation, and are indivifible as to any 
 created force. That of common Salt he maintains to be a 
 little cube ; that of Salt of vitriol, a parallelepiped ; that 
 of Salt-petre a prifm whofe bate is sa equilateral trian- 
 gle, tsv. 
 
 Common Salt is of three kinds, viz. Ssa-Salt, Fojjil or 
 Rock-Salt, and Salt drawn from briny fprings, and wells. 
 For Sea-Salt, the greateft and beft part is made in France ; 
 tho' not a little in England. — Fojjile, or Roch Salts, are 
 chiefly found in Poland, Hungary, and Catalonia. — For Salt 
 fprings, there are confiderable ones in Chefhire, Worcefter- 
 ihire, Hanipfhirc, Northumberland, Fnmche Cointe, Lor- 
 rain, Tirol, and fome other places. 
 
 The great property of Salt is, that it is incapable of cor- 
 ruption, and that it even preferves meats, &c. feafoncd 
 therewith, or fteeped in folutions thereof. It endures the 
 fire, and even comes purer out of it, as being thereby freed 
 of its humidity. In very hot fires it fofits, and is converted 
 into corrofive waters. 
 
 It gives fertility to lands, and promotes the fufion of all 
 metals ; yet, we read of princes, who, as a mark of their 
 indignation, lowed grounds with Salt to render them barren. 
 Plutarch obferves, that the Egyptians believed Salt to be the 
 fpittle, or foam of the giant Fyphon, the great enemy of 
 their gods : and hence, adds he, they held it in the greateft 
 abhorrence. 
 
 Salt is found to have two oppofite qualities : by its fubtile, 
 penetrating acidity, it breaks and diffolves the hardeft and 
 moft compact minerals and metals ; and by a contrary pro- 
 perty, it coagulates liquid bodies, as milk, blood, is'c. Somr 
 of its fpirits, mixed in a certain proportion with water, 
 
 produce 
 
SAL 
 
 produce an exceJfive heat; yet when mixed in a lefs quan- 1 
 dty they augment its coldnefs : as Salt-pctre in fnow, is'c. 
 Though all Salts dillblve by moifiure, yet water onlv dif- 
 folves a certain quantity. However, when impregnated 
 with any Salt, as much as it can bear, it will fti!l diffolve 
 a quantity of another Salty whole particles are of diffe- 
 rent figures, proper to infinuate into the remaining vacui- 
 ties of the water : thus, after Common Salt will no longer 
 dillblve in it, alum will, and after alum, Salt-petre, then 
 Sal Armoniac, &c. 
 
 The ufe of Salt is fo univerfal, and the traffic thereof fo ve- 
 ry important in the places where nature baa produced the 
 different Salts, and fo neceffary for thofe which have not 
 that advantage ; that a detail of the preparation, commerce, 
 &V. of the feveral kinds, cannot fail of being acceptable. 
 Aw-Salt is made of fea-water, thickened by frequent evapo- 
 rations, and at length cryftallizcd, — Of Sea-Salt there are 
 two kinds : that which requires only the fun's rays to give it 
 its confidence, called, from its brown colour, Bay-Salt ; 
 and that which receives its confidence from the heat of a 
 fire, called IV'bhc-Salt. 
 
 In b ranee they ufe either this or that manner of preparation, 
 according to the difpofiiion of the coafts, where it is made : 
 jf the coafts rife in downs or hills of fand, the Salt is made by 
 fire, in copper or leaden velTcls. — If the coafts be flat, and 
 low; cfpecially, if the bottom be a little clayey, the Salt is 
 cryftallizcd wholly by the action of the fun. 
 We have many of the former fort of works in Fng- 
 land : fome indeed we have of the latter, at Shields 
 in Northumberland ; but France is the principal place 
 for Bay-Salt ; more being made there than in all Europe, 
 perhaps in all the world belide ; and it is hence that 
 we are chiefly furnifhed therewith. We flialt there- 
 fore deliver the method of making it, as it is praclifed 
 there. 
 
 The chief coafts for Bay-Salt are thofe of Bretagne, Sain- 
 tonge, and the Pays d'Aunis. The chief oV/- works, in die 
 tv.-o latter places, arc Brouage, Maran, and the ifle of Rhe. 
 Thofe in Bretagne arc in the bay of Borneuf, Guerand, and 
 Croifd : their White-Salt, is chiefly made on the coafts 
 of Normandy. 'In the bay of Borneuf alone, are computed 
 above twenty thoufand considerable Salt-works. 
 Manner of making Bay-& alt. — Low marfhy-grounds, difpofed 
 by nature for the reception of the fea- waters when the tide 
 fwells, and provided with banks and fluices to retain the 
 Lmc, m;ike what is called a Salt-marjl>. 
 Thefe Salt-mar flies, the bottoms whereof they line and ram 
 with a great deal of care, are divided into feveral fquare pits 
 or bafons, fome greater, others lefs, feparated by little banks 
 13 or 14 inches broad : and into thefe bafons, when the fea- 
 fon is at hand, they let in the fea-water. 
 The Salt fcafun is from the middle of May to the end of 
 Auguft; in which time the days being long, and the fun's 
 rays ftrongeft, the Salt is formed and cryftallizcd better than 
 m any other feafon. Before they let in the water, they take 
 care the bafons be well cleared of what had been left in them 
 during the winter to keep them in order. The water is ad- 
 mitted to the height of about fix inches, after having firlt 
 let it reft, and warm two or three days in huge refervoirs, 
 without the works, that it may come in luke-warm. The 
 water admitted, the fluices are fhut, and the reft of the 
 work is left to the wind and the fun. 
 
 The mrface of the water being ftruck, and agitated by the 
 direct rays of the luminary, thickens, at firft, imperceptibly, 
 and becomes, at length, covered over with a flight cruft, 
 which hardening by the continuance of the heat, is wholly 
 converted into Salt. The water, in this condition, is fo 
 hot, that the hand cannot be put into it without fcalding it. 
 W hen the Salt has received its full codlton, they break it 
 with a pole, upon which it finks to the bottom, whence be- 
 ing dragged out, they leave it fometime in little heaps, 
 about the edge of the pit, to compleat the drying ; and at 
 length lay in greater heaps, containing feveral thoufand muids, 
 which they cover over with ftraw, or rufhes, to fecure them 
 from the rain. 
 
 Light, ten, or at moft fifteen days, having thus perfected 
 the cryftallization of the Salt, they open the fluices, when 
 the tide is riling, for a frefh ftock of water; and thus they 
 continue alternately, taking in water, and gathering the 
 Salt, till the feafon be over. Rainy weather is very perni- 
 cious to the work ; for rain-water, mixing in any quantity 
 with the fea-water, renders it ufelefs,fo that new water mulf. 
 be taken in. 
 
 I he Salt is brown when taken out of the pits, and is ufually 
 thus fold, without farther preparation : indeed in fome places 
 they make it into Whitt Salt by refining. They refine it by 
 boding it in large flat caldrons, which not only takes away 
 its acrimony, but is found to increafe the quantity. 
 Mttbod of making White S«-Salt The White-Salt of Nor- 
 mandy is not made by refining the Bay-Salt, but has this 
 colour naturally when taken out of the pits. — To make it 
 they gather a muddy fand on the flats or the fhoar, which 
 the riling tide has covered and impregnated with its waters 
 for (even or eight dais. This fiuid bcin* removed into pits 
 Vgt. II. N w . V1 6. 
 
 SAL 
 
 I 
 
 for the purpofe, difcharees itfelf by degrees of all its water^ 
 which filtrates through fome ftraw 'wherewith the opening uf 
 the pit is filled, and trickles into vefiels fet on purpofe to 
 receive it. Of this water it is that they make their Salt. 
 Their furnaces are of earth, and their boilers of lead : each: 
 furnace boils four leads. When the water wherewith they 
 have filled the leads begins to boil, they take off" the fkim, 
 which arifes in abundance, and in proportion as it diminifhes, 
 throw infrefti water, which they continue to fkim, as be- 
 fore. When it thickens, they keep it continually ftirring, 
 with a crooked ftick, or ladle ; and when the grain is formed, 
 they take it off the fire to purify it. 
 
 The purifying is performed by letting it fland in lar^e ofier 
 bafkets; where it drains itfelf of certain humidities that re- 
 mained. When dry, it is laid in heaps, and thence is car- 
 ried into the magazines. 
 
 The commerce of Salt brings an immenfe profit to 
 France, thuugh more to the king than to the makers and 
 fellers : the duty is one fourth part of the price the Salt is 
 fold at. The Lnglifh and Dutch, and (when they are at 
 war with France J the Swedes and Danes, take off moft of 
 the Salts of the Comte Nantois ; paying for it, communibur 
 annis, from 20 to 35 livrcs the load. That of Guerande is 
 preferred, by the Lnglifh and Irifh, to ail the reft, as the 
 beft. Yet that of Borneuf, though browner and heavier, 
 is moft ufed in France, as alfo throughout the Baltic ; par- 
 ticularly in Poland, where, beiides the ordinary ufes, it ferves 
 in tilling the ground ; being found to warm it, and to pre- 
 vent little vermin from gnawing the grain. 
 The Lnglifh and Dutch have oft ftrove hard, in times of 
 war, to do without the French Salts; and to that end, have 
 endeavoured to take Salts from the Spanifh and Portuguezei 
 but there is a difagreeable fharpnefs and ferofity natural to 
 them, which renders them very unfit for the falting of flefhj, 
 fifh, &c. — T'o remove this, thev boil them with fea-water, 
 and a little French Salt, which they procure by means of 
 neutral nations; which not only foltens them, but increafes 
 their quantity by one third. But it fhuuld feem their refin- 
 ing docs not fucceed to their wifh, by the e.igernefs where- 
 with they return to the Salts of Bretagne, &c. as foonasany 
 treaty has opened the commerce. 
 Fojfile, or RqcI'-Salt, is called alfo Sa L-Gemmes, from a cer- 
 tain brightnefs it has, which gives it fome refemblance t» 
 gems. Indeed, it fliould have fomething like the gems in its 
 nature ; if there be nothine exaggerated in the account Dr. 
 Ld. Brown, (who went down into the S-f/r-mines in Hun- 
 gary) gives us thereof in his travels. 
 
 This Salt was intirely unknown to the ancients : Piiny, 
 however, gives fome curious things about Salts in Nat. 
 Hift. lib. 30. c. 7. which we fhould have tranferibed hither, 
 could we believe them as true as they are pretty. We fhall 
 here content ourfelves with what well-warranted relations 
 we could get of the Sfl/f-mines of Wilifca in Poland ; thofe 
 in the Upper Hungary, and thofe in the mountains of Cata- 
 lonia, which make a vcrv confiderable article of commerce 
 in thofe three ftates; Salt being tranlported thence to the fe- 
 veral neighbouring nations, who cannot be conveniently fup- 
 plied with Sea-Salt. 
 Salt-Mines of Poland, ts'e. — The Polifti-mines, in the vil- 
 lage Wilifca, five leagues from Cracow, were firft difcovered 
 in 1251. Their depth and capacity are furprizing. Within 
 them is found a kind of fubtcrraneous republick, which 
 has its polity, laws, families, crV. and even pubhek roads, 
 and carriages ; horfes, csV. being kept here to draw the 
 Salt to the mouth of the quarry, where it is taken up by 
 engines. Thefe horfes, when once they are down, never fee 
 the light again ; but the men take frequent occafions of 
 breathing the village air. When a traveller is arrived at 
 the bottom of this ftrange abyfs, where fo many people are 
 interred alive, and where fo many are even born, and have 
 never ftirred out, he is furprized with a long feries of lofty 
 vaults, fuftained by huge pilallers cut with the chifiel, and 
 which, being themfelves all of Rock Salt, appear, by the 
 light of flambeaux, which are incefiautly burning, as fo ma- 
 ny cryftals, or precious ftones of various colours, cafting a 
 luftre, which the eye has much ado to bear. 
 The rocks of Salt are hewn in form of huge cylinders ; the 
 workmen ufing hammers, pick-axes, and chiflcls, much as 
 in our ftone quarries, to feparate the feveral banks. Asfoou 
 as the maffive pieces are got out of the quarry, they break: 
 them into fragments fit to be thrown into the mill, where 
 they are ground, and reduced into a coarfe farina or flour, 
 which ferves all the ufes of Sea-Salt. 
 
 In the Salt-m'mes of Wilifca, there are two kinds of Sal- 
 Gemms \ the one harder and more tranfparenr, and the 
 cryftallization whereof appears more perfect than that of 
 the other : This is the real Sal Gemmat of the Drusgifts and 
 Dyers. It cuts like cryftal, and is frequently ufed tor toys, 
 chaplets, little vafes, tsV. the ether is lefs compact, and; 
 only fit for kitchen ufes. One of the chief wonders of the 
 place is, that through thefe mountains of S.*lt, and along 
 the middle of the mine, there runs a rivukt of frefh water 
 furncit-nt to fupply the inhabitants. 
 T!:t SALT-Mtna a the Upper Hungary are every whit 23 
 
SAL 
 
 f 
 
 extraordinary. 1 hey are found in the mountain*, two 
 miles from Eperies, a city in the county of Sarax, on the 
 river Tarhz. The depth is 180 fathoms. The mineral 
 runs in huge veins, lo that pieces are fometimes dug not lefs 
 than an hundred thoufand weight; which however, are af- 
 terwards reduced into fquare pieces two foot long, and afoot 
 thick; for the conveniency of drawing them out of the 
 mine. When out, they are broke farther, and put to the 
 mill to be ground. The colour of the fait while in the 
 mafs is a little brown ifh, and yet, when ground, it becomes 
 as white as if it had been refined. Some of the maffes are 
 found as hard and tranfparcnt as cryftal ; fome white, yel- 
 low, blue, &C. fit for various works, whereon they engrave 
 as on precious ftones. The mine is cold and moift, whence 
 there arifes fome difficulty in reducing the Salt into powder. 
 Of the water drawn out of it and boiled, is made a blackifh 
 Salt, which fattens cattle. 
 The SalT'AUhcs of Catalonia are found in the mountains of 
 the dutchv of Cardonna, and belong to the grandees of that 
 name. It is the opinion of the country people there, that 
 the Salt grows again, and is re-produced, after feveral years, 
 in the fame places whence it had been dug. But the natura- 
 lifts will fcarce allow of fuch a re -production. Many think 
 however, that it vegetates, or grows fometimes: M.Tourne- 
 fort, by the fpecimens he had of it in his cabinet, thought 
 this plain. 
 
 The Salt is of four kinds, white, bay, red, and brilliant : 
 The firft, is almoll like Common Salt, only that it is not 
 granulated. The fecond, of an iron and Hate colour, has 
 molt of the qualities of the firfr. The third, of a con- 
 ferve rbfe colour, only differing from the reit by the mixture 
 of fome bole, or earth, which gives it this colour. The 
 fourth is a brilliant Salt, tranfparcnt as cryftal, which is 
 the proper Sal Gemma of the druggifts. — Of this kind there 
 is fome blue, and fome green, orange, red, (*ti, but they all 
 become white by grinding. 
 
 Thclefour kinds of Salts are found over each other in diflinct 
 ftrata or beds : the commerce hereof is very confiderable : 
 The EngHfh, &ff. when trade is prohibited with France, 
 furniih themfelves hence. 
 
 Sai-G&una is to be chofen in large, bright, tranfparent 
 pieces, eafy to break, and dividing into little fquare grains. 
 It grows red-hot in the fire, like iron, but diffolves eafily 
 in air: the druggiits wafli it, to give it the greater luftre, 
 but they take care to wipe it dry again fpeedily. 
 Salt drawn from briny Springs. — Our method in England is 
 thus: near the Ipring) or place of the brine, is built a fal- 
 tern, or boiling-houfe, with a convenience for the convey- 
 ance of the brine within it. The fa! tern is ufually large e- 
 nough to contain feveral huge flat pans, or boilers, each 
 lurniihed with its grate and furnace. 
 
 At Shields, &c. on the ealtern coaft, where brine fprings are 
 wanting, they ufe fea-water in its place; which at fpring- 
 tides is let into their ponds called jumps, and from thence 
 is pumped into the pans. 
 
 The brine being in the pan, the fire is kindled ; and af- 
 ttr two hours time, the liquor begins to be ready to 
 granulate : which is known by a thin fkin rifing at the top ; 
 this they fkim off into brine tubs, that the brine that goes 
 with it may not be lolt : and whereas all brines contain, or 
 yield a fand, which is' fuppofed to petrify in boiling ; for 
 that if the liquor have been {trained before-hand through 
 brown paper, yet upon boiling it, fand will be feparatcd ; 
 and as the pan boiling violently in the middle, the fand is ca.it 
 towards the corners, where it falls to the bottom of the pan, 
 before the Salt precipitates ; they rake it to one corner of 
 the pan, with a broad rake, and then take it out with 
 ladles, and put it into wooden veffcls, open at one end 
 placed on ftands. 
 
 The fand being thus removed, that the Salt floating in li- 
 quor may precipitate, they fliut up the vent-holes, and door, 
 and let the fire go out ; and in twelve hours time the Salt falls 
 to the bottom, and grows hard; a liquor called the bittern, 
 remaining at top, which being again boiled away, yields more 
 Salt. — To make the Salt precipitate more readily, after the 
 Jiquor is fcummed, &c, they frequently nfe fome beef- fuet, 
 and wine-lees, of each a like weight, melting and mixing 
 them together ; and putting an ounce of this mixture on the 
 end ofallice, they turn it round in the liquor till it befpent: 
 then after two hours, atmoft, they open the vent-holes and 
 door, quicken the fire, and lade away the liquor in a good 
 meafure, and fo is the Salt found lying at the bottom, fit to 
 be removed. 
 
 It is now raked up to one fide, taken out and put into cribs, 
 or veil'ds, like hay-mcks, with loofe ribs on eacli fide, fo 
 dole to one another, that an halt-crown will fcarce go be- 
 tween : here, after eight hours draining, it is found an hard 
 granulated Salt, and may be taken away ; butit yet continues 
 dripping three weeks, and afterwards, if not often moved, 
 will become rocky : thi; liquor in the pan, called btiterm. is 
 to be all taken out, except a little to keep the pan from burn- 
 ■ ing ; this is drained frcm the Salt, and caff away, or referred 
 for Salt-petre makets ; and the pan immediately filled with 
 ftcih brine, for another boiling. 
 
 SAL 
 
 A pan of brine, of moderate iirength, in eight hours time 
 will be complcatly made into Salt, with theexpence of about 
 a bufliel and half of coals, which will make a pan of Salt 
 from two bufhels and half to four bufhels, or more, accord- 
 ing as the liquor is in ffxength. 
 
 This Salt they fometimes mould Into the form of fugar- 
 loaves, in which ftate it will dry without fire, and keep fo 
 for a long time. At Nantwich, they bake the loaves twice 
 or thrice, in an oven, and keep them in a Hove, or the chim- 
 ney corner. 
 
 Salt from brine raijed by the fun. — In fome parts of Eng- 
 land, as at Limington, Port-fca, iSc. they ufe water railed 
 by the fun, and then boiled, which they find preferable to the 
 natural brines of fprings ; thole being always found either too 
 weak, or too ftrong. 
 
 To this end, they have feveral ponds, or cifterns, called fun- 
 ponds, built with clay, and well-expoled to the fun, with 
 little channels, to convey the brine from them all to a large 
 fhallow rcf-rvoir, called the common Jim-pan, not exceeding 
 feven or eight inches in depth. Here the liquor is left to 
 mellow, from twelve to twenty-four hours, or till the liquor 
 . is fo far raifed or evaporated, that it will bear a hen's egg 
 new laid ; and when it has attained a fufficitntitrength, it is 
 from thence derived by channels into the ciltenic, where 
 it more perfectly ripens in itanding, and is rendered fttter for 
 boiling, which is ptrfoimed after the lame manner as is al- 
 ready defcribed. * 
 SALTIER, Salteer, or Saltire, in heraldry, an or- 
 dinary in form of a St. Andrew's crofs ; anciently called the 
 Crofs of Burgundy. 
 
 The Saltier may be faid to be compofed of a bend dexter 
 and finifter, croiiing each other in the centre oi the elcutcbeon. 
 See Tab. Herald, jig. 35. 
 
 Its ordinary breadth, when alone, is one third of the efcut- 
 chcon. It is fometimes bore alaise, and fometimes in num- 
 ber, placed in different parts of the field : Sometimes charg- 
 ed, countercharged with the field, accompanied, raguled, 
 engrailed, indented, quarterly-quartered, c>c. 
 The Saltin- was anciently a piece of the knight's hnrnefc : 
 being fattened to the laddie, ;:nd ferving him for a flirrup to 
 mount upon; and it was hence it had its name Saltier, by 
 the French Sautoir, from Sautcr, to leap. — It was made of 
 fills cord, or fome other kind of cord, covered with fome 
 rich fluff. 
 
 Others will have it, that the original Saltier was a kind of 
 palifade, ferving to fence parks, woods, tiff, where wild 
 beafts were inclofed. Though Spelman lays, it was an in- 
 ftrumeiit for the taking them, thus called Quod ft in uju 
 in Sallu. Laffly, others affure us, that Saltier was anciently 
 the figure of an engine, which being full of pins, was ufed 
 in the foiling of the walls of a beficged place : whence its 
 origin from Sauter, as it helped the foldiers to leap over the 
 wall. 
 
 SALTNESS, Salsedo, the quality of fomething that is 
 impregnated with fait ; or that yields a faline uRe. 
 The Saltnejs of the fea, lakes, tSc. is a thing that has long 
 perplexed the plnlofophers to account loY. Some have even 
 taken it to be the effect of the dry, adult, and even faline ex- 
 halations, which the fun railes from the earth, and the 
 winds, and which rains difcharge into the fea: and hence, 
 fay they, it is that the fea is found more brackifh near the 
 furface, than towards the b. ttom. — Others contend, that 
 the fun being continually extracting the pureit and lubtileft 
 parts from the water ; the coarfer parts remaining, being 
 exalted and concocted by this beat, acquire by little and 
 little, their degree of Salt/nfs. — Others, as father Bouhours, 
 will have it, that the Creator gave the waters of the ocean 
 their Saltneft at the beginning, not only to prevent their 
 corruption, but alfo to enable them to bear greater burdens. 
 — Bernier feems to be nearer the matter, when he afcribes 
 the Saltnefs of the ocean to the fofiile or mineral falts 
 brought into it by fubterranean currents and diffolvcd in the 
 water. 
 
 The Count de Marfigli obferver, that in Provence, the bot- 
 tom of the fea is wholly Moray, and is nothing but a continu- 
 ation of the mountains of the Cevennes; being even found 
 to confift of feveral ftrata ; among which, are fait, and pit- 
 coal : and hence he derives the Saltnefs and bitternefs of the 
 fea-water. 
 
 Dr. Halley, in an exprefs difcourfe of the Saltnefs of the o- 
 cean, in the Philofophical Tran factions, obfervts, that all the 
 lakes in the world are faline, fome more, fome lefs fo, than 
 the ocean ; which, in this cafe, may he elteemcd a great lake 
 itfclf : and that all the vapours exhaled by the fun from lakes, 
 are perfectly frefh ; fo that all the faline particles brought in 
 by the waters which have pafs'd over falt-mines remain be- 
 hind, while the frefh evaporate. Hence it is evident, their 
 Saltnefs muft be continually augmented. 
 Now if this be the true real'on of the Saltnefs of lakes, it is 
 probable the Saltnejs of the ocean itfelf arifes from the fame 
 caufe : and hence we are furnifhed with a method of eft j- 
 mating the age of the world, by obfervin2: the increafe of 
 Saltntf in the waters of LKs ; and computing in how long- 
 time the ocean mi°ht, at th.it rate, arrive a: it* prcfent Salt- 
 tefi* SALT- 
 
SAL 
 
 SAM 
 
 SALT-PETRE, Salpetra, nitre; a bitter kind of fait ; 
 of great ufe in chymical preparations, in the compofition of 
 gun-powder, dying, tlie glais-manufacrure, making aqua- 
 fortis, Gfw - ' 1 '"f'^k. ;SjT mm 
 All the Salt-petre we now have, M. Homberg obferves, is 
 drawn either from earths moiftcned, and manured with 
 the excrements of animals; or from old walls, and the 
 plaifter of ruined buildings, which have been filled with ful- 
 phurous matters as well from the animals which inhabited 
 them, as the foot penetrating them, and the air incompafl- 
 ing them. 
 
 "VVe ufually make a divifion of Salt-petre into natural and 
 factitious. 
 
 Of native Salt-petre there are two kinds : the firft formed 
 by a natural cryftallization of falinc fulpliurous juices diftil- 
 ling in caverns, or along old walls. — Thh is what they call 
 Salt-petre of the roeks. 
 
 The fecond is furniflied by the water of a dead lake in the 
 territory of Terrana in Egypt, called the Nttridn Whirrs, 
 exalted and concocted by the heat of the fun, much 
 after the manner of our bay-falt. — This is the natruin 
 or anatrum of the ancients, which the druggifts call na- 
 tron ; now ufed in France in the bleaching of linens. 
 See Natron. 
 
 Artificial^ or factitious Salt-petre, is alfo of two kinds: 
 the firft, called, by fome, Mineral Salt-petre, is procured 
 in feveral places in the kingdom of Pegu, and about Agra, 
 in villages anciently populous, buc now defart : alfo, in fome 
 places along the banks of the Wolga, a famous river, 
 which after watering a good part of Mufcovy, empties itfelf 
 into the Cafpian fea. 
 
 The Salt-petre is here drawn from three different kinds of 
 mineral earths, black, yellow, and white. The beft is that 
 procured from the black ; as being freeft from common- fait, 
 and needing no purifying after it comes to us, to fit it for 
 making of gun-powder ; as the reft do. 
 The method of working it is thus : two flat pits are dug ; 
 one of which they fill up with the mineral earth, turning 
 water upon it for fome time ; they then tread it with their 
 icet into the confiftence of pap, letting it ftand two days for 
 the water to imbibe, and extract all the fait therein. They 
 then pate the water into the other pit, where ftandin" fume 
 tirjie, it moots and cryftallizes into Salt-petre. This they 
 diiiblve and cryftallize again once, or twice, as they would 
 have it more or lefs white and pure, fcumm'ing it continu- 
 ally, and filling it out into pots, holding 25 or 30 pounds 
 each, and expoling thefe to the air in clear nights ; by which 
 means, if there be any impurity, it finks to the bottom: 
 they then break the pots, and dry the fait in the fun. 
 The fecond kind of artificial or factitious Salt-petre, is that 
 prepared from nitrous matters collected in old buildings, 
 dovc-houfes, the middle of ancient ruins, &c. by means of 
 lixiviums, or lyes made of wood-afhes, and fometimes of 
 thofe of herbs. 
 
 Of this there are great quantities made in France, particu- 
 larly in the aifenal at Paris, where there is a corporation of 
 Salt-petre makers appointed for the purpofe. — The Salt-petre 
 gained thus, they refine, by boiling it three or four times, 
 and parting it fucceflively through feveral lyes. 
 Some naturalifts pretend, that the earths, which have already 
 ferved for Salt-petre, maybe re-animated, and made fit to 
 fervc again, by keeping them covered for twelve or fourteen 
 years, and watering them with the fcum, &c. of the Salt- 
 petre, and even with brine. 
 
 Good common Sclt-pdre fliould be well clcanfed, white, 
 dry, and as free from common fidt as poffible : the heft re- 
 fined Salt petre, is that whofe cryftals arc the longed, larg- 
 eft, and cleareft. 
 
 Philufophers generally allow the air to be impregnated with a 
 volatile nitre, or Sak-petre, which is thence communicated 
 to plaifter, mortar, EsV. It is probable it may derive it from 
 foot and fmoak, which arc -actually found to abound with 
 volatile fait of a nitrous nature. Dew and rain are fup- 
 pofed to fertilize the ground principally by their brin^in"- 
 down this nitre. 
 
 Salt-petre has a property of rarifyirg, or expanding itfelf to a 
 prodigious degree. It is hence that ^un-powder derives its 
 force, whereof Salt-petre is the principal ingredient. It is 
 computed, that when inflamed, it takes up above ten thou- 
 fand times the fpace it puiieit'ed before. 
 
 There are abundance of chymical preparations made with 
 Salt-petre, as fpirit of nitre, aqua-fortis, cryftal-mineral, 
 fal-polychreft, butter of nitre, &e. each of which fee under 
 its proper article, Aqu a -fort is, {ffr. 
 SALTS, or Saults, in the manage, denote the leaps, or 
 high airs and vaults of a horfe : from the French Saut, of 
 the Latin Saltus, a leap, dance, &fr. 
 
 KJfrp and a Salt is a high air, wherein the horfe riling, 
 makes a curvet between two Salts, or caprioles ; fo as to 
 mount before, and fling back with his hind-feet. 
 Two Jhps and a Salt is a motion compofed of two curvets, 
 ending with a capriole. 
 SALTUAiiiUS, in antiquity, an officer, or fervant amon° 
 the Romans, who hid the care and cuftody of a countrv- 
 
 houfe, with land; and woods, and who wzs to look to the 
 fruit, the fences, £sV. 
 
 In Nehemiab, chap. ii. 8. mention is made of an officer 
 of this kind ; cujlos /alius regis, which the Englifh tranfla- 
 tors interpret, keeper of the king's forefl ; but he was 
 more; having not only the keeping of a foreff, but of a 
 houfe with a forcft ; Saltus being here ufed as hort'i for a 
 houfe of pleafure ; becaufe gardens are the principal part. 
 In the Laws of the Lombards, Saltxarius is an officer who 
 has the guard of the frontiers. 
 
 SALTUM. Ordination per Saltum. See Ordination. 
 
 SALTUS, in law books, a high, thick wood. 
 
 SALVAGE Money, is a recompencc allowed both by the fta- 
 tttte and civil law, to fuch perfons as have aflifted in laving 
 merchandizes, mips, from perifhing in wrecks, or by 
 pirates, or enemies. 
 
 This ufually was a tenth part of the value of the thinps 
 faved. See Wreck. 
 SALVATELLA, in anatomy, a famous branch of the ax- 
 illary vein, palling over the back of the hand, between the 
 ring finger and the little finger. 
 
 Several phyficians, in imitation of the Arabs, recommend 
 bleeding in the Salvatella, as proper in tertian and quartan 
 agues, and in inoft hypochondriac difcafes. 
 
 SALVE Reg'ina, among the Romanics, the name of a Latin 
 prayer, addrefTed to the virgin, and lung after complines ; as 
 alfo upon the point of executing a criminal. 
 Durandus fays, it was compofed by Peter bifhop of Com- 
 poftella. — The cuftom of iinging the Salve Regina, at the 
 clofc of the office, was begun by order of St. Dominic ; and 
 firft, in the congregation of Dominicans at Bologna, about 
 1237. Gregory IX. firft appointed it to be general! St. Ber- 
 nard added the concliifion, 0 dulcis t O pia, &c. 
 
 SALVER, a flat dilh* commonly of filver or other precious 
 metal, ufed to fet glafles on to ferve wines, and other li- 
 quors. 
 
 The French call it Sous-couppe, under-cup. — The Italians ufe 
 to prefent a Salver, with feveral kinds of wines, with this 
 compliment, 67 non e buono,fatte lo ; If it be not good, make 
 it fo. 
 
 SALUTATION, the act or ceremony of faluting, greeting, 
 or paying refpect, or reverence to any one. 
 There is a great variety in the forms of Salutation ; we fa* 
 lute God by adorations, prayers, (itc. kings by genuflexion, 
 l3'c. In England, wc fa lute one another by uncovering 
 the head, inclining the body, &c. The orientals falute by 
 uncovering their feet, laying their hands on their brcaft, Gff, 
 The pope makes no reverence to any mortal but the em- 
 peror of Germany, to whom the ftoops a very little, when 
 he admits him to kifs his mouth. 
 
 In the army, the officers falute by certain orderly, ftudied 
 motions of the half-pike, fcfr. 
 
 It was believed by the ancients, that the ftatue of Memnon, 
 in a temple of Egypt, fainted the fun every morning at his 
 rifing : the cheat conlifted in this, that the ftatce being 
 hollow, when the warmth of the morning began to rarify 
 the included air, it was driven out through a narrow duct 
 in the mouth : this made a gentle murmur, which the 
 priefts interpreted a Salutation. 
 
 At fea, they falute by a difclurge of cannon, which is 
 greater or lefs, according to the degree of refpect they 
 would fhew. 
 
 Ships always falute with an odd number of guns ; galleys 
 with an even one. — A veflel under the wind of another, 'is 
 always obliged to falute firft. 
 
 To falute with mufquets, is to fire one, two or three volleys ; 
 which is a method of Salutation that fometimes precedes that 
 of the cannon ; and is chiefly ufed On occafion of feafts. 
 After the cannon, they fometimes alfo falute or hale with 
 the voice, that is, a joint fliout of all the Ihip's company 
 three times ; which Salutation alfo occafionally obtains where 
 they carry no guns, or do not care to difcharge any. 
 Salutir.g with the fag, is performed two ways ; either by 
 holding it clofe to the ftaff, fo as it cannot flutter; or by 
 finking it fo as it cannot be feen at all, which is the moft 
 refpectful Salutation. 
 
 Saluting with the Sails, is performed by hovering the top- 
 fails half way of the malts. — Only thofe vefTels which carry 
 no guns, falute with the fails. 
 
 When there are feveral ftiips of war together, the com- 
 mander alone falutes. 
 
 Father Fournier has an exprefs treatife of fea- falutes and 
 
 fignals. See Signal. 
 %f/fVfl/S:\LUTATiON', is an addrefs which the Romanifh 
 
 make to the virgin ; containing the formula wherein the 
 
 angel faluted her, when he acquainted her with the myftery 
 
 of the incarnation. 
 SALZ, Sulz, Saltz, orSuLTZ, a fort of brine or pickle 
 
 made of fait, diiiolved by the eoldnefs, or muifture of a 
 
 cellar. 
 
 SAMARITANS, an ancient feet among the Jews; ftiJI 
 fubfifting in fome parts of the Levant, under the fame 
 name. 
 
 Its origin was in the time of Rehobcam ; under whofe 
 4 iei g^t 
 
SAM 
 
 reign, a'divifion was made of the people oF Ifrael into two 
 diftlnct kingdoms. One of tbeife kingdoms, called Judah, 
 confifted offuch as adhered to Rehoboam, and the houfc of 
 David ; the other retained the ancient name of Ifraclites, 
 under the command of Jeroboam.— The capital of the ftate 
 of thefe latter was Samaria ; and hence it was that they 
 were denominated S a ma}- it an s. 
 
 Some affirm that Salmanazar, king of Ailyria, having con- 
 quered Samaria, led the whole people captive into the 
 remoteft parts of his empire; and filled their place with 
 colonies of Babylonians, Cutheans, and other idolaters. 
 Thefe finding themfelves daily deftroyed by wild beafts, it is 
 faid, defired an Ilraelitifh prieft to inftruct them in the ancient 
 laws and cuftoms of the land they inhabited. This was 
 granted them ; and they thenceforth ceafed to be incom- 
 moded with any beafts.— However, with the law of Mofes, 
 they ftill retained fome what of their ancient idolatry. 'I lie 
 Rabbins fay, they adored the figure of a dove on mount 
 Gerizim. 
 
 Be this as it will, it is certain, the modern Samaritans are 
 far from idolatry : fume of the moft learned among the 
 Jewifh doctors own, that they obferve the law of Mofes 
 more rigidly than the Jews themfelves.— They have a He- 
 brew copy of the Pentateuch, differing in fome refpeeb 
 from that of the Jews ; and written in different characters, 
 commonly called Samaritan characters ; which Origen, Je- 
 10m, and other fathers and criticks, ancient and modern, 
 take to be the primitive character of the ancient Hebrews ; 
 though others maintain the contrary. The point of prefe- 
 rence, as to purity, antiquity, cjfe. of the two Pentateuchs, 
 is alfo much difputed by the modern criticks. 
 The Samaritans are now few in number ; though it is not 
 very long, fince they pretended to have priefts defcended di- 
 rectly from Abraham. They were chiefly found at Gaza, 
 Ncapolis, (the ancient Sicheni) Uamafcus, Cairo, They 
 had a temple, or chapel on mount Gerizim, where they 
 performed their facrifices. 
 
 Jofeph Scaliger, being curious to know their ufages, wrote 
 to the Samaritans of Egypt, and to the high prieft of the 
 ■whole feet, who refided' at Ncapolis. They returned two 
 anfwers, dated in the year 998 of the Hegira of Ma- 
 homet. Thefe anfwers never came to the hands of Sca- 
 (iget. They arc now in the French king's library, and 
 have been tranflated into Latin by father Morin, prieft of 
 the oratory ; and printed in the collection of letters of that 
 father in England, 1682, under the title of Antiquitates Ec- 
 tUfiss Orientalist M. Simon has inferted a French traufla- 
 tion in the firft edition, of Ceremonies Cf Coutmnes dts Juifi, 
 by way of fupplemcnt to Leo de Modena. 
 In the firft of thefe anfwers, wrote in the name of the af- 
 fembly of Ifrael til Egypt, they declare, that they celebrate 
 the paffover every year, on the fourteenth day of the firft 
 month, on mount Gerizim ; and that he who then did the 
 office cf high prieft, was called Eleazar, a defcendant of 
 Fhineas, fon of Aaron. — At prefent they have no high prieft. 
 * Li the fecond anfwer, which is in the name of the high 
 prieft Eleazar and the fynagogue of Sicbem, they declare, 
 that they keep the Sabbath in all the rigour wherewith it is 
 enjoined in the book of Exodus ; none among them ftirring 
 out of doors, but to the fynagogue. They add that on 
 that night they do not lie with their wives ; that they be- 
 gin the feaft of the paftbver with the facrifice appointed for 
 that purpofe in Exodus ; that they facrifice no where (fife 
 but no mount Gerizim ; that they obferve the feafts of har- 
 veft, the expiation, the tabernacles, EsV. They add further, 
 that they never defer circumcifion beyond the eighth Day ; 
 never marry their nieces, as the Jews do ; have but one 
 wife; and, in fine, do nothing but what is commanded in 
 the law : whereas the Jews frequently abandon the law to 
 follow the inventions of their rabbins. 
 At the time when they wrote to Scaliger, they reckoned 
 J22 high priefts ; affirmed that the Jews had no high priefts 
 of the race of Phineas; and, that the Jews belied them, 
 in calling them Cutheans, for that they are defcended from 
 the tribe of Jofeph, by Ephraim. 
 
 The truth is, the Jews impofe abundance of things on the 
 Samariums : they frequently confound them with the Sad- 
 duces, as if they were infected with their errors.— Rabbi 
 Benjamin, who lived In the Xllth century, confirms the 
 beft part of what we have faid of the Samaritans .- he ob- 
 fet ves, they had priefts of the tribe of Aaron, and who ne- 
 ■ ver married with any but thofe of the lame tribe : that they 
 facrificed on mount Gerizim, where they had an altar of 
 ftone raifed by the Ifraehtes after paffing over Jordan. He 
 adds, that they are of the tribe of Ephraim ; that they 
 change their habit to go to the fynagogue, and wafh before 
 they put it on. 
 
 Samaritan Charc.'trs, or Letters. See Letter and 
 
 .Hebrew. 
 
 S 1MAEITAN Medals, — In the cabinets of antiquaries we find 
 fome medals, ufually called Samaritan Medals; the inferip 
 ticri and legends whereof are Hebrew ; but the character 
 different from the Hebrew of our bibles, which is the fquare 
 Hebrew, or Chald^e : and it is hence, v(x, from the cha- 
 
 S A M 
 
 racter, not frsm their being ftruck by the S.imatitam, that 
 they are denominated Samaritan. 
 
 Thefe medals have been infinitely canvafTed by tfae critic!;-, 
 both Jewifh and Chriftian ; particularly rabbi Alafcher, 
 rabbi Bartenora, rabbi Azarias, rabbi Mofes, father K.ir- 
 cher, Villalpandus Waferus, Conringius, Hottinger, father 
 Morin, Walton, Hardouin, Spanheim, t?f. 
 The learned jefuit Souciet, in an exprefa dilicrtation on the 
 Samaritan medals, rejects all Hebrew medals, whole inferip- 
 tions are in Chaldec characters, as fpurious ; and allows of 
 none to he genuine but the Samaritan. — Of thefe there are 
 four kinds. 
 
 The firft bear exprefly the name of Simon, and the fubjeet 
 for which they were ftruck, viz. the deliverance of Jerula- 
 lem. The fecond kind have not the name Stman, but only 
 the deliverance of Sion, or Jerufalem. The third kind 
 have neither Simon, nor the deliverance of Sion ; but only 
 the epocha's, firft year, fecond year, iSci The fourth elate 
 have neither any inferiptions, nor any thing whence one 
 may judge of the time when they were ftruck. 
 The "three firft kinds were certainly ftruck after the return 
 from the Babylonifh captivity, and in the time of Simon 
 Maccabeus, after Jerufalem had been freed from the yoke 
 of the Greeks. But though ftruck after the captivity, father 
 Souciet obferves, their character fhews itfelf to be that ot 
 the ancient Hebrew, which was ufed before the captivity, 
 and the ufe whereof was loft by the people, during their fo- 
 journ in Babylon and Chaldca ; but was again reftored after 
 their return, on the fame footing as before. He adds,* that 
 the inferiptions are pure Hebrew, fuch as it was fpoke before 
 the captivity ; that the character, therefore, is the true an- 
 cient Hebrew character : that it was the cuftom to write 
 each language in its proper character : that if they had de- 
 parted from this rule, they had duubtlcfs ufed the new cha- 
 racter they brought with them from Babylon : that there 
 could be no other rcafan, but that of fettling all things on 
 the fame foundation they were on before the deftruction 
 of Jerufalem, that could have induced them to ufu this 
 character on their coins. And, laftly, that thefe medals 
 were not ftruck by the Samaritans^ but by the Jews, and in 
 Jerufalem. 
 
 F. Souciet is very full on all thefe points, and, to the proofs 
 drawn from medals, he adds two others foreign thereto : 
 the firft drawn from the refemblance of the Greek letters, in- 
 troduced by Cadmus the Phoenician, with this Hebrew cha- 
 racter i which was the fame with that of the Phoenicians, as 
 the language of thofe people was the fame with that of the 
 Hebrews. The fecond drawn from feveral various readings 
 in the fcriptures, which cannot be well accounted for other- 
 wife, than by fuppofina;, that the books wrote before the 
 captivity, where in the fame character with thefe medals, 
 and which fhew, that it is the conformity which certain 
 letters have in that character, that has deceived the copifts. 
 From the whole, he concludes, that this character of the 
 medals is the true ancient Hebrew character ; and, that to 
 judge of the various readings of the Hebrew text, and the 
 differences of the ancient Greek and Latin tranftations, ei- 
 ther from themfelves, or from the Hebrew text s recourfe 
 mult be had to this character. 
 
 Samaritan Pentateuch. See Pentateuch. 
 
 SAMBUCUS, an ancient mufical inftrument of the wind 
 kind, refembling a kind of flute ; probably thus called be- 
 caufe made of the ftalks of the elder, which the Latins call- 
 Sambucus. 
 
 Sambucus was alfo the name of an ancient engine of war, 
 ufed by Marcellus in befieging the city of Syracufe. 
 It was fo big, that Plutarch, in the life of that general, ob- 
 ferves, two Ihips were required to carry it. 
 
 SAMlAN Earth, Terra Saiuia, a kind of aftringent earth 
 brought from the iiland of Samos, in the j^Esean fea. 
 The beft is called by Diofcorides, Cotlyrium, becaufe ufed in 
 the medicines of that name : it is white, very light, foft, 
 friable, wtll-tafted, and a little glutinous on the tongue. 
 There is another kind, harder, fouler, and more glutinous, 
 called After-Samius, in regard little fhining flakes were fre- 
 quently found in it, glittering like little flars. 
 Each kind was efteemed very aftringent, proper to dry, and 
 heal wounds ; having much the fame qualities with the 
 Armenian boles. 
 
 There is alio a Samian Stone, ^flor 2^«<«>5-, taken out of 
 the mines in the lame iiland. —It is white, and fticks to the 
 tongue when applied to it : it is held aftringent, and cool- 
 ing ; and is alfo ufed by the goldfmirhs to burnifh their gold, 
 and give it a greater luftre. See Supplement article Samia 
 Terra. 
 
 SAMOS ATENIANS, Samosateni, a fc& of ancient 
 Antitrinitarians, thus called from their leader, Paulus * Sa- 
 mofatenus, bifhop of Antioch, under the emperors Aurclian 
 and Probus. 
 
 * T Iiey are alfo called by St. Aaguftin PW/.™/ f and by the 
 lathers of the council ol Nice, nzv^janQxiTif 
 This herefiarch renewed the hcrefy of Artem;>r.ius, and had fe- 
 veral fentiments in common wkhSabelhus, C5V. tho' he differed 
 from them in the manner of explaining thwm. — He owned, 
 
SAN 
 
 S A N 
 
 that the Father, Son, and Holy Ghoft were but rina 
 God ; but he denied that the Son, and Holy Spirit had 
 any real fubftance. According to him, they only fub- 
 fifled in the Father, as the word of man fubfifts in his 
 understanding. 
 
 St. Epiphanius will have the Samofatenians to be real 
 Jews, without any thing more than the name of Chrif- 
 tians ; adding, that they ufe the fame arguments againlt 
 the myltcry of the trinity that the Jews do ; pleading 
 againft it, with them, on pretence of maintaining the 
 unity of the godhead : though they do not obferve the 
 ceremonies of the law. 
 
 Their chieftain was condemned by a council held at 
 Antipch, in 272, whereat aflifted above feventy bilhups ; 
 arid was depofed from his bifhoprick. 
 SAMPSEANS, Sampsjei, ancient fe&aries; the fame, 
 according to St. Epiphanius, with the Elcefaites. See 
 Elcesaites. 
 
 The Sampfeans were not properly cither Jews, ChrUKans, 
 or Gentiles ; though they took their name from the 
 Hebrew, Semes, fun ; as if they adored the fun. 
 They acknowledged one only. God ; warned themfelves 
 often, and were attached, In aim oft every thing, to the 
 religion of the Jews. — Many among them abstained whol- 
 ly from eating of flelh. 
 
 Scaliger, after Epiphanius, will have the Samp/sans to be 
 the fame with the EJfeni. In effect, the Eicejaites, Samp- 
 feans, Maffalians, and EJfeni, appear to be no more 
 than fo many different names for the fame feet ; unlefs, per- 
 haps, the firit added fomething to the opinions of the 
 laft, 
 
 SAN BENITO, or Saco Benito, a kind of linen gar- 
 ment; born as a badge, by perfons condemned by the inqui- 
 sition. 
 
 The San Benito is in form of a fcapular -, being a broad 
 piece of cloth hanging down before, and behind ; with two 
 St. Andrew's erotics on it ; it is of a yellow colour, and 
 is painted over with devils, and flames. 
 It is fuppofed to be an imitation of the ancient fackclcth, 
 ufed by publick penitents in the primitive church. 
 SANCTIFICATION, the act of favMifying, or making 
 a thing holy, and fcparate to God. 
 
 The reformed divine* define Sanelif cation an act of 
 God's grace, whereby a man is renewed inwardly, his de- 
 fires and affections arc alienated from the world, and the 
 man put in a courfe of dying to fin, and living to righ- 
 tcoufnefs. 
 
 The fanclifying of the Sabbath, among the Jews, is of divine 
 right, or inllitution. — By fanftifying the fabbath, is meant, 
 the fpending it in prayer, praiic, fcsV. not in worldly con. 
 ccrns. 
 
 The firft petition in the Lord's Prayer is, Hallowed, i. c. 
 finciifed le thy name: by which is meant, let thy name be 
 ever accompanied with blefling, and praife. 
 SANCTION*, Sanctio, the authority given to a ju- 
 dicial act ; or that, whereby it becomes legal and au- 
 thentic. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin famire, to eftablifh. 
 The royal aflent gives the far.aion of flatutcs, to all bills in 
 parliament that have palled each houfe thrice. 
 
 Pragmatical Sanction. Sec Pragmatical. 
 
 SANCTI-VITI Chorea. See Chorea Sanai-Viti. 
 
 SANCTUARY, among the Jews, was the holicft and 
 molt retired part of the temple of Jerufalcm ; wherein 
 was preferved the ark of the covenant; and into which 
 no-body was allowed to enter but the high prii.lt, and 
 that only once a year to intercede for the people. 
 The /ancillary called alfo far.itum janclsrum, or holy of holies, 
 is fuppofed to be a type, or figure of heaven, and of Jefus 
 Chrilt die true high priclt, who is afeended thither to make 
 interceflion for us. 
 
 Some will have it, that the whole temple was called the 
 faucluary \ and that the faiiHum fanelorum, where the 
 ark was kept, was only a little chapel or oratory there- 
 in. 
 
 To try or examine a thing bv the weight of the Sanctua- 
 ry, is to examine it by a jult, and equal fcale ; in regard a- 
 mong the Jews, it was the cuftom for the prielts to keep 
 ftone weights, to ferve as Itandards for regulating all weights 
 by ; though thefe did not differ from the royal, or profane 
 Weights. 
 
 Sanctuary, in our ancient cuftoms, denotes an afylum, or 
 place privileged by the prince, for the fafeguard of mens 
 lives, who were guilty of capital crimes. 
 In Scotland they c^ll the Sancluary, Girtholl, or Gyrthsl. 
 The Saxons alfo called it Frodmortel and Fridfloll. 
 Till Henry the VHIth, all our churches and church-yards 
 were fanSluaries ; and protected traitors, murderers, &c. if 
 within forty days they acknowledged their fault, and fub- 
 mitted themfelves to banifhmcnt j and during that time, if 
 any lay-man expelled them, he was excommunicated ; if a 
 clerk, he was made irregular : but after forty days no man 
 might relieve them. 
 
 St. John's of Beverly had an eminent fancluary, called by 
 Vol. II. N J . CXXXVII. 
 
 the Saxons, aftat of p:ace ; fo had St. Martin's le Grand, 
 in London. Rippon had the like granted by WhitLife, 
 king of the Mercians: fohad St, Buriens in Cornwall, grant- 
 ed by king Athelifan, Anno 936 ; and Wcftmirifter had the 
 like, granted by Edward the ConfofFoK 
 
 Sanctuary, is alfo ufed in the Romifh church for the chan- 
 cel, or that pait of the church wherein the altar is placed, 
 incompafled with a rail or balhtftrade. 
 
 SANCTUM SANCTORUM. See Sanctuary. 
 
 SAND, a fine, hard, gravelly fort of earth, or rather Hones, 
 divided into fmall grains ; of great ufe in building, and ma- 
 ny other arts, and manufactures ; as glafs-making, plumbery 
 foundery, &Y. 
 
 There are three kinds of finds, diftinguifhed by the places' 
 whence they are drawn, viz. pit-fand, river -fa nd, and fea- 
 Jand. 
 
 The ufe of fand in building, is as an ingredient in mortar : 
 See Mortar. — For this purpofe, pit-find is -of all others 
 the belt ; and of pit-fand, the whirelt is always the worit. 
 Of rivcr-fand, that found in the fulls of waters is belt, be- 
 caufe molt purged : and fea-favd is the worft. 
 Pit-fand, as being fat and tough, is melt ufed in walls and 
 vaults. — River-fund ferves belt fur rough-cafting. 
 All J 'and is good in its kind, if when fqueezed and handled 
 it crackles ; and if being put. on a white cloth, it neither 
 Itains nor makes it foul. — That fand is naught, which, 
 mixed with water, makes it dirty and muddy, and which 
 has been long in the air ; for fuch will retain much earth, 
 and rotten humour. — Hence feme niafons wafh their Jar.d 
 before they ufe it. 
 
 The find of Puzzuolo, de Lorme cbferves, is the belt in 
 the world ; elpecially for maritime buildings. See Pozzo- 
 LANE. 
 
 Some diltinguilh a male fand, which is of a deeper colour 
 than another fort in the fame banks or beds, called female 
 
 The fand whereof glafs is made, is white, and gritty, and 
 full of little fparkling grains. 
 
 The fand ufed bv founders, is folTilc : it is properly a yellow 
 fat earth, whereof they make their moulds, for the calling 
 of fmall work ; whence it is they lay, Co fling in fand. 
 The plumbers alfo ufe fand to mould feveral of their works, 
 particularly large flicets. — To prepare ihe fand for thefe 
 lheets, they wet it lightly, then Itir and work it with J 
 flick, and then beat and plain it. See Plumbery. 
 Sands may be divided into fnarp and foft. 
 Sharp, or rag-fand, is that compodd of fmall tranfparcnf 
 pebbles naturally found in the mountains. 
 Of this, again, there is fome fine and white, or grey.; red- 
 difh or brown ; and others coarfe, either of a griefiy, or 
 brown colour. 
 
 Soft or fmooth fand, is that mixed v/ith flat particles from 
 lime-ftone, or with mica: of glittering particles, either filver- 
 like, as the fa-fand about the Scilly iAands ; or gold-like, 
 as in Cleveland. 
 
 Sand in agriculture, denotes one of the three ufual kinds of 
 foil ; which avefand, clay, and earth, or loam. 
 M. de la Quintinie attributes all the difference we find in 
 foils, to the different quality of the fand; mixed in them. — « 
 Soft fands, according to him, make a foft, gentle earth : 
 unctuous fands, a llift earth : coarfe fands, a rough untrace- 
 able earth, Isc. 
 
 Sand is alfo applied to thofc dry, crumbling earths, which, 
 wanting fatnefs to bind them together, the wind eafily breaks 
 into duft, and carries them away. 
 
 In this fenfe it is that traveller: tell us, the caravans in Afno 
 are frequently loft, and buried under clouds of fand, torn up 
 by whirlwinds; and fometimes heaped into mountains.' — The 
 defarts of Lybia are mere fands ; and hence their ilerility. 
 See Supplement, article Sands. 
 SANDAL, Sandalium, Sfti^Mw, in antiquitv, a rich 
 kind of flipper, or wear for the feet, made of gold, filk, or 
 other precious ftuff ; ufed by tiie Roman and Greek ladies ; 
 confifling of a fole, with a hollow at one extreme to em-* 
 brace the ancle ; but leaving the upper-part of the foot 
 bare. 
 
 Terence fpeaks of this fandal, Utlnam til: commitigari videam 
 ' fandalio caput 1 I wiih Ihe would break your head with her 
 fandal. 
 
 Apollo was fometimes called fandaliariv.s, fandal-maher ; the 
 reafon of which appellation has given great perplexity to the 
 criticks : fome derive it from a l'frcet called fandaliarius, 
 chiefly inhabited by fandal-mahrs, wherein that god had 3 
 temple: but ethers, with mure probability, derive the name 
 of the Itrect from that of the god, and take Apollo to have 
 been thus called from his efieminate drefs, as if he wore wo- 
 mens fandals. 
 
 Sandal is alfo ufed for the fi re or flipper wore by the pope, 
 and other Romilh prelates, (£c. wfien they officiate ; being 
 fuch as is fuppofed to have been worn by St. Bartholomew. 
 Alcuin obferves, that there w;is fjnie difference between the 
 far.dah of bilhups, priefts, and deacons. — Monks were not 
 allowed to wear fandals, except in travelling; as is obferved 
 by Du Cangc, SJmafius, &c 
 
 11 £ Samdal- 
 
SAN 
 
 SAN 
 
 SAndal is alfo the name of a fort of flipper ftill worn by fe- 
 veral congregations of reformed monks. 
 It confifts of no more than a mere leathern fole, faftcned 
 with latches or buckles, all the reft of the foot being left 
 bare. 
 
 The Capuchins Wear fandals, the Recollects, clogs : the for- 
 mer are of leather, the Utter of wood. 
 SANDARAC, Sandaracha, in natural hiftory, &c. a 
 native mineral; or a preparation of orpiment, made by fufing 
 it by a clofe fire into a red friable mafs. See Orpiment. 
 Sandaracha is the fame with what is by fome otherwife called 
 Realgar. 
 
 It is fome times alfo called Sandaracha Gracbrum, in oppofi- 
 tion to the gum Sandarach. Some diftinguifh two forts of 
 GrcchnSandarac; the natural which is the firft above deferr- 
 ed ; and the failithus, which is only cerufs exalted by the 
 fire, and burnt into a kind of minium. Both the one and 
 the other is a poifon. See Supplement, article Sanda- 
 rach. 
 
 GV«-Sandarach, or Sandaracha Arahum, a white 
 gum oozing out of the trunk, and thick branches of the 
 great juniper-tree, by incifions made in the heats of the 
 fummer. 
 
 The fm.aU or common juniper yields very little Sandarach ; 
 but its fruit yields oils, waters, falts, fpirits and extracts of 
 fome repute in medicine. 
 
 The Gum-Sandarach is an ingredient in varnifh. With this 
 melted in oil of turpentine is made the fictitious varnifh now 
 llfed by painters and cabinet-makers. — It is alfo reduced 
 into an impalpable powder, and ufed to prevent paper from 
 imbibing ink. 
 
 . The belt is in fine white tears, free of duft : the En- 
 glish, Swedes, &c. drive a confiderablc trade therewith. 
 
 * Some will have it, that the gum of the juniper is not 
 the right Sandarach, but that of the oxycedrus, or lcf- 
 fer cedar. 
 
 SAND-BAGS, in fortification, are bags holding each about 
 a cubic foot of earth, or fand ; ufed for railing parapets in 
 hafte, or to repair what is beaten down. 
 They are alfo of ufe when the ground is rocky, and afFords 
 not earth to carry on the approaches ; becaufe they can be 
 eafily brought on, and off at plcafure. * 
 There are a letter fort, which hold half what the former 
 do, and are placed upon the upper talus of the parapet, £ 
 to cover thole who arc behind, and who fire through the cm- 
 brafures, or intervals, that are between them. 
 
 SANDEVER, or Sandiver, the recrement of glafs ; or the 
 fcum that arifes from the allies of the herb kali, ufed in the 
 
 . making of glafs. 
 
 Some alfo ufe fandever for the kali, or glafs-wort itfelf. 
 
 SAND-HEAT, or Sand-Bath, denotes one of the chy- 
 milts fires ; confuting of hot fand, wherein herbs, flowers, 
 
 are infuied i:i a cucurbit. 
 The fond-heat is cftecmcd gentle, digeftive, and altera- 
 tive of many bodies. 
 
 SANDIVER. See the article Sandever. 
 
 SAND YX, a kind of minium, made of cerufs, or ra- 
 ther lead, calcined and rubified ; called alfo faftitious 
 fandarac, 
 
 it is of little ufe in painting; the real minium, or red lead, 
 to which it is fubftitutcd, making a much better, brighter, 
 and more durable colour. 
 S AN G U I FI C ATI O N, in the animal ceconomy, the ac- 
 tion whereby chyle is converted into blood. 
 Sanguification fucceeds cbylification, and is followed by nu- 
 trition. 
 
 Sanguification is thus effected. The chyle having patted the 
 lacteals of the feveral kinds, is delivered into the blood 
 at the fubclavian ; whence the two humours pafs together 
 to the right ventricle of the heart, where being yet 
 more intimately mixed, they circulate together through 
 the whole body; till, after feveral circulations and de- 
 putations at the feveral colatures and (trainers of the 
 body, they become affimilated, or, as the chymifts call 
 it, coholnted, fo as only to make one uniform compound 
 mafs, which appears to be nothing elfe but chyle altered 
 by the artifice of nature, and exalted into blood. — In effect 
 i' does not appear that any thing extraneous is mixed 
 with the circulating liquor but chyle, excepting what 
 was before feparated from it for particular occafions ; 
 imleis perhaps it ihould receive fome portion of air in 
 the lungs, which is a point long difputed, and yet fcarce 
 aicertained. 
 
 indeed, that there is a quantity of air mixed with the 
 blood and circulating with it, is granted ; but whether 
 this be any more than what was at firft contained in 
 the bodies whereof the chyle was formed, is much doubt- 
 id : the principal arguments for it, are, the neceffity of 
 i r fpiiation, and the fiorid colour the blood receives in the 
 iuug*, and firft fhews in the pulmonary vein. — But the firft 
 is fiirisfactorily accounted for another way. See Respi- 
 ration. 
 
 , "J he ktter is chiefly fupported by this experiment, that blood 
 d: awn by vena: lection, and flittered to coagulate, upon turn- 
 
 ing up, the bottom, which before was blackifh, being now 
 expofed to the air, acquires a florid colour, like that we ob- 
 ferve in the blood of the pulmonary vein. 
 The ancients were in great-perplexity about the feat of fan- 
 guificatiotty or the place where, and the inftrument whereby 
 it is effected : whether in the heart, or the liver, or the 
 lungs? but, according to tire doctrine of the moderns, the 
 heart, liver, vefiels, ts'c. contribute no otherwife to the 
 changing of the chyle into blood, than the fun does to the 
 changing of the mult into wine. 
 
 The ancients accounted for fianguificatimi from a phttic pow- 
 er. — In the Lit century, when chymiftry was introduced, 
 fanguification, and almoft every thing elfe, was to be effected 
 by a ferment ; and the pnylicians of thofe times, were very 
 follicitous as to the particular officina where this ferment was 
 prepared and kept. Come would have it the liver, others the 
 fpleen, cj"c but the very notion of it is now exploded. 
 Of janguificatim we may admit two degrees ; the firft a- 
 mounting to no more than a confufion, or fuch an intimate 
 mixture of parts, as fuffices fo to confound the different co- 
 loured liquors, as that the whitenefs of the chyle fhallbcloft 
 or drowned in the rednefs of the blood, fo as never more 
 to appear in its own fhape and colour. — This wc fup- 
 pofe may be effected by repeated circulations alone : tho* 
 how many circulations are ncceffary thereto, it is difficult to 
 determine. 
 
 The fecond degree of fanguificaihn, is, when the parts of 
 the chyle are lb exalted, or comminuted and fubtiliaed, as 
 to lofe all tendency to a coagulatory fepatation, fuch as they 
 have in chyle and milk. 
 
 To thefe two degrees may be added a third, wherein the 
 fibres and filaments of the crude blood are fo broken and 
 blended with the ferum, as not to be again feparable from 
 them. — This is a morbid faigu'ification, fuch as happens in 
 fevers, taV. attended with a bloody fweat, purple foots, C3V. 
 All thefe degrees of jangiuficat'ion, Dr. Drake makes no 
 doubt, are procured by reiterated circulations, wherein as well 
 the inteftine, as the prcgreiiive motion, confpire to the mix- 
 ing and comminuting of tiie adventitious parts. Doubtlefs 
 they have their flatetl period, wherein they are inperfettion $ 
 though where precifcly to fix it, we do not know. 
 SANGUINE, bloody i or a thing abounding in blood. See 
 Blood. 
 
 Sanguine Temperament, or Conjlitution ) is that where blood, 
 and heat predominate. 
 
 Sanguine confmutions require a frequent ufe of phlebotomy. 
 Sanguine people are ufiially obferved tobebrifk, bold, daring, 
 and even prefumptuous. — Hence /anguine hopes, l, e. ftiong, 
 allured, £3"c. hopes. 
 Sanguine, in heraldry, the colour ufually called Murrey ; 
 being made of red lake, tinged with a little Spanifh brown. 
 It is rcprefented in engraving, by tranfverfe hatches like pur- 
 pure j arid is moftly ufed in the coats of knights of the 
 Bath. 
 
 When borne by nobles, it is rather called Sardonyx; and in 
 the coats of fovereign princes Dragon's Tail. 
 Sanguine Stone, Lapis Sanguinalis, a kind of Jafper, 
 brought from New-Spain, of a dark brown colour, marked 
 with fpots of a blood-red. 
 
 The Indians cut it in form of a heart, and ufe it in haemor- 
 rhages, immoderate menfes, and other fluxes of blood.— 
 The patient applies it by grafping it in his right-hand, hav- 
 ing firft dipt it in water. It is fometimcs alfo hung on the 
 part whence the blood flows. 
 SANGUINIS Periodus. See the article Periodus. 
 SANGUIS, in medicine, crV. See Blood. 
 Sanguis, in our ancient cuftoms, denotes a right or power, 
 which the chief lord of the fee anciently had to judge and 
 determine cafes where blood wasfhed.— De ?mirdcria & rap- 
 tu, de igne, de Sanguine, (sc. Monaft. 
 Sanguinem Emere, was an obligation which the inhabitants 
 of fome manors, as that of G rendon, were under, to buy and 
 redeem their villain blood, or tenure, and make themlclvea 
 freemen. 
 
 Sanguis Caprinus, or Hircinus, the blood of the he goat, 
 either wild or tame. This ufed to be prepared, with great 
 precaution, to be ufed in medicine, and was fuppofed by ma- 
 ny to have very extraordinary qualities. 
 
 The principal precautions are thefe: the goat is not to ex- 
 ceed four or five years of age ; it is to be fed a consider- 
 able time with aromatic herbs, and efpecially thofe of the 
 faxifrage kind; the blood to be drawn out of the throat, or 
 the teiticles, by cutting them ; but neither what comes firft, 
 nor laft is to be ufed, the former being too full of humidity, 
 and the latter too thick; the operation to be only performed 
 in July; and the blood put into earthen vefTels, and dried 
 either in the fun or the lhade j and, laftly, bottled up to be 
 F ufed occafionally. 
 
 : Among other fpecific virtues attributed to goat's blood, the 
 t two moft confiderable are, that, as they fay, it cures the 
 pleurify without bleeding; and that it difiolves the ftone in 
 the bladder, bv taking it in vehicles proper for thofe difeaiei. 
 1 —To be good', it is to be very hard, and difficult to pul- 
 verize. 
 
SAP 
 
 SAP 
 
 Sanguis Draconir, in pharmacy. See Dragon's-Blood. 
 SANHHDRIN*, or Sanhedrim, Synedrium, a- 
 mong the ancient Jews, the fupreme council, or court of 
 judicature of their republic ; wherein were difpatched all 
 the great affairs both of religion, and policy. 
 * The word is derived from the Greek "Smtfyat, a council, 
 affembly, or company of people fitting together ; from <rw 
 eon. together, and ityx feat. 
 
 Many of the learned agree, that it was inftituted by Mofes, 
 Numbers ch. xi. and confifted at firft of feventy perfons, all 
 infpired of the Holy Ghoft, who judged finally of all caufes 
 and affairs ; and that they fubfiited, without intermifuon, 
 from Mofes to Efdras. — Others will have it, that the council 
 of feventy ciders, cftablifhcd by Mofes, Numb. ch. xi. was 
 temporary, and did not hold after his death ; adding, that 
 we find no fign of any fuch perpetual and infallible tribunal 
 throughout the whole 'Old Teftament. 
 
 'The Jews, however, contend ftrenuoufly for the antiquity 
 of their great fanhedrin : M. Simon backs and defends their 
 proofs, and M. le Clerc attacks them.— -Be the origin and 
 effablifhment of the fanhedrin how it will, it is certain it 
 was fubfifting in the time of our Saviour ; that it was held 
 at Jerufalem ; and that the deciiion of all the molt impor- 
 tant affairs among the Jews belonged to it. — The prcfident 
 of this aflcmbly was called Nafi. 
 
 There were feveral inferior fanbedrim in Palcftine, all de- 
 pending on the great fanhedrin at Jerufalem. The inferior 
 fanhedrin confifted each of twenty-three perfons ; and there 
 was one in each city and town. Some fay, that to have a 
 right to hold a fanhedrin, it was requilite there were one 
 hundred and twenty inhabitants in the place. Where the 
 inhabitants came fliort of the number of one hundred and 
 twenty, they only eftabliflied three judges. 
 Into the great as well as the inferior fanheirtm were admit- 
 ted pricfts, levites, and laymen, of all the tribes, provided 
 they were of noble extraction, rich, wife, without any blem- 
 ifli of body, and, as was pretended expert, in magick ; which 
 laft was efteemed a ncceflary qualification, to enable them 
 to obviate and deftroy it : very old people and eunuchs were 
 excluded. 
 
 In each fanhedrin there were two fcribes ; the one to write 
 down the fuffrages of thofe who were for condemnation ; 
 the other to take down the fuffrages of thofe who were for 
 abfolution. 
 
 Kcldcn lias a learned work on the fubject of the Jewifh fan- 
 hedriniy de Synedriis, printed at London in 1635, in three 
 volumes, quarto. 
 
 SANIES, in medicine, a thin, limpid, ferous matter; iflu- 
 ing out of wounds, and ulcers : by the Greeks called lW. 
 Galen compares it to whey ; it differs from pus, which is 
 thicker and whiter. 
 
 SANTA LUM, Saunders, a hard, heavy, odoriferous, 
 medicinal wood, brought from the Eaft-Indics, of fomc re- 
 pute, as a drier, abforbent, and fweetner. 
 There are fantah of three different colours ; citrine, white, 
 and red. The trees whence they are taken are all of the 
 fame kind; and it is fuppofed their different colours only 
 arifc from the difference of the climates where they grow : 
 fome fay from the different parts of the tree they are taken 
 from. 
 
 They are all held to be a little aftringent, to ftrengthen 
 the heart and brain, and to Hop vomiting ; and are fre- 
 quently ufed in diet-drinks, and medicated ales, againfl 
 fcorbutick complaints. 
 
 The tree is about the height of the European walnut-tree : 
 its leaves refemble thofe of the lentifcus ; its flowers are blue, 
 bordering on black ; its fruit is of the fize of our cherry, green 
 at firft, but blackening as it ripens, and of a faint tafte. 
 The citrine-fantal is clteemed the belt : it is brought from 
 China, and Siam ; and is yellow, heavy, and of a good 
 fmcll j it is ufed in medicine, as alio by the perfumers. 
 The white-fantal is lefs odoriferous i it is brought from the 
 ifle of Timor. 
 
 The red has the leaft fmell of the three ; but is the moft 
 afttingent;_ it is brought from the ifland Tamaflarin, and 
 the coaft of Coromondel. 
 SAP*, in {peaking <rf plants, denotes juice. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Saxon S^eto, which fiVnifies 
 the fame; and that according to Mylioj from the Greek 
 fuettu, juice.— Whence alfo the Latin Safa t ufed for 
 an ndpjflatitd juice. See Rod. 
 
 Circulation of //vSap. See Circulation of the Sap. 
 
 Procurement of the Sap for [economical ufet, See Tapping. 
 
 Sap, or Sapp, in building. To fop a wall, &e. is to die or 
 open a trench in the ground at the foot of a wall, &C. fb as 
 to bring it down all at once for want of fupport. 
 To fap, according to Daviler, is to undermine a work 
 With hammers, pickaxes, mattneks, &c. viz. a bank, or 
 hillock, by propping it up, digging underneath it, and then 
 burn.ng the props, or flays ; or a rock, by nigging a mine 
 underneath if. 
 
 To demolifli the thick, firm walls of old caftles, (fa fat- 
 Ping is much the readieft way. 
 
 Sap, in the military art, denotes a work carried dri under 
 ground, to gam the defcent of a ditch, counterfcarp or 
 the like. 
 
 It is performed by digging a deep trench, defcendin°- by 
 iteps (rom top to bottom, under a corridor ; carrying it as 
 far as the bottom of the ditch, when that is dry,'br°as far 
 as the furface of the water when wet. 
 
 When the covert-way is well defended by mufketeers the 
 befiegers make their way down into it by fappiw V Wab 
 Form fig. %l. n. 5. When they are got near the foot of 
 the glacis, the trench is carried on directly forwards ; the 
 workmen covering themfelves with blinds, wool-packs 
 fand-bags, and mantelets upon wheels. They alfo make 
 epaulements, or traverfes, on each fide, to lodge a good 
 body of men. 
 
 The fap is ufually made five or fix fathom from the falfanf 
 angle of the glacis, where the men are only covered fide- 
 ways ; for which reafon they lay planks over-head with 
 hurdles, and eartli above them. 
 
 When they have forced the enemy to quit the covert-way^ 
 the pioneers immediately with fand-bags, wool-packs, or 
 other fences, make a lodgment, and cover themfelves as 
 well as they can, from the fire of the oppolite baftion. 
 SAPATA. See the article Zopata. 
 
 SAPHENA, in anatomy, a vein which anting over the mal- ' 
 leolus internus, and running up along the leg, and the inner 
 part of the thigh, difcharges itfelf, near the groin, into tha 
 crural vein. See Tab. Anat. JngeioL fig. 6. ». 44. 
 It is this vein they ufually open when they bleed in the 
 foot, for fuppreflions of the menfes. 
 
 It has its name, probably, from r^w, manifejiut, as lyin« 
 plain in fight. 
 
 SAPHETA, in architecture, is the board over the top of a 
 window, placed parallel and oppofite to the Window-ftool at 
 the bottom. 
 
 SAPIENTIAL, Sapientialis, an epithet applied to 
 certain books of fcripture, calculated for our inftruction and 
 improvement in prudence, or moral wifdom ; they are thus 
 called in contra-diftinction to the hiftorical and prophetical 
 books. 
 
 The fapitntial books are Proverbs, Canticles, Ecclefiaft.es 
 the Pfalms, and Job - y though fomc reckon this laft amonx 
 the hiftorical booksi a 
 
 SAPIENTI^E Denies, the two laft or inmoft of the dentes 
 molares of the upper jaw, one on each fide ; thus called 
 becaufe they appear not till perfons are grown. 
 
 SAPP. See the article Sap. 
 
 SAPPHIC, in poetry, a kind of verfe much ufed by the 
 Greeks, and Latins ; and fo denominated from the inven- 
 trefs Sappho. 
 
 The Sapphic verfe confifts of eleven fyllables, or five feat 3 
 whereof the firft, fourth, and fifth, are trochees, the fe- 
 cond a fppndeey and the third a dactyl, as in 
 Integer vita fceierifq; purus, 
 
 Non eget Mauri jacttlis nec arcu. Hor. 
 Three verfes of this kind, clofed with an Adonic verfe 
 confifting of a dactyl and fpondee, ufually make a ftrophe.— 
 Though we have fome chorus's in the ancient tragic 
 poets, containing a much greater number of Sapphich fug- 
 ceffively.— They generally run rough, unlefs they have the 
 caefure after the lecond foot. 
 SAPPHIRE, or Sapphyr, Sapphirus, a precious ftone 
 of a beautiful azure, or ficy-blue colour. 
 The fapphire is tranfparent, yet exceedingly hard, fo as very 
 difficultly to bear being engraven upon. 
 Different degrees of colour conllitute different kinds there- 
 of j the deepeft blues being elleemed males, and the paleft 
 females. 
 
 The fappblres of Pegu are the moft efteemed. They are 
 found in the fame mines with the rubies. There are fome 
 alfo brought from the kingdoms of Calecut, Cananor, and 
 Ceylon ; from which laft place we fhould be furnifhed with 
 abundance, if the king of the ifland did not prohibit all 
 commerce thereof with foreigners. 
 
 The foft or water-fapphires of Bohemia and Silefia are of fome 
 account, though far inferior to the oriental ones, both in the 
 brightnefs of their blue, and the iirmnefs of their texture. 
 Many people value the fapphire beyond the ruby ; and give 
 it the fecond place among precious ftones, viz. that next the 
 diamond : others give that place to the ruby. 
 A fapphire being heated to a certain degree, beween two 
 crucibles luted together, lofes all its blue, and becomes 
 perfectly colourlefs ; fo as to deceive even the jewellers them- 
 felves, and pafs for a diamond. 
 
 Our druggifts fell two kinds of fappkires ufed in the con- 
 fection of hyacinth ; the one red, the other blackifh. The 
 laft, by reafon of the deep tincture they give that medicine 
 are very improperly ufed there : the former are little rcddifli 
 ftones, of the fize of pin-heads, very hard, and difficult to 
 pulverize. 
 
 Some rank the cat's eye, oculus cati, in the number of fap- 
 phire:. This is a gem remarkable for a fine'diverfuy of co- 
 lours, as well as for its hardnefs, which bears a polilh equal 
 with that of the true fapphire. 
 
S A R 
 
 S A S 
 
 The chymifts make feveral preparations of fapphire ; as a 
 felt a tincture, an cfience, a water, an oil, (Sc. and there 
 are few difeafea but they pretend thcmfclves able to cure by 
 remedies compofed thereof. 
 
 The fuperftitious attribute ftill more ftrange virtues to this 
 ftone ; as, that it grows foul, and Iofes its beauty, when 
 wore by a perfon that is letchcrous, UFc. 
 The rabbins hold, that Mofes's rod, and the tables he re- 
 ceived on mount Sinai, were of fapphire. — The reafon is, 
 that in the Hebrew the fineft things are all called fapphrts ; 
 whence, in fcripture, the throne of God is faid to refemble 
 a fapphire. See Supplement, article Sapphire. 
 
 Sapphire-Rubies, are certain precious ftoncs, between 
 blue and red; which, .in effixr, are nothing but rubies, 
 whofc colour is mixed 'with blue. 
 
 SARABAIT.ES *, Sa RABAiTiE, a name anciently given 
 to vagabond and (trolling monks. 
 
 * The word is derived from the Hebrew •y\ofarab, to rebel. 
 St. Benedia gives a frightful idea of thefe Sarabaites in the 
 firft chapter of his rule : Caftan docs not fpeak a whit more 
 favourably of them in his fourteenth conference; nor St. 
 Jcrom in his letter to Fuftochium. 
 
 Caffian calls them, Remit*-, quiajugum regular is dfcipltn* 
 renuunt. _ . 
 
 SARABAND, a roufical compofition in triple time; being, 
 in reality, no more than a minuet, whofc motions are flow, 
 snd ferious. 
 
 Saraband is alfo a dance to the fame mcafurc, ufually termi- 
 nating when the hand rifes ; whereby it is diftinguifhed from 
 thecourant, which ends when the hand that beats time, falls. 
 The forehand is faid to be derived originally from the Sara- 
 cens," as well as the chacone : it had its name, according 
 to fome authors, from a comedian called Sarabands, who 
 firft danced it in France. Others derive the name from the 
 Spanim/tfrtffl, a hall: it is ufually danced to the found of 
 the guitarre, or caftanettes. 
 
 SARCASM, Sarcasmus, in rhctorick, a keen, bitter 
 irony, whereby the orator fcofifs, and infults his adverfary. 
 Such was that of the Jews to our Saviour : Thou who dejhoy- 
 ejl the temple, and raifejl it in three days, fave thyfelf, &C. 
 and again, He faved others, himftlf he cannot fave. Or that 
 of Turnus to a Trojan flain by him, in Virgil. 
 En agros, IS quam hello, Trojane, petijfti 
 Hefperiam mctire jacens ! H*c presmia qui ?nt 
 Ferro aufi tentare fcruni : fie mania condunt ! 
 
 SARCOCELE*, fcpaaftta, in medicine, a fieftiy, fcir- 
 rhous cxcrefeencc, very hard, yet not very painful ; rifing 
 up by little and little about the tcfticles, or on the inner, 
 membrane of the fcrotum. 
 
 * The word is foimed from the Greek mc£ euro, flefh, and 
 
 v-rXr, tUrtllOT. 
 
 Sometimes indeed it is painful ; id which cafe there is danger 
 of its degenerating into a cancer. 
 
 Jt ufually owes its origin to fume external caufe, as a blow, 
 a bruifc, or ccntufiun. Such accidents occahon the nutri- 
 tious juices to flop, and to be collected in great quantities in 
 the relaxed or comprefled pores of thofc parts, by which 
 means is formed that kind of tumour called farcocele, and by 
 ibme hernia carnofa. 
 
 It is a very troultcfomc and obftinate difcafe, and is fre- 
 quently incurable by any other means than caftration, or 
 ' cutting out the tefticle. 
 SARCOCOLLA, SwftcoiwAJwe, a gum oozing out of an orien- 
 tal vegetable either with, or without incifions. 
 Neither authors, nor merchants are agreed as to the place 
 where it grows : fome fay it is in Perfia, others, in Arabia 
 Deferta. — It comes either in grains, or in tears of different 
 colours ; fomctimes white, fometimes yellow, and fome- 
 times red, but all equally good, provided they be very dry. 
 The tafte is bitter, accompanied with fomewhat of a dif- 
 agreeable fweetnefs. 
 
 It is efteemed warm, and drying ; very good to confolidate 
 and heal wounds ; whence its name — from the Greek, 
 flefh, and *oA*9! glue. 
 
 It is fometimes alio ufed in collyria to flop defluxions, and 
 take off fpecks in the eye. 
 SARCOLOGY, in anatomy, a difcourfe on the flefli, or 
 the foft parts of the human body. See Flesh. 
 Anatomy is divided into two principal parts ; ojleology and 
 jarcology. The fiift whereof treats of the bones, and 
 cartilages; the fecond of the flefh and foft parts. See 
 Anatomy. 
 
 SARCOMA, 2*fK#ftM, in medicine, a flefhy, fungous cx- 
 crefcence artfing in the noftrils, or other parts ; nearly re- 
 fumbling a polypus. 
 
 The fereoma chiefly differs from the polypus, as the latter 
 grows from the part by feveral roots ; the former by one 
 continued root, or without any roots at all. 
 Every polypus is a farcama; but not vice verfa. — The far- 
 coma frequently degenerates into a polypus. 
 SARCOMPHALUM *, Zmptpf**,, " in medicine, fef>. a 
 flefhy excrefcence of the navel. 
 
 * The word is farmed from the Greek rwyE fcjhj and HtfaX®" 
 
 navel. ' , ■■ 
 
 SARCOPHAGUS, E*p«fay^, in antiquity, a fort of float 
 CL»fHn, or grave, wherein the ancients laid thofe they had 
 not a mind to burn. 
 
 The word, as derived from the Greek, literally fignifies, 
 fiejh-eatcr ; becaufe at firft, they ufed a fort of ftones for the 
 making of thefe tombs, which quickly confumed the bo- 
 dies. — The quarries from whence they dug them were near a 
 city of Troas, named AJJhm, — They had the faculty to wafte 
 away a body to nothing, fave the teeth, in forty days. 
 This flone refembled a reddifh pumice- ftone, and had a fa!t- 
 ifh tafte ; they alfo made veffels of it to cure the gout, into 
 which they put their feet, not fufiering them to continue 
 there too long. See Supplement, article Assius Lapis. 
 SARCOTICKS*, X«pe***«, in medicine, remedies proper 
 to fill up wounds and ulcers with new flefli ; the fame as in- 
 carnatives. Such are farcocolla, tjragon's- blood, frankin- 
 cenfe, &c. See Ikcarnativk and Epulotic. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek v*& flejh. 
 SARDIAN, Sardoin, or Lapis Sardius, a precious flone 
 
 of a blood colour, ferni-traufparent ; the fame with what 
 we otherwife call a Cornelian. 
 
 The moft beautiful Sardians, are thofe brought from about 
 Babylon : thofe of Sardinia, whence they take their name, 
 are in the fecond clafs. There are others, and thofe no con- 
 temptible ones, found near St. Mauro in Albania ; and other, 
 very final] ones, about the Rhine, in Bohemia, Silefia, C3r. 
 To give them the greater luftre, it is ulual in fetting them, 
 to lay filver-leaf underneath. The Sardien is moft ufed for 
 feals, as graving eafily, yet taking a fine polifh. 
 The author of the book falfely afcribed to Albertus Mag- 
 nus, attributes feveral wonderful virtues to this ftone. See 
 Supplement, article Sarda. 
 SARDONIAN Laughter. See Risus Sardonius. 
 SARDONYX, -tffeW, a kind of belted or plated precious ftone, 
 partaking partly of the fardian, and partly of the onyx. 
 It is femi-tranfparent, and ufually is reddifh plated with whitc^ 
 fomewhat like the nail of the hand : in fome, the red in- 
 clines to a yellow. It is brought from the Eaft-Indies, A- 
 rabia, and Bohemia. It was anciently much ufed for fine 
 veflels. See Supplement, article Sardonyx. 
 SARPLAR * of Wool, Sarplera Lan*., otherwife called 
 a pocket, is half a fack. See Sack. 
 
 * In Scotland, it is called Serplaith. 
 SARRASIN, or Sarrazin, in fortification, a kind of 
 
 portcullice, otherwife called an herfe, which is hung with 
 ropes over the gate of a town, or fortrefs, and let fall in 
 cafe of a furprize. 
 SARSAPARILLA, Sals ap arilla, or Sarsa, a me- 
 dicinal plant, growing in New Spain, Peru, &c. chiefly 
 ufed in decoctions, and potions for the veneral difeafe ; be- 
 ing efteemed a great abforbent and fweetner ; and, on that 
 fcore, fometimes taken as a tea. 
 
 Its root, which is the part in ufe, divides itfelf into a great 
 number of filaments, fix or feven foot long ; of the thick- 
 nefs of a quill : it is brownifh without fide, and white with- 
 in, only marked with two red ftreaks. Its branches creep 
 on the earth, or along the trunks of trees, (Sc. as the ivy 
 does. 
 
 To be good, it muft be very dry, its filaments long, eafy to 
 cleave; and, in cleaving, they muft not yield any duft : 
 when boiled in water, it muft give it a reddifh tincture. — 
 Some phyficians much doubt the medicinal virtue of this root ; 
 as it does not difcover much, either in tafte, fmell or 
 tincture. 
 
 There is another kind of farfa, the filaments of whofc root 
 are thicker, growing in the ifland Marignan, on the coaft of 
 Brafil : this is not efteemed fo good as the former. 
 There is a third kind brought from Mufcovy, whofe roots 
 are ftill bigger, but good for nothing. 
 SARTORIUS, in anatomy, the Taylor's mufcle; a mufcle 
 thus called, becaufe fcrving to throw one lega-crofs the other. 
 It is alfo called Longtts tih'uc, and Fafciaiis ; and is an anta- 
 gonift to the poplitaeus. — See Tab. Anat. (Myol.) fig. I. n. 
 40> fig- 2. n. 38. See alfo the article Loncus. 
 lSSAFRAS, a yellowifh, odoriferous wood, of a brifk, aro* 
 matick fcent, fomewhat refembling fennel ; the produce of 
 a tree whereof there are whole forcfls growing in Florida, 
 Virginia, (Sc. 
 
 The natives call it Pavama, the Spaniards and French call it 
 Cinnamon-JVood ; becaufe, at the conqueft of that country, 
 under Ferdinand Soto, in 1558, they imagined this to have 
 been the true cinnamon tree. 
 
 The lignum Saffafras, and chiefly its bark, wherein its 
 principal virtue is fuppofed to refide, was formerly fold at an 
 incredible price, to be ufed with farfaparilla and China root, 
 in the cure of the venereal difeafe. It is very drying and 
 hot, though not quite fo much fo as the guaiacrfim. 
 It is fomewhat come into fafhion in families, as a common 
 tea, which the (havings of it make agreeable enough ; but 
 the fcandal of being good in venereal cafes, is a detriment 
 to it, and prevents a deal of good being done by it. 
 It is efteemed in the gout, fciatica, and green ficknefs. 
 Chufc that covered with a thick bark, reddifh, and rough, 
 of a fharp tafle, and a ftrong aromatic fmell. 
 
 SASSE, 
 
SAT 
 
 S A S 3 £, in fome of our ftatutes, denotes a kind of wear with 
 flood-gates, commonly tiled in navigable rivers for the dam- 
 ming, and looling the ftream of water, as occafion requires, 
 for the better pafling of boats, and barges to, and from 
 places. 
 
 This in the weft of England, is called a Loch ; in the river 
 Lec, a Turn-pike, and in other places a Sluice, 
 SATELLITE, Satelles, Guard ; a perfon attending 
 on another, either for his fafety, or to be ready to execute 
 his pleafure. 
 
 Among the eaftern empcrofs, Satellite originally exprefi'ed 
 the dignity or office of captain of the life-guard. 
 The term was afterwards applied to the valfals of lords ; 
 and afterwards, to fuch as held fees, called Sergeemties. See 
 Sergeanty. 
 
 Satellites, inaftronomy, certain fecundary planets, moving 
 round the other planets, as the moon does round the earth ; 
 they are thus called, becaufe always found attending them 
 from fifing to fetting, and making the tour of the fun to- 
 getherwith them. 
 
 I he Satellites move round their primary planets, as their 
 centres, by the fame laws as thole primary ones do round 
 their centre, the fun.— For the phyfical caufe of their mo- 
 tions, fee Gravity. 
 
 The words moon, and Satellite, are fometimes ufed 
 differently j and thus we fay, either Jupiter's moons 
 or Jupiter's Satellites; but ordinarily we diftinguiih; re 
 Braining the term moon, to the earth's Satellite ; and 
 Satellite to the little moons lately difcovered about Jn 
 piter and Saturn. 
 
 The Satellites were unknown till our time ; as needing thi 
 affiftancc of the telefcope to render them vifibie. 
 We do not know of any Satellites, befides thofe juft men- 
 tioned ; nor is there any great foundation to hope that more 
 fhall be difcovered hereafter, as the longcft, and the moil 
 exquifite telefcopes have already been applied. 
 Satellites of Jupiter, are four little fecondary planets, 
 performing their revolutions about Jupiter, as that planet 
 does round about the fun. 
 
 Simon Marius, mathematician of the eledor of Branden- 
 burgh, about the end of November in 1609, obferved three 
 little ftars moving round Jupiter's body, and proceeding a 
 long with him ; and in January 1610, he found a fourth 
 —In January 16:0, Galileo alfo obferved the fame in Ita 
 ly ; and the fame year publiihed his observations ; from 
 which rune commenced the obfervatioh of the circumi'ovial 
 Satellites. 
 
 Galileo, in honour of his patron, firft called them allra 
 Medieata, Medicxan ftars : Marius, the firft difcoverer 
 called that next Jupiter, Mereurius Jovialis, Jupiter's Mer- 
 cury; the fecond, denies Jevialis, Jupiter's Venus ; the third 
 Jupiter Jovialis, and the fourth Satumus Jovialis, Jupiter's 
 Saturn. r 
 Indeed, Anthony Maria Schyrlaeus dc Rheita, a capuchin of 
 Cologne, imagined, that, befides the four known Satellites 
 of Jupiter, he had difcovered five more, on the 20th of De- 
 cember, anno 1642, and in honour of Urban VIII. the 
 pope then reigning, he denominated them Sidera Vrbanoelo- 
 inana.— But upon Nauda's communicating the obfervation 
 to Gaflendus, who had obferved Jupiter on the fame dav, 
 he foon perceived that the monk had miftaken five fixed ftars' 
 in the effufion of the water of Aquarius, marked in Tycho's 
 catalogue 24, 25, 26, 27 and 2S, for Satellites of Jupi- 
 ter: whence it is no wonder they niould appear to the 
 difcoverer to move a contrary way to that of the reft, viz 
 from weft to eaft. See Epijl. Gaffend. ad Gab. Naud. ' de ta- 
 vern Jlelhs cirea Jovem vifts. 
 
 Pheemmena and nature of Jupiter's Satellites. 1°. They 
 
 all difappear in a clear Iky, when Jupiter interpofes between 
 them and the fun ; that is, they are eclipfed by him. 
 Hence it follows, that they are deftitute of light, when the 
 fun's rays, which are propagated in right lines, are inter- 
 cepted by Jupiter : and hence it follows, that they are. o- 
 paque bodies like our moon, and arc illumined by the fun. 
 —And hence, fince Jupiter does not illumine his Satellites 
 when placed behind him ; he himfelf, in that fide opnolite 
 to the lun, is deftitute of all light. 
 
 2°. When the Satellites arc intcrpofed between Jupiter and 
 the fun, a round macula or fpot is obferved in Jupiter's 
 diik ; which is fometimes found bigger even than the Satel- 
 mcitfelf. 
 
 Hence fince the Satellites are opaque bodies, and are illu- 
 mined by the fun, and mull therefore projea a fhadow, op- 
 pofite to the fun J the round fpots feen in Jupiter, are the 
 Ihadows i of the Satellites.-Hmcc alio, fince the interfcetion 
 of the fhadow is a circle, the fhadow itfelf is conical : and 
 hence it follows, that the figure of the Satellites, at lead, 
 to fenle, is Iphencal. 
 
 3°' } l wh»n the earth is between Jupiter and the fun 
 of the Satellite, tapper, to be between the fame, its light 
 d.fappears, and ,s loft ,n Jupiter's light—Thus M. Maraldi 
 tells us, that on the 26th of March L707 throush a te- 
 lelcope of thirty-four foot, he obferved the fourth of Jupi- 
 ter s moons pairing over his body, i„ form of a dark fpot : 
 Vol. II. N". 137. 1 ' 
 
 , any 
 
 SAT 
 
 but it had no fooner got off the difk, than it relumed its 
 ufua bnghtneis. A like fpot he obferved on the 4th of 
 April, trom an immerfion of the third Satellite ; but, on 
 the iith of April, upon watching an immerfion of 'ihe 
 bme Satelltttj he lound it appeared wholly, without leaving 
 any pot at all.— The lame phenomenon was alio obferved 
 at other times bv M. Caffini. 
 
 In effect, both Caffini and Maraldi have frequently obferved 
 very lurpnzmg changes in the apparent magnitudes of the 
 Satellite!, when there was nothing in their diliance either 
 Irom the earth fun, or Jupiter, to occafion fuch varia- 
 UOK.-E. gr. 1 he iourth Satellite, which is frequently the 
 leaft of all, fometimes appears the Liggett : and the third 
 which 13 ordinarily the biggeft, fometimes only appears e- 
 qual, and fometimes lefs, than.any of the reft. 
 Hence, fince Jupiter's Satellites' are illumined bv the fun 
 even when immerged in the light of Jupiter, and 'vet not! 
 withftanding this, fometimes appear dark, and fometimes 
 difappear ; there mull be fome changes in their atmofpheres 
 to prevent the equable refkaion of the fun's rays, from the 
 feveral parts of the atmofphere.— To the fame caufe alfo it is 
 owing that their ihadows are fometimes feen bister than 
 themfelves. 
 
 medical times of Jupiter's Satellites The periods or 
 
 revolutions of Jupiter's Satellites are found from their con- 
 mnctions with Jupiter, after ihe fame manner as thofe of 
 the primary planets are found from their oppofitions to the 
 lun. 
 
 By this method, Caffini found the periods of the feveral Sa- 
 tellites to be as follow. 
 
 Firft Satellite I Day 18 Honrs 28 Min. 36 Seconds 
 Second Satellite 3 13 jg ~ 
 
 Third Satellite 7 3 59 4C» 
 
 Fourth Satellite lb 18 05 66 
 
 Dijlance of Jupiter's Satellites from Jupiter As in the 
 
 primary planets, with regard to the fun, fo in the Satellites 
 with regard to their primaries, the fquares of the periodica! 
 times are in a triplicate ratio of their diftances therefrom — 
 To determine the diftance by obfervation, they mealii^e 
 them with a micrometer, in femi-diameters of Jupiter.— 
 1 hefe diftances, according to Caffini, are as follow. 
 The firft Satellite is diftaiit from Jupiter's centre 
 
 5 t femi-diameters of Jupiter 
 1 he fecond Satellite 9 femi-diameters 
 
 The third Satellite 14 
 The fourth Satellite 25 and one 3d. 
 
 Hence, as the femi-diameter of Jupiter is equal to 27 & 
 femi-diameters of the earth, the diftance of the firft Satellite 
 from the centre of Jupiter is 166 femi-diameters of the 
 earth ; that of the iecond 249 and a haif ; that of the 
 third 388 ; and that of the fourth 884. 
 Eelipfes of Jupiter's Satellites. See Eclipse 
 Satellites of Saturn, are five little ftars revolving about 
 Saturrf. , 
 
 The firft was difcovered by M. Huygens, aam 1655, March 
 the 25th, by means of a telefcope twelve foot long : and the 
 other four, at different times, by M. Caffini, viz. thofe two 
 next Saturn, in March 1684, by help of Campani's Glafies 
 of one hundred, and one hundred and thirty-fix foot' 
 the third m December 1672, by a telefcope of Campani's, 
 ol thirty-five foot ; and the filth (that of Huy^ens bein ' 
 
 £\ "wl™ b l 3 tclcfc0 P e °f ftventeeS 
 
 foot. Molt, perhaps all, of the pluenomena obferved of lu- 
 piter s Satellites, are alfo found exhibited by thofe of Saturn 
 Thus they are found fometimes bigger, and fometimes lefs ■ 
 trie nttil is lumetimes, alfo, found eclipfed, CSV. And h-nce' 
 there is no doubt, but they are of the fame nature, &Y. ' 
 
 Tl>e periodical times of the Satellites of Saturn, according 
 to M. Caffini, are as follow. S 
 Firft Satellite , Day 21 Hours 18 Min. 31 Seconds. 
 Second Satellite 2 17 41 j. 
 
 Third Satellite 4. 4? ,§ 
 
 Fourth Satellite 15 22 41 It 
 
 Filth Satellite 74 7 ^ 
 
 The dijlanees of oWVr Satellites from his centre ac- 
 cording to the fame M. Caffini, are as follow. 
 Firft Satellite 4 1 -> Semi- r 1 
 Second Satellite 5 1 / diam. \ J 
 
 Third Satellite 8 >ofSa-"w i] 
 
 Fourth Satellite 18 \ turn, / 4 
 
 Fifth Satellite 54 J or '-io, 
 The great diftance between the fourth and fifth Satellite 
 gave occafion to Huygcns to lulpea that there mi»ht he- 
 lome intermediate one ; or elfe, that the fifth might have 
 lome other Satellite moving round it, as its centre 
 Dr. Halley, in the Philofophical Transitions, »ives us a 
 correa.on of the theory of the motion of the fourth or 
 Huygeman Satellite. — Its true period he makes it dai s 2? 
 hours, 41 minutes, 6 feconds ; its diurnal motion, »• 0,1 
 38' 18 " ; its diftance liom the centre of Saturn, 4 diam? 
 ters of the ring ; and us orbit to be little or nothing diftaiit 
 from that of the ring, interfec'ting the orbit fJfSatuin und, - 
 an angle of 23 i degrees. 
 
 " * SATIR, 
 
SAT 
 
 SAT 
 
 S VTIR and SATIRE. Sec the article Satyr. 
 SATISFACIENDUM capias ad. See Capias. 
 5ATRAPA, or Satrapes, in antiquity, a governor or a 
 province among the ancient Perfians. 
 
 Kin" Darius ufually walked attended by his principal lords, 
 twiUatrap*, Q: Curtius. The kingdom of Perfia was di- 
 vided into fatrap'tes, or jurifdictions of fatrapa. 
 The word'is originally Periian, fignifying, ftriftlyj admiral, 
 or commander of a ilaval army ; but it was afterwards ap- 
 plied indifferently to all governors of provinces.— Jn which 
 fcnfe it was alfo borrowed by the Greeks, who ufed the word 
 <r*Tp«Tii; in the fame fignification. 
 
 We alfo meet with the word in fome ancient Englifh char- 
 ters of king Ethelrcd ; where the lords, who figo next 
 after the dukes, take the title of fatrapes of the king.— 
 Du Cange takes the word here to lignify miniftcrs of the 
 
 SATTIN*, or Satin, a kind of fdken fluff, very fmooth, 
 and fouling, the warp whereof is very fine, and ftands out ; 
 the woof coarfcr, and hid underneath : on which depends 
 that glofs, and beauty, which gives it its price. 
 
 * The word comes from the French Satin, which Menage de- 
 rives further from the Latin Seta, a brittle or hair ; others 
 from the Hebrew Satin ; or from the old French U, and 
 Satinet, handfome, genteel. 
 
 There are fome fatttM quite plain, others wrought, fome 
 flowered with gold or filk, others ftriped, &c — All the 
 varieties in the fabric of fatttmzte made by ufing new warps, 
 or woofs. The fineft fittins are generally faid to be thofe 
 of Florence and Genoa ; yet, the French will not allow 
 thofe of Lyons any thing inferior thereto. —The fafttns 
 of Bruges have their warp of filk, and their woof of 
 
 fcSian'ftttfefj or fattins of China, are filken fluffs, much 
 like thofe manufactured in Europe.— Of thefe, fome are 
 plain, cither white, or of other colours ; others work- 
 ed either with gold, or filk, flowered, damafked, ftrip- 
 ed' &t. They are moftly valued becaufe of their clean- 
 ing and bleaching eafily, without lofing any thing of 
 their luftre. In other refpects they arc inferior to thofe 
 of Europe. , .... 
 
 F. le Come obferves, that the Chinefe prepare their jattins 
 in oil, to give them the greater luftre j but this makes the 
 duft liable to hang to them. 
 5ATTINET*, or Sattinade, a very flight, thin fort ot 
 lattin chiefly ufed by the ladies for fummer night-gowns, 
 c?"c. and ordinarily ftriped. 
 
 * The word is a diminutive of Satiitt. 
 SATURANTIA, is fometimes ufed in the fame fenfe as 
 
 Mforbents. See Absorbent. 
 
 SATURDAY-STOP, afpaceof time, m which of old it 
 was not lawful to take falmons, in the north, viz. from 
 even-fong on Saturday, till fun-rifmg on Monday. 
 
 SATURN, in aftronomy, one of the primary planets ; 
 being that which is fartheft from the earth, and the 
 fun, and whofc motion is the floweft : It is thus cha- 
 racterized, Tj. r — ■ j ■ r 
 Saturn fhines but with a feeble light, by reafon of its di(- 
 tance, on which account, alfo, though the biggeft of all the 
 planets, it appears the fmalleft. 
 
 The period of Saturn, or the fpace of time wherein he re- 
 volves round the fun, which makes his year, according to 
 Kepler, is 29 years, 174 days, 4 hours, 58 minutes, 25 fe- 
 conds, and 30 thirds ; whence his diurnal motion muft be 2 
 minutes, o feconds, 36 thirds. Though de la Hire makes 
 
 liis diurnal motion 2 minutes I lecond 
 
 -The inclination of 
 
 his plane to that of the ecliptick, Kepler makes 2° 32', de 
 la Hire, 2°. 33'- l [ s mean diftance from the fun is 32.6925 
 femi-diameters of the earth ; and from the earth 210000 of 
 the fame— Us fmalkft diameter, according to Huygens, 
 is 30 feconds : the proportion of its diameter to that of the 
 earth as 20 to I ; of its furface to that of the earth, as 400 
 to 1 ■ of its folidity to that of the earth, as 1 to 8000. 
 Dr. Halley obferves, in the preface to his catalogue of 
 the fouthem ftars, that he has found Saturn to have a 
 flower motion than is afligncd him in the tables: this 
 irregularity is abundantly rectified in his own tables. 
 Jt is doubted whether or no Saturn, like the other pla- 
 nets, revolves on his axis : it does not appear from any 
 aftro'nomical obfervations that he does ; and there is one 
 circumftance that fliould feem to argue the contrary, 
 •viz. that whereas the earth, and other planets, which 
 we know do revolve on their axis, have their equatorial 
 diameter greater than their polar, nothing like this is ob- 
 Verved in Saturn. 
 
 The diftance of Saturn from the fun being ten times 
 greater than that of the earth from the fame, it is found 
 that the apparent diameter of the fun feen from him, will 
 not exceed 3 minutes, which is but little more than twice 
 the diameter of Venus. — The fun's difk, therefore, to an in- 
 habitant of Saturn, will appear 100 times lefs than it does 
 to us, and both its light and heat will be diminifhed in the 
 fame proportion. 
 
 The phafesof Saturn are very various and extraordinary, ajid 
 
 long perplexed the aftronomer?, who could not divine 
 the meaning of fuch irregularity : thus Hevelius obftrved 
 him to be fometimes moiisfphentul, iumetimes trijphdrica't^ 
 fpherico-anfated, tllipticoanfated, and fpbericO'Cuj'pidatcd. 
 — But Huygens plainly fhews, that all thefe munftrous 
 appearances are Owing to the imperfection of the tele- 
 fcopes that author had ufed. Huygens, upon obferving 
 him very attentively with much better glaffe?, reduced 
 all his phafes to three principal ones, Vt%, round, bra- 
 cbiated, and anfatcd. 
 
 One thing Saturn has peculiar to himMf, tfi&. a ring which 
 furrounds his middle like an arch, or like the horizon of a 
 globe, without touching him any where ; the diameter there-i 
 of is more than double that of the planet which it furrounds ; 
 the former containing 45 diameters of the earth, the latter 
 only 20. When railed enough to be out of the fhadow of 
 the body of Saturn, it reflects the light of the fun very ftrong- 
 ly. The thicknefs of the ring, Dr. Keill obferves, takes up 
 one half of the fpace between its outer or convex furface, and 
 the furface of the planet. 
 
 This ring is found to be an opaque, foltd, but fmooth, and 
 even body. — It was Galileo firft difcovered that the figure of 
 Saturn was not round ; but it was Huygens firft found that 
 its inequality was in form of a ring ; the difcovery of which 
 he publifhed in 1659, in his Syjle/na Saturmamun. — It is- 
 doubted whether or no the ring revolves round the planet ? 
 its ufe and defign are ftill a myfterv. — For its phenomena, 
 is'c. fee Ring. 
 
 Saturn performs his courfe round the fun, attended with five 
 fatellites, or fecondary planets ; the periods, diftances, oV. 
 whereof fee under Satellites. 
 Saturn, in chymiftry, fignifies lead ; in regard that rnctal is 
 fuppofed to lie immediately under the influence of this 
 planet. 
 
 Saturn, in heraldry, denotes the black colour in the 
 coats of arms of fovereigu princes ; anfwering to dia- 
 mond in the coats of noblemen j and fable in thofe of 
 gentlemen. 
 
 SATURNALIA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated among the 
 Romans, in honour of the god Saturn. 
 The Saturnalia held three days; beginning on the 16th, 
 others fay, the 17th, and others the 18th day of De- 
 cember. 
 
 During this folemnity the flaves were reputed matters ; they 
 were allowed to fay any thing; and in fine, they were fervcJ 
 at table by the maftcrs themfelves. — Everything run into de- 
 bauchery and dilTolutenefs, and nothing was heard or feen in 
 the city of Rome, but thedin* riot, and diforder of a peo- 
 ple wholly abandoned to joy, and pleafure. 
 M. Dacicr obferves, that the Saturnalia were not only cele- 
 brated in honour of Saturn, but alfo to keep up the remem- 
 brance of the golden age, when all the world was on a level. 
 It was a piece of religion not to begin any war, or execute 
 any criminal during this feaft. 
 
 The Saturnalia were not only obferved at Rome, but alfo in 
 Greece; and were, in reality, much older than Rome iticlf. 
 — Some afcribe their inftitution to the Pclafgi, who were 
 caft upon the ifiznd of Delos ; others to Hercules, and o- 
 thers to Janus. — Gcropius Bccanus makes Noah the author 
 of them. Orig. lib. 4. That patriarch, he tells us, in the 
 ark, instituted a feaft to be held in the tenth month, in me- 
 mory of this, that in that month, the tops of the mountains 
 began to appear above the water; and this he makes the ori- 
 gin of the Saturnalia ; but it is very probable the year then 
 began in autumn, and of confluence December could not 
 be the tenth month. Voftius goes ftill higher, and will have 
 it, that the Saturn, in honour of whom this fe.ifl wus infti- 
 tutcd, was Adam. 
 SAT U RN 1 LIT AN S. See the article Saturnini ans, 
 SATURNINE, or Saturnian, a term applied to pcrfons 
 of dark, fullcn, melancholic completions ; as being fuppofed 
 under the predominancy of Saturn, or at whofc births Saturn 
 was the afcendani:. 
 S AT URNIN1ANS, or Saturnillians, a feet of an- 
 cient Gnofticks ; thus called from their chief Saturn! Has \ 
 or Saturninus, a difciolc of Menander, the famous Gno- 
 ftick. 
 
 Saturmllus taught the fame errors with his mafter, in Syria. 
 See Menandrians. 
 SATYR*, Satyrus, satyfos, in the heathen thcclozy, 
 a fabulous kind of femi-god, who with the Fauns and Svi- 
 vans, prefided over groves, and forefts, under the direction 
 of Pan- 
 
 * The word is ufually derived from Sntbc, trx6n : wltieb, in the 
 ancient Greek, (jgriififd the virile member ; elude deities bs- 
 ing fuppofed much addiited to hfciviouinefs. 
 The Satyrs were painted half men, and half goats: the up- 
 per part was human, excepting for horns onjbc head ; the 
 lower brutal, with the tail and legs of a goat ;*ie whole co- 
 vered with hair. 
 
 The poets ufually confound the Satyrs, Silvans, ^ileni. Fauns, 
 and Panes. 
 
 Nonnus, in his Dionyfiaca, makes the Satyrs the off-.pring of 
 Mcrcurv, and a Doric nymph, called Tapthima. vid gives 
 us the names of fevend, viz. Pxminius, Tbyafusj Hypfi. 
 
 clwius. 
 
SAT 
 
 SAT 
 
 chorus, Oriftas, Apseus, Phlegrxus, Lycon, &c. — Meni- 
 non, in his book againft the tyrants of Heraclea, derives 
 the Satyrs from Bacchus, and'a Naiad, called Nicsea. 
 Satyrs made part of the dramatis perform in the ancient 
 Greek tragedies, which gave rile to a new (pedes of poetry, 
 called fatyrical. See the article following. 
 atyr*, Satvra, orSATiRA, in a literary fenfe, figni- 
 ties all manner of difcourfe wherein any perfon is repre- 
 hended ; but more particularly a poem, wherein mens follies', 
 and vices are wittily expofed, in order to their reformation. 
 * The origin of the word has been the occafion of a notable 
 difpute among the criticks. The common opinion fupported 
 by Scaiiger, Heiofius and Voflius, deduces it from the Gr..ek 
 J&tvbih Satyrs, a fort of Sylvan deities, by the Romans 
 called Fauni, to whofe petulancy and wantonnefs this fore 
 of compofuion is fuppofed to bear fome refeinblance.— On 
 which footing fatyr is confidered as a poem of a wanton, 
 and licentious nature, which Jike the Satyrs, turns things 
 ' upfide down to find occafion for cenfure, and ridicule.— 
 Cafaubon, on the contrary, followed by Spanheini and Da- 
 cier, derives the Roman fatyr not fiom the Grecian divinities 
 called Satyrs, to which they aiferc it bears no relation, but 
 from the Latin Satur, ufed for plenum fall, a thing to winch 
 nothing is wanting.— Thus it is tiaxfatur color 1 , denotes WOol 
 which has fufficiently imbibed the colour, fo that its dye 
 cannot be further heightened : fo fatur meffts denoted a 
 plentiful harveft b ; and fatur geftus, a various one c .— From 
 this fatur came fatura, which was alio written Jutira With 
 an /, as maximus for maXum*s ; and optimus for optumus. But 
 fatura, it is to be obferved, is an adjedtive, referring to a 
 fubftantive underlleod, which here is Ianx ; fatura lanx be- 
 ing the name of a baion filled with all manner of fruit*, 
 which the Romans offered yearly to Ceres and Bacchus, as 
 their firft fruits. Thus the grammarian Diomedes-: Lanx rc- 
 ferta variis mnltifqiie primit/is, Jacris Ctrtrii infertbatur, Cif a 
 copia cjf faturiiate ret, fatura nocabatur. Thence alio (he 
 word fatura was applied to many other mixtures ; particu 
 larly to adifh confuting of feveral forts of meats: Qwddam gtaus 
 'farciminis inultis rebus refertum faturam dicit Varra wcitari 4 . 
 And the fame term was alfo tranfl.ited to works of genius : 
 thus, leges fatura denoted laws confilting of many heads or 
 titles, as in Feftus : fatura eft lex mult is uiiis legibus confer i a. - 
 And the ancient Gloif. fatura No^o; toAA« x'-pw. Such, 
 e. gr. is this, Vultfne, jubetifne aim Jugurtbu bellum compo- 
 tsatur, & fadus ftriatur : ehphantos tradat, ium smites trunj- 
 fugat, -t*fc. — Hence alfo a thing was faid per faturam ft L ri, 
 when it was done haftily and confufedly: thus p.r faturam 
 legem ferre, was to p*fs a law confufedly and -in the lump, 
 without collecling the votes. — Laflly, fatura alio became 
 the title of feveral book;, as of that of Pefcemlius Feltus, 
 who wrote hifiariat f.-.turas, or per ftturam. — From the 
 whole is inferred, that the fatyrical pieces of the poets 
 were fo called, as being various, and milcellanecus compofi- 
 tions ; or as Porphyrion expreflcs it, quod multis Cif warns re- 
 has hoc carmen refertum eft.— On this principle it is urged, 
 the word ihould be written in La:in with an u or i, Jaturu or 
 fatira, and in Englifti only with an i. They who write it 
 with a_>*, do it as fuppoling with Scaiiger, and others, that 
 the Sylvan Satyri gave name to this compofuion, and that 
 from Satyi-us came fatyra, which Cafaubon labours hard to 
 diiprove, by mowing, that from fatjrus could never be 
 formed futyra, but fatrrica, and by explaining the great 
 difference between the Greek fatyrk poems and the Roman 
 fatire. — Scaiiger neverthelefs defends the ancient etymon 
 'from the Greek Lxtv^, which he makes to be the origin of 
 the Latin fatur, fatura ianx, &c. which according to him were 
 appellations firlt ufed in the facrinces and ceremonies of 
 Bacchus, where fetyrs were rchearfed : Non a fatura vti lege 
 •vel lance dicta eft, ut fntftra ac tetnere fatagwit grammatici ; 
 quilt has a futjris diclas puto : cum lancibus enim predtbant, 
 <Jj canijhllis pomorum omni game plenis, quibus nympbas al- 
 iicereiit c . — In effect, fatyrical poetry, according to this cri- 
 tick, may be naturally enough deduced from the wantonnefs 
 of the Satyrs : and what confirms it is, that £«Tfpir>i! is ren- 
 dered in ancient gloffes by ludio ; and fatyrical, by ludicrous, 
 fportiuc, &c. Thus Seneca's /atyr is called ludus, and Ho- 
 lace and Perfius ufe ludere for faibere fatyras ■. — ' V. PHn. 
 Hift. Nat. 1, 30. c. 10. b Sever, in JEtna. v. iz. c Manil. 
 1. 5. v. 4S0. <* Diomcd. 1. 3, ■ Seal. Poet. 1. i.e. 12. f V. 
 Dan. Hcinf. de Satyr ; Horatio*. L z. Lugd. ibzS, iz°Fab. 
 Tbrf. p. 22 4 S. 
 
 Satyr bears a near affinity to raillery, ridicule, lampoon, li- 
 bel, 6ff. and Hands oppofed to panegyric. The reafon why 
 fatyrs generally pleafe, and panegyrics tire the readers, feems 
 to be, becaufc the former are commonly true, and the latter 
 ialfc. — V. 'Jaunt, tics Scav. T. 81. p. 294. 
 Horace calls his two books of Satyrs-, indifferently cither 
 Scrmones, or Satyr*?, two words which at firft fight prefent 
 very different ideas. 
 
 The chief fatyrifs among the ancient^ are, Horace, Juvenal 
 and Perfius ; among the moderns, Regnier and Boilcau in 
 French j and Dryden, Oldham, Rochefter, Buckingham, 
 Pope, Young, &e, among the Englifh. 
 A fatyr ought to be lively, pleafant, moral, and full of va- 
 riety ; in*this Juvenal and Horace excelled, though their 
 
 fatyrs ought not to be read without caution Among the 
 
 qualifications requifite in xfatyrift % one of the molt efiential 
 is good-nature : all the fentiments which are beautiful in this 
 way of writing muft proceed from that quality in the au- 
 thor. It is good-nature produces that difdain of all bafenefs, 
 
 vice and folly, which prompts the poet to exprefs himfeif 
 with fmartnefs againft the errors of men* but without any 
 bittcrnefs towards their perforjs. It is this quality which 
 keeps the mind in equanimity, and never lets an offence 
 unfeafonably throw a man out of his character. When 
 Virgil faid, he that did not hate Bavius might love Maeyius, 
 he was in perfect good humour, and was not fo much 
 moved at their abfurdities, as pafiionately to call them fots, 
 or blockheads in ft direct invective, but laugbfed at them 
 with a delicacy of fcorn, without any mixture of anger. — 
 The beft good man with the worll-natured mufe, was the 
 character among us of a gentleman as famous for his huma- 
 nity, as his wit. In reality, the ordinary fubje&s for fatyr 
 are fuch as incite the greateft indignation of all in the belt 
 tempers, and confequently men of fuch a make are beft 
 qualified for fpeaking of them : fuch men can behold vice 
 and folly, when they injure perfons with whom they are 
 wholly unacquainted, with the fame feverity with which 
 others refenjt the ills they feel themfelves. — In all the writ- 
 ings of Horace and Juvenal, there is not one ill-natured 
 expreftion j not one ientence of feverity which does not 
 apparently proceed from the contrary difpofition.— V. Tail, 
 N° 242. T. 4. p. iig.feq. 
 
 Satyr may be divided with regard to the meafure, and kind 
 of verfe, as well as the manner of the poem, and the cha- 
 racter, into narrative-, dramatick, mixed, &C. 
 Narrative, is a fimple narration or recital of abufes in the 
 poet's own perfon. — Such is the firft of Juvenal. 
 Dramatic, is that wherein feveral perfons difcourfe together j 
 whether they be namelefs, as in the firft of Perfius ; or have 
 names, as of Catius and Damafippus. 
 
 Aiixt, is a compound of both the former; as that fine one 
 of Horace, Ibam forte via facra. 
 
 'Grave, and animated, which inveigh with warmth and ear- 
 neftnefs againft corruption, and vice in every fhape. — As 
 thole of Juvenal and Perfius. 
 
 Sportive, and lighter, which feem to play with mens follies, 
 but in playing omit no opportunity of making them feel the 
 lafh. — Such are thole of Horace, which are hence faid to 
 be fermoni propiora. 
 
 The grave fort brandifhes a naked fword ; the fportive pre- 
 fents a thyrfus, like that of the ancient Satyrs furrounded 
 with vine leaves, with which it ftabs unawares. — The heat 
 of the former fomuimes degenerates into fury, and indigna- 
 tion ; and the calmnels of the latter fometimes finks to mere 
 raillery. But between the two extremes are a great num- 
 ber of intermediate fpecies and degrees. The former, efpe- 
 cially when dictated by paffion, is much eafieft : nothing is 
 more difficult than to make people of tafte laugh, even at 
 the expence of others. The attaining of this muft be the 
 fruit of genius and talents, rather than rules : perhaps it may 
 be unnecelfary to explain either; fince vanity, felf-love, 
 and even malice are mafters more than fufficient for a poet 
 who wants not wit, and judgment. Thus Juvenal : Si na- 
 tura negat, fadt indignatio verfum 1 and Boileau : La colere 
 fuffit is" vatit un Apollon. — V. Mourg. Trait, de la poef. 
 Franc, c. 4. Mem. dc. Trsv. Nov. 1723. p. 2150. 
 In pcruiing the writings of ths two leaders of the two forts 
 of fatyr Lift mentioned, it may not be unneccilary to con- 
 fider, that they lived in very different times : Horace was in- 
 timate with a prince of the greateft goodnefs, and huma- 
 nity ; and his court was formed after his example : therefore 
 the faults that poet falls upon were little inconfiftences in 
 behaviour, falfe pretences to potitenefs, or impertinent affec- 
 tations of what men were net fit for. Vices of a coarfer 
 fort could not come under his confiderationj becaufe thev 
 could not enter the palace of Auguftus. — Juvenal, on the 
 other hand, lived under Domitian, in whofe reign every 
 thing great and noble was baniflied the habitations of the 
 men in power. Therefore he attacks vice as it paffee by in 
 triumph, not as it breaks into converfation. The fall of 
 empire, contempt of glory, and a general degeneracy of 
 manners, are before his eyes in all his writings. — fn the davs 
 of Auguftus, to have talked like Juvenal had been madnefs, 
 or in thofe of Domitian, like Horace. Morality and virtue 
 are every where recommended in Horaces as became a maa 
 in a polite court, from the beauty, propriety, and conveni- 
 ence of purfuing them : vice and corruption are attacked by 
 Juvenal in a ftyle which denotes, he fears he fhall not be 
 heard unlefs he calls to them in their own language, with a 
 bare-faced mention of the villanies and obfeenities of his 
 contemporaries. — V. Tatl, T, 4. N J 242. p. o.iy.feqq. 
 The Italians divide fatyr into ferhus, as that in common 
 ufe ; and jocofe, giocsfa, which they alio call bernefa, and 
 we burlefque. 
 
 Their chief fatyrijls in the ferhus way are, Dante (whom 
 they particularly call Principe Satirico) Ariofto, Aretinc, Er- 
 cole Bentivoglio, Lui^.i Ahim^nni, Jacobo Soldanij L6renzo 
 Azzolino, Salvator Rofa, Lud. Adunari, and Benedetto 
 Menzini \ — Thofe who have excelled in the jeeofe kind are, 
 Francefco Berni (the inventor of it) Mauro, Firenzuola, 
 Cafaj Coppetta Varchi Lafca, Caporali b , &c. — * V. Bian- 
 chin della Satira Italiana, P. I. p. 9. Gicrn. de Letter a' Jtal. 
 T. 20. p. 306. b Id. ibid. P. II. p. 25. Giorn. p. 310. feqj. 
 
SAT 
 
 SAT 
 
 Satyr is divided into general, which is levelled at common 
 ahulcs Wherein numbers are equally interefted : and perfonal, 
 which point , out and expofes particular characters, — -This 
 laft, as it affects mens reputation, on which their intercft 
 greatly depends, is fcarce diftinguifhable from defamation, 
 and fcandal. 
 
 To this laft clafs belong moft of thofe which bear the title 
 ■of Anti ; as the Anti-Baillet of Menage, with which M. 
 Baillet was fo ftung, that he compofed a treatife exprefs on 
 'pcrfonal fatyrs winch bear the title Anti ; to fhew the immo- 
 rality, and unlawfulnefs of them, and their contrariety to 
 the precepts of the gofpel. 
 
 It is further objected to this kind of fatyr, that a publick 
 detection, far from producing the effect it is defigned for, re- 
 formation, is apt to drive men to defperation, and harden 
 them in their courfe. The excellent author of the treatife 
 of the Government of the Tongue, fpeakmg of uncharitable 
 truths, fays, a difcovery of this kind fcrves not to reclaim, 
 but only to enrage the offender, and precipitate him into 
 farther degrees of ill. Modefty and fear of fhame is one of 
 thofe natural reftraints which the wifdom of heaven has 
 put on mankind : and he who once (tumbles,' may yet by a 
 check of that bridle recover himfelf again. But when by a 
 publick detection he is fallen under that infamy he feared, he 
 Vill be then apt to difcard all caution, and to think he owes 
 himfelf the utmoft plcafures of vice at the price of his repu- 
 tation, — Nay, perhaps he advances farther, and fets up for 
 a reverfed fort of fame, by being eminently wicked : thus 
 he who before was but a clandelHne difciple, becomes a doc- 
 tor of impiety. — Doiibtlefs it was this fort of reafoning that 
 induced our wife legiflators lately to repeal the law which put 
 the brand of infamy in the face of felons. — In effect, where 
 crimes are enormous, the delinquent deferves little pity, yet 
 the reporter may deferve lefs. — V. Tail. N". 74. T. 2. p. 
 154. y?y. See alfo N°. 76. p. 166. feq. 
 Greek Satyr. — Cafaubon makes a diftinction between the fa- 
 tyrical poetry of the Greeks, and the fatyr of the Romans, 
 which he maintains was peculiar to themfelves ; in which 
 alfo he fcems to be juftified by Quintiilian. 
 For a like reafon Horace calls fatyr, Gratis intafium carmen, 
 a fort of poetry unknown to the Greeks. Spanheim in his 
 fine preface to the Czefars of the emperor Julian, has fhown 
 five or fix efiential differences between thofe two poems. 
 The Greeks chiefly reprehended vice, in their drama's ; 
 though tbey had alfo a fort of narrative poems called SMi, 
 like the Roman and our fatyrs. Tfiefe Sil/i were cutting, 
 or farcaftick poems, as may be eafily feeri by the fragments 
 of Timoil's Silti ; with this difference, that the Greek SMi 
 were parodies from one end to the other, which cannot be 
 faid of the Roman fatyr. Or if we find fometimes a parody 
 in them, it is what the poet did not defign, and coiifequently 
 the parody does not make the effence of fatyr, as it does that 
 ofthe&7//\— "V. Qtiint. Inft-.Qr&i. 1. 10. c. 1. "Hor. Sat. 1. 
 1. 2. v. 62. c I. Cafaub. de Satyr'ica Greecor, Paefi & Ro/na- 
 nor, Satyra. I. 2. Par. 1605. — d See Mafcov. Exere, Prior, in 
 Har'at'. Satyr. § 10. Langheinrich Diff. de Timon. SMograph. 
 Lipf 1720. & 1721. Stoll. IntroiU ad llift. Liter. P. I. c. 5. 
 
 Sealiger, notwithflanding all this, followed by fome of the 
 lateff. and beft criticks, fcruples not to derive the fatyrical 
 poetry of the Latins from that of the Greeks. According 
 to thefe authors, fatyr in its origin was a fort of interlude 
 In tragedy, wherein goat-footed Satyrs were introduced to 
 alleviate the diftrefs, and with their jeers and humour diver- 
 fify the folemnity of the tragick fcene : much like the mimes 
 in comedy, and the fefcennines in the Atellan fports. 
 At firft it was only in the tragedies exhibited in the feafts of 
 Bacchus, that Satyrs, the fuppofed companions and priefts of 
 that god, were introduced : but afterwards they made a part 
 in the folemnities of the other deities. So that fatyr, in its 
 firft inftitutian was wholly dramatick. — V. Scalig. Poet. ]. 
 i.e. 11 & 12. 
 
 Reman Satyr. — Dacier, after Cafaubon, traces the inflitu- 
 tion of the Roman fatyr very minutely ; and diftinguifhes 
 three (pedes or ftates of it : the firft dramatick, the fecond 
 narrative, the third that called the Varronian or Menippcan 
 
 fatyr. 
 
 The ancient Romans had been without any fecnica! enter- 
 tainments for almoft four hundred years ; till chance and 
 merriment in one of their feftivals gave rife to the faturnine 
 and fefcennine verfes, which for fome years fupplied the 
 place of theatrical performances. Thefe verfes were rude, 
 and without any meafure, being extemporary, and the pro- 
 ductions of a lavage people, who had no other inflruetors 
 than the fumes of wine. Accordingly they were fluffed with 
 grofs railleries, and accompanied with various gefticulations 
 and dances. An idea of them may be formed by conceiving 
 a knot of country fellows, dancing in a hobbling manner, 
 toffing about their home-fpun jokes, and cxpoling each 0- 
 ther's failings. Thus Horace, Epifl. 1. lib. 2. 
 
 Fefcennina per hunc inventa licentia morcm 
 Verjtbui altemis opprobna ruflica fudit. 
 
 The ancient Roman fatyrs then were a fort of innocent farces, 
 where the fpectatuis and actors were indifferently rallied.— 
 And thus they continued till the time of Livius Andronicus, 
 who firft attempted to write plays in imitation of the Greeks. 
 This new entertainment appearing more noble and perfect, 
 drew crowds of fpectators, which occafioned the fatyrs to-be 
 neglected for fome time ; but they were afterwards relumed, 
 and tacked to the ends of comedies, much like the modern 
 farces. They were annexed more peculiarly to the 
 Atellane pieces, and on this occafion they changed 
 their name Satyrs for that of Exidia, which they ever 
 after retained. 
 
 After Livius Andronicus, Enrdus having obfurved the cager- 
 nefs of the Romans for fatyr, imagined that poems not"ac- 
 commodated to the threatre, but retaining the gall, raillery, 
 and pleafantry of the theatrical fatyr, would not fail of fuc~ 
 cefs. Accordingly, he wrote difcourfes under the title of 
 Satyrs, in which he took the liberty of mixing feveral forts 
 of verfe together, as hexameters with iambick trimeters, and 
 trochaic tetrameters. In thefe pieces were found the fame 
 variety, raillery, allufions, fables, and everi dialogue, in a 
 word every thing that conftituted the character and beauty 
 of the firft: fatyrs, except the dancing and mufick. Pa- 
 cuvius fucceeded, who alio writ fatyrs in imitation of his 
 uncle, or according to others, his grandfather Ennius. When 
 Pacuvius was in his prime, Lucilius was born, who alfo 
 compofed jatyrs, fomewhat of a new turn, 1 endeavouring to 
 imitare the character of the ancient Greek comedy, of 
 which the Romans had but an imperfect image in their 
 own fatyrs. This feems to be what Horace" meant when 
 he faid, Satyr, j. lib. 2. 
 
 l^jtid, cum efl Lucilius aufus 
 
 Primus in hunc operis componere carmina morem. 
 
 He could not mean, that the Romans had no fatyrs before 
 Lucilius, fince that poet was preceded by Ennius wid Pacu- 
 vius, whom he imitated. Horace's defign was only to hint 
 that Lucilius's manner and turn was new, that he had em- 
 bellifbed this poem, infomuch that he might be looked upon 
 as its firft author. But in fact, Lucilius only added to it a 
 little more poiitcnefs and fait, without any other alteration, 
 And though like Ennius lie did not mix together feveral forts 
 of verfe in the fame piece, yet he compofed different poems, 
 fome of which were entirely hexameter, others iambic, and 
 others trochaic, as appears from his fragments. 
 The third kind of fatyr was the Varronian or Afenippcnn, fa 
 called from its author Fans, the moft learned of the Ro- 
 mans, and becaufe in this he imitated the manner of Me- 
 nippus the Gaderenian, a cynic philofopher. 
 This fatyr was not only a mifcellany of different forts of verfe, 
 but was alfo interlarded with profe, and mixed up Greek, and 
 Latin. — Seneca's poem on the death of Claudius, Petronius's 
 Satyricon, Lucian's Dialogues, the Golden afs of Apuleius, 
 and the Caefars of the emperor Julian, are fo many fatyrs in 
 the Varronian tafte. 8 — To the fame head may alfo be referred 
 the Catholicon of Spain, the Moiise Encomium of Erafmus, 
 the Don Quixot of Cervantes b , the Advertifdnents from 
 
 Parnafius of Boccalini, the Tale of a Tub by Dr. S. £jfV.. . 
 
 a V. Dacier Difcours fur la Satire, in Mem. de Liter, de I' A- 
 cad. R. cles Infer. T. 3. p. 246. fcqq. And in the preface to 
 his verfion of Horace's Satyrs. b V. Rapin Reflex fur 
 la Pact, en Parilc. § 28. Oeuv. Diverf. T. 2. p. 205. 
 A?", ■ 
 
 SATYR1CAL, fomething relating to, or that partakes of 
 the nature of fatyr. 
 
 We have fatyrical poets ; fatyrleal preachers^ as South ; f'ty- 
 rical hiftorians, as Burnet and Mezeray ; fatyrical philofo- 
 phers, as Apuleius and Montaign. — In the heathen theology, 
 we find a fatyrical god, viz. Momus : Homer in his Ther- 
 fites gives the character of a fatyrical courtier. The Dutch 
 have been often charged with fatyrical prints, and medals ; 
 which have fometimes coft them dear. 
 
 Satyrieal poetry had its origin at Athens : though its perfec- 
 tion be owing to the Romans. According to father Mour- 
 gues, and Bianchini a , it was at firft a fort of tragedy acted 
 at the feafts of Bacchus, wherein fatyrs were introduced con- 
 vening with heroes b . Burette rather takes it for a fort of paf- 
 ftoral farce tacked to the ends of tragedies". One of the chief 
 ornaments of it was a wild, grotefque fort of dance performed 
 by fatyrs, and called Sicinnis' 1 . See Dancing. — 1 Mourg. 
 Trait, de la Poef. Franc, c. 4. Mem. de Trev. Nov. 1 723. 
 p. 2149. * Bianchin. Delia Satira Italiana, P. I. p. 5. fcqq* 
 Giorn. de Letter d' Ital. T. 20. p. 203. c Buret. Mem. 
 2. fur laDanfe, in Mem. Acad. R. hfcript. T. 2. p, 163. 
 d Buret. I. c. Averan. Pralecl. ap. Bibl. Cboif. T. 22. 
 P- 34- 
 
 The fatyrical mews of the Greeks were thorough mafque- 
 rades : the actors herein were difguifed varioufly, fome in 
 the habits of Satyrs, Silcni, Centaurs, Mamades, and other 
 of Bacchus's crew ; while others perfonated giants, Cyclopes, 
 monfters, and even beafts : the whole making a medley more 
 romantick and extravagant than any thing on the modern 
 
 ftage, 
 
 4 
 
3l 
 
 S A U 
 
 itage, ftnwfil perhaps fome of our late srmtefque p&ritomftne 
 entertainments 3 . The only piece of the kind now extant 
 is the K.TKAJB* of Euripides J V. Boind. >r fri Afo#. fcf 
 Habits dcTheatr. (Us Ave in Mem. Acad. R. Infer, T. 5. 
 p. 176, & 188. b V. Fabric. Bib/. Grac. 1. 2. c. 18. § 2. 
 , P-645- 
 
 Satyric Fountain. See the article Fountain. 
 
 SATYRION, or Satyrium, a root called by this name, 
 becaufe of its fancied promotion of luff. 
 Diofcorldes diitinguifheth this from the orchis, but Mr. 
 Dale properly makes it the fame. It pafles for a great cor- 
 dial and reftorer; but its Jhape, refembhng the human tefti- 
 cles, feems to be the chief foundation of the opinion of its 
 virtues. 
 
 SAVAGES*, or Salvages, wild,, barbarous people, with- 
 out any fixed habitation, religion, law, or policy. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Italian fahogio, of fal'vnthus, 
 ftlnatitus, or jilvat'titis, which we find ufed in the barbarous 
 Latin for Jilnefiris, belonging to the woods. 
 
 A great part of America is peopled with favages ? many, 
 fome fay moft, of the favages are Anthropophagi. See An- 
 thropophagi. 
 
 SAVANT. See the article Scavant. 
 
 SAUCE — to&ite Sa vce 7 0 1 • > C White. 
 
 SAUCIDGE J S * lte « Kto i^u.Aq». 
 
 SAUCISSE, Sausage, in the military art, a long train 
 of powder fewed up in a roll of pitched cloth, about 
 two inches in diameter ; ferying to fet fire to mines, or 
 caifTons. 
 
 The length of the faucijfe is to extend from the chamber of 
 the mine, to the place where the engineer ftands to fpring 
 it. - 
 . There are ufually two fautiffes to every mine ; that if the 
 
 one fliould fail, the other may takecftc£t. 
 RAUCISSON*, in fortification, a kind of fa ggot made of 
 thick branches of trees, or of the trunks of fhrubs bound 
 together : whofe ufe is to cover the men, and to ferve a 
 epaulements. 
 
 * The word is French, and fignidss literally, a big foufagc 
 See Sa u sage. 
 
 The fatidjfan differs from a fafcijie, which is only made 
 of the fmall branches, and by its being bound at both ends 
 and in the middle. 
 
 Anciently, they made the fducijjin 46 foot long, and 15 foot 
 thick; fince, it is ufually 23 foot long, and 12 thick; bound 
 flrongly together with three bands ftrengthened with iron. 
 
 SAVE Appearances. See the article Appearance. 
 
 S AVER DE FAULT, in law, fignifia to excise a fault : 
 as when a man having made default in court, comes after- 
 wards, and alledgcs good caufe why he did it ; as imprifon- 
 raent at the time, or the like. Sec Default. 
 
 SAVIOUR. — Order of St. Saviour, is the name of a reli- 
 gious order founded by St. Bridget, about the year 1344 ; 
 thus called from an opinion, that Chrift himfelf, 'the Savieur 
 of the world, prefcribed the rules and conflitutions thereof. 
 They arc alfo called, from their foundrefs, Brirttau, or 
 Brrgittins. 
 
 Their origin was thus : Wilpho prince of Nericia, to 
 whom St. Bridget had been married, being dead at Arras, 
 in his return from Galicia ; the widow thought of nothing 
 but devoting herfelf to a religious life ; and accordingly foon 
 after, file built the monaflery of Weftern in the diocefe of 
 Lincopen in Sweden, where fhe entered herfelf. 
 By the conflitutions of this order, it is principally appointed 
 for women, who arc to pay a particular honour, and fervice 
 to the virgin.-»Thc monks are onlv to afford them the fpi- 
 ritual afiillances they may need, to' adminifter them the fa- 
 cramenrs, lie. 
 
 The number of nuns is fixed to fixty in each monaflery, 
 and that of monks to thirteen, according to the number of 
 apoftlcs, whereof St. Paul makes the thirteenth. Four of 
 them are to be deacons, to rcprefent the four doctors of the 
 church, and eight converts ; the whole number making fe- 
 venty.two, the number of the dii'ciples of our Savimr." 
 Setting afidc thefe circumftances, and the habit; this order 
 is under the rule of St. Auguitine.— It was approved of by 
 Urban V. and feveral fueceeding popes. In t6o 3 , Clement 
 V 111. made fome alterations in it, on account of the double 
 
 c»,;'T n ^ nes . wl " c1 ' llle " 10 be builtin Flanders, lie. 
 
 SAI.E1S. See the article Salt. 
 SAWDERS, See the article Santa lum. 
 
 «T-Vir' n Sav ° l ' r > S " 011 - See the article Taste. 
 
 SAUHAUfc , or Saucidce, a term of fome fonificancy 
 in commerce ; denoting a popular food prepared of fome 
 crude meat, ufually either pork or veal fhred fisall, feafoned 
 anil put up in a (kin, in manner of a pudding. 
 
 * I&1 W ° rd "T ^mediately from the French fimltfe, 
 ■feci (ignite, the fame, f ormrd of , he taIi ,„ j^^J 
 and thai according 10 Sahmfim horn the La: 
 forfeljtm failed. 
 
 n falujiui 
 
 The moft eftccrned confefrion of this kind, is the Bologna 
 Jmfige, which is much thicker I ban the common one, and 
 is made .jlb mll fuccefi in fome cities in Italy, particular- 
 
 fixing tnc 
 
 SAW 
 
 Iy Bologna, Venice, lie. whence great quantities are ex- 
 ported to other places. 
 
 It is made of raw pork, well beaten in a mortar, with a 
 quantity of garlick, pepper in the grain, and other fpices : the 
 Italians arc lurnifhed with a great part of the (kins or guts for 
 thar Jaujage, from England : the quantities of that commo- 
 dity yearly exported, . are greater than one would imagine. 
 
 Sausage, in war. See the article Saucisse. 
 
 S'AUT, in the manage; See the article Salts. 
 
 SAW, Serra, an inftrument ferving to divide into pieces, 
 divers lohd matters ; as wood, ftone, marble, ivory, He. 
 The/an; is one of the moft ufeful machines, in the mecha- 
 nick arts, evet invented : the fable, which is perhaps founded 
 on fome furer ttadition, attributes the invention thereof to 
 Icarus; who, vying with his father Dredalus, enriched the 
 riling arts with feveral difcovcries.— It is added, he took the 
 nrft hint from ihc fpine or backbone of a flat filli, fuch as 
 the foal. The yaw is made of fteel, with teeth, but thofe 
 differently filed, and turned, according to the ufe it is de- 
 ligned for.— There are alfo a kind of faws without teeth, 
 ufed in the fawing of marbles and other Hones. 
 The befl faws are of tempered fteel, ground bright and 
 fmooth; thofe of iron are only hammcr-hardned : hence, 
 the nrft, beiides their being ftiffer, are likewife found 
 fmootlier than (he laft.— They are known to be well ham- 
 mered by the (tiff bending of the blade ; and well or evenly 
 ground, by the bending into a bow. 
 
 The edge, wherein the teeth are, is always thicker than the 
 back, m regard the back is to follow the edge.— The teeth 
 are cut and fharpened by a triangular file ; firft fin 
 blade of the jaw in a whetting-block. 
 
 When filed, the teeth are to be fit, that is, to be turned 
 a-fkew, or out of the right line, to m.ike the wider kerf or 
 fiffure, that the back may follow the better. This is done 
 by putting an inftrument, called a fdw-wrijl, between every 
 other two teeth, and giving it a little wrench, which turn's 
 one of the teeth a little towards you, and tbe other a little 
 from you.— The teeth are always fet ranker forcoarfe cheap 
 ftuff, than for hard and fine ; in regard the ranker the tooth 
 is fet, the more ftuff is loft in the kerf; and if the fluff be 
 hard, the greater is the labour of fawing it. 
 The workmen, who make the greateft ufe of the/niu, are 
 the fawyers, Carpenters, joiners, ebonifts, ftone-cutters, car- 
 vers, fculptors, He. The lapidaries too have their/mu, aj 
 well as the Workers in mofaick ; but thefe bear little refem- 
 blanCe to the common favjs. 
 
 But of ad mechanieks, there are none have fo many faivs 
 
 as rhe joiners, nor of fo many different kinds The chief 
 
 are as follow. 
 
 Pit-faw, a large two-handed faw, ufed to faw timber iri 
 pits.— It is fet rank for coarfe ftuff, fo as to make a kerf or 
 fifiure of almoft a quarter of an inch; but fur liner ftuff, it is 
 fet finer. 
 
 Ffbip-fam, which is likewife two-handed, ufed to faw fuch 
 large pieces of ftuff as the Hemd-fifwynt notealily reach. 
 Haml-faw, is made for a fingle man's ufe ! of which thefe 
 are various kinds ; as the 
 
 Bozv or frame-faw, furnifhed with cheeks ; by the twifted 
 coid and tongue in the middle of this law, the upper ends 
 are occaiionally drawn clofe together, and the lower fet the 
 further apart. 
 
 Tenm-faw, this being very thin, has a back to keep it from 
 bending. 
 
 Qnapajs firm, this is very fmall, and its teeth, ufually, not 
 fet; its ufe is to cut a round, or any other compafs-kcrf 
 hence, the edge is made broad, and llie back thin, that it 
 may have a compafs to turn in. 
 
 The chirurgeons likewife ufe a Saw, to cut off bones It 
 
 is to be very fmall, and light, in order to be managed with 
 tbe more tttfe. and freedom : the blade exceedingly fine, and 
 the teeth exquifitety fharpened ; to make its way mure gen:- 
 Iy, and yet with more expedition in amputations of legs, 
 arms, &rr. 
 
 Tbe Saw is alfo a gardener's inftrument, ufed in the pruning 
 of trees, fife. — It is chic-fly applied in the cutting of old, dry, 
 and, confidently, hard woods, whether roots or branches, 
 which might fpoi] the pruning- knife ; and big branches, (flV. 
 which the knife could not well take off at one ftroke. 
 Except on thefe occafions, Quintiney will have us always 
 ufe the knife, rather than the/azv. 
 
 SAWING, the application of the faw, in the dividing of 
 timber, ifc. into boards, &c. 
 
 1 iiere are wind-mills, and water-mills, which do the office 
 of Jawing wood, with infinitely more expedition, and cafe 
 than is performed by the hand. They confift of feveral 
 parallel faws, which arc made to rife and fall perpendicularly, 
 by means of one of the grand principles of motion. A ve- 
 ry few hands are here needed, viz. only to pulh forward the 
 pieces of timber, which are laid on rollers, or fufpended bv 
 ropes ; in proportion as the fawing advances. Thefe mill's 
 are frequently uicd abroad ; and were lately begun to be in- 
 troduced in England; but the parliament, in confidcratioa 
 of this, that they would fpoil the fawyers trade, and ruin 
 great numbers of families, thought fit to funprefs them. 
 it Qf 
 
SCA 
 
 S C A 
 
 M. Fiiibien mentions .1 kind of long faws, invented by one 
 Miflbn, infpector of the marble quarries in the Pyreneans ; 
 by means whereof {tones are fawed even in the rock itfelf 
 Vvher.ce they are taken. — He adds, that fome of them were . 
 made twenty-three foot long : but does not defcribe either 
 their form, or application : he only fays, they are of iron, 
 and without teeth. 
 SAXIFRAGE*, Saxifraga alba, a medicinal plant, 
 thus called from its fuppoi'ed virtue in diflblving the Hone 
 in the bladder. 
 
 * The word is compounded of the Latin Saxum, (tone, and fr«n£i 
 
 I break. 
 
 tts leaves are almoft round, indented, fucculent and Aiming, 
 like thofe of ivy : in the middle of the leaves there rife {talks, 
 ■about a foot high, which, at their extremities, bear little 
 White flowers, eOhfiftlrig of five leaves, difpofed in form of 
 a rofe. Its feed, which is very fmall, is inclofed in the cap- 
 fula which is a roundifh pod. Its root divides itfelf into fe- 
 veral fibres, at the bottom whereof are found little reddifh 
 tubercles, like coriander-feed. 
 
 It is thefe grains that are commonly called the feed of the 
 faxifrage, and are the part ufed in medicine. — The beft man- 
 ner of adminiftration, is to take them infufed in white-wine, 
 or in a decodiion in common water. 
 
 Some ufe the decoction of the whole root : it is held a great 
 riiuretick ; though its lithonthriptic virtue is but little feen in 
 practice. It is certain, that the fimple water thereof, fold in 
 the fhopsj is good for nothing} the virtue of the plant, if 
 it have anv, confuting in fumething too grofs to rife over the 
 helm. 
 
 SAXON, or the Saxon Z^ngT^*. See English. 
 
 S AY, or Saye, in commerce, a kind of ferge ; or a very 
 light crofTbd {tuff, all wool ; much ufed abroad for linings, 
 and by tiie religious for fhirts ; and with us, by the quakeis, 
 for aprons, for which purpofc it is ufually died green. 
 There are very con fide raid e manufactures hereof at Sudbury, 
 near Colchefter ; alfo at Ypres, Houdfcot, &c. in Flanders, 
 £5Y.— Thofe made in England, are chiefly exported to Por- 
 tugal, and Leghorn. 
 
 SCABKLLUMj in the ancient architecture, a kind of pe- 
 deital, ufually fquarc, fometimcs polygonous, very high and 
 {lender, commonly terminating in a kind of fheath or fcab- 
 bard, or profiled in manner of a ballufler. Its ufe is to 
 fupport bufto's, or other relievo's, £sV. 
 
 SCABIES, in medicine. See the article Itch. 
 
 SCABIOUS, Scabiosa, a medicinal plant, very common in 
 corn fields, which has a great character among difpenfatory 
 writers, though it feems now to grow much out of ufe. 
 It panes for a fine pectoral, and is faid to do great things in 
 afrhma's and pleurifics ; and Etmuller gives it a great cha- 
 racter in inward abfceiles. It has a place alfo among alexi- 
 pharmicks. But hardly any thing is in better efteein for the 
 itch, and other cutaneous foulnelles ; whence it has its name, 
 viz, from [cables, itch; and upon which account it is often 
 met with in decoctions, and fometimcs in a fyrup, among 
 fucii things as are called fweetners. Sec Supplement , article 
 Scabiosa. 
 
 SCAFFOLD*, a timber-work, raifed in manner of an am- 
 phitheatre, to place fpectators upon for the commodious view- 
 ing of fome fhew, or ceremony. 
 
 * Some derive the wc id from the German fcbaivhaus, which 
 fignilics the fame, compounded of febamen, to look, view, 
 and kaus, houfc. Guyet derives it from the Italian cata- 
 ftilco, which fignifies the fame thing. Du Cange, from F.f- 
 chafaudaus, a word in the corrupt Latin, fignifyinga tribunal, 
 or pulpit : he adds, that it might come originally from cala, 
 a wooden machine ufed to cyrry earth to fill up ditches, and 
 carry over the folditrs to the attack ; whence the Italians 
 formed their catafuLv, the old French their chafaut, the 
 Monks their ficffiddtti, and finally the Engliih their fcaffold. 
 
 Scaffold, is alfo ufed for a little ftage, or theatre, raifed 
 in fome publick place, to execute criminals upon, either by 
 beheading or breaking upon the wheel. 
 Scaffold, or Scaffolding, is alio ufed for an aflem- 
 blage of planks and boards fuftained by trcffels, or by pieces 
 of wood fixed in the wall ; whereon mafons, fculptors, paint- 
 ers, &c-. Hand to work in high places, ceilings, off. 
 SCALA, in anatomy. — The cochlea, or inner cavity of the 
 ear, is divided by a feptum into two canals, called fcala ; 
 whereof the one, looking towards the tympanum, is called 
 the fcala tympani ; the other, having a communication with 
 the veftibulum, is called the fca la veflibuli. See Cochlea, 
 Ear, Tympanum, and Vestibulum. 
 Scala, in the ancient architecture, denoteswhat in the mo- 
 dern we call a flair-cafe. See Stair-Case. 
 ECAL./E Gerhonits. See the article Gemoni m. 
 SCALADO, or Scalade, a furious affault made on the 
 wall or rampart of a city, by means of ladders wherewith to 
 mount without carrying on works in form to fecure the men. 
 Cities are now no longer taken by fcalade, fince the walls 
 have been flanked. 
 SCALE, a mathematical inftrument, confifting of one or 
 more lines drawn on wood, metal or other matter, divided into 
 equal or unequal parts, of great ufe inlaying down distances 
 • in proportion, or in meafurinj; diftances already laid down. 
 
 There are fcales of feveral kinds, accommodated ta the fe- 
 vera! ufes ; the principal are, the plain fcale, the diagonal 
 fcale, Gunter'' s fcale, and the plotting fcale. 
 Plain Scale, or Scale of equal parts, is made, by dividing 
 a line, as A B {Tab. Surveying fig. 37.) into any number of 
 equal parts, e, gr, 5 or 10, and then fubdividing one of 
 them, as a b, into 10 lefs parts. — This done, if one of the 
 larger divifions reprefent ioof any meafure ; e.gr. iomilesj 
 10 chains, L io poles, 10 feet or 10 inches ; each of the 
 lefler will reprefent one mile, or one chains pole, foot, or 
 inch. See Plain and Line. 
 
 The ufe of this fcale is very obvious. E. gr. To lay 
 down a diftance by it of 32 miles, or 32 poles, £sfo 
 I take in my compafTes the interval of three of the 
 larger divifions, which contain 30, and two of the fmaller, 
 for the two odd ones : this diftance drawn on paper, 
 will contain 32 by the fcale. — ■ Again, were I required 
 to meafure any line by a given fcale: taking the length 
 of the line in my compafTes, I apply one foot in one 
 of the great divifions of the fcale, fo that the other 
 may reach over among the lefler ; then the number of 
 great and fmall divifions intercepted between the points, 
 give the number of miles, C3V. — See the ufe hereof fur- 
 ther illuftratcd under the article Plotting fcale* 
 Proportional Scales, called alfo logaritbftiet/cal, are the artifi-* 
 cial numbers, or logarithms, placed on lines ; for the eafe 
 and advantage of multiplying, dividing, iffc. by means of 
 compafTes, or of Hiding-rules. — They are, in effect, only fa 
 many lines of numbers, as they are called bv Gunter ; but 
 made fingle, double, triple, or quadruple ; beyond whicl* 
 they fcldom go. 
 Decimal Scaler -« Decimal. 
 Gunter' s Scale, / \ Guntsr, andhiNE* 
 
 Plotting Scale, v»See the articles * Plotting fcale. 
 Proportional Scale, \ / Propor tional. 
 
 Reducing Scale, J (.Reducing, 
 
 Scale, in geography and architecture^ a line divided into 
 equal parts, placed at the bottom of a map or draught, ta 
 ferve as a common meafure to all the parts of the buildings 
 or all the diftances and places of the map. 
 In maps of large tracts, as kingdoms and provinces, &c. the 
 fcale ufually confifts of miles j whence it becomes denomi- 
 nated A fcale of miles. 
 
 In more particular maps, as thofe of manors, &c. the fcalf 
 is ufually of chains, fub-divided into poles or links. 
 The fcales ufed in draughts of buildings, ufually confift of 
 modules, feet, inches, palms, fathoms, or the like. 
 To find the diftance between two towns, c?V. in a map, 
 the interval is taken in the compafTes, and fet off in the 
 fcale, and the number of divifions it includes, gives the 
 diftance. — The fame method ferves to find the height of a 
 {lory, or other part in a defign. 
 Front Scale, in perfpective, is a right line in the draught, 
 parallel to the horizonial line ; divided into equal parts, re- 
 prefenting feet, Inches, £3V. 
 Flying Scale, is a right line in the draught, tending to the 
 point of view, and divided into unequal parts, reprefentina; 
 feet, inches tsfc. 
 Scale, Scala, in mufick, is a denomination given to the 
 arrangement of the fix fyllables invented by Guido Aretine s 
 ut re mi fa fol la ; called alfo Gamrnut. 
 
 It bears the name fcale (q. d. ladder) by reafon it rcprefents 
 a kind of ladder, by means whereof the voice riles to acute, 
 or defcends to grave ; each of the fix fyllables being as it 
 were one ftep of the ladder. 
 Scale is alfo ufed for a feries of founds riling or falling to- 
 wards acutenefs or gravity, from any given pitch of tune to 
 the greateft diftance that is fit or practicable, through fuch 
 intermediate degrees as make the fucceffion moft agreeable 
 and perfect, and in which we have all the harmonical in- 
 tervals moft commodioufiy divided. 
 
 This fcale is otherwife called an wiiverfal fyflem, as includ- 
 ing all the particular fyflrems belonging to mufick. See 
 System. 
 
 Origin and anjlrutlion of 'the Sc ale of mufick. — Every con- 
 cord or harmonical interval, is refolvable into a certain num- 
 ber of degrees or parts; the octave, for infrance, into three 
 greater tones, two lefs tones, and two femi- tones ; the greater 
 fixt,h, into two greater tones, one lefs tone, and two femi- 
 tones ; the lefs lixth, into two greater tones, one lefs tone, 
 and two femi-tones ; the fifth, into two greater tones, one 
 lefs tone, and one femi-tone ; the fourth, into one greater 
 tone, one lefs tone, and one femi-tone ; the greater third, 
 into one greater tone, and one lefs tone ; and the lefs third 
 into one greater tone, and one lefs tone. It is true, there 
 are variety of other intervals or degrees, befides greater tones, 
 lefs tones, and femi-tones, into which the concords may be 
 divided; but thefe three are preferred to all the reft, and 
 thefe alone are in ufe. — For the reafon whereof, fee Tone. 
 Further, it is not any order, or progreflion, of thefe de- 
 1 °ree3, that will produce melody: a number, for inftance, 
 of greater tones will make no mufick, becaufe no number 
 of them is equal to any concord, and the fame is true of the 
 
 other 
 
sd A 
 
 S C A 
 
 fethcr degrees : there is a neceffity, therefore, of mixing the 
 degrees to make mufick ; and the mixture muft be fiich, as 
 that no two of the fame kind are ever plac'd next each 
 other. 
 
 A natural and agreeable order of thefe degrees Mr. Malcolm 
 gives us in the following divifion of the interval of an octave ; 
 wherein (as all the lefler concords are contained in the great- 
 er) the divifionsof all the other fimple concords are contain- 
 ed. — Under the feries are the degrees between each term, and 
 the next. — In the firft feries, the progreffion is by the lefs 
 third ; in the latter by the greater third, 
 great 2 d gr. 3 d 4 th 5 th 6 ,fl 7* 8 h 
 
 Key or great lefs femi- 
 fund. tone. tone. tone. 
 
 great lefs great femi- 
 tone. tone. tone. tone. 
 
 great fecond. 
 
 ley or great femi- lefs great femi great lefs 
 fund. tone. tone. tone. tone. tone. tone. tone. 
 Now, the fyftem of octave, containing all the original con- 
 cords ; and the compound concords being only the fums of 
 octave and fome lefs concord ; it is evident, that if we would 
 have the feries of degrees continued beyond octave, they are to 
 be continued in the fame order through a fecond as through 
 the firft octave, and fo on through a third or fourth octave, 
 &c. and fuch a feries is what we call the Scale of mufick. 
 Of this, there are two different fpecies ; according as the lefs 
 or greater 3d. or the lefs or greater 6th. are taken in ; for 
 both can never ftand together in relation to the fame key or 
 fundamental, fo as to make an harmonica! fcale. But if ei- 
 ther of thefe ways, we afcend from a fundamental or given 
 found, to an octave, the fucceffion will be melodious ; though 
 the two make two different fpecies of melody. — Indeed, every 
 note is difcord with regard to the next ; but each of them is 
 concord to the fundamental, except the 2d. and 7th. 
 In continuing the feries, there are two ways of compounding 
 the names of the fimple interval with the octave : thus, a 
 greater or IefTer tone or femi- tone above an octave, or two 
 octaves, fifr. or to call them by the number of degrees from 
 the fundamental, as 9th, 10th, t&c. 
 
 In the two fcale! above, the feveral terms of the fcale are 
 cxpreiTed by the proportionable fections of a line, reprefented 
 by 1, the key or fundamental of the feries. — If we would 
 have the feries exprcfTed in the whole numbers, they will 
 ftand as follows ; in each whereof the greateft number ex- 
 prefTes the longeft chord, and the other numbers the reft in 
 order : fo that if any number of chords be in thefe propor- 
 tions of length, they will exprefs the true degrees and inter- 
 vals of the feeds of mufick, as contained in an octave con- 
 cinnoufly divided in the two different fpecies abovemen- 
 tioned. 
 
 540 : 480 : 432 ! 405 : 360 : 324 : 288 : 270 
 great lefs femi- great lefs great lefs 
 tone. tone. tone. tone. tone. tone. tone. 
 
 216 : 192 : 180 : 162 : 144 : 135 : 120 : 108 
 great femi- lefs great femi- great lefs 
 tone. tone. tone. tone. tone. tone. tone. 
 This fcale the ancients called the diatonic fcale, becaufe pro- 
 ceeding by tones and femi-tones. 
 
 The moderns call it, fimply, The fcale, as being the only 
 one now in ufe ; and fometimes, The natural fcale, becaufe 
 its degrees and their order arc the moft agreeable and con- 
 cinnous, and are preferable, by the confent both of fenfe 
 and reafon, to all other diviiions ever inftituted. — Thofe 
 others, are the chromatic and enharmonic fcales, which, with 
 diatonic, made the three fcales, or genera of melody of the 
 ancients. 
 
 The Defign of the Scale of Mufick, is, to fhew how a voice 
 may rife and fall lefs than any harmonical interval, and 
 thereby move from the one extreme of any interval to the 
 ether, in the moft agreeable fucceffion of founds. — The fcale, 
 therefore, is a fyftem, exhibiting the whole principles of 
 mufick ; which are either harmonical intervals (commonly 
 called concords) Or concinnous intervals : the firft are the ef- 
 fential principles, the others are fubfervient to them, to make 
 the greater variety. 
 
 Accordingly, in the fcale, we have all the concords, with 
 their concinnous degrees, fo placed, as to make the moft 
 perfect fucceffion of founds from any given fundamental or 
 key, which is fuppofed to be reprefented by 1. It is not to 
 be fuppofed, that the voice is never to move up and down by 
 any other more immediate diftanccs than thofc of the con- 
 cinnous degrees ; for though that be the moft ufual move- 
 ment, yet to move by harmonical diffances, as concords, at 
 once, is not excluded, but is even abfolutely neceffary. In 
 effect, the degrees were only invented for variety fake, and 
 that we might not always move up and down by harmonic 
 intervals, though thofe are the moft perfect, the others 
 deriving all their agreeablenefs from their fubferviency to 
 them. 
 
 Add that, befides the harmonical and concinnous intervals, 
 which are the immediate principles of mufick, and are di- 
 
 rectly applied in practice ; there are other difcord relation:, 
 which happen unavoidably in mufick, in a kind of acciden- 
 tal and indirect manner : for, in the fucceffion of the feveral 
 notes of the fcale, there are to be confidered not only the 
 relations of thofe that fucceed others immediately; but alfb 
 of thofe betwixt which other notes intervene. Now the 
 immediate fucceffion may be conducted fo; as to produce 
 good melody ; and yet among the diftant notes there may be 
 very grofs difcords, that would hot be allowed in immediate 
 fucceffion, much lefs in confunance. — Thus :n the firft feries, 
 or fcale above delivered, though the progreffion be melodious, 
 as the terms refer to one common fundamental ; yet are there 
 feveral difcords among the mutual relations of the terms ; e. 
 gr. from 4th to 7th is 32 : 45, and from the greater 2d to 
 the greater 6th is 27 : 40, and from the greater 2d to 4th i3 
 27 : 32, which are all difcords ; and the fame will happen 
 in the fecond feries. 
 
 From what we have obferved here, and under the article 
 Key, it appears, that the fcale fuppofes no determinate pitch 
 of tune; but that being affigned to any key, it marks out 
 the tune of all the reft, with relation to it': It alfo ihews 
 what notes can be naturally joined to any kev, and thereby 
 teaches the juft and natural limitations of melody: and when 
 the fong is carried through feveral keys, yet it is ft ill the 
 fame natural fcale, only applied to different fundamentals. — ■ 
 If a feries of founds be fixed to the ralations of the fait, it 
 will be found exceedingly defective ; but this imperfection 
 is not any defect in the fcale, but follows accidentally from 
 its being confined to this condition, which is foreign to the 
 nature and office of the fcale of mufick. 
 This is the cafe in mufical inftrumcnts ; and iri this confifts 
 their great deficiency — For, fuppofe a feries of found, as 
 thofe of an organ or harpficord, fixed in the order of this 
 fcale; and the loweft taken at any pitch of tune ; it is evi- 
 dent, i°. that we can proceed from any note, only by one 
 particular order of degrees : fince from every note of the 
 jcale to its octave, is contained a different order of the tones 
 and femi-tones. Hence, 2 d . we cannot find any interval 
 required from any note upwards or downwards, fince the 
 intervals from every note to every other, are alfo limited. 
 And hence, 3 0 . a fong may be fo contrived, that, beginning 
 at a particular note of the inftrument, all the intervals, or 
 other notes, fhall be found exactly on the inftrument or in 
 the fixed feries; yet were the fong, though perfectly 
 diatonic, begun in any other note, it would not proceed. 
 In effect, it is demonftrable, that there can be no fuch thing 
 as a perfect fcale fixed on inftruments, i. e. no fuch fcale, as 
 from any note upwards or downwards, fhall contain any 
 harmonical or concinnous interval required. 
 The only remedy for this defect: of inftruments whofe notrs 
 are fixed, muft be by inferring other notes and degrees be- 
 twixt thofe of the diatonic feries. — Hence fome authors 
 fpeak of dividing the octave into 16, 18, 20, 24, 26, 31, 
 and other number of degrees ; but it is eafy to conceive, 
 how hard it muft be to perform on fuch an inftrument. 
 The beft of it is, we have a remedy on eafier terms : for A 
 fcale proceeding by twelve degrees, that is, thirteen notes, 
 including the extremes, to an octave, renders our inftru- 
 ments (o perfed, that we have little reafon to complain.— 
 This, then, is the prefent fcale for inftruments, viz. between, 
 the extremes of every tone of the natural fcale is put a note, 
 which divides it into two unequal parts, called femi-tones ; 
 whence the whole may be called the ftmitonic fcale \ as con- 
 taining twelve femi-tones, betwixt thirteen notes, within the 
 compafs of an octave. 
 
 And to preferve the diatonic feries diftinct, thefe inferted 
 notes take either the name of the natural note next below, 
 with the mark $ called ijharp ; or the name of the natural 
 note next above, with this mark ^ called a flat. 
 
 For the Scale of femi-tones, -» /-Semitonic Scale. 
 
 For Guido's Scale, commonly/ I 
 
 called the Gammut [ J Gammut. 
 
 For the Scale of the ancients, f 1 
 commonly called the Dia- \ \ 
 
 SCALENE *, Scalenum, or Scalenous triangle, in 
 geometry, a triangle, whofe fides and angles are all unequal. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek bfaftatofc which fignifies 
 oblique, unequal, £5V. 
 A cylinder or cone, whofe axis is inclined to its bafe, is alfo 
 faid to be fcalenous. 
 
 SCALENUS, or Scalenum, in anatomy, a name givert 
 to three pair of mufcles, from their form ; all of them ferv- 
 ing to draw the ribs upwards, in conjunction with the ferra- 
 tus fuperior pofticus, CSV. — See Tab. Anat. (Myol.) fig. 2. >i, 
 $-fig- 1. n- 16. 
 
 Scalenus Primus, fprings, flefhy, from the tranfverfe pro- 
 cefies of the fecond, third, and fourth vertebra? of the neck, 
 where defending laterally, it is inferted into the firft rib, 
 which it helps to draw upwards. 
 
 Scalenus Secundus, arifes from the fame* proceffes, as like 
 wife from thofe of the fifth vertebra of the neck ; and is in- 
 ferted into the fecond rib, and fometimes into the third. 
 
 Scalenus Tirtius, arifes from the fame procelfes with the 
 
 foynerj 
 
S C A 
 
 S C A 
 
 Former, and from thofe of the forth vertebra of the neck ; 
 Snd is inferted into the firft rib. 
 
 SCALLOP Tyles. See the article Tvle s. 
 
 SCALPLL, StALPELLUM, in chirurgery, a kind of knife 
 chiefly ufed in diffections ; but which may be occafionally 
 ufed in many other operations, as in amputations, and to 
 cut off the flefh and membranes that are between the two 
 bones of an arm or leg, before the bones be fawed oft. 
 There arc two kinds of fcalpels : the fi rft cuts on both fides, 
 and is fixed in an ebony or ivory handle, which being very 
 flat and thin at the extremity, ferves to part the membranous 
 and fibrous parts in anatomical preparations. 
 The other has a back, that is, it only cuts on one fide ; this 
 is crooked, and is very commodious for dripping the flefh off 
 the bones in embalming, making fkeletons, &c. 
 f-'cultetus, in his Arfcnal, defcribes feveral other kinds of 
 fcalpels; as, a deceitful fcalpel, thus called, becaufe it de- 
 ceives the patient by hiding its blade. It was much ufed 
 by the ancients, in opening and dilating of finus's ; but as 
 it is apt to deceive the chirurgeon himfelf, and is befitles very 
 flow, it is better ufing a common one. — A jcalpel, fharp on 
 both fides for fetons — A little crooked fcalpel for Pejorating 
 the coherence of the eyelids. — A fharp, double-cutUng_/c(j/- 
 Pel, with a bone handle, for the cutting off an Segilops. — 
 Scalpels like fcolopomacbxrions, &c. And even the fcolo- 
 pnmachxrion itfelf is a kind of fcalpcl. 
 
 SCALPER, Scalp RUM, or Scalping-/™:, a furgcon's 
 inftrument wherewith to rafp, and fcrape foul, carious 
 bones. 
 
 SCALPTOR Ani, in anatomy. See Latissimus 
 Dorji. 
 
 SCAM1LLI Imparts, in the ancient architecture, a term 
 much contended about among the criticks ; though, in ef- 
 fect, it fignify no more than certain zocco's or blocks, ferv- 
 ing to raife the reft of the members of an order, column, 
 (tattle or the like, and to prevent their being loft to the eye, 
 which may chance to be placed below the level ; or below 
 the projecture of fomc of the ornaments thereof. 
 Thcfe Scamilli are well enough represented by the pedeftals 
 of ftatues. See Pedestal. 
 
 SCAMMONY, Sc ammonium, in pharmacy, an infpif- 
 iatcd juice, of the root of a plant of the fame name, grow- 
 ing in the Levant, particularly about Aleppo and St. John 
 de Acre. 
 
 This juice flows from an incifion made in the root; and is 
 afterwards thickened not by the fun, as it was long pretended, 
 but in reality by the fire. The plant is much like an ivy, its 
 leaves in form of hearts, its flowers white, and it creeps on 
 the ground or climbs on other trees, walls, tsV. 
 The good and genuine fcammony of Aleppo, fiSould be grey, 
 tender, friable and refinous ; the tafte bitter, and the fmell 
 fahitifh, and dif.igreeable. 
 
 The fcammony of Smyrna, and that of the Eaft-Indies, are 
 !efs valued ; the firii as being more heavv, hard and black ; 
 the latter, though light, friable, t5<r. is in reality only a 
 compofition of common rofin with fome other violent pur- 
 gatives. Pomet aflerts, that both thcfe kinds are rather 
 poiibns than remedies. 
 
 The true fcammony is one of the furcft purgatives we have ; 
 but at the fame time, cne of the moll violent : hence, it 
 is feldom ufed without correcting it by fi>me preparation with 
 fulphur, quinces, or the like. 
 
 From this drug is drawn a refill of more virtue than the 
 fcammony itfelf. They alfo make a fyrup of it, which is 
 found a very good gentle purgative. 
 
 The fcammony now in ufe, muft be very different from that 
 cf the ancients, at lealt in the preparation ; by reafon the 
 ancibntSj gave it in much greater dofes : hence Fallopius 
 conjectures, the modern fcammony to be adultcrcd with 
 juice of tithvnul. 
 
 Some give the name of American fcammony to Mecho- 
 
 acan. * V !*-.*"? 
 
 SCANDAL, * 2KANAAAON, i n the fcripture language, de- 
 notes any thing that may draw us afidc, or follicit us to 
 
 fin. r>J>w' V 
 * The word is formed by the Greek rryM^nXni, or the Latin 
 fca'i.ialum, which, according to l'apias, was originally ufed 
 lor a fudden, extemporary quarrel, qua: fubito inter aliquot 
 fcandit w/ oritur. 
 
 Tn which fenfe, the word is ufed promifcuoufly with offence, 
 
 and jlumbling-block. 
 
 Scandal is either aslive or paffive. 
 
 ■ Active fcandal is a real induction to fin ; paffive fcandal is 
 the nnpreiiinn which an active fcandal makes on the perfon 
 
 induced to fin. 
 
 Scandal, in ihc popular language, is fome action, or opi- 
 nion contrary to good manners, or to the general fenfe of a 
 
 people. 
 
 Scandal alio denotes a difadvantagious rumour, or report; 
 or an action whereby anyone is affronted in publick. 
 
 Stgne (j/Scan-oal, Lapis Scandali, or Vttuperii, a ftone raifed 
 in the great portal of the capitol in Rome ; whereon was en- 
 "raven the figure of a lion ; upon which bankrupts or ceffio- 
 naries being fated bare-breeched, cried with a Igud voice, 
 
 Cedfi benii, I furrender my effecls ; when, fquatting their 
 breech violently, three times on the ftone, they were acquit- 
 ted. 
 
 It was called the Stone of Scandal, becaufe, t hen ce-fur ward 
 the ceflionary became iuteftable, and incapable of giving 
 any evidence. 
 
 Julius Cxfar introduced this form of furrender, after abro- 
 gating that article of the laws of the twelve tables, which 
 allowed the creditors to cut their infolvent debtors in pie- 
 ces, and take each his member ; or at leaft to make a ilave 
 of him. 
 
 SCANDALUM Magnatum, in law, denotes a fcandal or 
 wrong done to any high perfona^e of the land, as peers, 
 prelates, judges, or other great officers, by falfe or {lander- 
 ous news or tales, whereby any debate or difcerd between 
 them and the commons, or any fcandal to their perfons, 
 might arife. 
 
 This offence has alfo given name to a writ granted to reco- 
 ver damages thereupon. 
 SCANNING*, Scaksio, in poetry, the meafuring of a 
 verfe, to fee what number of feet and fyllables it contains, 
 and whether or no the quantities, that is, the lorn. 1 ; and ihort 
 fyllables, he duly obferved. 
 
 * The word i^ formed from the Latin, findeir, to climb. 
 The term is chiefly ufed with regard to Greek and Latin 
 verfes ; the quantities not being well fettled and obferved in 
 the verfes of the modern languages. 
 
 Hexameters are jcanned one way, iambicks another, fap- 
 phicks another. 
 
 SCANTLING *, a mcafure, fize, or ftandard, whereby 
 the dimenfions, %3c. ot things are to be determined. 
 
 * The word is formed from ;lie French, efchantilhn, a pattern 
 or fpecimen. 
 
 SCAPHISM*, Scaphismus, in antiquity;, a kind of tor- 
 ture or punifiiment formerly in ufe among the Perfians. It 
 confifted in locking the criminal clofe up within the trunk 
 of a tree bored to the dimenfions of his body, only with five 
 holes for his head, arms, and legs to come through. In this 
 ftate he was expofed to the fun, and the parts thus appear- 
 ing were anointed with honey and milk, to invite the wafps 
 and flies. 
 
 * The word is Greek, ^xs^ic-^©- j formed of g-x.%((><&', digging, 
 of o-xsi.TTw, I dig, hollow. 
 
 To incrcafe the torment, they forced the criminal alfo to cat 
 abundantly, till his excrements, clofe pent up in the wood, 
 rotted his body. Some authors obferve, that perfons ordi- 
 narily lived forty days in this condition. 
 
 The invention is afcribed to Parifatis queen of Perfia, and 
 mother of Artaxerxes Mnemon, and the young Cyrus. It 
 is added, fhe firft ordered it to be practifed on the perfon 
 who brought the tidings of the death of Cyrus. 
 SCAPHOJDFS*, SKA^OEIAHX, j„ anatomy, a bone of the 
 foot; called alfo Naviculare. See NaviculaRE. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Greek, ov-a^u, a boat, or bnrk ; 
 of irjtas-Tw, I hollow (becaufe boats were originally made of 
 trunks of trees hollowed, as are Mill the cinoej of feveral 
 favages) and tn?©-, form. 
 
 SCAPULA, in anatomy, omoplata, or flmdder- blade ; a large, 
 broad bone, reprefenting a fcalenous triangle, fituate on each 
 fide of the upper and back part of the thorax. — V. Tab. A- 
 nat. (Ofteol.) fig. 7. n. 6, 6. 
 
 The fubftance of the fcapula is thin, but folid and firm; itj 
 outfide is fomewbat convex, and its infide concave ; its upper 
 edge is called cojla fnperior, and its lower, cojia inferior ; its> 
 broad end is called its bafts, which, with the two edges, make 
 the upper and lower angles. 
 
 The fcapulahzve each three proccfles, of which the firft rims 
 all along the middle of their outfide, and is called their fpine, 
 —Pig- 3- 4» 4- & fig- 7' n - 7» 7* That end of the fpine, 
 which receives the extremity of the chvicula, is called Acro- 
 rnium. — The fecond procefs is a little lower than the acromi* 
 urn ; it is fhort and fharp, like a crow's bill, therefore called 
 Coracoides ; thefe two procefles are tied to one another by A 
 ftrong ligament, which ferves to keep the head of the hume- 
 rus in the cavity of the third procefs, which is called Cervix. 
 This procefs is the extremity of the fcapula, which is oppofitc 
 to its balls. It has a round finus, lurrounded about its brint 
 with a cartilage, which receives the head of the humerus. 
 The ufe of the fcapula is to receive the extremities of the? 
 clavicula and humerus, for the eafier motion of the arm, 
 and to give rife to the mufcles, which move the arm. 
 
 SCAPULAR, Scapularis, in anatomy, an epithet given, 
 to two arteries, and as many veins of the body. 
 
 The Scapularis internal externa, or inner and outer fca- 
 pular arteries, arife out of the fubclavian, and are fpread 
 over the fcapula:. 
 
 The Inner and Outer Scapulary Veins difcharge themfelves 
 into the axillary, or vein of the arm-pits. 
 
 Scapular *, or Scapular.y, alfo denotes part of the ha- 
 bit of feveral orders of religious, worn over the gown, as a 
 badge of peculiar veneration for the virgin. 
 
 * The word i c formed from the French, fuipuhire, which 
 fignifies the fame ; and that from the Latin, fcttfu/a, the 
 ihouldcr bhdc 
 
 Tbe 
 
S C A 
 
 The /capillar confifts of two narrow breadths or flips of 
 cloth, covering the back and the breafts, and hanging 
 down to the feet of the profefTed religious, and to the 
 knees of the" lay -brothers, csV, 
 
 The common opinion concerning the introduction of the 
 fcapular, is, that it was firft given by the virgin herfelf, in 
 an apparition fhc made to F. Stock, principal of the Carme- 
 lites, in the thirteenth century. — Which account of its ori- 
 gin is averted, or at leaft fuppofed, in feveral bulls of the 
 popes. 
 
 M. de Launoy, however, maintains, in an exprefs treatife 
 on the fubje£t, that the apparition was falfe, and the fabba- 
 tine bull, which approves of the fcapulary, a mere counter- 
 feit. In effect, the Carmelites themfclves did not begin to 
 wear the fcupttlary till feveral years after it is pretended the 
 virgin gave it to father Stock. 
 
 There is alfo a Fffery t or Fraternity of the Scapular; con- 
 lifting of lay-brothers, who profefs a particular devotion to 
 the virgin, and who, in honour of her, wear a little fcapu- 
 hr t in manner of a bracelet, or otherwife, reprefenting the 
 great one. — They are obliged to certain prayers, and to ob- 
 ferve certain rules in their manner of life. 
 
 SCAPUS, in architecture, the fuft or fhaft of a column. See 
 Fust. 
 
 Scapus, in botany, denotes the ftrait ftalk,or ftem of a plant, 
 
 ftanding upright like a pillar or column. 
 S CAR. See the article Eschar. 
 
 SCARIFICATION*, Scarificatio, in chi- 
 rurgery, an operation whereby feveral incifibns are made 
 in the (kin, with a lancet or other inftrumcnt proper for 
 that purpofe. 
 
 * Salmaiius will have us write farifatio, not fcarificetio, in re- 
 gird the word is derived from the Greek, ayutifi&*. See 
 his notes on Solinu?, p. 519. where he thus corr.fts the read- 
 ing of Plin. lib. XVII. F. Hardouin lets the old reading y«- 
 rijicatio Hand ; though he owns the MSS. have it fcariphatio ; 
 but adds, that Theod. I'rilcian writes fcarificatis. 
 
 Scarification is chiefly pradtiled after cupping. 
 It aifts by ftimulaUng and evacuating. 
 SCARIFICATOR, a ch irurgical inftrument ufed in fcarifica- 
 tion, 
 
 1 he fcarificalor is made in form of a box, wherein are fitted 
 10, 12, or 15 lancets, all perfectly in the fame plane; which 
 being, as it were, cocked, by means of a fpriitg, are all dis- 
 charged at the fame time, by pulling a kind of trigger, and 
 driven equally within the fkin, — Till oflate, they ufed little 
 fliarp cutting wheels inftead of thefe lancets. 
 The ufeof the fcurificatov is to evacuate the olood, and other 
 humours, fpread under the fkin, by making a great num- 
 ber of apertures, or outlets, therein ; which being thus all 
 {truck at once, gives much left pain than when ftruck fuc- 
 ceflively. 
 
 SCARLET*, in dying, one of the feven kinds of good 
 reds. Sec Red, Colour and Dying. 
 
 * Menage derives the word from the barbarous Latin, farlita, 
 or fcarhtum ; which he deduces further from the German 
 fcbarlacb, or the Flemifh Jcariain : whence the Engliih have 
 
 formed Jearfet, the Italians fcatiuto, and the French their 
 cfcar/are. ---Others derive it from the Celtic, fiuarlera : Dale- 
 champius will have it called fcarltttupty by corruption, for 
 cafculiatum, a barbarous v.ord introduced into Spain ; others 
 fetch it from the Arabic jxpur/att. 
 There are two kinds of fcarlets ; the one given with kermes, 
 or fcarkt-grain ; the other with cochineel. 
 Scarlet-Grain, is a dyer's drug, ufed forgiving zfcarlet 
 colour; and commonly taken for the fruit of a plant. 
 This imaginary fruit, called by the Arabs, kermes, is found 
 on a kind of ilex, growing in great plenty in the unculti- 
 vated parts of Provence, Langucdoc, Spain and Portugal. — 
 That of Languedoc pafTes for the beft, being big, and of a 
 very bright red ; that of Spain is the worft, being very fmall, 
 and of a blackifii red : it is to be gathered when ripe, and 
 is only good while new, that is, within the compafs of the 
 year, after which time a kind of infe£t is found in it, that 
 eats out the heart thereof. 
 
 F. Plumier has made fomc particular difcoveries or) the fub- 
 ject of fcarlct-grain ; the Arabic term kermes, which fi^ni- 
 fies little worms, he obferves, agrees perfectly with the nature 
 of this drug; which is of the animal kind, and not the 
 grain or feed of a tree, as is generally fuppofed.— The fhrub 
 it is found on, is the ilex aculeata cocci-glandifera ; on the 
 leaves, and little fhoots whereof, appear, in the fpring tinje, 
 a kind of little veficula?, at firft no bigger than grains of 
 millet, occafiuned by the puniture of an infect, which de- 
 pofits its eggs therein.— In proportion as thefe grow, they 
 become covered with a kind of afh-coloured down, which 
 hides the red colour underneath : and when arrived at matu- 
 rity, which thofe who gather them know very well, they 
 are taken from the tree, in form of little galls. 
 The huflc, or fkin of thefe galls, is very iTght, and brittle, 
 covered with a fine membranous pellicle all around, except 
 at the place where it grows to the tree : there is a fecond 
 fkin, under the firft, which is full of a duft, partly red, and 
 partly white. 
 
 As foon as the kermes are gathered, the juice, or pulp is cx- 
 Vol. II. CXXXVIII. 
 
 SCE 
 
 preflbd from them ; and they are wafhed in vinegar, to de. 
 ftroy the little infefis within-fide, which, without fuch pre- 
 caution, would grow, feed on the dull, and, at laft, be 
 hatched, and leave only empty fhells. 
 
 The Jcarlel-grain is alfo of confiderable ufe in medicine, 
 where it is better known under its Arabic name of ktrmti. 
 See Supplement, article Kermes. 
 
 SCARLETIN A Febris, Scarlet-Asj,-, the fame as pur- 
 ple-fever. See Purple and Fever. 
 
 SCARP, in fortification, the interior (lope of the ditch of a 
 place ; that is, the (lope of that fide of a ditch which is 
 next to the place, and faces the campaign. See Ditch. 
 The fearp commences from the liziere or foot of the ram- 
 part. The fearp is oppofite to the eounterfcarp, which is 
 the other fide of the ditch. 
 
 Scarp, is alfo a term in heraldry, probably derived from the 
 French ejeharpe ; fignifying the fcarf, which military com- 
 manders wear for ornament. 
 
 It is borne fomething like a battoon finifter, but is broader, 
 and is continued out to the edges of the field ; whereas the 
 battoon is cut off at each end.— He bcareth argent, a fearp 
 azure. V. Tab. Herald, fig. 44. 
 
 SCAVAGE, Schevage, Schewage, of Shewage, 
 in our ancient cuftoms, a kind of toll or cuftom, exafted 
 by mayors, fherifls, (Sc. of inerchants-flran gers, for wares 
 flu. wed; or offered to fale within their liberties. This cuftom 
 is prohibited by Stat. 19. Hen. VTL c. 7. though the city of 
 London ftill retains the benefit of it. 
 
 SCAVANT*, or Savant, a term purely French, fignify- 
 ing learned ; it is little ufed in our language, except in the 
 phrafe, journal deffavans, denoting, a journal of the works 
 of the learned putyifced monthly at Pans ; being the firft 
 work of that kind ; and that from which all the reft have 
 had their rife. 
 
 * Menage derives the word from the Latin fapere, to be wife j 
 and on that footing he will have it wroie favast ; others from 
 
 fare, to know, and for that reaion write it fewvant. The 
 
 latter etymolagy, and orthography, are followed by the aca- 
 demy ; though all the anciJnt MaS. have it janjant, faHoir t 
 &c. ... '* 
 
 SCAVENGERS*, two officers chofe yearly in each parifh irt 
 London, and the fuburbs, whofe bufinefs it is to hire perfons, 
 called ?ahrs,whh carts to cleanfe the ftreets, and carry away 
 the dirt and filth thereof. 
 
 * The word is derived from the Saxon fiaefda, or Dutch fiha- 
 •vex, to fcrape or iliave away. 
 
 The /avengers are much the fame with what were anciently- 
 called Jireet-wards.— The Germans call them dreckjhnens^ 
 from one Simon a famed fcavanger of Marpurg. 
 SCE LOTYR BE*, skeaotitbh, weaknefs and pains irt 
 the legs; generally attending fcorbutick habits. 
 
 * The word is compounded of re^©-, leg, and tumuk 
 or uproar. 
 
 Scchtyrbe is alfo ufed for the fcurvy itfelf ; and fometimes 
 applied to medicines contrived againft fuch diforders. See 
 Scorbutus. 
 
 SCENE*, Scena, in its primary fenfe, denoted a theatre, of 
 place where dramatic pieces', and other publick fhews were 
 repiefcntcd. 
 
 » The word is originally Greek, ZSffb fignifying a tent, hut, 
 booth, or the like, where dramatic pieces were anciently 
 performed. 
 
 According to Rofinus, the fcene in its proper, and original 
 fenfe, was a feries of trees difpofed againft each other, fo as 
 to form a continued arch, and fbade, c-»<^, to defend thofe 
 underneath it from the injuries of the weather : for in fuch 
 places it was, that, in ancient times, before theatres were 
 built, they aded their plays. Thus aifo Caffiodorus derives 
 the word fcene, from the clofe Ihade of the grove, where, in 
 the fpring-time, the ancient ftiepherds uled to fin°- -md 
 play. 
 
 Scene, was afterwards more particularly ufed for the decora- 
 tions of a ftage, or theatre. 
 
 The ancients, we are informed by Vitruvius, had threeforts 
 of fcencs, or fcenical decorations in their theatres— That in 
 common ufe was a fpacious front or range of building adorn- 
 ed with columns and ftatues; in which were three Iar^e 
 openings, through which other buildings appeared in per- 
 fpective, viz. a palace for tragedies, houfes and itreets for 
 comedies, and forefts for paftorals. 
 
 Thefe decorations were either verjatile, i: e. they turned on 
 pivots, as dirfcribed by Vitruvius ;or duilile, i. c. Aided along 
 grooves, as thofe in our theatres.— And, as this or that fide 
 or reprefentation, was turned towards the fpeclators, xhtfeene 
 was called a tragic, a comic, or a pajloral fcene. See feveral 
 curious remarks on the ancient fcene in M. Perrault's notes 
 on Vitruvius, lib. 5. cap. 6. 
 Scene, is alfo ufed for the place reprefented, or that where 
 the action is conceived to have pafied. 
 
 One of the grand laws of the drama, is to obferve the 
 unity of the fcene, which we more ufually call the unity 
 of place* 
 
 In eftec!, to keep clofe to nature and probability, the fcene 
 fhould never be flailed from, place to place, in the couri'e 
 of the play. The ancients were pretty feyere in this re- 
 11 H fpeit 
 
S C E 
 
 S C E 
 
 fpect, particularly Terence : In fome of his plays, the feene 
 never fhifts at all, hut the whole is tranfaeted before the doer 
 of an old man's houfe, whither, with inimitable art, he brings 
 all his actors, occafionally. 
 
 The French too are very ftrict in this refpect : but the Fng- 
 lifh plead for a d;fpenfation from the rule ; which they think 
 confines them to too narrow bounds, and precludes them 
 from that variety of adventures and intrigues, which an 
 Englilh audience will never be fatisfied without. 
 However, the more judicious and accurate of our own wri- 
 ters are very moderate in the ufe of this licence; and take 
 care not to deviate too far from probability, by fhifting the 
 /cent, between the a&s, much farther than the perfons con- 
 cerned may be fuppofed to have gone in the interval. 
 Hence they feldom carry the fcene out of the fame 
 town. — Though others, who own no fubjection to the 
 ancient rules, take larger liberties : with fome of thefe 
 'tis nothing, when a fancied fcene's in view, to ikip from 
 Covent- Garden to Peru. — The great Shakefpear is exceed- 
 ingly faulty in this refpect, in almoft all his plays. 
 Scene, is alfo a part, or divifion, cf a dramatic poem, de- 
 termined by a new actor's entering. 
 
 Plays are divided into afts, and acts are fubdivided into 
 fcenes. 
 
 In mod of our printed plays, a new /cent is never expreflcd 
 to begin, hut when the place is fuppofed to be changed by 
 fhtfting, or drawing, the moveable feme ; but this mult be 
 elteemed an overftght, fince on our ftage, the fcene is, pro 
 perly, the perfons prefent at, or concerned in, the action on 
 the ftage at fuch time. Whenever, therefore, a new actor 
 appears, or an old cne difappears, the action is changed into 
 other hands, and therefore a new fcene then commences. 
 It is one of the laws of the ftage, that the jeenes be well 
 connected : that is, that one fucceed another, in fuch man- 
 ner, as that the ftage is never quite empty till the end of the 
 
 a<5t 
 
 The ancients did not allow of above three perfons on the 
 ftage at the fame time, excepting in the chorus's, where 
 the number was not limited : but the moderns have but little 
 regard to this reftriction. 
 SCEN IC Games, Ludi Scekici, among the ancients, were 
 entertainments exhibited on the fceita, or theatre ; including 
 what we now call plays of all kinds, with dancing, and other 
 theatrical performances. 
 
 The Romans were 400 years without any feenic games at all : 
 Livy obferves, that they were firft infVituted in the year of 
 Rome 392, under the confulate.of C. Sul itius Peticus, and 
 C. Licinius Stolo. But the criticks have obferved a trip here 
 in Livy ; the crmfulate of thofe perfons falling in the year 
 389, which, therefore, is held the sera of the introdudtion 
 of feenic games. 
 
 At firft, fome actors for thefe divcrfions, were fent for out of 
 Hetruria j who, without reciting any thing, danced about 
 to the found of inftruments : fo that thus far was no more 
 than a ball, or rather what the French call a ballet. — At 
 length they began to rehcarfe verfc. 
 
 Thus, by degrees, growing more and more perfect, their 
 feenical fhews were at laft renreftnted with a juftnefs, and 
 ma°nificence, beyond any thing the world elfewhere ever 
 fhw. — The fathers, in their writings, cry out loudly againft 
 the fcenieal games. 
 SCENOGRAPHY*, in perfpeaive, a reprefentation of a 
 body on a perfpective plane ; or, a defcription thereof in all 
 its dimenfions, fuch as it appears to the eye. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, cdc^jj fcene, and yp,$n 
 defcription. 
 
 The ichnography of a building, &e. reprefents the plan, or 
 ground-work of the building. The orthography, the 
 front, or one of the fides. And the fcenography, the 
 whole building, front, fides, height and all, raifed on the 
 geometrical plan. 
 To exhibit the Scenography cf any body.o~i°. Lay down 
 the hafts, ground-plot, or plan of the body, in the perfpec- 
 tive ichnography, according to the method laid down un- 
 der the article Perspective. 2 u . Upon the feveral points 
 of the plan raife the perfpective heights : thus will the fceno- 
 graphy of the body be completed ; excepting that a proper 
 made is to be added. The method of raifing the heights is 
 as follows. 
 
 On any point given as C, Tab. Perfpeel. fig. r. N°. 2. to 
 raife aperfpective altitude, anfwerable to an objective altitude 
 P — On the terreftrial line raife a perpendicular P Q, e- 
 qual to the given objective altitude. From P and to 
 any point, as T, draw right lines P T and Q_T. From 
 the given point C draw a right line C K, parallel to the ter- 
 reftrial line D E, meeting the right line Q_T in K. In the 
 point K, upon the line K C, erect a perpendicular I K. 
 This I K is the feenographic altitude required. 
 The application of this general method of drawing the 
 fcenography of a body, is riot fo obvious, in every cale, but 
 that it may be neceftary to illuftrate it a little by a few ex- 
 amples. 
 
 Tt txh'tbit the Scenography of a cube, viewed by an angle. — 
 
 i°. As the bafts of a cube viewed by an angle, Handing on 
 a geometrical plane, is a fquare viewed by an angle ; draw a 
 fquare, viewed angular-wife, on the perfpeitive to b b, or 
 plane. 2°. Raife the fide H I (fig. 2. N°. 2.) of the fquare 
 perpendicularly on each point of the terreftrial line D E ; 
 and to any point, as V, of the horizontal line H R, draw 
 the right line V I and V H. 3 0 . From the angles d, b and 
 c, draw c 1, d 2, &c. parallel to the terreftrial HneDE. 
 4°- From the points 1 and 2, raife L I and M 2, perpen- 
 dicular to the fame. Laftly, fince H I is the height to be railed 
 in a, L I in c and b, and M 2 in d ; in a, raife the line f ;i 
 perpendicular to a E ; in b and c, raife b g and c e perpen- 
 dicular to b c 1 ; and laftly, raife d h, perpendicular to d 2 : 
 and make af = HI, bg = e c = L 1, and hd = M 2 : 
 if then the points g, h, e, f be connected by right lines, the 
 jcenograpby will be compleat. 
 To exhibit the Scenography of a hollow quinquangular prijh:. 
 — 1°. Since the bafe of a hollow quinquangular prifm, ftand-- 
 ing on a geometrical plane, is a pentagon, with a limb or 
 breadth of a certain dimenfion ; find the appearance of this 
 pentagon on a table, or plane. See Perspective. 2 0 . 
 On any point, as H, of the terreftrial line D E (fig. 3.) 
 raife a perpendicular H I, equal to the objective altitude ; and 
 to any point, as V, of the horizontal line H R, draw the 
 lints H V and I V. 3 0 . From the itveral angles, a, b, d, 
 e, c, of the perfpective ichnography, both the internal and 
 external ones, draw right lines, as b 2, d 3, tse. parallel to 
 the terreftrial line; and from the points 1, 2, 3, raife per- 
 pendiculars to the fame, as L 1, M 2 m 2, N 3 n 3. if 
 thefe, then, be raifed in the correspondent points of the ich- 
 nography, as in the preceding article, the Jcenograpby will he 
 compleat. 
 
 To exhibitthe Scenography of a cylinder. — 1°. Since the bafe 
 of a cylinder, ftanding on a geometrical plane, is a circle ; 
 feek the appearance of a circle. In the points a, b, d, f, 
 h, g, e, c, ( fig. 8.) raife the apparent altitudes, as in the 
 preceding articles. If now their ,upper lines be connected 
 by curve lines, as in the bafe, a, b, d, f, g, h, e, c, the 
 feemgraphy of the circle will be compleat. 
 It is evident that thofe lines are to be omitted, both in the 
 plan and in the elevation, which are not expoftd to the eye ; 
 though they are not to be difregarded, from the beginning, 
 as being neceftary for the finding of other lines. — E. gr. In 
 the feemgraphy of the cube, viewed angle-wife, the lines bd 
 and d c, ( jig. 2. N°. 2. ) in the bafe, and d h in the elevati- 
 on, are hid from the eye, and are therefore omitted in the 
 defcription. Cut fince the upper point h is not to be tound 
 unlefs the point d be had in the ichnography; nor can the 
 lines g h and d e be drawn without the height d h ; the ap- 
 pearance of the point d is as neceftary to be determined in 
 the operation, as the height h d. 
 
 To exhibit the be EH EOGRAPHY of a pyramid /landing an its bafe. 
 • — Suppofe, e. gr. it were required to delineate a quadrangu- 
 larpyiamid, viewed by an angle. l°. Since the bafe of fuch 
 a pyramid is a fquare feen by an angle, draw fuch a fquare. 
 2°. To find the vertex of the pyramid, i. e. a perpendicu- 
 lar let fall from the vertex to the bafe, draw diagonals mu- 
 tually interjecting each other in e (fig. 5. TM°. 2.) 3 0 . On 
 any point, as H, of the terreftrial line i) E, raife the al- 
 titude of the pyramid H I ; and drawing the right lines 
 H V, and I V to each point of the horizontal line H R ; 
 produce the diagonal a b, till it meet the line V H in h. 
 Laftly, from h draw h i parallel to H I. This being raifed 
 on the point e, will give the vertex of the pyramid K ; con- 
 fequently, the lines a k, k a, and k b, will be determined 
 at the fame time. 
 
 After the like manner is the feemgraphy of a cone deli- 
 neated. 
 
 To exhibit the SCENOGRAPHY of a truncated pyramid. — Sup- 
 pofe the truncated pyramid quadrangular; i°. then, If 
 from the feveral angles of the upper bafe be conceived per- 
 pendiculars let fall to the lower bafe, we flkaU have a pen- 
 tagon, with another inferibed therein, whofe fides are pa- 
 rallel to thofe of the former. This coincides with a penta- 
 gon, furnifticd with a rim or breadth, bfc. and may there- 
 fore be delineated in the iame manner. — 2 0 . Raifmg the al- 
 titude of the truncated pyramid I H, ( fig. 6. N p . 2. ) deter- 
 mine the feenographic altitudes, to be raifed in the points a, 
 b, c, d, e. If now the points higher f, g, h, i, k, be 
 connected by right lines, and the lines 1 k, f'm, g n, ho, 
 
 be drawn, the fcenography will be compleat. By drawing 
 
 two concentric circles in a geometrical plane, and doing 
 every thing elfe, as in this problem, the fcenography of a 
 truncated cone will be drawn. 
 
 To exhibit the Scenography cf walls, columns, &c. or to 
 raife them on the pavement.- — 1° . Suppofe a pavement AFHI 
 (fig. 7. N°. 2. ) reprefented in a plan, together with the ba- 
 les of the columns, &c. if tlicre he anv. 2°. Upon the 
 terreftrial line fet off the thicknefs of the wall B A and r 3 
 3 0 . Upon A and B, as alfo upon 3 and 1, raife perpendiculars 
 ADandBC, as alfo 3, 6, and 1, 7. 4 0 . Connect the points. 
 D and 6 with the principal point V", by the right lines D V 
 and 6 V. 5°- Upon F and H raife perpendiculars H G and 
 EF. Thus will all the walls be delineated. Now 
 
S C E 
 
 S C E 
 
 Now to raife the pillars, &c. there needs nothing but, from 
 their feveral bafes (whether fquare or circular) projected on 
 the perfpecltive plan, to raife indefinite perpendiculars ; and 
 on the fundamental line, where interfered by the radius 
 F A pairing through the bafe, raife the true altitude A D : 
 for D V being drawn as before, the fcenegrapbical altitudes 
 will be determined. 
 To exhibit the Scenocraphy of a door in building, — Sup- 
 pofe a door required to be delineated in a wall D£F A; 
 l°. Upon the fundamental line fet off its diftance AN from 
 the angle A, together with the breadths of the ports N I 
 and L M, and the breadth of the gate itfelf L \. 2°. To 
 the point of diftance K, from the feveral points N, I, L, M, 
 draw right lines K N, K I, KL, K M, which will deter- 
 mine the breadth of the door 1 i, and the breadths of the 
 ports i n and m 1. 3°. From A to O, fet off the height of 
 the gate A O, and from A to P, the height of the pofts A P. 
 4 0 . Join O and P with the principal point, by the right lines 
 P V and O V. 5 0 . Then, from n, i, 1, m, raife perpendi- 
 culars, the middle ones whereof are cut by the right line 
 
 0 V in o, and the extremes, by the right line V P in p. 
 Thus will the door be delineated, with its pofts. If the 
 door were to have been exhibited in the wall E F G H, the 
 method would be nearly the fame. For, i°. Upon the 
 terreftrial line, fet off the diftance of the door from the 
 angle, and thence alfo the breadth of the door R T. 2°. 
 From R and T, draw right lines to the principal point V, 
 which g;ve the breadth r t in the pcrfpecfive plan. 3 0 . 
 From r and t, raife indefinite perpendiculars to F H, 4 0 . 
 From A to O, fet off the true height A O. Laftly, from 
 O, to the principal point V, draw the right line O V, 
 interfering E F in Z, and make r r and 1 1 equal to F Z. — 
 Thus is the door r r, t t, drawn ; and the pofts are eafily 
 added, as before. 
 
 To exhibit the Scenocraphy of windows in a wall. — When 
 you know how to reprefent doors, you will find no difficulty 
 in adding windows; all that is here further required, be- 
 ing to fet off the height of the window from the bottom of 
 the ground. The whole operation is as follows. i°. From 
 
 1 to 2, fet off the thicknefs of the wall at the window ; 
 from 3 to 4, its diftance from the angle ; ; and from 4 to 5 
 its breadth. 2 0 . From 4 and 5, to the point of diftance L, 
 draw the right lines L 5 and L 4, which will give the per- 
 fpective breadth 10, 9 of the window. 3°. From 10 and 
 
 raife lines perpendicular to the pavement, f. e. draw inde- 
 nice parallels to 6, 3. 4 0 . From 3 to 11 fet off the diftance 
 of the window from the pavement 3, 11 ; and, from 11 to 
 12, its height n, 12. Laftly, from 11 and 12, to the 
 principal point V, draw lines V 11 and V 12 ; which inter- 
 jecting the perpendiculars 10, 13, and g, 14, in 13 and 14, 
 as alfo in 15 and 16, will exhibit the appearance of the 
 window. 
 
 From thefe examples, which are all no more than applica- 
 tions of the firft grand or general rule, it will be eafily per- 
 ceived what method to take to delineate any other thing, 
 and at any height from the pavement. 
 
 For u mechanical method of exhibiting the SCENOCRAPHY of 
 any abject, fee Designing. 
 
 SCFNOPFGIA *, SKHNonnriA, a f ea ft among the Jews, 
 more ufua:ly called feajl of tabernacles, inftituted after the 
 people of Ifracl wen; in poffeffion of the land of Canaan, in 
 memory of their having dwelt under tents in the ( wildernefs. 
 
 * The wnrk is Greek, formed of fceoe, tabernacle, 
 tent; and jrijyu/^i fig", I fix. 
 
 The fecnopegia was held for eight days fucceffively, com- 
 mencing on the fifteenth of September. The laft day was 
 much the moft folemn ; both on account of the conflux of 
 perfons, and of the extraordinary tokens they all o-ave of 
 their joy. — It is of this eighth day, St. John muft. be under- 
 ftnod to fpeak, when he tells us, our Saviour was at the feaft 
 of tabernacles, on the laft and great day. 
 When the holy fcripture fays abfolutely, the feajl, it is ufu- 
 ally to be underftood of the fcenop eg ia. 
 ECFPTER *, Sceptrum, a royal ftaff, or battoon, borne, 
 on folemn occafions, by kings, as a badge of their com- 
 mand and authority. 
 
 * Nicod derives the word from the Greek, <r*jprip<j», which, 
 he fays, originally fignified a jivelin, which the ancient 
 kings ufually bore as a badge of their authority, inng-trd 
 that initrumenr. was in very great veneration anion" the hca- 
 thens.— But, c-jusrlpe* does not properly iignify a javtiin, but 
 a llail to reft upwi, from ngfifc, inni'lur, f lean upon. 
 
 Thefcepter is an enfign of royalty of greater antiquity than 
 the crown. The Greek tragic, and other poets, put jeep - 
 iers in the hands of the mott ancient kings they ever intro- 
 duce. 
 
 Juftin obferves, that \he.)ctpter, in its original, was a hajla, 
 orfpear: he adds, that in the moft remote antiquity, men 
 adored the hajla, or fcepters, as immortal gods ; and, that 
 it was upon this account, that even in his time, they frill 
 furnifhed the gods with fepters.— Neptune "s fcepttr is his 
 trident. 
 
 Tkrcuin, the cider, was the firft who affirmed the fcepttr 
 
 among the Romans.— Le Gendre tells us, that in the firft 
 race of the French kings, the fcepter was a golden rod, al- 
 moft always of the fame height with the king who bore it, 
 and crooked at one end like a crozier. — Frequently, inftead 
 of a fcepter, kings are feen on medals with a palm in their 
 hand. 
 
 Scep ter, Sceptrum, in aftronomy, one of the fix new 
 conftellations of the fouthern hemifpbere, confifting of 17 
 ftars ; one of the 4th magnitude, 8 of the 5th, and as 
 many of the 6th. 
 
 SCEPTICISM, the doctrine and opinions of the fcepticks ; 
 called alfo Pyrrhonifm, from the name of its author. 
 The ancient fcepticifm confifted in doubting of every thing, 
 in affirming nothing at all, and in keeping the judgment in 
 fufpenfe on every fubjecl. Sextus Empiricus makes fcepticifm 
 to confift in a faculty of oppoling all appearances, of mak- 
 ing all, even contrary things, equally probable, and of pro- 
 ceeding firft to an (post or fufpenfe of mind, and then to 
 intire undifturbednefs or tranquillity. 
 
 Hence thefe great maxims of theirs : Of fnaXMt nslo » t*tn* 
 this no more than that : n«>1t Myu toy©-, cjV. every reafon 
 has another againft it - 3 and 0"<&* 1 determine no- 
 
 thing. 
 
 The proper character then of fcepticifm, is an a.*.*7*.Mh<x--, 
 neutrality, or fuch a difpofition of mind as does not, upon 
 any occafton, incline to any thing more than the contrary 
 thing. 
 
 This hefitancy of the fcepticks is well defcribed by Ariftocles 
 in Eufeb. de p rapar, evan. All things are equally indiffe- 
 rent, uncertain and undeterminate : neither our fenfes, nor 
 our opinions give us either truth or falfnood : therefore, nei- 
 ther the one, nor the other 2ie to be credited ; but all things 
 to be left on a level, without admitting any opinion, incli- 
 nation or motion of the mind at all. — It is added, that the 
 fcepticks carried this fufpenfe of theirs fo far, as even to 
 deny, that any thing is either good or evil, juft or 
 unjuft, true or falfe ; or that any thing is this, more than 
 that. 
 
 It is from this acatalepfia of the fcepticks, that Des Cartes 
 feems to have borrowed his great principle of doubting of all 
 things ; as is owned by many of his followers — It muft be 
 owned, indeed, that there is fnme difference between the 
 doubting of the fcepticks, and that of the Cartefians. In phy- 
 fical matters, it is true, there does not feem a great deal of 
 difference ; and Des Cartes, in that refpe&, may, without 
 much injuftice, be deemed a fceptick : but this may be faid 
 in his favour, that the great Socrates was fo far a fceptick 
 himfelf; phyfical and fenlible things, he held, were all du- 
 bious, and, at beft, but probable. 
 
 The origin of fcepticifm is fomewhat obfeure. Pyrrho, who 
 lived under Alexander the Great, and made the tour of In- 
 dia in his retinue, is ufually reputed its author; whence 
 the words Pyrrhonians and fcepticks are ordinarily uled 
 indifferently. 
 
 It muft be owned, however, that the great dogma of the 
 fcepticks had been countenanced, and even cultivated before 
 Pyrrho, by Democritus, Heraclitus, &c. — Sextus Empiiicus 
 fays, exprefly, that all that Pyrrho did, was to improve, 
 illuftrate and inforce the dogma, and form the retainers 
 thereto into a feci. 
 
 Dcmocritus's philofophy was near akin to fcepticifm; for 
 upon his obferving, that honey feemed fweet to fome, and 
 bitter to others, he concluded, that it was neither fweet nor 
 bitter ; and thereupon pronounced * ibttWei, non maiis 
 which is pure fcepticifm. — Yet the fame Sextus adds, that 
 Democritus was no fceptick. 
 
 Though Plato argues very ftrenuoufly againft the acatalepfy 
 of the fcepticks ; yet it is certain that dogma received a 
 great part of its encouragement from Socrates's fchool, and 
 from Plato's academy. Nay, it was a great controverfy 
 among the ancients, whether Plato himfelf were a fceptick 
 or dogmatift ? Indeed Plato's decifive way of fpeaking, in 
 many cafes, feems to leave no great room for fuch a doubt ; 
 but it is certain, his followers of the new academy founded 
 by Arcefilas, gave much into this way ; and nihil fcitu, was 
 held by them a principle. 
 
 Sextus Empiricus obferves, that Socrates himfelf had a tinc- 
 ture of fcepticifm ; fome even make him the author of it, 
 from that cuftomary faying of his, I know nothing but this, 
 that I know nothing. If this were the origin of fcepticifm, 
 it muft be owned, it was mightily improved afterwards, ere 
 Metrodorus faid, / know nothing, not even this, that I know 
 nothing. The fame Sextus however adds, that Plato, 
 introducing his mafter in his gymnaftic dialogues, dif- 
 puting with the fophifb, makes him act the part of a 
 fceptic. 
 
 Some have even charged Job, and Solomon, with fcepti- 
 cifm ; from their propofing a great number of queftions, 
 without deciding any of them. The philofopher of Kiel, 
 who has publiftied a differtation on fcepticifm, fetches its 
 origin ltill higher : he will have the devil the author 
 thereof, who made our firft parents doubt of the word of 
 God himfelf j and drew them in, the firft profvlvtea to 
 fcepticifm. 
 
 SCEP- 
 
S C H 
 
 S C H 
 
 SCEPTICKS *, Sceptici, a fc£t of ancient philofophers, 
 founded or improv'd by Pyrrho. Their diftinguifiiing tenet 
 was, that all tilings are uncertain and incomprehenfible ; 
 contraries equally true ; and that the mind is never to alien t 
 to any thing; but to keep up an abfolutc hefitancy or in- 
 difference. 
 
 * The term fcrptick, in its origi.ial.Greek, naA«ft' f properly 
 fignifies confsdiratiue, and inquifidvc ; or a man who is ever 
 weighing the reafons en One fide and the other, without ever 
 deciding between them : it is formed from the verb ntwfy**, 
 I Confider, look about, deliberate. 
 
 Lacrtius notes, that the followers of Pyrrho had various de- 
 nominations : from their matter, they were called Pyrrhom 
 (ins; from their dogma, aporetici, that is, doubters, of 
 xrtpat, to doubt. — From their fufpenfion and hefitation, 
 epfft&ici 9 of to ftay, to keep back.— And from 
 
 their never getting beyond the fearch of truth, zetetia, 
 feekers. 
 
 Plato refutes the great principle of the fieptich thus : when 
 you fay, that all things are incomprehenfible, do you com- 
 prehend or conceive that they are thus incomprehenfible, or 
 do you not ? if you do, then fometh'mg is comprehenfilile ; 
 if you do not, there is no reafon we fhould believe you, 
 Itnce you do not comprehend vour own aflertion. 
 
 SCHAR-PKNNY, Scharn-Plnny, or Schorn- 
 Penny. — It appears from our old books, that fome cufto- 
 , mary tenants were obliged to pen up their cattle at night in 
 the pound or yard of their lord, for the benefit of their 
 dung, or /ccarn, as the Saxons called it. — In defect of this, 
 they were to pay a fmall competition ; which was hence 
 called f char-penny. 
 
 SCHEAT or SEA T, in aftronomy, a fixed ftar of the fecond 
 magnitude in the juncture of the leg with the left moulder 
 of Pegafus. 
 
 Some "call it /cheat alpheras, and fome /cheat Pcgaft.^ Its 
 longitude, according to Mr. Elamfteed, is 25 0 2' 13", its 
 latitude 31" S' 6" north. 
 SCHEDULE *, Schedula, a fcroll of paper, or parch- 
 ment, annexed to a will, leafc, or other deed ; containing 
 an inventory of goods, or fome other matter, omitted in 
 the body of the deed. 
 
 * TJie word is a diminutive of the Latin fiheda, or Greek 
 •£wr, a leaf or piece of paper. 
 
 SCHElTER's fortification. See FORTIFICATION. 
 
 SCHEMATISM, sxilmatismos. See the articles Fi- 
 gure and Trope. 
 
 SCHEME *, a draught, or reprefentation of any geometri- 
 cal, or aftronomical figure, or problem by lines fenfible to 
 the eye ; or of the ccelcftial bodies in their proper places for 
 any moment. , 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, tr^px, habitus. 
 Scheme arches. See the article Arch. 
 SCHEVAGE. Sec the article Schewace. 
 SCH1PPER. See the article Shipper. 
 SCHIREMOTE, or Scyremot. See Scyremot. 
 SCHISM*, Schisma, in the general, fignifies divifion, 
 
 or feparation ; but it is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of repara- 
 tions happening through diverfity of opinions among people 
 of the fame religion, and faith. 
 
 * The word is formed Irom the Greek, o-;;ir/*«, cleft, filTiire. 
 Thus, we fay, the /chi/m of the ten tribes of Ifrael, from 
 the two tribes of Juda and Benjamin ; the /chi/m of 
 the Perfians, from the Turks and other Mahometans, 
 &c. 
 
 Among ccclcfiaftical authors, the great /chi/m of the vjcJI , 
 it that which happened in the times of Clement VII. and 
 Urban VI. which divided the church for forty or fifty years, 
 and was at length ended by the election of Martin V. at 
 the council of Conftance. 
 
 The Romimilts number thirty-four /cbi/ms in their church. 
 ■ — They bellow the name, Englijh /chi/m on the refor- 
 mation of religion in this kingdom. — Thofe of the church 
 of England again apply the term /chi/m to the reparation 
 of the non-conformifts, viz. the prefbyterians, inde 
 pendants, and anabaptills, who contend for a further re- 
 formation. 
 
 . Some call the feparation of the protettants from the church 
 
 of Rome, a pa [Jive /chi/m, becaufe that church cut them off* 
 
 from her communion. 
 Negative Schism. See the article Negative. 
 S C H O EN O BATES*, Sxoinoeaths, a name which 
 
 the Greeks gave to their rope-dancers j by the Romans 
 
 called /unambuli. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, vyjM®*, a rope ; and 
 **<»«, I walk. 
 
 The fchcembaUs were Haves, whofe matters made money of 
 them, by entertaining the people with their feats of 
 activity.— Mercurialis de arte gymnajlica, lib. III. gives 
 us live figures of fcheemohaies engraven after ancient ftones. 
 SCHOLARUM dme/iictrt. See Domesticus.** 
 SCHOLASTIC, zxoAAmnos, fomething belonging 
 to the fchools; or that is taught in the fchools. See 
 School. 
 
 Scholastic, Scholasticus, was a long time a title of 
 honour ; at firft only given to fuch as dittinguilhcd them- 
 felves by their eloquence, in declaiming, &c. 
 After Nero, the appellation Scholasticus was alfo given to 
 the advocates; and among others, to Socrates and Eufebius, 
 the ecclefiaftical hiftoriaris, who were advocates at Conttan- 
 tinople. Conftant. Harmenopulus alfo bore it in the twelfth 
 century, with feveral others. 
 Afterwards, Scholasticus became reftrained to fuch as had 
 the government of the ecclcfiattical fchools, ettablifhed un- 
 der the firft race of French kings, who inftructed the clerks 
 of each church, firft in the humanities, then in the theology 
 and the liturgy. — Thefe were alio called primiciers efcolaflres, 
 and theohgaux „• and if the church were fituated in a city, 
 the /chalajlicus was called the chancellor 
 Among the Greeks, Scholasticus, Z^eA«s-«©-, was alfo the 
 name of an office, or dignity ; anfwering to our divine or 
 theclogne. — Indeed, Genebrard nbferves, it was only properlv 
 applied to people of general learning, and fine parts, and 
 who were well known to the world in that character. 
 Thus, St. Jerom mentions, that Serapion was furnamed 
 Scbolajiicus, by reafon of the delicacy of his wit: Walafrid 
 Strabo, calls the poet Prudentius, /cholajlicus ; and Fortu- 
 natus was called fchola/licijjimus. 
 Scholastic divinity, is that part or fpecics of divinity which 
 
 clears, and difcufies queftions, by reafon, and arguments. 
 In which fenfe, it Hands, in good meafure, oppofed to posi- 
 tive divinity, which is founded on the authority of fathers, 
 councils, &C. 
 
 The /chool divinity, like Plato's fchool, has had its three feveral 
 ages, or periods : the ancient, the middle, and the neiu. 
 The ancient began under Lanfrank, archbilhnp of Canter- 
 bury, or, more properly, under Peter Lombard, the matter 
 of the fentences; and held about 200 years ; ending under 
 Albertus Magnus. 
 
 This was fucceeded by the middle fchool divinity, which lafted 
 about 100 years, to the time of Thomas Aouifiaa ; during 
 which time, the peripatetic philofuphy was railed to its ut- 
 moft reputation. 
 
 The third age began under Durandus, who fet himfelf up 
 againft Thomas, the chief of the middle age. After his 
 time people's wits became more and more fubtilc ; and the 
 fchool began to be wholly taken up in frivolous queftions. 
 They difputed, with great heat, about mere formalities* 
 and even railed phantoms on purpofe to combat withal. 
 The /ehool divinity is now fallen into the laft contempt ; 
 and is fcarce regarded any where, but in fome of the uni- 
 verfitieS) where they are ftill obliged by their charters to 
 teach it. 
 
 SCHOLIAST, SXOAIASTHS, commentator ; a grammarian 
 who writes /cholia, that is, notes, gloffcs, (ffc. upon ancient 
 authors who have written in the learned languages. 
 
 SCHOLIUM, ZXOAION, a note, annotation, or remark 
 occafionally made on fome pailage, proportion, or the like. 
 The term is much ufed in geometry, and other pa r ts of 
 mathematicks ; where, after demonftrating a propofi-ion, it 
 is frequent to point out how it might be done fome other 
 way; or to give fome advice, or precaution, in order to 
 prevent miftakes j or add fome particular life or application 
 thereof. 
 
 Wolfius has given us abundance of curious and ufeful arts, 
 and methods, and a good part of the modern philofophv, 
 the defcription of mathematical initntments, all by 
 
 way of /cholia to the refpective proportions in his Element a 
 Mathe/eos. 
 
 SCHOOL*, Schola, a puhlick place, wherein the lan- 
 guages, humanities, or other arts and fciences are taught. 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, fibola, whicn according 
 to Da Cange fignifies difciphne, and correSion : he .?dds that 
 it was anciently ufed, in the genera', lor all places, where 
 feveral perfons met together, either to ttudy , to convene, or 
 do any other matter. Accordhg'y, there were ftbolte fala- 
 tirtie, being the feveral polls wherein the emperor's guards 
 Were placed; fibola fcutarivnim, fibota gr-.it'itium, &C. At 
 length the term pafTtd alfo to civil maftiAfates'; and acord- 
 ingly in the code, we meet v;\\h l.bol.i ebartm/arierttm, fcbuLi 
 agendum, Sec and even to eCclcn-ilUeks ; as, ftbe/a cantorum, 
 fcholn f ctrdotum, &C. 
 Thus we fay, a grammcr fichool, a writing/fics/, a fchool of 
 natural philofophy, Wc. 
 School, is alio ufed for a whole faculty, univerfity, or feci : 
 as Plato's fchool, the /chool of Epicurus, the /choo I of Paris, 
 The /chool of Tiberias was famous among the ancient 
 Jews ; and it is to this we owe the maffora, and mafforetc?. 
 School, in painting, is ufed as a term to diftinguifh the 
 different manners ol places, and perfons. 
 Thus, we fay, the Roman /chool, the Venetian /chool, the 
 Flemifh fchtol, he. Raphael's /chool, Titian's fchool, da 
 Vinci's jchool, &c. meaning their difciples, pupils, CSV. 
 School of Athens? is the name of a celebrated piece of Ra- 
 phael, now in the Vatican. — It contains a great number of 
 figures, rcprefenting philofuphers, mathematicians, and other 
 perfons engaged in the arts, and fciences. 
 Several authors have wrote of this painting, and given dif- 
 ferent explications thereof : Vafari will have it to be, the 
 
S C I 
 
 S C I 
 
 agreement of philofophy, and aftronomy, with theology.— 
 The engravers, by the infcription they add at the bottom of 
 the print thereof, fhew, that they take it for a painting of 
 St. Paul preaching at Athens.' — An Auguftin of Venice takes 
 the philosopher who is writing, for St. Mark ; and he at his 
 knees, for the angel Gabriel. 
 
 M. dc Piles rejects all thefe explications of the fcbool of Athens, 
 and efpecially the laft : his opinion is, that it is nothing more 
 than an image of philofophy, which Raphael here reprefents 
 under all the philofophers he has painted. 
 In behalf of the Venetian engravers it may be faid, thatthey 
 do not pretend to explain the painting, but have only copied 
 fuch of the figures as they thought proper toreprefent, St. 
 Mark, Gabriel, &c. . 
 
 Sc hool philofophy, theology, Sec. the fame -with fcholaflic. 
 
 Charity Schools. See the article Charity. 
 
 SCHOOUBIAH, a fe£t among the muffulmen, whofe di- 
 frhiguiihing tenet it is, that the Sunnites are not a whit pre- 
 ferable to theShiites or Rafadhites, /". e. the orthodox to the 
 heterodox ; but that both the one and the other are equally 
 true believers. 
 
 The Schooubiah, therefore, fhonld be properly, the Latitudi- 
 narians in Mahometanifm : yet are not they regarded by ei- 
 ther party, as much better than Gentiles, or Heathens, as 
 their name in that language imports. 
 
 There are abundance among the muflulmen, who give into 
 this feci, only fecretly ; Mahometanifm, like all other falfe 
 religions, being an avowed enemy to toleration. 
 
 SCHORN-PENNY. See the article Schar-Penny. 
 
 SCIAGRAPHY, or Sciography, the profile, or fection 
 of a building, to fhew the infide thereof. 
 
 Sciagraphy, in aftronomy, csV, is a term fome authors ufe 
 for the art of finding the hour of the day or night, by the 
 fhadow of the fun, moon, ftars, &c. See Dial. 
 
 SCIAMANTIA*, Sciamancy, orScioMANCY, a kind 
 of divination, otherwife called pfyebomancy. — Sciamancy, a- 
 mong the ancients, was the art of raifing and calling up the 
 manes or fouls of deceafed perfons, to give intelligence of 
 things to come. The witch who conjured up the foul of 
 Samuel, to foretel Saul the event of the battle he was about 
 to give, did it by fdamancy. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, mutt, fhadow, ufed 
 metaphorically for the foul, and fxixirtm divination. 
 
 SCIATICA, in medicine, the gout in the hip. See Gout, 
 SClE.r—Fsuille de Scie. See Feuille de fcU, 
 SCIENCE*, in philofophy, a clear and certain knowledge 
 
 of any thing, founded on felf-evident principles, or demon- 
 
 itration. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, fcientia of fcire, to know. 
 In this fenfe, doubting is oppofed to fciencs ; and opinion is the 
 middle between the two. 
 
 The fcepticks profefs to deny, that we have any fuch thing 
 as fcience ; that is, any clear, or certain notices of any thing 
 capable of producing abfolute conviction. 
 Divines fuppofe three kinds of fcience in God : the firft, fci- 
 ence of mere knowledge, whereby God knows himfelf, and 
 all things pofTrble. — The fecond, fcience of vifion, whereby 
 he knows all things he has refolved to do, or to permit, in 
 the fame order wherein he has refolved to do, and to permit 
 them. — The third, a mediate or intermediate fcience, where- 
 by he knows what angels and men will do, in certain cafes 
 and certain circumftances, if he refolve to bring them a- 
 bout. 
 
 It is greatly difputed among fchool divines, whether or no 
 there be fuch a mediate fcience in God I the reafon why fome 
 call it in queftion is, becaufe it does not confift well with 
 their particular Ichemes of prefcience, &c. 
 
 Science of conditiona.s. See Conditional. 
 
 Science, is more particularly ufed for a formed fyftem of any 
 branch of knowledge ; comprehending the doctrine, reafon 
 and theory of the thing, without any immediate application 
 thereof to any ufes orofEcesof life. 
 In this fenfe, the word is ufed in oppofition to art. 
 Indeed, the precife notion of an art, and fcience, and their 
 juft, adequate difti notion, do not feem to be yet well fixed. 
 See the Preface to this work. 
 
 As to the number, and divifion of the fciences, Mr. Locke 
 limits them thus: all that can fall within the compafs of 
 human underftanding, is, firft, either the nature of things, 
 their relations, and their manner of operation: or, fecond- 
 Jy, that which man himfelf ought to do as a voluntary and 
 rational agent, for the attainment of any end, efpecially of 
 happinefs: or, thirdly, the ways and means, whereby the 
 knowledge of both of thefe is attained and communicated : 
 whereupon, fcience may be properly divided into thefe three 
 forts. 
 
 Firft, the knowledge of things, their conftitutions, proper- 
 ties and operations, whether material or immaterial. — This, 
 in a little more inlarged fenfe of the word, may be called 
 Vol. II. N°. 138. 3 
 
 <?wi*>f, or natural philofophy . — The end of this is bare fpecu- 
 lative truth, and whatfoever can afford the mind of man any 
 fuch, falls under this branch ; whether it be God himfelf, 
 angels, fpirits, bodies, or any of their affections ; as number, 
 figure, bfc. 
 
 Secondly, a-f^x-nxu, the fkill of right applying our own pow- 
 ers and actions for the attainment of things good and ufe- 
 ful. — The moft confiderable under this head, is ethicks, 
 which is the feeking out thofe rules and meafures of human 
 actions, which lead to happinefs, and the means to practife 
 them. The end of this is not bare fpeculation ; but right, 
 and a conduct fuitable thereto. 
 
 Thirdly, trnmi^Ki. or the doctrine of figns. — The moft ufual 
 being words, this is aptly enough termed logick \ the bufinels 
 whereof is to confider the nature ot thofe figns which the 
 niind makes u(e of for the underftanding of things, or con- 
 veying its knowledge to others. Things are reprefented to 
 the mmd by ideas ; and mens ideas are communicated to one 
 another by articulate founds or words. The confederation 
 then of ideas and words; as the great inftrument of know- 
 ledge, makes no defpicable part of their contemplation who 
 would take a view of human knowledge in the whole extent 
 of it. 
 
 This feems the firft, and moll general, as well as the molt 
 natural divifion of the objects of our underftanding : for a 
 man can employ his thoughts about nothing, but either the 
 contemplation of things themfelves for the difcovery of truth; 
 or about the things in his own power, which arc his actions, 
 for the attainment of his own ends ; or the figns the mind 
 makes ufe of, both in the one and the other, and the right 
 ordering of them, for its clearer information. — All which 
 three, viz. things as they are in themfelves knowable ; ac- 
 tions, as they depend on us, in order to happinefs ; and the 
 right ufe of figns in order to knowledge;, being toto ccelo, 
 different, they feem to be the three great provinces of the 
 intellectual world, wholly feparate and diftinct one from a- 
 nother. 
 
 Academy of Sciences. See the article Academy. 
 SCIENTIFIC, or Scientifical, fomething relating to 
 
 the pure, fublimer fciences 3 or that abounds in fcience, or 
 
 knowledge. 
 
 A work, a method, (jfc. is faid to be fcienttfical, when it is 
 founded on the pure reafon of things, or conducted wholly 
 on the principles thereof. 
 
 In which fenfe, the word ftands oppofed to narrative, arbi- 
 trary, opinionative, pofitive, tentative, tiff. 
 SCILLA, or Sojjilla, fquill, the fea-onion ; a medicinal 
 plant, of the onion-kind, but very large ; chiefly brought 
 from Spain : ufed principally in infufion, and that generally 
 in vinegar, which it renders emetic. 
 
 There are two kinds q$ fquills, the male snd female : the male 
 are whitifh, and the female reddifh ; whence they are alfo 
 diftinguifhed by the appellations of white fquills, fdllcs albce y 
 and red fquills, fcillts rubra. 
 
 Their infufion, when boiled to the confiftence of a fyrup, 
 with honey, is called oxymel fcilliticum, in the fhops, and re- 
 tains the fame properties. 
 
 Squills powerfully deterge, and fcour off the vifcid adhefions 
 in the bowels; and gently irritate the ftomach to ejection. 
 T hey are alfo, as all of the onion-kind are, very diuretick, 
 and therefore in great eftcem, with fome, in dropfies : if 
 their infufion be mixed with cinnamon-water, they will fel- 
 dom vomit, but work downwards, and that very forcibly, by 
 urine: in afthmas, and all obftru&ions, or infarctions of the 
 lungs, which are to be removed bydeterfives and expectora- 
 tion, there is fcarce any thing more effectual. They are 
 alfo efteemed alexipharmick, and upon that account have a 
 place in the theriaca Andromachi. 
 
 SCJLLITICUM vinum. Seethe article Vinum. 
 
 SCIOPTICK, a fphere or globe of wood, with a circular 
 hole or perforation wherein a lens is placed. — It is fo fitted, 
 that, like the eye of an animal, it may be turned round 
 every way ; to be ufed in making experiments of the dark- 
 ened room. 
 
 SCIRE-FACIAS, a judicial writ, moft commonly ufed to 
 call a man to fhew caufe to the court whence it ifl'ues, why 
 execution of a judgment paffed, mould not be made out? 
 This writ is not granted, till a year and a day be elapfed af- 
 ter a judgment given. 
 
 Scire facias, upon a fine, lies only after a year and a day af- 
 ter the fine levied. — Otherwife, it is the fame with the writ 
 of habere facias feifuiam. See Habere facias, &c. 
 SCIRRHUS*, 2K.IPP0S, in medicine, a hard, indolenf 
 tumor, formed gradually, in the foft, glandulous parts of 
 the body ; fometimes internal, and fometimes external. 
 
 * The word is Greek, formed of o-Kif©-, a piece of marble. 
 There are two kinds of fcirrkus's ; the one only beginning, 
 and frequently painful when prefted by the fingers ; the o- 
 ther, confirmed and fenfelels. 
 
 The fcirrhus arifes from a thick, vifcid, and probably gritty 
 11 I matter, 
 
SCO 
 
 . huttcr, detained and indurated in the ports and other mi- 
 lime paflagcs of the parts affected. 
 
 There are fome fcirrbus's. as hard as {tones ; fume are even 
 painful in their confirmed ffate, and partake of the nature 
 of a cancer. See Supplement, article Schirrus. 
 SC1TE. See the article Site. 
 
 SCLAVONIC, the language of the Sclavi, an ancient peo- 
 ple of Scythia Europsea ; who, about the year 518, quitting 
 their native country, ravaged Greece and cftablifhed the 
 kingdoms of Poland and Moravia, and at laft fettled in, 11- 
 Jyria : which thence took the name of Sclavonic!, 
 The Sclavonic is held, after the Arabic, the moft extcnfive 
 language in the world : it is fpoke from the Adriatic to the 
 north lea, and from the Cafpian to Saxony, by a great vari- 
 ety of people; who are all, the defendants of the ancient 
 Sclavi, viz. the Poles, Mufcovir.es, Bulgarians, Carinthians, 
 Bohemians, Hungarians, Pruffians, Suabians, S*r. each of 
 whom, however, have their particular dialed ; only thcScla- 
 - vonic is the common mother of their feveral languages, viz. 
 the Polifh, Ruffian, Hungarian, &c. 
 
 By a Latin chronicle of the Sclavi, compofed by Helmold, 
 a prieft of Bofow, and Arnold ahbot of Lubec, and correc- 
 ted by M. Leibnitz, it appears, that the Sclavi anciently in- 
 habited the coafts of the Baltic fea, and were divided into 
 eaftcrn and weftern : in the latter whereof, were the Ruffi- 
 ans, Poles, Bohemians, £S>f. And in the former, the Van- 
 dals. 
 
 Dom. Maur. Orbini Raufer, abbot of the order of Malta, 
 in an Italian hiftory of the Sclavi, in titled, // regno de gli 
 Slavif printed in 1601, will have them to be originally of 
 Finland in Scandinavia, Laur. Pribevo, a Dalmatian, in 
 an exprefs difcourfe on the origin of the Sclavi, maintains 
 them to be orieinallv of Thrace, and the fame with the 
 Thracians, the poftcrity of Thiras, who was the feventh 
 fon of Japhet. Thcod. Polycarpowitz, in a Greek, Latin 
 and Sclavonic dictionary, printed at Mofcow in 1704, ob- 
 ferves, that the word Sclava, whence Sclavonic is formed, 
 fignifics in their language, glory. 
 SCLKROPHTHALMIA, skahfo*0AAmia, a kind of 
 ophthalmia, wherein the eye is dry, hard, red and painful ; 
 and the eyebrows likewife ; fo as not to be opened after fleep. 
 without great pain. See Ophthalmia. 
 
 SCLEROTIC A*, in anatomy, one of the common mem- 
 branes of the eye, fituate between the adnata and the uvea 
 
 . it is very firm and opaque behind ; but tranfparcnt before.— 
 Though in ftriclnefs, it is only the hind-part that is called 
 fclerotica ; the fore-part being properly called the cornea. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, G-jtAsff©-, hard, whence 
 ' alfo fcUrothk. See Scleroticks. 
 
 The fclerotica is a fegment of a larger fphasroid than the cop 
 nca. Sec Eye. 
 SCLEROTICKS, medicines, proper to harden and confoli- 
 date the flefh, &c. of parts they are applied to. 
 Such are purflain, houfe-Ieek, flea-wort, garden night-fliade, 
 &c. 
 
 SCOLDING. — The punimment allotted by our laws foi 
 /colds or folding women, is, to be fet in a trebuchet, com- 
 monly called a ducking-jlool, placed over fome deep water, 
 into which they are to be let down, and plunged thrice, 
 under water, to cool their heat and choler. See Cuck- 
 ing-stool. 
 
 SCOLOPOMACHiERION, 2KOAonoMAXAiPi£iN, i, 
 chirurgery, a kind of fcalpel, thus called, by the Greeks, 
 from its refembling a woodcock's bill. 
 
 Its ufe is to open, and dilate narrow wounds of the breaft. 
 abfeeiies, is'c. — Aquapendente recommends it for tapping in 
 dropfies. 
 
 It is ufually furnifhed with a little button at the point, that 
 it may be ufed to open wounds of the breafr. without danger 
 of wounding the lungs. 
 SCONCED, fmall forts, built for the defence of fome pafs 
 river, or other place. See Fort. 
 
 Some fconces are made regular, of four, five, or fix baftions 
 others are of fmaller dimenfions, fit for paffes, or rivers 
 and others for the field. — Such are 
 
 1. Triangles with half baftions ; which may be all of equal 
 lides, or they may be fomething unequal. However it be. 
 divide the fides of the triangle into three equal parts, one of 
 thefe three parts will fet off the capitals and the gorges ; and 
 the flanks, being at right angles with the fides, make half of 
 the gorge. — 1. Square, with halt baftions ; whofe fides may 
 be betwixt ioo and 200 feet, and let one third of the fide 
 fet off" the capital and the gorges, but the flank (which raife 
 at right angles to the fide) muff be but one half of the gorge 
 or capital, that is, on the fixth part of the fide of the fquare. 
 ■ — 3. Square with half baftions and long. — 4. Long fquares. 
 . —5. Star redoubt of four points. — 6. Star redoubt of five or 
 fix points. — 7. Plain redoubts, which are either fmall, or 
 great. The fmall are fitfor court of guards in the trenches, 
 and may be fquares of 20 feet to 30. The middle forts of 
 redoubts may have their fides from 30 to 50 feet ; the great 
 ones from 60 to 8a feet fquare. 
 
 SCO 
 
 The profiles (that is, the thicknefs and height of the breaft- 
 works) to be fet on thefe feveral works, and the ditches, - 
 are to be accommodated to the occafion. 
 SCOPER-HOLES, or Scuper-Holes, In a fhip, are 
 holes made through the fides, clofe to the deck, to carry off 
 the water that comes from the pump, or any other way. 
 Thefe holes in the lower or covert deck, have round leathers 
 nailed over them, to keep the fea-water from coming up into 
 the fhip, thefe arc caUedfcsper-lcatbers, 
 
 And the fhort nails, with broad heads, which fallen thefe 
 leathers down, are called /coper-nails, or J'cuper-naili. 
 SCORBUTUS, or Scorbutum, the /curvy ; a difeafe 
 very frequent in the northern countries, particularly in 
 fenny, wet, humid places, much cxpofed to the north, £3V. 
 It is accompanied with a great variety of fymptoms, attack- 
 ing the feveral parts of the body all at once : hence Willis 
 fays, it is not any particular difeafe, but a legion of difeafes. 
 — The moft ufual fymptoms are bleedings, coughing, vomit- 
 ing, difficulty of breathing, loolenefs, a relaxation of the 
 parts, fwcating, a foetid fmell of the gums, a falling out of 
 the teeth, ftinking breath, reddifh or yellow livid fpots, pains 
 ot the arms and legs, wearinefs, fainting 1 ;, head ach, &t. 
 Some diifinguiih the fcurvy into hot and cold ; but there h 
 little foundation tor fuch a diftin&ion, as the caufe is the 
 fame in all, viz. according to Barbette and Decker, a too 
 thick pituitous lymph ; whence arife various fympLoms in 
 various temperaments. 
 
 Charleton obferves, that it arifes chiefly from fharp, faline 
 particles, taken in by infpiration, from fait and corrupted 
 meats eaten, from bad waters drank, from naftinefs, dtep 
 chagrins, &c. He adds, that it is contagious. 
 Quincy will have the fcarvy to confift in fuch a confiitution, 
 wherein the blood is unequally fluid : and hence he obferves, 
 it is heft remedied by ftimuli, exercife, and fuch means as 
 promote fanguification. 
 
 The cure is very difficult ; and when the difeafe is rooted, 
 next to ifnpofiible. It fometimes goes off" in a flux by ftool, 
 fometimes by the haemorrhoids, and fometimes by urine ; 
 but more often it degenerates into a dropfy, atrophy, apo- 
 plexy, epilepfy, or convulsions. 
 
 A very exact diet is held cf more efFecl in the fcurvy, than 
 the belt medicines; without this it becomes incurable. Bleed- 
 ing does not avail ; ftrong purgatives are hurtful : fa is fu gar, 
 and all fugared things : mercurius dulcis ufed internally, fo as 
 not to falivate, but only raife a fweating, is found excellent. 
 Dolaeus undertakes to cure any fcorbtttm in twelve days time, 
 by the ufe of this alone ; only the patient is to drink nothing 
 all that time, but a proper decoction, and to abftain from 
 acids, and hog's flefh. Charleton recommends a continued 
 ufe of milk, as alfo of milky emulfions of fwect almonds, 
 decoctions ot china, broths, and other anti-acids andandep- 
 ticks. Etmullcr makes the bafis of the cure of the /cm buius 
 and the hypochondriacal difeafe the fame, viz. copious vomit- 
 ing. Strung catharticks, he obferves, are prejudicial ; but 
 gentle ones good; for the body is to be frill kept open. He 
 adds, that vinegar is hurtful, and yet the acid juice:; of fruits 
 and vegetables are wholefome. Accordingly the ufe of le- 
 mun juice is much recommended by Lifter. Milk, and all 
 milky things, while the ftomach is yet able to digeft them, 
 are excellent. So are martials. Etmullcr, inftead of mer- 
 curials, recommends antimonials. 
 
 Thus much in the general : for the particular fymptoms, 
 particular medicines adapted thereto, are to be ufed ; only 
 mixing antifcorbuticks with them all. 
 
 The chief fimple antifcorbuticks are, horfe-radim, forrel, 
 butter-bur, fcorzonera, fow-thiftle, zedoary, polypody, ele- 
 campane, guaiacum, faffitfras, muftard-feed, nafturtium a- 
 quaticum, trifolium paludofum, oranges, lemons, juniper- 
 berries, cream of tartar, tartarum vitriolatum, &<> See Sup- 
 plement, article Scorbutus. 
 SCORE, in mufick, denotes partition, or the original draught 
 of the whole compoittion, wherein the feveral parts, viz. 
 treble, fecond treble, bafs, bV. are diftincTily Jcored, and 
 marked. 
 
 SCORPIO, Scorpion, in aftronomy, the eighth fign of the 
 zodiac; denoted by the character, JR. 
 
 The ftars in fcorpia, in Ptolemy's catalogue, are 20 ; in that 
 of Tycho 10 ; in that of M. Elamfteed 49 : the longitudes, 
 latitudes, magnitudes, dsV. whereof, are as follow ; 
 
 Names and fituations of the ^ 
 ftars. % 
 
 In the firft fouth foot t 
 Subfeq. in the firft foot 
 Contiguous to this 
 That preced. fouth of forehead 
 In third fouth foot 
 
 South of 3 in the forehead 
 
 Middle of the forehead 
 
 North of the forehead 
 
 North 7 of the contiguous ones 
 
 South £ under north, ftar of forehead 
 
 Longitude Latitude. 
 
 26 48 50 
 
 27 18 08 
 
 -7 3° 49 
 
 27 5; 46 
 
 28 48 52 
 
 28 37. 2? 
 
 2bi 15 50 
 ZS C2 5 6 
 
 -9 21 45 
 
 29 32 09 
 
 5 26 33A 
 4 54 13A 
 
 4 46 19A 
 
 5 43 4SA 
 8 33 25A 
 
 5 25 46 A 
 
 1 56 3 r A 
 
 I 03 09 B 
 
 o 16 05 E 
 
 o 05 56 fi 
 
 6 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 4 3 
 
 S 
 
 » 
 
SCO 
 
 SCR 
 
 
 g i: 
 
 At 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 zS 
 
 or 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 04 40 B 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 35 
 
 7 07 03 A 
 
 6 
 
 
 I 
 
 55 
 
 59 
 
 6 
 
 38 22 A 
 
 g 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 20 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 40 50 B 
 
 4 
 
 
 28 
 
 '9 5+ 
 
 12 
 
 29 24 B 
 
 6 
 
 
 2 9 
 
 23 
 
 j 1 
 
 9 
 
 Ij 16 B 
 
 g 
 
 
 2 9 
 
 c 9 
 
 2 3 
 
 12 
 
 46 32 B 
 
 g 
 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 02 25 A 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 °7 
 
 
 2 
 
 37 to A 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 
 -9 
 
 -T 
 
 3 
 
 59 °4 A 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 36 03 B 
 
 5 
 
 
 4 07 
 
 ■7 
 
 
 42 45 A 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 16 29 B 
 
 5 
 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 
 4 
 
 31 26 A 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 1 2 
 
 3 
 
 11 30 A 
 
 5 
 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 14 4" B 
 
 5 
 
 
 S 
 
 '9 
 
 53 
 
 0 
 
 28 40 B 
 
 S 
 
 
 7 
 
 °7 
 
 56 
 
 6 
 
 04 23 A 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 5+ 
 
 28 
 
 1 1 
 
 z; 40 B 
 
 3 
 
 
 6 
 
 S9 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 28 18 B 
 
 6 
 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 54 
 
 
 0; 10 A 
 
 6 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 °3 
 
 32 
 
 1 1 
 
 39 47 A 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 OT 
 
 10 
 
 29 56 A 
 
 6 
 
 
 13 
 
 39 
 
 z8 
 
 7 
 
 14 12 B 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 5 
 
 2 'j 
 
 32 
 
 3 56 '7 A|6 
 
 
 'I 
 
 43 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 24 16 A 
 
 s 
 
 
 1 ; 
 
 55 
 
 ■s 
 
 3 
 
 20 c8 A 
 
 6 
 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 46 
 
 3 
 
 29 39 A 
 
 6 
 
 
 16 
 
 c6 
 
 17 
 
 
 oS 53 A 
 
 6 
 
 
 ■ 6 
 
 34 
 
 5 2 
 
 2 
 
 °4 47 B 
 
 1 
 
 
 17 
 
 00 
 
 2 3 
 
 
 42 28 A 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 '7 
 
 °5 
 
 02 
 
 
 43 38 A 
 
 3 
 
 
 '7 
 
 34 
 
 53 
 
 4 
 
 54 S 2 A 
 
 6 
 
 
 '7 
 
 43 
 
 57 
 
 0 
 
 59 54 A 
 
 7 
 
 
 18 
 
 Ol 
 
 32 
 
 0 
 
 53 48 A 
 
 
 
 '9 
 
 4 1 
 
 16 
 
 ■3 
 
 57 14A 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 zo 
 
 ■5 
 
 12 
 
 1 3 
 
 44 16 A 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 19 09 46 
 
 0 
 
 38 1 8 A 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 2 3 
 
 1 
 
 28 ,5 B 
 
 6 
 
 
 Preced. in the laft fouth foot 
 Contiguous thereto northward 
 Moil north and following forehead 
 
 Subfequent in Iafl fouth foot 
 That over the other preced. heart 
 That preced. heart northward 
 20 
 
 In preced. heel of ophiuchus 
 Under the fole of ophiuchus's foot 
 In ophiuchus's leg 
 Scorpion's heart 
 That over the heart 
 
 In the calf of ophiuchus's fore-leg 
 Jn the lore ankle of ophiuchus 
 That following the heart to fouth 
 l ore-knee of opl.iuchus 
 Inform, between ophiuchus's legs 
 3° 
 
 In the irt ring of the tail 
 More north and polterior to thii 
 Polterior knee of ophiuchus 
 
 In toe of ophiuchus's hind-foot 
 
 Jn back of ophiuchus's fecond foot 
 In tibia of ophiuchus's hind leg 
 40 
 
 Bright flar of ophiuchus's foot 
 
 Preced. in ophiuchus's heel 
 
 , 45 
 Preced. of sin the fling 
 
 Subfequent 
 
 Subfequent in ophiuchus's heel 
 That following ophiuchus's foot, n. J 
 
 SCORPION, Scorpio, is alio the name of an ancient, 
 military engine, ufed chiefly in the defence of walls, 6f>. 
 Marccllinus defcribes the feorpio^ as confifting of two beams 
 bound together by ropes. From the middle of the two, rofe 
 a third beam, fo difpofed, as to be pulled up and let down 
 at pleafure ; and on the top of this, were fattened iron 
 hooks, where was hung a fling, either of iron or bemp : 
 And under the third beam lay a piece of hair-cloth full of 
 chaff, tied with cords. 
 
 'I o ufe the engine, a round ftone was put into the fline, 
 and four perfons on each fide, loofening the beams bound 
 by the ropes, drew back the ere£t beam to the hook : when, 
 the engineer flanding on an eminence, giving a ftroke with 
 a hammer on the cord to which the beam was faftned with 
 its hook, fet it at liberty ; fo that hitting againft the foft 
 hair-cloth, it ftruck out the ftone with a vaft force. 
 It had its name fcorpio, becaufe when the long beam or tillar 
 was creeled, it had a lharp top, in manner of a itin|_ 
 More modern times have given it the name onager, wild afs, 
 becaufe that animal, when hunted, flings back ftones. 
 
 Portion, an infect. See Supplement, article Scorpio. 
 
 SCORIA, SKnpiA, the recrement, or drofs of any metal 
 remaining after melting, or refining the fame, 
 rhc feoria of iron, is the fcum taken from that metal in 
 forges where it is melted. 
 
 'I he feoria of iron, is the fulphurous part of the iron ; 
 which uniting with the fulphurous part of the coals makes 
 together, thofe porous mafles, refembling fpunges, fre- 
 quently feen in the finiths forges. See Iron. 
 
 SCORTUM. See the article Scrotum. 
 
 SCOT, Scotta, or Scottus, a cuftomary contribution 
 laid upon all fubjects, according to their ability. 
 "Whoever arc afTeffed to any contribution, though not by 
 equal portions, are faid to pay feat and lot. 
 
 Church Scot. See the article Church fcot. 
 
 SCOTIA *, in architecture, a femi-circular cavity or chan- 
 nel between the tores, in the bafes of columns.— See Tab- 
 Ar chit. jig. 4 . 
 
 * The fcatia is a concave, dark moulding; whence its name, 
 uiz. from c-fcolo, obfeurity, darknets, 
 The jcotia has an efFefl juft oppofite to that of the quarter- 
 round.— Our workmen frequently call it the cafement. 
 It is alfo called trochilus, partly from its form. See Tro- 
 CHILUS. 
 
 In the Inonic and Corinthian bafe, there arc two fcotias, the 
 upper whereof is the fmaller.— V. Tab. Archil. Jig. 32. fit. 
 b, c. and fig. 26. lit. i, k. 
 
 According to Felibien, the cavetto is a fourth part of the 
 Jcotia. See Cavetto. 
 SCOT1SH terms. See the article Terms, 
 
 SCOTISTS, a feet of fchool divines and philofophers ; thus 
 called from their founder, J. Duns Scotus, a Scotifh, or as 
 others fay, an Irifh cordelier ; who maintained the immacu- 
 late conception of the virgin, or that fhe was born without 
 original fin ; in oppofition to Thomas Aquina3 and the 
 Thorn i (is. 
 
 As to philofophy, the Scotijh were, like the Thomifts, peri- 
 pateticks ; only diftinguifhed by this, that in each being, as 
 many different qualities as it had, fo many different forma- 
 lities did they diftinguifh; all diftipct from the body itfeif ; 
 and making, as it were, fo many different entities : only 
 thefe were metaphyseal, and, as it were, fuperadded to the 
 being. 
 
 SCOTOMTA, or Scotoma, in medicine, a dizzinefs, or 
 fwimming in the head, wherein the animal fpirits are fo 
 whirled about, that external objects feem to turn round. 
 See Vertigo. 
 
 SCOTTA, or ScottUs. See the article Scot. 
 
 SCRATCHES, among farriers, a diliemper incident to 
 horfes, confifting of dry fcabs, chops or rifts, that breed 
 between the heel and the pattern joint. 
 
 There are various kinds of fcratchts, diftinguifLed by vari- 
 ous names, as crepanres, ntts-tails, mules, kibes, pains, &fV. 
 which are all fo many fpecies of the fame malady ; engen- 
 dered from fome hot humour falling on the legs, or from 
 the iumes of the heait's own dung lying under his heels, or 
 near them ; or for want of rubbing his heels, especially 
 after a journey, from over hard riding, &c. 
 The diforder begins firft, with dry fcabs in the pattern 
 joint, in feveral forms. It i:- known by the flaring, divid- 
 ing and curling of the hair on the Part. 
 SCRATCH-WORK, fgrajfiala, a way of painting in fref- 
 co, by preparing a black ground, on whi-.li is laid a white 
 plaiflcr ; which white being taken off with an iron bod- 
 kin, the black appears through the holes ; and ferves for 
 fliadows. See Sgraffiata. 
 
 This kind of work is latting ; but being very rough, it is 
 unpL-;;fant to the fight. 
 SCREW, or S c R u E, cochlea, in mechanicks, one of 
 the five mechanical powers ; chiefly ufed in preffing or 
 fqueczing bodies clofe, though fometimes alfo in railing 
 weights. 
 
 The fcrew is a right cylinder, as A B, (Tab. Mechanicks t 
 fig. 11.) furrowed fpiral-wife : it is generated by the equa- 
 ble motion of a right line F G, around the furface of a 
 cylinder ; while, at the fame time, the point I, defcends 
 equably from F towards G. 
 
 If the furrowed furface be convex, the fcrew is faid to be 
 male; if concave, it is female. 
 
 Where motion is to be generated, the male and female 
 fcrew are always joined ; that is, whenever the fcrew is to 
 be ufed as a fimple engine, or mechanical power. — When 
 joined with an axis in peritrochio, there is no occalion for 
 a female ; but in that cafe, it becomes part of a compound 
 engine. 
 
 Dotlriv.e of r/j* Screw i°. If, as the compafs defcribed bv 
 
 the power in one turn of the fcrew, is to the interval or dis- 
 tance between any two immediate threads or fpiral wind- 
 ings, as B I (meafured according to the length of the fcrew) 
 fo is the weight or refiftance, to the power ; then the power 
 and the refiftance will be equivalent one to the other ; and, 
 confequently, the power being a little increafed, will over- 
 come the refiftance. 
 
 For it is evident, that in one turn of the fcrew, the weight 
 is fo much lifted up, or the refiftance fo much removed, or 
 the thing to be prelfed, is fqueezed fo much clofer together, 
 as is the dittance between two immediate fpirals ; and in 
 the fame time, the power to be moved is fo much, as is the 
 compafs defcribed by the faid power in one turn of the 
 fcrew. Wherefore the velocity of the weight (or whatfo- 
 ever anfwers thereto) will be to the velocity of the power, 
 as is the (aid diftance between the fpirals to the compafs de- 
 fcribed by the power, in one revolution or turning round of 
 the fcrew ; fo that the gaining in power, is here recom- 
 penfed by the lofs in time. 
 
 2°. As the diftance between two threads, B I, is lefs ; the 
 power required to overcome the faid refiftance is lefs ; there- 
 fore the finer the thread, the eafier the motion. 
 3 0 . If the male fcrew be turned in the female, at reft, a 
 lefs power will be required to overcome the refiftance, as the 
 lever or fcytala, B D (fig. 12.) is the longer. 
 4 0 . The diftance of the power from the centre of the fcrnu, 
 C D, the diftance of two threads I K, and the power to be 
 applied in D, being given, to determine the refiftance it 
 will overcome : or, the refiftance being given, to find the 
 power neceflary to overcome it : 
 
 Find the periphery of a circle defcribed by the radius C D : 
 then to the diftance between the two threads, the periphery 
 juft: found, and the given power : or, to the periphery 
 found, the diftance of the two threads, and the given re- 
 fiftance, find a fourth proportional. This in the former 
 cafe will be the refiftance that will be overcome by the 
 given power ; and in the latter, the power neceffary to 
 overcome the given refiftance. 
 
 E. ( r. 
 
 3 
 
SCR 
 
 SCR 
 
 £. gr. Suppofe the diftance between the two threads, 3, the 
 diftance of the power from the centre of the /crew C D, 
 25, and the power 30 pounds ; the periphery of the circle 
 to be defcribed by the power, will be found 157. There- 
 fore, as 3, 157 : 30, 1570, the weight to which the refift- 
 ance is equal. 
 
 5 0 . The refiftance to be overcome by a given power, being 
 given; to determine the diameter of the fcrew, the diftance 
 of two threads I K, and the length of the fcytala or han- 
 dle : the diftance of the threads, and the diameter of the 
 (crew may be aflumed at pleafure, if the male be to be turn- 
 ed in the female by a handle. Then, as the given power 
 is to the refiftance it is to overcome, fo is the diftance of 
 the threads to a fourth number, which will be the periphery 
 to be defcribed by the handle CD, in a turn of the ferew* 
 The femi-diametcr of this periphery, therefore, being fought, 
 we have the length of the handle C D. But if the female 
 fcrew be to be turned about the male, without any handle ; 
 then the periphery and femi-diameter found, will be very 
 nearly thofe of the fcrew required. 
 
 £. gr. Suppofe the weight 6000, the power 100, and the 
 diftance of the threads 2 lines; for the periphery to be 
 patted over by the power, fay, as joo, 6000: 2, 120; the 
 femi-diameter of which periphery being \ of 120—40 lines 
 will be the length of the handle, if any be ufed ; otherwiie 
 the fide of the female fcrew muft be 40 lines. 
 
 Endlefs Screw. If a fcrew be fo fitted as to turn a dented 
 wheel D F (fig. 13.^ it is called an endlefs, or perpetual 
 fcrew ; in regard it may be turned for ever, without com- 
 ing at an end. From the febeme, it is evident enough, 
 that while the fcrew turns once round, the wheel only ad- 
 vances the diftance of one tooth. 
 
 Doclrine of the endlefs Screw. — 1°. If the power applied to 
 the lever, or handle of an endlefs fcrew A B, be to the 
 weight, in a ratio compounded of the periphery of the axis 
 of the wheel E H, to the periphery defcribed by the power, 
 in turning the handle, and of the revolutions of the wheel 
 D F, to the revolutions of the fcrew C B; the power will 
 be equivalent to the weight. 
 
 Hence, i°. as the motion of the wheel is exceedingly flow ; 
 a fmall power may raife a vaft weight, by means of an end- 
 lefs fcrew ; for this reafon, the great life of the endlefs fcrew, 
 Is either where a great weight is to be raifed through a 
 little fpace ; or, where a very flow, gentle motion is 
 required On which account it is very ufeful in clocks and 
 watches. 
 
 2. The number of teeth, the diftance of the power from 
 the centre of the fcrew A B, the radius of the axis H F, 
 and the power, being given ; to find the weight it will 
 raife. 
 
 Multiply the diftance of the power from the centre of the 
 fcrew A B, into the number of teeth : the product is the 
 fpace of the power palled through, in the time the weight 
 partes through a fpace equal to the periphery of the axis. 
 Find a fourth proportional to the radius of the axis, the 
 fpace of the power now found, and the power. This will 
 be the weight the power is able to fuftain. Thus, if A, B 
 = 3, the radius of the axis H F=l ; the power 100 
 pounds ; number of teeth of the wheel D F 48 ; the weight 
 will be found 14400: whence it. appears, that the endlefs 
 fcrew exceeds all others, in increafmg the force of a 
 power. 
 
 Archimedes^ Screw, or the fpiral pump, is a machine for the 
 raifing of water, invented by Archimedes. 
 Its ftructure is as follows : a leaden tube is wound round a 
 cylinder A B (Tab. Hydraulicks, fig. 1 .) after the fame man- 
 ner as the fpiral thread is drawn in the common fcrew above 
 defcribed. This cylinder is inclined to the horizon, in an 
 ansde of about 45 degrees, and the orifice of the tube B is 
 immerged under water. — If then, the fcrew be turned about 
 by the handle I, againft the water ; the water will rife up 
 the fpiral, and at length be difcharged in A. 
 This machine, with a very little ftrength, is able to raife a 
 great quantity of water : whence it is found of good ufe, 
 in the emptying of lakes, C3\r. 
 
 If the water be to be railed to any confiderable height, one 
 fcrew will not fufEce ; but water drawn up by one, is to 
 be there taken by another, and fo fucceffively. 
 SCRIBE, Scriba, a principal officer in the Jewiftl law, 
 whofe bufinefs was to write, and interpret fcripture. 
 We find no mention of fcribes, in the Old Teftament, be- 
 fore Efdras ; whence fome learned men have concluded, 
 that the office was brought from Chaldsea, and Affyria, 
 and firft eftablifhed by the Jews after their return from the 
 Babylonifh captivity. 
 
 The fcribes were in great credit and efteem among the Jews, 
 and had even the precedency of the priefts, and facrificers. 
 ■ — Indeed, there were three kinds of fcribes, whereof thofe 
 juft mentioned, properly called fcribes of the law, were the 
 firft, and moft confiderable : the decifions of thefe were re- 
 ceived with almoft the fame refpedt as the law of God itfelf. 
 The fecond kind, properly called fcribes of the people, were 
 a fort of magiftrates, among the Romans, as well as among 
 the Jews. See the following article. 
 
 ■ The third kind were publick notaries, or fecretaries of the 
 
 council : thefe were the Ieaft confiderable. 
 Scribe, Scriba, was alfo the title of an officer, among 
 the Romans, who wrote decrees, or acts, and made out 
 authentic copies thereof. 
 
 Every rnagiftrate had his fcriba, or fecretary, fo that there 
 were jcriba: tzdditii, prtetoni, quesjlori't, &c, 
 The fcribes were not admitted to the management of the 
 principal offices of the republick, unlefs they relinquimed 
 their profellion. 
 
 In the time of the emperors, they were alfo called notarii, 
 and this becaufe they made ufe of abbreviations, and fhort 
 notes in writing. 
 SCRIBING, in joinery, &c. a term ufed, when one fide of 
 a piece of fluff being to be fitted to the fide of fome other 
 piece, which laft is not regular ; to make the two join clofe 
 together all the way, they fcribe it. 
 
 That is, they lay the piece of fluff - to be fcribed clofe to the 
 other piece they intend to fcribe to, and open their compaf- 
 fes to the greateft diftance the two pieces any where fland 
 from each other ; then, bearing one of the legs againft the 
 fide to be fcribed to, with the other point they draw a line 
 on the fluff to be fcribed. — Thus have they a line on the ir- 
 regular piece parallel to the edge of the regular one ; and if 
 the fluff be wrought away exactly to the line, when the 
 two pieces are put together, they will feem a joint. 
 
 SCRIPTORIUS calamus.- See the article Calamus. 
 
 SCRIPTURARY, among the Jews. See Caraites. 
 
 SCRIPTURE, or Scriptures. See Bible. 
 
 SCROBICULUS cordis, the fame as anticardium. See 
 Anticardium. 
 
 SCROLL. See the article Escroll. 
 
 SCROPHUL^L *, in medicine, fcirrhous tumours, arifjng 
 ufually about the neck, and fometimes on other glanduloas 
 parts ; called alfo Jlrumee, and popularly, the king's evil, or 
 limply, the evil. See Evil. 
 
 * The word is Latin, formed by diminution, from firopha, fow. 
 
 SCROTUM, or Scortum, in anatomy, the common cap- 
 fula or membrane wherein the tcfticles are contained ; thus 
 called from its refembling a pouch or purfe of leather, called 
 by the ancients fcortea. 
 
 The fcrotum confifts of two membranes ; the exterior where- 
 of is only a production of the cuticula or cutis, which is 
 here very thin, and without any fat underneath it. 
 The inner, called dartos, is only an expanfion of the pan- 
 niculus carnofus, which, together with the cutis, is drawn 
 into the figure of a purfe externally : it is divided longitudi- 
 nally into two parts, risht and left, by a line, called the 
 feam of the fcrotum ; anfwen'ng to which inwardly is a mem- 
 brane, called the feptum, which divides the cavity into two 
 parts ; being only a production of the dartos. 
 It is divifible into lamellse, and the tefticles are on each fide 
 loofely connected to it by means of their outer proper tunic. 
 —Its ufe is to fuftain them, to prevent their collifion, as alfo 
 their falling too low, and to promote the corrugation of the 
 fcrotum. 
 
 Scrotum cordis, the fame as pericardium. See Pericar- 
 dium. 
 
 SCROWLS, or Scrolls, in architecture. See Volutes. 
 SCRUE. See the article Screw. 
 
 SCRUPLE, Scrupulus, Scrupulum, cr Scripulum, 
 the leaft of the weights ufed by the ancients ; which amongff. 
 the Romans was the twenty-fourth part of an ounce, or the 
 third part of a dram. 
 
 Scruple is ftill a weight among us, containing the third part 
 of a dram, or 20 grains. 
 Among goldfmiths, the fcruple is 24 grains. 
 
 Scruple, in chronology. — The Chaldee Scruple is j~ g ^ 
 part of an hour, called, by the Hebrews, helakin. Thefe 
 fcruples are much ufed by the Jews, Arabs, and other eaflern 
 people in computations of time. 
 
 Scruples, in aftronomv. — Scruples eclipfed, that part 
 of. the moon's diameter which enters the ihadow, exprefTed 
 in the fame meafure wherein the apparent diameter of the 
 moon is exprefTed. See Digit. 
 
 Scruples of half duration, an arch of the moon's orbit, 
 which the moon's centre defcribes from the beginning of an 
 eclipfe to its middle. 
 
 Scruples of immerfion, or incidence, an arch of the moon's 
 orbit, which her centre defcribes from the beginning of the 
 eclipfe, to the time when its centre falls into the fhadow. 
 See Immersion. 
 
 Scruples of emerfisn, an arch of the moon's orbit, which 
 her centre defcribes in the time from the firft emerfion of 
 the moon's limb, to the end of the eclipfe. 
 
 SCRUTINY, Scrutinium, in antiquity, an examination, 
 or probation, practifed in the laft week of lent, on the cate- 
 chumens, who were to receive baptifm on the Eafter-day. 
 The fcrutiny was performed with a great manv ceremonies : 
 exorcifms and prayers were made over the heads of the cate- 
 chumens. — On palm-funday, the Lord's prayer and creed 
 were given them > which they were afterwards made to 
 rehearfe. 
 
 The procefi was called fcrut'mium, fcrutiny ; becaufe hereby 
 
 2 the 
 
scu 
 
 the hearts of the catechumens were fmttinized, orfcarched, 
 that the priefts might understand who were fit to be admit- 
 ted to baptifm. 
 
 1 Ills cuftora was more in ufe in the church of Rome, than 
 any where elfe : though it appears, by fome miffals, to have 
 been likewife ufed, though much later, in the Gallican church. 
 It is luppofed to have ceafed about the year 860. 
 Scrutiny is alfo ufed, in the canon law, for a ticket, or 
 little paper billet, wherein, at elections, the electors write 
 their votes privately, fo as it may not be known for whom 
 they vote. 
 
 Among us Scrutiny is chiefly ufed for a ftrift perufal, and 
 
 examination of the fevera! votes haftily taken at an election ; 
 
 in order to find out any irregularities committed therein, by 
 
 unqualified voters, 0&c, 
 SCRUTORE, or Scrutoir (from the French tftfritvrt) a 
 
 kind of cabinet, with a door or lid opening downwards, tor 
 
 conveniency of writing on, fife, 
 SCULK, amongft hunters, denotes a company ; as, zfculk 
 
 of foxes. 
 
 SCULPTURE, Sculptura, the art of cutting or carv- 
 ing wood, ftune, or other matter, and forming various fi- 
 gures or representations therein ; as alfo of fafhioning wax, 
 earth, plaifter, caY. to ferve as models, or moulds, for the 
 cafting of metalline figures. 
 
 Sculpture^ in its latitude, includes both the art of working 
 in creux, properly called engraving j and of working in re- 
 lievo, which is what we more ftrictly call fculpture. 
 The antiquity of this art is paft doubt ; as the facred writ- 
 ings, the moll ancient and authentic monuments we have of 
 the earlieft ages, mention it in feveral places: witnefs La- 
 ban's idols flolen away by Rachel, and the golden calf which 
 the Israelites fet up in the delart, Qffc, But it is very diffi- 
 cult to fix the original of the art, and the firft artifts, from 
 nrophane authors ; what we read thereof, being greatly 
 intermixed with fables, after the manner and tail* of 
 thofc ages. 
 
 Some make a potter of Sicyon, named Dibutades, the firft 
 fculptor : others fay, the art had its origin in the ifle of Sa- 
 roos, where one Ideocus, and after him Theodorus, per- 
 formed works of this kind, long before Dibutades's time. It is 
 added, that Demaratus, father of Tarquin the elder, firft 
 brought it into Italy upon his retiring thither ; and that by 
 means of Eucirapus and Eutygrammus, two excellent work- 
 men herein, who communicated it chiefly to the Tufcans ; 
 among whom it was afterwards cultivated with great fuccefs. 
 They add, tiiat Tarquin fent for Taurianus, one of the moft 
 eminent among them to Rome, to make a ftatue of Jupi- 
 ter, &c, of baked earth } for the frontifpiece of the temple 
 of that deity. 
 
 Soon after this time, there were many fculptors, both in 
 Greece and Italy, who wrought altogether in earth : fome 
 of the moft noted were, Chalcofthei.es, an Athenian, who 
 made himfelf and his houfe famous, by the great number of 
 earthen figures he adorned it withal ; and Demophilus and 
 Gorfanua, two painters, who inriched the temple of Ceres 
 with great variety of painting and earthen images. In effect, 
 all the firft ftatues of the heathen deities, were either of earth 
 or wood ; and it was not fo much any frailty of that matter, 
 or unfitnefs for the purpofe, as the riches and luxury of the 
 people, that firft induced them to make images of marble, 
 and other more precious ftoncs. 
 
 Indeed, how rich foever the matter were, whereon they 
 wrought, yet they ftill firft ufed earth, to form models there- 
 of: and to this day, whether they be for cutting marble fta- 
 tues with the duffel, or for cafting them in metal, they never 
 undertake the one or the other, without firft making a per- 
 fect model thereof in earth. Whence, doubtlefs, arofe the 
 obfervation of Praxiteles, that the art of moulding earthen 
 figures, was the natural mother of that of making marble 
 and metalline ones ; which laft never appeared in perfecti- 
 on, till about 300 years after the building of Rome ; though 
 the firft was at its height long before. 
 
 Phidias of Athens, who came next, furpaffed all his prede- 
 cefibrs, both in marble, in ivory, and in metals : and about 
 the fame time, appeared feveral others, who carried fculpture 
 to the higheft perfection it ever arrived at ; particularly, Poly- 
 cletus at Sicyon ; and after him Myron j Lyfippus, who alone 
 was allowed the honour of cafting Alexander's image in brafs: 
 Praxiteles and Scopas, who made thofe excellent figures, 
 now before the pope's palace at Montecavallo : Briaxis, 
 1 imotheus and Lcochares, who, with Scopas, wrought at 
 the famous tomb of Maulblus king of Caria ; Cephiiiodo- 
 tus, Canachus, Daidalus, Buthieus, Niceratus, Euphrauor, 
 Theodorus, Xenocrates, Pyromachus, Stratonicus, Antigo- 
 nus, who wrote on the fubject of his art ; the famous au- 
 thors of the Laocoon, viz. Agefander, Polydore, and A- 
 thenodorus, and infinite others, the names of" fome whereof 
 have palled to pofterity ; while thofe of others have pcrifh'd 
 with their works : for though the number of itatues in Alia, 
 Greece, and Italy, was fo immenfe, that in Rome alone, 
 as we are informed, there were more than there were living 
 perfons, yet we have but few now left, at leaft very few o^ 
 the fineft. 
 
 Vol. U. N°. 138. 
 
 s c u 
 
 When Marcus Scaunis was sedile, his office obliging hiriitd 
 provide what was requifite towards the publick rejoicings, he 
 adorned the ftately theatre which he erefled, witli 3000 bra- 
 zen ftatues; and though L.Mummius, and Lucullus, brought 
 away a great number out of Alia and Greece, yet, there 
 were ftHl above 3000 remaining in Rhodes, as many at A- 
 thens, and more at Delphns. 
 
 But what is moft extraordinarv, was the bignefs of the fi- 
 gures, which thofe ancient artifts had the courage to under- 
 take : amongft thofc Lucullus brought to Rome, there was 
 one of Apollo, 30 cubits high ; the Coldifus of Rhodes, made 
 by Cares of Lyndos, the difciple of Lyfippus, far exceeded 
 this; Nero'sftatue, made by Xenodorus, after that of Mer- 
 cury, was alfoofan extraordinary fizc being no feet hiph. 
 Sculpture, however, did not continue above 150 years, after 
 Phidias's time, before it began infeniiblv to decline; not but 
 that there were ftill fome fine pieces of workmanlhip made 
 both in Greece and Italy, though not performed with fogood 
 a fancy, and fuch exquiiite beauty as fome of the former works. 
 Bcfidcs that the Greek ftatues are moft efteemed for the 
 workmanfhip ; there is a fpecial difference between them, 
 and thofe of the Romans, in that the greateft part of the 
 firft are naked, like thofc who wreftle or perform fome other 
 bodily exercife, wherein the youth of thofc times placed all 
 their glory; whereas, the others are clad or armed, and par- 
 ticularly have the toga on, which was the greateft mark of 
 honour amongft the Romans. 
 
 To perform any thing in the way of Sculpture, they be»in 
 with making a model of earth, or wax.— For earthen mo- 
 dels, they ufe but few inftruments : their hands and fin^s 
 do almoft the whole.— For waxen models, to a pound of 
 wax they put half a pound of colophony ; fome add turpen- 
 tine, melting the whole with oil of olive : and fome add a 
 little Vermillion, or other matter, to give it a colour. This is 
 wrought and molded with the fingers, like the earth. 
 
 For Sculpture in wind, which we properly call carving, 
 the firft thing required, is, to chufe a wood proper for the 
 particular kind of work.— If it be any thing large, and re- 
 quire a great deal of ftrength and folidity ; the hardeft and 
 moft durable wood is to be chofen, as oak, or chefnut : for 
 fmaller works they ufe pear-tree, and fcrvice-tree. But as 
 tliefe woods are very hard, for little delicate works, the;- ufe 
 fofter woods, only clofe, and of a fine grain : fuch is the 
 linden-tree, which the chiffel is found to cut more ealilv, and 
 cleanlily, than any other wood. 
 
 As to ftatues, we find the ancients have made them of al- 
 moft all kinds of wood : at Sicyon was an image of Apollo 
 in box ; at Ephcfus, that of Diana was in cedar. As theft 
 two kinds of wood are very hard, and even held incorrup- 
 tible, efpecially cedar; Pliny obferves, they were iud.-etl 
 particularly fuitable for reprefentations of the deities. In a 
 temple, on mount Cyllcnius, dedicated to Mercury, was an 
 image of that god formed of the wood of the lemon- tree - 
 others there were of the palm-tree, olive tree, ebony, and 
 even of the vine. 
 
 For large works, if it be only fingle figures, it is better 
 they confift of feveral pieces, than of a fingle one, by reafon 
 of the hablenefs of the latter to warp; for every large piece 
 may probably not be dried to the heart, however it may ap- 
 pear without fide — Obferve, alfo, that the wood will not be 
 fit for working, till after it have been cut at leaft ten years 
 Sculpture m marble and Jiont.—lv, this work, the firft thin • 
 they do, is out of a great block of marble to faw another of 
 the fixe required, which is performed with a fmooth fteel 
 faw without teeth, cafting water and find thereon, from 
 time to time : then they fafhion it, by taking off what 
 is fuperfluous with a ftubbed point, and a heavy mallet • 
 after this, bringing it near the meafurcs required they 
 
 reduce it ftill nearer with another finer point They then 
 
 uie a flat cutting inftrument, having two notches in its 
 edge, or three teeth; and then a chiffel to takeoff the 
 fcratches the former has left.— This laft inftrument thev 
 ule with a deal of delicacy, giving thereby a foftnefs, and 
 tendernefs to their figure; till, at length, taking rafts of 
 different degrees of fincnefs, by degrees they bring their 
 work into a condition for polifhing.— To poliih, or make 
 the parts fmooth and flcek, they ufe pumice-ftone and fmalt; 
 then tripoli, and when a ftill greater luftre is required, tlic- 
 ufe burnt ftraw. ' 
 When any confiderable work is undertaken, as a ft atue, baf- 
 fo relievo, or the like, they always make a model, before- 
 hand, of clay ; but as this {brinks in drying, and eafily cracks 
 and breaks, they only ufe it to make a mould of plainer" or 
 ftucco, wherein they caft a figure of the fame nutter 
 which ferves them thenceforth for a model, and by which 
 they adjuft all their meafurcs and proportions. 
 To proceed the more regularly; on the head of the model 
 they place an immoveable circle, divided into deg-ees with 
 a moveable ruler, or index faftened in the centre 'of the 
 circle, and divided likewife into equal parts. From the 
 end of the ruler hangs a thread with a plummet, which 
 ferves to take all the points to be transferred thence to the 
 block of maible, from whofe top hangs another plummet 
 like that of the modtl.—Sec Tat,. Mifitll fr z F 
 
 11 K Indeed 
 
S C Y 
 
 Indeed there are fome excellent fcuip'ors who difapprove of 
 this method ; urging, that the fmallcft motion of the model 
 chances their meafurcs, for which reafon they rather chufe 
 to take a!! their meafures with the compa-ffes. 
 For the cajiing of Jlatues, or figures of metal; and the moulding 
 offtatufs, &c. ofjluao, plaijler, &c. Eee'STATUE, Stuc, 
 and Plaister. 
 SCUM, or Spume, Spuma, a light excrement, arifing 
 • from liquors when brifkly ftirrcd ; called alfo foam, or froth, 
 See F roth. 
 
 Scum is alfo ufed for the impurities which a liquor by boiling 
 cafts up to the furface ; and alfo, for thofe taken from oft' 
 metals when in fufion ; thefe are alfo called fcor'ta. See 
 Scoria. 
 
 Scum of had, is a kind of recrement, of 'various colours, pro> 
 
 duced from melted lead. 
 Scum of fiher, is what we commonly call litharge of filver. 
 
 See Litharge. 
 
 p CSalt-Petre. 
 fSee the articles< Salt, 
 j cSugar. 
 
 £ See the articles 
 
 1 difeafe called by phyficians fcerhtt- 
 
 EA army, 
 EA aflrolabe, 
 Sea hifquet, 
 
 ea chart, 
 Sea compafs, 
 
 Sea drags, among mariners 
 
 Scum of nitre, 
 Scum of fait, 
 
 Sugar of the ScUM, 
 
 SCUPER bales. ? c , . , JScoper. 
 SCUPPER nails, J See the artlcIes i Nails. 
 SCURVY, in medicine, 
 /us. See Scorbutus. 
 
 M. Poupart, in the memoirs of the French academy, gives 
 us a very accurate hiftory of a particular kind ot feurvy, 
 very frequent in Paris in the year 1699. The fymptoms, 
 and confequences of this new feurvy were very extraordi- 
 nary ; and loon determined M. Poupart to conclude it fome- 
 what like Chat cruel plague wherewith the Athenians were fo 
 long and fo dreadfully harraffed ; yet was it a true feurvy, 
 and the perfons attacked with it had all the ufual fcorbutic 
 fymptoms. 
 
 SCUTAGE, Scutacium, in ancient cuftoms. — All te- 
 nants who held of the king by military fervice, were either 
 bound to attend pcrfonally in wars and expeditions ; or, for 
 default of fuch fervice, to pay fcutage, that is, acompofition 
 in money, which was levied on, every fcutum 7/iilitare, or 
 knight's fee, and the proportional parts thereof, for the 
 king's ufe. 
 
 The barons, and knights, who paid fcutage to the king, had 
 a power to levy the fame tax on thofe tenants who held from 
 them in military fervice. 
 
 The fcutage was at one, two, or three marks for each 
 knight's fee. 
 
 SCUTCHEON. See the article Escutcheon. 
 Scutcheon grafting. See Engrafting. 
 SCUTIFORME os, in anatomy, the chief bone of the knee, 
 
 called alio patella, mola, &c. See Patella. Sea laws. 
 
 SCUT1FORMIS cartilage, in anatomy, one of the cartilages Sea officer. 
 
 of the larynx, the broadeft, and biggeft of them all : it was Sea quadrant. 
 
 thus called by the Latins, becaufe in form of a fhield, or Sea fait, 
 
 fquare buckler ; and by the Greeks thyroides. 
 
 It is alfo by fome called the anterior cartilage, becaufe fituate 
 
 in tiie fore-part. 
 
 It is gibbous without fide, and hollow within : fomctimes 
 double, chiefly in women, in whom it does not advance fo 
 far forward as in men. 
 SCUTTLES, in a fiiip, are fquare holes cut in the deck, bi; 
 enough to let in the body of a man ; ferving to let peopl> 
 down into any room below, upon occafion, or from deck to 
 deck. 
 
 They are generally before the main-maft, before the knight 
 in the fore-caftle ; in the gun-room, to go down to the ftern- 
 fheets ; in the round-houfe, to go down into the captain's 
 cabbin, when forced by the'enerny in a fight aloft. 
 There are alfo fome finaller futtles, which have grattings 
 over them ; and all of them have covers to them, that men 
 may not tumble in, in the night. 
 
 Scuttle is alfo a denomination given to thofe little windows 
 and long holes, which are cut out in cabbins to let in light. 
 
 SC Y R EG E MOT, or Scyremot, in ancient cuftoms. 
 a county court held twice every year by the bifhop of the 
 diocefe, and the ealdorman, or fheriff ; wherein both the 
 ecclcfiaitical and temporal laws where given in charge to the 
 county. 
 
 In the time of Canutus the fcyregemat was held thrice every 
 year. — Edward the confeftbr appointed it to be held twelve 
 times in the year. 
 SCYTALA, in mechanicks, a term which fome writers ufe 
 for a kind of radius, or fpoke, ftanding out from the axis of 
 a machine, as a handle or lever, to turn it round and work 
 it by. 
 
 SCYTALA Laconica, in antiquity, a ftratagem, or device 
 of the Lacedemonians, for the fecret writing of letters to 
 their correfpondents, fo that if they fhould chance to be 
 tercepted, no body might be able to read them. 
 To this end they had two wooden rollers, or cylinders, per- 
 fectly alike, and equal ; one whereof was kept in the city, 
 the other by the perfon to whom the letter was directed.— 
 For the letter, a (kin of very thin parchment was wrapped 
 round the roller, and thereon was the matter wrote; which 
 donej it was taken off, and fent away to the party, who. 
 
 SEA 
 
 upon putting it in the fame manner upon hrs roller, found 
 the lines and words in the very lame difpofition, as when 
 they were firft wrote. 
 
 This expedient they fet a very high value on ; though, in 
 
 truth, artlefs, and grofs enough : the moderns have improved 
 
 vaftly oil this method of writing. See Cipher. 
 
 SE. — FelodeSE, ? c it ., t Felo. 
 - gE) ^Seethe articles \p FRj ^ 
 
 EA, marc, in geography, is frequently ufed for that vaft trzet 
 of water incompaifingthe whole earth ; more properly called 
 ocean. 
 
 For the caufe of the faltnefs of the Sea, fee Saltness. 
 
 Sea is more properly ufed for a particular part, or divifion of 
 
 the ocean ; denominated from the countries it wafnes, or 
 
 from other circumftances. 
 
 Thus we fay, the Irijh fa, the Alediterraneun fea, the Set' 
 tick fa, the Red fea, &c. 
 
 Till the time of the emperor Juftinian, the fa was com- 
 mon, and open, to all men: whence it is, that the Romuu 
 laws grant an action againft a perlbn who ihall prevent, or 
 moleft another in the free navigation, or fifhiug therein. — 
 The emperor Leo, in his 56th novel, firft allowed filch as 
 were in pofTeffion or the lands the fole privilege of fifhin^ 
 before their refpective territories, cxclufive of all others : he 
 even gave a particular commiffion to certain perfons, to di- 
 vide theThracian Bofphorus among them. 
 From that time, the fovereign princes have been endeavour- 
 ing to appropriate the /ea, and to withdraw it from the pub- 
 lick ufe. The republick of Venice pretends to be fo far 
 miiirefs in her gulf, that there is a formal marriage, every 
 year, between tiiat feignory and the Adriatic. 
 In thefe laft ages, the Enghfh have particularly claimed the 
 empire of the fea in the channel ; and even that of nil the 
 fiat incompaffing the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, 
 and Ireland ; and that as tar as the fbores of the neighbour- 
 ing ftates. In confequence of which pretenfion it is, that 
 children born on thekfeas are declared natural Engiifhmen, 
 as much as if born on Englifh ground. — Thejuftice of this 
 pretenfion is ftrenuoufly argued between Grotius, and Scldeu, 
 in the mure Uberum, and mare clavfum. 
 
 Army, 
 astrola be. 
 See the articles \ Bi squet. 
 
 Chart. 
 Compass. 
 are fuch things as hang over the 
 
 Ihip, in the fea ; as fhirts, coats, and even the boat, fcf 
 when towed. 
 Sea fight. 
 
 >See the articles -j 1 
 
 ignal. 
 
 Uses and at/?oms. 
 Officer. 
 Back-Staff. 
 Salt. 
 
 which conftitutcs the 
 
 Sea water, that briny bitterifh fluid, 
 
 fea. 
 
 To make Sea-Water fweet, or frejb, is a thing long and 
 much wanted, for the advantage of navigation and com- 
 merce: a method of doing which has been invented by Mr. 
 Hauton, and the fecret publifhed in the Philojbpbical Tranf- 
 atlions. — It is performed by precipitating the water with oil 
 of tartar, and then diftilling it. 
 
 The oil of tartar he can draw very cheap, and the diftillati- 
 on he performs very compcndioufly, fo as to gain 24 French 
 quarts of trefh water in a day ; for the cooling of which, in- 
 ftead of making the worm paf's through a vefiel of water, as 
 ufual, he makes it pafs through a hole in the fhip into the fea, 
 and enter in again through another. 
 
 To the precipitation, and diftillation, he adds a third opera- 
 tion, viz. filtration, to correct intirely the malignity of the: 
 water. The filtration is performed by a peculiar earth, 
 mixed and flirred with the diftilled water, and at length 
 fuffered to fettle at the bottom. 
 
 The water thus managed, is found perfectly wholfome both 
 to man and beaft. 
 
 Dr. Lifter obferves, that the fea water is made frefn by tho 
 breath of plants growing in it. This he found by putting 
 a quantity of fea- weed in a vefiel of fea-ivater ; and fitting 
 the hole with a head, beak and receiver, he diftilled daily, 
 from the plants, a fmall quantity of frefh, fweet, potable 
 water: this he takes to be the moft natural, fafe, and fpecdy 
 way of having frefh water from the fea. 
 Mr. Boyle relates, from fome experiments he procured to be 
 made of the gravity of fea-water, in different climates, that 
 ftill, as you approach nearer the equator, the fea -water is 
 heavier and heavier, as far as within 30 degrees thereof, af- 
 ter which it continues much at one. 
 Sea wreck. See the article Wreck. 
 
 Sea yoke.- — When the fea is fo rough, that the helm cannot 
 be governed by the hands, the feamen make a yoke to ftcer 
 by : that is, they fix two blocks to the end of the helm, 
 and reeving two fmall ropes through them, which they 
 call falls, by having fome men at each tackle, they go- 
 vern the helm by direction. 
 
 They have another way of making a fa-yoke, by taking a 
 3 double 
 
SEA 
 
 double turn about the end of the helm with a finale rope 
 the ends being laid to the fhip fides, by means whereof 
 they snide the helm. 
 
 Bead Sea, 
 
 High Sea, 
 
 Lie under tbeSEA, 
 
 Pacific Sea, 
 Reflux if ibi Si A, 
 Trough of thg Sea, 
 Under the Sea, 
 SEAL, fi^illum, a puncheon 
 
 S E A 
 
 Head fea. 
 I High. 
 Lie. 
 
 Seethe articles Pacific. 
 
 Reflux. 
 Trough. 
 Under. 
 . or piece of metal, or other 
 matter, ufually either round or oval ; whereon is engraven 
 the arms, device, fcfr. of fome prince, flate, community, 
 magistrate, or private perfon, often with a legend or in- 
 fcription : the impreffion whereof in wax ferves to make 
 acls, inltrumcnts, Ife, authentick. 
 
 The king's gnat-foil is that whereby all patents, commiffi- 
 ons, warrants, CSV. coming from the king, are fealed. The 
 Jceeping hereof is in the hands of the lord high chancellor, 
 who is hence alfo denominated lord keeper. — Indeed there is 
 fome difference between the lord chancellorand lord keeper 
 not in office, but in the manner of creation, the latter be- 
 ing made by the delivery of the great-feal to him by the 
 king ; but the former having likewife a patent. 
 The king's privy-feal, is it feal ufually lirlt let to grants that 
 are to pals the great-feal. 
 
 The ufe of fee/Is is .very ancient : in Daniel, chap. xiii. we 
 read that Cyrus fet his feitl on the temple of Bel : but feals 
 are fttU older than this ; for JeZabel, in I Kings; chap. xxi. 
 feals the orders fhe fent for Naboth's death with the king's 
 ring. —In erlecl, as the ancient feal, were all engraven on 
 the collets, (tones, tic. of rings, and as the original ufe of 
 rings, it is aliened, was only to be in readinefs lor the bal- 
 ing of acts, inftruments, (St, feah fhould feem as ancient 
 as rings thernfelves. 
 
 Thefe failing- rings, called annul! fignatorii,figillarcs, cirogra- 
 phi or cerographi, it is faid in ancient authors, were firlt 
 invented by the Lacedremonians, who, not content to fhut 
 their chefts, armories, &c. with keys, added feals to them ' 
 and to this end, at firil, they made ufe of worm-eaten wr.od 
 the impreffions whereof they took on wax, or foft earth • 
 but they at length found the art of engraving figures, or 
 Tings, the impreffions of which they took in the fame min- 
 ner.— 1 his, however, mull be granted, that even in M„fes's 
 time, the art of engraving, not only on metals, but alfo on 
 precious (tones was known. 
 
 indeed, it does not appear that the ring had any other ufe 
 among the primitive Jews befides ornament : but at length 
 it was ufed xafeal inflruments, contrafls, diplomas, letters, 
 (Sc. inftances whereof we have in the third book of Kin"s 
 xxi. 8. Eflher viii. 10. Xenophon. Hellen. lib. I. Quint' 
 Curt. lib. vi. Juft. lib. xliii. cap. iii. where we learn the 
 keeping of the emperor's/™/ was become a particular office 
 —Lucian adds, that Alexander gave his fail to Perdiccas 
 thereby appointing him his fucceflbr. 
 
 Pliny obferves, that in his time there were no/<»4 ufed any 
 where but in the Roman empire : at Rome, he tells us 
 they were become of abfolute neceffity, infomuch that a 
 teftament was null without the teftator's feal, and the feals 
 of feven witnefl'es : but it does not appear that the Rom ins 
 had any luch things as public feals ; nor that their edicts, 
 and contracts, were fealed, not even in the times of the 
 emperors. 
 
 In France the cuffom anciently was, inftead of fining their 
 inftruments, CSC. only to feal them ; as appears from °an in- 
 finity of ancient charters, which are not figncd at all ■ the 
 reafon whereof was, that in thofe days very few people were 
 able to write ; fcarce any body, indeed, could read and 
 write but clerks. In England, the firft fealed charter we 
 find extant is that of Edward the confedbr, upon his 
 r\;'e S ,°A Weft /™ n "- Abbey: yet, we read of feals in 
 the Mb. hiltory of king Offa. 
 
 Before the time of William the conqueror, the Endifh did 
 not feal with wax, but only made a golJen crofs°on the 
 parchment, and fometimes an imprelTion on a piece of lead 
 which hung to the grant with a filken firing, and was 
 deemed an abundant authorizing of the grant itfelf with- 
 out either figning or witneffes.— The colour of the wax 
 wherewith this king's grants were/™/™", was ufually green, 
 to iignify that the aft continued for ever frefh, and of force. 
 
 hc u!ual impreffion on all lavmens feals, till the year 1218- 
 was a man en horfeback, with a fowrd in his hand ; after- 
 wards, they began to engrave their coats of arms on Ih, 
 
 feals: only the'archbifli 
 
 ps, and bifliops, by a decree of 
 
 cardinal Otto, who was legate here in ,237, were to bear 
 l„ their feal,, their title, office, dignity, and even their 
 prr.'ier ruracs. 
 
 ryes, that none below the dignity of : 
 r^nt to a pendent fea/, called authtnti- 
 
 Du Chcfne obferves 
 feni^ht hud any 
 
 am. 
 
 The emperors long-/™/,,/ all their a3s of importance with 
 a golden feal; and the golden bull of Charles IV. for the 
 clettion of an emperor, takes its name from the eold feal 
 hanging to it, which is called bull. 
 
 The pope has two kinds of feals : the firft ufed in iboftoucal 
 briefs, and private letters, fjrV. called, the ffberman's ring.— 
 1 his is a very large ring, wherein is reprefented St. Peter 
 drawing his net full of fifties, ' 
 The other is ufed in bulls, reprefenting St. Peter's head on 
 the right, that of St. Paul on the left, with a croft between 
 arms"' 0 ' °" * " foractim£s the pope's name, and 
 
 The impreffions of the firlt/™/ are taken in red wax, but 
 tnole ot the (econd, always in lead. 
 
 Theod. Hopingk, a German lawyer, has furnilhed the 
 world with a learned and curious work on the fubieit of 
 feals ■ ,t conflfts of fateen chapters, the ,11. whereof treats 
 of the name/«/,/ f ,S m The 2'. Of the antiquity of the 
 fea/mg-nngs, mentioned in Gencfis, their inventors the rca 
 fons of bearing them, their kinds, and differences form's 
 ornaments, hieroglyphicks, ends, ufes, effeefs, and ahufes' 
 3°. Of bulls, in the fame method, and under the lame cir' 
 cumftances. 4 ». Of different kinds of feals ; which he di 
 vides into pubhet and private, proper and foreign, firmed and 
 unformed, ordinary and extraordinary, blown, and unknown 
 true and falje ; and, lafrly, ratifitafivt and confirmative of 
 authority, jolemnily, tejlimony and confent. c" Of fuch as 
 
 TAc'f '° b , ear f ab - 6 °- °' *» k "Ting of feals 
 7 - Ot things feals are put to. 8°. Of the images, fi/ures 
 arms, characters, Infcriptions, lie. and of the places where 
 feah are to be put, and the order to be obferved therein. 
 9 • Of the number and multitude of feal,, and the advan- 
 ce they bring ,0°. Of their ufe, end, cfr'e£ts. force, 
 6ft I 1" Of the proof of feal, in general, and particular 
 punhek and private. J 2°. Of the verifying of feah ir 
 Of the manner of cenfuring and disputing feah. i\' Of 
 fubfcriptions that have a regard to feal,. |r» Of other nir 
 ticulars that have a regard thereto; as .he denatures 01 em- 
 perors, kings, chancellors, fecretaries, notaries, all in the 
 lame order and method. The book was printed in ,642 
 at Nuremberg!], in quarto, under the title, De firiile, urn 
 prijeo (3 novo jure, traSlatus pratiicus. Ice— We have 
 another woik of the like kind, by Heineccius; in folio 
 printed atFrancfort, and Leipllc, in 1709, under the title! 
 Ve vrterilus Lermanorum aharumq; mtionum figitli,, eorum- 
 que iiju to preeftantia, fyntagma hijloricum. 
 Hirmetical Seal. See the article Hermetical 
 Seal is alfo ufed for the wax or lead, and the irnpreffiort 
 thereon, affixed to the thingfealed. 
 
 The manu'adlurers/W frequently applied to their fluffs, fcY 
 is to be of lead. That of knights by the French law is to 
 be ot hard wax ; that of agents, of foft wax 
 Some Wr are (lamped on the paper or parchment itfelf : 
 others hung by filken firings. 
 
 The French/™/ their edicts with green wax, arrets with 
 yellow wax ; expeditions for Dauphlhe with red wax. And 
 the letters of the French academy are failed with blue wax. 
 
 See Wax. 
 
 SEALER an officer in chancery, appointed by the lord 
 chancellor, or keeper of the great-feal, to feal the writs and 
 inftruments there made in his prefence. 
 
 SEALING, in aichitccture, the fixing a piece of wood or 
 
 , Wa '!? W ' th P laiflcr > mortar > «ment, lead, or 
 other fijltd binding. ' 
 
 For ftaples, hinges, and joints, plaifter is very prop-r 
 Sealing wax. See the article Wax. 
 SEAM or Seme of corn, is a meafure of eight bufhels. 
 Seam of g /aft, ,s the quantity of ,20 p-.unds, or 24 (tone, 
 
 each hve pound Weight.— The $eam of wood, is anhorfe- 
 
 load. 
 
 Monks Seam. See the article Monk. 
 SEARCE. See the article Sieve. 
 SEARCHER. See the article Alkagcr. 
 SEAR-CLOTH *, or Cere-Cloth, in chirurgery, de- 
 notes a form of external remedy, fomewhat harder than an 
 unguent, yet fofter than an emplafter; though ,t is fre- 
 quently ufed, both for the one, and the other. 
 
 * The word far-elolb is fuppofed to be a corruption of eere- 
 ttab, and to be derived originally from the Greek 
 wax. 11 
 
 TiKjiar-thlb h ahrayl fuppofed to have wax in it- com- 
 pofitran, .which diftinguilhcs, and even denominates it. 
 In effect, when a liniment or unguent has enough wax in it, 
 it does not differ from a fear-cloth. 
 
 Sear-cloths are a kind of fubftitutes to friflion, and are 
 fometimes ufed for other purpofes : the bed: are com- 
 pounded of refolvent drugs, as laffron, myrrh and aloes 
 incorporated with wax and gums, as galbanum gum 
 ammoniac, and fagapenum : the whole tempered with 
 wine. 
 
 SEASE. See the article Seize. 
 
 SEASONING of timber. See Timber. 
 
 Seasonings, in the Weft-Indies, a kind of amiff] diffem- 
 
 per, which foreigners are much fubjecl to at their firil 
 
 coming. 
 
 SEASONS *, in cofmography, certain portions or quarters 
 of the year, dlftmguiihcd by the figns which the fun then 
 enters, or by the meridian altitudes of the fun ; confequent 
 
SEC 
 
 8h which, are different temperatures of the air, different 
 
 v orks in tillage. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, faifin, which Meoage 
 derives from the Latin, fiatio, whence the Italian? have 
 formed ftagione : Nicod derives it from fitio ; ttmfus jut fait, 
 fowing time. 
 
 The year is divided into four feafons, fpring, fummer, au- 
 tumn, and winter. The beginnings and endings of each 
 whereof, fee under its proper article, Spring, &c- 
 It is to be obferved, the feafons anciently began differently 
 from what they now do : witnefs the old verles, 
 
 Dot Clemens hyemem ; dat Petrttl VtT cathedratus ; 
 MJiuat Urbanus ; autumnal Bartholomew. 
 
 SEAT, in aftronorny. See the article Scheat . 
 
 Seat, in medicine. Sec the Article Anus. 
 
 SEAZE. See the article Seize. 
 
 SEBACEAE glandula. See the article Glandulje. 
 
 SEBESTEN, SebSstena, mjxa, in pharmacy, Wft a 
 fruit rcfembling a little plumb or prune ; which when ripe, is 
 ©f a deep red colour, bordering on black ; very fweet, and 
 the fiefli, or pulp, glutinous, or fticky. 
 
 The Syrians make a kind of glue or birdlime, of the/c- 
 beftens, called birdlime of Alexandria. The fruit is efteemtd 
 pectoral, cooling, and emollient ; though not much ufed 
 now in medicine. The ftone within it is triangular. — It 
 brought its name from Arabia, whence Pliny obferves it 
 came in his time into Italy. 
 SEBILEI, a feet among the ancient Samaritans ; whom St. 
 Epiphanius accufes of changing the time cxprefied in the 
 law, for the celebration of the great annual feafts of the 
 Jews. 
 
 Serrarius conjectures, that they were thus called, from their 
 celebrating the feaft of the pahover on the feventh month, 
 called by the Hebrews feba, feventh.— Drufius rather takes 
 them to have been denominated from Sebaia, the leader of 
 a feet among the Samaritans ; as the followers of Dofitheus, 
 were denominated Dofuhei \ which two fedts, fomejewifh 
 doctors fuppofe to have fubfifted at the fame time. — Scaliger 
 derives the name from the Hebrew, febua> week ; as who 
 Ibould fay, Hebdomadites, becaufe of their celebrating every 
 fecond day of the feven weeks, between Eafter and Wh;t- 
 ftmtide. Yet the fame Scaliger, in his anfwer to Serrarius, 
 gives a very different explication. — In effect, all that has 
 hitherto been advanced on the point, is mere conjecture. 
 SEBURAI *i SeBurjei, a name which the Jews give to 
 fuch of their rabbins or doctors, as lived and taught fome 
 time after the fmifhing of the talmud. 
 
 * The word is derived from *OD,/rf«r, I think, whence fcTQD, 
 
 febura, opinion, fentiment; and thence 'fcTDD, fiburi, or 
 
 fiburai, opinionative. 
 The rcafon of this appellation, fay the rabbins, is that the 
 Talmud being finifhed, publifbed, and received in all the 
 fchools and fynagogues, thefe doctors had nothing to do, but 
 to difpute for, and againft, the Talmud and its decifions. 
 Others fay, it was becaufe their fentiments were not received 
 as laws or decifions ; as thofe of the Mifchnic and Gemaric 
 doctors were ; but were held as mere opinions. Others, 
 as the author of Schalfiheleth Hakkabala, or chain of 
 tradition, tell us, that the perfecution, the Jews underwent 
 in thofe times, not allowing them to teach quietly in their 
 academies, they only propofed their opinions on the compo- 
 fition of theMifchna. 
 
 The firft and chief of the Seburai, was R. Jofi, who began 
 to teach in the year 787 of the asra of contracts ; which, 
 according to R. David Gautz, falls on the year of the world 
 4236; and who, according to R. Abraham, was 38 years 
 prelident of the Jewifh academy. 
 
 This sera of contracts is the fame with that of the Sele ucides, 
 the 787th year whereof, falls on the year of Chrift 476, which 
 of confequence, is the aera of the origin of the Saburai; whofe 
 reign did not hold long : Buxtorf fays, not above 60 years ; 
 R. Abraham and others, fay not 50. The laft of them was R. 
 Simona.— They were fucceedcd by the Gaons orGeoiiim. 
 SECANT, in geometry, a line that cuts another, or divides 
 it into two parts. See Line, 13c. 
 
 Thus the line A M (Tab. Geometry, fig. 12.) is a fecant of 
 the circle A E D, f3c. as it cuts the circle in B. 
 It is demouffrated by geometers ; l°. That if feveral fecants 
 M A, M N, M E, t3e. be drawn from the fame point M, 
 that palling through the centre M A, is the greateft, and 
 the reft: are all fo much the lefs, as they are more remote 
 from the centre. On the contrary, the portions thereof 
 without the circle M D, M O, M B, are fo much the 
 greater, as they are further from the centre. The leaft, is 
 that of M A, which pafles through the centre. 
 2". That if two fecants M A and M E, be drawn from the 
 fame point M ; the fecant M A, will be to M E, as M D 
 to M B. 
 
 Secant, in trigonometry, denotes a right line, drawn from 
 the centre of a circle, which cutting the circumference, 
 proceeds, till it meets with a tangent, to the fame circle. 
 See Circle and Tangent. 
 
 Thus the line E C (Tab. Trigonometry , fig. 1.) drawn from 
 the centre C, till it meet the tangent E E,. is called, a 
 
 SEC 
 
 fecant ; and particularly, the fecant of the arch A E, to which 
 E E is a tangent. 
 
 The fecant of the arch A H, which is the complement of 
 the former arch to a quadrant, is called the co-ficant, or fe- 
 cant sf the complement. 
 
 The fine of anarch, AD, being given ; to find^ the fecant 
 thereof F C, the rule is, as the co-fine A D C is to the 
 fine A D, fo is the whole fine E C, to the fecant C E. 
 To find the logarithm of the fecant of any arch, the fine of 
 the complement of the arch being given ; multiply the 
 whole fine of the logarithm by two, and from the product 
 fubtract the logarithm of the fine complement ; the re- 
 mainder is the logarithm of the fecant.. See Logarithm. 
 
 Line c/"Secants. See the article Sector. 
 
 SECK. — Rent Seck. See the article Rent feck. 
 
 SECOND, in anatomy. See Secundi generis. _ 
 
 Second, in geometry, aftronomy, &c. the fixtieth part of a 
 prime, or minute; either in the divifion of circles, or in 
 the meafure of time. 
 
 A degree, or an hour, are each divided into 60 minutes, 
 marked thus': a minute is fub-divided into 60 jeconds y 
 marked thus " ; a fecond into 60 thirds, marked thus "', 13 c. 
 We fomet iines fay a fecond minute, a third minute, &c, but 
 more ufually, (imply, fecond, third, &c. 
 A pendulum three feet, three inches, and two tenths of an 
 inch long, vibrates feconds, according to Sir Jonas Moor's 
 reduction of Huygen's three feet eight lines and a half of 
 Paris meafure, to Englifh meafure. 
 Second, in mufick, denotes one of the mufical intervals 5. 
 being only the diftance between any found, and the next 
 found, whether higher or lower. 
 
 As in the compafs of a tone, there arc reckoned nine fenfi- 
 bly different founds, which form thofe little intervals, called 
 commas; one might, in ftrictnefs, fay, there are eight kinds 
 of feconds. But as thefe minute intervals, though fennble, 
 are not yet fo far fo, as to contribute much to the harmony,, 
 they ufually only diftinguifh four forts. 
 
 The firft, called the dhninifoed fecond, containing four com- 
 mas ; being the difference, for inftance, of a natural «r, 
 and an ut raifed four commas higher. 
 
 The fecond, called the lefifer fecond, contains five commas, 
 and is made either naturally, as from mi to fa, or from ft to 
 ut ; or accidentally, by means of b, as from la to ft, b flat ; 
 or from/a diefis to fol ; otherwife called a major femitone, or. 
 imperfeti found, by the Italians, fanitano. 
 The third is the greater fecond, containing the nine com- 
 mas, which compofe the tone. This the Italians call (o/iq 
 or perfeel found. 
 
 The fourth is the redundant ficond, compofed of a whole 
 tone and a minor femi-tone See Tone, Semi-tone, t3c. 
 Second captain, is a reformed captain, who acts as lieutenant 
 of another, into whofe company he is incorporated. See 
 Captain. 
 
 Second caufe. See the articles Cause and Efficient. 
 
 Second/™*, "l r Flank. 
 
 Second notion \^ ^ ^\ NotXok. 
 
 Second order of curves, ( 1 lurve. 
 
 Second rate, J (.Rate. 
 
 Second fight, an odd qualification, which many of the inha- 
 bitants of the weftern iilands of Scotland are laid to be pof- 
 fefled of. — The thing is attefted by many credible authors 
 (among whom is Mr. Martin, author of the natural 
 hiftory of thefe iflands, and a member of the royal fociety) 
 and notwithftanding the ifrangenefs of it, many have ftead- 
 faftly believed it. 
 
 The fecond fight, is faid to be a faculty of feeing things to 
 come, or things doing at a great diftance, reprefentcd to the 
 imagination as if actually vifible, and prefent. 
 Thus if a man be dying, or about to die, his image, it is 
 pretended, fliall appear diftinctly in its natural fhape, in a 
 ftiroud, and with other funeral apparatus, to a fecond-fighteil 
 perfon, who, perhaps, never faw his face before : immedi- 
 ately after which, the perfon fo feen, certainly dies. 
 This quality of fecond-Jightedncfs, they fay is not hereditary ; 
 the perfon who has it, cannot exert it at pleafure : nor can 
 he prevent it, or communicate it to another ; but it comes 
 on him involuntarily, and cxercifes itfelf on him arbitrarily : 
 And often, efpecially in the younger fecond feers, to their 
 great trouble and terror. 
 
 There are a great number of circumftances faid to attend thefe 
 vifions ; by obfervation whereof, the particular circum- 
 ftances as to time, place, 13c. of the death of the perfon, 
 13c. are learnt.- — The method of judging of them, or inter- 
 
 preting them, grows into a kind of art ; which is very dif- 
 ferent in different perfons. Second-fightednefs is held a dif- 
 credit in the country ; fo that none, they fay, will counter- 
 feit it; but that many conceal and difTemhle it. 
 Second terms, in algebra, thofe where the unknown quan- 
 tity has a degree of power lefs then it has in the term where 
 it is raifed to the higheft. 
 
 The art of throwing thefe fecond terms out of an equation ; 
 that is, of forming a new equation, where they have no 
 place, is one of the moft ingenious and ufeful inventions in 
 all algebra. 
 
 0 Seconb 
 
SEC 
 
 SEC 
 
 Second lithe. See the article Tithe. 
 SECONDARY, or Secundary, an officer who acts as 
 fecond, or next to the chief officer. 
 
 Such are the fecondaries of" the fine-office. — The fecondaries 
 of the compters, who are next the flier iris of London in 
 each of the two compters. — Secondary of the office of the 
 privy feal. — Two fecondaries of the pipe. — Secondary to the 
 remembrancers, &c. 
 Secondary, is more frequently ufed in an adjective fi.'nfe, 
 by way of opposition to primary or principal. See Pri- 
 mary. 
 
 Secondary attars, let, ■ i £ Actor. 
 
 Secondary afeSiwu, S 1 c lcles ZAffection. 
 
 Secondary circles, of the ecliptick, are circles of longitude 
 of the ftars ; or circles which palling through the poles of 
 the ecliptick, are at right aflgj.es to the ecliptick. 
 By the help of thefe, all points in the heavens are referred to 
 the ecliptick; that is, any ftar, planet or other phenome- 
 non, is underftood to be in that point of the ecliptick, which 
 is cut by the fecondary femi-circle, which paries through luch 
 ftar or phenomenon. 
 
 If two ftars be thus referred to the fame point of the eclip- 
 lick, they are faid to be in conjunfKojtti if in oppofite point?, 
 they are faid to be in oppofition : if they be referred to two 
 points at a quadrant's diftaii'.e, they are faid to be inquartile 
 afpect; if the points differ a fixth part of the ecliptick, 
 they are faid to be in fextile afpedt. 
 
 In the general, all circles which interfedt one of the fix 
 greater circles of thejphereat right angles, may be called 
 Jecotidary eircles.~As, the azimuth or vertical circles in re- 
 Ipeifc of the horizon, &t, the meridian in refpect of the 
 t equator, Cifr. 
 
 Secondary collateral points ,7 ^ ^Collateral. 
 
 Secondary dials, S *" £Dial. 
 
 Secondary fever, is that which arifes after a crifis, or the 
 
 difcharge of fome morbid matter : as, after the decleniion 
 
 of the fmall pox, or meafles. See Fever, Small Pox,c5V. 
 
 Secondary motion, 7 c , . , r Motion. 
 <i w * >ccc the articles < 
 
 Secondary place, 5 I Place. 
 
 Secondary planets, thofe moving round other planets, as 
 
 the centres of their motion, and along with them round the 
 
 fun. 
 
 Saturn, Jupiter, and the Earth, are each attended with fe- 
 condary planets : Jupiter with four, and Saturn with five, 
 called the fatellites of thofe two planets. 
 The earth has one fecondary planet, called the moon. 
 The motion of the primary planets, is very Ample and uni- 
 form, as being compounded only of a projc&ile motion, for- 
 ward in a right line, which is a tangent to the orbit; and a 
 gravitation towards the fun at the centre. Add, that being 
 at fuch vaft difranccs from each other, the effects of their 
 mutual gravitation towards one another" are infenfible. — But 
 the matter is far otherwife, in refpect of the fecondary planets ; 
 for every one of thefe, though it chiefly gravitate towards its 
 refpective primary one, as towards its centre, yet at equal dif- 
 tances from the fun, it alfo is attracted towards him with e- 
 qually accelerated gravity, as the primary one is towards him ; 
 but at a greater diftance with lefs, and at a nearer diftance 
 with greater: from which double tendency towards the fun, 
 and towards their own primary planets, the motion of the 
 Satellites, or fecondary planets, comes to be mightily com- 
 pounded, and affected with many inequalities : as for inflance, 
 j. The fatelhte fiiall be continually accelerated in its mo- 
 tion, from the time of its quadrature with the fun, to the 
 next following conjunction or oppofition ; but contrary-wife 
 from the fyzygies to the quadratures, it fhall be retarded ; 
 and therefore it will always move fwitter in or near the 
 fyzygies, and flower near the quadratures. From whence 
 will follow that, 
 
 2. The orbits of thefe fecondary plancls will be of a figure 
 more circular in the quadratures than in the fyzygies, where 
 the fwiftnefs of the motion will make the figure of the orbit 
 more rectilinear, and therefore the fatellite will run farther 
 from its primary planet at the quadratures, than at the fyzy- 
 gies : fo that the orbit will be a little elliptical, having the 
 primary planet for its centre, and the longer diameter will 
 coincide with the line of the quadratures, and the fhorter 
 with that of the fyzygies. — Which irregularities will arifc, 
 ii the fun's power of difturbing the motion of the fatellite 
 be excluded, and the orbit be concentrick with that of the 
 primary planet* : for if the orbit be excentrical, it may hap- 
 pen that the fatellite fhall be farther off from the primary 
 one in the fyzygies, and fo move flower than it does at the 
 quadratures; and when this is the cafe, that the fatellite's 
 orbit is not a circle concentrick to the primary orbit, but an 
 cllipfis, in one of whofe focus's the primary planet is placed, 
 then, the motion of the fatellite will be fo difturbed by the 
 fun, that as it proceeds in its orbit, the spies of the orbit 
 will be moved fome times HI confequentia, and fometimes in 
 antecedentia (whereas the nodes and apfcsof the primary pla- 
 nets are at reft.) 
 
 3. When the plane of the fatellite's orbit is inclined to the 
 Vol. IE N^-CXXXIX. 
 
 plane of the primary orbit, the line Gf the nodes of the ft* 
 condary orbit will be moved in antecedentia, with an angular 
 motion, and an unequal velocity ; for it will recede moll 
 fwiftly, when the nodes are in quadrature to the fun ; after- 
 which, it will move flower ; and at the time of the nodes 
 being in the fyzygies, . it will be perfectly at reft. 
 4. The inclination alfo of the plane of the fecondary orbit, 
 to the primary one, will be continually varying, and will 
 be greateft, when the nodes are in the fyzygies with the 
 fun, and lefs, ceteris paribus, when they are in the quadra- 
 tures ; and from the time of the acdes being in the fyzygies, 
 to the quadratures, it will be always decrealing, and from 
 the time of their being in the quadratures to the fyzygies, it 
 will be always increafing : and all thefe irregularities, whe- 
 ther in any excentrick or concentrick orbit, will always be 
 fomething greater, when the fiitellite is in conjunction with, 
 the fun, than when he is in oppofition to him. 
 
 Secondary grigN ? See the artidc J Pj/aiity. 
 
 secondary rainbow 5 I Kainbow. 
 
 SECONDINE. See the article Secundine. 
 
 SECRETARY, an officer, who, by order of his mafter, 
 writes letters, difpatches, and other inftruments, which he 
 renders authentick by his fignature. 
 
 Of thefe there are feveral kinds, as fecretary of Jlate, fecre- 
 tary of war, fecretary of the treafury, fecretary of the admi- 
 ralty, fecretary of the lord chancellor, &C. 
 Secretaries of flate, are officers attending the king, for 
 the receipt and difpatch of letters, grants, petitions, and 
 many of the moft important affairs of the kingdom, both 
 foreign and domeftick. 
 
 The king's fecretaries were anciently called the king's clerks, 
 and notaries, regi a commentariis. — For the name feretory, it 
 was as firft applied to fuch as being always near the king's 
 perfon, received his commands, and were called clerks of the 
 fecrct ; whence was afterwards formed, the word jeeretary, 
 regi a fecretis ; and as the great lords began to give their 
 clerks alfo the quality of fecretaries, thofe who attended the 
 king, were called, by way of diftinction, fecretaries of the 
 commands, regi a mandaiis. This continued till the reign 
 of our Henry VIII, 1559 ; when, at a treaty of peace be- 
 tween the French and Spaniards, the former obferved; that 
 the Spanifh m Snifters, who treated for Philip II. called them- 
 felves fecretaries of Jlate. Upon which the French fecretaries 
 des commandements, out of emulation, affumed the fame title ; 
 which thence paffed alfo into England. 
 
 Till the reign of king Henry VIII. there was only one fe- 
 cretary of Jlate : but then bufinefs increafing, that prince ap- 
 pointed a fecond fecretary ; both were of equal power and au • 
 thority, and both flilcd principal fecretaries of flate.- — Before 
 queen Elizabeth's time, the fecretaries did not fit at the 
 council-board ; but that princefs admitted them to the place 
 of privy-counfellors ; which honour they have held ever 
 fmce, and a council is never, or at leait very feldom, held 
 without one of them. — On the union of England and Scot- 
 land, queen Anne added a third fecretary, on account of the 
 great increafe of bufinefs, which, as to Britain, is equally 
 and diftinctly managed by all the three, although the laft is 
 frequently ftiled fecretary of Jlate for North Britain._ 
 They have under their management and direction, the moft 
 confiderable affairs of the nation, and are obliged to a con- 
 ftant attendance on the king : they receive and difpatch 
 whatever comes to their hands, be it for the crown, the 
 church, the army, private grants, pardons, difpenfations, 
 &c. as likewife petitions to the fovereign, which, when read, 
 are returned to the fecretaries for aril wer; all which they 
 difpatch according to the king's command and direction. 
 As to the foreign affairs, they are divideiinto two provinces, 
 or departments, comprehending all the kingdoms and nati- 
 ons which have any intercourfe or bufinefs with Great Bri- 
 tain ; each fecretary receiving all letters and addrefies from, 
 and making all difpatches to, the feveral princes and ftates 
 comprehended in his province : which divifion ftill fubfilts, 
 notwithstanding the addition of a third fecretary. —Ireland 
 and the plantations are under the direction of the elder fecre- 
 tary, who has the fouthern province. 
 
 Of thefe three principal fecretaries, the two for South Bri- 
 tain, have each two under fecretaries, and one chief clerk ; 
 and the other for North Britain has one under fecretary, and 
 one chief clerk, with an uncertain number of other clerks 
 and tranflators, all wholly depending on them. 
 The fecretaries of Jlate have the cuftody ot that feal, pro- 
 perly called the fignet, and the direction of the fignet office ; 
 wherein there are four clerks employed, who prepare fuch 
 things as are to pafs the fignet, in order to the privy, or 
 great feal. All grants flgned by the king are returned hither, 
 which, tranferibed, are carried to one of the principal fecre- 
 taries of Jlate, and fealed, and then called fignets, which be-* 
 ing directed to the lord privy-feal, are his warrant. 
 On the fecretaries of Jlate, is likewife dependant another of- 
 fice, called the paper- rjfice, wherein all publick writings, 
 papers, matters of ftate, fcfjfl are preferved. 
 All the under fetrttariti and clerks are in the choice of the 
 II L fecretur} 
 
SEC 
 
 SEC 
 
 fecretary of fate, without rcferve to any pcrfon : tlie under 
 fecrttar'm receive orders and directions from them, for writ- 
 ing difpatches, foreign and domeftick, which they give to 
 the chief cleric, who diftributes them to the under clerks. 
 Secretary of an cmbcJJ'y, is a perfbn attending an embaf- 
 fador, for the writing of difpatches relating to the nego- 
 tiation. 
 
 There is a deal of difference between the fecretary of the 
 embaffy, and the embafiador's fecretary ; the faft is a domef- 
 tick or menial of the emballador's ; the firft a fcrvant or 
 minifler of the prince. 
 SECRETION, Secretio, in medicine, the a£ whereby 
 the feveral juices, or humours in the animal body, are fepa- 
 rated from the blood, by means of the glands. 
 In the bodies of animals, we obferve a great number of 
 juices of different natures, viz. the blood, lympha, ialiva, 
 ftomach- liquor, inteitinal juices, pancreatic juice, bile, u- 
 rine, fsfc. — Now, the blood is the general lburce of all ; 
 and from it they are all fecerned by particular organs, called 
 glands. 
 
 The manner wherein thu/«cr«/i«is'cffe£ted, has been great- 
 ly enquired into in thefe laft ages j though not with the great- 
 eft fuccefs. The ancient phyficians, indeed, contented them- 
 felvcs to affert certain particular virtues, or faculties inhe- 
 rent in the feveral vifcera ; whereby they were determined 
 to fcparate one liquor rather than another ; without troub- 
 ling themfelvcs much about the manner wherein this was 
 done. But the moderns, according to the genius of their 
 philofophy, rnuft have this point cleared, and the modus of 
 fecrction rendered intelligible.— Hence, as the exceeding 
 finallnefs of thefc organs prevented any regular icarch, they 
 have imagined various manners of explaining it. 
 Some, full of the effects they have obferved from fermenta- 
 tions, maintain, that there are ferments in the feveral parts ; 
 by aid whereof, certain kinds of particles mixed in the 
 blood, are feparated therefrom; after the fame manner as 
 we fee in muft, or new wine, from which, while ferment- 
 ing, certain parts are detached in form of froth. — But this 
 opinion has fo many inconveniences to grapple withal, that 
 it is almoft univerfally abandoned. 
 
 Others confider the glands as a kind of fieves, wbofc holes 
 having different figufcs, will only let jiafs certain particles or 
 molecules, whofe figures refemble thofe of the holes. — But 
 the falfity of this hypothefis was foon found out ; and it was 
 thought fufficient to fix fome proportion between the diame- 
 ters of the pores and that of the molecules that were to pafs 
 through them, to account why very fubtile parts fhould pafs 
 through the glands, through which the coarfer could not 
 pafs. — Yet this opinion was not found perfectly fatisfaclory : 
 for on this fuppofition, the moft fubtile parts of the blood 
 muft pafs in fuch quantity through the largeft pores, that 
 there would not be enough left to furnifh the littleones with 
 what they needed : and ior the fame reafon, thofe parts 
 whofe pores are biggeft, ought to furnifh liquors much fuller 
 of fubtile parts, than thofe whofe pores are fmaller ; which 
 yet is contrary to experience. For the ferofity feparated in 
 the kidneys, under the name of urine, confifti of parts 
 much fubtiler and fmaller than the bile feparated in the li- 
 ver : why then does not this ferofity cfcape in the liver ? the 
 pores whereof muft be much greater than thofe of the kid- 
 neys. 
 
 This inconvenience, many naturalifts being aware of, it has 
 made them have rccourie to imbibition (if the word may be 
 allowed us for want of a better.) They maintain, then, 
 that befides the different diameters of the pores, it is required 
 that the feveral parts be already imbued or moiftencd with a 
 liquor like to thqf they are to filter. — This opinion is rather 
 the refult of reafon than of experiment, and the maintain- 
 ers hereof, well pleafed they had fomething to fatisfy their 
 reafon withal, never troubled themfelves whether it were 
 true or not : till M. VVinflow fell into it. 
 Dr. Keil) whofe theory prevails moft in England, accounts 
 for fecrction, from the joint confideration of the different 
 diameters of the vefiels, the different velocity of the blood, 
 the different angles the duets make with the arteries, and 
 the different attraction of the different parts under all thefe 
 different c ire urn trances.- — His theory fee at length, under 
 the article Avswikl* fecretion. — But even in this, there is 
 fomething arbitrary and conjectural : befides, the reafoning 
 is carried fuch a length, that, in a thing, the principles 
 whereof are fo obfeure, the parts or organs fo imperfectly 
 known, and the whole procefs carried on out of fight, the 
 mind canfearce fafely acquiefee in it. 
 
 M. Winflow, of the royal academy of fciences at Paris, 
 feems to have taken a better courfe for the difcovery of this 
 important action of fecretion. He does not take up with 
 conjectural principles, nor draw a plaufible fcheme of rea- 
 foning therefrom through the dark ; but applies himfelf to 
 experiment, and investigates, in nature herfelf, and the 
 ffrudturc of the parts, the manner fecretion is performed in. 
 From a ftrict examination of the feveral kinds of glands, 
 both in men and other animals, he finds, with fome other 
 
 anatomifls, that the glands are only bundles or plexus's of 
 veffels: but the vefiels peculiar to the gland, and which 
 confutute the principal part thereof, M. W inflow firft dif- 
 covered to be tubes, furnifhed, on the infide, with a kind of 
 down or lanugo, or rather with avery fine, fpongeous tifiue, 
 which fills the whole cavity of thofe veffels like a pith or 
 marrow. This he finds in all the glands, of all animals : in 
 different glands, it appears of different colours, and this dif- 
 ferent colour is even found in the different glands of foetus'* 
 themfelves. 
 
 The gland, then, is, or at leaft its main part is, a compound 
 of thefe downy or fpongeous veflels, which, from their office, 
 we will call feretory veffels, or duels, and which frequently 
 do, almoft of themfelves, form what we call a g/a?id y or 
 glandidous body * though befide thefe veffels, we ulually re- 
 mark four other kinds, viz. arteries, veins, excretory ducts 
 and nerves. The fecrctory ducts we diftinguifti from the 
 excretory ones ; in that the former, by the peculiar texture 
 of their down, ferve to fcparate a particular liquor ; and 
 that the latter only ferve to receive the liquor thus fecreted, 
 and to carry it to the place it is deifined for. For a more 
 particular account of the ftructure and organization of the 
 glands, fee Gland. 
 
 For the manner wherein the glands act, in feparating the fe- 
 veral liquors from the body, M. Winflow lays it down thus : 
 it is a thing well known by phyficians and cbymiffs, that a, 
 piece of brown paper, which is only an affemblage of fmall 
 fibres impacted clofe to each other, having once imbibed oil 
 or water, will never Jet any other liquor pafs through it, 
 but of the fame kind with what it is impregnated withal. 
 All others it flops. And the like is obferved of a wick of 
 cotton or other matter, which having firft imbibed its fill of 
 oil or water, and being then dipped at one end, in a vcfltl 
 full of oil and water together ; the wick that had imbibed 
 the oil, will only raife and diftill oil, and that with water, 
 only water. Now, in the fecretary ducts of the glands, we 
 find a parallel ftructure ; an affemblage or plexus of fine 
 threads or filaments bound clofe together, much as in brown 
 paper, or a cotton-wick ; only differently difpofed. This 
 plexus, then, having once imbibed a certain juice, will not 
 let pafs any of the liquors which arrive at the orifices of thefe 
 ducts, but that which it had firft imbibed.— The caufe of this 
 phenomenon is, doubtlefs, to be referred to the great principle 
 of attraction, which is found flronger between the homoge- 
 neous than the heterogeneous parts of the fame fluid. 
 As the blood, then, is not a homogeneous liquor; but a 
 compound of an infinity of different parts or molecules, 
 fome oily, others mucilaginous, aqueous, faline, fubtle, grofs, 
 Idc. in its motion along the arteries of the gland, it becomes 
 divided into all the little ramifications thereof; by which 
 means its velocity is exceedingly abated, and its molecules 
 are obliged to go off one by one, through the narrow paf- 
 fagc of the artery into the vein, and of confequence to pafs 
 over the orifices of the feretory ducts of the glands, whofe 
 down is already tinged with a juice of a certain nature. Such 
 of the molecules therefore, as are found of the fame nature 
 with the juice they meet withal at the entrance of the fecre- 
 tary duct, join themfelves to them, and enter the ducts, driv- 
 en on by others that follow them. Thus they pafs, luccef- 
 fively, through the whole veiled, and at length no out of it 
 into the excretory duct ; while the reft, which are of a dif- 
 ferent kind, run over the orifice of the feretory veiled, with- 
 out ever mixing with the juice thereof, and thus arriving irt 
 the vein, they are carried back to the heart. 
 All that remains, is, to explain how thefe parts fhould have 
 firft imbibed the particular juices ncceffary tor their refpec- 
 tive fecretions ; how, for inftance, the bile fhould come to 
 be feparated in the liver, for the firft time, preferably to 
 any other liquor ? To this M. Winflow anfwers, that hav- 
 ing obferved the glands of the fmall eft feet us to be coloured* 
 much as in adults; it appears highly probable they had been 
 imbued with the juices they were to filtrate, at the firft for- 
 mation of the animal ; or at the fame time when the folid 
 parts of the fabric themfelves were framed. 
 SECT, Secta, a collective term, comprehending all fuch 
 as follow the doctrines or opinions of fome famous divine, 
 or philofopher, &e. 
 
 The feels of philofophcrs among the ancients, particularly 
 in Greece, were numerous ; as the Pyrrhonians, Platonifls, 
 Epicureans, btoicks, Peripatcticks, Acatiemicks,crV. See each 
 under its proper article. 
 
 At prefent the ftps of philofophy are chiefly rcduceablc to 
 three, viz. the Cartefians, Peripateticks, and Newtonians. 
 See Cartesian, &c. 
 
 In theology, the feels are much more numerous ; yet the 
 ancients had many legions now extinct ; as Manichees, Gno- 
 fticks, Montanifts, c?V. 
 
 The principal now on foot, are the Lutherans, Calvinifis. 
 Anabaptifts, Arians, Socinians, and Arminians. The rife, 
 progrefs, and fate, with the diffinguifhing characters and 
 opinions of each, fee under its refpective head, Luthe- 
 ran, Calvinist, &c. 
 
SEC 
 
 SEC 
 
 £ See the articles 
 
 5 Ionic. 
 ( Italic 
 
 Ionic Sect, 
 Italic Sect, 
 
 SECTA, in law. See the article Suit, 
 Hundred Secta. See the article Hundred. 
 SECTIO C&farea. ,See the article Cesarean feclion, 
 SECTION*, Sectio, a part of a thing divided ; or the di- 
 
 vifion itfelf. SeeDivisioN and Dissection. 
 * The word is formed from the Latin feco, I cut. 
 
 Such, particularly, are the fub-divifions of chapters, by o- 
 
 thers called paragraphs, and fome times articles. — The mark 
 
 of a feelion is §. 
 
 The ancients neglected to divide their books into chapters, 
 and feelions ; that was a tafk left for future editors, and cri- 
 ticks. 
 
 Section, in geometry, denotes a fide or furface appearing of 
 a body, or figure cut by another ; or the place wherein lines, 
 planes, Qtc, cut each other. 
 
 The common feclion of two planes is always a right line, 
 being the line fuppofed to be drawn by the one plane in its 
 cutting or entering the other. 
 
 If a fphere be cut in any manner, the plane of the feclion 
 will be a circle, whofe centre is in the diameter of the fphere. 
 The feelions of the cone are four, viz. a circle, parabola, 
 hyperbola and ellipfis. See each under its proper article. See 
 alfo Cone. 
 
 Conic Sections. See the article Conic feclion. 
 
 Axis of a conic wCTIOIf, T (J Axis. 
 
 Center of a conic Section, ( ^Center. 
 
 Diameter of a come Section, f ° y Diameter. 
 
 Tangent of a conic Section, J CTancent. 
 
 Following Sections, fetliones fequentes, in conies, may be thus 
 conceived : fuppofe two right lines, as AB, CD (Tab. Conies, 
 fig. 5.) mutually interfering one another in E, which point 
 E is fuppofed to be the common centre of the oppofite hy- 
 perbolic/&S?iOTU, FG, HI, and whofe common afymptotes, 
 the propofed lines AB, CD alfo arc. — In this cafe, the fic- 
 tions GF and HI, are called fetliones fequentes, becaufe they 
 are placed following one another in the contiguous angles of 
 two interfering right lines, 
 If the determinate diameter HG, of one of the fetliones fe- 
 quentcs, (which is coincident with the fuppofed indeterminate 
 diameter of its oppofite) be equal to the vertical tangent KX. 
 applied between the afymptotes in the point G, of" the diame- 
 ter G F, then, Apollonius calls fuch feelions, conjugate feelions 
 
 Oppofite Su ctions, l s , ; , J Oppose. 
 
 bumlar sections, i £ Similar. 
 
 Section of a building, denotes its profile ; or a delineation of 
 its heights and depths raifed on the plan ; as if the fabrick 
 wascutafunder to difcovcr the inlide. 
 
 Horizontal Section. See the article Ichnography. 
 
 SECTOR, in geometry, a part of a circle comprehended be- 
 tween two radii, and the arch. 
 
 Thus the mixt triangle ACD (Tab. Geometry, fig. 13.JCOIT1- 
 prehended between the radii AC and C D and the arch A D, 
 is a feclor of the circle. 
 
 It is demonstrated by geometricians, that the feclor of a cir- 
 cle, as ACD, is equal to a triangle, whofe bafe is the arch 
 AD, and its altitude the radius AC. 
 
 If from the common centre of two concentric circles, be 
 drawn two radii, to the periphery of the outer, the two 
 arches included between the radii, will have the fame ratio 
 to their peripheries ; and the two feclors, the fame ratio to the 
 areas of their circles. 
 
 To find the area of a feclor DCE ; the radius of the circl 
 CD, and the arch DE being given. To 100, 314 and the 
 radius AC, find a fourth proportional number; this will be 
 the femi-periphery. Then to 180 0 , the given arch DE, and 
 the femi-periphery juft found, find another fourth proportio- 
 nal ; this will give the arch DE in the fame meafure in which 
 the radius AC is given. Laftly, multiply the arch DE into 
 the femi-radius, and the product is the area of the feclor. 
 Sector alfo denotes a mathematical instrument, of great ufe 
 in finding the proportion between quantities of the fame 
 kind, as between lines and lines, furfaces and furfaces, itfe. 
 whence the French call it the compafi of proportion. 
 The great advantage of the feclor above the common fcales^ 
 
 eff c. is, that it is made fo as to fit all radius's, and all fcales 
 
 By the lines of chords, fines, &c. on the feclor, w v e have 
 lines of chords, fines, csV. to any radius betwixt the length 
 and breadth of the feclor when opened. 
 
 The feclor is founded on the fourth propofition of the 6th 
 book of Euclid, where it is demonftrated, that fimilar tri- 
 angles have their homologous fides proportional: an idea of 
 its foundation may be conceived thus.— Let the lines ABAC 
 (fig. 14.) rcprefent the legs of the feclor, and AD, AE two 
 equal feflions from the centre. If now the points CB and 
 DE be conncfled, the lines CB and DE will be parallel ; 
 therefore the triangles ADE, ACB will be fimilar; and con- 
 fequently the fides A D, D E, A B and B C proportional : 
 that is, as AD: DE: AB: B C ; whence if A D be the 
 half, third or fourth part of A B ; D E will be a half, third 
 •r fourth part of C B : and the fame holds of all the reft. If, 
 
 therefore, A D be the chord, fine, or tangent of any num- 
 ber of degrees to the radius A B ; D E will he the fame to 
 the radius BC. See Chord, Sine, (3c. 
 Defcription of the Sector . — The instrument confifts of two 
 equal rules, or legs of brafs or other matter, rivettcd toge- 
 ther ; but fo as to move eafy on the rivet. See its figure, 
 Tab. Geometry, fig. r s . On the faces of the instrument are 
 placed feveral lines ; the principal are the line of equal parts, 
 hne of chords, line of fines, line of tangents, line of fecants, 
 and line of polygons. 
 
 The line of equal parts, called alfo line of lines, marked L, is 
 a line divided into 100 equal parts ; and, where the length of 
 the leg will allow it, each of thefe is fub-divided into halves, 
 and quarters. It is found on each leg, on the fame fide ; and 
 the divifions numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, firr. to 10, which is near 
 the extremity of each leg. N ote, in practice, 1 is taken for 
 10, or 100, or 1000, or 10000, fie. as occafion requires j 
 in which cafes 2 represents 20, or 200, or 2000, C3V. and fo 
 of the reft. The line of chords, marked C on each le», is 
 divided after the usual manner, and numbered 10, 20/30, 
 C7r. to 60. The line of fines, denoted on each leg by the 
 letter S, is a line of natural fines, numbered 10, 20, 30, 
 C5V. to 90. The line of tangents, denoted or each leg by the 
 letter T, is a line of natural tangents, numbered is, 20, 
 30, &V. to 45 : befides which, there is another little line 
 of tangents on each leg, commencing at 45 0 , and extend- 
 ing to 759, denoted by the letter t. Line of fecants, de- 
 noted on each leg by the letter S, is a line of natural fecants, 
 numbered 10, 20, 30, lie. to 75, and eommencine, not 
 from the centre of the instrument, but at two inches distance 
 therefrom. The line of polygons, denoted by the letter I' 
 on each leg, is numbered 4, 5, 6, &•<-. to 12, which falls 7 
 inches fhort of the centre of the instrument. 
 Befide thefe lines, which are eflential to the feclor, there are 
 others placed near the outward edges on both faces, and pa- 
 rallel thereto, which are in all respects, the fame as in Gun- 
 ter's scale, and used after the fame manner. Such are the 
 hne of artificial fines marked S ; the line of artificial tan- 
 gents ; a line of 1 2 inches, marked M ; and Gumer's line 
 of numbers, marked N. For the ufes of all which, fee 
 Gunter's Scale. There are fometimes, other lines placed 
 to fill the vacant spaces, as the lines of hours, latitudes and 
 inclinations of meridians, which arc ufed the fame as oil the 
 common fcales. 
 
 The lines found by the feclor are of two kinds, 'ateral and 
 parallel. The firft arc fuch as are found by the fides of the 
 feclor, as A B, A C, fig. 14. The latter, fuel, as goacrofs 
 from one leg to the other, as D E, C B. Note, the order 
 of the lines in the newer feelers, is different from what it 
 is in the old ones ; for the fame line is not now put at the fame 
 distance from the edge on both legs ; hut the line of chords 
 e.gr. is innermost upon the one, and the line of tangents oil 
 the other. The advantage hereof is, that when the inftru- 
 inent is fet to a radius for the chords, it ferves alfo for tli- 
 fines and tangents without stirring it ; for the parallel bel 
 twixt 60 and 60 of the chords, go and 90 of the fines and 
 45 and 45 of the tangents, are all equal. 
 VJe of the tine of equal parts on the Sector.— 1°. To divide a 
 given line into any number of equal parts, 1. gr. feven Take 
 the given line in your compafies, and fetting one foot in a 
 chvilton of the hue of equal parts, that may eafilv be divided 
 by J, '■ f- 70, whofe leventh partis 10 ; open the feeler till 
 the other point fall exaaiy on 70 m the fame line, in the o- 
 ther leg. In this difpofition, applying one point of the com- 
 pafies to 10 Id the fame line; mutthem till the other fall in 
 10 in the fame line of the other leg. This aperture will be 
 the 7th part of the given line. Note, if the line to be di 
 vided be too long to be applied to the legs of the feclor onlv 
 divide one half, or one lourth by 7 , and the double or qua- 
 druple thereof will be the 7th part of the whole 
 2 r° T ° mcafl,r .' : thc K<<°> of the perimeter of a polvgon, one 
 of which contains a given number of equal parts, 'fake the 
 given hne in your compalTes, and fet it over, upon the line 
 of equal parts, to the number of parts on each fide cxprtfiW 
 Its length. The feclor remaining thus, fet off the length o°f 
 each of the other lines parallel to the former ; and the num- 
 bers each of them falls on will express their lengths. 
 3°. A right line being given, and the number of parts if 
 contains, e. gr. 120, to take from it a lefs line, containing 
 any number of the fame parts, 1. gr. 25. Taking the given 
 line in your compaffes, open the feclor till the two feet fall 
 on 120 on each leg ; then, the distance from 25 to 25 oiv'cs 
 the line required. 0 
 4°. To find a third proportional to two given lines, and a 
 fourth to three. For the firft, take the length of the firft 
 given line in your compaffes, and lay it off on the line of 
 equal parts from the centre, to find the number wh-re i£ 
 terminates : then open the feclor, till the length of the fe- 
 cond line be included in the aperture of the extreme of the 
 firft : the feclor remaining thus, lay off the length of the fe- 
 cond line on one of the legs, from the centre ; and note the 
 number where it terminates ; the distance between that num- 
 3 bet 
 
SEC 
 
 \zt on the two legs, gives the third proportional— For the 
 fccond, take the fecond line in your companes, and opening 
 the feStV, apply this extent to the ends of the firft, laid oft 
 from the centre on both legs. The fetior thus opened, lay 
 off the third line from the centre, and the extent between 
 tlie ttumber whereon it terminates on both legs, is the fourth 
 proportional. 
 
 5". To divide a line in any given proportion, e. gf- into two 
 parts, which fhall be to each other as 40 to 70. Add the two 
 numbers together, their fum is 110. Then, between your 
 companes take the line propofed, which fuppofe 165, and 
 open the fcZor till this diftance reach from no to 1 10 on 
 both legs. The feilor thus opened, take the extent from 40 
 1040, as alfo from 70 to 70 ; the firft will give 60, the laft 
 105, which will be the parts propofed, for 40 : 70 : 60 : 105. 
 6\ To open the feffar, fo as the two lines of equal parts may 
 maJce a right angle : find three numbers that may «xprefs the 
 fides of a "right-angled triangle, as 3, 4 and 5, or their equi- 
 multiples, as 60, So and 100. Take then, in your compaffes, 
 the diftance from the centre to 100; and open thefetfor, till 
 one point being fet upon 80, the other fall upon 60 in the other 
 leg ; then will the two lines of equal parts include a right angle. 
 7 0 ". To find a right line equal to the circumference of a circle. 
 The diameter of a circle being to the circumference, nearly 
 as 50 to 157, take the diameter in your compaffes, and fet it 
 over on the legs of the fiStr, from 50 to 50. The fclor thus 
 opened, take the diftance from 157 to 157 in your compaffes. 
 This will be your circumference required. 
 Vfe of the line of chords on the Sector.-— i°. To open ihtfeftor , 
 fo as the two lines of chords may make an angle of any num- 
 ber of degrees, c. gr. 40. Take the diftance from the joint to 
 4 0 , the number of degrees propofed, on the line of chords ; 
 open the feBor, till the diftance from 60 to 60, on each leg, 
 be equal to the forefaid diftance of 40 ; then does the line of 
 chords make the angle required. 
 
 2°. The fe£tor being opened, to find the degrees of its aper- 
 ture. Take the extent from 60 to 60, and lay it off on the 
 line of chords from the centre : the number, whereon it 
 terminates, fhews the degrees of its opening. — By applying 
 fights on the line of chords, the feftar may be ufed to take 
 angles, as a furveying inftrument. 
 
 3 0 . To make an angle of any given number of degrees, with 
 a given line. On the given fine defcribe a circular arch, the 
 centre whereof is the point whereon the angle is to be made. 
 Set off the radius from 60 to 60; and the fefior remaining thus, 
 take the diftance of the two numbers on each leg, expreffing 
 the propofed degrees, and lay it from the line upon the arch 
 defcrtbed, Laftly, drawing a line from the centre, through 
 the end of the arch, it will make the angle propofed. 
 4 0 . To find the degrees which a given angle contains. About 
 the vertex defcribe an arch, and open the feelor, till the dif- 
 tance from 60 to 60 on each leg, be equal to the radius of the 
 Circle : then taking the chord of the arch between the com- 
 pafll-s, and carrying it on the legs of the feftor, fee what equal 
 number, on each leg, the points of the companes fall on: this 
 is the quantity of degrees, the given angle contains. 
 5 0 . To take an arch, of any quantity, from off the circum- 
 fercrcc of a circle. Open ihcfettor, till the diftance from 60 
 to 60 be equal to the radius of the given circle : then take the 
 extent of the chord of the number of degrees, on each leg of 
 the feJlor, and lay it off, on the circumference ef the given 
 circle. By this ufe may any regular polygon he inferibed in 
 a given circle, as well as by the line of polygons. 
 Ufe of the line of polygons on the Sector.— i°. To inferibe a 
 regular polygon in a given circle. Take the femi-diametcr 
 of the given circle, in the companes, and adjuft it to the 
 number 6, on the line of polygons, on each leg of the fee- 
 tor ; then the feelor remaining thus opened, take the dif- 
 tance of the two equal numbers, expreffing the number of 
 fides the polygon is to have. E. gr. The diftance from 5 to 5 
 for a pentagon, from 7 to 7 for a heptagon, £ifir. Thefe 
 diftanccs being carried about the circumference of the circle, 
 will divide it into fo many equal parts. 
 
 1° . To defcribe a regular polygon, e. gr. a pentagon, on a 
 given right line. Take the length of the line in the com- 
 pafles, and apply it to the extent of the number 5, 5, an the 
 lines of polygons. The fe£lor thus opened, upon the fame 
 lines take the extent, from 6 to 6, this will be the femi-dia- 
 metcr of the circle the polygon is to be inferibed in. If, then, 
 ' with this diftance, from the ends of the given line, you de- 
 fcribe two arches of a circle, their interfedtion will be the 
 centre of the circle. 
 
 3 0 . On a right line, to defcribe an ifofcles triangle, having 
 the angles at the bafe, double that at the vertex. Open the 
 feSor, till the ends of the given line fall on 10 and 10 on 
 each leg ; then take the diftance from 6 to 6. This will 
 be the length of the two equal fides of the triangle. 
 Ufe of the lines of fines, tangents, and fecants, on the Sector. — 
 By the feveral lines difpofed on the fetlor, we have fcales to 
 feveral radius's; fo that having a length, or radius, given, 
 not exceeding the length of the fefilor when opened, we find 
 the chord, fine, &c t thereto. E. gr. Suppofe the chord, fine, 
 or tangent, of 10 degrees, to a radius of 3 inches, required : 
 nuke 3 inches the aperture, between 60 and 6o> on the 
 
 SEC 
 
 lines of chords of the two legs : then will the fame extent 
 reach from 45 to 45 on the line of tangents, and from 90. 
 to go on the line of fines on the other fide ; fo that to what- 
 ever radius the line of chords is fet, to the fame are all the 
 others fet. In this difpofition, therefore, if the aperture be- 
 tween 10 and 10, on the lines of chords, be taken with the 
 compaffes, it will give the chord of 10 degrees. If the aper- 
 ture of 10 and 10 be in like manner taken on the lines of 
 fines, it will Be the fine of 10 degrees. Laftly, if the aper- 
 ture of 10 and 10 be in like manner taken on the lines ot 
 tangents, it gives the tangent of 10 degrees. 
 If the chord, or tangent, of 70 degrees were required ; for 
 the chord, the aperture of half the arch, viz. 35, muft be 
 taken, as before j which diftance, being repeated twice, gives 
 the chord of 70". To find the tangent of 70 0 to the fame ra- 
 dius, the fmall line of tangents mud be ufed, the other only 
 reaching to 45 : making, therefore, 3 inches the aperture be- 
 tween 45 and 45 on the fmall line; the extent between 70 
 and 70 degrees, on the fame, will be the tangent of 70" to 
 3 inches radius. 
 
 To find the fecant of an arch, make the given radius the 
 aperture between o and o on the line of fecants ; then will 
 the aperture of jo and 10, or 70 and 70, on the laid lines, 
 give the tangent of io°, or 70 0 . 
 
 If the converfe of any of thefe things were required ; that 
 is, if the radius be required, to which a given line is the fine, 
 tangent, or fecant, it is but making the given line, if a chord, 
 the aperture on the line of chords, between JO and 10, anil 
 then the fitter will ftand at the radius required ; that is, the; 
 aperture between 60 and 60, on the faid line, is the radius. 
 If the given line were a fine, tangent or fecant, it is but mak- 
 ing it the aperture of the given number of degrees ; then will 
 the diftance of 90 and 90 on the fines, of 45 and 45 on the 
 tangents, of o and 0 on the fecants, be the radius. 
 Ufe of the Sector in trigonometry.— \ a . The bafe and perpen- 
 dicular of a reftangled triangle being given, to find the hy- 
 potenufe. Suppofe the bafe A C ( Tab. Trigenem. fig. 2.) 40 
 miles, and the perpendicular A B 30 ; open the feeler till the 
 two lines of lines make a right angle : then for the bafe, take 
 40 parts on the line of lines on one leg ; and for the perpen- 
 dicular take 30 »n the fame line on the other leg : then the 
 extent from 40 on the one, to 30 on the other, taken in the 
 companes, will be the length of the hypotenufe, which line 
 will be found 50 miles. 
 
 2°. The perpendicular A B of a right-angled triangle A EC, 
 being given, 30, and the angle B C A, 37 0 , to find the hy- 
 potenufe B C. Take the given fide A B, and fet it over, on 
 each fide, upon the fine of the given angle A C B ; then the 
 parallel diftance of radius, or of 90 and 90, will be the hypo- 
 tenufe B C ; which will meafure 50 on the line of lines. 
 3 0 . The hypotenufe and bafe being given, to find the per- 
 pendicular. Open the feeler, till the two lines of lines be at 
 right angles ; then lay off the given bafe on one ol thofe lines 
 from the centre. Take the hypotenufe in your compaflis, 
 and fetting one foot in the point of the given bafe, let the o- 
 ther fall on the line of lines, on the other leg : the diftance 
 from the centre to the point where the compafl'es fall, will be 
 the length of the perpendicular. 
 
 4 0 . The hypotenufe being given, and the angle A C B, to 
 find the perpendicular. Make the given hypotenufe a para- 
 lel radius, i. e. make it the extent from 90 to 90 on the lines 
 of fines ; then will the parallel fine of the angle A C B be 
 the length of the fide A B. 
 
 5 0 . The bafe and perpendicular A B given, to find the angle 
 B C A . Lay oft' the bafe A C on both fides the feeler, from 
 the centre, and note its extent : then take the given perpen- 
 dicular, and to it open the feeler, in the terms of the bale', 
 the parallel radius will be the tangent of B C A. 
 6°. In any right-lined triangle, two fides being given, with 
 the included angle, to find the third fide. Suppofe the fide 
 A C 20, the fide B C 30, and the included angle A C B 
 110°; open the feeler, till the two lines of lines make an 
 angle equal to the given angle, viz. uo°. Lay off the given 
 fides of the triangle from the centre of the feeler, on each of 
 the lines of lines ; the extent between their extremes is the 
 length of the fide A B fought. 
 
 7 °. The angles CAB and AC B given, and the fide C B, 
 to find the bafe A B. Take the given fideCB, and turn it 
 into the parallel fine of its oppofite angle CAB; and then 
 the parallel fine of the angle A C B will be the length of the 
 bafe A B. 
 
 8°. The three angles of a triangle being given, to find the 
 proportion of the fides. Take the lateral fines of the feveral 
 angles, and meafure them in the line of lines ; the numbers 
 anfwering thereto, give the proportion of the fides. 
 9 0 . The three fides being given, to find the angle AC B. 
 Lay the fides AC, C B, along the line of lines, from the 
 centre ; and fet over the fide A B in their terms : fo is the 
 feeler opened, in thefe lines, to the quantity of the angie 
 A C B. : . 
 
 10°. The hypotenufe A C (fig. 3.J of a right-angled fohen- 
 cal triangle ABC given, e. gr. 43 0 , and the angle CAB 
 20° ; to find the fide C B. The rule is : As radius is to 
 the fine of the given hypotenufe 43°, fo is the fine of the 
 3 given 
 
SEC 
 
 S E C 
 
 given angle 20 0 to the fine of the perpendicular CB. Take, 
 then, 20° from the centre, along the line of fines, in your 
 compaffes, and fet the extent, from goto go, on the two 
 legs ; and the parallel fine of 43^, the given hypotenufe, 
 will, when meafured from the centre on the line of fines, 
 give 13 0 30', the fide required. 
 
 The perpendicular BC, and the hypotenufe AC given, 
 to find the bafe A B. As the fine complement of the per- 
 pendicular B C is to radius, fo is the fine complement of the 
 hypotenufe to the fine complement of the bafe. — Therefore, 
 make the radius a parallel fine of the given perpendicular, 
 t, gr. 76 0 30' ; then the parallel fine of the complement of 
 the hypotenufe, e.gr. 47 0 meafured along the line of fines, 
 will be found 49 0 25 , the complement of the bale required : 
 confequently the bafe itfelf will be 40 0 35'. 
 Particular ttfis of the Sector in geometry, Sec. — 1°. To make 
 a regular polygon, whofe area ftiall be ot any given magni- 
 tude. Let the figure required be a pentagon whofe fuperfi- 
 cial area is 125 feet : extract the fquare root of f of 125, it 
 will be found 5. Make a fquare, whofe fide is 5 feet ; and, 
 by the line of polygons, as already directed, make the ifofceles 
 triangle CGD (Tab. G com. fig. 14. N p . 2.) fo as that C G 
 being the femi-diameter of a circle, C D may he trie fide of 
 a regular pentagon inferibed therein, then let fall tiie perpen- 
 dicular GE. Then continuing the lines EG and EC, 
 make EF equal to the fide of the fquare before made : and 
 from the point F, draw the right line F H parallel to G C ; 
 then a mean proportional between GE and E F will be e- 
 qual to half the fide of the polygon fought, which doubled, 
 will give the whole fide. The fide of the pentagon thus 
 bad, the pentagon itfelf maybe defcribed, as above directed. 
 a°. A circle being given, to find a fquare equal thereto. Di- 
 vide the diameter into 14 equal parts, by the line of lines, 
 as above directed : then will 12.4 of thole parts found by 
 the fame line, be the fide of the fquare fought. 
 3 0 . A fquare being given, to find the diameter of a circle 
 equal thereto. Divide the lide of the fquare into 11 equal 
 parts, by means of the line of lines ; and continue that fide 
 to 12. 4 parts j this will be the diameter of the circle re- 
 quired. 
 
 4 0 . To find the fide of a fquare, equal to an ellipfis whofe 
 tranfverfe and conjugate diameters are given. Find a mean 
 proportional between the tranfverfe and conjugate diame- 
 ters ; which, being divided into I4equal parts j 12 y'otbere- 
 of, will be the fide of the fquare required. 
 5 0 . To defcribe an ellipfis in any given ratio of its diame- 
 ter ; the area whereof thai! be equal to a given fquare. Sup- 
 pofe the proportion of the tranfverfe and conjugate diameters 
 be required, as 2 to 1 ; divide the fide of the given fquare 
 into 11 equal parts : then, as 2 is to 1, fo is 11 x 14= 154 
 £0 a 4th number; the fquare whereof is the conjugate dia- 
 meter fought. Then, as 1 to 2, fo is the conjugate diame- 
 ter to the tranfverfe. New, 
 
 6°. Todefcribe an ellipfis, by having the tranfverfe and con- 
 jugate diameters given. Suppofe A B and ED {Tab. Ccn. fig. 
 21.) to be the given diameters ; take A C in your com palfcs , 
 and to the extent thereof open the fe£lnr, till the diftance 
 from 90 to 90, on the lines of fines, be equal thereto. Then 
 may the line A C be divided into a line of fines, by taking 
 the parallel extents of the fine of each degree, on the lees 
 of the fetlor, in your compaffes, and laying them off from 
 the centre C. The line thus divided into fines (in the figure 
 it is only done into every 10th fine) from each raife perpen- 
 diculars both ways ; then, find points in thofe perpendiculars 
 through which the ellipfis muff pafs, thus: take the extent 
 of the femi-conjugate diameter CE between your compaffes, 
 and open the feclor, till the aperture of 90 and 90 on the 
 lines of fines be equal thereto : then take the parallel fines of 
 each degree of the lines of fines of the fcflor, and lay them 
 off on thofe perpendiculars drawn through their complements 
 in the lines of fines AC ; thus will you have two points in 
 each perpendicular, through which the ellipfis muff pafs. 
 E. gr. The feclor ftill remaining the fame, take the diftance 
 from 80 to Ho on the lines of fines, in your compaffes, and 
 fetting one foot in the point 10, on the line AC, with the 
 other, make the points a and m in the perpendiculars paffing 
 through that point : then will a and m be the two points in 
 the perpendicular, through which the ellipfis muff. pafs. All 
 the other points, found after the fame manner, being con- 
 nected, will give the femi-eliipfis DAE; and the other half 
 will be drawn after the fame manner. 
 Uft of the Sector in furveyhig. — The bearings of three places, 
 as A, B, C, (Tab. Surveying, fig. a. N°. 2.) to each other, 
 i. e. the angles ABC, BCAandCAB, being given; and 
 the diftance of each, from a fourth ftandir.g among them, as 
 D, 1. e. BD, DC, and AD being given ; to find the defian- 
 ces of the fevcral places A, B, C, from each other, /, e. to find 
 the lengths of the fides AB, BC, AC. Having drawn the 
 triangle EFG (fig. 4. N°. 3.) umilartoABC, divide the fide 
 E G in H, fo as that E H may be to HG, as A D-to D C, 
 after the manner already directed : and, after the like manner 
 rmift E F be divided in 1, fo as E I mav be to 1 K, as A D to 
 Vol. II. N°. 139. 
 
 DB. Then continuing the fides EG, E F, fay, as EH— HG 
 is to HG, fo ls EH+HG to G H; and as E I — I F is. to 
 IE, folet El-f-IF be toFM; which proportions are enhly 
 wrought by the line of linesonthe fetor. This done, biftedt 
 H K and IM, in the points L, N ; and about the faid points 
 as centres, with the diftances LH and I N, defcribe two cir- 
 cles interfecting each other, in the point O ; to which, from 
 the angles E, F, G, draw the right lines E O, h O, and OG, 
 which will have the fame proportion to each other, as the 
 lines AD, BD, D C: now, if the lines EO, FO, and GO, 
 be equal to the given lines AD, BD, DC, the diftances EF 
 FG, and EG, will, be the diftances of the places reuuired 
 But if EO, OF, OG, be lefs than AD, DB, DC\ con- 
 tinue them, till PQ, OR, and OQ_hc equal to them : then 
 the points P, Q_, R, being joined, the diftances PR, RO 
 and PQ_, will be the diftances of the places loucht. Laftly" 
 if the lines EO, OF, OG, be greater than AD, DB, DC 
 cutoff from them lines equal to AD, BD; DC, and join 
 the points of lection by three right tines; the lenaths ot the 
 faid three right lines will be the diftances of the three places 
 fought. Note, if EH be equal to HG, or E I to 1 F, the 
 centres L and N, will be infinitely diftant from H Wi [ 
 that is, in the points H and I, there rhuft be perpend* 
 raifed to the fides EF, EG, inftead of circles, :ill thev in- 
 ter feci each other ; but if EH be leli than HG, the cenr.-e 
 L will fall on the other fide of the bafe continued ; and the 
 fame is to be underftood of E I, I F. 
 
 1 he feSlc-r is of efpecial ufe for facilitating the projection of 
 the fphere, both orthographic and ftereogr?phic. 
 SECL 1 L A R, fumething that is temporal: in which fertfej the 
 word flands oppofed to ecchfiaji'tcal. 
 
 Thus we foy, fecular power, fecular arm, fecular m 'fdiciicn. 
 See Power, Arm, Jurisdiction, csV. 
 Secular, is more peculiarly ufed for a ptifon who lives a- 
 liberty in the world ; notfhut up in a monaffery, nor boi:--d 
 by vows, or fubjcSed to the particular rules of any re- 
 ligious community. 
 
 In which fenfe the word ftands oppofed to regular. 3ee Re- 
 gular. 
 
 The Romifh clergy is divided into regular and fecular. 
 The regulars pretend that their flate is much more perfect 
 than that of the feculars. Secular prielts may nold abbies and 
 priories both fimple and conventual, though not reguh'.rly, 
 but only in commendam. 
 
 It is a maxim, in their canon law, fecularia fecularibus, i.e. 
 fecular benefices are only to be given to fecular perfons ; re- 
 gular only to regular. 
 
 Secular corporation. See the article Corporation. 
 
 Secular games, /u^'Seculares, in antiquity, thefe were 
 folemn games, held among the Romans, once in an sge - t 
 or, in a period deemed the extent of the lonjeft life, of 
 man, called by the Greeks, *»*>, and by the Latins, fc- 
 cu.'um. 
 
 The fecular games were alfo called Ttrenthe games, ludi Tt- 
 rer.tmi, either by reafon Manius Valerius Tercntinus enve 
 occafion to their inftitution ; for that having been ■-- ..r'.., J, 
 in a dream, to dig in the ground in a place near the Car; p.s 
 Martius, called Terentum, he there found an altar ir.fcril-.ed 
 to Dis» or Pluto and Proferpine : upon which, as had been 
 foretold him in his dream, three of his children born blind, 
 recovered their fight ; and he, in gratitude, performed facri* 
 ficcs, on the fame altar, for three days and three nights fuc- 
 ceffively.— Or finally, by reafon here was an altar of Pluto 
 buried deep under ground, becaufe the water of the Tvber 
 terram tereret, eat into the ground In this place. 
 The fecular games lafied three daj-s, and as many nights; 
 during which time, facrifices were performed, theatrical 
 fhews exhibited, with combats, fports, Is'c. in the circus. 
 The?r origin, and inftitution, is delivered at length bv ViU 
 Maximus : the occafion thereof, according to this writei 
 was, to ftop the progrefs of a plague.— The fiift who hid 
 them celebrated at Rome, was Valerius Publicola, the firit 
 conful created after the expulfion of the kin°s, in the vear 
 of Rome 245. — The ceremonies to be obferved therein were 
 found prefcribcd in one of the books of the Sib) Is. 
 At the time of the celebration of the fecular games, heralds 
 were fent to invite all the world to a folernnity which no- 
 body had ever yet feen, nor was ever to tee again. 
 Authors are not agreed as to the number of years wherein 
 thefe games returned ; partly becaufe the quantity of an ?."e 
 or feculum among the ancients is not known ; and partly on 
 other accounts : fome will have it, that they were held once 
 every hundred years, and that the fecu!um t or age, was our 
 century. — This Varroand I.ivy feem to cxprefs in very plain 
 terms; yet others will have it, that feculum comprehended 
 no years, and that the ficidar games only returned in that 
 period, that is, at the beginning of every ilith year- 
 which opinion is countenanced by Horace, in his Qczi/ar 
 poem, v. 21. 
 
 Be this as it will, it is certain they fometimes did not flay fot 
 the 1 mh, nor even for the iocth vtar, for the celebration 
 of thefe g^mes. Auguftus, for iotUlc*, hsld them in the 
 1 1 M 
 
 I 
 
S E D 
 
 SEE 
 
 year of Rome 736; and Caligula again in the year of Rome 
 800, and of Chrift 38, viz., 64 years after the former ; and 
 Domitian, again, in ftill lefs time, viz. in the year of Chrift 
 87, at which Tacitus affilled in quality of quindecimvir, as 
 he himfclf tells us, Annal. lib. xi. c. 11. and this was the fe- 
 venth time that Rome had fcen them from their firft inftitution. 
 The emperor Se\ erub exhibited them the eighth time, that is, 
 no years after thofc of Domitian : Zofimus fays, thefe were 
 the I aft ; but he is miftaken, for in the year of Rome 1000, 
 that is, fifty years after thole of Scverus, the emperor Phi- 
 hp, had them celebrated with greater magnificence than had 
 ever been known. — We find them reprelented on many me- 
 . dais. . 
 
 Secular poem. See the article Seculare carmen. 
 Secular yiar, the fame with jubilee. See Jubilee. 
 SECULARE carmen, Secular poem, a poem lung, or re- 
 
 hearfed, at the feci/lar games. See Secular games. 
 
 Of this kind we have a very fine piece among the works of 
 
 Horace : it is a Sapphic ode, which ufually comes at the end 
 
 of his epodes. — In fome editions, the tweiity-firft ode of the 
 
 firft book, is alfo called carmen fceulare. 
 SECULARIZATION, the a&ion of fecularizing, or of 
 
 converting a regular perfon, place, or benefice, into a fe- 
 
 cular one. 
 
 .Almoft all the cathedral churches were anciently regular, 
 /. e. the canons were to be religious; but they have been 
 Jince feeularized. 
 
 For the fecularixation of a regular church there is required 
 the authority of the pope, that of the prince, the bilhop of 
 the place, the patron, and even the confent of the people. — 
 And in France all this mult be confirmed by parliament. 
 Religious that want to be releafed from their vows, obtain 
 briefs of fecularixation from the pope. 
 
 SECUNDA aqua, among chy milts, caY. denotes aqua-fortis 
 which lias been already ufed to dillblve fome metal. 
 
 SECUNDARY, or Secondary. See Secondary. 
 
 S E C U N D I generis, in anatomy, a diflincTtion among the 
 lacteal veffels. — There are two kinds of lact eals, viz, prima- 
 ry, orthofeof the firft kind, primi generis ; and fecundi ge- 
 neris, fecondary, or of the fecond kind. 
 The firft carry the chyle from the inteftines into glands dif- 
 perfed in great numbers throughout the mefentery. — The 
 fecond carry it from thefe glands, after its being diluted 
 there with lympha, into the common receptacle. See 
 Lacteal. 
 
 SECUNDI internodii pollicis e::tenfor. See Extensor. 
 
 SECUNDINE, or Secundjnes, Secundinje, in me- 
 dicine, tlie feveral coats or membranes wherein the fcetus is 
 wrapped up, in the mother's womb ; as the chorion and am- 
 nios, with the placenta, &c. — See Tab. Anat. (Splanch.) 
 fig. 16. lit.bb. 
 
 They are thus called, becaufc they come out in the fecond 
 place, i. e. after the child, in delivery. — The good women 
 and midwives call them the after-birth, as being efteemed a 
 fecond burthen, whereof the motiier is freed. Others call 
 them, the. delivery, becaufe when thefe are out, the woman 
 is reckoned to be perfectly delivered. 
 
 The fecimdine mull never be left in the matrix ; it is a fo- 
 reign body, which would deftroy the mother : it is dangerous 
 even to have the leaft piece of it left behind. 
 Hippocrates obferves, that twins have always the fame fecun- 
 dine. 
 
 Dr. Grew, in his anatomy of plants, applies the term fecun- 
 dine to the fourth and laft coat or cover of feeds; by reafon 
 this performs nearly the fame office in plants, that the mem- 
 branes invefting the foetus do in animals. And indeed Pliny, 
 Columella, Apuleius, &c. have ufed fecundinc in the fame 
 fenfe. 
 
 SECUNDO. — Proprfitio de Secundo adjacente. See the ar- 
 ticle Proposition. 
 
 ' PERON-SUS 
 
 \ See the articles 5 c 
 J l Scalenus. 
 
 SECUNDUS 
 
 Secundus fcalcm; 
 
 SECUR.I TATE pads, a writ, which lies fur one who is 
 threatened with death, or danger ; againft the perfon who 
 lb threatens him. — It is taken out of chancery, directed to 
 the fherift'. See Surety. 
 
 SECUTORES*, in antiquity, a kind of gladiators among 
 the Romans, who fought agaiftft the retiarii. See Gladi- 
 ator. - .-^ffi JfB^lilwlWS**^ 0 
 
 f The word is formed from the vrrb fitfttt, to follow ; becaufe 
 the ftuttoia ufed to purfue the retiarii. See Retiarii. 
 I he- fecutsrrs were armed wirh a fword, and a buckler, to 
 kiejfufi'the net, or noofe, of their an tagonifts, and they wore 
 a cafk on their head — Some confound the fecutorcs with the 
 mtrmillones, becanfe both had nearly the fame weapons. 
 ^FcuTortES, was alio a name given to fuch gladiators, as took 
 the* place of thofc killed in the combat; or, who fought the 
 conqueror. This poft was ufually taken by lot. 
 In ancient infciipiions we alfo meet with fecutor tribuni, fe- 
 .-•■tor dtteii,fccut:r L\i farrs, Sec. who were officers attending 
 the tribunes, and generals ; perhaps like our aids de camp. 
 ■nK-OEI-ENDENDO, a plea for him who is charged with 
 
 the death of another; alledging, that he was forced toco 
 what he did, in his own defence, the other fo afTaulting him, 
 that had he not done as he did, he mull have been in danger 
 of his own life. 
 
 1 o have this plea admitted, the danger muft appear inevita- 
 ble. — Though the party juftifv its being done je-defendetuU, 
 yet he is driven to procure his pardon of courie from the 
 lord-chancellor, and forfeits his goods to the king. 
 SEDER OLAM, in philology, a Hebrew term, literally fig- 
 nilying, order of the world ; being the title of two chronicles 
 in that lana;uaae. , 
 
 They arc both very fhort, though the one more fo than the 
 other ; for which reafon the one is called feder olam rabba, 
 that is, the great feder olam ; and the other, feder olam zuta 3 
 i. e. little feder olam. 
 
 The great Seder Olam commences at the creation of the 
 world, and comes down as low as the war of the pfeudo- 
 meffiah Uarchochabas, under Adrian, 52 years after the de- 
 ftruction of the temple of Jerufalcm, and, of confequence, 
 to the i22d year of Chrift. — It is almoft all taken from the 
 fcu'pturc, excepting the end. It is the work of R. Jofa, 
 fon of Hhelpeta of Tlippora, who lived in the fecond cen- 
 tury, about the year 130, and was mafter of the famous R. 
 juda Hakkadofch, the compiler of the Mifchna. 
 
 The UJfer Seder Olam is an abridgment of the former, 
 brought down as far as Mar Sutra, who lived 450 years after 
 the deftruiStfoi] of the temple, or 522 years after Chrift. — F. 
 Morin, continually bent upon diminiihing the antiquity of 
 the principal books of the Jews, endeavours to prove this to 
 have been wrote about the year of Chrift 1 124, as indeed it 
 is expreffed at the beginning: but R. Dav. Gantz has over- 
 thrown this opinion in his Tfemahh David, and fhewn, that 
 the date, in the beginning, is an interpolation. 
 The two chronologies were firft printed at Mantua in 1514, 
 quarto; again, at Uafil, by Frobenius in 1580, octavo: at 
 Venice in 1 545, quarto : and at Paris, with a Latin verfion of 
 Genebrard, in 12 0 . — They have been fince re-printed at Am- 
 fterdam, in ijn. 
 
 SEDIMENT*, the fettlement, or dregs, of any thing ; or 
 that grofs, heavy part of a fluid body, which, upon refting, 
 finks to the bottom of the veflel. 
 
 * The word is formed from, the Latin, feeiimenlum, which Mat- 
 thias Sylvaticus derives a diuturna fide. 
 Some phyficians have found means to difcover much of the 
 nature of the difeafe, from the fediment of the urine. 
 Dr. Woodward maintains, that at the deluge, the whole 
 terreftrial globe was diflblved into one uniform mafs, 
 and that the new world arifing thence was perfectly 
 fpherical, and without any inequalities, confuting of feve- 
 ral ftrata, which the earthy fediment gradually produced, 
 as it drained. 
 
 SEDR, or Sedre, the high prieft of the feci of Ali 3 among 
 the Perfians. See Mahome'j anism. 
 
 The fedr is appointed by the emperor of Perfia, who ufually 
 confers the dignity on his neareit relation. 
 The jurifJicTtion of the fedr extends over all effects deftincd 
 for pious purpofes, over all mofques, hofpitals, colleges, fc- 
 pulchrcs, and monafteries. He difpofes of all eccleliaftical 
 employments, and nominates all the fuperiors of religious 
 houfes. — His deciiions, in matters of religion, are received 
 as fo many infallible oracles : he judges of all criminal mat- 
 ters, in his own houfe, without appeal, and is, without con- 
 tradiction, the fecond perfon in the empire. 
 The fedr, however, has not any indelible character, but 
 frequently quits his poft, for another purely fecular one. — 
 His authority is balanced by that of the mudfuofcid, or firft 
 theologue of the empire. 
 SEED, Semen, a matter prepared by nature, for the re- 
 production, and confervation of the fpecies, both in men, 
 animals, and plants. 
 
 Some naturalifts add, that even ftones, minerals, and metals 
 themfclves have each their proper feed in their mines, and 
 are produced and perpetuated thereby. 
 Seed, Semen, in the animal ceconomy, is a white, liquid 
 matter, or humour, the thickeft of any in the body, fepa- 
 rated from the blood in the tefticles, and referved in proper 
 veflels, to be the means of generation — Ry chymical ana- 
 lyfis it is found to confift almoft intirely of oil, and volatile 
 falts, blended together by the mediation of a little phlegm. 
 Its activity Dr. Drake takes to be derived from the falts, 
 wherewith it abounds, far more than any other animal li- 
 quor. 
 
 The parts concerned in the preparation of the feed are the 
 fpermatic arteries, which bring the blood to be fecreted into 
 the tefticles ; the tefticles, and paraftatce, where the fecre- 
 tion itfelf is chiefly effected ; the vafa deferentia, which 
 convey the fecreted matter out of the tefticles ; and the ve- 
 ficula- feminalcs, which receive and preferve it to be emitted 
 in coition. See each of thefe parts defcribed under its pro- 
 per article Testicle, (3c. 
 
 The blood received, in. finall quantities, into the fpermatic 
 arteries, and there, by the particular ftructurc of the parts, 
 
 much 
 
SEE 
 
 much diminished of its velocity, is yet farther retarded 
 bout tlie corpus pyramidale, Of vancofum, and its redder, and 
 thicker parts, carried oft" by canals opening into the veins. 
 Thus rendered paler, and (lower, it is received into the wind- 
 ing receffei of rhe tefticles, where, almoft ftagfUting, it af- 
 Jumes an afti-colour, and is further prepared, thickened, 
 tiff, in the ductus Highmorianus, whence, it is flowly 
 driven into the epididymida?, or pzraftatac, it is then fur- 
 ther prepared and elaborated in the folds and complications 
 thereof, and, at length, creeps flowly into the vafa deferentia, 
 or ejaculatoria. Thefe confift, at their beginnings, of a thick, 
 lungous matter, and are very narrow, but growing fenfibly 
 wider, and then again narrower, in the winding meanders 
 hereof the humour is collected, its motion abated, it is further 
 elaborated, and concocted, and at laft driven into the veficuke 
 feminales, in the various cells and meatus's whereof it is re- 
 ceived, laid up, fixed, thickened, whitened, and railed to its 
 laft perfection ; in which ftate it is called feed: 
 It is obfervable, that no humour in the body is generated lb 
 ilawly,or meets with fo many means to retard it, or to elabo- 
 rate, and concoct it, when at reft, as the feed. Some ima- 
 gine that, in its whole retarded progrefs, befides what is ap- 
 parent) there is fomething ftill added to it from the minute 
 nervous veficles ; and fomething taken away, by the various 
 lymphatics, and difcharged thereby into the venous vcficles 
 of the corpus pyramidale, and the little veins of the veft- 
 culx* feminales, and thence into the humours of the whole 
 body : Boeihaave takes both the one and the other to be very 
 probable. 
 
 The feed, or humour, thus formed in the tefticles, parafta- 
 ta?, vafa deferentia, and veficuia: feminales, being, while 
 frefti, diluted with a little warm water, and viewed with a 
 good micrefcope, fcems to confift of innumerable, little, 
 oblong, living, nimble animalcu'ae floating in the other part 
 of this humour. — This is faid to be always obferved in the 
 feed of all men, quadrupedes, birds, fifties, amphibious ani- 
 mals, and infects. 
 
 Upon comparing this with the bulk, figure, place, change, 
 bV. of the carina of the chick defcribed by Malpighi, and 
 with the known law of nature obferved in the generation 
 of frogs ; it appears highly probable, that the animalcula of 
 the male feed, contain the rudiments, or ftamina, of the 
 future human body; and the more fo, fince, whenever the 
 tefticles, or this humour is wanting, there is always fterility 
 on the fide of the male. 
 
 M. Leewenhoeck, the firft difcoverer of thefe animalcula, 
 and many after him, make tu icruple to call them true foe- 
 tus's, or little men; and fome have even pretended to difcover 
 fomewhat of the human figure therein. — But Verheyen, and 
 others after him, deny the cxiftence of any fiich animalcu- 
 la: j maintaining, that it is only the inteftine motion of the 
 parts of the feed kept on foot by the warmth thereof, that 
 exhibits this appearance, which fanciful pcrfons "have im- 
 proved into frifking animalcule ; and urging, in confirma- 
 tion hereof, that no fooncr is the warmth gone, than all ap- 
 pearance of animals ceafes — But notwithstanding this, the 
 doctrine of the animalcula: in femine, feems now pretty ge- 
 nerally received. 
 
 Some admit of four feveral kinds of feed: the feed at the 
 tefticles, that of the veficulx feminales, that of the profta- 
 tes, and that of the glands of the penis. — The two firft, 
 which we have defcribed as one and the fame humcur, only 
 in different ftages, thofe authors take to be different, as not 
 being able to find any ftrict communication between the de- 
 ferentia and the veficulae ; but that communication is fully 
 fhewn by Dr. Drake, fo that nothing needs further, to 
 lhew thefe feeds the fame. — The liquor of the proftates, and 
 that of the glands of the penis, are generally allowed not to 
 be any true feed, no more than that emitted by women : 
 nor is there any good reafon why either of them fhould be 
 called lo, as their appearance is very different, and as other 
 fufEcient ufes are afligned for them, viz. to line and lubricate 
 the parts, that the feed, urine, Is'c. may pafs more freely, 
 and without adhering. 
 
 '"he featiaa] liquor, however, fuch as emitted for ufe, is a 
 mixture of feveral fluids, poured at the fame time into the 
 common canal of the urethra, either from the glands 
 that have ftcreted them, or the refervoirs that have kept 
 them.- — M. du Verney obferves, that in different fpecies, 
 the number and ftructure of thefe organs is different. In 
 man, the principal are the veficulae feminales, and the 
 profUje*, befides what was difcovered by Mr. Cowper, 
 viz. a number of new glandulous bodies on each fide 
 the urethra, whole excretory ducts open into the urethra, 
 towards the root of the penis. M. du Verney has found, 
 that the fame are likewife in moft other animals, and placed 
 in (he fame manner. 
 
 It is controverted, whether or no the liquor filtrated hereby, 
 be neceilary to generation? M. du Verney thinks it is; and 
 his chief reafon is, that in animals that have been caftrated, 
 thefe glands, as well as all the other fources of generation, 
 are found dried up and decayed.— M. Littre objects to this, 
 that the vduuise feminaleB, and proftates, having little cells, 
 
 SEE 
 
 where their filtrated liquor is depofited, it is eafily conceived 
 that [heir- humours may wait fome time, for an'occafion of 
 being emitted ; but (hat thefe new proftates, or glands, of 
 Mr. Cowper, having nO fuch refervoirs, their liquor mult 
 ooze out into the cavity of the urethra, in proportion, as 
 it is feparated, and be deftined for fome continual, not 
 for any momentary, or occalional ufe. He adds, that as 
 the excretory dufis of thefe glands traverfe the fponoeous 
 body ol the urethra, for two inches, before they penetrate 
 into its cavity, and that in the fole moments when the li- 
 quor fhould be difcharged, to affift in generation, that fpon- 
 geous body is extremely dilated, and its lides in a ftate of 
 compreffion, and the liquor muft be then lefs difpolid to a 
 difcharge than ever. 
 
 For the fate of the feed when lodged in the uterus : fee 
 Conception. 
 
 Seed, in botany, is the laft product of a plant, wherebv the 
 fpecies is propagated. 
 
 The/«,< a frequently the fruit of the plant, as is the cafe in 
 many herbs. 
 
 Sometimes it is only a part inclofed in the fruit, and that in 
 form, either of grain, kernel, or berrv. 
 The feed is the natural offspring of the flower, and that for 
 whole production all the parts of the flower fecm intended; 
 fo that when this is once well formed, the feveral parts of 
 the flower dwindle, and difappear. 
 
 It is produced from the farina of the apices, let fall on the 
 head of the piftil, and thence forwarded to an uterus at the 
 bottom thereof, which ufually is divided into feveral cells ; 
 where, coming to receive the nutritious juice of the plant, 
 it is firft foftened, then fwclled, and increafed both in mat- 
 ter and bulk, and at length comes to its ftate of maturitv.— 
 tor a more particular account of the manner of the gene- 
 ration of the feed, fee Generation. 
 1 hat the whole plant is contained in the fted, is an opinion 
 as old as Empedocles, and it is ftill the prevailing doctrine 
 among the generality of naturalifts. Experience, the mi- 
 crofcope, and the modern philofophy, give it great counte- 
 nance. ^ In effect, by the ufe of good microfcopes, we dif- 
 cover, in the fted, feveral of the parts of the future tree, 
 only in miniature ; particularly a little root, called the ra- 
 dicle, and the item called the plumule. 
 
 In Malpigbi's life, we have a debate between him and feig- 
 nior Triumphetti, provoft of the phytic garden at Rome, 
 whether the whole plant be actually contained in the feed f 
 The affirmative is maintained by Malpighi, with cogent ar- 
 guments ; among which this is one, that in a kidney bean 
 ere lown, the eye, affifted with a microfcope, ealily ' difco- 
 vers leaves, a bud, and even the knots, or implantations of 
 the leaves on the ftcm. The ftem itfelf alfo is very confpi- 
 cuous, and plainly conlilts of woody fibres, and fenw's of lit- 
 tle utricles — And whereas feignior Triumphetti had objected, 
 that by poverty, tranfplantation, lie. feveral plants degene- 
 rate into others, particularly wheat into tares, and tares again 
 into wheat; in anfwer to this, which is one of the fcrongeft 
 objections againft that opinion, Malpishi replies, that he is 
 not fully fatisfied as to the truth of the objedtion ; for that 
 both himfelf, and his friends, m. ktlg the experiment, no 
 metamorpholls of the wheat fucceeded : but granting the 
 metamorphofis, it is the foil, or the air, or the culture, thai is 
 in the fault. Now, from a morbid, and ::: nitrous condi- 
 tion of nature, there is no inferring her genuine and per- 
 manent ftate. 
 
 To the fame effect, Mr. Leewenhoeck, after a nice obferva- 
 tion of an orange-kernel which he had made to germinate in 
 his pocket, fs-r. concludes, " Thus we fee how fmall a par- 
 " tide, no bigger than a coarfe land, is increafed, fie." A 
 plain demonftratlon, that the plant, anu all that belonn to 
 it, was actually in the feed, viz. the body, root, t»V.— Mr 
 Derham aads, that of all the feeds he has viewed, except 
 the maple, this plant appears the plaineft to the naked eve in 
 the nux vomica. 
 
 The fecundity of plants, in the produflion of feeds, is very 
 furpnzing. M. Dodart, in the memoirs of the French aca- 
 demy of fciences, computes, that an elm, living loo years, 
 ordinarily produces of itfelf 33000000 of feeds, and adds, 
 that had its crown, or head, been cut off, it would have 
 put forth as many branches, within half an inch of the 
 place where it was cut, as it had before ; and that at what- 
 ever height it were cut off, the effect would have been ftill 
 the fame. — Hence he concludes, that the whole tiunk, from 
 the ground to the rife of the branches, is full of the princi- 
 ples, or little embryo's of branches, which, it is true, can- 
 not all appear at once, but which being conceived, as fepa- 
 rated by circular rims, half an inch high, compofe fo many 
 fets of branches, each whereof is ready to appear, and will 
 really appear, if the head be lopped off juft over it. 
 Now thefe invifible branches exilt as really as thofe which 
 appear : for whence elfe fhould they come ? ' the trunk can- 
 not produce them, as being itfelf no more than a packet of 
 fibres, deititute of all action: nor can the tap, which, like 
 the blood, is lit to nouriih the parts, but not to form any 
 new onrs. — Th: branches thereof exiftcd before the tree was 
 
 Jopped ; 
 
SEE 
 
 Sopped; and if they had appeared, they would have bore an 
 equal number of feeds as thefe which did. Tbcfc feeds there- 
 fore, they muft already contain in little. 
 On which footing, the tree may be faid actually to contain 
 in itfelf 15840000000/^J, wherewith to multiply itfclf, as 
 many times. — But wbatihall we fay, if each fad* or grain 
 of a tree, contain in itfelf another tree, containing the fame 
 number of fads? and, if we can never come either at a 
 feed which does not contain trees, nor at a tree which does 
 not contain feed ? by this means we fhall have an incrcafing 
 geometrical progreffion, the firft term whereof is I, the 
 iecond 15840OCOOCO, the third, thefquare of 15840000000; 
 the fourth, itscubc* tffr. to infinity. 
 
 Several fpecies of plants have been long fuppofed to be de- 
 ftitute or feeds, in regard no obfervation, no microlcope, no 
 anatomy had difcoveicd any thing like them : fuch are the 
 capillaries, the feveral kinds of fuci, fea plants, mofies, Of. 
 —But the happy induftry of the prefent age has difcovered 
 the feeds of fome of them ; and has left us out of all duiibt, 
 that the reft are not without the fame.' 
 
 The feeds of fern, and the capillary-plants, were firfl: difco- 
 Vered bv Cxfius ; and fince, more fully and critically by 
 Mr. W, Cole. The feeds of fome fca-plants, were difco- 
 vered by the Count de Marfigli, and thofe of others, by M. 
 Reaumur, the firft mentioned in the hiftory of the French 
 academy for the year 1 712, and the latter for the year 171 1. 
 The. feeds of fome kinds of fuci have been difcovered alfo, 
 by Mr. Samuel Doody ; thofe of fome coralloid fhrubs, 
 by Dr.Tanc. Robinfon, as alfo, thofe of feveral fungi, par- 
 ' ticularly truffles, and crepitus lupi's, or puff- balls ; and thoie 
 of fome other by Dr. Lifter. See Mushroom : under which 
 article, anew theory of the propagation of thefe apparent- 
 ly feedlefs plants is laid down. 
 
 Echinaie Seeds, -\ /- Ec HINATE. 
 
 Naked Seeds, (.Sec the articles ) Naked. 
 
 Winged Seeds, ) 1 Winged. 
 
 Seeds, in gardening, and agriculture.— Mr. Bradley -obferves, 
 that the feeds of plants, though exceedingly good, will de- 
 generate from the mother-plant, if they be fown on the fame 
 ground, whence they were gathered ; fo that there is a great 
 ncceffity for a 'yearly cbanee'of feeds of foreft trees, as acorns, 
 maft, iSt, If the place be too cold to fow them when ga- 
 thered in Auguft, they may be kept barrelled, or potted up, 
 in moift fand or earth, Jhatum juper firatum, during the 
 winter ; at the end of which time they are found fprouted, 
 and if gently fown, will be as forward, as if they had been 
 fowa in autumn, befides their miffing the vermin to which 
 the winter feed is much expofed. 
 
 The feed is not to be chofen from the moft fruitful trees, 
 fo much as from the moft folid and fair ; nor are we 
 to covet the largeft acorns, but the moft weighty, clean and 
 bright. Porous, infipid, mild forts of feeds, are to be fown 
 as loon as ripe: hot, bitter feeds ought to be kept a year be 
 fore fown. 
 
 The fhape and weight of feeds, direct how they are to be 
 fet: moft of them, when they fall, lie on one fide, with 
 the fmall end towaids the earth, which flicws that pofture 
 to be beft to fet any ftone or nut in : if they be heavy, fow 
 them the deeper. Acorns, peaches, err. are to be fown two 
 or three inches deep. 
 Seeds, in ph.irmacy, &c. — The medicinal feeds, efpccially 
 thofe imported from the Indies, Levant, CSV. are feverally 
 defcribed under their reflective articles, which fee. 
 Among thofe ufed with us, the principal are the four 
 greater hot, and the four greater cold feeds , as they are call- 
 ed. — The ii rit are thofe of anife, fennel, cummin, and ca- 
 raway : the latter, thofe of gourd, citrul, melon, and cu- 
 cumber. 
 
 The chief ufe of the four cold feeds, is for the making of 
 emuliions, cool refrefhing drinks, pafts for the hands, and 
 oils ufed by the ladies for the completion. 
 Amber Seed, -Amber feed, 
 
 Anife Seed, / \ Anise feed, 
 
 -tides J Lin 
 
 Line Seed, 
 
 See the artic 
 
 Mujuird Seed, I JMustard feed. 
 
 Worm Seed, J (.Worm feed. 
 
 Seed of pearls. See the article Pe arl. 
 
 SEEDLINGS, among gardeneis, denote fuch roots of gilli- 
 flowers, fffa as come from feed fown. — Alfo, the young ten- 
 der fhoots of any plants, that are newly foweil. 
 
 SEEING, the act of perceiving objects by the organ of fight ; 
 or it is the fenfe we have of external Objects, by means of the 
 eye. See Sight. 
 For the apparatus, or difpofition of the parts neceffary to 
 feeing, fee Eye. — For the manner wherein feeing is per- 
 tormcd, and the laws thereof, fee Vision. 
 Our beft anatomifts differ greatlv as to the caufe, why we do 
 not fee double with the two eyes? — Galen, and others after 
 him aicribc it to a coalition or decufialion of the optic nerve 
 behind the os iphenoides. But whether they decuffate or coa- 
 lefceior only barely touch one another, is not fb well agreed, 
 The Banhciines and Vefalius fay exr/reHy, they are united 
 
 S E G 
 
 by a perfect ccnfufion of their fubftance: Dr. Gibfon allows 
 them to l>e united by the clofeft conjunction, but not by a 
 conlufion of their Sores. 
 
 Des Cartes, and others, account for the effect another way, 
 viz, by luppofmg that the fibriliie conftitutitig the medullary 
 part of thole nerves, being fprcad in the retina of each eye, 
 have each of them correfponding parts in the brain ; fo thai 
 when any of thofe ribrillai are ftruck by any part of an 
 image, the correfponding pans or the brain are affected, 
 thereby. — Somewhat like which is the opinion of Dr. Brings ; 
 who takes the optic nerves of each eye to confift of homolo- 
 gous fibres, having their rife in the thalamus nervorum opti- 
 corum, and being thence continued to both the retina; which 
 are compofed of them : and farther, that thofe fibrilke have 
 the fame paraheiifm, tenfion, CTc. in both eyes; confequenr- 
 ly, when an image is painted on tlx: fame correfponding, fym- 
 patliizing part:, or each retina, the fame effects are produced, 
 tiie fame notice carried to the thalamus, and fo imparted to 
 the foul. — Hence, is that double vilion enfuing upon an inter- 
 ruption of the parallelifm of the eyes ; as when one eye is 
 depreffed by the finger, or their fymphony is interrupted by 
 dileafe. But Dr. BriggS maintains, that it is but in few fub- 
 jects, that there is any decuffation ; and in none, any con- 
 junction more than mere contact. 
 
 Whence it is that we fee object? erect, when it is certain, 
 the images thereof ate painted invertedly on the retina, is 
 another difficulty in the theory of feeing / — Des Cartes ac- 
 counts for it hence ; that the notice the foul takes of the 
 oDjcct, does not depend on an> image, nor on any action 
 coming from the object, but merely on the fituation of the 
 minute parts of the brain, whence the nerves arife. E. gr. 
 the fituation of a capillament of the optic nerve, corre- 
 fponds to a certain part of the brain, which occafions the 
 foul to fee all thofe places lying in a right line therewith. 
 But Mr. MoLjneux gives us another account : the eye, he 
 obierves, is only the organ, or inftrument : it is the foul 
 that Jees. To enquire, tj tit how the foul perceives the ob- 
 ject erect by an inverted image; is to enquire into the foul's 
 faculties. Again, imagine that the WW receives an impulse on 
 its lower part, by a ray from the upper part of an object ; 
 mult not the vifive faculty be hereby directed to confider this 
 ftroke as coming from the top rather than the bottom of^the 
 object, and confequently, be determined to conclude it the 
 reprefentation of the top ? See Sight, Visible, f&. 
 
 Seeing faith. See the article Faith. 
 
 SEELING. A horfe is faid to feel, when he begins to have 
 white eye-brows ; that is, when there grows on that part 
 about the breadth of a farthing of white hairs, mixed with 
 thofe of his natural colour : which is a mark of old age. 
 It is faid a horfe never feels till he is fourteen years old, and 
 always does before he is fixteen. — The light forrel and black 
 fuoner feel than any other. 
 
 Horfe-jockeys ufually pull out thofe hairs with pincers; but 
 if there be fo many, that it cannot be done, without mak- 
 ing the horfe look bald and ugly, then they colour their eye- 
 brows, that they may not appear old. 
 
 SEEM, or Seme. See the article Seam. 
 
 SEGMENT of a circle, in geometry, a part of a circle 
 comprehended between an arch and the chord thereof. — Or, 
 it is a part of a circle comprehended between a right line 
 lefs than a femi-circle and a part of the circumference. 
 Thus theportion A F B A [Tab. Geometry, fig. 23. ) com- 
 prehended between the arch AFB, and the chord A B, is a 
 jegment of the circle ABED, &c. a figment of fo many 
 degrees. 
 
 As it is evident every fegment of a circle muft either be 
 greater or lefs than a femi-circle ; the greater part of the 
 circle cut off by a chord, u e. the part greater than a femi- 
 circle, is called the greater fegment, as A D E B ; and the 
 lelfer part, or the part lefs than a femi-circle, the lejfer feg- 
 ment, as A F B, £?f. 
 
 The angle which the chord A B, makes with a tangent LB, 
 is called the angle of a fegment. See Ancle. 
 Some alfo call the two mixt angles comprehended between 
 the two extremes of the chord, and the arch, angles of the 
 fegment. % 
 
 Angle in the Segment. See the article Angle. 
 
 Similar Segments. See the article Similar. 
 
 The height of a Segment DE,fig. 22, and half its bafe 
 or chord AE, being given, to find the area of the fegment. 
 Find the diameter of the circle. On this defcribe a circle, 
 and draw the bafe of the fegment A B ; draw the radii AC, 
 BC; and find the numoer of degrees of the arcli ADB. 
 From the diameter had, and its ratio to the periphery, find 
 the periphery itfelf ; and from the ratio of the periphery to 
 the arch ADB, and the periphery itfelf, find the length of 
 the arch ADB. This done, find the area of the lector 
 ADBCA. And that of the triangle ACB. Laftly, fub- 
 tract the triangle from the fector, and the remainder is the 
 area of the fegment. 
 
 If the area of the greater fegment BFA, were required, the 
 triangle ACB muft be added to the fstfor ADEBC. 
 
 Segment 
 
S E I 
 
 S E L 
 
 Segment of a fphere, is a part' of a fphere terminated by a 
 portion of its furface, and a plane which cuts it off; pafling 
 fomewhere out of the centre. 
 This is more properly called a /nils'! of a fphere. 
 The bafe of fuch a fegment, it is evident, is always a circle 
 whofe centre is in the centre of the fphere. 
 The folid content of a fegment of a Inhere is found, by mul- 
 tiplying the furface of the whole fphere by the altitude of 
 the fgrneut, and then dividing the product by the diameter 
 Of the fphere, and to the quotient adding the area of the 
 
 bale of the fegment Or, if it be lefs than a hemifpherc, 
 
 thus ; take the altitude of the fegment from the radius ot 
 the fphere, and by the difference multiply the area of the 
 bafe of the fegment ; and fubtract this product, from that 
 which will arife by multiplying the femi-axis of the fphere 
 into the convex furface of the fegment ; then divide the re- 
 mainder by 3, and the quotient is the fluidity fought. 
 This latter method fuppofes the axis of the fphere to be 
 given ; if not, it may be found thus : let the altitude of 
 the fegment be called a, and its femi-diameters, then will 
 
 a.s : : s. — ; add — to a, and that fhall give the axis fought. 
 
 Refinance of a SEGMENT. Sec the article Resistance. 
 
 Segment is fometimes alfo extended to the parts 01 cllipfes, 
 and other curvilinear figures. 
 
 Line of Segments. On Gunter's feclor there are ufually 
 two lines, called lines of figments ; they arc numbered with 
 5-> 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and lie between the lines of fines, and 
 thofe of fuperficics. They represent the diameter of a cir- 
 cle, fo divided into 100 parts, as that a right line drawn 
 through thofe parts, and normal to the diameter, fhall cut 
 the circle into two fegmcnts, of which the tcreater fhall have 
 that proportion Lo the whole circle, which the parts cut have 
 to roo. 
 
 Segment /mwj, a denomination given by botanifts to thofe 
 leaves that are cut and divided into many fhreds, or fHces ; 
 as fennel, &c. 
 
 SEGMOIDAL valves, in anatomy, are little valves of the 
 pulmonary artery ; thus called from their refembhng feg- 
 ments of circles; but more ufually called femilunar valves. 
 
 SEGREANT, is the herald's word for a griffon, when 
 drawn in a leaping poftuic, and dilplaying his wings, as if 
 ready to fly. 
 
 SEJANT, is a term ufed in heraldry, when a lion or other 
 beaff, is drawn in an cfcutcheon, fitting like a cat, with his 
 fore-feet ftrcight. 
 
 SEIGNEUR, or Seicnour, lord. See Sire, Sieur, 
 
 Mo N SEIGNEUR, LoRD, 
 
 SEIGNORAGE, or Seignourage, a right or due belong- 
 ing to a feigneur, or lord. 
 
 Seignorage is particularly ufed for a duty belonging to the 
 prince for the coining of money, called alfo coinage ; and in 
 the bafer Latin ?ncnetagium. 
 
 This duty is not always the fame 5 but changes according to 
 the pleafurc of the prince, and the occafions of flate. It is 
 jn fome meafurc for the difcharge of this duty that alloy was 
 Invented; that is, the mixture of other metals with gold 
 and filver. 
 
 Under our ancient kings, for every pound of gold brought 
 in the mafs to be coined, the king's duty was five {hillings ; 
 one fhilling, and fometimes eighteen-pencc whereof went to 
 the matter of the mint. Under Edward III. the feignorage 
 of every pound weight of filver, was eighteen-pennv weight, 
 which was then equivalent to a fhilling. Under Henry V. 
 the king's feignorage for every pound of filver was fifteen- 
 pence. — At prefent, the king claims no feignorage at all, but 
 the fubjedt has his money coined at the publick expence : 
 nor has the king any advantage therefrom, but what he has 
 by the alloy. 
 
 In F ranee, under Philip Auguftus, the feignorage was one 
 third of the profit made by the coining: St. Louis fixed it 
 at one fifteenth part of the value of the money coined : king 
 John at three livres the mark of gold : Charles VII. by rea- 
 fon of the diftrefTed ftate of his finances, raifed it to three 
 fourths of the value: Louis XIII. fixed it at fix livres the 
 mark, or eisht ounces of gold, and ten fols the mark of fil- 
 ver. — Louis XIV. took awav the right of feignorage in 1679; 
 though it was re-eftablifhed in 1689, on the foot of feven 
 livres, ten fols the mark of gold, and twelve fols, fix deni- 
 ers the mark of filver. 
 
 It muft be obferved, that for the levying of this duty of 
 feignorage, the juft value of the money is augmented by the 
 value of the duty. 
 SEISIN, Seisina, in law, fignifies pofleffion. See Pos- 
 session. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, prhnier fciftn, for the firfl pufleflion, 
 &c. See Primier. 
 
 Seijin is two-fuld ; feifm infaSi, and fefin in law. 
 SEISIN in fad, is, when an actual and corporal pofieflion is 
 taken. 
 
 Seisin in law, is, when fomerhing is done, which the law 
 accounteth a ftifin, as an inrollmcnt. 
 
 This in law gives a ri^ht to lands and tenements, though 
 Vol. II. N° 139. 
 
 the owner be by wrong diffeized of theni. — He who hath 
 but an hour's pofleffion quietly taken, hath jeij'tn de d, oit, rj 
 de claims, whereof no ta si\ may diffei/.e him by his own 
 force, or fubtlety, without procels of law. See Lhssi: IBIN. 
 The civilians call the latter civilem pojftfjwum, and the fof- 
 mer naturaltm. 
 
 SEISINAM habere facias. See the article Habere. 
 
 SEISOR. See the article Disseisor. 
 
 SEIZE, Seaze, or Seas e , in the fia language, is to make 
 faff, or bind; particularly to fatten two rupes together, 
 with rope-yarn. 
 
 The fizing, feafing, or feafen of a boat, is a rope tied to 
 a ring, or little chain in the forefhip of the boat, by which 
 means it is taitened to the fide of the (hip. 
 
 SEIZING, in falconry, is when an hawk gripes her prey, or 
 any thine elfe fait between her claws. 
 
 SEIZURE, in commerce, an arrcft of fome merchandize, 
 moveable, or other matter, either in conlequence of fome 
 law, or of Come exprefs order of the fovereign. 
 Contraband goods, thofe fraudulently ^entered, or landed 
 without entering at all, or landed at wrong places, arefub- 
 ject to fsizi/re. 
 
 In fizures, among us, one half goes to the feizor, or in- 
 former, and the other half to the king.— In France, half 
 the painted linens, Este. feized, ufed to burnt, and the other 
 half fent abroad : but in 1715, by an arret of council, the 
 whole was ordered to be burnt. 
 SELENITE*, Selenites, in natural hiflory, the moon- 
 flone ; a ftone faid to be found in China, which hay this re- 
 markable property, that it increases and decreafes, as the 
 moon waxes and wains. — It is find, there arc ibme of tbefe 
 felenites prei'erved in the palace of PeUng, valued at an in- 
 credible rate. Martinius, 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, c-fAim, moon, 
 Selenites, among the ancient naturalifls, denotes a white, 
 
 or tranfparent figured ftone ; thus catted from its reprefent- 
 ing the moon as in a glafs. 
 
 Some give the fame appellation to Mufcovy talc, from an 0- 
 pinion, that its brightnefs increates and uiminilh.es with the 
 moon. See Supplement, article Selenit.es. 
 SELENOGRAPHY*, a branch of cofmography, which 
 defcribes the moon, and all the parts and appearances there- 
 of ; as geography does thofe of the earth. 
 
 * The word is formed from a-tM'i, moon, and ffmfe defcrip- 
 tion, 
 
 Since the invention of the telefcope, feknography is vaftly 
 improved. We have now diftindt. names for molt of the 
 regions, feas, lakes, mountains, iS'c. vilible in the moon's 
 body. Hevelius, a celebrated aftronom^r, who was a burgher- 
 mafter of Dantzick, and who publilhcd the firit jelenographv^ 
 named the feveral places of the moon from thofe of the 
 earth ; and Ricciolus named them afterwards, from the 
 names oi the celebrated aftronomers and philofophers. — 
 Thus what the one calls mans Porpbyrites, the other calls 
 Arijlarchus. What the one calls JEtna, Sinai, Atbos, A- 
 penninus, &c. the other calls, Copernicus, Pojfdonius, Tycho, 
 Gajfcndus, &c. SeeMooN. 
 
 At the royal obfervatory at Paris, they continue to make 
 fclenograpbh maps. And M. Caflini has publifhed a work 
 called hijlruclions Seleniques, 
 SELEUClANS, Seleuciani, a feci of ancient hereticks, 
 called alfo Hermiani. See Hermia ns. 
 Seleucus and Hermias joining forces, and dogmatizing toge- 
 ther, taught, that God was corporeal ; that the elementary 
 matter was co-eternal with him, and that the human foul 
 was formed by the angels, of fire and air. — They alfo denied 
 that Jcfus Chrift fat at the right hand of God j averting, 
 that he had quitted that right, and had removed his (Krone 
 into the fun. 
 
 SELEl'dD-ZE, in chronology.— ./Era of the Seleucid^, 
 or the Syro-Macedonian a;ra, is a computation of time, com- 
 mencing from the eftablifhment of the Selcucida, a race of 
 Greek kings, who reigned as fucceffors of Alexander tJieGreat 
 in Syria; as the Ptolemy's did in Egypt. 
 This aera we find expreiled in the book of Maccabees, and 
 on a great number of Greek medals itruck by the cities of 
 Syria, &c. — The Rabbins and Jews call it, the ara of con- 
 trails, becaufe being then fubjecttd the kings of Svria, thev 
 were obliged to follow their method of computing in ail 
 contracts. 
 
 The Arab call it therik dilkarnain, sera of two horns, which 
 fome fay fignifies the xra of Alexander the Great ; by rea- 
 fon that prince bore two rams horns on medals, in imitation 
 of Jupiter Amnion, whofe fon he would needs be. — But 
 others undcittand it much better ot the two kingdoms of 
 Syria and Egypt, which were now cloven or divided; and 
 of one lingle empire parted into two monarchies. 
 The grandpoifit, is to know the year wherein the feoaration 
 was made; or, which is the fame thing, when Seleucus 
 Nicauor, one of Alexander's captains, and the fir ft of the 
 Stleuci dor, eftabiifhed his throne in Syria. — Without detailing 
 the various fentiments of various authors, it may fuffice to 
 obferve, that, according to the beft accounts, the fijft yea- 
 11 N of 
 
S E M 
 
 ttf this .-era falls in the year 311 before Chrift, which was 
 12 years after Alexander's death. 
 
 SELL, in building, is oi two kinds, 'viz. — Ground-fell, which 
 denotes the loweft piece of timber in a timber building, and 
 that whereon the whole fnperlrrutSure is raifed. 
 Ifindow-fell, called alio window-fill, is the bottom piece in 
 a window-frame. 
 
 SELLA equina, turcica, or fphenoide:, is a name given the 
 four apophyfes of the os fphenoides, or cuneiforme, in the 
 brain ; in regard of their forming a rcfcmhlance of a faddle, 
 which the Latins call fella. 
 
 They are fometimes alio called by the Greek name chnoides. 
 Herein is contained the pituitary gland, and in fome beans, 
 the rete mirabile. 
 
 SEMBIANI, Sembiaks, a fe& of ancient hereticks, de- 
 nominated from their leader, SirnUut, or Sembianus, who 
 condemned all ufe of wine, as evil of itfelf ; pcrfuaded his 
 followers, th:;t the wine was a production of Satan and the 
 earth ; denied the rcuirrcaion of the dead, and rejeaed 
 mod of the books of the Old Teftament. Jovet. 
 
 5EMBRADOR, an engine, invented by Don Jof. de Lu- 
 catello, for the evenly lowing of feeds ; defcrlbed in the 
 PhiMophical Tranfiaions, under the title of the Spamfb 
 Sembrador. . 
 '1 'he perfeaion of agriculture is allowed to confift much in 
 fitting plants at proportional diflanccs, and giving fufficient 
 depth to the roots, that they may fprcad, and receive their 
 neceffiay nourifhment : yet there is very little care taken in 
 the practice of this important part of hulbandry ; but all forts 
 of grains are fown by handfuls, caft at random ; by which 
 means four parts in five of the feed arc loft.— To remedy this 
 inconvenience, the fembrador or fower isinvented, which be- 
 ing fattened to the plough, the whole bufinefs of ploughing, 
 fowinrr, and harrowing is done at once ; the feed -man's trou- 
 ble is'favcd, and the grain fpread at equal diftances, and 
 equally deep at the bottom of the furrow. 
 An experiment hereof was made before the emperor Leopold 
 in the fields of Laxemburgh in Auftria, where the land ufu- 
 ally yields four' or five-fold ; but the crop from the ground 
 lowed by this inftrumcnt, was fixty-fold ; as appears by a cer- 
 tificate of the emperor's oflker, appointed to fee the experi- 
 ment : figned Vienna, Auguft I, 1663. 
 A figure of the fembrador, we have in the Tranfecfcions, 
 N". bo, by the earl of Caftlemain. 
 
 SEME, or Seeme. See the article Seam. 
 
 SEMEIOSIS, SHMEinsis, in medicine. See Semeioti- 
 
 CA. 
 
 SEMEIOTICA*, 2HMEJQTIKK, that part of medicine, 
 which confiders the figns, or indications of health, and dif- 
 eafes; and enables the phyficians to judge what is, was, or 
 will be the ftate, degree, order and effect of health or 
 
 ficknefs. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, npuwltK*, of n/Mm, 
 
 />.-, Jpnplm. 
 
 SEMEN fant'lwn, or fanlonicum. Stc W0RH-/W. 
 
 SEMENTIN/E ferite, in antiquity, feafts held annually a 
 mong the Romans, to obtain of the gods a plentilul 
 harveft. : 
 They were celebrated in the temple of Tcllus, or the earth ; 
 where folcmn facrihees were offered to Tellus and Ceres. _ 
 The time of the celebration was about feed time, ufually in 
 the month of lanuary ; for Microbius obferves, they were 
 moveable feafts.— They had their name hamfemen, feed. 
 
 SEMETS, Summets, or Summits, in botany, are ufed 
 by Dr. Grew, and others, for the apices of the attire of 
 plants. See Apices. . r . r . , ,, 
 
 SEMI, a word borrowed from the Latin, fignifying half ; 
 but only ufed in compofition with other words, as in the 
 following articles. 
 
 The French, inftead of femi, frequently ufe derm; the 
 Greeks hemi. ■ '; ' 1 ' „ , r . 
 
 In mulic, femi has three fevcral ufages: firft, when prefixed 
 to the name of a note, it expreiTes a diminution of half its 
 value ; as in femi-breve, Sec. 
 
 Secondly, when added to the name of an interval, it cx- 
 prefles a diminution, not of half, but of a leffer femi-tone, 
 or four commas in the whole compafs; as m ftrm-dia- 
 penle, &c. . 
 Thirdly, it fometimes alfo figmfies an imperfection : thus, 
 ■ femicireolo or circile mezzo, fignifies an imperfea circle, 
 which is the mark of imperfea time, that is, of double time : 
 whereas, the circle, being a chandler of perfeaion, marks 
 triple time. 
 
 SEMINARIANS, a branch of the ancient Arians; confiding, 
 according to Epiphanius, of fuch as, in appearance, con- 
 demned the errors of that hereliarch, but yet acquiefcri in 
 fome of the principles thereof ; only palliating and hiding 
 them under fofter, and more moderate terms. 
 It is true, they feparated from the Arian faaion ; but yet 
 •ould never be brought to acknowledge, that the Son was 
 
 SEM 
 
 homooufios, that is, confubftantial, or of the fame fub- 
 fiance with the Father.— They would only allow him to be 
 homoioufios, that is, of a like fubftance with the Father. 
 See Homoousian, is'e. 
 
 Though, as to expreflion, they only differed from the or- 
 thodox by a fingle letter ; yet were they, in effect, in the 
 error of the Arians, as they placed the Son in the rank of 
 creatures.— It did not avail the teaching, that there was no 
 other creature of the fame clafs with him ; lince by denying 
 him confubftantial with God, they effectually precluded him 
 from being truly God. 
 
 Yet fome, even among the orthodox, ufe the word homoi- 
 oufios, in fpeaking of the Son ; applying fuch an idea to it, 
 as, it feems, is confident with orthodoxy. 
 But the name femi-arians is alfo given by the fecond general 
 council to another branch of Arians, who believed ortho - 
 doxly of the Father and Son, but denied the deity of the 
 Hoh/Ghoft; thus rejecting that part of the Arian hercfy re- 
 lating to the Son, but llirly retaining that which related to 
 the Holy Ghoft. 
 
 As the zeal of the Arians was chiefly leveled againft the fe- 
 cond perfon in the trinity, that of the fimi-arians was bent 
 againft the third ; whence as the former were fometimes 
 called z^rop-Z" 1 , the latter were denominated ™vi*a?ot*"*-X. 0i ' 
 Macedonius, bifbop of Confiantinople made an innovation 
 in this feet in 360, and gave rife to a new branch of Ma- 
 cedonian femi-arians, or pneumatomachi ; who allowed the 
 Son not to be of the fame fubftance, but op»o;, of 
 
 like fubftance, with the Father y - and at the fame time o- 
 penly afferted the Holy Gholl to be a creature. 
 SEMl-BREVE, in mulic, a note, or meafure of time, 
 comprehending the fpace of two minims, or four crotchets, 
 or half a breve. 
 
 The femi-breve is accounted one meafure or time ; or the 
 integer, in fractions and multiples whereof the time of the 
 other notes is expreffed. 
 
 Thus the minim is expreffed by |; a crotchet by feff. 
 i. e. by i of a meafure or femi-breve. A breve by 2 j and a 
 long by 4, that is, by 4 meafures or femi-breves. 
 The character of the femi-breve is O. 
 SEMI-CIRCLE, in geometry, a figure comprehended 
 between the diameter of a circle, and half the circum- 
 ference. 
 
 Two femi-circles can only cut each other in one point. 
 Semi-Circle, is alio an inftrument in furveying, fometimes 
 called the grapbemeter. 
 
 It confiffs of a femi-circular limb, as F I G {Tab. Surveying, 
 fig. lb.) divided into 180 degrees, and fometimes fubdivided 
 diagonally or otherwife, into minutes. This limb is fub- 
 tended by a diameter FG. at the extremities whereof are 
 erected two fights. In the centre of the ferni-circle, or tint 
 middle of the diameter, is fixed a box and needle. On the 
 fame centre is fitted an alidade or moveable index, carrying 
 two other fights, as H I. And the whole is mounted on a 
 ftaff, with a ball and focket. 
 
 The femi-circle, then, is nothing elfe but half a theodolite ; 
 with this only difference, that whereas the limb of the the- 
 odolite, being an intire circle, takes in all the 360 0 fuccef- 
 fively ; in the femi-drcle the degrees only going from 1 to 
 180, it is ufual to have the remaining iSo'', or thofe from, 
 180° to 360 0 , graduated in another Hue on the limb, within 
 the former. 
 
 To take an angle with a Srmi-Circle,— Place the inftru- 
 ment in fuch manner, as that the radius CG may hang over 
 one leg of the angle, to be meahired, and the centre C 
 over the vertex of the fame. The firft is done by looking 
 through the fights F and G at the extremities of the diame- 
 ter, to a mark fixed up in one extremity of the leg : the 
 latter is had by letting fall a plummet from the centre of the 
 inftrument. This done, turn the moveable index H I oil 
 its centre towards the other leg of the femi-circle y tillthrough 
 the fights fixed on it, you fee a mark in the extremity of 
 the leg. Then, the degree which the index cuts on the- 
 limb, is the quantity of the angle. 
 
 For further ufes of the femi-circle, they are the fame witti 
 thofe of the theodolite. See Theodolite. 
 Semicirculae arches, * See the articIe9 S Arch 
 
 Candles SEMICIRCULAR E S, i < l^ANALES. 
 
 SEMI-COLON, in grammar, one of the points or flops, 
 
 ufed to diftinguilh thefeveral members offentc-nces from eadi 
 
 other. 
 
 The mark or character of the femi-cahn is ( i )— It has its 
 name, as having a fomewhat lefs effect than a colon, or aa 
 demanding a fhorter paufe. 
 
 The ufe of the femi-colon, the grammarians generally fay, 
 is to mark a fenfc lefs compleat than the colon, and more 
 compleat than the comma ; but this only conveys a very 
 obfeure idea. In effect, the precife office of the Jhw-cch.i, 
 or what office it is diftinguiihes it from the colon, is a thing 
 very little known in the world. Our beft authors fcem to 
 ufe them promifcuoufly. See Colon. 
 Mr.. Ward, pvofeflbr at Grefham, we beJieve, is the firft 
 
 who 
 
SEM 
 
 S E M 
 
 who fettled a juft ufe of the fern- colon. His pofition is, 
 that the femi-cohn is properly ufed to diftinguifli the conjuh£t 
 members of fentences. — Now, by a conjunct member of a 
 fentence, he means, fuch a one as contains at leaft two fim- 
 pie members. 
 
 Whenever, then, a fentence can be divided into feveral 
 members of the fame degree, which are again divifible into 
 other fursple members, the former are to be feparated by a 
 jemi- colon. 
 
 Tor an inftance: If fortune bear a great fway over him, 
 who has nicely ftatcd and concerted every circumftauce of 
 an affair ; we muft not commit every thing, without rcferve 
 to fortune, left fhe have too great a hold of us. Again, Si 
 quantum in agro locifque defertis audacia poteft , tantumm foro 
 titque judiciis impudentia valeret ; nan minus in caufa cedent 
 Aulus Cacinna Sexti Mbutii impudentia, quatn turn in vifaci- 
 enda ceffit audacia:. An inftance in a more complex fen- 
 tence we have in Cicero. Res familiarh primum bene parta 
 fit, nulhque turpi quajlu ; turn qUam plurunls, modo dignis, je 
 utilem prtsbcat; delude augeatur rati one, dUigentia, parfimo- 
 nia; net libidini potius luxuriaque, quam liberalitati £s" bene- 
 ficentics pareat. 
 
 But though the proper ufe of the femi-cohn, be to diftinguifh 
 conjunct members, it is not neceffary that all the members 
 divided hereby, be conjunct. For upon dividing a fentence 
 into great and equal parts, if one of them be conjunct, all 
 thofe other parts of the fame degree are to be diftinguifhed 
 by a femi-alon. — Thus : Whoever is overtaken with pover- 
 ty ; the fame will find, that coldnefs, contempt, injuries, 
 <3e. are not far behind : or thus : Nihil ejl tarn molle, tarn te- 
 nerum, tarn aut fragile, out fttxibile ; quam voluntas civium. 
 Sometimes alfo it happens, that members that are oppofite to 
 each other, but relate to the fame verb, are feparated by a 
 jam-colon .* thus Cicero, Ex hac parte pudor, ilUnc petulan- 
 t/a; hinc fides, ilUnc fraudatio j bine pietas, illinc fcelus, &c. 
 Hither likewife may he referred fuch fentences, where the 
 Whole going before, the parts follow: as, The parts of rhe- 
 torick are four i invention, difpolitiou, elocution, and pro- 
 nunciation. 
 
 SKMI-CROM A, fextuple of. See the article Sextuple. 
 SEMl-CUPJUM, a half bath, wherein the patient is only 
 
 placed up to the navel. 
 &EMI-DI AMETER, a right line drawn from the centre 
 
 of a circle or fphere, to its circumference ; the fame with 
 
 what we otherwife call a radius. - 
 
 The diftances, diameters, &c. of the heavenly bodies, are 
 
 ufually ertimated by aftronomers in jemi -diameters of the 
 
 earth 
 
 To find the femi-diameters of the primary planets in femi- 
 diameters of the earth. — Since the fun's true femi-d'tameter 
 is 152 femi-diametcrs of the earth ; and we have the ratio of 
 the diameters of the primary planets to that of the fun, their 
 jemi-diameters are ealily found by the rule of three.— Thus 
 the femi-diameter of Saturn will be found 20 ; that of 
 his ring 45 , 2 7 ; that of Jupiter 27 ft ; that of Mars 7* ; 
 that of Venus £ ; and that of Mercury f-. 
 
 SEMI-DIAPENTE, in mufic, a defective fifth, called ufual- 
 Jy bv the Italians, fa/fa quinta, and by us a falfe fifth. 
 
 SEMI-DIAPASON, in mufic, a defective octave ; or an 
 octave diminiihed by a lctlcr femi-tone, or four commas. 
 See Diapason. 
 
 SEMI-DI ATESSARON, inmufic, a define fourth, 
 called, properly, a falfe fourth. See Fourth. 
 
 SEMI-DITONE, diapajln, ? ge \ Diapason. 
 
 Dis-Diapafon Se.MI-Di TON E, S t DlS-Dl A P A SON. 
 
 SEMI-DOUBLE, in the Romiftl breviary, a term applied 
 to fuch offices and feftivalsas ate celebrated with lefs folem- 
 nity than the double ones ; but yet with more than the 
 tingle ones. 
 
 The find-doable office has double vefpers, and nine leflbns at 
 niattins ; but the anthems arc not redoubled. — It is perform- 
 ed on fundays, on theodtaves, and on the feafts marked for 
 fmi-doubk in the calendar. 
 
 SEM [-EISTULAR fiovjers. See the article Flowers. 
 
 SEMI-LUNAR valves, in anatomy, are three little valves 
 or membranes of a femi-lunar figure, placed in the orifice of 
 the pulmonary artery ; to prevent the relapfe of the blood, 
 into the heart at the time of its dilatation. —Sec Tab. Anat. 
 (Angeiol.) Jig. 1. lit. a. 
 
 SEMINAL, Seminalis, in medicine, fpcrmatic, or fomc- 
 thiilg belonging to the femen or feed. 
 
 SEMINARY, a place appointed lor the inftruction of young 
 perfons deftined for the facred miniftry, in the duties, cere- 
 monies, and offices thcieof; firlt inftituted, as Thomaffin 
 tells us, by St. Auguflin. 
 
 Of thefe feminaries there are many abroad, furnifhed with 
 halls for the affemblies of the cxercitants, and little cham- 
 ber?;, or cells, where each perfon retires, ftudies, and prays 
 cpart. — Such is the fminarf of St. Sulpitius at Paris, 
 'lite council (rf Trait decrees, that children exceeding 12 
 
 years of age, be taken, brought up, and inflruJted in com' 
 mon, to qualify them for the ecclefiaftical Itate ; and thiC 
 there be a feminary of fuch belonging to each cathedral, un- 
 der the direction of the bifliop. 
 
 In France, the eftablifhment of feminaries is fomewhat diffe- 
 rent from the decree of the council : none are taken in but 
 young people ready to ftudy theology, and to be ordained : 
 to that the feminaries are a kind of houfes of probation whei t 
 the vocation of clerks is examined, and they are prepared to 
 receive orders. 
 
 For the fubfiftance of thefe feminaries, there are feveral uni- 
 ons of benefices, or elfe the clergy of the diucefe are obliged 
 to contribute to maintain them. 
 
 Pope Pius IV. having eftablilhed a feminary at Rome, in 
 confluence of the decree of the council of Trent ; bv ad- 
 vice of the cardinals, it was given to the jeluits, who have 
 made very good ufe thereof. 
 
 Among the canons of St. Auguftin, Seminary is ufed for a 
 kind of college, or fchool, where penfioncrs are kept, and 
 inftructed in the claffical, and other learning. 
 The houfes of the fociety de propaganda fide, eftablifhed for 
 the preparing of ecclefiafticks for millions among infidels and 
 hereticks, are alfo called j'eminaries.— The principal whereof 
 is that at Rome, called, the apofolical college, apojiolical jemi- 
 nary^ pajhral feminary, feminary of the propaganda, &C. 
 
 SEMINATION, Seminatio, in natural hiftory, &c. 
 the act of fowing, or fticdding feed ; particularly that of 
 vegetables. 
 
 As foon as the feed is ripe, Dr. Grew obferves, nature takes 
 feveral methods for its being duly fown : not only by the 
 opening of the uterus, but in the make of the feed itfelf. — 
 Thus, the feeds of many plants, which affect: a peculiar foil 
 or feat, as arum, poppy, (Jc. are heavy and I mall enough, 
 without farther care, to fall direcllv dawn to the ground. 
 Others, that are large, and light enough to be expofed to 
 the wind, are often furnifhed with one or more hooks to ftay 
 them from ftraying too far from their proper place : thus, 
 the feeds of avens have each a fingle hook ; thofe of agrimony 
 and goofe-grafs, many ; both the former loving a warm bank, 
 and the laft a hedge for its fupport. 
 
 On the contrary, manv feeds are furnifhed with wings, or 
 feathers, partly with the help of the wind to C3rry them, 
 when ripe, off the plant, as thofe of afh, & c. and partly to 
 enable them to make their flight more or lefs abroad, that 
 they may not, by falling together, come up too thick; and 
 that if one ftiould mifs a proper foil or bed, another may hit. 
 — So the kernels of pines have wings, though fhort ones, 
 whereby they do not fly in the air, but only flutter on the 
 ground. But thofe of typha, dandelion, and moft of the 
 pappous kind, have numerous long feathers, by which they 
 are wafted about every way. 
 
 Others are fown by being laid in fprlnsy elaftic cafes-, which, 
 when they crack and burft, dart their leed out to convenient 
 diftances: thus, wood-forrel having a running root, na- 
 ture fees fit to low the feed at fome diftance, the doing 
 of which is effedtcd by a white, fturdy, tendinous cover, 
 which beginning to dry, burlls open on one fide in an in- 
 ftant, and is violently turned inlide outwards. The feed 
 of harts-tongue, and codded arfniart, is alfo flung, or {hot 
 away, by means of a fpring, wound or girt round the feeJ- 
 cafe. When the fpring is become tenfc enough, it (uddenly 
 breaks the cafe into two halves, like little cups, and lb flings 
 out the feed. 
 
 Divers notable means of feminat'ion are obferved by au- 
 thors : a quantity of fern-feed, Mr. Ray tells us, laid, 
 in a lump, on a paper, the feminal veficuls are heard 
 to crackle, burft, and, by a microfcope, the feeds are 
 feen to be projected to a conildcrable diitance from each o-. 
 ther. — Dr. Sloane obferves, that the gentianella flore cseru- 
 leo, requiring wet weather, to be fown in, as foon as the 
 leaft drop of rain touches the end of the feed-vefiels, with a 
 fmart noife, and a fudden leap, it opens itfclfj and, with a 
 fpring fcatters its feed. 
 
 The plants of the cardamine family, throw their pods open 
 and dart out their feed upon a flight touch of the hand. 
 Nay, Mr. Ray adds, that the pods of the cardamine impa- 
 tiens not only burft upon the flighted touch, but even by 
 an approach of the hand to touch them, without any real 
 contact. 
 
 Other plants fow their feeds by inviting birds, by their a- 
 greeable taftc and fmell, to feed on them, fwallow them, 
 and carry them about ; thereby alio fertilizing them, by 
 pafling through their bodies. — In fuch manner is milicltoe 
 ufually fown and propagated. 
 
 SEMI-ORDINATES, in geometry, the halves of the ordi- 
 nates or appl icates. See Ordinate. 
 
 SEMI-PARABOLA, in geometry, a curve defined by the 
 equation, <7*m-'_ym ; as ax x =yi, ax 3 =y*. 
 In feini-parabolas y*n:v m : : ax m -' ; asm-' =x™-' : z m or 
 the powers of the ftmi-ordinatts are as the rowers of the ab- 
 V iciil* 
 
S E M 
 
 SEN 
 
 icilTes one degree lower ; e. gr. in cubical femi-paralobs, the 
 cubes of the ordinates yi and m are as the fquares of the ab- 
 fcifTes and Xu 
 .JEMI-PELAGIANS, a name anciently, and even at this day, 
 given to fitch as retain fome tindture of Pelagianifm. 
 S. Profper, in a letter to St. Auguftin, calls them reliqutas 
 Pelagii. 
 
 Many learned men, principally among the Gauls, who could 
 not come into St. Auguftin's do£trme of grace, EsV. were 
 accufed of Semi-pelagianifm : they were alfo called Majjilians 
 or priejls of Marfeilles, in regard their errors had their ftrft 
 rife in that city. 
 
 Caffian, who had been a deacon of Conftantinople, and was 
 afterwards a prieft at Marfeilles, was the chief of thefe Se- 
 mi-pelagians : S. Profper, who was co-temporary with him, 
 and who attacked him very vigoroufly, tells us, that Caffian 
 endeavouring to keep I know not what medium between the 
 Pelagians and the orthodox, did not agree cither with the 
 bne or the other. 
 
 The Semi-pelagians, with the orthodox, allowed of original 
 fin; but they denied, that man's free agency could be to 
 wounded by this fin, that he could not of himfelfdofomcthing 
 which might induce God to afford his grace to one man more 
 than another. — They alfo taught, that the grace which laves 
 men, was not given them of the mere will of God, but accord- 
 ing to his eternal prefcience, whereby he forcfaw who they 
 were that would believe in him. — They owned, that the vo- 
 cation or call to the gofpel,was gratuitous ; but they added at 
 the fame time, that it was common to ail, inafmuch as God 
 defired all fhould be faved. — As to election, they held, that it 
 depended on our perfeverancc ; God only chufing fuch to e- 
 ternallife, as fhould perfeverc in the faith. 
 SEMI-PROOF, an imperfca proof. See Proof. 
 
 In the French law, the dcpolitions of a fingle evidence only 
 make a fmi-proof. 
 
 The teftament of a pcrfon deccafed, is deemed a femi-proof. 
 
 —In enormous cafes, the femi-proof frequently determines 
 
 them to try the torture. 
 BEMI-QUARTILE, or Semi-Quadrate, is an afpea of 
 
 the planets, when diftant from each other 45 degrees, or 
 
 one iian and an half. 
 SEVU-CjjAVLR, in niufic. See the article Quaver. 
 SEMI-QU1N TILE, is an afpea of the planets, when at the 
 
 diftanceof 36 degrees from one another. 
 SEMI-SEXT1LE, or Semi-Sextus, or S. S. an afpea of 
 
 two planets, wherein they are diftant from each other, one 
 
 twelfth part of a circle of 30 degrees. 
 
 The femi-fixtile was added to the ancient afpeas by Kepler ; 
 and, as he fays, from meteorological obfervations. 
 SE M I-SPI N ATU Sj in anatomy. See Trans vers a lis 
 
 dorfi. 
 
 SEM1TA luminofa, a name given to a kind of lucid tracl in 
 the heavens, which, a little before the vernal equinox, or 
 after the autumnal, may be fcen about fix a clock at night, 
 extending from the weltern edge of the horizon, up towards 
 the pleiades. 
 
 The phenomenon has been taken notice of by Caffini and 
 Facio, who both evince, that this light comes diffufed from 
 both fides of the fun.— Its brightness is much the fame with 
 that of the via laaea, or the tail of a comet : it is feen plaineft 
 with us about the beginning of Oaober, or the latter end of 
 February. 
 
 F'acio conjeaurcs, that the bodies, or rather the congeries or 
 aggregate of bodies, which occafion this light, conforms to 
 the fun like a lens ; and takes it to have ever been the fame ; 
 but Caffini thinks it arifes from a vaft number of fmall pla- 
 nets, which encompafs the fun, and give this light by re- 
 flexion ; eftecming it alfo not to have exifted long before he 
 obferved it. 
 
 SEMI-TEINTS. See the article Teints. 
 
 SEMI-TONE, in mufic, one of the degrees, or concinnous 
 intervals of concords. See Degree and Concord. 
 There are three degrees, or letter intervals, by which a found 
 can move upwards and downwards fucceflively from one ex- 
 treme of any concord to the other, and yet produce true 
 melody; and, by means whereof, feveral voices and inftru- 
 ments are capable of the neceifary variety in pafling from 
 concord to concord. — Thefe degrees are the greater and lefier 
 tone, and the femi-tsne. Tbe ratio of the firft is 8 : 9 ; that 
 of the fecond 9 : 10. 
 
 The ratio of the femi-tone is 15 : 16, its compafs is five com- 
 mas; which interval is called a femi-tone, not that it is geo- 
 metrically the half of either of the tones, for it is more 
 but becaufe it comes fomcwhat near it. It is alfo called th't 
 natural jemi-tone, and the greater femi-tone, becaufe greater 
 than the part it leaves behind, or its complement to a tone, 
 which is four commas. — The Italians alfo call it feconda mi-, 
 ttore, or a Idler fecond. Sec Second. 
 
 Every tone of the diatonic fcale is divided into a greater and 
 lefs, or a natural and artificial femi-tone. Mr. Malcolm ob 
 ferves, it was very natural to think of a divifion of each 
 tone, where 15: 16 fhould be one part in each divifion, 
 regard this being an unavoidable and neceffary part of the 
 • Mtttral fca!«, Would readily occur as a fit degree, and t 
 
 more, as it is not far from an cxaa half-tone. In effect.*, 
 the fe mi-tones are fo near equal, that, in pra&tce, at leaft, 
 on molt inftruments, they are accounted equal, fo that no 
 diftinaion is made into greater or left, 
 
 1 liefe femi-tones are called fictitious notes, and, with refpea 
 to the natural ones, are exprefied by characters called fiats 
 and Jharps. 
 
 Their ufe is to remedy the defcas of inftruments, which 
 having their founds fixed, cannot always be made to anfwer 
 to the diatonic leale. 
 
 By means of thefe we have a new kind of fcale, called the 
 SEMI-TONIC fcale, or the fcale of femi-tenes : a fcale or 
 fyftem of mufic, confiding of 12 degrees, or 13 notes, in 
 the oaave, being an improvement on the natural or diatonic 
 fcale, by inferting between each two notes thereof, another 
 note, which divides the interval or tone into two unequal 
 parts, called femi-tones* 
 
 The ufe of this fcale is for inftruments that have fixed 
 founds, as the organ, liarpficord, £?r. which are exceedingly 
 defcaivc on the foot of the natural or diatonic fcale. — For 
 the degrees of the fcale being unequal, from every note to its 
 odtave there is a different order of degrees ; fo that from any 
 note wc cannot find any interval in a feries of fixed founds : 
 which yet is neceffary, that all the notes of a piece of mufic 
 carried through feveral keys, may be found in their juft tune, 
 or that the fame fong may be begun indifferently at any nots 
 as may be neceffary for accomodating fome inftrument to 
 others, or to the human voice, when they are to accompany 
 each other in unifon. 
 
 The diatonic fcale, beginning at the Ioweft note, being firft: 
 fettled on an inftrument, and the notes thereof diitinguifhed 
 by their names a . I- . c .d ,e.f. g ; the h. fared notes, or 
 femi-tones, are called ficlitious ncies, and take the name or 
 letter below with a ^ as c $ called c Jharp ; iignifying that 
 it is a femi-tone higher than the found of c in the natural 
 ferics ; or this mark & called a fat, with the name of the 
 note above, fignifying it to be a femi-tone lower. 
 Now f£ and f f } being the two femi -tones the greater tone is 
 divided into ; and and jf, the femi-tones the left tone is 
 divided into ; the whole oaave will ftand as in the following 
 fcheme, where the ratio's of each term to the next, ?,:c wrote 
 fradion-wife between them below. 
 
 Scale of Semi-Tones. 
 c.c$.d.d$e.f.f$ g . g $ . a . *> . b . c c 
 
 16 Ho 10 *i iff P|l I* 16 Jl 16 13> it 
 
 For the names of the intervals in this fcale it nuy be confi- 
 dered, that as the notes added to the natural fcale are not 
 deiigned to alter the fpecies of melody, but leave it ftill di- 
 atonic, and only carina fome deteds arifing from fomething 
 foreign to the office of the fcale of muiic, m the fixing 
 and limiting the founds: we fee thcreafonwhy the names of 
 the natural fcale are continued, only making a diftinaion of 
 each into a greater and lefs.---Thus an interval of one femi- 
 tone is called a lejfer jecond ; of two femi-iones, -a greater fe- 
 cond; of three femi-tones, a lefs third ; of four, a greater 
 third, &c. 
 
 A fecond kind of femitonic- fcale we have from another divi- 
 fion of the oaave into femi-tones; which is performed by 
 taking an harmonica! mean between the extremes of the 
 greater and lefs tone of the natural icale, which divides it 
 into two femi-tones nearly equal.— Thus the greater tone 
 8 : 9 is divided into 16 : 17, and 17:18; where 17 is an 
 arithmetical divifion, the numbers reprefenting the lengths of 
 chords ; but if they reprefent the vibrations, the lengths of 
 the chords arc reciprocal, viz. as 1 : : $, which puts the 
 greater femi-tone ;^ next the lower part of the tone, and 
 the lefter \\ next the upper, which is the property of the 
 harmonical divifion.— And after the fame manner the lefier 
 tone 9 : 10 is divided into the two femi- tones 18 : 19 and 
 ig : 20, and the whole oaave (lands thus : 
 -..c^.d.d^e.f.f^.g.g.^.a.^.h.c 
 
 it, il IE J-2 Ai. 14 XZ J.I 1? -Li !' 21 
 J7 'S W 1- ' ff a 13 I 9 io IS 16 
 
 This fcale, Mt. Salmon tells us, in the Philofophical Tranf- 
 aaions, he made an experiment of, before the royal fociety, 
 on chords, cxaaiy in thefe proportions, which yielded a per- 
 fea confbrt with other inftruments, touched by the beft 
 hands.— Mr. Malcolm adds, that having calculated the ra- 
 tio's thereof, for his own fatisfaaion, he found more of them 
 falfe than in the preceding fcale ; but then their errors were 
 confiderably lefs, which made amends. 
 SENA, or Senna, in medicine, a purgative leaf, much u fed 
 indraughts and compofitions of that intention. 
 The fhrub which bears iti is cultivated in feveral parts of 
 the Levant, and grows five or fix foot high : it puts forth 
 woody branches, furnifhed with oblong leaves, its flowers 
 are yellow, its fruit isa ^reenifh flat pod, containing feveral 
 lodges or cells of feeds, refcmbling grape-ftonti.— Thefe pods 
 fome phyficians prefer to the leaves themfelves. 
 There is alio a kind of fena growing about Florence ; but it 
 is inferior to that of the Levant, as is owned by the Italians 
 thmfelves. Father Plumier mentions alfo a third kind grow- 
 ing in the Antilles iflands. 
 
 M. Lemery dillinguiihes three forts of fena of the Levant: 
 
 the 
 
SEN 
 
 SEN 
 
 the flr ft -brought from Seyda, called fna of Apalto, tlut is, 
 ciijlom fena, by reafon of the cuftom paid the tjrand feignior, 
 for the privilege of exporting it : the fecond comes irom 
 Tripoli: the third is called fena of Mocha. 
 The heft of thefe kinds is the full, which Pomet directs us 
 to chufe, in narrow leaves, of a moderate fizc, ihaped like 
 the end of a fpear point, of a pale green colour, a pungent 
 fmeU] foft to the touch, &c. 
 
 The fena of Tripoli holds the fecond rank in gnodncfs : its 
 difference from that of Seyda, confifts in its colour, which 
 is green ; its fmell, which is very weak : and in a certain 
 harfhnefs, or roughnefs, which it difcovers upon the touch. 
 Be fides thefe three kinds of Jena, and their pods, the drug- 
 gifts fell the duft found at the bottom of the bales, which is 
 a very poor commodity, and yet much better than what 
 they call the j 'mall fena, which comes witii it in the bales, 
 by way of package, and which many hold to be a plant of 
 no virtue, put in by chance, or, at beft, to incrcafe the 
 weight. 
 
 The beft fena, ordinarily found in our fhops, is that which 
 is fharpeft leaved, and fmells frclheft : the brightnefs of its 
 colour, and quickneis of its tafte, are alfo indications of its 
 goodnefs ; for when it has loft its fcent, and grows dufky, 
 it is good for little. 
 
 Sena, at iirft taking, is apt to naufeate the ftomach ; but 
 ufually, if a little cinnamon, or a dram or two of its 
 diftilled water be added, it paffes through with lefs ficknefs. 
 This is exactly conformable to the fentiments of Ludovicus, 
 who fays, that the purgative quality of this herb relides in 
 Its mucilaginous or gummy juice; which, the more it is 
 divided, gripes the lefs in its operation. 
 
 Rulandus imagined there was a fudorifick quality in fena ; 
 and accordingly ordered it in fome compofilions of that in- 
 tention. 
 
 SENATE) Senatus, an alTembly or council of fenators ; 
 that is, of the principal inhabitants of a ftate, who have a 
 ffiare in the government. 
 
 Such were the f elites of Rome, of Carthage, .(jfe. among the 
 ancients; and luch are the fenates of Venice, of Genoa, CiC. 
 among the moderns. 
 
 The fenate oS ancient Rome, was, of all others, the moft 
 celebrated, during the fplendor of the republic. The Ro- 
 man yev/tf/t'exercifed no contentious jurifdiclion : it appoint- 
 ed judges cither out of the fenate, or among the knights ; 
 but it never ftooped to judge any proceffes in a body. — The 
 (mate concerted matters of war ; appointed who fhould 
 command the armies ; fent governors into the provinces ; 
 took order, and difpofed of the revenues of the common- 
 wealth. ---Yet did not the whole fovereign power rcfide in 
 the fenate : it could not aionc elect mag iterates, make laws, 
 nor decide of war and peace : but in all thefe cafes, the fe- 
 nators were to confult the people. 
 
 Under the emperors, when the fenate became dcfpoilcd of 
 moft of its other offices, they began to hear caufes. For 
 thofe of lefs confequence they appjintcd particular judges ; 
 the reft, principally criminal caufes, they referved for their 
 own cognizance, to be judged by them in a body, and that 
 frequently in the emperor's prefence. This was put in their 
 way to keep their heads from ftate affairs. Nero further 
 committed to the fenate, the judgment of all appeals: but 
 this did not hold long ; nor do we find any footfteps there- 
 of any where but in the62d novel. 
 
 The fenate afTembled on certain ftatcd days, viz. ordinarily 
 on the calends, nones and ides of each month : their extra- 
 ordinary meetings were on any other days ; when the con- 
 ful, dictator, or tribune, thought fit to call them. Their 
 place of meeting, was either the temple of Concord at the 
 Capuan gate, or in the temple of Bellona.— The conful pre- 
 fided as chief of the fenate. 
 
 Till Auguftus's time, the fenate was always opened with a 
 facrifice: but that prince, in Jieu thereof, appointed, that 
 each fenator before he took his place, fhould offer wine and 
 incenfe on the altar of the god in whofe temple they were 
 met ; and take an oath, that he would give his vote accord- 
 ing to his confcicr.ee. 
 
 Halicarnafteus, and other authors, mention it as a great 
 defect in the authoriry of the Roman fenate, that they had 
 no perfons under their command, to execute their orders. 
 Hence the lcaft tribune had it in his power to obftrucl their 
 decrees , and hence it is, that when they gave their orders 
 to the confuls, and prastors, they did it with a kind of fub- 
 miiTion, ft eis ita videtur ; if they think fit. 
 SENATOR, a member of a fenate. 
 
 There were two orders, or degrees, among the Roman no- 
 bility ; that of the fenators, and that of the knights : after 
 thefe two, amc the people. — The firft hundred fenators were 
 appointed by Romulus, and called patres, fathers. — Upon 
 the union with the Sabines, Romulus, or as others lay, 
 Tullus, added a fecond hundred, called pat res majorum gen- 
 tium* ti.ii diftinguifh'd them from a third hundred added by 
 the elder Tarquiii, and called pat res minorum gentium, fathers 
 of the lower rank. 
 
 The number of fenators was not fixed : in the time of Grac- 
 
 chus they were 6oc ; during the civil, wars, jhey were re- 
 duced to 300. Juhus Casfar augmented that number to ^cc- 
 or 900 ; and Auguftus brought "them back again to Goo. 
 The choice of fenators belonged at tint to toe kings, tin: 
 to the confuls, ^then to the qenfors, who in their cenfus o: 
 furvey every fifth year, appointed new fenators in lieu of 
 thofe dead or degraded: but at length it fell to the emperors. 
 Though, for a long time, none were railed to the dignity 
 of fenators, but thofe moft confpicuous mr their prudence, 
 tse. yet fome regard was afterwards had to their citato, left 
 the dignity fhould become debafed by poverty. — To hold the 
 Jeneierial dignity, a yearly revenue of £00,000 fefterc.cs was 
 required, which amounts to nearly 6ooo pounds of our mo- 
 ney, Half as much was required for the qualification of the 
 knights. The fenators -who funk below this revenue, v-cre 
 difcarded, and expunged out of the lift by the cenfor. 
 1 he fenators were ordinarily chofe from among the knights, 
 
 or from among fuch as had bore the principal offices. At 
 
 firft the magiltrates were taken wholly from among the feme* 
 tors ; whence Tacitus calls the fenate, the feminnry of all 
 dignities : but after the people had been admitted to magi- 
 ftratures, fenators were taken from among fuch as had dif- 
 charged thofe offices, though, before plebeians. 
 I he fenators carried their children with them to the fenate, 
 to inform them betimes of affairs of ftate: though thefe chil- 
 dren had not admittance till 17 years of ace. 
 Some make a diftinclion among the fenators: and fay that 
 befides the fenators who were allowed to fpeak, and were 
 aficed their opinions, there were others, who, without fpeak- 
 mg, or being ever afked their judgment, were only to follow 
 the opinion of thofe they thought the moft reafonable, and 
 were hence called pedarii. A. Gellius gives us another notion 
 of the pedarii, and fays, thofe were thus called, who having 
 never bore the office of curule magiftrate, were obli tsd to 
 go to the fenate on foot. 
 
 '1 he fenators alone were allowed to wear the habit called 
 latus clavus. They had a right to fir, and be carried in cu • 
 rule chairs, to affift at plays and fliews, in the orcheftra ; at 
 leafts of the gods,*c3V. All which privileges were rckrved 
 to fuch as Auguftus fin the reform he made of the too nu- 
 merous fenate of Julius CsefarJ fet aiide. 
 They had the name fenators, q. d. old men, given them in 
 imitation of the Greeks, who called their fenate y*f*r,m. So 
 when the Athenians alfembkd the people to confult about 
 the affairs of the public, the officers fummoncd none but 
 fuch as were at leaft fifty years old. The /Ecyptians and 
 Perfians followed the fame example, after the Hebrews : and 
 the Lacedemonians and Carthaginians received none but 
 fuch as were fixiy years of we. 
 SENATUS-CONSULTUM, a vote, or refolution of the 
 Roman fenate, pronounced on fume queftion, or point of 
 law propofed to it. 
 
 The frnaitu cm/ilia made a part of the Roman law: when 
 palled, they were depofited in the temple of Ceres, under 
 the cuftody of the guiles, and at laft they were carried, t" 
 the cenfor, to the temple of liberty, and put up in an armo- 
 ry called tabularta. 
 SENEGA. See the article GtiM fencga. 
 
 SENESCHAL, Senescallus, a name anciently ufed for a 
 fteward or majordomo ; formed from the German jmd houfe 
 or family, miftalc, fervant. See Majordomo 
 Ffe *! f' n 'f c '" d of a lo ' J °' » baron, is his fteward or 
 bailift, who holds his courts, and manages his demelhc lands 
 and the fub-funefcbal, his under fteward. 
 High faujchal of England, is the high fteward of England •' 
 high Jmefchal del hotel du Rati, is the Iteward of the kine\ 
 houfhold. 
 
 The ancients ufed the tam/au/aliis indifferently with t 
 of dapiftr, whence we are lure it fignifies fteward 
 
 SENNA. See the article Sena. 
 
 SENOPLE. Sec the article Si u o PL e . 
 
 SENSATION, the act of perceiving external objects, by 
 means of the organs of fenfe. 
 
 To conceive the manner wherein fenfallon is effected j ob- 
 ferve, that all the organs confift ot little filaments, or nerves 
 which have their origin in the middle of the brain, are dif- 
 fufed thence throughout all the members which have any 
 fenfe, and terminate in the exterior parts of the body : that 
 when we are in health, and awake, one end of thefe nerves 
 cannot be agitated or (haken, without (baking the other : 
 by reafon they are always a little ftretclled j as is the cafe of 
 an extended chord, one part of which cannot be ilirred 
 without a like motion of all the reft. 
 
 Obferve, further, that thefe nerves may be aeitated two 
 ways ; either at the end out of tliG brain, or at~tbat in th~ 
 brain — If they be agitated from without, by the aSion of 
 ob-jeSs, and their agitation be not communicated as far as 
 the brain ; as frequently happens in fleep, when the neives 
 are in a ftate ot relaxation ; the foul does not then receive 
 any new ftrjatim.— But if the nerves happen to be asritated 
 in the brain, by the flux of the animal fpirits, o"r any 
 other caule ; the foul perceives fortiething, though the parts 
 of thofe nerves, that are out of the brain, dittuled ihroueh 
 "° the 
 
 1 that 
 
SEN 
 
 SEN 
 
 the feVeral parts of the body, remain at perfect reft : as like- 
 wife is frequently the cafe in flecp. 
 
 Laftly, obferve, that experience tells us, we may fometimcs 
 feel pain as if in parts of the body that have been intirely 
 cut pffj by rcafon the fibres in the brain corresponding 
 to them, being agitated in the fame manner as if they 
 were really hurt ; the foul feels a real pain in thofe ima- 
 ginary parts. 
 
 All thefe things feem to fhew, that the foul refides immedi- 
 ately in that part of the brain wherein the nerves of all the 
 organs of fenfe terminate : we mean, that it is there it per- 
 ceives all the changes that happen with regard to the objects 
 that caufe them, or that have been ufed to caufe them ; 
 and, that it only perceives what pafles out of this part, 
 by the mediation of the fibres terminating in it. 
 Thefe things premifed, it will not be difficult to explain 
 how fenfation is performed : the manner whereof may be 
 conceived from what follows. When the point of a needle, 
 for inftance, is thruft againft the hand, that point ftirs and 
 feparates the fibres of the flefh ; which fibres are extended 
 from that place to the brain, and when we are awake, arc 
 ■ in fuch a degree of tenfion, as that they cannot be ftirred 
 without fhaking alfo the fibres of the brain. If then the 
 motion of the fibres of the hand be gentle, that of the fibres 
 of the brain will be fo too; and if the firft be violent 
 enough to break any thing in the hand, the laft will be 
 ftronger and more violent in proportion. — In like manner, 
 if the hand be held to the fire ; the little particles of the 
 fuel it throws oft' in great numbers, and with a great deal of 
 violence, (hiking againft thefe fibres, and communicating a 
 part of their agitation thereto ; if the action be moderate, 
 that of the extremities of the fibres of the brain correspond- 
 ing to thofe of the hand, will be moderate likewife: if it 
 be violent enough to feparatc any of the parts of the hand, 
 as it happens in burning ; the motion of the fibres in the 
 brain will be propnrtionably more violent.— This is what be- 
 fals the body, when objects ftrike upon it. We are now to 
 confider how the mind is affe£ted. 
 
 The mind, we have obferved, refides principally, if we may 
 be allowed to fay fo, in that part of the brain where all the 
 fibres of the nerves terminate. It attends here, as its fen- 
 fory, or office, to look to the prefervation of all the parts of 
 the body; and, of confequence, it muft be here advertifed 
 of all the chances that happen, and muft be able to diitinguifh 
 between thole agreeable to the conftitution of the body, and 
 thofe hurtful thereto. Any other abfolute knowledge, with- 
 out a relation to the body, were ufelefs. — Thus, though all 
 the changes in our fibres, do, in reality, confift in motions, 
 which ordinarily only differ as to more and lefs ; it is necef- 
 fary the foul mould confider them as changes eflentially 
 different ; for though in themfelves they differ but very lit- 
 tle, yet, with regard to prefervation of the body, they are 
 to be looked on as eflentially different. 
 The motion, for inftance, which caufes pain, frequently dif- 
 fers exceedingly little from that which occafions a pleafing 
 titillation : it is not neceffary that there fhould be an eifen- 
 tial difference between thefe two motions ; but it is necef- 
 fary there be an cfTcntial difference between the pain and the 
 tickling, which thofe two motions occafion in the foul ; for 
 the agitation of the fibres, which accompanies the titillation, 
 informs the foul of the good ftate of the body, that it is 
 able to relift the impreffion of the objects, and that it need 
 not apprehend its being hurt : but the motion which occafi- 
 ons pain, being fomcwhat more violent, is capable of break- 
 ing fome of the fibres of the body ; wherefore it is necef- 
 fary the foul he advertifed hereof by fome difagreeablc fenfa- 
 tion, that it may provide againft it. 
 
 Thus, though all the motions which pafs in the body only 
 differ in themfelves, as to more or lefs, yet, when coniider- 
 ed with regard to the prefervation of life, they may be faid 
 to be efTenmiiy different : for this reafon it is, that the foul 
 does not perceive the fhakes, or motions themfelves, which 
 objects excite in the fibres of the flefh : it would be ufelefs 
 to perceive them ; and fhe would never be able, thence, to 
 learn whether the objecis were capabla of doing hurt or 
 good. But ihe perceives herfelf affected with ftnfat'tons, 
 which differ eflentially, and which (hewing precifeiy the 
 qualities of the objects, as they regard the body, make her 
 perceive diftinctly, whether or no thofe objects are capable 
 of hurting it. 
 
 In effect/ from a ftrict examination of the feveral fenfes, it 
 appears, that fenfible objects act no otherwife upon the body, 
 for the producing of fenfation, than by exciting a change in 
 the extreme furface of the fibres of the nerves : the quality 
 of which change depends on the figure, bulk, hardnefs, 
 and motion of the object ; fo that according to all appear- 
 ance, the moft different objects, which fhould agree in thefe 
 four circumftances, would produce the fame fenfation. 
 From the various texture of the object, the diverfity of the 
 nerve affected, the different fabric of the organ of fenfe, the 
 different place in the medulla of the brain where the nerve 
 arifes, and the different degree of motion wherewith th~ ac- 
 tion of the object is applied, there arife various fenfations, 
 and ideas, in the mind ; none of which reprcfent any thing 
 
 in the action of the object , or in the paffmn' of the orgsjS 
 And yet the fame action of the fame object, on the fan: ■ 
 organ, always produces the fame jenjation or idea -, and the 
 fame ideas neceflarilv follow the milt riifpofit ion of the fains 
 fenfible organ, in the fame manner ts if the idea perceived, 
 were the natural and neceftary effect of the action on the 
 organ. 
 
 SENSE, a faculty of the foul, whereby it perceives external 
 objects, by means of fome action or impreffion made on 
 certain parts of the body, called organs of fenfe, and propa- 
 gated by them to the fenfory. 
 
 Some ufe the word jenfe in a greater latitude ; and define it 
 a faculty whereby the foul perceives ideas or images of ob- 
 jects, either conveyed to it from without, by the impreffion 
 of objects themfelves, or excited within by fome effort of 
 the foul on the fenfory itfelf. 
 
 Under this notion, fenfe becomes diftinguifhable into two 
 kinds, external ;mk1 internal : correfponding to the two feve- 
 ral manners wherein the images of the objects perceived, arc 
 occafioned, and prefentcd to the mind, viz. either immedi- 
 ately from without, or from within ; that i?, either by what 
 we commonly call the five external fenf-r, hearing, feeing, 
 &c. or by the interval ones, imagination, memory, and at- 
 tention ; to which lome alio add hunger mid thirft. 
 But as thefe internal fenfes arc not ordinarily confidered in, 
 the notion of fenjes, nor implied under the word fnje ; but 
 are thus onlv denominated by analogy ; we ftiall wave them 
 to be further confidered, under their refpective articles, 
 Imagination, Memory, Wr. 
 External Senses, or, limply, the Senses, in their general 
 fignification, are the means whereby the foul apprehends, or 
 takes cognizance of external objects : the means, wc 
 mean, both on the part of the mind, and on that of the 
 body. 
 
 The means, on the part of the mind, are in all cafes the 
 fame; it being one and the fiimc faculty, whereby wc fee, 
 hear, C5c. — The means, on the part of the body, are 
 different ; as different as are the objects we are concerned 
 to perceive : for the being, and well-being of the anima), 
 being the end, nature had in view in giving him any 
 perception of external bodies; by this, the meafure and 
 manner of that perception is regulated : and we have fa 
 many ways of perceiving, fo many things, as the relation 
 we bear to external bodies renders neceffary for the pre- 
 fervation, &e. of our being. 
 
 Hence thofe feveral organs of fenfe, called eye, ear, vofe, pa- 
 late, and the univcrfa) one cutis; each oi which is fo dif- 
 pofed as to give fome re pre fen tat ion and report to the nund, 
 of the ftate of external things, the nearnefs, convenience, 
 hurtfulnefs, and other habitudes; and each of them a dif- 
 ferent one, according to the degree, and immediatenefs, £s7. 
 of the danger, or cunveniency. And hence the feveral ex- 
 ercifes of thofe organs, hearing, feeing, fmelling, tailing, 
 and feeling. 
 
 A late excellent author gives us a more ingenious, extenfive, 
 and philofophical notion of fenfe. — On his principle, fenfe is 
 defined, a power of perception, or, a power of receiving 
 ideas ; at leaft if what is abfolutely painve may be properly 
 called a power. 
 
 On fome occafions, inftead of power, he chufes to call it, 
 a determination of the mind to receive ideas. — And the 
 ideas thus perceived, or raifed in the mind, he calls J'en- 
 fat'ions. 
 
 Senfe, he confiders, either as natural or moral : and the na- 
 tural, either as external or internal : though the diftribution 
 is chiefly founded on the common ways of conceiving ; for, 
 in reality, they appear to be all natural, and neccifarv : 
 fome reaibns, however, for the diftinction, will be fiiewn 
 under the lcveral articles thereof. 
 External Senses, then, arc powers of perceiving ideas, upon 
 the prelence of external objects. — On fuch occafions, we 
 find the mind is merely pafiivc, and has not power directly 
 to prevent the perception, or idea, or to vary it at its recep- 
 tion ; as long as the body is continued in a ftate fit to be 
 acted upon by the external object. 
 
 When two perceptions are intirely different from each other, 
 or agree in nothing but the general idea of fenfation ; the 
 power of receiving thole different perceptions, is called dif- 
 ferent fenfes. Thus feeing and hearing denote the different 
 powers of receiving the ideas of colour.-;, and founds. And 
 though colours, as well as founds, have vafl differences a- 
 mongft themfelves ; yet is there a greater agreement among 
 the moft oppofite colours, than between any colour and a 
 found : and hence all colours are deemed perceptions of the 
 fame fenfe. 
 
 All the feveral fenfes feem to have their diftinct organs, 
 except feeling, which is, in fome degree, diffufed over the 
 whole body. 
 
 Internal Senses, are powers, or determinations of the mind, 
 to fie plcafed with certain forms, and ideas, which occur to 
 our obfervation, in objeits perceived by the external fenjes. 
 Of thefe there are two different fpecies, Jiftinguifhed by the 
 different objects of plealure, v'rz. pleafurable or beautiful 
 forms of natural things, and pleafurable or beautiful actions, 
 
 or 
 
 4 
 
SEN 
 
 S E N 
 
 br character; of rational agents : whence the internal fenfes 
 become divisible into natural and moral ; though What others 
 call the internal natural Je/fe, our author calls limply, and by 
 way of eminence, the internal fenfe. 
 
 Jn reflecting on our external fenfes, we plainly fee, that our 
 perceptions of pleafure, and pain, do-not depend directly on 
 our will. Objects do not plcafe us according as we incline 
 they ihould : the prefence of fome objects neeclliuily plcafes 
 us, and the prefence of others as neccfiarily difpleafes us ; nor 
 can we, by our will, any otherwifc procure pleafure, or 
 avoid pain, than by procuring the former kind of objects, 
 and avoiding the latter. By the very frame of our nature, 
 the one is made the occafion of delight, and the other of 
 diffatisfaction. In effect:, our fenfitivc perceptions are plea- 
 fant, and painful, immediately, and without any knowledge 
 of the cafe of this pleafure and pain, or of the manner how 
 they excite it, or are occafions of it, or without our feeing 
 to what further advantage, or detriment, the ufe of fuch ob- 
 jects might tend. Nor would the mo ft accurate knowledge 
 of thefe things vary either the pleafure, or the pain, of the 
 perception ; however it might give a rational pleafure diftinct 
 .from the fenfible ; or might raife a diftindt joy, from pro- 
 f'pcdt of further advantage in the object, or another averfion, 
 from apprehenfion of evil. There is fcarce any object, which 
 our minds are employed about, but is conftituted the necef- 
 fary occafion of fome pleafure or pain. Thus we fhall find 
 ourfelves pleafed with a regular form, a piece of architecture, 
 or painting, a compofition of notes, a theorem, an action, 
 an affection, a character; and we are confeious that this 
 pleafure naturally arifes from the contemplation of the idea 
 then prefent to the mind, with all its circumftances, though 
 fome of thofe ideas have nothing of what we call fenfible 
 perception in them ; and in thofe which have, the pleafure 
 arifes from fome uniformity, order, arrangement, and imita- 
 tion ; and not from the fimple ideas of colour, or found, or 
 mode of exteniion feparately confidered. 
 It feems hence to follow, that when inftruction, education, 
 or prejudice of any kind, raife any defire or averfion toward 
 in object ; this defire, or averfion, is founded on an opinion 
 of fome perfection, or deficiency, in thofe qualities, for 
 perception whereof we have the proper fenfes. Thus, if 
 beauty be defired by one who lias not the fenfe of fight ; the 
 defire mull be railed by fome apprehended regularity of figure, 
 fweetnefs of voice, fmoothnefs, foftnefs, or fome other quality 
 perceivable by the other fenfes .- without relation to the ideas 
 of colour. 
 
 The only pleafure of fenfe, which our philofophers feem to 
 confider, is that which accompanies the fimple ideas of fen- 
 fation ; but there are vaftly greater pleafures in thofe complex 
 Ideas of objects, which obtain the names of beautiful and 
 harmonious. — The power, then, whereby we receive ideas 
 of beauty, and harmony, has all the characters of a fenfe. 
 It is no matter, whether we call thefe ideas of beauty and 
 harmony, perceptions of the external fenfes of feeing and 
 hearing, or not : we fhould rather chufe to call thefe ideas 
 an internal fenfe, were it only for the convenience of diftin- 
 guifhing them from other fenfations of feeing and hearing, 
 which men may have without perception of beauty and 
 harmony. 
 
 Moral Sense, is a determination of the mind, to be pleafed 
 with the contemplation of thofe affections, actions, or 
 characters of rational agents, which we call good or vir- ' 
 tuous. 
 
 This moral fenfe of beauty, in actions, and affections, may 
 appear ftrangc at firft view: fome of our moralifts them- 
 felvcs are offended at it in lord Shaftfbury, as being ac- 
 cuftomed to deduce every approbation, or averfion, from 
 rational views of intcreft. Our gentlemen of good taftc can 
 tell us of a great many fenfes, ta'ites and relifhes for beauty, 
 harmony, imitation in painting and poetry ; and may we 
 not find, too, in mankind, a relifh for a beauty in charac- 
 ters, in manners ? The truth is, human nature does not feem 
 to have been left quite indifferent in the affair of virtue, to 
 form to iti'elf obfervations concerning the advantage or dis- 
 advantage of actions, and accordingly to regulate its conduct. 
 The weaknefs of our rcafon, and the avocations arifing from 
 the infirmity and neceffities of our nature, are fo great, that 
 very few of mankind could have framed thofe long deduc- 
 tions of reafon, which may fhew fome actions to be, in 
 the whole, advantageous, and their contraries pernicious. 
 1 he author of nature has much better furnifhed us for a vir- 
 tuous conduct, than our moralifts feem to imagine ; by al- 
 moft as quick and powerlul infrructions, as we have for the 
 prefcrvation of our bodies : he has made virtue a lovely 
 rorin, to excite our purfuit of it, and has given us ftrong 
 affections, to be the fprings of each virtuous action. 
 
 For the general manner wherein our Senses act; or, more 
 properly, the manner wherein we become fenfible, that is, 
 perceive external objects ; fee ns atiok. 
 
 For the particular Senses, or, more properly, the particular 
 manners wherein we become fenfible, by the particular 
 organs of fenfe j fee Hearing, Seeing, Smelling, 
 fcfc ■-. - ' -' i ■■ 
 
 For the fevcril organs of Sense', miniftring to tlic feveral 
 
 manners <0& fetifirtfan ; fee K ye, Ear. Vosz, c/c-- 
 Pliny obferVes, that off ail the fenfes, feeling and tailing are 
 thofe which man enjoys in the greateit perfection. — As to 
 feeing, he fays, he is excelled by the eagle, fcrfc as to 
 fmellmg, by the vulture, i^c. and as to hearing, by the 
 mole, even when hid under ground. Nai. Hijl. lib. 10. 
 The fenfes have been fometimes found greatly lharpened and 
 improved by dill-ales : Mr. Boyle mentions a gentleman, 
 who, during a diftemper he had in his eyes, had his organs 
 of fight brought to be fo fenfible, that when he waked in 
 the night, he could, for a while, plainly fee and diftiniuifii 
 colours, and other objects ; and the fame author eives an in- 
 ffance of another perfon, who, after getting half-fuddled 
 with claret, if he waked in the night, could fee, for fome 
 time, to read a moderate print. 
 
 Grimaldi tells us that fome women of Megara were able, 
 by their eyes alone, -to diilinguiih between eg^s layed by 
 black hens, and thofe by white ones. Grimald. de Lum. 
 
 fcf Col. 
 
 In the Philofoph. Tranf. N°. 312. we have an account of 
 Dan. Frafer, who continued deaf and dumb, from his birth 
 to the 17th year of his age; when, upon recovering from a 
 fever, he perceived an uneafy motion in his brain, after 
 which he began to hear, and, by degrees, to fpcak. 
 SENSIBLE horizon, l {Horizon. 
 Sensible point, (.See the articles-] Point. 
 Sensible qualities. } t Quality. 
 
 SENSITIVE or SENSIBLE fad, the foul of brutes, 
 or that which man is fuppofed to have in cbmmon with 
 brutes. 
 
 It is thus called, either as intimating its utmoft faculty, to 
 be that of fenfation ; or, perhaps, becaufe it is fuppofed to 
 be material, and to come under our fenfes. 
 Lord Bacon afferts, that the fenfible or brute foul, is 
 plainly no more than a corporeal fubitancc, attenuated by 
 heat, and thus rendered invifible ; or a kind of aura or va- 
 pour partly of an aerial, and partlv of a fierv nature ; endued 
 with the foftnefs of air, to be fit to receive impreffiens, and 
 with the vigour of fire, to communicate its adtion ; fed 
 partly with oily matters, and partly with aqueous ones ; iu- 
 clofed in the body, and in the more perfect animals, princi- 
 pally in the head ; moving along the nerves ; and reftored 
 and repaired by the fpirituous blood of the arteries. Bac. de 
 Augment. Scient, lib. IV. See Life. 
 Sensitive plants, a fpecies of plants, called by the ancients 
 &fcbynomenous , and by us fenfitive, living or mimic plants, as 
 giving fome fort of tokens of fenfe. 
 
 Thefe are fuch whole frame and conftitution is fo nice and 
 tender, that at the touch, or leaft preffure of one's hand, 
 they will contract their leaves and flowers, as if fenfible of 
 the contact. 
 
 Botanic writers mention many kinds hereof; fome of which 
 contract with the hand, or a ftick ; others with heat, others 
 with cold. — The truth is, many, if not moft, vegetables ex- 
 pand their flowers, down, &c. in warm, lun-fhiny weather, 
 and again clofe them towards even or in mini csV. efpeci- 
 ally at the beginning of flowering, or after the flowers are 
 fallen, whilft the feed is yet young and tender : as is very 
 evident in the down of dandelion, and in the flower of 
 the pimpernel, the opening and {hotting whereof are the 
 country-man's weather-wifer ; whereby, Gerard fays, he 
 foretels what weather fhall follow next dav : for if the 
 flowers be clofe Ihut up, it betokens rain and foul weather ; 
 if they be fpread abroad, fair weather. Ger. Herb. lib. II. 
 SENSORY, Sensorium ewnnunt, the feat of the common 
 fenfe ; or that part or place where the fenfible foul is fuppofed 
 more immediately to refide. 
 
 The fenjsry is fuppofed to be that part of the brain wherein 
 the nerves from all the organs of lenfe, terminate : which is 
 generally allowed to be about tfee beginning of the medulla 
 oblongata: Des Cartes will have it in the conarion, or 
 pineal gland. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton defcribes the fevfory of animals as the place 
 to which the fenfible fpecies of things are carried through 
 the nerves and brain, that they may be there perceived bv 
 their immediate prefence to ths foul.-— The organs of fenfe 
 are not intended for enabling the foul to perceive the 
 fpecies of things, in its ferforv : but only for conveying 
 them thither. 
 
 The fame great author confidcrs the univcrfc, as the fcr.fsry 
 of the godhead. 
 
 SENTENCE, in law, doom: a judgment pafTed in court by 
 the judge, upon fome procefs either civil, or criminal. 
 Sentences are either definitive, or interlocutory, centradiclor;, 
 
 «rc. 
 
 There arc fentences of abfolution, excommunication, oV. 
 Superior judges may either cont;rm or annul the fentencei of 
 inferior ones. 
 
 Three conformable SENTENCFS, tres SententI.'E cvftrtnes : 
 in the Rornifh ecclefiaftical law, it is allowed to appeal 
 three times ; fo that there muft be three conformable fentences 
 ere the decifior.s of the judges can take i-ffcfr. — The firft 
 degree of jurisdiction is in the bifhop's official : from him an 
 appeal lies to the metropali:^n ; and from the irurttopoliun 
 
 to 
 
SEN 
 
 SEP 
 
 to the primate, or immediately to the pope. If the appeal 
 come from the metropolitan to the pope, the pope is obliged 
 to delegate judges in partibus ; and then if the three fentences 
 puffed in thefe three ftages be conformable, there is no further 
 appeal: but if one of them annul another, new judges are 
 to be required of the pope for a fourth fentence ; and thus 
 they fometimes proceecd to a fixth, or leventh fentence. — 
 This number of jurifdidtions is found infinitely prejudicial 
 to the public, and vexatious to private pcrfons. 
 Sentence, in grammar, denotes a period; or a fet of 
 words comprehending fume perfect fenfe, or fentiment ol 
 the mind. 
 
 tvery fentence comprehends at Icaft two words. 
 The bufmefs of pointing, is to diftinguifh the feveral parts 
 and members oi fentences, fo as to render the fenfe thereof 
 the cleat eft, apteit and fulleft pofUble. 
 
 In ever)- fentence there are two parts neceffarily required - y a 
 noun for the fubject, and a definite verb; whatever is found 
 more than thefe two, affects one of them, either immedi- 
 ately, or by the intervention of fome other, whereby the 
 firft'is affected. 
 
 Again, every fentence is either fimplc or conjunct : a. fimpfe 
 fentence is that confifting of one fingle fubject, and one finite 
 verb. — A conjunct fentence contains feveral fubjedts and finite 
 verbs, either exprefly or implicitely. 
 
 A fimplc fentence needs no point, or diftindtion ; only a pe- 
 riod to clofe it : as, A goad man loves virtue for itfelf. — In 
 fuch a fentence, the feveral adjuncts affect cither the fubject 
 or the verb in a different manner. Thus the word good ex- 
 preflcs the quality of the fubjedt, virtue the object of the ac- 
 tion, and, for itfelf the end thereof. — Nov/ none of thefe 
 adjuncts can be ieparatcd from the reft of the fentence : for 
 if one be, why ihould not all the reft ? And if all be, the 
 fentence will be minced into almoft as many parts as there 
 are words. 
 
 But if feveral adjuncts be attributed in the fame manner ei- 
 ther to the fubject or the verb, the fntcr.ee becomes conjunct, 
 .nid is to be divided into parts. 
 
 In every conjunct fentence, as many fubjedts, or as many 
 hnite verbs as there are, either exprefly, or implied, fo many 
 diftindtions may there be. Thus, My hopes, fears, joys, 
 pains, all centre in you ; and thus Cicero, Catiiina abiit, ex- 
 ceffit, evafit, erupit. — The reafon of which pointing is obvi- 
 ous ; for as many fubjedts or finite verbs as there are in a 
 fentence, fo many members docs it really contain. When- 
 ever, therefore, there occur more nouns than verbs, or con- 
 trariwife, they arc to be conceived as equal. Since, as every 
 fubject requires its verb, fo every verb requires its fubjedt, 
 ■wherewith it may agree : excepting, perhaps, in fome figu- 
 rative expreftions. 
 
 Indeed, there are fome other kinds of fentences which may 
 be ranked amongft the conjunct kind, particularly the abfo- 
 Jutc ablative, as it is called : Thus, Phyfcians, the difeafe once 
 difcov.ercd, think the cure half wrought • where the words, dif- 
 eafe once difcovered, are equivalent to, when the caufe of the 
 difiafe is difovered. — So alfo in nouns added by apportion ; 
 as, The Scots, a hardy people, endured it all; fo alfo in 
 vocative cafes, and interjections ; as, This, my friend, you 
 mujl allow me: And, What, for heaven's fake! would he 
 be at? 
 
 The cafe is much the fame, when feveral adjuncts affect ei- 
 ther the fubjedt of the fentence, in the verb, in the fame man- 
 ner ; or at leaft fomething, whereby one of them is affected : 
 as, A good, wife, learned man, is an ornament to the common- 
 wealth : where the feveral adjectives denoting fo many quali- 
 ties of the fubjedt, are to be feparated from one another. — 
 Again, when I fay, Your voice, countenance, geflure terrified 
 him : the feveral nominative cafes denote fo many modes of 
 the verb, which are likewife to be diftinguifhed from each 
 other. The cafe is the fame in adverbs; as, He behaved 
 hhnfelf modejlly, prudently, virtuoufly. — In the firft example, 
 the adjuncts immediately affect the fubjedt ; in the third, 
 the verb ; in the following one, another adjunct : as, / faw 
 a man loaden with age, Jicknefs, wounds. 
 Now, as many fuch adjuncts as there are, fo many feveral 
 members does the fentence contain ; which are to be diftin- 
 gui&ed from each other, as much as feveral fubjedts, or 
 finite verbs : and that this is the cafe in all conjunct fenten- 
 <i.', appears hence, that all thefe adjundts, whether they be 
 v«rb& or nouns, &e. will admit of a conjunction copulative, 
 whereby they may be joined together. — And, where-evcr 
 there is a copulative, or room for it, there a new member 
 ot z fentence begins. — For the other partitions, &c. of fenten- 
 ces, fee Colon, Semicolon, and Period. 
 ■SENTENCE, is alfo ufed in rhetoric and poetry, for a fh&rt, 
 pirhy remark, or reflection, containing fome fentiment of 
 nfe in the conduct of life. 
 
 Such are, Difeite jujl'ttiam mot-iti, £tf non temnere dlvos \ or, 
 A tentris afjuefcere multum ejl, &c. 
 
 Sentences, father Boilu obferves, render poems ufeful ; and, 
 befides, add I know not what luftre and fpirit, which 
 pleafes. But there is no virtue which is not accompanied 
 with fome dangerous vice. Too many fentences give a poem 
 ioo philufophical an air, and link it into a kind of gravity, 
 
 tins is lefs fit for the majefty of a poem, thza the ftudy or" 
 a learned man, and the guaitUttpfe of a dogmatift. bucfi 
 thought! not only contain, but mfpire, a certain calm wjf- 
 dom, which is directly qpppftte to the paliions ; and cools 
 them, both in the bearers and in the fpeaker. Laltlv, the 
 affectation of fpeakiug fentences, leads a perfon to trifling; 
 and impertinent ones ; inftances whereof we have, in 
 abundance, in Seneca's tragedies. — Petronius recommends- 
 it to authors, to dilguife their fentences, that they may 
 not fiand glaring above the thread or ground of the dif- 
 eotirfe. Kjj-j. 
 
 SENTIMENTS, in poetry, and particularly dramatic, ate 
 the thoughts which the feveral perfons exnfefs -, whether 
 they relate to mattcis of opinion, paiTiun, bufmefs ot the 
 like. 
 
 The manners form the tragic action, and the fentimer.ts 
 explain it ; discovering its caufes, motives, &£} — The 
 fentiments are to the manners, what thofe are to the 
 fable. 
 
 In the fentiments, regard is to be had to nature and probabi* 
 Iity ; a madman, for inftance, muff fpeak as a madman ; a 
 lover as a lover ; a hero as a hero. — The fentiments, in 
 great meafure, are to fuffain the character. 
 SENTINEL*, Centinel, or Sentry, in war, a pri- 
 vate foldier taken out of a corps dc garde of foot, and 
 placed in fome poft to watch any approach of the enemy, 
 to prevent furprizes ; and to flop fuch as would pak without 
 orders, or without difcovering who they are. 
 
 * The word is modern: it is not long f:nce they laid, To 
 be on the ftout, in the fame fenfe as we now fay, : 7o fiand 
 fentry, iSc Menage derives the word a fentnndo, h<ua 
 perceiving. 
 
 Sentinel perdu, is a fentincl placed at fome very advanced and 
 dangerous poft, whence it is odds that he never returns. 
 See Perdu. 
 
 The fentincl's word, when he challenges, is, Who is there f 
 ^ui vive, or iJ§*rt va la $ Stand ! Demeurc la ! 
 SEPARABLE modes. See the article Mode. 
 SEPARATE effiftion. See the article Affection. 
 Penultimate cf the Separate. See Penultimate. 
 SEPARATION, in navigation, the fame with what we 
 
 more ufually call departure. See Departure". 
 Separation of man and wife. See Divorce. 
 Waters of Separation. Sec the article Water. 
 SEPARATISTS, a religious fedt in England, fo denominated 
 from their fetting up a feparate church, in oppofition to 
 that eftabliftied by law. ' Sec Dissenters, (jft. 
 At prefent, feparatifls, is rather the name of a collection of 
 fedts, than of any particular one ; but nearer their original, 
 there was that agreement among them, that one name 
 ferved them all. Their divifion into prefbyterians, anabap- 
 tiits, independants, csV. is a modern thing. 
 The feparatifls, Hornius rells us, Hifl. heel, are fuch as un- 
 der Edward VI. Elizabeth and James I. refuted to conform 
 to the church of England : and who were firff called puri- 
 tans, then jeparatijls, and lafHy noncovformifis. 
 The firft leader of the feparati/ls, was Bolton; who, upon 
 quitting the party he had formed, was fucceeded by Robert 
 Brown, from whom the feparatifls were called Brown- 
 ijh, a name they long retained : though Brown himfelf 
 deferted the fedt, and, in imitation of Bolton, abjured his 
 errors. 
 
 He was fucceeded by Barrow, who was hanged at the infti- 
 gaticn of the bifhops : their fourth chief was Johnfon, who 
 fet up a church at Amfterdam ; which afterwards divided 
 into feveral fedts, at the hejd of one whereof was Jolm- 
 fon's brother, who excommunicated him, and was recipro- 
 cally excommunicated by him. Soon afterwards, a fifth, 
 named Smith, erected a like church at Lcyden, but it 
 dwindled away after his death : and feparaiifn was brousht 
 very low, when Robinfon appeared, and railed its head.— 
 He foftned the dogma's of Brown, and fet on foot a good 
 understanding among the feparatifls in general ; but°was 
 not able to unite the whole fedt. Part of thefn {till adhered 
 to the rigid opinions of their old mailer Brown, and part of 
 them followed Robinfon. The firft retained the old name 
 of feparatifls, and the latter afiumcd that of femi-feparatijh, 
 and thefe at length degenerated into independants, which is 
 the name whereby they are now ufually Called, both m 
 New and Old England. 
 
 Hornius mentions another order of ftparatijtt, called fefqui- 
 feparatifls, that is, fparatijis and a half' Some will have 
 thefe to be a diitindt fedt ; ethers, the fame with the femi- 
 feparatijli : for it is added, that the femi '-feparatifls, under 
 pretence of taking a medium between the Brownifts and the 
 church of England, went further even than the Brownifts 
 themfelves, and under the name of fcmi-feparat'tjls degene- 
 rated into feparatifls and a half. 
 SEPIUM, Sepije o-, or tej'la, cuttleftfh bone ; is a white, 
 fpongy, teftaceous fu&ftatico, growing on the back of 
 the cuttleHfh ; and feeming almoft to be calcined by the 
 fun. 
 
 It is rough and abfterfive, and chiefly uftd in medicine as a 
 dentrifice. I 
 
 SEPTA, 
 
SEP 
 
 S E P 
 
 SEPTA, in antiquity, were inclofures, or rails, nude of 
 boards ; through which perfons went in, to give their votes, 
 in the affemblies of the Romans: 
 
 The word alfo fignines divifions, and, in that fen fe, is ufed 
 to exprefs the plates of fpar, which feparate or divide the 
 tali of" the Ludus Hclmontii, thence called, by Mr. Hill, 
 Scptaria. See Supplement, article Septaria. 
 SEPTEMBER, the ninth month of the year, reckoned 
 from January; and the feventh, from March : whence its 
 name, viz. from feptimus, feventh. 
 
 The Roman fenatc would have given this month the name 
 of Tiberius ; but that emperor oppofed it : the emperor Do- 
 mitian gave it his own name Gertrsa'nicuS ; the fenatc under 
 Antoninus Pius gave it that of Antoninus: Commodus gave 
 it his ftrname Heraileus ; and the emperor Tacitus, his own 
 name, Tacitus. — But thefe appellations are all gone into 
 difufe. 
 
 SEPTEMVIR, in antiquity. See Quinquevir. 
 
 The Germans fometimes ufe the word feptemvirate, for the 
 feven electors of the empire. See Elector. 
 
 SEPTENTRIO*, or Septentriones, in aftronomy, 
 a northern conftcllution of ftars, more ufually called urfami- 
 nor, or the Utile bear ; and by the people, Charles's wain. 
 See Ursa minor. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Lalin, ftptem, feven ; and trio- 
 ties, bullocks, which, in the ancient cancellation, were 
 yoaked to the plough. 
 
 Septentrio, in cofmography, the fame with north ; thus 
 called from the ancient conftellation JeptentriOf one of whole 
 ftars is the pole-ftar» 
 
 Hence alfo Septentrional, Septentrionahs, fome- 
 thing belonging to the north ; ai feptentr'tonal figns, fepten- 
 trianal parallels, &c. are thofe on the northern fide of the 
 equator. 
 
 SEP TIER or SE TIER, a French meafure, differing ac- 
 cording to the fpecies of the things meafured. For liquors, 
 the feptier is the fame thing with the chopine or half- 
 pint. 
 
 For dry meafure, the feptier is very different, in different 
 . places arid different commodities ; as not being any veffel of 
 jneafure, but only an eftimation of feveral other meafures. 
 . — At Paris, the feptier of wheat confifts of two mines, the 
 mine of two minots, and the minot of three bufliels. 
 The feptier of oats is double that of wheat. 
 S E P T I Z O N, Se p t i z onium, in the ancient architecture 
 . a term almoft appropriated to a famous maufoleum of the fa- 
 mily of the Antonines ; which Aur. Victor tells us, was built 
 in the tenth region of the city of Rome : being a large infu- 
 latcd building, with feven ftages or ftories of columns. 
 The plan was fquare; and the upper ftories of columns fall- 
 ing back much, rendered the piie of a pyramidal form; ter- 
 minated a-top, with the ftatue of the emperor Septimius Se- 
 verus, who built it. 
 
 It had its name fcpt'izon, feptizoniu/n, from feptem and zona, 
 q. a", feven zones or girdles, by reafon of its being girt with 
 feven rows of columns. 
 Hiftorians make mention of another feptizon, more ancient 
 than that of Severus, built near the Thermse of Antoninus. 
 SEPTU AGESIMA*, in the calendar, denotes the third 
 funday before lent ; or before quadragefima ; as quinquagefi- 
 ma is the next before quadragefima, then fexagefima, and 
 ftptuagefima ; thefe were all days appropriated by the church 
 to acts of penance and mortification, byway of preparation for 
 the devotion of the lent enfuing. 
 
 * It is fuppofed by fome to take its name from its being about 
 70 days before Eafter : pope Telefphorus firft made it a feaft 
 day, and appointed lent to commence from it. 
 
 The laws of king Canutus ordained a vacation from judi_„ 
 ture, from ftptuagefima to quindena pafchev. See Quinqua- 
 cesima. F 'rom feptuagefima to the octaves after Eafter, 
 marriage is forbidden by the canon law. 
 SEPTUAGiNT*, LXX, or the Seventy, a term famous 
 among divines and criticks, for a verfion of the Old Tefta- 
 ment, out of Hebrew into Greek, performed by feventy-two 
 jewifh interpreters, in obedience to an order of Ptolemy Phi- 
 ladelphus. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, feptuaginta, feventy. 
 The ancients, till Jerom's time, univerfally believed, that 
 the feventy were infpired perfons, not mere tranflators ; 
 grounding their belief on a fabulous hiftory of this verfion 
 given by Arifteas ; who tells us, that the high prieft Eleazerj 
 chofe fix do&ors out of each tribe for this office, which made 
 the number of feventy-two ; and that thefe being (hut up 
 each in his feveral cell, each tranflated the whole ; and with- 
 out feeing what any of the reft had done, they were all found 
 to agree to a letter. 
 
 Chromlegy of the Septuagint, or Seventy, is an account 
 of the years of the world, very different from what is found 
 in the Hebrew text, and the vulgate ; making the world 1 466 
 vears older than it is found in thefe latter. 
 Ehe cri ticks arc much divided, as to the point of preference 
 Vol.. II. N°. 140. 
 
 I Baronius prefers the account of the feventy ; and If. VofW 
 
 j makes an apology for it.-*The two iateft and nioft ltrenuous 
 advocates, in this difpute, are father Pezron, a Bernardine. 
 and father le Quicn, a Dominican ; the firft of whom de- 
 fends the chronology of Xhefeptuagint t and the latter that of 
 the Hebrew text. 
 S E P T U M, in anatomy, a term literally fignifving an inclo- 
 lure or partition ; applied to fever,! parts of the body, which, 
 ferve to feparate one part from another. 
 
 Septum lucidum, or pellucidum, is a partition feparatin°- the 
 two upper ventricles of the brain ; thus called, as pejus 
 tranfparent. a 
 
 Septum medium, or cordis, is a feparation between the two 
 ventricles of the heart.— It is about a finger thick, flefhy, 
 and of the fame fubftance with the heart itfelf ; CQnfiftjrig of 
 mufcular fibres, which ailift it in its motions. Some have 
 imagined it to be perforated with a great number of holes 5 
 but miftakenly. 
 
 Septum tranfverfum, is the feparation of the two bellies, or 
 
 venters, called alfo diaphragm. See Diaphragma. 
 Septum nerium 3 the partition of the noftriis. See Nose. 
 Septum lulbi, divides the bulb of the urethra lengthwife. 
 
 See Urethra. 
 Septum gallinaginis. See Caput Gallinaginis. 
 Septum clitortdis, a membranous partition running all alon^ 
 
 between the two corpora cavernofa of the clitoris^ from the 
 
 glans to its divarication at the os pubis. 
 Septum maris. See the article Ear. 
 Septum tefiium. See the article Testicle. 
 SEPULCHRAL, Sepulchralis, fomething belonging 
 
 to fepulchres or tombs. 0 
 Sepulchral infariptions are the fureft monuments we have 
 
 of antiquity. 
 
 Sepulchral lamps, are thofe faid to have been found burn- 
 ing in the tombs of feveral martyrs, and others. See 
 Lamp. 
 
 Sepulchral column, is a column erected overatomb, with 
 an infeription on its fbaft. 
 
 Sepulchral, or Sepulchr alis, is alfo the appellation 
 of a feci: ; thus called, from their principal error, which 
 was, that by the word hell, whither the fcripture tells us, 
 Jefus Chrift defcended after his death, they underftood no 
 more than his grave or fepulchre. 
 
 The fepulchrales, or fepulchral hcrcticks, maintained, that 
 Jefus Chrift only defcended into hell according to the flefh j 
 that this hell was nothing clic but the grave where he was 
 laid, and wherein his foul could not reft. Pratcolus. 
 
 Sepulchralis pecwiia. See the article Pecunia. 
 
 SEPULCHRE, Sepulchrum, a tomb, or place deftined 
 for the interrment of the dead. 
 
 The term is chiefly ufed in fueaking of the burying-places of 
 the ancients : thofe of the moderns we ufually call tambs. 
 Befidcs the ufual fepulchres for the interrment, either of the 
 whole body, or of the afhes of the body burnt, the ancients 
 had a peculiar kind, called cenotaphia ; beingempty fepulchres 
 made in honour of fome pcrfon, who, perhaps, had no burial 
 at all j from a fuperftitious opinion, that the fouls of thofe 
 who wanted burial, wandered an hundred year;, before they 
 were admitted to pafs into the Elyfian fields* 
 The pyramids were built to ferve as fepulchres for the Ws 
 of Egypt. And the obeliflcs had generally the fame in- 
 tention. 
 
 Sepulchres were held facred, and inviolable ; and the care 
 taken thereof was deemed a religious duty ; grounded on the 
 iear of God, and the belief of the foul's immortality- Thuf- 
 who fearched or violated them, have been odious to all na- 
 tions, and always feverely puniflied. 
 
 The Egyptians called their fepulchres, eternal hdufis, i n con- 
 tradiftinction to their houfes and palaces, which they called 
 inns ; by reafon of the fhort fojourn we have in the one in 
 companion of our long ftay in the other. 
 The eaftern pilgrimages are all made with def>n to vifit 
 the holy fepulchre, that is, the tomb of Jefus Chrift. No- 
 body enters here but bare-footed, and with a world of cere- 
 monies. The Turks exact 24 crowns of each pilgrim, 
 whom devotion carries to the holy fepulchre. 
 St. Sepulchre, or the holy Sepulchre, gives the denomi- 
 nation to an order of regular canons, anciently inftituted in 
 Jerufalem, in honour of the holy fepulchre. 
 They afcribe their institution to Godfrey of Boulogne; who 
 they fay, upon his taking Jerufalem in the year 1099, placed 
 canons in the patriarchal church of the holy fepulchre ; which 
 indeed, is true ; but then they were not regulars. — In effect 
 it was Arnoul, who, of archdeacon of the church of Jeru- 
 falem, got himfelf elected patriarch thereof, that in in. 
 firft obliged his canons to live in community, and to follow 
 the rule of St. Auguftin. 
 
 From the holy land, numbers of thefe canons were brought 
 into Europe, particularly into France by Louis the younger ■ 
 into England by king Henry ; into Poland by Jaxa, a Poliib 
 gentleman ; and into Flanders by the counts thereof. 
 But the order was afterwards fuyprcfled by knpeent VIII 
 11 P am* 
 
S E R 
 
 S E R 
 
 'and its effects given to that of our lady of Bethlehem, which 
 itfelf ceafing, they were beftowed in 1484, on that of the 
 kni"hts of St. John of Jcrufalem. — Hut the fuppreffion did 
 not Jake place m Poland, nor in feveral provinces of Ger- 
 many, where they f 1 ill fubfift : their general is in Poland : 
 their habit, father Helyot obferves, has been different in dif- 
 ferent places. 
 
 St. Sepulchre, or the holy Sepulchre, is alfo the name 
 of a military order, ellablifhed in Paleftine. 
 Moft writers who mention this order, carry its inftitution as 
 far back as the time of the apoftle St. James, bifhop of Je- 
 rufalem, or at leaft to that of Conftantinc ; pretending that 
 Godfrey of Boulogne, and Baldwin, were only the reftorcrs 
 thereof : but this antiquity is chimerical. It is not even cer- 
 tain, that it was founded fo early as Godfrey of Boulogne, 
 or his fucceflbr Baldwin ; though Favyn and de Belloy attri 
 bute it to this latter. 
 
 It is certain, there were nothing but canons in the church of 
 St. Sepulchre, till the year 11 14; and it is more than pro- 
 bable, the knights were only inftituted upon the ruins of the 
 canons 400 years after, and that by pope Alexander VI. in 
 order to excite rich and noble perfons to vifit the holy places, 
 by giving them the title of knights of the holy fepulchre, and 
 to this end, inftituting an order under that name, whereof 
 lie referved the quality of mailer to himfelf and his fucceflbrs. 
 — Leo X. and Clement VII. granted to the guardian of the 
 religious of St. Francis, in the holy land, the power ofmak- 
 ing thefe knights ; which power, firft granted vivai>oce, was 
 afterwards confirmed by a bull of Pius IV. 
 In 1558, the knights of this order in Flanders, chofe Philip 
 II. king of Spain, their maflcr ; and afterwards his fon ; 
 but the grand mailer of the order of Malta prevailed on him 
 to refign; and when afterwards the duke of Nevers affumed 
 the fame quality in France, the fame grand mafter, by his 
 intereft and credit, procured a like renunciation of him, and 
 a confirmation of the union of this order to that of Malta. 
 
 SEPULCHRI pretium. See the article Pretium. 
 
 SKQUiyjj Sequela, in logic, a confequence drawn from 
 fome preceding proportion. 
 
 As, if I fay, The human foul is immaterial ; and therefore 
 immortal, the lall member of the fentence is a fequel of 
 the firft. 
 
 SEQUENCE, in gaming, a feries or fet of cards immediately 
 
 following each other in the fame fuit, or colour. 
 
 Wc fay, a fequence of four cards, of five, At picquet, 
 
 thefe are called tierces, quarts, quints, &c. 
 SEQUESTRATION, Sequestratio, in common law, 
 
 the act of feparating a thing in controverfy, from the poflef- 
 
 fion of both parties, till the right be determined by courfe 
 
 of law. 1 
 
 This is of two forts ; voluntary and neceffary. 
 Voluntary Sequestration, is that which is done by confent 
 
 of both parties. 
 Neceffary Sequestration, is that which the judge doth by 
 
 his authority, whether the parties will, or not. 
 Sequestration, in the civil law, is the act of the ordinary, 
 
 difpofing of the goods and chatties of one deceafed, whole 
 
 eftate no man will meddle with. 
 
 A widow is alfo faid to fequejler, when fhe difclaims having 
 any thing to do with the eftate of her deceafed hufband. 
 Among the Romanifts, in queftions of marriage, where the 
 wife complains of impotency in the hufband, fhe is to be fe- 
 qucftred into a convent, or into the hands of matrons, till 
 the procefs be determined. 
 Sequestration, is alfo ufed for the aft of gathering the 
 fruits of a benefice void, to the ufe of the next incumbent. 
 In the time of the civil wars, fequejlration was ufed for a 
 feixing of the eftates of delinquents, for the ufe of the com- 
 monwealth. 
 
 SEQUIN*, Zechih, Zecchino, a gold coin ftruck at 
 Venice, and in feveral parts of the grand feignior's ftates, 
 particularly Cairo ; which lafl are called Turhifh fequ'tns, or 
 cherifs. See Coin and Money. 
 
 * Ablancourt derives tlie word from eizicum, or azjecnicum ; 
 ai fuppafiiig the fquin firft ftruck at Cizicum i Menage, from 
 the Italian xecchino, of zeeca, the name of the mint at 
 
 Venice. 
 
 At Conftantinople, the ducats ftruck in feveral parts of Ger- 
 many, are called Hungarian fcquins. 
 
 The value of thefe fequins is different ; thofe of Venice ex- 
 ceeding thofe of Turkey and Germany, by one fifteenth. 
 In the Eaft-Indies the difference is ftill more fenfible : the 
 Venetian f quirt being current for four rupees, and fixpeflas, 
 or q s. 4d. lterling, and theTurkifh f^uin, only for four ru- 
 pees, or qs. . . 
 SERAGLIO, among the Levantines, the palace of a prince, 
 or lord. 
 
 At Conftantinople, they fay, the feraglio of the embaffador 
 of England, of Erance, is'c— -The word is originally Per- 
 fian, where it has the fame fignirlcation. 
 The Seraglio is ufed by way of eminence for the palace of 
 4 
 
 the grand fcignipl at Conftantinople, where lie keeps his 
 court, and where his concubines are lodged, and where the 
 youth are trained up for the chief polls ut the empire. 
 It is a triangle about two miles round, wholly within the 
 city, at the end of the promontory Chryfoceras, now called 
 the feraglio point.— The buildings run back to the top of 
 the hill, and from thence are gardens that reach to the ed^e 
 of the fea.---The outward appearance, du Loir tells us, is 
 not beautiful, in regard the architecture is irregular, being 
 cantoned out into feparate edifices and apartments, in man- 
 ner of pavillions and domes. No ftrangcr has ever yet been 
 admitted to the inmoft parts of the feraglio. 
 The old feraglio is the place where the emperor's old mil- 
 trefles are kept. 
 
 Balzac obferves, that the feraglio at Conftantinople, is only 
 a copy of that which Solomon anciently built at Jcrufalem, 
 for his wives and concubines. 
 SERAPH, or Seraphin, in the hierarchy of angels, a 
 fpirit of the firft, or highcfl rank. 
 
 The feraphs, or rather feraphim, make that clafs of angels 
 fuppofed to be the molt inflamed with divine love, by their 
 nearer and more immediate attendance on the throne ; and 
 to communicate their heat to the inferior, and remoter orders. 
 ---Hence their name, which is formed from the Hebrew 
 root, CpW, to burn, inflame. 
 SERAPHICK, fomething belonging to the feraphim. 
 
 Mr. Boyle has a treatife of feraphick love, ;'. e, of divine love 
 or the love of God. 
 
 In the fchools, St. Bonavcnture is called the feraphick do£tor y 
 from his abundant zeal and fervour. 
 
 St. Francis, founder of the Cordeliers and Francifcans, is 
 called the feraphick father, in memory of a vifion he law on 
 mount Alvcrna, after a faft of forty days, accompanied with 
 manv other feveritics : when, falling into an ecilafy, he faw 
 a fcraph glide rapidly from heaven upon him; which im- 
 preffed on him certain ftigmata or marks, reprefenting the 
 wounds which the nails and the fpear made in our Saviour's 
 body, at his crucifixion. 
 
 SERAPHIM. See the article Seraph. 
 
 SERENADE, Serenata, a kind of concert given in the 
 night-time by a gallant, at his miftrefs's door, or under her ■ 
 window. 
 
 Sometimes it confifls wholly of inftrumental mufick ; fome- 
 times voices are added ; and the pieces compofed or played 
 on thefe occafions, are alfo called frenacles. 
 We do not know whence the word fhould be derived, unlefs 
 from the French, fereir,, the dew falling in the night-time. 
 
 SERENA gutta, in medicine, the fame as umaurefis. See 
 Gutta ferena. 
 
 SERENE, Serenus, a quality or title of honour given to 
 certain princes, and chief magiftrates of republicks. 
 The king of England is filled, the mcfl (arena the fame term 
 is alfo applied to the doge of Venice.— The pope, and the fa- 
 crtd college writing to the emperor, to kings, or the doge, 
 give them no other title but that of moji ferene. Indeed the 
 Venetians fet the title of ferenity above that of highnefs. 
 In 1646, Wicquefort obferves, there was a clafhing be- 
 tween the courts of France and Vienna ; becaufe the em- 
 peror refufed the king of France any other title than that of 
 ferene. — Bifhops alio anciently were addrefled under the title 
 of ferene. 
 
 The kings of France of the firfl and fecond race, fpeaking 
 of themfelves, ufe no other quality, but noire ferenite. The 
 emperor gives no other title to the king of England, nor 
 even to any other king, excepting the king of France. The 
 king of Poland, and other kings, give it to the electors. 
 The emperor, writing to the electors or other princes of the 
 empire, only ufes the term dilcEiion ; but in treating with 
 them, he ufes electoral ferenity to the electors; and ducal fere- 
 nity to the other princes. 
 S E R G E, in commerce, a woollen quilted fluff, manufactured 
 on a loom with four treddles, after the manner of ratcens, 
 and other fluffs, that have the whale. 
 
 The goodnefs of ferges is known by the quilting, as that of 
 cloths by the fpinning. 
 
 Of ferges there are various kinds, denominated either from 
 the different qualities thereof, or fir:;. . places where they 
 are wrought.— The moft considerable 1 the London ferge^ 
 now highly valued abroad, particular); in France, where a, 
 manufacture is carried on with good fuccefs, under the title 
 of ferge facon de Londres. 
 Manufacture of London Serges. --For wocl, thelongeft is cho- 
 fen for the warp, and the fhortdt for the woof. Before either 
 kind is ufed, it is firft fcoured, by putting it in a copper of li- 
 quor, fomewhat more than lukewarm, compofed of three 
 quarts of fair water, and one of urine. Afterhaving flayed long 
 enough therein for the liquor to diftblve, and take off the 
 greafe, jjjff. it is flirred brifkly about with a wooden peel ; 
 taken out of the liquor ; drained and wafhed in a running 
 water ; dried in the fnade ; beaten with flicks on a wooden 
 rack, to drive out the coarfer dufl and filth ; and then picked 
 
 clean 
 
SER 
 
 SER 
 
 clean with the hands. — Thus far prepared, it is greafed with 
 oil of olives, and the longeff. part, dcflined for the warp, is 
 combed with large combs, heated in a little lurnace for the 
 purpufe. — To clear off the oil again, the wool is put in a 
 liquor compofed of hot water, with foap melted therein : 
 whence being taken out, wrung, and dried, ^t is fpun on 
 the wheel. 
 
 As to the fhorter wool, intended for the woof," it is only- 
 carded on the knee, with fmall fine cards, and then fpun on 
 the wheel, without being fcoured of its oil. — Note, the 
 thread for the warp is always to be fpun much finer, and 
 better twiftcd, than that of the woof. 
 
 The wool, both for the warp, and the woof, being fpun, 
 and the thread divided into fkains ; that of the woof is put 
 on fpools (unlcfs it have been fpun upon them) fit for the ca- 
 vity or eye of the fhuttle; and that for the warp is wound 
 on a kind of wooden bobins, to fit it for warping. When 
 warped, it is ftiffencd with a kind of iize, whereof, that 
 made of the flircds of parchment is held the beff. ; and when 
 dry, is put on the loom. 
 
 When mounted on the loom ; the workman railing and fall- 
 ing the threads (which are paffed through a reed) by means 
 of four treadles placed underneath the loom, which lie makes 
 to act tranfverfly, equally, and alternately, one after ano- 
 ther, with his feet, in proportion as the threads are raifed 
 and lowered, throws the fhuttle acrofs from one fide to the 
 other ; and each time that the fhuttle is thrown, and the 
 thread of the woof is croffed between thofe of the warp, 
 ftrikes it with the frame to Which the reed is fattened through 
 whofe teeth the threads of the warp pafs ; and this ftroke he 
 repeats twice, or thrice, or even more, till he judges the 
 crofling of the ferge fufficicntly clofe : thus he proceeds, till 
 the warp is all filled with woof. 
 
 The ferge now taken off the loom is carried to the fuller, 
 who fulls, or fcours it, in the trough of his mill, with a 
 kind of fat earth, called fullers earth, firfl purged of all 
 drones and filth. After three or four hours fcouring, the 
 fuller's earth is wafhed out in fair water, brought, by little 
 and little, into the trough, out of which it is taken when 
 all the earth is cleared : then, with a kind of iron pincers, 
 or plyers, they pull off" all the knots, ends, itraws, csV. 
 flicking out on the furface, on either fide : and then return it 
 into the fulling trough, where it is worked with water fome- 
 what more than luke-warm, with foap diflblved therein, for 
 near two hours. It is then warned out, till fuch time as the 
 water becomes quite clear, and there be no figns of foap 
 left : then it is taken out of the trough, the knots, fife, 
 again pulled off, and then put on the tenter to dry, taking 
 care, as fail as it dries, to ftretch it out both in length and 
 breadth, till it be brought to its juft dimenfions. When 
 well dried, it is taken off the tenter, and dyed, fhorn, 
 and prefTed. 
 
 SERGEANT, or Serjeant, a term in our law, applied 
 to fundry offices. — Sergeant at law, or ef the coif \ is 
 the higheft degree taken in the common law, as that of 
 doctor is in the civil law. 
 
 Sergeants were anciently called fervientes ad legem, and fervi- 
 tntes narratores ; Mr. Selden adds, that they were alfo called 
 doSiorcs legis ; though others are of opinion, that the judges 
 are, more properly, the declares legis, and fergeants^ the ba- 
 chelors of law.— Spelman obferves, that however a fcrgeant 
 may be. richer than all the doctors of the commons, yet a 
 doctor is fuperior in degree to a fcrgeant j for the very name 
 of a doctor is magifterial, but that of a fcrgeant minifterial. 
 Hence the doctors are feated and covered when they plead ; 
 but the fergeants ftand uncovered at the bar, excepting for 
 their coif. 
 
 As thefc are fuppofed the moft learned and experienced ; 
 there is one court appropriated for them to plead in by them- 
 fclves, which is the common-pleas, where the common law 
 of England is moft ftrictly obferved. — But they are not pro- 
 hibited pleading in other courts, where the judges (who muff, 
 firft be fergeants') call them brothers. 
 
 They are called by the king's mandate, or writ, directed to 
 them ; commanding them to take upon them that degree, 
 bv a day ailigned. 
 
 Out of thefe, one is made the king's fcrgeant (more may 
 be) to plead for him in all caufes, efpecially in cafes of 
 trcafon. 
 
 Serceant at arms, is an officer appointed to attend the pcr- 
 fon ot a king, to arreft traitors, and perfons of quality of- 
 fending, and to attend the lord high-iteward, when he fits 
 in judgment on any traitor. 
 
 Of thefe by ftatute there are not to be above 30 in the realm. 
 — There are now eight at court, at 100 1. per annum falary 
 each : they are called the king's fergeants at arms, to diftin- 
 guifh them from others : they are created with great cere- 
 mony ; the perfon kneeling before the king, his majefty lays 
 the mace 00 his right fhoulder, and fays, Rife up, fcrgeant 
 alarms, and efqulre, for ever. — They have, befides, a patent 
 for the office, which they hold for life. 
 
 They have their attendance in the prefence-chamber, where 
 the band of .gentlemen- penfioners wait; and receiving the 
 king at the door, they carry the maces before him to the 
 
 chapel-door, whilft the band of per.fior.ers ftand foremoft, 
 and make a lane for the king ; as they aifo do when the 
 king goes to the houfe of lords. 
 
 There are four other fergeants at arms, created in the fame 
 manner ; one, who attends the lord chancellor ; a fecond, 
 the lord treafurer ; a third, the fpeaker of the houfe of 
 commons, and a fourth, the lord mayor of London, on 
 folemn cccafions. 
 
 They have a confiderable fbare of the fees of honour, and 
 travelling charges allowed them, when in waiting, viz, five 
 fhillings per day, when the court is within ten miles of 
 London, and ten fhillings when twenty miles oft" London : 
 the places are in the lord chamlerlain's gift. 
 Sergeant, or Serjeant, in war, is an inferior officer in 
 a company of foot, or troop ef dragoons ; armed with 
 a halbard, and appointed to fee difciplinc obferved, to 
 teach the foldiers the exercife of their arms, to fee due 
 diftances kept, and to order, ftraiten, and form ranks, 
 files, Ssfc 
 
 SERGEANTY, or Serjea nty, a fervice anciently due 
 
 to the king for lands held of him ; and which could not b« 
 
 due to any other lord. 
 
 It is divided into grand and petty fergeanty. 
 Grand Sergeanty, is where one holds land of the king by 
 
 fervice which he ought to do in his own perfon ; as to bear 
 
 the king's banner, or fpear, affift at his coronation, or do 
 
 fome office in his court. 
 Petit Sergeanty, is where a man holds land of the king to 
 
 yield him yearly fome fmall thing towards bis wars } as a 
 
 fword, dagger, bow, fpurs, &c. 
 
 Coke, on Littleton, tells us, that Sir Richard Rockefly held 
 lands at Seaton, by grand jergeanty, to be va?itrarius regis 9 
 i. e. the king's fore-footman, when he went into Gafcogne, 
 till he had worn out a pair of flioes of the price of four- 
 pence. 
 
 By the ffatute, 12 Car. IE all tenures of any honours, ma- 
 nors, lands, &c. arc turned into free and common foccage ; 
 but the honorary fei vices of grand fergeanty are thereby con- 
 tinued. 
 
 SERIES, a continued fucceffion of things in the fame order, 
 and which have fome relation or connection with each other. 
 Medals are formed into fuitcs or [cries 's, both with regard to 
 the metal, and to the fubject. The different metals of me- 
 dals, conftitute three different feries's, in the cabinets of the 
 curious ; we mean, as to the order and arrangement of the 
 fevcral medals. — The gold feries, for infhncc, of imperials, 
 amounts to about 1000 or 120c ; that of hiver may amount 
 to 3000 ; and that of copper, in all the three fizes, great, 
 middle, and fmall, to 6 or 7000. — Of thefe, the ferics of 
 middle copper is the moft compleat and moft eafily formed, as 
 it may be brought down to the fall of the empire in the weft, 
 and the time of the Palseologi in the eaft. 
 With regard to the fubject, the feries's of medals are ufually 
 formed from the fide called the bead : in the firft clafs, is 
 difpofed the fries of kings: in the fecond, that of Greek 
 and Latin cities ; in the third, the Roman confular families ; 
 in the fourth, the imperial ; in the fifth, the deities : and to 
 thefe may be added a fixth fries, confuting of medals of 
 illuftrious perfons. 
 
 There are alfo feries's of modern medals : that of the popes 
 only commmences from Martin V. in 1430. From that 
 time we have a feries of papal medals, tolerably compleat, 
 to the number of 5 or 600. — One might likewife have a 
 feries of emperors from Charlemain ; provided one took in 
 the current coins : but, in practice they commonly commence 
 with Frederick II. in 1463. — The fries of kings of France 
 is the moft numerous and moff. confiderable of all the mo- 
 dern kings. 
 
 Series, in algebra, denotes a rank of progreffion of quanti- 
 ties, increafing or decreafmg in fome conftant ratio ; which, 
 in its progrefa, approaching ftill nearer and nearer to iome 
 fought value, is called a converging fries ; and if infinitely 
 continued, becomes equal to that quantity : whence its ufual 
 appellation of infinite feries. 
 
 Thus \ $ i f& j-, iffc. make a fries, which always con- 
 verges, or approaches to the value of 1, and infinitely con- 
 tinued, becomes equal thereto. 
 
 The doctrine and ufe of infinite feries's, one of the greateft 
 improvements of the prefent age, we owe to Nic. Mercator 
 of Holftein, who however, fecms to have taken the firft 
 hint of it from Dr. WalUVs arithmetick of infinites. — It 
 takes place principally in the quadratures of curves ; where, 
 as we frequently fall upon quantities, which cannot be ex- 
 prefTed by any precile definite numbers, fuch as is the ratio 
 of the diameter of a circle to the circumference; we are 
 glad to exprefs them by a feries, which, infinitely continued, 
 is the value of the quantity required. 
 Nature, origin, and ufe of infinite Series's.— Though arith- 
 metic furnifh us with very adequate and intelligible expieffi- 
 ons for all rational numbers, yet it is very defective as to 
 irrational ones ; which are infinitely more numerous than 
 the other ; there being, for inftance, an infinity of them 
 between 1 and 2. Were it now required to find a mean 
 proportional between 1 and"2, in rational numbers, which 
 
 algne 
 
SER 
 
 S E R 
 
 alone are clearly intelligible, (the root of 2 being certainly 
 a very obfe'ure idea) we could frill approach nearer and nearer 
 to the juft value of the quantity required, but without ever 
 arrivin" at it : thus, it" for the mean proportional between i 
 and 2, or the root of 2, we firft put i, it is evident we have 
 not put enough ; if we add k we put too much, for the 
 fquare of i-f-1 is greater than two. If then we take away 
 i, we fball find we have taken away too much, and if we 
 return A, the whole will be too great : thus may we pro- 
 ceed, without ever coming at the juit quantity fought. — 
 Thefe numbers thus found, and thofe found after the fame 
 manner to infinity, being difpofed in their natural order, 
 make what we call an infinite feries. 
 
 Sometimes the feries's do not proceed by alternate additions 
 and fub tract ions, but by flthple additions, or by an infinity of 
 fubtractions ; according to the pofition of the firft term. 
 In all thefe infinite feries's it is vifible, that as all the terms 
 are only equal to a finite magnitude, they muft be ftill de- 
 ereafina ; and it is even convenient that they be fo, as much 
 as pbflible, that one may take only a certain number of the 
 firft terms for the magnitude fought, and neglect all the 
 reft. 
 
 Eur it is not irrational numbers only, that are expreffed in 
 rational ones, by infinite feries's. Rational numbers them- 
 felves may be expreficd in the fame manner : i, for inftancc, 
 being equal to the feries k i J, &c. but there is this diffe- 
 rence between them, that whereas irrational numbers can 
 only be expreffed in rational numbers, by fuch feries ; ra- 
 tional ones need no fuch cxpreflion. 
 
 Among infinite feries's, there are fome whofe terms only 
 make a finite fum ; fuch is the geometrical progreflion f i }, 
 &e. and in general, all geometrical, decreasing progreflions : 
 in others, the terms make an infinite fum ; fuch is the har- 
 monical progreffion It is not that there are 
 
 more terms in the harmonica), than in the geometrical pro- 
 greffion, though the latter has no term which is not in the 
 former, and wants feveral which the fbi mer has ; fuch a dif- 
 ference would only render the two infinite fums unequal, 
 and that of the harmonical progreflion the greateft : the 
 caufe lies deeper. 
 
 From the received notion of infinite divifibility, it follows, 
 that any finite thing, e. gr. a foot is a compound both of 
 finite and infinite : finite, as it is a foot ; infinite, as it con- 
 tains an infinity of parts, into which it is divifible. — If 
 thefe infinite parts be conceived, as feparated from one ano- 
 ther, they will make an infinite feries, and yet their fum 
 ■will only be a foot ; only, no terms are to be here put, but 
 fuch as may, diftinct from each other, be parts of the fame 
 finite whole : now this is the cafe in the geometrical, de- 
 creafmg feries g \ S, (Sc. for it is evident, that if you firft 
 take { of a foot, then i of what remains, or J of a foot, 
 then J of what remains, or J of a foot ; you may proceed 
 to infinity, ftill taking new decreafmg halves, all dif- 
 ftinct from each other, and which all together only make 
 a foot. 
 
 In this example, we not only take no parts but what were 
 in the whole, diitinct from each other ; but we take all that 
 were there ; whence it comes to pafs, that their fum makes 
 the precife whole again : but, were wc to follow the geome- 
 trical progreflion \ £ f , caY. that is, at firft take -J of a foot, 
 and from what remains \ of a foot, and from what ftill re- 
 mains £ of a foot, &c. it is true, we fhould take no parts but 
 what were diftinct from each other in the foot ; but we 
 fhould not take all the parts that were there, fince we only 
 take the feveral thirds, which are lefs then the halves ; of 
 confequence, all thefe decreafmg thirds, though infinite in 
 number, could not make the whole ; and it is even demon- 
 Irratcd, that they would only make half. — In like manner, 
 all the fourths decreafmg to infinity, would only make one 
 third, and all the hundredths, only the ninety-ninth part : 
 fo that the fum of the terms of an infinite feries decreafmg 
 geometrically, is not only always finite, but may even be lei's 
 than any finite quantity that can be afiigned. 
 If an infinite decreafmg feries exprefs parts which cannot 
 fubfift in the whole, diftincfly from each other ; but fuch, 
 as to take their values, we muft fuppofe the fame quantity 
 taken feveral times, in the fame whole ; then will the fum 
 of thefe parts make more than a whole, nay, infinitely 
 more; that is, the feries will be infinite, if the fame quan- 
 tity be taken an infinity of times. — -Thus, in the harmoni- 
 cal progreffion I f $ 5 £&r. if we take -5 of a foot, or 6 
 inches, then \ 4. inches, it is evident we cannot take further 
 ■ of a foot, or 3 inches, without taking 1 inch more than 
 was left in the foot. Since then the whole is already ex- 
 haufted by the three firft terms, we can take no more of 
 the following terms, without taking fome thing already 
 taken : and, fince thofe terms are infinite in number, it 
 is very pofiible that the fame finite quantity may be repeated 
 an infinite number of times, which will make the fum of 
 the feries infinite. 
 
 We fay polTible ; for though of two infinite feries's, the one 
 may make a finite fum, and the other an infinite one ; it is 
 true, that there may be fuch a jeries, where the finites, having 
 cxhaufrod the whole, the following ones, though infinite in 
 
 number, mail only make a finite fum ; and, in effect, fince 
 it is demonftrated, by the laws of geometrical progreflion, 
 that there are feries 's, whofe funis are lefs than the whole, 
 nay, infinitely lefs ; it follows, that there muft likewife be 
 jeries's which make infinitclv more. 
 
 There are two further remarks necefl'ary to be made on fe- 
 ries's in general. i°. That there are fome, wherein, after 
 a certain number of terms, all the other terms, though infi- 
 nite in number, become each a cypher. Now, it is evi- 
 dent, that the fum of thefe feries's is finite, and eafily found ; 
 they having only an appearance of infinity. 
 2°. That the fame magnitude may be expreffed by different 
 feries's ; and may be exprefied both by a feries, whofe fum 
 may be found, and by another, whofe fum cannot be 
 found. 
 
 Geometry does not labour under the fame difficulty as arith- 
 mccick : it cxprefies irrational numbers exactly in lines, and 
 needs not have rccourfe to infinite feries's. Thus the diagonal 
 of a fquare, whofe fide is 1, is known to be the fquare root of 
 2.— But, in fome other cafes, geometry itfelf is under the 
 like embarrafs ; there being fome right lines, which cannot 
 be exprefied otherwife then by an infinite feries of fmaller 
 lines, whofe fum cannot be found : of which kind are the 
 right lines equal to curves ; fo that in feeking, for inftance, 
 a right line equal to the circumference of a circle, we find, 
 that the diameter being 1, the line fought will be J, minus 
 f, plus ^, minus ±, plus % £sY. 
 
 As to the finding of an infinite feries to exprefs quantities 
 fought ; Mercator, the firft inventor of the method, did it 
 by divifion : but Sir If. Newton and M. Leibnitz, have im- 
 proved the doctrine very confiderably : the firft finding his 
 feries by the extraction of roots, and the fecond by another 
 feries prefuppofed. 
 To find a Series expreffir.g a quantity fought, by divifion. — Sup- 
 pofe a feries required to exprefs the quotient of b divided by 
 a-j-c. Divide the dividend by the divifor, as in common 
 arithmetick; continuing the divifion till the quotient fhew 
 the order of the progreflion, or the law, according to which 
 the terms proceed to the infinity : ftill obferving the rules of 
 fubtracfion, multiplication, and divifion, about the chang- 
 ing of the figns. — The procefs carried on, the quotient will 
 
 b~bc-\-bc-~bc* 
 be found . « — £sV. in infinitum, 
 
 a a 1 a} a + 
 Thefe four or five terms thus found, both the quotient and 
 manner of the divifion fhew, that the quotient confifts of 
 an infinite faus of terms, whofe numerators are the powers 
 of c, whofe exponents differ from the number of the order 
 by unity, whofe denominators are the powers of a, and their 
 exponents equal to the number of the order of the terms. 
 — E. gr. In the third term, the power of c is the fecond in 
 the numerator ; and the power of a is the third in the 
 denominator. 
 
 Hence, i°. If b = r and a = 1 fubftituting this value for 
 that, we have, in that quotient 1 — f-J-c 1 — c ! , csV. to infi- 
 nity. Wherefore — — - = 1 — r\-c 2 — f' a {5V. in infini- 
 tum. I ~i~ 2 
 
 If then, fecondly, the terms in the quotient continually de- 
 creafe, the feries will give a quotient as near the truth as 
 poflible. — E. gr. If b=i, f =»i and a =2 ; thefe values 
 fuftituted in the general fries, or the divifion performed aj 
 
 1 
 
 in the general example ; we Ihall find f- = = I — J 
 
 2+1 
 
 -+■£ — A+Sa — & c ' Suppofc then, the feries 
 to be broke off in the fourth term ; there will be a deficien- 
 cy : but it will be lefs than ^. If it be broke off in the 
 fixth, there will be a deficiency, but that lefs than ,£ 3 . The 
 further therefore the feries is continued, the nearer it ap- 
 proaches to truth, but it never arrives at it. 
 
 1 
 
 After the like manner we find * = — = a _l. 
 
 r 
 
 i, — £ + (Sc. in infinitum * = = | — ^ J* 
 
 4+i 
 
 1 
 
 A— iis> y<r - >»fi»ittm I = i — -f. ,f , — ■ 
 
 .... ... 5 +\ , 
 
 &c. in infinitum. This is a conftant law, whereby all 
 
 fractions, whofe numerator is unity, may be exprelfed by 
 infinite feries's ; thofe feries's being all geometrical progrefli- 
 ons, decreafmg in fuch manner as that the numerator is al- 
 ways unity - } and the denominator of the firft term, which 
 is alfo the exponent of the ratio, differs by unity from the 
 denominator of the fraction to be refolved. 
 If the terms of the quotient be continually increafing, the 
 feries recedes fo much the farther from the quotient as it is 
 continued longer; nor does it ever become equal to the 
 quotient, unlefs it be terminated, and have the laft remainder 
 
 added under its fign. E, gr. Suppofe * = ; the quo- 
 
 1+2 
 
 ticnt 
 
SER 
 
 S E R 
 
 tieht will be found i — 2-f 4-~-8-|- 16—64+ 12S, &c. 
 One term, I exceeds \ by an excels of, ; two terms conies 
 fhort by } ; three terms exceed by * ; four fall fhort by L j*, 
 mi. If the /erics be fuppofed to terminate in — 8 ; then 
 
 w iii — — 1 — 2-1-4 — 8+^. 
 
 1+2 I 
 = — 5 = ■ — Therefore, = 
 
 1+2 
 
 pofe the general feries to terminate in - 
 
 But 1 — z + 4 — ! 
 
 f — Sup- 
 
 then 1 
 
 ■ill 
 
 1 Quadrature of the 
 
 circle. 
 
 „ r--_d-) 
 
 r+f _ c --4. c --4-r'- c '. 
 
 ' + 3 
 
 To find an infinite feries by 
 
 extracting of roots, 
 
 To find an infinite feries by 
 
 a prefuppofed feries, 
 
 To extract the roots of an ? 
 
 infinite feries, 3 
 Reverfton of Series. See the article Reversion. 
 SKRMOLOGUS, Sermolocue, an ecclcfmilical book 
 
 compofed or fermons, or homilies of popes, and other pcrlons, 
 
 of eminence and fanctity, formerly read at the feafts of the 
 
 confeiTors, the Purification, All Saints, and on every day from 
 
 Chriftmas to the odtavc of the Epiphany. See Homily. 
 SERMON, funeral. Sec the article Funeral. 
 SERMONES, the title which Horace gives his fatyrs. See 
 
 the article Satyr. 
 
 Criticks are divided about the reafon of the name: the opi- 
 nion of father Boflu feems belt grounded. A mere obfer- 
 vance of feet, and meafure, fuch as we find in Terence, 
 Plautus, and in Horace's fatyrs, he thinks is not lufficient 
 to conftitute verfe, to determine the work to be poetical, or 
 to diftinguifh it from profe : unlefs it have fome further air, 
 or character of poetry ; fomewhat of the fable, or the fub- 
 lime. 
 
 Hence he judges [t is, that Horace calls his fatyrs, profs, or 
 fermones. — His odes have quite another air, and are therefore 
 called, poems, carmina. 
 SERMON1UM, in old records, a kind of interlude or hifto- 
 rical play, which the inferior orders of clergy, affifted by 
 boys, i$c. ufed at times to act in the body of the church, fuit- 
 ablc to the folemnity of fome fcftival or high proceffion day. 
 This is fuppofed to have been the origin of the modem dra- 
 ma. 
 
 SERON of almonds, is the quantity of two hundred weight ; 
 
 of anife-feeds, it is from 3 to 4.00 ; of caftle-foap, from 200 
 
 and a half to 300 and 3 quarters. 
 SEROSITY, in medicine, an aqueous liquor, or lympha, 
 
 found in the blood and other humours. 
 
 Dcgori defines it, a iharp, bilious juice, approaching nearly 
 the nature of blood ; but which, being extraval'ated, docs 
 not coagulate like the blood. 
 
 Diforders of the fpleen are attended with ferofities ; the kid- 
 neys help to purge oft" ferofities. 
 SERPENS, in aftronomy, a conftellation in the northern 
 hemifphere, called more particularly ferpens opbiuebi. 
 The ftars in the conftellation ferpens, in Ptolemy's cata- 
 logue are 17; in Tycho's 19; in the Britannic catalogue 
 59. The longitudes, latitudes, magnitudes, &c. whereof 
 arc as follow. 
 
 Names and fituations of the Longitude Latitude 2 
 
 liars. ^ North. 
 
 m 7 3 
 
 Inform, preceding the neck and head 
 of the ferpent 
 S 
 
 Firft of three under the jaw 
 That in firft bend of the neck 
 Preced. in 2d bend of the neck 
 
 Middle under the jaw 
 Third and fubfequent 
 1 it from the root of the neck 
 20 
 
 Preced. in the □ of the head, or in 
 
 extrem. of the check 
 Preced. of 2 before the 2d bend 
 The lucid one of the neck 
 Poiterior in the 2d bend 
 
 45 
 
 a 42 07 
 10 33 31 
 12 04 08 
 
 12 30 OO 
 
 13 '7 °4 
 
 10 01 04 
 
 14 26 37 
 
 9 57 2 ° 
 14 4s 18 
 
 16 49 c 7 
 
 11 29 3; 
 14 00 35 
 
 '7 35 '8 
 
 11 S3 15 
 
 14 36 42 
 13 co 57 
 
 12 40 02 
 
 ■3 57 54 
 
 15 12 31 
 
 12 ci 05 
 
 13 23 17 
 18 42 50 
 
 17 45 22 
 , 20 19 46 
 
 16 00 52 
 
 16 21 30 
 
 2Z* IO OO 
 
 17 50 23 
 
 19 27 06 
 
 18 32 06 
 29 59 11 
 17 01 48 
 
 32 5 8 55 
 
 20 07 02 
 
 17 27 54 
 
 34 01 52 
 
 28 54 23 
 
 18 17 38 
 
 35 4 8 44 
 
 2S 31 00 
 
 33 2 4 38 
 
 34 23 28 
 34 36 12 
 31 34 09 
 
 38 08 21 
 
 36 59 54 
 
 21 45 03 
 25 3' 5 6 
 •7 39 *5 
 
 Vol. II. N°. 140. 
 
 Names and filuatior.( of the S 
 • ftars. 
 
 That following the luc-da to north, 
 
 by Tyclio reckon, the 16 oph. 
 South of O in root of the neck 
 
 A fmr.Il one under that 
 30 
 
 Behind 2d bend before oph. hand 
 Subfequent before the 2d bend 
 In mouth, in middle of □ of head 
 Subfeuuent behind the zd bend 
 That following the lucida to :he fouth. 
 35 
 
 North ngauift the nofti^ls in the □ of 
 the head 
 
 In temples, 1 fubfequent of □ 
 That without the head to north 
 
 4° . 
 
 That following preced. oph. hand 
 
 45 
 
 Longitude 
 
 Latitude 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 Nurth. 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 3" 34 
 
 36 oz 33 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 04 56 
 
 2 ^ 34 53 
 
 4 
 
 1 ; 
 
 37 °3 
 
 34 21 3° 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 1 46 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 21 06 
 
 3* 09 3^ 
 
 
 2! 
 
 37 °S 
 
 16 x6 11 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 27 cc 
 
 2i 47 38 
 
 < 
 
 1 s 
 
 26 47 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 57 '3 
 
 *6 "1 ^° 
 
 
 '9 
 
 59 22 
 
 2- 1 OZ 0^ 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 '5 
 
 
 40 01 39 
 
 4 2 
 
 18 
 
 ' f 
 
 3241 18 
 
 
 *9 
 
 
 28 1 z n 
 
 3 5T 
 
 7 
 
 1 8 
 
 z 3 °4 
 
 55 '9 32 
 
 3 
 
 >7 
 
 48 23 
 
 5 2 
 
 4 
 
 23 
 
 iz 27 
 
 30 15 16 
 
 
 23 
 
 45 5 s 
 
 28 zk 33 
 
 7 
 
 w 
 
 23 30 
 
 37 1 ,''08 
 
 4 
 
 
 29 59 
 
 37 °3 33 
 
 
 29 
 
 °5 54 
 
 
 S 
 
 28 
 
 11 31 
 
 28 07 57 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 07 23 
 
 10 18 ^ 
 
 
 '5 
 
 57 59 
 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 
 10 08 59 
 
 
 20 
 
 13 23 
 
 7 59 05 
 
 
 31 
 
 07 05 
 
 10 32 52 
 
 5 
 
 2 5 
 
 47 32 
 
 '9 47 52 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 31 03 
 
 0 31 56 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 06 51 
 
 23 29 53 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 it 17 24 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 i 9 i S 
 
 2Z 14 04 
 
 5 
 
 1 1 
 
 31 z8 
 
 29 19 27 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 26 30 
 
 z6 54 4l 
 
 i 
 
 1 1 
 
 31 48 
 
 2 5 «3 45 
 
 6 
 
 ill of 3, behind oph. hind thigh 
 Thefe 3 Tycho ranks am. thofeofop'h. 
 South of z following this 
 5° 
 
 North of thefe 
 
 In lafi bend, behind oph. hand 
 La!t but one of the tail 1 
 Of three fmall ones following S north 
 that £fouth 
 
 55 
 
 Middle and fubfequent 
 
 In extremity of the tail 
 Small one adjacent to this 1 
 SERPENT, a mufical inftrum..^, 
 
 cornet, or fmall mawm, to fuftain a chorus of fingers in a 
 
 large edifice. 
 
 It has its name ferpent, from its figure ; as confiftin"- of feve- 
 ral folds or wreaths, which ferve to reduce its length, which 
 would otherwife be fix or feven feet. 
 
 It is ufually covered with leather ; and confifh of three 
 
 parts; a mouth-piece, a neck, and a tail It has fix h..>les, 
 
 bv means whereof it takes in the compute of two octaves ■ 
 SERPEN TARIA, a medicinal plant, called by the ancients 
 pijtohchia, and dracunculus ; by us popularly, puke-root, and 
 fometimes ferpentary. 
 
 The ancients were only acquainted with two kinds of ferpen- 
 taria, the great and the fmall; but fmce the difcovery of 
 America, botanifts hr.ve added feveral others ; as the ferben- 
 
 :f 
 
 They are fuppofed to be alexipharmicks, o- counter-poi- 
 fons; and as fuch are ingredients in the Venice-treacle. The 
 Jierb dragon's, is, alfo, called by fome writers, the great fir- 
 by the ancients dracunculus major ; this ha°s its Item 
 
 . V . " , **" u ' ■T~ cu levcui otners ; as, trie jerpen- 
 
 tana p irgimana, or Virginia fnake-root ; befides that of Ca- 
 nada, and that of Brafil 
 
 pentar 
 
 al ■ I r " mujui , uiis nas its Item 
 
 very itreight, fmooth, and marked with red fpots, like the 
 Ikin of a ferpent ; whence, probably, as much as from its 
 virtues, it is, that it takes its name.— Its root is bio-, round 
 and white, covered with a thin ikin. 
 
 The fmaller ferpentaria, of this kind, has its {talk much like 
 that of the larger, only its leaves are like thofe of ivvt where- 
 as thofe of the larger are digitated, after the manner of 
 baftard hellebore — Its root is round and bulbous. 
 The ferpentaria of Virginia, called alfo colubrina Virginiana' 
 afarum Virginianum, ferpentaria nigra, and the contrayerva 
 of Virgima, has its leaves green and large, aimoft in fi-mreof 
 a heart; its fruit round, and its root, which is of a very 
 ltrong aromatick fmell, has, at bottom, an infinite number 
 of long fmall filaments, reprefcnting a kind of beard. 
 It was firft brought into Europe from Virginia by the En^- 
 lifh ; and is by the Americans efteemed a fovercign antidote 
 agamft rhe bite of the rattle lnake.— We are told by tra- 
 vellers, that this root not only cures the bite of the rattle 
 fnake, but that that animal flies the very fmell thereof : for 
 which reafon the Indian, and other travellers, always carry 
 it with them on the end of a ftali", by way of a prefervativc 
 from that creature. 
 SERPENTARIUS, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the 
 northern hemifphere, called alio Ophiuchus, and anciently- 
 Mfculapius. y * 
 
 The ftars in the conftellation ferpentarius in Ptolemy's cata- 
 logue are 29 ; in Tycho's 25 ; in the Britannic catalogue 
 they are 69. 1 he longitudes, latitudes, magnitudes, &c. 
 wherof are as follow. 
 
 Names and (Ituations of the 
 ftars. 
 
 North in the preceding hand 
 South and iubfequent 
 North in the preceding kne« 
 
 ^Longitude; Latitude 
 
 ?a ' ■ V ' " 
 
 H27 S 8 ij i 7 , 7 , 5 N 
 29 10 4j 10 28 20N 
 * o 58 2o ( 13 00 18N_ r 
 
 3 
 
 3 * 
 5 
 
SER 
 
 Names and filiations of the 
 liars. 
 
 south in the preceding leg 
 Under the foal of preceding foot 
 5 
 
 Middle in the preceding leg 
 
 N'onh of thefe 
 
 in preceding heel 
 
 In the cubitus of preceding arm 
 
 South in preceding 'knee 
 Intormis between Ghti leg; 
 
 Preceding of z in fore fiioulder 
 Sublequent 
 
 Againft: the hind knee 
 In the toe's of the hind foot 
 35 
 
 In the tack of the hind foot 
 
 Caput Herculii 
 
 In the tibia of the hind leg 
 
 4° 
 
 Bright one in the foal of the foot 
 
 Preceding in heel of hind foot 
 4S 
 
 In the middle of the back 
 
 Pofteriorir. the heel 
 
 Preceding of z following the foot 
 5° 
 
 In ophiuchus's head 
 
 In the cubitus of hind arm 
 Laft of thofe that follow the foot 
 North of z inpofterior flioulder 
 55 
 
 South in the hind fhouldet 
 South in the hind hand 
 
 6o 
 
 ^.Longitude 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 t 3 ' + 
 
 18 
 
 4 "7 
 
 58 
 
 "U8 S3 
 
 °S 
 
 J 3 4° 
 
 2 S 
 
 4 *' 
 
 2b 
 
 5 '9 
 
 53 
 
 > "5 
 
 38 
 
 1 03 
 
 21 
 
 IU29 53 43 
 
 J 3 23 
 
 >9 
 
 4 S3 
 
 55 
 
 6 58 
 
 10 
 
 3 3° 
 
 28 
 
 4 '7 
 
 45 
 
 5 20 
 
 03 
 
 4 12 
 
 4 1 
 
 5 38 
 
 12 
 
 5 "8 
 
 15 
 
 8 03 
 
 °5 
 
 S 4' 
 
 28 
 
 6 54 
 
 17 
 
 8 42 
 
 16 
 
 6 17 
 
 51 
 
 7 3° 
 
 12 
 
 10 09 
 
 '4 
 
 8 12 
 
 22 
 
 S 38 
 
 c8 
 
 8 42 
 
 45 
 
 1 3 39 
 
 28 
 
 15 28 
 
 3- 
 
 ■5 43 
 
 28 
 
 15 55 
 
 
 16 12 
 
 46 
 
 16 06 
 
 
 11 48 
 
 47 
 
 16 34 
 
 5- 
 
 17 00 
 
 23 
 
 17 05 
 
 02 
 
 1 7 34 
 
 53 
 
 ■7 43 
 
 57 
 
 18 31 
 
 16 
 
 18 01 
 
 32 
 
 16 15 
 
 52 
 
 1 9 00 
 
 57 
 
 19 09 
 
 46 
 
 ■7 S3 
 
 59 
 
 zo 46 
 
 :6 
 
 18 05 
 
 3 2 
 
 18 06 
 
 5 1 
 
 20 02 
 
 33 
 
 21 48 
 
 44 
 
 2 I GO 
 
 44 
 
 ZI 22 
 
 46 
 
 22 18 
 
 32 
 
 24 31 
 
 30 
 
 ZJ z 5 
 
 16 
 
 2J 46 
 
 01 
 
 2 S 44 
 
 33 
 
 z; 51 
 
 '9 
 
 26 09 
 
 '7 
 
 26 27 
 
 33 
 
 27 09 
 
 16 
 
 2 7 47 
 
 4' 
 
 2 7 49 
 
 43 
 
 28 ZI 
 
 39 
 
 I 36 09N 
 1 42 55 S 
 
 z6 22 14N 
 
 3 16 3 zN 
 
 5 '4 4' N 
 
 0 2S 40N 
 
 23 35 3 8N 
 
 27 08 34N 
 33 00 52N 
 19 34 »7jJ 
 
 4 28 25N 
 
 26 10 57N 
 23 12 34N 
 
 23 11 30N 
 
 30 41 18N 
 
 24 17 04N 
 
 27 27 47N 
 [ 1 38 00N 
 29 30 3 3N 
 23 3s 16N 
 16 z 2 o 1 N 
 
 32 32 16N 
 
 31 52 20N 
 18 28 iHN 
 36 42 00N 
 36 15 20N 
 
 36 13 35N 
 7 14 izN 
 3 56 17 S 
 3 24 16 s 
 3 20 oS b 
 
 3 29 39 S 
 
 1 08 53 S 
 
 37 »8 55N 
 
 2 04 47N 
 1 42 28 S 
 
 1 47 38 s 
 
 4 54 52 S 
 o 59 24 S 
 
 6 34 12 S 
 053 48 s 
 
 7 20 39N 
 031 20 s 
 
 0 38 iS S 
 36 z8 22N 
 
 28 55N 
 
 35 S3 16N 
 
 36 27 27N 
 
 '5 15 2 3>J 
 
 1 44 45N 
 27 58 oaN 
 
 26 01 24N 
 z6 09 20N 
 1 24 08 S 
 13 42 45N 
 
 5 28 51N 
 
 27 51 03N 
 
 26 24 31N 
 
 H 47 °7 N 
 18 06N 
 zh 03 54N 
 
 32 n 53N 
 
 33 01 Z5N 
 
 27 26 14N 
 26 44 36N 
 
 Of three informes be- "p north 25 44 33 27 51 03M 4 5 
 
 hind the poiterior Smiddle 
 (houlder ^louth 
 North in the poftcrior hand 
 That following middle informis 
 
 65 
 
 North of thofe following the head 
 South and bright, of thofe 
 After 4 informes fol- \ preceding 
 
 lowing the mould, jfubfequent yf 1 29 49 
 SERPENTINE verfes,zxt fuch as begin and end with the 
 
 fame word. — As, 
 
 Ambo fiorentes estatibus, Arcades ambo. 
 Serpentine, in chymiftry, a worm, or pipe of copper, or 
 
 pewlcr, twitted into a fpiral, and afcending Irom the bottom 
 
 of the alcmbick to the capital, and ferving in the diftillation 
 ■ ot reetify'd fpirit of wine. 
 
 Serpentine marble, or jhne, a kind of marble called by the 
 ancients ophites, from the Greek °0'f, ferpent, as being fpeck- 
 icd like a ferpent's fkin. 
 
 The ground of the ferpetttine is ufually blackifh ; but it is 
 befet with green and yellowifh ftains, itreaks, tie, being 
 withal exceeding bardi 
 
 The fcarcenefs of the ferpentine is fuch as only allows it to 
 be ufed by way of incruftation. — The largcft pieces we know 
 of, are fome tables in the compartments of the attic of the 
 Pantheon ; and two columns in the church of St Laurence in 
 I.ucina at Rome. 
 
 SER 
 
 There is alfo a foft kind of ferpentine brought from Germa- 
 ny, ufed to make veflcls of, but not in building. 
 
 Serpentine column. See the article Column. 
 
 S E R P I g rotta del. See the article Grotta. 
 
 SERPIGO, in medicine, a kind of herpes, popularly called z 
 tetter, or ring-worm. 
 
 It confifts of a number of very fmall puftulcs, rifingclofe to 
 each other, fometimes in a circular form, with great pain 
 and itching. It never comes to digefticn, and is not cured 
 without difficulty. For after it appears to have been quite 
 extinguifhed, it frequently breaks forth again at certain fea- 
 fons oi the year. — The common people ufe to cure it, by- 
 rubbing it with ink: but where the difeafe is fixed, fome 
 univerfals fhould be firft applied. 
 
 SERRATUS, in anatomy, a name given to feveral mufcles, 
 from their refemblance in ftiape, to a faw. Such are the 
 
 Serratus anticus minor, which arifes thin and flefhy from 
 the fecond, third, fourth, and fifth fuperior ribs, and afcend- 
 ing obliquely, is inferted flelhy into the proccfius coracoidea 
 of the fcapula, which it draws forward. It alfo helps in 
 refpiration, — See Tab. Anat. (Myol) fig. 2. n. 10. 
 
 Serratus anticus major, comes from the whole bafis of the 
 fcapula, and is inferted into the (even true ribs, and firft of 
 the falfe ribs, by fo many diftinct portions, reprefenting the 
 teeth of a faw. — See Tab. Anat. ( Myol. ) fig. 7. ?i. 15. 15. 
 fig. 1. n. 42. fig. 2. n. 26. 
 
 Serratus po/Hcus fttperior, arifes by a broad and thin ten- 
 don, from the two inferior fpines of the vertebrae of the 
 neck, and the three fuperior of the back, and growing 
 flelhy, is inferted into the fecond, third and fourth ribs, 
 by fo many diftiad indentations. — See Tab. Anat. fMyol.) 
 fig. 7. n. 31. 
 
 Ihefe two help to draw the ribs upwards, and bring them 
 to right angles with the vertebra? ; and, consequently, they 
 make the cavity of the thorax wider and fhorter. 
 
 Serratus pojlicus inferior, arifes by a broad and thin tendon 
 from the three inferior fpines of the vertebras of the back, 
 and from the two fuperior of the loins : its fibres, afcending 
 obliquely, grow fielny, and are inferted by four indenta- 
 tions, into the four Jaft ribs. 
 
 SERVAGE, See the article Service. 
 
 SERVANT, Servus, a term of relation, fignifying a per- 
 fon who owes and pays a limited obedience for a certain 
 time, to another, in quality of matter. 
 The Romans befides their flaves, whom they alfo called 
 fervi ; had another kind of fervants, whom they called 
 next and addicli, who were fuch as being in debt, were de- 
 livered up to their creditors by the prxtor, to work out their 
 debt ; after which they were again at liberty. 
 The pope, out of his wonderful humility,' calls himfelf in 
 his bulls, the fervant of the fervants of God, fervus fervorum 
 Dei. The hrft who ufed the appellation, as Diaconus tells 
 us, were pope Damafus and Gregory the great ; which kft 
 is faid to have ufed it to check, by his modefty, the arro- 
 gance of John, patriarch of Conftantinople, who took the ti- 
 tle of (ecumenical.— Du Cange adds, that the title fervant has 
 been afTumed by fome bifhops, fome kings, and fome monks. 
 
 SERVETISTS, a feft faid to be the difciples or followers of 
 Michael Servetus, the ring-leader of the antitrinitarians of 
 thefe lafi ages. 
 
 In reality, however, Servetus had not any difciples ; as be- 
 ing burnt, together with his books, at Geneva, in 1553, 
 before his dogma's bad time to take root. — But the name 
 Serveti/ls is given to the modern antitrinitarians, becaufe 
 they follow the foot-Heps he had marked out. 
 Sixtus Senenfis calls the anabaptifts, Servetifls, and feems to 
 ufe the two terms indifferently. The truth is, in many 
 things, the ancient anabaptifts of Switzerland, £3V* chimed 
 in with Servetus. 
 
 As the books that be wrote againft the trinity are very rare, 
 his real fentiments are but little known : M. Simon, who 
 had a copy of the firft edition, delivers them at large in his 
 critical hiftory. 
 
 Though Servetus ufes many of the fame arguments againft 
 the trinity, as the Arians, yet he profefles himfelf very far 
 from their fentiments. He alfo oppofes the Socinians in 
 fome things ; and declares his difTent from the opinions of 
 Paulas Samofatenus ; though SandillS miftakejily charges him 
 with having the fame fentiments. In effedt, he does not 
 feem to have had any fixed regular fyftem of religion, at 
 leaft not in the firft edition of his book againft the trinity, 
 puMifhcd in 1531, under the title, de trinitatis erreribus, 
 libri fiptem, per Michaelem Servetum, alias Reves, ab Arra- 
 gonia Hifpanum. 
 
 The year following he published his dialogues on the myfte- 
 ry of the trinity. In the preface to which laft work, he de- 
 clares himfelf difiatistied therewith. — It was on this account 
 he undertook another on the fame fubjedt, of much greater 
 extent; which did not appear till the year 1553, a little be- 
 fore his death. Thofe ot Geneva having feized the copies 
 of this edition, had it burnt ; nor were there above two or 
 three that efcaped ; one of which was kept at Bafil, where the 
 book was printed, but is now in the college library at Dublin. 
 
 It 
 
SER 
 
 It was lately put to the prefs, fecretly, in England j 
 but being difcovered, the unpreffion was feized and de- 
 ftroyed. 
 
 SERVICE, or Servage, Servitium, in law, a 
 duty which the tenant, by reafon of his fee, owes to the 
 lord. 
 
 Ancient law-books make feveral divifions of fervid, viz. 
 into perfonal, real and mixt ; military and bafe ; intrinftc 
 and extrinftc, he. But fince the ftatute 12 Car. II. where- 
 by all tenures are turned into free and common foccage ; 
 much of that learning is fet afide. — Yet it may not be amifs 
 to mention how the feveral kinds of fervice are defcribed in 
 our ancient law-books. 
 Personal Service^ is that to be performed by the perfon. — 
 
 Such is that due from a Have to his mafter. 
 Real Service, is either urbane or ru/lic ; which two kinds 
 differ, not in. the place, but the thing.— The firit is that 
 due from a building or houfe, in whatever place fituate, 
 whether city or country ; as the keeping a drain, a villa, or 
 the like. 
 
 Rujlic Services, are thofe due for grounds where there 
 is no building ; fuch is the right of paflagc through ways, 
 &c 
 
 Mixt Service, is that due from the perfon, by reafon of the 
 thing, as an ufu-fruit, &c. 
 
 Our ancient law-books tell us of lands held of the king, by 
 
 the tenant's letting a fart before the king on new years-day ; 
 
 others, by furnifhing the king with whores whenever he 
 
 travelled that way ; others, by bringing the king a mefs of 
 
 pottage at his coronation feaft, &c. 
 There are alfo natural Services. — For inftance, if a man 
 
 cannot gather .the produce of his lands without palling 
 
 through his neighbour's grounds, the neighbour is obliged to 
 
 allow a pafTage, as a natural fervice. 
 Farenfic, or extrinfic Service, Servitium forenficum, he. 
 
 was a fervice which did not belong to the chief lord, but to 
 
 the king. 
 
 It was called forenfic and extrinfic, becaufe done foris, out of 
 doors ; and extra jervitium. — We meet with fe 
 in the monafficon, of all liberties, with the 
 falvo forenfi fervitio. 
 Intnnfic Service, Servitium intrinficum, that due to the 
 
 chief lord alone, from his vaiTals within his manor. 
 Frank Service, Servitium liberum, a fervice done by the 
 feudatory tenants, who were called liber i homines, and dif- 
 tincTt from vallate : as likewife was their fervice ; for they 
 were not bound to any bafe fervicei, as to plough the lord's 
 lands, tsY. but only to find a man and horfe to attend the 
 lord into the army or court. 
 
 ieveral grants 
 ; apurtcnances. 
 
 jBafe Service.. 
 Bard Service, 
 Foreign Service, 
 Honorary Service, 
 Knights Service, 
 Military Service, 
 Rent Service, 
 
 See the article: 
 
 ' VlLLENAGEj 
 EORD, 
 
 Foreign - , 
 Honorary, 
 Knight, 
 Military, 
 Rent. 
 
 Ovdty of Service, 7 q . J, Ovelty, 
 
 Suit ./Service, f See 'he art.cles) SuiT , » 
 SERVIENTES virgatores. See Virgatores. 
 6ERVITES, an order of religious, fo denominated from 
 their vowing a peculiar attachment to the fervice of the 
 virgin. 
 
 The order was founded by feven Florentine merchants, 
 who, about the year 1233, began to live in community on 
 mount Senar, two leagues from Florence. In 1239, they 
 received from the bifhop, the rule of St. Auguftin ; with a 
 black habit, in lieu of a grey one which they had wore be- 
 fore.— In 1251, Bonfilio Monaldi, one of the feven, of 
 fimple prior of mount Senar, was named general. 
 This order was approved of by the council of Lateran, not- 
 withfranding the decree it had palled to prevent the multi- 
 plication of religious orders. And it was again approved by 
 cardinal Raynerius, legat of pope Innocent IV ; who put it 
 under the protection of the holy fee. The fucceeding popes 
 have granted it a great many favours, particularly Alexander 
 IV. and Innocent VIII. — It has alfo undergone fome re- 
 forms. 
 
 At prefent it conhTts of twenty-feven provinces. It is be- 
 . come famous in Italy, by the hiffory of the council of 
 Trent, ol Fra. Paolo, a Venetian, who was a religious fir- 
 bite, M. Hermant gives this order the name of the annun- 
 ciate, doubtlefs from this miftake, that in fome cities of Italy, 
 they are called religious of the annunciate, becaufe in thofe 
 cities, their church is dedicated under that name. F. Ar- 
 cbang. Giani derives the name fervites, fervant of the holy 
 virgin, from hence ; that when they appeared for the firft 
 time in the black habit given them by the bifhop, the fuck- 
 ing children, as they fay, cried out ; Behold the fervants of 
 the virgin. — There are alfo nuns of this order. 
 
 SFRVITf A.— Per qua Servitia. See the article Per. 
 
 SfcR VITUS confuetudinibus. See Consuetudinibus. 
 
 SERVITOR, in the univertity of Oxford, a fcholar or 
 ftudent, who attends or waits on another for his mainte- 
 nance there. 
 
 S E S 
 
 Servitors of bills, denote f„ch Terrains ormehcn~ers of -he 
 marlhal of the king'j-oench, as were fent abroad with bill- 
 or writs, to fummons men to that court.— They are now 
 commonly called tip-jlavet. 
 
 SERVITUDE, the condition of a fervant, or rather 
 Have. 
 
 Under the declenfion of the Roman empire, a new kind of 
 ferv.tude was introduced different from that of the ancient 
 Romans : it conufted in leaving the lands of (uMufated na- 
 tions to the firft owners, upon condition of certain rents, 
 and fervile offices, to be paid in acknowledgment.— Hence 
 the names of/<TO cevfm, adferiptitii and addtCli rleia: ■ f om e 
 whereof were taxable at the reafonable difcretion of the 
 lord ; others at a certain rate agreed on ; and others were 
 mainmortable, who, having no legitimate children could 
 not make a will to above the value of five-pence, the lord 
 being heir of all the reft : and others were prohibited marry- 
 ing, or going to live out of the lordfhip. Moil of which 
 (ervices frill fubfift in one province or other of France - 
 
 though they are all aboliflled in England Such, however' 
 
 was the original of our tenures, cjV. 
 
 f?. UM ', a , thin ' "anfparent, Watty liquor, fomewhat 
 ialtiih, which makes a confidcrable part in the mafs of 
 ojood. 
 
 The blood confifts of two kinds of parts ; the cruor, or red 
 part; and tbefcrum, or wheyifh, limpid part. 
 Mr. Boyle, and fome others, have taken the ferum to be 
 more ponderous than the erucr ; but Dr. Jurin, in the Phi- 
 lolophical 1 ranfaflions, from repeated experiments, allures' 
 us ot the contrary. 
 
 The ferum is, in reality, the fame with the lympha: it is 
 carried by the arteries throughout the feveral parts of the 
 body ; whence it returns partly in the veins, and partly in 
 the lymphatick veflels. See Lympha. ' 
 The ufe of the ferum is to nourilh the parts of the body ; 
 and to render the chyle and blood more fluid. 
 Urine and fweat, are nothing but ferum drained of 
 their nutritious parts, by repeated circulations, and fe- 
 crcted from the blood in the glands of the kidneys and 
 rkm. ,., 4r . t 
 
 The redundancy and other vices in the ftfum are the caufe 
 or various difcafes. 
 SESAMOIDEA offa, in anatomy, feveral very (mail hones, 
 placed between the joints ot the lingers and toes, 
 them, and prevent diflocations. 
 
 ) fottify 
 
 7 he y have the 'f name from their refemblance in figure and 
 hze, to a gram of fefamum : from fefamum, and «*»•; 
 
 form. 
 
 SESQUf, a Latin particle, fignifying a whole and a half ! 
 which joined with altera, terza, quarta, &C. is much ufed 
 in the 1 Italian mulick, to exprefs a kind of ratio's ; particu- 
 larly feveral fpecies of triples. 
 
 3 he ratio exprellid by fefyui, is the fecond ratio of inequa- 
 lity, called alfo fuper-particular- ratio ; and i; when the 
 greater term contains the lefs, once, and fome certain part, 
 over : as 3 : 2 ; where the firft term contains the fecond 
 once, and unity over ; which is a quota part of two. 
 NoWj if this part remaining, be juft half the lefs term, the 
 ratio is called Jefqui-altera : if the remaining part be a third 
 part of the leller term, as 4 ■ 3, the ratio is called fefaui- 
 ■ n T ' fil-.'-"™ ■ ; f => fourth parr, as 5 : 4, the Vatic. 
 "Oiled ftftpm-tparten and thus to infinity, Kill addin" to 
 Jijqm the ordinal number of the fmaller term, 
 in Englifh wefometimes hj,fiftm-alleral, or ffqm-alterate, 
 f h' t\ ^ &c—rhoughthi S is a little hybrid! 
 As to the kinds of triples exprefled by the particle fifmi, they 
 are theft:.— The greater perfta Se s Qu 1- a ITERATE; which 
 is a triple, where the breve is three meafures, or femi-breves 
 and that without having any point or dot annexed to it 
 
 Greater imperfect Seso^ui-alter ATE, which is where the 
 breve, when pointed, contains three meafures, and without 
 any point two. 
 
 Leffer perfea Sesojji - alter a te 
 femi-breve contains three meafures, 
 point. 
 
 Leffer imprrfiB Sesqu i-alter a te, a triple, where the 
 lemi-breve, with a point, contains three meafures, and two 
 without. 
 Accordinj 
 
 which is where the 
 and that without any 
 
 Ses 
 
 iand 1 
 
 to Buontempi, one may 
 , fefqui-aherates. 
 
 likewife call the triples 
 
 tlUI-OCTAVE, 
 
 is a kind of triple, marked C called 
 nupla di erorne, where there are 9 quavers 
 
 by the Italians, 
 
 in every meafure or bar, in lieu of 8. 
 Ditpla Sesojji-quarta, is a kind of triple, marked C - 
 called by the Italians, nonupla di ftmtmvtime, where there are 
 9 crotchets in each meafure, inftead of 4 ; that is, three 
 crotchets to each time. 
 Sesquj-alterate, in geometry and arithmetic, is a ratid 
 between two lines, two numbers, or the like, where one of 
 them contains the other once, with the addition of an half. 
 Thus 6 and 9 are in a fifqui-alterate ratio; fince 9 contains 
 6 once, and 3, which is half of 6, over : and 20 and 70 
 are in the fame ; as 30 contains 20, and half 20 or 10 
 oESQUIDITONE, in mufic, a concord rcfulting from the 
 
 foundr 
 
SET 
 
 founds of two firings, whofe vibrations, in equal times, are 
 
 to each other in the ratio of 5 to 6. 
 SESQUI-DUEUCATE rath, is when of two terms, the 
 
 greater contains the lefs twice, with half another over : 
 
 as 15 and 6 ; 50 and 20. 
 SESQUIQUADRATE, an afpect, or petition, of the 
 
 planets, when at the diftance of four figns and an half, or 
 
 r '^5 degrees, from each other. 
 SESQUIQUINTILE, an afpeft of the planets, when 108 
 
 decrees diftant from each other. 
 SESSION, Sessio, denotes each fitting, or affembly, of a 
 
 council. 
 
 In quoting councils, we fay, in fuch a feffion, fuch a canon, 
 
 Session of Parliament is the feafon, or fpace, from its meeting 
 to its prorogation, or diflblution. 
 
 Session, in law, denotes a fitting of juftices in court, upon 
 their commifiion.— As, the feffion of oyer and terminer, kc. 
 ^uarter-fejftsns, called general-fefftons, or open-Jeffiens, ftand 
 oppofite to efpecial, otherwifc called privy -feffions, which are 
 procured upon fome fpecial occafion, for the more fpeeuy 
 difpatch of juftice. 
 
 Petit- feffion s, or Jlatute-feffions, are thofe kept by the high- 
 
 conftable of a hundred, for the placing of fervants. bee 
 
 Statute. 
 Kirk Sessions. See the article Kir k. 
 SESTERCE, Sestertius, a filver coin, in life among 
 
 the ancient Romans, called alfo limply nummus, and fome- 
 
 timcs nummus fcjlertha. 
 
 The fejlerce, was the fourth part of the denarius, and 
 originally contained two as's and an half; eftimated in 
 Engliih 'money, at fomewbat above one penny half-penny 
 
 farthing. . ' . » . 
 
 The fefttrce was at firft denoted by LLS ; the two L's fig- 
 nifying two librae, and the S half. But the librarii, after- 
 wards converting the two L's into an H, exprefled the 
 
 fejlerce by H S. 
 
 The word f-jhrtius was firft introduced by way of ab- 
 breviation for femijlertius, which fignifies two, and a halt 
 of a third, or literally, only half a third ; for in cxpreli- 
 ing half a thiid, it was un'derftood, that there were two 
 
 before. 
 
 Some author? make two kinds of fjlerces ; the lefs, called 
 ftfiertim, in the mafculine gender ; and the great one, called 
 fejler'tium in the neuter : the firft, that we have already de- 
 scribed ; the latter containing a thouiand of the other, or 
 8 /. 1 s. id. ? of our money. — Others will have any fuch 
 diftinction of great and little feft&cls, unknown to the Ro- 
 mans : fejlertius, fay they, was an adjective, and fignified as 
 fejlertius, or two as's and a half : and when ufed plurally, as 
 in quinquaginta fejlertium, or fejlertia, it was only by way of 
 abbreviation, and there was always undcrftood millia thou- 
 fands : this Lift is the more probable opinion. 
 To be qualified for a Roman knight, an eftate of four hun- 
 dred thoufand fjlerces was required ; and, for a fenator, 
 of eight hundred thoufand. 
 
 Authors alio mention a copper fejierce, worth about f of a 
 penny Engliih. 
 
 Sesterce, Sestertius, was alfo ufed in antiquity, for a 
 thing containing two wholes and a half of another : as as 
 was taken for any whole, or integer. 
 
 SESTUPLO, in mufic. See the article Sextuple. 
 
 SETHIANS, or Sethinians, Sethiani, or Sethi- 
 niani, a branch of the ancient gnofticks ; thus called, be- 
 caufe of their pretending to deduce their origin from Seth, 
 fon of Adam, whom they called Jcfus and Chrift ; from an 
 opinion, that Seth and Jefus were the fame pcrfon, who 
 came down from heaven at two feveral times. 
 As the Sttbians had the fame philofophy with the other 
 gnofticks, they had numerous other fables in their fyftem. 
 See GnosTICKS. 
 
 They pretended to have feveral books of the ancient patri- 
 archs ; particularly, feven of their great mafter Seth : be- 
 fides one of Abraham, which was full of manifeft falfities, 
 which yet they called apoealypfe, or revelation. The book 
 called the little Genefis, anciently very common in the 
 churches of the eaft, was borrowed from them. From this 
 book they learned the name of Seth's wife, who, they fay, 
 was called Mora:a. — Some imagine, they borrowed a great 
 many of their fictions from the Hclleniit Jews. 
 SET3ER. bee the article Septier. 
 
 SETON, Setaceum, in chirurgery, &c. a kind of topical 
 remedv, ufed like a cautery, or an ilTue, to divert deftuxi- 
 ons frum the eyes, &c. by making a wound in the {kin of 
 the hind part of the neck, which is kept fuppurating, by 
 means of a little fkain of filk, or cotton, paffed through it. 
 Setotis are alfo fometimes applied to fuch as are apt to fall 
 into epileptic fit*. — They are of more efficacy than a com- 
 mon ili'ue, hut are preferred with much the lame intention. 
 The like operation is frequently practifed on horfes, &c, and 
 called, by the farriers, rowelling. 
 
 Setons evacuate with a gentle pain ; fhake the nerves, dif- 
 charge ferum, and give vent to repletions and coacervations 
 
 •t humours. 
 
 SEX 
 
 SETTER, among farmers. — To fetter, is to cut the dew-lap 
 of an ox or cow, and into the wound to put the root of the 
 helleborafter, whereby an iflue is made, for ill humours Co 
 vent themfelves. 
 SETTING, in aftronorriy^ the withdrawing of a ftar or 
 planet ; or its finking below the horizon. 
 Aftronomers and poets make three different kinds of 
 fetting of the ftars : cofmicaU acronycal, and heliacal. 
 — The firft, when the fhr jets with the fun. The fe* 
 cond, when it fits at the time the fun riles. The third, 
 when it is immerged, and hid, in the fun's rays. To 
 find the times of the fetting of the fun and ftars, fee 
 Globe. 
 
 Setting, in fea language. — To fet the land or the fun by 
 the compafs, is to obfervc how the land bears on anv 
 point of the compais ; or, on what point of the compafs 
 the fun is. 
 
 Alfo, when two fhips fail in fight of one another, to mark 
 on what point the chafed bears, is termed, fetting the chafe 
 by the compafs. 
 
 SEVENTH, Septima, in mufic, an interval, called by the 
 Greeks heptachordon ; whereot there are four kinds. 
 The firft, the defective or d'minijhed feventh, confifting of 
 three tones, and three greater femi-toncs, as from ut fharp 
 to ft flat. 
 
 The fecond, called by Zarlin and the Italians, femi-ditono 
 con diapente, or fettimo mir.ore; is compofed diatonicallv of 
 feven degrees, and fix intervals, four whereof are tones, and 
 the reft greater femi-tones, as from de to ut ; and chroma- 
 tically of ten femi-tones, fix whereof are greater, and four 
 lefs : it takes its form from the ratio quadripartiens quintas, 
 9 t0 5- . 
 
 The third called by the Italians, il ditono con diapente^ or 
 fttimo maggiore, is compofed diatonically, like the former, 
 of feven degrees, and fix intervals, fix whereof are full 
 tones, and a lingle one a greater femi-tone ; fo that only one 
 greater femi-tone is wanting of the octave : as from ut toft ; 
 and chromatically of eleven femi-tones, fix whereof are 
 greater, and five lelfer. It takes its origin from the ratio of 
 15 to 8. 
 
 The fourth, is the redundant feventh, compofed of five tones, 
 a greater femi-tone, and a lefler, as from fi flat to la fliarp : 
 fo th^t it only wants a comma of an ocfave ; that is, fo 
 much as it wants to render its fecond femi-tone a greater. 
 Hence many confound it with the o£lave itfelf ; maintain- 
 ing, with good reafon* that only the three firft fevenths can 
 be of any ufe. 
 Seventh pair of Nerves. See the article Nerve. 
 SEVERAL tail, in hw, is that where':y land is given, and 
 entailed fevcrally to two : e. gr. to two men and their wives, 
 and the heirs of their bodies begotten. 
 
 The donees, here, have joint eftate for their two lives, yet 
 they have feveral inheritance ; for the iflue of the one fliall 
 have his moiety, and that of the other, the other. 
 SEVERANCE, in law, the Jingling, or fevering two or 
 more that join, or are joined, in the fame writ, or action. 
 As if two join in a writ, de libertate probanda, and the one 
 be afterwards non-fuited ; here, feverance is permitted, fo, 
 as notwithstanding the non-fuit of the one, the other may 
 feverally proceed. 
 
 There is alfo feverance of the tenants in an alfize ; when one, 
 two, or more diffcifees appear upon the writ, and not the 
 other. And — Severance in debt, where two executors are 
 named plaintiffs, and the one refufes to profecute. — We alfo 
 meet with feverance of fummons, feverance in attaints, tkc. 
 SEVERIANS, Severiani. — There were two fects of he- 
 reticks thus called: the firft, who are as old as the beginning 
 of the third century, were an impure branch of gnofticks j 
 thus called from their chief, Severus. 
 
 The fecond, by fome called Severitcs, were a feci of acephali, 
 or Eutychians ; their leader, Severus, was preferred to the 
 fee of Antioch in 513, where he did his utmoft to fet afide 
 the council of Chalcedon. 
 SEWER*, in the houfhold, an officer who comes in before 
 the meat of a king, or nobleman, to place and range it on 
 the table. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, cfatyer, efquire, gen- 
 tleman or ulher. 
 
 Sewers, in building, are fhores, conduits, or conveyances, 
 for the fuillage and filth of a houfe. 
 
 Sir Henry Wotton advifes, that art imitate nature in thefe 
 ignoble conveyances, and feparate them from fight (where 
 there wants a running water) into the moft remote, loweft 
 snd thickeft part of the foundation, with fecret vents paf- 
 fmg up through the walls, to the wide air, like tunnels ; 
 this all the Italian architects commend for the difcharge of 
 noifom vapours, though elfewherc it is little pra£tifed. 
 Clerk of the Sewers. See the article Clerk. 
 SEX, Sexus, fumetbiug in the body, which diftinguifhes 
 male from female. 
 
 The number of pcrfons, of the two fexes, are exceedingly 
 well balanced ; fo that every man may have his wife, and 
 every woman her hulband. 
 Hermaphrodites have both the fexes in one. 
 
SEX 
 
 S H A 
 
 It is exprefiy forbid by the law of Mofcs, to difguife 
 the /ex. 
 
 SEXAGENARY, Sex agenarius, fomething relating 
 to the number fixty : more particularly, a perfon arrived at 
 the age of lixty years. 
 
 Some cafuills difpenfe with fexagenarians for not fading : 
 
 the Prolan law prohibits fexegtmrii from marriage ; becaufe 
 
 at that age, the blood and humours arc frozen. 
 Sexagenary aritbmetick. See Sexagesimal. 
 Sexagenary tables, are tables of proportional parts, fhew- 
 
 ing the product of two Jexagenaries that are to be multiplied; 
 
 or the quotient of two to be divided. 
 SEXAGESIMA, the fecond funday before lent, or the 
 
 next to fhrove funday. — So called, as being about the fixtieth 
 
 day before Eafter. 
 
 Sexagefima, is that which follows feptuagefima, and precedes 
 quinquagefima. 
 
 SEXAGESIMAL, or Sexagenary arithmetic, a me- 
 thod of computation, proceeding by fixties. 
 Such is that ufed, in the diviiion of a degree into 60 mi- 
 nutes ; of the minute, into 60 feconds j of the fecond into 
 60 thirds, Isc. 
 
 SEXAGESIMALS, or Sexagesimal /ratlions, are frac- 
 tions, whofe denominators proceed in a fexagecuple ratio ; 
 that is, a prime, or the firft minute = 6 '- 0t a fecond= Jrt - L 011 
 a third j o^oo- 
 
 Anciently there were no other than fexagcfimah ufed in a- 
 ftronomicitl operations, and they are ftill retained in many 
 cafes ; though decimal arithmetic begins to gruw in ufenow 
 in aftronomical calculations. 
 
 In thefe fractions, which fome alfo call ajlronomical frailtons. 
 the denominator being always 60 or a multiple thereof, i: 
 ufually omitted, and the numerator only written down ; thu: 
 4°,5g',32",5o"',i6"", is to be read, 4 degrees, 59 minutes. 
 32 feconds of a degree, or 60th parts of a minute, 50 thirds, 
 16 fourths, &c. 
 
 SEXTANS, Sextant, a fixtb part of certain things. 
 
 The Romans divided their as, which was a pound of brafs, 
 into 12 ounces : the ounce was called uncia, from unum \ and 
 two ounces /extant, as being the fixtb part of the pound. 
 See the article As, 
 
 Sextans was alfo a meafure, which contained two ounces of 
 liquor, or two cyathi.— Hence, Sextantes, Caiijle, duos in- 
 funde Fulerni. 
 
 SEXTANT, in marhematicks, denotes the fixtb part of a 
 circle ; or an arch comprehending 60 degrees. 
 
 Sextant is more particularly ufed for an aftronomical instru- 
 ment, made like a quadrant j excepting that its limb only 
 < ". prehends 60 degrees. 
 
 The ufe and application of the /extant, is the fame with that 
 of the quadrant. 
 
 In the obfervatories of Greenwich, and Pekin, there are very 
 large and fine /extants. 
 
 SEX y ARIUS, an ancient Roman meafure, containing two 
 conyla?, or two heminae. See Cotyla. 
 
 SEXXlLE) Shxtilis, the pofition or afpect of two planets, 
 when at 60 degrees diftance ; or at the diftance of two figns 
 from one another. — It is marked thus (*). See Aspect. 
 
 SEXTON, a church officer^ thus called by corruption of the 
 Latin /acrijla, or Saxon /eger/iane, which denotes the fame. 
 His office is to take care of the veffels, veftments, i$c. be- 
 longing to the church ; and to attend the minifter, church- 
 wardens, Isc. at church.- — He is ufually chofe by the parfun 
 only. 
 
 The office of /exton 0/ the pope's chapel is appropriated to the 
 order of the hermits of St. Auguftin. — He is generally a bi- 
 feop, though fometimes the pope only gives a biJhoprick, in 
 partibus, to him whom he confers the poll on. — He takes 
 the title of pre/eel of the pope's facrijly, and has the keeping 
 the veflcls of gold and filvcr, the reiicks, tzfe. 
 When the pope fays mafs, the fexton always taftes the bread 
 and wine firft. If it be in private he fays mafs, his holi 
 nefs, of two wafers, gives him one to eat ; and if in pub- 
 lick, the cardinal, who aflifts the pope in quality of deacon, 
 of three wafers, gives him two to eat. When the pope 
 dies, he adminifters to him the facraments of extreme unc- 
 tion, &c. and enteis the conclave, in quality of firft con- 
 clavift. 
 
 SEXTUPLE, Sestuplo, in mufic, denotes a mixed fort 
 of triple time, which is beaten in double time. See Tri- 
 ple. 
 
 This, the Italians call /ejluplo; the French fometimes call it 
 Jixtb time, me/ure a /ex temps; though improperly : accord- 
 ing to M. BroiTard it ought rather to be denominated triple 
 binary time. 
 
 Authors ufually make mention of three fpecies hereof; to 
 which M. Hroflard adds two more, viz. 
 Sextuple 0/ the /emi-breve, by the French called triple of 6 
 for 1, as being denoted by thofe two numbeis a ; or becaufe 
 here arc required fix femi-breves to a meafure, in lieu of one, 
 viz. three rifing and three falling. 
 
 Vol. II. N9. CXLI. 
 
 Sextuple of the minim, called by the French triple of 6 for 
 2, as being denoted by which fhew that fix minims are 
 here required to a meafure, inflcad of 2. 
 Sextuple of the crochet, called by the French triple of 6 
 for 4, becaufe denoted by C or 4 , which fhew that there 
 mull be 6 crotchets to a meafure, in lieu of 4. 
 Sextuple 0/ the chroma, by the French called triple of 6 
 for 8, as being denoted b) which fhew that 6 quavers 
 here make the meafure or femi breve, inftead of 8. 
 Sextuple of the femicbroma, or triple of 6 lor 16 ; fo called 
 becaufe denoted by \, which (hews, that 6 quavers are here 
 required to a meafui'e, inftead of 16. 
 SEXTUS, Sixth, in the canon law, denotes a collection 
 of decretals, made by pope Boniface VIII. ufually thus called 
 from the title, which is liber /extus ; as if it were- a fixth book 
 added to the five books of decretals, collected by Gregory 
 IX. 
 
 The /extus is a collection of papa! conftitutions, publifhed 
 after the collection of Gregory IX. containing thofe of the 
 fame Gregory, Innocent IV. Alexander IV. Urban IV. 
 Clement IV. Gregory X. Nicholas III. and Boniface VIII. 
 by whofe order the compilation was made. — The p-rfons 
 employed in making of it were Will, de Mandegot, arch- 
 biihop of Ambrun ; and Berenger, bifhop of Beziers, and 
 Richard of Sienna. See Canon law. 
 SGR AFFIT, Sgraffiata, in painting, denotes /cratch- 
 work ; a method of painting in black and white only, not in 
 frefco, yet fuch as will bear the weather. 
 Sgrajft performs lioth the defign and the painting, all in one. 
 — It is chiefly ufed to embellim the fronts of palaces, and 0- 
 ther magnificent buildings. 
 SHACK, in ancient cuftoms, a liberty of winter-pafturage. 
 In the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, the lord of the ma- 
 nor has jhack, i. e. a liberty of feeding his fheep at pleafure 
 upon his tenants lands, during the fix winter months. 
 In Norfolk, /hack alfo extends to the common for hogs, in 
 all mens grounds, from the end of harvefl, till feed-time.-— 
 Whence, to go a-jhack, is to feed at large. 
 SHADOW, Shade, a plane where the light is weakened by 
 the interpufition of fome opake body before the luminary. 
 The jhadow of yew, cyprefs, and wallnut-tree, are fuppofed 
 dangerous to men : the JJjadow of ath is faid to be deadly to 
 ferpents ; for which reafon they fay ferpents are never found 
 under its Jbade, but this is idle. 
 
 The doctrine of jliadows makes a confidcrable article in op- 
 ticks and geography, and is the general foundation of dialling. 
 Shadow, in opticks, is a privation of light, by the thtexpo- 
 fition of an opake body. 
 
 As nothing is fcen but by light, a mere jhadow is invifible : 
 when therefore we fay, we fee a Jhadow, we mean partly, 
 that we fee bodies placed in the jliadow, and illuminated by 
 light, reflected from collateral bodies; and partly, that we 
 fee the confines of the light. 
 
 If the opake body, that projects the Jlmdow, be perpendicular 
 to the horizon, and the place it is projected on, be horizon- 
 tal ; the Jhadow is called a right Jhadow. — :Such are the Jlia- 
 dows of men, trees, buildings, mountains, &c. 
 If the opake body be placed parallel to the horizon, the 
 Jliadow is called a ver/ed jhadow ; as the arms of a man 
 ftretched out, tiff. 
 Laws 0/ the projection u/ Shadows from opake bodies, — 1°. 
 Every opake body projects zjlwdoiv in the fame direction with 
 its rays ; that is, towards the part oppofite to the light. 
 Hence, as either the luminary, or the body changes place, 
 the fnadow likewifc changes its place. 
 
 2°. Every opake body projects as many fhadows, as there arc 
 luminaries to enlighten it. 
 
 3 0 . As the light of the luminary is uore intenfe, the Jhadow 
 is the deeper. Hence the intenfity o! '■.-"•adow is meafured 
 by the degrees of light that fyace is ueorived of. 
 4 0 . If a luminous fphere be equal to an opdke one it illu- 
 mines, the Jhadow this latter projects, wiJ oe a cylinder; 
 and, of confequence, will be propagated ftill equal to itfelfj 
 to whatever diftance the luminary is capable of acting ; fa 
 that, if it be cut in any place, the pLne of the fection will 
 be a circle equal to a great circle of the opake Iphere. 
 5 0 . If the luminous fphere be greater than the opake one, 
 the Jhadow will be conical. If therefore the fnaaow be cut 
 by a plane parallel to the bafe, the plane of the fection will 
 be a circle, and that fo much the lef : , as it is at a greater 
 diftance from the bafe. 
 
 6°. If the luminous fphere be lefs t'-.an the opake one, the 
 Jhadow will be a truncated cone : confequently it grows ftill 
 wider and wider : and therefore, il cut by a plane parallel to 
 the fection, that plane will be a circle fo much the greater, 
 as it is further from the bafe. 
 
 7 0 . To find the length of the Jhadow, or the axis of the 
 fliady cone, projected by a Icfs opake fphere, illumined by a 
 larger ; the femi-diameters of the two, as C G, and IM, 
 Tal>. Opticks, Jig. 12. and the diftances between their centers 
 GM being given. 
 
 II R Draw 
 
S H A 
 
 S H A 
 
 Draw FM parallel to CH; then will IM^CF; and 
 therefore F G will be the difference of the femi- diameters 
 G C arid I M. Confequently, as KG, the difference of the 
 ft mi-diameters is to GM, the diftance of the centers; fo is 
 C K, the femi-diameter of the opake fphere, to M H, the 
 diftance of the vertex of the fhady cone, from the center of 
 the opake fphere. If then, the ratio of P M to M H be 
 very fmall ; fothat M H and PH do not differ very notably, 
 IU H may betaken for the axis of the jhadowy cone: other- 
 wile the part PM muft be fubftracted from it ; which to find, 
 feek the arch L K ; for, this fubtracted from & quadrant, 
 leaves the arch i Qj which is the meafure of the angle 
 I M P. Since then, in the triangle M I P, which is rectan- 
 gular at P, befides the angle I M Q_) we have the fide I M ; 
 the fide M P is cafily found by plain trigonometry. 
 
 E. gr. If the femi diameter of the earth be MI = M the 
 fern i- diameter of the fun, according to Pvicciolus, will be 
 = 33; and therefore G F = 32 ; and of confequence 
 MH=228 ' ; fince then, M P is found by calculation to 
 bear a very fmall ratio toMHj P H may be taken to be 
 288 '- femi-diameters of the earth. 
 
 Hence, as 1 the ratio of the diftance of the opake body, from 
 the luminous body G M, to the length of the Jhadow M H, 
 is conftant ; if the diftance be diininiihed, the length of the 
 fiwdaw muft be diminifhed liicewife. Confequently, the 
 Jladow continually decrcafes as the opake body approaches 
 the luminary. 
 
 8°. To find the length of the Jhadow projected by an opake 
 body, T S, jig. 13 ; the altitude of the luminary, e. gr. of 
 the fun above the horizon, viz. the angle S V T, and that 
 of' the b-jdy being given. — Since, in the rectangle triangle 
 S T V, which is rectangular at T, we have given the angle 
 V, and the fideTS; the length of the food/to T V h Bad 
 by trigonometry. 
 
 Thus, fuppofe the altitude of the fun 37 0 45', and the alti- 
 tude of a tower 187 feet; T V will be found 241 \ feet. 
 9 0 . The length of the Jhadow TV, and the height of the 
 opake body T S, being given ; to find the altitude of the 
 fun above the horizon. 
 
 Since, in the rectangle triangle S T V, rectangular at T, 
 the fides T V and T S, are given ; the angle V is found 
 thus : as the length of the fnadow T V, is to the altitude of 
 the opake body T S, fo is the whole fine to the tangent of 
 the fun's altitude above the horizon. Thus, if T S be 30 
 font, and TV 45' ; TVS will be found 33 0 41'. 
 I0 U . If the altitude of the luminary, e. gr. the fun above 
 the horizon T V S, be 45 0 , the length of the jhadow TV 
 is equal to the height of the opake bo3y. 
 II 0 . The lengths of the fimdows T Z and T V of the fame 
 opake body T S, in different altitudes of the luminary, are 
 as the co-tangents of thole altitudes. 
 
 Hence, as the co-tangent of a greater angle is lefs than that 
 of a lefs angle ; as the luminary rifes higher, the jhadow de- 
 crcafes : whence it is, that the meridian jhadows are longer 
 in winter than in fummer. 
 
 32°. To meafure the altitude of any olijcct, e. gr. a tower 
 A B (Jig. 14.) by means of its fadow prujt;cted on a hori- 
 zontal plane. 
 
 At the extremity of the Jbattiw of the tower C, fix a flick, 
 and meafure the length of the jhadow AC; fix another ftick 
 In the ground of a known altitude D E, and meafure the 
 length of the jhadow thereof E F. Then as E F is to A C, 
 fo is DE to A B. If therefore, A C be 45 yards, and E D 
 5 yards ; A B will be 32 yards. 
 
 13 0 . The Jhadows of equal opake bodies have their lengths 
 proportionable to their diftances from the fame luminaries 
 equally high. Hence, as the opake approaches to the lumi- 
 nary, or the luminary to the opake body, the length of the 
 Jhadow is increafed ; and as either of them recedes, it is di- 
 minifhed. Hence, from the different lengths of fimdows of 
 the fame opake bodies at the fame height of the Sun, Moon, 
 jupitcr, Venus, &fY. we may gather their different diftances 
 from the earth ; though not accurately enough for agrono- 
 mical purpofes. 
 
 14°. The right Jhadow is to the height of the opake body, 
 as the co-fine of the luminary, to the fine. 
 15 0 . The altitude of the luminary being the fame in both 
 cafes, the opake body AC [Jig, 15.) will be to the verfed 
 padow A D, as the right jhadow E B, to its opake body D B. 
 Hence, i°. The opake body is to its verfed Jhadow, as the 
 co-fine of the altitude of the luminary to its fine ; confe- 
 queritty, the verfed JI>adow A D is to its opake body AC, as 
 the line of the altitude of the luminary to its co-fine. — 2°.If 
 DB=AC; then will D B be a mean proportional between 
 
 F. B and A D ; that is, the length of the opake body is a 
 mean proportional between its right flmdow and verfed fim- 
 dow, under the fame altitude of the luminary. — 3 0 . When the 
 angle C is 45*% the fine and co fine are equal ; and therefore 
 the verfed Jhadow is equal to the length of the opake body. 
 16 0 . A right line is to averfed fine cf the fame opake body, 
 under the fame altitude of the luminary, in a duplicate ratio 
 of the co-fine to the fine of the altitude of the luminary. 
 Right and verfed jhadows, are of confiderabie ufe in mea- 
 ning ; as by their means wc can comma dioufly enough 
 
 meafure altitudes, both acceflible and inacceflibie, and that 
 too when the body docs nut project any Jhadow. The right 
 jhadows we ufe, when the jhadow docs not exceed the alti- 
 tude ; and the verfed Jliadows, when the Jimdaw is greater 
 than the altitude. On this footing, is made an inftrument 
 called the qnadrat, or line of Jhadows, by means whereof the 
 ratio's of the right and vcrled jhadow of any object, at any 
 altitude, are determined. This inftrument is ufually added 
 on the face of the quadrant. Its description and ufe, fee 
 under the article Quadrat. 
 Shadow, in geography. — The inhabitants of the globe are 
 divided, with refpecr. to their jhadows, into afc'ti, amphifui, 
 heteroja'i, and perifcii. The firft are fuch as at a certain fea- 
 fon of the year have no jhadows at all, while the fun is in 
 the meridian. The fecond are fuch, whofe meridian Jhadow 
 at one feafon of the year looks to the north, and at another 
 to the fouth. The third are fuch, whofe Jliadows constantly 
 tend cither to the north or fouth. The laft are thofe, whofe 
 jhadows, in one and thefcmeday, fucceflivcly turn to all the 
 points. 
 
 Shadow, in painting, denotes an imitation of a real fiiadow, 
 effected by gradually heightening, and darkening the colours 
 ot fuch figures as by their dilpulition cannot receive any di- 
 rect rays from the luminary fuppofea to enlighten the piece. 
 The management of the Jhadows and lights, makes what 
 painters call the clair obfeure ; the laws whereof fee under 
 the article Clair-obscur e. 
 
 Shadow, in perfpective. — The appearance of an opake body, 
 and a luminous one, whofe rays diverge ( e. gr. a candle, 
 lamp, (Jc.) being given ; to find the jult appearance ot the 
 Jl?adow according to the laws of perfpective. — T he method 
 is this. From the luminous body, which is here confidered 
 as a point, let fall a perpendicular to the perfpective plane or 
 table j f> e. find the appearance of a point upon which a per- 
 pendicular drawn from the middle ot the luminary, falls on 
 the perfpective plane ; and from the fcvcral angles, or railed 
 points of the body let fall perpendicular to the plane. XfacTc 
 points whereon the perpendiculars fall, connect by right 
 lines, with the point upon which the perpendicular let tail 
 from the luminary, falls. And continue the lines to thcfiJe 
 oppofite to the luminary. I-aftly, through the railed point-, 
 draw lines through the center of the luminary, interjecting 
 the former ; the points of interaction are the terms or 
 bounds of the jhadow. 
 
 E. gr. Suppofe it required to project the appearance of the 
 JhadowoTa. pril'm, ABCFED (Tab, Perfpefihe, Jig. 8.N°.2.J 
 fcenographically delineated : iince Al3, UK, and C F, arc; 
 perpendicular to the plane, and L M is likewife perpendicu- 
 lar to the fame ; (Tor the luminary is given, if its altitude 
 L M be given) draw the right lines GM and HM, through 
 the points D and E.- Through the raifed points A and B a 
 draw the right lines GL and HL, interfecting the former in 
 G and H. Since the jhadow of the right line AD termi- 
 nates in G : and the jhadow of the right line EE in H ; and 
 the jhadows of all the other right lines conceived in the given 
 prifm are comprehended within thefe terms ; G D EH will 
 be the appearance of the Jhadozu projected by the prifm. 
 
 Genrfis of curves by Shadows. See the article Curve. 
 
 SHAH, in building : the Jhaft of a column, is the body 
 thereof ; thus called from its ftreightnefs : but by architects 
 more frequently the fuji. — See Tab. Archit. fig. 24, 26, 28, 
 30, 32. 
 
 Shaft, is alfo ufed for the fpire of a church-fteeple. — And 
 
 for the fhank or tunnel of a chimney. 
 Shaft of a mine, is the hollow entrance or pafTage into a 
 
 mine, funk or dug to ccme at the ore. 
 
 In the tin-mines, after this is funk about a fathom, they 
 leave a little, long, fquare place, which is called a jhamblc. 
 Sec Supplement, article Mine. 
 SHAGREEN, or Ch a g r e,e n . a kind of grained leather, 
 chiefly ufed in the covers of cafes, books, (Jc. It is very 
 clofe and folid, and covered ever with little roundiih grains, 
 or papilla:. It is brought from Conftantinople, Tunis, Tri- 
 poli, Algiers, and fome parts of Poland. 
 There is-a difpute among authors what the animal is whence 
 the Jhagreen is prepared ? Rauwolf afi'ures us it is the onager, 
 which according to him and Bellonius is a kind of wild aii. 
 V. Ray Synopf. An. Quad. p. 63. See Supplement, article 
 Onager. 1 -i 
 
 It is added, that it is only the hard part of the fkin is 
 ufed for this purpofe. Borel fays it is the fk'm of a fea-calf ; 
 others of a kind of fifli called by the Turks Jhagrain, whofe 
 flcin is covered with grains ; and thofe fo hard that they will 
 rafp and polifh wood. 
 
 There is alfo a fort offijagreenmzdz of the fkin of thefquatina, 
 in Englifti the monk or angel fifh.V. Willoughby Ichth. p. 8c- 
 Manner of preparing Shagre en. — The fkin being juft Head 
 off, is ftretched out, covered over with muftard-feed, and 
 the feed bruifed on it ; and thus it is expofed to the weather 
 for fome days ; and then tanned. 
 
 The belt is that brought from Conftantinople, of a brown- 
 ifii colour; the white is the worft. It is extremely hard, 
 yet when fteeped in water, it becomes very foft and pliable ; 
 whence i: becomes of great ufe among cafe-makers. It t2kes 
 
 any 
 
S H A 
 
 5 H E 
 
 any colour that is given it ; red, green, yellow, or b'.ack. I'c 
 is frequently counterfeited by morocco formed like Jbagreen 
 but this laft is diitinguifhed by its peeling off, which the firit 
 does not. 
 
 SHALLOP, Shalloop, or Sloop, is a fmall light veffcl, 
 
 with only a fmall main-maft, and fore-malt, and lug-faili, 
 
 to hale up, and let down, on occafion. 
 
 Shalloops are commonly good failers ; and are therefore often 
 
 ufed as tenders upon men of war. 
 SHAMADE, in war. See the article Cham ade. 
 SHAMMY, or Chammy, Chamois, a kind of leather, 
 
 either drelTed in'oil, or tanned ; much eflcemed for itb foft- 
 
 nefs, pliancy, tsV. 
 
 It is prepared from the fkin of the chamois, w fhamois, a 
 kind of rup:-capra, or wild goat, called alfo ifird ; inha- 
 biting the mountains of Dauphine, Savoy, Piedmont, and 
 the Pyreneans. 
 
 Befidcs the foftnefs and warmnefs of the leather, it has the 
 faculty of bearing foap without damage, which renders it 
 very ufeful on many accounts. 
 
 In France, &c. fome wear the fkin raw, without any pre- 
 paration. Shammy leather is ufed for the purifying of mer- 
 cury; which is done fcy paffing it through the pores of this 
 fkin, which are very clofe. 
 
 The true chamoife leather h counterfeited with common goat, 
 kid, and even with fheep-fkins ; the practice of which makes 
 a particular profeflion, called by the French ehamoijure. 
 The laft, though the leaft efteemed, is yet fo popular, and 
 fuch vaft quantities of it are prepared, efpecially about Or- 
 leans, Marfciiles and Tholoufe, that it may not be amifs to 
 give the method of preparation. 
 Manner o/"Shamoi5INg, or of preparing fl-eep, goat, or kid- 
 Jkins in oil, in imitation of Shammy. — The fkins being 
 warned, drained, and fmeared over with quick-lime on the 
 fleftiy fide, are folded in two, length-wife, the wool out- 
 wards, and laid on heaps ; and lb left to ferment eight days ; 
 or, if they had been left to dry after fleaing, then 15 days. 
 Then they are warned out, drained, and half dried ; laid on 
 a wooden leg, or horfe, the wool itripped oft" with a round 
 itaiT for that purpofr, and laid in a weak pit, the lime 
 whereof had been ufed before, and has loft the greatcfr part 
 of its force. 
 
 After 24 hours they are taken out, and left to drain 24 
 more ; they are then put in another ftrongcr pit. This done, 
 they are taken out, drained, and put in again, by turns ; 
 which begins to dilpofe them to take oil : and this practice 
 they continue for fix weeks in fummer, or three months in 
 winter ; at the end whereof they are warned out, laid on 
 the wooden leg, and the furface of the fkin on the wool-fide 
 peeled oft", to render them the fofter ; then, made into 
 parcels, fteeped a night in the river, in winter more ; 
 ■Stretched, fix or feven over one another, on the wooden 
 leg 3 and the knife palled ftrcngly on the flefh fide, to take 
 oft" any thing fupcrfluous, and render the fkin fmoctb. 
 *J hen they arc ftretched, as before, in the river ; and the 
 lame operation is repeated cn the wool fide ; they are then 
 thrown into a tub of water with bran in it, which is 
 brewed among the (kins till the greateft part ftick to them ; 
 and then feparated into diftinci tubs, till they fwtll, and rife 
 of themfelves above the water. 
 
 By this means, the remains of the lime is cleared out : 
 they are then wrung out, hung up to dry on ropes, and 
 feat to the mill, with the quantity of oil neceflary to fcour 
 them : the beft oil is that of ftock-fifh. 
 
 Here, they are firfc thrown in bundles into the river for 12 
 hours, then laid in the mill-trough and fulled without oil 
 till they be well foftcned ; then oiled with the hand, one by 
 one, and thus formed into parcels of four fkins each, which 
 are milled and dried on cords a fecond time, then a third ; 
 and then oiled again and dried. 
 
 This proetfs is repeated as often as neceffity requires : when 
 done, if there be any moifhire remaining, they are dried in 
 a ftovc, and made up into parcels wrapped up in wool : af- 
 ter fome time they arc opened to the air, but wrapped up 
 again as before, till fuch time as the oil fcems to have loit 
 all its force, which it ordinarily does in 24 hours. 
 The fkins are then returned from the mill to the cbamaifer, 
 to be fcoured ; which is done by putting them in a lixivium 
 of wood-afhes, working and beating them in it with poles, 
 and leaving them to fteep till the lye have had its effect ; 
 then they are wrung out, fteeped in another lixivium, wrung 
 again, and this is repeated till all the grcafe and oil be purged 
 out. When this is done, they are half dried, and palled 
 over a fbarp-edged iron inihuuient, placed perpendicular in 
 a block, which opens, foftens, and makes them gentle : 
 laftly, they arc thoroughly dried, and palled over the fame 
 inftrument again, which liniflies the preparation, and leaves 
 them in form of Jhammy. 
 
 Kid and goat-lkins urejhamaifed in. the fame manner as thofe 
 of fliccp; excepting that the hair is taken off, without the 
 ufe of any lime; and that when brought from the mill, they 
 undergo a particular preparation, Called ramalling ; the moft 
 delicate and difficult of all the others. 
 It ccnfifti in this, that as foon as brought from the mil!, 
 
 they are fteeped in a fit lixivium ; taken oUt, ftretched ori 
 a round wooden leg, and the hair is (craped 'off with 
 the knife ; this makes them fmooth, and, in working, to 
 caft a kind of fine nap. The difficulty is in fcrapin°- 
 them evenly. 
 
 SHANKER, in medicine, a malignant ulcer, which gnaws 
 and eats the flefh ; ufually occafioned by Ibmc venereal dif- 
 order. 
 
 SHARP, in mufic, a kind of artificial note or character, 
 (thus formed this being prefixed to a note, fliews that 
 it is to be fung or played a femi tone, or half a note higher 
 than the natural note would have been. 
 
 When the femi-tone takes the name of the natural noti 
 next above it, it is marked with a character called a fat. 
 It is indifferent, in the main, which of the two be ufed, 
 though there are fome times particular realons for the one 
 rather than the other. 
 - The ufe of flats and flarps, is by way of remedy to the de- 
 ficiencies of the fixed fcales of inftruments. 
 Sharp nails. See the article Nail. 
 
 SHARPING corn, a cuftomary prefent of corn, which at 
 every Chriftmas, the farmers, in fome parts of England, 
 make to their fmith, for fharpening their ploughing- irons, 
 harrow-tines, is'c. 
 
 SHEADING, a riding, tything, or divifion in the Ifte of 
 Man: the whole ifland being divided- into fix fueadiu^s, m 
 every one of which, is a coroner or chief conftable, ap- 
 pointed by the delivery of a rod at the annual convention. 
 
 SHEARING. See the article Sheering. 
 
 SHEATHING of a flAp, is the cafing that part of her hull, 
 which is to be under water, with fomething to ke-jp th^ 
 worms from eating into her planks. 
 
 It is ufually done by laying tar and hair mixed together all 
 over the old plank, and then nailing on thin new boards. — 
 But this hinders a fhip's failing ; and therefore of late fome 
 have been jheathtd with milled lead, which is much fmoothcr, 
 and coufcquently better for failing, and alfo more cheap and 
 durable t!un the other way. It was lirlt invented by Sir 
 Philip Howard, and m.ijor VVatfon. 
 
 SHEER hooks, or Shear-Aso^j, are large iron hooks, ufed 
 when a ftiip defigns to board another. 
 
 SiiEER-flanks, or Shear -flanks, a kind of knots by which 
 they tie up and fhorten a runner when it is too long. 
 
 SHEERING, or Shearing, in the woollen manufactures, 
 the cloth-worker or fljcermaii's craft or office ; or the cutting 
 off", with large fleers, the too long and fuperfluous nap, or 
 fliag found on the furface of woollen fluff, fuftians, cot- 
 tons, EsV. in order to make them more fmooth and even. — 
 Stuff's are fhsrn more or fewer times, according to their qua- 
 lity and finenefs. 
 
 Some ufe the phrafe fleering of hats, for the paffing of- hats 
 made of wool, over the flame of a clear fire made of ftraw, 
 or fpray, to take oft" the long hairs. Others call this flamthg, 
 and others fudging. Other hats, ascaftors, fomi-callors, lift- 
 zcefljorn, by rubbing them over with pumicc-ftone. See Hat. 
 Sheering, or Shearing, is alfo a tea term for the mo- 
 tion of a fhip when fhe goes in and out, and not right for- 
 ward ; either by reafon that fhe is not fleered fteadily, or on 
 account of the fwift running of the tide, &c. in which pais 
 fhe is faid to fleer, or go fleering. 
 
 When Ihe lies at anchor, near port, Gfr, by reafon of the 
 fwift running of a title-gate, EsV. {he is often faid to be in 
 danger of jhesring home her anchor, or fleering a-Jbore* 
 
 SHKETJNG na'th. See the article Nai j.. 
 
 SHEKEL, Shekle, Sheckle, Siclus, an ancient He- 
 brew coin, equal to four Attick drachms, to four Roman 
 denarii, or to 2 5. 3d. i fterling. 
 
 In the Bible, the fljekel is fometimes alfo rendered folldus, 
 and fometimesyfo/ir. 
 
 The Jewifh doctors arc in great doubt about the weight of 
 the fljckel; and it is only by conjecture, and by the weight 
 of the modern flekel that the ancient one is judged cq'ial 
 to four Attick drachmas. 
 
 Father Souck has defcribed feveral of thefe flekels, in his 
 dlflercstkw on the Hebrew medals. By the way he obferves, 
 that the third and fourth parts of a flekel, defcribed by Wa- 
 ferus de Ant. Num. Heb. arc counterfeits of that author. 
 The Hebrew flekel, according to F. Merfcnne, weighs 26S 
 grams, and is compofed of 20 oboli, each obolus weighing 
 16 grains of wheat. This, he fays, is the juft weight, as 
 he found bv weighing one in the French king's cabinet. He 
 adds, that fuch as come ftiort of this weight have been filed 
 or clipped. Biftiop Cumberland tells us, he has weighed ie* 
 vera], and always found them near the weight of a Roman 
 femi;ncia, or half-ounce. 
 
 Seine are of opinion, that the Hebrews had two kinds of 
 flekel 's ; the common or prop bane flekel, called didraebma \ and 
 the flekel of the fartluary, which laft they will have to be 
 double the former.' — By this expedient they think we may 
 get clear of fome difficulties occurring in fcriptuie, where 
 things are mentioned as of incredible weight; particularly 
 that parage where" it is faid, that every time Abfaiom cut off 
 his hair, the weight whereof ufed tc incommode him, he cut 
 off the weight cf 2cc flekels. 
 
 But 
 
SHE 
 
 S H 1 
 
 But Villalpandus will not hear of fuch i diftina»on ; nor 
 do biftiop Cumberland, M. Morin, &fr. take ihc opinion 
 to have any foundation. The prophane /hekel, at jbekel of 
 four drachma?, they agree, was the fame with the /acred 
 /hekel; and it was oniy called by this laft name in regard the 
 ftandard thereof was kept in the fanctuary, by the pricfts. 
 See Sanctuary. 
 
 It is maintained by feveral, that the Jews had alfo a gold 
 jhekel, fichu aureus, of the fame weight with the filver one, 
 ■and valued at 1 1. 16 s. 6d. fterling. 
 The Jbtkel is fuppofed to have been firft ftrucfc in the defart, 
 en the footing of 100 to the Attick mina, weighing 160 
 grains of wheat, and current for 10 geratis or oboli. But 
 that afterwards they were (truck of double that weight. 
 Some will have the (hekel to be the oldeft piece of money in 
 the world, as being in ufe in Abraham's time ; but this was 
 not coined, or flumped ; nor had any other value befides its 
 intriiific worth. 
 
 Xenophon mentions fithU, as current in Arabia : and Du 
 Cangc (peaks of others ftruck and current in England. 
 SHELF, is what the miners, cfpecially in tin mines, call the 
 fajl-country\ by which they mean, an imaginary furtace ot 
 "the earth, which, at the concuffion of the waters at the de- 
 luge, was never moved ; and to thefiel/, they think, all the 
 loads or mineral veins at firft lay even, and parallel ; though 
 after the flood, fome were elevated, and others depreflrd. 
 By /Mr", Ihey now mean that hard furface, or coat of the 
 earth which lies uider the broken ftrata at different depths ; 
 for tht-y ,'uppofc, that ftnee the flood, the earth hath gotten 
 a new coat of vegetable earth, or fuch as is mnde by the 
 corruption of vegetables and animals. See fepplement, article 
 Fast. 
 
 SHELL, Tefia, in natural hiftory, a hard cruft, ferving to 
 cover, and indole a kind or ar.imals, hence called tejlaceous. 
 Naturalifts have been generally mi (taken as to the manner 
 of the formation of /hells. 1 he animal and its /bell have 
 been always fuppofed to arife wholly from the egg. But M. 
 Reaumur has Ihewn the fuppohtion to be falfc. He has 
 found, by certain experiments, that the JbtUs of garden 
 fnails are formed of a matter which perfpires from their bo- 
 dies, and hardens and condenfes in the air. 
 It is certain, that all animals perfpirc, and are encompaffed 
 with a kind of cloud or atmofphere, which exhales from 
 them, and, in all probability, aiTumes pretty nearly their 
 external figure. Snails have nothing peculiar in this refpect ; 
 Ufllefc that the atmofphere of their perfpiration, condenfes 
 ■and hardens about them, and forms a viable cover, whereof 
 the body is the mould or medal ; whereas that of other ani- 
 mals is evaporated and loft in the air. This difference arifes 
 from the different fubitance perfpired ; that coming from 
 fnails, being vifcous and ftony. — This is no fuppofition ; but 
 a matter cf fact, which M. Reaumur has well proved by 
 experiments. 
 
 On this principle, though the /hell ferve the animal as an 
 univerfal bone, yet it docs not grow like a bone, nor like 
 any of the other parts, by nutrition ; that is, by a juice 
 circulating within itfelf ; but by an external addition of 
 parts laid one over another ; as is commonly fuppofed the 
 manner of growth of ftones. 
 
 But, to confider the thing more particularly ; it is to be re- 
 membered, that the fnail's head is always at the aperture of 
 the /belly and its tail in the tip or point of the/bell \ and 
 that its body is naturally turned into a fpiral form, the diffe- 
 rent fpires or circumvolutions whereof are in different planes. 
 ■ — This fuppofed : take the fnail juft hatched ; as the matter 
 it perfpires petrifies around it, there muft be firft formed a 
 little cover, proportioned to the bignefs of its body ; and as 
 its body is yet too little to make a circumvolution of a fpiral, 
 at leaft a whole one ; this cover will only be the centre, or, 
 at moil, the firft beginning of a little circle of a fpiral. 
 ilut the animal grows : if, then, it ceafed to perfpire, it is 
 evident, all that is added to its body, would remain naked : 
 but as it continues to perfpire. it makes itfelf a cover in pro 
 portion as it needs it, — Thus is an entire circumvolution of 
 a fpiral formed ; and thus is a fecond and a third \ and (till 
 every new fpire is bigger than the laft ; in regard the animal 
 prows in thicknefs, at the fame time as it grows in length. 
 When the animal ccafes to grow, yet it does not ceafe to 
 perfpire ; and accordingly, the /hell continues to grow 
 thicker, though not longer. 
 Smells, Concha and Cochlea, make a confidcrable article in 
 the cabinets of the curious : the fineft and rareft are thefe 
 that follow, viz. — The papal crown, tiara pontificia, which 
 takes its name from its form, and which is variegated with 
 red on a white ground. — The feather, pluma, whole white- 
 nefs, with its carnation ftains, have an admirable effect. — 
 The Hebraica, which, on a ground as white as fnow, has 
 foots as black as jet, much rcfembling Hebrew characters. — 
 The Chine/e /nail, Umax Sinieus, which has a green and 
 black embroidery, on a dark brown ground. — The cloth 0/ 
 gold, textile aureurn, remarkable for an admirable variegation 
 of yellow, brown and black. — The cloth 0/ filvcr, textile argen- 
 teum, which does not come behind that of gold in beauty. — 
 The leopard* pardus, which is all fpeckled.— The tyger t it- 
 
 grtSy /cu concha cir.ericea, whofs fpots exceed thofe of tile 
 leopard. — The hart' s-horn, corr.u cervir.um, which has black 
 ftains on a white ground. — The pur/e, crumena, thus called 
 from its figure ; it is embroidered with three or four colours. 
 — The /un-dial, jolarium manuarium. — The caterpillar, tru- 
 ca, both denominated from their forms. — Add the white 
 nautilus, the admiral Jhell, &c. 
 
 In Aldrovand, Gefner and Fabius Columns, we have all 
 that the ancients have faid on the fubject of jbells. — In 1692, 
 Dr. Lifter, publiftied a natural hiftory of /lulls, in folio, full 
 of cuts, representing the various kinds of /hells. — Under the 
 firft clafs, lie ranges the terreftrial or land /hells : in the fe- 
 cond, the frefti-water /hells, both thofe called turbinata, and 
 the bivahta : in the third he difpofes all the lea fi)ells, the 
 bivalvia and multivalvia : and in the fourth, he divides, into 
 feveral ctafles, ihofe fea /hells, called turbhsata. See fupple- 
 menty article Shell. 
 Shells, are frequently found under ground, in places far 
 remote from the fea, in mines, and even on the tops of 
 mountains : but how they fhould come there, is a thing the 
 naturalifts are greatly divided about. — The moft ulua! and 
 cafv opinion is, that thofe parts have been formerly fea, or 
 at leaft have been overflown thereby ; and many even go 
 back as far as the grand deluge for this. 
 Others take thefe to be the natural places of their birth 
 or formation ; fome of them being found little ether 
 than crude clay; others of the fame texture with the rock 
 whereto they grow; though others fecm of as abfolute a 
 /belly fubftancc, as any in the fea. — In effect, they fay, thefe 
 may be only fo many different gradations of nature, which 
 can as well produce jhrlls in mines, as in the I'ca ; there 
 being no want of faline or earthy particles for the purpofe ; 
 nor is there any great difference between fume forts of fpars, 
 and fea /hells. 
 
 Dr. Lifter judges, that the /hells found in ftone- quarries, 
 were never any part of an animal ; and gives this rcafon 
 for it, that quarries of different ftone, yield quite different 
 fpecies of JbtUi ; different not only from one another, but 
 from any tiling in nature befides, which either fea or land 
 does yield. This opinion has been fince proved erroneous, 
 and all thefe bodies to have been really once parts of living 
 animals. See /upplemcnt, article Fossils, Extraneous. 
 Littoral Shells. See the article LlTTORAL. 
 Shell gold. See the article Gold. 
 Shell fiver. See the article Silver. 
 Tortoije Shell. See the article Tortoise. 
 SHELL-FISH, a collective name for all fifties naturally in- 
 
 clofed in foells. 
 SHELTERS horizontal. Sec the article Horizontal. 
 SHERIFF*, or Shire-reve, an officer in each county 
 of England, whofe bufinefs is to fee the execution of the 
 king's orders, particularly of all writs directed to him out 
 of the king's coutts ; to impannel juries ; bring caufeti and 
 criminals to trial ; take care of the difpatch of affairs both 
 civil and criminal ; collect the revenues, impolts, fines, 
 confiscations, fsV. arifing in his county, for which he ac- 
 counts to the exchequer 3 and to attend and aflift the itine- 
 rant judges. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Saxon, fcir, province, fliire, 
 and geref, grave, reve or pre eft ; or rather from {tyran% to 
 divide ; the Jhtriff being denominated from the ftrlt divjfion 
 of the kingdom into counties. See Grave and Rive. — In 
 La; in he is called •vice*coptcj. 
 The jheriff is, as it were, the foul of the policy of the 
 county, and the preferver of the peace thereof. His office 
 only lafts one year. 
 
 He was anciently chofe by the people in the county-court, 
 as knights now are for parliament ; but he h now nomi- 
 nated by the king : in order to which the itinerant judges 
 every year nominate fix perfons for each county ; whereof 
 the lord chancellor, treafurer, privy-council, afiembled 
 in the exchequer-chamber, make choice of three ; out of 
 which number, the king chufes one. — Only the county ot 
 Middlefex has two /heri/fs, chofe, as anciently, by the citi- 
 zens of London : and Durham, Weftmorcland, and Cum- 
 berland, have none. 
 
 The Jheriff, befides his minifteria] office, of executing pro- 
 ceffes and precepts of the courts, and making returns of 
 the fame, has a judicial office, whereby he holds two feve- 
 ral kinds of courts ; the one called tht fi)eriff , s turn, held in 
 divers places of the county, to enquire of all offences againft: 
 common law not prohibited by any ftatute. — The other 
 called the ccui.ty court, wheiein he hears and determines 
 all civil caufes of the- county, under forty Ihillings. See 
 Court and Turn. 
 Appo/al of Sheriffs. See the article Apposal. 
 SHEWAGE. See the article Sca v age. 
 SHIDES. See the article Shie.'gles, 
 
 SHIELD, an ancient weapon cf defence, in form of a 
 light buckler j born on the arm to fend off lances, darts, 
 
 The form of the /hield is reprefented by the efcutcheon in 
 coats of arms. 
 
 Shield, in heraldry, denotes the efcutcheon or field whereon 
 the hearings cf an armory are placed. 
 
 5 SHIL- 
 
3" 
 
 3> 
 
 0" 
 
 33 
 34 
 
 35 
 3" 
 37 
 3* 
 39 
 40 
 
 4' 
 4* 
 f3 
 44 
 45 
 
 V* 
 
 42 
 
 Jhrivpn/t 
 
 Ihntatui Sail 
 Gam montna 
 Some 
 fi.tAtfai/ 
 
 BntfA) andPendun hi 
 
 JLit/i/aeOt 
 
 ZS/?b 
 
 (Seir lined 
 
 Ftyiny JiMiwm 
 Fh/t'/u/Jii-d Stay ffSul 
 
 SAeato 
 
 Spt it/ail Top Jfa/i 
 
 Sheaadd 
 Sliaatd 
 
 xm> 
 
 Bru&o attclF&fidfrnci 
 
 TrtieA 
 JtwJz Ftao 
 
 ForeJftift 
 
 Hutinsr and-TatAte 
 
 SAroudd 
 
 Zan yan/j 
 
 Stay a?idFa>nyavJ 
 
 Frxvente r-Stai/ {Tat « . 
 
 JFim£J*n,j,t t/t£ uiadf 
 
 TarvtaiidSait 
 
 Homed 
 
 Tof 
 
 Cronfo&fr 
 
 JtSlif 
 
 JW 'TluA&j 
 /,////..■ 
 
 liiiteju andFei-.^-i-i 
 Slieatj 
 Fen Tu ba 
 Eott/Un&f f(jBt ../'.' 
 Tore B/Mi//ffu.' 
 
 TmLuMmM 
 
 T«**<>r»<7* 
 
 lairfandJ'ail 
 
 /ill/ anJ j'ru/ 
 Jtmuur 
 JitiM'j/i* yj 
 7/ti//yiM& 
 
 *m> , if ■' 
 
 JSfttdS* and Ten dan At 
 
 Bcm/ed 
 
 iYenrhned 
 
 Borrli/wd ABrid/ed 
 
 Be^ac/deo 
 
 SAtaJo 
 
 Bunt/iiied 
 Cro/dtreed 
 
 >rY\ 
 jYoivtt)p<>n//LlIii/?. 
 1 Shroud) iS~J.<rw/dfttt 
 Tarda/uiSaii 
 BacAdtayj 
 Stay 
 
 (Unettnej 
 
 JifuiVo eiTut'J'enddti£i 
 Ji orwh'iu-d t£B rtd/ed 
 FbypSfy/f 
 
 Truck 
 
 FlaaaStu/fSiny ^ 
 r/aod J, artif/nprUttfrn ■ 
 
 Shrouilo 
 
 Hutu 14 f 4 ^TaeA/e 
 Ftrtdant c/Wii- Cornet 
 
 ffuy i'/" J)? 
 Fa/t.tfJ)<? 
 
 Stay 
 
 I 'teoeiUrr S6iy 
 
 St:y2'acAlc 
 
 J', f/di'ns/ tlie modi 
 
 J, ■ ,,. ' 
 
 MTacAdM 
 
 i</A- 
 
 Tirr—.- aftd /'eiuhi/itd 
 
 9 / f ff/i/i #f War erf //w ftffatfa 
 
 Being Cut or Divided by the Middle irain t!ie Sf( 
 
 (ffV ttiftlllOuillietl - ]...'. I 
 40 * * 7 
 
 TlieT 
 TAe < 
 Mel 
 
 MeTa/fere/l 
 TAe tipper tigAfy ifRdtw 
 
 TAe lower ItgAtt tfiladtce 
 
 T/ieWarrfrt>om /<yA&. 
 
 TAe G?iint»r 
 
 TAe Z?a>nd<mid . 
 
 TAe fiidAttm Feeted 
 
 TAe JUidder 
 
 The TOlar. . A.t- 
 
 Tmi/vjy afif Stern 7Tead £Z . A,T\ 
 
 TheSternFost A 
 
 £mt&) ..IS 
 
 Braetctm A."K" 
 
 TAe Fift Mails an OieSt'd* . . . . TVC 
 
 The Trump e ten CM'hin 
 
 Cat'tmu ffcTieatiMajtmtt $2&afei& 
 Manntft^m . '. 1 , 
 Haruwarlatti f^^-%«^ BCP 
 fiea^ of th*>2>ec6dJ!t,C:D.¥..~F. G-.JL 
 
 JiutMmdj of. 13.C.D 
 
 Gangway Sf Stain unto... 11. CD 
 
 Guru If Tortd CiDJ&J? ,G 
 
 Entrtzftee into the Gatl&ry y^J? 
 
 1'he Stafr JfaoTri- 
 
 The Bui&Aeaa 1 trftheSfate Boom .C 
 
 BtrfA head of fAe t'oacA E C 
 
 f ahhnu foriii>fifdw?Ca/penter?{„ ffatetTZ D 
 
 Sittk head of/A e For? feak IJ) 
 
 Gr&ifupt _ DEI'E. 
 
 Fart of tAe fatt D 
 
 C00A. Room Chf 'm nfy IETD 
 
 ^Uairv Capjtaiis : • G- 
 
 ,Tee-r fa^otavi 
 
 Bittd tf Croffieiau to the Moot 
 
 Standing (atd-nu forJt/djh<pmon - 
 
 Ftying tfrfau&na Stairj C.^ 
 
 Zadderj 
 
 Com mon Jhhte 
 
 for A Boom mid Furnace*) -- 
 
References . 
 
 Jfain Matt '■ continued 
 JTotxtej 
 Skta& 
 TacAj 
 
 Jlondin&f &."Mria?&f 
 f tvrv/bot 
 
 Top 
 
 ' Tfantiinej 
 6 f^ecAiinej 
 J7mi and Saii 
 
 MainTo/i Ma ft 
 
 \sitrondj k'l.anyardj 
 Yarti tind Saii 
 PuttorA Shivitdi 
 BacA'jttu/,1 
 Stay 
 
 liimneixl 
 Ha iii/n rdj 
 V0t 
 CiendinAi 
 
 Smcfi.i IC Pendant, 
 \ffa?:fAf 
 SAtaft 
 
 EotoH/iai K'Mrtd/fJ 
 
 flee/hacA/fif • 
 ■v/itreM 
 
 J/imnd.1 hi J^anymdj 
 Tail/ and Sat/ 
 /iarAifaf/,1 
 
 Stay 
 
 StaySail4C&auyarv& 
 
 AJ j¥* \ 
 
 i.f Bmeti k Jimaana 
 Hoadinsj iiH/idioj 
 ' Ciendinej 
 jt Tioga Staff* 
 $\&ucA 
 
 J*toffl Staff Stay 
 
 Piaatf Sta/'dam 
 
 3Ir/,oti JIa/i 
 
 S/irauab b.£a»yardj 
 Pendanto fd&erOmif 
 
 Mwm. Mast amtinwed 
 TardifSaii 
 
 tjff Sheaf 
 < t f j 7'mdantXi'neJ 
 48 TecAAraiid 
 
 '4.9 ^ ln 'f 
 tad Stay 
 
 'rgi fan-id- SfSpamv 
 tjz Top 
 
 \>53 Crefe Jai-kTa rd 
 
 '54 Ckft/ad' 
 1 jz r \( \v/j/ack BnieeJ 
 
 CtvfTfjacl- StingJ 
 
 MizonTajiMaff 
 
 Slnvudt &fZtmy*tvb 
 rani V Sail 
 
 Stay 
 
 NaUyardt 
 
 Brataj yjPmaartfit 
 BmrAnrj KJiridltJ 
 S/teatj 
 
 Stay Sat/ 
 fraftfirttj 
 
 ca n 
 
 TOyfStaff 
 F/aaa Staff Stay 
 7haX- 
 
 rfaaa Vhtffn 
 %Jz E'/u'tattf Staff 
 ■ ' 7hiM 
 
 <«3 
 "V 
 ■Or, 
 • 66 
 ■''7 
 168 
 
 •«9 
 '7'' 
 •T 
 '7' 
 '73 
 '14 
 75 
 16 
 
 Poop Jiaiider 
 
 Catbheaat 
 
 Fort Citamitiij 
 Main Cfianni-iij 
 Jtfesam GtumfteOU 
 Entrtn/rd*ort 
 j&U&A Ao/fJ 
 7hoftJ,a?ttiio77bJ 
 
 Zfrad 
 Stern 
 
 o tfif Sleru.at oneView difcovering the Declo.Guns .Cabbms SH-iu-.U — ,. 
 
 Tnr Vn/ut&ask 
 SifM'dtttt J'n* 
 27it GiirvDeck- 
 Thl Mop 
 
 
 4" 
 
 StandnrtJ to tAe Side t( '/bad - 
 
 ; E.ae 
 
 V 
 
 
 i S.T 
 
 
 
 > f.fr 
 
 43 
 
 
 1 5-.1I 
 
 .. V-7S- 
 
 44 
 
 
 *5 
 
 
 - j-T 
 
 46 
 
 _ffiz/»4 Way) 
 
 &.H 
 
 ItttAartuvIm on nttr often fro ^''^'S^^/V'T'Tt'Jn*?' 
 ei/iu/ /tart nrtitim n'/irrt t/iat /tant.-a/aru tr ft fraait ./l ,f..J 
 
 Tfirion'rTt7/ai* ^ 
 
 ir,//r«m'i ^ Shalt i.nd-tr.t G H 
 
 Stiy/o fm- tfoJKklif " 
 
 ThtSel)m 
 
 'the attfmirarar ofrfaT/poi 
 
 Ttm/-m ftttr 
 
 mdj frftftfFu'twfa 
 Tfie nft'na crJ->ad 'food . 
 
 ThtStei , — l-02l. 
 
 TAeStrm 
 
 Khte oftAe Bead 
 
 The Trad Aoardj 
 
 "AeeAif . . _ — _ . - 
 
 fmare -t: _ -- 
 
 Ttinnei fbrEaje 
 
 Ihrtt/i'atu ffoStmarttlfSttm Xatmu &.H 
 JBreadMoamatKftl'owdtrJieoiti a fart J.K 
 
 Jhvatt Tffoakd - ITS. 
 
 tf/i/terJiittackfiidda>n ;: - ~~ 
 
 Xotva rFutfcc/to .- 1 £ 
 
 FUmrRidm ; - ' 
 
 Civ/jTiUaM 1 
 
 68 Bonrj/ir/tf - 
 f>9 
 
 Aen'eMajt . - - - 
 MainMajt 
 
 mde/C 
 
 F.nt?int7 Tort . 
 
S H I 
 
 S H O 
 
 SHILLING*, an Englifh filver coin, equal to twelve pence, 
 or the 20th part of a pound. 
 * Freherus derives the Saxon pilling, whence QvuJhUKitg, from 
 a corruption of fillqua ; proving the derivation by feveral 
 texts of law, and among others by the XXI. law, de annuls 
 legatis. Skinner with more probability deduces it from the 
 Saxon fcild, Ihield ; by reafon of the efcutcheon of arms 
 thereon. 
 
 It is obferved, there were no pillings or twelve-penny- pieces 
 coined in England till the year 1504; and thefe, Stow calls 
 groats, though Fabian mentions them under the name of 
 fallings, 34 Hen. VIII. 
 
 The Dutch, Flemifh, and Germans have Iikewife their 
 Jhilllng ; called fchel'tn, [chilling, fchelling, fcalin, &C, But 
 thefe not being of the fame weight or finenefs with the 
 Englifh /hilling, are not current on the fame foot.— The 
 Englifh /hilling is worth about 23 French fols ; thofe of Hol- 
 land and Germany about eleven fols and a half. Thofe of 
 Flanders about nine. The Dutch /hillings are alfo called 
 Jols de gro/s, becaufe equal to 12 grofs. The Danes have 
 copper /hillings, worth about I of a farthing fterling. 
 
 SHINGLES, or Shides, in building, fmall pieces of wood, 
 or quartered oaken boards, fawed to a certain fcantling, or 
 more ufually cleft to about an inch thick at one end, and 
 made like wedges, four or five inches broad, and eight or 
 nine inches long. They are ufed in covering, efpecially 
 for churches and fteeples, inftead of tiles, or flates. 
 This covering is dear ; yet where tiles, &c. are very fcarce, 
 and a light cover is required, it is preferable to thatch. If 
 made of good oak, and cleft, not fawed, and well feafoned, 
 /hingles make a Cure, light, and durable covering. 
 The building is firft to be covered all over with boards, and 
 the /hingles then nailed thereon. 
 
 Shingles, in medicine, a kind of herpes, called alfo the mi- 
 liary herpes. 
 
 It confifts of innumerable little puftules breaking out in va- 
 rious pans of the body, viz. the neck, breaft, loins, thighs, 
 E3"c. — The place affected is fomewhat inflamed, and the pa- 
 tient is a little feverifh. --White puftules finally arife and fup- 
 purate, and are fuccerded by little round fcabs refembling 
 millet feeds. 
 
 It is to be attacked with difcutients ; and the higher puftules 
 are to be cut off with fciffars, and a cerate of oil and wax, 
 is then to be applied. 
 Wifeman obferves, that the /hingles come near the nature of 
 a pfora, and are therefore to be cured with mercurial cathar- 
 ticks. 
 
 EH I P, a general name for all great vefTels with fails, fit for 
 navigation on the fca ; excepting gallics, which go with oars 
 and ("mack fails. — See Tab. Ship, fig. 1 and 2. 
 The Sieur Aubin, defines a pip, a timber-building, confift- 
 ing of various parts and pieces, nailed and pinned together 
 with iron and wood, in fucli form as to be fit to float, and 
 to be conduced by wind and fails, from fea to fea. 
 The invention of /hips is very ancient, and, at the fame 
 time very uncertain : mythologifts attribute it to Daedalus ; 
 and pretend, that the wings he invented to favc himfelf 
 withal from the labyrinth of Crete, were nothing but fails, 
 which he firft gave to veffcls, and wherewith he eluded the 
 vigilance and purfuit of Minos. Others give the honour to 
 Janus, on the credit- of fome ancient Greek and Latin coins, 
 on one fide whereof is reprefented his double face, and on 
 the reverfe a/hip. Laftly, others, and thofe who go on the 
 fureft grounds, look on Noah to have been the firft /hip- 
 builder. 
 
 Ships are ufually divided into three clafTes : /hips of war, 
 merchant /hips, and, an intermediate kind, half war, half 
 merchant; being fuch, as though built for merchandize, yet 
 take com millions for war. 
 
 Ships of war are again divided into feveral orders, called 
 rates. 
 
 Merchant pips are eftimatcd by their burden, that is, by 
 the number of tuns they bear ; each tun reckoned at two 
 thoufand pounds weight. — The eftimate is made by gauging 
 the hold, which is the proper place of loading. 
 The moll celebrated /hips of antiquity are, that of Ptolemy 
 Phtlopater, which was 280 cubits long, 38 broad, and 48 
 high ; it carried 400 rowers, 400 failors, and 3000 foldiers. 
 That which the fame prince made to fail on the Nile, we 
 are told, was half a ftadium long. — Yet thefe were nothing 
 in cornparifon with Hicro's /hip, built under the direction of 
 Archimedes ; on the ftrucfurc whereof, Mofchion, as we are 
 told by SneDius, wrote a whole volume. There was wood 
 enough employed in it to make fifty gallies. It had all the 
 variety of apartments of a palace; banqueting-rooms, gal- 
 leries, gardens, fitti-ponds, (fables, mills, baths, a temple of 
 Venus, £sV. It was incompaifed with an iron rampart, and 
 eight towers, with walls and bulwarks, furnifhed with ma- 
 chines of war; particularly one, which threw a ftone of 300 
 pounds, or a dart 1 2 cubifs long, the fpace of half a mile ; 
 with many other particulars related by AthenEeus. 
 Among modern /hips, the molt confiderable is the Englifh 
 firft-rate man of war; the dimenfions whereof, whence 
 Vol. II. N°.i4i. 
 
 *1 ("Flag. 
 
 {-See the articles-^ 1 **' 
 
 V J Register. 
 
 J ^Transport. 
 
 thofe of other rates may be deduced, are as follow : the 
 length 210 foot; number of guns no: number of men 
 1250 : number of tuns 2300 : draught of water 22 foot \ 
 the mam-fail in length 54 yards, depth ig : main-maft in 
 length 39 foot ; in diameter 38 inches : weight of the anchor 
 82 hundred, 1 quarter, 14 pound : cable in length 200 vards : 
 diameter of the cable 22 inches.— The expence of building 
 a common firft rate /hip, with guns, tackling and ris-ging^ 
 is computed at 60,000 1. fterling. 
 
 To give the reader an idea of the feveral parts and members 
 of a /hip, both internal and external, with their refpective 
 denominations in the fea language (the principal whereof are 
 explained in the refpecfive places of this dictionary J we here 
 give him two draughts: the one, a fecfion of the body of 
 a firft rate; to fhew its conftrucfion, the difpofition of its 
 infide, &e.—- The other, the fame pip entire, with the fails, 
 rigging, csV. 
 
 For the moft convenient formof Ships ; or that wherein they 
 ihall meet with the leaft refiftance from the water ; fee Ves- 
 sel and Resistance. 
 
 Bulk of a Ship, "> ("Bulk. 
 
 Burden of a Ship, Burden, 
 
 Captain of a Ship, Captain. 
 
 Clerk of a Ship, Clerk. 
 
 Corporal of a Ship, Corporal. 
 
 Company of a Ship, Company. 
 
 Grounding a Ship, Grounding. 
 
 Mafterofa Ship, 1 Master. 
 
 Rigging of a Ship, J-See the articles^ Rigging. 
 
 Run of a Ship, * Run. 
 
 Sheathing of a Sh i p, Sheathing. 
 
 Squadron of Ships, Squadron. 
 
 Stay a Ship, Stay. 
 
 Steward of a Ship, Steward. 
 
 Warp a Ship, Warp. 
 
 V/ aping of a Ship, Washing. 
 
 Way of a Ship, j l Way. 
 
 Flag Ship, *) ("Flag 
 
 Mine Ships, 
 
 Regiflcr Ships, 
 
 Tranfpcrt Ship, 
 
 SHIP-MONEY, an impofition which was anciently charged 
 upon the ports, towns, cities, boroughs, and counties of the 
 realm ; by writs commonly called pip-writs, under the great 
 feal of England, for the providing and furnifhing certain 
 fhipsfor the king's fervice. 
 
 This impofition was revived by king Charles I. in the years 
 1635 and 1636 ; but by flat. 17. Car. I. it was declared to 
 be contrary to the laws and ftatutes of the realm, claim of 
 right, liberty of the fubjecf, £sV. 
 SHIPPER, Skipper, orScHippER, a Dutch term, figni- 
 fying the mafter of a Ibip. 
 
 We alfo ufe the word popularly for any common feamen. 
 SHIPWRACK. See the article Wreck. 
 SHIRE*, Scyra, a part or portion of the land, called alfo 
 
 a county. 
 
 * The word is originally Saxon, fitr or fire, formed from fey 
 ran, to divide. 
 
 King Alfred firft divided the land into fatrapias, which we 
 now call pires, and thofe into centurlas, which wc now call 
 hundreds. And thofe again into decennias, which we call 
 tithings. 
 
 The affixes of the pire, or afiembly of the people of a 
 county, was called by theSaxons, fcyregamt. See Coun- 
 ty. 
 
 Shire reve. ? „ , . , c Sheriff 
 
 SHOAD-STONE. Sec the article Shoal ed-Stones. 
 SHOAL, in the fea phrafe, is the fame as pallow, and is ap- 
 plied to flats in the water. 
 
 They fay, it is good pooling, when a fhip failing towards 
 fhore, they find by her founding, it grows fhallower and 
 fhallower by degrees, and not too fuddenly ; for then the 
 fhip goes in fafety. 
 
 SHOALED-STONES, or Shoad-Stones, the miners term 
 in the tin mines, for thofe fragments of ore, which by rains, 
 currents of water, &c. have been torn off from the load, or 
 veins of ore — .Thefe are warned down from the hills, and 
 by finding them, they guefs where to look for a load of ore. 
 Sometimes thefe are called [quad, and fquod. See Supple- 
 ment, article Shoad-Stone. 
 
 SHOAR, or Shore, a prop or counterfort, fet up to fupport 
 any thing of weight, which leans on one fide. See But- 
 tress. 
 
 SHOE, a covering for the foot, ufually of leather. 
 
 Its ftrucfure, though the objecf of a particular art, is too 
 popular to need explaining. 
 
 Its hiftory is more obfeure : Bened. Baudoin, a Poe-maierhy 
 profeffion, has a learned trcatife of the ancient pee, de foUa 
 veterum ; where the origin, matter, form, &c. thereof, are 
 particularly enquired into. 
 
 Baudoin maintains, that God, in giving Adam fkins of 
 " S beafts 
 
S H O 
 
 S H R 
 
 hearts to cloath him, did not leave him to go bare-footed ; 
 but gave him fiois of the fame matter. That after raw 
 ikins, men came to make their Jhots of rufhes, broom, pa- 
 per, flax, filk, wood, iron, filver and gold : fo different has 
 their matter been. — Nor was their form more liable, with 
 regard either to the fhape, colour or ornaments : they have 
 been fquarc, high, low, long, and quite even, cut, carved, CiTr. 
 Pliny, lib. 7. 0 56. tells us, that one Tychius of Bceotia 
 was the full who ufed files. — M. Nilant, in his remarks 
 on Baudoin, obferves, that he quotes Xenophon wrongly, 
 to fhew, that even in his time they ftiU wore Jhots of raw 
 Ikins. Xenophon relates, that the ten thoufand Greeks, 
 who had followed the young Cyrus, wanting Jhots, in their 
 retreat, were forced to cover their feet with raw fkins, 
 which occafioned them great inconveniences. Nilant will, 
 riot even allow, that ihefiois of the country people, called 
 carbatina, and ftrcnia, were of crude fkin, without any 
 preparation. 
 
 The patricians among the Romans, wore an ivory crcfccnt 
 on their Jhots : Heliogabalus had his Jhots covered over with 
 a very white linen ; in conformity to the priefts of the fun, 
 for whom he profeffed a very high veneration : this kind of 
 fim was called tub, or ado. Caligula wore Jhots enrich- 
 
 ed with precious ftoncs. The Indians, like the Egyptians, 
 wore fiots made of the bark of the papyrus. The Turks al- 
 ways put off their Jhots, and leave them at the doors of the 
 mofques. 
 
 HorftSHOE ?See the articles ?^^- H0E ,„,, 
 
 Horfc Shoe html, A cHorse-shoe ucoh. 
 
 Shoe bauftng. See the article Housing. 
 SHOOTING. See Gunnery and Projectile. 
 
 Shooting iftaMj, the articles ^ YV t"nd Gun 
 Shoot i ng wttb air, i C*v ind-vjun. 
 
 SHOOTS.-** Shoots, , Sce ^ S Hot 
 Water Shoot, S ; water. 
 
 SHOP-LIFTER, a perfon,who on pretence of buying goods, 
 
 or otherwife, takes an opportunity to ftea.1 them. 
 SHO RE, or common Shore, a corruption of fewer. See 
 
 Sewers. 
 
 SHORN velvet. See the article Velvet. 
 SHORT accent, in grammar, a mark which fhews, that the 
 
 time of pronouncing a fyllable is to be Jbort.—lt is wrote 
 
 thus ('). 
 
 Short fails, in a man of war, are the fame With figbti?tg- 
 faih ; being the fore-fail, main-fail, and forctop-fai!, which 
 are all that are ufed in fight, left the reft fhould be fired, 
 and Ipoiled ; befides the trouble of managing them when a 
 fhip gives chafe to another. 
 
 If a chafe have a mind to fight, they fay, the chafeySWpj 
 into her Jliort fails, i, e- puts out her colours in the poop, her 
 flag at the main-top, and her ffreamers, or pendants, at the 
 yard's arms; furls her fprit-fail, peeks her mizzen, and 
 flings her main-yard. 
 SHORT-SIGHTEDNESS, myopia, adefed in the confor- 
 mation of the eye, wherein the cryflallin, &c. being too 
 convex, the rays reflected from different objects are refracted 
 too much, and made to converge too faft, fo as to unite be- 
 fore they reach the retina ; by which means the vifion is ren- 
 dered dim, and confufed. 
 
 The ordinary remedy, for Jhart-figbtednefs, is a concave lens, 
 held before the eye ; which making the rays diverge, or at 
 leaft, diminiftiing much of their convergency, makes amends 
 for the too great convexity of the cryftallin. 
 Dr. Hook fuggelts another remedy : finding, that many 
 Jhort- fight ed perfons are but little helped by concaves; he re- 
 commends a convex glafs, placed between the object and the 
 eye ; by means whereof the object may be made to appear 
 at any diflance from the eye, and confequently, all objects 
 may be thereby made to appear at any required diftance from 
 the eye$ fo that the fiiort-fghted eye fhall contemplate the 
 picture of the object, in the fame manner, as if the object it- 
 ielf were in the place. — It is true, the image will appear in- 
 verted ; but we have expedients to remedy this too : for, in 
 reading, there needs nothing but to hold the book upfide down. 
 — To write, the beft way in this cafe, will be for the perfon 
 to learn to do it upfide down. For diftant objects, the doctor 
 afferts, from his own experience, that, with a little practice 
 in contemplating inverted objects, one gets as good an idea 
 of them, as if feen in their natural pofture. 
 SHOT, in the military art, includes all forts of ball or bul- 
 lets for fire-arms, from the cannon to the piftol. See Bul- 
 let, Fire-arm, Cannon, &c. 
 
 Thofe for cannon are of iron ; thofe for mufquets, cara- 
 bines and piftols, are of lead. 
 Shot, for ordnance, efpecially in the fea fervice, are of feve- 
 ral forts ; as — Round Shot, bullets fitted to the bore of the 
 piece. 
 
 Bar Shot, is two bullets, or rather half bullets, joined toge- 
 ther by an iron bar ; ferving to cut down malts, fails, CSV, 
 Cafe Shot, "J rCASi fi)ot. 
 
 Chain&HOT, I \ Chai tifljot. 
 
 Langrel Shot, /-See the articles s Langrel /hot. 
 Random Sho r, I I Ra^oom Jhot. 
 
 Trundle Shot. t-T 
 
 ^Trundle ,/&ef\ 
 
 Shot, for fowling, is otherwife called hail, by reafon of its 
 figure and iize. 
 
 The method of calling it is as follows. The lead being 
 melted, ftirred, and fkimmed, a quantity of powdered yel- 
 low orpiment is ft re wed upon it j as much as will lie on a 
 fhilling, to 12 or 15 pounds of lead. The whole being well 
 ftirred, the orpiment will flame. To judge whether there 
 be orpiment enough in, a little of the lead is dropped into a 
 glafs of water, and if the drops prove round, and without 
 tails, there is orpiment enough, and tiie degree of heat is as 
 it fhould be. 
 
 This done, a copper-plate, hollow in the middle, and three 
 inches in diameter, bored through with 30 or 4.0 fmall 
 holes, according to the fize of the Jhot, is placed on an iron 
 frame, over a tub of water, four inches above the water : 
 the hollow part is to be very thin. On this plate are laid 
 burning coals, to keep the melted lead in fufion. The lead 
 is now poured gently, with a ladle, on the middle of the 
 plate, and it will make its way through the holes in the 
 bottom of the plate into the water, in round drops. — Great 
 care is taken to keep the lead on the plate in its proper de- 
 gree of heat : if too cold it will flop the holes; and if too 
 hot, the drops will crack and fly. 
 
 The Jhot, thus made, are dried over a gentle fire, always 
 ftirring them that they do not melt : this done, the greater 
 are fcpanitcd from the fmaller, by palling them through 
 fieves for that purpofe. 
 Frejb Shot, 7 f Fresh./W. 
 
 Hip Shot, ^Sce the articles s Hi? fijot. 
 Water Shot, 3 lWater/s?, 
 SHOT-FLAGON, a fort of flagon Somewhat bigger than 
 ordinary; which in fome counties, particularly Deruyfhire, 
 it is the' cuftom for the hoft to ferve his guefts in, after they 
 have drank above a fhilling. 
 
 SHOTTEN hntftoJg,, thc articIcs 
 
 Blood Shotten, S cdlood Jbotten. 
 
 SHOULD F;R-B LADE, a bone of the moulder, of a tri- 
 angular figure, covering the hind part of die ribs ; called 
 by anatomifts, the fcapula and omoplata. See Scapula. 
 SHOULDER- BONE. See the article Humerus. 
 SHOULDERING, in fortification. See Epaulement. 
 SHOULDERING-PIECE, in building. See Bracket. 
 SHOULDER PITCHT, is a difeafe in a horfc, when the 
 pitch or point of the moulder is difplaced, which makes thc 
 horfe halt downright. 
 SHOULDER - SPLAIT, or Shoulder-torn, is a hurt 
 which befals a horfe by fome dangerous flip, whereby thc 
 fhouldcr is parted from the breaft. 
 SHOULDER- WRENCH, is a ftrain in the fhouldcr. 
 SHOWER, a cloud refolved into rain, and ddebarged on a 
 certain tract of ground. 
 
 In natural hiftory wc meet with abundance of inftances of 
 extraordinary and preternatural Jhowers ; as, jhowers cf bhod, 
 mentioned by GafTendus, and others ; a brimjlone Jb&wer, 
 mentioned by Wormius ; Jhowers of frugs, mentioned by" 
 Pliny, and even by Dr. Plott ; ijbower of ' millet -feed, in Si- 
 lefia, mentioned in thc Ephem. German, footers of ajhes, 
 frequent in the Archipelago : a fin&wer of wheat, in Wiltfime : 
 a Jhower of whitings, mentioned in the Philofuphical Trans- 
 actions. — The natural reafons of many whereof may befecil 
 under the article Rain. 
 SHRINE*, a cafe to hold thc relicks of fome faint. See 
 Relicks. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin fcrlmum, a defkor cabinet. 
 SHROUDS. See the article Shrowds. 
 SHRO VE-TIDE, thc time immediately before lent ; thus 
 called by our anccftors, btcaufe employed in Juriving^ that 
 is, in eonfeffing their fins to the pricft ; in order to a more 
 devout keeping the enfuing lent faft. 
 %hrove-tuejday is the day next before the firft of lent. 
 SHROWDING of trees, the cutting or lopping off the top 
 branches ; this is only practifed to trees that are not fit fortim- 
 ber, but dtfigncd for fuel, or fome other prefent ufe. 
 Such trees the hufbandmen find much preferable to copfe ; 
 as they need no fence to fecure them, becaufe ftanding in 
 no danger of the browzings and rubbings of cattle, which 
 too, have thc benefit of grazing under them. 
 As for the time of Jhrowding, it is not to be practifed till 
 the trees have flood three or four years ; and then it 
 muft be done either at the beginning of the fpring, or 
 the end of autumn. 
 
 The harder fort are not to be lopped above once In ten or 
 twelve years, and that at any time in the winter. — The pi- 
 thy and fofter woods are beft Jlirowded in the fpring. — The 
 flumps left, fhould always be cut aflopc, and fmooth, in or- 
 der to caft the water oft, and prevent its finking in and rot- 
 ting the tree. 
 
 SHROWDS, or Shrouds, are great ropes in a (hip, which 
 go up on both fides of all mafts, except the bowfpi it. 
 They are faftened below by chains to the fhip's fides, ar.d 
 aloft, over the head of the maft ; their pennants, fore-tackE-, 
 and fwifters, being iirft put under them; and they are ferved 
 there, to prevent their galling the maft.— The top-m;dt 
 
 Jhrouds 
 
S I D 
 
 jhrouds are fa ftened to the puttocks, by plates of iron, and 
 by what they call dead-men's eyes, and hunters alfoj as the 
 others are.— See Tab. Ship, fig. \, n. 4, 12, 23, 41, 52; 
 62, 84, 104 and 135. 
 
 The terms are, Eafe the Jhrouds ; that is, flacken them. 
 Set taught the Jhrouds ; that is, fet them rafter. 
 
 SHRUB, frutex, a little, low, dwarf tree ; or a woody 
 vegetable, of a lize lefs than a tree ; and which, inftead of 
 one Angle Hem, frequently, from the fame root, puts forth 
 feveral fets, or items. See Tree and Plant. 
 Such are privet, phyllirea, holley, box, honey-fuckle, &c. 
 Shrubs and trees put forth in autumn a kind of buttons, or 
 gems, in the axis of the leaves : thefe buttons are as fo many 
 tittle ova, which coming to expand by the warmth of thi 
 following fpring, open into leaves, and flowers,— By this, 
 together with the height, fome diftinguifh Jhrubs fromfu$~n ( - 
 tices, or under-fnrubs j which are low bulhes, that do not 
 put forth any of thefe buttons ; as fage, thyme, ISc. 
 
 SHUTTING the mouth. See the article Mouth. 
 
 SHUTTLE, in the manufactures, an inftrument ufed by 
 the weavers, which, with a thread it contains either of wool- 
 len, filk, flax, or other matter, ferves to form the woofs of 
 Huffs, cloths, linens, ribbands, &c. by throwing the Jhutth 
 alternately from left to right, and from right to left, a-crofs 
 between the threads of the warp, which are ftretched out 
 lengthwife an the loom. 
 
 In the middle of the Jlmttle is a kind of cavity, called the eye 
 or chamber of thejhuttle ; wherein is inclofed the fpoul, which 
 is a part of the thread deftined for the woof j and this is 
 wound on a little tube of paper, rufh, or other matter. 
 The ribband-weaver's Jhuttle is very different from that of 
 moft other weavers, though it ferve for the fame purpofe : it 
 is of box, fix or feven inches long, one broad, and as much 
 deep : fliod with iron at both ends, which terminate in 
 . points, and are a little crooked, the one towards the right, 
 and the other towards the left, reprefenting the figure of 
 an f horizontally placed. 
 
 SI, in mufic, a feventh note, added within this fixty years, by 
 one Je Maire, to the fix ancient notes invented by Guido 
 Arettn, ut, re, mi, fa, fil, la, fi .- by means whereof, the 
 embarrafs of the ancient gamut is avoided. 
 So bufy a thing is jealoufy, that, for a matter of thirty years, 
 that le Maire kept preaching to the muficians of his time, in 
 behalf of the new note ; not a man would allow it : 
 but he was no fooner dead, than all the world came into 
 it. 
 
 SIBYLS. Sibylla, in antiquity, virgin- propheteffes, or 
 maids fuppofed to be divinely infpired ; and who, in the 
 height of their enthuliafm, gave oracles, and foretold things 
 to come. 
 
 * The word is fuppofed formed of an affemblagc of the two 
 Greek words, <tik, for St*, Da, and council. 
 Authors do not agree about the number of the fibyls ; Capella 
 reckons but two, viz. Erophyle of Troy, called fibylla 
 Phrygia ; and Sinuachia of Erythrsea, called fibylla Ery- 
 thraa. Solinus mentions three, viz.. Cumsea, Delphica, 
 and Erythraia. ^lian makes their number four : and Var- 
 ro increafes it to ten, denominating them from the places 
 of their birth; the Perfian, Lybian, Delphic, Cumsan, 
 Erythrxan, Samian, Cumane, Hellefpontic or Trojan, 
 Phrygian, and Tiburtin. — Of thefe, the moft celebrated 
 are, the Erythraean, Delphic, and Cumxan fibyls. 
 The fibylline oracles were held in great veneration by the 
 more credulous among the ancients ; but they were much 
 fufpe£led by many of the more knowing. The books 
 wherein they were written, were kept by the Romans with 
 infinite care, and nothing of moment was undertaken with- 
 out confulting them. Tarquin firft committed them to the 
 cuftody of two partrician priefts, inftituted for that purpofe. 
 See Oracle. 
 
 SICILIAN meafures,-% (-Measure. 
 
 ESJET ^ee t he article, Mo-v. 
 
 Sicilian vefpers, J (.Vespers. 
 
 Sicilian, in mufic, denotes a kind of gay fprightly air, or 
 dance ; fomewhat of the nature of an Englifh jig ; ufually 
 6 12 
 
 marked with the characters — or — . 
 
 SICK krnngs,7 artkl C s|" ERR ^P- 
 i £ Iron fsck. 
 
 ^KNESS, "J r Disease. 
 
 ten Sickness, L . ., 1 Chlorosis. 
 'earing sickness, I J Sudor Anghcanus. 
 
 Ihng Sickness, J (.EpiLEPsy. 
 
 Iron S.... 
 SICKNESS, 
 
 Green 
 Sweati 
 
 SICU r alias, a writ fent out in the fecond place, where the 
 firft writ was not executed. 
 
 Jt is thus called from its beginning, which is in this form : 
 Giergius D. G. &c. Via-amti Here/, falutem. Pretcipimui 
 tibi (ficut alias) prcrcepim', &c. 
 
 SIDE, latus, in geometry. The Side of a figure, is a line 
 
 S I G 
 
 Tiaui r" ° ! per ' phcr >' of '"y fij P er fi™l figure. See 
 In triangles, the>/„ are alfo called legs. 'In a redhnele tri- 
 angle, the Wofdes, including the rieht angle, are°callcd 
 eatheti ; and the third the hyfoienufe. " 
 
 Side of a pdygonal number, is the number of the terms of the 
 anthmetrical progreliion, that are hummed up. See Poly- 
 gonal number. 
 
 Side of fewer, is what we othcrwife call the root, or radix. 
 See Koot. 
 
 Sides of horn-works, crown-works, double lenai/les, and the like 
 out-works, are the ramparts and parapets which inclofe them 
 on the right and left, trom the gorge to the head 
 
 Side grafting. See the article Engrafting. 
 
 Side lays, is a term made ufa of by huntfmen, when do»s arc 
 P'J ced 'n the way, to be let flip at a deer, as he paffes by. 
 
 SIDERATION, Sideratio, in chirurgerv, a mortiflca- 
 ■ tion of fome part of the body ; called alio fphatlius, and ne- 
 erofis. See Mortification. 
 
 Sideration is alfo ufed for a beius fuddenly benumlej, 
 and deprived of the ufe of one's limbs, fcnles, &'r. which 
 the common people call bein^ planct-jlruek. 
 
 Sideration alfo denotes the blading or blighting of trees, 
 plants, fjY. by eaftern winds, exceiiive heat, drought, ur 
 the like ciufes. See Blight. 
 
 SIDERIAL year. See the articles Year aid Solar. 
 
 SIDERITES, a name which fome authors give the Joad- 
 ftone. See Magnet. It is alfo the name of a genus of 
 plants, fuppcfrd to have great virtue as vulncraries. See 
 Si.'pple?iie>:t, article Siderites. 
 
 SIDES-MEN, properly called jyncds-mcn or quejl-men, per- 
 fons, who in larger p;;rifhcs arc appointed to alJ.it the church- 
 wardens, in enquiring into the manners of inordinate livers 3 
 and in presenting oiienders at vif.tations. 
 
 SIEGE*, in war, the encampment of an army around a 
 place, with defign to take it, either in the way of djftrels 
 and famine, by making lines all around it, to prevent any 
 relief from without ; or by main force, as by digging tren- 
 ches, and making formal attacks. 
 
 * The word is French, and, fignifics, literally, feat ; alluding 
 to the army's taking its lea: here till the reduction of the 
 place. 
 
 The moft celebrated feges of antiquity, are thofe of Troyj 
 Tyre, Alexandria, and NumantiLm. And among the mo- 
 derns, thofe of Oftend, Candia, Grave, £sV. See Lines. 
 SIEVE, or Se a rc e, an inftrument ferving to feparate the 
 fine from the coarfe parts of powJers, liquors, and the like • 
 or to cleanfe pulfe from dull:, light gnir.;, C3V. 
 It is made of a rim of woud ;"the circle, or fpace whereof 
 is filled with a plexus of filk, tiffany, hair, linen, wire, or 
 even thing fliccs of wood. 
 
 Theficves which have large holes, are fometimes alfo called 
 riddles; fuch is the coal or lime fieve, the garden favc, 
 Sec. 
 
 When drugs, apt to evaporate, are to be paffed through'tbe 
 ^ fieve, it is ufual to have it covered with a fid. 
 3IEUP., a title of honour, or quality among the French ; 
 
 chiefly ufed among the lawyers, and in publick acts, and 
 
 other writings of that kind. 
 
 They fay, I plead for the fieur fuch an one, the fuur abbot 
 the fieur marquis, &c. 
 
 The title fieur is alfo given by a fuperior to an inferior; 
 in his letters and other private writings. — As, Tell the fieur 
 Hubert, that he proceed, &c. 
 
 In this fenfe, authors fometimes ufe it, by way of modefty^ 
 in fpeaking of themfelves : thus, at the heads of books- 
 we fee, Traduction du fieur d' Ablancsitrt ; UEwurcs du fieur 
 d' Efpreaux, &c. 
 
 Sieur, is alfo a term exprefling fcigneury, or lord (hip : a: 
 ecuyer or fieur of fuch a place. 
 
 SIGHT, the exercife, or ad of the fenfe of feeing. 
 
 Outfight, the nobleft and moft ufeful of all our fenfes^ fa- 
 ther Malebranche fhews, deceives us in abundance of in- 
 ftances ; nay, almoft in all : particularly with regard to the 
 magnitude, and extent of things ; their figures, motions, frV. 
 Our eyes do not fhew us any thing lefs than a mite ! half 3 
 mite is nothing, if we believe their report. A mite is only 
 a mathematical point, witli regard thereto ; and we cannot 
 divide it without annihilating it. In effect, outfight does 
 not reprefent extenfion, fuch as it is in itfelf ; but oniv the 
 relation and proportion it has to our body. Hence, as half 
 a mite has no relation to our bodies, and that it cannot ei- 
 ther preferve or deftroy us, our fight hides it intirelv. Were 
 our eyes made like microfcopes, or were we ourfdves as! 
 fmall as mites, we fliould judge very differently of the mag- 
 nitude of bodies. 
 
 It may be added, that our own eyes are really no other than 
 a kind of natural fpc&aclcs ; that their humours do the fame 
 office as the lens in fpettacles ; and that, according to the 
 
 figure 
 
S I G 
 
 figure of the cryftallin, and its diftance from the refcna, ob- 
 jects are feen very differently by us ; infomuch, as we are 
 not fure, that there are any two perfons in the world, who 
 fee them equally big. — It is even very rare, that die fame 
 perfon fees the fame object equally big with both eyes; as 
 both eyes are very feldom perfectly alike : on the contrary, 
 we generally fee things bigger with the left than the right 
 ,eye ; of which we have fome very good obfervations in the 
 journal of the learned at Rome, for the year 1669. See 
 Vision. 
 
 Short Sight, 1 f Myopia. 
 
 Second Sight, f-Sec the articles < Second fight. 
 
 Point of Sight, J C View and Point. 
 
 Sights, in mathematicks, denote two thin pieces of brafs 
 raifed perpendicularly on the two extremes of an alidade or 
 index of a theodolite, circumferentor, or other like inftru- 
 ment : each whereof has an aperture or flit up the middle, 
 through which the vifual rays pafs to the eye, and diftant 
 objects are feen.— Their ufe is for the juft direction of the 
 index to the line of the object. 
 
 Sometimes the flits or apertures have glaffes, or lenfes fitted 
 into them ; in which cafe they are called telefcopic fights : by 
 way of diftinction from the former, which in refpect hereof 
 are denominated plain fights. 
 
 Mr. Fiamfteed and Dr. Hook, abfolutely explode the ufe of 
 plain fights in aftronomical obfervations. The errors in Ty- 
 cho's latirudus of the ftars, Mr. Fiamfteed afcribes wholly to 
 his ufing plain fights; and fufpedts, that Hevelius ufing the 
 fame kind of fights, nuift fall into the like errors. — Hevelius, 
 on the contrary, in a paper in the Philofophical Tranfac- 
 tions, vindicates the ufe of plain fights, and prefers them to 
 telefcopic ones : the main objection he makes to the latter, is, 
 that no obfervation can be fafely taken with them, without 
 firft examining and rectifying them : in which examination, 
 many and grofs miftakes are liable to be committed. — To 
 which he adds, that in fexfantS, octants, azimuth quadrants, 
 &c. he does not fee how fuch examination can be made, 
 at all times, without much lofs of time. 
 
 SIGILLARIA, a folemn feaft held among the ancient Ro- 
 mans ; thus called from a cuftom which obtained therein, 
 of fending little prefents from one to another, confifting of 
 fealsj little figures, and fculptures, made of gold, filver, 
 brafs, or even earthen ware, and of devoting them to Saturn 
 as an atonement for themfelves and their friends. 
 The figillaria followed immediately after the faturnalia, 
 and held two days ; which, with the five days of the fa- 
 turnalia, made a folemnity of feven days. 
 Some derive the origin of figils and figures in this folemnity 
 from the argei or rufhen figures of men thrown annually 
 into the Tiber, from the Pons Sublicius, by the veftals, on 
 the ides of March. Vid. Macrob. Saturn. 1. 1. c. 7, 10 
 and 1 1 . See alfo ARGEA. 
 
 SIGILLATA terra, a name given to feveral kinds of medicinal 
 earths marked with feals, to exprefs their being genuine. The 
 principal is the Lemnian earth : this is a kind of earth, or 
 bole, dug in the ifle of Lemnos; and thence alfo called 
 Lemnian earth ; of confiderable ufe in medicine. See 
 Lemnian earth. 
 
 It is of different colours, but the moft common is red; 
 heavy, foft, and friable ; it is held very aftringent, and, as 
 fuch, ufed in haemorrhages ; as alfo againft the plague and 
 poifons. — Pliny attributes feveral other virtues to it, which 
 experience does not juftify ; nor is it now in that eiteem 
 it anciently was ; yet it is ftill an ingredient in Venice- 
 treacle, &c. 
 
 It was anciently found in a mountain, in the neighbourhood 
 of the city Hephseftia ; where Diana's priefts went at certain 
 times, with great ceremony, to dig it up. After a little 
 preparation, they made it up into troches, and fealed them 
 with Diana's feal ; whence the appellation of figillat a, fealed. 
 See Supplement, article Lemnia Terra. 
 
 SlGILLUM, a feal or fignet. See Seal and Signet. 
 
 SIGN, Signum, a fenfible mark or character, denoting 
 fomething abfent, or invifible. See Character and 
 Mark. 
 
 Anciently the monks, in all religious houfes, were not al- 
 lowed to fpeak ; nor to exprefs their minds otherwife than 
 by figns, which they learned in their novitiate. C. Rbodi- 
 ginus and Porta have wrote of the ancient figns, and ciphers, 
 ufed in fpeaking, and writing. 
 Sign, in algebra, denotes a fymbol, or character. See 
 Character. 
 
 Like Signs, 7 c .l. 1 fLiKE. 
 x> r , c > See the articles < „ 
 
 Radical Signs, i ^Radical. 
 
 Sign, in medicine, denotes fome appearances in the body, di- 
 
 ftinguifhable by the fenfes ; whence, by juft reafoning, is 
 
 inferred the prefence, nature, ftate, event of health, a dif- 
 
 eafe, or death. 
 
 Thofe which denote the prefent condition of a body, whe- 
 ther fick oi well, dyingor the like, arc called dlagnofiic figns. 
 
 S I G 
 
 Thofe which foretel the future ftate thereof, are called prog- 
 nofilic figns. 
 
 That fign which is peculiar to the difeafe, and infeparalle 
 from it, as arifing from the nature thereol, is called a pa- 
 thognomonic fign. 
 
 As all figns are efFeefs produced by the caufe of the difeafe, 
 the difeafe itfelf, and its fymptoms ; they ufually note the 
 prefent condition of the matter which firft produced the dif- 
 eafc, and even of that pruduced by the difeafe : on which 
 footing, the figns xre all reducible to thefe three chflcs, viz. 
 figns of the crudity, and coction of the difeafe ; of its 
 event, whether in health, ficknefs, or death ; and of its 
 fecretion and excretion : which laft figns are called critical 
 ones. 
 
 Antecedent Sign. See the article Antecedent. 
 
 Sign, in aftronomy, a twelfth part of the ecliptic, or zodiac ; 
 or a portion containing thirty degrees thereof. 
 The zodiac was divided by the ancients into twelve feg- 
 ments, called figns ; commencing from the point of inter- 
 feron of the ecliptic and equinoctial : which figns they de- 
 nominated from the twelve conftellations which, in Hippar- 
 chus's time pofiei]ed thofe fegments.— But, the conftellations 
 have finc-e fo changed their places, by the precefHon of the 
 equinox, that aries is now got out of the fign called aries, 
 into taurus, taurus into gemini, &c. 
 
 The names of the twelve figns, and their order, are as fol- 
 low j aries, taurus, gemini, cancer, leo, virgo, libra, fcorpio, 
 fagittarlus, capricomus, aquarlus, pifces ; each of which, 
 with the ftars thereof, fee under its proper article, Aries, 
 Taurus, csV. 
 
 The figns are diftinguifhed with regard to the feafon 
 of the year, when the fun is in them, into vernal, 
 eejlival, autumnal and brumal. See Autumnal and 
 Vernal. 
 
 The vernal, or fpring Signs, are aries, taurus, gemini. 
 The tcflival, or fummer Signs, are cancer, leo, and virgo. 
 The autumnal Signs, are libra, fcorpio, and fagittarius. ■ 
 The brumal, or winter Signs, are capricornus, aquarius, and 
 pifces. 
 
 Thewrnfl/and fummer figns, are alfo called northern figns. 
 
 —And the autumnal and brumal figns, fsuthern figns, 
 Afcending Signs, -\ r Ascending. 
 
 Fixt Signs, sSee the articles) Fixt. 
 
 Mafculinc Signs, J [ Masculine. 
 
 Sign manual, the fetting one's hand and feal to a writing. 
 
 See Signature. 
 
 Among the Saxons, before the invention of feals, i+w^sa 
 common fign or figmim, prefixed to the names of moft fub- 
 fcribing witneffes in charters and other deeds s as-{-figt:u.-x 
 Roberti Epifcop. Land. &c. 
 SIGNAL, a certain fign agreed upon for the conveying of 
 intelligence to places to which the voice cannot reach. 
 Signals are given for the beginning of a battle, or an at- 
 tack ; ufually with drums, and trumpets : at fea, they 
 are given by cannon or mufket-fhot, by lights, fails, flag-, 
 &c. 
 
 Signals have been in ufe in all ages. The ancients who had 
 no regular couriers or pofls, made ufe thereof to convey in- 
 telligence of what parted at a great diftance. For which 
 purpofe they phiced centinels on the eminences, from fpace 
 to fpace ; fome mention whereof, we find made by Homer 
 himfeif. Iliad. ©. v. 553, &e. OdylT. H. v. 261. Thofe peo- 
 ple thus difpofed, lighted fires, or flambeaux in the night- 
 time. In the Agamemnon of JEfchylus, that prince at bis de- 
 parture for Troy, promifes Clytemneftra, that the very day 
 the city fhould be taken, he would apprize her of his victory 
 by fires lighted exprefs. He keeps his word, and tidings are 
 brought the princefs, that Troy is taken, and that Agamem- 
 non's fignals are feen. Frontinus obferves, they were in ufe 
 among the Arabs ; and Bonaventura Vulcanius, in his Scholia 
 on Ariftotle's book dc mundo, adds, that while the Moors 
 were mafters of the greater! part of Spain, they built on the 
 tops of the mountains, an infinity of turrets, or watch- 
 houfes, called in the Arabic, atalayas, a word the Spaniards 
 ftill retain ; whence, by fires, they could immediately alarm 
 the whole kingdom. Indeed the cuftom was much more 
 ancient than the Moors in Spain. Q; Curtius obferves, it 
 was very frequent among the Afiaticks, in the time of Alex- 
 ander. Livy and Csefar alfo both mention it as ufed among 
 the Romans. Polydore Virgil fhews it of great antiquity in 
 England ; and Boethins adds, that in feveral places in Eng- 
 land, there are the remains of huge poles that have ferved 
 for this purpofe. 
 Signals at fa, are figns made by the admiral or commander 
 in chief of a fquadron of Ihips, either in the day or by 
 night, whether for failing, for fighting, or for the better 
 fecurity of the merchant Ihips, under their convoy. 
 Thefe fignals are very numerous and important; being all 
 appointed and determined by order of the lord high admiral, 
 or lords of the admiralty ; and communicated in the in? 
 
 I ftructioni 
 
S I G 
 
 ftrudinns fent to the commander of every fliip of the fleet 
 or i'quadron before their putting out to fea. 
 Signals by day. — When the commander in chief would have 
 them prepare for failing, he firft loofes his fore-top-Gil, and 
 then the whole fleet are to do the fame. When he would 
 have them unmoor, he loofes his main-top-fail, arid fires a 
 y,un, which in the royal navy is to be anfwered by every 
 flag-fhip. When he would h.ive them weigh, he loofes his 
 lore- top-fail, and fires a gun, and fome times hawls home 
 his iheats: the gun is to be anfwered by every flag-fhip, 
 and every (hip is to get to foil as foon as it can. If with the 
 leeward-iide, the ftem-moft (hip is to weigh firft-. When 
 he would have the weather-molt, and head-moft fhips to 
 tack firft, he hoifts the union flag at the fore-top-maft-head, 
 and fires a gun, which each flag-fhip anfwers ; but if he 
 would have the ftern-moft and leeward-moft fhips to tack 
 firft, he hoifts the union-flag at the mizen- top-maft-head, 
 and fires a gun ; and when he would have all the whole fleet 
 tack, he hoifts an union, both on the fore, and mizen top- 
 maft-heads, and fires a gun. When in bad weather, he would 
 have them wear, and bring to the other tack, he hoifts a 
 pendant on the enfign-ftafF, and fires a gun: and then the 
 leeward-moft and ftern-moft fhips are to wear firft, and 
 bring on the other tack, and lie by, or go on with an eafy 
 fail, till he comes a-head : every flag is to anfwer with the 
 fans fignal. If they are lying by, or failing by a wind, and 
 the .admiral would have them bear up and fail before the 
 wind, he hoifts his enfign, and fires a gun, which the flags 
 are to anfwer : and then the leeward-moft (hips are to bear 
 up firft, and to give room for the wcather-moft to wear, 
 and fail before -the wind with an eafy fail, till the admiral 
 comes a-head. But if it fhould happen when the admiral 
 hath occafion to wear and fail before the wind, that both 
 jack and enfign be abroad, he will hawl down the jack, be- 
 fore he fixes the gun to wear, and keep it down till the 
 fleet is before the wind. When they are failing before the 
 wind, and he would have them bring to, with the {far-board 
 tacks aboard, he hoifts a red flag at the flag-ftaff", on the 
 mizen-top-maft-head, and fires a gun. "But if they are to 
 bring to, with the lar-board tack, he hoifts a blue flag at 
 the fame place, and fires a gun, and every fhip is to anfwer 
 the gun. When any fhip dilcovers land, he is to hoift his 
 jack and enfign, and keep it abroad, till the admiral or 
 commander in chief anfwer him, by hoifting his ; on fight 
 of which, he is to hawl down his enfign. If any difcovcis 
 danger, he is to tack and bear up from it, and to hang his 
 jack abroad from the inain-top-maft crofwrees, and to fire 
 two guns : but if he fhould ftrike or ftick faft, then, befides the 
 fame fignal with his jack, he is to keep firing, till he fees all 
 the fleet obferve him, and endeavour to avoid the danger. 
 "When any fees a fhip or fhips more than the fleet, he is to 
 put abroad his enfign, and there keep it, till the admiral's is 
 out, and then to lower it, as often as he fees fhips, and ftand 
 in with them, that fo the admiral may know which way 
 they are, and how many ; but if he be at fuch a diftance, 
 that the enfign cannot well be difcovered, he is then to lav 
 his head towards the fhip or fhips fo defcried, and to brail 
 tip his low fails, and continue hoifting and lowering his top- 
 fails, and making a waft with his top-gallant fail?, till he is 
 perceived by the admiral When the admiral would have 
 the vice-admiral, or he that commands in the fecond poft 
 of the fleet, to fend out fhips to chafe, he hoifts a fl:ig, ftriped 
 white and red on the flag-ftafF, at the fore-top-maft-head, 
 and fires a gun. But if he would have the rear-admiral do 
 fo, he then hoifts the fame fignal on the flag-ftafF, at the 
 mizen-top-maft-head, and fires a gun. When the admiral 
 would have any fhip to chafe to windward, he makes z fignal 
 for fpeaking with the captain, and he hoifts a red flag in the 
 mizen fhrowds, 'and fires a gun : but if to chafe to leewaid, 
 a blue flag ; and the fame fignal is made by the flag, in 
 whofe diviiion that fhip is. When he would have "them 
 give over chafe, he hoifts a white flag on his flag-ftafF at the 
 lore-top-maft-head, and fires a gun : which fignal is to be 
 made alio by that flag-fhip which is neareft the fhip that 
 gives chafe, till the chafing fhip fees the fignal. In cafe of 
 springing a leak, or any other difafter, that difables their fhip 
 from keeping company, they are to hawl up their courfes, 
 and fire two guns. When any fhip would fpeak with the 
 admiral, he muft fpread an Knglifh enfign, from the head of 
 his main, or fore-top-maft, downwards on thefhrowds, lower- 
 ing his main, or fore- top- fail, and continue firing guns, till the 
 admiral obferve him ; and if any fhip perceive this, and judg- 
 eth the admiral doth not, that fhip muft make the fam- fignal^ 
 and make the beft of his way to acquaint the admiral there- 
 with, who wilt anfwer by firing one gun. When the admi- 
 ral would have the fleet to prepare to anchor, he hoifts an 
 enlign, ftriped red, blue, and white on the enfign ftafF, and 
 fires a gun, and every flag-fhip makes the fame fignal. If 
 he would have the fleet moor, he hoifts his mizen-top-fail, 
 with the clew-lines hawled up, and fires a gun. If he 
 would have the fleet cut or flip, he loofes both his top-fails, 
 and fires two guns ; and then the leeward fhips are to cut 
 or flip firft, to give room to the weathermoft to come to fail. 
 So if he would have any pamicular fhip to cut or flip, and 
 Vol. II. N». 141. 
 
 S I G 
 
 to chafe to windward, he mates thtJgltalCor fpeaking wit', 
 that ihip, hoifts a red flag in the mizen fhrowds, and hies i 
 gun : but if the (hip is to chafe to leeward, he hoifts a blue 
 flag as before. If he would have the fleet exercife their 
 (mall arms, he hmfts a red flag on the enfign-fhtF, and fires 
 a gun ; but if the great guns, then lie puts up a pendant 
 over the red flag. r 
 Signals tymgit-^-Tb be obferved a; an anchor, weighine 
 anchor, and falling, are as follow. When the admiral would 
 have the fleet to unmoor, and ride ftiort, he hangs out three 
 lights, one over another in the main-top-maft fhrowds, over 
 the conftant light in the main-top, and fires two guns 
 which are to be anfwered by the flag-tlnps ■ and each pr ivate 
 ihip hangs out a light in the mizen-fhiowds. Note That 
 all guns, fired for fgnsl, in (he night, muft be fircd'on the 
 fame fide, that they may make no alteration in the found. 
 When he wouIJ have them weigh, he hams a lift,; in the 
 main-top-maft fhrowds, and fires a gun, which is %> be an- 
 fwered by all the flags, and every private (hip muft hang 
 out a light in his mizen-fhrowj. When he would have 
 them tack, he hoifts two flags on the enlign-ftaff; one over 
 another, above the conftant light in his poop, and fires a 
 gun, which is to he anfwered by all the flags ; and every pri- 
 vate (hip is to hang out a light extraordinary, which is not 
 to be taken in, till the admiral takes in his. ' After Ac fignal 
 is made, the leeward-moft, and ftern-moft (hips muft tack 
 as faft as they can, and the ftern-moft flag-fhip', after he is 
 about 011 the other tack, is to lead the fleet, and him they 
 are to follow, to avoid running through one another in the 
 dark. When he is upon a wind, and would have the fleet 
 veer, and bring to on the other tack, he hoifts up one ]i~hc 
 at the mizen-peek, and fires three guns, which is to be an- 
 fwered by all the flag-ftiips, and every private fhip muft an- 
 fwer, with one light at the mizen-peek. The ftern-moft, 
 and leeward-moft fhips, arc to bear up fo fuon as the Imml 
 is made. When he would have them, in blowing weather 
 to he a try, ftiort, or a hull, or with the head- fails braced 
 to the maft, he will form lights of equal height, and fire 
 hve guns, which are to be anfwered bv the hV-fhips and 
 then every private fhip muft fhew four lights : and after 
 this, if he would have them to make fail, he then fires ten 
 guns, which ate to be anfwered by all the fla™s, and then the 
 head-moft and weather-moft fhips, are to"make fail firft. 
 When the fleet is failing large, or before the wind, and the 
 admiral would have them bring to, and lie by with their 
 ftar-board tacks abroad, he puts out four lights in the fore- 
 ■hrowds, and fires fix guns; but if with the lar-board tacks 
 aboard, he fires eight guns, which are to be anfwered bv the 
 ffag-fhips; and every private (hip muff fhew four lights. 
 I he wind- moft fhips muft bring to firft. Whenever th? ad- 
 miral alters his courfe, he fires one gun, (without alterine: 
 his lights) which is to he anfwered by all the nag-fliira If 
 any fhip hath occafion to lie ftiort, or by, after the fleet hath 
 made fall, he is to fire one gun, and fhew three lights in his 
 mizcn-ftirowds. When any one firft difcovers land, or dan- 
 ger, he is to (hew as many lights as he can, to fire one °un 
 and to tack or bear away, from it: and, if any one happen 
 tofprmg a leak, or any be difabled from keeping company 
 with the fleet, he hangs out two lights of equal height, and 
 fires guns till he is relieved by fome fhip of the fleet. If 
 any one difcovers a fleet, he is to fire guns, make falfe fires 
 put one light out on the mam top, three on the poop, to 
 fteer after them, and to continue firing of guns, unlefs the 
 admiral call him off, by fleering another courfe, and fire 
 two or three guns; for then he muft follow the admiral. 
 When the admiral anchors, he fires two guns, a finall fpace 
 of time one from the other, which are to be anfwered by 
 the flag-fhips, and every private fhip muft fhew two lights. 
 When the admiral would have the fleet to moor, he nuts a 
 light on each top-maft head, and fires a gun, which is to 
 be anfwered by the flag-fhip,, and every private fhip is to 
 (hew one light If he would have them lower their yards 
 and top-mafts, he hoifts one light upon his enfign-ftafF; and 
 fires one gun ; which is to be anfwered by the fla>r-(hins - 
 and every private Ihip muft (hew one light. And when he 
 would have them hoift their yards and top-mafts, he puts 
 out two hghts, one under the other, in the mizen-rop-maft 
 fhrowds, and fires one gun : which is to be anfweied bv the 
 ffag-ftups ; and each privare fhip muft fhew one li»ht in the 
 mizen-ihrowds. If any ftrange fhip be difcovered coming 
 into the fleet, the next fhip is to endeavour to ("peak with 
 her, and bring her to an anchor, and not fuffer her to pafs 
 through the fleet. And if any one difcovers a fleet, and it 
 blow fo hard that he cannot come to give the admiral no- 
 tice timely, he is to hang out a great number of lights and 
 to continue firing gun after gun, till the admiral anfwers 
 him with one. When the admiral would have the fleet to 
 cut or (lip, he hangs out four lights, ohe at each main-yard- 
 arm, and at each fore-yard-arm, and fires two eurrs which 
 are to be anfwered by the flag-Ihips, and every private (hip 
 
 is to fhew one light. 
 Signals »j,d, when a fat fail, in B /^.-If ,he adrn : raI 
 wouM have them weigh, he fires ten guns; which every 
 flag-fhip is to anfwer. To make them tack, he fires four 
 n T 
 
 guns, 
 
S I G 
 
 S I G 
 
 guns, which are to be anfwered by the flag-fhips ; and then 
 the leeward-moft, and ftern-moft fhips muft tack firft, and 
 after they are about, to go with the fame fail they tacked 
 with and not to lie by, expecting the admiral to come 
 a-head : and this is to avoid the danger of running through 
 one another in thick weather. 
 
 When the admiral brings to, and lies with his head-fails to 
 the maft ; if with the ftar-board tack aboard, he fires fix 
 guns ; but if with the lar-board tack, he fires eight-guns, 
 which the flag-fhips are to anfwer. And after this, if he 
 makes fail, he fires ten guns, which the flag-fhips muft an- 
 fwer, and then the head-moft and weather-moft fhips are to 
 make fail firft. If it grow thick and foggy weather, the 
 admiral will continue failing, with the fame fail fet, that he 
 had before it grew foggy, and will fire a gun every hour, 
 which the flag-fhips mull anfwer, and the private fhips muft 
 anfwer, by firing of mufkets, beating of drums, and ring- 
 ing of bells. But if he be forced to make either more or 
 Ms fail than he had, when the fog began, he will fire a gun 
 every half hour, that the fleet may difcern, whether they 
 come up with the admiral, or fall a-ftern of him ; and the 
 fla<*s and private fhips are to anfwer as before. If any one 
 difcovers danger, which he can avoid, by tacking and ftand- 
 Ulg from it, he is to make the fignal for tacking in a fog ; 
 but if helhould chance to fti'ikc and ftick fa ft, he is to fire 
 gun after gua, till he thinks the reft have avoided the dan- 
 ger. When the admiral would have the fleet to anchor, 
 he fires two guns, which the flags are to anfwer; and after 
 he hath been half an hour at an anchor, he will fire two 
 guns more, to be anfwered by the flags, as before \ that al! 
 the fleet may know it. 
 Signals for calling officer son board the admiral. — When the 
 admiral puts aboard an union-flag in the mizen-fhrowds, and 
 fires a gun, all the captains are to come aboard him : and if 
 with the fame fignal, there be alfo a waft made with the en- 
 fign, then the lieutenant of each fhip is to come on board. 
 If an enfign be put aboard in the fame place, all the mafters 
 of the fhips of war are to come on board the admiral. If 
 a flandard on the flag-ftaff be hoiftcd at the mizen-top-maft- 
 head, and a gun fired, then all the flag-officers are to come 
 aboard the admiral. If the Knglifh flags only ; then a ftand- 
 ard in the mizen-fhrowds ; and fire a gun : if the flags, 
 and land general officers ; then the admiral puts aboard a 
 ilandard at mizen-top-maft-head, and a pendant at mizen- 
 peek, and fires a gun. If a red flag be hoifted in the mizen- 
 ihrowds, and a gun fired ; then the captains of his own 
 fquadron are to come aboard the admiral; and if, with the 
 fame fignal, there be alfo a waft with the enfign, the lieute- 
 nant of each fhip muft come aboard. If he hoifts a white 
 flag, as before, then the vice-admiral, or he that commands 
 in the fecond poft, and all the captains of his fquadron, arc 
 to go on board the admiral: if a blue flag, &c then the 
 rear-admiral, and the captains of his fquadron, muft come 
 on board ; and if a waft, as before, the lieutenants. When 
 a ftandard is hoifted on the enfign-ftaff, and a gun fired, the 
 vice and rear-admirals muft come on board the admiral's 
 ihip. When the admiral would fpeak with the captains of 
 his own divifion, he will hoi ft a pendant on the mizen-peek, 
 and fire a vun ; and if with the lieutenants, a waft is made 
 with the enfign, and the fame fignal; for whenever he would 
 fpeak with the lieutenants of any particular fhip, he makes 
 the fignal for the captain, and a waft alfo with the enfign. 
 When the admiral would have all the tenders in the fleet 
 come under his ftern, and fpeak with him ; he hoifts a flag, 
 yellow and white, at the mizen-peek, and fires a gun. But 
 if he would fpeak with anyparticular fhip's tender, he makes, 
 a fignal for fpeaking with the captain fhe tends upon, and a 
 waft with the jack. If all the pinnaces and barges are to 
 come on board , manned and armed, the fignal is a pendant 
 on the fla^-ftaff, hoifted on the fore-top-maft-head, and a 
 gun fired ; and if he would have them chafe any fhip, vef- 
 fel or boat, in view, he hoifts the pendant, and fires two 
 suns. The fignal for the long-boats to come on board him, 
 manned and armed, is the pendant hoifted on the flag-ftaff, 
 and the mizen-top-maft-head, and a gun fired; and if he 
 would have them chafe any fhip, veflel, or boat, in open 
 view without coming on board him, lie hoifts the pendant, 
 as aforefaid, and fires two guns. When the admiral would 
 have all the boats in the fleet come on board him, manned 
 and armed, he hoifts a pendant on the flag ftaff, both on the 
 fore-top-maft, and mizen-top-maft-head, and fires one gun ; 
 but if he would have them chafe, he hoifts his pendants, as 
 before, and fires two guns. When the admiral would fpeak 
 with the victualler, or his agent, he puts an Englifh enfign 
 in the mizen-top-maft fhrowds ; and when with him that 
 hath the charge of the gunner's ftores, he will fpread an en- 
 fign at his main-top-fail-yard-arm. 
 SlGNALs/sr managing a fea-figbt,— When the admiral would 
 have the fleet form a line of battle, one fhip a-head of ano- 
 ther, he hoifts an union-flag at the mizen-peek, and fires a 
 gun ; and every flag-fhip does the like. But when they are 
 to form a line of battle, one a-breaft of another, he hoifts 
 a pendant with the union-flag, CSV. When he would have 
 the admjjal of the white, 0 r he that commands in the fecond 
 
 poft, to tack, and endeavour to gain the wind of the enemy, 
 he fpreads a white flag under the flag at the main-top-maft- 
 head, and fires a gun ; and when he would have the vice- 
 admiral of the blue do fo, he duth the fame with the blue 
 flag. If he would have the vice-admiral of the red do fo, 
 he fpreads a red flag from the cap, oa the fore-top-maft- 
 head, downward on the back-ftav : if the vice-admiral of 
 the blue, he fpreads a blue-flag, igx. and fires a gun'. If he 
 would have the rear-admiral ot the red do fo, he hoifts a red 
 flag at the flag-ftaff, at the mizen-top-maft-head ; if the 
 rear-admiral of the white, a white fag-,; if the rear-admiral 
 of the blue, a blue flag, and under it a pendant of the fame 
 colour, with a gun. If he be to leeward of the fleet, or 
 any part of it, and he would have them bear down into his 
 wake or grain, he hoifts a blue flag at the mizen-peek, and 
 fires a gun. If he would be to leeward of the cnemv and 
 his fleet, or any part of it be to leeward of him ; in order 
 to bring thefe fhips into the line, he bears down with a blue 
 flag at the mizen-peek, under the union-flag (which is the 
 fignal for battle) and tires a gun ; and then thole fhips, that 
 are to leeward of him, muft endeavour to get into his wake 
 or grain, according to their ftation in the line of battle. 
 When the fleet is failing before the wind, and he would have 
 him, who commands in the fecond poft, and the fhip 
 of the ftar-board quarter, to clap by the wind, and come to 
 the ftar-board tack, he hoifts a red flag at the mizen -top- 
 maft-head : but a blue one, if he would have fhips of the 
 lar-board quarter, come to the lar-board tack, with a gun- 
 If the van are to tack firft, he fpreads the unon-flag at the 
 flag-ftaff, on the fore -top- maft- bead, and fires a gun, if the 
 red-flag be not abroad ; but if it be, then he lowers the fore- 
 top-fails a little; and the union-flag is fpread from the cap of 
 the fore-top-maft downwards ; and every flag-fhip doth the 
 fame. If the rear be to tack firft, he huifts the union-flag: 
 on the flag-ftaff", at the mizen-top-maft-head, and fires a 
 gun ; which all the flag-fhips arc to anfwer. If ail the flag- 
 lhips are to come into his wake or grain, he hoifts a red flag 
 at his mizen-peek, and fires a gun ; and all the fbg-fhips 
 muft do the fame. If he would have him that commands 
 in the fecond poft of his fquadron to make more fail ( though 
 he himfelf fhorten fail) he hoifts a white flag on the enfign- 
 ftaff". But if he that commands in the third poft be to da 
 fo, he hoifts a blue flag, and fires a gun, and all the flas*» 
 fhips muft make the fame fignai. Whenever he hoifts a red 
 flag on the flag-ftaff at the fore-top-maft-head, and fires a, 
 gun ; every fhip in the fleet muft ufe their utinoft endeavour 
 to engage the enemy, in the order prefcribed them. When 
 he hoifts a white flag at his mizen-peek, and fires a gun ; 
 then all the fmall frigates of his fquadron, that are not of 
 the line of battle, are to come under the ftern. If the fleet 
 be failing by a wind in the line of battle, and the admiral 
 would have them brace their head-fails to the maft, he hoifts 
 up a yellow flag, on the flag-ftaff, at the mizen-top-maft- 
 head, and fires a gun ; which the flag-lhips are to anfwer : 
 and then the fhips in the rear muft brace firft. After this, if 
 he would have them fall their head-fails, and ftand on, he 
 hoifts a yellow flag on the flag-ftaff of the fore-top-mart- 
 head, and fires a gun, which the flag-fhips muft anfwer, and 
 then the fhips in the van, muft fall firft, and ftand on. If 
 when this fignal is made, the red flag at the fore-top-maft- 
 head be abroad, he fpreads the yellow flag under the red. If 
 the fleets being near one another, the admiral would have 
 all the fhips to tack together, the fooner to lie in a pofture 
 to engage the enemy ; he hoifts an union-flag on the flag- 
 ftaves at the fore and mizen-top-maft-heads, and fires a gun 5 
 and all the flag-fhips are to do the fame. The fleet being 
 in a line of battle, if he would have the fhip that leads the 
 van, hoift, lower, fet, or hawl up any of his fails, he fpread-; 
 a yellow flag, under that at his main-top-maft-head, and 
 fires a gun, which fignal the flag-fhips are to anfwer ; and 
 the admiral will hoift, lower, fet, or hawl up the fail, 
 which he would have the fhip that leads the van, do ; 
 which is to be anfwered by the flag-fhips of the fleet. When 
 the enemies run, and he would have the whole fleet follow 
 them, he makes all the fail he can after them himfelf, takes 
 down the fignal for the line of battle, and fires two guns 
 out of his fore-chafe, which the flag-fhips anfwer ; and then 
 every fhip is to endeavour to come up with, and board the 
 enemy. When he would have the chafe given over, he 
 hoifts a white flag at the fore-top-maft-head, and fires a gun. 
 If he would have the red fquadron draw into a line of 
 battle, one a-breaft of another, he puts abroad a flag, itriped 
 red and white, on the flag-ftaff at the main-top-maft-head, 
 with a pendant under it, and fires a gun: if the white or 
 fecond fquadron is to do fo, the flag is ftriped red, white 
 and blue : if the blue or third fquadron is to do fo, the flag 
 is a Genoefe enfign and pendant : but if they arc to draw 
 into a line of battle, one a-head of another, the fame fignah 
 are made without a pendant. If they are to draw into the 
 line of battle one a-ftern of another, with a large wind, and 
 he would have the leaders go with the ftar-board tacks, a- 
 board by the wind ; he hoifts a red and white flag at the 
 mizen-peek, and fires a gun : but if they mould go with 
 the lar-board tacks aboard, by the wind, he hoifts a Genoefe 
 2 Hag 
 
S I L 
 
 S I L 
 
 flag at the fame place; which fignals, like others, muft be 
 anfwer'd by the flag-fhips. 
 SIGNATURE, Signatura, figning, a fubfeription or 
 putting of one's name at the bottom of an act, or deed, in 
 one's own hand-writing. 
 
 Anciently, when very few people could write, they dif- 
 penfed with the ufe of fignatures ; and contented them'felves 
 with the party's feal. 
 Eicnature of the court of Rave, is a fupplication anfwered 
 by the pope, whereby he grants a favour, difpenfation, or 
 collation to a benefice, by putting the fiat at the bottom 
 thereof, in his own hand ; or the concejum efi wrote in his 
 prefence.— This fignature, at the bottom of the fupplication, 
 gives the name to the whole initrument. 
 The fignature contains the claufes, derogations, and difpen- 
 fations wherewith the pope grants the favour, or the bene- 
 fice; with a commiffion for the execution thereof, either in 
 forma dignum, or in gracious form. 
 
 A fignature of the pope's own hand, whereby he anfwers, 
 fiat ut petitur, is preferred to another anfwered by the pre- 
 fect, in his prefence, in thefe words, conceffum ut't petitur in 
 prafsntia D. N. papa. Sometimes in fignatures with the 
 fiat, the pope adds, propria motu ; which claufe gives them 
 ffiil further force. 
 
 There are three kinds of fignatures ; one in forma gratis/a, 
 difpatched on an atteftation of the ordinary ; another in 
 forma dignum antiqua, difpatched for canonicates ; the third 
 in forma dignum novifjima, which is a kind of fecond figna- 
 ture, or executorial letter granted where, upon the ordina- 
 ry's failing to execute the firft within thirty days, the near- 
 eft other ordinary is enjoined to execute it. 
 Signature, in printing, denotes a mark at the bottom of 
 each fheet, to facilitate the gathering and binding of the 
 book ; and to fhew the order and number of the quires and 
 fheets. 
 
 The fignatures confift of the capital letters of the alphabet ; 
 and change in every fheet. If there be more fheets than 
 letters in the alphabet ; to the capital letter, they add a fmail 
 one of the fame fort, i. e. a little a after a great A, CSV, 
 which they repeat, as often as is neceflary. 
 
 Signature, Signatura, is alfo ufed by fome naturalifts 
 for the refemblance a vegetable or mineral bears to any part 
 of the human body ; this is by fome fantaftical people, fup- 
 pofed to afford an indication of its virtues and ufe. 
 
 SIGNET, one of the king's feals, ufed for fealing his pri- 
 vate letters, and figning all grants which pafs his maiefty's 
 hand by bill. " * J 3 
 
 The fignet is always in the cuftody of the king's fecretaries : 
 on whom attend four clerks of the fignet-sffice. See Secre- 
 tary and Clerk. 
 
 SIGNIFICATION, the fenfe or meaning of a fign, word, 
 phrafe, emblem, devife or the like ; that is, the thing de- 
 noted by fuch fign, word, figure, &c. 
 W e are almoft perfedly at alofs as to the fignification of the 
 hieroglyphic chara£ers of the ancients. 
 
 Signification, in law, is the notification of an act, &c, 
 made to the oppofite party, by a copy, c5V. thereof, given 
 and attefted by a proper officer. 
 
 Some fignificathns are to be made to the perfon himfeif ; or, 
 at lead, at his houfe : for others, it is enough that they be 
 made to the party's attorney, or agent. 
 
 SIGNIFICAV1T, a writ which iffues out of chancery, 
 upon a certificate given by the ordinary, of a man that 
 ftands obftinately excommunicate for the fpace of forty days; 
 for the laying him up in prifon, without bail or mainprize, 
 till he fubmit himfeif to the authority of the church. 
 
 SIGNING. See Signature and Counter-/£s/?^. 
 
 SILENCIARY, Silentiarius, an officer among the 
 ancient Roman flaves ; being, according to fome authors, a 
 flave placed over the reft, to prevent any noife and uproar, 
 and to keep them filent. 
 
 Seneca, in his epiftles, mentioning the great care taken to 
 keep the Haves mute, his given occafion to Lipfius, Popma, 
 and fome others, to fuppofe, that the fdenciary was efta- 
 hfhed in his time : but others, as Pignorius, think no fuch 
 canclufion can be drawn from Seneca's words ; nor anv 
 thing, but that they were, even then, very fevere in pre- 
 venting any noife among the flaves.— As to the name and 
 office of the filenciary, it was not eftablifhed till about the 
 time of Salvian ; who is the firft author that mentions 
 it. 
 
 There were alfo fihntiarii eftablifhed in the emperor's court, 
 called quictis minijhi, and filentiarii palatii ; and honoured 
 with the further titles of clariffium, fpeclabiies, devotiffimi, 
 and m Greek iMfMn*^ q , 4, mo ft admirable. 
 1 here were a great number of thefe ; but only thirty ordi- 
 narily officiated ; who were divided into three bands, each 
 whereof had us <W/ 5 ._The council of Chalcedon, call 
 the body of filenttaries, fchola devotiffimorum filentiario- 
 rum. 
 
 SILENI, in antiquity, a fort of heathen demi-gods, the fame 
 wnh fatrriy which were called fileni when they came to be 
 advanced in age. 
 
 Yet was there one principal SiUnm elder than any of the 
 
 reft.— Diod. Siculus fays, he was the mafter, or tutor of 
 Bacchus, whom he diicipiined nobly, and followed him to 
 the wars. He quotes an ancient Doet named Thymastas, 
 who relates, that the fileni affiled' Bacchus in the war he 
 waged againft the Titans ; adding, that the firft Silenui 
 reigned in an ifland made by the river Triton in Lybia.— He 
 is reprefented, as having a lon^ tail hanging behind ; whieh 
 is hkewife an attribute of all his pyfterity.— The po^ts 
 always mount him on an afs. 
 
 Nonnus makes Silenus a fon of Tellus ; and gives him three 
 fons, Aftrxus, Maron and Lenaeus. Servitis, on Virgil's 
 eclogue, makes Silenus * the fon of Mercury ; others. °tbe 
 fon of Pan, and a nymph : others will have him born of 
 the drops of the blood of Ccelus, the father of Saturn. 
 * Bochart, in his Canaan, will have Stltnm to take his name 
 from rr?W i or blU/> Silo ; whence Silaa, the name of 
 
 the Mefliah. He very rafhly adds, that ail that is attributed 
 to this imaginary deity, is taken from what the prophets have 
 foretold of Jefus Chrrlt. — Thus, whereas itis faid, the Me.liaii 
 lhall be the initruclor of the people ; Silenus is made the pre- 
 ceptor of Bacchus. Because it is laid, that our Saviour (nail 
 bind his afs to the vine, and his colt to the young virc ; 
 Silenui is made to ride on an afs. Becaufe our Saviour waftied 
 liis garments in blood, as thofe that trod the wine-preis ; 
 Silenus was made to prefide over thefe who prefted the vin- 
 tage. Becaufe it is added, his eyes were red by reafon of 
 wine; Si/enns was made always fuddled. Bochart, however, 
 advances all this with a great deal of difiruit, as he has rea- 
 fon ; it having no warrant : he adds, that the devil invented 
 the fable of Silgnus, to turn the mvileries of our religion inia 
 ridicule. But it mult be a very ignorant devil, to take rubtnt 
 Mi oculi ex vino, & dentes ttttj tx laile albefcu-:i, in the fenfe 
 he has d»ne ; as if the words Minified any thing more, in the 
 propriety of the Hebrew tongue, then, His eyes are redder 
 than wine ; his teeth whiter than milk. We may add, that 
 no-body, before Bochart, neither chriftian not idolater, ever 
 faw any thing of Jefus Chriit in the fable of Si/eem, 
 
 SILIQUA, in botany, the feed-vefTd, hufk, pod, or fliell of 
 a plant of the leguminous kind. — Whence 
 
 Siliquous plants, thofe which produce fillqucz, or feed- 
 pods. 
 
 SILK, Sericum, a very foft, fine, bright, delicate thread ; 
 the work of an infect, called bombyx, or the filk-worm. 
 The ancients were but little acquainted with the ufe and 
 manufacture of filk ; they took it for the work of a fort 
 of fpider, or beetle, who fpun it out of its entrails, and 
 wound it with its feet about the little branches of trees.— 
 This infect they called fir, from Sires, a people in Scythia, 
 who they thought bred it ; whence the filk itlelf they called 
 fencum, — But this fer of theirs has very little affinity with 
 our filk-worm, lombyx : the former living five years ; but the 
 latter dying annually, enveloped in a yellowifh bag, or ball ; 
 which wound out into little threads, makes what we call 
 filk. 
 
 It was in the ifle of Cos, that the art of manufacturing filk 
 was firft invented ; and Pamphila, daughter of Platis, is ho- 
 noured as the inventrefs. — The difcovery was not long un- 
 known to the Romans. Silk was brought them from Sertca, 
 where the worm was a native. But fo far were they from 
 profiting by the difcovery, that they could not be u duced 
 to believe fo fine a thread fbould be the work of a worm ; 
 and thereupon formed a thoufand chimerical conjectures of 
 their own. 
 
 Silk was a very fcarce commodity among them for many- 
 ages : it was even fold weight for weight with gold ; info- 
 much, that Vopifcus tells us, the emperor Aurelian, re- 
 futed theemprefs, his fpoufe, a fuit of filk, which fhe foli- 
 ated of him with much earneftnefs ; merely on account of 
 its dearnefs.— At length, two monks, coming from the Indies 
 to Conftantinople in 555, brought with them great quantities 
 of filk-worms, with inftrudions for the hatching of their 
 eggs, rearing and feeding the worms, and drawing out the 
 
 flk, and fpinning and working it. Upon this, manufactures 
 were fet up at Athens, Thebes and Corinth. 
 About the year 11 30, Roger king of Sicily, eftablifhed a 
 
 filk manufactury at Palermo, and another in Calabria ; ma- 
 naged by workmen, who were a part of the plunder brought 
 irom Athens, Corinth, &c. whereof that prince made a 
 conqueft in his expedition to the holy land. — By degrees, 
 Mezeray adds, the reft of Italy and Spain learned from the 
 Sicil lans and Calabrians, the management of the filk-worms t 
 and the working of filk ; and at length the French, got it 
 by right of neighbourhood, a little before the reitm of 
 Francis I. and began to imitate them. 
 
 The great advantage the new manufacture turned to, made 
 our Kings James I. very carneft for its being introduced into 
 England: accordingly, it was recommended feveral times 
 from the throne, and in the moft earneft terms, to plant 
 mulberry-trees, UY. for the propagation ot'.fiik-zusrms ; but, 
 unhappily, without effect: though from thfe various experi- 
 ments we meet withal in the Philofophical Tranfactions, and 
 other places, it appears, that the filk-worm thrives and works 
 as well, in all refpects, in England, as in any other part of 
 Europe. 
 
 The filk-tvorm is an Meft, not more remarkable for the 
 
 precious 
 
S I L 
 
 S I L 
 
 "precious matter it furnifhes for divers fluffs, than for the 
 many forms it afiumes, before and after its being inveloped 
 in the rich cod or ball it weaves itfelf. From a fmall egg 
 about thefize of a pin's head, which is its firft ftate, it be- 
 comes a pretty big worm, or caterpillar, of a whitifh colour, 
 Inclining to yellow. In this ftate it feeds on mulberry-leaves, 
 till being come to maturity, it winds itfelf up into a filken 
 na< T or°cafe, about the fize and fhapc of a pidgeon's egg ; 
 and becomes metamorphofed into an aurelia : in this ftate it 
 remains without any iigns of life, or motion : till at length 
 it awakes, to become a butter-fly ; after making itfelf a paf- 
 fage out of its filken fepulchre. And, at laft, dying indeed, 
 it prepares itfelf, by an egg, which it cafts, for a new life j 
 ■which the warmth of the fu miner weather affifts it in re- 
 
 fuming. ... . . , . r 
 
 As fuon as the filk-worm or caterpillar is arrived at the lire 
 and ftrength ne'eeffary for beginning his cod; he makes his 
 web : for it is thus they call that flight tiffue, which is the 
 beginning, and ground of this admirable work. This is his 
 firft day's employment. On the fecond, he forms his folli- 
 culus or ball, and covers himfelf almoft over with fit. 
 The third day, he is quite hid ; and the following days he 
 employs himfelf in thickening and ftrengthening his ball : 
 always working from one fingle end, which he never breaks 
 by his own fault ; and which is fo fine, and fo long, that 
 thofe who have examined it attentively, think they fpeak 
 within compafs, when they affirm, that each ball contains 
 'fit enough to reach the length of lix Englifh miles. 
 Jn ten days time, the ball is in its perfection ; and it is now 
 to be taken down from the branches of the mulberry-tree, 
 where the worms have hung it.— But this point requires a 
 great deal of attention ; for there are fome worms more lazy 
 than others ; and it is very dangerous waiting till they make 
 themfclves a paflagc, which ufually happens about the fif- 
 teenth day. 
 
 The firft, fineft and ftrongeft balls, are kept for the breed ; 
 the left are carefully wound : if there be more than can be 
 •well wound at once ; they lay them for fome time in an oven 
 mode rate! v hot, or elfe expofe them, for feveral days fuc- 
 ceflively, to the greatcft heats of the fun, in order to kill 
 the infect; which, without this precaution, would not fail 
 to open itfelf a way to go and ufe thofe new wings abroad, 
 which it has acquired within. 
 
 Ordinarily, they only wind the more perfect balls. Thofe 
 that are double, or too weak, or too coarfe, are laid 
 afide ; not as altogether ufelcfs, but that, being impro- 
 per for winding, they are refer ved to be drawn out into 
 fkains. 
 
 The balls are of different colours ; the moft common are 
 yellow, orange- col our, ifabella, and flefh-colour. — There 
 arc fome alfo of a fca-green; others of a fulphur-colour, 
 and others white : but there is no neceffity for feparating 
 the colours and (hades to wind them apart ; as all thefe 
 colours arc to be loft in the future fcouring and preparing of 
 the Jilt. 
 
 To wind the Silk fromeff the balls. Two machines are necef- 
 fary ; the one- a furnace, with its copper ; the other a reel, 
 or -frame, to draw the Jilt. — The winder fcated near the 
 furnace, throws into the copper of water over the fur- 
 nace (firft heated to a certain degree, which cuftom 
 alone can teach) a handful or two of balls, which have 
 been firft Well purged of ail their loofe furry fubftance. He 
 then ftirs the whole very brifkly about with birchen rods, 
 bound and cut like bruflies ; and when the heat and agita- 
 tion have detached the ends of the fit of the pods, which 
 are very apt to catch on the rods, he draws them forth ; and 
 joining"" ten or twelve, or even fourteen of them together, 
 he forms tftein into threads, according to the bignefs required 
 to the works they are deftmed for : eight ends fufiichig for rib- 
 bands ; and velvets, E3V. requiring no fefs than fourteen. The 
 ends thus joined into two or three threads, are firft paffed 
 into the holes of three iron rods, in the fore-part of the reel, 
 then upon the bobbins, or pullies, and at laft they are drawn 
 out of the reel itfelf, and there fattened ; each to an end of 
 an arm or branch of the reel. Thus difpofed, the workman, 
 giving motion to the reel, by turning the handle, guides his 
 threads ; fubftitutes new ones, when any of them break, or 
 any of the balls are wound out ; ftrengthens them where ne- 
 cefl'ary, by adding others ; and finally he takes away the balls 
 wound out, or that having been pierced, and are full of water. 
 In this manner, two workmen will fpin and reel three pounds 
 of filk in a d.iy ; which is an otherguife difpatch than is made 
 by the fpinning-wheel, or diftaft". — Indeed, all fits cannot 
 be fpun and reeled after this manner; either by reafon the 
 Walls have been perforated by the fit-worms themfelves, or 
 becaufe they are double, or too weak to bear the water ; or 
 hecaufe they are coarfe, (&. Of all thefe together, they 
 make a particular kind of fit called fioretta : which being 
 carded, or even fpun on the diftaft", or the wheel, in the 
 condition it comes from the ball, makes a tolerable Jilt. 
 As to the balls, after opening them with feiffars, and taking 
 out the in'ects {which are of fome ufe for the feeding of 
 poultry) they ure fteeped three or four days in troughs, the 
 water whtriot :j changed every day to prevent their ranking. 
 
 When they are well foftened by tills (touring, and cleared of 
 that gummy matter, the worm had lined the infide withal 
 and which renders it impenetrable to the water, they boil 
 them half an hour in a lye of afh.es, very clear and well 
 ftrained : and after wafhing them out in the river, and dry- 
 ing them in the fun, they card and fpin them on the wheel 
 &c. and thus make another kind of floretta, fomewhat 
 inferior to the former. 
 
 The feveral preparations which filks undergo, to fit them to 
 be ufed in the manufacture of filken fluffs, are the fpinning, 
 reeling, milling, bleaching and dying. — The two firft we 
 have already fpoke of, as they are concerned in drawing the 
 filk from off the balls. — As to the fpinning and reeling of 
 raw fits off" the balls, fuch as they are brought hither from 
 Italy, the Levant, csY. the firft is chiefly performed or. 
 the fpinning-wheel ; and the latter, cither on hand-reels, or 
 on reels mounted on machines, which ferve to reel feveral 
 fkains at the fame time. — As to the milling, they ufe a 
 mill coinpofed of feveral pieces, which may mill two or 
 three hundred bobbins at once, and make them into as many 
 fkains. See Milling. For the bleaching and dying, fee 
 Bleaching and Dying. 
 
 Silt is diftinguifhed by different names according to its diffe- 
 rent ftates. — Thus, 
 
 Raw Silk, is that taken from the ball, without fire, and 
 wound without any codtion : fuch as is inoft, if not all, that 
 is brought into England from the Levant. 
 In the French fit-averts, the greater! part of this raw filk. 
 Defies for little better than a kind of fine floretta ; yet, when 
 fpun, it makes a bright thread, and ferves for the manufac- 
 ture of fluffs of moderate value and luftre. But the raw filks 
 of the Levant, whence moft of ours come, are exceeding 
 fine and beautiful. — This difference arifes hence, that in 
 France the beft balls are fpun and wound in boiling water, 
 and only the refufe made into raw filk ; whereas, in the 
 Levant, there is no fuch thing as fpinning or winding on 
 the fire; but (befits are all feut in bales or packs, as they 
 are drawn from off the balls : fo that they are only diftin- , 
 guiftied by their quality of fine, middling, and coarfe. 
 
 Baled Silk, is that which has been boiled in water, to facili- 
 tate the fpinning and winding. — This is the fineft of all the 
 forts of filk manufactured in France, and is feldom ufed, but 
 in the richeft fluffs ; as velvets, taffaties, damalks, bro- 
 cades, tot. 
 
 Tiicre is alfo another kind of boiled filk, which is prepared 
 by boiling, to be milled ; and which cannot receive that 
 preparation, without being firft paffed through hot water. 
 By the laws of France, it is prohibited to mix raw with 
 boiled filk ; both as fuch a practice fpoils the dying, and as 
 the raw filk corrupts and cuts the boiled. 
 
 Throwed or twijled Silks are fueh, as', befide their fpinning; 
 and winding, have received their milling or throwing. 
 This they receive in a different degree, as they are paffed 
 oftener, or feldomer, over the mill: properly, however, 
 throwed Silks, are thofe wherein the threads are pretty thick 
 throwed, and are twifted feveral times. 
 
 Slick Silks are fuch as arc not twifted, but are prepared, and 
 dyed, for tapeftry, and other works, with the needle. 
 
 Eajiern, or Eaji-Indian Silk. — That popularly thus called, 
 is not the work of the filk- worms, but comes from a plant 
 that produces it, in pods, much like thofe of the cotton-tree. 
 The matter this pod contains is extremely white, fine, and 
 moderately gloffy : it fpins eafily, and is made into a kind of 
 ' filk, that enters the manufacture of feveral Indian and Chi- 
 nefe fluff's. 
 
 French Silks.— It is only in the moft fouthern provinces of 
 France, thzt fi/t is cultivated, mulberry-trees planted, and 
 worms bred. The principal places are Languedoc, Dau- 
 phine, Provence, Avignon, Savoy and Lyons. — This laft 
 place, indeed, furnifhes very few filks of its own growth ; 
 but is the great ftaple whence the merchants of Paris and 
 the other cities arc to fetch them : at leaft, they are obliged 
 to have them pats through Lyons, if they bring them from 
 elfewhere, either by land or fea. 
 
 There are computed to enter Lyons, co?nmunibus annis, 6ooo> 
 bales ; the bale valued at 160 pound weight : of which 6000 
 bales, there are 1400 from the Levant, 1600 from Sicily, 
 1500 from Italy, 300 from Spain, and 1220 from Langue- 
 doc, Provence and Dauphine. 
 
 At the time when the manufactures of Lyons were in their 
 profperity, there were reckoned 18000 to be looms employed 
 in the filk manufacture ; but they are now fo fallen, that even 
 in 1698, there were not reckoned 4000. — The decay is not 
 lefs notable at Tours : they had formerly there 700 mills for 
 winding and preparing the fits ; 8coo looms to weave them, 
 and 40, coo perfuns imployed in the preparation and manu- 
 facturing thereof; but thefe are now reduced to 70 miffs, 
 1 100 looms, and about 4000 perfons. 
 S:rilian Silks. — The commerce of the filks of Sicily is very 
 confiderable ; and the Florentines, Genoefe and Luccefe, 
 are the people who cWefly make it. Great quantities are 
 yearly brought thence, efpecially from Medina ; part whereof 
 they ufe in their own man ufacti ires, and fell the reft to their 
 neighbours, the French, tsfft with profit.— The Italians have 
 4 this 
 
S I L 
 
 this advantage, efpecially the Genoefe, over other people, 
 that having large eftabjifhmcnts in the jfland, they are re- 
 puted as natives, and pay no duty for the export. 
 Part of the Sicilian filks are raw ; the reft are fpun and 
 milled ; of which laft kind, thofe of St. Lucia and Mcflina, 
 are the moft valued. — The raw, unwrought filks are always 
 fold for ready money; the others, fome times, in exchange 
 for other goods. 
 
 Italian Silks. —The filks brought from Italy are partly 
 wrought, and partly raw, and unwrought. Milan, Parma, 
 Lucca and Modena, furnifli none but the latter kind ; Ge- 
 noa moft of the former ; Boulogna affords both kinds. 
 
 Spantjh Silks, are all raw ; and arc fpun, milled, &c, in 
 England, according to the feveral works they are to be ufed 
 in. 
 
 7'urky Silks, are all raw. — One advantage we have in the 
 commerce of the Levant, in filks, wanting in thofe of Sici- 
 ly, is, that the latter are confined to a particular feafon of 
 the year ; whereas the former are bought at all times. They 
 are brought from Aleppo, Tripoli, Sayda, and from the ifle of 
 Cyprus,* Candia, &c- — But the principal place of commerce, 
 elpecially for the filks of Perfia, is Smyrna. The filks are 
 brought hither in caravans, from the month of January to 
 September. The caravans in January, are loaden with the 
 fincft filks ; thofe of February and March bring indifferent 
 ones ; the reft, the coarfeft. 
 
 They all come from the feveral Provinces of Perfia, chiefly 
 thofe of Quilan and Schiruvan, and the city of Schamachia, 
 fituate near the edge of the Cafpian fea; from which three 
 places, a Dutch author affures us, there do not come lefs 
 than 30,000 bales of filk in a year. — Ardeuil or Ardebil, 
 another city of Perfia, not far diftant from thefe filk coun- 
 tries, is the place where the filks are laid up, and whence 
 the caravans let out for Smyrna, Aleppo and Conftantino- 
 ple ; and it is this city, with Schamachia, that have always 
 been efteemed the centre of the filk trade ; which has been 
 feveral times attempted to be removed from Smyrna and the 
 Mediterranean, in favour of Archangel and the White fea, 
 by carrying them acrofs Mufcovy, by the Volga and Dwina, 
 two rivers that traverfe the principal provinces of that vaft 
 empire. 
 
 This new courfe of the Perfian filks into Europe, was firft 
 propofed by Paolo Centurio, a Genoefe, to the czar Bafil, 
 under the pontificate of Leo X. The French had the fame 
 defign in 1626. The duke of Holftein, in 1633, fent am- 
 baffadors to the court of Perfia purely with the fame view : 
 and in 1668, the czar Alexis Michael attempted the thing 
 himfelf ; but he was difappointed by the rebellion of the Cof- 
 facks, and the furprize of Aftracan. 
 
 In 1 688, the commerce of Perfian filks had like to have 
 been removed from Smyrna, by an earthquake, which al- 
 moft overturned that whole city : and, doubtlcfs, the re- 
 moval had been effedted, but for the vigorous means ufed by 
 the Turks to prevent it. — Smyrna, however, ftill remains 
 in her ancient poffeflion ; and the feveral nations of Europe 
 continue every year to fend their fleets, to fetch away the 
 filks ; and matters arc like to remain fo, unlefs the conquefts 
 made by the late czar, along the Cafpian fea, enable his 
 fucceflbrs, as it is certain he himfelf had I'uch a thing in view, 
 to put this trade into another channel. 
 China, Japan and Indian Silks. — Several provinces of China 
 are fo fertile in mulberry-trees, and their climate is fo agreea- 
 ble to the nature of fx Ik-worms, that the quantity of filk 
 there produced isincredible : the fmgle province ofTchckiam 
 might fupply all China, and even a great part of Europe, 
 with this commodity. The filks of this province are the 
 moft efteemed, though thofe of Nanquin and Canton be ex- 
 cellent. 
 
 The filk trade is the principal in China, and that which em- 
 ploys the moft hands : but the European merchants, who 
 deal in it, efpecially in wrought filks, are to be careful of 
 the fpinning, &c. the waftc being ufually very great, as the 
 French Eaft-India company lately found to their coft. 
 Japan would not afford (ewer filks than China ; but that the 
 Japanefe, a barbarous and diftruftful people, have interdicted 
 all commerce with ftrangers, efpecially with Europeans; ex- 
 cepting with the Dutch ; who are faid to be admitted on 
 certain impious terms, related by Tavernier, but which we 
 muft own we cannot credit. The Dutch have endeavoured 
 to vindicate themfelves from thefe by the pens of feveral 
 famous writers. 
 
 The filks of the ftates of the great mogul, are brought 
 almoft wholly from Kafem-bazar, a midland place, whence 
 they are conveyed by a canal of fifteen leagues into the Gan- 
 ges, by which, they are forwarded fifteen leagues further, 
 to the mouth of the famous river of Indoftan. — The filk of 
 Kafem-bazar is yellowifh ; as are alfo thofe of Perfia and 
 Sicily; there being none, that wc know of, naturally white, 
 but that of Paleftine. The Indians, however, whiten this 
 with a lye, made of the allies of a tree, called Adam's fig tree; 
 but as this tree is pretty fcarce, and they have not yet found 
 any other that will ferve in its place, the Europeans are for- 
 ced to take the greateftpart of thcir^/£j in the native yellow. 
 Kafem-bazar alone, is computed to furniih every year twen- 
 Vol. fl. N°. CXLII. 
 
 S I L 
 
 ty-two thoufand bales of filk, each bale weighing i 00 
 pounds. I he Dutch buy it almoft all up ; not to brin" it 
 into Europe, no more than they do that of Japan ; but°to 
 exchange it lor other rich merchandizes ; particularly jar! 
 of lilver, C5V. ' 
 Spider Silk.— Within a few years the fecret has been found in 
 trance, ol procuring and preparing/if from the webs of fpi- 
 ders ; and the ufing it in feveral manufaflures has been at- 
 tempted. 'I his dilcovery is owing to M. Bon, in 1710, who 
 publilhed a dillertation on the fubjec't ; whence what follows 
 is extracted. 
 
 Spiders are ufually diftinguimed, either with regard to their 
 colour; as, into black, brown, yellow, white,°C3V. or with 
 regard to the number, or arrangement, of iheireyes ; fome 
 haying 6, others 8, others 10.— But with regard to thefi/k- 
 ff tiers, M. Bon reduces them all to two kinds, thofe with 
 long legs, and thofe with (hort : which laft, are thofe which 
 furnifh the fined raw filk. 
 
 'I he filk fpiitr mzkes a fili, every whit as beautiful, gloffy, 
 and ftrong as the filt-worm : it f'pins it from the anusj 
 around which are five papillae, or fmall nipples, and be- 
 hind thefe, two others ; all mufculous, and furnifhed with 
 fphincters. — Thefe nipples ferve, as fo many wire draWihg- 
 irons, to form and mould a vilcous liquor, which, when 
 dried in the air, after being drawn through them, makes 
 the filk. 
 
 Each of thefe nipples, M. Reaumur obferves, coniifts of a 
 number of leficr and infenfible ones ; which one may be 
 convinced of, bypreffing a fpider's belly between the fingers, 
 to oblige the liquor to flow into the nipples ; for by this 
 means, applying the finger againft the anus, feveral diftindt 
 threads will be drawn out through the feveral perforations of 
 each nipple. — The threads are too fine to be counted with 
 any certainty ; but M. Reaumur reckons, each larger nipple 
 may lend forth a great many. 
 
 Hence we fee, how the ipiders make their threads bi<roer, 
 or imaller : for as, before they begin to fpin; they always 
 apply more or fewer of thefe fix nipples, asaini! the bouv 
 whence the web is begun ; or as they apply catdi more 
 or lefs ftrongly, fo as more or fewer of the minuter nip- 
 ples come to take; the thread thus fpun, wiil be a com- 
 pound of more or fewer of the fmgle threads. Indeed, 
 as the threads come from the anus," all joined together' 
 they appear to be (ingle ; but M. Bon has diflin|uiflied 
 one ot the fingle ones to confift of 15 or 20 diftindt 
 threads. 
 
 The threads are of two kinds : the fir ft is weak, and only 
 ferves for that kind of web wherewith they catch flies.— 
 The fecond is much ftronger, and ferves to wrap up tlieir 
 eggs in ; which, by this means, are flickered from the cold 
 as well as from infects, which might otherways gnaw and 
 deftroy them.Thcfe threads they wind very loofely round the 
 eggs, refembling the balls or bags of fili-wints, that bave 
 been prepared and loofened for the diftaff. 
 1 he Ipidcr-bags are of a grey colour when new ; but they 
 turn blackifli when long expofed to the air : indeed, one 
 might find other fpider-bags of other colours, and which 
 would afford a better filk, but their fcarcity would render 
 t..e experiment difficult; for which reafon we confine our- 
 ielves to the bags of the commoneft finders, which are the 
 lllort-lcgged kind.—Thefe always find out fome pbee fecu-e 
 from the wind and rain, to make their bags ; as hollow trees 
 toe corners of windows, or vaults, 01 under the caves of 
 houfes. 
 
 By colledting a quantity of thefe bags, a new filk is made, 
 interior in nothing to the common filk. It takes all kinds 
 ot dyes, and may be made into all kinds of fluffs —M Bon 
 had dockings and gloves made of ir, which he prefented to 
 the academy ; and others to our royal focicty. 
 for the manner of preparing the bags to »et the /?'* it is 
 E^hered 12 « "3 ounres of thefe bags, 
 M Bon had them well beaten for fome time, with the hand, 
 and a ftick, to get out all the duft : he then walhed then,, 
 in luke-warm water, till they left the water very clean ■ al- 
 ter this, he laid them to fteep, in a large veffel, with foap, 
 and lalt-petre, and gum-arabic. The whole was left- to 
 boil over a gentle fire, for three hours. The bags were next 
 walhed, in warm water, to get out the foap ; and, after all 
 laid to dry fome days, to fit them for carding ; which was 
 performed by the common filf-ct!r,/irs, but with cards much 
 finer than ordinary — By this means, he had a filk of a 
 very particular afh-colour, which was eafily f pun> and the 
 thread fpun from it, was both ftronger and finer than that of 
 common filk ; which fhews, that all forts of works may be 
 made of it : nor is there any reafon to fear, but it will Hand 
 any trials of the loom, alter having pallid that of the ftock- 
 ing-weavers. 
 
 The only difficulty, now, is in procuring a fufficient quan- 
 tity of fpiders bags to make any confiderable work of it : 
 which M. Bon obferves, would be no difficulty at all, had 
 we but the art of breeding them, as we do filk-worms. For 
 they multiply much more ; every Ipider laving 6 or 700 
 eggs, whereas AcfiU-wirms do not lay above too ; yet are 
 thefe brfi lo tender, CSV. that one half die without makin» 
 11 U an? 
 
5 I L 
 
 S I L 
 
 any bags, or are hindered by fome little accident, from 
 making them : whereas the fpiders hatch of themfelves, 
 without aiu/care, in tlie months of Auguft and September, 
 in fifteen oi fix teen days after they are laid ; the old fpiders 
 that lay them, dying foon after. The young ones thus bred 
 live ten or twelve months without eating, and continue 10 
 their bags without growing, till the hot weather putting 
 their vifcid juices in motion, induces them to come forth, 
 J'pin, and run about to feek food. — Were a way, therefore, 
 found of breeding young fpiders in rooms, they would, 
 doubtlefs, furnifh a much greater quantity of bag? than filk- 
 worms do. For of feven or eight hundred young fpiders, 
 which M. Ron kept, fcarce one died in a year ; whereas of 
 one hundred f Ik-worms, not forty lived to make their bags. 
 M. Eon having ordered all the fhort-legged fpiders that could 
 be found in the months of Auguft and September, to be 
 brought to him, fhut them up in paper coffins, and pots ; 
 covering the pots with papers, which he pricked full of pin- 
 holes, as well as the coffins, to give them air. He fed them 
 with flies, and found fometime afterwards, that the greateft 
 part of them had made their bags. — The fame ingenious per- 
 ibn found that fpiders bags, with regard to their weight, af- 
 ford much more filk than thofe of the fi'.k-tVQrms * as a proof 
 hereof, he obferves, that thirteen ounces yield near four 
 ounces of clear filk, two ounces whereof will make a pair 
 of ftockings; whereas (lockings of common filk weigh feven 
 or eight ounces. 
 
 Nor is there any venom in the filk, or even in the fpider, 
 as many have imagined. M. Eon has been bit by them fe- 
 veral times, without any manner of harm ; and as for the 
 fiik it is ufed with very good fuccefs, to flop bleeding and 
 cure wounds, the natural gluten thereof acting as a kind of 
 balfam. — It likewife yields, by diftillation, feveral fpecific 
 medicines, particularly great quantities of fpirir, and volatile 
 fait, which being prepared after the fame manner as that 
 drawn from the bags of filk-wor??is, in making the guttie 
 Anglicanae, or Englifh drops, at one time, fo famous over 
 all Europe; may ferve to make other drops of greater effi- 
 cacy, which M. lion calls drops of MantptUier, and advifes 
 to be ufed in all fleepy difeafes. 
 
 M. Reaumur being appointed by the royal academy, to 
 make a further enquiry into this new filk-work, has railed 
 feveral objections and difficulties againft it ; which are found 
 in the memoirs of the academy for the year 1710. The fum 
 of what he has urged, amounts to this. — The natural fierce- 
 nefs of the fpiders, renders them unfit to be bred and be kept 
 together: four or five thoufand being diftiibutcd into cells, 
 50 in fome, iocor 200 in others; the big ones foon killed 
 and eat the lefs, fo that in fhort time, there were fcarce left 
 one or two in each cell: and to this inclination of mutually 
 eating one another, M. Reaumur afcribes the fear city oi 
 fpiders, confidering the vafi number of eggs they lay. 
 But this is not all : he even affirms, that the fpider's bag is 
 interior to that of the filk-worm, both in lufire and ftrengthj 
 and that it produces lefs matter to be manufactured. The 
 thread of the fpider's web, he fays, only bears a weight of 
 two grains without breaking ; that of the bag bears 36. The 
 latter, therefore, in all -probability, is eighteen times thicker 
 than the former ; yet is it weaker than that of the f Ik-worm 
 Which bears a weight of two drams and a half. So that five 
 threads of the fpider's bag mull be put together to equal one 
 thread of the fiik-worm's bag. 
 
 Now, it is impoffible thefe fhould be applied fo juftly over 
 one another, as not to leave little vacant fpaccs between 
 them, whence the light will not be reflected ; and of confe- 
 quence, a thread thus compounded, muft fall fhort of the 
 iuftre of a folid thread. Add to this, that the fpider's thread 
 cannot be wound off, as that of the flk-warm may ; but 
 mult, of neceffity, be carded ; by which means being torn 
 in pieces, its evennefs, which contributes much to its Iuftre, 
 is deftroyed. In effect, this want of Iuftre was taken notice 
 of by M. de la Hire, when the ftockings were prefented to 
 the academy. 
 
 Again, fpiders furnifh much lefs filk than the worms : the 
 hrgeft bags of thefe latter, weigh four grains; the fmaller 
 three grains ; fo that 2304 worms, produce a pound of fiik. 
 The fpiders bags do not weigh above one grain : yet, when 
 cleared of their duft and filth, they lofe two thirds of their 
 weight. The work of 12 fpiders, therefore, only equals that 
 of onefilk-worm ; and a pound of fiik will require at leaft 
 27648 fpiders. But as the bags are wholly the woik of the 
 females, who fpin them to depofit their eggs in ; there muft 
 he kept 55296 fpiders, to yield a pound of fiik. Yet will 
 this only hold of the beft fpiders; thofe large ones ordinari- 
 ly feen in gardens, &c. fcarce yielding a twelfth part of the 
 fiik of the others. 280 of thefe, he ihews, would not do 
 more than one f Ik-worm; 663552 of them would fcarce 
 yield a pound. 
 
 SI L L O N, in fortification, an elevation of earth made in the 
 middle of the moat, to fortify it, when too broad. 
 The ftllon is more ufually denominated an envelope. See En- 
 velope. 
 
 SILVER, a white, rich fort of metal ; being the fincft, pur- 
 
 eft, mo ft. ductile, and moft precious of all metals, except geld. 
 There are filver mines in all the four quarters of the wurld. 
 Europe has its fiiare J nor is our own ifland quite deftitutc 
 thereof, though it has none yet difcovered of much value. 
 The mines of Peru, and fome other parts of America are 
 much the richeft, and moft abundant ; they appear almoffc 
 inexhauitible ; particularly thofe of Potofi, which continue 
 to be dug with equal advantage as when firft difcovered ; 
 with this only difference, that the veins which were then 
 almoft in the furface of that famous mountain, are now 
 funk to prodigious depths, the workmen going into them by 
 a painful defcent of four or five hundred fteps. — Many mil- 
 lions of Indians have perifhed in them j and prodigious num- 
 bers continue to be deftroyed there, yearly. 
 The ores, or mineral {tones they dig, are not all of the fame 
 quality, confidence, or colour : fome are white, or afh-co- 
 loured, fpotted with red, or blue : and called plata blan- 
 cha ; others are black, and called plomo-ronco ; thefe laft are 
 the richeft, and the eafidt wrought; no mercury being 
 here needed ; nor any thing, but to put them in the fire: 
 where the lead burning away, leaves the fiher pure. The In- 
 dians, who, till the arrival of the Spaniards, knew nothing 
 of the ufe of mercury, melted none but of this kind of mi- 
 neral. — The rojjickry is another black mineral diltinguifhed 
 by whetting and rubbing it againft iron, which turns it 
 red. It is very rich, and the metal it yields, is of the belt: 
 fort. The zoroche is like talc, and looks as if fihered ; 
 though it does not yield much metal. The paco is of a yel- 
 low red, very foft, and found almoft broke in pieces ; it is 
 not rich. The eobriffo is green, and fomewhat friable. 
 Though the fther of this be vifible, yet it is exceedingly dif- 
 ficultly drawn from it, by reafon of the copper wherewith 
 it is intermixed. Laftly, the arannea, which is only found in 
 Potofi, and that only in the mine of Cotamko, confifls of threads 
 of pare filver, interwove likea fiher lace that has been burnt 
 to get out the filk. The filver veins, of what quality focver, 
 are ufually richer in the middle, than towards the extremes : 
 but the richeft places are thofe where the veins interfedt. — It 
 is reckoned a great addition to the richnefs of a mine to be 
 near a river, for the advantage of mills to grind the ore. 
 At Lipes and Potofi, for inftance, the caxon of ore mull 
 yield ten marks to defray expenccs ; whereas, at Tana v a, 
 there need not above five. 
 
 The moft ufual way of feparating the /i her from the ore, U 
 by what they call pttua's, See Pinea.— Sometimes, how- 
 ever, they ufe nothing but fue frequently repeated : or aqua 
 
 fortis. 
 
 What renders the working of thefe mines exceedingly dange- 
 rous, is the exhalations arifing from thern ; which are even 
 felt on the out fide ; and make an hnpreffion on animals graz- 
 ing in the neighbourhood; but in the in-fide, they ftupify the 
 miners, none of whom can bear fo poifonous an air above 
 a day together. Sometimes it is fo fatal, that it kills on the 
 fpot ; and obliges them to flop up the veins again, whence it 
 exhales.— The mines of Potofi, are much the leaft lu eject to 
 them ; and yet, without the herb Paraguay, the inftifion 
 whereof is taken by the miners, as we do that of tea, thofe 
 mines muft be foon abandoned. . 
 
 Though the mines of Potofi and Lipes, ft ill keep up their 
 reputation, yet there are feveral difcovered within thefe few 
 years, that exceed them much in richnefs : fuch are the 
 mines of Oruro, eight leagues from Arica, and thofe of 
 Oilachea, near Cufco, opened in 1712.— It is remarkable, 
 that moft of the mines in America, are found in cold and 
 barren places. 
 
 The method of feparating from the ore, in Europe, is 
 the fame as that of feparating gold: that is, by means of qukk- 
 fll ver ; with this difference, that for fiver, to every fifty hun- 
 dred weight of ore, is added one hundred weight of rock- 
 falt, or fome other natural fait. — This curious operation 
 may be feen at length under the article Gold. 
 To feparate the filver from the mercury, wherewith it is 
 amalgamated ; they have a furnace open at the top ; and the 
 aperture covered with a kind of capital made of earth, of a 
 cylindrical form ; that may be clapped on, or taken off at 
 pleafure, — The mafs of fiver, and mercury, being laid in 
 the furnace, and the capital applied, and the fire lighted un- 
 derneath; the quick-filverraifcd by the action of the fire, in 
 form of vapour, is caught in the capital, and taken thence, 
 to be ufed in a fecond operation. 
 
 1 he ftandard of fine fiver is 12 penny-weights, each coa- 
 fifting of 24 grains. When it is below'this, it muft be raifed 
 to it by refining ; which is ufually performed by means of 
 lead.— Jnordertothis,a coppel is filled, madewitha mixture 
 of brick-earth, and allies of a bullock's or other bones. It is fet. 
 on the fire, and heated red hot ; in which ibte the lead is put 
 in, and when this is melted, the fiver is added, in the propor- 
 tion of a pound of lead to four or five ounces of fiver, and 
 even foinewhat more lead, if the fiver be very coarfe. Aj 
 thefe two metals melt together, the copper, before mixed 
 with the fiver, diffipates in fmoak, or goes away with, the 
 fcum and litharge ; and fo does the lead itfelf ; leaving the 
 fiver alone in the coppel, in its proper degree of finenefs. 
 
 In 
 
S I M 
 
 fn this method of refining, wherein 6 or 7000 pounds may 
 be refined at once ; the metal is drawn out of the coppel two 
 ways ; the one by plunging in it, while ftill liquid, a thick 
 bar of iron, round which, the filver fticks in form of a fhell, 
 or cruft ; repeating this again and again : the other, is by Jet- 
 ting the coppel fund till it be cold ; in the bottom whereof, 
 the filver fixes in form of a cake. 
 
 Befides the refining of filver with lead, there is another man- 
 ner of doing it with falt-petre ; which fee under the article 
 Refining. 
 
 But both the one and the other are tedious and troublefome ; 
 
 when performed on large quantities. This occafioned M. 
 
 Homberg to endeavour to fhorten the operation ; which he 
 
 effected with good fuce'efs.— His method is ; to calcine the 
 filver with half its weight of common fulphur ; and after 
 
 inciting the whole together, to caft a quantity of fteel filings 
 
 upon it at feveral times: upon this, the fulphur quits the 
 filver, and joins itfelf to the iron, and both with the other 
 
 impurities are converted into fcoria, which fwim on the 
 filver ; and the metal itfelf is found pure at the bottom of 
 
 the crucible. 
 
 The effay of filver is alfo.made by the coppel, in the 
 fame manner as the refining by lead. If the filver, 
 after this effay, preferve its weight, it is ftandard ; if it 
 lofe, the grains, or penny-weights of its diminution, are 
 accounted. 
 
 ■Silver wire, is filver drawn through the holes of a wire- 
 drawing-iron, and by this means reduced to the finenefs 
 of a thread or hair. — The manner of drawing it, fee 
 under the article Gold-wire. See alfo Wire and 
 Drawing. 
 
 Silver leaf is that which the gold-beaters have reduced 
 into fine, thin leaves, to be ufed by gilders, fcfc. See 
 Gold-Leaf. 
 
 Shell Silver, is made of the fhreads of filver leaves, or of 
 the leaves themfelves : and ufed in painting, and f&vering 
 certain works. — It is prepared after the fame manner as 
 fhell-gold. See Gold. 
 
 Silver, in chymiftry, is called luna, the moon ; and Feveral 
 preparations are made from it : particularly, a 
 
 Tinclure of Silver, made by diflblving thin fiver plates, or 
 filver fhot in fpirit of nitre; and pouring the dilfolution in- 
 to another veffel full of falt-water. By this means, the 
 filver is immediately precipitated in a very white powder, 
 which they warn feveral times in fpring-water. This pow- 
 der they put in a matrafs ; and pour rectified fpirit of wine, 
 and volatile fait of urine upon it. The whole is left to 
 digeft in a. moderate heat for fifteen days ; during which, 
 the fpirit of wine afiumes a beautiful fky-bltie colour, and 
 becomes an ingredient in feveral medicines.— This is alfo 
 called potable fiver, argentum potabile. 
 
 Silver is like wife converted into cryftals, by means of 
 the fame fpirit of nitre ; and it is this is called vitriol of 
 filver. 
 
 The lapis infernalis argenteus is nothing but the cryftals of 
 filver melted with a gentle heat in a crucible ; and then 
 poured into iron moulds. 
 
 -Ali filver* 
 i Herring. 
 • King's filver, 
 I Rep fiver. 
 L White Hart filver. 
 See the article Mercury. 
 
 Ale Silver. 
 Herring Silve 
 King's Silve 
 Rep Silver, 
 White hart Silv 
 ^uick Silver 
 
 ron mou. 
 
 VER, J 
 
 SILVERING, the covering of any work with filver- 
 leaf. 
 
 It is ufual to filver metals, wood, paper, EsV. which is 
 performed either with fire, oil, or fize. Metal-gilders 
 filver by the fire : painter-gilders, all the other ways. See 
 Gilding. 
 
 SYLVESTRE GRANUM, or Coccus Sylvestris, a 
 term ufed by fome authors to exprefs the coccus polonicus ; 
 and by others, for a coarfe or bad kind of cochineal, produe'd 
 in the Province of Guatimala, in New-Spain : it is by 
 fome, fuppofed to be the feed of a plant ; but is, in reality, 
 an infect, as the true cochineal isj only that the fcarlet 
 colour it yields is greatly inferior to the other. See Co- 
 chineal. 
 
 SIMA, or Cyma, in architecture, a term ufed by Wolfius, 
 and fome other writers, for what we other wife call cymatium 
 or fimatium. 
 
 SIMATIUM, or Simaise, in architecture. See Cyma- 
 tium. 
 
 Simatium and cymatium, are generally confounded together ; 
 yet they ought to be diftinguifhed : the latter being the ge- 
 nus and the former the fpecies. — Simatium of fima, camous, 
 according to Eelibien, is the laft and uppermoft member of 
 grand corniches, called particularly the great doucine, or gula 
 recla ; and by the Greeks, epititbeta. 
 
 In the antique buildings, the fimatium, at the top of the 
 Doric corniche, is generally in form of a cavetto, or femi- 
 
 S I M 
 
 fcotia ; as we fee particularly in the theatre of Marcellus. 
 
 — This, fome modern architects have imitated ; but in the 
 
 Ionic order, the fimatium is always a doucine. 
 
 The fimatium, or doucine, then, is diftmguilhed fi im 
 
 the other kinds of cymatia, by its being camous, or flai- 
 
 nofed. 
 
 SIMELIUM *, a Latin term, ufed by fome to fignify a ta- 
 ble, with ranges of little cavities therein, for the difijofing 
 of medals in chronological order. 
 
 * The word is but ill wrote : it fhould rather be cimelium ; a? 
 
 beiag formed of the Greek ku^wj, curiofities, or a cabinet 
 
 of precious things. 
 
 We more ufually fay, a cabinet of medals, than a fime- 
 lium. 
 
 SIMILAR, in arithmetic and geometry, the fame with like. 
 Thole things are faid to be fimilar, or like, which cannot be 
 diftinguifhed but by their com-prefence ; that is, either by 
 immediately applying the one to the other, or fome other 
 third to them both. So that there is nothing found in one 
 of the fimilar things, but is equally found in the other. 
 Thus, if you note all the things in A, which may be dif- 
 cerned and conceived, without aflurning any other ; and, 
 in like manner, note all the things in 13, which may be thus 
 conceived : and A be fimilar to B ; all things in A will be 
 the fame with thofe in B. 
 
 Since a quantity cannot be underftood, otherwife, than by 
 afluming fome other quantity to refer it to; fimilar things, 
 notwithitanding their fimilitude, may differ in quantity : and 
 fince, in fimilar things, there is nothing wherein they differ, 
 befide the quantity; quantity itfelf is the internal difference 
 of fimilar things. 
 
 In mathematicks, fimilar parts, as A a, have the fame ratio 
 to their wholes B b ; and if the wholes have the fame ratio 
 to the parts, the parts zvz fimilar. — Similar parts A a, arc 
 to each other as their wholes B b. See Part. 
 
 Similar angles, are alfo equal angles. — In folid angles, when 
 the planes, under which they arc contained, are equal both 
 in number, and magnitude, and are difpofed in the fame 
 order ; they are fimilar, and confequencly equal. 
 
 Similar reclangles, are thofe which have their lid cs about the 
 equal angles, proportional. 
 
 Hence i w . All fquares muft be fimilar reclangles. — 2 0 . All 
 fimilar reclangles are, to each other, as the fquares of their 
 homologous fides. 
 
 Similar triangles, are fuch as have all their three ane!.; 
 refpectively equal to each other. See Triangle. 
 Hence i°. All fimilar reclangles have their fides about tl 
 equal angles, proportional.— 2 0 . All fimilar triangles aft, 
 to each other, as the fquares of their homologous fides. 
 In fimilar triangles, and parallelograms, the altitudes 
 proportional to the homologous fides j arid the bafes are Cut 
 proporttonably by thofe fides. 
 
 Similar polygons are thofe, whofe angles are feverally eq 
 and the fides about thofe angles proportional. 
 And the like of other fimilar rectilinear figures, 
 Hence, all fimilar polygons are, to each other, as the fq 
 of the homologous fides. 
 
 In all fimilar figures, the homologous angles are equal ; 
 and the homologous fides proportional. All regular fi- 
 gures, and fimilar irregular ones, are in a duplicate ratio 
 of their homologous fides. Circles, and fimilar figures, 
 inferibed in them, are, to each other, as the fquares of 
 the diameters. 
 
 Similar arches, are fuch as contain like, or equal parts of 
 
 their refpective circumferences. See Arch. 
 Similar fegments of circle, "are fuch as contain equal angles. 
 
 See Segment. 
 
 Similar conic-feclions, are thofe where the ordinates to a dia- 
 meter in one are proportional to the correfpondent ordinjtes 
 to the fimilar diameter in the other ; and where the parts of 
 fimilar diameters between the vertices and ordinates in each 
 fection are fimilar. 
 
 The fame definition alfo agrees to fimilar fegments of conic 
 fections. 
 
 Similar plain numbers, are thofe which may be ranged 
 into fimilar rectangles ; i. e. into rectangles, whofe fides 
 are proportional : as 6 multiplied by 2, and 12 by 4 ; the 
 product of one whereof is 12, and the other 4S, are fimilar 
 numbers. 
 
 Similar folid numbers, are thofe whofe little cubes may be 
 fo ranged, as to make fimilar and rectangular parallelepi- 
 peds. 
 
 Similar difeafe, in medicine, denotes a difeafe of fome Am- 
 ple, folid part of the body. — As of a fibre, with regard to 
 its tenfion, or flaccidky ; of a membrane; a nervous canal 
 or the like. 
 
 Similar parts, in anatomy, are thofe parts of the body 
 which, at firfi fight, appear to confift of like parts, or parts 
 of the fame nature, texture, and formation. 
 Of thefe we ufually reckon ten, viz. the bones, cartilages, 
 
 ligaments, 
 
 5 
 
S I M 
 
 ligaments, membranes, fibres, nerves, arteries, veins, flefh, 
 am! (kin : each of which fee under its proper article. 
 Dr. Grew, in his anatomy of plants, obferves, that thefe 
 have likewife, their Junilar, and organical parts. 
 SIMILE, or Similitude, in rhetoric, a comparifon of 
 two things, which, though different in other rerpeflj, yet 
 agree in fome one.— As, He Ihall be like a tree planted by 
 the water-fide, fcfe. 
 
 The difference between a Jimile and a cmpanfm, con- 
 ilfts in this; that the fault properly belongs to what 
 we call the quality of the thing, and the companion 
 to the quantity. 
 SIMILITUDE, iir arithmetic!, geometry, He. denotes the 
 relation of two things fimilar to each other ; or which are 
 only diflinguifhable by com-prefence. 
 
 The notion of Bmlituit, which now makes fome figure in 
 geometry, &e. is owing to M. Leibnitz : it will be rendered 
 cafy by the following inftance.— Suppofe two watches per- 
 fcflly alike ; the one belonging to Caius, the other to Grac- 
 chus. If, now, Caius pull out his watch in prelence of 
 Gracchus ; the latter will be furprized, and fancy it his 
 own j but he will perceive it different from his own, upon 
 pulling out his own : that is, Gracchus diltinguifhes Lams s 
 watch from his own, by their com-prefence ; or, by apply- 
 ing the one immediately to the other. 
 Euclid, and after him mod other authors, demonftrate every 
 thing in geometry from the fole principle of congrmty.— 
 Wolfius, in lieu hereof, fubftitutes that affimddui, ; which, 
 he tells us, was communicated to him by M. Leibnitz, and 
 which he finds of very confiderable ufe in geometry, as fery- 
 ine to demonftrate many things direaiy, which arc only 
 demoiiflrable from the principle of congruity, by an ambages. 
 
 SIMONIACAL, is applied to a peifon guilty of limony ; 
 that is, of purchafing a benefice, or other facred matter, 
 with money. , . c 
 
 A fimmiaaU perfon convia, is infamous, and incapable of 
 holding any benefice. 
 
 SIMONIANS, a feci of ancient hereticks, the firft that ever 
 difturbed chriftianity ; if they might be fain to do fo, who 
 were little more than mere phiiofophers, and chiefly made 
 profeffion of magic. . 
 
 Simon Magus, fo often mentioned in the AP.S, was their 
 leader, and died under the emperor Nero ; St. Peter Itill 
 furviving !■ fo that Clemens Alexandrinus is miltaken, when 
 he-makes Simon poftcrior to Marcion. 
 St. Epiphanius fays exprelly, that the firft hcrefy was fct on 
 foot by Simon the magician, born in a little city of Samaria, 
 who pretended to be the great virtue and power of God, 
 fent from heaven to earth. Among the Samaritans he made 
 himfelf pafs for God the Father ; and among the Jews, for 
 the Son.— He patched up a kind of medley fyftem, out of 
 the philofophy of Plato, the religious fables of the heathens, 
 and chriftianity : particularly, from the Platonifts he bor- 
 rowed abundance of things relating to the worfhip of angels, 
 which he perverted to magical ufes ; pretending, there was 
 no falvation, but by the invocation of angels, who were, as 
 it were, the mediators between God and man : to which fii- 
 perftitious worfhip of angels it is that St. Paul Teems to allude 
 in his epiftle to the Coloffians. 
 
 The onofticks, whereof the fame Simon was the father, a- 
 dopted the fame praaice of worlhipping angels, and even 
 improved on it. . . , 
 
 SIMONY *, Simonia, the crime of trafficking with 
 facred things ; particularly of purchafing a benefice with 
 money. 
 
 * The word is borrowed from Simon Magus, who is mention- 
 ed in the Aas of the apoltles, as offering ro buy the power 
 of working miracles with money. 
 By the Englifh canons, Anno 1229, fimmy is not only com- 
 mitted by an agreement for money in hand, or to be paid 
 yearly ; But by any other profit or emolument ; any reward, 
 gift, or benefit, direaiy or indireaiy 1 or by reafon of any 
 promife, grant, bond, Off. and this, either in the acceptance 
 of a living, or in an exchange or refignation. 
 The penalty, by our laws, is, that the corrupt patron Ihall 
 forfeit the next prefentation to the king, and two years value 
 of the living ; and the corrupt incumbent, Ihall be for ever 
 difabled to hold a living. 
 Simony is alfo committed by buying, or felling the facra- 
 ment, baptifm, ordination, or abfolution ; as well as by the 
 nomination and collation to a benefice, a place in a mona- 
 ftery, or the like. 
 
 Some have pretended it to be diffident to avoid the charge 
 of Jimmy, if only the ordination were gratuitous, though the 
 revenues were bought and fold as a temporal thing. — But the 
 canons of feveral councils have condemned this fubtile dif- 
 tinaion ; fmce the revenues are attached to an ecclefiafiical 
 office purely fpiritual. 
 
 Cafuifts dill inguifh three kinds of fnnony, viz. 
 Mental Simony, is that which flicks in the mere will, and 
 inclination, without ever breaking forth into aa. — As when 
 
 S I M 
 
 a prefent is made to a collator, without taking anv notice 
 that we expert a benefice from him. — This kind of fnnony is 
 only pimifhable in firs confeientia. 
 
 Conventional Simony is where there is an exprefs ail and 
 a formal bargain, though it never come to an execution. 
 
 Real Simony, is where the convention is executed on both 
 fides ; which la ft: is the moil: criminal of all. — The canoni- 
 cal penalty of fnnony is depofition in a clerk, and excommu- 
 nication in a layman. 
 
 It is a maxim among the Romifh canonifts, that there is no 
 fmovy in the court of Rome ; in regard, the pope acts there 
 as an abfolute fovereign : they alfo fay, that refignations in 
 favorer/, are not to be admitted but by the pope, as favour- 
 ing a little of fimony. On thefe occafions, however, the 
 parties always fwear, that there had been no deceit, collu- 
 uon, fimony, or other illegal covenant. 
 Peter Damian diftinguifhes three kinds of fimony ; that of 
 money, that of the tongue, and that of ferv'ues. 
 
 Simony of money, or per munus a manu, is where money is 
 really paid down for a benefice : lie adds, that the fame is 
 likewife committed, by expending money to live at court to 
 obtain a benefice. 
 
 Simony of the tongue, or per munus a lingua, confifts in 
 flattering the collator, or making one's felf agreeable by 
 complaifance and commendation. 
 
 Simoky of frvices, or per munus ah ohfequ'io, confifh in the 
 doing them good offices to obtain a benefice. 
 It was agreed, by all the Juftices, Trin. oEl. fa;, prjmi, that 
 if the patron prefented any perfon to a benefice with cure, 
 for money ; fuch prefentation, tiff, is void, though the pre- 
 fentee were not privy to it : and the ftatutc gives the prefen- 
 tation to the king ; but this is now repealed. 
 
 SIMPLARY, Simplaris, in antiquity, a Roman foldier, 
 who had only finglc pay. — Thus called, m oppofition to the 
 duplares, or fuch as had double pay. 
 
 SIMPLE, Simplex, fomething not mixed, or com- 
 pounded : in which fenfe it flands oppofed to compound. See 
 Compound. 
 
 The elements are firnple bodies, from the compofition where- 
 of all mixed bodies refult. — Hence alfo 
 
 Simple affe£lion y ^"Aff 
 
 Simple form, 
 
 Simple modes, 
 imple neccjfity, ^See the articles 
 
 Simple oppofition.^ 
 
 Simple tafte, 
 
 Simple vifion. 
 In geometry 
 are the beft : 
 eftcemed 
 
 In pharmacy there are fmpk remedies, and compounds 
 former of which are ufuallv preferable to the latter. 
 
 /"Affection. 
 \ Form. 
 jMgde. 
 \j necessi ty. 
 •J Opposition. 
 / Taste. 
 L Vision. 
 
 we far, the moll fimple demonfrration? 
 the fimplfjl machines are always the moil 
 
 the 
 
 ■See the article; 
 
 Diachylon. 
 > d 1 ac gdi dm, 
 Diamohum. 
 
 Dl APRUNUM. 
 
 Dropax. 
 
 Fomentation 
 
 Hydrombl, 
 
 . Oxymel. 
 
 ^ Water. 
 
 or primitives ; 
 
 Simple diachylon, 
 Simple diacodium, 
 Simple diamorum, 
 Simple diaprunum, 
 Simple dropax, 
 Simple fomentations, 
 Simple hydromel 9 . 
 Simple oxymel, 
 Simple waters. ' 
 
 In grammar, we have fmplt words, or primitives ; and 
 compounds, which have fome particle added to thai 
 In juris-prudence, they fay, a fimple donation, in oppa- 
 fitjon to a mutual or reciprocal one : a ftmple fale, in 
 oppofition to that made with a refervation of the faculty 
 of redemption : and fimple homage, in oppofition to lie^e 
 homage. - 
 
 Average. 
 Benefice. 
 Charta. 
 Church. 
 Deposit. 
 Estate. 
 I Fee. 
 j Force. 
 I Resignation. 
 V Vassalage. 
 Simple, in botany, is a general name given to all herbs and 
 plants ; as having each its particular virtue, whereby it be- 
 comes a fmple remedy. 
 
 The fimples brought from the Levant, and the Fait- Indict, 
 were not known among us till about the year 120c 
 
 Simple fiowers. 
 
 Simple anomaly 
 
 Simple fofjits, 
 
 Simple glands, 
 
 Simple ulcer, 
 
 Simple equation, in algebra, is an equation where the un- 
 known quantity is only of one dimenfion. — ii.gr. x = 
 
 («+-*;:*■ 
 
 S CIMP1F 
 
 Simple ejlate, 
 Simple fee, 
 Simple force, 
 Simple refignation, 
 Simple vaf~ ' 
 
 See the articles 
 
 See the article Flower. 
 "1 r Anomaly. 
 
 VSee the articles^ Fo.sil. 
 
 ( J CjL AND. 
 
 J LUlcer. 
 
S I N 
 
 S I N 
 
 [•See the articles < 
 
 "Flank. 
 ^Fraction. 
 
 )M0TI0N. 
 
 -Pe ndulum. 
 See the article Quadratic. 
 
 are fuch as have but one fig. 
 
 f Surd. 
 
 Tenaille. 
 C Wheel. 
 
 fSee the articles 
 
 See the articles 
 
 f Harmony. 
 J Interval. 
 J Sound. 
 I-Triple. 
 f Fencing. 
 \ History. 
 t Style. 
 
 Simple flank, 
 Simple fraSlion, 
 Simple motion, 
 Si mple pendulum, 
 Simple quadratics. 
 Simple quantities, in algebra, 
 as 2a, or — lb. 
 By which they ftand oppofed to compound quantities, which 
 have feveral figns : as a-\-b ; or d — a-\-b, 
 Simple furd, 9 ' 
 Simple tenaille, (See the articles 
 Simple wheel, 
 
 Simple, in mufic, is chiefly ufed in oppofition to double . 
 fometimes to a compound of feveral parts, or figures of dif- 
 ferent values, CSV. 
 
 Simple cadence, is that where the notes are all equal through 
 all the parts. 
 
 Simple concords, are thofe, wherein we hear at leaft two 
 notes in confonance ; as a third and a fifth ; and of confe- 
 quence, at Icaft three parts. — This is either done i. 
 mediately, and is called the harmomcal triad ; or in a more 
 remote manner ; that is, when the founds, that are not 
 bafs, are one or tv/o octaves higher. — This diftance has no 
 il! effect in the third ; but in the fifth it has ; and, gene- 
 rally fpeaking, the nearer or more immediate the concords 
 are, the better, 
 
 They alfo fay, C fimple or plain, in oppofition to c accented. 
 Simple counter-point, is a harmonica] compofition, wherein 
 note is fet againil note ; in oppofition to figurative counter- 
 point. 
 
 Simple die/is. See the article Diesis. 
 Simple fugue, or Simple imitation, is, when one part imi- 
 tates the iinging of another for fome meafures. 
 Simple harmony, ") ("Harmony 
 Simple interval, 
 Simple founds, 
 Simple triple, 
 Simple fencing, 
 Simple hiflory, 
 i Simple jlyle, 
 SIMPLIFYING, in ecclefiaftical matters, is the taking 
 away of a cure of fouls from a benefice, and difpenfing the 
 beneficiary from refidence. 
 
 Several benefices, which have been ftmplified, now require 
 refidence; and an infinity of others, which required refi- 
 dence, have been fimplified. 
 
 Some ufe the word in a more extenfive fignifi cation, viz. 
 for the fhortening a relation, &c. or retrenching every 
 thing not prccifely necefTary. When the matter^or fact 
 lhall be ftmplified, and ftripped of its vain circum fiances, 
 the court will fee, tsc. 
 SIMPLUDIARIA*, in antiquity, a kind of funeral ho- 
 nours paid to the deceafed at their obfequies. 
 * * The word is formed from the Latin jimplex and ludus, whence 
 
 fimpludiaria or fimpliludaria, q. d. fimple games. 
 Some will have fimpludiaria to be the funerals at which 
 games were exhibited: fuch is the fentiment of Paulus Dia- 
 conus. Feftus fays, they were thofe, in the games whereof 
 nothing was fecn but dancers, and leapers, called corvitares ; 
 who, according to M. Dacier, were perfons who run along 
 the mails and yards of veffels or boats, called caries. 
 In other refpects, thofe two authors agree as to the kind of 
 funerals^ cal\e<\ fimpludiaria, viz. that they were oppofite to 
 thofe called inditliva; wherein, befides the dancers and leap- 
 ers, obferved in the. fimpludiaria, there were defultores, or 
 people who vaulted on horfes ; or, perhaps, horfe-races, 
 wherein the cavaliers, leaped from horle to horfe at full 
 fpeed. 
 
 S I N, a breach, or tranfgreffion of fome divine law, or com- 
 mand. 
 
 Plato defines fin to be fomething void, both of number and 
 meafure : by way of contradiction to virtue, which he 
 makes to conlift in mufical numbers, &c. See Virtue, 
 and Rhythmus. 
 
 Agreeably hereto, Suar^z. obferves, that an action becomes 
 finful, by its wanting a due commenfuration ; for as every 
 thing meafured refers to fome rule, from which if it deviate 
 it becomes incommenfurate ; and as the rule of man's will is 
 the law of God : fo, bV.— Suarez adds, that all evil actions 
 are prohibited by fome divine law ; and that this is required 
 to the perfection of the divine providence. 
 Simplicius, and, after him, the fchoolmen afTert, that evil 
 is not any pofitive thing, contrary to good ; but a mere de- 
 fect and accident. 
 
 Sins are diftinguifhed into originated aclual. 
 The Romifh cafuifts again diitinguifh aclual fins into mortal, 
 which are fuch as make us lofe the grace of God ; and ve- 
 nial, which alone are pardoned, as being only fins of infi^, 
 mity, not of malice. 
 
 Divines are not yet agreed what the fir. again** the Holy 
 Gboif. is. 
 
 Vol. II. N°. 142. 
 
 SINAI, hughts of See Catharine. 
 
 SINAPISM*, SlNArilSMOZ, j n pharmacy, an external me- 
 dicine, in form of a cataplafm ; compofed chiefly of muf- 
 tard-feed pulverized, and mixed up with the pulp of fas • 
 or with bnony, garlick, onion, nafturtium, euphorbitnV 
 ranunculus roots, or the like. 
 
 » The word ii formed from the Latin, finapi, or Greek ,mm t 
 rhuftard feed. ' 
 
 Sjmpijma^ie a rednefs, heat, itching tumour, and fome- 
 times a blifter on the place they are applied to 
 They were anciently in great requeft; and fti'll continue in 
 iffe for inveterate difeafes of the head ; long continued de- 
 fluxions, CsV. 
 
 SINCIPUT, orSYNCipu-T, is the fore-part of the head 
 reaching from the fore-head to the coronal future. See Tub 
 Anat. (Ofteol.) fig. %. lit. a. fig. 7. n. 1. 
 
 SIN DON, in chirurgery, a little round piece of linen or 
 fill:, or lint, ufed in dreffing the wound after trepannin e See 
 Trepanning. 6 
 The fh ft thing ufually done after the operation of trepanning 
 is to pour a few drops of white balfam on the dura mater ■ 
 then a fpoonful of mel-rofatum, being warmed with a little 
 balfam, ssfimlon is dipt in it, of fine linen cloth ; this is imme- 
 diately applied upon the dura mater ; and being greater than 
 the hole in tie toll, its circumference is thruft all round be- 
 tween the cranium and the membrane : then pledgits of lint 
 arc applied, and the hole is quite flopped therewith, lie ne.it 
 morning, when the dreffing is taken off, the brain is never left 
 bare a moment ; but as Toon as the former Jindon and lint are 
 removed, new ones are clapped on in their room. 
 
 SINE, or Right Si be, in trigonometry, a right line drawn 
 from one extremity of an arch, perpendicular upon the ra- 
 dius drawn Irom the other extremity ; or the fine is half the 
 chord of twice the arch. 
 
 Thus the line A D (Tab. Trigonom. fig. i.) which is half the 
 chord A B, of the double arch A E B, is the ri»ht fine ■ or 
 limply, the fine of the arch A E. ° ' 
 
 Whole Sine,/™,, ttttu, is the One of the quadrant H E, or of 
 90 degrees ; that is, the whole fir., is the fame with the ra- 
 dius HL. See radius. 
 
 Vtrfed Sine, is a part ED of the whole//;, or radius inter- 
 cepted between the right fine AD, and the arch AE 
 It is demonftrated, i». That the right fine A D, bcin-r per- 
 pendicular to the radius EC ; all fines drawn to the fame ra- 
 dius, are parallel to each other. 
 
 2°. Since the arch A E is the meafure of the angle ACE' 
 and A I the meafure of the contiguous angle A CI - and the 
 quadrant H E the meafure of the right angle • A D is a'fo 
 the right and E D the verfed fine of the ansles ACE 
 and AC1 ; and the whole fine is the fine of the right -n~le 
 f. Two angles contiguous, as ACE and A Cl, W the 
 lame fine. 
 
 +°. The fines of obtufe angles are the fame with thofe of 
 their complements to two right angles. 
 
 radii*" ° f iim ' lar a ' d ' CS ha>e the flme rado to iWr 
 
 Sine complement, or Co Sine, is the fine of an arch A E 
 which is the complement of another arch A H to a tun! 
 drant. See Co-sine. " 
 Thus alfo the fine of the arch A H, is called the fine-eomtle- 
 mint of the arch AE. J "myu 
 
 In eftimating the quantity of fines, lie. we affume radius for 
 unity; and determine the quantity of the fsnes, tangents 
 and fecants In fraflions thereof—From Ptolemy's Almieft 
 we learn that the ancients divided the radius into 60 ptrts 
 which they called degrees, and thence determined the chord 
 in minutes, feconds, and thirds ; that is, in fexasrefima! 
 fractions of the radius, which they likewife ufed in §k re 
 lolution of triangles. 
 
 u7eTb;^Sarac h e a „'s. Ch ° rdS ' " th ^PP-'."ere firft 
 
 Regiomontanus, at firft, with the ancients, divided the ra 
 ditis into 60 degrees ; and determined the fines of the feve- 
 
 S„ n H> eCS 'ut C ' mal fraaionS s th " mf - ^« he afterwards 
 found I It would be more commodious to affume radius for 1 • 
 and thus introduced the prelent method into trigonometry ' 
 in the common tables of fines and tangents, the radius is 
 conceived, divided into 10000000 parts ; beyond which ive 
 never go in determining the quantity of the fines and tan- 
 gents.— Hence, as the iide of a hexagon fuhtends the fixth 
 part of a circle, and is equal to radius ; the fine u c in" 
 5000000. 6 
 l".Tie Sine A D being given ; to find the fine-complement — 
 From the fquare of the radius AC fubtraa.he fquare'of the 
 fine AD : the remainder will be the fquare of L fine-e n' 
 fW AG: whence, the fquare root being extracted, gives 
 Lhefine-cemp/emtnt. £. gr. Suppofing AC, i OQ „ m ' S ' j 
 AD soooooo, AG will be found 8660254 S- o V" 
 2". The Sine AD ofithe arch AE being g,tn tffiHttr' 
 
 fuppoling 
 
S I N 
 
 fuppofing D G and A D, as in the preceding problem : we 
 (ball find the fine of the half-arch A E, or the fine of 15" 
 
 o, The Sine DG, of the arch DY being given ; to find the 
 fine D E, of the double arch D B (fig. 7.)— Since the angles 
 at E and G are right angles ; and the an°le 13 is common to 
 each triangle B C G and~D E B ; we fhalfhave BC : CG : : 
 jjJJ:DE° wherefore C G being found by the fecond pro- 
 blem! and B D being double of D G ; D E is found by the 
 rule of proportion. 
 A° . The S I N E s EG and DE (fig. 8 . ) of the arches FA and DA , 
 •■■ vjbofe difference DF is greater than 45 minutes, being given ; 
 to find any fntermediate fine, as I L.— To the difference I D 
 of the arches, whofe fines are given ; the difference of the 
 arch IF, whofe fine is required, and the difference of the 
 given fines D H ; find a fourth proportional : this added to 
 the lefs given fine F G ; the aggregate will be the fine re- 
 
 \>.t> find the Si HE of 4.5 degrees.— Let HI (fig . I . ) be a 
 quadrant of a circle ; then will HCI be a right angle: confe- 
 quently the triangle, reflangular ; theretore HI* = HO 
 LCI = 2 HC'i wherefore, fince H C the whole fine, 
 isi 0000000 ; if from 2 HCfquared, 200000000000OCO, 
 be extrafted the fquare root 14142136 ; we fhall have the 
 chord HI, whofe half 7071068 is the fine of 45" required. 
 
 6° The SINE of a minute or 60" EG (fig. 8.J being given ; to 
 find the fine of one or more feconds MN. — Since the arches 
 A M and A F are very fmall ; AMF may be taken for a 
 rioht line, without any fenfible error in the decimal frac- 
 tions of the radius wherein the/»f is expreffed ; that is, the 
 itches A M and A F may be taken proportional to their 
 chords Wherefore, fince MN is parallel to FG ; we fhall 
 have AF : FG : : AM : MN : Therefore A F, F G and A Wi 
 beina eiven, MN is eafily had. 
 
 To cmftruB a canon efSiKls.— The fines of 30° 15 0 45" and 
 (which we have already fhewn how to find; being had ; 
 te can thence conftruft a canon of all (he fiui to every mi- 
 nute or every fecond. For from the fine of 36° we find thole 
 of iS^a'a^o' and 2"I5',by the fecond problem: thefines of 
 Ci° 72° 81° 85° 30' and 87° 45', tic. by the firft problem. 
 Asain, fromtheyWof 4 5«, find the' fine of 22°3p' II"I5 ■ 
 
 S I N 
 
 find the 
 
 Again, from the of 45'. 
 
 Uc From the fines of 30°, and the fines of 54". 
 
 of 12°. From the fine of 12°, hnd the fines of 6° 3" 
 30' 35' 78% From the /m of 15" 
 
 7" 30' .45' 
 
 find the fine of 
 
 ' &c. till you have 120 fines fucceeding each other 
 orderly at an interval of 45 minutes. Between thefe, find 
 the intermediate fines by the fifth problem: thus will the 
 canon be compleat. 
 From the Sine of an arch given ; to find the tangent and k- 
 
 Tofcid the logarithm of agivenSlNE, fee Logarithm. 
 In every triangle, the fides are as the fines of the oppofite 
 
 «2%7ii BC ( Hi- o.) andthe verftd fine AB, being given in 
 T tlZnmenfu!e e , I! in farts ;T> radius ^ ,0 find the arch 
 FC in degi 
 
 Find the femi-diameter AD. Then in the 
 trSlIele DBC. befides the right angle B, by the fides A C 
 and DC we find the angle ADC, which fhews the num- 
 her of desrees in the arch ; the double whereof is the arch 
 F C— This problem is of ufe in finding the fegment of a 
 circle. See Segment. 
 Jrtificial Sine, denotes the logarithm of a fine, 
 lim ifSliis, a line on the fedtor, Gunter s fcale, &c. the 
 defcription and ufe whereof fee under the articles Sector 
 and Oonter'i fcale. 
 SINE-CURES, are ecclefiaflical benefices without cure of 
 
 No church, where there is but one incumbent, can properly 
 be a fine-cure: and though the church being down, or the 
 n ifh be i ns become deftitute of panfhioncrs, the incumbent 
 may be thereby neceflarily acquitted I from the aflual per- 
 formance of publick duty, yet he is ftill under an obligation 
 to do it whenever a church fhall be budt, and there are a 
 competent number of inhabitants: and in the mean while, 
 if the church be prefentative, as moft fuch churches are, 
 the incumbent is inftituted into the cure of fouk.-Such be- 
 nefices are rather depopulations ^fine-cures, and it will be 
 nroo-r for the new incumbent to read the 39 articles, and 
 the liturgy in the church-yard, &c. and to do whatever 
 ether incumbents ufually do. 
 
 But a rectorv, or portion of It, may properly be * fine-cure, 
 if there be a vicar under the rector endowed and charged 
 with the cure: in which cafe it does not come within the 
 ftatute of pluralities, 21 Hen VIII. c. 13. 
 here therefore no difpenfation is neceilary to hold the>« 
 cure, with a former living : nor need the incumbent read the 
 articles or divine fervice, as required by 13 Eliz. c. 12. 
 which extends only to a benefice with cure. 
 
 inflitution muft not run in curam animaru:,:, but in reel;- 
 riant, five portioncm rectories ele AB, CJJV. 
 By the above-mentioned ftatute 21 Hen. VIII. not only pre- 
 bends, and re£tnries with vicarages endowed, but deaneries 
 and archdeaconries, are declared to be benefices without 
 cure. ""■>*■ L A r.r . . vt^im* 1 ) 
 SIN E-D I E, in law. — When judgment is given againft the 
 plaintiff, he is faid to be in mifericordia pro falfa clamorc fuo ; 
 and for the defendant, it is faid, eat inde fine die, i. e. he is 
 difmiiTed the court. 
 
 The phrafc is alfo ufed in parliament, for the adjournment 
 
 of any debate, without fixing the day when it fhall come on 
 
 again ; which is looked upon as a genteeler difmiffion of the 
 
 thing in queftion. 
 SINEW, properly denotes what we call a nerve ; though in 
 
 common fpeech it is rather ufed for a tendon. 
 SINGING, the a£t of making divers inflexions of the voice, 
 
 agreeable to the ear, and correfpondent to the notes of a 
 
 fong or piece of melody. 
 
 The firft thing done in learning to fing, is to raife a fcale of 
 notes by tones and femi-tones, to an octave ; and defcend 3- 
 gain by the fame notes ; and then to rife and fall by greater 
 intervals, as a 3d, 4th, and 5th ; and to do all this by notes 
 of different pitch. 
 
 Then thefe notes are reprefented by lines and fpaces, to 
 which the fyllables fa,fol, la, mi, are applied, and the pupil 
 is taught to name each line and fpace tnereby ; whence this 
 practice is ufually called fol-fa-ing. The nature, reafon, de- 
 fects, &c. whereof, fee under the article Sol-fa-ing. 
 
 SINGLE echo, r Echo. 
 
 Single fine, I 1 Fine. 
 
 Single pofition, I c . . , J Position. 
 
 Single proportion, ( See the artlcles ) Proposition. 
 
 Single rafters, 1 I Rafter. 
 
 Single tena'dle, J <-Tenaille. 
 
 SINGLES. See the article Petty Jingles. 
 
 SINGULAR, number, in grammar, the firft manner of declin- 
 ing nouns, and conjugating verbs; ufed when we only fpeak 
 of a fingle perfon, or thing. 
 
 The Latins, French, Englifh, &c. have no numbers but 
 the fingular, and plural; the Greeks and Hebrews have like- 
 wife a dual, peculiar to two perfons. 
 Singular hiftory. See the article History. 
 SINGULTUS, in medicine, a convulfive motion of the mid- 
 riff, commonly called the bickup. See Hickup. 
 SIN1CAL quadrant, a kind of quadrant furnifhed with an in- 
 dex, and two fights to take idtitudes, 6fV. by; and having; 
 befides, its fide, or face, covered over with fines, drawn 
 from each fide, interfering each other ; whereby the fua- 
 men can folve, by infpedlion, any problem in plain fail- 
 ing. Its confirmation and ufe, fee under the article 
 Qu adrant. 
 SINISTER*, fomethingon, or towards, the left-hand. 
 
 * Hence fome derive the word ftrtifler, a fintndo ; becaufe the 
 gods, by fuch auguries, permit us to proceed in our deljgns. 
 See Augury. 
 
 Sinister is ordinarily ufed among us for unlucky. — Though 
 in the facred rites of divination, the Romans ufed it in an 
 oppofite fenfe.- — Thus avis fmijlra, or a bird on the left- 
 hand, was efleemed a happy omen: whence in the law of 
 the twelve tables, Ave fmijlra populi magijler ejlo. 
 Sinister, in heraldry. The fnifler fide of an efcutcheon is 
 
 the left hand fide. 
 Sinister chief, is the left angle of the chief. 
 Sinister bafe, is the left hand part of the bafe. 
 Sinister bend. See the article Bend. 
 
 Sinister afpccl, among aftrologers, is an appearance of two 
 planets, happening according to the fucceffion of the figns : 
 as, Saturn in Aries, and Mars in the fame degree of Gemi- 
 
 A fmt-cure donative wants 
 4 J * . n. 1™, 
 
 no inftitution and induction ; but 
 
 one 'prefentative muft have both ; efpecially if itconfift m 
 £ lebe and tythes, and not in a portion of money ; but the 
 
 SINISTRI, a feet of ancient hereticks ; thus called, becaufi? 
 they held the left hand in abhorrence, and made it a point of 
 religion, not to receive any thing therewith. 
 What in us, is a piece of civility; in them was a fuperfti- 
 tion. — Balfamon obferves, that they were likewife called fab- 
 bathians and novations. • 
 SI NON OMNES, a writ of afiociation, whereby, if all 111 
 commiffion cannot meet at the day afligncd ; it is permitted 
 that two, or more of them may finifh the bufinefs. 
 SINOPER, or Sinopis, in natural hiftory, a native red earth, 
 or kind of ruddle. See Supplement, article Sinopica Terra. 
 SINOPLE*, or Senople, in heraldry, denotes vert, or the 
 green colour in armories. — Thus called by the ancient he- 
 ralds ; though Pliny and Ifidore, by color f.nopicus, or f.nople, 
 mean a brownifh red, fuch as that of our ruddle. 
 
 * F. Meneflrier derives the word from the Greek, frafina 
 hopla, green armories ; by corrupredly retrenching the frfl 
 fy liable, pra ; which is no new thing among oriental words, 
 witnels Salonica for ThefTalonica. 
 Simple is fuppofed to fignify love, youth, beauty, rejoicing 
 and liberty ; whence it is, that letters of grace, abolition, legi- 
 timation, 
 
5 I P 
 
 S I R 
 
 timation, &c. are always ufcd to be fealed with green 
 wax. 
 
 5INOVIA. See the article Synovia. 
 
 SINUOSITY, a ferics of bends, and turns in arches or other 
 irregular figures ; fomctimes jetting out, and fometimes 
 falling in. — Such is defcribed by the motion of a ferpent, & c. 
 It is the Jinuofitj of the fea coafts that forms bays, ports, 
 capes, i3c. Du Loir obferves, that the courfe ot the river 
 Meander, creeping in a thoufand agreeable Jinupfities } ferved 
 Dcedalus as a model to form his labyrinth by. 
 
 SINUOUS ulcers. See the article Ulcer. 
 
 SINUS, in chirurgerv, a little cavity or facculus, fre- 
 quently formed by a wound, or ulcer ; wherein pus is 
 collected. 
 
 A finus is properly a cavity in the middle of a flefhv part, 
 formed by the itagnation and putrefaction of the blood or 
 humours, and which has wrought itfelf fome vent or exit. 
 Deep firms' s that flope downwards, Scultetus obferves, are dif- 
 ficult to heal : yet that furgeon undertakes to cure any Jims 
 in a week, by the medicaments he defcrihes, page 338, and 
 by an agglutinative bandage. He adds, that he never comes 
 to the incifion, till he finds that the pharmaceutic applicati- 
 ons are ineffectual ; and that for the dilatation of finus's, he 
 docs not ufe the deceitful fcalpel ; as being more apt to de- 
 ceive the operator than the patient. 
 Sinus, in anatomy, denotes a cavity in certain bones and 
 other parts, the entrance whereof is very narrow, and the 
 bottom wider and more fpacious. 
 
 Of thefe finus* we find feveral In the divers parts of the 
 body ; particularly in the bafis of the fkull, on the ofia pe- 
 trofa ; where the ancients imagined their ufe was to render 
 the bones more light. — In feveral of the joints of the body, 
 they ferve to receive the epiphyfes of the other bones. 
 Sinus is alfo an appellation given to the duplicatures of the 
 dura mater. 
 
 Thefe finus's, Dr. Drake obferves, are venous channels, 
 formed for the re-conveyance of the blood. There are four 
 of them chiefly confidcrable, viz. the flnus longitudinal! s, 
 which running along the middle of the convex part of the 
 brain, fends out a branch on each fide, between the brain 
 and cerebellum, called the lateral finus's, and the torcular 
 herophili, formed out of a concourfe of the literal fi?ius*s, 
 and pineal gland. — They are all formed of the feveral venous 
 branches, which return the blood from the brain and cere- 
 bellum, and deliver their contents into the jugular veins ; 
 whereof they are, as it were, the roots. Their coats are 
 iuinifhcd with flrong fibres, by means whereof, they are 
 dilated by the influx of the venal blood, and again contracted 
 with a reciprocal motion, like the pulle of an artery. — See 
 Tab. Anat. (Ofteol.; fig. 4. /;'/. b b. c c. 
 
 SION COLLEGE. See the article College. 
 
 SIPHON, or Syphon, in hydraulicks, a crooked tube, one 
 leg or branch whereof is longer than the other ; ufed in the 
 raifing of fluids, emptying of veffels, and in various hydro- 
 ftatical experiments. 
 
 The word in the original Greek, <n$u*, fignifies, limply, 
 tube j whence fome apply it to common tubes or pipes. — 
 Wolfius, particularly defcribes two veffels under the name of 
 fipbons ; the one cylindrical in the middle, and conical at the 
 two extremes ; the other globular in the middle, with two 
 narrow tubes fitted to it, axis-wife ; both ferving to take up 
 a quantity of water, &c. and to retain it when up. 
 But the mofl uieful and celebrated jiphon is that which fol- 
 lows. — A crooked tube ABC {Tab. Hydraulicks, fig 2.) is 
 provided, of fuch a length, and withfuch an angle, as that 
 when the orifice A, is placed on an horizontal plane, the 
 height of A B, may not exceed 30 foot. For common ufes, 
 afoot, or half a foot high, fuffices. — If, now, the lefs arm 
 A B, be immerged in water, or any other liquid, and the air 
 be fucked out of it by the aperture C, till the liquor follow ; 
 the liquor will continue to flow out of the veflel, through 
 the tube B C; as long as the aperture A is under the furface 
 of the liquor. 
 
 Note, inftead of fucking out the air, the event will be the 
 ftme, if the fiphon be at firft filled with the fluid, and the 
 -aperture C flopped with the finger, till the aperture A be im- 
 merged. 
 
 The truth of the phenomenon is known by abundance of 
 experiments : nor is the reafon of part of it far to feck. 
 In fucking, the air in the tube is rarified, and the equili- 
 brium defiroyed ; confequently the water muft be raifed into 
 the kffez leg A B, by the prepondetating prefiure of the at- 
 mofphere. 
 
 The fiphon being thus filled, the atmofphere preffes equally 
 on each extremity thereof ; fo as to fuftain an equal quantity 
 ot water in each leg : but the air not being able to fuftain all 
 the water in the longer leg, unlels it exceed 32 feet in 
 height ; it will be more than able to fuftain that in the 
 lhorter leg : with the excefs of force, therefore, it will raife 
 new water into the fhorter leg ; and this new water cannot 
 make its way, but by protruding the firft before it. By this 
 means is the water continually driven out at the longer leg, 
 as it is continually raifed by the fhorter. 
 
 But Wolfius, and fome other authors affert, that the witer 
 continues to flow through the fiphon, even when placed un- 
 der a receiver, and the air exhaufted from it. The reafon 
 of this, if ir be true, is very diflicult to account for. 
 Some will have it, that there is ftill ?ir enough left in the 
 evacuated receiver, to raifc the water to an inch or two. 
 But as both mercury and water are found to fall entirely out 
 of the Torricellian tube, in vacuo ; the preffura of the thin 
 remaining air there, can never be the caufe of the afcent, 
 both of mercury and water, in the fhorter leg of the Siphw. 
 Hence, as the height of the fiphon is limited to 31 foot ; for 
 this only reafon, that air cannot raife water higher ; it does 
 not appear, whether or no we are in the righj: in rejecting 
 Hero's method of carrying water, by means of a fiphon^ fl- 
 yer the tons of mountains, into an oppofite valley. — For 
 Hero only orders the apertures of the f.pbon to be ftopped, 
 and water to be poured through a funnel into the angle or 
 meeting of the legs, till the fiphon be full ; when, fhutting 
 the aperture in the angle, and opening the other two, the 
 water, he fays, will continue to flow. — Now, if there onlv 
 need air for the firft rile of the water into the lefs leg, not 
 for the continuation of the motion ; it were poffible to raife 
 the water much higher than the height of the atmofphere 
 v/ould carry it. 
 
 The real caufe, therefore, of this extraordinary, though 
 well-known phenomenon, needs fome further difquilition : 
 this is certain, that a fiphon once fet a running, will perlift 
 in its motion, though lemoved into the mair. perfect vacuum 
 our air-pumps will make : or, if the lower orifice of a full 
 Jiphon be fhut, and the whole be thus placed in a receiver, 
 with a contrivance for opening the orifice when the air is 
 exhausted ; the water will be all emptied out of the veflel, 
 as if it had been in open air. 
 
 This, too, is remarkable enough, that the figure of the fiphon 
 may be varied at pleafurc (fee fig. 3, tsfr.) provided onlv the 
 orifice C be below the level of the furface of the water to be 
 drawn up ; but, ftill, the further it is dif rant from it, the 
 fafter will the fluid be carried off. — And if, in the courfe of 
 the flux, the orifice A be drawn out of the fluid ; all the 
 liquor in the fiphon will go out at the lower orifice C : that 
 in the leg C B, dragging as it were, that in the fhorter leg 
 A B after it. 
 
 If a filledy7/-/'5>i be fodifpofed, as that both orifices A and C 
 be in the lame horizontal line : the fluid will rermin pendant 
 in each leg; bow unequal foever the length of the legs may 
 be. — Fluids, therefore, in fipbons, feem, as it were, to form 
 one continued body ; fo that the heavier part defcending, 
 like a chain, pulls the lighter after it. 
 
 Laftly, it muft be obferved, that the water will flow out, 
 even through a fiphon that is interrupted, by having the legs 
 A D and F C joined {fig. 4.) together, by a much bigger 
 tube full of air. 
 
 The Sipho IVurtemlergicus, is a very extraordinary machine 
 of this kind, performing divers things which the common 
 fiphon will not reach. — E. gr. In this, though the legs be in 
 the fame level, yet the water rifes up the one, and defcends 
 through the other : the water rifes, even though the aperture 
 of the lefs leg be only half immerged in water : the Jiphon 
 has its effect after continuing dry a long time : either oi the 
 apertures being opened, the other remaining fhut for a whole 
 day, and then opened, the water flows out as ufually. Laftly, 
 the water rifes and falls indifferently through cither leg. 
 The project of this jiphon, was laid by Jordanus Pelletier, 
 and executed at the expence of prince Frederick Charles, 
 adminiftrator of Wirtemberg, by bis mathematician, Scha- 
 hackard, who made each branch 20 feet long, and fet them 
 18 feet apart: the defcription thereof was publifhcd by 
 Reifehus, the duke's phyiician. 
 
 This gave occafion to M. Papin to invent another, that did 
 the fame things, defcribed in the Philofophical Tranfactions ; 
 and which Reifelius, in another paper in the Tranfactions, 
 ingenuoufly owns to be the very fame with that of VVirtem- 
 berg. — Its ftructure will appear from its figure ; which is re- 
 presented, Tab. Hydraulicks, fig. 5. 
 SIRE*, a title of honour in France, now given to the king 
 only, as a mark of fovereignty. — In all placets and petitions, 
 epiftles, difcourfes, £sY. to the king, he is addrefied under 
 the title of fire. 
 
 * Some derive the word from the Latin, Ictus, mailer : of 
 which opinion feems Budsus, who, in fpeaking to king 
 Francis J. always called him here, q. d. matter, or Jirt: others 
 derive it from the Greek, x^iS*-, lord ; or which opinion is 
 Pafquier, who adds, thru: the ancient Frank's gave the farce 
 tide to God, calling him beau fire dim: others fetch the 
 word from the Syriac, and maintain, it wasfirlt. given to the 
 merchants who traded to Syria : Menage will have it come 
 from fenhr, elder; whence jdgnlur, then f.ignor, and/J/c. 
 
 Sire was likewifc anciently ufed in the fame fenfe with fieur, 
 and Jeigneur ; and applied to barons, gentlemen and citizens. 
 The fire de Joinville has wrote the hiftory of St. Louis. 
 
 SIREN, SEIPHN, in antiquity, mermaid \ a name given to a 
 kind of fabulous beings reprefented by Ovid, etc. as fea- 
 monlters, with womens faces and fiflies tails ; and bv others 
 2. ' decked 
 
S I X 
 
 S K i 
 
 Becked with a plumage of various colours. The three ftrer/s 
 are ftlppoied to have been the three daughters of the river 
 Achelous ; and are called Partbenope, Ligea, and Leucofia. 
 Homer only makes mention of two Jirens ; and fome others 
 reckon five. Virgil places them on rocks, where veflels are 
 in danger of fplitting. Pliny makes them inhabit the pro- 
 montory of Mtnerva, near the ifland Capreae. Others fix 
 them in Sicily, near Cape Pelorus. Claudian fays, they in- 
 habited harmonious rocks ; that they were charming mon- 
 gers ; and that failors were wrecked on their rocks without 
 regret, and even expired in raptures : dulce malum pelago 
 firsn . 
 
 This defcription is doubtlefs, founded on a literal explica- 
 tion of the fable, that the firens were women who inhabited 
 the fhores of Sicily, and who, by all the allurements of plea- 
 fure, flopped paflengers, and made them forget their courfe. 
 Some interpreters of the ancient fables, will have the num- 
 ber and the names of the three firens to have been taken 
 from the triple plcafure of the femes ; wine, love and mu- 
 fick ; which are the three moft powerful means of (educing 
 men : and hence fo many exhortations to avoid the firens 
 fatal fong. 
 
 Probably it was hence, that the Greeks fetched their etymo- 
 logy cf firen, viz. from cfp*, a chain, as if there was no 
 getting free of their inticement. 
 
 Others, who do not look for fo much myftery in the fable, 
 maintain, that the firens were nothing but certain ftreights 
 in the fea, where the waves whirling furioufly around, 
 feized and 1'wallowed up veflels that approached them too 
 
 near. 
 
 Laftly, others hold the Jirens to have been certain fhores and 
 promontories, where the winds, by the various reverbera- 
 tions and echo's, caufe a kind of harmony that furprizes and 
 ftops pafl'engeis. — This, probably, might be the origin of 
 the firens fong ; and the occaflon of giving the name of 
 jirens to thefe rucks. 
 Sculptors ami painters ufually follow Ovid's defcription of 
 the firens ; but on fome medals, we find them reprefented 
 with the upper parts of women, and the lower parts of 
 ■ . . 
 
 SlklUS, S^IFIOS, in aftronomy, the dog-Jlar ; a very bright 
 ftar of the firft magnitude in the mouth of the conltcllation 
 eanis major, or the great dog. 
 
 The Arabs call it afchere, elfchccre, fcera ; the Greeks, 
 firius ; and the Latins, canicula, or canis candens. See 
 Canicula. 
 
 Its longitude, according to Mr. Flam deed, is 9 0 49' I '3 It: 
 latitude 39 0 32' 8" fouth. 
 
 SIRNAME. See the article Surname. 
 
 SISTROID angle. See the article Ancle. 
 
 SISTRUM, or Cistrum, an ancient kind of mufical in- 
 ftrument ufed by the priefts of Ills, and Ofiris. 
 Spon defer ibes it as of an oval form, made in manner of a rao 
 Ice-t, with three flicks traverfing it breadth-wife, which playing 
 freely, by the agitation or beating of the inflrument, yielded 
 a kind of found, which to the ancients feemed melo- 
 dious. 
 
 Mr. Malcolm takes the fiflrum to have been no better than a 
 kind of rattle. — Jer. Bofius has an exprefs treatife on the 
 
 fijhum, intitled, Ifiaeus de fiftro. 
 
 Oifelius obferves, that the fijirum is found reprefented on 
 feveral medals; and alfo on Talifmans. — Ofiris on fome 
 medals, is painted with the head of a dog, and with ^ fiflrum 
 in his hand. " 
 
 SITE, or Scite, Situs, denotes the fituation of a houfe, 
 mefluage, &c. — And fometimes the ground-plot, or fpot of 
 earth it ftands on. 
 
 Site, Situs, in logic, one of the predicaments, declaring a 
 fubject to be fo and fo placed. 
 
 SITOPHYLAX *, SKWtXMb in antiquity, an Athenian 
 magiftrate, who had the fuper-intendance of the corn, and 
 was to take care that no body bought more than was necef- 
 lary for the provifion of his family. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek rJw*, corn, and ^uA«|, 
 keeper. 
 
 By the Attic laws, particular perfons were prohibited buy- 
 ing more than fifty meafures of wheat a man ; of thofe 
 meafures, we mean, called $?|f#*' : and the fit op by lax was to 
 look to the obfervation of this law. — It was a capital crime 
 to prevaricate in it. 
 
 There were fifteen of thefe fitopbyltix' s j ten for the city, 
 and five for the Pyraeus, 
 SITUS, in geometry and algebra, denotes the fituation of 
 lines, furfaces, &e. 
 
 Wolnus gives us fome things in geometry, which are not 
 deduced from the common analyfis ; particularly matters de- 
 pending on the fitus of lines and figures. — M. Leibnitz has 
 even invented a particular kind of analyfis, called analyfis 
 fitus, and built a peculiar kind of analyfis thereon, called 
 calculus fitus. 
 
 SIXAIN*, Sixth, Sexagena, in war, an ancient order 
 of battle, wherein fix battalions being ranged in one line, 
 the fecond and fifth were made to advance, to form the van- 
 guard ; the firfl and fixth to retire, to form the rear-guard ; 
 
 the third and the fourth remaining on the fpot, to form the 
 corps, or body of the battle. 
 * The word is French, where it iignifies the fame thing. 
 SIX-CLERKS, officers in chancery of great account, next 
 in degree below the twelve mafters ; whofe bufinefs is to en- 
 rol commiflions, pardons, patents, warrants, &c . which pais 
 the great feal. 
 
 They were anciently clerici, and forfeited their places if they 
 married : they are alfo attornies for parties in fuits depending 
 in the court of chancery. 
 
 Under them were formerly 60 clerks, who with the under- 
 clerks, did the bufinefs of the office; which number wai 
 afterwards increaled to 90. — At prefent the number is inde- 
 finite ; an order having been made, for reducing them to 
 their ancient number of 60 ; by not filling up the vacancies 
 that may happen by death, &c. till they are fallen to that 
 ftandard. 
 
 SIXH1NDEMEN. See the article Svxhindemen. 
 SIXTH, SsXTA, in mufic, one of the fimple original con- 
 cords, or harmonica] intervals. 
 
 The fixth is of two kinds ; greater and Itffer ; and hence it 
 is efteemed one ot the imperfec-t concords ; though each of 
 the two fpecies arifes from a divilion of the o6tave. 
 
 The greater Sixth, called by the Greeks hexacbordon majus, is 
 the concord rtfulting from a mixture of the founds of two 
 firings that are to each other as 5 to 3. 
 
 The lejfer Sixth, hexacbordon minus, refults from two firings, 
 which are to each other as 8 to 5. 
 
 The lejfer fixth is compofed diatonically of fix degrees, 
 whence its name; and of five intervals, three whereof are 
 tones, and two femi-tones ; chromatically of eight femi- 
 tones ; five whereof are greater, and three lefe.- — It has its 
 form or origin from the ratio fuper-tri partiens quint a s \ as 
 of 8 to 5. 
 
 The greater fixth is compofed diatonically, like the lefs, of 
 fix degrees and five intervals ; among which are four tones, 
 and a femi-tone : and chromatically of nine femi-tones ; five 
 whereof are greater, and four lefs ; of confecjuence it has a 
 lefler femi-tone mure than the former. — It has its origin 
 from the ratio fuper-bi-qartiens tertius ; as 5 to J, 
 Anciently the fixth had only one repetition, which was the 
 13th; but in the modern fyfiem, it has feveral, as the 2cth, 
 27th, C5V. all marked indifferently in the thorough bafs, by 
 the figure 6. And even the fixth itfelf, both greater and 
 lefler, when natural, is not expreflcJ any otherwife than by 
 a fimple 6. But when it is greater or lefs bv accident ; to 
 the 6 is added the mark of a fharp, or a flat : as may be 
 feen in M. Broflard. 
 
 Befidcs the two kinds of fixtbs here defcribed, which are 
 both good concords ; there are two others that are vicious 
 and diflbnant. 
 
 The firft is the defective Sixth, compofed of two tones and 
 
 three femi-tones, or of feven femi-tones, five whereof are 
 
 greater and two lefs. 
 The fecond is the redundant Sixth, compofed of four tones, 
 
 a greater femi-tone, and a lefs. Whence fome call it penta- 
 
 tomn, as comprehending five tones. 
 
 TheJe two being both difcords, fhould never be ufed in me- 
 lody, and very rarely in harmony. 
 
 As to the two conibnant fixtbs, they were anciently ufed 
 very fparingly : at prefent they are allowed to be ufed as of- 
 ten as one pleafes ; as is the cafe with thirds ; the fixtbs being 
 in reality, no other than inverted thirds : but care is ufuallv 
 taken, that the firft fixth that occurs be a leffer, and the lair 
 a greater ; and that from the greater, we rife to the octave, 
 and from the lefs, fall to the fifth. 
 
 Sixth, in the military art. See the article Six ain. 
 
 Sixth fair of Arte, ? See the artides 5 Nerve. 
 
 Sixth rates, 3 cRate. 
 
 SIZE, the name of an inflrument ufed to find the bignefs 
 of fine round pearls withal. 
 
 It confifts of thin pieces or leaves, about two inches 
 long, and half an inch broad ; faftned together at one end bv 
 a rivet. In each of thefe, are feveral round holes drilled, of 
 different diameters. Thofe in the firft leaf ferve for mea- 
 furing pearls frcm 1 a grain to feven grains. Thofe of the 
 fecond, for pearls from eight grains or two carats, to five 
 carats, <3c. and thofe of the third, for pearls from 6 Ito %\- 
 SKELETON *, Skeaeton, in anatomy, an aficmblage 01 
 arrangement of all the bones of a dead animal, dried, clean- 
 ed, and difpofed in their natural fituation ; and kept in that 
 difpofition by means of wires, &£i — See Tab. Anat. (Ofteo!.) 
 jig. 3, 7. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, rnUv, I dry. 
 Skeletons ferve to good purpofe, in learning the ofteology. 
 For the fcveral bones a jkeleton confifts of, fee Bone. 
 
 SKIFF, oi-Squiff, the lefs of two {hip-boats ; fervlng chiefly 
 to zo afhore in, when the fhip is in harbour. 
 
 SKIN, in anatomy, a large thick membrane, fpread over the 
 whole body, ferving as the external organ of feeling, and a* 
 a cover and ornament of the parts underneath. 
 The fkin confifts of three parts ; the external one, called the cu- 
 ticle, epidermis, or jkarf-jkin. The middle-moft is called the 
 corpus rei'.cu'.are, becaufe pierced through with a great number 
 of holes, like a net or fi ;ve. — The innermoft,callcd the cutis is a 
 5 fibrous 
 
SLA 
 
 S L A 
 
 fibrous fubftance, wove out of the extremities of arteries, 
 ■veins, nerves, tendons, csV. Whence alfo arife abundance 
 of little eminences, called papilla pyramidales. — See Tab. A- 
 nat. (Myol.J fig. 8. 
 
 It is likewife fct with an infinity of glands, called miliary 
 -glands, each whereof has its excretory ducf paffing along 
 with the pyramidal papilla?, through the holes, of the corpus 
 reticulare, and terminating at the cuticle. 
 The papillx are held by the moderns to be the organ of feel- 
 ing ; and the excretory veffels ferve to carry off the matter 
 of peifpiration, which is feparated from the blood in the mi- 
 liary glands. See Miliary glands, Perspiration and 
 Feeling. 
 
 Nutrition, M. Perrault obferves, is fometimes taken in 
 throughout the whole body of animals, at the pores of the 
 Jk'tn. The fubtle fubftances of nutritious matters applied ex- 
 ternally to thofe bodies, arc found to penetrate them, to mix 
 with the blood and juices, and they are there aflimilated. On 
 this account, he adds, it is, that butchers dogs, turnfpit-dogs, 
 €sV. are generally very fat, and even butchers, cooks, csV. 
 themfelves. M. Dodart takes it, that plants thus receive a 
 great part of their food by the external bark, not all of it 
 by the root. See Root. 
 Skin, in commerce, is particularly ufed for this membrane 
 ftripped off the animal, to be prepared by the tanner, fkin- 
 ner, currier, parchment-maker, C3"V, and ' converted into 
 leather, &c. 
 
 The ufe of Jkins is very ancient ; the firft garments in the 
 world having been made thereof. The Danes and other nor- 
 thern nations, have a long time drefied in Jkins. — Morocco's 
 are made of the Jkins of a kind of goats. 
 Parchment is ufually made of fheep jkins; fometimes of 
 goat Jkins. Velom is a kind of parchment made of the 
 Jkin of an abortive calf, or at leaft of a fucking calf. 
 The true fhammy, is made of the Jkin of an animal of the 
 fame name ; though frequently it is counterfeited with com- 
 mon goats and fheep jkins. See Shammy. 
 Shagreen is prepared at Conftantinople, of the hind-part of 
 the Jkin of a kind of afs of that country, prepared and tan- 
 ned, and when foft and manageable, ftretched on a frame, 
 and expofed to the fun. — This done, they fprinkle muftard- 
 feed on the Jkin ; taking care to rub it feveral times over with 
 the hand. By means hereof, and by the heat of the fun, 
 the grain of the leather is raifed up, and there hardened, 
 
 SKJNKER, a cup-bearer or butler. See AncR-butler. 
 
 SKIPPER, See the article Schipper. 
 
 SKIRMISH*, in war, a diforderly kind of combat, or en- 
 counter, in prefence of two armies between fmall parties, or 
 perfons who advance from the body for that purpofe, and in- 
 troduce to a general, regular fight. 
 
 * The word fcems formed from the French, efcatmwcht, which 
 fignifies the fame, and which Nicod derives from the Greek 
 #*pf*Ji, which fignifies at the fame time, both light, combat 
 and joy: Menage derives it from the Gfertrian, Jcbimtn or 
 Jkcrmen, to fence or defend : De Cange, from fcaramuccia, a 
 light engagement, of Jcara and vaiccia, a body of foldier; 
 hid in ainbuih ; in regard many Jkirmijbes are performed by 
 perfons in ambufcade. 
 
 SKULL, in anatomy. See the article Cranium. 
 SKY, the blue expanfe of air or atmofpherc. See Air, and 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 The azure colour of thcjky, Sir Ifaac Newton attributes to 
 vapours beginning to condenfe therein, which have °-ot con- 
 fidence enough to reflecf the moft reflcxible rays, viz. the 
 violet ones ; but not enough to rcflcft any of the lefs re- 
 flexible ones. 
 
 M. de la Hire attributes it to our viewing a black objeft, iriz, 
 the dark fpace beyond the regions of the atmofphere, through 
 a white or lucid one, viz. the air illumined by the fun :°a 
 mixture of black and white always appearing blue. Put 
 this account is not originally his ; it is as old as ^Leonardo da 
 Vinci. 
 
 Sky rocket. See the article Rocket. 
 
 SLAB, an outlide fappy plank or board fawed off from the 
 fides of a timber-tree : the word is alfo ufed for a flat piece 
 of marble. 
 
 SLATE, a blueiih fiffile ftone, very foft when du^ out of the J 
 quarry, and on that account ealily cut and fplit into thin 
 long fquares or efcallopS, to ferve in lieu of tiles for the co- 
 vering of houfes : fometimes alfo to make tables of, and to 
 pave withal. 
 
 1 he ancients were unacquainted with the ufe of /ate, and 
 inftead thereof covered their houfes with fhingle, as we read 
 in Pliny. Befides the blue Jlate, we have in England a 
 grcytfh^lM, called alfo Horjham ftone, from a town in Suf- 
 Jex of that na;::e, where the g'reatcft quantities of it are 
 found. 
 
 The blwjlen is a very light, lading, and beautiful covering, 
 but it is chargeable withal, in regard the roof muft be firft 
 boarded over, and the flat* hung on tacks, and laid with 
 finer mortar than tiles. The grey Jlate is chiefly ufed in the 
 covering of churches, chapels, chancels, &c. 
 it is dearer than tiles, but far more durable. The timber of 
 the roof needs to be very ftrong for thefe grey Jlate. it bcin"- 
 Vol. II. N°, 142. ^ B 
 
 almofi double the weight of ffies. 
 
 To judge of the goodriefs of Jlate, Mr. Coleprefs, in the 
 Philofophical T ran (act ions, orders it to be knocked againft 
 any hard body, to make it yield a found ; if the found be 
 good and clear, the ftonc is firm and good ; otherwife, it ia 
 friable and foft. 
 
 Another method of proving its goodnefs, is, by weighing it 
 exactly, then letting it lie fix or eight hours under water, 
 and Wiping it very clean; if it weighs now much more than 
 it did before, it is of that kind that foSfcs in water, and 
 therefore will not long endure, without totting the lath or 
 timber. Another method of trial is, by placing a Jlate half 
 a day perpendicularly in a veifel of water, lb as to reach a 
 confiderable height above the level thereof: if the Jlate be firm 
 and clofe, then it will not draw water, that is, the water 
 will not have afcended above half an inch above file level of 
 that in the veifel, nor that perhaps any where but at the 
 edges, the texture whereof might be loofened by hewin^ ; 
 but a bad flrone will have drawn the water to the very top, 
 be it as high as it will. 
 
 There are Jlates in feveral places, which the moft experi- 
 enced Jlattrt, orcoverers, conjecture to have continued on 
 houfes feveral hundreds of years, and which arc yet as firm 
 as when firft put up. 
 
 M. Leibnitz informs us, in the hiftory of the French aca- 
 demy, that in feveral parts of the dutchy ofBrunfwick, par- 
 ticularly about Ofteroda, EsV. there arc horizontal veins of 
 Jlate, wherein are found very exacf and finifhed reprefenta- 
 tions of various kinds of fillies and plants, appearing in their 
 natural breadth and length, but without any thicknefs. — The 
 fame impreflions are alfo frequently found on otherfubftancts, 
 as on the black Jlate that lies over veins of coals. 
 M. Leibnitz accounts for this appearance, by ftippofing the 
 Jakes and meadows of thefc places to have been covered over 
 with a kind of earth, which has buried the fifties and plants; 
 or that fome very muddy water much impregnated with 
 earth, has covered them up, or carried them away. — This 
 earth he takes to have fince hardened into Jlate; and by length 
 of time, or fome other caufe, to have bonfumed the delicate 
 matter of the fifh, t$e. much as the bodies of flies or ants, 
 which are found enclofed in amber, are quite diifipated, and 
 nothing left, but, as it were a mere delineation. 
 The matter of the fifti, or plant, thus confumed, has left its 
 form impreffed in the Jlate, by means of the cavity remain- 
 ing therein ; which cavity has fometimes been afterwards fil- 
 led up with a metallic matter : whether by rcafon that the 
 fubterranean fire, in baking the earth into Jlate, has fepara- 
 ted a metal thereform ; or that a metallic vapour penetrating 
 the Jlate, has become fixed in thefe cavities. See Supplement, 
 article Extraneous Fossil. 
 SLAVE*, aperfo n in the abfolute power of a mafter, either 
 by war or conqueft. See Servant. 
 
 * Menage, and Voflius derive the word from S'cfavus, the name 
 of a Scythian people, whom Charlemagne condemned to per- 
 petual imprifonmcnt; whence the Italians made their Jiblavo, 
 the Germans their Jcbla-ve, the French their rjihlane, find We 
 Jlave : the Italians and Other nations ufed to buy thefe Sclav! 
 or Sclavhiiam to make drudges of; whence the proper name 
 of a nation, in time, became the name of a li-ite or condition. 
 See Sclavonic, 
 The Romans called their Jlaves, Jervi, from fervare, to keep, 
 or fave ; as being fuch as were not killed, but faved, to yield 
 money either by fale, or by their work. Though other au- 
 thors are of opinion, that the Roman name fervi might come 
 from that of Serbi ; as that of Jlaves from Sctavi, a people. 
 We find no mention of Saves before the deluge ; but imme- 
 diately after, viz. in the curfe of Canaan, Gen. ix. 25. 
 whence it is cafily inferred, that fervitude commenced foon 
 after that time : for in Abraham's days we find it generally 
 eftablifhcd. — Some will have it to have commenced under 
 Nimrod, becaufe it was he who firft began to make war, 
 and of confequence to make captives ; and to bring fuch as 
 he took either in his battles, of irruptions, into flavery. 
 Among the Romans, when a Jlave was fet at liberty, he 
 changed his name into a furnamc ; he took the nomen or prze- 
 nomcn of his mafter ; to which he added the cognomen or 
 nick name he had been called by when a Jlave. See Name. 
 By the civil law, the power of mzkingjlaves is cfteemed a 
 right of nations, and follows as a natural confequence of 
 captivity in war. The Lacedaemonians, fay fome, or as o- 
 thers fay, the Affyrians, firft introduced the practice; which 
 the Romans not onlv approved of, but they even invented 
 new manners of making Jlaves ; for inftance, a man born free 
 among them, might ft 11 his freedom, and become ajlave. — 
 This voluntary Jlavery was firft introduced by a decree of the 
 fenate, in the time of the emperor Claudius, and at length 
 was abrogated by Leo. 
 
 The Romans had power of life and death over their Jlaves, 
 which no other nations had : but this feverity was afterwards 
 moderated by the laws of the emperors; and by one of A- 
 drian, it was made capital to kill a Jlave without a caufe.— 
 The Jlaves were eftccmed the proper goods of their matters, 
 and all they got belonged to them : but, if the mafter were 
 too cruel in his domeftick corrections, he was obliged to fell 
 his Jlave at a moderate price, 
 
 11 Y A* 
 
S L E 
 
 S L I 
 
 As Jlavery was not abolifhed by the gofpel, the cuftom of 
 keeping Jiaves lafted a long time in Chriftendom. — In the 
 time oi Louis the Grols they were fo numerous in Egypt, 
 that it was found a difficult matter to quell a body of them 
 who had made head againft their matters : yet Bartolus, who 
 lived in 13CO, obferves, thf;rc were none left in his days. 
 Shivery is abfolutely abolifhed in England, and France, as to 
 pcifonal fervitude : our fervants are not Jlaves, but only are 
 lubjcct to certain determinate fervices. It is faid, that the 
 moment a jlave ftcps on Englifn ground, he becomes free. 
 Slaves make a very confiderablc article of the traffick in 
 America. The Englilh South-Sea company have the fole 
 privilege of furnifliing the Spanilh Weft-indies with jlavts, 
 bv treaty. 
 
 SLAUGHTER. See Manslaughter, Homicide, Mur- 
 ther, Butcher, &c. 
 
 SLEASY holland, a kind of holland thus called, becaufe made 
 in Silcfia in Germany ; and which, from its flightnefs, occa- 
 sions all thin, flight, ill-wrought hollands to be called fieajy. 
 See Holland. 
 
 SLEDGE, a kind of carriage, without wheels, for the con- 
 veyance of very weighty things, as huge ftones, bells, C5V. 
 The Dutch have a kind of jlcdge, whereon they can carry 
 a vefTel of any burthen by land. It confifts of a plank of 
 the length of the keel of a moderate fhip, raifed a little be- 
 hind, and hollow in the middle ; fo that the fides go a little 
 aflope, and' are fumifhed with holes to receive pins, C3V. 
 The reft is quite even. 
 
 SLEEP, that flate wherein the body appearing perfectly at reft, 
 external objects move the organs of fenfe as ufually, without 
 exciting the ufual fenfations. 
 
 Sleep, according to Rohault, confifts in a fcarcity of fpirits ; 
 which occafions that the orifices or pores of the nerves in 
 the brain, whereby the fpirits ufed to flow into the nerves, 
 being no longer kept open by the frequency of the fpirits, 
 Ihutof themielves. For this being fuppofed, as foon as the 
 fpirits, now in the nerves, fhall be diffipated, the capilla- 
 ments of thofe nerves, having no fupplement of new fpirits, 
 will become lax, and cohere as if cemented together ; and fo 
 be unfit to convey any impreflion to the brain : befides, the 
 mufcles being now void of fpirits, will be unable to move, 
 or even to fuftain the members : thus will fenfation, and mo- 
 tion be both for the time deftroyed. 
 
 Sleep is broke off unnaturally, when any of the organs of 
 fenfe are fo brifkly acted on, that the action is propagated 
 to the brain : for upon this, the few fpirits remaining in the 
 brain, are all called together, and unite their forces to un- 
 lock the pores of the nerves, &c. But if no object mould 
 thus affect the organ, yet Jlap would in fome time be broke 
 tiff naturally ; for the quantity of fpirits generated in jkep, 
 would at length be fo great, that, itretching out the orifices 
 of the nerves, they would open themielves a patfagc. 
 With regard to medicine, flcep is defined, by Boerbaave, to 
 be that itate of the medulla ot the brain, wherein the nerves, 
 do not receive fo copious, nor fo forcible an influx ef fpirits, 
 from the bruin as is required to enable the organs of fenfe, 
 and voluntary motion, to perform their offices. 
 The immediate caufe hereof appears to be the fcarcity of 
 animal (pints, which being fpent, and requiring fome time 
 to be recruited, the minute veflels, before inflated, become 
 flaccid and collapfe : or elfe, it is owing to fuch a preffure of 
 the thicker blood againft the cortex of the brain, as that the 
 medulla, becoming likewife compreffed by its contiguity 
 ■with the cortex, the paflage of the fpirits is obftructed. 
 The natural caufe of flap, then, is any thing that may 
 contribute to thefe two. — And hence its effects may be un- 
 derftood : for in flecp fevcral functions are fufpended, their 
 organs and mufcles are at reft, and the fpirits fcarce flow 
 through them, therefore there is a lefs confumption of them ; 
 but the fulid villi and fibres of the nerves arc but little changed, 
 and an equilibrium obtains throughout ; there is no difference 
 of preffure on the veffels, nor ofvelocity in the humours : the 
 motion of the heart, lungs, arteries, vifcera, CJV. isincreafed. 
 The effects of which are, that the vital humours circulate 
 more ftrongly and equably through the canals, which are now 
 freer, laxer, and opener, as not being comprefied by the 
 mufcles. Hence the blood is driven lefs forcibly, indeed, in- 
 to the lateral veffels, but more equably ; and through the 
 greater veflels, both more ftrongly, and more equably. Thus 
 are the lateral fibres fenfibly filled, as being lefs traverfed, 
 and at length they remain at reft, with the juices they have 
 collected : and hence the lateral adipofe cells become filled 
 and diftended with an oily matter. 
 
 By this means tbecirculation, being almofi wholly performed 
 in the larger blood' veffels, becomes gradually flower, and at 
 length fcarce fenfible, if the flcep be too long continued : 
 thus, in moderate flap, is the matter of the chyle beft con- 
 verted into ferum ; that into thinner humours ; and thofe, 
 into nourifhment. The attrition of the folid parts is lefs 
 tonfiderable ; the cutaneous fecretion is increafed, and all the 
 reft diminimed. The parts wore off are now belt fupplied, 
 as an. equable s con.tin.ual repletion, reftores the h um ,our5;, 
 
 and repairs the folids, the preventing and difturbing caufe* 
 being then at reft. In the mean time, while the nutritious 
 matter is beft prepared ; there is an aptitude in the veffels to 
 receive, and in the humours to enter, and the means of 
 application, and confolidation, are at liberty : hence, anew 
 production, and accumulation of animal fpirits, in all the 
 humours, as to matter, and in the minuted veflels as to re- 
 pletion : the confequence of which is, an aptitude for wak- 
 ing, and an in-aptitude for flecp ; fo that upon the firft oc- 
 'caflon the man awakes. 
 
 Some of the more extraordinary phenomena of flap, yet to 
 be accounted for, are : that when the head is hot, and the 
 feet cold, fleep is impracticable : that fpirituous liquors firJf. 
 bring on drunkennefs, then flecp : that perfpiration, during;, 
 the time of flecp, is twice as great as at other times : that 
 upon jheping too long, the head grows heavy, the fenfes dull, 
 the memory weak, with coldr.els, pituitoulhefs, an indifpo- 
 fition of the mufcles for motion, and a want of perfpiration. 
 'I hat much Jlaping will fuftain life a long time, without ci- 
 ther meat or drink : that upon a laudable flecp, there alway.-. 
 follows an expanfion of alt the mufcles, frequently a repeated 
 yawning, and the mufcles and nerves acquire a new agility ; 
 that fectus's always flap ; children often; youth more than 
 grown perfons, and they more than old men ; and that peo- 
 ple, recovering from violent diftempers, flcep much more 
 than when perfectly at health. 
 
 SLEEVE Hippccrates's. See the article Hippocrates. 
 
 SLIDING, in mechanicks, fuperincejfui radem, is, when the 
 fame point of n body, moving along a furface, defcribes a 
 line on that fuiface. 
 
 Such is the motion of a parallelepiped, protruded along ?. 
 plane. 
 
 Sliding rule, a mathematical inftrument, ferving to work 
 queftions in gauging, meafuring, in'c. without the ufe of 
 compjlll-s ; merely by the Jliding of the parts of the inftru- 
 ment one by another, the lines and divifions whereof give 
 the anfwer, by inflection. 
 
 This inftrument is varioufly contrived, and applied by vari- 
 ous authors; particularly Everard, Coggelhal, Gunter, Hunt, 
 and Partridge ; but the moft ufual and ufeful ones, are thofe 
 of Everard and Coggelhal ; the defcription, and ufes where- 
 of, are as follow. 
 Everard's Sliding rule is principally ufed in gauging ; being 
 ordinarily made of box, a foot long, an inch broad, and ~ y 
 of an inch thick. — It confifts of three parts : a rule, on each 
 fide whereof, a b, and cd ( Tab. Surveying, fig. 17. ) is a 
 groove ; and two fmall fcales, or Jliding pieces, m n, jlide in 
 the grooves.— When boththefe pieces are drawn put to their 
 full extent, the inftrument is three foot long. 
 On the lirlt broad face of the inftrument a b, are four lines 
 of numbers ; for the properties, &c. whereof, fee Gun- 
 ter's line. The firft marked A, confifting of two radius's 
 numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10; and then 2, 3,4, 
 5, &c. to 10. On this line are four brafs centre-pins, two in 
 each radius ; one in each whereof is marked MB, to flgnify 
 that the number it is fet againft, 2150.42 is the cubic 
 inches in a malt-bufhel ; the other two are marked with A, 
 to fignify that the numbers they are fet againft, viz. 282, 
 are the cubic inches in an ale-gallon. — The fecond and third 
 lines of numbers, are on the jliding pieces, and are exactly 
 the fame with the firft. Clofe to the figure 7, in the firft 
 radius, is a dot marked S /', fet exactly over .707^ denoting 
 .707 to be the fide of a fquare inferibed in a circle, whofe 
 diameter is unity. Clofe to 9 is another dot, marked S e 9 
 fet over .886, which is the fide of a fquare, equal to the area 
 of a circle, whofe diameter is unity. Another dot, nigh 
 W, is fet over 231, the number of cubic inches in a wine- 
 gallon ; and another near C, is fet over 3.14 the circumfe- 
 rence of a circle, whofe diameter is unity The fourth 
 
 line of numbers, marked MD, to fignify malt depth^ is a 
 broken line of two radius's numbered 2, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 
 5> 4> 3> 2 > *> 9' 8 > 7* & e - l "e number 1 being fet directly 
 againft MB on the firft radius. 
 
 On the fecond broad face, marked c d, are i°. Aline of 
 numbers of one radius, numbered 1, 2, 3, izfe. to 10, noted 
 by the letter D. On this are four centre pins ; the firft, 
 marked WG, is the gauge-point for a wine-gallon, c. the 
 diameter of a cylinder, whofe height is an inch, and con- 
 tent 231 cubic inches, or a wine-gallon, which is 17.15 
 inches : the fecond centre-pin AG ftands at the gauge-point 
 for an ale- gallon, which is 18.95 inches. The third MS 
 Itands at 46.3 the fide of a fquare, whole content is equal 
 to the inches in a folid bulhel. The fourth MR is the gauge- 
 point for a malt bufhe], which is 52.32 inches. — 2 0 . Two 
 lines of numbers on the Jliding piece, which are exactly the 
 fame as thofe on the jliding piece on the other fide. Clofe to 
 the divifion 8 is a dot marked c, which is fet to .795, the area 
 of a circle whofe diameter is unity ; and another marked d, 
 Itands at .785, the area of a circle, whofe diameter is unity. 
 — 3 0 . Two lines of fegments, each numbered 1, 2, 3, to 
 loo ; the firft, for finding the ullage of a calk, taken as the 
 middle fruitum of a fpheroid, lying with its axis parallel to 
 
 the 
 
 3 
 
S L I 
 
 S L J 
 
 the horizon ; and the other, for, finding the ullage of a cafk 
 ftanding. 
 
 Again, on one of the narrow fides, r.ctcd e, are i°. A line 
 of inches, numbered i, 2, 3, fiffc to 12, each fub-d(vided 
 Into ten equal parts. 2°. A line, by which, with that of 
 inches we find a mean diameter for a cafk, in the figure of 
 a middle fruftum of afpheroid : it is numbered 1, 2, 3, &c. 
 to 7, and marked fpheroid. 3 0 . A line for finding the mean 
 diameter of a calk, in the figure of the middle fruftum of a 
 parabolic fpindie, which gaugcrs call the fecond variety of 
 cafeh\ it is numbered r, 2, 3, CSV. and noted fecond variety. 
 4°. A line, by which we find the mean diameter of a cafk 
 of the third variety, u c. of a cafk in the figure of two pa- 
 rabolic conoids, abutting on a common bafe ; it is numbered 
 I, 2, 3, &c. and noted third variety. 
 On the other narrow face, marked /, are i°. A foot di- 
 vided into 100 equal parts, marked F M. %°, A line of 
 inches, like that before-mentioned, noted I M. 3 0 . Aline 
 for finding the mean diameter of the fourth variety of cafks, 
 which is the middle fruftum of two cones, abutting on a 
 common bafc. It is numbered I, 2, 3, bV. and noted F C, 
 fignifying fruftum of a cone. 
 
 On the backfide of the two filling pieces are a line of in- 
 ches, from 13 to 36, when the two pieces are put endwife ; 
 and againft that, the correfpondent gallons, or hundred parts, 
 that any fmall tub, or the like open veffel (from 13 to 36 
 inches diameter) will contain at one inch deep. 
 Ufe of Everard's Sliding rule.— i°. To multiply one num- 
 ber by another. Suppofe 4 required to be multiplied by 6 : 
 fet 1 on the line of numbers B, to 4 on the line A ; then, 
 againft 6 upon B is 24, the product fought upon A. Again, 
 to multiply 26 by 68, fet 1 on B to 26 on A ; then, againft 
 68 on B is 1768 on A, the product fought. 
 2°. To divide one number by another. Suppofe 24 to be 
 divided by 4 : fet 4 on B to 1 on A ; then againft 24 on B 
 is 6 on A, which is the quotient. Again, to divide 952 by 
 14 ; fet 14 on A to 1 on B, and againft 952 on A you have 
 on B, 68, which is the quotient. 
 
 3 0 . To work the rule of three. If 8 give 20, what will 
 22 give ? fet 8 on B to 20 on A, then againft 22 on B Hands 
 55 on A ; the number fought. 
 
 4 0 . To find a mean proportional between two numbers, 
 fuppofe between 50 and 72 : fet 50 on C to 72 on D ; then 
 againft 72 on C you have 60 on D, which is the mean 
 required. 
 
 5 Q To extract the fquare root of a number. Apply the 
 lines C and D to one another, fo as 10 at the end of D be 
 even with 10 at the end of C ; then are thefe two lines a 
 table, fhewing the fquare root of any number lefs than 
 icooooo by mfpection : for againft any number on C, the 
 number anfwering to it on D, is the fquare root thereof. 
 Note, if the given number confift of 1, 3, 5, or 7 places, 
 feek it on the firft radius, on the line C, and againft it is 
 the root required at D. 
 
 '6°. Either the diameter, or circumference of a circle, being 
 given ; to find the other. Set 1 on the line A againft 3, 141 
 (to which is writ C) on the line B ; and againft any diame- 
 ter on the line A, you have the circumference on B ; and 
 contrarywife : thus, the diameter being 20 inches, the cir- 
 cumference will be 62.831 inches; and the circumference 
 being 94, 247, the diameter will be 30. 
 
 The diameter of a circle given, to find the area in in- 
 ches, or in ale or wine-gallons. Suppofe the diameter 20 in- 
 ches, what is the area ? fet 1 upon D, to .785 (noted d) on 
 C ; then againft 20 on D is 314. 1 59 the area required. Now 
 to find that circle's area in ale-gallons, fet 18.95 (marked 
 A G) upon D, to I on C ; then againft the diameter 20 
 upon D, is the number of ale-gallons on C, viz. 1.11, 
 The fame may ferve for wine-gallons, regard being only had 
 to the proper gauge-point. 
 
 8°. The two diameters of an ellipfis being given, to find 
 the area in ale-gallons. Suppofe the tranfverfe diameter 72 
 inches, and the conjugate 50 ; fet 359-05 the fquare of the 
 gauge-point on B, to one of the diameters (fuppofe 50) on 
 A ; then againft the other diameter 72 on B, you will have 
 the area on A, viz. 10.02 gallons, the content of this ellipfis 
 at one inch deep. The like may be done for wine-gallons, 
 if inftcad of 359-05 you ufe 249.11 the fquare of the gauge- 
 point for wine-gallons. 
 
 q°. To find the area of a triangular furface in ale-gallons. 
 Suppofe the bafc of the triangle 260 inches, and the perpen- 
 dicular let fall from the oppofite angle 110 inches : fet 282 
 (marked A) upon B to 130, half the bafc on A ; then againft 
 1 10 on B is 50.7 gallons on A. 
 
 10°. To find the content of an oblong in ale-gallons. Sup- 
 pofe one fide 130 inches, and the other 180 ; fet 282 on B 
 to :8o on A ; then againft 130 upon B is 82.97 ale-gallons, 
 the area required. 
 
 Tofind the content of a regular polygon in alc-gallans, 
 one of the fides being given. Find the length of the perpen- 
 dicular let fall from the centre to one of the fides : this 
 multiplied by half the fum of the fides, gives the area. For 
 an inftance : fuppofe a pentagon, whofe fide is 1 inch ; here, 
 the perpendicular will be found .837, by faying, as the fine 
 
 of half the angle at the centre, which in this polygon 
 1336°, is to half the given fide .5, fo is the fine of Ih- 
 complement of 36°, viz. 54° to the perpendicular afore-- 
 faid. Whence the area of a pentagon, whofe fide 
 unity, will be found 1.72 inches, which divided by 282, 
 give .0061, the ale-gallons in that polygon. 
 12°. To find the content of a cylinder in ale-gallons. Sup- 
 pofe the diameter of the bafe of the cylinder 120 inches 
 the perpendicular height 36 inches: fet therefore the gauge- 
 point_(A G) to the height, 36 on C ; then againft 120, 
 the diameter on D ? is found 1443.6, the content in nle- 
 gallons. 
 
 13°. The bung and head-diameters, of any cafk, together 
 with its length, being given ; to find its content in ale, or 
 wine-gallons. — 1°. Suppofe the length of a cafk taken (as 
 the middle fruftum of a fpheroid, which is the firft cafe or 
 variety) be 40 inches, its head-diameter 24 inches, and bun*- 
 diameter 32 inches : fubtradl the head diameter from that of 
 the bung ; the difference is 8. Look, then, for 8 inches on 
 the line of inches, on the firft narrow face of the rule ; and 
 againft it, on the line fpheroid ftands 5.6 inches, which ad- 
 ded to the head-diamcter 24, gives 29.6 inches tor that cafk's 
 mean diameter : fet therefore the gauge-point for ale (marked 
 AG) on D, to 40 on C; and againft 29,6 On D, is 97.45, 
 the content of the cafk in ale-gallons. If the gauge-point 
 for wine (marked W G) be ufed inftead of that lor ale ; yon 
 will have the veffel's content in wine-gallons. — 2°. If a calk, 
 of the fame dimenfions as the former be taken (as the middle 
 fruftum of a parabolic fpindie, which is the fecond variety) 
 fee what inches, and parts, on the line marked fecor.d vari- 
 ety, ftand againft the difference of the bung and head-dia- 
 meters, which in this example is 8 ; and you will find 5.1 
 inches, which added to 24, the head-diameter makes 29.1 
 inches, the mean-diameter of the cafe : fet therefore the rule, 
 as before, and againft 29.1 inches, you will have 94.12 ale- 
 gallons, for the content of the cafk. — 3 0 . If the cafk taken 
 be the middle fruftum of two parabolic conoids, which is the 
 third variety ; againft 8 inches, the difference of the head and 
 bung-diameters, on the line of inches, you will find ^.57 
 inches on the line called third variety ; this added as before 
 t0 2 4> gives 28.57 ^ or tne ca fk' s mean-diameter: proceeding 
 as before, you will find the content 90.8 gallons. — 4 0 . If 
 the cafk taken be the fruftums of two cones, which is the 
 fourth variety, againft 8 inches on the line of inches, yoii 
 will find on the line marked F C, 4.r inches to be added td 
 24 inches : the reft, carried on as before, gives the content 
 of the cafk 87.93 ?le-gallons. 
 
 14°. A cafk partly empty, lying with its axis parallel to the 
 horizon ; to find the quantity of liquor therein. Find its 
 whole content, as above; which fuppofe 97.455 gallons, 
 and fuppofe the inches left dry, 8, and the bung-diameter 
 32 : then, as the bung-diameter on C is to 100 on the line 
 of fegments L, fo are the dry inches on C to a fourth num- 
 ber on the line of fegments : and as 100 upon B is to tha 
 cafk's whole content on A, fo is that fourth number to the 
 liquor wanting to fill up the cafk ; which, fubtracfed from 
 the whole contents of the cafk, gives the liquor remaining 
 therein. E. gr. Set 32, the bung-diameter on C, to 100 
 on the fegment line L ; then againft 8, the dry inches on C, 
 ftands 17.6 on the fegment line : fet therefore 100 on B, to 
 the cafk's whole content on A; and againft 17.6 on B, you 
 have 16.5 gallons on A ; fubtracfing therefore the faid gal- 
 lons from 97.45, the veffel's; whole content ; the liquor in 
 the cafk will be 80.95 gallons. 
 
 15 0 . A cafk ftanding upright, or with its axis perpendicular 
 to the horizon, to find the liquor therein. Suppofe the 
 length of the cafk 40 inches, and ten of them dry ; fet 46 
 inches, on the line C, to 100 on the fegment line S ; and 
 againft 10, the dry inches on the line C, ftands 24.2 on S 
 the fegment line. Set, then, 100 on B, to 97.455, the cafk's 
 whole content on A; and againft 24.2 on B, you will have 
 2 3;5 gallons, which is what is wanting to fill up the cafk : 
 this, therefore, fubtradfed from the whole content 97-455, 
 give 73.955 gallons, for the quantity of liquor remaining in 
 the cafk. 
 
 l6 Q . To find the content of any right-angled parallelepiped 
 (e. gr. a ciftern, uting-fat, or the like) in malt bufhels. 
 Suppcfe the length of the bafe 80 inches, the breadrh 50, 
 and depth 9 inches : fet the breadth 50 on B, to the depth 9 
 on C ; then againft the length 80 on A, ftand 16.8 bufneli 
 on B, the number required. 
 Coggejhai's Sliding rule is principally ufed in mcafuring of the 
 fuperficies, and folidity of timber, &c. 
 It confifts of two rulers, each a foot long, which are framed, 
 or put together, various ways ; fometimes, they are made to 
 fide by one another, like glazier's rules : fometimes a groove 
 is made in the fide of a common two-foot joint-rule, and. 
 a thin fiding piece put in, and Coggefhal's lines added on 
 that fide : but the moft ufual and commodious way, is to 
 have one of the rulers fids in a groove made along tha 
 middle of the other, as it is reprefentcd in Table Surveying) 
 Jig. 18, 
 
 On the fltdtng fide of the rule srs four lines of numbers, 
 
 three 
 
S L I 
 
 S L U 
 
 three whereof are double, that is, are lines to two radius's, 
 and one, a Angle broken line of numbers : the three firft, 
 marked A,B,C, are figured I, 2, 3, &c. to 9 ; then I, 2, 3, 
 t5V. to 10. Their conftruition, ufe, &c. are the fame as 
 thofe on Lverard's fl'iding rule. The Tingle line, called the 
 giri-Une, and noted D, whofe radius is equal to the two ra- 
 dius's of any of the other lines, is broke for the eafier mea- 
 furing of timber, and figured 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 
 tsV. from 4 to 5. It is divided into ten parts, and each 10^ 
 fubiivided into 2, and fo on from 5 to 10, fcfc 
 On the back-fide of the rule, are, i°. Aline of inch-mea- 
 fure, from 1 to 12 ; each inch being divided and fubdivided. 
 2 1 -'. A line of foot-meafure ; confining of one foot, divided 
 into 100 equal parts, and figured 10, 20, 30, csV. The 
 back-fide of the Hiding piece is divided into inches, halves, 
 (3c. and figured from 12 to 24; fo that when flid out, there 
 may be a meafurc of two foot. 
 Vj'c of CoggeflrnVs Sliding rule, in meafuring plain fuperficics. 
 - — i. To mcafure a fquarc. Suppofe, e. gr. the fides be each 
 5 feet : fet I on the line B, to 5 on the line A ; then againft 
 
 5 on the line B, is 25 feet ; the content of the fquare on 
 the line A. 
 
 2- To meafure a long fquarc. Suppofe the longeft fide 18 
 foot, and the Ihorteft 10 : fet I on the line B, to 10 on the 
 line A ; then againft 18 foot, on the line B, is 180 feet, the 
 contents on the line A. 
 
 3. To meafure a rhombus. Suppofe the fide 12 feet, and 
 the length of a perpendicular let fall from one of the obtufe 
 angles, to the oppofite fide, 9 feet: fet 1, on the line B, to 
 j 2, the length of the fide, on the line A ; then againft 9, 
 the length of the perpendicular on the line B, is 108 feet, 
 the content. 
 
 4. To meafure a triangle. Suppofe the bafe feven feet, and 
 the length of the perpendicular iet fall from the oppofite an- 
 gle to the bafe, 4 feet : fet I on the line B, to 7 on the line 
 A : then againft half the perpendicular, which is 2, on 
 the line B, is 14 on the line A, for the content of the tri- 
 angle. 
 
 5. To find the content of a circle, its diameter being given. 
 Suppofe the diameter 3.5 feet : fet 11 on the girt-line D, to 
 95 on the line C ; then againft 3.5 feet on D is g.6 on C, 
 which is the content of the circle in feet. 
 
 6. To find the content of an oval or ellipfis. Suppofe the 
 longeft diameter 9 feet, and the ihorteft 4. Find a mean 
 proportional between the two, by fetting the greater 9 on 
 the girt-line, to g on the line C ; then, againft the lefs num- 
 ber 4, on the line C, is 6 ; the mean proportional fought. 
 This done, find the content of a circle, whofe diameter, is 
 
 6 feet j this, when found, by the laft article, will be equal 
 to the content of the ellipfis fought. 
 
 Ufe of Coggejhal's Sliding rule, in meafuring timber. — 1°. To 
 meafure timber the ufual way. Take the length in feet, 
 half feet, and, if required, quarters ; then meafure half way 
 back again ; there girt the tree with a fmall cord or line ; 
 double this line twice, very evenly, and meafure this fourth 
 part of the girt or perimeter, in inches, halves, and quarters. 
 The dimcniions thus taken, the timber is to be meafured as 
 if fquare, and the fourth of the girt taken for the fide of 
 the fquare, thus ; fet 12 on the girt-line D, to the length 
 in feet on the line C, then againft the fide of the fquare, 
 on the girt-line D, taken in inches, you have, on the line 
 C, the content of the tree in feet. 
 
 Tor an inftance : fuppofe the girt of a tree, in the middle, 
 be 60 inches, and the length 30 feet, to find the content : 
 fet 12 on the girt-line D, to 30 feet on the line C ; then 
 againft 15, one fourth of 60, on the girt-line D, is 46.8 
 feet ; the content on the line C. If the length fhould be 9 
 inches, and the quarter of the girt 35 inches ; here, as the 
 length is beneath a foot, meafure it on the line of foot- 
 meafuie, and fee what decimal part of a foot it makes, 
 which you will find .75. Set 12, therefore, on the girt-line 
 to 75 on the firft radius of the line C, and againft 35 on 
 the girt-line is 6.4 feet on C, for the content. 
 a°. To meafure round timber the true way. The former 
 method, though that generally in ufe, is not quite juft. To 
 meafure timber accurately, inftead of the point 12 on the 
 girt-line, ufe another, viz. 10.635 > at which there fhould 
 be placed a centre-pin. This 10.635 is the fide of a fquare 
 equal to a circle, whofe diameter is 12 inches. For an in- 
 ftance : fuppofe the length 15 feet, and i of the girt 42 in- 
 ches : fet the point 10.635 to 15 the length ; then againft 
 42 on the girt-line is 233 feet for the content fought ; where- 
 as by the common way, there arifes only 184 feet. In ef- 
 fect, the common meafure is only to the true meafure, as 11 
 to 14. See Timber, 
 
 3 0 . To meafure a cube. Suppofe the fides to be 6 feet each j 
 fet 12 on the girt-line D, to 6 on C; then againft 72 inches 
 (the inches in 6 feet) on the girt-line, is 216 feet on C, 
 which is the content required. 
 
 4 0 . To meafure unequally-fquared timber; that is, where 
 the breadth and depth are not equal. Meafure the length 
 of the piece, and the breadth and depth (at the end) in in- 
 ches : then find a mean proportional between the breadth 
 •and depth of the piece. This mean proportional is the fide 
 
 of a fquare, equal to the end of the piece; which founc, 
 the piece may be meafured as fquare timber. For an in- 
 ftance : let the length of the piece of timber be 13 feet ; the 
 breadth 23 inches, and the depth 13 inches : fet 23 on the 
 girt-line D, to 23 on C ; then againft 13 on C is 17.35 on 
 the girt-line D, tor the mean proportional. Again letting 
 12 on the girt-line D, to 13 feet, the length on the line C \ 
 againft 17-35 on the girt-line, is 27 feet, the content. 
 5 0 . To meafure taper-timber. The length being meafured 
 in feet, note one third of it ; which is found thus : fet 3 on 
 the line A, to the length on the line B ; then againft 1 on 
 A, is the third part on B : then if the folid be round, mea- 
 fure the diameter at each end in inches, and fubtracT: the le& 
 diameter from the greater ; add half the difference to the; 
 lefs diameter ; the fum is the diameter in the middle of the 
 piece, Then fet 13.54 on the girt to the length of the line 
 C, and againft the diameter in the middle, on the girt-line, 
 is fourth number on the line C. Again, fet 13.54 on 
 the gii t-line to the third part of the length on the line C 
 then againft half the difference on the girt-line, is another 
 fourth number on the line C, thefe two fourth numbers 
 added together, give the content. For an inftance : let 
 the length be 27 feet (one third whereof is 9) the greater 
 diameter 22 inches, and the leffer 18; the fum of the two 
 will be 40, their difference 4, and half the difference two, 
 which added to the lefs diameter, gives 20 inches for the dia- 
 meter in the middle of the piece. Now fet 13.54 on the 
 girt-line, to 27 on the line C, and againft 20 on D, i.j 
 58.9 feet. Again, fet 13.54 of the girt-line to 9 on the 
 line C ; and againft 2 on the girt-line (reprefented by 20) is 
 .196 parts; therefore, by adding 58.9 feet to .196 feet, the 
 fum is 59.096 feet the content. 
 
 If the timber be fquare, and have the fame dimenfions ; that 
 is, the length 27 feet, the fide of the greater end 22 inches, 
 and that of the Icft'er 18 inches, to find the content : fet 12 
 on the girt-line to 27, the length on the line C, and againft 
 20 inches, the fide of the mean fquare on the girt-line, is 
 75.4 feet. Again, fet 12 on the girt-line to 9 feet, one 
 third of the length, on the line C, and againft 2 inches, 
 half the difference of the fides of the fquares of She ends on 
 the girt-line, is .25 parts of a foot, both together make 
 75.65 feet, the content of the folid. 
 
 The girt or circumference of a tree, or round piece of tim- 
 ber given ; to find the fide of the fquare within, or the num- 
 ber of inches of a fide, when the round timber is fquai d. 
 Set 10 on A to 9 on B, then againft the girt on A, are the 
 inches for the fide of the fquare on the line B. 
 SLING, funda, a firing- inftrument, ferving for the cafting 
 ftones with the greater violence. 
 
 Pliny, /. 76. c. 5. attributes the invention of the fling to the 
 Phoenicians : but Vegetius afcribes it to the inhabitants of 
 the Balearic iflands, who were famous in antiquity, for the 
 dextrous management thereof. Florus and Strabo fay thefe 
 people bore three kinds of flings ; fume longer, others fhorter, 
 which they ufed according as their enemies were nearer or 
 more remote. Diodorus adds, that the firft ferved them 
 for a head-band, the fecond for a girdle, and that the third 
 they conftantly carried with them in the hand. 
 SLINGING, is ufed varioufly at fea; but chiefly for the 
 hoifiing up cafks, or other heavy things, with flings, i. e* 
 contrivances of ropes fpliced into themfelves at either end, 
 with one eye big enough to receive the calk, or other thing; 
 to be flung. 
 
 SLIPPING, among gardeners, the tearing off a fprig from 
 a branch, or a branch from an arm of the tree.— Thefe 
 fort of flips take root more readily than cuttings. 
 
 SLIT grafting. See the article Engrafting. 
 
 SLOOP, a fort of floating veffel, otherwife called fiallop. 
 In our navy, flloops are tenders on the men of war ; 
 and are ufually of about 60 ton, and carry about: 3a 
 men. 
 
 SLOPING alley. See the article Alley. 
 SLOT'. — Drawing on the Slot. See Drawing. 
 SLOUGH, a deep muddy place.— The caft fkjn of a fuake, 
 
 the damp ot a coal-pit, and the fear of a wound, are alfo 
 
 called by the fame appellation. 
 Slough of a wild boar, is the bed, foil, or mire, wherein 
 
 he wallows, or in which he lies in the day-time. 
 S LOUTH, orSLOUGHT, in hunting, is ufed for a 
 
 company of fome forts of wild-beafb. — As, a flout of 
 
 bears. 
 
 SLOW/, r v,? See [h[Jrti[1 !F El£ , 
 
 Slow pulje, i I Pulse. 
 
 SLUICE, a frame of timber, ftone, or other matter, ferv- 
 ing to retain and raife the water of a river, &c. and, on 
 occafion, to let it pals. 
 
 Such is the fluke of a mill, which ftops and collects the 
 water of a rivulet, &c. to let it fall, at length, in the 
 greater plenty upon the mill-wheel : fuch alfo are thofe ufed 
 as vents or drains to difchargc water off land. — And fuch 
 are the flukes of Flanders, csV. which ferve to prevent the 
 waters of the fea overflowing the lower lands, except when 
 there is occafion to drown them. 
 
 Sometimes there is a kind of canal inclofed between two 
 
 gates 
 
S M E 
 
 S M 1 
 
 ■gates or fluices, in artificial navigations, to fave the Water, 
 and render the paflage of boats equally eafy, and fafe, up- 
 wards and downwards ; as in the Unices of iiriare in France, 
 which are a kind of maffive walls built parallel to each other, 
 at the diftance of 20 or 24 feet, doled with ftrong gates, 
 at each end, between which is a kind of canal or chamber, 
 confiderably longer than broad, wherein a veffel being in- 
 clofed, the water is let out at the firft gate, by which the 
 veflel is raifed 15 or 16 foot, and palled out of this canal 
 into another much higher. By fuch means a boat is con- 
 veyed out of the Loire into the Seyne, though the ground 
 between them rife above 150 feet higher than either of thole 
 rivers. 
 
 The word Jluice is formed of the French, efclufe, which 
 Menage derives from the Latin, exclufa, found in the Salic 
 law in the fame fenfe. — But this is to be retrained to the 
 flukes of mills, &c. for as to thofe ferving to raife veffels, 
 they were wholly unknown to the ancients. 
 
 SMACK, is a fmall veflel with but one matt. 
 
 Sometimes they are employed as tenders on a man of war ; 
 and are alio ufed for fifhing upon the coafts, &c. 
 
 SMALL apparatus, articles 5 Apparatus. 
 
 omall inlejiine, i c Intestine, 
 
 SMALL-POX, variola. SeePox and Variolje. 
 
 Small repeat. See the article Repeat. 
 
 SMALT, the laft produce of cobalt, a kind of mineral matter, 
 prepared and purified abroad, and brought hither, fome time's 
 in form of a blue powder, and fometimes in lumps ; chiefly 
 ufed along with ftarch, to give linens the finer and clearer 
 caft ; and beft known by the name of poivder-blue. 
 The preparation of fmalt, as practifed in Hermanduria, we 
 fmddefcribeu in the PhilofophicalTranfa&ions by Dr. Krieg ; 
 who tells us, that the matter it is made of, is the mineral 
 {tone, called cobalt, or cadmia mineralis, which being pul- 
 verized, and the lighter {tuff warned away, the remainder is 
 laid on a furnace, and by a fire, underneath and afide it, 
 the flames whereof are reverberated over it, a matter is fepa- 
 rated from it in form of a fmoak, which {ticking to the walls 
 makes what we call arfenic. 
 
 When the cobalt has done fmoaking, it is cooled, mixed 
 with pot-afhes and powder of white flint-ftones ; the mixture 
 is put in pots, and melted for five or fix hours in a furnace. 
 By this means, the matter is formed into a blue glafs, which 
 being put in cold water, cracks and grows tender, and is at 
 length powdered by an engine, the nneft part feparated by a 
 fieve, put into a mill, and ground in water, into a very fine 
 powder, which by waffling is ftill further feparated from the 
 coarfer, then dried in warm chambers, barrelled up, and 
 fent away. 
 
 SMARAGD, SMAPArAOS, a precious {tone of a green colour, 
 very beautiful, and brilliant, called alfo the emerald. 
 The oriental ftneragds are the molt in elteem, as being the 
 hardelt, and their fplendor the molt vigorous ; fo as even to 
 tinge the ambient air with their greennefs ; but thefe are very 
 rare. 
 
 Great virtues areafcribed to the fnaragd, or emerald i Car- 
 dan and others fay, it refifts plagues, poifons, and dyfente- 
 ries i that it refrefhes the fpirits, Slfc. See Supplement^ ar- 
 ticle Emerald. 
 
 SMECTYMNUUS, a term that made fome figure in the time 
 of the civil wars, and during the inter-regnum. — It was for- 
 med of the initial letters of the names of five eminent pref- 
 byterian minifters of that time, viz. Stephen Marftial, Ed- 
 mund Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen, and 
 William Spurftow, who, together, wrote a book againft e- 
 pifcopacy, in the year 1641 ; whence they and their retainers, 
 were called fmeclymnuans. 
 
 SMELL, odor, with regard to the organ, is an impreflion 
 made on the nofe, by little particles continually exhaling 
 from odorous bodies. 
 
 Smell, with regard to the object, is the figure and difpofi- 
 tion of odorous effluvia, which {ticking on the organ, ex- 
 cite the fenfe of fmelling. 
 
 Smell, with regard to the foul, is the perception of the im- 
 preffion of the object on the organ ; or the affection in the 
 lbul refulting therefrom. 
 
 The chy milts teach, that fulphur is the principle of all fusils, 
 and that thefe are more or lefs ftrong, as the fulphur in the 
 odorous body, is more or lefs dried and exalted. Sulphur, 
 they fay, is the foundation of odours, as fait is of favours, 
 and mercury of colours. 
 
 Smelly like tafte, confifts altogether in the arrangement, 
 compofition and figure of the parts ; as appears from the 
 following experiments of Mr. Boyle: 
 
 jQ. From a mixture of two bodies, each whereof is, of it- 
 fclf, void ofallyW/; a very urinous fmell may be drawn : this 
 is done by the grinding of quick-lime with fal-ammoniac. 
 • By the admixture of common water, which of itfelf is 
 
 void of fmell, or inodorous; another inodorous body may be 
 made to emit a very rank fmell. — Thus camphor difi'olved in 
 oil of vitriol, is inodorous ; yet mixed with water, it immedi- 
 ately exhales a very ftrong fmell. 
 
 5 0 . Compound bodies may emit fmells, which have no hini- 
 Vol. II. N'.CXLILI. 
 
 litude to the '/hells of the fimples they confift of. — Thus oil 
 of turpentine, mixt with a double quantity of oil of vitriol, 
 and diftilled ; after diftillation, there is no fmell but of ful- 
 phur ; and what is left behind in the retort, beine again ur- 
 ged by a more violent fire, yields a fmtll like oil of wax. 
 4 0 . Several fmelh are only to be drawn forth by motion, and 
 agitation. — Thus glafs, {tones, ttfe. which even when heat- 
 ed, yield no fmell, yet when rubbed and agitated in a pecu- 
 liar manner, emit a ftrong fntell ; particularly beech-wOod iit 
 turning, yields a kind of rofy fmell. 
 
 5 0 . A body that has a ftror.g fmell, by being mixt^d with an 
 inodorous one, may ceafe to have any fmell at all. — Thus if 
 aqua-fortis, not well dcphlegmated, be poured on fait of tar- 
 tar, till it ceafe to ferment ; the liquor, when evaporated, 
 willyield inodorous cryltals, much relembling nitre : yet thefej 
 when burnt, will yield a moft noifom fmell-. 
 6°. F"roin a mixture of two bodies, one whereof fmell; ex- 
 tremely ill, and the other not welt ; a very pleafant aroma- 
 tic odor may be gained, viz. by a mixture of aqua-fortis* 
 or fpirit of nitre, with an inflammable fpirit of wine. 
 9. Spirits of wine, by mixing with an almoft inodoroui 
 ody, may gain a very pleafant, aromatic fmell. — Thus in- 
 flammable fpirits of wine, and oil of Dantzic vitriol, mixed 
 in equal portions, then di?eftedj and at lalt diftilled, yield a 
 fpirit of a very fragrant fmell. 
 
 8°. A molt fragrant body may degenerate into a fcetid one, 
 without the admixture of any other body. — Thus, if the fpi- 
 rit, mentioned in the former experiment, be kept in a well- 
 clofed receiver, it will (boil acquire the ranknefs of garlic, 
 gp. From two bodies, "nt whereof is inodorous, and the 
 other fcetid ; a very pleafant fmell may aril'e, much refem- 
 bling mufk, viz. by putting pearls into fpirit of vitriol : for 
 when diiiolved, they yield a very agreeable fmell. 
 SMELLING, the act whereby weperceiveyW/j, or whereby 
 we become fenfible of odorous bodies, by means of certain 
 effluvia thereof, which ftriking on the olfactory organ, brifk- 
 ly enough to have their impulfe propagated to the brain, ex- 
 cite a fenfation in the foul. 
 
 The principal organs of fmelling, are the noftrils, and the 
 olfactory nerves ; the minute ramifications ot which latter 
 are distributed throughout the whole concave of the former *. 
 their defcriptions, fee under theirproper heads. 
 Smelling is performed by the odorous effluvia floating in the 
 air, being drawn into the noftrils, in infpiration, and ftruck 
 with fuch force againft the fibrills of the olfactory nerves, 
 which the figure of the nofe, and the fituation of the little 
 bones,' render oppofite thereto, as to ftiakc them, and give 
 them a vibratory motion ; which action being communicated 
 thence to the common fenfory, occafions an idea of a fweet, 
 or fcetid, or four, or an aromatic, or a putrified object, C5V, 
 The matter in animals, vegetables, fofflls, fsV. which chiefly 
 affects the fenfe of fmelling^ Boerhaave obferves, is that fub- 
 tile fubftance inherent in the oily parts thereof, called fpirit ; 
 for that when this is taken away frorti the moft fragrant bo- 
 dies, what remains, has fcarce any fmell at all ; but this 
 poured on the moft inodorous bodies, gives them a fragran- 
 cy. Injlit. cap. deOlfac. 
 
 Willis obferves, that brutes have, generally, the fenfe of 
 fmelling in much greater perfection than man ; as by this 
 alone, they diftinguifh the virtues and qualities of bodies 
 unknown before ; hunt out their food at a great diftance, 
 as hounds, and birds of prey j or hid among other fubftance:^ 
 as ducks, &c. 
 
 Man having other means of judging of his food, &c. did 
 not need fo much fagacity in his nofe : yet have we inftances 
 of a great deal, even in man.- — In the Hi/hire da Antilles, 
 we are allured, there are negroes who, by the fmelling alone, 
 can diftinguifh between the foot-fteps of a Frenchman and a 
 negro. 
 
 It is found that the lamina?, wherewith the upper-part of the 
 noftrils is fenced, and which ferve to receive the divarications 
 of the olfactory nerves, are always longer, and folded up to- 
 gether in greater number, as the animal h3s this fenfe more 
 accurate: the various windings and turnings of thefe lamina;, 
 detain and fetter the more of the odoriferous particles. 
 SMELTING, among mctallifts, the melting of a metal from 
 the ore, in a fmeltin* furnace ; in order to feparate the me- 
 tallic from the earthy and other parts. 
 
 Smelting, in propriety, is reftraincd to large works, wherein 
 ores from the mines are melted down and feparated. — In 
 fpeaking of works in a leffer way, we do not fay fmelting, 
 but melting:. 
 
 SMINTHEAN, Smintheus, 2min0etz, in antiquity, 
 an epithet piven to Apollo, from the Greek, a-pitBS-^ a rat. 
 There are two different accounts of the origin of this appel- 
 lation : the firft is, that in the city of Chryfa in Myfia, was ?. 
 prieft of Apolio, called Crinis, with whom that god being 
 offended, fent a herd of rats to fpoil all his lands. But Cn- 
 nis appeafing the deity, he came in perfon to his afliftance, 
 took up his lodgings with Crinis's fhepherd, told him who 
 he was, and tieltroyed all the rats with his arrows : in me- 
 mory whereof. Cr;nis built a temple to his deliverer, under 
 the name of Apollo Smintbeus. 
 
 11 Z Clemens 
 
S N E 
 
 S N U 
 
 Clemens Alexandrinus, in his exhortation to the Greeks, 
 gives us a different ftory : the Cretans, fays he, intending to 
 fend out a colony, consulted the oracle of Apollo as to the 
 place : the anfwer was, that they fhould fix their colony 
 where thofe born of the earth fhould oppose them. — Upon 
 their arrival in the Hellefpont, the rats, in the night-time, 
 gnawed afunder all the firings of their bows : this they 
 deemed an accoinplifhment of the oracle, and there built a 
 city called Smintha. 
 SMOKE, or Smo AK, fumus, a humid matter, exhaled in 
 form of vapour, by the action of heat, either external or 
 internal. 
 
 Smoke, Sir Ifaac Newton obferves, afcends in the chimney 
 by the impulfe of the air it floats in : for that air being ra- 
 rified by the fire underneath, has its fpecific gravity diminifhed ; 
 and thus, being determined to afcend itfelf, it carries up the 
 fmoke along with it.— The tail of a comet, that great author 
 takes alfo to afcend from the nucleus after the fame manner, 
 See Comet. 
 
 Smoke of fat unctuous woods, as fir, beech, CSV. makes what 
 we call lamp-black. 
 
 There are various inventions for preventing, and curing 
 fmoking chimneys ; as the seolipiles of Vitruvius, the venti- 
 ducts of Cardan, the wind-mills of Bernard, the capitals of 
 Serlio, the little drums of Paduanus, and feveral artifices of 
 de Lorme, &c. 
 
 In the Philofophical Tranfactions, we have the defcription of 
 an engine invented by Monfieur Dalefme, which confumes 
 the fmoke of all forts of wood, and that fo totally as the molt 
 curious eye cannot difcover it in the room, nor the niceft 
 rofe fmell it, though the fire be made in the middle of the 
 room. — It confifts of feveral iron hoops, four or five inches 
 in diameter, which ftiut into one another; and is placed on a 
 trevet. — A brand taken out of the fire /makes inftantly j but 
 ceafes as foon as returned. The moft fcetid things, as a coal 
 fteeped in cat's pifs, which ftinks abominably when taken 
 out of the fire, yet in it makes not the leaft ill fcent i no 
 more than red herrings broiled, &c. 
 
 Smoke farthings, were the pentecoftal or cuftomary oblations 
 offered by the inhabitants within any diocefs, when they 
 made their proceflions to the cathedral church ; which came 
 by degrees into an annual ftanding rent, called fmoke-far- 
 things. See Pentecostal, &c. 
 
 SMOOTHING plane. See the article Plane. 
 
 SMUGGLING, a cant term for the running of goods ; or 
 the clandeftine landing them without paying cuftom. Sec 
 Custom. 
 
 SMUT, a difeafe in corn, whereby the pulp or meal thereof 
 is damaged, and its natural tafte, colour, &c. altered. 
 The fmut is ufually afcribed by the hufbandmen to the ex- 
 cefiive ratnefs and ranknefs of the foil ; to the manuring the 
 land with rotten vegetables, as ftraw, hawm and fern; and 
 to the fowing fmutty feed. 
 
 Mr. Bradley makes no doubt to call the fmut a blight, and to 
 account for it on the fame principle as the Mights befalling 
 other plants, particularly fruit-trees, viz. from innumerable 
 infects, brought, or at leaft hatched by the eaftern winds, 
 which prey on and devour the native juices of the corn, and 
 poifon them with a mixture of their own. 
 An approved, method to prevent the fmut, the fame Mr. 
 Bradley gives us, as follows ■ the wheat, for feed, is to be 
 wafhed in three or four waters, ftirring it well round, and 
 with great force, each time, and Humming off all the light 
 wheat fwimming at top. This done, it is to be fteeped in a 
 liquor thus prepared : into a fuflkient quantity of water, put 
 as much fait, as, when ftirred about, will make an egg 
 fwim ; and to this add as much more fait ; ftir the whole 
 well, and to the brine, put two or three pound of alum 
 beaten fine. In this mixture, lay the wheat to fteep, at leaft, 
 thirty or forty hours. Take it out the night before it is to 
 be fown, and fift fome flacked lime on it ; this dries and fits 
 it for fowing. 
 
 Note, many fteep their wheat in brine, yet have plenty of 
 fmutty corn: thereafon is, that they do not either make their 
 brine ftrong enough, or do not let the wheat ftay long 
 enough therein. It is a common notion among them, that 
 Keeping it fo long, rots the grain ; but experience Ihews the 
 contrary. 
 
 -SNAKE root. See Serpentaria. 
 
 SNEEZING, Jler nutation, a convulfive motion of the muf- 
 cles of the breaft ufed in expiration ; wherein, after fuf- 
 pending the infpiration begun, the air is repelled from the 
 mouth and nofe with a momentary violence and noife. 
 The caufe, is an irritation of the upper membrane of the 
 nofe, which communicates with the intercoftal nerve by 
 means of the twigs that it detaches to it. 
 This irritation is performed either externally, by ftrong fmells, 
 as marjoram, rofes, csV. or by duft floating in the air, and 
 taken in by infpiration; or by ftiarp, pungent medicines, as 
 crefies and other fternutatories, which vcllicate the membrane 
 of the nofe ; or internally, by the acrimony of the lympha 
 
 or mucus, which naturally moiffens that membrane. 
 The matters caft forth in fneezing, come primarily from the 
 nofe and throat ; the pituitary membrane continuallyexuding 
 a mucus thither ; and, fecondarily, from the breaft, the tra- 
 chea, and the bronchia of the lungs. 
 
 F. Strada, in an exprefs treatife on fneezing, has difcovered 
 the original of the cuftom of faluting thofe who fnceze. He 
 fhews it to be a relick of paganifm ; though he owns it was 
 in ufe among the Jews as well as among the Romans.—- 
 From an epigram in the anthology, it appears, that among 
 the ancients, a perfon after fneezing, made a fhort prayer to 
 the gods ; as z<* rutf, Jupiter fave me. 
 JOW, nix, a meteor formed in the middle region of the air, 
 of a vapour raifed by the action of the fun or fubterraneous 
 fire; there congealed, its parts conftipated, its fpecifick gra- 
 vity increafed, and thus returned to the earth in form of 
 little white villi, or flakes. 
 
 The fnow we receive, may properly enough be afcribed to 
 the coldnefs of the atmofphere, through which it falls. When 
 the atmofphere is warm enough to diflblve the fnow before it 
 arrives at us, we call it rain: if it preferve itfelf undiflolved, 
 it makes what we call fnow. 
 
 Dr. Grew, in a difcourfe of the nature of fnow, obferves, 
 that many parts thereof are of a regular figure, for the moft 
 part fo many little rowels or ftars of fix points, and are per- 
 fect and tranfparent ice, as any we fee on a pond, Etf& Upon 
 each of thefe points are other collateral points, fet at the 
 fame angles, as the main points themfelves: among which 
 there are diversother irregular ones, which are chiefly broken 
 points, and fragments of the regular ones. Others alfo, by 
 various winds, feem to have been thawed, and froze again 
 into irregular clufters ; fo that it feems as if the whole body 
 of fnow were an infinite mafs of icicles irregularly figured. 
 ~A cloud of vapours being gathered into drops, the (aid 
 drops forthwith defcend ; upon which defcent, meeting 
 with a freezing air as they pals through a colder region, each 
 drop is immediately froze into an icicle, fhooting itfelf forth 
 into feveral points ; but thefe ltill continuing their defcent, 
 and meeting with fome intermitting gales of warmer air, or 
 in their continual waftage to and fro, touching upon each 
 other, fome of them are a little thawed, blunted, and again 
 froze into clufters, or intangled fo as to fall down in what 
 we call flakes. 
 
 The lightnefs of fnow, although it is firm ice, is owing to the 
 excefs of its furtace, in comparifon to the matter contained 
 under it ; as gold itfelf may be extended in furface, till it 
 will ride upon the leaft breath of air. 
 
 The ufes of fnow muft be very great, if all be true that Bar- 
 tholin has faid in its behalf, in an exprefs treatife, de nivis ufu 
 medico; he there fhews, that it fructifies the earth, (which, 
 indeed, is a very old and general opinion) and that it pre- 
 ferves from the plague, cures fevers, cholicks, tooth-aches, 
 fore eyes, and pieurifies f for which laft ufe, his countrymen 
 of Denmark ufually keep fnow-water gathered in March.) 
 He adds, that it contributes to the prolongation of life ; giv- 
 ing inftances of people in the Alpine mountains that live to 
 great ages : and to the preferving of dead bodies ; inftances 
 whereof, he gives in perfons buried under the fnow in paffing 
 the Alps, which have been found uncorrupted in the fum- 
 mer when the fnow is melted. 
 
 He obferves that in Norway, fnow-water is not only their 
 fole drink in the winter : but fnow even ferves for food j 
 people having been known to live feveral days, without an/ 
 other fuftenance. 
 
 Indeed the generality of the medicinal effects of fnow, are 
 not to be afcribed to any fpecific virtue in fnow ; but to other 
 caufes. It fructifies the ground, for inftance, by guarding 
 the corn or other vegetables, from the intenfer cold of the 
 air, efpecially from the cold, piercing winds. And it preferves 
 dead bodies, by conftipating and binding up the parts, and 
 thus preventing all fuch fermentations or internal conflicts of 
 their particles, as would produce putrefaction. 
 It is a popular error, that the firft fnow that falls in the year, 
 has particular virtues. In Italy, they cool their wines all 
 the Cummer with fnow-water. 
 
 Signior Sarotti, in the Philofophical Tranfactions, mentions 
 a red or bloody fnow, which fell on the mountains la Lan- 
 ghe, near Genoa, on St. Jofeph's day. — This fnow when 
 fqueezed, yielded a liquor of the fame red colour. 
 SNUFF, a preparation of tobacco, made by reducing it into 
 a powder, fit to be taken in at the nofe ; in order to purge 
 or clear the head of pituita. 
 
 Ordinarily, tobacco is the bafis of fnuff ; other matters be- 
 ing only added to give it a more agreeable fcent, He. The 
 kinds of fnuff, and their feveral names, arc infinite ; and 
 new ones are daily invented ; fo that it would be difficult, 
 not to Ciy impoflible, to give a detail of them. We 
 fhall only fay, that there are three principal forts ; the firft 
 granulated ; the fecund an impalpable powder ; and the 
 third the bran or coarfe part remaining after lifting the fe- 
 cond fort. 
 
 SOAP, 
 
soc 
 
 sod 
 
 SOAP, or Sopi, a kind of parts, fbmetimes hard and dry, 
 and fometimes foft and liquid ; much ufed in warning, and 
 whitening linens, and for various other purpofes, by the 
 dyers, perfumers, hatters, fullers, &e. 
 
 The principal foaps of our manufacture, are the foft, the 
 bard) and the ball foap. — The foft foap, again, is either' 
 white or green ; the procefs of making each kind, is as fol- 
 lows. 
 
 Green foft Soap. — The chief ingredients ufed in making this, 
 are lyes drawn from pot-afh and lime, boiled up with tal- 
 low and oil.— Firft, the lye and tallow are put into the cop- 
 per together, and when melted, the oil is put to it, and the 
 copper is made to boil ; then the fire is dampt or ftopt up, 
 while the ingredients lie in the copper to knit or incorpo- 
 rate ; which done, the copper is again fet on boiling, being 
 fed or filled with lyes as it boils, till there be a fufficient quan- 
 tity put therein : then it is boiled off with all convenient 
 fpeed, and put into cafks. 
 
 White foft Soap. — One fort of white foap is made after the 
 fame manner as green foft foap is, oil alone excepted, which 
 is not ufed in white. — The other fort of white foft foap, is 
 made from lyes of afhes of lime boiled up at twice with tallow. 
 Firft, a quantity of lyes and tallow are put into the copper 
 together, and kept boiling ; being fed with lyes as they boil, 
 until the whole grains, or is boiled enough ; then the lyes are 
 feparated or difcharged from the tallowifh part, which part 
 is removed into a tub, and the lyes thrown away : this is 
 called the firft half boil, — Then the copper is charged again 
 with frefh tallow and lyes, and the firft half boil is put out 
 of the tub into the copper a fecond time ; where it is kept 
 boiling with frefh lyes and tallow, till it comes to perfec- 
 tion. — It is then put out of the copper into the fame fort of 
 cafks as are ufed in green foft foap. 
 
 Hard So ap is made with lyes from afhes and tallow, and is 
 moft commonly boiled at twice : the firft, called the half- 
 boil, hath the fame operation ai the firft half-boil of foft 
 white foap. — Then the copper is charged with frefh lyes 
 again, and the firft half-boil put into it, where it is kept 
 boiling, and fed with lyes as it boils, till it grains, or is boiled 
 enough ; then the lye is difcharged from it, and the foap put 
 into a frame to cool and harden. 
 
 Note, there is no certain time for bringing off a boiling of 
 any of thefe forts of foap • it frequently takes up part of two 
 days. 
 
 Ball Soap, commonly ufed in the north, is made with lyes 
 from afhes and tallow.— The lyes are put into the copper, 
 and boiled till the watery part is quite gone, and there re- 
 mains nothing in the copper but a fort of faline matter (the 
 very ftrength or effence of the lye) to this the tallow is put, 
 and the copper is kept boiling and ftirring for above half an 
 hour, in which time the foap is made ; and then it is put 
 out of the copper into tubs or bafkets with fheets in them, 
 and immediately (whilft foft) made into balls.— Note, it re- 
 quires near twenty-four hours in this procefs to boil away 
 the watery part of the lye. 
 
 Soaps, both dry and foft, are of ufe in medicine : the foft 
 againft fevers ; to be applied by rubbing the foals of the pa- 
 tient's feet therewith : and the dry, diffolved with fpirit of 
 wine, in the cure of cold humours. — Befides its being ufed 
 in fuppofitories, and in the compofition of a kind of plaifter, 
 commonly called emplajl. de fapone. 
 SOAP-EARTH, Jleatites, a fmooth unctuous kind of earth, 
 alfo a faline matter found in the Levant, and ufed as a 
 foap. 
 
 The Levant foap-earth, Dr. Smith tells uss, i only had in 
 two places near Duraclea, fix leagues to the eaft of Smyrna. 
 It is, in effect, of itlclf, a fine alkaline fait, boiling and 
 (hooting up out of the earth. 
 
 It is gathered always before fun-rife, and in mornings when 
 there falls no dew ; fo that a ftock muft be laid up in the 
 fummer months, to ferve all the year. 
 In fome places, it comes up an inch or two above the fur face 
 of the ground : but the fun rifing on it, make* it fall again. 
 Every morning there returns a frefh crop. 
 For the foap earth called Jleatites, fee Supplement, article 
 Steatites. For the foap-earth of the Levant, he Sup- 
 plement, ar/j'J; Natrum. 
 SOC, or SoK, Soka, inlaw, denotes jurifdiction ; or a power 
 or privilege to adminifter juftice, and execute laws. 
 The word is alfo ufed for the fhire, circuit, or territory 
 wherein fuch power is exercifed by him endued with fuch 
 jurifdiction. 
 
 Hence alfo the law Latin foca, ufed for a feignory or Iord- 
 Ihip, infranchifed by the king, with liberty of holding a 
 court of his foe-men or focagtrs^ that is, his tenants whofe 
 tenure is hence called focage. 
 
 This kind of liberty ftill fubfifts in feveral parts of England, 
 under the name of fohe, or foken, — Skene defines fok to be 
 fecla de hominibus fids in curia fecundum confUetudintm rtgni. — 
 Brady makes mention of thefe liberties : foe, fac, tol, team, 
 infangthef and utfangthef. 
 
 In the laws of Henry I. foca is alfo ufed as fynonymous with 
 franchife, for a privileged place, refuge, a'fylum or fancfu- 
 ary, &c. From the Saxon, focn or focnt. 
 
 SOCAGE*, or Soccage, a tenure, by which men hel? 
 their lands on condition of ploughing thofe of their refpec- 
 tive lords, with their own ploughs, and doing other inferior 
 offices of hufbandry at their own charges; 
 
 * Bracton thus defcribes it : did poterit focagium a focca & irtJt 
 ttntntts lockhianiit, to quad deputati funt, ut videtur, tantum- 
 moio ad culturam, £jf quorum cujhdia t3" maritagia ad propirt- 
 qUiores parentis jure fnnguhiis pertinebunt, &:c. 
 
 This flavifh tenure was afterwards, by the rhuttial agree- 
 ment of lord and tenant, turned into the payment of a cer- 
 tain fum of money, which is hence called liberum focagium^ 
 free or common focage. Whereas the other was villanum 
 focagium, or bafe focage ; inafmuch as thofe who held lands 
 by this tenure, were not only bound to plough their lordg 
 lands, but took the oath of fealty to them, fiCkt villunt. 
 Socage was a tenure of that extent, that Littleton tells us\ 
 all the lands in England, which were not held by knight's- 
 fervice, were held in focage ; fo that it fecms the land was 
 divided between the two tenures, which, as they were of 
 different natures, fo the defcent of the land was in a different 
 manner. For the lands held in knight's-fervice, defcended to 
 the eldeft fon ; but thofe held in villano focagio, came equally 
 among all the fons. Yet if there was but one mefluage, the 
 cldeft fon was to have it ; but fo, as that he was to pay the 
 reft the value of their fhares of it; 
 
 Skene defines focage, a tenure of lands* whereby a man is 
 infeoffed freely, without wardfhip and marriage, paying to 
 his lord fome final! rents, &f>. which is called free focage, &Ci 
 Several divifions of focage we meet withal in law-writers, as 
 focage in eapite, &c. — But by ftat. 12. Car. II. it is ordain'd* 
 that all tenures from and after the 24th of February, 1645, 
 
 , fhall be adjudged and taken for ever, to be turned into free 
 and common focage. 
 
 SOCCUS, Sock, in antiquity, a kind of high fhoe, reaching 
 above the ankle, worn by the actors in the ancient drama, 
 in reprefenting of comic characters. 
 
 The foccus was much lower than the cothurnus ; and was 
 the diftinguifhing wear of the comedians ; as the cothurnus 
 was of the tragedians : hence foccus is frequently ufed for 
 comedy itfelf. Comedy, fays M. Feneion, muft talk in an 
 humbler ftile than tragedy j the fock is lower than the 
 bufkin. 
 
 SOCIETY, Societas, an affemblage, or union of feveral 
 perfonsin the fame place, for their mutual affiftance, fecurt- 
 ty, intereft, or entertainment* 
 
 Of focieties we have a great many kinds, diftinguifhed by 
 the different ends propofed by them : civil focieties, trading 
 focieties, religious focieties, literary focieties, Sec. 
 Society, in trade, is a contract or agreement between two 
 or more perfons, whereby they bind themfelves together for 
 a certain time, and agree to fhare equally in the profits or 
 loffes which fhall accrue in the affairs for which the fociety 
 or co-partnerfhip is contracted. . 
 We have feveral very confiderable focieties of this kind ; as 
 the Merchant Adventurers, the Turkey., Fair-India, Muf- 
 covy, Eaftland, Greenland, Spanifh, African, South-Sea 
 and Hudfon's Bay companies. The inftitutions, policies, 
 13 c. whereof, fee under the article Com pany. 
 By the Roman law, the focial contract needs no other fo- 
 lemnity, but the fole confentof parties, without any writing 
 at all : but among us, articles of co-partnerfhip are required.- 
 —There is no contract wherein probity is more required 
 than in fociety ; infomuch as the laws pronounce thofe null, 
 that are made contrary to equity, and with delign to 
 deceive. 
 
 The French diftinguifh three kinds of mercantile fociety ; 
 ordinary fociety, called alfo collective and general: fociety in 
 commendam or commandity .- and anonymous fociety, called alfo 
 momentary and inconnue. 
 
 The firft is, where leveral merchants act alike in the affairs 
 of the fociety, and do all under their collective names, which 
 are publick and known to every body. 
 
 Society in commendam, &c. is that between two perfons, 
 one of whom only puts his money into ftock, without do- 
 ing any other office of a co-partner ; the other, who is 
 called the complementary of the fociety, difpatching all the 
 bufinefs under his own name. — This fociety is very ufeful to 
 the ftate ; inafmuch as all kinds of perfons, even nobles and 
 men of the robe, may contract it ; and thus make their 
 money of fervice to the public : and thofe who have no 
 fortune of their own to trade withal, hereby find means of 
 eftablifhing themfelves in the world, and of making their 
 induftry and addrefs ferviceable. 
 
 Anonymous Society, is that, where all the members are em- 
 ployed, each particularly, in the common intereft, and eac'i 
 is accountable for profits, He. to the reft ; but without tne 
 publick's being informed thereof j fo that the feller has only 
 an action againit the particular buyer, no other name 
 appearing. 
 
 It is alfo called momentary, becaufe frequently made on parti- 
 cular occafions, and ccaling with them ; as in the making a 
 purchafe, the felling any commodity, titc. 
 Ol this they diii.iiguilh four kinds : fociety by participation^ 
 
 wh;ch 
 
S Q C 
 
 which is ufually formed by letters from one city to another, 
 where a merchandife is to be bought or fold. — The fecond is, 
 when two or three perfons go together to fairs to buy goods. 
 —The third, when two or three perfons agree to buy up the 
 whole of fome commodity, in any country ; to fell it again 
 at their own price. — And the fourth is, when three or four 
 perfons make a journey together, to buy and fell the fame 
 commodity. Befide merchants, people of quality, &c. are 
 admitted into thefe anonymous focieties. 
 Religious Societies, are parties of perfons formed, either to 
 live regularly together ; or to promote the intereft of religi- 
 on ; or to cultivate it in themfelves. 
 
 Of the firft kind, are all congregations of religious ; parti- 
 cularly the Jefuits, who are called the fociety of Jefus ; though 
 they more ufually call themfelves the company of Jefus. The 
 fociety of the Sorbonne.— The fociety of St. Thomas de V ll- 
 leneuve, inftitutcd in 1660, by F. Ange le Prouft.— The 
 fociety of St. Jofcph, inftitutcd in 163S. — The fociety ^ of 
 Bretagne, a reform of Benedict-ins in 1606.— And the fociety 
 of Jefus, a religious military order, inftituted by Pius II. 
 Of the fecond kind are, the 
 SociETy/ar reformation of manners, and putting in execution 
 the laws againft immorality and prophanenefs. — This was 
 fet on foot above forty years ago, by five or fix private per- 
 fons in London ; but is fince exceedingly increafed, by num- 
 bers of members of all denominations ; a particular body of 
 the raoft confiderable hereof, bear the expences of profecu- 
 tions, C3V. without any contribution from the reft : thefe 
 chiefly apply themfelves to the profecuting perfons for fwear- 
 ing, drunkennefs, and prophaning the fabbath. — Another 
 body of about 50 perfons, apply themfelves to the fuppreff- 
 ing lewdnefs ; and by them many hundred lewd houfes have 
 been actually fupprefTed. — A third body confifts of confta- 
 bles. — A fourth, of informers. 
 
 Befides thefe, are eight other regular, mixed bodies of houfe- 
 Jteepers, and officers, who infpect the behaviour of confta- 
 bles and other officers, affift in fearching diforderly houfes, 
 fcff. and in feizing offenders, and giving information. 
 There are feveral other focieties of this kind at Briftol, Can- 
 terbury, Nottingham, C5V. 
 Society for propagating the gofpel in foreign parts, was infti- 
 tuted by king VVilliam, in 1701, for fecuring a mainte- 
 nance for an orthodox clergy, and making other provifions 
 for the propagation of the gofpel in the plantations, colonies, 
 factories, &c. — To that end, he incorporated the archbifhops, 
 feveral bifhops, and other of the nobility, gentry and clergy, 
 to the number of 90, into a body, with privilege to purchafe 
 two thoufand pounds a year inheritance, and eitates for lives 
 or years, with other goods, to any value. 
 They meet yearly on the third Friday in February, to chufe 
 a prefident, vice-prcfident and other officers ; and the third 
 Friday in every month to tranfadt bufmefs, depute fit perfons 
 to take fubferiptions for the laid ufes ; and ot all monies fo 
 received, to give account to the lord chancellor, &c. — -They 
 have a ftand ing committee at the Chapter-houfe, to prepare 
 matters for the monthly meeting, which is held at St. Mar- 
 tin's library. 
 
 Society for propagating cbrifiian knowledge, was begun in 
 1699 by fome perfons of worth, &c. Its original defign 
 was to propagate religion in the plantations, to fecure the pi- 
 ous education of the poor at home, and to reclaim thofe that 
 err in the fundamentals of chriftianity. 
 In the year 1701, they had procured confiderable charities, 
 and had tranfmitted the fame to the plantations, in libraries, 
 bibles, catechifms, is'c. with a voluntary maintenance for 
 feveral minifters, to be employed in the plantations. — But the 
 fociety for propagating the gofpel in foreign parts, being then 
 inftituted, they were incorporated, by charter, into the 
 fame; and thus difcharged, as a particular _/I>f/riy, from the 
 further purfuit of that branch of their original defign : 
 whereupon they wholly turned themfelves to the other ; and 
 are now very confiderable, by great acceffions from among 
 the clergy and laity. 
 
 They meet weekly, to concert meafures for raifing charity 
 for the education of poor children, and fetting up fchools for 
 that purpofe ; as alfo for the more regular difpofal of pious 
 books and catechifms ; for inftruction of the ignorant, erro- 
 neous, tifc, — By the afiftance of members of other religious 
 focieties, they have procured fubferiptions for the education 
 of above three thoufand children, who are placed out in 
 fchools about London, and taught reading, writing, pfalmo- 
 dy, fsff — They have difperfed great numbers of books among 
 the poor, in the fleet, army, &c. and have procured feveral 
 to be tranflatcd into Welch and other foreign languages, and 
 difperfed accordingly. 
 
 Of the third kind, are divers religious focieties, very properly 
 fo called ; thefe were firft fet on foot in London about the 
 year 1678, by a few young men, who agreed to meet 
 weekly, for prayer, pfaimody and fpiritual conference. — They 
 are now increafed to forty diftinct bodies, who have fet up 
 publick prayers in many churches where they were not 
 before frequent, procured frequent adminiftrations of 
 she facrament j and maintain lectures on that fubject, 
 
 s o c 
 
 in one church or another almofl on every furtday- 
 evening. 
 
 Society of the cord. See the article Cord. 
 Royal Society. See the article Royal fociety, 
 SOCINIANS, a modern feet of antitrinitarians, who, in 
 thefe ages, have revived fome of the errors of Patdus Samo- 
 fatenus, Photinus and Arius ; whence they are alio occalio- 
 nally called Arians, Photinians, &c. though in many 
 refpects they are different from them all. 
 Fauftus Socinus, a gentleman of Sienna, from whom they 
 take their name, was not the firft author of the feet : he 
 himfelf affirms, in his letter to Martin Vodau, wrote in 
 1548, that he advances no dogma but what had been pub- 
 lifhed by others before him, even in Poland, before he 
 came to fettle there. The truth is, he may be rather faid 
 to have refined, by his fubtilties, on the notions that al- 
 ready prevailed there in his time, than to have invented a 
 new fy ftem. 
 
 In his life, wrote by a Polifh knight, we read, that he had 
 not applied himfelf to the ftudy of philofophy and divinity, 
 nor had iludied any thing but logick, till 35 years of age : 
 but had (pent the greateft part of his life at the court of the 
 great duke of Tufcany. Upon his retiring thence, he began 
 to think of religion ; and, prepofiefled as he was with the 
 writings of his uncle Lselius Socinus, he formed a fyftem 
 thereon. — Leelius had explained the firft words In the gofpel 
 of St. John, in principio erat fermo ; by thefe, in principia 
 evangelii erat fermo ; as if the beginning, there ipoke of, 
 were only the beginning of the gofpel. 
 This interpretation, never heard of in all antiquity, is fol- 
 lowed by Fauftus, in his comment on the fourteen firft verfes 
 of that gofpel.— He adds, that he who is called Word, had 
 not been from all eternity, nor even before the creation of 
 the world ; but that by W ord, muft be meant the man Jefus 
 Chriit, God born of the virgin, under the emperor Augultus. 
 But this is a paradox, which all his followers do not equally 
 come into. — However, they all deny, not only the divinity 
 of Jefus Chriit, but the exiftence of the Holy Ghoft, the 
 myitery of the incarnation, original fin, and grace. 
 Their fentiments arc explained at large, in their catechifm, 
 printed feveral times, under the title of Catecbefts eccleftarum 
 Polonicarum,unum Deumpatrem iliiufque filium unigenitumjina 
 cum fan£lo fpiritu ex facra fcriptura conftentium. 
 The Socinians are divided into feveral parties : fome of them 
 leave Socinus, as to what regards the worfhip offered to Jefus 
 Chrift ; not being able to conceive how divine worfhip mould 
 be given a mere man ; and fome in other points. 
 The herefy of the Socinians fpread 'exceedingly in Poland, 
 Lithuania, Tranfilvania, and the neighbouring places. Ra- 
 cow was their chief fchool ; and there all their firft books 
 were publifhed.— But they were exterminted out of Poland 
 in 1655 : fince which time they have chiefly fheltered in 
 Holland ; where, however, their publick meetings have been 
 prohibited : but they find means to conceal themfelves there 
 under the names of Arminians, and Anabaptifts. 
 
 SOCK. See the article Soccus. 
 
 SOCKET.— Ball and foeket. See the article Ball. 
 
 SOCLE*, or Zocle, in architecture, a flat, fquare mem- 
 ber under the bafes of pedcftals, of ftatues, vales, Etfc, which 
 it ferves as a foot, or ftand. 
 
 * The word is French, formed from the Italian zoccolo, or the 
 Latin foetus, the fhoe of the ancient comic actors. — Vitruvius 
 calls it quadra ; we frequently, plinth. 
 
 Continued Socle, is a kind of continued ftand, or pedeftal, 
 without either bafe, or cornice, ranging round the whole 
 building ; called by V\txuv'\m,flereobata, and by the French, 
 foubafjement. See Stereobata. 
 
 SOCOME, in our law-books, &c, a cuftom of grinding corn 
 at the lord's mill. 
 
 ' There is bond focome, where the tenants are bound to it ; and 
 love focome, where they do it freely, out of affection to the 
 lord. See Molta. 
 SOCRAT1C philofophy, the doctrines and opinions, with re- 
 gard to morality and religion, maintained, and taught by 
 Socrates. 
 
 By the character of Socrates, left us by the ancients, particu- 
 larly by his fcholar Plato, Lacrtius, ©V. he appears to have 
 been one of the belt, and the wifeft perfons in all the heathen 
 world. — To him is afcribed the firft introducing of moral 
 philofophy ; which is what is meant by that popular faying, 
 Socrates firfl called philofophy down from heaven to earth ; that 
 is, from the contemplation of the heavens and heavenly 
 bodies, he led men to confider themfelves, their own paffi- 
 ons, opinions, faculties, duties, actions, &c. 
 While young, be was exceedingly fond of natural know- 
 ledge, as he witnefies of himfelf in Plato : but in his 
 older age, he calt afide this part of philofophy as ob- 
 fcure, uncertain, impracticable, and even ufelefs and 
 impertinent ; and applied himfelf wholly to moral or active 
 philofophy. 
 
 It was he, firft, who when all the other philofophers boafted 
 they knew all things, owned, ineenuoufly, he knew nothing, 
 but this, that he knew nothing. Which Pyrrho, the father 
 
 4 , of 
 
S O I 
 
 of the fecptic philofophy, improved on, when he faid he 
 knew nothing ; not even this, that he knew nothing. Yet 
 in an anfwer of the oracle, it was pronounced ; Altyw tmmm 
 Z*'xfZT.x <re<p«r*i@-. That Socrates was the wifeft of all men. 
 He was accufed by Anytus, Melitus and Lycon, three per- 
 rons, whofe hatred he had incurred, by his fevere decla- 
 mations againft the poets, of which number the two firft 
 were, and the third an actor. His accufation was, that he 
 corrupted the Athenian youth, and broached new fuperfti- 
 tiens. He was condemned to drink cicuta by 281 votes, 
 as we are told by Quintilian. 
 
 After his death, his fellow-citizens repented to that degree) 
 ihat the gymnafia, courts of juftice, ts'c. were all fhut up: 
 Melitus was put to death, Anytus was baniihed, and a fta- 
 tue was erected to Socrates. 
 
 He wrote nothing himfelf ; yet almoft all the Grecian fects 
 of phtlofophers refer their origin to his difcjpline ; particu- 
 larly the Platonifts, Peripateticks, Academicks, Cyrenaicks, 
 Stoicks, &c. —But the greatcft part of his philofophy, we 
 have in the works of Plato. 
 
 SODALES Aiigiiftales. See the article Augustales. 
 
 SODDER, or Soder, ? c . . , \ Solder. 
 
 SODDER1NG, | Sec Ihc artlcles isoLDE K l K G. 
 
 SODOMY, the unTiatural crime of buggery ; thus called 
 from the city of Sodom, which was deftroyed by fire for the 
 fame. 
 
 The Levitical laws adjudged thofe guilty of this execrable 
 evil to death, Lev. xviii. 22, 23. xx. 15, 16 ; and the civil 
 law afligns the fame puniihment to it. Our laws alfo make 
 it felony. 
 
 SOFA, in the eaft, a kind of alcove, raifed half a foot above 
 the floor of a chamber, or other apartment ; and ufed as 
 the place of ft ate, where vifitbrs of diftinction are re- 
 ceived. 
 
 Among the Turks, the whole floor of their ftate-rooms is 
 covered with a kind of tapeftry, and on the window-fide Is 
 raifed a fofa or fopha, laid with a kind of matrafs, covered 
 with a carpet much richer than the other". — On this carpet 
 the Turks are feated, both men and women, like the taylurs 
 in England, crofs legged, leaning againft the wall which is 
 bolttered with velvet, fattin or other fluff, fuitable to the 
 icafon. Here they eat their meals ; only laying a fkin over 
 the carpet, to ferve as a table-cloth, and a round wooden 
 board over all, covered with plates, &c. 
 The ambafladors of trance flood out a long while, and re- 
 fufed to viiit the grand vizier, unlefs he would receive them 
 on the fofa ; at length he granted them the fofa* 
 SOFEE. See the article Sophi. 
 
 SOFF1TA*, Soffit, or Sofit, in architecture,. any tim- 
 ber cieling, formed of crofs beams, or flying cornices; the 
 fquare compartiments, or pannels whereof are inriched with 
 fculpture, painting or gilding. 
 * The word is Italian, and fignifies the fame with the Latin, 
 lacunar and Iaquear ; with this difference, that lacunar is ufed 
 for any cieling with fquare, hollow pannels, called lams ; 
 and Iaquear for compartiments interlaced with plat-bands, af- 
 ter the mar.ner of knots or laquei. 
 Such are thofe we fee in the bafilics and palaces of Italy, In 
 the apartments at Luxembourg, at Paris, £sV. — See Tab. 
 Archil, fig. 10. 
 
 Soffita, or Soffit, is alfo ufed for the under fide or face 
 of an architrave ; and more particularly for that of the 
 EOna or larmier, which the ancients called lacunar, the French 
 flafond, and we ufually the drip. 
 
 It is inriched with compartiments of rofes ; and in the Do 
 ric order has 18 drops, difpofed in three ranks, fix in each_ 
 placed to the right of the guttie, at the bottom of the try- 
 glyphs. 
 
 SOH, or Sophi. Sec the article Sophi. 
 
 SOFIT. See the article Soffit. 
 
 SOFT pulfe, "I C Pulse. 
 
 Soft roc, ^See the 2rticlcs< Roe. 
 
 Soft foaf, J CSoap. 
 
 SOFTENING, in painting, the mixing and diluting sf co- 
 lours with the brum or pencil. 
 To f aft en defigns in black and white, made with the pen, 
 GfV, fignifies to weaken the teint. 
 To fafien a portrait, according to Felibien, is to change 
 fome of the ftroaks, and give a greater degree of fweetnefs 
 and foftnefs to the air thereof, which before had fome thins 
 rough and harfh in it. 
 
 SOIL, Solum, in agriculture and gardening, denotes earth, 
 or ground, confidcred with regard to the quality of its mould 
 for the production and growth of vegetables. 
 Mr. Bradley reduces all foils to three heads or kinds, vi 
 Jand, learn, or mother-earth and clay. 
 
 Gravels and all the open foils, till we come at loam, are of 
 the fandy race ; and the binding earths, from loam down to 
 the ftifrnefs of chalk, may be ranged under the clay kind. 
 Loam or mother-earth, is the medium between the two, 
 Vol.. II. N°. 14.3. 
 
 SOL 
 
 and includes all the intermediate kinds. 
 Each of thefc foils tends alike to vegetation ; and each has 
 its falts proper thereto ; but in different proportions : a peck 
 of clay having twice ns much falts in it as the fame quantity 
 of loam ; and four times as much as fo much fand. 
 Now, it is found to be the falts or juices of the foil, not 
 the earth itfelf, that plants are fed and fubfifted by. For in 
 many experiments of vegetation, where plants of fifteen or 
 twenty pound weight have been produced, there has been xi<5 
 lenHble diminution of the earth. 
 
 Hence, at firft light, it might feem, that clay were the mod 
 proper, and land the leaft proper foil to promote the growth 
 of plants ; but this is contrary to experience. The reafon is, 
 that the parts of clay being clofe wrought together, do not 
 fo eafily give out their falts ; nor can the tender fibres of 
 many plants make their way through it, in fearch of their 
 food. But if its parts be well opened, by digging and break- 
 ing it into very fmall pieces, and thofe parts be kept open 
 by a mixture of fome (harp fand, or other like matter, that 
 author adds, we (hall fee the effects of its vigour. Sand, on 
 the other hand, giving its falts readily, puts forth its plants 
 very early, arid will make them germinate a full month 
 fooner than clay ; but as it is bafty, it is fogti fpent. The 
 fun's warmth calls up all its falts early in the fpring, and 
 there is but little left for them to fubfift long on, if the heat 
 continue. 
 
 Each of thefe kinds has its peculiar plants, which will not 
 grow in the other; hut the peculiar plants of both the other 
 two will grow in loain, as partaking equally of the qualities 
 of both. Loam, then, muff, be allowed the beft and moft be- 
 neficial foil, where it can be had : and where it cannot, if, by 
 a mixture of other earths, we can make a compoft to refem- 
 ble it ; we have more to expect; from it, efpecially in planta- 
 tions of durable trees, than from a compofition of dung or o- 
 ther forcing ingredients, which, like excefs of high intem- 
 perate foods and liquors, though they give a hafly growth, 
 yet make the thing fhort-lived. The compofition or foil 
 here meant, is equal quantities of fand and clay well mixed. 
 Generally, a mixture of two or three foils, is better than any 
 fimple/si/, efpecially where the hot 2nd dry are mixed with 
 the cold and moift. Clay laid on fand or gravel, or fand on 
 clay, is the beft manure. 
 
 But it is not the nature of the foil alone ; but its depth is alfo 
 to be regarded, and what foil is underneath. For the beft 
 foil, if it be not above a foot deep, and lie on a ftiff clay, or 
 hard cold ftone, is not fo fertile as a leaner foil of greater 
 depth, or lying on a warm lime-ftone, fand, or gravel, 
 thiough which the fupeifluous moifture may defcend, and 
 not ftagnatc, as it will do on the clay or ftone, to chill the 
 roots of plants. Indeed, regard is to be alfo in this had ta 
 the cHmatc ; for even in England, cold, moift clays are more 
 fruitful in the fouth than the north. 
 Some general rules with refpect to foils, are as follow. 
 i°. All land that moulders to duft with froft, with all fort3 
 of warm lands, black mould, and yellow clay, (if not too 
 wet) and fuch as turns black after rain, are good for corn. 
 2 0 . Lands bringing forth large trees and weeds, black-thorn, 
 thiftle5, rank grafs, &c. generally prove fruitful. 
 3 0 . Straw-berries, betony, thyme, iffc. give indication to 
 wood, and camomile to a mould difpofed tor corn. 
 4 Q . All land that binds after froft and rain, and turns white 
 and full of worms, that is extremely moift, bears holly, yew, 
 box, broom, heath, mofs, &c. is of a cold temperature. 
 5 0 . Black, dun and yellow fand, and hot, ftony gravel, are 
 generally unfruitful. 
 
 SOIT fait com?ne il efl defire,hz it done as it is defired : a form 
 ufed when the king gives the royal affent to a private bill 
 preferred in parliament. 
 
 SOK, Soke, Soc, in ancient cuftoms. See So c. 
 
 The word is fometimes alfo ufed for the privilege of tenants 
 excufed from cuftomary impofitions. 
 
 Alfo, for a quit rent, or payment made to the lord by his 
 tenant, for acting in quality of foc-man or freeholder. See 
 Socage. 
 
 The rent-gatherer in the fok, or foken, was called fake- 
 reeve. 
 
 SOL, in mufie, the fifth note of the gammut : ut, re, mi, 
 fa, fol, la. 
 
 Sol*, or Sou, Jhilling, a French coin, of billon, i. e.of copper 
 with a little filver mixed ; equal to twelve deniers, or French 
 pence; and the 20th part of the livre, or pound. See 
 Shilling. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, fclidui, milling. Bodin, 
 is miftaken, when he derives it afolr, by reafon of the fun 
 (truck on it. 
 
 The French fol is now worth upwards of an Englifh half- 
 penny, or the 23d part of an Engliih fhilling. 
 The fol was firft ftruck on the foot of 12 deniers tournois, 
 whence it was alfo called douxa'tn, a name it ftill retains, 
 though its ancient value be changed ; the fol having been 
 II A a fince 
 
SOL 
 
 Sol 
 
 Pnoc augmented by three deniers, and ftruck with a pun- 
 cniori of a flower de lys, to make it current for 15 deniers. 
 —Soon after, the old fols, were coined over again, and both 
 1 old and new were indifferently made current for 1 5 deniers. — 
 In 1709, the value of the fame fob was raifed to 18 deniers. 
 
 Towards the latter end of the reign of Louts XIV . the 
 
 fob of 18 deniers were again lowered to 15, where they now 
 ftand. 
 
 The Dutch have alfo two kinds of fols : the one of filver, 
 called foh de gros, and likewifc fchtliing ; the other of cop- 
 per, called alfo the fluyver. 
 
 In old authors we read of gold fals, which were different at 
 different times. In the time of the Salic law, the gold fol 
 was forty deniers; and thus it continued till the time of 
 king Pepin, when it was reduced to t\\ elvc.— Some have 
 alfo imagined, that the French had anciently filver 
 Sol, inaftrology, isfc. fignifies the fun.— Sol in aries, &c See 
 Sun. 
 
 Sol, fun, inchymiftry, is gold ; thus called from an opinion, 
 that this metal is, in a particular manner, under the influ- 
 ence of that luminary. 
 
 What fhould have been the principal inducement of tor- 
 turing this metal, with fo much violence, to obtain from 
 it fame medicinal virtues, Dr. Quincy ohferves, is not eafy 
 to be gueffed ; unlefs it was to keep up the authority of an 
 ill- defer ved regard, and a jealoufy, that they could not be 
 well in the common opinion as phyficians, who could not 
 do extraordinary things in their profeffion with a metal, 
 which had fuch a prodigious influence on other accounts. 
 Many, indeed, there have been, who have honeftly oppoied 
 this artifice ; but the contrary fide has a long time prevailed, 
 and that to fuch a degree, that this metal itfelf has not only 
 been transformed into all the fhapes imaginable for medicinal 
 purpofes; but even its name has been transferred to do honour 
 to, and enhance the price of many other worthlefs prepara- 
 tions, that bore any rei'tmblance to its fenftble qualities. 
 Hence many tinctures of a yellow colour, are prefently the 
 golden tincture of fomething or other. 
 
 Moff, indeed, acknowledge, that gold in fubftance, or re- 
 duced into the finalleft particles by the hammer, as in the 
 leaf-gold, is not digeftable in the ffomach, fo as to be tranf- 
 mittcd into the blood, and be of any efficacy there. But 
 there are n evert he lefs, many, who are confident of its do- 
 ing extraordinary matters, if reduced into a powder, by 
 amalgamation with mercury, and by evaporating the mer- 
 cury afterwards. 
 
 Zacutus Lufitamis, is one of the finartcft pleaders on this 
 fide the controversy, againft Mufa, Picus Mirandola and 
 Platerus ; who, befides many inftanccs of its efficacy, urges 
 the authority of Aviccn, Serapion, Geber and many of the 
 Arabian phyficians, with thofe of other countries, and of 
 later date. Quercetan, Schroder, Zwclfer and Etmuller, 
 with many other more modern, practical phyficians, have 
 fallen into the fame opinion. But which fide foever is in the 
 right, the prefent practice rejects all pretenfions to medicines 
 from it. 
 
 Sol, in the hermetical philofbphy fignifies fvljfcur. See Sul- 
 PHUB. 
 
 Sol, in heraldry, denotes or ; the golden colour in the arms 
 of fovereign princes. 
 
 SOLAR, fomething belonging to the fun. See Sun. 
 
 Thus we fay Solar fire, in contradiftinction to culinary fire. 
 
 Solar dvd month, ? ^ ^ articles 5 " ° N T H ' 
 
 Solar cym, S £ Cycle. 
 
 Solar telipfe, is a privation of the light of the fun, by the 
 interpufition of the opake body of the moon. See Eclipse. 
 
 Solar month, ~i f Month. 
 
 Solar rijing t V See the articles ■< Rising. 
 
 Solar fpols^ J LSpots. 
 
 Solar fyjlem, the order and difpofition of the feveral heaven- 
 ly bodies, which revolve round the fun as the centre of their 
 motion, VIZ, the planets, primary and flcundarv, and the 
 comets. — For a fchetnc of the folar fyflelk^ fee System. 
 
 The Solar jwr, conftfts of 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes; 
 in oppofition to the lunar year, which only conlilts of 354. 
 days. * 
 The filar year, is either tropical, or fulerial. 
 
 Solar tropical year, is the fpace of time, wherein the fun 
 returns again to the fame equinoctial or folftitial point ; 
 which is always equal to 365 days, 5 hours, and about 49 
 minutes. 
 
 Solar fiderial year, is the fpace wherein the fun comes back 
 to any particular, fixed liar; which is about 365 days, 8 
 hours and 9 minutes. 
 
 SOLDAN. Seethe article Sultan. 
 
 bOLDER*, Sodder, or Soder, a metallic or mineral 
 compohtion, ufed in foldering or joining together other me- 
 tals. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, fjttdure, of [he Latin 
 fo/u/are, to ftrengti'.en. 
 The different folders are made of gold, filver, copper, tin, 
 
 bifmuth, and lead; ufually obferving, that in the compofi- 
 tion, there be fome of the metal to be fddercd, mixed with 
 fomc higher and finer metals. 
 
 Goldfmiths ufually make four kinds of folder, viz. folder of 
 eight ; where, to feven parts of filver there is one of brafs or 
 copper. Solder of fix, where only a fixth part is copper. Sol- 
 der of four : and folder of three. — It is the mixture of cop- 
 per in the folder that makes raifed plate always come cheaper 
 than flat. 
 
 The folder ufed by plumbers, is made of two pounds of lead 
 to one of block-tin. Its goodnefs is tried by melting it, and 
 pouring the bignefs of a crown-piece on a table ; for, if good, 
 there will arife little, bright, mining ftars therein. 
 The folder for copper is made like th2t of the plumbers ; on- 
 ly, with copper and tin: and for very nice works, inftead 
 of tin, they fometimes ufe a quantity of filver. 
 Solder for tin, is made of two thirds of tin, and one of lead ; 
 but where the work is any thing delicate, as in organ-pipes, 
 where the juncture is fcarce difccrnible, it is made of one part 
 of bifmuth, and three parts of pewter. 
 
 The duke of Florence's nail, anciently fo much admired, as 
 being half iron and half gold, whereas thofe two metals 
 were deemed irreconcileable ; was joined by a kind of folder 
 made by Turncificr, an ingenious chymilt of Venice: the 
 fecrct whereof, was never difcovered till publifhed by Ta- 
 chenius. This folder is nothing but a little copper or Cyprus 
 vitriol put between the gold and the iron. For, naturally 
 the great acidity of the gold, reduces the iron into a fcoria 
 or ruft, when the two are applied immediately over one 
 another ; but this inconvenience is removed, by the inter- 
 pofition of a little copper, be it in the fmalleft quantity ima- 
 ginable. 
 
 SOLDERING, or Soddering, among mechanicks, the 
 joining and fattening together of two pieces of the fame 
 mctrd, or of two different metals, by the fufion and appli- 
 cation of fome metallic compofition on the extremities of 
 the metals to be joined. 
 
 Goldfmiths folder with gold, filver and brafs or coppermixed 
 together : plumbers with lead and tin. 
 
 Copper is ufually fldered with tin ; fometimes, according to 
 the work, with a mixture of copper and filver. — In the fol~ 
 der'tng of all thefe metals, they generally ufe borax in pow- 
 der, and fometimes rofin. 
 
 As to iron, it is fufficient that it be heated red-hot ; and the 
 two extremities, in this itate, be hammered together. — By 
 this means they become incorporated one with the other. 
 SOLDIER*, a military man, lifted to ferve a prince or 
 ftate, in confideration of a certain daily pay. 
 
 * The word is formed from the ttaliafl, jolaat?, and that from 
 the Latin, Jb/id./, or fittiai'a, of folldus, the folde, or pay : 
 though Bafcjuj&t chufes todeme it from the old Gauhfh foul- 
 doyer, a filaitr ; and Nicod troin fcL/mhis. 
 
 The juldter is he who takes pay ; the vaifal he who is oblig- 
 ed to ferve at his own cxpenccs ; the volunteer he who ferves 
 at his own expence, and of his own accord. 
 Du, Cange obferves, that the ancient foldiers were not to be 
 fhort of five foot and a halt ; and that this meafure was 
 called incoma or incotnma. 
 
 Band of Soldi ers. See the article Band. 
 
 SOLDURII, in.antiquity, a kind of military clients, or 
 retainers to the great men m Gaul, particularly in Aquitania ; 
 mentioned by Cxfar. 
 
 'Vhcfoldurii were people, who fhared all the good and ill 
 fortune of their patrons; to whom, if any difafter happen- 
 ed, they either underwent the very fame, or killed them- 
 felves : and Cxfar aflures us, that no one had ever been 
 known to rcfufe the alternative, Lib. Ill, de Bel. Gal. 
 Vcgeneie takes them to have been more than common foldi- 
 crs ; and even Gentlemen in penfion, or appointment. — A- 
 thenxus calls them trwaxdnr.a-x.t.tTt^ q, dying together, or 
 with their matters. 
 SOLECISM*, uOLoecismus, in grammar, a grofs impro- 
 priety in fpeech, contrary to the ufe of language, and the 
 rules of grammar, either in refpect of decleniion, conjuga- 
 tion, or (yntax. 
 
 * The word is Greek, o-ejoiwo-^©-, derived from the 5V. ; , a 
 people of Attica, who being tranl'planted to Cilicia, loft the 
 purity of theii ancient tongue, and became ridiculous to tLe 
 Athenians tor their improprieties therein. 
 
 An actor on the Roman theatre having made a wrong gef- 
 ture, the audience immediately cried out, he had committed 
 a foleeifm with his band. Ablanc. 
 
 Solecifms, on fome occafions, arc pardonable : impttralnm eff 
 a rationt ut peceare fuavitatis caufa liceret .- Vaugelas is fre- 
 quently repeating that of Quintilian ; aliud ejl Larine, aliud 
 grammatid loqui. — Balthafar Stolberg has a Latin treatile of 
 the folecifms and barbarifms falfely attributed to the New 
 Teftament, 
 
 SOLEIL. — Ombre de Sole il. See the article Omere. 
 SOLEMN, Solennis, fomething performed with much pomp, 
 
 ceremony and expence. — Thus we fay, fslmn feajls, fslernn 
 
 funerals, folemn games, &c 
 
 Solemn 
 
SOL 
 
 Solemn, in law, fignifies fcmetbiiig authentic, or that is 
 
 cloathed in all its formalities. 
 Solemn teflammt, in the civil law, is to be attended by fev'cn 
 
 pcrfons, and feal'ed with their feals. 
 Solemn marriage, is that performed in one's own parifh- 
 
 church, after publication of the bans, and in pretence of 
 
 witneffes. 
 
 Solemn- acceptance. See the article Acceptance. 
 SOLE-TENANT, in law, he or file, who holds lands 
 
 only in his or her own right, without any other perfon 
 
 joined. 
 
 E. gr. If a man and his wife hold lands for their lives, the 
 
 remainder to their fen ; here, the man dying, the lord fhall 
 
 not have heriot, becaufe he dies not fole-tcnant. 
 SOLEUS, in anatomy, a mufcle called alfo gajhocnemhis m- 
 
 tcrmts.—See Tab. Jnat. (Myol.) fig. i. n. b-j. fig. 2. n. 49. 
 
 fig. 6. v. 42. See alfo Gastrocnemius. 
 SOL-FA-ING, in mufick, the naming and pronouncing of 
 
 the feveral notes of a long, by the fyllables fol, fa, la, &c. 
 
 in learning to fihg it. 
 
 Of the feven notes in the fcale, at, re, hit, fa, fol, la, ft 
 8nljr four are in life among us, t m%. fa, fol, la, mi. Thei 
 office is principally in iinging : that by applying them to 
 every note of the fcale, it may not only be pronounced 
 more eafily ; but chiefly, that by ihem, the tones and femi- 
 ■ tones of the natural fcale, may be better marked out and 
 diftinguiihed. 
 
 This defign is obtained by the four fyllaMes, fol, Id, mi; 
 thus, from fa to fol fs a tone ; as alio from fol to la, and from 
 la to mi, without difhnguifhing the greater or leffer tone ; 
 but from la to fa, alfo from mi to fa, is a femi-tone. 
 If, then, thefe be applied in this order, fa, fol, la, fa, fol, 
 fa, mi, fa, &c. they exprefs the natural feries from c ; and 
 if that be to be repeated to a fecond or third odhve, we fee 
 by them how to exprefs all the different orders of tones and 
 femi-toues in the diatonic fcale; and frill above mi, will 
 ftand/fl, fol, la ; and below it, the fame rcverfed, la, fol, 
 fa ; and one mi is always difhnt from another by an octave; 
 Which cannot be kid of any of the reft, becaufe after mi 
 Sicending, comes always fa, fol, la, fa, which are repeated 
 invertedly, defcending. * 
 To conceive the ufe of this : it is to be remembered, that 
 the firft thing in teaching to fmg, is to make one raiie : 
 fcale of notes by tones and femi-tones to an oflave, and de- 
 scend again by the fame notes, and then to rife and fall by 
 greater intervals, at a leap, as a third, fourth, fifth, fefr, 
 And to do all this, by beginning at notes of different pitch. 
 —Then, thefe notes are reprefentcd by lines and fpaces, to 
 which thofe (yllables are applied, and the learner is taught to 
 name each line and fpace, by kr. icfpcctive fyllable ; which 
 makes what we call fol-fa-hg ; the ufe whereof is, that 
 while they are learning 10 tunc the degrees and intervals of 
 found, expreffed by riotes fct on lines and fpaces ; or learn- 
 ing a fong, to which no words are applied ; they may do it 
 the better, by means of an articulate found : but, chiefly, 
 that by knowing the degrees and intervals expreffed by thefe 
 fyilables, they may more readily know the true difhnce of 
 notes. 
 
 Mr. Malcolm obferves, that the practice of fol-fa-ing, com- 
 mon as it is, is very ufelefi and infisnifkant, either as to the 
 understanding or practiiing of rhuiic ; yet exceedingly per- 
 plexing ; the various applications of the fcVeral names, ac- 
 cording to the various iignatures of the clef, arc enough to 
 perplex any learner : there being no lets than 72 different 
 ways of applying the names fol, fa, biz. to the lines and 
 fpaces of a particular fvlrem. 
 SOLID, in phyficks, a body Wtofe minute parts are connect- 
 ed together, fu, as not to give way, or flip from each other 
 upon the fni2ilcft impreiilun. 
 
 The word is ufed in this fenle, in contr;:diftin£tion to fluid. 
 Atmofpheri o/Solid bodies. See Atmosphere." 
 For the laws of gravitation of SoLiDi immcrged in fluids 
 
 fpecilicaily either lighter or heavier than the folids ; fee 
 
 Gravity and Fluid. 
 To find the fpecinc gravity of Solids, and its ratio to that of 
 
 fluids ; lee SpECI:t: gravity. 
 For the laws of the rcfilbnce oJ'Solids movino- in fluids; fee 
 
 Resistance. 
 
 Solid, in geometry, is a mr.gn.'t-jdc endued with three di- 
 menfions ; or extended in length, breadth and depth. 
 Hence, as all bodies have thefe three dimenftons, and no- 
 thing hut bodies ; (odd and body arc frequently ufed indis- 
 criminately. 
 
 hfohd^ is terminated, or contused under one or more planes 
 or furfaces; as a ftirfacr is under one or more lines. See 
 Kent face and Line. 
 
 From the circumrtanocs of the terminating lines, folids be- 
 came divided into regular and ii regular. 
 R-gttlar Solium, are thofe terminated by regular and equal 
 planes. 
 
 Under this cJafs come the tetiucdron, hexae'dron or cube, 
 
 SOL 
 
 btlacdron, dodecacdron and icofiedroh. See Tetrae- 
 
 dron, Cube, £rV. 
 
 Irregular Solids, are all fuch as do not come under the defi- 
 nition of regular ones—Such are the fphere, cylinder, cone, 
 parallelogram, prifm, pyramid, parallel-piped, &c. 
 The gencfes, properties, ratio's, confiruchons, dimenfions, 
 ZsTc. of the federal folids, regular and irregular, fpherical, 
 elliptical, conical, tsc. fee under each refpi-aive article. 
 
 Mcafure of a Sol;d. See the article Measure. 
 
 Cubature, ot cubing of a Solid, is the meafuring of the fpace 
 comprehended under a folid, [. e. the folidity or folid con- 
 tent thereof. 
 
 Solid of the Icafl rejiflance. See Resistance. 
 
 Solid angle, is that formed by three or more plain angles 
 meeting in a point. See Angle.— Or more ftri£fh-,° a 
 folid angle, as B, (Tab. Geometry, fig. 30.) is the inclination 
 of more than two lines, A B, B C, B F, which concur in 
 the fame point B, and are in different planes. 
 Hence, for folid angles to be equal, it is neceffary thev be 
 contained under an equal number of equal planes, difpofed 
 in the fame manner. 
 
 And as folid angles are only diftinguifhable by the planes 
 under which they are contained; and as planes thus equal, 
 are only diflingiiifhable by comprefence, they are fsmilar ; 
 and cohfequcmly firriilar 'folid angles are equal, and vtce 
 verfa. 
 
 The fum of all the plain angles conflituting a folid angle, is 
 always lefs than 360 0 ; otherwife they would couftitute the 
 plane of a circle, and not a folid. 
 
 Like Sol. d figures. See the article Like. 
 
 Solid bajticn, ? c . . , r Bastion. 
 
 Solid place, * Scc the artlcIcs Uocus. 
 
 Solid foot. See the article Foot. 
 
 Solid numbers, are thofe which arife from the multiplica- 
 tion of a plain number, by any other whatfoever. 
 Thus 18 is a folid number made of 6 (which is plain) multi- 
 plied by 3 ; or of 9 multiplied by 2. 
 
 Solid problem, in matbematicks, is one which cannot he geo- 
 metrically folved, but by the interfeclion of a circle, and a 
 conic fc&ion ; or by the ihterlcclion of two other conic fee- 
 tions, befides the circle. 
 
 Thus, to defcribe an ifofceles triangle on a given right line; 
 whofe ahgle at the bafe, fhall be triple to that at the vertex ; 
 is a folid problem, refolved by the ir.terfectiori of a parabok 
 and a circle. 
 Solid theorem. See the article Theorem. 
 
 ^OLIDilY, in phyficks, a property of matter or body, 
 whereby it excludes every other body from that place which 
 itfelf poffefTes. 
 
 Solidity y in this fenfe, is a property common to all bodies; 
 whether folid or fluid.— It is ufually called impenetrability ; 
 but folidity expreffes it heft ; as carrying femewhat more'of 
 pofitive with it than the other, which is a negative idea. 
 The idea of folidity, Mr. Locke obferves, arifes from the 
 rehft.'iice we find one body make to the entrance of another 
 into its own place.— Solidity, he adds, feems the moft extcn- 
 five property of body ; as being that whereby we conceive it 
 to fill fpace : it is difthiguifhed from mere fpacc, by thu lat- 
 ter not being capable of refiftance or motion. 
 It is diftinguifhed from bardnefo, which is only a firm 
 cohefion of the folid parts, fo as they may not eafily change 
 their fituatinn. 
 
 '1 he difficulty of changing fituation, gives no more folidity 
 to the hard^lf body than to the fofteft ; nor is a diamond pro- 
 perly a jot more folid than water,— By this we diit:n£uifh 
 the itlea of the extenfion of body, from that of the extcn- 
 fion of fpacc : that of body, is the continuity or cohefion of 
 folid, feparabie, moveable' parts ; that of fpace, the conti- 
 nuity of unfolid, infcparable, immoveable parts. 
 'I he Cartefians, however, will, by all means, deduce foliditr, 
 or, as they call it, impenetrability, from the nature of ex- 
 tenfion ; they contend, that the idea of the former, is 
 contained in that of the latter ; and hence they argue againft 
 a vacuum. — Thus, fay they, one cubic foot of extenfion can- 
 not be added to another, without having two cubic feet of 
 extenfion ; for each has in itfelf, all that is required to con- 
 fiitute that magnitude. And hence they conclude, that eve- 
 ry part of fpace is folid, or impenetrable ; inafmuch as of its 
 own native it excludes all others. But the conclufion is falle, 
 and the initance they give follows from this, that the parts 
 of fpace are immoveable ; not from their being impenetrable 
 or folid. 
 
 Solidity, in geometry, the quantity of fpace contained in 
 a folid body ; called alio the folid content, and the cube 
 thereof. 
 
 The folidity of a cube, prifm, cylinder, or parallelepiped, is 
 had by multiplying its balls into its height. 
 The folidity ot a pyramid or cone, is had by multiplving ei- 
 ther the whole bale into a third part of the height; or the ' 
 5 whole 
 
SOL 
 
 SOL 
 
 whole height into a third part, of the bafc. 
 ■Is find the Solidity of any irregular bedy.—?ut the body in 
 a hollow parallelepiped, and pour water or (and upon it, 
 and note the height of the water or fand A B (Tab. Geome- 
 try, fig. -ri.) then, taking out the body, obferve at what 
 height" the water (or fand when levelled) ftands, as A G. 
 Subtract A C from A B ; the remainder will be B C. Thus 
 is the irregular body reduced to a parallelepiped, whofe bafe 
 is F C GTE ; and its altitude B C. To find the folidity 
 wheieof, fee Parallelepiped. 
 
 Supr-ole, e. gr. A B to be 8, and A C, 5 ; then wili B C be 
 3 : fuppofe again, D B, 12, D K, 4 ; then will the folidity 
 of the irregular body be found 144.. 
 
 If the body be fuch, as that it cannot he well laid in fuch 
 a kind of channel ; e, gr. if it be required to meafure the 
 folidity of a ftatue, as it ftands ; a quadrangular prifin or pa- 
 rallelepiped is to be framed over it : the reft as before. 
 
 To find the Solidity of a bellow body,— if the body be not 
 comprized in the number of regular bodies; its folidity is 
 found as in the preceding problem. If it be a parallelepiped, 
 prifm, cylinder, fphere, pyramid or cone ; the folidity, rirfr 
 of the whole body, including the cavity, then that of the 
 cavity, which is fuppofed to have the Came figure with the 
 hody itfelf, is tp be found, according to the refpective me- 
 thods delivered under the Parallelepiped, Prism, 6fc. 
 —For the latter being fubt ratted out of the former, the re- 
 mainder is the folidity of the hollow body required. 
 
 Solidity, in architecture, is applied both to the- confiftence 
 of the ground whereon the foundation of a building is laid ; 
 and to a mafs of mafonary, of extraordinary thicknefs, 
 without any cavity within. — The folidity of the Egyptian 
 pyramids is mconceivabje, 
 
 SOLIDS, in anatomy, &c, denote all the continuous, and 
 continent parts" of the body; thus called, in oppofition to 
 the jh'.ids or parts contained therein. 
 
 Of the fotid kind, are the bones, cartilages, ligaments, 
 membrane, fibres, mufcles, tendons, arteries, veins, nerves, 
 "lands, lympha-'ducts and lacteals. 
 
 Notwithstanding the great number and appearance of the 
 folids of the body ; we find from the microfcope, injections, 
 veficatorics, atrophies, Sff. that the fclid parts are exceed- 
 ingly /mail and inconfiderable, in companion of the fluids, 
 Nay, it is almoft demon Arable, from a confideration of the 
 rife and generation of the vefFels, and the rcfolution of the 
 greateft vefTels into their fmalleft conflituent ones, that the 
 whole mafs of folids in the body, coniifts merely of fibres, 
 as their common elements. 
 
 In effect, the whole mafs of fcl'ids as well as fluids, a minute 
 ft amen or animalcule only excepted, has arifen from a very 
 fubtile fluid colliquament, not unlike the nervous juice ; as 
 is (hewn by Malpighi, in his treatife de Ovo Ineubato. 
 The white of the egg never nourifhes, till, from its natural 
 thicknefs, it have been brought, by incubation, through in- 
 numerable degrees of fluidity, to become fubtile enough to 
 niter the minute velicles of the ftamen or feed. The firft, 
 foft, lender folids arifingfrom this fubtile humour pafs through 
 infinite, intermediate degrees, before they arrive at their ut- 
 moft folidity. 
 
 All the folids, therefore, in our bodies funlefs any one will 
 be fo nice as to except the firft ftamen) only differ from the 
 fluids, out of which they arife, by their reft, cohefion and 
 figure ; and a fluid particle will become fit to form a part of 
 a (olid, as foon as there is a force futfieient to effect its cohe- 
 fion with the other [olid parts. 
 SOLIDUS. See the article Aureus. 
 
 SOLILOQUY, Soliloquium, a reafoning or difcourfe, 
 which a man holds with himfelf. 
 
 Papias fays, that foliloquy is properly a difcourfe by way 
 of anfwer to a qucftion that a man has propofed to himfelf. 
 Solilcquies are become very common things on the modern 
 itage ; yet can nothing be more inartificial or more unnatu- 
 ral, than an actor's making long fpeeches to himfelf, to con- 
 vey his intentions, (s'c. to the audience. 
 Where fuch difcdveries are neceflary to be made, the poet 
 fhould rather take care to give the dramatic perfons fuch con- 
 fidants, as may neceiiarily fhare their inmoft thoughts ; by 
 which means, they will be more naturally conveyed to the 
 audience. — Yet is even this a fhift, an accurate poet would 
 not be found to have occafion for. 
 
 The uie and abufe of foliloquies, is well delivered by the duke 
 
 ®f Buckingham, in the following lines : 
 Soliloquies bad need be very few, 
 Extremely fliort, and fpoke in pajfion too. 
 Our lovers talking to themfelves, for want 
 Of others, make the pit their confidant ; 
 Nor is the ?natler mended yet, if thus 
 They truji a friend, only to tell it us.— 
 SOLIS via. See the article Via. 
 
 SOLITARY, Solitarius, fomething retired, or in private; 
 
 remote from the company, or commerce of others of the 
 
 fame ipecics. See Hermit. 
 Solitary column, is a column that ftands alone in any pub 
 
 Yxk place . as the Trajan column. 
 
 Solitary worm, Solium, tania, or lumlricus latus, is a 
 worm fometimes found in the interlines, and which is al- 
 ways the only one of the kind there ; as commencing from the 
 pylorus, and extending thence, the whole length of the in- 
 terlines ; fo that there is no room for another. See Supple- 
 ment, article Tjenia. 
 Solitaries, a denomination of the nuns of St. Peter 
 of Alcantara, inftituted in 1676, by cardinal Barbcrini, 
 when abbot of Notre dam de Farfa, in that city. 
 The defign of their inftkutc is to imitate the fevere, peni- 
 tent life of St. Peter of Alcantara ; to keep a continual li- 
 lence, never open their mouths to any body but themfelves ; 
 employ their time wholly in fpiritual exercifes, and leave the 
 temporal concerns to a number of maids, who have a parti- 
 cular fupcrior in a feparate part of the monaftery. — They al- 
 ways go bare-fooled, without fandals, gird themfelves with 
 a thick cord, and wear no linen. 
 SOLITAURILIA, in antiquity. See Suo vetaurili a. 
 SOLICITOR, or Sollicitor, Solicit at or, a per- 
 fon employed to follow, and take care of other perfons (hits 
 depending in courts of law, or equity ; formerly allowed 
 only to nobility, whofe menial fervants thev were ; but 
 now frequently ufed to others, to the great increafe of 
 champarty, and maintenance. 
 The king has a Solicitor general, who holds his office by- 
 patent, during the king's pleafure. — The attorney general, 
 and he, had anciently a right to their writs of fummons, to 
 fit in the lords houfe on fpecial occafions, till the 13 Car. II. 
 fince which time, they have almoft conftantly been cbofen 
 members of the houfe of commons. 
 
 The folicitor general has the care and concern of managing 
 the king's affairs, and hath fees for pleading, befides other 
 fees aiding by patents, C2V. He hath his attendance on the 
 privy council ; and the attorney general, and he, were 
 anciently reckoned among the officers of the exchequer : 
 they have audience, and come within the bar in all other 
 courts. 
 
 SOLICITATION .f ? See S Paracentric . 
 
 Solicitation of n-vity, 3 C 
 SOLSTICE, Solstitium, in aftronomy, the time when 
 . the fun is in one of the foljlitial points ; that is, when he is 
 at his grcatcft diftajicc from the xquator, which is 23 degree* 
 and a half : thus called, becaufe he then appears to /land jlill, 
 and not to chailge his place in the degrees of rhe zodiac, 
 any way : an appearance owing to the obliquity of our 
 fphere, and which thole who live under the equator are 
 ftrangers to. 
 
 The foljiices are two, in each year; the trflha I or fummer 
 Jloljlice, and the hycmnl or winter folfiice. 
 The fummer Solstice, is when the funis in the tropic of 
 cancer; which is on the 11th of June ; when he makes 
 the longeit day. 
 
 The winter Solstice, is when he enters the firft degree of 
 Capricorn; which is on the nth of December; when 
 he begins to return towards us, and makes the Ihortefk 
 day. 
 
 This is to be underft-ood, as in our northern hemifphere ; 
 for in the fouthern, the fun's entrance into Capricorn, 
 makes the fummer foljlice, and that into cancer, the winter 
 fol/Uce. 
 
 SOLSTITIAL points, are thofe points of the ecliptic, 
 whereby the fun's afcent above the equator, and his defcent 
 below it, are terminated. 
 
 The firft point, which is in the beginning of the firft degree 
 of cancer, is called the ajiival or fummer point ; and the 
 latter, which is in the beginning of the firft point of Capri- 
 corn, the winter point. See Solstice. — The foljlitial points 
 are diametrically oppofitc to each other. See Point. 
 Solstitial colure, is that which pafles through the foljlitial 
 
 points. See Colure. 
 SOLUBLE, in medicine, loefe, Qr apt to go to ftool. 
 
 In chymiftry it fignifies eafily diflolvible. 
 Soluble tartar, is a kind of fait chymically prepared, by 
 boiling eight ounces of cream of tartar, with four of fixed 
 fait of tartar. 
 
 SOLVENT, the fame with diffolvent. See Dissolvent. 
 SOLUTIO continui, or Solution of continuity, a term ufed 
 by phyficians, ts'c. to exprefi. a diforder common to the iblid 
 parts of the body, wherein their natural cohefion ii fcparated : 
 as by a wound or other caufe. 
 
 If this happen to a fimple, fimilar part of the body ; it is 
 called, fimply, folutio continui. — If to a compound, or orga- 
 nical part, it acquires a particular denomination, from the 
 nature of the part, the difference of the caufe, or the man- 
 ner of application ; as, a wound, rupture, fruclure, puntlure, 
 fijfure, cantufion, ulcer, eorrofion, dilaceration, exfoliation, 
 caries, &c. 
 
 SOLUTION, Solutio, in algebra and geometry, is 
 the anfwering of a queftion ; or refolving any problem 
 propofed. 
 
 The folution of the problem of the quadrature of the cir- 
 cle, and that of the duplicative of the cube, by right lines, 
 are held impoflible. 
 
 5 SOLU- 
 
SON 
 
 soo 
 
 Solution ef continuity, in chirurgery. See Sglutio con- 
 tinui. 
 
 Solution, in phyficks, the reduction of a folid, or firm bo- 
 dy, into a fluid ftate, by means of fome menftruum. See 
 Menstruum. 
 
 Solution is frequently confounded with what we other wife call 
 difjolution } but there is a difference. See Dissolution. 
 Solution, in chymiftry, is fome times ufed for the analyfis, 
 or reduction of a natural body into its chymical principles. 
 In this fenfc, folution is the fame with what we otherwife call 
 refolution. 
 
 SOLUTIVE, loofen'tng, or laxative. See Laxative. 
 Solutive diaprunum. See the article Diaprunum. 
 SOMNAMBULI*, or Somnambulones, an appellation 
 
 given to people, who walk in their fleep ; more ufually called 
 
 noclambuli, 
 
 * The w ord is formed from the Latin, fimnus, fleep, and ambu- 
 h, I walk. 
 
 SOMNIFEROUS. See the article Soporiferous. 
 SOMNOLENTUM coma. See the article Coma. 
 SON, a relative term, applied to a male child, confidered in 
 the relation he bears to his parents. 
 
 The children of the king of England, are called fans and 
 daughters of England. The eldeft fan is born duke of Corn- 
 wal, and created prince of Wales- The younger fans are 
 called cadets. 
 
 The king of France's children were anciently called fits, 
 and filles de France, fens and daughters of France ; and the 
 grand-children, petils fits, and petltes files de France. At 
 prefent, the daughters are called mes-dames, and the grand- 
 daughters, ines-demoifelles de France. 
 Natural Son, ( Spp . . J Bastard. 
 
 ON, } t 
 
 Adoptive don, ) c Adopt i ve. 
 
 Son of God) is a term ufed in various fenfes, in the holy fcrip- 
 ture, as, i°. For the Word, orftcond perfon in the blefied 
 trinity; who is thus called, with refpect to the manner of 
 his generation : as being begotten of the Father. 
 Him, the orthodox believe to be co-eternal, and co*cqual 
 with the Father ; and to have been with him, die eternal 
 principle and fource of the Holy Spirit. 
 The appellation Son, is applied to him, both before and af- 
 ter his incarnation- — Thus we fay, The Son of God created 
 the world ; the Son of God was incarnate, and lived 33 years 
 on earth, &c. 
 
 a 8 . Several creatures are alfo called Sons of God ; not as being 
 fo by nature and generation, but on divers other accounts.— 
 Thus the angels arc called fms of God by Job; in refpect of 
 their creation, adoption, c?V. And great men are called 
 fens of God in the Pialms ; as being his lieutenants ; or, the 
 depoiitaries of his authority. Good men, and particularly 
 the elect, are alfo called ftas of God, in various places of the 
 facrcd writings. 
 
 Son of man* v - frequently ufed in fripture, to fignify man ; as 
 exprefiing .iot only the nature of man, but his frailty. 
 The expreJnon is very ufual among the Hebrews and Chal- 
 deans : Daniel, Ezekiel, and jefus Chrift, are particularly 
 thus called ; the firft once, and the two latter frequently. 
 Sometimes, the phrafe fon of man, is alfo ufed for the wicked 
 and reprobate: in contradiftinction to thofe called fans of 
 God. 
 
 SONATA, Suonata, in mufic, a piece or compofition of 
 mafic, wholly executed by inftruments ; and which is with 
 regard to the feverai kinds of inftruments, what the cantata 
 is in refpect of voices. 
 
 The fsnata, then, is properly a grand, free, humorous com- 
 pofition, diverfified with a great variety of motions, and 
 expreffions, extraordinary and bold ftrokes, figures, iffc. 
 And all this purely according to the fancy of the compofer ; 
 who, without confining himfclf to any general rules of 
 counter-point, or to any fixed number or meafure, gives a 
 loofe to his genius, and runs from one mode, meal'ure, fcrV. 
 to another, as he thinks fit. 
 
 \V e have fonata's of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and even 8 parts ; 
 but ufually thev are performed by a ftngle violin, or with two 
 violins and a thorough bafs for the harpilcord, and frequent- 
 ly a more figured bals for the bafs-viol, C3Y. 
 There are a thoufand different fpecies of fonata's ; but the 
 Italians ufually reduce them to three kinds. 
 Suonate de chiefs, that is, fonata's proper for church-mufic, 
 which ufually begin with a grave, iblemn motion, fuitable 
 to the dignity and fancrity of the place and the fervice ; 
 after which they ftrike into a brifker, gayer and richer man- 
 ner. — Thefe arc what they more peculiarly call fonata's. 
 Suonate da camera, or fonata's for the chamber, are properly 
 ferics's of feverai little pieces, for dancing ; only compofed 
 to the fame tune. — They ufually begin with a prelude, or 
 little fonata, ferving as an introduction to all the reft : after- 
 wards come the allemand, pavane, courant, and other feri- 
 ous dances ; then jigs, gavots, minuets, chacons. pafTecailles 
 and other gayer airs : the whole compofed in the lame tone 
 or mode. 
 
 SONG, in poetry, a little compofition, confining of fimple, 
 Vol. 11. N u . 143. 
 
 tafy, natural verfes, fet to a tune, in order to be fung. 
 Each flanza of a fong, is called a couplet. 
 The fong bears a great deal of refemblance to the madrigal ; 
 and more to the ode, which is indeed ndthing but a fong ac- 
 cording to the ancient rules. 
 
 Its object is ufually either wine or love ; whence M. le Brun 
 defines a modern fong, to be either a foft and amorous, or a 
 brifk and bacchic thought, expreffed in a few words. 
 Indeed, this is to reftrain it to too narrow bounds ; for we 
 have devout fongs, fatyrical fangs, and panegyrical fongs. 
 But, be the Jong what it will, the verfes are to be eafv, na- 
 tural, and flowing, and are to contain a certain harmony, 
 which neither ftiocks the reafon nor the ear ; and which u- 
 nites poetry and mufic agreeably together. 
 Anciently, the only way of preferring Che memory of great 
 and noble actions, was, by recording them in fongs ; and in 
 America there are Hill people, who keep their whole hifto-y 
 in fongs. 
 
 Song, in mufic, is applied in the general, to any fingle piece 
 of mufic, whether contrived for a voice or inftrumcnt. 
 A fong, Mr. Malcolm obferves, may be compared to an ora- 
 tion : for, as in this latter, there is a fubject, viz. fome per- 
 fon or thing the difcourfe is referred to, and which is always 
 to be kept in view throughout the whole-, fo, in every truly 
 regular and melodious fong, there is one note which regu- 
 lates all the reft ; wherein the fong begins, and at laft ends, 
 and which is, as it were, the principal matter, or mufical 
 fubject, to be regarded in the whole courfe of the fong. — 
 And, as in the oration, there may be feverai diftinct parts, 
 which refer to particular fubjects, vet muff they have an evi- 
 dent connection with the principal fubject, v.hich regulates 
 the whole ; fo in melody, there may be feverai fub-principal 
 fubjects, to which the different parts of 'the fong .nay belong: 
 but thefe arc themfelves, under the influence of the princi- 
 pal fubject, and muft have a fenfible connexion with it.— 
 This principal or fundamental note, is called the key of the 
 f on g> 
 
 Refponfiry So N g . See the article Responsary. 
 SONNA*, a book of Mahometan traditions, wherein ail the 
 
 orthodox muffulmen are required to believe. See Mako- 
 
 metanism. 
 
 * The word Pgni/ics, in Arabic, the fame with mifita in the 
 Hebrew, that is, fecond ia<w, or, as the jews call it, oral 
 iaiv. 
 
 The adherents to the fonna are called fonr.ites ; and as among 
 the Jews, there is a feet of Caraites, who reject the tradi- 
 tions as fables invented by the rabbins ; there are alfo fectaries 
 among the Mahometans, called Shiites, who reject the tra- 
 ditions of the Sonnites, as being only founded on the autho- 
 rity of an apocryphal book, and not derived to them from 
 their legiflator. 
 
 There is the fame enmity between the Sonnites and Shiites, 
 as between the rabbinift Jews and the Caraites. The Shiites 
 reproach the Sbmitts with obtruding the dreams of their doc- 
 tors, for the word of God : and the Sonnites, in their turn, 
 treat the Shiites as hereticks, who refufe to admit the divine 
 precepts, and who have corrupted the Alcoran, &c. 
 SONNET, Sonetto, in poetry, a kind of compofition, pro- 
 perly contained in fourteen verfes, viz. two ftanza's or mca- 
 fures of four verfes each, and two of three ; the eight firft 
 verfes being all in two rhymes. 
 
 The fonnet is of Italian origin, and Petrarch is allowed to be 
 the father of it : it is held the moft difficult and artful 
 of all poetical compofitions ; as requiring the utmoit accu- 
 racy, and exadtnefs. It is to end with fome pretty, ingenious 
 thought: the clofe muft be particularly beautiful, or the 
 fonnet is naught. 
 
 In Malherb, and fome other French poets, we meet with 
 fonnets, where the two firft ftanza's are not in the fame 
 rhyme ; but they are held irregular ; and, in effect, great 
 part of the merit of thefe pieces, confifts in a fcrupulous ob- 
 fervation of the rules. 
 
 Ronfard, Malherb, Maynard and Gombaut, have compofed 
 abundance of fonnets ; but among two or three thoufand, 
 there are fcarce two or three worth much. 
 Pafquier obferves, that duBellai wj^ the firft who introduced 
 fonnets into FVance. But du Bellai himfclf fays, that Melin 
 de S. Gelais, firft converted the Italian fonnets into French. 
 SOOP. See the article Soup. 
 
 SOOT, an earthy, volatile matter, arifing from wood, coals, 
 and other fuel, along with the fmoak, by the action of fire; 
 or, rather, it is the fmoak itfelf, fixed and detained on the 
 fides of the chimney. 
 
 Soot is found an excellent manure for corn lands, efpeciaily 
 where the foil is cold. 
 
 The dyers make confiderable life of foot, for a kind of dun 
 colour; which it is true, has no agreeable fmell ; but in re- 
 turn it has tire property of faving cloaths and other ftuffsfrom 
 moths. 
 
 Soot of frankincenfe, is the fmalleft and fineft part of the in- 
 cenfe, called olibanum, or male tncenfe ; burnt after the man- 
 ner of rofin to make lamp-black. 
 
 II Bb Diofcorides 
 
SOP 
 
 Dio'fcorides flicws how to make zfoet of butter, which has 
 fevers! ufes in medicine.— The foot found in the furnaces or 
 giafs-houfes, is ufcd by painters. 
 S'OPE. See the article Soap. 
 
 SOPHI*, orSoFi, a title or quality given to the emperor of 
 Perfia; importing as much a's -wife, fage or philofopher. 
 
 * The title is by fome fjid to have taken its rife from a young 
 freplierd thus nami d, who attained to the crown of Perfia in 
 1370: others derive it from the fopboi or fages, anciently 
 called mAgi.- Voffius gives a different accoun; of the word : 
 Jopbi, in Arabic, he obierves, fignifics vml ; and he adds, that 
 
 it' was applied bv the Turks out of derilion to the kings 1 01 
 Perfia, ever li ne'e Ifhmael's time, bccaule according to their 
 fcheme of religion, he is to wear no other covering on h:s 
 head, but an ordinary, red, woollen fluff ; whence the Per- 
 KailS are alio called hztibrfbs, q. d. Wr.-But Eochart 
 Maes us, that mt, in the original Perfiati language, ligmnes 
 one that is pure in Ms religion, and who prefers the icryice of 
 Cod in all things ; and derives it from an order of religious, 
 called by the fame name. . 
 The fophi's value th'emfelves, and with fome reafon, on their 
 HIttftrious extraction ; the race being fecond to none in the 
 eaft. They are defcended in a right line from Houffein, fe- 
 cond fon of Ali, Mahomet's couhn, and Fathima Maho- 
 met's daughter. , 
 There is no prince in the world, whofe authority is more 
 abfolute than that of the fopbi of Perfia : his power is not 
 even limited by any laws he himfelf can make ; but he fuf- 
 pends, changes, and annuls them at pleafure. 
 Sop Hi's*, orSoFEEs, a kind of order of religious among the 
 Mahometans in Perfia, anfweringtowhat are othcrwile called 
 derrifes, and among the Arabs and Indians, faquirs. 
 
 * Some will have them called fof's, from a kind of co.irfe cam- 
 blet which they wear, called Sou}', from the city Souf in Sy- 
 ria, where it is principally manufactured. 
 
 The more eminent of thofe fopbi' s are complimented with 
 the title febeii, that is reverend ; much as in Romifh coun- 
 tries, religious are called reverend fathers. 
 Scheie Sophi, who laid the firft foundation of the grandeur 
 of the royal houfc of Perfia, was the founder, or rather 
 the reftorer of this order : Ifhmael, who conquered Perfia, 
 was, himfelf, a fopbi, and greatly valued himfelf on his being fo. 
 He chofe all the guards of his perfun from among the reli- 
 gious of this order ; and would have all the great lords of 
 his court fophi's. The king of Perfia is flill grand matter of 
 the order ,; and the lords continue to enter into it, though 
 it be now fallen under fome contempt. 
 
 The vulgar fophi's are now chiefly employed as ufhers, and 
 attendants of the court ; and fome even as executioners of 
 juftice ; the emperor laft reigning, would not allow them, 
 according to cultom, to gird the (word on him. 
 This neglect, into which the fophi's are funk, has occafion- 
 ed the late emperors to difufc the title of fopbi, or fofi : how- 
 ever, M. de la Croix is miftaken, when he fays, that they 
 never bore it. 
 
 SOPHISM, EOMSMA, in logic, a captious, and fallacious 
 reafoning ; or an argument, which with fome fubtilty, car- 
 ries much appearance of truth, but little folidity. See Fal- 
 lacy. 
 
 A fphifm is, properly, an argument falfe at bottom, and 
 only invented to amufe and embarrafs the perfon to whom it 
 is ufed. 
 
 Sophisms, or Sophistical arguments, among logicians, are 
 more particularly fuch as are not in form, or are founded on 
 equivocals. 
 
 As: You have every thing you have not hjl ; lut you have not 
 hji horns; therefore you have horns. 
 SOPHIST-, £0*ISTH£, a perfon who frames fophifms ; that 
 is, ufes fubtile arguments, with defign to deceive thofe he 
 would pcriuade or convince. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, <m<J>2^, wife ; or rather 
 fiom <ro<pi $■•■)<;, 'impoilor, deceiver. 
 
 The term fophijt, which is now reproachful, was anciently 
 honourable; and carried a very innocent idea. St. Auguftin 
 obierves, it fignilied a rhetor, or profeffor of eloquence: 
 fuch as were Lucian, Athenians, Libanius, t$c. 
 Suidas, and after him Olar. Celfius, in an exprefs diflerta- 
 tion on the Greek [oph'ijls, tells us, that the appellation was 
 applied indifferently to all who excelled in any art, or fcience ; 
 whether divines, lawyers, pbyficians, poets, orators, or mufi- 
 
 cians Hut this feems to be ftrctching the fenfe of the word 
 
 without all meafurc : it is poffible a rhetor might have made 
 verfes, tjfV, but that it was on account of his poetical talent, 
 that he was denominated fopbi/?, is what we fee no reafon to 
 apprehend. — However, Solon is the firft who appears to 
 have ever bore the appellation ; which is given him by 
 Ifocrates: afterwards, it was fcarce ever given, except to 
 rhilofophers, and declaimers. 
 
 The title fphijla was in great credit among the Latins in the 
 Xllth century, and in the time of St. Bernard ; but it began 
 ly lofe ground in Greece, as early as Plato's time ; on account 
 
 S O R 
 
 of Protagoras and Gorgias, who made a fordid traffic there- 
 of by felling eloquence for money. — Hence Seneca calls the 
 fphijls, quacks or empirics. , 
 Cicero fays, that the title fphijfa was in his time given to 
 fuch as profeffed phHofopby with too much oftentation, in 
 order to make a trade of it, by running from town to town, to 
 retail their deceitful fcience. -A fopbijt, therefore, was then, as 
 now, a rhetor, or logician, who makes it his bufinefs to en- 
 fnare and perplex people, by frivolous diftinctions, vain rea- 
 fonings and captious difcourfes. 
 
 Nothing has conduced more to the increafing of the number 
 of fophtfts, than the contentious fchool philofophy : people 
 are there taught to puzzle and obfeure the truth, by barba- 
 rous, unintelligible terms ; as antipredicaments, great and 
 little logicals, quiddities, &c. 
 
 The title fopbijts was given to Rabanus Maurus, by way of 
 eminence. — John Hinton, a modern Englifti fcholaftic 
 writer, endeavoured alfo to procure the fplendid title of 
 
 fopbiji. 
 
 SOPHISTICATION, in chymiftry, alchymy, &f>. a terra 
 particularly applied to the counterfeit works of fraudulent al- 
 chymifb, who ufe indirect means of whitening copper, gild- 
 ing filver, and giving other fuperficial tinctures to metals ; as 
 alfo of making augmentations, by divers mixtures, and other 
 illegal operations, to delude thofe, at whofe expence they are 
 employed. 
 
 Hence the term is alfo applied to merchandizes, and other 
 goods adulterated, mixed oraltered by the deceit of the feller. 
 Mufc, at prefent, is almoft all fophijVtcated, as well as Bezo- 
 . ar: balm of Gilead, is alfo ufually fo, and other valuable 
 drugs. — Canary wines are fopbijiicated on the place, before 
 ever they come near our ports. 
 SOPORIFIC*, or Soporiferous, a medicine that has the 
 faculty of procuring fleep. Such are opium, laudanum, Etfr. 
 • The word is formed irom the Lztin./op.r, Beep.— The Greeks 
 in lieu hereijf, ufe the word hypnotic, 
 SOPOROUS, flcepy, or drowfy dijeafes, are the coma or ca- 
 taphora, letharg) and carus, which rather appear to differ 
 in refpect of more or lefs, than as to their eilence. — In this 
 they all agree, that they induce a morbific fleep. — See Co- 
 ma, Carus, and Lethargy. 
 SORBON, or Sorbgnne, the houfe or college of the fa- 
 culty of theology, eftablifhed in the univcrfity of Paris. 
 It was founded in 1252, by St. Louis, or rather by Robert 
 de Sorbon his confeilor and almoner; firft, canon of Cam- 
 bray, and afterwards of the church of Paris ; who gave his 
 own name to it ; which he himfelf took from the village of 
 Sorbon, or Serbon, near Sens, where he was born. 
 The foundation was laid in 1250 ; queen Blanche, in the 
 abfence of her hufband, furnifhing him with a houfe which 
 had formerly been the palace of Julian the apoftate, whereof 
 fome remains are ftill feen. — Afterwards, the king gave him 
 all the houfes he had in the fame place, in exchange "for fome 
 others in another. 
 
 The college has been, fince, magnificently rebuilt by the 
 cardinal de Richelieu. The defign of its'inftitution, was 
 for the ufe of poor ftudents in divinity. 
 There are lodgings in it for 36 doctors, who are faid to he 
 of the jbdety of the Sor bonne. Thofe admitted into it without 
 being doctors, are faid to be of the hofpi tali ty of theSorbanne.- 
 Six regent doctors hold lectures every day, for an hour and 
 half each : three in the morning, and three in the afternoon. 
 Sorbon is alfo ufed in the general, for the whole faculty of the- 
 ology at Paris ; in regard the affemblies of the whole body 
 are held in the houfe of the Sorbon : and that the bachelors 
 of the other houfes of the faculty, as the houfe of Navarre, 
 iSc. come there to hold their forbonnique, or act, for being 
 admitted doctor in divinity. 
 SORCERY, the crime of witchcraft, or divination by the af- 
 fiffeuice of evil fpirits. 
 
 Some hold forcery to be properly what the ancients call 
 fortUcgium, or divination by means of fortes or lots. See 
 Sortes. 
 
 My lord Coke, 3d Infl.fol. 44, defcribes zforcerer, qui uti- 
 iur jortibus & incantationibus dtemonum. Sorcery is felony, by 
 flat. i° Jac. In the mirror, forcery is faid to be a branch of 
 herefy ; and by flat. 12. Car. II. it is excepted out of the ge- 
 neral pardons. 
 
 Sorcery is pretended to have been a thing formerly very com- 
 mon; at leaf! the credulity of thofe ages made it pafs for fuch j 
 and people fuffered frequently for it. In a more knowing 
 and lefs believing age, it is out of doors. 
 In effect, the molt probable opinion is, that the feveral glar- 
 ing inirances of forcery we meet withal, in our old law-books 
 and hiftorians, if well enquired into, would be found, at 
 bottom, no other than artful poifonings, and other villainous 
 tricks. 
 
 SORDID ulcers. See the article Ulcer. 
 SORITES*, sopeiths, in rhetoric, faff, a kind of argument, 
 wherein a number of proportions are gradually, and minutely 
 
 laid 
 
SOT 
 
 SOU 
 
 laid together ; and fomething inferred from the whole.— 
 Whence, Cicero calls it fyllogi fruits accrual us t an accumula- 
 tive fyllogifm. 
 
 * The word is formed fmm the Greek r*p^*, cumulus, heap. 
 Such was that merry argument of Themiftocles, to prove, 
 that his little fun, under ten years oldj governed the whole 
 world, — Thas : my fon governs his mother ; his mother me ; 
 I the Athenians ; the Athenians the Greeks ; Greece com- 
 mands Kurope ; Europe the whole world : therefore my fon 
 commands the whole world. 
 
 Tiiis method of difputing, prevailed much among the 
 froicks ; efpccially with Zeno, and Chryfippus. But it is 
 very captious, and fophiftical. 
 
 SORRANCES, among farriers, fignify two things, viz. ei- 
 ther an ill ftate or habit of a horfe's body, arifing from fome 
 part difeafed : or, a loofening and folution of the continuity 
 of the parts, which according to the various circumftances 
 thereof, acquires various names, as fracJure, wound, ulcer, 
 rupture, convidjhn, cramp, excoriation, &c. 
 
 SOR FES, in antiquity, lots ; a method of deciding dubious 
 cafes, where there appears no ground for a preference, by re- 
 ferring the decifion to chance : as in calling of dice, draw- 
 ing of tickets, &c. 
 
 The ancient fortes or lots, were inftituted by God himfelf ; 
 and in the books of the Old Teftament, we meet with di- 
 • vers ftanding and perpetual laws, and divers particular com- 
 mands, prefer ibing and regulating the ufe thereof. Thus the 
 fcripture informs us, that the lot fell on St. Matthias, when 
 a fucceffor to Judas in the apoftolate was to be chofen. Our 
 Saviour's garment itfelf, was cart lots for. Sort'iti funt 
 Cbrijli vejlem. 
 
 The Sortes Prawtflhra, were famous among the Greeks. 
 The method of thefe w-is to put a great number of letters, or 
 even whole words into an urn ; to fliake them together, and 
 throw them out ; and whatever mould chance to be made 
 out in the arrangement of the letters, 13 c. compofed the 
 anfwer of this oracle. 
 
 In what repute foever, this method of divination might, 
 anciently, have been, M. Dacier obferves, that in Cicero's 
 time its credit was but low ; infomuch that none but the 
 credulous populace had recourfe to it. 
 
 In lieu of this, another kind of fortes was introduced into 
 Greece and Italy, which was to take fome celebrated poet, 
 as Homer, or Euripides, or Virgil, to open the book, and 
 whatever firft prefented itfelf to the eye upon opening, was 
 taken for the ordinance of heaven. This made what they 
 called the fortes Homcrictv, and fortes P'irgiliana ; which 
 fucceeded to the ufe of the fortes Pr an, -/lines. 
 This fupeiftition paffed hence into chriftianity ; and the 
 CbrifHaiis took their fortes out of the books of the Old and 
 New Teftament. The firft paffage that prefented itfelf, upon 
 opening a book of fcripture, was cfttemcd the anfwer of 
 God himfelf. 
 
 If the firft partake did not happen to be any thing to the pur- 
 pofe for which the fortes were confulted, another book was 
 opened ; till a pafiage was met withal, that might be taken 
 for an anfwer. This was called fortes fantlorum. 
 St. Auguftin does not difapprove of this method of learning 
 futurity, provided it be not ufed for worldly purpefes ; and 
 owns he has pracfifed it himfelf. 
 
 Gregory of Tours adds, that the cuftom was, firft to lay the 
 Bible on the altar, and to pray the Lord, that he would dif- 
 cover by it what was to come to pals. 
 
 Inftances of the ufe of the fortes fantlorum are very frequent 
 in hiftory. Heraclius, Mr. Fieurv tells us, in his war againft 
 Cofroes, to learn where lie mould take up his winter-quar- 
 ters, purified his army for three days, and then opened the 
 gofpeis, and found the place appointed for his winter-quar- 
 ters, was in Albania. 
 
 Gilbert of Nugent, informs us, that in his time, that is, 
 about the beginning of the Xllth century, the cuftom was 
 at the confecration of bilhops, to confult die fortes fancJorurri, 
 to learn the fuccefs, fate, ts*c. of iheir epifcopate. 
 The practice is founded on a fuppolition, that God prefidcs 
 over the fortes, and on Prov. xvi. 33. The lot is cajl into the 
 lap ; but the difpofmg thereof is of the Lord. 
 In effeci, many divines hold, that the lot is conducted in a 
 particular manner by providence ; that it is an extraordinary 
 manner wherein God declares his will by a kind of imme- 
 diate revelation. — The fortes fantlorum, however, were con- 
 demned by the council of Agda in 506, at the time they 
 were beginning to take footing in France, Csfff. 
 SORTILEGE, Sortilecium, a kind of divination by 
 fortes, or lots. 
 
 SOFERIA*, in antiquity, facrifices offered to the gods, in 
 gratitude for their having delivered a peifon from danger. 
 See Sacrifice. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek. <r*rrp, faviour. 
 
 The term is alfo applied to poetical pieces compofed for the 
 fune end. Orpheus i* the firft, who appears to have com- 
 pofed fteria. 
 
 Our L*ti:i poets give the fame name u poems in Latin verfe, 
 
 wrote to give thanks to God or the faints, for having pre- 
 served them on any occafion : F. Petavius being delivered! 
 from a dangerous difeafe, by the interceJion, as he fuppofed, 
 of St. Genevieve, compofed that fine piece in honour of that 
 faint, frill extant under the title of foten'a. 
 SOU. See the article Sol. 
 
 SOVERAIGN, fup renie \ the chief and his;heft Being ; or 
 the Almighty : a term, in ftiidtnefs, only applicable to God. 
 The word is French foveruln, which Pafquier derives fur- 
 ther from the Latin, fupcrior, the firft in any thing, or he 
 who is fupcrior to the reft, — Hence, 
 
 In the ancient French cuftoms, we meet with foveraign maf- 
 ter of the houfliold ; foveraign mafter of the forefts ; foveraign 
 mafter of the treafury. — Under Charles VI. the title foveraign 
 was -given to bailiffs and fenefchals, with regard to their fu- 
 perionty over prevots, and chatelains. 
 Soveraign, with regard to fuLtjecti, is applied to kings, and 
 princes who arc fuprcme and independent, and hold of none 
 but God, and their fword. 
 
 The authurity of a foveraign is only bounded by the laws of 
 God, of Nature, and the fundamental laws of the ftate. 
 Soveraign is alio a title given to fuch as are inverted with 
 certain rights and pre:ogatiies, which belong only to fove~ 
 raigns ; as the power of coining nuncy, fending agents to 
 diets, to treat of wsr r.nd peace, &c. 
 
 In which fenfe, the f. udatorics of the empire, and the tri- 
 butaries of the grand f^igiiiar, are called feveraig us. 
 Soveraign is alfo applied to courts and judges, who have a 
 power from a prince, to decide the procefles of his fubjecls 
 without appeal, or in the 'aft refibrt. 
 
 At Paris there are fivt foveraign companies ; the parliament^ 
 the chamber of accompts, ti.'j court of aids, the grand coun- 
 cil, and the court of monies. 
 
 In England, we have but one foveraign court ; which is the 
 houfe of lords. 
 
 SOUL, anima, a fpirit adapted to an organized body. See 
 Spirit and Body; 
 
 Many of the ancient philofophers afferted an anima mundi, a 
 foul which moved and animated the machine of the uni- 
 verfe, and gave action to all natural caufes. This doctrine, 
 Plato handles Very fully in his Timsus. See Anima 
 MUNDI. 
 
 Others have given partIcular_/W,F to all the heavenly bodies, 
 
 the fun, rtars, earth, tsV. to regulate their motions. 
 
 The pbilofopbers, many of them, allow of two, utd others 
 
 of three kinds of fouls, vis. a 
 Rational Soul, which they hold to be divine, and infufed bv 
 
 the breath of God. 
 Irrational or fenfiiive Soul, which man has in common with 
 
 brutes, and which is formed out of the elements. 
 Vegetative Soul, which we have in common with plants ; and 
 
 which, as the firft is the principle of reafon and underftand- 
 
 ing, or that in us which thinks and underftands ; and the 
 
 fecond, the principle of life ; fo this third is the principle of 
 
 growth, nutrition and vegetation. 
 
 The Epicureans took the fubftance of the foul, we mean of 
 the rational foul, to be a fubtile air, compofed of their atoms, 
 or primitive corpufcles. See Atom. 
 
 The floicks held it to be a flame or portion of heavenly light. 
 Spinofa and his followers, allowing only of one kind of fub- 
 ftance, viz. matter, maintain the foul to be of the fame fub- 
 ftance with the body, viz, material. 
 
 The Cartefians make thinking the efi'ence of the foul ; and 
 from this principle, deduce its immateriality and immortali- 
 tv. — But the principle is falfe ; nor is there any need to define/ 
 the foul a fubftance that thinks, to prove it immortal. It is 
 enough, that the foul be capable of thinking; and that it 
 produce its own thoughts, without making thinking its ef- 
 fence, It is no more cfiential to the foul to think than to 
 will : for a thing I can conceive the foul without, cannot be 
 its effence. 
 
 Again, if thought be the eiTence of the foul; as a thing can- 
 not produce itfelf, its own being, or eflencei the foul does 
 not produce its own thoughts, nor its own will : and thus is 
 it brought to the condition of brutes, or even of inanimate 
 bodies, without any action, any liberty, csV. 
 If the Cartefians only mean this of the faculty of thinking ; 
 they do wrong even to call this the effence of the foul. It is 
 no more its efi'ence, than the faculty of willing is. And 
 we conceive fomething in the foul, prior to both thofe 
 faculties. 
 
 The foul is a fpiritual fubftance, proper to inform, or ani- 
 mate a human body, and by its union with this body, to 
 conftitute a reafonable animal, or man, .This is itseiicnce; 
 and this its definition. 
 
 It muft be owned, the Cartefians prove the fpirituallty and 
 immortality of tlie foul, from its thinking, exceedingly well : 
 but they are not to have the honour of this proof, as their 
 own invention. All the great philofophers ufed it before 
 them, and ufe it ftill. 
 
 The philofophers are not at all agreed, as to the manner where- 
 in the ful refides in the body. Some hold it equally diffufed 
 5 throughout 
 
so u 
 
 throughout every part thereof. And others fay it influen- 
 ces, and acts on every part of the body, though it has its 
 principal rcfidencc in fome particular part, called the fen- 
 
 f sr y- 
 
 This principal part, Des Cartes maintains, \% the pineal 
 gland of the brainy where all the nerves terminate, bee 
 Pineal gland. 
 
 Borri, a Milanefe phyfician, in a letter to Eartholine, 04 
 ertu cerebri & ufu medico, aiferts, that in the brain is found a 
 certain, very fubtils, fragrant juice, which is the principal 
 feat or refidence of the reaibnablc foul ; and adds, "that the 
 fubtilty and finenefs of the foul, depends on the temperature 
 01 rhis liquor, rather than on the ftructure of the brain, to 
 which it is ufually afcribed. This liquor, we conceive, muft 
 be the fame with what is ufually called the nervous juice, or 
 animal jpirits. The conftitution whereof, is, doubtlefs, of 
 great imp rtancc, with regard to the faculties of the foul. 
 Mr. Lscke Hninguifhes two principal faculties or powers of 
 the rational or human foul, viz. perception and willing. See 
 Power and Faculty. 
 
 Tothefe, other philofophcrs "add others; z$ fenfation, liberty, 
 
 memory, imagination, and habit. 
 
 The myrtle divines diltinguifh two principal parts in the 
 foul ; the fupcrior part, which comprehends the underftand- 
 "ing and the will ; and the inferior part, which comprehends 
 imagination and fenfation. Thus, fay they, Jefus Chrift was 
 happy on thecrofs in his upper part, and fuffered in his lower 
 part. The lower part did not communicate to the upper, 
 either its troubles, or its failings ; nor the upper to the lower, 
 its peace or beatitude. From this diftin&ion, the quietifts 
 take in band to maintain, that whatever patTes contrary to 
 good morals, in the lower part of the foul, is not contrary 
 to uie purity or the upper part, inafmuch as the will has no 
 lhare therein. 
 
 As to the foul of brutes, the Cartefians, and feme others, 
 deny its exigence, in the common fuife of the word foul ; 
 that is, they ftrip it of all the properties or faculties ot the 
 human foul: and the Feripatetieks, on the contrary, invert 
 it with the greateft part, if not all of them. 
 In man, a particular agitation of the fibres of the brain is 
 accompanied with a fenfation of heat ; and a certain flux of 
 animal fpirits towards the heart, and vifcera, is followed by 
 love or hatred. 
 
 Now the Peripateticks maintain, that brutes feel the fame 
 heat, and' the fame paffions, on the fame occafions : that 
 they have the' fame averfion for what incommodes them, 
 and, in the general, are capable of all the paffions, and all 
 the fenfations we feel. 
 
 The Cartefians deny they have any perceptions or notices at 
 all ; that they feel any pain or pleafure ; or love or hate any 
 thing. The ground of their opinion is, that they allow of 
 nothing in brutes, hut what is material, and that they deny 
 fenfations, and pafrions to be any properties of matter. 
 Some of the Peripateticks, on the other hand, maintain 
 matter, when fubtilizcd, framed, ranged and moved in a 
 certain manner, to he capable of fenfation and paifion; that 
 beafts may feel and perceive, by means of the animal fpirits, 
 which are a matter thus modified ; and that even the human 
 foul itfelf, only becomes capable of fenfation and paflion, by 
 means thereof. 
 
 But we muft own it very difficult, to reconcile the idea we 
 have of matter, witli that we have of thought; to conceive 
 that matter figured in any manner, whether in a fquare, a 
 fphere, or an oval, fhould be pleafure, pain, heat, colour or 
 tilltltj or to conceive that matter, however agitated, whe- 
 ther in a circle, a fpiral, parabola or ellipiis, fhould be love, 
 ba^ed or joy, — furpafVes our comprehenfion. 
 
 'he maintainors of the contrary opinion, urge that appear- 
 a; . ■■■ of feme, of fear, caution, love for their young, ad- 
 mii. Me fagacity, both for their own preservation and that of 
 thei; .pedes, vifible through the whole brute creation. And, 
 it is tr that all the actions of hearts plainly exprels an under- 
 ftandulg , for every thing that is regular, exprefles it ; even 
 a machine or watch exprefles it : and a planr much more ; 
 the radicle of the feed turning downwards, and the ftem up- 
 wards, whatever foliation the feed is fown in : the young 
 plant, knitting from fpace to fpace, to ftreiigthen it ; its put- 
 ting forth prickles, tSc. to defend it, tfc. mark a great un- 
 derstanding. All the motions of plants and brutes plainly 
 difcover an intelligence ; but the intelligence does not rcfide 
 in the matter thereof : it is as diftinct from the beaft or plant, 
 as that which ranged the wheels of the watch, is diftinct from 
 the watch itfelf. 
 
 For, in effect, this intelligence appears infinitely great, infi- 
 nitely wife, infinitely powerful ; and the fame which formed 
 us in cur mother's womb, which gave us our growth, i5c. 
 Thus, in brutes, there is not either underftanding or foul, in 
 the fenfe we generally ufe the word : they eat without plea- 
 fure, cry without pain, grow without knowing it. They 
 fear nothing; know nothing; and if they act in fuch man- 
 ner, as fhevvs underftanding ; it is becaufe God having made 
 them, to preferve them, has formed their bodies fo as to a- 
 void whatever might hurt them, mechanically. 
 Other wife, it might be laid, that there is more underiland- 
 
 SOU 
 
 ing in the vileft infect, nay, in the fmalleft grain, than in 
 
 the moft knowing of men ; for it is evident, either of them 
 
 contains more parts, and produces more regular motions and 
 
 actions, than we are capable of underftanding. Thus docs 
 
 the great F. Malebranche argue againft the fouls of brutes, 
 
 Recherche de la ver'ite, iiv. 6. 
 
 Cure u/Sol'LS, 7c JL i CCure.' 
 
 na- V j-e > bec the articles-' 
 
 Migration o/bouL5, S £ Migration. 
 
 Soul's cheat, a legacy anciently bequeathed at their deaths, by 
 
 our fcrupuloufiy pious anceftors, to the parifh prieft, to com- 
 
 penfate for any tithes that might have been forgot in their 
 
 lives. 
 
 SOUND, Sonus, a perception of the foul, communicated 
 by means of the ear ; or, the effect of a collifion of bodies, 
 and a tremulous motion confequent thereon, communicated 
 thence to the circumambient fluid, and propagated through 
 it to the organs of hearing. 
 
 To illuftrate the caufe of found ; we obfervc, firft, that a 
 motion is neceilary in the fonorous body, for the production 
 of found. Secondly, that this motion exifts, firft, in the 
 fmall and infenfible parts of the fonorous bodies, and is ex- 
 cited in them by their mutual collifion, and percuflion againft: 
 each other, which produces that tremulous motion fo obfer- 
 vable in bodies that have a clear founds as bells, mufical 
 chords, &£. Thirdly, that this motion is communicated to, 
 or produces a like motion in the air, or fuch parts of it, fes 
 are fit to receive and propagate it ; inafmuch as no motion 
 of bodies at a diftance, can affect our fenfes, without the 
 mediation of other bodies which receive thofe motions from 
 the fonorous body, and communicate them immediately to 
 the organ. Laftly, that this motion muft be communicated 
 to thofe parts that are the proper and immediate inrtrumcnts 
 of hearing. 
 
 Further, that motion of a fonorous body, which is the Im- 
 mediate caufe of found, may be owing to two different 
 caufes ; either the percuflion between it and other hard bo- 
 dies : as in drums, bells, chords, dfg, or the beating and 
 dafhing of the fonorous body ?;id the air, immediately 
 againft each other : as in wind inftruments, as in flutes, 
 trumpets, is'c. 
 
 But in both cafes, the motion, which is the confequence of 
 the mutual action, and the immediate caufe of the fonorous 
 motion which the air conveys to the ear, is an invifiblc, 
 tremulous or undulating motion in the fmall and infenfible 
 parts of the body. 
 
 To explain this ; all fenfiblc bodies arc fuppofed to confift 
 of a number ot fmall and infenfible parts or corpufcles, 
 which are of the fame nature in all bodies, and are per- 
 fectly hard and incompreflible. 
 
 Of thefe, are compofed others, fomewhat greater, but frill 
 infenfible ; and thefe different, according to the different 
 figures and union of their component parts. Thefe, again 4 
 conftitute other mafies bigger and more different than the 
 former ; and of the various combinations of thefe laft, are 
 thofe grofs bodies compofed, that are vifible, tangible, C5V. 
 The firft and fmalleft parts, we have obferved, are abfolutely 
 hard ; the others are compreflible, and are united in fuch 
 manner, that being comprefled by an external impulfe, they 
 have an elaltic or reftitutive power, whereby they reftorc 
 themfelves to their natural ftatc. 
 
 A fliock, then, being made by one body upon another, the 
 fmall particles, by their claftic principle, move to and again 
 with a very great velocity, in a tremulous, undulating man- 
 ner, fomewhat like the vifible motions of groffer fprings; as 
 we cafily obferve in the chords of mufical inftruments. And 
 this is what we may call the fonorous ?notion, which u propa- 
 gated to the ear : but obferve, that it is the infenfible motion 
 of thofe particles next the fmalleft, which is fuppofed to be 
 the immediate caufe ot found; and of thefe, only thofe next 
 the furface, communicate with the air : the motion of the 
 whole, or of the greater parts, being no further concerned, 
 than as they contribute to the other. 
 
 To apply this theory ; ftrike a bell with any hard body, and 
 you eafily perceive a fenfible tremor in the furface, fprcad- 
 ing itfelf over the whole ; and that more fenfibly, as the 
 fhock is greater. Upon touching it in any other part, the 
 motion and the found too, are ftopped. Now this is appa- 
 rently a motion of the fmall and infenfible parts, changing 
 their fituations, with refpect to one another, which being fo 
 many, and fo clofuly united, we cannot perceive their mo- 
 tions feparately and diftinctly ; hut only a trembling, which 
 we reckon to be the effect of the confufion of an infinite 
 number of little particles, clofelv joined, and only moving 
 in infinitely little lines. 
 
 Mr. Perrault adds, that the vifible motion of the parts, 
 contributes no otherwife to fund, than as it caufes the in- 
 vifible motion of the fmaller parts, which he calls parti- 
 cles, to diftinguifli them from the fenfible ones, which he 
 calls parts, and from the fmalleft of all, which we call cor- 
 pufcles. 
 
 1 his he fupports from the inftance of a chord, which being 
 {truck, and the found, and fenfible undulations at reftagain, 
 if you approach the chord foftly with the finger, you .will 
 find a fmall tremulous motion, which is the remains of the 
 
 vibrations 
 
 5 
 
sou 
 
 sou 
 
 vibrations of the whole chord, and the parts. Now the 
 parts vibrate without any found ; but no fooner is the vibra- 
 tion felt by the finger, than the found U heard again ; which 
 he afcrihes to this, that the motion of the parts being inef- 
 ficient to move the particles, whofe motion is the fir ft thai 
 ceafes, requires fume aftifiance from dafhing againft the fin- 
 ger, whereby to become enabled to give the particles the 
 motion neceffary for the producing of found. He finiflies 
 his proof, by the inffance of flutes ; which when made of 
 different matters, as wood, metal, (sc. whofe parts aie 
 very different, but their particles nearly the fame, if their 
 lengths and bores be the fame ; there is very little (feiifible 
 difference in their founds. 
 
 The fonorous body having made its impreflion on the conti- 
 guous air, that imprefficn is propagated from one particle to 
 another, according to the laws of pneumaticks. 
 A few particles, for inftancc, driven from the furface of the 
 body, drive their neighbouring particles intoa lefs fpace ; and 
 the medium, as it is thus rarified in one place, becomes con- 
 denfed in the other : but the air thus compreffed in the fe- 
 cond place, is, by its elafticity, returned back again, both 
 to its former place, and its former ftate ; and the air, conti- 
 guous to that, is compreffed : and the like obtains, when the 
 air lefs compreffed expanding itfelf, a new compreflion is ge- 
 nerated. From each agitation of the air, therefore, there 
 arifes a motion of the air, analogous to the motion of a wave 
 on the fur face of the water ; which we call a wave or undu- 
 lation of air. 
 
 In each wave, the particles go and return back again, 
 through very fhort, but equal ("paces ; the motion of each 
 particle is analogous to the motion of a vibrating pendulum, 
 while it performs two ofcillations ; and moft of the laws of the 
 pendulum, with very little alteration, are applicable thereto. 
 Sounds are as various, as are the means that concur to their 
 production. —The principal varieties refult from the figure, 
 conftitution, quantity, Csfc. of the fonorous body, the man- 
 ner of percuflion, with the velocity, (St, of the vibrations 
 confequent thereon ; the ffate and conftitution of the me- 
 dium ; the difpofition, diftance, (Sc. of the organ ; the ob- 
 ftacles between the organ and the fonorous object, and the 
 adjacent bodies. — The moft: notable diftinctions of founds, 
 ariflttg from the various degrees and combinations of the 
 conditions mentioned, are into loud and low (or ftrong and 
 weak) into grave and acute (or fharp and flat, or hieh and 
 Jow) and into long and fhort. The management whereof, 
 makes the office of mufic. 
 
 The velocity of found is the fame, with that of the aerial 
 ■waves ; and does not differ much, whether it go with the 
 wind or againft it. By the wind, indeed, a certain quantity 
 of air is carried from one place to another ; and the found is 
 accelerated, while its waves move through that part of the 
 2ir ? if their direction be the fame as that of the wind. But 
 as found moves vaftiy fwifter than wind, the acceleration it 
 will hereby receive, is inconftderable. In effect, the moft 
 violent winds we know of, have their celerity to that of 
 found, only as i to 33 -, and all the effect we can perceive 
 from" the wind, is, that it increafes and diminifhes the fpace 
 ^>f the wave:- ; fo that by help hereof the found may be heard 
 to a greater diftance than otherwife it would. 
 That the air a the ordinary medium of found, appears from 
 various experiments, in rarified and condenfed air. — In an 
 vi exhaufted receiver, a fmall bell may be heard fome dif- 
 tance; but when exhauftcd, it can fcarce be heard at the 
 fmalleft diftance. If the air be COndenfed, the found will be 
 louder proportionably to the condenlation, or quantity of air 
 croud?d in : of which we have many inftances in Mr. tfaukf- 
 bce's experiments ; and this does not only fucceed in forced 
 rarefactions, tsV. but in fuch alio, as are natural ; as is evi- 
 dent from Fredlicius's ftory of his journey to the top of 
 mourn. Carpates in Hungary. 
 
 But it is not the air alone, that is capable of the impre/fions 
 of found; but water alfo ; as is manifeft, by finking a bell 
 under water, the found of which may plainly enough be 
 heard, only not fo loud, and alfo a fourth deeper, record- 
 ing to good judges in mufical notes. And Merfenne fays, 
 a found made under water, is of the fame tone or note, as if 
 made in air, anJ heard under water. 
 
 The velocity of found is varioufly reported by various au- 
 thors. — Sir Jlaac Newton makes its" progrefs, in a fecond of 
 time, to be 0,68 feet ; the honourable Mr. Francis Roberts 
 2300 feet ; Mr. Boyle 1200 feet ; Dr. Walker 1338 feet ; 
 Merfenne 1474 feet ; Mr. Flamfteed and Dr. Ha'lley 1142 
 feet; the Florentine academy 1 148 feet; the royal academy 
 of Paris, 1172. The reafon of which variety, Mr. Derham 
 afcribes partly to fome of thofe gentlemen ufmg firings and 
 plummets inftead of regular pendulums ; and partly to there 
 not being diftance enough between the fonorous body and the 
 place of obfervation ; and partly, to there being no regard 
 had to the winds. 
 
 Some of the moft confiderable queries, relating to the laws 
 of funds, the fame author propofts ; and anfwers feveral cf 
 them accurately, from experiments made for that purpofe by 
 himfclf, as follows : 
 
 Vol. II. N^.CXLIV. 
 
 How far does a found move in a fecond of time ? — Sound 
 moves 1 142 feconds in a fecond, which is juft an Englifa 
 mile in 9 j; or 9.25 half feconds; two miles in 18 three 
 miles in 27 i, OVi 
 
 Does the report of a gun, difcharged with its mouth Awards 
 us, come fooner than when the muzzle is from the obler- 
 ver?— By repeated experiments, it appears, there is ho dif- 
 ference in the fund, from this different direction. 
 Do founds .move in the fame time, the fame fpaces, in all 
 ftates of the atmofphere, and heights of the barometer, by 
 day and by night, in Cummer and in winter, in fnowy anil 
 in clear weather, in this or that climate ?— By repeated ex- 
 periments, it does not appear there arifes any difference frftn 
 I any of. thefe different circumftances. 
 
 Do tfre winds affect the motion of founds? — By repeated ex- ' 
 . penmen ts, it appears, there is fome, though a very fmall 
 difference in the velocity of founds, with or againft the wind x 
 which is alfo augmented, or diminifhed, by the ftrehgth or 
 weaknefs of the wind. 
 
 Do a great and intenfe found, and a fmall or languid one, 
 move with the fame velocity ?— It appears that they do. 
 Docs the found of a gun move equally fwift at all elevations 
 of the gun ? — It does. 
 
 Do different quantities or ftrengths of gun-powder, occa- 
 flon any difference, as to the velocity of the found ? — 
 None. J 
 Docs found move in a right line, the neareft way ; or a 
 it fweep along the earth's fur face ? And is there an ■ 
 ference in the time, if the piece be difcharged in an _ 
 and a dcclive pofition ? — Sound moves the neare'; 
 and tjw velocity appears to be the fame in acclivities as In 
 declivities. 
 
 Have all kinds of founds, as thofe of guns, hells, the 
 fame velocity? And are founds equally fwift in the beginning 
 of their motion, and in the end? — There appears no ine- 
 quality in either of thefe refpects. 
 For the refietlion, refraction, feV. of Sound : fee Echo and 
 
 PHONICKS. 
 
 Articulate > Sounds. See rhe article Articul ate. 
 
 Sound, in mufic, denotes a quality in the federal agitations 
 of the air, confidered as their difpofition, meafure, (Sc. 
 may make mufic or harmony. See Music and Har- 
 mony. 
 
 Sound is the object of mufic ; which is nothing but the art of 
 applying _/flftffrfj, under fuch circumftances of tone and time, 
 as to raife agreeable fenfations. 
 
 The principal affection of found, whereby it becomes fitted 
 to have this end ; is that, whereby it is diftinguifhed into 
 acute , and grave. 
 
 This difference depends on the nature of the fonorous body; 
 the particular figure and quantity thereof; and even, id 
 fome cafes, on the part of the body where it is ftriick ; 
 and this is that which conftitutes what we call different 
 tones. 
 
 The caufe of this difference appears to be no other than the 
 different velocities of the vibrations of the founding boittY: 
 In effect, the tone of a found, is found, by abundance of 
 experiments, to depend on the nature of thofe vibrations, 
 whofe differences we can conceive no otherwife, than as 
 having different velocities : and fince it is proved, that the 
 finall vibrations of the fame chord, are all performed in 
 equal time ; and that the tone of a found, which continues 
 for fome time after the ftroak, is the fame from firft to laft : 
 it follows, that the tone is neceffariiy connected with a cer- 
 tain quantity of time in making each vibration, or each 
 wave ; or that a certain number of vibrations or waves, ac- 
 complished in a given time, conftitute a certain and deter- 
 minate tone.— From this principle, are all the phenomena 
 of tune deduced. 
 
 From the fame principle, arife what we call concords, &c. 
 which are nothing but the refults of frequent unions and 
 coincidences of the vibrations of two fonorous bodies, and 
 confequently of the waves and undulating motions of the 
 air, occafioned thereby. 
 
 On the contrary, the refult of lefs frequent coincidences of 
 thofe vibrations, is what we call a difcord. 
 Another confiderable diftinctiou of Sounds, with regard to 
 mufic, is, that, whereby they are denominated long and 
 Jhort ; not with regard to the fonorous body's retaining a 
 motion once received, a longer or a lefs time, though gra- 
 dually growing weaker ; but to the continuation of the im- 
 pulfe of the efficient caufe on the fonorous body, for a longer 
 or a fhorter time, as in the notes of a violin, &c. which are 
 made longer or fhorter, by ltrokes of different length or 
 quicknefs. 
 
 This continuity, is, properly, a fucceffion of feveral funds, 
 or the effect of feveral diftinct ftrokes, or repeated impulfes 
 on the fonorous body, fo quick, that we jud»e it one conti- 
 nued found ; dpeciallj if it be continued in the fame degree 
 of ftrcngth : and hence arifes the do&rine of meafure and 
 time. 
 
 Sounds, again, are diflinguifhed, with regard to mufic, into 
 Jtofband compound; and that two ways.— Jn die firft, a 
 11 Cc found 
 
sou 
 
 found is faid to be compound, when a number of fucceffive vi- 
 brations of the fonorous body and the air, come fo Fail: upon 
 the ear, that we judge them the fame continued found ; as 
 in the phenomenon of the circle of fire, caufed by putting 
 the fired end of a flick in a quick, circular motion : where, 
 fiippofing the end of the ftick in any point of the circle, 
 the idea we receive of it there, continues till the imprefiion 
 is renewed by a fudden return. 
 
 A fmple Sound, then, with regard to this compofition, fhoutd 
 be the effect of a Tingle vibration, or of fo many vibrations 
 as are neceffary to raife in us the idea of found. — In the 
 fecond fenfe of compofition, a fimple found is the product of 
 one voice, or one inftrument, Csff. _ 
 
 A compound Sou nd, confifts of the founds of feveral diftmct 
 voices or inftruments all united in the fame individual time 
 and meafure of duration, that is, all Unking the eartoge- 
 ther, whatever their other differences may be.— But in this 
 fenfe, again, there is a two-fold compofition i a natural and 
 an artificial one. 
 
 The natural compofition, is that proceeding from the mani- 
 fold reflexions of the firft found from adjacent bodies, where 
 the reflexions are not fo fudden, as to occafion echo's ; but 
 are all in the fame tune with the firft note. 
 The artificial compofition, which alone comes under the 
 mufician's province, is, that mixture of feveral founds, which 
 being made by art, the ingredient founds are feparable, and 
 diftinguifhable from one another.— In this fenfe, the diftinit 
 founds of feveral voices or inftruments, or feveral notes of the 
 fame inftrument, are Called fimple founds ; in contradiftinc- 
 tion to the compound ones, wherein, to anfwer the end ot 
 mufic, the fimples muft have fuch an agreement in all rela- 
 tions, chiefly as to acutenefs and gravity, as that the ear may 
 receive the mixture with pleafure. 
 Another diftincfion of Sounds, with regard to mufic, is that, 
 whereby they are faid to be fmooth and even, or rough and 
 harfh, alfo clear and boarfe ; the caufe of which differences, 
 depends on the difpofition and ftate of the fonorous body, 
 or the cirtumftances of the place : but the ideas of the dif- 
 ferences muft be fought from obfervation. 
 Smooth and rough founds depend, principally, on the founding 
 body ; of thefe we have a notable inftance in firings that 
 are uneven, and not of the fame dimenfion or conftitution 
 throughout. 
 
 M. Perrault, to account for roughnefs and fmoothnefs, main- 
 tains, there is no fuch thing as a fimple founds but that the 
 found of the fame chord or bell, is a compound of the founds 
 of the feveral parts of it ; fo that where the parts are ho- 
 mogeneous, and the dimenfions, or figure uniform, there is 
 always fuch a perfect mixture and union of all the founds, 
 as makes one uniform and fmooth found .- contrary conditi- 
 ons, produce harfhnds. In effect, a likenefs of parts and 
 figure, makes an uniformity of vibrations, whereby a great 
 number of fimilar and coincident motions confpire to fortify 
 and improve each other, and unite, for the more effectual 
 producing of the fame effect. 
 
 This account he confirms, from the phenomenon of a bell, 
 which differs in tone, according to the part it is ftruck in ; 
 and yet ftrike it any where, there is a motion over all the 
 parts. Hence, he confiders the bell as compofed of an infi- 
 nite number of rings, which, according to their different 
 dimenfions, have different tones; as chords of different 
 lengths have ; and when ftruck, the vibrations of the parts 
 immediately ftruck, fpecify the tone, being fupported by z 
 fuflicient number of confonant tones in other parts. This 
 muft be allowed, that every note of a ftringed inftrument, 
 is the effect of feveral fimple founds : for there is not only 
 the found refulting from the motion of the ftring ; but that 
 from the motion of the parts of the inftrument, which has 
 a confidcrable effect in the total found, as is evident from 
 hence, that the fame firing on different violins, founds very 
 differently. 
 
 But Perrault affirms the fame of every ftring in itfelf, and 
 without confidcring the inftrument. Every part of the 
 firing, he fays, has its particular vibrations, different from 
 the grofs and fenfible vibrations of the whole ; and thefe are 
 the caufes of different motions and founds in the particles, 
 which uniting, compofe the whole fund of the firing, and 
 make an uniform compofition, wherein the tone of the par- 
 ticular part ftruck, prevails ; and all the others mix under a 
 due fubordination with it, fo as to make the compofition 
 fmooth and agreeable. If the parts be unevenly, or irregu- 
 larly conftituted, the found is harfh ; which is the cafe in 
 what we call falfe firings, and various other bodies ; which, 
 lor this reafon, have no certain and diftinct tone, but a com- 
 pofition of feveral tones, which do not unite and mix, fo as 
 to have one predominant, to fpecify the total tone. 
 As to char and hoarfe founds, they depend on circumftances 
 that are accidental to the fonorous body: thus a vcice or 
 inftrument will be hollow and hoarfe, if raifed within an 
 tmpty hogfhead ; that yet is clear and bright out of it : the 
 effect is owing to the mixture of other and different founds, 
 railed by reflexion, which corrupt and change the fptsies of 
 the primitive founds, 
 #4 
 
 SOU 
 
 For fouidi to be fit to obtain the end of mufic, they oughS 
 to be fmooth and clear, elpecialiy the firft; fince without 
 this, they cannot have one certain and difcerniblc tone, ca- 
 pable of being compared to others, in a certain relation of 
 acutenefs, of which the ear may judge ; and of confequence 
 they can be no part of the object of mufic. 
 Upon the whole, then, with Mr. .Malcolm, we call that art 
 harmonic or mufical fund, which being cle.ir and even, is a- 
 greeable to the ear, and gives a certain and difcerniblc tune ; 
 (hence called tunable found) which is the fubjecf. of the whole 
 theory of harmony. 
 Harmonical Sound. See the article Ha^monical. 
 Sound, in geography, denotes a ftreight, or inlet of the fea, 
 
 between two capes or head-lands. 
 The Sound is ufed, by way of eminence, for that famous 
 ftreight, which joins the German fea to the .Baltic. 
 It is lituate between the ifland of Zealand and the coaft of 
 Schonen. It is about fixteen leagues long, and in general 
 five broad, excepting aeainft the caflle of Cronenberg, where 
 it is but one : fo that there is there no paffage for veffels, but 
 under the cannon of the fortrefs. 
 
 This has given occafion to the Danes to fettle a toll on all 
 veffels, which is faid to be one of the belt revenues of the 
 crown of Denmark ; and to forbid all pilots from palling 
 through the great and little belt, which are two other inlets 
 into the Baltic, though fomewhat lefs commodious than the 
 former. 
 
 All nations who traffic into this part of the North, are fub- 
 ject to this toll ; the Swedes, indeed, were exempted from 
 it by the treaty of 1644 ; but by the treaty of 1720, they 
 are excluded the privilege ; and put on the fame footing 
 with their neighbours. 
 
 By the treaty of Spire made between the Danes and Charles 
 V. the toll for this paffage was fixed at 2 rofe nobles for a 
 fhip of 2C0 tuns : yet in the year 1640 the fame was rilen 
 to upwards of 500 rix dollars. 
 
 The connivance of our K. James I. who had married a 
 daughter of Denmark, and the wars which the Hollanders 
 had been long engaged in for their liberty, furnifhed the 
 occafion for fo grievous an exaction. — Of late years the toll 
 has been again reduced to an eaficr footing. 
 Cromwell was bent on extorting this paffage from the 
 Danes ; and had, probably, effected it, but that ere the 
 fleet he fent for the purpofe arrived there, he died. 
 The origin and progrefs of this impofition (whic!- from an 
 eafy contribution voluntarily paid by merchants for main- 
 taining lights on certain places of the coaft, and whereof 
 the K. of Denmark was only treafurer or truftee, grew at 
 length to be a heavy burthen on trade, as well as a kind of 
 fervile acknowledgment of his fovereignty of thefe feas) is- 
 given in the account of Denmark, c, 3. p. II. feqq. 
 SOUND-BOARD, the principal part of an organ, and 
 that which makes the whole machine play. 
 The found-board or fummer, is a refervoir, Into which the 
 wind drawn in by the bellows, is conducted by a port- vent, 
 and hence diftributed into the pipes placed over the holes 
 of its upper part. This wind enters them by valves, which 
 open by preffing upon the ftops or keys, after drawing the 
 regifters, which prevent the air from going into any of the 
 other pipes, but thofe it is required in. 
 
 Organs, whofe longeff. blind pipes are four foot, have their 
 found-board from five to fix feet. Organs of 16 feet have 
 two found-boards, which communicate the wind from one to 
 the other, by a pewter port-vent. 
 SOUNDING, in navigation, the act of trying the depth 
 of the water, and the quality of the bottom, by a line and 
 plummet, or other artifice. 
 
 There are two kinds of lines occafionally ufed in founding the 
 fea ; the founding line and the deep fea line. See Dt e p fea line. 
 The Sounding line, is the tbickeft and fhorteft, as not ex- 
 ceeding 20 fathom in length ; and marked at two, three, 
 and four fathoms, with a piece of black leather between the 
 ftrands ; and at five, with a piece of white leather. 
 The founding line may be ufed when the fhip is under fail, 
 which the deep fea-line cannot. — The plummet is ufually in 
 form of a nine-pin, and weighs 18 pounds ; the end is fre- 
 quently greafed, to try whether the ground be fandy or 
 rocky, £sV. — Near banks, fhores, tsY. they ought to be 
 founding continually. 
 
 Dr. Hook has invented a manner of founding the depth of 
 the deepeft fea, without any line ; only by a wooden globe, 
 lighter than water, to which, at a little diftance is a piece 
 of lead or ftone fixed, by means of a fpringing wire in the 
 firft, fitted into a rtaple in the fecond. The whole being 
 let gently down, with the ftone or lead foremofi, as foon as 
 that arrives at the bottom, it will ftop ; but the ball, by the 
 impetus it has acquired in defcending, will be carried a little 
 lower after the weight is flopped ; by which means the 
 fpringing wire will be enabled to fly back, and dilingaging 
 itfelf, the globe will re-afcend.- — By obferving, then, the time 
 of the ball's ftay under water by a watch or pendulum, 
 and the help of fome tables, the depth of the fea is found. 
 In fome experiments made in the Thames with a maple 
 
 globe, 
 
SPA 
 
 SPA 
 
 globe, 5 f-f inches in diameter, and weighing 4 pound and 
 a half, lined with pitch ; and a conical weight 11 inches 
 long, the fharp end downwards; at the depth of 19 feet, 
 there pafled fixfeconds ; and at the depth of 10 feet 3 k fe- 
 conds between the immetfion and emerfion of the ball. 
 From thefe numbers given, the depths, at any other ftays, 
 may be computed by the rule of three. 
 SOUP*, or S00P, a kind of pottage made of bread, and 
 broth, or of the juice of flelh, or other matters j ufually 
 ferved at the beginning of a meal. 
 
 * The word is French, formed from the Italian, zufipa or Jap- 
 pa, of the Latin, fapa, wine boiled away to a third part. 
 Others derive it from the Celtic, foubtn, which fignifies the 
 fame. 
 
 Soup is efteemed efTential to a French dinner. Sometimes they 
 heighten the relifh by the addition of onions, or leeks, or 
 cabbage or turnips, tkc. 
 
 SOURCE. See the article Spring. 
 
 SOUTH direel dials. See the article Dial. 
 
 Sou t H fea company. See the article Company. 
 
 SOUTHERN hemifphire, t (Hemisphere. 
 
 Southern ocean, $ 1 Ocean. 
 
 Sou thern f ! £ ns - See the article Sign. 
 
 SOWING. See Semination and Sembrador. 
 
 SO VVNE, a term ufed in the exchequer ; feeming to be a cor- 
 ruption from the French fouvenu, remembred. 
 Such eftreats and cafualtiesas the fheriff by his induftry can- 
 not get or levy, are faid to be eftreats that fozvne not, that 
 is, are not to be remembred, or are not in demand. — On 
 the contrary, eftreats that fowne, are luch as he may gather. 
 
 SPA, a town in the bifhoprick of Liege in Germany, fa- 
 mous for its mineral waters. Thofe of the Pouhon fpring 
 in Spa are preferr'd, by our chief phyficians*, to any o- 
 thers in or near the country of Liege ; particularly to the 
 waters of Bru ; which they complain have been impofed on 
 the public, to their and their patients frequent difappoint- 
 ment. 
 
 * Broxholme, Burton, Hawys, Hollings, Lee, Mead, Pellet, 
 Robinfon, Shadwel, Sloane, Stuart, and Welt : who were 
 pleafcd to recommend Mr. Eyre, for his integrity, as a prop.-r 
 peri'on to be eticrufted with the patent granted him by the 
 prince and biihop of Liege, impowering him to imprefs his 
 fiighnefs's arms in glafs on the neck of each flafk, which he 
 fhouid fill with the true Pouhon water. See Supplement, arti- 
 cle Spa-Watek. 
 
 SP A AD, or Spalt, Spatum, a word ufed in feveral dif- 
 ferent fenfes ; fometimes, for a fpecies of Englifh fibrofe talc, 
 or of gypfum ; and fometimes for fpar. 
 
 The various kinds of fpaad are found pretty frequently in 
 England and G.ermany ; and fometimes brought from the 
 Levant : they are all foft, and eafily pulverized. 
 SPACE, Spatium, a fimple idea, the modes whereof, are 
 diftance, capacity, extenfion, duration, &c. 
 Spaa, considered barely in length between any two bodies, 
 is the fame idea which we have of diftance. 
 If it be confidered in length, breadth, and thicknefs, it is 
 properly called capacity. 
 
 When confidered between the extremities of matter, which 
 fills the capacity of /pace with fomething folid, tangible and 
 moveable, it is then called extenfion. 
 
 So that extension is an idea belonging to body only ; but 
 fpace, it is plain, may be confidered without it. 
 Space, therefore, hi the general fignification, is the fame 
 thing with diftance co.nfidered every way, whether there be 
 any folid matter in it, 01" not. 
 
 Ferent diftance ia a different modification of fpace ; 
 and each idea of any different Jpace, is a fimple mode of 
 this idea. Such are an inch, foot, yard, fife, which are the 
 ideas ol certain ftated lengths, vyhich men fettle in their 
 minds for the ufe, and by the cuftom of meafuring.— When 
 thefe ideas an: made familiar to mens thoughts, they can in 
 their minds repeat them as often as they will, without join- 
 ing to them the idea of body, and frame to themfelves the 
 idc:.s of feet, yafrda and fathoms, beyond the utmoft bounds 
 of all bodies ; and by adding thefe ftitl to one another, they 
 can enlarge their idea of fpace, as much as they pleafe. 
 From this power of repeating any idea of diftance, without 
 being ever able to come to an end, we come by the idea of 
 
 immenfity, 
 
 Anothei mode, or modification of fpace, is taken from the 
 relation of the parts of the termination of extenfion, or cir- 
 cumfcriJed jfyaet amongft themfelves ; and this is what we 
 call figure. — This, the touch difcovers in fenfible bodies, 
 whole extremities come within our reach ; and the eye 
 takes, bath from bodies and colours whofc boundaries are 
 within its view ; where, obferving how the extremities ter- 
 minate, cither in ftrcight lines, which meet at difcernible 
 angles ; or in crooked lines, wherein no angles can be per- 
 ceived ; by confidering thefe as they relate to one another in 
 all parts of the extremities of any body or fpace, it acquires 
 
 the idea we call figure ; which affords to the mir.J infinite 
 variety. 
 
 Another mode belonging to this head, is that of place. Our 
 idea of place is nothing but the relative pofition of any thing, 
 with reference to its diftance from fome fixed and certain 
 points : whence we fay, that a thing has, or has not changed 
 place, when its diftance either is, or is hot altered with re- 
 fpeft to thofe bodies* with which we have occafion to com- 
 pare it. That this ia fo, we may eafily gather from hence ; 
 that we can have no idea of the place of the univerfe : 
 though we can of all its parts. 
 
 Another mode of fpace, is the idea which we get from the 
 fleeting, and perpetually perilhing parts offucceffion, which 
 we call duration. The fimple modes of it are any different 
 lengths of it, whereof we have diftincl ideas, as hours, days, 
 years, f^f. time, and eternity. The idea of fucccilion is 
 got by rene&ing on that train of ideas, which ccnftantly fol- 
 low one another in our minds, as long as we are awake. 
 The diftance between any parts of this fucccflion is what we 
 call duration ; and the continuation of the exiffence of our- 
 lelves, or any thing elle commenfurate to the fucceiHon of 
 any ideas in our minds, is what we call our own duration, or 
 that of another thing co-exifting with our thinking. 
 A man having once got this idea of duration, can apply 
 it to things which exilt while he does not think : and thus 
 we meafure the time of our flcep, as well as that wherein 
 we are awake. 
 
 Space is ufually divided into dbfolute and relative. 
 
 Abjolutc Space, is that confidered in its own nature, without 
 regard to any thing external ; which always 1 remains the 
 fame, and is infinite and immoveable. 
 
 Relative Space, is that moveable dimenfion, or meafure of 
 the former, which otlr fenfes define by its pofitions to bo- 
 dies within it i and this the vulgar ufe for immoveable 
 fpace. 
 
 Relative in magnitude and figure," is always the fame, 
 
 with abfolute ; but it is not neceflary it fhouid be fo numeri- 
 cally ; as if you fuppofe a fhip to be, indeed, in abfolute 
 reft, then the places of all things within her, will be the 
 lame abfolutely and relatively, and nothing wiil change its 
 place: but, fuppofe the fhip under fail, or in motion, and 
 lhe will continually pafs through new parts of abfolute fpace : 
 but all things on board, confidered relatively, in refpefifc to 
 the fhip, may be, _ notwithstanding, in the fame places, or 
 have the fame iituauun and polition, in regard to one 
 another. 
 
 Proper and abfolute motion, is defined to be the application 
 of a body to different parts of aofolute, that is, ot infinite 
 and immoveable fpace. 
 
 The Cartefians, who make extenfion the effence of matter, 
 affert, that the fpace any body takes up, is the fame thing 
 with the body itfelf; and that there is no luch thing as mere 
 fpace, void of all matter, in the univerfe : but this fee dis- 
 proved under the article Vacuum. 
 Space, in geometry, denotes the area of any figure ; or that 
 which fills the interval or diftance between the lines that 
 terminate it. 
 
 The parabolic fpace, is that included in the whole parabola. 
 I he conchoidal fpace, and the cijfoidal fpace, are what a r e m J 
 eluded within the cavities of the conchoid and ciifoid. 
 By the new methods now introduced, of applying algebra to 
 geometry, it is demonftrated, thar the conchoid a! and cillbi- 
 dat jpaces, though infinitely extended, are yet finite mag- 
 nitudes. 6 
 Cycloidal SPACE, ? c ., VCYrmm/Lr 
 
 Space, m mechanicks, the line a moveable body, confidered 
 as a point, is conceived to defcribe by its motion. See 
 Motion. 
 
 SPADE. — Ttaffytt Spade,?,. . . , cf nt „ r 
 SPADING, i eethc ar " dK isVA Y,N=?' 
 
 SPAGYR1C*, an epithet given to chymiftry ; which is ailed 
 the fpagync an, or mididna jpagyrica ; and to cbymicat 
 phyficians, who are allb called Jpagyrifis. 
 * Vofliiis derives the word from the Greek, rkii, to extraa. 
 ' J Tdjpn, ctmgrtgarc, to collect ; which are the two prin- 
 
 cipal offices ot chymilt: 
 word 
 
 Paracelfus firit introduced the 
 
 SPAGYRICAL phyfuiam. See the article Physician. 
 SPA HI'S, horfc-men in the Ottoman army ; chiefly raifed in 
 Afia. 
 
 The great ftrength of the grand feignior's army confifrs in 
 the janizaries, who are the foot, and the fpabi's, who are 
 the horfe. 
 
 The aga or commander of the fpahi's; is caHed fpabi arafi 
 SeeAGA. 4 ' 
 
 SPAN, a meafure taken from the fpace between the rhumb's 
 end, and the tip of the little finger, when both are ftretched 
 out. 
 
 The fpcm is eflunated at three hand's breadths, or nine in 
 ches. 
 
 SPANISH 
 
SPA 
 
 SPANISH, or Spanish language, 
 Spanish black, 
 Spanish coinage, 
 Spanish coins, 
 Spanish epocba, 
 Spanish flies, 
 Spanish inquifition, 
 Spanish meafures, 
 Spanish money, 
 Spanish order, 
 Spanish plough, 
 Spanish academy, 
 Spanish filks, 
 Spa nish wax, 
 Spanish white', 
 
 See Language. 
 ("Black. 
 " Coinage. 
 Coin. 
 Epocha. 
 Cantharides. 
 Inquisition. 
 
 , Measure. 
 >Scc the articles^ Mqney . 
 
 Order. 
 
 Plough. 
 Academy. 
 Silk. 
 Wax. 
 
 j L W H I T E . 
 
 SPAR, in natural hiftory, a fhining, ftony fubftance, gene- 
 rally, though improperly, fuppofed to be compounded of 
 cryftal, incorporated with lac lunx, or other mineral, earthy, 
 ftony, or metallic matter; frequently found in caves and 
 grotto's, and in the clefts of rocks, lead-mines, £sV. 
 The late criterions of foffils, eftablifhed by Mr. Hill, prove 
 fpar and cryftal to be two wholly different hodies. The one 
 cafily cakinable into lime, the other verifiable into thefineft 
 glafs : the one foluble in acids, the other not to be affected 
 by any menftruum. 
 
 Mr. Beaumont, in the Philosophical Tranfactions, endea- 
 vours to account for the origin and growth of fpar. 
 Spar, he obferves, may be formed three ways ; either from 
 fleams alone ; or from fleams coagulating dew, as it lalls on 
 the ground, or waters lifting from the joints of rocks ; or 
 it may grow up from earths and clays. To fay nothing of the 
 whfmfical account we have from Switzerland, viz. that fnow 
 by long lying and continual frofts, becomes hardened into /par . 
 We have inflances of the firft kind in many grotto's where 
 /pars produced from fleams, hang like icicles ; iron ore being 
 often found alfo to grow in the fame manner. And as tkisfpflr 
 grows downwards ; fo in many places, from the fides of it, 
 iflue little plants of fpar, fhooting upwards, contrary to the 
 tendency of the others. An inftance of the fecond, we are 
 faid to have in a certain place in Italy. 
 
 For the third kind of generation of fpar, never before taken 
 notice of by naturalifts ; Mr. Beaumont gives us inflances 
 of it in Mendip hills, and other mines wherein are fubter- 
 raneous vaults or grotto's. In the bottoms of fome of thefe 
 is a fleam incumbent thereon ; and from the earth in thefe 
 places, there (hoot up fpires of various heights, from the 
 firft buddings out of it, till it become as high as a man's fin- 
 ger ; the biggeft ordinarily an inch in diameter. Thefe fpires 
 have all irregular ridges and furrows ; and fome fooner, fome 
 later, begin on the tops to be congealed into fpar ; and fo 
 gathering a cruft downwards by degrees, are all at laft, as it 
 were turned into an abfolute white fpar, or ftone. See 
 Supplement, article Spar. 
 SPAR ADRAP, Sparadrapum, in pharmacy, &c. an 
 ancient name for a kind of fear-cloth ; or a linen cluth 
 fmcared on both fides with fome kind of planter, or un- 
 guent. 
 
 The fparadrap is fome times alfo called tela Gualteriana, or 
 tela Qua Iter 1 ; fomettmes, tela emplajlica. 
 It is prepared by melting a fufficient quantity of fome plaifter 
 or unguent, and dipping a linen cloth therein, till fuch time 
 as it have imbibed its fill. It is then taken out, cooled and 
 polifhed on a marble. 
 
 There are as many different kinds of fparadraps, 2s there 
 
 are of plaifters for the cloth to be dipped in. 
 SPARRING, among cock-fighters, is the fighting a cock 
 
 with another to breathe him. — In fparring, they put hats 
 
 on their fpurs, that they may not hurt one another. — To 
 
 fpar the cock, imports in general, to breathe him, in order 
 
 to embolden him to fight. 
 § PA S M, Spasma, or Spasmus, sitaemA, orEnASMOS 
 
 a Greek term, of equal import with the Latin, convuljio, 
 
 and Englifh, convulfion. 
 
 A fpafmus happening after the taking hellebore, or any other 
 violent purgative, is mortal.— There are fpafms peculiar to 
 certain members, and diftinguifhed by particular names : that 
 of the mouth is called fpafmus cynicus ; that of the penis, fa* 
 tyriafts, &c. 
 
 Cardan diftinguifhes two kinds of fpafms ; the firft confirm- 
 ing in a conftant contraction of the mufcles, which renders 
 the members rigid, and inflexible. The fecond, in fudden 
 unnatural motions and palpitations, frequently intermitting 
 and beginning again. 
 
 Accidental fpafms are of fhort continuance : there are fome 
 arifing from flatulencies ; others from bites of venomous beafts, 
 from the puncture of a nerve, the acrimony of the humours 
 vellicating theftomach, exceilive cold, hyfteric vapours, CSV. 
 SPASMODIC, fome thing belongingto a fpafin, or convulfiun j 
 as a fpafmodic medicine, fpafmodic 'difeafe , &c. 
 Hunger, according to M.'Hecquet, is a fpafmodic aMion 
 of the fibres of the ftomach ; unlefs it arife from the fibres 
 
 S P E 
 
 being too much moiftened by the liquor thereof, fo as to in- 
 capacitate them for their office. Sec Hunger. 
 SPATULA*, or Spathula, an inftrument ufed by fur> 
 geons, and apothecaries ; made flat at one end, and round 
 at the other : fervir.g to fpread their plaifters, and unguents 
 withal. 
 
 * The word h formed from the Latin, fpatha, of the Greek, 
 rraSw, which fignifies the fame. 
 
 The furgeons have little ftcel fpatula's. — And the apothe- 
 caries have alfo large ones of wood, to ftir their drugs in di- 
 luting, tempering, or boiling them. 
 SPAVIN*, a difeafe in a horfe; being a fwelling, or ftiffnefs 
 ufually in the ham, which caufes him to halt. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, cfpar-vin, which Jigni- 
 fies the lame. 
 
 There are two kinds of fpavins, viz. the 
 Gv-Spavin, which is a callous tumour, at the bottom of the 
 ham, on the infide ; hard as a bone, and very painful. — 
 While it is yet young, fome horfes only halt with it, at the , 
 firft coming out of the Arable. 
 .Dry-SpAviN, which is more eafily perceived, by the horfe's 
 raifingoneof his hind-legs, with a twitch, higher than the 
 other : but fometimes it is found on both legs. 
 This kind, which fome alfo call Jiring-balt, frequently de- 
 generates into the ox-fpavin ; for which there is no remedy, 
 but to apply the fire ; and even this is not always fuccefslul. 
 There are two other kinds of jpavin, which have their feat 
 in the hoof, viz. the 
 Blood Spavin, a foft tumour which grows through a horfe's 
 
 hoof, and is ufually full of blood. 
 Bone Spavin, a crufty fubftance growing on the infide of ths 
 
 hoof under the joint. 
 SPAWS, mineral waters arifing out of the earth ; imp! 
 with nitre, fulphur, allum, bitumen, copperas, or otl ; 
 neral matter in paffing through the ftrata thereof ; and hence 
 endued with fome medicinal qualities, cathartic, (U'ureticjeme- 
 tic, alterant or the like. Sec Supplement, article Watk&s 
 Mineral. 
 
 SPAYING, or Spading, the operation of caftra'ing the fe- 
 males of fevcral kinds of" animals, as fows, bitches, &c. to 
 prevent any further conception, and promote their fattening. 
 It is performed, by cutting them in the mid flank, on the 
 left fide, with a fharp knife or lancet, taking out the uterus 
 and cutting it off, and fq ftitching up the wound, anointing 
 the part with tar, and keeping the animal warm for two or 
 three days. 
 
 The ufual way, is to make the incifton a-flope, two inches 
 and a half long, that the fore-finger may be put in towards 
 the back, to feel for the ovaries, which are two kernels as 
 big as acorns on both fides the uterus, one of which is drawn 
 to the wound, the firing thereof cut, and thus both taken 
 out. • 
 SPEAKER of the houfe of commons, a member of the hnufe 
 elected by a majority of the votes thereof, to act as chairman, 
 or prclident, in putting queftions, reading briefs or bills, 
 keeping order, reprimanding the refractory, adjourning the 
 houfe, CSV. 
 
 The firft thing done by the commons upon the firft meeting 
 of a parliament, is to chufe a fpeakir j who is to be approved 
 of by the king ; and who upon his admiflion, begs his ma- 
 jefty, that the commons, during their fitting, may have free 
 accefs^ to bis majejly ; freedom of fpeech in their own houfe, and 
 fecurity from arrejts. 
 
 The jpeaker is not allowed to perfuadc or difTuade, in paffing 
 of a bill ; but only to make a fhort and plain narrative i 
 nor to vote, unlefs the houfe be equally divided. 
 The lord chancellor, or keeper, is ufually fpeaker of the houfe 
 of lords. The fpeaker of the convocation, is called the pro- 
 locutor. See Prolocutor, 
 SPEAKING, the art or act of exprefilr.g one's thoughts in 
 articulate founds or words. 
 
 Pliny, iElian, Plutarch and other authors, make mention 
 of feveral beafts that have [poke ; and Pliny himfelf, fpe.iks 
 with affurance, in his hiftory, of an ox that fpoke. Philo- 
 ftratus, in his life of Apollonius, gives the like quality to 
 an elm, and even to fhips. Homer makes Xanthos, one of 
 Achilles's horfe's, fpeak ; wherein he has been followed by 
 Oppian. But thefe are all fabulous ftories: we have much 
 better authority for a ferpent, and an afs's fpeaking. bee 
 La ngu age, 
 
 SPEAKiNG-trumpet. See Trumpet and Stentoropho- 
 nic. 
 
 SPECIAL, fomething that is particular, or has a particular 
 -defignation ; from the Latin, fpecies. — In oppohtion to gene- 
 ral, of genus. See General, Particular, Species 
 and Genus. 
 
 The king in his letters, frequently fays, of our fpecial grace, 
 full power and royal authority. 
 Special afffe, p f Assise. 
 
 Special attorney, (~ . , J Attorney. 
 
 Special fee tall, f See the ™>^< Fee t J f 
 Special iffut, J (.Issue. 
 
 Special 
 
S P E 
 
 S P E 
 
 Special tail. See the article Tail. 
 
 Special verdicl, &c. See the article Verdict, dsV. 
 
 SPECIALTY, in law, is molt commonly taken for a bend, 
 bill, or other the like inftru m c n t in writing;. 
 Sometimes it is alfo ufed for a fpecial or particular acquain- 
 tance. 
 
 SPECIES, an idea, which relates to fome other more gene- 
 ral one ; or is comprized under a more univcrfal divifion of 
 a genus. 
 
 The word is Latin, formed from the ancient verb, /pecio, I 
 fee ; as if a /pedes of things were a collection of all the 
 things feen at one view. 
 
 Species is a mere term of relation : and the fame idea may- 
 be a /pedes, when compared to another more general one ; 
 and a genus, with regard to a more particular one. — Thus 
 body is a genus, with regard to an animate and inanimate 
 body ; and a /pedes, with regard to Jubilance. 
 The laft /pedes, is that which can, only be divided into in- 
 dividuals. 
 
 Animal is a /pedes, with regard to body ; and man is a /pe- 
 des with regard to animal. God deltroyed mankind by the 
 deluge ; but he preferved the /pedes. 
 
 Species, in logic, is one of the five words, called by Por- 
 phyry, univer/als. 
 
 Species, in rhetoric, is a particular thing, contained under a 
 more univcrfal one. 
 
 The orators alfo call it hypothe/is : E. gr, virtue is to be 
 loved, is the genus or the/is. Temperance is to be preferved 
 here, at this time, is the /pedes or hypothefis. 
 Species, in the ancient muiic, denotes a fub-divifion of one 
 of the genera. 
 
 The genera of mufic were three, the enharmonic, chromatic, 
 and diatonic; the two laft of which were varioufly fubdi- 
 vided into /pedes : nor was the firft without /pedes, though 
 thofe had not particular names as the /pedes of the other 
 two had. — Thefe/pedcs were alfo called the chroal, colours 
 of the genera. 
 
 Species, in opticks, the image painted on the retina by the 
 rays of light reflected from the feveral points of the furface 
 of an object, received in at the pupilla, and collected, in 
 their paflagc through the cryftallin, &c. 
 
 Philofbphcrs have been in great doubt, whether the /pedes of 
 objects, winch give the foul an occafion of feeing, are an 
 effufion of the fubftance of the body ; or a mere impreflion 
 which they make on all ambient bodies, and which thefe all 
 reflect, when in a proper diftance and difpofition ; or, laft- 
 iy, whether they arc not fome other more fubtile body, as 
 light, which receives all thefe impreffions from bodies, and 
 is continually lent and returned from one to another, with 
 the different figures and impreffions it has taken. — Hut the 
 moderns have decided this point by their invention of artifi- 
 cial eyes, wherein the /pedes of objects are received on a 
 paper or linen cloth in the fame manner as they are received 
 in the natural eye. 
 
 The ancients have diftinguifhed the /pedes, whereby objects 
 become vilible, into imprej/a and e.rprejfe. 
 
 ImpreJ/cd Species, are fuch, as come from without ; or are 
 lent from the object to the organ: fuch are thofe we have 
 already been fpeaking of. 
 
 Expre/J'cd Species, are thofe, on the contrary, which proceed 
 from within ; or that a r e fent from the organ to the object. 
 Le Clerc, in his fyftem of vifion, by one of thofe revolu- 
 tions very frequent in philofophiail opinions, has called upon 
 the ftagc again the /pedes exprejfie, of the ancient pbilofo- 
 phers. For, according to him, it is not by /pedes or images 
 impreflcd on the optic nerve, that the foul ices objects; but 
 by rays, which fhe herfelf directs to them, and which flic 
 ufes as a blind man does his ftafr, to grope out objects. 
 
 ThePeripateticks account for vilion, from a kind of intentional 
 Species, thus: every object, fay they, expreiTcs a perfect 
 image of itfelf on the air next to it. This expreffes another 
 lefler one on the air next to that ; and this a third {till lefs. 
 Thus are the images continued from the object to the cry- 
 ftallin, which thefe philofophers hold the principal organ of 
 feeing. Thefe they call /pecies intentlonales j and to account 
 the better for their generation, they affirm, that objects ex- 
 hibit them in the fame manner, as mirrors do a man's face. 
 See Vision. 
 
 Species, in theology, denote the appearances of the bread 
 and wine in the facrament, after confecration.— Or, as the 
 Rornanifts define them, the accidents remaining in the bread 
 and wine, whereby they become fenfible to us, after their 
 fubftance is deftroyed- 
 
 The /pedes of the bread, t?c. are its whitenefs, quantity* 
 figure, friablenefs, &c— Oi wine, its flavour, quicknefs, 
 fpeciric gravity, £?f. 
 
 The generality of Romifh divines, hold, that the /pedes are 
 abiulute accidents. — And the Cart duns, who are bound to 
 deny any fuch things as abfohitc a cidents, are greatlv puz- 
 zled to explain the /pedes, without incurring the cenfure of 
 herefy. F. Magnan is forced to aflci t, that the /pedes are mere 
 delations and appearances, which God imprefleson our fenfex 
 Vol. II. N*. 144. 
 
 Si'ecies, in commerce, are the feveral pieces of gold, Au-cr., 
 copper, &c. wliicn having pafled their full preparation, and 
 coinage, arc current in public. 
 
 Species decried, or cried douj?i, are fuch as the foveraiga has 
 forbidden to be received in pavment. 
 
 Light Species, arc thofe which fall lhoit of the weight pre- 
 ferred by law. 
 
 Fal/e Species, are thofe of different metal or alloy front what 
 they fhould be, 13c. 
 
 Species, in algebra, are the fymbols, or characters, whereby 
 quantities are reprefented. 
 
 SPECIFIC, in philofophy, that which is proper and peculiar 
 to any thing ; or that characterizes it, and diftinguifhes it 
 from every other thing. See Proper, fisfa 
 Thus the attracting of iron is /pecific to the load-ftcne, or is 
 a /pecific property of the load-ftone : ajuft definition fhould 
 contain the /pecific notion of the thing defined, or that which 
 fpecifies and diitinguifhes it from every thing elfe. 
 
 Specific, in medicine, a remedy, whole virtue and effect is 
 peculiarly adapted to fome certain difeafe ; is adequate titers* 
 to ; and exerts its whole force immediately thereon. 
 Thus quinquina, or the Jefuits bark, is held z /pecific for 
 intermitting fevers or agues ; mercury for the venereal dif- 
 eafe, tsV. 
 
 Authors make mention of three kinds of /pecific medicines, 
 — i u . Such as are eminently and particularly friendly to this 
 or that part ; as to the heart, the lungs, the brain, the fto- 
 
 mach, isc. 
 
 2°. Such as feem to attract, expel, or evacuate fome deter- 
 minate humour, by a kind of fpecific power thev are en- 
 dowed withal ; as jalap is fuppofed to purge watery humours j 
 rhubarb, bile, <sc. See Purgative. 
 3 0 . Such as remove the caufe of a difeafe, by fome fudden 
 property, without our knowing how or why ; or the manner 
 of whole operations, we are entirely ignorant of, and have 
 only learnt their efiects by experience. 
 
 In the ufc of thefe laft, there is no enquiry into the nature 
 of the difeafe ; no regard had to the fymptoms or phenome- 
 na: nor is the medicine to be at all adapted to Che particular 
 circumftanccs thereof. All that we regard, is the name of 
 the difeafe, and that of the remedy : as, immediately, upon 
 finding an intermitting fever, we prefcribe the bark : to 
 affuage pain, opium i or to expel poifon, fome particular an- 
 tidote. 
 
 On this footing, 3. /pecific medicine feems to ftand in oppo- 
 fition to a /cuntijic or tnethodlc medicine. 
 The mild operation of fome alterant medicines by infenfible 
 perfpiration, fwcat and urine, may have led fome men into 
 this notion of foecific alteratives, or the tranfmutation of 
 poifonous into innocent juices. Phyficians are apt to think 
 they cure difeafes fpecifically, when they do not bleed, purge, 
 vomit, or falivate. But it is certain, mercury when it cures 
 the lues without falivation, does not act fpecifically anymore 
 than when the higheft falivation is railed by it ; when it does 
 not falivate, it infallibly and fenfibly pailes off by the cutane- 
 ous and venal glands. 
 
 Several mineral and metalline fubftances, efpecially the com- 
 poiitions of fulphur and mercury, as the ithicps and cinna- 
 bar, may indeed cure many difeafes ; but then they do it* by 
 acting as evacuants, by attenuating, difiolvirig and carrying 
 off the vifcid concretions and foulneflcs of the ftomach'r.nd 
 inteftines, and thus cleanfing the foul palfa^es, and reftorint; 
 them to their natural action : not by any alterative or /pecific 
 operation. 
 
 Specific waters. See the article Water. 
 
 Specific gravity, in hydroftaticks, denotes that gravity, or 
 weight peculiar to each fpecies, or kind of natural body \ 
 and whereby it is diftinguifhed from all other kinds. 
 In this fenfe, a body is laid to be /pcdfically heavier than an- 
 other, when under the fame bulk it contains a greater weight 
 than that other ; and that other is faid to be /pecifically 
 lighter than the ftrft. — Thus, if there be two equal fpheres, 
 each a foot in diameter ; only the one wood, the other lead 
 fince the leaden one is found iieavier than the wooden one, 
 it is faid to be /ped/ically or in /pccie } heavier ; and the 
 wooden one /pecifically lighter. 
 
 1 his kind of gravity, fome call relative; in oppofition to 
 ab/olute gravity, which increaks in proportion to the quanti- 
 ty or mafs of the body. 
 Lawso/ the Specific gravity and levity 0/ bodies. — f. If two 
 bodies be equal in hulk, their /pecific gravities are, to each 
 other, as their abfjute gravities. Thus a body is faid to be 
 twice as heavy, /ped/ically, as another, if it have twice its 
 gravity under the fame bulk. 
 
 Hence, the /ptdfic gravities of equal bodies, areas their chn- 
 fities. 
 
 2. The/pccifict gravities of bodies of the fame weight are 
 in the reciprocal ratio of their bulks. Hence the mafles of 
 two bodies of the fame weight, are in a reciprocal ratio of 
 their bulks. 
 
 3. The /pecific gravities of two bodies are, in a ratio, com- 
 pounded of the direct ratio of the abfolute gravities, and the 
 
 U ^ J reciprocal 
 
S P E 
 
 reciprocal one of their bulks. — Hence, again, \.hz fpecific 
 gravities are as the denfities. 
 
 4. A body fpecifically heavier than a fluid, lofes fo much of 
 its weight therein, as is equal to a quantity of the fluid of 
 the fame bulk. 
 
 For, fuppofe a cubic inch of lead immerged in water : a cu- 
 bic ineh of water will, thereby, be expelled from its place : 
 but the weigtit of this water was fuftained by the refinance 
 of the ambient water. Therefore, fuch a p-trt of the weight 
 of the leaden cube, muft be fuftained by the refiftancc of 
 the ambient water, as is equal to the weight of the water 
 expelled. The gravity of the body immerged, therefore, 
 muft be diminifhed by to much. 
 
 Hence, i°. Since a fluid fpecifically heavier, has a greater 
 weight, in the fame bulk, than a lighter ; the fame body 
 will lofc a greater part of its weight in a fluid, fpecifically 
 heavier, than in a lighter : and therefore it weighs more in 
 a lighter than a heavier. 
 
 2°. Equal homogeneous bodies weighing equally in air, lofe 
 their equilibrium if one of them be immerged in a heavier 
 fluid ; the other in a lighter. 
 
 3°. Since the fpecific gravities are as the abfolute gravities 
 under the fame bulk ; tlie fpecific gravity of the fluid, will 
 be to the gravity of the body immerged, as the part of the 
 weight loft by the folid, to the whole weight. 
 4 0 . Two folids equal in hulk, lofe the fame weight in the 
 fame fluid ; but the weight of the fpecifically heavier body, 
 is greater than that of the fpecifically lighter; therclure, the 
 fpecifically lighter, lofes agreater part of its weight, than the 
 fpecifically heavier. 
 
 5 0 . Since the bulks of bodies equal in weight, are recipro- 
 cally as the fpecific gravities j the fpecifically lighttr, lofes 
 more weight in tlie fame fluid than the heavier ; wherefore, 
 if they be in equilibria in one fluid, they will not be fo in 
 another; but fpecifically heavier, will preponderate, and 
 that the more, as the fluid is denfer, 
 
 6°. The fpecific gravities of fluids, are as the weights loft 
 by the fame folid immerged in the fame. 
 To find the Specific gravity of a fluid. — On one arm of a 
 balance fufpend a leaden globe ; and to the other, faftcn a 
 weight, which is in equilibrium therewith in the air. Im- 
 mcrge the globe fucccffively in the feveral fluids, whofe fpe- 
 cific gravities are to be determined, and obferve the weight 
 which balances it in each. Thefe feveral weights, fubtradt- 
 ed, feveraHy, from the firft weight, the remainders are the 
 parts of the weight loft in each fluid. Whence the ratio of 
 the fpecific gravity of the fluids is fecn. 
 
 Hence, as the denfities are as the fpecific gravities ; we find 
 the ratio of the denfities of the fluids at the fame time. 
 This problem is of the utmoft ufe ; as by it, the degree of 
 purity or goodnefs of fluids, is eafily found ; a thing, not 
 only of fervice in natural philofophy ; but alfo in common 
 life, and in the practice of phyfic. 
 
 At different feafons of the year, the fpecific gravities of the 
 fame fluids, are found different. Joan, Cafp. Eifenfcbniidius, 
 in his Difquifitio nova de ponderibits^ &c. gives us variety of 
 experiments relating hereto : tlie principal whereof, to fave 
 the trouble of too frequent experiments, we fhall here fubjoin. 
 
 Table o/"Specific gravities of feveral f.uids. 
 
 meafure. 
 
 In fummer. 
 
 In winter. 
 
 0. D. 
 
 G. 
 
 0. D. G. 
 
 7 ■ 
 
 66 
 
 7 2 
 
 ■4 
 
 7 
 
 59 
 
 7 
 
 7' 
 
 5 
 
 
 5 
 
 38 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 4+ 
 
 5 
 
 49 
 
 5 
 
 55 
 
 6 
 
 z 3 
 
 6 
 
 35 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 1 1 
 
 5 
 
 '5 
 
 4 
 
 67 
 
 4 
 
 7! 
 
 4 
 
 3 2 
 
 4 
 
 42 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 
 5 
 
 ZC 
 
 5 
 
 '24 
 
 5 
 
 2S 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 ■9 
 
 5 
 
 45 
 
 5 
 
 53 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 43 
 
 4 
 
 53 
 
 Is froze in 1 
 
 4 
 
 59 
 
 4 
 
 46 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 IC 
 
 5 
 
 1 3 
 
 S 
 
 1 1 
 
 5 
 
 '4 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 5 
 
 1 1 
 
 Of mercury 
 Oil of vitriol 
 Spirit of vitriol 
 Spirit of nitre 
 Spirit of fait 
 Aquafortis 
 "Vinegar 
 Dillilled vinegar 
 Burgundy wine 
 Spirit of wine 
 Pale ale 
 JSrown ale 
 Cows milk 
 Goats milk 
 Urine 
 
 Spirit of urine 
 Oil of tartar 
 Oil of olives 
 Oil of tutpentine 
 Sea water 
 River water 
 Spring water 
 Diftilled water 
 
 That the fpecific gravity may be found the more accurately 
 the weight of the thread not immerged in the fluid, is to be 
 lubtracfed from the weight ofthe folid in air ; and the force 
 nccelTary to make the thread fubiide ( if it be fpecifically 
 lighter) « to be added to the weight loft. But if 'the thread 
 that fuftams the folid be heavier than the fluid ; the whole 
 weight of the thread m the air is to be iubtradtcd from the 
 weight of the folid in a,r j and the weight the thread lofes 
 from the weight loft m the fluid. Indeed, this precaution 
 maybefpared^fmexamtning the fpecific gravity of fever, 1 
 
 SPE 
 
 fluids, care be taken that the fame thread be immersed to 
 the fame depth in each. 
 
 6. To determine the ratio which the fpecific gravity of a 
 fluid has to the fpecific gravity of a fblid that is (pttriJicilh/ 
 heavier than the fluid. 
 
 Weigh any mafs of the folid in a fluid, and note :.V |uft 
 weight therein : the fpecific gravity of the fluid wH! be to 
 that of the folid, as the part of the weight loft by the fblld 
 is to its whole weight. 
 
 7. The fpecific gravities of equally heavy bodies, are reci- 
 procally as the quantities of weight loft in the ferrie fluid. 
 Hence we find the ratio of the fpecific gravities of folid*-*, by 
 weighing maiies thereof, that are equal in air, in the fame 
 fluid ; and noting the weights loft by each. 
 
 The fpecific gravities of various folids, have been determined 
 by many authors. Marin Gheta'dus, particularly tried the 
 fpecific gravities various bodies had, efpecially metallic ones j 
 which were borrowed thence by Oughtred. In the Philolh- 
 phical Trail (adfiuns, we have ample tables of fpecific gravi- 
 ties, by various authors. 
 
 It will be fufHcient for us to give thofe of fome of the more 
 ulual bodies, as determined with great care and accuracy by 
 M. Petit ; and publifhed by F. Merfeune ; and from 'him 
 by feveral others. 
 
 Table of the Specific gravities of feveral folids. 
 An hundred pound weight of gold is equal in buik. to 
 
 7\\ of mercury 
 6c 1 of lead 
 5+f- of filver 
 
 of copper 
 45 of brat* 
 4- of ircn 
 39 of tin 
 
 3«i 
 
 : of fine tin 
 of load-Hone 
 2 1 of marble 
 14. of llone 
 izi of fulphur 
 5 of wax 
 jf- of water. 
 
 8. A body fpicif 'caliy heavier, defends in a fluid fpecifically 
 lighter, with a force equal to the excefs of its weight, over 
 that of an equal quantity of the fluid. 
 
 Hence, i°. The force which fultains a fpecifically heavier 
 body in a fluid, is equal to the excels of the abfolute gravity 
 of the body, above that of the fluid, under the fame bulk : 
 S r - 47 > L pound of copper lofes 5 f pounds of its weight in. 
 water ; therefore a power of 42 pounds is able to fuftainit. 
 2°. Since the excefs of the weight of a folid over the weight 
 of a fluid fpecifically heavier, is lefs than that over the Weight 
 of a fpecifically lighter fluid under the fame bulk ; it wiil 
 defend with lefs force in a fpecifically heavier fluid than in 
 a lighter; and, confequcntly, it will defend more flowly 
 in tlie former than in the latter. 
 
 9. A fpecifically lighter body, (inks in a heavier fluid, till 
 the weight of a quantity of the fluid, equal in bulk to the 
 part unmcrfed, be equal to the weight of the whole body. 
 Hence, 1°. Since the ftfmfic gravities of bodies of the fame 
 weight, are reciprocally as their bulks ; and the bulks of 
 ftuidi equal in weight, are as the parts of the fame folid im- 
 merged therein ; the fpecific gravities of fluids are recipro- 
 cally as the parts of the fame body immerged therein. 
 
 2". A folid, therefore, immerges deeper in a lighter fluid 
 than m a heavier, and deeper as the proportion of the fpecific 
 gravity of the folid to that of the fluid is greater. 
 3°. It a body be of the fame fpecific gravity with a fluid; 
 the whole body will be immerged ; and it will remain in any 
 given place of the fluid. 
 
 4". if tfpectfcaUy lighter body be wholly immerged in a 
 fluid ; it will be urged by the collateral columns of the fluid, 
 to alcend with a force equal to the excefs of the weight of 
 the fluid, bulk for bulk, over the weight of the folid. 
 5". A body, therefore, fpecifically lighter, lying on the bot- 
 tom of a veilel, will not be raifed up, unlefs the heavier fluid 
 rile above fuch a part, as is equal in bulk to a quantity of 
 the fluid of the fame weight with the whole folid. 
 
 10. "1 he fpecific gravity of a folid is to the fpecific gravity 
 of a lighter fluid, wherein it is immerged, as the bulk of 
 the part immerged, is to the whole bulk. 
 
 1 1 . 'Vhz fpecific gravities of equal folids, are as their parts 
 immerged in the lame fluid. 
 
 12. The weight and bulk of a fpecifically lighter body, and 
 the weight of the fpecifically heavier fluid, being given, to 
 find the force required, to keep the folid wholly immerged 
 under the fluid. ' a 
 As this force is equal to the excefs of the weight ofthe fluid 
 beyond that of an equal bulk of the folid ; from the given 
 bulk of the fohd, and the weight of a cubic foot of water, 
 find, by the rule of three, the weight of a bulk of water, 
 equal to that of the body. From this fubtraft the weight 
 of the fohd ; the remainder is the force required. E. gr. Sup- 
 pofe the force neccflary to detain a folid eight feet in bulk, 
 and 100 pounds in weight, underwater, required : fince a 
 cubic foot of water is found to weigh 70 pound, the weight 
 of water under the bulk of eight feet, is 560 ; whence, too 
 pound, the weight of the fohd, being fubtracied ; the re- 
 mainder 460 pound, is the force neceilary to d:tain the folid 
 under water. 
 
 Hence, hnce fpecifically lighter body afellds in a heavier 
 fluid, with the lame force that would prevent its al'cent : by 
 the piefent problem, we can likewife find the force where- 
 with a fpecifically lighter body afends in a heavier. 
 
 + 13. The 
 
S P E 
 
 S P E 
 
 13. The weight of a veffcl, to be made of a fotcijic&lk hea- 
 vier matter ; and that of a fpecif.ailly lighter fluid, beino; 
 given : to determine the cavity the vent) mult have, to fwim 
 on the fluid. 
 
 The weight of a cubic foot of the fluid being given ; the 
 bulk of the fluid equal to the weight of the veiled, is found 
 by the rule of three. If, then, the cavity be made a little 
 bigger than this, the veflel will have lefs weight under the 
 fame bulk, than the fluid, and will therefore be fpecif.cally 
 lighter than the fame, and confequently, it will fwim. E.gr. 
 Suppofe it required to make an iron ball of 30 pounds weight, 
 fo as it ffaaU fwim upon water. Since the weight of a cubic 
 foot of water is 70 pound, the quantity of water equal to 30 
 pounds, will be found 72S" 571 ''' ; and therefore the cube 
 of the diameter of the fphere 1392174."', whence the cube 
 root being extracted 1' 1" 1"' is the diameter of a fphere of 
 water of 30 pounds. If, therefore, the diameter of the 
 cavity be made a little bigger, e. gr. 1 * or 2 feet ; ffl much 
 lefs of the ball will be immerged as the diameter is increafed. 
 
 14. The force employed to retain a fpecif.cally lighter folid, 
 under a heavier fluid j and the weight loft by a heavier folid 
 in a lighter fluid, are each added to the weight of the fluid, 
 and weigh together with it. 
 
 The feveral theorems here delivered, are not only all de- 
 monit ruble from the principles of meclianicks ; but are con- 
 formable to experiment. In effect, experience is here found 
 to anfwer exactly to calculation, as is abundantly evident 
 from the courfes ol philofophieal experiments, now frequent- 
 ly exhibited ; where the laws of jpecijic gravitation are well 
 ill u ft rated. 
 
 SPEC1LLUM, or Speculum, an inftrument, wherewith 
 furgeons fearch and dilate wounds, (jtc. See Speculum. 
 
 SPECIOUS arithmetic, is that branch which is converfant in 
 quantities denoted by fpecies, that is, by the letters of the 
 alphabet. — In con trad iiti net ion to that, where the quantities 
 are cxprefTed by numbers, which is called numerous arith- 
 metic. , 
 Specious arithmetic, is what we more ufually call algebra. 
 
 SPECTACLE, Spectaculum, Ji)ew; fome extraordi- 
 nary object, which draws the view and attention ; and is not 
 beheld without fome emotion, or paffion of the mind. 
 The term is chiefly ufed by the ancients, for theatrical and 
 amphitheatrical performances : for comedies, combats of 
 gladiators, and of bcalts, and even for foJemn procellions, 
 as thole of the circus, &c. 
 
 The people of Rome were extreamly fond of fpeclacles ; 
 and the Roman hiftorians obferve, there was no Jurer way 
 of gaming their affections, and making parties to introduce 
 tyranny and oppreflion, than by the ufe of /prelacies. 
 SPECTACLES, an optic machine, confuting of two lens's 
 fct in horn, or other matter ; and applied on the nofej to 
 aflift in defects of the organ of light. 
 
 Old people and all prefbyta?, ufe fpeclacles of convex lens's, 
 to make amends for the flatnefs of the eye, which docs not 
 make the rays converge enough to have them meet in the 
 retina. 
 
 Short-fighted people, or myopes, ufe concave lens's, to keep 
 the rays from converging fo fail, through the great round- 
 nefs of the eye, which is fuch, as to make them meet ere 
 they reach the retina. 
 
 In Spain, and at Venice efpccially, fpeclacles are ufed with a 
 different view : all the people of note and fafhion there, 
 have them continually on their nofes ; a folly, that has its 
 fource in the natural pride of thole people, who value them- 
 felves on a profound wifdom ; and affect to Itare very near 
 at every thing ; as if their eyes were weakned, and wore out 
 with excefs of attention. Vign. de Marv. 
 F. Chcrubin, a capuchin, deilribcs a kind of fpeclacle tele- 
 feopes, for the viewing of remote objects with both eyes ; 
 hence called binoculi. Though F. Rheita had mentioned the 
 fame before him, in his Oailm Enoch and Elite. — The fame 
 author invented a kind of fpeclacles, with three or four 
 glafles, which performed extraordinarily. 
 SpeSlacles were certainly unknown to the ancients ; yet are 
 they not of fo late a date as the telefcope. Francilco Redi, 
 in a very learned treatife on fpeclacles, will have them to 
 have been invented in the 13th century, between the years 
 1280 and 131 1; and adds, that Alexander Defpina, a monk 
 of the order of Predicants of St. Catherine at P«a s firft com- 
 municated the fecret, which was of his own invention ; 
 upon learning, that another perfon had it as well as himfelf. 
 t his hiftory is wrote in the chronicles of that convent. 
 The fame author tells us, that in an old manufcript ftill 
 preferved in his library, compofed in 1299, fpcClncUs are 
 mentioned as a thing invented about that time : and that a 
 famous Jacobin, onejourdon de Rivalto, in a treatife com- 
 pofed in 1305, fays, exprefly, that it was not yet 20 years, 
 fine* the invention of fpeclacles. He likewife quotes Bernard 
 Gordon in his Li Hum medicine, wrote the fame year, where 
 lie fpeaks of a collyrium, good to enable an old man to read 
 without fpeclacles. 
 
 Du,Cangc, howercr; carries the invention of tp'-.V,;<-:a :!.r- 
 thcr back ; afliinng us, that there is a Greek poem in flja- 
 nufcript in the French king's library, which flrews, that 
 fpeclacles were in ufe in the year 1 150 : nevertheless, the dic - 
 tionary of the academy della crufca, under the word vtebiale^ 
 inclines to Rcdi's fide ; and quotes a palfagc from Jourdon'; 
 fennons, which fays, that fpeclacles had not been 20 years in 
 ufe : and SguVktti has obferved, that thole fermbns were com- 
 pofed between the years 1330 and 1336. 
 
 SPECTATOR, a perfon prcfent at a fpcctacle. 
 
 Among the Romans, Spectators, Spectators, more 
 particularly denoted a kind of gladiators, who had received 
 their difcharge ; and were frequently hired to be prefent, as 
 fpeclators, at the combats of gladiators, &c. which the peo- 
 ple were entertained withal. 
 
 SPECULAR! A, the art of preparing, and making fpecula, 
 or mirrours; — Or, the laws of mirrours, thetr phxnumena, 
 caufes, is'c. called a Kb catcptricks. 
 
 SPECULARIS lapis, in natural hiftory, is a kind of Affile 
 ftone, clear as glafs ; whence it is alfo called Mnfcnvy glafs ; 
 it is ufed in feveral countries where it is found, for window- 
 lights, and with us, for covering fmall pictures, £sV. 
 I he {apis fptcuiaris is a fpecies of talc ; it lplits eafdy into 
 thin lamina; or plates. 
 
 SPECULATION. — Certitude of Speculation. Sec 
 Certitude. 
 
 SPECULATIVE geotitiry, j r Geometry. 
 
 Speculative mathematics, ( ^ \ Mathematics. 
 
 Speculative m-.ijic, f bce 1 Music. 
 
 Speculative phikfophy, J LPhiloeophy. 
 
 SPECULUM, wrmrj in opticks, any polifhed body, im- 
 pervious to the rays of light : fuch as water in wells and deep 
 rivers, polifhed metal?, and glafles lined with mercury or 
 any other opake matter, popularly called hoking-gfaffes. 
 For the feveral kinds and forms of fpecula, plain, c.ticave, 
 and convex, with their theory, and phenomena, and the 
 methods of preparing, grinding them, iffc. fcz MiRROUrt. 
 and Grinding, 
 
 For tiie laws and effects of fpecula of various forms, fee Re- 
 flection, and Burning -glafs. 
 Speculum, among furgeons, the fame with fpecillu?/!.' — More 
 particularly, 
 
 Speculum ani, is an inftrument, wherewith thev dilate the 
 fundament, to examine fores, extract bones,, or let out any 
 peccant matter that may be there lodged. 
 
 Speculum matricisl is an inftrument ufed to examine and 
 drefs corrupted places in the privy parts of women. — Its 
 form is the fame with that of the fpeculum am. 
 
 Speculum oris, is an inftrument ferving to examine diforders 
 in the mouth. — There arc two kinds : the one common ; the 
 other bigger and ftronger, fit not only to keep down the 
 tongue ; but alfo the lower jaw ; while the mouth is fur- 
 veyed, to the very extremity of the throat, and the need - 
 fary remedies applied. 
 
 SPEECH, the ad, or art of expreffmg a man's thoughts, hy 
 certain figm invented for that purpofe. 
 I hefe figns arc principally founds made by the voice, and 
 letters. 
 
 Speech, in grammar, denotes an aflemblage of feveral words 
 ranged in order. 
 
 The grammarians generally make eight parts of fpeech j i. e. 
 eight kinds of words ufed in difcourfe, viz. noun, pronoun, 
 verb, participle, adverb, conjunclion, prepoftion, and inter- 
 jeclion ; each of which fee under its proper article. 
 F. fjufflcr, one of the laft and beft writers on grammar, 
 only admits of three parts of fpeech, viz, noun, verb and 
 modifcathe ; which laft includes the adverb, cor.junclion and 
 See prepofition. 
 
 SPELL, a kind of charm, to drive away a difcafc, by hang- 
 ing a word or fentence written on a paper about the neck. 
 See Charm. 
 
 Spell, in the Tea language. To Spell, is to let go the 
 
 fheat and bowlings of a fail, and brace the weather- orace, 
 
 that the fail may lie loofe in the wind. 
 To do a Spell, is to do any thing by turns, for a fhort time, 
 
 and then leave it. 
 To give a Spell, is to be ready to work in fuch a one's room. 
 Frefh Spell, is when frefh men come to work; efpecially 
 
 when the rowers are relieved with another gang. 
 SPELLING, that part of grammar properly called orths- 
 
 graphy. 
 
 Dt. Jones gives the following rules, or maxims of fpdlhig. 
 l°. That all words were originally pronounced, as fpeli. 
 2°. That in all words, whofe founds have been fince altered 
 (the origin of the difficulty of fpelling) the alteration was 
 made for the fake of cafe, and pleafure. 
 And hence, 3 0 . All words that "can be written feveral way*, 
 mult be jpelt according to the harder:, Jurfheft, and mpft 
 unufnal found. 
 
 SPELTER, or Speltre, tmfj a kind of imperfect metal, 
 
 which 
 
S P E 
 
 S P H 
 
 which fome miftakenly confound with bifmuth : others- 
 making it a fort of antimony ore. 
 
 Spelter is a kind of crude mineral, hard, white, and bril- 
 liant ; which though not perfectly malleable, yet ftretcbes 
 a little under the hammer : and is otherwife called tv.tanag. 
 It is procured in great quantities at the mines of Gofielaar 
 in Saxony ; and is ordinarily fold in large, fquare, thick 
 cakes, into which it is melted for the convenience of car- 
 riage. 
 
 It is ufed to purge and whiten tin, in making of pewter. 
 Thofe who imagine that the /filter is put in, on this occa- 
 fion, to increafe the weight, are miltaken ; fince in melt- 
 ing five or fix hundred weight of pewter, theyfearce put in 
 a pound of fpeltcr. See Supplement, article Zink. 
 
 SPERM, Sperma, snEPMA, the feed whereof an animal is 
 formed. See Seed. 
 
 SPERMA-CETI, or parma-fitty, in pharmacy, isawhinfh, 
 flaky fubfhnce, prepared from oil ; principally from that of 
 a cetaceous fife, called by fome, the male whale, by others 
 cachelot, and by the Latins orca ; diltinguifhed from the 
 common whale, by its having teeth, in lieu of whale-bone; 
 and by a bunch on its back. 
 
 The ancients were ftrangers to the nature of this prepara- 
 tion ; and even Schroder fecms in doubt, whether to reckon 
 it an animal, or mineral fubftance. 
 
 It had its name fpcrma-ccti, feed or fperm of whale, given 
 it, no doubt, to raile its value, by a notion of its fcarcity : 
 the oil it is properly to be made from, is found in a large 
 trunk four or five foot deep, and ten or twelve long, filling 
 almoft the whole cavity of the head, and feeming to fupply 
 the office of brain and cerebellum. 
 
 The method of preparing it, is a fecret in the hands of a 
 very few : the procefs is faid to be thus.— The matter being 
 taken out of the animal, is melted over a gentle fire, and 
 put into moulds, like thofc wherein fugar-loaves are formed, 
 When cold, and drained, it is taken out and melted over a- 
 gain ; and this they continue to do till it be well purified, 
 and become white. It is then cut with a knife for the pur- 
 pofe, and reduced into flakes, fucfa as wc have from the 
 druggiffs. Some of our druggifts have now got the art of 
 making it from the fediment or feces of any kind of oil. 
 It mtlff be chofen white, clear, and tranfparent, of a fweetifh 
 fmell, which fome fancy to partake of that of the violet : 
 fome fophifticate it with wax ; but the deceit is difcovered, 
 either by the fmell of the wax, or by the dulnefs of the colour. 
 Some alfo fell a preparation of oil gained from the tail of the 
 ■whale, inftead of that from the brain ; which laft kind turns 
 yellow, as fbon as opened to the air. In the general, there 
 is no merchandife that fhould be kept clofer from the air than 
 fperma-ceti. 
 
 Sperma-ceti is of great ufe in medicine. Quincy fays, it is 
 a noble remedy in the afthma, &c. though chiefly ufed in 
 bruifes, inward hurts, and after delivery. But it is certain, 
 its greateff. property, and that which makes it fo much in 
 vogue in many places, is its foftning the fktn. Whence it 
 comes to be ufed by the ladies in paff.es, wafhes, Este. 
 Sperma-ceti candles, are of modern manufacture : they are 
 made fmooth, with a fine glofs, free from rings and fears, 
 fuperior to the fincfl wax-candles in colour and luftre ; and, 
 when genuine, leave no fpot or ftain on the fineft lilk, cloth, 
 or linen. 
 
 SPERMATIC, SnEPMATiKOS, in anatomy, fomething be- 
 longing to the fperm or feed. 
 
 The ancients made a general divifion of the parts of the ani- 
 mal body into fpermatic, and Sanguineous. — Spermatic parts, 
 are thofe, which by their colour, C3V. bear fome refcmblance 
 to feed ; and were fuppofed to be formed thereof : fuch are 
 the nerves, membranes, bones, £sV. — Sanguineous are thofe 
 fuppofed to be formed of the biood, after conception. 
 But the moderns, with much better reafon, hold all the 
 parts to be fpermatlc in this fenfe, and either formed origi- 
 nally of the ovum of the female, or of the femen of the male. 
 M> Andry fpeaks of [pennatic worms in the human body. 
 See Worms. 
 
 Spermatic ve/fils, called alfo vafet pr&parantia^ are certain 
 veflels appointed for bringing the blood to the tefticles, csV. 
 to be fecreted and prepared into feed ; and for carrying back 
 again the blood, remaining after the fecretion is effected. 
 The fptrmatic vejfcls are two arteries, and as many veins. 
 The Spermatic arteries arife from the fore-part of the 
 trunk of the aorta, below the emulgents. — V. Tab. Anat, 
 (Angeiol.) fig. i. n. 51. (Splanch.) fig. I. lit. p. p. he. 
 Their ftruc'ture is very fingular, in that, contrary to the fa- 
 bric of all other arteries, which are largeft at their exit from 
 - the trunk, thefe are fmalleft at their origin, and grow big- 
 ger in their progrefs towards the teftes. By this means, the 
 blood receives a check at its firft going off for thofe parts, 
 which difpofes it for the future changes, £3V. it is to pals. — 
 The fame end is anfwered in quadrupeds, by having thefe 
 arteries curled and contorted in their paflage like a fcrew. 
 The reafon why nature haa taken another method in man, 
 
 Mr. Cowper obfirves, is, that in that cafe, t-Le abdominal 
 mufeles muft hnve been larger than they are ; by which 
 means, the inteftines would have been frequently let down 
 into the fcrotum ; an inconvenience which quadrupeds 
 are fecurcd from, by the horizontal pofition of their bo- 
 dies. 
 
 The fpermatic arteries, in their progrefs, meeting with the 
 fpermatic veins, enter together with them the inner lamelh 
 of the peritonaeum, where, inlinuating into the duplicatur;: 
 of the procefs, and being cloathed therewith, they pafs on 
 to within three or four fingers breadth of the tcfiiclcir, where 
 they divide into two unequal branches ; the biggElf of which 
 goes to the teftiele, and is diftributed therein ffce Testi- 
 cle.) And the lefs in the paraflata or epididymis-. See 
 Par ASTATA. 
 
 The Spermatic veins take the fame courfe with the arte- 
 ries ; only a little above the tefticles, they fplit into feveral 
 branches, which uniting, form a plexus, called corpus vari- 
 cofum pampinifarme, or pyra?nidale. The blood returned by 
 the fpermatic inins, is delivered on the right fide to the cava, 
 and on the left, into the emulgent vein. — See Tab. Anat. 
 (Angeiol.) fig. 6. n. %. 
 
 SPERMATOCELE, in medicine, a kind of rupture, occa- 
 lioncd by a diftention of the feminal velTels, whereby they 
 are l^t fall into the fcrotum. 
 
 SPHACELUS *, or Sphacelismus, in medicine, a total 
 corruption or mortification of any part, occilioned by an in- 
 terception of the blood, and fpirits. 
 * The word is Greek, r^a^u©- , formed, perhaps, of a-ipctTTv, 
 I kill. — Jt is fometimes, alio, called iiecrofis, and fometimes 
 fideratio. See Necrosis and Sideratio. 
 Sphacelus is diflinguifhcd from gangrene, which is only a mor- 
 tification begun, and, as it were, the road to a fphacclus, 
 which is the ftate, and perfection thereof. 
 The fphacelus is riiltinguifhed by the lividnefs or blacknefi of 
 the part aftedted j its foftnefs, infallibility, and cadaverou* 
 fmell. 
 
 The common caufes of the fphacelus, are clofc ligatures, 
 exceffive colds, great inflammations, bites of mad dogs, CSV. 
 A fphacelous foot, according to Aquapendente, ought to be 
 cut off in the mortified part, near the live part. And when 
 the foot is off, the dead flefh left behind, is to be confirmed, 
 by the application of an actual cautery, repeated feveral 
 times, till the patient feel the heat of the fire. See Supple- 
 ment, article Amputation. 
 SPH^RISTERl UM, EtAiPiSTHriON, in antiquity, the 
 feventh part of the ancient gymnafium ; being that whereiu 
 the youth practifed tennis-playing. 
 
 The fpbtsrijlerium or tennis-court, was between the place, 
 named paltcjlra, and that where they run races, which wa» 
 between the portico's and the outer wall : though ViiruvhiS 
 does not make mention of it in the defcription he gives of 
 the ancient gymnafium. 
 
 The exercife here performed was called v pu fir n/ f, fpbarifti- 
 ca, and o-tpxi^a.yjst., fpb&rcmacbia, which fome will have to 
 have differed from the modern tennis ; but it is not known 
 wherein the difference confifted. 
 
 The Milefians were particularly averfe to this exercife; and 
 the Athenians were as remarkably fond of it. — Thefe latter 
 frequently gave the freedom of their city to the fphari/Ia: ) or 
 mailers in this art, by way of compliment. 
 
 SPHENOIDAL future, in anatomy, a future thus called, 
 from its encompafiing the os fphenoides, which it feparates 
 from the os frontis, the os petrofum and os occipitis. 
 
 SPHENOIDES, in anatomy, os cuneiforme ; a bone of the 
 head, common to the cranium, and upper jaw. 
 It is fituate in the lower part of the fkull, whereof it is, as 
 it were, the bafis, and is connected to all the other mem- 
 bers thereof, by the Sphenoidal future. — See Tab. Anat. 
 (Ofteol.) fig. 7. h. 5 . 
 
 Its form is irregular, and not eafy to be defcribed ; whence 
 fome have called it multiforme. 
 
 It has its name fphenoides, from the Greek, <r<Pf, cuneus, 
 wedge ; by reafon of the manner of its infertion into the 
 other bones of the fkull. 
 
 In adults, it is one continued bone ; but in young children, 
 it fometimes confifts of three, and fometimes of four diftindi 
 pieces. , 
 
 Sphenoides fella. See the article Sella. 
 
 SPHENOPHARYNG^US, in anatomy, a pair of mufeles, 
 called alfo pterygepbaryng.sus, cepbatopbaryngaus, &c. See 
 Pterygopharyngjeus. 
 
 SPHENOSTAPHYLINUS, in anatomy, a mufcle of the 
 larynx. It defcends from a round, flefhy origination, near 
 the root of a procefs of the os fphenoides, and is implanted 
 into the poftcrior part of the uvula, where it joins its part- 
 ner. — It ferves to draw the uvula upwards and backwards -, 
 and hinders die mafticated aliment from palling into the fora- 
 mina narium in deglutition. 
 SPHERE, Sphjera, £<1>aipa, in geometry, a folid body 
 contained under one fingle furface, and having a point in the 
 
 middle, 
 
BP H 
 
 middle, called the centre, whence nil lines drawn tc the fur- 
 face, are equal. 
 
 The fphere is fuppofed to he generated by the revolution of 
 a femi-circle, ABC (Tab. Geometry, fig, 34.) about its dia- 
 meter AC, which is alfo called the (ixis of the fp<here, and 
 the extream points of the axis, A and C, the poles cf the 
 fpbere. 
 
 Properties cf the Sphere. — 1°. A fphere is equal to a pyramid, 
 whofe bafe is equal to the furface, and its height to the ra- 
 dius of the fphere. 
 
 Hence a fphere being cfteemed fuch a pyramid, its cube or 
 folid content, is found like that of a pyramid. 
 2°. A fphers is to a cylinder, ftanding on an eqtial bafts, 
 and of the fame height, as 2 to 3. Hence, alfo, may the 
 cube or content of the fphere be found. 
 3 0 . The cube of the diameter of a fphere, is to the folid 
 content of the fphere, nearly as 300 to 157 : and thus, alfo, 
 may the content of the fphere be meafured. 
 4 0 . The furface of a fphere is quadruple the area of a circle 
 defcribed with the radius of the fphere, . — . For fmce a fphere 
 is equal to a pyramid, whofe bafe is the furface, and its alti- 
 tude the radius of the fphere : the furface of the fpbere is had, 
 by dividing its folidity by a third part of its femi-diametcr. 
 If, now, the diameter of the circle be too, the area will be 
 7850 ; confequently, the folidity 1570000 ; which divided 
 by a third of the fern i -diameter, ioc, the quotient is the 
 furface of the fphere 31400 ; which is manifestly quadruple 
 the area of the circle. 
 The diameter of a Sphere being given, to find its furface and 
 folidity, — Find the periphery of the circle defcribed by the 
 radius of the fphere. 
 
 Multiply this, found, into the diameter ; the product is the 
 furface of the fphere. Multiply the furface by a fixth part 
 of the diameter, the product is the folidity of the fphere. 
 Thus, fuppofing the diameter of the fphere 56, the periphe- 
 ry will be found 175; which multiplied by the diameter, 
 the product 9800 is the furface of the fphere ; which multi- 
 plied by one fixth part of the diameter, gives the folidity 
 019057. Or, thus; 
 
 rind the cube of the diameter 175616; then to 300157, 
 and the cube found, find a fourth proportional, 919057. 
 See Proportional. This is the folidity of the fphere 
 required. 
 
 For fegments and fectors of fphercs y fee Segment and 
 Sector. 
 
 Dotfrine of the Sphere, 3 c . . . SSphericks. 
 
 Prejetjijofthc Sphere, } Sce the ar " c,es iPRo,ECTioN. 
 
 Sphere of ai'livity of any body, is that determinate fpace or 
 extent, all round about it, to which, and no farther, the 
 effluvia continually emitted from that body, do reach, and 
 where they operate according to their nature. 
 Thus we fee the magnetical effluvia have certain bounds and 
 limits, beyond which they will have no influence to turn, or 
 attracvt the needle : but wbere-ever a needle is placed, fo as 
 it may be moved by a load-ftonc, it may be faid to be with- 
 in the fphere of activity of the ftone. 
 
 Sphere, in aftronomy, that concave orb or expanfe, which 
 inverts our globe, and in which the heavenly bodies, fun, 
 ftars, planets and comets, appear to be fixed, at an equal 
 diftance from the eye, 
 
 This is alfo called the fphere of the world; and is the fubject 
 of the fpherical aftronomy. 
 
 This fphere, as it includes the fixed ftars, whence we alfo 
 occalionally call it, the fphere of the fixed flars, is vaftly 
 great. The diameter of the earth's orbit is fo fmati, in re- 
 jpe£t of the diameter hereof, that the centre of the fphere is 
 not fenfibly changed by any alteration of the fpectator's place 
 in the feveral parts of the orbit : but itill, in all the points 
 of the earth's furface, and at all times, the inhabitants have 
 the fame appearance of the fphere ; that is, the fixed ftars 
 feem to polFefs the fame points in the furface of the fphere. 
 — For our way of judging of the places, &c. of the ftars, 
 is to conceive right lines drawn from the eye or the centre 
 of the earth, through the centres of the ftars, and continued 
 thence, till they cut the forefaidy^/wv; the points where 
 thefe lines terminate therein, are the apparent places of thole 
 ftars. 
 
 The better to determine the places of the heavenly bodies in 
 the fphere, feveral circles are imagined to be defcribed in the 
 furface thereof ; hence called circles of the fphere. 
 Of thefe, fome are faid to be greater, as the ecliptic, meri- 
 dian, equator, &c. others Ufs, as the tropicus, parallels, 
 
 Of thefe, again, fome are moveable, or owe their origin to 
 the motion of the earth, isic. fuch are the ecliptic, feconda- 
 ries of the ecliptic, csV. See each circle under its proper 
 head; as Equator, Ecliptic, Horizon, &c. 
 Sphere, in geography, &c. denotes a certain difpoiition of 
 the circles on the furface of the earth, with regard to one 
 another ; which varies in various parts thereof. 
 The circles originally conceived on the furface of the fpbere 
 Vol. II. N°. 144. 
 
 S P H 
 
 of the work", iire Jmoft all transferred, By analogy, to tile 
 furface of the earth ; where they are conceived to ire drawn 
 dircfliy underneath thofe of the fpbere, or in the fame planes 
 therewith ; fo that were the planes of thole ol the earth 
 continued to (hejpbere, they would coincide with the re- 
 fpcdtivc circles thereon — Thus it is we have a horizon, me- 
 ridian, equator, CSV. on the earth. 
 
 As the equator in. the heavens divides the fpbire into two 
 equal parts ; the one north and the other (kith ; fo does the 
 equator on the lurface of the earth, divide the glohe in the 
 fame manner. 
 
 And as the meridians in the heavens, pafs through the poles 
 of the horizon ; fo do thofe on the earth, CV. 
 With regard, then, to the pofiticm of fome of thefe circles 
 in refpect of others, we have a right, a parallel, and an eb- 
 ligae jphere. 
 
 Right Sphere, is that where the equator cuts the horizon o( 
 the place at right angles : for the particular phenomena, tic. 
 whereof, lee.RlC'HT fpbere. 
 
 Parallel Sphere, is where the equator is parallel to the fen- 
 fible horizon, and in the plane of the rational. See Paral- 
 lel fphere. 
 
 Oblique Sphere, is where the equator cuts the horizon ob- 
 liquely. Sec Ueliqje fphere. 
 
 Armillary, or artificial Sphere, is an agronomical inffru- 
 mcnt, reprefcnling the feveral circles of the fphere, in their 
 natural order ; ferving to give an idea of the office and por- 
 tion of each thereof, and to folvc various problems relatir : ■ 
 thereto. 
 
 It is thus called, as confiding of a number of fafcis or riixra 
 of brafs, or other matter, called by the Latins, Irihilla, 
 from their refembling of bracelets, or rings for the arm. 
 By this, it is dtftinguiihed from the globe, which, though it 
 have all the circles of the fphere on its furface ; >et is not 
 cut mto afrftilhe or rings, to reprefent the circles limply and 
 alone ; but exhibits alfo the intermediate fpaces, between 
 the circles. 
 
 Armllarj fphere:, are of different kind;, with regard to the 
 pofition of the earth therein ; whcnc; they become diftin- 
 guifhed into Ptolemaic and Coperuica:: fpberet ■ in the firft 
 whereof, the earth is in the centre ; and in the latter r.c-r 
 the circumference, according to the pofition which that pla- 
 net obtains in thofe lyftems. 
 
 The Ptolemaic Sphere, is that commonly in ufe, and is re- 
 prefented (Tab. AJIronomy, fir. 21.) with the names of the 
 feveral circles, lines, lie. of the fphere, inferibed thereon. 
 In the middle, upon the axis of the fpbire, is a ball, T, rc- 
 prefenting the earth ; on whofe furface are the circles, SSV. 
 of the earth. The fphere is made to revolve about the 
 faid axis, which remains at reft : by which means, the fun's 
 diurnal and annual courfe about the earth, arc reprefentcd 
 according to the Ptolemaic hypothefil : and even by means 
 hereof all problems relating to the phenomena of the fun 
 and earth, are folved, as upon the cceleftial globe; and alter 
 the fame manner ; which fee detcribed under the article 
 Globe. 
 
 The Cepcrnican Sphere, reprefentcd (fig. 22.) is very dif- 
 ferent from the Ptolemaic, both in its confhtutiou and ufe j 
 and is more intricate in both. Indeed the inftrmncnt is in the 
 hands of fo few people, and its ufe fo inconliderablc, except 
 what we have in the other more common inftruments, par- 
 ticularly the globe and Ptolemaic fphere, that we mall be 
 eafily excufed the not taking up room, with any defcrimion 
 thereof. r 
 Harmony ef the Spheres, J {Harmony. 
 Ubliquity if the Sphere, VSee the articles'} Obliquity 
 Rectifying of the Sphere, J IRectefying 
 Dialling Sphere. See the article Dialling. 
 SPHERICAL angle, is the mutual inclination of two planes 
 whereby a fphere is cut. 
 
 Thus the inclination of the two planes, CAF and CEF 
 (Tab Trigonometry, fig. 9. ) forms the fpherical angle A CE. 
 See Sphere. 
 
 The meafure of a fpherical angle, ACE, is an arch of a 
 great circle AE, defcribed from the vertex C, as from a 
 pole, and intercepted between the legs C A and C E. 
 Hence,^ t°. Since the inclination of the plane CEF, to the 
 plane C A F, is every where the fame ; the angles in the op- 
 polite intellections C and F, are cquaj. 
 2 y . Hence the meafure of a fpherical angle ACE, is de- 
 fcribed with the interval of a quadrant AC or EC, from 
 the vertex C between the legs CA, CE. 
 If a circle of the fphere, AEilF (fig. $.) C ut another 
 C E D F, the adjacent angles, A E C and A E D are equal to 
 two right ones ; and the vertical angles AEC and DEJ> 
 equal to one another. The former likewife holds of feveral 
 angles formed 011 the fame arch CED, at the fame point £. 
 Hence, any number ot fpherical angles, as A E C A E D 
 DEB, BEC, CSV. made on the fame point E, are equal 
 to four right angles. See Spherical triangle. 
 Spherical triangle, a triangle comprehended between three 
 1 1 c e arches 
 
S P H 
 
 S P H 
 
 arches of great circles of a fpherc, interfering each other in 
 the furface thereof. See Triangle. 
 Properties of Spherical triangles. — r. If in two fpberical 
 triangles] (Tab. T?-igono?netry, Jig. 10.) ABC and abc, A=a, 
 BA=ba and C A = ca: then will B and the fides, includ- 
 ing the angles, be refpeelively equal, the whole triangles are 
 equal: that is, BC=bc, B — £andC=f. 
 Again, if in two fpberical triangles A = a, C = c , and 
 AC = «i'i then will B = b, A B= a b and ic==BC, 
 Laftly, if in two fpberical triangles AB=ab, AC=a c, 
 and B C = b c, then will A=a, B = b and C=c ; the de- 
 mon ft rations whereof, coincide with thofe of tlie lilce pro- 
 perties in plain triangles. The theorems of the congruency 
 of rectilinear triangles, extending to all other curvilinear, 
 circular, parabolical, provided their fides be fimilar. See 
 Triangle. 
 
 2. In an equicrural triangle ABC (fig. 1 1.) the angles at the 
 bafe, B and C, are equal ; and if in any triangle, the an- 
 gles B and C, at the bale B C, are equal ; the triangle is 
 cquicrurai. 
 
 3. In every fpberical triangle, each fide is lefs than a femi- 
 circle : any two fides taken together are greater than the 
 third ; and' all the three fides together are lefs than the peri- 
 phery of a great circle : and a greater fide is always oppofed 
 to a greater angle, and a lefs fide to a lefs angle. 
 
 4. If in a fpberical triangle B AC (fig. 12.) two legs AB 
 and BC taken together, be equal to a femi-circle ; the bafe 
 AC being continued to D; the external angle BCD will 
 be equal to the internal oppofite one BAG. 
 If the two legs together, be lefs than a femi-circle, the ex- 
 ternal angle fi C D, will be greater than the internal oppofite 
 one A : and if the legs be greater than a femi-circle, the ex- 
 ternal angle BCD, will be lefs than the internal oppofite one 
 A ; and the reverfe of all thefe holds, viz. if the angle BCD 
 be equal to, greater, or lefler than A ; the fides AB and BC 
 are equal to, greater, or leiTer than a femi-circle. 
 
 5. If in a fpberical triangle ABC, two fides AB and B C, 
 be equal to a femi-circle ; the angles at the bafe A and C, 
 are equal to two right ones : if the fides be greater than a 
 femi-circle, the angles-are greater than two right ones ; and 
 if lefs, lefs. And, converfely. 
 
 6. In every fpberical triangle, each angle is lefs than two 
 right ones ; and the three together, are lefs than fix right 
 angles, and greater than two. 
 
 7. If in a fpberical triangle BAC (fig. 13.) the fides AB 
 and A C be quadrants ; the angles at the bafe, B and C, will 
 be right angles. And, if the intercepted angle A be a right 
 angle, B C will be a quadrant : if A be obtufe, B C will be 
 greater than a quadrant ; and if acute, lefs. And, con- 
 verfely. 
 
 8. If in a fpberical rectangular triangle, the fide BC (fig. 14. 1 
 adjacent to the right angle B, be a quadrant ; the angle A 
 will be a right angle ; it B E be greater than a quadrant, 
 the angle A will be obtufe j and if BD be lefs than a qua- 
 drant, the angle A will be acute. And, converfely. 
 o,. If in a fpberical rectangular triangle, each leg be either 
 greater or IclTer than a quadrant; the hypotenufe will be lefs 
 than a quadrant. And, converfely. 
 
 10. If in a fpberical triangle ABC (fig. 15.) rectangular on- 
 ly at B, one fide CB be greater than a quadrant, and the 
 other fide A B lefs ; the hypotenufe A C will be greater than 
 a quadrant. And, converfely. 
 
 11. If in a fpberical obliquangular triangle A C B (fig. 16.) 
 both angles at the bafe, A and B, be either obtufe or acute ; 
 the perpendicular CD let fall from the third angle C to the 
 oppofite fide A B, falls within the triangle ; if one of them, 
 A, be obtufe ; and the other, B, acute; the perpendicular 
 falls without the triangle. 
 
 12. If in a fpberical triangle A C B, all the angles A, B and 
 C be acute ; the fides are each lefs than a quadrant. Hence, 
 if in an obliquangular fpberical triangle, one fide be Greater 
 than a quadrant, one angle is obtufe, viz. that oppofite to 
 this fide. 
 
 13. If in a fpberical triangle ACB, two angles A and B, be 
 obtufe, and the third C acute ; the fides AC and C B op- 
 pofite to the obtufe fides, are greater than a quadrant; and 
 that oppofite to the acute fide A B, is lefs than a quadrant. 
 Hence, if the two lides be lefs than a quadrant, the two an- 
 gles are acute. 
 
 14. If in a fpberical triangle, the feveral fides be each greater 
 than a quadrant ; or only two of them greater, and the third 
 be equal to a quadrant ; the feveral angles are obtufe. 
 
 15. If in an obliquangular fpberical triangle, two fides be 
 lefs than a quadrant, and the third greater ; the angle oppo- 
 fite to the greatcft will be obtufe, and the reft acute. 
 
 Reflation ^/Spherical triangles. See Triangle. 
 
 Spherical aflronomy, that part of aftronomy which confi- 
 ders the univerfe, fuch as it appears to the eye. See Astro- 
 nomy. 
 
 Under fpberical aflronomy, then, come all the phaenomena 
 and appearances of the heavens and heavenly bodies, fuch as 
 we perceive them; without any enquiry into the reafon, the 
 theory, or the truth thereof. — By which it is diftinguifhed 
 
 from tlmrlcal aflronomy, which confiders the real ftruclurt 
 of the univerfe, and the caufes of thofe phxnomena. 
 In the fpberical aflronomy, the world is conceived to be a 
 concave, fpberical furface, in whole centre is the earth, or 
 rather the eye, about which the vifible frame revolves, with 
 fbrs and planets fixed in the circumference thereof. And on 
 this fuppofition all the other phxnomena are determined. 
 The theorical aflronomy teaches us, from the laws ofopticksi 
 ISc, to cor reel: this fcheme, and reduce the whole to ajufter 
 fyftem. See System. 
 Spherical compaffes. See the article Compasses. 
 Spherical geometry,, the doctrine of the fphere ; particular- 
 ly of the circles defcribed on the furface thereof, with the 
 method of projecting the fame on a plane ; and meafuring 
 their arches and angles when projected. 
 Spherical trigonometry, the art of refolving fpherical trian 1 - 
 gles, it e. from three parts of a fpberical triangle given, to 
 find the reft. — E.gr. From two fides and one angle ; to rind 
 the other two angles, and the third fide. See Spherical 
 triangle. . ,. A Ai 
 
 SPHERICITY, the quality of a fphere ; or that whereby 
 a thing becomes fpherical or round. 
 
 The fpbericity of pebbles, fruits, berries, px. as alfo of 
 drops or water, quick-filver, &c. and of bubbles of air un- 
 der water, f5Y. Dr. Hook takes to arife from the incon- 
 gruity of their particles with thofe of the ambient fluid, 
 which prevents their coalcfcing ; and by preffing on them, 
 and encompaffmg them all round equally, turns them into a 
 round form. 
 
 This, he thinks, appears evidently, from the manner of 
 making fmall round ihot of feveral fizes, without calling the 
 lead into any moulds ; from drops of rain being formed, in 
 their fall, into round hail-ftones ; and from drops of water 
 falling on fmall duft, fand, &e. which ftrait produce an ar- 
 tificial round mafs ; and from the fmall, round, red-hot 
 balls, formed by the collifion or fufion of flint and fteel, in 
 itriking fire. 
 
 But all thefe cafes of fpbericity feem better accounted for, 
 from the great principle of attraction ; whereby the parts of 
 the fame fluid drop, £$c. are all naturally ranged as near the 
 centre as pofflble, which ncceflarily induces a fpherical figure : 
 and, perhaps, a repelling force between the particles of the 
 drop, and of the medium, contributes alfo not a little thereto. 
 S P H E R I CK S, the do£lrine of tbe fphere, particularly of the 
 feveral circles defcribed on the furface thereof ; with the 
 method of projecting the fame in piano. 
 The principal matters fhewn herein, are as follow : 
 
 1. If a fphere be cut in any manner, the plane of the fec- 
 tion will be a circle, whofe centre is in the diameter of the 
 fpherc. 
 
 Hence, i°. The diameter HI (Tab. Trigonometry, fig. jy.) 
 of a circle, paffing through the centre C, is equal to the di- 
 ameter A B of the generating circle ; and the diameter of a 
 circle, as F E, that does not pafs through the centre, is equal 
 to fome chord of the generating circle. 
 
 Hence, 2°. As the diameter is the greatefi of all chords, a 
 circle paffing through the centre, is the greatelt circle of the 
 fphere ; and all the reft arc lefler than the fame. 
 Hence alio, 3 0 . All great circles of the fphere are equal to 
 one another. 
 
 Hence alfo, 4 0 . If a great circle of the fphere pafs through 
 any given point of the fpherc, as A ; it muft alfo pafs through 
 the point diametrically oppofite thereto, as B. 
 Hence alfo, 5°. If two great circles mutually interfect each 
 other, the line of ftction is the diameter of the fphere, and 
 therefore two great circles interfect each other in points dia- 
 metrically oppofite. 
 
 Hence alfo, 6°, A great circle of the fphere, divides it into 
 two equal parts or hemifpheres. 
 
 2. All great circles of the fphere, cut each other into two 
 parts; and, converfely, all circles, that thus cut each other, 
 are great circles of the fphere. 
 
 3. An arch of a great circle of the fphere, intercepted be- 
 tween another arch HIL (fig. 18.) and its poles A and B, is 
 a quadrant. 
 
 That intercepted between a lefs circle D E F, and one of 
 its poles A, is greater than a quadrant; and that between 
 the fame, and the other pole B, lefs than a quadrant ; and, 
 converfely. 
 
 4. If a great circle of the fphere pafs through the poles of 
 another, that other paifes through the poles of this. And if 
 a great circle pafs through the poles of another, the two cut 
 each other at right angles ; and, converfely. 
 
 5. If a great circle, as AF BD, pafs through the poles A 
 and B of a lefler circle D E F, it cuts it into equal parts ; 
 and at right angles. 
 
 6. If two great circles AEBF and CEDF (fig. 19.) inter- 
 fect e2ch other in the poles E and F of another great circle 
 AC BD ; that other will pafs though the poles H and h, I 
 and i of the circles AEBF and CEDF. 
 
 7. If two great circles AE B F and CEDF, cut each o- 
 ther mutually ; the angle of obliquity A EC, will be equal 
 to the diftar.ee of the pole HI, 
 
 8. All 
 
S P H 
 
 s p i 
 
 8. All circles of the fphere, as GF and LK (fig.ip.) equally 
 diftant from its centre C, arc equal ; and the further they are 
 removed from the centre, the leJs they are. Hence, fince 
 of all parallel chords, only two, DF and ETC, are equally 
 diftant from the centre; of all the circles parallel to the fame 
 great circle, only two are equal. 
 
 9. If the arches FH and KH, and G I and I L, intercepted 
 between a great circle I M H, and the letter circles G N F 
 and L OK, be equal, the circles are equal. 
 
 10. If the arches FH and GI of the fame great circle AtBH, 
 intercepted between two circles GNF and IMH, be equal, 
 the ciicles are parallel. 
 
 4 I . An arch of a parallel circle I G ( fig. 9.) is fimilar to an 
 arch of a great circle AE ; if each be intercepted between 
 the fame great circles CAF and CEF. 
 Hence, the arches AE and IG, have the fame ratio to their 
 peripherics; and, confequently, contain the fame number of 
 degrees. And hence the arch IG is lefs than the arch AE. 
 12. The arch of a great circle, is the foorteft line which 
 can be drawn from one point of the furface of the fphere to 
 another : and tiie lines between any two points on the fame 
 furface, are the greater, as the circles whereof they are 
 arches are the lefs. 
 
 Hence, the proper mcafure, or diftance of two places on the 
 furface of the fphere, is an arch of a great circle intercepted 
 between the fame. 
 SPHEROID*, Sphjeroides, ZfcAiroEiAHZ, in geome- 
 try, a folid approaching to the figure of a fphere, though not 
 exactly round, but oblong; as having one of its diameters 
 bigger than the other ; and generated by the revolution of a 
 lemi-elliplis about its axis. 
 
 * The word is formed from a-fayx., [pbtsra., and in?'©', fhape. 
 When it is generated by the revolution of the femi-ellipfis 
 about its greater axis, it is called an oblor.g fpheroid. — And 
 when generated by the revolution of anclliplis about its lefs 
 axis, an oblate fphtroid. 
 
 The contour of a dome, Daviler obferves, ftiould be half a 
 fpheroid. Half a fphere, he fays, is too low to have a good 
 effect below. 
 
 For the folid dimenfion of a fpheroid, it is f of its circum- 
 Jcribing cylinder : or it is equal to a cone, whofe altitude is 
 equal to the great axis, and the diameter of the bafe to four 
 times the lefs axis of the generating ellipfis. 
 Or a fpheroid is to a fphere defcribed on its greater axis, as 
 the fquare of the lefs axis to the iquare of the greater : or it 
 is to a fphere defcribed on the lciler axis, as the greater axis 
 to the lefs. 
 
 SPHINCTER*, in anatomy, a term applied to a kind of 
 circular mufcles, or mufejes in form of rings, which ferve to 
 clofe and draw up feveral orifices of the body, and prevent 
 the excretion of the contents. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, trtywrr^, jlrifiar, cr 
 canjlTidor, fomething tkat binds and conftringes a thing very 
 clolely ; thefe mufcles having an effect much like that: of a 
 purfe-ftring. 
 
 Sphincter Mi, is a circular mufclc, ferving to fhut the anus, 
 and keep the excrements from coming away involuntarily. 
 ]t is near two inches broad, and is carried down below the 
 re£tum, near an inch. It is faftened on the fides to the bones 
 of the coxendix, and behind to the os facrum : and before, 
 in men, to the accelerator urina?, and in women, to the va- 
 gina uteri. Some would have it to be two mufcles, and fome 
 three; but without any found reafon. 
 
 Sphincter gula, 1? , • < ( Oesophag jeus. 
 
 Sphincter labiorum, S ce thS 3 3 1 Constrictor. 
 
 Sphincter vagina, a conftriftory mufcle, ferving to hinder 
 the reflux of the blood from the clitoris, &c. in coition. 
 
 Sthincter vefica:, is a mufcle confirming of circular fibres, 
 placed at the exit of the bladder, to prevent the perpetual 
 dripping of the urine. — See Tab. Anat. ( Splanch. ) fig, 9. 
 lit. A, 
 
 It keeps the bladder conftantly fhut ; and is only opened, 
 when by the contraction of the abdominal mufcles, the blad- 
 der is comprelicd, and the urine forced out. 
 SPH 1 NX, SOirs, in fculpture, &c. a figure or reprefentation 
 of a monller of that name, famed among the ancients, now 
 moftly ufed as an ornament in gardens, terraces, fete. 
 It is reprefentcd with the head and breafts of a woman, the 
 wings of a bird, the claws of a lion, and the reft of the body 
 like a dog. 
 
 It is fuppofed to have been engendered by Typhon, and fent 
 by Juno, to be revenged on the Thebans. Its office, they fay, 
 was to propofe dark, enigmatical queftions to all paflcrs-by, 
 and if they did not give the explication thereof, to devour 
 them. 
 
 It made horrible ravages, as the ftory goes, on a mountain 
 near Thebes, and could not by any means be deftroyed, till 
 after Oedipus lud fulved the following riddle : What animal 
 is it, tiiat in the morning walks on tour legs, at noon on two, 
 and at night on three? The anfwer W as Man. 
 Among the Egyptians, the_#/;/w*was the fymbol of religion, 
 by reafon of the obfeurity of its myfteries. And on the lame 
 account, the Romans placed a fph'mx in the promos or porch 
 of their temples. 
 
 SPICA virginis, a flar of the nrft magnitude in the conile!la- 
 tion virgo. 
 
 Its place is in the more foutherly hand. Its longitude, ac- 
 cording to Mr. Fiamflced, is 19" 31' 22"; its latitude 2 Q 1' 
 59" fouth. 
 
 SPICE, any kind of aromatic drug, that has hot and pungent 
 qualities : fuch are pepper, nutmeg, ginger, cinnamon and 
 cloves. 
 
 Some alfo apply the word to divers other medicinal drugs 
 brought from the eaft ; as fenna, caflia, frankincenfe, ttc* 
 See each under its proper article. 
 Garbler of Spices, See the article Garrler. 
 
 spiders web, 3 i Web. 
 
 SPIKENARD, nariius, or Spica nardi, a kind of vegeta- 
 ble fhoot growing even with the ground, and fometimcs, in 
 part, within the ground ; it is warm, fpicy, cordial and a- 
 lcxipharmic; and as fuch is ufed in the compofition of veniec- 
 treacle. 
 
 The ear or /pica, is about the length and thicknefs of a fin- 
 ger ; very light, covered with long, reddifh hairs, of a ftrong 
 fmell, and a bittcrifh, fharp taftc. There rife feveral of thefe 
 ears horn the fame root. The ftcm is fmall, and the root 
 of the thicknefs of a quill. 
 
 The fpiea-neirdi, is ufually reckoned in the number of roots. 
 — It is alfo called nardm Indica ; becaufe brought from the 
 Eaft-Indies. 
 
 It is accounted a ftomachic, nephritic and carminative, pro- 
 per to ftrengthen the ftomach, and to promote the difchargc 
 of urine, and difperfe flatulencies. 
 
 There is alfo another kind, called fipica-ecltica, growing in 
 the Pyrencans, and the mountains of Tirol : this has much the 
 fame virtues with valerian ; and is not nearly of equal eflecm 
 with the former. 
 
 SPIKING up the ordnance, a fea phrafe, ufed for fattening a 
 quoin with fpikes to the deck, clofe to the breech of the car- 
 riages of great guns; that they may keep clofe and firm to 
 the fhip's fides, and not get loofe when the Ihip rolls, and by 
 that means endanger the breaking out of the butt-head of a 
 plank. See Quoin. 
 
 SPINA ventofa, in medicine, Wc. denotes a caries or rottcn- 
 nefs of a bone, with fwellings, and other bad fymptoms. 
 
 SPINAL marrow. See the arncle Medulla fpinalis. 
 
 In the hiftory of the royal academy of fciences, for the year 
 1714, we have an inftance of a fcetus born without either 
 brain, cerebel, or fpitial marrow, though perfectly' well form- 
 ed in other refpects. It had gone its natural time ; lived 
 two hours; and even gave figns of life, upon (prinkling the 
 baptifmal water on its head. — Inftances of this kind, as this 
 is not the only one we meet withal, furnifh a terrible objec- 
 tion^ again ft the exigence of the animal fpirits, which ihould 
 be generated in the brain, or at leaft in the cerebel or fplnal 
 marrozv ; and which are generally allowed of fuch abfolute 
 nccefiity in the animal ceconomy. 
 
 Spin al nerves. See the article Nerve. 
 
 SPINALIS, in anatomy, a mufcle on the fide of the neck 
 arifmg from the five fuperior precedes of the vertebra; of the 
 thorax, and the inferior of the neck ; and which in its af- 
 cent, becoming morefiefliy, is inferted into the inferior part 
 of the vertebra; of the neck, laterally. It fcrves to draw 
 the neck backwards. 
 
 Medulla Spinalis. Sec the article Medulla. 
 
 SPINDLE, in the fea language, is the fmalleft part of a fhip's 
 capftan, which is betwixt the two decks. 
 The fpindle of the jeer capftan hath whelps to heave the viol. 
 See Capstan. 
 
 The axis of a wheel of a watch or clock, is alfo called the 
 fp'tndle, and its ends the pevet. 
 SPINE*, Spina dorfi, in anatomy, the feries or afiemblage 
 of vertebra:, or bones of the back, which fuftain the reft of 
 the body, and to which are connected the ribs.— See Tab 
 Anat. (Ofteol.) 3. ///. A A. fig. 7. lit. A A. 
 
 * It has its name /fine, by reafon the hind part thereof is edg- 
 ed, cr fp>,y.— Some call it the canalh facer. 
 The fphie is ufually divided into four parts ; the neck, which 
 contains feven vertebra? ; the back twelve ; the loins five; 
 and the os facrum four. 
 
 The fpine includes a kind of medulla, much rcfembling that 
 of the brain, hence called medulla fpinalis, or fpinal marrow. 
 See Medulla. 
 SPINET, orSpiNNET, a mufical inftrument, ranked in 
 the fecond or third place among harmonious inftru- 
 ments. 
 
 It confifts of a cheft or belly, made of the moft porous and 
 refmous wood to be found ; and a table of fir glued on flips 
 of wood called fummers, which bear on the fides. On the 
 table is railed a little prominence, wherein are placed as ma- 
 ny pins as there are firings to the inftrument. 
 The inftrument is played by two ranges of keys, the fore, 
 moft range being in the order of the diatonic fcale ; and the 
 other tangc fet backwards in the order of the artificial notes 
 or femi-tones. 
 
 The keys arcfo many long, flat flips of wood, which when 
 touched and prefled down at one end, nuke the other rail" c 
 
 3 
 
S P I 
 
 S P I 
 
 a jack, which founds the firings by means of the end of a 
 crow*s quill, wherewith it is armed. The thirty firft firings 
 are of brafs, the other more delicate ones fhould be of fteel 
 or iron wires. They are all ftretched over two bridges glued 
 to the table. 
 
 The figure of the jptntt is along fquare, or parallelogram, some 
 call it a harp combed, and the harp, an inverted 'j'pinet. 
 The fpinet is generally tuned by the ear ; which method of 
 the practical muficians, is founded on tin's fuppofition, that 
 the car is a perfect judge of an octave and fifth. The 
 general rule, is to begin at a certain note, as c, taken to- 
 wards the middle of the infirument, and tune all the oc- 
 taves up and down, and alfo the fifths, reckoning feven 
 femi-tones to each fifth, by which means the whole is tuned. 
 Sometimes to the common or fundamental play of the fpnet, 
 which is the great octave, is added another GmUar one in 
 unifon, and a third in octave to the firft ; to make the har- 
 mony the fuller. They are played either feparately or to- 
 gether, which is called the double or triple fpinet. Sometimes 
 a play of violins is added, by means of a bow, or a few 
 wheels parallel to the keys, which prefs the filings, and 
 make the founds laft as long as the mufidan pleafes ; and 
 heighten and (often them, as they are more or lefs prefled. 
 The harpficurd is a kind of fpinet, only with another difpo- 
 fition of the keys. See Harpsicord. 
 The infirument takes its name from the little quills ends, 
 wherewith the firings are drawn, which are fuppoied to re- 
 (eftittejftfar, thorns. 
 SPINIS.— Attackiamenta deSvims Etf bofco. SeeATTA- 
 
 CH'IAHENTA. . 
 SPINNING, in commerce, the act or art of reducing iilk, 
 fiax, hemp, wool, hair, or other matter into thread. 
 Spinning, is cither performed on the wheel, or with a diftaff 
 and fpindle, or with other machines proper for the feveral 
 kinds of working.— Hemp, flax, nettle-thread, and other 
 like vegetable matters are to be wetted in fanning; filks, wools, 
 tSc. are fpuu dry, and do not need water ; yet there is a way 
 of /pinning filk as it comes oft" the cafes or balls, where hot, 
 and even boiling water is to be ufed. See Silk, 
 SPINOSISM. See the article Spinozism. 
 SPINOUS pjb. See the article Fish. 
 
 SPINOZ1SM, or Spinosism, the doctrine of Spinoza; or, 
 atheifm and pantheifm propofed after the manner of Spinoza. 
 The great principle of Spinozlfm is, that there is nothing pro- 
 perly and absolutely exifting, but matter, and the modifica' 
 tions of matter; among which are even comprehended, 
 thoughts, abftract and general ideas, comparifons, relations, 
 combinations of relations, &c. 
 
 Benedict Sponoza, or Efpinsza, was a man well known in 
 Holland. He was born a Jew at Amftcrdam ; but did not 
 make profeflion of any religion, either the Jewifh or Chrif- 
 tian. — He compofed feveral books in Latin ; the molt cele- 
 brated whereof, is hhTraSlatus Theologico-Politicus, wherein 
 he overturns the foundation of all religion : the book, ac- 
 cordingly, was condemned by a publick decree of the fiates ; 
 though it has fmce been fold publickly, and even reprinted, 
 both in Latin and French, in that country, and lately in 
 Knglifti at London. 
 
 Spinoza, here, infiuuates, that al! religions are only political 
 engines, calculated for the publick good ; to render the peo- 
 ple obedient to magistrates, and to make them practife virtue 
 and morality. 
 
 He does not here lay down his notion of the Deity openly ; 
 but contents himfelf with fuggefting it. — In his Ethicks, 
 publifhed among his pofthumous works, he is more open and 
 exprefs ; maintaining, that God is not, as we imagine him, 
 an infinite, intelligent, happy and perfect Being; nor any 
 thing, but that natural virtue, or faculty, which is diffufed 
 throughout all creatures. 
 
 Numbers have undertaken to refute Spinoza's doctrine ; but 
 all very weakly, except what we have in Dr. Clarke's fcr- 
 mons at Boyle's lecture. — -Witfius in Holland, Majus in 
 Germany, and de la Mothe in England, wrote againft his 
 Traclatus : but Bredcnbourg, according to M. Bayle, fuc- 
 ceeded belt on the fubject ; who, however, is faid to have 
 afterwards been a convert to Spinozlfm, and to have written 
 a demonstration of the truth of it. — The writers againft Spi- 
 noza's Etbicks, are Velthuyfius in his Traclatus decultuna- 
 turali & origine moralitatis : de Verfe, in I' hnpie cmvaincu, 
 ou dij/ertatien contre Spinoza ; Poiret in Fundcmenta atbeifml 
 everfa .-Wittichius in Anti-Spinoza ; Lami in Nouvcl atheijme 
 renverfc; Jaquelot in Dijfertations fur I'exijhnce de Dieu ; 
 Jens in Exainen Pbilofcpkicum jextee defnltionis partis prima 
 Ethica Bened. Spinoza. Befidesmany others enumerated in 
 Colerus's life of Spinoza, p. 132, Jenichen's Hijlor. Spino- 
 zifmi Eeenbopan, p. 58. fcqq. Buddeus'i Thrjh de Atbeifmo 
 ■faf Superjhtiane, cap. 1. §. 26. and Fabricius's Syliab. Script, 
 dc Vtritatt religioms cbrijlianer, p. 357. fcqq. 
 Spinoza, in his Traclatus above-mentioned, is very full on 
 the fubjeft of the authors of the fcripturcs ; and endeavours 
 to fhew, that the Pentateuch is not the work of Moles ■ 
 contrary to the common opinion, both of the Jews, and 
 
 4 
 
 Cbuftians, He has alfo his particular fentiments, as to the 
 authors of the other books. — This part of the work has been 
 anfwered by M. Hucr, in his Demonflratio Eijangelic'a ; and 
 by M. Simon, in his HijL Crlt. du vieux Tefi. See Pen- 
 tateuch. 
 
 Spwozifm is a fpecics of naturalifm, or pantheifm, orhvlo- 
 theifm, as it is fometimes called, i.e. of" the dogma wnich. 
 allows of no other God but nature, or the univerfe ; and, 
 therefore, makes blatter to be God. — Accordingly, Buddeus, 
 in a difitrtation de Spinozifmo ante Spinozam, proves at large, 
 that Spinoza's doctrine of God and the world, is far front 
 being iiis own invention, but that it had been held by many 
 philofophers of different fects, both among the Chaldeans and 
 Greeks. — It is certain, the opinion of the Stoicks, and thofe 
 who held an antma mundi, was not far from it. Lucan in- 
 troduces Cato difcourfing thus : 
 
 Ejlne Dei jedes nifi terra, & penttis, & a'cr, 
 
 Et cesium, (S virtus ? fuperos quid quetrtmus ultra f 
 
 'Jupiter eji quodcur.q; vides, quocur.q; msveris. 
 
 Luc. Pharf. 1. 9. v. 578. 
 Strato likewife, and others among the Peripate ticks, main- 
 tained fomething very like it ; and what is more, though no 
 ancient feet feems farther removed from Spino-zlfm than the 
 Platonic, as they attributed the grcateft freedom to God, and 
 carefully diftinguifhed him from matter ; yet Gundlingius 
 has proved at large, that Plato gave matter much the lame 
 origin with Spinoza. — But the fed that approached neareft to 
 Spifiuzifm, was that which taught that all things were one, as 
 Xenoplianes the Colophonian, Parmenides, Melilfus, and 
 efpecially Zeno Eleates, whence it obtained the name of the 
 Eleatic fyjlem of atheifm. — To the fame may alfo be reduced 
 the opinion of thofe, who held the firft matter for God, as 
 Alnuncus and David of Dinantum. Add that the i'ect of 
 l ot in China and Japan, that of the Soufi in Penia, and that 
 of the Zindikites in Turky, are found to phibfophize much 
 after the manner of Spinoza. 
 
 The chief article in Spinoza's fyftem are reducible to thefe. 
 — 1 hat there is but one fubfiance in nature ; and that this 
 only fubfiance is endued with an infinite number of attri- 
 butes, among which areextenfion and cogitation. — That all 
 the bodies in the univerfe are modifications of this fubfiance 
 confidered as it is extended ; and that all the fouls of men 
 are modifications of the fame fubftance confidered as cogita- 
 tive. — I hat God is a ncceflary and infinitely perfect being, 
 and is the caufe of all things that exift, but is n-'t a different 
 being from them. — That there is but one being and one na- 
 ture ; and that this nature produces within itfelf, by an im- 
 manent act, all thofe which we call creatures. — And that 
 this being is at the fame time both agent and patient, efficient 
 caiife and fubject ; but that he produces nothing but modifi- 
 cations of himfelf. 
 
 Thus is the Deity made the fole agent as well as patient in 
 all evil, both phyfical and moral, that called malum panes t as 
 well as malum culpa; a doctrine fraught with more impieties 
 than all the heathen poets have publifhed concerning their 
 Jupiter, Venus, Bacchus, What feems to have led Spi- 
 
 noza to frame this fyftem, was the difficulty of conceiving, 
 either that matter is eternal, and different from God, or that 
 it could be produced from nothing, or that an infinite and 
 free being could have made a world fuch as this is. — A mat- 
 ter that exifts nectfllirily, and which neverthelcfs is void of 
 activity, and fubject to the power of another principle, is art 
 object that ftartles our underftanding ; as there feems no a- 
 greement between the three conditions. — A matter created 
 out of nothing is no lefs inconceivable, whatever efforts we 
 make to form an idea of an act of the will that can change 
 what before was nothing, into real fubftance. Befides its be- 
 ing contrary to that known maxim of pliilofophers, ex nibtla 
 nihil fit.— In fine, that an infinitely good, holy, free Being, 
 who could have made his creatures good, and happy, fhouTd 
 rather chufe to have them wicked, and eternally miferable, 
 is no lefs incomprehensible ; and the rather, as it feems diffi- 
 cult to reconcile the freedom of man with the quality of a be- 
 ing made out of nothing. 
 
 Thefe appear to have been the difficulties which led Spinoza 
 to fearch for a new fyftem, wherein God fhould not be di- 
 ftinct from matter, and wherein be fhould a£t neceflarily, 
 and to the extent of all his power, not out of himfelf [ad 
 txtra] but within himfelf. — But it is certain, if the new fyf- 
 tem refcue us from fome difficulties, it involves in others 
 much greater. — For, 
 
 j °. It is impoffible the univerfe fhould be but one fubftance ; 
 fince every thing that is extended muft neceffarily have parts ; 
 and what has parts muft be compounded. And as the parts 
 of extenfion do not fubfift in each other, it follows, either 
 that extenfion in the general is not fubftance, or that every 
 part of extenfion is a different fubftance. Now, according 
 to Spinoza, extenfion in general is an attribute of fubftancct 
 And he allows, with other pbiiofopbers, that the attributes 
 of fubfiance do not differ really from the fubfiance itfelf. He 
 muft therefore allow, that extenfion in general is fubfiance : 
 whence it will follow, that every part of extenfion is a parti- 
 cular fubfiance: which overturns the whole fyftem. 
 
 If 
 
s P i 
 
 s P I 
 
 If it be objected, that Spinoza does not confider different bo- 
 dies, as different parts of extenfion, but as different modifi- 
 cations of it : the diftinction between part and modification, 
 we doubt will hardly fave him. For let him avoid the word 
 part as much as he pleafe, and fubftitute that of modality or 
 modification for it, the doctrine will amount to much the 
 fame : the characters of diverfity are not lefs real and evi- 
 dent, when matter is divided into modifications, than when 
 it is divided into parts. The idea of the univcrfe will ftill 
 be that of a compound being, or an aggregate of feveral 
 fubftances. 
 
 For proof of this, it may be obferved, that modalities are 
 beings which cannot exift without the fubftance which mo- 
 difies them ; whence it follows, that the fubftance muft be 
 found where-ever its modalities are found ; and even that 
 the fubftance muft be multiplied in proportion as the number 
 of incompatible modifications is multiplied : fo that where- 
 ever there are five or fix of thefe modifications, there muft be 
 five or fix fubftances. It is evidenr, that a fquare figure, and 
 a circular figure are incompatible in the fame piece of wax. 
 Whence it follows, that the fubftance modified by the fquare 
 figure cannot be the fame fubftaftee with that modified by 
 the round figure. So when I fee a round and a fquare table 
 in a room, I may fafely affert, that the extention which 
 makes the fubject pf the round table is a diftinct fubftance 
 from the extenfion which is the fubject of the fquare table : 
 fincc otherwife it would follow, that the fquare and round 
 figures might be found in the fame fubject at the fame time. 
 — The fubject, therefore, that is modified by two figures, 
 muft be two fubftances. 
 
 1°. If it be abfurd to make God extended, as this robs him 
 of his fimplicity, and makes him be compofed of parts ; it 
 is ftill worfe to reduce him to the condition of matter, the 
 loweft of all beings, and that which moft of the ancient 
 philofophers ranked immediately above nothing : matter ! 
 the theatre of all forts of changes, the field of battle of con- 
 trary caufes, the fubject of all corruptions and generations ; 
 in a word, the being of all others moft incompatible with 
 the immutability of the Deity ! 
 
 The Spinozi/ls, indeed, maintain, that it is not fufcptible 
 of any divifion ; but the argument they alledgc in proof ot 
 it, we have elfewhere ffiewn to be falfe : it is, that for mat- 
 ter to be divided, it is necclTary that one of the parts be fe- 
 parated from the other by a void fpace, which is impoffible : 
 iince, they fay, there is no vacuum in nature. Sec Vacuum. 
 3 9 . If Spinozifm appear extravagant when we confider God 
 as the fubject of all the mutations, corruptions and genera- 
 lions in bodies ; it will be found ftill worfe, when we confi- 
 der him as the fubjecTt of all the modifications of thinking. 
 It is no froaji difficulty, to unite extenfion and thinking in 
 the fame fubftance ; fince it is not an union like that of two 
 metals, or of water and wine, that will fcrve the purpofe : 
 thefc laft require only juxta-poiition ; whereas to combine 
 thinking and extenfion requires an identity; thinking and 
 extended are two attributes identified with the fubftance ; 
 and confequently they are identified with each other, by the 
 fundamental rule of all logic. 
 
 Again, when wc fay, that a man denies this, affirms that, 
 likes tSat, &c. wc make all thofc attributes fall on the fub- 
 ftance of his mind, not on his thoughts, which are only ac- 
 cidents or modifications of it. If therefore what Spinoza ad- 
 vances be true, that men are modalities of God ; it would 
 be falfe to fay, Peter denies, likes, wills, &ic. fincc in reali- 
 ty, on this fyften), it is God that denies, wills, EsV. and 
 confequently all the denominations which arife from the 
 thoughts, defires, csV. of men, fall properly and phyfically 
 on the fubftance of God. From whence it alfo follows, that 
 God affirms and denies, loves and hates, wills and nills the 
 fame thing, at the fame time, and under the fame condi- 
 tions : contrary to the great principle of reafoning : oppofita 
 funt qua & neq; de fe invicem, neq; de eodem tertjo fecundum 
 idem, ad idem, eodemmodo atq; tempore ver'e ajfirmari pofiiint ; 
 which muft be falfe, if Spinozifm be true : fince it can- 
 not be denied but fomc men love and affirm what others 
 hate and deny, under all the conditions expreffed in the 
 rule. 
 
 4°. But if it be phyfically abfurd, to fay the fame fubject is 
 modified at the fame time with all the different thoughts ot 
 all men ; it is horrible when we confider it in a moral light. 
 Since it will follow, that the infinite, the all-perfect Being 
 
 • is not conftant, is not the fame one moment, but is eternal- 
 ly poftcfied even with contrary paffions ; all the uniformity 
 in him in this refpect, will be, that for one good and wife 
 thought he will have twenty foolifh and wicked ones. He 
 will not only be the efficient caufc of all the errors, iniqui- 
 ties and impurities of men, but alfo the paflive fubject of 
 them, the fubjetlum inh&ftonis. He muft be united with 
 them in the clofeifc manner that can be conceived, even by 
 a penetrative union, or rather an identity, fince the mode is 
 not really diftinct from the fubftance modified. 
 
 SPINSTER, in law, an addition ufually given to all un- 
 married women, from the vifcount's daughter down- 
 wards. 
 
 Yet Sir Edward Coke fays, gencrofa is a good addition for a 
 gentlewoman ; and that if Inch a perlbn be named fp'mjhr 
 Vot. II. N°.CXLV. 
 
 in any original writ, appeal or indictment, fhc may abate 
 and quafh the fame. 
 
 Spelman fays, that anciently, even queens ufed the diftaff 
 and fpindle ; whence fpinjler became a common appellation 
 for all women. 
 SPIRACLE. See the article Vs NT. 
 
 SPIRAL, in geometry, a curve line, of the circular kind, 
 which in its progrefs recedes from its centre ; as in winding 
 from the vertex, down to the bafe of a cone. See Spire. 
 It is called from its inventor, Archimedes^ fpire, or helix ; 
 and is thus defcribed. — Divide the periphery of a circle 
 AP p A (Tab. Geometry, fig. 39. ) into any number of equal 
 parts, by a continual biflection in the points p. Into the 
 fame number of parts divide the radiu3 C A, and make C M 
 equal to .one part, Cm to two parts, &c. — Then will the 
 points M m, m, is'c. be points in the fpiral, which connect- 
 ed, will give the fpiral itfelf. 
 
 This is more particularly called the fi/J? fpiral, and the fpace 
 included between its centre, and the point A, the fpiral 
 fpace. 
 
 This firft fpiral may be continued to a fecond fpiral, by de- 
 ferring another circle with double the radius of the firft ; 
 and the fecond may be continued to a third, by a third cir- 
 cle, &c. 
 
 Hence i°. AP is to the periphery, as C m to the radius. 
 Wherefore, if the periphery be called p, the radius AC=r, 
 AP=^, PM=_yj then will CM=r— y .- confequently a. 
 p : r : ; x ; r — y> we ftiall have pr — py=r x. 
 2°. IfCM==y; then will r x=py. Which equation the 
 fpiral has in common with the quadratrix of Dinoftrates, 
 and that of Tfchirnhaufen j and therefore r" x m —p "y m will 
 ferve for infinite fpirals and quadratrices. See Quadra- 
 trix. 
 
 3°. The lines M m t Mm, &c. are to one another as tlic 
 arches of the circle, intercepted between MA and thofc 
 lines: and, when continued, making equal angles with the 
 firft and fecond fpiral, are in arithmetical proportion. 
 4 a . Lines drawn from M to the fecond fj'iral, are to each 
 other as the faid arches, together with the whole periphery 
 added on both fides. 
 
 Quadrature <j/"Spirals, £ c; £ Quadrature. 
 
 Logijlic Spiral, J> " ee cLogistic. 
 
 Spiral, in architecture and fculpture, denotes a curve th^t 
 afcends, winding about a cone or fpire ; fo as all (lie point; 
 thereof continually approach the axis. 
 
 By this it is diftinguifhed from the helix, which winds after 
 the fame manner, around a cylinder. — Ignorant architects 
 confound the two: but the more knowing diflinguifh them 
 carefully. See Helix. 
 
 The fpiral line mav be conceived to be thus generated. — If 
 a right line, as A B (Tab. Geometry, fig. 40.) having one cm! 
 fixed at B, be equally moved round, fo as with the Other 
 end A, to defcribc the periphery of a circle j and at the 
 fame time, a point be conceived to move forward, equally 
 from B towards A in the right line A B, fo as that the point 
 defciibes that line, while the line generates the circle: Then 
 will the point, with its two motions, defcribe the curve B, 
 i t 2, 3, 4, 5, CSV. which is called a fpiral line, and the 
 plain Ipacc contained between the fpiral line, and the right 
 line BA, is called the fpiral fpace. 
 
 Again, if the point B be conceived to move twice as flow as 
 the line AB ; fo that It ftiall get but half way along B A, 
 when that line fhail have formed the circle ; and if then, 
 you imagine a new revolution to be made of the line carry- 
 ing the point, fo that they ftiall end their motion at laft to- 
 gether; there will be formed a double fpiral line ; as in the 
 figure : from the manner of which, may be eafily drawn 
 thefe corollaries. 
 
 1. That the lines B 12, B 11, B 10, £37. making equal 
 angles with the fiift and fecond fpiral (as alfo B 12, B io, 
 B ii, tsV.) are in arithmetical proportion. 
 
 2. The lines B 7, Bio, fife drawn any how to the firft 
 fpiral, are to one another as the arches of the circle inter- 
 cepted betwixt B A, and thofc lines : becaufe whatever part* 
 of the circumference the point A defcribes, as fuppofc 7, 
 the point B will alfo have run over 7 parts of the line A B. 
 
 3. Any lines drawn from B to the fecond fpiral, as B 13, 
 B 22, is'c. are to each other, as the aforefaid arches, toge- 
 ther with the whole periphery added on both fides : for at 
 the fame time that the point A runs over 12, or the whole 
 periphery, or perhaps 7 parts more, fiiall the point B have 
 run over 12, and 7 parts of the line AB, which is now fup- 
 pofed to be divided into 24 equal parts. 
 
 Proportional Spirals, are fuch fpiral lines as the rhumb lines 
 on the terreftrial globe, which, becaufe they make equal an- 
 gles with every meridian, mult alfo make equal angles with 
 the meridians in the fk-reog rap hick projection on the plane 
 of the equator ; and therefore will be, (as Dr. Halley ob- 
 ferves) proportional fpirals about the polar point. — From 
 whence he demonftrates, that the meridian line, is a feale of 
 log-tangents of the half meridian complements of the lati- 
 tudes. Sec Rhumb and Loxodromic. 
 
 Spiral flairs* in building. See Stairs. 
 
 SPIRATION. See Expiration, Inspiration, Per- 
 spiration, Respiration and Transpiration. 
 
 11 F t SPIRE, 
 
S P I 
 
 S P I 
 
 SPIRE*, Spira, in the ancient a rcVii tecture, is fometnnes 
 ufed for the bafe of a column ; and fometimes for the aftra- 
 gal or tore. 
 
 * The word is formed from the La:in, fp'r* % the folds of a 
 ferpent, which bear fome relemblance thereto , or trom the 
 Greek, nrmt, the coil of a rope. 
 SPIRIT, Spititus, in medicine, the moll fubtile and vola- 
 tile part, or juice of the body ; by means whereof, the 
 functions, and operations thereof are fuppoied to be per- 
 formed. 
 
 The ancients made a four-fold divifion of fpirits ; into vital, 
 animal, natural and genital : whereof, the firft they placed 
 in the heart ; the fecond in the brain ; the third in the fto- 
 mach and liver; and the laft in the tefticlcs : but as this di- 
 vifion is founded on a falfe hypothecs, it is now defervcdly 
 fet afide. 
 
 The moderns ufiially divide fpirits into vital and animal. 
 
 Vital Spirits, are only the fineft, and moft agitated parts of 
 the blood ; whereon its motion, and heat depend. 
 
 Animal Spirits, are an exceedingly thin, fubtile, moveable 
 fluid juice or humour feparated from the blood in the cortex 
 of the brain, and thence received into the minute fibres of the 
 medulla, and by them difcharged into the nerves, by which 
 it is conveyed through every part of the body, to be the in- 
 , ftrumcnr of fenfation, mufcular motion, isc. 
 The animal fpirits, called alio nervous fpirits and nervous 
 juice, only differ from the vital fpirits, in that theft lad are 
 ftill mixed and blended with the proffer parts of the blood, 
 and circulate along with it : whereas, the animal fpirits are 
 fecreted thence by the glands whereof the cortical fubftance 
 of the brain is compofed ; and have a motion, circulation, 
 CsV. peculiar to themfelvcs. 
 
 Dr. Willis conceives, that the animal fpirits are prepared by 
 a proper diftillation of the fubtilefr. part of the arterial blood, 
 brought by the carotiiies into the cortex of the brain ; and 
 fhews, that the blood contained in the finus's of the dura 
 mater, acts in this diftillation in the fame manner as fire 
 does in the chymical difiillations performed by defluxion, 
 where being placed over the matter to be diftilled, it makes 
 the fubti'efr parts thereof defcend. 
 
 The exiftence of the animal fpirits is controverted by fome : 
 but the infinite life they are of in the animal ceconomy, and 
 the exceedingly f.rre account we fhould have of any of the 
 animal functions without them, will ftill keep the grcateft 
 part of the world on their fide. And, in effect, the learned 
 Eoerhaave lias gone a good way towards a demonftration of 
 their reality. 
 
 The blood brought to the brain by the carotides, and verte- 
 bral arteries, he fhews, ts wonderfully prepared, fecreted, 
 elaborated and changed from its natural ftate, before it ar- 
 rives there; infomuch as, contrary to the nature of the reft, 
 inftead of cohering by fire, it' immediately refidves wholly 
 into a thin vapour, without leaving any faeces behind. And 
 is thus exceedingly well fitted for the formation of fo ex- 
 traordinary a fluid. 
 
 He ihews, further, that the animal fpirits are not formed 
 from the cruor, but from the ferum of the blood, which Mal- 
 pighi's hiftory of the growth of the foetus in an incubated 
 egg, fhews to be divifible into parts or corpufcles incon- 
 ceivably fmaller than the cruor. 
 
 He adds, that the nature of this juice is fuch, as that no falts 
 or oils in the body can contribute any thing to it ; and that 
 in all appearance, it is only a moft fubtile, pure water ; 
 which liquor is found to refemble thefe fpirits in its extra- 
 ordinary mifcibility, mobility, folidity, foftnefs, limplicity 
 and want of clafticity. 
 
 The fame author Ihews, further, from the magnitude of the 
 carotides and vertebrals, their ftrcight uninterrupted courfe, 
 the great quantity of blood they bring, the bulk of the cor- 
 tex, CSV. that there mull be a very great quantity of this li- 
 'quor ; that there is frefh prepared every moment of life ; 
 and that it is driven, every moment, by the aciion of heat, 
 b?c. from the brain and cerebel, to all the parts of the body 
 furnifhed with nerves ; which motion, he Ihews from the 
 exceeding finenefs, crookednefs, tfe. of the ramifications, 
 muff, be very gentle, equable and conftant, one part conti- 
 nually driving before it another. 
 
 Upon the whole, it is no wonder that this fluid efcapes the 
 notice of our fenfes ; and that no ligatures, wounds, punc- 
 tures, injections or the like, make either it or the apertures 
 of the mrves through which it flows, vifible : nor does it 
 avail, what fome who allow the exiftence of the animal fpi- 
 ritj, urge againft their being any coherent juice or liquor, 
 viz. that we fhould find it ooze out and wet the adjacent 
 parts, upon cutting a nerve, as we do in cutting a lympha- 
 tic, Isc, or that upon binding a nerve, the upper-part would 
 fwell j that ihe agitations which objects make on the fila- 
 ments, would be deadened, &c. that it is impoflible a liquor 
 fhould have two oppofite motions at the fame time ; and 
 that the velocity gf the fenfations, and rapidity of the mo- 
 4 
 
 tions of man, prove, that the animal fpirits are rather art 
 aura or even light than a hquor. Mem. de Trev. 
 
 For the fecretion of the animal Spirits from the blood, and 
 the apparatus in order thereto, fee Brain and Secret ion. 
 — For the cuurfe of the animal Spirits, and the veffels 
 through which they are carried, fee Nerve and Circu- 
 lation. — For the office of the animal Spirits in mufcu- 
 lar motion and fenfation, fee Muscular and Sensation. 
 
 Spirit, Spiritus, in the Newtonian ph)ficks, denotes a 
 moft fubtile, penetrative fubftance, which pervades all, even 
 the denfeft bodies, and lies hid therein ; and by the force and 
 action whereof, the particles of bodies attract each other, at 
 very fmall diftanccs, and when contiguous, cohere: and by 
 which electrical bodies act at greater diftances, both attract- 
 ing and repelling the neighbouring corpufcles ; and light is 
 emitted, reflected, and inflected, and warms bodies ; and 
 all fenfation is excited ; and the members of animals moved 
 at the inftance of the will, viz. by vibrations of this fpirit, 
 propagated through the folid capillaments of the nerves, 
 from tite external organs of feni'e to the brain, and from 
 the brain to the mufcles. 
 
 Spirit, in chymiftry, is one of the principles of natural bo- 
 dies ; called alio mercury. 
 
 The chymical principle fpirit, is a fine, fubtile, volatile, 
 penetrating, pungent liquor, which rifes ordinal ily before 
 the phlegm or water, and fometimes after it. 
 The great properties of this liquor arc, that it penetrates 
 and opens folid bodies, corrodes, breaks, and even difiblves 
 certain mixt bodies, coagulates others, and produces an in- 
 finity of other effects, many of them even contrary to one 
 another. 
 
 In the general, the chymifts give the denomination fpirits 
 to all the fine, fubtile, not- aqueous particles, raifed from 
 bodies by heat, and reduced into l : quors by diftillation. — 
 Such are fpirit of vitriol, of nitre, of fait, &c. 
 They alfo apply the name fpirits, to thofe aqueous liquors 
 which arc drawn by liquefaction, when they ace impreg- 
 nated with falts, or other active principles, raifed, together 
 with them, by the violence of the fire. 
 
 Thefe, when they excite any fenfation of heat on the tongue, 
 are particularly ceiled acid, or flmrp fpirits. 
 When they make any erofion on the tongue, they are call- 
 ed corrofi-vc Jpirilst 
 
 Such as tatlc fomcwhat like common fait, are called faline 
 
 fpirits. 
 
 ouch as partake of the tafte or fmell of common fulphur ful- 
 pburous fpirits. 
 
 And when this tafte is very ftrong, urinous fpirits. 
 Such as take fire readily, inflammable or ardent fpirits. 
 Such where the acid predominates, though qualified with a 
 little fulphur, <Jc. are called mixt fpirits. 
 In this fenfe, the chymifts are faid to draw a fpirit from 
 fulphur, fait and other bodies, when they extract the ef- 
 fence, or the fubtileft part thereof, by diftillation or other- 
 wife. 
 
 Spirits, is alio a general name among diitillers, for all di- 
 ftilled liquors that are neither oil, nor phlegm. 
 
 Spirit of wine, is only brandy rectified once or more times, 
 by repeated diftillations. 
 
 One may even make a perfect rectification of brandy into 
 fpirit of wine, at one fingle diftillation, by uling a chymi- 
 cal inftrument confifting of feveral cucurbites, uefcribed by 
 Glafer, and by many other means. 
 
 Spirit of wine is ufed in dying, as a non-colouring drug, and 
 though giving no colour itfeif, fi-rving to prepare the ituHs 
 to receive other, colours. — Its confumption is a:k> very con- 
 fiderable in fevcra! other works and manufactures ; particu- 
 larly the making of varnifh. 
 Mtherial Spirit cf wine, (called by fome vegetable tether^ or 
 the atber of plants) is a denomination given, by fome mo- 
 dern chymifts, to a liquor endued with very extraordinary 
 properties; prepared from fpi.it of wine, and oil of vitriol. 
 Dr. Frobenius, who firft brought it into FngUnd, defcrtbes 
 it as the purcft fire, yet at the fame time as a moll fluid water. 
 Being poured on the hand, it feels cold ; yet is fo inflamma- 
 ble, that it catches fire and kindles even at a confiderablc 
 diftance from a candle. It is extremely light, and mtfcible 
 with water, yields an aromatic fmell, and is fo volatile, and 
 evaporates fo fait, that it fc:rce fe^ms to wet the finger 
 dipped in it. Fid. Phil. Tranf. n. 413, p. 283. Mem. Acad. 
 R.an. 1734, p. 56. • 
 
 Phofphorus being diflolved in this liquor, and the folution 
 poured into a tub of warm water, a blue flame is produced, 
 with fmoke, and a fmall degree of warmth. 
 Some of this tztherial fpirit of wine, being poured into a 
 tub of cold water, the author tells us, is ftt on fire and yields 
 a copious flame by the touch of the point of the cpLr.itor's 
 fword *. — After the deflagration, the water is found cmd. 
 Vid. Phil. Tranf n. 428, p. 55, 58. 
 
 * But it mutt be obferved, that the fword is firft privately warm- 
 ed. 
 
S P I 
 
 ed, and in applying it, tlic pqint is dextroufly nibbed sgainfl a 
 bit of phofphorus lodged forchjpurpofcon the fide of the tub. 
 —What pity to fee chymiitry debated with fucii legerdemain ! 
 Spirit ofMphur, is zfpirit drawn from fulphur fee on fire ; 
 the molt fubtile part whereof, is converted into a liquor, by 
 fticking to a glafs bell fufpended over it, whence it talis drop 
 by drop, into a trough, in the middle whereof is placed the 
 ftonc pot wherein the fulphur is burnt. 
 
 This fpirit is held good for the fame difeafes, as fpirit of vi- 
 tripl, being in reality not different from it. 
 Spirit of fait, is an acid liquor drawn, by chymiftry, from 
 fea fait. 
 
 The beft, is that prepared in England. It was, at one time, 
 much ufed in medicine ; but has not, perhaps all the virtues 
 afcribed to it. The common fpirit of fait \ being very cor- 
 rofive, may be dulcified, by letting it digeft three days in a 
 gentle fand heat, with an equal quantity of fpirit of wine 
 mixed therewith. 
 
 Spirit of vitriol, is a liquor prepared from vitriol dried in the 
 fun, or in defect thereof, by the fire, and then ditlilled by 
 chymical operations feveral times repeated ; firft by a rever- i 
 beratory fire, and then in balnco Marise. 
 It is held excellent againft the cpilepfy, as well as againft 
 burning and malignant fevers. — The hii fpirit drawn from 
 vitriol, and which is improperly called oil of vitriol, is ufed 
 in the diilblution of metals and minerals. 
 
 Spirit of amber. 7 c , ., C Amber 
 
 Spirit offal armmat, I Sec the «**»\ Armonjac. 
 
 Spirit, is alfo ufed for any incorporeal being, or intelli- 
 gence. — In which fenfe, God is laid to be a Jpirit ; angels 
 are fpirits ; and the devil, is an evil fpirit. 
 In this fenfe, the human foul is alfu called a fpirit, from its 
 thinking and reflecting powers, which cannot be conceived 
 to refide in any thing material. 
 
 F. Malcbranche obferves, it is extremely difficult to conceive 
 what it is, that fhouid make the communication between the 
 body and the fpirit ; for if the fpirit have no material parts, 
 it cannot move the body: but the argument muft be fa lie 
 fome how or other ; for we believe that God can move bo- 
 dies, and yet we do not attribute any material parts to him. 
 Spirit, in theology, is ufed by way of eminence, for the 
 third Perfon in the holy trinity: called the Spirit, Holy Spi- 
 rit, or Holy Gboji. J r 
 The Macedonians, fifle. deny the divinity of the Spirit.- the 
 Socinians his exiftence, and the Arians his co-equality with 
 the Father. 
 
 Divines exprefs the manner wherein the Sprit was produced, 
 by an aaive fpiration or breathing of the Father and the Son ; 
 whence the denomination fpiritus, q. d. breath. 
 
 Order of the holy Spirit. See Holy Ghsft. 
 
 Spir it, is alfo ufed among divines, for the divine power 
 and virtue ; and the communication thereof to men. 
 In this fenfe, the Spirit is faid to have gone out on the face 
 of the deep, Gen. i. 2. And the prophets to have been pof- 
 feJfedwith the Spirit of God. — Providence, in this fenfe, is 
 that univerfal Spirit whereby God makes all nature to ail. 
 Thus the holy virgin is find to have conceived of the Spirit. 
 
 Private Spir i t, is a term that made a great figure in the con- 
 troverfies of the two lad centuries. Jt fignifies the particu- 
 lar fenfe or notion each perfon has of the dogmata of faith, 
 and the truths of religion, as fuggefted by his own thoughts, 
 and the perflation he is under with regard thereto. 
 The firft reformers denying ftrcnuoufly any infallible inter- 
 preter of the fcripture, or any fettled judge of controverfies ; 
 maintained, that every perfon was to interpret and judge of 
 revealed truths, by his own light, afTitted by the grace of 
 God ; and this was what they called private fpirit or judgment, 
 Againft this, the arguments ufed by the Romanifts are, that 
 revealed truths being one and the fame for all believers; the 
 rule God has given us forjudging of them, ought to repre- 
 sent them to us uniformly and the fame ; but the private fpi- 
 rit informs Luther one way, and Zuinglius another. It di- 
 vides Occolompadius, Bucer, Ofunder, £?V. And thedoc- 
 trine it difcovers to the Confeflionites, is quite different from 
 that it Ihews the Anabaptifts and Mennunitcs, in the very 
 fame pafTage of fcripture. 
 
 Spirit, Spiritus, is alfo ufed in profody, to fignify the great- 
 er, or Ms degree of breath employed in the pronunciation 
 of the initial Greek vowels, and of the letter f . 
 In founding the vowels we may obfervc, every vowel has 
 its found by a fimple conformation of the mouth; wherein 
 the breath has little or no concern, as being confined in the 
 arteria afpera : The fpirits or breaths, which are placed on 
 the initial vowels in words, arc to denote the force this ini- 
 tial vowel is to have from the breath, when the word is 
 pronounced. If the found of this vowel be fm.iotb, as all 
 the founds of the vowels naturally are, this is termed ffiritus 
 knis s a mild breath ; but if this vowel be to be pronounced 
 with a more vehement expulfion of the air, this is termed 
 fpintus afper, or a rough breath or afperate ; and when the 
 afperate and acute are in the fame fyliable, the mark of the 
 
 S P L 
 
 breath in this initial vowel only fignifies that the vowel is 
 to be pronounced with a ftronger breath than the initial 
 mild vowels ; tor afperatcs do not alter the tone of any M- 
 lablc, but only ltrengthen, increafe and fwell the tone. 
 Art af Spirits, ? c (Art 
 *M„ ,f S, i s it, I ^ th£ I Mod'e. 
 
 SPIRI 1 UAL1T1ES of a bifhop, are Arch profits as arife to 
 htm from the benefit of his jurifdiflion in his diocefc, and not 
 as a baron of parliament. 
 
 Such are thofe of his vifitations, inftitutions, ordinations, 
 piefentation money, C5c. 
 
 Guardian if the Spiritualities. See Guardun 
 
 SPIRITUALIUM cujhs. See the article Custos. ' 
 
 SP11U 1 UALIZATION, in chymiftry, the b&oh of extrac- 
 ting fpirits Irom natural bodies. See Spirit. 
 Spirit![alii.atia;i, is an operation that belongs principally to 
 fermented falts ; and then to fermented juices "and hquois ; 
 the Icrmentationrendringthe fpirits volatile and inflammable! 
 Spirit of wine is fometimes fpirititalizid to that degree, that 
 upon throwing a quantity into the air, not a drop mall fall 
 down ; hut the whole evaporate and be loft. 
 
 SPIRITUS ar?//. See thcarticle Acetum. 
 
 Srl 1 I Lii. See the article Saliva and Sputum. 
 
 Spittle, a corruption of the word bufpkal. See Hospi- 
 tal. 
 
 SPLAlTyl.-aWrr; fee the article Sh 
 
 S1LANCHNOLOGY*, in anatomy, a difcourfe on, or ex- 
 plication of the vifcera.— See Tab. Anat. p. 3. where the ob- 
 ject of this branch is rcprcfented. 
 
 * 'The word is formed from the Greek, o-«-A*y^v«, 'vifius, in- 
 terline, and difcourfe. 
 Sarcology is divided into three parts, viz. fptancbnolgy, myo- 
 logy, and angciology. Of thefe fplanchnclogy, is that which 
 treats of the internal parts, and particularly of the vifcera. 
 
 SPLEEN, xriAHN, // fBf j„ anatomy, a toft, fpungy, vif- 
 cus, of a darkifhred, or rather livid, colour, ordinarily re- 
 fembling the figure of a tongue, though fometimes triangu- 
 lar, and fometimes round jfli. — See Tab. Anat. (Splanch. ) 
 fig. I. lit. m. 
 
 The fpleen is ufually Tingle, though fometimes there are two, 
 and fometimes three found. It is fituate in the left hypo- 
 chondrium, between the fpurious ribs and the ftomach ; ic 
 is fomewhat convex on the fide towards the former, and con- 
 cave towards the latter. Its ordinary length is fix inches; 
 its breadth three, and its thicknefs one. It is connoted to 
 the omentum, and by means of that and the blood vcflels, 
 to the ftomach and left kidney, and fometimes to the dia- 
 phragm. 
 
 It is covered with two tunics; ihfe external derived from the 
 peritonaeum, and connected the internal only by inter- 
 vention of the blood veflels. The inner confifts of fibres 
 very curioufiy interwoven. From this, probablv, are de- 
 rived thofe innumerable cells or little bladders, which make 
 up the main bulk of the fpletn ; though Malpigbi rather 
 takes them to arife from the venous duct.~The cells commu- 
 nicate with each other, and difcharge themfelves into the 
 , trunk of the fplenic vein. Their infide, according to Mal- 
 pighi, is furnilhed with various minute glands adhering toge- 
 ther ; fix, (even, or eight whereof form a kind of fmall 
 conglomerate glands, wherein the arteries and veins feem to 
 terminate. 
 
 Its blood vefTels are the fplenic artery, which furnifhes it with 
 blood, from the cosliac ; and the fplenic vein, which carries 
 it thence, by the porta, totheliver. See Splenic. 
 Its nerves come from the plexus Kenans, near the bottom of 
 the ftomach. The vcflels are all, as foon as they enter the 
 fpleen, wrapt up in one common capfuU or membrane, and 
 plentifully diftributed together throughout the fubitanceof the 
 fpleen. Betides thefc, there are lymphatics in great abundance, 
 lhe anaftomafes between the arteries and veins of the 
 fpleen, are more apparent than in any other part of the bo- 
 dy. And this vifcus is obferved to be furnifiietl with a 
 greater proportion of blood than any other part. 
 Theufe of the fpleen his been difputed in ail ages; both, as 
 no immediate ufe thereof appears from direction, and as we 
 .find, that animals from whom ithasbcen cut, live very well 
 without it. All the effects, e. gr. following the cutting it 
 from a dog, are,_ that the animal grows more falaciou* than 
 ufual ; tiiat tf urines more frequently ; is more hungry thsn 
 ordinary ; and tor the firft days is troubled with a vomiting 
 and nautea. It is added, than it is neceffary the part be 
 taken away to make a good runner. 
 
 Hence fome have imagined that the fpleen only ferved to 
 make a balance in the weight of the U dv ; others that it 
 was anly intended for the fake of i'v QiTOQtry ; others hold it 
 an uleleis load, and one of nature's redundances ; others, a 
 pit, or common-fiiore, to dilciiargc the feces of the blood 
 into ; and ethers a fire, by the he^t whereof, the acf icn of the 
 ftomach is animated. 
 
 Many of toe ancients took it to he the receptacle of the atra- 
 bilis, or melancholic humour; for which reafon, fome of 
 
 them 
 
S P L 
 
 them call it the organ of laughter. 
 
 Mr. Cowper, from trie great quantity of blood, and the ap- 
 parent inofculations of the fpleen, draws a very natural con- 
 ie&ure of the ufe thereof ; at leaft of the peculiar media- 
 nifin. He takes, then, the fpleen to be only a fubordinate 
 organ, miniftring to the circulation ; and thinks, that by 
 this congrefe of the arterial and venal blood, an impetus is 
 communicated to the latter ; by which its progrefs through 
 the ramifications of the porta to the cava, is promoted, 
 which would otherwife be fo broke by the double ramifica- 
 tions Of the porta, as almoft to want ftrength fufficient to 
 carry to the heart. 
 
 The adion or effect of the fpleen* according to Dr. Boer- 
 haave, is to receive the frofh arterial blood, prepare it in its 
 glands, and pour it into its cells; to return w hut blood is 
 left from this aftion, to the little veins, and thence to the 
 fplcnic vein ; to mix the humour thus prepared, with the 
 nervous juice, and to prepare, attenuate, and more inti- 
 mately mike them together into one humour. 
 Malpighi, and afterwards Dr. Keil, and fome others, take 
 the fpleen to be a vifcus affiftant to the liver, in the fecretion, 
 ts\; of the bile. We have obferved, that by reafon of the 
 iwarnefs of the liver and heart, and the fwift motion of 
 the blood in the aoita, a humour confiding of particles that 
 combine fo flowly as thofe of the bile do, could not be 
 prepared but by bringing the blood round about through the 
 ftomacb, inteftinea and omentum, &i, to the liver, to abate 
 its velocity. 
 
 Now Dr. 'Kcil conjectures, that thofe parts were not fuffi- 
 cient to receive all the blood neceflary to be fent to the li- 
 ver ; and that therefore nature framed the fpleen, into whofe 
 cavities the blood being poured from a fmall artery, moves 
 at letift as flowly as any that partes otherwife to the liver ; by 
 which means the particles that compofe the bile in the blood 
 which paflbs through the ramus fplenicus, by fo long and 
 flow a circulation, have more chances for uniting than o- 
 therwife they would, had they been carried by the branches 
 of the cceliac directly to the liver ; confequently without 
 the fpleen, fuch a quantity of bile as is now fecerned, that is, 
 as nature requires, could not have been feparatcd by the liver. 
 See Supplement, article Sr leeN, 
 
 Spleen is alfo ufed for a difeafe, by phyficians more ufually 
 called the bjpochendriac clifeafe. 
 
 SPLENETIC, snAHNJKOS, a perfon affected with epila- 
 tions and obftructions of the fpleen. 
 
 In Jpknctic people, the fpleen is fwelled beyond the natural 
 bulk, or it is hardened, fo as to fhew a fcirrhous tumour 
 therein. 
 
 Splenetic people are diftinguifhed by a livid, lead-coloured 
 complexion ; and their character is to be very prone to 
 laughter; which is an expedient nature is fuppofed to make 
 ufeof, to evacuate the too redundant humour the fpleen is 
 charged withal : whence it is that the ancients made the 
 fpleen the organ of laughter; and hence that popular faying 
 of a perfon laughing heartily, that he vents his ffletn. 
 
 Splenetic waters ; fee the article Wat EE. 
 
 SPLENIC vefels, a large artery, and vein of the fpleen. 
 
 The Splenic artery, arterla Splenica, is a trunk of the 
 left cceliac, ferving to bring the blood from that artery to 
 the fpleen, to be there fecrcted, prepared, He. Its progrefs 
 is very much contorted ; and after its arrival at the furiace 
 of the fpleen, it is diffufed through the fubftance thereof in 
 fmall branches, which feero to terminate in the cells. 
 
 The Splenic vein, vena Splenica, is formed out of the 
 feveral minute veins of the fpleen, uniting as they quit the 
 furface thereof. It carries the blood fecreted, fiff. in the 
 fpleen, to the left branch of the vena porta, to be thence 
 conveyed to the liver, there to be further prepared and con- 
 verted into bile. 
 
 The fplenic vein and artery manifeftly communicate with 
 each other : for water being poured into one of them, pre- 
 fently dUcharges itfelf by the other. 
 SPLENII, in anatomy, a pair of mufcles, called alfo from 
 their form triangulares.— Sec Tab. Anat. (Myol.) fig. 2. *. 
 fig. 6. n. 5. fig. 7. n. 6. 
 
 They arife from the four upper fpines of the vertebra of the 
 back, and from the two lower of the neck, and afcending 
 obliquely, adhere to the upper tranfverfe proceiles of the ver- 
 tebra; of the neck, and are inferted into the upper parj of 
 the occiput. They pull the head backward to one fide, 
 and are called fpknnii, from a fuppofed refcmblance to an ox's 
 fpleen. 
 
 9PLENT, or Splint, among farriers, a callous, infenfible 
 excrefcence, or griftle, that fometimes flicks to an horfe's 
 ihank bone ; generally on the inlide, below the knee. 
 If there be one oppofitc thereto on the outdfie, it is called a 
 pegged, or pinned fplent, becaufe it does as it were, pierce 
 the bone, and is extreamly dangerous ; fome call this a dou- 
 ble fplent, and others a thorough fplent. 
 
 SPLENTS, in furgery, pieces of wood ufed in binding up 
 broken limbs. 
 
 The word a alfo fumaimes ufed for the pieces of a fractured 
 
 S P o 
 
 SPLICE, at fea. — They fay, a cable or rope is fplhtd, when 
 the ends of two pieces being untwifted, the feveral frrandi 
 are wrought into one another by a fidd. 
 Alfo, when an eye is to be made at the end of a rope, the 
 ends of the (hands, are, by a fidd, drawn into the ends of 
 the other rope ftrands ; and this is called a fplice. 
 
 ToSplice, among gardeners, is to graft the top of one tree 
 into the flock of another, by cutting them floping, and 
 fattening tl.em together. 
 
 SPLINT. See the article Splent. 
 
 SPODIUMi, in pharmacy, a kind of abforbent calx, orafhes, 
 efteemcd drying, and by fome held to have the fame virtues 
 with coral. 
 
 The fpodium of the ancient Greeks was a greyifh kind of re- 
 crement, found in form of afhes on the hearths of furnaces 
 wherein brafs was made ; and called by them ra-ooier, which 
 
 literally fignifies aflies. 
 
 Spodium is a metalline powder, nearly a-kin, both in origin 
 and ufe, to tutia and pompholyx ; only it is heavier than 
 either. 
 
 The fpodium of the Arabian phyficians* as Aviccnna and 
 others, was made of the burnt roots of rufhes, and reeds. 
 Some moderns alfo make a fpodium of ivory burnt and cal- 
 cined to a blacknefs. — This is fometimes counterfeited, by 
 burning bullocks or dogs bones ; but thefe are of no value. 
 The anii Spodium, which the ancients fubftituted for their 
 fpadium, was made of myrtle leaves, galls, and fome other 
 ingredients, calcined. 
 SPOILS, Spolia, whatever is taken from an enemy in war. 
 Among the Greeks, the fpoils were divided in common 
 among the whole army ; only the general's quota was tht 
 biggeff. 
 
 By the military difcipline of the Romans, the fpoils belong- 
 ed to the republic ; particular peifons had no title to them j 
 and fuch of the generals, as valued themfelves on their pro- 
 bity, always carried them to the public treafury.— Sometimes 
 indeed, thcpillag: was diltributcd by the general among tht 
 foldicry, to encourage them, or to reward them: but this, 
 was not done without a world of prudence and rcfervednefs, 
 otherwife it came under the crime of Peculate. 
 The conftils Romulus and Veturius, were condemned for. 
 having fold the fpoils taken from the TEqui. Livy, lib. 8. 
 SPONDAULA*, ^noNAATAiis, in antiquity, a plaver of 
 the flute, or other wind inftrument of that kind, who, during 
 the offering of facrilice, performed fome fuitabtc air in the 
 prieft's ear to prevent his hearing any thing that might dis- 
 tract him, or lefTcn his attention. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek wmh, iihaticn, anji 
 tu>>®*, Jute. 
 
 SPONDEE, Spondjcus, in the Gceek and Latin profodr, 
 a foot of vcrfe, conlifting of two long fyllables. — As ver~ 
 tmt. 
 
 The fpondet Is a grave meafure : all Greek and Latin hex- 
 ameters regularly end with a fpondet. See Verse, and 
 Measure. 
 
 There are alfo fpondaic verfes ; that is, verfes compofed whol- 
 ly of fpondees t or at leaft that end with two fpondees, as, 
 Conjl'tiit atque oculls Phrygia agmina circumfpexit. 
 
 SPONDYLUS, 2noNATA02, a term antiently ufed for a 
 vertebra of the fpina dorii. 
 
 SPONGE. See the article Spunge, 
 
 SPONGIOSA, in Anatomy, an epithet given to feveral parts 
 
 of the body, by reafon of their texture, which is porous and 
 
 cavernous, like that of the fpunge : as 
 Corpora SponcioSa penis, called alfo corpora cavcrnofa and 
 
 nervofa. See Cavernosa corpora. 
 OJfa Sponciosa of the nofe, called alfo ojfa tribunata and 
 
 cribriformia ofja. See Cribriforme. 
 SPONTANEOUS*, Spontaneus, in the fchools, a 
 
 term applied to fuch motions of the body, and mind, as we 
 
 perform ourfclves, without any cunltraint. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin adverb, fponte, of one's 
 own accord. 
 
 Thus in morality, thofe aflions performed upon an inward 
 and natural principle, conformable to our own inclinations, 
 excluding all conftraint, but not excluding neceflity; are 
 called fpontaneous aitions. 
 
 In medicine, an evacuation effefled without any application, 
 for that purpofe a is called a fpontaneous evacuation, — And a 
 laffitude or wearinefs, not occafioned by any preceding fa- 
 tigue, is called a fpontamous wearinefs. 
 
 It is held a grievous and dangerous prror, with regard both 
 to religion and morality, to hold that human liberty only 
 confifts \x\ fpontaneity : M. le Clerc has been very harfhly 
 treated, for making St. Auguftin of this opinion. See Ll- 
 eerty, and Freedom. 
 
 Spontaneous generation. See Equivoca l generation. 
 
 Spontaneous precipitation. See Precipitation. 
 
 SPOONING, orSpooMiNG, in the fea language. When 
 a fhip being under fail, in a ftorm at fea, cannot bear it ; 
 but is forced to put right before the wind ; the fearaen fay, 
 fhe fpBons. 
 
 s And 
 
S P o 
 
 S P R 
 
 Anil when in fuch a cafe, there is danger left Die fhould brin^ 
 her mafts by the board, with her rolling about, or feel under 
 water, and fo founder, they ufually fet up the fore-fail to 
 make her go the fteadier, efpe-cially if there be fea-room 
 enough : this they call fpooning with the fore-fail. 
 SPOR ADES, in aftronomy, a name which the ancients g^ve 
 to fuch ftars as were not included in any conflellation. 
 Thefe the moderns more ufually call infarmes or extracon- 
 Jlellary Jlars. 
 
 Many of the fporades of the ancients have been fince formed 
 into new conftellations : e. gr. of thofe between leo and urfa 
 major, Hevelius has formed a conftellation, called ho minor 
 of thofe between urfa minor and auriga, the fame perfon has 
 formed another conftellation called lynx: and of thofe under 
 the tail of urfa major, another called cams venation, &c. 
 
 SPORADIC*, snoPAAIKOS, in medicine, an epithet given 
 to fuch difeafes as have fome fpecial or particular caufe, and 
 are difperfed here and there, arresting only particular confli- 
 tut ions, ages, csV, 
 
 * The word is lormed from the Greek nrepsfc difperfed, fpread, 
 of c-srujjw, I fow, itrew, £*fc. 
 Sporadic ftands in oppofition to epidemic difeafes, which are 
 thofe arifing from a general caufe, and that are common to 
 all kinds of perfons, of what complexion and quality foever. 
 
 SPORTULA, in antiquity, a dole or largefs, either of 
 meat or money, given by princes or great men, to the people 
 or poor. 
 
 The fpsrtula was properly the panier, or bafket wherein the 
 meat was brought; or wherewith the poor went to beg it: 
 thence the word was transferred to the meat itfelf; and 
 thence to money fometimcs given in lieu of it. 
 Sportula was alfo frequently ufed in oppofition to reEla ccenn, 
 a formal or plentiful meal ; as in Martial — promiffa eji nobis 
 fportula, refla data. 
 
 St. Cyprian gives the denomination, fportulantes fratres, to 
 fuch clergymen as then received gifts, or gratuities, fur their 
 maintenance. 
 
 SPOTS, in aftronomy, dark places obferved on the difks or 
 faces of the fun, moon, and planets. 
 
 The fpots in the fun are only vifible through a telefcope 
 Some diftinguifh them into macules or dark fpots, zn&facules 
 or bright fpots ; but there feems but little foundation for any 
 fuch divifion. See Macule and Facuxje. 
 The folar fpots have not been long obferved. They 
 ■very changeable as to number, form, t3c. and are ibme- 
 times in a multitude, and fometimes none at all. 
 Some imagine they may become fo numerous, as to hide the 
 whole face of the fun ; at leaft the grcateft part of it ; and 
 to this afcribe what Plutarch tells us, viz. that in the firft 
 year of the reign of Auguftus, the fun's light was ib faint 
 and obfeure, that one might look lieadily at it with the 
 naked eye. 
 
 To which Kepler adds, that in 1547, the fun appeared red- 
 ifh, as when viewed through a thick miff, ; and hence con- 
 jectures, that the fpots in the fun are a kind of dark fmoke 
 or clouds floating on the furface thereof. 
 Others will have them ftajs or planets tranfiting the body of 
 the fun. — But it is much more probable they are opake bo- 
 dies in manner of crufts, formed like the fcums on the fur- 
 face of liquors. 
 
 The lunar fpots are fixed. Some will have them the fhadows 
 of the mountains, or uneven places of the moon's body ; but 
 their conftancy difcredits this opinion. — The more general 
 and probable opinion is, that the fpots in the moon, are feas, 
 lakes, moraffes, &c. which abforbing part of the fun's rays, 
 reflect the fewer to us ; fo as to appear in form of dark fpots : 
 whereas the earthy parts, by reafon of their folidity, reflect 
 all their light, and thus appear perfectly bright. — M. Hart- 
 foeker has another opinion, and takes the fpots in the moon, 
 many of them at leaft, for forefts, groves, &c. the leaves 
 and branches whereof, intercept the rays reflected from the 
 ground, and fend them elfewhere. 
 
 The aftronomers reckon about forty-eight fpots on the moon's 
 face ; to each whereof they have given names. The twen- 
 ty-firft is one of the moft conliderable, and is called Tycbo. 
 Planetary fpots. — Aftronomers find that the planets are not 
 without their fpots. Jupiter, mars, and venus, when viewed 
 through a telefcope, Ihew feveral very remarkable ones ; and 
 it is by the motion of thefe fpots, that we conclude the rota- 
 tion of the planets round their axes, in the fame manner as 
 that of the fun is deduced from the motion of his macula?. 
 
 SPOUT, or IFater-SpovT, in natural hifb 
 
 ory, 
 
 an extraor- 
 
 dinary meteor, or appearance at fea, and fometimes at land, 
 very dangerous to fbips, &c. ofteneft obferved in hot, dry 
 weather; and called by the Latins, typho, and fipho ; by the 
 French, trompe, &c, 
 
 Its firft appearance is in form of a deep cloud, the upper part 
 whereof is white, and the lower black. From the lower 
 fart of this cloud there hangs, qr rather falls down, what we 
 properly call the fpout, in manner of a conical tube, big^eft at 
 top. Under this tube is always a great boiling and flying 
 Vol. II. N° 145, 
 
 up of the water of the fea, as in a jet d'eau. For fome yards 
 above the furface of the fea, the water ftands as a column or 
 pillar ; from the extremity whereof it fpreads and goes off, as 
 in a kind of fmoke. Frequently, the cone defcends fo low, 
 as to touch the middle of this column, and continue fur lbme 
 time contiguous to it ; though fometimes it only points to it 3 
 at fome diihmce, either in a perpendicular or in an oblique 
 line., See Tab. Nat. Hi//, fig. 20. 
 
 Frequently it is fcarce diftinguifhable, whether the cone or 
 the column appear the firft, both appearing all of a fudderi 
 againft each other. But fometimes the water boils up from 
 the fea to a great height, without any appearance of a fput 
 pointing to it, either. perpendicularly or obliquely.. Indeed, 
 generally, the boiling or flying up of the water, has the pri- 
 ority, this always preceding its being formed into a column. 
 Geixrally, the cane does not appear hollow, till towards the 
 end ; when the fea-water is violently thrown up along its 
 middle, as fmoke up a chimney. Soon after this, thenar, 
 or canal breaks and difappears ; the boiling up of the water, 
 and even the pillar, continuing to the lair, and for fome time 
 afterwards; fometimes till the fpout form itfelf again, and 
 appear a-new ; which it fometimes does feveral times in a 
 quarter of an hour. 
 
 M. de la Pryme, from a near obfervation of two or three 
 fpouti in Yorkfh're, deicribed inthe PkUofopbkalTranfacl'ions, 
 concludes, that the water-fpout, is nothing but a gyration of 
 clouds by contrary winds, meeting in a point or centre ; .and 
 there, where the greatcft condenfation and gravitation is, 
 falling down into a pipe or gre^t tube, fomewhat like Ar- 
 clmnedes's fpiral fcrew i and , in its working and whirling; 
 motion, abforbing and raifingthe water, in the fame manner 
 as the fpiral fcrew does ; and thus deftroving fhips, fcrV. 
 Thus June the 2ift, he obferved the 'clouds mightily agi- 
 tated ;,bove, and driven together; upon which they became 
 very black, and were hurried round, whence proceeded a 
 moft audible whirling noife, like that ordinarily heard in a 
 mill. Soon after, there iflbed a long tube or fpout, from thq 
 center of the congregated clouds, wherein he obferved a fp,ral 
 motion, like that of a fcrew ; by which the water was raifed 
 up. Again, Augufti 5 , 1687. the wind blowing at the fame 
 time out of fci-eral quarters, created a great vortex and whir- 
 ling among the clouds ; the centre whereof,, every now and 
 then, dropt down, in fhape of a long, thin, black pipe, 
 wherein he could diftinaiy behold a motion like that of a 
 fcrew, continually Rawing upwards, and fcrewinn up, as it 
 were, wherever it touched. In its progrefs it moved flowly 
 over a grove of trees, which bent under it like wands in a 
 circular motion. Proceeding^ it tore off the thatch from a 
 barn, bent a huge oak tree, broke one of its greateft branches, 
 and threw it to a great diftance. He adds, that whereas it is 
 commonly faid, the water works and rifcs in a column, be- 
 foie the tube comes to touch it ; this is doubtlefs a miftake, 
 owing to the finenefs and tranfparency of the tubes, which 
 do moft certainly touch the furface of the fea, before any 
 confiderable motion can be raifed therein ; but which do not 
 become opake and vifible, till after they have imbibed a con- 
 fiderable quantity of water. 
 
 The diffolution of watcr-fpottts, he afcribes to the great quan- 
 tity of water they have glutted ; which by its weight im- 
 peding their motion, whereon their force, and even exiir- 
 ence, depends, they break and let go their contents ; which 
 ufe to prove fatal to whatever is found underneath. 
 A notable inftance hereof, we have in the PhilofoUbical Tranf- 
 aclions, related by Dr. Richardfon. A fpout in '17x8, break- 
 ing on h.mott-moor, nigh Coin, in Lancafhire, ths country 
 was immediately overflowed; a brook, in a few minutes 
 rofe fix feet perpendicularly high ; and the ground whereon 
 Xhtjpwt fell, which was fixty-fix feet over, was tore up to 
 the very rock, which was no lefs than feven feet deep ; and 
 a deep gulf was made for above half a mile; the earth bem* 
 raifed on either fide in vaft heaps. 
 
 In Pliny's time, the feamen ufed to pour vinegar into the fea, 
 to anuage and lay thenar, when it approached them : our 
 modern leamen think to keep it off, by making a nolle with 
 filing and fcratching violently on the deck; or by diicharg- 
 Ulg great guns to difperfe it. 
 
 Spouting fountain. See the article Fountain. 
 
 SPRAIN. See the article Strain. 
 
 SPRING, fans, in natuTal hiftory, a fountain, or fource of 
 water arifing out of the ground. 
 
 The origin cf fprings or fountains, is a thing much contro- 
 verted among our late naturalifts.— Men". Mariotte and 
 Perrault afcribe it to rains : their doctrine is, that the rain- 
 water penetrates the earth till fuch time as it meets a clayey 
 foil or ftratum ; which proving a fuflicient fohd bottom, to 
 fuftain and Hop their defcent, they glide along it that way to 
 which the earth declines, till they meet with a place or aper- 
 ture in the furface, through which they may c f c ^pc and 
 make the head cf a river. ' 
 Now, that the rain is fufficient for this effect, appears hence ; 
 that upon calculating the quantity of ram and fnow which 
 falls yearly on the trail of ground, that is to furniih. for in- 
 11 G S ftance, 
 
^ i '' SPR 
 
 ftance, tbc'water of the Seine ; it is found, that river doe3 
 not take up above "one fixth part of it. 
 
 Springs ordinarily arifeat the feet of mountains: the reafon, 
 fav they, is, that mountains collect the molt waters, and 
 give them the greateft defcent the fain? way : and that if we 
 femetimes fee faring! on hish grounds, and .even on the tops 
 of mountains ; they muil be brought from other remoter 
 places, confiderably higher, along beds of clay or clayey 
 ground, as in their natural channels.— If then there happen 
 to be a vallev between a mountain, on whofe top is a fpring-, 
 and the mountain that is to furnifh it with water, the jpring 
 muft be looked on as water conducted from a refer voir ot 
 a certain height through a fubterraneous channel, to make a 
 jet of an equal or fomewhat lefs height. 
 This theory M. de la Hire has taken under examination, in 
 its moft efiential article, and that where the authors feem to 
 have been the leaft diftruftful. — He has endeavoured to find, 
 by experiment, whether rain or fflOW water could penetrate 
 the earth as low as the clayey ftratum : the rcfult of his en- 
 quiry, is, that they do not penetrate even fix teen inches deep, 
 in a quantity fufficientto form thefmilleft collection of water 
 on afolid bottom. Nay, this he found when the earth he 
 made his experiment on, was quite naked of all herbs and 
 plants ; but as foon as ever any of thefe came up, and were 
 grown to any bulk, fo far was the rain that fell, from being 
 able to gather itfelf at the depth of fix teen inches, that it 
 was not fuilicient even to feed the plants, but there was a ne- 
 ceffityfor watering them. For the quantity of water expended 
 in the ordinary fort of plant?, fee Vecetatiom. 
 Dr. Halley refers the origin of fprir.gs merely to vapours 
 raifed by the heat of the fun, or of fubterraneous fires, from 
 the fea, lakes, rivers, ts'c. Thefe vapours thus raifed, he 
 fuppofes, are by the winds, carried over the low-lands, to 
 the feveral mountains and ridges of mountains, and are there 
 compelled, by the ftream of air, to mount with it to the 
 tops, where the atmofphere being very rare and cold, retains 
 bur a fmall part of them; the reft is condenfed into dew, 
 which prefently precipitates, glecting down by the crannies 
 of the ftones ; and part of it entering the caverns of the 
 hills, is gathered therein, as in a Bafon ; which being 
 once full, the overplus muft run down at the loweft part of 
 the reiervoir, and breaking out by the fide of the hills, form 
 fingle fprh'gs, many of which running down by the rallies 
 or guts between the ridges of the hills, and at length unit- 
 ing, form rivulets, and many of thefe meeting in a common 
 channel form rivers, 
 
 Now to fhew that vapour is a fufficient fund to fupply all 
 our fprings, rivers, tsV, the fame excellent author makes an 
 cftimate of the quantity of vapour railed from the fea, by 
 the action of the fun : the refult of an experiment he made 
 to that purpofe was, that the thicknefs of water evaporated 
 from the furface of the fea, in the fpace of two hours, in 
 fummer-time, is one fifty-third part of an inch ; which for 
 the cafe of calculation, being only fuppofed to be A ; the 
 quantity of A of an inch will be found exhaled in twelve 
 hours. — On this principle, every mile fquare will he found 
 to evaporate, in twelve hours, 6914 tuns of water, and 
 every fquare degree, thirty-three millions of tuns. The area 
 of the Mediterranean then being eftimarcd at 160 fquare de- 
 grees, it will lofe in vapour, in a funimer's day, 5280 milli- 
 ons of tuns. 
 
 Yet the quantity of water thus raifed, great as it is, is only 
 the remains of what is raifed another way, viz. by the winds, 
 which femetimes fweep the water off much fafrer than the 
 fim takes it up. 
 
 To find now the quantity of water the Mediterranean re- 
 ceives, allow the moft considerable rivers it receives, viz. the 
 Iberus, Rhone, Tyber, Po, Danube, Neifter, Borifihcnes, 
 Tanais, and the Nile, each to furnifh ten times as much 
 "water as the Thames ; not that any of them are in reality 
 fo great, but fo to allow for the letter rivulets : but the 
 Thames is found, bv calculation, to evacuate 20300000 tuns 
 ©f water daily. All the nine rivers abovementioned, there- 
 fore, will only evacuate 1827 millions of tuns in a day, 
 which is little more than a third of what is raifed in that 
 time in vapour. 
 
 Alter all that can be faid in favour both of rain and vapour, 
 it muft be owned, they are both ftill prefled with great difli- 
 cultics ; and there is frill room to luok out for a better theory. 
 The perpetuity of divers fprings, always yielding the fame 
 quantity of water, when the leaft rain or vapour is afforded, 
 as well as when the greateft, is a ftrong objection to both. 
 Mr. Dei-ham mentions one in his own parifli of Upminfter 
 which he could never perceive by his eye to be diminifhed 
 in the greateft droughts, even when all the ponds in the 
 country, as well as an adjoining brook, have been dry for 
 feveral months together; nor ever to be incrcafed in the 
 moft rainy feafons, excepting perhaps for a few hours, or 
 at moft for a day, from Hidden and violent rains. Had this 
 fpring its origin from rain or vapour, there would be found 
 an tucreafe and decrcafe of its water corresponding to thofe 
 of its caufes i as we actually find in fuch temporary fprings 
 and hav* undoubtedly their rife from rsh and vapour : add to 
 
 SPR 
 
 this another confiderable thing in this Upminfter fprir.r, and: 
 tboufa.nds of others, viz. that it breaks out of fo inconfide- 
 rable a- hillock or eminence, as can have no more influence- 
 in the condenfation of the vapours or flopping the clouds, 
 than the lower buds about it have. The very higheft ground 
 in the country, he finds is not above 133 yards above the 
 level of the fea ; and what is fuch an inconiiderable rife of 
 land, to a perennial condenfation of vapours, fit to afford fo 
 confiderable a firing ? or the high-lands of the whole coun- 
 try, to the maintaining all its fountains and rivulets? 
 Other naturalifts, therefore, have recourfe to the fea, and 
 derive the origin of fprings immediately thence ; hut how 
 the fea-water fliould be railed up to the furface of our earth, 
 and even to the tops of the mountains, is a difficulty they 
 cannot agree upon. 
 
 Some fancy a kind of hollow, fubterranean rocks to receive 
 the watery vapours from the bottom of the earth, and to act 
 the part of alembics, in condenfing and converting them into 
 water. — Others, as M. de la Hire^ tfei fet afide the neceffity 
 of alembics, and think it enough that there be large fub- 
 terranean refervoirs of water at the height of the fea, whence 
 the warmth of the bottom of the earth, or even the central 
 fire (if there be fuch a thing) may raife vapours, which per- 
 vading not only the intervals and fiflures of the ftrata, but 
 the bodies of the ftrata themfelves, at length arrive near the 
 furface ; where, being condenfed by the cold, they glide 
 along on the firft bed of clay they meet withal, until an aper- 
 ture in the ground lets them out. M. de la Hire adds, that 
 the fjlts of ftones and minerals may contribute to the detain- 
 ing and fixing the vapours, and converting them into water. 
 But we have a ftill more natural and eafy way of exhibiting 
 the rile of the fea water up into mountains, &C. by putting a 
 little heap of fend, afhes, a loaf of bread, or the like, in a 
 bafon of water: in which cafe the find, &c. will reprefent 
 the dry land, or an ifland ; and the bafon of water, the fea, 
 about it. — Here, the water in the bafon will rife to, or near 
 the top of the heap, in the fame manner, and from the fame 
 principle, as the waters of the fea, lakes, Gff. rife in the 
 hills. — The principle of afcent in both, is, doubtlefs, the 
 fame with that of the afcent of liquids in capillary tubes, 
 or between contiguous planes, or in a tube filled with afhes j 
 all which are now generally accounted for from the doctrine 
 of attraction. 
 
 Spring, Per t in cofmography, denotes one of the feafons of 
 the year ; commencing, in the northern parts of the world, 
 on the day the fun enters the firft degree of aries, which is 
 about the 10th day of March, and ending when the fun 
 leaves gemini. 
 
 Or, more ftrictly and generally, the fpring begins on the 
 day, when the diftance of the fun's meridian alkude from 
 the zenith, being on the increafing hand, is at a medium be- 
 tween the greateft and leaft The end of the fpring coin- 
 cides with the beginning of fummer. 
 Spring, Elater, in phylics, denotes a natural faculty, or en- 
 deavour of certain bodies to return to their firft ftate, alter 
 hating been violently put out of the fame by comprefiing, 
 bending them or the like. 
 
 This faculty, the philofophers ufually call elajiic force, or 
 
 elajliciiy. 
 
 Fleas only jump to thofe execflive heights, by means of a 
 fpringy membrane, eafily vifible by a microfcope, and where- 
 of we have a curious figure in Dr. Hook's Micrography. By 
 the elaitic force of this fpring, they are enabled to leap 200 
 times the height of their own body. See Flea. 
 Nature has provided for the regular fowing of the feeds of 
 feveral kinds of plants, by furniftiing them with a fprings 
 which is wound (Vine times round the outfide, and fometimes 
 round the inlide of the cafe wherein the feeds are contained. 
 This fprings when ftretched to a certain pitch by the full 
 growth and maturity of the feed, fuddenly, either breaks in 
 two, as when on the outfide, and tears the cafe along with 
 it j or elfe, by its vehement effort to unbend itfelf, as when 
 in the inlide, it burlls the cafe into two parts like cups, and 
 difperfes the feeds. 
 
 Spring, is more particularly ufed in the mechanic arts for a 
 piece of tempered fteel put in feveral machines to give them 
 motion, by the endeavour it makes to unbend itfelf. 
 In watches, it is a fine piece of well-beaten fteel, coiled up 
 in a cylindrical cafe or frame, which by ftretchir.g itfelf forth, 
 puts the wheels and the whole movement in motion. 
 The fpring of a lock, piftol, or the like, is a piece of fteel 
 violently bent, which beats back the bolt, or ftrikes down 
 the cock, when fet at liberty. 
 
 Spring compajfts. See the article Compasses. 
 
 Spring of the air, or its elaflic force. See Air and Elas- 
 ticity- 
 
 Sprine a mafi. — So the feamen call it, when a maft iscracked, 
 but not quite broken, in any part. See Mast. 
 
 Spring-/.'^, is the increafing of a tide after a dead neap. See 
 Tide. 
 
 The fpring tides happen about three days before the full or 
 change of the moon; but the top or higheft of the fpring* 
 tides , is three days after the full or change; then the water 
 
 runs 
 
SPU 
 
 S Q^U 
 
 runs higheft with the flood, and lowefr. with the ebb, and 
 the tides run more flrong and fw ift, than in the neaps. Sec 
 Nf a p. 
 
 SPRINGE, a fnare or device made of twined wire, to catch 
 
 birds or fmall beafts. 
 SPRINGY, or elajlic bodies, are fuch, as having had their 
 
 figure changed by the ftroke or pertuiiion of another bodv, 
 
 can recover again their former figure; which bodies, that 
 
 are not elaftic, will not do. , 
 
 Thus if a piece of fteel be bent any way, it will recover a- 
 gain its former ftraightnefs ; but apiece of lead will Hand 
 bent in any form. 
 SPUNGE, or Sponge, Sponcia, a kind of marine plant, 
 found adhering to rocks, ihells, C3V. under cover of the fea 
 water, or on the fides of the rocks about the fhore. 
 The ancients diftinguifhed two kinds, male and female : but 
 the moderns make only one kind ; which, however, they 
 diftinguifh with regard to its texture, into cnarfe and fine. 
 Naturalirts have been embaralTed in all ages, whether to 
 range fpunge in the animal, mineral or vegetable family ? 
 Some would have it a concretion formed of the fea- mud ; 
 and others an animal, at leaft a zoophyte from its motion of 
 contraction and dilatation, but it is now allowed to be a real 
 plant. 
 
 The greatefT part of our fpunges are brought from the Medi- 
 terranean, efpecially from Nicaria, an ifland thereof, near 
 the coaft of Afi* 
 
 The diving or riming for fpunges is there reckoned the top 
 qualification in the youth, who all get the better wives as^ 
 they excel the more herein, To this proof, the maids refer the 
 preference among feveral fuitors ; placing themftlves on the 
 brbk of the fea, to be witneffes of the addrefs of" each ; 
 and giving themfelves as a prize to the conqueror. 
 The fine or fmall fpunges however arc the molt: effecmed ; and 
 ufually come to us from Conftantinople. Their goodnefs 
 confifts in their being very white and light, and the holes 
 fmall and clofe ; the larger and coarfer come from the coalis 
 of Barbary, particularly about Tunis and Algier. 
 The fpunge is a very ufeful matter in the arts. In phyfic it 
 ferves to foment parts inflamed. By analy'is, it yields a deal 
 of volatile, (harp falts, like other fea-plants. Taken in- 
 wardly it choaks ; and is for thai reafon cut fmall, and fried 
 or dipped in honey, and given to quadrupeds to kill them, 
 which it fcldom fails to do, by fwelling and preventing the 
 paffage of the food into the inrcftines. 
 
 In fpunges are found a kind of nones called tyjiielhhi, held 
 good for the worms in young children, and to this purpofe 
 given in powder. 
 Pyrotechnkal Spunges, are made of the large mufh rooms or 
 fungous excrefcences growing on old oaks, aloes, firs, &c. 
 which being boiled in common water, then dried and well 
 beaten, are put in a rtrong lye, prepared with fak-pctre, and 
 again dried in an oven. 
 
 Thefe make the black match or tinder brought from Ger- 
 many, ufed to receive and fuftain the fire ftruck from a flint 
 and fteel, &c. 
 
 Spu n c E| is alfo ufed in gunnery, for a long ftaff or rammer, 
 with a piece of fheep or lamb-ikm wound about its end, to 
 ferve for fcouring great guns when difebarged, before they 
 be charged with frefh powder. 
 
 EPUNGING, in gunnery, the clearing a gun's infide with 
 an inftrument called a fpunge, in order to prevent any fparks 
 of fire from remaining in her, which would endanger the 
 life of him who fhould load her a^ain. See Cannon 
 
 SPUN-YARN, among failors, the yarn of untwilled ropc=, 
 whofe ends are feraped and beaten thin, in order to be let 
 into the ends of other ropes, and fo made as long as occafion 
 fhall require. 
 
 SPUR *, was anciently a piece of the armour of a cavalier, 
 fattened to the talary, that is, the hind-part of that piece of 
 a compleat armour, which covers the legs and feet. 
 * The word is derived from tiie German, fpohr, or rather the 
 Saxon^jra, or Damlhyjro-, which all lignify the fame. 
 At prefent, the [fur is a piece of iron, or other metal con 
 lifting of two branches incompaffing the horfeman'a he-l 
 and a rowel in form of a (far, advancing out behind, t< 
 prick the horfe. 
 
 Louis le Dehonnaire forbad ecclcfiaftics the profane fafhion r> 
 weanng_#«rj.— Anciently the difference between the kni"ht 
 and efquire was, that the knight wore gilt fort, whence 
 the appellation of tquis auralm, and the efquire (ilvered 
 ones. 
 
 SPURIOUS difeafis, are fuch as in fome fymptoms cannot 
 be brought under any diftindl head, and therefore are called 
 bvthe nameof others, with which they moltaerce.— Whence 
 alfo, they are often denominated hajtmdl, nstbi 
 Such arc \JtVim or baftard pleurify, a fori,,,, peripneu- 
 mony, a baftard quinfy ; and the ltke. See PlkuillsrJ 
 rERIPNEUMONy, fsV. 
 
 Spultious/^, is an appellation by fome given to the flefh 
 of the lips, gums, and that of the glands, tit. 
 
 Spur icus medals, 1 r Med a is. " 
 
 Spurious ribs, £See the articles.? Ribs. 
 
 Spurious future, ) ^Suture. 
 
 SPU R-WAY, a iurfe-way through a man's grounds, through 
 
 which one may ride, by right or cuftom. 
 SPUTUM, in medicine, £s£. the fpittle or excrement voidrd 
 
 at the mouth. 
 
 An examen of the fpzitum, is of great confequence in phthi- 
 fical cafes, and Bennct in his Tbeatntm tabidorum, applies 
 himfelf in a particular manner thereto. — The fputum jari- 
 guinis, is a very dangerous fymptom Hi that difcafe. 
 SPY, a perfon paid to watch the actions, motions, &c. of 
 another ; particularly as to what panes in an army. 
 When a fpy is difcovered in a camp, he is immediately- 
 hanged. — Wicquefort fays, an embaffidor is an honourable 
 fpy, under protection of the law of nations. 
 S QU A DRON *, a body of horfe, whofc nnmber of men is 
 not fixed, but is ufually from one hundred to two hundred. 
 * The word is formed from the Italian fquadrane, of the Latin 
 fquadio, ufed by corruption fot quad's : .in regard, at firft, the 
 jquudnm were always fquare, and called alio by the iatir.s, 
 agmina quadmta. 
 The fquadnii ufually confifts of three troops; and each troop 
 of fifty men : it never exceeds two hundred, becaufe a great- 
 er number cannot be advantageoufiy pofted, nor have i com 
 to act in narrow grounds, woods, marines, defiles, fiJGf. 
 The eldeit troop takes the right of the fquadrcn, and the fe- 
 Qpnd the left, the youngelt being in the cenne. 
 Afquadron is always drawn up three deep, or in three ranks.* 
 with the length of an horfe between each ran.-:. — The ftandaid 
 is always bore in the centre of the firft rank. 
 Sqjjadron tfjkips, a divifion, or part of a fleet, commanded 
 by a vice or rear admiral, or fome other commander or com- 
 modore. 
 
 The number of fhips in a fquadron is not fixed : a fmall num- 
 ber of veflels, if they be in a body, and have the fame com- 
 mander, may make a fquadron. 
 
 If there be a great number^ they are ufually divided into 
 three fquadrons. And if the fquadrens be numerous, each 
 fquadrcn is divided into three divihons, diftinguifhed by thdf 
 flags and colours. 
 
 SQJJAMMOUS, Squammosus, in anatomy, an epithet 
 given to the fpurious or falfe futures of the fkull ; becaufe 
 compofed of fqv amine ■> or fcales, like thole of iilhes, or like 
 tiles laid fo as to reach over one another. 
 The futures fquammfe y are alio called mendofts, and tempo- 
 rales from their terminating the temples, or oJla tcmporis. 
 
 SQUARE, Qnadvatiim, in geometry, a quadrilateral figure, 
 both equilateral and equiangular. 
 
 To find the area of a Sqjjare: feek the length of one frde ; 
 multiply this by itfelf ; the product is the area of the fquare. 
 Thus, if the length of a fide be 345^ rhe area will be 
 119025: and if the fide of a fquare be 10, the area will 
 he 100. 
 
 Since, then, a decempeda contains 10 feet, afoot 10 digits, 
 13c. a fquare decempeda contains IOO fquare feet, a fquart 
 foot ico fquare digits, &e. 
 
 The Properties of a Squa r e, are, that its angles are all right, 
 and, confeqtiL-ntly, its fides perpendicular ; that it is divi~Jed 
 into two equal parts, by a diagonal ; that the diagonal 
 ot a fquare is inLommenfurable to the fide. 
 
 For the ratio of Sqv ares: they are to each other in the du- 
 phcate ratjp ot their fides.-£. gr . a / 7 . V(7 r, whole fide is 
 double another, )s quadruple of that other fjuare. 
 
 Sojjare of the cube, , , 5' 
 
 Square of the furdefo/id,S bee the arClc!e £Power. 
 
 SQ f\]f RE m * mb:r,> tllc P roa u£t of a number multiplied by it- 
 
 Thus 4, the producl of 2 multiplied bv 2 ; or 16 the p^o- 
 dua of 4 multiplied by 4, are fquare numbers. 
 Such number is called a fquare number, becaufe it may be 
 ranged into the form of a fguarty by making the root', or 
 factor the fide of the fquare. 
 
 The difference of two fquare numbers, whofe /oots are not 
 unity, is an uneven numher, equal to double the root of the 
 lefs, increafed by unity. 
 
 Hence we have an eafy method of conflruvain^.w* num- 
 bers for a number of roots proceeding in the natural feries> 
 the double of the root of the antecedent increafed by unity, 
 being continually tu be added to the preceding fquare. 
 Thus, if n=i ; 2 n-f- 1=^3: 'if «=2; then will 2 «-f 
 l==5 : if k=3 ; then will 2 n-f- 1=7 : if 77=4 ; then 
 will 2 n-f. 1=9, SsV, Thus, by a continual addition of 
 the uneven numbers, arife the fquare numbers. 
 Square root, a number confidered as the root of a fecond 
 power or fquare number; or a number by whofe multi- 
 plication into itfelf, a fquare number is Venerated. Sec 
 Root. 
 
 Thus the number 2, being that by whofe multiplication into 
 itfelf, the fytare number 4 is produced ; is, in refpect here- 
 of, calkd a fquare rsst, or the fquare rest oi a.. 
 
 4 Sii.ctj 
 
S T A 
 
 S-'T A 
 
 5ince, as unity is to the fquare root, fo is the root to the 
 fquare number ; the root is a mean proportional between 
 unity and the fquare number. 
 
 A fquare root confiding of two parts, is called a binomial; 
 as 20+4. 
 
 If it confifts of three, a trinomial, as 6-f-2 — j. 
 Now, every fquare number of a binomial root, is demon- 
 iftrated to be compounded of the fquare of the firft part, the 
 product of double the firft into the fecond, and of the 
 fquare of the other part, 
 
 To ex t rati the Square root out of any given number; fee Ex- 
 tracting of roots. 
 
 Square, norma, is alfo an inftrument made of wood or me- 
 tal, ferving to defcribe and meafure right angles withal ; 
 fuch is LEM, {Tab. Geom. fig. 42.) 
 
 It confiftsof two rules or branches fattened perpendicularly 
 at one of their extremes. — When the two branches are 
 moveable on ajoint, it is called a bevel. 
 
 To examine whether or no a fquare be exact, defcribe a fe- 
 micircle AEF, of any length, at plea fu re ; and therein, 
 from each extreme of the diameter A and F, draw right 
 lines to a point taken at pleafure in the periphery, as E : to 
 the fides of the angle A EF, apply the fquare, fo as its ver- 
 tex may fall on F. If this be poilible, that fquare is juft. 
 
 Geometrical Sqjj are, a compartiment frequently added on the 
 face of the quadrant, called alfo line of Jhadows, and quadrat. 
 See Quadrat. 
 
 Magic Squares. See Magic fquare. 
 
 Squar e battle, or battalion of men, is one that hath an equal 
 number of men in rank and file. 
 
 To form any number of men into a fquare battle, as fup- 
 pofe 500, extract the neareft fquare root of 500, which is 
 in integers 22, and that will give the number of men for 
 rank and file. — There will be a remainder of 16 men, who 
 may be difpofed of, as the commander thinks beff. 
 Hollow Squa re, in the military art, is a body of foot drawn 
 up with an empty fpace in the middle, for the colours, 
 drums and baggage"; faced and covered by the pikes every 
 way to keep off the horfe. 
 
 Cap. 
 Hebrew. 
 
 II Foot. 
 I Nail. 
 )> See ^ Niche. 
 
 It Pedestal, 
 I Pillar. 
 j Roof. 
 ' ^Stairs. 
 
 Quadrature. 
 Skiff. 
 Scill^. 
 Wine. 
 
 Sec ■ 
 
 1 rWiNE. 
 I See JScillitic. 
 
 I ) QuiNZY. 
 
 J LStrabismus. 
 
 Square cap. 
 Square character, 
 Sou a re foot, 
 Square nails, 
 Square niche, 
 Square pedeflal y 
 Square pillar, 
 Square roof, 
 Square winding flairs, 
 SQUARING, 
 SQUIF, 
 
 mm of SQUILLS, 
 SQUILLS, 
 SQUILITIC, 
 
 SQU1NANCY, or efquinaney. 
 SQUINTING, 
 
 ST, an indeclinable term, chiefly ufed to command filence. 
 The Romans had thefe two characters wrote over the doors 
 of their eating rooms, as who mould fay, fed tace, or filen- 
 tium tent. 
 
 Porphyry obferves, the ancients made a point of religion of 
 it, not to fpeak a fingle word in patting in or out of the 
 doors. 
 
 STABLES T A N D, in the forett law, is when a perfon is 
 found at his ftand in the forett, with a crofs-bow, or long- 
 bow, ready to fhoot at a deer, or elfc ftanding clofe bv a 
 . tree with greyhounds ready to flip. 
 This is one of the four evidences, or prefumptions, by which 
 a man is convicted of intending to fieal the king'g deer ; the 
 other three being back-berond, bloody-hand, and dog-draw. 
 See Forest. 
 
 STACK of wood, among hufbandmen, is a pile of wood three 
 
 foot long, as many broad, and twelve foot high. 
 STACTE, 2TAKTH in pharmacy, a fatty refinous liquid 
 matter, of the nature of a liquid myrrh. 
 This liquor is very odoriferous, and is held mighty precious : 
 making, alone, the perfurrie, called by Diofcorides, JIacle, 
 which, he fays, fmelis finely, though very bitter to the tafte. 
 Wc have none of it now, but what is fophifticated ; and 
 what the apothecaries cz\\ Jlacle, is ufually no more than li- 
 quid ftorax. See Supplement, article St acte 
 STADIUM *, STA4I0N, an ancient Greek long meafure 
 containing 125 geometrical paces, or 625 Roman feet; cor- 
 refponding to our furlong. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, w% llation ; and it 
 is faid, on this occafion, that Hercules, after running fo far 
 at one breath, flood ftill.— The Greeks meafured all their 
 diftancej byjladia, which they call fwJW>ir. 
 Eight Jladia make a geometrical or Italian mile; and 20 
 according to M. Dacier, a French league : but according 
 to others, 24 make the league. 
 
 Guilletiere obferves, that the JI odium was only 600 Athenian 
 feet, wruch amount to 625 Roman, 5 66. French royal feet, 
 
 or 604 Englifhfeet: fo that the Jladium Ainu Id only have 
 been 113 geometrical paces. — It mutt be obferved however 
 that the Jladium was different in different times, and places. 
 Stadium was alfo the co'urfe or career, wherein the Greeks 
 run their races. 
 
 Vitruvius defcribes it as an open fpace 125 paces long, ter- 
 minated at the two extremes .with two potts, called career 
 and meta. 
 
 a: ong it was built a kind of amphitheatre, where the fpec- 
 tators were placed to fee the athletae exercife running, 
 wreftling, EsV, 
 
 There were Jiadia likewife, covered over, and encompafTcd 
 with colonnades and porticoes, ferving for the fame excr- 
 cifes in ill weather. — Captive children ufed to run the Jla- 
 dium. Ablanc. See Gymnastic. 
 
 A more natural derivation of the word fadium, from s-«c-i s . 
 Jtaticn, than that popular one mentioned in the laft article, 
 may be drawn from the athletic (topping and It&ng, when 
 at the end of this ccurfe : whence the name might be ap- 
 plied to the fame diftance, meafured in any other place. 
 STADT HOLDER *, Stadthoulde r, or St at hol- 
 der, a governor, or lieutenant of a province, in the U- 
 nited Netherlands; pa;ticularly that of Holland: where 
 the word is mod ufed, by reafon of the fuperior importance 
 of the government of that province. 
 
 * Menage derives the word from fltidt, ftate ; and isuUer, 
 holding, q. d. lieutenant of the Hates : others will have it 
 compounded of find, or /Wf, jlcad, or place, and bouder, 
 holding, in regard this officer held the place of the counts, 
 and reprefented them in their abfence. 
 The Jladthdder, i. e. the Jladtbtldir of Holland, is the firft 
 member of the republic: he is chief of all the courts of 
 juftice ; and may prelide therein when he pleales. Ail len- 
 iences, judgments, &c. are difpatched in his name.— When 
 an office becomes vacant in any of the courts, the {rates 
 propofe three perfons to the JladlUdir, who is to chufe one 
 of them. 
 
 He can even pardon criminals, which is a fovercign prero- 
 gative ; and he has the choice of fcabines, or chief magiftrates 
 in each city ; to which end the council of the city always 
 prefent him two perfons, one of which he appoints 
 In ieveral cities, be has the fame right of nominating the 
 hufgo-mafters, and counfellors ; as at Rotterdam, Dort, 
 CSV. He has alfo a power to cafheer the magiftrates, and put 
 others in their room, when he finds it neceflary for the pub- 
 lic good ; upon giving a reafon for the fame. 
 By article VI. of the union of Utrecht, the dates cor.ftitute 
 him atbiter of all the differences that may atife between the 
 ftatcs of the fevetal provinces ; or between the cities and the 
 members of the (fates of the province. 
 To the dignity of Jladtboldtr, is infeparably annexed, that 
 of captain, and admiral-general of the province ; in which 
 quality, he names all the officers, and diipofes of all military 
 pofts.— It is he takes care of the execution of the ordinances 
 of the (fates ; and his authority gives him a right to receive 
 and give audience to embaffadors from foreign plinces, and 
 even to fend emballadors on his own private affairs. 
 The office of Jiadtholder is very ancient : the counts not 
 being able to refide in Holland, appointed Jiadtbuldtrs to 
 command in their abfence, in the feveral provinces ; betides 
 a governor general of all the feventeen provinces of the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 William I. prince of Orange, was Jiadlhddcr of Holland 
 and Zeeland, at the time when the Dutch fhook off the 
 Spanifh yoke ; which enabled bim to contribute greatly to 
 that happy event. 
 
 In 1567, the ftatcs thought fit to fupprefs the office of Jtadt- 
 hdder, by edift ; and refolved it fhould never be conferred 
 on any perfon for the future: but in 1672, William IIL 
 prince of Orange, afterwards king of England, being clcflcd, 
 captain and admiral-general by the ftates; fome months af- 
 terwards they tevoked the edi3 of fuppreffion in favour of 
 that punce, who was declared hereditary Jiadtbddcr ; an ho- 
 nour never conferred before. 
 STAFF, baculus, an inftrument ordinarily ufed to reft on, 
 in walking.— Card. Bona obferves, in his treatife of litur- 
 gies, that anciently, thofe who ufed a Jtaff in the church to 
 lean on, were obliged to lay it by, and to (land alone, firm 
 and upright, while the golpel was a reading ; to tellify their 
 refpea, by their pofture, and to (hew they were ready to 
 obey Jefus Chrift, and to go wherefoever he mould com- 
 mand them. 
 
 Thejlaf is alfo frequently ufed as a kind of natural wea- 
 pon, both of offence and defence.— The Lacedaemonians 
 never wore any fwords in time of peace ; but contented 
 themlclves with a thick, crooked Jiaff\ which was peculiar 
 to them. 
 
 Among the Romans, M. St. Evremond obferves, blows 
 with zjlaff were the gentleft correflion they gave their 
 (laves ; inalmuch as they received ihem over their cloaths. 
 Among the mafters of honour and arms, it is held a greater 
 affront to be beaten with z/laff; than with a fwotd ; becaufc 
 the fword is the inftrument of war, the Jfog the inftrument 
 of outrage. 2 
 
 Blows 
 
S T A 
 
 Blows with a faff are very feverely punilhed by the French 
 laws : by a regulation of the marlhals of France, in 1653, 
 for reparations and fatisfa£tions of honour, it is adjudged, 
 that a pcrfon who fliall firike another with a faff, mall be 
 imprifoned a whole year ; unlcfs fix months be moderated, 
 upon paying 3000 livres, applicable to the neareft hofpital ; 
 befide which, the offender is to afk pardon of the offended 
 on his knees, i$c. ready to receive from him a like number 
 of blows with a flafl \ which, on fomc occafions, the latter 
 may be obliged to give j if he have too much generofity to 
 do it of himlelf. 
 
 By another regulation of the marfhals in 1679, he who 
 ftrikee with zflaff; after receding blows with the firt in the 
 heat of a fray, is condemned to two years imprifonment j 
 and to four, if he ftruck firft with the'fift. 
 
 S T A 
 
 Almacantars Staff, \ 
 Augural Staff, 
 Back Staff, 
 Paforal Staff^ 
 Whip Staff, 
 Crofs Staff, 
 Fore Staff, 
 "Jacob's Staff; 
 
 ) See 
 
 ALMACANT ARi 
 LlTUUS. 
 
 Back Jlaff. 
 Crosier. 
 Whip. 
 Cross Jlaff. 
 Fore Jlaff, 
 Radius ajlronomicus. 
 
 Staff, in mufic, fi ve lines, on which, with the intermediate 
 fpaces, the notes of any fung or piece of inufick are marked. 
 Guido Arctin, the great improver of the modern mufick, is 
 faid to be the firft who introduced the faff; marking his 
 notes, by felting points ( . ) up and down them, to denote 
 the rife and fall of the voice ; and each line anJ (pace he 
 marked at the beginning of the Jlaff, with Gjregory's feven 
 letters, a, b, c, d, e, f, g. 
 
 But others will have the artifice of an older date ; and Kir- 
 cher particularly affirms, that in the Jcfuits library at Medi- 
 na, he found an old Greek M S. book of hymns, above fe- 
 ven hundred years old ; wherein fome hymns were written 
 on * jlaff oi eight lines, marked at the beginning with eight 
 Greek letters. The notes or points were on the lines, but 
 no ufe was made of the fpaces. 
 
 Staff^ in heraldry. See the article Eattoon. 
 
 Staff, in furveying, a kind of ftand, whereon to mount a 
 theodulite, circumferentor, plain table, or the like, for ufe. 
 It confifts of three legs of wood, joined together at one end, 
 whereon the inftrument is placed ; and made peeked at the 
 other, to enter the ground. — Its upper end is ufually fitted 
 with a ball and focket. See Ball, and Jacket. 
 
 Field Staff, O C Field. 
 
 Quarter Staff, IT c JQuarter. 
 
 Staff officers, C et " ^Officer, 
 
 Ward Staff, 3 ^-Ward. 
 
 STAGE, in the modern drama, the place of aclioh and re- 
 prefentation ; included between the pit, and the fcenes. 
 Thejfage anfwers to the profcenium or pulpitum of the an- 
 cient theatre. 
 
 Laws of the Stage, are the rules and decorums to be obferved, 
 with regard to the ceconomy and conduit of a dramatic per- 
 formance to be exhibited on the Jlage. — Thefe relate, prin- 
 cipally, to tiic unities, the difpoiition of the ac"ts and fcenes. 
 the unravelling, &e. 
 
 STAGGERS, or Stavers, in the manage. See Sta- 
 
 VERS. 
 
 STAIRCASE, an afcent inclofed "between walls, or a baflu- 
 ftrade, confifting ofjlairs or fteps, with landing places and 
 rails ; ferving to make a communication between the feve 
 ral ftories of a houfe. 
 
 The conftru&ion of a compleat faircafe, is one of the moft 
 curious works in architecture. The common rules to be ob 
 ferved therein are as follow, 
 
 i°. That it have a full free light, to prevent accidents of 
 flipping, falling, &c. 
 
 2°. That thefpace over head be large and airy, which the 
 Italians call un bel sfocato, good ventilation, in regard a man 
 fpends much breath in mounting. 
 
 3 0 . That the half paces, or landing places, be conveniently 
 diftributed tor repofing in the way. 
 
 4 0 . That to prevent rencounters, tsV. the faircafe be not 
 too narrow ; but this laft is to be regulated by the quality of 
 the building. 
 
 5 0 . That care be taken in placing the Jlaircafe, fo as the 
 ftairs may be diftributed, without prejudice to the reft of 
 the building. 
 
 The kinds of Jlair cafes are various : in fome, the flairs are 
 Jlraigbt, in others winding j in others both ways, or mixt. 
 Again, of Jlraigbt Jlair s, called alfo flyers, fome fly diretflv 
 forwards ; others are fquare ; others triangular ; and others 
 are called French fights. 
 
 Of 'winding fairs, called alfo fpiral, or cockle fairs t fome 
 are fquare, fome circular, and fome elliptical. — And thefe 
 again, are various ; fome winding round a folid, and others 
 round an open newel. 
 
 Laftly, of mixed fairs, feme are called dog legged: others 
 both wind about a folid newel, and fly about a fquare open 
 newel. 
 Vol. II. N°. ix?- 
 
 Straight Stairs, are fuch as always fly, that is, proceed ina 
 right hne ; and never wind : whence their denomination. 
 —Of thefe there are feveral kinds : as, 
 D,recl flyers, or plain flyers, which proceed direclly from one 
 floor to another, without turning either to the right or left • 
 thefe are^feldom ufed, except for garret or cellar fairs. 
 Square flyers, which fly round the fides cf a fquare newel, 
 either iolid or open i having at every corner of the newel, a 
 fquare h<df ftcp, taking up \ of a circle. So that they fly 
 from one half ftcp to another, and the length of the fairs 
 is perpendicular to the fide of the newel. 
 Triangular fiyers, which fly round by the fides of a triangular 
 neweL, either folid or open, having at each corner cf the 
 newel a trapezial half ftep, taking up f of a circle : fo that 
 they fly from one half ftep to another ; and their length is 
 perpendicular to the fide of the newel. 
 
 French flyers, which fly, firft diredly forwards, till they 
 come within the length of a Jlair of the wall; and then have 
 a fquare half pace, from which you immediately afcend to 
 another half pace, from which the fairs fly directly back a- 
 gain, parallel to their firft flight. ' 
 Winding Stairs, are fuch as always wind, and never fly ; of 
 
 thefe there is great variety ; as, 
 Circular winding Stairs, whereof there are four kinds, viz. 
 iuch as wind about a folid newel, the fore edge of each be- 
 ing in a right line, pointing to the centre of the newel ; 
 commonly ufed in church fteeples, and great old houfes : 
 fuch as wind round an open newel, the fore fide of each be- 
 ing in a right line, pointing to the centre of the newel ; as 
 thofe in the Monument, London: fuch as'wind round a 
 iohd newel, only the fore fide of each, an arch of a circle, 
 either concave or convex, pointing near to the circumference 
 of the newel : and fuch as refemble the kft, in all other re- 
 fpccls, fave that they have an open newel. — Any of thefe 
 windingy/Wn take up lefs room than other kinds. 
 In fairs that wind round a folid newel, architects make the 
 diameter of the newel either rt or i or f or f of that of the 
 faircafe, according as that is in bigiicfi.'— If very fmall, the 
 newel is but and if large ), tiV. 
 
 In ftairs that wind round an open newel, Palladio orders the 
 newel to be £ the diameter of the Jlaircaf; though there 
 does not appear any reafon why the newel here fhouid not be 
 proportioned to the faircafe, as in the former. 
 As to the number otflain in each revolution ; Palladio or- 
 ders, that in a faircafe of 6 or 7 foot diameter, the fairs 
 in each revolution be 12 ; if the diameter be 8, the fairs 
 to be 16; if 9 or 10, thef airs to be 20 ; and if 18, to 
 be 24. 
 
 Elliptical winding St AlRs, whereof there arc two kinds : the 
 one winding round a folid, the other round an open newel, 
 they are much of the fame nature as circular flairs, except- 
 ing, that in the one, the newel is a circle, and in the other 
 an eilipfis. 
 
 Square winding Stairs, are fuch as wind round a fquare 
 newel, either folid or open ; the fore fide of each fquare be- 
 ing in a right line, pointing to the center of the newel. 
 Triangular winding Stairs, are fuch as wind round a trian- 
 gular ncw^l j the fore fide of each being a right line, point- 
 ing to the centre of the newel. 
 Calumniated winding Stairs : Palladio mentions a faircafe in 
 Pompey's portico at Rome, fet on columns, fo, as that the 
 light they receive from above may diilribute itfelf to all parts 
 alike. 
 
 Double winding Stairs : Scamozzi mentions a faircafe in this 
 form, made by Piedro del Bergo, and Jean Collin, at Sciam- 
 burg in France, in the king's palace.— It is fo contrived, as 
 that two perfons, the one afcend ing, and the other defend- 
 ing, fhatl never meet. 
 
 Dr. Grew defcribes a model of this kind of 'faircafe, kept in 
 the mufreum of the Royal Society. The loot of one of the 
 faircafes, he fays, is oppofite to that of the other, and both 
 make a parallel nfcent, and within the fame cylinder. The 
 newel in the middle is hollow, and built with long apertures, 
 to convey light from candles placed at the bottom, and on 
 the fides of the newel, into both cafes. 
 Quadruple winding Stairs : Palladio mentions a faircafe of 
 this form, in the caftle of Chambor near Bloys. It confilis 
 of fourjlaircafs, carried up together, having each its feve- 
 ral entrance, and going up one over another, in fuch man- 
 ner, as that being in the middle of the building, the four 
 ferve to lead to four apartments : fo that the people of the 
 one need not go up and down the fairs of the other ; vet 
 being open in the middle, they all fee each other pals. 
 Mixt Stairs, are fuch as partly fly, and partly wind\ whence 
 fome call them flyers and winders. — Of thefe there are ieve- 
 ral kinds, as, 
 
 D°S hgged Stairs, which firft fly directly forwards, then 
 wxd a fcmi-tircle, and then fly diretStly backwards, parallel 
 tp that. 
 
 Square flyers and winders, have a fquare newel, either folid 
 or open, and fly by the fides of the neweJ, winding a qua- 
 drant of a circle at each corner. 
 
 11 II h Solid 
 
S T A 
 
 Solid and open ncwelied fiycrs and winders, are of two kinds ; 
 The one winds a quadrant of a circle about a folid newel, 
 then flies by the fide of a fquare open newel ; then winds 
 again by the fide of a folid newel, then flies again, and fo 
 alternately.— The other flies firft, then winds, and then flies 
 again, alternately. 
 STAI RS, in building, the fteps whereby we afcend and cte- 
 fcend, from one ftory of a houfe to another. 
 The dimenfions of fairs arc differently afligned by different 
 authors : in this however they agree, that they muft not be 
 more than fix, nor lefs than four inches high ; nor more 
 than eighteen, nor lefs than twelve inches broad ; nor more 
 than fixteen, nor lefs than fix foot long, each fair. -—But 
 thefe meafures have only regard to fine buildings ; ordinary 
 houfes are excepted : yet even in thefe, the fairs are not to 
 exceed eight inches in height ; nor be lefs than nine inches 
 in breadth ; nor three feet in lencth. 
 
 To reduce the dimenfions of fairs to fome natural, or at 
 leaft geometrical ftandard, Vitruvius borrows the proportions 
 of the fides of a rectangle triangle, which the ancient fchool 
 expreifed by the numbers 3, 4, and 5. The firft for ^the 
 perpendicular height ; the fecond for the horizontal breadth ; 
 and the third for the whole flope or inclination, from the 
 edge of one fair to that of another. 
 
 But this rule is let afide, and with good reafon, by the mo- 
 dern builders. For, on this principle, the lower the fairs, 
 the narrower they muft be ; and fairs, for inftance, four 
 inches high (fuch as we find mentioned in ancient architects) 
 muft be but 5 f inches broad. 
 
 One rule to be regarded in the making of fairs, is, that they 
 be laid according to the Italian phrafe, con untantino da fear- 
 pa, i. e. fomewhat Hoping, or a little higheft behind, that 
 the foot may, as it were, both afcend and defcend at once ; 
 which, though obferved by few, is found a fecret and deli- 
 cate deception of the pains in mounting. 
 STALACTITES, or Stagonites, in natural hiftory, 
 a fparry fort of icicles, which often hangdown from the tops 
 or arches of grotto's, and fubterranean caverns ; and from the 
 roofs of buildings, and capitals of pillars of fuch places as 
 are built over hot fprings, fife. 
 
 Of this kind are the vitriolum fakaicum \ the minera fcrr'i 
 Jialatlica, and the common dropftones of fpar. 
 The fakaites which incruftate, or line the tops and fides 
 of caves, &c. are often manifeftly formed of fparry particles, 
 raifed in vapour, and condenfed on the ftones they hang 
 from. Thofe in the cave on the top of Bredon hill, Mr. 
 Derham fancies, might be formed by the rain's foaking 
 through, and carrying witli it impregnations from the ftones ; 
 the hill, there, being all rocky. 
 
 ST A L K, the urine of cattle. See Urine. 
 
 Stale alfo denotes a living fowl, put in any place to allure 
 and bring others where they may be taken. See Decoy. 
 For want of thefe, a bird, mot, his entrails taken out, and 
 dried in an oven, in his feathers, with a ftick thruft through 
 to keep it in a convenient pofture, may ferve as well as a 
 live one. 
 
 STALK, in botany, the ftem, or ftock of a plant. 
 
 Stalks are diftingujfhed into fcveral kinds, viz. the naked 
 folk, which has no leaves on it. — Crefed folk, which has fur- 
 rows, or ridges. — Winged fialk, which has foliated appen- 
 dages on both fides. — Striped folk, which is of two or more 
 colours, tffc. 
 Fruticoft Stalk. See the article Fruticose. 
 STALKING, a term of confiderable import in fowling; ap- 
 plied to a kind of fcreen, or device to hide the fowler, and 
 amufe the game, while he gets within fhot. 
 Of fuch devices there are feveral kinds, viz. 
 J Stalking hedge, which is an artificial hedge, two or three 
 yards long, and a yard and half high, made with fmall 
 ■wands, to be light and portable, yet bufhed out like a real 
 hedge, with flakes to fupport it, while the fowler takes his 
 aim. 
 
 Stalking horfe^ is an old horfe trained up for the purpofe, 
 which will gently walk up and down as you would have him, 
 in water, beneath whofe fore-fhoulder, the fportfman 
 
 Ihelters himfelf and gun. When thus got within fhot, he 
 takes aim from before the fore-part of the horfe; which is 
 much better than fhooting under his belly. 
 To fupply the defect of a real falking horfe, an artificial 
 one is frequently made, of old canvas, fhaped in form of a 
 horfe, with his head bent down, as if grazing ; ftuffed with 
 any light matter, and painted. — In the middle it is fixed to 
 a ilaff (hod at the foot, to ftick into the ground while aim 
 is taken. — -For change, when the fowls begin to be ufed to 
 the falking horfe, and to know it, fome folk with an ox, 
 cow, deer or the like. 
 
 Others ufe a falking~tree, and others a falking'bufli. 
 STAMINA*, in botany, thofe fine threads, or capilla- 
 ments growing up within the flowers of tulips, lilies and 
 moft other plants, around the ftyle or piftil. 
 
 * The word is Latin, and literally fignifies threads. 
 On the tops of the f amino, or chives, grow thofe little cap- 
 fuise or knobs, called apices, which M. Tournefort makes 
 
 S T A 
 
 efiential to the f amino ; whence M. Reaumur, who aflures 
 us in the memoirs of the French academy, that he could 
 never dilcover any apices on the threads of the fucus man- 
 nus, refufes to call them f amino ; though he adds, one may 
 not improperly fuppofe that the apices fall as foon as the 
 threads or f amino begin to be unfolded. 
 In fome tubular flowers, as the narcilfus, digitalis, &c. M. 
 Geoftroy obferves the f amino are exceedingly fhort ; and in 
 fome flowers there are no f amino at all, as in the long arif- 
 tclochia, wherein the apices are immediately faftened on the 
 capfula which inclofts the fruit. In fome other flowers, as 
 thofe of ihiftk-s, lettice, chicory, &c. the apices arc inclofcd 
 in the f omnia ; feveral of which uniting furm a Itttte tube 
 in manner of a fcabbard, in the infide whereof are the api- 
 ces furnilhed with their tarina ; the reft of the cavity being 
 taken up by the piftil ; which is a little thread placed on the 
 embryo of the feed. 
 
 M. Tournefort takes the ufe of the f amino to be, as it were, 
 fo many excretory canals, for difcharging the growing em- 
 bryo of its redundant juices ; and of thefe excrements of the 
 fruit, he takes that farina or duft, found in the apices, to 
 be formed. 
 
 But M. Geoffroy, Mr. Bradley, and other late writers on 
 plants, as well as fome former, aflign the f amino a nobler 
 ufe. Thefe authors, explaining the generation of plants, in 
 a manner analogous to that of animals, maintain the ufe of 
 the f amino to be to fecrete, in their fine capillary canals, a 
 juice, which being collected, hardened and formed into a fa- 
 rina or duft in the tips or apices, is thence, when the plant 
 arrives at maturity, difebarged, by the burfting of the apices, 
 upon the top of the piftil ; whence is a paffage for it to de- 
 fcend into the uterus, where being received, it impregnates 
 and fecundities the plant. 
 
 On this principle, it may be faid, that the fame flower con- 
 tains both fexes, which contribute each their part to the ge- 
 neration : that the f amino are the male part ; and the farina, 
 which is always found of an oily, glutinous nature, the fe- 
 minal liquor ; and that the piftil is the female part, which 
 conduits the femen to the ova or embryo's. 
 Stamina, in the animal body, are thofe fimple, original 
 parts, which exifted firft in the embryo, or even in the feed ; 
 and by whofe diftinction, augmentation, and accretion by 
 additional juices, the human body, at its utmoft bulk is fup- 
 pofed to be formed. 
 
 All that is elfential to the animal, are the f amino, which 
 exift in ovo ; the reft being foreign, additional and even ac- 
 cidental. 
 
 The f amino feem to coincide with the folids, which are fur- 
 prizingly fmall in quantity. 
 STAM1NLOUS fiowers, among botanifts, are fuch as are 
 fo far imperfect, as to want thofe coloured leaves, which 
 we call petela ; and which only confift of a cup, and a piftil 
 furrounded by ftamina. 
 
 Such plants as bear famineous flowers, Mr. Ray makes to 
 conftitute a large genus which he calls hcrbie fore imper- 
 feci 0, five apetaia, famincovi. — And thefe he- divides into 
 fuch as, 
 
 1. Have their fruit or feed totally divided from the flower ; 
 which are fuch plants as are faid to be of different fexes ; 
 the reafon of which is, that from the fame feed, fome plants 
 fhall arife with flowers, and no fruit ; and others, with fruit, 
 and no flowers : fuch are hops, hemp, fome flinging nettles, 
 fpinach, mercurialis and phyllon. 
 
 2. Such as have their fruit only a little disjoined from their 
 flowers ; as the ambrofia, bardana minor, ricinus, and the 
 heliotropium tricoccon. 
 
 3. Such as have their fruit immediately contiguous, or ad- 
 hering to their flower: and the feed of tbcfe is either: 1. Tri- 
 angular ; of which fort, fome are lucid and fhining ; as the 
 lapathum, rhabarbarum, and biftorta, to which alio maybe 
 added the perficaria : others are rough and not fhining ; as 
 the helleborus albus, fegopyrum, convolvulus niger, and the 
 polygonum. 2. Such as have a roundifti feed, a little flatted 
 or compreffed, or of any other figure but the former trique- 
 trous or triangular one ; and thefe have their flower, or the 
 calyx of the flower, adhering to the bottom or bafis of the 
 feed or fruit ; as the potamogiton, bhtum fylveftre, parieta- 
 ria, atriplex, blitum fativum, amaranthus hoclocerieus, and 
 the faxifraga aurea. 3. Such whofe flowers adhere to the top 
 of the feed ; as the beta, afarum, alchimilla. And to thefe 
 kind of plants, Mr. Ray reduces alfo the kali geniculatum, 
 and fedum fruticofum, the fcoparia orbelvidere of the Italians. 
 
 STAMPING-^/'//, or knocking-mill, an engine ufed in the 
 
 tin-works, to bruife the ore fmall. 
 STANCHEONS, in building. See Punch ion. 
 STAND, Stable Stand. See Staelestand. 
 STANDARD*, in war, a fort of banner or flags, bore as 
 a fignal for the joining together of the feveral troops belong- 
 ing to the fame body. See Flag, tsfc. 
 
 * Da Cange derives the word from ftandarum or jlantarum, 
 Jtandardiwi or fiandale, words ufed in the corrupt Latin, to 
 iignify the principal fiag of an army. Menage derives it from 
 the German, /Zander, or the Englifh, fterid. 
 
 Tht 
 
S T A 
 
 S T A 
 
 The ftandard is ufually a piece of filk, a foot and half fquare, 
 on which is embroidered the arras, device, or cypher of the 
 prince, or of the colonel.— It is fixed on a launce, eight or 
 nine foot long, and is carried in the centre of the firft rank 
 of a fquadron of horfe. 
 
 The Jiandard is ufed for any martial cnfign of horfe ; but 
 more particularly for that of the general ; or the royal ftand- 
 ard. — Thofe born by the foot are rather called colours. See 
 Colour. 
 
 The ancient kings of France bore St. Martin's hood for their 
 ftandard. The Turks preferve a green Jiandard born by 
 Mahomet, with a great deal of devotion ; as believing it to 
 have been brought down by the angel Gabriel. Every time it 
 is difplayed, all who profefs the Mahometan faith, are obliged 
 to take arms ; thofe who refufe, are to be deemed as infidels. 
 Standard, in commerce, the original of a weight, mea 
 jure, or coin, committed to the keeping of the magiftrate, 
 or depoiited in fome public place, to regulate, adjuft, and 
 try the weights ufed by particular perfons in traffic. 
 The juftnefs~of weights and meafures, is of that confequence 
 to the fecurity and good order of trade, that there is no ci- 
 vilized nation but makes it part of their policy to preferve the 
 equality thereof by means of Jiandards. The Romans and 
 Jews even feem to have affixed a kind of religious worfhip 
 to thefe Jiandards, by laying them up in their temples, as it 
 were under the eye of their deities. 
 
 The Jiandards of weights and meafures in England, are ap- 
 pointed by Magna Charta, to be kept in the Exchequer, by 
 a fpecial officer, called the cltrk, or comptroller, of the ?narket. 
 See Clerk of the market. 
 
 The Jiandard of gold coin is 22 carats of fine gold and 2 
 carats of alloy in the pound weight troy ; and the French, 
 Spanifti, and Flemifh gold, are nearly of the fame finenefs. 
 — The pound weight it cut into forty-four parts and a half, 
 each current for 21 {billings. 
 
 The Jiandard of filver is 1 1 ounces and two penny weight 
 of filver, and 18 penny weight of alloy of copper. Whe- 
 ther gold or filver be above or below Jiandard, is found by 
 affaying. 
 
 Standards, or Standels, in bufbandry, are young trees, 
 referved at the felling of woods, for growth of timber. 
 
 STANNARIES, Stannaria, the mines and works, 
 where tin is dug, and purified j as in Cornwall, Devonshire, 
 &c. 
 
 There are four courts of the Jiannaries in Devonfliire, and 
 as many in Cornwall ; and feveral liberties were granted to 
 them by feveral acts of paiikment, in the time of Edward I. 
 t$c. though fomewhat abridged under Edward III. and 17 
 Car. I. c. 15. 
 
 STANZA*, in poetry, ■ certain ftated number of grave 
 verfes, containing fome perfect fenfe, terminated with a reft, 
 or paufe. 
 
 * The word is Italian, and literally fignifies a Hand or flation, 
 becaufe of the pauie to be made at the end of tach fianxa or 
 complete fenle. 
 
 What the couplet is in fongs, and the Jirophe in odes, the 
 Jfanza is in the greater and graver pieces, as epic poems, &c. 
 Indeed the Italians fcarcc write any poems, but they divide 
 them into Janza's. — There are ftan-za's of four, fix, eight, 
 ten, twelve verfes, and fometimes of an uneven number of 
 verfes, as five, feven, is'c. but thefe laft are fomewhat more 
 difficult to execute, byreafon of the three verfes to onerhyme. 
 The French lay it down as a rule, that if the firft jianza be- 
 gin with a mafculine, or a feminine verfe, the fecond is to 
 begin and end with the fame. 
 
 Every Janza ought not only to contain a perfect fenfe, but 
 to be terminated with fome lively and ingenious thought, or 
 fome jurtand pertinent reflexion. 
 
 Stanza's were firft introduced from the Italian into the 
 French poetry, about the year 1580, and thence they were 
 transferred into the Englifh. 
 
 The ufe of Jianxa's in tragedy, or comedy, is condemned by 
 all the beft criticks : for though we fpeak verfe on theftage, 
 it is ftill prefumed we are fpeaking profe. Stanza's fhew a 
 degree of ingenuity on the part of the poet, which has no- 
 thing of nature in it on the part of the actor. Add to this, 
 that Janza's are not fit to exprefs every thing : wrath, 
 threntr.ing, &c. fit very ill on a regular Jianza : though ir- 
 refolution, reveries, and every thing that leads the actor to 
 think on what he is to rcfoive, agrees well enough with the 
 unequal cadence of tiie Jlcnza. 
 STAPES, in anatomy, a little bone fituate in a cavity of the 
 feneftra ovalis ; thus called fiom its refembling a flirrop. See 
 Ear. 
 
 The Japes is one of the four little bones fattened to the tym- 
 panum of the ear, firft difcovired and publifhed, as Fallo- 
 pius tells us, by Jo. Phil, ab lngraffia, a phyfician of Sicily, 
 its ufe is in ftretching, or relaxing the membrana tympani. 
 STAPHYLINUS. See Pal atostaphylinus, Peri- 
 
 STAPHYLINUS, Pt E R Y COST A PHYL I NUS, and SpHE- 
 NOSTAPHYLINUS. 
 
 STAPLE*, Stapula, primarily fignifies a public place, 
 
 or market, whither merchants, C3V. are obliged to bring their 
 goods to be bought by the people : as the Greve, ur the 
 places along the Seine, for the wines and corns at Paris j 
 whither the merchants of other parts are obliged to bring 
 thofe commodities. 
 * Voflius and Menage derive the word fiom flrflus, which is 
 found in the Ripuary laws, fignifymg a place where jullice is 
 adminiftred. Others derive it from ti.e German jh<p,-l, or La- 
 tin Jlapula, which Koxhornius derives further, from the Ger- 
 man Jtcpden, to put in a heap. 
 Staple, alfo fignifies a city or town, where merchants jointly 
 agree to carry certain commodities, as wool, cioth, lead, tin, 
 ciff. in order to their being commodioufly fold by the great. 
 In England, Jiaples were fettled and appointed to be con- 
 ftantly kept at York, Lincoln, Newcaftlc upon Tyne, Nor- 
 wich, Weftminfter, Canterbury, Chichefler, Wjnchefter, 
 Exeter, and rJi iftol ; to which place- ;r,crchants and traders 
 were to carry goods to fell in thofe parts. 
 The Jiaple commodities of England, were chiefly wool, lea- 
 ther, cloth, tin, lead, cifc. though by jiaple goods, is now 
 generally meant any proper faleablc commodities, not eafily 
 fubject to perifh. 
 
 The principal Jiaples now exifting, are Amfterdam for all 
 goods from the Eaft-Indies, Spain, the Mediterranean, and 
 the Baltic: Flufhing for thofe of the Weft-Indies ; Middle- 
 burgh for French wines ; Dort for Rhentih wines and Eng- 
 lifh cloth ; Verre in Zeland tor Scotch merchandizes, &c. 
 The Jiaples in the Levant, called by the French, bfchelles, 
 1. e.fcales, are fuch cities where the Englifh, French, Dutch, 
 Italians, t$'c. have confuis, factors, and magazines; and whi- 
 ther they fend vcfleis regularly each year. — The principal of 
 thefe are Smyrna, Alcxandretta, Aleppo, Scyda, Cyprus, 
 Sallee, Alexandria, Cairo, Tunis, Algiers, Tripoli, the 
 Morea, Candia, and the iflands of the Archipelago. See 
 Factory: 
 
 Statute Staple, ? ,-. . t ^Statute. 
 
 >■ r w o r ^ee the articles s T 
 
 i^awoftbebTAPLE, i cLaw. 
 
 St AR, Stella, in aftronomy, a general name for all the 
 
 heavenly bodies. 
 
 The Jiars are diftinguifhed, from the phenomena of their 
 
 motion, &c. into fixed and erratic. 
 Erratic or wandering Stars, arc thofe whofe diftanccs and 
 
 places with regard to each other, are continually changing. 
 
 Thefe are what we properly call planets. 
 
 Though to the fame clafs, may likewife be referred, what 
 
 we popularly call blazing Jiars, or comets, 
 Fixt Stars, called alfo, by way of eminence, [tars, are thofe 
 
 which continually keep the fame diftance, with regard to 
 
 each other. 
 
 The principal points that have come under the con fide rat ion 
 of altronomers concerning the fixt Jiars, are their dijiar.ee, 
 magnitude, number, nature and motion. 
 Dijianee of the fixed Stars. — The fixed Jiars are bodies ex- 
 ceedingly remote from us; indeed, fo remote, that we have 
 no diftances in the planetary fyftemto compare to them. 
 Their immenfc diftance is argued hence, that they have no 
 fenfible parallax : that is, that the diameter of the earth's or- 
 bit bears no fenfible proportion thereto ; but they are feen the 
 ■very fame, in all the points thereof. Mr. Flamftccd, indeed, 
 feems to have difcovered a fmall parallex : firius, e. gr. he 
 finds to have a parallex of twenty feconds. Admitting this 
 we have data enough to determine their diftance, a thing 
 hitherto defpaircd of. 
 
 For thus, the fun'sparallax beinghad,and his mean diftance 
 being 34377 fern i -diameters of the earth, the diftance of fi- 
 rius from the earth will be found to be 35477064 femi-dia- 
 meters of the earth. SccParallax. 
 Mr. Huygens attempts the diftance of the Jars by another 
 method, viz. by making the aperture of a telefcope fo fmall, 
 as that the fun through it appears no bigger than firius. In 
 thisftate he found the fun's diameter to be as 1 to 27664 of 
 his diameter, when feen with the naked eye. Were the fun's 
 diftance, then, 27664 times as great as it is, it would be feen 
 of the fame diameter with firius ; fo that allowing firius to 
 be equal in magnitude with the fun ( which is a very reafon- 
 able fuppofition^) the diftance of firius from the earth, will be 
 found to be to that of the fun from the earth, as 27664 to 1. 
 On which principle, firius will be 951005328 femi- diameters, 
 of the earth diftant from our earth. 
 
 If it be urged, that thefe methods are too precarious, to con- 
 clude any thing from them, yet this we can demonftrate, 
 that thejars are remoter than faturn, the moftdiftant of all 
 the planets, nay, that they are vaftly more remote than fa- 
 turn, as faturn has a great parallax, and the fixed Jars fcarce 
 any at all. 
 
 The magnitudes of the fixed Stars, appear to be verydifFerent; 
 which difference probably arifes, not from any diverfity in 
 their real magnitudes, but from their diftances, which are 
 different. From this difference, the Jars become diftributed 
 into feven feveral claffes, called magnitudes. 
 The firft clafs, or Jiars of the firft magnitude, are thofe near- 
 eft us, and whofe diameters are, therefore, biegeft. Next 
 
 thefe, 
 
S T A 
 
 thefe, are thofe of the fecond magnitude, and fo on to the 
 forth, which comprehends the fmalleft yfarj vifible to the 
 naked eve. All beyond tlicfe are called telefcopic Jiars. Not 
 that all the ftars of each clafs appear juftly of the fame mag- 
 nitude ; there is a great latitude in this rcfpecT: \ and thofe of 
 the fir ft magnitude, appear almoft all different in luftre and 
 fize. Other Jiars there are, of intermediate magnitudes, 
 which aftronomers cannot refer to one rather than another 
 clafs, and therefore they place them between the two. 
 Procyon, tor inftance, which Ptolemy makes of the firft 
 magnitude, and Tycho of the fecond, Mr. Flamfteed lays 
 down as between the firft and fecond. 
 
 Thus, inftead of fix feveral magnitudes, wc have really fix 
 times fix. 
 
 Some authors afTcrt, that \Vt Jiars of the firft magnitude, 
 fubtend an angle of at leaft a minute ; but the earth's orbit 
 feen from the fixed Jiars, we have obferved only fubtends an 
 angle of twenty feconds ; and hence they conclude, that 
 the diameter of the Jiars it vaftly greater than that of the 
 earth's whole orbit. 
 
 Now a Iphere, whofe femi-diameter only equals the mftance 
 between the fun and earth, is ten millions of times greater 
 than the fun: confequently, they fay, the fixed Jiars muft be 
 much more than ten millions of times greater than the fun. 
 But here is a miftake ; for the diameters, even of the largeft 
 Jiars viewed through a telefcope, which magnify, gr. a 
 hundred times, fubtend no feniible angle at all, but are mere 
 lucid points. ' 
 Tbejiars are likewife diftinguifhed, with regard to their fi- 
 liation, into ajier'ifms or corjiellations, which are nothing 
 but afferablages of feveral neighbouring^", confidered as 
 conitituting fome determinate figure, as of an animal, &r. 
 and denominated therefrom : a divifion as ancient as the 
 book of Job ; wherein we find mention of orion and the 
 pleiades, 
 
 Befidea the Jiars thus diftinguifhed into magnitudes and con- 
 ftellations, there are others not reduced to either. Thofe 
 not leduced into conftellations, are called infarmes, or un- 
 formed Jiars ; of which kind, feveral fo left at large, by the 
 ancients, have been fince formed into new conftcllations by 
 the modern aftronomers; as car Caroli by Dr. Halley, fcutum 
 Sobiefci, by Hevelius, ts'c. 
 
 Thofe not reduced to claffb or magnitudes, are called nebu- 
 lous Jiars, being filch as only appear faintly, in clufierj, in 
 form of little lucid nebula; or clouds. 
 The number of Stars appears to be vaftly great, almoft infi- 
 nite j yet have aftronomers long ago afcertained the number 
 of thofe vifible to the eye ; which are found vaftly fewer 
 than one would imagine.— Hipparchus 125 years before the 
 incarnation, on occafion of a new Jiar then appearing, 
 made a catalogue of the Jiars, i. c. an enumeration thereof 
 with an exa& defcription of their magnitudes, fituations, 
 longitude, latitude, fefff, that it might be known, if any the 
 like 5 change fliould happen for the future in the heavens. 
 Hipparchus made the number of vifiblc_/?arj 1022. Thefe 
 were reduced into forty-eight conftellations, and he laid it 
 down, that if there fometimes appeared more in winter 
 nights, it was owing to a deception of the fenfe. — Ptolemy 
 added four Jiars to Hipparchus's catalogue, and made the 
 number 1026.— In the year 1437, Ulug Beigh, grandfon of 
 Tamerlane, in a new catalogue he made, only gave 1017. 
 But in the feventcenth century, when aftronomy began to 
 be retrieved, their number was found to be much greater. — 
 To the forty-eight conftellations of the ancients, were added 
 twelve new ones, difcovered towards the fouth pole, and 
 two towards the north ; befides feveral others not univerfal- 
 ly admitted, as the flower delis, the royal oak, ftff. 
 Tycho Brahe publifhed a catalogue of 777 Jiars, from his 
 own obfervations ; which Kepler, from Ptolemy and others 
 increafed to 1 163, Ricciolus, to 1468, and Bayer, to 1725 : 
 Dr. Halley added 373 obferved by him, within the antarctic 
 circle. — Hevelius, from his own obfervations, and thofe of 
 Dr. Halley, and the ancients, made a catalogue of 1888 
 Jiars : and - Mr. Flamfteed has fince made a catalogue of no 
 lefs than 3000 Jiars, all from his own moft accurate obfer- 
 vations. 
 
 Of thefe 3000, it is true, there are many only vifible 
 through a telefcope ; nor does a good eye fcarce ever fee 
 more than an hundred at the fame time in the clcareft 
 heaven : the appearance of innumerable more, frequent in 
 clear winter nights, arifing from our fight's beingdeceived by 
 their twinkling, and from our viewing them confufedly, and 
 not reducing them to any order. Yet for all this, the 
 Jiars are really almoft infinite. Riccioli makes no fcruple 
 to affirm, in his new Aimageji, that a man who fhould fay 
 there are above twenty thoufand times twenty thoufand, 
 would fay nothing improbable. 
 
 For a good telefcope directed almoft to any point of the hea- 
 vens, difcovers numbers that are loft to the naked fight: par- 
 ticularly in the milky way, which is nothing but an ailemblage 
 o\ Jiars, too remote to be fingly feen, but fo clofely dif- 
 pofed, as to give a luminous appearance to that part of the 
 heavens where they are. 
 
 In the Angle conftellation of the pleiades, inftead of fix or 
 
 S T A 
 
 feven Jiars feen by the beft eye, Dr. Hook, with a telefcope 
 twelve foot long, told feventy-eight i and with larger glaiiej 
 many more of different magnitudes. And F. de Rbeita, a 
 capuchin, affirms, that he has obferved above 2000 Jiars in 
 the fingle conftellation of orion. 
 
 The fame author found above 188 in the pleiades. And 
 Huygens looking at the jiar in the middle of orion's fword j 
 inftead of one found it to be twelve. Galileo found eighty 
 in orion's fword ; twenty-one in the nebulous Jiar of his 
 head i and thirty-fix in the nebulous Jiar prafepe. 
 The changes that have happened in the Stars, are very con- 
 fiderable ; contrary to the opinion of the ancients, who held, 
 that the heavens and heavenly bodies were incapable of any 
 change, the matter thereof being permanent and eternal, 
 infinitely exceeding the hardnefs of diamonds, and not fuf- 
 ceptible of any different form. And, in efteci, till the tim« 
 of Ariftotle, and even two hundred years afterwards, there 
 had no change been obferved. 
 
 The firft was in the year 125, before the incarnation; 
 when Hipparchus difcovcring a new Jiar to appear, was firft 
 induced to make a catalogue of the Jiars, that pofterity, as 
 we have obferved, might perceive any future changes of the 
 like kind. 
 
 In the year 1572, Tycho Brahe obferved another new jiar 
 in the conftellation calfiopeia, which was, likewife, the oc- 
 cafion of his making a new catalogue. Its magnitude, at 
 firft, exceeded that of the biggeft of our Jiars, firius and 
 lyra, ; it even equalled that of venus, when neareft the earth ; 
 and was feen in fair day-light. It continued fixteen months ; 
 towards the latter end whereof, it began to dwindle, and at 
 laft totally difappeared, without any change of place in all 
 that time. 
 
 Leovicius tells us of another Jiar appearing in the fame con- 
 llellation, about the year 905, which refembled that of 1572 ; 
 and quotes another ancient observation, whereby it appeal's, 
 that a new jiar was feen about the fame place in 1264. 
 Dr. Keil takes thofe to have been all the fame jiar ; and 
 does not know but it may make its appearance a-new 15a 
 years hence. 
 
 Fabricius difcovered another new Jiar in the neck of the 
 whale, which appeared and difaopeared feveral times in the 
 years 1648 and 1662. Its courie and motion, are defcribed 
 by M, Bouillaud. 
 
 Simon Marius difcovered another in andromeda's girdle, in 
 1612 and 1613; thoughM. Bouillaud fays, ithad been feen. 
 before in the 15th century. Another was obferved by Kep- 
 ler in ferpentarius. Another of the third magnitude in the 
 conftellation cvgnus, near the bill, in the year 1601, which 
 difappeared in 1626, and was obferved again by Hevelius in 
 1659, till the year 1661, and again in 1666 and 1671, aj 
 a ftur of the fixth magnitude. 
 
 It is certain, from the ancient catalogues, that many of tht 
 ancient Jiars are not now vifible. This is particularly notori- 
 ous in the pleiades, or feven jiars, whereof only fix are now 
 vifible to the eye ; a thing long ago obferved by Ovid : wit- 
 nefs the verfie, ^ua: ftptem dici, fix tamen ejj'e jolent. 
 M. Montanerc, in his letter to the Royal Society in 1670* 
 obferves that there are now wanting in the heavens, two 
 
 jiars of the fecond magnitude, in the Item of the fliip argo 
 and its yard ; which had been feen till the year 1664. When 
 they firft disappeared it is not known ; but he allures us, 
 there was not the leaft: elympfe of them in 1668. He adds, 
 he has obferved many more changes in the fixed Jiars, even 
 to the number of an hundred. 
 For the nature of the fixt St ars, their immenfe diftance lenves 
 us greatly at a lofs about it. What we can gather for cer- 
 tain from their phenomena, is as follows : 
 1°. That the fixt Jars are greater than our earth. This is 
 demonftrabfe thus : fuppofe two jiars C and D (Tab. Jjiro- 
 no/tty, fig. 7.) the one in the eatiern horizon, and the other 
 in the weftern. As foon as D arrives in C ; C will appear 
 in D. But fince both move with the fiune velocity, while 
 C defcribes the arch CUD ; the Jiar D defcribing an arch 
 equal toCDH, will appear in F : wherefore, if the Jlan 
 C and D be lefs than the earth, the Jiar C will not be feen 
 in the eaftern horizon, when the other D is arrived at the 
 weftern : But as this is contrary to experience, it follows, 
 that the Jiars being in L and S, and there feen at the fame 
 time by fpe&ators in A and B, are greater than the earth A B. 
 2°. The f\xt jiars are farther diftant from the earth, than 
 the fartheft of the planets. For we frequently find the fixt 
 
 Jiars hid behind farurn'a body, the moft diftant cf the planets. 
 3 0 . The fixt Jiars fhine with their own light : for they are 
 much farther from the fun than faturn, and appear much 
 fmaller than faturn ; but fince, notwithstanding this, they 
 are found to fhine much brighter than faturn, it is evident 
 they cannot borrow their light from the fame fource as fa- 
 turn does, viz. the fun : but iince we know of no other lu- 
 minous body befide the fun, whence they might derive their 
 lio-ht ; it follows, that they fhine with their own nativelight. 
 rience l°. we deduce, that the fixt jiars are fo many funs ; 
 for they have all the characters of funs. 
 2°. That in all probability, the Jiars are not fmaller than 
 
ST A 
 
 3°. That it is highly probable* each jlar is the centre of a 
 iyftern, and has planets or earths revolving round it, in the 
 fame manner as round our fun, i. t. It has opake bodies illu- 
 minated, warmed and cherifhed by its light. 
 How immenfe then, does the univerfe appear ! Indeed it mull: 
 either be infinite, or infinitely near it. 
 
 Kepler, it is true, denies, that each Jlar can have its fyftcm 
 of planets as ours has ; and takes them all to be fixed in the 
 fame furface or fphere ; urging, that were one twice or 
 thrice as remote as another, it would appear twice or thrice 
 as fmall, fuppofing their real magnitudes equal ; whereas 
 there is no difference in their apparent magnitudes, juftly 
 oblerved, at all. But to this we oppofe, that Huygens has 
 not only fhewn that fires and flames are vifible at dilianccs 
 where ether bodies, comprehended under equal angles, dif- 
 appear ; but it Ihould likewife feem, that the optic theorem 
 about the apparent diameters of objects being reciprocally 
 proportional to their distances from the eye, does only hold 
 while the diameter of the object has i'ome fenfible ratio to 
 its diftance. 
 
 4°. The Jlars which appear and difappear by turns, being al- 
 ways found to increafe in magnitude at their firit appearance, 
 and to decreafe as they begin to difappear, and being like- 
 wife ftill viiible through telefcopes, for Come time after they 
 are loft to the naked eye {of which we have various inftances 
 in the Phihfopbical TranfaSiions) feem to be no more than 
 planers performing their periods about the fixt jlars, as their 
 refpe&ive funs ; unlefs any perfon fhould rather incline to 
 Dr. Kcil's- opinion, viz. that the flats lofe their brightnefs, 
 and difappear, by their becoming covered with macula: or 
 fpots, fuch as arc frequently found to overfpread the fun. 
 5°. Thofe temporary Jlars, which, upon their difappearing, 
 have never been found to return again ; are moft probably 
 conjectured to be of the number of comets, which make 
 long excurfions from their funs, or the centers of the upper 
 planetary fyftems, i. e. from the fixt Jlars ; returning too 
 Jeldom to have their returns perceived. 
 Motion of the Stars — The fixed Jlars have two kinds of 
 motion ; one called the firjl, common or diurnal motion, or 
 the motion of the primum mobile ; by this they are carried a- 
 long with the fphere or firmament wherein they appear fixed, 
 round the earth, from eaft to weft, in the fpace of twenty- 
 four hours. 
 
 The other, called the fecond or proper motion, is that whereby 
 they go backwards from weft to eaft round the poles of the 
 ecliptic, with an exceeding flownefs, as not defcribing above 
 a degree of their circle in the fpace of feventy-one or feven- 
 ty-two years, or 51 feconds in a year. 
 
 Some have imagined, I do not know on what grounds, that 
 when they are got round to the points, whence they firft 
 departed, nature will have fmifhed her courfe, and the Jlars 
 having performed their career, the heavens will remain at 
 reft, unlefs the being, who firft gave them motion, appoint 
 them to begin another circuit. 
 
 On the footing of this calculation, the world fhould laft a- 
 bout 30000 years, according to Ptolemy ; 25816 according 
 to Tycho; 25920 according to Riccioli ; and 24800 ac- 
 cording to Caffini. 
 
 In effect, the latitudes of the fixt Jlars, we find, by com- 
 paring the obfervations of the ancient aftronomcrs with thofc 
 of the moderns, continue ftill the fame ; but their longitude 
 is by this fecond motion always increafing. 
 Thus, e. gr. the longitude of cor leonis, was found by Pto- 
 lemy, A. D. 138 to be 2 0 30'; in 11x5 it was obferved 
 by the Pcrfians to be 7 0 30'; in 1364, by Alphonfus, 20 0 
 40'; in 1586, by the prince of HefTe, 24 0 11'; in 1601, by 
 Tycho, 24 0 17'; and in 1690, by Mr. Flamfteed, 25" 31' 
 20 ' ; whence the proper motions of the Jlars according to 
 the order of the figns in circles parallel to the ecliptic, is 
 eafdy inferred. 
 
 It was Hipparchus who firft fufpected this motion, upon com- 
 paring the obfervations ofTymocharis and Ariftyllus with his 
 own. Ptolemy, who lived three centuries after Hipparchus, 
 dc-monftrated the fame by undeniable arguments. 
 Some it is true have imagined a change in the latitudes of 
 the Jlar: ; but fuch an opinion has little countenance from 
 obfervation. 
 
 Tycho Brahc makes the increafe of longitude in a century 
 I" 25'; Copernicus 1° 23' 40" 12"' ; Flamfteed and Ric- 
 ciolus i° 23' 20"; Bullialdus i° 24' 54''; Hcvelius i Q 24' 
 46'' 50"' j whence, with Flamfteed, the annual increafe of 
 the longitudes of the fixed Jlars may be well fixed at 50". 
 From thefe data, the increafe of the longitude of a jlar for 
 any given time, is eafily had ; and hence the longitude of a 
 jlar for any given year, being given, its longitude for any 
 other year is readily found; e. gr. the longitude of firius in 
 Mr. Flamftecd's tables for the year 1690 being 9 0 49' 1" ; 
 its longitude for the year 1724 is found, by multiplying the 
 interval of time, viz. 34 years by 50'', the product 1700" 
 or 28' 2" added to the given longitude, will give the longi- 
 tude required, lo* 1 17' 3". 
 
 The principal phenomena of the fixt Jlars, arifing from 
 their common and proper motion, befides their longitude, 
 Vol. II N° CXLVI. 
 
 S T A 
 
 are their altitudes, right afcenfions, declinations, occu'tati- 
 ons, culminations, rifmesand fettings ; which fee under theii 
 proper articles, Altitude, Ascension, Declina- 
 tion - , and Occultation. 
 
 The feveral Jlars in each conftellation, e. gr, in taurus, 
 bootcs, hercules, cif c . their longitudes, latitudes, magnitudes, 
 names, places, &e. as fixed by Mr. Flamfteed in the Bri- 
 tannic Catalogue ; fee under the proper article of each con- 
 ftellation, Taurus, Eootes, Hercules, c5V. 
 To learn to know the feveral fixt Jlars by the o-[ 0 be ; fee 
 Globe. 
 
 The parallax and diftance of the fixt Jlars, fee under Pa- 
 rallax and Distance, 
 
 Ctrcumpolar Star, -j r Circumpolar. 
 
 Morning Star, ( y \ Morning. 
 
 Place of a Star, f ee " J Place and Apparent 
 
 Pole Star, J . (.Pole. 
 
 Star, in fortification, a little fort with five or more points, 
 or faliant and re-entring angles, flanking one another, and 
 their faces 90 or ico foot long. 
 
 formerly, Jlar forts were frequently made in lines of cir- 
 cumvallation, after two or three redoubts. See Redoubt 
 and Sconce. 
 
 Star, in pyrotcebny, a compofition of combuftible matters, 
 which being born or thrown aloft into the air, exhibits the 
 appearance of a real far. 
 
 Stars are chiefly ufed as appendages to rockets, a number of 
 them being ufually inclofed in a conical cap or cover at the 
 head of the rocket, and carried up with it to its utmoft alti- 
 tude, where the jlars taking fire, are fpread around, and 
 exhibit an agreeable fpectacle. 
 To make Stars ; mix three pounds of fait petre, eleven ounces 
 of fulphur, one of antimony, and three of gunpowder duft : 
 or twelve ounces of fulphur, fix of fait petre, five and a 
 half of gunpowder duft, four ounces of olibanum, one of 
 maftic, camphir, fublimate of mercury, and half a one of 
 antimony and orpiment. 
 
 Moiften the mafs with gumwater, and make it into little 
 balls of the fize of a chefnut, which dry either in the fun 
 or the oven. Thele fet on fire In the air, will reprcfenty?drj. 
 Star, in heraldry, denotes a charge frequently bern on the 
 fhield, and the honourable ordinaries, in the figure of a Jlar. 
 It differs from the mullet, or fpur-rowe), in that it is not 
 pierced as this laft is. 
 
 It ufually confifts of five rays or fpokes. When it has fix or 
 eight, as among the Germans and Italians, particular men- 
 tion muft be made thereof in blazoning. 
 On medals, Stars are marks of confecration and deifica- 
 tion, being intended as fymbols of eternity. — F. Joubert 
 fays, they fometimes exprefs the children of princes reign- 
 ing ; and fometimes the children dead, and placed in the 
 rank of deities. 
 
 Star, is alfo a badge of the honourable orders of the garter 
 and bath. See Garter. 
 
 Order of the Star, or our lady of the Star, an order of 
 knighthood inftitutcd by king John of France in the year 
 1352, denominated from a Jlar they wore on the ftomach. 
 At firft there were but thirty knights ; but the order in time 
 became depreciated by the multitude of perfons admitted, 
 without any diftin&ion. For which reafon, Charles VII. 
 when grand-mafter thereof, quitted it, and gave it the 
 chevalier du Guet, knight of the watch at Paris, and his 
 archers, who ftill wear a Jlar on their coats. But this ac- 
 count is contradicted by others ; who will have the order 
 inftituted by king Robert in 1022 in honour of the holy 
 virgin, and to have fallen into difregard during the wars of 
 Philip de Valois. 
 
 Juftiniani mentions another order of the Jlar, at Meflina in 
 Sicily, called alfo the order of the crefcent. This was inftituted 
 in the year 1268, by Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, 
 king of the two Sicilies, t 
 
 Others will have it inftituted in 1464, by Renatus duke of 
 Anjou, who took the title of king of Sicily. At leaft, it 
 appears from the arms of this prince, that he made fome 
 alteration in the collar of the order; for inftead of flower- 
 de-luces and Jlars, he only bore two chains, whence hung a 
 crefcent, with the old French word loz, which in the lan- 
 guage of Rebus, fignified loz in a crefcent. 
 The order being dropt into obfcuiity, was raifed again by the 
 people of Meflina, under the name of the noble academy of 
 the knights of the Jlar; reducing the ancient collar to a fingle 
 Jlar placed on a forked crofs, and the number of knights to 
 lixty-two. Their device was, msnjlrant regibtis ajlra viam, 
 
 M R 
 
 which they expreffed by the four initial letters * with 
 
 ' / A V 
 
 the Jlar in the middle. 
 Star, in the manage. — White Stars in the forehead, are 
 efkemed good marks in all horfes, except white and grey 
 ones: where nature fails to produce this good criterion, our 
 jockies have frequent rccourfe to art. See Horse. 
 The method of makingyfarj, practifed among the Dutch, 
 is to roaft a large onion in hot aihes, and when near tho- 
 1 1 I i roughly 
 
S T A 
 
 S T A 
 
 roughly done, to divide it in two, and dip it in fcnlding hot 
 wallnut oil. This done they immediately apply the flat fide 
 thereof to the place the far is to be on, and keep it there 
 half an hour. After taking it off, they anoint the fcalded 
 place with ointment of roles : in a (hort time, the fcarf fkin 
 Jails off and white hair grows up in its room ; but the mid- 
 dle always continues bare of hair, which is the certain cha- 
 ia£tereltic of an artificial jlar. 
 
 The method moft ufed among us, is to fhave the hair from 
 the place it is to be made on ; then to apply a little oil of 
 vitriol with a feather, or the like, raffing it lightly over the 
 bald place. This eats away the roots of the former hair, 
 which will be fucceeded by white. The fore is healed up 
 with copperas and green ointment. 
 
 To make a black Star, on a white or other coloured horfe ; 
 vvafh the place to be changed, frequently, with fern roots 
 and fage boiled in lye ; and they fay it wiil breed black hairs. 
 The fame may be done, by beating four milk, galls and ruft 
 together, and anointing the part therewith. 
 
 A red Star is made with an ounce of aqua-fortis, a penny- 
 worth of aqua-vita?, and filver to the value of eightccn- 
 pence, all heated together in a glafs, and the place anointed 
 therewith. This immediately turns the hair to a perfect red ; 
 but it laftsno longer than till the horfe cafts his coat j when 
 it is to be renewed. 
 
 STARBOARD, denotes the right hand fide of a fhip : as 
 larboard docs the left. 
 
 They fay, farboard the helm, or helm a farboard, when the 
 man at the helm fhould put the helm to the right fide of the 
 fhip. 
 
 STARCH, a fecula, or fediment, found at the bottom of 
 veflels wherein wheat has been fteeped in water ; of which 
 fecula, after feparating the bran from it, by palling it 
 through fieves, they form a kind of loaves, which being 
 dried in the fun, or an oven, is afterwards broke into little 
 pieces, and fo fold. 
 
 The heft is white, foft and friable, eafily broke into pow- 
 der. Such as require very fine f arch, do not content them- 
 felves, like the ftarch-men, with refufeof wheat, but ufe the 
 fineft grain. The procefs is as follows ; 
 Method of making Starch of wheat. — The grain being well 
 cleaned, is put to ferment in veffcls full of water, which 
 they expofe to the fun, when in its greateft heat ; changing 
 the water twice a day, for the fpace of eight or twelve days, 
 according Jo the feafon. When the grain burfts eafily under 
 the finger, they judge it fufficiently fermented. The fer- 
 mentation perfected, and the grain thus foftened j it is put, 
 handful by handful, in a canvafs bag, to feparate the flour 
 from the hufks, which is done by rubbing and beating it on 
 a plank, laid a-crofs the mouth of the empty veffel that is to 
 receive the flour. 
 
 As the veflels are filled with this liquid flour, there is feen 
 fwimming a-top a reddifh water, which is to be carefully 
 fcummed off from time to time, and clean water is to be 
 put in its place ; which, after ftirring the whole together, 
 is all to be (trained through a cloth or lieve, and what is left 
 behind, put into the vefiel with new water, and expofed to 
 the fun for fomc time. As the fediment thickens at the 
 bottom, they drain off the water four or five times, by in- 
 clining, the vefiel, but without paffinsi it through the fieve. 
 What remains at bottom, is thtfarcb, which they cut in 
 pieces to get out, and leave it to dry in the fun. When 
 dry, it is laid up for ufe. 
 
 To ufe Jlarcb, they take as much as is needed, and fteep 
 it in water over night, changing the water four or five times. 
 The ftarchmen ufing the refufe of wheat, only obferve a 
 part of all thefe things in their procefs j but their Jiarch 
 falls far fhort of this. 
 
 Starch is ufed along with fmalt, or ftone blue, to ftiffen 
 and clear linen. The powder thereof is alfo ufed to whiten, 
 and powder the hair. 
 
 It is alfo ufed by the dyers to difpofe their fluffs to take 
 colours the better. 
 
 STAR-CHAMBER, camera feilata, was a chamber at 
 Wcftminfter, fo^ called, from its roof being painted with 
 gilt fiars. See Chamber. 
 
 STAR-FORT, or redoubt, in fortification, is a work with 
 feveral faces, generally compofed of from five to eight 
 points, with faliant and re-entering angles flanking one a- 
 nother; every one of its fides containing from twelve to 
 twenty-five fathoms. See Fort, and Redoubt, 
 
 STARTING, among brewers, the putting of new beer, 
 or ale, to that which is decayed, to revive it again. 
 
 S 1 ATE, ore/late, an empire, kingdom, province, or ex- 
 tent of country under the fame government. See E- 
 
 STATE. 
 
 The //fl/f, or fates of the king of England, include the 
 Tntifh iilands, and the Weft India plantations, as Virginia 
 Carolina, Maryland, & c . to which may be added the dut- 
 ches of Brunlwit-Lunenburg, Bremen, &c. 
 Free State. See the article Free. 
 
 State is alfo ufed for the policy or form of government of a 
 
 nation.— Hence, minifters of fate; reafonsof/W, cirV. Sec 
 Government. 
 
 Politicians diftinguifh feveral forms of fate, viz. the mo- 
 narchic ^ as that of England ; fee Monarchy: the demo- 
 cratic, as that of Rome and Athens ; fee* Democracy : 
 the oligarchic, as that of Venice ; fee Oligarch y : and 
 the arifocratic, as that of Sparta ; fee Aristocracy. 
 
 State of a difcafc, the fame with acme. See Acme. 
 
 S TAT E D wind. See the article Wind. 
 
 STATER, an ancient coin, weighing four Attic drachms : 
 it was either of filver, or gold ; the former worth about 
 two fhillings four-pence ftcrling. 
 
 STATERA Romana, or ftilyard, aname given to the Ro- 
 man balance. 
 
 STATE S, a term applied to the feveral orders, or clafl'es of 
 a people, afl'embled to confultof matters forthe pubhekgood. 
 
 STATES-GENERAL, the name of an aflembly, con- 
 fifting of the deputies of the feven United Provinces. 
 In this aflembly, the deputies of each province, what num- 
 ber foever they be, have only one voice, and are efieemed 
 as but one perlbn i the votes being given by provinces. Each 
 province prefides at the aflembly in its turn, according to 
 the order fettled among them : Guelderland prefides rlrft, 
 then Holland, E3V. 
 
 This aflembly is the reprefentative of the fovereignty of the 
 union, which refides properly in the general aflembly of the 
 ftates themfelvcs of all the feveral provinces: but as that 
 aflembly ordinarily confifts of feven or eight hundred perfons, 
 it was refolved, after the departure of the earl of Leicefter, 
 in order to avoid expence, and the confufion of fo nume- 
 rous a body, that the provincial efiates fhould, for the fu- 
 ture, be ordinarily reprefented by their deputies, under the 
 name of the fates-general, who were always to refide at the 
 Hague, and who alone are now called fates-general. 
 Since that new regulation, there have been but two general 
 affemblies of the fates of the provinces ; the former held in 
 1600 at Berg-op-Zoom, to confirm the truce agreed on with 
 the arch-duke Albert, with the greater folemnity : and the 
 latter in 1651. 
 
 States of Holland, an aflembly confifting of the deputies of 
 the councils, or colleges of each city ; wherein refides the 
 fovereignty of that province. 
 
 Originally, none but the nobility and the fix principal cities 
 had feats, or voices in the fates. — At prefent there are the 
 deputies of eighteen cities. — The nobility have the firft voice. 
 The other provinces of the union have likewife their jlalcs, 
 reprefeming their fovereignty : deputies from which coniti- 
 tute what they call the fates- general. 
 
 STAT HOLDER. See the article Stadtholder. 
 
 STATIC A L barofcope. See Baroscope, and Barome- 
 ter. 
 
 STATICKS, Statice, a branch of mathematics, which 
 confiders weight or gravity, and the motion of bodies arifing 
 therefrom. 
 
 Thofe who define mechanics, the fcience of motion, make 
 faticks a member thereof, viz. that part which confiders the 
 motion of bodies arifing from gravity. 
 
 Others make them two diftinct doctrines ; reftrajnjng me- 
 chanics to the doctrine of motion and weight in reference to 
 the ftrucrarc and power of machines j and faticks to the 
 doctrine of motion confidered merely as arifing from the 
 weight of bodies, without any immediate refpeft to ma- 
 chines.— On which footing, faticks fhould be the doctrine 
 or theory of motion ; and mechanics the application thereof 
 to machines. 
 
 For the laws of Staticks, fee Gravity, Descent, i§e. 
 Staticks, Statici, in medicine, a kind of epileptics, or 
 perfons feized with epilepfies. 
 
 Staticks differ from catehptics, in that, thefe laft have no 
 fenfe of external objects, nor remember any thing that panes 
 at the time of the paroxyfm : whereas the Jlatki are all the 
 while taken up with fome very ftrong lively idea, which they 
 remember well enough, when out of the fit. 
 STATION, in geometry, &c. a place pitched upon to make 
 an obfervation, take an angle, or the like. 
 An inacceffible height or diftance is only to be taken, by 
 making two fattens, from two places, whofe diftances arc 
 known. — In making maps of provinces, ts'c.fatiotis are Ax- 
 ed on all the eminences, csV. of the country, and angles 
 taken thence to the feveral towns, villages, £sV. 
 In furveying, the mftrument is tobeadjufted by the needle, 
 to anfwer the points of the horizon, at every fatten ; the 
 diftance from the laft fatter, to be meafured, and an angle to 
 be taken to the next fatten ; which includes the wholelufi- 
 nefs of furveying. 
 
 In levelling, the inftrument is rectified, that is, it is placed 
 level, at each fatten, and obfervations made forwards and 
 backwards. 
 
 Line of Station in perfpectivc. See the article Line. 
 Station, in aftronomy, the pofition or appearance of a planet 
 
 in the fame point of the zodiac for feveral days. 
 
 As the earth, whence we view the motions of the planets, 
 
S T A 
 
 is out of the centre of their orbits, the planets appear to pro ; 
 teed irregularly ; being jbsKCi.mts ken to 20 forwards, that 
 is from weft to eaft, which is called their direction ; fome- 
 times to go backwards, or from eaft to weft, which is called 
 their retragradallon. 
 
 Now between thefe two flate*, there mull be an intermediate 
 one, wherein the planet neither appears to go backwards nor 
 forwards, but to Hand ft ill and keep the lame place in her 
 orbit ; which is called her Jlailon. 
 Station, Statio, in church hiftory, is applied to the faffs 
 of the fourth and fixth days of the week ; that is, Wednes- 
 day and Friday; which many among the ancients obferved 
 with much devotion, till three of the clock in the afternoon. 
 S. Peter of Alexandria, in his Camnhsl Epijlle, can. 15. ob- 
 ferves, that it was appointed conformably to ancient tradi- 
 tion, to faft weekly on thofe days : on Wednefday, in me- 
 mory of the counfel* the Jews took to put our Saviour to 
 death ; and on Friday, on account of his pafhon. — Some 
 regard to which is ftill had by the church of England. See 
 Abstinence. 
 
 Station is alfo ufed in the church of Rome, for a church 
 where indulgences are to be had on certain days. 
 It was St. Gregory that fixed the Jlatkm at Rome, i. e. the 
 churches where the office was to be performed each day of 
 Lent, and on foicmn fcaft days. Thefe jlatkm he marked 
 down in his Sacramcntary, as they now ftand in the Roman 
 Mi/fa/; appropriating them chiefly to the patriarchal and ti- 
 tular churches : but though the Jiatkns were fixed, the arch- 
 deacon did not fail at each Jlation, to publifti to the people 
 the following /?tf/ra». 
 
 Station is alfo a ceremony in the Romifh church, wherein 
 the prieffs or canons go out of the choir to fing an anthem 
 before the crucifix, or the image of our lady. — This cere- 
 mony is afcribed fo S. Cyril. 
 
 STATIONARY, in aftronomy, the flate of a planet when 
 it feems to remain immoveable in the fame point of the zo- 
 diac. 
 
 The planets having fometimes a progrefiive and fometimes a 
 retrograde motion ; there will be fome point wherein they ap- 
 pear tfirt/ftttfty. Now a planet will be fcen Jlatianary, when 
 the line that joins the earth's and planet's center, is con- 
 fhntly directed ro the fame point in the heavens ; that is, 
 when it keeps parallel to itfelf.— For all right lines drawn 
 from any point of the earth's orbit, parallel to one another, 
 <fo all point to the fame ftar ; the diftance of thofe lines be- 
 ing inftnjlble, in comparifon of that of the fixed ftars. 
 Saturn is ken Jlatisnary, at the diftance of fome what more 
 than a quadrant from the fun ; jupiter at the diftance of 52?, 
 and mars at a much greater diftance. 
 
 Saturn hjiatmary eight days, jupiter four, mars two, venus 
 one and a half, and mercury an half ; though the i'everal fta- 
 tions are not always equal. 
 
 STEATOCELE, STEATOKHAH, J n medicine, a rupture, 
 or tumour of the fcrotum, confifting of a fatty fubflance re- 
 fembling fiiet colledted therein. 
 
 STATUARY, Statuarja, a branch of fculpture, em- 
 ployed in the making of ftatues. 
 
 Statuary is one of thofe arts wherein the ancients furpafled 
 the moderns : indeed it was much more popular, and more 
 cultivated among the former than the latter.— It is difputed 
 between Jiatuary and painting, which of the two is the mod 
 difficult and the moft artful. 
 
 The invention of Jiatuary was at firft very coarfe. Leon Bat- 
 
 tifta Albert!, who has an ex pre fs treatife on ftatues, imagines 
 
 that it took its rife from fomething cafually obferved in the 
 
 productions of nature, that, with a little help, feemcd dif- 
 
 pofed to reprefent the figure of fome animal.— The common 
 
 itory is, that a maid, full of the idea of her lover, made 
 
 the firft eflay, by the affifiance of her father's implements, 
 
 who was a potter. This, at leaft, is pretty certain, that 
 
 earth was the firft matter Jiatuary was pradifed upon. 
 Statuary is alfo ufed for the artificer, who makes ftatues. 
 
 Phidias was the greatert Jiatuary among the ancients, and 
 
 Michael Angelo among the moderns. 
 Statuary column. 7 „ . ., \Columm 
 Statuary iW,,, f >>« the articles 
 STATUE, Statua, a piece of fculpture in full relievo, 
 
 reprefenting a human figure. 
 
 Daviler more fcientifically defines flatu a reprefentation in - 
 Jngh relievo and infulate, of fome perfon diftiuguilbed by his P'difial if St a toes, 
 birlh, merit, or great actions ; placed as an ornament in a \ pl '"th of Statues 
 
 Repairing a Statu 
 
 S T A 
 
 Dalalus, the fon of Eupalmus, who lived not only before 
 the luge ot Troy, but even before the expedition of the 
 Argonauts, among many other notable contrivances afcribed 
 to tan, u faid to have been the inventor of flipm.— And 
 yet it ,s certain, there were (binaries before him , onlv it 
 was he who firft found how to give them action and motion, 
 and to make them appear a 5 if alive. Before him, they made 
 them with the leet joined together, never ir.tendine to exprefs 
 any adtion. He firft loofened the feet of his, and gave them 
 the attitude! of people walking and afting.— The Phoenicians 
 are find to hare been the firft who erefled flatus to the gods. 
 1 he Greeks fucceeded in t\mv flaluci beyond the Romans; 
 both the workmanlhip and the fancy of the Roman jtatmi 
 were inferior to the Grecian. Indeed we have very few re- 
 maining, that have effaced the injuries of time. 
 Status are ufually diilinguilhed into four general kinds. 
 — The firft, are ihofe lefs than the life : of which kind 
 we have feveral/iWr of men, of kings, and of gods tbem- 
 felves. 1 |,i 
 
 The fecond, thofe equal to the life : in which manner it 
 was, that the ancients, at the publick expence, ufed to make 
 flatus of perfons eminent for virtue, learning, or the fei- 
 vices they had done. 
 
 The third, thofe that exceed the life: among which, thofe 
 which lurpalled the life once and a half, were for kin<-s and 
 emperors; and thofe double the life, for heroes. 
 The fourth kind, were thole th2t exceeded the life twice, 
 thrice, or even more; and were called coloffus's. 
 EvayJItdu rcfembling the perfon it is intended to reprefent, 
 is called Jlatua iconica. 
 
 Irgorical Statue, that which, under a human figure, or 
 other fymbul, reprefents fomething of another kind, as a 
 ho" °cif thC elnh ' 3 ftaf0n ' aEe> clemcnt ' temperament, 
 Cmpk&TA T U E , 7 & JCaryatides. 
 Cehffal Statue, S" Le tne art,cles \ Colossus 
 Curu/c Statues, thofe which are reprcfemed in chariots 
 drawn by bigs;, or quadriga:, that is, by two, or four horfes : 
 of which kind there were fevcral in ihe Circus's, Hippo- 
 dromes, Sc.— or in cars, as we fee fome with triumphal 
 arches on antique medals. 
 Equflrian Statue, that which reprefents fome illuftrious 
 pcrlon on horfeback— as that famous one of Marcus Autelius 
 at Rome ; and that of king Charles I. at Charing-crofs. 
 trrtct otatue, denotes a figure that is naked and antique ; it 
 being in this manner the Greeks rcprefented their deities, 
 athlcta: of the Olympic games, and heroes. 
 The irafco of this nudity, whereby the Greek flatus are 
 diltinguilhed, is, that thofe who exercifed wreftling, where- 
 in the Greek youth placed their chief glory, always-perform- 
 ed naked. 
 
 They?ai»„of heroes were particularly called Achillean fla- 
 tus, by reafon of the great number of figures of that prince, 
 in moft of the cities of Greece. 
 Hydraulic Statue, any figure placed as an ornament of a 
 fountain, or grotto ; or that does the office of a jet d'eau, a 
 cock, fpout or the like, by any of its parts, or by any at- 
 tribute ,t holds—The like is to be underlined of any anL,I 
 ferving for the fame ufe. ' 
 Pedeftrian Statue a/, a , m (landing on foot-as thatof King 
 
 rfr?^M*"T: and that of k "' s hmc " 
 
 Pirfan ^Statue. See the atticle Persian m-d,r. 
 Roman Stat u es, is an appellation given to fuch as are cloathed 
 and which receive various names from their various drefl'es ' 
 1 a ° Um P"° rs wit « '«l>g gowns over their armour, were 
 cMcdflatuvpalu/ata,; thofe of captains and cavaliers with 
 coats of arms ttoracata,; thofe of foldiers, with cuirafTes 
 Orart'S thofe of fenators and augurs, trahata, ; thofe of 
 maglftrates with long robes, tojralas ; thofe of the people with 
 a plain tunica, tumcata, ; and, laltly, thofe of women with 
 
 - - — - ' i" — — uajjjwib 
 
 fine building, or expofed in a public place to preferve the 
 •""~f_of his worth. 
 
 ners, the term flatu is only applied to figures 
 e word being formed from the Latin, flatura, the 
 ^_body ; or from Jlari, to ftand. 
 
 " d with the chiflcl, of fevcral matters, as 
 plaifter, &c, 
 o call of various kinds of metal, particularly 
 brats, and lead— For the method of catting 
 ee tcundery afflatus. 
 
 1 
 
 long trains, flolatts. 
 
 The Romans had another divifion o! flatus, into divine, 
 Which were thofe confecrated to the gods ; as Jupiter, Mars 
 Apollo, iSc.—Hirns, which were thofe of die demi-gods ; 
 as Hercules, fife— and Augu/li, which were thofe of the- em- 
 perors ; as thofe two of Caefat and Auguftus, under the por- 
 tico of the capitol. v 
 Founder, of St a t u es, 7 r Found e r y. 
 
 ^ee the articles< Pedestal. 
 > C Plinth. 
 
 c tatitdV See t!> e atticle Repair inc. 
 
 , AI U K t, the fize or height of a man— From the Latin 
 flatura, of flare, to ftand. ' 
 The flaturc, or pitch of a man, is found admirably well 
 adapted to the circumftances of his exiftence. Had mail 
 obferves Dr. Grew, been a dwarf; he could fcarce have been' 
 a reafonable creature 1 For, to that end, he muft have har> , 
 jolt-head ; and then he would not have had bodv and blood 
 to limply his brain with fpirits : or if he had had a fmaU, pro- 
 portional 
 
S T A 
 
 portional head, there would not have been brain enough for 
 his bufinefs. — Again, had man been a giant, he could not 
 have been To commodioufly fupplied with food : for there 
 would not have been flelh enough of the beft edible beafts to 
 fupplvhis turn ; or if the beafts had been made proportiona- 
 bly bigsrer, there would not have been grafs enough, £&, See 
 Dwarf and Giant. 
 
 It is a common opinion, hoVever, and has been fo ever 
 fince Homer's rime, that people in the earlieft ages of the 
 world, much furpafi'ed the moderns in jlature ; and it is true, 
 we read of men, both in facred and profane hiltory, whofe 
 pitch appears fiirprizing : but then it is true, they were 
 even then elteemed giants. 
 
 The ordinary jlature of men, Mr. Derham obferves, is, in 
 all probability the fame now, as at the beginning ; as may be 
 gathered from the monuments mummies, is'c. (till remain- 
 ing. The oldeft monument in the world, is that of Cheops, 
 ■ in the firft pyramid of Egypt, which Mr. Gieaves obferves, 
 fcarcc exceeds the mcafu re of our ordinary coffins. The ca- 
 vity, he fays, is only 6.488 feet long, 2.218 feet wide, 
 and 2.160 deep: from which dimenfions, and thofe of le- 
 veral embalmed bodies, obferved by him in Egypt, that accu- 
 rate writer concludes, there is no decay in nature ; but that 
 the men of this age are of the fame jlature as thofe three 
 thoufand years ago. 
 
 To theft we have other and later inftances to add from 
 Hakewell : the tombs at Pifa, which are fome thoufands of 
 years old, are yet no longer than ours. The fame may be 
 ("aid of Atbelftan's in Malmfbury church ; and of Sheba's in 
 Paul's, of the year 693, &c. 
 
 The like evidence we have from the ancient armour, fhidds, 
 veffels, dug up at this day, e. gr. the brafs helmet dug 
 up at Metaurum, fits one of our men ; yet it is allowed to 
 have been left there at the overthrow of Afdrubal. Add, 
 that Auguftus was five foot nine inches, which was the mea- 
 fure of our queen Elizabeth ; only the queen exceeded the 
 emperor by two inches, allowance being made for the diffe- 
 rence between the Roman and our foot. 
 
 STATUS demanerio, in ancient records, denotes all the te- 
 nants and legal men within the lands of a manor, afiembled 
 in their lord's court, to do their cuftomary fuit, and enjoy 
 their rights and privileges. 
 
 STATUTE, Statutum, in its general fenfe, fignifies a 
 law, ordinance, decree, f$c. See Law, Decree, &c. 
 
 Statute, in our laws and cuftoms, more immediately fig- 
 nifies an aft of parliament, made by the three eftates of the 
 realm ; and having the force of a law. See Law, and 
 Parliament. 
 
 Accfirs iy Statute, J & h ; , £ S Accessory. 
 
 Jfiion upon the Statute, J I Action. 
 
 Statute fejftons, called alfo petit feffions, are meetings in 
 every hundred, to which conftables repair, and others, both 
 matters and fervants, for deciding differences between matters 
 and fervants, rating of wages, bcflowiiig people in fervice, 
 who being fit to ferve, either refufo to feek, or cannot get 
 matters. 
 
 Statute merchant, is a bond of record acknowledged before 
 one of the clerks of the flatutes merchant and mayor or 
 chief warden of the city of London, or two merchants of 
 the laid city for that purpoft; attigned, or before the mayor, 
 chief warden, or matter of other cities or towns, or other 
 furfkicnt men for that purpoft appointed j fealed with the 
 feal of the debtor and of" the king, which is of two pieces, 
 thfi greater to be kept by the mayor, chief warden, tiff, and 
 the letter by the faid clerks, its effect is, that if the obligor 
 pay not the debt at the day, execution may be awarded a- 
 gaintt his body, lands, and goods ; and that the obligee ftiall 
 hold the Came till the debt be levied. 
 
 Tenant per Statute merchant. See Tenant. 
 
 Statute Jlaple, is a fort of Jlatute merchant, relating to 
 merchants, and merchandizes of, the ftaple. See Staple. 
 The jlatute flaple is of two kinds ; proper, and improper. 
 The proper is a bond of record, acknowledged before the mayor 
 of the ftaple, in the prefence of one or more conftables of the 
 ftaple j by virtue of which the creditor may forthwith have 
 execution of the body, lands, and goods of the debtor, on 
 non-payment. 
 
 Improper is a bond of record, founded upon the jlatute 23 Hen, 
 VIII. c. 6. of the nature of a ^ropvz jlatute ftaple as to the 
 force and execution of it, and acknowledged before one of 
 the chief juftices ; or in their abfence, before the mayor of 
 the ftaple, and recorder of London. 
 STAVERS, or Staggers, among ; farriers, a giddineG 
 a horfe's head, which ends in madneis. 
 
 It is frequently occafioned, by turning out a horfe to grafs too 
 foon, before well cold ; wheie. by hanging down his head 
 to feed, ill vapours and humours are generated, which op- 
 prefiing the brain, are the proximate caufe of this difeafe.-- 
 Sometimes itccmes by overexercife in hot weather, which in 
 flames the blood, iffc. and fometimes by noifome fmells in 
 the liable, exceffive eating, fife. 
 
 The figns of it, are dimnefs of fight, reeling, and ftagger- 
 ing, watery eyes, &c. At length, for very pain, he beats 
 his head againtt the wall, thrufts it into the litter, rifes and 
 lies down with fury, tsV. 
 
 S T E 
 
 The methods of cure are various ; but they all begin with 
 bleeding. 
 
 STAVES^ i% Staves,! CFlag flaws. 
 Levelling St aves, f See < Levelling Jlaves. 
 
 Tip Staves, 3 c.Tip jlaves. 
 
 STAY, in the fea language, a big, ftrong rope, fattened to 
 the top of one matt, and the foot of that next before it, to- 
 wards the prow, fcrving to keep it firm, and prevent its fall- 
 ing aftwards, or towards the poop. SecTab. Ship, jig, I. 
 
 n, 29, 33,78, 85, 120. See alfo the article Mast. 
 All malts, top-mafts, and flag-ftaves, have then jlays ; ex- 
 cept the fprit-fail top-mafts. That of the main-mall is 
 called the main jlay. 
 
 The main-maft, tore-matt, and thofe belonging to them, 
 have alfo back ftays, to prevent their pitching forwards, or 
 eve r- board ; as going on either fide her. See Back 
 ftays. 
 
 To Stay a flip, or bring her on the Stays, is to manage hei 
 tackle and fails, fo as that ttie cannot make any way for- 
 wards, which is done in order to her tacking about. 
 STEADY, a word of command at fea, for the man at the 
 helm to keep the fhip fteady in her courfe, and not to make 
 angles {or yaivs as they call them) in and out. See Helm. 
 S T E A T O M A, STEATfiMA, a kind of fwelling, or abfeefs ; 
 confuting of a matter much like fuet ; foft, without pain, 
 and without difcolouring the fkin ; contained ina cyftis, and 
 eafily turned out upon incifion. 
 STEEL, a kind of iron refined, and purified by the fire, 
 with other ingredients; which renders it whiter, and its 
 grain clofer, and finer than in common iron. See Iron. 
 Steel, of all other metals, is that fufceptible of the greateft 
 degree of hardnefs, when well tempered ; whence its great 
 ufe in the making of tools and inttrumcnts of all kinds. 
 The true method of making fteel has been greatly conceal- 
 ed, and the public long abufed by counterfeit ones.— The 
 following method we have from Agricola ; and it is affirmed 
 by Kircher to be that practifed in the ifland of II va ; a place 
 famous in all ages for the manufacture of good fteel, from 
 the time of the Romans to ours. 
 
 Hear a quantity of iron red hot, cut it into fmall pieces, mix 
 it with any kind of ftone that eafily melts. This mixture put 
 by little and little into a crucible, firit filled with charcoal- 
 duft, and heated red-hot ; when melted off, tlree, four, or 
 more pieces of iron are to be put in the middle of it j there 
 boil them five or fix hours with a ftrong fire. The work- 
 man is to ftir the melted matter often, that the pieces of iron 
 may foak in the fmaller particles of the melted matter ; 
 which particles confume, and thin the grofier ones of the 
 iron pieces, and are, as it were, a ferment to them, and 
 make them tender. One of the pieces is now taken out of 
 the fire, and put under the great hammer, to be drawn out 
 into bars, end wrought ; and hot as it is, plunged into cold 
 water. — Thus tempered, it is again worked upon the anvil ; 
 then breaking it, it is confideied, whether in any part it 
 looks like iron ; or whether it be wholly condenfed, and 
 turned into jleel. See Supplement, article Steel. 
 Damafcus St eel, ~) ("Damascus. 
 ~ paving on Steel, L , art : r i e J Engraving. 
 Faggot of Steel, ( bee ttie articles *j Faggot. 
 Nealing of Steel, J LNealing. 
 Steel, in medicine. See the article Chalybeat. 
 Steel Wine. See the article Wine. 
 
 STEELYARD, or Stilyard, in mechanics, a kind of 
 balance called alfo jlatera Romana, or the Roman balance ; by 
 means whereof, the gravities of different bodies are found by 
 the ufe of one fmgle weight. 
 Conflruilion of the Steelyard. — It confifts of an iron beam 
 A B {Tab. Mech. fig. 35.) wherein a point is aflumed at 
 pleafure, as C, and on this a perpendicular raifed CD. On 
 the fhorter arm AC, is hung a fcale or bafon to receive the 
 bodies weighed : the weight I is fhifted this and that way on ' 
 the beam, till it be a counter-balance to one, two, three, 
 four, Effr. pounds placed in the fcale ; and the points are 
 noted wherein I weighs as one, two, three, four, EsV. pounds. 
 From this conftrucfion of the jleelyard, the manner of ufing 
 it is apparent. But the inftrument being very liable to deceit, 
 is therefore not to be countenanced in commerce. 
 Spring Steelyard, is a kind of portable balance, ferving to 
 weigh any matter, from about one to forty pounds. 
 It is compofed of a brafs tube, into which goes a rod, and 
 about that is wound a fpring of tempered fteel in a fpiral 
 form. On this rod are the diyifions of pounds and parts of 
 pounds, which are made by fucceffively hanging on to a 
 hook faftened to the other end, one, two, three, four, &c. 
 pounds. 
 
 Now the fpring being fattened by a fcrew, to the bottom 
 of the rod ; the greater weight is hung on the hook, the 
 more will the fpring be contracted, and, confequently, a 
 greater part of the rod will come out of the tube ; the pro- 
 portions of which greater weights are indicated by the figures 
 appearing agalnil the extremity of the tube. 
 STEEPLE, an appendage generally raifed on the weftern 
 end of a church, to hold the bells. 
 3 
 
 Steeple; 
 
S T E 
 
 Steeples are denominated from their form, either fpires, or 
 lowers. — The firft, are fuch as afocpd continually dimiuifti- 
 ing either conically or pyramidicallv. 
 
 The latter are mere parallelepipeds, and are covered a-top, 
 plat-form like. 
 
 In each kind, there isufually a fort of windows or apertures 
 to let out the found ; and Co contrived, at the fame time, as 
 to drive it down. 
 
 Mafius, in his treatife of bells, treats likewife of Jlecples. 
 The moll remarkable in the world, is that at Pifa, which 
 leans all on one fide, and appears every moment ready to 
 fall; yet is in no danger. This odd difpofition, he obferves, 
 is not owing to a ihock of an earthquake, as is generally 
 imagined ; but was contrived fo at firft bv the architect ; 
 as is evident from the ceilings, windows, doors, Isfc. which 
 are all in the level. 
 
 STEER, Hog Steer. Sec the article Hog. 
 
 STEERAGE, the act of fleering. See Steer ing. 
 
 The word is alfo ufed for a place in a fliip, next below the 
 quarter-deck, before the bulk-head of the great cabin ; 
 where the fleer-man Sands and lodges. — See Tab. Ship. fig. 
 2. n. 102. 
 
 ST E E R I N G, in navigation, the directing a vefTel from one 
 place to another, by means of. the helm and rudder. 
 He is held the beft Jfeers-tmn 9 who ufes the leaft motion 
 in putting the helm over to and again, and who keeps the 
 £hip beft from making yaws ; that is, from running in and 
 our. 
 
 There are three methods of fleering, i°. By any mark on 
 the land, fo as to keep the fhip even by it. — 2". By the 
 compafs, which is by keeping the fliip's head on fuch a 
 rhumb or point of the compals, as belt leads to port — 3°. 
 To fleer as one is bidden or conned ; which, in a great 
 fhip, is the duty of him that is taking his turn at the helm. 
 See Cond. — Eor the theory and effect of fleering j fee 
 Sailing, Course, Isc. 
 STEG ANOGRAPHY, STErANorrA^iA, the art of fe- 
 cret writing, or of writing in cyphers; known only to the 
 perfons correfponding. 
 
 One ./Eneas Taetkus, two thoufand years ago, as we are 
 told by Polybius, had invented twenty different manners of 
 writing, fo as nobody, but thofe let into the lecret, could 
 underftand any thing of the matter. 
 
 But now-a-days, hardly any thing can be written by this art, 
 but what may be decyphered, and the meaning perfectly dif- 
 covered. And to this art of decbyphering, that excellent ma- 
 thematician, Dr. Wallis, hath contributed much. See De- 
 ciphering. 
 
 STEGNOSIS, STEFNOSIS, an obflruaion of any natural 
 difcharge, efpecially that by the pores. 
 
 STEGNOTICKS*, STiirNOTlKA, in medicine, remedies 
 proper to clofe, and flop the orifices of the vefTels, oremunc- 
 tories, when relaxed, flretched, lacerated, isc. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek tiya, impctlio, conjlip;, J 
 hinder, clofe. 
 
 Such are pomgranate leave?, red rofes, plantain leaves, tor- 
 mentil roots, C5V. — Stegnoticks arc proper in the haemor- 
 rhoids, and other fluxes of blood. 
 
 STELLA, I „ i 
 
 STELLAR, 1 ec 
 
 STELLATE plants, fuch as have their leaves growing on the 
 flalks, at certain diftances, in the form of a flar with rays 
 or fuch flowers as are flar-like, or full of eyes refemblim 
 ftars. 
 
 Mr. Ray makes the Jlellate plants, fo called from the difpo^ 
 fition of their leaves, the tenth genua of Englilh plants ; of 
 which kind are crofs-wort, mollugo, wild madder, afperula, 
 or woodruff", gallium or ladies bed-flraw, aparine or cleavers, 
 and rubia tinctorum or dyers madder. 
 STELL10NATE*, Stellion a tus, in the civil law, a 
 kind of crime committed by a fraudulent bargain, where 
 one of the parties fells a thing for what it is not. 
 
 * Cujas fays, the word comes from jhllio, a very fubtile kind of 
 lizzard — We find mention hereof in the c*dt } leg. ix. tit. 34, 
 
 As, if I fell an eftate for my own, which belongs to another ; 
 or convey a thing as free and clear, which is already en- 
 gaged to another ; or put ofl copper for gold, He. 
 The Romans frequently ufed Jlellionatus to exprefs all kinds 
 of crimes that had no proper names. 
 S T E M, in botany, that part of a plant arifing out of the 
 root, and which fuftains the leaves, flowers and fruits. 
 In trees, the flem is called the trunk or Jlsck ; in Latin cau- 
 dex and truncus. 
 
 In herbs, it is ordinarily called the Jlalk ; by the Latins cflu- 
 lis and jcapus, when ftreight like a column. See Stalk. 
 "When flender, and creeping on the ground, as that of num- 
 mulary, fome authors call it viticulus. 
 
 In the feveral kinds of corn and plants of that kind, it is 
 more properly called culmus. 
 
 The Jlem of the plant, according to Dr. Grew, is no more 
 than the cutis or fkin which at firft covers the two lobes, 
 Vol. II. N°. 146. 
 
 , S PsEUDO /sella. 
 cles £ Inter pilar. 
 
 S T E 
 
 and the plume of the feed, and which is further dilated as 
 the plant grows. 
 Stem of a jhip, is that main piece of timber which comes 
 bending from the keel below, where it is fcarfed as they call 
 it, that is pieced in ; and rifes compafling right before the 
 fore-caftle. 
 
 Tlmflem it is, which guides the rake of the fhip ; and all 
 the butt-ends of the planks forwards, are fixed into it. 
 This in the fection of a firft rate fliip, is called the main 
 Jlem. — See Tab. Ship. fig. 1. lit. b. fig. 2. n. 1. 
 STENCH. See the article Stink. 
 
 STENTOROPHONIC tube, a fpeaking trumpet * thus called 
 from Stentor (a petibn mentioned in the filth book of the 
 Iliad, who, as Homer tells us, could call louder than fifty 
 menj and pt»v f voice. The Jlentorophomc horn of Alexan- 
 der the Great is famous ; with this it is faid he could give 
 orders to his army at the diftance ofioo ftadia; which is above 
 twelve Englifh miles. See Speaking trumpet. 
 
 STEP. See the articles Pace, Stair, firV. 
 
 Step and Leap, in the manage, one of the f'even airs Or arti- 
 ficial motions of a horfe ; confifting, as it were, of three 
 airs; viz. the pace or ftep which is terra a terra ; the railing 
 which is a curvet ; and the whole finimed with a fault or 
 leap. 
 
 The ftep, properly, puts a horfe on the hand, and gives' hirr 
 a rife to leap ; like one that runs before he leaps, that he 
 may go the higher, or the further. 
 
 Por leaps of all kinds, the rider is not to give any aids or 
 helps with hi* legs ; only to hold the horfe well up with the 
 bridle-hand when he rifes before, that he may rife the higher 
 behind ; when he begins to rife behind, he is to put the iri- 
 dic hand a little forwards to hold him before, and flay him 
 there on the hand, as if he hung in the air; timing; the mo- 
 tion of the bridle hand fo, as to take him like a ball on the 
 bound, which is the great fecret in leaping. 
 
 STEPHENb's water. See the article Water. 
 
 STERCORARIANS*, or Stercorani sts, a name which 
 thole of the Romifh church anciently gave to fuch as held 
 that the hoflwas liable to digeftion, and all its confluences, 
 like other food. 
 
 * TfiL' word is formed from the Latin, Jliran, dung. 
 
 Card. Humbert in his anfwer to Nicetas Pectoratus treats 
 him as a ftereoranift, merely for holding, that the eucharift 
 breaks the tafl ; which opinion he imagined led directly into 
 ftercoranifm. 
 
 STEREOfJATA*, or Stereobates, in the ancient archi- 
 tecture, the bafis or foundation, whereon, a column, wall 
 or other piece of building is raifed. 
 
 • The word is formed f rom tkc Greek ftfti&e^ fiidpmp. 
 This anfwers pretty well to the continued focle or bafement 
 of the moderns. 
 
 Some confound it with the ancient ftylobata, or Dedeftal j 
 but in eftea, the ftereobata is that to the ftylobata which 
 the ftylobata is to the fpira or bafe of the column. See Pe- 
 destal. 
 
 STEREOGRAPHIC projection of the fphcre, is that where- 
 in the eye is fuppofed to be placed in the furface of the 
 fphcre, 
 
 Stenographic projection is, the projection of the circhs of the 
 fphcre on the pljne of fome one great circle; the eye bein^ 
 fuppofed placed in the pole of that circle. 
 The method and practice of this projection, in all the prin- 
 cipal cafes, viz. on the planes of the meridian, equinoctial 
 and horizon, is as follows. 
 
 Stereocraphic projection on the plane of the meridian 
 
 Let ZQNE {Tab.Perfpefi.frg. 22.) be the meridian, Z and 
 N the pules, as alfo the zenith and nadir; EQ_the equinoctial 
 and horizon ; ZN the equinoctial colure, and prime verti- 
 cal circle: Z 15 N, Z 30 N, Z 45 N, (Jc. are hour cir- 
 cles or meridians, and alfo azimuths, hecaufe the pole is in 
 the zenith. To defcribe thefe circles, find the points, 15, 
 30, 45, 60,^. in the equinoctial, by Jetting the half-tan- 
 gent of their diftance from V j and then their centres are 
 found by fetting their co-fecants, both ways, from their 
 points of incerfection with the equator : <5, s, and vy, vj 1 , 
 are the northern and fouthern tropics, which are defcribed 
 by fetting the half tangent of 23 degrees 30 minutes irom 
 T each way ; then the tangent of its complement, viz. 66 
 degrees 30 minutes, each way from thence on the colure 
 produced, gives their centres. By this method, all parallels 
 of declinations may be drawn.— Or you might have fet the 
 co-fecant of the parallel from the centre of the primitive 
 which would alfo have found [he fame point for the centre 
 of the parallel, whofe radius is equal to the tangent of its 
 diftance from its pole. 
 
 The parallels in this projection, are alfo almacantcrs, or pa- 
 rallels of altitude; c c , vf is the ecliptic, which muft be di- 
 vided from the divifion on the fcale of half tangents; but 
 denominated according to the figns of the zodiac, reckon- 
 ing 30 degrees to each fign. 
 SiHRtoGRAPinc prt-jtElion on the plane of the e$uint>r.ial. — 
 11 Kk Let 
 
 j 
 
 I', 
 
STE 
 
 Let SC (fig. 23.) be the meridian, and folftitial colure ; 
 EN the equinoctial colure, and hour circle of 6 ; P the 
 north pole; gi ffij the northern tropic ; E © N the north- 
 ern half of the ecliptick (whofe center is found by fetting off 
 the fecant of 23 degrees 30 minutes from g> ) and its pole is. 
 at a the interferon of the polar circle and meridian, being 
 the place through which all circles of longitude muft pals ; 
 arid E Z N the horizon of London, which is defcribed thus . 
 fet the half tangent of the co-latitude, from P to Z ; then 
 the tangent of the fame, fet from P to O, or its fecant from 
 Z to O, gives its centre ; and its pole will be at h 38 degrees 
 30 minutes, (in the half tangents) diftant from F, where/' 
 is at the zenith. 
 
 To draw any other circles in this projection ; I. For circles 
 of longitude, which muft all pafs through a, and the feveral 
 degrees of the ecliptic ; fet the tangent of 66 degrees, 30 mi- 
 nutes, from a downwards, on the meridian produced ; which 
 will find a point, through which a perpendicular, drawn to 
 the meridian, fhall contain in it the centres of all the circles 
 of longitude, whofe diftances fet off to the radius P x, fhall 
 be the tangents of the degrees of their diftances from the 
 meridian S PC (which is that belonging to 180 degrees.J— 
 2. All parallels of declination are drawn by fetting the half 
 tangents of their diftances from P. — 3. All azimuths or ver- 
 tical circles muft pafs through b at the zenith : fince, there- 
 fore, the zenith is 38 degrees 30 minutes diftant from P, fet 
 the co- fecant of that (or the fecant of 51 degrees 30 minutes) 
 from b on the meridian extended below, and that will find 
 the point x, the centre of the azimuth of eaft and weft, viz. 
 E b N ; and the centres of all the reft are in a line, that is 
 perpendicular to the meridian, and drawn through ;s. — 4. 
 Circles of altitude or almacanters, are leffer circles, whofe 
 poles are not in the plane of the projection ; thus the circle 
 O e, is a parallel of altitude 50 degrees above the horizon. — 
 5. All hour-circles arc ftrait lines from the centre to the 
 limb. 
 
 Stereographic projection on the plane of the horizon. — ■ 
 
 Firft draw a circle reprefenting the horizon, and quarter it 
 
 with two diameters; then will z be the zenith of the place, 
 
 12 z 12 the meridian ; 6 z6 the prime vertical, or azimuth 
 
 of eaft and weft ; (fig. 24.) make zP = half tangent of 38^ 
 
 30'. (or tangent of 19" 15') P ftiall be the pole of the world. 
 
 Make z E= half tangent of 51° 30' ( or tangent of 25 0 45 ) 
 
 and Ee = fecant ? r *> 1 a 
 
 r of 38 decrees -io minutes; then 
 %o — tangent i J 0 J 
 
 fhall 0 be the centre of the equinoctial 6 JE 6. 
 In this projection, almacanters are all parallel to the primitive 
 circle : and azimuths are all right lines palling through z the 
 centre of the primitive, to the equal divifions in the limb. 
 Parallels of declinations arc all lefier circles, and parallel to 
 the equinoctial, and their interfections with the meridian 
 are found, by fetting the halt-tangent of their diftancc from 
 the zenith, fouthward or northward, or both ways from 
 z. — Their centres are found, by biflecting the diftance be- 
 tween thofe two points ; for the middle will be the center 
 of the parallel. Thus z 55 = half-tangent of 20° 00 '= 
 diftancc of the tropic of 53 from the-j 
 
 a i ' * , , r " . r o ( to the fouthward, or 
 And z Vf = half tangent of 7e°=> , ' 
 
 r ,. , - a r '7- I downward from z, 
 diftance of the tropic of Vf Irom \ ' 
 
 the zenith ------- _J 
 
 and the intcrfection again with the north of the meridian, is at 
 j^i, ^ f& ) 25 J to nortr| ward, or upward from z. 
 For the hour-circles make zc = tangent of 51° 30', or P 
 c = fecant of 51 0 30', draw G C T perpendicular to the 
 produced meridian : then, if from c with the radius z c, 
 you fet off" the tangents of 15 0 30 0 45 s , E3V. both ways, 
 you will have the centers of the feveral hour-circles, 7 and 
 5, 8> 4> 
 
 Note, in all ftereograpbic projections, all diameters are mea- 
 fured on the fcale of half-tangents ; and this is the ground 
 of ail dialling, or the true projection of the hour-circles of 
 the fphere on any given plane. See Sphericks. 
 STEREOGRAPHY *, the art of drawing the forms or fi- 
 gures of the folids upon a plane. 
 
 * The word i: formed from the Greek s-ffi©-, folid, and yp«p« 
 I defcribe. 
 
 STEREOMETRY*, stepeometpia, that part of geometry, 
 which teaches how to meafure folid bodies, i. e. to find the 
 folidity, or folid content of bodies ; as globes, cylinders, 
 cubes, veffels, fhips, E3V. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Greek <np®> t folid j and ^.ilf^, 
 meafure. 
 
 The methods hereof, fee under the rerpective bodies, as 
 Globe, Sphere, Cylinder, &c t Sec alfo Gaug- 
 ing. 
 
 STEREOTOMY*, the art or act of cutting folids, or mak- 
 ing fe&ions thereof; as walls and other members in the pro- 
 files of architecture. 
 
 * The word is formed from r^s, an d t^*, fection. 
 
 STE 
 
 STERILITY*, the quality of a thing that is barren ; in-op- 
 pofition to fecundity. 
 * The word is formed from the Latin fiirilitas, of fterilis, bar- 
 ren. 
 
 Sterility was held a grievous affliction by thewives of the an- 
 cient patriarchs. Nature has annexed fterility to all mon- 
 ftrous productions, that the creation might not degenerate. 
 Hence the fterility of mules, &c. 
 
 Women frequently become fterile after a mifcarriagc or a 
 difficult labour, by realbn the uterus or fome other of the 
 genital parts are injured thereby. 
 
 The fterility of mercury, fay the alchymifts, refembles that 
 of women who are too cold and rnoift ; and who, by being 
 purged and heated, would be cured of their fterility, as mer> 
 cury is when purged according to the rules of art. 
 STERLING, a term frequent in the Englifh commerce. 
 A pounds /billing, or penny fterling, fignifies as much as a 
 pound, fliilling, or penny of lawful money of England, as 
 fettled by public authority. 
 
 Antiquaries and critics are greatly divided, as to the origin 
 of the word fterling. Buchanan fetches it from the caftle of 
 Striveling or Sterling in Scotland, where a final) coin was 
 anciently ftruck, that in time, according to him, came t«j 
 give name to all the reft. — Camden derives the word from 
 eafterlhsg or efterling ; obferving, that in the reign of King 
 Richard I. money coined in the eaft parts of Germany, be- 
 gan to be of efpecial requeft in England, by rcafon of the 
 purity thereof, and was called eafterling money, as all the in- 
 habitants of thofe parts were called EajhrHugs ; fome of 
 whom, flailed in coinage, were foon after fent for over to 
 perfect the Englifh money, which was thenceforwards deno- 
 minated from them, fter ling, tor eafterling, or efterling ; not, 
 fays Camden, from Striveling in Scotland, nor from ftelln, 
 a liar, which fome dream to have been coined thereon ; 'for 
 in old deeds, the Englifh fpectes are always called nummi 
 eafterlingi, which implied as much as good and lawful money, 
 diff. — Somner, again, derives the word from the Saxon, 
 fteore, a rule or ftandard ; intimating, that this, as to weight 
 and finenefs, was to he the common ftandard of all current 
 money. 
 
 In Stow, and fome other of our ancient writers, fterlhig, or 
 eajlerling is alfo ufed for a certain coin, in value amouiitin:'- 
 nearly to our filver-penny : and on fome occaiions we find 
 the fame word fterling ufed in the general for a piece of mo- 
 ney ; it being obfervable, that, for a good while together, 
 there was no other coin but pennies, with which fter/ings or 
 eaflcrlings were become fynonymous : much as among the 
 ancients, the words denarius and nmnrnus were ufed. 
 S TERN of a pip, ufually denotes all the hindermoft part of 
 her ; but properly, it is only the outmoft part abaft. See S.s 1 p*, 
 
 Ac A FT, CSV. 
 
 Stern, among hunters, is the tail of a wolf, or a grey-hound. 
 Sec Ta il, 
 
 Stern Chafe. See the article Chase. 
 
 STERNOHYOIUEUS, in anatomy, a pair of mufclcs ari- 
 iing from tiie upper and internal part of the bone of thefter- 
 num, and part of the clavicle, and adjoining part of the firlt 
 rib, with a broad origin ; and running from the afpera arteria, 
 glandule thyroidex, and cartilago" fcudformis, terminates in 
 the bafe of the os hyoides. It draws the bone {freight down- 
 ward. — See Tab. Anat. (Myol.) fig. %. n 7, 8 
 
 STERNOTHYROIDEUS, in anatomy, a pair of muf- 
 cles of the larynx ; arifing in the fternum, or brcaft-bone, 
 and terminating in the cartilago thyroides. They ferve to 
 draw down that cartilage. 
 
 STERNUM, etepnon, the breaft-bone, a cartilaginous 
 fort of bone which makes the forepart of the breaft, and into, 
 which the ribs are fitted. — See Tab. Anal. (Oftcol.) fig, 3. 
 n. 11. 
 
 In adults, it confifts of one fmgle piece ; but in infants, of 
 feveral, according to the diverfity of age. Kerkringius tells 
 us, he has never feen more than fix. They continue carti- 
 laginous until feven years of age ; and are not very folid af- 
 terwards, but fpongeous. 
 
 At the lower extremity of the Jlernum, is a cartilage, called 
 xipboides or enfformis, becaufe refembling the point of a 
 fword. 
 
 The ufe of the flernum is to defend the heart, and to receive 
 
 the extremities of the true ribs. See Rib. 
 STERNUTATION. See the article Sneezing. 
 STERNUTATIVE, or Sternutatory, a medicine 
 
 proper to produce fneezing. 
 
 Sternutative^, called alfo ptarmicks, are of two kinds, gentle 
 and violent. Of the firft kind are betony, fage, marjoram, 
 tobacco, and the whole fafhionable tribe of muffs. 
 Of the latter kind are euphorbium, white hellebore, pelli- 
 tory, csV. 
 
 Sternutative! operate by their fharp, pungent parts vellicating 
 the inner membrane of the nofe, which is exceedingly fenfi- 
 ble, and occafioning the ferousmatxr contained in the glands 
 of the nofe, and in feveral finusjs fituate in the bafe of the 
 cranium, and the os frontis, to be expelled, 
 
 STEW, 
 
S T I 
 
 STEW, a {"mail kind of fifh-pond, the peculiar office where- 
 of is, to maintain fifh, and keep them in readineis, for the 
 daily ufes of a family, fcfr. 
 
 The fifh bred in the large ponds, are drawn out ant! put inhere. 
 For two large ponds of three or four acres a-piecc, it is ad- 
 vifeable to have four flews, each two rods wide, and three 
 long. The fleivs are ufually in gardens, or at leaft near the 
 houfe, to be more handy, and the better looked to. 
 The method of making them, is to carry the bottom in a 
 continual decline from one end, with a mouth to favour the 
 drawing with a net. See Pond. 
 Stews C or Stues, were alfo places anciently permitted in 
 England, to women of profefTed incontinency, for the proffer 
 of their bodies to all comers. — Thefe were under particular 
 rules, and laws of difcipline, appointed by the lord of the 
 manor. 
 
 * The word is probably borrowed from the French, tftirves, hot 
 bath 5 , in regard women are wont to prepare themfelves for 
 venereal a£ts, by bathing. 
 
 STEWARD, or Seneschal, an officer, whereof there 
 are various kinds ; thus called from the, Saxon, Jhda, ftead, 
 place, or room, and ward, keeper, q. d. a deputy, or per- 
 fon appointed in the place of another. 
 
 Lord High Steward of England, is the SHI and higheft offi- 
 cer of the crown ; as having the power of what we call a 
 vicc-roy, the Danes, csV. fladtholder, and the Swedes, rekbs 
 droffet, q. d. vice rex. Chamberlayne. 
 Common lawyers call him magnus Angliis fenefcallus. His 
 office, as exprcfled in an ancient record, is to fupervife and 
 regulate the whole kingdom, both in time of peace and war, 
 immediately under the king and after him; an authority to 
 very great, that it has not been judged fafe, to trufc it any 
 longer in the hands of any fubjecL 
 
 The office was hereditary and permanent in the family of 
 the dukes of Lancaftcr, till the time of Henry IV. fince 
 whom it has only been made pro hac vice, occafionally : as 
 to officiate at a coronation j at the arraignment and trial of 
 fome nobleman for treafon, or other great crime. —Durin"- 
 his ftewardfliip, he bears a white ftaff in his hand ; and the 
 trial, &c. ended, he breaks his ftarK, and with it, his com- 
 million expires. 
 
 Lord St e w a p, d of the hovfjold, is an officer to whom the ftate 
 of the king's houfe is committed ; to be ruled and guided at 
 his discretion. 
 
 He has authority over all officers and fervants of the king's 
 houfe, except thofe of the chapel, chamber, and liable • 
 which are under the lord chamberlain, mafter of the horfe, 
 and dean of the chapel. 
 Steward of afjit?, is he who receives all the victuals from 
 the purfer ; and is to fee it well flowed in the hold : all 
 things of that nature belonging to the fhip's ufe, are in his 
 cuftody : he looks after the bread, and distributes out the 
 fevcral mefTes of victuals in the fhip. 
 
 He hath an apartment for himfclf in the hold, which is call- 
 ed the flezuard's room. — See Tab. Ship. fig. 2. lit. Y. 
 STIGMATA, ETirMATA, in natural hiftory, denotes points, 
 or fpecks ufually feen on the fides of the bellies of infects ; 
 particularly of the caterpillar kind, where they are very appa- 
 rent. 
 
 They are nothing but the extremities of certain veflels ter- 
 minating in the fides at each nodus or incifure, and ferving 
 them for lungs. 
 
 Stigmata, in antiquity, certain marks imprefied on the left 
 fhuulder of the foldiers, when lifted. 
 
 Stigmata, were alfo a kind of notes, or abbreviations; 
 confifting only of points, difpofed various ways, as in trian- 
 gles, fquarcs, croffes, &c. 
 
 Stigmata, is alfo a term introduced by the Francifcans, to 
 exprefs the marks, or prints of our Saviour's wounds, im- 
 prefTed by him on the body of their feraphic father, St. Francis. 
 It was one morning, about the feaft of the Exaltation, in the 
 year 1224, that St. Francis, being at prayers on mount Al- 
 vernus, whither he had retired to pafs the Michaelmas Lent ; 
 faw a feraph with fix burning wings, in other refpects like a 
 man ; with his hands and his feet ftretched upon a crofs. 
 With two of the wings he covered his body, two were raifed 
 over his head, and with two he flew fvviftly down. Five 
 rays proceeded from the five wounds of the perfon crucified, 
 and were directed to the correfpondent five parts of the body 
 of the faint. 
 
 Upon the vifion's difappearing, he faw the marks of thi 
 nails, &e. on his own hands and feet; the fame as he had 
 feen them in the image of the crucifix. His hands and feet 
 were found pierced with nails in the middle ; the marks of the 
 heads of the nails were plainly feen within the flefh on one 
 fide, and. thofe of the points clenched on the other. On his 
 right hde appeared a red fear, as from the wound of a fpear, 
 which frequently run with blood, and ftained his gown, csV. 
 . The good man, we are told, took a world of pains to hide 
 . the jligmota ; but thofe of his hands and feet were feen in 
 his life time, maugre all his endeavours, by feveral of the 
 brotherhood, who affirmed it upon oath, and by fome cardi- 
 nals, fays St. Bonaventure, who attefted the miracle both by 
 word and writing, and exprefled it in the hymns, anthems, 
 csY. compofed in honour uf St. Francis. 
 
 S T I 
 
 After his death, they were feen by fifty of his religious, as 
 well as by St. Clara and her nuns, and an infinite number of 
 ieculars ; many of whom felt them with their hands, to be 
 the more certain. 
 
 A folemn feaft was hereupon appointed to be annually cele- 
 brated, m memory of the miracle, called thi fiaji of the 
 itigmata of St. Francis ; and a peculiar mafs or office was 
 compofed for the fame. 
 
 An archi-confraternity was erefled on the fame occafion, by 
 cnt 3 Roma " cl >i™ r g=°n> in the year 1594. 
 
 stibium, ttm, orZTiMMi, an anciei ; t narm ,7 0r anti _ 
 
 mony, now feldom ufed. 
 STI LE and Stilus. See the article Style. 
 STTLES, in carpentry, denote the upright pieces which go 
 from the bottom to the top in any wainicot, or the like. 
 
 IJ -\ L ATITIOUS oils, are fiich as are procured by dif- 
 tillation,— in oppofition to thofe got by infufion, exoreffion; 
 &c. ■ - . " 
 
 S7ILLYARD, Stilyard, or Steelyard, in com- 
 merce. — The company of the Stillyard was a communi- 
 ty, or corporation of foreign merchants, efhblifhed at Lon- 
 don ; thus called, from the place where they had their refi- 
 dence, called the Stillyard, near the bridge, which was af- 
 figned them by act of parliament ; and which, in fome re- 
 cords, is called Guildhalda Taitonicorum ; being, as fome 
 write, a broad place, or yard, where much fteel had ufed 
 to be fold. J 
 
 This company was created in the year 1215, under Hen. III. 
 in favour of the free cities of Germany, who had been affif- 
 tant to him in his wars Sgainrf. France. 
 
 It had rendered itfelf miftrefs of all the Englifh manufacto- 
 ries, particularly thofe of cloth ; which it was allowed not 
 only to fell throughout the kingdom, but alfo to tranfport 
 
 abroad. 
 
 The prejudice thefe privileges did, and by which the company 
 frequently abufed the nation, occafioned its being broke, by 
 fentence of the judges, under Edward IV. But it redeemed 
 its rights and luffed to the year 1552, when it was fupprefled 
 by Edward VI. 
 
 STIMULATING, Stimulans, a property in angular or 
 fharp bodies, whereby they vellicatc, and caufe vibrations 
 and inflections of the fibres of the nerves, and a greater de- 
 rivation of nervous fluid into the parts affected. 
 Stmiulants produce pain, heat, rednefs, &c. — They may be 
 reduced to violent penetrating depilatories, gentle finapifms, 
 vclicatoiics, and caultics. See Sinapism, Vesicato- 
 ry, &c. 
 
 ST. ING, aculeus, an apparatus in the body of certain infects, 
 in form of a little fpear ; ferving them as a weapon of of- 
 fence. 
 
 The fhng of a bee, or w^fp, is a curious piece of nucha- • 
 nifm : it confifts of a hollow tube* at the root whereof is a 
 bag full of iharp, penetrating juice, which, in {fin 
 injected into the flefh through the tube. 
 Within the tube, Mr. Derham has bbierved, there lie two 
 fmall fharp- bearded fpears : in the fling of a wafp, be told 
 eight beards on the fide of each fpear, fomewhat like the 
 beards of fifh-hdoks. See Tab. Nat. Hift. fig. 29 & 30. 
 One of thefe fpears in the ftlng, or fheath, lies with its point 
 a little before the other ; to be ready, as mould feem, to be 
 firft darted into the flefh , which once fixed, by means of 
 its foremoft beard, the other then ftrikes in too ; and fo they 
 alternately pierce deeper and deeper, their beards taking more 
 and more hold in the flefh : after which, the flieath or jting 
 follows, to convey the poifon into the wound ; which, that 
 it may pierce the better, is drawn into a point, with a fmall 
 flit below that point, for the two fpears to come out at. 
 By means of thefe beards it is, that the animal is forced to 
 leave its fting behind it, when difturbed, before it can have 
 time to withdraw the fpears into their fcabbard. 
 STINK, or Stench, a difagreeble fmell exhaling from a 
 corrupted, or other body ; and which is prejudicial to the 
 nofe and brain. 
 
 Aftinking breath is ufually the refult either of difeafed lungs, 
 or elfe of fcorbutic gums, &c. 
 
 AJl'tnking nofe, factor naris, is the refult of a deep ulcer 
 within the nofe, whence arife fcetid fcabs, &c. — Its caufe, 
 according to Galen, is a fharp, putrid humour falling from 
 the brain, on the procelliis mamillares. — This is reckoned 
 by the civilians, one of the legal caufes of annulling mar- 
 riage. 
 
 STIPEND, Stipendium, among the Romans, fignified 
 the fame with tribute ; and hence ftipendiarii were the fame 
 with trihutarii. 
 S T I P I TE, Nativi de Stipite. See Nativi. 
 S TI P UL ATI O N, in the civil law, the act of ftipulatlpg ; 
 that is, of treating, and concluding terms, and conditions 
 to be inferted in a contract. 
 
 Stipulations were anciently performed at Rome, with abun- 
 dance of ceremonies ; the firft whereof was, that one party 
 Ihould interrogate, and the other anfwer, to give his confent 
 and oblige himfelf. 
 
 By the ancient Roman law, no body could ftipaiatf, but for 
 himfelf ; but as the tabelliones were public fervants^ they 
 
 were 
 
 ngmg, 
 
S T O 
 
 S T O 
 
 were allowed to ftiprilale for their mailers ; and tjie notaries 
 fucceeding the tabcllioncs have inherited the fame privilege. 
 —The ftipulation had its origin in the lex aquilia, and ano- 
 ther law of the emperor Arcadius. 
 
 The word is formed from the Latin, ftipula, a ftraw ; be- 
 caufe, in making a fale, a ftraw was given the purchafer> 
 in Efgn of a real delivery. Which cuftom is ftill retained in 
 fome parts of France, particularly at Verdun. The cuftom 
 always has been on this occafion, for the two parties to break 
 a ftraw between them, and each take his moiety ; which tuey 
 afterwards joined again, to recognize their promife. 
 STIRROP, or Stirrup, a reft or fupport for the horfe- 
 man's foot ; ferving to keep him firm in his feat, and to en- 
 able him to mount. 
 
 The great art of a cavalier in the ancient tournaments, was 
 to make his antagoniit lofe his fiirrop, that is, flip the foot 
 out of it. c r- 
 
 For combating, it is a rule to have the right foot ftirrop 
 fomewhat fhorter than the other. 
 
 Stirrops arc allowed a modern invention : Menage obferves, 
 that St. Jerom is the firft author who mentions them. — 
 Matthiolus relates, that the Turks have a knack at pqifon- 
 ing their ftirrops, with fo fubtile and penetrating a poifon, 
 that it makes its way through the boots, and kills the rider. 
 F. le Comte tells us, that the Tartars ride croi's-legged, and 
 with their ftirrops exceedingly fhort. 
 
 STOCK, in gardening, ts : c. the item or trunk of a tree. 
 
 For Stocks of fruit trees ; the beft to graft apples on, are 
 thofe raifed of kernels of wildings, and crabs of the moft 
 thriving trees. 
 
 Though the fruit always take after the graft ; yet the fioei 
 has fome influence. A wild ftock is always found to enliven 
 a dull apple. 
 
 To have a quantity of flocks to graft on j old trees are to be 
 cut down within two inches of the ground, which will caufe 
 a multitude of fuckers to rife from the roots. When thefe 
 are rifen half a yard, they are to be covered up with good 
 earth a foot thick, and as foon as they have put forth roots, 
 in winter, they are to be conveyed into the nurfery, where, 
 in a year or two, they will be ready to graft. Cherry ftscks, 
 plumb ftocks, and pear ftocks, may be thus raifed from fuck- 
 ers, as well as from ftones or feeds ; but thofe raifed this lat- 
 ter way are preferred. 
 
 Brokers Stock, V f Broker. 
 
 Capital Stock, >See the articles s Capital. 
 
 Pen Stock, j CPen ftock. 
 
 STOCKFISH, or Stockfisch, in commerce, a kind of 
 dried, falted fifh ; of a greyifh afh-colour, only the belly 
 fomewhat whiter. 
 
 The commerce of ftockfjh is very confiderable in Holland, 
 both from the great confumption thereof in the country, 
 and from their victualling their veffels therewith. It is faid 
 to take its name from being as hard as a ftock, or from its 
 needing to be beaten with a flick, to fit it for eating. See 
 Fishery. 
 
 STOCKING, that part of the cloathing of the leg and foot, 
 which immediately covers their nudity, and fkreens them 
 from the rigor of the cold. 
 
 Anciently, the only- ftockings in ufe, were made of cloth, or 
 of milled fluffs fewed together ; but fince the invention of 
 knitting and weaving ftockings of filk, wool, cotton, thread. 
 csV. the ufe of cloth ftockings is quite out of doors. 
 The modern ftockings, whether wove or knit, are a kind of 
 plexus's formed of an infinite number of little knots, called 
 flitches, loops, or mafhes, intermingled in one another. 
 Knit Stockings are wrought with needles made of polifhed 
 iron, orbrafs wire, which interweave the threads, and form 
 the mafhes the ftocking confifts of. 
 
 This operation is called knitting; the invention whereof 
 were difficult to fix precifely ; though it is commonly attri- 
 buted to the Scots, on this ground, that the fit ft works of 
 this kind came from thence. — It is added, that it was on 
 this account, that the company of flecking knitters eftablifh- 
 ed at Paris 1527, took for their patron St. Fiacre ; who ii 
 faid to have been the fon of a king of Scotland. 
 Woven Stockings are ordinarily very fine : they are manu- 
 factured on a frame or machine made of polifhed iron; the 
 ftrufture whereof is exceedingly ingenious, but withal ex- 
 ceedingly complex, fo that it were very difficult to defcribe 
 it well, by reafon of the diverfity and number of its parts ; 
 nor is it even conceived, without a deal of difficulty, when 
 working before the face. 
 
 The Fnglifh and French have greatly contcfted the honour 
 of the invention of the ftocking loom ; but the matter of fact, 
 waving all national prejudices, feems to be this, that it was 
 a Frenchman who firft invented this ufeful and furprizing ma- 
 chine j and who, finding fome difficulties in procuring an ex- 
 clufive privilege, which he required, to fettle himfelfat Paris, 
 went over into England, where his machine was admired, 
 and the workman rewarded according to his merit. 
 The invention thus imparted to the Enelifh, they became 
 fo jealous hereof, that for a long time it was forbid, under 
 pain of death, to carry any of the machines out of the ifland, 
 or to communicate a model thereof to foreigners. — But, as it 
 
 was a Frenchman firft inriched our nation with it; fo a 
 Frenchman firft carried it abroad ; and, by an extraordinary 
 effort of mercury and imagination, made a loom at Paris, 
 on the idea he had formed thereof, in a voyage he made to 
 England. This loom, firft fet up in the year 1656, has 
 fcrved fur the model of all thofe fince made in France, Hol- 
 land, &c. . . ?! , 
 FulUr.v of Stockings. See the article Fulling. 
 STOCKS, in ihip carpentry, a frame of timber and great 
 puffs, made a-fhore, to build pinnaces, ketches, boats, and 
 fuch fmaH craft, and fometimes fmall frigates upon. 
 Hence we fav, a /hip is on the ftocks, when fhe is building. 
 STOICAL fate. See the article Fate. 
 STOICISM, the doctrines and opinions of Zeno's followers, _ 
 called fioicks. 
 
 S TO I C K S, a feci of ancient philofophers, the followers of 
 Zeno ; thus called from the Greek, cs*, parties, m regard, 
 Zeno ufed to teach under a portico, or piazza. 
 The author of this feft, Zeno, was of Cittium, a town in, 
 Cyprus, inhabited by a colony of Phoenicians ; whence he is 
 funpofed to have borrowed many of his dogmata from the 
 Phoenician philofophy, which many learned men maintain 
 wa$, itfelf, borrowed from the Jewifli : though it muft be 
 allowed, there appear as many things in the ftffieg philofophy, 
 burrowed from Plato's and Socrates's fchool, as from that of 
 Mofes. 
 
 Zeno making a trading voyage from Cittium to Athenr, 
 richly freighted with Tyrian purple, was ihipwrecked not 
 far from port ; upon which, we are told, confulting the ora- 
 cle how he fhould beft fpend the reft of his life, he was an- 
 fwered, (vy / -f* ,T '^ CiT0 T0, s «*f«5, by becoming of the fame co- 
 lour with the dead : upon which he applied himfelt to the 
 ftudy of the ancient philofophers ; and became a hearer of 
 Crates the Cynic. — But Laertius tells us, he had too much 
 natural modefiy to fuffer him to give into the Cynic impu- 
 dence. 
 
 From Crates, he had recourfe to Xenocrates, then to Pole- 
 mon ; and at length he began to think of instituting a new left. 
 — To this purpofc, a j-**, portico, called from the piftures 
 of Polignotus therein, the painted portico, was pitched on. 
 Here, uling to walk and philofophize ; he was foon attended, 
 by a great number of difciples, hence called Stoic's. 
 He became exceedingly reverenced at Athens, for the pro- 
 bity and feverity of his life and manners, and the confiftency- 
 thereof with his doftrine ; ihfomuch that the Athenians de- 
 creed him, when living, a golden crown, and ufed in du- 
 bious times to depofite the keys of the city with him : and 
 after his death, they confecrated an altar to him. 
 One of his chief followers was Cleanthes, who was Succeed- 
 ed by Chryiippus, and he by Diogenes Babylonius, Antipa- 
 ter, Panastius, and Poflidonius among the Greeks ; and by 
 Cato, Varro, Cicero, Seneca, the emperor Antoninus, tsV. 
 among the Romans ; and by Pantenus, and Clemens Alex- 
 andrinus, among the Chriftians. 
 
 The Stoicks cultivated logics, phyfics, metaphyfics, csV. but 
 chiefly ethics. — The principal of the dogmata of the for- 
 mer kinds, are as follows. 
 
 That there are certain ttxTKXv^itf, compreher.fsons, (which o- 
 thers call **Hft maixv, common notices, or innate ideas, or 
 principles, and Cicero, inchoata iiUelliger.tia, beginnings of 
 underftanding) naturally found in the mind : that God is the 
 feminal caufe of the univerfe : that the world is an animal ; 
 which opinion the Stoicks maintained in common with the 
 Platonifls, by reafon of God's inhabiting and informing 
 every part thereof, in quality of an anima mundi. See Ani- 
 m A . — That nature is an artificial fire, tending to genera- 
 tion : and, that the world is to be deftroyed at lafl by a con- 
 flagration. 
 
 For the morality of the Stoicks, it was couched much in pa- 
 radoxes : as, that a wife man is void of all paffion or pertur- 
 bation of mind : that pain is no real evil ; but that a wife 
 man is happy in the midft of the fevereft totture : that a wile 
 man is always the fame, and always joyful : that none but a 
 wife man is free; all others are flaves : that none but a wife 
 man is rich : that none but a wife man ought to be efteemed 
 a king, magiftrate, poet, or philofopher : that all wife men 
 are great : that all things are a wife man's who is contented 
 with himfelf : that wife men are the only friends, and the 
 only lovers : that nothing ever happens to a wife man be- 
 yond expectation : that all virtues are inviolably connected 
 together : that all good things are equal, and equally to 
 bedefired ; and that goodnefs admits of no increafe or dimi- 
 nution. 
 
 Whether virtue might be loft or no, was hotly difputed a- 
 mong them? Chryfippus held it might, by drunkennefs and 
 atrabilis : Cleanthes, that it could not, by reafon of the 
 firmnefs of the mr&furfytts, comprehenfions. 
 They owned but one God ; whom, however, they called by 
 various names, as Mind, Fate, "Jupiter, &c. by which they 
 did not mean various things ; but various powers and rela- 
 tions of the fiime things. Providence, they expreffed under 
 the name of Fate, which Chryfippus defines to be a natural 
 feries or compofmon of things mutually following each other 
 4 b 7 
 
S T 6 
 
 S T O 
 
 • by an immutable nexus or tie, fixed from all eternity. 
 
 La ft I v, thev held, that the human foul farmed the body. 
 STOLE *, Stola, a facerdotal ornament, wore by the- 
 Romifh parifh priefts over the furplice, as a mark of iupe- 
 riority in their refpc&ive churches, 
 
 * The word is Greek, fignifying a long robe, or veil- 
 
 ment. 
 
 The ftole is worn by other priefts over the alb, at celebrating 
 of mafs ; in which cafe, it goes a-crofs the ftomach : and 
 by deacons over the left fhoulder, fcarf-wifr. 
 The [tola is a broad fwath, or flip of cloth or fluff, harm- 
 ing from the neck to the feet, with three croftes thereon, — 
 The bifhops anciently pretended, that the parifh priefts were 
 never to appear before them, but in their fides. In Flanders 
 and Italy, they always preach in f tales. It is fuppnfed to be 
 a reprefentation of the borders of the long robe worn by 
 the Jewiihhigh priefts. 
 
 The [tola of the ancient Romans, &c. was very different 
 from that now in ufe : the former was a kind of robe fitter 
 for women than men ; though it was held a robe of honour 
 among all nations. Kings themfelvss fumeiime* ufed it, and 
 fometimes beftowed it as a reward of virtue. 
 Groom ef the Stole, the eldeft gentleman of his majefty'i. 
 bed-chamber; whofe office and honour it is, to prefent and 
 put on his majefty's firft garment or fliirt every morn- 
 ing; and to order the things in the chamber. See Bed- 
 chamber. 
 
 Order of the Stole, an order of knights inftituted by the kings 
 of Arragon ; though as to the particular author, or time of 
 the inftitution, we are in the dark. The firft time we hear 
 of it, is under Alphonfus V. who mounted the throne in 
 1416. Juftiniani takes it to have been inftituted about the- 
 year 1332. 
 
 Order of the golden Stole, a military order at Venice ; thus 
 called from a golden ftole, which the knights wore over the 
 left fhoulder, reaching down to the knee, both before and 
 behind, a palm and a half broad. None are raifed to this 
 order but the patricians or noble Venetians. Juftiniani ob- 
 ferves, that the time of the inftitution of this order is un- 
 known. 
 
 STOMACH, ETOMAicos, ventricuks, in anatomy, a hol- 
 low, membranous, organical part of an animal, deftined to 
 receive the food after deglutition, and to convert it into chyle. 
 —See Tab. Anat. (Splanch.) fig. 2. lit. d. d. h. 
 Its form is longifh, compared by fome to a gourd, by 
 others to a bag-pipe. It is fituate in the epigaftrium, de- 
 clining a little further to the left than the right. Its up- 
 per part is connected to the diaphragm, the bottom to 
 the cawl ; the right iide to the duodenum, and the left to 
 the fpleen. 
 
 It has two orifices, one at each end. The left orifice is pro- 
 perly called f>f*.*x&', from mouth ; and alfo **fwl* : 
 this is joined to the oefophagus, of which it fecms to be only 
 a continuation. — By this orifice, the aliments enter the fto- 
 mach ; where being digefted, they afcend obliquely to the 
 pylorus, or right orifice, which is united to the firft of the 
 inteftines. — See Tab. Anat. (Splanch.) fig. 2. lit. 6. 
 The ftomach confifts of four membranes or coats : the firft 
 and inmoft is formed of ihort fibres, which ftand perpen- 
 dicularly upon the fibres of the next coat, and are to be feen 
 plainly towards the pylorus : when the ftomach is diftended 
 with meat, thefe fibres become thick and fbort. Whilft they 
 endeavour to reftore themfelvcs by their natural elafticitv, 
 they contrail the cavity of the ftomach for the attrition and' 
 expulfion of the aliments. — This coat is much larger than 
 the reft, being full of plaits and wrinkles, and that chiefly 
 about the pylorus: thefe plaits retard the chyle, that it funs 
 not out of the ftomach before it be fufficiently digefted. —In 
 this coat, there are alfo a great number of frnall glands 
 ■which feparate a liquor, which befmears all the cavity of 
 the ftomach, and helps the concoction of the aliments ; for 
 which reafon this coat is called the tunica glandnh/a.~S»c 
 Tab. Anat. (Splanch.) fig. 2. lit. i. 
 
 The fecond is much finer and thinner; it is altoeether ner- 
 vous; is of an exquiiite fenfe, and is called nervofa.See 
 Tab. Anat. (Splanch.) fig. 2. lit. k. 
 
 The third is mufcular, being made of ftreight and circular 
 fibres: the ftreight run upon the upper part of the ftomach, 
 between its fuperior and inferior orifices; and the circular 
 run obliquely from the upper part of the ftomach to the bot- 
 tom. Of thefe, the innermoft defcend towards the ri«ht 
 fide, and the outermoft towards the left ; fo that by their 
 jiftion, both ends of the ftomach are drawn towards its mid- 
 dle, and the whole is equally contracted : by their contrac- 
 tion and continual motion, the attrition and digeftion of the 
 aliments is in great mcafure performed. 
 The fourth tunic is common ; it comes from the peritoneum 
 The ftomach fends veins to the porta, and branches to the' 
 - gaftrepiploica, accompanied with others of the cceliac ; all 
 lying immediately under the fourth coat 
 Vol. JI. No. 146. 
 
 I he eighth pair of nerves gives two confiderabie blanches toi, 
 the ftomach, which are fpread much about the upper orifice s 
 by which it is rendered very feniible : whence alfo proceed- 
 the great fympathy betwixt the ftomach, head, and heart * 
 on account whereof, Van Helmont thought, that the foul 
 had its feat in the upper orifice of the ftomach. 
 For the motion of the Stomach ; Dr. Pitt, in the Philofa- 
 phieal Tranfa&ions, acquaints us, that in differing a dog, 
 he found the perifLltic motion of the guts continued throueh 
 the ftomach ; the pylorus, which is ufually found as high"a3 
 the diaphragm, being, in every undulation, brought below 
 the very bottom of the ftomach ; and that he could manifeftly 
 obferve a conftri&ion in the middle of th . foh.ach, at every 
 motion downwards, palling it in fo as to bt side to comprels 
 whate ver was contained in its cavuy. Thefe motions, he 
 obferves, were as regular as any he ever obfVrvcd in the 
 guts ; and adds, that he has fince obferved the fame in three 
 others ; whence one may fafely enough conclude it holds of 
 all. t^riwfa 
 
 Hence, we eafily fee the reafon of the quick diftrioutiori of 
 the nourilbment ; the food being no fooner opened by the 
 drink and fpittle, tffc. than it has a free motion thrt-ugb the 
 pylorus into the inteftines, from this comprefiion in the 
 middle of the ftomach. 
 
 Ruminating animals have four ftomachs ; yet it is obferved 
 that fome of thefe, which have four in Europe, have only 
 two in Africa, probably by reafon the herbs in Africa are 
 more nourishing. 
 
 Birds that live ordinarily of feeds covered with a touch 
 rind, have a kind of ftomach, called the crop, or gizzard], 
 confifting of four large mufcles without-iide, and a hard 
 callous membrane within.— Such as live on flefh, as caries, 
 vultures, f&c, have only one ftomach. 
 STOMACHIC, Stomaxikoz, a medicine that ftrength- 
 ens the ftomach ; and promotes the office of digeftion. = See 
 Stomach, and Digestion. 
 
 Of this kind are wormwood, rhubarb, mint, maflic, aJces, 
 pepper, cinnamon, and aromatic bitters : good wine is alfo 
 a ftomachic. 
 
 Stomachic, in anatomy, is applied to the arteries, veins, 
 
 &c of (he ftomach ; called alio gaftric. 
 
 The ftomachic veins terminate in the trunk ofthe vena porta, 
 
 and the fpleliic vein. — The ftomachic arteries arife from the 
 
 cceliac. — The ftomachic nerves come from the eighth pair 
 Stomachic coronary, / g ^Coronary. . 
 
 Sto.machic water, S " ™ e arEiCles £ Water. 
 TONE, in natural hiftory, a hard, fulid body, neither 
 
 malleable, fufible by fire, nor foluble in water ; formed by 
 
 fucceifion of time, in the body of the earth. 
 For the origin and formation of Stones, M. Tournefort, on 
 
 his return from the eaft, in the year 1702, propoled to the 
 
 royal academy, a new theory. 
 
 On a curious furvey of the famous labyrinth of Crete, he 
 obferved, that feveral people had engraven their name's in 
 the living rock, whereof its walls' arc formed ; and, what 
 was very extraordinary, the letters whereof they combed 
 inftead of being hollow, as they muff have been at firft (be- 
 ing all cut with knife-points) were prominent, and iW. out 
 from the furface of the rock, like fo many balfo relievo's. 
 This he fays, is a pha-namenonnootherwifeaccountuble ror 
 than by fuppofing the cavities of the letters filled infenfiUft with 
 a matter itluing from out of the fubftance of the rock ; and 
 which even iJliied in greater abundance than was neceVarv 
 for filling the cavity. Thus is the wound made by the knife 
 healed up, much as the fracture of a broken bone is con- 
 folidated by a callus, formed of the extravafated nutritious 
 juice, which nfes above the furface of the bone: and this 
 reicmblance is the more juft ; as the matter of the letters 
 was found whitiih, and the rock itfelf greyifh. 
 Something very like it is obferved in the barks of trees 
 wherein letters have been cut with the knife ; fo that the 
 poet had reafon to fay, that the chafers grew as the trees 
 themfelves grew : crefcent ilia, crefcetis amores. 
 M. Tournefort fupports his opinion by fimilar callus's appa- 
 rently formed in feveral other ftones, which had re-umtcd 
 after, by accident, they had been broken. 
 F rum thefeobfervations, he fays, it follows, that there are /rones 
 which grow in the quarries, and of confequence that are 
 fed ; that the fame juice which nourilhts thein, ferves to 
 rejoin their parts when broken ; juft as in the bones of 
 animals, and the branches of trees, when kept up by ban- 
 dages ; and, in a word, that they vegetate. ; 
 There is, then, no room to doubt but that they are orga- 
 nized ; or that they draw their nutritious juice from the 
 earth. This juice muft be firft filtrated and prepared in their 
 furface ; which may be here efteemed as a kind of bark - 
 and hence it muft be conveyed to all the o.her pirts. 
 It is highly probable, the juice which filled the c.ivities of 
 the letters, was brought thither from the bottom of the roots - 
 11 LI 
 
s t o 
 
 'VioV is there any more difficulty in conceiving this, than in 
 comprehending how the Tap fliould pafs from the roots ot 
 our largcft oaks, to the very extremities of their highelt 
 branches. . . 
 
 It muft be owned, that the heart of thefe trees is exceedingly 
 hard ; and yet thofe of braftl, called iron wood, guaiacum, 
 and ebony are much harder Coral is as hard in the fea as 
 out of it, and fea mufhrooms, which every body allows to 
 grow, are true Jlones, and fo, like the common Jlones, are 
 ufed in America to make lime of. 
 
 None, we believe, ever doubted that {hells grow by means 
 of a nutritious juice ; and yet this juice is conveyed along the 
 narrow canals of thefe exceffively hard bodies, as well as 
 through thofe of plants, which are much lefs hard. 
 bome)?»«.', then, he concludes, muft be allowed to vege- 
 tate and grow like plants : but this is not all ; he adds, that 
 probably they are generated in the fame manner ; at lealt 
 that there are abundance of Jlones, whofc generation is 
 inconceiveable, without fuppofing that they come from a kind 
 of feeds, wherein the organical parts of they?«irJ are wrap- 
 ped up in little ; as thofe of the largeft plants are in their 
 feeds. - . 
 
 The Jlones called cornu Ammonis, lapis Judaicus, af rates, 
 thofe of Bologna and Florence, the feveral kinds of pyrites, 
 crvfbls of the rock, and an infinity of other ftma he fup- 
 po'fes to have their feveral feeds ; as much as mufhrooms, 
 truffles, and various kinds of mnfTes, whofe feeds were a 
 long time before they were difcovercd. _ 
 He continues, how fhould the cornu Ammonis, which is 
 conftantly in figure of a volute, be formed without a feed, 
 containing that fame ftruflure in little? who moulded it fo 
 artfully ? and where are the moulds? Far from this, thefe 
 kinds of Jhnts are found in the earth, like common flints. 
 Nor were either their moulds, or any thing like them, ever 
 difcoveredi 
 
 M. Tournefort examines the feveral kinds of Jlonts above- 
 mentioned, and finds them under the fame neceflity of feed. 
 Again, that immenfe quantity of pebbles, wherewith the Crau 
 of Aries is covered, he thinks a flrong argument in behalf 
 of this theory. 
 
 The country there, for twenty miles round, is full of round- 
 ilh pebbles ; which are ftill found in equal abundance, to what- 
 ever depth you dig. M. Peirefc, who firft propofed the ge- 
 neration of fours by means of feeds (though he took the 
 word feed in a very different fenfe from M. Tournefort) firft 
 brought this extraordinary collection of them as a proof there- 
 of. In effeS, how could fo many fimilar pebbles be formed ? 
 There is no faying they are coeval with the world, without 
 aliening at the fame time, that all the. Jlone s in the earth were 
 produced at once ; which were to go dire£tly contrary to the 
 obfervations above-mentioned. 
 
 Amonc the feeds of Jlones, M. Tournefort obferves, there arc 
 fome, which do not only grow foft by the juices of the earth, 
 hut even become liquid. Thefe, then, if they penetrate the 
 pores of certain bodies, grow hard, petrify, and ailume the 
 figure or impreflion of the body: thus what we call pe&tttites, 
 conchites, mytulites, ojlr aches, nautili tes, echinites, &c. are 
 real /tones, the liquid feeds whereof have infinuated into the 
 cavities of the {hells called peflen, concha, mytulus, ojlrea, nau- 
 tilus, and echinus. 
 
 On the contrary, if thofe liquid feeds fall on flints, on {hells, 
 fand, bfc. they indofe thofe feveral bodies, and fixing be- 
 tween them, form a kind of cement, which yet grows like 
 other Jlones. It is highly probable that fuch rocks as are 
 only an afFemblage of cemented flints, have been formed by 
 a number of thele liquid feeds ; in like manner as the quarries 
 full of (hells : unlefs the rocks have envelloped thefe bodies 
 in their growth. 
 
 He even fuppofes, that there are feeds of real Jlones inclofed 
 in the fpawn of certain fhell-fifh ; as well as that hard folid 
 matter defttned to the forming their {hells. 
 There is, fays he, a particular kind of fhell-fifh, called 
 fholas, which are never found any where but in the cavities ' 
 of flints, which are always found exadtly fitted to receive 
 them, Now, it is highly improbable the fifh fhould tome 
 and dig fuch a nitch to fpawn in ; it is much more likely, 
 the Jlones they are found inclofed in, were at firft foft ; and 
 that the matter they are formed of, was originally found in 
 the fpawn, in like manner as the matter which forms the 
 «og-£hell, is really found in the feed thereof. 
 From the whole, he concludes, that the feed of Jlones, and 
 even of metals, is a kind of duft which probably falls from 
 them while they are alive, i. e. while they continue to vege- 
 tate as above. This duft may be compared to the feeds of 
 feveral plants, which no microfcope ever yet difcovered \ 
 though their exiftence is not at all to be doubted. 
 Probably, flints and pebbles are amongjlones, what truffles 
 are among plants: nor is this opinion new; Pliny allures 
 us, that Theophraftus and Mutianus believed, that fanes 
 produced Jlones : and Gregory Nazianzen adds, that there 
 were authors who even believed that Jlones made love, 
 E*-( mm aTjV^oitrt yctfjj&- teat Sw^tc, f$a-<&. Poem. (UVirgin, All 
 this however is founded on the imperfedt knowledge of thofe 
 time*. Since Mr. Tournefort's days we have difcovered 
 
 S T O 
 
 other ways of formation for the Lapis Judaicus and Cornu-, 
 ammonis, the firft being only a petrifaction of the ipines of 
 an Echinus Marinus ; and the other of a fhell-fifh nearly al- 
 lied to the Nautilus kind. See Supplement, articles Fossil, 
 Judaicus Lapis, and Cornu Ammonis. 
 Mi Geoffroy accounts for the origin and formation of Jlones* 
 in a different manner. — He lays it down as a principle, that 
 all Jlones, without exception, have been fluid ; or at lead a 
 foft pafte, now dried and hardened : witnefs the Jlones 
 wherein are found foreign bodies ; witnefs, alfo, figured 
 ftones, &c. 
 
 On this principle, he examines the formation of the different 
 kinds of Jlones ; and (hews, that the earth alone fufHces for 
 the fame, independent of all fa Its, fulphurs, &c. The me- 
 tallic particles contained in flints, give them their colour ; 
 but thefe are only accidents: for proof of which, he in- 
 ftances the fapphires and emeralds of Auvergne, which lofe 
 all their colour by a moderate fire confuming their metallic 
 parts ; but without any damage to their tranfparence ; they 
 being hereby rendered mere cryftals. 
 
 To view rock cryftal, indeed, one would not take it for 
 earth ; and yet earth it muft be, not water congealed, as the 
 ancients imagined. 
 
 Mi Geoffroy conceives two kinds of primitive particles in 
 the earth. — Thofe of the firft kind, are exceedingly fine, 
 thin lamella, equal to each other, or nearly fo. Now, when 
 thefe meet together, from any caufe whatever, in a fufficient 
 quantity; the regularity and equality of their figures deter- 
 mines them to range themlelves equally and regularly ; and 
 thus to form a homogeneous compound, which is very hard, 
 from the immediate contact of the parts ; and very trans- 
 parent, by reafon of their regular difpofition, which leaves 
 a free paifage to the rays of light every way: and this is 
 cryfta!. 
 
 The parts of the fecond kind have all forts of irregular fi- 
 gures; and muft accordingly form afTemblages that are much 
 opaker and lefs hard. Now cryftal is formed wholly of parts 
 of the firft kind ; and all other Jlon/s of a mixture of th« 
 two kinds of parts together : this mixture is abfolutely re- 
 ceflaiy, in order to unite and bind together the parts of the 
 fecond kind, and give them a hardnefs and confiltcnce, 
 without which they would only make a fand or duft. 
 Water, now appears the fitteft vehicle, to carry the parts of 
 the firft kind. This is fcen from feveral petrifying fprings, 
 which incruftate the pipes through which their waters are 
 conveyed, or even folid bodies laid in them for fome time. 
 The water does not diflblve thofeearthy parts; it only kcepj 
 them in fufion, as it does the juices wherewith plants are 
 
 ftd. * . n.- -.. ■ I... -: •r.rir'l.y ;,l*lm*.y I 
 
 This water, thus charged with earthy particles of the firft 
 kind, M. Geoffroy calls the jhney, or cryjlal'iine juice, where- 
 of thofe bodies are primarily formed. See Supplement, arti- 
 cle Crystal. 
 
 Stones are of various kinds, with regard to the places they 
 are produced in : the moft common are formed under ground ; 
 others in the bodies of men, and other animals; others feem 
 to be generated by the lea, as pumice, &c. and others, to be 
 the efti-cr of a petrifying virtue in certain waters. Of thefe, 
 fome ferve Amply for magnificence, and ornament ; as all 
 thofe called, 
 
 Precious Stones; which make the commerce of lapidarle* 
 and jewellers. See Precious Jlone, and Gem. 
 Others are much ufefuller, if one might credit all the virtues 
 attributed to them, and are ufed in medicine; fuch as be- 
 zoards, Jews Jlone, eagles Jlone, &c. 
 
 Others, again, are ufed in painting ; either to prepare co- 
 lours from, by calcining and grinding them, or to be ufed as 
 crayons or pencils for defigning : of which number are the 
 Armenian Jlone, black lead, ruddle, &c. 
 Laltly, much thegreateft quantity, and thofe too of the moft 
 immediate and common ufe, are thofe employed in building ; 
 fuch as Jree Jlone, marble, lime Jlone, fire Jlonej &c. See 
 Marble, &c. 
 For Free Stone, that dug in the peninfula of Portland, and 
 thence called Portland Jlone, is much ufed ; being fofter and 
 whiter than Purbec /tone, and being commonly raifed out of 
 quarries in bigger blucks than that. 
 
 Some alfo call Ryegate, or fire fione, Jree June. Mr. Boyle 
 obferves, that a competent knowledge of the nature of the 
 juice found in ftones ufed in building, is of the la it impor- 
 tance ; the fame June dug out of the fame quarry at one 
 feafon, being found to moulder away in a few winters, 
 which dug at another feafon, will ftand the weather for 
 many ages: and there are others, which, though dug at the 
 proper feafon, make but ruinous building, if ufed at an im- 
 proper feafon. 
 
 The fame author adds, that as there are fome forts of fioms 
 
 which will decay in a few years, there are others will not 
 
 have attained their full hardnefs in thirty or forty years, or 
 
 even much more. 
 Stones are divided by bifhop Wilkins into vulgar, middle, 
 
 priced, and precious. 
 i. Vulgar Stones, or fuch as are of little price, are diftinguifh- 
 
 able bv their different magnitudes, ufes, and confiftence, into 
 
 the 5 
 
 Greater 
 
S T O 
 
 STO 
 
 ; rfoitci 
 
 \i * 
 
 hi 
 
 *Qir, iter magnitudes of Jhne, ufed either about 
 f Buildings, whether of" 
 j f.Wallp ; chicfiy being of a 
 
 1 "/oftet confidence, whether natural or factitious^ 
 free Jl one > 
 brick. 
 
 harder confidence ; not eafijy yielding to the tool o 
 the workman, growing either in 
 great mafles, 
 2 ragg. 
 
 letter mafles ; whether fuch as are for their figure, 
 more knobbed and unequal; ufed for the ftriking of 
 fire, either the more common, which is lefs heavy ; 
 or lefs common, which is more heavy, as having 
 fomething in it of a metalline mixture, 
 
 , 5 fi'"U 
 
 X marcafite, fire Jlone. 
 more round and even, 
 4 pebbk. 
 
 _Roof, or pavement, being of a laminated figure, either 
 natural, or factitious, 
 
 (_ Metals either for the 
 
 fharpening, or trying of them, 
 
 g £ whet /lone, 
 \ touch jlone. 
 
 \ of brafsj 
 
 J. 
 
 ipolifhing, or cutting of them ; being either of a more 
 L f P on gy anti foft, or of a more hard confidence, 
 C pumice, 
 /I emery. 
 (jefler magnitudes, cither more, lefs, or minute s 
 
 8 \ J"'" 1 ' , 
 c gravel, 
 
 2. Middle priced Stones, are cither of a 
 
 f Aiming politure, or capable of it ; whether of a 
 ffimple white colour, and more foft confidence, 
 I alabafler. 
 
 fometimes white, fometimcs black or green, and fome- 
 times variegated with veins, growing in greater or lefier 
 mafles, 
 
 \ 2 J marble, porphyry, 
 
 It agat. 
 fpottcd with red, upon a greenifli colour, or with fpots of 
 gold colour upon blue, 
 5 ja/pjs, heliotrope, 
 c Ifpi* lazuli. 
 Tranfparencyi .cither 
 (-brittle, whether natural or factitious, 
 
 Lhffile into Hakes, either greater or Icfler, 
 5 /Unite, Muicovia glojh 
 5 1 /par. 
 
 Relation to metals, attracting iron, or maki, 
 ^ c had ft one, 
 
 I cadmia calaminaris. 
 Incumbuftible nature, 
 
 7. aminantus, ajbejlus. 
 Strange original ; not being properly minerals, though ufually 
 reckoned amongft them; but either a fubmarinc plant, 
 or fuppofed to proceed from a liquid bitumen, 
 g S coral, coralline, 
 / amber. 
 
 3. Precious Stones ; which fee under the article Precious 
 Jlone, , 
 
 Bohnian Stone, ~) fBoLONiAN. 
 Calamine Stone, Caiaminaris. 
 Eagle Stone, ^Etites. 
 Emery Stone, Emery. 
 Fire Stone, Fire. 
 Rorfoam Stone, Horsham. 
 Jewifi Stone, Judaicus. 
 Infernal Stone, V See the articles •{ Lapis inftrnalis. 
 Lime Stone, Lime Jlone. 
 
 Philosophers Stone, Phplosophers, 
 Pumue Stone, Pumice. 
 Roll-rich Stones Roll. 
 Sanguine Stone, Sanguine. 
 Touch Stone, Touch. 
 IVhet Stone, J I Whet /lone. 
 
 Stone alfo denotes a certain quantity, or weight of fome 
 commodities. 
 
 A /tone of beef at London, is the quantity of eight pounds : 
 in Herefordihire, twelve pounds : in the North, fixteen 
 pounds. — A /tone of glafs is five pounds ; of wax, eight 
 pounds. 
 
 A /tone of wool (according to the ftatute of 1 1 Hen. VII.) 
 is to weigh fourteen pounds ; jmC in fome places it is more, 
 in others lefs; as in Gloucefterftnre, fifteen pounds ; in He- 
 refordfliire, twelve pounds. 
 
 Among horfe-courfers, a /tone \% the weight of fourteen 
 pounds. 
 
 Cafting in Stone. See the article Castinc. 
 
 See the article 
 
 -Characters. 
 1 Engraving. 
 J Face. 
 j Painting. 
 I Sculpture. 
 L Scandal. 
 
 Characters o»St ones, 
 Engraving on St ONES, j 
 Face of Stone, | 
 Painting on Stone, I 
 Sculpture in Stone, ' 
 Stone of fcandal. 
 
 Stone, in medicine, :s the denomination of a difeafe, called 
 alfo calculus, and lithiafis : and, occafionaliy, the gravel. 
 It confifts of a ftony concretion, formed either in the blad- 
 der or kidneys ; which prevents the difcharge of urine, and 
 occafions violent pains. 
 
 The ftone, Etmulier fays, is not a difeafe, but the product of 
 a difeafe : the difeafe, properly, is the Utbiajts, or the difpo- 
 fjtion of the kidneys and bladder to generate /tones. 
 The /tone is generated, according to fome authors, of the 
 earthy vifcid parts of the blood, hardened in courfe of time, 
 by the heat of the kidneys; much after the manner as brie k 
 is baked in a kiln. — Dr. Quincy fuppofes it generated of 
 the harder parts of the urine, pent up by the ftreightnefs of 
 the ducts, and brought into contact and cohefion. — Etmulier 
 afcribes the /tone, fometimes to the ftoney and metallic par- 
 ticles of our foods and drinks, which the reins, through 
 weaknefs and relaxation thereof, cannot eject ; but mure 
 ufually to the unequal ftrength of the kidneys: whence 
 it is that we fee one kidney often breeds /tones, the other 
 remaining found. 
 
 The matter of the /tone in the bladder, is firft formed in 
 the pelvis of the kidneys ; whence falling into the bladder, 
 it becomes augmented by new lamcllie or coats. 
 The diagnoftic figns of the /tore in the kidneys, are, i y A 
 fixed obtufe pain in the region of the loins, teeming like a 
 weight loading the reins. As the /tone falls out of the pelvis 
 into the ureter, the pain is exceedingly acute and racking, 
 which holds till either the /tone be got into the bladder, or 
 returned again to the pelvis. 2° An inflexibility of thefpina 
 dorfi, from the extenfion and compreflion of the nerves. 
 3 0 A itupor of the thigh and leg of that fide, from the con- 
 fent of parts. 4 0 A retraction of the fefHcle. 5 0 A very 
 final! quantity of urine, either thin and limpid, or bloodv. 
 But as foon as the /tone is got into the bladder, the urine 
 becomes thick, turbid, blackifh and in great quantity. 
 The diagnoftics of the /tone in the bladder, are a fenfe of 
 heavinefs in the perineum and inguinal region, a perpetual 
 and troublefome defire of making water, which is followed 
 With a fliarp pain, principally in the glans of the penis, 
 whence a prolapfus of the anus. But the furcft way of find- 
 ing it, is by the touch, viz, by tbrufting the finger or a ca- 
 theter up the anus. 
 
 The cure of the Jlone, is either by a liquor that will diflolve 
 or break the COlftrete/faiK ; fo that it may be evacuated piece- 
 meal : which is called a Uthonthriptic ; or by enlarging the 
 capacity of the vcflcls; or by the operation of cutting, called 
 lithotomy. 
 
 We have yet no allured lithonthriptic known, how many 
 foevermay pretend to it ; the moll noted, are Mrs. Stephens's 
 medicines, Tipping's liquor, and Rogers's powder. 
 The molt ufual cure is by cutting ; the various manners 
 wherof, fee under Lithotomy. — Jn fome defperate cafes, 
 thcjlone has been known to make itfclf a way through the 
 fpinal mufcles. 
 
 Dr. Lifter obferves, that Jlones arc found, not only in the 
 bladder and kidneys, but alfo in the pituitary ducts, the 
 brain, liver, lungs, ftomach, inteftines, and joints of the 
 hands and feet ; to which may. be added, that in the Phih- 
 /ophic'al Tran/acJions, we have likewife accounts of Jlones in 
 the pineal gland, the heart, gall-bladder, tif t -. 
 Stones are diftinguifhed into three kinds, white, red, and 
 yellow; which laft are the nioft ufual. 
 
 Deckers recommends calcined egg-fliells as excellent in all 
 fuppreffions of urine; Hamilton, Indeed oil ; and Mr. Boyle 
 the herb arfemart. 
 
 STONE-BLUE, a preparation ufed in warning linen. Sec 
 Indigo and Smalt. 
 
 STONEHENGE, in antiquity, a famed pile or monument 
 Of huge ftones on Salifbury plain, fix miles diftant from that 
 city. It confifhof the remains of four ranks ofrough/rWr 
 ranged one within another, fome of them, efpecially in the 
 outermort and third rank, are twenty feet high, and feven 
 broad; fuftaining others, laid acrofs their heads, and fattened 
 by mortifes: fo that the whole mull have anciently bun<* to- 
 gether. 
 
 Antiquaries are divided, as to the origin, ufe, ftructure, £sY. 
 of this wonderful fabric. Moft of them take the Jlones to 
 be artificial, and to have been made on the fpot ; which 
 feems the more probable, as we are pretty well aflured the 
 ancients had the art of makingy/Wr with fand, and a ft rang 
 lime or cement ; and as the Jlones feem too big for land car- 
 riage ; and yet are in a plain, which for fome miles round 
 fcarce affords any Jlones at all. — Inigo Jones, however, a 
 better judge than moft antiquaries, is pofitive that the Jlonet 
 are all natural ; and there is hardly any architect or natura- 
 lift who examines the grain of them exactly, but will be of 
 
 his 
 
S O R 
 
 his mind —As to their unweildinefg, which is brought as an 
 argument againft their being portable, it is without founda- 
 tion ; they being really but trifles compared to many other 
 Hones which are known to have been thus carried. 
 The legends give us various other accounts ; fome will have 
 . them brought miraculoufly by St. Patrick, from Ireland , 
 others, tiff. 
 
 As to its ufe, fome antiquaries take it to have been an ancient 
 temple of the Druids*; others, of the Romans, dedicated 
 to Ccelua ; in which they are confirmed by its having been 
 open a-top. Others, reading the Tatt\z % ftont-hmg\ft, main- 
 tain it to have been a monument erased in memory of 
 Hcngiftj the firft general of the Saxons in England : others 
 win nave it a funeral monument, railed to that brave Ro- 
 mano-Eritnn, Aurelius Ambrofius; to which opinion, fome 
 ' circumftances of his aflions, the ftill remaining Latin name 
 of the place (Mons Ambrofii) and that very ancient WW 
 proverb, Mai gwaith Emrys, Like the work of Ambrofe, 
 give fome countenance. . 
 * Antiquaries are now pretty well agreed, that it was a Eritiln 
 temple, and Dr, Langwith thinks it might eafdy be made 
 probable, at Icaft, that ft was dedicated to the fun and moon. 
 V. Swfcel. Stctt-bittg;, a temple refiored to the Bncifh Dfu- 
 ids— Inigo Jones has given a fine fcheme of the work, and 
 ftrives hard to pen'uade the- world, that it was Roman I but 
 Dr. Lung with, who rook his mcafures on the fpot, allures us, 
 he could" by no means reconcile them with that fcheme. 
 STOOL, alvus, in medicine. A thing is' faid to be voided 
 by fool, when it is difcharged by the anus, or fundament. 
 In thePhilofophicalTranfactions, we have inftances ot fick 
 perfons Vulding factitious ftones, balls, qfc. by [tool. 
 Cueiim Stool. See the article Cucking. 
 STOOMIKQ of wine, the putting bags of herbs, or other 
 
 ingredients into it. 
 STOOPING, in falconry, is when a hawk being upon her 
 wings, at the height of her pitch, bends down violently to 
 take the fowl. 
 STOPS, ? ■ c ^ Points. 
 
 STOPPING, f m S rammar - See I Punctuation. 
 Saturday Stop. See the article Saturday. 
 STORAX, or Sty rax, arefinous, odoriferous, gum, brought 
 from Syria ; whereof there arc two, or three kinds ; redjh- 
 rax, jlorax calamita, and liquid far ax. 
 Red or dry Stcr ax, called alio Jews incenfe, is a gum or re- 
 Jin oozing out at an incifion made in the trunk and biggeft 
 branches of a tree, called ftorax arbor, -not unlike our quince 
 tree. Its fruit is of the fize of a filbert!, and contains a white, 
 oily kernel, of a fmell perfectly like ftorax. 
 It mult be chofen in a mafs, of a reddifh colour, foft and 
 fat, and of an agreeable fmell, bearing no refemblance to 
 liquid ftorax.— Th&X. in cakes, in balk, (Sc. is all fophifti- 
 cated ; and is only a wretched compolition of liquid ftorax, 
 and the impurities of the true red ftorax, and other drugs. 
 That in powder is ftill worfe. 
 
 Red ftorax is of fome ufe in medicine ; and is alfo ufed by 
 the perfumers. 
 
 StoraX calamita, (thus called from the reeds or quills, in 
 Latin, calami, it was ancienlly brought in,) is, by fome, held 
 to be only a compolition of fcveral excellent drugs; and a- 
 mongthe reft, of red fhrax, whence its name : though au- 
 thors' have generally taken it for a natural gum, different 
 from the red ftorax. Hoffman's conjecture is, that it only 
 differs from the other in age i the ftorax growing higher co- 
 loured with keeping. 
 
 It muft be chofen in fine white tears, very dry, and not bit- 
 ter i fome times it is in reddiih mafl.es, full of thefe whitifh 
 tears, only mixed with a ruddy fubftince. 
 Thefe two kinds are efteemed excellent pectorals, ftomachics, 
 
 and cephalics. 
 
 Liquid St ox ax, is a kind of factitious refin, of a greyifh co- 
 lour, compounded of true ftorax, common refin of the pine 
 oil, and wine, beaten with water, into the confiftence oi an 
 
 unguent. 
 
 The druggifts alfo call it ftatlc, to diftinguifh it, and fell it 
 for the better price. 
 
 The beft is that of Holland. It is eafily kept in a cellar, by 
 pouring water on u from time to time. It is an ingredient in 
 an unguent which experience has fhewn to be excellent a- 
 gainft the fcorbutus, and gangrene. 
 STORE. Bill of Stores. See the article Bill. 
 STORGE, STOPrH, a Greek term, frequently ufed by na- 
 turalilts, to figmfy that parental inftinct, or natural affec- 
 tion, which all, or molt animals bear their young. 
 The ftorge is an admirable principle implanted by the all-wife 
 Creator throughout the animal world, for the prefervation 
 thereof; and is governed by fuch rules as make it beft con- 
 tribute thereto. By means of this, with what care and ala- 
 crity do animals nurfe their young ? and what dangers will 
 they brave for their fecurity ? even the moll timorous crea- 
 tures, which at other times fly the face of men, dogs, (Sc. 
 will,- for the fake of their young, expofe themfelves. 
 
 S T R 
 
 Thus hens inftead of flying from, will afiault fuch a:; med- 
 dle with theirbrood ; and partridges, before their young can 
 fly, will frequently drop down before the dogs, firft at lei's, 
 then at greater d (fiances, to dodge, and draw them off, from 
 purfuine their young. With what concern dy others lead 
 about their young in places of fafety ? and fome even admit 
 them for fhelter into their bodies. 
 
 Thus the oppofumi Dr. Tyfon obferves, has a curious bag 
 on purpofe for the fecuring and carrying about her young ; 
 The fame author adds, from Oppian, that the dog-fiih, up- 
 on any ftorm or dinger, receives her young into her belly, 
 which come out again when the fright is over. And it is 
 faid the fquatina and glaucus do the like. 
 With what tendernefs do others feck and prepare, the food for 
 their young, teach them to fuck, cherifh, or lull them to 
 rell, (Sc. like fo many nurfes, deputed by the Creator to 
 take care ^f his creatures ? and ftill in proportion, as they 
 grow up and become fit to look to thcmfelves, this Jtorge 
 abates ; and, at (ength, when no longer needed, becomes 
 extinct. Mr. Ray obferves, that young doves are fed with 
 meat firft eat by the dam, and fodden a-while in her prolobe. 
 And Clufius obferves, that the old female Ethiopian takes no 
 food but from the male, after this manner. 
 The returns made by the young to the parent animal, when 
 grown old, are not lefs confiderable. Pliny fays of rats, that 
 they nourifh their aged parents with eminent piety. 
 St. Ambrofe, and after him Olaus Magnus, obferve of the 
 crane, that when the parents, through old age, are bereft of 
 their feathers, and left half naked, their offspring ftand a- 
 round them, and cherifh them with their own feathers ; that 
 they feek food for them ; and when nature, as it often hap- 
 pens, repairs their decays, and reftores them to ftrength 
 again, they take them up by turns, on their wings, and ha- 
 bituate their unpractifed limbs to their ancient art of flying. 
 STORM, in the military art. See Assault. 
 STOVE, in building, a hot houfe or room. 
 
 Palladio obferves, that the ancients ufed to warm their rooms 
 with certain fecret pipes, which came through the walls, 
 conveying heat to feveral parts of the houfe, from om com- 
 mon furnace. Whether this were a common cuftom, fays 
 Sir Henry Wotton, or a curiofity, we cannot determine ; 
 but it was certainly, both for profit and ufe, far beyond the 
 German Jlovcs. 
 
 Stove, among confectioners, denotes a little clofet well clofed 
 on all fides, wherein are feveral ftories or row3 of fhelves 
 made of wiars one above another, for the drying of ftveet- 
 meats. 
 
 STOWAGE, in the fea-Janguage, the putting of goods or- 
 derly into the hold of a fhip ; the moll ponderous and heavy 
 next the ballaft. 
 
 STRABISMUS, STrABiEMos, a diforder of the eye, which 
 makes it look a-fquint, either upwards, downwards, or fide- 
 ways. The Jlrabifmus confifts in a retraction of the ball of 
 the eye, towards one fide ; occafioned by a convulfion, or 
 a pally of one of its mufcles. 
 
 Children are apt to acquire it through the careleflhefs of their 
 nurfes, in placing them always on the fame fide the. light, or 
 of any other remarkable object that occafions them to turn 
 their eyes that way. 
 
 To remedy it, care is to be taken, that the light, or other 
 notable body, be placed on the other fide of them ; or clfe 
 a mafk put on them, the holes whereof are fo difpofed, as 
 that to fee through them, the child be obliged to turn hh 
 eyes the oppofite way. 
 STRAIGHT, Streight, or Strait, in hydrography, 
 a narrow fea, or gut, fhut up between lands on either fide, 
 and affording a paffage out of one great fea into another. 
 The moft celebratedyrVw^A/ in the world, is that of Gibral- 
 tar, which is about one hundred and thirty miles long and 
 twelve broad, joining the Mediterranean fea, with the At- 
 lantic ocean. 
 
 The Jlreights of Magellan, difcovered in 1520, by F. Ma- 
 gellan, were ufed fome time, as a paffage out of the north 
 into the fouth fea ; but fince the year 1616, that the jlrc'tght ' 
 of le Maire has been difcovered, the former has been dif- 
 ufed ; both becaufe of its length, which is full three hun- 
 dred miles, and becaufe the navigation thereof is very dan- 
 gerous, from the waves of the north and fouth feas meeting 
 herein, and clafhing. 
 
 The Jlreight at the entrance of the Baltic, is called the 
 Sound. See Sound. — That between England and France, 
 he pas de Calais, or the channel, — There are alfo the 
 Jlreight s of Babelmandel, of Weigats, of Jeffo y of Aiiian, 
 of Davis, and Hudfon, &c. 
 Straight is alfo ufed in geography, for an ifthmus, or neck 
 of land between two feas j preventing the communication 
 thereof. 
 
 Straight arches, ?c„,i, 1 JArch. 
 a n ■ > oee the articles < c 
 
 Straight flairs, 5 I otairs. 
 
 STRAIN, or Sprain, a violent extenfion of the fmews or 
 
 tendons of fome mufcle. 
 
 2 STRAINED 
 
S T R 
 
 S T R 
 
 STRAINED fuvar. See the article Sucar. 
 STRAINING*, is the clarification of a liquor, by palling 
 
 it through a fieve, or filtre. 
 *"The word is derived from the French, tfirtiattrt j which is 
 formed from c x, out of; and flringfrt, to pre&. 
 STRAIT. See the article Straight. 
 STRAND and Stream, in ancient cuftoms, a freedom from 
 
 all impofitions upon goods or veflels by land or water. 
 STRANDED*, is when a fliip is by tcmpeft, or ill fteerage, 
 
 run on ground, and fo perifhes. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Saxon Jirand, a more or bank 
 of the fca, or a great river. 
 
 STRANGER, in law, denotes a perfon who is not privy, or 
 party, to an act. 
 
 Thus a jlranger to a Judgment, is he to whom a judgment 
 does net belong ; in which fenfe the word ftauds dire&ly op- 
 pofed to party or privy. 
 STRANGURY*, ETpArrorTM, in medicine, a difeafe 
 occafioning a frequent and involuntary emiffion of urine, in 
 very fmall quantities, and, as it were, drop by drop ; with 
 an intenfe pain. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, rf=*yi;, g"ttn, drop, and 
 i-fC, urine. 
 
 The Jlrangury arifes from the too great acrimony of the 
 urine, which veilicating the nervous parts of the bladder, oc- 
 cafions a continual inclination to urine. 
 New beer, and other liquors, not well fermented, frequent- 
 ly occalion the Jlrangury. — The extreme fbarpnefs of the u- 
 rine in the Jlrangury^ lometimes produces an ulcer in the 
 bladder. Some authors confound the jlrangury, which the 
 Latins call urines (lillicidiuin, with the urines incontinentia. 
 — The difference between them confifls in this, that in the 
 former, the urine comes away with pain, in the latter with- 
 out. The former proceeds from the acrimony of the urine ; 
 and the latter from a relaxation or palfy of the fphin£ter of 
 the bladder, which cannot keep the neck thereof clofe Ihut. 
 STRAP, among furgeons, a fort of band ufed to ftretch out 
 limbs in the fetting of broken, or disjointed bones. See 
 Bandage. 
 
 STRAPADO*, or Strappado, a kind of military pu- 
 nilhment, wherein the criminal's hands being tied behind 
 him, he is hoiffed up with a rope, to the top of a long piece 
 of wood, and let fall again almoft to the ground ; fo that by 
 the weight of his body in the fbock, his arms are diflocated. 
 —Sometimes he is to undergo three Jlrapado's or more. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French rjlrapadc, which figni- 
 fies the fame; and which is fuppofed to come fom the old 
 proverb eflrrpcr, to break, extirpate ; or from the ItalianyrV*//- 
 pate, of the verb jiruppare, to wrelt by force. 
 
 STRATA, in natural hiflory, the feveral beds, or layers of 
 different matters, whereof the body of the earth is compofed. 
 The firata include all the layers of earths, minerals, metals, 
 ftones, (j( t lying under that upper tegument or ftratum, the 
 turf, or mould. 
 
 The time when thofe feveral Jlrata were laid, was doubtlefs 
 at the creation j unlefs, with fome great naturalifls, aaSteno, 
 Dr. Woodward, l$c, we fuppofe the globe of earth to have 
 been diflblved by the flood. 
 
 At that time, fays Mr. Dcrham, whenever it was that the 
 terreftrial globe was in a chaotic ftate, and the earthy parti- 
 cles fublided, then thefe feveral beds were repoftted in that 
 commodious order, wherein they are now found ; and that, 
 as is aflerted, according to the laws of gravity ; the lower 
 Itill heavier than the upper. 
 
 But Dr. Leigh, in his Natural Hi/lory of Lancajhire, fpeak- 
 ing of the coal-pits, denies the Jlrata to lie according to the 
 laws of gravitation; obierving that the Jlrata there, arc fir ft 
 a bed of marie, then free-frone, next iron-ftone, then coal, 
 vt channel mire, then fomeother Jlrata, then coal again, fcrr. 
 This determined Mr. Derham to make a nicer enquiry into 
 the matter; accordingly, in 1712, he caufed divers places to 
 be bored, laying the feveral Jlrata by themfelves; and after- 
 wards determined very carefully their fpecific gravity. The 
 rcfultwas, that in his yard, the Jlrata were gradually fpeci- 
 fically heavier and heavier, the lower and lower they went ; 
 but in another place in his fields, he could not perceive any 
 difference in the fpecific gravities. 
 
 Acquainting the Royal Society therewith, their operator Mr. 
 Haukfbce, was ordered to try the Jlrata of a coal-pit, which 
 he did to the depth of thirtyy?raf£z ; the thicknefs and fpeci- 
 fic gravity of each whereof, he gives us in a table in the Pbi- 
 lefopb'ual Tranfafliom ; and from the whole makes this infe- 
 rence, that it evidently appears, the gravities of the feveral 
 Jlrata are in no manner of order; but purely cafual, as if 
 mixed by chance. 
 STRATARITHMOMF/TRY*, in war, the art of drawing 
 up an army, or any part of it, in any given geometrical fi- 
 gure ; and of expreffing the number of men contained in fuch 
 a figure, as they fiand in array, either near at hand, or at 
 any diftance afligned. Harris. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, r^S)-, army, afriu,Q~, 
 number, and f&irpev, meanire. 
 
 STRATAGEM, stpathfhmAj a military wile; or a de- 
 Vot. II. N«\ CXLVII. 
 
 vice in W2r, for die furprizing, or deceiving an enemy, 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, r^Tv/;*, I lead or 
 command an army. 
 The ancients dealt mightily in Jlratagerns ; the moderns wage 
 war more openly, and on the I'quare. — Erontinus has made a 
 collection of the ancient jlratagerns of war. 
 ST R A T EG US, rrFATHro^ i n antiquity, an officer among 
 the Athenians, whereof there were two chofcri yearly, tu 
 command the tioops of the ftate. 
 
 Plutarch favs, there was one chofe from out of each tribe, 
 but Pollux feems xo fay, they were chofe indifferently out of 
 the people, ft was the people themfelves made the choice ; 
 and that on the laft day of the year, in a place called Pitjx. 
 The two Jlrategi did not command together ; but took their 
 turns, day by day ; as we find from Herodotus and Corne- 
 lius Nepos. Sometimes, indeed, ss when a perfon was found 
 of merit vaftly fuperior, and exceedingly famed in war, the 
 command was given to him alone : but it was ever a rule, 
 not to put any perfon in the office, but whofe eftate was 111 
 Attica, and who had children, that there might be fume 
 hoftages, and fecurities for his conduit and fidelity. 
 STRATIFICATION, Stratific atio, in chymHrry, the 
 arrangement of different matters, in feveral ftrata or iayers, 
 alternately ; called alio by the Latins .'.7 ,71 fuper jlratum ; 
 and marked in books of chymiftry with SSS. 
 This operation is ufed in calcining of minerals or metals with 
 falts or other matters. 
 
 T o purify gold by cementation, they Jlratify laminre, or 
 plates of gold in a crucible, with a dry palie called c&mer.t. 
 ST RAY. See the article FZstray. 
 
 STRKAM-flflf/wr, is a fmall anchor made faft to zjlrcam- 
 
 cable ; for a fhip to ride by in gentle Jlreams, and in fair 
 
 weather. See Anchor. 
 STHEAM-wft, are certain works in the tin-mines, when 
 
 the miners follow the veins of metal, by cutting trenches, 
 
 csV. See Tin. 
 SI REIGHT. See the article Straight. 
 STREN/E, in antiquity, new years gifts ; prefents made out 
 
 of refpect on new-year's day; as a happy augury for the en- 
 
 fuing year. 
 
 The ancient lawyers derive the word hence, That thefe pre- 
 fents were only given viris Jlrenuis ; Symmachus adds, that 
 the ufe hereof was firif. introduced bv king Tatius, Romu- 
 lus's colleague, who received branches of vervain gathered 
 in the facred grove of the goddefs Strenia,as ahappyprefage 
 of the beginning year. 
 
 Anciently, a pound of gold was given to the emperors every 
 new-year's day, by way ohjlrena. — Du Gauge obferves, that 
 Jlrina or Jlrinna, denoted a kind of tribute which the peo- 
 ple of Dalmatia or Croatia payed to the Venetians, or to the 
 kings of Hungary, whom they obeyed voluntarily. 
 ST RENGTH, vis, force, or power. 
 
 1 he jlrengtb s of different animals cf the fame fpecies, or of 
 the fame animal at different time's, arc demonftrated to be 
 in a triplicate proportion of the quantities of the mafs of thcir 
 blood : the whole jlrengtb of an animal, is the force of all 
 the mufcles taken together; therefore, whatever increafes 
 ' Jtwgtbi increafes the force of all the mufcles, and of thofc 
 Icrving digeftion, as well as others. See Muscle. 
 Yet, notwithstanding the truth of this, the quantity of Moo J 
 may be increafed in fuch circumftances, as to abate the 
 Jlrengtb. The equilibrium between the blood and veflels 
 being deftroyed, wonderfully leflens the jlrengtb.' The fud- 
 den fuppreffion of perforation, though it increafes the quan- 
 tity of the blood, as it muff confiderably do, by SancTorius's 
 calculation, yet it leflens the Jlrengtb ; becaule the retained 
 matter, being what ought to be evacuated, fo alters the tex- 
 ture of the blood, as to make it unfit for mufcular motion. 
 Suppofe the increafe of quantity to be connected with an ex- 
 traordinary vifcidity, the quantity of fmall feparable parts 
 decreafing, as the vifcidity increafes, the quantity of animal 
 fpirits feparated in the brain, will be Ids; and the tenfion of 
 the fibres being in proportion to the animal fpirits forced into, 
 them, they will not be able to counterpoife the great weight 
 of the blood, and fo the Jlrengtb will be diminilhed. 
 Bellini proves, that if the blood be fo vitiated, as to increafe 
 or diminifh Jlrengtb ; it amounts to the fame as if the blood 
 were in a natural ftate, but its quantity increafed or dim;- 1 
 niflied in the fame proportion : fo that the blood, when vi . 
 tiated, may fo impair the jlrengtb of the mufcles, as even 
 to fpoil digeftion ; and yet in fome cafes, it may be fo vitiated, 
 as to help digeftion, and increafe Jlrengtb. 
 M. de la Hire, in a calculation of the jlrengtb of a man i:i 
 drawing and bearing, thews, that the Jlrengtb of an ordina- 
 ry man walking in a horizontal direction, and with his body 
 inclining forwards, is only equal to twenty-feven pounds ; 
 which is much lefs than one would have imagined. 
 He adds, th3t this force would be much greater, if the man 
 were to walk backwards ; and that it is for this rcafon, the 
 watermen fetch their oars from before backwards : and 
 though he obferves, the gondoliers of Venice fetch them the 
 contrary way, yet this is, becaufc they chufe to lofe the ad- 
 11 M m vantage 
 
S T R 
 
 vantage of firengthy to have that of feeing the place they arc 
 going to, in the numerous turns and canals they there meet 
 withal. • . 
 
 It is known by exjjerience, that a horfe draws, horizontally, 
 as much as fevtn men ; confeepiently, his fircr.gth will be 
 189 pounds. A horfe, as to pufliing forwards, has a great 
 advantage over a man, both in the ftrcngth of its mufcles, 
 and the difpofition of the whole body j hut the man has the 
 "advantage over the horfe in al'cending. M. de la Hire Ihews, 
 that ibree men laden with 100 pounds a-piece, will afcend a 
 pretty fteepbill with more cafe and expedition, than a horfe 
 louden with 300 pounds. 
 
 Hakewell furnithes us with abundance of inftances of extra- 
 ordinary iim Clunher, provoft of the great church of 
 Mefnia in 1529, he tells us, carried a pipe of wine out of 
 the cellar, and laid it in the cart.— Mayolus faw one hold a 
 marble pillar in his hand three foot long, and one in diameter 
 which lie toiled in tlw air, and catcbed again like a ball. — 
 A little man of Mantua, calltdRodamas, could break a cable. 
 — E man do Burgh fetched up flairs, an afs laden with wood, 
 and threw both into the fire. At Conftantinoplc, in 1581, 
 one lifted a piece of wood which twelve men could fcarce 
 raifejtheh lying all along,hc bore a ftone which ten could but 
 juft roll on him.— Q. of Eronfburgh, baron of Mindleheim, 
 could raife a man oiThis feat with his middle finger, and Ihove 
 a cannon out of its place. — Card3n faw a man dance with 
 two men in his arms, two on his moulders, and one on his 
 neck. Patacona, captain of the Colliicks, could tear an horle- 
 {hoc ; and the fame is reported of the late Auguftus king of 
 Poland. —On Putney common, is a ftone with an infeription 
 mentioning a man, who in that place out-drew five horfes 
 in Jits own team.— A gigantick woman of the Netherlands, 
 could lift a barrel of Hamburgh beer.--Mr- Carew had a 
 tenant that could carry fix bufhels of wheat in meal (of fif- 
 teen gallons meafure) with the lubber a-top of it. And J. 
 Roman ofthe fame country, could carry the carcafs of an ox. 
 Sec Hakewcll's apology, p. 238. 
 STRENGTH fcNKK.S, corroborants, fuch medicines as add to 
 the bulk and firmnefs of the folids. 
 
 Strengthencrs differ from cordials, as a bandage does from a 
 fieih-brufh : the latter are fuch as facilitate and drive on the 
 vital actions ; but the former, fuch as confirm the ftamina, 
 and maintain the folids in fuch a condition, as to exert them- 
 lelves into action on all proper occalions, with the greateft 
 force and vigour. 
 
 The continual wafte, which conftant motion makes in the 
 con fti tut ion, were it not for frequent and proper fupplies, 
 would foon wear the body quite out. The attritions and ab- 
 rafions of the circulating fluids, would quickly carry away 
 the canals in which they circulate, were not fomewhat fur- 
 niftied in their compofition, which is fuited to fall into, ad- 
 here with, and recruit that which is wafhed off. And thofe 
 particles mult be much more difpofed fo to do, whofe adhe- 
 lions are greateft, when once they come into contact ; fuch 
 are thofe of bodies we call glutinous, and which eafily form 
 themfelvcs into jellies, and fuch like coniiftencies : for the 
 parts of fuch bodies are very light, by the over-proportion 
 oS their furfaces to their folidities, whereby their motions 
 are both more languid, when in circulation; and when they 
 flop, their coheftens will be much the ftronger, with what- 
 ioever they happen to fall into contact. See Nutrition. 
 JVIedicincs of this tribe, are therefore of great fervice in hec- 
 tics ; where the fwift motion of a thin, iharp blood, wears 
 away the fubftancc of the body, inftcad of nouriihing it : 
 for they not only retard the inordinate motion, but give fuch 
 a weight and confifteiicc to the juices, as fits them alfo for 
 nouriihnient.---There are likewife other caufes, which may 
 weaken the folids, by admitting, or occafioning them to re- 
 lax too much. 
 
 Whatfoever therefore acts as a ftimulus, and crifps and cor- 
 rugates the fibres into a more compacted tone, which moft 
 auftcre and pointed bodies do, will remove fuch weaknefs, 
 and increafe ftrcngth: and as too much moifture may alfo 
 contribute to fuch a relaxation, what has no other quality 
 but that of abforbing, and drying up fuch fuperfluous humi- 
 dities, may defer ve, though accidently, to come under this 
 denomination. 
 
 STRETCH.— When at fea, they are going to hoift the vard, 
 or hale the fheet ; they fay,firctch forward the Jheets > mean- 
 ing, that the part which the men are to hale by, Ihould be 
 put into their hands, in order to their haling. 
 
 S TRTj^E, in the ancient architecture, the lifts, fillets or rays 
 which feparate the ftriges or flutings of columns. 
 
 Stride, among naturalifts, denote the fmall grooves or chan- 
 nels in the ftiells of cockles, fcollops, &c. 
 
 SI R1CTOR, in anatomy, the fame as fyhincler. See 
 Sphincter. 
 
 S PRIGES, in the ancient architecture, are what in the mo- 
 dern we call flutings. 
 
 They were thus denominated, as beingfuppofed to have been 
 originally intended to imitate the folds or plaits in womens 
 robes ; which the Latins call firiga,-- The fillets or fpaces 
 tctween them, were called firia, 
 3 
 
 S T R 
 
 STRIKE, or Stryke, a meafure, containing four bufhels; 
 two of which make a quarter. 
 
 A Strike offiax, is as much as can be heckled at one handful. 
 
 Strike, is a fea word varioufly ufed. — When a fhrp in a 
 fight, or upon meeting with a man of war, lets down, or 
 lowers her top-fails, at leaft half-malt high; they fay, jit 
 jlrikcs : meaning, fhe yields or fubmits, or pays her devoir to 
 that man of war, as fhe paifes by. 
 
 When a top-malt is to be taken down, they fay, firth the 
 top-majl. 
 
 And when any thing is let down or lowered into the hold, 
 they call it Jlriking down into the held. 
 
 Alfo, when a fbip touches ground in a Ihoal-water, they 
 fav, Jhe Jlrikes. 
 Strike a hull. See the article Hull. 
 
 STRIKING. — The punilhment appointed by our laws, for 
 jlriking within the king's court, whereby blood is drawn, is, 
 that the criminal fball have his right hand ltruck oft", in a 
 moft fad and folcmn manner. 
 
 For jlriking in WtjlminJhr-baU, while the courts of juftice 
 are fitting, the punifhmcnt is imprifomnent for life, and foi- 
 feiture ot one's cfiate. 
 
 Striking watch. See the article Watch. 
 
 STRING, in mulic. See the article Chord. 
 
 If two firings or chords of a mufical inftruinent only differ 
 in length ; their tones, that is, the number of vibrations 
 they make in the fame time, are in the inverfe ratio of their 
 lengths. 
 
 If they only differ in thicknefs, their tones are in the inverfe 
 ratio of their diameters. — As to the tenfion of firings, to 
 meafure it regularly, they mult be conceived ftretched 01 
 drawn by weights ; and then, ceteris paribus, the tones of 
 two firings are in a direct ratio of the fquare roots of the 
 weights which ftretch them, that is, e. gr. the tone of a 
 firing ftretched by a weight, 4, is an octave above the tone of 
 a firing, ftretched by the weight 1. 
 
 It is an oblervation of very old ftanding, that if a viol or lute 
 firing, be touched with the bow, or hand, another firing on 
 the fame, or another inftrument, not far from it, if in uni- 
 fon to it, or in octave, or the like, will at the fame time 
 tremble of its own accord. See Unison. 
 But it is now found, that not the whole of that other firing 
 doth thus tremble; but the feveral parts, feverally, accord- 
 ing as they are unifons to the whole, or the parts of 
 the firing fo ltruck. Thus fuppofing ^ 
 A B to be an upper octave to a c, and 
 therefore an unifon to each half of it T 
 flopped at *i 102 
 If while a b is open, A B be ftruck, the two halves of this 
 other, that is a b and b c will both tremble ; but the middle 
 point will be at reft ; as will be eafily perceived, by wrapping 
 a bit of paper lightly about the firing a c, and removing it 
 fucceflively from one end of thefiring to the other. In like 
 manner, if A B were an upper twelfth to a c, and confe- 
 quently, an unifon to its three parts a 1, 1 2 and 2 c ; ii'ac 
 being open, A B be ftruck, its three parts 01,12 and 2 c 
 will feverally tremble; but the points 1 and 2 remain at reft. 
 This, Dr. Wallis tells us, was firft difcovered by Mr. Wil- 
 liam Noble of Merton college ; and after him by Mr. T. Pi- 
 got of Wadham college, without knowing that Mr. Noble 
 had obferved it before. To which we may add, that M. 
 Sauvcur, long afterwards, propofed it to the Royal Academy 
 at Paris, as his own difcovery, as it is like enough it might be ; 
 but upon his being informed, by fome of the members then 
 prefect, that Dr. Wallis had publilhed it before, he immedi- 
 ately refignedall the honour thereof. 
 
 Stringent.— u*u o/Di/m* stringent. s ee line. 
 
 STRING-HALT, a fudden twitching or matching up of an 
 
 horfe's hinder leg, much higher than the other, as if he trod 
 
 on needles ; generally befalling only the beft mettled horfes, 
 
 and ranked in the number of fpavins. Sec Spavin. 
 
 It frequently happens upon taking cold, after hard ridinp, or 
 
 fore labour ; efpecially upon wafhing him when too hot, 
 
 which chills the blood, and fo benumbs the finews, as to 
 
 take away the fenfe and feeling of the member. 
 
 To cure it, the middle vein is taken up above and underneath 
 
 the thigh; under which is found afiring> which is to be cut 
 
 away, and the part anointed with butter and fait. 
 
 STRIPED fialk, ? c . . . JStalk. 
 c 7 . Vbee the articles^ 
 
 Striped wraf/, 5 c Velvet. 
 
 STROAKING, a method of cure which fome people have 
 given into, in certain difeafes, confifting in a mere applica- 
 tion of the hand to the part affected, in the way of friction 
 or rubbing. 
 
 That friction has very confiderable ufes in many difeafes, is 
 allowed. 
 
 But as to the particular efficacy of the firoak of particular 
 perfons ; we fee little foundation for it in nature. Experience 
 indeed, feems to afford fome ; to which we do not well know 
 what to object. 
 
 Mr. Thorefby, in the FhilofsphicalTranJaclions, gives feveral 
 remarkable inftances of cures performed by that famous 
 firoaker, Mr. Greatrix, Mr. Thorelby's own brother being 
 fciz«d with a violent pain in his head and neck ; Mr. Grea- 
 
 trix 
 
STY 
 
 STY 
 
 trix coming accidentally thither, trr.ve immediate cafe to his 
 head, by only jlroaking it with his hand : he then fell to 
 Jlroak his back ; whence the pain immediately fled to his 
 right thigh : then he purfued it with his hand to the knee, 
 from thence to the leg, ancle, foot, and at Isft to the great 
 toe, where it grew more violent ; but upon rubbing there, 
 it vanifhed. 
 
 Another relation of the fame author having a great pain and 
 weaknefs in her knees, which cccafioned a white fwclling ; 
 that had remained on her feVeraJ years, in fpighr of all means ; 
 the fame Jlroaker rubbing both her knees, gave her prefent 
 eafe ; the pain flying downwards from his hand, till lie 
 drove it out of the toes : after which the fwclling foon went 
 abfolutely away. 
 
 Mr. Thorefby gives various other like inftances, all among 
 his acquaintance; and adds, that when Mr. Greatrix jlroaks 
 only for pains, he ufes nothing but his hand ; but that for 
 ulcers, or running fores, he ufes fpittle on his hand or 
 fingers. 
 
 STROBILITES vinum. See Vinum. 
 
 STROPHE, in the Greek and Latin poetry, a ftanza, or 
 certain number of verfes including a perfect fenfe ; fucceed- 
 ed by another, confllling of the fame number and meaiure 
 of verfes, and in the fame difpofition and rhythmus, called 
 entijlrophe. . < 
 
 What the couplet is in fongs, and the ftanza in epic poetry 
 Jlropbe is in odes. 
 
 The word is Greek, 5-|«><P»j, formed from I turn ; 
 
 becaufe at the end of the Jlropbe, the fame meafures returned 
 again ; or rather, as the term related principally to the mufic 
 or dancing, becaufe at firft coming in, the chorus, or the 
 dancers turned to the left, and that meafure ended, they 
 turned back again to the right. 
 
 STRONG pl„ce, Z SecthcilrticI < Place. 
 
 Strong pulje, 3 < Pulse, 
 
 STRUCTURE, in architecture. See Building. 
 
 STRUMiE*, in medicine, tumours arifing moft ufually on 
 the neck and throat ; called alfo firaphulee, and, popularly 
 the evil, or king's evil. 
 
 * The word is Latin, formed, as fame will have it, a Jlruendo, 
 becaufe they grow infenlibIy,_//r-«-?/'« affurgunt . — The Greeks 
 call them y^ahq, fores. See Supplement, article Strumje. 
 
 STR Y K£. See the article Strike. 
 
 STUC*, or Stucco, in building, a compofition of white 
 marule pulverifed and mixed with plaifter or lime ; the 
 whole fitted, and wrought up with water ; to be ufed like 
 torn mo n plaifter. 
 
 * This is what Pliny means by marmoratum opus ; and albarium 
 opui. SceMosAic, (sc. 
 
 Of this are made ftatues, bufts, baflb relievo's, and other 
 ornaments of architecture. See Statue, &c. 
 S T U ES. See the article Stews. 
 
 STUFF, in commerce, a general name for all kinds of fa- 
 brics of gold, filver, filk, wool, hair, cotton or thread, 
 manufactured on the loom ; of which number are velvets, 
 brocades, mohair, fattins, tafFetys, cloths, ferges, EsV. 
 
 Stuff is particularly ufed, for certain kinds of flight woollen 
 fluffs, ufed principally for linings and womens wear; as lin- 
 feys, rateens, &c. 
 
 Bleaching of Stuffs, J f Bleaching. 
 
 Croft-grained Stuff, > See -s Cross- grained. 
 
 Ftulingof&TVTTs, J (.Fulling. 
 
 STUM, the flower of wine fet a working. 
 
 Hence to Jltim, is to put certain ingredients into fick and 
 decayed wine, in order to revive it, and make it brifk. 
 
 STUMBLING, in the manage, &e. a vice in a horfe, either 
 natural or accidental. 
 
 The natural arifes from the finews of the fore-legs beintr 
 fomewhat too ftraight, which cramps the horfe, and pre- 
 vents his ufing his legs with the neceffary freedom and nim- 
 blcnefs.— The way to cure them, is to cut him of the cords, 
 it e. to make a flit on the top of his nofe, and with a cor- 
 net, to raife up the great finews, to cut them afunder, and 
 'heal them up again with a proper falve. 
 The accidental arifes from a fplint, wind-gall, being foun- 
 der'd, pricked, flubbed, gravelled, (Sc. 
 
 STUNG. — Adder Stung. See the article Adderstung. 
 
 STUPA. See the article Stupha. 
 
 STUPIFIERS, in medicine, the fame as narcotics, and opi- 
 ates. See Narcotic, and Opiate. 
 
 STUPHA, Stupa, Stupe, fometimes denotesa fomentation. 
 See Fomentation. 
 
 STUPOR, a numbnefs, occafioned by any accidental bandage 
 that Hops the motion of the blood and nervous fluids, or by 
 a decay in the nerves, as in a palfy, &c. 
 
 STYGIAN liquors ; a term which fome chymifts apply to the 
 conofive acid fpirits, as aqua regia, from their efficacy in 
 deftroying or dtuolving mixt bodies. 
 
 STYLE, STTAOS, a kind of bodkin, wherewith the ancients 
 wrote on plates of lead, or on wax, feV. and which is ftill 
 ufed to write on ivory leaves, and paper prepared for that 
 purpofe, &c. 
 
 This is the origin of all the other fignifications cf the fame 
 word in Englifh. 
 Style, Stylus, in chiinrgery, denotes a long fteel mftru- 
 ment, which goes dfminlfliing to a point at one end, fo as 
 to be of a conical form ; ferving either to expand and open, 
 or to be thruft into a part. 
 
 The Jlyle is frequently ufed to be thruft in red-hot, in can- 
 nula;, and to be pulled out again, immediately : it is put in 
 and drawn out fucceflively, as often as is jieceflary. In or- 
 der to do this, it is good to have two jty/tsj to be put in al- 
 ternately. 
 
 Style, in dialling, denotes the gnomon or cock of a dial, 
 raifed on the plane thereof, to project a fhadow. 
 
 Style, Stylus, in botany, the part rifing up in the middle 
 of a flower, and bearing, by its lower part, on the rudi- 
 ment of the fruit. 
 
 This, we more ufually call the pijlil • though Bradley makes 
 a diftincfion ; calling Xtjlyle when it is only joined or conti- 
 guous to the feed or fruit; ZtiAptJHl when it contains the 
 feed or fruit within it ; as the ovary does the egg. 
 Style, in matters of language, is a particular manner of de- 
 livering a man's thoughts in writing, agreeably to the rules 
 of fyntax ; or, as F. Buffier more accurately defines it, the 
 manner wherein the words confrrudted according to the laws 
 of fyntax, are arranged among themfelves, fuitably to the 
 genius of the language. 
 
 This definition fixes the notion of Jlyle, to fomething deter- 
 minate, which before was very vague and arbitrary ; whence 
 many authors, even of note, confounded it with fyntax it- 
 felf. 7 
 From the definition, it appears, that Jfyle fuppofes or in- 
 cludes the fyntax ; and that fyntax does not extend fo far 
 as jlyle ; for the fyntnx may be very juft, where the Jfyle is 
 wretched, were it only in this example : " God always re- 
 *' wards with great fidelity, and greater liberality, the juft:" 
 or this, " There is no body, who more than I honour 
 " you." 
 
 The regimens and terminations of every word, are perfectly 
 juft in each of thefe phrafes : there is no fault then, in the 
 fyntax ; but there is fomething wanting in the arrangement 
 of the words, to fuit them to the genius of the language j 
 there is a fault then, in the Jfyle. 
 
 Indeed, againft what particular rule of grammar the fault is 
 committed, it is fcarce poflible to determine precifely; the 
 tafte and ufe of a language being fo exceedingly delicate and 
 precarious. It is true, a fault in Jlyle, is not lefs a fault a- 
 gainft grammar, than is a fault in fyntax $ only the former 
 is lefs precife and palpable than the latter. 
 A very common error in grammarians, F. Huffier adds, is 
 to confound two kinds of Jlyles in one : the grammatical 
 Jlyle, or that directed by the rules of grammar ; and the 
 per final Jlyle, which depends lefs on the grammar, than on 
 the perfon that writes ; whether with regard to his particular 
 tafte and genius, or with regard to his matter, or the kind- 
 or character of his work. 
 
 There are a great many differences between the two : the 
 moft eflential is, that the one may be diverfified an infinite 
 number of ways, and the other cannot. — In effect, the per- 
 fonal Jlyle is naturally variable, according to the different 
 genius's, humours, and complexions. 
 
 It is the imagination that a&s, that conceives, that propofes, 
 and that expreffes things, according to its character, which 
 is different in all men, and which is to be varied, according 
 to the particular kind of the work. 
 
 Hence arifes the gay, the grave, the florid, the jejune, the 
 copious, the concile, the poetical, the epiftolary, and the 
 burlefque Jlyles. 
 
 Thefe perfonaly?y/« are all independant on the grammati- 
 cal ; and we have authors, who excel in the one, vet are 
 miferably defective in the other. The perfonal Jlyle' \s not 
 under the direction of grammar; but of the imagination, 
 or rather of rhetoric, that art having to do directly with our 
 thoughts, as grammar with our words. 
 This, however, may be faid, that grammar is far from be- 
 ing able to vary the fame words of a phrafe with equal per- 
 fection ; and that generally there is but one way of delivering 
 them in the tafte and genius of the language. Thus, the 
 grammatical Jlyle is invariable in the fuliowing phrafe, and 
 proportionably in others. " Death is a law, which all men 
 ** are to undergo." For you cannot well range the words 
 otherwife than they here are, without going out of the 
 bounds of grammar. Would you fay, ** A law is death, 
 " which all men," £sV. or " law is a death, which EsV. 
 But in the perfonal Jlyle, where the imagination comes to 
 be concerned, this fentence might be varied infinite ways, 
 according to the kind of the viriting, whether oratorial, po- 
 etical, &rr. As, •* Death neither fpares the prince nor the 
 ** peafant. Death knocks equally at the monarch's palace 
 " and the beggar's hut," &c. 
 Style, in oratory and poetry, is rcftrained wholly to what 
 F. Buffier calls the perfonal Jlyle. 
 
 Language refers principally to the matter ef the difcourfe, 
 
STY 
 
 STY 
 
 viz. the words; elocution to the particular members or parts 
 thereof; and Jiyle to the whole campoiition. 
 The matters of" the art, reduce the kinds of Jiyle to three ; 
 the fublime, the lew, and the intermediate, or equable Jlyte. 
 
 Sublime STYLE, is that confuting in magnificent words and 
 fcntcnccs; which by its noble boldnefs, ravifb.es the hear- 
 ers, and extorts admiration even from the unwilling* See 
 Sublime. , 
 
 Low or fimple Style, is that ordinarily ufed in fmaller and 
 humbler works ; as epiftles, dialogues and common difcourfe. 
 The chief virtues hereof are perfpicuity, fmoothnefs, eah- 
 nefs, and cleannefs ; it muft be very i'paring in the ufe of 
 tropes and figures, efpecially the more violent ones, as the 
 profopopceia, apoftrophe, &c. 
 
 Inter mediate, or equable Style, partakes of the magnificence 
 of the fublime, and the fimplicity of the low. It neither 
 rifes to the majefly of the one in words and fentences ; nor 
 yet is fmartly pointed like the other : but, as 1 ully excel- 
 lently exprcflcs it, Eft fyfat quidam hit crje fins, intermedin, 
 y quafi tcmperatus ; nee ccumine infer ioris, nec fulmineutens 
 fupcrioris, vicious atnborum, in neutro excellent, utriujque 
 parttceps. . , . 
 
 The fame author calls it the fori J ml polijh'd Jiyle ; it being 
 in this that all the graces and beauties of language are prin- 
 cipally to be ufed. 
 
 As to the choice of Jiyle, in the general, the nature of the 
 fubjefl is to determine it. Suchy?>/f, fays Cicero, is to be 
 chofen, asexpreffes great things magnificently, middle things 
 moderately, and low things fubtilly : but more particularly, 
 as there are three branches of the duty of an orator, to teach, 
 to delight, and to move ; the fimple Jiyle is ufed to teach, 
 the middle to delight, and the fublime to move. 
 Again, the fimple or low Jiyle is fit for comedy^ the fub- 
 lime for tragedy j and the middle for hiftory. — Ciefar, it is 
 true, rather ufed the fimple than the intermediate y?y/* ; but 
 then he wrote commentaries, not a hiftory, as is obferved 
 by Tully. 
 
 Again, the fimple Jiyle is fit for bucolics, and eclogues ; the 
 intermediate Jiyle for georgics ; and the fublime for epics : 
 which triple difference we eafily ddcry in Virgil, though he 
 fometimes mixes them all in the JEneld itfelf, ufing the fim- 
 ple Jiyle in the fifth book, where he defcribes games, and 
 the intermediate in the beginning of the poem. Care is ftill 
 to be ttken, that the Jiyle be not flat and dull, on pretence 
 of being fimple. 
 
 M. Boilcau obferves, that in all languages a mean thought 
 expreffed in noble terms, is better liked than the nobleft 
 thought exprciTcd in mean terms : the reafon he gives, is, 
 that every body cannot judge of the force and juftnefs of a 
 thought : but fcarcc any body but perceives the meannefs of 
 words. The latter we find by our fenfes, the former only by 
 our reafon. 
 
 He adds, that the words in different languages do^not always 
 anfwer juftly to one another ; and that a noble Greek term 
 cannot frequently be exprdled in another language, but by 
 a very mean one. 
 
 This we fee in the words afinus in Latin, arte in French, 
 and afs in Englifh, which are the meanefl imaginable, in 
 thofe fhree languages ; yet the word expreffing that animal, 
 has nothing mean in it, either in Greek or Hebrew, but is 
 ufed in the fineft and nobleft parages. 
 Add to this, that languages are exceedingly capricious on 
 this head : a bull, a heifer, a goat, a boar, S9V, may be 
 ufed in the fublimeft paflkges, without debaling the Jiyle ; 
 but a cow, a ftieep, a hog, a fow, CSV. would be intolerable. 
 Shepherd and herdfman, are fine words ; hog-keeper and 
 cow-ward, which carry the fame ideas, vicious to the laft 
 degree. The chief faults in jiyle are, its being tumid and 
 fwollen ; or cold and puerile, or Jlijf, or losfe, or dry and 
 jejune. 
 
 A tumid Style is that immoderately fluffed with big words 
 and fentences ; fuch are thofe verfes of the emperor Nero, 
 ridiculed by Perfius. 
 
 Torva tnifnallonets imphrunt cornua bombis 
 Et raptum vhulo caput ablatura fuperbo 
 Bajfaris, & lyncem rncenas flexura corymbis, &C. 
 Frigid, or puerile Style, is that which affects certain trifling 
 ornaments, infipid jefts, remote and flraincd allufions, re- 
 dundant descriptions, CSV. — Such, e. gr. as, a centaur's rid- 
 ing himfelf : more golden than gold, — Of this vice, 
 that paffage of Virgil fecms guilty, 
 
 Num capti potuere capi ? Num incenfa crcmavit 
 Trcja viros P 
 
 And that in Plutarch, and Dion Caffius ; e< It was no 
 *f wonder Diana's temple fhould be burnt the night Alex- 
 * ( ander was born ; as that goddefs, attending at fo great a 
 *' birth, could not be in the way to extinguifli the flames." 
 — And that in Plautus, where a perfon is reprefented fo ex- 
 ceedingly covetous, that he would invoke heaven and earth, 
 if he faw but a grain of fmoke efcape out of his cottage. 
 
 Loofe STYLE, is that which wanting articles, numbers, £sV. 
 fluctuates here and there, not connected or joined together. 
 This is a fault fo frequent, efpecially in young writers, that 
 we fhall fpare giving inftanccs of it. 
 
 D/y jejune Style, is that which is deftitute of ornament, 
 
 fpirit, SSrV. The ancients made a notable diltinction oi Jlyles, 
 into Laconic, and Afatic. 
 Afiatic Style, is that which is very diffufive and prolix ; or 
 where abundance of words are ufed to exprefs a little mat- 
 ter : thus called, by the Greeks, from the people of Alia, 
 who affected fuch redundances, in oppofirion to the 
 Laconic Style, which is diftinguifhed by its exceeding con- 
 cifenefs ; and by comprehending a deal of matter under a 
 few words. 
 
 Such, e. gr. is that anfwer returned by theLacedxmonians, 
 to a long epiftle of an enemy, thrcatning to deftroy them 
 ■with fire and fword ; ft, if; that is, do if you can: or, 
 that returned by the fame people to king Philip, demanding 
 fome extravagant thing of them, *, non, no. Or that of 
 Clcomenes, the Spartan general, to the ambaflador of Sa- 
 mos ; " As to what you have faid, the firft part I do not 
 M remember; the middle I do not underftand ; the laft I do 
 * { not approve." Or that epiftle of Archidamus to the Elei, 
 who were preparing war againft him ; Archidamus to the 
 Eleans : " It is good to be quiet." Or that of Ctefar to the 
 Roman fenate, after his conquering Pbarnaces, king of 
 Pontus : vent, vidi, vici ; I came, I faw, I conquered. 
 Marotic Style. Sec the article Marotic. 
 Style, in jurifprudence, the particular form, or manner of 
 proceeding in each court or jurifdiction, agreeable to the 
 rules and orders eftablifhed therein. — Thus we fay, they?; 1 /*- 
 of the court of Rome, of the court of chancery, of parlia- 
 ment, of the privy council. 
 Style, in mufic, denotes a peculiar manner of compofing, 
 or finging. 
 
 The Jiyle is, properly, the manner that each perfon has, ei- 
 ther of compofing, of performing, or teaching ; which is 
 very different, both in refpect of the different genius's of 
 countries and nations, and of the different matters, places, 
 times, fubjects, expreffions, &c. 
 
 Thus we fay, the Jiyle of the Chariflimi, of Lully, of Lam- 
 bert ; the Jiyle of the Italians, the French, the Spaniards, 
 &c. The Jiyle of gay pieces of mufic, is very different 
 from that of ferious pieces : the Jiyle of church mufic very 
 different from theatrical mufic. The Jiyle of the Italian 
 compofitions, is poignant, florid, cxprefllve ; that of the 
 French compofitions, natural, flowing, tender, &c. 
 Hence, the various epithets, given to diftinguifh thefe vari- 
 ous characters ; as, the ancient and modern jiyle, the Italian 
 and German Jiyle, the ecclefiafiical and dramatic Jiyle, the 
 gay, grave, majeftic, natural, foft, familiar, gallant, low, 
 fublime Jlyles, &c. 
 STYLO recitativs, or dramatics, in the Italian mufic, is 
 
 a Jiyle fit to exprefs the paffions. 
 Stylo ecclefiajlico is full of majefty, very grave, and fit to in- 
 fpire devotion. 
 
 Stylo moteclico, is a various, rich, fiorid Jiyle, capable of all 
 kinds of ornaments, and of confequence, fit to exprefs va- 
 rious paffions, particularly admiration, grief, csV. 
 Stylo madrigalefco, is a jiyle proper for love, and the other 
 fofter paffions. 
 
 Stylo hyper chematico, is a Jiyle proper to excite mirth, joy, 
 dancing, &c. and of confequence, full of brifk, gay mo- 
 tions. 
 
 Stylo fymphonlacs, is a Jiyle fit for inftrumental mufic : butas- 
 each inftrument has its particular effect, there are as many 
 different fymphoniacal jlyles. — The Jiyle of violins, for in- 
 ftancc, is ufually gay ; that of flutes, melancholy and lan- 
 guifhing, and that of trumpets, fprightly, and animated. 
 Stylo melifrnatico, is a natural, artlefs Jiyle, which almoft any- 
 body may fing. 
 
 Stylo phantajlico, is a free, eafy, humorous manner of com- 
 
 pofition, far from all conftraint, &c. 
 Stylo choraico, is the jiyle proper for dancing ; and is di- 
 vided into as many different kinds, as there are dances ; 
 as the Jiyle of farabands, of minuets, of gavots, riga- 
 doons, &c. 
 
 Style, in chronology, denotes a particular manner of ac- 
 counting time, with regard to the retrenchment of ten days 
 from the calendar, in the reformation made thereof under 
 pope Gregory XIII. 
 Style is either old or new. 
 Old *St y l k, is the Julian manner of computing, which ob- 
 tains in England, and fome other proteftant ftates, who re- 
 fufed to admit of the reformation. 
 jtffW Style, is the Gregorian manner, followed by the ca- 
 tholics, and others, in confequence of that reformation. 
 Hence, there has arifen a difference of ten days, between 
 the old Jiyle and the new, the latter being fo much before- 
 hand with the former: fo that when the cath.lics, e. gr. 
 reckon the 21ft of May, we only reckon the nth. 
 This difference of ten days, was increafed in the year 1707, 
 to eleven days, by reafon that year was not the Biflextiie 
 in the old jiyle, but was in the new : fo that the 10th day 
 of the one, correfponded to the 21ft of the other. 
 There are feveral places, however, where the new Jiyle has 
 begun to obtain, even among proteftants ; and it is not un- 
 likely, that the old Jiyle may, in time, dwindle quite away. 
 At the Diet of Ratifbon in 1700, it was decreed, by the 
 
SUB 
 
 body of protectants of the empire, that eleven days mould 
 be retrenched from the old fyle, to accommodate it for 
 the future to the new. And the fame regulation has flnce 
 paffed into Sweden and Denmark. England holds out, al- 
 moft alone, for the old _ftyle, 
 
 STYLES of hunting. See the article Hunting. 
 
 STYLET, Stvletto, afmall, dangerous kind of poniard, 
 which may be concealed in the hand ; chiefly ufed in treach- 
 erous aflaffinations. 
 
 The blade is ufually triangular, and fo {lender, that the 
 wound it makes, is almoft imperceptible. — The JlyUtio is 
 firiflly prohibited in all well difciplined ftatcs. 
 STYLITES, STTAITHSj an appellation given to a kind of 
 folitaries, whofpend their life feated on the tops of columns, 
 to be the better difpofed for meditation, &c. 
 Of thefc, we find feveral mentioned in ancient writers, and 
 even as low as the eleventh century. The founder of the 
 order was St. Simeon Stylites, a famous anachoret in the fifth 
 century j who firft took up bis abode on a column fix cubits 
 high ; then on a fecond of twelve cubits ; a third of twenty 
 two ; and at laft on another of thirty fix, where he lived' 
 feveral yean. 
 
 The extremities of thefe columns were only three foot in 
 diameter, with a kind of rail or ledge about, that reached 
 almoft to the girdle, fomewhat refcmbling a pulpit. There 
 was no lying down in it. 1 — The faquirs, or devout people of 
 the eaft, imitate this extraordinary kind of life to this day. 
 
 STYLOIDES, in anatomy, an apophyfis of the os petrofum. 
 thus called from its rafembling a ftyle or ftylet. — See Tab, 
 Anat. (Ofteol.) fig. 13. lit. e. 
 
 STYLOGLOSSI, in anatomy, a pair of mufclcs, running 
 off fharp and flefny, from the proceffus ftyloides ; whence 
 defcending obliquely forwards, they are infertcd into the 
 root of the tongue. — They ferve to pull the tongue up in 
 the action of deglutition. 
 
 STYLOHYOIDEI, in anatomy, a pair of mufcles fpring- 
 ing from the proceffus ftyloides, and inferted into the bans 
 and horns of the os hyoides ; which they draw laterally up- 
 ward. 
 
 STYLOPHARYNGEI, in anatomy, a pair of mufcles 
 arifing round and flefhy, from the proceffus ftyloides ; and 
 which, in their oblique defcent become thicker, and are 
 afterwards expanded on the back parts oftiic fauces. — They 
 ferve to draw up, and dilate the pharynx. 
 
 STYPTIC, XTrriTiKON, i n medicine, ajlringent ; a remedy 
 that has the virtue of flopping blood, or of binding up the 
 aperture of a wounded veiTel. 
 
 The fervice, nettle, Solomon's feal, &c. are Jlyptics. — There 
 are various Jlyptic waters, and powders of great efficacy, in 
 moft of which, vitriol is the principal ingredient. 
 The ufaaXJIyptic water is made of colcothar calcined, or vi- 
 triol diflblved with burnt allum, fugar-candy, the urine of a 
 yotmg man, ts'c. 
 
 Dr. Colbatch's Jlyptic powder has been famed ; though M 
 Cowpcr, in the Philosophical Tranfailions, gives us a nurr 
 ber of inftances, wherein it was applied with very little or ill 
 fuccefs in human fubjefls : but he gives us others made in 
 dogs, where it anfwered well. 
 
 M. Tournefort obferves, from the analyfis he has made of 
 Jlyptic and affringent plants, that acids and earths always 
 prevail therein ; though fome of them yield an urinous fpirit. 
 On this principle, he afferts, that their fait is analogous to 
 allum, and that there is fomewhat of fal ammoniac in their 
 texture. — But Chomel notes, that this does not hold univer- 
 fally. 
 
 STYRAX, ettpae, in medicine. See Storax. 
 
 SUB, a Latin prepofition fignifying under, or below; frequent- 
 ly ufed, in compofition, in our language. — E. gr. 
 
 SUB-BRIGADIER, an officer in the cavalry, who com- 
 mands under the brigadier ; affifting him in the difcharge of 
 his functions. 
 
 SUB-CHANTOR, an officer in the choir, who officiates in 
 the abfence of the chantor, &c. See Chantor. 
 
 SUB-DEAN, a dignity in certain chapters beneath the dean 
 See Dean. 
 
 SUB-PRIOR, a clauftral officer, who affifts the prior, £sV. 
 See Prior. 
 
 SUB-DEACON, an inferior miniffer, who antiently attend- 
 ed at the altar, prepared the facred vefTels, csV. and was in- 
 verted with the firft of the holy orders. 
 According to the canons, a perfon muft be twenty two years 
 of age, to be promoted to the order of fub-deacon. 
 It is difputcd among the Romanifts, whether the fub-deacon- 
 hood be a facrament or not; in regard fub-deacons are or- 
 dained without impofition of hands, and that there is no 
 mention made of them in fcripture. Yet Beilarmin holds 
 the affirmative fide of the queftion. 
 
 By the papal canons, a married man may be ordained fub- 
 deacon ; upon condition his wif. confent to it, make a vow 
 Vol. II. N°. 147. 
 
 SUB 
 
 of continence, and (hut herfelf up in a monaftery. 
 SUBALTERN*, a fubordinatc officer, or one who difchargei 
 his poft under the command, and fubjeft to the direction of 
 another. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Lalin, Jub, and alter, another. 
 Such are lieutenants, fub-licutenants, cornets alid enfigns, 
 who ferve under the captain : but the cuftom of the world, 
 haa now appropriated the term to thofe of much lower ranks, 
 as ferjeants and the like. 
 
 We alfo fay, Jubaltern courts, jurifdiclions, feV.— Such are 
 
 thofe of inferior lords, with regard to the lord paramount ; 
 
 hundred courts, with regard to county courts, ijc. 
 
 For the Jubaltern perfons in an epic poem, F. Bbflu obferves, 
 
 there is no neceffity to be very itric~t in preferving every one's 
 
 character. 
 
 The patriarchs, M. St. Evremont tells us, had feveral wives, 
 who did not all hold the fame rank ; but there were fe- 
 veral Jubaltern to the principal ' 
 
 BRN genus. See the article Genus. 
 
 is applied to any thing under 
 whether artery, nerve, vein, or 
 
 SUBCLAVIAN, Subclavii 
 the arm-pit, or fhoulder 
 mufcle. 
 
 Subclavius, more particularly denotes a mufcle which a- 
 rifes from the lower fide of the clavicula, near the acro- 
 mium ; and defcends obliquely to be inferted into the upper 
 part of the firft rib, near the fternum.— See Tab. Jnut. 
 (Myol.) fig. 2. n. 9. 
 SUBGONTRARY fofition, in geometry, is when two fifni- 
 lar triangles are lb placed, as to*~have one common angle, V, 
 (Tab. Geom. fig. 44.) at the vertex, and yet their balU not 
 parallel. 
 
 If the fcalenous cone B V D be fo cut by the plane C A, as 
 that the angle at C=D ; the cone is then laid to be cut fiib- 
 eontrardy to its bafe B D. 
 SUBCUTANEUS, in anatomy, a thin membranous mufcle, 
 running under the (kin, called alfo quadratus geim, and il'a- 
 tyjma myoides. 
 
 It arifes with a pretty broad origin, from the hind part of 
 the neck, and from the pectoral mufcle below the clavicle. 
 It adheres firmly to the panniculus carnofus ; from which it 
 is not feparated without difficulty, and therefore it was not 
 anciently diftinguifhed from it; and is inferted, obliquely, en 
 each fide, into the lower jaw-bone near the fkin, lips, and 
 fometimes the bottom of the nofe ; all which parts it draws 
 downwards and a-wry. 
 
 A conyulfion herein is called a Jpajmus cynieus. — In fome per- 
 fons, it reaches to the ears, and in others not ; which is the 
 rcafon fome folks have a faculty of moving their ears, which 
 others want. 
 
 SUBDUCTION, in arithmetic, the fame as fubftraaioli. See 
 
 SuBSTRACTION. 
 
 SUBDUPLE ratio, is when any number or quantity is con- 
 tained in another, twice — Thus 3 is faid to be Jubduple of 6, 
 as 6 is duple of 3. 
 SUBJECT, Subditus, a perfon under the rule and dominion 
 of a fovereign prince, or ftate. 
 
 Of jubjeels, fome are fo by birth, others become fo by acts 
 of naturalization. 
 
 Antiently the lords called, abufively, thofe who held lands 
 or fees of them, or owed them any homage, their JubjeCls 
 Subject, Subjectum, is alfo ufed for the matter of an art, 
 or fcience ; or that which it conflders, or whereon it is em- 
 ployed.— Thus the human body is the Jubjetl of medicine. 
 In this fenfe.anatomifts call the body they are dftTcaihg, and 
 whereon they read Mures, their Jubjetl. See Body, He. 
 The Jubjetl of logic, is thinking, or reafoniug : but more 
 particularly, in a fyllogifm, one of the terms of a proooli- 
 tion is called the Jubjetl, and the other the attribute. 
 In poetry, the Jubjetl is the matter treated of ; or the event 
 related, or fet to view, and inriched with ornaments. 
 Subject alfo denotes the fubftance or matter to which an ac- 
 cident is added. 
 
 It is a maxim, that two contraries can never fubfift in the 
 fame Jubjetl. 
 SUBJECTIVE part. See the article Part. 
 SUBJUNCTIVE, in grammar, the fourth mood, or man- 
 ner of conjugating verbs ; thus called, becaufe ufually fub- 
 joined to fome other verb, or at leaft to fome other particle, 
 as, If I loved: though this were true, &c. 
 The Greek is almoft the only language that properly has any 
 Jubjuntlive mood ; though the French, Spanifh, and Italian, 
 have fome fhew thereof. — In all other languages, the fame 
 inflexions ferve for the optative, and the Jubjuntlive moods : 
 for which reafon, the Jubjuntlive mood might be retrenched 
 from the Latin, and thofe other grammars ; it not being the 
 different ways of fignifying, which may be very much mul- 
 tiplied, hut the different inflexions, that conftitute the dif- 
 ferent moods. 
 
 SUBLAPSARY, or lnjralapjary, in theology, a term ap- 
 plied to fuch as hold, that God having forefeen the fall of 
 11 N " Adam, 
 
SUB 
 
 SUB 
 
 Adam, and in confequcnce thereof, the lofs of mankind ; 
 refolved to give a grace fufficient for falvation to fome, 
 and to refufe it to others. 
 
 Sublapfary is ufed as fynonymous with infralapfary ; in op- 
 pofition to fupralapfary. See Infralaps ary, and Su- 
 
 PRALAPSARY. 
 
 SUBLIMATE, a chymicai preparation, the bafis whereof is 
 mercury, or quickfiiver. 
 
 There are two kinds of fublimate, esrrajive and facet ; 
 which fee under the article Mercury. 
 
 Refining of gold by Sublimate. See Refining. 
 
 SUBLIMATION, Sublimatio, in chymiftry, an opera- 
 tion which differs little from diftillation, excepting, that in 
 diftirlation, only the fluid parts of bodies are railed j but in 
 fublimafan, the folid and dry : and that the matter to be 
 diftilled may be either folid or fluid ; but fublimation is con- 
 cerned only about folid fubftances. 
 
 There is alfo another difference, namely, that rarefaction, 
 Which is of very great ufe in diftillation, has hardly any 
 room in fubllmatton ; for the fubftances which are to be fub- 
 limed, being folid, arc incapable of rarefaction ; and fo it is 
 only impulfe that can raife them. 
 
 However, it may not be improper to inquire a little more 
 nicely into the reafon of fuch a diverfity in the elevation of 
 bodies ; why fome do afcend with a gentle heat, and others 
 are not to be railed by the moft vehement fire : and fuch an 
 enquiry will mure properly come in here, becaufe this head 
 contains all the buiintfs of volatility and fixation. 
 The caufe of this elevation, and afcent in the particles of 
 bodies, is to be afcribed to the fire ; not only on account of 
 impulfe, but of another property the fire has; namely, to 
 infinuate itfelf into all the interlaces of thefe bodies, and 
 thereby break the cohefion of their parts, fothat at laft they 
 become divided into very fniall parts, if not into the fmallcft 
 that art can reduce them into. 
 
 Particles thus feparated and divided, lofe much of their 
 gravity. Eor the gravity of the fame particle decreafes in 
 the fame proportion as the cube of the diameter is leflencd. 
 Suppofe, therefore, a body, whofe diameter is 12 : if, then, 
 its diameter be made lefs by r, viz. n, the gravity of that 
 body will be only 9 or thereabouts : a body, therefore, 
 by being divided into very minute corpufcles, becomes eafy 
 to be fublimed. 
 
 Add, that the furface of a body decreafes in a very different 
 manner from gravity, only as the fquarc of the diameter is 
 leffened. Where the gravity decreafes, in fuch a fcries, as 
 is exprefied by the numbers 1728, 3 331 » 1000, the diminu- 
 tion of Che furface will obferve this proportion, viz. 1 44, 
 121, 100 ; and when, upon reducing the diameter to 6, 
 the gravity becomes lefs than 2, the furface will ftill amount 
 
 How much this contributes to a quick afcent, will appear 
 from the jublimation of camphire, benzoin, and arfenic ; 
 whofe particles, as they cohere but loofely, are, for that 
 reafon, diffufed into a larger furface ; upon which account 
 they are the eafieft to be fublimed of any : nay, thefe folid 
 particles, upon account of their furface, will (boner afcend 
 than many fluids. 
 
 So flower of fulphur rifes fooncr than oil, not only than that 
 of vitriol, but any other, though ever fo light. 
 By this contrivance of nature, viz. that the gravity of bo- 
 dies decreafes in a triplicate, but their furface in a duplicate 
 proportion of their diameters ; it comes to pafs, that bo- 
 dies, which have a very different gravity, may be raifed 
 with the fame force. Thus the falts of animals, as of harts- 
 horn, human blood, that of vipers, &c. being compofed of 
 very minute corpufcles, as is found by experience, in diftilling 
 them, do eafily afcend ; becaufe the furface in them is not 
 leffened fo much as the gravity is ; and the falts of vegeta- 
 bles, as of tartar, balfams, &c. which are of a more clofe 
 texture, by reafon of their larger furfaces, are alfo without 
 much difficulty raifed. 
 
 TJie corpufcles alfo of minerals and metals, though very 
 compact and heavy, do, in fome meafure, give way to the 
 fire, and are capable of being fublimed. In all thefe in- 
 ftauces, the breadth of the furface, which expofes the parti- 
 cles more to the impetus of the fire, is the reafon why they 
 are raifed with as much eafe, as if their gravity had been 
 leffened, by diminifhing their furface : To that particles, 
 though ever fo different in weight, may be equally raifed by 
 the fame degree of heat, if the proportion of their gravity 
 be reciprocal to that of their furfaces. 
 SUBLIME, in difcourfe, fomething extraordinary, and fur- 
 prizing, which (hikes the foul, and makes a fentiment or 
 compofition ravifh and tranfport. 
 
 This is what Longinus, who has wrote exprcfly on the fub- 
 means by fublime.— The definition, indeed, is not his, 
 but M. Boileau's ; for the author writing his book after 
 another of Cecilius on the fame fubject, employed himfelf 
 almoft wholly in fhewing what the fublime is, declined de- 
 fining it, as fuppofing it well known. 
 
 By the definition, lt m3V appear, that the fublime is a very 
 different thing from what the orators call the fublime flyle. 
 The fublime ityle neceffarily requires big and magnificent 
 words ; but the fublime may be found in a Angle thought, a 
 fingle figure, a fingle turn of words. A thing may be in 
 the fublime ftyle, and j et not be fublime, i. e. it may have 
 nothing extraordinary and furprizing. 
 
 For inftance : « The almighty Author of the univerfe, with 
 " a fingle word, created light." This, now, is in the fub- 
 lime ftyle, yet it is not fublime, there being nothing extraor- 
 dinary in it, which another perfon might not eafily hit on. 
 But in " God (aid, let there be light, and there was light;" 
 fo extraordinary a turn of expreflion, which fhews the obe- 
 dience of the creature to the orders of his creator, is truly 
 fublime, and has fomething more in it than human. 
 Longinus nukes five fources of the fublime. The firft, a 
 certain elevation of mind, which makes us think happily. 
 The fecond, is the pathetic, or that natural vehemenceand 
 enthufiafm, which flrikes and moves us : thefe two are owing 
 almoft wholly to nature, and muff be born with us; where- 
 as the reft depend, partly, on art. The third is, the turn- 
 ing of figures in a certain manner, both thofe of thoughts 
 and of fpeech. The fourth, noblenefs of expreflion, which 
 confifts of two parts, the choice of words, and the elegant, 
 figurative diction. The fifth, which includes all the reft, is 
 the compofition and arrangement of the words in all their 
 magnificence and dignity. 
 Sublime geometry. See the article Geometry. 
 SUBLIMING pots. See the article Aludels. 
 SUBLINGUAL glands, in anatomy, two glands under th« 
 tongue, placed one on each fide thereof. 
 Thefe, called alfo hypoglottides, filtrate a ferous humour, of 
 the nature of faliva, which they difcharge by little dudts near 
 the gums, into the mouth. 
 SUBMULTIPLE, in geometry, fife. — A fubmultiple number 
 or quantity, is that which is contained a certain number of 
 times in another ; and which therefore repeated a certain 
 number of times, becomes exactly equal thereto. 
 Thus 3 is a fubmultiple of 21. — In which fenfe, a fubmultipU 
 coincides with an aliquot part. 
 Submultiple ratio, is that between the quantity contained, 
 and the quantity containing. — Thus the ratio of 3 to 21 is 
 fubmultiple. 
 
 In both cafes, fubmultiple is the reverfe of multiple : 21, 1. 
 gr. being a multiple of 3, and the ratio of 21 to 3 a multi- 
 ple ratio. See Multiple. 
 Submultiple fubfuperparticular. ^ - R 
 Submultiple fubfuferbipartiens. ± 
 
 SUBNORMAL, in geometry, a line which determines the 
 point in the axis of a curve, where a normal or perpendi- 
 cular, raifed from the point of contact of a tangent to the 
 curve, cuts the axis. 
 
 Or, the f abnormal is a line, which determines the point 
 wherein the axis is cut by a line falling perpendicularly on 
 the tangent in the point of the contact. 
 Thus TM (Tab. Conies, fig. ig.) being a tangent to a curv* 
 in M ; and M R a normal or perpendicular to the tangent ; 
 the line PR intercepted between the femiordinatcj* M and 
 the normal M R, is called the fubnormal. 
 Hence, i°. In a parabola, as A M, &e. the fubnormal PR is 
 tothefemiordiuatePM, as PM is to PT, and MR to TM. 
 2°. In the parabola, the fubnormal P R is fubduple the para- 
 meter ; and, confequentiy, it is an invariable quantity. 
 SUBORDINATED, and Subordinating affeiiions. See 
 Affections. 
 
 SUBORDINATION, a relative term, expreffing the degree 
 of inferiority between one thing and another. 
 There is a feries of fubord'inations running throughout all na- 
 ture. In the church there are feveral degrees of fubordination, 
 as of deacons to priefts ; priefts to prelates, fijft — The like 
 are obfervable in the fecular ftate ; in offices of war, juftice, 
 He. and even 
 
 In the fciences, trigonometry is fubordinate to geometry ; 
 and in the virtues, abftinence and chaftitv are fubordinate to 
 temperance : in mufic, fome call the plagai tones, fubordi- 
 nate tones. 
 
 SUBORNATION, Suborn atio, a fecret or underhand 
 preparing, inftrudting or bringing in, a falfe witnefs ; or 
 corrupting or alluring a perfon to do fuch a falfe act. 
 Hence, the fubornat'ton of perjury, mentioned in the act of 
 general pardon, 12 Car. II. c. 8. is the alluring or difpofing 
 to perjury. See Perjury. 
 SUBPCE'NA *, a writ, whereby any perfon under the degree 
 of peerage, is called to appear in chancery, in cafes where 
 the common law hath made no provifion. 
 * The name is taken from the words in the writ, which charge 
 the party fummoned to appear at the day and place aligned, 
 fob pcena centum librarum, on the penalty of an hundred 
 pour.ds. 
 
 The peers, in the like cafes, are called by the lord chancel- 
 lor's letter, giving notice of the fuit intended againft them, 
 and requiring them to appear. 
 
 There 
 
SUB 
 
 There is alfo a fubpoena ad teftijicanSum, for fummoning of 
 witneiles in other courts, as well as in chancery. 
 There is alfo a fubpoena in the exchequer, as well in the court 
 of equity there, as in the office of pleas. 
 SUBPOPLIT^US, in anatomy. See Popiitjeus. 
 SUBREPTION*, Subreptio, the aft of obtaining a favour, 
 from afuperior by furprize, or a falfe reprefentation. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, fub, under, and rip 
 I creep. 
 
 Subreption differs from obreption, in that the latter denotes 
 falfe expreffion of the quality of a thing, or fact, &c. And 
 fubreption, a want of expreffion, or a fraudulent reticency 
 concealment of a thing, which would have rendered the ob- 
 taining of the favour more difficult. See Obreptitious. 
 SUBREPTITIOUS, or Surreptitious, a term applied 
 to a letter, licence, patent, or other act, fraudulently ob- 
 tained of a fuperior, by concealing fome truth, which had 
 it been known, would have prevented the conceffion 
 grant. 
 
 The benefit of letters, licences, caV, is forfeited, when they 
 arc found contrary to the informations given ; they being 
 then reputed fubreptltious. 
 
 Papal bulls and fignatures are null and fubreptitious, when 
 the true itate of the benefice, the manner of the vacancy, 
 and other necefiary matters, are not juftly, and properly, fig- 
 nified to the pope. 
 SUBROGATION, or Surrogation, in the civil law, the 
 act of fubftituting a perfon in the place, and intitling him 
 to the rights of another. 
 
 In its general fenfe, fubrogation implies a fucceffion of any 
 kind J whether of a perfon to a perfon, or of a perfon to a 
 thing. 
 
 There are two kinds of fubrogation ; the one conventional, 
 the other legal. 
 
 Conventional Subrogation, is a contract, whereby a credi- 
 tor transfers his debt, with all appurtenances thereof, to the 
 profit of a third perfon. 
 
 Legal Subrogation, is that which the law makes in favour 
 of a perfon, who difcharges an antecedent creditor ; in which 
 cafe there is a legal tranflation of all rights of the ancient 
 creditor to the perfon or the new one. 
 
 This the civilians mere ufually call fuccej/ion^ as being wholly 
 the work of the law, and to diftinguiih it frum the conven- 
 tional fubrogation, which they alfo call cejfon. 
 — The word is formed from the Lztm,f<brogatio, of the verb 
 rogare, which, among the ancient Romans, iignified to aik, 
 to interrogate ; whence it was, that they called the laws 
 themfelves rogationes, in regard the people made them, upon 
 being alked by the magiftrates — And as laws made by the 
 people could not be changed without their confent, and with- 
 out being afked a-new ; if they thought good to have the law 
 wholly aboliflied, lex abrogabatur ; if only a part of it were to 
 be abolifhed, lex dcrogabatur ; and if any claufe or amendment 
 were added to it, lex fubrogabatur. 
 
 The new magiftrates were alfo fubrogated in the place of the 
 old ones ; for during the time of the republic, no magiftrate 
 could be, but by confent of the people, nor, of confcquencc, 
 but bjtaw ; fmce whatever the people thought good, was 
 law. — This is what occafioned Salmafius to fay, that fubro- 
 gare and fubflUuere per legem, were reciprocals. 
 SUBSCAPULARS, in anatomy, a mufcle arifing from the 
 bafis and fide of the fcapula ; and, fpreading itfelf under 
 the whole convex, or under fide of it, is inferted by a femi- 
 circular tendon, into the neck of the os humeri, and draws 
 it down to the fide of the trunk.— See Tab. Anat. (Myol.) 
 fig. r. n. 16. 
 
 SUBSCRIPTION, the fignature put at the bottom of a let- 
 ter, writing, or inftrument, 
 
 In church hiftory, we meet with inftances of fubferiptions 
 wrote in the blood of Jefus Chrift. Nicetas, in the life of 
 Ignatius, fpeaking of the fubferiptions made at the council, 
 wherein that patriarch was depofed, fays, they fubferibed, 
 not with common ink, but what ftrikes a man with horror, 
 with a pen dipped in the blood of Chrift. The hiftorian 
 Theophanes, tells us, that pope Theodore mixed the blood 
 of Chrift with the ink, wherein he wrote the depofition of 
 Pyrrhus. 
 
 Subscription, in the Englifh commerce, is ufed for the 
 fharc, or intereft, which particular perfons take in a public 
 ltock, or a trading company, by writing their names, and 
 the fhares they require, in the books or regifter thereof. 
 The French have h'kewife adopted the word fubfeription ; 
 ufing .it m fpeaking of the aaions of their India company. 
 A jubjcrtption differs from an atlion ; in that the firft is pro- 
 
 P f Y c°a Y a " 2dtion be S u "> or an engagement, by making 
 the hrlt payment, to acquit the reft in the time limited j 
 and that the other is the whole action, performed in all its 
 parts. 
 
 Subscription, in the commerce of books, fignifies an 
 tngagement to take a certain number of copies of a book 
 
 print- 
 book ever 
 
 SUB 
 
 going to be printed ; and a reciprocal obligation of the book- 
 Idler or pubhfher, to deliver the faid copies on certain terms. 
 UK uuial conditions of ihcCe fubfirlptimi are, on the part of 
 the bookleller, to afford the books cheaper to a fubferiber 
 than to another, by one third or one fourth of the price ; 
 and on the part of the latter, to advance half the money in 
 hand, and to pay the reft on the delivery of the copies : an 
 agreement equally advantageous to the one and the other ; as 
 the bookleller is hereby furnilhed with money to carry on 
 works, which would otherwife be above his flock ; and the 
 fublcnber, receives, as it were, intereft for his money, by 
 the moderate price the book frauds him in. 
 Sitbfcriptimi had their rife in England, and it is but very 
 lately that they are got into other countries. They were firft 
 let on foot, in the middle of the laft century, for the p 
 ing of Walton's Polyghtt bibles, which is the firft book 
 printed by way of fubferipthn. 
 
 From England, they palled a few years ago into Holland, 
 and they have been fmce introduced into France. F. Mont- 
 faucon's cilkahn of antiquitiis, is the firft book there pub- 
 lished by Jubfciiptions, which were fo very numerous, that 
 great numbers were refufed. The fame method has been 
 iince propofed, for the publication of S. Chryfoftom by the 
 Bcnediaines ; but not with equal fuccefs. 
 A " ' llc other books fmce printed in France by fubjertptien, 
 " c ,™ • Oacier'srr«»y?„ ; ,a, ; of Plutarch's lives ; the Difcriptim 
 
 >fr#fMti,,in&¥.DtaKYsHiflorj. 
 
 In England, they are become exceedingly frequent ; and 
 their frequency has rendered them liable to fome abules, 
 which begin to difcredit them. 
 S U ii S E Q_U E N T, fomething that comes after another, 
 particularly with regard to the order of time. See Pos- 
 terior. 
 
 When two feftivals happen on the fame day, the principal 
 one is celebrated ; and the other transferred to the fubfiqimit 
 day, i. e. to the morrow. 
 
 SUKESQUIALTERATE. See the article Ratio. 
 
 SUBSIDY, Subsidium, inlaw, any aid, tax or tribute 
 granted, by authority of parliament, to the king, on pref- 
 fing occafions of the date ; levied on the fubjeefs, according 
 to their feveral abilities, or the yearly produce of their lands! 
 goods, £sV. 
 
 Such is the land tax, or royal aid, as it is called ; which is 
 ufually at the rate of two, three, or four fhillings in the 
 pound, for lands ; and of two fhillings and eight pence for 
 goods, and perfonal eftate, when of four fhillmgs for lands. 
 J he ancient Saxon kings had no fubfidies collected after the 
 manner of ours; but in lieu thereof, had feveral cuftoms, 
 whereby they levied money or perfonal fervice on the people, 
 for the repairing of cities, caftles, bridges, military expe- 
 ditions, CSV. which they called burgboti, brigboti, birtfan, 
 berigeld, &c. 
 
 But upon the land's becoming opprelTed by the Danes, kinf 
 Ethelred in the year 1007, agreed to pay them yearly iooooA 
 for redemption of peace ; which fum was afterwards increaled 
 to 36000A and at length to 48000/. which was called Dani- 
 gild, and was levied on land j each hide, or plough-land, 
 that of the church only excepted, being celled lid. 
 Hence the tribute came to be called hidagc, a name that af- 
 terwards became common to all taxes %nA fubfidies impofed 
 on lands ; as thofe on cattle were called bornegeld. 
 Both thefe the Normans fometimes called taxes, from the 
 Greek order ; fometimes from their own language. 
 
 tailing! ; and fometimes, according to the cuftom Kond- 
 fea, Jubfidta, and auxilia. See Auxin uiu. 
 After the conqueft, thek fubfidies fecm to have been granted 
 differently from what they now are ; as every ninth lamb 
 every ninth fleece, every ninth fheep, &c. Sometimes the 
 rate was every tenth, and fometimes every fifteenth, 6ft 
 
 f"i J,™ 06 ' the kin S alone > b y his own authority, impofes 
 Jubjidies on his people, at his own difcretion. What Grotius 
 fays, that thofe who pay fubfidiis to other fovereigns, to in- 
 gage them in theit defence againft powerful enemies, by fo 
 acknowledge their own weaknefs, and that fuch 
 
 acknowledgment diminifhes fomewhat of their dignity; muft 
 be underftood of fuch ftates as are too weak to defend them- 
 felves, and who, in refpefl hereof, render themfelves in fome 
 meafure, tributary j not of fuch as fubfifting by their own 
 ftrength, give fubfidiis to their weaker neighbours, to prevent 
 their being over-run by others. 
 
 Such, e. gr. asthe kings of England and France, are with re- 
 gard to Sweden and feveral other princes ; to whom they ge- 
 nerally grzrtt fubfidies in the treaties they conclude with them. 
 In the lift of Englifh duties, or impofitions, are divers kinds 
 of fubfidies : old fubfidy, additional impofition to theold/iii- 
 fidy, new fubfidy, third f'bftdy, two-thirds jubfidy. 
 SUBSTANCE, Substantia, fomething that we conceive 
 tofubfift of itfelf, independantly of any created being, or any 
 particular mode or accident. 
 
 Thus 
 
SUB 
 
 thus a piece of wax is a fubjlance ; becaufe we can conceive 
 it as fublifting of itfclf, and of its own nature, without any 
 dependance on any other created nature, or without any par- 
 ticular mode, form, colour, &c. See Mode. 
 Spinofa maintains, that there is but one only fubjlance in na- 
 ture, whereof all created things are fo many different modi- 
 fications ; and thus he makes the foul of the fame fubjlance 
 with the body. The whole umverfe, according to him, is 
 luitone/w/yW*; which fubjlance, he holds endowed with 
 ,111 infinity of attributes, in the number of which are think- 
 ing and extenfion. All bodies are modifications of this/p- 
 jlance, confidered as extended ; and all (pints modifications 
 of the fame fubjlance, confidered as thinking. 
 Mr. Locke's philofophy of fubjlances, is more orthodox : our 
 ideas oi fubjlances, that great author obferves, are only fuch 
 combinations of fimple ideas, as are taken to reprefent dlf- 
 tinft things, fubfifiing by themfelves ; in which the confuted 
 idea ot fubjlance, is always the chief. Thus the combina- 
 tion of the ideas of a certain figure, with the powers of 
 motion, thought, and reafoning, joined to fubjlance, make 
 the ordinary idea of man ; and thus the mind obferving fe- 
 deral fimple ideas to go conftantly together, which being pre 
 fumed to belong to one thing, or to be united in one fubjea, 
 are called by one name; which we are apt, afterwards, to 
 talk of, and conlider as one fimple idea. See Idea. 
 We imagine thefe fimple ideas do not fubfift by themfelves : 
 but fuppofe fume fubftratum, wherein they fubfift, which we 
 call fubjlance. 
 
 The idea of pure fubjlances, is nothing but the fuppofed, yet 
 unknown fupport of ehofe qualities which are capable of pro- 
 ducing fimple ideas in us. 
 
 The ideas of particular fubjlance; arc compofed out of this 
 obfeure and general idea of fubjlance, together with fuch 
 combinations of fimple ideas, as are obferved to exift toge- 
 ther, and are fuppofed to flow from the internal conftitution, 
 and unknown cffcncc of that fubjlance. 
 
 Thus weeome by the ideas of man, horfe, gold, iffc. Thus 
 the fenfiblc qualities of iron, or a diamond, make the com- 
 plex idea of thofe fub/lanccs, whichafmith, or a jeweller, 
 commonly knows better than a philofopher. 
 The fame happens concerning the operations of the mind, 
 viz. thinking, reafoning, 6rV. which we concluding not to 
 fubfift by themfelves, nor apprehending how they can belong 
 to body, or be produced by it, we think them the aftions 
 of fonie ovher fubjlance, which we call fpirit j of whofe>i- 
 jlanceox nature we have as clear a notion, as of that of body ; 
 the one being but the fuppofed fubftratum of the fimple ideas 
 we have from without ;- as the other of thofe operations^ 
 which we experiment in ourfelvcs within : fo that the idea of 
 corporeal fubjlance in matter, is as remote from our concep- 
 tions, as that of fpiritual fubjlance. 
 
 Hence we may conclude, that he has the moft perfeft idea of 
 any particular fubjlance, who has colleaed moft of thofe fimple 
 ideas which exift in it ; among which, we are to reckon its 
 adtive powers and paffive capacities, though not ftri£tly fim- 
 ple ideas- 
 
 Sub/lances are generally diftinguifhed by fecondary qualities ; 
 for our fenfes fail us in the dif'covcry of primary ones, as the 
 bulk, figure, texture, tsc. of the minute parts of bodies, on 
 which their real conftitutions and differences depend. And 
 fecondary qualities are nothing but powers, with relation to 
 our fenfes. 
 
 The ideas that make our complex ones of corporeal fub- 
 jlance^ are 'of three forts'. Firft, the ideas of primary qua- 
 lities of things, which are difcovcred by our fenfes ; fuch as 
 bulk, figure, motion, W-e. Secondly, the fenfible fecondary 
 qualities, which are nothing but powers to produce feveral 
 ideas in us, by our fenfes. Thirdly, the aptnefs we confider 
 in any fubjlance, to caufe or receive fuch alterations in its 
 primary qua ! ities,as that the fubjlance fo altered, fhould pro- 
 duce in us different ideas from what it did before. 
 Befides the complex ideas we have of material fubjlances, by 
 the fimple ideas taken from the operations of our own minds, 
 which we experiment in ourfelves, as thinking, underftand- 
 ing, willing, knowing, &c. co-cxifting in the fame fubjlance ; 
 we are able to frame the complex idea of a fpirit : and this 
 idea of an immaterial fubjlance, is as clear, as that we have 
 of a material one. 
 
 By joining thefe with fubjlance, of which we have nodiftina 
 idea, we have the idea of fpirit: and by putting together the 
 ideas of coherent folid parts, and a power of being moved, 
 joined with fubjlance, of which likewife we have no pofitive 
 idea, we have the idea matter. 
 
 Further, there are other ideas of fubjlances, which may be 
 called cslletlive, which are made up of any particular fub- 
 jlances, confidered as united into one idea ; as a troop, ar- 
 my, Effe. which the mind does by its power of compofition. 
 Thefe collective ideas, are but the artificial draughts of the 
 mind, bringing things remote, and independant, into one 
 view, the better to contemplate and difcourfe of them united 
 into one conception, and fignified by one name. For there 
 are no things fo remote, which the mind cannot, by this 
 
 SUB 
 
 art of compofition, bring into one idea ; as is vifjble in that 
 fignified by the name umverfe. 
 
 fcuch is the generally received doarinc of fubjlance : but Ep. 
 Berkelev, in his Principles of human knowledge, and Mr. Col- 
 lier, in' his Clavis Univerfalis, have nude great refinement 
 the ron. 
 
 SUBSTANTIAL, or Substancial, in the fchools, fome- 
 thing belonging to the nature of fubjlance. 
 Jt is generally difputed, whether or no there be fuch things as 
 fubjlantial forms ? i. e. forms independant of all matter; or 
 forms that are fubftanccs themfelves. 
 Substantial is alio ufed in the fame fenfe with ejfential ; 
 in oppoiition to accidental : in which relation it gives room 
 for abundance of diftinguo's. 
 
 TBSTANTIVE, in grammar, is a quality afcribed to a 
 noun of name, when the objea it denotes is confidered fim- 
 ply, and in itfelf, without any regard to its qualities. 
 When the objea is confidered, as clothed with certain quali- 
 ties, the noun isfaid to be adjeftive. 
 
 For a more palpable criterion ; all nouns, to which one can- 
 not add the word thing, are fubjlantives ; and all thofe to 
 which thing may be added, are adjeaives. 
 F. Buffier obferves, it is a common miftakein grammarians, 
 to define a noun jubjiantive, to be that which denotes a fub- 
 ftance.— The miftake arifes hence, that finding all fubftanccs 
 exprefled by fubjlantives, they have called all kinds of nouns 
 fubjlantives. But it does not follow, that all nouns detign 
 fubftanccs j witnefs the nouns accident, lightnejs, &c. which 
 are far from expreffing fubftanccs, and yet are true nouns 
 fubjlantives. — Perhaps grammarians mean nothing here by 
 fubjlance, but the fubjedt fpoke of : if fo, the definition is 
 not nmils. 
 
 "Houm fubjlantives fometimes become adjeaives ; and nouns 
 adJeftrvW alfo fometimes become fubjlantives. in ettcdt, the 
 nature of the adjedtive being to exprefs the quality of an ob- 
 ject ; if that quality be the objedt itfelf fpoke of, then, on 
 the loot of our definition, it becomes a jubjiantive. — It, 1 lay, 
 a goad prince, the word good is apparently an adjeaive, be- 
 caufe it reprefents the prince as clothed with the quality ol 
 goodnefs. But if 1 fay, the good ought to be preferred to 
 the bad ; it is evident, good is the fiihjca fpoke of, and, con- 
 fequently, it is a jubjiantive. Indeed, cuftom does not allow us 
 to ufe all adjeaives indifferently, as fubjlantives; nor all fub- 
 jlantives, as adjedlivcs. The laws obferved herein are as loi- 
 low: 
 
 All nouns either fignify an individual, as Socrates, Alexan- 
 der, iSc. orafpecics; as man, horfe, &c. or an eflential 
 quality, as rational, material, &fc. or an accidental one, as 
 black, white, good, fair, &c. or a dignity, office, art, &c. 
 asking, prefiderit, philofopher, &c. 
 
 Thus have we four kinds of nouns ; whereof the firft is very 
 rarely taken adjeaively; for as they fignify individuals or 
 particular beings, they can fcarce be applied to any thing 
 but the thing they properly fignify : yet we have fometimes 
 known the name ofCato taken adjcaivcly; as," this is to be 
 " Cato, indeed." Nor does Malherbc fcrupleto fay in French 
 " plus Mars que le Mars de la Thrace." Add that proper 
 names are fometimes converted into the name of dignities, 
 tift-. as Cxlar, Auguftus, ts'c. In which cafe, they may be 
 confidered, in the fame light, as nouns of tiie fourth kind. 
 — Nouns of the fecond kind, are alfo fometimes taken ad- 
 jedtively, as " he is much a man. " ts'c. The third kind 
 are adjectives of themfelves. For the fourth kind, all gram- 
 marians rank them among fubjlantives ; excepting F. Buffier, 
 who will have them to be adjeaives ; or, to ule his own 
 term, modificatives. Be that as it will, they are frequently 
 ufed adjedtively, " he is more a king, and more a philofo- 
 " pher, than any of his predecefiors." 
 
 Now for adjediives taken fubjlantively, i° Participles paffive, 
 are very rarely thus taken ; though we fometimes fay, '* the 
 « loved are lefs happy than the lovers ; the taught have the 
 « advantage of the untaught : the befieged made a falley," 
 cjfe. And, 2° Participles aaive are taken ftill more rarely 
 for fubjlantives. We fcarce ever, e. gr. fay " the loving, 
 " the reading ;" but " the lover, the reader :" yet we fay 
 « the ftudent, the proteftant, the tenant, the appellant, the 
 « opponent," &c, — 3° For nouns adjeaives, thofe applied 
 to men are not only ufed fubjlantively, but are even become 
 fubjlantives by ufe; whether they be fuch as regard religion; 
 as" chriftian, pagan, mahometan," dsV. or opinion; as 
 " ftoic, peripatetic, cartefian," fifr. or country ; as" the 
 " Englifh, French, Italians:" or temperament ; as, "the 
 « melancholic, phlegmatic, choleric," C5V. Under thefame 
 rule, are likewife comprehended abundance of adjectives, 
 fignifying a number of people agreeing in fomc common at- 
 tribute ; as, " the learned, the great, the devout, the 
 " brave, the diilblute," csV. But ufe is here to be regard- 
 ed ; for we do not fay " the elegant," as we fay " the 
 " learned; but " elegant writers," &c k is cuftom, and 
 the ear alone, that are to decide about thefe differences. 
 Again, adjectives taken fubjlantively, for other things befide 
 men, are cither fo ufed, to fignify a number or let of things 
 
 that 
 
SUB 
 
 SUB 
 
 that have Come common quality ; or to exprefs an ahftrafl 
 quality. In both which, as in thofeof men, there are fome 
 authorized by cuftom, and others formed every day on their 
 model. 
 
 With regard to which laft, ufe, again, and the ear, are to 
 decide. Here all the adjectives of colour;, are ufed fubjlan- 
 tively ; as " the white, black, green," tsV. Some of thofe 
 of qualities ; as " the cold," &c. thofe of time ; as " the 
 " paft, prefent, future:" and many of other matters ; as 
 te the agreeable, the fublime, the principal," -{iff. Nor is it 
 only in the pofitive, but alfo in the comparative and fupcr- 
 lative degrees, that adjectives are ufed fnhjlaniively ; as l * the 
 ** better of the two : the belt of it," dsV. 
 
 Substantive verb. See the article Verb. 
 
 SUBSTITUTE*, Substitutus, a perfon appointed to 
 officiate for another, in cafe of abfence, or other legal im- 
 pediment. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, fab, under, and jlatuo, 
 I appoint, eitabliih. 
 In the French law, the procureurs, or proctors, are oblig- 
 ed to name two of their brethren for fubjlitutes, whole 
 names are wrote after theirs in the lift ; to receive lignifka- 
 tions and fummons's made in their abfence. 
 Substitute, in medicine, denotes a drug, or remedy that 
 may be ufed in lieu of another ; or that fupplics the place of 
 another of like virtue, which is not to be had : called alfo 
 fucadantum. 
 
 The root of the great centaury, and fometimes rhaponti- 
 cum, have been ufed as fubjlttntes to rhubarb. 
 SUBSTITUTION, in grammar, the ufing of one word 
 for another ; or one mode, ftate, perfon or number of a 
 word for another. — This the grammarians otherwife call 
 fyllepfis. 
 
 Substitution, in the civil law, a difpofition of a tefta- 
 tor, whereby he fubftitutes one heir to another, who has 
 only the ufufruit, and not the property of the thing left 
 him. 
 
 Sulfliiution is a kind of fiduciary inheritance, called alfo fidei 
 commijfiO) in regard the immediate inheritor has only the ufe 
 or produce of the thing ; the body thereof being fubftituted 
 and appropriated to certain perfons, who are likewife to have 
 the ufufruit in their turns, but are never to have the pro- 
 
 i* crt y- . ... 
 
 In fome countries, fubjlitution is perpetual ; in France, it 
 only holds to the fourth generation. — Snbjlitution anfwers to 
 remainder, in common law. 
 
 Among the Romans, there were abundance of thefe fidu- 
 ciary hctrs; who enjoved inheritances, till they returned 
 them into the hands of the right heir : and the reafon why 
 they did not likewife rcftore the fruits, or that the fruits 
 were not deemed to make a part of the inheritance, but only 
 of the thing, was, that the fiduciary or truftec was obliged 
 to run the rifk, and to ftand the charge of the culture of the 
 land. 
 
 Substitution, in algebra, &c. is the putting in the room 
 of any quantity in an equation, fome other quantity, which 
 is equal to it, but exprciTcd after another manner. 
 
 SUBSTRACTION, or Subtraction, in arithmetic, the 
 fecond rule, or rather operation, in arithmetic ; whereby 
 we deduct a Icls number from a greater, to learn theprecife 
 difference : 
 
 Or, more juftly , fubflration is the finding a certain number 
 from two homogeneous ones given ; which, with one of the 
 given numbers, is equal to the other. 
 The doctrine of fubflratlion is reducible to what follows : 
 To Substract a lefs number from a greater. — i Q . Write the 
 lefs number under the greater, in fuch manner, as that ho- 
 mogeneous figures anfwer to homogeneous, e. unites to 
 unites, tens to tens, &c. as directed under Addition. 
 2°. Under the two numbers, draw a line. 3°. Subflracl, feve- 
 rally, the unites from unites, tens from tens, hundreds from 
 hundreds ; beginning at the right-hand, and proceeding to 
 the left ; and write the feveral remainders in their corre- 
 fpondent places, under the line. 4 0 . If a greater figure come 
 to be fubjiracled from a lefs ; borrow an unite from the next 
 left-hand place ; this is equivalent to 10, and added to the 
 lefs number, the fubflratlion is to be made from the fum : or 
 if a cypher chance to be in the next left-hand place, borrow 
 the unite from the next further place. 
 
 By thefe rules, any number may be fubflraSicd out of ano- 
 ther greater. For example ; 
 
 If it be reqairedj ■from 9800403459 
 To fubjlraU 4743865263 
 
 The remainder will be found 5056538196 
 For, beginning with the right-hand figure, and taking 3 
 from 9, there remains 6 unites, to be wrote underneath the 
 line , going then to the next place, 6 I find, cannot be ta- 
 ken from 5 ; wherefore, from the place of hundreds 4, I 
 borrow 1, which is equivalent to 10, in the place of tens ; 
 and from the fum of this 10 and 5,1/1'z. 15, fubflra£ting 6, 
 1 find 9 tens remaining, to be put down under the line. 
 Proceeding to the place of hundreds, % with the 1 borrowed 
 
 Vol. II. N°. 147. 
 
 at the laft, make 3, which fubflracled from 4, leave t; 
 Again, 5 in the place of thoufands, cannot be fubjiracled 
 from 3 ; for which reafon, taking 1 from 4, in the place ot 
 hundreds of thoufands, into the empty place of tens of 
 thoufands, the cypher is converted into 10 tens of thoufands, 
 whence one 10 being borrowed, and added to the 3, and 
 from the fum 13 thuufand, 5 thoufand being iubitracted, we 
 fhall have 8 thoufand to enter under the line : then fubftract- 
 ing 6 tens of thoufands from 9, there remain 3. Coming 
 now to take 8 from 4 ; from the 8 further on the left, I 
 borrow 1, by means whereof, the two cyphers will be turn- 
 ed each into 9. And after the like manner is the reft of the 
 fubflraclion cafily performed. 
 
 If heterogeneous numbers be to be fubftracted frorh each 
 oilier ; the unites borrowed are not to be equal to ten ; but 
 to fo many as there go of unites of the lefs kind, to con- 
 ftitute an unite of the greater : for example ; 
 
 /. s, d. 
 
 45 166 
 
 v i 9 9 ! , ,r 
 
 17 16 9 
 
 For fincc g pence cannot be fubftracted from 6 pence ; of the 
 1 6 Ihiliings, one is converted into 1 2 pence ; by which means, 
 for 6 we have 18 pence; whence 9 being fubftracted, there 
 remain 9. In like manner, as 19 {hillings cannot be fub- 
 tradted from the remaining 15 ; one of the 45 pounds is 
 converted into 20 millings, from which, added to the 15, 
 19 being fubtracted, the remainder is 16 fhillings. Laftly, 
 27 pounds fubtracted from 44 pounds, there remains 17. 
 If a greater number be required to be fubtracted from a lefs, 
 it is evident the thing is impolliblc. — The lefs number, there- 
 fore, in that cafe, is to be fubtracted from the greater ; and 
 the defect to be noted by the negative character. E. gr. If I 
 am required to pay 8 pounds, and am only mafter of 3 ; 
 when the 3 are paid , there will ftill remain 5 behind ; 
 which are to be noted, — 5. 
 Subjlraftisn is to be proved, by adding the remainder to the 
 fubtrahend, or number to be fubftracted : for if the fum be 
 equal to the number whence the other is to be fubftractedj 
 the fubflraclion is juftly performed. — For example ; 
 
 /. s. d. 
 
 9800403459 156 11 2i 
 
 4743865263 fubtrahend 21 17 
 
 fubtrahend 
 
 505653S196 remainder 134 14 cj 
 
 9800403459 156 II 3 i 
 
 Suestraction, in algebra, is performed by connecting the 
 quantities with ali the figns of the fubtrahend changed ; and 
 at the fame time uniting fuch as may be united ; as is done 
 in addition. See Algebra, Quantity, Charac- 
 ter, and Addition. 
 
 Thus 4- j a fubftradted from -J- 9 ff, makes -f- 9 a — 7 a , 
 or 2 <7, 
 
 In the fubflraclion of compound algebraic quantities ; the 1 
 characters of the fubtrahend, areto be changed into the con- 
 trary ones, viz. 4- into — ; and — . into 4-. See Quan- 
 tity. 
 
 To Substract fpecious numbers, or quantities from one ano- 
 ther ; both thofe affecled with the fame, and thofe with con- 
 trary characlcrs — 1°. If the quantities defigncd by the fame 
 letter have the fame figns ; and the lefs to be fubftraited from 
 the greater ; the fubflraclion is performed as m common a- 
 rithmetic, e. gr. 
 
 S & + 4<?— / =5= 5A + 4P- — £ 
 
 2 ^ -M-/^2A + I />- - i 
 
 3 i 3 d — o 3 A + 3£- ° 
 
 1". If a greater quantity be to be fubiiractcd out of a lefs ; 
 the lefs muft be fubftracted out of the greater, and to the 
 remainder muft be prefixed the fign — , if the quantities be 
 affiled with the fign + j or theTign -j-, if they be afteaed 
 with — . 
 
 1 6 a 4- 2 b — 9 d = 1 6 lib . -f- %fo. — 9 d. 
 *9 c + 3 ^ — 11 & *9 +3 " — 11 
 
 — IQ — lA-{-2 —3 ■ — I + 2 
 3 0 . If the quantifies have different figns ; the fuhjlratlion is 
 converted into addition, and to the aggregare is prefixed the 
 fign of the quantity, whence the fubflracl'ton is to be made : 
 for example ; 
 
 . 8« — 5^ + 9^ =8/^.-5 + 9^. 
 6«— 8f — yd =6 —8 — 7 
 
 za + y 4- ibd =llib. -\- 3 4- 16* 
 4 0 . If the quantities be exprelfcd in different letters, they 
 muft be connected ; only the charaaers of the fubtrahend 
 muft be changed into the contrary ones : for example i 
 
 a-{-b — c a-\-d 
 
 d — §4ff c — 1 — g 
 
 m + b-c-d+e—f 
 11 Oo 
 
 < + f4-j 
 
 5ub* 
 
S U B 
 
 sue 
 
 Subst p. act ion o/Js£aritusisj 1 ^ Logarithm. 
 Su ss t ft A CTloN of vulvar j 'factions, f See <- FRACTIONS. 
 Substractio.n ofdecitntiht j L Decimals. 
 
 SLITS [ RUCi'IUN, i/i building, denotes underpinning, 
 
 ground-falling, i$r. bce.^UNDA^-iONw.^ rlWrW 
 SuB$TY£a&*'&'»^ in dialling, a right line, whereon the 
 
 ftyle or gnomon of a dial is erected. 
 
 In polar, horizontal, meridional, and northern dials, the fub- 
 Jijlar line is the meridional line, or line of 12 a clock ; or 
 the inteffe&qh of the plane, whereon the dial is delineated, 
 with that of the meridian. 
 
 In tv.fterly and weftcrly dials, the fuljlylar line, is the line 
 of u a clock ; or the intersection of the plane, whereon the 
 dial is del in fated, with the prime vertical. 
 
 ! '.'i."-. E PERPARTIENS, J See } Ratio. 
 
 StfUTANOKNT of a curve, the line that determines the 
 irtceTfe&ion bf a tangent wiili the axis ; or, that determines 
 the point wherein the tangent cuts the axis, prolonged. 
 Thuf, in the curve AM, fft. (Tab. Anal. fig. 10.) the line 
 TP intercepted between the femiordinate P M, and the tan- 
 gent TM, is the fubtangenf. And PR is to PM, as PM 
 tu?Tj and PM toPT, as MR to TM. 
 It is a rule in all equations, that if the value of the fubtangent 
 comes out pofitiye, the point of interjection of the tangent 
 r.i-J axis, fails on that fide of the ordinate, where the vertex 
 of the curve lies : as in the parabola and paraboloides. 
 If it come out negative, the point of interferon will fall on 
 the contrary fide of the ordiiute, in reSpcct of the vertex or 
 beginning of the abScifle : as in the hyperbola, and hyper- 
 bohforni figures. 
 
 And universally, in all paraboliform, and hyperboliform 
 figures, the fubiangtni is equal to the exponent of the power 
 cA tneominate, multiplied into the abfeifs. 
 Thus in the common parabola, whole property is^-v — yy. 
 'Thifiihtarigcnt is in length, equal to the abfeifs multiplied 
 By 1, the exponent of the power of y y, the Square of the 
 ortluiatei that is, it q equal to twice the abfeifs i and by the 
 ibi i*!?r rule for paraboliform figures, it muff be taken above 
 the ordinate, i/i the axis produced. 
 
 1 bus, alio, in one of the cubical paraboloids, where 
 p x x --- v y y ; the length of the fuotattgtnt will be * of the 
 
 abfeifs. 
 
 In the parabola, the fubtangent PTis double the abfeifs AP; 
 and the Subnormal is PR fubduple of the parameter. 
 SUBTENSE*, in geometry, a right line oppofite to an an- 
 gle, and prcfumed to be drawn between the two extremities 
 of the arch which mesfurcs that angle. 
 * The word is formed from the LatiB, fub, under, and undo, I 
 itrercli. 
 
 The fubtcrfe of the angle coincides with the chord of the 
 arch. 
 
 In every rectangle triangle, the fquare of the fuhtcnfe of the 
 right angle, is equal to the fquartl of the fubttrifts of both 
 the other angles ; by the 47th prop', of Euclid. This won- 
 derful property of that triangle, was firft difcovered by Py- 
 tfeagoras ; whoi in the tranfpo'rt of joy hereby occafioned, 
 faCrtfictfd a hecatomb. 
 81 1 !> r-RRANEOUS, or Subterranean, Something un- 
 der-ground. 
 
 Nat ;im lifts talk much of fulterranean fire*, as the caufc of 
 volcano's, and fuburrantdn winds, as the caufe of earth- 
 ' cuakes. 
 
 Mr. Boyle gives us an inffahcej from the diffcrtation de ad- 
 miratith Hungar. aquis, of a huge fubterraneous oak dug out 
 ol a fait mine in Tranfylvania, lb hard, that it could not 
 eafily be wrought on by iron tools ; which yet, being ex- 
 pofed to the air out of the mine, became fo rotten, that in 
 four days it was eafy to be broken and crumbled between 
 the fiiigcrs. Mr. Dcrham adds, that the trees turned out 
 of the earth, by the breaches at Weft Thurrock and Dagen- 
 hani, though probably no other than alder, and interred 
 many ages agn, in a rotten, oozy mould, were fo exceeding- 
 ly tough, hard, and found, at firft, that he could make but 
 little imprefflonon them with the Strokes of an ax; yet be- 
 ing expofed to the air and water, they alfo foon became fo 
 rotten, as to be crumbled between the fingers. 
 SUBTILE, in phyfici, intimates a thing exceedingly Small, 
 fine, and delicate : Such as the animal Spirits, theeffluviaof 
 odorous bodies, csV. are fuppofed to be. 
 One kind of matter is only more fitbtile than another, in that 
 being divided into fmaller parts, and tbofe, too, more agi- 
 tated ; on the one fund, it inakes lefs refinance to other bo- 
 dies ; and on the other, inSmuates it Self more eafily into their 
 pores. 
 
 The CarteSians fuppofe a fufrilt matter for their firft element. 
 
 See Cartesian and Element. 
 
 Hits they lay down as fo exceedingly fine, that it penetrates 
 5 
 
 the minute pores of g'a-Ss* and other Solid bodies; and from 
 this they account for moft of the phenomena of nature. 
 Yet they do not pretend to prove the cxiftcncc of tins mat- 
 ter, otherwife than by confequence. 
 
 SU UTILIZATION, Subtilisatio, the act of Subtilizing, 
 or rendering any thing Smaller and Subtiler ; particularly, 
 the diflpj'tfjng or changing a mixt body into a pure liquor, 
 or a fine powder, by Separating the grofi'er parts therefrom. 
 
 oUB I RIPLE ratio, is when one number or quantity is con- 
 tained in another three times. 
 
 Thus, 2 is (aid to be fubtripie of 6 ; as 6 is triple of 2. 
 SUBURliiCARY *, Sujjursicarius, an epithet given to 
 thole provinces of Italy, C5"c. which compofed the ancient 
 dioccfe, or patriarchate oS Rome. 
 
 * The term is formed fom the Latin, fub, under, and urhi 
 city.— They were alio Sometimes called urbicary provinces. 
 Authors ufudlly reckon ten of thefe fuburbicary provinces- 
 whereof Italy, from the Po to the heel made Seven, and the 
 ifles of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corlica, the other three. 
 Yet Salmafiui will have the fuburbicary provinces confined to 
 thofe lour in the neighbourhood of Rome, to which the 
 authority of the prsefect of Rome extended ; and thefe he 
 
 a " 
 
 CESE. 
 
 makes the limits of the dioccfe oS ancient Rome. See Dio- 
 
 F. Sirmond takes the other extreme, and comprehends all 
 the weft under the name of fuburbicary provinces. — Rufinui, 
 who lived in the age oS the council of Nice, explains tht 
 power afcribed to the pope, in the Sixth canon of that coun- 
 cil, hy Saying, that he had the care and Superintendance of 
 the fuburbjeary provinces. Hence the different Sentiments 
 of authors, with regard to the fuburbicary provinces ; Some 
 only confidering the pope as bilhop of Rome; others, as 
 patriarch of the weft, tsc. 
 SUCCEDANEUM *, in pharmacy, a remedy Subftituted in 
 the place of another firft prefcribed, when the ingredients are 
 wanting, neceffajty for the compofition of that other. 
 
 * The word U formed from the Latin fucctdo, to Succeed, to 
 come after. 
 
 Subjiitutt and fucccdaneum, arc of equal import ; unlefs, with 
 Some authors, we cbufe to ufe Substitute, where a Simple of 
 like virtue is put for another ; and fucccdaneum, wh.L-re a 
 compound is ufed with the Same intention for another com- 
 pound. 
 
 SUCCENTURIATI rents, in anatomy. See Rehis facen- 
 turiati. 
 
 SUCCENTURIATION, the aa oS Subftituting. See Sub- 
 stitution. 
 
 SUCCENTURIATUS, in anatomy, a mufcle, called alfo 
 pyramidalis. See Pyramidalis. 
 
 SUCCESSION, Successio, in philofophy, an idea which 
 we get by reflecting on that train of ideas conftantly follow- 
 ing one another In our minds when awake. 
 Tbediftance between any parts of this fucceffion, is what v/e 
 call duration. When fucceffion of ideas ceafes, we have 
 no perception of time, or of the duration thereof ; but the 
 moment we fall afleep, and that wherein we awake, Seem 
 connected. 
 
 They, who think we get the idea of fucceffion from our ob- 
 servation of motion by our fenfes, will come into Mr. Locke's 
 Sentiment, above, when they confider that motion produces 
 an idea of fucceffion no otherwiSe, than by producing a con- 
 tinued train oS dirtinguifhable ideas. 
 
 A man that looks on a body moving, perceives no motion, 
 unleSs that motion produces a conftant train offucceiTive ideas. 
 But where-ever a man is, though all things be at reft about 
 him, if he thinks, he will be confeious of fucceffion. 
 Succession, in aftronomy. The Succession of the figns, 
 is the order wherein they follow each other, and according 
 to which, the fun enters, Succcflively, into one, then intt# 
 another, called, alfo, confequentia. 
 
 This order is exprefled in the two following technical verfes : 
 Sunt Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, 
 Libraque, Scorpius, Arcitenem, Caper, Amphora, Pifces. 
 When a planet is direct, it is Said to go according to the or- 
 der and fucceffion of tht figns, or in confequentia ; that is, 
 from Aries to Taurus, &c. When retrograde, it is Said to 
 go contrary to the fucceffmi of the figns, or in anttccdeniia ; 
 viz. from Gemini to Taurus, then to Ariel, fcfV. 
 Succession, in the civil law, implies a right to the whole 
 effects left by a defunct. 
 
 Of this there are Several kinds, ab-inteflate, intejiatt, Sec. 
 Succession ab-intefiatt, is that which a perfon hasa right to 
 by being next of kin, which is, what we call, being next 
 heir at law. 
 
 Teflamentary Succession, is that which a perSon comes toby 
 virtue of a will. 
 
 Succession in tht dirtit Unt, is that coming from afcen- 
 dents or defcendents. 
 
 Collateral 
 
sue :• • 
 
 Vjflaierai Succ'essics, is that coming by uncles, aunts, or 
 other collaterals. 
 
 ■Ajacent, or etba»4oned Succe SsfoVi is a burthenfome or vex- 
 atious one, which no body will accept 'of. 
 There is no real fucajfwn in benefices ; for here, nobody in- 
 herits. 
 
 in effects that cannot be divided, as kingdoms, fef>; the fuc- 
 teffion fails on a finite head ; which is ufually the eldcft fori 
 or the deceafed, as being fuppefid the mdivifible rcprefenta- 
 tive of his father. 
 
 in effects that are divided, all the children reprefent their 
 father. Jt was on this principle, M. Courtin obferves, that 
 each of the fons of Jacob had his mare affigned him in the 
 Land of Promife. Jt is true, Manafleh and Ephraim, the 
 two fons of Jofcph, had likewife their fhares ; but this was 
 becaufe a double portion had been allotted their father, 
 wherein he was treated as elder brother, in confederation of 
 the great fervices he had done his father and brethren. 
 
 SUCCESSIVE nil ion. See the article Action. 
 
 SUCCESSOR, a perfon who holds the place which another 
 held before him; whether he arrived at it by eleftion, col- 
 lation, inheritance, or otherwife. 
 
 Our hiftorians tell us, that queen Elizabeth could never bear 
 to hear of a fuccejfor. The king of the Romans is preemp- 
 tive fuccejfor to the empire. 
 
 The canonifts fay, a coadjutor is a necefiary fuccejfor to a 
 prelature ; a refigiitfe to the rcfignant. 
 
 Civilians fay, a titular ufufructuary can do nothing to the 
 prejudice of his fue/jfor. 
 
 SUCC'INUM, in pharmacy, karahe, or amber \ a bituminous 
 juice, which from a flu or grows hard and brittle. 
 The whiten 1 , and molt tranfparent, are accounted befl; : it is 
 of no great ufe in medicine, per fe, as its texture Icems too 
 compact to open and yield to the natural concoctions ; though 
 fome have a great opinion of it, as a balfamic, and give it 
 in gonorrhoea's particularly. — Hut it is certain, that what 
 pharmacy extorts from it, is of great efficacy ; efpecially in 
 nervous cafes. Sec Supplement, article SucciNUM. 
 
 SUCCfSA, a medicinal alcxiphannic herb ; called alfo morfttl 
 diaboli, or the devil's bit. 
 
 It is a powerful fudorific, infomuch that Sir Theodore 
 Mayernc obferves, in the PbiTofipbical Tranfafiions, laying a 
 perfon fick of a plague, or other malignant fever, on a bed 
 thereof, moderately hot, he fhall fweat till they take him 
 off; and much more, if he drink of the decoction or juice 
 of the fame herb. But withal thefe fuppofed virtues the fuc- 
 cifa is now little ufed. 
 
 SUCCOTR IN E aloes. See the article Aloes. 
 
 SUCCUJ3US, or St/ccirBA, a term ufed by fome viffonary 
 writers, to fignify a daemon, or fpirit, whoaflumcs the ftiape 
 of a woman, and, as fuch, lies with a man. 
 Some authors ufe incubus and fuccubus, indifcriminately ; but 
 they ought to be dillinguifhed ; incubus being only properly 
 ufed, where the daemon is fuppofed to be in form of a man, 
 and, as fuch, lies with a woman. 
 
 SUCCULA, in mechanics, a bare axis, or cylinder, with 
 ftaves in it to move it round ; buL without any tympanum, 
 or peritrochiuni. 
 
 SUCCUS panaeaticusy \ » SPan'creatic/'u/w. 
 
 Succus xcrvsfus, J Scc ZNervous juice. 
 
 SUCKERS, off-feis, in agriculture, and gardening, young 
 ftioots proceeding from the root of a tree j being of the fame 
 kind with the tree from which they (prihg : for that fuch as 
 grow from trees raifed by grafting or inoculation, follow the 
 nature of the flock. 
 
 They fometimes fpring forth near the body of the mother- 
 plant ; but other fuckers at a greater diftance from it are bet- 
 ter : yet the former removed when there is lcaft fap in the 
 top, and preferving what fibrous roots arc upon them, often 
 profper. 
 
 When they are taken up, the ground is to be well opened, 
 and if they grow from the body of the tree, or great roots, 
 they muft be cut off" elofe to the Item, and fet prefcntly. 
 See Stock. 
 
 It forwards much the fpringing out of fuckers, to bare the 
 roots of trees, and flip them in fome places. 
 
 SUCKING pump. Seethe article Pump. 
 
 SUCTION, Suctio, the ait of fucking, or of drawing up 
 a fluid, as air, water, or the like, by the mouth and lungs. , 
 Air is fucked in at the mouth, by the mufcles of the thorax 
 and abdomen diftending the cavity of the lungs and abdo- , 
 men, by which means the air included therein is ratified, 
 and ceaiei to be a counterbalance to the external air, which 
 of coniequence, is driven in bv the preflure of the itmofphcrfl 
 through the mouth and noftri'ls. 
 
 Air is fucked through a pipe, in the fame manner as witii 
 the naked mouth : it being here all one as if the mouth were 
 attended the length of the pipe. 
 
 The faction of heavier liquors is performed after the fame 
 manner, t, gr. in lying prone to drink out of a foring, &c. 
 the lip* are applied clofc to the furface of the water, lb as to 
 
 S V D 
 
 (frtvint any pafTage of the air between them; then the cavity 
 of the ibdomen, fee. being diftended as before, the preflure 
 of the air incumbent on the furface of the water without the 
 circumference of the mouth, prevailing over: that upon the 
 water within the fame, the fluid is raifed, front the fame 
 principle as water in a pump. 
 
 In fucking a heavy liquor, as water, through a pipe, the 
 longer the pipe is, the greater difficulty is found in the luclion ; 
 and the bignefs or diameter of the pipe, makes a further al- 
 teration therein. The reafon of this arifes from that great 
 principle in hydroftatics, that fluids prefs in the compound 
 ratio of the bafes and perpendicular altitudes. 
 From what we have (aid, it evidently enough appears, that 
 what we call fuclio::, is not performed by any active faculty 
 in the mouth, lungs, &c. but is performed bv the mere im- 
 pulfe and preflure of the atmofphcre. 
 
 A very curious and intelligent perfon diftinguifhes two dif- 
 ferent forts offllfltori BcrfofnT*d after two quite different man- 
 ners ; a diftinclion which however hitherto overlooked by au- 
 thors, fecms abfolutely necefiary in order, I think, to give a 
 juft account of the nature of this phenomenon. 
 Suction, then, according to him, is performed either, i°, By 
 the dilatation of the thorax; or, 2°, By that of the cavity 
 of the mouth. 
 
 In the former cafe the lungs are kept continually diftended ; 
 for if the breath be let go, ever fo little, the liquor in the 
 tube will begin to fubfide. 
 
 On the contrary, when fuclion is performed byinlargin» tile 
 cavity of the mouth, we may fuck with our utmoft force, 
 and yet breathe freely through the noftrils at the fame time. 
 This is the true and proper fu'Stion ; the other ought rather 
 to be called flipping, than lucking through a tube. 
 Note, The cavity of the mouth is inlarged by being a little 
 opened, while the lips are clofc ihut, the tongue being at the 
 fame time contracted, and drawn backwards towards the 
 throat. 
 
 SUCULA, in mechanics. See the articlcSuccuLA. 
 SUDAMINA, little heat-pimples in the fkin.like millctgrains, 
 frequent in youth; efpecially thole of a hot temperament, 
 and that ufe much exercife. 
 SUDA 1 ORY, Sudatorium, a name given by the anci- 
 ent Romans to their hot or fweating rooms ; fometimes alfo 
 called Ittconica. 
 
 The fujatory was a fpecies of their hypocaufta or floves. 
 SUDOR, in medicine. See the article Sweat. 
 Sudor yhglicanus, the EngUjli fwrat, 01 fuicating ficincp ; is 
 the name of an epidemic difeafe, firfl perceived in England, 
 m 1485. It was properly, a fort of plague ; thus called, be- 
 caufe attended with an extraordinary kind of fwcat. It made 
 its return four times in the fpace of hxty-hx years, viz. in 
 1506, 1517, 1528, and 1551. 
 
 It began with a fweat, which never ended, but either with 
 the death of the patient, or his recovery. If he furvived 
 twenty-four hours he was fafe. Few people efcaped of it at 
 firft; too much care, and too little, weie found equally dc- 
 ftruftive. H " 
 
 The patient was to continue without ftirring, either in his 
 bed, or in his cloaths, according to the condition nature was 
 unprized in ; without burtliening him either with remedies 
 or with foods ; without cloathing either too much or too lit- 
 tle; and, if pofiible, without either eating or diiukillg. The 
 fwcat to be kept up, without cither promoting it, by any ex- 
 traordinary heat, or checking it by the lead cold. 
 This was what was found by experience ; and which was at 
 length praflifed with happy fuccefs. The difeafe was hire 
 felt on the 2 1 ft of September, and in the fame day fprca-1 
 itfelf all over England ; where, after a great mortality, it 
 flopped all at once, towards the end of October. 
 Its ravages were fo great, that in fome parts it took off a 
 third part of the people in a very little time. 
 At its return under Henry VIII. in 1506, it was as general, 
 and as dangerous as before, and again difappeared ail at once. 
 At the third attack, in 1528, it was lefs fatal; infomuch 
 that Bellay, bifhop of Bayonnc, then ambaffador in Eng- 
 land, who fwcated like the reft, tells us, that of forty thou- 
 fand fouls, fcized with it in London, only two thoufand 
 died. In 1534, it palled over into Ireland, where it killed 
 great numbers. 
 
 SUDORIFIC, in medicine, a remedy that, caufes or pro- 
 motes fweat. 
 
 Sudorijics only differ from diaphartthz in the degree of their 
 action ; the one promoting fenfible pcrl'piration, the other in- 
 fenftble. 
 
 To thfc' cfau of fudarijits belong, i°. All things that movin" 
 violently through the body, attenuate the humours, and ac" 
 celerate their motion. 
 
 2°. Such things, as at the fame time disninith the refiftencs 
 in the fudatory vends about the cutis. 
 
 To which fome add a third kind, viz. fuch as abforb the 
 acidities of the blood, and thus fet at liberty the matter of 
 the fweat. 
 
 The 
 
S U F 
 
 S U G 
 
 T*he firft intention Is chiefly effected bya copious drinking of 
 very hot waters ; by acids drawn from vegetables by fermen- 
 tation and diftillation ; or thofe of foffils, attenuated by re- 
 peated diftillations, especially if thefe be drunk mixed witli 
 hot water; by alcali's both volatile and fixt, diluted with 
 hot water ; by all compound falts, diffolved in water ; by £ 
 fapa's, metallic cryftals, or the attenuated parts of metals i 
 themfelves, as ftibium diaphorcticum, fixt fulphur of I achc- 
 nius, bezoardic mineral, diaphoretic mercury, diaphoretic 
 gold, &c. by fharp, fubtile, acrimonius aromatics : as ab- 
 Jyuthium, abrotonum, opium, afparagus, anife, afclepias, a- 
 riftolochia, gum ammoniac, carduus benedictus, caraways, 
 cinnamon, camomile, faffron, capillus veneris, china, dit-* 
 tany, eupatorium, gentian, hyfTop, laurel, mint, leeks, rofe- 
 mary, fage, favin, faflafras, fecrdium, thyme, veronica, 
 nettie,and other medicines compounded of thefe and the like, 
 as ven ice-treacle, mithridate, diafcordium, orvietan, (Sc. 
 The fecond is chiefly effected by clcanfing the fkin, by va- 
 porous lotions, baths, and frictions ; by relaxing the cutane- 
 ous and fubcutaneous vcffels, which is beft done by hot wa- 
 ter fprinklcd all over the body, the head excepted ; by in- 
 creafmg the external heat about the naked body, as by the 
 warmth of abed, a vapour bath, (Sc. 
 
 The third is effected by abforbents ; as corals, crabs-eyes, 
 diaphoretic antimony, bezoar, tyc. See each under its pro- 
 per article. 
 
 SUET*, Sevum, a kind of fat, found in deer, fheep, oxen, 
 hogs, &c. which melted down and clarified, makes what we 
 call tallow, ufed in the making of candles. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin,yi<ei/<v»j, fibum, or fevum, 
 
 which fignify the fame ; and thefe a fuc, by reafon of the fat- 
 
 nefs of that beafh 
 Anatomies, &c. diftinguifh four kinds of fat in the body of 
 an animal. The firft:, which fixes itfelf, and after melting, 
 cools into a very firm confiftencc, they call fuel. 
 It is found in greateff. abundance in the lower belly, and a- 
 bout the kidneys. 
 
 F. le Comte mentions a tree in China, that bears a kind of 
 fu:t, or tallow. See TALLOW-rrf/. 
 SUFFERANCE, in ancient cuftoms, a delay, or refpite of 
 time, which the lord granted his valfal, for the performance 
 of fealty and homage ; fo as to fecure him from any feodal 
 feizure. 
 
 Sufferance, fay the cuftoms, is equivalent to fealty and ho- 
 mage, while it holds. See Fealty and Homage. 
 The word is alfo ufed for a delay which the lord grants his 
 vaffals, to quit their hands of fees or inheritances they have 
 acquired, till they have paid the due of indemnity, (Sc. 
 
 Bill of Sufferance. See the article Bill. 
 
 SUFFICIENT, in the fchool theology. — Sufficient grace, 
 denotes a help or affiftance which God gives to man, to en- 
 able him to act. and perform his duty. 
 
 Jt is allowed an article of faith, that grace is neccflary ; and 
 that without grace, nothing that is good, or that can any 
 way intitle us to heaven, can be done : it is allowed too, that 
 God does not refufe the neceilary affiftances ; and it is allow- 
 ed, that man, frequently, either does not act when he fliould, 
 or acts what he mould not. 
 
 From thefe principles, which are generally admitted by all 
 fects however different in other refpects, it follows, that there 
 is fome affiftance of God which man refifts ; fome wherewith 
 man does not act, wherewith yet be might act ; or fome- 
 wbereby he does evil, by which he might do good. It is this 
 affiftance that is called jufficient grace: becaufe fufHcing to 
 make us act, though we do not act with it. 
 
 SUFF1TUS, Sufficient, or Suffumigation, in me- 
 dicine, a thickifh powder, prepared of odoriferous plants, 
 gums, (Sc. which being thrown on coals, the vapours or 
 fleam thereof, are received by hnelling. 
 
 SUFFOCATION, Suffocatio, in medicine, a privation, 
 or obftruction of refpiration. 
 
 Suffocation fometimes arifes from a too great abundance of 
 blood thrown on the lungs, or the mufcles of the larvnx, 
 and preventing the ingrefs of the air ; as is the cafe in quin- 
 zics, fufFocating catarrhs, peripneumonics, (Sc. 
 The fumes of wines, or ftrong beers, when boiling, caufe 
 fuffocation, by interrupting the circulation of the blood. And 
 the fame may be obferved of the fumes of lime, wherewith 
 walls are whitened ; and thofe of charcoal, antimony, ful- 
 phur, vitriol, and fpirit of nitre. 
 
 The fuffocation under water, is owing partly to thepaflage of 
 ■ the air being flopped up, and partly to the irruption of the 
 
 water into the breaft. 
 , In France they difpatch their people that are raving mad by 
 fuffocating them between two pillows : the fame is alfo fome- 
 times practifed here in cafes of hydrophobia's, (Sc. 
 Suffocation of the wombs ormatrix, is a difeafe pretty fre- 
 quent in women, called alio fits of the mother. In this, the 
 patient imagines a malignant vapour rifmg from the matrix, 
 and fo prefling againft the lungs and the diaphragm, as to 
 prevent the free motion neceilary to refpiration. 
 
 Its true caufe is a convulfion of the mufcles of the larvrix, 
 "which ftraightcn the wind-pipe, and prevent the air's palling 
 into the lungs. Hence it is, that hyfteric women feel con- 
 ftricf ions in the throat, as if one were ftrangling them with 
 a cord. 
 
 SUFFOCATIVE catarrh. See the article Catarrh. 
 SUFFRAGAN, Suffrac aneus, in the ecclefiaftical poli- 
 ty, a term applied to a bifhop, with refpect to his arch- 
 hifhop on whom he depends, and to whom appeals lie from 
 the bifhop's official. 
 
 In this fenfe, the archbifhop of Canterbury has twenty-one 
 fuffragans ; and the archbilhop of York four. 
 The term was never heard of before the eighth century. — 
 Some derive it hence, that the bifhops are to help and affift 
 the archbifhop ; quia archiepifcopo fuffragari (S affijiere tencn- 
 tur. Others fay, it is becaufe ecclefiaflical matters are de- 
 termined by their votes, or fuff rages ; IS fuftraganei dicur.tur 
 qu'ta eorum fuffragiis caufee eccUjia/iica judicavtur. Others 
 hold, they are called fuffragans, becaufe when called by the 
 metropolitan to a fynod, they have a right of fufFrage, or of 
 voting ; or becaufe they could not be confecrated without 
 his fuffragc or confent. 
 Suffragan is alfo ufed for a chorepifcopus, or an afliftant 
 bifhop, or co-adjutor, who has a title in partibus infidelium, 
 and affifts another in the difcharge of his function, or dif- 
 charges it himfelf in the abfence of that other. 
 Thefe are by fome alfo called fuhftdiary bijhops. See Bishop. 
 By ftatutc 26 Henry VIII. every bifhep and archbifhop is 
 allowed to appoint fome one, fome two, and fome three bi- 
 fhops Jiff>'ogans t under them ; the feats, or rehdences where- 
 of, are fixed by the fame ftatute. The fuffragan biihop for 
 the diocefe of Canterburv, to be at Dover only ; for York, 
 at Nottingham and Hull; tor London, at Colchefter ; for 
 Wmchcftcr, at Guilford, Southampton, and m the ifle of 
 Wight, (Sc. 
 
 Du Cange obferves, that the title fuffragan has alfo been 
 given to fuch priefts as are fubject. to the viiitation of the 
 arch-deacon : and fuffragans of the pope, to the bifhops of 
 fuch dioccfes, as are immediately fubject to the pope. 
 SUFFRAGE*, Suffragium, a voice or vote, given in an 
 afTembly, where fomething is deliberated on, or where a 
 perfon is elected to an office or benefice. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, fi<jfragium, which an- 
 ciently fignified money, as appears in the eighth novel of 
 Juftinian : ut judicts f.r.e fuiFrawio fiant ; and the futh novel : 
 qui emcrit pra-fulatitm per fuffra^ium , epifcopatuiS ordine tccle- 
 fiaflho excidat. 
 
 Suffrages are fometimes given by word of mouth ; and fome- 
 times in writing, as at elections liable to a fcrutiny. See 
 Scrutiny. The prefident or chairman of the ailembly 
 ufually collects the fuffrages. 
 Suffrages of the faints, in the Romifh church, denote the 
 prayers and interceffions which the faints are fuppofed to 
 make to God, in behalf of the faithful. 
 SL'FFRUTEX, undcr-furub ; among botanifts, a name given 
 to the loweft fort of woody, perennial plants : fending no 
 leaves from their root, and beginning to be branched from 
 the bottom of the ftalk. Such arc lavender, rue, fage, (Sc. 
 SUFFUMIGATION *, Suffumiqatio, in medicine, a 
 term applied to all remedies that arc received into the body 
 in form of fumes, /'. e. offmoak, vapour, or perfume. 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, fub, under, and fumia, 
 fmoak. 
 
 Suffumigaiions arecompofed ofdiffcrcnt matters, according to 
 the nature of the difeafe. Their intentions are to fatten 
 fharp, ferous humours, to provoke or check the courfe of 
 the menfes, to raife a falivation in venereal evils, (Sc. 
 SUFFUSION, Suffusio, in medicine, an overflowing of 
 fome humour, fhewing itfelf in the fkin ; particularly th.it 
 of the blood or bile. 
 
 That rednefs ordinarily arifmg from fhame, is only a fuffu- 
 fion of blood appearing in the cheeks. See Blushing. 
 The jaundice is a fitffufton of bile over the whole body. See 
 Jaundice. 
 
 Suffusion is alfo ufed for a little film or pellicle, formed in 
 the aqueous humour of the eye, before the pupil ; called, 
 1 alfo, cataratl. 
 
 1 SUGAR, Saccharum, a very fwect, agreeable juice, ex- 
 preffed from a kind of canes, or reeds, growing in great 
 plenty in theEaft and Weft-Indies; particularly in Madera, 
 ■ Brafil, and the Caribbec iflands. 
 
 : It is a queftion not yet decided among botanifls, (Sc. whe- 
 ther the ancients were acquainted with this cane, and whe- 
 ther they knew how to exprefs the juice from the fame? 
 What we can gather from the arguments advanced on either 
 fide, is, that if they knew the cane and the juice, they did 
 not know the art of condenlmg, hardening and whitening 
 : it, and, of confequence, they knew nothing of our fugar. 
 > Some ancient authors, indeed, feem to mention fugar, under 
 ' the name of Indian fait j but they add, that it oozed out of 
 2 the 
 
SVG 
 
 SVG 
 
 the cane of itfelf ; and there hardened like a gum ; and was 
 even friable between the teeth, like our common (kit : where- 
 as fugar is expreffed by a machine on purpofe, and coagu- 
 lated by the fire. 
 
 Theirs, Salmafius tells us, was cooling and loofening, where- 
 as ours, the fame writer ailerts, is hot, and excites thirfL 
 Hence, feme have imagined, that "the ancient and modern 
 
 fugar plants were different : but Mauhiolus, on Diofcorides, 
 c. 75. makes no doubt they were the fame; and others arc 
 even of opinion, that ours has a laxative virtue, as well as 
 that of the ancients, and that it purges pituita. 
 The generality of authors, however, agree, that the ancient 
 
 fugar was greatly better than the modern ; as confifting of 
 only the ffneft and matureff parts, which made themfelves a 
 paflage, and were condenfed in the air. — The interpreters of 
 Avicenna and Serapion, call fugar ; J 'podium ; the Perfians, 
 tabixir ; and the Indians, mambu. 
 
 Salmafius afTures us, that the Arabs have ufed the art of 
 making fugar, fuch as we now have it, above Soo years. 
 Others produce the following verfes of P. Terrentius Varro 
 Atacinus, to prove that it was known before Jefus Chriit. 
 
 Jndica nan magna nimis arbore crefcit arundo, 
 
 Hints extentii premiiur radidbus humor, 
 
 Dulcia cui nequaint fucco contendere nulla. 
 Another queftion among naturalifts is, whether the fugar 
 canes be originally of the Weft-Indies ; or whether they 
 have been tranflatcd rather from the Eaft. 
 The learned of thefc laft ages, have been much divided on 
 the point: but fince the dilfertation of F. Labat, a domini- 
 can miffionary, publifhedin 1722, there is no longer room 
 to doubt, but that the fugar cane is as natural to America ns 
 India : all that can be faid in favour of the latter, is, that 
 the Spaniards and Portuguefe firft learnt from the orientals, 
 the ait of exprefiing its juice, boiling it, and reducing it into 
 fugar. 
 
 Culture of the Sugar cane. — The reed or cane, whence this 
 ufeful juice is drawn, refemblcs thofc others we fee in mo- 
 rafles, and on the edges of lakes ; excepting that the fkin of 
 thefe latter is hard and dry, and their pulp void of juice ; 
 whereas the fliin of the fugar reed is (aft, and the fpongeous 
 matter or pith it contains, very juicy, though that in a 
 greater or left degree, according to the goodnefs of the foil, 
 its expofure to the fun, the feafon it is cut in, and its age ; 
 which four circumftances contribute equally to its goodnefs 
 and to its bulk. 
 
 The fugar cane ufually grows five or fix foot high, and about 
 half an inch in diameter ; though F. Labat mentions fome 
 extraordinary ones in the ille of Tabago, twenty-four foot 
 high. The ftem or ft.dk is divided by knots, a foot and 
 half a-part. At the top it puts forth a number of long, green 
 tufted leaves, from the middle whereof, arife the flower and 
 the feed. There are likewife leaves fpringing out from each 
 itnot ; but thefe ufually fall as the cane rifes ; and it is a fign 
 cither that the cane is naught, or that it is far from its ma- 
 turity, when the knots are feen hefet with leaves. 
 The ground fit for fugar canes, is that which is light, 
 foft, and fpongy, lying on a defcent proper to carry off 
 the water, and well turned to the fun. They ufually 
 plant them in pieces, cut a foot and half below the top 
 of the flower. Thefe are ordinarily ripe in ten months, 
 though fometimes not till fifteen ; at which time, they are 
 found quite full of a white fucculent marrow, whence is 
 exprcllcd the liquor whereof fugar is made. When ripe, 
 they are cut, their leaves cleared off", and they are carried 
 in bundles to the mills. The mills cuniiftof three wooden 
 rollers, covered with ffeel plates; and have their motion 
 either from the water, the wind, cattle, or even the hands 
 of flaves. 
 
 Two rules belonging hereto are, that no canes above four 
 foot, or under two foot and a half long be fent to the mills ; 
 and, that no more canes be cut than can be ennveniently 
 prefled in twenty-four hours ; in regard they will heat, fer- 
 ment and turn four. 
 Preparation of Sugar. — The juice coming out of the canes, 
 when prefled and broke between the rollers, runs through 
 a little canal into the fugar-houfc ; which is near the mill ; 
 where it falls into a vellel, whence it is conveyed into the 
 firft copper or cauldron, to receive its firff preparation, only 
 heated by a flow fire to make it fimmer. W ith the liquor, 
 is here mixed a quantity of alhes, and quick-lime ; the effect 
 of which mixture, afliited by the action of the fire ; is, that 
 the unctuous parts are feparated from the reft, and raifed to 
 the top, in form of a thick fcum, which is kept conftantly 
 fcumming oft"; and ferves to feed the poultry, csV. withal. 
 The juice, in the next place, is purified in a fecond cenper ; 
 where a brifker fire makes it boil ; and all the time the call- 
 ing up of its fcum is promoted by means of a ftrong lye, 
 compofed of lime-water and other ingredients. 
 This done, it is purified and leummed in a third boiler, 
 wherein is caff a kind of lye, that aflifs in purgum it, col- 
 lects together its impurities, and makes them rile tu the fur- 
 face; whence they are taken with a fkimmer. 
 From the third, it is removed to a fourth ooiler, where the 
 mice is further purified by a more viulen: tire . and hence to 
 Vot. II- N u . CXLV1II. 
 
 a fifth ; where it is brought to the confiftence of a fyrop. 
 In a iixth boiler, the fyrop receives its full co&ion ; and here 
 all the impurities left from the former lyes, are taken away 
 by a new lye, and a water of lime and allom caff into it. In 
 this laft copper, there is fcarce found one third of what was 
 in the firft; the reft being wafted in fcum. 
 By thus pafling, fucccflively, a number of coppers, the fugar 
 juice is purified, thickened, and rendered fit to be converted 
 into any of the kinds of fugar hereafter mentioned. The 
 fize of the fcveral coppers always diminifhes, from the firft 
 to the laft; each being furnifhed with a furnace, to give a 
 heat proportionable to the deg ree ol codtiou the juice has re- 
 ceived. In fome large fugar works, there are alfo particu- 
 ^ lar coppers, for the boiling and preparing the fcums. 
 t . Labat mentions feveral different kinds of Sugars, prepared 
 in the Caribbees, viz. Crude fugar, or mofcovado ; flraimd 
 or brown fugar ; earthed or white fugar, in powder ; refined 
 f u g°r, either in powder or loaves; royal fugar ; candied fu- 
 gar ; fugar of fine fyrop ; fugar of coarfe fyrop ; fugar of the 
 fcum. 
 
 Crude Sugar, or mofcovado, is that firft drawn from the 
 juice of the cane, and whereof all the reft are compofed. 
 The method of making it, is that already defcribed as for 
 fugar in the general. — We need only add, that when taken 
 out of the fixth copper, it is put in a cooler, where ftirring 
 it brifkly together, it is let ftand to fettle, till a cruft of the 
 thicknefs of a crown piece, be formed thereon. The cruft 
 being formed, they ftir it up again, then put it into veflels, 
 where it ftands to fettle, till it be fit to bairel. 
 Strained or brown Sugar, though fomewhat whiter and 
 harder, does not differ much from the crude fugar : though 
 it is held a medium between this laft and the earthed fugar ; 
 which is, the white powder fugar. 
 
 The preparation of this, is the fame as that of the mofco- 
 vado, with this difference, that to whiten it, they ftrain the 
 liquor through blankets, as it comes out of the firft copper. 
 1 he invention of ftrained fugar is owing to the Jinglifh, 
 who are more careful than their neighbours, in the prepara- 
 tion hereof; for they not only ftrain it, but when boiled, 
 put it in fquare wooden forms, or moulds, of a pyramidal 
 figure; and when it has purified itfelf well, they cut it in 
 pieces, dry it in the fun, and barrel it up. 
 Earthed Sugar, is that which is whitened by means of earth 
 laid on the top of the forms it is put in, to purge itfelf. 
 The making of this fugar, is begun after the fame manner 
 as that of crude fugar; except that they only ufe the beft: 
 canes in it ; that they work with more care and nicety ; that 
 when the liquor is in the firft copper, the afhes they put in, 
 are little or nothing mixt with lime, for fear of reddening 
 it; and that they ftrain it througha blanket, from the firll 
 to the fecond copper. 
 
 When it has palled all the fix coppers, it is laden out into a 
 cooler ; whence it is put into conical moulds or forms, the 
 tips whereof are perforated, but now ftopped with linen or 
 other fluff ; and thefe ranged evenly before the furnace. 
 When it has been a quarter of an hour in the forms, it is 
 cut with a fugar knife, that is, it is ftirred brifkly this way, 
 and that, for half an hour. 
 
 This ferves, not only to promote the forming of the grain, 
 and the diftufing it equally throughout ; but alfo to determine 
 the uncfuous parts of the fugar to mount up to the top, that 
 they may be (cummed off. 
 
 The forms being left to ftand fifteen hours in this ftate, the 
 holes at the bottom are theii unftopped, to give a paflage to 
 the fyrop, and to determine it to take that way. When 
 enough of thefe forms are filled, to fill a ftove, which ufual- 
 ly contains five or fix hundred forms ; they vifit the fugar 
 in all the forms to examine the quality thereof, and to fee if 
 it quit the form eafily ; that it may either have the earth 
 given it, as the reliner, who vifits it, judges proper ; or be 
 melted over again, if it do not prove well. 
 This done, the forms are planted, each on its pot, with the 
 tip of the cone downwards ; the top is taken off, and in 
 lieu thereof, they put in fame fugar in grain, to within an, 
 inch of the edge; which fpace is left for the earth prepared 
 for it. 
 
 The earths here ufed are of various kinds ; the good qualities 
 of each whereof, are, that they do not tinge the water, that 
 they let it filtrate eafily through, and that they do not imbibe 
 the fatty part of the fugar. Before put in the forms, the 
 earth is fteeped in water twenty-four hours; and at length 
 applied, in the confiftence of a pulp. 
 
 As foon as the earth is on the fugar, all the window;: of the 
 refining room are fhut, that the air and heat may not drv 
 the earth. When it is quite dry, which ufually happens 
 in nine or ten days time, it is taken off ; and after cleaning 
 the furface of the fugar with brufhes, and raking it up an 
 inch deep, and again laying it level as before, they give it a 
 fecond earth. 
 
 The whitenefs of the fugar of each form, is feen from the 
 firft earth ; experience ihewing, that a fecond or third earth 
 do not make the fugar any whiter, but only whiten the 
 head of the loaf. When the fecond earth is taken off", they 
 cleanfe the furface of the jugar, with a bruih, and with a 
 1 1 P P iuiite 
 
SUG 
 
 knife loofen the edge of it, where it flicks to the form, 
 that neither the farm nor the fugar-laxf be damaged m 
 taking out the latter. The windows are now opened, and 
 the forms left to ftand eight or ten days to dry. While 
 thz fugar is draining in its forms, a ftove is prepared to re- 
 ceive them. r , e 
 The ftove being fufficiently heated, by means of the furnace 
 therein, loaves are taken out of the forms one after ano- 
 ther i and fuch as are white from one end to the other, are 
 carried to the ftove, as are, alfo, the reft, after cutting oft 
 what is not white, to be farther refined. 
 When the loaves are all ranged in the ftove, a moderate fire 
 is made for about two days, during which time, they viltt 
 every part of the ftove very carefully, to fee that every 
 thing is in good order, and to repair any thing that may go 
 amifs. , , , 
 After thefe two days, they (hut the trap-door a- top ot the 
 building, and increafe the fire. Eight or ten days and 
 nights continued violent fire ufualiy iuffice to dry a ftove 
 of fugar. 
 
 When they judge It fufficiently done, they open the trap- 
 door, and ftufe'a hot dry day to pound the fugar, which is 
 performed with huge, hard, heavy wooden peftles j when 
 pounded, it is put up in barrels, and well trodden down as 
 it is put in, that the barrels may hold the more. 
 Sugar of the fcum.— This is all made of the fcum of the 
 two laft coppers ; thofe of the former being referved for 
 the making of rum. ' 
 The ("cum deftined to make fugar, is kept in a vellel for that 
 purpofe, and is boiled every morning in a copper fet apart for 
 that ufe. With the fcum, is put into the copper a fourth 
 part of water, to retard the bailing, and give time for its 
 purging: when it begins to boil, the ufual lye is put in, 
 and it is carefully fcummed: when almoft enough boiled, 
 lime and allom-water are thrown in ; and when it is ready 
 to be taken out, they fprinkle it with a little powdered 
 allom. 
 
 g UGA R/ fyrop, or treacle.— Then are three kinds of fyrops 
 that run i'rom fugar. The firft from the barrels of raw fu- 
 gar, which is the coarfeft of all : the fecond, from the forms 
 or moulds, after they are perforated, and before they receive 
 their earth : the third, that coming from the forms after 
 they had their earth ; which laft is the heft. 
 The coarfe fyrops fhould only be ufed for rum ; hut fugar 
 beinu grown dear, endeavours have been ufed to make fome 
 hereof, and that with tolerable fuccefs. They are firft cla- 
 rified with lime-water, and, when boiled, are put up in 
 barrels, with a fugar cane in the middle, to make them pu- 
 rify thcml'clves. After twenty days, a quantity of coarfe 
 earth is thrown in, to make them caft the remainder of 
 their fyrcp, and fit them to be returned into a crude fugar. 
 The Dutch and German refiners firft taught the iflanders 
 how to turn their treacle into fugar. 
 The fecond fyrop is wrought fomewhat differently: after the 
 copper, it is to be boiled in, is half full, eight or ten quarts 
 of lime-water are caft in : It is then boiled with a brifk fire, 
 and carefully fcummed : fome add a lye, and others none. 
 F. Labat takes the former method to be the better, though 
 it requires more trouble and attention. This fugar may be 
 earthed alone, or at leaft, with the heads of loaves, the 
 drved tops, and fuch other kinds of fugar s as may not be 
 riiixt with the true earthed fugar, nor yet with the crude 
 fugar. 
 
 For the third fyrop, after boiling and fcumming it as the 
 former, they put it inftantly into coolers, the bottoms 
 whereof are'eovered half an inch thick with wiiite fugar 
 very dry, and well pounded ; and the whole is well ftirred, 
 to incorporate the two together. This done, they ftrew the 
 furface over with the fame pounded jugar, to the thicknefs 
 of one fifth of an inch ; this affifting the fugar in forming 
 its grain. When fettled, and the cruft gathered at the top, 
 a hole is made in the cruft five or fix inches diameter. 
 .By this aperture, they fill the cooler with a new fyrop, 
 - poured gently in, which infenlibly raifes up the former cruft. 
 When all the fyrops are boiled, and the cooler is full, they 
 ■ break all the crufts ; and after mixing them well, put it up 
 in forms or moulds. 
 
 The reft is performed in the fame manner as for the earthed 
 fugar, from which it only differs in that it falls fhort of its 
 glofs and brightnefs ; being, in reality, fometimes whiter 
 and finer, though of a flatter and duller white. 
 ■Refined Sugar. — Crude fugar, ftrained fugar, and the heads 
 or tops of loaves that have not whitened well, are the bafis 
 or ground of tfcb fugar. 
 
 In a refinery there are ufualiy two coppers, the one ferving to 
 •clarify, the other to boil the clarify 'd liquor; tho* they 
 fometimes clarify in both, and boil afterwards. For the 
 .operation of refining, the fame weight of lime-water and 
 of fugar are put iii the copper; and as the fcum is raifed by 
 the beat, it is taken oft", and when it ceafes to rife any 
 more, the fyrop ta (trained through a cloth. 
 After this, it is clarified ; that is, a dozen of eggs are thrown 
 iin, white, yolk, fhell and all ; after having firft broke and 
 ■beaten them well in lime-water. When die fat, and other 
 
 S U I 
 
 impurities of the fugar, which this COropOmfon gathers to- 
 gether on the furface of the fyrop, have been fcummed off; 
 a few more eggs are thrown in, and it is fcurr.med afrefh. 
 This they repeat tiil the fugar be fufnciently clarified ; which 
 done, it is again ftrained through the cloth. 
 When taken out of this copper, it is boiled in the fecond ; 
 which done, it is put out into coolers, the bottoms whereof 
 are firft covered half an inch th'ck with fine white powdered 
 fugar. - As foon as it is there, it is brifkly ftirred about, and 
 the furface is ftiewed over with pounded fugar. The reft is 
 performed as in fugar s of fine fyrops, or in earthed fugar ; 
 only more care and exaftnefs is ufed. 
 
 Royal Sugar. — The bafis of this fort ought to be the purefr. 
 refined fugar to be found. This they melt with a weak 
 lime water ; and fometimes, to make it the whiter and 
 prevent the lime from reddening k, they ufc a!!um-water. 
 This they clarify three times, and pafs a<> often through a 
 clofe cloth, ufing the very beft earth. When prepared with 
 thefe precaution?, it is whiter than fnow, and fo tranfparenr. 
 that we fee a finger touching it, even through the thickeft 
 part of the lonf. 
 
 SvGAR-camfy, faccharum candum, or cryflaltimtm, is fugar 
 
 depurated and cryftallized. See Candy. 
 
 This is better made of earthed fugar, than refined fugar ^ 
 
 in regard the former is fweeter. 
 
 The fugar to be ufed herein, is firft diffolvcd in a weak 
 lime-water, then clarified, fcummed, ftrained through a 
 cloth, and boiled, and put in forms or moulds that are tra- 
 verfed with tittle rods, to retain the fugar as it cryftallizes. 
 Thefe forms are fufpended in a hot ftove, with a pot under- 
 neath, to receive the fyrop that drops out at the hole in the 
 bottom, which is half flopped, that the filtration may be 
 the gentler. When the forms are full, the ftove is lhut up, 
 and the fire made very vehement. 
 
 Upon this the fugar taftens to the flicks that crofs the forms, 
 and there hangs in little fpl inters of cryflal. When the 
 fugar is quite dry, the forms are broke and the fugar taken 
 our, candied. Red fugar-C&ndy they make, by carting into 
 the veffel, where the fugar is boiling, a little' juice of the 
 Indian fig; and if it is defired to have it perfumed, they 
 caft a drop of fome efience in, when the fugar is putting 
 into the forms. 
 
 This method of making fugar-tzi\c\y is that of F. Labat, 
 practifed in the Caribbces : the method in Europe, defcribed 
 by Pomet, is fomewhat different. 
 White SuGAR-candy tbcv make of white refined fugar, boiled 
 with water into a thick fyrop, in a large pan. It is candied 
 in a ftove, whither it is carried, incloled in brafs peels, 
 croffed with little rods, about which the cryftals fallen as 
 they are formed. 
 
 The fire of the ftove is kept equable for fifteen days; after 
 which the fugar is taken out of the peels to be dried. Red 
 or brown fugar-czndy is made like the white, except that 
 they only ufe brown fugars and earthen pots. 
 Barley Sue Alt, faccharum hordeatum, is a fugar boiled till it 
 be brittle, and then caft on a ftone anointed with oil of 
 fweet almonds, and formed into twitted fticks, about the 
 length of the hand, and the thicknefs of a finger. 
 It fhould be boiled up with a decoftion of barley, whence 
 it takes its name ; but in lieu thereof they now generally 
 ufe common water, to make the fugar the finer. — To give 
 it the brighter amber colour, they fometimes caft faffioa 
 into it. — It is found very good for the cure of colds and 
 rheums. 
 
 Sugar of rofs, faccharum rcfatum, is white fugar clarified, 
 and boiled into a confiftence in rofe-water : when boiled, 
 they form it into lozenges, fometimes into little grains, of 
 the fize of peas, by keeping it fliiring tiil it be cold, and 
 dry. — It is reputed good to (often and allay acrimonies, tSc. 
 of the breaft. 
 
 rf/Al C /l' fce the articles \ £ A3K " 
 Lhejt yiuGAR, i t Chest. 
 
 Sugar of faturn, 7 c . . T 
 
 e ri j > Sec the article Lea d. 
 
 Sugar cf /cad, ) 
 
 SUGGESTION, Su G g e st io, the act of hinting, or 
 furnifhing another with a thought, or defign, or of infinu- 
 ating it artfully into his mind. 
 
 In the French law, a tcftament is faid to be made by fug- 
 ge/iien, when it is made by furprize, and contrary to the in- 
 tention of the teftator. 
 
 If fuggefiion be proved, the teftainent becomes null. Articles 
 of fuggeflion are not admktable againft a teftament wrote 
 with the teftator's own hand, which is never fufpectcd. 
 
 SUIT, Sute, Secta in law, (from the French fuite, a 
 following another) is ufed in divers fenfes. — As, Suit in 
 law, which is of two kinds, real and perfonal ; the fame 
 with what we call real and perfonal aftions. 
 
 Suit of court, or fuit of fervict; an attendance which the 
 tenant owes the court of his lord. 
 
 Suit covenant; when your anceftor hath covenanted with 
 mine to fue to his court. 
 
 Suit cujlom ; when I and my ancefiors owe fuit time out of 
 mind. 
 
 4 Suit 
 
S U L 
 
 Suit real, or regal ; when men come to the fhenrFs turn or 
 lcet. 
 
 Suit alfo fignifics the following one in chafe ; as frefl) fit. 
 See Fresh-suit. 
 
 Suit, again, fignifics a petition made to the king, or any 
 great per ("on. See Petition. 
 
 SULPHUR, in natural hiftory, a fa, uncruous fort of mi- 
 neral fubftance, fufible and inflammable by lire, and not dif- 
 folublc or mifcible in water. 
 
 This is particularly called 'fijfily or mineral fulpbur, to diflin- 
 guifh it from the fulpbur of metals., or of the philsfphers. 
 Sulphurs make a particular clafs of foihls, divided into julid 
 and fluid. 
 
 The filid Sulphurs are, common fulpbur, or fulpbur pro- 
 perly fo called, arfenic and amber. 
 
 The liquid Sulphurs are, aiphaltum, pifTafphaltiun, bitu- 
 men, petroleum, naphtha, and oleum terra?, is'c. See Sup- 
 plement, articles Sulphur and Bitumen. 
 
 Sulphur, properly fo called, or Irimjlone, is of two kinds, 
 viz. fulphur vivum, and common fulpbur. 
 
 Sulphur vivum, native, or virgin fulpbur, is that which is 
 dug in this form out of the earth ; being ufually of a yellow 
 or afh-colour ; it eaftly takes fire, and, in burning, calls a 
 ftrong fulphurous finell. 
 
 It is chiefly brought from Sicily ; and is but little ufed, ex- 
 cept in fome galenical compofitions, and to fulpbur wine, in 
 order to make it keep in carriage. 
 
 It is found in great quantities in the neighbourhood of vul- 
 canos or burning mountains, as Vefuvius, Mxm, £sV. yet 
 fulpbur has alfo its particular mines ; and we have very good 
 from feveral parts of Italy and Switzerland, though the beft 
 is that of Quitto and Nicaragua in America. 
 Common Sulphur, or that ufed in gunpowder, and on divers 
 other occafions, is melted from the common pyrites, and 
 caft into cylindrical pieces. — Though others allure us, it is 
 procured from the native fulpbur by means of lire and train 
 oil, which difTolving it, it is poured into moulds; and thus 
 formed into thofe cylinders we find it in. Savary. 
 This common fulpbur is either better or worfe, according to 
 the refinery it comes from. '1 hat of Holland has a long 
 time had the beft credit ; the fecond place has been given to 
 that of Venice ; and the third to that of Marfeilles : but the 
 order feems to have been fince changed, and that from Mar- 
 feilles is now in the firft place. 
 
 It is to be chofen in large thick cylinders, of a golden yellow 
 colour, very brittle, and when broke, appearing all brilliant, 
 as if cryftallized. 
 
 Befide the ufe of fulpbur in the composition of gun-powder, 
 whereof it is one of the three ingredients, and that which 
 makes it take fire fo readily, it is of fume ufe in medicine, 
 and more in chymiftry. It is alfo ufed in whitening lilken 
 and woollen fluffs ; to which end, the vapour thereof is con- 
 trived to be received by them. 
 
 Its vapour alfo whiten red rofes ; and even young rooks, 
 taken out of the neft, and expoled thereto, are (aid to be- 
 come perfectly white. It has the fame effefl on gold ; which 
 is to be reftored to its colour by boiling it in water with 
 tartar. 
 
 The chymical analyfis of fulpbur is very difficult ; its prin- 
 ciples being fo volatile, and withal fo fait bound together, 
 that they either rile all together, or are diffipated and loft 
 in the feparation. 
 
 M. Homberg, however, has at length found the fecret of 
 feparating the principles, and of faving tbem at the fame 
 time. He finds it to confift of an acid fait, an earth, an 
 oily bituminous and inflammable mutter, and ufually a little 
 metal. 
 
 The three firft he finds, by a long feries of operations, are 
 in pretty equal quantities; but the [aft, which proves to be 
 copper, is very inconfiderable. The acid, he adds, is exactly 
 the fame with that of vitriol ; the oil, which is thick and red 
 as blood, appears to be the inflammable part, and that 
 which conftitutes the chymical principle fulpbur, only that 
 it retains fome heterogeneous matter in the operation. The 
 earth is extremely fixt, and unalterable by theftrongeft fire. 
 M.Geoffroy tried the rc-compofition of fulpbur, on M. 
 Homberg's principles, and with fuccefs. The pure acid fait 
 of fulpbur being mixed with an equal quantity of the oily 
 matter, and earthy alcali, and a little oi! of tartar, and the 
 operation conducted according to the rules of art, the mix- 
 ture was converted into a pure burning fulpbur. 
 This done, he attempted the cornpofkion of fulpbur, not by 
 recompounding it out of the fame matters it had been re- 
 iblvcd into, but by ufing matters judged of the fame nature. 
 Thus, by fubftituting oil of vitriol for the acid fait, and oil 
 of turpentine for the inflammable part, he fucceeded as be- 
 fore. 
 
 Again, he found that fixt falts, as they are acids abforbed in 
 earth, ferve for two principles at once, and need nothing but 
 an inflammable oil to madnfujphur i and even in lieu of [his 
 
 SUM 
 
 oil, M.Geoffroy im ployed, with equal fuccefs, char-coal, 
 pit-coal, and other folids. 
 
 Indeed Mr. Boyle and Glauber had before made common 
 fulpbur, and that by mixtures, fuch as M. Geoffrey de- 
 fcribes ; but they were both mtftaken as to the reafon there- 
 of; the one concluding, that the fulpbur he thus got, had 
 been contained in the fixed falts, and the other in the coal ; 
 neither of them dreamed, that it was the mixture of thefe 
 principles that produced the mixt. 
 Flowers of Sulphur, are the pureft and fineft part of com- 
 mon fulpbur, gained by evaporating fulpbur, by fublima- 
 tion, or burning it in pots made for that purpbfe, and ga- 
 thered in the capital of the cucurbit, where the vapour 
 flicks. 
 
 This preparation, as, indeed, fulpbur, in mod of its forms, 
 is found excellent for the lungs. The beft flower oi fulpbur 
 is in cakes, or pieces, light, foft, friable, and father white 
 than yellow. If it be in powder it rauft be very fine, of a 
 yellow colour; that is, both whttifh and yellow at the fame 
 time. 
 
 Inftead of this, we have frequently put upon us a vile ful- 
 pbur, mixed with flarch, or wheat flour ; and fometimes 
 only fulphur-dujl well fifted. 
 
 By adding fixed nitre, or fal polychreft, to the fWers of 
 julphur, we have the white flowers of fulpbur. 
 Magijlery, balm, or milk of Sulphur, is fulpbur diffulved 
 in a fufHcient quantity of water, with fait of tartar; arid 
 precipitated by means of (pint of vinegar, or fome other- 
 acid. 
 
 It is called milk of fulphur from its whitenefs ; and balm if 
 fulphur, or of the lungs, from its excellent ufe in difeafes of 
 the lungs and breaft. 
 
 Salt a/Sulphur, is a chymical preparation, very improperly 
 thus called : as being no other than the fal pnlychrefton, im- 
 pregnated with fpirit of fulpbur, and reduced to an acid fait, 
 by evaporating the humidity thereof. Some hold it a power- 
 ful febrifuge. 
 
 Spirit of Sulphur. See the article Spirit. 
 
 Sulphur, of antimony, is a diaphoretic tincture drawn from 
 antimony and fait of tartar or nitre by divers operations. 
 That drawn from the feces of crocus metaiiorum, is by 
 fome called golden fulphur. 
 
 Sulphur metaiiorum, or fulphur of metals, called dfo, fulphur 
 figens, is uftd among chy miffs and alchymills for a pecuiiar 
 matter, which enteis the compoiition of all metals. 
 Metals are fuppofed to confift of two eflential parts, or prin- 
 ciples ; mercury, as the bans, or metallic matter ; and fld- 
 phur, as the binder, or cement, which fixes the fluid mer- 
 cury into a coherent malleable mafs. 
 
 Some of the lateft and beft chymifts, particulaily Mcnf. 
 Homberg, will have this fulphur to be no other than fire. 
 
 SULPHURATED wine. See the article Wine. 
 
 SULTAN, or Soldan, a title, or appellation given the em- 
 peror of the Turks. 
 
 It had its rife under Mahmoud, fon of Sebc£leghin. the firft 
 emperor of the dynafty of the Gaznevides, towards the clofe 
 of the fourth century of the ;era of the Hcgira : when that 
 prince going to Segcftan to reduce Kalaf, governor of that 
 province, who affected the foveraignty ; Kalaf was nj foon- 
 er advertifed of his coming, then he went out to mtet him, 
 delivered the keys of his fortrefs, and owned him his ful- 
 tan *, that is, his lord or commander. The title pleafed 
 Mahmoud fo well, that he affumcd it ever afterwards ; and 
 from him it palled to his defendants, and to other Maho- 
 metan princes. 
 
 * Vattier will have the word Turkifh. and to fienify king of 
 kings ; adding that it was iirft given the TurkLh princes 
 Angrolipex and Mafgud, about the year 105; ; others will 
 have it oiiginally Pertian, alledging, in proof hereof, an an- 
 cient medal of Cofroe ; others derive it from foldtnus, quafi 
 film deminus ; others from the Hebrew tsSu/, jUiatat, to rule, 
 reign. 
 
 In the Roman ceremonial, we alfo find mention made of a 
 Soldan, or marfhnl, who is to attend the pope when he 
 marches in ftate. He is alfo to apprehend malefactors. 
 
 SULTANA, the wife of a fultan. The favourite fultana is 
 called Uhafeki -fultana, i. e. private fultana. 
 The fultana queen is the emperor's chief wife. The old 
 fultana, mother of the emperor reigning, is called fultana 
 valide. 
 
 Sultana alfo denotes a ftrong Turkifh vefTel of war. 
 
 SULTZ, or Sulz. See the article Salz. 
 
 SUM, Summa, in mathematics, fignifies the quantity that 
 arifes from the addition of two or more magnitudes, num- 
 bers, or quantities together. 
 
 This is fometimes called the aggregate ; and, in algebra, it is 
 fometimcs denoted by the letter Z, which Hands for zuma, 
 or fuma ; and fometimes by the letter S. 
 Sum of an equation, is when the abfolute number being brought 
 over to the other fide, with a contrary fign, the whole be- 
 comes 
 
SUM 
 
 SUN 
 
 ■comes equ.il to o } tins Dcs Cartes calls thefum of the equa- 
 tion propofed. 
 
 SUMACH, a drug ufcd to dye in green ; as alio m the pre- 
 paration of black morocco, and other leather. See Mo- 
 rocco. 
 
 It conftfts of the leaves and young branches of a fhrub, not 
 iinlike the little fcrvice-tree : the leaves are longifh, pen- 
 nated and hairy : the flowers grow in clutters, and are red, 
 like our rofes. Its fruit is produced in duffers, of a very 
 -.iftringent quality ; and its feed almoft oval, and inclofed 
 in capful* of the like fi»ure. 
 
 The ancients ufcd fumach, inftead of fait, to feafon their meat 
 withal ; whence the Latins call the tree, rbut obfomorum : 
 from its ufe in the dreffing of leather, it is alfo called rhus 
 toriaria. 
 
 SUMMARY, an abridgement, containing the fum and fub- 
 {lance of a thing in a few words. 
 
 The fummary placed at the head of a book, a chapter, a 
 law, or the like, is very ufeful to the reader, to facilitate 
 the undcrftanding thereof. 
 
 A recapitulation, is to contain a fummary of the whole pre- 
 ceding difcourfe. 
 SUMMATORIUS calculus, the method of fummmg differen- 
 tial quantities ; that is, from any differential given, to find 
 the quantity from whufe differencing the given differential 
 remits. 
 
 This method we more ufually call the wverfi method of 
 fluxions ; and foreigners, integrals calculus. See Calcu- 
 lus, and Fluxions. 
 SUMMER, one of the feafons of the year, commencing in 
 thefe northern regions, on the day the fun enters cancer; 
 and ending when he quits virgo. 
 
 Or, more" ft r icily and um'vcrfally, the fummcr begins on the 
 day when the fun's meridian diftance from the zenith is the 
 leaft. Jt ends on the day when his diftance is a mean be- 
 twixt the greateft and fmallcft. 
 
 The end of fummer coincides with the beginning of winter. 
 See Winter. 
 Summer flowers, ? Q ,v..^*u fl £FLOWBRS, 
 Summer^'"'* * Solstice. 
 
 Summer *, in architecture, is a large itone, the firfl that is 
 laid over columns and pilallers, in beginning to make a crofs 
 vault; or it is the ftone which being laid over a piedroit or 
 column, is hollowed, to receive the] firft haimce of a plat 
 band, 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, fomm'tcr, which fig- 
 nifies the fame thing. 
 
 SUMMER, in carpentry, is a large piece of timber, which 
 being fupported on two ftone peers, or pofis, ferves as a 
 lintel to a door, window, c5"<r. 
 
 There are alfo fumtners ufed in various engines, tsV. fewing 
 
 to fuftain the weight, Is'c. 
 Summer irw, denotes a beam into which the ends of joyfts 
 
 are faftencd, and to which the girders are framed. See I 
 
 Brest-Summer, and Girder. j 
 Summer of an organ. See the article Sou no- beard. \ 
 SUMMET *, the vertex, or point of any body, or figure ; 
 
 as of a triangle, a pyramid, a pediment, £$V. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, jhmmit, which figni- 
 fics the fame. 
 
 SUMMONER, SummonitoR, an apparitor, or petty 
 officer who is to cite perfons to appear at a certain time and 
 place, toanfwer to the charge exhibited agamft them. See 
 Apparitor, and Summons. 
 
 SUMMONS, Summonitio, in law, a citing or calling a 
 perfon to any court, to anfwer a complaint, or even to give 
 in his evidence. 
 
 This is the fame with the •vecatio in jus, or the cltatio of 
 
 the civilians : hence alfo our old word fumner, or fummoncr. 
 Summons in terra pctita, is that made on the land which the 
 
 party, at whofe fuit the fommons is fent out, leeks to have. 
 Summons ad war r avizandum, is a procefs, whereby the 
 
 vouchee in a common recovery is called. 
 Summons, in war. — To fumimns a place, is to fend a drum, 
 
 or trumpet, to command the governor to furrender ; or, 
 
 in deleft thereof to protcft to make an affault, and to lay 
 
 all in fire and blood. 
 SUMMUM bonum, in ethics, the chief good of human na- 
 , ture ; or that, which, by its enjoyment, renders men truly 
 
 and compleatly happy. 
 
 The fchools diftinguifli this chief good of man, into that 
 which is fimply and adequately fo, and beyond which there 
 can be no other ; and an inferior and fubordinate fort, 
 which is in fome meafure attainable in this imperfect ftate. 
 This laf? they call fartiritas viat'orum ; and the former, fat- 
 licitas ccmprehenftn-urn. 
 
 Summum genus. See the article Genus. 
 
 SUMPTER borft, is an horfe that carries provilions, and 
 neceffaries for a journey. Ruft.~ 
 
 SUMPTUARY taws* leges Sumptuarije, are laws made 
 to reftrain excels in apparel, colfty furniture, eating, tjfe. 
 Mull ages and nations have had their jumptuary laws; and 
 
 Tome retain them flill, as the Venetians, French, &c. But 
 it is obferved, that no laws are worfe executed than fumptu- 
 ary laws. 
 
 The fumptuary laws of that ancient Locrian legiflator Zaleu- 
 cus, are famous ; by thefe it was ordained, that no woman 
 fhould go attended with more than one maid in the ftreet, 
 except fhe were drunk : that fhe fhould not go out of the 
 city in the night, unlefs fhe went to commit fornication ; 
 that fhe fhould not wear any gold or embroidered apparel, 
 unlefs fhe propofed to be a common ftrumpet. And that 
 men fhould not wear rings, or tifTues, except when they 
 went a whoring, &c. 
 
 The Englifh have had their fhare of fumptuary laws, though 
 all repealed by a ftatute i° Jac. I. or obfolete. 
 Under king Henry IV. Camden tells us, pride was got fo 
 much into the foot, that it was proclaimed, That no man 
 fhould wear fhoes above fix inches broad at the toes. And 
 their other garments were fo fhort, that it was cnacled, 
 25 Ed. IV. That no pedbn under the condition of a lord, 
 fhould, from that time, wear any mantie or gown, unlefs 
 of fuch length, that, ftanding upright, it might cover his 
 privy members and buttocks. 
 
 Among the Romans, the fumptuary and cibary laws were 
 very numerous : by the lex Orchia, the number of guefts at 
 feafts was limited, though without limitation of the charges 
 thereof. By the Fannian lav/, made twenty-two years after- 
 wards, it was enabled, That more than ten as's fhould not 
 be fpent at anv ordinary feaft : for the folemn feafts, as 
 the faturnalia, &c. an hundred as's were allowed ; ten of 
 which, Gellius informs us, was the price of a fheep, and 
 an hundred of an ox. 
 
 By the Didian law, which was preferred eighteen years 
 after, it was decreed, that the former fumptuary laws lhould 
 be of force, not only in Rome, but throughout all Italy : arid 
 that for every tranfgreffion, not only the matter of the feaft, 
 but all the guefts too, fhould be liable to the penalty. 
 SUN, Sol, in aftronomy, the great luminary which en- 
 lightens the world, and by his prefence conftitutcs day. 
 The fun is ufually reckoned among the number of planets ; 
 but that he ought rather to be nu.nHeied among the fixed 
 ftars, will befhewn in its place. 
 
 According to the Copernican hvpotbefis, which is now ge- 
 nerally received, and which has even demonffxation on its 
 fide, the fun is the centre of the planetary and cometary 
 fyftem; round which all the phnets and comets, and our 
 earth among the reft, revolve, in different periods, accord- 
 ing to their different diftances from the fun. See this mo- 
 tion illuftrated and demonftrated under the article Planet. 
 But the fun, though thus eafed of that prodigious motion, 
 whereby the ancients imagined him to revolve daily round 
 our earth ; yet is not a perfectly quiefcent body, 
 p'rom the phenomena of his maculae or fpots, it evidently 
 appears, that he has a rotation round his axis ; like that of 
 [ the earth whereby the natural day is meafured ; only flower. 
 -—Some of thefe fpots have made their firft appearance near 
 the edge or margin of the Jun, and have been feen fome 
 time after on the oppofite edge ; whence, after a ftay of a- 
 bout fourteen days, they have re-appeared in their firft place, 
 and taken the fame courfe over again ; fmifhing their entire 
 circuit in twenty-feven days time : which is hence deduced 
 to be the period of the fun's rotation reund his axis. This 
 motion of the fpots, is from weft to eaft, whence we con- 
 clude that of the fun, to which the other is owing, to be 
 from eaft to weft. — For the various appearance of the iolar 
 fpots, their caufe, &c. feeMACULJE. 
 For the apparent annual motion of the Sun round the earth ; it 
 is eafily fhewn by aftronomers, that ;he annual motion of 
 the earth will occafion fuch an appearance, though it be de- 
 monftrated that there is no fuch thing. 
 A fpeilator in the fun, would fee the earth move from weft 
 to eaft, for the fame reafon as we fee the fun move from eaft 
 to weft. And all the phenomena refulting from this annual 
 motion, in which foever of the bodies it be, will appear the 
 fame from cither. 
 
 LetS, for inftance ( Tab. -Aftron. fig. 39) reprefent the fun, 
 ABCD the earth's orbit, which it'paffes through from welt 
 to eaft, in the fpace of a year. — Now, a fpe£tatorin S, view- 
 ing the earth at A, will refer it to the point of the fphere of 
 the ftars, T : when arrived in B, the fpcefator will fee it. as 
 in the point 53 > when in C, as in the point £i, fsV. till 
 after its whole circuit, it will be again feen in T. Thus 
 will the earth appear to defcribe the whole ecliptic, and to 
 pafs, fucceflively, from fign to fign. 
 
 Suppofe, now, the fpecfator removed from the fun to the 
 earth, which imagine in C ; the diftance of the fixed ftars, 
 we have fhewn, is fo vaft, that that of the fun is but a point 
 to it. The fpedlator, therefore, now fttuate on the earth, 
 will fee the fame ace ot the heavens, the fame flars, &c. as 
 before; the only difference will be, that as before he ima- 
 gined the earth in the heavens, and the fun in the centre ; 
 he will now fuppofe ihefun in the heavens, and the earth in 
 the centre. 5 
 
 The 
 
& U N 
 
 SUN 
 
 "The car tli, therefore, being in C, the fpecfytor will fee the 
 fun in T ; and the fpe&ator being carried along with the 
 C2rth, and partaking of his annual motion, will net perceive 
 cither his own motion, or that of the earth, ; but obferving 
 the fun, when the earth is arrived at D, the fun will be feen 
 at 03. Again, while the earth proceeds to A, the fun will 
 feem to have moved through the figns s, S, and ijf : and 
 while the earth defcribes the femi-circle ABC, the fun will 
 appear to have moved in the concave furracc of the heavens, 
 through the fix figm, £S, rj[, J, v?, ™, X. So that an 
 inhabitant of the earth will fee the fun go through the fame 
 orbit or circle in the heavens, and in the lame fpace of time, 
 as a fpciftator in the fun would fee the earth defcribc the 
 fame. 
 
 Hence arifes that apparent motion of the fun, whereby he is 
 fcen to advance, infenfibly, towards the caftern ftars : info- 
 much, that if any fiar near the ecliptic, rife any time with 
 the fun; after a few days, the fun will be got more to the 
 ealt of the ftar, and the ftar will rife and let before him. 
 For the feveral phenomena refulting from the fun's apparent 
 motion, or the earth's real motion, as the diversity of day 
 and night, of feafons, fcfr. fee Karth. 
 Nature, properties, figure, &c. oftheSvti. — 1°. As the folar 
 fpots are fometimes found to flay three days longer behind 
 the fun, than they fpend in paifing over the hemifphere vifi- 
 ble to us ; we cafdy deduce, that they do not adhere to the 
 furface of the fun, but are at fome diftance therefrom. 
 2°. As the fpots frequently rife and van ifh, even in the midft 
 of the fun's difk ; and undergo fcveral changes, both with 
 regard to bulk, and figure, and deniity ; it follows, that 
 they frequently rife de novo, about the fun, and arc again 
 diflipated. 
 
 1°. Hence it fhould follow, that they are formed out of the 
 exhalations of the fun, and are no other than folar clouds. 
 4 0 . Since, then, exhalations proceeding from the fun, rife 
 above him, and flop at a certain altitude; it is evident there 
 is fome fluid incompafling the fun, to urge the exhalations 
 to rife ; and this fluid muft be deafer at bottom, and rarer 
 a-top, like our atmofpherc. 
 
 5 0 . Since the fpots frequently diflblve and difappear in the 
 middle of the fun's difk; the matter of the fpots, that is, 
 the folar exhalations, fall back again to the fun : whence it 
 follows, that there muft arife various alterations in the fun's 
 atmofpherc, and the fun himfclf. 
 
 6° Since the revolution of the fpots round the fun is found 
 very regular, and the fpots very near the fun ; it follows, 
 that the fpots do not revolve round the fun, but that the fun, 
 together with his atmofpherc, wherein the maculx are, move 
 round their common axis, in an interval of about twenty-fe- 
 ven days : and hence it is, that the fpots near the limb, being 
 viewed obliquely, appear narrow and oblong. 
 7 0 . Since the fun, in every fituation, appears like a circular 
 tlifk ; its figure, as to fenfe, muft be fpherieal ; though we 
 fhall hereafter fhew, that it is really fpheroidical. 
 Befides the macula: or dark fpots, fevcral authors make men- 
 tion of faculee, or fpots brighter than the reft of the fun's 
 tlifk; and thole generally larger, and very different from the 
 macula?, both in figure, duration, £fr. 
 Thefacu.hr, Kircher, Schemer, w. fuppofe to be eruptions 
 of flames ; and hence take occafion to reprefent the face of 
 the fun as full of volcano's, C3Y. But Huygens, ufing the 
 beft telefcopes, could never find any fuch things, though he 
 has fometimes ipied certain places in the macula themlelvcs, 
 more lucid than the reft. But thefe do not feem owing to 
 any kindled matter, which were fcarce confiltent with their 
 duration, and their frequent change into macula; ; but to the 
 refraction of the fun's rays, through the thinner exhalations, 
 while the groffer, in their neighbourhood, intercept the 
 fame. 
 
 y°. That the fubftancc of the fun is fire, we thus prove : 
 the fun fliines, and his ravs, collected bv concave mirrors, 
 or convex lens's, burn, confume, and melt the moft folid 
 bodies, or elie convert them into allies, or glafs. Wherefore, 
 as the force of the folar rays is diminiftied by their divergen- 
 cy, in a duplicate ratio of the diftances reciprocally taken : 
 it is evident, their force and effect is the fame, when collec- 
 ted by a burning lens or mirror, as if we were at fuch diftance 
 from the fun, where they were equally denfe. The fun's rays, 
 therefore, in the neighbourhood of tip fun, produce the fame 
 efteiTls, as might be expected from the moft vehement fire ; 
 confequently, the fun is of a fiery fubftancc. 
 Hence it follows, that its furface is every where fluid ; that 
 being the condition of flame. 
 
 Indeed, whether the whole body of the fun be fluid, as fome 
 think, or folid, as others; we do not determine : but as tffere 
 are 110 other marks, whereby to diftinguifh fire from other 
 bodies, but light, heat, a power of burning, confirming, 
 melting, calcining, and vitrifying ; we do not fee what 
 fhould hinder, but that the fun may be a globe of fire, like 
 ours, inverted with flame. 
 
 q° Since the maculre arc formed out of the folar exhala- 
 tions, it appears, that the fun is not pure fire, but that there 
 are heterogeneous particles mixed along with it. 
 Vol. II. N°. 14S- 
 
 10°. The figure of the fun is a fpheroid, higher under its 
 equator than about the poles. This wc provethus : the fun 
 has a motion about its own axis, and therefore the folar mat- 
 ter will have an endeavour to recede from the centres of the 
 circles wherein it moves ; and that, with the greater force, 
 as the peripherics of the circles are greater. But the equator 
 is the greateft circle, and the reft, towards the poles, conti- 
 nually decrcafe; therefore the folar matter, though atfirftin 
 a fpherieal form, will endeavour to recede from the centre: 
 of the equator, further than from the centres of the paral- 
 lels. 
 
 Confequently, fince the gravity whereby it is retained in its 
 place, is fuppofed to be uniform throughout the whole fun; 
 it will really recede from the centre, more under the equator 
 than under any of the parallels. And hence the fun's dia- 
 meter, drawn through the equator, will be greater than that 
 palling through the poles, i. e, the fun's figure is not perfedt- 
 ly fpherieal, but fpheroidical, 
 
 For the parallax cf fAf Sun, fee Parallax. 
 
 For the Sun'j dijlance ; as the determination thereof depends 
 on that of the parallax, and as the f/m's parallax is not found 
 without a long operofe calculus ; fo aftronomers do not agree 
 much ab >ut either of them. 
 
 The mean diftance of the fun from the earth, fome make 
 7490 diameters of the earth ; others iooco, others 12000, 
 others 15000 ; but allowing M. de la Hire's parallax of 6'', 
 the fun's mean diftance will be J 7 1 88 diameters of the earth; 
 and allowing that of Caffini, only 14182. See Distance. 
 The apparent diameter of the fun, is not always the Orate. 
 Ptolemy makes it, when greateft, 33' 20" ; Tycho 32' ; 
 Kepler, 3l'i"j Ricciolu?, 32' 8"; Caffini, 32' 20" ; de la 
 Hire, 32' 43". Its mean, apparent diameter, according to 
 Ptolemy, is 32' 18"; according to Tycho, 31'; according 
 to Kepler, 30' 30" ; according to Ricciolus, 31' 40'; ac- 
 cording to Cailini, 31' 40" ; according to de la Hire, 32' 10''. 
 Its lealt diameter, Ptolemy makes, 31' 20'' ; Tycho, 30' j 
 Kepler, 30' ; Ricciolus, 31' ; Caffini, 31' 8" ; dc la Hire, 
 
 1 he true diameter cf the fun to that of the earth, is com- 
 puted to be, as 10000 to 208. 
 For the eclipfes of the Sun, fee the article Eclipse. 
 Cycle of the Sun. See the article Cycle. 
 Meridian altitude of theSuK, See the article Meridian. 
 
 Angle at the Sun, 
 Diurnal arch of the Su N, 
 Height of the Sun, 
 Nadir of the Sun, 
 Noclurtial arch of the Su N, 
 Place of the Sun, 
 Rttrogradation of the Sun, 
 Vertical of the Sun, 
 Raifms of the Sun, 
 
 f Angle. 
 " Arch. 
 Height. 
 Nadir. 
 f> See I Arch. 
 I j Place. 
 1 Retrogradation. 
 I I Vertical. 
 j [Raisin. 
 
 SUNDAY, the firft day of the week ; thus called bv our 
 idolatrous anceftors, becaufe fet apart for theworfhipof the 
 fun. 
 
 It is now more properly cal'ed the Lord' s-day, dies dominicus, 
 becaufe kept as a feaft in memory of our Lord's refurrection. 
 on this day ; and fabbath-day, becaufe iubftituted under the 
 new law, in the place of the fabbath, in the old law. 
 In the Breviary, and other offices, we meet with jundoys of 
 the firjl and fecond clafs. — Thofe of the firft daft, are Palm, 
 Eajlcr, Advent and JVhit funday, thofe of quafimodo and qua~ 
 dr age ft ma ; each whereof fee under its proper article. — Thofe 
 of the fecond clafs, arc the common jundays. 
 Anciently, each fun day in the year had its particular name, 
 which was taken from the introit of the day ; which cuftom 
 has only been continued to fome few in Lent: as, retninifce- 
 re, oculi, latare, judica. 
 
 It was Conftantine the Great, who firft made a law for the 
 proper obfervation of funday ; and who, according to Eufe- 
 bius, appointed it fhould be regularly celebrated throughout 
 the Roman empire. 
 
 Before him, and even in his time, they obferved the Jewifh 
 fabbath as well as funday ; both to fatisfy the law of Mofes, 
 and to imitate the apoftles, who ufed to meet together on 
 the firft day. 
 
 Indeed, fome are of opinion that the Lord's-day, mentioned 
 in the Apocalypfe, is our funday ; which they will have to 
 have been fo early inftituted by the apoftles. — be this as it 
 will, it is certain, a regard was had to this day, even in the 
 carlieft ages of the church ; as appears from the firft apology 
 of Juftin Martyr, where he defcribes the exercife of the 
 day, not much unlike to ours. 
 
 By Conftantine's laws, made in 321; it was decreed, th?.t 
 for the future, the funday fhould be kept a day of reft in all 
 cities and towns ; but he allowed the country people to fol- 
 low their work. — In 538, the council of Orleans prohibited 
 this countrr-labour ; but in regard there were fti i abundance 
 of Jews in the Gauls, and that the people gave into a good 
 many fuperftitious ufages in the celebration of the new fab- 
 bath, like thofe of the Jews among that of the old; the 
 council declares, that to hold it unlawful to travel with 
 u Q.q horfes, 
 
s u P ■ 
 
 tiorfcs^ cattle, and carriages-, to prepare foods^ or to do any 
 -tiling neceflary to the cleanlincis and decency of houfe.s or 
 perfons, favours more of Judaifm than Chriftianity. 
 
 ^hiinQuagefima Sunday, > g e£ S Quinquagesima. 
 
 trinity Sunday, 5 ? Trinity. 
 
 Sunday letter. 5ee the article Dominical letter, 
 
 SUN-jftfWf?", See the article Turnsol. 
 
 SUONATA. See the article Sonata. 
 
 SUO VETAURILI A, or Solit aurilia, a folcmn fa- 
 crifice among the ancient Romans ; wherein they offered 
 three victims, of three different kinds, viz. a bull, a ram, 
 and a boar. 
 
 Livy dtfcrlbing it, calls it fuovetaurilia, as compofed of fus, 
 avis, and taunts, the names of the three victims facrificed. 
 Dion. Halicarnalleus deferibing the fame, calls MfiUfaurjl'tai 
 in regard it was required, that the victims were perfect, and 
 without any defect ; follus, or folus, in the language of the 
 Dfci, liquifying integer, entire. 
 
 SUPERB1PARTIEN;>. See the article Ratio. 
 
 SUPERCARGO, a perfon employed by merchants to go a 
 voyage, and overfee their cargo or lading, and difpofc ot it 
 to the Lieft advantage. 
 
 SUPERC1LII eorrugator. See the article Corrugator, 
 
 SUPERCILIUM, in anatomy, the eye-brow. See Eye. 
 
 SuPER.cii.tUM, in the ancient architecture, denotes the up- 
 permost member of the corniche, called by the moderns, 
 corona, eroivn, or larmier. 
 
 Mr. Evelyn conceives, it fhould rather have been called jtil- 
 licidium, or drip> to denote its office of flickering the order 
 from rain* fire. ■ 
 Supercilium, is alfo ufed for a lljuarc member under the 
 upper toie in fome peddtals. 
 
 Some authors confound it with the tore itfelf. See Tore. 
 SUPEREROGATION, in theology, whata man docs 
 bevond his duty, or more than he was commanded to do. 
 The Roman ills ftand up ftrenuoufly for works of fupereroga- 
 tion; and maintain, that the obfcrvance of evangelical coun- 
 cils is Inch. By means hereof, a flock of merit is laid up; 
 which the church has the difpofal of, and which fhe distri- 
 butes in indulgences to fuch as need. 
 
 The reformed church do not allow of any work of fuperero- 
 g'otiien ; but hold with the apolfle, That when we have done 
 our belt, we are but unprofitable fervants. See Merit. 
 SUPEP.FETATION*, Superfoetatio, in medicine, an 
 after or fecond conception ; happening when the mother, 
 already pregnant, conceives, of a later coition ; fo that fhe 
 bears at once two foetus's of unequal age and bulk, and is 
 delivered of them at different times. 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, fper, over, and fetus, 
 embryo. 
 
 We meet with instances of fuperfeialions of women in Hip- 
 pocrates, Ariilotle, Pliny, du Laurens, &C. — But they are 
 much more frequent in hares and fows. 
 
 An inffance of an extraordinary kind of fuperfetation, we 
 have in Rarthoiine ; who tells us, that a Danilh girl was 
 born big with child. 
 
 Mentzelius, a German phyfician, adds, that in 1 672, the 
 wife of a phyfician, in I huringia, was delivered of a girl 
 big with another ; whereof fhe was delivered in eight days 
 time ; and which was baptized, and died a day after her 
 mother. *i 
 
 The naturalifts hold, that female rats are frequently born 
 with young rats in their wombs. — In the king of Denmark's 
 cabinet, is feert an egg, in the middle whereof is another 
 tgg perfectly formed. See £cc. 
 
 We meet with fomething like a fuperfetation in plants too ; 
 there being a kind of lemon found to grow inclofed in the 
 body of another. 
 
 In the Hijlary of the royal academy of fiences, for the year 
 1709, mention is made of a letter from a very confidcrable 
 magittrate, to the academy, containing a very remarkable 
 inffance of a fuperfetation ; a buichcr's wife of Aix being 
 delivered in that year of nine children, each about two days 
 after other, all well formed and alive. 
 SUPERFICIAL content. See Superficies, Area and 
 Measuring. 
 
 SUPERFICIES, or Surface, in geometry, a magnitude, 
 
 confu'ered as having two dinicnfions ; or extended in length 
 
 and breadth ; but without thicknefs or depth. 
 
 Jn bodies, the fuperficies is all that prcfents itfelf to the eye. 
 
 ■ — A juperfuies is chiefly conlidercd, as the external part of a 
 
 fplid : when we fpeak of a furface fimply, and without any 
 
 regard to body, we ufually call it figure. 
 Rectilinear Superficies, is that comprehended between right 
 
 lines. _ 
 Curvilinear Superficies, that comprehended between curve 
 
 lines. 
 
 iVa/i* Superficies, is that which has no inequality, but lies 
 
 evenly^between its.boundary lines. ' 
 Convex Superficies, is the exterior part of a fpherical or 
 
 fpheroidical body. 
 Ct/iuave Superficies, is the internal part of an orbicular or 
 
 SUP 
 
 fpheroidical body'. 
 
 The meafure or quantity of a furface, is called the area there- 
 of. See Are a and Measuring. 
 
 The finding of this meafure or area, is called the quadrature 
 thereof. See Quadrature. 
 
 To meafure the furfaces of the feveral kinds of bodies, as 
 fphcres, cubes, parallelepipeds, pyramids, prifms, cones, 6fif. 
 fee Area. 
 
 Line of Superficies, a line ufually found on the fector, and 
 Gunter's fcale. — 'The defcription and ufe hereof, fee under 
 the articles Sector and Gunter'j fcale. 
 
 SUPERFINE, in the manufactories, a term ufed to exprcfi 
 the fupcrhtive fincnefs of a fluff. 
 
 Thus a cloth, a camlet, &ti arc faid to be fvperfine, when 
 made of the finelt wool, fsV. or when they are the fineft 
 that can be made. 
 
 The term is particularly ufed among gold wier-drawers, for 
 the gold or filver wier which after being drawn through an 
 infinite number of holes, each lefs and lefs, is, at length, 
 brought to be no bigger than a hair. 
 
 SUPER1NCESSUS radens, 7 g 5 Sliding. 
 
 Superincessus vohens, S cc (Rolling. 
 
 SUPER INSTITUTION, Superinstitutio, denotes one 
 inlfitution upon another. — As, if A be admitted and inltitu- 
 ted toa benefice upon one title, and B be admitted, inftituted, 
 &c. by the prefentation of another. 
 
 SUPERIN TENDENT, in the French cufloms, an officer 
 who has the prime management and direction of the finances 
 or revenues of the king. 
 
 The term is alfo ufed for the firft officer in the queen's houfe- 
 
 hold, who has the chief adminiftration thereof. 
 
 They have alfo 2. fuperintendent of the buildings, anfwering 
 
 to the furveyor of the works among us. See Surveyor. 
 
 The cardinal de Richelieu made himfelf fuperintendant of 
 
 commerce. 
 
 Superintendent, alfo denotes an ecclefiaftical fuperior in 
 feveral reformed churches where epifcopacy is not admitted ; 
 particularly among the Lutherans in Germany, and the Cal- 
 vtnifts in fome other places. 
 
 The fuperintendant is, in effect, little other than a bifhop ; 
 only his power is fomewhat more retrained than that ot our 
 diocefan bifhops. 
 
 He is the chief paflor, and has the direction of all the infe- 
 rior pallors within his diflrict, or diocefe. 
 
 In Germany they had formerly Superintendents general, 
 who were fuperior to the ordinary fuperintendents. — Thefe, 
 in reality, were archbifhops; but the dignity is funk into dif- 
 ufe; and at prcfent, none but \hs fuperiniemlent of Wirtem- 
 bcrg affumes the quality of fupcrintendent general. 
 
 SUPERIOR, or Superiour, fomething railed [above ano- 
 ther, or that has a right to command another. — Thus an ab- 
 bot is called the fuperior of an 3bbey j and a prior the fupe- 
 rior of a convent. 
 
 The canonills hold, that a perpetual fuperiority conftitutes a 
 title : but a fuperior may be continued by thofe who confli- 
 cted him fuch, yet without the fuperiority's being rendered, 
 by that means, perpetual. 
 
 The church of France allow the fuperiority and primacy of 
 the pope i not his infallibility, as all the other Romilh cburche* 
 do. See Pope, Abbot, and Prior. 
 Superior capitis obliquus, ^ fOBLiQjJUS. 
 
 Superior maxilla. 
 Superior oculi obliquus, 
 Superior planets, 1 . 
 
 Superior pajticus ferratus, f \ 
 Superior refpondeat, 
 Superior fapularis, 
 Superioris tabii elevator, 4 
 
 Maxilla. 
 Obliquus. 
 Planet. 
 Serr atus. 
 Respondeat, 
 supraspinatus. 
 Elevator. 
 
 SUPER JURARE. — Anciently, when a criminal endeavoured 
 to excui'e himfelf by his own oath, or by that of one or more 
 witnefies ; and yet the crime was fo notorious, that he was 
 convicted by the oaths of many more witnefies ; this was 
 called fupcrjurarc. 
 SUPERLATIVE, in grammar, an inflexion of nouns ad- 
 jective, ferving to augment and heighten their nullification, 
 and fhew the quality of the tiling denoted to be in the high- 
 eft degree. 
 
 In Englifb, the juperlative is ufually formed by the addition 
 of ejl ; as rich*/?, huUeJl, cSff. rarely by the addition of 
 ijfimo, as general iffimo ; more frequently by the prefixing of 
 rnoji ; as mojl honourable, moji amiable, c5V. 
 The French are generally forced to form thcitfuperlatives, bv 
 prefixing of le plus, fometimes of tres, and fome times of fort. 
 The Italians and Spaniards have great advantages over them 
 in this refpect ; their language abounding with magnificent 
 words to exaggerate things withal, without auxiliary parti- 
 cles : yet the Hebrews are more poor than the French in 
 this refpect, as having neither comparatives nor juperlatives. 
 They ufe to exprefs thefe degrees by the particles Jeter and 
 meed, fometimes by the prepofition ruin, and fometimes by 
 re-doubling the words \ of which we find frequent inffancf-i 
 in the bible. SUPER ■ 
 
SUP 
 
 SUP 
 
 SUPERNATURAL grace. Sec the article Grace. 
 Supernatural thso'.ogy. See the article Theology. 
 SUPERNUMERARY, Something over and above a fixed 
 
 number. — in feveraj of the offices are fupernitmerary clerks, 
 
 to be ready on extraordinary occafions. 
 
 There are alfo fupernitmerary ferveyors of the exciSe, to be 
 
 ready to fupply vacancies when they fall : thefe have but 
 
 -half pay. 
 
 In mufic, the fupcrnumerar-;, called bv the Greeks proftam- 
 hanomenos, is the loweft ot the chords of their fyftem ; an- 
 fwering to a, mi, la, ol the lowed oitave of the moderns. 
 See Diagram. 
 
 SUPERPART1CLXARIS, >- n 
 SUPERPART1ENS, 5 I0 * 
 
 SUPER-PURGATION, hyper catharfis, in medicine, an ex- 
 ceflive, over-violent purging. 
 
 A man who had taken powder of diarcathamum inwardly, 
 was Sent by it to ftoul an hundred times ; and was cured of 
 the fuper-purgation by a pound of capon-broth, an ounce of 
 faccharum roSatum, five grains of laudanum, and the yolk 
 ot an egg. — In lieu of laudanum, they fometimes ufe a 
 drachm and a half of new venice- treacle. Burnet. 
 
 SUPEROJJADRIPARTIENS. See the article Ratio. 
 
 SUPERSCAPULARlS inferior, called alfo iufrafphatus ; a 
 mufcle that helps to draw the arm backwards. It covers 
 all the fpace that is between the fpinc, and the teres minor ; 
 and is inferted into the neck of the humerus. 
 
 Superscapularis fuperior, in anatomy, a mufcle, called 
 alfo fnprafpinatus. See Supr aspinatus. 
 
 SUPERSEDEAS, a writ ifl'ued in divers cafes, importing, 
 in general, a command to ftay, or forbear fome ordinary 
 proceedings at law, which, in appearance, ought to be 
 done, or purfucd, were it not for the cauSe, whereon this 
 writ is granted. 
 
 Thus, a man, regularly, is to have a furety of peace, a- 
 gainft him of whom he will fwcar he is afraid ; and the juf- 
 tice required hereunto cannot deny it him : yet if the party 
 be formerly bound to the peace, cith;r in chancery, orelSe- 
 where, this writ lies, to ftay the jufticc from doing that, 
 which otherwife he ought not to deny. 
 
 Clerk of the Supersedeas. See the article Clerk. 
 
 SUPERS TITION, extravagant devotiun, or religion wrong 
 directed, or conducted. 
 
 It was a piece of fupcrjlition in the ancient Romans, to ob 
 Serve the flight of birds, the entrails of victims, &c. 
 The Romifh priefts make a fine penny of the fupcrjlition of 
 the people : Monf. Thiers has an cxprefs treatile des fupcrjli- 
 tions papulaires. Women, he obferves, are naturally more 
 inclined to fuperftitian than impiety. Plutarch has- endea- 
 voured to mew, that fuperjiition is worfe than athcifm. The 
 punimment allotted by feveral councils for the SuperStitious, 
 is, to faff, a month in prifon. 
 
 SUPERSTITIOUS magic. Sec Magic. 
 
 SUPERVISOR, Signifies a furveyor, or overfeer. Sec Sur- 
 veyor, CSV. 
 
 It was formerly, and frill remains acuftom among fome, es- 
 pecially of the better fort, to make fuperv'ifor of wills ; to 
 overlook the executors, and fee their wills truly performed : 
 but it is to little purpofe ; as being now fo carelefly exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 SUPINATION, Supinatio, in anatomy, the action of a 
 Supinator mufcle ; or the motion whereby it turns the hand 
 fo as that the palm is lifted upwards towards heaven. See 
 Supinator. 
 
 SUPINATOR, in anatomy, a denomination given to two 
 mufclcs of the arm ; the one called fupinatir longus, the 
 other fap 'mat or br.vis ; both Serving t<j turn the palm of the 
 hand upwards. 
 
 The firft arif.s by a flefhv beginning, three or four fingers 
 breadth above the external protuberance of the humerus. It 
 lies along all the radius, to whofe inferior and external part 
 it is inferted by a pretty broad tendon. — See Tab. Anat. 
 (Myol.) fig. i. ii. 20. figi 2. n. ig. fig. 6. n. 16. fig. y. 
 n. 44.. 
 
 The fecond comes from the external and upper part of the 
 ulna, and pafling round the radius, is inferted into its upper 
 
 and fore part, below the tendon of the biceps See Tab. 
 
 Anat. fMyol.) fig. y. n. io, io. and 45. 
 
 SUPINE, in the Latin grammar, a part of the conjugation 
 of a verb, of like effect with the infinitive mood. 
 There are two kinds of fupiuis, the one in urn, whofe figni- 
 fication Is a£live, and marks a motion, as dare nuptum ; = the 
 other in a, having a paffive Signification, as horrendum au- 
 dita, I hzfupints have neither number nor perfon. 
 They have their name, fays Probus, and after him Voffius, 
 quod ad mjlar lupinorum is otioforum hominum omnia habent 
 confufa. Or, according to Prifcian, quod nafcantur a parti- 
 ctpits paffwts, qua fijpina appdhta funt, quia in infimo loco 
 pla, tstam conjuoatio/m molem fufcipiant. 
 
 iUPpLANTALIA, or Suppedanea, among phyficians, 
 plaiftcrs, or other medicaments applied to the fpld of the 
 
 feet ; generally made of leaven, muStard, horie-radifh, fait, 
 (bap, gunpowder, i$c\ 
 SUPPLEMENT of anarch, in geometry or trigonometry, 
 is the number of degrees that it wants of being an intire 
 femicircle : as complement Signifies what an arch wants of be- 
 ing a quadrant. 
 
 Supplement, in matters of literature, an appendage to a 
 book, to fupply what is wanting therein, 
 hrenmeimius has wrote divers fupplements, to reftore the 
 bt-oks of feveral ancient authors, part whereof had been loft. 
 'I he French have alfo ufed the word fupplement for a kind of 
 tax, or after-payment charged on lands, offices, Cifr, that are 
 pietKr.dcd to have been fold beneath their value. 
 
 SUPPLICAVIT, a writ iffuing out of chancery, for taking 
 furety of the peace when one is in danger of being hurt in 
 his body by another. 
 
 It is directed to the juftices of the peace, and lherift" of the 
 county; and is grounded on the ftatutc 1 Ed. III. which 
 appoints, that certain perfons fhall be afhgned by the lord 
 chancellor to take care of the peace. 
 SUPPORTED, in heraldry, a term applied to the upper- 
 moft quarters of a fhield, when divided into feveral quar- 
 ters ; thefe feeming, as it were, fupported, or fultained, by 
 thofe below. 
 
 The chief is alfo Said to be fupported when it is of two co- 
 lours, and the upper colour takes up two thirds of it : in this 
 cafe it is fuppartcd by the colour underneath. 
 SUPPORTERS, in heraldry, figu res in an achievement, 
 placed by the fide of the fhield, and feeming to fupport, or 
 hold up the fame. 
 
 Supporters are chiefly figures of beafts ; figures of human 
 creatures ufed for the like purpofe are more properly called 
 tenants. 
 
 Some make another difference between tenant and, fxpt>orter ; 
 when the fhield is bore by a fmgle animal, it is called te- 
 nant ; when by two, they are called fupporters. 
 'I he figures of things inanimate, fometimes placed afide of 
 efcutcheons, but not touching, or feeming to bear them ; 
 though fometimes called fupporters, are more properly call- 
 ed cotifes. 
 
 I be fupporters of the English arms are a lion and an uni- 
 corn ; fume of the former kings have had a leopard and an 
 unicorn; others griffons, others eagles. See Arms. 
 
 The fupporters of the French arms are angels ; which are 
 faid to have been firft introduced by Philip VI. his device 
 being an angel over-throwing a dragon : the dragon being at 
 that time the device of the kings of Eneland. 
 Thofe of the prince of Monaco, arc Auguftine monks : 
 Thofe of the family of the Urfini, Bears, in allufion to 
 their names. 
 
 In England, none below the degree of a banneret are al- 
 lowed fupporters, which are restrained to thofe called the 
 high nobility. The Germans permit none but princes and 
 noblemen of rank to bear them. Among the French the 
 ufe of them is more promifcuous. 
 
 SUPPOS1T1 medium. Sec the article Medium. 
 
 SUPPOSITION, in mufic, is when one of the parts dwells 
 on a note, while another part makes two or more leiPer 
 notes equivalent to it, by conjoint degrees. 
 Suppofilion is defined by a late author the ufing of two fuc- 
 ceflive notes, of the fame value, as to time; the one where- 
 of being a difcord, fuppefes the other a concord. 
 The harmony, Mr. Malcolm obferves, is always to be full 
 on the accented parts of the bar, or meafure, but on the 
 unaccented, difcords may tranfiently pafs, without any of- 
 fence to the ear. This tranfient ufe of difcords, followed 
 by concords, make what we, after the French, call fuppofi- 
 tien, 
 
 There are feveral kinds of fuppofttion : the firft is, when the 
 parts proceed gradually from concord to difcord, and difcord 
 to concord ; the intervening difcord ferving only as a transi- 
 tion to the following concord. 
 
 Another kind is, when the parts do not proceed gradually 
 from the difcord to the concord, but defcend to it by the 
 interval of a third. 
 
 A third kind, like the fecond, is, when the rifing to the 
 difcord is gradual ; but the defending from it to the follow- 
 ing concord, is by the diftance of a fourth. 
 A fourth kind, very different from all the reft, is, when 
 the difcord falls on the accented parts of the meafure, and 
 the rifing to it is by the diftance of a fourth. In which cf.fe 
 it is abfolutely neceffary to follow it immediately, by a gra- 
 dual defcent into a concord, that has juft been heard befbr* 
 the harmony ; to make the preceding diScord pafs without 
 offence, and only feem a tranfition to the concord. 
 
 Supposition, in arithmetic. See Position. 
 
 SUPPOSITORY*, Suppositorium, in pharmacy, a Solid 
 medicine thruft up the fundament, in lieu of a liquid one, 
 or clyffer, where that would not be So convenient. 
 
 * The Latins call it balanu,, becaufe anciently made in figura 
 of an acorn. 
 
SUP 
 
 it is ufiially compofed of common honey, mixed up with 
 either foap, or oil, anil formed into pieces of the length and 
 thickncfs of the tittle finger, only pyramidal. — To the com- 
 pofition is fornetimes alio added powder of feammony, cu- 
 phorbium, colocynthis, &c. 
 
 On fomc occafions fuppoftories are only a cut of bacon, the 
 flein of a leek, or the like matter, thruft, like a tent, up 
 the amis, to irritate the ipbinctcr mufclc, and oblige it to 
 extrude the excrements. 
 
 The fuppojttsry was invented for the convenience of fuch as 
 have an averfion to the taking of ciyfters ; or to be ufed 
 where the difeafe docs not allow thereof. 
 SUPPRESSION *, in law, the extinction, or annihilation 
 of an office, right, rent, or the like. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin fab, and prano, I prefs 
 under. 
 
 Suppression, in grammar, denotes an omiffion of certain 
 words in a fentencc, which yet are neceflary to a full and 
 perfect conftrudtion. — As, " I come from my father's j" 
 that is, " from my father's houfe." 
 
 Supprejfson is a figure of fpeech very frequent in our language ; 
 chiefly ufed for brevity and elegance. Some rules relating 
 hereto, are as follow : 
 
 i". Whenever a word comes to be repeated in a fentencc 
 oftnerthan once, it is to be fuppreficd : thus we fay, " this 
 " is my matter's horfe not, « this horfe is my matter's 
 " horfe." 
 
 2°. Words that arc nccefTurily implied may be fuppreficd. 
 And, 3 0 . All words that ufe and cuftom fupprefs in other 
 languages, are to be fuppreficd in Englifh i unlefs there be 
 particular reafons for the contrary. 
 Sufpression, in medicine, is applied to the humours that 
 are retained in the body by fome obft ruction or ftoppage of 
 the ufual out-let. 
 
 We fay, a fupprejfien of urine, of the menfes, &c. See 
 Ischuria, Urine, Menses, csV. 
 Frrc of Suppression, in chymiftry. See Fire. 
 SUPPURATION *, in medicine, the action whereby ex- 
 travafated blood, or other humours in the body are ripened, 
 or changed into pus. 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, fab, under, and pus, 
 p ir s. 
 
 The change is begun by a diflipation of the moft fubtile and 
 fpirituous parts of the blood : what is left behind, thickens 
 ;ind purifies by little and little ; that is, its falts and fulphurs 
 dtt&tgage thcmfelves from the grofier parts wherein they were 
 embarrafled. Thefe parts thus difengaged, arid ailing on one 
 another, bruife and break each other, and thus excite a fer- 
 mentation, which increales the heat of the part ; whereby 
 the matter is further digefted, and a pain and tenfion pro- 
 duced. At' length the blood loles its natural colour, and 
 becomes quite white, by the mixture of its acid, fulphurous 
 and acrimonious particles ; as we lee happens to fulphurous 
 alcaltes, when mixed with acids. 
 
 SUPPURATIVES, orSuppuRATiNG medicir.es, are ripeners, 
 
 . or medicines that promote fuppuration. 
 
 Suppurative; are all hot ; by which means increafing the 
 warmth of the part, they rcfolvc the humour into a pus. 
 Such are mallows, melilot, lily-roots, diachylon, pcliitory, 
 figs, aromatic gums, meals, CsV. 
 
 SUPPUTATION. See the article Computation. 
 
 SUPRALAPSARY, in theology, a perfon who holds that 
 God, without any regard to the good or evil works of men, 
 has refolved, by an eternal decree, to fave fome, and damn 
 others. 
 
 Thefe are alfo called antelapfaries ; and are oppofed to fub- 
 lapfaries and infralapfaries. 
 
 According to the fapralapfarics, the object of predeftinatioH, 
 is homo creabilis bf labilis ; and according to the fublapfaries, 
 homo creatui t$ lapfus. 
 
 The Jupralapj aries feem, in one fingle abfolute decree, to 
 confound two feveral ones which ought to be diftinguifhed : 
 the one, the conditional decree preceding the fore-fight of 
 man's obedience, or difobedience to the grace of God j the 
 other, the abfolute decree following this forc-fight. 
 The prcdetcrminants alfo, admit an abfolute decree prior to 
 the fbrefight of original fin, in common with the fupralap- 
 faries ; but diftinguifh themfelves from thefe, as alfo from 
 the infralapfaries and janfenifts, in that their abfolute decree 
 includes the offering a fufficient means of falvation to the 
 reprobate ; fo that, as to the point of power, nothing hin- 
 ders but that they might be faved. 
 SUPRASPINATUS, in anatomy, a mufcle thus called from 
 its flelhy origination at the upper end of the bafis of the fca- 
 pula above the fpine, to the upper part whereof it is con- 
 nected, as alfo to the fuperior edge of the fcapula ; whence 
 marching along the upper interfcapulium, or thin part of the 
 fcapula, which it fills, it pafles under the acromium and ar- 
 ticulation of the humerus. — It helps to lift the arm up- 
 
 S U R 
 
 wards. Sec Tab. Anat. (Myol.) fig. 7. n. 32. 
 UPREMA.CY, in the Englifh polity, the fuperiority »r 
 fovercignty of the king over the church as well as ftate 0"f 
 England, whereof he is eftablifticd head. See King. 
 The king's fupremacy was fir ft eftablifhed, or, as others fay, 
 recovered by king Henry VIII. in 1534, after breaking with 
 the pope. — It is iince confirmed by feveral canons, as well as 
 by the articles of the church or England ; and is palled into 
 an oath, which is required as a neceflary qualification for all 
 offices and employments both in church and ftate, from pcr- 
 fons to be ordained, from the members of both houfes of 
 parliament, bV. 
 
 This right of fupremacy confifh chiefly in the following arti- 
 cles, i°. That the archbifhops of cither province cannot 
 fummon the bifhops and clergy to convocation, nor enact 
 any canons without the king's cxprefs confent, by 25 Hen. 
 VIIL c. 19. Whereas before that act the convocation was 
 often called, and laws made by it for governing the church, 
 without any authority from the crown. 
 2°. In that there lies now an appeal from the archbifhop to 
 the king in chancery ; and on fuch an appeal, a commiffion 
 under the great feal is to be directed to certain perfons, 
 whereof commonly half are laymen, and half clergymen, 
 which is called the court of delegates, and which finally de- 
 termine all ccclefiaftical caufes, by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19. 
 though fornetimes a review is granted. Before this ftatute, 
 the appeal from the archbifhop's court lay to the pope only. 
 3 0 . The king can grant commiilions for vifiting fuch places 
 as are exempt from the jurifdiction ofbifhops, or archbifhops ; 
 and appeals lie from thence to the king in chancery : whereas 
 before 25 Hen. VIII. the pope only could vitit them, and 
 receive appeals from thofe courts. 
 
 4 0 . Perfons in holy orders are not, as formerly, exempt from 
 the king's temporal laws, any more than laymen. 
 5". The bifhops and clergy do not fwear, or pay any obedi- 
 ence to the pope ; but muft take the oaths of allegiance and 
 fupreriiacy to the king. 
 SURA, in anatomy, the calf, or flefhy part of the leg. 
 
 The word is alfo ufed by fome for the fibuU. Se? 
 Fibula. 
 
 SURALIS. See the article Muscle. 
 
 SURBATING, among farriers, is when the fole of a horfe's 
 foot is wore, bruifed, or fpoiled, by beating the hoof againft 
 the ground in travelling without flioes, or going in hot 
 fandy lands, or with a (hoe that hurts the fole, lies too flat 
 to it, or the like. 
 
 Sometimes alfo it happens by over-riding a horfe while young, 
 before his feet are hardened ; and fornetimes by the hardnef* 
 of the ground, and high lifting his feet. 
 The figns hereof, are his halting on both fore-legs, and go- 
 ing ftiffly, and creeping as if half foundered. 
 In the general, there is nothing better for furhaied feet thun 
 tar melted into the foot ; or vinegar boiled with foot to the 
 confidence of a broth, and put into the foot boiling hot, 
 with hurds over it, and fplints to keep it in. 
 
 SURCHARGE oftheforeft, is when a commoner puts more 
 beafts in the foreft than he has a right to. See Forest. 
 
 SURCINGLE, a girdle, wherewith the clergy of the church 
 of England ufually tie their cafibeks. Sec Girdle. 
 
 SURCOAT, a coat of arms, to be wore over body armour. 
 See Coat of arms. 
 
 The furcoat is properly a loofe thin taffaty coat, with arms 
 embroidered, or painted on it. — Such as is worn by heralds, 
 anciently alfo ufed by military men over their armour, to 
 diftinguifh themfelves by. 
 SURD, in arithmetic, denotes a number that cannot be ex- 
 prefled ; or a number that is incommenfuratc to unity. 
 This is otherwife called an irrational, or incommenfurablt 
 number. 
 
 When any number or quantity hath its root propofed to be 
 extracted, and yet is not a true figurate number of that 
 kind ; that is, if its fquarc root be demanded, and it is not 
 atruefquare: if its cube root be required, and itfelf be not 
 a true cube, &c. then it is impoffible to aftign, either in 
 whole numbers or in fractions, any axact root of fuch num- 
 ber propofed. 
 
 And whenever this happens, it is ufual in mathematics to 
 mark the required root of fuch numbers or quantities, by 
 prefixing before it the proper mark of radicality, which 
 is */ : thus : 2 fignifies the fquare root of 2, and 
 3 
 
 y' : 16, or tj : (3) 16, fignifies the cubic root of 16 : which 
 roots, becaufe they are impoffible to 'be exprefled in num- 
 bers exactly, (for no effablc number, either integer, or frac- 
 tion, multiplied into itfelf, can ever produce 2; or being 
 multiplied cubically, can ever produce 16) are properly call- 
 ed furd roots. 
 
 There is alfo another way of notation now much in ufe, 
 whereby roots are exprefltd witheut the radical fign, by their 
 5 indexes : 
 
S U R 
 
 S U R 
 
 indexes : thus. 
 
 , tsV. fignify the fquare, cube^ 
 *^ fignify the fquare root, 
 
 and fifth power of x j fo # 3 ~ 
 cube, fcff, of 
 
 The reafon of which is plain enough ; for fince ,/ : .v is a 
 geometrical mean proportional between i and x, fo f is an 
 arithmetical mean proportional between o and i ; and there- 
 fore as 2 is the index of the fquare of x, £ will be the pro- 
 per index of its fquare root, &c, 
 
 Obfervc alfo, that for convenience, or brevity's fake, 
 quantities or numbers, which are not fords, arc often ex 
 preffed in the form of ford roots. Thus, \/ : 4, */ : ~ 
 3 
 
 ^/ : 27, bfc. fignify, 2, ?, 3, &c. 
 
 But though thefc ford roots (when truly fuch) are inexprefH- 
 ble in numbers, they are vet capable of arithmetical opera- 
 tions, (fuch as addition, fubirr action, multiplication, divi- 
 fion, &c.) how readily to perform which, the algebraifr. 
 ought not to be ignorant. 
 Surds are ehhtr fimple or compound. 
 
 Simple Surds are thofe which are expreffed by one fingle term, 
 3 
 
 —As n/ c. 
 
 Compound Surds are thofe formed by the addition or fub- 
 flraction of fimple fords : as *f : 5 -f- \/ '■ 2 ; 1/ '■ 5 — 
 
 t/ : 2, or 1/ : 7 -f- ^/ : 2 : which lafl is called ah univerfol 
 root, and fignifics the cubic root of that number, which is 
 the refult of adding 7 to the fquare root of 2. 
 To reduce rational quantities to the form of any Surd roots 
 affigned. — Involve the rational quantity according to the index 
 of the power of the ford, and then prefix before it the radical 
 fign of the ford propofed. Thus to reduce a = 10, to the 
 form of s/ ■ 15 — : b, y ou muft fquare a io ; and pre- 
 fixing the fign, it will fland thus, : a a = ,/ : 100, 
 which is the form of the ford defired. 
 
 4 
 
 So alfo, if 3 were to be brought to the form of ^/ : 12, 
 ^ou muft raife 3 up to its fourth power, and then prefixing 
 
 fche note of radicality to it, it will be ^/ : 8r, or Bi \, 
 4 
 
 which is the fame form with >/ : 12. 
 
 And. this way may a fimple ford fraction, whofe radi- 
 cal fign refers only to one of its terms, be changed into 
 another, which fhall refpect both numerator and denomi- 
 2 5 
 
 nator. Thus is reduced to 1/ : and 7 , to 
 
 as 25 ^-4 
 
 : i where the radical fign affects both numerator and 
 
 denominator. 
 
 To reduce fimple Surds, having different radical figns, (which 
 are called heterogeneal furds) to others that may have one com- 
 mon radical fign, or which are homogeneal. — Divide the in- 
 dexes of the powers by their greateft common divifor, and 
 fet the quotients under the dividends ; then multiply thofe 
 indexes crofs-ways by each other's quotients, and before the 
 product fet the common radical fign ,/ : with its proper in- 
 dex : then involve the powers of the given roots alternately, 
 according to the index of each other's quotient ; and be- 
 fore thofe products, prefix the common radical fign before 
 found. 
 
 2 4 
 
 To reduce ^ : a a and ^ : b b 
 4 
 
 2) : a a 2) : b b 
 
 1 X 2 
 
 4 4 
 
 : b b */ : a a a a. 
 
 T* reduce Surds to the loweft terms poffihle. — Divide the 
 ford by the greateft fquare, cube, biquadrate, &c. or any 
 other higher power, which you can difcovcr is contained in 
 it, and will meafure it without any remainder ; and then 
 prefix the root of that power before the quotient, or ford, 
 fo divided ; this will produce a new ford of the fame 
 value with the former, but in more fimple terms. Thus, 
 ^ : 16 a a b, by dividing by 1 6 a a, and prefixing the root 
 4 a, win be reduced to this, \a ^ : b, and 4/ : 12, will be 
 3 3 
 
 depreffed to 2 ^ : 3. Alfo y' : c P r will be brought down 
 3 
 
 to b ,/ : c r. 
 
 This reduction is of great ufe whenever it can be perform- 
 ed : but if no fuch fquare, cube, biquadrate, bfc. can be 
 found for a divifor, find out all the divifors of the power 
 of the ford propofed ; and then fee whether any of them 
 be a fquare, cube, CSV. or fuch a power as the radical fign 
 denotes : and if any fuch can be found, let that be ufed in 
 •the fame manner as above, to free the furd quantity in part 
 Vol. II. N°. 148. 
 
 1 ifrom the radical fign. Thus, if ^ : 288 be propofed ; a- 
 f mong its divifors will be found the fquares, 4, 9, 16, 36, 
 and 144; by which, if 28S be divided, there will anfe the 
 quotients 72, 32, iS,. 8, and 2 ; wherefore inftead of t/ : 
 288, you may put 2 J : 72, or 3 / : 32, or 4 y' : 18, or 
 6^:8, or laftly, 12 K / : 2, and the fame may be done in 
 fpecies. — But for the entire arithmetic of fords, fee Kerfey's 
 Algebra, and others en the fame fubject. 
 
 Cqmmenfurable Surds, 1 C Commensurable. 
 
 Heterogeneous S U R D s, > See< Heterogeneous. 
 
 Homogeneous Surds, J cHqmogeneous 
 
 SURDESOLID. See the article Sursold. 
 
 SURETY of the peace, an act whereby a pcrfon in danger 
 of hurt from another, is fecured by a bond, or recogni- 
 zance, acknowledged by the other to the king, and bill 
 bound with him, for keeping the peace. 
 This fecurity, ajufHce of the peace may command, either 
 as a minifter, when commanded thereto by higher authori- 
 ty ; or as a judge, when he doth it of his own power, de- 
 rived, from his commiffion. 
 
 It differs from furety of good abearing, in that whereas the 
 peace is not broken without an affray, or fuch like ; the 
 forety de bono gejlit may be broken by the number of a man's 
 company, or by his or their weapon, or harnefs. 
 
 SURFACE, in geometry, c^c. See Superficies. 
 
 SURFEIT, an indifpofition caufed by excefs in eating or 
 drinking, that is, by over-charging the ftomach : and ufually 
 attended with eruptions, and fbme times with a fever. 
 
 Surfeit water, is a water diftilled from poppies, and other 
 herbs, proper to cure indigeftions. 
 
 SURGE. The. failors call a wave, or billow of the fea, a 
 fag'. . . \ ' 
 
 Alfo, when they arc heaving at the capflan, if the cable 
 happen to flip back a little, they fay, the cable forges. 
 
 S U R G E R Y. See the article Chirurgery. 
 
 SURMOUNTED, in heraldry, is when one figure is laid 
 over another. As the pile furmounted of a chevron, in 
 Tab. Herald, fig. 84. 
 
 SURNAME, or Sirname, a name added to the proper 
 or baptifmal name, to denominate the perfon of fuch a fa- 
 mily. 
 
 It was the Romans who firft introduced the ufe of hereditary 
 names ; and that on occafion of their league with the Sa- 
 bines ; for the confirmation whereof, it was agreed, that 
 the Romans fhould prefix Sabine names, and the Sabines, 
 Roman names, to their own. 
 
 Thefe new names became family names, or furnamet, and 
 the old ones continued perfonal names. The former they 
 called cognomina } and gentilitia nom'ma ; and the latter pr&no- 
 
 tnina. 
 
 When the former came to be ufed among the French and 
 Ehglifh, they were c-dlkd fornames, or fornames, not becaufc 
 they are the names of the fire, or father; but, according 
 to Camden, becaufe they are fuper-added to the perfonal 
 name; or, rather, with Du Cange, becaufe at firft, ibis 
 family name was wrote over (&V) the other name, 
 thus : de Bourbon 
 Louis. 
 
 In lieu of fornames, the Hebrews, to keep up the memory 
 of their tribes, ufed the name of their father, with the ad- 
 dition of Ben, {on; as Mekki Ben- Addi, Addi Bin-Ccfom, - 
 &c. fu the Greek, tfcff* « Aa.Aa* . Icarus, the fon of Dx- 
 dalus ; Daedalus, the fon of Eupalmus, fcrV. 
 So, alfo, the ancient Saxons, Ceonred, Ceolwald'mg, CeoU 
 wd'.d Cuthing, that is, Cconred, fon of Ceolwald, fon of 
 Cuth : and in the fame fenfe, the Wclfh ufe ap for mab, 
 fon ; as ap Owen, Owen ap Harry, Harry ap Rhefe ; and 
 the Irifh, Mac, as Donald Mac Neal, Neal Mac Con, he. 
 and the old Normans, Fitz, as, John Fiiz Robert, Robert 
 Fitz Ralph, &c. 
 
 Scaliger adds, that the Arabs ufed their father's name, or 
 furname, without their perfonal name ; as, Aven-Pace, Aven- 
 Zsar, Sec. q. d. fon of Pace, Ton of Zoar, CSV. As, if Pace 
 had a fon at his circumcifion called Holy, he would be called 
 Aven-Pace, concealing Haly ; but his fon, however he were 
 named, would be called Avin-Hafy, &c. 
 The Romans, in time, multiplied their fornames: befides the 
 general name of the race, or family, called gentilitium ; 
 they took a particular one, to diftinguifh the branch of the 
 family, called alfo cognomen ; and fometimes a third, on ac- 
 count of forrie perfonal diftindtion ; as that of Africanus, by 
 Scipio ; of Torquatus, bv Manlius. 
 
 Thefe three different kinds of fornames had alfo their diffe- 
 rent names, viz. nomtn, cognomen, and agnomen: but thefe laft 
 were not hereditary ; being, in effect, a kind of fobriquets, 
 or nick-names, if that word be indifferent with refpect to 
 good and evil. See the fubject of the Roman names and 
 jurnames accurately treated of by Spanheim, de Prafl. & ufu 
 Numifm, Diff. 10. 
 
 In thefe, too, they have been fm::ated by later times : thus, 
 in our Englifh hiftory, wc find that Edgar was called the 
 Peaceable; Ethelred, iheUnready; Edmond, Ironfide; Ha- 
 rold, Hare-foot; William, the Bajlard; Henry I. Btauclerck; 
 
S U R 
 
 s u s 
 
 ?ohn, Lackland, Sec. — But as thefc names were never bore 
 by the forts, Camden, and others, think it ftrange, that 
 Plantaaenct mould he accounted the furname of the royal fa- 
 mily of England, till Henry VII ; or Tydur, or Tudor, that 
 from Henry VII. to king James I. or that of Steward from 
 king James I. to king George ; or, that Paloys fhould be e- 
 fteemed the fumame of the iatc family of French kings ; or 
 Bourbon of the prefent ; or Oldenburg of the kings of Den- 
 mark ; or Hapfbnrg of the emperors. See Pl ant agenet. 
 Du Chefne obferves, that furnames were unknown in I 1 ranee 
 before the year 987 ; when the lords began to aftume the 
 names of their demefnes.— Camden relates, that they were 
 firft taken up in England, a little before the conqucft, under 
 king Edward the confeffor : but he adds, they were never 
 fully eftablifhed among the common people, till the time of 
 Edward II. till then they varied with the father's name ; 
 if the father, e, gr. was called Richard, or Roger, the fon 
 was called Richardjhi, or Hodgfon ; but from that time they 
 were fettled, fome fay, by aft of parliament. 
 The oldeft furnames, are 'thofe we find ill Dcmefday-Book, 
 moft of them taken from places, with the addition of de ; as 
 Godefridus de Mannevilh, Waltcrus de Vernon, Robert 
 Oyly, l$c. others from their fathers, with /ffw, asGtiliel- 
 mus Situs Ofberni ; other* from their offices, as Kudo Da- 
 pifer, Gulielmus Ccur.cr arius Giflebertus Cocus, &c. But 
 the inferior people are noted 1 , limply, by their chriftian 
 names ; without any furna?jits at all. 
 
 In Sweden, till the year 1 514, no body ever took furnames ; 
 and the common people there, have none to this day; nor have 
 even the native Irilh, Poles, and Bohemians, &c, — It is very 
 late that the Welfh have had any ; and thofe they have, are 
 generally only formed, by leaving out the a in ap, and an- 
 nexing the p to their father's name ; as in lieu of Evan ap 
 Rice, iheynowfay, Evan Price j for tip Howel, Potvel, Szc. 
 Du Tillet maintains, that all furnames were originally given 
 by way of fobriquet:, or nick-names ; and adds, that they 
 are all fignifiennt and intelligible to thofe who underftand 
 the ancient dialefts of the feveral countries. — The greateft 
 part of our furnames, and thofe of greateft account, Cam- 
 den fhews, are local, and borrowed from the places in Nor- 
 mandy, &c. where the refpeftive perfons, who came over 
 with the conqueror, and fii ft bore them, had their pofTef- 
 fions, or their births: fuch as Mortimer, Warren, Albigny, 
 Piercy, Devereux, Tanhervll, Ntvil, Tracy, Montfort, &c. 
 He add?, that there is not a village in Normandy, but gives 
 name to fume family in England. — Others were taken from 
 places in England, as fifton, Sutton, Wotton, &c. 
 The Saxon common people generally took their father's or 
 their mother's chriftian name, with the addition of fon ; 
 though many were furnamed from their trade, as Smith, Car- 
 penter, Taylor, Weaver, Puller, &c. others from their of- 
 fices, as, Porter, Shepherd, Carter, Cook, Butler, &c. others 
 from their complexions, as Fairfax, i. e. fair hair ; Blunt 
 or Blond, i. e. flaxen, or yellow ; others from birds, as 
 Wren, Finch, &c. others from beafts, as Lamb, Hare, 
 Hart, &c. others from the winds ; others from faints, CSV. 
 
 SURPLUSAGE, in common law, fignifies a fuperfluity, 
 or addition of more than needeth ; which fometimes is the 
 caufe that a writ abateth. — But in pleading it is frequently 
 fct afide ; the reft remaining good. 
 
 Surplusage is fometimes alfo applied to matters of ac- 
 counts, and denotes a greater difburfement than the charge 
 of the accomptant amounteth to. 
 
 SURREBUTTER, in law, a fecond rebutter ; or the re- 
 plication of the plaintiff to the defendant's rebutter. See 
 Rebutter. 
 
 SURRE JO YNDER, is a fecond defence of the plairtifFs 
 declaration ; by way of anfv/cr to the defendant's rejoynder. 
 See Rejoinder. 
 
 SURRENDER, in common law, an inurnment in wri- 
 ting, teftifying, that the particular tenant of lands and te- 
 nements for life or years, doth fufficicntly confent and 
 agree, that he, who has the next or immediate remainder 
 or reverfion thereof, fhall have the prefent eftate of the 
 fame 111 poflcffion ; and that he hereby yields and gives up 
 the fame to him. 
 
 There may alfo be a furrender without writing : whence, 
 furrender is ufually divided into that in deed, and that in 
 law. 
 
 Surrender in deed, is that which is really made by exprefs 
 
 words in writing. 
 Surrender in law, is that wrought by operation of the 
 
 law, and which is not actual. — As if a man have a leafe of 
 
 a farm for life, or years ; and during the term, he accepts 
 
 of a new leafe : this aft is in law, a furrender of the former. 
 
 T here is alfo a cuftomary furrender of the copy-hold, as 
 
 may be feen in Coke fup. Littlet. feci:. 74. 
 SURREPTITIOUS. Seethe article Subreptitious. 
 SURROGATE, Surrogates, a perfon fubftituted or 
 
 appointed in room of another ; moft commonly of a bifhop, 
 
 or bifhop's chancellor. 
 SURROG ATION . See the article Subrogation. 
 SURSOLID, or Surdesolid, in arithmetic, the fifth 
 
 power of a number, or the fourth multiplication of any 
 number, conudered as a root. 
 
 The number 2, for inflance, confidered as a root, and mul- 
 tiplied by itfelr, produces 4, which is the fquare, or fecond 
 power of 2 ; and 4 multiplied by 2, produces S, the third 
 power, or cube, or folid number of 2 ; 8, again, multi- 
 plied by 2, produces 16, the fourth power, or quadrato- 
 quadratum of 2 ; and 16 multiplied once more by 2, pro- 
 duces- 32, the fifth power, or furfoltd, or furdefclid number 
 qf 2, ., j ,j *i t i-vJ^l'M} 10 OllI.lKUp 
 
 Su R50LI D problem, is that which cannot be refolved, but by 
 curves of an higher kind than the conic feftions. 
 Thus, e. gr. to defcribe a regular endecagon, or figure of 
 eleven iides in a circle, it is required to defcribe an ifofceles 
 triangle on a right line given, whofe angles at the bafe, /hall 
 be quintuple to that at the vertex; which may eafily be doi;e 
 bv the ir.tL-rlcctioii of a quadratrix, or any other curve of the 
 fecond gender, as they are by fome called, but not by any 
 lower curve. 
 
 SURVEYING, the art or ail of meafurin£ lands; i.e. of 
 taking the dimenfions of any trait of ground, then laying 
 down the fame in a map or draught: and finding the con- 
 tent or area thereof. 
 
 Surveying, called alfo geodafia, is a very ancient art; it is 
 eien held to have been the firft, or primitive part of geo- 
 metry, and that which gave occafion to, and laid the foun- 
 dation of ail the reft. 
 
 Surveying confiffs of three parts or members; the firft, is the 
 taking of the necefTary meafures, and making the necefTary 
 obfervations on the ground itfelf : the fecond, is the laying 
 down of thefe mealures and obfervations on paper ; and the 
 third, the finding the area or quantity of the ground thus 
 laid down. 
 
 The firft is what we properly call furveylng : the fecond we 
 call plotting or protracting, or mapping: and the third eujl- 
 
 ing up. 
 
 7'he firft, again, confifts of two parts, viz. the making of 
 obfervations lor the angles, and the taking of meafures for 
 the diftances. 
 
 The former of thefe is performed by fome one or other of the 
 following inftruments, viz. the theodolite, ciicumferentor, 
 fiimi-circlc, plain-table, or compafs : the defcription and 
 manner of unrig each whereof, fee under its refpeftive arti- 
 cle, Theodolite, Circumfere ntur, Plain-ta- 
 ble, C ' M PASS, &C, 
 
 The latter is performed by means either of the chain or the 
 perambulator: the defcription and manner of applying each 
 whereof, fee under its refpechve article, Chain, and Per- 
 ambulator. 
 
 The fecond branch of furveying is performed by means of 
 the protractor, and plotting fcale : the ufe, &c. whereof, 
 fee undet Protractor, Plotting fcale, See. See alfo 
 Map. 
 
 The third is performed by reducing the feveral divifiot:^ 
 inclofurcs, fsfc. into triangles, Iquares, trapeziums, parallelo- 
 grams, (s'c. but efpecialiy triangles; and finding the areas or 
 contents of thefe feveal figures, by the rules delivcied under 
 the articles Area, Triangle, Square, &c. 
 
 Surveying crofs, is an inftrument lirtie known, and lefs 
 ufed in England; though in Fiance, is'c. it ferves in lieu of 
 a theodolite or the like inftrument : it conlifts of a brafs 
 circle, or rather a circular limb, graduated, and again di- 
 vided into four equal parts, by two right lines cutting each 
 other at right angles in the centre. At each of the four ex- 
 tremities of the lines, and in the centre are fixed fights. 
 The whole Is mounted on a ftaff. 
 
 Surveying quadrant. See the article Quadrant. 
 
 Surveying wW, See the article Perambulator. 
 
 SURVEYOR, one that hath the overfight and care of con- 
 fulerable works, lards, or the like. See Supervisor. 
 Such are the furveyor general of the king's manors ; furveyor 
 of the kind's exchange ; furveyor general of the works ; Jur- 
 veysr general of the crown lands, EsV. 
 
 Surveyor of the melting, is an officer of the mint, whofe 
 buitnefs is to fee the bullion caft out ; and that it be not al- 
 tered after the delivery of it to the meher. 
 
 Surveyor of the navy, is an officer, whofe bufinefs is to 
 know the ftate of all ftores, and fee the wants fupplied ; to 
 furvey the hulls, malls ami yards of (hips ; to audit the boat- 
 fwains and carpenters accounts, &c. 
 
 Surveyor of the ordinance, is an officer, whofe charge is to 
 furvey all the king's ordinance, ftores, and provifions of 
 war, in thecuftodv of the ftore-keepcr of the tower of Lon- 
 don ; to allow all bills of debts, to keep checks on Jabouicr^ 
 arid artificers works, &c. 
 
 Surveyor is alio ufed for a gauger. — And alfo for a perfon 
 who meafures and makes maps of lands. See Surveying, 
 and Gauging. 
 
 SURVIVOR, inlaw, fignifies the longer liver of two joint 
 tenants; or of any two perfons joined in the right of any 
 thing. 
 
 SUSPENSE, Suspensic, in common law, denotes a 
 
 tempo ■ 
 
tjb. Surveying 
 
 V-. XYJTf. 
 
S U T 
 
 temporary (lop or cefTation of a man's right for a time. 
 As, when the rent, or other profits of land, by reafon of 
 the unity of po/Teffiori of the rent, and the land out of 
 which it ifTues, is not in effe for a certain time, but tunc 
 dormit, or remains afleep : but fo as it may be revived or a- 
 waked. — By which, fufpenfion differs from cxtir.guijhment, 
 where the right dies for ever. 
 
 SUSPENSION, Suspensio, the act of preventing the 
 efFe&, or courfe of any thing, for a certain time. 
 The principal point urged in the philofophy of the Scepticks 
 and Pyrrhanians, is a fujhtnffon of mind. 
 
 Suspension of arms, in war, is a fhort truce which the con- 
 tending parties agree on, for the burial of their dead, the 
 waiting for fuccours, or the order of their mafters, &c. 
 In rhetoric, fufpenfion is a keeping the hearer attentive and 
 doubtful, in expectation of what the fpeaker will conclude 
 in : as, " O God ! darknefs is not more oppofite to light, 
 <c tempefts to calms, pain to pleafure, or death to life, than 
 ** fin to thee." 
 
 Suspension, in mechanics. — Points of Suspension in a 
 ballance, arc thofe points in the axis or beam wherein the 
 weights are applied ; or from which they are fufpended. 
 
 Suspension, in the common law, is what we otherwife call 
 the minor excommunication, viz. a cenfure infliclcd by way 
 of punifhment, on an ecclefiaftic, for Tome confiderable 
 fault. 
 
 It is of two kinds, viz. ab officio, and a bcnefcio. 
 
 Suspension ab officio, is that whereby a minifler is, for a time, 
 forbidden to execute the office of a minifler. 
 
 Suspension a beneficio, is when a minifler is, for a time, de- 
 prived of the profits of his benefice. 
 
 Where the fault is more notorious, the two kinds of fufpen- 
 fons are fornetimes joined i and the pcrfon both fufpended ab 
 officio and a bencficio, 
 
 STJSPENSOR Tcjlkuli, in anatomy, a mufcle called alfo 
 cremajier. See Crem aster. 
 
 SUSPiRAL, a fpring of water, pafimg under ground to- 
 wards a conduit or cittern. — Alfo a breathing hole, or ven- 
 tidudt. See Ventiduct. 
 
 SUTE, Suyte, ovfuits. See the article Suite. 
 
 SUTH-DURE, in ancient cuftoms, denotes the fouth door 
 of a church ; mentioned in old authors, as the ufual place 
 where canonical purgation was performed. — That is, when 
 a fact could not be proved by fufficient evidence, the party 
 accufed, came to the fouth door of the church ; and there, 
 in the prefencc of the people, made oath that he was inno- 
 cent. 
 
 This was called judicium dei.— And it is for this reafon that 
 large porches were anciently built at the fouth doors of 
 churches. 
 
 SUTTON's quadrant. See the article Quadrant. 
 
 SUTURE, Sutura, in anatomy, a peculiar kind of junc- 
 ture, or articulation, of certain bones in the animal body ; 
 thus called, as refcmbling a fea»n. 
 
 There are two kinds of future ; one called The true or genuine 
 future : wherein bones are indented like laws, and recipro- 
 cally received into each other. 
 
 The other, called falfc, fpurious, or fquammius future ; 
 wherein the bones are laid over each other, like the fcales 
 of fiihes. 
 
 The bones of the cranium are ufually joined by three genu- 
 ine futures the coronal, reaching acrofs from one temple to 
 the other. See Tab. Anat. (Oiteol.) fig. i. lit. g. fig. i. lit, 
 h. and the article Coronal. — The fagittal, joining the 
 ofTa parietalia. See Tab. Anat. (Ofieol.) fig. i. lit. f. fig. 2. 
 lit. i. and the article Sagittal. — And the lambdoidal $ 
 thus called from its refembling the Greek A, lambda. 
 Befides thefe, there is a fourth juture, of tiie fpurious or fquarn- 
 mous kind, fuppofed, though falfely, to have no indentures : 
 it joins the olfa temporum to the os fphenoides, occipids, 
 {iff. and is alfo called the temporal future. — See Tab. Anat. 
 (Ofteol.) fig. 2. lit. k. See alfo Squammous. 
 Natural hiftorians tell us, that in Perlia it is frequent to have 
 people without any futures at all in the fkull ; but the whole 
 one folid bone ; yet without any apparent inconvenience : 
 and M. Flechier, in his life of cardinal Ximenes, affirms 
 the fame of that cardinal : yet it fhould fecm that great dtf- 
 ordcrs mult arife therefrom ; as the perfpiration can be but 
 very imperfectly effected ; whence heavinefs and fwimming 
 in the head. See Cranium. 
 
 Sphenoidal Suture, Seethe article Sphenoidal. 
 
 Suture, in chirurgcry, denotes a feam made to ciofe the lips 
 of a wound, in order to its healm". 
 
 The ancients invented a great variety of futures, which they 
 reduced to three kinds ; incarnatives, r.Jlricfhes, and cln- 
 fervathes. 
 
 Jncarnative Suture, is thus called, becaufe, by rejoining the 
 edges of a wound, and keeping them together by means of 
 a thread run acrofs them with a needle, tiicy grow together, 
 and incarnate as before. 
 
 This they fubdivided into five kinds, viz. the interrupted, 
 intcriwifled, penned or feathered, with clafps, and the dry 
 future. 
 
 SWA 
 
 Of thefe five, two are perfeftly difufed, viz. the feathered 
 [Mure, and the future with cliffs, as being tou barbarous, 
 and at the fame time unneceflary. The firft was cilied 
 pinned, when little pins were made life of ; and feathered 
 when the barrels of feathers or quills. 
 To perform it, two or three needles threaded with a double 
 thread, were paffed through the lips of the wound, at a fin- 
 ger's breadth from each other, and a pin or feather put in 
 the flitch ; and another pin or feather bound with the ends 
 of the fame thread, that the feathers might keep the lips of 
 the wound cjofe together. 
 
 To perform the fecond, they had large, crooked clafps 
 pointed at each end ; one of which they thruH into the up- 
 per part of the wound, the other into the lower, to brum 
 the lips together. 
 
 Thefe futures, cruel as they were, are yet known to be 
 ufclefs ; for in the only cafes where they fhould fecm fervice- 
 able, viz. in deep wounds', where the contraction of the 
 Hefty parts keeps the lips far afundcr, and in wounds of ten- 
 dons ; they cxpofe the patient to terrible convuiiions and 
 fhudderings, which are avoided, by diminifhing the dilata- 
 tion of the wounds, by moderate compreflions, and patient- 
 ly waiting til] the fibres relax. 
 Rtfltinivi Sutures, were thofe wherewith they endeavour- 
 ed to flop the flux of blood from large wounds, where any 
 confiderable veffels were cut. 
 
 To this end, they invented feveral kinds, in the number 
 whereof, were the Jhtc- maters, tayhrs, fkinners, and other 
 fams, each more impertinent than other. It is evident, 
 the very defign of fuch a future is blameable : for fuppofine 
 (he wound fo exactly fewed up, that no blood could eleape 
 through the lips thereof ; yet will it flill flow out of .the 
 vcllels ; and will thus he forced to make its way between 
 the lamina? of the mufeks, by which means the part will 
 fwcll, rot, and gangrene. Yet the fkinners future, futnra 
 pelhonum, is (till in ufe fur wounds of the intettines : it is 
 thus called, becaufe the fkinners ufe the like, in fewing up 
 the holes made by the butchers, in fleaing off the (kin. 
 Confirmative Suture, is that kind of ancient future, where- 
 by the hps of large wounds, wherein there was a lols of fub- 
 ftance, were prevented from receding too far. But a ban- 
 dage, now, fuffices. 
 Intertwi/led Suture, 
 left flicking in the 
 them ; i 
 
 threaded i 
 
 is thus called, becaufe the needles being 
 wou;:a, the thread is wound around 
 ch after the fame manner as the tayiors do the 
 edits they keep in their lleeves, &V. This future 
 is perfoimed two ways; for enher the needles are palled a- 
 crofs the wound, or they are Buck on the fides thereof. 
 All the futures hitherto mentioned, are made with needle 
 and thread : but befide thefe, there is another kind calied 
 dry futures, which are performed with piaitters ; or other 
 proper vfeous matter. 
 The dry future is ordinarily made with fma!l pieces of lea- 
 ther, on linnen cloth, indented like a faw, fo that the teeth 
 may fall between each other, and the whole row may be 
 doled. The cloth, before it is cut into this form, is f -'read 
 with Tome proper plaifter, in order to its firm adiieficn. 
 1 he p'-iflers thus prepared, being cut into the form, are 
 applied on tfe firm fiefh, according to the length of the 
 wound, reaching from it to the diflance of fome inches • 
 and after they are dried, or well faftened to the part, the 
 lips of the wound being approached, they may conveniently 
 be held together by the future in that pofturc. 
 This kind of future is principally ufed for wounds in the 
 face, to prevent unfightly fears : it is likewife convenient 
 when the fibres of the mufiles are cut a-crof, ; and where it 
 is difficult ot impoflible to apply a bandage. 
 In the other kinds of futures, the flitches ought always to be, 
 taken of a depth proportionable to that of the wound ; care 
 being had to avoid the nerves as much as poffible. In Ioite 
 wounds they are belt begun at the ends ; but in fhort ones 
 at the middle. 
 
 SWABBER, the title of an inferior officer on board a man of 
 war, whole office is to take cate the fhip be kept neat and 
 clean. 
 
 In order to this, he is to fee her waflled well once or twice 
 a week at leaft j efpecially about the gun-wales and chains. 
 He ought alfo to burn pitch, or fome fuch thing, now and 
 then between decks, to prevent infection ; and "to acquaint 
 the captain with fuch of the men as are nafty and ofienlivc. 
 SWAIN, ? /Boatswain and Cockswain. 
 
 SWAINMOTE, i See ! Swanimote. 
 SWALLOWING. See the article Deglutition. 
 
 Among the rarities in the anatomy hall at Lcyden, is pre- 
 ferved a knife ten inches long, which was fwallevjed by a 
 peafant, and cut out of his ftornach j after which he lived 
 eight years. 
 
 A lady, mentioned by Mr. GrecnhiU in the Phihfphieal 
 Trarfatlitns, got a large and painful tumour in the umbilicus, 
 with fwalltrwing prune-ftones ; which, upon the turnout's 
 breaking of itfelt, came out thence in great quantities ;' yet, 
 notwithltandmg all imaginable care, fhe died of it. — A lad', 
 16 years of age, near Hall in Saxony, playing with a knife 
 
 fix 
 
S W E 
 
 S W I 
 
 fix inBhts and half long, acciucntally fumlhwtd it. The 
 cu.iontyof the cafe led Wolfgang Chrift. Wefenon, phy- 
 sician of the eleflor of Brandcnbourg, to take care of him 
 Tlie knife was felt to have changed its pofition fevc-al times, 
 and in a few months cealed to be very troublefome i and 
 in a year was fo much diminifted, as fcarce to be felt from 
 without. At length it was drawn out (exceedingly dimi- 
 nifbed every way) through an abfeefs which its point occa- 
 fiuned, three nngeis breadth below the pit of the ftomach, 
 and the hoy was perfeftly cur'd ; Philofiphical Tranfaltionj, 
 
 " St.mc people, (fays Dr. Sloan, from an infiance of an 
 unhappy perfon who had fwalhwcd great quantities of peb- 
 bles to eafe him of the wind, and which remaining in his 
 ftomach to the number of two hundred, had brought him 
 into a very fad condition) " from their teeing birds lan- 
 " guiln, unlels thev fwallow gravel, or fmall ftones, take 
 « Sp an opinion, that the /wallowing of ftones helps the fto- 
 " rnach to dioeft ils food ; but I have been always againlt 
 " that praaice : for though the ftomachs, or gizzards of 
 " birds (they wanting teeth to grind their toodj arc mace 
 " very (Iron", mufculotis, and defended on rhe lnfide with 
 'i a coat, by the help whereof, and of thefe ftones, their vic- 
 » tualsare ground ; yet the ftomachs of men being very dif- 
 " fden't, it is not reafonable to think they fliould be of ufe 
 " (or even inoffenfive) to them. 
 
 " 1 knew, adds he, one Mr. K , who for many 
 
 " years fwallowed nine or ten ftones every day, and thete 
 nearly as large as walnuts, and without any apparent 
 " harm, as they always palled ; but he afterwards died fud- 
 
 " denly." . . 
 
 SWALLOWS-TAIL, in fortification, a kind of out-work 
 only differing from a fingle tenaillc, in that its fides are not 
 parallel as thofe of the tenaille, but narrower towards the 
 fortified place than towards the country. 
 
 Swallows-tail, in joinery and carpentry, denotes a parti- 
 cular way of faftening together two pieces of timber, lo 
 ilrongly as that they cannot fall afundcr. 
 
 SWANIMOTE, or Swainmote, a court touching mat- 
 ters of the foreft, kept, by the charter of the foreft, thrice 
 in every year, before the verdeiers, as judges. 
 This court is as incident to a foreft, as a court of pie-powder 
 to a fair. ■ • v> 
 
 S WAT H, fifda, among furgeons, a long and broad band to 
 bind up any difeaied member, or part. See Bandage. 
 
 S W E AT, a fenfible moifture iffuing out of the pores of the 
 fkins of animals, through too much heat, exercife, or weak- 
 ness or through the a3ion of certain medicines called fudo- 
 
 'iwt'at is either the confequcncc of an acceleration of the 
 blood's motion, by ftimnli, or exercife ; or of a relaxation 
 Of the pores of the cutis ; by means of either whereof, the 
 matter which before pcrfpired infenfibly, is now rendered 
 fenfible. The former is the cafe in natural and medicinal 
 fweats, and the latter in morbid, fainting and coldyiw-arj. 
 The principal organs of finest are the miliary glands ; which 
 are fpread over the whole ambit of the body; and furnifh- 
 ed each, with a vein, artery, and nerve, befides an excre- 
 tory dua, through the orifice whereof the fweat is call out 
 under the cuticle. This dua is covered with a little round 
 valve, lying immediately under the cuticle, whereby the 
 fweat is occafionally either retained or transmitted. 
 The fweat thus fecreted, is various, according to the variety 
 of the weather, foil, fcx, age, temperament, cmunaory, 
 diet, time of digeftion, Wr. as in the urine. 
 In a found body, Jwcat is fcarce ever found, but from a 
 fault in fome of the fix non-naturals : its immediate effea is 
 always hurtful i by accident fometimes it does good. 
 ■ The phyficians order fweats in cold and inveterate difeafes, 
 as the palfy, rheumatifm, fciatica, and many other difeafes. 
 Difeafes alfo frequently have their ctifes \n fweats. 
 Sweating is indicated by the beginning of a critical fwtat, 
 to carry off the difeafe ; by the tenuity of the morbid matter 
 difperfed through all the vcllels, as in the plague, a veno- 
 mous bite, or tile French dileafe, before yet fixed ; by the 
 particular temperature of the patient, and by various ob- 
 ilruaions to be removed in the feveral parts of the body ; 
 particularly in fubcutaneous difeafes, the itch, pfora, le- 
 profy, tSfc. * J , 
 
 Matthiolus tells us, that the fwtat of all quadrupedes, as 
 horfes, alTcs, tic. is venomous ; and that that of other beafts 
 is unwholl'ome.— Tachenius adds, that the Jwcat of horfes. 
 particularly, is fo acid, that it pierces theftrongeft and firm- 
 eft boots, which are proof againft all water.— Some natu- 
 l-alifts affirm, that dogs and cats never fwcat, how hot foever 
 they be, becaufe they are not found to have any pores in the 
 cuticle. See Pore. 
 
 Englijb Sweat, or the Sweating peknefs. See Sudor Ai- 
 glicanus. 
 
 SWEDISH allum. 
 
 Swedish coins, £ See the articles 
 
 Swedish miafttrts 
 
 See Washing. 
 -The teamen call the mould of 
 
 if Allum. 
 See the articles i Coin. 
 IMlAiVRE 
 
 Swedish moneys. See the article Money. 
 SWEEP, among refiners* the almond furnace. See Almon s 
 
 and Furnace. 
 Sweep, amona goldfmiths, moniers, HV. 
 Sweep, in the' fea-language.— The Teamen 
 
 a (hip, when file begins to compafs in at the rung-hcads, 
 the /tiros of her, or the fweep of the futtock. 
 SWEEPING at fea, figniiies dragging along the ground, 
 at the bottom of the fea or channel, with a three flukej 
 grapnel, to find fome hawfer or cable which is flipped from 
 an anchor. 
 
 SWEET almonds, "1 (-Almond. 
 
 Sweet cf mercury, [c \ Mercury. 
 
 SWELLED columns, ( ) Column 
 Swelled hoof, J LHoof. 
 
 SWELLING.— Diameter of theSw a I.L IN G. SeeDlAME TER- 
 S WIFTEST.— Line of tin Swiftest defeat. See Line. 
 SWIMMING, the aa or art of fuftaming the body in 
 water, and of advancing therein by the motion of the arms, 
 
 lets, *Sc. -. .- ■-<•,__ - -«A. : "i^..»ti-Ss 
 
 Man alone learns to fiuim ; all other pcrfefl animals feem to 
 take it naturally i though feveral of the impcrfeft fw'm not 
 at all. - . ; 
 
 Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, fwimmng made la 
 eiTential a part of the difcipline of their youth, that to repre- 
 fent a man perfectly rude and uneducated, they ufed to fay 
 proverbially, he had neither learned to read nor to fiuim. 
 In fifties, it is the tail that is the grand inftrument of fwim- 
 mng, not the fins, as has been generally imagined : for this 
 realon fifties are more ftrong and mufculous in that part than 
 in all the reft of their body ; according as we find it in all 
 other animals ; the motive parts whereof are ftill the ftrong- 
 cft, as the thighs of men for walking, the pefloral mufclcs 
 of birds for flight, tic. 
 
 The manner wherein fifties row themfelves forwards by the 
 tail, is well explained by Borelli de Motu Animal, part I . 
 cap! 23. — The fins of fifties ferve only to keep the body 
 well polled and ballanced, and to prevent vacillation. 
 M. Thevenot has publilhed a curious piece in French, called 
 L' Art de Nagtr, the art of fwimming demonft'rated by figures. 
 Before him, Everard Digby, an Englithnian, and Nicholas 
 Wininan, a Dutchman, had alio laid down the rules of this 
 att : Thevenot has done little more than copy from them. — 
 Had he but read, with half that application, Borelli's treatife. 
 de Motu Animalium, he would fcarce have maintained, as ht 
 has done, that men would fwim naturally, like other animals, 
 were they not prevented by fear, which magnifies the* 
 danger. _ . 
 
 We have abundant experience againft this: Throw any 
 brute, newly born, into a river and itjwtms: throw an 
 infant in, before it is yet capable of fear, andit/toi'mi not, 
 but is drowned. The reafon is, that the human machipt 
 differs very notably in its ftruflure and configuration from 
 that of brutes i and particularly, which is very extraordi- 
 nary, in the fituation of its center of gravity. In man, the 
 head is exceedingly heavy, with regard to the reft of the 
 body : by reafon the head is furnifbed with a very great quan- 
 tity of brain, and has, befides a deal of ilefli and bones, 
 and no cavities only filled with air: fo that the head im- 
 melginc under water by its own gravity, the nofe and earl 
 are foon filled : thus the heavy carrying down the light, the 
 man foon drowns, and is loft. 
 
 But in brutes it is otherwife : for the head, here, having but 
 little brain, and there being abundance of finus's therein I 
 its weight, with regard to the reft of the body, is much lefs 
 confiderable ; fo that they are eafily able to keep their nofs 
 above water, and thus refpiring freely, are out of danger of 
 drowning, on the principles of ftatics. 
 In effea, the art of fwimming, which is no otherwife to be 
 acquired but by exercife, confifts principally in keeping the 
 head above water, fo, that the nofe and mouth being at 
 liberty, refpiration may be carried on : for as to the feet 
 and hands, it is enough to ftir them, and to ufe them as oars 
 to condua the veflel. 
 SwiMMiNG-WaiAr, popularly called Swim, a veficle of air 
 inclofed in the bodies of fifties, by means whereof they are 
 enabled to fuftain themfelves at any depth of water. 
 For the air in that bladder being more or lefs comptefTed, 
 according to the depth the fifh fwims at, takrs up more or 
 lefs fpace; and confequcr.tly the body of the fifh, part of 
 whofe bulk this bladder is, is greater or lefter, according to 
 the feveral depths ; and yet retains the fame abfolutc weight. 
 Now the Rule de infidenlibus hmiida, is, that a body heavier 
 than fo much water as is equal in quantity to the bulk of 
 it, will neceffarily fink ; a body that is lighter will/u/;'m ; 
 and a body of equal weight will reft in any part of the 
 
 By 'this rule, if the fifh in the middle region of the water be 
 of equal weieht with water, bulk for bulk ; the fifh will reft 
 there without any natural tendency either upwards or down- 
 wards. . . 
 And if the fifh be deeper in the water, its bulk becoming 
 
 lefs 
 
S Y L 
 
 lets by the greater compreffion of the bladder ; it wi 11 ft ill 
 remain commenfurate to the gravity of the water in that 
 part. 
 
 If the fifh be higher than the middle region ; the air dilating 
 itfelf, and the bulk of the fifll eonfequencly increafing, but 
 not the weight; the fifh will rife upwards, and reft: a-cop of 
 the water. 
 
 It is probable the fifll, by fome action, can emit air out of 
 its bladder, and take frefh in. Mr. Ray obferves, that in 
 nioft fifties, there is a manifeft channel leading from the gul- 
 let to the fwhmning bladder, which doubtlefs ferves for this 
 conveyance ; and that there is a mufculous power in the coat 
 of the bladder, whereby the fifli can contract it when it lifts. 
 The fame author adds, in confirmation of this doiSlrine, that 
 it is found, if the fwimming bladder of any fifh be pricked 
 orbroke,* the fifh immediately finks to the bottom, and can 
 neither fupport nor raife itfelf. And that in fiat fifnes, as 
 folcs, plaife, £sV. which lie always groveling at the bottom, 
 there is no fwimming bladder at all. 
 SWINE-pex. See the article Pox. 
 
 SWOONING, a kind of lipothymia, or fainting, wherein 
 the patient lofes all his ftrength, as well ai fenfej and under - 
 Handing. 
 
 Swooning may beoccafioned by any thing that alters, corrupts, 
 or diffipates the vital fpirits ; as, long watching, violent pains, 
 great and fudden evacuations, putrid vapours ariimg from 
 abfcefTes in the noble parts, &c. 
 SWORD, an offenfive weapon, worn at the fide, ferving ei- 
 ther to prick, or cut, or both. 
 
 Its parts are the blade, guard, hand, or srafp, and pummel; 
 to which may be added, the bow, fcabbaid, hook and chape. 
 — The mailers of defence divide the fwsrd into the ater, 
 middle, ana lower jjttjrt.j or the fort, middle, and foible or 
 fmall and weak part. 
 
 Anciently, there were a kind of two-handed fwords, called 
 fpado's, which were to be managed with both hands ; and 
 which in thofe days they accuftomed themfelves to brandifh 
 fo nimbly, as to cover the whole body therewith. 
 The favages of Mexico, when firfl vifited by the Spaniards, 
 had a kind cf wooden fwords: which would do as much ex- 
 ecution as ours. — In Spain, fwords are only allowed of fuch 
 a length, determined by authority. — The ancient cavaliers 
 gave names to their fwords ; joyeufe was that ofCharlemaign ; 
 durandal that of Orlando, csV. 
 
 SwoRD-^i7Wi, "J CPoRTEGLAIVE. 
 
 Mills for Sword blades, ( <, JMill. 
 
 Picas of the Sword, f bce ^Plea. 
 
 S. James of the SwoRD, -> CjAMES. 
 
 SYCOPHANT*, STWWAWTHB, a Greek term, originally 
 ufed at Athens, for perfons who made it their bufinefs to in- 
 form againfl thofe who ftole figs, to the owners ; or againft 
 thofe who, contrary to the law which prohibired the expor- 
 tation of figs, praftifed the thing, and deceived the officers, 
 the infpeclors of the ports, &c. 
 
 * The word is formed from nw&j a fig, and <p*iw, indico, I 
 Alow, difcover. 
 
 At length, the term became ufed in the general for all in- 
 formers, tale-bearers, parafites, flatterers, C5V. efpecially 
 thofe in the courts of princes: and at laft, for Iyer, im- 
 poflor, &c. 
 
 SYCOPHANTIC plants. See the article Parasites. 
 
 SYLLABIC, in the Greek grammar.— -7 'he re are two kinds 
 of augments ; the firfl called fyllabic, which is when the 
 word is increafed by a fyllable ; the other temporal, which is 
 when a fhort fyllable becomes long. 
 
 SYLLABLE*, Syllaba, in grammar, a part of a word, 
 confifting of one or more letters which are pronounced to- 
 gether. 
 
 * The word is derived from the Greek, vu)X*iin, which literal- 
 ly denotes comprchenfion, or aflenibhge. 
 
 Or, a fyllable is a compleat found, uttered in one breath, 
 confifting either of a vowel alone, or of a vowel and one or 
 more confonants, not exceeding feven. 
 Scaliger defines a fyllable to be an element under one tone or 
 accent, that is, which can be pronounced at once. 
 Prifcian, more intelligibly, calls it a compreheniion of fe- 
 veral letters falling under one accent, and produced at one 
 motion of the breath. — But fome grammarians reject this 
 definition, as excluding all fyllables of one letter. 
 Another defines fyllable, a literal or articulate voice, of an 
 individual found. 
 
 In every word, therefore, there are as many' 'fyllables as there 
 are vocal founds ; and as many vocal founds, as there are 
 fimple or compound vowels; each whereof requires a diftindt 
 motion of the peaoral mufcles— Thus, a, a, a, make 
 three -fyllables, formed by fo many motions, diftinguilhed by 
 fmall Hops betwixt each expiration. 
 
 In the Hebrew, all the fyllables begin with confonants ; al- 
 lowing aleph to be one ; nor has any fyllaklt more than a 
 fingle vowel. 
 
 Vol. II. N°. CXLIX. 
 
 S Y L 
 
 From the number of fyllables in words they become de- 
 nominated monofyllables, bifyllablcS, iriffyllables, and po/rfy- 
 lables, q. d. words of one fyllabic, two fyllables, three Jyl. 
 lylables, and many fyllables. . 
 
 As it is the number of fyllables that conftitutesthe meafure of 
 Englilh verfe ; it were to be wilhed, we had fixed and fettled 
 rules to determine the precife number of fyllables in each 
 word : for we have words very dubious in that refpect j 
 and there are even fome which have more fyllables in verfe, 
 than in profe. Many of the words ending in leas, give a 
 deal of embarafs to fuch as pique themfelves on exac'inefs ■ 
 as odious, precious, &c. 
 S Y L L A B Ufj, a kind of compound drink, molt .vfFe&ed in 
 the fummer-feafon ; ordinarily made of white-wine and 
 . fugar, into which is fquirted new milk with a fyringe or 
 wooden cow. b ; 
 
 Sometimes* it is made of canary, in lieu of white- wine ■ in 
 which cafe the fugar is Ipared, and a little lemon and nut- 
 meg arc added in lieu of it. 
 
 To prepare it the belt way, the wine and other ingredients 
 excepting the milk, are to be mixed over night^ and the 
 milk or cream added in the morning. The proportion is a 
 pint of wine to three of milk. For 
 Whlpt Syllabub, tohalf a pint of white-wine or rhenifh is 
 put a pint of cream, with the whites of three eggs. This 
 they feafon with fugar, and beat with birchen rods'. The 
 froth is taken off as it rifts, and put into a pot ; where at 
 ter Handing to little two or three hours, it is fit to cat Ruft 
 
 SYLLEPSIS, in grammar, cenceptio, a figure whereby we 
 conceive the lenle of words otherwifc than the words import 
 Uld thus make our confirudion, not according to the words . 
 
 )inr tlii' inti'iiMm, nf I lie aiithnp 
 
 but the intention of the author. 
 The fylicpfts, fays an ingenious author, is a figurative con- 
 ftruction, which agrees rather with our ideas, than with the 
 words ; and cxprelies rather the lenfc of our mind, than the 
 fenfe of the terms thcmlelves. 
 Syllepsis is alio ufed for the agreement of a verb, or adi'ec 
 tive, not with that word next it, but with the moll worthy 
 US the lentence : as, rex fjf regina bcati. 
 Some authors call the fyllepj Is, fynthefis ; others fubllhulior, 
 It is a figure of conliderable life for the well underftandin j 
 of authors.— Scioppius divides it into two kinds, fimple and 
 relative. 
 
 Simple Syllepsis, is when the words of a difcourfe either 
 difagree in gender, or number, or both. 
 
 Relative Syllepsis, is when the relative is referred to an an 
 tecedent which is not exprcfled j but which we conceive bv 
 the fenle of the whole period. * 
 
 SYLLOGISM, srAAorijiMO-:, i„ j ogiCj an , r(Turnent , or 
 form of reafoning, confifting of three propositions ; ha'viiu 
 tins property, that the conclufion necellarily follows from 
 the two premifes : fo that it the firft and fecond proportions 
 be granted, the conclufion mult be granted in like manner l 
 and the whole allowed for a demonftraiion. 
 If the premifes be only probable, or contingent, the Ml,, 
 gifm is faid to be etsaleelteal ; if they be certain, apoJiiiLal ■ 
 if falfe, under an appearance of truth, fiiikic' or para- 
 hgijlic. • 
 
 As often as the mind obferves any two notions to agree to 
 a third, which is done in two propofitions ; it iniinedi itelv 
 concludes that they agree to each other : or if it find "that 
 one of them agrees, and the other difagrees, which is like 
 wife done in two propofitions ; it immediately pronounces 
 that they dilagree to each other.— And fuch is a fyllorif,,, - 
 which it hence appears, is nothing but a mental difcourfe' 
 or reafoning, whereby from any two propofitions granted' 
 a third is necellanly deduced. 
 
 Hence, as the Greeks call it fyllogifm, the Latins call it 
 collet?,., or rat,cc„,at,e, as being a kind of computation, 
 which, either by adding, or fubftraffing, gathers either the 
 fum or the remainder: for, as if we add two to three, we 
 thence colled five; lo if to this propofition, " man is an 
 « animal you add this, " every animal thinks," you 
 thence deduce this, " therefore man thinks." 
 Of the three propofitions whereof a fyllogifm confifts ■ the firft 
 is byway of eminence, called the frcptpim, as being pro- 
 pored for the balls of the whole argument ; (he fccondls cal- 
 led the afjumptien, as being affumed to allift in inferring the 
 third : though they are both called fumptimus, becauTe af 
 fumed for the fake of the third; and both premifes, as beiinr 
 premifed to it ; and for the fame reafon both are called arte°- 
 cedents, only the firft the major, and the latter the miner 
 The third is called the cmchfun, as being the clofe of the 
 whole argumentation ; and fometimes complete, as including 
 the two notions, before feparately compared; and eonlcau;., 
 becaufe it follows from the anteccjenis; and laftiv ilia,),' 
 becaufe inferred from the premifes by means ol the iUaf-- 
 
 particle ergo, therefore; 
 II Ss 
 
S Y L 
 
 S Y M 
 
 As the conclufton is the principal part of a fyllogifm, ic hence 
 arifes, that though both the proportion and allumption con- 
 fift each of its fubjeft and atttibute ; yet the fubjeit ant! at- 
 tribute of n fyllogifm, are properly underftood of thofe ot the 
 conclufion. 
 
 Again, in the inftance above-mentioned, animal being ufed 
 both as fubjecr. and attribute, it is held a kind of intermediate 
 between the two, and frequently called medium; in refpect 
 to which, both the fubject and attribute, man and thinks are 
 called extremes or terms ; only the fubje£t the greater extreme, 
 and the attribute the lefs. 
 
 'A fyllogifm, whether fimple, or compound, may either be 
 categorical; as that already inftanccd, wherein both premifes 
 arc pofitive. 
 
 Or, hypothetical, wherein one or both of the premifes are 
 -only fuppofed : as, " if the fun fhines, it is day : but the 
 * 4 fun docs mine, therefore it is day." 
 
 Or, analogical'; as, 11 as the bafe is to the column; fo is 
 ** juftice to the commonwealth: but if the bafe be with- 
 drawn, the column is overturned ; therefore if juftice be 
 *' taken away, the commonwealth is overturned." 
 "Or, diazeuclic or disjunclive ; as, (C either they mean to 
 ' 16 pleafe or to profit _• but they do not aim to pleafe ; thcre- 
 ' " fore they aim to profit." 
 
 ■The moft convenient form of a perfect fyllagifm, is to have 
 the medium in tbe middle, placed between the fubject and 
 the attribute ; as in the inftance above-mentioned. 
 Of this form there are two figures, — the one coherent, or con- 
 iunEt and affirmative ; founded on this canon, ** that what 
 ** agrees with any thing, likewife agrees with that where- 
 " with this neceilarily agrees." 
 
 The other incoherent or disjunct, and negative ; founded on 
 this canon, " that what agrees with any thing, difagrees with 
 " that wherewith this difagrees. " 
 
 Of each of thefe figures there arc three modes, viz. general, 
 
 particular and mixed. 
 
 A fyllogifm, wherein one of the premifes is fuppreffed, but 
 fo as to be underftood ; is called an enthymeme ; e. gr. ft every 
 " animal thinks, therefore man thinks ;" wherein the pro' 
 pofition, 11 man is an animal," is underftood. 
 The demonftrations of mathematicians, it is obferved, arc 
 only feries's of enthymemcs: fo that every thing in mathe- 
 matics is concluded or proved by fyllogifm; only omitting 
 fuch premifes, as occur of their own accord, or as are refer- 
 red to by the citations. 
 For the ttfe Syllogism is of to reafon, Mr. Locke obferves, 
 that of four things, which reafon is employed about 
 the finding out of proofs, the regular difpofition of them fo 
 as their connexion may appear, the perceiving their connexion 
 and the making a right conclufton ; fyllogifm only affifts in 
 one, viz, {hewing the connexion of the proofs in any ' 
 ftancc. Nor is it of any great ufe even here; fince the mind 
 can perceive fuch connexion, where it really is, as ealily 
 nay, perhaps, better, without it. We fee men reafon very 
 ftrougly, who do not know how to make a fyllogifm. 
 Indeed, fyllogifm, the feme author adds, may ferve to difco 
 ver a fallacy in a rhetorical flourifh, or by itripping an ab 
 furdity of the cover of wit and good language, fhew it in 
 its natural deformity. But it only fhews the weaknefs or 
 fallacy of fuch a difcourie by the artificial form it is put into,, 
 to thofe who have thoroughly ftudicd mood, and figure, and 
 have fo examined the many ways three propofirions may he 
 put together in, as to know which of them does certainly 
 conclude right, and which not, and upon what grounds 
 they do fo. 
 
 The mind is not taught to reafon by thefe rules ; it hfls a 
 native faculty of perceiving the coherence or incoherence of 
 its ideas, andean range them right, without fuch perplexing 
 repetitions. — Add, that to fhew the weaknefs of an argu^ 
 incnt, there needs no more, than to ftrip it of the fuperflu- 
 ous ideas, which, blended and confounded with thofe on 
 which the inference depends, feem to fhew a connexion 
 where there is none ; or at le^ft hinder the difcovery of the 
 want of it : and then to lay the naked ideas, on which the 
 force of the argumentation depends, in their due order. In 
 this pofition, the mind taking a view of them, fees what 
 connexion they have, and fo is able to judge of their infe- 
 rence, without any need of fyllogifm at all. 
 Nor muft it be omitted, that fyllogifms are as liable to falla- 
 cies, as tbe plainer ways of argumentation; for which one 
 might appeal to common obfervation, which has always e- 
 ftccmcd thefe artificial methods of reafoning, more adapted 
 to catch and intangle the mind, than to inftruft and inform 
 the undemanding. And if it be certain that fallacy can be 
 couched in a fyllogifm, as no body will deny but it may • it 
 muft be fomething elfe, and not a fyllogifm, that muft aif- 
 cover it. 
 
 The fame author proceeds to fhew, that this way of reafon- 
 ing difcovers no new proofs, nor makes any difcoveries ; but 
 is whollv convcrlant m the marfhalling and ranging thofe we 
 already have : a man muft know, before he be able to prove 
 
 fyllogijiically ; fo that the fyllogifm comes after knowledge, 
 when we have but little need of it. Sec Reason and 
 Logic. 
 
 Reduction of Syllogisms. See the article RedUctioy 
 SYLLOGISTIC form. See the article Form. 
 SYLVA, or Suva, in poetry, a poetical piece compofed, as 
 it were, at a ftart ; or in a kind of rapture or tranfport, and 
 without much thought or meditation. — Such are thefyht? of 
 Statius, which, he allures us, were all compofed after tins 
 manner. 
 
 Quintilian extends the ufe of the word fyha to any writing 
 clone in hafie, and on the tput. 
 
 The word is Latin, and literally fignifies/orj^ ; whence its 
 chief ufe, in our language is, metaphorically, to e.xprefs cer- 
 tain collections of poetical pieces, of various kinds, and on 
 various fubjedls ; as a forcft is an aiiemblageof trees of diffe- 
 rent forts. 
 
 SYMBOL*, Symbolum, a fign or reprefentation of any mo- 
 ral thing, by the images or properties of natural things. 
 * The word is formed from tne Greek, trv P .(.>.„ l a mark, fi"n, 
 or brdge, and that from the verb r^f,;^ eot&rre "to 
 compare. 
 
 Thus we fay, the lion is the fymbol of courage ; the pellican 
 ol paternal love, t^c— Symbols were in very great repute 
 among the ancient Hebrews, and efpecially among the Egyp- 
 tians i and ferved to cover a great part of their moral myfte- 
 nes ; being ufed not only to reprefent moral things by natural ; 
 but even natural by natural, 
 i Symbols are of various kinds; as types, renigma's, parables, 
 fables, allegories, cmolems, hieroglyphics, til. each where- 
 of, fee under its refpective article, Type, Enigma, Pa- 
 rable, Fable, &ci 
 
 The Chinefe letters are mod of them abfolute fymbols. or fi- 
 gnificative. The fymbols in algebra, tsv. are arbitrary. 
 Mcdahfts alio apply the term Symbol to certain mark's orat- 
 tributes peculiar to certain perfons or deities The thun- 
 der-bolt, lor inftance, accompanying the heads of certain 
 emperors, is a fign or fymbol of the fovereign authority and 
 of a power equal to that of the gods : the trident is the fym- 
 bol ol Neptune ; the peacocks of Juno ; a figure feared on an 
 urn, of a river, rjfr. 
 Symbol, among chriftians, is particularly ufed for the creed 
 or the articles of religion, which every 'cbriitian is to know' 
 and believe. 
 
 Floury obferves, that till the time of St. Gregory, the fyn- 
 bol was never ufed to be rehearfed in the office of the Roman 
 church; in regard that church, having never been infected 
 with any herely, did not need to make any profeffion of 
 taith._ buicer notes, that feveral words and claufes have been 
 occalionally added to the fymbol, upon the riling of new lie- 
 
 Though it be a common opinion, that the fymbol is the work 
 of thc apoftles; and though, on the footing of fuch an oni- 
 nion we call it the apoftUs cmd; yet, du Pin obferves, there 
 are feveral very cogent arguments to render that opinion 
 highly improbable. 
 
 In the emperor's library is a Greek MS of the fymbol of the 
 apoftles, divided into twelve articles, with the names of the 
 refpective apoftles, who are faid to have compofed each arti- 
 cle The hrft ,s attributed to St. Peter, and ihe reft iuccef- 
 iively to Andrew, James major, John, 1 homas, J„mes mi- 
 nor, Phi hp, Bartholomew, Matthew, Simon, Thaddeus 
 and Matthias. ' 
 But the teflimony of that MS does not much confirm the 
 opinion, that each apoltle compofed an article' of the fymbol- 
 yet the opinion ,s, at leaft, as old as St. Leo, who feems to' 
 have believed it. 
 
 Authors are in doubt why the namej^M mould be „ ive 
 to this compendium of the articles of the chriftian faith ■ fame 
 lay, it is thus called as being the mark or cbaraiteriffic of a 
 ill m I derive it from an affembly or conference 
 ol the apoftles, where each cxpreiling his fenfe of the faith 
 and what each had chiefly preached, the creed was framed 
 and called by the Greek word ^i.M,, which Amines 
 tan or wrftrena —h. is added, that St. Cyprian is rhe firft 
 
 .'tr'K f° " kd thc word>„M in this fenfe. 
 
 o i moKJlAK^ALcharaclers, ~ 
 
 Symbolical column, 
 
 Symbolical fountain, 
 
 Symbolical freezes, 
 
 Symbolical philofopby, 
 
 Symbolical phyfics, 
 Clemens Alexandrinus. 
 
 Character, 
 I \ Column. 
 > See c Fountain, 
 
 I JrREEZE. 
 
 l I Hieroglyphic. 
 J *"Physics. 
 . Eufebius, toV. obferve, that thc /E. 
 gyptians had two ways of reprefenting their fymbolical mvfte 
 ries: one by the virtues of animals, herbs, bV. the other 
 by geometrical figures.-Thus, the fun and moon were re- 
 prefented, ,n the firft manner, by the beetle and Ibis ; and 
 m the latter, by their own figures—Again, the four ele- 
 ments they reprefented, after the firft manner, by four ani- 
 mals which have qualities correfponding thereto; and after 
 the fecond manner by -}-, 
 SYMMETRY*, miMETm, the relation of parity, both 
 
S Y M 
 
 S Y M 
 
 in refpcct of height, length, and- breadth of the parts necef- 
 fary to compofe a beautiful whole. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, <rw, with, and i&frpOj 
 meal u re. 
 
 Symmetry, according to Vitruvius, confifls in the union and 
 conformity of the feveral members of a work, to their whole, 
 and of the beauty of each of the feparate parts to that of the 
 entire work ; regard being had to fome certain meafure : fo 
 that the body is framed with fymmetry, by the due relation 
 which tK8 arm, elbow, hand, fingers, &c. have to each 
 other, and to- their whole. 
 
 Symmetry arifes from that proportion which the Greeks call 
 
 analogy, which is the relation of conformity of all the parts 
 
 of a building, and of their whole, to fome certain mealure ; 
 
 whereupon depends the nature of jymmetry. 
 Uniform Symmetry, in architecture, is that where the fame 
 
 ordonnance reigns throughout the whole. 
 Rtj'peftive Symmetry, is that where only the oppofite fides 
 
 are equal to each other. 
 SYMPATHETIC, STMnAOHTiKOr, fomething that has a 
 
 fympathy ; or that ads, or is acted on by fympathy. 
 Sympathetic, is particularly applied to all difeafes which 
 
 have two caufes ; the one remote, the other near. 
 
 In which fenfe, the word is oppoied to idiopathet'tc. 
 
 Thus, anepilepfy is faid to be fympathetic when produced by 
 
 a remote caufe ; i. e. when the diforder in the brain, em- 
 
 barrafled with blood, is preceded and produced by fome other 
 
 difeafe. 
 
 There is a fympathetic palpitation of the heart, and an idio- 
 puthefic one. — There is but one idiopathetic caufe of the 
 palpitation ; but there are feveral fyinpathdic ones. 
 Among chvmifts and alchymifts, the term fympathctic is 
 principally applied to a kind of powder, and of ink. 
 Sympathetic inks, are fuch as can be made to appear and 
 djfappear very fuddenly, by the application of fomething 
 which feems to work by fympathy. 
 
 Of thefe we have fome very curious inftances and experi- 
 ments, given us by Lemery and Mr. Boyle ; to the follow- 
 ing effect. 
 
 i 1 " 1 . To two or three parts of unfiaked lime put one of yel- 
 low orpiment \ powder and mix the two, adding fifteen or 
 fixteen times as much water as there was orpiment ; Hop up 
 the vial with a cork and bladder, and fet it in warm em- 
 bers, Shake the vial now and then for five hours, and wa- 
 rily decant the clear part, or rather filtrate it. In the 
 mean time, burn a piece of cork thoroughly, and when well 
 inflamed, quench it in common water, or rather in brandy. 
 Being thus reduced into a friable coal, grind it with fair wa- 
 ter, wherein gum arable has been diflblved ; and it will 
 make a liquor as black as the common ink. 
 While thefe are doing, difiblve in three times as muchdiftil- 
 led or fh'ong vinegar, over warm embers, a quantity of red 
 lead - s or of faccharum faturni, in thrice the quantity of 
 w:iter ; for three or four hours, or till the liquor have 
 a fweet tafte. This liquor will be as clear as common 
 water. 
 
 The liquors thus prepared : write any thing on paper with 
 this laft fort, dry it, and nothing will appear. Over the 
 place, write what you pleafe with the fecond liquor ; it will 
 appear as if written with common ink : when dry, dip a 
 fmall piece of rag or fpunge in the firft liquor, rub it over 
 the written place, and the black writing will vanifh ; and that 
 wrote with the invifible ink, will appear black and legible. 
 Again, take a book four or five inches thick, and on the firft 
 leaf write any thing with the laft liquor : turn to the other 
 end of the book, and rub there with a rag, dipt in the firft 
 liquor, on that part, as near as you can guefs, oppofite to 
 the writing ; and leave alfo the rag there, clapping a paper 
 over it ; then nimbly fhutting the book, ftrike four or five 
 fmart ftrokes thereon with your hand, and turning the other 
 fide uppermoft, clap it into a prefs, or lay it under a good 
 weight for a quarter of an hour, or even half that time : 
 then will the writing done with the invifible ink be found 
 legible there. 
 
 2°. Difiolvf white or green vitriol in water, and writing 
 with the folution, nothing will appear. Boil galls in water, 
 and dip a linen rag in the decoction, and with it rub the 
 place before writ, and it will appear black and legible. Rub 
 it over again with fpirit of vitriol, or its oil, and the writ- 
 ing will difappear again : rub it over again with oil of tartar 
 per deliquium, the letters will appear again, but of a yellow 
 colour. See Supple?nent, article Inks Sympathetic. 
 Sympathetic powder, a powder once very much famed ; 
 fuppofed to have this wonderful property, that if fpread on 
 a cloth dipt in the blood of a wound, the wound would be 
 cured, though the patient be any number of miles off. 
 This powder, M. Lemery tells us, is nothing but Roman 
 vit:iol, opened by the fun-beams penetrating it, and im- 
 perfectly calcining it, in the middle of fummer. 
 But it is now generally allowed a mere piece of charletanery, 
 
 whatever Sir Kenelm Digby, and others before him, and 
 after, plead in its favour. 
 
 Sir Kenelm, in an exprefs treatife on the fubjeel, where he 
 gives inftances of cures performed by it, accounts for the 
 manner of its operation thus : the fun's rays, fays he, attract 
 and draw the fpirits of the blood at a great diftance ; by 
 which means the atoms thereof are driven anddifperfed far and 
 near in the air. Now, the fpirits of the vitriol, incorporated 
 with the blood, fly along with them, and the two together 
 form a kind of train of corpufcles. On the other fide there 
 is continually iiiiiing and exhaling from the wound abun- 
 dance of fiery fpirits, which attract the neighbouring; air ; 
 and this air, by a continued concatenation, attracting ftill 
 the next air, at length, meets the atoms, with the fpirits of 
 the blood and vitriol. Thus the fpirits of the blood finding 
 their fource again, re-enter into their primitive feat, and 
 being joined with the vitriolic fpirits, the wound is comfort- 
 ed and healed, imperceptibly. 
 
 But, to the confulion of all this fine reafoning, it is found 
 by experience, that the powder is fo far from this effect: at a 
 great diftance, that it is fcarce perceived, if done in the 
 fame room with the patient. Though it is poflible, as the 
 parts of the vitriol are in continual motion, if the cloth be 
 applied clofe by the patient, fome of the effluvia thereof may- 
 enter the wound, and there help to flop the bleeding. 
 SYMPATHY *, 2IMnAfc>EIA, an agreement of affections 
 and inclinations ; or a conformity of natural qualities, hu- 
 mours, temperaments, &c. which make two perfons pleafed 
 and delighted with each other. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, tr^, with, and nxS®*, 
 paifion, q. d. companion, fellow-feeling. 
 
 Sympathy is alfo ufi.d with regard to inanimate things ; in- 
 timating fome propenlion they have to unite, or to act on 
 one another. 
 
 In this fenfe, naturalifts fay, there is a fympathy between the 
 vine and the elm ; between the loadftone and iron ; the two 
 poles of a loadftone, tsc. 
 
 Several authors have wrote on the fympathies and antipathies 
 between animals ; but the greateft part of what they fay is 
 fabulous : Such, e. gr. is that antipathy between chords made 
 of fheeps and wolfs guts ; a lute, they fay, being ftrung with 
 thefe two kinds of chords, they can never be brought into 
 tune with each other : fuch alfo is that of eagles feathers, 
 which mixed with thofe of other birds, are faid to devour 
 and confume them. See Supplement, article Sympathy. 
 The alchymifts talk much of the powder of fympathy. See 
 Sympathetic powder. 
 Sympathy, in medicine, an indifpofition befalling one part 
 of the body, through the defect or difoi der of another ; whe- 
 ther it be from the affluence of fome humour, or vapour fent 
 from elfewhere ; or from the want of the influence of fome 
 matter necefiary to its action. 
 
 —For the force and effect: of fympathy, in the production of 
 monfters, fee Monster. 
 
 SYMPHONIACO flylo. See the article Style. 
 
 SYMPHONY * 2TM*nNlA, in mufic, properly denotes a 
 confonance, or concert of feveral founds agreeable to the 
 ear} whether they be vocal or inftrumenul, or both ; call- 
 ed alfo harmony. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, with, and tp a ,^ 
 found. 
 
 Some authors reftrain fympbony to the fole mufic of inftru- 
 ments : in this fenfe, fay they, the reckativo's in fuch an 
 opera were intolerable, but the fymphoniei excellent. 
 The fymphony of the ancients went no further than to two 
 or more voices or inftrumcnts fet to unifon ; for they had no 
 fuch thing as mufic in parts ; as is very well proved by M. 
 Perrault : at leaft, if ever they knew fuch a thing, it muft 
 be allowed to have been early loft. 
 
 It is to Guido Aretine we owe the invention of compofition : 
 it was he firft joined in one harmony feveral diftinct melo- 
 dies ; and brought it even the length of four parts, viz. bafs, 
 tenor, counter-tenor and treble. 
 SYMPHYSIS * in medicine, one of the manners of articu- 
 lating, or jointing the bones. 
 
 * The word is Greek, avpiporif, and fignifies a natural cohe 
 rence or connexion. 
 
 Symphyfis is a natural union, whereby two feparate bones 
 coalefce, and grow together; fo, as neither retains any pro- 
 per, diftinct motion. 
 
 Such are mod of the junctures of the epiphyfes, and many 
 others of bones, which in children are feparate, but with 
 age grow together ; as the os ethmoides, the bones of the 
 cranium, os facrum, csV. 
 
 The fymphyfs, or natural union of bones, is of two kinds ; 
 either with a medium, or without. 
 Symphysis without a medium, is where two bones unite, and 
 grow together of themfelves without the intervention of any 
 third thing.— Such are the fymphyfes of the epiphyfes with 
 the principal bones i fuch alfo are thofe of the lower jaw. 
 
 I This 
 
S Y N 
 
 This union is effected much after the fame manner as that of 
 
 a graft and a tree. 
 The Symphysis with a medium , is of three kinds, called 
 
 fynneurojis, fyjjdrcofa, and fyncbondrofts ; each whereof fee 
 
 under its proper article, Sy NnCUROSIS, CSV. 
 SYMFOSIAC *, STMnosiAKON, a conference or converfa- 
 
 tion of philosophers at a banquet. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, tr»tMr«rw t cWWWi 
 feaft. 
 
 Plutarch has nine books which lie calls fympofiacs ; or, fympo- 
 ftac queftions, q. d. difputations at table. 
 SYMPTOM, S/MnTP-M-A, in medicine, is ordinarily con- 
 founded with fign, and defined an appearance, or afi'emblagc 
 of appearances, in a difeafe, which mew or indicate its na- 
 ture and quality ; and from which one may judge of the 
 event thereof. 
 
 In this fenfe, a delirium is held a fymptom of a fever. — 
 Pain, waking, drowfinefs, convulfions, fupprefiion of urine, 
 difficulties of breathing and ("wallowing, coughs, diftaftes, 
 naufeas, thirft, fwoonings, fainting*, loofenefs, coftivenefs, 
 
 . drinel's, and blacknefs of the tongue, arc the principal fymp- 
 
 . torm of difeafes. 
 Boerhaave gives a more jufl: notion of fymptom: every pre- 
 ternatural thing arifing from a difeafe, as its caufe, in fuch 
 manner, however, as that it may be diftinguifhed from the 
 difeafe itfelf, and from its next caufe, is properly a fymptom 
 of that difeafe. 
 
 If it arife, after the fame manner, from the caufe of the dif- 
 eafe, it is called a fymptom of the caufe. 
 
 If it arife from fome former fymptom as its caufe, it is pro- 
 perly called a fymptom of a fymptom. 
 
 Whatever happens to a difeafe, from any other caufes than 
 thofe mentioned, is more properly called an eplgenncma. 
 Hence it appears, that the fymptoms above-recited are really 
 ■ difeafes themfelves. — They are various as to number, effect, 
 ts'c. Though, after the ancients, they may be conveniently 
 enough reduced to faults in the functions, excretions, and 
 retentions. 
 
 Under the firft come all diminutions, abolitions, increafes, 
 and depravations of animal actions, particularly with regard 
 to hunger and thirft, flceping and waking. 
 Under the fecond come naufea's, vomitings, lienteries, cce- 
 lir.c affections, diarrhoeas, dyfenteries, illiac paffions, &c. 
 Under the third come the jaundice, ftone, dropfy, fever, 
 ifchuria, ftrangury, afthma, catarrh, Each whereof fee 
 under its refpective article, Hunger, Nausea, Lien- 
 terv, Diarrhoea, Jaundice, Dropsy, Stone, 
 Fever, &c. 
 
 Critical Symptoms. Sec the article Critical. 
 
 bYMPTOM ATICAL, in medicine, is a term often ufed to 
 denote the difference between the primary and fecondary 
 a ifc ales.— -Thus a fever from pain is faid to be fympto?nati- 
 
 . eel, becaufe it rifes from pain only ; and therefore the or- 
 dinary means in fevers are not, in fuch cafes, to be had re- 
 courfe to ; but to what will remove the pain ; for when that 
 ccafes, the fever will ceafe, without any direct means taken 
 
 . for it. 
 
 SYN ./TRESIS, EYNAIPESIS, contratlion; in grammar, a 
 figure, whereby two fyllablcs arc united in one — As, Vetltem 
 lor vehemms. See Contraction. 
 
 SYNAGOGUE*, Synagoga, a particular afTembly of 
 Jews, met to perform the offices of their religion. — Alfo, 
 the place wherein they meet. See Judaism. 
 
 * The word is Greek, muyrfn) which literally imports aflem- 
 bly, congregation.. 
 
 Some authors take the ufe of fynagogucs to be of no old (land- 
 ing among the Jews ; and maintain, that it was not tiil af- 
 ter their return from the Babylonifh captivity, that the opi- 
 nion fiift got footing, that the worfliip of God was not fo 
 veftrained to the temple at Jerufalem, that it could not be 
 held any where elfe. The confequence of which new opi- 
 nion was, that the Jews began to build them fynagogues in 
 all their cities. 
 
 Others hold, that there were fynagogucs even in the time of 
 David. — But be this as it will, no aiiemblies of the Jews ap- 
 pear to have been called fynagogucs till a little before the 
 coming of Jefus Chrift ; who is faid to have preached In the 
 middle of the fynag&gue. 
 
 There were reckoned four hundred and eiglity fynagogues in 
 the fingle city of Jerufalem. — There are it ill fynagogues 
 fubfifting at London, Amfterdam, Rotterdam, Avignon, 
 
 Metz, Wf. 
 
 SYNALCEPHA, stnaaoi*h, \ n wammar, a contraction of 
 JyHables, performed principally^ %y fuppreffing fome vowel 
 or diphthong at the end of a word, on account of another 
 vowel or dlphthong at the beginning of the next.— As, iff 
 ego, for ille ego, &c. 
 
 SYNANCHE*, ETNArxHj j n medicine, a kind of quinzy, 
 wherein the internal mufcles of the fauces, or pharynx, are 
 attacked. See Angina. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, rvt, with, and tvyzw, 
 10 conib-inge, fuffocate. 
 
 S Y N' 
 
 When the external mufcles of the fame part are feized, it is 
 called a parafynancbe. 
 SYNARTHROIDALIS diarthrofis. Seethe article Diar- 
 
 THROSI S. 
 
 SYNARTHROSIS *, stnafofosie, in anatomy, a kind of 
 articulation, or jointure of the bones of the body j where- 
 in they remain without any, at leaft apparent motion. 
 
 * The word is formed from ihe Greek, trw, with, and «pflp«, 
 articulus, joint. 
 
 The fynarthrofis is when the bones are bound fo faffc toge- 
 ther, that they are rendered immoveable with regard to each 
 other. — In which view it itands oppofed to diarthrofis. 
 It is divided into three kinds : the firft, futura ; which is 
 fometimes in form of two combs or faws, the teeth whereof 
 enter into one another ; and fometimes in form of fcales, 
 one ledge lapping over the other. 
 
 The fecond kind is called barmoma ; which is when the bones 
 meet in an even line, whether it be right or circular. 
 The third, called gomphofs, is when one bone is fixed into 
 another, like a nail or peg into a hole. 
 
 To thefe three kinds of fynarthrofis, fome add feveral others, 
 as fymphyfis,fynienofts, and fynneurofis. SccSymphysis, ts'c. 
 SYNAULIA, ZTNayaia, in the ancient mufic, a concert of 
 feveral pipes, or flutes, performing alternately, without 
 voices. 
 
 Mr. Malcolm, who doubts whether the ancients had proper- 
 ly any fuch thing as inftrumental mufic, that is, mufic com- 
 pofed wholly for initruments, without any finging j yet 
 quotes the practice of the fynaulia from Athenasus. 
 SYNCATEGOREMA, zrrKATHrowiMA, in logic, denotes 
 a word, which Hgnifying little or nothing of itfelf, yet when 
 joined with others, adds force thereto : as, all, none, cer- 
 tain, Sic- 
 
 SYNCELLUS *, or Sincellus, an ancient officer in the 
 family of the patriarchs, and other prelates of the eaftern 
 church. 
 
 * The word, in the corrupt Greek, trayjtjjjiji©-, fignifies a per- 
 (on who lies in the chamber with another ; a chamber-fel- 
 low, or chum. 
 
 The fyncellus was an ecclefiaftic, who lived with the patri- 
 arch of Conftantinople, to be a witnefs of his conduit ; 
 whence it is, that the fyncellus was alfo called the patriarch's 
 eye, becaufe his bufinefs was to obferve and watch. 
 The other prelates had alfo their fyncelli, who were clerks 
 living in the houfe with them, and even lying in the fame 
 chamber, to be witnefles of the purity of their manners. 
 Afterwards the office degenerated into a mere dignity j and 
 there were made fyncelli of churches. — At laft it became a 
 title of honour, and was beftowed by the emperor on the 
 prelates themfelves j whom they called pontifical fyncelli, and 
 jyjicclli auguflales. 
 
 There were alfo fyncelli in the weftern church, particularly in 
 France. The fixth council of Paris fpeaks with a great deal of 
 indignation of fome biihops who abolifhed the office of fyn- 
 celli, and lay alone ; and ftrictly enjoins them, that, for the 
 future, to take away all occafion of fcandal, they made the 
 office of fyncelli infcparable from that of biihops. 
 SYNCHONDROSIS *, srrxoNAPasis, j n anatomy, a kind 
 of articulation of the bones of the body ; being a fpecies of 
 fymphyfis. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, trw, with, andx«^j>©-, 
 cartilage. 
 
 The fynchondrofis fignifics the union of two bones by means 
 of a cartilage : in which manner the ribs are joined to the 
 fternum, and the parts of the os pubis to one another. 
 SYNCHRONISM *, sitxponiismos, the being or happen- 
 ing of feveral things together, at or in the fame time, 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, c-t», and ym^, time. 
 The happening or performing of feveral things in equal 
 times, as, the vibrations of pendulums, ISc. is more properly 
 called ifochronifm ; though fome authors confound the two. 
 
 SYNCOPATION, in mufic, denotes a finking or breaking 
 of the time ; whereby the diftindtion of the feveral times or 
 parts of the meafure is interrupted. See Time and Mea- 
 sure. 
 
 Syncopation, or Syncope, is more particularly ufed for 
 the connecting the laft note of one meafure or bar with the 
 firft of the following meafure ; fo as only to make one note 
 of both. 
 
 A fyncope is fometimes alfo made in the middle of a mea- 
 fure. 
 
 Syncopation, is alfo ufed when a note of one part ends or 
 terminates on the middle of a note of the other part. 
 This is otherwife denominated binding. 
 
 Syncopation is alfo ufed for drivblg a note ; that is, when 
 fome fhorter note at the beginning of a meafure or half 
 JUSaifure is followed by two, three, or more longer notes, 
 before another fhort note occurs, equal to that which occa- 
 fipaed the driving, to make the number even — e. gr. when 
 an odd crotchet comes before two or three minims, or an 
 odd quaver before two, three, or more crotchets, 
 
 2 
 
 In 
 
S Y N 
 
 S Y N 
 
 In fyncopated or driving notes, the hand or foot is taken up, 
 or put down while the note is founding;. 
 SYNCOPE*, srritonH, in medicine, a deep, and fuclden 
 fwooning, wherein the patient continues without any fen- 
 fible heat, motion, fenfe, or refpiration ; and is feized with a 
 cold fweat over the whole body, and all the parts turn pale, 
 and cold, as if dead. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, ra, and ieotvw, to cut, 
 or ftrike. 
 
 There are feveral caufes of fyncopes : i°. Too great an ex- 
 hauftion of fpirits ; as after lung diets, exceffivc evacuations, 
 violent exercifes, long bathings, tzrc.~ -2°.The irregular mo- 
 tion of the fpirits preventing their due influx into the parts ; 
 as fometimes happens in fear, wrath, and other violent 
 pafTions.-— 3 0 . Immoderate haemorrhages. — 4". An ill confti- 
 tution of blood ; as in cacochymkis, or in perfons who have 
 taken fomething that either difiblvcs or coagulates the blood. 
 — 5". Secret difeafes, as abfeeffes, or polypus's of the heart, 
 worms, &e* 
 
 In very numerous, crouded affemhlies, people fometimes fall 
 into fyncopes , merely through the hot, thick, impure air, they 
 breathe. — Some women are alfo liable to them upon the fmeli 
 of mufk, civet, &c. 
 
 For fyncopes, many give volatile fpirits, and aromatics. Heur- 
 nius recommends treacle water, and cinnamon-water ; and 
 Ftmuller the volatile fait of vipers, fpirit of fal ammoniac, oil 
 of amber, and fometimes bleeding. 
 
 Syncope, in grammar, denotes an elifion, or retrenchment 
 of one or more letters, or fyllables from a word. 
 As when we fay viriim for virorum ; and nianet alta mente re- 
 poflnm, for repofitum. 
 
 S Y NDKSMU b*, in anatomy, is fometimes ufed for a liga- 
 ment. 
 
 * The word in the original Greek, d-w^o-m,©-, which fignifies a 
 joining together. 
 
 In grammar, fyndefmus is ufed for a conjunction. 
 S Y N D I C*, in government and commerce, an officer in 
 divers countries, intruftcd with the affairs cfa city, or other 
 community; who calls meetings, makes representations and 
 follicitations to the miniftry, magiitracy, &c, according to 
 the exigency of the cafe. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, fyndievs, and that from 
 the Greek, o-wJi*©-, which iignifies the fame. 
 
 The fyndic is appointed to anfwer and account for the con- 
 duct of the body; he makes and receives propofals for the ad- 
 vantage thereof ; controuls and corrects the railings ot parti- 
 cular perfons of the body, or, at lead, procures their correc- 
 tion at a public meeting. — In effect, the fyndic is, at the 
 Jame time, both the agent and cenfor of the community. 
 Almoft all the companies in Paris. cjV. as the univerfitv, 
 companies of arts and trades, have their fyv.dics ; and, fo have 
 moftof the cities of Provence and Languedoc. 
 Syndic is alfo ufed for a pcrfon appointed to follicit fome 
 common affair, wherein he himfclf has a fbare ; as happens 
 particularly among the feveral creditors of the fame debtor, 
 who fails, or dies infolvent. 
 
 The chief maeiftrate of Geneva is alfo called fyndic. There 
 are four fynd'ics chofe every year ; the eldeft of whom pre- 
 sides in the council of twenty-five, which is the chief coun- 
 cil of the city, wherein all affairs arc difpatched both civil 
 and political : thus the other three elect cannot all come at 
 the office till the four years end ; fo that the fyndicate rolls 
 among fixteen perfons, all chofen out of the council of 
 twenty-five. 
 
 SYNDROME, Stnapomh, the concourfe or combination of 
 
 fymptoms in anvdifeafe. Sec Symptom. 
 SYNECDOCHE*, srNEKAOXH, i n rhetoric, a kind of figure, 
 
 or rather trope, frequent among orators, and poets. 
 
 * The word is Greek, formed of B-wtxA^ni***, I take to- 
 gether. 
 
 There are three kinds of fynecdoches : by the firft,, a part is 
 
 taken for the whole; as the point for the fword ; the roof 
 
 for the houfe ; the fails for the fhip, tfc. 
 
 By the fecond, the whole is ufed for a part. — By the third, 
 
 the matter whereof the thing is made, is ufed for the thing 
 
 itfelf ; as fteel for fword, filvcr for money, &c. 
 
 To which may be added another kind, where the fpecies is 
 
 ufed for the genus, or the genus for the fpecies. — As, he bore 
 
 the fin of many, u e. of all. 
 
 SYNECPHONESIS, or Symphonesis, in grammar, a co- 
 alition, whereby two fvllables are pronounced as one. 
 It is much the fame thing as the /yiiala'pba, or fytuertfis. See 
 Synaloepha and Synthesis. 
 
 SYNEDRIN, or Synedrion. See Sanhedrim. 
 
 SYNEMMENON note. See the article Note. 
 
 SYNNEUROSIS*, in anatomy, a kind of articulation, or 
 jointure of the bones. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, <n>», with, and m?oy 
 nerve. 
 
 The fynneurofss is reckoned a branch of the fymphyfis ; and 
 is when the hones arc connected together by a ligament : as 
 Vol. II. N°. 149. . 
 
 is the os femoris, to the 03 ifchium ; and the patella to the ti- 
 bia. See Symphysis. 
 
 SYNOCHA, a name given by fome to a continual fever, 
 which admits of intentions and remiilions. See Fever. 
 
 SYNOCHCS, stnoxos, denotes a continent fever, which 
 proceeds without any remiffion to the end. See Fever. 
 
 SYNOD*, in aftronomy, a conjunaion, or concourfe of two 
 or more ftars, or planets in the fame optical place of the 
 heavens. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, eW©-, convention, 
 airembiy ; compounded of o-w, with, and wa y. 
 Synod, Synodus, in church hiftory, a council ; or a meet- 
 ing, or afTembly of ecclefiaftics, to CorifuJt on matters of 
 religion. 
 
 Of thefc there are four kinds, viz. 
 
 General or (ecumenical, where bifhops, &c\ meet from all 
 nations. ■ 
 
 National ; where thofe of one nation only come together. 
 Provincial; where they of one only province meet. And 
 Diocefan 1 where thofe of but one diocefe meet. See Con- 
 vocation. 
 
 SYNODAL S, or Synodi es, were pecuniary rents (com- 
 monly of two millings) paid to the bifhop, or archdeacon, at 
 the time of their Eafter vifitation, by every parifh prieft. 
 'They were thus called becaufe ufually paid in iVnods : for 
 that anciently bifhops ufed tovtfit and hold their diocefan fy- 
 nods at once. — For the fame reafon, they are fometimes alfo 
 denominated fynodaUca, but more ufually procurations. 
 
 Synodales tejhs, was an appellation anciently given to the 
 urban and rural deans; from their informing againfr, and at- 
 tefting the diforders of the clergy and people in the epifeo- 
 pal fynod. 
 
 When thefe funk in their authority, in their ftcad rofe ano- 
 ther fort of fyncdal witneffe, who were a kind of impanelled 
 jury, conliiting of a prieft:, and two or three laymen lor 
 every parifh : though at length two for every diocefe were 
 annually chofen ; till at laft the office came to he devolved 
 on the churchwardens. 
 
 Some think our quefi-men, who are affiftants to the church- 
 wardens, were called Jidefmen, quafi, fynodfmen. See Sides- 
 mtn, and QtrEST-tfim. 
 
 Synodale injlrumentum, a folcmn oath or engagement that 
 thefe fynodical witneffes took; as our churchwardens now 
 are fworn to make juff preferments. 
 
 SYNODICAL, srNOiitcoE, fomething belonging to a fy- 
 nod. See Synod. 
 
 Synodical epiflL-s, are circular letters wrote by fynods to the 
 abfent prelates and churches ; or even thofe general ones di- 
 rected to all the faithful, to inform them of what had pafied. 
 in the fynod. 
 
 In the collection of councils are abundance of thefe fynodical 
 epiitles. 
 
 Synodical monlb y is the period or interval of time, wherein 
 the moon, departing from the fun at a fynod or conjunction 
 returns to him again. 
 
 Kepler found the quantity of the mean fynodical month, 
 twenty-nine days, twelve hours, forty-four minutes, three 
 feconds, eleven thirds. 
 
 1 his period is alfo called a lunation ; in regard, in the courfe 
 
 hereof, the moon puts on all her phafes or appearances. See 
 
 Lunation. 
 SYNODIES. See the article Synodals. 
 SYNOD Vnztvz, tefles fynodales. See Synod al es, andSiDEs- 
 
 men, 
 
 SYNOECIA, 2rNOlKlA, i n antiquity, a feaft celebrated at 
 Athens, in memory of Thefeus's having united all the petty 
 communities of Attica, into one fingle commonwealth ; the 
 feat whereof was Athens ; where all the affemblies were to 
 be held. 
 
 The fcaft was dedicated to Minerva ; and, according to the 
 fcholiaft of Thucydides, it was held in the month Meta- 
 gitnion. 
 
 SYNONYMOUS, Synontmus, is applied to a word or 
 term that has the fame import, or fignification with another. 
 Some feverc critics condemn all ufe of fynonymaus terms in the 
 fame period ; but this is to condemn all antiquity : fo far is 
 the ufe thereof from being vicious, that it is frequently ne- 
 cefTary j as fynonyma's contribute both to the force and. 
 clearnefs of the cxpreffion. If the firft word fketch out the 
 refemblance of the thing it reprefents, thefynonym that fol- 
 lows, is, as it were, a fecond touch of the pencil, and iinilbes 
 the image. 
 
 Indeed they muff be ufed with a deal of difcretion and ceco- 
 nomy. The ftiie muft be raifed and brightened, not fluffed 
 or loaded with fynonymaus terms. They muft be ufed as or- 
 naments, and to render the expreflion the more forcible, 
 without making a mew of the riches thereof, or heaping fy- 
 nonyma's on fynonyma's. 
 
 But, though fyonymous words be laudable ; fynsnymous phrafes 
 11 Tt are 
 
S Y N 
 
 S Y R 
 
 are inexcufible : the reafon is, that tv.'n fynor.ymov.s phrafes 1 
 keen the mind at reft, and let it ll.'.g, and languilh. 
 SYNON YMY*, Svnonymia, in rhetoric, a figure where- 
 by i'. nouyms, or fynonymous terms, that is, various wordi 
 of the fame iignification, are made ufe of, tu amplify the 
 difcourlV, 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, e-w, with, and wifMe, 
 name. 
 
 Such is that pafTage in Cicero, abiit, tvaftt, effugit, erupit, 
 lie went off, he efcaped, he run away, frfr. 
 SYNOVIA, orSlNONlA, in medicine, a term ufed by Pa- 
 racclfus and his fchool, for the nutritious juice proper and 
 peculiar to each part. 
 
 Thus, they talk of the fymv'ia of the joints, of the brain, cifc 
 
 Others ufe fynovia far the gout, and other difeafes in the 
 
 joints, arifing from a vice in the nutritious juice. 
 
 Others reftrain the term to the oozing out of the nutritious 
 
 juice through a wounded part ; efpecially at a joint. 
 
 Van Helmont defines fynovia, a kind of tranfparent muci- 
 
 laire, like feed, fuch as iffucs from the legs of a calf upon 
 
 cutting off the feet. 
 
 SYNTAGMA, ZTNTArMA, the difpofing, or placing of 
 things in an orderly manner. 
 
 SYNTAX, srNTAEis, in grammar, the conftrudtion or 
 connexion of the words of a language into fentences, or 
 pbrafes. 
 
 F. Puffier more accurately defines fyntax, the manner of 
 constructing one word with another, with regard to the dif- 
 ferent terminations thereof, prefcribed by the rules ct gram- 
 mar. 
 
 Some authors, as M. Vaugelas, &c. confound fyntax with 
 ftyle ; but there is a real difference. 
 
 The office of fyntax, is to confider the natural fuitablencfs of 
 words with refpedt to one antther ; in order to make them 
 agree in gender, number, perfon, mood, &c. 
 To offend in any of thefe points, is called to offend againft 
 fyntax: and fuch kind of offence, when grofs, is called a 
 fdecifm ; and when more flighr, a barbarifm. 
 The federal parts of fpeech, are, with regard to language, 
 what materials are with regard to a building. How well 
 prepared foe ver they may be, they will never make a houfe, 
 unltfs they be placed conformably to the rules of archi- 
 tecture. It is properly the fyntax that gives the form to 
 language ; and it is that on which turns the molt eflcntiai 
 part of grammar. 
 
 There are two kinds of fyntax ; the one of concord, wherein 
 the words are to agree in gender, number, cafe, and perfon. 
 The other, of regimen or government, wherein one word go- 
 verns another, and occafions fome variation therein. 
 The firlt kind of fyntax, generally fpeaking, is the fame in 
 all languages, as being the natural feries of what is ufed al- 
 jnoft every where, the better to diltinguifb difcourfe. Thus, 
 the diftinction of two numbers, lingular and plural, has 
 rendered it neccffiiry to make the adjective agree with the 
 fubftantive in number ; that is, to make the one lingular or 
 plural, when the other is fo : for, as the fubftantive is the 
 lubjeel confufedly, though directly, marked by the adjective; 
 if the fubftantive exprefs feveral, there muft be feveral fub- 
 jeets exprcfled in that form by the adjective ; and by con- 
 Jequence it ought to be in the plural : as homines doH't, learned 
 men : but there being no variety of termination in the 
 adjective in Englilh to diftinguilh the number, it is only 
 implied. 
 
 The diftinction of mafculinc and feminine gender, obliges 
 the languages which have diftiiict terminations, to have a 
 concordance or agreement between the fubftantive and ad- 
 jective, in gender as well as number : and for the fame rea- 
 lon, the verbs are to agree with the nouns and pronouns in 
 number and perfon. If at any time we meet with any thins 
 that feems to contradict thefe rules, it is bv a figure of 
 fpeech, i. e. by having fome word underftood, or by confi- 
 dering the thoughts rather than the words themfelves. 
 The fyntax of government, on the contrary, is generally ar- 
 bitrary ; and on that account, it differs in molt languages. 
 One language, for inftancc, forms their regimen by cafes; 
 as the Latin and Greek : others ufe particles in lieu thereof; 
 as the Englilh, French, Italian, Spanifh, £sV. 
 One or two general rules, however, may be here noted, 
 which obtain in all languages. i v . That there is no no- 
 minative cafe, but has a relation to fome verb, cither ex- 
 prefled or underftood ; fince we do not only fpeak to ex- 
 prefs what we perceive, but to exprefs what we think of 
 what we perceive, which is done by the verb. 
 2°. That there is no verb but has its nominative cafe either 
 exprefled or underftood ; for the office of the verb being to 
 affirm, there muft be fomething to affirm of ; which is the 
 Jiibject or nominative cafe of the verb ; except before an in- 
 finitive, where it is an accufative ; as fcio Petrum ejp doclum, 
 I know Peter to be learned. 
 
 ■f~~. That there is no adjedive but has a relation to fome fub- 
 ftantivej in regard the adjective marks confufedly the fub- 
 
 ftantive, which is the fubject of the form or quality diftiiuV 
 ly marked by the adjective. 
 
 4°. That there never comes auv genitive cafe but what h 
 governed by fome other noun. 
 
 5 U . The government of verbs is frequently taken from vari- 
 ous forts of references, included in the cafes, according to 
 the caprice of cuftom or ufage ; which yet does not change 
 tlie fpecific relation of each cafe, but onlv fhews that cuftom 
 has made choice of this or that. — Thus, the Latins lay, 
 juvare aliqitmi & epitrdar; chad ; the French, jervir qutlqiC 
 un & jervir a quelque cbsfe ; and in the Spanifh, the gene- 
 rality of verbs governs indifferently a dative and an accufa- 
 tive cafe. 
 
 SY'NTEXIS, in medicine, an attenuation cr 
 
 colliquation of the folids of tiie body ; fuch as frequently 
 happens in atrophies, inflammations of the bowels, colli- 
 quative fevers, &c. wherein a fatty and uliginous matter is 
 voided with the excrements by ftool. See Colliqjja- 
 TION. 
 
 SYNTHESIS*, ETN0E2IE, compofition, or the putting of 
 feveral things together : as in making a compound medicine 
 of feveral fimple ingredients, csV. See Composition. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, <rw, with, and Sir ii,,poJttio. 
 
 Synthesis, in logic, denotes a branch of method, cppofitc 
 to analyfis. 
 
 In the fynthefts, or fyntbetic method, we purfue the truth by 
 reafons drawn from principles before eftablilhed, or aifumed, 
 and propofitions formerly proved ; thus proceeding by a re- 
 gular chain, till we come to the conclufion. 
 Such is the method in Euclid's Elements, and molt demon-- 
 Itrations of the ancient mathematicians, which proceed from 
 definitions and axioms, to prove propofitions, tVc. and from 
 thofe propofitions proved, to prove others. 
 This method we alfo call compafition, in oppofition to analyfis 
 or refolution. See Composition. 
 
 Synthesis, in grammar. See Syllepsis. 
 
 Synthesis, in chirurgery, an operation, whereby divided 
 parts are re-united ; as in wounds, fractures, Wf. 
 
 SYNTHETIC method. See Synthesis and Method. 
 
 SYNUSIASTS *, Synusiast^e, synoisialtai, a fe£t 
 of heretics, who maintained, that there was but one nature, 
 and one fingle fubftance in Jefus Chrift. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, e-vi ) with, and wrtx, 
 fubltance. 
 
 The Synvfiajis denied, that the word alfumed a body in the 
 womb of the virgin; but held, that a part of the divine 
 word being detached from the reft, was there changed into 
 flefli and blood. — Thus they taught, that Jefus Chrift was 
 confubftantial to the Father, not only as to his divinity, but 
 even as to his humanity and very body. 
 SYPH ILIS*, is a term ufed by fome writers for the lues ve- 
 nerea, or pox. 
 
 * Some derive it from cm, cum, with, and Qthm, emor, or a- 
 micitta, love, or friendihip ; becaufe it proceeds from the in- 
 fectious iiuercourfe of lovers iu coition. Others will have it 
 come from the name of a fhepherd fo called, who was re- 
 markably aiHi&ed with this difeafe.— However, divers au- 
 thors of note ufe the term ; particularly Fracallorius, a fa- 
 mous Italian phyfician, who ufes it for the title of a fine po- 
 em, which he wrote upon that diltemper. 
 
 SYPHON, or Siphon. See the article Siphon. 
 SYRENS, Sirenes, in antiquity. See Siren. 
 SYRIAC bilks. See the article Bible. 
 SYRIAN year. See the article Year. 
 SYRINGE*, an inltrument ferving to imbibe, or fuck in 
 
 a quantity of any fluid, and to fquirt or expel the fame with 
 
 violence. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, o-ufc/g, or Latin, fy- 
 rinx, pipe. 
 
 The fyringe is made of a hollow cylinder, as ABCD (Tab.Hy* 
 drojiatics, fig. 26.) furnifhed with a little tube at the bottom, 
 EF. In this cylinder, is an embolus, K, made, or at leaft 
 covered with leather, or fome other matter that eafily imbibes 
 moifture ; and fo filling the cavity of the cylinder, as that no 
 air or water may pafs between the one and the other. 
 If, then, the little end of the tube F be put in water, and 
 the embolus drawn up; the water will afcend into the ca- 
 vity left by the embolus : and upon thrufting back the embo- 
 lus, it will be violently expelled again through the fame tube 
 EF : and ftill, the greater impetus will the water be expelled 
 withal, and to the greater diftance, as the embolus is thruft 
 down with the greater force, or the greater velocity. 
 This afcent of the water, the ancients, who fuppofed a ple- 
 num, attributed to nature's abhorrence of a vacuum ; but 
 the moderns, more reafonably, as well as more intelligibly, 
 attribute it to the prelfure of the atmofphere on the furface 
 of the fluid. 
 
 For, by drawing up the embolus, the air left in the cavity 
 of the cylinder muft be exceedingly rarified ; fo that being 
 no longer a counterbalance to the air incumbent on the fur- 
 3 fac* 
 
SYS 
 
 SYS 
 
 face of the fluid ; that prevails, (fnd forces the water through 
 the little tube, up into the Soidy bf the Jyringe. .. 
 In effect, a fyrhigt is only a 1'ingle pump, and the water af- 
 cends in it on the fame principle, as in the common lucking 
 pump ; whence it follows, that W^ter will not be railed in 
 a fyringe, to a height exceeding thirty-one feet:. 
 Syringes are of confiderablc ule in medicine and chirurgery. 
 By them clyfters are adniiniffrcd : injections of medicinal 
 waters, CsV. made into wounds, £sV. They alfo ferve to 
 inject coloured liquors, melted wax, &e. into the veffels of 
 the parts of animals, to lhew the dilpoiition, texture, rami- 
 , fications, bfc. thereof. 
 
 SYROP*, Syrupus, or Sir up us, in pharmacy, an agree- 
 able liquor, or compofuion of a thick confidence, made of 
 juices, tinctures, or waters of fruits, flowers, or herbs boiled 
 up, in order to preferve it from fpoiling, by fermentation, 
 or otherwife, with fugar, or honey. 
 
 * Menage derives the word from the Arabic, clfhorab, potion, 
 formed from the root Jt bcrebe , to drink. — Others derive it 
 from the Greek, rvp>, I draw, and c^&* } juice, Elthius, 
 from crujiise mror, in regard theft- kind of liquors were much in 
 ufe among the Syrians, a very delicate people. According to 
 d'Hcrbelot, the words J'yrcp, and jherbet or firBtt, come both 
 irom the Arabic, jtkarub, which lignifies any kind of drink 
 in the general. 
 
 There are various kinds of fyrops, denominated from the va- 
 rious fruits, £3V. they are extracted from, or from their vir- 
 tues ; at fyrop of violets, of elder, of wormwood, of pop- 
 pies, Esff. emetic jyrtps, lienteric, and fcntlflephxitlC Jyrops, 
 and chologogue, phlegmagogue Jyrops, &c. 
 
 Syrop cf Sapor, is an ancient medicament, the bafe whereof 
 is apples, with juices of buglofs, anife, faffron, E5V. thus 
 called trom Sapor king of Perlia, who overcame the emperor 
 Valerian, and who was fuppofed to be the inventer thereof. 
 
 Syrop of fugar. See the article Sugar. 
 
 S YSS ARCOSIS*, in anatomy, a particular fpecies of the 
 kind of articulation called alfo fympbyfss. 
 
 * The word is Greek, compounded of <rut, with and o-ceef 
 
 fldh. r 
 The fy (far tofts is a natural union of two bones, by means of 
 flefli or mufcles : fuch is that of the os hvoides, and omo- 
 plata. 
 
 SYSTEM *, Syst ima, in the general, denotes an afiem- 
 blage, or chain of principles, and conclufions : or the whole 
 of any doctrine, the fcveral parts whereof are bound toge- 
 ther, and follow or depend on each other. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, trvgubbx, compofuion, 
 compagei. 
 
 In this fenfe, wc fay, a fyjlem of philofophy; a fyflem of 
 motion; a fyjlem of fevers, fife. — Divines have framed a- 
 bundance of fyjlems of grace: the fyjlems of intermediate 
 fcience, and predetermination, are invented to explain that 
 of grace. 
 
 Among phyficians, fome follow the fyjlem of alkali and a- 
 cid ; others that of the four qualities, fcff. — Dr. Wood- 
 ward accounts for moft things on his fyflem of the bile. 
 Des Cartes's fyjlem is held deltrudrive to religion. Gaffendus 
 renewed the znciznt fyjlem of atoms; which was that of De- 
 mocritu?, followed by Epicurus, Lucretius, &c. — Sir Ifaac 
 Newton's dodtrine of colours, M. Leibnitz's protogesa, and 
 fome difcourfes of M. Juflieu, in the academy of fciences, 
 to fhew that there are bodies whefe parts are not to be de- 
 ftroved by anv natural agents; are very favourable to the 
 jyjlem of Gafle'ndus. 
 
 Experiments and obfervations are the materials of fyjlems: 
 an infinity are required to build one. 
 System, in aftronomy, denotes an hypothefis or fuppofition 
 of a' certain order, and arrangement of tlie feveral parts of 
 the univcrfe ; whereby aftronomers explain all the pbxno- 
 mena or appearances of the heavenly bodies, their motions, 
 changes, &c. 
 
 7'his is more peculiarly called the fyjlem of the worlds and 
 fometimes the Jo/a r fyjlem. See World, Soiar, &e; 
 Syjlem and hypotbefs have much the fame fignification ; un- 
 lefs, perhaps, hypothefis be a more particular fyflem; and 
 fyjlem a more general hypothefis. See Hypothesis. 
 Some late authors, indeed, furnilh a frefher diftindtion : an 
 hypothefis, fay they, is a mere fuppofition, or fidtion ; found- 
 ed rather on imagination, than reafon : a fyflem is only built 
 on the firmeft ground, and railed by the fevereft rules: it is 
 founded on agronomical obfervations, and phyfical caufes, 
 and confirmed by geometrical demonftrations. 
 The moft celebrated fyjlems of the world, are the Ptolemaic, 
 and the Ccpernican ; to which may be added, the Tychonic : 
 the occonomy of each whereof, is as follows. 
 Ptolemaic System places the earth at reft, in the centre of 
 the univerfc ; and makes the heavens revolve round the fame 
 from eaft to weft, and carry all the heavenly bodies, ftars 
 anU planets, along with them. See Ptolsmaic. 
 
 For the order, difhnces, f$c. of the feveral bodies in this 
 fyjlem, fee Tab. Ajlron.fig. 43. 
 
 The principal aflerters of this fyjlem are Ariftotle, Hippar- 
 chus, Ptolemy, and many of the old philofophers, followed 
 by the whole world, for a great number of ages; and Kill 
 adhered to in divers universities, and other places, wheic 
 free philofophizing is excluded : but the late improvements 
 have put it out of all countenance ; and we do not even 
 want demonftration againft it. 
 Copcrnitan System places the fun at reft, nearly in the centre 
 of they£/?<vn ; excepting fur a vertiginous motion about his 
 own axis. 
 
 Around him move, from weft to eaft, in feveral orbits, firffe 
 Mercury, then Venus, the Ear th, Mars, Jupiter, and Sa- 
 turn. 
 
 About the earth, in a peculiar orbit, moves the moon ; ac- 
 companying the earth, in its whole progrefs, round thefun. 
 And after the fame manner do four fatellir.es move round Ju- 
 piter; and live round Saturn. 
 
 A-thwart the planetary fpace do the comets move round the 
 fun; only in very excentric orbits, probably in parabola's, 
 in one of whofe foci is the fun. 
 
 At an immenfe diftance beyond the planetary and comet ary 
 fpaces, are the fixed ftars, which have all a proper motion 
 from weft to eaft. 
 1 he filar, or planetary Syst em, is ufually confined to nar- 
 rower bounds : the ftars, by their immenfe diftance, and the 
 little relation they appear to bear to us, being reputed no 
 part thereof. It is highly probable, that each fixed ftar, is, 
 itfelf, a fun ; and the centre of a particular fyjlem. furround- 
 ed with a company of planets, f&c. which, in different pe- 
 riods, and at different diftances, perform their courfes round 
 their refpedtive funs ; and are enlightened, warmed, and 
 cherifhed thereby : hence we have a very magnificent idea 
 of the world, and the immenlity thereof : hence alfo arifes a 
 kind of fyflem of fyjlems. 
 
 The planetary fyjlem, here defcribed, is the moft ancient in 
 the world. It was the firft that we know of, introduced 
 into Greece and Italy by Pythagoras; whence, for many 
 ages, it was called the Pythagorean fyjlem. It was followed 
 by Philolaus, Plato, Archimedes, 6rV. but loft under the 
 reign of the peripatetic philofophy; till happily retrieved 
 above two hundred years ago by Nic. Copernicus ; whence 
 its new appellation of Copernican fyjlem. — For the ceconomy 
 of this fyjlem, fee the fcheme thereof, Tab. Ajlron.fig. 44. 
 Tychonic System, in moft refpecls, coincides with the Coper- 
 nican ; except in this, that, fuppofing the earth to be fixed, 
 its orbit is omitted, and in lieu thereof, the fun's orbit is 
 drawn round the earth, and made to interfedt the orbit of 
 Mars ; that Mars may be nearer the earth than the fun.— 
 But as there is not any reafon, or foundation in nature, for 
 fuch a manifeft ftiift ; and as the author was only led thereto 
 from afupcrftitious perfuafion, that to fuppofe the fun at reft, 
 and the earth to move, is contrary to fcripture ; the true 
 fyjlem is not much prejudiced hereby. — For the order and 
 ceconomy of the Tychonic fyjlem, fee the fcheme in Tab. 
 Ajlron.fig. 45. 
 
 System, in poetry, denotes a certain hypothefis, or fcheme 
 of religion, from which the poet is never to recede.- — E. gr. 
 Having made his choice either in the heathen mythology, or 
 in chnftianity, he muft keep the two apart ; and never mix 
 fuch different ideas in the faid poem. 
 
 Thus, after invoking Apollo and the Mufes, he muft bid 
 adieu to the language of cbriftianity, and not confound the 
 two fyflems, — The fabulous ftile/indeed, is the richer and 
 mote figurative ; but a pagan god makes but a miferable 
 figure in a chriftian poem. — The fyftem of poetry, Bouhour* 
 obferves, is itfelf wholly fabulous and pagan. 
 System, in mufic, denotes a compound interval; or an in- 
 terval compofed, or conceived to be compofed of fcveral 
 lefler intervals — Such as is the ocla-ve, he. 
 The word is borrowed from the ancients ; who call a fimple 
 interval, diajlem, and a compound one fyjlem. See Diastem. 
 As there is not any interval in the nature of things ; fo wc 
 can conceive any given interval, as compofed of, or equal 
 to, the fum of feveral otheis. This divifion of intervals, 
 therefore, only relates to practice ; fo that a Jyjlem is pro- 
 perly an interval which is actually divided in practice, and 
 where along with the extremes, we conceive always fome 
 intermediate terms. 
 
 The nature of a fyflem will appear plain, by conceiving itas 
 an interval whofe terms are in practice, taken either in im- 
 mediate fucceftion ; or the found is made to rife and fall 
 from the one to the other, by touching fome intermediate 
 degrees : fo that the whole is a Jyjlem or compofuion of all 
 the intervals between one extreme and the other. 
 Syjlems of the fame magnitude, and confequently of the fame 
 .'egree of concord and difcord, may yet differ in refpedt of 
 their compofition ; as containing and being actually divided 
 into more, or fewer intervals ; and when they arc equal in 
 
 that 
 
SYS 
 
 S Y Z 
 
 'that refpect, tlie parts may differ in magnitude. Laftly, 
 when they confift of the fame parts, or Idler intervals, they 
 may differ as to the order and difpofition thereof between 
 the two extremes. 
 
 There are feveral diflinctions of fyflevu ; the moft remark- 
 able, is into concinnous and inconciimaus. 
 Concinnous Systems, are thole confiding of fucb parts as are 
 fit for mufic ; and thofe parts placed in fuch an order between 
 the extremes, as that the fucceflion of founds, from one ex- 
 treme to the other, may have a good .effect. See Concin- 
 nous. 
 
 Inconcinnous Systems, are thofe, where the fimple intervals 
 are inconcinnous, or ill dlfpofed betwixt the extremes. 
 
 Syjlems, again, are either particular or unfoerfal. 
 
 Umverfal System, is that which contains all the particular 
 fyjlems belonging to mufic ; and makes what the ancients 
 call the diagramma, and we the fcale of mufic. 
 The ancients alfodiftinguifh fjlrms into perfcel and imperfeR. 
 — The difdiapafon, or double- octave, was reckoned the per- 
 fect fyjlem, becaufe within its extremes are contained exam- 
 ples of all the fimple and original concords, and in all the 
 variety of order wherein their concinnous' part ought to be 
 taken ; which variety constitutes what they call the /pedes, 
 or figures of cmfinantes, — All the fyjlems, lefs than the dif- 
 diapafon, were reckoned imperfect. 
 
 The double octave was alfo called fyjhma maximum, and tin- 
 tnutatum ; becaufe they took it to be the great eft: extent or 
 difference of time that we could go in making melody; 
 though fome added a fifth to it, for the greateft jyfem : but 
 the diapafon, or fimple octave, was reckoned the mod: per- 
 fect, with refpect to the agreement of its extremes ; fo that 
 how many octaves foever were put into the greateft fyjlcm, 
 they were all to be conftituted or fub-divided the fame way 
 as the firft : fo that when we know how the octave is di- 
 vided, we know the nature of the diagramma or fcale : 
 thevarieties whereof, conftituted the genera melodic, which 
 were fub-divided into fpecics. 
 SYSTOLE, Systoah, in medicine, the contraction of 
 the heart of an animal ; whereby the blood is driven out of 
 its ventricles into the arteries, to be diftributed throughout 
 the body. 
 
 The fyjlole of the heart is well accounted for by Dr. Lower, 
 who fhews, that the heart is a true mufclc, the fibres where- 
 of are acted on like thofe of other nuifcles, by means of cer- 
 tain branches of the eighth pair of nerves inferted into it, 
 which bring the animal fpirits from the brain hither. By a 
 flux of theft fpirits, the mufcular fibres of the heart are in- 
 flated, and thus arc fhortcned ; the length of the heart dimi- 
 nifhed, its breadth or thicknefs increafed, the capacity of 
 the ventricles clofed, the tendinous mouths of the arteries 
 dilated, thofe of the veins fhut up by means of their valves, 
 snd the contained juice forcibly exprelfed into the orifices of 
 the arteries. 
 
 And this we call<™reM, or the contraction of the heart ; the 
 oppofite date to which is called the dtaftole, or dilatation of 
 the heart. 
 
 Dr. Drake adds to Dr. Lower's account, that the intercoftal 
 mufcles and diaphragm, contribute to the fyjlole, by opening 
 the blood a paffage from the right ventricle of the heart to 
 
 the left through the lungs, to which it could not otherwi:> 
 pafs : by which means, the oppoiition the blood contained in 
 that ventricle muff neceflarily iiave made to its conftri&ion, 
 iij taken off. 
 
 Lower and Drake make the fyflok the natural ftate or action 
 of the heart, and the diaftole the violent one : Boerhaavc, 
 on the contrary, makes the fyjlole the violent, and the dia- 
 ftole the natural ftate. 
 SYXHINDEMEN, or Sixhindemen, a term purely 
 Saxon, literally fignifying fix-huudred-men, or men worth 
 fix-hundred {hillings a-piece. 
 
 In the time of our anceftors, all men were ranked into three 
 clafles ; the Iswejl, the middle, and the highejl ; and were 
 valued according to their clafs : that if any injury were done, 
 fat isf action might be made to the value, or worth of the man 
 it was done to. 
 
 The htueft Were tailed tivyhhukmen, q. d. valued at two hun- 
 dred fhillings ; the middle, fixhindemen, q. d. valued at fix 
 hundrcd millings ; and the highejl^ tioeheindcmtn, i.e. va- 
 lued at tweive hundred findings. 
 SYZYtiY *, Syzygia, in aifronomy, a term equally nfed 
 for the conjunction and oppofition of a planet with the fun. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, <rv*jytx, which pro- 
 perly fignifies cenjundia. 
 On the phenomena and circumfhnces of the Jyzygies, a great 
 part of the lunar theory depends. See Moon. 
 i*or, i°. It is fhewn in the phyfical aftronomy, that the 
 force which diminifhes the gravity of the moon in the fyzy- 
 gies, is double that which increafes it in the quadratures : fo 
 that in the fyzygies, the gravity of the moon from the ac- 
 tion of the fun is diminifhed by a part, which is to the whole 
 gravity as r to 89,36 ; for in the quadratures, the addition 
 of gravity is to the whole gravity as 1 to 178,73. 
 2°. In the fyzygies, the difturbing force is directly as thedif- 
 tance of the moon from the earth, and inverfely as the cube 
 of the diftancc of the earth from the fun. And at tbe fyzy-> 
 gieSj the gravity of the moon towards the earth rcCcdtag 
 from its centre, is more diminifhed, than according to the 
 invcrfe ratio of the fquare of the diftance from that centre. 
 Hence, in the motion of the moon from the fyzygies to the 
 quadratures, the gravity of the moon towards the earth is 
 continually increafed, and the moon is continually retarded 
 in its motion ; and in the motion from the quadratures to. 
 the fyzygies, the moon's gravity is continually diminifhed, 
 and its motion in its orbit is accelerated. 
 3 0 . Further, in the fyzygies the moon's orbit or circle round 
 the earth is more convex than in tbequadratures ; for which 
 reafon the moon is lefs diftant from the earth at the former 
 than the latter. When the moon is in the fyzygies, her ap- 
 fides go backwards, or are retrograde. 
 
 When the moon is in the fyzygies, the nodes move in ante- 
 ccdentia fafteft ; then flower and flower, till they become at 
 reft when the moon is in the quadratures. 
 Laftly, when the nodes are come to the fyzygies, the incli- 
 nation of the plane of the orbit is the leaft of all. 
 Add, that theft feveral irregularities are not equal in each 
 fyzygy, but are all fomewhat greater in the conjunction than 
 in the oppofition. 
 
 T. 
 
T 
 
 TAB 
 
 '■ A confonant, and the nineteenth letter in the alpna- 
 I bet. 
 
 M ft '^' ie m f° un ^i De ars a near refcmblance to the D, 
 J for which rcafon they are often put fur each other ; 
 and Quintilian even rallies thofe who made any fV tuple of wri- 
 ting the one indifferently for the other : as, at for ad, fet for 
 •fed, haut for baud, &tc. 
 
 The T is one of the five ennf mints whir-h the abbot de Ban- 
 geau calls Palatal thefc fi ve are Z) 7", G and A^; the four 
 firtt whereof have the fame re I -it ion ro each other, as the la- 
 bials B-P and V F have. £>, for hiftance, having the lame 
 relation to 7, tlut B has to and V i F. 
 The 7", the fame author obfrrvt--, jsa letter of a ftrong found; 
 fo that a feeble one cannot be heard b re it : hence, to form 
 the fupine of rego, the T of turn change* the g, and ftreitgthens 
 it to the found of a c ; fo that we fay relfum ; as in the pre- 
 terperfed tenet rexi. which we pronounci- rekfl, 
 T among the ancients was ufed as a numeral letter, fignifying 
 J 60 ; according ro the Verfe, 
 
 T qusque ccntenos £3* fexagbtta tencbit. 
 Wbenadalh was added a-top, thus, T, it lignified 160 thou- 
 fand. 
 
 When the Roman tribunes approved of the decrees 1 f the fe- 
 nate, th<"v teftjfitd their confenr by fubferibing a T. 
 T, in mulic, is fometimcs ufed to mark the tenor part or 
 
 pitch. 
 
 T is alfo a mark, or brand, which by ftatute 4 Hen. VII. 
 every perfon convicled of an\ felony, fave murder, and ad- 
 mitted to the benefit of the clergy, fhall be marked withal, 
 on the brawn of the left thumb. 
 
 Xj or Tau, in heraldry, is a kind of crofs potent, or trun- 
 cated ; found in all the armories of the commanders of the 
 order of St. Anthony, 
 
 The azure T, or Tau, is feen in arms above 400 years old : 
 its origin, according to fome author?, is taken from the Apo- 
 calypfe ; where the fame is a mark that the angti imprcfTes 
 on the foreheads of the elecT:. Others take it to reprefent a 
 crutch; a fy mbol proper enough for this order, which was 
 fworn to hofpitality. But the truth, F. Meneftrier obferves, 
 Is, that it is the ti p of a Greek crozier. 
 
 The bifhops and abbots of the Greek church wear It ffill ; 
 and if it be found on the habit of St, Anthony, it is only to 
 fhe* that he was an abbot. 
 TABACCO, See the article Tobacco. 
 
 TABBY, in commerce, a kind of thick filk, ufually watred. 
 It is manufactured like the common taffety, excepting that 
 it is ftronger anu thicker both in the woof and warp. 
 The watnng is given it by means of a calender, the mils 
 whereof are of iron or copper, and varioufly engraven, which 
 bearing unequally on the fluff render the furface thereof un- 
 equ -1, fo as to rtfl(£t the rays of light differently. 
 
 TABBYING, the paffing a Muff under the calender, to make 
 a reprefentation of waves thereon, as on a tabby. 
 It u ufual to tabby mohairs, ribbans, CSV. — Tabbying is per- 
 formed whhout the addition of any water or dye; and lur- 
 hifhes the modern philofophers with a ftrong proof, that co- 
 lours are only appearances. 
 
 TABELLA, or Tablet, Tabularum, in pharmacy, a 
 folid kind of electuary, or confection, made of dry ingredi- 
 ents, ufually with fugar, and formed into little flat morfules, 
 or fquares ; more ufually called Lozenges-, and fome times Mor- 
 jclli. Troches, &c. See Lozenges. 
 
 Powders, fruits, falts, &c. are difTolved with fugar, and 
 made into Tabula:-, as thofe of the juice of liquorice for 
 colds, &fV. r 
 
 We have cordial, Jlomachic, aperitive, and hepatic Tablets 
 Jellies and broths are fometimes reduced into a fort of Tablets, 
 to be carried in the pocket, and called pocket foop. 
 Tabcllx Manus Chrifli, *re made of fugar uf rofes pearled. 
 Tabellec Magnanimitat'ts, are a fort taken by feeble old men, 
 when marched with young wives, to afiift and bear them out 
 in the affair of feneration 
 I ABELLIO, Tabtlarius, in the Roman law, a Sen- 
 vener ; a kind of officer often confounded with the notary, 
 notarius. Yet did the two differ in this; that the notaries 
 only drew up, and kept the minutes of acts and inffruments 
 on paper, and in notes, or fhort- hand ; whereas the Tabeiliones 
 delivered them engn.Hed fair on parchment, in the full ex- 
 ecutory form. — The fame alfo put the feals to contracts, and 
 rend red them authentic. 
 
 The domeftic clerks of thefe 7 abelUones, who, at firft, 
 wrote under them, in procefs of time came to be called 
 notaries. 
 
 Pafquir obferves, that the TabdUonet at Rome were public 
 flaves, appointed fur the keeping of contr.icls made between 
 private pcrfons. — According to LojT&Ml, a contract wrote by 
 a notary was not perfect or obligatory, till the Tabelio had 
 Vol. II'. ' _ 
 
 TAB 
 
 wrote it fair : after which the parties (uVicribed it, i. e. they 
 wrote at bottom rhat they approved e ntt-i ts ; for fi t na- 
 tures were not then in life.* See Sid- A rtffte, 
 
 * Quoniam Tabellionum ufus in re no An Hit m * b litur, pofter 
 qmdmagh ad Jigillv >ut ent c crc ?!e/l Hecr 'fft, u: to urn pia 
 
 facilius buheatur, fiahimus ut ft ilium h.be.nl nonfolum archie- 
 p'feopi, CS* e/i/copi, fed ear urn i its. 
 
 TABERNACLE, * Tab e rnaculum, among the Jews, 
 the place wherein the ark o! the covenant was lodged ; boLh 
 while they were in tents, during their journey from Egypt; 
 and when fixed in Jerufalem, and the ark was kept in the 
 temple. 
 
 • The word is formed from the Latin T-bernncufum, a tent. 
 Philo defcribes the Jcwifh Trbernade thus : it was a fabric 
 compnfed of 48 cedar boards, lined with nuftW gold ; under 
 each wheteof was a filver ftand, or foot, and a t the top a ca- 
 pital of gold: it was encompafied with ten p.eces o: rich ape- 
 ftry of different colours, purple, f a: let, hyacinthme, C3V — 
 The length of the Tabernacle wjs 30 cuoits ; its breadth 10, 
 or as Jofephus fays 1 2. 
 
 The ark was placed in a ferret oratory, in thr middle of this 
 Tabernacle; and was guilt both withlj fide and without': the 
 top whereof, being a kind ■ ' lid, wis called tht ■ propruiaUry, 
 becaufe it appeaftd the wrath o^ Go>1. 
 
 The Tabernacle was enfeoiBpafled wi-h feie-al f-ils, or cur- 
 tains, ft retched over it, witt, h.n k and bui kis oi g Id* 
 
 Feaft o/'Tab ernaclEs. See Sc \ NoJ E . 1 a. 
 
 Tabernacle is alio ufed of laie foi a fort of temp rary 
 church, or chapel, contrived to ferve the immediate pupaon 
 of the parifhioners, while their pp. per church is repairing? 
 rebuilding, or the like. 
 
 TABES, in medicine, a general name for confuu.ptions of all 
 kinds. See Consumption. 
 
 Ta EEs Dfrjalts, is a kind of confumption^ proceeding f-me- 
 times from an exceffive application to venery. The pa nut 
 in this difeafe has neither a fever, nor lofs of appeu.e ; nut 4 
 fenfation, as it there were a number of pifmires lUtining frtirh 
 the head down to the fpinal marrow ; and when he evacuate-., 
 either by urine or ftool, there flows afterwards a liq.nd matter 
 like femen. After any violent exercife h,s head is heavy, and 
 his ears tingle; and at length, if not remedied, he di' s ot a 
 lipyria, /. e. a fever, where the external parts are cold^ and 
 the internal burn at the fame time, 
 
 TABLATURE, in anatomy, a divifion or pirting of the 
 fcull into two tables. See Table, and Cranium 
 
 Ta blature, TaBlaTura, in mulic, 1 n general, isj 
 when, to txprefs the founds, or notes ot a compoittion, we 
 ufe lefers of the alphabet, or cyphers, or any other ciiar d cfer< 3 
 not ufed in the modern mufic. 
 
 Tablature, in itsffrict r fenfe, is the manner of wri ing a 
 piece for a lute, theorbo, guitarre, bafs-viol, or the like — 
 which is done by writing on fevcral parallel line (each where- 
 of reprefents a tiring of the inltrumentj certain lettei 1 of thtf 
 alphabet ; whereof, A marks that the firing is to be ft ruck 
 open, /'. e, without putting the finger of the left hand on the 
 head ; B fhews, that one of the fingers is to be put on the 
 firft flop ; C on the fecoud ; D on the third, &c. 
 The Tablature of the lut« is ufually wrote in letters of the al- 
 phabet ; and that of the harpftcord in the common notes. 
 
 TABLE, Tabula, a moveable, ufually made of wood, or 
 ftone, fupported on pillar?, or the like; for the commodious 
 reception of things placed thereon. 
 
 Mofes made a Table in the tabernacle, for laying the (new- 
 bread upon, defenbed by Philo Juda;us as two cubits long, 
 one broad, and one and a half high. 
 
 Among Chriftians, the Tabic, or Lord's Table, fignlfies the 
 Sacrament of the Lord's Supper. 
 Round T able — Knights of the Round Table, a military or- 
 der, fupptdeJ to have been inftituted by Arthur the firft king 
 of the Britons, in the year 516. See Knight. 
 They are faid to have been 24 in number; all picked fiom 
 among the braveft of the nation. 
 
 The Rou?-.d Table, which gave them their title, was an in- 
 vention of that prince, to avoid difputes about the upper and 
 lower end ; and to take away all emulation as to places. 
 Lefly allures us, he faw the Table at Winchester ; at leaft, 
 he fays, if he might believe the keepers thereof, who Bfl] fhew 
 it with a deal of folemnitv. He adds, that the name* a 
 great number of knights wrote around it, feemed to confirm 
 the truth of the tradition. 
 
 Larryalfo, and feveral other authors, make no fcruple to rtlats 
 this fable of knighthood as matter of hiftory ; but that it 
 is a -fable is certain; F. Papebroach havii g fhe»n, that 
 there was no fuch thing as an order of knights before the 
 Vlth century. 
 
 12 A Camden 
 
TAB 
 
 TAB 
 
 Camden alfo obferves, that the Table at Wmchefter is of a 
 ftrufture much more modern than the Vlth century. It is to be 
 added, that Arthur himfelf is no more than a fabulous prince. 
 In effect the Round Table docs not appear to have been any 
 military order, but rather a kind of juft, or military exercife, 
 between two perfons armed with lances. Several authors fay, 
 that Arthur, duke of Bretagne, renewed it. See Matthew 
 Paris, the Abot Juftiniani, and F. Helyot. 
 Paulus Jovius fays, it was under the empire of Frederic Barba- 
 rofTa, that the knights of the Round Table firfi began to be talk- 
 ed of : 'others attribute their origins to the factions of theGuelphs 
 and Gibe'lins.— K. Edward the firft built a houfe called the 
 Round Table, the court whereof was 200 foot in diameter. 
 
 Table, in architecture, a fmooth, fimple member, or orna- 
 ment, ef various forms ; but moft ufualy in that of a long 
 fquare. S?e the article Platband. 
 
 Projeaing Table, is fuch a one as ftands out from the naked 
 of the wall, pedeftal, or other matter which it adorns. 
 
 Raked Table, is that which is hollowed in the die of a 
 pedefbl, or elfewhere, and which is ufually enconipaued with 
 a moulding. 
 
 Razed Table, an cmboflment in a frontifpiece, for the put- 
 ting an infeription or other ornament in fculpture. This is 
 what M. Perrault underftands by Abacus in Vitruvius. 
 
 Crowned Table, that covered with a cornice, and wherein 
 is cut a ballb relievo, or a piece of black marble incruftrated 
 for an infeription. 
 
 Rujl'uatcd Table, that which is picked, and whofe furface 
 feems rough, as in grotto's, Cfff. 
 
 Water Table. See the article Water. 
 
 Plain Table, a furveying inftrument. See Plain Table. 
 
 Table, in perfpedtive, denotes a plain furface, fuppofed to be 
 tranfparent, and perpendicular to the horizon. 
 It is always imagined to be placed at a certain diftance between 
 the eye and objects, for the objects to be reprefented thereon 
 by means of vifual rays palling from every point thereof 
 through the Table to the eye. 
 Whence ir is alfo called PerfpecTive Plane. 
 
 Table, in anatomy. — The cranium is faid to be compofed of 
 two Tables, or lamina;, i, e. it is double, as if it confined of 
 two bones laid one over another. 
 
 Table of Pythagoras, called Mo Multiplication Table, is a fquare, 
 formed of an hundred leffer fquares, or cells, containing the 
 products of the feveral digits, or fimple numbers, multiplied 
 by each other. 
 
 As it is abfolutely nccefiary, thofe who learn arithmetic have 
 the feveral multiplications contained in this Table off by heart, 
 we have thought fit to fubjoin it here ; with an example, to 
 fhew the manner of ufing it. 
 
 Table of Pythagoras, or Multiplication Table. 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 , 6 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
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 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 
 '5 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
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 27 
 
 30 
 
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 8 
 
 
 16 
 
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 28 
 
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 36 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 I D 
 
 
 20 
 
 2; 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 4! 
 
 5° 
 
 6 
 
 
 18 
 
 H 
 
 3° 
 
 ~ 
 
 4- 
 
 43 
 
 54 
 
 60 
 
 
 ■4 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 
 49 
 
 5<> 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 *4 
 
 3 2 
 
 4° 
 
 ;> 
 
 56 
 
 6+ 
 
 
 80 
 
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 18 
 
 z 7 
 
 :.< 
 
 45 
 
 54 
 
 6} 
 
 72 
 
 Si 
 
 90 
 
 
 2C 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 So 
 
 cjo 
 
 100 
 
 Example: Suppofe it were required to know the produfi of 6, 
 multiplied by 8, look for 6 in the firft horizontal column, be- 
 ginning with 1 ; then look for 8 in the firft perpendicular co- 
 lumn, beginning likewife with 1 ; the fquare or cell wherein 
 the perpendicular column from 6, meets with the horizontal 
 one from 8, contains the product required, viz. 48. 
 Laws of the Twelve Tables, were the firft fet of laws of 
 the Romans ; thus called, either by reafon the Romans then 
 wrote with a ftyle on thin wooden Tablets, covered with wax ; 
 or rather, becaufe they were engraven on Tables, or plates of 
 copper, to be expofed in the moft noted part of the public 
 forum. 
 
 After the expulfion of the kings, as the Romans were then 
 without any fixed, or certain fyftem of law ; at leaft had none 
 ample enough to take in the various cafes that might fall be- 
 tween particular perfons ; it was refolved to adopt the beft and 
 wifeft laws of the Greeks. 
 
 One Hermodorus was firft appointed to tranflate them ; and 
 the Decemviri afterwards compiled and reduced them into ten 
 Tables. After a world of care and application, they were at 
 length enacted and confirmed by the fenate, and an affembly 
 of the people, in the year of Rome 303. 
 
 The following year they found fome things wanting therein, 
 which they Cupplied from the laws of the former lings of 
 Rome, and from certain cuftoms, which long ufe had au- 
 thorized ; all thefe being engraven on two other TaLLs, 
 made the Law of the Twelve Tables, fo famous in the Rnmuri 
 Jurifprudence ; the fource and foundation of the civil or 
 Roman law. 
 
 The laws of the twelve Tables were alfo called Decemmral 
 Laws, from the officers entrufted with the compolm^ 
 them. 
 
 It is a great pity, this fyftem of law fhould have perifhed 
 through the injuries of time : we have now nothing of it, but 
 a few fragments difperfed in divers authors. J. Guthofrcd has 
 collected them together, and we have them in Ro'inus, -and 
 fome other authors. — The Latin is very old and barbarous, 
 and remarkably obfeure. 
 
 Tables, Taeuls Nova, an edict occafionallv pub- 
 lifhed in the Roman commonwealth, for the abolifhing all 
 kind of debts, and annulling all obligations. 
 It was thus called, in regard that all antecedent acts being de- 
 ftroyed, there were nothing but new ones to take place. 
 
 Table, among jewellers. A Table Diamond, or other 
 precious ftone, is that whofe upper furface is quite fl.it, and 
 only the fides cut in angles : in which fenfe a diamund cut 
 Table-wife is ufed in oppofition to a rofe-diamonu. See 
 Diamond. 
 
 Table Glafs. See the article Glass. 
 
 Table is alfo ufed for an index or repertory, put at the be- 
 ginning or end of a book, to direct the reader to any paihage 
 he may have occafion for. 
 
 Thus we fay, Table of Matters ; Table of Authors quoted ; 
 
 Table of Chapters, &c- Tables , .«f themfelves, fome ci mess 
 
 make large Volumes ; , as that of Dravitz on the civil and ca- 
 non laws. 
 
 Tables of the Bible, are called Concordances. See Concor- 
 dance. 
 
 Table Rents. See the article Bord Lands. 
 
 Table of Houfes, among aftrologcrs, are certaim Tables ready 
 drawn up for the afliflance of pract iticmers in that art, for the 
 erecting or drawing of figures or febemes. See House. 
 
 Tables, in mathematicks, are fyftems of numbers, calculated, 
 to be ready at hand for the expediting afironomical, geometri- 
 cal, and other operations. See Canon. 
 
 Agronomical Tables, are computations of the motions, place?, 
 and other phenomena of the plantts, both primary and fe- 
 cundary. 
 
 The oldeft Ajlronomical Tables are the Ptolemaic, found in 
 Ptolemy's Almagej} ; but thefe now no longer agree with the 
 heavens. , 
 
 In 1252, Alponfo XL king of Caftile, undertook the cor- 
 recting them, chiefly by the afhftanceof ZJaae Hazety a Jew; 
 and fpent 400 thoufand crowns therein. Thus arofe the Al- 
 phonfme Tables, to which that prince himfelf prefixed a prelate. 
 But the deficiency of thefe alfo was foon perceived by Furbr.- 
 chius and Regiomontanus ; upon which Regiunioiivar.us, and 
 after him Waltherus and Warneru?, applied themfelves to 
 cceleftial obfervations, for the further amending them : but 
 death prevented any progrefs therein. 
 
 Copernicus, in his books of the cceleftial revolutions, infttad 
 of the Alphonfine Tables, gives others of his own calculation, 
 from the latter, and partly from his own obfervations. 
 From Copernicus's obfervations and theories, Eraf. Reinholdus 
 afterwards compiled the Prutenlic Tables, which have been 
 printed feveral times, and in feveral places. 
 Tycho de Brahe, even in his youth, became fenfible of the 
 deficiency of the Prutenic Tables; which was what deter- 
 mined him to apply himfelf with fo much vigour to cce- 
 leftial obfervation. Yet all he did thereby, was to adjufr the 
 motions of the fun and moon; though Longomontanus, fiom 
 the fame, to the theories of the feveral planets publifhed in 
 his AJlrmomia Danica, added Tables of their motions, now 
 Called the Danijh TabUs) and Kepler -likewife, from the fame, 
 in 1627, publifhed the Rudolphine Tables, which are now 
 much efteemed. 
 
 Thefe were afterwards, Anno 1650, turned into another 
 form, by Maria Cunitia, whofe agronomical Tables, com- 
 prehending the effect of Kepler's physical hypothecs, are ex- 
 ceedingly eafy, and fatisfy all the phenomena, without any 
 trouble of calculation, or any mention oi 'logarithms ; fo that 
 the Rudolpine calculus is here greatly improved. 
 Mercator made a like attempt in his Ajlronomical injlituiion, 
 publifhed in 1676 ; and the like did J. Bap. Morini, whofe 
 abridgment of the Rudolphine Tables was prefixed to a Latin 
 verfion of Street's AJlronomi a Carolina, publifhed in 1705. 
 Lanfbergius, indeed, endeavoured to difcredit the Rudolphine 
 Tables, and framed Perpetual Tables, as he calls them, of the 
 heavenly motions; but his attempt was never much regarded 
 by the aftronomers; and our countryman Horrox gave an 
 abundant check to his arrogance, in hid defence of the Keple- 
 rian aftronomy. 
 
 Nor 
 
TAB 
 
 Nor was the authority of the Rudclphine Tables impaired by 
 th« PBiUlaic Tables of Bullialdus, the Britannic Talks of Vin- 
 cent Wing, calculated on Bullialdus's hypothecs ; or the Bri- 
 tannic Tables of Newton ; or the French ones of the count de 
 Pagan, or the Caroline Tables of Street, ali calculated on Dr. 
 Ward's hypothefis, or the Nevalmajefiie Tables of Ricciuius! 
 Among thele, however, the Phihtaic and Caroline Tables are 
 efteemed the bed ; infomuch, that Mr. Whifton, by the ad- 
 vice of Mr. Flamftecd (a perlbn of undoubted authoritt in fuch 
 cafes) thought fit to fuijoin the CaHHH Tables to hisaflrono- 
 mical lectures. 
 
 Among the lateft Tablesare the Ludovician, publifbed in i ;oa, 
 by M. de la Hire, wholly from his own obfervations, and « .th- 
 out the affiftance of any hypothefis ; which, before the inven- 
 tion of the micrometer, telefcope, and the pendulum-ciocit, 
 was held impotlible. 
 
 Another fet of Tables, Dr. Halley, late aftronomer royal, 
 long laboured to perfect. 
 
 Sexagenary Tables. See the article Sexagenary. 
 
 Fsr Tables cf the Stars, fee Catalogue. 
 
 Tables of Sines, Tangents, and Secants, of every degree and 
 minute of a quadrant, ufed in trigonometrical operations, are 
 ufually called Canons. See Canon. 
 
 Tables of Logarithms, Rhumbs, CSV. ufed in geometry, navi- 
 gation,^. See Logarithm and Rhumb. 
 
 Loxcdromick Tables, are Tables wherein the difference of 
 longitude and quantity of the way run in any rhumb, are 
 exhibited to eveiy ten minutes of every degree of the quadrant 
 variation of the latitude. SeeRHUMB. 
 
 Table, in heraldry. Coats, or elcutcheons, containing no- 
 thing but the mere colour of the field, and not charted with 
 any bearing, figure, or moveable, are called Tables d'Attente, 
 Tables of Expectation, or Tahidee Rafts. 
 
 TABLET, in pha rmacy, C3V. See Tabella. 
 
 TABLING of Fines, is the making a table for every county, 
 where his majefty's writs run; containing the contentsol every 
 fine pafieJ each term. 
 
 It is to be done by the chirographer of fines of the common- 
 pleas, who every day ol the next term, after enginfiing any 
 fuch fine, fixes one of the faid Tables in fome open pUce of 
 the faid coutt, during its fitting ; and likewife delivers to the 
 fhcriff of each county, a content of the ("aid Tables made for 
 that refpeaive county, theterm before the affizes, to be affixed 
 in fome place in the open court, while thejuitices fit. 
 
 TABOR, Tabourin, afmall Drum. See Drum. 
 
 Privilege of the Tabouret, in France, is a privilege fome 
 great ladies enjoy, to fit or have a ftool in the queen's pre- 
 tence. ? r 
 
 TABORITES, or Thaborites, a branch or feci of the 
 ancient Huffites. 
 
 The Huffites, towards the clofe of the XVth century, divi- 
 ding into fevcrai parties, one of them retired to a little moun- 
 tain or rock, fituate in Bohemia, 15 leagues from Prague, and 
 there put themfelves under the conduft of Zifca; building 
 themfclves a fort or cnjlle, which they called Tabor, or Tlia- 
 Ur, either from the general word Timber, which in the Scla- 
 vonic language fignifies caftle ; or from the mountain Tabor, 
 mentioned in fcripture: and hence they became denominated 
 Thaborites. 
 
 They carried the point of reformation farther than Hufs 
 had done; they rejected purgatory, auricular confeffion, the 
 unction at baptifm, tranfubftantiation, fsV. 
 They reduced the feven facraments of the Romanifls to four, 
 viz. baptifm, the eucharift, marriage, and ordination. 
 They maintained a flout war with the emperor Sigifmund. 
 Pope Martin V. was obliged to publifh a ctoifade againft them. 
 Nor did thisfucceed: at length, however, in "1544, their 
 caftle of Thakr was taken, and they were difperfed! See 
 Hussit.es. 
 
 TABULARIUS. See the article Tab ell 10. • • 
 TABULARUM Apertura, ?„ , , C A P E RTL ,„ . 
 
 T ABULATUM, J Sce th = "Oda { Tabella 
 
 TACAMAHACA, or Tacamacha, a kind of refinous 
 gum, diddling from the trunk of a very large tree, growing 
 in New Spain ; but, in greateft abundance, in the ifland of 
 Madagafcar. 
 
 The tree is not unlike our poplar-tree, only bigger and taller, 
 its leaves long and green, its fruit red, of tiie lize of our 
 wall nuts, exceedingly refinous, and containing a flone like 
 
 our peaches. 
 
 The wood of the tree makes good timber for (hips, and the 
 gum it yields fetves there for their caulking ; thoua-h its chief 
 ufe with us is in medicine. 
 
 There are three kinds of Tacamahaea ; the Sublime, called 
 MaTtcamacha in the gourd ; Tacamacha in the mafs, and7i- 
 camaeha in tears. 
 
 The firft is a natural reiin, as it oozes of itfelf, without any 
 incifion made in the tree: the good is dry, reddifh, tranfpa- 
 rent, of a bitter tafte, and a lirong fmcll refcmbling that of 
 
 T A C 
 
 lavender. The iflanders gather it in little gourds divided in. 
 two, and covered with a palm leaf. 
 
 The Tacamachas in tears, and in the mafs, are thole which 
 flow from the tree by incifions : they muft be chofen dry 
 and clear, and their fmell reiembling tiiat of the firft kind. 
 Gum Tacamacha is found good for digefting and refolving tu- 
 mours, and aflhaging pains.— Burnt upon coals, it is reckoned 
 good for hyfteric fits in women, and likewife applied to the 
 belly in form of a plainer. Some apply it to the ter.-o!:s in 
 the fame manner, and to the nape of the neck, for pains in the 
 head, defluxions of rheum upon the throat, and inflammations 
 of the eyes, as alfo in the tooth-ach. It is of fo fubtie and 
 penetrating a nature, that it is greatly ufed in external appli- 
 cations, to fuppurate and difperle tumours ; and is accounted 
 effectual, even in thofe which are fcrophulous. 
 It is likewife ufed externally in arthritical pains, with fuccefs ; 
 and the Indians ufe it for all kinds of pains. Schroder 
 affirms, that he has feen intolerable pains in the leg removed 
 by it 
 
 TACHYGRAPHY, * the art of fall, or fhort writing. 
 
 * The word is formed from die Greek T * xvs , fwift, and 
 'Mr i ting. 
 
 There have been various kinds of Tachygraphy invented : among 
 the Romans, there were ceriain notes ufed, each whereof 
 fignified a word. 
 
 The Rabbins have a kind of Tachygraphy formed by abbrevia- 
 tions, which m?.ke a kind of technical words; wherein each 
 confonant {rands for a whole word, as Rtmbam ; 
 
 which express Rabbi Mofes, Son of Mai anon f Rafchi : 
 which {rands for Rabbi ScheLmsb Jarri. 
 
 In France, ciTc. the only Tachygraphy ufed, is the retrenching 
 of letters, or even whole fvlJables of words; as in fdm for 
 fecundum^ aut for autem, d for fed, o for nm, particibam for 
 participation^ &c. 
 
 The firft printers imitated tbefe abbreviations : but at prefent 
 thev are almoft laid aiide, except among fcriveners, C5V. 
 In England, we have great variety of methods of Tachygraphy^ 
 or fhort- hand j more by far, and thofe too, much better' 
 eafier, fpeedier, and more Commodious- than what are known 
 in ;iny other part of the world : witnefs Shelton's, Wallb's, 
 Webfter's, and Weftcn's, and i'everal other fhon-hands. See 
 
 PRACHYGR APHY. 
 
 (^Articles} 
 
 TACK about, in navigation, a term ufed at fea when a fltip's 
 head is brought about, fo as to lie the contrary way. 
 To effect this, they firft make them J/ay, which done, (lie is 
 faid to be paid.— They then let rife, and hale, i. e. let the 
 lee-tack rife, and hale aft the meats, and fo trim all the fails 
 by a wind as they wete before. 
 
 TACKLE, or Tackling, in navigation, includes all the 
 ropes or cordage of a (hip, with their furniture, whereby the 
 fails are managed. — See Tab Ship, fg. 1. 
 
 Tackles, are more particularly ufed for fmall ropes running 
 in three parts, having at one end a pendant with a block 
 fattened to them, or elfe a, lannier ; and at the otherend, a. 
 block and hook, to hang goods upon, and are to be heaved 
 into the fhip, or out of it. 
 
 There are leveral kinds of thefe Tackles : as, the Boat Tackles, 
 ferving to hoift the boat, tic. in and out : the Tackles belong- 
 ing to the mills, ferving as fhrouds to keep the mafts from 
 ftralnmg : and the Gunner's Taekles, with which theordnance are 
 hoifted in and out.— See Tab. Ship, fig. 1. „. 39, , a> 50 
 61, 82, 93, and 103, 
 
 Sf^?«, ?See the Articles f 
 
 TACTICKS, * the art of difpofing forces in form of 
 battle, and of performing the military motions and evo- 
 lutions. 
 
 * The word is Greek, t«*t„«, formed from order. 
 The Greeks were very fkilful in this part of the military alt, 
 having public profeflors of it, called Tadici, who taught and 
 inftructed their youth therein. vElianhatha particular book 
 on this lubjeit ; and there is a great deal of it in Arrian, in 
 his hiftory of Alex. M. and in Mauritius, and Leo Impeiator. 
 Voffius deficient. Mathemat. mentions 24 ancient authors on 
 the fubject of Taclicks. 
 
 Tacticks is alfo ufed for the art of inventing, and making 
 machines for throwing of darts, arrows, ftones, fire-balls 
 C5V. by means of flings, bows, and counter-poifes. Vege- 
 tius, Hero, &c. have wrote on thefe machines ; and we have 
 them defcribed, and figured by Liplius. 
 
 TACTILE, or Tangible, in the fchools, fomething that 
 may fall under the fenfe of feeling. 
 
 Though atoms be corporeal, yet are they not either tactile or 
 vifible, by reafon of their fmallnefs. 
 
 The principal ron^j'/yi qualities arehcat, cold, drynefs, hard- 
 nefs, and humidity. Sec each under its proper article. 
 TACTION, io the fchools. See Feeling. 
 
 Taction, 
 
TAG 
 
 Taction, in geometry. See Touching, and Tangent. 
 TJENIA or Tenia, *in architecture, a member of the Doric 
 
 architrave, refemblirig a fquare fillet, or reglet \ and ferving 
 
 in lieu of a cymatium. 
 
 * The word is Greek, -ram*, which literally denotes, a Math 
 bandage, /Met, or the like— Barbaro renders it by Itfitl \ bu 
 Palladio ufes the old Name Taenia. 
 Leon Baptift. Albsrti calls the Tama, Regulae and Fafciola; . 
 and Daviler, Bandelettes. Philander fays, there are two kinds, 
 viz. that above-mentioned, which he calls the lower j and ai. 
 upfier, which fervea for a capital to the triglyphs. 
 TAFFARAL, or Tafferel, in a fhip, the upperrnofi part, 
 frame, or rail, abaft, over the poop.*=-3e£ Tab, Ship. Jig. z. 
 
 77. Q7. fig. I. lltS . - f. 
 
 TAFFETY, or Taffaty, in commerce, a kind ot a tine, 
 fmnoth, filken fluff; having, ufually, a remarkable luftre, or 
 glofs. 
 
 Alamode, ? the TafFetasNoirsof Lyons. 
 Lustring, < . it ' 3 » T 
 
 Taffetas noir luftre of the French, is our Alamode.— Non 
 luftrt is our Luftring. ' ' 
 
 There are TaffatUi of all colours, fome plain, others ltnped 
 with gold, filvtf, (ilk, Eft- others checquered, others 
 flowered, others in the Chinefe point, others the Hungarian ; 
 with various others, to which the mode, or the caprice of the 
 workmen give fuch whimfical names, that it would be as dif- 
 ficult, as it is ufelefs, to rehearfe them ; befides that, they ftl 
 dom 'hold bevond the year wherein they firft rofe. The old 
 names of Taffeties, and which ftill fubfiff, are Taffetiti of 
 Lyons, of Spain, of England, of Florence, of Avignon, £ft. 
 The chief confumption of Taffeties is in the fummer-dretics 
 for women, in gowns, .linings, window-curtains, 6ft, 
 There are three things which contribute chiefly to the perfec- 
 tion of Taffeties, viz. the filk, the water, and the fire. The 
 filk is not only to be of the fineft kind, but it muft be worked 
 a long time, and very much, before it be ufed. The water- 
 ing, °h only to be given very lightly, and feems only 
 intended to give that fine luftre, by a peculiar property not 
 found in all water. Laftly, the fire, which is paffed under 
 it to drv the water, has its particularmanner of application, 
 whereon the perfection of the fluff depends very much. 
 Otfavio May, of Lyons, is held the firft author of the ma- 
 nufacture of gloffy Taffeties ; and tradition tells us the occafion 
 of it. — Octavio, it feems, going backwards in the world, and 
 not able to retrieve himfelf by the manufacture of Taffeties, 
 fuch as were then made, was one day mufing on his mis- 
 fortunes, and, in mufing, chanced to chew a few hairs of filk 
 which he had in his mouth. His reverie being over the filk 
 he fpit out feemed to fhine, and on that account engaged his 
 attention. He was foon led to reflect on the reafon ; and, 
 after a good deal of thought, concluded, that the luftre of that 
 filk muff come, l/f, From his having preffed it between his 
 teeth. zdly, From his having wetted it with his faliva, which 
 had fomething glutinous in it : and, idly, From its having 
 been heated by the natural warmth of his mouth. All this he 
 executed upon the next Taffeties he made; and immediately 
 acquired immenfe riches to himfelf, and to the city of Lyons 
 the reputation it ftill maintains, of giving the glofs toTaffeties, 
 better than any other city in the world. 
 
 It will not, we conceive, be lefs ufeful than curious, to give 
 here the defcription of the engine contrived by Octavio to give 
 the glofs to Taffety ; and to add the manner of applying it, 
 and the compofition of the water ufed therein. 
 The machine is much like a filk loom, except that inftead of 
 iron points, here are ufed a kind of crooked needles, to pre- 
 vent the Taffety from flipping: at the two extremities, are two 
 beams ; on one of which is rolled the Taffety, to take the glofs ; 
 and on the other, the fame Taffety as faff, as it had received it. 
 The firft beam is kept firm by a weight of about 200 pounds ; 
 and the other turned by means of a little lever palling through 
 mortifes at each end. The more the Taffety is ftretched, the 
 greater luftre it takes ; care, however, is to be ufed it be not 
 weakened by over-ftretching. 
 
 Befides this inftrument for keeping the fluff ftretched, there is 
 another to give it the fire: this is a kind of carriage, in form 
 of a long fquare, and of the breadth of the Taffeties. It 
 moves on trundles, and carries a charcoal fire under the Taffety, 
 at the diftance of about half a foot. 
 
 Thefe two machines prepared, and the Taffety mounted, the 
 luftre is given it by rubbing it gently with a ball, or a handful 
 of lifts of fine cloth, as it rolls from one beam to the other ; the 
 fire, at the fame time, being carried underneath It to dry it. 
 As foon as the piece has its luftre, it is put on new beams to 
 be ftretched, a day or two; and the oftner thislaft preparation 
 is repeated, the more it increafes the glofs. 
 For black Taffeties, the glofs is given with double bee'r, and 
 orange or lemon juice ; but this laft is the leaft proper, as be- 
 ing apt to whiten them. The proportion of the two liquors is a 
 
 T A I 
 
 gallon of orange juice to a pint of beer, to be boiled together 
 to the confidence of a rich broth. For coloured Taffeties they 
 ufe gourd-water, diftilled in an alembic. 
 TAIL, Cauda, that part of an animal which terminates its 
 body behind. 
 
 The Tail is different both in figure and ufe, in the various fpe- 
 cies : in land-animals, it ferves to rid them of flies, and is 
 ufually covered with hair, and ftrengthened with bones : in 
 fifties it is cartilaginous, and ferves them as a helm to fleer 
 their courfe withal in fwiming. 
 
 In birds it is covered with feathers, and greatly aflifls in all 
 afcents and defcents in the air ; as alfo to render their fhght 
 ffeady, by keeping the body upright in that fubtle and yield- 
 ing medium, by its readily turning and anfweiing to every va- 
 cillation of the body. 
 
 Tail, in anatomy, is ufed for that tendon of a mufcle which 
 is fixed to the moveable part. — In oppofitirn to which the 
 tendon fixed to the immoveable part is called the Head. 
 
 Dovc-T ail, or Swallow' s-T ail, among carpenters, is one of 
 the ftrongeft manners of joining; wherein a piece of wood 
 that grows larger towards the end is inferred into another 
 piece ; fo that it cannot ftir out, by reafon that the hole in the 
 one is narrower than the lower end of the other : as in the fi- 
 gure of a Doves-Tail. 
 
 Peacock's Tail, a term applied to all circular compartiments, 
 which go enlarging from the centre to the circumference ; 
 imitating, in fome meafure, the feathers of a peacock'i Tail, 
 when fp<-cad. 
 
 Dragon's Tail, Cauda Draeonis, in aftronomy, the defcending 
 node of a planet; thus characterized a. See Node. The 
 aflrologers lake care to put this in all their horofcopes. 
 
 Horfe's Tail, among the Tartars and Chinefe, is the enfign or 
 flag under which they make war. 
 
 Among the Turks it is the ftandard bore before the grand vi- 
 fier, the bafhaws, and fangiacs ; in order to which, it :s fitted 
 on the end of a half-pike, with a gold button, and is called 
 Toug. 
 
 There are bafhaws of one, others of two, others of three Horfe's 
 Tails. — The Horfe's -Tail placed on the general's tent, is a figna] 
 of battle. For the original of this cuftom, it is related, that 
 in a certain battle, the ftandard being taken by the enemy, the 
 general of the army, or, as others fay, a private horfeman, 
 cut off the Tail of his horfe, and fattening it to the end of a 
 half-pike, encouraged the troops, and gained the victory. In 
 memory of which noble action, the grand fignior appointed 
 that ftandard to be bore for the future, as a fymbol of honour. 
 Ricaut. 
 
 Tail, in heraldry, £ifV. is particularly ufed for the Tail of an 
 hart ; thofe of feveral other creatures having peculiar and di- 
 ftinct names. 
 
 As, that ot a buck, roe, or any other kind of deer, is called 
 the Single ; that of a boar, the Wreath ; of a fox, the Bufh ; 
 of a wolf, the Stern ; and of a hare and rabbit, the Scut. 
 
 Tail ef a Comet. When a comet darts its rays forwards, or 
 towards that part of the heavens, whither its proper motion 
 feems to be carrying it, thofe rays are called its Beard: on the 
 contrary, when the rays are Ihot behind, towards that part 
 from whence it appears to move, the rays are called the Tail of 
 the Comet. The various phenomena whereof, with their 
 phyfical caufes, fee under the article Come t. 
 
 Tail of the Trenches, in the military art, is the port or place 
 where the befiegers begin to break ground, to cover them- 
 felves from the fire of the town. 
 
 The Tail of [he trench is the firft work which the befiegers 
 make at the opening of the trenches ; as the head of the at- 
 tack is that carried on toward the place. 
 Tail, or Taile, in common law, fignifies a limited fee; 
 as oppofite to fee-fimple. 
 
 It is thus called from the French tailler, to cut, by reafon 
 fuch fee is fo minced, or parted, as it were, that it is not in 
 the owner's free power to difpofe of ; but is by the firft giver 
 cut, taille, and divided from all others, and tied to the iflue of 
 the donee. 
 
 The limitation of Tail is either general or fpecial. 
 Tai l General, is that whereby lands and tenements are limited 
 to a man, and to the heirs of his body begotten, or to be be- 
 gotten. 
 
 This is called general, becaufe how many wives foever the te- 
 nant holding by this title mail have, one after another, in 
 lawful marriage, his iiTue by them all have a poffibility to in- 
 herit one after another. 
 Tail Special, is when lands or tenements are limited to a man 
 and his wife, and the heirs of their two bodies together. 
 It is called fpecial, becaufe if the man bury his wife before iffue, 
 and take another ; the iflue by his fecond wife cannot inherit 
 the land, £ft. See Fine. 
 
 Alfo, if the land be given to a man and his wife, and their fon 
 R. for ever, this is called Tail Special. 
 
 2 Taile, 
 
T A L 
 
 Tail. after Pojftbllity of Iffne extintl, is where land being given 
 to"a man and his wife, and the heirs of their two bodies and 
 the 'one over-lives the other, without iffue between them be- 
 gotten : the furvivor upon this fhall bold the land for term 
 of his own life in quality of tenant in Tail after the pojfibilxty 
 of iffue extintl ; and notwithftanding lie does wafte, fhall not 
 be impeached of it.—And if he alien, he in the reverfion fhall 
 not have a writ of entry in confimili cafu, but may enter, and 
 his entry is lawful. 
 
 Fee Tail, 7 c t , - , SFee Tail. 
 o ,„ . t! TT C t,ie articles < „ 1 at '' 
 bevetai I ail, j cSeveral. 
 
 Tail, or Tail e, is alfo ufed for what we vulgarly call Tally 
 Talllc de Bois, or a cloven piece of wood to nick up an ac- 
 count on. Scs Tally. 
 
 Taille', oiTaillee, in heraldry. See Tranche', 
 
 TAILLOIR, in architecture, a term which fome ot ou,r wri- 
 ters, after the French, ufe fur Abacus. See Abacus. 
 
 TAINT, in law, fignifies either, fubftantivcly, a conviction ; 
 or, adje&ively, a perfon convicted of felony, treafon, Efo See 
 Attaint. 
 
 TAKE and Learn, in the fea language. — The failors fay, a 
 fhip can take and leave upon her when jhe will; when fhe 
 fails fo well that fhe can come up with another, or out-fail 
 her at pleafure. 
 
 TAKERS-C^r-T^KERS, } See lhe ««»■{ ^J"^' 
 TALBOT, a flirt of dog, frequently coat-armour ; and noted for 
 ns quick /cent, rinding out the tracks, loggings, and forms of 
 beads, and purfuing them with open mouth, and continual 
 cry, with fuch eagernefs, that if not taken off by the huntf- 
 men he is often fpoiled. 
 TALC, or T alk, in natural hiftory, a mining, fquamous, 
 Mile, fpcc.es of ftonc, ealily fepsrabic into thin rranfparent 
 fcales or leaves. , 
 
 Anciemly, Talc was found only in Spain ; but fince, mines 
 thereof have been found in Cyprus, Cappadocia, and fince that 
 in Arabia and Africa : and at prefent, they dig it in the Alps 
 and Apennines, fiveral mountains in Germany, and even 
 England, particularly in Northamptonfllire. 
 We ufually didinguifh two kinds of Talc, bis, JVliite Talc of 
 Venice, and that called Red Talc of Mofcovy : to which fonie 
 •dd, tho' improperly Parget, Plaifltr Stone. 
 That from Venice is the moll edeenied in medicine: it is brought 
 in large mining greenifh ftones ; but becomes white, and ex- 
 ceedingly bright when wrought. It fcems greafy to the touch, 
 though there is fcarce any (lone drier; yet, in fpite of its 
 drynefs, it pulverizes with difficulty ; nor is it eafily calcined. 
 The chief ufe of theRuflian is as a fcreen or cover fur paintings 
 in min.atu'c and crayons; to which purpofe thin dices thereof 
 are ufed : 1 he Venetian is fometimes alfo ufed for a fucus • 
 in order to which, by rcafon of the difficulty of pulverizing 
 jt, be. they content themfelves to rafp it with the skin of 
 a fca-dog, and to pafs the rafping through a fieve. 
 Pliny, in his Natural Hifiory, lib. 36. cap. 22. obferves 
 that the Romans not only ufed the Ruffian fart for window- 
 lights, but they alio paved the circus with a kind of it. 
 • The Talc brought from Mufcovy is reddifh when in the done ; 
 but it feldom cumes to us otherwil'e than in leaves, which are 
 colourlefs, fmooih, gloll'y, and exceedingly tranfparent : it is 
 found in quarries in Mulcovy andPcrfia, and is ufed to make 
 lanterns, to cover paintings, lie. 
 
 Some chymills, and empirics, have held, that Talc might 
 be ufed for many more important purpofes than it ufually is ; 
 and pretend to draw from it that precious oil, fo much bead- 
 ed of by the ancients, particularly the Arabs, called Oil of 
 
 ' Talc, which is fuppofed a wonderful cofmeiic, and preferver 
 of the complexion : but the truth is, the word Talc, amon" 
 many of them, fignificd no more than an equal difpofition of 
 the humours, which keep the body in good temperament and 
 perfecf health. Now, as nothing contributes more than health 
 
 , to the preferving of beauty, this has given occafion to the 
 chymills to learch this Oil of Talc, which is to maintain the 
 body 111 this difpofition, and to engage the ladies to be at the 
 expence of the learch. 
 
 Some have alfo pretended, that yellow or ruddy Talc contained 
 the feeds of gold, and that an oil might be drawn from 
 it, to tranfmute metals into gold or filver, to fix mercury tic 
 but this is mere charletanery. See the fupplement articles 
 laic and bpeeularis. 
 TALKNT, T alentum, a weight, and a coin, both very 
 famous among the ancients ; but very different in different 
 countries. See Coin, and Weighr. 
 
 The value of the Talent is very hard to affign in Enalifh mo- 
 ney, as being ufed among all the people throughout die ead ; 
 and its value and the manner of computation, different among 
 each. A difficulty abundantly (hewn by Budreus, j„ his learn- 
 ed treatile de AJ[e. 
 
 There were various kinds of Talent,, both with regard to 
 weight and to fpecies ; the value of thefe lad dill increafine 
 as the metal whereof it confided was purer, tho' the Talent 
 weights contained the fame number of pounds and drachms. 
 Vol. U. 
 
 T A L 
 
 As the French have a livre parifis, and a livre tournois » 
 each whereof contains alike 20 fols ; yet thefe compared to- 
 gether, the Paris livre contains 25 Us of theTournois livre; 
 the Pans fol exceeding that of Tours by one fifth ; fo all 
 Talent weights were equally 60 minx, and the mina 100 
 drachmae ; but the drachma of one place exceeding that of 
 another, there hence arofc a difference in the Talents* 
 The Attic drachma, in like rmnncr, was 60 Attic o'boli, and 
 that of jEgina jo of the fame oboli ; whence the linear. 
 Talent, computed on the loot of the Attic weight, was 100 
 minae ; whereas, reckoned on the foot of its own drachma 
 it was no more than 6c. 
 
 The common Attic Talent then (the Talent weight we mean) 
 contained 60 Attic minx, or 62 and half Attic pounds, or 
 6000 Attic drachma:; equal, according to Dr. Arbutlmot's 
 reduction, to 56 pounds 11 ounces Englifh Troy weight. 
 Some authors, as Prifcian, mention another MucTalenl of 
 100 mina.-; but this is to be underftood of ancient mina; as 
 they flood before Solon, each only worth 75 drachma. * 
 The Syrian Talent contained 15 Attic mina; ; that of Alexan- 
 dria 96 Aitic minae, or 91 lib. Troy. The Babylonic, p er - 
 iian, and Antiochic Talents, were the fame wall the 
 .^Egyptian. 
 
 Among the Romans there were two kinds of Talents, the 
 little, and the^nwr Talent : the little was the common Talent ; 
 and whenever ihey fay, limply, Talentum, they are to be un- 
 derftood of this : the little Talent was 60 minse, or Roman 
 pounds; the mina, or pound, eftimatedat 100 drachma;, or 
 denarii : it was alfo eftimated at 24 great fefterces, which 
 amounted to 60 pounds. 
 
 The great Talent exceeded the Icfs by one third part. Budams 
 computes, that the little Talent of iilver was wurth 75 pounds 
 frerling; and the greater, 99/. 6 s. 8 d. flei ling.— The greater 
 of gold was worth 1125 /. fierling. 
 Talext, as a fpecies, or money, among the Hebrews, was 
 fometimes ufed for a gold coin, the fame with the fhekel of 
 goid, called alfo Stater, and weighing only 4 drachms. 
 The Hebrews reckoned by thefe Talents as we do by pounds, 
 ti>V. Thus a million of gold, or million of Talents of gold, 
 among them, was a million of fhckels, crnummi; the nuin- 
 mus of gold being the fame weight witli the ihekel, viz. 4 
 drachms. 
 
 But the Hebrew Talent weight of filver, which they called 
 Cjcar, was equivalent to that of 3000^ fhekels, or impounds 
 Englifh Troy weight, according to Arbuthnot's computation. 
 TALES, in law, a fupply or addition of men for thufe impan- 
 nejled on a jury of inqueft, and not appearing, or at their ap- 
 pearance challenged by either party as not indifferent. 
 In fuch cafe, the judge, upon motion, grants fupply to be 
 made by the flieriff, of one or more Tales, fuch as are prefent 
 in court, equal in reputation to thofe impannelled.— This ail 
 of fupplying is called a Tales de eircumjlantibus ; and the per- 
 fons thus fupplied, Talefmen, 
 
 He that has had one fuch Tales, either upon default, or chal- 
 lenge, may not have another containing fo many as, the former: 
 for the fir ft Tales muff be lefs than the principal pannel, ex- 
 cept in a caufe of appeal ; and fo every Tales lefs than other, 
 till the number be made up of fuch as are unexceptionable. 
 TALIO, Ze# Talionis, or Poena Talionis, a retribution, 
 or punifhment, whereby an evil is returned p;rf L £tIy like that 
 committed againft us by another— which is what we ufually 
 exprefs by the words eye for eye, tooth for tooth. 
 The Poena Talionis was enjoyncd by the law of Mofes 
 among the Jews: it was efteemed a natural piece of jjftice', 
 and yet the Romans fet it afide, inafmuch as fuch a parity or 
 equality of punifhment could not always be obferved. For 
 this reafon, the praetor allowed fuch as had fuffered any injury 
 to make an eftimate thereof in money, that iullice might be 
 done him that way ; only referving to himfelf the power of 
 moderating the fame. And this was what was conftjiitly 
 pra&ifed, and thus the Poena Talionis became quite dil'ufed 
 with them. 
 
 TALISMANS, * magical figures engraven, or cut under cer- 
 tain fuperftitious obfervances of the charactx-nfms and configu- 
 rations of the heavens ; to which fome aftrologers, hermetici! 
 philosophers, and other adepts, attribute marvellous virtues, 
 particularly that of calling down cceleltial influences. 
 
 * The word U pure Arabic ; though Menage, after $ahnai1.is, 
 thinks it may come from the Greek -v-burpa., operation, or eon/e- 
 crathn. Borel (ays, it ii Pcifian, and livyjifics literally an en- 
 graven conftella'.kn. Others derive it a Taiamae'u liierii, which 
 are myllerious characters, or cyphers ufed by forccrers; thus 
 called from Talammfea, a fwian, or itfa&m} 
 
 The author of a book entitled, Talij'mans Juf?i/jez t fays, a 
 Talifman is the feal, figure, character, or imat>e of a heavenly 
 fign, conftcllation or planet, engraven on a fympathetic ftune, 
 or on a met.il correfponding to the ftar, tjV. in order to receive 
 its influences. 
 
 The Talijmans of the Samothracian9, fo famous of old, were 
 pieces ot iron, formed into certain images, and fct in lings, &e. 
 
 12 B They 
 
T A L 
 
 They were held prefervatives againft all kinds of evils.— There 
 were other Tali/mans taken from vegetables, and others from 
 minerals. 
 
 In the general, we ufe to diftmguifh three kinds of Tahfmans : 
 Mronomical, which are known by the fig™, or confteliations 
 of the heavens engraven thereon, with other figures, and (bme 
 unintelligible characters. — Magical, which bear very extraor- 
 dinary figures, with fuperft itious words and names of angels 
 unheard-of. — Afld Mixt, which conftft of figns and barbarous 
 words, but have no fuperftitious ones, or names of angels. 
 Some rabbins maintain, that the brazen ferpent, raifed by 
 Mofes in the wildernefs, for the deftruaion of the ferpents 
 that annoyed the Israelites, was properly a Talifman. 
 All the miraculous things wrought by Apollonius Tyanieus 
 are attributed to the virtue and influence of Tali/mans : and 
 that wizard is even faid by fame to have been the inventor of 
 Tali/mans. 
 
 Some authors take feveral Runic medals, at leaft medals whole 
 inferiptions are in Runic chafers, for Talijmans ; it being 
 notorious, that the northern nations, in their heathen ftate, 
 were much devoted thereto. M. Keder, however, has fhewn, 
 that the medals here fpoke of are quite other things than 
 Tali/mans. 
 
 TALK. See the article Talc. 
 
 TALKING. See Speaking. 
 
 TALLAGE, Tallagium, a certain rate, according to 
 which barons and knights were anciently taxed by the king 
 towards the expences of the ftate, and inferior tenants by their 
 lords, on certain occafions. 
 
 This latter Tallage of the cuftomary tenants was fometimes 
 iixed and certain, and fometimes at the pleafure of the lord ; 
 and was alfo fometimes compounded for. 
 
 Tallages were antiently called Cuttings; which name is ftill 
 retained in Ireland, though in a difFerent fignificaticn. 
 Tallage, fays Sir Ed. Coke, is a general name including all 
 taxes. See Tax. 
 TALLOW, a fort of animal fat, melted down, and clarified. 
 There are fcarce any animals but a fort of Tallow may be pre- 
 pared from ; but thofe which yield the moft, and whereof the 
 moll ufe is made, are the horfe, bullock, fheep, hog, goat, 
 deer, bear, and viper. — Some of which Tallows, or fats, are 
 ufed in medicine, and called Axungije. 
 Moft of the reft are ufed in the making of foap, and the dref- 
 fjng of leather ; but chiefly in making of candles. 
 For candles, the beft compofition is half fheeps Tallow, and 
 half cows or bullocks Tallow, without any mixture of other 
 kinds of fat, which only ferve to turn the candles yellow, 
 make them run, and fpoil the clearnefs of their light. See 
 Candle. 
 
 Tallow-Tree, in China, is a tree growing in great plenty m 
 that country, which produces a fubftance like our Talkw } and 
 ferving for the fame purpofe. 
 
 It is about the height of a cherry-tree ; its leaves in form of i 
 heart, of a deep, mining, red colour, and its bark very fmooth 
 Its fruit is inclofed in a kind of pod, or cover, like a chefnut, 
 and confifts of three round white grains, of the iize and form 
 of a fmall nut, each having its peculiar capfula, and within 
 that a little ftone. 
 
 This ftone is encompafled with a white pulp, which has all the 
 properties of true Talkw, as to] confiftence, colour, and 
 even fmell : and accordingly the Cliinefe make their candles of 
 it; which would, doubtlefs, be as good as thofe in Europe, if 
 they knew how to purify their vegetable Tallow as well as we 
 do our animal kind, and to make their wicks as well. 
 All the preparation they give it, is to melt it down and mix a 
 
 little oil with it, to make it fofter, and more pliant. It is 
 
 true, their candles made of it yield a thicker fmoak, and i 
 dimmer light, than ours; but thofe defects are owing, in: 
 great meafure, to the wicks, which are not of cotton, but on 
 ly a little rod, or fwitch of dry light wood, covered with the 
 pith of a rufh, wound round it ; which being very porous, 
 ferves to filtrate the minute parts of the Tallow, attracted by 
 the burning flick, which by this means is kept burning. 
 TALLY, or Taile, Taille, a piece of wood, whereon re- 
 tail traders ufe to fcore or mark, by notches or incifions, 
 the feveral quantities of goods they deliver out on credit, 
 to fave the trouble of writing down fo many little articles in 
 books. 
 
 Each fcore confifts of two pieces of wood, or rather of a 
 lingle piece cleft length-wife, the parts whereof falling in with 
 one another, the things delivered are fcored on both at the 
 fame time ; the feller keeping one, and the buyerthe other. 
 Tallies are taken as evidences in courts of juftice, as much 
 as books. The ancient way of keeping all accounts was by 
 Tallies; the debtor keeping one part, and the creditor the 
 other. 
 
 There are three kinds of Tallies mentioned in our ftatutes, and 
 long ufed in the Exchequer — n/fc. 
 Tallies of Loans, one part whereof is kept in the Exchequer, 
 and the other part given to particular perfons, in lieu of an 
 obligation for the monies they have lent to the government on 
 
 T A L 
 
 a£ls of parliament. — This laft part is called the Stock, and the 
 former the Counter-flock, or the counter-tail. 
 The Tallies are numbred, and bear the perfon's name, and 
 the fum lent : thus we fay, the Tallies, -No. have been paid, 
 or difcharged: Tallies are rifen, fallen 4, 5, 6ft. 
 Tallies, otTailes of Debt, are a kind of acquittances for 
 debts paid the king. 
 
 E. gr. the univerlity of Cambridge pays yearly 10 /. f ir fech 
 things as are by charter granted them in f^e-farm. He that 
 pays this, receives a Taile or Tally for his difchajge, witn 
 which, or a note of it, he repairs to the clerk of the pipe, and 
 there for the Tally receives a full difcharge on parchment. 
 Tallies of Reward, or allowance, thele are made to flierifrs, 
 for fuch matters as (to their charge) they have perkrmed 
 in their office, or fuch money as is by courfs cait on them 
 in'their accounts, but which they cannot levy. 
 Coutiter-T a l ly, *J ^Counter. 
 
 Cutter of the Tallies, ( ^ the m[dzs )C"m R , 
 
 Petty 1 ALLY, f lrETTY. 
 
 Wriur o/Tallies, J 1 Writer. 
 
 TALMUD, or Thalmud, a Jewifh book, wherein is col- 
 lected all lhat relates to the explication of their law. 
 The Talmud is the body of the Hebrew law; a compilation 
 of expofitions of the duties impofed on that people, either in 
 fcripture, or by tradition, or by authority of their doctors, or 
 by cuftom, or even by fuperftition : to fpeak more plainly ftill, 
 it is the courfe of cafes of confcicnce, or of moral theology, 
 wherein the duties are explained, and (he doubts cleared, not 
 by reafoning, but generally by authority, by the cuft.m of 
 the nation, and by the decifions of the moft approved of the 
 ancient doctors. 
 
 The Talmud confifts of two general parts : the one called the 
 Mifcbna, the other the Gemara ; which firft part is alfo fre- 
 quently called abfolutely the Talmud, the general name of the 
 whole work. 
 
 The Jews divide their law into written, which is that con- 
 tained in the books of Mofes ; and unwritten, which is that 
 conveyed by tradition.— This latter is, in effect, no other than 
 a glofs or interpretation of the former, given by the ancient 
 Rabbins. 
 
 The Talmud then contains the traditions of the Jews, their 
 polity, doctrine and ceremonies, which they obferve as rcli- 
 gioufly as the law of God itfelf : they would never put them 
 in writing till they are compelled to it by the dtfttuction of 
 Jerufalem°, and till they faw themfelves difperfed throughout 
 the world. 
 
 They had two famous fchools ; the one at Babylon, and ihe 
 other at Jerufalem : in thefe they made two feveral collections 
 of thofe traditions ; the firft at Jerufalem, the other at Baby- 
 lon ; but both called Talmud, and both exceedingly reverenced, 
 efpecially the Babylonian, though full of extravagancies. It 
 was compiled by the Jews of Mefopotamia, about 500 years 
 after Chrift. 
 
 The Talmud of Jerufalem is the leaft efteemed. — It was com- 
 piled by the Jews of that City 300 years after Chrift. 
 The Babylonian Talmud confifts of two parts: the one the 
 text, the other the glofs or comment; the comment, called 
 the Gemara, contains the decifions of the Jewifh doctors, and 
 
 their expofitions of the text. This we find fluffed with 
 
 dreams and chimaera's ; a deal of ignorance, and a world of 
 impertinent queftions and difputations : the ftyle is alfo very 
 coarfe.— On the contrary : the text, called the Mijdma is 
 wrote in a tolerably pure ftyle, and the reafonings generally 
 much more folid. 
 
 The Jews pretend that this was compofed by Rabbi Juda, 
 furnamed the Saint ; and that God revealed ; to him the doc- 
 trine and the chief myfteries thereof— But this is only to be 
 undetftood of the Mifcbna, not of the Gemara, the compila- 
 tion whereof was not begun till the Vlth century after the 
 deftruction of the fecond temple. 
 
 Rabbi Juda is faid to have compofed the Mifihua under the 
 empire of Antonius, in the lid century; but they do not 
 all agree about this antiquity, fome carrying it back much 
 further. 
 
 It is the Talmud of Babylon that is ufually read, and moft fre- 
 quently confulted among the Jews ; fo that when they fay 
 limply tht Talmud, they always mean this: never quoting the 
 other without the addition of Jerufalem. 
 Rabbi Mofes, fon of Maiemon, has made an abridgment ot 
 the Talmud, which Scaliger prefers to the Talmud nlelf ; as 
 being purged of many of the fables wherewith the other is 
 full. It is a fyftcm of the laws and curfoms of the Jews, 
 both of their civil and their canon law, and the beft oi their 
 traditions. . 
 About the year 1236, a Jew of Rochel, well verfed in the 
 Hebrew, becoming Chriftian, made a journey to pope Gre- 
 gory IX. and difcovered to him a number of errors in the Tal- 
 mud: thefe the pope fent, in 39 articles, to the archbifhops 
 of France, with a letter, appointing them to faze the books 
 of the Jews, and to burn all fuch as fhould contain thofe er- 
 ror- ; in confequence of which order, about 20 cart-loads of 
 
 Hebrew 
 
T A M 
 
 TAN 
 
 Hebrew books were burnt. He wrote to the fame e (Feci; to 
 the kings of England, France, Arragon, Caftile, &Tf, 
 His (ucceflbr, Innocent IV. giving commiffion to his Wate 
 Eudes ce Cbateauroux to examine the Talmud, and other 
 Jewifh books more carefully, and to tolerate fuch errors as 
 were not contrary to the Chriftian religion ; the Itgate wrote 
 to the pope, that to tolerate them was to approve rhem ; and 
 the 15th of May, 1248, he alio condemned them juridically 
 to the flames. 
 
 TA LON, * in architecture, a kind of moulding, confiding of 
 a cym'tium, crowned with a fquare fillet ; frequently found to 
 terminate ornaments of joiners-work, as thofeof doors, &c, 
 
 * The word is French, and literally fignifies heel. 
 TheTalsn, more properly fo called, is a moulding concave at 
 the bottom, and convex a-top ; having an efFeft juft oppo- 
 fite to the doucine. — See Tab. Arcbit. fig. 26. lit. p. Jig. 28. 
 lit. c. g. n. fig. 32. lit. I. n.fig. 40. lit. d. See alfoDou- 
 CINE. 
 
 When the concave part is a-top, it is called an Inverted Talon. 
 See Tab. Ar chit. fig. 7. 
 
 The Talon is ufually called by our Engliffi workmen Ogee, or 
 O. G. and by authors an upright or inverted Cyviatium. See 
 Ogee. 
 
 TALPA, in medicine and chirurgery, a tumor of the cede- 
 matus kind, called alfo Tcfludo. 
 
 The Talpa, and Nata, chiefly arife about the head in con- 
 fluence of fome veneral diforder. 
 
 'YheTalpcs elevate the (kin from the pericranium, and gene- 
 rally denote a foulnefs in thefubjacent bone of the skull. 
 TALUS, in anatomy, a bone of the foot, called alfo Ajlra- 
 
 galus. 
 
 The Talus in its upper part, has a convex head, which is 
 articulated with the two focils of the leg by ginglymus, it 
 being divided by a little finus, which receives the fmall portu- 
 berance in the middle of the finus of the tibia, — Without this 
 articulation, we muft always, in going, have trod on the heel 
 with our fore-foot, and our toes with the hind-foot. 
 The fore-part of the Talus, which is alfo convex, is received 
 into the finus of the os naviculars 
 
 Below, towards the hind-part of its under-fide, it has a pretty 
 large finus, which receives the upper and hind-part of the os 
 calcis : and towards the fore-part of the fame fide it has a pro- 
 tuberance, which is received into the upper and fore-part of 
 the fame bone. — Betwixt the finus, and the protuberance, 
 there is a cavity, which anfwers to another in the os calcis ; 
 in which is contained an oily and mucous fort of fubftance, for 
 moiftening the ligaments, and facilitating the obfeure motion 
 of the bones when we go. 
 Talus, or Talut, in architeaure, the inclination or flope 
 of a work ; as of the outfide of a wall, when its thicknefs is 
 diminifhed by degrees, as it rifes in height, to make it the 
 firmer. 
 
 Talus, in fortification.— Tahisof a Bajlion, or Rampart, is the 
 flope or diminution allowed to fuch a work ; whether it be of 
 earth, or ftone ; the better to fupport its weight. 
 The exterior Talus of a work, is its flope on the fide towards the 
 country ; which is always made as little as poffible, to prevent 
 the enemies fcalado ; unlefy the earth be bad, and then it is ab- 
 folutely neccfi'ary to allow a confiderable Talus for its parapet. 
 The Ulterior Talus of a work, is its flope on the infide, to- 
 wards the place. 
 
 TAMARINDS, Tamarindi, a kind of medicinal fruit, 
 of a tart agreeable tafte, brought from the Eaft as well as 
 Weft-Indies, and called by fame Indian Dates, and by others 
 the Indian Acacia. 
 
 The tree which yields them, called by the Indians Tamarindi, 
 and by the Portuguefe Tamarindos, is not unlike our Afh, or 
 wallnut-tree; its leaves refemble thofe of female fern: its 
 flowers are joined eight or ten together, like thofe of the 
 orange-tree. Its fruit is in a pod of the length of a finger, 
 and the thicknefs of the thumb, covered at firft with a green 
 rind, which afterwards becomes brown, and contains a blackifh 
 acid pulp, among which are found feeds refembling lupines. 
 — It is this pulp alone that is ufed in medicine. 
 Tamarinds muft be chofen large, of a blackifh colour, a brisk 
 tafte, not too dry, and fuch as have not been laid in a cellar, 
 nor falfified with molaffes or with fu^ar and vinegar. 
 They are laxative, cooling, and good to quench third. In 
 burning fevers they are prefcribed tomoiften, and cool the 
 not mouthy See fupplement article Tamar Indus. 
 TA M BAG, or Tambaqua, a mixture of gold and copper 
 which the people of Si.m hold more beautiful, and fet a grea.cr 
 value on, than gold itfelf. 
 
 Some travellers fpeak of it as a metal found in its peculiar 
 mints ; but upon what authority we do not know. The abbe 
 deCho.fy, id his Journal of Siam, doubts whether this may 
 not be the tletlrum, or amber, of Solomon. 
 The embaffddors of Siam brought feveral works in Tombac to 
 Pans, in the reign of Louis XIV. but they were not found 
 io beautiful as was exptcl^d. 
 
 TAMBOUR, in architeaure a term applied totheCorin- 
 thian and compoiite capitals, as bearing fome refemblance to 
 a drum, wfnch the French call Tambour. — See Tab. Arcbit. 
 fig. 22. lit. a. 
 
 Some chufe to call it the Vafe, and others Campana, or the 
 bell. See Vase, &c. 
 Tambour is alfo ufed for a little box of timber-work, covered 
 with acichng, witbin-fide the porch of certain Churches ; both 
 to prevent the view of perfons paffing by, and to keep off the 
 wind, £5V. by means of folding-doors, csV. 
 Tamcour alfo denotes a round courfe of ftone, feveral whereof 
 
 form the fhaft of a column, not fo high as a diameter. 
 TAMPION, ToMPiON, Tamkin, or Tomk in,* akind 
 of plug or ftopple, ferving to clofe a veffc! ; particularly to 
 keep down the powder in a fire-arm, caY. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, tampon, a bzr.g, fioppte, 
 &c. Some derive it from the Englifh, tap. 
 In charging a mortar, or the the like, over the Powder Is ufually 
 put a thin round piece of wood to keep thefhot, ball, Ihelt, 
 or the like, from the gun- powder. This piece is called a 
 Tampion, and by means hereof the mot is exploded with the 
 greater vehemence. 
 TAN, the bark of the oak, chopped, and ground by a tan- 
 ning-mill, into acoarfe powder; to be ufed in the tanning or 
 dreffing of skins. 
 
 New Tan is the moft efteemed ; when old and ftale, it lofes a 
 great deal of its eftea, which confifts in condenfing or clofmg 
 the pores of the skins ; fo that the longer the skins are kept in 
 Tan, the greater ftrength and firmnefsthey acquire. 
 In effea, not only the bark, but every part of the oak-tree, 
 of what age or growth foever, and all oaken coppice, &c. cut 
 in barking-time, make good Tan; as good, at leaft, as the belt 
 bark. 
 
 This, when got, is to be well dried in the fun, houfed dry, 
 and kept fo. To ufe it, the greater wood may be fhaved 
 fmall, or cleft, fit to be cut fmall by a tanning engine for the 
 purpofe ; which done, it is to be well dried again on a kiln, 
 and then ground by the mill. See Mill.— Where oak is 
 fcarce, the black-thorn or floe-tree may fupply the defea. 
 TANGENT, in geometry, a right line, which touches a 
 circle, that is, meets it in fuch manner, as that though in- 
 finitely produced, it would never cut the fame ; that is, never 
 come within the circumference. 
 
 Thus the line A D {Tab. Ge,om. fig. 50.) is a Tangent to the 
 circle, in D. 
 
 It is demonftrated In geometry; 1. That if a Tangent A D, 
 and a fecant A B, be both drawn from the fame point A ; 
 the fquare of the Tangent will be equal to the reaangle, under 
 the whole fecant A B, and that portion thereof A C, which 
 falls without the circle. 
 
 2. That if two Tangents A D, AE, be drawn to the fame 
 circle from the fame point A, they will be equal to each 
 other. 
 
 Tangent, in trigonometry. — ^Tangent of an Arch, is a 
 right line, raifed perpendicularly on the extreme of the dia- 
 meter, and continued to a point, where it is cut by a fecant, 
 that is by a line, drawn from the centre through the extremity 
 of the arch whereof it is a Tangent. 
 
 A Tangent of an Arch E A {Tab. Trigonom. fig. r.) is a part 
 of a Tangent of a circle (that is, of a right line which touches 
 a circle without cutting it) intercepted between two right 
 lines, drawn from the centre C, through the extremes of die 
 arch E and A. 
 
 Hence, the Tangent F E is perpendicular to the radius E C. 
 And hence the Tangent F E is the Tangent oftbe Angle ACE, 
 as alfo of that A CI; fo that two adjacent angles have only 
 the fame common Tangent. 
 Cs-Tangent, or Tangent oftbe Compliment^ is the Tangent 
 of an arch which is the complement of another arch to a qua- 
 drant. 
 
 Thus, a Tangent of the arch A H, is the Co-Tangent of the 
 arch A E, or the Tangent of the compliment of the arch A E. 
 To find the Length of the Tangent of any Arch ; the fine of the 
 arch being given : fuppofe the arch, A E ; the given fine, AD; 
 and the Tangent required, EE. Since both the fine and Tan- 
 gent are perpendicular to the radius E C, they are parallel to 
 each other. Wherefore as the cofme D C is to the fine A D, 
 fo is the whole fine to the Tangent EE. See Sine. 
 Hence, a canon of fines being had, a Canon of Tangents is ea- 
 fily conftruaed therefrom. 
 Artificial Tangents, are the logarithms of the Tangents of 
 arches. 
 
 Line of Tangents, is a line ufually placed on the fbaor and 
 Gunter's fcale ; the defcription and ufes whereof, fee under 
 the article Sector, 
 Tangent of a Conic Sefiicn, as of a parabola, is a right line, 
 which only touches or meets the curve in one point, and does 
 not cut or enter within the curve. See Conic Section. 
 Method of Tangents, a method of determing ihe quantity 
 of the Tangent of any algebraic curve ; the equation defining 
 that curve being given. 
 
 This 
 
TAN 
 
 This method is one of the great rcfults of the Calculus Diffe- 
 rential} s. 
 
 Its ufe is very great in geometry ; became in determining the 
 Tanpents of curves, we determine at the fame time the qua- 
 dratus of the curvilinear (paces : on which account it well dc- 
 ferves to be here particularly infilled on. 
 To find the Sue-tangent in any -Algebraic Curve. — Let the 
 femiordinate^) m he infinitely near another P M (Tab, Anal, 
 fig. 13.) then will Pp be the differential of the abfeifs; and 
 Jetting fall the perpendicular MR=:Pp; Rm will be the 
 differential of the femiordinate. Draw, therefore, the Tangent 
 T M : the infinitely little arch M m, will not differ from a 
 right line ; and therefore Mm R will be a right-lined, right- 
 angled triangle, uftially called the Characlerijik Triangle of 
 the Curve, in regard curve lines" are diltinguifhed from each 
 other hereby. 
 
 Now, by reafon of the parallel: fm of the right lines PM and 
 pnt; the angle M m R=T MP. Wherefore the triangle 
 MmR is firflular to the Triangle T M P. Let therefore 
 AP-x, PM=y, then will Pf=MR=rf», and R m=dy. 
 Confcqucntly, 
 
 Rm:MR::PM:PT 
 dy : dx y : y dx 
 
 If, then, from the given equation of any curve, you fubftitute 
 the value of d x toy d x : dy, in the general expreffion of the 
 Sub-tangent, P T ; the differential quantities will vanifiV and 
 the value of the Sub-tangent will come out in common quan- 
 tities ; whence the Tangent itfelf is eafily determined. — This 
 we fhall illuftrate in a few examples: 
 1" The equation defining the common parabola, is, 
 
 a x —y'~ 
 
 Hence, a d x—2y dy 
 
 d a= 2ydy:a 
 
 P T^zdy x : dfzziy* dy : a dy—iy"- : azzi a x : a—1 x. 
 That h, the Sab-tangent is double the abfeifs. 
 
 2'' The equation defining a circle is, 
 a x — x x =y y 
 
 a d x — 2 x d x^-iy dy 
 
 d x~2y dy : (a — 2 x) 
 W = d x : y d y=2y z d y :(a — 2*) dy = 2y i : (a — 2*) = 
 (2 ax — 2xx) : (a — 2x)~(ax — x x) : (f a—x) that is, 
 PC:PB: AP:PT. 
 
 Therefore AT=(ax—xx) : (~ a — x)~x = (ax — x #■ — 
 £ a x+x x) : (| d— *)=£ ax: (I a—x) that is, P C : P A : : 
 C A : AT. 
 
 2^ The equation defining za elHpfis, is ; 
 
 a y- =.a b x — b x 1 
 
 Hence, 2 a y dy~ a b d x — 2 b x d x 
 
 2 a y d y : (a b — 2 b x)= d x 
 
 PTz=ydx : d y — 2 a y- : (a b — 2 b x) = (2 abx — 2 b **) 
 : (a b—2 b x) = (2 a x — 2 a x z ) : (a — 2 x) that is, as the 
 diftance of the femiordinate from the centre, is to the half axis 
 fo is the abfeifs, to the proportion of the Sub-tangent intercepted 
 between the vertex of the ellipfis and the Tangent. 
 
 Luffly, for all algebraic curves, the equation being, 
 ay m~\-b x u -J- c y r x'-\- d=0 
 
 may™ — 1 dy-\-n b x" — 1 dx~\- fcy'x { — 1 dx-^-rcf — 1 x f dy—o 
 
 nbx" — I dx-\-j cy'x* — 1 dx = — may™ — idy — rc y — 1 k ! d y 
 
 d x may™ — 1 dy — rcf — 1 x { dy 
 
 nbx-—l+~fcf * r — .1 
 
 P T— y d x~ — m ay™ - 
 
 r c y 
 
 n b x n — 1 fey ,v f — 1 
 Suppofe, e. gr. y 1 — a x = 0 ; then, by comparing with the 
 general formula, 
 
 _ a y^ — y- 
 u—l.mzz.2 
 
 b .V = — a x 
 b~ — a . n — 1 
 
 f-o 
 
 c = o, =0,/=: o 
 Thefe values being fubftituted in the moft genera! formula of 
 the Sub-tcngcnt, we have the Suit-tangent of the parabola of the 
 full kind, ( — 2 . i f — o . oy'x") : ( I — ax I — 1 -J. 0 . 
 Oy° x°)~ — 2f~ : a — 2y' • a. 
 Suppofe> '— x- ax y.— o, then will 
 • a?"= y< i x' = — x< 
 
 ? = I w = 3 b — in — 3 
 
 cyrx*. 
 
 -axy f—o ' 
 
 e== — a r = j J =1 
 Thcfe values being fubftituted in the general formula of the 
 Sui-tangnity we have the Sub-tangtnt of the curve, whofe 
 equation is given, PT= ( — Z- I}' -~ I . —a ) x); 
 
 TAN 
 
 — 1 x > — -f 1 . — ayx'— 1 ) = ( — 3 y 1 + ay x) : ( — • 
 
 3* 1 — ay) = (3y- — axy) : (3 * + Confcquentlv, 
 AT=(3)'-«^) : ( Zx'--\-<*y)— x = ( 3y ^ axy — 
 3 at 3 — . axy) : ( 3* 1 +«>) = (3 a*y— 2axy) : *x*q«ty. 
 The value of y 1 — x-, that is, axy: (3 a- 1 -\-a y) being fub- 
 ftituted from the equation to the curve. 
 
 In the Phihfspbical Tranfaflions, we have the following me- 
 thod of drawing Tangents to all geometrical curves, without 
 any labour, or calculation, by M. Slufius. 
 Suppofe a curve, as D Q_f_Ai r - 1 4.^ whofe pomts are a'l refer- 
 able to any right line given, as E A B, whether that right line 
 he the diameter or not ; or whether there be more given right 
 lines than one, provided their powers do but come into the 
 equation. In all his equations he puts v for the line D A, y 
 for li A j and for E B, and the other given lines, he puts b d y 
 &c. that is, always confonants only. 
 
 Then, fuppoiing DC to be drawn touching the curve in D, 
 and meeting with E B produced in in C 5 he calls the fought 
 line C A, by the name of a. 
 
 To find which, he gives this general method : 1. Reject out 
 of the equation ail members, which have not either v or y 
 in them ; then puts all thofethat have^, on one fide ; and all 
 thofe which have v, on the other; with their figns -f- or — '5 
 and the latter, for diftindlion and eafe fake, he calls the right, 
 the former, the left fide. 2. On the right fide, let there be 
 prefixed to each member, the exponent of the power, which 
 v hath there ; or, which is all one, let that exponent be mul- 
 tiplied into all the members. 3. Let the fame be done alfo 
 on the left fide, multiplying each member there by the power 
 of the exponent of y. Adding this moreover, that one y muff, 
 in each part, be changed into a. This done, the equa- 
 tion thus reformed, will fhew the method of drawing the re- 
 quired Tangent to the point D ; for, that being given ; as alfo) 
 y, v y and the other quantities exprefiol by confonants, a can- 
 not be unknown. Suppofe an equation by — yy —vv, in 
 which EB is called b ; B A — y, UA-d, and let a, or AC 
 be required fo as to find the point C, fiom whence C D being 
 drawn, fliall be a true Tangent to that curve Q_D in D. In 
 this example, nothing is to be rejected out of the equation, 
 becaufe ^> or v are in each member : it is alfo difpofed, as re- 
 quited by the rule 1 ; to each part therefore, there am ft be 
 prefixed the exponent of the powers of y or u, as in rule 2 ; 
 and on the left iide, let oncji be changed into a, and then the 
 equation will be in this form, b a — 2ya=z2vv t which 
 
 equation reduced, gives eafjly the value of a 35 - 2 % " = AC. 
 
 b—y 
 
 And fo the point C is found, from whence the Tangent D C 
 may be drawn. 
 
 To determine which way the Tangent is to be drawn, whether 
 towards B or E, he direcls to confute? the numerator and de- 
 nominator- of the fraction. For, 1. If in both parts of the 
 fraction, all the fignsare affirmitive ; or if the affirmative ones 
 are more in number ; then the Tangent is to run towards B. 
 2. If the affirmative quantities are greater than the negative 
 in the numerator, but equal to them in the denominator, the 
 right line drawn through D, and touching the curve in that 
 point will be parallel to A B : for in this cafe, a is of an in- 
 finite length. m 3. If in both parts of the fraction, the affir- 
 mative quantities are lefs than the negative, changing all the 
 figns, the Tangent muff be drawn now alfo towards B : for 
 this cafe, after the change, comes to be the fame as the firft. 
 4. If the affirmative quantities are greater than the negative 
 in the denominator, but in the numerator are lefs, or vice 
 verjij) then changing the figns in that part of the fraction where 
 they are left, the Tangent muff be drawn a contrary way ; 
 that is, A C mutr. be taken towards E. 5. But whenever the 
 affirmative and negative quantities are equal in the numerator, 
 let them be how they will in the denominator, a will vanifh 
 into nothing : and, confequently, the Tangent is either A D it- 
 felf, or E A, or parallel thereto; as will eafily be fuund by the 
 data. This he gives plain examples of, in reference to the 
 circle ; thus : let there be a fcmicircle, whofe diameter is E B ; 
 in which there is given any point ; as D. ( fig. 15.) from 
 which the perpendicular D A is let fall to the diameter. Let 1 
 DA=f, BA=^, BE=i: then the equation will be by 
 
 — yy^zwy and drawing tiie Tangent D C, we have AC, or 
 
 a — * VV -. Now, if b be greater than 2y, the Tangent mufi 
 
 be drawn towards B ; if lefs, towards E ; if it be equal to it, 
 it will be parallel to E B, as was faid in the firft, fecond, and 
 fourth rules. 
 
 Let there be another femicide inverted ; as N D D, (fig. 16 ) 
 the points of whofe periphery are referred to the right l.ne B E, 
 parallel and to the diameter. Let N B be called d \ and 
 all things elfe as before; then the equation will be by — y yz=d d 
 v v — 2 dv ; which being managed according to his rules, 
 
 YOU have a = tJLX 2 Now, fince v here is fuppofed 
 1 b — ■ — 2y 
 
 to be always lefs than d ; if b be greater then 2 y, than the 
 Tangent muff, be drawn towards E ; if equal, it will be parallel 
 to BE; if lefs, changing all the figns, the Tangent muff bs 
 drawn towards B> as by tules fourth, fifth, and th rd. But 
 1 there 
 
TAN 
 
 TAP 
 
 Th=re could be no Tangent drawn, or at leaft E B would be it 
 if N B had been taken equal to the diameter. Let there be 
 another femicircle, whofe diameter N B (fig. X 7. ) is perpen- 
 dicular to E B, and to which its poin:s are fuppofed to be re- 
 fer'd. Let N B be called b, and all things elfe as above; the 
 
 equation will be yy=bv — o v, and a~ * v ~ 2 ' v ' u jf 
 
 z y 
 
 now, b be greatear than z v, the Tangent mull be drawn to- 
 wards B, if letter, tov/ards E, if equal, D A will be the Tan- 
 gent, as by rules 4, and 5, appears. 
 Inverts Methods «/Ta:,gents, is a method of finding the e- 
 quation, or the conftru£iion of any curv~-; from the Tangent 
 or any other line whofe determination depends on the Tan- 
 gent, given. 
 
 This method is alfo one of the great refults of the new Calcu- 
 lus Integralis. See Calculus. 
 
 Its application we fhall give in what follows.— The differential 
 expreflions of the Tangent, Sub-tangen!, C3*r. being delivered 
 under the laft article : if you make the given value equal to the 
 differential expreflion, and either fum up the differential equa- 
 tion, or, if that cannot be, conftnidf. it, the curve required 
 is had. — For example : 
 
 i° To find the curve line, whofe Suh-tangent=:z y y : a 
 Since the Sub-tangent of an algebraic line is^=>' dx : dy we have 
 y d x : dy—-zyy : a 
 
 ay d xz=.z y z dy 
 a d x — 2 y d y 
 ax=y x 
 
 The curve fought, therefore^ is a parabola ; whofe conftruc- 
 tion is fhewn under the article Parabola. 
 3 0 To find the curve, tvhoje Sub-tangent is a third proportimal 
 to r — x and y. 
 
 Since r — x : y—y : y d x 
 
 dy 
 
 We have r — * : y—dy : dx 
 
 r d x — x d x—y dy 
 r x— ;-**=ip 
 
 2 r x — x x=zy 1 
 The curve fought therefore, is a circle. 
 
 3 0 To find a line wherein the Sub-tangent is equal to the femx- 
 erdinate. 
 
 Since y d x : d y— y 
 
 y d x dy 
 ~~dx~dy 
 
 Hence it appears, that the line fought, is a right line, which 
 refpe£ts the cathetus of an equicrural triangle, as an axis or the 
 hypothenufe of an equicrural, re£tangled triangle. If x had 
 been taken for the arch of a circle, the fought line had been a 
 cyloid. See Cycloid. 
 T ANGERE— Noli me Tangere See Noli 
 TANGIBLE. See thearticle Tactile. 
 TANISTRY, Tanistria, an ancient municipal law, or 
 tenure, which allotted the inheritance of lands, caftles, &c. 
 held by this tenure, to the oldeft and moft worthy and capable 
 perfon of the deceafed's name and blood ; without any regard 
 to proximity.* — This, in reality, was giving it to the 
 ftrongeft; and this naturally occafioned bloody wars in fami- 
 lies: for which reafon it was abolifhed under K. James I. 
 
 * Sir John Davis defcribes it thus; Ounnt afcun per/an morui} 
 ftifie des afcunj cnjtles, manors, terres ou tenement! del nature & 
 tenure de taniltry ; que donquu mejme, h coftles, &c. dacnt de- 
 scender, 1$ de tempi dont memory ne court out ufe de de/dender, 
 Seniori Adigniffimovirofanguinis & cognominis de tiel perfon^c. 
 Tanned Hide. See the article Hide. 
 
 TANNING, the preparing of fkins or hides in a pit, with 
 Tan and water, after having firft taken off the hair, by fteep- 
 ing them in lime-water. 
 
 Method of Tanning oxes hides. — The fkin being flead off the 
 carcafs, if it is intended to be kept, it is faked with fea-falt 
 and alium, or with a coarfe kind of fak-petre ; if it is not 
 tor keeping, the faking is faved, as being of no ufe, but to 
 prevent the hide from corrupting before it can be convenient- 
 ly carried to the Tan-houfe. 
 
 Whether the hide have been faked or not, the Tanner begins 
 with taking off the horns, the ears, and the tail; after 
 which it is thrown into a running water for about 30 hours, 
 to wafh off the blood, and other impurities adherin- to the 
 in fide. 0 
 This done, it is laid over-night in a lime-pit, already ufed ; 
 whence it is taken, and left to drain three or four dai 5 on the 
 edge of the pit. 
 
 This firit and flighted preparation over, it is returned into a 
 ftrong lime-pit for two day?, then taken out for four days more : 
 Vol. II, 
 
 and thus for 6 weeks alternately, it is taken out and put iri, 
 twice a week. At the fix weeks end, it is putinto a frefh pir, 
 where ir continues eight da}'s, and is then taken out for fo ma- 
 ny ; and this alternately for a year or eightec n months, ac- 
 cording to the ffrength of the leather, and the weather: for 
 in great heats, they put in frefh lime twice a week; and in 
 froft they fometirhes do not touch them for three months. 
 Every frefh lime-pit they throw them into, is ftronger and 
 ftronger. 
 
 At the end of four, five, Or fix weeks the Tanner fcrapes off 
 the hair on a wooden leg, or hurfe, with a kind of knife 
 made for that purpofe. And after a year or eighteen months* 
 when the hair is perfectly gone, he carries it to a river t;; walh, 
 pares off the flefn on the leg with a kind of Cutting knife, and 
 rubs it brifkly with a kind ef whetftone, to take off" any re- 
 mains of flefh or of filth on the fide of the hair. 
 The fkin is now put into Tan ; that is, it is covered over with 
 Tan, as it is flretched in the pit, and water is let in upon it : if 
 the fkin be ftrong, five coverings of Tan will be required - 
 for weaker, three or lour mav fufHce, When the fiiin has 
 not been kept long enough in lime, or in the Tan-pil, upon 
 cutting it in the middle, there is feeh a whitiih ftreak, called 
 the horn, or crudity of the fkin ; and it i* this crudity that is 
 the reafon why the foals of fhucs, boots, &c. ftretcb fo eafiiy, 
 and take water. 
 
 When the hides are fufHcicntly tanned, they are taken out of 
 the pit, to be dried, by hanging in the ar: then the tan is 
 cleaned off them, and they are put in a place neither too dry, 
 nor too moift ; they are there well flretched over one another, 
 with weights a top, to keep them tight and (Iraight; and in 
 this condition are fold under the denomination of bend leather. 
 This is the method of tanning bullocks or oxes hidrs. 
 Cows, calves, and horfes fkins are tanned much after the fame 
 manner as thofe of oxen, except that they are only kept four 
 months in the lime pit ; and that before they be put in the tan, 
 there is a prepation required, thus: cold water is poured into 
 a wooden fat or tub, wherein the fkins areput, which are kepr 
 ftirring while fome other water is warming in a kettle; and as 
 fonn as that water isa little more than luke warm, it is poured 
 gently into the fat, and upon this is caft a bafket uf lent 
 during which time, the fkins are ftill kept turning, tha; the 
 water and ten may not fc orch them. 
 
 After an hour, they are taken out, and caft for a day into 
 cold water, then returned into the former far, and the fame 
 water they had been in before; and here they are left eight 
 days; which expired they are put in the tan-pit, and three co- 
 verings of tan given them, the firft of which lafts five weeks, 
 the fecond fix, and the third two months. 
 The reft of the procefs is in all refpedls the fame as that above 
 delivered. In fome countries, as in Cbamp/gne, cirV. the 
 Tanners give the firft preparation with bftrlej mfr. ad of lime. 
 
 TANTAMOUNT, fumething that amounts to, or is equi- 
 valent to f >me other. 
 
 TANTUM decies. See the article Dlcies. 
 
 TAP, among hunters : — a hare is faid to tap, or beat, when fhe 
 makes a particular noife at ruttins-timc. 
 
 TAP ASSANT, among hunters, denotes lurking or Jqua'.ting. 
 Hence alfo, totappy, istoliehid, as a de^r may do. 
 
 TAPER, Tapering, is underftood of a piece of timber, or 
 the like, when broad at one end, and gradually diminilhing tg 
 the other ; — as is the cafe in pvramids, cones, &c. 
 To meafure taper Timber, &e>. See the ankle Suding- 
 Rule, 
 
 Taper-Bored, is applied to a piece of ordnance, when it is 
 
 wider at the mouth than towards the breech. 
 Taper, alfo denotes a kind of tall wax candle, placed in a can- 
 
 dlefiick, and burnt at funeral proceilions, and in other church- 
 
 folemnities. 
 
 Tapers arc made of different fizes : in fome places, as Italy, 
 l$e. they are cylindrical ; but in moft other countries, a a Eng- 
 land, France, &c. they are conical or taper, whence, polu- 
 bly, the name: unlefs we rather chufe to derive Taper in the 
 adje&ive fenfe from the fubftantive taper, in the Saxon, Ta- 
 pen, or Tapoh, tcreus, a wax candle. 
 
 Both kinds are pierced at bottum, for a pin in the candleftick 
 to enter. 
 
 The ufe of lights in religious ceremonies, is of A long fiaud- 
 ing: the ancients, we know, ufed flambeaux in their facrifn.es, 
 and particularly in the myftcries of Ceres; and they had Tapers 
 placed before the ftatuesof their Gods. 
 
 Some fuppofe, that it was in imitation of this heathen ceremo- 
 ny, that lights were firft introduced into the Chrifiian church ; 
 others take it that the Chriftians borrowed the practice from trie 
 Jews : but recourfe need not be had to the one or the other. 
 Doubtltfs, as in the firft days of Chriftiamty they had their 
 meetings in obfeure fub:erraneous vaults, there was a nec^flity 
 for Tapers, fife and there was even occafion for them after 
 they had the liberty of building churches; thofe bein^ con- 
 trived in fuch manner, as only to receive very little li^iit', iiiat 
 they might infpire the greater awe and refpefl by" the ob- 
 fturity. 
 
 12 c thu 
 
TAP 
 
 TAP 
 
 XhiS original of 'Tapers in churches is the mofl natural ; but it 
 is now along time fince the ufe of Tapers, which necefiity at 
 firft introduced, is become a mere ceremony. St. Paulinus, who 
 lived at the beginning of the fifth century, obferves that the 
 Chriftians of his ciays were fo fond of Tapers, that they even 
 painted them in their churches. 
 There are two ways of making Tapers: the firft with the 
 ladle, the fecond by hand. 
 
 In the firft, after the wicks (which are ufually half cotton 
 half flax) have been well twiftcd and cut of the due length ; 
 a dozen of them are hung, at equal diftances, around an iron 
 hoop, directly over a large copper bafon full of melted wax. 
 Then taking on iron ladle-full of the wax, they pour it gently 
 Dver the wicks, a little below the tops thereof, one after ano- 
 ther ; fo that the wax running down them, they become foak'd 
 and covered therewith, and the furplus returns into the bafon, 
 under which is a pan of coals to keep it in fufion. 
 Thus they continue to caft on more and more wax for. ten or 
 twelve times, till the Tapers be brought to the required dimen- 
 fions. The firft caft only foaks the wick, the fecond begins 
 to cover it, and the reft give it the form and thicknefs; in or- 
 der to which, they take care that every caft, after the fourth, 
 be made lower and lower below the wicks, to make them ta- 
 per. The Tapers thus formed, are laid, while yet hot, one 
 againtt another, in a feather-bed folded double to preferve them 
 fbftj and afterwards taken out thence, one after another, to be 
 rolled on a long fmooth table, wi:h an oblong inftrument ol 
 box, puhlhed at the bottom, and furnifhed with a handle 
 above. 
 
 The Taper thus rolled and polifhed, a piece of its larger end 
 is cut off, and a conical hole bored therein, with a boxen in- 
 ftrument, into which the pin, or point of the candleftick is 
 to be received. 
 
 While the broach is yet in the hole, they ufe to ftamp the ma- 
 ker's name, and the weight of the Taper, with a boxen ruler, 
 whereon proper characters are cut. The Taper is then hung 
 up to harden ; after which it is fit for ufe. 
 Jtfpking of Tapers by hand. The wicks being difpofed, as in 
 the former manner, they begin to foften the wax by working 
 it in hot water, in a narrow, deep copper veffel. They then 
 take a quantity of this wax out with the hand, and apply it 
 gradually on the wick, which is fattened to a hook in the wall 
 at the end oppofite to the collet: fo that they begin to form the 
 Taper by the large end j and proceed, ftill leflening the thick- 
 nefs, to the neck or collet. 
 
 The reft is performed after the fame manner as in Tapers made 
 with the ladle, except that they do nut lay them in the fea- 
 ther-bed, but roll them on the table as faft as they are formed. 
 Two things there are to be obferved in the two kinds of Ta- 
 pers: the firjffj that in the whole procefs of Tapirs with the 
 ladle, they ufe water to moiften the table, and other inftru- 
 ments ufed therein, that the wax may not flick ; and that in 
 the other, they ufe oil of olives or lard for the fame end. 
 Pafchal Taper, among the Romanifts, is a large Taper, where- 
 on the deacon applies five bits of frankincenfe, in holes made 
 for the purpofe, in form of a crofs; and which he lights with 
 new fire in the ceremony of Eafter Saturday. 
 The Pontifical makes pope Zofimus the author of this ufage ; 
 but Baronius will have it more ancient, and quotes a hymn of 
 Prudentius to prove it. That Pope he fuppofes to have only 
 eftablifhed the ufe thereof in parifh churches ; which, till then, 
 had been reflrained to the greater churches. 
 F. Papebroch explains the origin of the pafchal Taper more di- 
 fiinctly in his Conatus Chronica- Hijhricus, &c. It feems, 
 though the council of Nice regulated the day whereon Eafter 
 was to be celebrated, it laid it on the patriarch of Alexandria 
 to make a yearly canon thereof, and to fend it to the pope. 
 As all the other moveable feafts were to be regulated by that of 
 Eafter, a catalogue of them was made every year, and this 
 was wrote on a Taper, Cereus, which was bletted in the 
 church with much fulemnity. 
 
 This Taper, according to the abbot Chaftelnin, was not a 
 wax candle, made to he burnt: it had no wick : nor was it 
 any thing more than a kind of column of wax, made on pur- 
 pole to write rjie lift of moveable ieafts on, and which would 
 fuffice to hold that Lift for the fpace of a year, 
 for among the ancients, when any thing was to be wrote to 
 laft for ever, they engraved it on marble or fteel ; when it was 
 to laft a long while, they wrote it on Egyptian paper; and 
 when it was only to laft a fiiort time, they contented tbem- 
 felvcs to write it on wax. In procefs of time, they came to 
 write the lift of moveable fcarts on paper, but they ftill fallen- 
 ed it to the pafchal Taper ; which practice is obferved to this 
 day at Nut re- Dame in Rouen, and throughout the order of 
 CKiny. — Such is the original of the benediction of the pafchal 
 Taper. 
 
 TAPESTRY, or Tapistry, a curious kind of manufac- 
 ture, ferving to adorn a chamber, or other apartment, by 
 hanging, or lining the walls thereof. 
 
 Some ufe Tape/try as a general name for all kinds of hangings, 
 whether woven, or wrought with the needle; and whether 
 hlken, woollen, linnen, leathern or of paper ; (in which they 
 are countenanced by the etymology of the word, formed from 
 
 the French tdpiffer, to line, of the Latin tapes, a cover of a 
 wall orbed, &c) But in the common ufe of our language, the 
 term is now appropriated to a kind of woven hangings, of 
 wool and filk, frequently raifed and enriched with gold, and 
 filver, reprefenting figures of men, animals, landfkips, &c. 
 The invention of Tape/by feems to have come from the Le- 
 vant; and what makes this the more probable is, that foimer- 
 ly the workmen concerned herein, were called, at Icaft in 
 France, Sarazins, or Sarjzincis. 
 
 It is fuppofed that theEnglifh and Flemifh, who were the firft 
 that excelled therein, .might bring the art with them from 
 fome of the croifades, or expeditions againft the S-irazens. 
 Be this as it will, it is certain that thole two nations, pai ticu- 
 larly the Englifh, were the firft who fet on foot this noble ar.J 
 rich manufacture in Europe; now one pf the fineft ornaments 
 of palaces, churches, {fife. 
 
 Hence, if they be not allowed the inventors, they have, at 
 leaft, the glory of being the K&ocCfS of fo curious and admi- 
 rable an art, which gives a kind of life to wools and Jilks, in 
 fume refpects not inferior to the paintings of the beft mafieis. 
 It was late before the French applied themfelves to Tapcjhy: 
 the firft eftablifhment of that kind, was under Henry I V'. in 
 the year 1607, in the Fauxbourg, S. Michael. But this fell 
 with the death of that prince. Under Lewis XIV. the ma- 
 nufacture was retrieved by the care and addrefs of the great 
 M. Colbert, to whom is owing the eftablifhment of the Gobe- 
 lins, a royal Tapeflry manufacture, which has produced works 
 in this kind fcarce inferior to the fineft Englifh or Flemifll 7c- 
 peftry, either with regard to the deiign, the colours, or the 
 ftrength. 
 
 The Tapeflry men diftinguifh two kinds of work, viz. Ta- 
 pejiry of the high, and the low warp ; though the difference is 
 rather in the manner of working, than in the work itfelf, 
 which is, in effect, the fame in buth; only the looms, and 
 confequently the warps, are differently fituated: thofe pf the 
 law warp being placed flat, and parallel to the horizon; and 
 thofe, on the contrary, of the high warp, erected perpendi- 
 cularly. 
 
 The Englifh anciently excelled all the world in their Tapejliy 
 of the high warp ; and they liiil retain their former reputation, 
 though with fome little change: their Im warps having been 
 fince greatly admired. 
 
 The French have three confidcrable Tape/fry manufactures be- 
 fides tfiatof the Gobelins; the firft at Aubuflun in Auvergne, 
 the fecond at Felletin in the Upper Marche, and the third at 
 Beauvois : they were all equally eftablifhed for the high and the 
 low warp, but have all laid afide the former, excepting the 
 Gobelins. 
 
 There are admirable hw warps in Flanders, generally exceed- 
 ing thofe of France; the chief, and almoft only Flemifh ma- 
 nufactories, are at Bruffels, Antwerp, Oudenard, Lifle, Tour- 
 nay, Bruges, and Valenciennes. 
 
 At Bruffels and Antwerp they fucceed both in human figures, 
 and animals, and in landfkips ; and that both with refpect of 
 the defigning, and the workmanfhip. At Oudenard their 
 landfkips and animals are good, but their human figures 
 naught. Lifle, and the other cities named, come behind Ou- 
 denard. The French manufacture of Felletin does tolerably 
 well in landfkips, Aubufibn in figures, and Beauvois in both. 
 The ufual widths of Tapeflries, are from two ells to three ells 
 and half, Paris meafure. 
 
 The manufacture of Tapeflry of each kind, is too curious to 
 be here palled over, without a fhort defenption. — We fhall 
 give each under its feparate article. 
 
 Manufacture of Tapestry of the high TVarp. The loom 
 
 whereon this is wrought, is placed perpendicularly : it confifts 
 of four principal pieces ; two long planks or cheeks of wood, 
 and two thick rollers or beams. The planks are fet upright, 
 and the beams acrofs them, one a-top, and the other at bottom, 
 a foot di fiance trom the ground. They have each their trun- 
 nions, by which they are fufpended on the planks, and are 
 turned with bars. In each roller is a groove, from one end to 
 the other, capable of containing a long round piece of wood, 
 fattened therein with hooks. Its ufe is to tie the ends of the 
 warp to. The warp, which is a kind of worfted, or twitted 
 woollen thread, is wound on the upper roller; and the work, 
 as faft as wove, is wound on the lower. 
 
 Within-fide the planks, which are feven or eight foot high, 
 fourteen or fifteen inches broad, and three or four thick, are 
 holes pierced from top to bottom, in which are put thick 
 pieces of iron, with hooks at one end, ferving to fuftain the 
 coat- Have: thefe pieces of iron have alfo holes pierced in them, 
 by putting a pin in which, the ftave is drawn nearer, or fet 
 farther oft'; and thus the coats, or threads are ftretched or 
 loofened at pleafurc. The coat- ftave is about three inches dia- 
 meter, and runs all the length of the loom; on this are fixed 
 the coats, or threads, which make the threads of the warp 
 crofs each other. It has much the fame effect here, as the 
 fpring ftave and treddles have in the common looms. The 
 coats are little threads fattened to each thread of the warp, with 
 a kind of Aiding knot, which forms a fort of marfh, or ring. 
 They ferve to keep the warp open, for the paffage of broaches 
 wound with ltlks, woollens, or other matters ufed in the piece 
 of Tapejlry. 
 
 Lattiy, 
 
TAP 
 
 Laiily, there are a number of tints flicks, of different lengths 
 but all about an inch diameter, which the workman keeps bv 
 him in bafkets, to ferve to make the threads of tile warp crols 
 each other, by patting them a-crofs: and that the threads thus 
 dolled may retain their proper fituation, a packthread is run 
 among tiie threads, above the flick. 
 
 The loom thus formed, and mounted with its warp the firft 
 thing the workman does, is to draw, on the the threads of 
 this warp, the principal lines and ftrokes of the defign to be 
 reprefentcd on the piece of f apeftrj ■ which is done b°y apply- 
 ing cartoons made from the panning he intends to copy, to the 
 fide that is to be the wrong fide of the piece ■ and then with a 
 black-lead pencil following and tracing out the contours there- 
 of or, the thread of the right fide; fo that the ftrokes appear 
 equally both before and behind. As ro the original defi.-n the 
 work is to be finilhed bv, if is hung up behind the workman, 
 and wound on a long KafF from which a piece is unrolled from 
 time to time, as the work proceeds. 
 
 Befides the loom, csV. here defcribed, there are three other 
 principal infirumems required for working the filk, or wool of 
 . ! hc ™°° f wthin the ik of the warp. Thcfe are a 
 broach, a reed, and an iron needle. 
 
 The broach is of hard wood, ? or 8 inches long, and two 
 thirds of an inch thick, ending , n a point, with a little handle. 
 Itfervcsasaihilttle, the filfcs, Woollens, gold or filver, to be 
 ufed in the work being wound on it. the reed or comb is 
 alfo of wood eight or nine inches long, and an inch thick at 
 the back ; whence it ulually grows lefs and lefs, to the extre- 
 mity of the teeth, which are more or lefs a-parr, according 
 to the greater or lefs degree of finenefs of the intended work° 
 .Laftly, the needle is in form of a common needle, only Hie- 
 ger and longer. Its ufe ,s to prefs clofe the wool and filks, 
 when there is any line or colour that does not fit well 
 All things being prepared lor the work, and rhe workman 
 ready to begin, he places himfelf on the wrong iide the piece, 
 with his back towards the defign ; fo that he works, as it were, 
 blind-fold, feeing nothing of what he does, and being oMifeed 
 to quit his port, and go to the other fide the loom, whenever 
 he would view and examine the piece, to correft it with his 
 prethng-needle. 
 
 To put any filk, fctV. in the warp, he firft turns, and looks at 
 his defign: then taking a broach full of the proper colour, he 
 places it among the threads of the warp, which he brings a- 
 crofs each other with his fingers, by means of the coats or 
 threads fattened to the flaff: this he repeats every time he is to 
 change his colour. 
 
 The filk or wool being placed, he beats it with his reed or 
 comb, and when he has thus wrought in feveral rows over each 
 other, he goes to fee the effea they have, in order to refoim 
 the contours with his needle, if there be occafion 
 As the work advances they roll it up on the lower beam, and 
 unroll as much watp from the upper beam, as fuffices them to 
 continue the piece: the like they do of the defign behind them. 
 When the pieces are wide, feveral workmen may be employed 
 at once. ' v 1 
 
 We have but two things to add: the firft, (Hat this high ittahp 
 Japrftry goes on much more flowly than the Im, wa.p, and 
 takes almoft double the time and trouble. The fecond, that 
 all the difference the eye can obferve between the two kinds 
 confifts in this, that in the P.w warp there is a red fillet, about 
 one twelfth of an inch broad, running on each fide from top 
 to bottom ; which is wanting in the high wart. . 
 Manufacture tf Tapesry ./ the law warp.-The loom or 
 frame whereon the low warp is wrought, is much like that of 
 the weavers: the principal parts thereof are two ftrong pieces 
 of wood forming the fides of the loom, and bearing a beam or 
 roller at each end: they are fufiained at boltom with other 
 ftrong pieces of wood, in manner of treflles; and, to keen 
 them the firmer, they are likewife fattened to the floor with a 
 iint of bultrefies, which prevent any making, though there 
 at onre " W0lkmcn '""'"S o" 'he fore- beam 
 
 The rollers have each their trunnions, by which they are fu- 
 flamed: they are turned by large iron pins, three foot long 
 Along each beam runs a groove, wherein is placed the wich a 
 piece ol wood of above 2 inches diameter, and almolt ol the 
 length of the roller: this piece fills the groove entirely, and is 
 fattened therein, from fpace to fpace, by wooden pins To 
 the two wiches are fattened the two extremiiies of the watp 
 which rs wound on tin: further roller; and the work, as it ad- 
 varices, on the nearer, 
 
 A-crofs the two fides,' almoft in the middle of the loom, paffes 
 
 the beam of a bal ance: to thefe pieces are fattened Brings, 
 which bear certain Iprmg-ftaves, wherewnh the woikrna" 
 by mean, of two , reddles under the loom whereon he fets hi 
 ieet, gives a mono, , to the coats, and makes the threads of 
 he warp rife and fell alternately. Each ,„„„, has more or 
 fewer of thefe fpting-ftaves, and each flaff moie or fewer 
 coats as the Tap/fir, COnfiftl of more or fewer threads 
 
 7 M, S"> or P amlm 3 the Top'firy-ma,, is to follow, is placed 
 underneath the warp; where it is fuftained from fpace to , fp'ce 
 
 Tar 
 
 the vvarp^'' * means ° f which tlie °<="gn Drought nearer 
 The loom being mounted, there are two inftruments ufed in 
 
 r r "ffl S r "fi ClK Kcd ' a,,d the " ute ' The flute does 
 «M office of the weavers (huttle : it is made of a hard polifhed 
 wood, three or four lines thick at the ends, and fomewhat 
 more in the middle, and three or four inches long. On it are 
 wound the filk,, or other matiers to be ufed a! the wool of 
 the Tapeflry 1 he comb or reed is of wood, or ivory ; i, has 
 ufaaly teeth on both fides; i, is about an inch thii'in the 
 middle, butdiminifhes each way to the extremity of the teeth: 
 it ferves to beat the threads of the woof clofe to each other, as 
 
 ™ T P 1 ""* and P^cc-d them with h„ flute 
 
 among the threads of the warp. 
 
 The workman is fcated on a bench before the loom, with his 
 bread againft the beam, only a cufhion or pillow between 
 them; and in this pofture, feparaiing, with his fingers, the 
 threads of the warp, that he may fee the defign underneath, 
 and taking a flute mounted with the proper colour, he paf ej 
 It among the thread,, after having raifed or lowered them, by 
 means of the treddlcs moving the fprrng-ftaves and coats. 
 i,altly, to prefs and clofe rhe threads of the filk or yarn, t?r 
 thus placed, he Hikes each courle (,. what the flute leaves in 
 its patting and coming back again) with the reed. 
 What is very remarkablein the manufaflure of the lew warp 
 is, that ,t is ail wrought on the wrong fide ; fo mat the work- 
 man cannot fee the right fide of his Tap Jlry, till the piece be 
 nnilbed and taken out of the loom. 
 TAPIS. See Tunica. 
 
 TAPPING, the aft of piercing a hole in a veflel, and ally- 
 ing a tube, or cannula in the aperture, far the commodious 
 orawing off the liquors contained thetein. 
 
 Tapping, in agriculture, is the making an incifion in the bark 
 ot a tree, and letting out the juice. 
 
 To lap a tree at the root, is to open it found about the root. 
 Katray, the learned Scor, affirm, that he has found bv expe- 
 riment that the liquor which may he drawn from a birch tree 
 in the fprmg-time, is ,q„al to ti e whole weight of the tree, 
 branches, roois, and all together. 
 
 In the tapping of trees, the juice, taken in from the eanh, a- 
 lcends from the root, and alier h it concocted and affimilated 
 in the branches, feV. It defends like a liquor in an alembic, to 
 the orifice orinclion where itiffues out 
 
 One of the molt effectual ways of tapping, fa as to obtain the 
 greateft quantity of fap, and that in the ffa .rtefl time, is, not 
 only to pierce the batk, ot to cut the body ol the tree almoft to 
 the p,,h, with a ch,ffei (as fume have directed) but to bore ,t 
 quue through all the circles, on boih fides the pith ; leaving on- 
 ly the outermoit ci.cle, and the bark on the north-eall fide un- 
 pierced. 
 
 This hole is to be bored (loping upwards, as large as the latgefl 
 augre will make ; and that alfo tntough and under a large „ m, 
 near the ground. So will it not need any flone to keep cpen 
 
 the orifice, riot iap to direct the fap .in to the receiver. 
 
 This way, the tree will, in (hort time, afford liquor enough 
 to brew withal; and with fame of this fweet fap, one bufhel 
 of malt will make as good ale a, four buihels of malt with or- 
 dinary w»,er The large maple, winch we call the fycamnre, 
 
 andwholC 1 ^ bC<1 br=Wi " S ilS 1"™^ *» f -« 
 TeprefrvelheSapfir bmlng.— IafoUw it by a conflant expo- 
 lute to the fun in proper vellels, till the reft be gathered and 
 ready; otherwife it will contrafl an acidity: when there is 
 enough put uito it as much very thin cut , and harJ Ic , a „ cd 
 rye-bread, as will ferve to ferment it; and when it works, 
 take out the bread, and bottle up the liquor. A few cloves in 
 each veflel that receives the fap, as it oozes from the tree, will 
 
 MV^/ /o? C " e a Iwtlve - monlh - Dr - Tonge in the 
 
 fbiliftphital Traafaaims. • 
 
 Tapi ng, in chirurgery. See the articles Paracentesis, 
 and Dropsy. ' 
 
 Tap-too. See the article Tat-too. 
 
 T A ?t "', Vi.** a8rofs ' f,uzh y ii 1 uor ' '"''""e from ,he wood 
 and baikof old pmes, orfirrs, either naturally or by burn- 
 ing. ' ' 
 
 When thefe ttees are on the turn, and only fit for burning . 
 they fometimes cut off the bark all around towatds the loot 
 and through thefe incifions, therecontinues flowing for a con- 
 liderable time, a blackifli Liquor, which is the Tir.—When 
 this ceafes, it is a fate indication the pine is quite dead and 
 only ht ior the tire. ' 
 The chief ufe of lar, is for the coating and caulking of Alios 
 See fupplemeut, article Tar. 
 TAR ANTISMUS, in medicine, the difea/e or affection of 
 thofe bit by the Tarantula. 
 
 The patients under this malady are denominated Tcrantati 
 Dr.Cornelio, in the Phihfiphical Tranfaclinr.s, repafent, this 
 as an imaginary drcale; and tells us, that the Taramati, or 
 thofe who think themfelves feized with it (exce r ti,, K fuch as 
 for parnclar ends feign themlelves fo) are molt or then, young 
 wanton guls, fuch as the Italian wiiters call Dm,,, /if.-,*, 
 
 who 
 
TAR 
 
 T A P. 
 
 who falling, from fomc particular indifpofition, into melan- 
 choly madneis, perfunde themfelves, according to vulgar pre- 
 judice, that they have been bitten by a Tarantula. 
 But the evidence on the other fide the queftion, feems too flrong 
 to be thus overturned, as will appear from the following article. 
 TARANTULA, or Tarentula, in natural hiftory, a 
 venomous infect, whofe bite gives name to a new difeafe called 
 Tarantifmus. 
 
 The Tarantula is a kind of fpider, fo denominated from the 
 city of Tarentum in Apulia, near which it is chiefly found: 
 it is about the fize of an acorn; and is furnifhed with eight 
 feet, and as many eyes; its colour is various; but it is always 
 hairy; from its mouth arife two horns, or trunks, made a little 
 crooked, with the tips exceedingly (harp, through which it 
 conveys its poifon, 
 
 Thefe horns, M. Geoffroy obferves, are in continual motion, 
 especially when the animal is feeking for food; whence he con- 
 jectures they may be a kind of moveable noftrils. 
 The Tarantula is found in feveral other parts of Italy, and 
 even in the ifle of Corfica ; but thofe of Apulia alone are dan- 
 gerous: and even thefe, when removed thence, are faid to be- 
 come harmlefs: it is added, that even in Apulia, none but 
 thofe found on the plains are much to be feared ; the air being 
 hotter there than on the mountains. 
 
 M. GeofFroy adds it as an opinion of fome, that the Tarantula 
 is never venomous but in the coupling feafon ; and Baglivi fays, 
 that it is never fo but in the heat of fummer, particularly in 
 the dog-days, when, becoming enraged, it flies on all that 
 pafs by. 
 
 The bite occafions a pain, which at firft feems much like that 
 felt on the flinging of a bee, or an ant: in a few hours, the 
 patient feels a numbnefs, and the part affected becomes marked 
 with a little livid circle, which foon after rifes into a very 
 painful tumour: a little after this he falls into a profound fad- 
 nefs, breaths with much difficulty, his pulfe grows feeble, and 
 his fenfes fail j at length he lofes all fenfe and motion, and dies 
 unlefs relieved. But thefe fymptoms come fomewhat diffe- 
 rently, according to the nature of the Tarantula, and the 
 difpofition of ths patient. An averfion for black and blue; 
 and on the contrary, an affection for white, red, and green, 
 are other of the unaccountable fymptoms of this difeafe. 
 All the affiflance medicine has been able to difcover by reafon- 
 ing, coniifts in fome chirurgical applications on the wound, 
 and in cordials, and fudorificks ; but thefeare of little efficacy : 
 a thing that avails infinitely more, is, what reafon could never 
 thought of, mufic. 
 
 As foon as the patient has loft his fenfe and motion, a mufi- 
 cian tries feveral tunes on an inftrument; and when tie has hit 
 on that, the tones and modulations whereof agree with the 
 patient, he is immediately feen to make a faint motion : his 
 fingers firft begin to move in cadence, then his arms, then his 
 legs, by degrees his whole body: at length he rifes on his 
 feet, and begins to dance; his ftrength and activity (till in- 
 creafmg. Some will continue the dance for fix hours without 
 Intermiflion. 
 
 After this, he is put to bed ; and when he is judged fuflicientty 
 recruited from his firft dance, he is called out of bed, by the 
 fame tune, for a fecond. 
 
 This exercifeis continued for feveral days, fix or feven at leafl; 
 in which time the patient finds himfelf exceedingly fatigued, 
 and unable to dance any longer ; which is the characterise of 
 his being cured j for as long as the poifon acts on him, he 
 would dance, if one pleafed, without any difcontinuation, till 
 he died of the mere lofs of ftrength. 
 
 The patient on this perceiving himfelf weary, begins to come 
 to himfelf; and awakes, as out of a profound ileep ; without 
 any remembrance of what had palfed in his paroxyfm, not 
 even of his dance. 
 
 Sometimes the patient, thus recovering from his firft accefs, is 
 quite cured ; if he be not, he finds a melancholy gloom hang- 
 ing on him; he fliuns the fight of men, and feeks water ; and 
 if he be not carefully looked to, throws himfelf into fome ri- 
 ver. If he do not die, the fit returns at that time twelve- 
 month, and he is driven to dancing again. Some have had 
 teturns regularly for 20 or 30 years. 
 
 Every Tarantatus has his particular and fpecific tune ; but, in 
 the general, they are all very brifk, fprightly ones, that work 
 cures. 
 
 This account was given in the royal academy of fcience?, by 
 M. Geoffroy, at his return from Italy, in i7oz ; and con- 
 firmed by letters from F. Gouye. The like hiftory is given 
 us by Baglivi, in an exprefs diflertation on the Tarantula, pub- 
 liflied in i 696. 
 
 To fuch extraordinary facts, it is no wonder a few fables Ihould 
 be added; as, for inftance, that the patient is no longer af- 
 fected than while the infect lives-, and that the Tarantula it- 
 felf dances, all the while, to the fame air with the perfon 
 bitten. 
 
 Theory of the effects cf the Tar antuL a's bite, byM. GeofFroy. 
 — The poilonous juice injected by the Tarantula, M. Geof- 
 froy conceives, may give the nerves a degree of tenfion, greater 
 3 
 
 than is natural to them, or than is proportionate to their 
 functions: and hence may arife a privation of knowledge and 
 motion. But, at (he fame time, this tenfion, equal to that of 
 fome firings of an inflrument, puts the nerves in unifon to cer- 
 tain tones, and obliges them to fhake, after being agitated by 
 tiie undulations, and vibrations of the air proper to thofe tones. 
 And hence this wonderful cure by mufic: the nerves thus re- 
 ftored to their motion, call back the fpirits thither, which be- 
 fore had abandoned them. 
 
 It may be added, with fome probability, and on the fame prin- 
 ciple?, that the patient's averfion for fome colours arifes hence, 
 that the tenfion of his nerves, even out of the paruxyfm, be- 
 ing ftill different from what it is in the natural ftate, the vibra- 
 tions thofe colours occafion in the fibres of the brain, are con- 
 trary to rheir difpofition, and occafion a kind of diffonance, 
 the effect of which is pain. 
 Theory of the eff^Rs of the TaRANTUL a's bite, by Dr. Mead. — 
 The malignity of the poifon of the Taran;u'a feems toconftTt 
 in its great force and energy, whereby it immediately raifes an 
 extraordinary fermentation in the whole arterial fluid, by 
 which its texture and crafis is conlderably altered: the confe- 
 quenceof this alteration, when the ebullition is over, mufl ne- 
 ccffarily be a change in the cohelion of its parts, by which the 
 globules, which did before with equal force prefs each other, 
 have now a very differing and irregular nifus, or action; fo 
 that fomeof them do fo firmly cohere together, as to compofe 
 moleculae, or fmall cluflers: upon this account, as there is 
 now a greater number of globules contained in the fame fpace, 
 than before, and the impulfe of many of thefe, when united 
 together, differing according to the Conditions of thcircohefi- 
 on, as to magnitude, figure, &f. the impetus, with which 
 this fluid is drove towards the parts, will not only be at fome 
 ftrokes greater than ordinary, but the preflure upon the blood- 
 vefTel-; mufl be very unequal, and irregular; and this will be 
 particularly felt in thofe which are molt eafily difiended, aa 
 thofe of the brain, &c. 
 
 Upon this the nervous fluid mult neceflarily be put into various 
 undulatsrv motions, fomeof which will be like thofe, which 
 different objects acting upon the organs or pafhons of the mind 
 do naturally excite in it; whereupon fuch actions mutt follow 
 in the body, as are ufually the confequences of the feveral fpe- 
 cies of fadnefs, joy, defpair, or the like determinations of 
 thought. 
 
 This, in fome degree, is a coagulation of the blood, which 
 will the more certainly, when attended with uncommon heat, 
 as is the cafe in thofe countries where thefe creatures abound, 
 produce fuch like effects as thefe: becaufe the fpirits feparated 
 from the blood thus inflamed, and compounded of hard, fixed 
 and dry particles, mufl unavoidably fhare in this alteration; 
 that is, whereas their fluid confifts of two parts, one more 
 active and volatile, the other more vifcid and glutinous, which 
 is a kind of vehicle to the former; their active part will bear 
 too great a proportion to the vifcid ; and confequently they 
 muft have more than ordinary volatility and force, and will 
 therefore, upon the leaft occafion imaginable, be irregularly- 
 determined to every part. 
 
 Whereupon will follow, tumblings, anger, or fear, upon a 
 light caufe; extreme pleafure at what is trivial, as particular 
 colours, or the like: and on the other hand, fadnefs at what 
 is not agreeable to the fight; nay, laughter, obfeence talk and 
 actions, and fuch other fymptoms as attend perfons bit; be- 
 caufe in this conflitution of the nervous fluid, the moft flight 
 occafion will make as real a reflux and undulation of it to the 
 brain, and prefent as lively fpecies there, as the ftrongeft caufe 
 and imprelfion can produce in its natural ftate and condition - 
 nay, in fuch a confufion, the fpirits cannot but fometimes, 
 without any manifeft caufe at all, be hurried towards thofe or- 
 gans, to which at other times they have been molt frequently 
 determined; and every one knows which thefe are in hot 
 countries. 
 
 The effects of mufic on perfons touched with this poifon, con- 
 firms the doctrine above delivered, — For mufcular motion, we 
 know, is no other than a contraction of the fibres, from the 
 arterial fluid's making an effervefcence with the nervous juice, 
 which, by the light vibration and tremor of the nerve, is de- 
 rived into the mufcle. 
 
 Thus there is a two-fold effect and operation of the mufic 
 thatis, upon the body and the mind : a brifk harmony excites 
 lively fpecies of joy and gladnefs, which are always accompa- 
 nied with a more frequent and Jtronger pulfe, or an increafed 
 influx of the liquor of the nerves into the mufcles; upon 
 which fui table actions mufl immediately follow. 
 As for the body, fince it was fufficient to put the mufcles into 
 action, to caufe thofe tremors cf the nerves by which their 
 fluid is alternately dropped into the moving fibres, it is all one 
 whether it be done by the determination cf the will, or the 
 outward impreflions of an elaftic fluid. 
 
 Such is the air; and that founds are the vibrations of it, is be- 
 yond difpute: thefe, therefore, rightly modelled, may fhake 
 the nerves as really, as the imperium voluntatis can do, and 
 confequently may produce the like eff.-cts. 
 
 The 
 
TAR 
 
 TAR 
 
 The benefit of mufic arifcs not only from their dancing to it, 
 and fo evacuating, by fweat, a great part of the inflammatory 
 fluid; but befides this, the repeated pcrcuflions of the air 
 hereby made, by immediate contact making the contractile 
 fibres of the membranes of the body, efpecially thofe of the 
 ear, which being contiguous to the brain, communicate their 
 tremblings to its membranes and veffels ; by thefe continued 
 fuccuflions and vibrations, the cohefion of the parts of the 
 blood is perfectly broken, and the farther coagulation prevent- 
 ed : fo that the heat being removed by fweating, and the coa- 
 gulation by the contraction of the mufcular fibrill.-e, the 
 wounded perfon is reftored to his former condition. 
 If any one doubts of this force in the air, he may confider, 
 that it is demonftrated in mechanics, that the fmalleft per- 
 cuifion of the fmalleft body, may overcome the refiftancc ot 
 any the greateft weight, which is at reft; and that the lan- 
 guid tremor of the air, which is made by the found of a 
 drum, may make the vafteft edifices. 
 
 But befides this, we muff allow a great deal to the determinate 
 force, and particular modulation of the trembling percuffions ; 
 for contractile bodies may be acted upon by one certain degree 
 of motion in the ambient fluid, though a greater decree of it, 
 differently qualified, may produce nothing at all of the like ef- 
 fect: : this is not only apparent in two common- ft ringed mufi- 
 cal inftruments tuned both to the fame height; but alfo in the 
 trick which many have of finding the tone or note peculiarly 
 belonging to any wine-glafs, and, by accommodating their 
 voice exactly to that tone, and yet making it loud and lafting, 
 make the veffel, though not touched, fuft to tremble, and 
 finally to burft ; which it will not do, if the voice be either too 
 low, or too high. 
 
 Tiiis i akes it no difficult matter to conceive, why different 
 perfons infected with this fort of venom, do require a different 
 fort of mufic, in order to their cure ; inafmuch as the nerves 
 and diftractile membranes have different tenfions, and confe- 
 quently are not all alike to be acted upon by the fame vibra- 
 tions. 
 
 TARE and Tret in commerce, any defect, wafte or diminu- 
 tion in the weight, the quantity, or the quality of goods. 
 The feller is ufually to account to the buyer for the Tare and 
 
 Tret. 
 
 Tare is more particularly ufed for an abatement, or deduction 
 in the price of a commodity, on account of the weight of 
 cbefts, cafks, bags, frails, Etfc. 
 
 The Tare is very different, in different merchandizes : in 
 fome there is none at all allowed. — It is a thing much more 
 regarded in Holland than in England, or elfcwhere : a mo- 
 dern author, M. Ricard, treating of the commerce of Am- 
 fterdam, obferves, that the Tares are one of the moft confide- 
 rable articles a merchant is to be acquainted withal, if he would 
 trade with fecurity. 
 
 Sometimes, the Tare is, as it were, regulated by cuftom ; 
 but generally, to avoid all difpute, the buyer and feller make 
 a particular agreement about it. We fhall here add, from the 
 before-mentioned author, fome inflances of Tares allowed at 
 Amfterdam, referring the reader for a more ample account to 
 his Negcce d' Amjlerdam, edit. 1722. 
 
 Spanifh wools are fubject to a kind of double Tare: for, 
 firft, they deduct the Tare marked on the bales ; and after 
 that, 24 pounds Tare for every 175 pound weight, befides 
 the rebate for prompt payment. Indeed, for the common 
 wools, the feller will feldom allow above 14 per cent, for the 
 whole Tare ; for which reafon, the bargain is to be agreed on 
 before. 
 
 Tare of Roman alum is 4 lib. per fack. 
 
 of Irifh, £sV. butter, 20 per cent. 
 of crude borax, 15 lib. per cent. 
 of cinnamon, 17 lib. the burthen, 
 of capers 33 per cent. 
 of white pepper, 40 lib. per barrel, 
 of black pepper, 5 lib. csV. 
 TARENTULA. See the article Tarantula. 
 TARGET, a Jhuld\ thus called from the Latin, tergum, 
 back, becaufe originally made of leather, wrought out of the 
 back of an ox's hide. 
 TARGUM, in the facred literature, a name which the Jews 
 give to their Chaldee gloffes, and paraphrafes on the fcripture. 
 See Paraphrase. 
 
 As the Jews, during their long captivity in Babylon, had for- 
 got their ancient language, the Hebrew ; and now enderftood 
 nothing but the language of their matters, the Chaldeans : 
 there was a neceffity of explaining the prophets in that lan- 
 guage ; and to this neceffity, is owing the firft beginning of 
 the Chaldee paraphrafe. 
 
 To make the fenfe of the text underftood, each doctor made 
 a paraphrafe of fome part thereof in the vulgar tongue ; and 
 as thefe fevera! interpretations, in time became very volumi- 
 nous, certain rabbins undertook to collect them together: and 
 this collection they called the Targum. 
 
 The Jcujijb doctors do not agree about the antiquity of the 
 Targum; for the more modern Jews having blended their own 
 Vol. II. 
 
 comments with th'jfe of the ancients, no certain age or sera 
 can be fi*ed tor the wh<_>le work. 
 
 It is commonlv believed, that R. Jonathan, who lived und<:r 
 the reign of Herod the Great, male the firft Chaldee verb on 
 of the prophets ; and with this verfion mixed the interpreta- 
 tions borrowed from tradition. — Onkelos, it is certain, tranf- 
 lated the pentateuch almoft word for word j and without any 
 paraphrafe; and another verfion of the pentateuch is afcrlbtd 
 to Jonathan, bur that without much certainty. 
 For the Targum or paraphrafe on the other bonks ; we know- 
 little of the authors, no more than thofe of the Targum of 
 Jerusalem, which is another imperfect paraphrafe on the five 
 books of Mofes: fo that in ftrictnefs, the Targum of Jonathan 
 and Onkelos, arc the only paraphrafe of any authority. 
 The account afcribed to Scaliger, is this : the Hebrew was 
 tranflated under the reign of Tiberius into Childee, by Jona- 
 than ; the prophets alfo by Onkelos ; and the books of Mofes 
 into good o'd Hierofulymitun, which was then ufed at Jerufalem, 
 much as Latin is among us. 
 
 It is certain, there is a Targum Hierofolymitanum Hill extant : 
 it was wrote in ihe vulgar tongue ; but that being then great- 
 ly corrupted, we have now much ado to underftand it. 
 Thefe Torgumifii might have feen Jefus Chrift ; it is certain 
 they lived long before the taking of Jerufulem. Scaligerana. 
 T A R I F, or Tariff, bo;k of rates; a table or catalogue, 
 drawn ufually in alphabetical order, containing the names of 
 feveral kinds of merchandize, with the duties or cuftoms tr> 
 be paid fur the fame, as fettled by authority, and agreed on be- 
 tween the feveral princes and Mates, that hold commerce to- 
 gether. 
 
 TARNISHING, a diminution of the natural luftre of any 
 thing, efpecially of a metal. 
 
 Gold and filver, when tamijlud, refume their brightnefs, by 
 letting them over the fire, in certain lies. Copper, pew- 
 ter, &C. that arc iarr.ijked, recover their luftre with tripuli 
 and pot afhes. 
 
 The breath of women, under their monthly purgations, Ari- 
 
 ftotle affert-, tarnijhei all mirrors. 
 TARPAULIN, or Tap.pawlinc, is a piece of canvafs, 
 
 well pitched and tarred over, to keep off the rain from any place. 
 
 The term is alfo ufed in derifion for a perfon bred at fea, and 
 
 educated in the mariner's art. We alfo, of late, ufe it to ex- 
 
 prefs a painted floor-cloth. 
 TARPEIAN, Tarpius, in antiquity, an epithet given to a 
 
 rock in ancient Rome, of conliderable height ; whence, by 
 
 the law of the twelve tjbles, thofe guilty of certain crimes 
 
 were precipitated.*— It was on this rock that the capitol was 
 
 built. 
 
 * The TarteUu Rock might formerly be fleep enough on one 
 fide to break a man's neck ; but ir cou'd never have been of 
 thit furprizing height, mention'd by fome writers, if any 
 judgment can be form'd from its appearance at prtlent. See 
 Burnet's Letters, p. 238. and Bfiffin*l N. Voyage, p. 103. 
 It took its name from a veftal. called Tarpeia, who betrayed 
 the capitol, whereof her father was governor, to the Sabines ; 
 on condition they would give her all they bore on their left 
 arms, meaning their bracelets. — But inftead of bracelets, they 
 threw their bucklers ( which were likewife born on their left 
 arm ) upon her head, and crufhed her to death. 
 Others afcribe the delivery of the capitol to her father, Spurius 
 Tarpeius; and add, that he was precipitated down this rock by 
 Romulus's order ; and that this henceforward became the pu- 
 nifhment of all criminals of the like kind. 
 Tarpeian Games, Ludi Tarpeii, were games inftituted by 
 RomuluS, in honour of Jupiter Feietrius; and called alfo Ca~ 
 pitalini Ludi. See Capitoline. 
 TARRACE, Tarrass or Terrace, a coarfe fort of 
 plaifter, or mortar, durable in the wet, and chiefly ufed to 
 line bafons, cifterns, wells, and other refervoirs of water. 
 See Terrace. 
 
 TARSUS, TAPEOr, in anatomy, is what we vulgarly call 
 the inftep ; being the beginning of the foot, or the fpace be- 
 tween the ancle and the body of the foot, which is called Mi- 
 tatarfus. 
 
 The Tarfus anfwers to the wrift of the hand.— It confifts of 
 feven bones: the firft whereof is called aflratagus, and by the 
 Latins talus y and os balijlts. See Astragalus, and Talus. 
 The fecond is called the calx, or cahar pedis, or calcaneus ; 
 the third navicular, and by the Grcck&fcaf boides ; the fourth, 
 fifth, and fixth are generally called innominata, but by Fallo- 
 pius, from their figure, cuneiforma: laftly, the feventh, the 
 caboidts. See each defenbed under its proper article. 
 Tarsus is alfo a name given by fome anatomifts to the cartilages 
 which terminate the palpebne, or eye-lids ; anJ from which 
 the cilia, or hairs arife. 
 
 They are exceedingly thin and fine, which makes them light 
 and flexible. — Their form is femicircular : that of the upper 
 eye-lid, is fome what longer than that of the under : they ferva 
 alike to clofe the eyes. 
 TART AN E, a kind of bark ufed for fifhing and earrings; 
 having neither a raifed poop, nor prow ; and cling oars. 
 
 12 D Tar ta*ies 
 
T A S 
 
 T A S 
 
 Tartones are common in the Mediterranean ; they have only 
 a mainmaft, and a mizzen: their fails are triangular. When 
 they put up a fquare fail, it is called a fail of fortune. 
 TARTA R, Tartarus, or Tartarum, in chytniftry, a 
 kind of fait which rifcs from wines, and flicking to the top 
 and fides of the cafks, forms a cruft, which hardens to the 
 confidence of a ftone. 
 
 Tartar, fays a certain ingenious author, has the juice of the 
 grape for its father, fermentation for its mother, and the cafk 
 for its matrix. 
 
 Its goodnefs rather depends on the number of repeated fermen- 
 tations, which a fucceffion of new wines in the fame cafk for 
 feveral years makes, than on the foil or climate where the wine 
 is produced. 
 
 Tartar is either white, or ted, according to the colour of the 
 wine it is produced from. — That brought from Germany is the 
 beft, as being taken out of thofe monftrous tuns, fome whereof 
 hold a thoufand pipes of wine; fo that the (alt has time to 
 come to its confidence, which is one of the chief qualities to 
 be regarded in Tartar. — That of Montpeliier is the next in 
 order; then that of Lyons, Paris, Sff. 
 
 White Tartar is preferred to red, and is really better; as con- 
 taining lefs of the droffy, or earthy part. — 'The marks of good 
 Tartar of either kind are, its being thick, brittle, brilliant, 
 and but little earthy. 
 
 Tartar is of confiderable life among the dyers, as ferving to 
 
 difpofethe fluffs to take their colours the better. 
 
 The chymifts make abundance of preparations from Tartar; 
 
 as Cream, or Ctyftah of Tartar, which is nothing but Tartar 
 
 powdered, and reduced by means of boiling water, a (training 
 
 bag, and a cellar, into little cryftals. See Cream ef 
 
 Tartar. 
 
 Salt of Tartar is made of Tartar warned, ground, purified, 
 and calcined, by a reverberatory fire ; or it is made by pulve- 
 rizing what remains in the retort after the diftillation of Tar- 
 tar, and calcining it as above by a reverberatory fire. On the 
 one or the other of thefe preparations, they pour a great quan- 
 tity of hot water, to make a lye of it ; this they filtrate, and 
 evaporate the liquor by a fand-heat, till the fixed fait be found 
 at the bottom of the vefTel, — This is the pure alkali, or fixed 
 fait of Tartar. 
 
 OH c/" Tartar, is the fait of Tartar expofed to the air for fome 
 days, in an open vefTel, in a moift place, till it diflblve into 
 a fluid ; though it is improperly called an oil, being no more 
 than adiflolvedfalt. 
 
 Oil of Tartar per deliqidum, is held the beft counter-poifon to 
 
 corrofive fublimate. 
 Tartar Chalybeated. See the article Chalybeate. 
 Tartar E?netic. See Emetic. 
 
 Tartar Foliated, is a preparation of Tartar with diftilled vine- 
 gar, which reduces it into white leaves. 
 
 Tartar Soluble. See the article Soluble. 
 
 Tartar Vitriolated, which fome call Maglflery of Tartar, is 
 made of oi! of Tartar mixed with rectified (pint of vitriol : 
 upon mixing the two, there arifes a great evaporation, by 
 means whereof, of thefe liquids they become folids. 
 
 TARTAR IZING, a term ufed by fome writers, for the 
 act of refining or purifying, by means of fait of Tartar. 
 
 T A S S E L, a fort of pendant ornament, at the corners of a 
 cuftiion, or the like thing. — Alfo a fniall ribband or filk fewed 
 to a book, to be put between the leaves. 
 
 Tassels, in a building, thofe pieces of board that lie under the 
 ends of the mantle-trees. See Mantle. 
 
 Tassel, or Tiercelet, is alfo ufed in falconry for a male 
 hawk. 
 
 Tassels are alfo a kind of hard burrs ufed by clothworkers in 
 drefling cloth : they are the heads of the manured Teazle. See 
 Teazle. 
 
 TASTE, Savour, a fenfation, excited in the foul by means of 
 the organ of Tajle ; viz. the papilla of the tongue, &c. 
 Dr. Grew, in a lecture on the diverfity of Taftes, before 
 the Royal Society, diftinguifhes them into Simple and Com- 
 pound. 
 
 By Simple Tastes, he underftands fuch as are fimple modes of 
 Tajle, although mingled with others in the fame thing: thus 
 the Tafle of a pippin is aci-dulcis ; of rhubarb, amar-aftringent, 
 and therefore compounded, in both ; but yet in the pippin the 
 acid is one fimple Tafle, and the fweet another, as diftinct as 
 the bitter and aftringent are in the rhubarb. 
 Two faults, he obferves, have here been committed : the 
 firfl, a defective enumerating of fimple Tajles ; the fecond, 
 a reckoning them indiflinctly among fuch as are com- 
 pounded. 
 
 Simple Tajles, 0 f which we ufually only reckon fix or feven 
 forts, are at leaf! fix teen : i. Bitter, as in wormwood ; whofe 
 contrary is, 2. Sweet, as in fugar. 3. Sour, as in vinegar ; 
 whofe contrary is, 4. Salt, 5. Hot, as in cloves ; to which 
 is oppofite, 6. Cold, as in fal prunella ; for we may as pro- 
 perly fay a cold Tajle, as an hot one, fince there are fome bo- 
 dies which do manifeflly imprefs the fenfe of cold upon the 
 tongue, though not to the touch. 7. Aromatic ; to which is 
 contrary, 8. Naufems, or malignant. 9. Soft, which are ei- 
 * 
 
 ther vapid, as in water, ftarch, whites of eggs, (sfc. or unctu- 
 ous, as in oils, fat, &c. 10. Har-d, of which he reckons 
 four kinds; II. Penetrant, which worketh itfelf into the 
 tongue without any pungency; as is found in the root and 
 leaves of the wild cucumber. 12. Stupefacient, as in the root 
 of black hellebore, which being chewed, and for fome time 
 retained upon the tongue, affects that organ with a numbnefs, 
 or paralytic ftupor. 13. Ajlringent, as in galls : and, 14. Pun- 
 gent, as in fpirit of fal armoniac ; which two laft Tajles he 
 makes contrary to the unctuous, as penetrant and ftupefacient 
 are contrary to the vapid one. 
 The Compound Tastes are very numerous ; but we rrave words 
 to exprefs but fix of them : I. Aujhre, which is aftringent 
 and bitter, as in the green and foft ftones of grapes. 2. Acerb, 
 properly fo called, which is aftringent and acid, as in the 
 juice of unripe grapes. 3. Acrid, which is pungent add hot. 
 
 4. Muriatich, which is fait and pungent, as in common fait. 
 
 5. Lixivlous, which is faltnefs joined with fome pungency and 
 heat. 6. Nitrous, which is faltnefs joined with pungency and 
 cold. 
 
 Taste is alfo ufed, in a figurative fenfe, for the judgment and 
 difcernment of the mind. 
 
 We talk, and we hear talk, every day, of Tajle, of good 
 Tajle, and of bad Tajle; and yet without well underftanding 
 what we mean by the word : in effect, a good Tajle feems at 
 bottom to be little elfe but right reafon, which we otherwife 
 exprefs by the word judgment. 
 
 To have a Tajle, is to give things their real value, to be 
 touched with the good, to be (hocked with the ill ; not to be 
 dazzled with falfe appearances ; but, in fpight of all colours, 
 and of every thing that might deceive or amufe, to judge 
 foundly. 
 
 Tajle and judgment then (hould be the fume thing ; and yet it 
 is eafy to difcern a difference : the judgment forms its opi- 
 nions from reflection ; the reafon, on this occafion, takes a 
 kind of circuit to arrive at its end : it fuppofes principles, it 
 draws confluences, and it judges; but not without a tho- 
 rough knowledge of the cafe : fo that after it has pronounced, 
 it is ready to render a reafon of its decrees. — Tajle obferves 
 none of thefe formalities; before it has time to confulr, it 
 has taken its refolution : as foon as ever an object is prefented 
 it, the impreffion is made, and the fentiment formed ; and we 
 afk no more of it. As the ear is wounded with a harlh 
 found, as the fmel! is foothed with an agreeable odor, be- 
 fore ever the reafon have meddled with thofe objects, to judge 
 of them ; fo the Tajle is ftruck at once, and prevents all re- 
 flection. 
 
 Reflections may come afterwards to confirm this Tafte, and 
 difcover the fecret reafons of its conduct ; but it was not in 
 its power to -wait for them. Frequently, it happens not 
 to know them at all ; and what pains foever we ufe, we 
 cannot difcover what it was that determined it to think as it 
 did. 
 
 This conduct is very different from that which the judgment 
 obferves in its decifions ; unlefs we chufe to fay that good Tajle 
 is, as it were, a firfl motion, or a kind of inftinct of right 
 reafon, which hurries us on with rapidity, and conducts us 
 more fecurely than all the reafonings we could ufe. It is a firfl: 
 glance of thought, which dlfcovers to us the nature and rela- 
 tions of things as it were by intuition. 
 
 In effect, Tajle and judgment are one and the fame thing, one 
 and the fame difpofition and habitude of the foul, which we 
 call by different names, according to the different manners 
 wherein it acts : when it acts by fenfation, by the firfl 
 impreffion of objects, we call it Tajle; and when by rea- 
 foning, after having examined the thing by all the rules of 
 art, &c. we call it judgment : fo that one may fay, Tajle is 
 the judgment of nature, and judgment is the Tajle of 
 reafon. 
 
 Good Tajle, as defined by Madem. Scudery and Madem. Da- 
 cier, in an exprefs treatife of the corruption of Tajle, is an 
 harmony between the mind, and reafon; and a perfon has 
 more or lefs of ikisTa/fe, as that harmony is more or lefsjuft. 
 One might perhaps improve on this hint, and fay, that good 
 Tajle is nothing elfe but a certain ratio or relation between the 
 mind, and the objects prefented to it. 
 
 Right reafon cannot but be moved and affected with things 
 conformable thereto, and wounded by thofe contrary : there is, 
 then, a kind of fympathy which unites them as foon as ever 
 they meet; and at their union, their good underftanding, dif- 
 cover each other. — Make a fine difcourfe; ufe only the rich- 
 eft and noblefi expreflions ; if they contain an unhappy thought, 
 or an incoherent reafoning, that thought, this reafoning, will 
 immediately be felt by a perfon of Tajle : and the antipathy 
 will fhew itfelf by a movement of aveifion, as fudden, as live- 
 ly, and as natural as that which nature infpires us withal for 
 toads or fpiders. 
 
 TASTING, the fenfe whereby we diftlnguifh favours ; or the 
 perception which the foul has of external objects, by means of 
 the organ of Tajle. 
 
 Authors differ much as to the Organ ef Tajling : Bauhin, Bar- 
 tholin, Veftingius, tsc. place it in the Iaxer flelhy parts of the 
 
 tongue j 
 
TAU 
 
 tongue ; Dr. Wharton in the glands at the root of the tongue ; 
 Laurentius in the thin tunic "covering the tongue ; others in 
 the palate, Is'c. But the great Malpighi, and, after him, all 
 the lateft writers, place it in the papilla: chiefly lying about 
 the tip and fides of the tongue. See Tongue. 
 Thcfe papillae arife from the corpus nervofum which covers 
 the mufcular flefh of the tongue ; whence, palling through the 
 corpus reticulare, they ftand up under , the external membrane 
 of the tongue, erect, and covered with vagina:, or (heaths of 
 the faid membrane, to defend them from objefts too violent. 
 Thefe vaginae are porous, and flick out fo far, that when the 
 aliment is fqueezed, they enter within the fame, to receive the 
 object, or the mutter of Tajle. 
 
 Thefe papilla?, Boerhaave conjectures to arife from the ninth 
 pair of nerves ; and thefe, he afferts, are the only organ of 
 Tajle: the others, whether of the tongue, palate, or jaws, 
 6fft he obferves, contribute nothing thereto ; though probably 
 thofe of the cheeks next the dentes molares may. 
 The oljeSi o/Tafiing, is any thing, cither in animals, vegeta- 
 bles, or minerals, from which fait or oil may be extracted. 
 See Salt. 
 
 To/ting^ then, is performed by the objects being attenuated, 
 t and mixed with faliva, warmed in the mouth, and applied to 
 the tongue; where, infinuatmg into the pores of the mem- 
 branous vaginas of the nervous papilla:, and penetrating to the 
 furface of the papillae themfelves, it affects and moves them ; 
 by which means a motion is communicated along the capilla- 
 mems of the nerve to the common fenfory, and an idea ex- 
 cited in the mind, of fait, acid, fweet, bitter, hot, aromatic, 
 auftere, or the like ; according to the figure of the particles 
 that ftrike the papilla:, or the difpcfition of the papilla: to re- 
 ceive the impulfe. 
 
 TATH, in old laws, a privilege which fome lords of manors 
 enjoyed, of having their tenants ftieep folded at night on their 
 demefne lands, for the improvement of the ground. 
 
 TAT I AN I TE S, Tatianitje, a feft of ancient he- 
 retics ; thus called from Tatian, a difciple of Juftin 
 Martvr. 
 
 This Tatian, who has the character of one of the moft learned 
 men of all antiquity, was perfectly orthodox during the life of 
 bis mafter. He was, like him, a Samaritan, by nation, not 
 by religion, as Epiphanius fecms to infinuate. They both be- 
 longed to the Greek colonies which were fpread throughout 
 the country of the Samaritans. 
 
 Juftin being dead, Tatian gave into fome of the errors of the 
 Valentinians ; and formed a feet Galled fomet'imes Tationitts, 
 and fometimes Encrat'itcs. 
 TAT-TOO, •q. d. Tap -to, a beat of a drum, at night, to 
 advertife the fokliers to retreat, or repair to their quarters in a 
 garrifon, or to their tents in a camp. 
 T A U, * in our ancient cuftoms, fignines a crofs. See Cross. 
 * Tradenda diftn comiti Thau chomum. So Mr. Selden, in his notes 
 upon Eadmerus, p. 1 59. Ego Eadgifa pradifti re°ii a-va hoc opui 
 egrcgium cruets Taumati canfilida'vi. See Mon. 3. Tom. p. 12 1 . 
 
 Tau, or Taw, in heraldry, an ordinary, in figure of a T, 
 fuppofed to reprefent St. Andrew's crofs, or a crofs potence, 
 the top part cut off. 
 
 It is thus called from the name of the Greek T, tau. See t. 
 TAUGHT, or Tau't, Tight, in the fea language, is the 
 
 fame as ft iff, or faff. Thus they fay, Jet taught the 
 
 fhrouds, the ftays, or any other ropes, when they are too flack 
 Aid loofe. 
 
 TAUNT, a fea-term. — When the mafls of a ftiip are too tall 
 
 for her, the tailors fay, fhc is taunt-majled. 
 TAURI Uberi libertas, — In fome ancient charters, Taurus 
 
 liber fignifies a common bull kept for all tenants within fuch a 
 
 manor, or liberty. —Cum libertate fald'ta, liberi Tauri, fjf //'- 
 
 ber't Apri, &c. 
 
 TAURUS, in aftronomy, the Bull ; one of the twelve figriS 
 of the zodiac, and the fecond in order. 
 
 The flars in the conftellation Taurus, in Ptolemy's catalogue 
 are 44 ; inTycho's catalogue 41 ; in the Britannic catalogue 
 135. The longitudes, latitudes, magnitudes, csV, whereof 
 are as follow : 
 
 Names and Situation of the 
 Stars. 
 
 South of 4 in the fection 
 That following it 
 That following this 
 North of 4 in the fection 
 That fob this in prcced. Jhoulder 
 5 
 
 TAU 
 
 ; Longitude 
 
 Preced. inform, under the foot 
 
 Preced. of fquare of pleiadw 
 In Rfcfi angle of fquaic 
 
 
 Longitude 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 49 36 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 47 S. 
 
 4 
 
 
 '7 33 43 
 
 8 
 
 49 
 
 48 S 
 
 4 
 
 
 18 44 58 
 
 7 
 
 28 
 
 29 s 
 
 6 
 
 
 19 15 18 
 
 5 
 
 57 
 
 ■ 3 S 
 
 5 
 
 
 IS 47 41 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 27 S 
 
 6 
 
 
 22 50 08 
 
 5 
 
 02 
 
 24 N 
 
 6 
 
 
 23 06 10 
 
 3 
 
 4' 
 
 37N 
 
 7 
 
 
 17 38 38 
 
 18 
 
 27 
 
 41 S 
 
 4 
 
 
 24. 26 24 
 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 5' S 
 
 7 
 
 
 19 03 08 
 
 16 
 
 C4 
 
 57 S 
 
 7 
 
 
 23 30 49 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 ;o S 
 
 
 
 23 5° 24 
 
 0 
 
 07 
 
 ■5 S 
 
 
 
 24 47 C9 
 
 3 
 
 °3 
 
 43 N 
 
 I 
 
 
 2; 07 05 
 
 4 
 
 ■9 
 
 2 S N 
 
 
 
 25 05 21 
 
 4 
 
 09 
 
 05 N 
 
 s 
 
 Names and Situation of tht 
 Stars. 
 
 Moft north of pleiades 
 North o; fquare 
 
 South of i'quare 
 
 Lucida pleiadum 
 
 In the eaft angle 
 25 
 
 A lefs, contiguous to it 
 Preceding in the foot 
 Subieq in preced. ihoulder 
 Subfequent in foot 
 
 30 
 
 That in the breaft 
 
 In the middle of the neck 
 35 
 
 In the heel of the preceding foot 
 
 Precede the fqnare of the neck 
 North of fqnare of the neck 
 Preceding of 2, at the knee 
 
 Prec.ofthemid.onesinthefq.ofneck n 1 19 
 
 25 14 42 
 25 21 31 
 
 2, 25 I3 
 25 26 40 
 
 2J 22 30 
 
 25 38 32 
 25 40 08 
 
 25 56 00 
 
 26 01 5Z 
 
 26 03 ig 
 21 13 06 
 23 00 I 5 
 
 54 17 
 
 27 25 21 
 
 37 36 33 
 
 28 00 57 
 26 17 31 
 
 29 26 17 
 29 07 19 
 
 25 35 08 
 
 2 5 37 S> 
 I o 36 09 
 o 57 2' 
 [ 29 40 s 
 
 That precede ift of the hyades n 
 
 . 45 
 
 That in the preceding cheek y 
 
 Subfequent of two at knee n 
 
 Subfeq. of mid. ones in the fqua. of neck 
 
 Firft of the hyades in noftrils 
 
 That under the [ft of the hyades 
 
 South of fquare of the neck 
 55 
 
 Between the noftrils and n. eye 
 Second 
 
 North of the fouth in the ear 
 
 60 
 
 In the heel of the hind foot 
 South of fouth in the ear 
 Third and fmall betw. noitr. and ear 
 Preceding of north in the ear 
 
 65 
 
 Subfequent 
 
 Preceding below the hyades 
 In north eye 
 
 70 
 
 Double one betw ixt noflr, and f. eye 
 In the following Ihoulder 
 75 
 
 Middle, beneath the hyades 
 South eye, pa/i/icium, ahlebaran 
 In the following leg 
 
 Preceding in the hind knee 
 
 Subfequent beneath hyadeE 
 
 Subfequent in hind knee 
 In root of north horn 
 90 
 
 In root of fouth horn 
 
 Prcced. of 3 over fouth horn 
 95 
 
 More fouth in the fouth horn 
 More north 
 
 Middle of 3 over fouth horn 
 In the middle of (he horn 
 100 
 
 28 32 o; 
 28 38 
 
 ; o 27 43 
 
 ; 29 14 12 
 
 : 1 43 42 
 
 2 09 33 
 
 3 32 S9 
 2 19 iS 
 
 1 z 7 34 
 
 2 42 21 
 1 13 39 
 
 1 33 11 
 
 3 46 5 6 
 
 r 42 49 
 
 z 31 Z7 
 3 53 z ' 
 
 2 47 *3 
 
 3 5' 53 
 
 1 24 57 
 3 5 1 37 
 
 3 11 42 
 
 4 09 42 
 
 2 54 or 
 
 3 02 12 
 
 4 25 18 
 
 2 56 57 
 4 07 11 
 
 3 39 12 
 
 3 22 25 
 3 36 25 
 3 3 6 5> 
 3 12 31 
 
 3 S 6 4* 
 
 4 07 06 
 3 57 22 
 
 3 44 57 
 
 4 °5 43 
 4 22 35 
 
 4 42 07 
 
 5 27 00 
 
 4 27 10 
 
 5 54 <5 
 
 5 H 3° 
 
 6 07 14 
 
 6 09 52 
 5 49 5 s 
 
 7 49 20 
 
 8 41 32 
 
 9 24 5 8 
 it 40 58 
 
 10 42 09 
 
 11 06 31 
 
 12 27 36 
 
 13 eg 18 
 13 27 04 
 
 13 38 52 
 IS 22 54 
 ; 16 14 58 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 4 50 42 N 
 4 29 02 N 
 4 " ?jN 
 4 3" 33N 
 4 29 49N 
 
 3 54 4?N 
 
 4 01 39N 
 
 4 00 37N 
 3 4" 45 N 
 3 Sz 37 N 
 
 3 57 34 N 
 ■3 3° 06 S 
 
 8 40 36 S 
 '3 22 ; 7 s 
 
 ■ 58 32N 
 
 2 38 20 N 
 
 0 10 38 S 
 7 59 37 s 
 
 3 13 26 N 
 
 1 1 3 20 N 
 
 14 29 50 S 
 
 15 04 02 S 
 
 6 33 06 N 
 
 7 54 38 N 
 
 1 24. 06 s 
 
 5 16 41 N 
 15 zi 10 S 
 
 '3 '7 55 S 
 " 47 39 S 
 5 5° H S 
 
 ■2 13 17 s 
 
 o 47 26 S 
 o 08 53 N 
 
 5 46 12 N 
 o 19 23 S 
 
 ; 46 22 S 
 o 15 00 N 
 
 7 20 42 S 
 
 6 19 S7 S 
 
 3 5 s 41 N 
 
 7 23 02 S 
 
 4 00 34 S 
 
 2 37 06 N 
 
 4 °9 04 S 
 o 35 21 N 
 
 12 01 21 S 
 
 0 29 46 N 
 
 3 43 27 s 
 
 1 04 06 N 
 
 5 41 50 S 
 
 6 02 44 S 
 
 1 12 36N 
 
 6 S 6 S3 S 
 
 2 35 58 S 
 
 5 *3 43 S 
 
 6 59 01 S 
 5 47 '6 S 
 
 5 52 5S S 
 
 8 40 32 S 
 
 6 06 26 S 
 
 5 37 49 S 
 
 6 42 04 S 
 
 8 04 2; S 
 6 43 28 S 
 
 6 00 53 S 
 
 7 05 06 S 
 ; 29 49 S 
 
 11 46 51 S 
 6 03 20 S 
 
 9 32 32 S 
 
 6 19 19 S 
 
 6 12 3s S 
 9 55 14 S 
 
 0 40 23 N 
 6 27 25 N 
 
 3 4° 35 s 
 2 19 03 N 
 6 18 31 S 
 6 38 25 S 
 
 1 14 34 8 
 
 4 16 08 S 
 
 2 30 59 s 
 
 3 °5 34 S 
 
 0 48 CO S 
 
 1 03 C3 S 
 
 3 
 
 h 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 4 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 S 
 5 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 7 
 7 
 7 
 7 
 
TAW 
 
 Kami and Situalhn »/ lit 
 Stars* 
 
 In extremity of north horn 
 105 
 
 Hindmolt of 3 over loath horn 
 
 Preced. of inform, foil. n. horn 
 
 In extrem. of fouth horn 
 
 Auriga, in Tycho Inform. 
 North under fouth horn 
 
 South below fouth horn 
 
 Inform, of Auriga 
 
 ■25 
 
 Inform, of Auriga 
 
 A!, preced. in Orion's club 
 
 130 
 
 Another more fouth 
 Inform, of Auriga 
 
 3 Longitude 
 
 17 37 3' 
 86 54 06 
 
 17 0+ 29 
 
 18 13 56 
 
 17 29 44 
 
 18 10 06 
 '7 49 3' 
 '7 59 37 
 
 18 4 z S 6 
 
 19 03 45 
 
 19 22 2 ' 
 '9 '! 54 
 
 20 03 5s 
 20 08 47 
 
 20 27 5S 
 
 21 06 07 
 
 21 OQ 28 
 
 2 1 36 56 
 
 21 59 
 
 22 27 OI 
 
 5 4 2 
 
 6 jo 
 
 5 5° 
 < 21 
 
 6 33 
 
 5 ,N 
 2 ! s 
 14 S 
 
 34 N 
 
 02 S 
 
 22 39 50 
 
 22 32 l6 
 
 23 IO 03 
 
 22 38 44 
 
 23 04 03 
 
 23 19 48 
 
 24 10 37 
 23 46 29 
 
 23 4 6 54 
 
 24 22 33 
 
 24 28 s 8 
 2; 12 28 
 2; 4 6 35 
 26 03 40 
 n 26 36 o: 
 
 I 20 12 S 
 
 5 18 04 S 
 
 6 01 4; S 
 
 1 51 14N 
 4 43 55 s 
 
 4 48 10 S 
 
 9 02 19 s 
 o 40 32N 
 6 20 26 S 
 
 2 14 24 S 
 
 2 29 23 s 
 
 6 52 43 S 
 
 4 26 14 S 
 
 7 20 57 S 
 
 7 38 01 s 
 
 5 43 2 3 s 
 
 8 57 39 s 
 
 1 06 3 1 N 
 
 9 33 28 S 
 
 10 48 50 S 
 
 9 09 37 s 
 4 08 15 N 
 9 18 02 S 
 9 3i '3 s 
 
 3 12 03 S 
 
 3 44 03 S 
 
 2 28 05 N 
 
 0 35 03 S 
 
 1 04 43 S 
 
 3 20 40 s 
 
 Al. fubfeq.in Orion's club 
 
 Taurus, 5 in fome ancient cuftoms, fignifies a hufland * So 
 Husband. , _ 
 
 * Leg. H. 1 ■ cap. 7. Videtur auim mains ejus, cttjufcunqut I au- 
 rus atlnfnU — 
 
 TAUTOLOGICAL Echo's, are fuch echo's as repeat the 
 fame found or fyllable many times- 
 
 TAUTOLOGY, in grammar, a needlefs repetition of the 
 fame thing in different words.— Such, e. gr. is that of Virgil ; 
 
 . .Si fata virum fervant, ft vefcitur aura 
 
 JEtherea neque adhuc crudel'tbus occubat umbris. 
 Some people, particularly the Jefuits, write and pronounce it 
 Tafiology. The difference arifes from the different pronuncia- 
 tion of the Greek upJUon in r*t3<*(.yi«. The modern Greeks, 
 it is true, pronounce the fas/; and it is argued the ancients 
 did the like: but as cuftom is theftandard of a language, this 
 plea avails but little with regard to the Englifh. 
 
 TAW. Seethe article Tau. 
 
 TAWING, Shinning; the art or manner of preparing or 
 dreffing fkins in white, to fit them for ufe in divers manufac- 
 tures, particularly for gloves, h'c. 
 
 All kinds of fkins may be tawed; but it is chiefly thofe of 
 fheep, lambs, kids, and goats, that are ufed to be drefled this 
 way; as being thofe fittcft for gloves. 
 Method of Tawing, or drawing Jktns in The woo! or 
 
 hair being well got off the fkins, by means of lime, &c. (as 
 defcribed under the article Shammy) they are laid in a large 
 vat of wood or ftone fet in the ground, full of water, where- 
 in quick lime has been flacked ; in this they continue a month 
 or fix weeks, as the weather is more or lefs hot, or as the fkins 
 are required to be more or lefs foft and pliant. 
 While in the vat, the water and lime is changed twice, and 
 they are taken out and put in again every day. When taken 
 out for the laft time, they are laid all night to foak in a run- 
 ning-water, to get out the greateft part of the lime; and, in 
 the morning they are laid, fix together, on the wooden leg, 
 to get off the flefh, by fcraping them ftoutly, one after ano- 
 ther, on the flefii fide, with a cutting two-handed inftrument, 
 called a knife ; and while this is in hand, they cut off the legs, 
 and other fupcrfluous parts about the extremes. 
 This done, they are laid in a vat or pit with a little water ; 
 where being well fulled with wooden peftles for a quarter of an 
 hour, the vat is filled up with water, and the fkins are rinfed 
 therein. They are nextthrown on a clean pavement to drain; 
 which done, they are caft into a frefh pit of water, where 
 being well rinfed, they are taken out, and laid on the wooden 
 leg, fix at once, with the hair fide outermolr, over which 
 they rub a kind of whetftone very brifkly, to foften, and fit 
 them to receive four or five more preparations given them on 
 the leg, both on the flefh fide and the hair fide, with the knife, 
 after the manner above-mentioned. 
 
 Thcfe over, they are put in a pit with water and wheat-bran 
 and ftirred about therein, with wooden poles, till the bran is 
 
 TAX 
 
 perceived to (lick to them ; and then they are left; after tM% 
 as they rife of themfelves to the top of the water by a kind of 
 fermentation, they are plunged down again to the bottom ; 
 and, at the fame time, fire is fet to the liquor, winch takes as 
 eaftly as if it were brandy, but goes out the moment the (kins 
 are all covered. 
 
 This operation is repeated as often as the fkins rife above wa- 
 ter ; and when they .rife no more, they are taken out, laid on 
 the wooden leg, the flefh fideouter moil, and the knile is paged 
 over it to fcrape off the bran. The bran thus cleared, the 
 fkins are laid in a large bafket, where they are loaded with 
 huge ftottes to promote their draining ; and when fufficientlv 
 drained, their feeding is given them, which is performed after 
 the fallowing manner : 
 
 For a hundred large fheep. (kins, and for fmaller in proportion, 
 they take eight pounds of alum, and three of fea fait, anj 
 melt the whole with water in a veffel over the fire ; pouring 
 the dill'olution out while yet lukewarm into a kind of trough, 
 wherein is t natfj pounds of the fincft wheat flower, with eight 
 dozen yolk's of eggs ; of all this together is formed a kind of 
 pafte, a little thicker than children's pap ; which, when done, 
 is pat into another veffel, to be ufed in manner following : 
 A quantity of hot water being poured into the trough wherein 
 the pafte was prepared, two fpoonfuls of the pafte is mixed 
 therewith; in order to which, they ufe a wooden fpoon, which 
 contains juft wbatjs required for a dozen (kins : and when the 
 whole is well diluted, two dozen of the (kins are plunged 
 therein : cate bcinr; taken, by the way, that the water be not 
 too hot, which would both fpo3 the pafte, and hurt the (kins. 
 Having (laid fome time in the trough, they are taken out, one 
 after another, with the hand, and ftretched out ; this is re- 
 peated twice : when they have all had their pafte, they are put 
 in tubs, where they are fulled afrefh with wooden peftles. 
 Then they are put in a vat, where they remain five or fix 
 days, or more ; and are at laft taken out in fair weather, and 
 hung out to dry on cords or racks ; the quicker they dry the 
 better; for if they be too long a drying, the fait and alum 
 within them, are apt to make them rife in a grain, which is an 
 effential fault in this kind of drefling. 
 
 When the (kins are dry, they are put up in bundles, and juft 
 dipt in fair water ; from which being taken out and drained, 
 they are thrown into an empty tub ; and, after fome time, are 
 taken out, and well trampled under foot. 
 
 They are then drawn over a flat iron inftrument, the top 
 whereof is round like a battledore, and the bottom fixed into a 
 wooden block, to ffretch and open them : when opened, they 
 are hung in the air upon cords to dry ; and when dry, they 
 are opened a fecond time, repaffing them over the fame in- 
 ftrument. 
 
 Laftly, they are laid on a table, pulled out, and laid fmooth ; 
 
 and are thus in a condition for fale, and ufe. 
 
 After the fame manner are drefled horfes, cows, calves (kins, 
 
 lie. for the fadlers, harnefs-makcrs, He. as alfo dogs, wolves, 
 
 bears-fkins, fic. excepting that in thefe the ufe of the pafte is 
 
 omitted, fait and alum-water being fufheient. 
 TAWNY, in heraldry. See Tenne'. 
 T A X*, a Tribute fettled on every town, after a certain rate ; 
 
 and paid yearly towards theexpences of the government. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek T*£it, order. 
 
 The rate, Es'r. of the Tax was anciently called Tallage, from 
 the French toft, Tax. See Tallage, and Tally. 
 The ancient Tax was what the fubfidy now is ; excepling that 
 the Tax was fixed to a certain fum, e. gr. the fifteenth part of 
 what the place was anciently valued at, whereas the fubfidy is 
 variable according tooccafion ; and that the Tax was levied on 
 cities and towns, but the fubfidy on perfons. Sec Subsidy. 
 Anciently the Tax feems to have been impofed by the king at 
 his pleafure ; but Edward I. bound himfelf, and his fucceflbrs, 
 from that time forward, not to levy it but by confent of the 
 realm. See Fifteenth; fee alfo Gild and Benevo- 
 lence. 
 
 The people of France were ftrangers to Tallies, or Taxes, till 
 the time of St. Ltmis, when they were firft impofed in form of 
 fubfidies necefliry for the fupport of the war in the Holy Land. 
 See Croisade. 
 
 They were then extraordinary levies, and were raifed by capi- 
 tation ; but they were afterwards made perpetual under Charles 
 VII. Philip the Fair, to raife money without difturbing the 
 people, called the people, as a third eftate,- into the general 
 councils of the realm. 
 
 The name Taille is derived from the tally. of petty tradefmen ; 
 in reoard the country people appointed to collea.it, not being 
 able to write, fcored down what they received, on tallies. See 
 Tally. . „ 
 
 Tax alfo denotes the tribute which tenants were occahonally to 
 pay their lord. 
 
 Mod lords had a right of taxing on four occafions, mx. wnen 
 the lord was taken prifoner in a juft war'; when he made his 
 eldeft Ton a knight ; when he married his eldeft daughter to 
 a gentleman ; and when he made the voyage of the Holy 
 
 Kaude 
 
TEA 
 
 Natide fhews the extravagant rife of this kind of Taxes: 
 thole, lie oblerves, which under Charles VI. only amounted 
 to the fum of 40000 Iivres, were marcfifed, under Charles VII. 
 to the h. in of iSocooj Iivres j under Louis XI, 104740000 
 iiv:es ; under Charles VIII. to 6000000; and under Lolis 
 XII. to 7640000 Iivres. 
 
 Taxes were dlitmguifhed into free, which were thofe due, in 
 the four cafes, by freemen, or thofe who held free lands; and 
 /entile and bafe, which were thofe due from perfons of bafe 
 condition. 
 
 They were alfo diftinguifhed into real and ptrfbnal. The per- 
 fonal were impofeu 611 the head of the fervantor man in main- 
 morte, and fo foil iweJ him where-ever he went. 
 
 TAXERi, two officers yearly cholen in Cambridge, to fee 
 the true gauge of ali weights, and meafures obferved. 
 The name took beginning from taxing and rating the rents of 
 houies, whicli was anciently the dutv of their ofice. 
 
 TAXIS, TA51S, in the ancient architecture, (ignifies the 
 fame with Ordsnnance in the new, and is defcribd bv Vitru- 
 vius to be that which gives every part of a building its jult di- 
 me-. lions with regard to its ufe. 
 
 TAYL. in heraldrv, &tc. See the article Tail. 
 
 TC'Ha. See the article Tea. 
 
 T C H£ L M iNAR, Tchilminar, or, as we pronounce 
 it, Chelm 'mar, one of the mott celebrated piles of ruins in the 
 world; being the remains of a palace, fuppofed to have Hood 
 in the middle of the city Eftekhar, the ancient Perfepo] is, ca- 
 pital of thekingsof Perfiaj See Chilminar. 
 
 TLA, Thea, or as the Japanefe call it, Tcha, the leaf ol 
 a tree or fhiub, growing in feveral provinces of China, Japan, 
 and Siam ; whofe imufion is in general ufe as a drink. 
 The Tea tree loves to grow in valleys, at the feet of moun- 
 tains, and thrives beft. in a ftony foil. Its feed is ufually fown 
 in places ex[iofed to the fouth ; and bears flowers three ) ears 
 after it is fown. The root tefernbies that of the peach-tree: the 
 leaves are green, longilh at the point, and prettv narrow, an 
 inch and half long, and jagged all around. The flower is 
 much like that of the wild roic but fmaller. The fruit is of 
 different forms, fometimes round, fomctimes long, lometimes 
 triangular; and of the ordinary fize of a bean ; containing two 
 or three feeds, of a mouie colour, including each a kernel. 
 Theft are the feeds by which the plant is propagated. 
 The tree is uf various heights, from one foot to An hundred : 
 fome there are which two men cannot tatho.n, while others 
 force exceed the icebleft fhrub in a garden. 
 The beif time to gather the leaves of Tea, is while they are 
 yet fmJI, young and Juicy : when gathered, they are paffed 
 over the fmoak of boiling water to moilten them ; then they 
 are laid on copper plates, which are heated ; and thus, the 
 leaves drying, they curl up in the manner in which they are 
 brought to us. 
 
 It is very rare to find Tea perfedly pure; the Chinefe ufually 
 mixing other herbs with it, to increale the quantity, tho' in- 
 deed, the price it is fold for among them is moderate enough ; 
 ufually it is about three-pence a pound flerling, and never 
 more than nine-pence. 
 
 The Chinefe bnow nothing of Impereal Tea, Fhwcr of Tea, 
 and many other names, which in Europe ferve to difiinguifh 
 the goodnefs, and the price of this falbionable commodity ; 
 but befide the common Tea, they diitinguifh two other 
 kinds, viz. the /W and; Ssumk, which are rcferved for peo- 
 ple of the fir ft quality, and thofe who are lick. 
 We have two principal kinds of Tea in Europe, viz. 
 
 Green i 'ea, which is the common Tea of the Chinefe, &c. F. 
 le Compce calls it Bing Tea, and fays it is gathered from the 
 plant in April. — It is held very digeftive, and a little aftrin- 
 gent: it gives a pale greenifh tincture to water ; and its leaves 
 are much twiffed. — The fecond is, 
 
 Bohea Tea, which is the Foui Tea, or Boit Teha of the Chi- 
 nefe. — F. le Compte makes this only differ from the Green 
 Tea, by its being gathered a month before it, viz. in March, 
 while in the bud ; and hence the fmallnefs of the leaves, as 
 well as the depth of the cinclure it gives to water. Others take 
 it for the Tea of fome particular province; the foil bein°- 
 found to make an alteration in the properties of the Tea as 
 much as the feafon of gathering it.— It is all bought at Nan- 
 quin; and it is but lately that the Dutch have introduced it 
 into Europe, where it is now much in vogue. 
 Sa vary alfo fpe»ks of a fort of Red Tea, or Tartar Tea, called 
 Honan Tcha, which tinges the water with a pale red, and 
 which is faid to be extremely digeftive: by means hereof it is 
 that the Tartars are faid to be able to feed on raw flefh. Its 
 tafte is earthy, and much the leaft agreeable of them all; but 
 this is fcarce known in England. 
 
 Tea is to be chofen of the brifkeft fnicll, and as whole as pof- 
 fible ; and the grcateft care is to be taken that it have not been 
 exposed to the air to pall, and evaporate. 
 The drink, 7>.7,-is made in China, and throughout the great- 
 eft part of the eaft, after the fame manner as in Europe, tjiz 
 by infufingthe leaves in boiling water, anil drinking iheinfu- 
 Voi. ft, 
 
 TEC 
 
 fion hot. — Weed, among us, it is ufual to temper its bitter- 
 nefs with fugar, but the orientals ufe little or none of with 
 it. 
 
 However, the Japanefe are faid to prepare their liquor a fome- 
 what different way, viz, by pulverizing the leaves, flirring 
 the powder in hot water, and drinking it as we do coffee; 
 The Chinefe are always taking Tea, especially at meals : it is 
 the chief treat wherewith they regale their friends. The mo ft 
 moderate take it at leaft thrice a day; others, ten times or 
 more: and yet it is computed, the confumption of r^amW 
 the Englilhand Dutch is as great in proportion as among the 
 O.ientals. In France, the ufe of Tea is much declined, and 
 coffee is now become the prevailing liquor. 
 As to the properties of Tea, they are flran^ely controverted : 
 the eaftern nations are at leaft as much pofiefied with them as 
 the Europeans; but it is, perhaps, becaule imagination bears 
 as great a fway there as here. The reifon why the f^out and 
 ftone are unknown in China, is afcribed to the ufe of this 
 plant; which is did further to cure indigeflions of the ftomach, 
 to carry off a debauch, and to give new ftrength for drinking, 
 todifpel wind, to cure the vapours, &c. 
 
 Sim. Pauli, phyfiYian of the king of Denmark, in an cxprefs 
 trearife on this plant, endeavours to fbew, that thefe virtues 
 afc[ibed to it in theEaft, are local, and do not hold wirh the 
 inhabitants of Europe. According to him, thofe pair their 
 40th year fhouJd never ufe it, as being too deficcative: he fays 
 alf , tlrat Tea has no other virtues but thofe of be tony : and 
 adds, withfiauhin, that it is only a fpecies of myrtle, and 
 thinks it is found in Europe as well as the Indies, but this is 
 erroneous. 
 
 This opinion, as to its virtues, is alfo refuted by Pechlin, in a 
 treatifeof Tea, intitled. Theoph'dus Bibaculus, five de Potu 
 These Dialogus ; where he maintains, that it is good to pre- 
 vent fcorbuticdifeafes; that its gentle alf ringent virtues ffreng- 
 then the tonic motion of the inteftinrs, tsV. But he blames 
 the drinking it with milk, and efpecially after a full meal, or 
 after much wine. 
 TEAM, Theam, or Thame, in our ancient cuftoms, fig- 
 nines a royalty granted by the king's charter to the lord' of a 
 manor, for the having, retraining, and judging bondmen, 
 neifs, and villains, with their children, goods, and chattels* 
 in his court. 
 
 TEARS, Laehrymes, a watry humour, iffuing out at the cor- 
 ners of the eye, by the compreffion of the mufcles ; Irving 
 to moiflen the cornea, and to exprefs our grief, and even to 
 alleviate it. 
 
 The ancients had an opinion, that the Tears of the Uvuig 
 were of ufe, at lea it of pleafure, to the dead; for which rea- 
 fon they took great care to procure them abundance at their fu- 
 nerals, fo much, as to inllitute a profeilion or trade of weep- 
 ers, as judging thofe of their own families infufEcient. 
 Deer, when at bay, are commonly faid to fhed Tears: in- 
 deed, they ordinarily do yield a fort of Tears, which oozing 
 into the two clefts underneath, called Lachrymatories, are there 
 conden fed into a kind of yellow liquor, or gum; which di- 
 luted in white wine or carduu- water, is reputed a fuvereign 
 remedy for fits of the mother, and the fallino-ficknefs. 
 Virgil makes the horfe of Pallas fhed Tears at the funeral 
 pomp of his matter : this is one of the paffages which the mo- 
 dern critics cenfure as a breach of probability. " 
 TEAZEL, or Teasel, Dipfacus, or Carduus Fullomtm, or 
 the Fullers Thiftle, a kind of plant much ufed by the fullers, 
 cloth-workers, and flocking- weavers, to card, or draw out the 
 wool or nap from the thread or ground of feveral kinds of 
 cloths, ftuits, ftockings, &c, in order to render them clofcr, 
 and warmer. 
 
 This plant is cultivated with great care in England and in fe- 
 veral parts of France, particularly Normandy; and the ex- 
 portation thereof is prohibited, by reafon of the vaft ufe there- 
 of in the woollen manufacture. 
 
 The liem of the plant is very high: and its extremity, as 
 alfo thole of its branches, bears an oblong prickly ydlowifh 
 ball or bur, which is the part ufed. 
 
 The largcft burs, and thofe moft pointed, are efteemed the 
 beft, and are now called Male Teazles, they are moflly ufed 
 in the drelling and preparing of ftockings and coverlets; the 
 fmallei kind, properly called the Fullers or Drapers Teazles, 
 and fometimcs the Female Teazle, are ufed in the preparation 
 of the finer fluffs, as cloths, rateens, fifc. 
 The fmalleft kind fometimes, called Linnets Heads, are ufed 
 to draw out the nap from the conrfer fluffs, as bays, &c. 
 TECHNICAL,* Technicus, fomething thar relates to 
 art. See Art. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Greek rt^ix®*, artificial, of 
 Tiyvrt, art. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, Technical Words, Technical Verfes, &c. 
 
 And in this fenfe Dr. Harris tntitles his dictionary of arts and ■ 
 fciences, Lexicon Technician. 
 Technical, is more particularly applied to a kind of verfes, 
 wherein are contained the rules or precepts of any art, thus 
 digefted to help the memory to retain them. See "Memory. 
 
 1 2 E Technical 
 
TEL 
 
 Technical Verfes are ufed in chronology, Gfa — Such, e. gr. are 
 thofe expreffing the order and meafures of the calends, nones, 
 c*fY. — Thofe expreffing the feafonsj fee under August. — 
 Thofe expreffing the order, &c, of the fignsj fee under Sign. 
 F. Labbe has compofed a fet of technical Latin verfes, inclu- 
 ding all the epochas in chronology ; and F. Bulkier, after his 
 example, has pat both chronology and hiftory into French 
 verfe; and even geography alfo. 
 
 Technical Verfes are commonly compofed in Latin: they are 
 generally wretched ones, and often barbarous ; but utility is all 
 that isaimed at in them: to give fome idea hereof, we will here 
 add a few inftances.— The cafuifts include all the circumftances 
 which make us partakers with another in a theft, or other 
 crime, in thefe two Technical verfes : 
 
 Juffto, concilium, cmfenfus, palpo recurfus, 
 Participans, mutus, mm objlans, non manifeftans. 
 The firft of F. BuiEei's Technical verfes of the hiftory of 
 France, are thefe. 
 
 Ses loix en quoin cents Pharamond ititroduttj 
 Clodion Chevelu, qu Aeiius vanquit. 
 Merovee ; avec ltd combatit Attila ; 
 Childeric fut chajfee, mats OH lerappella. 
 Technical Words 3 are what we otherwife call Terms of Art. 
 TECUM Duces. See the article DuCES. 
 TE DEUM, a kind of hymn, or fong of thankfgiving, 
 ufed in the church ; beginning with the words Te Deum tdu- 
 damus, We praife thee, O God — It is ufually fuppofed to be 
 the compofition of St. Auguftin, and St, Ambrofe. 
 It is ufed to be fung in the Romifh church with extraordinary 
 pomp and folemnity, upon the gaining a battle, or other hap- 
 py event ; and fome times even to conceal a defeat. 
 TEETH, Denies, in anatomy. See the article Tooth. 
 Canine Teeth, 1 c ^ ,- , 5 Canine. 
 Wolves Teeth, S See the artldeS i Wolves. 
 TEGUMENT. Sec the article Integument. 
 T E I N T b,* and Semi- Teints, in painting, denote the fe- 
 veral colours ufed in a picture, confidered as more or lefs high, 
 or bright, or deep, or thin, or weakened, and dimimfhed, 
 &e. to give the proper relievo, or foftnefs, or diftance to the 
 feveral objects; See Colouring. 
 
 * The word is pure French, where it GgniftCi the fame. 
 TEIRCE, or Tbirs. See the article Ti frce. 
 TEKUP1LE, or Thekuphje, in the Jewifli chronology, 
 
 are the times wherein the fun proceeds fiom one cardinal point 
 to the next. 
 
 The fame term is alfo applied to the moments wherein the 
 fun enters a cardinal point: thefe four terms, or Te kapha, 
 are obferved among the Jews with a great deal of ceremony : 
 the reafon, as we are informed by Mimfler, is this: 
 That people have a notion, that in each Teiupba the fun has a 
 feveral angel appointed to guard, and direct it ; and that in the 
 very point wherein the fun finifhes one Tekupha, and enters 
 upon another, before the one director has taken place of the 
 other, the devils have a power to exercife all kinds of tyranny 
 in the water. 
 
 And hence, they fancy, that if any body drinks the fmalleft 
 quantity of water at that time, he will infallibly have a dropfy, 
 or fome other grievous diftemper. 
 TELAMONES,* a name given by the Romans to what 
 the Greeks called Atlantes, viz. the figures of men fupporting 
 entablatures, and other projectures. See Atlas. 
 
 • A late Author thinks, that the word Telamon, which he de- 
 duces from the Greek fftquw, a wretch that bean mhfortunes 
 with patience, does not ill agree with thofe ilatues, which in ar- 
 chitecture, fuitain luch loads. 
 
 TELESCOPE, an optical inftrument, confiding of feveral 
 glaffes, or lens's, fitted into a tube ; through which remote 
 objects are feen as if nigh at hand. 
 
 In Tele/apes, the lens or glafs turned towards the object, is 
 called the Objed-glafs; and that next the eye, the Eye-glafs ; 
 and if the Telefcopl confifts of more than two lens's, all but 
 that next the object are called Eye-glajfes. 
 
 The invention of the Telefcope is one of the nobleft, and molt 
 ufeful thefe ages have to boaft of : by means hereof, the won- 
 ders of the heavens are difcovered to us, and aftronomy is 
 brought to a degree of perfection, which former ages could 
 have no notion of. 
 
 Indeed, the difcovery was owing rather to chance, than to 
 thought ; fo that it is the good fortune of the difcoverer, ra- 
 ther than his fkill or ability, we are indebted to: on this ac- 
 count it concerns us the lefs to know, who it was firft hit on 
 this admirable invention. It is certain it mult be cafual, fince 
 the theory it depends on was not then known. 
 Johannes Baptifta Porta, a noble neapolitan, is afferted by 
 Wolftus to be undoubtedly the firft that made a Tele/cope; 
 from this pafTage in his Mag'ia Naturalis, printed in 1549 : 
 <* If you do but know how to join the two (viz. the concave 
 « and convex glaffes) rightly together, you will fee both re- 
 « mote and near objects, much larger than they otherwife ap- 
 " pear, and withal very diftinct. In this way we have been 
 
 TEL 
 
 " of good help to many of our friends, who either faw tc- 
 " mote things dimly, or near ones confufedly ; and have made 
 (t them fee every thing perfectly." 
 
 But it is certain, Porta did not underftand hip own invention, 
 and therefore neither troubled Tiimfelf to bring it to greater 
 perfection, nor ever applied it to coeleftial obfervation. What 
 is more, the account Porta gives of his concave and convex 
 Jens's is fo dark and indiltinct, that Kepler, \vho examined it, 
 by particular command of the emperor Rudolphus, declared 
 to that prince, that it was perfectly unintelligible. 
 Fifty years afterwards, a Telefcope, 12 inches long, was made 
 and prcfented to prince Maurice of NafTau, by a fpectacle- 
 maker of Middlebourg; but authors are divided about his 
 name. Sirturus, in a treatife of the Telefcope, printed ann$ 
 161 8, will have it to be John Lippcrfein : and Borel, in an 
 exprefs volume on the inventor of the Telrfcope, publifiied in 
 1655, fhewsittobe Zacharis Janfen, or, as Wolfius has it, 
 Hanfen. 
 
 Joh. Lapreius, another workman of the fame town, pafles 
 for a third inventor ; having made one in 1610, on the mere 
 relation given him of that of Zachary. 
 
 In 1620, James Metric brother of Adrian Metius, profeffor 
 of mathematics at Franeker, came with Drebel to Middle- 
 bourg, and there bought Telefcopes of Zachary's children, who 
 had made them public ; and yet Adr. Metius has given his bro- 
 ther the honour of the invention; in which he is miftakenly 
 followed by Des Cartes. 
 
 But none of thefe artificers made Telefcopes of above a foot and 
 half : Simon Marius in Germany, and Galileo in Italy, firlt 
 made long ones fit for coeleftial obfervations. 
 LeRoffi relaces, that Galileo being then at Venice, was told 
 of a fort of optic glafs made in Holland, which brought ob- 
 jecti nearer: upon which, fetting himfelf to think how it 
 mould be, he ground two pieces of glafs into form as well as 
 he could, and fitted them to the two ends of an organ-pipe, 
 and with thefe fbewed, atonce, all the wonders of the inven- 
 tion to the Venetian noblefle on the top of the tower of St. 
 Mark. That author adds, that from this time Galileo de- 
 voted himfelf wholly to the improving and perfecting of the 
 Telefcope; and that he thereby al.noft deferved all the honour 
 ufually done him, of being reputed the inventor of the inftru- 
 ment, and of its being denominated from him Galileo's Tube. 
 F. MabiMon, indeed, relates, in his travels through Italy, 
 that in a rnonaftery of his own order, he faw a manufenpt co- 
 py of the works of Cornmeftor, written by one Coradus, 
 who lived in the Xlllth century; in the third page whereof, 
 was feen a portrait of Ptolemy viewing the ftars through a 
 tube of four joints or draws: but that father does not fay that 
 the tube had glafTes in it. In effect, it is more than probable, 
 that fuch tubes weie then ufed for no other purpofe but to pre- 
 ferve and direct the fight, or to render it more diftinct, bv 
 Tingling out the particular object looked at, and fbutting out all 
 the foreign rays reflected from others, whofe proximity might 
 have rendered the image lefs precife. 
 
 This conjecture is verified by experience ; we having often ob- 
 ferved, that without a tube, by only looking through the hand, 
 or even the fingers, or a pin-hole in a paper, objects fhall ap- 
 pear more clear and diftinct than otherwife. 
 Be this as it will, it is certain the optical principles, whereon 
 Telefcopes are founded, are contained in Euclid, and were well 
 known to the ancient geometricians ; and it is for want of at- 
 tention thereto, that the world was fo long without that admi- 
 rable invention ; as, no doubt, thereare numerous others lying 
 hid in the fame principles, only waiting for reflection or acci- 
 dent to bring them forth. 
 
 Telefcopes are of feveral kinds, diftinguifhed by the number 
 and form of their lens's, or glaffes, and denominated trom 
 their particular ufes, £ifc. fuch are the Terejlrial or Land Te- 
 lefcope, the Cfcleflial or AJlronomical Telefcope: to which may 
 be added, the Galilean or Dutch Telefcope, the Refteil'mg Te- 
 lefcope, and the Aerial Telefcope. 
 
 Galileo s, or the Dutch Telescope, is a Telefcope eonfifting of 
 a convex object-glafs, and a concave eye-glafs. 
 This, of all others, is the moft ancient form, being the only 
 kind made by the inventors, Galileo, csV. or known, before 
 Huygens: Its conftruction, perfections, imperfections, csV. 
 are delivered in what follows: 
 
 ConjlrutTton of Galileo s, or the Dutch Telescope. — In a tube 
 prepared for the purpofe (the ftructure whereof fee under the' 
 article Tube) at one end is fitted a convex object lens, either 
 a plain convex, or convex on both fides, but a fegment of a 
 very large fphere : at the other end is fitted an eye-glafs, con- 
 cave on both fides, and the fegment of a lefs fphere: fo dif- 
 pofed, as to be the diftance of the virtual focus before the 
 image of the convex lens. 
 
 Theory of Galileo's Telescope. — Now, in an inftrument thus 
 framed, all people, except myopes, or thofe fhort-fighted, 
 muft fee objects diftinctly in an erect fituation, and increafed 
 in the ratio of the diftance of the virtual focus of the eye- 
 glafs, to thedidanceof the focus of the object-glafs. 
 
 But 
 
TEL 
 
 TEL 
 
 But far myopes to fee objects diftinctly through fuel) an irtftru- 
 ment, the eye-glafs mult be fet nearer the objeCt-glafs. The 
 reafon of thefe effects will appear from what follows: 
 For, i s fince it is far diftant objects that are to be viewed 
 with a Telefcope, the rays proceeding from the fame point of 
 the object:, will fall on the object-g'afs parallel, and confe- 
 quently by their refraction through the convexity, will be 
 thrown converging cn the eye-glafs ; but by their refraction 
 through the concavity hereof, they will be again rendered pa- 
 rallel, and in fuch difpofition they will enter the eye. 
 But all, excepting myopes, tee objects diftmiftiy by parallel 
 rays. Therefore the firlt point is clear. 
 
 2 g Suppofe A [Tab. Optics, fig. 41.) to be the focus of the 
 object-giafs; and luppofe A C the furtheil ray on the right 
 hand of [he object that pa lies through the tube: after refrac- 
 tion, it will become parallel to the axis B I, and confequent- 
 Iv after a feond retraction through the concave lens, will di- 
 verge from the virtual foots. Wherefore lince alt the ravs 
 coming from the fame extreme to the eye placed behind the 
 concave len-, are parallel to L E ; and thole from tiie mid- 
 dle of the object, parallel to F G (as obferved in what went 
 before) the middle point of the object will be feen in the axis 
 G A ; and the right extreme, on the right fide, viz. in the 
 line L N, or parallel thereto; that is, the object will be erect : 
 which is the fecond point. 
 
 3 0 Since all right lines parallel to L N cut the axis under the 
 fame angle, the femi-diameter of the object will be feen 
 through the Tclr/iope y under the angle A F N or E F I : the 
 ravs L E and G I entering the eye in the fame manner; as if 
 the pupil were placed in F. If now the naked eye were in 
 A, it would fee the femi-diamcter of the object under the an- 
 gle c A b or C A B. But Gnce the object is fuppofed very re- 
 mote, the diftance A F in refpect hereto b nothing, and 
 therefore the naked eye, even in F, would fee the femi-uiame- 
 ter of the object under an angle equal to A. 
 The femi-diamcter of . the object therefore, feen with the 
 naked eye, is to that feen through the Tele/cops, as I M to 
 I E. But it is demonftrated that I M: IE: IF; A B ; 
 that is, the femi-diameter feen with the naked eye, is :o that 
 viewed through the Tchfcope; in the ratio of the diftance of 
 the virtualfocus of the eye-glals F I, to the diftance of the fo- 
 cus of the object-glafs A B : which was the third point. 
 Tartly, myopes have their retina too far from the cryftallin 
 humour; and diverging rays concur at a greater diftance than 
 parallel ones; and thole that were parallel become diverging 
 by bringing the eye-glafs nearerthe object-glafs ; by means of 
 fuch approach, myopes will fee objects diftinctly through a 
 Telcfcope : which is the fourth point. 
 
 Hence 1 u to have the whole object vifible, the femi-diameter 
 of the pupil muft not be lefs than the diftance of the rays L E 
 and GIj and therefore the more the pupil is dilated, the 
 greater field or com pats will be taken in by the Tflejcopc, and 
 vice verfa\ fo that coming out of a dark place, or (butting 
 the eye for fome time before you apply it to the glafs, you 
 will take in a greater field at firft glance than afterwards, 
 when the pupil is again contracted by the increafe of light. 
 See Pupil. 
 
 2 0 Since the diftance of the rays E L and I G is greater, at 
 a greater diftance from the lens, the compafs taken in by the 
 eye at one view, will be greater as the eye is nearer the con- 
 cave lens. 
 
 3 0 Since the focus of a planoconvex object lens, and the vir- 
 tual focusof a piano concave eye lensj is at the diftance of the 
 diameter; and the focus of an object-glafs convex on both 
 fides, and the virtual focus ot an eye-glafs concave on both 
 fides, is at the diftance of a femi-diameter; it the object-glafs 
 be piano convex, and the eye-glafs planoconcave, theTelfcope 
 will increafe the diameter of the object, in the ratio of the di- 
 ameter of the concavity to that of the convexity ; if the ob- 
 ject-glafs be convex on both fides, and the eye-glafs concave 
 on both fides, it will magnify in the ratio of the femi-diame- 
 ter of ttie concavity to that of the convexity; if the object- 
 glafs be piano convex, and the eye-glafs concave on both fides, 
 the femi-diameter of the object will be increaied in the ratioot 
 the diameter of the convexity to the femi-diamcter of the con- 
 cavity. And laftly, if the object glafs he convex on both 
 fides, and the eye-glafs piano concave, the increafe will be in 
 the ratio of the diameter of the concavity to the femi-diame- 
 ter of theconvexity. 
 
 4 0 Since the ratio of the femi-diamcters is the fame as that of 
 the diameters, Teltfcspes magnify the objects in the fame man- 
 ner, whether the object-glafs be piano convex, and the eye- 
 glafs piano concave, or whether the one be convex on both fides, 
 and the other concave on both. 
 
 5 0 Since the femi-diameter of the concavity has a Icfs ratio to 
 the diameter of the convexity than its diameter has, a Tele/cope 
 magnifies more if the object-glafs be piano com ex, than if it 
 be convex on both fides. 
 
 6 a The greater the diameter of the object-glafs, and the lefs 
 that of the eye-glafs, the lefs ratio has the diameter of the ob- 
 ject viewed with the naked eye, to its femi-diameter viewed 
 with a Tckfcopt\ and confequeinly the more is the object mi- 
 nified by the TeUfcope. 
 
 ■ 7 0 Since the femi-diameter of the object is incrcafed in tiie ra- 
 tio of the angle E F I, and the greater the angle E F I is, the 
 lefs part of the object does it take in at one view ; the TeUfcepe 
 exhibits fo much a lefs part of the object, as it incrcafes its dia- 
 me;er more. 
 
 And this is the reafon that determined the mathematicians to look 
 out for another Tekfcope, after having clearly found the imper- 
 fection of the firft, difcovcred by chance. Nor were their en- 
 deavours vain, as appears from the agronomical Telefccpt here- 
 after to be defcribed. 
 
 If the femi-diameter of the eye-glafs have too fmail a ratio to 
 that of 1 he object: -glafs, an object through the Tdefcope will not 
 appear fufficiently clear, by reafon the great divergency of the 
 rays will occafion the fevera! pencils reprefenting the feveral 
 points of the object on the retina to confitt of too few rays. 
 This too is found, that equal object lens's will not hear the 
 fame eye lens's if thev be differently tranfparent, or there be a 
 dift'rence in their polifh. A lefs tranfparent object-glafs, or 
 one lefs accurately ground, requires a more fpherical eye-glafs 
 than another more tranfparent, &c. 
 
 Hence, though it be found by experience that a Teh-fcspe is 
 good, if the diftance of the focus of the nbject-glufs be fix 
 inches, and the diameter of the piano concave eye-glafs be one 
 inch and one line, or of one equally concave on both fides 
 one inch and a half; yet it il by no means expedient to recom- 
 mend to the maker either this, or any particular combination, 
 but to try feveral eye-glafles both greater and fmaller, with 
 the fame object-glafs, and take that through which objects ap- 
 pear moft clear and diftinct. 
 
 Hevelius recommends an object-glafs convex on both fides, 
 whofe diameter is four Dantzick feet j and an eye-glafs con- 
 cave on both fides, whole diameter is \ ~ digit- or tenths of a 
 foot. An objfct-glafs, equally convex on both fides, whofe 
 diameter is fi\ e feet, he obterves, will rcquiie an eye-glafs of 
 five 1 digits; and adds, that the fame eye-glafs will ailo ferve 
 an object-glafs of eight or ten feet. 
 
 Hence, as the diftance of the object-glafs and eye-glafs is the 
 difference between the diftance of the virtual focus of ine eye- 
 glafs, ami the diftance cf the focus of the objecVglafs ; the 
 length of the Telefccpe is had by fubtfa. ting that from this. 
 That is, the length of the Teltfctpt is the difference between 
 the diameters of the object-glafs and eye-gla f s, if that be pia- 
 no convex and this piano concave; or the difference between 
 the femi-diameters of the object-glafs and eyc-gl fs, if that be 
 convex on both fides, and this concave on toth ; or the diffe- 
 rence between the femidiameter of the object-glafs and eye- 
 glafs, if that be convex on both fides, and this concave on 
 both ; or the difference between the femi-diameter of the ob- 
 ject-glafs, and the diameter of the eye-glafs, if that be convex 
 on both fides, and tiiis piano concave; or the difference be- 
 tween the diameter of the object-glafs, and the femi-diameter 
 of the eye-glafs, if that be piano convex, and this concave 
 on both fides. 
 
 Thus, e. gr. if the diameter of an object-glafs on both fides, 
 be four foot, and that of an eye glafs concave on both tides, 
 be four and a half digits or tenths of a foot ; the length of the 
 Telfcope will be one foot eight digits. 
 Agronomical Telescope, is a Tclejccpe confifting of an object- 
 glafs, and an eye-glafs, both convex. See Convexity. 
 It has its name, from its being wholly ufud in aftronoinical ob- 
 fervations, 
 
 Conflruftion of the oflionomical Telescope. — The tube being 
 prepared, an object-glafs, either piano convex, or convex on 
 both fides, but to be a fegment of a larg>* fphere, is fitted in 
 at one end, and an eye-glafs convex on both fides, which is 
 the fegment of a fmall fphere, is fitted into the other end, at 
 the common diftance of the foci. 
 
 Theory of the aflrommkal Telescop e. — Now, an eye placed 
 near the focus of the eye-glafs, will fee objects diftinctly, but 
 inverted, and magnified in the ratio of the diftance of the fo- 
 cusof the eye-glafs to the diftance of the focus of the objeit- 
 glafs. 
 
 For i° fintre it is very remote objects that are viewed 
 through thefe Tclcfcopcs, the rays from any point of the objedt 
 fall parallel on the object-glafs ; and, confequently, after re- 
 fraction, will meet in a point behind the glafs, which point is 
 the focusof the eye-glafs. From this point they begin to di- 
 verge, and fall diverging on the eye-glafs, where being re- 
 fracted, they enter the eye parallel. 
 
 Hence, as all but myope; fee diftinctly by parallel rays, a Te- 
 lefiope, thus difpofed, will exhibit remote obje£fs diftinctly. 
 Suppofc the common focus of the lens's in F ( Fig. 44. ) and 
 make A B — B F. Since one of the rays A C, proceeding 
 from the right fide of the object, panes througli A; the ray 
 C E will be parallel to the axis A I, and therefore after re- 
 fraction in the eye-glafs, will fall in with it in its focus G, 
 Since then, the eye is placed ne2r it, and all the other-rays 
 proceeding from the fame point of the object with E G, are 
 refracted parallel thereto; the point in the right fide of the ob- 
 ject, will be feen in the right line E G. 
 
 After the like manner it appears, that the middle point of the 
 
 object 
 
TEL 
 
 objeft is feen in the axis G B, Co that the object appears in- 
 verted. 
 
 3° From what has been already (hewn, it appears that the le- 
 mi diameter of the objeft will be fan through the Telcfcept, 
 under the angle K G I, which to the naked eye placed in A, is 
 feen under the angle b A c. Suppofe, now, I F equal to the 
 diftance of thefocusl G; fince the right angles at I are equal, 
 E G F=E F I. Therefore drawing F M parallel to A C, 
 we fnall have I F M=B A C. The femi-diameter, there- 
 fore, viewed with the naked eye, is to that viewed through the 
 f,Utap,, as IM to IE. Draw K E parallel to F M ; we 
 (hall have I M : I E : : I F : I K. But by rcafon ot the pa- 
 ralieiifm of the lens's; C E=B I=B F+F I = A B4-1- I; 
 and by reafon of the parallelifm of the right lines C A, and 
 E K; C E = A K, therefore B I=A K, conferjuentlv, A B— 
 IK. And tnerefore I M : I E : : I F : A B ; that is, the fe- 
 mi-diameter feen with the naked eye, is to tne fern I -diameter 
 view'J through the Ttl.fccpe, in the ratio of the diftance of the 
 focus of the eye-lens I F, to the diftance of the focus of the 
 objeft-glafs A B. 9.hJ> '...„. 
 Hence, 1°, as the ajlnmmhd Ttlcfcr.pt exhibits objects in- 
 verted ■ it fcri'escommodioufly enough, forobferving the liars 
 (it mattering lirtle, whether they be feen ereft or Inverted) 
 but for terrc'irial objefts, it is much lels proper, as the invert- 
 ing frequently prevents their being known. 
 j« If between the eie-glafs, and its locus G, be a plain well 
 polifh-d uietal fpecuium L N, of the length of an' inch, and 
 of an oval figure, inclined to the axis under an angle of 45°, 
 the rays E P and M Q_ will be reflefted in fuch a manner, as 
 that concurring in g, they make an angle P gO, equal to 
 P G Q_: and theref ire the eye being placed in g, will lee the 
 objeft of the fame magnitude as before, only in an ereft htua- 
 tion. Bv the addition therefore of fuch a fpecuium, the afoo- 
 nemical Ttlifapt is rendered fit to obfervc terreftrial objefts. 
 
 3" Since the focus of a glafs convex on both fides, is diftant 
 from the glals itfelf a femi-diameter ; and that of a piano con- 
 vex glafs, a diameter) if the objeft glafs be convex on both 
 fiJes^ the Tdtfaft will magnify the femi-diameter of the ob- 
 jeft, in the ratio of the femi-diameter of the eye-glafs to the 
 femi-diameter of the objeft-glafs; but if the objeft-glafs be a 
 plar.o convex, in the ratio of the femi-diameter of the eye- 
 glafs, to the diameter of the objeft glafs. 
 4° Wherefore, fince the femi-diameter of the eye-glafs has a 
 gieater ratio to the femi-diameter of the objeft-glafs, than to 
 its diameter; a Tcltfcopt magnifies the femi-diameter of the ob- 
 ject more, if the objeft-glafs be a piano convex, than if con- 
 vex on both fides. 
 
 5 0 The ratio of the femi-diameter of the eye-glafs, to the dia- 
 meter or femi-diameter of the objeft-glafs, is the lefs, as the 
 eye-glafs is a fegment of a lefs fphere, and the objeft-glafs of 
 a Greater. A Tdcjccpt therefore magnifies the diameter of the 
 object more, as the objeft-glafs is a fegment of a greater, and 
 the eye-glafs of a lelfer fphere.— And yet the ratio of the femi- 
 diameter 0 of the eye-glafs to the objeft-glafs muft not be too 
 fmall ; if it be, it will not refraft rays enough to the eye from 
 each point of the objeft; nor will it feparate thofe coming 
 from different points fufficiently : by which means the vifion 
 will be rendered obl'cureand confufed. To this may be added, 
 what we have (hewn, of the ratio of the' objeft-glafs to the 
 eye-glafs in the Dutch Tclcfcope. 
 
 De Chales obferves, that an objeft iens of z> t feet will require 
 an ey e-glafs of 1 J- digit or tenth of a foot ; and an objeft- 
 glafs of eight or ten feet, an eye-glafs of four digits; in which 
 he is confirmed by Euftachio de Divinis. 
 
 Huygens's great tcUfaft, wherewith Saturn's true face, and 
 one of his fatellites were firft difcovered, confifts of an objeft- 
 glafs of 1 2 feet, and an eye-glafs of a little more than three 
 digits. Though he frequently ufed a Tek/copc of 23 feet long, 
 with two cye-glahes joined together, each in diameter 1 j a di- 
 git; fo that the two were equal to one of three digits. The 
 fame author obferves, that an objeft-glafs of 30 foot, requires 
 aneye-glafs of 3A digits; and gives us a table of proportions, 
 for the conftrufting of ajlrcmmlcal Teltfapts; an abridgment 
 whereof we fliall here give the reader 
 
 Dill of Fot. Dim. of |Di». "of F. Mag. Dill, of to Dbm. of Dill, of F < Mijn. 
 olObj.Ghfs. Aperture ofE.GUl's. Dbm. ofObj.Ghfi. Aperture of E.Glafs. Diam. 
 
 30 
 40 
 
 60 • 
 
 80 
 
 2 74 3 
 
 ! oojj 
 
 3 +4|3 
 
 24 + 
 
 s°s 
 
 °5 5 
 4 8 ,9 
 
 If in two or more TcLjcipcs, the ratio between the objeft and 
 eve-glafs be the fame, the objeft will be nianified the fame in 
 Loth' 2 
 
 TEL 
 
 Hence fome may conclude the making of large Tdefcopei a 
 needlefs trouble. But it mult be remembered, as we have al- 
 ready laid down: that an eye-glafs may be in a lefs ratio to a 
 greater objedt-glafs, than to a fmaller : thus, e. gr. in Huy- 
 gens's Tele/cope of 25 feet, the eye-glafs is three digits. Now, 
 keeping this proportion in nTelefcope o\ 50 feet, the eye-glafs 
 fhould be fix digits ; but the table fhews, four and a half ate 
 fufficient. Hence, from the fame table it appears, that a Tc- 
 ir0pe'6f 50 feet magnifies in the ratio of 1 : 1+1 j whereas 
 that of 25 feet, only magnifies in the ratio of 1 : ico, 
 Since the diitance of the lens's is equal to the aggregate of the 
 diftanceof the fuci of the object and eye-glaffes ; and the focui 
 of a glafs convex on each fide is a femi-diamete;'s diftance, 
 and that of a piano convex, a diameter's diftance, from the 
 lens ; the length of a Tele/cope is equal to the aggregate of the 
 femi-diameters of the lens's, if the objefl-glafs be convex on 
 both fides; and to the fum of the femi-diameter of the eye- 
 glafs, and of the diameter of the objeiSi-glafsj if the objeil- 
 glafs be a piano convex. ' ' , 
 
 But as the femi-diameter of the eye-glafs is very fmall, in re- 
 fpe£l of that of the objefl-glafs, the length of the Tdefcope is 
 ufually eftimated from the diftance of the objecVglals, i. e. 
 from its femi diameter, if it be convex on both fides, or its 
 diameter if piano convex. Thus a Tdefcope is faid to be 12 
 feet, if the femidiameler of the objedt convex-glafs on both 
 fides be 1 2 feet, &£. ftu;^- 
 Since myopes fee near objects bed ; for them the eye-glafs is to 
 be removed nearer to the objctf-glafs, that the rays refracted 
 through it may be the more diverging. 
 
 To take in the larger field at one view, fome ufe two eye- 
 glailcs, the foremoit whereof is a fegment of a larger fphere 
 than that behind : to this it muft be added, that if two lens's be 
 joined immediately together, fo as one touch the other, the 
 focus is removed to double the diftance which that of one of 
 them would be at. 
 To jhorten the ojlronomical Telescope, i, e. to conftrua a 
 Tele/cope fo, as that, though lhorter than the common one, it 
 fhall magnify as much : 
 
 1 0 Having provided a drawing tube, fit in an object lens E G 
 {Fig. 43-) which is a fegment of a moderate fphere; let the 
 firft eye-glafs B D be concave on both fides, and fo placed in 
 the tube, as that the focus of the object-glafs A may be be- 
 hind it, but nearer to the centre of the concavity G. Then 
 will the image be thrown in Q_, fo as that G A : G I : : A B : 
 Q_ I. Laltly, fit in another object-glafs, convex on both 
 fides, and a fegment of a leiTer fphere, fo as that its focus may 
 be in Q_. 
 
 This Tele/cope will magnify the diameter of the objea, more 
 than if the object-glals were to reprefent its image at the fame 
 diftance E Q_, and confequently a fhorter Telefcope conUructed 
 this way, is equivak-nt to a longer in the common way. The 
 demonftration may be feen in Wolfius. 
 
 Sir If. Newton furnifhes us with another method of contract- 
 ing the Telefcopc, in his catoptrical or reflecting Ttlefcape - y the 
 conftru£tion whereof fee hereafter. 
 
 Land Telescope, or Day Telescope, iTdefcope confiding 
 of more than two lens's commonly of a convex object-glafs, 
 and three convex eye-glaffes ; or, a TeUfccpe that exhibits ob- 
 jects erect, yet different from that of Galileo. 
 It has its name from its being ufed to view objects in the day- 
 time, on or about the earth. 
 
 Toconjlrua a Land or Day Telescope .—A tube being pro- 
 vided, fit in at one end an object-glafs, which is either convex 
 on both fides, or piano convex, and a fegment of a large 
 fphere: to this add three eye-glaffes, all convex on both fides, 
 and fegments of equal fpheres; difpofmg them in fuch manner, 
 as that the dilhnce of any two may be the aggregate of the dif- 
 tancesof their foci. 
 
 Theory of a Land Telescope.— Then will an eye applied to 
 the laft lens, at the diftance of its focus, fee objects very di- 
 ftinctly, erect, and magnified in the ratio of the diftance of 
 *the focus of one eye-glafs L K {Fig. 44-) *° * he diftance of 
 the focus of the object-glafs A B. 
 
 For, 1 0 the rays, from what has been already faid, falling on 
 the objea parallel, the image of the object will be reprefentcd 
 invertedly at the diftance of the principal focus: wherefore, 
 fince this' image is in the focus of the firft eye-glafs, the rays, 
 after a fecond refraction, will become parallel ; and thus falling 
 on the third lens, after a third refraction, they exhibit the in- 
 verted image invertedly, that is, an erect image of the object. 
 Since thelitis imige is in the focus of the third eye-glafs, the 
 rays, after a fourth refraction, will become parallel; and in 
 this difpofition the eye will receive them, and confequently 
 there will be diiiinct vifion, and the object will appear 
 
 2 0 If I Q_= I K, that is, equal to the diftance of the focus 
 of the object-glafs, an eye placed in M, will fee the femi-dia- 
 meter of the object ir.creafed in the ratio of LMtoKI; but 
 the ray A Q_, proceeding from the focus Q_of the objea lens 
 A B, after refraction becomes parallel to the axis I L, confe- 
 quently the firft eye lens C D joins it to the axis in M the 
 diftance of a femi-diameter. 
 
 And 
 
TEL 
 
 TEL 
 
 Andfincethe focus of the fecond eye-glafs E F, isalfo in M, 
 the ray F H, after refraction will be parallel to the axis N O, 
 and therefore the third eye-glafs will j tin it at the axis in P ; 
 But the femi diameters of the lens's G H and C D are fuppo- 
 fed equal; therefore? 0=LM. Wherefote finoe the right 
 angles at O and L are equal, as alfo H 0=C L, the ingle 
 O P H is equal to C M L. The femi- diameter of the oi ject 
 therefoic appears the fame in P as in M, and is confequently 
 magnified in the ratio of L M, or P O to K I. 
 Hence, i ° an ajironomical telefcope is cafily converted into a 
 land telejeope, by uling three eye-glaffes for one; and the land 
 telefcope, on the contrary, into an aftronomical one, by taking 
 away two eye-glafles, the faculty of magnifying fiill remain- 
 ing the fame. 
 
 2.° Since the diftance of the eye-glafles is very fmall, the length 
 of the telefcope is much the fame as if you only ufed one. 
 3° From the con ft ruction, it is evident, that the length of 
 the telefsops is f und by adding five times the i'e mi -diameter of 
 / the cye-glaiTes to the diameter of the objec-i- glafs, if a piano 
 convex; or its femi-diameter, if convex on both fides. 
 Huygens firft obferved, both in the ajironomical and land te- 
 hfcspe, that it contributes confiJeiably to the perfection of the 
 inftrumenr, to have a ring of wood or metal, with an aper- 
 ture, a little lefs than the breadth of the eye-glafs, fixed in the 
 place where the image is found to radiate upon the lens next 
 the eye: by means hereby the colours, which are apt to difturb 
 the clearnefs and diftinctnefc of the object, are prevented, and 
 the whole compafs taken in at a view, perfectly defined. 
 Some make land telefcopes of three lens's, whichyetreprefe.it 
 objects erect and magnified as much as the former. But fuch 
 ielefcspes labour under very great inconveniencies, both as the 
 objects herein are tinged with falfe colours, and as they are 
 diftorted about the margin. 
 
 Some *gairi ufe four lens's, and even more; but fince fome 
 part of the rays is intercepted in paffing every lens, objects are 
 kereby exhibited dim and feeble. 
 Rcficiling, or catcptric, or eata-dioptric Telescope, is a te- 
 lefcope which, initead of lens's, confifts chiefly of mirrours, 
 and exhibits remote objects by reflection, initead of refracti- 
 on 
 
 This inftrument is the invention of the great Sir If. Newton: 
 what determined him to apply his thoughts this way, was the 
 different refrangibility, which, in his new doctrine of light 
 and colours, he found the rays of light were of. In effect, as 
 he found the ratio between the greateft and lead refractions of 
 the different rays to be nearly as 28 to z;, it eafily followed, 
 that the rays could never be all refracted parallel from any 
 lens, b'Jt would fome of them divaricate more, fome lefs; be- 
 fide that tiie foci would be difturbed ; the focus of the molt re- 
 frangible rays being nearer the lens than that of the leaft re- 
 frangible ones, by adiltance which is the 27th part of the di- 
 ftance between the object-ghfs, and the focus of the leaft. re- 
 frangible ones. 
 
 Hence he concluded, that refraction was too unequal a princi- 
 ple; and that lens's, of whatever figures, whether fpherical, 
 parabolical, or any of the other conic fections, and how tru- 
 ly foever ground, would never fuffice for the perfection of te- 
 lejcopes. 
 
 Upon this he had recourfe to another more equable principle, 
 viz. reflection; and made a telefcope, confifting of fpecula, or 
 mirrours: the firft hint whereof, however, he owns lie took 
 from Dr. Gregury's optic?. 
 
 ConfttuSfion of a reflecting Telescope.' Provide a tube 
 
 A B C D (Fig. 45.) open in A D, and clofed in B C, well 
 blacked within-fide, and of a length equal to the diftance of 
 the focus from the concave fpeculum E F. To the bottom 
 B L, is to be fitted a concave metallic fpeculum a b, polifh- 
 ed to the greatelt poffible perfection ; or rather, to have the 
 object, clearer, and more diilinct, let it be a glafs fpeculum, 
 concave on its tore-fide, and equally convex on the hind-fide; 
 for-unlefs it be of the fame thicknefs every where, it will re- 
 flect the images of objects titlged with a fpurious colour, and 
 indiftinct. Towards the other end of the tube is fixed an 
 iron piece H L, to which is cemented a plain metallic fpecu- 
 lum ; or, which is better, a tiiangular prifm of glafs or cry- 
 ftal G, whofe upper angle G is a right angle, the two others 
 half right ; the faces or planes that meet in the angle G to be 
 fquare, and the third a parallelogram. This prifm is to be fo 
 difpofed, as that a ray reflected from the fpeculum, paffing 
 through the middle of the face G M, may cut it at right an- 
 gles; but be inclined to the rectangle M N in an angle of 45 0 . 
 Its diftance from the concave fpeculum E F, is to be fuch, as 
 that the rays a c and b d reflected from the concave fpeculum, 
 may, after a fecond reflection from the bafe of the prifm, con- 
 cur in the point e- t that is, the diftance of the focus e from 
 the reflecting furface of the prifm, and the diftance of that 
 from the concave fpeculum, is to be equal to the diftance of 
 the focus- from the concave fpeculum. In 1 is placed a plant) 
 convex lens, whofe focus is in e, that the reflected rays may en- 
 ter the eye parallel. Laftly, this lens is covered with a thin 
 brafs or leaden plate, having a little round perforation therein, 
 for the eye to look through, by which meant all foreign rays 
 are excluded, which would ether wife OCCafion COnfuGon. 
 
 Vol, II. 4 
 
 In the firft telefcope of this kind wt.icji the inventor made, the 
 femi-diameter of the coneave metallic fpeculum was I2| di- 
 gits, or tenths of an inch; from which, therefore, the fo- 
 cus was 6 y digits diftant. the diameter of the eye glafs was 
 z of a digit; fo that it magnified the diameter of thcobj-ct in 
 the ratio of 1 1038: but he found that objects were fhewn 
 fomewhat obfeure hereby; on which account, he afterwards 
 recommended glafs fpecula inftead of metallic ones; adding, 
 that there is nothing more required to the perfection of this te- 
 Ifcope, but that the art of polifhing glafs be brought to greater 
 perfection ; for that fome inequalities which do not hurt lens's, 
 are found to affect fpecula, and prevent objects beinc feen dt- 
 ftinctly. 
 
 The fame author obferves, that if the length of the inft rument 
 be 6 feet, and confequently the femi -diameter of the concave 
 fpeculum 12, the aperture of the fpeculum is to be 6 inches; 
 by which means the object will be increafed in the ratio of 1 
 to 200 or 300. 
 
 If it be longer or fhnrter, the aperture mult be as the cube of 
 the quadrato quadrate root of the length, and its magnifying 
 power as its aperture. The fpeculum. he orders to be an inch 
 or two broader than the aperture. 
 Aerial Telescope, a kind of ajironomical teUf cope, the lens's 
 whereof are ufed without a tube. 
 
 In ftrictnefs, ho wevcr, the aerial teljcspi is rather a particu- 
 lar manner of mounting and managing long telefcopes for cce- 
 leftial obtervations in the night-tim/.-, whereby the trouble of 
 L>ng unweildy tubes is faved, than a particular kind of telefcope ; 
 the contrivance we owe to the noble Huygens. 
 Conjlrutlion of the aerial Telescope. — J 0 a tall poll or malt 
 A B (Fig. 46. N J 2. J the length the iube fhnuld be of is fix- 
 ed perpendicularly in the ground. Before the erecting it, one 
 fide is planed fmooth, and upon it two rulersare fixtd parallel 
 to each other an inch and half u part, including a kind of groove 
 or channel between them, reaching from top almoft to bot- 
 tom. At the top of the ptje is fitted a little truckle A, move ■ 
 able on its axis, and over it is drawn a cord G g, douDle the 
 length of the pole, and the thicknefs of fhc lit, le finger, re- 
 turning intoitfelf, and furnifhed with a piece of lead, H, e- 
 qwal in weight to the lens and a moveable arm to be fuftair.ed 
 thereby. 
 
 Then a wooden lath C D, two foot long, is. framed fo as that 
 it may Aide freely in the channel ; and in the miJdle thereof 
 is affixed a wooden arm E,' ftanding out a foot f om the pole, 
 and on its extremity bearing another, F f, a foot and half long 
 fixed to it at right angles, and both of them parallel to the 
 horizon. 
 
 2° An object-glafs is included in a hollow cylinder I K, three 
 inches long: to this cylinder is fixed a ftaff K L, near an 
 inch thick, and a foot long, which refls on a brafs ball M, 
 that moves freely in its cup or focket underneath: only, on 
 occafion, the ball and foclcet are fixed by a fcrew. That the 
 lens thus equally balbnced, may be moved with a (mall force, 
 a weight N I of about a pound, is fufpended by a ltrong wire 
 N F, by bending of which the common centre of gravity of 
 the weight and the lens is eafily made to coincide with that of 
 theball. To the fUF K L, is fixed a brafs ftyle L, which is 
 bent downwards till its point be as much below the centre of 
 the' ftaff, as the centre of the ball is. To the point is tied a 
 fine filken thread L V, which of confluence will be para,Iel 
 to the ftaff KL. 
 
 3 61 An eye-ghfs O is included in a fhort cylinder, and the ft u ff 
 P V is fixed to the fame. To this is hung a little weight S, fuf - 
 ficient to make a balance. In Q is fixed a handle R, which 
 carries a tranfverfe axis, to beheld in the obferver's hand, and 
 the ftaff P V directed towards the object-glafs, is tied to the 
 thread L V. The thread palled through a hole V, is wound 
 about a little peg T, fixed in the middle of the ftaff, bv the 
 turning whereof the thread is fhortened or Iengtcned at plea'fure. 
 4 0 That theobferver may be able to hold the eye-glafs fteady, 
 he has a fulcrum or prop under his arm, the ftructure whereof 
 appears from inflection of the figure. Laftly, to keep off the 
 feeble light flowing from the air upon the eye, it is convenrcnt- 
 ly covered with a circle Y, perforated in the middle,, fined on 
 to a moveable and flexible arm. 
 
 Binocular Telescope. See the article Binocular. 
 
 TelescoPical Jlars are fuch as are not vilible to the naked 
 eye; but difcoverabls only by the help of a telefcope. See 
 Star. 
 
 All ftars lefs than of the fixth magnitude, are tehjeopic to a 
 middling eye. 
 
 TELLER, an officer in the exchequer, of which there are 
 four; whofe buunefs is to receive all Atonies due to the crown, 
 and thereupon to throw down a bill through a pipe into the 
 tally-court, where it is received by the auditor's clerks, who 
 attend there to write the words of the faid bill upon a tally, 
 and thm deliver it to be entered by the clerk of the pells, or 
 his clerk. 
 
 The tally is then fplit or cloven by the two deputy-chamber- 
 lains, who have their feals, and whilft the fenior deputy reads 
 the one part, the junior examines the other part with the other 
 two clerks. 
 
 liF The 
 
TEM 
 
 T E M 
 
 > « mn P c - 
 
 -TeMPE RING. 
 
 The tellers places arc in the king's gift, and th?y have befides 
 their chief clerk or deputy, four other clerks, for the difpatch 
 of bulinefs. See Exchequer. 
 TELLONIUM. See the article Thelonium. 
 TELLUS, Terra, J , in aftronomy. See Earth. 
 
 / phyfical •» r Temperament. 
 
 I J ; r . r n jTemperament 
 TEMPER, W a<mufical ^fenfe. See J 
 
 v mechanical s 
 
 TEMPERAMENT, Temperamentum, Tempera- 
 ture, in phyfics, that habitude or difpolition of a body ari- 
 fing from the proportion of the four primary elementary quali- 
 ties it iscompofed of. 
 
 The notion of temperament arifes from that of mixture, 
 where different elements, as earth, water, air and fire (or, to 
 fpeak more juftly in the peripatetic way, hot, cold, moift, 
 and dry) are blended together ; by their oppofition, they tend 
 mutually to weaken and encroach on each other: and from the 
 whole arifes a fort of temperate crafts, or coalition of them all 
 in this or that proportion; whence, according to. the quality 
 that prevails or predominates, we fay a hot or cold, imoijl or 
 dry temperament. 
 
 It is controverted among the fchool-men, whether the tem- 
 perament properly comprehends all the four primary qualities? 
 or, whether thofe do not all ceafe, and a new one, a fifth, 
 iimpie quality, refult from the total alteration made in the 
 other four, by their mutual action on each other ? 
 Authors diftinguifh two kinds of temperaments, viz. uniform, 
 and dtfform.— The firft is that wherein all the qualities are 
 mixed in an equal degree. — The fecond, where in an une- 
 equal one. 
 
 The uniform temperament can only be one ; the diffurm ad- 
 mits of ei<mt different combinations, fince either anyone, or 
 any two of the qualities may prevail ; whence hot and mzijl, 
 cold and moijl, fcff. — Further, lb me confidering that the qua- 
 lities which do prevail, may not be in equal degree ; and the 
 like of thofe which do not prevail, make feveral other combi- 
 
 nations or temperaments 
 
 and add i z more to the number. — 
 
 In effect, as thsre are infinite degrees between the higheft and 
 lowed pitch of any one of the elements, the different tempera- 
 tures may be faid to be infinite. 
 Temperament, in medicine, is more particularly under- 
 wood of the natural habitude and conftitution of the body 
 of man, or the difpolition of the animal humours in any fub- 
 
 j e a. 
 
 The notion of temperament arifes hence, that the blood flow- 
 ing in the veins and arteries, is not conceived to be a Ample 
 fluid, but a fort of an imperfect mixt, or an affemblage of le- 
 veral other fluids: for it docs n.'t only confift of the four Am- 
 ple, or primary qualities, but of four other fecond dry ingre- 
 dients compounded thereof, into which it is fuppofed to he re- 
 folvable, viz. choler, phlegm, melancholy, and blood, properly 
 fo called. , 
 
 Hence, as this or that ingredient humour prevails in a perfon, 
 he is faid to be of a ch.>lenc, phlegmatic, melancholic, Gul- 
 nuine, &c. temperament. 
 
 The ancient phyuciai.s brought thefe animal temperaments to 
 correfpond with the univerfal temperament above d^fcribed: 
 thus the /anguine temperament was fuppofed to coincide with 
 hot and moijl, the phlegmatic with cold and moijl, the melan- 
 cholic with dry and cold, tiff. 
 
 Galen introduced the doct:ine of temperaments into phytic 
 from the peripatetic fchool, and made it as it were the bafis 
 of all medicine; aflerting that the whole of curing difeafes 
 confided in tempering the degrees of the qualities, humours, 
 ts'c. 
 
 On the footing medicine now ftands, the temperaments are 
 much lefs confidered. The mechanical writers pare away the 
 greateft part of the Galenic doctrine, as ufelefs and uncertain, 
 and conlider the temperaments as no other than thofe diver- 
 sities in the blood of different per forts, whereby it becomes 
 more apt to fall into certain combinations in one body than 
 another, whether into choler, phlegm, tsV, whence, accord- 
 ing to them, people are denounced choleric, phlegmatic, Sec. 
 The ancients diftinguifhed two kinds of temperaments in the 
 fame body: the one ad pondus, in refpefl of weight; the 
 other ad jufiitiam. 
 
 Temperamentum ad pondus, is where the elementary quali- 
 ties are found in equal quantities, and in equal proportions; 
 fuch as they are fuppofed to be in the fkin of the fingers, with- 
 out which thofe parts would want the power of diftinguifhing 
 objects with fufflcient accuracy. 
 
 Temperamentum ad jujliuam, is that which contains un- 
 equal portions of thofe qualities, but yet in fuch proportion as 
 is neceffary for the difcharge of the function proper to the part. 
 — Such is the temperament in a bone, which contains more 
 earthy than aqueous parts, to make it more hard and foiid for 
 its office of fultaining. 
 
 Galen obferves, that the temperament ad pondus is only imagi- 
 nary ; and that though it were real, it cuuld not fubfift above 
 one moment. 
 
 Dr. Pitcairn looks on the temperaments, or conftituttons, as fo 
 many native difeafes; according to him, any one indued with 
 whatever temperament has the feeds of a real difeafe within 
 him; a particular temperament fuppofing that fome fecretions 
 are in greater proportion than is proper for life indefinitely 
 long, 
 
 As the diverfities of temperaments are no other than diverfitics 
 of proportion in the liquids, which may be diverlified infinite 
 ways; fo there may be an infinite number of temperaments: 
 though authors have only fuppofed four. The fanguine, 
 which is ufually reckoned a temperament, the fame author fays , 
 is no other than a plethora. 
 Temperament, Temperamento, in mufic, denotes a 
 rectifying or mending the faife or imperfect concords, by 
 transferring to them part of the beauty of the perfect ones. 
 The decrees of the octave, which may be called its elements, 
 as being the fmalleft intervals it is resolvable into, are two 
 greater femi tones, two leffer tones, and three greater tones. 
 Now the different Situation of thefe elements, with refpectto 
 each other, occalions that intervals or concords of the fame 
 name, as thirds, fourths, tiff, do not confift of the fame de- 
 grees or elements, though there be alwaye the fame number of 
 them: but one fourth, for inftance, is agreeable and perfect, 
 and another not. 
 
 To mend thefe imperfect concords, the muficiars have be- 
 thought themfelves to temper, i. e. give them part of the 
 agreeablenefs of perfect ones. In order to this, they take a 
 medium between the two, and this they call a temperament* 
 which neceffarily produces a new divifion of the octave, or 
 which amounts to the fame, new elements. 
 For inftance, whereas naturally its elements are the greater 
 femitone, and the greater and leffer tone ; they take a middle 
 tone formed of the greater and the lefs: and the only elements 
 now are the greater femitone, and this mean tone, which ren- 
 ders the five intervals that are tones equal, and thofe that are 
 femi tones lefs unequal to thefe. 
 
 One might alfo divide each of the five tones of the octave in- ' 
 to femitones, which, joined to the two it naturally has, wou'd 
 make twelve : in which cafe, the whole octave would be divided 
 into twelve equal parts, which would be mean femitones. 
 It is eafy to form various otter kinds of temperaments : all the 
 difficulty is to find fuch as are free from two great inconveni- 
 ences, i, e. which do not alter either all the concords too 
 much, or, at leaft, fome of them. 
 
 All fuch divifions of the octave are called tempered, or tempera- 
 
 tive /yjlems. 
 
 TEMPERATE Zone. See the article Zone. 
 TEMPERATURE. See the article Temperament. 
 TEMPERING, in the mechanic arts, the preparing of fteel 
 
 and iron, fo as to render them more compact, hard, and firm; 
 
 or even more foft and pliant; according to the refpective oc- 
 
 cafions. 
 
 Thefe metals are tejnpered by plunging them, while red-hot, 
 in fome liquor prepared for the occafion: fometimes pure water 
 is ufed for that purpofc; our lockfmiths, Ejff, fcarce ufe any 
 other. 
 
 Sometimes a compofition of divers juices, liquors, tiff, is ufed; 
 which is various, according to the opinion and experience of 
 the workman; as vinegar, moufe-ear- water, nettle, or fpa- 
 nifh reddifh- water, the water oozing from broken glaiTes, foot, 
 fait, oil, diftilled wine, falarmoniac, tiff. 
 To harden and temper Englifh, Flemifh, and Swedifh fteel, 
 you mult give them a pretty high heat, then fuddenly quench 
 them in water to make them hard: but Spanifh and Vene- 
 tian fteel will need only a blood-red heat before they be quench- 
 ed. 
 
 If the fteel be too hard, or brittle for an edge-tool, $3c. let it 
 down by iubbing a piece of grindflone or whetftone hard upon 
 the work, to take off the black fturf: then brighten, or heat 
 it in the fire; and as it grows hotter, you will fee the colour 
 change by degrees, coming firft to a ftraw, or light goldifh co- 
 lour, then to a darker goldifh colour, and at latt to a blue co- 
 lour. Chufe fuch of thefe colours as the work requires, then 
 quench it fuddenlv in water. 
 
 The light gold colour is for files, cold chiffels, and punches, 
 that punch iron and fteel : the dark goldilh colour is for punches 
 to ufe on brafs, fisff. The blue colour gives the temper for 
 fprings, tiff. 
 
 The tempering of files and needles is performed in a peculiar 
 manner. 
 
 The ancients appear to fome to have had a better method of 
 tempering than any of the moderns are acquainted withal ; 
 witnefs their works in porphyry; a ftone fo hard, that 
 fcarce any of our tools make any impreffion upon it. See 
 Porphyry. 
 
 TEMPEST, Tempestas, a ftorm, or violent commotion of 
 of the air, with or without rain, hail, fnow, tiff. 
 
 TEMPLARS, Templers, or Knights 0/ the Temple, a 
 religious-military order, firft eftablithed at Jerufakm, in fa- 
 vour of pilgrims travelling to the Holy Land. 
 
 The 
 
TEM 
 
 The original of this order, rhe firft military one in the 
 world, is this: In 1118, fome pious and noble perfons de- 
 voted themfelves to the fervice of God, in the prefence of the 
 patriarch of Jerufalem ] promifingto live in perpetual chaftity, 
 obedience, and poverty, after the manner of canons. ' 
 The two principal perfous were Hugo de Paganis, and Geof- 
 froy of St. Omers. Baldwin II. then king of Jerufalem, 
 gave them an apartment in his palace: near the temple at Je- 
 rufalem, not far from the fepulchre of our faviour ; whence 
 their denomination Templars. 
 
 Soon afterwards, the canons of the temple gave them a piece of 
 ground hard by the faid temple, to build'them regular houfes 
 on; and the king, the lords, the patriarch, and the prelates, 
 each gave them fomewhat out of their revenue, fur food and 
 cloaths. 
 
 Their firft undertaking, and what they had firft in view at 
 their inftitution, was to guard the highway againft robbers, 
 6rY. chiefly for the fafety of pilgrims and croifes. 
 The principal articles of their rule were: That they fhould 
 hear the holy office throughout every day ; or, that when their 
 military duties fhould prevent this, they Ihou'd fupply it by a 
 certain number of pater nofters: that they fhould abitain from 
 flefh four days in the week, and on Fridays from eggs and 
 milk-meats: that each knight might have three horfes, and 
 oneefquire; and that they fhould neither hunt, nor fowl. 
 Their firft rule was that of St. Bernard. Nine years after 
 their foundation, a particular rule was prefcribed them in the 
 council of Troyes. 
 
 In every nation they had a particular governor, called matter 
 of the temple, or of the militia tf the temple. Their grand 
 mailer had his refidence at Paris. 
 
 The order of templars was abolifhed at the beginning of the 
 XlVth century, under Clement V. Edward II. of England, 
 and Philip the Fair of France. In 1607, thofe in England 
 ■were all arrefted, and feven burnt alive. And in 13 12, the 
 order was quite luppreflcd in the council of Vienne, and 50 
 were burnt alive there. 
 
 The crimes they were charged withal were apoftatizing to 
 the Saracens, and holding correfpondence with them. Some 
 authors will have it, thefe crimes were only pretended ; and 
 jhat the true reafon of the fuppreffion of the order, was the 
 immenfe riches they were poficfTed of. But though this 
 might be fome reafon for their fuppreffion, it could be none 
 for burning them alive: add to this, that their effeds were 
 given to the hofpitallers, or knights of St. John. What 
 then did the kings of England, &c. get by their fuppreffion? 
 And what was it to them which of thofe orders had the ef- 
 fe«s ? 
 
 TEMPLE,* Templum, a public building, erefted in ho- 
 nour of fome deity, either true or falfe; and wherein the peo- 
 ple meet to pay religious worihip to the fame. 
 
 • The word is formed from'the Latin, templum, which fome derive 
 from the Greek ^ fignifying the fame thing j and others 
 fromT<f»«, .ib/ciojo, letttejf, I Jcparate, in regard a temple is 
 a place leparated fiom common ufes ; others with more proba. 
 bility derive it from the old Latin word template, to eontemplcre. 
 It is certain, the ancient aegurs gave the name templa to thofe 
 parts of the heavens which liiey marked out for the obfervation 
 of the flight of birds.— Their formula was this : tempt.: te'o; :l 
 fume. ' J < 
 
 Clemens Alexandrinus and Eufebius refer the origin of temples 
 to the fepulchres built for the dead. Herodotus and Strabo will 
 have the /Egyptian! to have been the firft who built temples to 
 the gods. The firft, creeled in Greece, is afcribed to Deu- 
 calion, by Appollonius, Argonaut, lib. 3. 
 In antiquity we meet with many people who would not build 
 any temples to their gods, for fear of confining them to too 
 iiarrow bounds. They performed their facrifices in -all places 
 indifferently, Irom a perfuafion that the whole world is the 
 temple of God, and that he requir'd no other.— This was the 
 doctrine of the magi, followed by the Perfians, the Scythians, 
 the Numidians, and many other Nations mentioned by Hero- 
 dotus, lib. 1. Strabo, lib. 15. and Cicero in his fecond ora- 
 tion againft Vencs. 
 
 The Perfians, who worfhipped the fun, believed it would 
 wrong his power, to indole him in the walls of a temple who 
 had the whole world for his habitation: and hence, when 
 Xerxes ravaged Greece, the Magi exhorted him to deftrov all 
 the temples he met with. 
 
 The Sicyonians would build no temple to their nodded Coronis ■ 
 nor the Athenians, for the like reafon, ereft any ftatue to 
 Clemency, who, they laid, was to live in the hearts of men, 
 not within ifone-walls. 
 
 The Bithynians had no temples, but the mountains to worfhip 
 on ; nor had the ancient Germans any other but the woods. 
 Even feme phtlofophcrs have blamed the ufe and building of 
 temples, particularly Diogenes, Zeno, and his followers the 
 Stoics— But it may be faid, that if God have no need of 
 temples, men have need of places to meet in for the public 
 offices of religion! Accordingly, temples may be traced back 
 even into the remotelt antiquity. See Hofpinian, de Otigme 
 T emphrum. 
 
 T E M 
 
 The Romans had feveral kinds at temples; whereof thofe 
 bmltby the kings, &V. confecrated by the augurs, and where- 
 in the exercfe of religion was regularly performed, were cal- 
 led, by way of eminence, templa, temple,. Thofe that 
 
 were not confecrated, were called ecdes.— rhe little temples, 
 that were covered or roofed, they called evdieulx.—Th U (e 
 open, yW/fc-Some other edifices confecrated to particular 
 myff erics of religion, they called fa„a and delubra. 
 All thefe kinds of temples, Vitru.ius tells us, had other parti- 
 cular denomination,, according to the form and manner of their 
 construction; as will be hereafter fpecified 
 Indeed, the Romans out-did all nations in the point of temples: 
 hey not only bu.lt temples to their gods, to their virtues, to 
 their difeafes, far but alfo to their emperois, and that in 
 their life-time; mftances whereof we meet withal in medals 
 infcnptions, and other monuments. Horace compliment, 
 Augultus hereupon, and fets him abo.e Hercules, and all the 
 heroes of fable; in that thofe were only admitted into templa 
 alter their death, whereas Auguftus had his temples and altars 
 while living *. 
 
 Precfenti till matures largimur honores ; 
 
 Jurandafque tuum per rumen ponimus Aras. Epift. ad Aug. 
 
 * Suetonius, on this occafion, give, an inltance of the mcd-ily 
 of that emperor, who would allow of no temple, being erected 
 to him in the city ; and even in the provinces, where he knew 
 1 alrul to raifc temple, to the very proconflrl,, refufed any bat 
 thole erected ,n the name of Rome as well a, his own. Vid. 
 ouet. in Octav. c. 52. 
 
 Temple, in architcaure.-The ancient temple, were diftin- 
 guilhed, with regard to their conftruflion, into various kinds ; 
 
 as, ' 
 
 TwriE/offi, Mdesinamis. Thele, according to Vitru ■ 
 
 WW, were the mod fimpleof all temples, having only angular 
 
 p.lafters, called am*, or paraftatev, at the comers, and two 
 
 tulcan columns on each fide the doors. 
 Tetrafty/e-TEMFLE, or Amply telrafiyle, was a temple that had 
 
 four columns in front, and as many behind— fuch was the 
 
 temple of h ortuna Virilis at Rome. 
 iVj^-TEMPLE, that which had only columns in its front, or 
 
 tore-fide— as that of Ceres at Eleufis, in Greece. 
 Amphproflyle, or double proftyle- Temple, that which had 
 
 columns both before and behind, and which wa, alfo tctia- 
 
 iryle. 
 
 Periptere-T ekvlv, that which had four rows of infulated co- 
 lumns around, and was hexaftyle, i. e. had fix columns in 
 front— as the temple of Honour at Rome. 
 
 Dtptere-TEMPL^, that which had two wings, and two rows of 
 colums around, and was alfo ocloftyle, or had eight columns 
 in front— as that of Diana atEphefus. Sec Dip 1 ere 
 
 PfendoDiptere-TEMn,:, 1 (Pseudo a>l<ri. 
 
 HypaHhres-T zmele, J. Sec ■] Hypjethros. 
 
 Ahnoptere-TEUrLE, J t Monoptere. 
 I em pl Es, among us, denotetwo inns of court, thus called be- 
 cause anciently the dwelling-houfe of the inlgbh-templar, 
 At the fupprelhon of that order, they were purchafed by forre 
 profeilorsof the common law, and converted into hofpitia, or 
 inns of courts. r 
 They are called the inner and middle temple, in relation to 
 Eflex-houfe, which was alfo a part of the In ufe of the tempkrs. 
 and called the outer temple, becaule fituate without Templc- 
 
 In the middle temple, during the time of the templars, the 
 kings treafure was kept: as was alfo that of the kings of 
 h ranee in the houfe of the templars at Paris. 
 The chief officer was the mailer of the temple, who was fum- 
 moned to parliament in 49 Hen. III. And from him the 
 chief minifter of the lemple-chmch is ftill called mailer of the 
 temple. J J 
 
 ?FMMFf-T SeCtheartiC,eTEMP " ES - 
 lEMFLEb Tempora, ,n anatomy, a double part of the 
 
 head reaching f rom , he f arc hcad and eyes to the two cars. 
 
 See Head. 
 
 The temples are chiefly formed of two bones, called ofj tern- 
 ports. 
 
 Thefe parts, according to phyficians, were called tempera,' 
 "° m 'their shewing the age or time of man, by the colour of 
 the hair, which turns white in this part before any other, 
 which Homer feems to have been aware of, by his calling feme 
 men Polioeroiapbi, q. d. grey-templed. 
 TEMPORAL, Temporalis, a term frequently ufed 
 
 for feeular in which fenfe it ftands oppofed to eceleha- 
 
 ftieal, ' * 
 
 Pope Boniface wrote to Philip the Fair of France, that hewa, 
 fubjeatohim both in Spirituals, and temporals.— At prefentall 
 the doflors on this fide the Alps own the Supremacy of kines 
 in temporals. 
 
 Temporal Asian, \ 
 
 Temporal Augment, J^ethea 
 
 TEMPORALIS, in anatomy, a mufcle, which irlfes by a 
 femi-crcular flefhy beginning, from a part of the os froniis, 
 
 the 
 
 e article, S Actios. 
 
 CAUGMKNT, 
 
TEN 
 
 the lower part of the parietale, and upper pjrt of the tempo- 
 tales from whence going under the zygoma, and gathering to- 
 gether, as in a centre, it is inferred, by a fliort and ftrong 
 tendon, into the proceffus corone of the lower jaw, which it 
 pulls upwards.— See Tab. Anal. (Myol.) fig; I. If. 12, Jig- &• 
 n. 2. fig. 7. ». I. . , 
 
 This mufcle is alfo called crataphjlts, and is covered with a 
 ftrong tendinous fafcia. . 
 TEMPORALITES, or Temporaltj.es, the temporal 
 revenues of an eccleliaflic; particularly, fuch lands, tene- 
 ments, or lay-fees, tithes, OV. as have been annexed to bi- 
 fhops fees by our kings, or other perfons of high rank in the 
 kingdom. . . 
 
 The fug! imfMl of a bifhop, (St. Hand oppofed to his fpi- 
 ritualities. . , 
 
 The canonifts on the other fide the Alps anciently gave the 
 pope a power over the temporalities of kings. Yet pope Cle- 
 ment V. owned franklv, that 1™ predeceffot Boniface V1U. 
 had exceeded thejuft bounds of his authomy, m meddling with 
 the temporalities of the king of France. Fevret. 
 
 TEMPORALIUM Cups. ■> f Cos os. 
 
 TEMPORAIIUM Rellilatione ( , ^RESTITUTIONS. 
 TEMPORARY Fortification, C >Fortification. 
 Temporary Hours, J CHour. 
 
 T'EMPORIS 0;, Temple Bern, a bone on each lide 
 [he head: thus denominated from its fituation in the tern 
 
 The figure of the 01 temporis is nearly circular: the fore 
 and upper parts are very thin, confining only of one ta 
 ble: the lower and hind parts are thick, hard, and un 
 even. 
 
 It is joined to the os fincipitis, by a fquammous future: 
 whence, in that parr, it is called os fquammofum. Its lower 
 part is joined to the osoccipitif, and fphenoides : to which lat- 
 ter, as likewife to the bones of the upper jaw, it is Joined 
 by means of certain proceffes, and in that part is called es 
 pelnfiun.— See Tab. Anal. (Oltcol.) Jig. 2. *■ ^ fig- '3- 
 St. a. 
 
 Each of the offa temparum has two finus's; the exterior 
 whereof is lined with a cartilage, and receives the procels of 
 the lower jaw; the interior receives the lower part of the 
 fmus lateralis of the dura mater. Eacli likewife has four 
 proceffes; the os jiigale, prteejjus mamillaris, Jiyleides, _ and 
 os petrojam. See each defcribed under its proper article, Ma- 
 millaris, C3V. 
 TEMPTATION, Tentatio, in theology, an induction, 
 or felicitation to evil; whether arifing Irom the world, the 
 flefh, or the devil. 
 
 Myflic divines fpeakof profitable temptations, which are thole 
 trials the foul is to pafs through, belore it arrives at the unitive 
 life, and the peace within.— When it furmounts that drynefs 
 and darknefs it falls into, through a fufpenfion of the eftefls 
 of divine love, and can refift the world, and all the allure- 
 ments it prefents ; thefe temptations are called tentationes Miles 
 and frucluefeo. 
 
 Temptation, Tentatio, in our ancient law books, is ufed 
 for a trial, proof, or allay. — Tentatio panis fiat bis in anno. 
 Charr. Edw. I. See Assay, is'c. 
 
 TENABLE,* in the military ait, fomething that may be de- 
 fended, kept, and held againft aiTailants. 
 
 TEN 
 
 * The word is French formed from tenir 
 tenere, to bold. 
 
 as that from the Latin, 
 
 Tenable Is little ufed, but with a negative: when a place is 
 open on all fides, and its defences all beaten down, it is no 
 lunger tenable. When the enemy has gained fuch an emi- 
 nence, this port "is not tenable. 
 TENAILLE, in fortification, a kind of out-work, confift- 
 ing of two parallel iides, with a front, wherein is a re-en- 
 tering angle. 
 
 In ftiiftnefs, that angle, and the faces which compofe it, are 
 the tenaille. 
 
 The tinaille is of two kinds: fmple and double. 
 Simple, or fugle Tenaille, is a large out- work, asD AB C E, 
 Conflfting of two faces or fides A B and C B, including a 
 re-entering angle B. See Tab. Fortif fig. 6. & fig. 21. 
 
 lit. d. 
 
 Double, or flanked Tenaille, is a large out-work confifting 
 of two fimpie tena'tlles, or three fahans, and two re-entering 
 angles, F G H and H I K. — See Tab. Fortif. fig. 7. and 21. 
 lit. e. See alfo Flanked. 
 
 The great defects of tena'tlles are, that they take up too much 
 room, and on that account are advantageous to the enemy; 
 that the angle B is undefended ; the height of the parapet hin- 
 dering the feeing down into it, fo that the enemy can lodge 
 there under covert : and the fides A D and C E arc not fuffi- 
 ciently Hanked. 
 
 For thefe reafous, tenailles are now excluded out of fortifica- 
 tion by the bell engineers; and never made, but wtiere there 
 wants time to form a horn-wark. 
 
 Tenaille of the Place, is the front of the place, compre- 
 hended between the points of two neighbouring baflionsj 
 including the curtin, the two flanks railed on the curtin, 
 and the two fides of the baiiions which face one ano- 
 ther. 
 
 So that the tenaille in this fenfe is the fame with what is other- 
 wife called the face of a fortrefs. 
 Tenaille of the Ditch, is a low work raifed before the curtin, 
 in the middle of the fofs or ditch. 
 
 It is of three forts: the firft is compofed of a curtin, two 
 flanks, and two faces: the rampart of the curtin, including 
 the parapet and talus, is but five fathom thick, but the 
 rampart of the flanks and faces feven. — See Tab. Fortif. fig. 
 21. lit. e. 
 
 The fecond, which Vauban faith he found to be of very g©od 
 
 defence, is compofed only of two faces, made on the lines of 
 
 defence, whofe rampart and faces are parallel. 
 
 The third fort only differs from the fecond in this, that its 
 
 rampart is parallel to the curtin of the place. 
 
 All three forts are good defences for the ditch, and lie fo low, 
 
 that they cannot be hurt by the befiegers cannon, till they are 
 
 rrj2flers of the covert-way, and have planted their artillery 
 
 there. 
 
 TENANCY, a habitation or houfe to live in, or a tenement., 
 
 or poHeffion held of another. 
 Entire T L nancy. See the article Entire. 
 TENANT, or Tenent, Tenens, in law, one that holds 
 
 or pofieffes lands and tenements of fome lord or landlord, 
 
 by any kind of right either in fee, for life, years, or at 
 
 will. 
 
 The term tenant is ufed with divers additions thus, Te- 
 nant in dower, is flie that poiTeffes lands by virtue of her 
 dower. 
 
 Tenant per flatute- merchant, he that holds land forfeited to him 
 by virtue of a flatute. 
 
 T enant in frank-?narriage, is he that holds lands or tenements 
 by virtue of a gift tliereof made to him upon marriage be- 
 tween him and his wife. 
 
 Tenant by cewtefy, holds for his life, by reafon of a child be- 
 gotten by him of his wife, being an inheritrix and born 
 alive. 
 
 Tenant by elegit* holds by virtue of the writ called an elegit. 
 
 Tenant in montage, Holds by means of a mortgage. 
 
 Tenant by verge, in ancient demefne, is he who is admitted by 
 the rud in court to lands in ancient demefne. 
 
 Tenant by copy of court-roll, is one admitted tenant of any lands, 
 &c, within a manour, which time out of mind have been de- 
 mifed according to the cuftom of the manour. See Copy- 
 hold. 
 
 Tenant paravail. See thearticle ParaVAIL. 
 
 Tenant by charter, is he that holdeth by feoffment in writing or 
 
 other deed. See Charter, and Freehold. 
 Tenant in capite or chief, holdeth of the king in right of his 
 
 crown. 
 
 Tenant of the king, is he that holdeth of the perfon of the king. 
 
 Joint Tenants, thofe who have equal right in lands or tene- 
 ments by virtue of one title. 
 
 Tenants in common, thofe who have equal right, but hold by 
 divers titles. 
 
 Particular Tenant, he that holdsonly for his term. 
 
 Sole Tenant, is he who hath no other joined with him. 
 
 Tenant by execution, is he who holds by virtue of an execu- 
 tion upon any flatute, recognizance, &c. 
 
 Cujlomary Tenants, 7 rCusTOMARY. 
 
 Ts/tv-Tena nt, rSee the articles? T ERRR-Tcnant. 
 
 Very Tenant, 3 I Very. 
 
 Anciently, there were alfo tenant by biight-fervice, tenant in 
 burgage, tenant in focage, tenant in frank-fee, tenant in vil- 
 lenage — and there are it ill tenant in fee-ftmple, tenant in fee- 
 tail, tenant upon fujferance, &c. 
 
 Tenant, or Tfnan, in heraldry, is ufed for fomething that 
 fuftains, or holds up the fbield, or armory; and is generally 
 fynonymous with the word fupporter. 
 
 The difference which fome authors make between the two is, 
 that tenants are fingle, and fupporters double, one placed on 
 each fide the fhield. But the proper diflinclion feems tocon- 
 fift in this, that tenants are human figures, and fupporters 
 figures of beafts. 
 
 There are various forms of tenants, as well as of fupporters, 
 viz. angels, maids, religious, favages, Moors, &c. 
 The fi rit tenants, F. Meneftrier obferves, were trunks or 
 branches of trees ; to which the efcutcheons were fattened by 
 ftraps and buckles. Afterwards, the knight* vwre reprefented 
 as holding their own efcutcheons, which were either hung to 
 their neck, or elfe they leaned on them. 
 
 The origin of tenants and fupporters is, by many, referred to 
 the ancient tournaments, wherein the cavaliers had their arms 
 bore by fervantsdifguifed like favages, Moors, fabulous deities, 
 bears, lions, &c. See Supporter. 
 
 TENAR, in anatomy. See the article Thenar. 
 
 TENCH-/ 7 ^/'^. Sec the article Tcnch-Yi shinc. 
 
 J TENDER 
 
TEN 
 
 TEN 
 
 TENDER, in a legal fenfe, fignifies as much, as to offer, or 
 endeavour the performance of any thing, in order to fave the 
 penalty or forfeiture incurred by non-performance. 
 Thus, to tender rent; is to offer it at the time and place 
 where and when it ought to be paid : which will fave 
 the condition for that time, though the landlord refufe to 
 accept it. 
 
 Tender, in the fea language, is a veffel, attending on 
 fome other larger, and more confiderable one. See Boat, 
 
 TENDINOSUM Centrum. See the article Centrum. 
 
 TENDON, Tendo, in anatomy, that hard, white, ex- 
 treme part of a mufcle, whereby it is fattened to the 
 bone. 
 
 Molt mufcles have, at leaft, two tendons, one at each ex- 
 treme : that fattened to that part toward which the motion 
 is to be performed, is called the head of a mufcle ; and that 
 fattened to the part drawn toward the other, the tail of the 
 
 mufcle. 
 
 The fibres, whereof the tendons confift, have been fuppofed to 
 be nervous ; but they are now found to be no other than pro- 
 ductions of the fame fibres, which make the belly or body of 
 the mufcle. All the difference between them is, that in the 1 
 belly of the mufcle they are lax, and at a diflanccfrom each 
 other ; whereas in the tendon, they are more clofely and firmly 
 connected. 
 
 Their whitenefs proceeds wholly from the blood's being 
 excluded, by the tightnefs of their contexture : in effect 
 there is the fame difference between them, that there is 
 between a fkein of thread, and a cord made of the fame 
 thread. 
 
 The fibres of the tendons undergo no contraction, or dilatation, 
 as thofe of the belly of the mufcle do ; they act as mere cords, 
 to draw the parts towards each other. 
 
 Suture of a Tendon, is a very delicate operation in chirurgery. 
 It had been abandoned a longtime, and was not re-eftabliihed 
 till the la ft century by J. Eienaife. 
 
 Tendon of Achilles. See the article Achilles. 
 
 Mr. Cowper (in the Philofophical Tranfatlions) gives us an 
 account of a cure of the great tendon, or tendon of Achilles, 
 above the heel, after an entire divifion, by ftitching. 
 
 Puncture of a Tendon. See the article Puncture. 
 
 TENEBRjE, Darknefs, in the Romifh church, a fervice per- 
 formed on the Wednefday, Thurfday, and Friday before 
 Eafter, in commemoration of the agony of our Saviour in the 
 garden. 
 
 TENEMENT, Tenancy, in law, a houfe or lands, de- 
 pending on a manour or lordfhip ; or a fee, or farm, held of a 
 iuperiorlord, and which he may recall, when the term or con- 
 dition is expired. 
 
 Frank Tenement, is any lands, houfe, office, or the like 
 wherein a man has eftate for life, or in fee. 
 
 j&<7/* Tenement, is where a man holds lands, &c. at the will 
 of the lord. 
 
 Yet Kitcin, Briton, &c. make frank tenement and bafe tene- 
 ment oppofites ; on which footing frank tenement fhould be 
 where the tenant is at liberty to quit it when he pleafes. 
 
 TENEMENT ARY Lands, among our anceftors, were the 
 outlands of manours, which the Saxon thanes or nobles let out 
 to tenants under arbitrary rents, and fervices. 
 
 TENEMENTIS Legatis, in law, a writ which lies in Lon- 
 don and other places, where the cuftom is to devife tenements 
 by Iaft will, as well as perfonal goods and chattels j for the 
 hearing of any caufe relating thereto. 
 
 TENENT. See the articles Tenant, andTENET. 
 
 TENENTES Nativi. See the article Nativi. 
 
 TENENTIBUS tn affifa non onerandis, a writ which lies for 
 htm to whom a difleffor has made-over land, whereof he 
 diffeiffed another ; requiring that he be not difturbed in affile 
 for the damages awarded, if the difleffor have wherewithal to 
 fatisfy them. 
 
 TENESMUS, * TEINESMOE, in medicine, a continual pain- 
 ful inclination to go to ftool ; yet without voiding any thing, 
 unlefs, fometimcs, a little purulent, or bloody flime. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, now, tenders, to flretcb, 
 
 bend, in regard thofe attacked with this difeafe feel a continual 
 
 tenfion in the fundament. 
 The caufe of the tenefmus is a (harp, pungent humour, irrita- 
 ting the inteftinum rectum, and exciting thofe troublefome 
 endeavours to evacuate, — Thofe affected with the ftone are 
 alfo fubject to the tenefmus, from the communication, or con- 
 fent between the bladder and the rectum. 
 
 The cure of a tenefmus depends on proper evacuations and 
 aftringents ; the former always preceding the latter ; fuch are 
 bleeding, if plethoric ; and gentle cathartics, efpecially of the 
 powder of rhubarb, fsfc. — An emetic of the Indian rcot, 
 ipecacuanha, has been found of great fervice in a long Hand- 
 ing tenefmus ; tor the augmenting one evacuation is the 
 leffening of another ; and in this particular becomes fo 
 much the more ferviceable, as they happen to be con- 
 traries. 
 
 The reftringents are fuch as are of ufe in other fluxes. 
 
 Vet. a 
 
 TENET, or Tenent, a particular opinion, dogma, or doc- 
 trine, profeffedly held by fome divine, philofopher, &fft 
 The diftingui filing tenets of the feveral fects in religion and 
 philofophy, fee under the names of the iects themfelves. 
 
 TENIA. See the article Tjenia. 
 
 TENMENTALE, or Ten m ant ale, in our ancient cuf- 
 toms, originally fignifies the number of ten men ; which 
 number, in the time of the Englifh Saxons, was called a 
 decennary; and ten decennaries made what we call a hun- 
 dred. 
 
 Theft ten men were bound for each other to preferve the pub- 
 lic peace ; and if any of them was found guilty of a breach 
 thereof, the other nine were either to make fatisfadtion, or 
 to bring the criminal before the king. 
 
 Tenmentale was alfo ufed for a duty, or tribute paid to the 
 king, confifting of two (hillings for each plough-land ; pro- 
 bably thus called, by reafon each perfon of the decennary was 
 bound to fee it paid. 
 
 TENNE', Tenny, or Tawny, in heraldry, a bright co- 
 lour, made of red and yellow mixed ; fometimes alfo called 
 brusk, and expreffed in engraving by thwart or diagonal 
 ftrokes or hatches beginning from the finifter chief, like pur- 
 pure, and marked with the letter T. 
 
 In the coats of all below the degree of nobles, it is called 
 tenny ; but in thofe of noble?, it is called hyacinth j and in 
 princes coats, the dragon's bead. 
 TENON, in building, &c. the fquare end of a piece of wood, 
 or metal, diminifhed by one third of its thicknefs, to he re- 
 ceived into a hole in another piece, called the mortife, for the 
 jointing or fattening the two together. 
 
 Amongjoiners, cjff. the tenon is made in various forms, fquare, 
 dove-tail'd, for double mortifes, &c. 
 
 Vitruvius calls the tenons, cardlncs ; dove-tailed tenons he calls 
 fubfaides, or fecuriculee. 
 Tenon-&7m>. See the article Saw. 
 
 TENOR, Temour, the purport, or contents of a writing, 
 or inftrument in law, fsV. 
 
 Warrants iffued for the confirmation of fentence;, exprefs, 
 that they fhall be executed according to their form, and tenor. 
 — It was impofTible to retain fo long a fpeech word for word, 
 but the fubftance, or the tenor is this. 
 Tenor, Tenore, in mufick, the firft: mean or middle part j 
 or that which is the ordinary pitch or tenor of the voice, 
 when not either raifed to the treble, or lowered to the 
 bafe. 
 
 The tenor is frequently marked in thorough bafes with the 
 letter T.-^-The tenor is a part which almoft all grown perfons 
 can fing. But as fome have a greater compafs of voice up- 
 wards, others downwards, others are confined to a kind of 
 medium, and others can go equally either higher of lower ; 
 hence the French muficians make a variety of tenors — as, a 
 counter tenor, a mea?i tenor, a natural tenor, and an upper 
 tenor : to which is alfo added, a re-aeling tenor, viol tenor, 
 violin tenor, Sec. 
 
 The Italians ufually diftinguifh no more than two kinds of 
 tenors, viz. tenore prima, or P° or 1°, which anfwers to our 
 upper tenor; and tenore fecundo, or 2 0 or 11°, which is our 
 natural tenor ; confounding the counter tenors, &c under the 
 name baritone. 
 
 Tenor, or Tenorista, is alfo ufed for a perfon who finga 
 the tenor part in concert — and alio for any inftrument proper to 
 play it. 
 
 TENORE IndiRamenti ?nittendo, is a writ whereby the record 
 of an indictment and the procefs thereupon is called out of 
 another court into the King's-bench. 
 
 TEN OUR. See the article Tenor. 
 
 TENSE, Time, in grammar, an inflexion of verbs, whereby 
 they are made to fignify, or diftinguifh the circumltance of 
 time of the thing they affirm, or attribute. 
 The affirmations made by verbs are different as to point of 
 time; fince we may affirm a thing is, or was, or will be : 
 hence, a neceffity of a fet of inflections, to denote thofe feve- 
 ral times ; which inflections, our Englifh grammarians call 
 by a barbarous word tenfes, from the French temps ; moft other 
 languages call them (imply times. 
 
 There are but three fimple tenfes ; the prefnt, as 1 'love, amo ; 
 the preter, preterit, or pajl, as, I have lotted, amavi ; and the 
 future, as, 1 will love, amabo. 
 
 But in regard, that in the preter tenfe one may either exprefs 
 the thing as juft done or paft, or indefinitely and barely that it 
 was done: hence, in moft languages, arife two kinds of pre- 
 terits ; the one definite, marking the thing to be precifely done ; 
 as, / have written, I have find ; and the other indefinite, or 
 aorift, denoting a thing done indeterminalely ; as, I wrote, £ 
 went. 
 
 The future tenfe admits alfo of the fame variety. 
 Befide the three fimple tenfes, others have been invented, called 
 compound tenfes ; expreffing the relation of the fimple ones to 
 each other. — The firft expreflbs the relation of the pajl to the 
 prefent, and is called the preterimperftft tenfe, tecaufe it does 
 not mark the thing limply, and properly asdone, butas'im- 
 12 G perfect* 
 
TEN 
 
 perfea, and prefent with refpetf to another thing pad : as, 
 / tvas at /upper when he entered ; Cum intravit, ccena- 
 
 The fecond compound tenfe marks the time paft doubly, and 
 is therefore called the plujquampcrj 'eel tenfe ; as, lhadfupped, 
 canaveram. . n 
 
 The third compound tenfe denotes the future with reipect to 
 the paft ; as, 1 jhall have flipped, ccenavero. 
 The feveral tenfes or times, it is to be obferved, are properly 
 denoted in the Greek and Latin by particular inflexions ; in 
 the Englifh, French, and other modern tongues, the auxiliary 
 verbs to be and to have, etre and avoir, are called in. 
 As to the oriental languages, they have only two fimple Unfa, 
 the paft and future, without any diftinftions of imperfect, 
 more than perfea, lsc. but this renders thofe languages 
 fubjea to abundance of ambiguities which others are free 
 from. , ~ 
 
 TENSION, Tensio, the uate of a thing bent, or the eftort 
 made to bend it. , 
 Animals only fuftain and move themfelves by the tenjion or 
 their mufcles, and nerves. A chord or firing gives anacuter 
 or a deeper found, as it is in a greater or lefs degree of ten/ton. 
 
 TENSOR, in anatomy. See the article Extensor. 
 
 TENT,* Tabernacle, a pavilKop, or portable lodge, un- 
 der which to fhelter in the open field, from the injuries of the 
 weather. See Tabernacle. 
 
 " * The word is formed from the Latin, tentorium, of undo, 1/tretcb, 
 in regard tents are ufually made of canvas itretched out, and 
 fuilaincd by poles, with cords and pegs. 
 Armies encamp under tents; moll of the Tartars and Arabs 
 are wandering people, that always lodge under tents. 
 The Hebrews lodged forty years under tents in the defart ; 
 which gave occafion to the fcenopegy or feaft of taber- 
 nacles. 
 
 Dark Tent. See the article Dark. 
 
 Tent, Turunda, in chirurgery, is a roll of lint, made in a 
 particular form, and put into wounds whofe fuppuration is 
 not perfea, and where there is a quantity of matter con- 
 tained in the tumour, more than what comes out at the firft 
 dreffing. 
 
 Tents are ufed in order to hinder the clofing too foon. But 
 feveral cbirurgical writers, and particularly the author of the 
 Hofpital Surgeon, gives us numerous inftances, wherein the 
 ufe, efpecially of hard tents, has proved prejudicial in pro- 
 traaing the cure, bringing on inflammations, finus's, mor- 
 tifications, £sV. in wounds and ulcers. — To remedy this, he 
 propofes, that the liniments, Esfa, be made of a liquid con- 
 fiftence, either naturally, or by warming them ; and that 
 where tents may feem indifpenfably neceffary, as in large ca- 
 vities, the orifice may be enlarged, and foft dofils put inffead 
 of them, which will prevent the mifchiefs commonly attend- 
 ing tents. 
 
 TENTATIVE, is fometimes ufed adjeaively : thus we fay, 
 a tentative method, meaning a kind of unartful or indirea me- 
 thod, which only proceeds by trying. 
 
 Tentative is alfo ufed fubftantively, for an efTay, or effort, 
 whereby we try our ftrength, or found an affair, csfc. to fee 
 whether or no it will fucceed. 
 
 In the French univerfities, Tentative is thefirft thefis or 
 aft which a ftudent in the theology fchool holds to fhew his 
 capacity : if he anfwers well, in this, the degree of batchelor 
 is conferred on him. 
 TENTER, Tryer, or Prover, a machine ufed in the 
 cloth manufaaory to ftretch out the pieces of cloth, fluff, 
 &f>. or only to make them even, and fet them fquare. 
 It is ufually about four feet and a half high, and for length 
 exceeds that of the longeft piece of cloth. — It confifts of 
 feveral long fquare pieces of wood, placed like thofe which 
 form the barriers of a manege, fo, however, as that the 
 lower crofs-piece of wood may be raifed or lowered, as is 
 found requjfite, to be fixed at any height, by means of pins. 
 — Along the crofs-pieces, both the upper and under one, are 
 hooked nails, called tenter-hooks, driven in from fpace to 
 fpace. 
 
 To put a piece of cloth on the Tenter : while the piece is yet 
 quite wet, one end is fattened to one of the ends of the tenter ; 
 then it Is pulled by force of arms towards the other end, to 
 bring it to the length required ; that other end being fattened, 
 the upper lift is hooked on to the upper crofs-piece, and 
 the loweft lift to the loweft crofs-piece, which is after- 
 wards lowered by force, till the piece have its defired 
 
 breadth. Being thus well ft retched, both as to length 
 
 and breadth, they bruih it with a ftiff hah-brufh, and 
 thus let it dry. — Then they take it off ; and till they wet 
 it again, it will Mill retain the length and breadth the tenter 
 gave it. 
 
 TEN VH, Dtcima. See thearticle Tith. 
 
 Tenth pair of Nerves. See the article Nerve. 
 
 TENURE, Tenura, in law, the manner or condition 
 wherein a tenant holds lands, or tenements of his lord i or 
 the fervi'ces performed to the lord, in confidcration of the ufe 
 and occupancy of his lands. 
 
 TER 
 
 The kinds of fervice, and confequently of tenures, are at molt, 
 infinite. See Service. 
 
 Thofe for lands held of the king, are either great, or petty 
 ferjeanty, in capite, knights-fervice, &c. 
 
 Thofe held of the lords were very various, bafe, frank, he. 
 by homage, focage, &c. See Base, Frank, f^r. — The 
 common tenures at this day are f'ee-limple, fee-tail, by 
 curtefy, in dower, for life, or for years, or by copy of 
 court-roll. 
 
 Barons by ancient Tenure. See the article Baron. 
 TEREBINTHINA, in medicine, natural hiftory, Wc. See 
 
 thearticle Turpentine. 
 TEREBRA. See Trepanum. 
 
 TERES, in anatomy, a name given to two mufcles of the 
 arms, called alfo roiundi ; diftinguifhed by major and 
 minor. ■ * 
 
 Teres, or rotundus major, arifes from the lower angle of the 
 bafis of the fcapula, and afcending obliquely upwards, in a 
 round fmooth body, under the head of the lungus, is inferted 
 with a fliort flat tendon into the neck of the os humeri. — 
 SzeTab.Anat. (Myol.) fig. I. n. 40. 
 
 The Teres, or rotundus minor, called alfo tranfuerfalis, is fre- 
 quently wanting, or at leafi, is fo confounded with the in- 
 frafpinatus, that it is loft therein. It arifes from the in- 
 ferior angle of the fcapula, and afcending obliquely in a 
 round fiefhy body, paffes over the upper head of the 
 longus, and is inferted by a fhort flat tendon below the os 
 humeri. 
 
 Teres Pronator Radii. See the article Pronator. 
 TERGIFCETOUS Plants, fuch as bear their feeds on the 
 backfides of their leaves. 
 
 Such are the Capillaries. See the article Capillary. 
 TERM, Terminus, the extreme of any thing, or that 
 
 which bounds and limits its extent. See Extreme. 
 Term, in geometry, is fometimes ufed for a point, fometime3 
 
 for aline, ts'c. — *A line is the term of a fuperficies: and a fu- 
 
 perficies, of a folid. 
 
 This is what the fchools call terminus quantitaiis. 
 Term, in law, fignifies a boundary or limitation of time, or 
 eftate. 
 
 In this fenfe we fay, a leafe for term of life, for term of 
 years, &c. 
 
 Terms, * Termes, Termini, in architeaure, denote a 
 kind of flatues, or columns adorned a-top with the fi- 
 gure of a man's, woman's, or fatyr's head, as a capital ; 
 and the lower part ending in a kind of Iheath, or fcab- 
 bord. 
 
 * Some write the word tbermes, from hermes, a name the Greeks 
 gave the god Mercury ; whofe ilatue, made after this manner, 
 was placed in feveral of the croil-ways in the city of Athens, tiff. 
 Others bring the etymology of the word from the Roman 
 god Terminus, the protector of land-marks, whofe ftatue 
 (made without hands or feet, that he might not change his 
 place) was ufed to be planted at the bounds of lands to 
 feparatc them. 
 
 Terms are fometimes ufed as confoles, and fuftain entablatures; 
 and fometimes as ftatues, to adorn gardens. 
 Of thefe termini, the architeas make great variety, viz. an- 
 gelic, ruflic, marine, double, in bufl, he. 
 MilUary Terms, termini milliares, among the ancient Greeks, 
 where the heads of certain divinities, placed on fquare land- 
 marks of ftone, or on a kind of fheath, to mark the feveral 
 ffadia, &c. in the roads. Thefe arc what Plautus calls lares 
 viales. 
 
 They were ufually dedicated to Mercury, whom the Greeks 
 believed to prefide over the highways. 
 
 Some of them were reprefented with four heads ; fuch as we 
 frill fee in Rome, at the end of the Fabrician bridge, which 
 is hence called ponte de quattro capi. It is known that Mer- 
 cury was thus reprefented; and alfo called by the Latins Mer- 
 curius quadr'ifons, as being fuppofed the firft who invented 
 the ufe of letters, raufic, wrellling, and geometry. See 
 Hermes. 
 
 Te rms are alfiAifed for the feveral times or feafons of the year, 
 wherein the tribunals, or courts of judicature, are open to all 
 who think fit to complain of wrong, or to feek their own 
 by due courfe of law, or aaion. 
 
 In contra-diftinaion to thefe, the reft of the year is called 
 vacation. 
 
 Of thefe terms there are four in every year, during which 
 
 time matters of juftice are difpatched. 
 Hillary-term, which, at London, begins the 23d day of Janu- 
 ary ; or if that be Sunday, the next day after, and ends the 
 
 1 2th of February following. 
 Eajler-term, which begins the Wednefday fortnight after Eafter- 
 
 day, and ends the Monday next after Afcenfion-day. 
 Trinity-term, beginning the Friday next after Trinity-funday, 
 
 and ending the Wednefday fortnight after. 
 Michaelmas-term, which begins the 23d of Oaober, and ends 
 
 the 2Sth of November following. 
 
 Each of thefe terms have alfo their returns. See RETURNS. 
 Oxford-TEKMS. Hillary or Lent- term begins January 14, and 
 ends the Saturday before Palm-funday. — Eajler-term begins 
 
T E R 
 
 TER 
 
 the roth day after Eafter, and ends the Thurfday before Whit- 
 funday.— Trinity-term begins the Wednefday after Trinity- 
 funday, and ends after the aft, fooner or later, as the vice- 
 chancellor and convocation pleafe. — Michaehnai-term begins 
 October the 10th, and ends December the i;th. 
 Cambndge-T ERMS. Lent-term begins January the 13th, and 
 ends the Friday before Palm-funday. •—Eajler-term begins the 
 Wednefday after Ea(ter-week, and ends the week before Whit- 
 funday. — Trinity-term begins the Wednefday after Trinity- 
 funday, and ends the Friday after the commencement. — 
 Michaelmas-term begins October the 20th, and ends Decem- 
 ber the 1 6th. 
 
 SeottiJJj-TERMS. In Scotland, Candlemas-term begins January the 
 '23d, and ends February the 12th. — IVhitfuntide-term begins 
 May the 25th, and ends June the 15th. — Lammas-term begins 
 July the 20th, and ends Auguft the 8th. — Martinmas-term 
 begins November the 3d, and ends November the 29th. 
 
 /r/)J-TERMs. In Ireland the terms are the fame as at London, 
 except Michaehnas-term, which begins October the 1 3th, and 
 adjourns to November the 3d, and thence to the 6th. 
 
 Term, in grammar, denotes fome word, or exprefiion, in a 
 language. See Word. 
 
 The word term, terminus, is borrowed metaphorically, by the 
 grammarians and philofophers, from the meafurcrs or furvevors 
 of lands : as a field is defined and diftinguifhed by its termini, 
 or limits, fo is a thing or matter fpoken of by the word or 
 term it is denoted by. 
 
 Some of our philofophers complain loudly of the great ufe, or 
 rather abufe, of vague and general terms, which have no pre- 
 cife, definite Signification. — To diftinguifh thefc, F. Male- 
 branche obferves, that every thing that is, (whether it have 
 actual exUtence, or not) and of confequence every thing that 
 is intelligible, is either a being, or a mode and manner of be- 
 ing : where, by being, is meant whatever is abfoluire, or 
 which maybe conceived alone, and without relation to any 
 other thing ; and by manner of being, whatever is relative, 
 or which cannot be conceived alone. 
 
 Now, there are two kinds of manners of being ; the one con- 
 lifting in the relation of the parts of a whole, to fome part of 
 the fame whole ; the other in the relation of one thing to ano- 
 ther: of the firft kind is the roundnefs of a piece of wax ; 
 and of the fecond, the motion or fituation of that fame wax. 
 If then, every thing, that is intelligible, be reducible either 
 to beings, or matters of being, it is evident, every term which 
 does not fignify either of thofe things, fignifies nothing ; and 
 that every term which does not fignify either a being, or a 
 manner of being, Is an obfeure and confufed term. 
 In metaphyfics, the ufeof fuch termsh fometimes neceffaryand 
 allowable, as in fpeaking of the divine perfections, tsV. But in 
 phyfics it is always mifchievous, and yet nothing is more com- 
 mon; c. gr. when we fay, that bodies tend to their centre, 
 that they fall by their weight, that they rife by their levity, 
 that they move by their nature, that they change fucceffively 
 their forms, that they act by their virtues, qualities, faculties, 
 we ufe tet'7/is which fignify nothing ; and all thofe propo- 
 rtions are abfolutely falfc in the fenfe moft philofophers under- 
 fland them. 
 
 There is no centre, in the fenfe commonly meant ; and the 
 terms, weight, form, nature, quality, and the like, do not 
 awaken any idea either of a being, or manner of being; : they 
 are terms void of fenfe, and which perfons of underftanding 
 fhould always avoid. 
 
 Scientia infenfati inenarrabilia verba. 
 Term, in the arts, or Term of art, is a word which, befides 
 the literal and popular meaning which it has, or may have in 
 common language, bears a further and peculiar meaning in 
 fomn art, or fcience. See Art. 
 
 Or, a term is a word which has one or more meanings befide 
 its grammatical one ; or which has a peculiar force or import 
 in the language of fome particular fcience or art. 
 A word then becomes a term when its idea is rendered more 
 complex, confifts of more parts, and includes more fpecial 
 circum Ranees on fome occafions than on others. 
 It is this greater complexnefs, this excefs of conftituent parts 
 in the idea, that denominates it a term in the general. 
 Further, as the parts of the idea fignified by any word are 
 arbitrary, and as one may not only add new parts to thofe 
 contained in the literal meaning, but alfo fuper-add others to 
 them, alter them, extend them, and otherwifc modify them 
 at pleafure : hence the fame word becomes a term of this or 
 that art, or both, as the inventors or improvers of thofe arts 
 have thought fit to adopt it for the common bafis of certain 
 ideas, and to modify and circumftantiate its meaning to the 
 ufe of their refpective arts. 
 
 See the nature and office of a term further illuftrated in the 
 preface to this work. See alfo the article Definition. 
 
 Complex Terms -\ ,-Complex. 
 
 Equivalent Terms / \ Equivalent. 
 
 General Terms >Scc the articles^ General. 
 
 Relative Teh \ 1 Relative. 
 
 Univocal Terms J IUn i voc a l. 
 
 Term in Logic — A propofition is faid to confift of two terms, 
 
 i. e. two principal and eflential words, the fubjeel and the 
 attribute. 
 
 A fyllogifm confifts of three terms, the major, minor, and 
 conclufion. A fyllogifm containing four terms, is Vicious, 
 Te rms of an Equation, in algebra, arc the feveral monomes or 
 members of which it is compofed, wherein the unknown let- 
 ter is found, but in different powers and degrees ; for if the 
 fame unknown letter be found in firveral members in the fame 
 degree or power, they all pafs but for one term. See E- 
 
 QUATION. 
 
 Thus in this equation a a + a b = R, the three terms arc a a, 
 bb, and R : and in this aa -f- a b -f- a c — R d -\- d c, the 
 terms are a a, a b -f- a c, and Rd -f- d c, which are but three, 
 becaufe ab-\-ac having a in the fame dimenfion in buth parts, 
 is taken but for one term. 
 
 The firjl term in any equation, is that where the unknown 
 letter cr root hafh the higheit dimenfion * — that term which 
 hath the root in it of one dimenfion or power lower, is called 
 the fecond term ; and fo on. 
 Terms of Proportion in mathematics, are fuch numbers letters 
 or quantities as are compared one with another. See Rr j- 
 portion. 
 
 Thus if * ■ ' ; ; ; then a, h, c, d, or 4, 8, 6, 12, are 
 
 called the terms of the proportion : of which a or 4 is called 
 
 the firft term, b or 8 the fecond term, l3c. 
 
 A and c are alfo called the antecedents, and i and d the confe- 
 
 quents. 
 
 Terms, orcourfesin medicine, the menh\s, or women's month- 
 ly purgations. She Menses. 
 
 TERM1NALIA, * in antiquity, feafts celebrated by the Ro- 
 mans, in honourof the god Tetminns. 
 
 * Varro is of opinion that this feall took its name from its being 
 at: the term or end of the year : but Feltus is of a different fen- 
 timent, aud derives it from the name of the deity in whole ho- 
 nour it was held. 
 
 In reality, the tcrminalia, ot feaft of land-maiks, was held in 
 honour of Jupiter, conferred in the capacity of confervator of 
 land-marks or bounds. Dionylius HalicarneiTeus tells us, that 
 it was Numa Pompilius who firft confecrated land-marks to 
 Jupiter; aud adds, that the fame prince appointed an anniver- 
 faty day, wherein the country people affembling together on 
 the bounds of the lands, fhould offer facrifices in honour of 
 the tutelary gods thereof. 
 
 The trrmmalia were held on the feventb, or, as Struvius will 
 have it, on the tenth of the calends of March. No animal 
 was to be facrifked herein, it being deemed unlawful to ftain 
 the land-marks with blood : they only offered facrifices of the 
 firft-fruita of theeaith, and this in theoptnair, and on the 
 fpot where the land-marks were. 
 
 TERMINANDO £3' Audiendo. See the article Audiendo. 
 
 TERMINATION, Terminatio, ingrammar, the ending 
 of a word ; or thelart fyllabie thereof. 
 
 It is the different terminations of one and the fame word on 
 
 different occafions, that conllitute the different cafes, num- 
 
 bcts, tenfes and moods, dife. 
 TERMINER in law. Sec the article OyfR 
 TERMIN1STS, Terministje, a feft or party among 
 
 the Cjlvmilts, whofe particular tenets are reducible to five 
 
 points. 
 
 i° That there -are feveral perfons, both in and out of the 
 church, to whom God has fixed a cettain term before iheir 
 death, after which he no longer wills their falvation, how 
 long foever they live afterwards. 2 0 That God has fixed this 
 fatal term of grace by a fecret decree. 3 0 That this term 
 once clapfed, he makes them no further offer of repentance or 
 falvation, but takes away from his word all the power it rm»ht 
 have to convert them. 4° That Pharoah, Saul, Judas, molt 
 of the Jews, and many of the Gentiles were of this number. 
 ;° That God ffill bears with feveral of thefc fott of people, 
 and even confer benefits on them after the term expiied ; but 
 that he docs not do it with any intention they fhould be con- 
 verted. 
 
 All ihe other proteftants, and particularly the Lutherans, look 
 on ihcfe articles with abhorrence, as repugnant to the good- 
 nefs of God, and deltrutStive to all Chriltian virtue, and as 
 contrary to fcripture, particularly the following texts, Ezck. 
 xviii. 23, 30, 31, 32. xxxiii. 1 i. t Tim. iv. I, 16. 2 Pet. iii. 
 9. ASs xvii. 30, 31. Mat. xi. zS. lfa. Ixvi. 2 Heb. iii. 7, 
 13. Rom. ii, 5, &i\ 
 
 TERMINUS, TEP.MA, fignifie? a bound or limit. 
 
 Terminus a quo, * ( in metaphyfics ) denotes the place, 
 from whence any motion commences ; in contra-diftinction 
 from the other extreme, which is called the Terminus ad 
 quern. 
 
 * The fchool-mcn call privation a terminus a quo, in fpeaking of 
 generation, which they contider as a fpecius of motion. 
 
 ^Terminum qui prtsteriit. See Ad. 
 
 Infra Terminum quareejecit. See Quare. 
 
 TERNARY AJcafure. See the article MtASURE. 
 
 Terra, in geography 
 
 Terra, inchymiftry C See Earth. 
 
 Terra, in natural hiflory ^ 
 
 Terra 
 
TER 
 
 T E R 
 
 Terra Damnata - 
 Terra Lemnia 
 Terra Japonka | 
 Terra Sigillata 
 Terra Merita 
 
 f CaputMortuum&Damkata. 
 
 \LiIMNI AN. 
 
 See < Japan Earth £s" Catechu. 
 
 /SiGILLATA. 
 
 '- Turmeric. 
 Terra Petite, See the article Summons. 
 TERRA, in ourancient law-books, occurs in the fenfe of land, 
 or ground, joined with divers additions ; as 
 Terra Normanorum, the lands of fuch Norman noblemen as 
 were forfeited to the crown, by the owners taking part with 
 the French king againft king Henry III.— Terrafrufea, fuch 
 land as has not been lately ploughed.— Terra gUUfiorata, land 
 held by the tenure of paying a gilliflower yearly. —Terra 
 vejltta, land fown with corn, and the crop ftill remaining 
 thereon. — Terra te/lamentalis, land held free from feudal 
 fervices, and devifable by will. — Terra culta, land that is 
 tilled and manured, in contradiftinaion to terra inculta. — 
 Terra ajfirmata, land let out to farm.— Terra dominica, or 
 indominicata, demain land of a manour. — Terra hydata, 
 was land fubjeft to the payment of hydage. See Hidage. 
 — Terra lucrabilis, land that may be gained from the fea, 
 or inclofed out of a wafle or common to particular ufes.— 
 Terra wainabtts, tillage-land.— Terra warecla, fallow-land. 
 Terra bofcalis, wood-land, &c. 
 Terra extendenda, is a writ directed to the efcheator, &c. or- 
 dering him to inquire and find out the true yearly value of 
 any land, &c. by the oath of twelve men, and certify the 
 extent in Chancery. 
 TERRA Firma, in geography, is fometimes ufed for a con- 
 tinent, in contradiftinttion to iflands. 
 
 Thus Afia, the Indies and South America, are ufually diftin- 
 guifhed into terra firma' s and iflands, 
 TERRA a terra. ■ — Galleys and Other veflels are find to 
 go terra a terra, when they never go far from the 
 coafts. 
 
 The phrafe is alfo applied in the manage to horfes which nei 
 ther make curvets nor balotades, but run fmoothly on the 
 ground on a prefTed gallop, only making little leaps or rifings 
 with the fore feet. 
 
 The terra a terra is properly a feries of very low, eafy leaps, 
 which a horfe makes forward, bearing fidewife, and working 
 on two treads. — In this motion he lifts both legs at once ; and 
 when thofe are on the point of defcending, they are accompa- 
 nied by the hind legs with afhort and quick cadence, always 
 bearing and flaying on the haunches, fo that the motions of 
 the hind quarters are very fliort and quick. 
 The term is alfo applied by the French to dancers, who cut 
 no capers, nor fcarce quit the ground. 
 
 And hence it is alfo figuratively applied to authors, whofe 
 ftyle and direction is low and creeping. 
 
 n epithet given to our globe or earflt, 
 of land and water j which together 
 
 TERR^ Agar 
 Terra Aratrum 
 Terra: Aratura 
 Terra Denarlatus 
 Terra Legem Amittere 
 Terra Lex 
 Terra Likrata 
 TfiRRA Obolata 
 Terra ^uadrantata 
 Terra §>uadrugata 
 Terra Trinsda 
 Terra Uncia 
 
 TERRJE- Filius, fon of the earth, 
 
 f Acer. 
 Aratrum. 
 Aratura. 
 Denariatus. 
 Amittere. 
 . Lex. 
 
 > ^ < LlBRATA. 
 
 Obolata. 
 Quadrant at a 
 
 QjJADRUGATA. 
 
 _ Trinoda. 
 ^Uncia. 
 
 ftudent in the univerfity of 
 
 TERRAQUEOUS, * a 
 conhdered as couiilting 
 conftitute one mafs. 
 
 * The word, like the thing, is a compound of terra and aqua, 
 c2rch and water. 
 
 Seme philofophers, particularly Dr. Burnet, tax theframeand 
 fifhion of the terraqueous globe as rude, unartful and diforderiy ; 
 and conclude it highly abfurd to (uppofe it came thus out of 
 the hands of the Creator, and theielore have recouife to a. 
 deluge for the making it thus. 
 
 But others can perceive a world of 2rt and convenience, even 
 in this apparent diforder : Mr. Derham particular ly obferves, 
 that tiie diftribution of land and waier is admirable, the one 
 being laid over the other fo fkilfully thro' all the world, that 
 there is a juft equipoife or ballance ot the whole globe. — ■ 
 Thus the northern ocean ballances the fouthcrn, and the 
 American continent is a counterpoife to the European, Afri- 
 can and Afiatic. 
 
 And what fome may object, that the waters occupy too great 
 a part of the globe, which they imagine would be of more 
 ufe were it dry land, he obviates, by ihewing that this would 
 deprive the world of a due quantity of vapours and rain : 
 for if the cavities which contain the fea and other waters 
 were deeper, though the quantity ot water were the fame, 
 and only the furlace leffer and narrower, the evaporations 
 would be fo much the lefs, inafmuch as they are made 
 from the furface, and confequently are in proportion there- 
 to.. 
 
 TERRAR. See the article Terrier. 
 
 TERRAS 7 See the y Terr ace, and Pavement. 
 
 Marble Terras S articles^, Marble. 
 
 TERRE-Plein, in fortification, the tup, platform, or hori- 
 zontal furface of the rampart whereon the cannon arc placed, 
 and the defenders perform their office. See Rampart. 
 It is thus called, as lying level, having only a little flope 
 outwardly to bear the recoil of the cannon. 
 It is terminated by the parapet on that fide towards the cam- 
 paign, and by the inner talus on the fide towards the place : — 
 its breadth is from 24 to 30 feet. 
 
 Terre-Tenant, is he who hath the actual pofleffion of 
 the land, other wife called the occupant. See Tenant and 
 Occupant. 
 
 Thus a lord of a manour having a freeholder, who Iettetb out 
 his freehold to another to be occupied : this occupier, who has 
 the actual pofleffion, is called the terre-tenant. 
 TERRELLA, MIKPOTH, little earth, is a magnet turned of 
 a juft fpherical figure, and placed fo as that its poles, equa- 
 tor, fifr. do exactly correfpond to thofe of the world. 
 It was thus firft called by Gilbert, as being a juft reprefenta- 
 tion of the great magnetic globe we inhabit. 
 Such a terella, if nicely poifed, and placed in a meridian like 
 a globe, it was fuppofed, would be turned round like the earth 
 in 24 hours by the magnetic particles pervading it ; but expe 
 rience has (hewn this to be a miffake. 
 
 TERRESTRIAL Bird: 
 Terrestrial Globe 
 Terrestrial Line 
 Terrestrial Paradife 
 Terrestrial Roads 
 TERRIER, or Terra 
 
 Oxford, formerly appointed in public acts to make jefting and 
 fatyrica! fpeechesagainfitbe members thereof, and to tax them 
 with any growing corruptions, &c. 
 
 TERRACE, or Terras, a walk, or hznk of earth raifed 
 in a garden or court, to a due elevation fc£ a profpect. 
 The terrace is an earth-work ufually lined, and breafted with 
 a ftrong wall, in compliance with the natural inequality of 
 the ground. ■ — Sometimes it is made in talus, or aflope, and 
 covered with turf. 
 
 Counter Terrace, is a terrace raifed over another to join two 
 grounds, or raife a parterre. 
 
 Terrace is alfo applied to the roofs of houfes that areflat 
 and whereon one may walk : as alfo to balconies that pro- 
 ject. 
 
 The terrace is properly the covering of a building which is in 
 plat-form ; as that of the periftyle of the Louvre, or that of 
 the obfervatory, paved with flint and mortar. All the build- 
 ings of the oriental nations are covered with terraces^ to take 
 the frefti air on, and even to lie on. 
 
 TERRACE, orTERRAs, ufed for mortar. See Tarrace. 
 
 TERRAGE, otTerragium, anciently fignifies a fervice, in 
 which a tenant or vaffal was bound to his lord, to plough and 
 reap the ground for him. 
 
 Others will have it money paid for digging, or breaking the 
 ground in fairs and markets. 
 
 Jfhiieti fint de thelonio, pavagio, pajpigio, loftagio, tallagio, 
 carvagto, prifagio y terrag'io. 
 
 Birds. 
 \Globe. 
 See < Line Terreflr'ial. 
 J? a radise. 
 '"•Road. 
 in our ancient cuftoms, a collection 
 of acknowledgments of the vaffals, or tenants of a lordflirp, 
 containing the rents, fervices, 6?V, tbey owe their lord ; and 
 ferving as a title or claim for demanding and executing the 
 payment thereof. 
 
 At prefent, by terrier we mean no more than a book or roll, 
 wherein the feveral lands, either of a private perfon, or of a 
 town, college, church, 6ftf. are defcribed. 
 The terrier fhould contain the number of acres, and the fcite, 
 boundaries, tenants names, &c. of each piece or parcel. 
 
 TeRRIER alfo denotes the lodge or hole which foxes, badgers, 
 rabbets, £sV. dig themfelves under ground, and wherein they 
 fave themfelves from the purfuit of the hunters.- — Hence 
 
 Terrier is alfo ufed for a kind of little hound to hunt thofe 
 animals, which like a ferret, creeps into the ground, and by 
 that means affrights and bites them ; either tearing them with 
 his teeth, or elfe haling them by force out of their holes. 
 
 TERRIS bonis Iff catallis rehabendis pojl purgationern, a writ 
 for a perfon to recover his lands, goods, or chattels, formerly 
 feized, after having cleared himfelf of a felony, upon fuf- 
 picion whereof he was convict, and delivered to his ordinary 
 to be purged. 
 
 Ter R is cjf catallis tent'ts ultra debitum levatum, a writ judical 
 for the reftoring lands or goods to a debtor, who is dtftrained 
 beyond the quantity of the debt. See Distress. 
 
 TerRIS liberandis, a writ lying for a man convicted by attaint, 
 to bring the record and procefs before the king, and take a fine 
 for his imprifonment, and deliver him his lands and tenements 
 again, and releate him of the ifrip and wafte, 
 
 TERRITORY, Diftricl* the extent or compete of land within 
 the bounds, or belonging to the jurifdiction of any lt4te, city 
 or other divifion. 
 
 It 
 
T E S 
 
 It is a maxim, that the church has no territory, i. e. it has no 
 
 temporal jurifdiiTtton ; and therefore an ecclehaiiical judge can- 
 not arreft any body, not even a pneft. 
 
 It is much in this fenfe, that Cujas fays, the church has an au- 
 ditory, but no territory. 
 
 TERSION,* Tersio, the aft of wiping or rubbing a thing. 
 See Abrasion. 
 
 *The word CODES of tero, I wear. 
 
 TERTIAN, Tertiana, a fever or ague intermitting every 
 other day ; fo that there are two fits in three days. 
 The method of curing tertians, as well as other agues, is by 
 the cortex, either given in fubttance or deration : this laft 
 form is bell in weak con Si tut ions, and where the fits are not 
 fo regular; but the fubitance is more to be depended on as to 
 certainty in other cafes. See Ague. 
 
 TER rlAKY canons. See the article Canon. 
 
 1 ER TIATE, in gunnery. — To tertiate a great gun, is to exa- 
 mine the thiclcnefs of the meul at the muzzle, whereby to 
 judge of the ftrength of the piece, and whether it be fufficient- 
 iy fortified or not. 
 
 This is ufually done with a pair of calliper compafles, 'and if 
 the piece be nome-bored, the diameter Iefs by the height, di- 
 vided by 2, is (he thickr.efs at any place. 
 
 TERTII iniernodii pollicis extenfor , ("Extensor. 
 
 Tertio adjocente prcpofitio de £ See < Proposition. 
 
 TERTiu 3 StY/i%j J (-Scalenus. 
 
 TERONCIUS, in antiquity, a very final! brafs coin in ufe a- 
 mong the Romans. 
 
 The inconvenience of fuch very final] pieces being foon found, 
 
 the Urtmtiut became difufed, but its wme was frill retained in 
 
 reckoning; and thus it became a money of account. 
 
 The teruneius, at firft, was a quarter of the as, or Bret; 
 
 hence, as the as contained 12 ounces, the teruneius contained 
 
 three ; whence the name, wriich is formed of the Latin, tres 
 
 uTtcite. 
 
 Teruneius was alfo ufed for a quarter of the denarius, fo that 
 when the denarius was at ten as's, the teruneius was worth two 
 and a half ; and when the denarius was rifen to 16, the ter- 
 uneius was worth four. See Denarius. 
 TESSELLATED pavement^ pavimentum Tessellatum, 
 a rich pavema.t of mofaic work, made of curious finall 
 iijuare marbles, bricks or tyles, called tejfdtc, from the form 
 of dies. 
 
 Tejfelated pavements were much ufed in the tents of the Roman 
 
 generals. 
 
 TEsSARA-Costa, in our ancient writers. See the article 
 
 Quad ag ess 1 ma. 
 TEST,* or Tests/7//;, a form of oath, whereby thedo&rine 
 
 of tranfubftantiation, the facrifi.ee of the Mais, the invocation 
 
 of faints, 13c. are abjured. 
 
 * The word fignifies proof or trial, being formed of the Latin, 
 teflis, luiinefi ; this oath being a mark or evidence that the per- 
 lon is noi a Roman catholic. 
 
 The teft oath was firft introduced by authority of parliament 
 
 in 1672; and they who refufed to take it, were excluded the 
 
 privilege of holding any public offices. 
 Test, among chymifts and refiners, the Time with cuppel, or 
 
 cippel, an inftrument ufed in the purifying gold and filver. 
 
 See fuppiement, article Test. , 
 TESTA jepiis. See the article Sepium. 
 
 TESTACEOUS, in natural hiftory, an epithet given to thofe 
 filhi which are covered with a ftrong, thick {hell; as oyfters 
 pearl-fifti, &c. 
 
 In ftri&nefs, however, ttjlaceous is only applied to fifh whofe 
 ftrong and thick {hells are entire: thofe which are foft, thin, 
 andconfiftof feveral pieces jointed, as the lobfler, cfr, being 
 called-: cruftaceous. See fuppiement, articles Testaceous, 
 and Crustaceous. 
 
 In medicine, all preparations of fhcils, and fubftances of the 
 like kind, are called ieftaceous, — Such are powders of crabs 
 claws 1 " .yes, pearl, &6i 
 
 cy, and others, fuppofe the virtue of all tejlaccous 
 .iKUieinei to be alike; that they feldom or never enter the 
 ladleals, but that the chief of their a&ion is in the firft pa f- 
 fages; in which however they are of great ufe in abforbing 
 acidities. 
 
 Hence they become of ufe in fevers, and efpccially in rectify- 
 ing the many diflempers in children, which generally owe 
 their origin to fuch acidities. 
 TESTAMENT,* Testamentum, in law, a folemn and 
 authentic sdr, whereby a perfon declares his will, as to the dif- 
 pofal of his efiaie, effects, burial, &c. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, teftamenlum, which the 
 lawyers ufually derive from teftatw mentis. 
 
 A Ujlament has noeffea till after death, and is always revoca- 
 ble till then. As ujlaments are acls, of all others the moft 
 fubject to deceits, furprife, & c . it was found nectary to ufe all 
 Jtinds of precautions to prevent the wills of the deceafed from 
 being eluded, and the weaknefs of dying perfons from being 
 abufed. c 
 The moft ancient tejlamcnts among the Romans were made 
 viva voce, the tefiator declaring his will in theprcfenceof fe- 
 V 0 L. II. 
 
 T E I 
 
 vert witneffes: there they called numutatht Ujicmmts : but 
 the danger or trailing the will of the dead to the memory of 
 the hv.ng foon abohfhed thefe: and all uflammu were order- 
 ed to be in writing. 
 
 The French legiflatots thought holographic trflammU, i. « 
 lrjla,m„t s wrote wholly with the teilaror's hand, an abundant 
 iccurity ; but the Roman law, more fevere, did not admit of 
 tejlamems without further folemnity. 
 
 Thecafielr, and molt favourable, is the 21ft law in the»rto 
 * "fl"""'"'!, which permits fuch as are unwilling to truft the 
 fecretol their trjiammts to others, to write it with their own 
 hand, and to clofe it in the piefence of feven witnefTej, de- 
 claring to them that it is their trflamenl, alter which it is to be 
 ligned by all the feven witneffes. 
 
 Otherwife to make a folemn teftament, it was required to be 
 attefted by feven witneffes, and fealed With their feals. 
 Yet the military teftament was not fubjea to fo many formali- 
 ties: the folditr was fuppofed too much employed in defending 
 the laws, to be fubject fo the trouble of knowing them. His 
 tumultuary profeflion excufed him from obfervingall the rules. 
 See Military. 
 
 Teftamems, wherein fathers difpofed of their effates among 
 their children, had particular privileges, and were difpenfed 
 from moft of the ordinary formalities. 
 
 Priiate of a Testament. Seethe arlicL- Probate. 
 
 TESTAMENTARY adaption, 1 (Adoption. 
 
 T ESTAWENTARY fuutgan, C See \ SUCCESSION. 
 
 If"""™""'*. 1 (Tutorage. 
 I ES I ATOR or Testatrix, the perfon who makes his, or 
 her, will and teftament. 
 
 M. Gillet (hews, that a perfon incapable of a legacy, cannot 
 demand any fum which the tejlator in his teftament declares 
 himfelf indebted to him in) in rcg:rd fuch a uei laratiun of 
 debt is pref ;med a fraud, arrainlt the intention of the law. 
 
 TESTA Ni villi, or Testa de Nevil, an anciem re- 
 cord kept by the king's remembrancer in the Exchequer, con- 
 taining the king's fees throughout the greateft pa: t of Eng' .nd, 
 with inquifitions of lands efcheated, and ferjeant'es. 
 It was denominated from its compiler, J-ban. de Nevil, one 
 of the itinerant juftices under king Henry III. 
 
 TESTATUM, inlaw, a writ in petfonal aclions; where, if 
 the defendant cannot be arrefied on a capias in the county 
 where the aftion is laid, but is returned turn e/i inventus by the 
 fherift, this writ fliall be fent into any othei county, where 
 fuch perfon is thought to be, or to have wherewithal to fatisfy 
 the demand. 
 
 It is called teftatum, becaufe the fheriff has before tcftiiicd, 
 that the defendant was not to be founu in his Bailiwick. 
 
 TESTE, a term commonly ufed in the clofe of a wnr, where 
 the date is contained, which begins with tejle meipfo, if it be 
 an original writ; or if judicial, tefte Matties Hale, Mil. 
 or Fraeifet, Ntrlb, Mil. (gc. according to the court whence it 
 comes.— In fome ancient formula's, we read ttjli cujhdi 
 A ngilt e* See Writ. 
 
 TES TES, in anatomy, two white, foft, oval bodies, ferving 
 for generation; ufually called, diminutively, tijlidts. See 
 Testicle. 
 
 Testes, of the brain, are two little, round, hard bodies, 
 plac'd between the third and fourth ventricle, near the pineal 
 gland. See Br.hn. 
 
 Testes Jynoda Us, 7 ^ ^ c Sync 
 
 J c Hns 
 
 _ _ NODAL es. 
 
 1 ESTIBUS hits, 
 
 TESTICLE,* teJ?i S) a double part in animals of the male kind, 
 ferving for the office of generation.— See Tab. Anat, {Splancb) 
 jig. 1. //V. vj. w. 
 
 * They are called ttjlklts, by diminution of teftes, tvittiejfn ; a? 
 giving teltimony of virility they are what we properly call 
 geniteres, genitalia— The Greeks call them didym, or fi&ini. 
 
 In man, and moft animals, the tejTuhszre exterior; in fome^ 
 as fowls, interior.— Some men have only one, ordinarily they 
 have two, and fome have naturally had three; nay anatomift3 
 affure us they have known four. 
 
 The Ujttctts are foft, white bodies, of an oval figure, and 
 about the fize of a pigeon's egg: they have been thought to be 
 of a glandulous fubftance. and, according to the prefent doc- 
 trine of the glands, they may be allowed to be fo ftill. 
 i hey are formed of a convolution of divers kinds of vefTels, 
 particularly the fpermatic veins and arteries, the latter of 
 which bring the blood whence the feed is to be fecreted in th« 
 meanders of the teflicles, and the former return it back again 
 after the fecretion made. 
 
 The reft of the tcjl'uh is made up of feed-vcfiels, which in- 
 deed are but one cont.nued feries or rope, intricately convo- 
 luted and wound up as it were into a bottom, but adhering fu 
 laxly, that it is eafily drawn out into length, and in rai«, &c. 
 may be fhaken from its clofe contexture.— Thefe femmal 
 veficles terminate in the paraftatze. 
 
 The UjfUlts % with the paraftatx, are faid to be inclofed in 
 three proper coats; the firft the mufculofa, derived from the 
 cremarter mufce; the feennd the elythroides, or vaginalis, 
 which is a continuation of the external lamina of the peri- 
 i 2 H ton«um * 
 
T E T 
 
 T E T 
 
 tn nap um ; the third the albuginea. See each under Its proper 
 
 article. • V % 
 
 The common capfula or membrane including both tejlicles, is 
 the fcrOtum ; which fee defcribed under the article Scrotum. 
 For the ufe of the ttjficles, in preparing and fecreting the feed. 
 
 See SfiED. 
 
 TESTIMONIAL, a kind of certificate, figned either by the 
 mjirer. and fellow of the college, where a per ion lair, refided. 
 or by three, at leaft, reverend divines, who knew him well 
 for three years laft paftj giving an account of the virtues', uni- 
 formity, and learning of the perfon. 
 
 Such a tejlimonial is always required before holy orders are con- 
 ferred, and tne bifhup even ordinarily demands one of a priefl: 
 before he admits him to a benefice, 
 
 Testimonial is alfo a certificate under the hand of a juftice 
 of peace, teftifying the place and time when and where a foi- 
 dieror manner 1-ndcd, and the place of his dwelling, and 
 whither he is to pafs. 
 
 TESTIMONY. See Evidence. 
 
 For the credibility of human teftimoriy. See Certitude. 
 
 TESTUDO, in natural hiftory. See Tortoise. 
 
 TtsTUDo, in antiquity, was particularly, ufed among the poets, 
 t3\r. for the annent lyre ; by reafon it was faid to have been 
 originally made, bv its inventor Meicury, of the black or 
 ho'l iw fhell of a teftudo aquatica^ or fea tortoife, which he 
 accdentallv found on the banks of the river Nile. 
 Dr. Mclyneux has an exprefs difcourie, in the pliljlpbical 
 tranfattions, to fhew that the tortotfej&el] was the bafis of the 
 ancient Ivre, and that the whole inltrument had thence the de- 
 nomination tejludo; which account lets fome light into an ob- 
 fcure pa0age in Horace, ode 3. lib. 4. miftaken by all the 
 
 Commentators: 
 
 0, tfjludlnis aorta 
 
 Dui<> tm qua JhepUum, Pieri, temperas; 
 O pltftis quoque pijeibus 
 
 Dgnatura cygni, Ji libeat, fonum. 
 
 Testudo, tortoife, in the military art of the ancients, was a 
 k nd ol cover or fcreen which th? foldiers, e. gr. a whole 
 company, made ihemfelves of their buckler.*, by holding them 
 up ovrr their heads, and {landing cloft to each other. 
 This expedient ferved to (belter them from darts, Hones, fcrV, 
 thrown t,pon them, efpecially thole thrown from above when 
 thev went to the affault. 
 
 Testudo was alfo a kind of largp wooden tower which moved 
 on feveral wheels, and was covered with raw bullocks hides, 
 lervjng to flutter the foldiers when they approached the walls 
 to mine them, <>r to batter them with rams 
 It was called tejludo, from the ftrength of its roof, which co- 
 vered the workman as the {hell docs the tortoife. 
 
 Testudo, in medicine, denotes a foft broad tumour, or ga- 
 thering of impure humours between the skull and the skin, 
 called alfo talpa, as icfembling the fuhterraneous windings of 
 a tortoife or mole. 
 
 Testudo vcliformis quadrabilis, a hemifpherical vault, or ceil- 
 ing 1 1 1 church, E3V. wherein four windows are fo contrived 
 as (hat the reft of the vault is quadrable, or may be fquared. 
 The determination of thefe windows was a problem propofed 
 to the great mathematicians of Europe, particularly the cultiva- 
 tors of the new calculus differential, in the acla eruditcrum 
 Lipjia, by Sig. Viviani, under the fictitious name ofA.D. 
 pie lijci puftllo geometra, which was the anagram of poftremo 
 GalU at dijcipulo. 
 
 It was folved by feveral perfon?, particularly M. Leibnitz, the 
 very day hi- faw it : and he gave it in the Leipfic aits in an in- 
 fiin v of manners; as alio did M. Bernoulli, the marquis del 
 Hofpttai; Dr. Wallis, and Dr. Gregory. 
 
 TETANUS, TETANOE,* in medicine, a kind of tonic fpaf- 
 mus, or convulfion, wherein the fore and hind mufcles of the 
 head are rendered rigid and inflexible j fo that it can neither 
 bend one way nor the other. 
 
 * The word is formed trom the Greek mmr, ft ftreteh, ftrain. 
 
 Tetanus, or Tetanus, is alfo ufed, in amore general fenfe 
 for an umvtrfal convulfiun or rigidity feizing the whole body 
 at once. ' 
 In this fenfe, the tetanus is fubdivided into emprofthotonus and 
 opisthotonus. See Emprosthqtonos and Opisthoto- 
 nos. 
 
 TETRACHORD* Te trachord™, in thc antic „ t 
 muhc, a concord confilfing of three degrees, tones or inter 
 vals, or lour founds or terms; called alio by the ancients 
 Jl«iw* f= ,, and by the moderns a fourth. See Fourth. 
 
 " lud " 'Tf ° f ' he G ' eek> " T f"' of " 7 «f". /'«' tin 
 
 and XVi. a rW, or Jlrin* . 
 
 This interval had the name telrachrd given it with refpecl to 
 the Ivre, and its chords or Rfings 
 
 Ancient authors make frequent" mention of the fynaphe, or 
 cc,,jun<Slcn ; and d.azeuxis, or disjunflion of Utraibordl- 
 
 lo c.nce.ve the.r meaning, it muft be obf „ ved [h 
 Ulracb,rds were faid to be >W, when the fame chord was 
 
 the higheft of the firft, or loweft inftrumcnt, and the loweft 
 of the fecond ; as was the cafe in the two tetracbords that com- 
 pofe the ancient heptachord, or feventh. 
 
 But when two tetracbords had no common chord ; but, on the 
 contrary, had each their different ones to begin and end with- 
 al, fo that between the two there were two intervals of a tone 
 then the tetracbords were faid to be disjoined^ which was the 
 cafe in the two tetracbords that compoled the ocTtachord or oc- 
 tave. See Octave. ' 
 TETRACTYC, arithmetic. See thc article Arith- 
 metic. 
 
 TETRACTYS, in the ancient geometry. — The Pytha- 
 eoric tetraclys is a point, a line, a furface, and a folid. 
 
 TETR ADIAPASON, quadruple diapa/on, a mufical 
 chord, otherwife called a quadruple eighth, or a nine and twen- 
 tieth. See Diapason. 
 
 TETRADITjE, Tetradites, in antiquity, a name gi- 
 ven to fcveial different fecoj of heretics, out of fome particu- 
 lar refpe£ttbey bore to the number four, called in Greek, tm«. 
 Thus the Sabbathians were called tetradita, from their falling 
 on Eaftet-day, as on the fourth day, or on Wednefday. 
 The (Vlanichces, and others, who admitted of a quaternity in- 
 ftead of a trinity in the Godhead, or four perfons in lieu of 
 three, were alfo called tetradita. 
 
 The followers of Petrus Fullenfis bore the fame appellation of 
 tetradita, by reafon of the addition they made to the trifa- 
 gion, to countenance an error they held, that in our Saviour's 
 pafflon, it was not any particular perfon of the Godhead, e. gr. 
 the fun, that fuftered, but the whole Deity. See Trisagion. 
 The ancients alfo gave the name tetradita to children born un- 
 der the fourth moon, and thelc they believed unhappy. 
 TETRAEDRON,* or Tetrahedron, in geometry, 
 one of the five regular or platonic bodies, or folids, compre- 
 hended under four equilateral and equal triangles. 
 Thc teiracdron may be conceived as a triangular pyramid of 
 four equal faces. Such is that reprefemed [Tab. Geamet. Fig. 
 59-) 
 
 It is demonOrated by mathematicians, that the fquare of the 
 fide of a tetraedron, is to the fquare of the diameter of a fphcre 
 wherein it may be inferibed in a fubfequialteral ratio : whence 
 it follows, that the fide of a tetraedron is to the diameter of a 
 fphcre it is inferibed in, as *J 2 to the ^ 3, confcquently they 
 are incommenfurable. 
 T E T R A G O N,* tetpathnos, in geometry; a quadrangle, 
 or a figure with four angles. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, xtbet, feu. 
 
 and 
 
 Thus a fquare, parallelogram, ihombu?, and trapezium, are 
 tetragonal figures. 
 Tetragon, in aftrology, denotes an afpeifr. of two planets 
 with regard to the earth, when they are diftant from each, 
 other a fourth part of a circle, or 90"— as, A D {Tab, Jjlron. 
 Fig- 3-) 
 
 1 he tetragon Is exprefTed by the character o. 
 TETRAGONIAS, a name given to a meteor, whofe head 
 is of a quadrangular figure, and its tail or train lorg, thick 
 and uniform ; this is not much different from the trabs or 
 beam. 
 
 TETRAGONISM, tETPATONJSMOS, a term which 
 fome authors ufe to exprefs the quadrature of the circle. 
 
 TETRAGON US, in anatomy, a mufcle, called alfo qua- 
 dratics gen a. See Quadratus. 
 
 TETRAGRAMMATON, TETPArPAMMATON, a de- 
 nomination given by the Greeks to the Hebrew name of God 
 mrtS Jebovs s becaufe in the Hebrew confiiiing of four let- 
 ters. 
 
 TETRAMETE R,* in the ancient poetry, an Iambic verfe 
 confiding of four feet. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, rfl f *, four, and aBf», 
 meafure, q. d. four metres —We meet with none of thefe but in 
 the comic poets, as Terence, C3V. 
 
 TETRAPASTON,* in mechanics, a machine wherein 
 are four pullies. See Pully. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, rSf» 
 TETRAPETALOUS, in botany, an epithet given to 
 
 flowers that conlift of four fingle petala or leaves placed around 
 the piftil. 
 
 Thefe M. Juffjeu calls polypetalous flowers. 
 
 Mr. Ray, who calls them tetrapetalcus, makes them confli- 
 
 tute a diftindl claf?, which he divides into 
 
 i°. Such as have an uniform tetrapetalous flower, and their 
 
 feed-veffels a little oblongifh, which he therefore czlhjiliquofti 
 
 as the keiri or leucoium luteum, the dentaria, the leucoinm 
 
 filiquofum, alyffon, viola lunaris, paronychia, hefperis, allia- 
 
 ria, rapa, napus, finapis, rapiflrum, eruca fpuria, eryfimum, 
 
 cardamine, turritis, pilofella filiquofa, and the raphanus rurti- 
 
 canus and aquaticus. 
 
 z". Such as have their feed-veffels fhorter, which therefore, for 
 dtftin&ion fake, he calls capfulata and fillculofa; as the mva- 
 grum, draba, leucoium Hliqua fubrotundaj cocblearia, naftur- 
 
T E T 
 
 T E T 
 
 tium, lepidium vulgarc, thlapfi, brafica marina, glaftum, cru- 
 ca marina, tz'c. 
 
 3°. Such as have a Teeming tetrapetalous flower, that is, a 
 monapetalous one, divided deeply into fuur partitions, which 
 he particularizes alfo as anomalous ; as the pa paver, argemone, 
 veronica, tithymallus, plamago, coronopus, pfyllium, lyfima- 
 chia filiquofa, alfine fpuria, fjtei , ' 
 
 TETRAPH ARMACUM,* T etpa*apmakon, in the 
 general, denotes any remedy confiding of four ingredients. 
 
 * The Word is compounded of rflfee, four, and tpuffutxcn, drug, 
 or remedy. 
 
 TETRAPLA,* in church hiftory, a bible difpnfed by Ori- 
 gen under four columns, in each whereof was a different Greek 
 verfion, viz. that of Aquila, that of Symmachub, that ot the 
 Seventy, and that of Theodotion. Sue Bible. 
 
 * The word is foimcd from the Greek rflfttttftfr'i quadruple*, 
 four-fold. \ ■' . 
 
 Sixtus of Sienna confounds the tttrapla with the hexapla ; but 
 the tetrapla k a diffeient w^rk, compofed after the hexapla, and 
 in favour of fuch as could not have the hexapla. 
 Some authors are ot opinion, that the order wherein the four 
 verltons of the tetrapla were ranged, was different from that 
 wherein we have rehearfed them ; and particularly, that the 
 feptuagint was in the firft column : but S. Epiphanius fays ex- 
 prefsly to the contrary, and places it in the third. — He even 
 gives us Origen's reafon for purling it there, which was, fays 
 he, that the belt verfion might be in the middle, that the others 
 might be the more eafily confronted therewith, and corrected 
 from it. 
 
 Baronius, however, in his annals for the year 231, takes the 
 feptuagint to have been in the third place in the hexapla, but in 
 the firft in the tctrapla ; but Epiphanius gives it the fame place 
 in both. 
 
 TETRAPTOTE, Tetraptoton, in grammar, a 
 name given to fuch defective nouns as have only four cafes: — 
 fuch are alius, C3*c. 
 
 TETRARCH,* Tetrarcha, a prince, whoholdsand 
 governs a fourth part of a kingdom. 
 
 * The word is originally Greek, mgtfnpfe formed of tii-a., four, 
 and tfjfjii rule, dominion. 
 
 Such, originally, was the import of the title tetrarch ; but it 
 was afterwards applied t.> an\ petty king, or fovereign, and be- 
 came fynonimous with tthnarchy as appeals from the following 
 confiderations : i°. That Pliny makes mention of fix teirar- 
 thitt within the cities of Decapohs. 2 W . That Herod's king- 
 dom was only divided into three parts, which yet were called 
 ietrarchies, and the fovereigns theieo), Lukeiii, 1. tetrarch s. 
 3 9 . Jofeplms, Antiq. Jud . lib. 14. c. 23. tells us, that after 
 the battle of Prdlippi, Anthony going into Svria, conlHtuted 
 Herod tetrarch \ and on medals the fame Herod is called cth- 
 " narcb. j ,*, •' 
 
 TETRASTICH, tetpastjkcw, a ftanza, epigram, or 
 poem confiding ot (ourvcrfes. 
 
 TE TRASTY L E,* in the ancient architecture, a building, 
 and particularly a temple, with four columns in its front. 
 
 * The word is formed from riifa, four, and rv?.^-, column. 
 
 TETRASYLLABICAL, a wofd confifting of four fyl- 
 lables. 
 
 TEUTONIC, fomething belonging to the Teutons, an an- 
 cient people of Germany, inhabiting chiefly along the coafts 
 of the German ocean. 
 
 Teutonic language, is the ancient language of Germany, 
 which is ranked among the mother-tongues, 
 The Teutonic is now called the German or Dutch, and is diftin- 
 Euifhed into upper and lower. 
 
 The upper has two notable dialefls, viz. 1 °. the Scandian, 
 Danifh, or perhaps Gothic; to which belong the languages 
 fpoke in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Iceland. t°. The 
 Saxon ; to which belong the feveral languages of theEnglifli, 
 Scots, Frifian, and thofe on the north of the Elbe. 
 To the lower belong the Low Dutch, FJemifli, Zfc. fpoke 
 through the Netherlands, &c. 
 Teutonic order, a military-religious order of knights, efta- 
 blifhed towards the clofe of the Xllth century ; and thus cal- 
 led, becaufc confifting principally of Germans, or Teutons. 
 The origin, tSe. of this order was thus : the Chriftians under 
 Guy of Lufignan, laying fiege to Acre, or Aeon, a city of 
 Syria, on the borders of the Holy Land ; at which fiege were 
 prefent, Richard king of England, Philip Auguftus of France, 
 Gff, fome Germans of Bremen and Lubec, touched with com- 
 panion for the fick and wounded of the army, who wanted 
 common neceffaries, fet on foot a kind of hofpital under a 
 tent, which they made of a fhip's fail; and here betook them- 
 felves to a charitable attendance on them. 
 This ftartcd a thought of eftablifhing a third military order, in 
 imitation of the templars, and the hofpitalers. 
 The defign was approved by the patriarch of Jerufalem, the 
 archbifTiops and biflmps of the neighbouring places, the king 
 
 of Jerufalem, the mailers of the temple and the hofpital, and 
 the German lords and prelates then in the Holy Land ; and by 
 common confent, Frederic, duke of Suabia, who was then at 
 tjheirhead, fent embafladors to his brother Henry, king of the 
 Romans, to folicit the pope to confirm the new order. 
 CalixtusIII. who then governed the choch, granted it by a 
 bull of the 23d of February, 1192; and the new order was ■ 
 called, The order of Teutonic Anights of the Im 'ife cf St. Mar y 
 of Jerufalem. 
 
 The pope granted them all the privileges of the tempi?. rs, and 
 the hofpitalers of St. John; excepting that they were to be 
 fubject to the patriarchs, and other prelates; and that they 
 fhould pay tithe of what they pofiefled. 
 
 The nrlt mafter of the Teutonic order, Henry Walpof, elected 
 dufing the time of the fieg^ cf Acre, after the taking of that 
 city, purchafed a garden, wherein he built a church and an 
 hofpital, which was the firft houfe of the Teutonic order. 
 Such is the account given by Peter of Duiabourg, a piieit of 
 this order. 
 
 Jacqurs de Vitry differs 3 little herefrom ; and relates, that the 
 Teutonic order wis eitabnihed at Jerufalem before the city of 
 Acre was befieged. 
 
 The re two opinions Hartknorh, in his notes on Duisbour^, 
 reconciles, by faying, that the order was fir (t inftituted by a 
 private pcHbo, a German, at Jcnjfa.'em ; that it was con- 
 firmed by the pope, the emperor, and the princes, at the fiege 
 of «\cre ; and that after the taking that bttj , it was become fo 
 confiderable, that it was known all over the world. 
 If it be true, that it was a private perfon who firft fet on foot 
 the order, and that th >fe people of Bremen and Lubec only 
 joined with him, as fome authors affert, we do not know the 
 precife year of its origin. 
 
 The order made no great progreffes under the three firfi grand 
 matters ; but under the fourth, Herman de Salza, it became 
 very powerful; inf. much, that Conrade, duke of Mazovjai 
 and Cujavia, about the year 1230, fent an ernbafly 10 him^ 
 to folicit his friendship and aflift nice, offering him and his or- 
 der the provinces of Culmcs and Livonia, with all the lands 
 they could recover from the idolatrous Pruflians, who harralled 
 him exceedingly with their continual incurtions, and atraiift 
 whom he intended this new mijitia ; his own knight* of the; 
 order of Chrijl, or of Dobrin, inffituted tor the like purpufe, 
 being found too weak, 
 
 De Salza accepted the donation, and Gregory IX. confirmed 
 jt; and to aid the knights in reducing the Pruflians, Innocent 
 IV. publifhcd a croifade. — With this help, in a year's time, 
 they fubdued the provinces of Warm ia, Natangia, and B;.r- 
 thta ; the inhabitant: whereof renounced the worfhlp of idols j 
 and in the courle ot fifty j ears mere, they reduced all Pruiiia, 
 Livonia, Samogitia, arid Pomerania, GfV; 
 In 1204, duke Albert had tuunded the order of fword-bearers, 
 port giaives, which now became united to the Teutonic knights* 
 and the union was approved by pope Gregory IX. 
 Waldemar III. king of Denmark, fold alfb to the order the 
 province of Etiein, the cities of Nerva and Weiflemberg, and 
 fome other proi inces. 
 
 A new union fome time afterwards occafioned great divisions- 
 and troubles in this order: it was with the biflmps and canons 
 of Prufiia and Livonia, who hereupon took the habit of the Teu- 
 tonic order, and ftwed the foveraignty with the knights, i n 
 their rulpeclive diocefes. 
 
 The order, thus mailers of all PriiflL>, built the cities of El- 
 bing, Marienbourg, Thorn, Dantzick, Koningsberg, and 
 fome others: the emperor Frederic II. permitted them "to add 
 to the arms of their order, the imperial t-agle ; and S. Louis 
 in 1250, allowed them to quarter the flower-de-luce. 
 After the city Acre had been recovered by the infide's, the 
 grand mafler of the Teutonic order removed his feat from that 
 city to Marienbourg. As the order grew id power, the knights 
 took more fiate on them; and at length, inlfead of friars, 
 brothers, as at firif, would be called lords. And though the 
 grand mafter Conrade Zolnera, of Rotenfteine, oppofed this 
 innovation, his (ucceflbr Conrad Wallerod not only approved 
 it, but even procured himfelf to be treated with honours only 
 rendered to the greateft princes. 
 
 Divifions being got into the order, the kings of Poland made 
 their advantage of them : the Pruflians revolted to them ; and 
 after feveral wars between the knights and the Poles, the for- 
 mer yielded to king Cafimir the upper Pfoflifl, and did ho- 
 mage to him for the lower. 
 
 Laftly, at the time of the reformation, Albert, marquis of 
 Brandenbourg, then grand mafter, becoming Lutheran re- 
 nounced the dignity of grand mafter, diffulved the commande- 
 ries, and diove the knights out of Pruflia, 
 Moftot the knights followed his example, and embraced the 
 reformation : the reft transferred the feat of their order to Mar- 
 gentheim, or Mariendal in Franconia, which they Hill re- 
 tain. 
 
 They there eledled Walter of Cromberg their grand mafter, 
 formed a proctfs againft Albert, and the emperor put him to 
 
 the 
 
T H A 
 
 THE 
 
 the ban of the empire. The order, however, coulJ never re- | 
 cover thtir domains; but are now little more than the fhadovv 
 of whdt they formerly were, having only three or four cum- 
 mamteries, (carce fufltcent for the ordinary fubfiftence of the 
 grand niafter and his knights. 
 
 Trie officers of the Teutonic order, when in its fplendor 0 were 
 the grand mailer, who relided at Marienbourg; under him 
 were the grand commander; the grand marftial, who had his 
 relidence at Koninefberg; the grand hofpitaller, who reiided 
 at Elbingi the draper, who took care to fiirnifh the habits; 
 thetreifurer, who lived at the court of the grand matter; and 
 feveral commanders, as thoft of Thorn, Culme, Branden- 
 bnurg, Konmgibrrg, Eibmg, tiff. 
 
 Thev had alfo their commanders of particular caft.es, and 
 fortreflesj advocates, proveditors, intendants of mills, pro- 
 vifions, tiff. . 
 Waillelius in his annals fays, they had z8 commanders Ot ci- 
 ties, 46 of caftles, 81 hofpitalers, 3; matters of convents, 
 40 ftewards, 37 proveditors 93 matters of mills, ; 00 bro- 
 thers nr knights to take the held, i6z brothers of the choir, 
 or prietts, and 6zco fervitbrs or domeftics. 
 TEXT, a relative term, contra-diftinguiftied to g Isfs or com- 
 mentary \ and figmfying an original difcourfe, exclufive of 
 anv note or interpretation. 
 
 Infinite pains have been taken by the critics, to reftore, re- 
 concile, fettle, explain, &e. the text of the bible, and that 
 of the daffies. 
 
 Mr. WhTfton accounts, for all thofe mifunderftandings between 
 the new and old teftament, particularly as to the prophehes 
 in the i>IJ, cited as tu.tilled in the new, from the corruption of 
 the text ot the old teftament ; and to obviate objections made 
 againft Chriinaiiitv on that head, has publifhed an EJfay to- 
 wards rtttm ing the true text of the Old Teftament. 
 This reltoration he attempts to effect from the Samaritan pen- 
 tareuch, the Roman pfalter, the apoftolxal conftitutions, t?£. 
 ■ But ail our critics take this corruption of the text to be imagi- 
 ginary, ahd look out for other ways of folving thofe diffi- 
 culties, 
 
 Text is particularly ufed for a certain paffage of fcripturc chofe 
 by a preacher to be the fuljcet of his firman. 
 A.nciemlv, the lawyers began all their pleadings with like texts 
 of fenpture, 
 
 A text-book, in feveral univcrfities, is a claflic author wrote 
 very wide, bv the ftudents, to give room for an interpretation 
 dictated by the matter or regent, to be inferted in the inter- 
 lines. 
 
 In this fenfe, the French fay, proverbially, Glofe d? Orleans 
 plus obfeure que le texte. 
 
 The Spaniards give the name text to a kind of little poem, or 
 fet of verfes, pbced at the head of a glofs, and making the 
 fubject thereof; each verfe being explained, one after another, 
 in the courfe of the glofs. 
 
 Text, in ancient law-authors, is appropriated to the book of 
 the four gofpels, by way of eminence. — Theft were written 
 in gold letters, and carefully prcferved in the churches. 
 Codex aurato confeptus grammate fcriptus, 
 Autlus evangelicum confervat corpore textum. 
 
 TEXTUARIES, Textuarii, a name given the feet of the 
 Caraities, among the Jews. See Caraites. 
 Hilfe] ftione among the traditionaries, and Schammai among 
 the textuaries. 
 
 The civil and canon lawyers, fometimes alfo call a book con- 
 taining the hare text, without any glofs or commentary, a 
 textuary, textuarium. 
 
 Textus Roftenfis, is an ancient manufcript, containing the 
 rights, cuifomp, tenures, tSi, of the church of Rochetter, 
 granted by the laws of Ethelbert, Hholtheie, Eadred and Wi- 
 th red kings of Kent, collected by Ernulf, the venerable bi- 
 fhop of Rochetter, about the year 1 1 00. 
 
 TEXTURE,* Textura, properly denotes the arrangement 
 and colielion of feveral flender bodies or threads interwoven, 
 or intangled among each other; as in the webs of fpiders, or 
 in cloths, fluffs, fcrV. 
 
 * The word is Latin, formed of texo, Itotavti 
 
 Texture is alfo ufed in fpeaking of any union or cohefion of 
 the conftituent particles of a concrete body ; whether by weav- 
 ing, hooking, knitting, tying, chaining, indenting, intruding, 
 cum pr effing, attracting, or any other way. 
 In this fenfe, we fay a clofe compact texture; a lax, porous 
 texture; a regular, or irregular texture, tiff. 
 A great deal depends on the texture of the component parts of 
 a body; hence moil of its particular properties, its fpecific 
 gravity, colour, C5V. 
 
 THABORITES, or Taborites. See Taborite. 
 
 THACKffa, ? p » . . styles. 
 
 THA1N, Thanus, £ Sec the artlcles I Thane. 
 
 1 HAL AMI nervorum epticorum, in anatomy, two oblong pro- 
 minences of the lateral ventricles of the brain; medullary 
 without, but a little cineritious within. 
 
 They are thus called, becaufe the optic nerves rife out of 
 them. 
 
 T HAL MUD. See the article Talmud. 
 THAME. See the article Team. 
 
 THANE, or Th a in, Thanus, the name of an ancient dig- 
 nity among the Englifh, or Anglo-Saxons. 
 Skene makes thane to have been a dignity equal with that of 
 the fon of an carl : Camden will have it, that thanes were on- 
 ly dignified by the offices which they bore. 
 There were two kinds or orders of thanes: the king's thanes, 
 and the ordinary thanes. — The firft were thofe who attended 
 our Englifh-Saxon kings in their courts, and who held lands 
 immediately of the king: whence, in domefday-book, they 
 are promilcuoufly called thani, and fervientes regis. 
 Soon after the conquett, this name was difufed ; and inftead 
 thereof they were called the king's barons, barones regis. 
 Their origin is referred to king Canutus, who, taking the 
 chief of the Danifh nobility, to the number of 3000, for his 
 guard; and arming them with battle-axes and fabres with gilt 
 handles, called them thing-lhh, from the two Danifh words 
 theing or thein, body of nobility, and lith, order of battle. 
 The ordinary thanes, or thani minor were the lords of ma- 
 nours, who had particular jurifdiction within their limits, and 
 over their own tenants. 
 
 Theft changed their name for that of barons ; and hence 
 
 their courts are called courts baron to this day. 
 
 In old authors, charters, &c. we alfo meet with Thane, as 
 
 dignifying a nobleman; tho' fometimes only a freeman; and 
 
 fometimes a magiftrate. 
 Thane-Lands, were lands granted by charter of the Saxon 
 
 kings to their thanes. 
 THAUMATURGUS,* worker of miracles; an appellation 
 
 which the Romanifts give to feveral of their faints, eminent 
 
 for the number and grentnefsof their miracles. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek 9tcvfMj wonderful thing, 
 and ipyo», work. 
 
 Sr. Gregory, call'd Thaumaturgus, or Gregory of Neocsfa- 
 rea, was a difciple of Origen, about the year 223, and after- 
 wards bifhop of C;efarea in Pontus; and in that capacity he 
 affifted at the firft: council of Antioch, and atthat of Ephefus 
 ag.iinft Paulus Samofatenus. — St. Leo of Catanea is alio called 
 Leo Thaumaturgus. He lived in the VHIth century; and his 
 body is ftill honoured at Rome in the church of St. Martin de 
 Tours. — St. Francis Paul, and St. Francis Xavier, are the 
 great thaumaturgi of thefe laft ages. 
 
 THAWING, the refolution of ice into its former fluid ftatc, 
 by the warmth of the air. 
 
 THEANDRIC, 0EANAP1K.O2, Dei-virile; a term fignifying 
 divine and human under one— formed from ®m, God, and 
 and man. 
 
 S. Dionyfius, bifhop of Athens, firft ufed the word theandrie, 
 to exprefs a double operation, or two operations united ia 
 Jcfus Chrift; the one divine, the other human.* — The Mo- 
 nophyfites afterwards abufed it, to fignify the one only opera- 
 tion which they admitted in Jefus Chrift ; in whom they be- 
 lieved there was a mixture of the divine and human nature, 
 whence refulted a third nature, which was a compound of the 
 one and the other, whofe operations followed the efience and 
 qualities of the mixture, and were neither divine nor human ; 
 but both at once, or, in one word, theandrk. 
 
 theandrie or Dei-iirile, operation, in the 
 
 fenfe of Dionyfius and Damafcenus, is thus exemplified by 
 Athanafius. When Chrift heul'd the perfon who was born 
 blind, the fpittle he voided, was human, but the opening of 
 the eyes was done by his divine power. And thus, in rsifing La- 
 zarus he called as man, but awaked him trom the deud as God. 
 
 The term thsandric, and the dogma of theandrie operations, 
 were examined with great care and attention, at the council 
 of Lateran, held in 649; where pope Martin folidly refuted 
 the notion of theandrie operations, and fhewed, that the fenfe 
 wherein St. Dionyfius firft ufed the word, was catholic, and 
 quite remote from that of the Monophyiites and Monothe- 
 lites. 3' ' w :•■ * **"' 
 
 THEANTHROPOS,* ©EANQpnnos, God-man ; a term 
 fometimes ufed in the fchoois, to fignify Jefus Chrift, who is 
 God-man, or two natures in one perfon. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, Qfc?, De;ts, and a-.S^^, 
 
 THEATER,* or Theatre, Theatrum, among the an- 
 cients, a public edifice, for the exhibiting of fcenic fpectacles 
 or fhewsto the people. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, Sieijrfai fpetlacle, ftezv, 
 of Siaof*at, fpeflo, video, I fie. 
 
 Under the word theater was comprehended, not only the emi- 
 nence whereon the actors appeared, and the action patted ; hut 
 alfo the whole area, or extent of the place, common to the 
 actors and fpedtators. 
 
 In this ftnfe, the theater was a building encompafTed with 
 portico's, and mrnifhed with feats of ftone, difpofed in femi- 
 circles, afcending gradually over one another; which en- 
 compafled a fpace called the orcheftra, in the front whereof 
 
 was 
 
THE 
 
 THE 
 
 was the pTorcenium, or puipitum, whereon the a£tors per- 
 formed, and which is what we dictinctiy call the theater, or 
 ifage. 
 
 On the profcenium flood the fcena, a large front, adorned 
 wkh orders of architecture, behind which was the poftfeemum, 
 or p'ace where the actors made tliemfeives ready, retiied, tiff. 
 Su that the fcena, in its full extent, comprehended all the part 
 
 belonging to tne actors. 
 
 In tl e Greek theaters, the orcheftra made a part of the fcena ; 
 bi t in the Roman theaters, none of tlie actors ever defcended 
 inro the orcheitra ; which was taken up by tlie feats of the 
 ' fenators. 
 
 The in oft celebrated theaters remaining of antiquity, are the 
 theater of Marcellus, and that of Pompey ; which are alfo 
 c iled amphitheaters. 
 
 At Athens are it:i] leen the remains of the temple of Bacchus, 
 which was the firft theater in the world, and was a mafter- 
 p;ece in architecture. — All theaters were confecratcd to Venus 
 and Bacchus. 
 
 Theater, among the moderns, more peculiarly denotes the 
 itagc, or place whereon the drama, or play is exhibited : an- 
 fweiing to the profcenium of the ancients. 
 In its full latitude^ however, the Theater includes the 
 whole play houfe : in which fenfe, it is a fpacious room, or 
 hall, part whereof is taken up by the fcena, which compre- 
 hends the ft age, the decorations, and the machines ; and the 
 reft isdiftributed into a fpacej called the pit, or parterre, which 
 is covered with feats, boxes, tifc. and terminated with an ele- 
 vation of one or two galleries, diipofed into benches afcending 
 over one another. 
 
 Theater is alfo ufed in architecture, chiefly among the Ita- 
 lian?, for an aiTemblage of leveral buildings, which, by a hap- 
 py difpolition and elevation, represents an agreeable fcene to 
 the eye. 
 
 Such as are moft of the vineyards at Rome ; but particularly 
 th.it of Monte Dra^one, atFrefcati ; and in France, the new 
 caitleof St. Germain en Laye. 
 Anatomical Theater, in a fchool of medicine and chirurgery, 
 is a hall, with feveral rows of feats, difpofed in the circumfe- 
 rence of an amphitheater, having a table, bearing on a pivot, 
 in the middle, for the direction of bodies. 
 Such is the anatomical theater of the royal garden at 
 Paris. 
 
 The Theater at Oxford is a beautiful building, erected 
 by archbifhop Sheldon, for the ufe of fcholaftic exercifes. 
 
 THEATINES, an order of nuns, under the direction of the 
 Theatinu 
 
 There are two kinds of Theatines, under the title of fjlers of 
 the immaculate conception, who form two different congrega- 
 tions, the one engaged by folemn vows, and the other only by 
 fimple vows.' — Their common foundrefs was Urfula Benincafa. 
 Thofc who make the fimple vows arc the moft ancient, and 
 are called ahfolutcly Theatines of the congregation : they had 
 their rife at Naples, in 1583. 
 
 The others are called Theatines of the hermitage : the whole bu- 
 finefs of thefe is praying in retirement, and an auftere foli- 
 tude, to which they engage thcmfelves by folemn vows. 
 The Theatines of the firft congregation-take care of the tem- 
 poral concerns of thefe laft. Their houfes fland together, and 
 communicate by a large hall. Their foundrefs drew up their 
 constitutions, and laid the foundation of their houfe at Naples, 
 but died before it was finifhed. 
 
 Gregory the XVth, who confirmed the new inflitute under 
 the rule of St. Auguff in, appointed that they fhould be under 
 the direction of tht Theatins. Urban VIII. revoked this ar- 
 ticle by a brief in 1624, and Subjected them to the nuncio of 
 Naples ; but Clement IX. annulled this brief, and fubmitted 
 them anew to the Theatins by a brief in 1668. 
 THEATINS, a religious order of regular priefts ; thus called 
 from their firft fuperior Don John Pietro Caraffa, archbifhop 
 of Chiefi, in the kingdom of Naples, which was anciently 
 called Theate. 
 
 The fame archbifhop became afterwards pope, by the name of 
 Paul IV. after having been a companion of Gaetan, a Ve- 
 netian gentleman, the firft founder of this order, at Rome, in 
 1524- 
 
 The Theatins were the full who aflumed the title of regular 
 ckres. They have not only no lands, or fixed revenues, either 
 in common or in propriety ; but they do not even afk or beg 
 any thing; but wait for what Providence {hail fend them fur 
 their fubliftance. 
 
 They employ tliemfeives much in foreign miffions ; and in 
 1617 they entered upon Mingrelia, where they have an efta- 
 bhfhment : they have had the like in Tartary, Circaffia, and 
 Georgia, but this they have lincc abandoned, by rcafon of the 
 little iruit they perceived thereof. 
 
 Their firft congregation appeared at Rome in 1524, and was 
 confirmed the fame year by Clement VII. — Their conftitu 
 tions were drawn up at a general chapter in 1604, and 
 approved by Clement VIII. They wear the prielis ha- 
 bit. 
 
 THEATRE. See Theater, and Amphitheater. 
 Vox., li, 
 
 THEBAID, Theeais, a famous heroic poem of Statins ; 
 the fubjefl whereof is the civil war of Thebes between 
 the two brothers Eteoclcs and Polynices ; or Thebes taken by 
 Thefeus. 
 
 Statius was twelve years in compofing his Thebaid, which 
 confifts of twelve books : he wrote under Domitian. — He is 
 cenfured by the belt critics, as Boffu, &c. for a vicious 
 multiplicity of fables and actions, for too much heat and 
 extravagance, and for going beyond the bounds of proba- 
 bility. 
 
 Several Greek poets had compofed Thebaids, or poems of this 
 name before him ; the principal were, Antagoras, Amipha- 
 nes of Colophon, Menelaus tlie ^gean ; and an anonymous 
 author mentioned by Paufanias, lib. 9. 
 
 Ariltotle, praifing Homer for the fimplicity of his fable, op- 
 pofes to him the ignorance of certain poets, who imagined 
 that the unity of fable or action was abundantly provided for 
 by the unity of the hero, and who compofed Thrfeids, Her- 
 culeids, £5V. in each whereof they colhc-ted every tiling that 
 had ever happened to their principal perfon. 
 THEFT, Furtum, in law, an unlawful, felonious taking away 
 another man's moveable and pcrfonal goods, again It the owner's 
 will, with an intent to Ileal them. 
 
 It is divided into theft, or larceny, properly fo called, and 
 petit theft, or petty larceny ; the former whereof is of 
 goods above the value of 12 d. and is deemed felony. 
 — The other, which is of goods under that value, is not 
 felony. 
 
 Open theft from the perfon, or in theprefence of the owner, 
 is properly called robbery. 
 
 THEFTBOTE, the receiving a man's goods again from a 
 thief, or other amends by way of compolition, and to pre- 
 vent profecution, that the felon may efcape unpunifhed ; the 
 punifhment whereof is imprifonment, but not lofs of life, or 
 , member. 
 
 THEISM. See Deism. 
 
 THEKUPHiE. See the article Tekuphje. 
 
 THELONIUM, Telonium, fignifies toll. 
 
 Breve effendi quieti de Thelonio, a writ lying for the citizens 
 of a city, or burgeffes of a town, that have a charter or pre- 
 fcription to free them from toll ; again ft the officers of any 
 town or market, who would conftrain them to pay it, con- 
 trary to the faid grant or prefcription. 
 
 THEME, Thema, a fuoject or topics to write or compofe 
 on. 
 
 Theme, among aftrologers, denotes the figure they conflruct 
 when they draw the horofcope ; reprefenting the ftate of 
 the heavens for a certain point, or moment required ; 
 /. e. the places of the ftars, and planet?, .for that mo- 
 ment. 
 
 The celeftial theme confifts of 12 triangles, inclofed within 
 two Squares, and called the twelve hsrfes. 
 THENAR, in anatomy, a mufcle, whofe office is to draw 
 the thumb from the fore-finger ; whence it is alfo denominated 
 abduftor pollicis manus. 
 
 There is a fimilar mufcle belonging to the great toe, fome- 
 times alfo called thenar, or abdudor pall'tcis pedis. 
 The antagonifts to thefe- are called antithenars. 
 THENOPSYCHH ES. See Thnetopsychites 
 THEOCATAGNOST^, * a feft of heretics, or rather of 
 biafphemers, who prefum'd to find fault with certain words 
 and actions of God, and to blame many things in the fcrip- 
 tu res. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek Snf, God, and xefcyt- 
 •wa-Kw, I judge, or condemn. 
 
 Marlhal, in his tables, places thefe heretics in the VII;h cen- 
 tury ; for what reafon we know not ; Damafcenus beinc the 
 only author that mentions them, but without taking any no- 
 tice of the timeof their appearance. 
 
 Add to this, that in Damafcenus's treatifeof herefie*, we meet 
 with heretics that were not fo much the authors of fects fub- 
 fifting at any certain time, as wicked perfens, fucii as are found 
 in all timer, and all ages. 
 THEOCRACY,* a ftate governed by the immediate direc- 
 tion of God alone. 
 
 * The word is formed from 0i&-, God, and j*^"©., power, em- 
 
 According to Jofphus, the ancient Government of the Jews 
 was theocratic; God himftlf ordering and directing every thing 
 helonging to the foveraign authority. 
 
 This th eocracy^ lafled till the time of Saul • when the Ifrselitc 
 weary thereof, defired they might have a king like other na- 
 tions : and thence forward the itate became monarchic-. 
 There was alfo a kind of imaginary theocracy at Athens : while 
 the fons of Codrus were difputing the fucceffion, the Atheni- 
 ans, wearied cut with the mifenes of an intcftine war, abo- 
 hfhed the royalty, and declared Jupiter the only king of tne 
 people of Athens-. 
 THEODOLITE, a mathematical inftrument, much ufed 
 in furveyiiig, for the taking of angles, diitanccs, altitudes, 
 
 12 I I t 
 
 \ 
 
THE 
 
 THE 
 
 It is madevarioufly; feveral perlons having their feveralways 
 or contriving it, each attempting to make it more fimplc and 
 portable, more accurate and expeditious, than others. T he 
 following one is not interior to any we have feen ! it Conftfis 
 of a brais circle, about a foot diameter, cut in form of Fig. 
 25. Tab. Surveying ; having its limb divided into 360 degrees, 
 and each degree fubdivided either diagonally, or otlierwife, 
 into minute;. 
 
 Underneath at £ c, are fixed two little pillars b b s {fig. 25. n, 
 2.) which fupport an axis, whereon is fixed a telefcope, 
 confiftingcf two glafTes, in a fquare brafs tube ; for the view- 
 ing of remote objects. . , 
 .On the centre of the circle, moves the index C, which is a 
 Circular plate, havinE a compafs in the middle, whofe meridian 
 line anfwers to the fiducial line a a: at bb are fixed two pillars 
 to fupport an axis, which bears a telefcope like the former, 
 whofe line of colhmation anfwers to the fiducial line tf a.— At 
 each end of either telefcope is fixed a plain light for the view- 
 ing nearer objects. See Sight. 
 
 The ends of the index aa are cut circularly, to fit the divifi- 
 ons of the limb B ; and when that limb is diagonally divided, 
 the fiducial line at one end of the index Chews the degrees and 
 minutes upon the limb. The whole inftrument is mounted 
 with a ball and focket, upon a three-legged fiafF. 
 Moft theodolites have no tefefcopes, but only four plain fights, 
 two of them faflned on the limb, and two on the ends of the 
 index. 
 
 The ufe of the theodolite is abundantly fhewn in that of the fe- 
 micircle, which is only half a theodolite. See Semicircle. — 
 And in that of the plain-table, which is occafionally made to 
 he ufed as a theodolite. See PhAlH-Table. 
 Note, the index and compafs of the theodolite likewife ferve 
 for a circumferentor, and are ufed as fuch. 
 THEOGONY,* that branch of the heathen theology which 
 taught the genealogy of their gods. 
 
 * The word is formed from 0i®-, God, and ywn, gemture, feed, 
 offspring. 
 
 Hefiod gives us the ancient theogony, in a poem under that 
 title. Among the moft ancient writers, Dr. Burnet obferves, 
 that theogony and cofinogony fignifiedthe fame thing. In effect, 
 the generation of the gods of the ancient Perfians, fire, water, 
 and earth, is apparently no other than that of the primary 
 elements. 
 
 THEOLOGICALCr/V/Vzyw, 7 See 5 Criticism. 
 Theological Prebend, J t Prebend. 
 THEOLOGIUM,* in the ancient theater, was a place, or 
 
 little ftage, above that whereon the ordinary actors appeared. 
 
 See Theater. 
 
 * The word is Latin, formed from Qi&, and Kby6^ /fetch, 
 difcourfi. * 
 
 The theologmm was the place where their Gods appeared — It 
 alfo included the machines whereon they defcended, and from 
 which they fpoke. 
 
 There was a thealogium required for the reprefentation of the 
 Ajax of Sophocles, the Hippolitus of Euripides, tSc, Seal. 
 Poet. itb. I. cap. 1. 
 THEOLOGY,* Divinty ; a fcience which inftruas us in the 
 knowledge of God, and divine things ; or which has God, 
 and the things he has revealed, for itsobject. 
 
 * The word is compounded of 06©-, God, and *o>&, difcourfe. 
 Theology is a fcience which fhews us what we are to believe of 
 God, and the manner wherein he would be ferved. — It is di 
 vided Into two branches, the natural? and the revealed OTjupir 
 natural. 
 
 Natural Theology, is the knowledge we have of God from 
 his works, by the light of nature, and reafon. 
 
 Supernatural Theology, is that which we learn from revela- 
 tion. 
 
 Pofitive Theology, is the knowledge of the holy fcriptures. 
 and of the figni fixation thereof, conformably to the opinions of 
 the fathers and councils ; without the affiftance of any argu 
 mentation. But fome will have it, that this ought to bs called 
 expofitive, rather thznpofitive. 
 
 41sf w/Theclogy, is that which teaches us the divine laws re- 
 lating to our manners and actions. 
 
 Scholnjlic, or School Theology, is that which proceeds by rea- 
 foning ; or that derives the knowledge of feveral divine things 
 from certain cftablifhed principles of faith. 
 The ancients had a three-fold theology ; the firfr, u.v§ikd, mythic, 
 fabulous, 'which flourifhed among the poets ; and was chiefly 
 employed in the theogony, or genealogy of the gods. 
 The fecond, TraXmxt), political, which was that chiefly em- 
 braced by the politicians, priefts, and people, as moft fuitable 
 and expedient to the fafety, quiet, and profperity of the ftatp. 
 The third, tpuM/,, natural, chiefly cultivated by the philofo- 
 phers, as moft agreeable to nature and reafon. — -Thephyfica! 
 or natural theology acknowledged one only fupreme God ; to 
 which it added daemons or fpirits, as mediators between him 
 and man. 
 
 Bachelor in Theology, 7 c . . . SBachelor. 
 Myjlic Theology, \ Seethe artIcIes \ Mystic 
 THEOPASCHITES, T H £0PAscHiTiE, a feet of heretics 
 in the Vth century, the followers of Petrus Fullenfis, or Peter 
 
 the Fuller ; whence they are fometimes alio denominated Tv.U 
 
 loniani. 
 
 Their diftinguifbing doctrine was, that the whole trinity Of- 
 fered in the paffion of Jefus Chrift. 
 
 This herefy was embraced by the Eutychian monks of Scy- 
 thia ; who ufing their utmoft efforts to make it obtain, 
 raifed great diforders towards the beginning of the follow- 
 ing century. 
 
 It was condemned, at its firnr rife, in the councils of Rome 
 and conftantinople, held in 483 ; it was again revived in the IXth 
 century, and again condemned in a council at Rome, held in 
 862 under pope Nicholas I. 
 
 F. le Quien, in his notes on Damafcenus, fays, that the fame 
 error had been taught before Fullenfis, by Apollinarius, whole 
 difciples were the firft that were called theopatittz, or theo- 
 
 pafeb'tta. 
 
 THEORBA, * Tiiiokba, or Tiorea, a mufical inftru- 
 ment, made in form of a large lute ; except that it has 
 two necks, or juga, the fecond and longer whereof fuftaina 
 the four laft rows of chords, which are to give the deepen: 
 founds. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, ttorbe, or theorhe, and 
 that from the Italian, ttorbe, which fgnifies che lame; and 
 which fome will have to be the name of the inventor. 
 The theorba is an inftrument which for many years fucceeded 
 to the lute, in the playing of thorough-baftes : it it faid by 
 fome to have been invented in France by the fieur Hotteman, 
 and thence introduced into Italy, &e. 
 
 The only difference between the theorba and the lute is, that 
 the former has eight bafs or thick firings, twice as long as thofes 
 of the lute; which excefs of length renders their found fo ex- 
 ceedingly foft, and keeps it up fo long a time, that it is no 
 wonder many prefer it to the harpficord itfelf. At leaft it 
 has this advantage over it, that it is eafily removed from place 
 to place, iffc. 
 
 All its firings are ufually fingle; though there are fome who 
 double the bafs-ftrings with a little octave, or the final! firings 
 with an unifon; in which cafe, bearing more refemblance to 
 the lute than the common theorba, the Italians call it the 
 arcileuto, or arch-lute. 
 THEOREM, in the mathematical method, a propofition 
 which terminates in theory, and which confiders the pro- 
 perties of things already made, or done. 
 
 Or, a theorem is a fpeculative popofition, deduced from feveral 
 definitions compared together. — Thus, if a triangle be com- 
 pared with a parallelogram ftanding on the fame bafe, and of 
 the fame altitude, and partly from their immediate definitions, 
 and partly from other of their properties already determined, 
 it is inferred, that the parallelogram is double the triangle} 
 that propofition is a theorem. 
 
 Theorem frauds con trad illinguifhed from problem. See the ar- 
 ticle Problem. 
 
 There arc two things to be chiefly regarded in every theorem^ 
 viz. the propofition, and the demo nitration : in the firft: is ex- 
 preffed what agrees to fome certain thing under certain con- 
 ditions, and what does not. 
 
 In the latter, the reafons are laid down, by which the under- 
 standing comes to conceive that it does or does not agree 
 thereto. 
 
 Theorems are of various kinds. 
 
 Univerfal Theorem, is that which extends to any quantity 
 without reftriction, univerfally — as this, that the rectangle of 
 the fum and diiferenceof any two quantities, is equal to the 
 difference of their fquares. 
 
 Particular Theorem, is that which extends only to a particu- 
 lar quantity — as this: in an equilateral right lined triangle, 
 each of the angles is 60 degrees. 
 
 Negative Theorem, is that which expreiTes the impoftibility of 
 any after t ion — as, that the furn of two biquadiate numbers 
 cannot make a fquare number, 
 
 Zsra/THEOREM, is that which relates to a furface — as, that 
 triangles of the fame bafe and altitude are equal. 
 
 P/w Theorem, is that which either relates to a rectilinear 
 furface, or to one terminated by the circumference of a circle 
 —as, that all angles in the fame fegment of a circle are equal. 
 See Plane. 
 
 Solid Theorem, is that which confiders a fpacc terminated by 
 a folid line ; that is, by any of the three conic feet ions — e.gr. 
 this: that if a right line cut two afymptotic parabolas, i:s 
 two parts terminated by them fhall be equal. See Solid. 
 
 Reciprocal Theorem, is one whofe converfe is true. — As, that 
 if a triangle have two equal fides, it muft have two equal 
 angles: the converfe of which is likewife true, that if it have 
 two equal angles, it muft have two equal fides. 
 
 THEORETIC, * Theoretical, or Theoric, fome- 
 thing relating to theory, or that terminates in fpeculatien. — ■ 
 In which fenfe it floods oppoftte to praclical. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, ^ fee, I wtrw or 
 contemplate. 
 
 The fciences are ordinarily divided into theoretical, as theolo- 
 gy, philofopby, WV, and praclical, as medicine, law, tsV. 
 bee Science. 
 
 Thloietic, 
 
THE 
 
 THE 
 
 Theoretic, Theoreticus* is art appellation peculiarly 
 given to an ancient feet of phylicians, comradiftinguifhed by it 
 from the empirics. 
 
 Theoretic phyficians were fuch as applied themfelves to a 
 careful ftudv and confideration of what relates to health and 
 difeafes ; the principles of the human body, and it? ftructure 
 and parts, with their actions and ufes; whatever befalls it 
 either naturally or preternaturaily ; the difte. ences of u'ifeafes, 
 their nature, caufes, fignsj indications, tiJV. the textures, 
 properties, &c. of plants, and other medicines, &c. ■ — In a 
 word, the theoretic phvlicians were fuch as went on the foot 
 of realbn, in oppofition to the empirical phyficians, who went 
 wholly on experience. 
 
 Theoretical Ariihmcfic, ? □ t Arithmetic. 
 
 Theoretical ILOSoPHY. 
 
 THEORIC Monty, in ancient authors, was what was raifed by 
 way of tax on the people, to defray the expences of theatrical 
 rcprefentations, and other fpectacfes. 
 
 There were particular quefrors and treafurers of the thcoric 
 tnonry. — By a law of Eubulu^, it was made a capital crime to 
 pervert the thcoric mmey to any other ufe j even to employ it 
 in tiie occafions of war. 
 THEORICAL Ajironomy-, is that part of aftronomy which 
 conftders the true ftructuie and difpufitinn of the heavens, and 
 heavenly bodies; and accounts ior their various phenomena 
 therefrom. 
 
 It is thus called in oppofition to that part which confiders their 
 apparent ftructure, or their difpufitinn as viewed bytheeyej 
 which is called fyherical ajlronomy. See Sphkrical. 
 The feveral parts of thcorical aftronomy, fee under System, 
 Sun, Star, Planet, Earth, Moon, Satellite, 
 and Comet. 
 
 THEORY, a doctrine which terminates in the fole fpeculation, 
 or cmifideration of its object, without any view to the practice, 
 or application thereof. 
 
 To be learned in an art, VSi. the theory fufficcs ; to be a matter 
 of it, both the theory and practice are required. — Machine*, 
 many times, promifc very well in the theory, yet fail in the 
 practice. 
 
 We fay, theory of the moon, theory of the rainbow, of the 
 microlcope, the camera obf^ura, the motion of the heart, the 
 operation of purgatives, CSV, 
 
 Theories 0/" the Planets, l$c. are fyfrems or hypolhefes, ac- 
 cording to which the aftronomers explain the reafons of the 
 plixnomcna or appearances thereof. 
 
 THEOTOCHUS, Dcipara. See Mother of God. 
 
 THERAPEUT/E, ©EPAriETTAl, a Greek term fignify- 
 in£ fervants, more cfpecially thole employed in the fervice of 
 God. The Greeks gave the appellation therapeutec to fuch as 
 applieJ themfelves to a contemplative life, whether it were 
 from the great concern they had for their fouls, or from the 
 particular mode and manner of their religion ; the word 
 Si^sTiwiv, whence therapeuiec, fignifying the care a phyfi- 
 cian takes of his patient, or the fervice any one renders 
 another. 
 
 Philo, in his firft b^ok of the contemplative life, relates, that 
 there were a people fpicad throughout molt of the known 
 world, but particularly throughout Egypt, and about Alexan- 
 dria, who renounced their friends, their goods, csV. and who, 
 after difcharging themfelves of all temporal concerns, retired 
 into folitary places, where they had eacfi their feparare manfion, 
 called femneium, or monaftery. 
 
 He adds, that they there refigned themfelves wholly to the 
 exercifes of prayer and contemplation, were continually as in 
 the prefence of God, prayed mornings and evenings, eat no- 
 thing till after fun-fet, and many of them not above once in 
 three, or even fix days ; nor then any thing but a piece of 
 bread feafoned with fait, or, at beft, with hylibp. 
 They carried nothing with them into their femneium but the 
 booksof Mofes, theprophcls, the pfalms, and other like wri- 
 tings, wherein they fought for myftical and allegorical mean- 
 ings from a perfusion that the fcriptures were only fhadows 
 or figures, the hidden meanings whereof were to be unfolded. 
 They had ufually alfo books left them by the founders of their 
 feci. — They met together every feventh day in a Urge fem- 
 neium toconfer together, and to partake of the myfterics. 
 There are two points relating to thofe Therapeutec exceedingly 
 controverted among critics, viz. i 5 , whether they were Jews 
 or Chriftians; and, z". if they were the latter, whether 
 they were monks or feculars ? 
 
 As to the firft, Scaliger de Emend. Temp, maintains, they 
 were EfTene Jews ; but Valerius on Eufebius rejects this opi- 
 nion of Scaliger, i °. becaufc Philo never calls rhem Efiencs. 
 2°: becaufe there were no EfTenes but in the Holy Land ; 
 whereas the Therapeutec were fpread through Greece, and all 
 the barbarous nations. 3 0 . Becaufe Jofephus, who gives a 
 very ample account of the Eflencs, does not (ay one word of 
 the Thernpeuter, or the therapeutic Ufe. 
 
 Yet Valefiu; allows them to be Jews ; and Phctius is of his 
 opinion : the chief reafons Valefius gives are what Philo fays, 
 1". that they read nothing but the law, and the prophets 
 z°. that they had fome books of their founders ; and how can 
 
 this quadrate with the Chriftians, who were then in their ffrft 
 rife ? 3 0 . that they only praved twice a-day, whereas the 
 Chriftians then prayed much oftener. 4 0 . that the Chriftians 
 had no hymns or pfalms till after the time of Antoninus. And 
 laftly, that the Chriftians could not, at that time, be fpread 
 over the world. 
 
 Neverthelefs Eufebius, lib. IE Wfl. Eccl. c. 17. St. Jerom, 
 Sozomen, Nicephorns, Baronius, Petavius, M. Godeauj 
 Montfaucon, &c. maintain the Therapeutcc to have been 
 Chriftians ; urging, that nothing can be more conformable td 
 the practices of the church than the account given of them by 
 Philo ; that thofe books of their founders are the gofpcls, and 
 other writings of the apoftlesj and that there are indications 
 even of bifhopsand other minifters among them. 
 But M. Bouhier, prefident of the parliament of Dijon, refutes 
 this opinion ; fuppofing it inconfiltent in Philo, a Jew, to 
 write a book exprefly in praife of Chriftians. 
 Several authors, however, as Caffian, F. Helyot, Isc. main- 
 tain, that the Ternpeutcs were not only Chriftians, but that 
 they were alfo religious : and, in effect, M. Bouhier allows, 
 that if they were Chriftians, they muft be confefted o have 
 been monks. — As to his argument, that Philo would never 
 have wrote a panegyric on the Chriftians ; it is anfwered, that 
 they were people of his own nation, Jews* as he hiinfelf ex- 
 prelles it; and that he only looked on them as a feet of Jews, 
 who, by their extraordinary virtue, did honour to his nation. 
 But though the Chriftianity of the Thcrapcutts appears proba- 
 ble enough ; yet their monachil'm U not made out at all. 
 THERAPEUTICE,* Therapeutics, that part cf me- 
 dicine which is employed in fecking out remedies againft dif- 
 eafes, and in prefcribing and applying them to effect a cure. 
 See Medicine. 
 
 * The word h Greek Ot-aaMrs-jTiKsj, formed from ^(tsivm, to at- 
 tend, to nurfi, care, Sec. 
 Theropeutice teaches the ufe of diet, pharmacy, chirurgery, 
 and the mcthodus medendi. 
 Therapeutice is alfo ufed figuratively* in fpeaking of the 
 miodj and of difcourfes made to correct the errors and defects 
 thereof. 
 
 Such is the Tfjcrapeuiice or Therapeutics of Theodoret ; being 
 a treatife againft the errors or unwholfome opinions of the 
 Greeks, /'. e. the heathens. 
 THERAPHIM* a TheraphiM, a Hebrew term, which has 
 given great torture to the critics. — We meet with it H, or 
 1 4. times in fcripture, where it is commonly interpreted idols : 
 but the rabbins are not contented to have it fimply lignify 
 idols, but will have it denote a peculiar fort of idols or images 
 intended for the knowledge of futurity, t. e. oracles. 
 R. D.ividde Pomis obferves, that they were called theraphim^ 
 from n2~l> raphah, to leave, becaufe people quitted every 
 thing to confult them. — He adds alto, that the theraphim were 
 in human fhape ; and that, when raifed upright, theyfpokeat 
 certain hours, and under certain conftellations, by the in- 
 fluence of the celeftial bodies. But this is only a rabbinical 
 fable, which he has learned from Abenezra. 
 Others bold, that the theraphim were brazen inftrumcnts which 
 pointed out the hours and minutes of future event?, as directed 
 by theftars. — De Pomis corrects Abenezra, faying, that the 
 theraphim being made under a certain conftellation, [he devil 
 made them fpeak under the fame. 
 
 R. Eliezer tells us the re.ifon why the rabbins will have the 
 theraphim to fpeak, and render oracles : 'tis, fays he, becaufe 
 it is written in the prophet Zachary, x. 2, The theraphim 
 have fpoke vain things. 
 
 The fame rabbin adds, that to make the theraphim, they killed 
 a firft-born child, clove hi? head, and feafoned it with fait and 
 oil ; that they wrote on a plate of gold the name of Tome im- 
 pure fpirit, laid it under the tongue of the dead, placed the 
 head againft the wall, lighted lamps before it, and prayed to 
 jr, and that it then talked with them. 
 
 Be this as it will, Vorftius obferves, that befide the paffage of 
 
 Zachary juft quoted, it appears likewifc from Ezekiel xxi. 22. 
 
 that the theraphim were confultcd as oracles. 
 
 De Pomis endeavours to (hew, that thzleraphim, which Ml* 
 
 chol put in David's bed, were not of this kind, becaufe they 
 
 were not in the figure cf men ; but R. Eliezer is of another 
 
 fentiment. 
 
 • As to the manner of making the theraphim, Vorftius takes it 
 to be a vain tradition of the rabbins, though R. 1 anxhuma 
 and Jonathan, in his Targum, Gen. xxxi. 19. relate it after 
 R. Eliezer. — The chief reafon of his r^iibelici, is, that Laban 
 who had not quite loft all notion of the true God, as appears 
 from Gen. xxxi. 53. could not be guilty of Co great a cruelty : 
 but Vorftius does not contider that this cuftom might not be 
 lefs real, for its not having been eftablifhed fo early as Eaban ; 
 and that the Hebrews lometimes burnt their Chlbren to 
 Moloch. 
 
 F. Kircher directs us to feek the origin of the theraphim in 
 E^ypt ; adding, that the word is Egyptian. — Spencer, in Ins 
 diftertation on thettnV?fand thummim, maintains thewoidw 
 be Chaldee, and to fignify the fame with feraphim ; the Chal- 
 deans being frequently known to change the into /■„ that 
 
THE 
 
 fe /"into t He adds, that thofe images were borrowed from 
 the Amorftes, Chaldeans, or Syrians ; and that the firapis 
 of the Egyptians is the fame thing with the thcraphim of the 
 Chaldeans. See Selden de diis Syrits, fynt. 1. 5. 2. 
 THERIACA, ©EPIAK.A, Treacle, in medicine, a name 
 given by the ancients to various compofitions efteemed good 
 atgainft poifons ; but now chiefly reftrained to what;, by way 
 of diftindion, we call theriaca andmmachi, or vmtce 
 treacle. . 
 This is a compound of no lefs than 6,4 drugs, prepared, pul- 
 verized and reduced, by means of honey, into an efcttuanr. 
 The bahs, or foundation of the compofition, is vipers flefh. 
 M. Charas has wrote a particular hiftory of the animals, plants 
 and minerals, which enter the compofition of this famed re- 
 medy. _ 
 It is faid to be foveraign a<?ainft the bites of venomous beaits, 
 and in the wind-colic ; and is alfo ufed in intermitting fevers, 
 and in cafes requiring perfpiratives and diaphoretics ; alfo in 
 continual fevers, efpecially fuch as are malignant, and where 
 the pulfe is low and ticking ; and in the fmall-pox and 
 mealies : and, as moft of the ingredients thereof are very 
 hot, in all difeafes, where the natural heat is weak and 
 languid. 
 
 Andromachus, Nero's phyfician, partes for the inventor of 
 the tbertaca ; at leaft, it was he who gave tbefirft defcription 
 thereof in elegiac verfes : his fon did the fame in profe, and 
 Democrates in iambics. 
 
 Anciently, the treade made at Venice had all the vogue : and 
 many ftill tetain the ancient prejudice : but it is now pre- 
 pared at Montpellier, at Paris, and at London, with as 
 much advantage as at Venice. 
 
 There is another vulgar kind of theriaca, called Diatejhron, 
 becaufe only cottfifUng of four ingredients. See Diates- 
 
 SA RON. '■ " ' 1 
 
 Treacle -watery and treacle vinegar are found good prefer va- 
 tives a<*ainft putrid air, whether by only being (melt at, or by 
 rubbing the wrirts, temples and nofe therewith. 
 THERMWE, * ©hpmai, in architecture, ancient buildings, 
 furnifhed with baths, efpecially of the hot kind. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, B4gpm M* 
 Among the nobleft monuments of ancient Rome, are reckon- 
 ed the t her ma, or baths of Dioclefian. 
 
 Therma, or hot fprings, it is commonly argued, owe their 
 heat to acolluftation, or effervefcence of the minerals in them. 
 Though Dr. Woodward afcribes it to the fubterraneous heat, 
 or fire, which communicates witli them by fome fpiracle or 
 canal, whereby a greater quantity of heat is derived thither 
 than to ordinary fprings. See fupplement article Therm je. 
 THERMOMETER, Thermometrum, an inftrument 
 fhewing, or rather meafuring, the increafe and decreafe of the 
 heat and cold of the air. 
 
 The Thermometer and thermofcope are ordinarily accounted the 
 lame thing : Wolfius, however, makes a difference ; but 
 fhews withal that what we call thermometers are, in reality, 
 no more than thermofcopes. 
 
 There are various kinds of thermometers, the conft ructions, 
 defects, theory, &c. whereof are as follow : 
 Conftrutlion of ^Thermometer, depending on therarcfaclion 
 of the air. — In the tube B C, {Tab. Pneumatics, fig. 3- «■ z -) 
 to which is fattened a glafs ball A B, is put a quantity of com- 
 mon water mixed with aqua regia, to prevent its freezing ; 
 and the mixture is tinged with a fclution of vitriol to give it a 
 green ne/s. In filling the tube, care is taken that there be fo 
 much air left in the ball and the tube, as, that when at its 
 greateft condenfation in the middle of winter, it mayjuft fill 
 the ball ; and yet in its greateft rarefaction in fummer, it may 
 not drive the liquor out of the tube. To the other ex- 
 treme of the tube is fattened another glafs ball C D, open to 
 the air at D: on each fide the tube is applied the fcale E F, 
 divided into any number of equal parts. 
 
 Now, as the ambient air becomes warmer, the air in the 
 ball and the top of the tube expanding, will drive the 
 liquor into the lower ball ; and confequently its furface 
 will defcend : on the contrary, as the ambient air grows 
 colder, that in the ball becoming condenfed, the liquor will 
 afcend. 
 
 Co'ifh-uclion of the mercurial Thermometer. — In the fame 
 manner, and with the fame caution as before, put a little 
 quantity of mercury, not exceeding the bignefs of a pea, into 
 the tube BC (fig. 4. «■ z- ) thus bent in wreaths, that, 
 taking up the lefs height, it may be the more maagcable, and 
 lefs liable to harm ; divide this tube into any number of equal 
 parts to ferve for a fcale. 
 
 Here the approaches of the mercury towards the ball A will 
 (hew the increafes of the degree of heat. — The reafon is the 
 fame as in the former. 
 
 The defect of both thefe infiruments cor.fifts in this, that they 
 are liable to be acted on by a double caufc : for, not only a 
 decreafe of heat, but alfo an increafe of weight of the atmo- 
 fphere, will make the liquor rife in the one, and the mercury 
 in the other ; and, on the contrary, either an increafe of heat, 
 or decreafe of weight of the atmofphere, will make it defcend. 
 See Baro meter. 
 
 T H £ 
 
 Conftrnttion of the Florentine or common Thermometer.-^ 
 The academifts del Cimento, considering the inconveniencies 
 of the thermometers here described, attempted another, that 
 fbould meafute heat and cold by the rarefaction and conden- 
 fation of thefpiritof wine) though thofe be valtly lefs than 
 that of air, and confequently the alterations in the degree of 
 heat likely to be much lefs fenfible. 
 
 The ftrudlureof their thermo/neter is this: on fome little pieces 
 of turmeric is poured a quantity of rectified fpirit of wine, 
 which hereby receives a red tincture; this diine, the fpirit of 
 wine is filtrated again and again through a brown paper, that 
 the coarfes particles of the root may be feparated therefrom. 
 With the fpirit thus tinged and prepared, they fill a giafs ball 
 A B ( fig. 5. n. 1. ) and the tube UC; and that all the fpirit 
 may not defcend in winter into the ball, it is convenient to put 
 the ball into a lump of fnow, mixed with fait j or, it the in- 
 ftrument be to be made in fummer, into fpring- waier impreg- 
 nated with falt-petre, that the condenled fpirit may fliew how 
 far it will retire in the extremeft cold. 
 
 If it rife to too great a height from the ball, part of it is to be 
 taken out; and that the tube may not be made longer than 
 needs, it is convenient to immerge the ball, rilled with its 
 fpirit, in boiling water, and to mark the furtheft point to 
 which the fpirit then rifes. 
 
 At this point the tube is to be hermetically fealed by the flame 
 of a lamp; and at the fides is to be added a fcale, as in the 
 former thermometer. 
 
 Now, fptrit of wine rarifying and condenfing very confidera- 
 bly ; as the heat of the ambient air increafes, the fpirit will 
 dilate, and confequently will afcend in the tube ; and as the 
 heat decreafes, the fpirit will defcend : and the degree or quan- 
 tity of afcent and defcent will be feen in the fcale. Yet as the 
 ratio of yefterday's heat to to-day's is not hereby difcovered, 
 this inftrument is not ftrictly a thermometer, any more than 
 the former. 
 
 It is to be here obferved, l°. that as the natural gravity of 
 the liquor makes it tend downwards, fo it refills its afcent out 
 of the ball into the tube ; and that the more, as it rifes higher : 
 for which reafon, it were beft to have the tube BC horizontal. 
 z°. Since there muft of neceflity be fome air left in the void 
 part of the tube over the liquor, that air, by its eiafticity, will 
 tend downwards, and of confequence will refill: the rife of the 
 liquor, and be comprefled by it as it does rife: its eiafticity 
 therefore is thus increafed. 
 
 3 0 . Since it is found from experience, that a lefs degree of heat 
 is communicated more eafily to the fpirit of wine in the ball 
 than a greater, the rarefactions of the fpirit of wine ar not 
 proportionable to their producing caufes ; efpecially lince a 
 greater decree of heat finds more liquor in the tube than a lefs 
 does, to which, notwithstanding, the heat may be more eafily 
 communicated than to that ftagnating in the ball. 
 On thefe accounts, the Florentine thermometer, though that 
 commonly in ufe, is far from being an accurate meafure of 
 heat, feff, to which may be added what Dr, Halley obfer.es 
 in the phihfspkical tranjatlions, that he has learned from thofe 
 who have kept fpirit of wine long, that it always lufes part of 
 its expanfive force in courfe of time. 
 
 Another great defect of thefe, and Other thermometers, is, that 
 their degrees are not comparable with each other. They mark, 
 indeed, the different degrees of heat and cold, but each marks 
 only for itfelf, and after its own manner; for that they do not 
 proceed from any point of heat, or cold, that is common to 
 them all. It is with them as with two clocks, which for want 
 of having been firft fet to the fame hour by the fun, will, in- 
 deed, mark that one, two, or more hours arc patted, but not 
 what hour it is by the day.— Nor can we be allured, that when, 
 the liquor is rifen a degree in two different thennometers, they 
 have both fuffercd the fame impreflion of an equal additional 
 heat: fince the fpirit of wine may not be the fame in both, 
 and in proportion as the fpirit is more or lefs rectified, it will 
 rife more or lefs high by the fame heat. 
 
 Nor is this all : for in graduating thennometers they take equal 
 lengths of the tube for equal afcents of the fpirit ; whereas, 
 fuppoling the diameters of the tube equal throughout, which 
 very rarely happens, there are fo many irregularities within- 
 fide, that a certain length of tube fomecimes requires double 
 the quantity of liquor to fill it, ihat the fame length in ano- 
 ther tube of the fame diameter requires. All which a rifes from 
 the unequal thickneffes of the parietes of tubes in different 
 places ; and from accidental prominences and cavities, always 
 found in the inner furfaces of tubes; and efpecially from their 
 being almoft always bigger at one end than the other. 
 Hence it is, that the comparifon of thermometers becomes fo 
 precarious and defective.— Yet the moil curious and interefting 
 ufe of themwnctcrs is, what ought to anfc from fuch compari- 
 fon, It is by this we fliould know the heat or cold of ano- 
 ther feafon, of another year, another climate, (Jc. and what 
 is the greateft degree of heat or cold that men and other ani- 
 mals can fubfift in. 
 
 M. de Reaumur has contrived a new thermometer for the pur- 
 pofe ; wherein the inconveniencies above recited are remedied. 
 See its defcription at Urge in Mem. del' Acad. R. des Scien. an 
 
 i 73 o, p. 645. biJL p. 15- ittmi mu 173'*' P-354* P- 7- 
 
 Various 
 
THE 
 
 T H I 
 
 Various methods have been propafed by various authors, for 
 finding a fixed point, or degree of heat and cold, from which 
 to account the ocher degrees, and adjuft the fcale; that fo ob- 
 fcrvations made at the fame or different times, in different 
 places, micbt be compared together. 
 
 Some note the place the liquor is at in winter, when water be- 
 gins to freeze; and again, that in fummer, when butter 
 placed near the ball of the thermometer, melts: the interme- • 
 diate fpace they divide'into two equal parts, the middle point 
 whereof aufwers, in their graduation, to temperate heat ; and 
 each moiety they fub-divide into ten degrees, adding four other 
 equal degrees on each of the two extremes. But this method 
 fuppofes the fame degree of heat and cold to anfwer to the 
 freezing of all water, and the melting of all butter ; as alfo, 
 that ail thermometers receive the fame imprcfGons from the 
 fame degree of heat; all which fuppofitions are contrary to 
 experience. 
 
 Others advife the hall of the thermometer to he put in a quan- 
 tity of mow and fait, and the point the liquor is at to be noted. 
 Thence the thermometer is to be removed into a deep cave or 
 cellar, where no external air reaches: fo that the liquor re- 
 ceiving the action of a temperate air, may ihew the interme- 
 diate fpace into 15, ormoreequal parts, which they continue 
 beyond each extreme : but this method is liable to the fame in- 
 conveniences as the former. 
 
 Dr. Halley aflumes that for a fixed dregree of heat wherein 
 fpirit of wine begins to boil ; but there is reafon to fufpect this 
 too of being precarious: though after him, M. Amontons re- 
 tains the degree of heat anfwering to boiling water, for the 
 graduating his mercurial thermometer. But as the different fpe- 
 cific gravities of water, argue a difference of mafs and texture, 
 it is highly probable that heat of all boiling waters is not the 
 fame; fo that this eflential point is yet undetermined. 
 THERMOSCOPE,* an initrument fhewing the changes hap- 
 pening in the air with refpect to heat and cold. 
 
 * The Word tbermafeope is generally ufed indifferently with that of 
 thermometer. There is iome difference, however, in the literal 
 import of the two ; the firit fignifying an inftrument that ihew=, 
 or exhibits the changes of he.it, C5Y. to the eye, formed from 
 SiflAu, heat, and wxrta, 'video, 1 fee ; and the latter an in- 
 itrument that meaiiires thofe changes, from JWwt, heat, and 
 (/.ikiw, to me ajar e : on which foundation the thermomether mould 
 be a more accurate tbermofcope, i$c. This difference theex- 
 , cellent Woifius taking hold of, defcribes all the thermometers 
 in ufe astbermajco-pes ; fhewing that none of them properly mea- 
 sure the changes of heat, fefV. none of them do more than in- 
 dicate the fame. Tho' theirdifferent heights yelieiday and to- 
 day ftiew a difference of hear, yet fince they do not difcovcr 
 the ratio of yelterday's heat to to-day's, they are not llriclly 
 thermometers. 
 
 In the A£la erud. Lipf. we have a method of graduating the 
 common thermometers fo, as that the unequal divifions thereof 
 fhall correfpond to equal degrees of heat, whereby the ratio of 
 to-day's heat to yelterday's will be meafured, and confequently 
 the thermojeope be improved in a thermometer. 
 The method is that of Car. Renaldinus, and is defcribed by 
 the Lei p fie editors thus: take a {lender tube about four palms 
 long, with a ball fattened to the fame; pour into it fpirit of 
 wine, enough iuft to fill the ball when furrounded with ice, 
 and not a drop over. In this ftate, feal the orifice of the tube 
 hermetically, and provide fix veflels, each capable of contain- 
 ing a pound of water, and fomewhat more ; and into the firit 
 pour 1 1 ounces of cold water, into the fecond 10 ounce?, into , 
 the third 9, (sc. This done, immerge the thermometer in' 
 the firft vefTel, and pour into it one ounce of hot water; ob- : 
 ferving how high the fpirit rifes in the tube, and noting the 
 point with unity: then remove the thermometer into the fe- 
 cond vefTel, into which is to be poured two ounces of hot wa- 
 ter, and note the place the fpirit rifes to, with z . B v thus pro- 
 ceeding till the whole pound of water is fpent, the initrument 
 will be found divided into iz parts, denoting fo many terms 
 or degrees of heat ; fo that at 2, the iieat is double to that at 1 , 
 at 3 triple, &c. 
 
 But this method, though plaufiblc, Woifius (hews is deceitful, 
 and is built on falfe fuppofitions: for it takes for granted, that 
 we have one degree of heat, by adding one ounce of hot to 
 il of cold water; two degrees, by adding two ounces to 
 10, &c. It fuppofes alfo that a (ingle degree of heat acts on 
 thclpiritof wine in the ball with a fingle force, a double with 
 a double force, &e. Lattly, it fuppofes that if the effect be 
 produced in the thermometer by the heat of the ambient air, 
 which is here produced by the hot water, the air has the fame 
 degree ol heat with the water. 
 
 But noneofthele fuppofitions is true: for, as to the firft, al- 
 lowing the heat of the hot water, equally diftributed through 
 the cold, one degree of it will then be diftributed through 1 1 
 two through 10, three through 9, tifV. Taking therefore 
 equal bulks of the water, e. gr. a twelfth part ol each, the 
 heat will not be double in one, triple in another, quadruple in 
 another, &c. 
 
 The firit fuppofitign therefore is erroneous, and fo is the fe- 
 cond ; for neither is the heat of the hot water equably diffufed 
 Vol.. II. 
 
 throughout the cold, nor does the heat of the hot water aft 
 Uniformly on the fpirit of wine, i, e. not with the fame force 
 during all the time o( its action. 
 
 For the third fuppofition, the heat of the ambient air acts 
 not only on the fpirit of wine in the ball, but alfo on that 
 in the tube; and therefore this as well as that will be 
 changed. 
 
 THESEA, or Thesjea, 0HrElA, in antiquity, feafls cele- 
 brated by the Athenians, in honour of Thefeus. 
 In fpite of the important fervicea that hero had done his 
 country, in delivering it from a fhameful tribute of fo many 
 youths of either fex fent yearly to be devoured by the Mino- 
 taur in Crete (as the fable has it) or fent as fiaves to Minos 
 king of Crete, as the hiftories have it; from which he freed 
 them, by overcoming Taurus, Minus's general: he was ba- 
 nifhed for fome time, and retired to Scyro, under the protec- 
 tion of Lycomedes king of that ifland, who finally flew him 
 out of jeaioufv. 
 
 The gods, if IS fait!, revenged this treatment Thefeus received 
 from the Athenians, by afflicting them with a famine, which 
 the oracle allured them fhould not ceafe till they had avenged 
 his death. — Upon this they flew Lycomedes, brought The- 
 feus's bones to Athens, placed them in a temple erected to him, 
 and appointed thejea to be held every eight day of each month, 
 wherein largcffes were diftributed to the people, and the day 
 was fpent bv the rich in fending and rejoicing. 
 THESEN, — Per Arfm £if Thesin. See Per Arsin. 
 THESIS,* in the reboots, a general proportion which a perfon 
 advance?, and offers to maintain. 
 
 * The word is pure Greek, Ssji;, pojtii«n\ formed from nftjfu, 
 pono, I pat, or lay doQKH. 
 
 In the colleges it infrequent to have placards, containing a 
 number of thefe thefts. — There are thefes in theology, in me- 
 dicine, in philofophy, in law, (&c — The maintaining a the/is, 
 is a great part of the exerc.fe a fiudeGR is to undergo for a de- 
 gree. 
 
 Thesis, in logic, &c. — Everv propnfition may be divided into 
 thefts, and hvpothefis, tbtjh contains the tiling affirmed or de- 
 nied, and hypothefis the conditions of the affirmation or ne- 
 gation. 
 
 Thus, in Euclid, If a triangle and parallelogram hive cq'ial 
 bafes and altitudes, (is the hypothefis) the firit is half of the 
 fecond, the thejis. 
 Arfu and Thesis. See the article Arsis. 
 THEURGY,* GEOYPri^, a name which the ancients gave to 
 that facred part of magic, which we fomctimes call white ma- 
 gUj or the white art. 
 
 • The word is formed from the Greek 9dB>J God, and 
 fj}ark t q. d. the art of doing divine thing', or things which God 
 alone can do, or the power of working extraordinary and fu- 
 pernatural things by invoking the mines of God, faints, an- 
 gels, Uc. 
 
 Accordingly, thofe who have wrote of magic in the general, 
 divide it into three parts ; the firft whereof is called theurgy, as 
 operating by divine or celeftia! means; the fecond, natural 
 magic, performed by the powers of nature; and the third, ne- 
 cromancy, which proceeds by invoking d:emons. 
 THICK. Intefliries. See tbeaiticle Jk.TE.5TI.MJES. 
 THIGH, a part of the body of men, quadrupeds, and bird?, 
 j between the leg and the trim k. Sec Legs, isfc. 
 
 The fevcral parts of the thigh have different names: the fore 
 and upper part is joined to the groin, or ingjie/i; the fide makes 
 the hanch, or hip, coxa, coxcnd.'x; the upper hind-part the 
 buttock, chilis; the lower and hind pait the ham, pefyes., of 
 poji and plico, becaufe it bends backwards ; and the fore-part 
 the knee, genu, of the Gieek 7'-"-, which fignifies the fame. 
 The bone of the thigh is the (argeft and Itrongeft in the whole 
 human body, as being to bear the whole burthen thereof: 
 •whence its name femur, of fero, I bear. 
 THINKING, Cogitation, a general name for any act, or ope- 
 ration of the mind. 
 
 Chavin, with the Cartefians, will have thinking to confift in 
 a certain native, inherent motion, or agitation of the human 
 mind, whereof itfelf is confeious. — Native and inherent, fince 
 he conceives it no other than the very eflence ot the mind it- 
 felf, or, at lea ft, its principal and fundamental property: — an 
 agitation, fince there is a new modification or change made in 
 the mind, which we fcarce know how to conceive without mo- 
 tion ; add, that the origin and etymology of the word ecgita- 
 tion, according to Varro and Feftus, implies as much ; cogito 
 being ufed for coaglto. 
 
 When the mind turns its view inwards, upon itfelf, the fiift 
 idea that offers, fays Mr. Lock, h thinking; wherein it ob- 
 ferves a great variety of modifications, and thereof frames to 
 f itfelf diftinct ideas: thus the perfection annexed to any rm- 
 1 preffion on the body made by an external object, is called fen- 
 jat'ton. 
 
 When an idea recurs without the prcfence of the object, it is 
 1 called remembrance. 
 
 12 K When 
 
T H I 
 
 When fought after by the mind, and brought again in view, 
 it is called recolletlion. 
 
 When held there long under attentive confederation, it is con- 
 templation. 
 
 When ideas float in the mind without regard or reflection, it 
 is called a revery : when they are taken exprefs notice of, and, 
 as it were regiftered in the memory, it is attention : and when 
 the mind fixes its view on any one idea, and conliders it on 
 all fides, it isjludy and attention. 
 
 Thefe are the molt obvious modes of thinking ; but there are 
 feveral others which we know of ; and, doubtlefs, the mind 
 is capable of infinite others, whereof we have no notion 
 at all. 
 
 The fchool philofophers ufually divide thinking^ with regard^ to 
 the objects it is employed about, into underftanding, intelleclio ; 
 and willing, volitio. 
 
 And hence, thofe are bid to be the two powers or faculties of 
 the human mind. 
 
 Intellectual thinking is farther fubdivided into divers kinds : the 
 firft, when the mind merely apprehends or takes notice of a 
 thing, called perception : the fecond, when it affirms or denies 
 a thing, called judgment : the third, when it gathersor infers 
 a thing from others given, called rcafoning : the fourth, when 
 the mind difpofes its own thoughts -or ideas in order, called 
 method. 
 
 Voluive thinking, or volition, admits of infinite different mo- 
 difications, or new determinations. 
 
 Some authors extend the idea of thinking further ; and confi- 
 der it in God, angels, brutes, tzfe. whence a new divifion 
 of thinking into divine, angelical, human, and animal or fen- 
 
 fitive. ...... , 
 
 But the two firft we know little or nothing of. The third 
 is that we have already been treating ot. — As to the laft, 
 viz. animal or fenhtive thought, it is defined to be an action 
 of the foul attending to an externa! object, effected by 
 means of the animal fpirits duly agitated in the brain, 
 to excite an idea. See Spirits, Knowledge, Thought, 
 
 The Cartefnns maintain, that thinking is effential to the hu- 
 man foul ; and, confequently, that there is no time when the 
 foul does not think : but this doctrine is overturned by Mr. 
 Lock, who fhews, that in fleep without dreaming, there is 
 an entire cefi'ation of all the modes of thinking. 
 J think, cogito, according to des Cartes, is the firft, and mod 
 certain of all truths; from which alone we draw this confe- 
 rence, therefore I am, or exift, fum. — -One might alfo fay, 
 cogito, ergoDeus cji ; I think, therefore there is a God. — Logic 
 is defined the art of thinking juftly. 
 
 THIRD, Tertius. See Number, and Numeration. 
 
 Third, in mufic, a concord refulting from a mixture of two 
 founds containing an interval oftwo degrees. 
 It is called third, as containing three terms, or founds between 
 the extremes. 
 
 The third, in Italian, terza, inFrench tierce, in Latin tertia, 
 has no general name in the Greek : it is the firft of the im- 
 perfect concords; u e. of fuch as admit of majority and mi- 
 nority, without ceafing tobe concords. — And hence it is, that 
 it is dillinguifhed into two kinds. 
 
 The firft, which the Italians call ditem (from the greek ditonos) 
 or terza maggi ore, 2.n&-wc the greater third, is compofed diato- 
 nically of three term?, or founds, containing two degrees, or 
 inteivals ; one whereof, in the ancient fyftem, is a greater 
 tone, and the other a leffer tone : but in the modern temperate 
 fyftem they are both equal, as ut, re, mi; or ut, mi. 
 Chromatically it is compofed of four femitones ; two whereof 
 are greater, and the ihirdkCs : it takes its form from the ratio 
 fefqui-quarta 4:5. 
 
 The fecond third, which the Italians call trihemituono, or 
 femi-ditono, or terza minore, and we the leffer third, is com- 
 pofed, like the former, of three founds or terms, and two de- 
 grees or intervals : but thefe degrees, diatonically, are only a 
 greater tone, and a femitone. 
 
 Chromatically it is compofed of three tones, two greater, and 
 
 one lefs ; as re, mi, >fa ; or re, fa. 
 
 It takes its form from the ratio fefqui-quinta 5 : 6. 
 
 Both ihefe thirds are of admirable ufe in melody j and make, 
 
 as it were, the foundation and life of harmony. 
 
 They are ufed agreeably both afcending and defcending ; 
 
 and that either running over all the degrees, as ut, re, mi ; 
 
 or re, mi, fa ; or /kipping the middle degree, as ut, mi ; or 
 
 re, fa. 
 
 But it is to be obferved, that the greater third has fomewhat 
 gay and fprightly in rifing, and fomewhat heavy and me- 
 lancholic in falling: the leffer third, on the contrary, has 
 fomewhat foft and tender in rifing, and fomewhat brifk in 
 falling. — For the ufe of the greater or leffer third in the feries 
 ol the fcale. 
 
 There are two other kinds of thirds that are diffonantand vi- 
 cious ; the firft only compofed of two greater femitones, and, 
 by confequence, of a femitone lefs than the leffer third: this 
 they call the defeclive third. 
 
 The fecond, on the contrary, has a femitone more than the 
 greater third - t and this they call the redundant third. 
 
 T H I 
 
 The defeclive third is very frequent in Italian fongs, efpecially 
 thofe compofed for inftruments ; but is not to be ufed without 
 neceffity, and a great deal of difcretion. The redundant third 
 is abfolutely forbidden. 
 
 Third Borough, in our ancient law-books, denotes a conftable. 
 See Constable; 
 
 Third Earing, in husbandry, the tilling or ploughing of the 
 ground a third time. 
 
 Third EJlate. See Estate, Commons, &c. 
 
 Third Night-awn-hynd : by the laws of Edward the Confeffir, 
 a gueft who had lain three nights in an inn, was reputed a do- 
 meftic, and his hoft was anfwerable for what offence he fhould 
 commit. 
 
 For one night he was accounted uncuth, for two nights gueft, 
 and thei/j/W, awn-hynd. — Prima nocle incognitus, jeeunda hoj- 
 pes, tertia domcjlicus cenfetur. 
 Third Order, a fort of religious order, that obferves the fame 
 rule, and the fame manner of life, in proportion, as fome 
 other two orders inftituted before. . 
 
 The third orders are not originally religious orders, but afto- 
 ciations of fecular, and even married perfons, who conform, 
 as far as their condition will allow them, totbedefign, inten- 
 tion, and rules of a religious order which aflociates and directs 
 them. 
 
 The Premonftrantes, Carmelites, A uguftines, and Francifcans, 
 difpute among themfelves the honour of having firft introduced 
 third orders : but the pretenfions of the laft appear to be the 
 beft founded. 
 
 The firft contend, that the Third order of Premonftrantes 
 began in the life-time of their founder St. Norbert, who died 
 in 1134. 
 
 F. Diego de Coria Maldonado, a Spanifh Carmelite, who has 
 a particular treatife on the third order of Carmelites, derives 
 them immediately, as well as the Carmelites themfelves, from 
 the prophet Elijah ; and among the ereat men who have made 
 profeffion of that third order, reckons the prophet Obadiah, 
 who lived 800 years before Chrift ; and among the women, 
 our Saviour's great grandmother, under the borrowed nameof 
 St. Emerentiana. This Obadiah, he fays, was controller- 
 general of the houfe of king Ahab, mentioned in the firft book 
 of kings, chap, xviii. and wasadifciple of the prophet Elijah. 
 After ferving that prince, and his fucceffors, he retired to ferve 
 God, and entered the prophetic order of Elijah, but without 
 quitting his houfe, his wife, or children. 
 The author adds, that he was not properly of the third order, 
 but of the fecond, which confifted of married people, and 
 was called the order of eunuchs, under the direction of Elijah. 
 Such, according to him, is the foundation of the third order 
 of Carmelites. 
 
 F. Helyot fhews, that this third order was not begun till the 
 year 1476, when Sixtus IV. gave permiifion to the prior and 
 provincials of the Carmelites, to give the regular habit and 
 rule of their order, to people of both fexes, married or un- 
 married, living at liberty in the world. De Coria reckons 
 St, Louis, king of France, in the third order of the Car- 
 melites. 
 
 TheTniRD order of Auguftins, if we credit F. Bruno, was 
 inftituted by St, Auguftin bimfelf : but the arguments he pro- 
 duces are fo frivolous, that F. Heylot obfervts, they are not 
 worth the refuting. 
 
 The Third order of Francifcans was inftituted by St. Francis 
 m 1221, in favour of people of both fexes, who being fmitten 
 with the preachings of that faint, demanded of him an eafy 
 manner of Jiving a Chriftian life : upon which he gave them 
 a rule, the conftitutions whereof are not now extant as wrote 
 by bimfelf, but only as reduced and confirmed by pope Nicho- 
 las IV. 68 years afterwards. 
 
 The firft order of this faint are the monks called minor friars, 
 comprehending the cordeliers, capuchins, and recollects , the 
 fecond comprehends the nuns of St. Clare ; and the third feve- 
 ral perfons of both fexes, who live at liberty, and thefe are 
 what we call the third order. See Franciscan, &c. 
 Of this order, which was only eftablifhed fur fecular perfons, 
 feveral of both fexes, to attain the greater perfection, have 
 afterwards commenced religious, and formed varjous congre- 
 gations, under various names, as religious penitents of the third 
 order, tsfV. 
 
 Third Point, or TiERCE-point, in architecture, the point of 
 fection in the vertex of an equilateral triangle. 
 Arches or vaults of the third point, called by the Italians di 
 terzo acuta, are thofe confifting of two arches of a circle, meet- 
 ing in an angle a-top. See Arch. 
 
 Third Point in perfpective,"| p Point. 
 
 Third Rate, f c . . . \ Rate. 
 
 Th.rd Subf,J,-d«,,, f Sce ,he arudes i Duty. 
 
 Tithe of the Third year, J ^Tithe. 
 
 THIRDINGS, the third year of the corn or grain growing 
 on the ground at the tenant's death, due to the lord for a he- 
 riot, within the manour of Turfat, in Here for dfliire. See 
 Heriot. 
 
 THIRST, a painful fenfation, occafioned by a vellication of 
 the nerves of the throat or fauces, and producing a defue of 
 drinking. 
 
 Rohault 
 
THN 
 
 Rohault accounts for thitfl thus: the liquor of the ftomaeh, 
 which ordinarily rcfolves into a thick vapour, and afcends from 
 the ftomaeh up into the throar, to moilten it ; being too much 
 warmed and agitated, either from a want of fome other liquor 
 to temper and dilute it, or from any other caufe, becoming 
 converted into too thin, fubtje, and penetrating a vapour, is 
 fo far from moiftening and cooling the throat, that, on 'the 
 contrary, it dries and heats it ; and hence that motion in the 
 nerves, the fenfation whereof we call tbirjl. 
 Tbirjl fometimes alfo arifes from a mere drynefs of the part ; 
 and fometimes from fharp fairs, more immediately vellicatin<* 
 the fibres of the throat. 
 
 There are various kinds of liquors which quench tbirjl ; fome 
 by tempering the domacb liquor ; others by diluting, and even 
 difiolving the fait ; and others by moiltening and Implying the 
 fibres —Acids are particularly fitted for this end. 
 -Tbirjl may be fometimes eluded by rolling a clean bullet or a 
 pebble in the mouth, , which occafions an extraordinary ifTue of 
 faliva to moiften the throat, 6ff. 
 
 Mr. Boyle mentions a man who couW eafily abftain from 
 drinking for nine days, and yet have his diet nothing more li- 
 quid than ufual : the fecretions of urine, fweat, tSc. being per- 
 formed all t ie while regularly, and in the fame quantity as ufual. 
 In dropfical cafes, where there is not a right fecretion of the 
 urine by the renal glands, and the veffels and parts of the body 
 are loaded with too great a quantity of ferous humours, a great 
 moderation in drinking might be attended with good fuccefs, 
 pio.ided fome liquor could be found out to allay that uncafy 
 femation: probably this would be bed performcd'by 1 mucila»ts 
 acid dated with fpirit of vitriol or fulphur, or gellies with ju?ce 
 of lemon, and that a fmall quantity of fuch a compolition 
 now and then ufed, might be of as much real fervice in 
 quenching tbirjl, as draughts of liquors which increafe the 
 fvmproms. 
 
 THIS TLK, Cardui/s, a name common to divers plants, whofe 
 flowers confili of feveral little, narrow, longifh petals, rantfed 
 dole rogetner into a fort of head, and whofe leaves are ufually 
 fpmofe, it prickly.— The mod known of thele plants are 
 the bl.Jed Thistle. See Carduus Btmdiilus. 
 
 Miik Thistle, or our Lady's Thistle, Carduus Maria, the 
 decoction whereof is by fome recommended againft the dropfy, 
 jaundice, and pains of the kidneys. 
 
 And the Fullir'i Thistle, or Tuttil; which fee under the ar- 
 ticle Teazel. 
 
 Order aflhe Thistle, or of St. Andrew, is a military order in 
 Scotland ; inlt.tuted as fome fay, by Hungus, orHungo, kin» 
 of the Pifls, after a viBory obtained over Athelftan. " 
 The legend is, that a crofs of St. Andrew (the patron of that 
 lingdom) appearing to him at the time of the engagement, he 
 blefleJ the happy augury, took the figure thereof into his ftan- 
 dard in honour of his prottfflor, and inftituted an order of 
 knights, whofe collar is of gold interwoven with tlijllc flowers, 
 and prigs of rue. 
 
 Prom the collar hangs a medal, on which is the image of St 
 Andrew with his crofs on his bread ; with this motto, Nemo 
 me mfmu '.acejfet. No body fall provoke me unpunifhed. 
 Oihets give a different account of its origin, and allure us, 
 it was inftituted after the conclufion of a peace between 
 Charles VII of Fi ance, and the then king of Scotland. 
 The abbot Juftinuni goes up higher, and will have it to have 
 been inftituted byAchaiusI. king of Scotland, in 809; who, 
 after an alliance made with Charlemaign, took for his device 
 the tbijlle, with the words nemo me impune laeejjet , which, in 
 effect, is that ol the order : he adds, that king James IV.' re- 
 newed the order, and took St. Andrew for its protector. 
 The order only confifts of twelve knights, belides the king, 
 who is the chief, or foveraign. Their ordinary badec is a 
 green ribbon, to which hangs a tbijlle of gold, crowned" within 
 a circle of gold, in which is the forefaid motto. 
 
 Our Lady of the Thistle, was alfo a military order inftituted 
 in 1370, by Louis II. duke of Bourbon.— It confided of 26 
 knights, whereof that prince and his fucceftbrs were the chiefs ■ 
 their badge was a fky-blue girdle ; and, on folemn occafions 
 a mantle of the fame colour, with a gold collar, interwoven 
 with flower-de-luces, among which was the word efperance, 
 hope, in capitals. 
 
 THISTLE-L-/«V, a cuftom in the hundred of Halton, in the 
 county ofChelter, whereby, if in driving beads over the com- 
 mon, the driver permits them to graze, or take but a thiftle, 
 he fall pay a half penny a bead to the lord of the fee. 
 At fifkerton, in Nottinghamftiire, by ancient cuftom, if a 
 native, or cottager killed a fwine above a year old, he paid the 
 
 T-ur iSSTC Penny ; ™ hich was alfo ca,lcd "»fll'-t«k<- 
 I nlau SIS, ©/.Ifis, 1S uf c( i by anatomids, for the compreffion 
 
 1 HNETOP^CHITES,. a feci in the ancient church, who 
 believed the foul of man perfedly like that of brutes; and 
 taught that it died with the body. See Soul. 
 
 • The word i, competed of the Greek, mortal, and 
 
 VOOh ft"'- 
 
 We meet with no account of thefe heretics any where, but in 
 J. Damafcenus, haref. 90. unlefs they be the fame with thole 
 
 T H O 
 
 Eufe.biusfp.eaks of ' *¥■ Eeelef. lib. 9. c. 38. who relate, fat 
 in Urigen s time there were heretics in Arabia, who taught 
 that the foul of man died with the body ; but that it (hould 
 rife again with it at the end of the world. He adds, that 
 Urigen refuted them in a numerous council, and reclaimed 
 them from their errors.- St. Augudin and Ifidore call them 
 the Arabian heretics. 
 
 Marfhal, in his tables, has disfigured the word, for want of 
 undcrdanding it ; he writes it thenopfyebites, ir.flead of tlmetop- 
 jyebites : he hkewife places them in the Vlth century ; but on 
 what grounds we cannot imagine. 
 THOM/EANS, Thomeans, Thomites, or Chrijlians of 
 4?. THOMAS, apeople of the Ead-Indians, who, according to 
 tradition, received the gofpel from the apodle St. Thomas 
 Upon the arrival of the Pottuguefe at Calecut, in their firft 
 voyage to the Indies, they met with ancient chridians, who 
 pretended to bedefcended from thole converted by St. Thomas. 
 The Thomaans being informed of a new people arrived amoiii' 
 ™™> who bore a particular veneration for the crofs, fent em- 
 baffadors to them to make an alliance with them, and to foli- 
 cit their affidance againft the Gentile princes, by whom they 
 were greatly opprefled. 
 
 It is certain that the Thomaans are indigena-, or ori'oinally of 
 India: they are alfo called Nazarems ; but cuftom has affixed 
 to that name an idea of contempt : and their other name Map- 
 puley, and, in the plural, Mappuleymar, is accounted more ho- 
 nourable. 
 
 They form a very confiderable clan, oread; but are always 
 divided with faclions, inveterate enmities, He. The clan ex- 
 tends through all the country from Calecut to Travencor ; not 
 that all the trafl is pofleflid wholly by them : fometimes they 
 have a whole town to thcmfclves, and fometimes only a cer- 
 tain quartet in it. 
 
 They own thenifclves drangers in that country, and their tra- 
 dition is, that they came thither from the country about the 
 city of Mcjlapur, or St. Thomas, by reafon they were perfc- 
 cuted by the prince thereof. But the time of this tranfmu'ra- 
 tion no body knows any thing of ; for they keep no monu- 
 ments. ' * • '*-'o 
 The Thomaans afciibe their converfion, their difcipline, &t. 
 to St. Thomas : their breviary adds, that their apodle p.fl'ed 
 thence into China. 
 
 We (hall not here enter into the difpute, whether the St. Tho- 
 mas fo famed in the Indies be the apoftle, or fome other faint 
 of that name ; which latter is the opinion of feveral learned 
 men, and particularly of M. Huet. 
 
 But the progrefs of the hiftory of this church is not lefs diffi- 
 cult to trace than its origin: our European books mention the 
 patriarch of Alexandria's fending bifhops to the Indians, par- 
 ticularly St. Pantrenus, St. Frumen.ius, ttl. It may be doubted, 
 whether or no it were to thefe Indians that they weie fent • Ba- 
 ronius, indeed, maintains it was ; but the Portuguefe author 
 da Hijloria d Ethiopia, endeavours to prove it was to Ethiopia 
 thele ancient miffionaries went. All we know for certain is, 
 that the Thomaans, Sir feveral ages, were furnifhed with 
 bifhops from the fide of Babylon, or Syria ; and that there is a 
 kind of patriarch at Babylon who continues to furnifh them 
 Whether or no their apodle ordained them any bifhops (the 
 order whereof may have been fince extinit throu-h want of 
 proper fubjedls, as F. Bouchet imagines) is a queffion ■ all we 
 can fay is, that the Tbmadn church, at the firft arrival of the 
 Portuguefe, was wholly governed by thefe foreign bifhops. 
 The language they ufe, in faeris, is the Chaldee, fome fay the 
 byriac :: as to their ordinary language, it is the fame with that 
 of then neighbours. 
 
 The Chaldee ufed on thefe occafions was doubtlefs brought a- 
 moiig them by their bifhops : it is added, that at the time the 
 taft was infefled with Neftotianifm, Eutychyanifin, &c. the 
 bifhops hkewife Carried them thefe heielies. 
 Such a mixture of opinions, with a total interruption of 
 paltors, fometimes for feveral years together, occafmned that 
 horriole chaos their religion was in at the arrival of the Portu- 
 guefe : for a fpecimen whereof we (hall add their manner of 
 celebrating the Eucharid. 
 
 Over the altar w-as a kind of gallery ; and while the prieft was 
 faying the beginning of the office below, a cake of flower of 
 rice was frying in oil or butter above : when enough, the cake 
 was let down in a bafket upon the altar, where the pried cbn- 
 fecrated it. As to the other (pedes, for wine, they ufed a 
 kind of brandy or arrack varioufly prepared in that country. 
 Nor was their ordination much more regular ; the archdeacon 
 who was fometimes mote refpecfed than the bifbop himfelf, 
 frequently otdained priefts. 
 
 Their other abufes were infinite : the Portuguefe, for thefe two 
 lad centuries, have laboured the information of this chuich ; 
 and have employed both the ecclefiaftic and fecular power 
 therein : for this end they have called the Thornton bidiops to 
 the councils at Goa, have indiuited, charged them, faY. and 
 have even fent them for inftruftion to Poitugal and Rome : but 
 finding that they were dill apt to relapfe at their return; and 
 that no good was like to be done with them, they rcfolved to 
 exclude them once for all, and to appoint an European bifhop 
 
T HQ 
 
 in their room. Thefe proceeding have rendered the Portu- 
 piefe infinitely odious to the Thomeeans. 
 The pcrfon who contributed mull to the reform, was Dom b rey 
 Aleixo de Menefes, archbifhop of Goa, who govern.ng the 
 Porttieucfe Indians for fome time, in defed of a viceroy, took 
 that occ.e.on to call a fvnod in the village of Dumper, where 
 abundance of regulations were made, and the Tbom^ns united 
 to the Roman church : and in this he was feconded by tne 
 Tefuits 
 
 After the death of the archbifliop, a great part of the Tbemasan 
 church relapfed again, and thus ftUI continues, partly Roman, 
 partly Tbomezan. 
 
 THOMAS CMrtfliam Thomas, ? Sce 5 Th«=« 
 
 THOMAs'sft/tM, > ' H : >SP ", AL - . 
 
 THOMIoM, or Thomaism, the doctrine of bt. 1 nomas 
 Aquinas, and his followers the ThomiJIs ; chiefly with regard 
 to predeftination, and grace. . , 
 
 There is fome doubt what the true, genuine Tbemtjm is . the 
 Dominicans pretend to hold pure Tbomifm ; but there are other 
 authors who diftinguilh the Tbomifm of St. Thomas, from that 
 of the Dominicans. . c T r .(. 
 
 Others again make ttmifm no other than a kind of J^mlm 
 difguifed ; but Janfenifm we know has been condemned by the 
 popes, which pure Tbomifm never was. 
 
 Ineffefl, the writings of Alvarez and Lemos, who were ap- 
 pointed by their order to lay down and defend before the holy 
 Fee the dogmata of their fchool, have fince been reputed the 
 rule of pure Tbomifm. . _L 
 
 The modern fchool has abandoned many of the ancient m- 
 mills, whofe fentiments and expreflions appeared to Alvarez and 
 Lemos too hard ; and the new Tbmufls, who pafs the bounds 
 marked by tbefe two doSors, cannot give their opinions for 
 the fentiments of the fchool of St. Thomas, which the pope 
 has forbid being cenfured. , 
 Tbe tbomifm allowed, is that of Alvarez and Lemos . thole 
 two authors diftinguifh four dalles of Tbomtjls : the firft, 
 which they rejefl, deftroys or takes away liberty ; the iecopa 
 and third do not differ from Molina. 
 
 The laft, which Alvarez embraces, admits a phyfical promo- 
 tion, or predetermination, which is a complement of the ac- 
 tive power, whereby it paffes from the firft aft to the fecond; 
 that is, from complete and next power to adion. 
 This promotion they hold is offered in fufficient grace : ium- 
 cicnt grace is given to all men ; and that they have a complete, 
 independent, next power not to aft, and even to reject the 
 molt efficacious grace. - en 
 
 THOM1STS, a fe3 of fchool divines, who maintain lho- 
 
 Thc avowed antagonifts of the Tbmifis are the Scotifts. 
 
 THOMITES. See the article Thomjeans. 
 
 THORACIC, Thoracicus, in anatomy, an epithet given 
 to two branches of the axillary artery, on account of their con- 
 veying the blood into fome parts of the thorax. 
 The thoracic arteries are diftinguifhed into upper and It™?-— 
 There are likewife thoracic veins, an upper and under, deltmed 
 for the reconveyance of the blood from the thorax to the ax- 
 illary vein. . „. .... 
 
 Thor acic Dml, Duclus Thoracicus, or Cbyliferus, is 
 little canal ariling from, or rather it is a continuation of, th 
 exit or mouth of the receptaculum chyh. 
 It mounts all along the thorax, whence it takes its name, and 
 ends in the left fubclavian vein. It is lometimes called fee- 
 tpufsduB, or ductus Pccquctianus, from M. Pecquet, fuppofed 
 to be the firft difcoverer thereof. 
 
 Indeed the thoracic du3, Dr. Wharton affures us, was obferved 
 by Barthol. Eufhchio in 1563 ; but its ufe, and communication 
 with the receptaculum chyli, was then unknown. And hence it 
 is that Pecquet, a phyfician of Dieppe, is commonly held to 
 have firft difcovered it, in 165 1 -, whence its denomination 
 ductus Peequitianus : tho' the defcription he gives of its infer- 
 tion is faulty —Van Home confounds it with the receptaculum, 
 or, as he calls it, cijlerna chyli. 
 
 In its progrefs through the thorax, it is furmfhed with a pro- 
 per integument from the pleura, befides the membrane it has 
 in common with the receptaculum: at about one third of its 
 way it divaricates, but it foon unites again. 
 Dr. Drake obferves, that it has valves in different places 
 of its traft ; Euftachio fays glands. Its ufe is to carry the 
 chile and lympha from the receptaculum into the fubcla- 
 viaii, by whichit is forwarded to the cava, and thence to the 
 heart. 
 
 THORAX, « sriPAB, in anatomy, that part of the human 
 body which forms the capacity of the breaft, and wherein are 
 included the heart and lungs.— See Tab. Anal. (Ofteol.) fig. 3 
 
 n. 13. I 3. fig. 7, «. 15. 15. 
 
 • It has its name from the Greek, >*>'', I' l'«t ' by rea 
 foil of the continual throbbing motion of the heart, which 1: 
 contained therein.— Galen calls it tUbcra, and fays it contains 
 the parts that excite to love. 
 
 T II R 
 
 The thorax is alfo called the fecund or middle venter, and pro- 
 perly the cbejl. 
 
 It is bounded a-top by the clavicles, and at bottom by the car- 
 tilage xiphoides, and the diaphragm. — Its fore-pait is called 
 thejlenmm, or bteajl-boi-e ; its fide-parts, the c'Jles, or ribs ; 
 its hind-parts are the fpina darfi, and its vertebra, with the 
 omoplate. 
 
 Belide the heart and lungs, the thorax likewife contains the 
 afcendin? cava, the aorta, the pulmonary vein and artery, the 
 trachea, cefophagus, l3c. 
 
 It is lined within-fide with a membrane called the pleura, 
 and divided in the middle by another called the mediajli- 
 num. 
 
 THOROUGH-Srt/r, in mufic, is that bafs which continues 
 
 quite through the compofition. See Bass. 
 THOUGHT, Sentiment, a general name for all the ideas con- 
 fequent on the operations of the mind, and even for the opera- 
 tions thenifelves. 
 
 As in the idea of thought, there is nothing included of what 
 we include in the idea of an extended lubftance ; and that 
 whatever belongs to body, may be denied to belong to thought : 
 we may conclude that thought is not a mode of extended 
 fubftance, it being the nature of a mode not to be con- 
 ceived, if the thing whereof it is the mode be denied. 
 Hence we infer, that thought not being a mode of extended 
 fubftance, muft be the attribute of fome other fubftance very 
 different. 
 
 F. Malebranche, with the fpirit of a Cartefian, denies that a 
 man' who thinks ferioufly on the matter, can doubt but that 
 the efience of the mind confiffs altogether in thought, as that 
 of matter does in extenfion ; and that according to the various 
 modifications of thought, the mind fometimes wills, fometimes 
 imagines, &c. as, according to the various modifications of ex- 
 tenfion, matter is fometimes water, fometimes wood, fire, £3Y. 
 By the way, by thought he does not mean the particular mo- 
 difications of the foul, >. e. fuch or fuch a thought, but thought 
 or thinking in tbe general, confidered as capable of all kinds 
 of modifications or ideas : as by extenfion he does not mean 
 fuch or fuch an extenfion, as a fquare, oval, or the like, but 
 extenfion in the abftraa, confidered as fufceptible of all kinds 
 of modifications or figures. 
 
 He adds, that he takes it to be impoffible to conceive a mind 
 which does not think, though it be eafy to conceive one which 
 does not feel, or imagine, or will ; in like manner as it is im- 
 poffible to conceive a matter which is not extended, though it 
 be eary to conceive one that is neither earth, nor metal; nor 
 fquare, nor round ; nor that is even in motion. 
 Hence it may be concluded, that as it is poflible there may be 
 matter which is neither earth nor metal; nor fquare, nop 
 round ; nor even in motion : it is alfo poffible, that a mind 
 may neither perceive heat nor cold ; nor joy nor grief ; nor 
 imagine any thing, nor will any thing ; fo that thefe modifi- 
 cations are not effential to it. Thinking alone, therefore, ac- 
 cording to this author, is the offence of the mind, as extenfion 
 alone is the effence of matter. 
 
 But this doarine no longer pafies among us. The followers 
 of Sir Ifaac Newton, and the new philofuphy, deny extenfion 
 to be the effence of matter, and the followers of Mr. Locke 
 deny thought to be the effence of the mind. 
 THOUSAND. See the article Numeration. 
 Thousand years reign. See thearticle Millenium. 
 THRASHING, or Threshing, in agriculture, the aa of 
 beating the corn out of the ears. See Corn. 
 There are two ways of feparating corn from 'he ear— the firft 
 by beating it with a flail, which is properly what we call 
 tbrafbing. , ' 
 
 Some authors will not by any means we fhould call this by the 
 Roman name tritura, or trituratio, but flagellatio, or ftagellum, 
 a fcourge, or flail. 
 
 The other manner, ftill praBifed in feveral countries, as we 
 are informed by Liger, is to make mules or horfes trample on 
 it backwards and forwards.— This is properly what the ancients 
 called tritura and trituratio. 
 
 But they alfo ufed oxen therein ; witnefs the Hebrews, who 
 fometimes yoaked four oxen together for this purpofe. 
 Another way among the ancients was with a kind of fledge 
 made of boards joined together, and loaden with ftones or iron, 
 upon which a man was mounted, and the whole drawn over 
 the corn by horfes : this inftrument was called traha, or tn- 
 bula. 
 
 It is a rule among husbandmen, that the feafon for thraflnng, 
 is as foon as the corn has fweated in the heap, or mow. 
 THRAVE, or Th reave of corn, in moft parts of England, 
 is twenty-four (heaves, or four fhocks of fix fheaves to the 
 (hock— though in fome counties they only reckon twelve 
 fhocks to the thrave. 
 
 King Athelffan, anno 923, gave by charter to bt. Jobn o, 
 Beverly, four lhraves of corn for every plough-land 
 eaft-ridina of Yorkfhire. 
 
 the 
 
T H U 
 
 T H 0 
 
 Ta fou threve be hevcn king. 
 Of ilia plough of eft-riding. 
 THREAD, in botany, is underwood of thofe capillaments 
 ufually found in the middle of flowers; as in the lilly, tulip, 
 rofe, fcfe. There arc two kinds: thofe which fupport apices, 
 are particularly called Jlamina ; and thofe which have none pi- 
 Jlilla. See Supplement, article Stamina. 
 GoW Thread, ^ r Gold. 
 
 Virgins Thread, (.See the articles-} Virgin*. 
 Thready Marble, ) (Marblr. 
 THREAVE, See the article Th rave. 
 T H R&E-Lcgged-StaJf an infl rumen t con ftfting of three wooden 
 legs, made with joints, fo as to fhut all together, and to take 
 off in the middle, for the better carriage; and ufually having 
 on its top a ball and foclcet : its ufe is to fupport and adjuft in- 
 firuments for agronomy, furveying, ffc. 
 Three Chapter;, 1 ("Chapter. 
 
 Gmpajfn of Three Legs, I „ , . , ] Compasses. 
 Ombre by Three, f See the artlcIes / Ombre. 
 
 Rule of Three, J t-RuLE. 
 
 THREN G I, or Threnges, in our ancient Cuftoms, a de- 
 nomination given to vaffals, but not thofe of the loweft degree, 
 but fuch who held lands of the chief lord : otherwife called 
 drengi, and drenches *. See Drenches. 
 
 * <$uia <vero nan erant adbuc tempore Willi elm i milites in An~ 
 g/ia, fid threnges ; preecipit rex ut de eh, miiitet fiennt ad defetr 
 dendam terram : fecit autem Lanfrancus threngos fuas milita, fcc. 
 Somn. Gavelk. 
 
 The Name was impofed by the conqueror : for when one Ed- 
 ward Sharnbourn of Norfolk, and others, were ejected out of 
 their lands, they complained to the conqueror ; infifting, that 
 they were always on his fide, and never oppofed him j which, 
 upon inquiry, he found to be true ; and therefore he com- 
 manded, that every one mould be refiored to their lands, and 
 he for ever after be called drenches, or threnges. Spelm. du Cang. 
 THRENODY, Threnodia, a mournful, or funeral 
 
 fang. 
 
 THR1HING, ?, , JTrihing. 
 
 T H R I NIU M-G^i See the artlc,es iTKimvM.Gild. 
 
 THROAT, the anterior part of an animal between the head 
 and the moulders, wherein is the gullet. 
 Phyficians include under the word threat, all that hollow 
 cavity which may be feen when the mouth is wide open. 
 It is fometimes alfo called ifthmus, by reafon it is narrow, and 
 bears fome refemblance to what are called by the geographers 
 ifthmi. See Fauces. 
 
 Throat, in architecture, fortification, Csfo See Gorge, and 
 
 GULA. 
 
 THRONE, ©PONOE, aroyalfeat, orchair of ftate, enriched 
 with ornaments of architecture and fculpture, made of fome 
 precious matter, raifed one or more Heps, and covered with a 
 kind of canopy. 
 
 Such are the thrones in the rooms of audience of kings, and 
 
 other fovereigns. 
 THROWN GIove,7 Q . . , SGlove, 
 T HR O WED S^,S Seeth " artlcles isiLK. 
 T H R O W S of Women, the Pains of child-birth. 
 THROWSTER, one who prepares raw filk for the weaver ; 
 
 by cleanfing and twilling it. 
 THUMMIM, in the fcripture learning. See Urim and 
 
 Thummim. 
 
 THUNDER, a noife in the loweft, region of the air, ex 
 cited by a fudden kindling of fulphurous exhalations. 
 Seneca, Rohaulf, and other authors, both ancient and mo- 
 dern, account for thunder, by fuppofing two clouds impending 
 over one another, the upper and rarer whereof becoming con- 
 denfed by a frefh acceflion of air raifed thither by warmth from 
 the lower parts of the atmofphere, or driven upon it by the 
 wind ; immediately falls forcibly down upon the lower, and 
 denfer cloud : by which fall, the air interpofed between the 
 two being compreffed, that next the extremities of the two 
 clouds is fqueezed out, and leaves room for the extremity of the 
 upper cloud to clofe tight upon the under : thus a great quan- 
 tity of air is inclofed, which at length efcaping through fome 
 winding irregular vent or paffage, occafions that noife which 
 we call thunder. 
 
 But this could only reach to the phasnomena of thunder heard 
 without lightening ; and, in effect, we have now a better folu- 
 tion : thunder is not occalioned by the falling of clouds, but by 
 the kindling of fulphurous Exhalations, in the fame manner 
 as the noife of aurum fulminans. 
 
 " There are fulphurous exhalations, fays Sir Ifaac Newton, 
 " always afcending into the Air when the earth is dry ; there 
 " they ferment with the nitrous Acids, and fometimes taking 
 " fire, generate thunder, lightening, &c. 
 That, befide the vapours raifed from water, 8fc there are alfo 
 exhalations carried off from fulphur, bitumen, volatile falts, 
 fcfr. is part all doubt ; the vaft Quantity of fulphurous and bi- 
 tuminous matter all ever the furfacc of 'the earth, and the vo- 
 latile falts of plants and animals, efford fuch an ample flock 
 Vol. II, V 
 
 thereof, that it is no wonder the air mould be filled with fuch 
 particles, railed higher or lower, according to their greater or 
 leffer degree of fubtility and activity ; and more copioufly fpread 
 in this or that quarter, according to the direction of the 
 winds. 
 
 Now, the effeas of thunder are fo like thofe of fired gun- 
 powder, that Dr. Wallis thinks we need not fcruple to afcribe 
 them to the fame caufe: and the principal ingredients in gun- 
 powder we know are nitre and fulphur : charcoal only ferving 
 to keep the pans feparate for their better kindling. 
 Hence, if we capeive in the air a convenient mixture of ni- 
 trous and fulphwous particles, from the fources abo"Ve-men- 
 tioned ; and thofe, by any caufe, to be fet on fire; fuch ex- 
 plofion may well follow, and with fuch noife and light, the 
 two phenomena of thunder, as in the firing of gunpowder: 
 and being once kindled, it will run from place to place, this 
 way or that, as the exhalations happen to lead it ; much as is 
 found in a train of gunpowder. 
 
 This explofion, if high in the air, and remote from us, will 
 do no niifchief; bat if near us., they mav deftroy trees, ani- 
 mals, &c. as gunpowder would do in the like circumitances. 
 1 his nearnefs or diflance may be eflimated by the interval of 
 time between the fiafh, and the noife. Dr. Wallis obferves, 
 that ordinarily the difference between the two is about feven 
 feconds ; which, at the rate of 1 142 feet in a fecond of time, 
 gives the diftance about a mile and a half: but fometimes it 
 comes in a fecond or two, which argues the explofion very 
 near us, and even among us. And in fuch cafes, the reverend 
 Doctor a flu res us, he has mere than once foretold the milchieis 
 that befell. 
 
 Upon the whole, that there is in lightening a fulphurous vapour, 
 appears from the fmell of fulphur which attends it, ahd frcm the 
 fultry heat in the air which ufually precedes it ; and that there 
 is a nitrous vapour along with if, the fame author concludes 
 hence, that we know of no other body fo liable to a fudden 
 and violent explofion. And as to the kindling of thefe mate- 
 rials, we know that a mixture of fulphur and fteel filings, with 
 a little water, will of itfelf break forth into actuaf'flame. 
 Nothing therefore is wanting to the explofion, but fomecbaly- 
 beat, or vitriolic vapour; and among the various effluvia from 
 the earth, the doctor does not doubr, but there muft be fome 
 of that kind : but what he leaves as a probability, we can pro- 
 duce a kind of proof of. 
 
 In hiftory we meet with inftances of its raining iron in Italy, 
 and iron ftones in Germany : Jul. Scaliger tells us, he had by 
 him a piece of iron rained in Savoy. Cardan reports 1200 
 ftones to have fallen from heaven, fome of them weighing 30, 
 fome 40, and one an hundred and twenty pound, all very 
 hard, and ot the colour of iron. 
 
 The matter of fact is fo well attefted, that Dr. Lifter, in the 
 Philofiphical Tranfattions, builds a whole theory of thunder and 
 lightening on it; maintaining, that they both owe their mat- 
 ter to the vapour 01 exhalation of the pyrjles. 
 That rattling in the noife of thunder, which makes it feem as 
 if itpaffed through arches, or were broken varioufly, js doubt- 
 Ida owing to the found being excited among clouds hanging 
 over one another, and the agitated air paffing irregularly" be- 
 tween them. 
 
 THUNDER-BOL T.— If what we call lightening, act with 
 extraordinary violence, and break or flutter any thing, it is 
 called a thunder-bolt ; which the vulgar, to fit it it for fuch ef- 
 fects, fuppofe to be a hard body, and even a ftone. 
 But that we need not have recourfe to a hard folid body to ac- 
 count for the effects commonly attributed to the thunder-bolt 
 will be evident to any one, who confiders thofe of the pulvis 
 fulminans, and of gunpowder. 
 
 The phenomena of the thunder-bolt are, that it oftener flrikes 
 on high places than on low : that it frequently burns people's 
 cloaths, without touching their bodies : that it fometimes breaks 
 their bones, without hurting their flefh, or their cloaths ; and 
 that it has even melted the fword without injuring the fcab- 
 bard. 
 
 The fir ft is eafily accounted for, from the ordinary height of 
 the clouds, out of which the lightening darts: as to the reft, 
 exhalations may be very different from one another ; fome, 
 e. gr. coming neareft the nature of fulphur, may only yield 
 a very flight lambent flame, which will enly affect fuch 
 things as take fire the faoneft ; and others, on the contrary, 
 fo fubtile and penetrating, as to come near the nature of vola- 
 tile falts or of aqua fortis, which fpare foft bodies, and fpend 
 their whole force on hard odes. 
 
 The chevalier de Louville, of the French academy of fcienccs, 
 accounts for fome of the effects of thunder upon a new prin- 
 ciple : as to killing of animals, without burning or wounding 
 them, it is naturally enough afcriued to the fulphur, which 
 falling near enough the pcrfon, the fumes thereof flop his re- 
 fpiration. As to trees, buildings, &c. fplit or beaten down, 
 there muft be another caufe, Mr. Louville, therefore, fiip- 
 pofes, that when the thunder is high, its flame is diffipaied 
 before it arrives at the earth: and that the air being violently 
 iz L driven 
 
THY 
 
 T I B 
 
 : but 
 5 are mif- 
 
 driven along by the impetuous mot.on of the flame, and ol 
 confequence exceedingly condenfed, becomes as it were a hard 
 body, capable of producing terrible effeas. 
 Places ftruck with thunder- bolts, were held facred among the 
 ancient?. Nigidius has a curious treatife on the thunder-bolt.— 
 MarciliusFicinuS, and fome others, maintain, that coral d im- 
 pales panic fears, and keeps off thunder-bolts and hail : Fortu- 
 nat Licetus has endeavoured to account for this phyiically 
 F. le Brun proves very eafily, that all thefe philofophers 
 
 taken. '£(ffMr 
 On medals the thunder-bolt is fometimes found to accompany 
 the emperors heads ; as that of Auguftus. In which cafe, it 
 is a mark of foveraignty, and of a power equal with the gods 
 Appian informs us, that the thunder-bolt was the principal di 
 vinity of Seleucia; adding, that it was adored, even 
 time, with various hymns and ceremonies. 
 THUNDERING Legion, Legio Fulminant* was a legion 
 in the Roman army, confiding of Chriftian foldiers who in 
 the expedition of theemoeror Marcus Aurelms againit the Sar- 
 matse, Quadi, and Marcomanni, are faid to have faved the 
 whole army, then ready to perifh of thirft, by procuring, with 
 their prayers, a very plentiful fhower thereon ; and at the 
 fame time, a furious hail, mixed with lightening and thun- 
 derbolts, on the enemy. . 
 This is the account commonly given by ecclefiaftical hilton- 
 ans : and the whole ftory is engraven in bafs-reiievo's, on the 
 Antonine column. And hence arofe the denomination thun- 
 derers: though fome fay, that the legion thofe Chriftians were 
 of, was called the thundering legion before. 
 THURSDAY, the fifth day of the Christians week, but the 
 
 fixth of that of the Jews. See Day, and Week. 
 Holy Thursday, ? o ee \ Holy. 
 
 Maunday Thursday, 5.1 Maunday Tburfday. 
 THUS. See.the article Frankincense. 
 THYMUS, ©TMOE, in anatomy, a conglobate gland, fitu- 
 ated intheupper part of the thorax, under the clavicular, where 
 the cava and aorta divide into the fubclavian branches. 
 The thymus is that part which in a breaft of veal we call the 
 jweet-brehd.— This gland is big in infants, but as they grow in 
 a<*e, it becomes lefs; its arteries and veins are branches of the 
 carotides and jugulars. It has nerves from theparvagum, and 
 its lymphatic veffels difcharge themfelves into the dudus tho- 
 racicus. 
 
 The learned Dr. Tyfon fuppofes the ufe of this gland to be for 
 a diverticulum to the chyle in the thoracic du£t of a fcetus, 
 whofe ftomach being always full of the liquor in which it 
 fwims, mutt keep the thoracic duct diftended with chyle; be- 
 caufe the blood which the fcetus receives from the mother, fills 
 the veins, and hinders the free entrance of the chyle into the 
 fubclavians. 
 
 Mr. Chefelden obferves, that where the thymus in men is very 
 fmall, the thyroid glands increafe proportionally ; but in fuch 
 brutes as have fallen under his obfervation, it is juft the con- 
 trary : from which he is inclined to believe that they belong to 
 the fame lymphatics, and that either of them increafing as 
 much as both ought to do, if both increafed, anfwers the fame 
 end as if both did; and that the reafon why the thymus in- 
 creafes rather than the thyroid glands in brutes, is, becaufe the 
 fhape of their thorax affords convenient room for it to lodge 
 in ; and that in men, the reafon why the thyroid glands in- 
 creafe fo much, is, becaufe there is no room in that part of 
 the thorax where the thymus is feated, for a large gland to be 
 lodged. 
 
 Thymus, in medicine, is ufed for a kind of wart, growing on 
 the parts of generation, the fundament, and fcveral other places 
 of the body, with cloven afperities, like thofe of the herb 
 thyme, whence its name. See Wart, and Wen. 
 The ordinary method of curing a thymut, is by ligature and 
 deficcative lotions, or by cauftics ; and if large, by incificn ; 
 taking care firtt to fecure the greater veffels by tying them. 
 
 THYROARYT^ENOIDEUS, in anatomy, a mufcle 
 fituate under the cartilago thyroides; from the fore and back 
 part of which it arifes with a very broad head, and terminates 
 in the arytsenoideSj which it conftringes, and alfo fliuts the la- 
 rynx. 
 
 THYROIDES Glandules, Thyroid Glands, are two 
 glands of the larynx. 
 
 There are four pretty large glands, which ferve to moiflen the 
 larynx ; two above, and two below. — The two latter are c&\\~ 
 e& thyroidus ; Gtuate at the bottom of the larynx, afide of the 
 annular cartilage, and of the firft ring of the trachea; one on 
 each fide. 
 
 They are in form of little pears ; their colour a little reddifh, 
 their fubftance more folid, more vifcous, and rcfembling more 
 the flefh of the mufcles, than the other glands. 
 They receive nerves from the recurrents, arteries from the ca- 
 rotides ; and veins which pais to the jugulars, and lymphatics, 
 and difcharge themfelves into the thoracic duct. 
 Their ufe is to feparate a vifcid moifture, ferving to line and 
 lubricate the larynx, to facilitate the motion of its cartilages, 
 to obtund the acrimony of theialiva, and to foften the voice. 
 
 THYROIDES,* gypoeuh^, in anatomy, the firft and 
 largeft of the five cartilages of the larynx; called alio fcuii- 
 
 formis* 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, S^s-©-, buckler, and 
 form. 
 
 In the middle is a prominence, called pomum adami. The 
 thyroides is ufually parted by a line running along its "middle ; 
 whence fome make two of it, though in reality it is very 
 rare that it is found double. 
 
 It is near a fquare, and at each angle has a procefs : the two 
 uppermoft are the longeft, and tie it by means of a nervous li- 
 gament to the os hyoides: the two lower, and fliorter, cunneft 
 it to the fecond cartilage, called cricoides. 
 THYRSUS, Qtpsoe, in antiquity, the fceptre which the 
 ancient poet? put in the hands of Bacchus, and wherewith they 
 furnifh the Menades in their Bacchanalia, 
 
 The thyrftU was originally a lance, or fpear, wrapt up in vine- 
 leaves ; wherewith Bacchus is faid to have armed himfelf, and 
 his foldiers in his Indian wars, to amufe and deceive the un- 
 praftifed Indians, and make them fufpeei no hoftilities. 
 Hence it was afterwards borne in thefeaftsand facrificesof that 
 god ; and as the fatyrs, who wcrt; Bacchus's foldiers, were fup- 
 pofed to have fought with it, it became a cuftom to reprefent 
 them therewith. 
 
 TIARA,* tiapa, an ornament or habit, wherewith the 
 ancient Perfians covered their head and which the Armeni- 
 ans and kines of Pontus, wear on medals; thefe laft, becaufe 
 defcended from the Perfians. 
 
 * Latin authors call it indifferently tiara, and cidaris. 
 Strabo fays, the tiara was in form of a tower ; and the fcho- 
 liaft on Ariftophanes's comedy, A*p»f»Wi a & l - fcene z. af- 
 firms, that it was adorned with peacock's feathers. — Some 
 modern?, however, fancy the fcholiaft is here fpeaking of the 
 cask which the ancient Perfians wore in war; rather than of 
 the habit w hich they wore on the head in the city . but they do 
 not feem to have confidcred the paffage in the poet, to which 
 the fcholiaft refers: the matter there ipoken of is peace, and 
 embafTadors fent to treat of peace, with^ habits of pomp and 
 ceremony, A Z 9cfwt yi, &c. Thefe ambajjadors, thefe peacocks, 
 all thefe things of pomp and oflentatim, difpleafe me. By thefe 
 peacocks, fays the fcholiaft, he means tfee titt/a* which among 
 the Perfians are ornaments of the head, wherein are peacock's 
 feathers. &c. 
 
 St. Jerom on Dan. chap. iv. defines the tiara a kind of cap, 
 genus pilleoli, wore by the Perfians and Chaldeans: and in an- 
 other place, lie adds, it is like Ulyiles's cap. — The ancient 
 fcholiaft on Juvenal, defcribes it as a prieft's cap, which de- 
 fending over the cheeks, was tied under the chin: which 
 agrees very well with the form of that which we fee Mithri- 
 datcs wear on medals. — Servius on Virgil, lib. 8. /Eneid, calls 
 the tiara a Phrygian cap ; and Statius, Tbtbaid. lib. S. gives it 
 the kings of Parthia, who, doubtkfs, borrowed it from the 
 Perfians. — Juftin attributes the long garment and tiara of the 
 Perfians, to Semiramis's difguifc; in which fhe patted for Ni- 
 
 The kings of Perfia alone baa the right of wearing the tiara 
 ftraight and ereft : the priefts, and great lords, wore it de- 
 pretted, or turned down on the fore-fide. Xenophon in his 
 Cytop&dia fays, that the tiara was fometimes encompaffed with 
 the diadem, at leaft in ceremonies ; and had frequently the 
 figure of a half moon embroidered on it : others are of opinion, 
 that the diadem was in figure of a moon, and that it was hence 
 the tiara was called lunata: Luftly, others think that the 
 tiara itfelf was made fometimes in form of a half moon. — From 
 what we have faid, it appears, that there were different forms 
 of tiara's ; and, in effedt, Pafchalius, do coronis, diftinguifbes 
 no lefs than five different kinds. See Diadem. 
 Tiara is alfo the name of the pope's triple crown ; anciently 
 called regnutn. 
 
 The tiara and keys are the badges of the papal dignity ; the 
 tiara of his civil rank, and the keys of his jurifdicf ion : for, 
 as foon as the pope is dead, his arms are reprcfented with the 
 tiara alone, without the keys. 
 
 The ancient tiara of the popes was a round high cap. John 
 XXIII. firft encompaffed it with a crown. Boniface VIII. 
 added a fecond crown ; and Benedict XII. a third. 
 TIBIA, in anatomy, the bony part of the leg, between the 
 knee and the ankle. See Foot. 
 
 The tibia conftfts of two bones, called focilet, the one on the 
 infidetheleg, called the fibula, or little •feci/. 
 The other on the outfide, called by the common name tibia, or 
 the great focil. See the following article. 
 Tibia is, properly, the inner and bigger bone of the leg, called 
 alfo/anVs jnajus.—See Tab. Anal. (Ofteol.) fig. 3- »■ 22 > 22 - 
 fcf fig, 7. h. 26. 26. 
 
 The tibia is hard and firm, having a pretty large cavity in its 
 middle, to contain the medulla, or marrow. 
 It is almoft triangular ; its fore, and (harp edge being called 
 xhejhih: in its upper extremity, it has two large finus's, tipt 
 with a foft'and fine cartilage, from its figure, called cartilago 
 
 lunata ; 
 
 1 
 
T I 
 
 T I D 
 
 lunatn; which runs in between the extremities of the two 
 bones, and grows very thin at its edge ; ferving to facilitate 
 fmall fide motion in the knee, like that in the articulation of 
 the lower jaw. 
 
 The finus's receive the two protuberances of the femur, or 
 thigh-bone j and the production which is between the finus's 
 of the tibia, is received into the finus which divides thefe two 
 protuberances of the femur. 
 By bending the knee, we bring the leg, in walking, in a flrait 
 line forward; which we could not have done without this ar- 
 ticulation ; but like thofe who have the misfortune to have a 
 wooden leg, we muft have brought our foot about in a femi- 
 circle, in going even upon a plain, but more evidently upon 
 an afcent. 
 
 On the fide of this upper end, the tibia has a fmall knob,which 
 is received into a fmall finus of the fibula; and on its fore-part, 
 a little below the patella, it has another, into which the ten- 
 dons of the extenfors of the leg are inferted. 
 Its lower extremity, which is much fmaller than its upper, 
 has a remarkable procefs, which forms the inner ankle • and 
 a pretty large finus, divided in the middle by a fmall protube- 
 rance: the finus receives the convex head of the attracts 
 and the protuberance is received into the finus, in the convex 
 head of the fame bone. — -It has another {hallow finus in the 
 fide of its lower end, which receives the fibula. 
 Mr. Chefdden gives an inftance of a Boy of feven Years of 
 age, where both the epiphyfes at the upper end of the tibia 
 were fo far feparaled, that not more than half each tibia was 
 joined to half the epiphyfis ; which made his legs wholly ufe- 
 lefs. — This had been occafioned by the nurfe's holding him out 
 to ftool by the heels and back, when very young; which is 
 among them (as he obfervesj too common a practice. 
 
 Tibiae Biceps. See the article Biceps. 
 
 TIBIALIS, or Tibijeus, in anatomy, a nameoiven to two 
 mufcles of the leg ; diftinguifhed by ar.tieus. and poflieus. 
 
 Tibialis antieus, this fprings from the exterior procefs of the 
 tibia, and becoming gradually broad and flefhy abnut the 
 middle of the tibia, down the fore-part of which it runs is 
 contracled again into a (lender, fmooth tendon, which panes 
 under the ligamentum annulare, and is partly inferted into the 
 OS cuneiforme majus, and partly into the bone of the meta- 
 tarfus, that fupporls the great toe. Its office is to draw the 
 foot up. — See Tab. Atiat. (Myol.) fig. I. n. 62. fig. 2. B. 4.4. 
 
 Tibialis poflieus, this is derived from both bones of the tibia, 
 and from the ligament that binds them together ; and runs 
 with a fmooth, ftrong tendon through the finus on the inner 
 malleolus, under the annular ligament, to the infide of the OS 
 naviculare. — See Tab. Anat. (Myol. J fig. 1, n. 69. fig. 2. n. 
 53. fig. 7. n. 43. 
 
 its office is to draw the foot inwards s : from the ufe failors make 
 of it, it is alfo called the nauticus. 
 
 TICHONIC Syflem, or Hypothecs. See Tychonic. 
 
 TIDE, * the fame with time, or feafon. See Time, fjfe. 
 * The word is originally Saxon, tid, which fignjfies the fame. 
 
 Shrove-TiDE, 1 C Shrove. 
 
 Twelfth- V i-de, ?■ See the articles -j Twelfth. 
 
 TPhiifitn-TlBX, 1 IWhitsumA. 
 
 TIDES, two periodical motions of the waters of the fea called 
 alfo the flux and reflux, or the ebb and flaw . 
 When the motion of the water is againft the wind, it is called 
 a windward tide — when wind and tide go the fame way, lee- 
 ward tide — when it runs very ftrong, it is called a tide-gate. 
 To tide it over, or up into any place, is to go in with the tide 
 either ebb or flood, as long as that lafts; then to ftay at an- 
 chor all the time of contrary tide; and thus to fet in a»ain 
 with the return of the next tide. 
 
 It is faid to flow tide and half tide when the tide runs three 
 hours in the offing longer than it does by the more : but, by 
 longer, they do not mean its running more hours ; but that, i'f 
 it be high water afhore at 12, it will not be fo in the offing 
 till three.— If it ebb and flow longer, they fay it runs half tide 
 and half quarter. 
 
 When the moon is in the firft and third quarter, i. e. when 
 Ihe is new and full, the tides ate high and fwifr, and are called 
 fpring titlti— when fhe is in the fecond and laft quarter, the 
 tides are lower and flower, and called neap tides. 
 Phenomena of the Tides.— The fea is obferved to flow, for 
 certain hours, from fouth towards north ; in which motion, 
 or flux, which lafts about fix hours, the fea gradually fwells ; 
 fo that entering the mouths of rivers, it drives back the river- 
 waters towards their heads or fprings. 
 
 After a continual flux of fix hours, the fea feems to reft for 
 about a quarter of an hour ; after which it begins to ebb or 
 retire back again from north to fouth, for fix hours more: in 
 which time, the water finking, the rivers refume their natural 
 courfe. 1 hen, after a feeming paufe of a quarter of an hoi 
 the fea again bigms to flow as before, and thus alternated. 
 1 nus does the fea ebb twice a day, and flow as often'; but 
 not in the fame hours thereof. The period of a flux and re- 
 flux is 12 hours 50 minutes, fo that the tides return later and 
 later each day, by 50 minutes, or} of an hour, 5 minutes. 
 
 Now, 12 hours 50 minutes is a lunar day ; ,'. ,. the moon 
 panes the earth's meridian later and later each day by 50 mi- 
 nutes. So that the fea flows as often as the moon palles the 
 meridian, both the arch above, and that below the horizon ; 
 and ebbs as often as fhe paffes the horizon, both the eaftern 
 and weftern point thereof. 
 
 This further agreement we obferve between the moon and the 
 fea ; that the tides, though conftant, are not equal : but are 
 greatctt, when the moon is in conjunaion, or oppofition to 
 the fun, and leaft when in quadrature thereto. 
 Laffly, thofe tides are the greateff, which happen in the new 
 and full moon, at the times of the equinoxes. 
 Add, that the fame things are obferved throughout moftof the 
 coafts of Europe ; only that the tides are fo much the lefs, and 
 happen the later, as the coafts are the more northerly. 
 Thefe phenomena of the tides are admirably accounted for, 
 from the principle of gravitation. Ail we require to their fo- 
 lution is, that the earth and moon, and every particle there- 
 of, mutually gravirate towards each other ; the reafonablenefs 
 of which afliimptiun, fee under the article Gravitation. 
 Indeed the fagacious Kepler, long ago, conjaftured this to be 
 thecaufeof the tides: " If, fays he, the earth ceafid to at- 
 " traa its waters towards itfelf, all the water of the ocean 
 " would rife and flow into the moon : the fphere of the 
 "Troon's attraction extends to our earth, and draws up the 
 " water." Thus thought Kepler, in his Introd. ad Theer. 
 Mart. This furmife, for it was then no more, is now abun- 
 dantly verified, in the following theory, deduced by Dr. Hal- 
 ley, from the Newtonian principles. 
 Theory of the Tides.— 1°. As the furface of the earth and fea 
 is naturally globular ; if we fuppofe the moon A (Tab. Geo- 
 graphy, fig. 6.) perpendicularly over fume part of the furface 
 of the fea, as E ; it is evident the water E, which is now 
 neareft the moon, will gravitate towards it more than any 
 other part of the earth and fea in the hemifphcre F E H. 
 The water in E therefore mud, by [his means,' be raifed to- 
 wards the moon ; t. e. it will be lighter than ufual, and of 
 confequence it will fwell in E. 
 
 For the fame rcafon the water in G being the mod remote 
 from the moon, will gravitate lefs towards the fame, than any 
 other part of the earth or fea in the hemifphcre F G H 
 The water here, therefore, muft approach lefs towards the 
 moon, than any other part of the globe ; i. e. it muft be 
 raifed the contrary way, and will therefore fwell in G 
 By this means, the furface of the ocean muft necefltrily form 
 itfelf into a fpheroidal, or oval figure, whofe longer diameter 
 is EG i its ihorter F H. And thus, the moon fhifting her 
 pofition in her diurnal motion round the earth, this oval of 
 water muft fhilt with her ; by which means are eftMed thofe 
 two floods and ebbs, obfervable every 25 hours. 
 2°. Since, in the conjunflions and Oppofiriora of the fun and 
 moon, the gravitarion of the water to the fun confpires with 
 its gravitation towards the moon ; but in the quadratures the 
 water raifed by rhe fun is depreflid by the moon : hence it is 
 that the tides are greateft in the fyzygies, and leaft in the qua- 
 dratures. 3 
 In effect, there are two tides every natural day, from the 
 aaion of the fun, as there are in the lunar day from that of 
 the moon; all governed by the fame laws: only thofe caufed 
 by the fun are much lef, than thofe of the moon : becaufe 
 though the fun be ten thoufand times bigger thin both the 
 earth and moon, yet he is at fo immenfe a dillance, that the 
 earth s term-diameter bears no proportion therc'o 
 Hence, the different tides depending on the particular actions 
 of the fun and moon are not diftinguifhed, but confounded. 
 The unar tide ,s fomewhat changed by the aflion of the fun ; 
 and this change vanes every day, by rcafon of the inequality 
 between the natural and the lunar day. 
 
 3°. Since the greateft tide, about the equinoxes (viz thofe 
 happening ,„ the fyzygies) arife from rhe fun and moon bein« 
 m the equmoaial ; and thofe about the folftice, from the fun 
 and moon being in the tropics ; for this reafon, thofe greateft 
 tides about the equinoxes are greater than thofe about the fol- 
 flices ; iince the greater the circle is, wherein the waters move, 
 the greater is their agitation. And if the moon ftood frill in 
 the pole, the fwelhng would become immoveable about the 
 pole, and the high water he fixed therein. 
 4°. Since the tides are fomewhat changed by the libration of 
 the waters, which ufe to retain a motion imprefied on them 
 for fome time ; for this reafon the higheft tides are not pre- 
 cifely in the very conjunaion and oppofition of the moon, but 
 two or three tides afterwards. 
 
 5°. Since the fun is fomewhat nearer the earth in winter than 
 in rummer; hence ir is, that the greateft cquinoaial tides are 
 obferved to be a little before the vernal equinox, and a little 
 after theautumnal one. 
 
 6°. Since the greateft of the two tides happening in every di- 
 urnal revolution of the moon, is that wherein the moon is 
 neareft the zenith, or nadir: for this reafon, while the fun is 
 in the northern figns, the greater of the two diurnal tides in 
 our climates, is that arifing from the moon above the horizon ; 
 
 wiicn 
 
T I D 
 
 when the fun is in the fouthern figns, the greatefl is that ari- 
 fing from the moon below the horizon. 
 7°. Such would the tides regularly be, if the earth were all 
 over covered with fea very deep; but by reafon of the Shoal- 
 nefs of fome places, and the narrowhefs of the {traits in others 
 by which the tides are propagated, there arifes a great diverfity 
 in the effect, not to be accounted for, without an exact know- 
 ledge of all the circumftances of the places ; as the pofition of 
 theland, and the breadth and depth of the channels, &c. For 
 a very flow and imperceptible motion of the whole body of 
 water, where it is (for example) two miles deep, will fufEcc 
 to raife its furface 10 or 12 feet in a r/7/tVtimc; whereas if the 
 fame quantity of water were to be conveyed through a channel 
 of 40 fathom deep, it would require a very great ftream to 
 effect it in fo large inlets as are the channel of England and the 
 German ocean ; whence the tide is found to fet ftrongeft in 
 thoft places where the fea grows narroweft, the fame quantity 
 of water being in that cafe to pafs through a fmallcr paf- 
 fage. 
 
 Tins is moft evident in the ffraits between Portland and C. dc 
 la Hogue in Normandy, where the tide runs like a fluice ; and 
 would be yet more between Dover and Calais, if the tide com- 
 ing round the ifland did not check it. 
 
 This Force being once imprefled upon the water, continues to 
 carry it above the level of the ordinary height in the ocean, 
 particularly where the water meets a direct obftacle, as it does 
 in St. Maloes ; .and where it enters into a long channel, which 
 running far into the land, grows very ftrait at its extremity, 
 as it dees into the Severn fea at Chepftow and Briftol. 
 This fhoalnefs of the fea, and the intercurrent continents, are 
 thereafons that in the open ocean high water is not at the time 
 of the moon's appulfe to the meridian, but always fome hours 
 after it, as it is obferved upon all the wefiern coaft of Europe 
 and Africa, from Ireland to the Cape of Good Hope; in all 
 which a fouth-weft moon makes high-water, and the fame is 
 reported to hold in the weft of America. 
 
 It would be endlefs to recount all the particular folutions, which 
 are eafy corollaries from this doctrine ; as, why the lakes and 
 feas, fuch as the Cafpian fea, and the Mediterranean fea, the 
 Black fea and Baltick, have no fenfible tides : for lakes having 
 no communication with the ocean, can neither increafe nor di- 
 minifh their water, in order to rife and fall ; and feas that 
 communicate by fuch narrow inlets, and are of fo immenfe an 
 extent, cannot in a few hours time receive and empty water 
 enough to raife or fink their furface any thing fenfibly. 
 To demonftrate the excellency of this doctrine, the example 
 of the tides in the port of Tunking in China, which are fo 
 extraordinary, and different from all others we have yet heard 
 of, may fufBce. In this port there is but one flood and ebb in 
 24 hours, and twice in each month, viz. when the moon is 
 near the equinoctial, there is no tide at all, but the water is 
 ftagnant ; but with the moon's declination there begins a tide, 
 which is greateft when fhe is in the tropical figns ; only with 
 this difference, that when the moon is to the northward of the 
 equinoctial, it flows when flie is above the earth, and ebbs when 
 fhe is under, fo as to make high-water at moon-fetting, and 
 low-water at moon-rifing: but, on the contrary, the moon 
 being to the fouthward, makes high-water at riling, and low- 
 water at fetting, it ebbing all the time fhe is above the horizon. 
 The caufe of this odd appearance is fuggefted by Sir Ifaac New- 
 ton to arife from the concurrence of two tides, the one propa- 
 gated in fix hours out of the great South-Sea along the coaft of 
 China, the other out of the Indian fea from between the 
 iflands, in twelve hours, along the coaft of Malacca and Cam- 
 boya. The one of thefe tides being produced in north lati- 
 tude, is, as hath been faid, greater, when the moon being to 
 the north of the equator, is above the earth, and lefs when 
 fhe is under the earth. The other of them, which is propa- 
 gated from the Indian fea, being railed in fouth latitude, is 
 greater when the moon declining to the fouth, is above the 
 earth, and lefs when fhe is under the earth ; fo that of thefe 
 tides, alternately greater and leffer, there come always fuccef- 
 iively two of the greater and two of the leffer together every 
 day, and the high- water falls always between the arrival of the 
 two greater floods, and the low-water between the times of the 
 arrival of the two leffer floods : and the moon coming to the 
 equinoctial, and the alternate floods becoming equal, the tide 
 ceafes,and the water ftagnates : but when ffie has paffed to the 
 other fide of the equator, thofe floods which in the former order 
 were the leaft, now becoming the greateft, that which before 
 was the time of the high- water, now becomes the low-water, 
 and the reverfe: fo that the whole appearance of thefe ftrano-c 
 tides is, without any forcing, naturally deduced from thefe 
 principles, and is a great argument for the certainty of the 
 whole theory. 
 
 TIDE-wmters, or Tide-men, certain officers belonging 
 to the cuftom-houfe, appointed to watch or attend on fhips 
 coming from abroad, to fee that nothing be landed till the 
 cuftoms be paid. 
 
 They are thus called, becaufe they go aboard the fhips at their 
 arrival in the mouth of theThames, and come up with the tide. 
 
 T I M 
 
 TIERCE, or Teirce, a meafure of liquid thing?, as wine, 
 oil, &e. containing the third part of a pipe, or fdny-two gal- 
 lons. , 
 
 Tierce, in mufic. See the article Third. 
 
 Tierce, in gamins, a fcquence of three cards of the fame co- 
 lour. 
 
 Tierce, in fencing. Sec the article G uakd. 
 
 Tierce Order. See the article Third Order. 
 
 Tierce point. See the arricle Third point. 
 
 Tierced, Tierce'', in heraldry, denotes the fhield to be di- 
 vided by any of the partition lines, party, coupy, tranchv, or 
 tailly, into three equal parts, of different colours or merals. 
 If the chief and bafe be of the fame colour when divided by a, 
 feffe, they blazon it by expreffmg the colour, and mentioning 
 the feffe ; otherwife, they fay it is tierce in fefs, and mention 
 each of the colouis ; or tierce in pale, if fo divided in pale. 
 
 Tiercelet. See the article Tassel. 
 
 T I G E, in architecture, a French term for the fhaft or fufl of 
 
 a column, comprehended between the aftragal and the capital. 
 TIGHT. See the article Tite. 
 TILE. See the article Tyle. 
 
 TILLER, or Tillar, in husbandry, a little young tree 
 left to grow till it be fellabie. 
 
 Tiller ofa fhip, is a ftrong piece of wood fattened to the rud- 
 der; called alfo the helm.— See Tab. Ship. fig. z. n. 105. Sl-c 
 aifo the article Rudder. 
 
 The name is chiefly given to that which ferves for a helm in 
 a boat, and which in a fhip ^'ould be called the helm. 
 TILLING, Tillage, in gardening and agriculrurr, a 
 moving or fiirring of the ground with the plough, or Ipade ; 
 which being performed on the furface, enters to a certain 
 depth, and makes the lower and upper parts change place : by 
 which means the goodnefs of the earth is kept from being fpent 
 in feeding ufelefs plants. 
 
 The rule, as to gardening in general, is, that hot and dry earth 
 fhould be tilled in fummer, either a little before, or while it 
 rains, or foon after ; and that neither too often nor too deep : 
 and in hot weather it is not to be performed, unleis watered 
 foon after; hutformoift, cold and ftrong earth, it mull never 
 be tilled in time of rain, but rather in the greateft heats. As 
 to arable lands, that which is clayey, ffiff, cold, and moifr, 
 is generally thrice tilled ; in fpring, fummer, and at feed-time 
 for wheat; and four times for barley. 
 
 Thefe repeated ploughings are very advantageous to the foil, 
 both as they deftroy weeds, and as the ground is hereby laid in 
 ridges, which prevents its being over-drenched in wet feafons, 
 faves it much from blights, and bleak weather, and makes the 
 land lighter and fitter for the feed to take root in, and to im- 
 bibe the nitrous dews and influences of the air. 
 TILT. See Turnament. 
 
 TIL T-Boat, a boat covered with a //'//, i. e. a cloth, or tar- 
 pawling, fuftained by bails or hoops over the ftern, for the 
 fheltering of paffengers. — Such is that which carries paffengers 
 between London and Giavefend. See Boat. 
 
 T I M A R, a tract or portion of land which the Grand Signior 
 grants to a perfon on condition or ferving him in war, on horfe- 
 back. 
 
 Some define the timar a portion of land affigned to a fpahi, or 
 other perfon fit to ferve on horfeback, to enjoy during hie for 
 his fubfiftence. 
 
 Meninski defcribes it as a ftipend or revenue granted to old fol- 
 diers who have deferved well, in lands, and poffeffions of 
 catties, towns, villages, fields, or in tithes, and other fruits 
 and incomes; fometimes with the prefecture, jurifu'iction, or 
 figniory of the faid places. 
 
 The timar is a kind of fief granted for life. The whole Ot- 
 toman empire is divided into fangiackies, or banneries, under 
 which all fuch as hold timars, who are called Timariots, are 
 bound to lift tbemfelves when fummoned upon any expedi- 
 tion. 
 
 Timars may be refigned as benefices among us, only obtaining 
 the confent of the beglerhey, or governor of the province. — 
 Indeed, for timars of above 2000 afpersp^r annum, called zaim. 
 the grand vizir alone grants difpenfations. 
 TIMARIOTS, thofe who enjoy lands on the footing and 
 tenure of timars. See Timar. 
 
 The timariots are obliged to ferve in war perfonally, with as 
 many men and horfes for fervice as their timar, by the efli- 
 mate made thereof, contains times 2500 afpers, or about fix 
 pounds flerling ; and to maintain them conftantly mounted and 
 armed after their manner, to be ready to march at all hours 
 when commanded, and that on pain of death; nothing, not 
 even ficknefs itfelf, being allowed to excufe them. 
 Befides this fervice, they likewife pay an acknowledgment of 
 
 one tenth of their revenue. If they have any children 
 
 of age to bear arms, and fit for the fervice after their de- 
 ceafe, or in defect thereof, if they have any relations that 
 have the leaft intereft, the timar is ufed to be continued to 
 them on the fame conditions, otherwife it is transferred to 
 others. * 
 
 If 
 
T I M 
 
 if the revenue thus held of the grand fignior exceed 15000 
 afpers, or 36 pounds fterltng, they who hold it art not called 
 timariots, but jubqffi, or zu/wj, thefe always have the admini- 
 ftration uf juftice in the place, under the faugtacof the province. 
 The timariots have different .appointments, from 4 or 50CO 
 afpers, equal to. about 12 pounds irerling, to 20000 afpers : 
 but unlets their llmar exceed b'000 afpers, they are never 
 obliged to imrch, except when the grand fignior Toes to the 
 army in perlbn, on which occafion none are exempted. 
 The origin of the timariots id referred to the firft fultans, who 
 being matters of the fiefs or lands of the empire, erected them 
 into baronies or commanderies, to reward the fervices of their 
 bravelt foldiere ; and efpecially to raife and keep on foot a 
 number of troops without difburfing any money. 
 But it was Soliman J I, that firft eitablifhed the order and dis- 
 cipline among thele barons, or knights of the empire ; and by 
 his order it was that the number of horfemen each mould 
 .maintain was regulated. 
 
 This body has heretofore been not only exceedingly powerful, 
 but great and illuftrious throughout all the empire; but ava- 
 rice, the ordinary fault of the orientals, has uccalioned their 
 declenfion of late years. 
 
 The viceroys and governors of provinces manage their mat- 
 ters fo at court, that timars, even out of their jurifdi£tion, arc 
 given to their domeftics, or to fuch as will give them the moll 
 - money for them. 
 There are two kinds of timariots, the one appointed by the 
 Porte, the other by the viceroy of the country ; but the re- 
 venues of both are lefs than thofe of the zaims, and their equi- 
 page and tents lefs in proportion. 
 
 Thofe who have their patents from the court, have from 5 or 
 6000 afpers, to 19999 alpers per annum; if they have one 
 afper more, they become zaims. Thofe who receive their 
 patents from the viceroys, have from 3 to 6000 afpers per 
 annum. 
 
 This cavalry is better difcipllned than that properly called the 
 fpahis, though the fpahis be the neatcfr, and brifkeft. Thefe 
 laft only fight in plattoons ; whereas the zaims and timariots 
 are divided into regiments, and commanded by colonels, un- 
 der the direction of bafhaws. — The bafhaw of Aleppo, when 
 in the army, is colonel general of this militia. 
 
 TIMBER, Includes all kinds of felled and feafoned woods, 
 ufed in the feveral parts of building ; as carpentry, joinery, 
 turnery, fcrY. See Wood, and Building. 
 
 The kinds of Timber are numerous: we fhall only mention 
 fome of the moll ufeful, from Evelyn's Sylva, cSff, — as, 
 i°. Oak t the ufes whereof need no enumerating ! to endure 
 all feafons and weathers, there is no wood like it ; hence its 
 ufe in pales, fhingles, pofts, rails, boards, Bate. For water- 
 works it is fecond to none ; and where it lies expofed both to 
 air and water, there is none equal to it. 
 
 2°. Elm: this felled between November and February, is all 
 fpine or heart, and no fap, and is of fingular ufe in places 
 where it cither is always wet, or always dry ; its toughnefs like- 
 wife makes it of ufe to whcel-wrights, mill-wrights, EsY. nor 
 muft it be omitted, that its not being liable to break and fly in 
 chips, makes it fit for dreffers and planks to chop on, 
 3 0 . Beech: its chief ufe is in turnery, joinery, upholftery, 
 and the like, as being of a clean, white, fine grain, not apt 
 to bend, nor flit; it has been fometimes, efpecially of late, ufed 
 for building timber, and if it lie conftantly wet, is judged to 
 out-laft oak. 
 
 4 0 . Ajh : its ufe is almoft univcrfal ; it is good for building, or 
 other occafions where it may lie dry ; it ferves the carpenter, 
 cooper, turner, plough-wright, wheel-wright, gardener; as 
 alfo it is ufed at fea for oars, band-fpikes, &V, 
 5**. Fir, commonly known by the name of deal, is of late 
 much ufed in building, efpecially within doors, for flairs, floors, 
 wainfcot, and moll works of ornament, 
 
 6°. Walnut-tree : this is of univerfal ufe, excepting for the out- 
 fidcs of buildings ; none is better for the joiners ufe, it bein<* of 
 a more curious brown colour than beach, and lefs fubjedf to 
 worms. 
 
 7 0 . Chefnut-tree, next to oak, is the timber moll fought for 
 by joyners and carpenters : it is very lalting. 
 8°. Service-tree, ufed in joinery, as being of a delicate grain, 
 and fit for curiofities : it aJfo yields beams of confiderable big- 
 nefs proper for building. 
 
 9 0 . Poplar, abel: this and a/pen, differing very little from one 
 another, are much ufed of late inftead of fir : they look as 
 well, and are tougher and harder. 
 
 I0 C . Alder, much ufed for fewers or pipes to convey water : 
 when kept always wet, it grows hard like a ftone ; but where 
 fometimes wet and fometimes dry, it rots prefentiy. 
 
 Felling ef Timber.— The feafon for this work ufually com- 
 mences about the end of April, in regard the bark then gene- 
 rally rifes the mod freely ; fo that where a quantity of Umber 
 is to be felled, the ftatute requires it to be done then, for the 
 advantage of tanning. See Tanning. 
 However, the opinions and practices of authors are very dif- 
 ferent, as to the beft feafon- for felling timber : Vitruvius re- 
 commends an autumnal fall, others advife December and J.i- 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 T I M 
 
 nuary : Cato was of opinion, that trees ftould have borne 
 their fruit before felled, at lead that their fruit mould be bar 
 ripe ; which fib's in with the ftntiment of Vitruvius, 1 
 In effect, though limber unbarked be moil obnoxious to worms' 
 yet we find the wild oak, and many other kinds, if felled too 
 late, when the fap begins to be full, to be verv fubjeft to 
 worms ; whereas about mid-winter, it neither cafts, rifts, nor 
 twines. It were happy, therefore, if a method of tanning 
 without bark could be invented, that trees being felled more 
 early, the timber might be the better feafoned. 
 The ancients had a great regard to the age of the moon in the 
 felling their timber.— If their rules avail aught, they are thefe - 
 Fell timber in the wain, or four days after new moon , fome 
 fay, let it be the laft quarter. Pliny orders it to be in the very 
 article ot the change, which happening on the Lft day of the 
 winter folltice, the timber, fays he, will be immortal : Colu- 
 mella fays from the 20th to the 28th day ; Cato, four days 
 after the full ; Vegetius, from the 15th to the 25th for fhip 
 timber ; but never in the increafe, trees then molt abounding 
 with moifture, the only fource of putrefaction. 
 Some even have a regard to the temper and time of the day ; 
 the wind to be low, neither eaft nor weft, neither in frolfy, 
 wet, nor dewy weather, and finally never in the forenoon! 
 Lalily, fome regard is had to the fpecies : fir is beft felled when 
 it begins to fpring, both as it then quits its coat beft, and as 
 the wood, according to Theopbraftus, is by that means ren- 
 dered wonderfully durable in water. Elm, fays Mr. WotKdee, 
 is to be felled between November and January, in which c°fe 
 it will be all heart, at leaft the fap will be very inconftderable : 
 this, he adds, is alio the only good feafon for felling alb. Some 
 authors add further, that in felling timber, care fliould be taken, 
 firft, only to cut it into the heart, and fo to let it fland till dry \ 
 by which means the moifture is evacuated in drops, which 
 would othcrwife occafion putrefaction. 
 Sulfating of Timber — After felling and fawing it, fome advife 
 it to be laid up very dry in an airy place, yet out of the wind 
 and fun, ot at leaft free from any extremities of either; and 
 that it may not decay, but dry evenly, they order it to be 
 daubed over with cows dung. 
 
 It is not to Hand upright, but to lie all along, one piece over 
 another, only kept apart by ftiort blocks interpofed, to prevent 
 a certain mouldinefs, which they are otherwife apt to contraa 
 in fwealing on one another ; from which frequently arifes a kind 
 of fungus, efpecially if thele be any fappy parts remaining 
 Others advife boards, planks, BV, to be laid in fome pool,' or 
 running ftream for a few days, to extraa the fap from them 
 and afterwards to dry them in the fun or air. By this means' 
 it is faid, they will be prevented from either chapping, calling 
 or cleaving ; but againft fhrinking there is no remedy. Mr 
 Evelyn particularly recommends this method for fir. 
 Others again are for burying them in the earth,' others in 
 wheat, and others for torching and feafoning them in fire 
 efpecially piles, polls, CSV. that are to ftand either in water 
 or earth. 
 
 Sir Hugh Piatt informs us, that the Venetians burn and (torch 
 their umber for lh,p-building in the flaming fire, continually 
 turning it round with an engine, til) it has got a hard black 
 crufly coal upon it. ' p 
 
 Preferving of Timee R.— When boards, Estft are dried fea 
 ioned, and fixed in their places,, care is to be taken to defend 
 and frejerve them ; to which the fmearing them with linfeed- 
 oil, tar, or the like oleaginous matter, contributes very much 
 'I he Dutch prderve their gates, portcullices, draw-bi id e c's, 
 fluiccs, i3c. by coating them over with amixture of pitch and Tar 
 whereon they ftrew fmall pieces of cockle and other (hells beaten 
 almoft to powder, and mixed with fea-fand, which inciudsand 
 arms ,t wonderfully againft all affaults of wind and weather 
 limber felled before the fap is perfeffly at reft, is very fubicfl to 
 the worms ; to prevent or cure which, Mr. Evelyn gives us the 
 following fecrer, as mod approved. Put common fuluhur in a 
 cucurbit vvith as much aqua-fortis, as will cover it three fin-ers 
 deep ; diftil it to a drynefs, and let it haie two or three redli- 
 ncations. 
 
 Lay the fulphur remaining at bottom on a marble, or in a elafs 
 and with the oil it diffolves into, anoint the timber. This, he 
 adds, not only infallibly prevents or cures the worminels, but 
 prelerves all kinds of woods, and even many other things, as 
 ropes, nets, and mails, from putrefaction, either in air, water 
 or fnow. 
 
 For fuch as would go a fhorter way to work, two or three 
 anointings wilh linfeed-oil may do very well. As 10 polls, t'r. 
 that arc to ftand in the ground, the burning the outiides to a 
 coal is a very great prefcrvative. 
 
 As to the chops or clefts green timber is liable to after working, 
 and which is a very greal eye fore in many fine buildings, they 
 are clofed by anointing, Toppling, and foaking it with the fat of 
 faked beef-broth, twice or thrice repeated.— Some ca-penrcra 
 ufe greafc and Paw-dud mingled for the fame puipofc — liut the 
 former method is excellent, only it is not to be ufed while the 
 timber is green. 
 
 TniKR-Iwi, the wood, of timber, before it be felled, particu- 
 lany that of oak, &i, 
 
 1 2 »\I f„ 
 
T I M 
 
 For the ralfing, planting, tranfplanting, pruning, (Sc. of 
 timber- tress. See Nursery, Pruning, and T» a n b- 
 PL ANTING. 
 
 Tti/fBiR-mea/ure, — Timber is ufually Meafured and eflimatcd by 
 the load or ton, which is a (olid meafure containing 40 feet 
 of round timber, or 50 of hewn timber. The denomination 
 of load, &c we fuppofc ariles hence, that 40 or 50 fulid feet 
 of fuch timber weighs about a ton, e. 20 hundred weight, 
 which is ufually accounted a cart-load. 
 
 1°. For the meafuring of round timber : the praiflice is, to gird 
 the tree about, in 'the middle of the length; and folding the 
 line twice, to take one length or quarter of the whole* and 
 acoount that for the true fide of the fquare : then for the 
 length, it is counted from the but-end of the tree, fo far up 
 as the tree will hold half a foot girt, as they call it, /'. t% fo 
 long as the line, twice folded, is half a foot. 
 The dimenfions thus taken, the quantity of timber is had, 
 either by multiplying the fide of the fquare into itfelf, and 
 that product by the length, by the method of crofc multipli- 
 cation . 
 
 Or, more cafily and fpeedily on G (inter's line, by extending 
 the compaiTes from 12 to the fide of the fquare in inches ; 
 for that extent turned twice (the lame way) from the length 
 in feet, will reach to the content in feet. 
 
 Or it may be done better ftill, on Coggefhal's fliding-rulc. by 
 fettinf 12 on the girt line D, to the length in feet un the me 
 C. Then againft the fide of the fquare, on the girt line D 
 taken in inches, you have on the line C the content of the 
 timber in feet. See Coggefhal's Sliding-.^/*. 
 Note, i°. this method of mcafuring round timber, though 
 common, is yet erroneous; and the content found hereby, it 
 is demonftrated, is lefs than the true content or meafure in the 
 ratio of 11 to 14. How to avoid this error, and meafure 
 it jufily, we have (hewn under the ufe of Coggefhal's jlid'mg 
 rule. 
 
 2°. If the tree have any great boughs that are timber, as thi 
 phrafe is, u e. which will hold foot girt, they are commonly 
 meafured, and added to the reft: the foliuity of the whole 
 being thus found, they divide it by 40, which brings it into 
 loads. 
 
 3 0 . In meafuring round timber for fale, they ufually cafl away 
 an inch out of the fquare for the bark, if oak; fo that a tree 
 jo inches fquare, they only account as if 9 ; but for afli, elm, 
 beech, tiff, an inch is too much. 
 4 0 . For the meafuring hewn or fquared timber \ the practice is, 
 to find the middle of the length of the tree, and there to 
 meafure its breadth, by clapping two rules, or other ftraight 
 things to the fides of the trees and meafuring the ddtance bi 
 tween them : in the like manner they meafure the breadth the 
 other way. If the two be found unequal, they add them to- 
 gether, and take half the fun. for the true fide of the fquare. 
 The dimenfions thus taken, the content is found either by 
 profs-multiplication, Guntcr's fcale, or the fliding-rule, after 
 the manner already directed. 
 
 The content divided by 50, gives the number of loads. 
 Note, if the timber be unequally fided, this method of mea- 
 furing it is erroneous, always giving the content more than the 
 trutii ; and the more fo, as the difference of the fides is greater 
 yet cuftom has authorized it. 
 
 To meafure fuch timber juftly, a mean proportional fhould be 
 found between the unequal fides, and this mean fhould be ac- 
 counted the fide of the fquate. 
 
 For the meafuring of taper timber, and timber of other forms. 
 
 as cubes, prifms, pyramids, £ft« See the article SuDiHG-Rule. 
 Bearing ^Timber, 1 g £e c Bearing. 
 Cafing o/Timeer Work, \ \ Casing. 
 Timber, or Timm er of furs, * as ermines, marterns, fables, 
 
 and the like, denotes 40 fkins. — Of other fkins, fix fcore. Rujl, 
 
 * R&c cwitas ( fc. Ctftria-J nunc reddsbat de finna ±e$nu&f (res 
 timbrias pel&um Marteitarum LL. Edvv. Conf. 
 
 Timbers of ermine, in heraldry, denote the ranks or rows of 
 
 ermine in noblemens coats. See Ermine. 
 Timber, in falconry. To timber, is to neftle, ormakcaneft, 
 
 as birds of prey do. 
 TIMBRE, or Timmer, in heraldry, denotes the creftofan 
 
 armoury, or whatever is placed a-top of the efcutcheon, to 
 
 diftinguifh the degree of nobility, either ecclefiaftical or fecu- 
 
 Lr. See Crest. 
 
 Such is the papal tiara, cardinal's hat, the crofs, mitre, coro- 
 net, merrier, and particularly the cafks or helmets, which 
 the ancients called more efpccially timbres, from their refem- 
 bling a kind of bell without a clapper, which the French call 
 timbre, or becaufe they refounded like thofe timbres when 
 ftruck. This is the opinion of Loifeau, who derives the word 
 from the Latin, tintinnabulum. 
 TIME, a fucceffion of phenomena in the univerfe ; or a mode 
 cf duration, marked by certain periods and meafurcs ; chiefly 
 by the motion and revolution of the fun. 
 
 The idea of time in the general, Mr. Lock obferves, we ac- 
 quire by confiiering any part of infinite duration as fet out 
 
 T I M 
 
 by periodical meafures : the idea of any particular time or 
 length of duration, as a day. an hour, &c. we acquire fi if 
 by .obferving certain appearances at regular, and, fceminclv 
 equi-diltjnt periods. 
 
 Now, by being able to repeat thofe lengths or meafures of time 
 as often as we will, we can imagine duration, where nothing 
 really endures or exifts ; and thus we imagine to morrtrw next 
 year, fs'r. 
 
 Some of the latter fchool-philofophers define time to be the 
 duration of a thing whole exillence is neither without be- 
 ginning nor «r,d : by this time is diffinguiflted from eter- 
 nity. 
 
 Ariftotle and the peripatetics define it numeral metut Item- 
 imnfritu ii pejferius, or a multitude of tranftent parts of mo- 
 tion, fucceeding each other, in a Continual flux, in the rela- 
 tion of prioiit) and pofteriority. 
 
 Hence it fhould f illow, that time is motion itfelf, or at leaff 
 the duration of motion, confidered as having fevcral p arts 
 fome whereof are continually fucceeding to others : but o ' 
 this principle, time or temporal duration would not agree to 
 bodies at reft, which yet no body will deny to exifl in time 
 or to endure for a time. J 
 To evade this inconvenience, the Epicureans and Oorpufcula- 
 rians made time to be a fort of flux, different from motion 
 confifting of infinite parts, continually and immediately fuc- 
 ceedlng each other, and this from eternity to eternity but 
 others direfil] explode this notion, as eftablifhing an eternal 
 Bern;.- independent of God. For how fhould there be a flux 
 bel ue anv thing exiftcd to flow? and what fhould that flux be 
 
 into abfolute, and relet. 
 
 ; tubff ance or an accident ? 
 Time may be diflinguifhed like place 
 
 tive. 
 
 Abjelule Time, is time confidered in itfelf, and without any re- 
 lation to bodies, or their motions — This flows equally « f. 
 it never proceeds either falter or flower, but always glides on 
 inaconftant, equable tenor. 
 
 Relative or apparent Time, is the fenfible meafure of any dura- 
 tion by means of motion.— For fince that equable flux oi time 
 does not aft'eft our fenfes, nor is any way immediately cogni- 
 zable thereby, there is a neceffity for calling in the help of 
 fome nearly equable motion to a fenfible meafure, whereby 
 we may determine its quantity, by the correfpondency of the 
 parts of this with thofe of that. 
 
 Hence, as we judge thofe timet to be equal which pafs while 
 a moving body, proceeding with an equable velocity. pafTes 
 over equal fpaces ; fo we judge thofe times to he equal which 
 flow while the fun, moon, and other luminaries perform their 
 revolutions, which, to our fenfes, are equal. 
 3ui fince the flux of time cannot be accelerated, nor retarded 
 whereas all bodies move fometimes faftcr and fumetimes flower' 
 and there is, perhaps, no perfectly equable motion in all na- 
 ture; it appears hence to follow, that abfolute time fhould be 
 fomething truly and really diftina from motion. For let us 
 fuppole ihe heavens and the ftars to have remained without 
 motion from the very creation : does it hence follow, that the 
 courfe of time would have been at a ftand ? or rather, would 
 not the duration of that quiefcent ftate have been equal to the 
 very time now elapfed ? 
 
 Since abfolute time is a quantity uniformly extended, and in its 
 own nature moft fimple, it hence comv, to be rcprefented by 
 mathematicians, to the inagmatioD, under the moft fimple 
 fenfible magnitudes, and particularly right lines and circles' 
 with which it bears a near analogy, in refpect of its genefis' 
 iimilarity, cir>. b 5 
 
 It is not, indeed, neceffary that time fhould be meafu-cd by 
 motion; any conftant periodical appearance in fcemingly equi- 
 diftant fpaces, as the freezing of water, the Mowing of a 
 plant, BV. returning at fet periods, might do as well. In 
 effea, Mr. Lock mentions an American people, who 
 count their years by the coming and going away of 
 
 Some authors difiinguifh lime into ajlronamieal and chill, 
 Aftnmmteal Time, is that taken purely from the motion of the 
 
 heavenly bodies, without any other regard. 
 Civil Tike, is the former time accommodated to civil ufes 
 
 and formed and diltinguifhed into years, months days' 
 
 Time makes the fubjea of chronology. See Chronology. 
 Time, in mufic, is an afRaion of found, whereby we denomi- 
 nate it long, otjhorl with regard to its continuance in the fame 
 degree of tune. 
 
 Tune and tune are the great properties of found, on whofe dif- 
 ference or proportions mufic depends : each has its feveral 
 charms ; where the time or duration of the notes is equal, the 
 differences of tune alone are capable to entertain us with end- 
 lefs pleafure. 
 
 And of the power of time alone, i. e. of the pleafures arifing 
 from the various meafures of long and fhort, fwift and flow, 
 we have an inftance in the drum, which has no difference of 
 notes, as to tune. 
 
 Time, in mufick, is confidered 'either with refpea to the abfo- 
 lute duration of the notes, i e. tfie duration confidered in 
 
 every 
 
T I N 
 
 every note by itfelf, and meafured by f)fne external motion fo 
 reign to the mafic; in refpect to which the compofition is faid 
 to be quick or JIow: or it is confidered with refect to the rela- 
 tive quantity or proportion of the notes compared with one 
 another. See Note. 
 
 The figns or characters by which the time of notes is repre- 
 fented, are fhewn under the article Characters in mufic, 
 where the names, proportions, &fr, are alfo exprelied. 
 A femi-breve, for inftance, is marked to be equal to two mi- 
 nims, a minim to two crotchets, a crotchet to two quavers, 
 and fo on, ftill in a duplicate ratio, i, e. in the ratio of 1 : i. 
 Now, where the notes refpect each other thui, i. e. where they 
 are in this ratio, the mufic is faid to be in duple, i. e. double 
 or common time. 
 
 When thy feveral notes are triple of each other, or in the ra- 
 tio 3 : I, that is, when the femi-breve Is equal to three mi- 
 nims, the minim to three crotchets, (j'c. the mufic is faid to 
 be in triple time. 
 
 To render this part as fimple as poflible, the proportions al- 
 ready dated among the notes are fixed and invariable, and to 
 exprefs the proportion of 3 : 1, a point ( . ) is added on the 
 right fide of any note, which is deemed equivalent to half of it ; 
 and by this means a pointed femibreve, O' becomes equal to 
 three minims, ^ind fo of the reft. 
 
 From hence arife feveral other ratios conflicting new kinds of 
 triple time; as 2 : 3 and 3 : 4., fcfe. but theft Mr. Malcolm 
 obferves are of no real fervice, and are not perceived without 
 a painful attention. For the proportions of the times of riotes, 
 to afford us pleafurc, muft be fuch as are not difficultly per- 
 ceived ; on which account the only ratios fit for mufic, befides 
 that of equality, are the double and triple. 
 Common or duple Time, is of two fpecies. — The firft, when 
 every bar or meafure is equal to a femibreve, or its value in any 
 *■ combination of notes of a leffer quantity. 
 
 Thefecond, where every bar is equal to a minim, or its value 
 in leffer note?. The movements of this kind of meafure are 
 various, but there are three common diftm&ions ; the firft flow, 
 fignified at the beginning by the mark C; the fecond brisk, 
 fignified by <L ; the third very quid-, fignified by D. 
 But what that flow, brifk and quick is, is very uncertain, and 
 only to be learned by practice. The neareft meafua- *e know 
 of, is to make a quaver the length of the pulfe of a gn 0 d 
 watch, then a crotchet will be equal to two pulles, a minim 
 to four, and the whole .meafure or femi-breve to eight. This 
 may be reputed the meafure of brisk time; for they^jy, it is as 
 long again, and the quick is only half as long. 
 The whole meafure then of common time is equal to a femi- 
 breve or a minim ; but thefe are varioufly fubdlvided into notes 
 of lefs quantities. 
 
 Now to keep the time equal, we make ufe of a motion of the 
 hand or foot, thus: knowing the true time of a crotchet, we 
 fhal! fuppofe the meafure or bar actually fub-divided into four 
 trotchets for the firft fpecies of common time; then the half 
 meafure will be two crotchets ; therefore, the hand or foot be- 
 ing up, if we put it down with the very beginning of the firft 
 note or crotchet, and then raife it with the third, and then 
 down to begin the next meafure ; this is called beating of time. 
 By practice, they get a habit of making this motion very 
 equal, and confequently of dividing the meafure or bar into 
 equal parts, up and down; as alf 0 of taking all the notes in 
 the juft proportion, fo as to begin and end them' precifely with 
 the beating. In the meafure of two 'crotchets, they beat 
 down the firft, and the fecond up. — Some call each half of 
 the meafure in common time, a time ; and fo they call this the 
 mode or meafure of two times, or the dupla meafure. 
 Again, fome mark the meafure of two crotchets with a z or 
 h iign'fy in g it to be equal to two notes, whereof four make 
 a femi-breve; and fome mark it £ for quavers. 
 
 For triple Ti me, fee the article Triple-TiW. 
 
 Time in Fencing. — There are three kinds of time; that of .the 
 fword, that of the foot, and that of the whole body. All 
 the times that are perceived out of their meafure, are only to 
 be confidered as appeals, or feints, to deceive and amufe the 
 enemy. See Fencing. 
 
 Time of Peace, 
 Time in Grammar, 
 Time in Mechanics, 
 Periodical Time, 
 Equation cf Time, 
 Kipper-TiME, 
 Unity of Time, 
 
 TiME-Keeper, or r Y\-\\i-Meafttre, 
 
 ("Pea ce. 
 
 Tense. 
 Motion. 
 Period. 
 Equation. 
 Kipper. 
 Unity, 
 ^Chronometer. 
 
 TIMMER. See the articles Timber, "and Timbre. 
 TIN, Stannum, a whitifh metal, fofter than filver, yet much 
 harder than lead. 
 
 The chymifts, fife hold tin a fpecies of imperfect metal, gene 
 rated of two different feeds, viz. that of filver, and that of 
 Jead; which renders it a kind of compound of both; and they 
 fay accordingly it is fometimes found both in lead and filver 
 mines, , , , 
 
 Tin, however, has alfb its proper mines, of which our coun- 
 * tits of Cornwall aiurDcvonlliire are an abundant evidence; the 
 
 T I N 
 
 grcateft p2rt of the tin confumed in Europe is procured f orfi 
 theiice; and Camden even fuppofes this abundance o r tin, in 
 tbofe twu provinces, to have given the original denomination 
 Britain to the whole kingdom— In the Sy riac Iangu.oe varat- 
 anae fignifies land of tin; from which Bochart derives the 
 name Britain. 
 
 The principal chafers or properties of tin, enumerated by 
 Boeriiaave, arc, that it is the lighteft of all metals; very little 
 ductile orelaftic; the rrioft fulible and volatile of all metals; 
 fcarce diffoluble by acids, unlefs the weaker forts; and eafiy 
 and intimately mifcible with other metals, the ductility where- 
 of becomes diminished by fuch mixture. 
 
 The fame author concludes, that fulphur is a prevailing ingre- 
 dient in tin, and deduces feveral of its particular pruperties 
 therefrom. He adds, that could the metal be perfectly purged 
 of this heterogeneous fulphur, it is probable it would be found 
 no other than filver. 
 
 Several authors alfo had before noted a great conformity, in di- 
 vers particulars, between thefe two metals; as, that both grow- 
 bitter when diffolved by acids; that when fu'ed together, 
 there is fcarce any feparatlng them again, not even by lead. 
 Add, that Mr. Boyle, and others, give us feveral inftauccs of 
 filver being ac-tually pioduced in confiderable quantity from tin 
 ore. 
 
 Some naturalifls judge the analogy greitcr between tin and lead, 
 ■ and contend that tin is only lead, under a lefi degree of coc- 
 tlon ; but if thSrc be fome marks of agreement between them, 
 there are as many of difagreement. Th:: c,Jx of lead, for in. 
 fiance, eafily ful'es and vitrifies, but that of tin not without 
 the utmoft difficulty: if tin and lead be mixed by a Vehement 
 fire, a vehement collufhtion cnfucK, and they both run into a 
 calx: add, that tin is ealily revivified; but lead not without 
 great labour. 
 
 The method of getting, preparing, l$c. the tin in the Cornifh, 
 mines, much the beff and moft confidcrable in the world, ft 
 given us in the Philofphical Tranfafiions. — The working of 
 the tin mines is very hard nd difficult, not only by reafon of 
 the great depth which the veins defcend to, even as low as 60 
 fathom ; but alfo becaufe the rocks, through which paflao-cs 
 are frequently cur, are extreamly hard. Nor is the fofrfhake- 
 ing earth lound in the tin mines much lefs inconvenient to the 
 work-men, both by reafon of the fretid, malignant vapours it 
 exhales, and of the current of water ^ften met withal therein: 
 thtfe difadvantages often render it impracticable for the work- 
 men to hold it above four hours together. 
 The mineral ftone or ore being dug and drawn oat of the 
 mine, is firft broke into pieces with large iron mallets; then 
 brought to a flamping-mill, where it is ftill pounded fmallcr 
 with ftampers, much like thofe of paper-mills; and thj wat^r 
 palling through it wafhes away the earthy parts, leaving the 
 metallic ones behind: this lution is repeated twice, to make 
 the better fepaiation. 
 
 This done, they dry it in a furnace on iron plates, and grind 
 it very fine in a crafing-mill ; then wafti it again, and dry it : 
 and in this (fate, the metallic matter is called black tin. 
 To convert it into tin, i. e. into white tin, they carry it to a 
 a furnace, or blowing-houfe ; where, by means of a charcoal 
 flie, kept up by huge bellows worked with water, itisfmelted: 
 after it has parted all thefe preparations, and is become cold 
 they forge it, which is thelaft thing done to it in the works. 
 The drbfi or fcoria fcummcd off the tin in fufion, being melt- 
 ed down with frefti ore, runs into metal ; and even the caufal- 
 ty, i.e. the matter waffled and feparated from the ore iiMhe 
 mill, being thrown up in heap , after refting fix or feven years, 
 they work it over again, and it yields as gotd tin as any of 
 that of Germany. 
 
 The workmen diftinguifh feveral kinds of tin; as moor-tin, 
 which is the beft fort, a fool whereof weighs So pounds ; and 
 jninc-iin, which is the next, a fool thereof weighing about 5 2 
 or 50 pounds. The tin got from the foft, gravelly earth, 
 they call pryan-tin, to diftinguifh it from that got from the 
 ftones, which is better by almoft half. — Two pounds of black 
 tin, when melted, yield about one of white. 
 There is a curiolity in thefe Cornifh mines, which the lover of 
 natural hiftory will be pleafed to hear; it is this; ^that in'digg- 
 ing, at the depth of 40 or 50 fathoms, they frequently meet 
 with large timber, ftill entire, 
 
 Cliildrey, in his Natural Hijhry, goes back as far as the de- 
 lugs to place them there; bur without having recourfe to fo 
 great antiquity, they who believe that the mines, when ex- 
 haulled cf their ore or mineral matter, renew and fill again in 
 cnurfe cf time, will foon Iblve the difficulty, by fuppofine, 
 that in ( the firft working of thefe mir:ei> ( thefe timbers had 
 been let down to ferve as props ^nd pdl-irs. 
 But there are other people will think thi; renewal of the mines 
 itfelf a difficulty as great as the former. However, what the 
 former author adds, viz.. that in fome places in the mines they 
 likewife find pick-axes, tsV. with wooden fhafts, as alfo brafit 
 nails, and that even a medal of Dumitun, his been found in 
 one, feems to countenance the opinion. See Mine. 
 
 Msthci 
 
T I N 
 
 T I T 
 
 Method of paying Tin.-To find whether tin be foft and duc- 
 tile or harlh and brittle, there are two kinds of allays; the 
 fir ft is by putting the tin in a mould of caft-brafs, and there 
 melting it IF the metal beharfh, it will be taken out heavier 
 than before ; if otherwife it will be lighter. The fecond, is 
 by catting the melted tin into a little mould, made ot a 
 foft (loner This mould is to have a little canal of moderate 
 length which conduBs the matter into a cavity, capable ot 
 containing half a billiard ball: if the tin be harfh, it appears 
 wbitifh towards the entry of the mould, otherwife it is tinged 
 fuperficially with a very faint, bluifh brown. 
 For the ufc of tin in the compofttion of pewter, fee r E w T E R • 
 The chymifts call rmby the name Jupiter: but from what a- 
 lialogy between the metal and the planet, we leave them to ex- 
 
 By the analyfes made of tin, they hold it compounded of earth, 
 fulphur, a metallic fait, and mercury—The chief chymical 
 preparations from it are, fait of tin, flower, of t.n, miita- 
 phoretic of tin. . . , , 
 
 Siktf T«, or of Jupiter, is made from tm calcined, and d,- 
 ftiiled vinegar poured thereon; from which, by means of fire, 
 and then of a cool 'place wherein it is put, a very white fait is 
 drawn; but this is a very difficult thing to obtain. 
 
 FItmeri of Tin, are a kind of white cofmetic, or paint for the 
 complexion; drawn from tin with fal ammoniac, by means 
 of fublimation. , . , 
 
 Diaphoretic of Tin, is fine tin and regulus of antimony melted, 
 firft fimply together, and then with falt-petre. Whence, after 
 various lotions, is drawn a powder, held to be fovereign againft 
 divers difeafes. . c 
 
 Cerufs of Tin, is a white powder, procured from tm, whereof 
 a fucus is made, called Spanijh white.— This cerufs is not 
 made with vinegar, as that cf lead is; but with the urine of a 
 Toung perfon : the powder is alfo ufed to colour Dellt ware. 
 
 Caixol r TlN, is the metal reduced into powder, either by means 
 of fire or by being dilMved in an acid menftiuum, and pre- 
 cipitated with an alkali. Seefupplement, article St annum. 
 
 TINCTORUM Rulia. See the article Ru Et a. 
 
 TINCTURE, Tinctura, in pharmacy and cbymiftry. - 
 
 reparation of the finer and more volatile parts of a mixed bo- 
 dy, made by means of a proper menirruum diffolving the fame. 
 See Menstruum, and Dissolution. 
 Tincture is more particularly ufed for an extraa of part of 
 the fubftance of a body, efpecially its flavour and colour, which 
 are hereby communicated to the menftruum. 
 We have cephalic tinctures, antifcorbutic tinctures, ftomachic 
 tinctures, anticolic tinctures, invigorating tinctures, Ss?£. and 
 tinctures drawn from rofes, from corals, fcrc. 
 To make a tincture, the matter is ufually bruifed, put into a 
 matrafs, and the menftruum, which commonly is fpint of 
 wine, poured on it, to the height of two or three fingers a- 
 above it Then the glafs is clofed, and fet for digeftion, m a 
 fand-heat, during five or fix days, or till the fpirit is well Im- 
 pregnated, and has received a high colour. 
 Thus are tittctures of odiferous vegetables, as cinnamon, EsrV. 
 drawn ; and the fame method ferves for thofe of metals, and 
 minerals. 
 
 The tinctures of metals, fo much talked of by the chymifts 
 and alchymifts, are not proper tinctures ; they are only di- 
 lutions, wherein the metal is divided and attenuated to a great- 
 er degree than it is in its natural and ordinary diilolvents. 
 If the tinOun were irreduaible ; that is, if the metal were 
 diffolved to fuch a degree, as that it could not be brought back 
 again into metal; or, which comes to the fame, if the prin- 
 ciples which compofe it were difiinited, it would be what the 
 chymifts have fo long and fo earneftly wifhed for, and fought 
 with fuch- infinite pains, efpecially with regard to gold ; the ir- 
 reduaible tincture whereof is what fhould be called aurum po- 
 tabile. . 
 But no fuch tincture has ever yet been difcovered : the potable 
 gold, defcribedby them, being only gold extremely divided; 
 and the cafe is the fame with the tinctures of other metals. 
 The intention of metalline tinctures is to rarefy and extend 
 the fulphur of the metal as much as poffible, and fo to render the 
 fixed and earthy parts as fubtileand volatile as may be: and if 
 they are defigned to be of ufe in medicine, fome harmlefs and 
 agreeable medium is to be ufed. 
 
 The alchymifts give the name grand mineral tincture to the 
 philofophers flone ; from an opinion, that all required to their 
 operation, is to give the colour or tinfture of gold to fixed 
 mercury. 
 
 Marble, alabaftcr, and bones, receive tinctures from hxiviiuns, 
 and fiiatp juices; and Mr. Boyle thinks there is reafon to hope 
 the fame may be done with precious ftones : rock cryftal, it is 
 certain, is tinged by fubterraneous jucices ; and all the other 
 colour'd gemms, even the fapphire itfelf. Sec fupplement, 
 Gemms. 
 
 In the memoirs of the French academy, mention is made of 
 certain liquors, e. gr. fpiiits drawn from wheat, which will ex- 
 tract tiniiurcs, even out of fome precious ftones. It is added, 
 4 
 
 they are always more capable of producing this effect, as they 
 
 give a greater decree of rednefs to the folution of vitriol. 
 Tincture ./ Amber ? fc ^ S Amber. 
 Tincture of Cajfa, 5 t Cassia, 
 
 Tincture is alfo applied by the heralds to the colours ufed in 
 
 efcutcheons, or coats of arms ; under which, with therri, are 
 
 likewife reduced the two metals, or and argent, becaufe often 
 
 reprefented by yellow and white. 
 TINEA, in medicine, a difeafe called by the Arab writers fa- 
 
 hafati, and in Englifb ufually a fcald-head ; it is nearly a-kin 
 
 to achores. 
 
 The tinea is a difeafe of the leprous kind : authors ufually 
 reckon three ipecies of it, viz. a dry, moifl, ami lupinoui; 
 but thefe, in reality, are only fo many degrees of the fame 
 difeafe. 
 
 Turner defines the tinea an ulcer arifing in the heads of chil- 
 dren, from a vicious, corrofive, or laline humour, which 
 preying on the cutaneous glands, in timedeftroys their texture. 
 It has its name tinea, q. d. moth, from the fimilitude it bears 
 to the holes eat by that infeft in paper, &c— In the firft ftagc 
 it is covered with a white, dry, fcurfy, or fquammaus mat- 
 ter: in the fecond the fubjacent flefh appears granulated : and 
 in the third it is ulcerous. 
 
 The internal remedies proper for the tinea are, mercurials, 
 proper cathartics, and dietetics, with edulcoranh; and lome- 
 times a i'alivation, efpecially by unciion, has been found effi- 
 cacious, after all other methods have proved vain. The exter- 
 nals are fomentations made of roots ot oxylapathum, birth- 
 wort, horferadifh, wormwood, &c, boiled in water, and 
 {trained; to which are added, fpirits of wine camphorated, 
 b'c. alfo linimcntsof hog's lard, white precipitate mercurial oint- 
 ments, with powdered brimftone; and fometimes powder of 
 Roman and white vitriol, red precipitate, &c. but thefe laft 
 mull be ufed with great caution. , % . 
 
 TIN-GLASS, Bifmuth, a mineral matter, white, fmooth, 
 and in all appearance, refembling tin ; but hard, brittle, and 
 difpofed in fhining fcales, as if it were pieces of glafs, whence 
 its name. See Bismuth. 
 TlNCLINGcf the Ear. Seethe article Tinnitus. 
 TINNING, the covering or lining any thing with melted 
 tin, or with tin reduced to a very thin leaf. _ 
 Looking-glailes are foliated or tinned with thin plates of beaten 
 tin, the whole bignefs of the glafs, applied and fattened there- 
 to by means of quickfilver. See Looking-Glass. 
 Kettles, fauce-pans, and other kitchen utenfils, are tinned 
 with melted tin ; and locks, bits, fpurs, bV. with leaf-fin, by 
 the help of fire. _ 
 The plumbers, on fome occafions, tin or whiten their fheets 
 of lead ; in order to which they have a tinning furnace, filled 
 with live coal, at the two fides whereof two men are placed, 
 who hold up the fheets over the fire to heat ; and the tin leaves 
 being laid over them, as faft as the fheets grow hot, and the 
 tin melts, they fpreadit, and make it take by rubbing it with 
 tow and rofin. 
 
 TINNITUS Juris, Tingling or buzzing of the Ear, a 
 difeafe prettv frequent in the ear, confifling in the perception 
 of a found which is not, or, at leaft, is not external. 
 This perception may be occafioned by the beating of an arte- 
 ry in the ear, by an inflammation, or abfeefs of the tympa- 
 num or the labyrinth, by the admiffion of foreign bodies, by 
 commotions of the cranium, or blows on the ears, &e. — Ex- 
 traordinary and irregular motions of the animal fpirits are alfo 
 found to occafion the tinnitus, as we find in deliriums, phren- 
 fies, vertigoes, &c. — The tlncling of the ear is reckoned one 
 of the diagnoftic figns of the plague. 
 TIPSTAVES, officers appointed by the marfhal of the 
 King's-bench, to attend the judges with a rod or ftafr" tipped 
 with filver, and take charge ot fuch perfons, as are cither 
 committed, or turned over at the judge's chambers. 
 T.he denomination is alfo fometimes given to thofe more fre- 
 quently called bajlons; who are the warden of the Fleet's of- 
 ficers, attending the king's courts with a painted ftafF, for the 
 taking into cuftody fuch prifoneis as are committed by the 
 court ; and to attend fuch prifoners as go at large by licence. 
 TIRE, or, as the feamen pronounce it Teer of Guns, is a 
 row of guns placed along a ihip's fide, either above, upon deck, 
 or below : the former of which are called the upper tire, the 
 latter the lower tire. 
 - TITANS, Titanes, titanes, in the ancient mytho- 
 logy, the fons of Uranus or Ccelus, and Vefla, (. e. of hea- 
 ven and earth, according to Heiiod and Apollodorus; orwhich 
 comes to the fame thing, of ./Ether and Tellus, according to 
 Hyginus. Apollodorus reckons five Titans: Oceanus, Cseus, 
 Hyperion, Crius, and Japetus; ail elder brothers of Saturn: 
 Hyeinus reckons fix, a)!, except Hyperion, different from the 
 former: their names, Briareus, Gyges, Sterope, Atlas, Hy- 
 perion, and Cottus; but he feems to include the hundred- 
 handed giants in the number, which Appollodorus, and the 
 generality of mvthologifts, diftinguifh from the Titans, 
 
 The 
 
TIT 
 
 The tradition is, that Ccelus, by the fame wife, Vefta, had 
 Briareus, Gyges, and Coitus, the hundred-handed giants, and 
 had chained them up in Tartarus: Vefta, the earth, their mo- 
 ther, refenting this treatment, raifed the Titans againft their 
 father, herhufDand: all, excepting Oceanus, made war upon 
 him, and dethroned him, fetting up Saturn in his place. 
 Saturn, it feems, prov'd no more favourable to them than his 
 father; but continued the giants in their prifon.— Upon this 
 Jupiter revolted againft Saturn; ferving him as he had done 
 Ccelus ; and refcued the three giants: who afterwards proved 
 of great Service to him in the war which the fit am waged 
 againft him. 
 
 This war lafted ten years : but at length the Titans were van- 
 quifhed ; Jupiter remained in peaceable polTemon of heaven, 
 and the Titans were buried under huge mountains thrown on 
 their heads. 
 
 Hyginus gives another origin of the Titans: he derives them 
 from Titan, Saturn's eldeft brother, by Ccelus and Vefta; 
 ■who, though preemptive heir of heaven, yet finding his fa- 
 ther and mother more inclined for Saturn than for him, fur- 
 rendered to him his rightof fucceffion, on condition he ftiould 
 not bring up any male child, that the empire of heaven might 
 revert to his own illue the Titans, 
 
 But Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto having been afterwards faved 
 by the artifice of Ops; Titan and his fons the Titans, made 
 ■war on Saturn, vanquished, and imprifoned him; thus he con- 
 tinued in the power of his enemies, till Jupiter being grown 
 up, made war on the Titans, and delivered his father. 
 F. Pezron, in his antiquity of the Gelfee, makes that people 
 to be the fame with the Titans; and their princes the fame 
 ■with the giants in fcripture. — He adds, that the word Titan 
 is perfeft Celtic, and derives it from tit, earth, and den or 
 ten, man: and hence it was. the Greeks alfo called them very 
 properly y*ymis t q- d. terrigena, earth-born. 
 The word Titan is alfo ufed by the poets for the fun— in 
 * 'which cafe it is likewife Celtic, though from another root, be- 
 ing formed from ti, houfe, or habitation ; and tan, fire. 
 Hefychtus obferves, that Titan is likewife ufed for fodomite — 
 He-adds, that it is alfo one of the names of antichrift; in which 
 fenfe it muft be wrote Teitan, in Greek, to contain the nume- 
 ral letters of 666; which in the apocalypfe xiii. 18. is the 
 number of the beaft. 
 
 TITE, or Tight— The feamen fay a fhip is the, when flie 
 is fo ftaunch as to let in but very little water. 
 This is known by thefmell of the water pumped out; for if 
 fhe let in but little, it will always ftink ; otherwife not. 
 
 TITHES, Tyths, Tenths, Decima, or Dixmes, the 
 tenth part of all profits or fruits, both predial, perfonai, and 
 mixt; alloted to the clergy for their maintenance. 
 Of tithes there are three kinds, viz. perfonal, predial, and mixt. 
 
 Perfonal Tithes, are thofedueor accruing from the profits of 
 labour, art, trade, navigation, andinduftryof men. 
 
 Predial Tithes, are thofe which arife either from the fruits of 
 the ground; as corn, hay, underwood, flax, hemp, rjrr. oj 
 from the fruits of trees: as apples, pears, plumbs, cherries 
 or from the produce of the garden. 
 
 And Mixt Tithes, are fuch as arifefrom beafts, and otherani 
 mals fed with, the fruits of the earth: as checfe, milk, wool 
 lambs, calves, fowls, ts'c. 
 Predial tithes, again, are either great or fmall. 
 
 Grr.i(Tli'HEs, are thofe of corn, hay, and wood. 
 
 Small Tithes, are thofe of flax, &e. which we predial; and 
 thofe of wool, milk, cheefe, lambs, ferrets, efr, which are 
 mixt. 
 
 The tithes^ of grounds newly broke up and cultivated, are 
 called eletimat novates, and always belong to the vicar, as well 
 as the UtuW tithes. — The novelty is confined to forty years. 
 Thecuftomot giving or paying tithe is very ancient : in Gen. 
 xiv. 20. Abraham gives Mclchifedech the tenth of all the fpoils 
 he had taken-from the four kings he had defeated: in Gen. 
 xxviii. 22. Jacob makes a vow at Bethel, to give the tenth of 
 all the riches he mail gather in that fojourn, to God. 
 But thefe tithes were free and voluntary ; and, beiide, differed 
 in divers other refpecis from what was afterwards called tithe : 
 what Mclchifedech received, was only the tenth of the fpoils, 
 not of Abraham's pofleffions; and this once, not annually ; 
 and befide, not as maintenance, which Melchifedech wantetl 
 not, but as homage: add, that this was only from one prieft 
 to another; for Abraham had not only a prieft in his loins 
 but was a prieft himfelf. — And as to Jacob, who was alfo.a 
 prieft, what he did was the effect of a vow, voluntarily taken, 
 to offer the tenth of all he mould pofTefs ; not to any other 
 prieft, but to God himfelf upon an altar. 
 Tithe was firft legally enjoined by Mofes, Lev. xxvii. 30. 
 Numb, xviii. 21. Deut. xiv. 2 1. —That legiflator obliged 
 the Ifraehtes tofeveral kinds of tithes; as, i°. The firft tithe, 
 lliWin SVFSBt which was a tithe of all the fruits, given to 
 the Levites; this was not taken till after the oblation called 
 nOYYl had been made. 
 
 1°. The ftcatd tithe was 1 tenth part" of the nine remaining 
 after payment of the firft tithe. This tithe was fet apart in 
 Vol. II. 
 
 T I T 
 
 each family; and the mafter of the family was obliged t 0 car- 
 ry it to Jerufalem, and to ufe it there; or, in cafe he could 
 not, he was to redeem it, or convert it into money: in which 
 cafe he was to add a fifth to it, and carry the money to Jerufa- 
 lem. I he Rabbins fay, that if he did not redeem it himfelf, 
 that is if he did not fubflitute his own money in lieu of it, 
 but fold it to another, he was only required to carry the bare 
 price to Jerufalem, without any audition. 
 3°. The tithe of the tithe, was the tenth part of all the tithes 
 that had been given the Levites by the people: for the Levites, 
 after they had got all their ft'/4« of the people, divided the 
 whole into ten parts; and in their turn, gavear/rfe tothepridfK 
 This tube the Rabbins call ■WSBnOFf^ Mationof the tithe, 
 
 Troon vD"iro8> tithe fga,, or'ewpm puns 
 
 TTOO. Ml «f things fantJified.—Aai this the Levites were 
 obliged to carry to the temple; the reft was refirved for their 
 own fubfiffance. 
 
 4°. The tithe of the third year, was another kind of Ml, not 
 much different from the fecund lithe, excepting that it was lefs 
 troublelome, by reafon they were not obliced to carry it to 
 Jerufalem. Every feventh year God appointed the ground 
 ihould lie and reft, nor (hould the owners even gather the fruits 
 which it produced fpontaneoafly: that year, therefore, they 
 paid no tithe, but only the fix preceding ones. 
 Now, every third of thefe fix years, i. e. on the third, and 
 thefixth, they raifed, as ufually, the firft tithe ; and after that 
 a feco.nd.— But this fecund they did not carry to Jerufalem 
 either in kind or in money ; but kept it by them to be fpent 
 by the Levites, the ftrangers, the faihcrlefs, and the widows 
 of the place, Deut. xiv. 28, 29. 
 
 This was alfo called the tithe of the poor, and the third tithe ; 
 and thefe third years when it was paid, were called the tithe 
 years. 
 
 All there tithes amounted to above one fixth of the revenue of 
 each perfon: for if, for inftance, a mafter of a family reaped 
 6000 meafures of wheat, and 100 were fir)t taken away for 
 the firft fruits or oblation, he had only 5900 left: from this 
 5900, taking away the firft tithe 590, there remained 5310, 
 the tenth whereof is 531 ; which being taken for the fccond 
 tithe, leaves 4779 for the proprietor; who confequently has 
 given 1 1 2 1, viz. lit more than a fixth of the whole. 
 Of the 590, which the Levites received for their firft tithe, 
 59 went to the priefls for the tithe of tithes; fo that they were 
 left 531 for their own fubfiflance, and that of their families. 
 Thefe mattersareall further explained in the Talmud, where- 
 in are two books on tithes, alfo in the book of benedictions, 
 ni3*Dj i" 'he commentaries of Bartenora, Mainionides, 
 R. Schelomoh Jarrhi, in Scaliger, Am.ima, Selden, Frifch- 
 muth, Qiienfled, Varenius, Hottinger, Sigonius, Cunxus, 
 Godwyn, Leidecker, fjV. 
 
 Under the new law, it is not Jefus Chrift that eftablifhed 
 tithes, as it was God himfelf did it under the old law by the 
 miniftry of Mofes: the chriflian priefls, and the minifterscf 
 the altar of the new covenant, lived at firft, wholly of the 
 alms and oblations of the devout. 
 
 In after times the laity gave a certain portion of their revenues 
 to the clergy, but voluntarily, and not out of any conftraint 
 or obligation: the firft inftances we have of this, are in the 
 I Vth and Vth centuries. 
 
 This gift was called tithe; not that it was really a tenth part of 
 their income, or near fo much : but only in 'imitation of the 
 tithes of the old law. 
 
 In the following age, the prelates in their councils, in concert 
 with the princes, made an exprels law to thepurpofe; and 
 obliged the laity to give a full lenth pan of their levenues, 
 their fruits, tiff, to the ecclefiaftics. 
 
 This the church enjoyed without difturbance for two or three 
 centuries; but in the Vlllth century the laity got hold of part 
 of thefe tithes, either by their own authority, or by grants 
 and donations of the princes; and appropriated them to their 
 own ufes. 
 
 Some time afterwards they refiored them, or applied them to 
 the founding of monafteries or chapters; and the church con- 
 fented, at leaft tacitely, to this reftitution. 
 In 1 1 79, the third council of Lateran, held under Alexan- 
 der HI. commanded the laymen to :cftore all the tithes ihey 
 yet held, to the church. 
 
 In 1215, the fourth council of Lateran, held under Innocent 
 III. moderated the matte: a little; and, without faying any 
 thing of the tithes which the laity already p< fl'efled, forbad 
 . them to appropriate or take any more for the future. 
 
 Fra. Paolo, in his treatife of beneficiray matters, is of opi- 
 nion, that the cuflom of paying tithes under the new law be- 
 gan in France; and affirms, that there are no inftances of it 
 before the Vlllth and IXtli Centuries: but he muft be mif- 
 taken ; for in the 2d council of Matifcona, held in 5S5, it is 
 faid exprefsly, that the chriftians had a long time kept invio- 
 late that law of God, whereby lithe of all their fruits was en- 
 joined to be given to holy places, fjfir. 
 
 In effect, Origen, Horn. XI. on Numb, thinks, that the old 
 laws of Mofes, touching the firft fruits and tithes, both of 
 • 1 N . cattle, 
 
T I T 
 
 Cattle, and of the fruits of the earth, are not abrogated by the 
 gofpel; but ought to be obferved on their ancient footing. 
 The Vth canon of the council of Matifcona, orders tithe to be 
 paid to the minifters of the church according to the law of 
 God, and the immemorial cuftom of the chriftians, and that 
 upon penalty of excommunication: which is the firft penalty 
 we find impofed on fuch as would not pay tithe. — On which 
 grounds it is that many among the modern clergy hold their 
 tithes to be jure ellvins. 
 
 Others, on the contrary, plead, that the recompcnce to be 
 given church minifters, is differently ordained by God, accord- 
 ing to the differences he has put between his two great difpen- 
 fations, the law and the gofpel : under the law he gave them 
 tithes; under the gofpel, having left all things in his church to 
 charity, and chriftian freedom, he has given them only what 
 fliall be given them freely, and in charity. That the law of 
 tithes is in force under the gofpel, all the prcteftant divines, ex- 
 cept fome among the Englifh, deny; for though hire to the 
 labourer be of moral and perpetual right, yet that fpecial kind 
 of hire, the tenth, can be of no right or neceffity, but to the 
 fpecial labour for which God ordained it: that fpecial labour 
 was the levitical and ceremonial fervice of the tabernacle, 
 Numb, xviii. 21, 31. which was abohmed: the right there- 
 fore of the fpecial hire muft be abolifhed too. 
 That tithes were ceremonial, is evident from their not being 
 given to the Levites till they had been firft offered as a heave 
 offering to the Lord, ver. 24, 28. 
 
 He, then, who by the law brings tithes into the gofpel, brings 
 in Kkewfe a facrifice, and an altar; without which, tithes, 
 by the law, were unfan&ified and polluted, ver. 32. And 
 therefore they were never thought of in the firft chriftian 
 times, till ceremonial altars and oblations had been brought 
 back. 
 
 The Jews themfelves, ever fince their temple was deftroyed, 
 though they have rabbics and teachers of the law, yet pay no 
 tithes, as having no proper Levites to whom, nor any altar 
 whereupon, to hallow them ; which argues, that the Jews 
 themfelves never looked on tithes as moral, but merely cere- 
 monial. Add, that tithes were not allowed to the pricfts and 
 Levites merely for their labour in the tabernacle; but in conii- 
 deration of this likewife, that they were not allowed to have 
 any other part or inheritance in the land, ver. 20, 24. and, by 
 that means, for a tenth, loft a twelfth. 
 In effect, for the firft three hundred years after Chrift, no 
 mention is made in all ccclefiaftical htftory of any fuch thing 
 as tithes; though in that time, altars and oblations had been 
 recalled, and the church had miferably judaifed in many other 
 things. The churchmen confeffedly lived all that time on 
 freewill offerings; nor could the defeat of paying tithe be 
 owing to this, that there were wanting civil magiftrates to in- 
 joinit; fince chriftrians, having lands, might have given out 
 of them what they pleafed; and the tuft chriftian emperors, 
 who did all things by advice of the biihops, fupplied what 
 was wanting to the clergy, not out of tithes which were ne- 
 ver proofed, but out of their own imperial revenues. 
 The firft authority produced, fetting afide the apoftolical con- 
 ftitutions, which few of the patrons of tithes will infift on, is 
 a provincial fynod at Cullen in 356, where tithes are voted to 
 be God's rent: but before that time, divers other abufes and 
 complaints had got ground, as altars, candles at noon, &C, 
 And thus one complaint begot another; as it is certain that 
 tithes fuppofe altars. 
 
 It is alledged, that tithes are of early and folcmn force among 
 us; having been paid by flatute ever fince the Saxon king 
 Athclftan, anno 928: to which it may be anfwered, that 
 Romefcot, or Peter-pence, had been likewife paid to the pope 
 by ftatute above 200 years longer, viz. from the year 725. 
 And by the way it is to be noted, that thefe ancient tithes a- 
 mong our anceftors, kept a nearer analogy to their original in 
 the Mof.iic law; for the priefts had but a third part, the other 
 two (hirds being appointed for the poor, and to adorn and re- 
 pair the churches, as Appears from the canons of Ecbert and 
 Elfric. 
 
 The cuflom of paying tithe, or of offering a tenth of what a 
 man enjoys, or of what he reaps from it, has not only been 
 practifed under the old and the new law, but we alfo find 
 fomethjng like it among the heathens. 
 Xenophon, in the cth book of the expedition of Cyrus, gives 
 us an infeription upon a column near the temple of Diana, 
 whereby the people were warned to offer the tenth part of 
 their revenues every year to that goddefs. 
 
 The Babylonians and Egyptians gave their kings a tenth of 
 their revenues : See Arillurle in his Oeconom'us, lib. 2. Dio- 
 dorus Siculus, lib. 5. and Strabo, lib. 15. — Afterwards the 
 Romans exacted of the Sicilians a tenth of the corn they reap- 
 ed; and Appian tells us, that thofe who broke up, or tilled 
 any new grounds, were ubliged to carry a tenth of their pro- 
 duce to the treafury. 
 
 The Romans offered a tenth of all they took from their ene- 
 mies, to the gods; whence the name of Jupiter Predator: 
 The Gauls, in like manner, gave a tenth to their god Mars, 
 
 T I T 
 
 as we learn in the commentaries of Csf.ir. — And Feftus de 
 Verb, fsgnif. allures us, that the ancients u fed to give tithe of 
 every thing to their gods : decima quaque veteres diis fuis tjfe- 
 rebant. 
 
 Authors have been ftrangely perplexed, to find the original of 
 a cuftom, efbblifhed among lb many people of different man- 
 ners and religions, to give a tenth to their kings, their gods, 
 or their minifteis of religion. Grotius takes it to arife hence, 
 that the number ten is the moft known and the moP. common 
 among all nations ; by leafon of the number of fingers, which 
 is ten. On this account he thinks it is, that the command- 
 ments of God were reduced to ten, for people to retain them 
 with greater cafe; that the philofophers eftaulilhed ten catego- 
 ries, tiff. 
 
 Impropriated and appropriated Tithes, called alfo infwlated 
 tithes, are thofe alienated to fome temporal or eccl efi a It ical 
 lord, united to their fee, and polleHed as fecular goods. See 
 Impropr I ation. 
 
 By the council of Lateran, held under Alexander III. in 1179, 
 the alienation or infeodation of tithes is prohibited for the fu- 
 ture: whence all infeodations made fince that time are gene- 
 rally held by the canonifls, illegal. 
 
 Some attribute the original of thefe impropriated tithes to 
 Charles Martel ; and hold him damned for firft giving the re- 
 venues of benefices to fecular nobles: but Barcnius will have 
 this a fable, and refers their origin to the wars in the Holy 
 Land; which is alfo the opinion of Pafquier. 
 The tribute, it feems, which the Romans impofed on all the 
 provinces of their empire, was a tenth part ot all the fruits: 
 hence feveral authors obferve, that the Franks having con- 
 quered the Gauls, and finding the impofition eftablifhed, they 
 kept it on foot, and gave thofe tithes in fee to their fuldiers: and 
 this, fay they, was the origin of infeoffed, or impropriated or 
 appropriated tithes. 
 
 But the truth is, they are not fo ancient; nor do we find any 
 mention of them before the reign of Hugh Capet; even the 
 very council of Clermont, held in 1097, as hot as it was in 
 the interefts of the church, docs not fay one word of them; 
 which yet would undoubtedly have made loud complaints of 
 fuch an ufurpation, had it been then known. 
 
 Ratc-TnHE. See the article RATE-Tithe. 
 
 TITHING, Deeenna, or Decury; a number or company of 
 ten men, with their families; knit together in a kind of fo- 
 ciety, and all bound to the king, for the peaceable behaviour 
 of eachother. See Frank-pledge. 
 
 In thefe companies there was one chief perfon, who from 
 his office was called teothingman; and at this day in the weft: 
 tithingman, though now no more than a conftable; the old 
 cuftom of tenmentales* or tilhings, being long fince difufed. 
 
 TITILLATION, Titillatio, the aft of Tickling , i. e. 
 exciting a fort of pleafurable idea, by a gentle application of 
 fome foft body, upon a nervous part; and which ufually tends 
 to produce laughter. 
 
 TITLE, Titulus, an infeription put over any thing, to 
 make it known. 
 
 The word is more particularly ufed for the infeription in the 
 firft page of a book, exprefTmg the fubjecl: thereof, the author's 
 name, 
 
 What tortures abundance of authors, is to find fpecious title.: 
 for their books: a title fhould be iimple, and yet clear: there 
 are the two genuine characters of this kind of compofition. 
 Afiuming titles are a prepoffeiTion again!: the author. 
 The French are much addicted to fanfaronnades in their titles ; 
 witnefs that of M. le Pays, Amitiez, Ammrs, Amourettes^ 
 or that improvement hereon, Flours, Flcurons, Fleurettcs, &c. 
 Title, Titulus, in the civil and canon law, denotes a chap- 
 ter or divilion of a book. 
 
 A title is fubdivided into paragraphs, &c, — Each of the co 
 books of the digeft confifts of a number of titles \ fome of 
 more, others of lefs. 
 Title is alfo an appellation of dignity, diftincYion, or pre-emi- 
 nence ; given to pcrfons poffeffed of the fame. 
 The titles of order or dignity, Loyfeau obferves, mould al- 
 ways come immediately after the name, and before the titles 
 of ofKce. 
 
 The king of Spain has a whole page of titles, to exprefs the 
 feveral kingdoms, and figniories he is m:ilter of. The king 
 of England takes the title king of Great-Britain, France, 
 and Inland: the king of France, the title of king of France 
 and Navarre: the king of Sweden entitles himfelt king of the 
 Swedes and Goths: the king of Denmark, king of Denmark 
 and Norway: the king of Sardinia, among his titles, takes 
 that of king of Cyprus and Jcrufalem: the duke of Lorrain, 
 the title of king of Jerujalem-, Sicily, &C. 
 The cardinals take titles from the names of fome churches in 
 Rome: as, of St. Cecilia, St. Sabina, Es?f. and they are called 
 cardinalsof the title of St. Cecilia, &c. 
 
 The emperor can confer the title of prince, or count of the 
 empire; but the right of fuffrage in affemblics of the empire 
 depends on the confen't of the eftates. 
 
 The 
 
T I T 
 
 The Romans gave their Scipio's the titles of Africanus, A- 
 fiaticus, bV. and to others, they gave the titles of Maceda 
 nicus, Numidicus, Creticus, Parchicus, Dacicus, & c . ir 
 memory of the vi<ftorie<; obtained over the people of thofe 
 countries. — The king of Spain, after the like manner, gives 
 honourable titles to his cities, in recompencc for their fervice; 
 or their fidelity. 
 
 Title expreiTes alfo a certain quality afcribed by way of refpedt 
 to certain princes, &c. 
 
 The pope has the title of holinefs ; a cardinal prince' of the 
 blood, Chat of royal highnefs, or mojl ferene highnefs, accord- 
 ing to his nearnefs to the throne ; other cardinal princes, 
 moft eminent highnefs ; an archbifhop, grace and moft re- 
 verend; a bifbop, right reverend; abbots, pricfts, religious, 
 &c. reverend. 
 
 As to fecular powers, to the emperor is given the title of 
 imperial^ majejly ; to kings, majejly ; to the king of France, 
 moft chriflian majejly ; to the king of Spain, catholic majefty ; 
 to the king of England that of defender of the faith ; to 
 the Turks, grand Jtgnior, and highnefs ; to the prince of 
 Wales, royal highnefs ; to the dauphin of France, ferene high- 
 nefs ; to ele&ors, elethral highnefs ; to the grand duke, moft 
 ferene highnefs ; to the other princes of Italy and Germany, 
 highnefs; to the dege of Venice, moft ferene prince; to the 
 republic or fenate of Venice, fignory ; to the grand mafter of 
 Malta, eminence; to nuncio's and ambafiadors of crowned 
 headsj excellency. 
 
 The emperor of China, among his titles, takes that of tun 
 fu, fon of heaven. The Orientals, it is obferved, are exceed- 
 ingly fond of titles; the fimple governor of Schiras, for in- 
 ftance, after a pompous enumeration of qualities, lordfhips, 
 &c. adds the titles of flower of curt efy, nutmeg of conflation, 
 and rofe of delight. 
 Title, in law, denotes a right which a perfon has to the pof- 
 feflion of any thing. 
 
 It is alfoan authentic inftrument, whereby a man can prove 
 and make appear his right. 
 
 A prefcription to twenty yean, with a title, is good, and of 
 thirty without a title. 
 
 There muff, be at leaft a colourable title ro come into pof- 
 fcffioo of a benefice, other wife the perfon is deemed an 
 intruder. 
 
 Title, in the canon law, is that by virtue whereof a benefi- 
 ciary holds a benefice : — fuch is the collation of an ordinary, or 
 a provition in the court of Rome founded on a refignation, 
 permutation or other legal caufe. 
 
 The title of a benefice, or beneficiary, is either a true, or a 
 colourable one. — A true or valid title, is that which gives a 
 light to the benefice : fuch is that received from a collator 
 ■who has a right to confer the benefice on a perfon capable 
 thereof, the ufual folemnities being obferved. See Colla- 
 tion, Vfc* 
 
 Colourable title is a feemingone ; i. e. fuch a one as appears 
 valid, and is not. — Such would that be founded on the colla- 
 tion of a bifhop, in cafe the benefice in queftion were not in 
 his collation. 
 
 By the canons, a colourable title, though falfe, produces two 
 very confiderable effecU i". That after peaceable pofTeffion 
 for three years, the incumbent may defend himfelf by the 
 rule de triennaU pffiffione, againft fuch as would difpute the 
 benefice with him. 2°. That in cafe he beprofecuted within 
 three years, and obliged to furrender the benefice, he mail 
 not be obliged to reftore the produce of it, during the time he 
 poflefled it. 
 
 Title * is alfo ufed in feveral ancient fynods and councils, for 
 the church to which a prieft was ordaincl, and where he was 
 conftantly to refide. 
 
 * AV///J in prefytentm, mllus in diatonu 
 ordinetur, CanciL Londin. Ann. 1125. 
 
 mfi ad cerium titulum 
 
 There are many reafons why a church might be called thttlut. 
 title; the moft probable, Cowel takes to be this, that in an- 
 cient days the name of the faint to whom the church was de- 
 dicated was engraven on the porch, as a token that the faint 
 had a title to that church: whence the church itfelf became 
 afterwards to be called utuhu. 
 Titles, or Titular Churches, M. Fleury obferves, was 
 formerly the denomination of a particular kind of churches at 
 Rome. See Church. 
 
 In the VI. and VII. centuries, there were four forts of 
 churches in that metropolis, -viz. patriarchal, titular, diaco- 
 nnl and era tonal. —The tituli, titular, were as it were, pa- 
 r.fhes, each aligned to a cardinal prieft, with a certain dirtria 
 or quarter depending thereon, and a font for the adminiftra- 
 tion of b-iptnm in pale of neceflity 
 «or W«< Title, denotes a yearly revenue or in- 
 come of the value of 50 crowns, which the candidates for 
 prwfthood were anc ently obliged to have of their own ; that 
 ihey might be allured of a fubfiftance. 
 liy the acient difc pline there were no ciercs made, but in 
 proportion H they were wanted for the fervice of the church, 
 
 T O B 
 
 which is flill obferved with regard to biiliops ; none being con- 
 fecrated, but to fill fame vacant fee. 
 
 But for prielis and other ciercs, they began to mate va«u= 
 ordinations in the calt as early as in the Vth century : this occa- 
 fioned the council of Chalcedon to declare all vague and abfo- 
 lute ordinations null. 
 
 Accordingly, the difcipline was pretty well obferved till to- 
 wards the end of the Xlth century ; but then it began to re- 
 lax, and the number of priefts was exceedingly increafed ; ei- 
 ther becaufe the people became defirous of the privileges of 
 the cleric-ate, or becaufe the bifliops fought to extend their 
 junfdiction. 
 
 One of the great inconveniencies of thefe vague ordinations 
 was poverty, which frequently reduced the priefls to fordid 
 occupations, and even to a fhameful begging. To rermedv 
 this, the council of I.ateran laid it on the bifliops to provide 
 for [he fubfiftance of fuch as they (hould ordain without title, 
 till fuch time as they had got a place in the church that would 
 afford them a fettled maintenance. 
 
 There was alfo another expedient found out to .elude the ca- 
 non of the council of Chalcedon, and it was appointed that a 
 prieft might be ordained on the title of his patrimony ; that 
 is, it was not neceftiry he had any certain place in the church, 
 provided he had a patrimony fufficient for a creditable fub- 
 fiftance. 
 
 The council of Trent retrieved the ancient difcipline in this 
 refpea, forbidding all ordinations, where the candidate was not 
 in peaceable pofl'effion of a benefice fufficient to fubfifl him ; 
 and allowing no Body to be ordained on patrimony or penfion, 
 unlefs where the bifllop declares it to be expedient for the food 
 of the church : fo that the benefice is the rule, and the patri- 
 mony the exception. 
 
 But this rule is not regarded, even in fome catholic countries, 
 particularly France, where the patrimonial title is the moft 
 frequent ; and the title is even fixed to a very moderate fum, 
 about 3 /. 15 f . per annum fterling. Indeed at Paris, and in 
 fome other diocefes, 150 liveres are required. 
 As to religious, the profeffion they make in a monaftery ferves 
 them for a title, in regard the convent is obliged to maintain 
 them : and as to mendicants, they are maintained upon the 
 title of poverty. 
 
 Thofe of the houfc, and focicty of the Sorbonne, are alfo or- 
 dained without any patrimonial title, 2nd on the fole title of 
 poverty, it being fuppofed a doftor of the Sorbonne can never 
 want a benefice. See Sorbonne. 
 
 TITUBATION, or Trepidation, in aftronomy, a 
 iind of libration or (halting, which the ancient aftronomers 
 attributed to the cryftalling heaven, to account for certain 
 inequalities, which they obferved in the motion of the 
 planets. See Trep id ATroN. 
 
 1 ITULAR, or Tr tulahv, denotes a perfon invefted with 
 a title, in virtue whereof he holds an office or benefice, whe- 
 ther he performs the functions thereof or not. 
 In this fenfe the term is ufed in oppofition to furvivor, and 
 to a perfon only acting by procuration, or commiffion. An 
 officer is always reputed titular till he have rcligned his office, 
 and the refignation have been admitted. 
 
 Titular is fometimes alfo applied adje<£tively to a perfon who 
 has the title and righr of an office or dignity, but without 
 having pofl'effion, or difcharging the funftion thereof. 
 It is fometimes alfo ufed abufively for a perfon who afliimcs 
 and pretends a title to a thing, without either a right thereto, 
 or a pofleflion thereof. 
 
 Titular Churches. See the article Title. 
 
 TMESIS,* TMHEIZ, in grammar, a figure whereby a com- 
 pound word is feparated into two parts, and one or more 
 words interpofe between them. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek-, iuw, feco, 1 cut. 
 
 Thus, when Terence fays, qua; meo cunque animo lubitum ejl 
 facere, there is a.rwt/ti ; the word qucccunque being divided by 
 the interpofition of meo. 
 
 Lucretius abounds mTmrfes; as, fa-pe fahlantum taClu prce* 
 terque meantum : or, dijjidio puis tjl fejungi feque gregari ; and, 
 dijpeclis difque gregatis. 
 TOBACCO, or, Tabacco, a medicinal herb, not known 
 in Europe till after the difcovery of America by the Spaniards, 
 and firft imported about the year 1560. 
 
 The Americans of the Continent call it pclun, thofe of the 1 
 iilands jm. The Spaniards, who gave it the name tabacco, 
 took it from Tabaco, a province of Yucatan, where they firft 
 found it, and firft learned its ufe. 
 
 The French, at its firft introduction among them, gave it va- 
 rious names ; as nicotian a, or the cmbajfador's herb, from John 
 Nicot, then embafTador of Francis II. in Portugal, who 
 brought fome of it with him from Lisbon, and prefented it 
 to a grand prior of the houfe of Lorrain,' and to queen-Cathe- 
 rine de Medicis ; whence it was alfo called queen's herb, and 
 grand prior's herb. — They alfo gave it other names, which are 
 now all reduced to the original name tcbaco, or tobacco, fr im 
 tabaco, given it by Hernandez de Toledo, who firft fent it 
 into Spain and Portugal. 
 
 Cultur 
 
TOD 
 
 T O L 
 
 uhure and preparation efTo-BAcco.-Teiacc, >» cultivated in 
 feveral parts of America, particularly in the Cartbbec Wands, 
 Virginia, &c. where they are forced to mix: allies with the 
 foilf to prevent its riling too thick.— After Cowing, they wa- 
 ter it every day, and on very hot days cover it up, to prevent 
 its being fcorclied by the Cun. 
 
 When it is rifen to a convenient pitch, they tranfplant it, 
 much as we do lettices, only at a diftance of three feet, and 
 in a foil prepaied with great care: when replanted, it is kept 
 continually weeded, the ftem frequently cleanfed, and the 
 lowed leaves and the fuckers it puts forth, taken oft, that 
 ten or fifteen of the fineft leaves may have all the nouriln- 
 ment. ; ■ • 
 
 The leaves thus referved being ripe, which is known by tneir 
 breaking when bent, the ftalks are cut, and left to dry two 
 or three hours in the fun ; after which they are tied two by 
 two, and hung up on ropes under a fhed to be dried by the air. 
 When the leaves arc fufficiently dried, they are pulled Irom 
 off the flalks, and made up in little bundles; which bemc 
 fleeped in fea-water, or for want thereof, in common water, 
 are twilled in manner of ropes, and the twills formed into 
 rolls, by winding them with a kind of m,U around a itak-— 
 In this condition the Ithaca is imported into Europe, where 
 it is cut by the tobacconilts for fmoaking, or formed into lnutt, 
 and the like. r , , , 
 
 Befides the tobacci of the Weft-Indies, there are confiderable 
 quantities cultivated in the Levant, the coafls of Greece and 
 the Archipelago, the ifland of Malta and Italy.— The marks 
 of good twift tobacco, are a fine Chining cut, an agreeable 
 i'mcU, and that it have been well kept. 
 Tobacco is either taken by way of fnuff, as a fternutatory, or 
 as a maflicatory by chewing it in the mouth, or by fmoaking 
 it in a pipe. 
 
 It is Cometimes alfo taken in little longifli pellets put up the 
 nofe, where it is found to produce very good effedls, to at- 
 traa a deal of water or pituita, unload the head, refolve ca- 
 tarrhs, and make a free refpiration ; for the fubtile parts of 
 the tobacco in inflation are carried into the trachea and lungs, 
 where they loofen the peccant humours adhering thereto, am 
 promote cxpecloration. . 
 Some have left this tobacco in their nofes all night ; but this is 
 found to occafion vomiting ufually on the morrow morninj 
 Another thing charged on this way of application, is, that it 
 weakens the fight. 
 
 Tobacco is held at firCl rate narcotic or opiate. When taken 
 in great quantities in the way of fnuff, it is Cound to pre. 
 judice the Ifnelling, it alfo greatly diminifhes the appetite 
 and in time often gives rife to a phthifis. 
 That taken in way of fmoak, it often alfo dries and damages 
 the brain. Borrhi, in a letter to Bartholin*, mentions a 
 a perfon who through excefs of fmoaking had dried his brain 
 to that degree, that after his death there was nothing found 
 in his skull but a little black lump, confifting of mere mem 
 branes. 
 
 Some people ufe the infufion of tobacco as an emetic ; but this 
 is a very dangerous and unjuftifiable practice, and often pro- 
 duces violent vomitings, and ftupidity. 
 
 Bates an Fuller give Come receipts, in which tobacco is an 
 ingredient, with mighty encomiums in adhmatic cafes. — 
 A flrong decoaion of tobacco, with proper carminatives and 
 cathartics, given clyfler-wife, fometimes proves of good 
 cfi'ea in what is ufually called the Jione colic, and alfo in the 
 iliac pafiion. 
 
 A drop or two of the chymical oil of tobacco being put on the 
 tongue of a cat produces violent convullions, and death ilfelf 
 in the Cpace of a minute ; yet the fame oil ufed in lint, and 
 applied to the teeth, has been found of fervice in the tooth- 
 ach -, though it muft be to thofe that have been ufed to the 
 taking of tobacco, otherwife great ficknefs, reaching, vomit- 
 ing, CSV. happen ; and even in no cafe is the internal ufe of it 
 warranted by ordinary praaice. 
 
 A flrong decoaion of the flalks, with fharp-poinred dock and 
 allom, is faid to be of good fervice, ufed externally, in cuta- 
 neous diftempers, efpecially the itch: fome boil them for that 
 purpofe in urine. The fame decoaion is faid to be infallible in 
 curing the mange in dogs. 
 
 Sim. Paulli, phyfician to the king of Denmark, in an exprefs 
 treatife on tobacco, obferves that the merchants frequently lay 
 it in bog-houfes, to the end that becoming impregnated with 
 the volatile Calt of the excrements, it may be rendrcd the 
 brisker, more fcetid and Ctronger. 
 
 Amurath IV. emperor of the Turks, the grand duke of Muf- 
 covy, and the emperor of Perfia, have prohibited the ufe of 
 tobacco in their Hates.— Our king James I. wrote a treatife 
 cxprefly againft it, entitled, A Counter-Hajl to tobacco. By a 
 bull of pope Urban VIII. fuch are excommunicated as take 
 tobacco in churches. 
 T O D of Wool is mentioned in the flatutc 12 Car. II. c. 32. as 
 a weight containing 28 pounds, or two done. 
 Some will have the word derived from the French, toilet, 
 wrapper, within which, by ufagc, two ftone of wooll is 
 folded 
 
 TOES, by anatomifts called dlgltl pedis are the extreme divifions 
 of the feet; anfwering to the fingers of the hand. See Foot. 
 The toes of each Coot confift of 14 bones ; the great toes having 
 two, and the reft three each; they are like the bones of the 
 fingers, but Chorter. 
 
 In the tees are found twelve ofia fifamoidea, as in the fingers. 
 The gout chiefly feizes the great toe. 
 TOFT, Toftum or Tofta, in our law-books, a parcel 
 of land, or a place where a mefliiage hath flood, but is de- 
 caved or cafually burnt, and not re edified. 
 TOGA, in antiquity, a wide woollen gown, or mantle, with- 
 out fleeves, uCed among the Romans, both by men and wo- 
 men. 
 
 In procefs of time, none wore the toga but lewd women, 
 whence that of Horace. — In rnatrona, peccefve togata. 
 The toga was of divers colours, and admitted of various orna- 
 ments : there was that called toga dome/flea, wore within- 
 doors; toga for enfts, wore abroad ; toga militant, ufed by fol- 
 diers, tucked up after the Gabinian faflion ; and togaphla, 
 or trlumphalls, wherein the viaorious triumphed, this was em- 
 broidered with palms : that without any ornaments, was called 
 toga pura. 
 
 The toga was fometimes wore open, and called aperta ; Come- 
 times girt or tucked up, called prteclnfla', and this cindure or 
 girding again, according to Sigonius, was i.C three kinds ; laxior, 
 or the loofe kind, where the tail trailed on the ground ; ad- 
 Jlrlalor, the clofe kind, wherein it did not reach Co low as 
 theCeet ; and Gablnla, where one of the skirts or lappets was 
 girt round the body. 
 
 Sigonius diflinguifhes the Ceveral toga, or Roman gowns into 
 pura, catidlda, pulla, picla, pratcxta, trabea and paludainentum. 
 See Pk^texta, Paludamentum, C3V.— The toga pura 
 was alfo called virills. 
 Jus Togje, or privilege of the toga, was the fame with the pri- 
 vilege of a Roman citizens, i. e. the right of wearing a Ro- 
 man habit, and of taking, as they explain it, fire and wa- 
 ter through the Roman empire. 
 TOILES, fnares, or nets, Cct by hunters for catching of wild 
 
 beads ; as dear, C5Y. 
 TOILET, a fine covering, of linnen, filk, or tapeflry, Cpread 
 over the table in a bed-chamber, or drefiing-ioom, to undreCs 
 and dreCs upon. 
 
 The drefling-boxes, wherein are kept the paints, pomatums, 
 effences, patci. t .-. &c. the pin-cufliion, powder-box, brulhes, 
 tsft. are edeemed parts of the equipagcof • lady's toilet. 
 That of the men confifls of comb-cafe, brufhes, fie. To 
 make a vifit to one at his toilet, is to come to entertain him 
 while he isdreflingorundrefling. 
 
 Sattin, lace, velvet, brocade, point de France, &c. are now 
 ordinarily ufed for toilets : anciently they were made much 
 plainer, whence the name, which is formed from the F rench, 
 toilette, tl diminutive of telle, any thin fluff. 
 TOISE, a French meafure, containing fix of their feet, or a 
 fathom. 
 
 TOISONrf'Or, a term in heraldry for a golden fleece, which 
 
 is fometimes borne in a coat of arms. See Golden Fleece. 
 TOL, in law, a term fignifying to defeat, or take a way.— 
 Fiom the Latin, tilltrt, which fignifies the fame. 
 Thus to tol the entry, is to take away the right of entry. 
 T OL-BO OTH, or Toll-Booth, a place in a city, where 
 
 goods are weighed, to afcertain the duties or import thereon. 
 TOLERATION, in religion, a term which has made a 
 great figure in the difputes among protectants, who have been 
 exceedingly divided about the meafures of toleration, or the de- 
 grees to which heretics and fcifmatics are, or are not to be 
 fullered. 
 
 Many of the church of England have zealoufly oppofed the to- 
 leration of presbytry, (lie. nor has the church of Scotland 
 been behind-hand with them in their zeal againft epifcopacy* 
 * When a bill was brought into parliament Cor the toleration of all 
 proteltants in the exercife of religioas worlhip ; the general af- 
 fembly of the kirk did moll humbly befeech ; yea, rhey were 
 bold in the Lord, and in the name of the church of God, car- 
 neltly to obtelt his grace [the lord high commilTioner] and the 
 moll honourable ellales, that no fuch motion of any legal tole- 
 ration to thole of the prelatical principles might be entertained 
 by the parliament. See Life of %h. Aum, p. 95. 
 But all who have reafoned confiftently Crom the ptinciplcs of 
 the reformation, have been for toleration ; as well perceiving 
 they had no ri»ht to oblige any body to follow their particular 
 fentimeiils : but the difficulty is, the Celling bounds to this 
 toleration. + ..,,■<■ 
 
 M BaCnage, and Come other diftinguifh civil toleration Irom 
 iefiaftical— The latter allows oC different, and even oppofite 
 ,,: mr „>c in the church, and the firft permits them 111 civil 
 
 Ccnt'im'ents in the church, and the firft permits them 
 
 By civil toleration, is meant impunity and fafety in the date for 
 every lia which does not maintain any doaiine inconfiftent 
 with the peace and welfare of the date.— This civil or polttl- 
 cil toleration implies a right of enjoying the benefit of the 
 laws, and of all the privileges of the focieiy, without any re- 
 gard to difference of religion. 
 
 c , £rcft» 
 
T O M 
 
 TON 
 
 Ecclcflaflical toleration, is an allowance of certain opinions, 
 wliicn not being fundamentals, do not hinder thofe who pro- 
 fefs them from being elteemed members of the church. — Gut 
 as to the quality and number of theft; fundamental points, 
 they never could, nor in all probability ever will, be agreed 
 upon. 
 
 TOLL, Telonium, a Saxon term, though derived Origi- 
 nally trom the Latin tollerc, to takeaway, or m;bcr the Greek 
 nX©^ tribute-, tax. — It has two acceptations, denoting, i°. a 
 liberty to buy and Ml within the bounds of a manour; and 2°. 
 Toll is alio ufed for a tax or cullom paid for paiTage, or tor 
 vending goods in a marker, fair, or the like. 
 Some records make mention of toll thorn, or thorough toll, 
 which is gioney paid for paflage in or through feme highways, 
 or over ferries, bridge?, <3c. — Toll traven, for palling or driv- 
 ing cattle over a private man's ground. — And Toll-turn, or 
 turn-toll, which is paid at the return of bealts from fairs and 
 markets, though they are not fold. 
 
 By the ancient law, the buyers of corn and cattle in fairs or 
 markets were made to pay toll to the lord of the market, in 
 teftimony of the contract there lawfully made in open market, 
 becaufe privy contracts were held unlawful. 
 Some interpret toll a liberty as well to tal.e, as to be free from 
 toll; for that they who are infeoffed with toll, are cuftom-free. 
 Of this freedom from toll, the city of Coventry boafts an an 
 cient charter, granted them by Leofrick or Luriche, earl of 
 the Mercians in Edward the ConleiTor's time, who, at the 
 importunity of Godeva his lady, granted this ireedum to the 
 city. 
 
 T.?,r\ L , B B C l° TH ' I See the articles 5 Tolbooth. 
 
 TOLU Balfam, 5 I Balsam. 
 
 TOMAN, or Touman, a kind of imaginary money ufed 
 among the Perfians in the keeping oi their books, and to faci- 
 litate the reduction of money in the payment of confiderable 
 fums. 
 
 The toman confifts of fifty abaffi's, or a hundred mamoudi's 
 or two hundred fhahees, or ten thoufand dinars; which a- 
 mount to about three pounds, fix fhillhigs and eight-pence 
 fferling. 
 
 D'Herbolet derives the word from the language of the Mo- 
 guls, where it fignifies the number ten thoufand. Eben 
 
 Arabfchah fays, that the word touman, when ufed to exprefs 
 a weight, or money, contains ten thoufand filver Arab 
 drachmas, called mcthkal; which are a third lighter than the 
 Attic. 
 
 The Moguls, te'e. frequently ufe toman for ten thoufand men ; 
 and fay, c. gr. that the city Samarcand contains feven tomans 
 of people fit to bear arms; and that of Andechan nine tomans. 
 TOMB,* includes both the grave or fepulchre, wherein a de- 
 funct is interred; and the monument erected topreferve his 
 memory. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, TvpaQ-, tumulus, fepulchre, 
 or according to Menage, irom the Latin, tumba, which figni- 
 fies the fame. 
 
 Among the Romans none but the emperors, vcftals, and per- 
 fons fignalized by great actions, were allowed to have tombs in 
 the cities; the reft were all in the country, near the high- 
 roads; whence thofe common words, ffte, t$ abi, viator; 
 which are ftill retained in the inscriptions of our monuments, 
 tho' fet up in churches, £5V. 
 
 At Anchiale was anciently feen the tomb of Sardanapalus, with 
 this infciiption in vcrfe: Sardanapalus built Anchiale and Tar- 
 Jus in one day : go, paffenger, cat, drink, and be merry ; the 
 reft is nothing. Vid. Strab. Geog. lib. 14. 
 The Romans had a kind of empty tomb, called cenotaphlum, 
 an honorary tomb, wherein the body of the deceafed was not 
 laid. It was ufed to be built in favour of perfons penfhing at 
 fea, in remote countries, &c. where no fepulture could be 
 had. 
 
 The occafion hereof was a fuperititious notion, that the fouls 
 of thofe, whohadnotfuner.il honours, wandered an hundred 
 years by the banks of the rivers of hell, before they were ad- 
 mitted topafs over. — The KnS[<x<pM being made, the fame cere- 
 monies were pradtifed as at real funerals. 
 
 The cenotaphia were inferibed with the words ob honsrem, or 
 tnemorifsjacrum; whereas other tombs, wherein the afhes were 
 really depofited, were inferibed D. M. S. q. d. facred to the 
 manes. — When the words tacito online were added, it declared 
 the afhes inclofcd therein belonged to a Perfon infamous for 
 fome crime, 
 
 Charatlers on ToMB-ftones. See the article Character. 
 T O M E, TOMor, a bound book, or writing that makes a juft 
 volume. 
 
 All the works of fiich an author are compiled, and reduced in- 
 to one, or more tomes. There are tomes in folio, in quarto, 
 in octavo, duodecimo, &fV — The councils printed in the Lou- 
 vre are in 37 tomes. Salmeron has wrote the life of Chtift in 
 12 tomes. See Volume. 
 
 TOMENTUM, properly fignifics flocks, or locks of wool; 
 but by botanifts is ufed for that foft downy matter which grows 
 on the leaves of fome plants, hence denominated tomeniofe ; as, 
 •uerbafcum tc-juiitojum, carduui totnentojus, &c. 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 M. Winflow obfcrv'J a kind of tom/ntum in the fecretory vef- 
 fels of the glands; and from. this accounts for the fecretion 
 of the various fluids from the blood. See Glakd, and Se- 
 cretion. 
 TON. See the article Tn\-. 
 
 TOM KIM and TOMPION. See the article Tamfion, 
 
 TONDIN, or Tandino, in architecture. See Tore. 
 
 TONE, or Tune, in mulic, a property of found, whereby it 
 comes under the relation of grave and acute; or, the degree 
 of elevation any found has, from the degree of fwiftnefs of 
 the vibrations of the parts of the fonorous body. 
 Forthecaufe, meafure, degree, difference, t$t. of tones, fee 
 Tune. — The variety of tones in human vuices arifes partly 
 from the dimensions of the wind-pipe, which, like a flute, 
 the longer and narrower it is, the (harper is toe tone it gives; 
 but principilly from the head of the larynx, or knot of the 
 throat; the tone of the voice being more or lefs grave, as the 
 rima, or cleft thereof is more or lefs open. 
 
 Tone is more particularly ufed in mufic for a certain degree or 
 interval of tune, whereby a found may be either raifed or low- 
 ered from one extreme of a concord to the other ; fo as ftill to 
 produce true melody. 
 
 Muficians, befide the concords, or harmonical intervals, ad- 
 mit three IcfTer kinds of intervals, which are the meafures and 
 component parts of the greater, and are called degrees: the 
 nature, origin, ufe, E5Y. whereof, fee under the article DE- 
 GREE. 
 
 Of thefe degrees, two are called tones, and the third a feint- 
 tone-, their ratio's m numbers are 8 : 9, called a greater tone, 
 9:10, called a leffer tone; and 15 : 16, a ftmitone. 
 The tones arife out of the fimple concords, and are equal to 
 their differences: thus the greater tone S : 9 is the difference of 
 a fifth and a fourth: the' lejfer tone 9: 10 the difference of 
 a leffer third and fourth, or of a fifth and fixth greater: and 
 the femitone 15 : 16, the difference of a greater third and 
 fourth. 
 
 Of thefe tones femitone s every concord is compounded, and 
 confequently every one is refolvable into a certain number 
 thereof.' — Thus the leffer third conlifts of ontgreater tone and 
 one femitone— the greater third of one greater tone and one 
 leffer tone. — The fourth of one greater tone, one lejfer tone, 
 and one femitone. — The fifth of two greater tones, one leffer 
 tone, and one femitone. 
 
 For the ufe of thefe tones, &e. in the conft ruction of the fcale 
 
 of mufic, fee Scale. 
 Diazeuctic Tone. See the article Diazeuctic. 
 TONGUE, Lingua, in anatomy, an oblong member, whofe 
 
 form and fituation are fufficiently known, and whofe ufe is to 
 
 be the organ of tafte, and the principal inftrument of fpeech 
 
 and deglutition. 
 
 It isfaltened to the os hyoides, the larynx, and to the fauces, 
 by means of a membranous ligament running along the lower 
 fide of it, abouthalf way, called thzfreenum. 
 The main bulk and body of the tongue is made up of mufclej, 
 which are covered on the upper part with a papillary nervous 
 fubflance, over which are Spread two membranes. — The outer 
 of thefe membranes is pretty thick, and lull of papilla?, of a 
 pyramidical figure, efpccially towards the tip; wilich papillae 
 itand pointing towards the root of the tongue in a bending po- 
 flure, which makes their figure to be concavo-convex. Thefe 
 apices, or papillas, are fo very minute and (lender in men, that 
 they make the coat appear on the upper part to be villous, ef- 
 pecially as they approach nearer to the root. The figure of 
 the papillae, in human tongues, is not fo plainly difcernable to 
 the naked eye as not to need the microfcope. In brutes they 
 are generally larger, ftifTer, and more confpicuous; and in fume 
 almoft cartilaginous, as may be felt in the tongues of cats, and 
 oxen, but more fenfibly in lions. On the upper fide, at a lit- 
 tle diftance from the tip, this membrane becomes thin, fmooth, 
 and glabrous, and, as it were, polifhed by the lower parts of 
 the mouth whereon it Aides. 
 
 Under this lies a thin, foft, reticular kind of coat, punched 
 through witii innumerable holes, and always lined with a 
 thick and white, or yellowifh mucus. This membrane is fo 
 exceeding tender, and full of mucus, that it is not to be exa- 
 mined by the naked eye, unlefs boiled: by which it grows 
 tough, and eafily Separable from the external membrane, and 
 from the nervous part of the tongue which lies immediately 
 under it. After boiling, it appears like a kind of gawfe, be- 
 tween whofe threads innumerable holes appear, through which 
 the appices of the papillary body underneath it are exerted. 
 This membrane on the upper fide, next the outward, appears 
 white, with a caft towards yellow, but is black on the fide 
 next the tongue. 
 
 Many authors do not allow this to be a membrane, and will 
 only have it to be a mucus hardened by boiling ; but iiuce it has 
 fo much of the refemblanoe of a membrane, and that authors 
 agree in allowing two membranes to the tongue, Dr. Drake 
 does not fcruple to number it among them ; fince there does 
 not appear to be any other fecond membrane: reckoning, 
 with Malpighi, the fmooth part under the tongue a part of the 
 outer me 1 '"e. 
 
 1 z O V Im- 
 
TON 
 
 n mediately under this appears a nervous papillary body 
 reading itfelf to a pretty thicknefs over the whole furface of 
 
 Ii 
 
 fpreading itfelf to a pretty 
 
 the tongue. This body, on the under fide, is every-wheie 
 level and fmooth, except in fome few places, where it is con- 
 nected to the fubjacent mufculous part by fome nervous twigs 
 which it fends into it.— Malpigbi diftinguiflies the papilla, 
 which make the principal part hereof, into three kinds, from 
 their different magnitudes and figures when obferved with the 
 microfcope; of which, thofe feated on the fides and tip are ve- 
 ry Angular, refembhng little round pyramids, with globes on 
 their tips like the horns of frails.— AH thefe papilla, which 
 are the immediate organs of tailing, fend their apices, or ex- 
 tremities, through thfl mucous membrane, into the pyrami- 
 dal papilla of the outer membrane, which are hollow to re- 
 ceive them, and feem to be nothing elfe but a kind of cafes to 
 defend thefe nervous papillre from injuries, which the falts and 
 afperities of thofe bodies which we take into our mouths, might 
 do them. 
 
 The reft, and much the greatcft part of the body of the tatgut 
 ismufculous, con fitting of plans of fibres in different directi- 
 ons: thefirft, or external plan, confifls of ftrait fibres, which 
 cover the tongue from one extreme to the other ; when thefe 
 contract, they Ihortcn it. Under this are fevcral other plans, 
 running from the under to the upper fide, which ferve to make 
 it broad and thin. Thefe two kinds of fibres lie Jiratum 
 fuper Jiratum, a plate of the one, and then a plate of the 
 other. 
 
 Authors are not agreed about the number of mufcles which 
 compofe the tongue: fome confounding thofe of the os hyoides 
 with thofe of the tongue, reckon eight, others nine, others 
 ten, and more pair. Some number thofe proper to the tongue 
 alone fix pair, others five, others four, and fome no more 
 than three. Of this laft opinion is our accurate Mr. Cowper, 
 who allows no more than three genuinepair of mufcles to the 
 tongue, viz. the geniogloffum, which pulls the tongue forwards, 
 and puts it out of the mouth j the ceratogloffum, which draws 
 it into the mouth, or pulls it on one lide; and the Jlyh- 
 ghffum, which draws the tongue up in the action of deglu- 
 tition. 
 
 Befides thefe mufcles, the tongue is alfo moved by a bone fi- 
 tuated at its root, and making as it were' its bafis, called es 
 
 hyoides. 
 
 Down the middle of the tongue, lengthwife, runs a feam, 
 called lima mcdiana, which divides it to the bottom into two 
 equal parts, but not fo effectually but that the blood-veffels of 
 one fide communicate with thofe of the other. — .Thefe vcfiels 
 are arteries from the carotides and veins called ranular, and are 
 very confpicuous about the frasnum under the tongue, lerving 
 to reconvey the blood to the external jugulars. Thefe veins 
 are frequently opened in the angina, and are the laft refort of 
 old women in this cafe. — The nerves of the tongue come from 
 the fifth, fixth, and ninth pairs j the two firft of which 
 have been called gujlatorii, and the latter motorii lingua. 
 See Nerve. 
 
 Howfoever neceffary an organ the tongue be in fpeech, EsV. 
 yet Jac. Rolandus has pubfifhed an account of a mouth with- 
 out a tongue, which fpake perfectly, and performed its other 
 natural Junctions; the perfon he fpeaks of is Pet. Durand, 
 who lofing his tongue by a gangreen, could yet fpeak perfectly, 
 as alfb tatte, fwallow, and chew his food ; which laft, however, 
 he could only do on that fide he put it into, being unable to 
 turn it to the other fide of his mouth. We have very lately 
 had alfo in England an inftance of the fame kind, in one 
 Marcaret Cutting. See Ph'tlof. Tranf. anno 1748. 
 
 ToNoUE-^/i"«, \ See the articles } ^ C, "™ C ' 
 Tongue-W, 1 ( KANULA. 
 
 TONIC,* TON1KOS, in medicine, is applied to a certain mo- 
 tion of the mufcles, wherein the fibres being extended, conti- 
 nue their extenfion in fuch manner, as that the part feems im- 
 moveable, though in reality it be in motion. See Muscle. 
 
 * The woid is termed from the Greek, tei^u*, to jlretch. 
 
 Such is the cafe of a man ftanding, of birds planing or fwim- 
 ming through the air, bV. — Galen fays, that the mufcles act 
 even when at reft; for alter having made any contraction to fix 
 themfdves in a certain ftate or difpofition, the preferving of 
 that contraction is what we call the tonic motion. 
 
 TONICAL Echo. See the article Echo. 
 
 TONNAGE, ~i ( Tunnage. 
 
 Duty of Tonnage, £ See the arti 
 
 TONNING. 
 
 TONSILS, TonsilljE, in anatomy, two round glands, fi- 
 tuate near the root ot the tongue, on each hde the uvula, un- 
 der the common membrane of the fauces, with which they 
 are covered: they are called alfo amygdala, or almonds of the 
 ears. 
 
 TONSURE,* the art or act of cutting the hair, and {having 
 the head. See Hair. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, tonJere, to pave 
 
 The tonfure was anciently a mark of infamy in France; info- 
 niuch, that when they would render any prince incapable of 
 fucceeding to the crown, they cut off his hair, and fliaved 
 him. See further under the article Beard. 
 
 f Tunnage. 
 tides < Duty. 
 
 C Tunning. 
 
 TOO 
 
 Tonsure, in theRomifh church, is ufed for the entrance, or 
 admiffion into holy orders. 
 
 In propriety, tonfure is the firft ceremony ufed for devoting a 
 perfon to God and the church, by prefenting him to the bi- 
 fhop, who gives him the firft degree of the clericate, by cut- 
 ting off part of his hair, with certain prayers and benedictions. 
 Some hold the tonfure a particular order; others, as Lcyfeau, 
 only the mark and form of ecclefiafiical orders in general. 
 The tonfure fuffices to make a Clerc : the reit is only to quali- 
 fy him for the holding benefices. — A perfon is capable of the 
 tonfure at feven years of age; hence a benefice uf fimple ton- 
 jure is fuch a one as may be enjoyed by a child of leven years 
 old. The tonfure is the bafis of all the other orders. 
 Tonsure is alio ufed fur the corona, which priefts, cjV. wear, 
 as the mark of their order, and of the rank they hold in the 
 church. See Crown. 
 
 The barbers have the meafures and diinenfions of the diffe- 
 rent kinds of tonjures, or clerical crowns; to he practifed ac- 
 cording to the different degrees and orders, — A clerc's tonfure, 
 a fub-deacon's tonfure, a deacon's tonfure, a prieft's tonjure, 
 are each fucctffively bigger than other. 
 TOOLS, fimple and popular inftruments, ufed in the more ob- 
 vious operations; and particularly in ti.e making ot other more 
 complex inftruments. 
 
 Tools are divided into edge~tools, fpring-tocls, pointed-tool', &c. 
 See Instruments. 
 TOOTH, Dens, in anatomy, a little, hard, fmooth bone, fet 
 in the gums, and ferving to maflicate or chew the food, to 
 bite, £sfr.— See Tab. Anat. (Ofteol.)^. 2 lit. d, e, f. 
 Men, and molt terreff rial animals, as alfo many of the fifties, 
 have two rows of teeth, the one in the upper jaw, and the 
 other in the lower. 
 
 In men, the ordinary number of teeth is 32; fixteen in each 
 jaw; all fixed in peculiar fockets, called civ,!'., b] the junc- 
 ture or articulation called gomphofis, and by the joiners, 
 P*gg'»g- 
 
 They are of three forts : thofe in the fore-part of each jaw at e 
 called incifores, cutters; and are four in number in each jaw, 
 broad, thin, and flat: fome call them the primores, becaufe, 
 they appear the firft; others the adverft ; and others the ri- 
 dentes, laughers, becaufe they fhew themfelves firft in laugh- 
 ing. 
 
 Behind thefe, on each fide of each jaw, fland two which are 
 a little more prominent, and pointed, called canini, by the 
 common people eye-teeth, becaufe part of the nerve which 
 moves the eyes is inferted into them, whence the danger of 
 pulling them out. 
 
 Behind thefe are five in each jaw, called the molares, or 
 grinders, being thofe which in men ferve chiefly for mafti- 
 cation. 
 
 The incifores have generally only a fingle root, or fang ; the 
 canini fometimes two; and the molares three or four, efpeci- 
 ally the hind ones, which are put to the greateft itrefs. 
 The teeth, according to Peyer, are formed of convolved fkins, 
 hardened and bound together by a vifcid mucus: and if we 
 view the grinders of deer, horfes, and fheep, fcfr. we ftiall 
 find great reafon to be of his mind. 
 
 Others fpeak of their formation otherwife. The fockets, Dr. 
 Quincy obferves, are lined with a thin membrane, upon which 
 are feveral vefiels, through which there pafles a thick tranfpa- 
 rent humour, that, as it increafes, hardens in form of teeth ; 
 and about the feventh or eighth month after birth, they begin 
 to pierce the edge of the jaw, and tear the periofteum and 
 gums, which being very fenfible, create a .violent pain, and 
 other fymptoms incident to children in the time of dentition. 
 The teeth begin not to appear all at a time ; but firft the dentes 
 incifivi of the upper, and then thofe of the lower jaw appear, 
 becaufe the thfeneft and fharpeft ; after them come out the 
 canini, becaufe they are fharper than the molares, but thicker 
 than the incifivi; and laft of all the molares, becaufe they are 
 thickeft and blunteft. 
 
 Of this vifcous tranfparent liquor, which is indurated into the 
 fubftanceof the teeth, there are two lays, one below the other, 
 divided by the fame membrane which covers all the cavity of 
 the jaw: the uppermoft lay forms the teeth which come out 
 firft : but about the feventh year of age they are thruft out by 
 the teeth made of the u'ndermoft lay, which then begin to 
 fprout; and if thefe teeth be loft, they never grow again. 
 If fome have been obferved tofhed their teeth twice, they have 
 had three lays of this vifcous humour, but this hardly ever 
 happens. 
 
 About the one and twentieth year, the two laft of the molares 
 fpring up, and are called dentes japientia, becaufe they arife 
 when the perfon is at years of difcretion. 
 
 The teeth, M. de la Hire the younger has found to have all 
 that part which ftands out beyond the jaw, covered with a pe- 
 culiar fubftance called enamel, quite different from the reft of 
 the bone. 
 
 This enamel, by fome others called the periofteum, is compofed 
 of an infiniry of little fibres, which grow to the bone by their 
 roots, much like nails or horns. 
 
 This 
 
TOO 
 
 TOO 
 
 This competition is very difcernable in a broken tooth, where 
 the origin and fituation of thefe fibres are apparent. M. dela 
 Hire is perfuaded, that the growth of thefe fibres is performed 
 much like that of nails. If by any accidents little part of 
 this enamel be broke off, fo that the bone is left bare, that is, 
 if the very roots of the fiorcs be taken away, the bone, in 
 that part, will grow carious, and the tooth inevitably perifh ; 
 there being no bone in the body that can bear the air. See 
 Boȣ. 
 
 Indeed, in fome perfons the enamel is very much wore and 
 injured, by rubbing them much with dentrifices, {sfc. fo 
 that the bone appears through, and yet the tooth keeps found ; 
 but the reafon is, that the bone is not quite bare, but there is 
 ftill a thin lay of the enamel which preferves it; but this lay 
 being thin enough to be tranfparent, the yellow bone is feed 
 through it. 
 
 Sometimes alfo a tooth breaks, and the bone is [left bare, yet 
 the per foil does not find any pain oraking from it: the reafon 
 is, that the hole in the root or fang of the tooth through 
 winch a little branch of a nerve enters that renders the tooth 
 fcnfible, being quite flopped up by age, or the like, has pinched 
 off the nerve, and taken away all communication between the 
 tooth and the origin of the nerves, and, by confeqtience, all 
 fenfibility. 
 
 It alfo happens in fome teeth, that the fibres are only in little 
 fheaves, or bundles, whole upper extremities meet, but not 
 their lower; as is the cafe in molt of the grinders, where the 
 feparation of the bundles is apparent. Here, if the upper ex- 
 treme of the fibres chance to be broken, or wore off, the fe- 
 paration between two of the bundles often enlarges itfelf, fo as 
 to admit fome hard particle of the food, by which means a 
 little aperture being made through the enamel, the bone is laid 
 bare, and the tooth (oon rots. This inconveniencejis remedied 
 a little by flopping up the hole with lead, which prevents the 
 iharp pungent parts of the food from penetrating to the bone, 
 and there occalioning pain. 
 
 What we have faid is illuftrated by the figures in Tab. Anat. 
 (Ofteol.) fig. 14. where A C F H expreffes the extremity of 
 the jaw the teeth are fet in ; A E C and FGH the roots or 
 fangs of the teeth inclofed in the jaw ; A D C B and FL HI I 
 the enamel, compofed of little fibres ranged afide of each other, 
 which cover all that part of the tooth without fide the jaw ; 
 1 1 feveral threads joined at the upper extremity, but apart at 
 the lower; M M holes through which the nerves enter the 
 roots of the teeth ; N N a tooth clofed up. 
 The teeth, Mr. Derham obferves, furnifh us with a notable 
 inftance of the wifdom and goodnefs of the Creator: their 
 peculiar hardnefs is very remarkable, confidering the tender 
 fubftance they are formed of. 
 
 The ancients, and even Riolanus, among the moderns, have 
 held them to be incombuftible, and the only part of the body 
 that was fo; 011 which account they were placed with great 
 care in the urns among the allies of thedeceafed: but the 
 opinion is falfe, there having only been two found in the tombs 
 of Weftphalia, one of which was half calcined. 
 Another popular error is, that the teeth continue growing for 
 ever, even in old people, to the hour of their death. M. de 
 la Hire obferves, it is only the enamel or polifh that grows, 
 which is a fubftance very different from the teeth. 
 The form, difpofition, and order of the teeth, are admira- 
 ble: the foremoif. are weak and far from the centre, as 
 being only preparers to the reft; the others being to grind 
 and mince, are accordingly ftronger, and placed near the 
 centre of motion. 
 
 Galen puts the cafe, that the order of the teeth fhould have 
 been inverted, and the grinders, e. gr. put in the place of the 
 incifores; and I afks, what ufe teeth had then been of, and what 
 confufion would not there have arofe by fuch a flight over- 
 iigltt in the difpofal only ? Upon which he argues, that if any 
 per Ton fhould difpofe a company of 32 men, the number of 
 the teeth, in a juft order, we fhould judge him an intelligent 
 perfon: why then fhould we not judge the fame of the Crea- 
 tor, C3V. 
 
 Again their various forms, in various creatures, is no lefs con- 
 fiderable, being all curioufly adapted to the peculiar food and 
 occafions of the feveral fpecies of animals: thus in the rapaci- 
 ous they are fitted for the catching, holding, and tearing the 
 prey -, in herbaceous for the gathering and communition of ve- 
 getables; and in fuch as have no teeth, as birds, the bill fupplies 
 the defect. 
 
 Add, that the temporary defect of them is no lefs obfervable in 
 fume: that children, for inftance, fhould have none while they 
 are not able to ufe them, but to hurt themfelves, or the mo- 
 ther; and that at the very age when they can take in the more 
 fubfUntial food, and live without the breaft, and begin to 
 need teeth for the fake of fpeech ; that then, their teeth fhould 
 begin to appear, and gradually grow as they more and more 
 ftand in need ol them. 
 
 Some perfons are born with all their teeth, as Marcus Curius 
 Deo &t US, and Cneius Papirius Carbo: others have only had 
 one continued tooth, reaching the whole length of the jaw, as 
 
 Pyrrhus kingof Epirus, and Prufias fen of the king of Bithy- 
 nia: others are faid to have had two or three rows on the fame 
 jaw, as Hercules. 
 
 Mentzelius, a German phyfician, aflures us, that he faw an 
 old man at Cleves, 1666, aged 1 20 years, who had a new fet 
 of teeth two years before, which cut with great pain; and he 
 faw an Englishman at the Hague, who cut a new fct of teeth in 
 his 1 1 8th year. 
 
 A Danifh phyfician, named Hagerup, maintains in certain 
 thefes, that one may hear with the teeth. 
 
 As to animals, there are fome fifhes which have teeth on their 
 tongues, as trouts; others have them at the bottom of the 
 gullet, as thecod-fifli; fome, as the great fea-dog or mark, 
 called cams carcharias, have three, four, or five rows of 
 teeth on the fame jaw; the crocodile thtee, and thofe all inci- 
 fors; vipers have two large crooked canine teeth, which are 
 moveable, and ordinarily lie flat, only being raifed when they 
 would bite. And the rana piicatrix, fea-frog, or Tea-devil, 
 has whole rows of the like moveable teeth. — The' toad and 
 cuttle-fifh have no teeth, and yet they can bite. 
 Artificial Teeth, are thofe fet in lieu of natural ones which 
 are wanting — They are ufually made of ivory, or the tooth of 
 the fea lion; but in regard ivory, in a little time, grows yel- 
 low in the mouth, Fabricius advifes them to be made of the 
 fhin-bone of a bullock, which preferves its colour. 
 The cuftum of wearing ivory teeth, and of binding them in 
 with a gold wire, is very ancient: Lucian and Martial fpeaic 
 of it as pradtifed among the Romans. 
 
 Guillemeau gives us the compofuion of a pafte for making ar- 
 tificial teeth, which fhall never grow yellow: the compofition 
 is white wax granulated, and melted with a little gum elemi, 
 adding powder of white maflic, coral, and pearl. 
 Tooth tn the manage. — It is by a horfe's teeth, chiefly, that 
 his age is known. 
 
 The teeth of ahorfeareof four kinds, -viz. 24. jaw-teeth, or 
 grinders, at the bottom of the mouth, beyond the bars; iz 
 on each fide the channel, ranged fix above, and as many be- 
 low. — Thefe never fall, nor are they ufed for the diftinction 
 of age. 
 
 Twelve foal-teeth, or milk-teeth, which come in the fore- part 
 of the mouth at three months old, and ufually caft at two years 
 and half. 
 
 Four tufnes, placed alone in the bars between the fore-teeth 
 and grinders, one on each fide below, and as many above. 
 Mares feldom havetufhes, and when they have, they are fmall, 
 and are reckon'd an imperfection. 
 
 Twelve gatherers, growing before in the place of the foal- 
 teeth and grinders, and with which horfes draw their fodder, 
 cut grafs, &c. Thefe are divided into 
 
 Nippers, which are the two foremoft teeth above, and as ma- 
 ny below, which a horfe firft changes. 
 
 Middle teeth, or feparaters, parting the nippers from the cor- 
 ner teeth, are the two next the nippers, one on each fide of 
 them, boih above and below, and are thofe which change 
 next. 
 
 Outward, or earner teeth, are thofe next the tufties above and 
 below, and which are caft laft. — They fhoot forth from the 
 gum at five years of age, and have a hollow, wherein is a 
 black fpeck, refembling a bean, called the mark, which con- 
 tinues till feven or eight years of age, and then begins to fill 
 up. 
 
 TOOTH-ACH, a very common difeafe, by phyficians called 
 
 odontalgy. 
 
 The tooth-ach ufually proceeds from a caries which rots the 
 bone, and eats it hollow. For the caufes, &c. of this caries, 
 fee Tooth. 
 
 Sometimes it proceeds from a defluxion of a fharp matter upon 
 the gums, — For the tooth-ach, a pafte made of foft bread, and 
 the feed of ftramonium, laid on the tooth affected, abates the 
 pain; if the tooth be hollow, and the pain great, a compofiti- 
 on of equal quantities of opium, myrrh, and camphire, made 
 up into a pafte with brandy or fpirits of wine, and about a 
 grain or two put into the hollow place, puts a ftop to the caries 
 and blunts the acute painof the nerve; by which it often gives 
 immediate relief. 
 
 Chymical oils, as thofe of origanum, cloves, tobacco, &c. 
 are alfo of fervice, deftroying, by their hot cauftic nature, 
 the texture of the fenfible veffels of the tooth affected ; 
 though, from too liberal an ufe of them, frequently proceeds 
 a defluxion of humours, and fometim-.s an impnftumation. 
 A bliftcr applied behind one or both ears feldom fails to cure 
 the tooth-ach, efpecially when attended with a hot defluxion of ' 
 humours, and fwelling of the gums, face, &c. Liniments 
 of ointment of marfhmallows, elder, &c. mixed with rum, 
 brandy, or fpirit of wine camphorated, are good, ufed out- 
 wardly, to abate the fwelling. 
 
 Mr. Chefelden mentions one cured of the tooth-ach by apply- 
 ing a fmall cauterizing iron to the anthelix of the ear, alter he 
 had undergone bleeding, purging, falivation, fetons, &c. to 
 no purpofe: the cafe was very remarkable; for when he was 
 feized with it, a convulfion of that whole fide of his face fol- 
 lowed, 
 
dra- 
 5 fur- 
 See 
 
 TOP 
 
 lowed, whenever the pain became acute, or whenever lie at- 
 tempted to fpealc. . 
 Scoockhtt, in his treatife of butter, maintains, that there is 
 no better means of keeping the teeth fair and found, th in by 
 rubnin" them over with butter : a medicine much lets diltalte- 
 ful than that of the Spaniards, who wafh their teeth every 
 morning with urine. \ ' , 
 
 To prevent and cure thefcurvy in the gums, it is recommend- 
 ed to wafh the mouth every morning with fait and water; 
 and to hinder the teeth from fpoilingor growing carious, fome 
 ufe onlv powder of hartfhorn to rub the teeth with, and then 
 wafti the mouth with cold water: it is alledged, this is pre- 
 fc.able to other dentrifices, on this account, becaufe their hard 
 particles are apt to abrade that fine fmooth pohfii, with which 
 the furfaceof the teeth is covered, and when ,s their prclerva- 
 tive from the ill effefls of air, aliment, liquors, Sc. which 
 occafion ailments of the teeth when wore off. 
 Dentrifices a,e ufually compounded of powders of nartlnorn. 
 red coral, bone of the cuttle-fifh, burnt alum, myrrh *< 
 gon's blood, tifc. Some commend powder of bricks, : 
 ficient toanfwer all the intentions o! a good dentifince. 
 Dentifrice. 
 
 rW-golbnl, 1 f FOB E tap-gallant. 
 
 Tov-maft, > See the articles I i ORE-tsp-ma/t. 
 
 Heave outTov-falls, \ L Heave. 
 
 TOPARCHY,* a little date, nrfignory; confifting only of a 
 few cities, or towns; or a petty country governed and poffef- 
 fed by zlcparcl;, or lord. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, ow®-, plaee, and a !X v, 
 command, government . 
 
 Tudata was anciently divided into ten toparchies. Sec Pliny, 
 lib 5. c. 14. and Jofcph. Ilk 3. c. 2. tie Bel. Jud. & lib. 5. 
 fffr —The laft mentioned author calls the cities of Azotus, 
 Jamna, and Phafaelis, which Herod left by teltamcnt to his 
 filter Saloma, a nparehy. ' \ 
 
 Procopius only gives the quality of uparcby to the kingdom of 
 Edeffa; to Ab>arus, the toparch or lord whereof there is a 
 tradition, that Jcfus Chrift fent his pifture, with a letter _ 
 TOPAZ, a furt of gem or preciuus ftone; efteem'd the third in 
 order after the diamond. 
 
 The topaz, is tranfparent; its colour, a beautiful yellow, or 
 gold colour: it is very hard, and takes a fine polifh.— It is the 
 true chryfolite of the ancients, and is found in feveral parts of 
 the Indies, in Ethiopia, Arabia, Peru, and Bohemia. 
 The oriental topazes arc moft eftcemed ; their colour borders 
 on the orange: thofe of Peru are fofter, but their colour much 
 the fame: the yellow of thofe of Bohemia is a little cloudy; 
 and they are the fofteft of all, and their polifh the coarfeft. 
 Thofe of Madagafcar were once in much efteem, but are now 
 held good for little. 
 
 Tavcrnier mentions a topaz, in the poficffion of the great Mo- 
 gul, weighing 157 carats, which cod 20300/. fterling: and 
 Boctius de Boot, in his treatife of precious Hones, affirms to 
 have feen in the cabinet of the emperor Rudolphus, whofe 
 phyfician he was, a topaz above three foot long, and fix inches 
 broad. Probably it might be fome other ftone a little tranfpa- 
 renr, of a topaz colour. 
 
 The topaz is eafily counterfeited ; and there are faflitious ones, 
 which, to the eye, do not come behind the natural ones. If 
 we might believe the ancients, the topaz has very notable vir- 
 tues; but thofe are now in difcredit: and yet the topaz is of 
 fome ufe in medicine, reduced into an impalpable powder, and 
 levigated in water. 
 
 Some fay, it takes its name topaz from an ifhnd in the red fea, 
 of the fame name, where it was firft found by Juba, king of 
 Mauritania; but it was known to the Hebrews before, as ap- 
 pears from the 1 1 8th pfalm. See fupplemcnt, articles Topa- 
 ZIUS, and Chrysolith us. 
 TOPHUS, in medicine, a ftony or chalky concretion in any 
 part of an animal body ; as in the bladder, kidneys, &c. or 
 in the joints. 
 
 Dr. Rutty, in his treatife of the urinary pafiages, takes the 
 ftone toarife from the attraction between volatile faline parti- 
 cles: of which particles the ftone, when viewed with a mi- 
 crofcope, feems to be made up: he thinks the fault of thefe ag- 
 gregates of faline particles, ought generally to be fuppofed to 
 be^ii in, or proceed from, the papillx of the kidneys, and 
 not from the fediment of urine in the bladder. 
 The reafon why wine-drinkers are more fubjecl to the ftone, 
 and other concretions, than malt or water drinkers, he fup- 
 pofes to be the volatile and faline, or earthy particles contain- 
 ed in the wine in greater quantities than in the ale, C2Y. A 
 calculus, he obferves, reduced to a caput niortuum, will upon 
 the aftufion of warm water, diilblve, and entirely mix; but 
 in a fhort time will again fettle, and the particles thereof fo 
 clofely unite or attract, as that, by repealed artufions, they 
 cannot be brought again to diilblve. 
 TOPIC, in rhetoric, a probable argument, drawn from the fe- 
 veral circumftancesand places of a fact, tSc. 
 
 TOR 
 
 TOPICE,* ToniKH, Topica, exprefTes the art or manner of 
 inventing and managing all kinds of probable argumentations. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, tswijc©-, of vgtto;, place: 
 its fubject being the places, which Arillotle calls the fgati of ar- 
 guments. 
 
 Ariftotle has wrote topics; and Cicero a kind of comment on 
 them, to his friend Trebatius, who, it feems, did not un- 
 derstand them. — But the critics obferve, that the topica of Ci- 
 cero agree fo little with thofe eight books of topics which pafs 
 under the name of Ariftotle, that it follows necefTarily, either 
 that Cicero was much miftaken ; which is not very probable; 
 or that the books of topics now attributed to Ariftotle, are not 
 wholly his. 
 
 Cicero defines topica, or topics, to be the art of finding argu- 
 ments, difcipl'tna inveniendorum argumcntorum. 
 Rhetoric is fometimes divided into two parts: judgment, called 
 alfo dialcclke; and invention, called topice. t 
 TOPICS,* or Topical remedies, in medicine, are common- 
 ly ufed for what we otherwife call external remedies, i. e. fuch 
 as are applied outwardly to fome particular difeafed, and pain- 
 ful part. 
 
 * The word is formed from t&tt&c, locus, place. 
 Such arc plaifters, cataplafms, bhfters, unguents, falves, col- 
 lyriums, &c. 
 
 The gout is never cured by topics: they may afluage the pain 
 for a time ; but for a cure, the fource of the evil muff, be at- 
 tacked with internals. 
 TOPOGRAPHY,* a defcription, or draught of fome particu- 
 lar place, or fmall tract of land; as that of a city or town, 
 manour or tenement, field, garden, houfe, caftle, or the like; 
 fuch as furveyors fet out in their plots, or make draughts of, 
 for the information and fatisfa&ion of the proprietors. 
 
 * Theword is formed from TOTrrj;, place, and y^u, 1 defer ibe. 
 Topography differs from chorograpby, as a particular from mors 
 general; thorography being a defcription of a country, a dio- 
 cefe, province, or the like. See Chorography. 
 
 TORCH, T<sda, a fort of luminary ; properly, a flick of fir, 
 or other refinous and combuftible matter, as pine, linden, &c. 
 more or lefs thick, and long; encompafted at one end with fix 
 wax candles, which being lighted, yield a kind of gloomy 
 brightnefs. 
 
 T -ircbes are ufed in fome church ceremonies, particularly at the 
 proceffions of the holy facrament in the Romiili church, and 
 at the interments of the poorer people. 
 - Formerly they were ufed at the funerals of thofe of the firffc 
 rank; but tapers and flambeaux are now introduced in their 
 ftead ; and frequently alfo called by their name. 
 TORCULAR, or Torcularis, among chirurgions, acon- 
 
 trivance for flopping bleedings in amputations. 
 TorculaR Heroph'di,* in anatomy, a name given to a part in 
 the duplicatures of the dura mater ; formed of a concourfe of* 
 a branch of the longitudinal finus, with the lateral finus's. 
 
 * It has its name torcular from its refembling a prefs, or fcrew : 
 Heropbili is added from the difcoverer's name. 
 
 TORE,'* Torus, in architecture, a large round moulding 
 ufed in the bafes of columns. 
 
 * Davilier derives the word from the Greek, rojief, a cable, where- 
 of it bears fome refemblance ; or from the Latin, torus, abed, 
 as being fuppofed to reprefent the edge of a bed or quilt, fwel- 
 led out with the weight of the incumbent column. 
 
 The torch alfo called gros baton, and tondln. — It is the bignefs 
 that dirtinguilhes the torus from the aftragal. 
 The bafes of Tufcan and Doric columns have but one tore, 
 which is between the plinth and the liftel. — In the Attic bafe 
 there are two; the upper, which is the fmaller ; and an under, or 
 bigger. — See Tab. Arcbitett. fig. 3. i^fig.z^. lit. t. cif Jig, 26. 
 lit. b. m. 
 
 TOREUMATOGRAPHY, a Greek term, fignifying the 
 knowledge, or rather defcription, of ancient fculptures, and 
 baflb-relievo's. 
 
 The invention of tonumatograpby is owing to Phidias, and 
 its perfection to Polycletes: the Italian gravers have let a great 
 deal of light into the tareumatograpby. 
 TOREUTICE,* TOPEYTiKH, that part of fculpture, called 
 
 iurriing. 
 
 The word is formed of the Greek, to^o;, latb, of to^u, te- 
 
 retro, ferfaro. 
 
 TORIES, or Tgrvs, a party orfaclion in England, oppofite 
 to the whigs. 
 
 Thefe two celebrated parties, which have fo long divided our 
 country, will make a confiderable article in the Englifh hiftory, 
 nothing inferior, in many refpects, to that of the Guelfs and 
 Gibellins. — The divifion has gone fo deep, that it is prefumed, 
 no Englifhman, who has any concern or principles at all, but 
 inclines more to one fide than the other : for which reafon, we 
 fball borrow our account of them from the mouthsof foreign- 
 ers, who may be fuppofed more impartial; and particularly 
 from M. de Cize, a French officer, fome time in the fervice 
 of England, who has wrote tiic Hijhry of whigifm and toryifm, 
 
 printed 
 
 4 
 
TOR 
 
 TOR 
 
 printed at I.eipfic, anmijij; and M. Rapin, whofe differ- 
 tationfurles weighs & Us terys, printed at the Hague the fame 
 year, is Weil known. 
 
 During the unhappy war, which brougjit Icing Charles I. to 
 the fcaffold ; the adherents of that king were firft called cava- 
 liers, and thofe of the parliament round-heads ; which two 
 names were afterwards changed into thofe of Series and whigs, 
 on the following occafion. 
 
 A kind of robbers, or banditti in Ireland, who kept on the 
 mountains, or in the iflands formed by the vaft bogs of that 
 country, being called torits ; a name they ftill bear indifferently 
 with that of raparees ; the kings enemies accuh'i-.g him of 
 favouring the rebellion in Ireland, which broke out about that 
 time, gave his partifans the names of Series : and on the other 
 hand the Series, to be even with their enemies, who were 
 clofely leagued with the Scots, gave them the name of whigs, 
 which is that given in Scotland to another kind of banditti, or 
 fanatics, in that country. 
 
 1 he cavaliers, or Series, had then principally in view the po- 
 litical interefts of the king, the crown, and the church of 
 England : and the round-heads, or vvhigs, propofed chiefly the 
 maintaining the rights and interefts of the people, and of pro- 
 teliantifm. Nor have the two factions yet lolt their firft views ; 
 though their firft names, cavalier and round-head, be now en- 
 tirely difufed. 
 
 This is the moft popular account ; and yet it is certain the 
 names whig and toy were but little known till about the mid- 
 dle of the reign of king Charles II. M. de Cize relates, that 
 it was in the year 1678, that the whoie nation was firft ob- 
 ferved to be divided into wbigs and Series ; and that on occa- 
 fion of the famous depolition of Titus Oates, who accufed 
 the catholics of having confpired againft the king and the 
 ftate — The appellation whig was given to fuch as believed the 
 plot real ; and tery to thofe who held it fictitious. 
 We fhaujd here confine ourfelves to the Series ; and for what 
 regards the wbigs, refer to that article ; but lince by comparing 
 and confronting the two parties together, both the one and 
 the other will appear in the ftronger light, it would be impru- 
 dent to feperate them : fo that we rather chufe to fay tile iefs 
 under the word whigs, and refer thence hither. 
 The factions we are fpeaking of, may be confidered either 
 with regard to the /late, or to religion.— The Jlate Series are 
 either violent or moderate : the firft would have the foveraign 
 to be ablolute in England, as in other countries, and his will 
 to be a law. This party, which is not very numerous, has 
 yet been conuderable; i». On account of its leaders, which 
 have been lords of the firft rank, and generally minifters and 
 favourites, a". In that being thus in the miniftry, it engaged 
 the church Series to maintain ftiffly the doftrine of paffive obe- 
 dience. 3 0 . Becaufe the king has ufually thought it his intereft 
 to fupport them. 
 
 The moderate twits would not fuffer the king to lofe any of 
 his prerogatives ; but neither would they facrifice thofe of the 
 people. Thefe, fays Mr. Rapin, are true Englifhmen ; have 
 frequently faved the ftate, and will fave it again whenever it 
 (hall be in danger, either from the violent Series, or from the 
 republican whigs. 
 
 The Jlate whigs again, are are republican or moderate : 
 the full, according to our author, are the remains of the party 
 of the long parliamenr, who took in hand to change the mo- 
 narchy into a commonwealth : Thefe make fo (lender a figure, 
 that they only ferve to ftrengthen the party of the other wbigs. 
 The lories would perfuade the world, that all the whigs are of 
 this kind ; as the wbigs would make us believe that all the lo- 
 ries are violent. 
 
 The moderate Jlate wbigs are much in the fame fentiments as 
 the moderate series ; and delire the government may be main- 
 tained on its ancient foundation : all the difference is, that the 
 moderate torVj lean a little more to the fide of the king and 
 the moderate whigs to that of the parliament and people. 
 Thele laft are in a perpetual motion to prevent the rights of 
 the people from being broke in upon ; and have fometimes 
 taken precautions at the expence of the crown. 
 Before we confider our two parties with regard to religion, it 
 muft be obferved, that the reformation, as carried on t'o a 
 greater or lefler length, divided the Engiifh into epifcopalians, 
 and prefbyterians or purirans : the firft contended, that the 
 epifcopal jurifiliflion fhould be continued on the fame footing 
 and the church in the fame form, as before the reformation • 
 the latter maintained, that all minifters or priefls had equal 
 authority ; and that the church ought to be governed by pref- 
 bytenes, or confiftories of pricfts and lay elders 
 After long difputes, the more moderate of each party relaxed 
 a little of their ftiftnefs, and thus formed two branches of mo- 
 derate wbigs, and moderate lories, with resard to religion ; but 
 there was a much greater number who kept to their principles 
 With inconceivable firmncfs : and thefe conflicted two 
 branches of rigid epifcopalians and prefbyterians, fubiifting to 
 this day ; and now comprized under the general names of 
 wUgiaii tones ; tn regard the firft join the tones, and the 
 latter the whigs. 
 
 From what has been obferved, we may conclude, that as the 
 names tery and whig have a regard t'o two different obiefls, 
 Vol. II. 
 
 they are equivocal, and of confequenee ought never to be 
 applied Without expreffing in which fenfe it is do„e-for 
 the fame perion may he, in the different refpefls, both vbig 
 and tery. 6 
 
 Aprcfbytcrian, for in rtance, who willies the ruin of the church 
 of England, ,s certainly, on that fcore, of the party of whigs; 
 yet if he oppofe the attempts Come of his party would make 
 againft the royal authonty, it cannot be denied but he is ef- 
 feauaily a tery. 
 
 After the like manner, the epifcopalians ought to be effeemed 
 as tones with regard to the church ; and yet how many of them 
 are wbigs with regard to the government > 
 For the reft, the general motives that have formed and kept 
 up the two parties, appear, in the main, to be no other than 
 the private motives of particular perrons: felf-interefl is the 
 pnmum mobile of their aftions ; ever flnce the rife of thefe 
 fadtions, each has ftruggled earneflly to get the advantage over 
 the other ; mafmuch as from fuch fuperioriry accrue places, 
 and honours and promotions, {ft. which the prevailing party 
 ulually diftributes among its own members, cxclufive of the 
 contrary party. 
 
 As to the characters commonly attributed to the whirs and lo- 
 ries ; the tone,, fays M. Rapin, appear fierce a„d"haugl.ty : 
 they treat the whig, with the greateft contempt, and even lomc- 
 wnat hardly, when they have the advantage over them : they 
 are very hot and vehement, and proceed with a rapidity which 
 vet n not always the effect of heat and tranfport, but has its 
 foundation fometimes in good policy : they are very fun-eft to 
 change their principles, as their party prevails, or g ves way. 
 if the rigid prefbyterians prevail in the whig party, it would 
 not be lefs hot and zealous than that of the tori,,; but it is 
 laid they have not the direction thereof; which stives room to 
 affirm, that thofe at the head of the whig party are much more 
 moderate than the chiefs of the lories : add, that they ufually 
 conduct themfelves on fixed principles, proceed to their end 
 gradually, and without violence; and their flownefs is not lefs 
 founded on good politics, than the haltinels of the lories.— 
 I bus much, (ays our author, may be (aid to the advantage of 
 the moderate whigs, that, in the general, they maintain a 
 Sifted' "* thecon " itu,i ° n of "1= government as by law 
 TORMINA, in medicine, a term fometimes ufed to exprefs 
 pauis i in the general; but more particularly a (pedes of pain 
 called tormina ventris, or ahi, in Engiifh, the gripes. 
 Voung children are very often troubled with gripes ; it is upon 
 this account, that nurfes, in order to prevent or remedy them, 
 ulually mix with their fpoon-mears, a little biandy or fome 
 carminative feeds, as caraway feeds, tiff. 
 
 Some children breed their teeth with violent gripes, which are 
 apt to bring on convulfions of the bowels. 
 In adults the dry gripes is ufually cured by the exhibition of 
 warm cathartics, fuch as tinflure of hiera picra, elixir fa- 
 lutis tincture of rhubarb, lie. with the afliftance of opiats. 
 Zee jnpplemenl article Torminj. 
 TORNADO, or Turnado, a Midden and violent guft of 
 wind from all points of thecompafs; very frequent on the 
 coalt of Guinea, bee Whiri wind 
 
 ^n^rfn?, 1 " SK ' h ? ar,icle To«n/sol. 
 
 U L K1 tUO - m na!ural hi«ory, a fea-fiih, famed both amon" 
 the ancient and modern naturalifls, for a remarkable numb- 
 nefs wherewith it ftrikes the arm of fuch as touch it. 
 Various are the accounts given us of this lingular fifh ; fome 
 authors raffing the effeas it produces, to a kind of miracle ; 
 and others treating them as little better than chimeras ; fome 
 folving the appearance one way, and fome another. But M 
 Reaumur, of the French academy of fciences, has at length 
 cleared the point, and fet the matter in a fatisfactorv li»ht 
 The trepedo i a a flat fifh, much of the figu re of the thornback ; 
 fufficiently defenbed in molt treadles of fifties, and commonly 
 enough found about the coafts of Provence, Gafcony, 
 where the people eat it without any danger. See its figure rc- 
 prefented in Tali. Natural hi/lory fi, a 
 
 Phaenemeita of the ToRPEDO.-Upon torching it with the fin- 
 ger, it frequently, though not always happens, that the pei foil 
 feels an unufual painful numbnefs, which fuddenly iVizes the 
 arm up to the elbow, and fometimes to the very flioulder and 
 head. 
 
 The pain is of a very particular fpecies, and is not to be defcribed 
 by any words ; yet meflieurs Lorenzini, Borelli, Redi, and 
 Reaumur, who all felt it feverely, obfetve it to bear fome 
 refemblance to that painful fenfation felt in the arm, upon 
 ftnking the elbow violently againft a hard body : though M. 
 Reaumur affures us, this gives but a very faint idea of it. 
 Its chief force is at the inftant it begins ; it lads but a few 
 moments and then vanifhes entirely. If a man do notari- 
 ally touch the torpedo, how near foever he holds his hand he 
 feels nothing : if he touch it with a flick, he feels a faint ef- 
 fea : if he touch it through the interpofition of any pretty 
 thin body, the numbnefs is lelt very confiderably ; if t'he hand 
 be prefled very ftrong againft it, the numbnefs is the lefs, but 
 ftill ftrong enough to oblige a man fpeeddy to let go. 
 Theery of the I orpe do.— There a-e different ways c'f account- 
 ing for thts effeft : the firft is, that the ancients, whocon- 
 ■ 2 P tented 
 
TOR 
 
 tented themfelves with afcribing a torporific virtue or faculty 
 to this animal. 
 
 The fecond will have the effect: produced by the torpedo to de- 
 pend on an infinitenumber of corpufcles iiluing continually out 
 of the fifh, but more copioufly under fome circumflances than 
 others: this is the opinion moft generally received ; being 
 adopted by Redi, Perault, and Lorenzini. 
 They explain themfelves thus, as the fire emits a quantity ot 
 corpufcles, proper to heat us, fo the torpedo emits a quantity 
 of corpufcles fit to numb the part they iniinuate themfelves 
 into ; whether it be by their entering in too great abundance, 
 or by their falling into trafts or paflages very difpropordonatc 
 to their figures. 
 
 The third account is that of Borelli, who forks on this ermf- 
 fton of corpufcles, as imaginary : he fays, that upon touching 
 thefifh, it puts itfelfinto a violent tremor or agitation, and 
 that this occafions a painful numbnefs in the hand that touchc, 
 it. But M. Reaumur aflures us, that notwithstanding all the 
 attention he could view this fifh withal, when ready toltnke 
 the numbnefs, he could perceive nothing of this trembling or 
 agitation. 
 
 The laft and jufteft hypothefts, is that of M. Reaumur : the 
 torpedo, tike other flat filhes, heobferves, is not abiolutely flat, 
 but its back, or rather all the upper part of its body, is a little 
 convex : when it did not, or would not, produce any numb- 
 nefs in fuchas touched it, its back, he found, alway s pre ferve d 
 its natural convexity ; but whenever it would dilpoie itfelf to 
 refenta touch or thurft, it gradually diminifhed the convexity 
 of the back parts of the body ; fumetimes only rendering them 
 flat, but fometimes even concave. 
 
 The very next moment, the numbnefs always began to feize 
 the arm j the fingers that touched, were obliged to give back, 
 and all the flat and concave part of the body was again feen 
 convex : and whereas it only became flat infenfibly, it re- 
 turned to the convexity fo fwittly, that one could not perceive 
 anv paffage from the one to the other ftate. 
 The motion of a ball out of a mufker, is not, perhaps, much 
 quicker than that of the fifh realfuming its tormer fituation ; 
 at leaft' the one is not more perceivable than the other. 
 It is from this fudden ftroke, that the numbnefs of the arm 
 arifes; and accordingly, the perfon when he begins to feel it, 
 imagines that his fingers have been violently ftruck. And it is 
 the mere velocity of. the ftroke that produces the numbnefs. 
 The wonder is, how fo foft a Jubilance, as that of the fifh, 
 fhould give fo rude a blow : indeed a fingle ftroke of a foft 
 body could never have done it; but in this cafe, there is an 
 infinity of fuch flrokes given in an inftant. To explain the 
 admirable mechanifm hereof, we mull give a view of the 
 parts whereon it depends. 
 
 This mechanifm, then, confifis in two very fingular mufcles, 
 b, b, defcribed by feveral authors, who have given the anatomy 
 of the torpedo. Redi, and after him Lorenzini, call them the 
 mufculi falcati ; their form is that of crefcents, and they to- 
 gether take up almoft half the back of the fifh; the one on 
 the right fide, and the other on the left. Their origin is a 
 little above the mouth ; and they are feparated from each 
 other by the bronchia, into the laft of which they have their 
 infertion. 
 
 What is fingular in them, is their fibres ; if, with the authors 
 above-mentioned, we may give that name to a fort of fmaller 
 mufcles as big as goofe quills; of an alfemblage whereof the 
 two great mufcles are iormed. Thefe letter mufcles are hollow 
 cylinders, their length nearly equal to the thicknefs of thefifh, 
 and ranged a-fide of each other ; all perpendicular to the up- 
 per and lower furfaces of the body, accounting thefe furfaces 
 as two nearly parallel planes. The exterior iurface of each of 
 thefe cylinders, confifis of whitifh fibre?, whofe direction is 
 the fame with that of the cylinder : but thefe fibres only form 
 a kind of tube,' whofe parietes are not above the thicknefs of 
 a leaf of paper. The cavity of the tube is full of a foft mat- 
 ter, of the colour and confidence of pap, divided into twenty 
 five, or thirty different little mattes, by fo many partitions, 
 parallel to the bafe of the cylinder; which partitions are 
 formed by tranfverfe fibres : fo that the whole cylinder is in 
 fome meafure compofed of twenty-five or thirty fmaller cylin- 
 ders placed over each other, and each full of a medullary fub- 
 flance. 
 
 We need only now remember, that when the torpedo is ready 
 to ftrike its numbnefs, it (lowly flattens the outer furface of 
 jt'i upper part ; and the whole mechanifm, whereon its force 
 depends, will be appare'nt. By that gradual contraction it 
 bends, as it were, all its fprings ; renders all its cylinders 
 fhorter, and at the fame time augments their bafes, or, which 
 amounts to the fame, flretches all the little inclofures which 
 divide the foft matter. In all probability, too, tha large fibres, 
 or little mufcles, in that moment, lofe their cylindrical form, 
 to fill the vacuities between them. 
 
 The contraction being made to a certain degree, all the fprings 
 unbend ; the longitudinal fibres are lengthened, the tranfverfe 
 ones, or thofe which form the inclofures, are fhortened ; each 
 inclofure, drawn by the longitudinal fibres which are length- 
 ened, drives the foft matter it contains, upwards ; in which it 
 
 TOR 
 
 is apparently affifted by the undulatory motion, which is in the 
 tranfverfe fibres when contracting. 
 
 If then, a finger touch the torpedo, it inflantly receives a ftroke, 
 or rather feveral fucceffive ftrokes, from each of the cylinders 
 whereon it is applied. As the foft matter is diflributed into 
 divers inelofures, it is more than propable, all the flrokes are 
 not given precifely at the fame moment : mVj were there no 
 inclofures to feparate the matter, its imprefficn would give 
 flrokes, in fome meafure, fucceffive : for al! parts of foft bo- 
 dies do not ftrike at once ; the impreffion of the laft does not 
 take till after the firfl have done acting. But thefe feveral in- 
 clofures ferve to augment the number of the fprings, and, of 
 confequence, the velocity and force of the action. 
 Thefe quick re-iterated ftrokes given by a fofiifh matter, fliake 
 the nerves, fufpend, or change the courfe of the animal fpirits, 
 or fome fluid equivalent : or, if you had rather, thefe flrokes 
 produce an undulatory motion in the fibres of the nerves, which 
 ckfhes or difagrees with that they fhould have, in order to 
 move the arm. And hence the inability we are under of tiling 
 the fame, and the painful fenf<iti'*n which accompanies it. 
 Hence it is, that the torpedo does not covey its numbnefs to 
 any degree, except when touched on thefe grear mufcles ; fo 
 that the fifh is very fai'ely taken by the tail, which is the part 
 by which (he fifhetmen catch it. 
 
 The authors who have accounted for the effl-ct of the tropedo 
 from torporific effluvia, have been obliged to haverecourle to 
 the fame two mukles ; but then they only make them refer- 
 voirs of the corpufcles, whereby the numbnefs istffec~ted. 
 Lorenzini, who has obferved the contraction as well as Reau- 
 mur, pretends that all its ufe, is to exprefs thofe corpufcles 
 from out of the hollow fibres of thefe mufcles wherein rhey 
 are imprifoned ; but thb emanation of corpufcles admitted by 
 moft authors, is difproved by M, Reaumur, from the follow- 
 ing confiderations : 
 
 l°. In that no numbnefs is conveyed, if the hand be at the 
 fmallefl diftance from the torpedo : now, to ufe their own com- 
 parifen, if the torpedo numbs asthe fire warms, the hands would 
 be affected at a diftance from the one as well as from the other. 
 2°. In that the numbnefs is not felt till the contraction of the 
 mufcles is over ; whereas were the caufe in toporific particles 
 expreffed by the contraction, the effect would be felt in the 
 time of the contraction. 
 
 3°. In that were the numbnefs the effect of toporific particles, 
 it would be conveyed by degrees, as the hand warms-by ueerees. 
 Laftly, in that the torpedo conveys its numbnefs to the find, 
 through a hard, folid body, but does not do it through the air. 
 Were the only ufe the torpedo makes of its faculty, the faving 
 itfelf from the fifhermen, as fome have fuppofed, it would fig- 
 nify but little ; for it is very rare th.it itefcapes their hands. 
 Pliny, Ariftotle, and moft naturalilts, therefoie agree, that it 
 likewife ferves it for the catching of other fifhes . all we know 
 forcertain, is, that it lives on oiber fillies, and tiiat it is ge- 
 nerally found on banks of fand, caY. probably to ferve it as a 
 foundation or fupport for the exerting its faculty. 
 M, Reaumur had no fifhes alive to examine what the torpedo 
 would do to them ; but an animal of the feather'd kind he 
 tried it on, viz. a drake, which being fhut up a while in wa- 
 ter with the fifh, w^s taken out dead ; doubilc-fs from its too 
 frequent contacts on the torpedo. 
 
 In the hifiory of Abyffinia, we are affured, that if the torpedo 
 kill living tithes, it feems to bring dead ones to life again ; dead 
 fifhes being feen to ftir if put in the fame vefiel with it : but 
 this is much lefs credible than what is told us in the fame hi- 
 fiory, that the Abyffinians ufe torpedos for the cure of fevers, 
 by tying down the patient to a table, and applying the fifh 
 fuccefhvcly upon all his members, which puts him to cruel 
 torment, but effectually rids him of his difeafc. 
 Bellonius afTures us, that our own torpedos, applied to the foals 
 of the feet, have proved fuccefsful againft fevers. 
 M. du Hamel, in his hifiory of the academy of fciences, anno 
 1677, rncntions what he calls- a kind of torpedos, which he 
 compares to conger eels : M. Richer, from whom he has that 
 account, affirms, on his knowledge, that they numb the arm 
 flrongly, when touched with a flaff, and that their effects even 
 go to the giving vertigos. 
 TORQUE, in heraldry, a round roll of cloth twifted and 
 fluffed ; fuch is the bandage frequently feen in armories about 
 the heads of moors, favages, EifV. 
 
 It is always of the two principal colours of the coat. The 
 torque is the leaft honourable of all the enrichments wore 011 
 the helmet by way of creft. 
 TORREFAC TION *, in pharmacy, a kind of roafiing or 
 aflation, wherein a drug is laid to dry on a metalline plate 
 placed over or before coals, til! it become friable to the 
 fingers. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, torrefaecre, to roajl. 
 Torrefafl'wi, is particularly ufed, when, after reducing fome 
 drug, as rhubarb, or myrabolan, in;o powder, it is laid on 
 an iron or filver plate, and that placed over a moderate fire 
 till the powder begin to grow darkifh ; which is a mark that 
 thofe remedies have loft their purgative virtue, and have ac- 
 quired a moreaftringent one. 
 
 1 Formerly 
 
TOR 
 
 Formerly they Hfed to torrefy opium, to get out Tome malig- 
 nant parts fancied to be in it, before they dar'd ufe it in medi- 
 cine- ; but the effecT: was, that its volatile fpirits and fulphur, 
 wherein its greaturt virtue conlifls, where hereby evapo' 
 rated. r 
 
 TORRENT, ToerepIs, in geography, a temporary flream 
 of water, falling fuddcnly from mountains wherein there have 
 been great rains, or an extraordinary thaw of mow j fume- 
 times making great ravages in the plains. 
 
 TORRICELLIAN, a term very frequent among pbyfical 
 writers, ufed in the phrafes, torricellian tube, or torricellian 
 experiment, on account of the inventor, Torricelli, a difciple 
 of the ^reat Galileo. 
 
 Torricellian Tube, is a glafs tube, as A B, about 3 foot 
 Jong, and 3 * of an inch in diameter, reprefented Tab. Pneu- 
 matics, fig. 6. n°. 2. whofe upper orifice A is hermetically 
 fealed. 
 
 Torricellian Experiment, is performed by filling the torri- 
 cellian tube AB with mercury ; then flopping the orifice B 
 with the finger, inverting the tube, and plunging that onhce 
 in a veilel of ftegnant mercury C— This done, the finger is 
 removed, and the tube fufhined perpendicular to the furface of 
 the mercury in the veilel. 
 
 The confequence is, that part of the mercury falls out of the 
 tube into the veilel, and there remains only enough in the tube 
 to fill from 28 to 31 inches of its capacity, above the furface 
 of the flagrant mercury in the veilel. 
 
 Thofe 28, inches of mercury arefuftained in the tube by 
 the prefiure of the atmofphere on the furface of the ftagnant 
 mercury; and according as the atmofphere is more or lefs 
 heavy, or as the winds blowing upwards or downwards, heave 
 up ordeprcfs the air, and fo increafe or diminifh its weight and 
 ipring, more or lefs mercury is fuftained from 28 inches to 31. 
 The torricellian experiment makes what we now call the baro- 
 meter. 
 
 TORRID Zone, that trail of earth lying under the line, and 
 extending on each fide to the two tropics, or to 23 degrees and 
 a half of latitude. 
 
 The ancients believed the torrid zone uninhabitable ; but from 
 the later navigations we learn, that the exce/Sve heat of the 
 day there is tempered by the coldnefs of the night. 
 TORT, in law, denotes injuftice, or injury : as, de fin tort 
 meme, in his own wrone, tVc. 
 
 Hence alfo tort-feafor, &c. — The word is pure French, where 
 
 it fignifies the fame. 
 Executor de fin Tort. Seethe article Ex E cutor. 
 TORTOISE-S/W/, thefhell, or rather fcales * of a teftaceous 
 
 animal, called a tortoifi ; ufed in inlaying, and in various other 
 
 works, as for fnuff-boxes, combs, i3c. 
 
 * Mr. Cateiby obferves, that the hard ilrong covering which in- 
 doles all fores of" tortoiles is very improperly called a (hell ; be- 
 ing of a perfect bony contexture; but covered on the ouifide 
 with fcak-s, or rather plates, of a horny fubltance : which are 
 what the workmen call Tortoife jhell. Phil. Tranf N" 4.^8 
 p. 117. 
 
 There are two general kinds of tortoifes, viz. the land, and 
 fea tortoifi ; teftudo terrejlris, C5' marina. 
 The fea tortoif; again, is of four kinds, viz. the frejh tortoifi, 
 the caretta, the cahohanna, and the lager-hu ; but it is the 
 caret alone which furnifhes that beautiful ihell, fo much ad- 
 mired in Europe. 
 
 The fhell of the caretta, or hawkfbiil tortoife is thick, and 
 confifls of two parts, the upper, which covers the back, and 
 the lower, the belly : the two are joined together at the fides 
 
 by ilrong ligaments', which yet allow of a little motion. In 
 
 the fore part is an aperture for the head and fore legs, and be- 
 hind for the hind legs and tail. 
 
 It is the under fhell alone that is ufed : to feparate it they make 
 a little fire beneath it, and as foon as ever it is warm, tfie under 
 fhell becomes eafily feparable with the point of a knife, and is 
 taken offin laminre or leaves. 
 
 The whole fpoils of the caret confifls in 13 leaves or fcales, 8 
 of them flat, and 5 a little bent: of the flat ones, there are 
 4 large ones, fometimes a foot long, and feven inches broad. 
 The bed torioifi-fiicll is thick, clear, tranfparent, of the colour 
 of antimony, fprinkled with brown and white -. when ufed in 
 marquetry, &c the workmen give it what colour they pleafe 
 by means of coloured leaves which they put underneath it. 
 In generation, Rondeletius obferves, that the embraces of the 
 male and female fia-tortoifis continue for a whole lunar monih ; 
 and that they fquirt water out of the noftnlsin the fame manner 
 as the dolphin. On the Brafilian fhore they are faid to be fo bi* 
 as fometimes to dine fourfcore men; and that in the Indian 
 leathefhellsferve the natives for boats. De Laet notes, that 
 m the ifland of Cuba they are of fuch a bulk, that they will 
 creep along with five men on their backs. See [upptement 
 article Testudo. 
 TORTOISE, in the military art. See Testudo.*" 
 TORTURE, a grievous pain inflicted on a criminal, or perfon 
 accufed, to nuke nun confefs the truth. 
 
 T O U 
 
 The forms of torture are different in different countries. In 
 Tome they ufe water, in others iron, in fume the wheel or 
 rack, in fome the boot, tbumbkins, &V. See Rack, 
 Boot, &c. 
 
 In England the ufe of all torture is abolifhcd, both in civil and 
 criminal matters, and even in cafes of high trcafon j thou™ 
 fomctb.ng like it flill obtains, where the criminal refutes to 
 plead. 
 
 In France the torture is not generally praclifed in civil matters ; 
 but by an ordonnance of 1670, if a perfm be accufed of a 
 capual crime, he may be put to the queftion, i. e. to the tor- 
 ture, if there be a confiderable proof again!! him, and yet not 
 proof enough to convict him. 
 
 There are two kinds of torture : the one preparatory, appoint- 
 ed before fentence pafitd ; the other definitive, deciecd by a 
 lenience of death. 
 
 The preparatory torture Is ordered manentibus indkiis, fo that 
 if the accufed do not confefs, he cannot be condemned to 
 death, but only ad omnia citra mortem. 
 
 The definitive torture is that which a condemned criminal is 
 put to, to make him confefs his accomplices. The ordinary 
 torture is given at Paris with fix pots of warer, and the little 
 treftle ; and the exttaordinary, with fix other pots, and the 
 great rreftle. 
 
 In Scotland the torture is given with the boot. See Boot — 
 In fome other countries, by heating the criminals feet : in 
 others, with wedges, C3V. 
 
 Tlx torture, fays M. Bruyere, is a fure expedient to deftroy an 
 innocent perlon of a weak complexion; and to fave a criminal 
 of a rebuff one. — It was a noble faying of an ancient, 
 They who can bear the torture will lie, and alio they who cannot 
 bear it. 
 
 TORY. See the article Tories. 
 
 rgf^'i*. - — few 
 
 TOTTED. A good debt to the king is, by the foreign ap- 
 pofer, or other officer in the Exchequer, noted for fuch by- 
 wrnmg the word tot, q. d. ut pecuniae regi debentur, whence 
 it is faid to be totted.— Alfo that which is paid is to be totted. 
 See Exchequer. 
 
 TOUCAN, in 2 fl ronor n S a modem conftellation of the 
 louthetn hemifphere, confiding of eight fmall ftars ; othei- 
 wife called anfer Americanus. 
 
 TOUCH, in mufick. An organ is faid to have a good tor*, or 
 ltop, when the keys cbfe and lie down well, being neither too 
 loofe nor too ftiff. 
 
 Touch the wind, in the lea language, is when the fleer's-man 
 
 t A™ m! "V? bid 10 kccp the ftip 25 " ear ,nc wind as «m I*- 
 
 I OUCH1NG is fometimes ufed for the fenfe of feeling. 
 
 Touching, in geometry. A right line is faid to touch a circle, 
 when it meets in fuch a manner as, that being produced, it 
 doe< not cut, but falls without the circle. 
 
 TOUCH-yrW, a black, fmooth, gloffy (tone, ufed to try 
 metalstipon. ' 
 The ancients called it lapis Lydius, the Lydian Jlone, from Ly- 
 dia, a country of Afia minor, whence it was brought. 
 The moderns call it leuch-Jlene, in regard the proof they mike 
 of metals, chiefly filvcr, is by touching or rubbing the melal 
 to be tried on this (lone, and comparing the colour of the mark 
 it leaves theteon, with the mark of another piece of metal of 
 the fame fpecies, whole goodnefs is pail doubt. See fitpplcment 
 article TouCH-Need/es. 
 
 TOUMAN. See the article Tom aN 
 
 TOURNAMENT. See the article Turnamen-t. 
 
 TOUR, turn, a French term, often ufed amoiB En^lifh wii- 
 rers for a journey. —Thus we fay the tour of Paris, of Rome, 
 
 Tour of hair, a trefs or border of hair, going round the head, 
 which, mingled dexteroufly with the natutal hair, lengthens 
 and thickens it.. See Hair. 
 
 Thefe rnnri are for men.— The women likcwife ufe tours, and 
 
 falfe hair, either to hide their age, or to fupply the thinned of 
 
 their natural hair on the forehead and temples. 
 
 The form is different according to the mode, fometimes raifed 
 
 and curled, fometimes ftraight and laid flat along the t'oie- 
 
 head. 
 
 TOURN, inlaw. See the article Turn. 
 
 I OUT temps prifi £if uncore ejl, [hat is, always ready, and fo 
 at the prefent time : a kind of plea in way of excufe or defence 
 for him that is fued for any debt or duty belon<rin» to the 
 plantiff. 
 
 Per my dif per Tout. See the article Per. 
 
 TOW. — Whatever is drawn or dragged after a fhip or boat with 
 
 a rope, is faid to be towed. 
 TOWAGE * the haleing or drawing a fhip or barge by men 
 or beafts, or by another fhip or boat fattened to her, in order 
 to make her enter a port, afcend a fiver, or the like. 
 * The word is probably derived from the Saxon, ten, to dram, 
 drag. 
 
 The term is alfo ufel for money, or other rccompence, given 
 by bargemen to the owner of the gretii-.d next the river where 
 
 they 
 
; the Toi 
 
 T R A 
 
 they tea or barge or other veflel, for the liberty of palling along 
 the fide thereof. . a 
 
 TOWER, Turris, a tall building, conUlting ot feveral lto- 
 ries, and ufually of a round form, though fometimes fquare, 
 or polygonal. „ „ , ... 
 
 Before the invention of guns, they ufed to fortify places with 
 towers, and to attack them with moveable timers ot wood, 
 mounted on wheels, to fet the befiegers on a level with the 
 walls, and drive the befieged from under the fame. 
 Thefe towers were fometimes 20 (lories, and 30 fathom high : 
 they were covered with raw fkins, and an hundred men were 
 employed to move them. 
 
 Towers are alfo built to enable people, by their elevation, to 
 view to a ^reatdiftance.— Thefe are of all figures, as fquare, 
 round, pentagonal, Eft. See Pharos.— In China is a famous 
 tower of Porcelain, whereof the Dutch relate wonders. 
 Towers are alfo built for fortreffa, prifons, toV. as the 
 of London, the towers of the baftile, isc. 
 The Tower of London is not only a citadel to defend and 
 command the citv, river, 13c. but alfo a royal palace where our 
 kines with their courts have fometimes lodged ; a royal arte- 
 rial," wherein are arms and ammunition tor 60000 foldiers : a 
 treafury for the jewels and ornaments of the crown ; a mint 
 for coining of money ; the great ai chive, wherein are pre- 
 ferved all the ancient records of the courts of Weftminflcr, Ise. 
 and the chief prifon for ftate criminals. 
 In the midlr of it is the gteat fquare, white tower, built by 
 William the Conqueror.— Within the Tower is a parochial 
 church, exempt from all jurifdiflion of the archbifllop, and a 
 royal chapel, now difufed. 
 
 The chief officer of the Tower is a conftablc, under whom 
 is the lieutenant, who »&s by his diredion, and in his abfence. 
 He has, by grant of feveral of our kings, lenarn lagenam, two 
 gallons and a pint of wine out of every veflel, and a certain 
 quantitv out of every boat laden with lobfters, oyfters, and 
 other (hell fifli, and double the quantity out of every alien's 
 boat palling by the Tower : to him alfo belongs a lee of zoo /. 
 for every duke committed prifoner, too/, for every peer not 
 a duke, and 50/. for every commoner. 
 Under the conllable, and in his abfence, under the lieutenant, 
 are a gentleman-\>orter, and divers wardens. — The firft has 
 charge of the gates to lock and unlock them, and deliver the 
 keys every night to the conftable or lieutenant, and receive 
 them of him the next morning : he commands the warders 
 who are upon the day's wait, and at the entrance of a pri- 
 foner has for his fee vefiimenta fupcriora, or elfe a compofition 
 for the fame, which is ufually 30 /. for a peer, and 5 /. a- 
 piece for others. 
 
 Note, the ancient allowance from the king to a duke or mar- 
 quis, a prifoner in the Tower, was 12 /. a week, now but 4/. 
 To all other lords anciently 10/. a week, now zl. 41. $d. 
 To knights and gentlemen anciently 4/. a week, now I 3 I. 
 and 4 d. And to the inferior perfons, now 101. a week. 
 For the yeomen warders of the Tower. See Warder. 
 In the Tower is likewife kept a court of record every Monday, 
 by prefcription, for the liberty of the Tower, of debt, trefpafs, 
 and other actions of any fum. 
 
 Bcfide the ancient liberty of the tower, which adjoins to it, 
 the Old Artillery Garden by Spittle-Fields, and the Little 
 Minories, are within the Tower liberty, within which the 
 gentleman-porter has the fame power and authority as flicrifti 
 within their refpective counties. 
 
 Hollow Tower, in fottirjeation. See Hollow Tower. 
 
 TOWN, a place inhabited by a confiderable number of people, 
 of an intermediate magnitude and degree between a city, and 
 a village. See Village, E5V. 
 
 It is hard to give a tolerable definition of a town, in regard 
 the idea is a little arbitrary, and unfixed. A town is generally 
 without walls, which is the chara&er that ufually diflinguifhes 
 it from a city ; but this does not hold univerfally. 
 We have feveral kinds of towns, borough towns, market 
 towns, country towns, C5V. See Borough, tjrV, 
 
 ToWN-honfe, 1 
 
 Freedom of a Town, f See the arti 
 
 Hnnfe Towns, J 
 
 TOXICUM, TOHj'KON, a word particularly ufed to exprefs a 
 fort of poifon, faid to be ufed by the Indians to their arrows, 
 in order to render wounds made by them incurable. 
 The word in a more general fenfe fignifies any poifon. 
 The Indians are fuppofed to poifon their arrows, daggers, &c. 
 with the virus of vipers, the mifchievous effects whereof con- 
 tinue a long time after the matter is quite dried up. 
 
 TRABEATION, Traeeatio, in the ancient architeflure, 
 thefame with entablature. See Entablature. 
 It coulifts of three principal members or divifions, viz. the 
 architrave, freeze and cornice, each of which conlills of di- 
 vers lefier members and ornaments. 
 
 The proportion, members, c3V. are different in the feveral 
 
 ;0 UURUUI.H, ^L. 
 
 f House. 
 tides "S Freedom. 
 t Hanse. 
 
 TRACE, a mark or impreffion which any thing leaves behind it 
 in palling over another. 
 
 T R A 
 
 Traces of the brain, among the Cartefun philofophers, are 
 thofe impreffions, more or Ids deep, which they fay, ii.r.fible 
 objeits make on the fine fibres of the brain, by means ui the 
 organs of fenfe. 
 
 Thefe impreflions are alfo called traces of the objeel ; thecourfe 
 of the animal fpirits they fay ferves to keep them up, and 
 to renew them. 
 
 The vivacity of the imagination they fay arifes from the pro- 
 digious quantity of traces of different objects in the brain, 
 which are fo linked together, that the fpirits cannot be ient 
 into one of them, but they run into all the reft ; by 
 which means the ideas occafioned by the application of the 
 fpirits to thofe feveral traces^ are all excited, as it were, at 
 
 once. ■ *'*-''* ,' 1 " >- 
 
 Memory, according to the fame, confifts in the traces which 
 the animal fpirits have imprefled. 
 Trace of a hare, among hunters, is her footing in the fnow ; 
 
 diftinft from other treadings, called doubling, and pricking, &c. 
 Traces alfo denote the trails of ravenous beafts, as wolves, 
 
 wild beafts, &e. 
 TRACHEA, * in anatomy, a large arterial veflel, called alfo 
 afpera artcria, and popularly the wind pipe, being thecanalor 
 tube which carries the air into the lungs, for the ufe of re- 
 fpiration and fpeech. — See Tab. Anat. (Splanch.) jig, 14. i't- 
 cc. ee. dd. &c. 
 
 * Galen gave it the name trachea, Tpx £ia > becaufe of its being 
 rough and uneven ; on which account the Latins alio called it 
 afy.ru. 
 
 TRACHOMA, tpax^ma, in medicine, a roughnefs or afpe- 
 rity of the inner part of the palpebral, attended with an itch- 
 ing, and rednefs, and frequently with putties, refembling mil- 
 let feeds. 
 
 Its degrees are thefycofis, and tylofis, or rather thofe are higher 
 diforders into which the tracbema is liable to degenerate. 
 TRACT, Tractus, properly denotes an extent of ground, 
 
 'or a portion of the furface of the terraqueous globe. 
 Tract, or Tractate, Tractatus, does alfo fignify a 
 
 fmall treatife, or written difcourfe upon any fubjec"t. 
 Tract, in hunting, denotes the trace or footing of a wild 
 beaft. 
 
 TRACTION, drawing, the a£t of a moving power whereby 
 the moveable is brought nearer to the mover ; called alfo 
 attratlhn. See Attraction. 
 TRACTRIX, in geometry, a curve line, called alfo catcuaria. 
 
 See Catekaria. 
 TRADE, traffic, commerce, the act or art of dealing, buy- 
 ing, felling, exchanging, &c. of commodities, bills, money, 
 
 esv. 
 
 For the origin, progrefs, bV. of trade. See Commerce, 
 and Navigation. 
 Balance o/Trade. See the article Balance. 
 Trade- Winds denote certain regular winds at fea, blowing 
 either conftantly the fame way, or alternately this way and 
 that j thus called from their great ufe in navigation, and the 
 Indian commerce. 
 
 The trade-winds are of different kinds, fome blowing three 
 or fix months of the year one way, and then the like ("pace 
 of time the oppofite way ; thefe are very common in the In- 
 dian feas, and are called monfoons. 
 
 Others blow conftantly the fame way ; fuch is that general 
 wind between the tropics, which off at fea is found to blow 
 all day long from eaft to weft.— For the phenomena of each, 
 with their phyfical caufes, fee Wind. 
 
 Dr. Lifter has a conjecture in the Phihfophical TranfaHions^ 
 that the tropical or trade-winds arife, in great part, from the 
 daily and conftant exhalations of a fea-plant, called the fargofj'a y 
 or lenticula jnarina, which grows in vaft vantities from 36 0 to 
 1 8° north latitude, and elfewerc upon the deepeft feas.— For 
 the matter of wind coming from the breath of one only plant, 
 -muft needs be conftant and uniform ; whereas the great va- 
 riety of trees and plants at land, furnifhes a confufed matter 
 of winds. Hence, he adds, it is, that thefe winds are brifkeft 
 about noon ; the fun quickening the plant moft then, and 
 caufing it to breathe falter and more vigoroufly. Laftly, the 
 diredion of this wind of eaft to weft, he attributes to the 
 general current of the fea ; (or a gentle air is obfetved to be 
 conftantly led along with the ftream of the river : nor muft it 
 be omitted, that every plant is, in fome meafure, a heliotrope, 
 and bends it felf, and' moves after the fun, and confequently 
 emits its vapour thitherward ; fo that the direction of the 
 trade-wind is, in fome meafure, alfo owing to the courfe of 
 the fun. 
 
 Dr. Gordon has another hypothefis : the atmofphere, which 
 furrounds the earth, and moves along with it in its diurnal 
 motion, he fuppofes to keep pace therewith, that part of it at 
 leaft which is near the earth, if the remoter part fhould be 
 judged to lofe ground. 
 
 If then there were no changes in the atmofphere 's gravity, he 
 fuppofes it would always go along with the earth from weft to 
 eaft in an uniform motion, altogether infenfible to us : but 
 the portion of the atmofphere under the line being extremely 
 
 "■■efied, 
 
T R A T R A 
 
 tanned, its fpring expanded, and fo its gravity and preflure 
 much lcfs than the neighbouring parts or the atmoiphere, it is 
 incapable of the uniform motion towards the eaft, and muft 
 therefore be prefied weft wards, and makes the continual breeze 
 from eaft to weft between the tropics. 
 
 Trading Society. See the article SOCIETY. 
 
 TRADITA Nexu. See Ab alienation. 
 
 TRADITION, Traditio, the aft of delivering a thing into 
 the hands of another. — The fale of a moveable is compleated 
 by a fimple tradition. 
 
 Tradition, in matters of religion, is applied to thofe laws, 
 doclrines, relations, fcfV. which have been handed down to us 
 from our fore-fathers, without being written. 
 Talcing tradition in this fenfe, for every thing relating to faith, 
 or the rites and ceremonies of religion thus derived down to us 
 from the primitive church, there are two kinds, viz. apojhh- 
 cal and ecclejiejiical tradition. 
 
 Jpojiolical Tradition, which is what we properly c&\\ tradi- 
 tion, is defined by the Romanifts to be the unwritten word of 
 God, defcended from the apoftles to us through a continual fuc- 
 ceffion of the faithful. 
 
 By this tradition, fay they, it is, that the holy fcriptureshave 
 been kept entire, both as to the letter, /. e. the text, and as 
 to the (pint or fenfe thereof. This tradition the council of 
 Trent declares to have the fame authority with the holy 
 fcripture itfdtfj and pionounces every one who rejects it a 
 heretic. 
 
 Eccleftaftieal Traditions, are certain ftatutes and regulations 
 regarding the rites, cuftoms and circumftances of religion, in- 
 troduced fmce the time of the apoftles by councils, popes, tsV. 
 and continued to our time through 3 conftant obfervance of the 
 church. 
 
 The Romanifts make another divifion of tradition, viz. into 
 
 written and unwritten. 
 Written Tradition, is that whereof we find fo me traces in 
 
 the ancient fathers, and doctors. 
 Unwritten Tradition, is that whereof there appear no figns 
 
 or fteps in any of the fathers extant. 
 
 The church of Rome pretends to be the depofitory of each 
 kind: tradition (he holds to be abfolutely neceffary in the 
 church, grounding this neceflity on the promife of infallibility 
 which Jefus Chrift is pretended to have made her. 
 Yet others of that communion deny tradition, how excellent 
 foever it may be for the reclaiming of heretics, to be abfolutely 
 neceffary; maintaining, that the church would not be lefs in- 
 fallible, nor lefs the rule of doclrine, Cite, if the fathers had 
 never wrote at all. 
 TRADITIONARY, Traditionarius, a name given 
 among the Jews, to fuch of them as acknowledge tradition, 
 follow it, and explain the fcriptures thereby : in oppofition to 
 the Caraites, who refufe any thing but the pure fcriptures 
 themfelves. 
 
 The tradittonar'm are what we more ufually call rabbins and 
 
 rabbinifts, or talmudifts. Hillel fhone among the tradi- 
 
 tionaries, and Schammai among the textuaries. 
 TRADITORES, a name given in the firft ages of the church 
 to fuch chriftians as, in times of perfecution, to avoid death 
 and martyrdom, delivered up the facred writings to the perfe- 
 cutors. 
 
 The enemies of religion, even under the old law, made their 
 utmoft efforts to deprive the world of the holy fcriptures: in 
 that cruel perfecution which Antiochus raifed againft the Jews, 
 the books of the law were very fohcitoufly fought after, torn, 
 and burnt, and fuch as kept them were put to death; as we 
 read in the firft book of Maccab. cap. i. ver. 56, 57. 
 Dioclefian renewed the fame impiety, by an edict publifhed in 
 the 1 9th year of his empire, commanding all the facred books 
 to be brought to the magiftrates, and burnt, 
 Many weak chriftians, and even fome bifhops, overcome by 
 the fear of punifhmcnt, carried in their books to the perfecu- 
 cutors; which the church detefting, made very fevere laws 
 againft them, and gave them the infamous name of iraditorcs, 
 from trado, I deliver, betray. 
 
 As the great pretence of the fchifm of theDonatifts was, that 
 the catholics tolerated the traditares, it wasdecreed in the coun- 
 cil ef Aries, held in 314, that fuch as fhould be found guilty 
 of having delivered up any of the holy books or veffels, mould 
 be depofed from the order of the clergy, &c, 
 TRADUCIANS,* Traduciam, a name which the Pela- 
 gians anciently gave the catholics, becaufc of their teaching 
 that original fin was tranfmitted from father to children, or 
 that it was communicated to the children by the father in the 
 way of generation. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Latin, tradux, which was made ufe 
 of to exprcls that communication ; and which comes from tra- 
 duce, 1 tranfmit, or prop/ gate from one to another. 
 
 At prefent fome give the appellation traduciam to fuch as hold 
 that the fouls are tranfmitted to the children bv the father, 
 See Soul. 
 
 TRADUCTION,* the aft of tranfiating, or turning out of 
 one language into another. See Translation. 
 
 • The word is formed of trans, beysnd ; and A«9, I lead, drain. 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 TRAFFIC* See the articles Trade, and Commerce. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, trafic, and that from the 
 Italian, trajfico. which is again borrowed from the Arabic. 
 
 The principal traffic in Mufcovy and the North' is in furs and 
 fkins: the great traffic of the Dutch in the Eaft is in fpices: 
 The traffic of money is moftly carried on at the Exchange. 
 TRAFINE. See Trepanum. 
 
 TRAGACANTH,* or Adraganth, or Gum Dragon, a 
 kind of gum oozing out at certain fiffures in the trunk and 
 larger branches of a plant or little fhrub of the fame name, 
 growing in many pans of the Levant. 
 
 * Lhe word is Greek, r^yxxct^a, formed of T-^ay^, goat, and 
 a*a»Sa, tkorn. 
 
 The naked hillocks of mount Ida in Candia, M. Tourne.fort 
 tells us, produce a deal of the plant tragacantha, or goat's- 
 thorn, which gives the gum fp^ntaneoufly towards the end of 
 June, and in the following months, when the nuiricious juice 
 of the plant, thickened by the heat, burfts moft of the veffels 
 it is contained in. 
 
 This juice coagulates in threads, which make their way into 
 the pores of the bark, where being pufhed forwards by new 
 juice, they get through the bark, and are at length hardened 
 in the air, either into little lumps, or in-o twilled pieces in 
 form of little worms, more or lefs long, according to the 
 quantity of the matter they are formed of. 
 It fhould feem too that the contraction of the fibres contributes 
 to the expreffion of the gum : thofe fine fibres, like the fibres 
 of hemp, laid bare and trampled under foot by men .-nd 
 horfes, contract themfelves, and facilitate the expreffion of the 
 extravafated juice.— The plant grows alfo in feveral places of 
 the Levant, particularly about Aleppo. 
 
 The gum is of different colours and qualities, fome being 
 white, other-fome greyifh, fome redifh, and fome almoit 
 black. The white is 'the beft: it muft be chofen clear, 
 fmooth and twifled, or vermicular. 
 
 It difiolves eafily in any aqueous menftruum, which it will 
 give the confiftence of a fyrup to, in the fmail proportion of 
 a dram to a pint. It is fmooth and foftening, and therefore 
 is good to obtund the acrimony ot any humours, which makes 
 it of fervice in fuch coughs as proceed from catarrhs and dc- 
 fluxions of rheum. It is alfo very ftrengthening in fome 
 fcminal weaknefles, and is prevalent againft the whites in 
 women. 
 
 TRAGEA, in pharmacy, an aromatic powder grofly beaten 
 
 and mixed with fugar; taken by way of carminative. 
 TRAGEDY, a dramatic poem, reprefenting fome fignal action 
 peformed by illuftrious perfons, and which has generally a fa- 
 tal iflue, or end. 
 
 Ariftotle more fcientifically defines tragedy, the imitation of 
 one grave and entire aiSiion, of a juft length, and which, 
 without the amttance of narration, by railing of terror and 
 companion, refines and purges our paffions. 
 This definition has given the critics fome perplexity; and 
 Corneille declares he cannot reconcile Ariftotle with himfclf : 
 the inftances Ariftotle cites, he thinks, ruin his own definition. 
 He even denies the purging our paffions to be the end of tra- 
 gedy. 
 
 Our Englifh authors are more favourable to the definition : by 
 the purging our paffions, they underftand not the extirpating 
 them, but the reducing them to juft bounds; tor by fhewing 
 the mifcries that attend a fubjection to them, they fay it 
 teaches us to watch them more narrowly; and by feeing the 
 great misfortunes of others, it lefi'ens the fenfe of our own. 
 Tragedy, in its original, M. Hedehn obferves, was only a 
 hymn fung in honour of Bacchus by feveral perfons, who, 
 together, made a chorus of roufic with dances and inltru- 
 ments. 
 
 As this was long, and might fatigue the fingers, as well as tire 
 the audience, they bethought themfelves to divide the finging 
 of the chorus into feveral parts, and to have certain recitations 
 in the intervals. 
 
 Accordingly, Thefpis firft introduced a perfon to fpeak upon 
 the ftage with this view: /£fchylus finding one perfon infuf- 
 ficient, introduced a fecond to entertain the audience more 
 agreeably by a kind of dialogue: he alfo cloathed his perfons 
 more decently, and firft put them on the bufkin. 
 The perfons who made thefe recitations on the fcer.e, were 
 called afiars; fo that tragedy at firft was without many aflors. 
 And what they thus rehearfed, being things added to the fing- 
 ing of the chorus, whereof they were no neceffary part, were 
 called epifodes. 
 
 Sophocles found that two perfons were not enough for the va- 
 riety of incidents, and accordingly he introduced a third : and 
 here the Greeks feem to have (topped, at leaft it is very rare 
 that they introduce four fpeakers in the fame fcene. 
 Tragedy and comedy were a: firft confounded with each other, 
 but they were afterwards feparated ; and the poets in general 
 applied themielves to the cultivating of tragedy, negating 
 comedy. 
 
 izQ_ When 
 
T R A T R A 
 
 When tragedy was got into a better form, they changed the 
 meafure of its verfe, and endeavoured to bring the action 
 ■within thecompafs of a day, or of a revolution of the fun. 
 For the feveral parts of tragedy, See Act, Scene, Action, 
 Fable, Character, and Manners. 
 The Englifh received the firft plan of their drama from the 
 French, among whom it 4iad its firft rife towards the end of 
 the re^gn of Charles V. under the title of the chant-royal, 
 which coaflftcd of pieces in verfe compofed in honour of the 
 virgin, or fome of the faints, and fung on the ftage : they 
 were called by the title chant-royal, becaufe the fubjea was 
 given by the king of the year, or the perfon who had bore 
 away the prize the year preceding. 
 
 The humour of thefe pieces took wonderfully among the peo- 
 ple, infomuch that in a little time there were formed feveral 
 focieties, who began to Tie with each other in them: and one 
 of thefe, to engage the town from the reft, began to intermix 
 various incidents or epifodes, which they diffributed into ails, 
 and feencs, and had as many different perfons as were neceila- 
 ry for the reprefentation. 
 
 Their firft eflay was in the Bourg St. Maur, and their fubjea 
 the paffion of 'our Saviour. The prevot of Paris prohibiting 
 their continuing of it, they made application to court; and 
 to render it the more favourable to them, erected themfelves 
 into a friary, or fraternity, under the title of brothers cf the 
 paffion ; which title has given fome occafton to fufpect them to 
 have been an order of religious. 
 
 The king, on feeing and approving fome of their pieces, 
 granted them letters of eftablifhmcnt in 1402; upon which 
 they built a theatre, and for an age- and a half acted none but 
 grave pieces, which they called moralities ; till, the people 
 growing weary of them, they began to intermix farces or in- 
 terludes taken from prophane fubjedts. 
 
 This mixtureof farce and religion difpieafing many, they were 
 re-eftablifhed by an arret of parliament in 1 548, on condition 
 of their acting none but profane, yet lawful and decent fub- 
 jects, without intermeddling with any of the myftcries of re- 
 ligion ; and thus were the brothers of the paffion defpoiled of 
 their religious character: upon which they mounted the ftage 
 no more in perfon, but brought up a new fet of comedians, 
 who acted under their direction. 
 
 Thus was the drama eftablifhed, and on this foundation ar- 
 rived in England, In procefs of time, as it was improved, it 
 became divided into two branches, agreeable to the practice of 
 the ancients, and the nature of things, viz. into tragedy and 
 comedy properly fo called ; and this laft again was fubdivided 
 into pure comedy and farce. Se each under its proper head. 
 Comedy, Csfc. 
 
 Ji'tlaro Tragedy. See the article Hilaro Tragedia. 
 
 TRAGI-COMEDY, kind of dramatic piece, reprefenting 
 fome action pa fled among eminent perfons, the event whereof 
 is not unhappy or bloody, and wherein is fome times admitted a 
 mixtureof lefs ferious characters. 
 
 The ancients, M. Dacicr obferves, knew nothing of fuch 
 com punt ions, wherein the ferious and comic are blended ; nor 
 does the epithet M. Corneille gives them of heroic comedies, 
 excufe their irregularity. 
 
 Their foundation is certainly bad; for, endeavouring both to 
 make us laugh and cry in their turns, they endeavour at con- 
 trary emotions, which the heart can never undergo; every 
 thing that difpofes for the one, indifpofing for the other. 
 The tragi-comedy was formerly very common on the Englifli 
 Stage : there was fcarce fuch a thing in the lyth century as a 
 pure tragedy without a fpice of comedy or farce to make the 
 people laugh. Now, that the ftage and our taftes are brought 
 nearerto the model of nature and the ancients, the tragi-csme- 
 dy is difufed. 
 
 Tragi-comedy is the only cafe, wherein comedy is allowed to 
 introduce kin^s and heroes. 
 TRAGUS, TPAror, in anatomy, one of the protuberances of 
 the auricle, or external ear; called alfo hircus, becaufe ufually 
 hairy. 
 
 The tragus is that protuberance next the temple: — that on the 
 oppofite fide, to which the foft lobe of the ear is annexed, is 
 called the antitragus. 
 
 TRAJAN Column, a famous hiftorical column, erected in 
 Rome, in honour of the emperor Trajan. 
 It is of the Tufcan order, though fomewhat irregular: its 
 height is eight diameters, and its pedeftal Corinthian; it was 
 built in a large fquare there, called thefe forum romanum. 
 Its bafe coniifts of 1 2 ftones of an enormous fize, and it is 
 raifed on a fucle or foot of eight fteps. Within- fide is a ftair- 
 cafe, illuminated with 44 windows. It is lifi foot hi^h, 
 whichis35 footfhortof the Antonine column; but the work- 
 manfliip ot the former is much more valued. 
 It is adorned from top to bottom with baflb relievo's, reprefent- 
 ing the great actions of that emperor againft the Dacae. 
 Several learned men have explained the bas-reliefs of the Tra- 
 jan column, and among others Ciaconius and Fabretti. — 
 The late king of France, Lewis XIV. had models of all the 
 bas-reliefs taken oft" in plaifter of Paris. 
 
 TRAJECTORY of a comet, is its path or orbit, or the line it 
 defer ibes in its motion. 
 
 This Hevelius, in his Cometograpbia, will have to be very 
 nearly a right line ; but Dr. Halley rather concludes it to be a 
 very excentrical ellipfis. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton, in prop. 41. of his third book, Ihews how 
 to determine the trajectory of a comet from three obfervatiom j 
 and in his laft proposition, how to correct a trajectory graphi- 
 cally defcribed. 
 
 TRAIL-Board, in a (hip, is a carved board on each fide of 
 her beak, which reaches from the main ftem to the figure, or 
 the brackets. — See Tab. Ship. fig. 2. n 4. 
 
 TRAIN, the attendance of a great perfon, or the trail of a 
 gown, or robe of ftate. 
 
 In falconry, it denotes the tail of an hawk. 
 Train is likewife ufed for the number of beats which a watch 
 makes in an hour, or any other certain time. See Wat CH- 
 Work, csV. 
 
 Train is alfo ufed for a line of gun-powder laid to give fire to a 
 
 a quantity thereof, in order to do execution, by blowing up 
 
 earth, works, buildings, &c. 
 Train, or Traile of artillery, includes the great guns and 
 
 other pieces of ordnance belonging to an army in the field. See 
 
 Ca_nnon. 
 
 Train Oil, the oil procured from the blubber of whales, by 
 
 boiling. See Oil, and Whale. 
 TRAiu-bands, or Thained-Wj, a name given to the mi- 
 litia of England. See Militia. 
 TRAINING a load, among miners, is the fearching for and 
 
 purfuing a vein of ore. See Vein. 
 TRAITOR. S;ethe article Traytor. 
 TRAITTE. See the article Foreign Traitte. 
 TRAMBLING of tin ere, among miners, is the wafhing it 
 
 very clean: which is done with a fhovel, and in a frame of 
 
 boards. See Tin. 
 TRAMEL, an inftrument or device, fometimes of leather, 
 
 more ufually of rope, fitted to a horfe's legs, to regulate his 
 
 motion, and form him to an amble. 
 
 It is alfo taken in many places for an iron moveable inftrument 
 in chimnies, to hang pots over the fire. 
 Teame l-Net,* is a long net wherewith to take fowl by night 
 in champain-countries, much like the net ufed for the low-bell 
 both in fhape, bignefs, and mafhes. 
 
 * The word comes from the French, tremail, formed of the Latin, 
 
 tremaculiw, or trtmaclum \ of trei and macula, by reafon it is 
 compofed of three rows of maflies. 
 
 To ufe it, they fpread it on the ground, fo as the nether or 
 further end, fitted with fmall plummets, may lie loofe thereon: 
 then the other part being bore up by men placed at the fore- 
 ends, it is thus trailed along the ground. At each fide are 
 carried great blazing lights, by which the birds are raifed : and 
 as they rife under the net, they are taken. See Low-Bell. 
 TRAMONTANE,* or Tramontain, fomething beyond 
 or on the further fide, the mountains. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Italian, tra, of the Latin, trans, 
 which /ignify beyond; and mans or m-jnt, mountain. 
 
 The term is particularly applied by the Italian painters, to all 
 fuch as live on the other fide the Alps, i. e. all out of Italy; 
 as the Germans, Flemifh, French, &c. 
 
 The French lawyers give the fame title of tramontane, or ul- 
 tramontane doctors to the Italian canonifts, Gomez, Hoftienfr, 
 Panorm, &C. who go upon rules and maxims too favourable 
 to the court of Rome, and contrary to thofe of France, &c. 
 On the Mediterranean and in Italy, a north wind is called fa-, 
 montane, a tramontane wind. 
 
 Some alfo call the pole ftar, tramontana. — Hence the proverb, 
 to lofe the tramontane':, that is, to be out of one's aim, to be 
 difconcerted. 
 
 TRANCHE, or Trenche', is ufed by the French armorifts, 
 toexprefs that manner of partition called among us, party per 
 bend dexter. 
 
 A fcutcheon is faid to be tranche, cut, when it is divided in two 
 diagonally, the divifion coming from the dexter angle of the 
 chief to the finifter angle of the point:— when it is divided 
 contrarywife, it is faid to be taille, or party per bend fmijler. 
 TRANGLE, in heraldry, the diminutive of a fefle, common- 
 ly called a bar. 
 
 TRANSACTION, Transactio, in the civil law,.an ac- 
 commodation of fome bufinefs or difpute between two parties, 
 by a mutual and voluntary agreement or contract between 
 them. See Accommodation. 
 
 Philofophical Transactions, are a kind of journal of the 
 principal things that come before the royal fociety of London. 
 The transactions contain the feveral discoveries and hiftories of 
 nature and art, made by the members of the fociety, or com- 
 municated by them from their correfpondents, with the feve- 
 ral experiment?, obfervatiuns, Isc. made by them, or tranf- 
 mitted to them, &c. 
 
 They were firft fet on foot in 1665 by Mr. Oldenburg, fecre- 
 tary of the fociety, and were continued by him till the year 
 1679. After his death Dr. Hook, the fucceeding fecretary, 
 continued them under the title of pbilofspbical collections: but 
 Dr. Grew, appointed to the fameoiii'ce in 16S9, refumed the 
 former title of philofoph'tcal tranfaClions, which was retained by 
 his fucceflor Dr. Piatt, and fubfifts to this day. 
 
 They 
 
T R A 
 
 They were publifhed every month with great care by Mr. Ol- 
 denburg, and the fi rft fecretaries ; but after Dr. Plott ' they 
 were frequently interrupted. In the year 1700 Dr. Sloan rc- 
 ftored their regular publication monthly; but in time they re- 
 lapfed, and only came our once in two months; from that 
 they fell to 3, 4 and 6 months. They were afterwards pub- 
 lifhed more frequently and regularly by the care of Dr Turin ■ 
 but even after that they again were printed in an irregular man' 
 
 ■ri^rcnrSjS'-n" 6 pub ) i,hed with ° ut much "tauprjon. 
 
 TRANbCENDANT, or Transcendental, fometbing 
 raifed or elevated beyond other things ; or which paffes and 
 tranfcends the nature and arcumftances of other inferior 
 beings, fo as not to be intimately and effentially included un- 
 der them. 
 
 The term is particularly applied to the objea of metaphyfics 
 which confiders being in general, or tranfcendenlal beings x 
 God and angels, and truths confiding in pure fpeculation 
 Logicians and metaphyficians give the name tranfcendenlal 
 terms to thofe which are fo general, and of a fignification fo 
 extenliye and univerfal, that they pafs through all the cate- 
 gories, and agree to all kinds of things :— fuch are the terms 
 ens, unum, vcrum, bonum, res. See Ens, £5V. 
 Transcendental Art ) f Art' 
 
 Transcendental Perfeilicn, S ^ i Perfection, 
 kanscendental Shcantities, among fchool-men. See the 
 article Quantity. 
 Transcendental Qumtitii,, among geometricians, are in- 
 determinate ones; or fuch as cannot be expreffed or fixed to 
 any conftam equation.— Such is a tranfcendenlal curve, or the 
 lute. . ,- ■ 
 
 M. Leibnitz has a diflertation in the alia end. Lipf. wherein 
 he endeavours to fhew the origin of fuch quantities, vise, whv 
 fome problems are neither plain, folid nor fur-folid, nor of 
 any certain degree, but do tranfcends algebraical equations. 
 See Problem. 1 
 He alfo mews how it may be demonstrated without calculus, 
 that an algebraic quadratrix for the circle or hyperbola is im- 
 poffible: for if fuch a quadratrix could be found, it would fol 
 low that by means thereof any angle, ratio or logarithm, 
 might be divided in a given proportion of one right line to 
 another and this by one univerfal conftruabn; and confe 
 quently the problem of the feflion of an angle, or the inven- 
 tion of any number of mean proportionals, would be of a cer- 
 tarn finite degree. 
 
 Whereas the different degrees of algebraical equations, and 
 therefore the problem, underflood in general of any number 
 of parts of an angle or mean proportionals, i s of an indefi- 
 nite degree, and tranfcends all algebraical equations. See 
 
 .C.QJJATIQN. 
 
 Transcendental Curve, in the higher geometry, isfuch 
 a one as cannot bedefined by any algebraic equation; or which 
 whenit is expretled by an equation, one 01 the terms thereo 
 is a variable quantity. Sec Curve 
 
 Thefe curves are the fame with what Des Cartes, and after his 
 Example, feveral otheis, call mechanical curves, and which 
 they would have excluded out of geometry; but Sir Ifaac 
 Newton and M. Leibnitz are of another fentiment. For, in 
 effect, in the conftruction of geometrical problems, one curve 
 ■s not to be preferred to another, as it is defined by a more 
 dniple equation, but as it is more eafily defcribed than that 
 other. See Geometrical Line. 
 
 And feme of tbefe tranfcendenlal or mechanical curves are 
 found of greater ufe than all the algebraical ones together, ex- 
 cept the circle. See Mechanical. 
 
 Add that M._ Leibnitz, in the alia eruditor. Lipf. gives us a 
 kind of transcendental equations, whereby thefe tranfcendenlal 
 curves are actually defined, and which areof an indefinite de- 
 gree; that is, are not always the fame in all the points of the 
 
 Whereas algebraiffs ufe 1 to affume fome general letters or num- 
 bers for the quanm.es fought thefe tranfcendenlal problems 
 M. Leibnitz affiimes general or indefinite equations for the 
 lines fought ; e.gr. putting ,andy for the abfeifs and ordinate, 
 the equation he ufes tor a line fought, is a + b x + c v + „ - l 
 + f** + gyy,, MM = °. By the help of which indefinite 
 equation which in reality is finite, fork may always be de- 
 termined how far foever it is necefiary to raife it, he leeks the 
 tangent; and that which refults, comparing with the nivtn 
 property of tangents, he finds the value of the afl'umej° let- 
 ters a b, c, (Sc. and thus defines the equation of the line 
 ioiignt. 
 
 If the comparifon above-mentioned do not proceed, he pro- 
 nounces the line fought not to be an algebraical, but a tranfeen- 
 dental one. " 
 
 This fuppofed, he goes on to find the fpecies of tranfeendancy ■ 
 (or (omc lranfecnjcutals depend on the general divifion or 
 feflion of a ratio, or upon the logarithms, others upon the 
 arcs of a circle, and others on more indefinite and compound 
 
 T R A 
 
 inquiries, 
 
 Here therefore befides the fymbols*and y, he aflumes a third, 
 as n, which denotes the tranfcendenlal quantity, and of thefe 
 
 three forms a general equation for the line fought, from which 
 he finds the tangent according to the differentia! method, 
 which fucceeds even in tranfcendenlal quantities. What he 
 finds he compares with the given properties of the tangent, 
 and fo difcovers not only the values of a, b, c, tic. but alfo 
 the particular nature of the rr^r.iW quantity. 
 And though itmay fometimes happen that the tJvAtranfcen- 
 dentah are fo to be made ufe of, and thefe of different natures 
 00 one from another; alfo though there be tranfeendents or 
 tranfcendenlal,, and a progreffion of thefe in infinitum: yet 
 we maybe fat.sfied with the molt eafy and ufefulone, -and for 
 the mod part may have recourfe to fome peculiar artifices for 
 
 "ZT^lylf ' ^ ■**« ' h = ^ * 
 This method being applied to the bufinefs of quadratures or 
 to the invention of quadratrices, in which the property .1 the 
 tangent is always given, it is manilell not only 'how it may be 
 difcovered, whether the indefinite quadrature may be See. 
 braically impoffible, but alfo how, when this impoffibility's 
 dilcovered, a tranfcendenlal quadratrix may be found; which 
 is a thing which had not before been fhewn. So that it feems 
 that geometry ,s by this method carried infinitely beyonu the 
 bounds to which Vieta and Des Cartes brought it; fince by 
 this means a certain and general anal} lis is eltabliflied, which 
 extends to all the problems which are of no certain degree 
 and confequently not comprehended within algebraical cqua- 
 
 Again, in order to manage tranfcendenlal problems (where-ever 
 he bufinefs of tangents or quadratures occurs) by a calculus, 
 there is hardly any that can be imagined (hotter, more advan- 
 tageous or 1 univerfal, than the differential calculus, or trnalyS 
 of indivilibles and infinites. 
 
 By this method we may explain the nature of tranrcendental 
 lines by an equation, e. gr, Let a be the arc of a circle, 
 
 and x the verfed fine: then will a LL= =mi if , he onii . 
 
 nate of the cycloid he y, then^v," ,=V 
 f ax ' ~ 
 
 =====which equation perfectly expreffesthe relation be- 
 V zx — *x 
 
 tween the ordinate y and the abfeiffe ,v, and from it all the pro- 
 perties of the cycloid may be demonftrated. 
 Thus ,s the analytical calculus extended "to thofe lines which 
 have hitherto been excluded, for no other caufe, but that they 
 were thought incapable of it ' 
 
 TRANSLATION, in pharmacy, the fame with filtration, 
 or percolation. See Filtration, tie. 
 
 TRANSCRIPT, a copy of any original writing, particularly 
 that of an act, or inltrument, inferted in tbe~body of .no- 
 lo this fenfe, we fay, tranfeript cf a fine, tic. See Fine, 
 and Duplicate. * 
 
 TRANSCRIPTO recagniticnis faa* coram jufliciarii, itine- 
 rants, tic „ a writ for certifying a recoginzance into 
 chancery, taken before the juftice in eyre. SeeRhcoGM- 
 
 ZANCE. 'Hi P« 
 
 Transcripto pedis finis levati mittend* in cancellariam, is a 
 writ for certifying the foot of a fine levied betore indices in 
 eyre, tic. into chancery. See Fine. 
 
 TRANSEAT, in the fchools, tic. a term purely Latin, fi>- 
 mfying, let tipafs, or fuppofe a propofition to te true, with- 
 out granting it. 
 
 Hence the proverb, tranfeat, grescum ,Jl, mn legitur: the 
 phrafe ,s faid to have taken its rife from fome ancient commen- 
 tators, or gloffographers of the civil law, who, not under- 
 standing Greek, palled over all the words that occurred in that 
 language, without explaining them. 
 
 In the Roman chancery, a nil tranfeat i, a kind of oppofition 
 made to the fea hng of a bull, or to the delivery of fome other 
 inltrument till the parries again!! whofc intereft it is diredtcd, 
 have ban heard a^ainft it 
 TRANSELEMENTATION, in thefchools, achange 
 of rhe elements or principles of one body into thofe of ano- 
 ther, f 
 Such is that which Roman catholics contend for in the eu- 
 chanlt, where the elements of bread and wine they fav are 
 changed into thofe of flefh and blood. See Tran'sub- 
 stantiation. 
 
 Tranfclementamn, where-ever it happens, is always allowed 
 miraculous, or an effedl beyond the ordinary powers of na- 
 ture. 
 
 TRANSFER, in commerce, tie. an aB whereby a perfon fur- 
 renders his right, intereft or property in any thing moveable, 
 or immuveable, to another. 
 
 The fale or donation of an inheritance, tic. transfers the pro, 
 perty, rights, tic. thereof. 
 
 The term is principally ufed in the commerce of flocks; for 
 theaffigningand making over fubferiptions or fhares therein, 
 to fuch as purchafe them of the proprietors. See Subscrip- 
 tion, tic. 
 
T R A 
 
 T R A 
 
 In the South-Sea company, the Bank, Eaft-India, &c. trans- 
 fers are made, by erafing the former proprietors name* and 
 entering the ftock under the name of the purchafer, under his 
 proper letter of the alphabet. 
 
 In order to a transfer* it is required the party bring another 
 with him to fwear he is the fame perfon to whom the ftock is 
 entered. A counterfeit in this cafe is by aft of parliament 
 made a capital crime. 
 
 TRANSFIGURATION, among divines, that miracu- 
 lous change wrought by Jefus Chrift, in prefence of St. Peter, 
 St. James, and St. John, on mount Thabor, where he ap- 
 peared in his glory, in the middle of Mofes and Elias. See the 
 defcription thereof in St. Matthew, chap. xvii. 
 The term is alfo applied to a feaft held in the Romifh church 
 on the 6th of Auguft, in commemoration of that miracle, 
 
 TRANSFORMATION, a metamorphoiis, or change 
 of form. 
 
 The chymifts have been a long time feeking the transformation 
 of metals, that is, their tranfmutatien, or the manner of chan" 
 ing them into gold. 
 Among the myftks, by transformation, is underftood a change 
 of the contemplative foul, whereby it is in fome meafure dei- 
 fied or converted into the fubftance of God, and wherein it is, 
 as it were, loft and fwallowed up in the divinity, fo as not to 
 perceive its own diftinclion from God. 
 
 The word transformation is very liable to be abufed ; and, in 
 effect, the Quietifts and Quakers have abufed it. But many 
 of the myftics ufe it innocently enough ; meaning no other by 
 it than what Sr. Paul did when he faid, Vivo ego, jam non ego, 
 vivit <ucro in me Chriflus. 
 
 Transformation is alfo fometimes ufed for what we more 
 proper! v call tranfuhjiantiation. See Transubstanttation 
 
 TRANSFUSION,* Transfusio, the ad of pouring a 
 liquor out of one vellel into another. 
 
 * The word is compounded of the Latin prepofition trans, beyond, 
 farther, and fundo, I tour. 
 
 In the preparations of chymiftry and pharmacy, there are fre- 
 quent transfufions of liquors, fyrups, &c. 
 Transfusion of the Blood, is particularly ufed for the letting 
 out the blood of one animal, fo as to be immediately received 
 into the body of another. 
 
 Dr. Lower is ufually accounted the inventor of this iransfufion, 
 and the experiment is faid to have been firft publicly made by 
 him at Oxford in 1665, and the defcription thereof publiftied 
 in his excellent book de Cords. 
 
 Yet we are informed from good hands, that it had been pro- 
 pofed at Paris in 1658 ; that another of our countrymen had 
 had the idea before, and that it had been known in Germany 
 feveral years. — It is certain there is a paflage in Libavius, 
 wherein the transfufion is exactly defcribed as fince practifed : 
 it is true, he difapproves it ; and only mentions it to ridi- 
 cule it. 
 
 The ufe moft naturally expected from the operation, is, that 
 one animal may live by the blood of another ; fo that thofe 
 which want blood, or have corrupt, morbid blood, may be 
 fupplied from others with a fufficient quantity, and of fuch as 
 is good and laudable. 
 
 However, it is certain, the operation has no place in the pre- 
 fent practice of pbyfic ; but whether that be the fault of the 
 operation itfelf, or only owing to tiie indolence and averfenefs of 
 people to run into new methods, we will not undertake to fay, 
 The method of transfufing, Dr. Lower gives us to the follow- 
 ing effect : take up the carotid artery of the dog, or other ani- 
 mal whofe blood is to be transfufed into another of the fame, 
 or a different kind ; feparate it from the nerve of the eighth 
 pair, and Jay it bare above an inch. Make a ftrong ligature 
 on the upper part of the artery ; and an inch nearer the heart 
 another ligature with arunning knot, to be loofened and f aftened 
 as occafion requires. Draw two threads between the two li 
 gatures ; open the artery, put in a quill, and tie up the artery 
 again upon the quill by the two threads, and ftop the quill by 
 a ftick. 
 
 Then make bare the jugular vein of the other animal, for about 
 an inch and half in length, and at each end make a ligature 
 with a running knot ; and in the fpace between the two knots, 
 draw under the veins two threads, as in the other. Open the 
 vein, and put into it two quills, one intothc defcending part of 
 the vein, to receive the blood from the other dog, and carry it 
 to the heart : the other quill put into the other part of the ju- 
 gular, towards the head, through which the fecond animal's 
 own bloodis to run into dimes. The quills thus tied f'aft, ftop 
 them up with flicks till there be occafion to open them. 
 Things thus difpofed, faften the dogs on their fides toward] 
 one another, in fuch manner, as that the quills may go into 
 each other :^ then unftop the quill that goes down into the fe- 
 cond dog's jugular vein, as alio that coming out of the other 
 dog s artery ; and by the help of two or three other quills put 
 into each other, as there fhall be occafion, infert them into one 
 another. 
 
 Then flip the running knots, and immediately the blood' 
 through the quills as through an artery, very impetuoufly 
 
 As the blood runs into the dog, unftop the quill in the upper 
 part of his jugular, for his own blood to run out at, though 
 not conftantly, but as you perceive him able to bear it, till the 
 other dog begin to cry, and faint, and at laft die. 
 Laftly, take out both quills out of the jugular, tie the run- 
 ning knot faft, and cut the vein afunder, and few up the skin : 
 the dog thus difmifled, will run away as if nothing ailed 
 him. 
 
 In the Phihfoph'ical TranfaSJions we have accounts of the fuc- 
 cefs of various iransfuftons practifed at London, Paris-, in Italy, 
 c5V. Sir Edmund King transfufed 49 ounces of blood out of 
 a calf into a fbeep ; the fheep after the operation appearing as 
 well and as ftrong as before. 
 . Mr. Coxe transfufed 14 or 16 ounces out of a mangy into a 
 found dog : the effect was, that no alteration was oblerved in 
 the found dog, but the mangy one was cured. 
 M. Gayant transfufed the blood of a young dog into the veins 
 of an old one almoft blind with age, and fcarce able to 
 ftir ; which yet, two hours afterwards, leaped and frisked 
 about. 
 
 Mr. Denis transfufed the blood of three calves into three dogs, 
 which all continued brisk, and eat well as before. — The fame 
 perfon transfufed the blood of four weathers into a horfe 26 
 years old, which thence received much ftrength, and a more 
 than ordinary appetite. 
 
 At St, Griffomi's at Udine, the blood of a lamb was trans- 
 fufed into the veins of a fpaniel 1 3 years old, which had been 
 quite deaf for three years, and fo feeble as fcarce to be able to 
 walk at all. — After the operation he leaped from the table, and 
 went about the houfe to feek his mailer.— Two days after- 
 wards he ran up and down the ftreets with other dogs ; and his 
 ftomachgrew ftrnn;:, and he recovered his hearing. 
 TRANSGRESSION,* Transgressio, an offence a- 
 gainft fome law ; or a breach, or violation thereof. 
 
 * The word is commanded of Irons, b.yOKd, and gntdiri, to go. 
 The term is chiefly ufed in refpect of the laws of God. In 
 the doctrine of original fin, all mankind are fuppofed to fliarc 
 with Adam in the guilt of his firft iranfgreffion. 
 Mofes threatens the tranfgreffors of his law with abundance of 
 temporal puniftiments. 
 Transgeessione, in our law, a writ ufually called a writ ot 
 aclion of trefpafs. 
 
 Of this, Fitzherbert has two forts : one vicounticl, thus called 
 becaufe directed to the fheriff, and not returnable, but to be 
 determined in the country. — Its form differs from that of the 
 other, as wanting the words quare ui & armis, c?V, See Vi- 
 
 COUNT1EL. 
 
 The other is termed a writ of trefpafs, and to be fued in the 
 
 Common Pleas, and King's Bench. See Trespass. 
 
 TRANSIENT Atlion, 1 c t , . , SAction. 
 _ f bee the articles s . 
 
 Transient Air, J cAir. 
 
 T R AN SIRE, in fiat, anno 1 4 Car. it c. 1 1. is ufed for a 
 
 cuftom-houfe warrant, or let-pafs — from the verb, tranfeo, I 
 
 pafs forth, 
 
 T R A N SI T,* Tr ansitos, in aftronomy, fignifies the paf- 
 fage of any planet, juft by, or over a fixed ftar, or the fun; 
 and of the moon, in particular, covering or moving over any 
 other planet. 
 
 * The word comes from the Latin, tranf.re, tofafi over ; formed 
 of trans, and eo, 1 go beyond. 
 Mercury and Venus, &c. in their tranftts over the fun, appear 
 like dark fpecks. 
 
 TRANSITION, in mufic, is when a greater note is bro- 
 ken into leffer, to foften the roughnefs of a leap, by a gradual 
 palling to the note next following. 
 
 This is commonly called the breaking of a note. See Note. 
 Transition, in rhetoric, a kind of connexion in difcourfe, 
 whereby the feveral different parts and members thereof are 
 joined, fo as to cenftitute one regular whole. 
 Some place tranfition in the number of figures ; others, with 
 Quintilian, exclude it that rank. 
 
 F. de Colonia makes two kinds of tranfitions; the one perfect, 
 the other imperfecl. 
 
 Perfect Transition', is that wherein we briefly intimate what 
 is faid, and what remains to be faid — as, Now that we have 
 fpoke of war, there remains fornething to be faid of peace*. — Satis 
 mttlfa de turpitudine : elicam dcinceps, quod propofui, de perkulo. 
 — Vni epijioles refpondi : Venio ad alteram. — Sed heec Vetera ; 
 itiud recens : Ctzfarcm meo confilio interfeclum. 
 Imperfect Transition, is that wherein only one of thefe is 
 exprefled — as, Let us now confider the confluences of &c— 
 Po/luiaret hie locus ut diccrem dc—fed finis fit ; neque eti'nn pree 
 lathrymis jam loqui poffum ; & hie ft lacrymis defendi negat. 
 
 TRANSITIVE, in grammar, an epithet given to fuch 
 verbs as fignify an action which paffes from the fubjtct that 
 does it, to, or upon, another fubject which receives it. 
 Under the head of verbs tranfuive, come what we ufiully c ill 
 verbs active and paffivc : other verbs, whofe action does not 
 pafs out of them fe Ives, arc called neuter s t and by fome gram- 
 marians intranfuives. 
 
 In 
 
TRA 
 
 T R A 
 
 In the Hebrew, the verb H'il, hajob, in the Greek tip, and 
 
 in the Latin, yam, are verbs purely neuter or iutcanGtive ; or, 
 
 as the Latin and Greek grammarians more ufually exprefs it, 
 
 verbs fubftantive, figmf/mg the mere exiitence of the the thing, 
 
 without the active or tranfitlve conjugations, 
 
 TRANSITORY, in common Jaw, {land's oppofite to local. 
 
 — Thus actions are faid to be tranfltory which may be laid in 
 
 any county or place. See Action. 
 
 Transitory Cbofe ?~ , - , ? Chose. 
 „ ? iee tne article? s ^ 
 
 Transitory T rejpajs i 6 Irespass; 
 
 TRANSLATION,* the aft of transferring or removing a thing 
 
 from one place to another. 
 
 * The word ii formed of fans, beyond, and latio, of ferrt, to 
 
 carry. 
 
 We fay, the tr (inflation of a bifhop's fee, a council, a feat of 
 juftice, a parliament ; the tranjlatiott of the relicks of a faint ; 
 the tranfla ion of tbeempirCi &c. 
 
 The tranflatiom of bifhops from one fee to another, are prohi- 
 bited by 'he council of Nice, which declares them null, and 
 appoints the tranflated bifiiop to return to his former church. — 
 The council of Sardica exclude-, tranflated bifhops from com- 
 munion, ft has been obferved, that no mfhop was ever re- 
 in ivcd from a greater church 10 a letter ; and that thofe who 
 thus qaitted their churches, oniy did it out of ambition or 
 avarice. 
 
 This difciplme was generally obferved for goo years ; and the 
 firi* inflanceof any tranflation of note, was that of p:>pe For- 
 mofjs, who was bifhop of Porto. One of his foecejffbrs took 
 hold of this pretence to have him dug out of his grave ; and 
 a council, held foon after; forbad this tranflation to be made 
 a precedent. 
 
 However, the fame church allowed of fome legitimate caufes 
 of tranflations ; as, the apparent advantage of the church : 
 under which pretence, tranflations foon became iu frequent, 
 that toi 500 or 600 years latt p„il, they have been efteemed a 
 kind of common law. 
 
 The tranflation of a religious from one order to another, can- 
 not be effected without the co; lent or the pop j : it is adord, 
 that it is not allowed to tranjlate from a leverer rule to a 
 laxer one. 
 
 Translation is alfo ufed for the verfion of a book, or Wri- 
 ting '>ut of one language into another, 
 
 Tranfla'cn frequently endeavcui to excufe thrmfelves at the 
 expence of their language ; and fkpaJJon for it, as ifi: were 
 Hot rich and copious enough to exprefs all the force and beau- 
 tie 1 ; of the original, 
 
 Thus is the Englifh tongue accufai of the poverty and drynefs 
 which is in the tranflators own genius ; and the faults are 
 charged on the former, which thould only lie at the latter's 
 door. —The Italians have a proverb, iraduttorc, tra- 
 ditort. • 
 
 TRANSMARINE, Transmarinus, fomething that 
 comts from, or belongs to, the parts beyond fea. 
 TRANSMIGRATION; the removal or tranflation of a 
 whole people into another country, by the power of a con- 
 queror. 
 
 Some tranflate the leading of the children of Ifrael captive 
 into Babylon, the tr an f migration of the IfraeliteF, &c. See 
 
 Migration. 
 
 Transmigration is particularly ufed for the pafiage of a foul 
 out of one body into another: the fame with what we other- 
 wife Call M: TEMPSYCHOSIS. 
 
 The Siamefe, F. Tachard informs us, from a belief of the 
 tranfmigration of fouls Into other bodies, forbear killing any 
 hearts i left, by that means, they fhould difpofiefs the fouls 
 of their deceafed relations* 
 
 Ionic Transmigration. See the article Ionic. 
 
 TRANSMISSION, in optics, SsfVj the act of a tranfparent 
 body paffing the rays of light through its fubftance, orfuffering 
 them to pafs ; in which fenfe the word ftands oppofed to re- 
 flexion. 
 
 Tranfmiflion is alfo frequently ufed in the fame fenfe with re- 
 fraction, by reafon molt bodies, in transmitting the rays, do 
 alfo refract them. 
 
 For thecaufe of tranfmijflon, or the reafon why fome bodies 
 transmit-, and others reflect the rays, fee Transpa rency, 
 and Opacity. . 
 
 The rays of light, Sir Ifaac Newton obferves, are fubject to 
 fits of eafv tranfmiflion and each reflection. See Licht. 
 TRANSMUTATION, the act of transforming or changing 
 one nature into another. 
 
 The term is chiefly ufed in chymiftry and medicine : it is 
 greatly queftioned, whether the transmutation of filver into 
 gold, and of tin into filver, fo much fought by the chy mills, 
 be poffible or not ? 
 
 The pureft and fub tiled parts of the food are tranfmutated or 
 affimilated into the proper fubftance of the body. For the 
 manner how this is done, fee Nutrition. 
 Nature, Sir Kaac Newton ob'ferves, feems delighted with tranfl- 
 mutations : he goes on to enumerate feveral kinds of natural 
 tr-arflnutations ; grofr; bodies and light, he fufpects, may be 
 
 mutually traffmuted into each other ; and adds, that all bodies 
 receive their active force from the particles of light which 
 enter their compofttion. 
 
 For all fixed bodies, when well heated* emit light as long as 
 they continue fo j and again, light intermingles itfelf and in- 
 heres in bodies as often as its rays fall on the folid particles of 
 thofe bodies. 
 
 Again, water, which is a fluid, volatile, taftelefs fait* is by heat 
 tranfmuted into vapour, which is a kind of air ; and by cold 
 into ice, which is a cold, tranfparent, brittle done, eayly dip 
 folvable ; and this ftone is convertible again into water by hear, 
 a-, vapour is by cold. 
 
 Farth, by heat, becomes fire; and by cold, is turned into 
 earth again : denfe bodies, by fermentation, are rarefied into 
 var.ou; kinds of air ; and that air, by fermentation alio, 
 and fometimes without it, reverts into grofs bodies. 
 Quickfilver fometimes puts ,on the form of a fluid metal ; 
 fometimes it appears in lhape of a pellucid, fragile fait, called 
 fublimate ; fometimes of a pellucid, vol .tile, white, taftelefs 
 earth, called mercurius dulcis ; by deration it becomes 
 vapour, and by agitation in vacuo, it (nines like fire, &c. 
 All bodies, beafb, fifties, infects plants, Cffc. with all their 
 various parts, grow and increafe out ot water, and aqueous 
 and faline tinctures ; and by putrefaction, all ot them revert 
 into water or an aqueous liquor again. 
 
 Farther, water cxpofed a while to the open air, pu's on a 
 tincture, which in prucefs of time has a fediment and a fpirit ; 
 and before putrtfac-tiop, yields nounftimem Doth tor animals 
 and vegetables. 
 
 Transmutation, in alchymv, denotes the act of changing 
 or malting imperkct metal int gold or filver. 
 This is alii) called ihc grand operation, and thev fay it is to be 
 effected with the phUofophera ilone. See Phile^phers 
 Stone. 
 
 Some alchymifts hold, that the tranf mutation fhould rather be 
 called the perfection of imperfect me als ; as holding all metals 
 intended by nature to arrive equally at the perfection of gold, 
 inalmuch as they are enmpofed of the fame matte; ; and 'hat 
 it is only the impurity of their matrices, that is, -of the place 
 wherein the, are formed by nature, that has prevented their 
 arriving thereat. 
 
 The elixir being projected on any of thofe metals, it is fup- 
 pofed to purge, and fep.-trafe the impure paics from the pure^ 
 and to join itfelf wholly to the mercury (which is the pure 
 part) as being of the fame nature. 
 
 Whether or no metals ate tranfmitable into one another, is a 
 point ftrongly difputed among the pfuiofuphers ; the alchymifts 
 ftrenuoufly aflerting the affirmative. — Some metals, it is com- 
 monly fuppofed, may be changed into others ; e. gr. iron 
 into copper, and lead into tin ; but Cardan and fome others 
 deny even this, and argue farther, that though iron and bra fs, 
 as being nearly alike in weight and tenacity, csfc. provided 
 their colour and hardnefs could be changed, might be con- 
 verted into another, either really, or, at leaft, apparently ; 
 yet would the tranfmuting or ripening of other metals into gold 
 or filver be ftill not the lefs impoffible ; both as thofe metals 
 are all to be firff. calcined, after which they can never be 
 brought again to their priftine purity ; and as there is a ge- 
 neration required, which is not the work of art, but of na- 
 ture. 
 
 Cardan de Metall. Lemery, Dickenfon, and others, give ua 
 accounts of the various impoftures of Adepii in the Bufihefs of 
 tranflnutation ; fome, for infiance, fixing mercury with verdi- 
 greafe, and then heightening the colour with cadmia, £sV» 
 ]3ut this, if tried with the coppel, all goes off in fumes ; and, 
 in effect, nothing produced this way ought to be adjudged 
 true gold, unlefs it endure coppelling, cementation, purifica- 
 tion, with antimony, and the depart. 
 
 Add, that it mult have the malleability, extreme ductility j 
 and fpecific gravity of gold, which is to water as 18 and a half 
 to 1. 
 
 The trick of tranfmuting cinnabar Into filver is thus : the cin- 
 nabar being bruifed grofsly, is ftratified in a crucible with gra- 
 nulated filver, and the crucible placed in a great fire ; and af- 
 ter due time for calcination, taken off: then the matter 
 being poured out, is found to be cinnabar turned into real 
 filver, though the filver grains appear in the fame number and 
 form as when they were put into the crucible ; but the mif- 
 chief is, coming to handle the grains of filver, you find 
 them nothing but light friable bladders, which will crumble 
 to pieces between the fingers. Mr. Boyle, in his Scept; 
 Cbymifl. tells us, that two friends of his did, by urging mer- 
 cury in a fkilfully managed fire, turn it almofl weight for 
 weight into water ; but he does not fay what was the fpecific 
 gravity of the produced water, nor of the remaining un- 
 tranfmuted mafs of mercury. — He likewife aflures us, that 
 rain-water being d ifi i lied and re-diftilled by a friend of his, 
 near 200 times, did, alter diftillation, leave, at the bottom 
 of the giafs body, a considerable quantity of a white earth j 
 and th.it more plentifully in the latter diftillaiions than the 
 former. 
 
 12 R This 
 
T R A 
 
 This he believed to be a certain quantity of water attually 
 tranfmuted intoearth ; adding, that it was above twice as heavy 
 fpecifically as common water, and ot fo fixed a nature, that 
 itlayaconfiderabletime in a red-hot crucible, without Wing 
 any thing of its weight, or even emitting any fmoak. 
 
 Transmutation, in geometry, denotes the reduaion or 
 change of one figure, or body into another of the fame area, 
 or folidity, but of a different form ; as a triangle into a fquare, 
 a pyramid into a parallelepiped, CSV. 
 
 Transmutation, in the higher geometry, is ufed for the 
 converting a figure into another of the fame kind and order, 
 whofe rcfpe&ive parts rife to the fame dimenfions in an equa- 
 tion, admit the fame tangents, i$c. , 
 If a reailinear figure be to be tranfmuted into another, it is 
 fufficient that the interfeaions of the lines which compofe it be 
 transferred, and lines drawn through the fame m the new 
 figure. 
 
 If the figure to be tranfmuted be curvilinear, the points, tan- 
 gents, and other right lines, by means whereof the curve line 
 is to be defined, muft be transferred. 
 
 Transmutation of Plants. See the articles Seed, and 
 Degeneration. 
 
 TRANSOM, among builders, the piece that is framed acrofs a 
 double light window. 
 
 Transom, among mathematicians, denotes the vane of a crofs- 
 itafT; or a wooden member fixed acrofs it, with a fquare 
 whereon it Aides, (sfc. See Cross- Staff". 
 
 Transom, in a (hip, is a piece of timber which lies athwart 
 the fiern, between the two fafhion pieces, direaiy under the 
 gun-room- port. — See Tab. Ship. fig. z. «. 109. 
 
 TRANSPARENCY, Diaphaneity, in phyfics, a quality in 
 certain bodies, whereby they give paflage to the rays of 
 light. 
 
 The tranfparency of natural bodies, as glafs, water, air, &c. 
 Tome have imputed to the great number, and fize of the pores 
 or interftices between the particles of thofe bodies : but this 
 account is exceedingly defeaive ; for the moft folid and opake 
 body in nature, we know, contains a great deal more pores 
 than it does matter ; a great deal more, fure, than is ne- 
 ceflary for the paflage of fo infinitely fine and fubtle a body 
 as light. 
 
 Ariftotle, Des Cartes, fcfV. place tranfparency in the reflitude 
 or ftratghtnefsof the pores; bymeansof which, fay they, the 
 rays are enabled to make their way through, without (hiking 
 againft the folid parts, and being refleaed back again : but 
 this account, Sir Ifaac Newton fhews, is lame ; the quantity 
 of pores in all bodies being fufficient to tranfmit all the rays 
 that fall on them, howfoever thofe pores be fituated with re- 
 fpea to each other. 
 
 Tbecaufe, then, why all bodies are not tranfparent, muft not 
 be afcribed to their wanting reailinear pores ; but either to 
 the unequal denfity of the parts, or to the pores being filled 
 with fome foreign matters, or to their being quite empty ; by 
 means of which, the rays in paffing through, undergoing a 
 great variety of reflexions and refraaions, are perpetually 
 diverted this way and that, till at length falling on fome 
 of the folid parts of the body, they are extinguiflied and ab- 
 forbed. 
 
 Thus, cork, paper, wood, &c. are opake ; when as glafs, 
 diamonds, ESfa are tranjparent : the reafon is, that in the 
 neighbourhood of parts equal in denfity, fuch as thofe of glafs, 
 water, diamond, fcfr. are with refpeX to each other; the 
 attraaion being equal on every fide, no reflection or re- 
 fraXion enfues ; but the rays which entered the firft furface of 
 the bodies, proceed without interruption quite through the 
 body; thofe few only excepted which chance to meet with 
 the folid parts. But in the neighbourhood of parts, that dif- 
 fer much in denfity, fuch as the pans of wood and paper are 
 both in refpeX of themfelves, and of the air or the empty 
 fpace in their pores ; as the attraaion will be very unequal 
 the refkaions and refraaions muft be very great ; and 
 therefore the rays will not be able to make their way 
 through fuch bodies, but will be properly defined, and at 
 laft quite flopped. 
 
 TRANSPARENT Column. See the article Column. 
 
 TRANSPIRATION, the infenfible, or almoft infenfible 
 paflage of an excrementitious matter through the pores of the 
 flrin ; called alfo perforation. 
 
 There are an infinity of thefe tranfpiraiory pores in thefkin 
 the moft confiderable whereof are the orifices of the duas 
 arifing from the miliary glands. 
 The caufe of tranfpirat'tcn is the circulation and heat of the 
 blood. — Infenfible tranfpiration is found very much to exceed 
 all the fenfible evacuations put together. Sanaorius even 
 fhews, in his Medkina Statica, that a perfon lofes more in 
 one day by tranfpiration, than by all the other outlets in fif- 
 teen. He adds, that if the food taken by one day weigh eight 
 pounds, the tranfpiration will be five of them. 
 Cold prevents tranfpiration. by its confirming the poree of the 
 fkin, and thickening the liquors circulating in the cutaneous 
 glands : heat, on the contrary, augments tranfpiration y both 
 3 
 
 T R A 
 
 by its opening the excretory duas of the glands, and by its 
 increafing the fluidity and velocity of the humours. 
 M. Dodart, from a number of experiments made tor 3 3 years 
 together, affures us, that we tranfpire much more in youth 
 than in age. — In fome perfons, the tranfpiration is fo copious, 
 that they void but very little of the coarfer excrements, though 
 they eat very heartily. 
 
 Tranfpiration is abfolutely neceflary in the animal ceconomy, 
 to purify the mais of blood, and difcharge it of a number of 
 ufelefs heterogeneous particles which might corrupt it. Hence 
 it is, that upon a ftoppage of the ufual tranfpiration, there 
 arifefomany indifpofi lions, particularly fevers, agues, rheums 3 
 Erf** 
 
 Tranfpiration is alfo of ufe to the organ of feeling, in that it 
 prevents the papillae of the lkin from being dried, either by the 
 air, or by the continual touches of external bodies. 
 Tr ansfiration is alfo ufed by fome authors, for the tngtefs 
 or entrance of the air, vapours, &c. through the pores of the 
 lkin into the body. 
 
 Cardan, by this kind of tranfpiration, accounts for the pro- 
 digy of a woman, whofe daily urine weighed 27 pounds; 
 though all the foods me took, both dry and liquid, did not ex- 
 ceed four pounds. — Dr. Baynard alfo fufpeas fome fuch tranf- 
 piration to be the cafe in hydropical perfons. 
 TRANSPLANTATION, in agriculture and gardening, the 
 aX of removing trees or plants from the places where they 
 were fowed or raifed, and planting them in others. See 
 Planting. 
 
 In the Transpl anting of forefi-trees, care is to be taken to 
 preferve the roots, and ewen the fine hairs or filaments there- 
 of, with the earth that flicks thereto ; thefe filaments being 
 the mouths that fuck the nourifhment, and transfufe it to the 
 tree. 
 
 The pits or fofies, into which trees are tranfplanted, fhould 
 be left open for fome time before-hand, that the rain, froft, 
 and fun may diffblve the compafled fait, render the earth fri- 
 able, and qualify it for nourifhing the tree. — The fame may 
 be efieded, in fome meafure, by burning flraw in the new pits, 
 and drenching the mould with water in dry fcafons, and by- 
 enriching the ground with manure. 
 
 Pliny was of opinion, no tree fhould be removed under two, 
 or above three years old. Cato would have none iranfplanted. 
 when lefs than five fingers in diameter: but we are, now, able 
 to tranfplant trees of all ages and fizes, without danger. 
 To tranfplant old trees was reckoned fo difficult, that veterem 
 arborem tranfplantare was become a proverb for a difficult enter- 
 prize ; and yet we are informed of a grove of 600 coco-trees 
 of 80 years growth, and 60 foot high to the Ioweft bough, 
 Iran/planted by count Maurice, to his paradife of Frihtirg: 
 and a great perfon in Devonfhire, Mr. Evelyn tells us, iranf- 
 planted oaks, as big as twelve oxen could draw, to fupply a 
 defea in an avenue : and the thing is now indeed become quite 
 common. 
 
 For the tranf plantation of grown trees, Mr. Evelyn gives the 
 following method, as praaifed with good fuccefs by the lord 
 Fitzharding : choofe trees about the thicknefs of a man's 
 thigh; remove the earth from about them; cut through all 
 the" fide roots, till the tree may be, by force, brought down 
 on one fide ; fo that the tap-roots may be conveniently come 
 at to be out oft' with the ax : then redrefs the tree, and let it 
 fland covered with the mould from which it w.is loofened, till 
 the next year, or longer ; and by that time it will have fhot 
 new tender roots fit for tranfplanting, and may be taken up at 
 a fit feafon". 
 
 Otherwife, for very large trees, before the hard frofts come on, 
 make a trench about the tree, at fuch diflance from the ftem, 
 as you judge fufficient for the root ; dig fo deep, as almoft: to 
 undermine it; place blocks, and quarters of wood to fuftain 
 the earth, and caft in as much water as may fill the trench, 
 or fufficiently wet it, unlefs the ground were very muift be- 
 fore. Thus let it ftand till fome hard froft bind it firmly to 
 the roots, and then convey it to its new ftation, which may 
 be preferved from frezing, by placing ftore of warm litter in 
 it : fo clofe the mould the better to the draggling fibres, and 
 place the earth taken out of the pit about the root of the new- 
 planted tree. . 
 
 The common rules for tranfplanting are, i°. The lighter the 
 
 foil is, the deeper are the trees to be planted. 2°. It the foil 
 be gravel, or fand, mix clay with it, and vice verfa. 3 0 . The 
 belt feafon is either October or February; in warm, moift, 
 clear weather. 4 0 . The large roots are to be abated, to prevent 
 the nectffity of disging too deep : but the fniall fibrous ones 
 tobefpread. 5°. In taking up the trees to obferve how the 
 roots arow, and in tranfplanting to difpofe them in the fame 
 order," and place the tree to the fame afpedt 6°. To defend 
 young trees after trarf plantation, both from the wind and fun, 
 till the roots be fixed, and they begin to (hoot. 7°. If the 
 foil you tranfplant into be good, do not top the trees, but lop 
 all the boughs to a Angle one, tiie moft upright and promi- 
 fing among them : but if the foil be poor, top them, and 
 when they are fhot out again, lop oft all the branches to one. 
 
 1 Trans- 
 
T R A 
 
 T R A 
 
 Transplanting of fruit-trees — After a fummer's growth of 
 fruit feedlings in the ieminary, fuch are pulled up as are above 
 a foot high, and tranfplanted. into a nurfery ; the reft are to be 
 left in the feed-plot till another year. 
 
 When drawn up, too fprigs are to be cut off, from about the 
 top, the firings from the roots, and the 'extremities, both of 
 the top, that it may not run too fa ft upwards, and of the tap 
 or heart-root, that it may not pafs directly downwards; left 
 it go beyond the good foil. The holes or pits are to be fo 
 deep, as that the plants may ffand fomewhat deeper in the 
 ground, than when in the feed-plot; clofe the mould about 
 them, and if it be a dry time, water them the firft day, and 
 cover the foil with old fern. 
 
 Mr. Bradley gives us a new method of tranfplanting trees of all 
 Jtinds and ages with fafety, either while they are in bloffom, 
 or with fruit upon them, thus: the holes to receive the trees, 
 are to be prepared before the trees are taken up ; and the earth 
 which comes out of the holes is to be made very fine, and 
 put into large tubs and mixed with water) till it be about the 
 confiftence of thin batter. Then the holes wherein the trees 
 are to be planted, are to be filled with this thus-tempered 
 earth, before the earthy parts have time to fettle. 
 The advantage hereof is, that the trees thus planted have their 
 roots immediately clofed and guarded from the air; and the 
 warm feafon of the year difpofing every part of the tree for 
 growth and fhooting, it will lofe very little of its vigour. — 
 In winter this method does not fucceed. 
 
 The fame author adds, that in con fide rat ion of the circulation 
 of the fap, it is as neceflary to preferve the veftels of trees en- 
 tire, as thofe in animal bodies : and therefore, in tranfplanting 
 trees in the fummer feafons, it is not pioper to cut oft" any of 
 the branches, or wound any of the veiiels, till they have re- 
 newed their toots, which it is of abfolute neceffity to wound 
 in tranfplanting them, for the wounded roots, he has pro- 
 vided a plaifter of a mixture of gums, to prevent the canker 
 and rot, and promote rheir healing. 
 Transplantation, in natural magic, isufed for a method 
 of curing difeafes, by transferring them from one fubject to 
 another; which was much in vogue among certain chymical, 
 or rather fympathetical phyficians fome ages ago. 
 This tranfplantation is effected, either by the ufe of a certain 
 medium, called on that account a magnet \ or without that, 
 only by fimple contact. 
 
 The firft kind, which is that moft properly called tranfplan- 
 iation, is when the patient's excrement bei.ig mixed up with 
 Earth, thedifeafe is by that means tranfplanted into a vegetable, 
 arifing from a feed fown in the faid compoft; or, when the 
 parings of the nails, e. gr. of a gouty perfon, are inclofed in 
 an augur-hole made in a plant, particularly in an oak. 
 Here the patient's excrement is the magnet, and the vital fpi- 
 rit of the plant arifing from the feed is the mumia which the 
 magnet they fay receives; and the cafe is the fame, in the 
 parings of the nails, and the vital fpirit of the other plants 
 The fecond kind of tranfplantaiion^ properly called approxima- 
 iicn, is, when a finger feized with a panaris, or whit-low, is 
 cured by rubbing it in a cat's ear, which is fuppofed to receive 
 the pain. 
 
 In this cafe, the found fubject receives the vital fpirits, unites 
 with them, and corrects their morbific ftate : and, as certain 
 difeafes are got by approximation, the infected fpirits of a dif- 
 eafed body, infinuating themfelves into a found one, and thus 
 infecting the fame: fo according to thefe philofophers they are 
 cured by approximation ; when the fpirits of a difeafed perfon 
 entering a found body, the latter corrects and retrieves the 
 morbific ftate of the former. 
 
 Tranfplantation, by means of the magnet, is of five kinds, viz. 
 infemination, implantation, impofition, irroration^ and inefcation ; 
 each whereof fee under its proper article; but the whole prac- 
 tice is now defervedly laughed out of the world. 
 
 TRANSPORT-A 1 ^, is a veffel whereon to convey provifions, 
 warlike ftores, foldiers, £fiV. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION, the act of conveying or carrying 
 a thing from one place or country to another. 
 In matters of commerce, tranfportation is of equal import with 
 re-exportation, viz. the taking up of commodities in one fo- 
 reign ftate or kingdom, bringing them hither, and paying- 
 duties for them ; and then conveying them into fome other 
 foreign ftate: by which it is diftinguifhed from importation, and 
 exportation, where the commodities are cither carried origi- 
 nally out of, or brought finally into, our own kingdom. 
 Our tranfportation or re-exportation of wool, butter, hides, 
 tallow, herrings beef, and foim on, which we tranfport from 
 Ireland to other provinces, being the concerns of our mer- 
 chants, and paying duties to his^majefty, have been reckoned 
 at 300,000 /. per annum. 
 
 It would be tedious to enumerate the value of our tranfporta- 
 tkns from Denmark, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, the Streifjhts, 
 Turkey, Guinea, tjrY. the moft coniiderable is from the Kaft- 
 Indies. In the infancy of th>t trade, viz. in the year 1613, 
 of pepper only, befide:, what wc confumed at home, we tranf- 
 
 ported in one year to other countries, after it had p fid duly 
 here, to the value of 200,000 /. and of late years our export 
 tation of what we bring from thence, after we have ftipplied 
 ourfelves, is computed at 500,000/. fterling. 
 Transportation is alfo a kind of punifhmenti or, more 
 properly, an alleviation or commutation of punifhmcnt, for 
 criminals converted of felony, who, for the firft offence, un- 
 lefs it be an extraordinary one, are ordinarily tranfported to 
 the plantations, there to bear hard labour lor a term of years, 
 within which if they return, they are executed without farther 
 trial. 
 
 TRANSPOSITION, in algebra, the bringing any term of an 
 equation over to the other fide. 
 
 Thus, if a-\-b—c t and you may make a—c — b ; b is faid to 
 be tranfpofed. See Equation. 
 Transposition, in grammar, a diftnrbing or diflacating of 
 the words in a difcourfe; or a changing of their natural order 
 of conftruCtion, to pleafe the ear, by rendering the contexture 
 more eafy, fmooib, and harmonious. 
 
 A tranfpofition, which renders the fenfe perplexed, is vicious. — 
 I he construction of the ancient languages being much more 
 artful than that of the modern ones, allowed of mu.h greater 
 and more frequent iranfpifitions. The Engiifh, French, &c\ 
 fcarce ever allow of them but in oratory and poetry ; in which 
 cafes they ferve to give a force and energy to the difcourfe or 
 the verfe, and to prevent their languifhing. 
 
 Transposition, in mufic, is a changing of the notes of a piece 
 of mufic, or the fliifting a fong from its former iiiuation, to 
 fet it either higher or lower, or in another octave. 
 Of this there are two kinds ; the firft with refpeft to the thj\ 
 the fecond with refpect to the key. 
 
 Transposition with refpcEi to the clef, confifts in chang- 
 ing the places or feats of the notes or letters among the 
 lines and fpaces ; but fo as that every note is fet at the 
 fame letter. 
 
 This is done either by removing the f^me clef to another line* 
 or by ufing another clef, but with the fame fignaturej by rea- 
 fon the piece is ftill in the fame key. 
 
 Thepradtife is eafy in eichercafe: in the firft, you take the 
 firft note at the fame diftance above or below the clef-note, in 
 its new pofition as before ; and all the reft of the notes in the 
 fame relations or diftances from one another ; fo that the notes 
 are all fet on lines and fpaces of the fame name. 
 In the fecond, or fetting the mufic to a different clef, it is to 
 be obferved, the places of the three clef notes are invariable 
 in the fcale, and are to one another in thefe relations, viz. 
 the mean a 5th above the bafs, and the treble a 5th above the 
 mean. Now to tranfpofc to a new clef, e. gr. from the treble 
 to the mean, where-evcr that new clef is fet, we fuppofe it 
 the fame individual note, in the fame place of the fcale, as if 
 that piece were that part in a completion to which this new 
 clef is generally appropriated ; that fo it may direct to the 
 fame notes we had before tranfpofition ; now, from the fixed 
 relations of the three clefs in the i'cAs, it will be eafy to find 
 the feat of the firft tranfpofed note ; and then all the reft are 
 to be fet at the fame mutual diftances they were at betore. 
 See Scale. 
 
 Suppofe, e. gr. the firft note of a fong be d, a 6th above the 
 bafs-clcf ; where-ever that clef is placed, the firft note muft 
 be the greater 2d above it, becaufe a greater 2d above the 
 mean is a greater 6th above the bafs-clef, the rehtion of thofe 
 two being a 5th.— So that the firft note will ftill be the fame 
 individual d. 
 
 The ufe of this tranfpofition is, that if a fong be fet with 
 a certain clef, in a certain pofition, the notes go far above or 
 below the fyftcm of five lines; they may, by the change of 
 the place of the fame clef in the particular fyftcm, or by 
 taking a new clef, be brought more within the ccmpafs of the 
 lines. 
 
 TrafsPosition from one key to another^ is a changing of the 
 key, or a fetting all the notes of the fong at different' letters, 
 and performing it, cunfequentlyj in different notes upon an 
 inftrument. See Key. 
 
 The defign hereof is, that a fong which being begun in one 
 note, is too high or low, or otherwife inconvenient for a cer* 
 tain inftiument, may be begun in another note, and frnm 
 that carried on in all its juft degrees and intervals. 
 The clef and its pofition here remain thefjme; and the change 
 is ot the notes themfelves, from one letter, and its line ur 
 fpace, to another. 
 
 In the former tranfpofition, the notes were expreffed by the 
 fame letters, but both removed to different lines, and fpaces : 
 in this, the letters are unmoved, and the notes of the fon°- 
 transferred to, or r-x pre fled by other letters, and confequently 
 fet i-pon different lines and fpaces, which, therefore, requires 
 a different fignature of the clef. 
 
 TRANSUBSTAN TI ATI O N,Transubstantia tio, 
 in theology, ihe convcrlion or change of the fubftance of the 
 bread and wine in the euchatift into tlie body and blood of 
 JefusChrift. 
 
 Tran- 
 
TRA 
 
 TranfiMantiathn, taken in its general and literal fenfe, im- 
 plies any change of one fubftance into another ; thus tne 
 effange 9 f Mofes's rod into a ferpent ; of the waters of the 
 Nile' into biood j of Lot's wife into a pillar of fak, were 
 preter natural iranfubfitntiatiom : and the change of the food 
 we eat, into 1 the fubuance ot our bodies, is a natural tran- 
 fubftantiation. , _ . , 
 
 But the word, in itsproperand technical fenfe, is restrained 
 to the miraculous change which the Romifb church holds is 
 wrought in the facrament, by the confecration of the pneft. 
 One of the great articles of that church, rejeaed by the re- 
 formed, is that of tranfubftantiation ; the latter maintaining 
 the tranfubftantiation to be only figurative, and the former 
 affirming it co be real. 
 
 Tne reformed interpret e/7, is, in the text hoc eft corpus mum, 
 this is my body, by fignificat \ q. d. thh fignifies my body ■ but 
 the council 01 Trent ftand up ftrenuoufly for the literal fenfe 
 of the verb : thus in can. l. feff. I 3 of that council, it is cx- 
 prefly decreed, that in tranftbftantiation, the body and blond 
 of our Lord Jcfus Chrift are truly, really, and fubflantially 
 under the fpecies of bread and wine. 
 
 It is added, that by truly, we mean properly, and not only by 
 fignification, as if the eiicharift were no more than a fign of 
 the body and biood of Jefus Chrift ; that by really, we mean 
 in/ail, and not only in figure, as if the eucharift were only 
 a figure and reprefentation of the body and blood of tne Saviour 
 of the world ; and that by fubflantially, we mean in fubftance, 
 and not only in virtue and energy.— This is truly oppofed to 
 a fimple fign, really to a figure, and fubflantially to energy, or 
 virtue. : m' 1 
 
 TRANSUMPTION, Transumptio, in the fchools, a 
 fyllogi m by conceffion or agreement, ufed where a queftion 
 propofed is transferred to another, with this condition, that 
 the proof of this latter fhall be admitted for a proof of the 
 former. 
 
 Tims Ariftotle, in his book de cceh, undertaking to (hew that 
 all the ffars are round, transfers the queftion to the moon, and 
 proves her rotundity from her increaiing and warning, fuppo- 
 fingit a thing admitted by his opponents, that the flars are all 
 alike. 
 
 TRANSVERSALIS, in anatomy, a name given to fevera! 
 mufcles, tiff, in refpeft of their Situation, progrefs, &c. as the 
 
 Trav^versalis abdominis, a mufcle which lies under the ob- 
 liqui, and arifes from the cartilago xiphoides, from the ex- 
 tremities of thefalfe ribs, from the tranfverfe apophyfis of the 
 verxbrx of the loins, is fixed to the inner fide of the fpine 
 of the ilium, and inferted in the os pubis and linea alba. — 
 See Tab. Anat. (Myol.) fig. z. n, 29. fig. 7. n. 39- 
 This, with the obliqui, unites its tendons, as it approaches the 
 linea alba, and is the only mufcle that is cut in the operation 
 of the bubonocele : it has a fine and thin membrane that clofes 
 exactly its ring or hole through which the veflels pafs. See 
 Obliqjjus. 
 
 Transversalis colli, is a part of the tranfverfalis dorfi, which 
 forne divide into three, viz. the facer, femi-fpinatus, and 
 tranfverfallis colli. 
 
 It arifes from the os facrum, and from all the tranfverfe pro- 
 cess of the vertebra? of the loins, back and neck, except the 
 two firft, and is inferted by fo many diftincl tendons into all 
 their fuperiorfpines : it moves the whole fpine obliquely back- 
 wards. 
 
 Transversalis pedis placentini comes from the bone of the 
 metatarfus, that fuftains the toe next the little toe, and paf- 
 fing acrofs the other bones, is inferted into the os fefamoides 
 of the great toe : its ufe is to bring all the toes clofe to one 
 another. 
 
 Ttansversalis penis arifes from the ifchium juft by the 
 erectores. and runs oblique to the upper part of the bulb of 
 the urethra. 
 
 It helps to prefs the veins upon the back of the penis, 
 
 againft the os pubis, which is the caufe of erection. See 
 
 Erection. 
 Transversalis Lumborum, ? g £e S Sacer. 
 Transversalis Femoris, ,5 c Quadratic. 
 Transversalis is alfo a name given a future of a cranium, 
 
 becaufe of its tranfverfing or eroding the face from one fide 
 
 to the other. 
 
 It arifes at one of the lelTer angles of the eye, and paffing along 
 the bottom of its orbit, and the root of the nofe, terminates 
 in the other leffer angle. 
 TRANSVERSE, fomething that goes acrofs another from 
 corner to corner. 
 
 Thus bends and bars in heraldry are tranfverfe pieces or bear- 
 ings. The diagonals of a parallelogram or a fquare are 
 tranfverfe lines. 
 
 Lines which make interferons with perpendiculars, are alfo 
 called oblique or tranfverfe lines. 
 TRANSVERSE axis, or diameter, called alfo the fitfl or principal 
 axis. See Axis, DaimEter, and Latus tranfuerfum. 
 The tranfverfe axis of an elhpiis, is the longer axis, or that 
 
 TRA 
 
 which iraverfes It lengthwife, in contra-difrin&iori from the 
 conjugate one. SeeEtlPsis, and Conjugate. 
 The tranfverfe axis ot the hyperbola, is the ftfle DK. Tab. 
 Conies, fig, 17. cutting the curve in the points D and E. See 
 H YPtRBOL A. 
 r RANSVERSUM Latus, ? ^ C LaTUS. 
 
 S^/i/mTransversum, 5 c Septum. 
 
 Transverse Mufcles, in anatomy, are certain mufcles arifirrg 
 
 from the tranfverfe procefies of the vertebne of the loins. 
 TRANTERY, in fome cuftoms, denotes the money arifmg 
 
 by amerciaments of ale-fellers and victuallers for breaking the 
 
 affize of bread and ale ; particularly at Lufton, and other 
 
 manour in Hcrefordfhire. 
 TRAPEZIUS. See Cucolaris. 
 
 TRAVERSE, or Tran^versr, fomething that goss athwart 
 another, i. e. that crones, and cuts it obliquely. 
 
 Traverse is particularly ufed for a piece of wood or iron placed 
 iranfverli-iy, to ftreng; hen and fortify another : fuch are thofe 
 ufed in gau>* windows, c?V. 
 
 To plane a board againft the grain, is alfo called among 
 joiners, &c. to traverfe it. 
 
 Traverse, in gunnery, fignifies to turn or point a piece of 
 ordnance, which way one pleafrs upon her platform. 
 The laying or removing a piece of ordnance or a great gun, in 
 order to brini; it to bear, or he level with the mark, is alfo 
 called trsiverftng the piece. SeeGuNNER,Y. 
 
 Traver.se, in fortification, denotes a trench with a little 
 parapet, fometimes two, one on each fide, to fcrve as a cover 
 from the enemv that might come in flank. 
 Traverfes are fometimes covered over-head with planks, and 
 loaded with earth, — They are very commodious tor flopping 
 an enemy's way, and to prevent being enfiladed. They like- 
 wife make a good defence in a dry fofs, in making the parapet 
 on the fide next the oppofite flank. 
 
 Traverse, inawetfofs, is a fort of gallery, made by throw- 
 ing faucifT-ns, joyfts, fafcine*, ftones, earth, and other things 
 into the fofs, over-againft the place where the mine.F is to be 
 put to the foot or the wall, in order to fill up the ditch, and 
 make a paffageover it. See Gallery. 
 
 Traverse alfo denotes a wall of earth or ftone raifed acrofs a 
 work which is commanded, in order to cover the men 
 
 Traverse alfo fignifies any retrenchment, or line fortified 
 with fafcines, barrels or bags of earth, or gabions. 
 
 Traverse, in navigation, is the variation or alteration of a 
 (hip's courfe, occafioned by the (hiking of the winds, cur- 
 rents, &e. 
 
 Traverfe failing is ufed when a (hip having fet fail frsrn one 
 port towards another whofe courfe and diftance from the port 
 failed from is given or known, is, by reafon of contrary- 
 winds, or other accidents, forced to fliift and fail on feveral 
 courfes, which are to be brought into one courfe, to learn ? 
 after fo many turnings and windings, the true courfe and 
 diftance made from the place failed from, and the true point 
 or place where the {hip is ; that fo the wind coming fair, 
 it may be known how afterwards to fhape a courfe for the 
 place intended. 
 
 This may be performed geometrically two ways: the firft, by 
 drawing new meridians, through the extremity of every 
 courfe, parallel to the firft meridian, or north and fouth 
 line at firft made, and fetting off every courfe with a fweep 
 of 60, as if it were a queftion in plain failing. You may alfo 
 let fall perpendiculars to every new meridian, from the point 
 that the fhip failed to upon that courfe, by which you have 
 the courfe, diftance, difference of latitude, and departure to 
 every courfe. 
 
 To illuftrate this by an example : a fhip being bound for a 
 port diftant 120 miles N. E. I E. fails S. S. E. 30 miles, 
 then N. E. by N . 40, then E. by N. 25, then N. N. E. 44 ; 
 it is required to find the courfe and diltance made good, and 
 alfo the courfe and diftance to the port bound for I 
 Draw the line H K (Tab. Navigation, fig. 17.) at pleafure 
 for a meridian, or north and fouth line, and therein afiume 
 a point, as A, for the port failed from ; then with 60 of 
 the chords, and one foot in A, draw the arch L m, 
 upon which fet off two points (becaufe the courfe is S. S. E.) 
 from L to m, and draw the line A m, upon which fet off 
 the diftance 30, from A to B ; then is the fhip at B : thus 
 letting fall the perpendicular BK, AK 27° 7' is the dif- 
 ference of latitude, and B K 1 1° 5', the departure of the 
 firft courfe 
 
 For the fecond courfe, with the diftance K B, draw the 
 parallel B N, and thereby with the chord of 60, as be- 
 fore, fet off the fecond courfe and diftance, N. E. by N. 
 40, from B to C, and let fall the perpendicular C L, then, 
 is the fhip at C, the difference of latitude upon the courfe 
 is B L 33 : 3, and departure C L 22 ; 2. 
 Proceed in the lame manner for the third courfe, with the 
 parallel C O, fet off E. by N. 25, from C to D, and draw 
 the line D P, from which fet off the laft courfe, N. N. E. 
 44, then is your fhip at E, 
 
 Since 
 
T R A 
 
 Since then the (hip came from A, and is now at E, the line 
 A E meafured on the fame equal parts upon which a!] the other 
 diftances were taken, will be found 9 i miles, and the arch 
 R Q_meafured on therhumbs, five points, viz N E h- E 
 fo that the fhip is now 91 miles N. E. by E. from the port 
 tailed from. 
 
 To find her courfe and diftance to the port bound for, fet off 
 4 half points upon the arch R Q_frora R to S, and from A 
 through S draw the line ASF; upon which fet off 120 the 
 diftance from the port failed from to the port bound for, from 
 A toFs then ,sF the port bound for : now the port bound for 
 being at F, and the (hip being but at E, the line E F mea- 
 fured on the fame equal parts that the reft was taken from, will 
 be found to be 31, and the arch T V meafured on the chords, 
 is 3 s°. ta', or N. E. by N. fomewhat eafterly, tstc. 
 This method is ufeful, where the courfes tend generally one 
 way, without mterfcaing one another ; but' if they often crofs, 
 it is belt to have recourfe tothefecond method, which is with- 
 out new meridians. 
 
 In order to this, obferve how many points are between the 
 point next to be laid down, and the point oppofite to the courfe 
 laft laid down ; for that is the point for laving down ■ then 
 with the chord of 60, and one foot in the point the fhip is laft 
 come to defenbean arch; upon which fet off the points found 
 by the above faid rule, and through that draw the line for the 
 next courfe, tic. For an example : 
 
 Draw a north and fouth line, as in the former, as the line 
 K M, fig. 17, n°. 2. in which alTume a poinr, as at A, for 
 the port failed from; then from A fet off the firft courfe and 
 diftance, v,z. N. N. W. 68, from A to B ; and for the fe- 
 cond coufe, with the chord of 60, and one foot in B, draw 
 the atch T W, upon which to fet off the next courfe S S W 
 70, obferve the rule above delivered, ■viz. to take the number 
 of points between the pointoppofite to the laft courfe failed, and 
 the point you are next to fail on. The reafon of which rule 
 is this: if from A to B your courfe be N. N. W. then Dack 
 from B to A, mud needs he S. S. E. the oppofite point ; and 
 then if you were to fail S. by E. it muft be one point to the 
 fouthward of that S. S. E. line; if fouth, it is two points, 
 and confequently the next courfe being S. S. W. you are to fet 
 off 4 points, upon which fet off 7 o miles, from B to C, and 
 then is your fhip at C : for the third couife, if from B to C be 
 S. S. W. then from C to B is N. N. E. but the next coutfe 
 being E. half N. the points between N. N. E. and E. half N. 
 are five points and an half, and therefore with the chord of 60 
 and one foot in C, draw the arch X Y, upon which fet off 
 five points and an half from X to Y, and through Y draw 
 the line C D, upon which fet off 90 miles from Cto D : then 
 is your (hip at D. 
 
 After the fame manner lay down all the reft, as D E, which 
 is W. N. W. half N. 70, then E F fouth 25, then F G, E. 
 half S. 45; thenlaftly G H, fouth 30, which is the laft 
 courfe. 
 
 Thus your fliip being at H, and the port failed from at A, the 
 line A H 28 miles, is the diftance made good ; and the an»lc 
 at A is four points, viz. S. E. but the port intended for, being 
 S. W. 5 5. fet it from A to K, and the (hip being at H, the 
 line H K, 62 miles, is the diftance from the (hip to the port 
 bound fors and the courfe is found by meafuring the angle at 
 H 71" 48' or W. S. W. more than aquarter wefterly, CSV. 
 To work a Traverse by the tables of difference of latitude and 
 departure.— This is the principal ufe thofe tables are intended 
 for; and the way of Working a (romr/l hereby, is equal to the 
 bed for exaefnefs, and fuperior in point of expedition. 
 Make a little table with fix columns, the firft for the courfe, 
 the fecond for the diftance, the third for the northing, the 
 fourth for the fouthing, the fifth for the caning, the fixth for 
 the welling. Then find the difference of the latitude and the 
 departure to every courfe, and fet them in their proper co- 
 lumns ; as where the courfe is northerly, fet the difference of 
 the latitude under northing, or in the north column • and 
 where the courfe is foutherly, fet the difference of latitude in 
 the fouth column. 
 
 Again, where the courfe is eafterly, fet the departure in the 
 eaft column, and when weflerlv, fet it in the weft column 
 then adding up each column by itfelf, fubftraa the north and 
 fouth columns, the leffer from the greater, the remainder is the 
 northing or fouthing made good. Alfo fubftraft the eaft and 
 weft colums the lefl'er from the greater, the remainder is the 
 eafting or wefting made good; then have you the difference of 
 latitude and departure given to find the courfe and diftance 
 In the fitft example above fpecified, the firft courfe is S S E 
 30 miles, or two points 30 miles; for which I find the diffe- 
 rence of latitude 27:7. Now the courfe being between fouth 
 and eaft, I place my difference of latitude in the fouth column 
 and my departure 1, : 5 in the eaft column, leaving the north 
 and welt columns blank. 
 
 Then for the fecond courfe N. E. by N. or three points 40 
 miles, my difference of latitude, 33 : j i s to be placed in the 
 north column, and the departure 22 : 2 in the eaft column 
 bccaule the courfe is b:tween the north and eaft. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 T R A 
 
 Then the third courfe being E. by N. or feven points, 25 mil--, 
 I place my difference of latitude 4 : 9 in tb/nottn column 
 and departure 24:5, in thc „„ g^* 
 And fo for the lourth courfe N. N. E. or two points 44 mile,, 
 I place my difference of latitude ao : 6, in the' north column 
 and my departure ,6 : 8, in the eaii column ; then adding u^ 
 V:'™"'* ^ of ""thing column is 7 S : 8, and 
 from 1 ,h = f i^o"' 1 !™ is 27 : 7, „ h ich fubflrafled 
 from the northing 78:8, the remainder 5 , ■ ,, is the dif- 
 ference of latitude made good, which is northing,' becaufe the 
 northing was the greater number. 
 
 Again the fumV the eafting column is 75:0, which, 
 becaulc there « wefting to fubftiaeKrom it, istheeafline 
 made good. Thus you have the northing 5 r : ,', and the eaft? 
 mg 75 : o given, to find courfe and dntance; and thou-h von 
 cannot find in the table the exaft number of .- j ■ , ani f 7 - . „ 
 together, yet find the neareft you can, which is 75 • 4 and 
 5°: 9, over «m,ch at the top, you find 34 degrees for thc 
 courfe, which is N. E. by N. 0° ,j' eafterly .and the diftance 
 is 91 miles. 
 
 Traverse, in law, denote the denial of fome matter of fafl, 
 alledged to be done in a declaration, or pleajings; upon which 
 the other lidecommgand maintaining that it was done, Mue is 
 joined tor the caufe to proceed to trial. 
 
 The formal words of a traverfe are in thc law French, fan, 
 ceo, in Latin abfauehoc, in Englilli, wkhoM that, lie 
 An Anfwer fays Weft (fpeak.ngof bills in chancery) is that 
 which the defendant pleadeth or faith in bar to avoid the plain- 
 tiff s bill or adtion, either by confeffion and avoiding, or by 
 denying and traverfng the material parts thereof. A replica- 
 tion 1 ,s the plaintiff's reply to the defendant's anfwer, which 
 multaffirm and purfue his bill, and conlefs and avoid, denv or 
 travcrje the defendant's anfwer. 
 
 A plea is nought which neither traverfe, nor confeffeth the 
 p aintiff s title, (Sc. Every matter of faft alledged by the 
 plaintiff, may be traverjed by the defendant, but not matter 
 of law, or what is part matter of law, and part matter of 
 fa«; nor may a record be traverfe J, as this is not to be tried 
 by a jury. 
 
 If a matter be exprelly pleaded in the affirmative, which is ex- 
 prelly anfwered ,n the negative, r,o traverfe is necefi'ary, there 
 being a fufficient iffue joined: alfo where the defendant hath 
 given a particular anfwer in his plea, to all the material points 
 contained ,„ the declaration, he need not take a traverfe- for 
 that when the thing is anfwered, there needs no further denial. 
 
 1 raverse of an mdtBmm or preferment, is the contradiaine 
 or denying fome chief point of it, and taking iffue thereon. 
 See Indictment, and Presentment._T1.us, in a pre- 
 fentment againft a perfon for a highway overflowed with wa- 
 ter for default of fcouring a ditch, tie. he may either tra- 
 verfe the matte, ; hy alleging that there is 1,0 highway, or 
 that lhe ditchis filfficiently fcoured; or he may travel Z 
 caufe v,z. by alledging that he hath not the land, or that he 
 and they whole eftate, &c. have not ufed to cieanfe the ditch 
 
 Traverse of an office, ,«l the proving that an inquifition made 
 of lands or goods is defeflive, and untruly made 
 NoferfoMhall trevttfim office, unlefs he can make to him- 
 % g ° u" Z 1 " tle: a " d if ° nc bc admi «=d to IraverC, 
 
 Zt,r\ b ls ? ^"y <° »<™fi, fnppoii 
 
 the title to be m him, or elfe he cou'd have no caufe tc , „•„- 
 uerje. 
 
 Traverse is feme-times ufed in heraldry, fora partition of an 
 efeutcneon of the figure reprefented in Tab. Herald, fy. 90. 
 which they blazon parti per pal, traverfe, argent and gules 
 
 Traverse Tyles. See the article Tyle. 
 
 TRAVESTY, or Travesti, a term which fome late authors 
 have introduced into poetry: it is originally French, bein- a 
 participle of the word traveflir, to dilgiiife one's felf, or°to 
 appear in mafquerade. -Hence travefi, comes to be applied to 
 the disfiguring of an author, or the trauflating him into a 
 ftyleand manner different from his own ; by which means if 
 becomes difficult to know him. 
 
 G. Battifta Lalli has traveflied Virgil, or turned him into Ita- 
 lian burlefque verfe. Scarron has done the fame in French, 
 and Cotton and Phillip, in Englifh verfe. 
 Caftaho is, by fome, charged with having traveflied the facred 
 5*« °y reafa n of the difference of aii and ftyle between his 
 verlion and the original. 
 
 iRAUMATICS, tpatmatika, Vuherariet, or medicines 
 good for the healing of wounds. See Vulnerary and 
 Agglutinant. Healing, and Consolidation 
 
 TRAYL-BASTON, or Tra il .Baston. - Edward I in 
 his 32d year, lent out a new writ of inquifition, under this 
 
 • denomination, againft the intruders on other men's lands who 
 to opprefs the right owner, would make over their lands to 
 great men; againli batterers hired to beat men, breakers of 
 peace, rawfhers, incendiaries, fighters, falfe Affifors, and other 
 malefaaors: which inquifition was fo itrictly executed, and 
 fitch fines taken, that it brought in a world of t.eaiure to the 
 kin";. 
 
 ta S 
 
 Hencs 
 
T R E 
 
 Hence alfo juMfCts of trayt-bajkn t a denomination given to the 
 judges appointed to execute this commiffiun, either by reafon 
 of their fcvere and fummary way of proceeding, or becaufe a 
 ftaff was delivered them as the hadge of their office, and the 
 offenders were dragged before this jurifdic~Uon. 
 TRAYTOR, Traitor, Traditor, a betrayer of his 
 king and country, or one guilty of high treafon. See Trea- 
 
 TRAYTEROUS, or Traiterous Pojitim, is particularly 
 underftood of a tenet, which fome formerly held, of the le- 
 gality of taking arms by the king's authority againft his per- 
 fon, and thofe commiffioned by him: which is condemned by 
 ftatute i + Car. II. c. 3. 
 
 TREACLE, in pharmacy, 6fc. See Theriaca." 
 
 Treacle Water, Aqua Therlacalu, a compound cordial or 
 fpirituous water, diltillcd with a fpirituous menftruum from 
 many cordial and fudorifick drugs and herbs, with a mixture 
 of fome of the Theriaca Andromachi, or Venice treacle, 
 whence its name. 
 
 TREASON, Treachery, the aa or crime of infidelity to 
 one's lawful fovereign. 
 
 Treafon, in our laws, is of two forts, high and petty. 
 High Treason, or Treason paramount, is an offence com- 
 mitted againft the fecurity of the king or kingdom, whether 
 by imagination, word, or deed. — Such are, to compafsor ima- 
 gine the death of the king, queen, or prince; or to deflour 
 the king's wife, or his eldeft daughter unmarried, or his etdefi 
 fon's wife, or to levy war againft the king in his realms, to 
 adhere to his enemies, counterfeit his great ferf, or money, to 
 kill the king's chancellor, treafurer, juftices of either bench, 
 juftices in eyre, of affize, or of oyer and terminer, being m 
 their place during their office, diminifhing or impairing cur- 
 rent money : and faying that the king is a heretic or papift, or 
 intends to introduce popery, arm 13 Car. II. 
 It is a maxim, that in nuyori proditione, emits funt principals, 
 there are no acceffaries in high treafon, all are accounted prin- 
 cipals. 
 
 Alfo, that voluntas non reputabitur pro fa fig, nift in caufa pro- 
 ditionis, the will is never taken for the deed in any cale, but 
 in that of high treafm. 
 
 Though fome high treafons are much more heinous than ethers, 
 yet the punifhment appointment by law is the fame in all (clip- 
 ping and coining only excepted) which is, that the traitor be 
 laid upon a hurdle or fledge, drawn to the gallows, there hang- 
 ed, but cut c? own while alive, the entrails pulled out and burnt 
 before the criminal's face, then his head and quarters cut off, 
 and impaled where the king fhall judge meet.— Add to this, 
 that he forfeits all his lands and goods whatever to the king, 
 his wife lofes her dowry, and his children their nobility, and 
 all right of inheriting. 
 
 Even an ideot or lunatic, though judged incapable of mod 
 crimes, mail be punifhed as a traitor, if he go about to kill the 
 king. 
 
 For Petit or Petty Treason. See Petty Tree/on. 
 
 This kind gives forfeiture of lands by efcheat to the lord of the 
 fee. 
 
 There is alfo mention made of accumulate and conflrucl'tve trca- 
 
 fon, in the ftatute 14 Car. II. 
 Mifprifson of Treason. See the article Misprision. 
 TREASURE, Thefaurus, V«^©-, a ftore or flock of money 
 
 in refer ve. 
 
 T re a s u r E-Trove, q. d. trcafurc fund, in law, is when money, 
 gold, filver, plate, or bulloin, is found in the ground, in any 
 place, and none knows to whom it belongs. 
 This fhould naturally fall to the finder, but particular nations 
 have made particular provifions for it. — The Jews gave it the 
 proprietor of the place where it was found: the Roman juris- 
 prudence was various with regaYd hereto; fometimes it was 
 given to the mailer of the grounds, fometimes to the finder, 
 and fometimes it was adjudged to the public treafury. 
 In France and England the general ufage is to have fuch treafure 
 fequeftered to the king, unlefs where the benefit thereof is ex- 
 prefiy granted or made over by the king to fome other, as the 
 lord of the manour. 
 
 In fome places in France, it is divided into three parts, one for 
 the king, one for the proprietor of the land, and one for the 
 finder. 
 
 Briton fays, it is every fubjecVs part, as foon as he hath found 
 any treafure in the earth, to make it known to the coroner of 
 the county, C3V. 
 
 The punifhment for concealing treafure found in England, 
 is imprilbnment and fine; but if any mine of metal be found 
 in any ground, it always appertains to the lord of the foil, ex- 
 cept it be a mine of gold or filver, which anciently always be- 
 longed to theking, in whofe ground foever it were found: but 
 by an aft of parliament, the king now hath only the pre- 
 emption. 
 
 TREASURER, an officer to whom the treafure of a prince or 
 corporation is committed to be kept, and duly difpoled of in 
 payment of officers, and other expences. See Treasury. 
 Of thefe there is a great variety. — His majefly of Great-Britain, 
 in quality of elector of Bmnfwic, harch-treafurer of the Re- I 
 
 T R E 
 
 man Empire. — In the ftates of Poland are two grand-treafarcrs, 
 that of the kingdom of Poland, and that of thedu'xhy of Li- 
 thuania. 
 
 In England the principal officers under this denomination are 
 the lord high treafurer, the treafurer of the hou(lvAd, treafurer 
 of the navy, of the wardrobe, of the king's chamber, Esfc". 
 See Chamberlain, &c. 
 
 Anciently we had likewife a treafurer of the exchequer, trea- 
 furer of war, tiff. — In the Romiih couniries the title treafurer 
 is alfo given fomewhat abufively to an ecclefiaiHc, who has the 
 keeping of the relicks, and of the charters and archives of a 
 church or monaftery. 
 
 This dignity fucceeds, in fome meafure, feet-hat of the ancient 
 deacons, who had the like charge in the primitive church. 
 Lard High Treasurer of England, is the third great officer 
 of the crown ; under whofe charge and government is all the 
 king's revenue kept in the exchequer. 
 
 He receives the office by delivery of a white ftaff to him from ' 
 the king, and holds it during the king's pleafure: anciently he 
 received it by delivery of the golden keys of the treafury. 
 He has the check of all the officers any way employed in col- 
 lecting imports, cuftoms, tributes, or other revenues of the 
 crown. He has the gift of all the cuftomers, comptrollers 
 and fearchers places in all the ports of London, and the nomi- 
 nation of the tfcheators in every county. 
 He alone, (or others in commiftion with him,) lets leaks of 
 all the crown lands, gives warrants to certain perfons of quali- 
 ty to have their wine cuft om- free, tsfr. 
 
 The ancient falary was 383/. but of late is faid to have been 
 8000/. a-ycar. The office of lord treafurer is now in corn- 
 mi ffion. 
 
 Under Treasurer of England. See X]KDE&-Treafurer. 
 
 Treasurer of the.houjhold is an officer who, in the abkneeof 
 the lord fteward, has power, with the comptroller and other 
 officers of the green cloth, and the fteward of the Marflulfea, 
 to hear and determine treafons, felonies and other crimes com- 
 mitted within the king's palace. 
 
 Treasurer of the Navy, is an officer who receives money out 
 of the exchequer, by warrant from the lord high ti'eafurer, or 
 the lords commiffioners executing that place, and pays all 
 charges of the navy, by warrant from the principal officers of 
 the navy. 
 
 TREASURY', the place wherein the revenues of a princeare re- 
 ceived, preferved, and difburfed. 
 
 In England the treafury is a part of the Exchequer, by fome 
 called the lower exchequer. 
 
 The officers of bis majefty's treafury, or the lower exchequer, 
 are the lord treafurer, a chancellor, afecretary, two chamber- 
 lains, an auditor, four tellers, a clerc of the pells, ufhers of 
 the receipt, a tally-cutter, 6ftf, See each officer under his pro- 
 perarticle, Chancellor, Teller, Tally, &c. 
 At Rome, under the emperors, there were two kinds of trea- 
 furies, the one called ararium, wherein the monies deftined to 
 fupport the charges of the government were kept; the other 
 ffeus, wherein were preferved thofe intended for the particular 
 fubliftence of the emperor and his court. In efftdt the a*ra- 
 rium belonged to the people, and the fifcus to the prince. See 
 /Erariumj and Fiscus. 
 
 We have ftill a refcmblance of this difference among us, but 
 it is confounded in France, t&c. where the king difpofes abfo- 
 lutely of the public treafure, C3Y. 
 Lords of the Treasury. — In lieu of one fingle director and ad- 
 miniftrator of his majefty's revenues, under the title of h rd 
 high treafurer; it is frequently thought properto put that office 
 in cam mi ffion, i, t. to appoint feveral perfons to difcliarge it 
 with equal authority, under the title of lords commiffioners of 
 the treafury. 
 
 TREAT, in our old law-books, fignifies as much as taken out, 
 or withdrawn.— Thus a juror was challenged, becaufe he could 
 notdifpend 40/. and therefore was treat by the ftatute, or dif- 
 charged. Old. Nat. Br. 
 
 TREATISE, Tractatus, a fet difcourfe in writing on any 
 fubjea. 
 
 A treatife is fuppofed more exprefs, formal, and methodical 
 than an effay; but lefs fo than a fyftem. 
 TREATY, a covenant between feveral nations; or the feveral 
 articles or conditions ftipulated and agreed upon between fove- 
 reign powers. 
 
 There are treaties of peace, of marriage, of confederacy, of 
 neutrality, of capitulation, and of commerce and navigation. 
 The celebated treaties are thofe of Nimeguen, of Munfter, 
 of the Pyreneans, of Weftphalia, cf Rilwick, of Utrecht, 
 of Hanover, of Vienna, &c. 
 
 Treaties of commerce are ufually followed by various tatifs, to 
 adjuft the duties of exportation and importation of merchiui- 
 dizeb into therefpedtive dominions of the coot racling powers. 
 The great treaty of peace, commerce, navigation, C5"c be- 
 tween England and France, was figned at Utrecht the iff of 
 April 171 1, and confifts of 39 articles. 
 
 Guarantee cf a Treaty. See the article Guarantee. 
 
 TREBELLIANICA, or Trebellian Fourth, in the Reman 
 jurifprudence, aright belonging^ an heir inflituted by tefla- 
 
T R E T R E 
 
 ment. -—If the teftator, after appointing a full and general heir, 
 fpent and difpofed of all his effects in legacies; or if he went 
 ultra dodrantcm, beyond three fourths thereof, in that cafe 
 the heir was allowed to retrench and detain one fourth part of 
 the legacies to his own ufe. — This was called the Trcbellia- 
 nlca.- 1 
 
 In like manner, if the teftator charged his heir with a feoff- 
 ment of truft, and to reftore the inheritance to another ; in 
 that cafe, the heir might likewife retain a fourth of the whole 
 fucceflion, that the quality of heir might not be rendered 
 wholly vain and fruitlefs. 
 TREBLE, in mufic, the higheft or acuteft of the four parts in 
 fymphony, or that which is heard thecleareft and fhrflfefi in a 
 concert. 
 
 In the like fenfe we fay, ft ireble vioMtf, treble hautboy, &c. 
 In vocal mufic, the treble is ufually committed to boys and 
 girls. — Their part is the treble. 
 
 The treble is divided into firft. or higheft treble, and fecond or 
 bafe treble, — The half treble is the fame with the counter- 
 tenor. 
 
 TREBUCHET, Trehuchetum, a tumbler, ducking or 
 
 cucking-ftool. See Cucking-stool. 
 TREDECILE. See thearticle Aspect. 
 TREDDLE, or Treadle, Chalaza, in natural hiftory, a 
 
 part of an egg. See the article Chalaza. 
 TREE, Arbor i the firft and largeft thing of the vegetable kind, 
 
 confifting of a fingle trunk, out of which fpring forth branches 
 
 and leaves. 
 
 Standards, or Trees hi full air, are fuch as naturally rife a 
 great height, and are not topped. — For the choice of trees of 
 this kind to be tranfplanted out of a nurfery, Quintiney re- 
 commends us to fuch as are ftraight, fix foot high at leaft, and 
 Jive or fix inches thick at bottom, and three or four at top; 
 the bark pretty fmooth and fliining, as a token of their youth, 
 and of the good foil they grew in. 
 
 Dwarf Trees, are fuch as are kept low, and never fufFered to 
 have above half a foot of ftem. — Thefe are ufed to be kept 
 vacant or hollow in the middle, that the branches fprcad- 
 ing round about the fides may form a kind of round bowl or 
 bum. 
 
 Wall Trees, are thofe whofe branches are ftretched out, and 
 nailed agamft walls. 
 
 For dwarf and wall trees, fuch are to be chofe out of the nurfe- 
 ry for tranfplantation, as are ftraight, and con fi ft of a fingle 
 item, and a fingle graft, rather than two or three grafts in fe- 
 veral branches: their thicknefs at bottom, when remov'd, 
 fhould be two or three inches. 
 
 Fruit Trees, are fuch as bear fruit. See the article Fruit. 
 
 Timber Trees, are thofe whofe trunks arc tall and ftraight, 
 whereof beams, mafts, fsrVr. arc ufed to be made. 
 
 Coniferous Trees, are thofe whofe fruit is of a conical figure, as 
 the pine, fir, larch, &c. — Thefe are alfo called rejtnifcrous, 
 byreafon that coniferous trees are generally covered with a bark 
 that abounds in refin. 
 
 Mr. Ray, and other authors, fpeak of fevcral trees of prodi- 
 gious bulk. — The jefuit d'Acofta, in his hiftory of the Indies, 
 lib. 4. c. 3. mentions a hollow tree at Tlacocharaya, three 
 leagues from Gauxa in New Spain, nine fathom within-fide 
 near the ground, and fixteen without-fide. He adds, that it 
 is under this tree the barbarians affembled to perform their re- 
 ligious ceremonies, dance round their idols, GrV, — Herrera 
 mentions another, which fixteen men, joining hands, could 
 not fathom. — And F. Kircher, in his Latium, p. 50. affirms, 
 he has fcen a tree near Gonzano which would lodge a whole 
 family of 25 perfons in its cavity. The common people had 
 a tradition, that this was planted by Auguftus. 
 In the Indies there are very large forefts confifting only of a 
 fingle tree, whofe branches falling to the ground, take root, 
 and put forth new trees: the Indian fig tree and paretuvier are 
 of this kind. 
 
 M. Lonvillers mentions trees in Peru, one part of whofe 
 branches produce fruit one half the year, and the other part the 
 other half. — In China there is a tree which bears tallow, 
 whereof that nation make their candles. Sec Tallow. 
 There are two or three very remarkable phcenomena in the 
 growth of trees, which have efcaped the obfervation of the na- 
 turalifts of all ages, except thofe of our own : thefe are the 
 perpendicularity of their trunks, or items, to the horizon, 
 and the parallelifm of their tufts to thefpotof earth they grow 
 on. An account of each, fee under the articles Perpendi- 
 cularity, and Parallelism. 
 
 lor the planting, transplanting, femination, pruning, felling, 
 grafting, fhrowding, barking, &c. of trees ; fee the refpedtive 
 articles, Planting, Transplanting, Semination, 
 Pruning, Engrafting, fife" 
 
 Mr, Ray diftinguifhes the trees and fhrubs of our native growth 
 in England, into, I. Such as have tbeir flower disjoined, and 
 remote from the fruit: — which are, 
 
 i°. The Nuciferous Trees, or fuch as bear nuts: as the walnut 
 tree, the hazle-nut tree, the beach, the chcftiut, and the com- 
 mon oak. 
 
 2 Coniferous Tsees, or fuch as bear a fquammous or fcaly 
 fruit, of a conical figure, and a woody or hard Jubilance, in 
 whjch are many feeds, which, when they are ripe, the cone 
 opens or gapes tn all its feveral cells or partitions, and lets tbera 
 drop out: of this kind are the Scotch firs, male and female J 
 the ptnc, which, in our gardens is called the.Scotch fjr; the 
 common alder tree, and the birth tree. 
 
 3 0 . Baccifcrous Trees, or fuch as bear berries; as the juniper 
 and yew trees. 
 
 4°. Lanigerous Trees, or fuch as bear a woolly, downy 
 fubrtance: as the black, white, and trembling poplar, and wil- 
 lows, andofiers of all kinds. 
 
 5°. Trees which bear their feeds, (having an imperfect 
 flower) in leafy membranes and cafes : as, the horn-beam, or 
 hard-beam, called in fome places die horn beech. 
 II. Such as have tbeir fruits and flowers contiguous: which 
 are either with the flower placed on the top oAhe fruit, or 
 adhering to the bafe or bottom of the fruit. 
 Of the former kind, fome are pemferoui, as apples and pears; 
 and fome bacciferous, as the furb or fervice tree, the white 
 thorn or haw-thorn, the wild rofe, fweet brier, currants, the 
 great bilbery-bufh, honey-fuckle, ivy, &c. 
 The latter kind are either fuch as have their fruit moijl and 
 f oft when ripe, as — i". Prunifcrous ones, whofe fruit is pretty 
 large and foft, with a ftone in the middle; as the black thorn 
 or floe tree, the black and white buliace tree, the common wild 
 cherry, the black cherry, b'c. 
 
 2°. Baceiferous Trees, as the ftrawberry tree, common in 
 the weft of Ireland, mifietoe, water elder, the dwarf or 
 fpurge-laurcl, the viburnum or way-faring tree, the dog'rerry 
 tree, the fea black thorn, the berry-bearing elder, the privet, 
 barberry, common elder, the holly, the buckthorn, the berry- 
 bearing heath, the bramble, and the fpindle tree or prickwood. 
 Or fuch as have their fruit dry when ripe; as the bladder-nut 
 tree, the box tree, the common elm and afh, the maple, the 
 gaule or fweet willow, common heath-broom, dyers weed, 
 furze orgorfe, and the lime tree. 
 
 Heart of a Tree, 1 „ 5 Heart. 
 
 Parallelifm of rows of Trees, 5 I Par al lelism. 
 
 Diana's Trre, arbor Diana, among the chymills, is a kind of 
 metalline vegetation, which moots out into brancher, with the 
 appearance of leaves, and even flowers. See Supplement, arti- 
 cle Dian;e Arbor, 
 
 Tree of Mars, arbor Martis, is another very lingular vegeta- 
 tion, firft difcovered accidentally by the younger Lemery, 
 See Supplement, article Martis Arbor, 
 
 Dormant-Tn.EE, ? Q f Dormant. 
 
 £<-Trei-;s, X bee \ Roof. 
 
 TREFOIL. See the article Trifolium. 
 
 TREMOR, Tr emu ling, in medicine, a difeafe nearly a- 
 kin to a convulfton, wherein there is fomething of a convul- 
 five motion or linking, accompanying a voluntary or natural 
 motion. 
 
 A tremor is frequently found to arife upon the more violent paf- 
 fions, particularly anger, gluttony, venery, tfc. but this is 
 accidental and tranfitory. 
 
 A tremor is fometimes apt to degenerate into other worfe dif- 
 eafes, viz. palfey, apoplexy, lethargy, fpafmus, tfc. In old 
 men it is incurable. 
 
 The medicine commonly made ufe of in tremors, and other 
 nervous diftempers, by the name of palfy drops, is no other 
 than the compound fpirit of lavender. The m oft fuccefsful 
 way of ufing it, is by taking 30 or 40 drops twice or thrice a 
 day, dropton loaf fugar or a little bread. It is fuppofed, that 
 by this way the mod Ipirituous and efficacious parts make their 
 way dire£tly by the nerves of the palate, &c, without under- 
 going thecourfe of the circulation, as it mult do when taken 
 in a liquid vehicle. 
 
 Tremor of the heart. See the article Palpitation. 
 
 TRENCH, a ditch cut, or dug in the ground, to drain oft* the 
 waters in a meadow, a morafs, or the like; or to divert the 
 courfe of a river. 
 
 Many of the bogs in Ireland have been drained, and made 
 good ground, by only digging trenches around them. 
 Trenches, in fortification, are ditches which the brfiegers cut 
 to approach more fecurely to the place attacked ; whence they 
 are alfo called lines of approach,— -See Tab, Foriif. fig, 21. 
 n. 11, &c 
 
 They fay, mount the trenches, that is, go upon duty in them.— 
 To relieve the trenches, is to relieve fuch as have been upon du- 
 ty there. 
 
 The enemy is faid to have chared the trenches, when they 
 have driven away, 01 killed the foldiers who guarded them. 
 Taslof the Trench, is the pla:e where it was begun. — And the 
 head that to which it was carried. 
 
 Trenches are of feveral forts, according to the nature of the 
 foil: if the adjacent territory be rockv, the trench is onlv an 
 elevation of bavins, gabions, wool-packs, or epaulements of 
 earth, caft round about the place — but where th^ ground may 
 be eafily opened, the trench is dug therein, and bordered with 
 a parapet on the fide of the befieged. 
 
 Ths 
 
TRE 
 
 The breadth of the trenches is from eight to ten foot, and 
 the depth from fix to feven ; they are cut in talus, or 
 
 aflope. , ....... . c 
 
 The trenches are to be carried on with winding-lines, in lome 
 manner parallel to the works of the fortrefs, fo as net to be in 
 view of the enemy, nor to expofe their length to the enemy s 
 ihot: for then they will be in danger of being enfiladed, 
 or fcoured by the enemy's cannon: this carrying of the 
 trenches obliquely, they call carrying them by coudees, or 
 
 when the befiegers begin to work 
 
 returns. 
 Opening the TRENCHE-, - 
 
 upon the line of approaches; which is ufually done in the 
 night; fometimes within mufket-fhot, and fometimes within 
 half, or only whole cannon-fhot of the place, if there be no 
 rifing ground about it, thegarrifon ftrong, and their cannon 
 well ferved. 
 
 The workmen that open the trenches are always fupported by 
 bodies of men againft the faliies of the befieged; and fome- 
 times thofe bodies lie between them and the place, as aifo on 
 their right and left. 
 
 The pioneers fometimes work on their knees: and the men 
 
 that are to fupport them lie fiat on their faces, in order to 
 
 avoid the enemy's fhot; and the pioneers are like wife ufually 
 
 covered with mantelets, or fauciffons. 
 To Trench the ballajl, is a fea phrafe, fignifying to divide the 
 
 ballaft into feveral trenches in a fhip's hold. ( 
 TRENCHE', in heraldry. See the article Tranche'. 
 TRENCHING-iVswfAj is an inftrument for cutting out the 
 
 fides of trenches and drains, or the fides of turf, fcftf. See 
 
 Plough. 
 
 TRENTAL, Tricintal, or Tricennal, a Rom ifh of- 
 fice for the dead, confifting of thirty mafles, rehearfed for 
 thirty days fuceefEvely after the party's death. 
 The trental is thus called from the Italian, trenta, tH&nta, 
 ihirty.~lt is mentioned anno pftmo Ed. VI. Et vols, fef ordino, 
 quod executores met ordinant feu ordinare faciunt warn trental 
 pro falute anima me a. 
 
 TREPANUM, Trepan a chirurgeon's inftrument, ferving 
 to perforate a bone, efpecially that of the cranium, and ufed 
 in the operation of trepanning. 
 
 It isalfo called abaptijlon, anabaptijlen, modiolus* tertbra, tere- 
 bellum. — Abaptijlon, from a privative, and (Wlifw, to dip; as 
 having a broad circle over its point, to prevent it, in the ope- 
 ration of trepanning, from penetrating through the mem- 
 branes that inveft the brain. — Modiolus, from modus, a mea- 
 fure; being contrived to enter only to acertain depth. — Terc- 
 bra'i EsV. from nqw, to bore. 
 
 It is in form of a terebellum, or fmall wimble, only that it is 
 indented, and made fomewhat in manner of a round faw. 
 It ferves for the cure of wounds, contufions and fractures of the 
 cranium, when they do not go beyond the fecond table; for 
 by means hereof, an amputation or exfoliation is made of what 
 part, or quantity of a bone one pleafes, and a way is open'd 
 for the raifing depreffions. 
 
 It has ufually a fharp point in the middle of its circumference, 
 ferving to keep it firm and fteady during the operation. — It 
 fhould alfo have a kind of cope to rife and falUs occafion re- 
 quires, that it may not go deeper than is neceflary. 
 There are alfo two-pointed trepans* others triangular, qua- 
 drangular, and hexagonal made for the cure of a caries of the 
 bones. — There are alfo perforative trepans* and exfoliative 
 ones. See Exfoliation. 
 TREPANNING, in chirurgery, the operation of relieving cuts, 
 contufions, caries's, and fractures in the (bull, by means of an 
 inftrument called the trepanum. 
 
 Trepanning is a very dangerous and difficult operation ; and is 
 not to be ufed, unlefs when the chips and prominences of the 
 bones prick the tender parts; when the upper table is en- 
 tire, but deprefTed, and the lower broken; and when the 
 extravafated blood would endanger the perfon's being fuf- 
 focated. 
 
 The manner of trepanning or opening thefcull, is thus: the 
 hairs beings fhaven off, the fkin is to be cut through to the 
 pericranium, avoiding, as much as poffible, the mufcles of 
 the temples, and the futures of the fcull : and for this time 
 the wound is to be bound up; unlefs there be fo little blood 
 fpilt, that the pericranium may at the fame time be pulled up 
 from the bone. 
 
 After a few hours, flop the patient's ears, and take one of the 
 inftruments called a male trepanum, or modiolus ; fix its point 
 in the fcull, but fo far off the fracture, that it touch it not, 
 muchlefs the future, with its teeth; though fome furgeons do 
 not mind to avoid the futures, but affure us, they have per- 
 forated them as fuccefsfully as any other part. 
 Then bold the inftrument fa ft wit!} the left hand, turn it 
 round with the right, till you have cut a pretty deep hole : 
 after this take a female trepanum, which has no point in the 
 middle, or take the point out of the other, and turn it round 
 as before: in the mean time, take away the duff, or chips that 
 proceed from the perforation, and moiflen the illftrunicnt in 
 oil and water to make it cool and flippery. 
 
 T R I 
 
 The blood appearing, will fhew when you are gone as deep 
 as to the dura mater; in which cafe you mult prefs very gent- 
 ly, left that membrane be unadvifedly hurt. 
 When the bone begins to move, put fomething in between the 
 fides of the wound ; loofen it, and take it out with a pair of 
 furgeon's pincers, or forceps. 
 
 After the operation is over, the part is to be wafhed gently 
 with weak red wine, and proper dreffings are to be pplied 
 thereon, as honey of rofes, arceus liniment, oil of St. John's 
 wort, &c. — If the dura mater be corrupted, a.ld, as occadon 
 requires, fpirit of wine, tincture of myrrh and aloes, Venice 
 turpentine, mel /Egyptiacuni, &fff. 
 
 Mr. Cbelelden takes notice, that the finus's and fpine of 
 the os frontis, make it very dangerous, if not impracti- 
 cable, to apply a trepanum to the middle and lower part 
 of the forehead. 
 
 TREPIDATION, in medicine, a tremor, or trembling of 
 the nerves and members of the body. See Tremor. 
 The firft fymptom of madnefs in dogs, is a trepidation of the 
 limbs, i<;. , , iXjftj 
 
 Trepidation, in the ancient aftrronomy, denotes what they 
 call'd a libration of the eight!) fpbere; or a motion which the 
 Ptolemaic fyftem attributed to the firmament, to account lor 
 certain aimoft infenfible changes and motions obferved in the 
 axis of the world; by means whereof the latitudes of the fixed 
 fiars come to be gradually changed, and the ecliptic feema to. 
 approach reciprocally, firft towards one pole, then towards 
 the other. . 
 This motion is alfo called the motion of the firft Iibration. 
 See Libration, and Titubation. 
 
 TRESPASS, inlaw, fignifies any tranfgreffion of the law, un- 
 der treafon, felony, or m;fpriiion of treafon. 
 For a lord of parliament to depart from thence without the 
 king's licence, is neither treafon, nor felony, but it is Trefpajs, 
 Staundford, PL Cor. 
 
 Trespass, however, is moll commonly ufed either for that 
 wrong or damage which is done to the king in his foreft, or 
 by one private man to another. 
 
 In this fenfe it is of two forts: trefpafs general, otherwife 
 called trefpafs vi fcf armis, where force or violence is ufed 
 
 and trefpafs fpecial, otherwife called trefpafs upon the 
 
 cafe; which fhould be that done without force. See Ac- 
 tion on the cafe. — Bat the two fpecies are fometimes con- 
 founded. 
 
 In an action of trefpafs, the plaintiff always fiies for damages, 
 or the value of the hurt done him by the defendant. 
 Trefpafs is alfo divided into local and tranfiiory. 
 
 Trespass local, is that which is fo annexed to the place certain, 
 that if the defendant join iffue upon a place, and traverfe the 
 place mentioned in the declaration, and aver it; it is enough 
 to defeat the action. See Locac. 
 
 Trespass tranfitory, is that which cannot be defeated by the 
 defendant's traverfe of the place, becaufe the place is not ma- 
 terial. 
 
 The action of trefpafs, quare claufum fregit, ought to be 
 
 local. 
 
 TRESSURE, in heraldry, a diminutive of anorle, ufually fup- 
 pofed to be half the breadth thereof. 
 
 It is ufually borne flory, and counter-flory ; and fometimes 
 double, as in Tab. Herald, fg. 8j. and fometimes triple. 
 
 TRESTLE, Tressel, or Trussel, is explained by Min- 
 fhieu to be a three-footed ftool; or more particularly a 
 wooden frame or ftand to bear up tables fcaflblJs, or the 
 like. ■ & '-' 
 
 TRET, in commerce, an allowance made for the wafte, 
 or the duft that may be mixed with any commodity; 
 which is always 4 pounds in every 104. pounds weight. 
 See Tare. 
 
 TREUGA Dei, Treve de Dieu. See Truce of God. 
 
 TRIA prima, among chymifts, the three hypoftatical princi- 
 ples, viz. fait, fulphur, and mercury; of which they hold 
 all bodies to be primarily made, and into which they are all 
 held refolvable by fire. 
 
 TRIAD, Trias, tpias, a term fometimes ufed for a trinity. 
 SeeTRiAs, and Trinity. 
 
 TRIAL, in law, the examination of any caufe, whether civil 
 or criminal, according to the laws of the realm, before a pro- 
 per judge. 
 
 Of this there are divers kinds: matters of fact, e. gr. being 
 to be tried by the jurors; matters of law by the juftice; and 
 matters of record by the record itfelf. 
 
 A lord of parliament, indicted of treafon or felony, mail he 
 tried, without any oath, by his peers, upon their honours and 
 allegiance; but in appeal, at the (uit of any fubject, they fliaH 
 be tried per bonas & legates homines. 
 
 If ancient demefne be pleaded of a manour, and denied, this 
 fhall be tried by the record of domefday. 
 Baftardy, excommunication, lawfulnefs of marmge, and other 
 ecclefiaftical matters, fhall be tried by the bifhop's certificate. 
 Before trial in a criminal cafe, It is ufual to alk the criminal 
 how he will be tried; which was anciently a very pertinent 
 j queftion a 
 
T R I 
 
 queftion, though not fo now ; in regard there were formerly 
 feveral ways of trial, viz. by battle, ordeals, and jury. 
 When the criminal anfwered, by God and his country, it 
 fliewed he made choice to be tried by a jury.— But there is 
 now no other way of trial, — This is alfo called trying per pais, 
 or per patriam. 
 
 For the ancient manner of trial by combat, and great affizc, 
 fee Combat. 
 
 TRIANGLE, in geometry, a figure comprehended under three 
 lines, or fides, and which of confequence has three angles. 
 If the three lines or fides of the triangle be all right, it is faid to 
 be a plain or reclilinear triangle. 
 
 . If all the three fides of the triangle be equal (as ABC, Tab. 
 Geometry, Jig. 68.) it is faid to be equilateral. 
 If only two of the fides of the triangle be equal (as in D E F, 
 fig. 69.) it is called an ifafceles, or eqmcrural triangle. See 
 Isosceles, &c. 
 
 If all the fides of the triangle be unequal to each other (as in 
 ACB, jig. 70.) the triangle is faid to be fcalenous. Sec Sca- 
 lenus. 
 
 If one of the angles as K, (jig. 71.) of a triangle KM L 
 be a right angle, the triangle is faid to be rectangular. 
 If one of the angles as N, {jig. 72.) be obtufe, the triangle is 
 faid to be obtujangular, or amblygonous. 
 
 If all the angles be acute, as in A CB {jig. 68.) the triangle 
 is faid to be acut angular , or oxygenous. 
 
 If the three lines of the triangle be all curves, the triangle is 
 faid to be curvilinear. 
 
 If fome of the fides be right, and others curve, the angle is 
 faid to be mixtilinear. 
 
 If the fides be all arches of great circles of the fphere, the 
 triangle is faid to be jpherkal. See each under its proper head, 
 Rectilinear, isc. 
 
 Similar Triangles, ■ 
 Bafe of a Triangle, 
 Camn of Tri angle, 
 Legi of a Triangle, 
 
 =Sec the articles 
 
 /-Similar. 
 )Base. 
 j Ca non. 
 * Legs. 
 
 Conjlriitlion <j/"Tiii angles — 1. Two fides, as A B and AC, 
 jig- 73- being given in numbers, or otherwife, together with 
 the quantity of the angle intercepted between them, A ; to 
 conftrufl a triangle — affiime A B as a bafe ; and in A make 
 the given angle : on the other leg fet off the other given line 
 A C ; laftly, draw B C : then will A B C be the triangle re- 
 quired. 
 
 Hence, two fides with the intercepted angle being determined, 
 the whole triangle is determined. — Wherefore, if in two tri- 
 angles ACB and 4 c b ; a~A ; and a b : a c : : A B : A C, 
 the triangles are determined in the fame manner, and are there- 
 fore fimilar ; confequently c—C and b—B. a b M b c - • A B ■ 
 BC, &c. 
 
 2. Three fides, AB, B C, and C A, fig. 68. being given, any 
 two whereof, as A C, A B, taken together, are greater than 
 the third, to conftru£t a triangle.— Affume A B for a bafe ; 
 and from A, with the interval AC, defcribe an arch y ; and 
 from B, with the interval BC, defcribe another arch x : draw 
 the right lines A C and B C- Thus is the triangle conftrufled. 
 Hence, as of any three given right lines, only one triangle can 
 be conftru6led ; by determining the three fides, the whole tri- 
 angle is determined. 
 
 Wherefore, if in two triangles ACB and aeb {jig. 73.) A C : 
 AB : : a c : a b ; AC:CB : : a c : b c ; the triangles are de- 
 termined in the fame manner, and confequently are fimilar, 
 and therefore mutually equiangular. 
 
 3. A right line, as AB, and two adjacent angles A and B, 
 which, taken together, arc lefs than two right ones, being 
 given ; to defcribe the triangle A B C. — On the given line AB, 
 make the two given angles A and B : continue the fides A C 
 and B C till they meet in C. Then will A B C be the trian- 
 gle required. 
 
 Hence, one fide and two angles being given, the whole tri- 
 angle is determined.- — Wherefore, if in two triangles A— a 
 and B=i, the triangles are determined after the fame manner, 
 and therefore are fimilar. 
 Jlfenfuration o/Triangles.— To find the area of a triangle, 
 multiply the bafe A B, jig. 74. by the altitude C d ; half the 
 product is the area of the triangle ABC. 
 Or thus : multiply half the bafe AB by the altitude Qd; or 
 the whole bafe by half the altitude ; the product is the area of 
 the triangle. 
 
 .gr. AB= 3 42 
 C ^=234 
 
 136S 
 3026 
 
 2) 80028 ( 
 
 AB= 3+ z 
 ;CD=n 7 
 
 2 394 
 34* 
 342 
 
 40014 
 
 I A 2=17 1 
 Crf =23+ 
 
 513 
 
 342 
 
 areas 40014 
 Vol. II. 
 
 t ft i 
 
 tJif, the area of any triangle is had by adding all the 
 £?" "I «»* half the |&j an/from ha half 
 
 fat fubtraflmg each fide feverally, and multiply,^ tin 
 
 "l 1 " th ,' "ercoh«i„ U afiy into or* 3 
 extracting the f S uare root of the product 
 Hence ,. If between the bale, and half the altitude j or be- 
 tween the altitude and half the bafe, be found a mea pro- 
 Por tional , ,t w, 11 be the fide of a r q „ m eqU2l t0 .he^LT 
 
 2. If the area of a trtangl, be divided by half the b£f iL 
 quotient Is the altitude. ' ' 
 
 2 If one fide of a fcttb* ABC (fig. j;.) fcj cominued to p 
 he external angle DA B Will be greater than either of .he in 
 tcmal oppofite ones B or C. 
 
 3. In every triple, the greatcft fide is oppofed to thegreareft 
 angle, and the leaft to the leaf}, ""-grea.elt 
 
 tW ° fit ' es :a!;cn together are greater 
 5. If in two triangles, the feveral fides of the one be reflec- 
 tively equal ,0 the fides of the other, the angles will litewifc 
 be efpca.vey equal ; and confequently ,he° whole trS lt 
 will be equal and fimilar. 11 
 
 inucdtoD the external angle D O A will be coual to the 
 two internal oppolite ones y and i taken together 
 7 . In every thmgle as A BC, the three angles A, B, C, taken 
 together, are equal to two right ones, or [8o« 
 Hence, r If the triangk be rcflangular, asMKL ffi- ,,1 
 the two oblique angles M and L, taken together, ^'a'ke a 
 right angle or g0 » , and therefore are half right, if the in- 
 avgle be ifofceles -2. If one angle of a triable be oblique, 
 the other two taken together are oblique likewife.-,. In an 
 equilateral tnangh, «ch angle is 6oV~i.. If one anele of a 
 
 *Tt fr ° m ,S ° ! ' *"- ai nde s 
 
 he other two , and ,1 the fum of two be fubtraaed from ■ 8o 
 the reminder 1, the th§U S . If mo angles of one IrilngU 
 be equal to two of another, either together or feparateh t- 
 third of the one mud be likewife equal to the Ihird of the other 
 —p. bmce in an ilolceles :nam-l, DFE I fir fin 1 rt..- I 
 the bafe y and d are equal j if the 
 
 traaedfrom , 8o% and the remainder be divided by 9 the 
 quot,ent n the quantity of each of the equal angl J: in like 
 2 f f the d °" b!c ,° f °"= of «>e angles at L bafey o 
 fob ,aaed from iSo, tile remainder is the quamily of the 
 angle at the vertex. w ' we 
 
 A — a and B = i; then will AC = „, BC = i, C — /■ 
 and the frr^ ACB equal and fimilar to the trio*/, a b c -'- 
 inn tw ° "-""'£'"> ACBand„ c i, A = «, B-i 
 and BC = K-; then will C = „ conf^ntly & = 
 A B =ai; and the frwwi A CB = 1 , i 
 9. If in a DFE the angles at the bafe « and *. & 6q. 
 
 be equal, the , rM „^ is Iftfe^. confequendy, if thi* h ,« 
 angles be equal, it is equilateral. 
 
 JI. Every tna.gk is infcribable in a circle. SeeCmcLE. 
 12. I he fide o an equilateral (na^t, in f cribcd in ; ( 
 is in power triple of the radius. See Ra di us 
 '3- on the fame bafe, and having the fam- hei.ht 
 
 ^i':' t&szz? farae M »^ 
 
 lelogram A C D B on the fame, or an equal bafe C D, and of 
 
 s equal to a parallelogram upon the fame bafe, but half the 
 altitude; or half the bafe, and the fame altitude. See Pa- 
 rallelogram. 
 
 I S . In every triangle, as well plain as fpherical, the fines of 
 the fides are proportional to the fine, of the oppofite angles 
 IK In every plain triangle, as the fum of two fides is to their 
 difference, fo h the tangent of half the fum of the oporfie 
 angles, to the tangent of half .heir difference. See Tangent 
 17- If a perpendicular be let fall upon the bale of an oblique 
 angled triangle,- the difference of the fquarcs of .he fides is 
 equal to double the reBanglc under the bafe, and to the dif- 
 tancc of the perpendicular from the middle of .he bafe 
 1 8. The fides of a triangle are cut proportionably, by a lire 
 drawn parallel lo the bafe. ' 
 19 A whole triangle, is to z triangle cut off bv a right line, 
 
 other twt S£ " ' " ' ' ,0 <hC rci,a " g ' e ° f ,he 
 20. In a right lined triangle a line drawn from the right an»le 
 at the top perpendicular to the hypothenufe, divides the triangle 
 into two other right lined triangle,, which are fimilar to the 
 tirit triangle, and alfo to one another. 
 
 12 T 
 
T R I 
 
 si. In eveiy light-angled lriatif.lt, the fquare of ihe hypothe- 
 nufe is equal lo the fum of the fquares of the other two fides. 
 See Hypothenuse. 
 
 zz. If any angle of a triangle be bifftdted, the bifltflmg ll»e 
 will divide the oppofite fi Jc, in the fame proportion as the legs 
 of the angle are to one another. See Bissection. 
 23. If the vertical angle of any triangle be biftecled, the dif- 
 ference of the reflangles, made by the tides and the I'egments 
 of the bafe, is equal to the fquare of the line that biflias the 
 
 24! a right line BE (fig. 78.) biflect an angle ABC of a 
 triangle, the fquare of the faid line B E=A B+B C A h 
 -4-E C. Newt. Jrith. Utiiverf. 
 
 To divide a triangle into any given number of equal parts,— 
 divide the bafe CD (fig. 77. >i. t.) into as many equal parts as the 
 figure is to be divided into ; and d r aw the lines A i, A 2, We. 
 
 Rename of a Triangle, > - {Resistance. 
 
 CbaraSrriJiic Triangle, $ {Characteristic. 
 
 Properties of fpherieal Triangles. Sec Spherical Triangle. 
 
 Triangle, in trigonometry.— The folution or analyfis of tri- 
 angles, is the bufinefs of trigonometry. See Trigonometry. 
 The fevcial cafes thereof are reducible to the following pro- 
 ^ ems " 
 
 Solution of plane Triangles.— 1. Two angles A and C (lab. 
 Trigonometry, Jig. 27.) being given, together with fide A B 
 oppofiteto one of them, C; to find the faid BCoppofite to the 
 other, A. — The rule or canon is this : as the fine of the angle 
 C, is to the given fide A B, oppofite to the fame ; fa is the 
 fine of the other angle A, to the fide required. The fide 
 BC, therefore, is commodioufiy found by the logarithms, 
 fiom the rule given for rinding a fourth proportional to 3 num- 
 bers given. See Logarithm. 
 
 For an example: fuppofc C = 48° 35', A=S7? 28, 
 AB— 74'. The operation will ftand thus : 
 
 Log. of fine of C 9.8750142 
 
 Log. of A B 1.8692317 
 
 Log. of fine of A 9.9258681 
 
 Sum of log. of A B? 
 and of fine of A3 
 
 795° 
 
 Log. of BC 1.9200856. The number cor- 
 
 refponding to which, in the table of logarithms, is S3, the 
 quantity of the fide fought. 
 
 2. Two fides A B and B C, together with the angle C, op- 
 pofite to one of them given ; to find the other angles A and B — 
 The rule is this : as one fide AB is to the fine of the given 
 angle oppofite thereto C ; fo is the other Side B C, to the fine 
 of the angle required oppofite thereto. 
 Ji.gr. fuppofe AB = 94', BC=6 9 ', C^72° 15'. 
 Log. of AB i-973i 2 79 
 
 Log. of fine of C 9.978S175 
 Log. of BC 
 
 Log. of fine of A 9.9444387. The number cor- 
 refponding to which, in the table of logarithms,, is 6r° 37'. 
 Now the given angle C being 72° 15', the fum of the two 
 133" 52' fubtracted from 180, the fum of the three, gives 
 46" 8 for the other angle, fought B. 
 
 In like manner, fuppofe, in a right angled triangle, (fig. 28.) 
 that befide the right angle, A, is given the hypothenufe B C, 
 49, and the cathetus A C, 36, to find the angle B i then will 
 the operation fraud thus : 
 
 Log. of BC 1.6901961 
 
 Log. of whole fine 1 0.0000000 
 
 Log. of AC 1.5563025 
 
 Log. of fine of B 9.8661064. The correfpond- 
 ing number to which, in the table of logarithms, is 47° 16' ; 
 confequently, C = 42 B 44'. 
 
 I. Two fides B A and AC, together with the included angle 
 A being given ; to find the two remaining angles.— I. If the 
 triangle A B C be rectangular} take one of the fides including 
 the right angle, as A B, for radius ; then will C A be the 
 tangent of the oppofite angle B: the rule then is — As one leg 
 A B, is to the other AC; fo is the whole fine to the tangent 
 of the angle B. 
 
 E. gr. fuppofe B A 79, and AC 54 ; 
 Log. of B A 1.8976871 
 Log. of AC 1.7323938 
 Log. of whole fine 10.0000000 
 
 Log. of tang, of B 9.S347667J the correfponding 
 number to which, in the table of logarithms, is 34 0 21'; 
 confequently the angle C is 55° jo';.' 
 
 II. If the angle A be oblique (fig. 27.} the rule is ; as the fum 
 of the given fides A B and A C (fig, 29. ) is to their difference ; 
 fo is the tangent of hall" the fum of the fought angles C and B, 
 to the tangent of half the difference. Adding, therefore, the 
 half difference, to the half fum ; the aggregate will be the 
 greattr angle C; and fubtrafling the half difference from the 
 half fum the remainder is the lefs angle B. 
 
 T R I 
 
 E. gr. fuppofe AB=7s', AC 58', A 108° 24*; then will 
 
 A B 75 AB 75 A + B + C 179° 60' 
 
 AC 58 AC 58 A 108 24 
 
 Sum 133 differ. 17 B + C 71 36 
 
 i(B+C;u 48 
 Log. of AB + AC 2.123S516 
 Log. ofAB — AC 1.2304489 
 Log. of tang. I (B+C) 9. 8580694 
 
 Sum of lugg. 12.0885183 
 Log.oftang. i (C— BJ8.9646667.ThecorrcQiondiii£iiuin- 
 ber to which is 5" 16. 
 
 i(B + C)= 3 5 J 48' HB+C)^55" 4 s' 
 
 ■ fC — BJ = 5 0 16' 1- (C — B) — 5 0 16' 
 
 C = 4 r 4 B = 30 32 
 
 4. The three fides, A B, B C and C A (Jig. 30.) being 
 given, to find the angle A, B and C. — From the vertex of 
 the angle A, with the extent of the lcaft fide A B, defcribe a 
 circle : then will C D be—the fum of the legs A C and A B ; 
 and C F their difference. — The rule then is, 
 As the bafe B C is to the fum of the legs CD; fo is the dif- 
 ference of the legs C F, to the fegmcnt of the bafe CG. — 
 This fegment, thus found, being fubtracted from the bafe 
 C B, the remainder is the chord G B. Then, from A to the 
 chord G B let fall the perpendicular A £ ; thus will BL'n 
 E G=;e GB. 
 
 Thus in a rectangled triangle, AEB, the fides A B and BE 
 being given; or, in an obliquangled triangle, ACE the fides 
 AC and CE being given : the angles B and A arc found, 
 fuppofe A B= 36, AC=45, BC=4o. 
 
 AC = 45 AC=45 
 
 AB = j6 AB= 36 
 
 AC+AB=8i FC=9 
 Log. of B C :e 1. 6020600 
 Log. of A C + A B 1 . 9084850 
 Log. of FC =c o. 9542425 
 
 Sum of loge. z 
 
 2. 8627275 
 
 Log. of C G z= 1. 2606675 ; the correfponding 
 number to which, in the table, is 18. 
 
 BC — 4000 EG = 1089 
 CG=i82z CG=i8z2 
 
 EG - 21-8 CE=29n 
 
 B E = 1089 
 Log. Of AB- 3-5563025 
 Log. of whole fine = io.ooocoo 
 Log. of E B = 3.0370279 
 
 Log. of fineofEAB—p. 4807254, the correfponding 
 number to which in the tables is 17 0 36', Confequently the 
 angle ABE 72° 14' 
 
 Log. of A C = 3.6532125 
 
 Log. of whole fine 10.0000000 
 
 Log. of C ;£ 3M 3.4^40422 
 
 Log. offincofEAC=9. 81 01297 ; to which the cor- 
 refpondent number in the tables is 40 0 1 8' ; therefore ACE 
 49 0 42 ; and C A B 57° 54'- 
 Sslution of right- dngltd fpherieal Trtangles, by the common 
 rules.— I. In a right-angled fpherieal triangle, any two parts 
 befide the right-angle, being given, to find any of the reft. 
 1. Confider whether the parts, which come to the queftion, 
 be conjunct or disjunct. (See Part.) If the disjunct be oppo- 
 fite to each other ; as, if the hypothenufe B C, and the angle 
 C (fig> J I.) be given, to find the oppofite leg A B ; then the 
 rule is : — As the whole fine is to the fine of the hypothermic 
 B C ; .fo is the fine of the angle C, to the fine of the oppofite 
 leg A B. z. If the disjunct parts be not oppofite to each other; 
 as, if A B, and the adjacent angle B be given for the oppofite 
 an"le C ; the fides of the triangle are to be continued one way, 
 tilf they become quadrants, that you may thus have a new trt- 
 angUi wherein the parts that come into the queftion are mu- 
 tually Oppofite to each other; as, in our cafe, the triangle E BF, 
 wherein we have given B F, the complement of the leg A B, 
 and the angle B for E F, the complement of the angle C. 
 ! ; The rule then is -.—As the whole fine is to the fine of B F ; 
 fo is the fine of the angle B to the fine E F, or co-fine of C. 
 
 3. If the hypothenufe be not among the conjunct parts, as if 
 the less A B and A C be given for an angle oppofite to one of 
 tl em ; the rule is,— As the fine of AC, is to the whole fine i 
 fo is the tangent of A B, to the tangent of C. 
 
 4. -But if the hypothenufe be found among the conjunct parts, 
 as if the hvpothenufe B C and the angle C be given to find the 
 adjacent fide A C ; the fides of the triangle are to be continued 
 ope way till they become quadrants, that we may have a new 
 triangle, wherein the hypothenufe is not among the parts that 
 come into thequeftion ; e. gr. in our cafe, the triangle E B F, 
 
 . wherein 
 
T R I 
 
 wherein arc given the complement E B of the hypotlienufe BC, 
 and the complement of the angle C, and the angle F the 
 complement of the leg A C. Since then, id the triangle E F B, 
 the hypotheniife docs not come in the queftion, the rule is as 
 before : 
 
 As the fine of E F, or co-fine of C, is to the whole fine ; fo 
 is the tangent of EB, or co-tangent of B C, to the tangent 
 of F, or co-tangent of A C. 
 
 5. When the fides of a triangle are to be continued, it is the 
 fame tiling which way foever they be produced, provided no 
 acute angle come into the queftion, otherwife the fides are to 
 be continued through the other oblique one. And if both be 
 in the connection, the fides are to be continued thiough that 
 adj.ic.cnt to the fide in queftion. 
 
 By tiiis means a triangle, is always obtained wherein the 
 thing required is found, either by the rule of fines or tan- 
 gents. . 
 
 Solution of right-angled jpherical Triangles, by one catholic 
 rule. — Confider, as before, whether the parts that come in 
 queftion be conjunct or disjunct. See Part. 
 If either one, or both the fides, including the right angle, come 
 into the queftion ; for it, among the data, write its comple- 
 ment to a quadrant.— Since then by the catholic rule, deli- 
 vered under the article trigonometry, the whole fine, with the 
 fine complement ui the middle part, mull: be equal to the fines 
 of the disjunct parts, and the co-tangents of the conjunct 
 parts ; from the fum of thofe data fubftract the third datum ; 
 the remainder will be fome fine or tangent, the fide or angle 
 Corresponding to which, in the artificial canon of triangles is 
 the fide or an^te fought. 
 
 This univerfal rule being of great fervice in trigonometry, 
 we fiiall apply it to the various cafes thereof, and illuftrate it 
 with examples ; which examples, in the cafe of disjunct or fepa- 
 rate parts will at the fame time illuftrate the common method, 
 but in the cafe of contiguous parts they admit of other folutions. 
 
 1. Given the hypothenufe B C 6cP and the angle C 23 1 30', 
 to find the oppofite leg AB [fig. 22.) — Since A B is the mid- 
 dle part, C and B C are disjunct (See Part) ; the whole fine, 
 with the co-fine of the complement A B, /'. e. with the fine it- 
 felf of A B, is equal to the fines of C and BC. 
 
 Therefore from line of C 96006997 
 Sine of BC 99375306 
 
 Sum 195382303 
 Subtract whole fine 100O0O000 
 Remain fine of A B 9.5382303. The correfponding 
 number to which, in the canon, is 20 u 12' 6'. 
 
 2. Given the hypothenufe B C 6o° and thelegAB20° 12' 
 6 to find the oppofite angle C. 'Tis evident from the pre- 
 ceding problem, that from the fum of the whole fine, and the 
 fine of the leg A B, the fine of the hypothenufe B C is to be 
 fubtracted, the remainder is the fine of the angle C. The 
 example therefore of the former cafe is eafily converted into 
 an example of this. 
 
 3. Given the leg A B 20 0 12' 6'' and the oppofite angle C 
 23" 30 , to find the hypothenufe B C. — 'Tis evident from 
 the firft cafe, that from the fum of the whole fine, and the fine 
 of A B is to be fubtracted the fine of the angle C, and the re- 
 mainder is the fine of the hypothenufe B C. 
 
 4. Given the hypothenufe BC 6o y , and one leg AB 20 0 
 12' 16'' to find the other leg. — Since B C is a mean part, 
 and A B and A C are disjunct parts, the whole fine, with the 
 co-fine of the hypothenufe BC, are equal to the fine of the 
 complements ; 1. e. to the co-fines of the legs A B and A C. 
 Therefore from the whole fine iooeocooa 
 
 Co-fine of B C 96989700 
 
 Sum 196989700 
 Subtract co-fine of A B 99724279 
 
 Remains co-fine of A C 97 26542 r . 1 The correfpond- 
 ing number to which, in the canon, is 32 0 11' 34" ; there- 
 fore A C 57 0 4&' 26". 
 
 5. Given the legs A C 57 0 48' 26' and A B 20° 12' 6'', to 
 find the hypothenufe B C. — 'Tis evident from the preceding 
 cafe, that the whole fine is to be fubtracted from the fum of 
 the CO- fines of the legs AB and AC; the remainder is the 
 co-fine of the hypothenufe B C. The example, therefore, of 
 the preceding cafe is eafily applied to this. 
 
 6. Given the leg AC 57" 48'26' and the adiacent angle C 
 
 23° 30 to find the oppofite angle B. Since B is a middle 
 
 part, and A and C disjunct parts ; the whole fine, with the 
 co-fine of B, is equal to the fine of C, and the fine of the 
 complement, i. e. to the co-fine of A C; 
 
 Therefore from the fine of C 96006997 
 Co-fine AC 97265421 
 
 Sum 193272418 
 Subtract whole fine 1 00000000 
 
 Remains co-fine of B 93272418. The number 
 correfponding to which, in the canon, is 12 0 15 56 ; there- 
 fore B 77 0 44' 4". 
 
 T R I 
 
 7. Given the leg AC57 0 48' 26" and the oppofite angle 8 
 77° 44 4 to find the adjacent angle C. — 'Tis evident from 
 the preceding cafe, that the co-fine of A C is to be fub trailed 
 from the fum of the whole fine, and the co-fine of B ; the 
 remainder is the fine of C. The former example, theiefore, 
 is eafily accommodated to the prefent cafe. 
 
 8. Given the oblique angles B 77° 44' 4" and C 2-, 0 30', 
 to find the leg adjacent to the other, A C— From problem 
 the fixth, 'tis evident that the fine of C is to be fubtracted 
 from the fum of the whole fine, and the co-fine of B ; and 
 that the remainder is the co-fine of A C. The example of the 
 fixth problem may be calily applied to this. 
 
 9. Given the leg AC 57* 48' 26' and the adjacent angle C 
 ^ 3°> to find the oppofite leg A B.— Since A C is a 
 mean part, and C and A B conjunct parts ; the whole fine* 
 with the fine of AC, is equal to'the co-tangem ot C, and the 
 tangent of A B. 
 
 Therefore from the whole fine icoroooco 
 Sine of AC 99275039 
 
 Sum 199275039 
 Subtract co-tangent of C 103616981 
 Remains tangent of A B 95658058. To which the 
 correfponding number in the canon, is 20° 12' 6 . 
 
 10. Given the leg A B ap° 12' 6 ' and the oppofite angle C 
 23^30, to find the adjacent leg A C. — From the fum of 
 the co-tangent of C, and the tangent of A B, fubtract the 
 whole fine ; the remainder is the line of A C. 
 
 11. Given the legs AB 20°i 2 '6', and AC5 7 ° 48*26', 
 to find the angle C, oppofite to one of them.— From the fum 
 of the whob fine, and fine of A C, fubtract the tangent of 
 B A ; the remainder is the co-tangent of C. 
 
 12. Given the hypothenufe B C 60", and the oblique angle 
 
 C 23" 30', to find the adjacent leg A C. Since C is a 
 
 middle part, and BC and AC conjoint parts; the whole 
 fine, wrth the co-fine of C, will be equal to the co-tan»cut 
 of AC. 0 
 Therefore from the whole fine icoorooco 
 
 Co-fine of C 99623978 
 
 Sum 199623978 
 Subtract co-tangent of B C 9761 4394 
 Remains tangent of A C 102009584. The number cor- 
 refponding to which, in the tables, is 57 0 48' 26''. 
 
 13. Given the leg A C 57 0 48' 26", and the adjacent an^n 
 C 23° 30', to find the hypothenufe B C. 
 
 From the fum of the whole fine, and the co-fine of C, fub-* 
 tract the tangent of AC, the icmainder is the co-tan"ent of 
 
 BC. 6 
 
 14. Given the hypothenufe B C 60% and the leg AC 57* 
 48 26', to find the adjacent angle C. 
 
 From the fum of the co-tangent of B C, and tangent of A C, 
 fubftract the whole fine ; and the remainder is the co-fine of C. 
 
 15. Given the hypothenufe B C 6o\ and one angle C 23' 
 30', to find the other, B. 
 
 Since B C is the middle part, and B and C disjunct part?, the 
 whole fine, with the co-fine of B C will be equal to the co- 
 tangents of B and C. 
 Therefore from whole fine 100000000 
 Co-fine of B C 96989700 
 
 Sum I96989700 
 
 Subtract co-tangent of C 103616981 
 
 Remains co-tangent of B 93372719; the correfponding 
 number to which, in the canon, is 12 0 15' 56'/; therefore B 
 « 77° 44' 4" 
 
 16. Given the oblique angles B 77 0 44' 4" and C 23 0 3c', 
 to find the hypothenufe BC — From the fum of the co-tan- 
 gents of C and B, fubtract the whole fine ; the remainder is 
 the co-fine of B C. 
 
 Solution of oblique-angled fphcricalTRiASCJ.ES, — I. In an ob- 
 lique-angled fphencal triangle ARC (Tab. Trigcnwtctry, fig, 
 32.) two fides AB and BC being given, together with an 
 angle A, oppofite to one of them, to find the other C : the 
 rule is, 
 
 As fine of the fide B C, is to the fine of the oppofite angle A ; 
 fo is the fine of the fide B A, to the fine of the oppofite an- 
 
 gl= c. 
 
 Suppofe, for example, BC 39 0 29'; A 43 0 2c'; B A 66 1 
 " 45 ; then will 
 
 Sine of BC 98033572 
 Sine of A 98364771 
 Sine of B A 99632 1 68 
 
 197996939 
 
 Sine of C 99963367- The correfponding number 
 to which, in the tables, is 82^ 34' 7". 
 
 2. Given two angles C 82 0 34' 7", and A 43 0 20', to 
 gether with the fide A B 6o° 45', oppofite to one of them 
 C ; to find the fide B C oppofite to the ether of them A ; 
 fay, as fine of angle C is to fine of the oppofite fide A B ; 
 
 fo 
 
T R I 
 
 fo is fine of angle A to fine of oppofite fide B C— The former 
 example may fuffice for theprefent cafe. 
 3. Given two fides AB 6o° 45, and BC 39^ 29', together 
 with an angle oppofite to one of them A 45 0 20' ; to find the 
 angle included by them B.— Suppofe the angle C to be acute, 
 fince the other, A, is alfo acute, the perpendicular BE falls 
 in with the triangle In the rcftangled triangle ABE, there- 
 fore, from the given angle A, and fide A B, find the angle 
 ABE. Since B E is aflumed as a lateral part in the triangle 
 A E B, theangleEBCis a middle part, and the fide B C muft 
 be a conjoint part : the co-fine of the angle E B C will he found 
 by fubtrafting the co-tangent of A B from the fum of the 
 co-fine of the angle ABE, and the co-tangent of B C. If 
 then the angles ABE and E B C be added together, or in cafe 
 the perpendicular fall without the triangle, be fubtrafted from 
 each other, you will have the angle required B. 
 JS.gr. whole fine iooooooo 
 Co-fine of A B 959^3'54 
 
 Sum 1 959 6 3 J 54 
 
 Co-tang, of A 10025-805 
 
 Co-tang, of ABE 95710349. The number corre- 
 fponding to which, i« the tables, is 20 0 25' 35'. A B there- 
 fore is &9° 34 25''. 
 
 Co-fine of ABE 9542830O 
 
 Co-tang, of B C 100141529 
 
 Sum 196269829 
 Co-tang, of A B 96330085 
 
 Co-fine of E B C 9^938544. The number corrc- 
 fpondiug to which, in the tables, is 8o J 24' 26'. Therciore 
 A B C is 79 0 9' 59'. 
 
 4. Given two angles A 45 0 20', and B 79 0 9' 59', together 
 with the adjacent fide A B 66° 45', to find the fide B C oppo- 
 fite to one of them. 
 
 From one of the given angles B, let fail a perpendicular E B, 
 to the unknown fide A C ; and in the rcftangled triangle 
 ABE from the given angle A, and hypothenufe A B, find 
 the angle ABE; which fubtrafted from the angle ABC, 
 leaves the angle E B C. But if the perpendicular mould fall 
 without the triangle, the angle ABC fhould have been fiib- 
 t rafted from ABE. Since as the perpendicular BE is taken 
 for one of the lateral parts, the middle part in the triangle 
 ABE, is the angle B, and the conjoint part A B ; in the 
 triangle E B C the middle part is the angle B, and the con- 
 junct part BC; the co-tangent of the fide B C is found by 
 fubtrafting the co-fine of E B A, from the i'um of the co- 
 tangent of A B, and the co-fine of E B C. — '1 lie example of 
 the preceding cafe is eafily applied to this. 
 
 5. Given two fides AB 66 tf 45 , and B C 39 0 29', with the 
 angle A oppofite to one of them, 43 s 20' ; to find the third 
 fide A C. 
 
 Letting fall, as before, the perpendicular B E ; in the re St- 
 angled triangle ABE, from the given angle and hypothenufe 
 A B, find the iide A E. Since afluming B E for a lateral part 
 in the triangle A E B, A B is the middle part, and A E is the 
 feparate part ; and in the triangle BEC, BC is the mean 
 parr, and EC a disjunct part ; the co-fine of E C is found by 
 liibtrafting the co-fine of A B from the fum of the co- fines of 
 A E and C B. If then the fegments A E and E C be added 
 together, or in cafe the perpendicular fall without the triangle, 
 he fubtrafted from each other, the fide A C will be had. 
 
 6. Given two fides A C 65 0 3046', and AB 66" 45', to-' 
 gether with the included angle A 43° 20'; to find the third 
 iide B C oppofite thereto. 
 
 Letting fall the perpendicular B E, find, in the rcftangled 
 triimgle, the fegment A E ; which fubtrafted from A C, 
 leaves E C. If the perpendicular fall without the triangle, 
 A C is to be fubtrafted from A E. Since by any mi ng the per- 
 pendicular B E for a lateral part in the triangle AKB, A B 
 becomes a middle parr, and AE a feparate part : in the tri- 
 angle E 3 C, C B is the middle part, E C a feparate part : 
 tile co-fine of B C is found by fubtracling the co-fine of A E 
 from the fum of the co-fines of A B and E C. 
 
 7. Given two angles A 43^ 20', and B 79 0 9' 59', toge- 
 ther with the fide CB 39° 29', oppofite to one of then!} to 
 find the fide A B adjacent to both. 
 
 Letting fall the perpendicular C D from the unknown angle 
 €, to the oppofite fide A B ; and that falling within the tli- 
 «><£ le ; from the given angle B, and the hypothenufe B C, feck 
 iri the redtai.gled triangle BCD for the fegment B D. Since 
 alluming the perpendicular CD for a lateral part in the tri- 
 angle CDB, D B is the mean part, and the angle B a con- 
 juna part; and in the triangle CD A, AD is the middle 
 part, and the angle A a conjunfl part: the fine of the fer- 
 ment A D is found by fubtracting the co-tangent of the angle 
 B from the fum of the fine of D B, and the co-tangent of 
 the angle A. If then the fegments A D and DB be added, 
 or in cafe the perpendicular fall without the triangle, be sub- 
 tracted from each other, the refult will be fide AB icquired. 
 
 8. Given two fides AB66° 45 ', and BC39S 29', with the 
 
 T R l 
 
 included angle 79° 9' 59' ; to find the angle A oppofite to 
 one of them. 
 
 Letting fall the perpendicular C D, find the fegment B D, as 
 in the preceding problem. This fubtrafted from A B leaves 
 A D. If the perpendicular fall without the triangle, A B is to 
 he added to D B- And fince by afluming the perpendicular CD 
 for a lateral part in the triangle CDB, B D is the middle part, 
 and the angle B a conjoint part; and in the triangle CD A, 
 A D is the middle part, and the angle A a conjoint part : the 
 co-tangent of the angle A is found by fubtracting the fir*: of 
 DB from the fum of the co-tangent of the angle B, and of 
 the fine of A D. 
 
 9. Given two angles A 43 0 20', and B 79°, 9' 59", toge- 
 ther with the adjacent fide AB 66 9 45'; to find the an<de 
 C oppoiite to the fame. 
 
 From one of the given angles 3, letting fall the perpendicular 
 B E, to the oppofite fide AC; in the reftrmgled triangle ACE, 
 from the given angle A, and hypothenufe AB, we find the 
 angle ABE; which fubtrafted 'from A BC, leaves the angle 
 E B C. In cafe the perpendicular fall without the triangle, 
 A B C is to be fubtrafted from ABE. Since by affuming B E 
 for a lateral part in the triangle CEB, the angle C is a 
 middle part, and the angle C B E a disjunct part ; and in the 
 triangle AB E, the angle A is the middle part, and the an<-!e 
 A B E the disjoint part : the co-fine of the angle C is found by 
 fubtrafting the fine of the angle ABE, from the fum of the 
 co-fine of the angle A, and the fine of E BC. 
 
 10. Given two angles A 43 0 20, and C 82 0 34', together 
 with a fide B A 6b w $5', oppofite to one of them; to find 
 the other angle. 
 
 From the fought angle B, let fall a perpendicular B E ; and 
 in the right-angled triangle A E B, from the given angle A, 
 and hypothenufe B A, find the angle ABE." Since aflUqyng 
 the perpendicular E B for a htcral part in the triangle E C K, 
 the angle C is the middle part, and the angle C B E a disjunct 
 part; and in the triangle ABE, the nngle A is the middle 
 part, and the angle A BE \m.\ disjunct part : thefincof the 
 angle EBC is found by fubtrafting the co-fine of A from the 
 fum of the co-fine of C, and of the fine of A li E. If then 
 ABE and E B C be added, or in cafe the perpendicular fall 
 without the triangle, be fubtrafted from each other, the refult 
 will be angle requirtd A B C. 
 
 11. Given the three fides, to find an angle oppofite to one of 
 them.— I. If one fide AC, (fig. id.) be a quadrant, and the 
 leg A B be lefs than a quadrant, find the angle A. Continue 
 A B to F, till A F become equal to a quadrant ; and from 
 the pole A draw the arch C F, to cut the arch B F at right 
 angles in F. Since in the reftangled triangle C B F, *e have 
 given the hypothenufe B C, and the fide of F B, or its comple- 
 ment A B to a quadrant ; we (hall find the perpendicular C F, 
 which being the meafure of the angle CAB, that angle is 
 found of courfe. 
 
 11. u one fide A C be a quadrant, and the other A B greater 
 than a quadrant, feek again the angle A : from A B fubtract 
 the quadrant A D, and from the pole A defcrihe the arch C D, 
 cutting the arch C D at right angles in D, Since in the refl- 
 angled triangle CDB, the hypothenufe B C, and fide Dli, 
 or excefs of die fide A B beyond a quadrant, is given, the 
 perpendicular C D will be found as before, which is the meafure 
 of the angle A required. 
 
 III. If the triangle be ifofceles, and A C=:CF, and the an- 
 gle A C F be required ; biiTeft A F in D, and through D and 
 C draw the arch DC. Since D C is perpendicular "to A F, 
 the angles A and F, and AC D and DCF are equal ; from 
 the hypothenufe AC, and leg A D, given in the rcctatifeled 
 triangle A CD, we find the angle A C D ; the double where- 
 of is the angle required A CF : and from the fame data may 
 the angle A or F be found. 
 
 IV. If the triangle be fcalenous, and the angle A, (fig. 32.) 
 be required;^ from C let fall the perpendicular CD, and feek 
 the femi-diffa-ence of the fegments AD and D B, by faying, 
 as the tangent uf half the bafe AB, is to the tangent of half 
 the fum of the legs A C and CB ; fo is the tangent of their 
 femi-difterence to the tangent of the femi-diflerence of the 
 fegments AD and DB; add then the femi-dirterence of t!ic 
 fegments to the half bafe, to find the greater fegment ; and 
 fubtract the fame from the fifine for the lei's. Thus havin:; 
 in the reftangled triangle CAD, the hypothenufe AC, and 
 the fide AD, the angle A is found thence. After the fame 
 manner is B found in the other CDB, from C B and D B 
 given. 
 
 12. Given the three angles A, Band C, to find any of the 
 fides, — Since in lieu of the given triangle, another may be 
 affumed, whofc fides are equal to the given angles, and the 
 angles to the given fides ; this problem is refolved after the 
 fame manner as the preceding one. 
 
 Trianglj, Triangulum, in aftronomy, a name which is 
 common to two conftellations ; the one in the northern he- 
 mifphere, called fimply Triangulum, or triangulum ccelejle ; 
 the other in the fuuthern hemifphere, called triargulum 
 a'u/lrale t \ c - r \ ; v .rn ^sijrlio owi (poMTJ^rf trnvfl 
 
 I 
 
 The 
 
T 
 
 R I 
 
 The (tars ih the northern triangle in Ptolemy's catalogue are 4 ; 
 lnTycho's as many; in the Britannic 24 : thelongitudes,' 
 latitudes, magnitudes, (se. whereof, are as follow : 
 
 T R i 
 
 Names and Siumtiau of the 
 Stars. 
 
 That preceding the vertex 
 Vertex of the triangle 
 That following the vertex 
 Firlt of three in the bafe 
 
 Pirft of 3 inform, under triangfc 
 Contig. to the hft of the bale 
 Middie one of the bafe 
 Lai' of the bafe 
 S. of inform, under the Irian", 
 
 Lafl of thefe informes 
 A ftnaller contiguous to it 
 
 Longitude 
 
 o 05 17 
 3 z 30 51 
 
 6 5° 25 
 
 7 09 44 
 
 7 18 45 
 
 6 3 t 35 
 
 8 42 40 
 
 9 °9 43 
 
 g to 21 
 
 7 33 31 
 
 10 32 £i 
 
 9 59 
 10 iz 15 
 ■ 13 08 28 
 13 15 01 
 
 Informes between 
 the triangle and 
 the ram's tail, 
 which are alfo 
 numbered among 
 the Stars of A- 
 
 ' 54 th ' 
 ISS'hJ 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 17 39 08 
 
 16 48 23 
 
 19 z8 00 
 
 20 34 17 
 
 17 06 1 8 
 
 ig 59 02 
 
 18 34 11 
 
 19 21 32 
 18 ;6 07 
 
 13 55 26 
 
 16 16 32 
 
 14 13-08 
 14 24 24 
 
 20 00 37 
 18 26 iS 
 
 8 49 48 
 10 51 52 
 n 17 13 
 10 2; 37 
 
 8 5' 55 
 
 8 59 42 
 
 7 z 9 04 
 10 54 26 
 
 8 58 28 
 
 TRIANGULAR Cmpaffis, are fuch as have three legs or feet, 
 whereby to take off any triangle at once, thefe are much ufed 
 in the conftrucftion of maps, globes, fcV. See Compasses. 
 
 Triangular Numbers, arc a kind of polygonal numbers ■ 
 being the fums of arithmetical progreffions, the difference of 
 whofe terms is 1. 
 
 Thus— Of arithmetical progrefs 123 4 5 6 
 are formed ti iang. numb. 1 3 6 1 o 1 5 2 1 
 Triangular Quadrant, is a Mor furnifhed with' a loofe 
 piece, whereby to make it an equilateral triangle. See 
 Sector. 
 
 The calendar is graduated thereon, with the fun's place, decli- 
 nation, and other ufeful lines ; and by the help of a firing and 
 a plummet, and the divifions graduated on the loofe piece, it 
 may be made to ferve for a quadrant. See Quadrant. 
 
 Triangular Winding Sum. See Stair. 
 
 TRIANGULARIS, in anatomy, a name given to two muf- 
 cles, in refpeft of their figure. See Muscle. 
 The- triangularis peilcris, which has fometimes the appearance 
 of three or four diitinft mufcles, anTes from the infide of the 
 iternum, and is implanted into the cartilages which join the 
 four lowed true ribs to the fiernum. 
 
 The aflion of this mufcle is very obfeure, fince both the ori 
 gination and infertion arc at parts not moveable, but to- 
 gether— Dr. Drake conjeflures it may conduce towards 
 forming the neceflary incurvation of the fiernum, and by its 
 ovcr-tenfion m children, while the cartilages are foft, may 
 occafion that morbid acuminatum of the ftcrnum fcen i'11 
 
 rickety children. Others fuppofe it may contrafl the cavity 
 
 of the thorax in expiration. 
 
 J or a S,, UIARIS ,W "- Scc Duressor IMi fuperhris. 
 
 IR1ARI1, in the Roman militia, a kind of infantry, armed 
 with a pike, a Ihicld, a helmet and a cuirafs ; they were 
 thus called, becaufe they made the third line of battle 
 The triarii were alfo called pofiftgnani, becaufc ranged behind 
 theprmupes who bore the fiandard in a legion 
 Polybius diftinguiftes four kinds offerees ,n the Roman army j 
 thef.rft, called pdat,, or velkes, he fays were a raw fuldierv, 
 lightly armed.— The hajlati or fpear-men were a degree older 
 and more experienced. The third called prineipes, princes 
 were ftill older, and better foldiers than the fecond —The 
 fourth were the elded, the molt experienced, and the braved ■ 
 thefe were always difpofed in the third line, as a corpfe de re- 
 ferve, to fuftain the other two, and to rcftore the battle 
 when the others were broken or defeated. 
 
 Hence their name of triarii : and hence the proverb adtriarie, 
 TDlaTzf' toflKwth atoneisatthela(t, and harded ft,ug«le 
 TRIAS Harmcmea, or the Harmonical Triad, in mufic" a 
 compound of three radical founds, heard altogether ; two 
 whereof are a fifth and a third above the other, which is the 
 fundamental. Sec Comcord, (Sc. 
 The triad is properly a conference formed of a third and 
 a fifth ; which, with the bafe, or fundamental fliund, makes 
 three different terms, whence the name trU,.- That of har- 
 Te'tL" d . oub J 1 ! rs S' ven « from that wonderful property ol 
 the fifth, which divides itfelf naturally into two thirds, both 
 excclent and perfedly harmonical ; fo that this one found 
 difpofed between two others, makes two thirds at once, and 
 ol confequciice a double hamiony. See Fifth. 
 
 Hence ,t is, that In (r/A, particularly, this concorr] is Ma 
 terred to that which divides the oftave into a fifth and a fourth • 
 in regard here, if there be , concord on om flJ ™ r h . 
 difeord on the other , whereas in the former cafe the harmory 
 is compleat on both fides. "annony 
 Of the three founds which compofe the harmonical triad, the 
 gravell ,s called the fundamental, or ba/s ; the acuted,' / 
 
 riie divifion of the fifth into two thirds, may be performed 
 two W a ys , wz 1 Harmonically, when the 'greater third ,s 
 lowed and the lefs above ; in which cafe the triad is per- 
 lectand natural. I 
 2. Arithmetically, when the lefs third is loweft, and the greater 
 above 5 m which cafe the IrW is imperfect and flat. Both ate 
 good ; but the latter is not to be often ufl-d. 
 TRIBE Tri bus, in antiquity, a certain quantity or number 
 of perform ; when a divilion is made of a city or people into 
 quarters, or difirifls. \" 
 The city of Athens was divided into teh tribe,.— The Tewifli 
 nation into twelve tribes, the defendants of the twelve fons 
 of Jacob, vm the tnbes of Judah, of Reuben, Gad, Afi.er, 
 Dai, Naphtha^ Ephraim, Maneffeh, Simeon, Levi, Iffachar, 
 Zebulun, and Benjamin. 
 
 Thefe, in cftefl, gave rife to thirteen trihs, from the twelve 
 TZTt S u Y r fw° Parity of Jofepb was divided into 
 two ; „ 4 „, that of Manaffeh, and that of Ephraim 
 
 robo e a r rr, W<:rC **' reTOltetl and > 
 
 The Roman people was at fird only divided into three trihs ■ 
 and from this number thru, tree, it was that the word trib,, 
 tr.hu, took its rife.-This divifion w.s accommodated W 
 Roniuliis, to the feveral nations he had united : the firft con- 
 fided of the Albans, the fecond of the Sabines, and the third 
 Rorne m ' XtUre ^"' va ' who "He to feek an afylum at 
 Servius Tullus fearing this partition mould occafion feditions, 
 divided the inhabitants of Rome by cantons, no, by nations 
 accordingly he diftnbuted the city into lour quarters' or trihs ■ 
 and by reafon a great number of citizens had retired into the 
 country about, of thofe he compofed Z6 ether triha ■ fo that 
 from this time the Roman people confided of m tribe, 
 In after- times, the number of tribe, was increafed to 35 ; but 
 they then ceafed to be ranged according to the quarters of the 
 C i^'7i ? r ,' bUt ' 0n Ac ^i'i on the cenlors, who formed 
 their lift at difcretion, frequently confounding the country 
 twu with thofe faf the city. 
 
 A man was never abfolutely a Roman citizen, unlefs he had 
 Itotg, trtbm, ,. till he were intitied to the honours of the 
 magiftrature as alfo to a right of voting in afiemblies of the 
 people ; and this ,s what they called ju, f »,r,V; I ™.-Hence, the 
 inhabitants of the municipal cities were only imperfect citizens, 
 as being of no tribe. 
 
 The freed-men were obliged to purchafe this rhht ef tribe, 
 which did not otherwife belong to them, though they were 
 citizens of Rome. 'r. • 7 
 
 The names of the 3; tribes were, r. the Palatina ; a.theSu- 
 buranajj. the Collina ; 4 . the Efquilina ; s . the Romilia - 
 6 theAcmilia; 7 theCruilumina; 8. the Cornelia ; a l t he 
 or a Men 2 l'' ' h ° L " 1 °« h ! »*• <he Mentina 
 
 PoSfa T% th =,Ocr.eula„a , i 4 . the Papiria ; rjj.hc 
 Poll ; ,6. .he Popiha j ,7. ,he Pupinia ; 18. the 8i»i, 
 19. theVeientma ; 20. the Voltinia; 2 ,. the Claudia ; 22° t] 
 Stellatina , 23. the Tromentina , 24 the Amends ' ,5. the 
 Sabatinaj 26 the Pomptina , 27. .he Publilia ; 2«. ,h»M™ 
 ^ ; ,h 9 A r CaP "' ai 3°- theOufemina; 31. the Falerina ; 
 3 2.theAn,e„fi si 33. the Tewnthtt i 34. theVelina; «p, b e 
 Quinna. In ancient authors, and inferiptions, we.meet wi.h 
 
 TRIBRACHYS,* in the ancient ptofody, a foot of Mrfrj 
 confiding of three fyllables, and thofe all (hort-as, MeliaX 
 • The word is formed from He G,eek s T£ -„,-, lire,, and g mi . 
 
 •7-Di m , e ,oi he ancirats Ci " " ,ls foot IWoH" 
 • n 1 ? ni1 T " tuc »". afumbrel, Jocjiirl. or e*t- 
 ing-Itool. bee CucKix-G-ite/. ' " 
 
 ™P Uf :, AI " JudgmenUfeat, the feat of a judge. SecTuDCf 
 i be tr.bunal ,n a court of judice, is properly 'the feat or bench 
 whereon theiudgc, and his alT.ieiates are placed, for theadmi- 
 niltration of Juftice. See Bench, TusncE He 
 I heword is Latin, and takes its origin from a feat r'aifed from 
 the ground, wherein the triltm, of the Roman people Was 
 placed to adminider juftice. 
 
 Tribunal, among the ancients, was alfo a place from whence 
 the people were harangued. 
 
 Among the Romans it wa, an eminence in a temple, or the 
 forum as that called pr, r,Jlr„, w „ C re the people were ha. 
 langued in tri&rs. 
 
 12 » Thfl 
 
 2. the 
 
T R I 
 
 the French architect likewife life the word tribune for a. gal- 
 lery or eminence in a church, or any other place, wherein 
 the muf.c is placed for a fymphony or concert. _ 
 
 TRIBUNE Tribunus plebis, in antiquity a Ro- 
 
 man magiftrate, chofen out of the commons to proteft them 
 agamfttheoppreffions of the great, and to defend the liberty of 
 the people againft the attempts of the (enate, and confute. 
 The tribunes of the people, were firft cllablifoed in the year of 
 Rome 259. The firft defign of the creation was to fheltcr tne 
 people lrom the cruelties of ufurers, and to engage them to quit 
 the Aventine mount, whither they had retired in difpleahire. 
 Their number, at firft, was but two; and the next year, under 
 the confulate of A. Pofthumus Aruncius and Caffius V ilcelli- 
 nus, there were three more added ; and this number of five 
 ■was afterwards increafed by L. Trebodius to ten. 
 The appellation tribune was given them, by reafon they were 
 at firft chofen out of the tribunes of the army, bee the article 
 following. . - ■ 
 
 '^tribunes were, as it were, the heads and guardians of the 
 people.— They called affemblies of the people when they plea- 
 fed ; and in thofe affemblics they frequently annulled the de- 
 crees of the fenate. Nothing could be concluded without 
 their confent, which they expreffed by fubfcnb.ng the letter 
 T at the bottom of the decree. They had it alfo m their 
 power to prevent the execution of any decree, without giving 
 any reafon for it, and merely by fubferibing veto.— They 
 fometimes even called the confuls and diflator to account for 
 their conduct before the people. ■ 
 Auguftus himfelf was tribune for 37 y ears ; Tiberius afiumcd 
 the fame quality ; as likewife did his fucceffor, figmfying the 
 year of their tribunate on their medals and coins : but their 
 dclign, herein, was only to pofTcfs themfelvcs of all the au- 
 thority, that there might be no body to oppofe them. 
 
 TalBUNE cf the foldiers, Tribunus militum, or milium, 
 an officer in the Roman army, who commanded in chief over 
 a body of forces,particularly a divifion of alegion; and wasmuch 
 the fame with our colonel, or the French meitre de camp. 
 There is a diftinflion of the tribunes, into laticlaw and em 
 gufticlavii: thofe born of noble families were allowed, after 
 they were made tribunes of a legion, to take the latufclavus. 
 The reft were only to wear the anguftufclavus ; whence Sue- 
 tonius takes care to inform us, that his father was tribunus 
 laticlavius of the 13 th legion. 
 
 Over thefe tribunes of legions and cohorts, there were other 
 tribunes who commanded in the abfence of the confuls, and 
 who were inverted with a confular authority.— Budieus will 
 have tnefe to be much the fame as the marfhals of France, or, 
 at leaft, as our lieutenants-general. 
 
 Romulus likewife eftablifhed a tribune of the cavalry, tribunus 
 equitum, who was the fame with the magifter equitum under 
 the dictators, the firft officer after the kings. 
 The tribunes of the foldiery were of an elder ftanding than 
 thofe of the people ; thofe latter being elected out of the for- 
 mer —Varro will have it, they were called tribunes, becaufe 
 at firft, they were only three in number in each legion, when 
 the legion c'onlifted of three hundred men, taken out of the 
 three tribes then on foot.— In proportion as the legion was 
 increafed, the number of tribunes was likewife increafed to 
 the number of fix. 
 At firft, the nomination lay in the general of the army ; but 
 in the year of Rome 391, it was appointed, that the people 
 fliould nominate one part, and the general another : the latter 
 were called Rufuii, from Rutilius Rufus, who palled that 
 
 V»i . .... 
 
 Thofe chofe by the people in the comma, were called com 
 tiati : they were indifferently either parricians or plebeians, and 
 they had the fame marks of honour as the confuls themfelves. — 
 The tribune of the pretorian cohorts was the captain of the 
 
 guards. 
 
 Tjiibune was alfo an appellation given to various other officers 
 as the tribuni ecrarii, tribunes of thetreafury.— Tribune of the 
 teleres, the officer who commanded them . — Tribuni fabricarum, 
 thofe who had the direction of the making of arms. — Tribum 
 marinorum, tribuni nalanorum, and tribuni uoluptaium, men- 
 tioned in the Theodofian Code, as intendants of the public 
 fhews and other diverfions. 
 
 The title of Tribune, Tribunus, was alfo given to the 
 chief of each tribe. 
 TRIBUNICIAN, Tribusicius, a term among antiqua 
 ries and medallilts. — The tribunician power was the dignity 
 office, or authority of a tribune of the people. 
 This power was affirmed by the emperors, and makes one of 
 the chief titles they bear on their medals : the quality was firft 
 introduced by Auguftus, to keep the foveraign authority over 
 the other magiftrates, without either taking that of didtator or 
 king. Indeed it was offered to Julius Cajfar, but he defpifed 
 ir. Auguftus is the firft who ufed it, and his fuccefl'ors fol- 
 lowed his example. — They reckon the years of their empire 
 on their medals by thofe of their tribunician power. 
 This power was fometimes given them for a certain number 
 of years, and fometimes for ever. Sometimes the emperors 
 would communicate the power to fuch as they affociated, or 
 
 T R I 
 
 as they intended to fucceed them : and Tiberius held it fifteen 
 years with Auguftus. But this practice only obtained till the 
 time of Valerian and Gallienus. After them we onlv find 
 TR. P. II. in Claudius; TR. P. V. inAurelian; and TR. P. 
 in Probus. — This, however, is only to be underftood of me- 
 dals ; for in inferiptions we find it after that time. 
 Cardinal Noris and F. Pagi have difputed about this tribuni- 
 cian power, wherein it confifted. — The firft mainrains, that 
 it did not at all differ from that of the ordinary tribunes, 
 which confifted in three things: r. In the right of oppofing 
 all the acts and refolutions of the other magistrates, 2 . In that 
 it rendered their perfons facred and inviolable. 5. In a power 
 of making edicts and laws. 
 
 F. Pagi afferts, that it made an addition to the power of the 
 tribunes ; that the privilege it conferred of making edicts, was 
 more ample than that of the ordinary tribunes ; befides, that 
 it carried with it a power of convening the fenate at pleafure. 
 M. Spanheim is of F. Pagi's opinion : he believes, that the 
 tribunician power had much the advantage of the tribunate : 
 I. In that it was peculiar to the patricians, and did not reduce 
 the perfon who held it to the degree of a plebeian. 2. In 
 that it was not confined to the city of Rome alone, like the 
 other, but that it extended throughout the empire, as well as 
 the proconfular power, which was ufually annexed to it. 3. 
 That the dignity of the tribunes was inferior to that of the pre- 
 tors ; whereas the tribunician power of the Caefars conferred, 
 according to Tacitus, a foveraign authority over all magistrates, 
 and rendered fuch as it was communicated to, equal to the em- 
 perors, and even made them their collegues in the empire : be- 
 fides the power of oppofing the enterprizes of all the other 
 nragiftrates, and that it rendered their perfons facred, and gave 
 them a right to affemble and difmifs the fenate, which were 
 privileges the tribunician power had in common with the tri- 
 bunes. 
 
 F. Hardouin, thinks we mould diftinguifh two tribunician 
 powers ; the one civil, the other military ; but the proof he 
 brings thereof is very weak. — M. Spanheim fays, his diftinc- 
 tion is only founded on vain conjectures, none of which de- 
 ferve notice. 
 
 The learned are greatly divided as to the month and day 
 whereon the tribunician power commenced : Sigonius and Pe- 
 tavius will have it begin on the ift of January : others, as 
 Perizonius, on the 5th of the calends of July : M. Toinard 
 on the 4th of the ides of December : Onuphrius, cardinal 
 Noris, F. Pagi, fjV. on the day of the emperor's acceffion to 
 the empire ; with this difference, that F. Pagi takes it to be 
 en the 5th of the calends of the month wherein the emperor 
 was proclaimed ; and that this day was, for this reafon, held 
 facred among the Romans. 
 
 F. Hardouin thinks, that on medals the tribunician power com- 
 mences on the anniverfary of the building of Rome, viz. the 
 1 ith of the calends of May ; excepting on the Greek medals, 
 where it begins in September, in regard this month, which 
 began the Greek year, was near the time when the tribunician 
 pmier was firft conferred. 
 
 Of all thefe fentiments the moft probable is that of Onu- 
 phrius, Wr. fetting afide the reflriction of F. Pagi. See M. 
 Spanheim, Diftert. 12. torn. 2. p. 429. 
 
 TRIBUTA Cemitia. See the article Co.mimia. 
 
 TRIBUTARY, TributaRius, one who pays tribute to 
 another, in order to live in peace with him, or to fhare in his 
 protection. See Tribute. 
 
 The republic of Ragufa is tributary to the grand Turk ; fo 
 alfo is the.cham of Little Tartary, He. 
 TRIBUTE, Tributum, a tax, or impoft, which one prince 
 or ftare is obliged to pay to another, asa token of dependance ; 
 or in virtue of a treaty, and as a purchafe of peace. 
 The Romans made all the nations they fubdued, pay them tri- 
 bute. — Mahomet laid it down as a fundamental of his law, 
 that all the world fhould pay him tribute. 
 In the ftatesof the grand Signior, Chriftian children are taken 
 in way of tribute, to make agemoglans, janizaries, CSV. See 
 
 ACEMOGLAN. . 
 
 Tribute is fometimes alfo ufed for a perfonal contribution, 
 which princes levy on their fubjc<as by way of capitalion, or 
 poll-money. . . 
 
 In this it differs from an impoft, which is properly what is laid 
 on merchandifes. 
 
 TRICENNAL. See the article Trental. 
 
 TRICEPS, in anatomy, a mufcle of the thigh, having three 
 orginations, and as many infertions; ar.d which miy there- 
 fore be conveniently divided into three mufcles, all anting 
 from the os pubis, and inferred into the linea alpera of the 
 thi»h-bone, whereof they poffefs the greateft part.— See lab. 
 Anat. (Myol.) fig. I. n. 53. fig- 2- »■ 3 6 - fis- 6 - »• 3°- fit- 
 7. n. 26.— They alfo ferve as adduaores, and draw the thighs 
 
 together. , , ... , 
 
 TRICUSPIDES, in anatomy, an epithet given to three valves, 
 fituate at the entrance of th'evena cava into the heart. 
 They open from without inwards, fo as to let the blood of the 
 cava pafs into the heart, but prevents its refl.ix into tlx 
 
 an - They 
 
TRI T R I 
 
 They are thus called from their figure, which is triangular; for 
 which reafon they are alfo called by the Greeks T^yhuwrn, 
 TRIDENT, Tridens, an attribute of Neptune; being a 
 kind of fcepter which the painters and poets put in the hands 
 of that god. It is in form of a (pear or fork with three teeth ; 
 whence the word. See Scepter. 
 
 The poets tell us, that Neptune makes the earth open* when- 
 ever he ftrikes it with his trident. 
 
 Trident, among mathematicians, is ufed for a kind of para- 
 bola, by which Des Cartes conftructed equations of fix dimcn- 
 fions. See Parabola. 
 
 TRIEMIMERIS, TPIHMIMEPHE, Semiternaria ; a kind of 
 Ciefura in Latin verfe, wherein, after the firft foot of the verfc, 
 there remains an odd fy liable, which helps to make up the 
 next foot. — As in, Ille latus nivcum mslli fultus hyacintbe. 
 
 TRIENNIAL, an epithet applied chiefly to offices or employ- 
 ments which !aft for three years. 
 
 Thus we fay, a trennial government : moft regular monaftc- 
 ries have triennial fuperiors ; that is, they elect new ones at 
 the end of each three years. 
 
 In 169;, an act was made for triennial parliaments, i.e. for 
 parliaments which fhould be diflblved, and the members be 
 defied anew, every three years. Till that time, the king had 
 it in his power to prorogue and continue his parliaments as 
 long as he pleafed. — This opened a door to corruption, which 
 the triennial bill was intended to prevent. 
 
 The triennial aft has, from fome other views, been fince re- 
 pealed : for the gre.it ftruggles ufual at elections, the great fer- 
 ment it ufually puts the nation into, the great expences upon 
 that occafion, with other confiderations, determined the le- 
 giflaiure, in l 7 1 7, to change triennial parliaments for fepten- 
 nial ones. 
 
 TRIENS, in antiquity, a copper-money, of the value of one 
 third of an as, which 011 one fide bore a Janus's head, and on 
 the other a water-rat. 
 
 This was the piece of money ufed to be put in the mouths of 
 the deceafed, to pay Charon his fare for their pafiage into ano- 
 ther world. 
 
 Triens, or Triental, was alfo ufed for a drinking cup ; 
 and that which was ordinarily ufed. — It contained four 
 cyathi. 
 
 TRIERS. See the article Triours. 
 
 TRIFOLIUM, Trefoil, denotes feveral three-leafed plants. 
 That moft ufed in medicine is the trifolium palujlre, or buck- 
 bean, which is very detergent, and is ufed with fuccefs in 
 fcorbutic, rheumatic and fcrophulous habits. 
 The ordinary way of ufing it is by making a pretty ftrong in- 
 fufionof the dried herb, in form of tea. 
 
 TRIGA, in antiquity, a kind of carr, or chariot, with three 
 horfes. 
 
 The triga, in reality, was only drawn by two horfes ; fo that 
 it was properly a biga ; but it had, befides, a third horfe tied 
 to the others, like a led horfe, for change. See Biga. — 
 Statius calls the third horfe, tquusfunalis ; Hefychius, w&^<&. j 
 and Diony fuis Halicarnafieus, piig<c>€fcu 
 
 We do not find the triga on any ancient monument ; but it 
 was a long time in ufe among the Romans, at their ludi cir- 
 cenfes. — The Greeks, who firft introduced it, foon aban- 
 doned it. 
 
 TRIGAMY, a third marriage ; or the ftate of a perfon who 
 had been married three times. 
 
 In the ancient church, trigamy was only allowed to fuch as had 
 110 children by their former marriages. 
 
 If having children by one or both the former, they married 
 again, after 40 years of age, they were excluded from com- 
 munion for five years.— If they were only 40 years old, the 
 penance was but four years. See Bigamy. 
 
 TRIGINTAL. See the article Trental. 
 
 TRIGLYPHS,* in architecture, a fort of ornaments repeated 
 ai equal intervals in the Doric freeze. See Freeze. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, Tfi^Xuf©-, q. d. three 
 engra-vings, from yXvtyv, fculpo. 
 
 Each triglyph confifts of two entire gutters, or channels, cut 
 to a right-angle, called glypbes, and feparated by three inter- 
 ftices, called by Vitruvius femora, from each other, as well as 
 from two other half channels which are at the fides. — See 
 Tab. Archit. fig. 28. lit. y. 
 
 The ordinary proportion of iriglypbs, is to be a module broad, 
 and one and a half high. — But this proportion, M. le Clerc 
 obferves, fometimes occafions ill-proportioned intercolumna- 
 tions in the porticos ; for which reafon he chufes to accom- 
 modate the proportion of his triglyphs to that of the interco- 
 lumnation. See Intercolumnation. 
 The intervals between the triglyphs are called metopes. — 
 Under the channels, or glyphes, are placed gutta?, or 
 drops. 
 
 The triglyphs make the moft diftinguifbing character of the 
 Doric order. — Some imagine them originally intended for the 
 conveyance of the gutta; that arc underneath tirem ; others 
 
 fancy tficy bear fome refeniblance to a lyre, and thence flBfr 
 
 jecture the ornament to have been originally invented for fome 
 
 temple facred to Apollo. SeeDoRlc. 
 Capital of a Triclvph. See the article Capital. 
 TRiGONj* Trioonus, in genmetry, a triangle. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, r^ym®', triangle. 
 Tricon, in aftronomy, denotes an afpect of two planets* 
 
 wherein they are rzo degrees diftant from each other ; this is 
 
 called alfo trine. 
 
 The trigons of Mars and Saturn are by aftrologers held ma- 
 lefic afpedts. 
 
 Trigon, Trigonon, was alfo a mufical inftrument, ufed 
 among the ancients. 
 
 The trigon was a kind of triangular lyre, and was invented 
 by Ibvcus. 
 
 TRIGONOMETRY, the art of finding the dimenfions of 
 the pans of a triangle unknown, from the other parts known : 
 or the arc whereby, from any tlnee paitsof a triangle given, 
 all the reft are found. See Triangle. 
 Thus, e.gr. from two fides A B and A C and an angle B, 
 we find by trigonometry, the two other angles A and C with 
 the third fide B C, Tab. Trigonometry., fig. 2. 
 The word literally iignifies the meafuring of triangles, formed 
 from the Greek, r^****, triangle, and t*flp', meafure.—— 
 Yet does not the art extend to the meafuring of the area or fur- 
 face of triangles, which comes under geometry : trigonometry 
 only confiders the lines, and angles thereof. 
 Trigonometry is of the utmoft ufe in various mathematical arts : 
 —it is by means hereof that moft of the operations of geo- 
 metry and aftronomy are performed ; without it the magni J 
 tude of the earth and the flars, their diftances, motions, 
 eclipfes, &c. would be utterly unknown. — Trigonometry t 
 therefore, muft be owned an art, whereby the moft hidden 
 things, and thofe remoteft from the knowledge of men, 
 are brought to light. A peifon ignorant hereof can make 
 no great progrefs in mixed mathematics ; but will often be 
 gravelled, even in natural philofophyj particularly in ac- 
 counting for the phenomena of the rainbow, and other 
 meteors. 
 
 Trigonometry, or the folutton of triangles, is founded on that 
 mutual proportion which is between the fides and angles of a 
 triangle ; which proportion is known, by finding the propor- 
 tion which the radius of a circle has to certain other lines, 
 called chords, fines, tangents, and fecants. 
 This proportion of the fines and tangents to their radius, is 
 fometimes exprefled in common or natural numbers, which 
 conftitute what we call the tables of natural fines, tangents, &c. 
 ■ — Sometimes it is expreffed in logarithms, and in that cafe 
 conftitutes the tables of artificial fines, &c. 
 Laftly, fometimes the proportion is not exprefled in num- 
 bers j but the feveral fines, tangents, W« are actually 
 laid down upon lines of fcales 5 whence the line ef fines, 
 tangents, &c. 
 
 Trigonometry is divided into plain and fpherical ; the firft con- 
 fidering re£tilinear triangles ; and the fecond fpherical ones. — ■ 
 The firft is of obvious and continual ufe in navigation, mea- 
 furing, furveying, — and other operations of geometry. Seo 
 Measuring, Surveying, Sailinc, csV. 
 The fecond is only learned, with a view to aftronomy and ita 
 kindred arts, geography and dialling. — It is generally efteemei 
 exceedingly difficult, by reafon of the vaft number of cafes 
 wherewith it is perpkxed ; but the excellent Wolfius has 
 removed moft of the difficulties. That author has not only 
 fhewn how all the cafes of rectangled triangles may be 
 folved the common way, by the rules of fines and tangents; 
 but has Hkewife laid down an univerfal rule, whereby ail 
 problems, both in plain and fpherical rectangled triangles, 
 arefolved: and even obliquangular triangles he teaches tu 
 folve with equal eafe, — His doctrine, fee under the articls 
 Triangle. 
 
 Plain Trigonometry, is an art whereby, from three given 
 parts of a plain triangle, we find all the reft. 
 The great principle of plain trigonometry, is, that in every plain 
 triangle, the fides are, as the fines of the oppofite angles.— 
 See this principle applied to the folution of the federal cafes of 
 plain triangles, under the article Triangle. 
 
 Spherical Trigonometry, is the art whereby, from threo 
 given parts of a fpherical triangle, we find the reft. E.gr. 
 whereby from two fides and one angle, we find tlx two other 
 angles, and the third fide. 
 
 The principles of fpherical trigonometry, as reformed by Wol- 
 fiup, are as follow: 1. In every rectangled fpherical trian- 
 gle, ABC, rectangular at A, the whole fine is to the fine of 
 the hypothenufc, BC {Tab. Trigonom. fig. 33.) asthefineof 
 either of the acute angles, C, is to the fine of the leg, op- 
 pofite thereto A B ; or, the line of the angle B, to the fine 
 of its oppofite leg A C; whence we deduce, that the rectan- 
 gle of the whole fine into the line of one leg, is equal to the 
 rectangle of tlx fine of the a.igle oppofite thereto, into the 
 fine of the hypothenufe. 
 
T R I 
 
 2 In every right-angled fpberical triangle ABC, (fig. 3'-) 
 none of whore fides Is a quadrant ; it the complements of the 
 legs A B and AC to a quadrant, be confidered as the legs 
 themfelves ; the rectangle of the whole fine into the co-fine ol 
 the middle parr, is equal to the rectangle of the fines of the 
 disjunct pans, or extremes. 
 
 Hence, i. If the fines be artificial, that IS, the logarithms of 
 the natural ones ; the whole fine, with the co-line of the 
 middle part, will be equal to the fines of the disjunct parts.— 
 1. Since, in the rectilinear triangle A B C, {fig. 34.) the whole 
 fine is to the hypothenufe B C, as the fine of the angle B or C 
 to the fine of the oppolite leg A C or A B : if, inflead of the 
 lines of the fides, we take the fides themfelves ; here, too, 
 the whole fine, with the co-fine of the middle part A C or 
 A B, will be equal to the fine of the disjunct parts B or C 
 and B C ; i. e. to the fine of B or C, and B C itfelf. 
 This, Wolfius calls regula fwturrt catbolica, or the firft part of 
 the catholic rule of trigonometry ; by means whereof all the 
 problems of cither trigonometry are folved, when the thing is 
 efTcacd by fines alone.— My lord Napier had the firft thought 
 offuch a rule ; but he ufed the complements of the hypothe- 
 nufe B C (fig, 22.) and the angles B and C for the hypothe- 
 nufe, and angles themfelves: lb that the tenor of his catholic 
 rule of fines is this : 
 
 The whole fine, with the fine of the middle part, is equal to 
 the co-fines of the disjunct, or, as he calls them, oppofite 
 parts. — But, in this, that harmony between plain and fpheri- 
 cal trigonometry, vifible in Wolfius's rule, does not appear. 
 
 3. Inthe rcftangled fphcrical triangle ABC (fig. 31.) none 
 of whofe fides is a quadrant ; as the whole fine is to the fine of 
 the adjacent leg A C ; fo is the tangent of the adjacent angle C 
 to the tangent of the leg A B. 
 
 Whence, 1. as the co-tangent of the angle C, is to the whole 
 fine, as the whole fine is to the tangent of the angle C, fo is 
 the fine of A C to the tangent of A B ; therefore the co-tan- 
 gent of the angle C, will be to the whole fine, as the fine of 
 the leg adjacent thereto, A C is to the tangent of the oppo- 
 fite one A B. 2. The rectangle, therefore, of the whole fine, 
 into the fine of one leg AC, is equal to the rectangle of the 
 tangent of the other leg A C, into the co-tangent of the angle 
 C, oppofite to the fame. And, in like manner, the rectan- 
 gle of the whole fine, into the fine of the leg A B, is equal to 
 the rectangle of the tangent of the leg A C into the co-tangent 
 of the angle B. 
 
 4. In every right-angled fpberical triangle, ABC, none 
 of whofe fides is a quadrant ; if the complements of the 
 legs A B and A C to a quadrant, or their excefles beyond a 
 quadrant, be confidered as the legs themfelves ; the rectangle 
 of the whole fine, into the co-fine of the middle part, will be 
 equal to the rectangle of the co-tangents, and the conjunct 
 parts. Hence, f. If the fines and tangents be artificial ; the 
 whole fine, with the co-fine of the middle part, is equal to the 
 co-tangents of the contiguous parts. 2. Since in the recti- 
 linear, right-angled triangle, we ufe the tangents, when from 
 the legs A B and A C (fig. 34,) given, the angle C is to be 
 found ; and in that cafe the whole fine is to the co-tangent of 
 C, /. e. -to the tangent of B, as A B to A C ; therefore, al- 
 fo, inthe rectilinear triangle, if for the fines and tangents of 
 the fides be taken the fines themfelves ; the whole fine, with 
 the co- fine of the middle part, ;'. e. with AC. is equal to 
 the co-tangents of the conjunct parts, t, e. to the co-tangent 
 of C, or the tangent of B and the fide A B. 
 This, Wolfius calls regula tangentium catbolica, and con- 
 stitutes the other part of the catholic rule of trigonometry, 
 whereby all problems in each trigonometry, where tangents are 
 required, are folved. 
 
 My lord Napier's rule to the like effect, is thus: — That the 
 whole line, with the fine of the middle part, is equal to the 
 tangents of the contiguous parts. 
 
 'Tis, therefore, a catholic rule, which holds in all trigonome- 
 try ; that in a rectanglcd triangle {not at is notandis, i. e. the 
 complements ,of the legs A B and AC, being confidered as 
 legs themfelves, and in rectilinear triangles, the fides them- 
 felves being taken for the fines and tangents of the tides.} The 
 whole fine with the co-fine of the mean and middle part is 
 equal to the fines of the disjunct or feparate parts, and the co- 
 tangents of the conjunct and contiguous parts. 
 For an illuftration and application of this rule, in the fulution 
 of the various cafes of fpberical triangles, fee Triangle. 
 
 Characlers in Trigonometry. See Character. 
 
 TRIHING, Thrihing,* from the Saxon, Druhinje, an 
 extent containing three, or four hundreds, or the the third 
 part of a fliire, or province. See Tithing. 
 * Mr. Thorefby thinks the word ought to be written Thrithing. 
 SeeTboreJb. Ducat its Leaden/, p. Sc. 
 
 The word is alfo ufed for a court held within that circuit, 
 which was the fame with what we now call a court-leety which 
 is above a court-baron, and inferior to the county-court. 
 TRILLION, in arithmetic, the number of a billion of bil 
 lions. 
 
 After billions, we reckon by trillions, which makes a clafs of 
 numeration, and is divided, like the other clafies, into three ! 
 
 3 1 
 
 T R i 
 
 places : thus we fay, trillions, tens of irlUhns J hundreds of 
 trillions, &c. 
 
 TRIM of a Ihip, is her belt pofture, proportion of ballaft, and 
 hanging of her malts for failing. 
 
 Hence, to find the belt way of making a fiiip fail fwiftly, is to 
 find her tri?n. 
 
 To Trim a boat, is to fet the pafi'engers fo as to keep the boa: 
 
 even on both fides. 
 TRIMACRUS, or Trimacer, in the ancient profody, a 
 
 foot in verfe, conftfting of three long lyllables. 
 TRIMILCHI, a name by which the Englifh Saxons called the 
 month of May ; becaufe they always milked their cattle three 
 times a day in that month. 
 TRIMMERS, in architecture, pieces of timber framed at 
 right angles to the joints, againft the ways for chimneys, and 
 well-holts for ftairs. 
 TRINE dimenfmn, or threefold dim.- ■nfion J includes length, 
 breadth, and thicknefs. 
 
 The trine dimcnlion is peculiar to bodies or folids. 
 Trine in ajlrology, is the afpect or fituation of one ftar with re- 
 gard to. another, when they are diftant 120 degrees, — as the 
 arch A B {Tab. Jfironomy,fig. 3.) which is a third of a circle, 
 and its fubtenfe A B, a fide of an equilateral triangle ABC 
 inferibed in the fphere. See Aspect. 
 
 It is alfo called trigon, and is ufually fignified by the cha- 
 racter A. 
 
 TR1NGLE,* in architecture, a name common to feveral 
 little fquare members, or ornaments ; as reglcts, liftels and 
 platbands. See Reglet, Listel, £sV. 
 * The word is French, where it fignifies the fame. 
 Ta ingle is more particularly ufed far a little member fixed ex- 
 actly over every triglyph, under the plat-band of the archi- 
 trave ; from whence hang down the gutta* or pendant drops. 
 See Triglyph, and Guttje. 
 TRINITARIANS, a term ufed very varioufly, am! arbitra- 
 rily — frequently it ftands as a common name for all heretics 
 who have fentiments on the myftery of the Trinity, different 
 from thofe of the catholic church. 
 
 Sometimes it is more immediately restrained to fome one or 
 other particular clafs of heretics. — Thus trinitarians are fre- 
 quently confounded with unitarians. 
 
 Sometimes it is even -applied to the orthodox themfelves, in 
 contradiftinction to the others who are then called antitrinita- 
 rians, who deny or impugn the doctrine of the Trinity. — ■ 
 Thus the Socinians and others ufed to call the Athanafians, 
 
 trinitarians. 
 
 Trinitarians alfo denote anorder of religious, inflitutcd in 
 honour of the Trinity, for the redeeming of Chriftian captives 
 from the infidels j vulgarly called mathurir.s, and brothers of 
 the redemption. 
 
 They are cloathed in white, and bear on the flomach a croft, 
 partly red and partly blue ; by which three colours, white, 
 red and blue, is fuppufed to be reprefented, the myftery of the 
 Trinity. 
 
 The trinitarians made it their bufinefs to go and ranfom Chn- 
 ftians held in flayery in the republic of Algiers, Tunis and 
 Tripoly, and the ftates of Morocco. — They have a rule pe- 
 culiar to themfelves ; though feveral hiftorians rank them 
 among the obfervers of St. Auguftin. 
 
 The order had its rife in 1 19?, under the pontificate of Inno- 
 cent III. The founders were John de Matha and Felix de 
 Valois : the firft of Faucon in Provence ; the fecend, not of 
 the royal family of Valois, as fome have imagined, but 
 thus called, in all probability, as being a native of the country 
 Valois. 
 
 Gauthier of Chatillon was the firft who gave them a place 
 in his lands to build a convent ; which afterwards became 
 the chief of the whole order : Honorius HI, confirmed their 
 rule. And Urban IV. appointed the bifhop of Paris and others 
 to reform them : they did it ; and the reform was approved, 
 in 1267, by Clement IV. 
 
 This order poffeffes about 250 convents, divided into thirteen 
 provinces ; whereof fix are in France, three in Spain, one in 
 Italy, and one in Portugal. — And formerly, there was one 
 in England, another in Scotland, and a third in Ireland. 
 In the general chapters held in 1573 and 1 576, a reform was 
 ordered, and begun fomctime afterwards by Julian de Nanton- 
 ville, and Claude Aleph, two hermits of St. Michael, but now 
 permitted by pope Gregory to take the habit of the Trinity ; 
 upon which their hermitage was converted into a houfeof the 
 order. ,"'*' , * , - 
 
 In 1 609, pope Paul allowed them to build new houfts, and to 
 introduce the reform into the old ones. In 1635, Urbm V11J. 
 by a brief, appointed the cardinal de Rochetourault to in- 
 troduce the reform into all the houfes of the order ; which 
 was done accordingly, by the lenience containing the reform 
 in eiotit articles ; the principal whereof were, that they fhould 
 obfervc the primitive rule approved of by Clement IV. that 
 they fhould abftain from flefh, nfe woollen fhirts, have martins 
 atmidnight, fiff. In 1554, thsre was alfo a returm m4dc 
 among thofe of Portugal. 
 
 The 
 
T R I 
 
 The habit of trinitarians is different in different countries; 
 and that of the reformed is different from that of the reft. 
 Bare-footed Trinitarians, area reform of this order, nude 
 in Spain in a general chapter, held in 1594, where it was re- 
 folved, that each province mould eftablifh two or three houfes, 
 where the primitive rule fhould be cblerved, and where the re- 
 ligious fhould live up to 3 greater aufterity, ufe coarfer cluatbs, 
 bfc. and yet fhould have the liberty of returning to their an- 
 cient convent when they thought fit. 
 
 Dom. Alvares Bafan, intending to found a monaftery at Val- 
 depegnas, and defiring to have it occupied by bare-footed reli- 
 gious, it was agreed to add nudity of feet to the reform, that 
 the trinitarians might have the benefit of that eftablifhment, — 
 The reform afterwards grew into three provinces, and was at 
 length introduced into Poland and Ruffia, and thence into 
 Germany ami Italy. 
 
 There are alfo bare-fooled trhutarians in France, eftablifhed 
 by F. Jerom HalHcs, who being fent to Rome to folicit the 
 firft: reform mentioned above; not content therewith, carried 
 it further, and obtained a permiffion of pope Gregory, to add 
 a coarfe habit, and nudity of feet thereto. He began with 
 the convent of St. Dionyiius at Rome, and thofe of Aix in 
 Provence, 
 
 In 1670 there were houfes enough oF this reform to make a 
 province, and accordingly they held their firft general chapter 
 the fame year. 
 
 There are alfo nuns of the Trinitarian order, eftabliflied 
 in Spain by St. John de Matha himfelf, who built them a con- 
 vent in 1 20 1 . — Thofe who firft took the habit were only ob- 
 latfe, and made no vows; but in 1101 the monaftery was fil- 
 led with real religious, under the direction of the infanta Con- 
 ftantia, daughter of Peter II, king of Arragon, who was the 
 firft religious, and the firft fupen'or of the order. 
 There are alfo bare-footed nuns of this order, eftabliflied at 
 Madrid abouttheyear 1612, by Frances de Romero, daughter 
 of Julian de Romero, a lieutenant-general in theSpanifli army. 
 Her defign being to found a monaftery of bare-footed Au- 
 guftines, fhe atlemblcd a number of maids for that end, lodging 
 them, for the time, in a houfe belonging to the monaftery of 
 bare-footed trhutarians in the neighbourhood. 
 Here, attending at the church of thofe fathers, and being un- 
 der the direction of F. John Baptift of the conception, their 
 founder, the knowledge of that father, and the ferviceshe did 
 them, made them change their refaction of becoming Au- 
 guftines, and demand of their director the habit of his order, 
 which he gave them. 
 
 But the order cppoling their defign, and refuting to take them 
 under its jurifdiction, they addreffed themfelves to the arch- 
 bifhop of Toledo, who allowed them to live according to the 
 rule of that order ; fo that they took the habit a-new in 1612, 
 and began their noviciate. 
 
 Laftly, there is a third order of trinitariam. See Thip.d 
 Order. 
 
 TRINITY, Trinitas, Trias, Triad, in theology, the 
 ineffable myftery of three perfons in one God ; Father, Son, 
 and Holy Spirit. 
 
 It is an article in the chriftian faith, that there is one God, an 
 unity in nature and effence, and a Trinity of Perfons, — The 
 term trinity implies the unity of three, the unity of three di- 
 vine perfons really different, and the identity of an indivifible 
 nature: the trinity is a ternary of divine perfons of the fame 
 effence, nature, and fubftance. 
 
 Theology teaches, that there is in God oneefTencc, two pro- 
 ceflions, three perfons, four relations, five notions, and the 
 circumincelTion, which the Greeks call pericboref.s. On each 
 whereof we lhall enlarge a little. 
 
 There is, then, one fingle effence, one divine nature, which 
 is infinite, eternal, fpiritual; which fees all things, which 
 knows all things, which is every where, all-mighty, and 
 which created all things of nothing. 
 
 In this God there are two proceffions, or emanations, viz. 
 thatof the Son, and that of the Holy Spirit: the firft is called 
 generation, and the fecond fp'iration. 
 
 The Son proceeds from the Father by way of knowledge; 
 for God in knowing himfelf eternally, ntceffarily, and infi- 
 nitely, produces a term, an idea, notion or knowledge of him- 
 felf, and all his adorable perfections, which is called his IVcrd, 
 his Sen, who is equal to him in all things, eternal, infinite, 
 and neceffary as his Father. — The Father regards the Son as 
 his Word, and the Son has a regard to the Father as his prin- 
 ciple: and in thus refpedting each other eternally, ncceffarily, 
 and infinitely, they love each other, and produce an act of 
 their mutual love : the term of that love is the Holy Spirit, who 
 proceeds from the Father and the Son by wav of fpiration, 
 love, and impulfion ; who is alio equal in every thing to the 
 Father and to the Son. 
 
 Each divine procefiion eflablifhes two relations : the one on the 
 fide of the principle, or that from whence; and the other on 
 that of the term, or that to which. — Hence, as there are two 
 proceffions in God, there mull be four relations j the paternity, 
 the filiation, the active fpiration, and the paffive. 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 T R I 
 
 The paternity is a relation founded in what the fchool divines 
 call the notional underftanding; in which the Father ftands re- 
 lated to the fecond perfon, the Son —The filiation is the re- 
 lation wherein the fecond perfon, viz. the Son, refers to the 
 Father. 
 
 The active fpiration, is the relation founded in the notional 
 act of the will, whereby the firft and fecond perfons regard or 
 refer to the third:— the paffive fpiration or procellion, taken in 
 its ft riot fenfe, is the relation whereby the third perfon regards, 
 and is referred to the firft and fecond. — Hence it appears^ that 
 there are in God, four relations, as we have already faid, and 
 five notions, as we ftiall fliew hereafter. 
 
 Perfon is defined an individual, reafonable, or intellectual fub- 
 ftance ; or an intellectual and incommunicable fubflance. 
 The hypoftafis, or fubftance, is what cou dilutes the perfon. — 
 There are then in the holy trinity three perfons, Father, Son, 
 and Holy Spirit, which have all things in common, except 
 their relations; whence that axiom in theology comes to have 
 place, in the divine perfons there is no diftinction where there 
 is no oppofition of relation : and hence it follows, that if 
 power be fometimcs attributed to the Father, wifdom to the 
 Son, and goodnefs to the Holy Spirit; or if fins of infirmity 
 or weaknefs be faid to be againft the Father, fins of ignorance 
 againft the Son, and fins of malice againft the Holy Spirit, it 
 is only fpoke by way of appropriation, and not of propriety; 
 for all thofe things are in common: whence that axiom, the 
 works of the holy Trinity are common and undivided, (i. e, 
 they agree to all the divine peafons) but not their productions 
 ad intra (as they are called) by rcafon they are relative. 
 By appropriation we mean the giving of fome common attri- 
 bute to a certain divine perfon, on account of fome fuitablc- 
 nefs or agreement. Thus, in the fcriptures, in the apoftles, 
 and in the Nicene creed, omnipotence is attributed to the Fa- 
 ther, becaufe he is the firft principle, and a principle without 
 origin, or higher principle. — Wifdom is attributed to the Son, 
 becaufe he is the term of the divine underftanding, to which 
 wifdom belongs: goodnefs is attributed to the Holy Spirit, as 
 being the term of the will, to which goodnefs belongs. 
 Some divines give other reafons of fuch kinds of attributions 
 and appropriations, viz. that it is to ftave off thofe imperfec- 
 tions from the divine perfons which are found in the creatures : 
 for created fathers are weak, drooping, and impotent; where- 
 fore to ward off this imperfection from the firft perfon, he is 
 peculiarly faid to be almighty. 
 
 Again, created fons are generally imprudent ; wherefore, to 
 remove this imperfection from the fecond perfon, he is faid to 
 be wife, or to be eternal wifdom. 
 
 Laftly, great minds or fpirits, among created beings, are fre- 
 quently wicked ; wherefore to remove this ini perfect ion from 
 the third perfon, goodnefs is attributed to him. 
 The Father is the firft perfon in the holy trinity, ay reafon 
 the Father alone produces the Word by the way of imderjiand- 
 ing: and with the Word produces the Holy Spirit, by way of 
 will. 
 
 Here is to be obferved, that the Holy Spirit is not thus called 
 from his fpirituality, that being common and effential to all 
 the three Perfons, but from the paffive fpiration which is pecu- 
 liar to him alone. 
 
 Add, that when one Perfon in the holy trinity is called firj}, 
 another fecond, and another third, it mull not be underiiood' 
 of a priority of time, or of nature, which would imply fome 
 dependance; but of a priority of origin and emanation, which 
 confifts in this, that one perfon produces the other in fuch 
 manner, as that the perfon which produces cannot be, or be 
 conceived, without that produced^ 
 
 From thefe things it follows, that in the holy trinity there are 
 five notions (underftanding by notion the peculiar manner 
 whereby one divine perfon is diftinguiflied from anoiher.) 
 The notions then whereby the Father is diftinguiflied from the 
 
 Son and Holy Ghoft, are innafcibility, and paternitv. That 
 
 whereby the Son is difringuifhed from the two other divine 
 perfons, is filiation. 
 
 Act ive fpiration diftinguiflies the Father and theSon from the 
 Holy Spirit, and paffive fpiration is that whereby the Holy 
 Spirit is diftinguiflied from the Fatherand the Son. 
 The circuminc^ffion or perichorelis, is ihe intimate in-exifl- 
 ence of the divine perfons, or their mutual in-dweiling in 
 each other: for though they be really difiinct, yet are they 
 confubftantial, whence it is that Jefus Chrift fays in St. J.ihn, 
 cap. xiv. Believe ye not that lam in the Fathir, and the Father 
 in me ? Identity of efience, which the Greeks call i.xtwm, and 
 confubftantialuy. with a diftinction of perfons, are neceffary 
 to this circuminceffion. See Circuminc tssioN, 
 Many of the heathens feem to have had a notion of a Tri- 
 nity. — Steuch. buguh. de Persn. Pbihf. lib. 1, cap. 3. obferves 
 that there is nothing in all theology more deeply grounded, or 
 more generally allowed by them, than the myftery of the 
 trinity. The Chaldeans, Hebrews, Phoenicians, Greek?, and 
 Romans bmh in their writings and their oracles acknow- 
 ledged that the i'upreme being had begot another being from 
 all eternity, which they fometimcs called the Sen of Ccd y fome- 
 times the ll'urd, fometimes the Mind, and fumcinnrs the 
 12 X Wifdom 
 
T R I 
 
 Wifdom of God, and affected it to be the Creator of all 
 
 Among the fayings of the Magi, the defendants ofZoroafl er, 
 this is one; Dwhw igirAi* timf «» «> engife*. fenipi : the 
 Father finifhed all things, and delivered them to the jecond 
 
 The Egyptians called their trinity, -hemptha, and re- 
 
 prefcrited it by a globe, a ferperrti and a wing difpofed into 
 one hieroglyphic fymbo]. — Kircher, Gale, &c. fuppofe the 
 Egyptians learned their doctrine of the trinity from Jofcph, 
 and the Hebrews. 
 
 The philofophers, fays St. Cyril, owned three hypoftafes or 
 perfons; they have extended their divinity to three perfons, 
 and even fometimes ufed the term trias y trinity: they wanted 
 nothing but to admit the confubftantiality of the three hy- 
 poftafes, to fignify the unityof the divinenature, in exclufion 
 of all triplicity with regard to difFerence of nature; and not to 
 hold it necelTary to conceive any inferiority of hypoftafes. ■ 
 In effect, Plato, and fome of his followers, fpeak of a trinity 
 in fuch terms, that the primitive fathers have been accufed of 
 burrowing the very doctrine from the Platonic fchool; but 
 F. Mourgues, who has examined the point, a {Terrs, that no- 
 thing can°be more ftupid, than to fuppofe the Platonic trinity 
 brought into the church; and to have recourfe to the Plato- 
 nifm of the fathers to difcrcdit their authority with regard to 
 this dogma. 
 
 Friary or Fraternity of the Holy Trtnitv, isa fociety inftituted 
 at Rome by St. Philip Neri in 1548, to take care of pilgrims 
 coming from all parts of the world to that capital, to vifit the 
 tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul. 
 
 In order to this, they had a houfe wherein they entertained 
 them for the fpace of three days, and not only them, but alfo 
 poor people who were on the recovery, and who being turned 
 too haftilyout of the hofpitals, were expofed to relapfes. 
 It was firftfet on foot in the church of St. Saviour in Campo, 
 and confifted only of fifteen poor perfons, who met in that 
 church the firft Sunday of each month, to practife the exercifes 
 of piety prefcribed by the founder, and to hear the exhorta- 
 tion he there gave. 
 
 In 1558 pope Paul IV. gave the fraternity the church of 
 St. Benedict, to which they gave the title of the Holy Trinity. 
 Since that time, they have built clofe by it a very ample hofpi- 
 tal for pilgrims, and perfons on the recovery. 
 The fraternity is now very confiderable, and moft: of the 
 nobleffe of Rome, of either fex, have done it the honour to be 
 members of it. 
 
 Congregation of the Ho Jy Trinity, is a congregation of twelve 
 priefts eftablifhed in the hofpital of the fraternity juft men- 
 tioned, to take care of pilgrims and others entertained there- 
 in. 
 
 The frequent change of priefts in the hofpital occafionmg a 
 deal of diverfity in the fpiritual conduct, and inftrucTion of the 
 pilgrims, to render it more uniform, the guardians and admi- 
 nistrators eftablifhed a congregation of twelve priefts, who 
 lodge in a quarter of the hofpital, as in a monaftery, and live 
 therein community. 
 
 Order of the Holy Trinity. See Trinitarian. 
 
 Trinity Sunday, is the next Sunday after Whit-funday ; thus 
 called, becaufe on that day was anciently held a feftival (as it 
 fliil continues to be in the Romifh churchj in honour of the 
 Holy Trinity. — The obfervation of this feftival was firft en- 
 joined by the council of Aries in 1260. 
 
 Trinity Houfe, is a kind of college at Deptford, belonging to 
 a corporation of fca- faring perfons, who have power, by the 
 king's charter, to take cognizance of fuch as deftroy fea-marks, 
 to correct the faults of Tailors, &c. and to take care of feveral 
 other things belonging to navigation and the feas, the examina- 
 tion of young officers, CSV. anno 8° Eliz. 
 
 Trinity Term. See the article Term. 
 
 TRINIU MGELD, or Thriniumgild, a compenfatlon 
 ufed among our Sa\on anceftors for great crimes, which were 
 not abfolved but by paying a fine thrice nine times. See 
 Geld. 
 
 T RINODA neeejfitas, in our ancient cuftom?, a three-fold ne- 
 ceffary tax, to which all lands were liable, viz. expeditio, tit 
 reparatio pontis, & arcis ; going to the wars, and repairing of 
 bridges, and of caftles. 
 
 Thefe were the three exceptions anciently inferted in the king's 
 grants of lands to the church, after the words that freed them 
 from all fecular fervice. 
 
 TRINODA, or Trinodia terra, in fome ancient writers, 
 ■ denotes a quantity of land containing three perches. 
 
 TRINOMIAL, or Trinominal Root, in mathematics, isa 
 root confiding of three parts, or monomes, connected toge- 
 ther by the Tigns or — 
 Such is * -f- y ~r~ z ) ot a -\- b — c. 
 
 TRIO, inmufic; a part of a concert wherein three perfons 
 Ting; or more properly a mufical compofition conlifting of 
 three parts. 
 
 Trio's are the fineft kind of compofition, and thefe are what 
 pleafe moft in concerts. 
 TRIOCTILE, in aftrology, an afpect or fituation of two 
 planets with regard to the earth, when they are three octants 
 3 
 
 T R I 
 
 or eight parts of a circle, i. e. 135 degrees difLnr. from each 
 other. 
 
 This afpect, which fome call the fefquiquadram, is one of the 
 new afpects fuper-added to the old ones by Kepler. 
 TRIONKS, in aftronomy, a fort of confteliation, or afiem- 
 blage of feven ftars, in the urfa minor ; popularly called 
 Charles's Wain. 
 
 From the fcptem triones the north pole takes the denomination 
 
 feptenlrio. 
 
 TRIOURS, or Triers, in law, fuch as are chofen by the 
 court to examine whether a challenge made to the pannel of 
 jurors, or any of them, be juft or no. See Jury. 
 
 TRIP, a fea term. A fhip is faid to bear her top-fails a-trip, 
 when ihe carries them hoifted up to the higheft. 
 
 TRIPARTITE, Tripartitus, fometiiing divided into 
 three parts, or made by three parties; as, an indenture tri- 
 partite, jtsfo See Indenture. 
 
 TRIPARTITION, is a divifion by three, or the taking the 
 thrid part of any number, or quantity, 
 
 TRIPHTHONGUE, in grammar, an afTemblage or concourfe 
 of three vowels in the fame fyllable ; as in .^hiae. 
 Quintilian, lib. I, cap. 6. denies the exiftence of triphthongurs, 
 and afferts, that there never was any fyllable of three vowels, 
 but that one of them was always turned into a confonant: 
 Scioppius afferts the contrary: — However this may be in the 
 Latin and Greek, which were the only languages Quintilian 
 underftood, it is certain there are feveral languages in Europe, 
 wherein triphthongucs are in ufe. 
 
 TRIPLE, three-fold. See Ratio, and Sub-triple. 
 
 Triple, inmufic, is one of the fpecies of meafure, or time. 
 Triple time confifts of many different fpecies, whereof rhere 
 are in general four, each of which has its varieties. — The 
 common name of triple is taken hence, that the whole or half 
 meafure is divifible into three equal parts, and is beaten ac- 
 cordingly. 
 
 The firft fpecies is called the fimple triple, wherein the meafure 
 is equal to three femibreves, three minims, three crotchets, 
 three quavers, or three femiquavers; which are marked thus, 
 tj or I. i< t> r-li but the laft is not much ufed, except in 
 church mufic. 
 
 In all thefe, the meafure is divided into three equal parts or 
 times, called thence triple time, or the meafure of three times y 
 whereof two are beat down, and the third up. 
 The fecond fpecies is the mixt triple : its meafure is equal to 
 fix crotchets, or fix quavers, or fix femiquavers, and ac- 
 cordingly it is marked % or or ,|; but the laft is feldom 
 ufed. 
 
 The meafure here is ufually divided into two equal parts or 
 times, whereof one is beat down, and one up; but it may 
 alfo be divided into fix time?, whereof the firft two are beat 
 down, and the third up; then the next two down, and the 
 laft up, i. e. each half of the meafure is beat like the fnnple 
 triple (on which account it may be called the compound triple;) 
 and becaufe it may be thus divided either into two or fix times 
 (/. e. two triples) it is called mixed, and by fome the meafure 
 of fix t imes. 
 
 The third fpecies is the compound triple, confifting of nine 
 crotchets, or quavers, or femiquavers, marked f, t |, the 
 firft and laft are little ufed; fome alfo add %, |, which are 
 never ufed. 
 
 Some authors add other two, viz. fix femibreves, and fix mi- 
 nims, marked f- or f; but thefe are not in ufe. 
 This meafure is divided either into three equal parts or times, 
 whereof two are beat down, and one up; or each third part 
 may be divided into three times, and beat like the fimple tri- 
 ple ; on which account it is called the meafure of nine times. 
 The fourth fpecies is a compound of the fecond fpecies, con- 
 taining twelve crotches, or quavers, or femiquavers, marked 
 'i> *ff> iT» to which fome add '-f and 1 1, which are never 
 ufed; nor are the firft: and third much ufed, efpecially the 
 latter. 
 
 The meafure here may be divided into two times, and beat 
 one down, and one up; or each half may be divided, and 
 beat as the fecond fpecies, either by two or three; in which 
 cafe it will make in all twelve times, and hence is called the 
 meafure of twelve times. 
 
 The French and Italian authors make a great many more 
 fpecies and divifions of triple time, unknown, or at leaft, un- 
 regarded by ourEnglifh muficians, and therefore nut foncccf- 
 fary to be dwelt upon here. 
 Triple quartan fever. See the article Fever. • 
 Triple Incifton. See the article Engrafting. 
 T RIPLICATE Ratio, is the ratio which cubes bear to each 
 other. 
 
 This ratio is to be diftinguifhed from triple ratio, and may he 
 thus conceived. — In the geometrical proportionals 2, 4, S, 
 16, 32; as the ratio of the firft term (2) is to be the third 
 (8 ) duplicate of that of the firft to the fecood, or of the fe- 
 cond to the third: To the ratio of the fiift to the fourth is faid 
 to be triplicate of the ratio of the firft to the fecond, or of that 
 of the fecond to the third, or that of the third to the fourth, 
 as beine compounded of three equal ratio's. 
 
 TRI- 
 
T R I 
 
 TRIPLICATIO, Triplication, in civil law, is the fame 
 with fur- rejoinder in common law. See Sur-rejoi nde r. 
 
 TRIPLICITY, or Trigon, among aitrologers, is a divifion 
 of the figns, according to the number of the elements, each 
 divifion confifling of three figns. 
 
 Triplicity\s frequently confounded with trine afpeft \ though 
 ftriftly {peaking, the two are very different things: as tripli- 
 city is only ufed with regard to the figns; and trine, on the 
 contrary, with regard to the planets. 
 
 The figns of triphcity are thofe which are of the fame nature, 
 
 and not thofe which are in trinc-afpecL — Thus Leo, Sagittary, 
 
 and Aries are figns of triplkity, becaufe thofe figns are, by 
 
 thefe writers, all fuppofed hcry. 
 TRIPLOIDES, a furgeon's inftrument, with a three-fold bafis, 
 
 ufed in the reftoring great depremons of the fcull. Blanc. 
 TRIPOD, Tripos, in antiquity, a famed facrcd feat or ftool, 
 
 fupported by three feet, whereon the priefis and fibvls were 
 
 placed to render oracles. 
 
 It was on the tripos that the gods infpircd the Pythians with 
 that divine fury and enthufiafm, wherewith they were feifed at 
 the delivering their predictions. 
 
 M. Spanheim obferves, that on Roman medals, the tripod ex- 
 preffes fome priefthood, or facerdotal dignity. — A tripod, with 
 a raven and a dolphin, is alfo the fymbol of the duumviri, de- 
 puted for keeping of the fibyllin oracles, and for confuking 
 them on occafion. 
 
 TRIPODIUM.— In the laws of Hen. I. occurs this paffage— 
 In quibui vera caufis tripliccm ladam baberet, ferat judicium tri- 
 podii, i. e. bo fohd. The meaning whereof, according to 
 ibme, is, that as for a fmall offence, the eompofition was 
 twenty millings i fo for a great offence, which was to be pure- 
 ed triplici lada, the eompofition was three times twenty mill- 
 ings, and this was called tripodium, 
 
 TRIPOLI, or Tripoly, terra Tripoli tana, a kind of dry, 
 loft earth, or chalk, of a citron colour, ufed in polifhing 
 the lapidaries, goldfmiths, copper- fmiths, and glafs- grinders 
 works. 
 
 Some imagine tripolt to be only a common foft flone, burnt 
 and calcined by the fulphurous exhalations which happen to be 
 under the quarries where it is found : of thefe quarries there are 
 a number in divers parts of Europe, particularly in Italy, where 
 the tripoli is very good, — Others, with more juftice, take it 
 for a native earth. See Supplement, article Tripela. 
 TRIPPING, in heraldry, denotes the quick motion of all forts 
 of deerj and of fome other creatures reprefented with one foot 
 up, as it were on a trot. 
 
 In fpeaking of lions, they fay paffant, inftead of tripping* 
 TRIPTHONGUE. See the article Triphthongue. 
 TRIPTOTES, * in grammar, defective nouns, which have 
 
 only three cafes: fuch is fors, fortis, forte; or dlca, dicam, 
 
 dicas. 
 
 * The word is compounded of rpify three, and slas-if, cafe. 
 
 TRIREME, or Triremis, in antiquity, a galley with three 
 ranks of oars on a fide. See Supplement article Trir emis 
 
 TRISACRAMENTARIANS, or Trissacramentarians, 
 an appellation given to a feCt, in religion, who admit of three 
 facraments, and no more. 
 There have been fevcral trlfacramentarians who allowed of 
 baptifm, the cucharift, and abfolution, for faciaments. — 
 The Englifh are often mifreprefented by foreigners as trlfa- 
 cramentarians, from an opinion that they allow ordination a 
 facrament. 
 
 TR I S A G ION, * or Trisacium, in church-biftory, 
 a hymn wherein the word holy is repeated three times. See 
 Hymn. 
 
 * The word is Greek, r^zyw, compounded of rjn;, tb 
 and ay.o;, JanSlus, boll. 
 
 The proper trifagion is thofe words holy, holy, boly, Lord God 
 cf fabaoth, which we read in Ifaiah vi. 3. and in the Apoca- 
 lypfe. From thefe words the church formed another trifagion, 
 which is rehearfed in Latin and Greek, in the refpedtive 
 churches, to this efFect: Holy God, holy mighty, holy immortal I 
 have mercy upon us. / 
 
 Pctrus Fullenfis to this trifagion added, 3 crat/auki; h ry,xc, Thou 
 ivho xvafl crucified for as, — have mercy, &c thus attributing 
 the paflion not to the fon alone, but to all the three perfons of 
 the trinity, and he pronoune'd anathema to all fuch as would 
 not fay the fame. See Th eopasc hite. 
 The ufe of the fecond trifagion (exclufive of the addition of 
 Fullenfis) began in the church of Constantinople, from whence 
 it paffed into the other churches of the eaft, and afterwards 
 into thofe of the weft. Damafcenus, Codin, BaMimon, and 
 others, fay it was in the time of the patriarch Proclus that it 
 was introduced, and that on the following occafion/ there be- 
 ing a violent earthquake in the 3 5 th year of the younger Theo- 
 dolius, the patriarch made a grsnd proceflion, wherein, for fe- 
 veral hours together, wag lung the Kyric elcifon, Lord have 
 mercy upon us. While this was in hand, a child was taken 
 up into the air, where, ir fcems, he heard ihe angels finging 
 the trifigim juft mentioned. He returned foot) after, and told 
 
 T R I 
 
 what be had heard : upon which they began to fing that hvmnj 
 and the mote willingly too, as they attributed the troubles' they 
 were then under, to the blafphemies which the heretics of 
 Coftjntinople uttered againft the Son.— Afclepiades, Cedrenus, 
 pope helix, Nicephorus, (Sc. relare the fame ftory. 
 Pctrus Fullenfis, patriarch of Antioch, and a zealous partifan 
 of Neftorius, endeavoured to corrupt the hvmn, by the addi- 
 tion above-mentioned, wbofrfiralpr us; but in vain: it ft ill 
 fubfifts in its primitive purity, both in the Latin, Greek, E- 
 thiopic, and Mozarabic offices. 
 
 TRISECTION, or Trissection, the dividir 
 
 ; a thing into 
 
 The term is chiefly ufed in geometry, for the divifion of an 
 angle into three equal parts. 
 
 The trsfecTsin of an angle geometrically, is one of thofe great 
 problems, whole folution has been fo much fought by mathe- 
 maticians for thefe two thoufand years ; being, in this refpect, 
 on a footing with the quadrature of the circle, and the dupli- 
 cature of the cube angle. 
 
 Several late authors have wrote of the trifeelion of the angle, 
 and pretend to have found out the demonitration thereof; but 
 they have all committed paralogifms. 
 TRISMEGISTUS,* an epithet or furname given to one of the 
 two Hermes's, or Mercuries, kings of Thebes, in Eoypt, 
 who was cotemporary with Mofes. 
 
 * The word is formed from rpt, thrice, and suysr®; greateji. 
 Mercury, or Hermes Trifmegijlus, is the latter of the two 
 Hermes's : the former having reigned about the time of the de- 
 luge.— They are both of them reprefented as authors of many 
 of the arts and inftitutions of the Egyptians. 
 TRISMOS, tpiemoe, or Tpiriuos, a convulfion of the 
 mufclesof the temples, cauftng the teeth to <mafh 
 
 TRISOLYMPIONJCA,* TmoATMnjcwiKHr, among the 
 ancients, a perfon who had thrice bore away the prize at the 
 Olympic games. 
 
 * The word is compofed of r £ i«, Ires, three ; O.Mjrau,, Olyrnt c 
 games ; and user,, dietary. t 
 
 The trifilympionicai, or iri/ilymfhmcs, had great privileges and 
 honours allowed them. — Statues were erected to them, D of the 
 kind called icmicec, which were modelled to the fize and form 
 of their perfons. 
 
 They were alfo exempted from all taxes and incumbrances 
 and could never be marked with infamy. 
 TRISPAST,* Trispaston, in mechanics, a machine with 
 three pulhes ; or an affemblage of three pullies, for raifing 
 great weights. 5 
 
 * The word is compounded of rmt, three, and tresis 1 
 areew. ' 
 
 The trsfpajim is a fpecies of polyfpafton." See Polvspastok 
 TRISSACRAMENTARIANS. See the article Trisacra- 
 
 MENTARIANS. 
 
 TRISSECTION, 7 C , . c T., SPrTr „„ 
 
 TRISSECTING Cmptfes, f fe th = «** \ Co m pa sI 6S 
 TRISTRA,* Trustra, or Trista, in our old law books, 
 an immunity, whereby a man is excufed from attending on the 
 lord of the foreft, when he is difpofed to chafe within the lo- 
 reft; fo that he cannot be compelled to hold a dog, follow 
 the chace, nor (land at a place appointed, which otherwile 
 he might be, under pain of amercement. Marsw, P. I. p. 86 
 
 * Ssrst qssseli, fifr. dc Cbevrgio, Haniiepcssssy, BuciJJot & Tridr 
 tei ste esnnshus nsijencrdlss, (Jr.- Privileg. de Semplingham. ' 
 
 TRISYLLABLE, or Trisyllable, in grammar, °a word 
 
 conhlting of three fyllables. 
 TRITE, TPtTH, in mufic, the third mufical chord, in the 
 
 fyftem of the ancients. See Chord. 
 
 There are three Brings under this denomination in the ancient 
 diagramma ; viz. the trite hyperboleers, trite cliazeisgmenm ami 
 trite fynetttmenon. * * 
 
 TRITHEISM, the opinion of the lrlthei/ls; or the heref« of 
 believing three Gods. See Gon, and Tri n i tv 
 TrlttWfm confifls in admitting not only of three perfons in the 
 Godhead; but of three fubftances, three efl'ences or hypoftafes 
 and indeed three Gods. 
 
 Several people, out of fear or giving into trilheijm, have be- 
 come fabellians; and feveral others, to avoid fihellianifin 
 have commenced trithcijli; fo delicate and fubtle is the di- 
 ftinction. 
 
 In the famous controverfy between Dr. South and Dr. Sher- 
 lock, the firft is judged to have run into fabellianifm, by a 
 too rigorous aflerting the unity of a Godhead; and the' latter 
 into trstbcifsn, by a too abfolute maintaing the trinity. 
 John the grammarian, furnamed Philoponus, lover' of labour 
 is held rhe author of the feci of the trithesjis, under the em- 
 peror Phocas; at lead it appears, that he was a zealous advo- 
 cate thereof. — Lcontius and Gecrgius Pifidcs wrote a»ainft him 
 TRITON, in poetry, a fea-demi god, held by the ancients to 
 be an officer or trumpeter of Neptune, attending on him, and 
 Carrying his orders and commands from fea to fea. 
 The p..ets and psintcrs reprefent him as half man, half fifli 
 terminating in a dolphin's rail, and bearing in one hand a fa- 
 fhell, which ferved him as a trumpet. 
 
 Some 
 
T R I 
 
 Some of the ancients make him the fon of Neptune, and the 
 nymph Sahcia; Hefiod, of Neptune and Amphitnte ; Ncu- 
 menius in his book de pifcationibus, makes him the fon of 
 Oce&m» and Tetbys; and Lycophron, the fon of Nercus. 
 But though Hefiod, and the mythologifts, only fpeak of one 
 triton, the poets have imagined feveral; giving fome of them 
 for trumpeters to all the fea-guds, particularly to Neptune and 
 Venus: accordingly they were frequently introduced on the 
 ancient theaters, and in the naumachia. _ 
 In effect, the tritons not only officiated as trumpeters in Nep- 
 tune's retinue; but were alfo fuppofed to drawhis chariot, i.e. 
 the fea-fliell wherein he rode over the waters: as we find in 
 Virgil, Mneid X. 205. Ovid. Meiam. I 333- and on a me- 
 dal of Claudius. 
 
 The fable of the tritons, no doubt, took its rife from what are 
 called the fea-men, ormcr-men; for that there are fuch things 
 asfea-mcn, has been believed in many ages. See Mermaid. 
 The poets ordinarily attribute to trlton the office of calming 
 the waves, and of making tempelrs ceafe. —Thus in the lft 
 of the metamorphofii we read, that Neptune defmng to recall 
 the waters of the deluge, commanded Triton to found his 
 trumpet, at the noife whereof the waters all retired. 
 TRITONE, Tritono, in mufic, a falfe concord, confut- 
 ing of three tones, or a greater third, and a greater tone. 
 Its ratio, or proportion in numbers, is, of 45 to 32* In di- 
 viding the octave we find, on one fide, the falfe fifth, and 
 the trilone on the other. 
 
 The triune is a kind of redundant fourth, confifttng of three 
 tones, whence its name; or, more properly, of two tones, 
 with a greater femitone, and a lefler, as of ut to fa, fharp: 
 of fa to ft, flat, £sfr.— But it is not, as many imagine, a 
 greater fourth ; for the fourth is a perfect interval, which does 
 not admit of any majority or minority: nor mult the triune 
 be confounded with the faife fifth; for the triune only com- 
 prehends four degrees, viz. ut, re, mi, fa, fharp; whereas 
 the falfe fifth comprehends five, viz. fa, fharp, fol, la, ft, ut: 
 befides, that among the fix femitones, which compofe the 
 triune chromatically, there are three greater and three lelTer; 
 whereas among the fix femitones, which compofe the falfe 
 fifth, there are only two lefler, and four greater. See 
 Fourth, Fifth, fiffc 
 TRITURATION,* Tritura, or Tritus, in pharmacy, 
 grinding ; the act of reducing a folid bpdy into a fubtile pow- 
 der, called alfo levigation, pulvcrifation, &c. 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, triturare, to trajb ; of 
 iero, I wear, rub, or grind. 
 
 The trituration of woods, barks, minerals, and other hard 
 and dry bodies, is performed in metalline mortars. 
 The fame term is alfo applied to the comminuting, bruiting, 
 and dividing of humid matters into little parts. — The tritura- 
 tion of moiit bodies is performed in marble, or (tone mortars, 
 with peftles of wood, glafs, ivory, &c. 
 
 Trituration, Boerhaave obferves, has a wonderful force to dif 
 folve fome bodies, and will render them as fluid, as if they 
 were fufed by the fire. — Thus if you grind the powder of 
 myrrh, and fait of tartar together, they will diflblve each 
 other. By rubbing new and bright filings of iron in a mortar, 
 with double their weight of clean fulphur, the iron will be dif- 
 folved, fo as by diluting it with water to afford the vitriolum 
 martis. 
 
 Gold long ground in a mortar, with fait of tartar, will yield a 
 kind of tincture; and rubbed with mercury, in a mortar of 
 glafs, it entirely diflblves into a purple liquor, and becomes a 
 moft powerful medicine. 
 
 Dr. Langelotte has wrote a curious treatife of the great effects 
 of trituration in chymiftry; and defcribes a peculiar way he 
 employed to grind gold, whereby he fays he could render it as 
 fluid as the fire does, and make an aurum potabile, by the 
 bare motion of a mill. 
 
 This author, in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, mentions his 
 way of grinding gold, and defcribes two engines, or philofo- 
 phical mills for the purpofe, with one of which, in the fpace 
 of fourteen natural days, he reduced a leaf of gold to adufky 
 powder, and putting it into a {hallow retort placed in a fand- 
 heat, he thence obtained, by gradually increasing the fire, and 
 giving a itrong one at laft, a very few red drop?, which, di- 
 gefted per fe, or with tartari2ed fpirit of wine, afforded a pure 
 and genuine aurum potabile. 
 
 Thefuccefsof this operation, the doctor attributes, in a great 
 meafure, to the fait of the air, which, in grinding, plentifully 
 mixes and unites itfelf with the gold. 
 Trituration is alfo ufed in medicine, for the action of the 
 ftomach, on the food, whereby it is fitted for nutriment. 
 Some phyficians maintain that digeftion, is performed by tritu- 
 ration, and not by fermentation; or that all the ftomach does, 
 is to grind and comminute the food into fmaller parts to fit 
 it for nutrition, without making any other alteration therein. 
 —-See the article Di gest ion, where the doctiine is laid down 
 at large. 
 
 This fyftem was much talked of fome years ago, being coun- 
 tenanced by Dr. Pkcairn, and others ; but it feems r.ow much 
 
 3 
 
 T R I 
 
 declined. — The'doctrine of trituration is not new: F.rafiflratua 
 maintained it in all its latitude many «gesago; and the mo- 
 derns have only revived it. 
 
 It was firft broached in the time of Hippocrates, that is, in a 
 time when anatomy was but little known : and it w;is this that 
 rendered it current.— An opinion was entertained by fume ■ 
 phyficians of thofe times, that the ftomach was only the re- 
 ceptacle of the folid or dry foods; that tiiofe foods, after ha- 
 ving been diluted, and broke in the mouth, were again broke 
 more perfectly in the ftomach, and that by this means alone 
 they were converted into a chyle: but that the drink, by rca- 
 fon of its liquidity, not being fubjedt to be broken, went to 
 the lungs, and not to the ftomach, where, by reafon of its 
 abundance, it would rather have prejudiced the digeftion than 
 have aided it. 
 
 Hippocrates, we read, in the fourth book of difeafes, flood up 
 ftrenuoufly againft an opinion fo vifibly contrary to reafon 
 and experience; and he informs us, that he gave l.imfeli this 
 trouble, becaufe the error had already got a good number of 
 partizans. — It could not ftand long againft the reafons of 
 Hippocrates; and its defeat was followed by the intire ruin of 
 the fyftem of trituration for that time, which had its foundation 
 thereun. 
 
 ButErafiftratus retrieved it again; and the doctrine, after ha- 
 ving been fupported for fome time, fell anew into oblivion; 
 whence fome late authors have in vain endeavoured to re- 
 cover it. 
 
 TRIUMPH, Triumphus, a ceremony, or folemnity, prac- 
 tifed among the ancient Romans, to do honour to a victorious 
 general, by affording him a magnificent entry into their city. 
 The triumph was the moft pompous fpectacle known among 
 the ancients: authors ufually attribute its invention to Bac- 
 chus ; and tell us, that he firft triumphed upon the conquett of 
 the Indians; and yet this ceremony was only in ufe among 
 the Romans. 
 
 The triumph was of two kinds, the leffer, and the greater. — > 
 The bjfer triumph was granted upon a victory over fome un- 
 equal or unworthy enemy; as over pyrates, flaves, £5V. — 
 This they called ovatio; becaufe only facrificcs oftered herein 
 were fheep. 
 
 The greater triumph, called alfo curulis, and fimply the tri- 
 umph, was decreed by the fenate to a general, upon the con- 
 quering of a province, or gaining a fignal battle. 
 The order and ceconomy of the triumph was thus.— The ge- 
 neral having difpatched couriers with tidingsof his fuccefs, the 
 fenate met in Bellona's temple to read the letters : — this done, 
 they fent him the title imperator, with orders for him to re- 
 turn, and to bring his victorious troops along with him. 
 When he was arrived near the city, the general and principal 
 officers took oath of the truth of the victory ; and the day of 
 triumph was appointed. 
 
 The day being arrived, the fenate went to meet the conqueror 
 without the gate called capma, or triumphalis, and marched in 
 order before him to the c2pitol. — He was richly clad in a pur- 
 ple robe embroidered with figures of gold, letting forth his 
 glorious achievements: his bufkins were befet with pearl, and 
 he wore a crown, which at firft was only laurel, but after- 
 wards was gold: in one hand he bore a laurel branch, and in 
 the other a truncheon. He was drawn in a car or chariot, 
 adorned with ivory and plates of gold, drawn ufually by two 
 white horfes, though fometimes by other animals; as that of 
 Pompev, when he triumphed over Africa, by elephants : that 
 of Mark Anthony, by lions; that of Heliogabalus, by tygers; 
 that of Aurelian, by deer; and that of Nero, by hermaphro- 
 dite mares, cifc. 
 
 At his feet were his children, or, fometimes, on the chariot 
 horfes. — It is added, that the public executioner was behind 
 him, to remind him from time to time, that thefe honours 
 were tranfitory, and would not fcreen him from the fcverity 
 of the laws, if hefhould ever be found delinquent. 
 The cavalcade was led up by the muficians, who had crowns 
 on their heads: after them came feveral chariots, wherein were 
 plans of the cities and countries fubdued, done in relievo: 
 they were followed by the fpoils taken from the enemy, their 
 horfes, arms, gold, fiWer, machines, tents, CSV. After thefe 
 came the kings, princes or generals fubdued, loaden with 
 chains, and followed by mimicks and buffoons, who infulted 
 over their misfortunes. — Next came the officers of the con- 
 quering troops, with crowns on their heads. 
 After thefe appeared the triumphal chariot; before which, as it 
 palled, they all along ftrewed flowers; and the mufic played 
 inpraife of the conqueror amidft the loud acclamations of tiie 
 people, crying, to irlumphe. 
 
 The chariot was followed by the fenate clad in white robes 
 and the fenate by fuch citizens as had been let at liberty or 
 ranfomed. 
 
 The proceffion was clofed by the priefls, and their officers and 
 nteniils, with a white ox led along for the chief victim. 
 In this order they proceeded through the triumphal gat?, along 
 the via facra to the capitol, where the victims wt;re flam. 
 In the mean time, all the temples were open; and. all the 
 altars loaden with offerings and mcenfe; games and combats 
 
 were 
 
T R O 
 
 were celebrated in the public places, and rejoicings appeared 
 every where. 
 
 What was horrible amidft all this mirth, was, that the cap- 
 tives, when arrived at the forum, were led back to prifon and 
 ftrangled ; it being a point of religion with them, not to touch 
 the victims till they had taken full revenge of their enemies. — 
 The rites and facrifices over, the triumpher treated the people 
 in the capitol, under the portico's, and fometimes in Hercules's 
 temple. 
 
 TRIUMPHAL arch, ? c . , C Arch. 
 
 t t. i it n > > See the articles < 
 
 1 riumphal fs/KM, 5 I Column. 
 
 Triumphal crown or garland. See Crown. — Thisisfaidto 
 have been taken from Apollo's crowning his head with a laurel 
 after killing the Delphian ferpent. 
 
 Triumphal gown, toga triumphalis. 
 
 TRIUMPHANT church. See the article Church. 
 
 TRIUMVIR, one of three peribns who govern abfolutely and 
 with equal authority in a Hate. 
 
 The word is little ufed but in the Roman biftory.— Gefar, 
 CrafTus and Pompey were the firft triumvirs, i. e. the firft 
 who divided the government of the republic among them. 
 There were alfo other officers, called triumvirs, trumviri ; 
 as the triumviri capitales, created in the year of Rome 463, 
 to take care of prifoners, and look to the execution of crimi- 
 nals. 
 
 Triumviri monetales, who were magiftrates created at the fame 
 time, to look to the coinage of the money ; whence that mark 
 ftill extant on many ancient coins, IIIVIRL — Thefe officers 
 were very confiderable, and were chofen out of the knights. 
 — They made part of the centumviri. The title they bear on 
 medals is, IIIVIR AAA FF. triumvir aura, argento, are 
 fando, feriendo, which ilgnifics that they had the direction of 
 calling and ftriking of gold, filver, and brafs. 
 There were alfo — triumviri tsdibus reficiendis, officers ap- 
 pointed to look to the reparation of temples : triumviri co- 
 
 lonis deducendis, for the conducting and fettling of colonies: 
 
 triumviri, for the raifing of troops : — no£iurnal triumviri, to 
 prevent or extinguifh fires : — triumviri, to review the force= 
 
 In the Acilian family, we read of one M. Acilius IIIVIR 
 VALETU. that is, triumvir of health, or a magiftrate of 
 health. — M. Spanheim takes him to have been a magiftrate 
 eftablifhed to perform facrifice to the gods of health, to de- 
 dicate their temples, &c. 
 
 Oruphrtus and Vaiilant read triumvir valetudinis ; Patin, tri- 
 umvir valetudinarius ; but M. Spanheim, with much more 
 reafon, reads triumvir valetudo ; in like manner, as on a 
 medal of the Aquilian family, we read IIIVIR VIRTUS, 
 fignifying, that one M. Aquilius had been made triumvir, to 
 repair the temple of virtue, and Acilius that of health. 
 TRIUMVIRATE, Triumviratus, an abfolute go- 
 vernment adminiftered by three perfons, with equal au- 
 thority. 
 
 There were two famous triumvirates at Rome. — Pompey, 
 Caefar and Crafilis eftablifhed the firft ; and Auguftus, Mark 
 Anthony, and Lepidus, thefecond. 
 
 This latter triumvirate gave the laft blow to the liberty of the 
 republic. Auguftus having vanquifhed Lepidus and Anthony, 
 the triumvirate funk into a monarchy. See Monarchy. 
 TRIUNE, ires in una, three in one ; a term fometimes applied 
 to God, to exprefs the unity of the God-head, in a trinity of 
 perfons. 
 
 TROCHAIC, Trochaicus, in the Latin poetry, a kind 
 of verfe confiding of trochees ; or wherein that foot predo- 
 minates ; as the iambus does in the iambic. 
 The iSrh ode of the 2d book of Horace's odes, confifts of 
 ftrophes of two verfes, the firft whereof is trochaic diameter 
 catalectic ; :'. e. trochaic, compofed of three trochees, and a 
 fyllable at the end : which fome call the Euripedean trochaic. 
 
 Ncn ebur neque aureum 
 
 Largiora jlagito. 
 
 TROCHANTER, tpoxanthp, in anatomy, a name given 
 to two apophyfes fituate in the upper part of the thigh-bone. 
 See Apophysis. 
 
 The largeft, which is above, is called the great trochanter ; 
 and the fmaller, beneath, the Ujs tr ochanter. See Tab. Anat 
 (Ofteol.) fig. 7. n. z',. fig. 3. lit. t. and lit. u . fig. 7. „. 24. 
 See alfo the article Femur. 
 
 The word literally fignifies rotator, or roller ; formed from the 
 Greek r^ur, rote, I run, I turn round.— That appellation 
 was given them by reafon they receive the tendons of moll of 
 the mufcles of the thigh, among which are the obturators 
 which move it round. See Obturator. 
 TROCHE, Trochiscus, in pharmacy, a form of medicine, 
 made to be held in the mouth to difiblve gradually. 
 The troche is properly a dry compofition, the chief ingredients 
 whereof, after having been brought into a very fine powder 
 
 T R O 
 
 and mixed with fugar, 
 
 , e incorporated with fome proper 
 liquor, as drilled waters, wine, vinegar, or mucuWs ; and 
 reducea into a mafs, which is moulded into little cakes, or 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 balls of any form, at pleafure, and dried in the air, far froni 
 the fire. 
 
 There arc troches of various kinds, and for various intentions > 
 as, purgative, alterative, aperitive, corrobpraiive, he. troches. 
 Latin authors call them pa/lilli, rvtults, placentula, oibcs, and 
 orbicuii ; and the Engiifh, frequently, lozenges. 
 The chief troches now in ufe are thofe of myrrh and liquorice, 
 and thofe of the teftaceous powders for the hi-art burn. — Thofe 
 of coliq'iintida, are called troches of alhandal, fr\ m the Arabs, 
 who called coloquintida bandal. 
 TROCHEE, Trochteus, in Greek and Latin poetry, 
 a kind of foot, confifting of two fyllables, the firit long, the 
 litter fbort : — fuch as the words vadt and mufa. 
 The trochee is the reverfe of the iambus, and has juft a con- 
 trary effect ; the latter being light and fpriahtly, and the for- 
 mer weak and languid, as all thofe meafurcs are which move 
 from a long to a fhort fyllable. 
 
 Some call the trochee, choreus, becaufe proper for fon^s and 
 dances. Thefe give the denomination troch&us to the turba- 
 chys. Quint. I. 10. c. 4. 
 
 TROCHILUS, in architecture, a hollow member, more ufu- 
 ally called by modern archite£ts, the Jest: 'a ; and by our En- 
 giifh workmen, the cafement. — See Tab. Archit. fig. 4. See 
 alfo the article Scotia. 
 
 TROCHIT./E, or Tro'.hites, in natural hiftory, a kind 
 of figured foilil ftones, refemblmg parts oi plants ; vulgarly 
 called St. Cuttbert's beads. 
 
 1 hey are ufually of an opake, brnwnifh colour, they break 
 like fpar, gloffy and mining, and are eafily dillolved in vine- 
 gar. — Their figure is generally cylindrical, fometimes a little 
 tapering, the circumference 1'mooth, and both the flat fides 
 covered with fine radii drawn from a certain hole in the middle 
 to the circumference. — See Tab. Natural Hijlory, fig. iz. n. 
 I, 2, 3. Two or three or more of the timple trcchitts, 
 joined together, conflitute what the naturalifis call an eri- 
 trochus. 
 
 In thefe the troch'ita:, or fingle joints, are fo fet together, that 
 the rays of one enter into furrows in the other, as in the fu- 
 tures of the fcull. — They are found in great plenty in the bodies 
 of the rocks at Braughton and Stock, two villages in Craven, 
 at all depths underground ; alfo in Mendip hills, &c. fome- 
 times only fprinklcd here and there, and fometimes in large 
 flrata or beds of all magnitudes, from the fize of the fmallcft 
 pin, to two inches about. 
 
 They are often found ramous or branchy, feveral rudi- 
 ments of large branches arifmg from the ftem, or cylinder, and 
 fometimes ftill fmaller from thefe. The branches being deeply 
 inferted into the ftem, the tearing them off" leaves great holes 
 therein. 
 
 Dr. Lifter has difcovered a fort of little fragments among 
 them, which he takes to have been the apices of them ; and 
 another fort, which he fuppofes to have been the roots ; for 
 he fuppofes them tu be a fort of rock plants. 
 Mr. Beaumont, in the philofiphical tranfaclions, aflures us, 
 that he has found that all the cliffs in fome mines are made up 
 of thefe entrcchi, fome whereuf have been convened into a rediili 
 matter ; while others becoming white fpar, compote bodies of 
 that fubftance : and confidering that all the cliffs for a very 
 large circumference in fome places ennfift almoft wholly of 
 thefe ftones, it has been thought by fome who fuppofe them, 
 plants, that there have been, and, ftill are, whole fields or 
 forefts of thefe under ground, as there are of coral in the red fea. 
 In the courfes between the cliffs, are found of thefe foffils 
 at all ftages and degrees of maturity, growing up in the gritty 
 clay, and rooted in the rake-mold ftones, many Of them of 
 the form and dimenfions of a tobacco-pipe, with the evident 
 beginnings of circles and futures, and others full grown, 
 formed of perfect fpar, and at their point of maturity. 
 The central matter in many continues ftill white and foft ; 
 as the whole fubftance is by fome thought to have been at firft ; 
 and is continually refrefhed by the mineral ftreams and moifturc 
 which have free accefs to it through five hollow flits or feet in 
 the figured roots, or through the mafs of clay ufually lying 
 under the plain roots. 
 
 From the curiofity of their make, and from this accidental re- 
 femblance of plants, many luve thought them to be fuch ; and 
 affirm that they may vie with moft of the vegetable kingdom, 
 and are fhaped and formed like them, having llem, branches, 
 roots, an inward pith, as lilcewife joints and runnings in their 
 grit, and fometimes cells to fupply the place of veins and 
 fibres. 
 
 Others have thought it highly propable, thefe rock-plants arela- 
 pidesfui generis, and not parts of animals or plants petrified, as 
 many authors haveimagined. — It the figured roots, whereon they 
 fometimes grow, giveany fufpi'cion they mi^ht have belonged ro 
 an animal, particularly a fpecies of the fiella arborelcens, the 
 trunks feem to them toevincethe contrary, norarethey reducible 
 to any known fpecies of vegetables. Mr. Beaumont tellsus, that 
 he had by him above 20 different fpecies of trochites, all of rheru 
 wonderfully regular, and not to be paralleled by any vegeub'e 
 
 iz Y h* 
 
TRO 
 
 T R O 
 
 lie knows of in nature : and it is inconceivable how fo many 
 fpecies diffufed through many parts of the earth, fliould come 
 to be loft. They are certainly, indeed, not vegetable remains, 
 but are truly parts of the ftella arborefcens petrified. See fup- 
 plement, articles Entrochus and Trochites. 
 TROCHLEA, tpoxaia, one of the mechanical powers, 
 ufually called a pulley. 
 
 Hence the cavity in the bone of the arm or fhoulder, where- 
 in to, when the arm is ftretched forth, the procefs of the un- 
 dermoft and lefTer of the long bones of the cubitus enters, is 
 alfo called trochlea. 
 
 TROCHLEARES, in anatomy, a name given to the oblique 
 mufcles of the eye; becaufe ferving to pull the eye obliquely 
 upwards or downwards, as is it turned like a pulley. 
 
 TROCHOID,* Trochois, or Trochoides, in geometry, 
 a curve, whofe genefis may be thus conceived. — If a wheel or 
 circle be moved with a two-fold motion at the fame time, the 
 one in the right line, and the other circulary about its centre : 
 and thefe two motions be equal, /'. e. defcribe two equal lines 
 in the fame time : and if in the radius, which at the beginning 
 of the motion, reaches from the centre of the wheel, or the 
 firft point of the line which defcribesthe circumference ; if, I 
 fay, in this radius a point be taken any where except in the 
 centre, this point will defcribe a curve, one part whereof will 
 be below the line defcribed by the centre, and the other above 
 it. — This line, thus defcribed by tiie point taken in the ra- 
 dius, is called the trochoid, 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, r^x^f wheel, and 
 dJ®-, form. 
 
 The right line which joins the two extremities of the trochoid, 
 and which is either the path the wheel makes, or a line pa- 
 rallel to that path, is called the bafts of the trochoid. 
 The axis of the trochoid is the diameter of the wheel, perpen- 
 dicular to the bafe in the middle of the motion ; or that part 
 of the radius between the trochoid and its bafe. — The point 
 wherein the axis is cut into two parts by the line defcribed by 
 the centre of the wheel, is called the centre of the trochoid ; 
 the uppermort point of the axis, the vertex of the trochoid ; 
 and the plane, comprehended between the trochoid and its bafe, 
 the troehoidalfpace. 
 
 The trochoid is the fame with what we other wife call the cy- 
 cloid; the properties, &c. whereof, fee under the article Cy- 
 cloid. 
 
 TROGLODYTES,* Troglodyte, in the ancient geo- 
 graphy, a people of ./Ethiopia, faid to have lived in caves un- 
 der ground, 
 
 * The word is formed of the Greek, r^wyM, canerna, and 
 
 fabto, I enter. 
 
 Pomp. Mela gives a ftrange account of the Troglodytes.— He 
 fays, they did not fo properly (peak as flirick ; and that they 
 lived on ferpents, &c. — Tzetz.es calls them icbthyophagi. 
 Montanus takes them to be the fame with thofe called in fcrip- 
 ture Gbanamim. Pintianus in Strabo will have the name wrote 
 without the /, Trogsditic. 
 Troglodytes is alfo an appellation given to a feet of Jewifh 
 idolaters. 
 
 The prophet Ezekiel relates, chap. viii. ver. 8, a, 10, csV. 
 that God, among other abominations of the Ifraelites which 
 lie fet before him, fhewed him feventy old men, who with 
 their cenfers in their hands, adored fecretly all kinds of animals 
 and reptiles painted on the wall. 
 
 Philaftrius, on this vifion of the prophet, erects thefe idolaters 
 into a feet of Ifraelites, who, hiding themfelves under-ground 
 and in caves, adored all kinds of idols : and the editor of Phi- 
 laftrius Galls this feci Troglodytes, from rpty**) a cave, and few, 
 / penetrate, as believing, on the credit of Philaftrius, that 
 thofe of this feci bid themfelves in caves. 
 
 And yet the prophet plainly (hews, that it was in fecret parts 
 of their houfes, and not in fubtei raneous caverns, that thefe 
 70 Ifraelites idolatrized. — The name Troglodytes, then, is 
 feigned ; and fo probably is the feci. 
 I ROIA, or Trojan games, ludi Trojani, were games in- 
 ftitutcd by Afcanius, fon of ./Eneas ; and which afterwards 
 pafled to the Romans, and were celebrated in the circus by the 
 youth of Rome. 
 
 One of the number who prcfided over the folemnity, was 
 was called princeps juventuiis ; and was always of one of the 
 firft families in Rome. 
 
 At firft, it is fuppofed, they only engaged on foot, and on 
 botfeback; becaufe Virgil, who defenbes thefe games in the 
 /Eneid. lib. 5. only fpeaks of horfes and cavaliers, without 
 any mention of bigs and quadriga?, which were not in ufe at 
 Rome, till long after Afcanius. — And yet Dion, fpeaking of 
 Crefar's games, fays, the youth there combated in chariots : 
 but it is thought by fome, that thefe were not the Trojan 
 games, but races and combats of a different kind, proper for 
 young people, of a more advanced age. 
 
 TROLLING, among Anglers.-— To /re//, is to fifh forpikes 
 with a rod, whofe line runsona reel. See Pike Fishing. 
 
 TRONAGE,* Tronagium, an ancient cuftom or toll paid 
 for the weighing of wool. 
 
 * The word comes from troma. an old name for a beam to weigh 
 withal. Hence. 
 
 TRONATOR, an officer of the City of London, whofe bufU 
 
 nefs it was to weigh the wool brought into that crtyi 
 TRONCONNEE, or Tronconne', in heraldry, denotes 
 
 a crofs or other thing cut in pieces and difmembered ; yet fo 
 
 as all the pieces keep up the form of a crofs, though fet at a 
 
 fmall diftance from one another. 
 TRONE weight, was the fame with what we now call trcy- 
 
 weight. See We i g h t. 
 TROOP, a fmall body of horfe, or dragoons, ufually about 
 
 50 ; commanded by a captain ; angering to a company of 
 
 foot. 
 
 Independent Troop, is a troop that is not imbodied in, or 
 
 joined with any regiment. 
 To beat the Troop, is the fame with beating the afTernbly. See 
 
 Assembly. 
 
 Troops of the houfliold. See the article Houshold. 
 
 TROPE, Tropus, in rhetoric, a word or expreffion ufed in 
 a different fenfe from what it properly fignifies. — Or, a word 
 changed from its proper and natural fignification to another, 
 with fome advantage. 
 
 As, when we fay an afs, for a jlupid perfon j thunderbolt of 
 war, for a great captain ; to wajh the black-moor white, for a 
 fruitlefs undertaking. 
 
 This change of fenfe is never to be ufed, but where it gives a 
 force and dignity, or renders the difcourfe more figniticant, 
 weighty and graceful. 
 
 It is called trope, i j tf »* S from the Greek, tjmtm, verts, 1 
 turn, change, in regard the words are here transferred from 
 the things they properly import, to others which they only 
 import indirectly ; and that tropes only fignify the things they 
 are applied to, by reafon of the connexion and relation thofe 
 things have with thofe others, whofe proper names they are. 
 This change or inverfion is performed various ways ; but 
 chiefly four ; whence arife four principal tropes, viz. the me- 
 taphora, metonymia, fynecdoche and ironia ; each whereof, 
 fee under its proper article, Metaphora, MetonImia, 
 Synecdoche, f3c. 
 
 Some authors confound trope, with figure; but they are very 
 different things. — Moft authors, asF.de Colonia, &c. make 
 figure, the genius, and trope, a fpecies ; defining figure to 
 be an ornament in difcourfe, whereby it is raifed above the com- 
 mon language ; and trope to be that peculiar kind of ornament 
 which confirts in a change of the fenfe, &c. 
 But Voffius makes trope and figure to be two collateral and in- 
 dependent things ; defining trope to be the change of the fenfe, 
 fiV. and figure, to be any ornament, except what becomes fo 
 by fuch change, &e. See Figure. 
 
 'Tis in the tropes, principally, that the richnefs and variety of 
 language conlifts ; and yet thofe fliould never be ufed but to 
 exprefs what could only be reprefented imperfectly, in com- 
 mon and proper terms. — Tropes fhould always be clear ; they 
 are vicious, if they be obfeure, or too far fetched. The idea 
 of the trope fhould be fo connected with that of the proper 
 name, that they fhould follow each other ; fo that in exciting 
 the one, the other fliould be awakened of courfe. 
 Befides the four capital tropes above-mentioned, there arc feve- 
 ral inferior ones. — When the trope is too bold, it is called an 
 hyperbole ; when continued, it is an allegory ; when too ob- 
 feure, an tcnigma; when it fhocks us, or is too remote, a 
 catachrefis. 
 
 Add to thefe, other tropes, as the mctalepfis, antonomafia and 
 litotes, or extenuation. See Metalepsis, (sfc. 
 Some alfo refer the fix kinds of fcoffing or derifion to the 
 tropes; viz. the farcafm, diafyrm, charientifm, afteifm, myc- 
 terifm and mimefis ; but this without fufficient reafon. See 
 Sarcasm, Irony, &e. 
 TROPHY,* TropjEUm, among the ancients, a pile or heap 
 of arms of a vanquifhed enemy, raifed by the conqueror in 
 the moft eminent part of the field of battle. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, trofhrtum, or tropaum. 
 
 which Voflius deduces from the Greek, rgm*h the fight of an 
 
 enemy. 
 
 The word is alfo ufed for an artificial representation of fuch a 
 pile in marble, ftone, or other nutter. — Such were the trophies 
 of Marius, and Sylla in the capiiol, tSe. 
 
 The ancient trophies confift of Greek and Roman arms ; and 
 the modern ones of arms of the various nations now in ufe ; 
 as in thofe infulated ones near Blenheim, in the Fauxbourg S. 
 Antoine, and in the caftle of Verfailles. — Some are done in 
 baflb- relievo, as thofe of the Trajan column, and the attic 
 of the court of the Louvre. 
 
 Trophies are likewife frequently exhibited on medals of the 
 emperors, ftruck on occafion of victories; wherein, befld* 
 arms and fpoils, are frequently feen, one or two captives by 
 the fides of the trophy. 
 
 Trophies, M. Vaillant obferves, were, originally, nothing but 
 trunks of trees, which the victor planted on the moft eminent 
 part of the conquered province, and hung them with the 
 fpoils of the enemy, to perpetuate the memory of the defeat. 
 TROPHY money, a duty paid annually by the houfekeepors in the 
 feveral counties of England towards providing harneLs drums, 
 colours, t&C, for the militia. 
 
 TROPICAL 
 
T R O 
 
 TROPICAL year. See Year and Solar: 
 
 TROPICS, Tropic i, in aftronomy, two immoveable cir- 
 cles of the fphere, drawn through the folftitial points, parallel 
 to the equator. 
 
 Such are the circles ME and N L, Tab. Ajlronomy, Fig 
 
 y- 
 
 The tropics may be defined, two circles parallel to the equa- 
 tor, at Cuch diftance therefrom, as is equal to the fun's greateft 
 recefs from the equator towards the poles ; or to the fun's great- 
 eft declination ; or the obliquity of the eciiplic. 
 Of the inotropics that drawn through the beginning of cancer 
 E, is called the tropic of cancer. 
 
 And that through the beginning of Capricorn, the tropic of Ca- 
 pricorn. 
 
 They have their name from the Greek, *fnm, turn, corner- 
 fan, as being the limits of the fun's way, or declination to- 
 wards north and Couth ; fa that when the Cun is arrived at ei- 
 ther of them, he turns the other way. 
 
 Hence, I. Since the declination of the ecliptic is the arch EA 
 or LD j EN will be the diftance of the tropics ; which is 
 double the greateft declination. 
 
 2. Wherefore if the fun's meridian altitude be obferved, both 
 in the winter and Cummer Col.tice, and the latter be fubtraded 
 from the former, the remainder will be the diftance of 
 the tropics ; half whereof is the greateft declination of the 
 ecliptic. 
 
 Tropics, in geography, are two lefl'er circles of the globe, 
 drawn parallel to the equator, through the beginnings of can- 
 cer and Capricorn. 
 
 Thefe tropics are in the planes of the cceleftial tropics, and at 
 the diftance of 20' zg trom the equator, which is the fun's 
 greateft declination. 
 TROPISTS, or Tropici, the name of a feci.— St. Athana- 
 fius, in his letter to Serapion, gives this appellation to the Ma- 
 cedonians, who were alfo called pneumatcmachi in the eaft, 
 and patripaffians in the weft. 
 
 The reafon of the name trepijl was, that they explained the 
 Ccnpture altogether by tropes and figures of fpecch. 
 The Romanifts alfo gave the appellation trepifls to thofe of the 
 reformed religion ; in regard to their conftruing the words of 
 the eucharift figuratively. 
 TROPITES, Tropitje, afefl, who, according to Philaftri- 
 us, maintained that the Word was turned or converted into 
 flefh, or into man. 
 
 This opinion they founded on that pafTage of St. John mif 
 undeftood ; the Word was mad, fiejh ; as iC it imported,' that 
 the Word was converted into flefh, and not that he was 
 cloathed with our flefh, and our nature. 
 
 TROT, in the manage, one of the natural paces of a horfe, 
 performed with two legs in the air, and two on the ground at 
 the fame time, croCs-wife, like St. Andrew's croCs ; and con- 
 tinuing lo alternately to raife the hind leg of one fide, and the 
 fore leg of the other fide at once, leaving the other hind and 
 fore leg upon the ground till the former came down 
 In this motion, the nearer the horfe takes his limbs from the 
 ground the opener, the evener, and the (hnrter hi, trot will 
 be -If he takes up his feet ilovenly, it is a fign of Humbling 
 and lameneCs; ,f he tread narrow, or crofs, it betokens inter- 
 fering or falling; if he tread long, it (hews over-reaching; 
 if he Heps uneven, he befpeaks toil and wearinefs. 
 
 TROUBADOURS, a name ancientv, and to this day, given 
 tothe ancient poets of Provence. 
 
 Some will have the word borrowed from trouver, to find by 
 reafon of their Inventions ; though others take them to have 
 been called tremladcurs, by realon they Cung their poems on 
 an inftrument called a trompi or trump. 
 The poefy of the troubadours confided in fonnets, paftorals 
 fangs, fyrventes or fatyrs, which were much to their tafte ■ 
 and in tenfans, which were love difputes 
 Jean de Notre Dame, commonly called Noftradamus, a 
 procureur in the parliament of Provence, wrote an ample 
 difcourfe of ihcfe poets.— He makes their Number feventy- 
 
 Pafquier tells us, he had an extiaa of an ancient book belong- 
 ing to cardinal Bembo, entitled, Us mm, daqud, qui firtnt 
 tenfins & fyrventes, which made their number ninety-fix a- 
 mong which was an emperor, viz. Frederic I. and two kin»s, 
 Vm. Richard I. of England, and a kingof Arragon, with a 
 dauphin, feveral counts, tjfr. Not that all thefe had compofed 
 enure woiks in provincial ; fame of ,he m had not brought 
 forth any thing beyond epigrams. 0 
 Petrarch fpeaks with applaufe of feveral troubadour, in the IVth 
 chapter of the triumph of love—The Italian poets are faid to 
 have burrowed their belt pieces from the troubadours. Pafquiet 
 declares exprelly, tha, Dante and Petrarch are, indeed, the 
 fountains of Italian poetry ; but fountains which have their 
 iources in the provincial poetry 
 
 Bouchc, in his hifjory of Provence, relates, that about the 
 middle of the Xllth century, the troubadours began ,0 be 
 
 l alT, r h W?r, Ea 'T' 2 " d ,hat theircrcditand poefy 
 was at the h.gheft about the middle of the XlVth. He adds 
 
 T R 
 
 that it was inProvence that Petrarch learned the art of rhym- 
 T-nl;,^ h ' ch he afferwards praflifed, and taught in Italy.. 
 1 ROVE in law. See Treasure trove. 
 TROVER, in law, an aftion which a man hath aoainft one 
 that, havmg found any of his goods, refufeth to deliver thein 
 upon demand. 
 
 Aftions and detinue are frequently turned into aBions upon the 
 cafe fur trover and convcriion. 
 TROUGH of tbefea, is the hollow or cavity made between 
 two waves or billows in a rowling fea. 
 
 When a ftip lies down there, they fa, fhe lies in the. trough of 
 tbefea. * J 
 
 TROUSSEQUIN, in the manage, a piece of wood cut arch- 
 wife, railed above the hinder bow of a great (addle, and ferv- 
 mg to keep the bolfters firm. 
 TROUT coloured —A horfe is faid to be of this colour when 
 he is white, and fpcckled with fpots of black, bay, or forrel, 
 efpeciallv about the head and neck. 
 TttovT-ffiing. See TROVT-f Jhing. 
 
 TROY weight, anciently called trone-weight. Sec Weight. 
 Troy. pound. See the article Pound. 
 
 TR r U c C ?',* Treuga ' 3 fufpenfion of arms ; or a cefTation 
 of hoftilitics between two parties at war. 
 
 • The word, according to Menage, Ufc. comes from the Latin, 
 treuga, which nullifies the fame ; and which Cafeneuge derives 
 further from the German, truut, or Irene, which fignifies /,«,/. 
 Truces are frequently concluded between princes, in order to 
 come to a peace.~r™«, of many years ferve in lieu of treaties 
 adjufted" C " Pri "" S ' Wb0k ™ nnM bc fiwlly 
 
 Truce of God, TreugaDei, is a phrafe famous in the hirtories 
 ot the Mth centuty, when the difarders and licences of pri- 
 vate wars between particular lords and families, obliged the 
 bifhops of France to forbid fuch violences within certain time,, 
 under canonical pains. 
 
 Thofc intervals they called trcuga Dei, treve de Dim, q. d. 
 tntce of God, a phrale frequent in .he councils fince that time. 
 Ihe nrft regulation of this kind was in a fynod held in the 
 dioceCe of Elno ,n Rouflillon, anno ioa 7 , where it was en- 
 acted, that throughout thar county, no perfon fhould attack 
 his enemy from the hour of nones on Caturday, to that of 
 prime onmonday, that funday might have its proper honour ; 
 that no body fhould attack, at any time, a religious pried 
 walking unarmed, nor any perfon eoing to church, or re- 
 turning from the fame, or walking with women : that no body 
 fhould attack a church, or any houfe within thirty p,ces 
 around it.— The whole under penalty of excommunication, 
 which, at the end of three months, was converted into an 
 anathema. 
 
 TRUCHMAN, Dragoman, or Drogman, in the countries of 
 
 the Levant, an interpreter. 
 TRUCK, in a Hip, a fquare piece of wood at the top of a 
 maff, to put the flag-daft in. --Sec Tab Ship, fi, t „ ., 
 79. 96, 121, 145. lit. q. ' 
 TRUCKING, in commerce. See Permutation, Ex- 
 change, and Commerce. 
 TRUCKS, among gunners, round pieces of wood in form of 
 wheels, fixed on the axel- trees of carriages ; to move the ord- 
 nance at fea, and fometimes alfo at land. 
 T fruth' { ° mah '" g a S rccable to the reality of things, or to 
 In this fenfe we fay, the true God, the true religion, true gol ' 
 CS-r. — in oppofition to falf, , or pretended ones 
 Tlivcplace of a planet, or ltar, in adronomv, is a point of the 
 heavens fhewn or pointed out by a right line drawn from the 
 centre of rhe earth through the centre of the planet or ftar 
 See Place. 
 
 In this fenfe the word Hands oppofed to apparent place, which 
 is that found by a right line drawn from the obferver's eve 
 through the centre of the planet or ftar. 
 This point in the heavens is referred to the ecliptic or zodiac, 
 by the planets 01 ftars circle of longitude 
 True altitude T FAttitudi. 
 J RUE anomaly, | Anomaly. 
 
 I rue horizon, | Horizon. 
 I RUE aflhrna, J „ 1 a c t«,, , 
 
 T ^ 'V~to,. 
 
 Recovery. 
 1 Ribs. 
 
 j ' J ^Suture. 
 TRUFF LES,* tubera terror, in natural hiftory, a fort of Cub- 
 terraneous vegetable production, a kind of mufnroom. 
 * The word is formed from [be French truffe or trull, ; of ihe 
 Latin, tuber, or tuberculum. 
 The ancient phylicians, and naturalids, rank truffle, in the 
 number of roots, bulbs, or cloves ; and define them to he a 
 lpecies of vegetables, without ftalks, leave, fibre iSc 
 Bradley calls them under-ground edible mujbrxm, or SWA 
 trubbes, and under-ground deer's-balls or mu/bem, 
 They are produced moft in dry fandy grounds, and that, as 
 Phny fays, chiefly after rains and thunder, in autumn. —Their 
 
 duration 
 
 True recovery 
 True rib,, 
 True future 
 
TRU 
 
 T R U 
 
 duration he limits to a year.— Their colour is uncertain ; fame • 
 being; white, others black, Este. 
 
 In Italy, France, England, fcrV. they eat them as a great 
 dainty, either fried in flices with oil, fait and pepper, or boiled 
 thoroughly in their own broth. — The hogs are exceedingly 
 fond of them, and are frequently the means of discovering 
 the places where they are ; whence the common people call 
 them /wine-bread. The modern botanifts rank truffles in the 
 number of plants; though they want many of the ufual parts 
 thereof. — They are at firit no bigger than a pea, reddifh with- 
 out, and within wbitifh ; and as they ripen, the white parts 
 grow more dufky and dark : only there are ftill left a number 
 of white ftreaks, which all terminate at the places where the 
 outer coat is cracked, or open: and which, in all probability, 
 are the veflels that convey the nourishment into the truffles. 
 In thefe veflels is found a wbitifh matter, which, when viewed 
 with a microfcope, appears to be a transparent parenchyma, 
 conjifting of thin veficulse ; in the middle whereof are perceived 
 little round black grains, feparate from each other, which are 
 the feed of the truffles. 
 
 When the truffles rot in the ground with exceeding ripenefs, 
 thefe grains are the only thing that remain of them ; and thefe 
 produce new truffles , which grow one after another. 
 What confirms the opinion of their coming from feed, is, that 
 there have been truffles lately djfeovered in England, and this 
 at firft only in Northamptonshire, and even only in one place 
 thereof, viz. near Rufhton, a place flocked with trees for- 
 merly brought from Languedoc ; and it is only fince then, 
 that any truffles have been there obferved : whence it is con- 
 cluded, that the feed of thefe truffles was brought from France 
 among the roots of the trees brought thence. 
 Thefe Englifh truffles were firft difcovcred by Dr. Hatton. — 
 Dr. Tancred Robinfon alTurts us, they are the true French 
 truffles^ the Italian tartuffl or tartufflle, and the Spanifh tur- 
 tnas de tiera, being not before noted by Mr, Ray as ever 
 known on Englifh ground : indeed, he adds, that he has feen 
 them thrice as large at Florence, Rome, &c. 
 Thofe obferved in England are all included in a fludded bark 
 or coat, and the inner fubftance is of the confifience of the 
 flefhy part of a young chefnut, of a parte colour, a rank or 
 hircine Smell, and unfavory. 
 
 By a chymical ana] y Sis, truffles are found to abound in a vo- 
 latile alkali fait mixed with oil, upon which their fmell, c?V. 
 depends. They never rife out of the ground, but are found 
 ufually half a foot beneath the Surface thereof. 
 Dr. Hatton has obferved Several little fibres iflln'ng out of Some 
 truffles, and insinuating themfelves within the Soil, which, in 
 all probability, do the office of roots. — The truffles grow to- 
 lerably globular, as receiving their nourifhment all around 
 them ; they being to be confidered like Sea plants encompafled 
 with their food, which they fuck in through the pores of their 
 bark or rind. 
 
 They are tendereSt and heft in the Spring, though eafieft 
 found in autumn ; the wet Swelling them, and the thunder 
 and lightening difpoSmg them to Send forth their Scent, So 
 alluring to the Swine : hence Some of the ancients called them 
 cerannia, q. d. thunder-roots. 
 
 The depth at which the truffles We, Dr. RobinSon obServes, 
 is no objection to their being of the vegetable tribe ; that 
 being a thing common to Several other plants which Shoot 
 up Stalks, particularly the latbyrus tuberoSus, commonly called 
 chamcsbalanus and terrce glans, in Englifh, peaje-earth-nuts, 
 the roots of our bulbocaftanum, &e. 
 
 The ancients were exceedingly divided as to theufeof truffles ; 
 Some affirming them to be wholfome food, and others perni- 
 cious ; Avicenna particularly, will have them to cauSe apo- 
 plexies. — F'or my own part, Says M. Lemery, I am of opi- 
 nion they have both good and evil effects; they reflore and 
 Strengthen the ftomach, promote the Semen, &c. but when 
 ufed too freely, they attenuate and divide the juices immo- 
 derately, and by Some volatile and exalted principles, occa- 
 liun great fermentations, &c. though the pepper and Salt they 
 are ordinarily eaten withal, do doubtlefs contribute greatly to 
 thofe effects: — Their rich tafte is owing to their not putting 
 forth any flalk ; in effect their principles being united, and, 
 as it were, concentred in a little bulb, rnuft yield a richer and 
 more delicious flavour than if the juices were difperfed by ve- 
 getation through the Several parts of a common plant, — Some 
 roaft the truffles under the afhes; and others pulverize and mix 
 them in fauces. Seejupplcment, article Tu'Eera, 
 TRUG*, or Tituc-«r», Truga frumenti, in our ancient 
 cuftoms, denotes a meafure of wheat. 
 
 * Tres trug/i umenti •vel Muen/s faeiunt Z bujheh, inter frtcbendam 
 de HuiidertoninecclefiaHzitf. M.S. df temp. E. 3. 
 At Lempfter, the vicar has trug-corn allowed him for officia- 
 ting at fome chapels of eafe, as Stoke and Dockly within that 
 panfh. 
 
 TRULL1ZATION, in the ancient architecture, the art of 
 laying on Strata or layers of mortar, gypfum, or the like, 
 with the trowel, in the infideof vaults, ceiling?, Esfr, 
 
 TRULLUM, a barbarous word, Signifying dome ; chiefly ufed 
 
 in thephrafe, carnal in trails. 
 
 This was a council aflembled in the year 680, again ft the 
 Monothelites, in the dome of the palace of Constantinople, 
 called trullum ; the name whereof it has retained, It wasalfo 
 called the ^iiin'tfextum. 
 
 The trullum was properly a hall in the palace of the emperors 
 of Conftantinople, where they ufually conlulted of matters of 
 State.* — This council held in Trullo was the 6th oecumenical 
 or general council. 
 
 * The term is formed from the Latin, trulla, cup ; the place being 
 So called becaufe vaulted. 
 
 TRUMPET,* a mufical instrument, the moft noble oS all port- 
 able ones of the wind kind, ufed chiefly in war, among the 
 cavalry, to direct them in the Service. 
 
 * The word is formed from the French, trampntt. Menage de- 
 rives it from the Greek, r^pC®-, turbo, a Shell anciently ufed 
 for a trumpet. Du Cange derives it from tiie corrupt Latin, 
 trumpa, qt the Italian, trombn, or tro?nbetta ; others from the 
 Celtic, trompitt, which Signifies thefame. 
 
 It is ufually made of brafs, fometimes of Silver, iron, tin, 
 and even wood. Mofes, we read, made two of filver, to be 
 ufed by the priefts, Numb. x. and Solomon made 200 like 
 thofe of Moles, as we are informed by Jofephus, lib. viii, 
 which Shews abundantly the antiquity of that instrument. 
 The ancients had various instruments of the trumpet kind ; as 
 the tubae, cornua, and litui. 
 
 The modern trumpet conSifts of a mouth-piece, near an inch 
 broad, though the bottom be only one third fo much. — The 
 pieces which convey the wind are called the branches ; the two 
 places where it is bent, potences ; and the canal between the 
 Second bend and the extremity, the pavilion ; the places where 
 the branches take afunder, or are Soldered, the knots ; which 
 are five in number, and cover the joints. 
 
 When the Sound oS the trumpet is well managed, it is of a 
 great compaSs. — Indeed its extent is not Strictly determinable; 
 flnce it reaches as high as the flrength of the breath can force 
 it. — A good breath will carry it beyond four octaves, which is 
 the limit of the ufual keys of fpinets and organs. 
 In war there are eight principal manners of founding the trum- 
 pet : the firft, called the cavalquet, ufed when an army ap- 
 proaches acity, or pafles through it in a march. — Thefecond 
 
 the baute-fetie, ufed when the army is to decamp or march, 
 
 The third is when they found to hurfe, and then to the Stand- 
 ard. — The fourth is the charge. — The fifth the watch.— The 
 fixth is called the double cavalquet. — The feventh the chamade. 
 — And the eighth the retreat. Befides theSe there are various 
 flouriSh.es, voluntaries, &c. uSed in rejoicings. 
 There are alfo people who blow the trumpet fo Softly, and 
 draw So delicate a Sound from it, that it is uSed not only in 
 church mufic, but even in chamber mufic : and it is on this 
 account that in the Italian and German mufic we frequently 
 find parts entitled tromba prima, or I a firtttrumpet, tromba II a , 
 j'egonda, III 3 , terza, Second, third trumpet, isc. as being in- 
 tended to be played with trumpets. 
 
 There are two very great defects in the trumpet, obServed by 
 Mr. Roberts in the philofoph'ual tnmfafiians ;— The firft is, 
 that it will only perform certain notes within its compafs, 
 commonly called trumpet nates : the fecond, that four of the 
 notes it does perform, are not in exact tune. The fame de- 
 fects are found in the trumpet marine ; and the reaSon is the 
 Same in both, 
 
 TrumpetMarine, is a mufical instrument confifting of three 
 tables, which form iis triangular body, — It has a very long 
 neck with one Single flring, very thick, mounted on a brido-e, 
 which is firm on one fide, but tremulous on the other. — It is 
 {truck by a bow with one hand, and with the other the firing 
 is prefli'd or Stepped on the neck by the thumb. 
 It is the trembling oS the bridge, when Struck, that makes it 
 imitate the found of a trumpet ; which it does to that perfecti- 
 on, that it is fcarce pufiible to diftinguifh the one from the 
 other. — And this is what has given it the denomination of 
 trumpet marine, though, in propriety, it be a kind of mono- 
 chord. 
 
 The trumpet marine has the fame defects with the trumpet^ 
 viz. that it performs none but trumpet notes, and Some of 
 
 thofe either too flat or too Sharp. This Mr. Fr. Roberts 
 
 accounts Sor, only premising that common observation of 
 two uniSon Strings, that if one be Struck, the other will move ; 
 the impulfes made on the air by one String, Setting another 
 in motion, which lies in a diSpofition to have its vibrations 
 fynchronous to them: to which it may be added, that a 
 firing will move, not only at the Striking of an unifon, but 
 alfo of that of an 8th or 12th, there being no contrariety in 
 the motions to hinder each other. 
 
 Now in the trumpet marine you do not Stop cloSe, as in other 
 instruments, but touch the String gently with your thumb, 
 whereby there is a mutual concurrence of the upper and lower 
 part of the firing to produce the Sound.— Hence it U concluded, 
 that the trumpet marine yields no mufical Sound, but when the 
 Stop makes the upper part of the String an aliquot part of the 
 remainder, and confequently of the whole ; otherwiSe the vi- 
 brations of the parts will flop one: another, and make a Sound 
 I (malic 
 
T R U 
 
 fuitable to their motion, altogether confufed. Now thefe ali- 
 quot parts, he ihews, are the very flops which produce the 
 trumpet notes. 
 
 Harmonical Trumpet, is an inftrument which imitates the 
 found of a trumpet*, and which refembles it in every thing, ex- 
 cepting that it is longer, and confifts of more branches. — 'TL 
 ordinarily called a fackbut. See Sackbut. 
 
 Speaking X&UMPET, is a tube from fix to fifteen foot long, made 
 of tin, perfectly {trait, and with a very large aperture; the 
 mouth-piece being b;g enough to receive both lips. 
 The mouth being applied hereto, it carries the voice to a very 
 great diftance, fa as it may be heard diftinftly a mile, or more; 
 whence its ufe at fea. 
 
 The invention of this trumpet is held to be modern ; and is 
 commonly afcribed to Sir Samuel Morland, who called it the 
 tuba Jlentorophomea. — But Ath, fCirclier feems to have a better 
 title 10 the invention ; for it is certain he had fuch an inftrument 
 before ever Sir S. Morland thought of his. 
 Kircher, in h\sphoimrg. fays, that the tromba ptiblifhed Iaft year 
 in England, he invented 24 years before, and publifhed in his 
 Tiiufurgia: he adds, that Jac. Albanus Ghibbifius and Fr. 
 Efcbinardus, afcribe it to him; and that G. Schottus teftifies 
 of him, that he had fuch an inftrument in his chamber in the 
 Roman college, with which he could call to, and receive an- 
 fwers from the porter. 
 
 Indeed, confidering how famed Alexander the great's tube was, 
 wherewith he ufed to fpeak to his army, and which might be 
 heard diftinftly 100 ftadia or furlongs, it is fomewbat ftrange 
 the moderns fhould pretend to the invention \ the ftentorophu- 
 nic horn, or tube of Alexander, whereof there is a figure pre- 
 ferred in the Vatican, being almoft the fame with that now in 
 ufc. See Ste ntorophonic. 
 Li/lening, or Hearing Trumpet, is an inftrument invented bv 
 Jofeph Eandini, to affift the ear in hearing of perfons who 
 fpeak at a great diftance, without the affiftance of any fpeaking 
 trumpet. 
 
 TRUMPETER, in anatomy. See Buccinator. 
 
 TRUNCATED * pyramid, or cone, is one whofe top or ver- 
 tex is cut oft" by a plane parallel to its bafe. See Pyramjd, 
 and Cone. 
 
 * The word is formed of the Latin, iruncart, to cut off a part 
 from the whole j whence a!fo trmeits, trumbisn, tjfe. In he- 
 raldry tbey fay ( runked. SeeTauNKED. 
 
 A truncated cone, or the fruftum of that body, is fometimes 
 alfo called a cur -ty- ■cone. See Frustum. See alfo Gaug- 
 ing. 
 
 Truncated roof. See the article Roof. 
 
 TRUNCHEON, of the French troncsn, and the Latin trun- 
 cits; abattoon; or a kind of ftiort ftafT ufed by kings, gene- 
 rals, and great ofticcrs, as a mark of thtir command. See 
 B attoon. 
 
 Columns in Truncheons. See the article Column. 
 TRUNDLE, is a kind of carriage with Io>v wheels, whereon 
 
 to draw heavy cumberfome burdens. 
 Trundle Jhot, is an iron fhot about 17 inches long, ftiarp- 
 
 pointed at both ends, with a round bowl of lead caft upon it, 
 
 about a hand breadth from each end. 
 TRUNK, Trunkus, the ftem, or body of a tree; or that 
 
 part between the ground and the place where it divides into 
 
 branches. See Stem, Branch, and Tree. 
 
 In lopping of trees, nothing is left but the trunk. 
 Trunk is alfo ufed for the flump, or that part left over the root 
 
 in felling.— Large trees when felled, ihoot out from the trunk, 
 
 and make a copfe or underwood. 
 
 'Tis by means of the trunks left rotting in the ground, that the 
 
 waftes in forefts are difcovered. 
 Trunk, in anatomy is ufed fur the bufto of the human body, 
 
 exclufiveof the head and limbs. 
 Trunk, truncus, is alfo ufed for the main body of an artery, 
 
 or vein ; in contra-diftin£tion to the branches and ramifications 
 
 thereof. 
 
 The word is particularly applied to certain parts of the aorta 
 and cava. — See Tab. Anat. (Aageisl.) fig. 5. lit. a. 
 Trunk, in architecture, is ufed for the tuft, or fliaft of a co- 
 lumn. Alfo, fur that part of the pedeftal betwen the bafe and 
 
 the cornice, other wife called the dye. — See Tab. Archit. fig. 
 24. lit. y. 
 
 Trunk: is alfo popularly ufed for the fnout of an elephant: by 
 naturallfts called the prcbofcis thereof. See Proboscis. 
 
 Trunk rats, of a plant, are little roots which grow out of the 
 trunks of plants. 
 
 Thefe are of two kinds, 1. Such as vegetate by a direct de- 
 fcent, the place of their eruption being fometimes all along the 
 trunk, as in mints, £sV. and fometimes only in the utmoft 
 point, as in fome other plants and trees. 
 
 2. Such as neither afcend nor defcend, but fhoot forth at right- 
 angles to the trunk; which therefore, though as to their of- 
 fice they are true roots, yet, as to their nature, are a medium 
 between a trtnk and a root. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 TRU 
 
 TRUNKED, among heralds, is applied to trees cut ofF at eacfl 
 
 end, which arc fa id to be trunked, or truncated. 
 TRUNNIONS or Trunions, of a piece of ordnance, thofe 
 knobs or bunches of the gun's metal, which bear her up on 
 the cheeks of the carriage. 
 Trunnion ring, is the ring about a cannon, next before the 
 trunnions. 
 
 TRUSS, Trussa, a bundle or a certain quantity of hay, 
 ftraw, && 
 
 A trufs of hay is to contain fifty-fix pounds, or half an hun- 
 dred weight; thirty-fix truffet make a load. — In June and 
 Auguft the trufs is to weigh fixty pounds, on forfeiture of 
 1 8 j. per trufs. 
 
 A trufs of rorrage, is as much as a trooper can carry on his 
 horfe's crupper. 
 
 Truss, of flowers, is ufed by florin's to fignify many flowers 
 growing totrcthCr on the head of a ftalk; as, in the cowflip, 
 auricula, EsV. 
 
 Truss is alfo ufed for a fort of bandage or ligature, made of 
 fteel or the like matter, wherewith to keep up the parts in 
 thofe who have hernias or ruptures. Sec Hernia, c3V. 
 TRUSSES, inafhip, arc ropes made faft to the parrels of a yard; 
 either to bind the yard to the mall, when the ftiip rolls, or 
 to hale down the yards in a ftorm, Ssff. 
 TRUSSING, in falconry, is an hawk's raifing any fowl or 
 prey aloft, foaring up, and then defending with it to the 
 ground. 
 
 TRUST. See the article Cestui qui trujl. 
 TRUSTEE, one who has an eftate, or money put or trufted in 
 
 his hands for the ufc of another. See Fid-ei commijfitm. 
 TRUSTRA. See the article Tristra. 
 
 TRUTH, Veritas, a term ufed in oppolition to fa!jh?od; and 
 applied to proportions which anfwer or accord to the na- 
 ture and reality of the thing whereof fumetbing is allirmed or 
 denied. 
 
 Thus, when we fay that 4 is the fourth part of twice 8; that 
 propofition is true, becaufe agreeable to the nature of thofe 
 numbers, 
 
 Truth, according to Mr. Lock, confifts in the joining or fe- 
 parating of figns as the things fignified by them do agree or 
 difagree one with another. — Now the joining or fcparacing of 
 figns, is what we call making of propolitions. — Truth then, 
 properly, belongs only to propolitions, whereof there are two 
 forts, mental and verbal; as there are two forts of figns com- 
 monly made ufe 01, viz. ideas and words. 
 Mental propofitious, ate th<<fe wherein the ideas in our unuer- 
 ftanding are put together, or feparated by the mind perceiving 
 or judging of their agreement or difagreement. 
 Verbal propofitions, are words put together, or feparated, in 
 affirmative or negative fentences: — So that propofition confifts 
 in joining or feparating of figns; and truth contilts in putting 
 together orfeparating thofe iigns, according as the things they 
 ftand for agree or difagree. 
 
 Truth, therefore, as well as knowledge, may come under the 
 diftinilion of verbal and real; that being only verbal truth, 
 where terms are joined according to the agreement or difagree- 
 ment of the ideas they ftand for, without regarding whether 
 our ideas are fuch as really have, or are capable of having any 
 exiftence in nature.— But it is then they contain real truth, 
 when thefe figns are joined as our ideas agree 3 and when our 
 ideas are fuch, as we know are capable of having at) exiiteuce 
 in nature; which in fubftaiices we cannot know, but by' 
 knowing that fuch have exifted. Sec Substance. 
 Truth, is the marking down in words the agreement or difa- 
 greement of ideas, as it is. — Faldiood is the marking down in 
 words the agreement or difagreement of ideas, otherwifc than 
 it is: and fo far as thefe ideas, thus marked by founds, agree 
 to their archetypes, fo far only is the truth real 
 The knowledge of this truth confifts in knowing what ideas 
 the words ftand for, and the perception of the agreement or 
 difagreement of thofe ideas, according as it is marked by thofe 
 words. 
 
 Belides truth taken in the ft rift fenfe before mentioned, which 
 is- alfo called logical truth, there are other forts of truths; as, 
 Moral Truth, which coniifls in fpeaking things according to* 
 
 the perfuafion of our own minds; called alio vtraetiy. 
 Metaphyfical, or iranfeendental Truth, which is nothing but 
 the real exiftence of things conformable to the ideas which we 
 have annexed to [heir names, 
 
 In which fenfe a clock may be f Jd to be true t when it anfwera 
 the idea or intention of the perfon who mide it. 
 Others will have metaphyfical truth to confift in the agree- 
 ment of a thing with the idea thereof in the divine under- 
 ftanding. 
 
 TRUTINA, hermetis, is ufed {among aftroiogers, for an artifi- 
 cial method of examining and rectifying a nativity, by means 
 of the time of conception. 
 TRUTLNATION, * the aft of weighing or balancing a 
 thing. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin trmtim, a pair of 
 fcalu* 
 
 12 Z TRYAL, 
 
TUB T U M 
 
 TRYAL.' Seethe article Trial. - 
 
 T 0 TRY, in the fea language.— A fliip is faid to try, or lie 
 a-try, when ihe has no fails abroad but her main-fail* or 
 miflen-fail. 
 
 TRYPHERA,* rgt^^tf, in pharmacy, a denomination given to 
 
 divers medicines efpecially of the opiate kind. The 
 
 great tryphera is compofed of opium, cinnamon, cloves, and 
 feveral other ingredients: it is ufed to fortify the ftomach, to 
 flop fluxes, and is good for fome difeafes of the womb. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, -r^pi^t, Plicate, on ac- 
 count of their gendc and plc;if,int operation, or according to 
 other?, becaufe they make thofe who life them relt. 
 The Saracenic tryphera, and Perfian tryphera., thus called, be- 
 caufe firft introduced, the one by the Saracens, and the other 
 by thePerfians, were both of them gentle nurgatives. 
 TSCHIRNHAUSIANA quadratrix. See (£uadratrix 
 Tfchirnhaufmna. 
 
 TUB is ufed as a kind of meafure, to denote the quantity of 
 divers things. — A tub of tea, is a quantity of about 60 
 pounds. — A tub of camphire, is a quantity from 56 to 80 
 pounds. 
 
 TUBE, Tubus, pipe, conduit, or canal; a cylinder, hollow 
 within-fide, either of lead, iron, wood, glafs or other matier, 
 for the air or fome other fluid to have a free pail age, or con- 
 veyance through. 
 
 The term is chiefly applied to thofe ufed in phyfics, agronomy, 
 anatomy, &c, On other ordinary occafions, we more ufually 
 fay pipe. 
 
 In the memoirs of the French academy of fciences, M. Va- 
 rigon gives us a treatife on the proportions neceffiry for the 
 diameters of tubes, to give precifely any determinate quantities 
 of water. — The refult of his piece turns upon thefe two ana- 
 logics; that the diminutions of the velocity of water, occafi- 
 oned by its friction againft the fides of tubes, are as the dia- 
 meters; the tubes being fuppofed equally long: and the quan- 
 tities of water iiiuing out at the tubes, are as the fquare roots 
 of their diameters, deducting out of them the quantity each is 
 dimimfhed. 
 
 For the tubes of barometers and thermometers; fee Baro. 
 meter, and ThkRmometer. — For the afcent of liquors 
 in capillary tubes; fee Ascent, and Capillary. 
 
 Momentary Tube. See Duct. 
 
 Fallopian Tube. See the article Fallopian'. 
 
 St cntor aphonic i u BE, See Stentorophonic. 
 
 Torricellian Tube. See Torrice llian tube. 
 
 Tube, in affronomy, is fometimes ufed for telefcope; but more 
 properly for that part thereof into which the kns's are fitted, 
 and by which they are directed and ufed. Sec Telescope. 
 The goodnefs of the tube, being of great importance to that 
 of the telefcope, we {hall here add its ftructure. 
 
 The conjlruclion of a Dra^-TuBE for a telefcope. — The chief 
 points to be regarded here, are, that the tube be not trouble- 
 fome by its weight, nor liable to warp and difturb the pofition 
 of the glaffes: ib that any kind of tube will not ferve in every 
 cafe: but 
 
 1. If the tube be fmali, 'tis bed made of thin brafs plates co- 
 vered with tin, and formed intopipes or draws, to Hide with- 
 in one another, 
 
 2. For long tubes, brafs or iron would be too heavy ; for which 
 reafon fome chufe to make them of paper, thus : — A wooden 
 cylinder is turned, of the length of the paper to be ufed ; and 
 of a diameter equal to that ot (fed fraallcft draw. About this 
 cylinder is rolled and patted paper, till it be of a fuffiaent 
 thicknefs: when one tube is dry, provide others after the fame 
 manner; ftill making the lalt ferve for a mould for the next, 
 till you have enough fur the length of the tube defired. Laft- 
 ly, to the extremes of the draws are to be glewed wooden 
 terrils, that they may be drawn forth the better. 
 
 3. Since paper draws are apt to fwell with moift weather, fo 
 as to fpoil their Aiding; and in dry weather to fhrink, which 
 renders them loole and tottering: in both which cafes, the fi- 
 liation of the lens's is eafily difturbed ; the belt method of 
 making tubes, is as follows: glue parchment round a wooden 
 cylinder, and let the parchment be coloured black, to prevent 
 the reflected rays making any confufion. Provide very thin 
 flits of beech, and bending them into a cylinder, glue them 
 carefully to the parchment: cover this wooden cafe with white 
 parchment, and about its outer extreme make a little ring or 
 ferril: after the fame manner make another draw over the for- 
 mer; and then another, till you have enough for the length 
 of the tube. 
 
 *1 0 the inner extremes of each draw, fit a wooden ferril, that 
 thefpurious rays (hiking againftthe fides, may be intercepted 
 and loft. In thofe places where the lens'sareto be put, it will 
 be proper to furnifh the ferriis with female fcrews. Provide a 
 wooden cover to defend the objcct-glafs from the duft, and 
 putting theeye-glafs in its wooden ferril, fatten it by the fcrew 
 to the tube. Laftly, provide a little wooden tube of a length 
 equal to the dhtance the cye-gUfs is to be from the eye, and fit 
 it to the other extreme of the tube. 
 TUBER, or Tubercle, in tetany, a kind of round tjrg.d 
 root, m form ot a knob or turnip. 
 
 The plants which produce fuch roots, are hence denominated 
 tuberofe or tuberous plants. 
 
 Tuber or Tuberosity, in medicine, is ufed for a knob or 
 tumor growing naturally on any part ; in oppofition to tumors ' 
 which arife accidentally, or from a difeafe. 
 The fame term isalfo ufed for a knot in a tree. See Knot. 
 
 TUBERA terra. See the article Truffles. 
 
 TUBERCULES, Tubercles, little tumors which fuppu- 
 rate and difcharge pus ; often found in the lungs. 
 
 TUBEROUS, or Tuberose, an epith^ given to fuch roots 
 as are round, and confift of an uniform flefhy fubftance: ha- 
 ving neither fltins, nor fhells, as bulbous roots have. 
 Such are the roots of the iris, piony, and the like. 
 
 TUBILUSTRIUM,* in antiquity, a feaft or ceremony in ufe 
 among the Romans. — This denomination was given to the 
 day whereon they purified their facred trumpets; as alfo to 
 the ceremony of purifying them. — It was held on the fifth and 
 laft day of the feaft of Minerva called quinquatrus, Or quin- 
 quatria, which was performed twice a year, 
 
 * The word is compounded of tubus, trumpet, and lujlro, I 
 
 purify. 
 
 TUBULI lacliferi, in anatomy, is a name ufed by fome wri- 
 ters, for thofe fmall tubes through which the milk flows to the 
 nipples of the mammre or breafis. 
 
 Tubuli vermiculares, a name fometimes ufed by naturaliffs, for 
 certain fmall oblong and hollow fea-fhells lefembliug worms. 
 See Supplement, article Tubuli. 
 
 TUESDAY. See the article Hoke Day. 
 
 TUFT, a term ufed by fome au.hors fur the bufhy part of 
 trees; or that part fet with brances, leaves, &c. 
 
 ParaUdifm of the Tufts of trees. — All trees areobferved natu- 
 rally to affect to have their tufts parallel to the fpot of ground 
 they fhadow; an account of which phenomenon, fee under 
 the article Par all e lism. 
 
 TU1LERIE,* or Tylery, a tyh-vjork; a large building 
 with a drying-place, covered a-top, but furnifhed with aper- 
 tures on all fides, through which the wind having admittance, 
 dries the tyles, bricks, csV. in the fhade, which the fun 
 would crack, before they be put in the kiln. 
 
 * The word is pure French, formed from tuile, tyle. 
 
 The garden of the Louvre is called the Tuileries, as being a 
 place where tyles were anciently made, &c. — But the term 
 T uileries does not only include the garden ; but alfo a magnifi- 
 cent palace, whofe front takes up the whole length of the gar- 
 den: and hence it is, that they fay, the king lodges in the 
 Tuileries; the king has quitted the Tuileries for a few days, to 
 refide in the Louvre. 
 
 The palace of the Tuileries is joined to the Louvre by a large 
 gallery, which runs along the banks of the river Seine, and 
 has its profpects thereon. 
 
 The Tuileries was begun in 1564, by Catherine de Medicis, 
 wife ot Henry II, in rhte time of her regency ; it was finifhed 
 bv Henry IV. and magnificently adorned by Louis XIV. — 
 The garden of the Tuileries WjS much improved by Louis 
 XIII. 
 
 TUMBLER, a fort of dog, called in Latin, vrrtagus, from 
 his quality of tumbling and winding his body about, before he 
 attacks and fattens on thep'ey. 
 
 Thefe dogs are often lets than hounds; being hmker, leaner, 
 and fomewhat pricked eared; and by rhe form of their bod^es, 
 they might be called mungrel giey-hounds, if they were a 
 little bigger. 
 
 TUMBREL, Tumbret.lum, a duckine, or cucklng-flool, 
 an engine of punll'hment, which ought to be in every liberty, 
 that has a view of frank-pledge, for the correction and cooling 
 of fcolds and unquiet women. SecCucKlNG Jhol. 
 
 TUMEFACTION, the act of fwellmg, or riling into a tumor. 
 See Tumor. 
 
 Inflammations and tumefaclions of the teftes, frequently hap- 
 pen in the gonorrhea ; either from the weaknsfs of the veffels, 
 violent motion, unfeafonable ufe of aftringents, a neglect of 
 purging, or the like. 
 TUMOR, or Tumour, in medicine, &c. a preternatural ri- 
 ling or eminence on any part of the body. 
 Tumor is defined by the phyficians, a folution of continuity, 
 arifing from fome humor collected in a certain part of the bo- 
 dy, which disjoins the continuous parts, infmuates itfelf be- 
 tween them, and deftroys their proper form. 
 This has given occafion to the Arabs to define a tumor to be an 
 indifpofition, compofrd of three kinds of difeafes, viz. an in- 
 temperature, an ill conformation, and a folution ol continui- 
 ty; all which they comprife under the name apo/ihem, from 
 the Greek, et^T^^. 
 
 Tumors may proceed from various caufes. — The mafs of blood 
 throwing off or difcharging itfelf of any particular humor, 
 as fometimes happens in the crifis of a fever, pleurify, empy- 
 ema, bubo, cifc will give rife hereto. — And according to the 
 
 ] nature ot the humor fo difcharged, whether fanguinous, wa- 
 
 I tery, bilious, c?c. the tumor is different, 
 
 X nature 
 
TUM 
 
 Other lumirs there are, occafioned by flatulency, as the tym- 
 pany, alter the fame manner as hydrnpieal turners are occa- 
 fioned by a colleftion of tbelympba, or ferum, in a particular 
 part.— Ruptures of the inteitines, or their flatting from their 
 places, will likewife caufe a tumor. 
 
 External injuries are another general caufe of tumors. Thus a 
 
 contufion, or a violent ftrifture of any part, a wound, frafture 
 diflocation, ts\: will make it fwell, or rife above its natural 
 level. And the fame thing may likewife happen from the 
 bites of venomous creatures, fjfr. 
 
 Turners, properly fo called, i. e. humoral tumors, or thofe 
 winch contain a fluid matter, arife either from a nVnation 
 i.e. an obftruftion of thepaflageof fome fluid, occaffonin- a 
 flow congestion, or from the tranflation or fluxion of an hi, 
 mor from fome other part; or from the generation of fome 
 new humor. 
 
 Tumors of the firfl kind are very numerous, and are ufually 
 divided, with regard to the particular humors they are filled 
 with, into phlegmons, which come from the blood. Eryline 
 las's, which come from the bile. Oedema's, fill'd with pitui 
 O. And fcirrhus's To which may be added, flatulencies 
 iilled with wind. SeeFLATUs, 
 Of the fecund kind, are critical tumors. 
 
 And of the third kind, are cancers, ganglions, and all tumors 
 contained in a cyitis or bag. 
 
 Tumor, ttlto frequently acquire peculiar denominations from the 
 part affefted; as ophthalmia, if in the eye; parous, about 
 the ears; paronychia in the fingers, C3V. 
 Withrefpea to the cure, all tutmrs are divifible into ttmtle 
 and compound, t. e. into fuch as are of a kindly nature, and 
 go oft, or are cured in a reafonable time, by the ufe of com 
 mon means, without the appearance of any violent or dan- 
 gerous fymptoms; and fuch as are more malignant, or prove 
 
 flfi a ° d att , CndEd m bad f «»P'°rns and 
 
 afreet the adjacent parts, or the whole body.— When a tumor 
 is formed by fluxion, a hidden pain, heat, tenfion and pulfa 
 tion are felt in the part, and nwnifeft fi gns 0 f a f" 
 pear. ' 
 In thofe formed by congeftion, the fwelling rifes flowly, and 
 the pain and other fymptoms come on gradually, and prove 
 lefs violent ; unlefs it happen in the joints, and other of the 
 more tenfiule parts. 
 
 All tumors, except thofe from ruptures, terminate or are re- 
 moved, either by d.fcuffion, fuppuration, putrefac'tion, indu- 
 ration, or tranflation. 
 
 When a tumor is difcuffed, the part that was affefted, appears 
 relaxed, or reduced to its natural fize and figure, and is free 
 from pain and hardnefs. 
 
 When stumor haftens to fuppuration, a eonfiderable deeree of 
 heat, pain and pulfation is felt in the part; and if the tumor 
 be large, or he deep, a fever generally comes on i when the 
 matter is formed, thefe fymptoms commonly decreafe and 
 fometimes totally vanifh. And now, if the fltuation of the 
 parts permit it, the tumor appears drawn to a point, or becomes 
 conical in the middle, or mod depending pan, where the mat- 
 ter collefted commonly proves white.— At this time likewife 
 the tumor appears to be more contrafted, and the fkin of the 
 part more fhrivelled or flaccid than before: and now upon 
 preffure, if the tumor be fupetficial, or by vibrating 'it be 
 tween the fingers, the matter may be felt to quafh from fide to 
 fide. 
 
 Tumors in the flefhy parts of the body, tend to their flate or 
 fuppurate, hitter than tumors iathe joints, glands, tfc. 
 When a tumor is refolved by induration, the ("welling of the 
 part and the pain decreafe as the hardnefs comes on.— When it 
 terminates in putrefaftion or mortification, the part grows 
 fenfelcfs, and turns black and foetid. See Mo rt r Fi c A tion 
 But when a tumor goes off by repulfion, or a return of the 
 matter into the blood, it difappears at once ; upon which a 
 fever, or fome other acute difeafe ufually enfues 
 IFindy tumors, M. Littre defenbes as formed of air, inclofed 
 under fome membrane, which it dilates more or lefs in pro 
 portion to the quantity, and from which it cannot efcape at 
 leaft not for fome time. 
 
 The difficulty is, to conceive how the air flrnuld come to be 
 collected here._M. Littre thinks that the mod ordinary caufe 
 of imndj tumors, is the gathering of juices in fome neigh- 
 bouring part, wherein there is an obftruftion, The air 
 which is intimately mixed with all the juices of the body, con- 
 tinues to be fo while they are in their natural fluidity and mo- 
 tion ; but if they be collefted in any part, and by confequence 
 have their motion and fluidity diminiihed, the air gets its H- 
 berty, and difcngages itfelf from them. Now the membranes 
 of the part wherein the liquor is collefted, becoming dilated 
 by this collcftion, and their pores enlarged, the difennged air 
 eleapes through them, but the juice is left behind, as being 
 too much thickned by „s ftay there: it therefore runs under 
 and extends ne ' ghboU ""S ""^lane, which it raifes, fwells 
 TUN*, or Ton, originally fignifies a large veffel or cafk, of 
 an oblong form b.ggeit in the middle, and diminifhing towards 
 
 TUN 
 
 its two ends, girt about with hoops, and ufed to pi 
 
 Kinds of mirrbn,^ ;„ r._ _ ., - \ . r 
 
 Kinds of merchanizes in, for their better carriage 
 
 lut tip feverai 
 a brandy, 
 
 are rnol. n 23 f '° m "'***«'- ! » i[ is 
 
 word V r ■ >UCi '"E e dKtae - ' : f '°™ >">•>'. O'l'"-. 
 
 nmvtu Z :i '*' X ''' :U " at °'^ c! *™<^$; whence alfo 
 
 The term is alfo ufed for certain velTelsof extraordinary big, 
 "h e Z S m k = C P, W '"V n f ° r feVcral >«■»— ^ Germany 
 
 The ,u„ we frequently, tho' improperly, call ahor/head. 
 
 oil' °o'' ?. ° 2 CC ' tain nK ' afure ** H<*&i as wine, 
 on, crc. See Measure. 
 
 ""' cma ' ns two pipes ' or four ""e"*^ °t 
 
 The tun of Amfterdam contains 6 aems or awms; and fho 
 aem 4 ankers, the anker a rtekans, the flekan 16 mingles; 
 i - ltexans are equal to an Enghlh barrel or 63 gallons. 
 l oe tun of Bourdeaux and Baymme contains four barrels, 
 equal to three Paris mu,d s .-At Orleans and Berry it is about 
 two Fans muids. » 
 The - tun of Malaga, Alicant, Sevil, &c. is two bott*,, equal 
 to about 36 or 37 flekans.-The tun of Lifbon is twoPortu- 
 guefebottas, and is equal to a 5 ftekans. 
 
 Ue"J "f 3 "J' 3 '' 1 Wei S !lt > whc ' cb y turthen of (hips, 
 err. are cftimated. 1 
 
 T^J.'" ""' cora P uted "eigh two thoufand pounds, or 
 Zn2 1 m " tals ."' hundreds weight (amounting ■ to 2.„o 
 hundr J 7 P "' S) f " "'" Whc " Wt fc V ' veflel carries ,Zo 
 hundred Uat, we mean it is able ,0 carry two hundred times 
 
 fand S h ; 0, . two ^""'^ l^»th i. I. four hundred thou- 
 land pounds: ,t : being found by a curious observation, that the 
 
 w=igr s fomuc'h C r °° m "* VEffcl m Wto r "" lMd - 
 To find the burthen and capacity of a fhip, thev meafure the 
 
 Tfiu'tt" " is iai ' cn; aibi ™s 4 cubic < Ca "> 
 
 JhZ'tlV 1 Jrtfc °! carria g"f merchandizes, isordina- 
 
 k regularly twenty hundred weight, there is fome difference 
 made herein, either on account of rhe cumberf imnels, or 
 
 See F°t e icht" 1 " 1 fpaCC they " k ° " P ' °' thc ■ * 
 
 iTt7t Y ' T f B ° urdeaux fm ' te"* °f wine are held a 
 tun, five barrels of brandy areeltimated two tuns, three of fy- 
 rup a,e one tun four barrels of prunes one tun, two dozen of 
 walnut-tree tables one to,, a dozen of planks one to,, twenty 
 bufJieis of chefnuts are accounted one tun, and the Rfce of 
 wheat or other grain ; and ten bales of cork, five bales of 
 karhers, and e,gnt of paper, make each one tun. 
 
 if \,lr\ I 'r mb " '' S 40 fo ' id feEt ' if the t,mbcr te """ d : 
 
 it ■tbehewedorfqu.resj. See Timber. 
 
 t ra, I on ,„ the end of words or names of places, fienifies a 
 town, v ,, Ug e, as dwell,„g-pl JCI: ._ F , orn P the S lJn 
 
 tun' r t , r km tbcy ,ormerl >' bui " t0 "- n! - 
 
 u«-t_,Kb.\ t a term anciently ufed for a reeve or baihm 
 ju,,u win,, y guv dtcmus muncriis, domini ptrfmnm futfZL 
 gufiu, vice omma difpemt y modcratur. . SpelnL. 1 J ' 
 
 bv ,tv° r 1 "; uf,c ' Ihat P ro P ert )' »' "here- 
 
 by they come under the relation of 4W* and grttz-e to one 
 another See Gravity, feV. See alfo Tone! 
 I hough gravuy and acutenefs be mere terms of relation, yet 
 the ground of the relation, the tun, of the found, is fome- 
 thmg ablolute; every found having it, own proper tune, which 
 mult be under fome determinate meafure in the nature of the 
 
 The only difference then between one tune and another is in de- 
 grees, which are naturally infinite, i. e. we conceive there is 
 omething pohtive in the caufe of found, which is capable of 
 iels and more, and contains in it the meafure of the degrees 
 at tune ; and becaule we do not fuppofe a leaft or grcatelt quan- 
 tity 01 this, we conceive the degrees depending on thofe mea- 
 lurcs to be infinite. See Sound. 
 
 If two or more founds be compared together in this relation, 
 they are either equal or unequal in the degree of tune.— Such as 
 are equal are called unifens. See Ukisok. 
 The unequal conftitute what we call Intervals, which are the 
 differences of tune between founds. See Interval. 
 Caufe and meafure of Tone, or that wher/on the tune./ a found 
 ApeWj.— bonorous bodies-, we find, differ in ten,, 1. Accord- 
 ing to the different kinds of matter: thus the found of a piece 
 of gold is muih graver than that of a piece of filver of the 
 fame fliape and dimenfions; in which cafe, the tones are pro- 
 portional to the fpecifie gravities. 
 
 2. According to the different quantities of the fame matter in 
 bodies of the iame figure; as a folid fphere of br»fs, one toot 
 m diameter, founds acuter tban a fphere of braii two foot in 
 
 diameter j 
 
TUN 
 
 n which cafe the tor.is are proportional to the quan- 
 
 T 'J 
 
 R 
 
 diameter 
 
 tities of matter. L t r - fi „ 
 
 Here then are different fanes conneaed with Afferent fpeofic 
 gravities, and different quantities of matter; yet cannot U) 
 different degrees of tune be referred to thofe quantities 
 the immediate caufe. In effedt. 
 
 the meafures.of tune are 
 e the 
 
 only to be fought in the relations of the motions that are the 
 caufe of found, which are no-wbere fo difcernible as in the 
 vibration of chords. . 
 Sounds, we know, are produced in chords by their vibnuory 
 motions; not, indeed, by thofe fenfible vibrations of the whole 
 chord, but by the infenfible ones, which are influenced by trie 
 fenfible, and, in all probability, are proport.onal to them.— 
 So that founds may be as juftly meafured in the latter, as they 
 could bein the former, did they fall under our fenfes: buteven 
 the fenfible vibrations are too fmall and quick to be immediate- 
 ly meafured,— The only refource we have, is to find what, 
 proportion they have with fome other thing: which is effect- 
 ed by the different tenfions, or thicknefs, or lengths or chords, 
 which, in all other refpeds, excepting fome one of thofe men- 
 tioned, are the fame. 
 
 Now, in the general, we find that m two chords, all things 
 bein- equal, excepting the tenfion, or the thicknefs, or the 
 length, the t»US are different; there muft therefore be a diffe- 
 rence in the vibrations owing to thofe different tenfions, tsY. 
 which difference can only be in the velocity of the courfes and 
 recourfes of the chords-, through the fpaces wherein they move 
 to and again.— Now, upon examining the proportion between 
 that velocity, and the things juft mentioned, whereon it de- 
 pends, it is found to a demonftration, that all the vibrations 
 of the fame chord are performed in equal times. 
 Hence, as the tone of a found depends on the nature of thole 
 vibrations whofe differences we can conceive no otherwife 
 than as having different velocities, and as the fmall vibrations 
 of the fame chord are all performed in equal time ; and as it is 
 found true in Aft, that the found of any body arihng from one 
 individual ftroke, though it grows gradually weaker, yet con- 
 tinues in the fame tone from firft to laft; it follows, that the 
 tone is neceffarily conneaed witn a certain quantity of time m 
 making every fingle vibration; or that a certain number of 
 vibrations, accomplifhed in a given time, conftitutes a certain 
 and determinate tone: for the frequenter thofe vibrations are, 
 the more acute is the ism; and the flower and fewer they are 
 in the fome fpace of time, by fo much the more grave is the 
 tone ; fo that any given note of a tune, is made by one certain 
 meafureof velocity of vibrations, r. e, fuch a certain number 
 of courfes and recourfes of a chord or ftring in fuch a certain 
 fpaceof time, conftitutes a determinate tone. 
 This theory is ftrongly fupported by our beft and latcft wri- 
 ters on mufic. Dr. Holder, Mr. Malcolm, cifc. both from 
 reafon, and experience. — Dr. Wallis, who owns it very rea- 
 ibnable, adds, that it is evident the degrees of acutenefs are re- 
 ciprocally as the lengths of the chords; though, he fays, he 
 will not pofitively affirm that the degrees of acutenenefs anfwer 
 the number of vibrations as their only true caufe: but his diffi- 
 dence arifes hence, that he doubts whether the thing has been 
 fufficiently confirmed by experiment. — Indeed, whether the 
 different number of vibrations in a given time be the true 
 caufe on the part of the objea, of our perceiving a difference 
 of tone, is a thing which we conceive does not come within 
 the reach of experiment; it is fufficient the hypothefis is rea-| 
 fonable. ' 
 TUNICA, a kind of waftecoat or under-garment wore by the 
 ancients, both at Rome and in the eaft. 
 
 The common people ordinarily wore only a tunica; but thofe 
 of better fafhion wore a toga or gown over it. — The pbdoio- 
 phers wore a gown without a tunica, as profeffing to go half 
 naked. 
 
 The tunica was peculiar to the men, the under-garment of the 
 women not being called tunica, but Jtola. 
 The fenators wore their tunica enriched with feveral little 
 pieces of purple, cut in form of large nails; whence it was 
 called laticlavia : the knights had lefler nails on their tunica, 
 which was hence called augvjliclavia ; the common people 
 wore their tunica without any clavis at all. — And it was by 
 thefe three different forts of tunica's, that the three different 
 orders of the Roman people were diflinguifhed in habit. 
 Among religious, the woollen Ihifts, or under- garments, are 
 filled tunica's or tuniques. 
 Tunica, Tunic, in anatomy, is applied to the membranes 
 which inveft the veffels, and divers others of the lefs folid 
 parts of the body. — See Tab. Anat. [Angeiol.) fig. 7. lit. a a, 
 b b. c. d. 
 
 The eyeconfifts principally of a number of humors contained 
 ; in tunics ranged over one another : as thztumca albuginea, the 
 tunica cornea, the tunica retiformis, &c. 
 
 Tunica Vaginalis. See the article Vaginalis. 
 
 TUNNAGE, or Tonnage, a duty or cuftom due for mer- 
 chandize brought or carried in tons, and fuch like veffels, from 
 or to other nations ; thus calledj becaufe rated at io much per 
 tun. 
 
 Tannage is properly a duty impofed on liquids according to their 
 meafures ; as poundage is that imputed on other commodities 
 according to their weight. 
 
 They were both firft fettled by authority of parliament under 
 king Edwardlll. they were re -eftablifhcd in 1660, under the 
 reign of king Charles II. for his life, upon abrogating all the 
 laws made under Oliver Cromwell, and re-orriaining the exe- 
 cution of the ancient laws and regulations: and have been con- 
 tinued and rencved by the parliaments ever fin<:e. — By an aa 
 made in the firft year of the reign of Queen Anne they were 
 continued for 96 years, expiring in the year 179S. 
 This duty at firft was 4/. io*. fterling per tun, for French 
 wines brought into the port of London by the Englifh, and 
 only three fur that brought into the other ports. — For the fame 
 wine imported by ftrangers to London, this duty was 6 /. 
 and that brought into the other ports 4/. ioj. fteriing. 
 Rheniftl wine, in virtue of the fame aa, paid 7 /. iqj. fter- 
 iing ; and Spanifh, Portuguese, Malmfey, and Greek wines, 
 the fame as French wines. 
 
 But there have been divers additional duties impofed fince. — As 
 the additional duty of the old fubfidy, feignorage, duty of ancient 
 impojl of tunnage, duty of additional impcjl, orphans money., 
 new fubfidy, &c. 
 Tunnage is alfo ufed for a certain duty paid the mariners by 
 the merchants for unloading their fhips arrived in any haven, 
 after the rate of fo much per tun, 
 TUNNEL, or Funnel, an inftrument through which any 
 liquor is poured into a velfd. 
 
 Part of the draught of a chimney, above the-mantle- piece, is 
 alfo called by the fame name. 
 Tunnel- AW, is a kind of net much ufed for the catching of 
 partridges; thus called from its term, which is a cone 1501 
 18 feet lung. 
 
 To ufe it, a covey of thofe birds being found, a compafs is 
 taken, and the net is pitched at a good diftance from them, 
 according to the lituation of the ground.— Then, with a na- 
 tural or artificial ftalking hoi fe, they are lurrounded, and gent- 
 ly driven towards the net, never coming cn them in a direa 
 line, but by windings and turnings. 
 TUNNING, or Tonning, a part of the procefs of brewing, 
 or rather an operation which is the fequel thereof. See 
 Brewing. 
 
 The tunning of beer, &c. is performed various ways ; fome be- 
 ing of opinion it is beft tunned as it cools, or begins to come; 
 whileothers let it ftand longer to become riper. 
 The moft regular method is to cleanfe and tun juft as it comes 
 to a due ferment, and gets a good head ; for then it has the 
 moft ftrength to clear itftlf.- — What works over is to be fup- 
 plied with trefh beer of the fame brewing. 
 TURBAN,* Turb an t, the head-drefs of moft of the eaftem 
 and mahometan nations; confifting of two parts, viz. a cap, 
 and a ftufh of fine linncn, or taiiaty, artfully wound in divers 
 plaits about the cap. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Arabic IJ^, Jar, or "|^, dur, 
 or dul, or yfy dul, which fignifies to encomp.ifs ; and 
 
 *p2* band or bend, which fignifies fhafh. or fcarf, or band ; fo 
 that durbmit, orturbant, or tu&nil, only fignifies a fcarf, or 
 fhafh, tied round ; it being the fhafh that gives the dcoomina- ■ 
 tion to the whole turban. 
 
 The cap is red or green, without any brim, pretty flat, though 
 roundifh a-top, and quilted with cotton, but does not cover 
 the ears. — About this is wrapped a long piece uf fine thin hnnen 
 or cotton, in feveral wreaths varioufly difpofed. 
 There is a good deal of art in giving turbans the fine air ; and 
 the making them up conftitutes a particular trade, as the 
 making of hats does among us. 
 
 The Emirs, who pretend to be defcended of the race of Ms- 
 hornet, wear their turbans green: thofe of the other Turks 
 are ordinarily red, with a white fhafh. — The genteel 
 people are to have f requent changes of turbans. — M. de Tour- 
 nefort obferves, that the turban, all things confidered, is a very 
 commodious drefs ; and that he even found it more eafy to him. 
 than his French habit. 
 
 The grand Seignior's turban is as big es a bufhel, and is fo ex- 
 ceedingly refpeaed by the Turks, that they dare fcarce touch 
 it, — IrT is adorned with three plumes of feathers enriched with 
 diamonds and precious ftones: he has a minifter on purpofe to 
 look to it, called tulbentsglan. 
 
 That of the grand vizier has two plumes: fo have thofe of di- 
 vers other officers, only fmaller one than another; others have 
 only one, and others none at all. — The turban of the officers 
 of the divan is of a peculiar form, and called mugenexek. 
 The Ihafh of the Turks turban, we lave obferved is white 
 linnen, that of the Periians is red woollen. Thefe are the 
 dilfinguifhing marks of their different religions, Sophi, king 
 of Perfia, who was of the fea of Ali, being the |firft who 
 affumed that colour, to diftinguifh hjmfelf from the Turks, 
 who are of the fed of Omar, and whom th: Perfians efteem 
 
 her " iCS - TURBARY, 
 
T U R 
 
 TURBARY, Tuibaria, a right [o dig turf in another 
 man's-gruund ; from turba, an old Latin word for a turf. Sec 
 
 ' Turf, ., . ^ ... .... ja .- 
 
 Commen of Turbary, is a liberty v.-ijicJr fome tenants have by 
 
 prelcriprion to dig on the lord's waller 
 Turbaria is fometimes alio taken for the ground where turfs 
 
 are digged. See Turf. 
 Turbaria Bruaria, more particularly denotes Haw turf, or 
 
 heath turf : mentioned in the charter of Hammon de Mafl'y. 
 TURBINATED, iaatcrm applied by naturalilts to fhells which 
 
 are fpiral, or wreathed, conically, from a larger bads to a kind 
 
 of apex. 
 
 TURBITH, or Turpeth, Turpethum, a medicinal root, 
 brought from theEalt-Indies, particulary fromCunbaya, Surat, 
 and Goa ; though others will have it, that the ttue turbith 
 comes chiefly from Ceylon. 
 
 The turbith of the moderns bears fo little refemblance to that 
 of the ancients, that it is difficult to fuppofe them the lame. — 
 That fold by our druggifts is a longifh root about the thicknefs 
 of the finger, rellnous, heavy, and of a brownifh hue with- 
 out, and whitilh within.— It is brought to us cloven in the 
 middle, lengthwife, and the heart or woody matter taken 
 out. 
 
 When in the ground it (hoots out tendrils, fome whereof 
 creep along the ground, and the reft wind float the neigh- 
 bouring trees and fhrubs. 
 
 Turbith is a ftrong purgative, and is ufed in the dropfy, palfy, 
 and apoplexy. —It is commonly fuppofed to take its name 
 turbith from turban; on account of the violence of its opera- 
 tion, as diflurbing the whole ceconomy. 
 It yields a deal of refinous matter in a fpirituous mcnllruum, 
 which Qiiincy obferves, does not atFecl the larger paflages 
 much ; hut is very aaive in the fmaller veiTels, and glanthi- 
 lous contorfions, which it wonderfully clears of all vifcid 
 adhelions. 
 
 Some apothecaries, either through ignorance or parfimonv, 
 filbftitute white thapfia, which thev call grey turbith, or tur- 
 bith garganieum, for the true turbith ; though both as to tafle, 
 colour, and qualities, they are very dittcrenr. 
 Mineral Turbith, Turpethum Minn-ale, is anamewhich 
 the chymilts give to a yellow precipitate of mercury, which 
 purges violently. 
 
 The method of preparing it is thus : — on the dry powder 
 gamed by diilolving mercury in oil of vitriol, pour a proper 
 quantity of warm rain water, and the powder will immedi- 
 ately turn of a yellow colour. Continue to warn this powder 
 by tepcated affufions of water, till the liquor comes awav as 
 infipid and colourlels as it was poured on, leaving a beautiful 
 yellow calx at the bottom of the veflel, which being gently 
 dried at the fire, is called by the name of turbith mineral. 
 This powder is called mineral turbith from the refemblance it 
 bears to the vegetable turbith of the Arabians, in flrongly 
 purging the molt internal recefl'es of the body ; for though it 
 be infipid upon the tongue, yet it is pollened of very coufide- 
 rable virtues.— Being boiled with water, it lofes mere of its 
 falts, and thereby grows milder, and more fafe ; fo it does alfo 
 by being deflagrated twice or thtice, or diftilled with fpirit of 
 wine. 
 
 A very few grains of this turbith prove emetic and pur- 
 gative.— It is alfo accounted an excellent medicine in the cure 
 of the venereal difeafe : but as it operates with conliderable 
 violence, it ought not to he given, unlefs the vifecra are known 
 to be found. 
 
 This appears to have been the grand fecret of Paracelfus, 
 which, in his fcarce German book of hofpital medicines, he 
 yiraifes fo extravagantly for the venereal and all chronical dif- 
 eafes.— Sydenham alfo commends it in venereal cafes, <>iven 
 in the quantity of fix or eight grains, in ftrong habits of bodv, 
 fo as to prove emetic ; but when imprudently ufed, it is apt to 
 bring on adyfentery. 
 
 TURBO, in meteorology, a whirlwind. 
 
 TURCICA Sella. See the article Sella. 
 
 TURCOIS," or Turquois, in natural hiftory, a precious 
 (tone of the opake kind, of a beautiful blue colour. 
 
 * TheGreeks and Latins feem to have known it under the name 
 CatjKI .- and it appears to have had a place in the rationale of 
 tne hiu,h pricil of the Jews. 
 
 There are tureeifes both oriental and occidental, of the new 
 rock and of the old. The oriental partakes more of the blue 
 tincture than the green ; and the occidental more of the green 
 than the blue.— Thole of the old rock are of a finer blue, and 
 thole ol the new rock arc often wbitifh, and do not keep their 
 colour. 
 
 The oriental ones come from Perfia, the Indies, and fome 
 parts of 1 urky ; and fome even fuppoie that it is hence they 
 derive their modern name lureeit.— The occidental are found 
 in various parts of Europe, particularly in Germany, Bohe- 
 mia, Siiefia, Spain, and France. 
 
 Tureeifes often grow of a round or oval figure : they cut cafily 
 and belides feals, which are frequently engraved on them, fome 
 are formed into crucifixes, or other figures near two inches 
 V ol. II. 
 
 TUR 
 
 high ; though de Boot miftakenly affirms, that none have been 
 known to exceed the bignefs of a walnut. 
 The ancients attribute a kind of fympathetic virtue to the 
 tureeis— It ,s commonly fuppofed, that it changes colour, or 
 breaks at the death, ikkncfs, or even misfortui e of the per- 
 fon who wears it ; that it difagrees with married people, and 
 even breaks on their fingers , that it marks all the chanses 
 and accidents that happen in the body of the wearer, by cor- 
 refpondent changes in its colour ; and that it is for this reafon 
 thelad,es have forbore the ufe of it.-And de Boot endeavours 
 to account tor all thefe edicts from natural, and even probable 
 caules; but this is all idle and erroneous. 
 
 The tureeis is eaflly counterfeited ; and that often is done fo 
 perfeflly, that it is impoHible to difcover the deceit, without 
 taking it out of the collet. 
 
 In the memoirs of the academy of fciences, we have a very 
 curious account ol the formation of the nvraw, and the man- 
 ner of managing its naturally irregular colour, by M. Rea- 
 mur.---The tureeis, he obferves, is one of the fofteft of pre- 
 cious (tones, its hardnefs ufually'not coming up to that of 
 acryftal, or a tranfparent pebble; though fome ate much 
 harder than others : and Hill the harder, 'ceteris paribus, the 
 more valuable, by reafon of the vivacity of the polifh, which 
 is always proportionable to the hardnefs. 
 
 Rofnel, a jeweller, and the author of a fcarce treatife, called 
 Mercure Imliett, eflimating the feveral precious nones, fets a 
 hard tureen, whole blue is neither bright nor deep, on the 
 foot ot the moll perfect emeralds, that is, nearly on a level 
 with a diamond, but fuch are fcarce ever met with.— -Thuds 
 with any defea he only values at a French crown the carat. 
 Tavernier affirms, but erroneously, there are but two mints 
 of tureeifes known in all the catth, and thofe are both in 
 Perfia j the one called the eld reek, near a town called Ncca- 
 bourg, three days journey to the north-eaft of Meched ■ the 
 other called the new red, is live days journey from it.— The 
 (tones from the latter, he adds, are but little valued ; and the 
 king of Perfia hath for many years prohibited the dig^inc in 
 the former (or any but liimfelf. — M. Reaumur takes the°old 
 rock to be now exhauftcd ; in effefl, the common divil'son of 
 tureeifes into the old rock, or oriental, and new rock, or oc- 
 cidental, is very arbitrary and precarious. — All the belt, and 
 moll perlcfl, grow they where they will, in India or Europe, 
 are reckoned among the former, and the reft among the latter. 
 NearSimore, in the lower Languedoc, there are feveral con- 
 siderable mines of tureeifes ; but that fine blue colour admired 
 in the turcets, is not natural to thofe of thefe rocks ; the pre- 
 vailing colour being fometimes white, and fometimes much 
 like that of Trtpoli of Venice. Other precious (tones are duo- 
 out of the mine with all their colour, to the force wheteot no- 
 thing can be added, though it may frequently be diminifhed, 
 as we fee fire bring down the too deep colour of the fapphire, 
 and quite take away that of a pale fapphire : thefe tureeifes, 
 on the contrary, are naturally whitifl] or yellowifh, of a colour 
 as ordinary as that of a free-ftone ; and by oppoflng them for 
 fome time to the aflion of the fire, ihey all'ume a blue 
 colour. 
 
 It feems a paradox, and yet M. Reaumur has made it exceed- 
 ing probable, that tureeifes are originally the bones of ani- 
 mals—In the mines in F rance, pieces have feveral times been 
 found in the figure of teeth, bones of the legs, tie. And 
 tureeifes which are yet imperfecl or half formed, areapparently 
 compofed of laminae or leaves like thofe of bones, between 
 which lome petrifying juice infinuating itfelf, binds them clofe 
 together : and (till, the fiafter, and more imperfea the Hones 
 are, tne more dilhnguifhablease the different direftions of the 
 fibres and laminre, with their interliflions, and the greater re- 
 femblance they bear to figured bones, and the lefs to any 
 kind of (tones known. 
 
 To give them a blue colour, they dry them a while in the 
 air, then heat them gradually in a furnace made after a parti- 
 cular manner. If they be heated too haftilv, the humidity 
 between the lamina;, wanting time to evaporate the whole, 
 will feparate into fcales or flaws. Some of the Hones require a 
 greater degree of heat to bring them to their colour than others ; 
 and even in large pieces, the feveral parts ordinarily require fe- 
 veral degrees of heat. 
 
 Onthis account a great deal of care is to he taken in the heating 
 them ; for the fire, which gives them their blue by degrees, iT 
 they be expofed beyond a certain degree, takes it away again. 
 M. Reaumur accounts for their taking a blue colour by heat 
 very well : when frelh cut out of the rock, it feems, their 
 fubftance is found fprinkled and flreaked all over with fpots, 
 veins, little circles, tisV. of a dark-blue colour : thefe he takes 
 to be fources of a deep bluifh matter, which the fire rarefy- 
 ing, fpreads aud difTufes throughout the whole fubltante of 
 this done.— This matter, again, he concludes to have been 
 either originally the juice contained in the bones, fince mixed 
 and coagulated with the petrifying juice, or fome other mineral 
 matter infinuated into the pores of the done, 
 '('he great dcica of all tureeifes is, that in time they lofe their 
 blue colo.it, and become green j and then ccafe to be of any 
 value. Serfupplemcnl, atticle Turquoise. 
 
 12 A a TURF, 
 
T U R 
 
 TURF, Ptat ; a blackifli, fulphurous earth, ufed in feveral parts 
 of England, Holland, and Flanders, as fewel. 
 In Flanders, their turf is dug or pared from off the furface of 
 the earth, and cut in form of bricks.— The fedge, or fpecies 
 of grafs growing very thick on the turf earth, contributes 
 greatly, when dry, to the maintenance of the fire. 
 The Dutch take their turf from the bottom of the Dikes or 
 canals whkh run acrofs moft of their lands ; by which means 
 they not only fupply the defect of wood, which is very great 
 in moll of the united provinces, but alio keep their Dikes 
 clear and navigable : this turf earth is very black. As they 
 take it up from the bottom of the dikes, they fprcad it about 
 the edges, of fuch a thicknefs, as that it may be reduced to 
 three inches when moderately dried.— In this condition they 
 cut it into pieces of turfs feven or eight inches long, and three 
 broad ; and, to compleat the drying, lay them up in heaps, 
 and at laft in ftacks. • 
 In the north of England, Scotland, tit. turf or peat is dug 
 out of fofl, moilt, rotten earth, called peat-mofs : for the for. 
 mation whereof fee Moss. 
 
 They dig horizontally from the furface, to the depth of about 
 four foot, with a fpake, which at once fafhions and takes 
 them out in parallelepipeds nine or ten inches long, and three 
 fquare ; which are fpread on the ground to drain asfaftas dug; 
 and then fet up an end three or four againft each other, for 
 the wind to blow through them ; and at laft they are flaked or 
 houf.d.— The pits or dikes in a few years fill up again, and 
 afford a frelh crop. 
 TURFING-//i«*, among hulbandmen, is an inftrumcnt ufed 
 to under-cut the turf after it is marked out with a trenching- 
 plough. 
 
 TURGESCENCE, Turcescency, a fwelling, or growing 
 bloated. 
 
 TURIONES, the firft young tender fhoots which plants an- 
 nually put forth. 
 TURKISH™™, , (-Coin. 
 To* Kis h «»/«,■«, (gee the articles 
 Turkish msneys, f iMoney. 
 Turkish ytflft * CYear. 
 T UR K Y company, , gee theartides { s C ,"™ rANY - 
 
 TURLUPINADE, a term ufed chiefly among the French for 
 a low jeit, or wittidfm. — The occaiion of the name is de- 
 rived from a famous comedian at Paris, called Turlupin ; 
 whofe talenf, like that of our Penkethmam, confifted chiefly 
 in raifing a laugh by miferable puns and quibbles. 
 
 TURLUPINES, Turlupini, a fea of heretics, or rather 
 of people who make public profeffion of impudence, going 
 naked, without fa much as covering their privy parts, and 
 having to do with women, like the Cynics, in the open 
 market. 
 
 They called their fe£t the fraternity of thepoor, and fpread 
 themfelves over England and France.— -They are faid by fome 
 to have had their name tur lupins, quod ea tantum habitarent loca 
 quiz lupis expofita erant. 
 
 They attempted to fettle themfelves at Paris in 1372, but were 
 a great part of them burnt, with their books ; as is related by 
 Gaguin and du Tillet in the life of Charles V. 
 TURMERIC, Curcuma, a medicinal root, ufed likewife by 
 the dyers, to give a yellow clour. 
 
 It is yellow both within and without fide, very hard, and 
 not unlike, either in figure or fize, to ginger. — The leaves 
 it produces are like thofe of white hellebore ; its flowers 
 rife in form of a fpica or ear ; and its fruit is rough like 
 our huiks of chefnuts. 
 
 It is brought chiefly from the Eaft-Indies ; though the ifland 
 Madagafcar does likewife afford it. — You are to chufe that 
 whkh is big, new, refinous, hard to break, and heavy. 
 Some people have miftakenly imagined that there was a native 
 red turmeric; their error was owing to this, that theyellow root, 
 as it grows old, turns brown ; and when pulverifed is red i Hi . 
 It is much ufed by the glovers, &c. to dye their gloves.— The 
 Indians ufe it to dye their rice, and other foods, of a yellow 
 colour; whence fome call it Indian faffron. 
 Our dyers do not find that it gives fo (ready a yellow as the 
 luteola or weld ; but it is admirable to brighten and heighten 
 the red colours died with cochineal or vermilion ; as fcarlets, 
 Uc. 
 
 Turmeric is ufed in medicine by way of decoction, infulion, 
 powder, tffe. with other ingredients, in hypochondraic, leu- 
 cophlegmatic, and cachectical conftitutions. It is held a fort 
 of fpecific in the jaundice, and dropfy. 
 
 7'URN, is ufed for a circular motion ; in which fenfe it coin- 
 cides with revolution. 
 
 Turn, in a clock or watch-work, particularly denotes the re- 
 volution of a wheel, or pinion. 
 
 In calculation, the number of turns which the pinion hath in 
 common arithmetic, thus, 5)60(12, where the pinion 5 play- 
 ing in a wheel of 60, moves round 12 times in one turn of 
 the wheel.— Now, by knowing the number of turns, which 
 
 T U R 
 
 anv pinion hath in one turn of the wheel it works in, you 
 may alfo find how many turns a wheel or pinion 
 has at agreater diftance ; as the contrat-wheel, 5) 55 (11 
 crown-wheel, &c. by multiplying together the 5)45(9 
 quotients, and the number produced, is the nuin- 5) 40 (8 
 ber of turns ; as in this example : 
 
 The firft of thefe three numbers lias 1 1 turns, the next 9, 
 and the laft 8. If you multiply 11 by 9, it pruduceth 99 ; 
 that is, in one turn of the wheel 55, there are 99 turns of rhe 
 fecond pinion 5, or the wheel 40, which runs cuncentrical, or 
 on the fame arbor with the fecond pinion 5. — If you multiply 
 99 by the lait quotient 8, it produces 792, which is the num- 
 ber of turns the third pinion 5 hath. 
 Turn, or Fourn, is alfo ufed for the IherifPs court, kept twice 
 a year in every hundred within his county, viz. a month after 
 Eafter, and within a month after Michaelmas. 
 From this court none are exempted but archbifhops, bifhops, 
 earls, barons, religious men and women, and all fuch as have 
 hundreds of their own to be kept. 
 
 It is a court of record in all things that pertain to it ; and is 
 alfo the king's leet through all the county, whereof the fheriff 
 is judge ; this court being incident to his office. — The atten- 
 dance on it is called fefla regalis, or fuit-rsyal. 
 It is called the fheriff's turn, hecaufe he takes a turn or circuit 
 for this purpofe through the (hire, holding the fame in feveral 
 places. 
 
 TURNADO) or Tornado, a wind which on fome coafts 
 
 blows all night from the fliore. See Wind, Whirlwind, 
 
 Trade-wind, Monsoon, Bfr. 
 TURNAMENT, or Tournament, a martial fport or ex- 
 
 ercife, which the ancient cavaliers uled to perform, to fhew 
 
 their bravery and addrefs. 
 
 The firft turnaments were only courfes on horfeback, wherein 
 the cavaliers tilted at each other with cant.s, in manner of 
 lances ; and were diftinguifhed from jufts, which were courfes 
 or careers, accompanied with attacks and combats with blunted 
 lances and fwords. 
 
 Others fay, it was a turnament when there was only one qua- 
 dril or troop; and that where there were feveral to encounter 
 each other, it was a juft. — but it is certain the two became 
 confounded together in procels of time; at leaft we find them 
 fo in authors. 
 
 The prince who publifhed the turnament, ufed to fend a king 
 at arms with a fafe conduct, and a (word to all the princes, 
 knights, cifc. fignilying, that he intended a turnament and a 
 clammg of fwords, in the prefence of ladies and damfels : 
 which was the ufnal formula nf invitation 
 They firft engaged man againft man, then troop againft troop ; 
 and after the combat, the judges allotted the prize to the bc-ft 
 cavalier, and the beft flnker of fwords; who was, accord- 
 ingly, conducted in pomp to the lady of the turnament ; where, 
 after thanking her very reverently, he falutcd her, and like- 
 wife her two attendants. 
 
 Thefe turnaments made the principal diverfion of the Xlllth 
 andXIVth centuries. — Munfter fays, it was Henry the Fowler, 
 duke of Saxony, and afterwards emperor, that firft introduced 
 them ; but it appears from the chronicle of Tours, that the 
 true inventor of this famous fport, was one GeofFry, lord of 
 Preuilli, about the year 1066. 
 
 From France they palled into England and Germany. — The 
 Hijioria Byzantina tells us, that the Greeks and Latins bor- 
 rowed the ufe thereof from the Franks ; and we find mention 
 made of them in Cantacuzenus, Gregorias, Beflarion, and 
 others of the late Greek authors. 
 
 Eudsus derives the word from trojana agmina ; others from 
 trojamentum, quafi Indus trojes. Menage deduces it from the 
 Latin,' ternenjis, or the French, tourner, in regard the comba- 
 tants turned and twifted this way and that. M. Paris calls 
 them in Latin, hafliludia; Neubrigeniis, meditatianes tnititares; 
 others gla dial urte, others decuifiones ludicra, l$e. 
 Pope Eugenius II. excommunicated thofe who went to turna- 
 ments, and forbad them burial in holy ground — K. Henry II. 
 of Fiance died of a wound received at a turnajnent. — One 
 Chiaoux, who had affifted at a turnament under Charles VIII. 
 faid very wifely, If it be in earnejl, it is too little ; if in je/i, 
 too much. 
 
 It is to the exercife of turnamens that we owe the firft ufe of 
 armories ; of which the name blazonry, the form of the 
 efcutcheons, the colours, principal figures, the mantlings, la- 
 bels, fupporters, cirV. are undeniable evidences. 
 In Germany, it was anciently a cuftom to hold a folemn tur- 
 nament every three years, to ferve as a proof of nobility. — 
 For the gentleman who had affifted at two, wis fufficiently 
 blazoned and publifhed ; i. c. he was acknowledged noble, and 
 bore two trumpets by way of creft on his turnament calk — 
 Thofe who had not been in any turnaments, bad no arms, 
 though they were gentlemen. 
 TURNESOL, or Tornesol, Heliotrope, or the Sun-flower ; 
 a plant whofe flower is faid to follow the motion of the fun, 
 and to turn always towards it. 
 
 Some 
 
T U R 
 
 T U S 
 
 Some faj*, it a hence it takes its name, anil account for the 
 effect, by fuppofing that its heavy (talk, warmed and foftened 
 with the heat which is ftrongeft on that fide toward the fun, 
 inclines naturally towards the fame ; but others take the 
 opinion of its motion to have had its rife from the name, 
 which was given it by reafon of its appearance in the time of 
 the greateft heats, when the fun is in the tropic. There is an- 
 other plant of the name of turn/ell called heliotropium. The 
 principal ufe of this is in dying : in order to which, the juice 
 is infpifi'ated and prepared with calx and urine, into blue cakes ; 
 which arc ufed alio with ftarch, inftead of fmalt. 
 Its juice likewife furnifhes the colour wherewith the people of 
 Languedoc and fome other parts of France, where it grows, 
 prepare what they call the tourncj'ol en drapeux, or tournefol in 
 rags. The procefs whereof we owe to M. NifTole of the 
 royal academy of fciences, and which is as follows : 
 The fummets or tops of the plants being gathered in the be- 
 ginning of Augtift, are ground in mills, not unlike our oil- 
 mills : then, being put up in hags, the juice is exprefled with 
 preffes. 
 
 This juice having been expofed to the fun about an hour, they 
 dip linnen rags therein, and hang them out in the air till they 
 he well dried again. When, moiftening them for fome time, 
 over the vapour of about ten pound weight of quick lime 
 flaked in a fufHcient quantity of urine, they lay them out 
 again to the fun to dry ; to be again dipped in the juice of the 
 plant. 
 
 When they are dried for the laft time, they arc in thir perfec- 
 tion ; and are thus fent into mod parts of Europe, where they 
 are ufed to tinge wines and other liquors, to give them an a- 
 greeable colour. 
 
 The Dutch prepare a kind of turnefol in partes or cakes, pre- 
 tended to be the juice of this plant infpi Mated : but there is 
 ' reafon to think it a cheat, and to be the juice of fome other 
 plant, or fome other colouring mat'er prepared after this man- 
 ner ; the turnefol being no plant of their growth. 
 
 TURNETUM, in our old law-books, a duty paid to the (lie- 
 rifli for holding his turn, or county-court. 
 
 TURNING, a branch of fculpture ; being the art of ftfttpn- 
 ing hard bodies, as brafs, irory, wood, QV, into a round or 
 oval form, in a lathe. 
 
 Turning is performed by putting the fubftance to be turned 
 upon two points, as an axis ; and moving it about on that 
 axis ; while an edge-tool, fet fteady to the outfide of the fub- 
 ftance, in a circumvolution thereof, cuts off all the parts that 
 lie further off the axis, and makes the outfide of that fubftance 
 concentric to the axis. 
 
 The invention of turning appears to be very ancient, — Some, 
 indeed, to do honour to late times, will have it brought to per- 
 fection by the moderns ; but if what Pliny, and fome other 
 ancient authors relate, be true, that the ancients turned thofe 
 precious vafes, enriched with figures and ornaments in relievo, 
 which we ftill fee in the cabinets of the curious ; it mutt be 
 owned, that all that has been added in thefe ages, makes but 
 a poor amends for what we loft of the manner of turning of 
 thofe times. 
 
 The principal inftruments ufed in turning, befide the Iatbe, are 
 chiffels and mandrels of various forms; the defcription whereof 
 fee under their proper articles. 
 
 Turning palifads,, 7 Scc thc artkIes ? Palisade. 
 
 I urn-up compares, \ \ Compasses. 
 
 TURNPIKE, a gate fet up acrofs a road, watched by an officer 
 for the purpofe, in order to flop travellers, waggons, coaches, 
 (s'c. to take toll of them, or money towards repairing, or 
 keeping the roads in repair. 
 
 Turnpike is alfo ufed in the military art, for a beam fluck 
 full of fpikes, to be placed in a gap, a breach, or at the en- 
 trance of a camp, to keep off an enemy. See Cheval de Frife. 
 The turnpike^ called alfo cheval de frife, is a fpar of timber, 
 twelve or fourteen feet long, and about fix inches in diameter; 
 of a fexangular form, and bored with holes, one right under 
 another, about an inch diameter; the axis of the holes being 
 fix inches one from another. 
 
 The fpikes or pickets that are driven into the holes, are five 
 or fix feet long, pointed with iron ; and with wedges or nails 
 they are faftened tight into the holes. 
 
 Two of thefe fattened together with an iron chain and flaple, 
 fix inches long, are of great ufe to flop the enemy in the 
 breaches or elfewhere. 
 
 Thofe intended to be thrown into breaches, muft be made of 
 oak ; and need not be fo big, or the pickets fo long. 
 TURPENTINE, Terebinthina, a tranfparent fort of 
 refin, flowing either naturally or by incifion, from feveral 
 unctuous and refinous tiees — as the terebinthus, larch, pine, 
 fir, &c. 
 
 We diftinguifli feveral kinds of turpentines; as that of Chio, 
 that of Venice, that of Bourdcaux, that of Cyprus, that of 
 Strafbourg, bfc. 
 
 The turpentine of Chio, or Sio, which is the fineft genuine 
 kind, and that which gives the denomination to all the reft, i; 
 a whitifh refin, bordering a little on green, very clear and a 
 4 
 
 little odoriferous ; drawn by incifion from a tree called ttrt- 
 binthus, very common in that ifland, as alfo in Cyprus, and 
 in fome parts of France and Spain. 
 
 This relin mufl be chofen of a folid confiftence, almoft with- 
 out either tafte or fmell, and not at all tenaciou", which di- 
 ftinguiflies it from the thin turpentine of Venice, commonly 
 fubftituted for it, which has a brifker fmell, a bitter tafte, and 
 Iticksmuchto the fingers.— The turpentine of Chio is indifpu- 
 tably the beft; but its fcarcity occalions it to be little in ufe. 
 The turpentine of Venice, is falfely fo called ; for though there 
 was a turpentine anciently brought from Venice, yet that now 
 fo called comes from Djuphine.— It is liquid, of the confid- 
 ence of a thick fyrup, and yellowifh; and flows either fpon- 
 taneoufly, or by incifion from the larch-tree, chiefly in the 
 wood dePilatzc. 
 
 The turpentine flowing naturally, and called by the peafants 
 bijon, is a kind of balfbm, not inferior in virtue to that of 
 Peru. That drawn by incifion, after the tree has ceafed to 
 yield fpontaneoufly, is alfo of considerable ufe in feveral artSi 
 and it is even of this that varnifli is chiufly made. — It mult 
 be chofen white and tranfparent, and care fhould be taken it 
 have not been counterfeited with fome other turpentine. 
 
 The turpentine of Bourdeaux is whke and thick as hjney. . 
 
 It uoeu not ooze from the tree in the manner it is fent to us ; 
 but is properly a composition, wherein, among other ingredi- 
 ents, is a white hard fort of rofm called galipot. 
 The turpentine of Strafbourg, the produce of the abies or filver 
 fir, is frequently alfo ufed among us ; and is preferred, by our 
 people, to that of Venice, which it is diflinguiftied from by 
 itsgreenifh hue, flagrant fmell, and citron flavour. 
 1 he ufes of turpentine in medicine are innumerable. — It is A 
 great vulnerary, and very detergent, and as fuch is preferred 
 in abfeeffes and ulcerations, cs*c. It promotes expectora;i"jn, 
 and as fuch is prefcribed in difeafes of the lung;,, and breafi : 
 but it is moft famous for clearing tiie urinary puflages, and as 
 fuch it is prefcribed in obftru&ions of the reins, in gonorrhccaSj 
 
 Oil- of Turpentine. — There are two kinds of oils drawn 
 from turpentine by dift illation by the retort ; the firii white, 
 the fecund red ; both efteemed as balfoms proper for the cure 
 of wounds, chilblains, effr. But they are fo little ufed among 
 us, that it is not eafy to procure either of them. 
 What is commonly fold under. the name of oil of turpentine^ 
 or cthericd oil, is diftilled by the alembick from the turpentine 
 frefh as it is gathered. — It is ufed with great fuccefs in the cure 
 of green wounds and internally as a diuretick, as alfo by the 
 painters, farriers, &c. — To be good, it mull be clear and 
 colourlefs as water, of a flrong penetrating fmell, and very in- 
 flammable. 
 
 TURQu'olS, } Seethe articles } 
 
 TURUNDA, in medicine and chirurgery, ter.t, pellet^ or pe- 
 necil ; a piece of lint thruft into a wound, ulcer, or other ca- 
 vity. 
 
 TUSCAN, in architecture, the firfl, fimpleft, and moft maf- 
 five of the five orders. --See Tab. Arcbit.fig. 24. See alfo the 
 article Order. 
 
 The Tufcan order takes its name from an ancient people of 
 Lydia, who coming out of Aha to people Tufcan v, firfl exe- 
 cuted it in fome temples, which they built in their new plan- 
 tations. 
 
 Vitruvius calls the Tufcan the ruftic order ; wjfh whom agrees 
 M. de Cambray, who in his parallel Oys, it ou» ht never to 
 be ufed but in country-houfes and palaces. M. le Cierc add?, 
 that in the manner Vitruvius, Palladi. , and fome others, have 
 ordered it, it does not deferve to be ufed at all. But in Vie- 
 nola's manner of compofition, he allows it a beauty, even in 
 its iimplicity ; and fuch as makes it proper not only for pri- 
 vate houfes, and even for public buildings, as in the piazzas 
 of fquares and markets ; in the magazines and Granaries of 
 cities, and even in the offices and lower apartments in pa- 
 laces. 
 
 The Tufcan has its character and proportions, as well as the 
 other orders ; but we have no ancient monuments to give us 
 any regular Tufcan pillar for a ftandard. 
 
 M. Perrault obferves, that the characters of the Tufcan are 
 nearly the fame with thofe of the Done ; and adds, th.u the 
 Tufcan is, in effect, no other than the Doric, made fome- 
 what ftronger, by fhortening the fluft of the column ; and 
 Ampler, by the final! number, and largenefs of the mouldings, 
 Vitruvius makes the whole height of the order 1 4. modules, 
 wherein he is followed by Vignola, M. leClerc, tjrV.— -Serlio 
 only makes it 1 2.— Pailadio gives us one Tufcan profile, much 
 the fame as that of Vitruvius; and another too rich: on 
 which fide Scamozzi is likewife faulty. Hence it is, that 
 that of Vignota, who has made rhe order very regular, is moft 
 followed by the modern architects 
 
 Of all the orders, the Tufcan is the molt cafily executed ; as 
 having neither triglyphs nor dentils, nor modillior.s to cramp 
 its intercolum?.— On this account the columns of this order 
 may be ranged in any of the five manners of Vitruviur, viz. 
 
 the 
 
TUT 
 
 thcpycnoflyle, fvftile, euflyle, diaflyle or arreoftyle. — For 
 the parts and members of the Tufcan order, their pro- 
 portions, &c. fee Capital, Base, Pedestal, Fueeze, 
 
 TUSCULAN, in matters of literature, is a term which fre- 
 quently occurs in the phrafe, tufcuian quejlions. — Ciceru's tuf- 
 tulan quejlions, are difputations on feveral topics in moral philo- 
 fuphv, which that great author took occafion to denominate 
 f ru m Tuj'culanum, the name of a country-feat or villa, where 
 they were cumpofed, and where he lays the fcene o[ the dif- 
 pute. 
 
 They are comprifed in five books : the firft on the contempt of 
 death ; the fecond of enduring pain ; the third on aflWaging 
 grief; the fourth on the other perturbations of the mind ; and 
 the laft, to fhew, that Virtue is fufficient to a happy life. 
 
 TUSKES or Tusks of a horfe. See Tooth. 
 
 TUSSIS. See thearticle Couch. 
 
 TUT, in armory, t$c. an imperial enfign of a golden globe, 
 
 with a crofs on it. 
 TUTELARY, Tutelaris, one who has taken fomethmg 
 
 into his patronage, and protection. 
 
 It is an ancient opinion, that there are tutelary angels of king- 
 doms and cities, and even of particular perfons, called guardian 
 
 angels-. 
 
 The ancient Romans, it is certain, had their tutelary gods, 
 whom thek called penates.— And the Romifh church to this 
 day, hold an opinion not much unlike it : they believe that 
 every perfon, at Ieaft every one of the faithful, has, from the 
 time of his birth, one of thofe tutelary angels attached to his 
 perfon, to defend him from all temptations ; and it is on 
 this, principally, that their pra&ice of invoking angels is 
 founded. 
 
 F. Anthony Macedo, a Portuguefe jefuit of Coimbra, has 
 pubhfhed a laige work in iolio, on the tutelary faints of all the 
 kingdoms, provinces and great cities of the chriftian world : 
 divi tutilarti orbis chrijliani> at Lifbon 1678. 
 TUTOR, in the civil law, is one chofen to look to the perfon 
 and eftate of children, left by their fathers and mothers in their 
 minority. 
 
 Bv tlte cuflom of Normandy, the father is the natural tutor of 
 his children. — A perfon nominated tutor, either by teftament, 
 or by the relations of the minor, is to decline that office, if he 
 have five children alive ; if he have any other confidcrable tu- 
 torage ; if he be under 25 years of age ; if he be a prieftor 
 a regent in an univerfity j or if he have any law-fuit with the 
 minors, &e. 
 
 The marriage of a pupil, without the confent of his tutor, is 
 invalid. — Tatars may do any thing for their pupils, but no- 
 thing againftthem ; and the fame laws which put them under 
 a neceffity of preferving the intereff. of the minors, put them 
 under an incapacity of hurting them. 
 
 Honourary Tutor. See the article Honourary. 
 
 Tutor is alfo ufed in our univerfities, for a member of fome 
 college or hall, who takes on him the inftructing young ftu- 
 dents in the arts and faculties. 
 
 TUTORAGE, Tutela, in the civil law, a term equiva- 
 lent to gu:trdianfhip in common law ; lignifying an office im- 
 pofed on any one, to take care of the perfon and effects of one 
 or more minors. 
 
 13/ the Roman law, there are three kinds of tutorage. — Tcfla- 
 mentary, which is appointed by the father's teftament. — legal, 
 which is given by the law to the neareft relation. — And dative, 
 which is appointed by the magiftrate; 
 
 But in all cuftomary provinces, as France, CSV. all tutorages 
 are dative and elective i and though the father have by tefta- 
 ment, nominated the next relation to his pupil, yet is not that 
 nomination of any force, unlefs the choice be confirmed by 
 that of the magiftrate, cifc. 
 
 By the Roman law, tutorage expires at 14 years of age ; but 
 in France not till 25 years. A minor quits his tutorage, and 
 becomes lice by marriage j in which cafe a curator is given 
 him. 
 
 TUTTY, Tuti a or Lapis Tutije, a kind of metallic re- 
 crement, thrown off from brafs, in the furnace, and formed 
 into concave flakes of different fizes, and thicknefs; very hard, 
 greyifh, and full of little protuberant grains as big as pins 
 heads. 
 
 It is found adhering to rolls of earth fufpended on purpofe over 
 the furnaces of the founders in brafs, to receive the fumes 
 of the melted metal. 
 
 Tutty is now brought chiefly from Germany. Anciently, it 
 came from Alexandria. — To prepare the tutty for ufe, they 
 heat it red hot three times in a crucible, among burning coals ; 
 and quench it as often in rofe- water : then they grind it on a 
 porphyry ftone, mixing it with as much rofc-water, or plan- 
 tain-water as'is necellary, till it be brought to a very fine 
 powder : then they make it up into little lumps, and thus 
 dry it. 
 
 Tutty is very deftccative. Its principal ufe is in difeafesof the 
 
 T W I 
 
 eyes, particularly inflammations ; in order to which, it is to 
 be diluted with rofe-water or plantain- water, and applied in 
 form of a collyrium. 
 
 Some alfo ufe it incorporated with hog's lard, or frefh butter, 
 in the form of an unguent. — In the London Difpenfatory, we 
 have a compofition called ointment of tutty, good tor difeafes 
 of the eyes ; .and frequently alfo ufed by furgeons with other 
 dryers to cicatrize ulcers, — It is alfo reputed good in the hae- 
 morrhoids. It is made up with tuay calamine, and unguentum 
 rofaceum. 
 
 TWA-Nichts Gf/?(, in our ancient cufloms. SeeTmRD- 
 night-awn Hynde. 
 
 If the twa-nights-geffe did any harm to any, his hoft was not 
 anfwerable for it, but himfelf. 
 TWELF-Hind, in our ancient cufloms, imports much the 
 fame with thane. 
 
 Among the Englifh Saxons, every man was valued at a cer- 
 tain price ; and when an injury was done, either to the per- 
 fon ur good?, a pecuniary mulct was impofed, and paid in fa- 
 tiafadtion of that injury, according to the worth and quality 
 of the perfon to whom it was done. — And hence all men were 
 ranked in three clafies; which fee in Hindeli, and Twi- 
 HINDI. 
 
 Thofe who were worth 1100s. were called twelve-hind't, and 
 if any injury was done to them, fotisfaction was to be made ac- 
 cordingly. 
 
 TWELFTH-Day, or Twelfth-77^, the feftival of the 
 Epiphany, or the manifeftation of Chrift to the Gentiles ; fo 
 called, as being the twelfth- day, exclufive, from the nativity 
 or Chriftmas-day. 
 
 TWELVE-Men, duodecem homines legales, otherwife called 
 jury, or inqucjl, is a number of twelve perfons, or upwards as 
 far as twenty-four ; by whofe oath, as to matters of fact, all 
 trials pafs, both in civil and criminal cafes, through all court? 
 of the common law in this realm. 
 
 In civil cafes, when proof is made of the matter in queftion, 
 the point of fact, whereon they are to give their veidict, is 
 delivered to them ; which is called the iffiu, — Then they 
 are put in mind of their oath, and are after the judge's 
 fumming the evidence, fent out of court by themfelvcs, 
 to confider on the evidence on both fides, till they be 
 agreed. 
 
 In caufes criminal, there are two forts of inquefts or juries : 
 the grand inquejl, and the inquefl of life and death. — The firft 
 is fo called, becaufe it eonfifis of fixteen perfons at Ieaft, or 
 becaufe all caufes criminal or penal pafs through their hands ; 
 whereas the other inqueft is efpTially appointed for one or 
 more matters. Thofe of the grand inqueft are called by 
 Eracton, duodecitn milites, becaufe they were wont to be 
 knights ; if fo many could be had. 
 
 Their function is to receive all prefentments of any offence, 
 and accordingly to give their general opinion thereof, by 
 writing either the words hilla vera upon the bill of prefent- 
 ment, which is an indictment of the party prefented : or elfe 
 ignoramus, which is doubting of the fact prefented. 
 
 Laws of the Twelve Tables. See the article Table. 
 
 TWELVE-MONTH, thefpace of a year, according to the ca- 
 lendar months. 
 
 TWI-F ALLOWING of Ground, in hufbandry, is the til- 
 ling or laying it fallow a fecond time. 
 
 TWI-HIND1, or Twyhindt, among our Saxon anceffors, 
 were men valued at 200 s. See Twelfhindus, and Hin- 
 
 DENI. 
 
 Thefe men were of the lowed degree ; and if fuch were 
 killed, the mulct was $os. — Thus in Leg. H. I. c. 9. de twi- 
 hindi homines interfeeli, vera debit reddi fecundum legem. — * 
 Where note, that this was not an introduction of a new law, 
 but a confirmation of the old, made in the reign of king Al- 
 fred. 
 
 TWINS, two young ones delivered at a birth by an animal 
 which ordinarily brings forth but one. 
 
 It has been greatly difputed, which of two twins is to be 
 efteemed the elder ? — The faculty of Montpellier have given it, 
 that the latter born is to be reputed the elder, becaufe firft 
 conceived : but by all the laws which now obtain, the firft- 
 born enjoys the privileges of feniority ; and the cuftom is con- 
 firmed by the fcripture inftance of Efau and Jacob. 
 But if two twins be born fo intermixed, that one cannot 61- 
 ftinsuifli which of the two appeared firft, it fltould fetni 
 that neither the one nor the other can pretend to the right of 
 primogeniture, which ought to remain in fufpence, by reafjii 
 of their mutual concourfe. 
 
 In fuch cafe, fome would have the decifion left to the father, 
 and others to the chance of a lot. Sometimes there are born 
 three twins, as in the inftanccs of the Horatii and Curiatii ; 
 and fometimes there have been known four 3 or even Eve or 
 more. 
 
 Twins, in aftronomy. See the article Gemini. 
 TWIST of a rope, cord, &c. 
 
 Twist, 
 
T Y L 
 
 T V M 
 
 Twist, again, is ufed for the infide, or flat part of a man's 
 thigh, upon which a true hcrfeman relis when on hoife- 
 bacEc. 
 
 To Twist a hirfe, is violently to wring or twiff. his tefticlts 
 twice about, which caufes them to dry up, and deprives them 
 of nnurifhmeiit, and reduces the horfc to the fame ftate of im- 
 potency with a gelding. 
 
 Twisted C»W, ? ^ theaItifte S Column. 1 
 
 Twisted Mi, 3 c Silk. 
 
 TWO thirds Subjidy. See the article Duty. 
 
 TYCHONIC Sy/iem, or hypoih/fis, is an order or arrange- 
 ment of the heavenly bodies, of an intermediate nature be- 
 tween the Copernican and Ptolemaic, or participating alike of 
 them both. 
 
 It takes its name from TychoBrahe, a noble Dane, of whom 
 fome account is hereafter given, under the article Urani- 
 
 BOURG. 
 
 In this fvftem, the earth is, with Ptolemy, placed in the mid- 
 dle, and fuepc-fed immoveable ; and the fun and moon are fup- 
 pofed to revolve in orbits, refpefting the fame as a centre: but 
 the other five planets arc fuppofed, with Copernicus, to re- 
 volve round the fun as their centre. — So that the orbits of the 
 three fuperior planets include the earth, btit not thofe of the in- 
 ferior ones, by reafon they are nearer to the fun than the 
 earth is. 
 
 Accordingly, the heavens are here fuppofed to be fluid ; and to 
 confift of three different orbs or fphercs ; the fir ft moveable, 
 fuppofed to make a revolution in 24 hours ; the fecond the 
 iphere of the planets; and the third the firmament, or region 
 of the fixed flats, — See the difpofition of the heavenly bodies 
 in this fyftem, reprefented in "Tab. Aftrmomy, fig 45. 
 Some later aftronomers finding the Ptolemaic 'fyftem difagree 
 with phenomena; and not daring to make the earth move; 
 but at the fame time difliking the Tychsnic notion of two cen- 
 tres, one of them moveable, viz. the fun, and the other 
 fixed, the earth; have framed a new fyftem out of the Ptole- 
 maic and Tychonic, called the Semi-Tychonic; wherein not on- 
 ly the Sun and Moon, but Jupiter alfo and Saturn, are fup- 
 pofed to move in excentrics or deferents, reflecting the earth 
 as a centre, though revolving at the fame time in their refpec- 
 tive epicycles. — But even here, the interior planets are ftill 
 fuppofed to move round the fun as their centre; their phafes, 
 obferved with the telefcope, being no other wife accountable for, 
 TYLE,* or Tile, in building, a fort of thin, factitious, la- 
 minated brick, ufed on the roofs of houfes; or, more proper- 
 ly, a kind of fat, clayey earth, kneaded and moulded of a 
 juft thicknefs, dried and burnt in a kiln, like a brick, and 
 ufed in the covering and paving of houfes. 
 * It is thus called from the French tulle, of the Latin, tegula, 
 which fignifies the fame. 
 Tyles zve made, fays M. Leybourn, of better earth than brick- 
 earth, and fometbing nearer akin to the potter's earth. — Ac- 
 cording to Stat. 17 Edw. IV. the earth for tflit mould be call: 
 up before the firft of November, ftir'd and turned i.-efoie the 
 firft of February, and not made into tyles he fore the firft of 
 March; and fhould likewife be tried and fevered from Hones, 
 marie and chalk. — For the method of burning them, fee 
 
 Brick. 
 
 As to the applying of tyles; fnme lay them dry, as they come 
 from the kiln, without mortar or any thing clle: others lay 
 ti,cm in a kind of mortar made of loam and horfc-dung. — In 
 fome parts, as in Kent, they lay them in mofs. 
 There are various kinds of tyles, for the various occ.ifions of 
 building; as plain, thack, ridge, roof, creafe, gutter, pan, 
 crooked, fiemijb, corner, hip, dorinan or dormar, fcallop, ajlra- 
 gal, traverfe, pavings and dutch tyles. 
 Plain or tkack Tyles, are thofe in ordinary ufe for the cover- 
 ' ing of houfts. They are fqueezed flat, while yet foft, in a 
 mould. — They are of an oblong figure, and by Stat. 17 
 Edw. IV. c. 4. are to be to j inches Jong; 6^ broad, and 
 half an inch and half a quarter thick. But thele dim.cn lions 
 are not over-ftnctly kept to. 
 Ridge, roof, or creafe Tyles, are thofe ufed to cover the ridges 
 ' of houfes; being made circular, breadth -wife, like a halt cy- 
 linder. Thefe are what Pliny calls larerculi, and are by fta- 
 
 tute to be 13 inches long, and of the fame thicknefs with the 
 plain tyles. 
 
 Hip or comer Tylss, are thefe which lie on the hips or cor- 
 ' ners of roofs.*— As to form ; they are firft made flat, Wkeji/ain 
 tyles, but of a quadrangular figure, whofe two fides are right 
 lines, and two ends, arches of ciicles; one end being a little 
 concave, and the other convex: the convex end is to be about 
 feven times as broad as the concave end: fo that they would be 
 triangular, but that one corner is taken oft: then, before they 
 are burnt, they are bent on a rm-uld, breadth-wife, like ridge 
 t yle St — They have a hole at their narrow end, to nail them on 
 by*, and are laid wirh their narrow end upwards. By llatute, 
 they are to be ic -£ inches long, and of a convenient breadth 
 and thicknefs. 
 
 Gutter Tyles, are thofe which lie in gutters or valleys in crofs- 
 httffcfings, — They are made ]<ke corner tyles, only the corners 
 of the broad end are turned bttfc again with two wings.— 
 
 Vol. EL 
 
 They have no holes in them, but are laid with the broad end 
 upwards, without any nailing. — They are nude in the lame 
 mould as corner tyles, and have the fame dimenfions on the 
 convex fide. Their wings are each 4 inches bjoaj and H 
 long. 
 
 Pan, crooked, or FLtmijk Tyles, are ufed in covering of flied?, 
 lean-to's, and all kinds of flat-roofed buildings. — They are in 
 form of an oblong parallelogram, as plain tyles; but ate bent 
 breadth-wife forwards and backwards, in form, 01 an S, only 
 one of the arches is at Ieaft three times as big as the other; 
 which biggeft arch is always laid uppermoft, and the lefler arcfi 
 of another tyle lies over the edge of the great arch of the for- 
 mer. — They have no holes for pins, but hang on the laths by" 
 a knot of their own earth: they are ufually 14 \ inches long, 
 and 10 i broad. By 12 G. r. c. 25, they are to be, when 
 burnt, not lefs than 13 i- inches long, 9 ^ .inches wide, and 
 i an inch thick. 
 
 Dormar, or dayman Tyles, confift of a plain tyle and a trian- 
 gular piece of a plain one, (landing up at right angles to one 
 fide of the plain tyh, and fwept with an arch of a circle from 
 the other end, which end, terminates in a point. — Of thefe 
 tyles there are two kinds ; the triangular piece, in fome, Hand- 
 ing on the right, in others on the left fide of the plain tyle. — 
 And of each of thefe, again, there are two kinds; fome ha- 
 ving a whole plain tyle, others but half a plain tyle. Bat in 
 them all, the plain tyle has two holes for the pins, at that end 
 where the broad end of the triangular piece Hands. 
 Their ufe is to be laid in the gutters, betwixt the roof and the 
 cheeks or fides of thedormars, the plain part lying on the roof, 
 and the triangular part Handing perpendicularly by the cheek 
 of the dormar, — .They are excellent to keep out the wet in 
 thofe places, and yet they are hardly known any where but in 
 SuHex. — The dimenfions of the plain tyle part are the fame as 
 thofe of a plain tyle, and the triangular part is of the fame 
 length, and its breadth at one end 7 inches, and at the other 
 nothing. 
 
 Scallop or ajhagal Tyles, are in all re f peels like plain tyles, 
 only their lower ends are in form of an aftragal, viz. a femi- 
 circle, with a fquare on each fide. — They are ufed in iome 
 places for Weather tyling. 
 
 Traverfe Tyles, are a kind of irregular plain i)les, having the 
 pin-boles broke out, or one of the lower corners broke off — 
 Thefe are laid witli the broken end upwards, upon rafters, ( 
 where pinned tyles cannot hang. 
 
 Flemifl) or Dutch Tyles, are of two kinds, ancient and mo- 
 dern. ■ — —The ancient were ufed for chimney-foot pacts: 
 they were painted with antic figures, and frequently with 
 poflures of foldiers,- fome with compartments, and fometimes 
 with morel que device. ; but they came much fiiort, both as to 
 the defign and colours of the modern ones. 
 The modem Flemifl) tyles are commonly ufed plaiflered up in 
 thejaumbs of chimneys, inftead of chimney-corncr-ftones. — 
 Thefe are better glazed, and fuch as are painted (for fome. are 
 only white) are much better performed than the ancient ones. 
 But both kinds feem to be made of the fame whitifh clay as 
 our white glazed earthen ware.— The ancient ones are five 
 inches and a quarter fquare, and about three quarters of an 
 inch thick: the modern ones fix inches and a halt fquare, and 
 three quarters of an inch thick. 
 
 TYLER, one that covers or paves with tyles. 
 
 Tylers and bricklayers were incorporated |Q E!iz. under the 
 name 01 Matter and wardens of the fociety of freemen of the 
 mvilery and art of tylers and bricklayers. 
 
 TYLER.Y. Sec the article Tuilerie. 
 
 TYLWITH, in matters of heraldry and defcent, is fome- 
 times ufed for a tribe or family branching out of aaotherj 
 which the modern heralds more ufuilly call the fecond ox third 
 houfe. 
 
 TYMBER of Skins. See the article Timber. 
 
 TYMPAN, or Tympanum, in architecture, the area of a 
 pediment: being that part which is in a letel with the naked 
 of the freeze. — Or it is the fpace included between the three 
 cornices of a triangular pediment, or the two cornices of a 
 circular one. — See Ta b. Ar chit. fig. 36. lit. e. 
 Sometimes the tympan is cut out, and the part filled with an 
 iron lattice tongue ligght; and fometimes it is enriched with 
 fculpture, in baffn rehevp, :s in the weft front of St. Paul's, 
 in the temple of Callor and Pollux at Naples, Zs'c. 
 Tympan, is alfo ufed for that part of a pedeftal, called the 
 trunk or dye. 
 
 Tympan, among joiners, is alfo applied to the pannels of 
 doors. 
 
 Tympan of an Arch, is a triangular fpace or table in the cor- 
 ners or fides of an arch ; ufually hollowed and enriched, 
 fometimes with branches of laurel, olive-tree, or oak; or 
 with trophies, &e. fometimes with flying figure-, as fame, (Sc. 
 or fitting figures, as the cardinal virtues. 
 
 Tympan, in anatomy, mechanics, £&, Seethe ani-!e Tym- 
 panum. 
 
 Tympan, among printer?, is a double frame belontt'ng to the 
 prefs, covered with parchment, on which the blank fhtets are 
 laid, in order to be printed off. See Printing Prefs. 
 
 12 B b X'YM* 
 
T Y P 
 
 TYMPANITES, or Tympany, in medicine, |. fUtuknt tu- 
 mor, or f we! Hog of the abdomen or belly; very hard, equa- 
 ble, 'and psimanent; whereby the fkin is ftretched fo tight, 
 that when itruck, it gives a-found like that of . a drum. 
 The tympanites is a i'pccies of dropfy, by fome called a dry 
 dr;pjy': bur what the cajfe and feat of the difeafe is, or what 
 thu morbific matter is tlut occaftons the tumyr, pbyiicians are 
 not atall ag^^ovr l^i s'sriJ 'ti a'-tJOiivba jsrtg I 
 Wind certainly makes a principal part of Uie morbid matter ; 
 but this is fcarce ever found without water, excepting at the 
 beginning; fo that fome will not allow of any difference be- 
 tween the tympany and the afcites. 
 
 Some fuppofe it to aiife from a watry humour extravafated and 
 rarined into vapour; and by a property common to it with 
 common air, corrupting the parts.— But this, Boerhaave makes 
 a particular kind of tympanites, or wind dropfy; and adds, 
 that it is cured like the afcites, or water dropfy, by tapping, 
 
 Others will have the tympanites to arife from the air's infinua- 
 ting itfelf through perorations in the diftemper'd inteftines.— 
 A lympaniles from this caufe, Boerhaave, who makes it a pe- 
 culiar clafs, obferves, is almoft always incurable. 
 Willis fets alide this latter caufe, and accounts for the difeafe 
 from an irregularity in the animal fpirits belonging to the vif- 
 cera, which ruffling tumukuarily into the nervous fibres, bloat 
 them up: thus is the peritoneum inflated, the inteftines di- 
 ftencled, and the mefentery, and other vifcera, rendered tur- 
 gid ; and while this is doing, that the vacuities left in the tu- 
 rmftVd vifcera may be filled up, a quantity of the humour con- 
 tained in them is rarified into vapour, which prelenily fpreads 
 in blafU through the vacant places.— Others account for the 
 tympanites from a convullion of the mufcles of the abdo- 
 men, fsV. 
 
 M. Lutre has propofed a new fyftem of the tympanites, built 
 on a sreat number of obfervations.— According to him, it 
 does nor piocced from any cnnvulfion of the abdominal muf- 
 fles, nor from any air contained in the cavity thereof, or in 
 the thorax, the mefentery, or epiploon; but from the air in- 
 clofed in trie ftomach and inteftines, which fwells them excef- 
 fivLly. 
 
 This air, always carried into thofe parls with the food, main- 
 tains a kind of equilibrium therein ; oppofing on the one hand, 
 the too great prellure on that long canal when empty of foodj 
 and naturally finding, on the other fide, in the fpring of the 
 coats of the ftomach and inteftines, an obftacle capable of pre- 
 venting its too great dilatation. 
 
 If this equilibrium chance to be deftroyed by the irritation of 
 the fibres, whole fpring in that cafe prevails over that of the 
 air, thu latter is expel kd either upwards or downwards, or 
 both wj\ s: (whence belching, But if the equilibrium come 
 to be broke bv the force of the air, rendered fuperior to that 
 of the fibns, by thofe latter being left deftitute of fpirits, as 
 from the blood's being impoverifhed after a long ficknefs ; in 
 that cak, the air ranfying itfelf beyond meafure, fwells the 
 cavineb it is contained in. 
 
 If it be demanded, why when the ftomach and inteftines are 
 fo full of wind, none of the wind cfcapes, either through the 
 anus, or by the mouth, which ufes to be expelled by thofe 
 
 paffages? 
 
 M. Kf-ry folves the paradox thus: according to this theory, 
 the fibres, both of the ftomach and inteftines have loft their 
 fpring, aUeaft'in part, and are in an impei feci palfy; but the 
 winds evacuated either by the anus or mouth, are winds which 
 thofe vifcera expel out of their cavities, by putting them in a 
 {late or contraction capable of furmounting the forces which 
 oppofethe eg refs of the matters contained in thofe cavities. — 
 Thefe fortes a: e tWQ fphincters, one whereof flints the upper 
 crificc of the ftomach, and the other the anus: but paralytic 
 vifcera, /'. e. vifcera deftitute of fpirits, in which alone con- 
 iifts the ltrength of the mufcles, cannot overcome the re- 
 finance of thofe two mufcles: whence the wind, therefore, 
 cannot dcape through its tifue! out-lets. 
 
 The tympanites rarely kills of itfelf; but it frequently degene- 
 rates into an afcites.— Catfunics rather aggravate than alle- 
 viate it : antihyfterics, antifcorbutics, chjlybeats, and ftiength- 
 ners are of ufe, before it be commenced an afcites. Equal 
 quantities of leek and elder leaves mixed, is a famed empirical 
 medicine in this difeafe, which has often proved effectual when 
 pvery thing elfe had failed. 
 
 It is uluaJ to apply carminatives to the belly, as the emplaiftcr 
 of cummin-feed^, csV. and alfo to ufe carminatives mixed 
 with cathartics, diuretics, EsV. internally: but if the difeafe 
 proceed from a paralytic caufe, dertroying the tone of the fi- 
 bres of the firft paffages, what is of ufe in rectifying paralytic 
 difordeis, where the tcnfion of the fibres is inefficient, will 
 doubtlefs ("or the fame reafon be of ufe here. 
 TYMPANUM, TTMflANON, drum; a mufical inftrument, 
 which among the ancients, confitled of a thin piece of leather 
 or fkin, ftretched upon a circle of wood or iron, and beat 
 with the hand. 
 
 Tympanum, Tympan, in mechanics, is a kind of wheel 
 placed round an axis or cylindrical beam, on the top of which 
 
 T Y P 
 
 are two levers or fixed ftaves, for tne more eafy turning the 
 axis about, in order to raife a weight required. 
 The tympanum is much the fame with the peritrochium ; but 
 that the cylinder of the axis of the peritrochium is much 
 ihortcr and leffer than the cylinder of the tympanum. 
 
 Tympanum of a machine, is alfo ufed for a hollow wheel, 
 wherein one or more people, or other animals, walk 60 turn 
 it; fuch as that or fome cranes, calenders, ijfe. 
 
 Tympanum, in anatomy. — Membrani Tympani, is a thin 
 tinder fkin or membrane, ftretched upon a bony circle, in the; 
 meatus auditorius of the ear, which it Quits; and fuppoil-d to 
 be the immediate organ of hearing. — Ste Tdi. Anat. (Oftecl.) 
 
 •«& i-h'lk**' i *owi3d rinw^wi/^fliiij tcwu* 
 
 i'hc tympanum, popularly called the drum, with refpeel to the 
 erect pollute of the body, is fituate obliquely, lacing down- 
 wards; whence it is that we hear founds coming from below, 
 better than thofe from above. 
 
 Its external furface is a little hollow in the middle. — It is com- 
 pofed of two membranes, or as others will have it, of only * 
 two or more lamellae of one, — It has a perforation, or at lealt 
 a difengaged parr, which admits of the paifage of wind, and, 
 in fome, of fmoak from the meatus a palato. 
 Behind it, is a cavity of the 03 petrofum, called tympani cavi- 
 tas, and fome times limply tympanum ; wherein are lour little 
 bones, viz. the malleolus, incus, Jhipes, and as orbicular* : 
 which fee under their refpective articles. 
 
 Within the cuvitas tympani, Vieuffens has difcovered a very 
 fine thin membrane, ferving to {hut the door of the labyrinth, 
 and prevent the internal air from having any communication 
 with the external. — The mcmbrana tympani has a remarkable 
 branch of a nerve puffing on its internal iurface between the 
 incus and malleolus, called the chorda tympani. 
 The tympanum. Dr. Willis takes to be a kind of preparatory 
 inftrument to hearing ; and its office to be, to receive the firlt 
 impreffions of founds, or the fenfible fpecies, and to comey 
 them duly modified and proportioned to the fenforium. 
 Its office,' in effect, with refpeet to the fenfe of hearing, fcems 
 to be the fame as that of the pupil of the eye with regard to 
 feeing ! each of them prevent 'the ingrels of too many rays, 
 temper and foften them, and deliver them, as it were, com- 
 menfuratc to the fenfory ; upon which, if they fhould fall im- 
 mediately, they might be apt to fpoil its delicate conftitution. 
 The tympanum, it is true, does not hear: but it contributes to 
 the better and fafer hearing. — That it may do the office of a. 
 porter the better, it is neceflary it; expanfe fhould, like the 
 pupil, be contracted and relaxed on occafion ; and to this pur- 
 pofe ferve the four little bones above-mentioned, which have 
 the fame ufe in ftraining and relaxing, as the braces of the 
 war drum have in that infrrument. — By means of this cxten- 
 fion and retraction, the tympanum U made to correfpond to ail 
 founds loud or languid; jutt as the pupil does to all the degrees 
 
 of light. , ^t£~jl1I T 
 
 The^ingenious Dr. Holder has improved on this theory. He 
 conceives that the action of the mufde, whereby the tympanum 
 is ftretched and relaxed, does ordinarily and conlbntly draw it 
 to a moderate tenfion; hut when we have occaiion to Jiiten, 
 and give a particular attention to any found, the action of that 
 mufcle is then more intenie, and the drum is drawn to it more 
 than ordinary tenlion, to facilitate the pillage of the found, 
 fiee Attention. 
 
 Upon thefe c-niideralions, that author having a young gentle- 
 man, who was born deaf, put into his hands, and perceiving 
 the great defect to lie in the want of a due tenfion of the tym- 
 panum, headvifed his mother to confukwith v phyficians, whe- 
 ther by fome aftringent fumes, or otherwife, it might not be 
 reftored to a due tenlion. 
 
 In the mean time, he thought of a temporary way, by the 
 means of any vehement found ; as of a drum beaten near him : 
 which found, during its continuance, muft needs give the tym- 
 panum a tenfion, by drivinganti Jwclling it outwards, asalrefh 
 galeof wind fills the fails of a fliip. And the experiment luc- 
 ceeded according to expectation : for fo long as he beat a drum 
 faft and loud by him, he could hear thofe that flood by htm 
 call him gently by his name. But when the drum ceafed, he 
 could no longer hear the fame perfons calling him very loudly. 
 But what makes the ufe of the tympanum appear the lef's cun- 
 fiderable is, that there are inftances where the hearing has been 
 perfect, without any ufe of a tympanum. — Mr. Chefelden re- 
 lates, that he broke'the tympanum in both ears of a dog, yet it 
 did not deftroy his hearing; though for fome time afterwards 
 he received ftrong founds with great horror: He adds, that 
 Mr. St. Andre affured him, that a patient of his had the tym- 
 panum deftroyed by an ulcer, and the auditory bones caff out, 
 yet without deftroying his hearing. 
 
 Chorda Tympani. See the article Chord. 
 
 Tympanum, in architeaure. See the aiticie Tympan. 
 
 TYMPANY, Tympanias, or Tympanites, in medicine. 
 See the article Tympanites. 
 
 TYPE * Typus, a copy, image, or refemblance of lome 
 model. 
 
 * The word is formed ftom the Greek, tvo&, form, fc urt 'y^ 
 
T Y P 
 
 T Y P 
 
 The term type is lefs in uTe than its compounds prototype and 
 archetype, which are the originals that are made without mo- 
 dels. 
 
 Type is alfo a fchohflic term, much ufed among divines, figni- 
 iying a fymbol, Jlgn, or figure of fomething to come. 
 In this fenfe, the word is commonly ufed with relation to anti- 
 type, «wv>vj%) which is the thing itfelf, whereof the other is 
 a type or figure. 
 
 Thus, Abraham's facrifice, the pafchal lamb, &c-. were types 
 or figures of our redemption: and the brazen ferpent was a type 
 of the crofs, ts'c. 
 
 Types are not mere conformities, or analogies, which the na- 
 tureof things holds forth between them; nor arbitrary images 
 ariling merely from the cafual refcmblance of things: but there 
 is further required a particular inttitution of God to make a 
 type; and a particular declaration cf his that it is fo. 
 Gale divides types into hificrkal and prophetical. — The firft are 
 ihofc ufed by the ancient prophets in their agitations and vi- 
 llous: the Lcond, thofe wherein things done, or ceremonies 
 i intituled in the Old Teftament, prefigure Chrift, or things re- 
 lating to him in the New Teftament. 
 
 The ancient fathers, as well as the modern critics, have been 
 greatly divided about the nature and ufe of types, and typical 
 reprefentations, in the Old Teftament ; and it is this makes 
 one of the great difficulties in undemanding the ancient pro- 
 phecies, and in reconciling the New and old Teftament to- 
 gether. 
 
 There is no denying but that there were fome types which the 
 divine wifdom inftituted to be the fhadows and figures of 
 things to come; and yet people run into an excefs that way: 
 fome looking (ox types in every thing; like Origen, whodif- 
 Covered myfleries in the very caldrons of the tabernacle. — A 
 prudent man mould be contented with the more fenfible and 
 obviousones; nor propoih any without proving them as much 
 as poffible, and mewing that they were really intended for 
 types, in order to juftify the folidity of the reafoning of the 
 apoftles, who argued from them. 
 
 A late author maintains, that not the fathers only, but St. Paul 
 himfelf, was of the opinion, that ** Chriftianity was all con- 
 «' tained in the Old Teftament, and was implied in the Jewifh 
 " hiftory and law; both which are to be reputed types and 
 ** fhadows of Chriftianity." — In order to which, he quotes 
 Hebrews viii. 5. x. 1. and Colof. ii. 16, 17. — He adds, 
 " That the ritual laws of Mofes, being in their own nature 
 * e no other than types and fhadows of future good things, are 
 " to be confidered as having the effe& of prophecies." — This 
 is likewife the fenfe of Mr. Whifton, and others; but the 
 fame author even quotes our Saviour fpeaking in behalf of this 
 typical reafoning, in that paffage Matth. xi. 13. where he af- 
 firms, that " The law prophefies; and that he came to fulfil 
 " the law as well as the gofpel," Matth. v. 17. Dife. of the 
 Grounds, £sV. 
 
 An ingenious divine takes this occafion to obferve, that had 
 the ancients, with the modern retainers to the typical way, ex- 
 piefly defigned to have expofed Chriftianity, they could not 
 have done it more effectually than by thus making every thing 
 types and prophecies, —It is no wonder, he adds, that atheifts 
 and deifts feoff at the credulity of Chriftians, and reject what 
 is fupported by fuch folly and abfurdity. 
 
 Not that he "denies the reality of fuch things as types.— It is 
 manifeft, there were many under the Old 'Teftament; fuch 
 were Zechariah's ftaves, beauty and bands, ch. xi. 7, io, 14; 
 fuch was Hofea's adulterous wife, ch. i. 2; and fuch were his 
 children, ver. 4, 6. — The prophets defigned by thefc to pre- 
 figure future events; but in thefe inftances the reader is at once, 
 by the declaration of the prophet, made to underfland as much, 
 and not left to Ji is own conjectures about them, after the events 
 are over. 
 
 In effect, all that is urged from fcripture for the typical or alle- 
 gorical interpretations of the Jewifh law, hiftory, ceremonies, 
 cjV. it is aft'erted, may he fet afide, without any violence to 
 the facred text, which may be explained on more natural and 
 intelligible pnnciplcs, and more conliftently with grammar. 
 The word tl-tS-, we have obferved, literally denotes no more 
 than a copy or impreffiou of any thing; and accordingly, in 
 our tranfhtion, we find it fometimes rendered by print, fome- 
 times by figure-, fometimes by fajhion, and fometimes by 
 form. — Hence alfo the word is figuratively applied to denote a 
 moral pattern; in which fenfe it figiufiesno more than exam- 
 ple and fimiiitude. 
 
 Again, the word *>TiTt"ir®-, antitype, in fcripture, fignifies any 
 thing formed according to a mudel or pattern ; and thus in the 
 epiftlc to the Hebrews, the tabernacle, and holy of holies be- 
 ing made according to the pattern (hewn to Mofes, are faid to 
 be antitypes or figures of the true holy places. — In the lik 
 i'enfe, St. Peter fpeaking of the flood and the ark, wherebv 
 eight perfonswere faved, calls baptifm an antitype thereto; bv 
 which he expreffes no more than a iimilitude of circumftancci 
 The other words ufed m fcripture to imply a future event, pre- 
 figured by fome foregoing act, are — "T^Ji,/^*, rendered b\ 
 imitation and example; and 0*1=1, Jhadvw. 
 This laft word is frequently ufed by St. Paul, and applied to 
 
 the Jewifh law, ceremonies, priefls, &c. whfch are repre- 
 sented as only fhadows of things to come, or of heavenly things. 
 It is from fuch general expreJlions, that people were led to mi- 
 ftakc the apoflie's defign in thefe comparifons, and to affert, 
 that ;ill the Mofaic rites were types of, or deiigned to fignify 
 future events; and that the gofpel is to be found in the penta- 
 teuch.— Whereas St. Paul's intent appears no other than to 
 fhew the great advantage of the gofpel over the law in feveral 
 pirticulars, wherein it has as much pre-eminence as the tub- 
 ftance has over the fliadow. 
 
 If the lhadow of things to come fignify a prefiguration of fu- 
 ture events, what are thofe events to which the Jewifh new 
 moons, Col. ii. 16. or the Jewifh meats and drinks, have a 
 refpefl? Or, how did the law of Mofes, made of commands 
 about perfons, times, places, and facrifices, prefigure a difpen- 
 fadon where regard to facrifices, holy perfons" times and 
 places, are fo far from being enjoined, that they are dechred 
 ufelefs? Can a particular holy place in the law be defigned a 
 prefiguration of a ftate where all places are equally holy? 
 Such being the import of all the terms ufed in the New Tefta- 
 ment writers, feeming to imply any prefiguration of future 
 events under the gofpel, we may obferve, 
 
 1. That to argue from types, is only to argue from examples 
 or fimilitudes; and, confequently, that all inlerenccs drawn 
 from fuch reafonings, are no farther conclufive, than reafon- 
 ings from fimilitudes are.— The intent of fimilitudes is only to 
 help to convey fome ideas more clearly or ftrongly; fo that to 
 deduce confequences from a fimile, or infer any thing from 
 other parts of the fimile than what are plainly finnls^ is ab- 
 furd. 1 
 
 2. It cannot be proved that the ceremonies of the Mofaic law 
 were ever defigned to prefigure any future events in the ftate of 
 the Mefliab's kingdom.— No fuch declared prefigurations are 
 mentioned in the writings of the Old Teftament, whatever 
 notions prevailed among the writers who immediately fol- 
 lowed. It is granted, that the apoffles argued from tiie rites in 
 the Mofaic inftitution ; but this appears to have only been by 
 way of illuftration and analogy. 
 
 There is certainly a general likenefs in all the difpenfations of 
 Providence; an analogy of things in the naturalas well as the 
 moral world, from which it is eafy arguing by way of parity, 
 and it is very juft and ufual fo to do ; but that one of thefe dif- 
 penfations was therefore given to prefignify another that was 
 
 future, can never be proved, unlefs it be cxprefly declared. 
 
 The Land of Promife, we know, was to be a place where the 
 Jews were to enjoy reft from their labours; God likewife, 
 did, himfelf, reft the feventh day from his works: yet 9 who- 
 ever imagined God's reft from the creation to be prefigurative 
 of the Jews reft in Canaan ? and is it not equally reafonable to 
 fay, that God's reft on the feventh day, prefigured the en- 
 trance of the Jews into Canaan, zs to fay, th.it the Jews reft 
 in Canaan prefigured the reft mentioned by David in the 
 Pfalms? 
 
 This will equally imply, that all the following events in the 
 uniform courfeof God's government, fimilar to any preceding 
 ones, were defigned to be prefignified by them ; in which 
 fenfe, it will readily be owned, that the reft of the Jews was 
 typical of the reft of the Chriftians. 
 
 It is in the fame manner we are to underfland St. Paul, where 
 he fays, " That Cbnft our paffover is faenficed for us." And 
 thus we are to underftand John the Baptift, when he calls our 
 Saviour the « Lamb of God."— There was tins fimilnude of 
 circumftance, that Chrift was flain on the fame day with the 
 pafchal lamb; that he died about the fame time of the day 
 when the priefts began their hillel ; that not a bone of the one 
 or the other was broken. Add, that as the pafchal Iamb was 
 without blemifh, fo was Chrift without fin.— From thefe and 
 other circumftances, the apoftle applied the term iaffatr to 
 Chrift. r 
 Thus, alfo, we are to account for what St. Paul calls the bap- 
 tifmof the children of Ifrael in the cloud, and in the fea; and 
 for the companum betwixt the high prieft entering the holy 
 place every year,^ and Chrift entering into heaven. 
 Type,* tyiioz, is alfo a name given to an edict of theemperor 
 Conftans II. pubhfhed in 6 4 8, to impofe a general filence both 
 on the orthodox and the Monothelites. 
 
 • It had the name type, as being a kind of formulary of fimh ; or 
 rather a form whereon men were to regulate their conduct. 
 The type owed its original to Paul, patriarch of Conftantinople, 
 who perfuaded that Emperor to take away the ecthefis compiled 
 and hung up in all the public places bv Heraclius; (asoccafion- 
 ing great complaints from the orthodox, by its favouring the 
 MonothelittsJ and to publifh an edict to impofe filence on both 
 parties. 
 
 But fuch kinds of pacifications are held inexcufable in matters 
 of religion; accordingly pope Theodore foon procured the pa- 
 triarch Paul to be depofed: the type was examined in the coun- 
 cil of Rome in 6+9, and condemned; and an anathema was 
 pronounced againft all fuch as admitted either the impious ecthe- 
 fis or typus. 
 
 Type, Typus, is alfo ufed to denote the order obferved in the 
 intenfion and ieraiJ3ion of fevers, pulfes, &c. 
 
 7'YPHGDFS, 
 
T Y R 
 
 TYPHODES TYMAHr, in medicine, a kind of ardent or 
 ™g fever uLlly attending on eryfipelas's of any of the 
 
 TVPHOAIANIA * TWOMANIA, in medicine, adifeafeof tlie 
 taS -"rein the patient not being able to flgfc .though 
 11" V inclined therein, lies with his eyes (hut, talks abfurdly, 
 Ind flings bimfelf this way and that. 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, /«** ft* 
 
 mfofi. 
 
 If he be pulled, or the like, he juft opens his eyes, looks about, 
 and finks a S ain into a kind of dozing, which is interrupted by 
 a train of difagreeable imaginations. 
 
 The tyfhcmanin is a kind of combination of a phrenzy with a 
 lethargy.— It is alfo called a Oma vigil. See Coma. 
 TYPOGRAPHY,* the art of printing. See Printing. 
 
 « The word is formed from the Greek, mm, and ypQt, fcrif- 
 ttira, writing. 
 
 TYRANT, Tyrannus, among the anticnts, denoted (Imply 
 a king, or monarch. 
 
 But the ill ufe feveral perfons inverted with that facred character 
 made of it, has altered the import of the word ; and tyrant 
 now carries with it the idea of an unjuft and cruel prince, who 
 
 T Y T 
 
 invades the people's liberty ^ and rules in a more defpotic man- 
 ner than the laws of nature, or the country do allow of. 
 The term tyrant^ we are told, became odious among the 
 Greekf, thofe zealous lovers of liberty, almoft as foon as in- 
 troduced: butDonatus affurw us, it was never taken fo among 
 the Romans till the latter ages of that empire. 
 
 TYRIAN-iV^, ? g . - , S Purple. " 
 
 TYRO, S I Tyrocinium. 
 
 TYROCINIUM,* Tyrociny, a novitiate or apprenticefhip 
 in any art or fcience. 
 
 * The word is formed of tyro, a raw beginner. 
 
 We have feveral writings under the title of tyrociniunn : tyro- 
 cinium chymicnm^ tyrocinium cbirurgicum, isfc. containing the 
 rudiments of thofe arts, accommodated to the apprehenfions 
 of the beginners. 
 TYROSIS,* TYpnsis, in medicine, a coagulating or curdling 
 of milk in the ftomach ; after the manner of cheefe. 
 * The word is formed of the Greek, tuj©-, cafeus, cbetfi. 
 
 TYTH, or rather Tithe. See the article Tithe. 
 TYTHING and TYTHiNG-^Waff. See Tithing, De- 
 
 CENNIER, TENMENTALE, HUNDRED, WAPENTAKE, 
 
 &C, 
 
U. 
 
 VAC 
 
 UThe twentieth letter in the alphabet, and the fifth 
 vowel. 
 _ Befides the vowel u, there is a confonant of the 
 ? fame denomination, wrote v, or v. 
 The pronunciation of the u, as now ufed among the Englifh, 
 French, £sV. is borrowed from the antient Gaulifh : for all 
 the other weftern people, with the Romans, pronounce it ou. 
 V is alfo a numeral letter, and fignifies five} according to the 
 verfe, 
 
 V, vera qulnque dablt t'tbi, Ji recJe numerabis. '■ 
 When a dafh was added at top, V, it fignified cooo. 
 V. R. among the Romans, ftood for uti rogas, as you defire : 
 which was the mark of a vote, or fuffragc for the paffihgof 
 a law. 
 
 VACANCY, or Vacuum, in philofopby, an empty inter- 
 val, or fpace void of matter. 
 
 Vacancy, in law, &c. a poft or benefice wanting a regular 
 officer, or incumbent. 
 
 The canonifts hold, that the kind of vacancy is to be ex- 
 preffed in the impetration of a benefice. 
 A future vacancy > or voidance of a fpi ritual living, fome wri- 
 ters call vacatura. — Devolution is a fpecies of canonical va- 
 cancy. 
 
 VACANT Efetls, Pradia VaCata, or Vacua, 
 fuch as are abandoned for want of an heir, after the death 
 or flight of their former owner. 
 In our law-books, vagantes terra-, for vacantes, expreffes 
 forfaken, or uncultivated lands. 
 
 A Romifh benefice is faid to be vacant tn curia Romans. 
 when the incumbent dies in Rome, or within twenty leagues 
 thereof ; though it be only by accident that he was 
 there — The pope nominates to all benefices vacant in curia 
 Ramana, excepting thofe of the neighbouring bifhopricks. 
 
 Vacant Cylinder, in gunnery. See the article Cylinder. 
 
 VACATION, Non-term, in law, all the time included be- 
 tween the end of one terrri, and the beginning of the next 
 fucceeding one. 
 
 This intermiffion was called by our anceftors pax Dei, and 
 ecdefuc ; and fometimes, the time or days of the king's pedce. 
 Among the Romans, it was called jujiitium, or fer'ns, or dies, 
 nefajii. 
 
 The time from the death of a bifhop, or other fpiritual pcr- 
 fon, till the bifhoprick, or other dignity be fupplied by another, 
 Is alfo called vacation, 
 
 Cicero, in his Orations, mentions a law, whereby the priefis 
 were exempted from fervice in all wars, except only in up- 
 roars, and civil tumults ; which exemptions he calls vaca- 
 tions. • ' ' 
 VACUUM, Vacuity, in phyfics ; "a fpace empty or de- 
 void of all matter, or body. 
 
 Whether there be any fuch thing in nature as an abfolute 
 vacuum $ or whether the univerfe be completely full, and 
 there be an abfolute plenum ; is a thing that has been con- 
 troverted by the philofophers of all ages. 
 The antients, in their controverfies, diilinguifhed two kinds 5 
 a vacuum coacervatum, and a vacuum inter j'perfum, or dijfe- 
 minatum. 
 
 Vacuum Coacervatum, is conceived as a place deftitute of 
 matter: Such, e. gr. as there would be, fhould God anni- 
 hilate all the air, and other bodies within the walls of a 
 chamber. 
 
 The exiftence of fuch a vacuum is maintained by the Pytha- 
 goreans, Epicureans, and the Atomifts, or Corpufcularians ; 
 moft of whom afTert fuch a vacuum actually to cxift without 
 the limits of the fenfible world. — But the modern Corpuf- 
 cularians, who hold a vacuum coacervatum, deny that appli- 
 cation ; as conceiving, that fuch a vacuum muft, be infinite, 
 eternal, and uncreated. 
 
 According, then, to the later philofophers, there is no va- 
 cunm coacervatum without the bounds of the fenfible world ; 
 nor would there be any other vacuum, provided God mould 
 annihilate divers contiguous bodies, than what amounts to 
 a mere privation, or nothing: the dimenfions of fuch a 
 fpace, which the antients held to be real, being by thefe 
 held to be mere negations j that is, in fuch a place, there 
 is fo much length, breadth, and 'depth wanting, as a body 
 muft have to fill it. — To fuppofe, that when all the matter 
 in a chamber is annihilated, there fhould yet be real di- 
 menfions, is to fuppofe corporeal dimenfions without body; 
 which is abfurd. ■ » * 
 
 The Cartefians, however, deny any vacuum" coacervatum at 
 all; and afTert, that if God fhould immediately annihilate all 
 the matter, v. gr. in this Chamber, and prevent the ingrefs 
 of any other matter, the confequence- would be, that the walls 
 would become contiguous, and include-no fpace at all. — 
 Vol. II. 
 
 VAC 
 
 They add, that if there be no matter in a chamber, the walls 
 can be conceived no otherwife than as contiguous ; thofe 
 things being faid to be contiguous, between which there is 
 not any thing intermediate : but, if there be no body be- 
 tween, there is no extenfion between ; extenfiofl and body 
 being the fame thing: and if there be no extenfion between, 
 then the walls are contiguous; and where is the vacuum? 
 But this reafoning is built on a miftake, viz. that body and 
 extenfion are the fame thing. 
 Vacuum Dijfcminatum, or Inter fperfum, is that fuppofed to 
 be naturally interfperfed in, and among bodies, in the pores of 
 the fame body, and in the intcrfiices between different 
 bodies. 
 
 It is this kind of vacuum which is chiefly difputed among the 
 modern philofophers: the Corpufcularians ftrenuoufly abort- 
 ing it; and the Peripatetics, and Cartefians, as ftiffly impugn- 
 ing it. 
 
 The great argument the Peripapetics urge againlt a vacuum 
 interfperfum, is, that there are divers bodies frequently feen to 
 move contrary to their own nature, and inclination ; and that 
 for no other apparent reafon, but to avoid a vacuum ; whence 
 they conclude, that nature abhors a vacuum ; and give us a 
 new clafs of motions afciibed to the' fuga vaciti, or nature's 
 flying a vacuum. 
 
 Such, they fay, is the rife of water in a fyrlnge, upon the draw- 
 ing up the pirton ; fuch alfo is the afcent of water in pumps, 
 and thefwclling of the flefh in a cupping-glafs, £sY. 
 But fince the weight, elafticity, c5Y. of the air have been a f- 
 ccrtained by hire experiments, thofe motions and effects are 
 univerfally aferibed to the gravity, and preffure of the atm,o- 
 fphere. 
 
 1 he Cartefians deny not only the actual exiftence, but even 
 the poffibility of a vacuum : and that on this principle, that 
 extenfion being the eflcnce of matter, or body, wherever ex- 
 tenfion is, there is matter : but mere fpace, or vacuity, is 
 fuppofed to be extended; therefore it is material — Whoever 
 afferta an empty fpace, they fay, conceives dimenfions in that 
 fpace ; /'. e. he conceives an extended fubftance in it ; and 
 therefore he denies a twi^wj, at the fame time that licadniitsit. 
 On the other hand, the Corpufcular authors prove, not only 
 the poffibility, but the aftuai exiftence of a vacuum, from 
 divers confiderations ; particularly, from the confideration of 
 motion in general ; and that of the planets, comets, C3\r. in 
 particular; from the fall of bodies; from the vibration of 
 pendulums; from rarefaction and condemnation ; from the 
 different fpecific gravities of bodies ; and from the divifibility 
 of matter into parts. 
 
 i°. It is argued, that motion could not be effected without 
 
 a vacuum. — This is what Lucretius urged long ago 
 
 Primipium quoniam ccdendi nulla darct res — undique materia 
 quoniam jHpata fuijfet. ' ' 
 
 The force of this argument will be iricreafed from the two 
 following confiderations, viz. firft, that all motion is cither 
 m a ftreight line, or in a curve which returns into itfelf, as 
 the circle, and ellipfis ; or in a curve that does not return in- 
 to itfelf, as the parabola, CSV; And, fecondly, that the mov- 
 ing force muft always be greater than the refiftance. 
 For, hence it follows, that no force, even though infinite, 
 can produce motion where the refiftance is infinite ; conic- 
 qucntly, there can be no motion either in a ftrait line, or 
 a non-returning curve j becaufe, in either of thofe cafes, the 
 protrufion, and confequently the refiftance, would be infinite. 
 — There remains, therefore, only the motion in a revolving 
 curve practicable ; this muft either be a revolution upon an 
 axis, or an annular motion round a quiefcent body ; both 
 which are, again, impoffible in an elliptic curve : and confe- 
 quently, all motion muft be in circles geometrically true; 
 and the revolving bodies muft cither be fphcrcs, fphcroids, 
 cylinders, or portions of them, exactly geometrical ; other- 
 wife, the revolutions in a plenum would be impoffible : but 
 fuch motions, Or fuch figured bodies, we do not know in 
 nature. Therefore there is a vacuum. 
 
 2 9 . The motions of the planets and comets, demonftrate a 
 vacuum: thus Sir Ifaac Newton — " That there is no 
 " fuch fluid medium as xther, (to fill up the porous parts of 
 all fenfible bodies, as the air and intcrftellar parts, and fo 
 make a plenum) *« feenis probable ; becaufe the planets and 
 '* comets proceed with fo regular and lafting a motion, 
 l( through the celeftial fpaces, both from and to all parts : 
 " for hence it appears, that thofe celeftial fpaces are void of 
 " all fenfible refiftance, and confequently of all fenfible mat- 
 " tcr. For the refilling force of fluid mediums, arifes part- 
 ** ly from the attrition of the parts of the medium, and 
 " partly from the inactivity of matter. — Now, that part 
 " of the refiftance of any medium, which arifes from the 
 ^3 A " tenacity 
 
VAC 
 
 « tenacity, or attrition of its parts, may be leffcned by ci- 
 « vidin^ the matter into fmaller parts, and by rendcringthofe 
 «' part/more fmooth and flippery : but that part of the re- 
 " fiftancc which arifies from the inactivity of matter, is always 
 « in proportion to the denfity of the matter ; nor can it be 
 " diminifhed by dividing the matter, nor by any other means, 
 " except by diminifhing the denfity thereof. 
 « Confequently, if the celcilial regions were as denfe as wa- 
 it te; t or as quickfilver, they would refift almoft as much as 
 « water or quickfilver; but if they were petfeftly denfe, 
 u without any interfperfed vacuity, though the matter were 
 « ever fo fluid and fubtle, they would refift more than quick- 
 « filver does; a perfedly folid globe, in fuch a medium, 
 « would lofe above half its motion, in moving three lengths of 
 V its diameter ; and a globe not perfectly folid, fuch as the bo- 
 « dies of the planets and comets are, would be flopped ftill 
 
 " fooner. Therefore, that the motion of the planets and 
 
 « comets may be regular, and lafting, it is neceffary thece- 
 « leftial fpaces be void of all matter, except perhaps fome 
 « few, and much rarified effluvia of the planets and comets, 
 « and the palling rays of light. 
 
 3°. The fame great author deduces & vacuum alfo from the 
 coniiderations of the weights of bodies; thus: " All bodies 
 « about the earth gravitate towards the earth; and the weights 
 ** of all bodies, equally diftant from the earth's centre, are as 
 « the quantities of matter in thofe bodies. — If the aether, 
 *'* therefore, or any other fubtile matter, were altogether de- 
 " ftitutc of gravity, or did gravitate lefs than in proportion 
 " to the quantity of its matter: becaufe (as Ariftotle, Des 
 " Cartes, and others argue) it differs from other bodies only 
 ** in the form of the matter ; the fame body might, by the 
 «* change of its form, gradually be converted into a body of 
 " the fame conftitution with thofe which gravitate moft in 
 «' proportion to the quantity of matter: and, on the other 
 «* hand, the moft heavy bodies might gradually lofe their 
 " gravity, by gradually changing their form ; and therefore 
 *' the weights would depend upon the forms of bodies, and 
 " might be changed with them; which is contrary to all 
 " experiment, 
 
 4°. The defcent of bodies proves that all fpace is not e- 
 qually full; for the fame author goes on, '* If all fpaces 
 « were equally full, the fpecific gravity of that fluid, with 
 ** which the region of the air would in that cafe be fill— 
 " ed, would not be lefs than the fpecific gravity of quick. 
 « filver or gold, or any other the moft denfe body ; am 
 " therefore neither gold, nor any other body, could de 
 ** fcend therein — For bodies do not defcend in a fluid, un 
 " lefs that fluid be fperifically lighter than the body.— But 
 " by the air-pump, we can exhauft a vcfTcl, till even a fea- 
 *' ther fhall fall with a velocity equal to that of gold in the 
 <( open air : the medium, therefore, through which this fea- 
 *' ther falls, muft be much rarer than that through which the 
 " gold falls in the other cafe. 
 
 " The quantity of matter, therefore, in a given fpace, may 
 ■* be diminifhed by rarefaction : and why may not it be di- 
 " minifhed in infinitum ? Add, that we conceive the folid 
 " particles of all bodies to be of the fame denfity ; and that 
 ** they are only rarcfiable by means of their pores: and 
 * ( hence a vacuum evidently follows. 
 
 5 p . " That there is a vacuum, is evident from the vibrations 
 " of pendulums: for fince thofe bodies in places out of which 
 " the air is cxhaufted, meet with no reliftance to retard their 
 ** motion, or fhorten their vibrations; it is evident there is 
 " no fenfible matter in thofe fpaces, or in the occult pores 
 ** of thofe bodies," 
 
 As to what Des Cartes urges of his materia fubtihs, that 
 its tenuity prevents its refiftance from being fenfible, and that 
 a fmall body ftriking againft a greater, cannot in the leaft 
 move, or refift the motion of that other ; but is reflected back 
 again with all its momentum: it is contrary to all experience. 
 For Sir Ifaac proves, that the denfity of fluid mediums, is 
 proportionable to their refiftances, very nearly ; and that they 
 are exceedingly miftaken, who fuppofe the refiftance of pro- 
 jectiles to be infinitely diminifhed, by dividing the parts of 
 the fluid, even in infinitum. {Princip. Lib. II. Prop. 38.) 
 When, on the contrary, it is clear the refiftance is but little 
 diminifhed by the fubdivifion of the parts; (ibid. Prop. 40.) 
 and that the refilling forces of all fluids are nearly as their 
 denfities — For why Ihould not the fame quantity of matter, 
 whether divided into a great number of fubtle parts, or into 
 a few larger ones, have the fame refilling force ? If then 
 there were no vacuum, it would follow, that a projectile 
 moving in the air, or even in a fpace whence the air is cx- 
 haufted, fhould move with as much difficulty as it would 
 in quickfilver ; which is contrary to experience. 
 60. That there are interfperfed vacuities, appears from mat- 
 ter's being actually divided into parts, and from the figures of 
 thofe parts : for, on fuppofition of an abfolute plenitude, we 
 do not conceive how any part of matter could be actually 
 divided from that next adjoining, any more than it is poffible 
 
 V A D 
 
 . to divide actually the parts of abfolute fpace from one ano- 
 ther: for by the actual divifion of the parts of a continuum 
 from one another, we conceive nothing elfe underftood, but 
 the placing thofe parts at a di trance from one another, which, 
 in the continuum, were at no diftance from one another: 
 but fuch divifions between the parts of matter, muft imply 
 vacuities between them. 
 
 7 0 . As for the figures of the parts of bodies, upon the fup- 
 pofition of a plenum, they muft either be all rectilinear, or 
 all concavo-convex ; otherwife, they would not adequately 
 fill fpace ; which we do not find to be true in fact. 
 8°. The denying a vacuum, fuppofes what it is impofiible for 
 any one to prove to be true ; viz. that the material world 
 has no limits. 
 
 Since then the offence of matter does not confift in exten- 
 fion, but in folidity, or impenetrability, the univerfe may be 
 faid to confift of folid bodies moving in a vacuum : nor need 
 we at all fear, left the phenomena of nature, moft of which 
 are plaufibly accounted for from a plenitude, fhould become 
 inexplicable when the plenum is fet afide. — The principal 
 ones, fuch as the tides ; the fufpenfion of the mercury in 
 the barometer; the motion of the heavenly bodies, and of 
 light, c5V. are more eafily and fatisfactorily accounted for 
 from other principles. See Tides, &c. 
 Vacuum, or Vacuum Boylcanum, is alfo ufed, fomewhat abu- 
 fively, to exprefs that approach to a real vacuum, which 
 we arrive at by means of the air-pump. 
 Thus, any thing put in a receiver fo exhaufled, is faid to be 
 put in vacuo ; and thus, moft of the experiments with the air- 
 pump, are faid to be performed in vacuo, or in vacuo Boyleano. 
 Some of the principal phenomena obferved of bodies in vacuo, 
 are ; that the heavieft and lighted bodies, as a guinea and a 
 feather, fall here with equal velocity: — That fruits, as 
 grapes, cherries, peaches, apples, &c. kept for any time in 
 vacuo, retain their nature, frefhnefs, colour, CSV. and thofe 
 withered in the open air, recover their plumpnefs in vacuo ; 
 — All light and fire become immediately extinct in vacuo : 
 • — The collifion of flint and fteel in vacuo, produces no 
 fparks : — No found is heard, even from a bell rung in va- 
 cuo : — A fquare viol, full of common air, well clofed, breaks 
 in vacuo; a round one does not: — A bladder half full of 
 air, will heave up forty pound weight in vacuo; — Cats, 
 and moft other animals, readily expire in vacuo. 
 By experiments made in 1704, Mr Derham found, that 
 animals which have two ventricles, and no foramen ovale, 
 as birds, dogs, cats, mice, &c. die in lefs than half a mi- 
 nute ; counting from the firft exfuction : a mole died in one 
 minute, a bat lived feven or eight. — Infects, as wafps, bees, 
 grafhoppers, (s'c. feemed dead in two minutes ; but, after 
 being left in vacuo twenty four hours, they came to life 
 again in the open air: fnails continued twenty four hours 
 in vacuo, without appearing much concerned. 
 Seeds planted in vacuo do not grow: — Small beer dies, and 
 lofes all its tatte in vacuo: — Lukewarm water boils very 
 vehemently in vacuo: — And air, rufhing through mercury 
 into a vacuum, throws the mercury in a kind of fhower 
 upon the receiver, and produces a great light in a dark 
 room. 
 
 The air-pump can never produce a prccife vacuum ; as is evi- 
 dent from its ftrudture, and the manner of its working: in 
 effect, every exfuction only takes away a part of the air : 
 fo that there will ftill be fome left after any finite number of 
 exfuctions. — Add, that the air-pump has no longer any ef- 
 fect, than while the fpring of the air remaining in the re- 
 ceiver, is able to lilt up the valves: when the rarefaction is 
 come to that degree, you can come no nearer to a vacuum. 
 Sir Ifaac Newton, obferving that a thermometer fufpended 
 in vacuo, and in that Hate removed to a warm or a cold 
 room, receives the heat or cold, and rifes, or falls, almoft as 
 foon as another in open air ; takes thence occafion to fuf- 
 pect, that the heat of the warm room is conveyed through 
 the vacuum, by the vibrations, of a mueh fubtiler medium 
 than air, which remained in the vacuum after the air was 
 drawn out. (Opt. p. 323.) 
 VADARI, in the civil law, denotes a pcrfon to pledge, un- 
 dertake, or give fecurity in behalf of another ; that he fhall, 
 on a certain day, appear in court, to proiecute, or anfwer. 
 If he fails, his furety has an action vadimonii defsrti againft 
 him ; that is, an action for deferring his bail. 
 Properly fpeaking, vadari reum, among the Romans, was 
 the act of the plaintiff himfelf, who here demanded furety, 
 or bail from the defendant, that he would appear before the 
 pra-tor on a certain day. 
 V ADELECT. See the article Valect. 
 VADE-MECUM, or a Vem-kccum, a Latin phrafc, 
 ufed in Englifh, to exprefs a thing that is very handy, and 
 familiar ; and which any one ufuajly carries about with 
 him: it is chiefly applied to fome favourite book. 
 Some make Virgil, others Horace, their vade-mecum ; others 
 an Eoiitctus, others a Thomas i Kempis, &c. 
 
 This 
 
V A I 
 
 This is what the Greeks call lyx"!'^'", or manual. — The 
 Arabs have a phrafe of equal import ; viz. Hahib al feir, 
 comes itineris, companion of the journey. — In Latin it 
 is beft expreffed by comes ; as comes theokgicus, comes rulti- 
 cus, &c. 
 
 VADIMONIUM, in the civil law, a promife, or bond 
 given for appearance before the judge upon a day ap 
 pointed. 
 
 VADIUM. See the article Ponf. per Vadium. 
 
 VAGABOND*, a perfon that wanders about, having no 
 certain dwelling ; or a iturdy beggar, (Sc. mentioned in di- 
 vers ftatutes. 
 
 * Dt vagabundis bf nliis hominibus mendiemtibus qui fe nomi- 
 nant — Travelling men, fcft. Charts zz. Hen. VI — 
 Item titemur quod nullus vagubundus vrtgetur feu deambulet de 
 mete in villa feu fuburbio pojl pulfationem campan* noftree 
 communis, vocata Coverfeu, (ff fi alisuil ibidem capiattir po/l 
 pulfationem djelar campanar, ducalur ad Gaulam domini regis, 
 & ibi mornbitur lifque in crajlinum ut notitin perfenee fate 
 babeatur, tec. MS. Cod. de Leg. ff Stat. Burgi villa; 
 Mountgomer. Temp. Hen. II. 
 
 All itinerant beggars, foitune-tellers, collcflors for goals, 
 
 fencers, bearwards, players of interludes, minftrels, juglers, 
 
 gypfies, (s c. fhall be reputed vagabonds, rogues and Iturdy 
 
 beggars, 39 Eliz. c. 4. 
 VAGINA, a Latin term, literally fignifying a Jhealh, or 
 
 fcabbard; ufed on divers occafions. — As, 
 Vagina, in architeaure, is ufed for the lower part of a 
 
 terminus ; becaufe refembling a fheath, out of which the 
 
 (tatue feems to iflue. 
 
 The vagina is that long part between the bafe, and the 
 capital ; and is formed in divers manners, and with divers 
 ornaments. 
 
 Vagina, in anatomy, denotes a canal, or cavity, leading 
 from the pudendum, to the uterus of women. 
 The vagina, called alfo cervix uteri, is a membranous paf- 
 fage, extended from the rima, or aperture of the labia, to 
 the neck of the womb. — See Tab Anat. (Splancb ) fir o 
 lit. b. Jig. 11. lit. a. * tJ* 9- 
 
 It lies upon the reftum, to which it finally adheres ; and 
 under the urinary bladder : its length is ordinarily feven or 
 eight inches. 
 
 Its inward fubftance is nervous, and exquifitcly fenfible ; 
 the outer is membranous, and loofe : at its orifice it is much 
 narrower than elfewherc j efpecially in virgins. 
 Through its whole courfe it is full of ruga:, or wrinkles ; 
 efpecially in the upper internal furface ; which ruga; the ufe 
 of vencry renders lefs apparent, and frequent parturition al. 
 mod obliterates : this (hews, that they were intended, to 
 render the part more eafily diftcndiblc for parturition. 
 Along the whole tradl of the vagina there are pores, or oftia 
 or little duds feen, which, in the aft of vencry, emit a liquor 
 that has been by many miftaken for feed. 
 The vagina has a conftriaory mufcle, inferted under the 
 clitoris [ which, with a broad fcries of fibres, embraces and 
 conftringes the lower part of the vagina, and puts the di- 
 menfion of the part, in fome meafure, in the power of the 
 mind. 
 
 Vaginje Uteri Sphincter. Sec Sphincter Vaginae, &c. 
 VAGINALIS GuU, in anatomy, a name fome anatomifts 
 
 give to the mufculous coat of the gula ; as fuppofing it a 
 
 proper mufcle, confpiring with the cefopbagieus in tbruft- 
 
 ing the aliment down, when entered. 
 Vaginalis Tunica, the fame with what we otherwife call 
 
 elythroides. 
 
 VAGUM, in anatomy, a name given to the eighth pair of 
 nerves of the medulla oblongata, called the pa°vatum be- 
 caufe difperfed to divers parts of the body. — See Tab Anat 
 (OJleoI.) fig. 5. lit. f . ? . 
 
 VAIR, in heraldry, a kind of fur, or doubling, confiding 
 of divers little pieces, argent and azure, refembling a Dutch 
 U, or a bell-glafs. 
 
 V airs, have their point azure, oppofite to their point ar- 
 gent, and the bafe argent to the azure. 
 When there are only two or three vairs, the anticnt heralds 
 call it great vair ; and when there are more, fmall voir, 
 f air is intended to reprefent a kind of fkin, ufed antiently 
 by the k.ngs of Fiance, in lieu of a fur, and wherewith the 
 gowns of the prefidents a mortier, the councilors of the 
 court, the heralds coats, (Sc. wore lined, till the fifteenth 
 century. 
 
 It was properly the (kin of a kind of fquirrel, called alfo, in 
 trench vair, and in Latin, feriveus ; which was white un- 
 derneath, and of a dove-colour at top. It is defcribed by Al- 
 drovandus, under thename of fcriveo varia, and is the fame 
 according to Gefner, with the mus pontic, of Ariftotlc and 
 Pliny ; which the Latins call varus, or varius, from the 
 variety of its colour.— Its two (kins joined together, make 
 the figure of the vairs in armories; being naturally white 
 and azure. ' 
 Vair, Colombierc obferves, is the fecond fort of fur, antient- 
 
 VAL 
 
 ly ufed as a lining of the garments of great men ; coiffi&ng 
 of little pieces, fewed by the furriers on white flcins and be- 
 caufe thefe pieces were ufually blue, thofe wiio firft fettled 
 the rules of heraldry, decreed, that this fur, in its natural 
 blazon, fhould always be argent and azure. — So if it be 
 abfolutely faid, fuch a family bears vair ; it is fuppofed to 
 be argent and azure. 
 
 Regularly, there muft be but four rows or ranks of vair in 
 the fhield ; if there be either more, or Jefs, the number muft 
 be fpecificd. — The fmalleft number, being three rows, is 
 called beffroy de vair ; and the moft, being five or fix] is 
 called menu, or fmall vair. 
 
 The beffroy is alfo known by the firft figure on the dexter- 
 fide of the cfcutcheon, being always of metal, and in form 
 of a belt ; whereas that of mere vair is in fhape of a glafs. 
 VAIRY, Vaire', Verry, or Varry, is applied to a 
 coat, or the bearings of a coat, when charged, or chequered, 
 with vair. 
 
 When the colours are argent and azure, or white and blue, 
 it is vairy proper : if it be otherwife, the colours are to be 
 exprefly named ; vairy of fuch a colour or metal. — He bears 
 vairy, or, and vert : this is particularly called vair compofed. 
 The bearings are likewife faid to be vairy, when they are 
 charged with vairs — When chiefs, croiles, pales, fefTes, 
 is'c. happen to be vairy, the number of ranks are to be f pc - 
 cified. 
 
 Fatry gowns are obferved, by Julius Pollux, to have been 
 the habit of the antient Gauls, as ermins were of the Ar- 
 menians. 
 
 Vairy Cuppy, or Vairy Taffy * or Potent counter potent, is 
 a bearing in heraldry, compofed of pieces repiefcnting the 
 tops of crutches. — See Tab. Herald, fig. 87. 
 In blazon, the colours muft be exprefied ; as, azure, ar- 
 gent, (sfc. 
 
 VALDENSES. Sec the article Vaudois. 
 
 VALECT, or Vadalect. See the article Valet. 
 
 V A L E N T I A M. See the article Cape ad Valentiam. 
 
 VALENTIN I ANS, an antient and famous fed of Gnof- 
 tics ; thus called from their leader Vakntinian. 
 
 VALERE. See the article Perinde Vaisre. 
 
 VALERIAN, Valeriana, a plant whofe root is of 
 confiderable ufe in medicine; thus called, according to fome, 
 from one Valerius^ who firft brought it into ufe 5 or accord- 
 ing toothers, from valere, to be of great virtue. 
 There are various kinds of valerian ; but thofe chiefly in 
 ufe, are the large garden valerian, Valeriana bortcnfis; call- 
 ed by Diofcorides, phu, folio olufatri; — and the Valeriana 
 fylveftris, or great wild valerian. 
 
 The former is an ingredient in Venice treacle ; its chief ufe 
 is in diforders of the nerves : in which refpect, however, 
 it is held inferior to the latter. 
 
 The wild valerian is warm, and aromatic, but has fomcwhat 
 of a fetid fcent : its efficacy, as a fudorific, is fupported by the 
 teftimony of both anticnt and modern practice. — It has 
 been reckoned by fome dcterfive, fo much as to make it diu- 
 retic, and good in all obftrucTions of the vifcera. — It is ex- 
 tolled alfo for ftrengthening the optic nerves, snd reftoring 
 decayed fight ; but the prefent practice acknowledges it nu° 
 in any fuch intentions. — It fometimes does wonders in hyf- 
 terical affections ; efpecially where things of the fetid kind 
 are good, and the fpirits are too impetuous in their motions, 
 fo as to occafion convulfions. — It is alio affifted with cam- 
 phire, and fome other things of the like nature, which are 
 very powerful in breaking through the minuteft obftructions, 
 to cure obftinate agues. — It is efficacious in all nervous 
 cafes ; and particularly in the epilepfy : which virtue in it 
 feems to have been firft difcovered by Fabius Columna, who 
 prefcribed it for that purpofe in powder, 
 M. Merchant, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences^ 
 has confirmed this virtue, by many inftances within his own 
 knowledge : and what is very remarkable, is, that in the 
 two obfervations he enlarges moft upon, the patients, on 
 taking it, voided great quantities of worms. — His cuftom 
 was, always to purge before he adminiftrcd it. The bota- 
 nical characters, and feveral fpecics of this plant, fee in 
 the Supplement, article Valeriana. 
 
 VALESIANS, Valesiani, anticnt fectarics, fo called from 
 one Valcfius, a perfon unknown to Epiphanius, who how- 
 ever makes mention of this feci, Har. 58. though he owns 
 we knew but very little of them ; only this, that they admit- 
 ted none into their focicty but eunuchs ; at Icaft, it any were 
 admitted before caftration, they obliged them not to eat any 
 meat till the operation was performed. — For then, bein» no 
 longer fubject to the motions of the flefh, they allowed them 
 to eat any kind of meats. 
 
 VALET, or Valect, a French term, antiently wrote 
 valet. 
 
 In France, valet is a common name for all domcftic fer- 
 vants, employed in the lower, and more fcrvile officcsj irv- 
 cluding what we call grooms, footmen, coachmen, lait'iffs, |tc. 
 But the word is not ufed among us in this fenfc, nor any 
 
 otherwife 
 
V A L 
 
 othcrwife than in the phrafe valet de ehamhre ; which is a 
 fcivant, whofe office is to drcfs, and undrefs his mafter, to 
 look to his bed-chamber, wait oh Sum at table, &c. the 
 fame with what we othcrwife call his gentleman. 
 In the hiftory of Lewis XII. by Seifei, we always find var- 
 let de chambre du roi, varlet de la gardrobe, &c. But var- 
 iety like knave, and divers other words, is now degenerated 
 into a term of reproach. 
 
 Valet, valetl, vadeleil, vadlet, and vallet, Camden obferves, 
 were antiently ufed at our court, for a gentleman of the 
 privy-chamber. . .. , . c , 
 
 belden, in his Titles, relates, that valets antiently hgnined 
 young gentlemen, and heirs of great eftate and quality ; e- 
 fpecially fuch as were to be knighted. 
 In the accounts of the Inner-temple, valet is ufcd »or a 
 bencher's clerk, or fcrvant.— The butlers of the houfe ftill 
 call them varleh. 
 
 VALETUDINARY, Valetudinarius, a term fome- 
 times ufed by the writers of medicine, for a perfon of a weak, 
 fickly conftitution, who is very frequently out of order, &c. 
 DrCheyne, by all means, directs the weakly, the itudious, 
 the fedentary, and the valetudinary, to alow, fpare regimen. 
 
 VALID, a term applied to acts, tranfaitions, expeditions, 
 &ff. which are cloathed in all the formalities requiiite to 
 their being put into execution, and to their being admitted 
 in a court of juftice. 
 
 A contrail by a minor is not valid* or is invalid ; a mar- 
 riage it not valid, uhlefs performed with the folcmnities en- 
 joined. 
 
 VALLAR*, Vallaris, in antiquity, an epithet given to 
 a kind of crown, which the Roman generals bellowed on 
 him, who, in attacking the enemies camp, hrft broke in 
 upon the lines, or palifades. 
 * The word is formed from vallum, a flake with branches 
 whereof they made the palifade of a camp, called iorlea. 
 The corona vallaris, was the fame with what was othcrwife 
 called corona cajlrenfis, from cafira, a camp. — Aulus Gel- 
 ]ius aflures us, that it was of gold, as the mural and naval 
 crowns alfo were : yet tho' they were made of that precious 
 metal, they were not the moft valued : for Pliny, lib. xxn. 
 cap. 3 . gives the preference to the corona obfidionalis, which 
 yet was only of gramen, or grafs. 
 
 VALLEY, Vale, in geography. Sec Mountain. 
 
 VALOR E Maritagii, Value of marriage, a writ which 
 antiently lay for the lord, after having proffered fui table 
 marriage to an infant who refufed the fame ; to recover the 
 value of the marriage. 
 
 VALVASOR, or Valvasour. See Vavasor. 
 
 VALUE, Valor, in commerce, the price or worth of 
 any thing. 
 
 tntrinfi; Value, denotes the proper, real, and effective worth 
 of any thing : and is ufed chiefly with regard to money ; 
 the popular value whereof may be raifed, and lowered at 
 the pleafure of the prince ; but its real, or intrinftc value, 
 depending wholly on its weight and finenefs, is not at all 
 affected by the ftamp, or impreffion thereon. 
 It is generally on the foot of this intrinftc value, that fpecies 
 are received in foreign countries ; though in the places where 
 they are coined, and where thefovereign power makes them 
 current, they fometimes pafs for much more. 
 It is, in good meafure, on the difference of thofe two va- 
 lues, one whereof is, as it were, arbitrary, and the other, in 
 fome fort, natural; that the difference of exchanges depends: 
 and thofe ftill rifing and falling, as the rate at which a fpe- 
 cies is current, comes nearer or farther off the juft price of 
 the metal whereof it confifts. 
 
 Value, in bills of exchange, is ufed to fignify the nature of 
 the thing, (as ready money, mcrchandifes, bills, debts, 
 &c.) which is given, as it were, in exchange for the fum 
 fpecified in the bill. 
 
 From four different manners of exprefling this value, fome 
 diftinguiihed four kinds of bills of exchange. — The firft bears 
 value received, fimply and purely, which comprehends all 
 kinds of value ; the fecond, value received in ?noney, or 
 merchandife ; the third, value of my fclf ; and the fourth, 
 value underftood. 
 
 The firft is dangerous, and the fourth but little ufed : ac- 
 cordingly, to have the value well exprefied, and to prevent 
 the ill confequences of overfights therein, it is well provided 
 bytheFrench ordonnance of 1673, that bills of exchange 
 fhall contain the name of the perfon to whom the contained 
 fum is to be paid ; the time of payment ; the name of him 
 who has given the value ; and whether it was received in 
 money, merchandife, or other effects. 
 Value, Valor, or Valentia, in law. — Weft gives us 
 a nice difference between value, and price ; the value (fays 
 he) of things in which offences are committed, is ufually 
 comprifed in indictments; which feems neceflary in theft, 
 to make a difference from petty larceny 5 and in trefpafs, to 
 aggravate the fault, and incrcafe the hue. 
 
 V A L 
 
 But no price of things fret natures may be expreffed, as of 
 deers, hares, &c. if they be not in parks and warrens. — 
 And where the number of things taken is to be expreffed in 
 the indictment, as of young doves in a dove-houfe, there 
 muff be faid pretii, or ad valentiam: but of divers dead 
 things, ad valentiam, and not pretii ; of coin not current it 
 fhall be faid pretii ; but of coin current, neither pretii, nor 
 ad valentiam ; the price and value being certain. 
 VALVE*, Valvula, in hydraulics, pneumatics, CSV. is 
 a kind of lid, or cover of a tube, or vefiel, fo contrived, as 
 to open one way ; but which, the more forciblv it is preiled 
 the other way, the clofer it iliuts the aperture : fo that it 
 either admits the entrance of a fluid into the tube, or "veflel, 
 and prevents its return ; or admits it to efcape, and prevent 
 its re-entrance. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin valves, folding doors. 
 Valves are of great ufe in the air-pump, and other wind- 
 engines ; in which they are ordinarily made of pieces of 
 bladder. 
 
 In hydraulic engines, as the emboli of pumps, they are fre- 
 quently of leather ; their figure round, and they are fitted 
 to the bottoms, or other parts of the barrel, Sfo to fhut 
 the apertures. , 
 
 Sometimes they are made of two round pieces of leather, 
 inclofed between two others of brafs ; having divers perfora- 
 tions, which are covered with another piece of brafs, move- 
 able upwards and downwards, on a kind of axis, which goes 
 through the middle of them all. 
 
 Sometimes they are made of brafs, covered over with leather, 
 and furnifhed with a fine fpring, which gives way upon a 
 force applied againft it : but upon the cealing of that, re- 
 turns the valve over the aperture. 
 Valve, Valvula, inan.itomy, athin membrane, applied,, 
 like a door or fhuttcr, on divers cavities and vefTels of the 
 body ; to aff ord a paflage to fome humour, or other matter, 
 going one way, and prevent its re-flux towards the part 
 whence it came. 
 
 The veins and lymphatics have valves, fituate from fpacc to 
 fpace, which open towards the heart, but keep clofe On 
 that fide towards the extremities, i. e. they let the blood 
 and lymph pafs towards the heart, but prevent their re- 
 turning to the extreme parts, whence they came. 
 The heart has alfo its valves, placed at the entrance of the 
 veffels arifing out of it. — Thofe at the entrance of the vena 
 cava, and pulmonary vein, let the blood pafs on to the heart, 
 and prevent its return : on the contrary, thofe at the en- 
 trance of the aorta, and pulmonary artery, let the blobd 
 pafs out of the heart, and prevent its flowing back again. 
 — See Tab. Anat. (Angeiol.) fig. 1. lit. . . 
 " In the jejunum, and ileum, the inner tunic being larger 
 H than the outer, is much corrugated ; the loofe folds of 
 ** this have been thought, in fome meafure, to do the of- 
 " fice of valves ; and 'have therefore been called valvules 
 *.« conniventes." Drake, Anat. p. 49. 
 
 " The lacteals, opening into the inreftincs, receive the prc- 
 " pared fluid part of the chyle ; and appear at Intervals, as 
 " it were, girt and ftraightened ; and when prefled, do 
 ** not admit of a reflux towards the inteftines ; though the 
 *' liquor be ealily propelled towards the glands : which ar- 
 " gucs, that there are valves in them, though they be •■00 
 " minute to be fenfible to the eye." Id. ibid. p. 56. 
 The colon, has a thick valve, to prevent the excrements 
 from pafling into the ileon ; and feveral other valves, to re- 
 tard the defcent of the excrements. 
 
 Conffantine Varolius, a Boulognefe, and phyfician of Gre- 
 gory XIII, who died in 157°, was the firft that obfervect 
 the valve in the colon. — Bart. Euftachio, a native of San 
 Severino in Italy, difcovercd, about the fame time, the valve 
 at the orifice of the coronary vein ; and that remarkable 
 one at the orifice of the lower trunk of the vena cava, near 
 the right auricle of the heart : though he did not take it for 
 a valve, but merely for a membrane. 
 
 Sig. Lancifi, phyfician to the late pope, who firft publiiheu 
 Euftachio's works, takes the ufe of this valve to be to pre- 
 vent the blood of the upper vena cava from ffriking with 
 too much violence againff that of the lower : and M. Win- 
 flow, who has confidered it very diligently in the Memoirs 
 of the Royal Academy of Sciences, is much of the fame opi- 
 nion. 
 
 But as it gradually dwindles in children, and at length be- 
 comes quite loft in adults, ftill diminifhing as the foramen 
 ■ovale does; it ihould feem to have fome other office; and 
 that, chiefly, regarding the circulation of the blood in the 
 fcetus. 
 
 In effect, by means hereof, M. Winflow reconciles the two 
 oppofite fyftems of the circulation of the blood in the fcetus, 
 delivered under the article circulation. See Circulation 
 of the Blood, and Foetus. 
 Great Valve, Valvula major, is the upper part, and, as it 
 
 were, 
 
V A P 
 
 V A R 
 
 Were, the lid of the iftbmus between the tcftes, and the firfl 
 vermicular procefs of the cerebellum : its fubftance is me- 
 dullary. — Its ufe is to prevent the lymph from falling on the 
 nerves at the bafe of the cranium. 
 
 VAN, Vant, or Vaunt, (of the French avant, or avaunt, 
 before) is a term ufed in compofition with feveral words in 
 our language. — As, 
 
 Van-Couriers, are light-armed foldiers, fent before 
 armies to beat the road, upon the approach of an enemy. 
 
 Van-Fosse, a ditch dug without the counter (carp, and 
 running all along the glacis ; ufually full of water. 
 
 Van, or Vant, or V aunt -Corps. See Corps. 
 
 Van, or Van-Guard, is a military term, fignifying the 
 firft line of an army, drawn up in battalia. 
 It is the fame with the front of an army, and is what gives 
 the firfl: charge upon the enemy. 
 
 Every army is compofed of three parts, a van-guard, rear- 
 guard, and main body. 
 
 V AN-Lay. See the article Vaunt. 
 
 VANEERING. See the article Veneering. 
 
 VANES, on mathematical inftruments, arc fights made to 
 move and flide upon crofs-ltaves, forc-ftaves, Davis's qua- 
 drants, tic. 
 
 Vanes, or Fanes of Feathers. ■> r Feather. 
 
 Weather Vanes. i See \ Weather.' 
 
 Vanes of Windmills. J I Windmill. 
 
 VANILLA, or Vanella, a little black feed, growing 
 in longifh pods; ufed in the Weft-Indies, France, Spain, 
 &c. as a principal ingredient in the compofition of choco- 
 late; to give it ftrength, and an agreeable flavour. 
 It is alfo ufed to perfume tobacco and fnuff withal. 
 It is fuppofed to ftrengthen the brain, and ftomachj to at- 
 tenuate vifcid humours, provoke urine, and the menfes. 
 
 Vant, or Vaunt. See the article Van. 
 
 VAPORARIUM, or Vaporosum Balneum, Vapour-bath, 
 in chymiftry, a term applied to a chymift's bath, or heat, 
 wherein a body is placed, fo as to receive the fumes of boil- 
 ing water. 
 
 The balneum vaporofum conGfts of two veflels, difpofed over 
 One another in fuch manner, as that the vapour raifed from 
 the water contained in the lower, heats the matter inclofcd 
 in the upper. 
 
 T he vapour-bath is very commodious for the diftilllng of odo- 
 riferous waters, and the drawing of fpirit of wine. 
 We alfo ufe the term vapour-bath, when a fick perfon is 
 made to receive the vapours arifing from fome liquid matter 
 placed over a fire. 
 
 VAPORATION, Vaporatio, in chymiftry, a term ap- 
 plied to the action of a fume, or vapour. 
 
 Vapor at ion, is a kind of bathing, or rather of fomentation, 
 whereby the warmth, or humidity of a vapour is made to 
 act on fome other body, that is to be warmed, or moift- 
 ened. 
 
 VAPOROSUM Balneum. See the article Vaporarium. 
 
 VAPOUR, Vapor, in meteorology, a thin veficle of wa- 
 ter or other humid matter, filled or inflated with air ; which 
 being rarefied to a certain degree by the action of heat, af- 
 cends to a certain heighth in the atmofphere, where it is 
 fufpended, till it return in form of rain, mow, or the like. 
 An aflemblage of a number of particles, or veficlesof vapour, 
 conftitutes what we call a cloud. 
 
 Some ufe the term vapour, indifferent Iv, for all fumes emit- 
 ted, either from moift bodies, as fluids of any kind ; or from 
 dry bodies, as fulphur, &c. — But Sir Ifaac Newton, and 
 ether authors, better diftinguifhed between humid and dry 
 fumes, calling the latter exhalations. 
 For the manner wherein Vapours are raifed, and again pre- 
 cipitated, fee Dew, Rain, Heat, Cold, and Barome- 
 ter. ■ — For the effeft t/" Vapour in the formation of 
 fpr'mgs, Sic. fee Spring, and River. 
 The quantity of vapour raifed from the fea by the warmth 
 of the fun, is far greater than one would imagine. — Dr 
 Halley has attempted to eftimate it. 
 
 In an experiment nude with that view, and defcribed in 
 the Philofophical Tranj 'acl ions, he found that a quantity of 
 water, no warmer than air in fummcr loft in vapour, in the 
 fpace of two hours, no lefs than one fifty-third part of an 
 inch in depth: now, for one fifty- third part in two hours, 
 taking, for the eafier calculation, one fiftieth part; in the 
 twelve hours that the fun is up each day, it will raife one 
 tenth of an inch from the whole furfacc of the fea. 
 On this fuppofition, every 10 fquare inches of the furfacc of 
 Water, yield m vapour, per diem, a cubic inch of water ; and 
 each fquare foot, half a wine pint ; every fpace of four foot 
 fquare, a gallon ; a mile fquare, 6014 tuns; a fquare degree 
 fuppofed of 69 Englifb miles, will evaporate 33 millions of 
 tuns: and if the Mediterranean be eftimated at 40 degrees 
 long, and four broad, allowances being made for the places 
 where it is broader, by thofe where it is narrower, there will 
 be 1 So fquare degrees in that fea : and consequently the whole 
 Mediterranean mull lufe in vapour, in a fummei's dav, at 
 Vol. II. 
 
 leaft, 5280 millions of tuns. 
 
 And this quantity of vapour, though very great, is only the 
 remains of another caufe, which cannot be reduced to rule ; 
 we mean the winds; whereby the furface of the water is 
 licked up, fometimes much fafler than it exhales by the heat of 
 the fun ; as is well known to fuch as have confidered thofe 
 drying winds. See Evaporation. 
 
 Vapour Bath. See Vaporarium, and Bath. 
 
 VAPOURS, in medicine, a difeafe popularly called thehypo t 
 or the hypocondriacal difeafe; and in men particularly, the 
 fpleen. 
 
 It is fuppofed to be owing to a fubtile vapour, arifing from the 
 lower parts of the abdomen, particularly the hypocondria, 
 to the brain; which it difiurbs, and poflirfles with wild, de- 
 lirious, but generally difagreeable imaginations. 
 Vapours, fuppofed to be emitted from the womb, in women, 
 are what we otherwife call hyflerical affections, or fujfoca- 
 tions, or fits of the mother. See Supplement, article Hypo- 
 condriacal. 
 VARI, in medicine, little, hard, ruddy tumours, whitifh about 
 the tips, and of the fize of an hemp-feed ; frequently found 
 on the face and neck of young people; chiefly of fuch as 
 arc much addicted to venery. 
 
 If the red be very lively, the cure is fomewhat difficult; and 
 though the puftules bz taken away, the rednefs remains.— 
 To this, if an inflammation and hoarfenefs be added, it is 
 a fymptom of a leprofy. 
 VARIABLE, in geometry and analytics, is a term applied 
 by mathematicians, to fuch quantities as either increafe, or 
 diminilh, according as fome other quantity cither increafes 
 or diminifhes. 
 
 1 hus, the femiordinatcs, and abfeifles of an cllipfis, &"c are 
 variable quantities ; becaufe, if the one increafe, the other 
 increafes likewife. 
 
 They are thus called, in contradiftinclion to conflant, or 
 given, or Jiahle quantities ; which are always the fame, tho' 
 others change: as the femidiameter of a circle, which remains 
 the fame, though the abfeifles and femiordinattss increafe. 
 Variable quantities, are ufually denoted by the laft letters of 
 the alphabet, x, y, z. 
 
 Some authors, inftead of variable, and conftant quantities, 
 ufe the terms fluent, and Jlable quantities. 
 The infinitely fmall quantity whereby a variable quantity is 
 continually increafmg, or diminifhing, is called the fluxion, 
 or difference; the calculation whereof, is the fubject of the 
 new methodm differtntialis, or dotlrine of fluxions. 
 
 Variable Winds. See the article Wi nd. 
 
 VARIANCE, Va Riantia, in law, an alteration or change 
 of condition in a perfon, or thing; after fome former con- 
 cern, or tranfaction therewith. 
 
 Thus, if the commonalty of a town make a compofition 
 with a lord, and afterwards bailiffs be granted by the kina; to 
 the fame town ; there, if the lord commence any fuit for 
 breach of the compofition, he muft vary from the word com- 
 munally, uftd in the compofition ; and ufe bailiffs and com- 
 monalty. 
 
 Variance is alfo ufed for an alteration of fomcthing former- 
 ly la:d in a plea ; or where the declaration in a caufe differs 
 from the writ, or from the deed upon which it is grounded." 
 
 v ARIATION, in geography, navigation, ts'c. a term ap- 
 plied to the deviation of the magnetic needle, or compafs, 
 from the true north point, towards cither eaft, or weft ; 
 called alfo the declination. 
 
 7 he variation or declination of the needle, is properly de- 
 fined, the angle which a magnetic needle, fufpended at liber- 
 ty, makes with the meridian line on a horizontal plane ; or 
 an arch of the horizon, comprehended between the true, 
 and the magnetical meridian, 
 
 In the fea language, the variation is ufually called north- 
 cajlhg, or north-iucfling. 
 
 All magnetic bodies, we And, range tbcmfelves, in fome fort, 
 to the meridian ; but it is rare that they fall in prcciiely with it: 
 in one place, they decline from the north to the eaft, and 
 from the fouth to the weft ; and in another place, on the 
 contrary, from the north to t;;e weft, and fr.-m the fouth to 
 the eaft; and that, too, differently, at different times. 
 Various are the hypothefes framed, 10 account for this ex- 
 traordinary phenomenon : we ihall only mention fome of 
 the later, and more probable. The firft is that of Gilbert, 
 which is followed by Cabeus, £sV. 
 
 This notion is, that it is the earth, or land, that draws 
 the needle out of its meridian direction ; and hence they 
 argue, that the needle varied more, or lefs, as it was more 
 or lefs diftant from any great continent : confequcntlv, that 
 if it were placed in the middle of an ocean. equally diftant 
 from equal tracis of land, on each tide, ealtward ^nd weft- 
 ward, it would not decline either to the one or ilie other; 
 but point juftly north and fouth. 
 
 Thus, they fay, in the Azores iflands, which are equally d.f- 
 tant from Africa on the eaft, and America 011 the weft, 
 there is, in cfitct, tound no variation : but, as from the 
 
 13 B Azores 
 
V A R 
 
 Azores you fail towards Africa, the needle begins to decline 
 from the north to the eaft ; and that ftill more and more, 
 till you reach the fliore. . 
 If you ftill proceed eaftward, the declination gradually dinn- 
 nifhes again ; by reafon of the land left behind on the weft, 
 which continues to draw the needle. 
 
 The fame holds till you arrive at a place where there are 
 equal trafts of lands on each fide, and there, again, there rs 
 no variation. 
 
 The obfervations of our mariners in their Eaft -India voyages, 
 feem to confirm this fyftem : as they proceed towards 
 the cape of Good Hope, the variation is ftill eaftward ; at 
 length, arriving at the cape Dc las Aguillas, q. d. of the 
 Needles, the meridian line, then, dividing Africa into two 
 equal parts, there is no variation at all : but as they proceed 
 further, and leave the African coafts on the weft, the varia- 
 tion becomes weftward. 
 
 But the misfortune is, the law does not hold univerfally: in 
 cft'ea, a great number of obfervations of the variations, in 
 various parts, made and collefled by Dr Halley, overturn 
 the whole theory. 
 
 Others, therefore, have recourfe to the frame and corn- 
 pages of the earth, confidered as interwove with rocks and 
 (helves, which being generally found to run towards the 
 poles, the needle comes to have a general tendency that 
 way ; but which feldom going perfectly in the direction of 
 the meridian, the needle, of confequence, has commonly 
 a variation. 
 
 V A R 
 
 Others hold various parts of the earth, to have various de- 
 grees of the magnetic virtue ; as fome are more intermixed 
 with heterogeneous matters, which prevent the free action 
 or effect thereof, than others. 
 
 Others afcribe all to magnetic rocks, and iron mines, which, 
 affording more of the magnetic matter than other parti, 
 draw the needle more. 
 
 L-aftly, others imagine earthquakes, or high tides, to have 
 difturbed and diflocated feveral confiderable parts of the earth, 
 and fo changed the magnetic axis of the globe, which ori- 
 ginally was the fame with the axis of the globe kfelf. 
 But ftill, that great phenomenon, the variation of the varia- 
 tion, i. e. the continual change of the declination, in one 
 and the fame place, which the modern obfervations do abun- 
 dantly evince, is not accountable for, on any of thefe foun- 
 dations ; nor even is it conftant with them. 
 Dr Halley, therefore, gives us a new fyftem ; the refult of a 
 great number of obfervations; and even of a great number of 
 voyages made, at the public charge, on this very account ; 
 the light that excellent author has let into this obfetire part 
 of natural hiftory, is very great; and the conferences 
 thereof in navigation, i5c. are very confiderable. Add, 
 that he has reduced the divers variations of divers places 
 to a precif'e rule, or-order, which before appeared all pre- 
 carious, and arbitrary. 
 
 His theory, therefore, will defcrve a more ample detail. — 
 The obfervations it is built on, as laid down in the Pbilojo- 
 phical Tranfattiom, are as follow. 
 
 Obfervations of the Variations of the needle* in divers places* and at divers times. 
 
 London — i — — 
 
 Uraniburg — 
 Copenhagen — 
 D.muiclt — 
 Montpelicr — 
 Bred — - 
 Rome — 
 Bayonne — 
 Hudfcn's Bay - 
 In Hudfon*s Streights 
 
 [Sound 
 
 In Baffin's Bay, atSirTho. Smith's 
 
 At lea — — — 
 
 Cape S. Aueuftine — — 
 At fea oft' the mouth of R. Plata - 
 
 Eaft entrance of Magellan Screights 
 Weft entrance — — 
 Baldivia — — — 
 
 L'.' ,r, ]it '!'.!? 
 
 13 o E 
 
 13 °B 
 I 20 W 
 79 40 W 
 
 3' 30W 
 42 oW 
 
 I Year 
 Latitude. ofOb- 
 ■fcrvat. 
 
 55 5+ N 
 55 4i N 
 54 23 N 
 
 43 37 N 
 48 23 N 
 5° N 
 43 30 N 
 
 5N 
 
 6t o N 
 78 o N 
 3 S 40 N 
 43 5° N 
 
 39 3° S 
 52 30 S 
 
 1634 
 1683 
 
 1 68 1 
 1672 
 »&49 
 I679 
 1674 
 16S0 
 1681 
 1680 
 1668 
 1668 
 1616 
 1682 
 1682 
 167S 
 
 1670 -, 
 *6 7< " 
 
 4 5 E 
 
 2 30 W 
 
 4 30 W 
 
 3 oE 
 
 2 3 °W 
 2 35 W 
 1 30 E 
 7 oW 
 1 10 W 
 1 4 S W 
 
 5 oW 
 1 20 w 
 
 ! 9 15 w 
 
 'n 3 o w 
 
 7 30 w 
 S 30 W 
 o 40 E 
 5 10 E 
 
 10 £ 
 10 E 
 
 Names of Places. 
 
 At fea — 
 
 At il 
 
 At fca . — — 
 
 S. Helena — — 
 
 I. Aiccnllc-n — — 
 
 Johanna — — 
 
 Monbafa — — 
 
 Aden, in the mouth of the red fea - 
 Diego Roiz — — 
 At fea — — — 
 At fca — — — > 
 Bombay — > — 
 C. Comorin — — 
 BallaJurc — — 
 Fort S. George — - 
 ■Weft point of Java — 
 At fea — — 
 I. S. Paul — — 
 At Van Piemen' 5 — 
 At New Zealand — 
 At Three King Me in New Zealand 
 I. Rotterdam in the Souih-fea — 
 On the coaft of New Guinea — 
 At the weft point of New Guinea 
 
 Longitude 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Year 
 
 Variation 
 
 
 ofOb- 
 
 obferved. 
 
 London. 
 
 
 fcrvat. 
 
 16 30 E 
 
 34 50 S 
 
 1662 
 
 I of 
 
 
 
 ,6 7 ; 
 .675 
 
 8 0 W 
 
 i oB 
 
 34 3 oS 
 
 
 TO oW 
 
 34 0 S 
 
 1675 
 
 io 30 E 
 
 32 0 w 
 
 
 1675 
 
 
 6 30 W 
 
 16 oS 
 
 1677 
 
 0 40 E 
 
 14 30 W 
 
 7 50 S 
 
 167S 
 
 1 0 E ' 
 
 44 0 E 
 
 » '5S 
 
 1675 
 
 19 30 W 
 
 40 0 E 
 
 4, pS 
 
 1675 
 
 iu 0 W 
 
 56 0 E 
 
 
 ,674 
 
 17 0 w 
 
 47 3° E 
 
 1 3 N 
 
 1674 
 
 15 0 w 
 
 61 oE 
 
 20 0 S 
 
 1676 
 
 20 30 w 
 
 64 30 E 
 
 
 1676 
 
 15 30 W 
 
 55 oE 
 
 27 Is 
 
 1G76 
 
 1+ 0 W 
 
 72 30 E 
 
 19 0 N 
 
 1676 
 
 12 0 W 
 
 76 0 E 
 
 8 15 N 
 
 16S0 
 
 8 48 W 
 
 87 0 E 
 
 
 16S0 
 
 8 20 W 
 
 80 0 E 
 
 \\ !Jn 
 
 16S0 
 
 8 10W 
 
 104 0 E 
 
 6 40 S 
 
 1676 
 
 3 10 W 
 
 58 0 E 
 
 39 oS 
 
 1677 
 
 27 30 W 
 
 72 oE 
 
 38 0 S 
 
 j6 77 
 
 23 3p W 
 
 142 0 E 
 
 
 1642 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 0 E 
 
 169 30 E 
 
 34 35 s 
 
 1642 
 
 8 40 E 
 
 1S4 0 E 
 
 20 15 s 
 
 .642 
 
 6 20 E 
 
 149 0 E 
 
 4 3° S 
 
 1643 
 
 8 4 S E 
 
 126 0 E 
 
 0 26 s 
 
 1643 
 
 5 30 E 
 
 From thefe obfervations, the learned author gathers, i°. 
 That throughout all Europe, the variation, at this time, 
 is weft ; and is more in the callern parts thereof than the 
 weftern, increafing that way. 
 
 2 0 . That on the coafts of America, the variation is wefter- 
 ]y 5 increafing all the way as you go northerly along the 
 coaft ; fo as to be above :o degrees at Newfoundland, near- 
 ly 30 degrees in Hudfon's Streights, and not lefs than 57 de- 
 grees in Baffin's bay : and that as you fail eaftward from this 
 coaft, the variation conftant! y diminifhes. Hence, he ar- 
 gues, that fomewhere between Europe and the north part 
 of America, there muff, he an cafterly variation, or at leaft: 
 no variation. 
 
 3 0 . That on the coaft of Brazil, there is an eaft variation ; in- 
 creafing as yon go to the fouthward, fo as to be 12 degrees 
 atcapeErio, and 20 degrees and halt' over-againtt R. Plata j 
 and thence failing fouth- wefterly, to the Streights of Magel- 
 lan, it decreafes 17 degrees, and at the weft entrance about 
 1 4. degrees. 
 
 4 0 . That eaftward of Brazil, this cafterly variation decreafes, 
 fo as to be very little at S. Helena and Afcenfion, and to be 
 quite gone, and the compafs point true, about 18 degrees 
 longitude from the cape of Good Hope. 
 5 0 . That to the eaftward of the afbrefaid places, a weftward 
 variation begins and governs in all the Indian fea, fifing 
 to I 8 degrees under the equator, about the meridian of the 
 northern part of Madagascar; and zj degrees and a half, in 
 39 degrees fouth latitude, near the fame meridian : eafterly 
 from thence, the weft' variation decreafes, fo as to be not 
 much above eight Agrees at cape Comorin, and about. three 
 
 decrees upon the coaft of Java; and about the Molucca 
 Illands to be quite gone ; as alfo a little to the weftward of 
 Van Diemen's land. 
 
 C°. That to the eaftward of the Molucca's, and Van Diemen's 
 land, in fouth latitude, there arifes another eafterly varia- 
 tion* which feems not fo great as the former, nor of fo 
 large extent ; for that at the ifland Rotterdam, it is feniibly 
 lefs than upon the eaft coaft of New Guinea ; and at the 
 rate it decreafes, it may well befupnofed, that about 20 de- 
 grees further eaftward, or 225 degrees eaft: longitude from 
 London, in the latitude of 20 degrees fouth, a wefterly 
 variation begins. 
 
 70. That the variation taken at Baldivia, and at the weft 
 entrance of the Streighrs of Magellan, ihews, that the calf: 
 variation, noted in the third observation, is decreahng apace; 
 and that it cannot well extend many degrees into the South 
 fea, from the coaft of Peru and Chili ; leaving room for a 
 filial] wefterly variation, in that tract of the unknown world, 
 that lies in the mid-way between Chili, and New Zealand, 
 and between Hounds Ifland, and Peru. 
 
 S°. That in failing north-weft from S. Helena, by Afcen- 
 fion, as far as the equator, the variation .-continues very hnall 
 eaft, and, as it were,, conftantly the fame : fo that in. this 
 part of the world, the courfe, wherein there is no.-jar'iutiofi, 
 is evidently no meridian, but rather north-weft. 
 9 0 . That the entrance of Hudfon's Streights, and the mouth 
 of R. Plata, being nearly under the fame meridian, at the 
 one place the needle varies 29 degrees and a halt weft ; at the 
 other zc degrees and a half eaft. 
 
 \ tiia. ?*- , - tbiarj 
 
V A R 
 
 17?eory of the Variation of the ?ieed!e. —From the clrcum- 
 wancea above rehearfed, the learned author takes occafion to 
 aflert, (t That the whole globe of the earth is one great mag- 
 *' net, having four magnetical poles, or points of attraction ; 
 *' near each pole of the equator, two; and that in thofe parts 
 " of the world which lie nearly adjacent to any one of thefe 
 " magnetical poles, the needle is governed thereby; the 
 ** neareft pole being always predominant over the more re- 
 *' mote." 
 
 The pole which at prefent is neareft to us, he conjectures to 
 lie in, or near the meridian of the Lands-end of England, 
 and not above 7 degrees from the arctic pole : by this pale, 
 the variation in all Europe and Tartary, and the North fea, 
 are principally governed ; though ftill with fome regard to 
 the other northern pole, whofe fuuation is in the meridian, 
 pailing about the middle of California, and about 15 degrees 
 from the north pole of the world ; to which the needle has 
 chiefly refpect in all the north America, and in two oceans 
 on either fide thereof, from the Azores, weftwards, to japan, 
 and farther. 
 
 The two fouthern poles, he imagines, are rather farther dif- 
 tant from the fouth pole of the world : the one about 16 de- 
 grees therefrom, in a meridian fome 20 decrees to the weft- 
 Ward of Magellan Streights, or 95 degrees"" weft from Lon- 
 don : this commands the needle in alf fouth America, in the 
 Pacific fea, and the greateft part of the Ethiopic ocean. — 
 The other feems to have the greateft power, and the largeft 
 dominion of all, as it is the moft remote from the pole of the 
 world, being little lefs tlian 20 degrees diftant thereform, in 
 the meridian which pa|fes through New Holland, and the 
 ifland Celebes, about 1 20 degrees eaft from London : this pole 
 is predominant in the fouth part of Africa, in Arabia, and 
 the Red fea, in Perfia, India, and its iflands; and all' over 
 the Indian fea, from the cape of Good Hope, eaftwards, to ( 
 the middle of the great fouth fea, that divides Afia from j 
 America. 
 
 Such feems to be the prefent difpofition of the magnetical 
 virtue, throughout the whole globe of the earth. — It re- ( 
 mains to Ihew, how this hypothecs accounts for all the varia- ! 
 tlons that have been obferved of late ; and how it anfwers 
 to the feveral remarks drawn from the table. 
 i°. Then, it is plain, that as our European north pole is in 
 the meridian of the Lands-end of England, all places more 
 cafterly than that, will have it on the weft fide of their me- 
 ridian ; and confequently the needle, refpecting it with its 
 northern point will have a wefterly variation ; which will 
 flill be greater as you go to the eaftwards, till you come to 
 iome meridian of RuiJia, where it will be the greateft, and 
 from thence will decreafe again. — Accordingly, in fact, we 
 find that at Breft the variation is but 1 degree 3 quarters ; at 
 London, 4 degrees and an half ; and at Dantzick 7 degrees, 
 weft (in 16S3.J — Again, to the weft ward of the meridian of 
 the Land's-cnd, the needle ought to have an cafterly varia- 
 tion; were it not that by approaching the American northern 
 pole, (which lies on the weft fide of the meridian, and feems 
 to be ot greater force than this other) the needle is drawn 
 thereby weftward, fo as to counterbalance the direction given 
 by the European pole, and to make a fmall weft variation in 
 the meridian of the Land's-cnd itfelf. Yet, about the die Ter- 
 cera, it is /uppofed our nL-areit pole may fo far prevail, as to 
 give the needle a little turn to the eaft ; though that but for a 
 very little fpace ; the counter-balance of thole two poles per- 
 mitting no* confidcrable variation, in all the catfern part of 
 the Atlantic ocean ; nor upon the weft coafts of England, 
 and Ireland, France, Spain, and Barbary. — But to the weft- 
 ward ot the Azores, the power of the American pole over- 
 coming that of the European, the needle has chiefly refpect 
 thereto; and turns ftill more and more towards it, as we ap- 
 proach it. Whence it comes to pafs, that on the coaft of 
 Virginia, New England, Newfoundland, and in Hud foil's 
 Streights, the variation is weftward ; that is, it increafes as 
 you go from thence towards Europe: and that it is Jefs in 
 Virginia, and New England, than in Newfoundland and 
 Hudfon's Streights. 
 
 2 0 . This wefterly variation, again, decreafes, as you pafs 
 over the north America, and about the meridian of the mid- 
 dle of California, the needle again points due north ; and 
 trom thence weftward, to Yetizo and J.ip .n, it is fuppofed 
 the variation is eafterly; and half fea over, not lefs than 1 5 
 degrees : and that this eaft variation extends over Japan, 
 Yedzo, eaft Tartary, and part of China, till it meet with 
 the wefterly, which is governed by the European north 
 pole, and which is the greateft, fomewhere in Ruftia. 
 30. Towards the fouth pole the effect is much the fame ; 
 only t!iat here the fouth point of the needle is attracted. — 
 Whence it will follow, that the variation on the coaft of 
 Brafil,.at the river of Plata, and fo on to the Streights of 
 Magellan, Ibnuld be eafterly, if we fuppofe a' magnetical 
 pole, fituatc about zo degrees more wefterly than the Streights 
 of Magellan — And this eafterly variation extends eaftward 
 over the greateft part of the Ethiopic fea, tiil it be counter- 
 
 V A R 
 
 poifed by the virtue of the other fouthern pole ; as it is about 
 
 ; Way J ', ° e ™' ecn rape of Good Hope, and the ,fles of 
 i nihil d Acunha. 
 
 4°. From thenee eaftwards, the Afiatic fouth pole becoming 
 prevalent, and the fouth point of the needle bein* attracted 
 thereby, there anies a weft variation, very great in quan- 
 tity and extent ; becaufe of the great diftance of this magne- ' 
 t.cal pole ot the world —Hence it is, that all the Indian fea, 
 as ar as Hollund.a Nova, and farther, there is conltantly a 
 welt vartat.on ; and that under the equator itfelf, it rifes to 
 no lets than .8 degrees, where it is moft —And that about 
 the mendiaa of the illand of Celebes, being likewife that of 
 tors pole, this wefterly vermtu* ceitfes, and an eafterly one 
 begins, which reaches to the middle of the South f-a be- 
 tween the middle of Zelandia Nova, and Chili , leaving room 
 for a fmall weft variation, governed by the American fouth 
 pole. 
 
 S». From the whole it appears, that thedireaion ofthemid- 
 dle, in the temperate and Irigid zone, depends chiefly upon 
 the counterpoife of the forces of two magnetical poles of the 
 fame nature ; as alfo why, under the fame meridian, the 
 •mrimm thould be in one place 29 degrees and a half weft 
 and in another 20 degrees and a half eaft? 
 6' In the torrid zone, and particularly under the equinoctial 
 refpect muft be had to all four poles, and their pofitionsmuft 
 be well conhdered ; otherwife it will not be eafy to determine 
 what varwHom fhall be ; the neareft pule being alw:,ys ftron-- 
 eft : yet not fo, as not to be counterbalanced fomttimes by 
 the united fo.ces of two more remote — Thus, 111 railing 
 fromb Helena by the ille of Afcenfion, to the equator on 
 the north-weft courfe, the variation is very little cafteny 
 and in that whole tract is unalterable ; becaufe the fouth Ame- 
 rican pole (winch is confiderably the neareft in the aiorefi.id 
 places) requiring a great eafterly variation, is counterpoifed 
 by the contrary attraction of the north American, and the 
 Aiiatic fouth pole ; each whereof, finglv, is, in thefe parts 
 weaker than the American fouth pole : and upon the north- 
 well courfe, the diftance from this latter is very little varied ■ 
 and as you recede from the Afiatic fouth pole, the balance is 
 itili preierved by an accefs towards the north American pole 
 —In th.scafe, no notice is taken of the European north pole ■ 
 its meridian being little removed from thofe of thefe places 
 and of itfelf requiring the fame variation! which we here find! 
 After the fame manner, may the variations in other places' 
 under, and near the equator, be accounted for: fo that the 
 hypothefis muft be allowed very adequate, and fufficient for 
 the phenomena. 
 
 To olftrvi tin Variation, cr declination of tie mtdtt 
 
 Draw a meridian line, as directed under the article Meri- 
 dian : then, a ftyle being Hefted in the middle thereof, 
 place a needle thereon, and draw the tight line which it hangs 
 over.— Thus will the quantity of the variation appear 
 Or thus:— As the former method of finding the declination 
 cannot be applied at fea, others have been thought of- the 
 principal whereof follow.— Sufpend a thread and plummet 
 over the compafs, till the ffiadow pafs through the centre 
 of the card : obferve the rhumb, 01 point of the compafs 
 which the Shadow touches when it is the ihorteft —For 
 the fhadow is then a meridian line : confequently the varia- 
 tion is Ihewn. 
 
 Or thus: — Obferve the rhumb wherein the fun, or fome 
 fiar rifes and fets : bifiicr the arch intercepted between the 
 nfing and fetting . the line of billeftion will be the meridian 
 line : confequently, the declination is had as before.— The 
 fame may be had from two equal altitudes of the f.me ftar 
 obferved either by day or night. 
 
 Or thus: — Obferve the rhumb wherein the fun, or a ftar 
 rifes and fets ; and from the latitude of the place, find the 
 eaftern or weftern amplitude : for the difference between 
 the amplitude and the diftance of the rhumb obferved, from 
 the eaftern rhumb of the card, is the variation fought. 
 Or thus: — Obferve the altitude of the fun, or fome ftar, 
 SI, (Tat. Navigation, jig. 16.) whofe declination is known ■ 
 and note the rhumb in the compafs, to which it then corre- 
 fponds.— Since then in the triangle ZPS we have three 
 fides, vts. P Z, the complement ol the elevation of the pole 
 PR ; Sr, the complement of the declination O S ; and ZS, 
 the complement of the altitude S I ; the angle P Z S is found 
 by fpherical trigonometry, the contiguous one to which viz. 
 A 2 S, meafures the azimuth H I. — The difference then 
 between the azimuth, and the diftance of the rhumb ob- 
 ferved from the fouth, is the -variation fought 
 Note, to have the eaftern or weftern amplitude accurately, 
 regard muft be had to the refraction ; the laws whereof are 
 delivered under the article Refraction. 
 For the more commodious obferving in what rhumb of the 
 compafs the fun, or a ftar is feen, it will be proper to have 1 
 two little apertures, or glafs windows, oppoiitc to each oth-r 
 under the limb thereof; with a telefcope-fi?ht fitted to one 
 of them, and to the other a fine thread 
 Variation of thi Variation, is the change in thedecli- 
 
V A R 
 
 the 
 
 nation of the needle, obferved, at different times. 
 
 fame place. « f 
 
 This variation, which was firft, it is laid, discovered by Ijal- 
 fendus, is found to obferve one and the fame law pretty regn» 
 larly.-llt is fuppofed owing to the difference of velocity of 
 the motions of the internal and external parts of the globe. 
 Theory of the Variation of the Var i at ion.— From the 
 obiervations above recited, under the head Variation, it 
 feems to follow, that all the magnetical poles have a mouon 
 weftward : but if it be fo, it is evident, that it is not a rota- 
 tion about the axis of the earth : for then the variations 
 would continue the fame, in the fame parallel of lahtude (the 
 longitude only changed) as much as the motion of the mag- 
 netical poles : but the contrary is found by experience ; for 
 there is no where, in the latitude of 5 i and a half north, 
 between England and America, a variation of 1 1 degrees 
 eaft, at this time ; as it was once here at London.— Where- 
 fore, it feems that our European pole is grown nearer the 
 araic pole than it was heretofore ; or elfe, that it has loft 
 part of its virtue. 
 
 But whether thefe magnetic poles move all together with one 
 motion, or with feveral ; whether equally, or unequally ; 
 whether circular, orlibratory: if circular, about what cen- 
 tre ? if libratory, after what manner ? are things yet un- 
 known ! 
 
 This theory feems yet fomewhat obfeure, and defective: to 
 fuppofe four poles in one magnetical globe, in order to ac- 
 count for the variation, is a little unnatural ; but to conceive 
 thofe poles to move, and that by fuch laws as to folve the 
 variation of the variation, is Still more extraordinary. — In 
 effect, the folution appears not much lefs iniplicite and arbi- 
 trary, than the problem. 
 
 The learned author of the theory therefore, found himfelf 
 under a neceffity to folve the phenomena of his folution ; 
 and with this view, he prefented the following hypothefis, 
 The external parts of the globe, he confiders as the fhell, 
 and the internal as a nucleus, or inner globe; and between 
 the two he conceives a fluid medium. — That inner earth 
 having the fame common centre, and axis of diurnal rota- 
 tion, may turn about with our earth each 2 4 hours. Only the 
 outer fphere having its turbinating motion fome fmall matter 
 either fwifter or flower than the internal ball ; and a very 
 minute difference in length of time, by many repetitions, 
 becoming fenfible ; the internal parts will, by degrees, re- 
 cede from the external; and, not keeping pace with one 
 another, they will appear gradually to move, cither eaftward, 
 or weftward, by the difference of their motions. 
 Now, fuppofe fuch an internal fphere, having fuch a mo- 
 tion, the two great difficulties in the former hypothefis are 
 eafily folvcd : for if this exterior fhell of earth be a magnet, 
 having its poles at a diftance from the poles of diurnal rota- 
 tion, and if the internal nucleus be like.vife a magnet, having 
 its poles in two other places, diftant alfo from the axis ; and 
 thefe latter, by a gradual and flow motion, change their 
 place, in refpect of the external : we may then give a reason- 
 able account of the four magnetical poles aforementioned, 
 as likewife of the changes of the needle's variation. 
 The period of this motion being wonderfully great, and there 
 . being hardly an hundred years fince thefe variations have 
 been duly obferved ; it will be very hard to bring this hypo- 
 thefis to a calculus : efpecially fince, though the variations do 
 incrcafe and decreafe regularly in the fame place, yet in dif- 
 fering places, at no great diftance, there are found fuch ca- 
 fual changes thereof, as can no ways be accounted for by a 
 regular hypothefis ; but feem to depend upon the unequal 
 and irregular diftribution of the magnetical matter, -within 
 the fubftance of the external fhell or coat of the earth, which 
 deflect the needle from the pofition it would acquire from the 
 effect of the general magnetifm of the whole.' — Of which, 
 the variations at London and Paris, give a notable inftance ; 
 for the needle has been conftantly about if more eafterlv at 
 Paris than at London : though it be certain, that according 
 to the general effect, the difference ought to be the contrary 
 way; notwithstanding which, the variations, in both places, 
 do change alike. 
 
 Hence, and from fome other things of like nature, it feems 
 plain, that the two poles of the external globe are fixed in 
 the earth ; and that if the needle were wholly governed by 
 them, the variations thereof would be always the fame, with 
 fome irregularities, upon the account juft now mentioned.- — 
 . But the internal fphere having fuch a gradual tranflation of 
 its poles, does influence the needle, and direct, it varioufly, 
 according to the refult of the attractive or directive power of 
 each pole ; and, consequently, there muft be a period of the 
 revolution of this internal ball ; after which, the variations 
 will return again, as before. But if it Shall in future ages be 
 obferved otherwife, we muft then conclude, that there are 
 more of thefe internal fpheres, and more magnetical poles 
 than four ; which, at prefent, we have not a Sufficient num- 
 ber of observations to determine, and particularly in that 
 vafi Mar del Zur, .or South fea, which occupies fa great a 
 part of the whole Surface of the earth. 
 
 VAR 
 
 If then two of the poles be fixed, and two moveable, it rc-" 
 mains to aicertain, which they are that keep their piace ? 
 The author thinks it may be fafely determined, that our Eu- 
 ropean north pole, is the moveable one of the two northern 
 poles, and that which has chiefly influenced the variations ia 
 thefe parts of the world : for in Hudfon's Bay, which is un- 
 der the direction of the American pole, the change is not ob- 
 ferved to be near fo faft, as in thefe parts of Europe, though 
 that pole be much farther removed from the axis.-— As to 
 the fouth poles, he takes the Afiatic pole to be fixed, and 
 consequently the American pole to move. 
 This granted, it is plain that the fixed poles are the poles of this 
 external fhell, or cortex of the earth ; and the other the poles 
 of the magnetical nucleus, included and moveable within the 
 other. — It likewife follows, that this motion is weftwards ; 
 and, by conlequence, that the aforefaid nucleus has not pre- 
 cifely attained the fame degree of velocity, with the exterior 
 parts in their diurnal revolutions ; but fo very nearly equals 
 it, that in 365 revolves, the difference is fcarce fenfible. 
 That there is any difference of this kind arifes hence, that the 
 impulfe, whereby the diurnal motion was imprefied on the 
 earth, was given to the externa! parts; and from thence, in 
 time, communicated to the internal: but not fo, as yet per- 
 fectly to equal the velocity of the firft motion impreifed on, 
 and ftill conferved by, the fuperficial parts of the globe. - 
 As to the prccife period, we want obfervations to determine 
 it; though the author thinks we may, with fome reafon, 
 conjecture, that the American pole has moved weftward 46 
 degrees in 90 years; and that the whole period thereof is 
 performed in about 700 years. 
 
 Mr Whifton, in his New laws of Magnetifm, raifes feveral 
 objections againft this theory $ which fee under the article 
 Magnetism. 
 
 Variation of Quantities, in algebra. See Change, and 
 Combination. 
 
 Variation, in aftronomy — The variation of the moon, call- 
 ed by Bullialdus, the reflection of her light, is the third in- 
 equality obferved in the moon's motion ; whereby, when out 
 oS the quadratures, her true place differs from her place 
 twice equated. See Place, Equation, tsc. 
 Sir Ifaac Newton takes the moon's variation to arife partly 
 from the form of her orbit, which is an ellipsis ; and partly 
 from the inequality of the parts of fpace, which the moon 
 defcribes in equal times, by a radius drawn to the earth. 
 To find the greatejl variation, obferve the moon's longitude 
 in the octants ; and for the time of observation, compute 
 the moon's place twice equated : the difference between the 
 computed, and the oblerved place, is the grcatelt variation. 
 Tycho makes the greatert variation 40' 30": Kepler makes 
 5 i' 49" ; Sir Ifaac Newton makes the greatcft variation at a 
 mean diftance between the fun and the earth, to be 35' 9" ; 
 at the other distances, the greatest variation is in a ratio com- 
 pounded of the duplicate ratio of the times of the moon's 
 fynodical revolution directly, and the triplicate ratio of the 
 diftance of the fun from the earth inverfly. Phil. Nat. 
 Princ. Math. Prop. XXXIX. Lib. iii. 
 
 Variation, in the Italian mufic, is underftood of the dif- 
 ferent manners of playing, or finging a tune, or Song ; whe- 
 ther by Subdividing the notes into feveral others of lcfier va- 
 lue, or by adding graces, £#c. — This is to be done in fuch 
 manner, however, as that one may ftill difcern the ground 
 of the tune through all thefe enrichments ; which fome call 
 embroideries. 
 
 Thus, e. gr. the divers couples of chacons, Spanish folies, 
 gavots, French paflixaillies, 6sV. are So many variations: 
 fo alfo many diminutions of courants, gavots, and other 
 pieces for the lute, harpiichord, &e. arc real variations. 
 
 VARICIFORMES Parajlata, in anatomy, a name which 
 fome authors give to two veflels near the bladder ; by reafon of 
 their many turnings ; ferving to work and prepare the Seed 
 the better. See Parastatje, and Deferentia Vafa. 
 
 VARICOSUrVl Corpus, in anatomy, the Same as corpus 
 pyramiiUile. See Pyramidale Corpus. 
 
 VARICOUS Ulcers. See the article Ulcer. 
 
 VARIEGATION, among botaniits and fiorifts, the act 
 of Streaking or divcrfifying the leaves, C5V. of plants and 
 flowers, with feveral colours. 
 
 Variegation is either natural, or artificial. — Of natural va- 
 riegation there are four kinds ; the firft Shewing itSelf in yel- 
 low Spots, here and there in the leaves of plants ; called by 
 gardeners the yellow blotch. 
 
 The Second, called the white blotch, marks the leaves with a 
 greater number of white Spots, or Stripes ; the whheft lying 
 next the Surface of the leaves, ufually accompanied with other 
 marks of a grcenifu white, that lie deeper in the body of 
 the leaves. 
 
 The third, and ir.oft beautiful, is, where the leaves are 
 edged with White, bcine owing to fome difordcr or infection 
 in the juices, which Stains the natural complexion or ver- 
 dure of the plant. 
 
 The fourth kind is that called the yellow edge. 
 
 Varis- 
 
V A R 
 
 All Variegation is, in itfelf, a difeafe ; ahd tlicfe are only To 
 many fpecies, or rather degrees thereof. — In the yellow, the 
 difeafe is the flightcft: but the white is a fure fign of a deep 
 infection, and weaknefs in the plant : which is further evinc- 
 ed by this ; that no two leaves are ever marked exactly 
 alike. — The former fometimes degenerate into the third, or 
 edge kind ; which is a total and immoveable difeafe, that 
 lays hold not only of the leaves, but of the wood, and even 
 the fruit, feed, &c. 
 
 In the two firft kinds, when accidental, there is a poffibility 
 of recovering the plants to their native verdure, by inarch- 
 ing them into a healthful ftock of the fame fpecies, and let- 
 ting the Hock ftand a year or two joined together ; by which 
 means the juices of the ftrong frock overpowering the dif- 
 temper, throw off the morbid humours by perfpiration : but 
 the third kind is incurable; no art can recover the edged 
 plant to produce plain green leaves again. 
 Artificial Variegation, is performed by inarching, or inocu- 
 lating a ftriped, or variegated plant into a plain one of the 
 fame fort ; as a variegated common jell'amin, into a plain, 
 common, Spanifh, Brazil, or Indian jeilamin. 
 A fingle bud, or eye, Mr Bradley obferves, being placed in the 
 efcutcheon of a diftempered tree, where it can only receive 
 nourifhmcnt from the vitiated juices, will become variegated, 
 proportionably to the nourishment it draws ; and will partake 
 more of the white or yellow juice, than if a branch fhouid be 
 inarched : the bud having nothing to nourifh it, but the juices 
 of the plant it is inoculated on ; whereas, a cyon inarched, 
 is fed both by the ftriped plant, and the healthful one. 
 As to the natural ftripes, or variegations, there are fome 
 particular circumftances to be obierved : i°. That fome 
 plants only appear variegated, or blotched in the fpring and 
 autumn ; the ftains difappearing as they gather ftrength in 
 fummer : inftances of this kind arc feen in rue, thyme, and 
 pot marjoram. 
 
 2\ Some plants arc commonly blotched in the fpongy part 
 of their lcavesj the fap-vellels, all the time, remaining of a 
 healthful green: fuch are the alternus, orange-mint, ts'c. 
 which, being ftrengthncd by rich manure, or being inarched 
 into healthful plants, always throw off the diftemper. 
 3°. In other plants, the difeafe is fo rooted and inveterate, 
 that it is propagated with the feed : fuch are the archangel, 
 water betony, bank crefs, borrage, ftriped felary, and fyca- 
 more; the feeds of all which produce ftriped plants. 
 VARIOLA*, or Varioli, a contagious difeafe, popu- 
 larly called the ftnall-pox. See Small-Vox. 
 
 * It is called variol/e, as fhewing itfelf in puflules, or little 
 tumours like varices i or as Variegating the skin. See Va- 
 RIX, &C. 
 
 VARIORUM*, in matters of literature, a term or phrafe 
 of abbreviation, ufed for an edition of a claftic author, printed 
 in Holland, with the notes of divers authors thereupon : Cum 
 notis variorum, or cum feleelis variorum ohfcrvationilus. 
 In this fenfe, wc fay, Plautus variorum ; a fet of Dutch va- 
 riorums, &c. — The variorums, for the generality, are the 
 moft valued editions. 
 
 * The word is the genitive plural of the Latin varius, different, 
 divers. 
 
 VARIX*, in medicine, a dilatation of a part of a vein fo 
 as to make it buldge out, and form a little, foft, knotty, 
 but painlefs tumour. 
 
 * The word is pure Latin, formed from the verb varinre ; 
 by reafon of the turns and meanders of the veins, which the 
 tumour fometimes follows. 
 
 Sometimes it is confined to one fingle branch of a vein; and 
 fometimes it extends to feveral : and fometimes runs crook- 
 ed, and bent, in various knots and circumvolutions. 
 It happens ofteneft to the crural and hemorrhoidal veins ; 
 fometimes, alfo to thofe in the teftes, and frequently to thofe 
 in the abdomen and brcafts of pregnant women, and fuch as 
 give fuck. It is fuppofed owing to the great abundance, or 
 thicknefs of the blood ; or to the relaxation of the mem- 
 branes of the veins; immoderate labour, fprains, cramps, 
 to great preflure or ftricture by bandages. Stagnations of 
 the blood, from a plethora, cacochymia, EjV. may alfo rive 
 occafion thereto. 
 
 Melancholic perfons, and thofe who feed on coarfe meats, 
 are moft fubjec~t to them: the generality of women with 
 «hdd, have varices on their thighs and legs, occafioncd by the 
 fcetuscompreffing the iliac veins; and by that means, 'pre- 
 venting the reflux of blood to the heart. 
 Varices happening fpontancoufly, and proving of a moderate 
 lize, are rarely dangerous ; they are even allowed ferviceable 
 in the cafe of hemorrhoids —When immoderate, they fome- 
 times occafion a cachexy, dropfy, or confumption. 
 The cure is to be attempted by evacuations, as phlebotomy, 
 and cathartics ; external applications, as difcutient fomenta- 
 tions, cataplafnis, embrocations, bandages, csV. Or laltlv 
 where the cafe grows dangerous, by inciflon. 
 Iltmia Varicqsa, thefami; with cirjocele. See Cirsocele 
 Vol. II. 
 
 V A S 
 
 The hernia varleefa is known by the Titration of the tumor, 
 the courfe of the vein, the relaxation of the part, or its ap- 
 pearing inflated, anil diftclidcd, and vcrv painful. 
 It is remedied by a proper trufs, or bandage, with the me- 
 dicines abovementioned. 
 
 VARLET. See the article Valet. 
 
 VARNISH, or Vernish, Vernix, a thick, vifcid, glof- 
 iy liquor ; ufed by painters, gilders, and various other arti- 
 ficers, to give a glofs and lullre to their works, as alfo to 
 defend them from the weather, dull, err. 
 There are divers kinds of vernljbtt, all made of gums dif- 
 folved in fpirit of wine. 
 
 White Varnish is ufually made of gum fandarach and gum 
 maffick dillblved in fpirits, left to fettle two days, then 
 flrained through a linen cloth, and after Handing fome time 
 the clear poured off, and bottled for ufe. ° 
 The more curious artiils diflblve the two gums feparately j 
 and having made a feparatc varnijhai each* mix them occa- 
 fionally, as their work requires a ftiffcr or a fofter varnijlj. 
 But for the beji whit? varnijh, more gums are required, viz. 
 Venice turpentine, gum copal, elemi, benzoin, animx', arid 
 white roiin. 
 
 cWc-Varnish, is made of gum lacca and fpirit of wine, 
 frequently ihaken till the gum be dilfolvcd, then flrained) 
 and the clear liquor decanted off, as above. 
 The lace ought to be of the kind called feed-lacc— Though 
 for varnifhing ordinary woods, fhell lace is often ufed — 
 But this will not ftand againft the weather. 
 Befides thefe, there are hard, andy,// vimijh,!, or grounds, 
 uled by the etchers, and engravers. 
 
 Varnish, is alfo ufed for a kind of gloffy coat, wherewith 
 potters ware, Delft ware, China ware, Ijfr. are covered to 
 give them a fmoothnefs, and lullre. —Some preparation of 
 lead, is the varnijh ordinarily ufed for the firlt; and earths 
 for the iecond. 
 
 The true varnijh ufed by the Chinefc, and Japanefc, to n've 
 that inimitable luftre to their porcelain, is one of the guild 
 fecrets in that manufacture ; and is one of the great things 
 wanting, to make Delft and French ware vie with the Clu- 
 nefe. Several have defcribed the preparation thereof ■ par- 
 ticularly Kircher: but none ever fuccecded in the trial. 
 Varnish, is alfo a term applied to the colours which antique 
 medals acquire in the earth. 
 
 The value of a medal is heightened by a beauty, which na- 
 ture alone is able to give, and art has never yet attained to 
 counterfeit: we mean, the colour or varnijh. which certain 
 foils tinge the medal withal ; fome with a blue, almoft as 
 beautitul as that of a turquoife , otheis with an inimitable 
 vermilion colour ; and others with a glofly fhining brown, 
 infinitely beyond any of our figures in bronze 
 The moft ufual varnijh, however, is a fine green, which 
 hangs to the moft delicate ftrokes without effacing them • 
 much more accurately than the fineft enamel does on metals' 
 Brafs alone is fufcepiiblc of it ; for as to filver, the <-reen 
 ruft that gathers on it, always fpoils it ; and it muft be (cow- 
 ered oft with vinegar, or lemon juice. 
 
 There is alfo a falj'e, or modern varnijh ■ which the falfificrs 
 of medals give to their counterfeits, to give them the air of 
 antiquity : it is difcovered by its being fofter than the natural 
 varnijh, which is as hard as the metal itfelf. 
 Some lay their fpurious medals under ground, where they 
 contrail a degree of varnijli, that may impofe on the left 
 knowing: others ufe fa] armoniac, mixed with vine^r 
 others the acid fpirits of nirre, ts'c. 1 
 
 VAROLI Pens. See the article Pons. 
 
 VAS, Vcjfel. Sec Vessel, Vesicula, and Angeiolocy 
 Hence (in the ftile of anatomitts) the Y„[a adipefa, trectj- 
 rmlia, • 
 
 Vas ■ Breve, Sherl Vessel, in anatomy, a vehel at the bottom, 
 of the ftomach , thus called from its Ihortnefs. See Stomach. 
 It fends divers little branches from the bottom of the fto- 
 mach to the fpleen; or. according to the ufe the antients 
 imagined it to be cf, from the fpleen to the ftomach for 
 their notion was, that, by means ot this vcfiil, the fpleen 
 fupplicd the ftomach with an acid juice . which ailing on the 
 inner nervous membranes of the ftomach, caufed the fenfa- 
 tion of hunger; and at the fame time mixing with the foods 
 contained therein, aflifted, by its acid quality, in the dillblu- 
 tion thereof. 
 
 But upon examining the little branches of this vcfiel mere 
 accurately, we find, they do.not pierce into the ftomach, 
 and that they are no more than branches of veins, fen ing 
 to return the blood into the fplenic vein , whence it palles 
 into the vena porta. 
 
 Vasa Cineordiec, among hydraulic authors, are two vcffels 
 fo conftrufted, as that one of tnem, though full of wine' 
 will not run a drop, un'efs the other, being full of water, 
 do run alfo. —Their ftructure and apparatus may be feerl 
 m Woihiis, Element. Mathef. T. II. Hvuraul. 
 
 VASCULAR, Vascularis, in anatomy, is applied to 
 any thing confining of divers vefiUs, veins, arteries, frV 
 
 <3 C W, 
 
V A S 
 
 We fay, the vafeular and valvular texture bf the lungs. 
 
 All the flefh in an animal body, is found to be vajcular, 
 
 none of it parenchymous, as the antients imagined. 
 
 Vascular Glands. Sec the article Gland. 
 
 Vascular, Vascularis, in antiquity, was the denomi- 
 nation of a kind of artificers, among the antient Romans ; 
 who made filver and gold vefiels without relievo's, or figures 
 imboflcd thereon. . 
 Hence, according to Saimafius, it is, that Cicero, in his 
 fixth oration againft. Verres, diftinguifhed vafculanus from 
 calator, engraver. 
 
 In the art called by the Greeks ^amriM. whlch w f the * rt 
 of fuperadding ornaments of precious ftones, or rich metals, 
 to vafes of other metals ; the wfiukrii and cajlatores were 
 different; the firft being the goldfmiths who made the vale, 
 the fecond, the fculptors who added the ornaments, —liut 
 in the art called to^t^, or the art of cutting bas i reliefs, 
 or ftamping figures on metal; the vafculam were alfocada- 
 tors, or engravers: that is, they who made the vafe, made 
 alfo the relievos or figures, wherewith it was enriched. 
 VASCULIEEROUS Plants, among the botanifts, fuch 
 as have a peculiar veffel or cafe to contain the feed 5 which 
 is fometimes divided into cells. 
 
 Thefe have commonly a monopetalous flower ; either uni- 
 form or difform. 
 
 The former have all their feeds divided; either, i°- Into 
 two partitions, as the hyofcyamus, nicotiana* and the gen- 
 tiana. z°. Into three partitions, as the convolvulus, fpecu- 
 lum veneris, trachelium, rapunculus or campanula, rapunculus, 
 corntcutatus, Sic. 3 °. Into four partitions ; as t\\z framomum. 
 Thofe of the latter kind, which have a difform monopeta- 
 lous flower, are the linaria, pinguicula, antirrhinum* arijto- 
 hchia, fcrophularia, digitalis, pcdicularis, melampyrum, eu~ 
 fhrafta, &c. See Supplement, Linaria, &c. 
 
 VASE, a term of equal import with the Latin vas, whence 
 it is formed ; and with the Englifh veffel. See Vessel. 
 It is applied to the antient veflels, dug from under ground, 
 or otherwife found, and preferved in cabinets, EsV . as vefiels 
 of facrifice, urns, He, and to other more modern vefiels, 
 which are rather of curiofity and lnew, than ufe; as thofe 
 of cryftal, porcelain, fsV. 
 
 Vases, in architecture, arc ornaments of fculpture, placed on 
 focles, or pedeftals; representing the vefiels of the antients; 
 particularly thofe ufed in facrifice, as the prsfuiculunft» £m- 
 pulum, incenfe pots, flower-pots, csV. and occafionally en- 
 riched with baflb relievos. 
 
 They are commonly placed there to crown, or finifii facades, 
 or frontifpieces. — They arc frequently alfo called acroteria; 
 and are ufually iniulatc. 
 
 Vitruvius mentions a kind of theatrical vafes, made of brats, 
 or earthen ware, called echea, r^na. ; which they difpofed in 
 private places, under the fteps and feats of the theatres, to 
 aid and increafe the reflection and refonance of the actors 
 voices, £sV. It is faid, there are alfo vafes of this kind in 
 the cathedral church of Milan. 
 
 Vase is particularly ufed in architecture, to fignify the body 
 of the Corinthian and compofite capital ; called alfo the tam- 
 bour* or drain; and fometimes the campana, or bell. — See 
 Tab. Arch'tt. Jig. 21. lit. c.c. 
 
 Vase is alfo fometimes ufed among florifts, for that they other- 
 wife call the calyx. 
 
 The vafe, or rather calyx of a tulip, is the top or head of 
 a tulip ; the leaves whereof form a kind of vafe, or cup. 
 Goldimiths, brafiers, ts\r. alio ufe vafe for the middle of a 
 church candleftick 5 which is ufually of a roundifh figure, 
 bordering fomewhat on that of a vafe. 
 VASSAL*, Vassallus, in our antient cuftoms, a perfon 
 who vowed fidelity and homage to a lord, on account of 
 fome land, &c. which he held of him, in fee. 
 
 * Da Cange will have the word to come from vajfus, whjtcfa 
 anciently fignified a fervaat, or domeftic of a prince, and 
 fometimes alio the comites, or ajfejfores in public trials. — 
 Menage, after Cujas, takes vajfal to have been formed of 
 geffel, an antient German word, fignifying companion. — 
 Cafeneuve derives it from the Gaulish geffks, a brave man, 
 from gejfb, or gejfum, or jafum, a kind of javelin ufed 
 among them. — Voimis derives vajfal from ras, vadis, pledge; 
 whence alio he will have it to be, that they are fometimes called 
 Jideles. 
 
 The vajfal was alfo called piratus, lord's-man, and fee-man ; 
 but now the denomination is changed into that of tenant in 
 
 }."■ 
 
 They fometimes alfo ufed the term vajfour for vajfal; 
 whence vivafour. 
 
 If a vajfal offended his lord grievoufly, either in perfon, or 
 in honour, he committed the crime of felony ; which car- 
 ried with it a confutation of his fee. 
 
 J Rear Vassal, is he who holds of a lord, who himfclf is 
 vajfal of another lord. 
 
 Vassal was alfo antiently ufed for foldier; by reafon fees, at 
 firft, were given to none but military men. 
 
 V A U 
 
 VASSALAGE, the ftate of a vaflal j or a fcrvitudc and de- 
 pendency on a fuperior lord. 
 
 Antiently, they diftinguifhed between liege majfalagt, and 
 Jimple vajfalage. 
 
 Liege vajfalage only belonged to the king; as carrying with 
 it an obligation on the fide of the vaflal, to ferve his Jord in 
 war, againft all per Ions whatever. See Liege. 
 In all Jimple vajfalage* the fealty, or liege vajfalage, [was 
 ftill referved to the king. 
 
 Some alfo diftinguifh a (five vajfalage, and paffive ; the firft 
 
 is the right of fealty refiding in the lord ; the fecond, the 
 
 fervicc and duties incumbent on the tenant. 
 VASTO, in law, a writ that lies againft: the tenant for life, 
 
 or years, for making wafte. 
 VASTUS, in anatomy, a name common to two mufcles of 
 
 the leg, diftinguifhed into internal and external ; thus called 
 
 from their largenels : both of them ferving to extend the 
 
 leg. 
 
 Vastus Extcrnus, fprings from the root of the great trochan- 
 ter, and from the linea afpera ; outwardly tendinous, and in- 
 wardly flefby; and defcending obliquely forwards, becomes, 
 vice verja, tendinous inwardly, and fiefhy outwardly; till 
 meeting the tendon of the rectus, it grows quite tendinous, 
 and is inferted together with it. — See Tab. Jnat. (Myol.) 
 Jig. 1. u. 60. Jig. 2. n. 41. Jig. 6. n. 35. 
 
 Vastus Intcrnus* arifes likewife partly tendinous, and partly 
 fleftiy, from the linea afpera, immediately below the leis tro- 
 chanter, upon the outfide of the tibia; and is continued al- 
 mofr to the lower apophyfis thereof, on the infide: whence 
 it defcends obliquely ; and growing tendinous, is inferted with 
 the former. — See Tab. Jnat. (Myol.) Jig. 1. n. 55. fig. 2. 
 «• 39- fig- 7- »■ 42. 
 
 VAT, or Fat, a kind of veffel, ufed to hold wine, ale, 
 beer, cyder, or any other liquor, in the time of its prepara- 
 tion. 
 
 VATICAN*, Vaticanus, is properly the name of one 
 of the feven hills whereon Rome Hands : on rhe foot hereof 
 is the famous church of S. Peter, hence called the Vatican - 
 and a magnificent palace of the pope, which has the fame 
 denomination. — Hence arife divers figurative expreflions ; 
 as the thunderbolt of the Vatican, q. d. the pope's anathe- 
 ma, c?c, 
 
 * The word, according to Aulus Gellius, is derived from vati- 
 cinium, prophecy; by reafon of the oracles and predictions 
 which wereufed to be delivered there by the infpiracion cf 
 an antient deity, called Vaticanus ; who was fuppoied to .un- 
 bind the organs of fpcech in new born children; and whom 
 others will have to be no other than Jupiter, confidered in that 
 capacity. 
 
 The Library of the Vatican, is one of the moft celebrated En 
 
 the world : it is particularly remarkable for its manufcripts. 
 
 Towards the beginning of the lalt century, it was greatly 
 augmented by the addition of that of the elector Palatine — 
 
 It is open to all the world three or four times a week In 
 
 it are fhewn a Virgil, Terence, &c. above a thoufand years 
 old ; as alfo the manufcript whereon the edition of the' Sep- 
 tuagint was made; and abundance of rabbinical manu- 
 fcripts. 
 
 VATICINATION, Vaticinatio, the act of pro- 
 phecying, or divining. See Divination, and Prophe- 
 cy. 
 
 VAVASOR, Valvasor, Vavasour, or Valvajour, 
 in our antient cuftoms, a diminutive of vajfal, or vaffmr ; 
 fignifying a vajfal of a vajfal, or one who held a fee of ano- 
 ther vaflal. 
 
 Yet Camden, and others, holds vavafor to be a di<mitv next 
 below that of a baron: he adds, that the word is formed of 
 vas fortitum ad valetudinem, a veffel chofen for fiifcty, and 
 health. — Others derive it a valvis, quafi obligatus fit ad- 
 flare ad valvas domini, vel indignus fit eas intrare ; as beinf a 
 perfon obliged to wait at his lord's door, or as unworchytu 
 enter theieat: but this etymology is ridiculous enough. 
 Du Cange diftinguifhes two forts of vailiiis under this deno- 
 mination: — The great, called valvajores, who held of a 
 king: fuch were counts and barons.' — And the IcJJ'er, called 
 valvafini, who held of the former. 
 VAVASORY*, Vavasoria, the quality of the land, or 
 fee held by a vavafor. See Vavasor. 
 
 * Quod dieitur de baronia von eft obfervsndiim ir. vavnforia, rel 
 aliis minoribus feodis qtiam baronia, quia caput non hubent fuut 
 baronia. Bracl. Lib. JI. cap. 39. 
 
 There are baje vavafories, and frank, or noble vavafories ; 
 according as it has pleafed the lord to make his vavafor.^ 
 Bafe vavafories, are thofe for which the lord of the fee owes 
 fummage, light-horfe, rents, or other fervices. — Free vava- 
 Jorics, arc fuch as are exempt from thefe fervices. 
 VAUDOIS, Valdenses, or Wa lde nses, a name given 
 to a feet of reformers, who made their firft appearance about 
 the year 1160; or, as others will have it, about the year 
 1 1 18. 
 
 The occafion of their rife is thus delivered: — " In an af- 
 
 ** fembly 
 
V A U 
 
 %t fembly of feveral of the more confiJeialile citizens of 
 11 Lyons, one of them fell down Hidden ly dead in the mid - 
 81 die. — Upon which, Pierre Valdo, who was one of the 
 ** number, being ftruck with the accident, diftributcd a 
 *' large fum of money among tJic poor on the fpot. — This 
 «« drawing a great number of people to follow him, he ex- 
 *' horted them to embrace a voluntary poverty, after the 
 « example of Jefus Chrift, and his apoftles : and as he was 
 «' a man of fome learning, he expounded to them the New 
 '* Teftament in the vulgar tongue. 
 
 « The clergy foon began to cry out on him as a rafli intru- 
 " der: but he, defpifing their reprimands, ftill held on ; and 
 " even went further. — For the accufations of the priefts 
 " having exafperated him, he began to declaim againft them ; 
 w expofed their corrupt lives and morals ; and even, by dc- 
 ** grces, came to ceni'ure fome of the corruptions in the dif- 
 *' cipline and doctrine of the church." — And this paved 
 fome of the way to the Reformation. 
 The Vaudois had their name from this Valdo, whofe retainers 
 they were. — They were alfo called Lysnijis, and Sabatez, 
 or Infabatez, or Enfabatez. 
 VAULT, Fornix, in architecture, an arched roof, fo con- 
 trived, as that the feveral ftones whereof it conlifts, do, by 
 their difpofition, fuftain each other. 
 
 Vaults are to be preferred, on many occafions, to foffits, or 
 flat ceilings, as they give a greater rife and elevation ; and 
 beftdes, are more firm and durable. 
 
 The antients, Salmafius obferves, had only three kinds of 
 vaults: the firft:, the fornix, made cradle-wife ; the fecond, 
 thvtejiudo, tortoife-wife, called by the French cul defeur, 
 or oven-wife ; the third, the concha, made (hell-wife. 
 But the moderns fubdividc thele three forts into a great 
 inany more, to which they give different names, according 
 >to their figures, and ufe : fome are circular, others cilipti- 
 ml, &c. 
 
 The fwecpsof fome, again, are larger, and others lefs por- 
 tions of a fphere: all above bemifpheres are called high, or 
 furmounted vaults ; all that are lefs than hemifpheres, are 
 low, or furbafed vaults, &c. 
 
 In fome, the heighth is greater than the diameter j in others, 
 it is lefs : there are others, again, quite flat, only made with 
 haunfes ; others oven-like, or in form of a cul de four, &c. 
 and others growing wider, as they lengthen, like a trumpet. 
 Of vaults, fome are Jingle, others double, crofs, diagonal, ho- 
 rizontal, afcending, defending, angular, oblique, pendent, Sec, 
 — There are likewife Gothic vaults, with peudentives, &c. 
 Majier Vaults, are thofe which cover the principal parts of 
 buildings; in con trad iftinftion to the kjfer, or fubordinatc 
 vaults, which only cover fome little part ; as a paffage, a 
 gate, &e. 
 
 Double Vault, is fuch a one as, being built over another, to 
 make the exterior decoration range with the interior, leaves 
 a fpace between the convexity of the one, and the concavity 
 of the other : as in the dome of S. Paul's at London, and 
 that at S. Peter's at Rome. 
 
 Vaults with Compartments* are fuch whofe fwecp, or inner 
 face is enriched with panncls of fculpturc, fcparated by plat- 
 bands: thefe compartiments, which are of different figures, 
 according to the vaults, and are ufually gilt on a white ground, 
 are made with rtucco, on brick vaults ; as in the church of 
 S.Peter's at Rome ; and with plaifter, on timber vaults. 
 
 Theory of Vaults. — A femicircuiar arch, ovvault, ftandL. 
 on two piedroits, or imports, and all the ftones thatcompofe 
 it, being cut and placed in fuch manner, as that their joints, 
 or beds, being prolonged, do all meet in the centre of the 
 vault ; it is evident, all the ftones muft be in form of 
 wedges, /'. e. they muft be wider and bigger at top than at 
 bottom : by virtue of which, they fuftain each other, and 
 mutually oppofe the effort of their weight, which determines 
 them to fall. 
 
 The ftone in the middle of the vault, which is perpendi 
 cular to the horizon, and is called the key of the vault, L 
 fuftained on each fide by the two contiguous ftones, juft as 
 by two inclined planes: and of confequence, the effort it 
 makes to fall, is not equal to its weight. 
 But ftill, that effort is greater, as the inclined planes are lefs 
 inclined; fo that, if they were infinitely little inclined, i. e. 
 if they were perpendicular to the horizon, as well as the 
 key, it would tend to fall with its whole weight, and would 
 ■ actually fall, but for the mortar. 
 
 The fecond ftone, which is on the right or left of the key- 
 ftone, is fuftained by a third ; which, by virtue of the figure 
 of the vault, is neceffarily more inclined to the fecond, than 
 the fecond is to the firft ; and of confequence, the fecond, 
 in the cftortjt makes to fall, employs a lefs part of its weight 
 
 U B I 
 
 than the firft. 
 
 For the fame reafon, all the ftones, reckoning from the key- 
 ftone, employ ftill a lefs and lefs part of their weight to the 
 laft; which, reftingon a horizontal plane, employs no part 
 of its weight; or, which is the fame thing, makes no effort 
 to fall ; as being intirely fupportcd by the import. 
 
 Now, ,n vaul,,, a great point to be aimed at is, that all 
 the feveral ftones, make an equal effort in *rd« to fall 
 To effect ,h,s, .Ms vifihle, that as each (reckoning from the 
 key to the import) employs a ftill lefs and left p rt of its 
 whole weight; the firft, for inrtance, only employing one 
 hali ; the fecond, one third , the third, one fourth, L Ihete 
 is no other way to make thofe different parts equal, but by 
 a proportionable augmentation of the whole i i the fe- 
 cond ftone muft he heauer than the firft; the' third, than 
 the fecond, to the laft; which fhould be vaitly bca- 
 vfer. , ~ — —v 
 
 M. de la Hire demonftrates what that proportion is, in 
 which the weights ot the ftones of a femicircuiar arch 
 muft be increaled, to be in equilibrio, or to tend with 
 equal forces to full ; which gives the firmed difpofition a 
 vault can have. 
 
 Before him, the architects had no certain rule to conduct 
 themfelves by ; but did all at random. Reckoning the de- 
 grees of the quadrant of (he circle from the key-ftone to 
 the impoft; the extremity of each ftone will tike up fo 
 much the greater arch, as it is farther from the kev. 
 M. de Ir Hire's rule is, to augment the weight of each ftone 
 above that of the key-ftone, as much as the tangent of the 
 arch ot the ftone exceeds the tangent of the arch of haK the 
 key.— Now, the tangent of the laft ftone, of neceffity be- 
 comes infin.te, and of confequence its weight fhould he fo 
 too : but as infinity has no place in praa.ee, the rule a- 
 mounts to this that the laft Itones be loaded as much as 
 poffible, that they may the better refill the effort which the 
 vault makes to leparate them ; which is called the font or 
 drift of the vault. ' 
 M. Parent has lince determined the curve, or figure which 
 the extrados, or outf.de of a vault, whofe intiados, or in- 
 fide, is fphencal, ought to have, that all the Hones mav 
 he in equihbiio. ' 
 kt} of a Vault, is a ftone, or brick, in the middle of the 
 vault in form of a truncated cone, ferving to bind or fallen 
 all the reft. 
 
 kmt, or Filling, up of a Vault, are the fides which fur- 
 tain it. 
 
 Ptndmtivc of a Vault, is the part fufpended between the 
 
 arches or ogives. Sec Pendent 1TB, 
 Impofl of a Vault, is the' ftone whereon the firft vouffoir, 
 
 or arch.ftone of the vault is laid. 
 Vault, or Volt, in the manage. See Volt 
 VAUNT, or Vant. See the article Va n 
 VAUNT-Lry. among hunters, a fetting of hounds, or beagles, 
 
 in a readmefs where the chafe is to pafs ; and caft.ng them 
 
 off ^before the reft of the kennel come in. 
 \AYVODE, or VAivonE. Sec the article Way- 
 
 1VODE. 
 
 UB r^ U f I r T u*' UB ' <lU,TAR,ES ' °rUB,QU,TAR,AN S , 
 a feet of Lutherans, which role and fpread itfclf in Ger- 
 many ■ and whofe diftinguifhing doctrine was. that the body 
 of Jefus Chrift is every where, or in everv nlare 
 * The word i 
 where. 
 
 Brentius, one of the earlicft reformers, is faid to have firft 
 
 broached this error, in 1560 Melanchthon immediately 
 
 declared againft it ; maintaining that it introduced, with the 
 Futychcans, a kind of confufion into the two natures of 
 Jefus Chrift ; and protefted, that he would op f ofe it as lang 
 
 very where, or in every place, 
 is formed from the Urin adverb, uHqttt, every 
 
 Andrew andFlacius Illyrius, Oftandc 
 
 1 he iiued. 
 On the other hand 
 
 tic efpoufed Brentius's party ; and" afrertcd"tl.e"body of 
 Jclus Chrift to be every where. 
 
 The univerfities of Leipfic and Wirtemberg, and the irene- 
 rality ot Proteftants, fet themfelves againft this new buefy 
 but in vain : AeVhfmltrum, grew ftronger and ftronger _ 
 Six of their leaders, Schmideiin, Selncccer, Mufculus, Chem- 
 nitius, Chytraeus, and Cornerus, having a meeting in i; 77 
 m the monallery of Berg, they there compofed a kind of 
 credo, or iormula of faith; wherein the ubiquity was efta- 
 bl.fhed as an article. 
 
 All the UUouitiJls, however, are not agreed : fome of them 
 and among the reft the Swedes, hold that Jefus Chrift, even 
 during his mortal life, was every where : others maintain that 
 it is only lince his afcenlion that his body is every where 
 G. Hornius only allows Brentius the honour of being t| K firft 
 propagator of hliquitifm ; its firft inventor, according to him 
 was JohnofWcftphaiia, a minillcr of Hamburg, j„ 
 UB "V' S » '"■ tl,e t "" ivcr '' 1 )' i»a term applied "to 
 
 ' to any parti- 
 
 fuch doctors in theology, as are not reftraincd 
 cular houfe ; either to that of Navarre, or Sorbonrie. 
 TheUhiquiJl, arc called, fimply, doctors in theology; where- 
 as the others add, of the houje of Soricme, M Novum e,c. 
 SceSoRRosNE, Doctor, tic. 
 UBIQUITY, imniprtfma ; an attribute of the Godhead 
 whereby he is always intimately prefent to all thin-s- ^.ves 
 theeftc to all things; and knows, preferves, audioes all 
 111 all things. 
 
V E G 
 
 For iince God cannot be faid to eJt'ift in all places, as placed 
 therein (becaufe, then, he would need fomethmg to his ex- 
 iilence viz place ; and would have cxtcnfion, parts, &c.) 
 he muft be conceived to be everywhere, or in all things, as 
 a fird, univerfal, efficient caufe, in all his effects. 
 He is prefent, therefore, to all his creatures, as a pure act, or 
 an cxercife of an a£tive virtue, which knows, preferves, go- 
 verns, Vc every thing.— Nor are, even finite minds, pre- 
 lent otherwife than by operation. 
 
 UDDER, Uber, in comparative anatomy, that part m 
 brutes wherein the milk is prepared ; anfwermg to the mam- 
 mae, or bread's in the human kind. 
 
 VECTIS, in mechanics, one of the powers ; more uinally 
 called the lever. 
 
 Heterodromus Vectis. See the article Heterodromus. 
 
 VECTOR, in adronomy, a line fuppofed to be drawn from 
 any planet moving round a centre, or the focus of an ellipiis 
 to that centre, or focus. . 
 This, by feme writers of the new aftronomy, is called vec- 
 tor, or radius vector, becaufe it is that line by which the pla- 
 net feems to be carried round its centre-, and with which it 
 defcribes areas proportional to the times. 
 
 VEDETTE, in the military art, a fentir.el on horleback, 
 detached from the main body of the army, to difcover and 
 oive notice of the enemy's defigns. 
 
 VEER, a fea term, varioufly M.— Veering out the rope, de- 
 notes the letting it go by hand, or letting it run out of it- 
 felf: thus, they fay, Veer more cable; that is, let more run 
 out. . 
 But they do not ufe the word for the letting out of any run- 
 ning rope, except the meat. 
 
 Veer is alfo ufed in reference to the wind: for when it 
 chances often, and fuddenly, they fay, the wind veers. 
 When a fhip under fail, has her fheat veered out, they (ay, 
 Ihe roe, veering ; that is, at large , neither by a wind, not 
 diredlly before it, but between both: which they alfo call 
 
 quartering. , ' . ..-tit 
 
 VEGETABLE, Vecetabiij, in phyfiology, a term 
 applied to all plants, conlidercd as capable ol growth, 
 i. e to all natural bodies which have parts orgamcal form- 
 ed for generation, and accretion, but not fenfation. See 
 
 Xtl vegetables, there is fuppofed to be a principle of life, com- 
 monly called the vegetative foul. 
 
 Boerhaave very fcientifically defines a vegetable to be a body 
 generated of the earth ; to which it adheres, or is connect- 
 ed, by parts called roots, through which it receives the 
 matter of its nourifhment, and increafe j and confining of 
 juices, and ved'els, fenfibly didinft from each other. Or, 
 - a vegetable is an organical body, compofed of vcffcls and 
 juices every where diftinguilhable from each other; to 
 which grow roots, or parts, whereby it adheres to fome 
 other body, from which it derives the matter of its life, 
 and growth. ,,' _ 
 
 This definition furnifhes a juft and adequate idea of a vege- 
 table ■ for by its confifting of veffels and juices, it is diftin- 
 o-uifhed from a fojjil; and by its adhering to another body, 
 Snd deriving its nourifhment therefrom, it is diftinguifhed 
 from an animal. ' 
 
 A vegetable is defined an organical body, becaufe confining of 
 different parts, which jointly concur to the exercife of the 
 fame function. 
 
 Adhering by fome of its parts to another bod) — for we know 
 of no plant that is fo abfolutcly vague and fiuduating, but 
 has ftill a body it adheres to ; though that body may be va- 
 rious, e. gr. earth, as in our common plants; done, as in 
 rock-plants ; water, as in fea-plants , and air, as in fomt 
 mucilages. 
 
 As to thofe few plants which appear to float with the water 
 their manner 'of growth is fomewhat anomalous: M. Tour 
 nefort has affirmed, that all plants do not arife dridfly from 
 folid feeds ; but that fome, inftead of a folid femen, depofitc, 
 or let fall a little drop of juice, which finking in the water, by 
 its gravity reaches the bottom, or fome rock, tie. in its way ; 
 to which it flicks, ffrikes root, and moots into branches: 
 Such is the origin of coral. 
 
 Add, that the root of a plant may have any fituation at plea- 
 fure, with refpect to die body thereof; nor needs it either bt 
 lowed, or higheft, tie — Accordingly, in aloes, coral, 
 modes, fungus's, tie. the root is frequently uppermofl, and 
 the growth downwards. 
 
 The vafcular druflure of vegetables, is rendered very appa 
 rent, by an experiment of Mr Willughby. — Cutting off 
 fome pretty big branches of birch, and making a fort of ba- 
 fon, or refervoir on the end thereof with foft wax ; up- 
 on filling this with water, and holding the branch upright, 
 the water, in a few minutes, funk into the veffels ol the 
 wood, and running quite through the length, dropped out 
 confiderably fad at the other end ; continuing fo to do, 
 as long as the water was poured on. — The fame fucceeds 
 in the fycamore, walnut tree, CSV. though the flux here is 
 
 V E G 
 
 not lb copious. Philefepb. TranfaCl. N» 70. 
 There are fecrets whereby the growth of vegetables if fur- 
 priftntdy promoted. — Mr Boyle mentions a virtuofo, who 
 entertained his friends at the end of their meal with a fallad 
 of lettices, which he fowed in their prefence, immediately 
 before they fat down to table. 
 
 The chymids alfo furnifh us with an extraordinary fort of 
 what they call vegetables : as, the arbor Dianae, arbor Mar- 
 tis, tie. — In ededt, gold, filver, iron, and copper, being 
 prepared in aqua fortis, there rifes out of them a kind ot 
 tree which vegetates, or grows, before the naked eye, and 
 fpre'ads into branches, leaves, tie. the whole heighth of the 
 water; till ad the matter is fpent therein. See Arbor. 
 Diana, &c. ' 
 The water ufed by many in this procefs, the chymids call 
 flint water ; the fecret whereof has been communicated by 
 Rhodocanaffes, a Greek chymilt. 
 
 Vegetable Oil. See the article Oil. 
 
 VEGETATION, Vegetatio, the z£t whereby plants, 
 and other living bodies, receive nourifliment, and grow. 
 Plants, we learn from the microfcope, confrft ot different 
 parts, veffels, &c. analogous to thofe of animals : and eacli 
 kind of veflel is fuppofed to be the vehicle of a different hu- 
 mour, or juice, fecreted from the mats of fap ; which is con- 
 fidered as the blood, or common fund of them all. 
 Dr Grew affigns the offices of the feveral veflels: thofe pla- 
 ced on the inner verge of the bark, he calls lymphaducls, and 
 fuppoi'es them dedined for the conveyance of the mod aque- 
 ous, or watery liquor ; thefe Mr Bradley calls the newjorm- 
 ing veffels, which are annually produced, and help to increafe 
 the bulk of the tree. 
 
 Thofe in the middle of the bark, Dr Grew calls lactife- 
 rous, or refiniferoiis veflels ; their ufe, according to Bradley, 
 is to return the fuperfluous fap : Thefe veflels, Grew 00- 
 ferves, are the principal vifcera of plants; and adds, that as 
 the vifcera of animals are but fuch vcllcls conglomerated ; fo 
 the vcifels of a plant are vifcera drawn out at length. 
 To the nutrition of plants, as well as that of animals, it 
 feems neccd'ary that there be a concurrence of two fpecifi- 
 cally didinfl fluids; and a learned author maintains an in- 
 termixture of two fuch humours in every part of a tree, like 
 that which we obferve in linfey-woolfey : every part of fap 
 being impregnated with other tinctures, and continually fil- 
 tred from fiDrcs of one kind to thofe of another. And from 
 this mixture, many of the phenomena ot the ripening, 
 odours, colours, tic. are accounted tor. 
 Theory of Vegetation. — The procefs of nature in the bto 
 gelation of plants, is very accurately delivered by the excel- 
 lent Malpighi, to the efle£t following. 
 
 The egg (or feed) of the plant being excluded out of the 
 ovary, (called pod, or husk) and requiring further foitering 
 and brooding ; is committed to the earth. 
 There, that kind mother having received it into her bofom, 
 not only docs the office of incubation, by her own warm va- 
 pours and exhalations, joined with the heat of the fun; but, 
 by degrees, fupplies what the feed requires for its further 
 growth: as abounding every where with canals and hnus's, 
 wherein the dew, and rain-water, impregnated with fertile 
 falls, glide, like the chyle and blood in the arteries, tic. of 
 animals. 
 
 This moidure meeting with a new depofitcd feed, is perco- 
 lated, or drained through the pores or pipes of the outer 
 rind, or hulk, (correfponding to the fecundines of fuitus's) 
 on the infide whereof lie one or more, commonly two, thick 
 fcminal leaves, (anfwering to the placenta in women, and 
 the cotyledons in brutes.) 
 
 Thefe feed-leaves confid of a great number of little veficube, 
 or bladders ; with a tube, correfponding to the navel-dring 
 
 in animals; ' 
 
 In thefe veficula: is received the moidure of the earth, drain- 
 ed through the rind of the feed; which makes a flight fer- 
 mentation with the proper juice before contained therein. 
 This fermented liquor is conveyed by the umbilical veflel to 
 the trunk of the little plant ; and to the germ, or bud, which 
 is contiguous thereto: upon which, n vegetation and increafe 
 of the parts fucceeds. 
 
 Such is the procedure in the vegetation of plants ; which the 
 illuftrious author exemplifies in a grain of wheat ; as follows. 
 
 The firft day the grain is fown, it grows a little turgid ; 
 
 and the fecundine, or hufk, gapes a little in feveral places : 
 and the body of the plant, being continued by the umbili- 
 cal veflel to a conglobated leaf, (which is called the pulp 
 or flefli of the feed, and is what conftitutcs the flower) 
 fweltt ; by which means, not only the gem, or fprout, (which 
 is to be the future Item] opens, and waxes green ; but the 
 roots begin to bunch out ; whence the placenta, or feed-leaf, 
 becoming loofe, gapes. - 
 The fecond day the fecundine, or hufk, being broke through ; 
 the dem, or top of the future ftraw, appears on the outttde 
 thereof, and grows upwards by degrees; in the mean tune, 
 
 the 
 
V E G 
 
 V E G 
 
 the feed-leaf guarding the roots, becomes turgid with its VC- 
 ftculfe; and puts forth a white down. And the leaf being 
 puiled away, you fee the roots of the plant bare ; the future 
 buds, leaves, and reft of the ftalk it ill lying hid. — Be- 
 tween the roots, and the afcending fern, the trunk of the 
 plant is knit, by the navel-knot,» to the flower-leaf ; which 
 is very moift, though it ftill retains its white colour, and its 
 natural tafte. 
 
 The third day, the pulp of the conglobated, or round leaf, 
 becomes turgid with the juice which it has received from the 
 earth, fermenting with its own. 
 
 Thus the plant increafing in bignefs, and its bud or item 
 becoming taller, from whitlfh, it turns greenifh : the late- 
 ral roots alfo break forth greenim, and pyramidal from the 
 gaping {heath, which adheres clofely to the plant; and the 
 lower root grows longer, and hairy, with many fibres ihoot- 
 ing out of the fame. 
 
 Indeed there are hairy fibres hanging all along on all the 
 roots, except on their tips ; and thcfc fibres are feen to wind 
 about the faline particles of the foil, little lumps of earth, 
 JsY. like ivy ; whence they grow curled. Above the lateral 
 roots, there now alfo break out two other little ones. 
 The fourth day, the ftem mounting upwards, makes a right 
 angle with the feminal leaf : The laft roots put forth more ; 
 and the other three, growing larger, arc cloatbed with more 
 hairs, which ftraightly embrace the lumps of earth ; and 
 vhere they meet with any vacuity, unite into a kind of net- 
 work. — The conglobate, or flower-leaf, is now fofter; and, 
 When bruifed, yields a white fweetifh juice, like barley 
 cream. — By ftripping it off, the root and ftem of the plant 
 are plainly feen, with the intermediate navel-knot, whofe 
 outer part is folid, like a bark, and the inner more foft, and 
 medullary. 
 
 The fifth day, the ftalk ftill rifing, puts forth a permanent, 
 or ftable leaf, which is green, and folded ; the roots grow 
 longer, and there appears a new tumor of a future root : 
 the outer, or fheath-leaf is loofened ; and the feed-leaf begins 
 to fade. 
 
 The fixth day, the ftable-leaf being loofened, the plant 
 mounts upwards ; the fheath-leaf ftill cleaving about it like 
 a bark. — .The feed-leaf is now feen finuous, or wrinkled, 
 and faded : and this being cut or freed from the fecundine, 
 the flefb, or pericarpium, is found of a different texture; the 
 outer part, whereby the outfide of the feed or grain is heaved 
 up, being more folid; but the infide veficular, and filled with 
 moifture, efpccially that part next the navel-knot. — All the 
 leaves being pulled off, the roots torn, and the flower-leaf re- 
 moved, the trunk appears; wherein, not far from the roots, 
 the navel-knot bunches out, and is folid, and hard to cut : 
 above, there is the mark of the {Heath-leaf, which was pulled 
 off; and underneath, as in an angle, the gem is often hid. 
 — The hind part of the plant, fhews the breaking forth of 
 the roots, and likewife the faded placenta, C3"c. 
 After the eleventh day, the feed-leaf, as yet fticking to the 
 plant,- is crumpled, and almoft corrupted ; within it is hol- 
 low; and about the fecundine, the mucous, and white fub- 
 ftance of the feed, being continued to the navel-knot, forms 
 a cavity. All the roots now becoming longer, put forth 
 new branches out of their fides : the feed-leaf withers, and 
 its veficles are emptied : the internodes, or fpaces between 
 the knots, grow ftronger ; new gems appear ; and the middle 
 root grows feveral inches long. 
 
 After a month, the roots and ftalk being grown much lon- 
 ger, new buds break out at the firft knot, and little tumors 
 bunch out, which, at length, break into roots. — ■ For other 
 circumjlances of Vegetation, fee Generation, Juice, 
 Seed, Radicle, Plume, Perpendicularity, Pa- 
 rallelism, &c. 
 As to the Vegetable Matter, or the food whereby plants grow, 
 there is fome doubt about it : the common opinion among 
 naturalifts, is, that water is the great vegetable food ; which 
 feems confirmed by an eafy experiment, 
 A fprig of balm, mint, or the like plant, is fet in a phial of 
 pure water, without any mixture of earth ; yet the fprig 
 grows, and puts forth roots, leaves, and branches. 
 Agreeable to which, is another famed experiment of Van 
 Helmont ; who drying 200 pounds of earth, and planting a 
 willow which weighed 5 pounds therein, watered it only 
 with rain, or diftilled- water ; and to fecurc it from any other 
 earth, covered it with a perforated tin cover: at 5 years end, 
 weighing the tree, with all the leaves it had born in that 
 time, he found it to weigh 169 pounds 3 ounces; yet the 
 earth was only diminiftied 2 ounces. 
 
 To afcertain this point, Dr Woodward has made fome very 
 good experiments; which, at the fame time, give light to 
 many other circumftances of vegetation. — His experiments 
 were mod of them made with fprigs of mint, and fome other 
 plants, nicely weighed, and inglofcd in equal glafs phials, 
 well covered up with parchment; leaving room for the 
 Items to afcend through it; and filled with water: fome 
 with fpring-water, others with rain-water, others with 
 Thames-water. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 At the end of 77 days he took them all out again; and 
 weighed them, as alfo the water left ; and computed the 
 weight of water expended on them, and the proportion of 
 the increafe of the plant, to the expence of the water. 
 The next year, viz. 1692, he made frefh experiments with 
 the fame phials, and the fame fort of plants, weighed as be- 
 fore, only fome were filled with Hyde-Park conduit-water 
 alone, others with the fame water and a certain proportion 
 of garden-earth diiiblved in it; and others in the fame water 
 diftiiled. 
 
 At the end of 56 days, he weighed the plants, water, fcfr. 
 and computed what each plant had gained, what quantity of 
 water was expended on the plant, and the proportion of the 
 increafe of the plant, to the decreafe of the water. 
 The refult of all which experiments, he gives us in the fol- 
 lowing obfervations, and reflecrions. — 1°. In plants of the 
 fame kind, the lefs they are in bulk, the fmaller quantity of 
 the fluid mafs, in which they are fet, is drawn off. — The 
 confumption, where the mafs is of equal thicknefs, being 
 pretty nearly proportional to the bulk of the plant. 
 In effccT:, the water feems to afcend up the veiTels of plants, 
 in much the fame manner as up a filtre : and it is no great 
 wonder, that the larger filtre fhould draw off more water 
 than the fmaller; or that a plant, that hath more and larger 
 yefiels fhould take up a greater fhare of the fluid, in which 
 it is fet, than one that has fewer can : nor is this noted as 
 a thing very confiderable in itfclf, but chiefly with regard to 
 what follows. 
 
 2°. Much the greater part of the fluid mafs thus drawn off, 
 and conveyed into the plants, does not fettle or abide there; 
 but pafTts through their pores, and exhales up into the at- 
 mofphere, — That the water, in thefe experiments, afcend- 
 ed only through the veflels of the plants, is certain ; fince 
 fome ghffes, which had no plants in them, though difpofiid 
 in like manner as the reft, remained at the end of the expe- 
 riment as at firft, without any diminution of water: and that 
 the greatcft part of it flies off from the plant, into the atmo- 
 fphere, is as certain. 
 
 I he leaft proportion of the water expended, was to the aug- 
 ment of the plant, as 46 or 50 to 1 ; and in fome as 100, 
 200, nay, in one, as 700 to 1. 
 
 This fo continual an emiffion of water, in fo great plenty, 
 from the parts of the plant, affords a maiiifeft reafon, why 
 countries that abound with trees, and the larger vegetables 
 efpccially, fhould be very obnoxious to damps, great humi- 
 dity in the air, and more frequent rains, than others that 
 are more open and free. — The great moifture in the air, 
 was a great inconvenience, and annoyance to thofe who 
 firft fettled in America; which, atthattime, was overgrown 
 with woods and groves: but as thefe were burned and de- 
 ftroyed, to make way for habitations, and culture of the 
 earth ; the air mended, and changed into a temper much 
 more ferene and dry than before. 
 
 Nor does this humidity go off pure, and alone, but it ufu- 
 ally carries with it many parts of the fame nature, with thofe 
 whereof the plant, through which it pafl'es, confifts : the craffer, 
 indeed, are not fo eafily born up into the atmofphere, but are 
 ufually depofited on the furface of leaves, flowers, and other 
 parts of the plants ; whence our mannas, our honies, and 
 other gummous exudations of vegetables: but the finer and 
 lighter parts, are with greater eafe fent up into the atmo- 
 fphere ; thence they are conveyed to our organs of fmell, 
 and by the air we draw in refpiration ; and are pleafant or 
 offenlive, beneficent or injurious to us, according to the 
 nature of the plants from which they arife — And fince thefe 
 owe their rife to the water that afcends out of the earth, 
 through the bodies of plants; we cannot be far to feek for 
 the caufe, why they are more numerous in the air in wet 
 (ummcrs, and a greater quantity of odours is found exhal- 
 ing from vegetables, in warm humid feafons, than in any 
 others. 
 
 3°- A great part of the terreftrial matter that is mixed 
 with water, afcends up into the plant, as well as the water. 
 — There was much more terreftrial matter, at the end of the 
 experiment, in the water of the glalfes that had no plants in 
 them, than in thofe which had plants. — The garden-mould 
 diflblved in fome of the glafies, was confiderably diminifti- 
 ed, and carried off ; nay, the terreftial and vegetable matter, 
 was born up in the tubes filled with fand, cotton, &c. in 
 that quantity, as to be evident, even to fenfe : and the bodies 
 in the cavities of the other tubes, that had their lower ends 
 immerfed in water, wherein faffron, cochineal, ts'c. had 
 been infufed, were tinged with vellow, purple, crV. — To 
 look abroad a little towards our fhores, and parts within the 
 verge of the fea, thefe will prcfent us with a large fcene of 
 plants, that, along with the vegetable, take up"into them 
 mere mineral matter alfo, in great abundance ; fuch is our 
 fea-purflain, the feveral forts of algas, of famphires, and other 
 marine plants: thefe contain common fea-falt,' which is. 
 the fame as the foffd, in fuch plenty, as not only plainly 
 to be diftinguifhed on the palate, but it may be drawn out 
 of them in confiderable quantity ; nay, fome affirm there; 
 
 '3 d 
 
V E G 
 
 are plants found that will yield nitre, and other mineral 
 
 The vegetable matter beingvery fine and light, is furprizingly 
 apt and dil'pofed to attend water in all its motions, and fol- 
 low' it into each of its recefi'es ; as appears not only from the 
 inftances above alledged, but from many others: percolate it 
 with all the care imaginable, filtre it with never fo many nitra- 
 tions, yet fome terreftrial matter will remain.— Dr Wood- 
 ward has filtred water through feveral fheets of thick paper, 
 and after that, through very ciofe fine cloth, twelve times 
 doubled ; and this over and over, and yet a considerable 
 quantity of this matter difcovered itfelfin the water, after all. 
 —Now if it thus pafl'es interilices that are fo very fmall 
 and fine, along with the water, it is the lei's ftrange, that it 
 mould attend it in its paffage through the duds and veffels of 
 plants : it is true, filtring and diftilling the water, intercepts, 
 and makes it quit fome of the earthy matter it was before 
 impregnated withal;' but then, that wh.ch continues with 
 the water after this, is fine and light, and fuch, confequent- 
 ly as is, in a peculiar manner, fit for the growth and nou- 
 rishment of vegetables —And this is the cafe of rain-water : 
 the quantity of terrettrial matters it bears up into the atmo- 
 fohere, is not great ; but what it does bear up, is chiefly of 
 that light kind, or vegetable matter, and that too perfectly 
 dfffo'lved, and reduced to fmgle corpufclcs, all fit to enter the 
 tubules, 'and veffels of plants : on which account it is, that 
 this water is fo very fertile and prolific. 
 The real'on why all the terrettrial matter mixed with the 
 water, does not afcend into the plant, is, that the mine- 
 ral matter nukes a great deal of it, which is not only 
 grol's and ponderous, but fcabrous and inflexible ; and fo not 
 dil'pofed to enter the pores of the roots: befides, a great many 
 of the fimple vegetable particles, by degrees, unite, and form 
 finall clods, or molecule, which Hick to the extremities of 
 the roots of thole plants ; and others of them, entangled in a 
 loofer manner, form the nubecula:, or green bodies fo com- 
 monly obl'erved in ilagnant water : thcl'e, when thus con- 
 joined, are too big to enter the pores, or afcend up the vef- 
 fch of plants ; which fingly they might have done. 
 Hence it is, that in agriculture, be the earth never fo rich, 
 good, and fit for the produSion of corn, or other vegetables; 
 little will come of it, unlefs the parts of it be feparated and 
 loofc : and it is on this account, fuch pains are bellowed 
 in the digging, tilling, ploughing, fallowing, harrowing, 
 and breaking the clodded lumps of earth : and it is the 
 fame way that fea-falr, nitre, and other falts, promote 
 vegetation. 
 
 Some authors imagine nitre effential to plants ; and that no- 
 thing in the vegetable kingdom is traniaCfed without it : but 
 Dr Woodward allures us, that by all the trials he has been 
 able to make, the thing feems to him quite otherwife : and 
 that when contiguous to the plant, nitre rather deft roys than 
 fl0lirifh.es it.— But nitre, and other falts, certainly loofen the 
 earth, and feparate the concreted parts thereof; by that 
 means, fitting and difpoiing tbem to be affirmed by the wa- 
 ter, and carried up into the feed or plant, for its formation 
 
 and increafe. It is every body's obfervation, how apt all 
 
 forts of falts are to be wrought upon by moifture, how eafily 
 they run with it ; and when thel'e are drawn off, and have 
 deferted the lumps wherewith they were incorporated, thofe 
 muft moulder immediately, and fall afunder of courfe : the 
 ' hardeft ftonc we meet with, if it happen, as it frequently 
 doth, to have any fort of fait intermixed with the fand of 
 which it confifls, upon its being expofed to a humid air, in 
 a Ihort time diffolves and crumbles all to pieces ; and much 
 more will clodded earth, or clay, which is not of fo com- 
 pact and folid a conftitution. 
 
 The fame way is lime likewife ferviccable in vegetation : the 
 hufbandmen fay, it does not fatten, but only mellows the 
 ground: by which they mean, it doth not contain any thing 
 in itfelf, that is of the fame nature with the vegetable mould, 
 or afford any matter fit for the formation of plants, but 
 merely foftens, and relaxes the earth ; by that means, ren- 
 dering it more capable of entering the feeds of vegetables 
 fet in it, in order to their nourilhment, than otherwife it 
 would have been. — -The properties of lime are well known, 
 and how apt it is to be put in a ferment, and commotion by 
 water ; nor can fuch commotion ever happen, when lime is 
 mixed with earth, however hard and clodded that may be, 
 without opening and loofening it. 
 
 4°. The plant is more or Iefs nourifhed, in proportion, as 
 the water in which it Stands, contains a greater or fmaller 
 quantity of proper terrcflrial matter in it. — The truth of 
 this propofition, is difcemable through the whole procefs of 
 this author's experiments.— The mint in one of his glaffes, 
 was of much the fame bulk and weight with that of two or 
 three others : but the water in which the firft was, being 
 river-water, which was apparently flored more copioufly 
 than the others with terreftrial matter, than the fpring or 
 rain-water, wherein the others ftood, occafioned it to ar- 
 
 V E G 
 
 rive at almoft double the bulk that either of them had, and 
 with a lefs expence of water too : fo likewife the mint in 
 another glafs, in whofe water was diflblved a fmall quan- 
 tity of good garden-mould ; though it had the difadvan- 
 tage to be lefs, when firft fet, than either of the mints in 
 two other glafTes, whofe water was the very fame with the 
 firft, only that it had notie of the earth mixed with it ; yet, 
 in a Ihort time, the plant not only overtook, but much out- 
 ftripped the others. 
 
 The reafon why the proportion of the increafe of the plant 
 is limited to the quantity of proper terreftrial matter in the 
 water, is, that all, even vegetable matter, is not proper for 
 the nourifhment of every plant: nor do there want good in- 
 dications, that every kind of vegetable requires a peculiar 
 and fpecific matter for its formation and nourifhment ; nay, 
 each part of the fame vegetable : and that there are very ma- 
 ny and different ingredients to go to the compofition of the 
 fame individual plant. — If, therefore, the foil wherein any 
 vegetable or feed is planted, contains all, or moft of thefe 
 ingredients, and thofe in due quantity, it will grow and 
 thrive there ; otherwife it will not : if there be not as many 
 forts of corpufcles, as are requifite for the conftitution of 
 the main, and more effential parts of the plant, it will not 
 profper at all ; if there are thefe, and not in fuffirient plenty, 
 it will never arrive to its natural ftature: or, if there be any 
 the lefs neceffary and effential corpufcles wanting, there will 
 be fome failure in the plant ; and it will be detective in 
 tafte, finell, colour, or fome other way. 
 Indeed, it is inconceivable how one uniform, homogeneous 
 matter, having its principles, or original parts of the fame 
 fubftance, conftitution, magnitude, figure, and gravity, fhould 
 conftitute bodies fo unlike in all thofe refpects, as vegetables 
 of different kinds are ; nay, even as the different parts of the 
 fame vegetable : that one fhould carry a refinous, another a 
 milky, a third a yellow, a fourth a red juice in its veins; 
 and one afford a fragant, another an offenfive fmell ; one be 
 fweet to the tafte, another acid, bitter, acerb, auftere, &c. 
 that one fhould be nourifhing, another polfonous ; one purg- 
 ing, another aftringent. — And this argument makes equally 
 ftrong againft thofe who fuppofe mere water the matter out 
 of which all bodies are formed.' — A cataputia in one of the 
 glaffes received but little increafe, only ^ grains all the 
 while it ftood, though 2501 grains of water were fpent up- 
 on it: but this might poifibly be owing, not to the water's 
 wanting matter fit for the nourifhment of that particular 
 plant, but to the water's being an improper medium for it to 
 grow in : too much of that liquor, in fome plants, may pro- 
 bably hurry the terreftrial matter through the veffels too fait 
 for them to lay hold of it. 
 
 But a farther proof of this doctrine is, that the foil once 
 pruper for the production of fome fort of vegetable, does not 
 always continue to be fo; but, in tract of time, lofes its pro- 
 perty ; and this fooner in fome lands, and later in others : 
 If wheat, for example, be fown upon land proper for that 
 grain, the firft crop will fuccecd very well, and perhaps the 
 iecond, and the third, as long as the ground is in heart, as 
 the farmers call it j but in a few years it will produce no 
 more, if fowed with that corn : fome other grain it may, 
 as barley ; and after this has been fown fo oft, that the land 
 can bring forth no more of it, it may afterwards yield fome 
 good oats ; and perhaps peafe after them. — At length it be- 
 comes barren; the vegetative matter that at firft it abounded 
 with, being reduced by the fuccefiive crops, and moft of it 
 born off : each fort of grain takes forth that peculiar mat- 
 ter, that is proper for its own nourifhrrfent. 
 It may be brought to bear another feries of the fairfe vege- 
 tables ; but that not till it is fupplied with a new fund of mat- 
 ter, of the like fort with what it firft contained ; either by 
 the ground's lying fallow for fome time, till the rain has 
 poured a frefh ftock upon it ; or by the manuring it. — That 
 this fupply is of the like fort, is evident from the feveral ma- 
 nures found beft to promote the vegetation ; which are, chief- 
 ly, either parts of vegetables, or of animals : of animals, we 
 fay, which cither derive their own nourifhment immediately 
 from vegetable bodies, or from other animals that do fo; in 
 particular, the blood, urine, and excrements of animals ; 
 ibavino-s of horn, and hoofs ; hair, wool, feathers, calcined 
 fhells, lees of wine and beer, afhes of all forts of vegetable 
 bodies, leaves, ftraw, roots, and ftubble, turned into earth 
 by ploughing, or otherwife, to rot and diffolve there. — 
 Thefe are our beft manures ; and being vegetable fubftances, 
 when refunded back again into the earth, they ferve for the 
 formation of other like bodies. 
 
 The like is obfervable in gardens, where the trees, fhrubs, 
 and herbs, after their continuing in one ftation, till they have 
 derived thence the greater part of the matter fit for their in- 
 creafe, will decay, and degenerate; unlefs either frefh earth, 
 or fome fit manure be applied to them : it is true they may 
 maintain themfclves there for fgme time, by fending forth 
 
 roots 
 
V E G 
 
 V E G 
 
 roots farther and farther, to an extent all around, to fetch 
 in more provifion ; but, at laft, they mull have a frefh fup- 
 ply brought to them, or they themfelves mull: be removed or 
 tranfplanted to fome place better furnifhed with matter for 
 their iubliftence. — And accordingly, gardeners obferve, that 
 plants that have ftood a long while in a place, have longer 
 roots than ufual ; part of which 'they cut off, when they 
 tranfplant to a frefh foil, as not now of any farther ufe to 
 them. 
 
 All thefe inftances point forth a peculiar terreftrial matter, 
 and not water, for the fubjcct to which plants owe their irr- 
 creafe: were it water only, there would be no need of ma- 
 nures, or transplanting; the rain falls in all places, in this 
 field and that, indifferently; and on one fide of an orchard 
 or garden, as well as another : nor could there be any rea- 
 fon, why a tract of laud fliould yield wheat one year, and 
 not the next, fince the rain fhowers down alike on each. 
 5°. Vegetables then are not formed of water, but of a certain 
 peculiar tcrreftrial matter. — A little diltillation fhews, that 
 there is a confiderable quantity of this matter contained both 
 in rain, fpring, and river-water : and the experiments above- 
 mentioned fliew, that the much greateft part of the fluid 
 mafs that afcends up into plants, does not fettle or abide 
 there, but pafles through the pores of them, and exhales in- 
 to the atmofphere ; and that a great part of the terreftrial 
 matter, mixed with the water, pafles up into the plant along 
 "with it; and that the plant is more or lefs augmented, in 
 proportion, as the water contains a greater or (mailer quan- 
 tity of that matter : from all which, we may reafonably in- 
 fer, that earth, and not water, is the matter that confiifutes 
 vegetables. 
 
 One of the fprigs of mint drew up into it 2501 grains of 
 the fluid mafs, and yet had received but 3* grains of in- 
 creafe from it : a fecond, though it had at firit the difadvan- 
 tage to be much lefs than the third, yet, being fet in water 
 ■wherewith earth was plentifully mixed, and the other in 
 water without any fuch earth, it had vaftly outgrown it ; 
 weighing; at leaft, 145 grains more than the former: a fourth 
 plant, though at firft a great deal lefs than the fifth, yet be- 
 ing fet in the foul crafs-watcr, that was hrft in the (till, af- 
 ter that in which the laft was fet was drawn off, had gained 
 in weight, at the end, above double what that in the finer 
 and thinner water had. — The proportion of the augment of 
 that plant which throve molt, was to the fluid mafs fpent 
 upon it, but as 1 to 46 ; in others, as 1 to 60, 1 00, zoo ; 
 and in the cataputia, but as 1 to 714. — One of the fprigs 
 took up 39 grains of water a day, one day with another ; 
 which wtismuch more than thewholeplantweighed originally, 
 and yet it gained not A of a grain a day in weight; and another 
 took up 253 grains a day, which was near twice as much as 
 its original weight; and after all, the daily increafe of the 
 plant was no more than 2^ grains. 
 
 6°. Spring and rain-water contain near an equal charge of 
 Tcgetable matter ; and river-water more than either of them. 
 — Thefe proportions hold in the main, but a ftrict and juft 
 comparifon is hardly to be expected ; inahnuch as in all pro- 
 bability, the water that falls in rain, contains at fome times 
 a greater fhare of terreftrial matter, than that which falls at 
 other times ; a more powerful and intenfe heat, of necefiity, 
 hurrying up a larger quantity of that matter, along with the 
 humid vapours that form rain, than one more feeble and re- 
 mifs poffibly can. — The water of one fpring may flow forth 
 with an higher charge of this matter, than that of another: 
 this depending partly upon the quicknefs of the ebullition of 
 the water, and partly upon the quantity of that matter latent 
 in the ftrata, through which the fluid pafles, and the greater 
 or lefs laxity of thofe ftrata: for the fame reafon the water 
 of one river may abound with it, more than that of another ; 
 nay, the fame river, when much agitated, and in commotion, 
 mull tear up more of it, than when it moves with lefs ra- 
 pidity, and violence. — That there is a greater quantity of this 
 matter in rivers, and that it contributes vaftly to the ordinary 
 fertility of the earth, we have an illuftrious inftance in the 
 Nile, the Ganges, and other rivers, that yearly overflow the 
 neighbouring plains: their banks producing the faireft and 
 largeft crops of any in the world. 
 
 7°. Water ferves only for a vehicle to the terreftrial mat- 
 ter which forms vegetables, and does not itfelf make any 
 addition to them. — Where the proper terreftrial matter is 
 wanting, the plant is not augmented, though never fo much 
 water af'cend into it : water, then, is not the matter that 
 compofes vegetable bodies ; it is only the agent that conveys 
 that matter to them, and diftributes it to their fevcral parts 
 for their nourifhment : that matter is fluggifh and inactive, 
 and would lie eternally confined to its beds of earth, without 
 advancing up into plants; did not water, or fome like in- 
 ftrumcnt, fetch it forth, and carry it into them. 
 This fluid is capacitated for the office here affigncd it, feve- 
 ral ways : by the figure of its parts, which, as appears from 
 many experiments, is exactly and mathematically fpherical ; 
 their furfaccs being peif.clly polite, and without any the leaft 
 
 irregularities. It is evident, corpufcles of fuch a figure are 
 eafily fufceptible of motion, and far above any others what- 
 ever; and confequently are the moft capable of moving and 
 conveying other matter that is not fo active: then, the intervals 
 of bodies of that figure, are, with refpefl to their bulk, of 
 all others, the largeft, and fo the moft fitted to receive and 
 entertain foreign matter in them ; befides, as far as the trials 
 hitherto made inform us, the conftituent corpufcles of water 
 are each, fingly confidered, abfolutely folid, and do not yield 
 to the greateft external force : this fecures their figure againft 
 any alteration, and the intervals of the corpufcle. mult, for 
 this reafon, be always alike. — -By the latter, it will be ever 
 difpofed to receive matter into it ; and by the former, when 
 once received, to bear it along with it. — Water is farther 
 capacitated to be a vehicle to this matter, by the tenuity and 
 finenefs of the corpufcles of which it confifts : we hardly 
 know any fluid in all nature, except fire, whofe conftituent 
 parts are fo exceeding fubtile, and fmall, as thofe of water 
 are : they will pafs pores and interfaces, that neither air. nor 
 any other fluid will. — This enables them to enter the fineft 
 tubes and veffels of plants, and to introduce the terreftrial 
 matter, conveying it to all parts of them ; whilft each, by 
 means of organs it is endued with for the pui pofe, intercepts, 
 and affumes into itfelf fuch particles, as are fuitable to its own 
 nature, letting the reft pafs on through the common ducts. 
 8°. Water is not capable of performing this office to plants, 
 unlefs aflifted by- a due quantity of heat. — This mult con- 
 cur, or vegetation will not fucceed. — The plants fet in the 
 glaffes in October, and the following colder months, had not 
 near the quantity of water fent up into them, or fo great an 
 additional increafe by much, as thofe that were fet in June, 
 July, and the hotter months. — It is plain, water has no 
 power of moving itfelf, or riling to the vaft heighth it does, 
 in the more tall and lofty plants; fo far from it, that it 
 doth not appear from any difcovery yet made, that even 
 its own fluidity conhlts in the inteftine motion of its parts, 
 whatever the Carteiians think. — Indeed, we need nothing 
 more to folve all the phenomena of fluidity, than fuch a 
 figure, and difpolition of parts, as water has : fpherical cor- 
 pufcles muff ftand fo very ticklifh upon each other, as to be 
 fufceptible of every imprcihon; and though not perpetually 
 in motion, they muft be always ready and liable to be put 
 into it, by.any the flightclt force imaginable : it is true, the 
 parts of fire, or heat, are not capable of moving themlclves, 
 any more than thofeof water ; but they are more fubtile, 
 light, and active, than thofe are, and fo are more eafily put 
 into motion. 
 
 That the concurrence of heat in this work is really neceffary, 
 appears not only from the experiments before us, but from 
 all nature ; from the fields and forefls, gardens and orchards : 
 we fee in autumn, as the fun's power is gradually lefs and 
 lefs, fo its effect on plants is remitted, and -vegetation flackens 
 by little and little. — Its failure is firft defcernible in trees; 
 which being railed higheft above the earth, require a more 
 intenfe heat, to elevate the water, charged with nourifhment, 
 to their tops ; fo that for want of frefh fupport and nutri- 
 ment, they filed their leaves, unlefs fecured by a firm and hard 
 conftitution indued, as our ever-grcens are : next, the ilirubs 
 part with theirs ; and then the herbs, and lower tribes : the 
 heat, being, at length, not fufficient to fupply even thefe, 
 though fo near the earth, and the fund of their nourifhment — 
 As the heat returns the fucceeding fpring. they all recruit 
 again, and are furnilhed with frefh fupplies and verdure : but 
 hrft, thofe which are loweft and neareft the earth, and that 
 require a leffer degree of heat to raife the water with its 
 earthy charge into them : then the fhrubs, and high vege- 
 tables, in ther turns ; and laft] y, the trees. — As the heat 
 increafes, it grows too powerful, and hurries the matter with 
 too great rapidity, through the finer and more tender plants ; 
 thefe, therefore, go off, and decay ; and others that are more 
 hardy and vigorous, and require a greater degree of heat, 
 fucceed in their order. — By which mechanifm, provident 
 nature furnifhes us with a very various and differing enter- 
 tainment; and what is beft fuited 10 each feafon all the year 
 round. 
 
 As the heat of the feveral feafons affords us a different face 
 of things, fo the feveral diflant climates fhew the different 
 fcenes of nature, and productions of the earth. — The hot- 
 ter countries ordinarily yield the largeft and talleft trees, and 
 thofe, too, in a much greater variety than the colder; even 
 thofe plants common to both, attain to a much greater buik 
 in the fouthern, than the northern climes : nay, there are 
 foroe regions fo cold, that they raife no vegetables at all to 
 any confiderable fize ; this we learn from Greenland Iceland, 
 and other places of like cold fituation and condition : in thefe 
 there are no trees, and the fhrubs are poor, little, and low. 
 ■ — .Again in the warmer climates, and fuch as do lunula 
 trees, and the large vegetables, if there happen a remilkon, 
 or diminution of the ufual heat, their productions are al- 
 ways impeded in proportion : our cold iummcrs give us 
 proof enough of this; for though, at fuch times, the heat 
 
 we 
 
V E I 
 
 we have is hifficient to raife the vegetative matter into ike 
 lower^plaius, our coins, wheat, barley, peafe, and the like; 
 an <j wc have plenty of ftra wherries, rafpberrics, gooieber- 
 iies, currants, and the fruits of fuch vegetables as arc lovv 
 and near the earth, and a moderate ftore of cherries, mul- 
 berries, plums, &c. and ibme others that grow at fomcwhat 
 greater heighth ; yet our apples, pears, walnuts, and the 
 produaions of the taller trees, have been fewer, and thole 
 not fo thoroughly ripened, and brought to that perfection, 
 as they are in more benign and warm feafons : and indeed, 
 in trees of the fame kind, thofe that keep clofe to the 
 earth, always produce the moft and beft fruit: for which 
 reafon it is, that the gardeners check and.reflrain the 
 growth of their better fruit-trees, and prevent their running 
 up to too great a heighth. — As to our grapes, apricots, 
 peaches, neclarins, and figs, they being tranfplanted hither 
 out of hotter countries, it is the lefs wonder we have a 
 failure of them in cold fummers.— Nor is it the fun, or the 
 ordinary emimon of the fubterranean heat only, that pro- 
 motes vegetation, but any other indifferently, according to 
 its power and degree ; as we find from our ftoves, and 
 hot-beds. 
 
 VEGETATIVE, Vegetativus, a term applied to that 
 principle, or part in plants, by virtue whereof they receive 
 nourilhment, and grow, or vegetate. 
 
 The philofophers (peak of three kinds of fouls, the vege- 
 tative, fenfitive, and rational. 
 
 The vegetative foul, is that principle whereby trees and 
 plants live, grow, ami produce their kinds. 
 This vegetative, principle is differently feated in different 
 -plants : an ingenious author obferves, that generally fpeak- 
 ing, its .place is exactly between the trunk, and root ; at 
 kail, this appears to be the place in moft of the annual 
 tribe ; which, if cut down near this place, rarely moot 
 again. 
 
 In other vegetables, as the elm, and many edible plants, it 
 feemsto reiide wholly in the roots ; which, if cut into ever 
 fo many parts, yet, thofe being planted in the ground, foon 
 grow. 
 
 in others, as the willow kinds, it fecms to be diftufed all 
 over, both root, trunk, and branches ; infomuch, that if 
 cut into a thoufand pieces,, there is no deflroyiug them with- 
 out fplkting them in the middle; and fcarcely then. 
 Laftly, in others, as the cereus's, ficus's, tsc. it is feated 
 in the body, branches, and leaves; any of which being put 
 into the "-round, ftrike root immediately, and grow. 
 The office of this vegetative principle, is to conco£t the 
 indigefted earth and (alts which afcend through the roots; 
 and to affimilate them to the nature of the plant. 
 VEHICLE, Vehiculum, in its literal fenfe, fignifies 
 fomevyhat that carries, or bears a thing along. See Car- 
 riage, Waggon, Wheel, &e. 
 
 Thus, in anatomy, the ferum is faid to be the vehicle that 
 conveys the globules of the blood. 
 
 In pharmacy, any liquid ferving to dilute another with, or 
 to admin titer it in, more agreeably to a patient, is called a 
 
 , vehicle. 
 
 \Vat»r is thus the vehicle of the nutritious matter of vegeta- 
 bles. 
 
 VEIL, Velum, a piece of fluff, ferving to hide, or pre- 
 vent the fight of any thing. 
 
 In this fenfe, we read of a large veil, or curtain, in the 
 temple of Jerufalem, miraculously rent at the paffion of our 
 Saviour. — In the Romilh churches, in time of Lent, they 
 have veils, or curtains over the altar, crucifix, images of 
 the faints, csV. 
 
 Veil, is alfo ufed for a large piece of crape, wore on the 
 head by nuns ; as the badge of their profeffion. — Whence, 
 to take the veil, fignifies to commence religious. 
 The novices wear white veils ; and thofe who have made 
 the vows, black ones. 
 
 The prelate before whom the vows are made, bleffes the 
 veil, and gives it the religious. 
 VEIN, Vena, in anatomy, a name given to fevcral vcfi'els, 
 or canals, which receive the blood from the divers parts of 
 the body, to which the arteries had conveyed it from the 
 , heart; and carry it back to the heart again. — See Tab. 
 Anat. (Angeiol ) fig. 6, 7. 
 
 The veins are only a continuation of the extreme capillary 
 arteries, reflected back again towards the heart. 
 In their progrefs, uniting their channels as they approach 
 the heart, they, at lart, all form three large veins, or 
 trunks, viz. The vena cava defcendens ; which brings the 
 blood back from all the parts above the heart. — The vena 
 cava afcendens ; which brings the blood from all the parts 
 below the heart— And the porta, which carries the blood 
 to the liver. 
 
 The anaftomofis, or inofculation of the veins and arteries, 
 . was firfl feen by the microfcopc, in the feet, £jc. of 
 
 frogs, and other amphibious animals, by Leewenhoeck ; 
 I but has fince been obferved in other animals, particularly 
 
 the omentum of a cat, by Mr Cowper, csV, 
 
 V E I 
 
 The coat5 of the veins are four, the fame with thofe of the 
 arteries ; only the mufcular coat is thin in all the veins, as 
 it is in the capillary arteries ; the preffure of the blood a- 
 ga'inft the fides of the veins, being lefs than that againft 
 the fides of the arteries, becaufe the force of the heart is 
 much broke in the capillaries. — See Tab. Anat, (Angeiol.) 
 fig. 7. a. a. h. b. c. d. 
 
 fu the veins there Is no pulfe, becaufe the blood is thrown 
 into them with a continual ftream, and becaufe it moves 
 from a narrow channel to a wider. — But they have a pe- 
 rillaltic motion, which depends on their mufcular coat. 
 '1 he capillary veins unite with one another, as has been 
 faid of the capillary arteries ; only their courfe is. directly 
 oppofite to that of thofe : for inilead of a trunk diflributed 
 into branches and capillaries, a vein is a trunk, formed out 
 of a concourfe of capillaries. 
 
 In all the veins, which are perpendicular to the horizon, 
 excepting thofe of the uterus, and the porta, there are fmall 
 membranes, or valves; fometimcs there is only one, fome- 
 tirries there are two, and fometinies three, placed together, 
 like fo many half thimbles fluck to the fides of the veins t 
 with their mouths towards the heart. 
 
 TheTe, in the motion of the blood towards the heart, are 
 preficd clofe to the fides of the vein ; but fhut the veins, 
 againlt any reflux of the blood that way from the heart, 
 and thereby they fuftain the weight thereof in the great 
 trunks. 
 
 The veins are dillinguifhed, with refpect to their fituation, 
 into fuperior, and inferior, afcending, and defending ; right, 
 as tiic mcfcntcric, and left, as the (picnic branch; internal, 
 as the balilica ; and external, as the humeral. 
 Many of them, likewife, acquire denominations from the 
 parts wherein they are found ; as, the jugulars, phrenitic, 
 renal, iliac, hypogaflric, epigaflric, axillary, crural, umbi- 
 lical, fciatica, faphena, med'tana, cephalic, - thoracic, fub- 
 clavian, inter cojlal, coronal, diaphragmatic, he£?mrrhoidaL 
 cervical.) thymal, jnammillary, gajhic, Jlomachic, epiploic, 
 fplenic, &c. 
 
 They are alfo diflinguifhed, from their particular offices, 
 \i\iofpcrmatic, emulgent, C\C. all which fee exhibited in Tab. 
 Anatomy, (Angeiol.) — and their particular_delciioiiuiis under 
 their proper articles. 
 Vein is alfo applied to the ftreaks, or waves of divers colours, 
 appearing on feveral forts of woods, flones, &c. as if they 
 were really painted ; and which the painters frequently ima- 
 tate in painting wainfeots, ts'c. 
 Marble is generally full of fuch veins. 
 
 Lapis lazuli has veins like gold. — Ovid, (peaking ©f the 
 metamorphofes of men into flones, fays — 2%ua nwdo vena 
 fuit, fab eodem nomine manfit. 
 
 Veins, in Hones, are often a defect, proceeding ufually from an 
 inequality in their confillence, as to hard, and foft ; which 
 makes the ftone crack, and fhiver in thofe parts. 
 Vein is alfo applied, in the fame fenfe wjth Jlratum, to the 
 various difpolitions and kinds of earth met withal in digging. 
 Thus, we fay, a vein of fand, another of rock, \$c. a vein 
 of ocher, vitriol, allom, calamine, coal, tSC — Mineral 
 waters acquire their different qualities, by palling through 
 veins of vitriol, fulphur, CSV. 
 
 In the fame fenfe, we fay, a vein of gold, filver, quick- 
 filver, &c. meaning certain parts of the earth, wherem the 
 oar or glebe of thofe metals is found ; and which is diflri- 
 buted into divers branches, like the veins in the'body. 
 Tavernier gives us a defcription of the veins in the diamond 
 mines in Golconda, with the manner of digging them. 
 In digging of coal-pits, they meet with a variety of veins, 
 the order, Is'c. of which, is different, in different places : in 
 the Pbilofophical Tranfuclicns, N 3 . 360. the veins in thofe 
 famous coal-mines at Mendip, in Somerfetfhire, are obferved 
 to be, (below the turf, or loam, or malm,) a reddifh fire- 
 ftone ; the coal clives, which is blackifh rock, the jUnking 
 vein, a hard coal for mechanic ufes ; five feet below which, 
 is the catjhead vein, 2 2 feet thick, intermixed with lumps of 
 Hone; at a like diflancc below which, is the three-coal vein, 
 divided into three kinds of coal, and about three feet thick. 
 The veins hitherto mentioned, are frequently worked in the 
 fame pit. — The next is the peaw vein, which is intermixed 
 with cockle-fhells, and fern-branches, ufually wrought in a 
 feparate pit: though its depth below the three-coal vein be 
 only about five feet, yet the cliff between is very hard, and 
 liable to water: this vein is about a yard thick ; and at the 
 like diftance below it, is the fmith 's-coal vein ; beneath 
 which, is the Jhelly vein ; and under that, a vein of 10 in- 
 ches, which is little worth, and feldom wrought. 
 The fame veins are found in a place 7 or 8 miles diftant. — 
 All the veins lie obliquely, or (helving, like the fide of a 
 houfe : the obliquity, ox pitch, as they term it, is about zz 
 inches in a fathom ; which, when it rifes to the land, is 
 called crop, and in fome places buffeting. 
 In digging to the fouth-weft, they oft met with ridges, 
 which caufe thewfS to trap up j i. e, being cut off by the ridges, 
 
 they 
 
V E L 
 
 V E L 
 
 Hwy find it over their heads, when they are through the 
 ridge: on the contrary, working through a ridge to the 
 north-eaft, they fay, it traps down, i, e. they find it under 
 their feet. 
 
 V E J OU RS, Vi sores, in law, arc perfons fent by the court, 
 to take view of any place in queltion, for the better deciiion 
 of the right. 
 
 It is alfo ufed for thofe fent to view fuch as efluin them- 
 selves de vialo lefii ; whether, in truth, they be fuch as that 
 they cannot appear, or whether they counterfeit. 
 VELAMEN, is ufed by fome furgeons, for the bag, fkin, or 
 
 bladder of an impoflhume, or fwelling. 
 V'tLAMENTUM Bombycinum, a name which fome ana- 
 tomifts give to the velvet membrane, or inner fkin of the 
 inteftines. 
 
 VELARIUS, in antiquity, an officer in the court of the 
 Rormn emperors; being a kind of ufber, whofe poll was be- 
 hind the curtain, vela, in the prince's apartment ; as that of 
 the chancellors, cancelli, was at the entry of the baluftrade ; 
 and that of the ojliarii at the door. 
 
 The vclaru had a fuperior, of the fame denomination, who 
 commanded them ; as we find in two inferiptions, quoted by 
 Salmafius, in his notes on Vopifcus ; and by a third in Gru- 
 ter.— The firft is, 
 
 D. M. 
 
 TI. CL. HALLUS 
 PROPOSITUS VELARIORUM 
 
 DOMUS AUGUST AN AE 
 FEC. SIBI ET FILUS SUIS L. L. 
 POST. EORUM. 
 Salmafius, and others, for HALLUS, which is in the 
 ftonc whereon the infen'ption is at Rome, put THALLUS: 
 though we find mention of the fame Hallus, as a Samaritan 
 by nation, and Tiberius's freedman, in Jofephus ; which 
 Ihews that the vclarlt, and their chief, were very antient 
 officers, and in ufe among the firft emperors. 
 VELITES, in the Roman army, a kind of antient foldiery, 
 who were armed lightly with a javelin, a calk, cuinuTe, and 
 fhield. 
 
 VELLEITY, Velleitas, in the fchool philofophy, is 
 ufually defined a languid, cold, and rcmifs will, 
 Others fay, it implies an impotency of obtaining what we 
 require. — Others will have it, a flight defirc for lbmc-thiiiE, 
 which a pcrfon does not matter much, or is too indolent to 
 feck: as, catus amat ptfeem, fed non vult tangere lympham. 
 
 VELLICATION, among phyficians, the act of twitch- 
 ing. — The word is more particularly applied to a fort of 
 iudden *convullions, that happen to the fibres of the muf- 
 cles, tiw 
 
 VELOCITY, in mechanics, fviftnefs; that affection of 
 motion, whereby a moveable is dilpofed to run over a certain 
 fpace in a certain time. 
 
 It is alfo called celerity; and is always proportional to the 
 fpace moved. — The greateft velocity wherewith a ball can 
 defcend, by virtue of its fpecific weight, in a refiftin^ me- 
 dium, is that which the fame ball would acquire by tailing- 
 in an unrefifting medium, through a fpace which is to four 
 thirds of its diameter, as the denfity of the ball to the den- 
 iity of the fluid. 
 
 Huygens, Leibnitz, Bernoulli, Wolfius, and the foreign 
 mathematicians, hold, that the momenta, or forces of fall- 
 ing bodies, at the end of their falls, are as the fquarcs of 
 their velocities into the quantity of 'matter; the Enriifh 
 mathematicians, on the contrary, maintain them to be as 
 the velocities thcmfclves, into the quantity of matter. 
 Velocity is conceived, cither as abfolute, or relative : the velo- 
 city we have hitherto confidcred, is fimple, or abfolute, with 
 relpccr. to a certain fpace, moved in a certain time. 
 Relative, or refpeclivc velocity, is that wherewith two diftant 
 bodies approach each other, and come to meet in a longer, or 
 lefs time : whether only one of them moves, towards the 
 other at reft, or whether they both move ; which may hap- 
 pen two ways ; either by two bodies naturally approaching 
 each other in the fame right line, or by two bodies moving 
 the fame way in the fame line, only thelbremoft flower than 
 the other; for by this means, this will overtake that. And, 
 as they come to meet, in a greater or lefs time, the relative 
 velocity will be greater or leis. 
 
 Thus, it two bodies come nearer each other by two feet, 
 in one fecond of time ; their relpective velscity is double 
 that of two others, which only approach one foot in the 
 fame time. 
 
 Velocities of bodies moving in Curves — According to Ga- 
 lileo's fyftem of the fall of heavy bodies, which is now ad- 
 mitted by alt philofophers, the velocities of a body falling 
 vertically, are, each moment of its fall, as the roots of the 
 heighths from whence it has fallen ; reckoning from the be- 
 ginning thereof. Hence that author gathered, that if a body 
 fall along an inclined plane, the velocities it has at the dif- 
 ii.-n.-nt times, will be in the fame ratio : for fincc its velocity 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 is all owing to its fall, and it only falls as much as there i4 
 perpendicular heighr.h in the inclined plane; the velocity 
 fhould be meafured by that heighth, as much as if it were 
 vertical. 
 
 The fame principle, likewife, led him to conclude, that if a bo- 
 dy fall through two contiguous inclined planes, making an aiHe 
 between them, much like a ftick when broke, the velocity 
 would be regulated after the fame manner, by the vertical 
 heighth of the two planes taken together: for it is only this 
 heighth that it falls; and from its fall it has all its velocity. 
 This conclufton was univerfally admitted, till the year 1693, 
 when M. Varignon demonftrated it to be falfe : from his de- 
 monftration, it fhould feem to follow, that the velocities of a 
 body falling along the cavity of a curve, for infhnce, of a cy- 
 cloid ; ought not to be as the roots of the heighths \ fuicc a 
 curve is only a feries of an infinity of infinitely little conti- 
 guous planes, inclined towards one another. So that Galileo's 
 propofition would feem to fail in this cafe too, and yet it holds 
 good ; only with fome reftriction. 
 
 All this mixture of truths and errors, fo near akin to each 
 other, fhewed that they had not got hold of the firrt prin- 
 ciple ; M. Varignon, therefore, undertook to clear what re- 
 lated to the velocities of falling bodies; and to fet the whole 
 matter in a new light: he ftil] fuppofes Galileo's firft fyftem, 
 that the velocities, at the different time of a vertical fall, are 
 as the roots of the correfpondent heighths. — The great prin- 
 ciple he makes ufe of to attain his end, is that of compound 
 motion. 
 
 If a body fall along two contiguous inclined planes, making 
 an obtufe angle, or a kind of concavity between them ; 
 M. Varignon fliews, from the composition of thofe motions, 
 that the body, as it meets the fecond piane, lofes fomcwhat 
 of its velocity -, and, of confequence, that it is not the fame 
 at the end of the fall, as it would be, had it fell through the 
 firft plane prolonged: fo that the proportion of the roots of 
 the heighths aliened by Galileo, does not here obtain. 
 The reafon of this lofs of velocity, is, that the motion, 
 which was parallel to the firft plane, becomes oblique to the 
 fecond, fincc they make an angle: this motion, which is ob- 
 lique to the fecond plane, being conceived as compounded, 
 that part perpendicular to the plane, is loft, by the oppofi- 
 tion thereof, and part of the velocity along with it : confe- 
 quently, the lefs of the perpendicular there is in the oblique- 
 motion, or, which is the fame tiling, the lefs the two planes 
 are from being one, i. e. the more obtufe the angle is, the 
 lefs velocity does the body !ofe. 
 
 Now, all the infinitely little, contiguous, inclined planes, 
 whereof a curve coniifts, making infinitely obtufe angles 
 among thcmfelves, a body falling along the concavity of a 
 curve, the lofs of velocity it undergoes each inftant, is infi- 
 nitely little : but a finite portion of any curve, how little fo- 
 evcr, confifting of an infinity of infinitely little planes, a 
 body moving through it, lofes an infinite number of infinitely 
 little parts of its velocity: and an infinity of infinitely little 
 parts, makes an infinity of a higher order, i. c. an infi- 
 nity of infinitely little parts makes a finite magnitude, if 
 they be of the firft order, or kind ; and an infinitely little 
 quantity of the firft order, if they be of the fecond ; and fo 
 in infinitum. — Therefore, if the loll'cs of velocity of a body 
 falling along a curve, be of the firft order, they will mount 
 to a finite quantity in any finite part of the curve, &c. 
 The nature of every curve is abundantly determined, bv the 
 ratio of the ordinate 1 :, to the correfpondent portions of 
 the axis; and the efiencc of cuives in general may be 
 conceived as confifting in this ratio, which is variable 
 a tboufand ways. — Now this fame ratio will be likewife that 
 of two fimple velocities, by whofe concurrence a body will 
 defcribe any curve: and, of confequence, the efience of ail 
 curves in the general, is the fame thing as the concourfe, or 
 combination of all the forces, which, taken two by two, 
 may move the fame body. — Thus we have a molt fimple, 
 and general equation, of all poflible curves, and of all poffi- 
 ble velocities. , 
 
 By means of this equation, as foon as the two fimple velo- 
 cities of a body are known, the curve, refulting from them, 
 is immediately determined. — It is obfervable, that on the 
 foot of this equation, an uniform velscity, and a velocity that 
 always varies according to the roots of the heighths, produce 
 a parabola, independent of the angle made by the two pro- 
 jectile forces that give the velocities ; and confequently, a 
 cannon ball, fhot either horizontally, or obliquely to the 
 horizon, mull always defcribe a parabola. — The belt mathe- 
 maticians, hitherto, had much ado to prove, that oblique 
 projections formed parabolas, as well as horizontal ones. 
 To have fome meaiure of velocity, the fpace is to be divided 
 into as many equal parts, as the time is conceived to be di- 
 vided into : for the quantity of fpace, correfponding to that 
 divifion ot time, is the meafure of the velocity. 
 For an inftancc; fuppofe the moveable A, (Tab. Mechanics, 
 fig* 4°-J travel a fpace of 80 feet, in 4c feconds of time; 
 - *3 B dividing 
 
V E N 
 
 aiding 8° 4°. Ac quotient 2 (hews the velocity of the 
 lovcable to fuck, ** it paf.es over an in.erva of 
 two feet in one minute: the therefore, is rightly 
 
 SEjft 1 alanf,' another moveable B, whieh, in 30 feconds 
 
 W before, f.nce in each cafe the meafure of the (pice l> a 
 f„„, which is fuppofed every where of the fame length | and 
 Z meafure of time a fecond, which is coneeived every 
 where of the fame duration: the indices of the «ri«tt> * 
 and 3, are homogencal : and therefore, the velocity ol A, is 
 to the velocity of 15, as 2 to 3. 
 
 Hence, if the fpace be «/, and the time =r, the «*«9 
 m ,y be expreired by /: I i the fpace being ur a rat.o of the 
 time, and the velocity. See Motion. 
 
 c;,-„/«- VELoctrv. » Scc thc artide 5 
 
 i&afuntf Velocity. J i s" Wind 
 
 Velocity «/ •/ S ™ ' 
 
 Light, Sound, tiff. , 
 VELOM*, a kind of parchment, finer, evencr, and whiter, 
 
 than the common parchment. 
 
 • The word is formed from the French vtfin, of L""' 1 
 viftUinus, belonging to a cuff. 
 
 Abirlwe Velom. Sec the article Abortive. 
 VFI VET *, a rich kind of fluff, all fdk, covered on the 
 
 outf.de with a clofe, (horr, fine, foft (hag; the other fide 
 
 hein<* very ftrong, and clofe. 
 
 • The word is formed of the French velours, which Sgrnnes 
 thc lime ; and which comes from a thing covered u .th 
 hair. 
 
 The nap or fliae, called alfo the whiting, of this fluff, is 
 formed of part of thc threads of the warp, which thc work- 
 man puts on a long narrow channelled ruler, or needle ; 
 and which he afterwards cuts, by drawing a (harp (led tool 
 alou" the channel of the needle, to thc ends ot the Warp. 
 The principal and bed manufactories of velvet are in (nance 
 and Italv, particularly at Venice, Milan, Florence, Genoa, 
 and Lucca: there are others in Holland, fct up by the French 
 refugees ; whereof, that at Hacrlem is thc moll conhderaWe : 
 ■hut the velvets of thefe all come ll.ort of the beauty of thole 
 of France ; and, accordingly, they arc fold for 10 or 15 per 
 ant. left.— There are alfo fomc brought from China, but 
 they are thc wortt of all. . 
 There are velvets of various kinds, as— plain, that is, uni- 
 form and fmooth, without either figures or ftupcs. 
 
 Fieuretl VFLVET,that is, adorned and worked with divers fi- 
 gures; though the ground be the fame with the figures; that 
 is, the whole furface velveted. 
 
 Ranu-e, or branched VllTBT, reprefenting long ftalks, 
 branches, fcfe. on a fattin ground, which is fumetimes of the 
 fame colour with the velvet, but more ufually ot a different 
 one — Sometimes, inftead of fattin, they make the ground 
 of gold and filver ; whence the denominations of velvets with 
 paid ground, &c. '.,■'"'■ , 
 
 Sbm Velvet, is that wherein thc threads, that make the vel- 
 veting, have been ranged in the channelled ruler, but no! cut 
 
 SlripS Velvet, is that wherein there areftripes of divers co- 
 - lours, running along the warp ; whether thofe (tapes be 
 
 partly velvet, and partly fattin, or all veheteil. 
 Cut Velvet, is that wherein the ground is a kind of taffcty, 
 or oros de 'Fours, and the figures velvet. 
 Velvets are likewifc diftinguilhed, with regard to their diffe- 
 rent degrees of fttength and goodnefs, into velvets of four ■ 
 threads, three threads, two threads, and a thread and hall : 
 die firft are thofe where there are eight threads of (hag, or 
 velveting, to each tooth of the reed ; the fecond have only 
 fix, and the reft four. 
 
 V E N 
 
 Thus, \vc fay, venal bards; courtezans, and flatterers are 
 venal $ even juftice in. Turfy » venal; and muft be bough: 
 ot" the bafhaws. 
 
 In England, there are feveral offices in the revenue, policv, 
 &c. venial: but this venality of offices is no where iu con- 
 Jiderable, as in France; where all offices of judicature are 
 bought of the king, and only municipal officers are elected. 
 Offices, in England, are venal only by a kind of connivance; 
 in France, it is a thing folemn, and authorized, — The ve- 
 nality was firft introduced by Louis XII. who, to' clear thofe 
 immenfe debts contracted by his predecefibr Charles VIII. 
 without burfhentflg his people with new taxes, bethought 
 himfelf to fell the offices; and, in reality, he made a vart 
 fum thereby. 
 
 Francis I. made an advantage of the fame expedient to get 
 money, and fold his pofts openly : under this king, it 
 was only accounted a kind of loan ; but that loan was no 
 more than a name to difguife a real fale. — Thc parliament 
 not being able to relifh the venality of offices, always made 
 the buyer take an oath, that he did not buy his port, either 
 directly or indirectly \ but there was a tacit exception made, 
 of monies lent the king for being put into them — At length, 
 the parliament finding its oppolitions were in vain, and that 
 the traffic of offices were publickly authorized, aboliihed the 
 oath in i 597. 
 
 VENDEE, in law, the perfon to whom any thing is fold ; 
 
 in contradistinction to vendor, or the lellcr. 
 VENDITIONI Exponas, is a judicial writ, directed to the 
 filer iff; commanding him to fell goods, which he has for- 
 merly, by commandment, taken into his hands ; for the fa- 
 tisfying a judgment given in the king's court. 
 VENEERING, Vane£Ring, or Fineerinc, a kind 
 of marquetry, or inlaying; whereby feveral thin flices, or 
 leaves of fine wood, of different kinds, are applied and fatt- 
 ened on a ground of fome common wood. 
 There arc two kinds of inlaying ; the one, which is the 
 more ordinary, goes no further than the making of com par- 
 timcnts of different woods; the other requires a deal more 
 art, and reprefents flowers, birds, and the like figures. 
 Thc firft kind is what we properly call veneering ; the latter 
 we have already defcribed under the article Marquetry. 
 The wood intended for veneering, is firft fiuved out into 
 flices or leaves about a line thick : in order to faw them, the 
 blocks or planks are placed upright, in a kind of fawing- 
 prefs : — The defcription whereof may be feen under the ar- 
 ticle Press. 
 
 Thefe flices arc afterwards cut into narrow flips, and fafhion- 
 ed divers ways, according to the defign propofed : then the 
 joints being carefully adjuftcd, and thc pieces brought down 
 to their proper thicknefs, with feveral planes for the purpofe ; 
 they are glued down on a ground, or block of dry wood, 
 with good ftrong Englifh glue. 
 
 The pieces thus joined and glued, thc work, if fmall, is put 
 in a prefs ; if large, it is laid on the bench, covered with a 
 board, and prefficd down with poles, or pieces of wood, one 
 end whereof reaches to the cielingof the room, and thc other 
 bears on the boards. 
 
 When the glue is quite dry, they take it out of the prefs, 
 and finifh it; firft with little planes, then with divers tem- 
 pers ; fome whereof refemble rafps, which take oft" dents, 
 &c. left by the planes. 
 
 When fufficiently fcraped, the work is polifhcd with thc fkiit 
 of a fea-dog, wax, and a brum and polifhcr of tbave grafo : 
 which is the laft operation. 
 VENELLIS. See Vicis CS" Venellis mundanclk. 
 VENEREAL, fomething belonging to Venus. Sec Venus. 
 A venere al .perfon, is one addicted to veucry, or venereal plea- 
 sures. — Venereal medicines, arc called aphrodifmcs, provoca- 
 tives, &c. 
 
 In 
 
 general, M-vehets, both worked and cut, fhorn and Venere al Difeafe, Lues Ve n ere a, the French difeafe, foi<l 
 
 flowered, are to have their warp and fliag of organtin, fpun 
 and twilled, or thrown in the mill; and their woof of filk 
 well boiled, £#*■; They are all of thc fame breadth. 
 "VENA. Vein, in anatomy. See the article Vein. 
 Vena Cava. See the article Cava. 
 
 Vena Porta, &c — Sec Tab. Anal. (Splancb.) fig. 5. lit. fj 
 fee alfo the article Porta, &c. 
 
 Vena Pulmonis. See thc article Pulmonary. 
 
 VEN^E-Sectio, the opening of a vein ; called alfo phlebo- 
 tomy; and popularly, bleeding. See Phlebotomy, bfc. 
 
 Vena LaStets. ~) f Lacteal. 
 
 Venje Lymphatic*. [ See the article j Lymphatic. 
 
 VENAL, or Venous, among anatomif 
 
 bears relation to a vein. See Vein. 
 
 The extremities of thc cava and pulmonary veins, where 
 
 they enter the auricles of the heart, are called venous fmm's. 
 Venal *, Venalis, is alfo ufed for fomething bought with 
 
 money, or procured by bribes. 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, ptttalif, to be fold. 
 
 REPUCE. 
 
 , fomething 
 
 that 
 
 difeafe, French "pox, or great pox, is a contagious malady 
 contracted by fome impure humour, generally received in 
 coition; and difcovering itfelf in ulcers and pains about the 
 genital and other parts. 
 
 It is ufually faid to have made its firft appearance in Europe 
 in the year 1493 ; though others will have it much older, 
 and contend for its being known to the antients, only under 
 other names. 
 
 Mr Becket, particularly, has attempted to {hew, that it is 
 the fame with what among our iorcfathers was called thc /,-- 
 prcfy ; and which, in many of our antient Englifh writings, 
 charters, &c, is called brenning, or burning. 
 In order to prove his point, he has fcarched thc records re- 
 lating- to tiie ftews anticntly kept on the FSankfidc, South- 
 wark, under the jurifdiction of the bifhop of Winchefter. 
 Amon<-r othcrennititutions of thefe ftews, dated 1 162, it was 
 appointed, *' That no ftew-holder mould keep any woman 
 " that hath the perillous infirmity of Burning." And in 
 another vellom manufcript, now in thc cuftotly of the bifhop 
 of Wiiichcfter, dated 1430, it is again ordered, «' That no 
 
 . . *' ftcw- 
 
h 
 
 VEN 
 
 t£ ftew-holder keep any woman within hi.s houfe that hath 
 " any ficknefs of Brenning, but that flic be putte out, 
 " upon the peyne of making a fine unto die lord of a hun- 
 <c dred {hillings. " 
 
 To confirm this account, Mr Bccket quotes a defcription 
 oi" the dife a fe from a manufcript of John Arden, Efq; fur- 
 geon to king Richard 1 1, and king Henry IV. Arden defines 
 the difeafe called bfemhtg, hicend'ium, to be a certain in- 
 ward heat and excoriation of the urethra: which definition, 
 Mr Beckct obferves, gives us a perfect idea of what wc now 
 call a clap ; agreeable to the latcft and moft exaft anatomical 
 difcoveries, and free of all the errors of Platerus, Rondcle- 
 tius, Bartholin, Wharton, and other later writers on this 
 difeafe. 
 
 As to the leprofy being the fame with this venereal difeafe, 
 it muft be owned, there are a good many fymptoms in the 
 one difeafe, which quadrate well enough with thofe in the 
 other ; but then the fymptoms in each are fo precarious, 
 that a great deal of ftrefs cannot be laid hereon. 
 The common tradition is, that the venereal difeafe firft broke 
 out in the French army, when it lay encamped before Na- 
 ples ; and that it was owing to fome unwholefome food : on 
 which account, the French call it the Neapolitan difeaf 
 and the Italians, the mal Francefe. 
 
 But others go much higher, and (uppofe this to be the ulcers 
 Job complained of fo grievoufly : and accordingly, in a Mif- 
 jal printed at Venice in 1542, there is a mafs in honour of 
 .S. Job, to be faid by thofe recovered of this difeafe ; as be- 
 ing fuppoled to owe their deliverance to his intcrceflion. 
 But the opinion which prevails moft among the more know- 
 ing of our phyficians, is, that rile difeafe is of Indian ex- 
 traction ; and that it was brought hither by the Spaniards 
 from the American ifiands, where it was very common, be- 
 fore ever tire Spaniards fet footing there : whence the Spani- 
 ards call it farva des India, or lay bttvas : notwithstanding 
 ■what Herrera fays, that the Spaniards carried it to Mexico 
 infteud of bringing it thence. 
 
 Lifter, and fome others, take it to have had its firft rife from 
 fome of the feipcntine kind ; either from a bite thereof, or 
 from fome of their flefh taken as food : this is pretty cer- 
 tain, that rrren bitten or flung by fcorpions, are greatly cafe d 
 by coirion ; but the woman, Pliny affurcsus, receives a Drcat 
 deal of damage thereby : which they think no (lender argu- 
 ment of the difeafe's arifing from fome perfon fo poifoncd. 
 Lifter adds, there is no room to doubt, but that the lues a- 
 rofe from fome fuch caufe ; for upon any venomous bite, the 
 penis becomes vehemently extended, and the patient bein-r 
 i'eized with a fatyriafis, breaths nothing but rage, and luft : 
 nature, in effect, feeming to direct him to coition for a 
 remedy. 
 
 But what proves a remedy to the wounded perfon, proves a 
 difeafe to the woman : and from women thus infected, other 
 men, who have to do with them, they fay, become infected 
 in their turns; and thus has the difeafe been propagated. 
 The firft fymptoms generally arifing after an affair with an 
 infected perfon, are a heat, fwelling, and inflammation a- 
 bout the penis, or vulva, with a hotnefs of urine. 
 The fecond or third day ulually brings on a gonorrhoea, or 
 dripping, which denominates it a clap ; and which, in a few 
 days more, is followed by a chordee. 
 
 Though fometimes there is no gonorrhoea, or clap ; but the 
 poilbn rather makes its way, through the cutis, to the groin ; 
 and there raifes buboes, with various malignant puftules in 
 all parts of the body. See Bubo. 
 
 Sometimes, alfo, there happen callous ulcers, called fixmkers, 
 in the fcrotum and perineum ; and fometimes a cancerous 
 and callous ulcer between the prepuce and glans i and in 
 fome the tefticles fwell. 
 
 Add to thefe, violent nocturnal pains, nodes, heats in the 
 paJmsofthe hands, and foals of the feet ; and hence riflurcs, 
 excoriations, condylomata, Stfir. about the anus; falling of 
 the hair; ruddy, yellow, or livid fpots ; hoarfenefs, relaxa- 
 tion, and erolion of the uvula, ulcers of the palate, ozx-na, 
 tingling of the ears, deafnef,, blindnefs, itch, confumprion, 
 ts'c — But it is rare that all thefe fymptoms happen to the 
 fame perfon. 
 
 The venereal difeafe, Sydenham obferves, is communicated 
 by copulation, lactation, handling, faliva, fwcat, the genital 
 mucus, and the breath: and in whatever part it is received, 
 it there difcovers itfelf firft. — -Thus when the infection is 
 received along with the milk from the nurfe, it commonly 
 fhews itfelf in forcnefs and ulcers of the mouth. 
 The method of cure is various, according to the various 
 fymptoms and ftages : for the firft ftage, viz. a gonorrhcea 
 virul^nta, or clap — 
 
 Dr Piteairn's method is this: — After two or three vomits, 
 he directs mercurius dulcis, for fome days, twice a day ; 
 when the mouth grows fore, let alone the'mercury for three 
 or four days, and purge every other day. As the mouth 
 grows well again, repeat the ufc of mercury ; and thus alter- 
 nately, till the fymp:oms ccafe. 
 
 VEN 
 
 For a confirmed lues, mercurial falivation is generally held 
 the only effeaual cure : though mercurial frictions, applied 
 in fuch quantity, and at fuch intervals as not to raife a fali- 
 vation, arc held by fome to be not only eafier and fafer, 
 but even more fucccfsful, in this difeafe, than falivation 
 itfelf. 
 
 Dr Sydenham tells us, he ufed to fahvate immediately, 
 without any preliminary evacuation, or preparation of the 
 body at all. — His method was this : he prefcribes an un- 
 guent of two ounces of axung. pore in. i. e . ho^-Iard, and 
 one ounce of mercury. With a third part of this, he or- 
 ders the patient to anoint his arms and legs, for three 
 mghts Juccemvely, with his own hands 3 fo as not to touch 
 cither the arm-pits, the groin or the abdomen. — After 
 the third un£tion, the gums ufually fwell, and a ptyalifm 
 comes on.— If it does not come "in this time, he directs 
 turbith mineral eight grains in comerve of red rofes; which 
 
 oorafioninga vomiting, foon raifes the ptyalifm. And if, 
 
 afterwards, the falivation abate, before the fymptoms are 
 quite difappearcd, he orders it to be promoted with a frefli 
 dole of mercurius dulcis. —The diet, and other regimen, 
 is to be the fame as in a catharfis. 
 
 VENERIS Oejirum, thejlirrmlus or incentive of venery; 
 is an appellation given, by fome anatomifts, to the cli- 
 toris. See Clitoris. 
 
 Veneris Oejirum, is alfo ufed by others for the tranfport of 
 love, or the utmoft ecftafy of defire, or enjoyment in coi- 
 
 Some are of opinion, that infectious women arc the moft 
 apt to communicate the poifon, when they are thus excited 
 with defire ; whereas, with indifference, they may admit 
 the fame intercourfe, without giving die infection. 
 Ven eh is Ens. See the article Ens. 
 
 VENER Y », is ufed for the ad of copulation, or coition^ 
 of the two fexes. 
 
 * It takes its name from Venus, the fuppofed deity of the paf- 
 fion of love. 
 
 Venery, alfo denotes the arts or cxercife of hunting wild 
 beafts; which are alfo called bcajh of venery, and b7ajls of 
 fvreji. 
 
 Such are the hare, hart, hind, boar, and wolf. See Beast 
 VENEW. See the article Venue. 
 
 VENIA *, among our antient writers, denotes a kneeling, 
 or low proftration to the ground ; ufed by penitents. Sec 
 Genuflexion. 
 
 * Walfingham, p. 196. Rcge interim profrTfto in letiga venia. — 
 Per venias centum z-errunt barb'u pnvincntinn. 
 
 VENIAL, a term in the Romifh theology, applied to flHit 
 fins, and fuch as eaiily obtain pardon. 
 
 In confeffing to the piicft, people are not obliged to accufe 
 themicivcs of all their venial fins. — The thing that gives 
 the greateft embarras to the Romifh cafuiits, is to diftinguiih 
 between venial and mortal fins. 
 
 The Reformed reject this diftinction of venial and mortal 
 fins ; and maintain, that all fins, how grievous focver, are 
 venial; and all fins, how flight focver, may be mortal : 
 And the reafon they urge is, that all fins, though of their 
 own nature mortal, yet become venial, or pardonable, by 
 virtue of our Saviour's paffion, to all fuch that fulfil the 
 conditions on which it is offered in the gofpel. — To which 
 the Romanifts anl'wcr, That the chief of thefe conditions is 
 confeffion. 
 
 VENIRE Facias, in law, is a judicial writ, lying where 
 two parties plead, and come to iilue j directed to the flic riff, 
 to caufe twelve men of the fame neighbourhood to meet to 
 try the fame, and fay the truth upon the iffue taken. 
 If this inqucft come not at the day of the writ returned ; then 
 fliall go an habeas corpus, and after that a difttefs, until 
 they come. 
 
 Venire Facias tot Matronas. See Ventre Jnfp'tciendo. 
 
 VENISON * Vt naison, the tlcfli of beafts of game, or 
 of animals to be caught in the way of game, /, e. by hunt- 
 ing, csV. as deer, hare, O'c. 
 
 * The word is French, venaifen ; formed of the Latin venatio, 
 hunting. See Hunting. 
 
 Beafts of Ven i son. See the article Beast. 
 
 VENOM, Venenum. See the article Poison. 
 
 The terms venom and poifon only differ from each other in 
 this, that the latter is more frequently ufed where the noxi- 
 ous matter is taken inwardly, as in foods, drinks, fsV. and 
 the former, where it is applied outwardly, as in ftings and 
 bites of ferpents, fcorpions, vipers, Ipiders, C5Y. 
 The pike is faid to have a venomous tooth. — -All venomous 
 bealts in the general, have that quality in a greater degree, 
 when bred in mountainous and dry places, than when in wet 
 and marfhy places ; and the foutheriynore than the northern ; 
 thofe hungry and enraged, more than otheis ; and —1 of 
 them in fummcr more than winter. See Vii'er. 
 
 VENOUS, Venosus. See tho article Ve n a l. 
 
 Venous 
 
V E N 
 
 V E N 
 
 Venous Artery, Arter'ia Venosa. See Artery. 
 
 VENT** nt-Hoi.e, or Spiracle, a little aperture left 
 in the tubes, or pipes of fountains, to iacihtatc the airs 
 efeape ; or, on occal'ion, to give them air ; as in frofty wea- 
 ther fcfr. for want of which they arc apt to burft. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin -jentus, wind. 
 A vent, taken in this fenfe, is properly the end of a pipe, 
 placed erect, and reaching above the ground ; ufually loldercd 
 to the turns, or elbows of pipes.— The vents ot large pipes, 
 are to he as high as the fuperficics of the refervoir ; unlefs 
 there be a valve in them. 
 
 Vent is alfo ufed for a little hole, pierced in vdtefa of wine, 
 beer, faff, that are on tap ; and which admits air enough to 
 make the liquor run, but not fo much as to corrupt and 
 fpoil it. 
 
 Vent, again, is applied to the covers in wind-furnaces, where- 
 by the air enters, which ferves them for bellows ; and which 
 are Hopped with rcgifters, or ftices, according to the degree 
 of heat required ; as in the furnaces of glafs-houfcs, cflayers, 
 
 Vent is alfo ufed for a pipe of lead, or other matter; one 
 end whereof opens into the cell of a neceffary houfe, and 
 the other reaches to the roof of the houfe ; to give room 
 for the corrupt fetid air to exhale. 
 
 There arc alio vents, or apertures made in the walls which 
 fuftam terrartes, to furnifh air, and give a paflage for the 
 Waters. 
 
 j This' kind of vent the Italians, and wc from them, call a 
 
 barbacane. 
 
 iVf-VENT. Sec the article YoRT-Fent. 
 
 VENTER, Belly, in anatomy, a cavity in the body of an 
 
 animal, containing vii'cera, or other organs, ncccflary for 
 
 the performance of divers functions. 
 
 Phyiicians divide the human body into three venters, regions, 
 or cavities; the 'firft, the head, containing the brain, &c. 
 See Head, and Brain. 
 
 The fecond, the breajl, or thorax, as far as the diaphragm, 
 containing the organs of refpiration. 
 
 The third, which is what we more commonly call the ven- 
 ter, or belly, is that wherein the inteftincs, and the organs 
 of generation and digeftion are contained ; this is called by 
 anatomifts the abdomen. 
 
 Venter, or Belly, is alfo popularly ufed for the exterior part 
 of the lower venter. — In which fenfe, we fay, the navel is 
 in the middle of the venter, he. 
 
 Venter is alfo ufed for the ventricle, or ftomach ; becaufe 
 that part is inclofcd in the cavity thereof. — In this fenfe it 
 is, that Jonas is faid in fcripture to have been three days in 
 the whale's venter or belly. 
 
 Venter is alfo ufed for the womb, or uterus of women. — 
 And hence the writ de ventre iiifpicicndo. See Ventre 
 bijpiciendo. 
 
 Hence, alfo, in the civil law, we fay, partus Jequltur ven- 
 trem, the child follows the belly j meaning, that its con- 
 dition is cither free or fetvile, according to that of its mo- 
 ther. 
 
 They alfo fay, to appoint a curator for the belly, with regard 
 to pofthumous children, yet in the mother's womb. — With 
 regard to princes, the venter, or belly, has been fomctimcs 
 crowned in form. 
 Venter is alfo ufed, in fpcaking of a partition of the effects 
 of a father and mother, among children born, or accruing 
 from different marriages. 
 
 "This partition is fo ordered, as that a fingle child of one 
 marriage, or venter, takes as much as feveral of another 
 ' marriage, or venter : in order to which, the cftate is di- 
 vided into fo many parts, as there have been venters, or 
 marriages. 
 
 Venter is alfo ufed for the children, whereof a woman is 
 delivered at one pregnancy. — Thus, two twins are faid to 
 be of the fame venter. 
 
 People of fenfe take for a fable, what is related of the coun- 
 ters of Holland, viz. that fhe had 365 children at one 
 venter, all living and baptized : and yet the ftory is very 
 gravely related by abundance of authors ; and the font, 
 or bafon, is ftili fhewn in the church where they were 
 baptized ; with a kind of monument of the fact iufcribed 
 thereon. 
 
 Venter, or belly of a mufclc, is the flefhy, or body part 
 thereof ; as contradiftinguifhed from the two tendons, its 
 'cxtrcams; one whereof is called th^ bead, and the other the 
 'tail of the mufcle. 
 
 Venter Dr-aconis, Dragons belly, in aftronomy, denotes the 
 middle of a planet's orbit ; or that part moft remote from 
 the nodes, j. e. from the dragon's head and tail ; being the 
 part which has the greateft latitude, or is at the greater! 
 ■diftance from the ecliptic. 
 
 There arc two points under this denomination, in each or- 
 iiit ; that towards the fouth, is alfo called the foitthern 
 
 limit, and that towards the north, the northern limit. 
 The moon has 5 degrees of latitude, when in the dragon's 
 belly; and is 90 degrees diftant from the nodes. 
 
 Venter Earn, Hmfes belly, among chymifts, denotes horfe- 
 dung, or a dunghil, wherein are incloled certain veflels for 
 particular operations, to be performed by means of the gen- 
 tle heat thereof. 
 
 VENTIDUCTS, in building, are fpiracles, or fubtcrra- 
 neous places, where frefh, cool winds being kept, are made 
 to communicate, by means of tubes, funnels, or vaults, 
 with the chambers, or other apartments of a houfe ; to cool 
 them in fultry weather. 
 
 Thefe are much in ufe in Italy, where they arc called ven- 
 tidotti. — Among the French they are denominated prijons 
 des vents, and palr.is d'Eolc. 
 
 VENTOSA Spina. See the article Spina Fentofa. 
 
 VENTOSITY, in medicine. Seethe article Flatus. 
 
 VENTRE Infpiciendo, a writ for the fearch of a woman 
 that fays Ihc is with child, and thereby holds land from him 
 that is, otherwife, next heir at law. 
 
 VENTRICLE, Ventriculus, f d. little belly, in 
 anatomy, a diminutive of venter ; fignifying a cavity, fmallcr 
 than what we exprefs by a venter ; or rather, a divifion 
 of a venter ; or fome fmallcr cavity, contained in a larger. 
 See Venter. 
 
 There are two cavities in the heart, adjoining to the auricles; 
 and four in the brain j called ventricles 3 which fee explained 
 under the articles Heart, and Brain. 
 The right ventricle of the heart, in relaxing, admits the blood 
 by the right auricle from the cava; and, in contracting, drives 
 it out into the pulmonary arteries; the left, receiving the 
 blood by the left auricle, from the lungs, drives it oul into 
 the aorta. — Sec Tab. Anat. (Angeiol.) fg. 9. tit. c. 
 
 Ventricle, or Ventriculus, by way of eminence thus 
 called, is the fame with the ftomach. 
 
 For the aftion of the Ventricle in vomiting, fee Vomit- 
 ing. • 
 
 VENTRICULI Ardor. See the article Ardor. 
 VFNTRILOQUOUS * Ventriloquus, Gaflrih- 
 quous or Engajl rimy thus, a term applied >to pcrfons who 
 fpeak inwardly, having a peculiar art of forming fpeech, 
 by drawing the air into the lungs ; fo that the voice pro- 
 ceeding out of the thorax, to a by-ftander fcems to come 
 from a diftance. 
 * The word is compounded of venter, belly, and hqusr, I 
 fpeak. 
 
 Such a perfon we had lately in London, a fmith by pro- 
 feffion, who had the faculty in fuch perfection, that he 
 could make his voice appear, now, as if it came out of the 
 cellar ; and the next minute, as if in an upper room ; and 
 no body prefent could perceive that he fpokc at all : ac- 
 cordingly, he has frequently called a perfon firft up, then 
 down ftairs ; then out of doors, then this way, then that, 
 and all this without ftirring from his feat, or appealing 
 to fpeak at all. 
 
 Rolandus, in his Aglojfojlomographia, mentions, that if the 
 mediaftinum, which is naturally a fingle membrane, be di- 
 vided into two parts, the fpeech will fcem to come out of 
 the breaft ; fo that the by-ftandcrs will fancy the perfon 
 poffefTcd, 
 
 VENTURINE, or Adventurine, is fometimes ufed 
 for the fmcft and flendereft gold wire, ufed by embroider- 
 ers, &c. 
 
 When reduced into powder, as fine as it can be clipped, or 
 filed, this powder may be ftrewed on the firft layer of pure 
 varnifh, made ufe of in japanning, after the varnifh is dry, 
 in order to lay any colour over it. See Japanning. 
 VENUE, or Venew, in law, a neighbouring, or near 
 place. — Locus quern vicini habitant. 
 
 Thus, we fay, twelve of the affizes ought to be of the 
 fame venue where the demand is made. 
 ■ — w And alio return, in every fuch pannel, upon the vc- 
 " nire facias, fix fufficicnt hundreders, at the leaft, if 
 « there be fo many within the hundred where the venire 
 " lies." Stat. 25 Hen. VIII. 
 VENUS, in aftronomy, one of the inferior planets ; denoted 
 by the character, 9. Sec Planet. 
 Venus is eafily diftinguifhed by her brightnefs, and white- 
 nefs, which exceeds that of all the other planets, and 
 which is fo conliderable, that, in a dufky place, fhe pro- 
 jects a fenfible fhadow, — Her place is between the earth 
 and Mercury. 
 
 She conftantly attends the fun, and never departs from him 
 above 47 degrees: when fhe goes before the fun, that is, 
 rifes from him, fhe is called phofphoms, or luciftr, or the 
 morning jlar ; and when fhe follows him, that is, fets after 
 jiim, hcjpcrus, or vefper, or the evening Jlar . 
 The femidiameter of Venus, is to that of the earth, as 10 to 
 10 ; her diltance from the fun is T Ul of the earth's diftance 
 * ' from 
 
V E R 
 
 V E R 
 
 from the fun : her excentricity 5 ; the inclination of her or- 
 bit 3 0 23'. 
 
 ■Her periodical courfe round the fun is performed in 224 
 days 17 hours; and her motion round her own axis, in 23 
 hours. 
 
 Her greateft diftance from the earth, according toCaffini, is 
 38000 femidiameters of the earth ; and her fmalleft 6000, 
 — Her parallax is 3 minutes. 
 
 Venus, when viewed through a telefcopc, is rarely feen to 
 fhine with a full face, but has phafes juft like thofe of the 
 moon; being now gibbous, now horned, t&c, and her illu- 
 mined part is constantly turned towards the fun, i. e. it looks 
 towards the eaft, when phofphorus, and towards the weft, 
 when befperus. 
 
 De la Hire, in 1700, through a telefcope of 16 feet, difco- 
 ■vered mountains in Venus; which he found to be larger than 
 thofe in the moon. 
 
 And Caflini, and Campani, in the years 1665, and 1666, 
 difcovered fpots in her face: from the appearances of which, 
 he afcertaincd her motion round her axis. 
 Sometimes fhe is feen in the difk of the fun, in form of a 
 dark, round fpot. 
 
 In 1672, and 1686, Caffini, with a telefcope of 54 feet, 
 thought he faw a (ateUite moving round this planet, and dif- 
 tant from it about * of Venus's diameter. — It had the fame 
 phafes as Venus, but without any well defined form ; audits 
 diameter fcarce exceeded \ of that of Venus. 
 Dr Gregory thinks it more than probable, that this was a 
 fatellite ; and fuppofes the rcafon why it is not ufually feen, 
 to be the unfitnefs of its furface, to reflect the rays of the 
 fun's light ; as is the cafe of the fpots in the moon : of which, 
 if the whole difk of the moon were compofed, he thinks, 
 that planet could not be feen as far as to Venus, 
 The phxnomena of Venus, evidently fhew the falfity of 
 the Ptolemaic fyftem : for that fyftem fuppofes, that Venufs 
 crb, or heaven, inclofes the earth; paffing between the fun 
 and Mercury. —• And yet all our obfervations agree, that 
 Venus is fometimes on this fide the fun, and fome times on 
 the other; nor did ever anybody fee the earth between 
 Venus and the fun: which yet muft frequently happen, if. 
 Venus revolved round the earth in a heaven below the fun, 
 Venus, in chymiftry, is ufed for the metal copper. See 
 Copper. 
 
 Its character is 5 ; which, fay the adepti, expreffes it to be 
 gold, only joined with fome corrofive and arfenical menftru- 
 um ; which removed, copper would be gold. 
 Venus is univerfally allowed, by the chymifts, &'c. to be one 
 of the moft powerful medicines in nature : of this, is faid to 
 have been compofed the famous Butler's ftone, which cured 
 moft difeafes by only licking it, — Of this is compofed that 
 noble remedy of Van Helmont, viz, the fulpbur of vitriol, 
 
 or ens vitrioh, fixed by calcination, and cohobation. Of 
 
 the ens vitrioli of Venus, is likewife compofed Mr Boyle's 
 arcanum, the colcothar vitrioli. 
 
 It is certain, copper is a moft excellent emetic, and a noble 
 antidote againft poifons 5 for it is no fooner taken than it ex- 
 erts its force: whereas other vomitories lie a good while in 
 the ftomach : but one finglc grain of ruft of Venus immedi- 
 ately vomits. — Hence fyrups, that have flood over night in 
 copper veffels, create a vomiting. 
 
 It is alfo an excellent medicine in chronical cafes : hence a 
 famous phyfician is recorded to have cured Charles V. of a 
 ■dropfy by the ufe of copper. 
 
 Venus is diffoluble by all the falts known, both acid, aJka- 
 line, and nitrous; nay, even by water and air, confidered as 
 they contain fait. 
 
 It is trom this common reception of all menftruums, that 
 copper is called Venus, q. d. meretrix publico, a common 
 proititute : though others take the denomination to have been 
 occafioned by its turning of a fea-green colour, when diffolv- 
 cd by acid. It muft be given internally, with great caution. 
 
 Cryjlals of V eh vs. See the article Crystal. 
 
 Mount of Venos, Mans Veneris, among anatomifts, is a 
 little hairy protuberance, in the middle of the pubes of wo- 
 men; occafioned by the more than ordinary collection of fat 
 under the fkin in that place. See Pubes. 
 Among chiromancers, the mattnt of Venus is a little eminence 
 In the palm of the hand, at the root of one of the fingers. 
 
 VERA Ma. See the article Bill a. 
 
 VERB, in grammar, a word ferving to exprefs what we af- 
 firm of any fubjedt, or attribute to it — as the words, is, un- 
 der/lands, bears, believes, &c. 
 
 The verb is thus called of the Latin verbum, word, by way 
 of eminence ; as being the principal word of a fentence. See 
 Sentence. 
 
 The common definition given by grammarians, is, that a 
 vert is a word which betokens being, doing, or fuffering. 
 To conceive the origin and office of verbs, it may be obferv- 
 ed, that the judgment wc make of any thing, as when I fay 
 Vol. II. 
 
 j" the earth is round, necefiarily includes three terms. — The 
 firft, called the Jitbjecl, is the thing we affirm of, e. gr. 
 
 I earth. — The fecond, called the attribute, is the thing affirm- 
 ed, e. gr. round. — The third, is, connects thofe two terms 
 '^ether, and expreffes the adion of the mind, affirming the 
 attribute of the fubjeet. 
 
 This laft is what we properly call the verb; and which fome 
 of our later grammarians, particularly the port royalifts, 
 chufe to call by a more fignificant word, affirmation.— The 
 reafon is, that its principal ufe is to fignify affirmation ; that 
 is, to fhew the difcourfe, wherein that word is ufed, is 
 the difcourfe of a man who does not only conceive things, 
 but judges and affirms fomevvhat of them. 
 By this circumftance, a verb is diftinguifhed from nouns 
 Which alfo fignify an affirmation, as affirmans affirmatio ; 
 thofe only fignify an affirmation, as that, by a reflection of 
 the mind, is rendered an object of thought: fo that they 
 do not fhew, that the perfon who ufes them affirms, but 
 only that he conceives an affirmation. 
 
 Though the principal ufe of verbs be to fignify affirmation ; 
 they alfo ferve to exprefs the other motions of the foul : as 
 to defiie. pray, command, &c. but this they only do, by 
 changing the mood, or inflection. 
 
 Here, we only cuniider the verb in its primary fignlfication, 
 which is that it has in the indicative mood. — On this foot- 
 ing, the verb mould have no other ufe, but to mark the con- 
 nection which we make in the mind, between the two terms 
 of a propofition ; but the verb effie, to be, is the only one that 
 has retained this fimplicity : nor, in ftrictnefs, has this re- 
 tained it, but in the third perfon, as eft, is. 
 In effect, men being naturally inclined to fhorten their ex- 
 preffions. to the affirmation they have almofl always added 
 other fignifications, in the fame word : thus, e gr. they add 
 that of fome attribute, fo as that two words make a propo- 
 fition ; as in Petrus vivit, Peter lives : where vivit includes 
 both the attribute and affirmation; it being the fame thing 
 to fay Peter lives, as that Peter is living. — And hence the 
 great variety of verbs in every language. 
 For, had people been contented to give the verb its gene- 
 ral fignification, without any additional attribute, each lan- 
 guage would only have needed one verb, viz. the verb fub- 
 ltantive eft, is. 
 
 Again, on fome occafions, they alfo fuperadd the fubjed of 
 the propofition, as fum homo, 1 am a man : or vivo, 1 live : 
 and hence the diverlity of perfons in verbs. 
 Again, we alfo add to the verb, a relation to the time, with 
 regard to which we affirm ; fo that one fingle word, as 
 teSndflr, fignifies that I attribute to the perfon I fpeak the 
 a&ion of fupping, not for the prefent time, but for the paS : 
 and hence the great diverfity of tenfes in moft verbs. 
 The diverfity of thefe fignifications, or additions in the fame 
 word, has perplexed and deceived many of our beft authors, 
 in the nature of a verb; and have led them to confiderit, 
 not according to what is effential to it, which is to affirm ; 
 but according to fome of thefe its accidental relations. 
 Thus, Ariftotle, taking up with the third of thofe additional 
 fignifications, defines verb to be vox fignificans cum tempore, 
 a word figiiifying fomething with time. 
 Others, as Buxtorf, adding the fecond relation, define it, 
 vox flexilii xum tempore & perfona ; a word admitting of di- 
 vers inflections, in refpect of time and perfon. 
 Others, taking up with the firft of the ad-ditional fignifica- 
 tions, which is that of the attribute, and confiJering that the 
 attributes men ordinarily add to the affirmation, were actions 
 and paffions ; have fuppofed the eJTenee of a verb to confift in 
 fignifying aelions, or paffions. 
 
 Laltly, Scaliger imagined he had made a great difcovery 
 in his book of the Principles of the Latin tongue, in 
 faying, that the distinction -of things into permanentes, and 
 fuentes, into what remain, and what pafs away, is the pro- 
 per fource of the drltinction -between rams, and verbs; 
 the firft'being to fignify what remains, and the fecond what 
 paffes. 
 
 But from what we have faid, it is cafy to perceive, that 
 thefe definitions are all falfe ; and that the only true definition 
 is, vox fignificans affirmationem ; This definition includes all 
 that is eliential to the verb; but if one would likewife in- 
 clude us principal accidents, one -might define it, vox figni- 
 ficans affirmationem, cum defignatore pv fonev^ Humeri, 
 temporis ; a word which fignifies an affirmation, with a de- 
 iignation of perfon, number, and tertfe : which is what pro- 
 perly agrees to the verb fubltantive efil. 
 
 For as to other verbs, confidered as becoming different by 
 the union of certain attributes, one may define them thus; 
 vox fignificans affirmationem alicujus attrtbuti, cum defigna- 
 tione perjons, numert, & temporis ; a word which cxprefl'es 
 the affirmation of fome attribute, with a defignatkwi of per- 
 fon. number, and time. 
 
 Verbs arc variously divided : with refpect to the fubject, they 
 are divided into afihe, pajftvc, neuter, &c. with refpect to 
 l 3 F their 
 
V E R 
 
 their inHcSions, into regular., and irregular; ptrfenal, and 
 .jmperfonal; auxiliary, jubjlantive, £kc. 
 VE rb AB'mt, is a t*ri which expreffes an aaion that falls on 
 another fubjeS, or objea. 
 
 Such are, / / work, &c. which fignify the action ot 
 laving, working, &c. — Of thefe grammarians make three 
 kinds; the one called tranjitive, where the aflion panes on a 
 fubjeft different from the agent ;—reficclcd, wRere the aaion 
 returns upon the agent ; — and reciprocal, where the a£tion 
 returns mutually upon the two agents that produced it. 
 Verb PaJJive, is that which exprefies a paffion; or which re- 
 ceives the aftion of fome agent; and which is conjugated in 
 the modern tongues, with the auxiliary verb, I am, je fuis, 
 je fono, &c. 
 
 Some do not allow of any verbs pajfwe in the modern lan- 
 guages : the reafon is, what we call paffive, is nothing but the 
 participle of the verb, joined with the auxiliary verb, to be; 
 whereas the verbs pajfwe of the Latin, Lie. have their parti- 
 cular terminations. 
 Verb Neuter, is that which fignifies an aaion that has no 
 particular objea whereon to fall ; but which, of itfelf takes 
 up the whole idea of the aaion— as, / pep, thou yawnejl, 
 he fnores, we walk, you ran, they Jland. 
 The Latins call them neuters, by reafon they are neither 
 aaive nor paflive ; though they have the force and fignifica- 
 tion of both : as, / languijh, fignifies as much as / am lan- 
 guijlnng ; 1 obey, as much as 1 excrcifc obedience, &c. only that 
 they have no regimen to particularize this fignification. 
 Of thefe verbs, there are fome which form their tenfes by the 
 auxiliary verb, to have ; as, / have jlept, you have run. — 
 Thefe, grammarians call neuter acllve. 
 Others there are, which form their compound parts by the 
 auxiliary, to be; as, to come, to arrive, &c. for we fay, / am 
 come, not / have come, &c, — Thefe are called neuters paf- 
 M 
 
 Verb Subjlantive, is that which expreffes the being, or fub- 
 ftance which the mind forms to itfelf, or fuppofes in the ob- 
 ject ; whether it be there, or not — as / am, thou art. 
 
 Auxiliary, or Helping Verbs, are thofe which ferve in con- 
 jugating active and paffive verbs : fuch are, / am, I have, 
 &c. 
 
 The abbot de Dangcau diftinguifhes all verbs into two gene- 
 ral kinds ; auxiliary verbs, and verbs which make ufe of 
 auxiliaries. 
 
 This diftincf ion fome may tax as not very juft ; in regard, 
 auxiliary verbs, fomctimes make ufe of auxiliaries them- 
 felves ; but this does not deftroy the divifion ; it only fhews, 
 that the auxiliary verb has two formalities, or two different 
 qualities which it is to be confidered under j in virtue where- 
 of, it conftitutes, as it were, two forts of verbs. 
 The verbs which make ufe of auxiliaries, he divides into 
 atlivc, muter, and pronominal. — Verbs neuter, he farther 
 diftinguifhes into neuters aclive, and neuters pajfwe. Prono- 
 Tninals he diftinguifhes into identic, reciprocal, neutrized, 
 and pajfivcd — But feveral of thefe are peculiar to the French 
 language. 
 
 Verbs, in the Englifh, and mofi modern tongues, do not 
 change their endings, as in Latin, to denote the feveral times, 
 modes, (s'c of their being, doing, or fuffering ; but in lieu 
 thereof, they make ufe of auxiliaries ; as have, am, he, do, 
 will, fhsll, may, can, &c. 
 
 Regular Verbs, are thofe which are conjugated after fome one 
 manner, rule, or analogy. 
 
 Irregular, or Anomalous Verbs, are thofe which have fome- 
 thing fmgular in the terminations, or formations of their 
 tenfes. 
 
 The irregularities in our Englifh verbs, lie wholly in the for- 
 mation of the preter tenfe, and paflive participle. — The firft, 
 and moft general irregularity, took its rife from thequicknefs 
 of our pronunciation, by changing the confonant d into t ; 
 the vowel e, in the regular ending ed, being alfo cut off, that 
 the pronunciation might be more ready : thus, 'for dwelled, 
 beeped, fended, we fay, dwelt, kept, fiat. 
 
 Verbs imperfonal, are thofe which have only the third perfon 
 
 as, it behoves, &C. 
 
 There are alfo reduplicative verbs; as, refound, recall, Sec. 
 
 and frequentative verbs, $zc. 
 VERBAL*, fomething that belongs to verbs, or even to 
 
 words fpoke with the mouth. 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, verforo, I Quite. 
 
 Verbal nouns, are thofe formed from verbs, 
 
 A verbal contrail, is that made merely by word of mouth ; 
 
 in oppofuion to that made in writing. 
 Verbal Accident. See the article Accident. 
 VERBERATION, fruiting, in phyfics, a term ufed to 
 
 exprefs the caufe of found, which arifes from a verberation of 
 
 the air, when ftruck, in divers manners, by the feveral parts 
 
 of the fonorous body firft put into a vibratory motion 
 VERDE GREASE *, or Verdegris, a kind of ruft of 
 
 copper, of great ufe among painters for a green colour. 
 
 V E R 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, viride teris: It is al(b 
 called teriigo. Others call it the flower, and others the vitriolic 
 fait of copper; though, in reality, it is rather the proper fub- 
 itance of the metal. 
 Verdegreafe is prepared from copper-plates, and the rape or 
 hufks of grapes well faturated with wine, put up in earthen 
 pots ; and ranged ftratum fuper ftratum ; that is, firft rape, 
 then copper ; and fo alternately. 
 
 When the pots are filled, they are fet In a cellar ; whence, 
 after fome time, they are taken out, to gather the verde- 
 greafe, which is a green ruft covering the plates all over. 
 Some talk of verdegreafe as if made with vinegar, and other 
 corrofive falts ; but it is a miftake ; the beft wine being no- 
 thing too good for the purpofe. 
 
 Accordingly, the greateft part of the verdegreafe confumcd 
 in Europe, is made in Langucdoc, of the wines of that coun- 
 try ; and is exported in cakes of about 25 pounds weight 
 each. 
 
 There is but little quite pure : to be good, it muft be very 
 dry, of a deep green, and clear of white fpots. 
 The apothecaries ufe to diflolve verdegreafe in diftilled vine- 
 gar, and then filtrate and evaporate it, and then fet in the 
 cellar ; upon which it fboots into cryftals. — Thefe cryftals 
 are ufed among chirurgeons, csY. to cleanfe old ulcers, eat 
 off fungous flelh, &c. 
 VERDERER*, or Verderor, a judicial officer of the 
 king's foreft, whofe bufinefs is to look to the vert, and fee 
 it well maintained. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin, viridaritls, which Ulpiaii 
 ufed in the like fignification. 
 
 He is fworn to keep the aflizes of the foreft ; as alfo to view, 
 receive, and enroll the attachments and prefentments of all 
 manner of trefpalfes, relating to vert and venifon therein. 
 
 VERDETER. See the article Verditer. 
 
 VERDICT*, is the anlwer of the jury given to the court, 
 concerning the matter of fa£t, in any caufe, civil or criminal, 
 committed by the court to their trial and examination. 
 
 * It is called verditl, from vtre diBum, <\. d, diilum veritatis, 
 the dictate of truth. 
 
 A verditl is either general, or fpecial. 
 General Verdict, is that which is brought into the court in 
 like general terms as the general iffue : as in action of diffeifin, 
 the defendant pleads, no wrong, no difleiiin. — Then the 
 iffue is general, whether the fact be wrong, or not : which 
 being committed to the jury, they, upon confideration of the 
 evidence, come in and fay, either for the plaintiff, That it is 
 a wrong diffefin; or for the defendant, That it is no wrong , 
 no diffeifin. 
 
 Special Verdict, is, when they fay at large, that fuch and 
 fuch a thing they found to be done by the defendant, or te- 
 nants declaring the courfe of the facl, as in their opinion it 
 is proved ; and as to the law, upon the facf, proving the 
 judgment of the court. 
 
 This fpecial verdict, if it contain any ample declaration of 
 the caufe from the beginning to the end, is called a ver- 
 ditl at large. 
 
 Attainder by Verdict. See the article Attainder. 
 
 VERDITER, Verdeter, a kind of mineral fubftance 
 fometimes ufed by the painters, &c. for a blue, but more ufu- 
 ally mixed with yellow for a green colour. 
 Verditer, according to Savary, ought to be made df the lapis 
 armenus ; or, at leaft, of an earthy fubftancc much like it, 
 brought from the mountains of Hungary, &c. only prepared 
 by powdering it, and cleanfing it by lorion. 
 But this ftone and earth are very rare ; and the verditer ufed 
 is not a native, but a factitious fubfhince : the proper way of 
 preparing it, we are told, is by carting wine or water upon 
 new copper, juft as it comes red hot out of the furnace, and 
 catching the fteams which rife from it upon other copper- 
 plates. — ■ Others fay, it is prepared by diffolving copper- 
 plates in wine, much after the manner of verdegreafe. 
 The method of making verditer, among us, is faid to be 
 as follows: — Into an hundred pounds weight of whitino-, 
 the refiners pour their copper water, and ftir them together 
 every day for fome hours, till the water grows pale : then 
 they pour that away, and fet it by for farther ufe ; and pour 
 on more of the green water, and fo till the verditer be made : 
 which being taken out, is laid on large pieces of chalk in the 
 fun, till it be dry and fit for the market. Harris. 
 The water mentioned to be poured off from the verditer, 
 (which remains at the bottom of the tub) is put into a copper, 
 and boiled till it come to the thicknefs of water-gruel : now, 
 confifting principally of falt-petre reduced, molt of the fpi- 
 rit of the vitriol being gone with the copper into the ver- 
 diter; and a difh full of this being put into the other ma- 
 terials for aqua fortis, is re-diitiilcd, and makes what we 
 call a double water, which is near twice as good as that 
 made without it. 
 
 VERDOY, in heraldry, is applied to a bordure of a coat of 
 arms ; charged with any kinds or parts of flowers, fruits, 
 fee-ds, plants, &c, 
 
 VERDURE, 
 
V E R 
 
 V E R 
 
 VERDURE *, the quality of grccnncfs. 
 
 * The word is French, formed of verd, green. 
 
 VERGE, V i ega, a rod, fwitch, or yard; particularly a 
 flick or wand, which perfons are admitted tenants by hold- 
 ing in their hand, and fwearing fealty to the lord of the 
 manor. 
 
 On this account, they are all called tenants by the verge. 
 
 Dented Verge, among florifts, is a jagged edge, or circum- 
 ference of a flower. 
 
 Verge is alfo ufed for the compafs or extent of the king's 
 court ; within which is bounded the jurifdiction of the lord 
 fteward of the king's houfhold. 
 
 It is thus called, from the verge or ftafF which the marfhal 
 bears. — It was antiently alfo denominated pax regis, or the 
 king's peace. 
 
 The lord fteward, by virtue of his office, without any com- 
 miffion, judges of all tranfgreffions, as trcafons, murders, 
 felonies, bloodfhed, fcrV. committed in the court, or within 
 the verge thereof ; which extends, every way, the fpace of 
 twelve miles from the chief tunnel of the court ; only Lon- 
 don, by charter, being exempted. 
 Court d/Ver'ge, isacourt, or tribunal, in manner of a king's- 
 bench ; which takes cognizance of all crimes, and mifde- 
 meanors committed within the verge, or jurifdiction of the 
 king's court. 
 
 Itis held in the compting-houfe, by the lord fteward, asjudgc 
 thereof, affifted by other officers of the houfhold ; as, the 
 treafurer, comptroller, cofferer, clerks of the green-cloth, 
 
 Verge of Land, VirgaTerree, See the article Yard-LW, 
 
 VERGERS, Virgatores fervientes, are officers who car- 
 ry white wands before the juftices of either bench; called 
 alfo, porters of the verge. 
 
 Vergers of cathedral or collegiate churches, are inferior of- 
 ficers, who go before the bifhop, dean, &c- with a verge, 
 or rod tipped with filver. 
 
 VERGILI^, a conftellation, whofe appearance denotes the 
 approach of the fpring. 
 
 According to the poets, the Vergllics were the daughters of 
 Atlas; and by the Greeks, were called Pleiades: but the 
 Romans named them VergUia. See Pleiades. 
 VERIFICATION, the act of proving, or making athing 
 appear true. 
 
 In the French law, verifying is ufed for the recording of the 
 
 king's edicts, and decrees by the parliament. 
 VER IFIC ATI ONE Relic"! a. See the article Re ucta. 
 VERISIMILI. See the article Rure de verifimili notitia. 
 VERISIMILITUDE. See the article Probability. 
 VERJUICE, a juice or liquor drawn from four grapes, or 
 
 wild apples, unfit for wine, or cider ; or from fweet ones, 
 
 while yet acid, and unripe. 
 
 Its chief ufe is in fauces, ragouts, though it is alfo an 
 ingredient in fome medicinal compofitions ; and is ufed by 
 the wax-chandlers to purify their wax. 
 
 It has its name from a large fort of grape, called verjus, 
 or bourdelas ; which is faid never to grow perfectly ripe ; 
 or rather, which in its utmoft maturity is too auftere and 
 four to be ufed in wine : whence it is commonly turned in- 
 to verjuke ; though in France all unripe grapes are deno- 
 minated verjus. 
 
 There is alfo a tolerable verjuice made of crabs, gathered, 
 nnd laid in a heap to fweat, the ftalks, &c. feparated ; they 
 are then ftamped, or ground, and the crab-mafh put in a hair 
 ba<Ti thejuicefqueezedinaprefs, then barelled up clofe, and 
 fet in a warm place to work for ten or twelve days. 
 
 VERMES, in medicine. See the article Worms. 
 
 VERMICELLI *, or Vermichelly, a kind of mixture, 
 prepared of flower, cheefe, yolks of eggs, iugar, and faffron ; 
 and reduced into little long pieces, or threads, like worms, 
 by forcing it with a pifton through a number of little holes 
 in the end of a pipe made for the purpofe. 
 
 * The word, in the original Italian, fignifies little worms : they 
 alfo call it tagliarini, and millefanti. 
 It was firft brought to us from Italy, where it is in great 
 
 vogue, In effect, it is the great regale of the Italians, — 
 
 Other nations are not eafily brought into the tafte of it. — 
 It is chiefly ufed in foups and pottages, to warm, provoke 
 venery, &c. 
 
 VERMICULAR, an epithet given to any thing that bears 
 a relation, or refcmblance to worms, vermiculi. 
 Anatomifts particularly apply it to the motion of the intef- 
 tines, and certain mufcles of the body. 
 
 The vermicular, or periffaltic motion of the inteftines, is 
 performed by the contraction of the fibres thereof, from a- 
 bove downward ; as the unnatural, or antiperiltalic motion 
 is by their contraction from below upwards. 
 The contraction happening in the periffaltic, which others 
 call the vermicular motion, as refcmbling the motion of 
 worm?, does not affect all the parts of the interlines at once $ 
 but one part after another. 
 Vermicular, or Verm i cu la ted IVerk t Opus vcrmicu- 
 
 latum, in fculpture, a fort of ornament, confifting of frets, 
 or knots, in Mofaic pavements, winding, and reprefenting, 
 in fome fort, the tracks made by worms * 
 * §unm lep : de lexeis compofitar, ut tefferul* omnes 
 Arte pavimento, ntque emblemate vermitttlato. 
 
 Cic. de Orat. lib. III". 
 V LRMICUL ARES, in anatomy. See Musculi, and 
 Tabu li. 
 
 VERMIFORMIS, in anatomy, a term applied to various 
 parts in the human body; bearing fome refembiance to worms. 
 > — Such are the 
 
 Proceffm, or Jpophyfes Vermif6rmes, two extremities of 
 the cerebellum, iituate near the fourth ventricle of the brain. 
 
 Vermiformes Mufculi, are the four mufcles in each hand 
 and foot, which bring the fingers and toes towards the 
 thumbs and great toes i called alio lumbricales. 
 
 VERMIEUGUS, the fame with anthelmintic. See An- 
 thelmintic, and WoRM-Powder. 
 
 VERMILION, a bright, beautiful red colour; in great 
 efteem among the antients, under the denomination of mi- 
 nium. 
 
 There arc two kinds of vermilion ; the one natural, the o- 
 ther/fl(.7/'//i!ttj. 
 
 The natural is found in fome filver mines, in form of a ruddy 
 fand ; which they prepare, and purify by feveral lotions, and 
 coctions. 
 
 Fa&litious or common Vermilion is made of artificial cinna- 
 bar, ground up with white wine, and afterwards with the 
 whites of eggs : in this ilate it is made into cakes, and left to 
 dry. And to fit it for ufe, they grind it up a fecond time 
 with water and whites of eggs. — To purify and heighten 
 its colour, fome grind it up with urine, or fpirits of wine, 
 to which a little faffron is added. 
 
 Some alio pretend to make vermilion of lead, burnt and 
 wafhed ; or of cerufle, rubified by fire.' — But thefe are not 
 properly denominated vermilion, but red led. 
 It is this laft, however, that feems to be the artificial mini- 
 um, or vermilion of the antients ; and accordingly, apotheca- 
 ries, and painters ftill give it the name. 
 The anticnt Greek and Latin authors, have given divers fa- 
 bulous accounts of their minium ; and feveral of the moderns 
 have adopted their dreams : the moft rational accounts are, 
 that Theophraftus attributes the firft invention of making it 
 to Callias the Athenian; who hit upon it, in endeavouring 
 to draw gold, by fire, out of a red fand, found in the filver 
 mines, in the yearofRome 249. — But Vkruvius fays, it 
 was difcovercd in the Cilbian fields ; where it was drawn 
 from a red ftone, called by the Greeks anthrax. 
 We have two kinds of vermilion from Holland ; the one of 
 a deep red, the other pale : but both are the fame matter at 
 bottom ; the difference of colour only proceeding from the 
 cinnabar's being more or lefs ground : when fine ground, 
 the vermilion is pale ; and this is preferred to the coarfer, 
 and redder. 
 
 It is of confiderable ufe among the painters in oil, and in mi- 
 niature ; and likewife among the ladies, as a fucus, or paint, 
 to heighthen the complexion of fuch as are too pale. 
 
 Vermilion is fometimes alfo, though improperly, ufed for 
 what we otherwife call kermes, or fcarlet grain. 
 
 VERMIN ATION, Verminatio, the a a of breeding 
 worms, and other vermine ; particularly bots in cattlu, csV. 
 
 Vermination is fometimes alfo ufed, among phyficians, for 
 a fort of tormina ventris, or wringing or the guts ; where- 
 in the patient is affected, as if worms were gnawing his in- 
 terlines. 
 
 VERMINE, Vermina, a collective name, including all 
 kinds of little animals, or infects, which are hurtful or 
 troublefome to men, beads, fruits, <3'c. as worms, lice, 
 fleas, bugs, caterpillars, ants, flies, &c. 
 
 VIRMIVOROUS Animals, are fuch as feed upon worms. 
 
 VERNACULAR, is applied to any thing that is peculiar 
 to fome one country. 
 
 Whence, difeafes which reign moft in any particular nation, 
 province, or diftrict, arc fometimes called vernacular dif- 
 eafes : though more frequently endemic difeafes. 
 Such are the plica polomca, jcorbutus, tarantifm, &c. 
 
 VERNAL, fomething belonging to the fpring feafon. See 
 Spring. — Hence, vernal leaves, are thofe leaves of plants 
 which come up in the fpring, Izfc. 
 
 Vernal Signs, are thofe which the fun is in, during the 
 fpring feafon, viz. Aries, Taurus, and Gemini. 
 
 Vernal Equinox, is that which happens when the fun is af- 
 cending from the equator towards the north pole. 
 
 VERN1SH. See the article Varnish. 
 
 VERONICA, a term abbreviated from vericonica, of vera 
 icon, q. d. true image ; and applied to portraits, 01 reprelen- 
 tations of the face of our Saviour on handkerchiefs. 
 Veronica's are imitations of that celebrated original one, pre- 
 ferved with great veneration at S. Peter's in Rome ; and 
 imagined, by fome, to be the hanii<kcichief Lid over our 
 Saviour's face in the fepulclire. 
 
 Ths 
 
VER 
 
 SThe^flft mention we find of this famous relick, is in a ccrc- 
 bdttiaL compiled in n«» dedicated to pope Celeftm, by 
 Benedict a canon of S. Peter's: but there .s no mcnt.on 
 made of the time when it was brought to Rome.-- A fcatt 
 is kept in honour thereof in moft churches, on the i uciday 
 in quinquaeeiima week. . 
 It is to be obferved, that the name veronica, is only given to 
 fucb handkerchiefs as reprefent no more of our Saviour than 
 his face : for fuch as reprefent his whole body, as that ot 
 Befancon, which thews his fore-part at length ; and that oi 
 Turin, which reprefents both his fore and hind part, as hav- 
 ing covered him all over, were never called by this name 
 The painters fomctimes reprefent the veronica as held up by 
 an angel, but molt commonly by a woman ; which woman, 
 thecommon people imagine to be a faint, called ^mt. Veronica. 
 On this principle, fome people, towards the dole ot the 
 ninth century, began to fancy there might have been a WO 
 man of that name in Jerufalem, who had prefented her 
 handkerchief to our Saviour, as he went to Calvary, to Wipe 
 his face withal, befmeared, as it was, with fweat and blood 
 and that the piaure of his face had been miraculouily im- 
 preffed thereon, , 
 This was no fooner imagined by fome, than it was believed 
 by others : and accordingly, we find ; by the travels ot Ber- 
 nard de Bredemback, dean of Mentz, to the Holy Land, in 
 1+83, printed in 1502, that it was not long before even her 
 very houfe was found' out. —From that time the fiction 
 gained ground, and foon after became a current legend. 
 It was at length added, that this fame woman, S. Veronica, 
 was-the woman troubled with the flux of blood in the gof- 
 pel : and accordingly, fhe was foon joined with S. Fiacnus, 
 and invoked together with him againft the hemorrhoids. — - 
 And hence the eftablifhmcnt of feafts, in honour oi S. 
 Veronica, ill the churches dedicated to S. Fiacrius. 
 In fome of thefe churches, particularly at S. ' Giles's in Va- 
 lenciennes, this faint is commonly called S. Venice, by abbre- 
 viation from the genitive, Veronica : and the women have a 
 -cuftom at certain times of the year, to hang linen fwathes, 
 wherewith they had girt themfelves for nine days, near her 
 itatue. — And it is thence, or rather, from our Saviour's 
 piaure expreffed on thclinen handkerchief, that the milliners 
 have taken S. Veronica, or as they call her, S. Venice, or 
 S. Venecia, *os Venifa, for their tutelary faint. 
 VERRUCA, in medicine. See the article Wart. 
 Hence, verrucous is applied to any excrefeencies which 
 have a refemblance to warts. — There are alfo verrucous ul- 
 cers, y<r. 
 
 VERRY, in heraldry. Seethe article Vairy. 
 
 VERSA. See the article Vice Vcrfa. 
 
 VERSE, Versus, in poetry, a line or part of a difcoirffc, 
 confifting of a certain number of long and fhort fyllabfes, 
 which run with an agreeable cadence ; the like being alfo 
 reiterated in the courfe of the piece. 
 
 This repetition, according to F. Boffu, is nccc'flary to dif- 
 tinguifh the notion of verfe from that of profe : for in profe, 
 3S well as verfe, each period and member are parts ot dif- 
 courfe, confifting of a certain number of long and fhort fyl- 
 lables ; only, profe is continually diverfifying its mcafures, 
 and cadences ; and verfe regularly repeats them. 
 This repetition of the poets, appears even in the manner of 
 writing ; for one verfe being finifhed, they return to the be- 
 ginning of another line to write the verfe following: and it 
 is to this return, that verfe owes its name ; verfus coming 
 from vcrtere, to turn, or return. 
 
 Accordingly, we find the fame word ufed, to fignify any 
 thing that is placed in a certain, regular order: Cicero ufes 
 verfus for a line in profe ; Virgil for a row of trees, and even 
 -of oars in a galley. But as the regularity of verfe carries 
 with it more charms, and requires a greater degree of exact- 
 ness, the word has, in time, become appropriated to poetry. 
 To make verfe, k is not enough that the mcafures and quan- 
 tities of fyllables be obferved, and fix juft feet put, one after 
 ■another, in the'fame line : there are further required certain 
 agreeable cadences, particular tenfes, moods, regimens, and 
 even fomctimes words ■unknown in profe. 
 But what> is chiefly required, Ig an elevated, bold, figura- 
 tive manner of diction : this manner, is a thing fo peculiar 
 to this kind of writing, that without it, the moft exact ar- 
 rangement of longs and fhorts, does not conftitute verfe, fo 
 much as a fort of-meafured profe. 
 
 ihe Greek and Latin verfes, oonfift of a certain number of 
 ■feet, difpofed in a certain order. — And fome have attempted 
 to make French and 'Engl ifh vtrfes on the fame foundation; 
 but without fuccefs. 
 
 Vofiius is very fevere on the modern verfe, and makes it al- 
 together unfit for mufic : Our verfes, fays he, run all as it 
 were on one Toot ; without diftin£tion of members, -or parts, 
 .and without regard to the natural quantities of fyllables. — 
 We have no rhythmus at all : and we mind nothing, but to 
 4iave a certain number of fyllables in a verfe, of whatever 
 nature, and in whatever order. 
 
 3£r Malcolm vindicates our verfe from this imputation, It 
 
 VER 
 
 is true, he fays, we do not follow the metrical compofuiun 
 of the antients ; yet we have fuch a mixture of ftrong and 
 foft, long and fhort fyllables, as makes our verfes flow, 
 fm ooth or rumbling, flow or rapid, agreeable to the fubjedt. 
 — Inftances of all which we have in the following lines : 
 
 " Soft is the {train when Zephyr gently blows. 
 
 (t The hoarfe rough verfe fhould like the torrent roar. 
 
 (< The line too labours, and the words move flow. 
 
 " Flies o'er the unbending corn, and Ikims along the main. 
 By making a fmall change, or tranfpofition of a word or fyl- 
 lable, in any of thefe verfes, any body who has an ear will 
 find, that we make a great matter of the nature and or- 
 der of the fyllables. 
 
 Voffius adds, that the antient odes were fung, as to the rhyth- 
 mus, in the fame manner as we fcan them : every pes bebjg 
 a diitincr bar, or meafure, feparatcd by a diftinCt paufe : tho', 
 in reading, that diftinction was not accurately obferved. 
 Laftly, he obferves, that their odes had a regular return of 
 the fame kind of verfe ; and the fame quantity of fyllables, 
 in the fame place of every verfe ; whereas, in the modern 
 odes, to follow the natural quantity of our fyllables, every 
 ftanza would be a diftin£t fong. 
 
 It is next to impofHble to write profe without, fomctimes, 
 intermixing verfe with it ; fo that Vaugelas's rule, which en- 
 joins us to avoid them, is next to impracticable. — This may 
 be further faid, that for fhort verfes, they are fo little per- 
 ceived, that it is fcarce worth while to {train one's fcif to 
 avoid them ; and as to long verfes, they arc chiefly to be a- 
 voided in the ends of periods; for, in the middle, they are 
 fcarce felt. In the general, rules of this kind muff be con-' 
 fidered, as principally regarding numerous verfes, and fuch 
 as are readily diftinguifhed by their cadence : thus, in Latin, 
 it is fcarce poflible to avoid iambic verfes; but hexameters 
 muff, by all means, be avoided, their cadence being more 
 fenfible and more ttudied. 
 Verses are of various kinds ; fome denominated from the 
 number of feet whereof they are compofed ; as, the manome- 
 ter, eiimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, 
 * hcndecafyllabum, &c. — Some from the kinds of feet ufed 
 in them ; as the pyrrhichian, proceleufmatic, iambic, tro- 
 chaic, dactylic, anapasftic, fpondaic or moloflean, chor-iam- 
 bic, iambi-dactylic, or da&ylotrocbaic. — Sometimes tromj 
 the names of the inventcrs, or the authors who have ufed 
 them with molt fuccefs : as, the anacreontic, archilochian, 
 hipponactic, pherecratian, glyconian, alcmanian, afclcpia"- 
 dean, alcaic, ftefichorian, phalifcan, ariftophanian, callima- 
 chian, galliambic, phalascian, and fapphicv — Sometimes from 
 the fubject, or the circumftances of the compofition: as, 
 the heroic, elegiac, adonic, ckc. See Hexameter, Pen- 
 tameter, Iambic, &c. 
 * In reckoning the feet of iambics, trochaics, and anapa:- 
 ftics, each meter is a dipody, or comprehends two feet. — 
 In other verfes a meter is but a Tingle foot. — Hence it is, 
 that the iambic trimeter is alfo called fenarium, becaufe 
 compofed of fix feet. Scrv. Centim. p. 1817. 
 The morderns have invented heroic, or alexandrine verfes, 
 which confift of twelve or thirteen fyllables. 
 The antients, likewife, invented various kinds of poetical 
 devifes in verfe ; as cento's, echo's, and ?nonorhymes. 
 
 Equivocal Verses, thofe where the fame words, contained in 
 two lines, carry a different fenfe. 
 
 Reciprocal Verses, are thofe which read the fame backwards 
 as forwards. See Retrograde. 
 
 Concordant Verses.^ f Concordant. 
 
 DaStylic Verses. Dactylic 
 
 Elegiac Verses. Elegiac. 
 
 Fefcennine Verses. FesceNNINE. 
 
 Heroic Verse. pSee" Heroic. 
 
 Metrical Verses. Metr ical, 
 
 Rhopalic Verses. Rhopai. ic. 
 
 Serpentine Verses. Serpentine. 
 
 Technical Verses. J L Technical. 
 
 Verse, is aifo ufed for a part of a chapter, feetion, or para- 
 graph, fubdivided into feveral little articles. 
 The whole Bible is divided into chapters ; and the chapters 
 are fubdivided into verfes. 
 
 The divifion of verfes in the New Teftamcnt, was fir ft 
 made by Robert Stephens : and fo negligently was it done, 
 that his fon, Henry Stephens, afliires us, he worked at it as 
 he travelled from Paris to Lions. — Many learned men find 
 great fault with this divifion ; and yet it is every where fol- 
 lowed. 
 
 M. Simon obferves, that the Greeks and Latins meant by 
 verfe, aline, containing a certain number of words. — He 
 adds, that the authors of thofe days, to prevent any thing 
 being added or taken away from their works, ufed to mark 
 at the end, the number of verfes they contained ; but the 
 books themfelves were wrote all running, without kny divi- 
 fions, points, or the like. 
 VERSED fine of an Arch, a fegment of the diameter of 3 
 circle, lying between the foot of a right fine, and the lower 
 extremity ot the arch. See Arch, and Cqversed. 
 
 Thus 
 
VER 
 
 Thus, DE, (Tab. Trigonometry, fig. u) is the verfed fixe of 
 the arch AE. See Sine. 
 VERSIFICATION, the art, or manner of making 
 verfe; alfo the tune and cadence of verfe. 
 Verification, is properly applied to what the poet does more 
 by labour, art, and rule, than by invention, and the genius 
 or furor poeticus. 
 
 The matter of verification, is long and fhort fyllables, and 
 feet compofed of them ; and its form, is the arangement of 
 them, in correct, numerous, and harmonious verfes ; but 
 this is no more than a mere tranflator may pretend to, and 
 which the Catilinarian war, put in meafure, might merit. 
 It is with reafon, therefore, that thefe fimple matters are 
 diftinguifhed from the grand poetry, and called by the name 
 verfification. 
 
 In effecl, there is much the fame difference between gram- 
 mar and rhetoric, as there is between the art of making 
 verfes, and that of inventing poems. 
 
 VERSION, a tranflation of fome book, or writing, out of 
 one language into another. 
 
 VERSO. See the article Folio Vcrfo. 
 
 VERT, in heraldry, the term for a green colour. 
 
 It is called vert in the blazon of the coats of all under the 
 degree of nobles ; but in coats of nobles it is called emerald ; 
 and in thofe of kings, Venus. 
 
 In engraving, it is exprefled by diagonals, or lines drawn 
 athwart, from right to left, from the dexter chief corner, 
 to the finiftcr bafe. See Tab. Herald, fig. 48. 
 In lieu offer/, the French heralds ufe ftnople, or fynople. 
 Vert, or Green Hue, in foreft law, any thing that grows, 
 and beais a green leaf within the foreft, that may cover a 
 deer. 
 
 This is divided into over-vert, and nether-vert. 
 
 Over-V ert is the great woods; which, in law-books, areufu- 
 ally called hault-bois. 
 
 Netber-VEVLT is the under-woods ; otherwife called fub-bois. 
 We fometimes alfo meet with Special Vert, which denotes 
 all trees growing in the king's woods, within the foreft ; and 
 thofe that grow in other men's woods, if they be fuch trees 
 as bear fruit to feed the deer. 
 
 YERTEBR/E*, a chain of little bones, reaching from the 
 top of the neck, down the back, to the os facrum ; and 
 forming a third part of the human fkcleton, called the fpina 
 dorfi. 
 
 * They have their name a vertendo; becaufe it is on them the 
 head and trunk turn: the Greek call them o-ffonS'tAei, fpon- 
 dyli, for the fame reafon. 
 The vertebra are 24 in number; feven of them belong to 
 the neck, twelve to the back, and five to the loins. 
 They lie not inaftraight line; thofe of theneck bend inward, i 
 and thofe of the back outwards, for enlarging the cavity of j 
 the thorax; and thofe, again, of the loins bend inwards, I 
 and thofe of the os facrum outwards, to enlarge the cavity 
 of the bafon. 
 
 The body of each vertebra is fpongious and cavernous ; hav- 
 ing in the middle a large perforation, through which the me- 
 dulla fpinalis palles, and feven apophyfes, or procefles. 
 The fore-part of this body is round and convex ; the hind- 
 part fomewhat concave : its upper and lower fides are plain, 
 each covered with a cartilage which is pretty thick forwards, 
 but thin backwards, by means whereof it is, that we bend 
 the body forwards ; the cartilages yielding to the prefTure of 
 the bodies of the vertebra, which, in that motion, come 
 clofer to one another : which could not be effected, if the 
 hard bodies of the vertebra: were clofe to one another. 
 The proceffes of each vertebra are of three forts : two tranf- 
 verfe, or lateral ; in each of which there is a tendon of the 
 vertebral mufcles inferted : four oblique ones ; by which the 
 vertebra are articulated to one another: and one acute, on 
 the hindennoft part of the vertebra — . See Tab. Anat. (O- 
 tfeol.) fig. io. lit. a. a. b. b. fig. 7. //V. a. a. a. a. fig. 7. 
 tit. n. n. 0. 0. 0. r. r. fi. fi, &c. fig. 1 1, lit. b. b. c. c. fig. 8. 
 lit. b. b. a. a. 
 
 Thefe procefles, which are peculiarly called the /fines, form, 
 with the hinder or concave part of the body of the vertebra:, 
 a large hole in each vertebra ; and all the holes anfwering one 
 another, make a channel for the defcent of the fpinal mar- 
 row, which fends out its nerves to the feveral parts of the 
 body by pairs, thro' two fmall holes, formed by the joint- 
 ing of four notches, in the fides of each fuperior and interior 
 vertebra. 
 
 The vertebra are articulated to one another, by ginglymus: 
 the two defcending oblique procefles of each fuperior verte- 
 bra of the neck and back, have a little dimple in their ex- 
 tremities, wherein they receive the extremities of the two 
 afcending oblique proc-fles of the inferior vertebra; io that 
 Vol. II. 
 
 VER 
 
 the two afcending procefles of each vertebra of the neck, and 
 back, are received, and the two defcending do receive, ex- 
 cept the firft of the neck, and laft of the back ; but the 
 afcending proceffes of each vertebra of the loins receive, and 
 the two defcending are received ; contrary to thofe of the 
 neck, and back. 
 
 The vertebra are all tied together by a hard membrane, 
 made of ftrong and large fibres : It covers the body of all the 
 vertebra forwards ; reaching from the firft of the neck, to 
 the os facrum. — There is another membrane, which lines 
 the canal, made by the large hole of each vertebra; which 
 alfo ties them together: befides, the bodies of each verte* 
 bra are tied to one another, by the intervening cartilages; 
 and the tendons of the mufcles, which are inferted in their 
 procefles, tie them together behind. 
 
 This ftrudture of the fpine is admirable; for had it been all 
 one bone, we could have had no motion in our backs; had 
 it been of two or three bones articulated for motion, the me- 
 dulla fpinalis muft have been neceflarily bruifed at every 
 angle, or joint ; befides, the whole would not have been fo 
 pliable, for the feveral poftures we have occafion to put our- 
 felves in : if it had been made of feveral bones, without in- 
 tervening cartilages, we fliould have had no more ufe of it, 
 than if it had been but one bone. ■ — ■ And if each vertebra 
 had its own diftincr. cartilages, it might have been eafily dif- 
 located. — Laftly, the oblique procefles of each fuperior and 
 inferior vertebra, fo keep the middle one, that it can neither 
 be thruft backwards nor forwards, fo as to comprefs the me- 
 dulla fpinalis. 
 
 The vertebra of the neck differ from the reft, in that they 
 are fmaller and harder, their tranfverfe procefles perforated for 
 the paffages of the vertebral vcflels, and their acute procefles 
 forked and ftraight. See Tab. Anat. (OJieol.) fig. 3- «• I. 1- 
 fig. 7. ». 14. 14. fig. 8. and fig. 9. 
 
 Add, that the firft and fecond have fomething peculiar to 
 themfelves. 
 
 The firft, called atlas, is tied to the head ; and moves with 
 it upon the fecond, femicircularly. 
 
 The fecond is called epijlrophaus, axis, or cardo ; alfo vertebra 
 dentata : in the middle, between its two oblique afcending 
 procefles, it has along and round procefs like a tooth, which 
 is received into a finus of the atlas ; and upon it, the head 
 with the firft vertebra, turns half round, as upon a hinge, or 
 axis. The extremity of this procefs, is knit to the occiput, 
 by a fmall, but ftrong ligament. — A luxation of tins tooth 
 is mortal, becaufe it comprefles the medulla fpinalis. 
 The third is alfo by fome, though improperly, denominated 
 axis. 
 
 The vertebra of the back differ from the reft in this, that 
 they are larger than thofe of the neck, and fmaller than thofe 
 of the loins : their acute procefles flope downwards upon one 
 another. They have in each fide of their bodies a fmall 
 dimple, wherein they receive the round extremities of the 
 ribs : the uppermoft of them is fometimes called the crcjl ; 
 the fecond the axillaries ; and the reft cofiales. See Tab. 
 Anat. (OJieol.) fig. 3. n. 13. 13. fig- 7- »• '5- l 5- fig- '°- 
 The vertebra of the loins, are the broadeft; and the laft of 
 them, the largeft of all the vertebra. Sec Tab. Anat. 
 (O/leol) fig. 3. n. 14. l^.fig. 7 n. 16. 16. fig. 11. 
 Though each vertebra has but a fmall motion, yet the motion 
 of them all is confiderable : the head, we have oblerved, 
 moves only backwards and forwards on the firft vertebra, and 
 femicircularly on the fecond. — The motion of the other 
 vertebra of the neck is not fo manifeft, yet is greater than 
 that of the vertebra of the back ; becaufe their acute procef- 
 fes are fhort and ftraight, and the cartilages, which are be- 
 tween their bodies, arc thicker. — The vertebra of the back 
 have the leaft motion of any, becaufe their cartilages are thin, 
 their acute procefles long, and very near to one another : and 
 they arc fixed to the ribs, which neither move forwards, nor 
 backwards. — The greateft motion of the back, is perform- 
 ed by the vertebra of the loins ; becaufe their cartilages are 
 thicker, and their acute procefles fland at a greater diilance 
 from one another : for the thicker the cartilages ate, the more 
 we may bend the body forwards; and the greater diftance 
 there is between the acute procefles, the more we may bend 
 backwards. 
 
 Such is the ftructure and motion of the vertebra, when in 
 their natural poiition : but wc frequently find them varioufly 
 diftorted. — If the vertebra of the back ftick out, it confti- 
 tutes what we call a bunched back ; and in fuch cafes, the 
 cartilages between the vertebra arc v^r'y thin and hard for- 
 wards but confiderably thick backwards, where the oblique 
 procefles of the fuperior and interior vertebra, are at a con- 
 fiderable diilance from one another, which diftance is filled 
 up with a vifcous fubftance. 
 
 This inequality of tiic thicknefs of the cirtilages happens, 
 either by a relaxation, or a weaknefs of the ligaments and 
 13 G mufcles, 
 
V E R 
 
 VER 
 
 mufcles, fattened to the back-fide of the vertebra : ill winch 
 Cafes* their antagonifts finding no oppofition, remain in a 
 continual contraction. 
 
 The .os facrum does alfo confift of vertebra in children ; 
 which grow fo clofe together in adults, that they make but 
 one large and folid bone of the figure of an ifofceles triangle, 
 whofe bafe is tied to the laft vertebra of the loins, and the 
 upper part of its fides to the ilia, and its point to the os coc- 
 cygis. 
 
 VERTEBRALES, in anatomy, a pair of mufcles, whofe 
 office is to ftretch out all the vertebra of the back. 
 
 VERTEX, in anatomy, the crown of the head - y or that 
 uppermoft and middle part iituate between the fiuciput and 
 occiput 
 
 Hence, alfo, vertex is figuratively ufed for the top of other 
 things. — Thus, the vertex of a cone, pyramid, conic fee- 
 tion, cfc. is the point of the upper extremity of the axis; or 
 the top of the figure. 
 
 Vertex of an Angle, is the angular point; or the point A, 
 (Tab. Geometry, fig. 91.) wherein the legs meet. 
 
 Vertex of a Figure, is the vertex of the angle oppofite to 
 the bafe. 
 
 Such is the point M, (Tab. Geometry, fig. 19.) oppofite to 
 the bafe KL. 
 
 Vertex of a curve, is the point A, (Tab. Geometry, fig. 51.) 
 from which the diameter is drawn j or it is the interiection 
 of the diameter, and the curve. 
 
 Vertex of a Glafs, in optics, the fame with the pole there- 
 of. 
 
 Vertex is alfo ufed, in aftronomy, for that point of heaven 
 
 perpendicularly over our heads; called the zenith. 
 Path of the Vertex. See the article Path. 
 VERTICAL Circle, in aftronomy, is a great circle of the 
 
 fphere, puffing through the zenith Z, and nadir N, (Tab. 
 
 jfjlronomy, fig. 6.) and any other given point on the furface 
 
 of the fphere, as B. 
 
 The vertical circles are alfo called azimuths.— The meridian 
 of any place is a vertical circle. — All the vertical circles inter- 
 feet each other in the zenith and nadir. 
 
 The ufe of the vertical circles, is to meafure the hcighth 
 of the ftars, and their diftances from the zenith, which is 
 reckoned on thefe circles ; and to find their eaftern and wci- 
 tern amplitude, by obferving how many degrees the vertical 
 wherein the ftar rife?, or fets, Is diftant from the meridian. 
 Prime Vertical, is that vertical circle, or azimuth, which 
 partes through the poles of the meridian ; or which is per- 
 pendicular to the meridian, and pafles through the equinoc- 
 tial points. 
 
 Vertical of the Sun, Is the vertical which pafTes through 1 
 the centre of the fun, at any moment of time. 
 Its ufe is in dialing, to find the declination of the plane 
 whereon the dial is to be drawn ; which is dune by obferving 
 how many degrees that vertical is diftant from the meridian, 
 after marking the point, or line of the fhadow upon the 
 plane, at any times. 
 
 Vertical Angles. — Two angles, as, 0 and a-, (Tab. Geome- 
 try, fig 1 8. ) are faid to be vertical, if the legs of one of 
 them, AE and EC, be only continuations of the legs of the 
 other, DE and BE. 
 
 Vertical P/w, in perfpe£tive, is a plane perpendicular to 
 the geometrical plane ; paffing through the eye, and cutting 
 the pcrlpedtive plane at right angles. 
 
 Vertical Plane, in conies, is a plane patting through the 
 vertex of the cone, and parallel to any conic fection. 
 
 Vertical LiVm, in conies, is a right line drawn on the ver- 
 tical plane, and pafiing through the vertex of the cone. 
 
 Vertical Dial, is a fun-dial, drawn on the plane of a ver- 
 tical circle ; or perpendicular to the horizon. 
 Thefe are particularly called oriental, eaft; occidental, weft ; 
 meridional, fouth ; and jeptentrional, or north verticals, when 
 oppofed to one or other of thefe cardinal points of the hori- 
 zon. 
 
 When they do not look prccifely to any of them, they are 
 called deciliters ; and when their plane, or furface is not per- 
 fectly perpendicular, recliners. 
 
 Vertical Point, in aftronomy, the fame with vertex, or 
 
 'zenith. 
 
 Hence, a ftar is faid to be vertical, when it happens to be in 
 that point which is perpendicularly over any place. 
 Vertical Line, in dialing, is a line or any plane perpendi- 
 cular to the horizon. 
 
 This is beft found and drawn on an erect and reclining plane, 
 by holding up a firing and heavy plummet fteadily, and then 
 marking two points of the fhadow of the thread on the plane, 
 a good diftancefrom one another; and drawing aline through 
 
 thofe marks. 
 
 VERTICILLATE Plants, are fuch as have their flowers 
 
 intermixed with fmall leaves, growing in a kind of whirls 
 about the joints of the ftalk ; as penny-royal, hare-hound. 
 The peculiar characteriftic of this genus of plants, according 
 to Mr Ray, is, that their leaves grow by pairs, one juft a - 
 gaintt another, on the ftalk: the flower is monopetalous, but 
 ulually growing down with a kind of lip, or turning fame- 
 thing like the form of a helmet : four feeds fucceed each 
 flower; to which the perianthium of the flower ferves in- 
 ftead of a capfula feminalis. 
 
 The fame author makes two diftin&ions of thefe verticil/ate 
 plants. — 1°. The fruticofa, or fuch whofe fupcrficies is per- 
 ennial : thefe, again, have either a plain flower, as the cba- 
 meedrys vulgaris, tcucrium, and the marum fyriacum ; or a 
 flower with a lip, which they call a labiated jloivcr ; or one 
 fome thing in the form of an helmet, which they call galeated; 
 as thefclarea, ffoechas, hyflbpus, rofmarinus, fatureia, marum 
 vulgare, thymum vulgare, and the polium montanum. 
 2", The herbaceee, or fuch whofe ftalks are not perennial ; 
 thefe are the menthx, verbena, di£tamnus cretlcus, origanum, 
 majorana, ocimum, horminum, galcopiis, nepeta, betonica, 
 prunella, ftachys, clinopodium vulgare, lamium, moluca, he- 
 dera terrcftris, galericulata, calamintha, mclifia, marrubium 
 commune, nigrum & aquaticum ; chamxpitys, fcordonia, 
 fcordium, hugula, fyderitis, and cardiaca. 
 
 Verticillate Flowers. See the article Flower. 
 
 VERTICITY, is that property of the loadftonc, whereby 
 it turns or directs itfelf to fome peculiar point. 
 The attraction of the magnet was known long before its 
 verticity. 
 
 VERTIGO*, in medicine, an indifpofition of the brain, 
 wherein the patient fees the objects about him as if thev 
 turned round, and fancies he turns round himlllf ; though 
 he is all the while at reft. 
 
 * The word is Latin, formed az-ertendo, from turning round. 
 Phyficians diftinguifh two kinds, or rather, two degrees of 
 vertigoes. — The fir ft, called a fimple vertigo, is when the 
 body and external objects appear to turn round, without any 
 great dimnels of fight. 
 
 The other, called jcotomia, or vertigo tenebrofa, is when the 
 eyes are alfo darkened ; 3nd, is it were, covered with a 
 mitt. 
 
 Some make a third ftage, viz. vertigo caduca, wherein the 
 patient actually falls down. — But this feems fcarce to differ 
 from an epilepfey. See Epilepsy. 
 
 Sometimes the vertigo is feated in the fore-part of the head, 
 and fometimes in the hind-part : the latter is much the 
 more dangerous. 
 
 Bellini accounts for the vertigo very well, from a preterna- 
 tural motion in the retina: for it is evident, an object will 
 feem to move circularly, if the images thereof, painted on 
 the retina, fall fucccffively on different parts of the retina. 
 This they may do, either by the objecVs moving w hile the 
 eye is at reft, or from the eye moving while the object refts ; 
 or, laftly, the object and eye being both at reft, and the rays 
 falling on the fame place, by the optic nerve's being alone in 
 motion. For fince a right and an oblique incident do not 
 excite the fame tremors in the nerves, and the fame fpecics 
 of motion; if the optic nerve only be moved, and the ob- 
 ject be at reft, it will appear to fhift its tituation, by the 
 change of the place in which it was reprefentcd. 
 External caufes of virtigess, are a continued turning round 
 of the body, drunkennefs, too long fafting, immoderate cx- 
 ercife, furprizc, voracity, much ule of pulfe, onions, leeks, 
 raddifhes, cabbage, multard, fcrr, and, in general, what- 
 ever may prefs, diftend, or contract the arteries. 
 The firft ftep in the cure, is bleeding in the jugular, or cup- 
 ping ; then they proceed to an emetic ; then a veficatory on 
 the neck, or a perpetual blifter, or ifTues • with ftcrnuta- 
 tories, and the other medicines that obtain in the apo- 
 plexy. 
 
 VERTILLAGE, in agriculture, the tilling, or preparing 
 of ground to receive the feed, by turning, ifirring, or tof- 
 
 fing it. ; 
 
 VERTUE. See the article Virtue. 
 VERTUOSO. See the article Virtuoso. 
 VERU-MONTANUM, in anatomy, a kind of little 
 
 valve, in the place wherein the ejaculatory duels enter the 
 
 urethra. 
 
 Its ufe is, to prevent the urine, in pafiing the urethra, from 
 getting in at thofe du£ts, and lb mixing with the femen. 
 VERY * Lord, and Very Tenant, are thofe that are im- 
 mediate lord and tenant to one another. 
 
 * « — And know ye, that in taking oflenfes fix things are ne- 
 " ce/Tary, vix. very /ord, and very tenant; fervice behind; ilie 
 " day of the taking; (eifin of the iervices, and within his fee ; 
 ** and that a man is not very tenant, until he have atturned to 
 " the lord by fome fervice. Old. Nat. Brt'j. See Tenant, 
 Attqurnmint, fcf<. 
 
 VE5I- 
 
V E S 
 
 VESICA, in anatomy, a bladder; a membranous or fldnny 
 parr, in which any humour is contained. 
 
 Vesica Bilaria. See Vesicula Fell'ts. 
 
 Vesica, among chymifts, is a large copper veffel, tinned on 
 the inhde ; ul'ed in dittilling ardent fpirits : fo called, as re- 
 fembling the figure of a blown bladder. 
 
 VESIC/E Fundus, i c A - , j Fundus. 
 
 Vesicje Spbintter. £ [Sphincter. 
 
 VESICATORY, Vesicatorium, an external medi- 
 cine, ferving to raife a blifter ; whence alfo it is itfelf by 
 fome, though improperly, called a blijler. 
 Veficatories are unguents, cataplafms, or plaifters made of 
 iharp, irritating medicaments, which have a faculty of draw- 
 ing the humours from within, outwards ; inflaming and ul- 
 cerating thefkin, and railing veficse, or bladders ; whence 
 their denomination, veftcatory. 
 
 •We have veficatories made of cantharldes, or elfc of eu- 
 ■ phoi'bium, figs, fublimate of mercury, lapis infernalis, muf- 
 tard, anacardium, fquills, briony, vinegar, pepper, leaven, 
 £sr>, which arc incorporated and made up with honey, 
 gums, refins, tsc. to bring them to the confluence re- 
 quired. See Cantharides, tsfr. 
 
 Vcjicatorics are a itronger fort of finapifms, and a kind of po- 
 tential cauteries. 
 
 VESICULA, Vesicle, a dtittiftative of vejka ; fignifying 
 a little bladder. See Vesica, and Bladder. 
 The lungs confift of veficults, or iobules of vefscults, admit- 
 ting air from the bronchue ; and not only air, but alfo duff, 
 fcrY. 
 
 There are feveral parts in the body which bear this appella- 
 tion ; as, 
 
 Vesicula fellis, ciflula fellis, or the gall-bladder ; which is 
 an oblong membranous vcficl, not unlike a pear both in 
 form and fize ; and is fituated in the hollow part of the 
 liver. 
 
 It adheres to the liver, not only by its veffels, which it re- 
 ceives from it, but Hkewife by its membranes, whereof, the 
 external is common to both. — The lower part, which hangs 
 out of the liver, refts on the pylorus of the ftomach. 
 Its trunks, or membranes, are ufually reckoned five; an 
 outer, or common one, from the peritonaeum ; an inner one, 
 on that fide which adheres to the liver from the capfula of the 
 porta, and of the porus bilarius-. — And three proper ones : 
 the firit whereof is vafculous ; the fecond, mufcular ; and 
 the third, glandulous. 
 
 But Dr Drake, viewing a piece of dried gall-bladder with 
 a microfcope, found but little realbn for this accurate dis- 
 tinction ; the feveral orders of fibres of the feveral coats, 
 appearing to be no other than an infinite perplexity of vef- 
 iels diverfly ramified. 
 
 The gall-bladder is ufually diftinguifhed into the fundus, 
 which is the wideft part ; and collum, or neck, which is 
 the narroweft. 
 
 The neck of the vefcula feUls being prolonged, terminates 
 in a duct, called meatus cyjlicus, or bilarius ; which, at a- 
 bout two inches diftance from the gall-bladder, is joined 
 to the meatus hepaticus ; thefe, together, form the ductus 
 communis. 
 
 The ufe of the gall-bladder, is to receive the bile, after its 
 
 being fecreted in the glands of the liver ; and to difcharge 
 
 it by the common duct into die duodenum. 
 
 The bile found in this veiled is of a brighter yellow, a 
 
 greater continence, and is alfo more bitter and acrimonious 
 
 than that in the porus bilarius. 
 VESICULJS Seminalcs.— See Tab. Jnat. (Splanch.) fig. 8. 
 
 lit. o. o. Jig. 15. Ht. hb\ fee alfo the article Seminales. 
 Vesiculje Mipofes. See the article Adiposje. 
 VESICULAR Glands. See the article Gland. 
 VESPER, in aftronoiny, called alfo befperus, and the 
 
 invjlar ; is the planet Venus, when fhe is eaftward of the 
 
 fun. and confcquently fets after him. 
 VESPERS, in the Romifh church, evening fong ; that part 
 
 of the office which is rehearfed after noon — anfwering to 
 
 our evening prayers ; except that it differs more from the 
 
 office of the morning, called niattins. 
 Sicilian Vespers, is a famous aera in the French hiftory -, fig- 
 
 nifving a general raaflacre of all the French in Sicily, in the 
 
 year 1 282 j to which the firft toll that called to vejpers was 
 
 the fignal. 
 
 Some will have it to have happened on Eaftcr-cve : others, 
 on the day of the Annunciation — It was raifed by one Pro- 
 chites, a cordelier, at the time when Charles of Anjou, 
 count of Provence, was king of Naples and Sicily. — The 
 women with child by French-men were not fpared. 
 After the like manner, we Ciy, the mattins of Mofcow, fpeak- 
 in" of the Muscovites aflhfTinating their prince Demetrius, 
 and all the Poles, his adherents, at Mofcow, the 27th of 
 May ifSoo, under the conduit of their duke Choutfky, at 
 fix a clock in the morning 
 VESPERTILIONUM. Altr, bats ttringfi among ana to- 
 
 V E S 
 
 mills, two broad membranous ligaments, with which the bot- 
 tom of the womb is tied to the bones of the ilium ; they are 
 fo called from their refembling the wings of a bat, — SccTab, 
 /htat. (Splancb) Jig. ii. lit. g. g, 
 
 VESPERTINE, Vespertinus, in aftronomy, is when 
 a planet is feen defcending to the welt after fun-fet. 
 
 VESSEL, Vas, Vase, a thing properto hold, or contain 
 liquor. See Vas. 
 
 Thus, a tun, hoglhead, &f>. are vejfels, fit to contain ale, 
 wine, tJr. 
 
 The chymifts ufe a great diverfity of vejfels in their opera- 
 tions ; as matraifes, pelicans, retorts, receivers, £sv. 
 Double Vessel. See the article Double. 
 
 Among anatomifts, &c. all the tubes or canals, wherein the 
 blood, and other juices, or humours are fecreted, conveyed, 
 depofited, cs'c. as the veins, arteries, lymphatics, fpcrmatics, 
 fcfe. are called vejfels.— See Tab. Jnat. P. 2. Vejfels of hu- 
 man body. 
 
 Some even extend the word vcjfcl to the nerves; as fuppof- 
 ing them the conduits of the animal fpirits. 
 Veffeh confift of membranes, varioufly formed, and difpofed 
 for the reception of the fluids; and thefe membranes, again, 
 confift of Idler vcfieles, or velicula; : and this, for what we 
 know, without end. 
 
 In the new fyftem of many modern philofophers and phy- 
 ficians, veffel is a name common to ail the fall J pans of the 
 body. 
 
 Thefe authors explain the whole animal ceconomy, functi- 
 ons, is'c from the divers liquors diffufed throughout the body, 
 and the various tubes, or vejfels which contain thofe liquors. — 
 In effect, all we know in the human body, is either veffel, 
 or liquor. 
 
 The antients, it is true, had a notion, that fome parts of the 
 body, as the heart, fpleen, &c. are mere parenchyma's, 1. e. 
 a kind of pulp, or pith, void of all vejfels ; but the moderns, 
 by the advantage of microfcopes, injections, £sV. find that 
 thefe, and all other parts of the body, are mere congeries, 
 or mafies of vejfels interwove. 
 
 Some philofophers even extend the modern fyftem to all ma- 
 terial beings ; owning only two elements, viz. a matter in- 
 finitely liquid, diffufed through all nature ; and bard, of 
 folid parts ; which are, as it were, the vejfels of that matter. 
 The vejfels have a confiderable fhare in the vital actions ; all 
 that is required to the maintenance of life, being a due 
 quantity of a proper humour and its continued motion a- 
 long the vejfels ; this motion depends in great meafure, on 
 the action of fhe vejfels themfelves; and the action of the 
 •vejfels, depends on the contraction of the fibres, whereby, 
 when ftrctched and diftended by the flowing humour, they 
 Ihorten themfelves again, and difpofe themfelves into right 
 lines, ftill approaching towards the axis of their cavity; and 
 thus, they propel their contents : fo that the force of the 
 vejfels is chiefly to be determined from their figure. 
 The number of vejfels, fome of our lateft and belt anato- 
 milis obferve, is greateft in embryo's; and continually de- 
 creafes as age comes on. 
 
 For, in the actions whereby nutrition, &f>. are effected, the 
 greater vejfels being much diltended by their humours, the 
 fmaller velicles. whereof the membranes, or coats of the 
 larger are conipofed, become comprcfled and ftreightened, 
 and at length quite dry, and void of juices ; fo that grow- 
 ing together, the fibres become the firmer and ftronger, by 
 the lofs of the veficles. — And hence the firength, firmnefs, 
 itiffnefs, &c, of the folid parts, 
 
 Axis of a Vessel, -j /'Axis. 
 
 Capillary Vessels. Capillary. 
 
 Cervical Vessels. Cervical. 
 
 Phrenic Vessels. .Seethe article^! Phrenic. 
 
 Pulmonary Vessels. Pulmonary. 
 
 Spermatic Vessels. Spermatic. 
 
 Umbilical Vessels. J vUm bi lical. 
 
 Vessel, in navigation, is a name common to all forts of* 
 fhipping, c. all floating machines, or vehicles that move 
 in water. 
 
 Vejfels are frequently diftinguifhed into two genera! clalTcs, 
 viz. high-bottomed or decked vejfels ; which are thofe that 
 move wholly with wind and (ail, and live in all feas ; as 
 pinks, galHons, Jhips, &c. 
 
 And fat-bottomed -vejfels, which go both by oars and fails: 
 fuch are boats, galleys, praams, wherries, &c. 
 Floating vejfels, are ufually diftinguifhed into boats, lighters^ 
 barges, barks, fijhing vejfels, Jhips of trade^ and vejfels of 
 war 5 of each whereof there are divers kinds and denomi- 
 nations. 
 
 Vejfels of war, area three-decked flip, firft and fecond rate; 
 a frigate, or two decked Jhip, third, fourth, and fifth rate ; 
 a one decked fl)ip, fixth rate ; a boom-vejfel, a fire-jbip, a 
 ketch, a machine-vejfel, and a f smoker. 
 
 A vejfel is faid to be of three or four hundred tuns; mean- 
 ing, that it will carry three or four hundred times two thou- 
 
 fand 
 
V E S 
 
 V E S 
 
 Tand weight: or, that when im merged in water; rtpoffeffi? 
 the face of three or four hundred tun of water; which <s 
 equal to the weight of the vefel, and aH the loading it can 
 
 Awffl is faidtorfraiu ten or fifteen feet of water; meaning, 
 that when loaden, it finks Co deep under water. _ 
 The figure of veffels, is a thing of great importance, with 
 regard to their motion, failing, feftc- and in the determining 
 what form is moft commodious, the new doctrine ot in- 
 finites becomes of apparent fervice to navigation and com- 
 
 A C body moving in an immoveable fluid, is obliged to fever 
 the parts thereof; and they refift fuch feparation. — Now, 
 frtting afide a certain tenacity, whereby they are, as it were, 
 glued together ; and which is different in different fluids ; the 
 whole force of the ref.ftance depends on that of the fhock, or 
 impulfe for a body that is ftruck, flrikes at the > fame fame 5 
 butTperperidicular ftrokc is that which a liquid refiftsthe molt, 
 as being the greateft : and for a body to move freely therein, 
 it mult be of fuch figure, as to prefent itfelf as obliquely 0 
 poffiblc - If it were triangular, and moved with the point 
 foremoft, it is certain all its parts would ftnke the fluid ob- 
 liquely, but they would all ftnke it with the fame obliquity ; 
 and k were more advantageous, that each mould ftnke more 
 obliquely than its neighbour. _ 
 Now, fuch a perpetual augmentation of obliquity, can ni 
 where be had in a curve line; each point whereof is con 
 fideied as an infinitely fmall right line, always inclined to the 
 other little right lines contiguous to it. 
 To find What curve it is, whofe perpetual change of obli- 
 quity, or inclination in all its parts, renders it, ot all others, 
 the fittefl to divide the fluid eafily ; is a problem much more 
 difficult than it appears to be; and, in effect, is only to be 
 folved by the new geometry : the folution was firft given by 
 Sir Ifaac Newton, in his inveftigation of the fohd of the leaft 
 refiftance. , 
 That author, however, did not publifh Ms analyfis ; yet the 
 marquis de l'Hopital hit upon it : and afterwards M. Fatio 
 refolved the fame problem; though by a much longer, and 
 more perplexed way. See Sol i d of the leaji refinance. 
 
 Book of Vessels. See the article Book. 
 
 VEST, and Vestiture. See the article Investi- 
 ture. 
 
 VESTALIA, feafls held in honour of the goddefs Vcfta, on 
 the, fifth of the ides of June; r, e. on the ninth day of that 
 month. 
 
 On that day, banquets were made before the houfes,; and 
 meats were lent to the veftals, to be offered by them to the 
 goddefs. See Vestal. 
 
 The affes that turned the mills for grinding corn, were, on 
 this occafion, led about the city, crowned with flowers, and 
 chaplets formed of pieces of bread ; and the miU-ftpnes were 
 Lkewife decked witli garlands and crowns. 
 The ladies went barefooted in procefHon to the temple of 
 Vefta; and an altar was erected to Jupiter the baker-, Jovi 
 pylori, in the capitol. 
 
 The vejlaiia had their names from that of their goddefs 
 Vefta, from the Greeks called i rl «, fire, or hearth ; whence 
 Cicero deri.es the Latin name. — Accordingly, the poets fre- 
 quently ufe Vefta for fire, or flame ; as they do Jupiter for 
 for air, Ceres, for corn, isc. 
 VESTALS, Vestales, in antiquity, maids in antient 
 Rome, confecrated to the fervice of the goddefs Vefta; and 
 particularly, to watch the facred fire in her temple. 
 Nuuia tirlt inftituted four veftals ; and Plutarch tells us, 
 Servius Tullus added two more : which, number, fix, Jail- 
 ed as long as the worfhip of the goddefs Vcfta. — It is true, 
 S. Amhrofe reckons them ("even ; but without any founda- 
 tion. The vejlals made a vow of perpetual virginity : their 
 employment was, the facrificing to Vefta, and keeping up 
 the holy fire in her temple. — If they violated the vows of 
 chaftity, they were punifhed with remarkable feverity ; be- 
 ing fhut up, or buried in a deep pit, or cavern, with a 
 lighted lamp, and a little water and milk, and there left to 
 be devoured by hunger. — If they let out the fire, they 
 were whipped by the pontifex maximus ■ and the fire was- 
 re-kindled by the fun-beams, collected, as fome fay, in burn- 
 ing-glailes, and not otherwife. 
 
 To be fecure of their virginity, at their admiflion, it was 
 provided, that they fhould not be above fix years old. — 
 They were chofen by lot, out of 20 virgins, carried by the 
 pontiff to the comitia, for that .purpofe. 
 They were only confecrated for 30 years ; after which time, 
 they were at liberty to go out and be married. If they con- 
 tinued in the houfc after that time, they were only to be 
 afiifhiBt, in point of advice, to the other veftals. 
 The tirit ten years they were to employ in learning thei 
 functions $ the ten following they were to exercifc them 
 znd the laft ten, to teach them to others. 
 
 Their order was very rich ; both on account of the en- 
 dowments of the emperor, and of legacies of other per- 
 fons. 
 
 The veftals had a particular place allotted them at the am- 
 phitheatres, and games of the circus. — Their vehicle was 
 tiie carpentum, or pilentum. — »The vail wherein they facri- 
 ficed, was called jujfibulum. 
 
 At firft, they were nominated by the kings ; but after the 
 extinction of monarchy, by the pontifex maximus, or high 
 prieft. — The oldeft of them was called maxima, as the firft 
 pontiff was maximus. 
 
 They had divers privileges : difpofed of their effectis by tef- 
 tament, in their father's life-time ; had the fame gratifi- 
 cation as a mother of three children ; and whenever they 
 met a criminal going to execution, they had a power to 
 pardon him, 
 
 The fire which the veftals were to watch, Was not on an 
 altar, or a hearth ; but in little earthen veilcls with two 
 handles, called capeduncula. 
 
 This fire was held a pledge of the empire of the world, If 
 it went out, it was judged a very unlucky prognoftic; and 
 was to be expiated with infinite ceremonies. — Among the 
 Romans, Feftus tells us, it was only to be re-kindled by 
 the rubbing a kind of wood, proper for the purpofe. But 
 among the Greeks, Plutarch, in the life of Nufna, ob- 
 ferves, it was to be rekindled, by expoling lomc inflamma- 
 ble matter, in the centre of a concave veftel held to the 
 fun. — For it is to be noted, the Romans were not the only 
 people who kept the perpetual fire of Vefta, in imitation of 
 the ccleftial fires : but the Greeks were poflelled with the 
 fame fupcrftition ; particularly the Delphians, Athenians, 
 Tenedians, Argives, Rhodians, Cyzicenians, Mileiians, 
 Ephefians, tiff, 
 
 VEST1ARIUS, Vestiary, in antiquity, matter of the 
 wardrobe ; an officer under the Greek empire, who had 
 the care and direction of the emperor's apparel, robes, 
 fcfr. 
 
 The protovcjliarius, or firft veftiary 7 was the grand matter 
 of the wardrobe. — But, among the Romans, vejiiarius 
 fimply was only a falefman, or taylor. 
 VESTIBLE*, Vestibulum, in the antient architec- 
 ture, a large open fpace before the door, or entrance of a 
 ho ufe. 
 
 * Martinius derives the word from vefla flabiilum ; by reafon 
 the fore-part of the houfe was dedicated to Vefta. — Daviler 
 derives it from vejlis, and ambulo ; by reafon people there be- 
 gin to let their trains fall 
 
 The Romans had places called veftihles, at the entrance of 
 their houfes, to fhelter people obliged to ftand at the door 
 from the weather : and we have itill veJHbles of the like kind, 
 in many old churches, houfes, csff, called porches. 
 Vefl'thlti only intended for magnificence, are ufually between 
 the court and the garden : thefe are fomctimes fu/iple ; that 
 is, have their oppofite fides equally enriched with arches ; 
 and fometimes their plan is not contained under four equal 
 lines, or a circular one, but forms feveral van-corps, and 
 rear-corps, furnilhcd with pilafters. 
 Vestible, Vestibulum, in anatomy, denotes the fore- 
 part of the labyrinth of the car. 
 
 The vejlible is a fmall cavity, of an irregular form, placed 
 immediately above the bafis of the itapes; between the femi- 
 circular canals, and the cochlea. 
 
 In it appear divers foramina; as that of the feneflra ovalis ; 
 the five foramina of the femicircular canals ; that of the 
 cochlea; and five other very fmall ones, through which lb 
 many nerves pafs. 
 VESTIGIA, a Latin term, frequently ufed by Eugjifh 
 writers, to fignify the traces, or footfteps any thing has left 
 behind it. 
 
 The word is particularly applied to the marks remaining of 
 fomcthing antique, gone to ruin by time. 
 
 VESTIS Angelica. See the article Angelica. 
 
 VESTMENT. See the article Vesture. 
 
 VESTRY) Vesti aria, a room adjoining to a church, 
 where the priefts veftments, and the facred utenfds are kept, 
 and parochial aflemblies arc held. 
 
 Vestry-jWw, a felect number of the principal pcrfons of 
 every parifh within the city of London, and elfewhere; who 
 yearly chuie parifh- officers, and take care of its concern- 
 ments. 
 
 They are thus called, becaufe they ufally meet in the veftry 
 of the church. 
 
 Vestry-CAW - , an officer who keeps the parifh accounts. 
 VESTURE, Vestment, a garment, or cloathing 
 
 In our law-books, it is alfo ufed metaphorically: as in vif- 
 
 tura terra, i. e. fegetes quihus terra vejlitur ; the corn 
 
 wherewith die earth is clothed, or covered. 
 Vesture of an Acre of Land, is the produce on it; or the 
 
 wood, corn, Is'c. growing on it. — It lhall be enquired how 
 
 much 
 
V I A 
 
 V I B 
 
 much the vejlure of an acre of ground, and how much the 
 land, £srV. 4 Ed. I. 14 Ed. 111. fcftf. 
 
 Vesture, Vestura, alfo fignifies a poffeffion, or feifin. 
 In which ferife, it is borrowed from the feudists ; with whom 
 invejlitura fignifies a delivery of poffeffion by a fpear or ftafF; 
 and vejlura, the pofteffion itfelf. 
 
 VETERAN, Veteranus, in the Roman militia, a fol- 
 dier who was grown old in the fervice; or who had made a 
 certain number of campaigns; and on that account was en- 
 titled to certain benefits, and privileges. 
 Twenty years fervice, were fufficient to entitle a man to the 
 benefits of a veteran. — Thefe privileges conilfted in being 
 abfolved from the military oath ; in being exempted from all 
 the functions of a foldier ; and in enjoying a certain falary, 
 or appointment, csV. 
 
 In France, the term Veteran Is ftill retained to fuch offi- 
 cers as have held their pofts zo years ; and who enjoy certain 
 of the honours and privileges affixed thereto, even after they 
 have laid them down. 
 
 A veteran counfellor has a voice and feat at audiences, though 
 not at proceffes by writing. — A veteran fecretary of the king, 
 acquires the privileges, (s'c. of nobility, to himfclf and his 
 children. 
 
 VETERINARIA, Muh-mcdicina, or medicine applied to 
 
 the difeafes of cattle. — 'Whence, 
 VETERINARIUS, a farrier, or horfe-Ieech. 
 VETERNUS, is ufed by fome phyficians for a lethargy, or 
 
 Other droufy difeafe. 
 VETITUMAWiot, in law, imports a forbidden diftrefs. 
 
 See Nam and Distress. 
 
 Such, e. gr. is that when the bailiff of a lord diftrains beafts, 
 or goods, and the lord forbids Ins bailiff to deliver them when 
 the (heriff comes to replevy them ; and to that end, drives 
 them to places unknown: — Or when, without any words, 
 they are fo eilbined, as that they cannot be replevied. 
 Divers lords of hundreds, and courts-baron, have power to 
 hold plea de vetito namio. — Mathilda de Morton clamat in 
 manerio de Mawerdon duos law-days, £if infangentheftls pla- 
 c'tta de namio vetito, fine breve domin'i regis. Int. Record, 
 in Thefaur, Scac. 
 
 VEXES. See the article Ne Injuste Vexes. 
 
 VI ET Armis, q. d. by force and arms, a law term ufed in 
 an indictment ; to denote the forcible and violent commiflion 
 of any crime. 
 
 Vi Laic a removenda, a writ, lying where debate being be- 
 tween two parfons, or provifors for a church ; one of them 
 makes a forcible entry into it, with a number of laymen, and 
 holds the other out. 
 
 VIA, Way. See the articles Way, and Road. 
 
 Via Lactea, in aftronomy, the milky way, or galaxy. See 
 Galaxy. 
 
 Via Militaris, in our law-books, is ufed for a highway. — 
 qua publico di'ci poterit Of duett ad mare & ad par turn, & 
 quandoque ad mercata. Bradton, Lib. IV. c. 16. 
 
 Via Regia, the king's highway, is defined in Leg. Hen. I. 
 to be " that which is always open, and which no body may 
 ct fhut by any means, as leading to a city, port, or town." 
 Its breadth the fame laws prefcribe to be fuch, as that two 
 carts may pafs each other, and fixteen horfemen armed may 
 go abreaft. 
 
 Via Solis, the fun's way, in aftronomy, is ufed, among fome 
 aftronomers, for the ecliptic line; fo called, becaufe the fun 
 never goes out of it. 
 
 VI/E Prtmje, firfl paffages, among phyficians, are the cefo- 
 phagus, ftomach, and guts; including the whole length of 
 the alimentary dudt, or canal, from the mouth to the lphinc- 
 ter ani. 
 
 In this fenfe, we fay, An obftru&ion in the prima: via. — 
 Purging and emetic medicines operate chiefly on the prima: 
 via. — And fudorifics, alteratives, cardiacs, isc. fufpend 
 their action till after they have paffed the prima via. 
 
 VIAL, or Phial, afmall and thin glafs bottle. See Phial. 
 
 VI ALES, in mythology, a name given, among the Romans, 
 to the gods who had the care and guard of the roads and 
 highways. 
 
 The d'tt viales, according to Labeo, were of the number of 
 thofe gods called dii animates ; who were fuppofed to be the 
 fouls of men changed into gods ; thefe were of two kinds, 
 viz. the viales, and penates. 
 
 The viales were the fame with thofc otherwife called lares; 
 at leaft, fome of the lares were denominated viales, viz! 
 fuch of them as had the moj-e immediate inteudency of the 
 
 roads. 
 
 Hence, the two names are fometimes joined, and thofe high- 
 way deities are called lares viales: witnefs that mfcription in 
 Gruter, 
 Vol. II. 
 
 FORT UN A E 
 REDUCI LARI 
 VIALI ROMAE 
 AETERNAE 
 Q. AXIUS AELIA 
 NUS— VE. PROC. 
 
 AUG. 
 
 IONI. " 
 
 VIATICUM, among the antient Romans, was the allow* 
 ancc or appointment which the republic gave to fuch of its 
 officers as were fent into the provinces, to exercife any office, 
 or perform any fervice, or commiflion ; as alfo to the officers 
 of the army, and even the foldiers, &r, 
 Tacitus makes mention of it, Lib. I. Annal.c. 37. Viaticum 
 a?nicorum ipjiufque Cafaris ; meaning the appointments which 
 the republic paid to Germanicus, and his officers. 
 This viaticum, however, did not coniift altogether in money i 
 the ring given the magifixates and officers fent into the pro- 
 vinces, was part of it; fo were the clothes, baggage, tents, 
 and the reft of their equipage. 
 
 In the Romifh church, Viaticum is ftill the allowance 
 made a religious, to defray the expences of a journey, mif- 
 fion, &c. 
 
 Viaticum is alfo ufed for the communion, or eucharift, which 
 is given to the people in the pangs of death ; or who are about 
 to make the voyage of the other world. 
 The viaticum is not to be given to perfons executed in courfe 
 of juftice. 
 
 VIATOR, in antiquity, an officer of juftice among the Ro- 
 mans. — The term, originally, had no other fignification than, 
 that of a publick meffenger, or fervant, fent to advertife the 
 fenators and magiftrates when aflemblies were to be held, 
 where their prefence was required. 
 
 Hence, becaufe, in the firft ages of that empire, the Roman 
 magiftrates lived moftly at their country-houfes ; thefe 'offi- 
 cers being obliged to be frequently upon the road, were cal- 
 led viatores, travellers ; from via, highway. 
 In procefs of time, the name viator became common to all 
 officers of the magiftrates, lienors, accenfi, fcribes. ftatores, 
 and cryers ; either by reafon thefe names and offices were 
 confounded in one : or becaufe viator was a general name, 
 and the reft particular ones, fpecifying the particular func- 
 tions they difcharged, as A. Gellius fcems to infmuate, when 
 he fays, that member of the company of viatores^ who binds 
 a criminal condemned to be whipped, was called Hilar. 
 Be this as it will, the names liSw and viator are often ufed 
 indifcriminately for each other ; and we as often meet with. 
 Send to feel; or advertife him by a Utlor, as by a viator. 
 None but the Confute, praetors, tribunes, and sdiles, had a 
 right to have viatores. — They were not to be Roman citi- 
 zens, and yet they were required to be free. 
 VIBEX, is fometimes ufed, by phyficians, for a black 'and 
 blue fpot on the fkin, occafioned by an afflux, or excrava- 
 fation of blood. 
 
 VIBRATION, in mechanics, a regular, reciprocal motion 
 of a body, e. gr. a pendulum; which, being fufpended at 
 freedom, fwings or vibrates, firft this way, then that. 
 For the bob being raifed, falls again by its gravity ; and with 
 the velocity thus acquired, rifes to the fame heighth on the 
 other fide ; whence, its gravity makes it fall again : and thus 
 its vibrations are continued. 
 
 Mechanical authors, in lieu of vibration, frequently ufe the 
 term ofcillation. 
 
 The vibrations of the fame pendulum are all ifochronal ; that 
 is, they are performed in equal time, at leaft in the fame 
 climate; for, towards the equator, they are found fome what 
 flower. 
 
 A pendulum 3 feet 3 inches, and 2 tenths of an inch, ac- 
 cording to Huygens, or 39,25 inches, according to Sir J. 
 Moor and lord Brouncker, vibrates feconds, or makes 3600 
 vibrations in an hour. 
 
 The vibrations of a longer pendulum, takes up more time than 
 thofe of a fhortcr one, in a fubduple ratio of the lengths. — 
 Thus, a pendulum 3 feet long will make 10 vibrations ; 
 while another 9 inches long m:ikes zo,. — For 10 is the half 
 of 20, and 3 feet, or 36 inches, are the fquare of 6 inches; 
 which is double of 3, whofe fquare is 9 : lb that 10 is to zo 
 in a fubduble ratio of 36 to 9. 
 
 The fame thing is meant, when we fay, that the number of 
 vibrations of pendulums in a given time, is in a reciprocal 
 ratio of their lengths. 
 
 M. Mouton, a priefl of Lyons, wrote an exprefs treatife, to 
 fhew, that by means ot the number of vibrations ot a given 
 pendulum, in a certain time, one might eitablifh an univeifal 
 meafure throughout the whole world; ;.nd fix the ftvtral 
 meafures in ufe among us, in fuch manner, as that they might 
 be recovered again, if at any time they fhould chance to be 
 loft, as is the cafe of" moft of the antient meafures, which 
 we now only know by conjecture, 
 
 13 H Tbt 
 
V I c 
 
 V I c 
 
 The Vibrations of a Jtrctchcd cord, ox firing, arife from its 
 elafticity ; which power being of the fame kind with that of 
 gravity, the vibrations of a cord follow the fame laws as thofe 
 of pendulums: confequently the vibrations of the fame cord 
 equally ftretched, though they be unequal in length, are 
 equidiurnal, or are performed in equal times; and the fquares 
 of che times of the vibrations are among themfelves, inverf- 
 ly, as the powers whereby they are equally bent, and in- 
 flefted. 
 
 The vibrations of a fpring, too, are proportionable to the 
 powers whereby it is bent : thefe follow the fame laws as 
 thofe of the cord, or pendulum, and, confequently, are equi- 
 diurnal; which is the foundation of fpring-watches. 
 Vibration is alfo ufed in phyfics, &ff. and for divers other 
 regular alternate motions. — Senfation is fuppofed to be per- 
 formed, by means of the vibratory motion of the nerves, be- 
 gun by external objefts, and propagated to the brain. 
 The feveral forts and rays of light, Sir Ifaac Newton con- 
 ceives to make vibrations of feveral bignefies ; which, accord- 
 ing to thofe magnitudes, excite fenfations of feveral colours ; 
 much after the fame manner as vibrations of air, according to 
 their feveral magnitudes, excite fenfations of feveral founds. 
 Heat, according to the fame author, is only an accident of 
 light, occafioned by the rays putting a fine, fubtle etherial 
 medium, which pervades ail bodies, into a vibrative motion, 
 which gives us that fenfation. 
 
 From the vibrations, or pulfes of the fame medium, he ac- 
 counts for the alternate fits of eafy reflection, and eafy tranl- 
 miffion of the rays. 
 
 In the Philofophical T ■'anfaclions it is obferved, that the but- 
 terfly, into which the filk-worm is transformed, makes 130 
 vibrations, or motions of its wings, in one coition. 
 VICAR *, Vicarius, a perfon appointed as deputy of 
 another; to perform his functions, in his abfence, and under 
 his authority. 
 
 * The word is formed from vicarius, qui alterius vices get -it. 
 The pope pretends to be vicar of Jefus Chrift on earth. — 
 He has under him 3. grand-vicar, who is a cardinal, and wliofe 
 jurifdiftion extends over all priefts both fecular, and regu- 
 lar ; and even, in many cafes, over laymen. 
 Among the antient Romans, vicarius, vicar, was a legatus, 
 or lieutenant, fent into the provinces where there was no 
 governor: fo that the vicarii were properly the emperor's 
 vicars, not thofe of governors. Cod. de Offic. Vicar. 
 Italy, in the time of the eaftern empire, was governed by 
 two vicarii ; the one vicar of Italy, who refided at Milan ; 
 the other vicar of the city, who refided at Rome. 
 Cujas obferved, that the word vicar was fometimes, though 
 rarely, attributed to the lieutenant-generals of proconfuls, or 
 governors of Roman provinces. 
 Vicar, in the canon law, denotes a prieff. of a parifh, the pre- 
 dial tithes whereof are impropriated, or appropriated ; that 
 is, belong either to a chapter, religious houfe, &c. or to a 
 layman, who receives them, and only allows the vicar the 
 fmall tithes, or a convenient falary, antiently called portia 
 congrua. 
 
 He is thus called quafi vice fungens recloris, as ferving for, 
 or in lieu of a reftor, who would be intitled to the great 
 tithes. 
 
 Thcfe vicars were antiently called perpetui vicarii ; becaufe 
 not appointed by the impropriator, and licenced by the bi- 
 fhop to read fervice ; but prefented by the patron, and ca- 
 nonical inftitution given them by the hands of the ordinary ; 
 and fo having conftant fucceffion, or corporations, and never 
 dying. 
 
 The canonifts mention four fpecics of vicars : fome perpe- 
 tual ; others appointed for a certain time, and on fome fpe- 
 cial occafion, called mcrcenarii ; others called fpeciales, ap- 
 pointed not for the whole cure, but for fome certain place, 
 article, or aft : others generates, neither perpetual, nor ap- 
 pointed for any certain aft, but for all things in the gene- 
 ral. 
 
 Vicar General, was a title given by king Henry VIII. to 
 Thomas Cromwell, earl of Effex ; with full power to over- 
 fee the clergy, and regulate all matters relating to church 
 affairs, 
 
 VICE, V [Tium, in ethics, is ordinarily defined an cleftive 
 habit, deviating, either in excefs, or defeftj from the juft 
 medium wherein virtue is placed. 
 
 It is called a habit, to diftingiufh it from fin, which is only 
 an aft: hence, a fin is looked on, as fomething tranfient ; 
 and a vice, as fomething permanent. 
 
 Authors tliftinguifh three Hates of vice: the firft incontinen- 
 tia:, of incontinence ; whereih a perfon fees, and approves the 
 good, but is hurried to evil by the violence of his paffions. 
 — The fecond, intemperantits, of intemperance; wherein, 
 even the judgment is depraved and perverted. — The third, 
 feritatis, of obduracy; wherein the perfon is totally immerf- 
 cd in vice, without any fenfe or feeling thereof. 
 The irate of incontinency, is confidered as infirmity, where- 
 
 in the perfon feels the fharpeft ftings of confeience : that of 
 intemperance, as malice, wherein the remorfe is not fo live- 
 ly. — In that of obduracy there is none. 
 Vice, in fmithery, and other arts employed in metals, &c. is 
 a machine or inftrument, ferving to hold faff any thing 
 they are at work upon; whether it be to be filed, bent, or 
 riveted, (Sc. 
 
 To file fquare, it is abfolutely neceffary the vice be placed per- 
 pendicular, with its chaps parallel to the work-bench. 
 The parts ot the vice are, the face, or plane, which is its 
 uppermoft part ; the chaps, which are cut with a baftard cut, 
 and well tempered ; the fcrew pin, cut with a fquare lirong 
 Worm; the nut, or fcrew-box, which has a iquare worm, 
 and is brazed into the round box ; the fpring, which throws 
 the chaps open; and the foot, on which the whole ismcunted. 
 
 Hand-VicE, is a fmall kind of vice, ferving to hold the leffer 
 works in, that require often turning about. 
 Of this there are two kinds, the broad chapt hand-vice, 
 which is that commonly ufed ; and the fquare nofed hand- 
 vice, feldom ufed but for filing fmall round work. 
 
 Vice is alfo a machine ufed by the glaziers, to turn, or draw 
 lead into flat rods, with grooves on each fide, proper to re- 
 ceive the edges of the glais. 
 
 This machine confifts of two iron chaps, or cheeks, joined 
 with two crofs iron pieces. — In the fpace between the 
 chaps, are two fteel wheels, and their fpindles, or axes paf- 
 fed through the middle; each of which has its nut, or pi- 
 nion with teeth, that catch into each other: and to the low- 
 eft is fitted a handle, whereby the machine is turned. 
 There are fome ot thefe vices double, and that will draw 
 two leads at once: thefe have three wheels ■ — Some glaziers, 
 will turn lead of different lizes in the fame vice ; by chang- 
 ing their cheeks for each fize. 
 
 With another pair of fpindles, whofe nuts almoft meet, they 
 turn lead for tiers ; which, when it comes out of the vice, 
 is almoft cut afunder, in two thicknefles, eafy to be parted. 
 Before the invention of this vice, which is but a late thing 
 they ufed a plane: accordingly, in all the antient windows, 
 we find the lead planed, and grooved that wav. 
 Vice is alfo ufed in che compoiition of divers words, to denote 
 the relation of fomething which comes inftead, or in the 
 place of another. 
 
 In this fenfe, the word is Latin, vice, Head, place, turn, &_c. 
 
 Vice Admiral, is one of the three principal officers of .the 
 royal navy ; who commands the fecond (quadron, and has 
 his flag fet up in the fore-top of his fhip. 
 
 Vice-Chamberlain, called alfo, in antient ftatutes, un- 
 der-chamberlain ; is an officer in the court, next under the 
 lord chamberlain; and who, in his abfence, has command, 
 and controll, of all officers belonging to that part of the 
 houfhold, called the cheanber above flairs. 
 
 Vice-Chancellor of a univerfity, is an eminent mem- 
 ber, cbofe annually, to manage affairs in the abfence of the 
 chancellor. 
 
 Vice-Doge, is a counfellor of Venice, who reprefents the 
 doge when fick, or abfent ; that the feignory may never be 
 without a chief. 
 
 The vice-doge never takes the ducal chair, nor bears the 
 horn, nor is addreffed under the title of feremffimo : yet, the 
 foreign embaffadors, fpeaking to the college, ufe the com- 
 mon apoftrophe of feremffimo prindpe ■ and he performs all 
 the offices of doge ; and gives anfwers to embafladors, with- 
 out moving his cap. 
 
 Vic e-Dom 1 n us, avifcoitnt, fheriff, or vidame. 
 
 Vice-Dominus Jbbatia, or Ecclefia, in the civil and 
 canon law, • an advocate, or protector of an abbey, or 
 church. Sec Advocate. 
 
 Vice-Dominus Epifcopi, in the canon law, is the commif- 
 fary, or vicar-general of a bifhop. See Commissary, &c. 
 
 Vice-gerent, Vuegerens, a vicar, deputy, or lieutenant. 
 
 Vice-Comes, in law, &c. 1 s r Vicount. 
 
 Accedas ad Vice-Comitem. J \ Accedas. 
 
 Refpeclu habendo computi Vice-Com i t is. See RespeCTU, 
 
 Vice-Legate, an officer whom the pope fends to Avignon 
 and fome other cities, to perform the office of a fpi ritual 
 and temporal governor, at a time when there is no Ware 
 or cardinal to command there. 
 
 All the Gaule Narbonnoife, as Dauphine, Provence Sic. 
 has recourfe to the vice-legate of Avignon, for all ecclefiaf- 
 tical difpatches ; in like manner as the other provinces ad- 
 drefs themfelvcs to Rome. See Legate. 
 Vice-Roy, a governor of a kingdom, who commands there- 
 ' in, in the name, and ftead of a king ; with full and fove- 
 reign authority. 
 
 Thus Sicily, Catalonia, Mexico, isc. are governed by 
 
 vice~roys. 
 
 Vice Verfa, a Latin phrafe, frequently retained in Englifh 
 writings; fignifying as much as, on the contrary. 
 7'hus, as the fun mounts higher and higher above the horf- 
 zon, infcnfible perforation increafes ; anil, vice verfa, as he 
 defcends lower, it diminifhes. 
 
 VICEN- 
 
V I c 
 
 VICENNALIS, in antiquity, fome thing of 20 years, or 
 that returns after zo years. 
 Among the Romans, vicennalia was particularly ufed for 
 the funeral feafts, held on the 20th day after a perfon's de- 
 
 ceafe. 
 
 Vicennalia, or Vicennales Ludi, were alfo games, 
 feafts, and rejoicings, held every 20th year of the reign of 
 a prince. 
 
 On medals, we frequently meet with vicennalia vsta ; the 
 vows put up on that occafion, for the fafety of the em- 
 peror, and the inhrgement of the empire. 
 Thefe arc exprefled by VOT. X & XX, in the medals 
 of Tacitus, Gallicnus, and Probus ; VOT. X. M. XX, in 
 thofe of Valerius Maximianus, and Galerius Maximianus ; 
 VOT. X. MUX. XX, in thofe of Conftantine, Valenti- 
 riian, and Valens ; VOT. X. MULT. XX, in thofe of 
 Dioclefian, Conftantine, Julian, Valentinian, Theodofius, 
 Arcadius, Honorius ; VOTISX. MULT. XX, in thofe 
 of Julian, Valentinian, Gratian; VOT. X. SIC. XX, 
 in thofe of Valerius Conftantius ; VOT. XII. EEL. XX, 
 in the younger Licinius; VOT. XV. FEL. XX, in Con- 
 ftantine, 
 
 VICINAGE, and Vicinitum, a neighbourhood. See 
 Venue. 
 
 Common per Caufe de Vicinage. See Common. 
 
 VIC IS & Venellis Mundandis, a writ lying again!): a mayor, 
 
 bailiff, Esfr, for not taking care that the flreets be well 
 
 clcanfed. 
 
 VICISSITUDE, Vi cissitudo, the fucceeding of one 
 thing after another. — As, the vicijfitude of feafons, for- 
 
 VICONTIEL. ?c « ., ( Viscountiel. 
 ir f bee the article -i 
 
 VICONTIELS. ) ( VlSCOUNTtELS. 
 
 VICOUNT, Vice-comes, in our law-books, fignifies 
 the fame with Jhcrlff ; between which two words, there 
 feems to be no other difference, but that the one came from 
 our conquerors, the Normans ; and the other from our an- 
 ccftors, the Saxons. 
 
 Vicount, or Viscount, is alfo ufed for a degree of nobi- 
 lity, next below a count or earl, and above a baron. 
 Camden obferves, that this is an antient name of office, hut 
 a new one of dignity, never heard of among us till Henry 
 Vlth's days, who, in his 1 Sth year, created, in parliament, 
 John lord Beaumont, vicount Beaumont ; but it is much 
 more antient in other countries. 
 
 Du Cange, indeed, will have the dignity to have had its 
 iirft rife in England ; but it is much more probable, it was 
 firft brought over hither by the Normans. 
 The privileges of a vicount, are, that he may have a cover 
 of allay held under his cup when he drinks, and may have a 
 travers in his own houfe. — And a vicounUfs may have her 
 gown bore up by a man, out of the prefence of her fupe- 
 riors; and in their prefence by a woman. 
 
 VICOUNTIELS, Vicontiels, Vicecomitalia, 
 in our law-books, denotes things belonging to the flier iff ; 
 particularly certain farms, for which the fheriff pays a rent 
 to the king, and makes what profit he can of them. 
 
 Writs Vicountiel, are fuch as are triable in the county or 
 Ibe riff's- court. — Of which kind are divers writs of nufance, 
 
 fete . rcs&zr 
 
 Vicountiel, or Vicontiel f urifditlion, is that jurif- 
 diftion belonging to the officers of a county ; as fticriffs, 
 coroners, efcheators, &c. 
 
 VICTIM, Victima, a bloody facrifice offered to fome 
 deity, of a living thing ; either a human perfon, or a beaft, 
 which is (lain to appeafe his wrath, or to obtain fome fa- 
 vour. See Sacrifice. 
 
 The Greeks offered Iphigenia, at Aulis, for a viclim to ob- 
 tain a favourable wind. — The gods of the heathens had each 
 their proper vicllms : thus, the goat was Bacchus's viclim ; 
 and the horfe Neptune's. 
 VIC TI MAR I US, a minifter, or fervant of the prieft, 
 whofe office was to bind the viclinu, and prepare the water, 
 knife, cake, and other things, neceflary for the facrifice. 
 See Sacr i fice. 
 
 To the viilimarii it alfo belonged, to knock down, and 
 kill the victims : in order to which, they flood clofe by the 
 altar, naked to the waift, but crowned with laurel ; and 
 holding a hatchet or a knife up, afked the prieft leave to 
 ftrike ; faying, Jgone f fhall I ftrike ? Whence they were 
 called agones, and cultellarii, or cultrarij. 
 When the viclim was killed, they opened it, and after 
 viewing the entrain, took them away, waflied the carcafe, 
 and fprinklcd the flower on it, &c. 
 
 The hmc vicliniari: alfo lighted the fire, wherein books were 
 
 condemned to be burnt. See Liv. 40, lib. 40. c. 29. and 
 
 A. Gellius, lib. 1. c. 1. extr. iz. 
 VICTORIAN Period, in chronology. See Period. 
 V IC TOR Y, Vi ctoria, the overthrow, or defeat of an 
 
 enemy, in war, combat, duel, or the like. See War, 
 
 Combat, Duel, Champion, &c. 
 
 have their infe- 
 
 V I G 
 
 Among the Romans, crowns, triumphs, feV. were decreed 
 „ ftS™ genesis, for the viilorm they gained. 
 
 , c U ¥rLING-0>«, an office kept on Tower-hill, for 
 the furnilhing his majefty's navy with vieimU, 
 It is managed by feven commiffioners, who ha' 
 nor officers ■ as fecretaries, clerks, behdes agents in di- 
 ™ s ? arts of Britain, Ireland, JsV. 
 
 VICT US Ratio, among phylkians, a particular manner of 
 ™ n & for the prefervation of health, and prevention of dif- 
 
 A *f E * V'ct-Dominus, was antiently ufed for the bji 
 hop s deputy in temporals ; as comes, or vice-comes, was the 
 King s. 
 
 * The word, according to Nicod, comes from vicariu, ; ac- 
 cording to Pafqmer, from me-dminu: ; dam fignifyine Jo- 
 mnu,, or lord. See Dom. ' 5 
 
 The original inftitution of vidames, was for defence of the 
 temporalties of bifhopricks, while the bifhops themfclves 
 were taken up in prayer, and other fpiritual funflions. _ 
 They alfo led the biihop's forces, when they were obliged to 
 go to war, either to defend their temporalties, or for the 
 arner-ban. 
 
 rhey alfo managed, and pleaded their caufe in courts of 
 juihee ; distributed juftice among their tenants, and pre- 
 vented any body's pillaging, or damaging the houfes of de- 
 ceafed bilhops, Vc.—\,\ eft'eft, they repYdented the biihop, 
 confidered as a temporal lord. 
 
 In fome antient charters, the vidames are called advocates, 
 or advowees. 
 
 Vidame is ffill a title of feignory, or lordfhip : attributed to 
 feveral gentlemen in France : as, the vidame of Chartres, of 
 Amiens, &c. 
 
 The antient vidames, Pafquier fays, were the bifhops tem- 
 poral judges ; and they had the fame privileges as the vi- 
 counts. 
 
 By degrees, the vidames converted their office into a fee • 
 and the bifhops their vidames, or judges, into vaffals, as 
 kings did their counts, dukes, &c. — Accordingly, the vi- 
 dame of Chartres, fcfe. ffill hold lands of the bilhops of thofo 
 places. 
 
 VIDIMUS, inlaw, the fame with innotefcimus ; being let- 
 ters patent of a charter of feoffment, or fome other inftru- 
 ment, not of record. 
 VI D U I T A T I S Profejfio, the making a folemn profeffion 
 of living a chafte widow ; a cuftom heretofore obferved in 
 England, and attended with divers ceremonies. 
 VIE. See the article Cestui qui Vie. 
 VIEW *, Visus, in law, the act of vehrs, or viewers, 
 
 * This is called, by Brafton, Res quafi facra quia fulam per- 
 fonam regis refpicit, fcf introduela pro pace, & csmmuni mi- 
 litate. • f> 
 
 When a real action is brought, and the tenant knows not 
 well what the land is that the demandant afks ; he may pray 
 thew>w .' which is, that the jury may fee the land which is 
 claimed. 
 
 This courfe of proceeding we received from the Normans, 
 as appears by the Grand cujlomary. _ It is ufed in various 
 cafes; as in affize of rent-fervice, rent-charge, rent-feck • 
 in a writ of nufance ; in a writ quo jure ; in the writ de 
 rationabilibus divifis, CsV. 
 
 View of Franc -p. 'edge, Visus Franci Plegii, is the office 
 which the fherifF in his county-court, or the bailiff in his. 
 hundred, performs ; in looking to the king's peace, and fee- 
 ing that every man be in fome pledge. 
 
 View, in matters of optics, perfpective, &c. See Vision. 
 
 Point of View. See the article Point. 
 
 View, among hunters, the track, or print of the feet of a fal- 
 low deer on the ground. 
 
 To View a place, in the military art, is to ride about it, be- 
 fore the laying of a liege, in order to obferve the ftrength or 
 weaknefs of its fttuation, and fortification. 
 
 VIEWERS, or Veiors, in law, are peifons fent by a 
 court, to view a place, or perfon in queftion ; as the fitua- 
 tion of a place where a fa£f. was committed, or a perfon, 
 in cafe of heknefs, &c. See Veior. 
 
 VIGIL, or Eve, in church chronology, the daybeforeany 
 feaft, fcfe. 
 
 Though the civil day begins at midnight, yet the ecclefiaft i- 
 
 cal, or fcriptural day, begins at fix o'clock in the evening, 
 
 and holds till fix in the evening the enfuingday. 
 
 Hence, the collect for every Sunday and holy-day, by order 
 
 of the church, is to be read, at the preceeding evenin«--fer- 
 
 vice, that is, at fix o'clock the day before ; from which 
 
 time the religious day was fuppofed to begin. 
 
 And this firft part of the holy-day, from lix o'clock the day 
 
 before, was, by the primitive Chriftians, fpent in hymns, 
 
 and other devotions; and being often continued till late in 
 
 the night, was called vigil. 
 
 Thefe vigils came by degrees to be fo enlarged, that, at 
 lart, all the day proceeding the holy-day was called by the 
 name. 
 
 The 
 
V I L 
 
 T<-» origin olviiils is deduced by Forbes from a cuftom in 
 theantieMcWch, tot the people, both men and women, 
 to meet together in the evening before Eafter-day, and 
 watch and pray, as expecting the coming of our Lord. » 
 
 . was to rife 'early in the morning. This praa.ee, I ertulhan 
 obferves, ad UxHran, afterwards got to other feafts and 
 faints-days.-But abufes creeping in, they were forbid by a 
 council/in 1322, and in lieu thereof Mings were rnfhtuted 
 on the day before, though ftill called by the antient name ot , 
 •vigils. 
 
 Coma Vigil. See the article Com a. 
 
 V I G I L I A, that ftate of an animal which is oppoiite to ileep, 
 and is popularly called waking, or ivatcbwg. bee Sleep, 
 and Watching. . B 
 
 VIGIN TIV IRATE, a dignity among the antient Ko- 
 mans, eftablifhed by Csfar. ... 
 This dignity comprehended four others ; for of the vigtntl- 
 viri or twenty men which compofed the company, there 
 
 - were three who fat and judged all criminal affairs ; three o- 
 
 ■ thers had the inipeaion of the coins, and coinage ; four took 
 care of the ftrcets of Rome ; and the reft were judges ot 
 civil affairs. 
 
 VILL, Villa. See the article Village. 
 VILLA Regis, or Regia, a title antiently giventothdfe vil- 
 lages where the kings ot England had a royal feat, and held 
 the manor in their own demefn: having there commonly a 
 free chapel exempt from the bifhop's jurifdicYion. 
 VILL/E Pra-pofttus. Seethe article Propositus. 
 VILLAGE *, Villa, or Vill, an affemblage oFhou.cs, 
 inhabited chieBy by peafants and farmers, having ufually a 
 church, but no market. 
 
 * The word is French, formed of vlL or vilis, low, mean, 
 contemptible : or rather, from the Latin, villa, a country 
 houfe, or farm. 
 
 The want ofa market diftinguifhes a village from a town, as 
 ' the church docs from a green Jlrcet, &c— Among our Saxon 
 anceftors, -vill, or village, was ufed in the fenfe of the Ro- 
 man villa ; viz. for a country farm, or feat, furnifhed with 
 convenient out-houfes, &c. for reporting the fruits thereof. 
 Afterwards it came to be taken for a manor : and then for 
 part of a parifh, or the parifh Itfeif. 
 
 Hence, in feveral antient law-books, vill and parijb arc the 
 fame thing : accordingly, Fortefcue, de Laudibus Leg. Jug. 
 writes, " That the boundaries of villages are not by houfes, 
 « ftreets, or walls ; but by a large circuit of ground, with- 
 " in which may be divers hamlets, waters, woods, tsfc. 
 Fleta makes this difference between a manfion, a village, and 
 a manor ; that a manfion may confift of one, or more houfes ; 
 though there is only to be one dwelling-place, without any 
 other very near it: for if other houfes be contiguous, it is 
 then a village. — A manor may confift of one or more vil- 
 lages. 
 
 For the better government of villages, the lord of the foil has 
 ufually a power to hold a court-baron every three weeks. 
 VILLAIN, Villanus, in our antient cuftoms, the fame 
 
 ■ "with bond-?nan : called alfo, in Domefday-book, fervus 
 
 " flave. 
 
 A villain was one who held lands in villenage, or on condi- 
 • tion of rendering bafc ferviccs to his lord. 
 There were antiently in England two forts of villains, viz. 
 villains in grofs, who were bound immediately to the per- 
 fons of their lords, and to their heirs — and villains regar- 
 dant to a manor, by the civilians called gleba adfer'tpti; who 
 were bound to their lord, as members belonging to fuch a 
 manor, of which he was owner. 
 
 This latter was a. pure villain, of whom the lord took re- 
 demption to marry his daughter, and to make him free ; and 
 he might put him out of his lands and tenements at his will; 
 and might beat and chaftife him, but not maim him. 
 
 ■ They were called villains from villa ; becaufe they dwelt in 
 villages : the fame were alfo called pagenfes, and ruflici ; 
 and of fuch fervile condition were they, that they were ufual- 
 ly fold with the farm to which they refpedtively belonged. 
 There are not properly any fuch villains now, though the 
 law concerning them ftands unrepealed. — The lands before 
 held in villenage, are now held in free and common focage. 
 See Tenure, Socace, 6ff. 
 
 Villain Ejlate, or condition > is contradiftinguifhed to free 
 ejlate. See Base Ejlate, and Villenage. 
 
 VILLAIN AG E. See the article Villenage. 
 
 VILLAINOUS Judgment, is that which caffs the reproach 
 and ftain of villany and fhame on him againft whom it is 
 given. — As that againft a confpirator, csV. 
 Lambard calls it villainous puniflnncnt ; and fays, it may 
 well be called villainous, in regard the judgment, in fuch 
 cafe, mall be like the antient judgment in attaint, viz. that 
 the criminals fhail not be -of any credit afterwards; nor fhall 
 it be lawful for them, in perfon, to approach the king's court : 
 rhat their lands and goods fhall be feized into the king's 
 hands, their trees rooted up, their bodies imprifoned, ffc. 
 
 V I N 
 
 VILLARUM Nomina. See the article Nomina. 
 VILLENAGE, or Villainage, Villania, thequa- 
 lity or condition of a villain. See Villain. 
 Villenage is more particularly ufed for a fervile kind of tenure 
 of lands, or tenements ; whereby the tenant was bound to 
 do all fuch fervice as the lord commanded, or were fit for a 
 villain to perform : which Bradton exprefles, by Sciri non 
 poterit vefperare, quale fcrvitium fieri debet mane. 
 Villenage, is divided into that by blood, and that by tenure.— 
 Tenure, in villenage, could make no freeman a villain, un- 
 lefs it were continued time out of mind ; nor could free land 
 make a villain free, 
 
 Villenage is alfo divided by Bradton into pure villenage, where 
 the ferviccs to be performed were indeterminate and arbitra- 
 ry, as above exprefied — and focage villenage; which was to 
 carry the lord's dung into his fields, to plough his ground on 
 certain days, to fow and reap his corn, £jfc. and even to 
 empty his jakes : as the inhabitants of Bidton were bound to 
 to do to the lord of Clun-caftle in Shropshire ; which was 
 afterwards turned into a rent, now called Bickton fiver ; and 
 the villainous fervice excufed. 
 VILLI, coarfe hair, in anatomy, is fometimes ufed in the 
 
 fame fenfe as fibres, or fibrilles. SeefiERE. 
 Villi, in botany, denotes a fort of tomentum, or down, like 
 the grain or fliag of plufh; with which, as a kind of excre- 
 fcence, fome trees and plants do abound. 
 VILLOUS, Villosa, is particularly applied to one of the 
 coats or membranes of the ftomach, called crufla villofa. — • 
 See Tab. Anat. (Splancb.) fig. z. lit. h. 
 
 It takes its name from innumerable villi, or fine fibrills 1 , 
 wherewith its inner furface is covered. See Crust a V dlofa. 
 V IN ALIA, in antiquity, a name common to two feafts a- 
 mong the antient Romans; the one in honour of Jupiter, 
 and the other of Venus. 
 
 The firft was held on the nineteenth of Auguft, and the fe- 
 cond on the firft of May. — The vinalia of the nineteenth of 
 Auguft, were called vinalia rujlica, and were inftituted on 
 occafion of the war of the Latins againft Mezentius ; in the 
 courfe of which war, that people vowed a libation to Jupiter 
 of all the wine of the fuccceding vintage. 
 On the fame day iikewife fell the dedication of a temple of 
 Venus ; whence fome authors have fallen into a miftake, that 
 thefe vinalia were fee ted to Venus. — But Varro, LLL. V. 
 and Feftus, in Verba Rujlica, diftinguifh between the two 
 ceremonies ; and exprefly aflert the vinalia to be a fcaft ot 
 Jupiter. 
 
 VINCULUM, in algebra, a cbarafter in form of a line, or 
 ftroke drawn over a factor, divifor, or dividend, when com- 
 pounded of feveral letters, or quantities; to conned! them, 
 and fhew that they are to be multiplied, or divided, &c. to- 
 gether, by the other term. 
 
 Thus, d x a -{- b — c, fhews that d is to be multiplied into 
 a + b— c. 
 
 VINOEMI ATING *, the gathering of grapes, or other 
 ripe fruits ; as apples, pears, cherries, &c. 
 * The word is formed of the Latin, vindemin, vintage. See 
 
 Vintage. 
 
 VINDEMIATRIX, or Vindemiator, a fixed ftar 
 of the third magnitude, in the northern wing of the conftel- 
 lation Virgo; whofe longitude, latitude, t3V. fee among the 
 reft of thole of Virgo. 
 VINDICATION, Claiming, in the civil law,_ an aaion 
 arifing from the property a perfon has in any thing : or a 
 permuTion to take or feize a thing, as one's own, out ot the 
 hands of a perfon, whom the law has doomed not to be the 
 true proprietor. 
 
 VINE, Vitis, a noble plant, or fhrub, of the reptile kind ; 
 famous for its fruit, or grapes, and for the liquor they af- 
 ford. See Wine. 
 
 The kinds of vines are almoft infinite ; they are denominated 
 either from the foil, and place where they grow; as the 
 Bourguignon, Bourdelas, Italian, Mantua vine, &c. or from 
 the form, colour, tafte, of their grapes ; as the acorn, 
 apricot, damask,, birds-bill, mufcadine, Sec. vine. 
 Our «ardeners find, that vines are capable of being cultivated 
 in England, fo as to produce large quantities of grapes ; and 
 thofe npened to fuch a degree, as may afford a good fub- 
 ftantial vinous juice. — Witnefs the vineyards in Somerfet- 
 fhire ; particularly that famous one at Bath. 
 In effect., it does not feem fo much owing to the inclemency 
 of our Englifh air, that our grapes are generally inferior to 
 thofe of France, as to the want of a jult culture. 
 Thofe fitted for the Englifh climate, Mr Mortimer finds to 
 be the fmall black grape, the white mufcadine, parfley grape, 
 mufcadilla, and white and red Frontigniac— Mr Bradley re- 
 commends the July grape, the early fweet water grape, lately 
 brought from the Canaries ; the arbois, or French fweet 
 water* grape : all which, if well managed, and the weather 
 favourable, are ripe by the middle of Auguft.-He alfo re- 
 commends the claret and Burgundy grapes. 
 
 The 
 
V I N 
 
 V I N 
 
 The beft foil for vines, according to Mortimer, is the hot- 
 ted gravel, fand, or dry rocky ground; provided it be well 
 Watered and ihaded. — Mr Biadley recommends chalky hills, 
 as proper for vims. 
 
 To mend a foil that wants thofe qualities, it is good to throw 
 in the rubbifh of old buildings, well mixed with twice as much 
 earth, and fifted about the roots of the vines. 
 Vines are propagated either by layers, or cuttings ; that is, either 
 by laying down the young branches as foon as the fruit is ga- 
 thered, or by making plantations of flips, or cuttings, at that 
 time. 
 
 Mr Mortimer fays, it is beft done any time in the winter 
 before January ; though Bradley fays, he has done it, with 
 fuccefs, in March and April. 
 
 For the Pruning ofV in es. > c ■ . c Pruning. 
 
 For th, Planting if Vines, J See ,hc art,clc { V, n£ yard. 
 
 VINEA, in fortification. See Mantelet. 
 
 VINEGAR*, Aeetum, an agreeable, acid, penetrating li- 
 quor, prepared from wine, cider, beer, and other liquors ; 
 and of confiderable ufe, both as a medicine, and a fauce. 
 
 * The word is French, vinaigre; formed from via, wine; and 
 aigre, four. See Wine. 
 
 Wine, and other vinous liquors, are faid to gain a grateful 
 fharpnefs, i. e. to become vinegar^ by having their falts ex- 
 alted by Infolation, or other means; and their fulphurs weak- 
 ned and deprefled. 
 
 Others afcribe the converfion of vinous liquors into vinegar^ta 
 the grinding or Iharpeningof the longitudinal particles thereof; 
 by which means, they become more fharp and pungent. 
 The method of making vinegar has long been kept a fecret 
 among the people of that profeflion ; who, it is faid, oblige 
 themfelves to each other by oath not to reveal it: but, not- 
 ■withftanding this, the Philofiphical Tranfatlions, and fome 
 other late writings, furniftt us with approved accounts thereof. 
 
 Method of making Cider Vinegar. — .The cider (the mean- 
 eft of which will ferve the purpofe) is firft to be drawn ofF fine 
 into another vefTel, and a quantity of the muft, or pouz of 
 apples to be added: the whole is then to be fet in the fun, 
 if there be a conveniency for the purpofe j and, at a week 
 or nine days end, it may be drawn off. 
 
 Method of making Beer Vinegar. — Take a middling fort 
 of beer, indifferently well hopped ; into which, when it has 
 worked well, and is grown fine, put fome rape, or the hufiis 
 of grapes, ufually brought home for that purpofe : mafh them 
 together in a tub ; then, letting the rape fettle, draw off the 
 liquid part, put it into a cafk, and fet it in the fun as hot as 
 may be ; the bung hole being only covered with a tile, or flate- 
 ftone : and in about thirty or forty days, it will become a good 
 •vinegar, and may pafs in ufe as well as that made of wine, if 
 it be refined, and kept from turning mufty. 
 Or vinegar may be made thus: — To every gallon of fpring 
 water, add three pounds of Malaga raifins ; which put into 
 an earthen jar, and place them where they may have the 
 hotteft fun from May till Michaelmas : then preffing all well, 
 tun the liquor up in a very ftrong iron-hooped veflel, to pre- 
 vent its burfting: it will appear very thick' and muddy, when 
 newly prefTed ; but it will refine in the veflel, and be as clear 
 as wine. — Thus let it remain untouched for three months, 
 before it be drawn off, and it will prove excellent vinegar. 
 
 To make Wine Vinegar. ■ — Any fort of vinous liquor, being 
 mixed with its own faxes, flowers, or ferment, and its tar- 
 tar firft reduced to powder; or elfe with the acid and auftere 
 ftalks of the vegetable from whence the wine was obtained, 
 which hold a large proportion of tartar ; and the whole being 
 kept frequently ftirring in a vefiel which has formerly held 
 vinegar, or fet in a warm place full of the fleams of the fame, 
 will begin to ferment a-new, and conceive heat, and will 
 grqwfour by degrees, and foon after turn into vinegar. 
 The remote fubjects of acetous fermentation, are the fame 
 with thofe of vinous ; but the immediate fubjecls of it, are all 
 kinds of vegetable juices, after they have once undergone that 
 fermentation which reduces them to wine: for it is abfolutely 
 impofliblc to make vinegar of muft, the crude juice of grapes, 
 or other ripe fruits, without the previous aififtance of vinous 
 fermentation. 
 
 The proper ferments for this operation, whereby vinegar is 
 prepared, are — 1°. The feces of all acid wines.' — z° . The 
 lees of vinegar. — 3 0 , Pulverized tartar; cfpecially that of 
 ihenilh wine, or the cream or cryftals thereof. — 4 0 . Vine- 
 gar itfelf. — 5 0 . A wooden vefiel well drenched with vine- 
 gar, or one that has long been employed to contain it. — 
 
 6°. Wine that has often been mixed with its own faeces. 
 
 7°. The twigs of vines, and the ftalks of grapes, currants, cher- 
 ries, or other vegetables of an acid auftere tafte — 8°. Bakers 
 leaven, after it is turned acid.— 90. All manner of ferments, 
 compounded of thofe already mentioned. 
 P inegar is no production of nature, but a mere creature of 
 art: for verjuice, the juices of citrons, lemons, and the like 
 native acids, arc improperly faid to be natural vinegars ; be- 
 caufe, when diftilled, they afford nothing but vappid water: 
 whereas it is the property of vinegar to yield an acid fpirit 
 by diftillation. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 Method of making Vinegar in France. — 'The French ufe 3 
 method of making vinegar different from that above defcribed. 
 — They take two very large oaken vefiels, the larger the 
 better, open at the top ; in each whereof they place a wooden 
 grate, within a foot of die bottom: upon thefe grates, they 
 firft lay twigs, or cuttings of vines, and afterwards the ftalks 
 of the branches, without the grapes themfelves, or their ftones ; 
 till the whole pile reaches within a foot of the brim of the 
 vefiels : then they fill one of thefe vefTels with wine to the 
 very top, and half fill the other; and with liquor drawn out 
 of the full vcffel, they fill up that which was only half full 
 before; daily repeating the fame operation, and pouring the 
 liquor back from one vefiel to the other ; fo that each of 
 them is full, and half full by turns. 
 
 When this procefs has been continued for two or three days, 
 a degree of heat will arife in the veflel which is then but 
 half full, and will incrcafe for feveral days fucceflively with- 
 out any appearance of the like in the veflel which happens 
 to be full during thofe days; the liquor whereof will ft ill re- 
 main cool : and as foon as the heat ceafes in the vefiel that 
 is half full, the vinegar is prepared: which, in the furnmcr, 
 happens on the fourteenth or fifteenth day from the begin- 
 ning; but in the winter, the fermentation proceeds much 
 flower: fo that they are often obliged to forward it by arti- 
 ficial warmth, or the ufe of ftoves. 
 
 When the weather is exceeding hot, the liquor ought to be 
 poured oft" from the full veiTel into the other twice a-day: 
 otherwife, the liquor would be over-heated, and the fermen- 
 tation would prove too ftrong ; whence the fpirituous parts 
 would fly away, and leave a vappid wine, inftead of vinegar, 
 behind. 
 
 The full veflel is always to be left open at the top, but the 
 mouth of the other muft be clofed with a cover of wood ; in 
 order the better to keep down and fix the fpirit in the body 
 of the liquor ; for otherwife, it might eafily fly off in the 
 heat of fermentation. — -The vcflct that is only half full 
 feems to grow hot, rather than the other, becaufe it con- 
 tains a much greater quantity of the vine-twigs and ftalks, 
 than that, in proportion to the liquor ; above which the pile 
 rifing to a confiderable hcighth, conceives beat the more, and 
 fo conveys it to the wine below. 
 Vinegar of Antimony, is an acid fpirit, beft made by diftil- 
 lation from the ore of antimony. 
 
 Its ufe is commended in continued and malignant fevers. 
 The apothecaries have, likewife, a kind of theriacal vinegar, 
 acetum theriacale, made of Venice treacle digefted in wine 
 vinegar. 
 
 VINEYARD, Vinetum, a plantation of vines. See 
 Vine. 
 
 The beft fituation of a vineyard, is on the declivity of an hill 
 lying to the fouth. See Exposure. 
 
 The vine is to be propagated by flips, layers, or fuckers, 
 planted in a nurfery, and thence tranfplanted, about Febru- 
 ary, into the vineyard. 
 
 As to the foil, it is agreed, nothing can be too dry for them : 
 and as to the forts of vines, none but the forward ones ought 
 to be planted in England. — Thefe are found to ripen very 
 well in open borders, without walls. 
 
 They are to be planted in lines running north and fouth, 
 five or fix foot apart; and only two vines in each hole. — 
 The September following, the ftioots of that fummer are to 
 be pruned ihorter, according to their ftrcngth ; and the fum- 
 mer following, the ftrongeft will begin to mew a little fruit. 
 — They arc then to be fupported with ftakes, C5>. fo as 
 they may run about a foot above ground: the higher they 
 run, the Iefs danger they are in of being fpoiled with wet; 
 but the lower they are, the fwceter will be the grapes, and 
 the ftronger wine. 
 
 If, notwitbftanding due pruning, they do not feem inclinable 
 to bear large bunches, the ground is to be helped with a 
 mixture of rubbifti of fome old building, with fea-coal allies, 
 or drift fand. — Thus managed, a vineyard, in five or fix 
 years, will produce good ftore of grapes. 
 The celebrated vineyard at Bath, containing about fix acres 
 of ground, planted with white mufcadine, and black clufter 
 grapes, Mr Bradley affurcs us, by fticn management, fome 
 years ago, yielded fixty hogftieads of wine at a vintage: 
 though in the year 1721, it only yielded three hogfheads. 
 The fame author mentions a little vineyard of a private per- 
 fbn at Rotherhith ; which, though only confifting of 100 
 vines, and fome of them only of the fecond year's growth, 
 yielded, at a vintage, 95 gallons of wine ; which, he adds, 
 had the true Burgundy flavour, as being made from that fort 
 of grape : and exceeded any made from any vineyard on 
 this fide Paris. 
 
 VINOUS, Vinosus, fomething that relates to wine; or 
 that has the tafte, and fmell thereof. See Wine. 
 All vegetables, by a due treatment, afford a vinous liquor ; 
 as corn, pulfe, nuts, apples, grapes, csV. 
 A fecond fermentation, duly managed, turns any vinous li- 
 quor into an acetous one. 
 
 The proper character, and effect of fermentation, is to pro- 
 1.3 I duce 
 
V I o 
 
 V I P 
 
 duce either a vinous, or an acetous quality in the body fer- 
 mented. 
 
 Some of our countrymen, bound on a voyage to tlie Eaft 
 Indies, having filled feveral cafks with Thames-water, to 
 . carry along with them ; obferved an inteftine motion in it, 
 ■when they came to the equator ; and found it afterwards 
 turned into a kind of vinous liquor, capable of affording an 
 inflammable fpirit by diftillation. 
 
 This, without difpute, proceeded from the flowers, leaves, 
 roots, fruits, and other vegetable matters, continually falling, 
 or warned down in that river. — And fuch waters are always 
 found in a ftate of putrefaction, ere they put on a vinous 
 nature. 
 
 VINTAGE, the crop of wine, or what is got from the vines 
 each fcafon. 
 
 The word is alfo ufed for the time or feafon of gathering, or 
 preffing the grapes. 
 
 In France, a decree or ordinance of the proper judge, and 
 a folemn publication thereof, are required, before the vintage 
 can be begun. 
 
 V I N U M, a liquor, or drink, popularly called wine. See 
 Wine. 
 
 Vinum, in medicine, Vinum Medication, is particularly 
 applied to feveral medicated wines, t. e. medicinal prepara- 
 tions, whereof wine is the bafts; fuch as the 
 
 Vinum Abfynthites, or wormwood wine; made of the great 
 or little abfynthium, by taking the apices, or tops, with the 
 flowers, putting them in a facculus, or bag, and fufpending 
 it in the middle of a veflel of wine ; which fermenting, ex- 
 tracts the tafte, fmell, and virtues of the wormwood. 
 
 Vinum Aromaticum, made by infufing aromatics, or fpiccs, 
 in new wine, or muff. 
 
 Vinum Cydsnites, quince-wine; made of flices of that fruit, 
 fteeped in muft, or new wine. 
 
 Vinum Emcticum, emetic wine; is wine wherein the glafs, 
 or regulus of antimony, or crocus metallorum, have been 
 fteeped. 
 
 This only takes a certain degree of efficacy from the matters; 
 nor is it found any ft ranger at three months end, than at the 
 end of eight days. — It purges both upwards, and downwards. 
 
 Vinum Hippocraticum, or Hippocras ; fo called of manica 
 Hippocrat'ts, or Hippocratcs's fleeve, through which it is 
 ftrained ; is a fort of fpiced wine, in which fugar and fpices 
 have been fteeped for fome time. 
 
 Vinu m Marinum, fea-wine ; is made by calling fea-water on 
 the grapes in the vat. 
 
 Vinu m Picatum, pitched wine ; is made of pitch infufed in muft. 
 
 Vinum Rofatum, rofe-wine; is made by fteeping rofes for three 
 months in wine. 
 
 Vinum, and acetum, fcilliticutn. See Sc i l l a. 
 
 Vinum Strobilites, or pine-apple wine: — Vinum hyffopitcs, 
 hyfipp-wine. See Pine, and Hyssop. 
 
 VIOL, Viola, a mufical inftrument, of the fame form with 
 the violin ; and (truck, like that, with a bow. 
 There are viols of divers kinds. — The firft, and principal, 
 among us, is the bafs-viol, called, by the Italians, viola di 
 gamba, or the leg-viol; becaufe held between the legs. It 
 is the largeft of all ; and is mounted with fix ftrings. Its 
 neck is divided in half notes, by feven frets fixed thereon. Its 
 found is very deep, foft, and agreeable. — The tablature, or 
 muftc for the bafs-viol, is laid down on fix lines, or rules. 
 What the Italians call alto viola, is the counter-tenor of this ; 
 and their tenore viola, the tenor. They fome times call it, 
 iimply, the viol : Come authors will have it the lyra, others 
 the cithara, others the cbelys, and others the tejiudo of the 
 anticnts. 
 
 z°. The love-viol, viola d'amore, which is a kind of triple 
 viol, or violin ; having fix brafs or fteel ftrings, like thofe of 
 the harpftcord. — This yields a kind of filvcr found, which 
 has fome thing in it very agreeable. 
 
 3°. A large viol, with 4+ ftrings, called, by the Italians, 
 
 viola di bardone; but little known among us. 
 
 4 0 . Viola bajlarda, or bajiardviol, of the Italians; not ufed 
 
 among us : Broffard takes it to be a kind of bafs-viol, mounted 
 
 with 6 or 7 ftrings, and tuned as the common one. 
 
 5 0 . What the Italians call viola di bracclo, arm-viol; or, 
 
 limply, braccio, arm ; is an inftrument anfwering to our 
 
 counter-tenor, treble, and fifth violin. 
 
 6°. Their viola prima, or firji viol, is really our counter-tenor 
 violin ^ at leaft, they commonly ufe the cliff c fol ut on the 
 firft line, to denote the piece intended for this inftrument. 
 7 0 . Viola fecunda, is much the fame with our tenor violin; 
 having the cliff of c folut on the fecond line. 
 8°. Viola term, is nearly our fifth violin; the cliff c folut 
 on the third line. 
 
 9°. Viola qitarta, ox fourth viol, is not known in England, 
 or France : though we frequently find it mentioned in the 
 Italian compofttions ; the cliff on the fourth line. 
 Laftly, their vhletta, ov, little vm/j is, in reality, our triple 
 viol: though ftrangers frequently confound the term, with 
 what we have faid of the viola prima, fecunda, tcrza, &c. 
 
 V iot, is alfo a term ufed among mariners, when a hawfek or 
 ftrand-rope is bound fall with nippers to the cable, and brought 
 to the jeer-capftan, for the better weighing of the anchor, 
 where the main capftan proves infufficient. 
 
 VIOLATION, tire aft of vitiating, i.e. forcing a woman, 
 or committing a rape upon her. 
 
 Amnon, David's Ion, violated his filler, who was avenged 
 
 by Abfalom : Tereus violated his fifter-in-law Philomela. 
 
 To violate the queen, the king's cldeft daughter, or the prin- 
 ce fs of Wales, is high treafon. 
 Violation, isaifoufed, in a moral fenfe, for a breach or 
 infringement of a law, ordinance, or the like. 
 Thus, we fay, a violation of the law of nature, of a treaty 
 of peace, of one's oath, c?V. — The law of nations was vio- 
 lated in the infult offered to Mr S the king's embaffador 
 
 at Madrid. 
 
 Violation, is alfo ufed for a profanation, — In which fenfe, 
 
 We fay, to violate a church, bV. 
 VI OLEN T, in the fchools, a thing done by force.— In which 
 
 fenfe it ftands oppofed to fpontaneous. See Spontaneous. 
 
 A thing is faid to be violent, when effected by fome external 
 
 principle; the body that undergoes it contributing nothing 
 
 thereto, but ftruggling againft it. 
 
 The body, in fuch cafe, is faid to Jlruggle, by reafon what- 
 ever is violent, difcompofes and diffracts a thing from its na- 
 tural conftitution, and tends to deftroy it. 
 The fchoolmen ah allow, that man, as being endued with 
 reafon, is capable of fuffering fuch violence; but brute and in- 
 animate bodies are not : inbruium, &c. violentem non cadit. 
 
 Violent Motion. See the article Motion. 
 
 VIOLIN, Violino, Fiddle, a mufical inftrument, mount- 
 ed with four firings, or guts ; and ftruck, or played with 
 a bow. 
 
 The violin conftfts, like moft other inftruments, of three 
 parts ; the neck, the table, and the foundboard. 
 At the tide are two apertures, and fomctimes a third towards 
 the top, fhaped like a heart. 
 
 Its bridge, which is below the apertures, bears op the firings, 
 which are faftened to the two extremes of the inftrument; 
 at one of them, by a fcrew, which flretches, or loofens 
 them at pleafure. 
 
 Tlie ftyle and found of the violin, is the gayeft and moft 
 fprighrjy of all other inftruments ; and hence it is, of all other, 
 the fitteft for dancing. Yet there are ways of touching it, 
 which render it grave, foft, languifhnig, and fit for church, 
 or chamber mulic, 
 
 It generally makes the treble, or higheft parts in concerts. — ■ 
 Its harmony is from fifth to fifth. Its play is compofed of 
 bafs, counter-tenor, tenor, and treble ; to which may be 
 added, a fifth part : each part has four fifths, which rife to 
 a greater feventecnth. 
 
 In compofitions of mufic, violin is expreffed by V : two V V 
 denote two violins. 
 
 The word violin, alone, ftands for treble violin : when the 
 Italians prefix alto, tenore, or baffo, it then expreffes the 
 counter-tenor, tenor, or bak-vialiti. 
 
 In compofitions, where there are two, three, or more diffe- 
 rent violins, they make ufe of prima, fecunda^ tcrzo, or of 
 the characters I u II 0 111°, or i" z a 3°, b'c, to denote the 
 difference. 
 
 The violin has only four ftrings, each of a different thick- 
 nefs, the fmalleft whereof makes the e fi mi of the higher! 
 oc/tave of the organ; the fecond, a fifth below the firft, 
 makes the a mi la ; the third, a fifth below the fecond, is 
 dlare ; laftly, the fourth, a fifth below the third, is ge re fol. 
 Moft nations, ordinarily, ufe the cliff g re jol on the fecond 
 line, to denote the muftc for the violin ; only in France, 
 they ufe the fame cliff as the firft line at bottom : the firft 
 of thefe methods is beft, where the fong goes very low ; the 
 fecond, where it goes very high. 
 
 The Violoncello of the Italians, is properly our fifth 
 violin, which is a little bafs violin, half the fize of the com- 
 mon bafs violin, and its ftrings juft half as thick, and half as 
 long; which renders the found juft an o£lave higher than 
 the fame. 
 
 The Violone is a double bafs, almoft twice as big as the 
 common bafs violin, and the ftrings bigger and longer, in 
 proportion ; and confequently, its found an oefave lower 
 than that of our bafs violin: which has a noble effect in 
 great concerto's. See Viol. 
 VIPER, Vipera, in natural hiftory, a kind of ferpent, 
 famed not only for the exceeding venomoufnefs of its bite, 
 which is one of the moil dangerous poifons in the animal 
 kingdom, but alfo for the great ufefulnefs of its flefh in me- 
 dicine : whence vipers come to make a confidcrable article in 
 the materia mcdica. 
 
 This remarkable reptile, has the biggeft and fhtteft head of 
 all the fcrpent-kind. Its ufiral length is about half an ell -, 
 and its thicknefs an inch: its fnout is not unlike that of a hog. 
 It has fixtecn fmall immoveable teeth in each jaw; be- 
 fides, two other targe, flwrp, hooked, hollow, uuifrarti t. 
 
V I P 
 
 canine teeth, fituate at each fide of the upper [aw, which 
 are thofe that do the mifchief : thefe arc flexible in their ar- 
 ticulation ; and are ordinarily laid flat along the jaw, the 
 animal never raifing them but when it would bite. 
 The roots or bafes of thefe teeth, or fangs, are incompafled 
 with a veficle, or bladder, containing the quantity of a 
 large drop of a yellow infipid falivous juice. 
 It has only one row of teeth ; whereas many other ferpents 
 have two : its body is not at all fetid ; whereas the inner parts 
 of the bodies of other ferpents are intolerably fo. — It creeps 
 but flowly, and never leaps like other ferpents ; though it 
 Is nimble enough to bite, when provoked. 
 Its body is of two colours, afh-coloured, or yellowifh, and 
 the ground fpcckled with longifh brown fpots. — The fcales 
 under its belly, are of the colour of well polifhed fteel. 
 The male and female have the organs of generation very 
 perfect; the female viper brings forth her young living; 
 whereas all other ferpents lay eggs, and hatch them : on 
 which account, the viper is ranked among the viviparous 
 animals. 
 
 Her young ones come forth wrapped up in thin flops, which 
 
 break on the third day, and fet the animal at liberty. She 
 
 brings forth to the number of 20 young ; but, they fay, only 
 one each day. The antients, particularly Pliny, Galen, EfrY. 
 believed that the young killed their mother in the delivery; 
 but this is not the only miftake they were guilty of on the 
 fubject of the viper.' — They held alfo, that it eat cantharides, 
 fcorpions, bfc. which rendered its poifon fo very dangerous. 
 Dr Mead obferves, that the antients cfteemed the viper fa- 
 cred ; and that the kings of the Eaft Indies caufed cottages 
 to be built for their entertainment, and their killers to be 
 puniflied with death. — On medals, the viper is frequently 
 reprefented as a fymbol of divine power ; and as fuch, given 
 by way of attribute to the antient phyficians. 
 As to the manner wherein the viper conveys its poifon, au- 
 thors are a little difagreed. — Francifco Redi, and Mpife 
 Charras, have each of them wrote very curious pieces on the 
 fubject, but their refult is very different. 
 Redi maintains, that all the venom of the viper, is contain- 
 ed in the two veficulae, or bags, which cover the bafe of the 
 two canine teeth ; whence, upon biting, a yellowifh liquor 
 is fqueezed out into the wound : where, mixing with the 
 blood, and other juices, it produces thofe dreadful fymptoms. 
 This hypothefis he maintains, by a good number of experi- 
 ments ; as of animals, viz, cocks, tkc. being bit with vi- 
 j>ers, after thefe vcficulas and their juice had been taken out ; 
 without any figns of poifon, or any ill confequence at all. 
 Charras, on the other hand, maintains, that this yellow 
 liquor is not poifonous ; that he has given it to pigeons, as 
 food, without their being at all difordered thereby; that the 
 viper's bice he has always found mortal to animals, even after 
 the bag has been taken clear out, as well as before : and 
 laftly, that the poifon mufl lie in the irritated fpirits of the 
 viper, which it exhales in the ardor of its biting ; and which are 
 fo cold, that they curdle the blood, and ftop the circulation. 
 The controverfy between thefe two ingenious authors, is 
 very extraordinary: their fyftems are oppofite ; yet both are 
 maintained by a great number of well attefted experiments. 
 — The public, however, generally give into the fentiment of 
 Sig. Redi ; as anfwering beft to the mechanifm of the parts. 
 Dr Mead fuppofes it the true one, in his effay on the poifon 
 of the viper; and adds to Redi's account, that the poifon 
 in the viper's bag is feparated from the blood, by a con- 
 glomerate gland, lying in the lateral anterior part of the os 
 fincipitis, behind the orbit of the eye ; from which gland 
 there is a duel, that conveys the poifon to the bags at the 
 teeth. — The teeth, he adds, are tubulated for the convey- 
 ance and emiflion of the poifon into the wound ; but their 
 hollownefs does not reach to the apex, or tip of the tooth, 
 but ends in a long flit below the point, out of which flit the 
 poifon is emitted. 
 
 Thefe flits, or perforations of the teeth, Galen tells us, the 
 mountebanks of his days ufed to ftop with fome kind of 
 pafte; after which, they would publickly expofe thcmfelves 
 to be bitten, without danger. 
 Effeps of the bite of the Viper — Thefymptoms following the 
 bite of a viper, are an acute pain in the place wounded ; 
 fwelling, firft red, afterwards livid, fpreading by degrees ; 
 great faintnefs; a quick, low, and fometimes interrupted 
 pulfe; ficknefs at the ftomach ; bilious convulfive vomiting; 
 cold fweats ; fometimes pains about the navel ; and death 
 itfelf, if the ftrength of the patient, or flightnefs of the 
 bite, do not prevent it. 
 
 If he do overcome it, the fwelling continues inflamed for 
 fome time ; and tlie fymptoms abating, from the wound 
 runs a famous liquor, little puftules are raifed about it, and 
 the colour of the fkin is as if the patient were icterical. 
 By the microfcope, the virus was found to confift of mi- 
 nute falts in continual motion ; after which a number of fpi- 
 cula, or darts appeared, refembhng, but much finer, a fpidcr's 
 
 V I R 
 
 web. —This, when mixed with fyr. violar. inclined it fa 
 red, no ways to green; fo that the fuice is not alkalious ■ 
 But Mr Boyle, and Dr Pitcaim, prove the blood to be only 
 an alkaly. 
 
 Such a fmall quantity of the virus, fecms to have fo great an 
 effect, partly by wounding the fibres, and partly by altering 
 the cohefion of the globules of blood, which, by the elalfic 
 matter thereof proves a nimble vehicle, to carry the vipSne 
 fpicula almoft every where fuddenly. —Thefe will ftimulate 
 and ret the fenfible membranes ; whereupon, a more than 
 ulual afflux of the animal juices may be carried to the parts. 
 1 he cure feems very unfettled : Mr Boyle found a hot iron 
 held near the place fuccefsful j but it proved otherwife with 
 M. Charras. — Again, the fnake-root from the Eaft Indies 
 immediately applied to the place, is much commended' but 
 bignor Redi, and M. Charras, found it of no ufe ; yet Baejivi 
 and Dr Havers, give inftances of its good fuccefs. ' 
 Dr Mead adds, that the fnakc-ftone directly applied to a pi- 
 geon, when bitten, faved its life four hours; whereas, moll 
 ot the other pigeons bitten died in half an hour. 
 This ftone is not natural, but faaitious; its virtue lies in its 
 porofity, which is fuppofed to imbibe the virus. 
 The v iper- catchers, DrMead adds, have a fpecific, in which 
 they can fo far confide, as not to be afraid of being bitten. 
 —-That fpecific is, the axungla of the viper prefently rubbed 
 into the wound ; which confining of clammy, vifcid, pene- 
 trating, and a&ive parts, fheaths the (alts of the virus. 
 The fame author, applying it to the noftrils of a dog bitten, 
 found the creature well the next day: when this is not time- 
 ly applied, and the virus has infinuated into the blood, the 
 jal, viper, is excellent, given and repeated till fweats be pro- 
 duced. — This fucceeded well with M. Charras; and Dr 
 Mead relates, that it recovered one, after the virus had in- 
 duced an univcrfal icterus. 
 
 Vipers make a confiderable article in medicine. — Moft au- 
 thors agree, that there is no part, humour, or excrement, not 
 even the gall itfelf, of a viper, but may be fwallowed with- 
 out harm. — Accordingly, the antients, and, as feveral 
 authors aflure us, the Indians, as well as many other people, 
 at this day, both of the eaft and weft, eat them as we do eels. 
 Caro viperina, viper's flefh, either roafted or boiled, the 
 phyficians unanimoufly prefcribe as an excellent reftorative; 
 and particularly in the elephantiafis, incurable confumptions, 
 leprofy, cjY. and Dr Mead thinks, they might be lefs fparing 
 in the quantity than they are ; inftead of a little vipers flefh, 
 he recommends the broth, or gclly of vipers ; or, as the antients 
 did, to boil and eat them as fiftl, or at leaft, to drink vinum 
 viperinum, i, e. wine wherein they have been long infufed. 
 Viper's flefh is an ingredient in feveral of our beft antidotes ; 
 as the theriaca andromach. &c. 
 
 The apothecaries alfo fell the pulvis viperinus, which is only- 
 dried vipers pulverized, heart, liver, and all, and palled 
 through a fieve. — This, to heighten the price, we fuppofe, 
 the call animal bezoard. See Bezoard. 
 The. falls of vipers, whether volatile, or fixed, alfo their fat, 
 oraxungia, and their oil, chymically drawn, are dru^s in good* 
 repute. * ' - 
 
 ViPER-tVhie. See the article Wine. 
 
 VIRAGO*, a woman of extraordinary ftature and courage; 
 and who, with the female fex, has the mein and air ol" a 
 man, and performs the actions and excrcifes of men. 
 
 * The word is pure Latin, formed from «>, man; and is feldom 
 ufed, but in the way of diverfion. 
 
 Such were Semiramis, and Pcnthefilea, among the antients, 
 and Jeanne la Pucclle, commonly called the maid if Orleans, 
 among the moderns. 
 
 In the vulgate verfion of the Bible, Eve is called virago, be- 
 caufe made of the rib of the man. — The Latin tranilator, 
 , by this, aimed to preferve the etymology as it is in the 
 Hebrew, and of vir y formed virago ; as Adam, in the He- 
 brew text, called Eve Ifcha, of ifch, man. 
 VIRGA. See the article Yard. 
 
 Virga*, is particularly ufed in law forzverge, or rod, fuch as 
 fherifTs and bailiffs carry, a badge of their office. See Verge. 
 
 * — Ranf. np Howel, prapofitus de Lantijjin amerciatus pro eo 
 sued habuit in manu fun coram jufliciariis hie virgam nigrum 
 hf inbonejlnm, ubi habere debuijfet virgam album Es" honeftam 
 cert<e hngitudinis, trout decct. In feff. Itin. de Cardiff 
 7 Hen. VI. 
 
 VIRG/E, in phyfiology, a meteor, called alfo columella:, and 
 Junes tentorii ; being an afiemblage of feveral ftreams of li«ht, 
 reprefenting a bundle of rods, or ropes. 
 It is fuppofed owing to the ftreaming of the fun-beams throueh 
 certain rimula-, or chinks ; at leaft, through the more lax and 
 open parts of a watery cloud 3 happening chiefly in the morn- 
 ing and evening. 
 
 There is alfo another kind, confifting not of ftreams of mere 
 white light, but, as it were, painted of various colours; like 
 thofe of the rainbow. 
 VIRGATA Terra-, or Virga terra; a yard-land. Sec 
 Y ARo-Land, 
 
 VIRGA- 
 
V I R 
 
 ' him forth 
 
 VIRG ATORES Servientes, in Fleta, are vergers, or ttp- 
 ftaves, who attend the judges. See Verger, and Ser- 
 jeant at Arms. . 
 
 VIRGIN, Virgo, a female who has had no carnal com- 
 merce with man i or, more properly, who has ftill the fes 
 virginis, or maiden-hood. . . 
 
 In die Roman Breviary, there is a particular office for virgins 
 departed, anfwering to thofe for faints, martyrs, and confettors. 
 Critics and antiquaries are much divided about a feait held in 
 that church in honour of S. Urfula, and her companions; who 
 are faid in the Ritual, Legend, &(. to have been eleven thou- 
 sand Virgins. 
 
 Some imagine there has been amiftakc in reading the antient 
 rituals, wherein XI. M. V. which was only an abbreviation 
 of tttoeh virgin martyrs, was read according to the numeral 
 letters, eleven thou/and virgins. — F. Sirmond conjectures, 
 that in the antient lifts of martyrs, there were found b b 
 Urfula, and Undecimilla V. M. and that in lieu ot Un- 
 decimilla, which is the name of a virgin martyr, the copiits 
 bad made uride'cimUUd, which is eleven thoufand. 
 By the Mofaic law, the priefts are enjoined to take none to 
 wife but thofe that are virgins : the widow, the divorced, 
 and the harlot, are to be refrained from. 
 Virgin is alfo applied, byway of eminence, to Mary the mo- 
 ther of our Saviour; as conceiving, and bringmr *" 
 without any breach of her chaftity. 
 
 The fathers, many of them, with the modern churches, 
 hold that the virgin not only conceived, but brought forth, 
 or was delivered, without breach of her virginity 5 otherwife 
 fays S. Auguftin, it would be falfe which is faid in the creed 
 that he was born of a virgin. — 'Tis even alledgcd, that fhi 
 ftill remained a virgin to the end of her life : whence the 
 Greeks always call her «,i*«p0»os, ever virgin Mary ;_and af- 
 ter them the Latins, fempcr virgo. Though, as this is not 
 recorded in holy writ, many have denied it, and held, that 
 J[he had afterwards to do with Jofeph , and bore other children j 
 and this as early as the time of Origcn. Tertullian himfelf is 
 produced as one that denied the perpetual virginity: and the like 
 may be faid of Apollinaris and Eunomius, with theirfollowers 
 Thefe impugners of the perpetual virginity encreafed after- 
 wards to a great number, and are called by Epiphanius, 
 dicomarianita: ; and were condemned under that name by the 
 fixth general council, The fame were alfo called by the La- 
 tins Helvediani, from Helvedius,a difciple of Auxentius, whofe 
 name was made ufe of as having been refuted by S. Jerom. 
 He was followed by Jovinian, a monk of Milan, as Jcrom 
 teftifies ; though S. Auguftin fpeaks otherwife, viz. that he 
 held, that the virgin loft her virginity in bringing forth: 
 And Bonofus, a bifhop in Macedonia, was condemned for 
 the fame pofition. 
 
 Their error was founded on the fame fubtle interpretations 
 of fcripture: as, becaufe S.Matthew fays, that Jofeph knew 
 not Mary 'till fhe had brqught forth her firft-born : 
 
 from hence they infer, that he knew her afterwards : fo be- 
 caufe he was called her firft-born, they argue, that fhe muft 
 have had a fecond. — But the Jewifh law determines what is 
 meant by firft-born, and affixes it to the apertion of the 
 womb: primogenitum omne quod aperit vtdvaify Luke ii. 22, 
 23. — But they add, that mention is made of the mother and 
 brethren of Jefus ; John ii. 12. and Matth. xii. 46. But 
 this theantient fathers, efpecially of the Greek church, explain, 
 after Origen, of fomc children of Jofeph by a former wife, of 
 which fome make fix ; the eldcft of which was James, the bro- 
 ther of our Lord : But in reality there feems no neceffity of 
 fuppofing, from thefe texts, that Jofeph had any otlier oft- 
 fpring; becaufe the language of the Jews included in the name 
 of brethren, not only the itrict relation of fraternity, but alfo 
 the larger of confanguinity. 
 
 But the Helvedians further argue, that the fcriptures not only 
 call them the brothers of Chrift, but declare them to be the 
 fons of Mary : for that the Jews, Matth xiii. 3;. fay, " Is not 
 ** his mother called Mary, and his brethren James, and Jofes, 
 " and Simon, and Judas:" — To this bifhop Pearfon anfwers, 
 That Mary the mother of James and Jofes was a different 
 perfon from Mary the virgin? which ,he fhews, by compar- 
 ing the accounts of John xix. 25. Matth. xxvii. 56. and 
 Mark xv. 40. where this Mary the mother of James, and the 
 fifter of Mary the virgin, is reprefentcd as the wife of Cleophas. 
 Neftorius and his adherents maintained, that the virgin could 
 not, with any propriety, be called the mother of God ; as be- 
 ing really no more than the hojlef of God : for that the eter- 
 nal Word could not be conceived, and born of the womb of 
 a virgin. 
 
 This'herefy was condemned at the council of Ephefus; yet 
 
 it has been lately revived in Holland, chiefly by a refugee 
 
 monk, one Renouk. 
 Charity of the holy Vi rgin. i 5 , 5 Charity. 
 Presentation of the Virgin. \ \ Presentation. 
 Virgin is alfo applied, figuratively, to feveral things that retain 
 
 their abfolute purity, and have never been made ufe of. — 
 
 Thus, 
 
 V I R 
 
 ViRGiN-JFa*, is that which has never been wrought, but re- 
 mains as it came out of the hive. See Wax. 
 Virgin-O/7, is what oozes fpontaneoufly from the olive, 6ff. 
 
 without prefling. 
 Virgin Gold, is that'mctal fuch as it is found pure in the mine, 
 without any mixture or alloy ; in which ftate it is fometimes 
 fo foft, that it will take the impreflion of a feal. 
 Virgin Copper, is a native copper found in the mine, and which 
 
 has never been melted down. 
 Virgin ghiickfilver, is that found perfectly formed, and fluid, 
 in the veins of mines; or, at leaft, fuch as is got from the 
 mineral earth, by mere lotion, without fire. 
 Virgin Parchment, is that made of the fkin of an abortive 
 
 lamb, or calf. 
 Virgin Sulphur. \ g ^ article 5 ^Fffit , 
 Virgin'j MIL J \ Lac} nginale. 
 
 Virgin'j Thread, a fort of meteor that flics in the air, like 
 fmall untwifted iilk ; and which falling upon the ground, cr 
 upon plants, changes itlelf intoa fubftancc like afpider's web. 
 In thefe northern climates, it is moft frequent infummerj the 
 days being then temperately warm, the earth not exceeding 
 dry, nor yet overcharged with moifture. 
 This has formerly paffed for a fort of dew, of an earthy, flimy 
 nature: but naturalifts are now agreed, that the virgins 
 threads are no other than fo many fpiders webs. 
 VIRGINALE Claujlnan, in anatomy, the fame mhymen. 
 VIRGINEUS Morbus, the virgin's difeafe; the grcen-fick- 
 
 nefs, or chlorous. 
 VIRGINIS Spica. See the article Spica. 
 VIRGINITY, Virginitas, the tcft or criterion of a 
 virgin; or that which entitles her to the denomination. 
 In the firft ages of the Chriftian church, virginity grew into 
 great honour and efteem ; infomuch, that the women were ad- 
 mitted to make folemn vows thereof in public. — Yet was it 
 held infamous among the Jews, for a woman to die a maid. 
 The veftals, among the antients, and the nuns or religious, 
 among the moderns, found guilty of a breach of the vow of 
 virginity, "are allotted a fevere punifhment ; the firft to be 
 buried alive, the latter to be immured. 
 
 The phyficians, both antient and modern, are exceedingly di- 
 vided upon the fubject of wr^mzfy: fome holding that there are 
 no certain marks, or teftimonies thereof, and others that there 
 are. Solomon fays exprefsly, there are four things too wonder- 
 ful for him to know : " The way of an eagle in the air ; of a 
 " ferpent on the rock ; of a fbhp in the midft of the fea ; and 
 " the way of a man in a maid ;" which our tranflatorshave 
 rendered, lefs juftly, the way of a man with a maid. 
 YetMofeseftabliihcda teft, which was to be conclufive among 
 the Jews. — The nuptial fheets, it feems, were to be viewed 
 by the relations on both fides ; and the maid's parents were to 
 preferve them as a token of her virginity ; to be produced,, in 
 cafe her hufband fhould ever reproach her on that fcore. 
 In cafe the token of virginity was not found thereon, fhe was 
 to be ftoned to death at her father's door. 
 This teft of virginity has occafioned abundance of fpeculation 
 about the parts concerned ; but the niceft inquiries cannot 
 fettle any thing certain about them. — Dr Drake fays exprefsly, 
 that, whatever might be expected among the Jews, there is 
 not the fame reafon to expect thofe tokens of virginity in thefe 
 countries : for befides, that the Hebrews married extremely 
 young, as is the cuftom in all the eaftern countries, there are 
 fcveral circumftances which may here fruftrate fuch expecta- 
 tions, even in virgins not vitiated either by any male contact, 
 or any wantonnefs of their own. 
 
 In effect, in thefe northern climates, the inclemency of the air 
 expofes the fex to fuch checks of perlpiration, as gives a great 
 turn to the courfe of the humours, and drives fo much humi- 
 dity through the parts, as may extraordinarily fupple and relax 
 thofe membranes from which the refiftance is expected ; and 
 from which, in hotter countries, it might more reafonably be 
 depended on. 
 
 What moft commonly paffes among us for a teft of virginity, 
 is the hymen: and yet the moft curious among the anatomiits 
 are greatly divided not only about the figure, fubftance, place, 
 and perforations of this famous membrane, but even about the 
 exiftence thereof ; fome pofitively affirming, and others as 
 flatly denying it. 
 
 As nice a point as that of virginity is among anatomifts, the 
 rn'idwives and matrons treat it with lefs diffidence. — In the 
 ftatutes of the fworn matrons, or midwives, ot" Paris, con- 
 taining likewife divers formula's of reports, and depofitions 
 made % court, upon their being called to vilit girls that made 
 their complaint of being deflowered, they lay down fourteen 
 marks whereon to form a judgment. 
 
 Laur. Joubart, a famous phylician of Montpellier, has t ran - 
 fcribed three of thefe reports: one made to the provoft of 
 Paris, another in Languedoc ; and a third in Beam.— 7 heic 
 reports are very confiftent with each other ; and contain four- 
 teen marks of virginity, exprefted in their proper terrm ; fuch 
 as were received among the women of that proieftion, and 
 authorized in court. 
 
 M Joubert 
 
V I R 
 
 V I R 
 
 M. Joubcrt does not explain thofe terms \ nor do we find 
 any explanation of them any where, but in another report 
 of the z3dof October 1672, inferred in the Piclure of Love 
 of Venette, a phyfrcian of Rochel ; a copy of which, we 
 fhall here give in Englifh. 
 
 * We, MaryMiran, Chriftophlettc Reine, and Jeanne Porte 
 
 * Poullet, fworn matrons of the city of Paris, certify to all 
 ' thofe whom it may concern, that on the 2 zd of October, 
 
 * in this prefent year, at the appointment of Monfieur the 
 
 * provoft. of Paris, we went into the ftreet de Pompierre, to 
 
 * a houfe next the fign of the filver key, to view and vifit 
 
 * Olive TifTerand, of the age of 30 years ; on a complaint 
 
 * made by her in court againft James Mudont, citizen of 
 
 * Roche fur Mer, for forcing and violating her the faid 
 
 * Olive : and having viewed and examined the whole with 
 ' the eye, and finger, we find ; 
 
 * Les tetons devoyez, that is, the breafls loofe and flaccid, 
 " mamma manidts & Jiaccidrs : Les barres froifsees^ i. e. the 
 1 os pubis bruifed, oi pubis callifum : Le lippionrecoquille, i. e. 
 
 * the hair curled up, pubes in orbcm fmuata : U cntrepet ritli, 
 
 * i. e. the perineum or feam wrinkled, perinaum corruga- 
 
 * turn : Le pouvant debiffe^ i. e. the vulva, or pudendum, 
 ' tumbled and difordered, vulva diffaluta £5" marcefcens : 
 
 * Les balunaux pendants^ i. e. the labia hanging down, labia 
 
 * pendent'ia : LeUppendis pile % i.e. the edge of the labia bared 
 
 * of hair, labiorum era pilis defctles ; Les babales abbatucs, i. e. 
 
 * the nymphas beat down, nympha deprejfa : Les hakrons 
 
 * demise i. e. the carunculs undone, or opened, caruncula 
 
 * dijjhlutec: L'entrccbenat rctaiirnt, i, e. the membranes which 
 
 * connect the caruncules inverted, membrana connetlens in- 
 
 * verfa : Le barbidau ecorcbe, i, e. the clitoris excoriated, 
 
 * clitoris excariata : Le guilbaquct fendu ) i. e. the neck of the 
 
 * womb torn, collum uteri dilaceratum : Le guUlenard elargi, 
 
 * i. e. the vagina ft retched, or widened, vagina dilatata : La 
 1 dame du milieu retiree, i. e. the hymen broke and gone, hy- 
 
 * men deduElum : Varrlere fojfe ouverte, i. e. the inner orifice 
 
 * of the womb opened, os internum matricis apertum. ■ — Le 
 
 * tout veu Eff viftte feuillet par feuillct nous avons trouve qu'il, 
 
 * y avail trace de — The whole viewed and examined part by 
 ' part, we find plainly the track or foot-ftep of — Omnibus 
 
 * figtUatim perfpeclis & perfcrutatis, Sic. — Accordingly we, 
 
 * the faid matrons, do certify it to be true, to you, Monfieur 
 
 * le provoft, on the oath we have taken. — Done at Paris the 
 
 * 23d of October, 1672,' 
 
 In Peru, and fcveral other provinces of South-America, we 
 are allured by Pedro de Cicca, in the hiftory of the Yncas, &c, 
 that the men never marry, but on condition that the next re- 
 lation, or friend of the maid's, fhall undertake to enjoy her 
 before him, and take away her virginity. — And our coun- 
 tryman Lawfon relates the like of fome of the Indian nations 
 of Carolina. — So little is the Jlas virginis 3 prized fo much a- 
 mong us, valued by them. 
 VIRGO, in aftronomy, one of the figns, or conftellations of 
 the zodiac, into which the fun enters in the beginning of Auguft. 
 The ftars in the conftellation Virgo, in Ptolemy's catalogue, 
 are32; inTycho's, 39; in the Britannic, 89. — The longi- 
 tudes, latitudes, magnitudes, is'c. whereof, are as follows : 
 
 Names and Situations of the Stars. 
 
 That preced. Virgo's head fU?<7 
 North, in the top of the head 19 
 South. 19 
 Subfeq. andlefs in the top of the head 19 
 In the bend of the fouth. wing 22 
 
 cf> Longitude 
 
 South, in the face 
 North. 
 
 Preced. in the fouth. wing 
 "5 
 
 That in the neck 
 
 In the fouth. arm 
 20 
 
 Firft of three under fouth. arm 
 
 Second of the fouth. wing 
 Preced. of three 1:1 the north, wing 
 
 South, of the north, wing 
 
 voi. ir. 
 
 30 o; 
 00 29 
 49 35 
 37 
 
 46 14. 
 
 13 29 
 
 23 06 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 o 
 
 28 
 29 
 
 39 5 6 
 
 38 ,3 
 16 44 
 
 39 3' 
 30 52 
 
 2 17 
 44 « 
 
 7 S 2 
 
 9 5 2 
 29 
 
 50 38 
 
 3 5 
 '5 49 
 5 2 
 
 10 33 
 
 36 19 
 6 26 
 28 51 
 42 23 
 10 3 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 9 "3 
 6 21 
 
 4 35 39 
 
 6 21 33 
 o 40 47 
 
 7 H S3 
 3 20 3 1 
 6 8 52 
 
 8 31 29 
 2 42 52 
 
 6 19 31 
 10 44 24 
 
 5 4 
 7 7 
 12 43 22 
 
 5 '9 47 
 
 1 42 25 
 
 3 »7 2 3 
 
 ■3 4" 37 
 
 2 44 25 
 2 48 53 
 
 '3 3 2 49 
 
 11 34 19 
 
 13 22 
 
 ■5 38 5* 
 '7 47 
 
 o;Longitude 
 Names and Situatimis a/the Stan. ^ 
 
 ^ 0 ' 
 
 6 20 45 
 11 31 30 
 
 II 52 2J 
 
 3 3 20 
 
 7 9 5 
 
 10 52 55 
 
 10 ss 
 5 37 4° 
 
 11 47 
 15 25 09 
 
 14 44 20 
 
 15 41 28 
 
 ■3 54 2 3 
 ■8 25 56 
 
 19 46 2C 
 
 20 30 30 
 
 11 27 17 
 
 20 43 10 
 
 21 29 8 
 
 13 52 05 
 
 12 39 6 
 
 19 31 22 
 
 20 26 48 
 
 21 49 15 
 
 IO38 12 
 
 iz 4 17 
 
 1 8 39 18 
 23 52 19 
 
 19 16 27 
 
 22 48 30 
 
 20 5? 
 19 44 
 
 16 3 48 
 
 17 49 50 
 
 19 46 I: 
 
 21 10 , 
 
 North, of thofe foil, in fquarc of thigh 22 23 3 
 That over the girdle 18 15 . 
 
 .. '7 \" 2 5 4+ 11 
 
 ; • , *flM3lil a W* : *'! i "- ^«>' 45 56 19 
 
 In fouth. knee 24. 4.3 
 
 z5 59 34 
 
 23 16 7 
 27 39 20 
 
 Middle under the fouth. arrri 
 
 In the north, fide againft the girdle 
 
 Third of the fouth, wing 
 
 Upper of north, wing, vindemiatrix 
 
 Third under the fouth. arm 
 40 
 
 Fourth and laft of the fouth. wing 
 Firft of three under fpica 
 
 45 
 
 That following vindemiatrix 
 That following north, w ing 
 Middle under Ipica 
 
 In fouth. hand 
 Underneath fpica 
 
 Laif, and north, of three under fpica 
 55 
 
 North, of preced. in ftjuare of thigh 
 Second 
 
 60 
 
 South, of preced. in fquare of thigh 
 
 Another follow, north, wing 
 Under the girdle, as in the hip 
 65 
 
 Third in fquarc of thigh 
 
 In north, thigh 
 
 That over the north, thigh 
 
 80 
 
 7 55 . 
 3 3 
 
 3 2 5 22 
 
 6 43 39 
 
 8 38 
 
 221 50 N 
 2 51 56 N 
 16 12 34N 
 
 2 55 
 
 3 i6 3S 
 
 1 26 5 
 
 2 42 3 
 1 45 
 
 7 53 2 ° 
 10 12 6S 
 
 29 N 
 
 6 24 S 
 
 16 13 6N 
 
 2 39 3°,N 
 
 9 9 5°,S 
 
 8 "9 33S 
 
 9 5 s 5°,N 
 2 48 njK 
 
 2 1 !9 :s 
 
 3 '8 24S 
 6 17 54 s 5 6 
 
 6 
 7 
 5 
 
 4 5 
 
 5 6 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 2 4 2 5N 
 
 18 42 49N 
 
 2 47 2 5,N 
 8 26 42 s 
 
 3 8 55^ N 
 
 5 >4 34.S 
 
 0 24 7; s 
 2 55 3°,N 
 2 33 ';N 
 8 39 9N 
 
 4 "5 2 >!n 
 
 2 9 iSjN 
 ■ 43 45 N 
 
 3 16 45N 
 
 4 59 33 S 
 
 4 3° 3 - 
 
 1 21 46 s 
 
 6 18 29 s 
 4 4 4N 
 6 21 3 
 
 22 52 22 
 
 22 21 36 
 
 23 24 56 13 
 28 10 30 
 28 25 
 
 South, of 3 in the border of garment Hp o 10 40 
 
 Middle in the border eg 27 
 
 In extrem. of fouth. foot n% 2 38 13 
 
 North, of three in the garment | ^ 2 9 4 4' 
 
 A bright one follow, rhefe 
 In extrem. of the north, foot 
 
 2 9 33 5 
 Iff ■ 8 
 
 37 22 
 
 9 45 
 
 4 5°N 
 4" 47 N 
 
 9 59 N 
 
 SS 4°N 
 fU 
 : N 
 N 
 3N 
 
 6 
 6 
 S 6 
 
 6 
 S 
 
 I 
 6 
 
 14 1 1 47 25 N 
 
 5 47 23 9 43 S N 
 4 22 44 i; 56 52N 
 4 10 50 17 7 
 
 VIRGUL A Dlvina, or baculus divinatorius, a forked branch 
 in form of a Y, cut off" a hazle-tree ; by means whereof peo- 
 ple have pretended to difcover mines, fprings, is'c. under 
 ground. 
 
 The method of ufing it is this : the perfon who bears it walk- 
 ing very flowly over the places where he fufpeits mines or 
 fprings may be, the effluvia exhaling from the metals, or 
 vapour from the water, impregnating the wood, makes it 
 dip, or incline j which is the iign of a clifcovery. 
 We find no mention made of this virgula in any author be- 
 fore the eleventh century : but from that time it has been in 
 frequent ule. Divers fine names have been invented for it, 
 fome calling it caduceus^ others Aaron s rod. Sic. 
 Some difpute the matter of fadt, and deny it to be pofi:ble ; 
 others, convinced with the great number of experiments al- 
 ledged in its behalf, look out for the natural caufes thereof. 
 — The corpufclcs, fay thefe authors, rtftng from the fprings, 
 or minerals, entering the rod, determine it to bow down, in 
 order to render it parallel to the vertical lines which the ef- 
 fluvia defcribe in their rife. 
 
 In effje't, the mineral, or watery particles, are fuppokd to be 
 emitted by means of the fubterraneous heat, or of the fer- 
 mentations in the entrails of the earth j now the virpula be- 
 ing of a light, porous wood, gives an eafy pltfEtee to thofe 
 particles, which, withal, are very fine and tubtiTe} the ef- 
 1 3 K fluvia 
 
V I P 
 
 fiuvia then driven forwards by thole that follow them, and 
 oppreffed at the fame time by the atmofphere mcumtent on 
 them, are forced to enter the little imerft.ces between he 
 fibres of the wood, and by that effort they oblige , o n- 
 cline or dip down perpendicularly, to become parallel with 
 the little columns which thofe vapours form in their rue. 
 
 Virgula, in grammar, a term which Latin, French, and 
 fome other authors ufe for a point in writing, ufually called 
 by us comma. . , , 
 
 Virgula' 'j, F. Simon obferves, are an invention of the mo- 
 dern grammarians, to give the greater clearnefs todilcourie. 
 —The ufe thereof was unknown to the antient LrreeKs ana 
 Romans, who wrote all without taking off the pen, (o that 
 their books lie all together without any diftinflion of points 
 and virgula's. . . , , 
 
 VIRGULT UM, in our antient law-books, is uied tor ar. 
 holt, or plantation of twigs, or oziers. 
 Sometimes, alfo, for a coppice of young wood. — ht presr 
 terea concede virgultum meum & totam commumam dominu 
 mei. Mon, Angl. 
 
 In another place of the fame work virgultum, or rather vir- 
 gulta, may be taken for virgata, viz. — Dedtt pr<zdi£laec- 
 defite unam virgultam terra in manerio de Crumptone. bee 
 
 VIRIDARIO EUgendo, a writ that lies for the choice of 
 
 a verdcror in the foreft. See Verderor. 
 VIRIDE arts, the fame as arugo, or verdegreafe. See 
 
 Verdecrease. 
 VIRILE, fomething that belongs, or is peculiar to man, or 
 
 the male fex. 
 
 Thus virile member, membrwn virile, is frequently ufed for 
 the penis. See Penis. 
 Virile Age, Mtas virilis, is the ftrcngth and vigour of a 
 man's age, viz. from thirty to forty-five years, which is an 
 age wherein we are equally removed from the extremes of 
 youth and of old age. 
 
 The civil lawyers only make one age of youth and virility ; 
 and yet their different temperatures feem to require a distinc- 
 tion; for which reafon, fome compare youth to fummer, 
 and virility to autumn. 
 
 At Rome, the youth quitted the prostexta at fourteen or fif- 
 . teen years of age, and took the virile gown, toga virilis, to 
 fnew, it feems, that they then entered on a ferious age. 
 M. Dacier will have it, that children did not take the pne 
 texta till thirteen years of age, nor quit it for the toga viri 
 Us, till feventeen. 
 VIRILIA, a man's genitals, or privy members ; including 
 the penis, and teftes. 
 
 The cutting off the virilia, according to Bracton, was fe- 
 lony by common law; and that, whether the party were 
 confenting or not *. 
 
 * Henrkus Hall & A. uxor ejus eapti & detent! in prifina 
 de Evi/ebejler, eo quad reclati fucrunt quod ipji abfeiderunt viri- 
 lia Johannh Momthi t qucm idem Henricus deprehendit cum 
 pradiBa A. uxor e ejus. Rot. Clauf. 13 Hen. HI. 
 
 VI RTSUNGIANUS or Dm#ki Virtsungii, 
 
 in anatomy, a canal, more ufually called ductus pancreati- 
 cus. See Pancreatic. 
 
 * It took its name virtfungianus, from the inventer, Virtfuiighis, 
 a profeHbr at Padua. 
 
 V I RT UAL, Potential, fomething that has a power, or vir- 
 tue of acting, or doing. 
 
 The term is chiefly underftood, of fomething that acts by 
 a fecret invifible caufe; in oppofition to atfual, and finjt- 
 bk. 
 
 Virtual Focus, in optics, is a point from which rays, be- 
 fore converging, begin to diverge, or divaricate. 
 Hence it is alio called, point of difperfoti, or divergency; in 
 oppofition to the focus, which is called the point of concur- 
 rence. 
 
 Suppofe, e. gr. the concavity of a glafs to be a be (Tab. 
 Optics, fig. 1 i.J and its axis d e; let f g be a ray of light 
 falling on the glafs parallel to the axis d e, and let d be the 
 centre of the arch a b c. 
 
 This ray / g, after it has paffed the glafs, at its emerfion at 
 g , will not proceed directly to h, but will be refracted from 
 the perpendicular d g, and become the ray^ k. 
 Draw then directly g k, fo that it may crofs the axis in e. 
 — The point e fo found, Mr Molyneux calls the virtual 
 focus, or point of divergence. Diopt. Nov. 
 V I RT U A LIT Y, V 1 rtu alit as, in the fchools, denotes 
 fome mode or analogy in an object, which, in reality, is the 
 fame with fome other mode, but out of rugard to contra- 
 dictory predicates, is confidered as if diftinct therefrom. 
 Thus the divine nature, and the perfon of the Word, are 
 two virtualities ; for though, in reality, they be the fame, 
 yet are they confidered as things different. — For the perfon 
 of the Word is faid to have been begotten, and his nature 
 is faid not to be begotten : now begotten, and not begotten, 
 are contradictory predicates. 
 
 And hence arife what we call virtual dijlinctisns, whereby 
 
 V I R 
 
 one virtuality is diflinguifhed from another, not one tiling 
 from another. 
 
 Thus it is, the divine nature is difiinguifhed from the 
 divine perfon, and the divine understanding from the di- 
 vine will. 
 
 VIRTUALLY, Virtu At. i ter, in the fchools, is ap- 
 plied to a mode of exiftence. — A thing is faid to be virtually 
 any where, when it is deemed to be there by fome virtue, 
 influence, or other effect produced by it. — Thus the fun is 
 virtually on earth, i, e. by his light, heat, &c. 
 A thing is alfo faid to be virtually prefent, when the virtues, 
 or properties belonging to it, and iiluing from it, remain.. — ■ 
 In which fenfe, the forms of the elements are held to be 
 virtually in mixed bodies. 
 
 A thing is alfo faid to be a caufe virtually, or a virtual canft, 
 and that two ways : the firfr, when there is no real diftinc- 
 tion between it, and the effect attributed to it ; and yet it 
 is conceived by us, as if it were really the caufe thereof. — 
 Thus, immutability in God, is the caufe of eternity. 
 Secondly, when an effect is not of the fame kind with the 
 caufe, and yet the caufe has the power or virtue of pro- 
 ducing the effect: thus the fun is not formally, but vir- 
 tually hot ; and fire is not contained formally, hut virtually 
 in heat. 
 
 VIRTUE, Virtus, a term ufed in various figiiifications. 
 In the general, it denotes power, or perfection of any thing, 
 whether natural, or fupernatural, animate, or inanimate, 
 effential, or acceflary. — Hence the virtues, that is, powers 
 of God, angels, men, plants, elements, c?c. 
 
 Virtue, in its more proper and reitrained fenfe, fignifies a 
 habit, which improves and perfects the haver, or poffeffor, 
 and his a£tions. 
 
 In this fenfe, virtue is a principle of acting, or doing well 
 and readily ; and that, either infufed from above, fuch as arc 
 theological virtues ; or acquired by our own application, as 
 the intellectual, and moral virtues. 
 
 For as there are two things in man, from which all his ac- 
 tions proceed, viz. the understanding, and the will; fo the 
 virtue, by which he is perfected, or whereby he is difpofed 
 to do all things rightly, and to live happily, muft be two- 
 fold : the one, of the understanding ; the other, of the will; 
 That which improves the understanding is called intellectual, 
 or dianoeiic ; and that, the will, moral, or ethic. — For, 
 fince there are two things required in order to live aright, 
 viz. to know what fhould be done ; and, when known, 
 readily to perform it : and fince man is apt to err various 
 ways in each refpect, unlefs regulated by difcipline, csV. he 
 alone can deport himfelf rightly in his whole courfe of life, 
 whofc understanding and will have attained their utmoft 
 perfection. 
 
 lntelleflual Virtue, then, according to Ariltotlc, is a habit of 
 the reafonahle foul, whereby it conceives, or fpeaks the truth ; 
 either in afiirmine, or denying. 
 
 The virtues which come under this clafs, are divided into 
 fpeculative ; which are thofe converfant about neceffary things, 
 that can only be known, or contemplated; and practical, 
 which are converfant about contingent things, that may 
 likewife be practifed. 
 
 Ariftotle has another divifion of intellectual virtue, fetched 
 from the fubject ; as fome of them are feated in the ethc^- 
 ►i*u, or contemplative part, viz. thofe convci fant about necef- 
 fary things, as feience, wifdom, intelligence. See Science, 
 Understanding, 5cc. 
 
 And others in the Xoprmn, or praclical part; fuch as thofe 
 converfant about contingent things, as prudence, art, &c. 
 See Art, &c. 
 
 Moral Virtue, is defined by Arifto'.le, to be an elective ha- 
 bit, placed in a mediocrity, determined by reafon, and as a 
 prudent man would determine. 
 
 The Scotifts maintain every moral habit to be indifferent, 
 as to good or evil, and capable of becoming, fucceifively, 
 either virtue or vice : virtue, if it have a relation of confor- 
 mity with right reafon ; and vice, if it have not. 
 According to them, therefore, virtue is a habit fubjcctively, 
 but not entitatively, good : as it is only a relation of confor- 
 mity, i3c. which is feparable from the entity of the habit. 
 'The Thomifts, on the contrary, aficrt virtue to be a habit 
 cflentially good ; nor capable of miniftring anything to any 
 act pofitively bad. — And they philofophize thus: every ha- 
 bit effentiaily good, inclines to acts like thofe whereby it 
 was acquired : thus, by doing juftly, we become juft ; and, 
 by abftaining from forbidden pleafures, we become tempe- 
 rate. But moral virtue is produced, or acquired, by acts af- 
 fentially good ; good, we mean, both in refpect of our 
 duty, and of the motive and end: therefore moral virtue 
 inclines only to good acts. 
 
 Others difallow the peripatetic notion of virtue, as placed in 
 a habit: for a habit, or liability, fay they, includes two 
 things; a cuftom, and facility ; the firit as a caufe, and the 
 fecond as an effect; fo that a habit is nothing but a facility 
 acquired by cuftom. — They therefore who make virtue a 
 habit of doing well, muff, ofneceility, a fc ri be it to a fre- 
 quent 
 
V I s 
 
 V I s 
 
 qOent exerctfe of good actions. — But this cannot be ; for the 
 virtue mull be before the good actions ; and the habit, after 
 them. — Indeed, whence fhould the actions proceed, but from 
 virtue? Firtue therefore is before the good aetions,and certainly 
 before a habit, refulting from a frequency of good actions. 
 Hence, they define virtue to be a firm purpofe, or refolution 
 of doing whatever right reafon demands to be done. — For 
 though a cuftcm of doing well be required, to make a perfon 
 efteemed good among men ; yet it does not follow, that that 
 cuftom or habit is the formal caufe of that denominarion, or 
 the goodnefs itfelf. 
 
 Moralifts ufually diftinguifli four principal, or, as they are vul- 
 garly called, cardinal virtues* viz. prudence, jujlice, fortitude, 
 and temperance: the reafon of which divifion is founded in this, 
 that for a man to live virtuoujly and honefily, it is necefiary lie 
 know what is fit to be done ; which is the bu lirtefs of prudence. 
 That he have a conftant and firm will to do what he judges 
 beft; which will perfect the man, either as it reftrains too 
 violent perturbations, the office of temperance — 
 Or, as it fpurs and urges on thofe that are too flow and languid 
 which is the bufinefs of fortitude. 
 
 Or, laftly, comparatively, and with regard to human fociety 
 which is the object of jujlice. 
 
 To thefe four all the other virtues are referred, either as parts. 
 
 or as concomitants. 
 Virtues, in the celeftial hierarchy, the third rank, or choir 
 
 of angels ; being that in order between dominations and powers. 
 
 To thefe is attributed the power of working miracles, and of 
 
 ftrengthening and reinforcing the inferior angels in the exercife 
 
 of their functions. 
 VIRTUOSO, an Italian term, lately introduced into Englifli ; 
 
 fignifying a man of curiofitv and learning ; or one who loves 
 
 and promotes the arts and fciences. 
 
 In Italy, virtuoft are ;iroperly fuch as apply themfelves to the 
 polite arts of painting, fculpture, turning, mathematics, mufic, 
 ts'c. — A perfon who makes profeffion thereof, iscalled^Vrtto/c, 
 queflo e un virtuofo. 
 
 Among us, the term feems appropriated to thofe who apply 
 themfelves to fome curious and quaint,rather than immediately 
 ufeful art or ftudy : as antiquaries, collectors of rarities of any 
 kind, microfcopical obfervers, &c. 
 
 VIRULENT, a term applied to any thing that yields a vi- 
 rus; that is, a contagious, or malignant pus. 
 The gonorrhcea virulenta, is what we popularly call a clap. 
 
 VIS, a Latin word, fignifying force, or power; adopted by 
 phyflcal writers, to cxprefs divers kinds of natural powers, or 
 faculties. 
 
 Vis Inertia, or power of InaclivUy, is defined by Sir Ifaac 
 Newton, to be a power implanted in all matter, whereby it 
 refifts any change endeavoured to be made in its ftate, i. e, 
 whereby it becomes difficult to alter its ftate, either of reft, 
 or motion. 
 
 This power, then, coincides with the vis refiflcndi, power of 
 refuting, whereby every body endeavours, as much as it can, to 
 perfevere in its own ftate, whether of reft, or uniform rectili- 
 near motion : which power is ftill proportional to the body, 
 and only differs from the vis inertia: of the mafs, in the man- 
 ner of conceiving it. 
 
 Bodies only exert this power, in changes brought on their ftate 
 by fome vis impreffa, force imprefied on them. — And the ex- 
 ercife of this power, is, in different refpedts, both refiftance, 
 and impetus: refiftance, as the body oppofes a force, im- 
 prefied on it to change its ftate ; and impetus, as the fame 
 body endeavours to change the ftate of the refitting obftacle 
 Phil. Nat. Princ. Math. Lib. I. 
 
 The vis inertia, the fame great author elfewhere obferves, is 
 
 a paffive principle, by which bodies perfift in their motion 
 
 or reft ; receive motion, in proportion to the force impreffin^ 
 
 it, and rcfift as much as they are refitted. 
 For the effetl of the Vis Inertia, in rejijhng and retarding the 
 
 motion of Bodies, &c. See Resistance. 
 Vis Impreffa, is defined by Sir Ifaac Newton, to be the action 
 
 cxercifed on any body, to change its ftate, either of refitting, 
 
 or moving uniformly in a right line. 
 
 This force confifts altogether in the action ; and has no place 
 in the body after the action is ceafed. — For the body perfe- 
 veres in every new ftate, by the vis inertia alone. 
 The vis impreffa may arife from divers caufes, as from the 
 percuffion, predion, and centripetal force. 
 
 Vis Centripeta. ~\ r Centripetal Force. 
 
 Vis Centrf/'uga. ( j Centrifugal Force. 
 
 Vis Matrix. f cc J Motion. 
 
 Vis Stimulant. J L Stimulating. 
 
 V ISC ERA*, in anatomy, a term of equal import with entrails; 
 including the heart, liver, lungs, fplcen, inteftines and other 
 inward parts of the body. See Tab. Anat. [Splunch ) P. 3. 
 
 * The term is pure Latin, being formed of vtfei, to feed ; by 
 reafon, eatables, called in Latin vcjca, undergo divers pre- 
 parations in the vifcera. 
 
 The word is alfo frequently ufed fingttl»!y, vifcus, to exprefs 
 fome parncular part of the entrails; by reafon the word «- 
 trails has no fingular. 
 VISCIDITY or Viscositv, the quality of fomethins-that 
 is vijad or v.fcous, i. e , glutinous and Kicky: like bird-lime, 
 which the Latins call by the name vifcus. 
 rtfttd bodies, are thofe which conlilt of parts fo implicated 
 with,,, each other, that they refill, a long time, a compleat 
 feparatioii, and rather give way to the violence done them, 
 by Kretclnng or extending each way. 
 
 The too great vifeidity of foods, has very ill effeas- thus, 
 meals, or farina; not fermented, gellics, dc of animafe 
 tough checfe, or curd too much proiled, produce a weight or 
 oppreffion in the ftomach ; wind, yawning, crudities! ob- 
 irructlons ot the minuter vell'els in the inteftines, ts'r Hence 
 an inactivity of the inteftines themfelves, a fwellirr* of the 
 abdomen; and, hence, a vifeidity of the blood, from the re- 
 union of the mfM particles ; obftruflions of the glands ; pale- 
 nefs, coldnefs, tremors, c?>. 
 
 VISCOUNT. See the article VrcouNT. 
 
 VISCUS. and Viscosity. See Viscera, and Viscid i t v. 
 
 vreiwf °. r Viscum . in natural hiftory.EsY. See M I s s L £ t o e . 
 
 VISIBLE, Visibile, fomething that is an object of light, 
 or virion ; or fomething whereby "the eye is nflMed, fo as to 
 produce a fenfation. See Vision. 
 
 The fchool philofophers make two kinds of vifiUtt, or vi/ible 
 objeas : the one proper, or adequate ; which are fuch as ar'e no 
 other way.perceivable, but by fight alone: the other common, 
 which are fubjefl to divers fades, as the fight, hearing, feeling, 
 
 Again, the firft, or proper objetl of vifion, is of two kinds, 
 
 viz. lig lit, and colour, for thefe two are only fallible by fight 
 
 The firft, and primary, IMS, light, they make the formal and 
 colour, the material objetSt. 
 
 The Cartefians think they philofopbize better, when they fay- 
 that light, alone, is the proper object of vifion; whether itflow 
 from a luminous body through a tranfparent medium, and retain 
 its hrftname,/; f A(;orwhether it be reflected ftomopske bodies, 
 under a certain new modification, or habitude, and exhibit 
 their linages ; or, laftly, whether in being reflected it is like- 
 wife retracted, after this, or that manner, and affects the eye 
 with the appearance of colour. 
 
 But, agreeably to Sir Ifaac Newton's fentiments, colour alone 
 is the proper object of light : colour being that property of 
 light, whereby the light itfelf is vifble; and whereby the 
 images of opake objeds are painted on the retina. 
 Ariltotle, De Anima, Lib. II. enumerates five kinds of com- 
 mon vifibles, which arc ufually received for fuch in the fchools, 
 viz. motion, rejl, number, figure, and magnitude. — Othcts 
 maintain nine, as in the verfes ; 
 
 Sunt objetla novem vifus communia 1 quantum, 
 Indt figura, locus, Jequitur diftantia, fitus, 
 Continuumquc & dilcretum, motufque, quiefque. 
 
 Authors reafon very varioufly as to thefe common objefls of 
 vi.ion: there are two principal opinions among the fchoolmen 
 — I he adherents to the firft, hold, that the common vifibles 
 produce proper reprcfemations of themfelves, by fome peculiar 
 fpecies or image, whereby they are formally perceived, in- 
 dependently of the proper vifibles. 
 
 But the fecond opinion prevails moft, which imports, that the 
 common vifibles have not any fuch formal peculiar fpecies to 
 become vifble by ; but that the proper objc£ts are fufficient to 
 fhew themfelves in this or that place, or fituation, and in this or 
 that diftance, figure, magnitude, &c. by the circumftacces 
 of their conveyance to the fenfory. 
 
 In effect, fince thefe common vifibles cannot be reprefentcd 
 alone, (forwho ever faw place, diftance, figure, fituation he. 
 of Itfelf) but are always conveyed along with the unagesafJight 
 and colour to the organ ; what neceliity is there to concern: 
 any fuch proper images, whereby the common vifibles fhould be 
 formally perceived by the foul ? It is much more probable, that 
 from the peculiar manner wherein the fenfitive faculty per- 
 ceives a proper objeft, it is apprized of its being in this or 
 that fituation, or place ; in this or that figure, magnitude, tSc 
 — How this is effected, may be conceived from what follows." 
 I. The fituation and place of vifble objects, are perceived 
 without any intentional fpecies thereof, merely by the impulfe 
 being made from a certain place, and fituation, either above or 
 below, on the right, or left, before, or behind ; whereby the 
 rays of the proper vifibles are thrown upon the retina, and their 
 IDlpreffion is conveyed to the fenfory. 
 
 For lince an object is feen by thofe rays which carry its imaoe 
 to the retina, and in that place to which the vifive power is 
 direded by the raysit receives : as it perceives the impulfeof the 
 rays to come from any place, tic. it is abundantly admonilhcd 
 of the object's being in that place, and fituation. See Place 
 From this principle, feveral remarkable phenomena of vifion 
 are accountable for ; as, 
 
 I*. Tha» 
 
V I s 
 
 »• That if the diftance between two vifiOt objcfls be an 
 angle that is infenfible, the diftant bodies will appear as it con- 
 tiguous : whence, a continuous body being the refuk oi everal 
 contiguous ones ; if the diftances between feveral ■mfiblcs fub end 
 iofenllble angles, they will appearone continuous body: wined 
 r/ivrB a pretty illuftration of the notion of a continuum. 
 S° If the eye be placed above a horizontal plane, objects the 
 more remote they are, the higher will they appear, till the 
 lafi be feen in a level with the eye -Whence it is, that the 
 fa, to perfons (landing alhore, Teems to rife higher and 
 higher the further they look. - . 
 
 J. If any number of obj=as be placed below the eye, the 
 moft remote wtll appear the higheft; if they be above the 
 eye, the mod: remote will appear the lowcft. 
 4°. The upper parts of high object appear to ftoop, or in- 
 cline forwards ; as the fronts of churches, towers fee -And 
 ftatues at the tops of buildings, to appear upright, mult re- 
 cline, or bend backwards. See further under the articles 
 Refraction, and Horizon. < , _ 
 
 II The mind perceives the diftance oUnfibh odjefls from the 
 different configurations of the eye, and the manner wherein the 
 rays ftrikc the eye, and in which the image IS impreflcd thereon. 
 For the eye difpofesitfelf differently, according to the different 
 diftances it is to fee, viz. for remote objects the pupil is dilat- 
 ed, and the cryftalline brought nearer the retina, and the 
 whole eye is made more globous : on the contrary, tor near 
 objects, the pupil is contraaed, the cryftalline thruft for- 
 wards, and the eye lengthened. _ ' 
 The diftancc,again,is adjudged of bythe angle the object makes, 
 from the diftina or confuted reprefentation of the objeas, and 
 the brifknefs or feeblcnefs, or the rarity or fpiffitude of the rays. 
 To this it is owing, 1°. That objefts which appear obfeure 
 or confufed, arejudged to be more remote : a principle which 
 the painters ufe, to make fomc of their figures appear far- 
 ther diftant than others on the fame plane. 
 To this it is likewife owing, that rooms whofe walls are 
 whitened, appear the fmaller : that fields covered with mow, 
 or white flowers, fhow lefs than when clothed with grafs: 
 that mountains covered with fnow, in the night-time, appear 
 the nearer : and that opakc bodies appear the more remote 
 in the twilight. 
 
 III. The magnitude or quantity of vijible objects, is known 
 chiefly by the angle comprehended between two rays drawn 
 from the two extremes of the objefl, to the centre of the eye. 
 An objea appears fo big as is the angle it fubtends : or bodies 
 feen under a greater angle appear greater; and thofe under a 
 lefs, lefs, (Sc.— Hence, the fame thing appears now bigger, 
 and now lefs, as it is lefs or more diftant from the eye. — 
 This we call the apparent magnitude. 
 
 Now, to judge of the real magnitude of an objefl, we con- 
 fider the diftance: for fince a near and a remote objea may 
 appear under equal angles, the diftance muft necell'arily be 
 ettimated ; that if it be great, and the optic angle fmall, the 
 remote objea may be judged great, and vice verfa. 
 The magnitude of vifible objecJs, is brought under certain 
 laws, demonftrated by the mathematicians ; as, 
 i". That the apparent magnitudes of a remote objefl, are as 
 the diftances reciprocally. 
 
 20. That the co-tangent of half the apparent magnitudes of 
 the fame objeas, are as the diftances : hence, the apparent 
 magnitude and diftance being given, we have a method of 
 determining the true magnitude : the canon is this, As the 
 whole fine is to the tangent of half the apparent magnitude, 
 fo is the given diftance to half the real magnitude.— The 
 fame canon, inverted, will, from the diftance and magnitude 
 given, determine the apparent one. 
 
 3°. Objeas, feen under the fame angle, have their magnitudes 
 proportional to their diftance. 
 
 4°. The fubtenfe AB (Tab. Optics, fig. s I. ) of any arch of a 
 circle, appears of equal magnitude in all the points DCEG, 
 though one point be vaftly nearer than another; and the dia- 
 meter I3G, appears of the fame magnitude in all the points 
 of the periphery of the circle. — Hence we take a pretty hint 
 for the moft commodious form of theatres. 
 5°. If tile eye be fixed in A, (f.g. 51.) and the right line EC 
 be moved in fuch manner, as that the extremes thereof always 
 fall on the periphery ; it will always appear of the fame 
 magnitude. — Hence, the eye being placed in any angle of a 
 regular polygon, the fides will appear equal. 
 6°. If the magnitude of an objefl directly oppofite to the eye, 
 be equal to its diftance from the eye, the whole objefl will 
 be taken in by the eye, but nothing more. ■ — Whence, the 
 nearer you approach an objefl, the lefs part you fee of it. 
 IV. The figure of vifible objeas is eftimated chiefly from our 
 opinion of the fituation of the feveral parts thereof. 
 This opinion of the fituation, &c. enables the mind to appre- 
 hend an external object under this or that figure, more juftly 
 than any fimilitude oj the images in the retina with the objefl 
 can ; the images being frequently elliptical, oblong, C2V. when 
 'the objeas they exhibit to the mind are circles, fquares. CSV. 
 The laws of vifion, with regard to the figures of vijible ob- 
 
 V I s 
 
 1°. That if the centre of the pupil be exa&ly againft, or 
 in the direction of a right line, the line will appear as one point. 
 2 0 . If the eye be placed in the direction of a furface, fo that 
 only one line of the perimeter can radiate on it, it will ap- 
 pear as a line. 
 
 3 0 . If a body be oppofed directly towards the eye, fo as only 
 one plane of the furfacc can radiate on it, it will appear as a 
 furface. 
 
 4 D . A remote arch, viewed by an eye in the fame plane, 
 will appear as a right line, 
 
 5 0 . A fpherc, viewed at a diftance, appears a circle. 
 60. Angular figures, at a diftance, appear round. 
 7°. If the eye look obliquely on the centre of a regular fi- 
 gure, or a circle, the true figure will not be feen ; but the 
 circle will appear oval, &c. 
 
 V. The number oivifibU objects is perceived, not only by one 
 or more images formed in the fund of the eye; but alfo by 
 fuch a pofition of thofe parts of the brain, whence the optic 
 nerves fpring, as the mind has been ufed to, in attending to 
 a certain place, and that either fingle, or manifold. 
 Accordingly, when either of the eyes, wilh the contiguous 
 part of the brain, are forced out of their juft parallelifm with 
 the other, v, gr. by prefling it with the finger, &c. all thing-; 
 appear double : but when they are in the requifite parallelifm, 
 though there be two images in the fund of the two eyes, 
 yet the object will appear iingle. — Again, one thing may 
 appear double, or even manifold, not only with both eyes, 
 but even with only one of them open : by reafon, the com- 
 mon concourfe of the cones of rays, reflected from the ob- 
 ject to the eye, either falls Ihort of the retina, or goes much 
 beyond it. 
 
 VI. Motion and reft are feen, when the images of objects 
 reprefented in the eye, and propagated to the brain, are ei- 
 ther moved, or at reft : and the mind perceives thefe images 
 either moving or at reft, by comparing the moved image to 
 another, with refpect to which it changes place ; or, by the 
 fituation of the eye to the object being continually changed. 
 So that motion is only perceived, by perceiving the images to 
 be in different places and fituations: nor are thefe changes 
 perceived, unlefs effected in time. So that to perceive mo- 
 tion, a fenfible time is required. — But reft is perceived by 
 the vifual faculty, from the perception of the image in the 
 fame place of the retina, and the fame fituation, for fome ien- 
 fible time. 
 
 Hence the reafon, why bodies moving exceeding faff ap- 
 pear at reft: thus, a live coal, fwung brifkly round, appears 
 a continued circle of fire ; the motion not being commen- 
 furate with vifible time, but much fwifter than the lame : 
 fo that in the time the foul requires to judge of any change 
 of fituation of the image on the retina, or that it is moved 
 from this place to that, the thing Ufelf performs its whole 
 circuit, and is in its former place again. 
 Laws of vifion with regard to the motion of vi files, are — 
 l°. That if two objedls, unequally diftant from the eye, 
 move from it with equal velocity ; the more remote one will 
 appear the flower : or, if their celerities be proportionable to 
 their diftances, they will appear to move equally fwift. 
 z\ If two objeas, unequally diftant from the eye, move with 
 unequalvelocities in thefamedireaion, their apparent velocities 
 are in a ratio compounded of the direa ratio's of their true ve- 
 locities, and the reciprocal one of their diftances from the eye. 
 3 0 . A vijibk objea, moving with any velocity, appears to be 
 at reft, if the fpace defcribed in the interval of one fecond be 
 imperceptible at the diftance of the eye. —Hence it is, that 
 a near objefl, moving very flowly, as the index of a clock, 
 or a remote one very fwiftly, as a planet, feem at reft. 
 4°. An objefl, moving with any degree of velocity, will ap- 
 pear to reft, if the fpace it runs over in a fecond of time be 
 to its diftance from the eye, as 1 to 1400 : nay, in fafl, if 
 it be as 1 to 1300. 
 
 5 0 . The eye proceeding ftreight, from one place to another, 
 a lateral objea, either on the right or left, will feem to move 
 the contrary way. 
 
 6°. If the eye and the ohjca move both the fame way, only 
 the eye much fwifter than the objefl, that laft will appear to 
 go backwards. 
 
 7°. If two or more objeas move with the fame velocity, and 
 a third remain at reft, the moveables will appear fixed, and 
 the quiefcent in motion the contrary way. — Thus, clouds 
 moving very fwiftly, their parts feem to preferve their fitua- 
 tion, and the moon to move the contrary way. 
 If the eye be moved with a great velocity, lateral objefls, at 
 reft appear to move the contrary way. — Thus, to a peifon, 
 fitting in a coach, and riding brifkly through a wood, the 
 trees feem to retire the contrary way ; and to people in a 
 fhip, (Sc. the fliorcs feem to recede. 
 
 Visible Htrizsn. 1 r Horizon. 
 
 Visible Place. V See the article i Place. 
 
 Visible Species. 5 C Species. 
 
 VISlSR, or Vizt.tR, an officer or dignitary in the Utto- 
 
 man 
 
V I s 
 
 man empire ; whereof there are two kinds : the firft called, 
 by the 1 urks vifier ascent, that is, grand vifier ; firft created 
 in 1370, by Amurath I. in order to cafe himfelf of the chief 
 and weightier affairs of the government. 
 The grand or prime vifier, is the prime minifter of ftate of 
 the whole empire. — He commands the army in chief, and 
 ptefides at the divan, or great council. — Renegado Chrifti- 
 ans, have been fometimes raifed to the vif crate : fuch were 
 Khaircdain, firnamed Barbarofl'a, Ulug Ali, Cuproli, tic. 
 Next to the grand vifier, there are fix other fubordinate vi- 
 furs, called vifters of the bench, who officiate as his counci- 
 lors, or alienors in the divan. 
 VISION, Visio, the ad of feeing, or of perceiving exter- 
 nal objects by the organ of fight. 
 
 Vifion is well defined to be a fenfation, whereby, from a cer- 
 tain motion of the optic nerve, made in the bottom of the ej e 
 by the ravsof lightemitted or reScfted fromobjefts, and hence 
 conveyed to the common fenfory in the brain, the mind per- 
 ceives the luminous objea, its quantity, quality, figure, He. 
 The phenomena of vtfim, the caufes thereof, and°the man- 
 ner wherein it is effeaed, make one of the greateft and molt 
 important articles in the whole fyftem of natural knowledge. 
 —Indeed, a great part of the phyfical, mathematical, and 
 anatomical dilcoveries and improvements of the moderns, ter- 
 minate here ; and only tend to fet the bufinefs of vifion in a 
 clearer light. 
 
 Hitherto refer what Sir Ifaac Newton and others have dif- 
 covered of the nature of light, and colours ; the laws of in- 
 fieaion, refkaion, and refraaion of the rays; the ftruaure 
 of the eye, particularly the retina, and optic nerves, lie. 
 It is not neceflary v/e fliould here give a minute detail of the 
 procefs of vtfim from its firft principles : the greateft part is al- 
 ready delivered under the refpeaive articles.— The eye, the 
 organ of vifun, we have defcribed under the article Eye ; 
 and its feveral parts, tunics, humours, tic. under their pro- 
 per heads, Cornea, Crystalline, lie. 
 The immediate and principal organ of vifun, viz. the retina, 
 according to fome, and the choroides, according to others, 
 are alfo diftinaiy confidcred ; as alfoi the ftruaure of the op- 
 tic nerve, which conveys the impreffion to the brain; and 
 the texture and difpofition of the brain itfelf, which receives 
 them, and rcprefents them to the foul. See Retina, 
 Choroides, Optic Nerve, Brain, Sensory, tic. 
 Again, the nature of light, which is the medium, or vehicle 
 ■whereby objeas are carried to the eye, is laid down at large 
 under the articles Light, and Colours; and the chief 
 properties thereof concerned in vifun, under Reflection, 
 Refraction, lie. and alfo many of its circumltances un- 
 der Ray, Medium, lie — What remains for this article, 
 therefore, is only to give a general idea of the whole procefs ; 
 in which all the feveral parts are concerned. 
 Different Opinions, or Syfettis of Vision. — The Platonifts 
 and Stoics held vifun to be effeaed by the emiffion of rays 
 out of the eyes ; conceiving, that there was a fort of light 
 thus darted out, which, with the light of the external air, 
 taking, as it were, hold of the objeas, rendered them vifible ; 
 and thus returning back again to the eye, altered and new 
 modified by the contaa of the objea, made an impreffion on 
 the pupil, which gave the fenfation of the objea. 
 The reafons whereby they maintain their opinion, are fetched, 
 1°. From the brightnefs and luftreof the eye: 2°. From our 
 feeing a remote cloud, without feeing one which we are in- 
 compafted withal ; ( the rays being fuppofed too brifk and pene- 
 trating to be ftopped by the near cloud, but growing languid 
 at a greater diftance, are returned to the eye:) 3°. From our 
 not feeing an objea laid on the pupil : 4°. From the eye's 
 being weary with feeing, /'. e. by emitting great quantities of 
 lays : and laftly, From animals which fee in the night; as 
 cats, hons, moles, owls, and fome men. 
 The Epicureans held vifun to be performed by the emanation 
 of corporeal fpecies, or images from objeas ; or, a fort of 
 atomical effluvia, continually flying oft' from the intimate 
 parts of objeas to the eye. 
 
 Their chief reafons are, 1 ». That the objea mutt neceflarily 
 be united to the vifive faculty ; and fince it is not united by 
 itfell, it muft be fo by fome fpecies that rcprefents it, and that 
 is continually (lowing from bodies : 2°. That it frequently 
 happens, that old men fee remote objccls better than near 
 ones; the diftance making the fpecies thinner, and more 
 commeulurate to the debility of their orsan. 
 The Peripatetics hold,, with Epicurus, that vifion is perform- 
 ed by the reception of fpecies; but they differ from him in 
 the circumftanccs : for they will have the fpecies (which 
 they call intent uncles) to be incorporeal. 
 It is true, Ariftotle's doc'ttinc of vifun, delivered in his chap- 
 ter d, Ajpecl,,, amounts to no more than this; That objeas 
 muft move fome intermediate body, that by this they may 
 move the organ of fight. — To which he adds, in another 
 place, that when we perceive bodies, it is their fpecies, not 
 their matter, that we receive ; as a feal makes an impreffion on 
 wax, without the wax's retaining any tiling of the feal. 
 
 V I s 
 
 But this vague andobfeure account, tbePeripatetics have thought 
 tit to improve. —Accordingly, what their malier called fpecies, 
 the dilciples undemanding of real proper fpecies, afl'ert, That 
 every vilible objea exprefil-s a perfea image of itfelf, in the 
 air contiguous to it ; and this image another, fomewhat lefs, 
 in the next air ; and the third another, lie. till the laft image 
 arrives at the cryftalline, which they hold for the chief organ 
 of fight, or that which immediately moves the foul— Thefe 
 images they called intentional fpecies. See Species. 
 The modern philofophers, as the Cartefians and Newtonians, 
 give a bettet account ofvifen. —They all agree, that it is 
 performed by rays of light reflei9ed from the feveral points of 
 objcBs, received in at the pupil, refracted and coUeSed in 
 their paflage through the coats and humours, to the retina ; 
 and thus ftriking, or making an impreffion on fo many points 
 thereof: which impreffion is conveyed, by the correfpondent 
 capillaments of the optic nerve, to the brain, tic. 
 As for the Peripatetic feries, or chain of images, it is a mere 
 chimera, and Ariftotle's meaning is better underftood with- 
 out, than with them.— In tffea, fetting thefe afide, the Ari- 
 flotelian, Cartefian, and Newtonian doctrine of vifion are very 
 confiftent : for Sir Ifaac Newton imagines, that vifun is per- 
 formed chiefly by the vibrations of a fine medium, which pe- 
 netrates all bodies, excited in the bottom of the eye by the 
 rays of light; and propagated through the capillaments of the 
 optic nerves, to the fenforium— And Des Cartes maintains, 
 1 hat the fun preffing the materia fubtilis, wherewith the 
 world is filled every way, the vibrations or pulfes of that 
 matter refleaed from objedls, are communicated to the eve, 
 and thence to the fenfory : fo that the aaion or vibration of a 
 medium, is equally fuppofed in ali. 
 Modern Theory of Vision. — In order to vifun, we ate certain, 
 it is required that the rays of light be thrown from the vifi- 
 ble objeas to the eye. — What befals them in the eye, will 
 be conceived from what follows, 
 
 Suppofe, e. gr. Z the eye, and ABC the objea, (Tab. 
 Optics, fig. 53.) Now, though every point of an objea be a 
 radiant point, that is, though there be rays reflected from 
 every point of the objea to every point of the circumambi- 
 ent fpace, each carrying with it its refpeaive colour, (which 
 we falfly imagine to be thofe of the objea ;) yet, as only thofe 
 rays which pafs through the pupil of the eye aiTcd the fenfe, 
 we (hall here confider none elfe but thefe. 
 And, again, though thetc be a great number of rays paffing 
 from one radiant point, as B, through the pupil, yet we (ball 
 only confider the aaion of a few of them ;' as B D BE, 
 BF. ' 
 Now then, the ray B D, falling perpendicularly on the fur- 
 face EDF, will pafs out of the air into the aqueous humour, 
 without any refraaion, and proceed right toH; where, failine; 
 perpendicularly on the furface of a Cryftalline humour, it will 
 go on, without any refraaion, to M; where, again, falling 
 perpendicularly on the furface of the vitreous humour, it will 
 proceed (freight to the point O, in thefund or bottom of the eye. 
 Again, the ray B E, paffing obliquely out of the air upon the 
 furface of the watery humour EDF. will be refrafled, and 
 approach towards the perpendicular EP : and thus, proceed- 
 ing to the point G, in the furface of the cryftalline, it will 
 be there refnt&ed Kill nearer to the perpendicular. So alfo 
 EG, falling obliquely out of air into a harder body, will be 
 refraaed towards the perpendicular G R ; and falling on the 
 point L of the furface of the vitreous humour, it will ftill 
 be brought neater to M. 
 
 Laftly, G L, falling obliquely out of a denfer, upon the fur- 
 face of a rarer body L M N, will be refraaed, and recede from 
 the perpendicular LT; in receding from wdiich. it is evident 
 it approaches towards the rayBDO. and may be fo refraaed, 
 as to meet the other in O. — In like manner, the ray BF, 
 being refracted in B, will turn to I, and thence to N, and 
 thence to the others in O. — But the rays between BE and 
 BF, being fomewhat lefs refraaed, will not meet precifely 
 in the fame point O. 
 
 Thus will the radiant point B affea the fund of the eye, in 
 the fame manner as if the pupil had had no breadth, or as if 
 the radiant itfelf had only emitted one fincle ray. fuch as were 
 equal in power to all thofe between BE, and BF. 
 In like manner, the rays proceeding from the point A, will be 
 fo refracted in pafiing through the hunioiirs of the eye, as to 
 meet near the point X ; and the rays from any intermediate 
 point between A and B, will nearly meet in fome other poinc 
 in the fund of the eye, between X and O. 
 Upon the whole, it may beafTeited univcrfaily, that every point 
 of an object, affects only one point in the fund of the eye ; 
 and, on the contrary, that every point in the fund of the eye, 
 only receives rays from one point of the olji-ct — Though 
 this is not to be underftood in the utmoft rigour. 
 Now if the object recede from the eye, in fuch manner, as 
 that the radiant point B, does not decline from the line B D j 
 the rays which would proceed from B, notenot.gh divaricated, 
 would be fo refracted in paffing the three furfacw as that they 
 would meet before they reached the point O; on the contrarv, 
 l ) L 'if 
 
V I s 
 
 if the objea fhould be brought nearer the eye, the rays patting 
 from the point B to the pupil, being too much divaricated, 
 would be refra&ed fo, as not to meet till beyond the point (J. 
 Nay, the objea may be fo near, that the rays proceeding 
 from any point may be fo divaricated, as that they fhall 
 never meet at all — In all which cafes, there would be no 
 point of the objea, but would move a pretty large portion 
 of the fund of the eye ; and thus the aaion of each point 
 would be confounded with that of the contiguous one. 
 And this would commonly be the cafe, but that nature has 
 
 , fo as its bulb 
 
 provided againrt it ; either by contriving the eyi 
 may he lengthened, or fhortened, as objeas may be more or 
 lcfs diftant ; or, as others will have it, fo as that the cry- 
 ftalline may be made more convex, or more fiat ; or, accord- 
 ing to others, fo as that the diftance between the cryftallme 
 and the retina may be lengthened or fhortened. 
 The firft expedient is the molt probable; on the footing of 
 which, when we direa our eyes to an objea fo remote, as that 
 it cannot be diftinaly viewed by the eye in its accuftomed 
 figure, the eye is drawn back into a flatter figure, by the con- 
 traaion of four mufdes ; by whichmeans, the retina becoming 
 nearer the cryftalline humour, receives the rays fooner: and 
 An the other hand, when we view an objea too near, the 
 eye being comprcfl'ed by the two oblique mufcles, is render- 
 ed more globular ; by which means, the retina being fet fur- 
 ther off from the cryftalline, does not receive the rays of any 
 point before they meet, 
 
 It may be here added, that this accefs, and recefs of the cry- 
 ftalline, is fo neceffary to vifion, that, whereas, in fome birds 
 the coats of the eyeare of fuch a bony confiftence, that mufcles 
 would not have been able to contradt and diftend them ; nature 
 has taken other means, by binding the cryftalline down to the 
 retina, with a kind of blackifh threads, not found in the eyes 
 of other animals. — Nor muft it be omitted, that of the three 
 refraaions above mentioned, the firft is wanting in fifties ; and 
 that to remedy this, their cryftalline is not lenticular, as in 
 other animals, but globular. — Laftly, fince the eyes of old 
 people are generally worn flatter than thofe of young ones ; fo 
 that the rays from any point, fall on the retina ere they be- 
 come colleaed into one ; they muft exhibit the objea fome- 
 wliat confufedly : nor can fuch eyes fee any but remote ob- 
 jeas diftinaly. — In others, whofe eyes are too globular, the 
 cafe is juft the revcrfe. 
 
 From what has been Ihewn, that every point of an objea 
 moves only one point of the bottom of the eye ; and, on 
 the contrary, that every point in the fund of the eye, only 
 receives rays from one point of the objea ; it is eafy to con- 
 ceive, that the whole objea moves a certain part of the reti- 
 na ; that in this part there is a diftina, and vivid colleaion 
 of all the rays received in at the pupil ; and that as each ray 
 carries its proper colour along with it, there are as many points 
 painted in the fund of the eye, as there were points vifible in 
 the objea. — Thus is there a fpecies, or piaure, on the retina, 
 exaajy like the objea ; all the difference between them, is, 
 that a body is here reprefented by a furfacc ; a furface fre- 
 quently by a line, and a line by a point: that the image is 
 inverted, the right hand anfwering to the left of the objea, 
 csV. and that it is exceedingly fmall, and ftill the more fo 
 as the objea is more remote. 
 
 What we have Ihewn under other articles of the nature of 
 light, and colours, readily accounts for this painting of the 
 objea on the retina. — The matter of fa£t is proved by an 
 eafy experiment, long fince tried by Des Cartes ; thus, The 
 windows of a chamber being Ihut, and light only admitted at 
 one little aperture; to that aperture apply theeye offi.me ani- 
 mal newly killed, having firft dexteroufiy pulled oft" the mem- 
 ■ brants that cover the bottom of the vitreous humour, viz. the 
 hind part of the fclerotica, choroides, and even part of the 
 retina ; then will the images of all the objeas, without doors, 
 be feen diftinaly painted on any white body, as on an egg- 
 fhell, that the eye is laid upon. — And the fame thing is 
 better fhewn by an artificial eye, or a camera obfeura. 
 The images of objeas, then, are reprefented on the retina; 
 which is only an expanlion of the fine capillaments of the 
 optic nerve, and from which the optic nerve is continued into 
 the brain, — Now, any motion or vibration, exprefled on one 
 extreme of the nerve, will be propagated to the other ; Hence 
 the impulfe of the feveral rays, fent from the feveral points of 
 the objea, will be propagated as they are on the retina, ( i, e. 
 in their proper colours, is'c. or in particular vibrations, or man- 
 ners of prefiure, correfponding thereto) to the place where 
 thofe capillaments are interwoven into the fubftance of the 
 brain. — And thus is vifion brought to the common cafe of 
 fenfation. 
 
 For fuch, we know, is the law of the union between the foul 
 and body ; that certain perceptions of the firft, do necefiarily 
 follow certain motions of the laft : but the different parts of 
 the objea do fi.parately move different parts of the fund of the 
 eye ; and thofe motions are propagated to the fenfory : it fol- 
 lows, therefore, that there muft arife fo many diftina fenfations 
 at the fani^ time, See Sensation. 
 
 V I S 
 
 Hence, i°. we eafily conceive, that the perception, or iniage 
 in the mind, muft be the clearer, and more vivid, the more 
 rays the eye receives from the objea : and confequently, the 
 largencfs of the pupil will have fome fliare in the cleaniefs of 
 vifion . 
 
 z J . Confidering only one radiant point of an objea, we may 
 fay, that that point would move the fenfe mure weakly, or be 
 feen more obfeurely, as it is more remote ; by reafon the rays 
 coming from any point, like all qualities propagated inorbcm, 
 are always diverging ; and therefore the more remote, the 
 fewer of them will be received in at the pupil. — But, as it is 
 not a fingle point of an objea, but all of them together, that 
 afte-as the organ of fenfe j and as the image of the objea ftill 
 poffefles a lefs part of the retina, as it is more remote ; there- 
 fore, though the rays that flow from any point of an objea two 
 miles off", into the pupil, be rarer, or fewer by half, than 
 thofe flowing from the fame point at a mile's diftance ; yet the 
 fame capillament of the optic nerve, which, in the latter cafe, 
 would only be moved by that one point, in the former will 
 be affeaed with the joint aaion of the neighbouring points ; 
 and therefore the image will be as clear as in the other cafe. 
 — Add, that the pupil dilating itfelf more, as the objea is 
 more remote, takes in more rays than it would otherwife do. 
 3°. The diftinanefs of vifion, is fomewhat concerned in the 
 fize of the image, exhibited in the fund of the eye. — For 
 there fhould be, at leaft, as many extremes of capillaments, 
 or fibres of the optic nerve, in the fpace that image pofieffes, 
 as there arc particles in the objea, that fends rays into the 
 pupil: otherwife, every particle will not move its feparate ca- 
 pillament : and if the rays from two points fall on the fame 
 capillament, it will be the fame as if only one point had fell 
 there; fince the fame capillament cannot be differently mov- 
 ed at the fame time. — And hence it is, that the images of 
 very remote objeas being very fmall, they appear confided, 
 feveral points of the image affeaing each capillament : and 
 hence, alio, if the objea be of different colours, feveral par- 
 ticles affeaing the fame capillament at the fame time, only the 
 brighteft and molt lucid will be perceived: thus, a field, 
 furniftied with a goo.d number of white flowers, among a 
 much greater quantity of green grafs, &e. at a diftance ap- 
 pears all white. 
 
 Our feeing of objeas fingle, though with two eyes, in each 
 of which is a feveral image, or piaure ; and our feeing of them 
 ereel, whereas the pidture is really inverted, are two great 
 phenomena in vifion: which we fee confidered under the 
 articles Sight, and Seeing.' — For the manner of jeeing, 
 and judging of the dij 'lance and magnitude of objecls t fee V i- 
 sible, Magnitude, csV. 
 Vision, in optics. — The laws of vifion, brought under mathe- 
 matical demonftrations, make the fubjea of optics, taken in 
 ] the greateft latitude of that word : for among ihe writers of 
 mathematics, optics is- generally taken in a more reftramcd 
 fignification, for the doctrine of diretl vifion ; catoptrics, for 
 the doarine of refiecled vifion ; and dioptrics, for that of 
 I refrafted vifion. 
 '. Diretl^ or Simple Vision, is that performed by means of direa 
 ' rays; that is, of rays paffing direaiy, or in right lines, from 
 j the radiant point to the eye. — Such is that explained in the 
 J preceding article. Vision. 
 
 i Refiecled Vision, is that performed by rays refleacd from fpe- 
 cula, onnirrors. — The laws hereof , fee under Reflection, 
 and Mi rror. 
 
 Refracled V i s ion, is that performed by means of rays refr ailed, 
 or turned out of their way, by paffing through mediums of 
 different denfity; chiefly through glaffes and lens's. — Tht 
 laws of this, fee under the article Refraction. 
 
 Arch of Vision. See the article Arch. 
 
 Vision, among divines, is ufed for an appearance, which God 
 occafionally fent his prophets and faints ; either by way of 
 dream, or in reality. 
 
 Such were the vifions of Ezekiel, Amos, &c. the vifion of 
 S. Paul, lifted up to the third heaven, 13c. of Jofeph, by 
 which he was aflured of the purity of the virgin, &c. 
 Many among the Romilh faints ftill pretend to vifions ; thus 
 the Revelations of S. Bridget are fo many vifions. 
 Hence the word has come into difrepute, and become a com- 
 mon name for all chimeras, or fpeares, which either our 
 folly or fear poffeffes us with : and henee, a perfon that 
 frames to himfelf wild romantic notions, is called a vifionary. 
 Quevedo's vifions, are defcriptions of what patted in the ima.- 
 gination of that author. 
 
 Beatific Vision, denotes the aa whereby the angels and blefie-d 
 fpirits fee God in paradife. 
 
 VISIR, Visier, or Vizier. See the article Visier. 
 
 VISITATION, Visitatio, anaaof jurifdiaion, where- 
 by a fuperior, or proper officer, vijits fome corporation, col- 
 lege, church, or other public or private houfe, to fee that the 
 laws and regulations thereof be duly obferved. 
 Among us, the biihop of each diocefeis obliged to hold zvifiia- 
 tion every third year, and the archdeacon the other two year* ; 
 
V I T 
 
 V I T 
 
 to fee that the difcipline be well obferved, the people well 
 inftru&ed ; and to take care, that rieither the church, nor the 
 paftors thereof, receive any detriment. 
 
 Anciently the regarder's office was exprefled to be the vifi- 
 tatim of manners. See Regarder. 
 
 The lawyers hold it a branch of the king's prerogative, to 
 vtfit the univerfities, to enquire into the ftatutes, and the 
 obfervations of them ; to expel delinquents, fisfc. But fome 
 of the colleges difallow this privilege; and plead them- 
 fdves, by royal charters, exempt from all civil and royal 
 vifitations. 
 
 Among the Romanics, the general of each religious order, 
 is obliged to vijit the feveral rnonafteries of his order. 
 In abbies, that are chiefs of their orders, there are particular 
 officers, called vifitors ; who are difpatched into all the houfes 
 and congregations depending on them, to fee that the regular 
 difcipline is obferved. 
 
 In Spain, there is a vlfitor, and Inqulfitor general. — The 
 vifitation of the cloifter belongs to the ordinary, — At Paris, 
 the parliament vijks the feveral prifons and prifoners four 
 times a year. 
 
 Visitation, in a moral and religious fenfe, is alfo applied 
 to the afflictions that befal mankind ; as coming from the 
 hand of God, to try or prove them. — In which fenfe, the 
 plague, among us, is frequently called the vifitation. 
 
 VIS1VE, Visi vus, in the fchool pbilofophy, a term applied 
 to the power of feeing. See Vision. 
 
 Authors are exceedingly divided, about the place where the 
 •uifive faculty reiides • fome will have it, in the retina ; others, 
 in the clioroides ; others, in the optic nerves; others, as Sir 
 Ifaac Newton, in the place where the optic nerves meet, 
 before they come to the brain ; and others, in the brain 
 itfelf. 
 
 VISNE, Visnetum, in law, a neighbouring place, or a 
 
 place near at hand. See Venue. 
 VISUAL, fomething belonging to the fight, or feeing. See 
 
 Sight, and Seeing. 
 Visual Rays, are lines of light, imagined to come from the 
 
 object to the eye. 
 
 All the obfervations of aftronomers and geometers, are per- 
 formed by means of the vifttal rays, received in at the fights, 
 or pinnulae of alhidades. 
 Visual Point, in perfpeclive, is a point in the horizontal line, 
 wherein all the ocular rays unite. See Point. 
 Thus, a pcrfon ftanding in a ftreight long gallery, and look- 
 ing forwards, the fides, floor, and ceiling feem to meet, and 
 touch one another in a point, or common centre. 
 
 Visual Angle. 
 
 V,«,„., T- • i Seethe article {Angle, 
 visual Line. J JLine. 
 
 VISUM. See the article Habere /acwj Vifum. 
 
 — • • ^» Life, l g j article 5 ^ IFE * 
 Vita. J \ Cut. 
 
 Cui 
 
 J qua Vitje. See the article Aqua 
 VITAL, Vitalis, in anatomy, fomething that minifters 
 principally to the conftituting, or maintaining of life in the 
 bodies of animals. 
 
 Thus, the heart, lungs, and brain, are called vital parts. 
 Vital Functions, or atlions, are thofe operations of the 
 vital parts, whereby life is efrefled; fo as that it cannot fub- 
 fifr without them. 
 
 Such are the mufculous action of the heart ; the fecretory 
 a&ion in the cerebellum ; the refpiratory action of the lungs ; 
 and the circulation of the blood and fpirits through the arte- 
 ries, veins, and nerves. 
 Vital Spirits, are the fineft, and moll volatile parts of the 
 blood. 
 
 VITELLIANI, in antiquity, a kind of tablet, or pocket- 
 book, wherein people anciently ufed to write down their 
 ingenious, humorous, and even wanton fancies and imper- 
 tinencies : the fame with what in Englifh we may call a 
 trifle-bock. See Martial, Lib. XIV. Epig. viii. 
 Some will have them to take their name from vitelhts, a 
 yolk of an egg; by rcafon, the leaves were rubbed there- 
 with. — Others derive the name from one Vitelliits their in- 
 ventor. 
 
 VITI Chorea. See the article Chorea Sanfli Viti. 
 VITRIFICATION, or Vi trifact ion, the aft of 
 
 converting a body into glafs, by means of fire. 
 
 Of all bodies, fand, bricks, and pebbles, with alcalinc falts, 
 
 vitrify the moil eafily. Accordingly, it is of thefe that glafs 
 
 is principally made. 
 
 Gold held, by M. Homberg, near the focus of the duke of 
 Orlean's large burning concave mirror, at firft fmoaked, then 
 changed, all of it that did not go off in fumes, into glafs, 
 of a deep violet colour. — This glafs of gold weighs kfs than 
 gold. Memoirs of the Royal Academy, i ;oz. 
 All metals, and even almoft all natural bodies, fufficiently 
 heated, vitrify : and this vitrification is the laft effect of the 
 fire ; after which the mod (intenfe heat of the largeft 
 burning-glafs, will make no further alteration. 
 
 Vitrification, fome authors will have to be chiefly efFe&ed., 
 by the falts uniting and incorporating with the metalline par- 
 ticles. 
 
 But, according to M. Homberg, all vitrification arifes from 
 the earthy part ; which, being expofed to a violent fire, and 
 intimately penetrated by fome other diffolvent, commences 
 glafs. — Thus, fuppofing the principles of gold to be mer- 
 cury, a metallic fulphur, and an earth ; the vitrification of gold 
 is eafily conceived : the mercury, being volatile, exhales in 
 . in fmoke, and leaves behind it the earth, and fulphur, which 
 are fixed ; and then the fulphur diflblves the earth, and vi- 
 trifies it. 
 
 VITRIOL*, Vitriolum, a mineral fubftance, com- 
 pofed of an acid fait, intermixed with fomething metal- 
 line. 
 
 * Some take the word vitriolum to be ufed qttaft vitri oleum* 
 becaufe of its (hilling colour; but Menage rather derives it 
 avitreo colore: the Latins call it etramentum Jutcrium i and 
 the Greeks, chalcanthus. 
 
 Vitriol is ufually confidercd as a fait, but is more properly 
 ranked among the clafs of femi-metals ; as having always a 
 metallic matter mixt or combined with its ("alt. 
 Vitriol is defined by Boerhaave, a faline, metallic, tranfpa- 
 rent glebe ; diffoluble in water, and fufible and calcinable 
 by fire. 
 
 It acquires different names, according to the different places 
 where it is dug: and the vitriols of thofe alfo, differ from 
 each other in denomination and colour, fome being white, 
 others blue, and others green. 
 
 Roman and Cyprus vitriol, for infrance, is blue ; and that 
 of Sweden and Germany greenifh : befides which, there is 
 alfo there a white kind. 
 
 White Vitriol partakes of iron, blue partakes of copper, and 
 green again of iron. 
 
 M. Geoffroy, the elder, obferves, that they all confift of 
 an acid fait, like that found in ahum and fulphur; except- 
 ing that in ullum, the acid is mixed with an abforbent earth, 
 or calx: in fulphur, it is united with certain fatty, bitumi- 
 nous parts; and in vitriols, with metallic parts. 
 According to Boerhaave, vitriols confifl of a metallic part, 
 with a fulphur adhering, a menftruous acid, and water. — In 
 blue vitriol, the metal wherewith the acid, isfc. is joined, is 
 copper. — In white vitriol, called alfo white copperas, it 13 
 mixed with lapis calamtnaris, and fome ferruginous earth, in- 
 termixed with lead or tin. — In green vitriol, the acid is 
 joined with iron. 
 
 * In five ounces of green vitriol, M. Geoffroy, the younger, 
 has found two of water, two of iron, and one of acid. Vid. 
 Hi/l. Acad. R. Scienc. an. 1728. p. 4.;. 
 
 The antients give the name chakitis, or cbalcanthum, to fuch 
 native vitriol, as had acquired, according to their opinions, 
 its full perfection in the entrails of the earth, and which is 
 a kind of mineral ftone, of a reddifh colour. — Of this they 
 obferved three other different ftates, or transformations : 
 chalcitis, in its firft ftatc, they called miff, this afterwards 
 turned into melanteria, and that afterwards into fori. 
 Some moderns take this chalcitis to be the fame with that 
 chaleanthwn brought from Sweden and Germany ; the beft 
 whereof is of a browniih red colour, and a vitriolic tafte, 
 and diflolves eafily in water; and when broke, is of the 
 colour of mining copper. 
 
 The other vitriols above-named, are ufually factitious, be- 
 ing only a kind of cryftals, drawn, by means of water, 
 from a fort of maicahte ordinarily found in mines, and 
 called by naturalifts, pyrites, or quis. 
 
 Roman vitriol is made by expoftng thefe pyrites to the air, 
 till fuch time as they calcine, and change into a greenifh, 
 acid, vitriolic calx, or duft ; in which ftate they are thrown 
 I into the water, and are afterwards, by boiling and evapo- 
 ration, reduced into that kind of cryftals fent us from 
 Italy. 
 
 All the other vitriols are made after the fame manner ; that 
 is, much after the fame manner as allum is made in Eng- 
 land, orfalt-petre in France. 
 
 For green vitriol, they add a Great number of pieces of iron 
 to the liquor in the boiling; thefe raife a great ebullition. 
 And as foon as the iron is diffolved, they evaporate the diffolu- 
 tion to a certain degree, and fo let it cryftallize. — The 
 cryftals being formed, there remains a thick, reddifh, unc- 
 tuous ftyptic, and afiringent liquor ; which M. Geoffroy 
 calls eau mere de vitriol; as containing all the principles of 
 the mineral, though difunited. 
 
 The powder of this vitriol is exceedingly ftyptic, and excel- 
 lent for the cure of wounds, and the flopping of blood. — Its 
 effects this way, have been raifed, by the knavery of fome, 
 and credulity of others, to a kind of miracle ; it being this 
 that makes the bafis of the famous fympathetic powder. 
 The medicinal virtues oS vitriol are very great ; but all ow- 
 ing to the iron, or other metallic parts mixed with it, 2nd 
 therefore following the kind of metal. — Thus, thefe of green 
 
 wtrisl 
 
V I v 
 
 Vltrhl depend on the ftypticity or altriilgcncy of iron, or 
 
 Mars, * • t -kit r< rc _u 
 
 The eau-mere drawn from green vitriol, M. Geoftroy oti- 
 ferves does not differ any way, eflentially, from a great 
 
 1 US 01 
 
 number or preparations which the chymifts have given 
 vitriol, iron, and the iapisbxmatitcs ; fuch are the fixed and 
 anodyne fulphurs of vitriol, or Mars ; arcana, and magjl- 
 ter.es of w(nV; tinctures, fsY. pf vitriol, Mars, feTc—Mie 
 common bails of all which is iron exceedingly fubtdizedand 
 attenuated. 
 
 A foiution of vitriol, mixed with a tintture of galls, be- 
 comes inftantly exceeding black : and it is this that makes 
 the common writing-ink. See Ink. 
 
 M. Lemery, the younger, has a pretty hypothecs to account 
 for this blacknefs : he imagines, that as the vitriol whereat 
 ink is made, is iron difiblved by an acid, and intimately 
 mixed therewith; and as galls are an alkali, or abiorbent, 
 this alkali meeting the acids which hold the iron diilolved 
 unites with them, and makes them let the iron loofe ; which 
 thereupon revivifies, and refumes its natural blacknefs : fo 
 that, in ftrictnefs, it is iron that we write withal. 
 This fyftem is confirmed hence : that of the five forts of vi- 
 triol, that of Cyprus or Hungary is the only one whofe bafe 
 is copper; that of the reft is iron : and accordingly they all 
 ferve to make ink withal, excepting the firft. 
 Some naturalifts hold vitriol to be the root, or matrix of 
 copper ; becaufe in the copper-mines, they never dig deeper 
 than the glebe out of which the vitriol is drawn, 
 Vitriol affords feveral chymical preparations ; as —fpirit of 
 vitriol, procured by firft calcining, then diftilling it. — Oil of 
 vitriol, which comes out after the fpirit, by heightening the 
 fire wherewith that had been raifed.— What remains aftei 
 both, is cokothar of vitriol — Tartar of vitriol is had by mix- 
 ing oil of vitriol with oil of tartar per deliquium ; a fait pre- 
 cipitating to the bottom, which being let to exhale and cryf- 
 talJize, is the tartar of vitriol. 
 
 From the cokothar of vitriol, is prepared the ens veneris. 
 Sec Ens Veneris. 
 Metallic Vitriols. — All metals, it is to be obferved, may 
 be converted into vitriols, by diffolving them with acid fpirits. 
 and letting them ftand to cryftallize. 
 
 Factitious vitriols, being only metals diflblvcd and cryftal- 
 lized in faline menftruums, are frequently called, by way of 
 diftindtion, metallic vitriols, and metallic falts. 
 
 Vitriol of Iron, Vitriohtm Martis, is a preparation made by 
 difFolvin* 1 " iron, or fteel, in oil or Ipirit of vitriol j then eva- 
 porating or drawing oft" the moifture, and bringing the mat- 
 ter to crvftallizc, by fetting it in a cool place. — This is alfo 
 called fal martis, or fait of Jleel. 
 
 Vitriol of Luna, or the Moon, is the body of filver chy- 
 mically opened, and reduced into the form of fait by the 
 tbarp points of fpirit of nitre. 
 
 Vitriol of Venus, is a foiution of copper in fpirit of nitre, 
 evaporated and cryftallized, to gain the fait ; called alfo vi- 
 triol of copper. 
 
 Ros Vitrioli. See the article Ros. 
 
 VITRIOLATED, among chymifts, turned into vitriol, or 
 
 having vitriol infufed in it, 
 Tartar Vitriolated. See Tartarum Vhriolatum. 
 VITRIOLIC, fomething that has the quality of vitriol, or 
 
 that partakes of the nature of vitriol. 
 
 In this fenfe, we fay, vitriolic fpring, vitriolic Jlone, vitri- 
 olic fpirits, tic — If iron be thrown into a cupreous vitriolic 
 water, and the red ruff, arifing on the furface of the iron be 
 melted down, it will be found real copper ; which is by fome 
 ignorantly alledgcd as an inftance of the tranfmutation of one 
 metal into another, whereas it is only a precipitation of the 
 copper before contained in the water. See fupplement, arti- 
 cle Zi MENT. 
 
 VITRIOUS, or Vitreous, in anatomy, the third, or 
 glafTy humour of the eye, thus called from its refemblance 
 to melted glafs. See Humour, and Eye. 
 It lies under the cryftalhne ; by the impreffion of which, its 
 fore-part is rendered concave. 
 
 For the office of the vitrious humour, fee Vision. 
 
 Some authors alfo call the coats or membranes that contain 
 
 this humour, vitrious tunics. 
 VITTA, among anatomifts, fillet or head-hand ; is ufed for 
 
 that part of the amnios, which flicks to the infant's head 
 
 when it is juft born. 
 VI 1'US'j Dance, in medicine. See Chorea SancliViti. 
 VIVA Pec.inia, was anticntly ufed for live cattle. 
 Viva Voce, q d. by word of mouth. See Oral. 
 VI VARY, Vivarium, in our law-books, is fometimes 
 
 ufed for a park, warren, or fifh-pond, wherein living crea- 
 tures are kept. 
 
 VIVIFICATION, in medicine, the ait of vivifying, that 
 is of contributing to the adtion that gives life, or .maintains 
 life. 
 
 The chymifts alfo ufe the word, in fpeaking of the new force, 
 rigour, and luftre, which, by their art, they give to natural 
 
 V I C 
 
 bodies, particularly to mercury ; which, after having been 
 fixed, or amalgamated, they reftore to its firft ftate. See 
 Re viv I f i c A T ION. 
 VIVIPAROUS, Viviparus, in natural hiftory, an epithet 
 applied to fuch animals as bring forth their young alive, and 
 perfect : in contradiftincrion to fuch as lay eggs; which are 
 called oviparous animals. 
 
 Vipers are diftinguifhed from makes, in that the latter lay eggs 
 in dunghils, to be hatched by the warmth thereof; but the 
 former are viviparous, that is, they keep their eggs within 
 their bellies, and bring forth live vipers. 
 In the Phitofophical Tranfaftions, we have an account of a 
 viviparous fly, of the oeftrum or gad-kind. — Dr Lifter' tells 
 us, he opened feveral females of this clafs, and found, in each, 
 two bags of live white worms. — The like is hinted by Al- 
 drovandus. — Lifter even fufpefts, that all of this tribe are, 
 in fome meafure, viviparous. 
 VIVO, in architecture, the Ihaft, or fuft of a column. — See 
 Tab. Architect, fig. 24. lit. r. 
 
 The term is alfo ufed, in a more particular fenfe, for the 
 
 naked of a column, or other part. 
 
 Vivum Linum. 3 c 1 \ LlNUM. 
 
 \i c i.i 5- See the article < <. , „,,.,„ 
 
 Vivum Sulphur. J t SULI'HUR. 
 
 VIZARD, or Vizor. See the article Masque. 
 
 VIZIER. See the article Visi e r. 
 
 ULCER, Ulcus, in medicine, a foiution, or difcontinuity of 
 texture, or lofs of fubftance in the flefhy parts of the body, 
 proceeding from an internal caufe. 
 
 Galen defines ulcer an inveterate erofion of the foft parts of the 
 body ; by which, inftead of blood, they are brought to yield 
 a kind of pus, or fanies ; which prevents the conlblidation. 
 Etmuller defines an ulcer, a foiution of continuity from fome 
 corrofive fharpnefs or acidity, that takes away from the parts, 
 and turns the proper nourilliment of the body into a fanious 
 matter, — A like foiution of continuity happening in a bony 
 part, is called a caries. 
 
 Galen commonly ufes the word ulcer and wound indifferently ; 
 but the Arabs, and the moderns after them, diftinguifh be- 
 tween the two. 
 
 Spontaneous ulcers, are generally fuppofed to proceed from 
 acrimony, or a corrofive difpofilion of the humours of the 
 body ; whether brought on by poifons, by the venereal taint, 
 or by other caufes. 
 
 Ulcers are divided into fimple, and complicated. — They are 
 again divided, with regard to their circumftances, into putrid, 
 or fordid, wherein the flefh all around is corrupted, and fetid, 
 — verminous, where the matter being thick, does not flow a- 
 way, but generates worms, &c. — virulent, which inftead 
 of pus, or fanies, yield a malignant virus, EsV. 
 They are again diftinguifhed, with regard to their form, in- 
 to finuous, fiflulous, varicous, carious, &c. 
 When an ulcer happens in a good conftitution, and proves 
 eafy of cure, it is faid to be fimple. 
 
 When attended with other concurring fymptoms, as a caco- 
 chymic habit, which greatly retards or obftrufts the cure, it 
 is called a compound ulcer. 
 
 A fimple ulcer is attended with no other fign, than that of 
 erofion ; but compound ulcers, happening in a fcorbutic, drop- 
 fical, or fcrophulous conftitution, may be attended with 
 pain, a fever, convulftons, a large and emaciating difcharge 
 of matter, inflammation and fwelling of the part, cailofity of 
 the lips, a caries of the bones, &c. 
 A Putrid or fordid Ulcer, is that whofe fides arc lined with a 
 tough, vifcous humour, and which is alfo attended with heat, 
 pain, inflammation, and a large flux of humours to the part : 
 with time the fordes increafe and change colour, the ulcer 
 corrupts, its matter grows fetid, and fometimes the part gan- 
 grenes. — Putrid fevers often give rife to this kind of ulcer. 
 Phaged&nic Ulcer, is an ulcer of a corrofive nature, eating 
 away the adjacent parts all around ; the lips thereof remain- 
 ing tumefied. — When this kind of ulcer eats deep, and 
 fpreads wide, without being attended with a tumour, but pu- 
 trifies, and grows foul and fetid, it is called noma ; and both, 
 on account of the difficulty wherewith they heal, are alfo 
 termed dyfepuleta. 
 Varicous Ulcers, are fuch as being feated in the veins, and 
 becoming painful and inflammatory, fwell up the part they 
 pofiefs.— Thefe, when recent, being occafioned by the ufe 
 of corrofives, or proceeding from a ruptured varix, are often 
 attended with an hemorrhage. —The veins adjacent to the 
 ulcers are, in this cafe, prietematurally diftended, and may, 
 fometimes, be felt interwoven together, like net-work, a- 
 bout the part. 
 
 Sinuous Ulcers, are fuch as run aflant, or fideways, from their 
 orifice; and may be known either by fearching with the 
 probe, wax-candle, E*f. or by the quantity of matter they 
 difcharge, in proportion to their apparent magnitude. — 
 Thefe fometimes lie deep, and have feveral turnings : they 
 arc diftinguifhed from fiftula's only by their want of cailofity, 
 except in the verv orifice, 
 
 FiJIuIqus 
 
U L N 
 
 U M B 
 
 Fiflukus Ulcers, are fuch as are finuous, or winding, and 
 arc attended with great callofity; and difchargc a thin, fe- 
 rous, and fetid matter. See Fistula. 
 
 Old Ulcers are rarely cured without the ufe of internals, 
 which are to be fuch as abforb and deftroy the acidity ; fudo- 
 rifics efpecially, decodiions of the woods, antimonials, vipe- 
 rines, and volatiles are good ; but above all things, vomito- 
 ries often repeated : in the moft obftinate ulcers, mercurial 
 falivation is often required; old ulcers are frequently incur- 
 able, without making an iffue in the oppofite part. 
 The cure of iimple, fhallow ulcers, is commonly effecled by 
 applying a pledget armed with liniment, arcad, orbafilic flay, 
 to the part, a plaifter of diachyl. fimpl. or de minio, being 
 laid over it, and repeating; the drefling once aday, or feldomer. 
 But if only the cuticula be lult, or eaten away, nothing 
 more than a little unguent, deficcativ. rub. or diapomphol. 
 c?V. fpread thin upon linen, need be applied. 
 If fpongy flefh fhould grow up, in cither cafe, it may be kept 
 down with a little Roman vitriol, eft. as in cafe of healing 
 up the fimple ulcers, made by the breaking of common tumors. 
 Evacuations are indifpenfibly necefiary in the cure of ulcers of 
 the compound kind, where the coniHtution will admit there- 
 of. — It the ulcer be fiftulous, fmuous, cancerous, effr. and 
 the matter fetid, thin, or fanious, it is found proper always 
 to join calomel with the purgatives, or to give it in fmall 
 doles, between the repetitions thereof, fo as not to falivatc. 
 Befidcs the ufe of evacuating medicines, it will here alfo be 
 proper to order a courfe of diet-drink, made with the fudorific 
 woods, efpecially where the ulcer is fufpected to be venereal. 
 — In the mean time, proper dreffings are to be ufed. 
 When the ulcer obflinately refills this treatment, a falivation 
 is generally propofed, and feldom fails to promote the cure, 
 though all other remedies mould have been tried in vain. — If 
 the patient be too weak to undergo the fatigue of a thorough 
 falivation, it may be moderated, and kept up the longer, in 
 proportion to his flrength. 
 
 Externa! medicines for ulcers, are digeftives, cleanfers, farco- 
 tics, and epulotics. — M. Beiloile gives a medicine of fingu- 
 lar efficacy in the cure of ulcers ; and this is no more than a 
 decoction of walnut-tree leaves in water, with a little fugar ; 
 in which a linen cloth being dipped, is to be laid on the ulcer, 
 and this to be repeated every fecond or third day. — This 
 fimple and vulgar medicine, he finds, fuppurates, deterges, in- 
 carnates, refifts putrefaction, £3V. more than any other medi- 
 cine known. 
 
 An ulcer in the lungs, makes what we call a phtbifis. See 
 Phthisis. 
 
 The venereal difeafe is a grand fource of ulcers ; particularly 
 in the prepuce and glans, in men; in the vagina,^, in wo- 
 men; and in the mouth and palate in both. 
 V mereal ulcers are of various kinds ; thofe that grow callous 
 and cancerous, are called flankers. See Shanker. 
 
 ULCERATED Cancers. See the article Cancer. 
 
 ULCERATION, Exulceratio, a little aperture, or hole 
 in the fkin, caufed by an ulcer. 
 
 Cauftic medicines occafion ulcerations in the fldn.. — 'Arfenic 
 always ulcerates the part it flicks to. — A falivation ulcerates 
 the tongue and palate. 
 ULIGINOUS, Uliginosus, implies as much as moift, 
 moorifh, fenny. 
 
 ULLAGE of a cask, is fo much as a vefTel wants of bc-inf 
 full. 5 
 
 ULNA, in anatomy, along, hard bone in the arm, with a 
 cavity in the middle ; called alfo facile majus, and cubitus. — 
 See Tab. Anat. (Ofteol.) fig. 3. n. 8. fig. 7. n. 10. 
 The ulna lies on the infide of the fore-arm, reaching from 
 the elbow to the wrift; is big at its upper end, and grows 
 fmaller to its lower end. 
 
 At its upper it has two procefTes, which are received into the 
 foreand hind finus's of the extremity of the humerus, — The 
 foremoft procefs is fmall and fhort ; the hindmoft, called 
 xp«»o>, is bigger and longer; it flays the fore-arm, when it 
 comes to a right line with the arm. See Olecranon. 
 Betwixt thefe procefTes it has a femicircular finus, which re- 
 ceives the inner protuberance of the lower end of the humerus, 
 upon which we bend and extend our fore-arm; and along 
 the middle of that there runs a fmall ridge, by which this bone 
 is articulated to the humerus by ginglymus. — Had the arti- 
 culation here been an arthrodia, the joint muft have been 
 much weaker j but the hand could have received no more 
 motion from it, than it has now from the fhoulder. 
 The infide of this upper end has a fmall Gnus, which receives 
 the circumference of the round head of the radius —Its lower 
 extremity, which is round and fmall, is received into a finus, 
 in the lower end of the radius ; and upon this extremity, it 
 has a fhort and fmall procefs, from which the ligaments which 
 tie it to the bone of the wrift arife: this procefs ferves to keep 
 the bones of the wrift in their place. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 Ulna, an ell in meafure. See Ell, and Measure. 
 Ulna Ferrea, denotes the llandard iron ell, kept in the Ex- 
 chequer. 
 
 ULN AGE. See the article Alsace. 
 
 ULNARIS Extmfor, in anatomy, a mufcle called v\(o exten- 
 for carpi.^See Tab. Anat. (Mysl.) fig. 1. ». 38. 
 
 Ulnar is Flexor. See the article Flexor Carpi. 
 
 ULTE RIOR, in geography, is applied to fome part of a coun- 
 try, or province, which, with regard to the reft of that coun- 
 try, is fituate on the farther fide of a river, mountain, or 
 other boundary, which divides the country into two parts. 
 Thus Africa, with regard to Europe, is divided by mount 
 Atlas, into citcrior, and ulterior, i. e. into two portions, the 
 one on this fide mount Atlas, and the other on that. 
 
 ULTIMA Bafia, lajl kijfes, is a phrafe ufed among fome 
 painters, for the laft finifhing touches with the pencil. 
 
 ULTRAMARINE*, Ultramarinum, abeautifulbluc 
 colour, ufed by the painters, prepared from lapis lazuli. 
 * Some derive its name, ultramarine, q. d. beyond lea, from 
 its being firlt brought into Europe out of India, and Perth : 
 Others lay, it is becaufe it:, colour is deeper linn that of the fea. 
 This blue is one of the richeft, and moft valuable colours, 
 ufed in painting — The preparation coniifts, in firft calcining 
 the ftone in an iron potor crucible, then grinding it very fine 
 on a porphyry; then mixing it up with a parte made of 
 wax, pitch, maftick, turpentine, and oil; and at laft warning 
 the pafte well in clear water, to feparate the colouring pare 
 from the reft, which precipitates to the bottom, in form of a 
 fubtile, beautiful, blue powder. — The water is then poured 
 off, and the powder at bottom is dried in the fun ; and is the 
 true ultramarine. 
 
 Ihofe who prepare this colour, make ufually four kinds, 
 which they procure by fo many different lotions : the firft is 
 always the bell ; and the reft worfe and worfe to the laft. — 
 There is ultramarine of the firft kind, fold for 1 1 fterling 
 per ounce ; and of the laft, for about 1 2 or 151. 
 The common opinion concerning its origin is, that the me- 
 thod of making it was firft difcovcrcd in England ; and that a 
 member ot the Eaft India company, having a quarrel with his 
 affociates, to be revenged of them, made the fecret public. 
 Vltra?narine muft be chofen of a high colour, and well ground, 
 which is known by putting it between the teeth, where, if 
 it feel gritty, it is a fign the triture is not fufficient. 
 To know whether it be pure and unmixed, put a little of it 
 in a crucible, and heating it red hot, if the powder has not 
 changed its colour after this trial, it is certainly pure: on the 
 contrary, if you perceive any change, or any black fpecks in 
 it, it is falfmed. 
 
 Befide this, there is another kind, called common, or Dutch 
 ultramarine ; which is only the crude lapis armenus and fmalt 
 well ground, and pulverized ; the colour whereof, when ufed 
 by the painters, is fomething like that of the true ultramarine^ 
 though much lefs valued. 
 ULTRAMONTANE, fomething beyond the mountains. 
 The term is principally ufed in relation to Italy and France, 
 which are feparated by the mountains of the Alps. 
 In France, the opinions of the ultramontane .canonifts, /, e . 
 of thofe of Italy, are not received. 
 
 The painters, particularly thofe of Italy, call all thofe that are 
 not ot that country, uitramontanes ; or, fimply, tramontanes. 
 — Poulfin is the only tramontane painter that the Italians feem 
 to envy. 
 
 ULTRAMUNDANE, Ultramundanus, beyond the 
 world; is that part of the univcrfe, fuppofed to be without, 
 or beyond the limits of our world, or fyrtem. 
 
 UMBELICUS. See the article Umbilicus. 
 
 UMBELICAL. See the article Umbilical. 
 
 UMBELLA, or Umbrella. See the article Parasol. 
 
 UMBELL./E, Umeells, among botanifts, the round tufts, 
 or heads of certain plants, fet thick together, and all of the 
 fame heighth. — Sparfed, or thin umbella , are thofe whofe 
 parts ftand at a diftance from one another, and yet are all of 
 an equal heighth. 
 
 UMBELLIFEROUS Plants, are fuch as have their flowery 
 tops branched, and fpread out like an umbrella; on each 
 little fubdivifion of which, there is growing a fmall flower : 
 fuch are fennel, dill, &c, 
 
 1 his flower is always pentapetalous ; and is fucceeded by two 
 naked feeds adjoining to each other, which are the true cha- 
 radteriftics that diftinguifh thefe plants from others. 
 The umbelliferous are a very large clafs of plants, and are 
 diftinguifhed by Mr Ray, into, 
 
 1 Q . Such as have a compounded leaf, of a triangular and pin- 
 nate form. — The feeds of thefe are either broad, fiat, and 
 plain, and edged with membranes, as the fpondylium, pilli- 
 naca latifolia, panax heracleum tordylium, orcofeliruHn, 
 thyfielinum, apium cicuta? foliis, daucus, carvifolia, ane- 
 thum, pucedanum, thapfia, ferula, err. Or the feeds are 
 more tumid, and lefs comprefkd and Sat, than the former ; 
 
 13 M as 
 
U M B 
 
 as the cachrys, laferpitium, dcutaria vulgaris, fcandix, cere- 
 folium, myrrhis fativa angelica, lev ifticum,. filer roontanum, 
 bulbocaftanum, flfarum, ocnanthe, fium, pmipinclla, apmm, 
 cicuta, vifnaga, faxifraga, crithmum, fccniculum, palhnacha 
 vulgaris, anifum, caucalci, coriandrum, paftinaca marina, isc 
 2- Such as have a fimple, or undivided leaf, or at lcatt one 
 only a little jagged ; as the perfoliata, buplcrum, aftrantia ni- 
 gra, fanicula, and the fefeli sthiopicum. 
 
 U MBER, or Umbre, Umbria, among painters, &c- a dry 
 dufky coloured earth, which, diluted with water, ferves to 
 make a dark brown colour, ufually called with us a hair- 
 colour. . . , 
 It is called umber from umbra, fhadow ; as fervmg chiefly lor 
 the fbadowing of objedts: or rather from Umbrta, a country 
 
 - of Italy, whence it is ufed to be brought. See Supplement, 
 article Umbra. 
 
 UMBILICAL, Umeilicalts, in anatomy, fomething 
 that relates to the umbilicus, or navel. 
 
 Umbilical Region, is that part of the abdomen lying round 
 about the umbilicus, or navel. 
 
 Umbilical Vejfels, are a fet or affemblage ofveffefa belonging 
 to a fcetus ; conilituting what we call the funiculus umbilicalts, 
 or navel-itring. 
 
 Thefe vcfTels arc two arteries, a vein, and the urachus. _ 
 The Umbilical arteries arife from the iliacs, near their 
 divifton into external and internal ; and pafs thence on each 
 fide of the bladder, through the navel, to the placenta.— bee 
 Tab. Anat, (Angeiol.) fig. I, n. 56. 56. fig. 3. lit. e. e. fig. 
 1 6. ///. g, g. 
 
 The Umbilical w, from innumerable capillaries united 
 into one trunk, defcends from the placenta, to the liver of the 
 foetus ; where it is partlv diflributcd into the porta, and partly 
 into the cava —See Tab. Anat. (Angeiol.) fig. 4- c - 
 (Splanch.) fig. 3. Ht. I. fig. 16. lit./. . 
 The urachus is molt plainly found m brutes ; though there is 
 no doubt but it has place likewife in the human fpecies. 
 The ufe of thefe vefiels, is to maintain a continuity and com- 
 munication, between the mother and the fcetus. — Some au- 
 thors will have it, that the fcetus receives its food and increafe 
 this way j and that it grows, like a vegetable, from the mo- 
 ther as the root, of which the umbilical vejfels are the ft era ; 
 and the child the head or fruit of this plant-animal. 
 Funiculus Umbilicalis, popularly called the navel-firing, is 
 a kind of firing, formed of the umbilical vejfeh ; which, be- 
 ing tied up in a common coat, or membrane, traverfe the 
 fecundines, and are inferted, at one end, into the placenta of 
 the mother, and at the other, into the abdomen of the fcetus. 
 — See Tab. Anat. (Splanch.) fig. 16. 
 
 The navel-ftring is membranous, wreathed, and unequal ; 
 arifing out of the middle of the abdomen, and reaching to the 
 placenta uterina : it is ufually half an ell in length, and as 
 thick as one's finger. — It was necefTary it fhould be fo long 
 and lax, that when the fcetus in the womb grows ftrong, it 
 might not break it by its fprawling and tumbling about ; and 
 that after it is born, the fecundine, or after-birth, might be 
 drawn out the better by it. 
 
 The way that it pafles from the navel to the placenta, is very 
 unconfhint; for fometimes it goes upon the right hand, to 
 the neck, which being incompafied, it defcends to the pla- 
 centa; and fometimes it goes on the left hand up to the neck, 
 i&e. Sometimes it comes not to the neck at all, but goes firft 
 a little up towards the breaft, and then turns round the back, 
 and from thence paffes to the placenta. 
 
 This part, at the birth, is cither broke, or cut away, to the 
 navel ; fo that its veffels, viz. two arteries, a vein, and ura- 
 chus, become perfectly ufelefs, as vefl'els ; and, drying up, 
 become impervious, and ferve only as ligaments to fufpend 
 the liver. 
 
 Umbilical Points, in mathematics, the fame with foci. See 
 Focus. 
 
 UMBILICUS*, Navel, in anatomy, the centre or middle 
 part of the lower venter, or belly ; being the place through 
 which the umbilical Veffels pafs, out of the fcetus, to the pla- 
 centa of the mother. — See Tab. Anat. (Splanch.) fig. i 6. lit. e'. 
 
 * The word is pure Latin, formed of umbo, the little bunch in 
 the middle of a buckler ; by reafon of its refemblance to the 
 navel. 
 
 Umbilicus, in mathematics, the fame with focus. 
 
 UMBONE, or Horn, among fiorifls, fignifies any pointed 
 ftyle, or piltil, in the middle of a flower. 
 There is alfo an umbone called double-pointed, or by-parted, as 
 in the peony ; and fometimes the umbone has four fharp points, 
 in which cafe it is termed, an umbone divided into fo many 
 heads, or cut into three or four parts. 
 
 UMBRA, Shadow. See the article Light, Shadow, 
 Penumbra, &c. 
 
 UMBRE, See the article Umber. 
 
 U N C 
 
 UMBRELL A. See the article Umbella, 
 UMPIRE*, a third perfon, chofen to decide a controversy 
 left to an arbitration, iii cafe the arbitrators cannot agiee. 
 See Arbitrator. 
 * Minfliew fuppofes the word formed of the French tin prre, a 
 father— Some call him a fur- arbitrator. 
 UNCASING, among hunters, the cutting up, or fieaingof 
 a fox. 
 
 UNCI A, a term generally ufed for the twelfth part of a thing. 
 — In which fenfe it occurs in Latin writers, both for a 
 weight, called by us an ounce; and a meafure called an inch. 
 
 Unci A Terra:, or Agr'i, is a phrafe frequently met withal in 
 the antient charters of the Britifh kings ; but what the quan- 
 tity of ground was, is a little obfeure. — All that we know 
 for certain, is, that it fignifipd a large quantity, as much as 
 12 modii; which modius fome conjecture to have been an 
 hundred feet fquare. 
 
 UNCIAl, in algebra, are the numbers prefixed to the letter, 
 of the members of any power, produced from a binominal, 
 refidual, or multinominal root. 
 
 Thus, in the fourth power of a-\-b, that is, a a a tf-j-4 
 a a a b-\-6 aabb ^-4 abb b-\-b bbb, the uncia: are, 4, 6, 4. 
 Sir Ifaac Newton gives a rule, for finding the unci* of any 
 power, arifing from a binominal root. Thus : — Let the index 
 of the power be called m ; then will the umiec arife from fuCh a 
 
 continual multiplication as this, viz, 1 x ^^x-^x~™ 
 
 x — — 3 x ~~J^s ® c - Thus, if the uncia of the biquadrate, 
 
 or fourth power, were required ; the rule is, ix™ t~( = +) 
 
 X— j- (=6)x— 7- (=4) y-*~ (=1 J i which fhews, that 
 
 the unci a are 1 , 4, 6, 4, 1 . 
 
 Or thus : The terms of any powers are compounded of certain 
 literal fadtums, with numbers called uncice, prefixed ; and the 
 fad-turns are found, by making two geometrical progreflionsj 
 the firft: of them beginning from the required power of the 
 firft part of the root, and ending in unity ; and the fecond 
 beginning with unity, and ending in the required power of 
 the fecond part: thus, for a fixth power of a-\~b ; 
 
 a* a % a 4 a* a 1 firft feries. 
 t h b* h 1 6*'b* b* fecond feries. 
 and multiplying the terms of the fame order in either feries, 
 into one another: as a 6 -j-a* b-\-a* b*~\-a* L*-^-a* l+-\~a 
 b*-\-b 6 , out of which the lixth power of tf-f-3 is compound- 
 ed. 
 
 The uncles, then, are found by writing the exponents of the 
 powers ot the fecond feries, ;'. e. of b, under the exponents of 
 the powers of the firft feries, e. of a ; and taking the firft 
 figure of the upper feries for the numerator, and the firit of 
 the lower for the denominator of a fraction, which is equal 
 to the unci* of the fecond term ; and fo for the reft. Thus, 
 for the fixth power we have, 654321 
 123456 
 
 Accordingly, — =6 is the uncia of die fecond term of the 
 
 > At 6-5 3° 
 
 fixth power ; — = *=—= 
 
 :i5, the uncia of the third term; 
 
 . 2. 3. 4. 5 
 2. 1 
 
 r6 = '■ 
 
 6. e.4. izo . . , , 6. c.i. a 
 
 ■ - s= — "O, the uncia of the fourtn term ; — -■ . 
 
 I. 2. 3 O I. 2. 3. 4 
 
 x Si tne of tnc fif" rh term; ■ 3 " 2 
 
 = — —6, the uncia of the fixth term ; ^i_S_i4-_3 : 
 1 1.2. j. 4. 
 
 The uncia of the Iaft power. 
 UNCIAL, Unci alif, an epithet, which antiquaries give 
 to certain large-fized letters, or charadters, antiently ufed in 
 infcriptionSj and epitaphs. 
 
 The word is formed from the Latin uncia, the twelfth part of 
 any thing; and which, in geometrical meafure, fignified the 
 twelfth part of a foot, viz. an inch ; which was fuppofed to 
 be the thicknefs of the ftem of one of thefe letters. 
 UNCORE, or Unc^ues Prijl, filill ready; in law, a plea, 
 for the defendant, being fued for a debt dae on a bond at a 
 day paft, to fave the forfeiture of his bond, £sV. by affirming 
 that he tendered the debt at the time and place, and that there 
 was none to receive it; and that he is yet alfo ready to pay 
 the fame. 
 
 UNCTION, Unctio, the act of anointing, or rubbing 
 with oil, or other fatty matter. 
 
 Mercurial unclion, properly applied, brings on a falivation. 
 - — The furgeons curedivers wounds, ulcers, &c. by repeated 
 untlions, with oils, unguents, cerats, l£c. 
 Unction, in matters of religion, is ufed for the character 
 conferred on facred things, by anointing them with oil. 
 Antiently, intheeaftern countries, which abounded fo much in 
 oil, and odoriferous fpices, it was the cuftomtofeparatepcrfons 
 and tilings defigaedfor extraordinary offices, or ules, by anoint- 
 !- [ £io-'fcjJ vdj Vj AM 
 
V N D 
 
 ing them with ointments compofcd of fuch ingredients; fym- 
 boiizing thereby, both an effufion of the neceffary gifts to 
 qualify them for their office, and adiffuiion of the good and 
 grateful effects expelled from them. 
 There were three lbrts of perfons to whom this unction, or 
 confecration, efpecially belonged, kings, priefts and pro- 
 phets; who, therefore, are of all them (fays Barrow) ftiled 
 in fcripture the Lord's Anointed. 
 
 The unSion of kings is fuppofed to be a ceremony, intro- 
 duced very late among Chriftian princes : Onuphrius fays, 
 none of the emperors were ever anointed before Juftinian, or 
 Juftin. — The emperors of Germany took up the practice 
 from tbofe of the eaftern empire, — King Pepin of France 
 was the firft king who received the unclion. 
 In the Romifh church, befides an unclion at baptifm, on the 
 forehead, and at confirmation, on the head, they have an 
 extreme unclion, given to people in the pangs of death, on 
 the parts where the five fenfes refide, being the parts by 
 which the perfon is fuppofed to have finned. 
 UNCUTH*, Unknown, is u fed in the ancient Saxon 
 laws, for him that comes to an inn, gueft-wife, and lies 
 there but one night — In which cafe, his hoft was not bound 
 to anfwer for any offence he committed, whereof he was 
 guiltlefs himfelf. 
 
 * — Prima nafie psteft diet uncuth, fecunda vera, gueft, tertia 
 noEle hogenhine. BraSon, Lib. III. See Third Night awn 
 Hine. 
 
 UNDECAGON, is a regular polygon of eleven fides. See 
 Polygon. 
 
 UNDECIMVIR, a magistrate among the antient Atheni- 
 ans, who had ten other collegues, or affociat.es, joined with 
 him in the fame commiffion, 
 
 The functions of the undecimviri at Athens, were much the 
 fame as thofe of the prevots de marechaulfe in France. They 
 took care of the apprehending of criminals : fecured them 
 in the hands of juftice ; and when they were condemned, 
 took them again into cuitody, that the fentence might be 
 executed on them. 
 
 They were chofe by the tribes ; each tribe naming its own : 
 And as the number of tribes, after Calhithenes, was but ten, 
 which made ten members, a fcribe or notary was added, 
 which made the number eleven. — Whence their name Si 
 hbtxct, pr undecimviri, as Cornelius Nepos calls them in the 
 life of Pbocion. — In Julius Pollux, they are denominated 
 (■jreto^ot, and rof*opc*««iff. 
 
 UNDK', Undee, or Undy, in heraldry. See Wavy. 
 
 UNDER the fea, in the fea language. — A fhip is faid to be 
 fo, when fhe lies ftill, or waits for lbme other fhips, with 
 her helm lafhed, or tied up a-3ee. 
 
 U N D E R-Currents. — Currents diftincT: from the upper, or 
 apparent currents of the feas. Some naturalifts conclude, 
 there are in divers places under-cwrents, which fet or drive 
 a contrary way from the upper-current. 
 Dr Smith, in the Philofophical Tranfacli'ons, brings the hy- 
 pothecs of under-current s, to folve that remarkable pheno- 
 menon, the fea's fetting ftrongly through the Streights into 
 the Mediterranean, with a coniiant current 20 leagues broad. 
 — What fhould become of the vaft quantity of water poured 
 in this way ; as alfo, of that running from the Euxine, 
 through the Bofphorus, into the Hellefpont, and thence into 
 the Archipelago,, is a Speculation that has long employed the 
 philofophers! This author's conjecture is, that there is an 
 under-current, whereby as great a quantity of water is car- 
 ried out as comes in. — To confirm which, heobferves, that 
 between the north and fuuth foreland, it is either high or 
 low water upon the fhore, three hours before it is fo off at 
 fea: a certain fign, that though the tide of flood runs aloft, 
 yet the tide of ebb runs under-foot, or clofe by the ground. 
 He adds an account from an able failor in the Baltic found ; 
 that going with their pinnace into the middle ftrcam, they 
 were carried violently away by the current: but that fink- 
 in°- a bucket with a large cannon-bullet, to a certain depth 
 of water, it gave a check to the boat's motion: and fink- 
 ing it ftill lower, the boat was driven a-head to the wind- 
 ward, againrt the upper current, which was not above four 
 or five fathom deep. 
 
 Dr Halley folves the current's fetting in at the Streights, 
 without overflowing the banks, from the great evaporation ; 
 without fuppofing any under-current. 
 UNDER-CHAMBERLAINS of the exchequer, two offi- 
 cers there, who cleave the tallies, and read the fame; fothat 
 the clerk of the pell, and the comptrollers thereof, may fee 
 that the entries are true. 
 
 They alfo make fearches for all records in the treafury, and 
 have the cufiody of Domefday book. 
 
 UNDERMINING. See the article Sapping. 
 
 UNDER-SHERIFF, Sub-vice-comcs. See Sheriff. 
 
 UNDERSH RUB. See the article Suffrutex. 
 
 UNDER-SITTER, an inmate. See In mate. 
 
 UNDERSTANDING, Intelleclus, is defined, by the Pe- 
 ripatetics, to be a faculty of the reafonablc foul, convcr- 
 
 U N D 
 
 finf about intelligible things, confidered as intelligible 
 They alfo make ■„ twofold, v,'z. aClhe, and pallwe ' 
 Ail,ve Understanding, Intdkihe, agm f they hold, that 
 faculty of the foul by which the fpecies and inures of in- 
 telligible things are framed, on occafion of the pretence of 
 phantafms or appearances thereof._For, maintaining the 
 inte Heft to be immaterial, they hold it impoflible it fhould 
 be difpofed to flunk by any difproportion.ue. phantafms of 
 mere body, and therefore that it is obliged to frame other 
 proportionate fpeces of itfelf j and hence its denomination 
 active. 
 
 Pafive Understanding, InttUtBut totUru, is that which 
 receiving the fpecies framed by the atliv, undemanding, 
 breaks forth into aflual knowledge. 
 
 The moderns fet afide the Peripatetic notion of an allive un- 
 derJta„d,ng.— \ he Cartefians define the undemanding to be 
 that faculty, whereby the mind com-erfing with and as it 
 were, intent on itfelf, evidently knows what is true in any 
 thing not exceeding its capacity. 
 
 The corpufcular philofophers define the under jlandin, to be 
 . a faculty, expreflive of things which ftrike on the external 
 lenfcs, either by their images, or their effects, and fo enter 
 the mind. — 1 heir great doctrine is, Nihil effe in imtlllUu 
 quod noupnu, fucril i„ J„,Ju ; and to this doctrine our fa- 
 
 fubferibe r ^ m ° ft E " Sm f hlloC "P hc ' s - 
 
 The Cartefians cry out aloud againft it, and between thefe 
 and the Corpulcularians there is this farther difference, that 
 the latter make the judgment to belong to the nnderllandin. ■ 
 but the former to the will. 6 
 Hence, according to the molt approved opinion of the Cor- 
 pufcularians, the under/landing has two offices, via. percep- 
 tion, mi judgment ; according to the Cartefians it has on'iv 
 one, viz. perception. 1 
 
 Understanding is alfo ufed for the aft, exercife or exer- 
 tion of this faculty ; or the action whereby the mind knows 
 things, or feprefents them in idea to itfelf 
 
 UNDERTAKERS, were antienlly fuch perfons as were 
 employed by the king's purveyors, and acted as their de- 
 puties. 
 
 At prefent, the name is chiefly ufed for upholders, or per- 
 fons who furnifh out funerals. — And alfo for fuch as un- 
 "irtakemy great work, as the draining of fens, &c . Stat. 
 
 UNDER-TREASURER of England, Vice-llefaurarius 
 Anglia, an officer mentioned in the Stat. 39 Eli?., c. 7. and 
 whom levcral other ftatutcs confound with trcafurer of the 
 Exchequer. 
 
 He cheited up the king's treafure at the end of every term 
 and noted the content of money in each cheft, and taw it 
 carried to the king's treafury in the Tower, for the eafe of 
 the lord trcafurer, &c. 
 
 In the vacancy of the lord treaturer's office, he alfo did every 
 thing in the receipt, that the lord treafurer himfelf does. See 
 
 UNDER-WOOD, fub-lefcus, is coppice, or any wood that 
 
 is not accounted timber 
 UNDULATION, in phyfics, a kind of tremulous mo- 
 tion, or vibration, obfervable in a liquid ; whereby it alter- 
 nately rifes and tails, like the waves of the fea*. 
 * And hence it is that the term takes its rife from the Latin 
 undo, wave. * 
 
 This undulatory motion, if the liquid be fmooth, and at reft 
 is propagated in concentric circles, as moil people have ob' 
 ferved upon throwing a ftone, or other matter upon the fur- 
 face of a ftagnant water, or even upon touching the furface 
 of the water lightly with the finger, or the like. 
 The reafon of thefe circular undulation, is, that by touch- 
 ing the furface with the linger, there is produced a depref- 
 fion of the water in the place of contact. — By this depref- 
 fion the fubjacent parts are moved fucceffively out of their 
 place, and the other adjacent parts thruff upwards, which 
 lying fucceffively on the defcending liquid, follow it; and 
 thus the parts of the liquid arc alternately raited and de- 
 prefTed, and that circularly. 
 
 When a ftone is thrown into the liquid, the reciprocal vibra- 
 tions are more confpicuous : here the water in the place of 
 immerfion rifing higher, by means of the impulfe or re- 
 bound, till it comes to fall again, gives an impulfe to the 
 adjoining liquid, by which means that is likewife raited a- 
 bout the place of the Hone, as about a centre, and forms 
 the firft undulous circle ; this falling again, gives another im- 
 pulfe to the fluid next to it further from the centre, which 
 rifes likewife in a circle ; and thus, fucceffively, greater and 
 greater circles are produced. 
 Undulatory Motion, is likewife applied to a motion in the 
 air, whereby its parts are agitated after the like manner as 
 waves in the fea ; as is fuppofed to be the cafe when the 
 firing of a mufical inltrument is flruck. 
 This undulatory motion of the air, is fuppofed the matter or 
 caufe of found. See Sound. 
 
 Inflead 
 
U N I 
 
 Mead of the undulatoy, feme authors thufc to call this a 1 
 
 alfo ufed, in chirurgery, for a nation 
 fuine in the matter contained in an abfcefs, upon iqueezing 
 it _A tumour is faid to be in a condition for opening, wnen 
 one perceives the undulation. 
 UNEQUAL Courfes. 1 ^ ^ ^ $ 
 Unequal Hours. 5 (Hour. 
 UNEVEN Number. See the article Number. 
 UNG ELD *, in our antient cuftoms, a perfon out oi the pro- 
 te£tion of the hw; fo that if he were murdered, no geld, or 
 fine, was to be paid in the way of compenfation by him 
 that killed him. 
 * The word is compounded of the negative un, xt&gildan, to 
 pay. See Geld, and ^Estimatio Caputs. 
 67 Frithman, i. e. bom pads, fugiet &f repugned E? > 
 ^ ; ft oeddatur jaceat ungeld, i. e. no pecuniary com- 
 penfation fhall be made for his death. Sknmer. — Ungttchi 
 akcre, mentioned in Brompton, has much the lame hgniti- 
 cation, viz. where any man was killed, attempting any fe- 
 lony, he was to lie in the field unburied, and no pecuniary 
 compenfation was to be made for his death. 
 UNGUENT, Unguentum, Ointment, in chirurgery, a 
 topical remedy, or competition, chiefly ufed in the drefling 
 of wounds and ulcers. 
 
 Unguents, liniments, and cerats, are external forms, applied 
 on divers parts of the body, both to cure, and to eafe and 
 relieve them. — They only differ from each other in their 
 confiftence; with regard to which, unguents hold the medi- 
 um ; being ftiffer than liniments, but fofter than cerats. 
 Oils are ordinarily the bafes of all three ; to which are added 
 wax, axungia, and feveral parts of plants, animals, and mi- 
 nerals ; both on account of the virtues they furnifh, and to 
 give a confiftence to the oils, and to keep them longer on 
 the part, that they may have more time to act. 
 The principal unguents, or ointments, are, unguentum al- 
 bum, or white unguent of cerufs ; populneurn, made of the 
 buds of the poplar tree, &P. Unguentum bafilicum, a fuppura- 
 tive ; ungucnturn /Egypt/acum, a mild cauftic ; unguentum 
 aureum, incarnative, and cicatrizing. — Pomatums are alfo 
 ranked in the number of unguents. See Pomatum. 
 
 UNGUIS, a Latin term, fignifying a nail of the hand or 
 foot. See Nai L. 
 
 Unguis, in medicine, a difeafe of the eye; being a whitifh 
 fpeck on the adnata, formed of a nervous excrefcence grow- 
 in"- on that coat ; beginning at the great canthus, fome- 
 what of the ibape and fize of a nail of the hand, and 
 fprcading infenfibly till it reach the pupil, and at laft quite 
 cover it. 
 
 The unguis is much of the fame nature with the pterygium 
 and pannus. 
 
 The ordinary caufe of the unguis is an excefiive acrimony 
 in the tears, which corrode the tunica conjunctiva ; as is 
 often the cafe in an ophthalmia, or after the fmall-pox. 
 Unguis, in anatomy, is applied to two bones of the nofe, be- 
 ing as thin as fcales, and refembling the nail ; whence their 
 name. 
 
 The ungues are the fmalleft bones in the upper jaw, and are 
 fituate clofe to the great canthus of the eyes. 
 Some authors call them ojfa lachrytnalia, but improperly; 
 there being no glandula lachrymalis in the canthus. Others 
 call them orbiiaria ojfa. 
 
 They are contiguous to four other bone?, viz. the coronal, 
 that of the nofe, the maxillary, and that part of the cthmoides 
 which forms the orbit. 
 Unguis, or Unguiculus, among botanifts and florifts, de- 
 notes a little fpeck, of a different colour from the reft of the 
 petala, or leaves of flowers. 
 
 It has the figure of a nail of the hand : its place is at the 
 origin, or root of thofc petals ; as we fee in the rofe, poppy- 
 flowers, and divers others. 
 
 In preparing of medicine?, the ungues, or unguicuH, are 
 pulled oft' the flowers that enter the fame. 
 
 Unguis Odoratus. See Blatt a Bizantia, 
 
 UNGULA, in geometry, is the fe£tion of a cylinder, cut 
 off" by a plane patting obliquely through the plane of the 
 bafe, and part of the cvlindric furface. 
 
 Ungula, in natural hiftory, the claw, or hoof of a qua- 
 druped. See Hoof. 
 
 Ungula Aids, the elk's claw. See the article Elk. 
 
 Ungula, or Hamus, among furgeons, a fort of hooked 
 initrument, wherewithal to extract a dead fcetus out of the 
 womb. 
 
 UNICORN, in natural hiftory, an animal famous among; the 
 Greek authors, under the name of u,ovaxif&ii ; and among 
 the Latins, under that of unieornu. 
 
 Both thefe names it takes from its diftinguifhing charaiterif- 
 tic, the having one horn only ; which is reprefented as five 
 palms long, and growing in the middle of the forehead. 
 This animal claims a place here, not only as it makes a 
 curious article in natural hiftory, but alfo as it, nominally 
 at leaft, furnifhes ibinething to medicine, commerce, and 
 heraldry. 
 
 UNI 
 
 The popular account is, that it is about the fize of a horfe, 
 its hair lhort, and of a dark-brown colour; very timcrous 
 and therefore keeping moftly in the woods 5 and that its 
 true place is the province of Agoas, in the kingdom of Da- 
 motes, in Ethiopia. 
 
 The firft author who wrote of the unicorn, was one Crcfius, 
 whom Ariitotlc mentions as a very iufpicious author : ./Elian 
 only fpeaks of it in very doubtful terms. — The other wri- 
 ters on the fubjecr. are Philoftratus, and Solinus ; iEncas Syl- 
 vius, who is pope Pius II. Marcus P^ulus, Aleofius, Gefner, 
 Garcias ab Orta, And. Marinus, EsV. Of thefe, fome fay 
 it refembles a horfe, others an afs, others a goat, by its 
 beard; others an elephant, others a rhinoceros, others a 
 greyhound, iSe. 
 
 Munfter and Thcvct will have it an amphibious animal, and 
 its horn to be moveable at pleafure. — Others make all its 
 ftrength to confift in its horn ; and add, that when purfued 
 by the hunters, it precipitates itfelf from the tops of the 
 highcir. rocks, and pitches upon its hoin ; which fuftains the 
 whole effort of its fall, fo that it receives no damage there- 
 by. — In effetSt, the feveral authors do all give feveral ac- 
 counts of the figure and colour, both of the animal, and of 
 its horn, and all its parts. — And hence the more knowing a- 
 mong the moderns, do unanimoufly hold it a merely fabu- 
 lous animal. 
 
 The legend adds, that it is wonderful fond of chafte perfons 3 
 and therefore, in order to take it, a virgin is placed in its 
 way ; whom when the unicorn fpics, he lies down by her 
 and lays his head on her lap, and fo falls afiecp ; upon which 
 the virgin making a fignal, the hunters come in, and take 
 the beaft ; which could never be caught any other way, be- 
 caufe it would either call itfelf headlong from a rock, or die. 
 What ordinarily pafTes among us for unicorn's horn, and is 
 fbewn for fuch in the collections of curiofities, and ufed for 
 fuch by feveral phyficians, we are allured by Pereyra, in his 
 account of Greenland, &c. is the tooth of a large filh of the 
 whale kind, called by the iflanders nanval ; frequent enough 
 in the icy fea. This tooth, or horn, turned, channelled, 
 and terminating in a point, as it is, fprings out of the mid- 
 dle of the fore-part of the upper jaw, where it has a root a 
 foot long, as thick as the horn itfelf: it is the only tooth the 
 animal has in the upper jaw, and ferves it as a weapon of de- 
 fence, wherewith it dares to attack the largeft whale.* — It 
 can ftrike it with fuch violence, as even to pierce the fide 
 of a ftrong-built fhip. * 
 * The horn of a narwal caught in 1736 in a creek of the 
 Elbe, in the dutchy of Bremen, arofe, as Dr Hampe allures 
 us, from the fore-part of the head, juil above the mouth, and 
 was fix foot long, white like ivory, and curioufly twilled. — 
 Yet Wbrmius, and the generality of authors, rake it for a 
 tooth. Many hold irs chief ufc is to break the ice. Dr Stei- 
 gartahl rather imagines it to ferve for feeking its food; and 
 mentions a whale caught in Greenland, in the belly of which 
 a narwal had ftuck his tooth up to the mouth, and had fuck'd 
 the blood and humours, Vid. Pbil. Tranf. Numb. 447. p. 147, 
 & p. 149. feq. 
 
 There is a fine horn of this kind prcferved in the repofitory 
 of S. Denis at Paris, given by And.Thevet, and pretended 
 to have been a prefent to him from the king of Monomotapa, 
 who carried him to hunt the unicorn ; which is frequent in 
 that country : this horn fome have fufpefted to be an ele- 
 phant's tooth, carved in that manner' — At Strafbourg there 
 is another, between feven and eight feet long. — In the rc- 
 pofitory at Venice, there is a good number; all different 
 from each other. 
 
 The antients held the unicorn's horn to be a countcr-poifon ; 
 and, that the animal ufed to dip it in the water, to purify 
 and fwceten it ere it would drink : it is added, that for the 
 fame reafon other bcafts wait to fee this creature drink before 
 them. — Thence, as alfo from the rarity of the thing, people 
 have taken occalion to attribute divers medicinal virtues 
 thereto. 
 
 But Amb. Pare has proved it a mere piece of charlctancry, 
 and all the virtues attributed to it to be falfe; and yet the 
 price it has bore is almoft. incredible : Andrea Racci, a phy- 
 fician of Florence, affirms the pound of 16 ounces to have 
 been at one time fold, in the apothecaries {hops, for 1536 
 crowns, when the fame weight of gold was only worth one 
 hundred forty eight crowns. 
 
 The unicorn is one of the fupporters of the arms of England, 
 — This beaft is reprefented, by heralds, paffant, and fome- 
 times rampant — When in this laft a£iion, as in the Engliih 
 arms, it is properly faid to befailiant. — Argent, an unicorn 
 feiant fable, armed and unguled, or, borne by the name of 
 Harding. 
 
 UNIFORM, Un i for m i s, denotes a thing to be fimilar, 
 or confiftent either with another thing, or with itfelf, in rc- 
 fpec~t of figure, ftruclure, proportion, and the like. — in 
 which fenfe it ftands oppofed to difform. 
 
 Uniform, or Equable Motion. See the article Motion. 
 
 U n 1 for M Flovjers of plants, are fuch as are of the fame figure 
 all around, having their fore and back parts, as alfo their 
 right and left parts, exactly alike. 
 
 Whan 
 
U N I 
 
 U N I 
 
 When they are othcrwife, they are termed diffotm flow- 
 ers. 
 
 Uniform Temperament. See the article Temperament. 
 
 UNIFORMITY, Regularity, a fimilitude or refemblance 
 between the parts of a whole.' — Such is that we meet withal 
 in figures of many fides, and angles refpedtively equal, and 
 anfwerable to each other. 
 
 A late ingenious author makes beauty to confift in uniformity, 
 joined or combined with variety. 
 
 Where the uniformity is equal in two objects, the beauty, he 
 contends, is as the variety ; and where the variety is equal, 
 the beauty is as the uniformity. 
 
 Uniformity, is particularly ufed for one and the fame form 
 of public prayers, and admlnifiration of facraments, and other 
 rites, &c. of the church of England, prefcribed by the famous 
 flat, i Eliz. and 14 Car. II. called the A£i of uniformity. 
 
 UNION, a junction, coalition, or aflemblage of two or more 
 different things in one. — Philolbphers are exceedingly to feek 
 about the manner of the union of foul and body, or by what 
 medium it is that two fuch heterogeneous beings are kept fo 
 clofely together? — It is one of the great laws of this union, 
 that fuch and fuch an impreffion on the brain be followed by 
 fuch and fuch a fenfation, or perception in the foul. 
 
 Union, in a plhlofophical fenfe, is ufed, by Dr Grew, for 
 one of the three ways of mixture ; being the joining together 
 of atoms, or infenfible particles, fo as to touch in a plane : as 
 is fuppofed to be the cafe in the cryftallizations of falts, and 
 the like bodies. 
 
 Union, among painters, exprefles a fymmetry and agreement 
 between the feveral parts of a painting ; when, e, gr. there 
 is a deal of relation and connection between them, both as to 
 the figuring, and the colouring: fo that they apparently con- 
 fpire to form one thing. 
 
 Union, in architecture, may denote a harmony between the 
 colours in the materials of a building. 
 
 Union, in an ecclefiaftical fenfe, denotes a combining or con- 
 folidating of two churches into one. 
 
 This is not to be done without the confent both of the bifhop, 
 the patron, and the incumbent. 
 
 The canoniils diftmguifh three kinds of union : that of accejfi- 
 ou, that of confufion, and that of equality. 
 
 Union of Acceffion, is the moft ufua! : by this the united bene- 
 fice becomes a member, and accefTory of the principal. 
 
 Union by Confufion, is that where the two titles are fupprcfTed, 
 and a new one created, iucluding both. 
 
 Union of Equality, is that where the two titles fubfift ; but 
 are equal, and independent. 
 
 By flat. 37 Henry VIII. it is enacted, " That an union, or 
 " confolidation of two churches may be admitted, provided 
 " the annual value of one of them, in the king's books, do 
 * e not exceed 61. and the diftance between them, be not a- 
 *' hove one mile." — And by another, ftat. 17 Car. II. it is 
 enaCted, " That the union of two churches, or chapels, In 
 " any city or town, by the bifhop, patron, and chief magif- 
 « trate of the town, fhall be valid, unlefs the value of the 
 ** churches fo united exceed ioo/." 
 
 Hypoflatical Union. See the article Hv postatical. 
 
 Union, or the Union, by way of eminence, Is more particu- 
 larly ufed, among us, to exprefs the act whereby the twofe- 
 parate kingdoms of England and Scotland were incorporated 
 into one, under the title of the kingdom of Great Britain. 
 This happy union, in vain attempted by king James I. was at 
 length effected in the year 1707, by the general confent of 
 the queen, and the cftates of each realm. 
 The act, or treaty of union, coniifts of twenty-five articles ; 
 which eleven Englilh commiffioners, and eleven Scotch ones, 
 examined, approved, and figncd on the third ofAuguft 1706. 
 ■ — The parliament of Scotland approved it on the fourth of 
 February, 1707 ; and the parliament of England, on the 
 tenth of March, in the fame year. — On the 1 7th following, 
 the queen went to parliament, where fhe approved the fame 
 treaty, with the act of ratification. 
 
 Since that time, there is only one privy council, and one par- 
 liament for the two kingdoms : thcScotifh parliament is fup- 
 preiled, or, rather fuper-added to the Englilh ; both of them 
 only conftituting one, under the title of the parliament of 
 Great Britain. 
 
 '! he Dumber of members which, by the articles of the union, 
 the Scots are to fend into the houfe of commons, to reprefent 
 the commons of that country, are 45 ; and the number of 
 peers, whereby their peerage is lu be reprefented, is 16. 
 The great officers of the crown of Scotland, before the union, 
 where the lord high chancellor, lord high thefaurer, or trea- 
 surer, lord privy-feal. and lord rcgifter. — Their lefier officers 
 of ftate were, the lord regifter, lord advocate, lord thefaurer 
 depute, and lord jufiice-derk. 
 
 The four firft officers aredifiolved by the union, and inftead 
 thereof new officers are erected, ferving for both countries, 
 under the title of lord high chancellor of Great Britain, &c. 
 —The four latter officers ftill fubfift. 
 
 Unions, Uniones, in phyfiology, the fame with margarita, 
 or pearls. See Pearl. 
 
 UNISON, in mufic, is the effect of two founds, which are 
 equal, in degree of tune, or in point of gravity, and acutenefs. 
 Unifon may be defined a confonance of two founds, produced 
 by two firings, or other bodies of the fame matter, length, 
 thicknefs, and tenfion, equally (truck, and at the fame time; 
 fo that they yield the fame tone, or note. 
 Or, it is the union of two founds, fo like each other, that 
 the ear perceiving no difference, receives them as one and 
 the fame found. See Sound. 
 
 What conftitutes unifonance, is the equality of the number of 
 vibrations of the two fonorous bodies in equal times; where 
 there is an inequality in that refpect ; and, of confequence, art 
 inequality in degree of tune, the unequal founds constitute 
 an interval. 
 
 Unifon is the firft and greateft of concords ; and the founda- 
 tion, or, as fome call it, the mother of all the reft : yet others 
 deny it to be any concord at all, maintaining it to be only 
 that in founds, which unity is in numbers. 
 Thefe reftrain the word concord to intervals, and make it in- 
 clude a difference of tune ; but this is precarious: for as the 
 word concord fignifies an agreement of founds, it is certainly 
 applicable to unifons in the firft degree. 
 But though unijonance, or an equality of tune, makes the 
 moft perfect agreement of found; it is not true that the 
 nearer any two founds come to an cqualit) of tune, they are 
 the more agreeable. — .The mind is delighted with variety ; 
 and the reafon of the agreeable nefs, or difagreeablenefs of two 
 founds, muft be afcribed to fome other caufe tli^n the equa- 
 lity, or inequality of the number of their vibrations. 
 It is a famed phenomenon in mufic, that an intenfe found 
 being raifed, either with the voice, or a fonorous body, ano- 
 ther fonorous body near it, whofe tune is either unifon, or 
 octave to that found, will found its proper note unifon, or 
 octave, to the given note. — The experiment is eafily tried by 
 the fixings of two inftruments; or by a voice, and aharpfi- 
 chord ; or a bell, or even a drinking-glafs. 
 This our philofophers account for thus: one firing being 
 ftruck, and the air put in motion thereby ; every other ftrinc 
 within the reach of that motion, will receive fome imprefiion 
 therefrom : but each firing can only move with a determinate 
 velocity of recourfes, or vibrations ; and all unifons proceed 
 from equal, or equidiurnal vibrations ; and other concords 
 from other proportions. — The unifon firing, then, keeping 
 equal pace with the founded firing, as having the fame mca- 
 fure of vibrations, muft have its motion continued, and ftill 
 improved, till its motion become fenfible, and it o-ive a di- 
 ftinct found. Other concording firings have their motions 
 propagated in different degrees, according to the frequency of 
 the coincidence of their vibrations, with ihofe of the founded 
 firing: the octave, therefore, moft fenfibly ; then the fifth ; 
 after which, the croffing of the motions prevents any effect. 
 This they illuftrate by the pendulum; which being fet a 
 moving, the motion may be continued and augmented, by 
 making frequent, light, coincident impulfes; as blowing on 
 it when the vibration is juft finithed : but if it be touched by 
 any crofs or oppofite motion, and this, too, frequently; the 
 motion will be interrupted, and ceafe altogether. — So, of 
 two unifon firings, if the one be forcibly ftruck, it communi- 
 cates motion, by the air, to the other : and both being equidi- 
 urnal in their vibrations, that is, finifbing them precifely toge- 
 ther, the motion of that other will be improved and heighten- 
 ed, by the frequent impulfes received from the vibrations of the 
 firft, becaufe given precifely when that other has finifiied its 
 vibration, and is ready to return : but if the vibrations of the 
 chords be unequal in duration, there will be a croffing of 
 motions, lefs or more, according to the proportion of the in- 
 equality ; by which the motion of the untouched firing will 
 be io checked, as never to be fenfible. And this we find is 
 the cafe in all confonances, except unifon, octave, and the 
 fifth. See Chord. 
 UNIT, Unite, or Unity, in arithmetic, the number one- y 
 or one fingle individual part of difcrcte quantity. See Num- 
 ber. 
 
 If a number confift of four or five places, that which is out- 
 ermoft towards the right hand, is called the place of units. 
 Number, in general, is by Euclid defined to be (*o>a3w n-cj-o- 
 t>k, a multitude, or aggregate of units ; but in this fenfe, unity 
 is not a number. 
 UNITARIANS, a name affumed by the new Antitrinita- 
 rians ; as making profeffion to prefervc the glory and attribute 
 of divinity to the one, only great and fupreme God, and 
 Father of our Lord jefus Chrift. 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 UNITED 
 
U N I 
 
 UNITED Affection. See the article Affection. 
 
 UNITY, Unitas, the abftraft, or quality, which confti- 
 tutcs, or denominates a thing unum, or one. . , 
 The fchool philofophers generally define unity, by a things 
 bein» undivided in itfelf, and divided from every thing ellc. 
 — Others, more accurately, define it, a mode of being, 
 whereby it agrees to any particular being, once : 
 two-kinds of unity, viz. unit) of flmpheity, which is both un- 
 divided and indivifible , fuch as that of God, angels and hu- 
 man fouls : the other, union of ccnpcfitien, which, though 
 undivided, is divifible in the being, as confining of divers 
 parts: fuch is that of man, Sr. . 
 Hence, unity is alfo divided into that per ft .which agrees to 
 any being whofe parts are colleSed into one fubftratum ; and 
 unity per aecidens, whofe parts are not united into one fub- 
 ftratum . as that of a flock of fheep, far. _ 
 Some alfo make a fmgular, or numeral unity, and an uni- 
 verfal unity; a red, and imaginary unity, &c. 
 It is difputed among mathematicians whether or no unity be 
 a number? -The D generalit y of authors hold the ncgauvc, 
 and make unity to be only inceptive of number or the prin- 
 ciple thereof; as a point is of magnitude, and an umjon of 
 
 concord. .. . , ... Listi' . 
 
 Stennus is very angry with the maintained of this opinion . 
 and vet if number be defined a multitude ot units joined to- 
 gether, as many authors define it, it is evident that unity is 
 not itfelf a number. 
 
 Unity, among divines. —The Romanifts, and the reformed 
 difpute, whether or no the church be one fmgle body, all 
 the members whereof are joined together, either really or in 
 inclination ; fo that whatever does not appertain to that body, 
 is no part of the church: which is what they call the unit, 
 of the church I and which the Romanifts maintain to be rt- 
 ftrained to one lingle foeiety, or one communion, under one 
 vifrblehead , and out of which the Proteftants are excluded ! 
 Thefe laft, on the contrary, hold, that the unity of the church 
 mav ffill fubfift, without the members being united under any 
 one vifible head ; it being fufficient, that all Chrlffians be 
 united by the bonds of mutual love, and chanty; and that 
 they be awed in the fundamental points of religion. 
 All the difficulty is, to fix what thofe fundamentals are ; fome 
 inclining to make the door of the church wider than others. 
 
 Unity, in poetry. — In the drama there are three unities to 
 be observed ; the unity of action, that of time, and that of 
 place. . r 
 
 In the epic poem, the great and a'moft only unity, is that ot 
 the aaion. — Some regard, indeed, ought to be had to that 
 of time : but that of place there is no room for.— The uni- 
 ty of charafler is not reckoned among the unities. 
 The unity of the dramatic aaion, confifts in the unity of the 
 intrigue in comedy, and that of the danger in tragedy; and 
 this not only in the plan of the fable, but alfo in the fable 
 extended and filled with epifodes. 
 
 The epifodes are to be woiked in, without corrupting the 
 unity, or forming a double a£tion ; and the feveral members 
 are to be fo connected together, as to be confident with that 
 continuity of adtion fo neceffary to the body; and which 
 Horace prefcribes, when he fays, — Sit quodvis fimplex dun- 
 tdxat £tf unum. 
 
 The unity of the epic aaion, M. Dacier obferves, does not 
 confift in the unity of the hero, or in the unity of his cha- 
 racter, and manners ; though thofe be circumftances neceffary 
 
 thereto. The unity of anion requires, that there be but one 
 
 principal aaion, of which all the reft are to be incidents, or 
 dependencies. 
 
 F. Boffu affigns three things requifite thereto : the firft, that 
 no epifode be ufed, but what is fetched from the plan, and 
 ground of the aaion, and which is a natural member of that 
 body: the fecond, that thefe epifodes and members be well 
 conneaed with each other : The third is, not to finifh any 
 epifode, fo as it may appear a whole aaion ; but to let each 
 be always feen in its quality of member of the body, and an 
 unfinifhed part. 
 
 The fame excellent critic examines the /Eneid, Iliad, and 
 Odyffce, with refpea to thefe rules, and finds them ftriQly 
 
 obferved. Indeed, it was from the condua of thofe divine 
 
 poems, that he took the hint of the rules themfelves. fi- 
 nances wherein thefe rules are all neglected, he gives us in 
 fitatius's Thehaid. 
 
 To the unity of time, it is required, in the drama, that the 
 aaion be included in the fpace of a day. — Ariftotle faysex- 
 prefsly, it muft not exceed the time the fun employs in making 
 one revolution, which is a natural day, under pain of irregu- 
 larity : fome critics will even have it included in the fpace of 
 twelve hours, or an artificial day. 
 
 Indeed, the antient tragic poets fometimes difpenfed with this 
 rule ; and the modern Englifh ones many of them difallow 
 it : and very few of them praaife it. 
 In the epic poem, the unity of time is ftill lefs eftablifhed : 
 
 U N I 
 
 In effecT:, there is no fixing the time of its duration ; in regard, 
 the warmer and more violent the action is, the lefs muft be its 
 continuance: Whence it is, that the Iliad, rcprefenting the 
 anger of Achilles, only contains forty feven days at moft ; 
 whereas the a&ion of the Odyffce holds eight years and an half, 
 and that of the Mncid almolt feven years, 
 But the length of the poem Ariftotle gives us a rule for ; 
 which is, that it be fuch as it may be read over in one day: 
 pretending, that if it exceeds that compafs, the imagination 
 will be bewildered in it, and that one cannot fee the end, 
 without having loft the idea of the beginning. 
 As to the tonitj of plate and fcem, neither Horace nor Ari- 
 ftotle gives us any rules relating thereto. — It were to be 
 wifhed, indeed, that what is prefented to the audience on the 
 fame ftage, which is never ihifted, might be fuppofed to have 
 palled in the fame houfe, and the fame apartment. — But as 
 fuch a conftraint would cramp the poet too much ; and as 
 fuch an uniformity would fuit very ill with abundance of 
 fubje£is ; it has been agreed, that what panes any where in 
 the fame town or city, lhall be allowed for unity of place. — 
 At leaft, if two different places be unavoidable ; yet the place 
 is never to be changed in the fame a£t. 
 Unity of poffejfton, in law, fignifies a joint poueffion of two 
 rights, by feveral titles. 
 
 Thus, if I take a leafe of land upon a certain rent, and af- 
 terwards buy the fee funple ; this is an unity of pojfejfion, 
 whereby the leafe is extinguifhed : by reafon I, who before 
 had only the occupation for my rent, am now become lord 
 of the fame, and. am to pay rent to none but mjfelf. 
 Unity of poffejfwi, amounts to the fame with what civilians 
 called conj 'oil elation. 
 UNIVERSAL *, fomething that is common to many 
 things : or it is one thing belonging to many, or all things. 
 * The word, according to fome, is compouuded of unum verfus 
 alia. 
 
 There are univcrfal hiflruments, for mcafuring all kinds of 
 diffances, as hcighths, lengths, ts'c. called alio pantometers, 
 and bolometers. 
 
 An univcrfal dial, is that whereby the hour may be found by 
 the fun all over the earth ; or under any elevation of the 
 pole. 
 
 Several learned authors have had it- in view, to eftablim an 
 univerfal cbaracler ; by which the different nations might un- 
 derftand each other's writings, without learning their lan- 
 guage. 
 
 The Romanifts are divided among themfelves, about the title 
 of univerfal bijhop, which fome of the popes have arrogated to 
 themfelves ; though others of them have declined it. — Baro- 
 nius holds the appellation to belong to the pope jure divino ; 
 and yet S. Gregory, oppoling the fame quality given by a 
 council in 5 R6, to John, patriarch of Constantinople, avert- 
 ed exprefsly, that it did not belong to any bifhop ; and that 
 the bifhops of Rome could not, nor ought not to take it — . 
 Accordingly, S. Leo refufed to accept it, when offered him 
 by the council of Chalcedon; for fear, leaft giving fomething 
 particular to one biihop, they fhould take from all the reft ; 
 ftnee there could not be an univerfal bijhop, but the autho- 
 rity of the reft muft be diminifhed. 
 Universal, Universale, in logic, is either complex, or 
 incomplex. — A complex univerfal, is either an univerfal pro- 
 portion, as, " Every whole is greater than its part or what- 
 ever raifes a manifold conception in the mind; as the defini- 
 tion of a reafonable animal. 
 
 An 'incomplex univerfal, is what produces one only conception 
 in the mind, and is a fimple thing, refpedting many ; as hu- 
 man nature, which relates to every individual wherein it is 
 found. 
 
 According to the various order and refpect this univerfal has 
 to many, there are feven modes thereof afligned, viz. 
 Univerfals in cauftng, fuch are the common efficient caufts 
 of divers efFecls ; as God, the fun, &c. See Cause, EsV. — 
 Univerfals in dijlributing, fuch are common, or univerfal 
 figns ; as all, none, &c. — Univerjals in knozv'ing, which 
 know all things ;, as the underftanding, EsV. — Univerfals in 
 rcprefenting, fuch are images, or ideas of univerfal things ; 
 as the idea of a houfe, of a man, tSc. — Univerfals in ftgni- 
 fying, fuch are common words, fignifying many things ; as 
 animal, ftone, ts'c, — Univerfals in being, or ex'ifling, arc 
 natures exifling in feveral; as humanity in Peter, Paul, Este. 
 — And, Univerfals in predicating, which exift in many 
 things, and are i'eparately predicated of them all ; as, ens, and 
 unum : thefe are alfo called logical univerfals. 
 All thefe kinds of univerfals, the two laft only excepted, are 
 not univerfals in themfelves, but only with refpec't to their 
 objects, caufed, rcprefenicd, &c. So that what we chiefly 
 confider as univerfals, i-rethe univerfalia in effendo , and^TVr- 
 dicando. 
 
 Now in an univerfal, they diftinguifh two things, the mat- 
 ter, called the material univerfal, univerfale materiale, which 
 is the one nature umltipliable in many ; as humanity in Pe- 
 
U N I 
 
 U N I 
 
 ter, Paul, feto and the form, called the formal univerfal, 
 which is the unity of that nature. 
 
 Wherefore, to conftitute an univerfal, it Is requifite the na- 
 ture be one, yet muki pliable : but what fuch a nature is, has 
 proved matter of great controveriy, both among the antient 
 and modern philolbphers. 
 
 The Platonifts will have univerfah to be nothing but divine 
 ideas. — Now by idea they mean the pattern or form which 
 the artificer has in view, when he makes any thing : but as 
 this is two-fold, internal, which is a fort of image of the 
 thing to be done, which the artificer frames in bimfelf $ and 
 external, which is fomething out of himfelf, which the arti- 
 ficer imitates : the philofophers have been infinitely per- 
 plexed, to find which of the two Plato meant. — The Peri- 
 papetics infift he meant the external ; but the Platonifts, and 
 moft of the Chriftian divines, hold for the internal, . 
 The Stoics and Nominalifts hold this in common with the 
 Platonifts, that univerfah are not in the things themfelves, 
 but out of them: The Stoics, particularly, for univerfah, 
 put a kind of formal conceptions, or acts of knowing ; by 
 reafon they reprefent many things at the fame time : e gr. 
 knowledge, representing all men, is, according to the Stoics, 
 an univerfal. 
 
 The Nominalifts make words univerfah', byreafonthe fame 
 word reprefents many things, as the word man reprefents all 
 men : but both Stoics and Nominalifts make univerfah to be 
 fomething extrinfic to things themfelves ; by reafon what- 
 ever exifts, or is produced, is lingular ; fo that there is no 
 univerfal really in things. 
 
 The Peripatetics, however, contend, that there are unlver- 
 fal and common natures in things themfelves ; or that things 
 and natures like each other, form a material univerfal. — 
 But as to the manner wherein they are univerfal, or whence 
 they derive their univerfality, that is, their unity and aptitude 
 of being in many, whether from nature, or from our under- 
 itanding, is great matter of difpute among them. — If they 
 derive that unity, wherein their univerfal form is placed, 
 from nature ; then there is an univerfal a parte rei ; which 
 is the opinion of the Scotifts. 
 
 If they do not derive it from nature, but only from our 
 minds or underftandings, then the doctrine of the Thomifts 
 is allowed j who contend, that a formal univerfal has no 
 other exiftence, but by an act of the intellect. See Tho- 
 mists 
 
 Universal Caufe. 
 Universal Charatlers. 
 Universal Gonfumption, 
 Universal Executor. 
 Universal Geography. 
 Universal Gravity. 
 Universal Maps. 
 Universal Pa/fey. 
 Universal Rhaumatifm, 
 Universal Ring-dial. 
 Unive«sal Syjlem. 
 Universal Theorem. 
 
 p>See 
 
 Cause. 
 Character. 
 Consumption. 
 Executor. 
 Geography. 
 Or a vi t y. 
 Map. 
 Palsy. 
 
 Rheumatism, 
 
 RiNG-O/W. 
 
 System. 
 Theor em. 
 
 UNIVERSALISTS, in polemical divinity, an appella- 
 tion, given to fuch as hold an univerjel grace ; in like manner 
 as the denomination particularijh, is given to thofe who hold 
 a particular and efficacious grace. 
 
 The Arminians are particularly denominated itniverfalijls. 
 See Ar mini an. 
 UNIVERSALITY, the quality that denominates a thing 
 univerfal. 
 
 The Catholics affert the umverfality of their church, both as 
 to time, and perfons ; and maintain this to be a note or 
 mark of the true church ; which diftinguifhes it from all 
 other focieties that pretend to the name. 
 
 Universality, in the fchools — Logicians make two kinds 
 of univerfality ; the one metaphyfual, the other moral. 
 
 Metaphyfical Universality, is that which excepts nothing : 
 as this propofition, " Every man is mortal." 
 
 Mo^/Universality, is that which admits of fome excep- 
 tion : as, " Al! old men praife the times paft." — In fuch like 
 proportions, it is enough that the thing be ordinarily fo ; it 
 not being ftrietly required, that every old man mould be of 
 that difpofition. 
 
 UNIVERSE, a collective name, fignifying the whole 
 world, or the afTemblage of heaven and earth, wiih all 
 things therein : called by the Greeks, to mm t and by the 
 Latins, mundus. 
 
 The antients, and after them the Cartefians, imagine the 
 univerfe to be infinite. — The reafon they give, is, that it 
 implies a contradiction to fuppofe it finite, or bounded ; 
 fince it is impoflible not to conceive fpace beyond any li- 
 mits that can be affigned it : which fpace, according to the 
 Cartefians, is body ; and confequently part of the univerfe 
 But that the univerfe is finite, appears from the two fol- 
 lowing confiderations. — ift, That whatever confifts of parts, 
 cannot be infinite ; ftnee the parts that compofe it, mult be 
 
 finite, either in number or magnitude ; which if they be, 
 what they compoie muft be fo too ; or, zdly, they muft be 
 infinite in number or magnitude ; but an infinite number is 
 a contradiction, and to fuppofe the parts infinitely big, is to 
 fuppofe feveral infinites, one bigger than another ; winch, 
 though it may pafs among mathematicians, who only argue- 
 about infinites, in p s J e , or j„ imagination, will not be al- 
 lowed in philofophy. 
 UNIVERSITY, Universitas, a colleaive term, ap- 
 plied to an afTemblage of feveral colleges eftablifhed in a city, 
 or town, wherein are profeflbrs in the feveral fciences, ap- 
 pointed to teach them to ftudents ; and where degrees, or 
 certificates of ftudy in the divers faculties, are taken up. 
 In each univerfity, four faculties are ufually taught ; theolo- 
 gy, medicine, law, and the arts and fciences. 
 They are called univerfities, or univerfal fchools, by reafon 
 the four faculties are fuppofed to make the grand world, or 
 whole compafs of ftudy. 
 
 In the eye of the law, an univerfity is held a mere lay body, 
 or community, though, in reality, it be a mixed body, 
 compofed partly of laymen, and partly of ecckliaftics. 
 Univerfities had their firft rife in the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries. — Thofe of Paris and Bologna pretend to be the 
 firft that were fet on foot; but then^they were on a very 
 different footing from the univerfities among us. 
 t he univerfity of Paris is faid to have commenced under 
 Chariemaign, and to owe its rife to four Englishmen, dif- 
 ciples of venerable Bede ; who, going to that city, made a 
 propofal to fet up, ;;nd fell learning ; and accordingly, held 
 their firft !e£tures in places affigned them by that Prince : 
 fuch is the account given by Gaguin, Gilles, de Beauvais, 
 & c - — Though the authors who wrote in thofe days, as 
 Eginhard, Aimon, Rheginon, Sigebert, Etfr, make not the 
 leaft mention of this memorable fact. 
 
 Add, that Pafquier, Du Tillet, £sV. declare openly againft 
 the opinion ; and affert, that the firft foundations were not 
 laid till Louis the young, and Philip Augufte, in the twelfth 
 century. — The earlieft mention we find"made of the univer- 
 fity of Paris, is in Regordus, who lived in that age; and 
 who was cotemporary with Peter Lombard, the mafter of 
 the fentences, the great glory of that univerfity ; in memory 
 of whom, ananniverfary is to this day obferved by that bodv, 
 in the church of S. Marcel, where he lies buried. 
 But it is certain it was not eftablifhed all at once : it ap- 
 pears to have been at firft no other than a public fchool in 
 the cathedral church ; from which it grew, by little and lit- 
 tle, under the favour and protection of the kings, into a 
 regular body. 
 
 In effect, our own univerfities, Oxford and Cambridge, feem 
 intitled to the greateft antiquity of any in the world ; and 
 Univerfity, Baliol, and Merton colleges in Oxford, and Pe- 
 ter's in Cambridge, all made colleges in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, may be faid to be the firft regular endowments of this 
 kind in Europe. 
 
 For though Univerfity college in Cambridge had been a place 
 for ftudents ever fince the year 872, yet this, like many of 
 the other antient colleges beyond fea, and Leyden to this 
 day, was no proper college -, but the ftudents, without any 
 diftinction of habit, lived in citizens houfts ; having only 
 meeting-places to hear lectures, and to difpute. 
 In after-times, there were houfes built for the ftudents to 
 live in fociety ; only each to be at bis own charge, as in the 
 inns of court. — Thefe, at firft, were called inns; but now 
 
 h'alh. 
 
 At laft, plentiful revenues were fettled on feveral of thefe 
 halls, to maintain the ftudents in diet, apparel, Is'c. and 
 thefe were then called colleges. 
 
 The univerfities of Oxford and Cambridge are governed, next 
 under the king, by a chancellor, who is to take care of the 
 government of the whole univerfity, to maintain the liber- 
 ties thereof, is'c. 
 
 Under him is the high Jleward, whofe office is to affift the 
 chancellor, and other officers, when required, in the exe- 
 cution of their offices, and to hear and determine capital 
 caufes, according to the laws of the land, and the privileges 
 of the univerfity. 
 
 The next officer is the vice-chancellor, who officiates for the 
 chancellor in his abfence. — There are alfo two procJors, 
 who affift in the government of the univerfity ; particular- 
 ly in the bufinefs of fchool- exercife, taking up degrees, pu- 
 nifhing violaters of the ftatutes, Eifc. See Proctor. — Add 
 to thefe a public orator, keeper of records, regijler, beadles, 
 and verger. 
 
 For the degrees taken up in each faculty, with the cxer- 
 cifes, ts'c. requifite thereto, fee Degree. 
 UNIVOCAL, in the fchools, is applied to two or more 
 names, or terms, that have but one iignification. — In oppo- 
 fition to equivocal, which is, where one term has two or 
 more fignifications. 
 
 Or, un 'ivocal terms , are fuch whofe name, as well as nature, 
 
v o c 
 
 V O I 
 
 is the fame; in oppofuion to equivocal;, whofe names are 
 the fame, but their natures very different. 
 Fur a thin- to be predicated umwcolly of any others, it is 
 to be attributed to all of them alike, and in the fame pro- 
 per fc rife. See Predicate, and Predicable. 
 m vocal Generation. — The doctrine of the snort* with 
 cefpea to propagation, was, That all perfect animals were 
 produced by univocal generation ; that is, by the fole union, 
 or copulation of a mate and female of the lame fpccies, or 
 denoraination : and, that infers were produced by equivocal 
 Knerationj without any feed, and merely of the corruption 
 of the earth exalted, and, as it were, impregnated by the 
 fun's rays : but this is wholly erroneous. 
 Some pbilofophers make a kind of intermediate generation 
 between equivocal and univocal, which they call analogous 
 
 generation. 
 Univocal Action. 
 Univocal Cauje. j 
 
 UNIVOCALS, called by the Greeks fynonyma, are dehneQ 
 - - • - ■ r and 
 
 j Action. 
 I Cause. 
 
 . See the article | 
 :ks 
 
 by~Ariftotle to be thofe things whofe name is common, ant 
 alio the reafon correfnonding to the name ; that is, the den 
 nition of the idea affixed to it, the fame. 
 Thus, under the name and definition of animal, man and 
 brute arc equally included ; and circle and Iquare, in the 
 reafon or definition of a figure. 
 
 Here, the word, as figure, they ufe to call unlvoeum umvo- 
 cans, or univocating univocal; and the things included under 
 the univocal name, as circle, and fquare, univoca unwocata, 
 univocated univocals. 
 
 UNIVOCATION, in logics, and metaphyfics. — The 
 fchool-men have long difputed about the univocntion of be- 
 ing, i. e. whether the general idea of being agree in the 
 fame manner, and in the fame fenfe, to the Jubilance and 
 the accident; to God, and the creature? 
 
 UNKNOWN. See the article Uncuth. 
 
 UNLAWFUL, illegal, fwnetbing prohibited by, or con- 
 trary to the terms of a law, either divine or human. 
 
 Unlawful Affembly, the meeting of three or more perfons 
 together, by force to commit fome unlawful act; as, to af- 
 fault any peifon, to enter his houfe, or land, 6V. and thus 
 abiding together, whether they attempt the execution, or 
 not. 
 
 By the fiat. 16 Car. II. If five perfons, or more, fhall be 
 afl'embled together, above thofe of the family, at any con- 
 venticle or meeting, under colour of any exercife of religion, 
 it is unlawful, and punifhable by fines, and otherwife, as 
 in that ftatute is provided. 
 
 UNLIKE Quantities, and Signs, in algebra. See Like 
 Signs, and Qitantities : fee alfo Sign, and Quantity. 
 
 UNLIMITED, or indeterminate Problem, is fuch a one as 
 is capable of infinite iblutions. — As, to divide a triangle 
 given into two equal parts ; to make a circle pafs through 
 two points affigned, EsV. 
 
 UNLUTING, in chymiftry, the taking away of the lute, 
 loam, or clay, wherewith a veflel was before clofed, joined 
 to another, or covered. See Lute. 
 
 UNMOOR, a term ufed at fea, when a veffel that before 
 rid, or was held by two anchors, is begun to be difengag- 
 ed and prepared to weigh. 
 
 UNOJJES Prijl, always ready. See Uncore Prijl. 
 
 U N RE E V I N G a Rope. See the article Re e v i n c . 
 
 UNRIGGING of a Ship, is the taking away the rigging, 
 or cordage. 
 
 UNSEELING, in falconry, a taking away the thread that 
 runs through the hawk's eye-lids, and hinders her light. See 
 
 Hawk. 'f 
 Drawing the firings of the hood, to be in readinefs to pull 
 off, is called unjlriking the bood. 
 UN W RI TTEN Tradition. See the article Tradition 
 VOCABULARY*, Vocab ul arium, in grammar, de- 
 notes a collection of the words of a language, with their fig- 
 nificationi : otherwife called a dictionary, lexicon, or nomen 
 Mature, 
 
 * The word is French, formed of rheobfolete term, vocable; of 
 the Latin, vottibulum, word. 
 The vocabulary is, properly, a lelTer kind of dictionary, which 
 does not enter fo minutely into the origins, and different ac 
 .captations of words. — Though the Italian vocabulary of the 
 academy de la Crufca fcems to be an exception from this 
 ■diffmition ; as being a copious and exact work, in three 
 volumes folio, laid to have been forty years in compi" 
 And the like holds of t\\c vocalutario Portuguez of F. Bluteau. 
 in ten volumes folio : in the titles 01 both theie books the 
 word is ufed in a larger fertfe. 
 VOCAL, fomething that relates to the voice or fpeech. Sei 
 Voice, ifc. 
 
 Thus, vocal prayer is that fpokc out, or delivered in words, 
 in contradiftinction to mental prayer. 
 
 In ourantient cuftoms, Vocalis is frequently ufed for fo 
 
 called ;—-Pcfl bac Morganus de tribn Walenfium, ($c. alter 
 nomine Madocus vocalis princeps eorum. Matt. Paris. 
 
 Vocal is fometimes alfo ufed fubftantively, in fpeaking of 
 matters of election, to fignify a perfon who has a right to 
 vote, - — Thus the Romanifts fay, a man muft have been a 
 religious a certain number of years, to be vocal. 
 
 Vocal Mufic, is mufic fet to words, efpecially verfes ; and 
 to be performed with the voice. — In contradiftinction to in- 
 Jlrnmcntal mufic, compofed only for inftruments, without 
 jinging. 
 
 Poetry then makes a neceflary part of vocal mufic ; and this 
 appears to have been the chief, if not the only practice of 
 the antients, from the definitions which they give us of 
 mufic. 
 
 Their vocal mufic feems to have had fome advantage over 
 ours, in that the Greek and Latin languages were better 
 contrived to pleafe the ear than the modern ones. — In ef- 
 fect, Voffius taxes all the latter languages as unfit for mufic, 
 and fays, " We fhall never have any good vocal mufic, till 
 " our poets learn to make verfes on the model of the an- 
 '* tients;" i. e. till the antient metrical feet and quantities 
 are refiored. 
 
 But it is to be obferved, that the rhythmus of their vocal 
 mufic, was only that of their poetry ; and had no other 
 forms and mutations, than what the metrical art af- 
 forded. 
 
 Their changes were no other than from one kind of me- 
 trum or verfe to another ; as from iambic, to choraic, See 
 Measure, and Rhythmus. 
 
 Their vocal mufic, then, confifted of verfes fet to mufical 
 tunes, and fung by one or more voices, in chorus, or alter- 
 nately i fometimes with, and fometimes without the accom- 
 paniments of inftruments. 
 
 For inftrumental mufic, in the manner we have defined it, 
 it is not very clear that they ever had any. See Synau- 
 Lia, &c. • 
 VOCATION, Calling; among divines, the grace or fa- 
 vour which God does any one in calling him out of the way 
 of death, and putting him into the way of falvation. 
 In this fenfe, we fay, the vocation of the 'Jews, the vocation 
 of the Gentiles, &c. — There are two kinds of vocation ; 
 the one external, the other internal.— The firft confifts in a 
 fimple and naked propofing of objects to the will. — The 
 fecond, is that which renders the firft effectual, by difpofmg 
 our faculties to receive thofe objects. 
 Vocation, is alfo ufed for a deftination to any ftate, or pro- 
 fcffion. — It is a rule, that none are to enter the ecclefiaftic 
 or monaftic ftate, without a particular vocation, or call. 
 The Romanifts hold the vocation of the reformed divines null 
 and invalid, — Among ourfelves, fome hold an uninterrupt- 
 ed fucceffion neceflary to the validity of the vocation of a 
 priell. 
 
 VOCATIVE, in grammar, the fifth cafe, or ftate of 
 nouns. 
 
 When we name the perfon we are fpeaking to, or addrefs 
 ourfelves to the thing we are fpeaking of, as if it were a per- 
 fon ; the noun or name acquires a new relation, which the 
 Latins and Greeks exprefs by a new termination, called the 
 
 vocative. 
 
 Thus, of Dominus, Lord, in the nominative, the Latins have 
 made Domine, O Lord, in the vocative ; of Antonius, An- 
 toni, bfc.~ But as this was a thing not abfolutely neceflary, 
 and as the nominative cafe might very well fcrve on fuch 
 occafions, this new cafe, or termination, was not univerfal : 
 in the plural, for inftance, it was the fame with the nomi- 
 native 5 and even in the lingular, it was only practifed in 
 the fecond declenfion among the Latins ; and in Greek, 
 ■where it is the molt common, it is frequently neglected, 
 and the nominative ufed inftead of it: as in that paffage in 
 the Greek pfalms, quoted by St Paul, to prove the divinity 
 of Jefus Chrift, Spom <7a, i thy throne, O God ! 
 In Englifh, and moft of the modern tongues, this cafe is or- 
 dinarily exprefled in nouns that have an article in the nomi- 
 native, by fupprefling that article : as, the Lord is my hope — 
 Lord, thou art my hope ! though, on many occafions, we 
 ufe an interjection. 
 VOCIFERATIO *, in our old law-books, the fame with 
 hue and cry. 
 
 * — Qui furem plcgiatum dimiferit, qui ei ofaiaverit & gratis 
 fine vociferatione dimiferit, Sec. Leg. Hen. I. 
 VOICE, Vox, a found produced in the throat and mouth 
 of an animal, by an apparatus of inftruments for that pur- 
 pofe. 
 
 Voices are either articulate, or inarticulate. 
 Articulate Voices, are thofe whereof feveral confpire to- 
 gether to form fome aflemblage, or little fyftem of founds. 
 Such are the voices expreiiing the letters of an alpha- 
 bet, numbers of which joined together, form words. 
 
 Jnani- 
 
V O I 
 
 V O I 
 
 Inarticulate Voi ces, are fuch as. are not organized, or aflcm- 
 bled into words : fuch is (he barking of dogs, the braying of 
 ados, the hiffing of ferpents, the finging of birds, ise. 
 The formation of the human "voice, with alt the varieties 
 thereof obferved in fpeech, mufic, Isc. makes a very curious 
 article of inquiry ; ami the apparatus and organtfm of the 
 parrsminiftnng thereto, is fomerhing exceedingly furprifing. 
 Thole parts are, the trachea, or wind-pipe, through which 
 the air paffes and repafles in:o the lungs; the larynx, which 
 "is a Ihort cylintlric canal, at the h^ad of the trachea ; and the 
 glottis, which is a little oval cleft, or chink, left between 
 two femicircuhir membranes, ftretched horizontally within- 
 lide the hrynx ; which membranes, though capable of join- 
 ing clofe together, do generally leave an interval, cither 
 greater or lefs, between them, called the glottis. — See parti- 
 cular defcriptions of each of tbefe parts, under the articles 
 Trachea, Larynx, and Glottis. 
 The long canal of the trachea, terminated at top with the 
 'glottis, appears fo like a flute, that the antients made no 
 doubt but the trachea contributed the fame to the voice, as 
 the body of the flute does to the found of that inftrument. — 
 Galen himfelf fell, in fome meafurc, into the miftake: he 
 perceived, indeed, that the principal organ of voice was the 
 glottis; but he flill allowed the trachea a ccnfiderable {hare 
 in the production of found. 
 
 Galen's opinion was followed by all the antients after him ; 
 and even by all the modern?, before M. Dodart.' — But that 
 author, obferving that wc- do not either fpeak or fing, when 
 ■we infpire, or take in the air, but only when we expire, or 
 expel it; and that, the air coming out of the lungs, paffes 
 always out of the minuter vcficles of that part into larger; 
 and at laft into the trachea itfelf, which is the largeft of all : 
 thar thus its pafTage becoming flill more free and cafy, and 
 this more than ever in the trachea, it can never undergo fuch 
 a violence, and acquire fuch a velocity in that canal, as is 
 required to the production of found. — But that, as the aperture 
 of the glottis is very fmall, in comparifon with the width of 
 the trachea, the air can never get out of the trachea by the 
 glottis, without a vaft compreffion and augmentation of its 
 velocity; and that by this mearfs, in pafling, it communicates 
 a brifk agitation to the minute parts of the two Hps of the 
 glottis, and gives them a kind of fpring, and occafions them 
 to make vib/ations ; which, communicated to the paffing air, 
 are what really occafion the found. 
 
 This found, thus formed, proceeds into the cavity of the 
 mouth and noftrils ; where it is reflected, and refounds : and 
 on this refonance, M. Dodart fhews, it is that the agrcea- 
 blenefs of the voice intirely depends.- — -The different confi- 
 dences, forms, &c. of the divers parts of the mouth, con- 
 tribute to the refonance, each in their way ; and from this 
 mixture of fo many different refonances in their due propor- 
 tion, there rcfults a harmony in the human voice, inimi- 
 table by any mufician. — Hence it is, that when any of thefe 
 parts is difordercd, e. gr. when the nofe is flopped, the 
 voice becomes difpleafing. 
 
 This refonance in the cavity of the mouth, does not feem to 
 confifl in a fimple reflexion, fuch as that of a vault, &c. but 
 in a refonance proportionate to the tones of the found fent 
 into the moutn from the glottis; and accordingly, we find 
 this cavity to lengthen and fhonen itfelf, according to the 
 depth or acutenefs of the tone. 
 
 Now, for the trachea to effect this refonance, as it was the 
 common opinion it did, it would be required, that the air, 
 after its being modified, and turned into found by the glot- 
 tis, inftead of continuing its courfe from within outwards, 
 ifhould return from without inwards, and thus ftrike on the 
 fides of the trachea : which can never happen, except in 
 thofe who have a violent cough, and in vcntriloquious per- 
 fons. — Indeed, in moll river fowl, which have a very flrong 
 voice, the trachea does refound ; but the reafon is, that in 
 them the glottis is placed at the bottom of the trachea, and 
 not at the top, as in men. 
 
 That canal, then, which at firft pafTed for the principal or- 
 gan of voice, is now found not to be fo much as the fecon- 
 dary one, i. e. not that which occafions the refonance. — It 
 does not ferve the glottis, as the body of a flute does its plug; 
 but inftead of that, the mouth ferves the glottis, as the body 
 bf fome other wind- in ft.ru men t not yet known in mufic. — 
 In effect, the office of the trachea is no other, than that of 
 t the port-vent in an organ, viz. to furnifh wind. 
 For the caufe of the different tones s/"Voice. — As the organs 
 that form the voice make a kind of wind-inflrument, one 
 might expect to find fome provifion therein, anfwerablc t. 
 that which produces the differences of tones in fome othe: 
 wind inftruments.— The tone, therefore, muft be attributes 
 cither to the mouth and noftrils, which occafion the refo- 
 nance, or to the glottis, which produces the found : and as 
 all the different tones arc produced in man by the fame in 
 ftrumer.t, it follows, that the part which produces them 
 muft be capable of changes anfwerable thereto. 
 
 Now, for a grave tone, we know there is more air required 
 than for an acute one. — The trachea, therefore, to let tnis 
 greater quantity pais, muft dilate and fhorten itfelf; by which 
 ihottening, the external canal, that is, the canal of the mouth 
 and nofe, reckoned from the glottis to the lips, or noftrils, 
 is lengthened. — For, the fhortening of the internal canal, 
 2. e. of tic trachea, brings the larynx and glottis lower down; 
 and of confequence makes its diflance from the mouth, &c. 
 greater: and there is a change in the length of each canal, 
 for every change of tone, and femitone. — Accordingly, it is 
 eafy to obferve, that the knot of the larynx alternately rifes 
 and falls in all quaverings, or fhakings of the voice, how fmall 
 foever the difference ol tone may be. 
 
 Hence, as the depth of the tone of a hautboy is anfwerable to 
 the length of the inftrument; the Iongeft fibres of the wood, 
 whole vibrations make the refonance, making always the 
 floweft vibrations, and confequently the deepeft tone : it may 
 appear probable, that the concavity of the mouth, by its length- 
 ening for grave tones, and fhortening for acute ones, might 
 ferve very well for the production of the divers tones: but 
 M. Dodart obferves, that in that (top of the organ called the 
 human voice, the Iongeft pipe is fix inches, and yet with, all 
 that length, it does not make any difference of tone; but 
 the tone of the pipe is precifely that of the plug; whereas 
 the concavity of the mouth of a man of the graveft voice, 
 not being above fix inches deep ; it is evident that cannot 
 modify, vary, and give the tone. 
 
 It is the glottis, then, that forms the tone, as well as the 
 found ; and the manner of forming the various tones, is by 
 varying its aperture. — A piece of mechanifm too admirable, 
 not to be here particularly inquired into. 
 The human glottis, then, reprefented in Tab. Nat. Hijlcry, 
 fig. ii. is only capable of one proper motion, viz. that of 
 an approach of its lips, A D B, and A D B. — Accordingly, 
 the dotted lines A E B, AFB, A G B, exhibit three diffe- 
 rent degrees of approach. — -Thefe different apertures of the 
 glottis, ^anatomifts ufually attribute to the action of the muf- 
 cles of the larynx; but M. Dodart fhews, from their pofi- 
 tion, direction, &c. that they have other ufes ; and that the 
 opening and ftiutting of the glottic is effected by other means, 
 viz. by two tendinous cords, or firings, inclofed in the two 
 lips of that aperture. 
 
 In effect, each of the two femicircular membranes, whofe 
 interftice forms the glottis, is doubled back upon ittclf ; and 
 within each duplicature there is a cord, or firing, which is 
 fattened at one end, to the fore- part of the larynx, and to 
 the hind-part at the other. — It is true, they appear more- 
 like ligaments than mufcles j as confifting of white and mem- 
 branous fibres ; not of red and fleftiy ones : but the vaft num- 
 ber of minute changes in this aperture, neceffary to form the 
 vaft variety of tones, make an extraordinary kind of mufcle, 
 by whofe contraction they fhould be effected, abfolutely ne- 
 ceffary. — Common flefhy fibres, wherein the blood is re- 
 ceived in large quantity, had been infinitely too coarfe for 
 fuch delicate motions. 
 
 Thefe firings, which in their flate of relaxation make each 
 a little arch of an ellipfis ; as they contract more and more, 
 become longer, but lefs and lefs curve ; and at laft, with 
 the greatefl contraction they are capable of, they degene- 
 rate into two right lines, applied clofe to each other; fo 
 clofe, and fo firm, that an atom of air cannot efcape out of 
 the lung", how full foever they may be, and how great an 
 effort foever all the mucles of the lower venter may make 
 againft the diaphragm, and by the diaphragm, againft thefe 
 two little mufcles. 
 
 The different apertures of the lips of the glottis, then, pro- 
 duce all the different tones in the feveral parts of mufic, viz. 
 bafs, tenor, counter-tenor, treble-bafs t and treble; and the 
 manner is thus : 
 
 ThcwsiVf, we have fhewn, can only be formed by the glottis ; 
 but the tones of the voice, ate modifications of the voice, and 
 thefe can only be produced by the modifications of the glottis. 
 — Now the glottis is only capable of one modification ; which 
 is, the mutual approach or recefs of its lips : it is this, there- 
 fore, produces the different tones. — Now that modification 
 includes two circumflanccs ; the firft, and principal, is, that 
 the lips are ftretched more and more, from the lowed tone, 
 to the higheft ; the fecond is, that the more they are ftretch- 
 ed, the nearer they approach. 
 
 From the firft it follows, that their vibrations will be fo much 
 the quicker, as they come nearer their higheft tone; and 
 that the voice will be juft, when the two hps are equally 
 ftretched, and falfe, when they are unequally ; which agrees 
 perfectly well with the nature of firing inftruments. 
 From the fecond it follows, that the higher the tones are, 
 the nearer will they approach to each other ; which agrees 
 perfectly well with wind inftruments, governed by reeds, 
 or plugs. 
 
 The degrees of tenfion of the lips, are the firft and principal 
 caufc of tones; but their differences are infenfible. — The 
 13 O degrees 
 
V O I 
 
 VOL 
 
 degrees oF approach, are only confcquences of that tenfion ; 
 but their differences are more eafily afligned. 
 Xo give a precife idea of the thing-, therefore, we had beft 
 keep to that ; and fay, that this modification confifls in a 
 tenfion, from whence refill ts a veiy numerous fubdivifion of 
 a very fmali interval; which yet, fmall as it is, is capable, 
 phyfitally f^iking, ot being fubdivided infinitely. 
 The doctrine is confirmed, from the different apertures found 
 in diffcdiing peifons of different ages, of both fexes. — The 
 aperture is lefs, and the exterior canal always fhallower in the 
 fex and ages fitteft to fmg treble. — Add, that the reed of a 
 hautboy, feparated from the body of the inftrument, being a 
 little preiled between the lips, will yield a tone, fomewhat 
 higher than its natural one ; and if preflcd ftill more, will 
 yield another ftill higher : and thus an able mufician may run 
 fucceflively through all the tones, and femi-tones of an octave. 
 It is different apertures, then, that produce, or at leaft that 
 accompany different tones, both in natural wind inftru- 
 menLs and artificial ones ; and the diminution of the aperture, 
 raifes the tones bath of the glottis, and the reed. 
 The leaibn why leffening the aperture heightens the tone, 
 is, that the wind pafies through it with the greater velocity; 
 and from the; lame caufe it is, that if anv reed, or plug of an 
 inffiument be too weakly blown, its tone will be lower than 
 ordinary. 
 
 Indeed, the contractions and dilatations of the glottis, mufl be 
 infinitely delicate : by an exact calculation of the ingenious 
 author abovemcntioned, it appears, that to perform all the tones 
 and femitones of a common voice, which is computed to reach 
 twelve tones, to perform all the particles and fubdivifions of 
 thofe tones into commas, and other minuter, though flill 
 fenfible parts ; to perform all the (hakes, or the differences 
 in a tone, when founded more or lefs ftrong, without chang- 
 ing the tone : the little diameter of the glottis, which does not 
 exceed T T C of an inch, but which varies within that extent 
 at every change, mull be actually divided into 9632 parts ; 
 which parts are yet very unequal, and therefore many of them 
 much lefs than the TrsrVms part of an inch.- — >A delicacy fcarce 
 to be matched by any thing but a good ear, which has fo 
 juft a fenfe of found, as, naked, to perceive differences in 
 all thefe tones ; even thofe whofe origin is much lefs than the 
 963200th part of an inch. 
 Voice, in grammar, is a circumfiance in verbs, whereby they 
 come to be confidered, as either ailive, or paffive, i. e, either 
 as exprcfiing an action imprefi'ed on another lutiject, as / beat; 
 or receiving it from another, as / am beaten. 
 Voice, in matters of elections, denotes a vote, or fuffrage. 
 In this fenfe, a man is faid to have a deliberative voice, when 
 he has a right to give his advice and opinion in a matter of 
 debate, and his fuffrage is taken. — An a£live voice, when he 
 gives his vote for the election of any one ; and a paffive voice, 
 when the fuffrages may fall on himfelf to be elected. — An 
 excitative voice, when he may act to procure another to be 
 elected.- — -\ conjuhative voice, when he can only offer rea- 
 fons and remun ft ranees, whereon the chief, or head, deter- 
 mines at his own difcretion: fuch the cardinals have, with 
 regard to the pope ; and the mafters in chancery, with re- 
 gard to the lord chancellor, Is'c. 
 Part of the Voice, in mufic. See the article Part. 
 VOlDSpace, in phyfics. See the article Vac u um, &c. 
 Void, in common law. See Annulling. 
 Void Bajlion, See the article Bastion. 
 VO I DAN C E, Vacancy, in the canon law, a want of 
 an incumbent upon a benefice. See Vacancy, &c. 
 This is twofold, either in law, de jure; as when one holds 
 feveral benefices that are incompatible: or defaclo, in deed ; 
 as when the incumbent is dead, or is actually deprived. 
 VOIDED, Uuide', in heraldry, Is underftood of an or- 
 dinary, whofe inner or middle part is cut out ; leavin" no- 
 thing but its edges to fhew its form ; fo that the field ap- 
 pears through it. Hence, it is needlefs to exprefs the co- 
 lour, or metal of the voided part ; becaufe it muft, of courfc 
 be that of the field. 
 The Crofs Voided, differs from the crofs fimbriated, in that 
 this latter does not fhew the field through it, as the other 
 does.' — And the fame obtains in other ordinaries. 
 VOIDER, in heraldry, one of the ordinaries, whofe figure 
 is much like that of the flafque, or flanch ; only that it doth 
 not bend fo much.— See Tab. Herald, fig. 89. fee alfo the 
 article Flanch. 
 
 This armoury, they fay, is properly the reward of a gentle- 
 woman that has well ferved her prince— It is always" borne 
 by pairs. ** 
 VO I DING, Evacuating, in medicine, See Evacuation. 
 In the Phihfiphical Tranfaclions,.we have an account of one 
 Matt. Mdfnrd, who voided a worm by urine, fuppofed to 
 have come from the kidneys. 
 
 Dr Lifter mentions true caterpillars voided by a boy of nine 
 years old. — Mr Jeffop faw hexapods vomited up by a girl 
 —Catherina Geilaria, who died in 1662, in the hofpital of 
 
 Altenburg, for 20 years voided, they fay, by vomit and ftool, 
 toads, and lizards. Ephem. German. T. I. Obf. 103. 
 In the fame Ephem. is alfo a ftory of a kitten, bred in the 
 ftomach, and vomited up; and others of whelps, frogs, 
 lacertas aquatics, and other animals, bred and voided 
 the like way. ■ — Eartholine gives us an inftance of a worm, 
 bred in the brain, and voided by the nofe of O. W. See 
 Verm es. 
 
 VOIR Dire, in law. — When, upon a trial at law, it is 
 prayed that a witnefs may be fworn upon a voir dire ; the 
 meaning is, that he fhall, upon his oath, fpeak or declare 
 the truth, whether he fhall get or lofe by the matter in 
 controverfy. — If he be unconcerned, his teftimony is al- 
 lowed j other wife, not. 
 VOL, among heralds, fignifies the two wings of a Fowl joined 
 together, borne in armoury ; as being the whole that makes 
 the flight.' — Accordingly, a demi-vol, is a fingle wing. 
 VOLA, the palm, or in fide of the hand, comprehended be- 
 tween the fingers and the wrift. 
 VO L A N S, See the articles Draco* and Piscis. 
 VOLANT, in heraldry;, is when a bird, in a coat of arms, 
 
 is drawn flying, or having its Wipes fpread out. 
 P*>Voi.akt. } SesthearlicIe 5 Pass-P./™,. 
 fW-VoLANT. S (Pont. 
 VOLATILE, in phyfics, is commonly fifed to denote a 
 mixt body, whofe integral parts are eafily diffipated by fire, 
 or heat ; but it is more properly ufed for bodies, whofe ele- 
 ments, or firft component parts, are eafily feparated froni 
 each other, and difperfed in air. 
 
 For, as any mixt body is faid to be fixt, ifl a double fenfe ; 
 fo may it be faid to be volatile two ways: whence the fame 
 body, ft gr. mercury, is both volatile, and fixt at the 
 fame time. 
 
 Since, as its integral parts, or thofe which ftill retain the na- 
 ture of mercury, are eafily (eparable by fire, and readily fly- 
 away ; it is faid to be volatile: and yet, as it is very difficult 
 to deflroy its contexture, and refolve it by fire, or any other 
 mcriftruum, into its firft elements, it is faid to be fixt.' — The 
 fame may be faid of fulphur, antimony, tiff. 
 Minerals, for the generality, are lefs volatile than vegetables, 
 and vegetables arc lefs fo than animals. 
 
 The cbymifts diftinguifti greatly between volatile falts and 
 fixt falts.— The capitals of aludels, flop and collect the vola- 
 tile parts of fubftances in fublimation j and make what we 
 call flowers. 
 
 " The panicles of fluids, which do not cohere very ftrongly 
 " together, and are of fuch fmallnefs, as renders them moil 
 " fufceptible of thofe agitations, which keep liquors in a 
 " fluor, are eafily ratified into vapour ; and, in the language 
 " of the chymifts, are volatile.- — Thofe which are groffer, 
 " and by that means lefs fufceptible of alterations ; or which 
 " cohere by a ftronger hear, or, perhaps, not without fer- 
 ** mentation : thefe are what the chymifts call fixt bodies'* 
 Newton. Optic, p. 371. 
 Volatile, in chymiftry' — When the fire decompounds any 
 mixt body, the parts moft difpofed to receive a great motion, 
 are fooneft loofened, and rife up in the order, which the dif- 
 ferences of that difpofition give them; the reft remaining 
 immoveable at the bottom of the veffel. 
 
 Thofe that rife firft are called volatile parts; fuch are phlegm, 
 oil, fpirits, and falts, both urinous, and alkalious. 
 The parts remaining, viz. earth, and lixivial falts, are called 
 fixt. — For the making of fixt falts volatile ^ fee Volatili- 
 sation. 
 Vol at 1 le Alkaly. 
 
 See the article - 
 
 Volatile Salt «f Amber. \ See the article { ti""' 
 Sal Volatile Oleofum. See the article Sal. 
 VOLATILISATION, or Volatilization, the 
 act of rendering fixt bodies volatile ; or of refolving them by 
 fire into a fine, fubtile vapour, or fpirit, which eafily diffi- 
 pates, and flies away. 
 
 All bodies, even the moft fixt, as gold, may be volatilized ; 
 either of themfelves, or with the admixture of fome volatile 
 fubftance, or fpirit; by diff illation, or fublimation. 
 In the Memoirs of the Royal Academy, we have a difcourfe on 
 the volatilifation of the fixt falts of plants, by M. Homberg. 
 ■ — That admirable chymift, it feems, by an odd accident, 
 found fixt falts fpontaneoufly volatilized in foap : Now foap, 
 we know, is a compofition of oil, and the alkalious lixivial 
 falts of the plant kali. — Upon this, M. Homberg conjectured, 
 that the oil, from which the volatile falts feem to derive their 
 volatility, being intimately mixt with the fixt falts of the 
 kali in the foap, had rendered them volatile: fo that they 
 ceafed to be alkalious, by reafon their pores were now filled 
 with the oil which they had abforbed. — Oil, in effect, has 
 always fomewhat of an acid in it; which acid, being joined 
 to the alkali, the whole is rendered a kind of intermediate 
 fait ; which yet, as the acid and alkali are only joined by 
 means of the oil, is ftill oily or fulphurous. 
 In confequenceofthis view, he made divers chymical opera- 
 tions, 
 
VOL 
 
 VOL 
 
 tiotis, whereby' he found, that todifpofe the fixt falts of plants 
 to volatiUfe', the procefs is to be begun, by making them into 
 a fapo, and letting that fapo (hoot out little faline points, or 
 cry flats on its furface; which cryftffls are no other than fixt 
 falts already volatilized. — Then, the remainder of the matter 
 is to be fat over the fire, after being well imbibed and pene- 
 trated by fome new liquor, proper to affift in a new fublima- 
 tion of more fixt falts to be volatilised: and this to be repeat- 
 ed till no more falts will rife. 
 
 The choice of the liquor, wherewith the fapo is to be fatu- 
 
 rated, is not indifferent Water is, of all others, the leaf! 
 
 fit for the effect : oil does well; diftilied oil better than that 
 drawn by expreffion : and fpirit of wine bed of all. 
 By fuch means, M. Homberg volatilized almoft half a quan- 
 tity of fait of tartar, which is a fixt vegetable fait. 
 
 VOLATILITY. See Volatile, Sublimation, &c. 
 
 VOLCANO, or Vulcaxo, in natural hiftory, a name 
 given to mountains that belch, or vomit fire, flame, afhes, 
 cinders, ftones, cjCc 
 
 Such are mount Etna, mount Vefuvius near Naples, and 
 many others. 
 
 Near Guatimala, in South America, are two mountains, the 
 one called volcano of fire; the other of water. — Out of the 
 firft, huge pieces of rocks are frequently hurled, with as much 
 vehemence as balls out of a cannon } and a written letter may 
 be read by the light of its flames, at the diftance of three 
 miles. — Out of the other, vaft quantities of water are con- 
 tinually thrown up. 
 
 Volcano's and ignivomous mountains, though fome of the 
 moft terrible phenomena in nature, have their ufes ; being 
 a kind of fpiracles, or tunnels, whereby to vent the fire and 
 vapour, that would otherwife make a more dreadful havock, 
 by convulfions and earthquakes. 
 
 Nay, if the bypothefis of a central fire and waters be admit- 
 ted, thefe outlets muil be abfolutely neceflary to the peace 
 and quiet of the terraqueous globe. — Accordingly, Dr Wood- 
 ward obferves, there is fcarce any country much annoyed 
 ■with earthquakes, but has one of thefe fiery vents ; which is 
 confiantly obferved to be all in flames, whenever an earth- 
 quake happens ; by which means, it foon difgorges that fire, 
 which, while it was underneath, was the caufe of the difafier. 
 — He adds, that were it not for thefe diverticula, whereby 
 the central fire has ah exit, it would rage in the bowels of the 
 earth much more furioufly, and make much greater havock 
 than it does ; and that there are not wanting inftances of 
 countries, that have been wholly freed from earthquakes, by 
 the eruption of a new volcano there. 
 
 VOLERY, a great bird-cage, fo large, that the birds have 
 room to fly up and down in it. 
 
 VOLITION, the atl of willing. See Will. 
 
 VOLITIVE Thinking. See the article Thinking. 
 
 VOLLEY, a military falute, made by difcharging a great 
 number of fire-arms at the fit me time. 
 
 In the Philofoplncal Tranfatl'ions, Mr Robert Clarke gives us 
 an account ot a very remarkable effect of firing fome volleys 
 of fmall arms : '* Upon proclaiming the peace, in 1607, two 
 * c troops of horfe were drawn in a line, the centre whereof 
 *' was aeainft a butcher's door, who kept a very large, cou- 
 *■' rageous maftifF doc, the biggeft in the town. 
 *' Upon firing of the firft volley, the dog, who before lay 
 *' afleep by the fire, ftarted up, ran into an upper room, 
 ** and hid himfelf under the bed. — The fervant being Sbout 
 " to beat him down, (as he had never ufed to go up flairs) 
 *' a fecond volley came; which made the dog rife, run feve- 
 ral times about the chamber, with violent tremblings, and 
 *' ftrange agonies. — But immediately a third volley came ; 
 «' upon which the dog ran once or twice about, fell down, 
 «' and died immediately; throwing out blood at his mouth 
 , ** and note. 
 
 VoLO, in antiquity, a name which the Romans gave the 
 flaves, who, in the fecond Punic war, offered thcmfelves to 
 ferve in the army; upon a want of a fufficient number of 
 citi2ens. 
 
 The name volo^ volones, they are faid to have had from their 
 cfFerins; themfelves voluntarily. — Feftus fays, ic was after the 
 battle of Cannae that this happened: Macrobius, Sat. Lib. I. 
 cap. II. places it before thai battle. 
 
 Capitolinus tells us, that Marcus Aurelius formed troops, or 
 legions of flaves, which he called voluntarii ; and that the 
 like forces, in the fecond Punic war, had been called volones. 
 — .But before M. Aurelius, Auguftus had given the name 
 voluntari't to forces which he had tailed out of liberti, or freed- 
 men j as we are aflured by Macrobius, Sat, Lib. I. cap. II. 
 VOLTE, in the manage, fignifies a round or circular motion, 
 confiding of a gait of two treads, made by an horfe going 
 fideways round a centre ; the two treads making parallel 
 tracks, one by the fore feet, larger ; and the other by the 
 hind feet, fmaller : the fhoulders bearing outwards, and the 
 croup approaching towards the centra. 
 
 Dcmi-Voj.'VE, is a half-round of one tread, or two, made by 
 the horfe at one of the angles or corners of the volte, or at 
 the end of the line of the paflade; fo as when he is near the 
 end of this line, or near one of the corners of the volte u he 
 changes hands, to return by a femicircle. 
 
 Renverfed, or inverted Volt e, is a track of two treads, which 
 the horfe makes with his head to the centre, and his croup 
 out ; going fideways upon a walk, trot, or gallop, and.tracing 
 out a larger circumference with his moulders, and a fmaller 
 with his croup. 
 
 VOLUME*, Volumen, a book, or writing, of a juft 
 bulk to be bound by itfelf. 
 * The word had its rife a volvendo, rolling, or winding ; the 
 ancient way of making up books, being in rolls of bark, or 
 parchment. 
 
 This manner lafted till Cicero's time, and long after that pa- 
 per was invented, and books wrote theteon. — -The feveral 
 ftieets were glued, or pafted end to end, wrote only on one 
 fide ; and at the bottom a flick was fallened, called ujnbiUcus; 
 and at the other end a piece of parchment, whereon was the 
 title of the book in letters of gold. 
 
 And yet, we arc- aflured, king Attalus, or rather Eumenes, 
 had, long before, done up fome of his books in the fquare 
 form ; as having found the fecret of parchment, which would 
 bear writing on both fides. 
 
 The library of Ptolemy king of Egypt, contained, according 
 to Aulus Gellius, three hundred thoufand volumes ; and, ac- 
 cording to Sabtlhcus, feven hundred thoufand. 
 Ra\ mond Lully wrote above four thoufand volumes ; whereof 
 we have divers catalogues extant. — It is held, that Trifme- 
 giftus wrote fix thoufand five hundred twenty five volumes i 
 others fay, thirty fix thoufand five hundred twenty nine: But 
 it is much more rational to fuppofe, with La Croix, that it 
 was the cuftom of the Egyptians to put all the books they 
 compofed, under the name of trifmegljlus. 
 At prefent, Volume is chiefly ufed in the fame fenfe with 
 tome, for a part or divifion of a work, bound feparately. — 1 
 In this fenfe, we fay, " the councils are printed at the Louvre 
 *' in 37 volumes. See Tome. 
 
 Volume of a Body, is alfo ufed, among foreign philofophers, 
 for its bulk, or the fpace inclofed within its fuperficies. 
 
 VOLUMUS, in law, the firft word of a claufe in one fpecies 
 of the king's writs of protection, and letters patent. 
 
 VOLUNT, Voluntas, in law, is when a tenant hold's 
 lands, £s\\ at the will of the leflbr, or lord of the manor. 
 
 VOLUNTARY, in the fchool.— The generality of philo- 
 fi.phers ufe voluntary in the fame fenfe with fpontaneous ; and 
 apply it to any thing arifing from an internal principle, at- 
 tended with a due knowledge thereof.' — In wliich fenfe, they 
 fav, t£ A dog moves voluntarily when he runs to the pot." 
 Ariftotle, and his followers, reftrain the term voluntary to 
 thofe actions that proceed from an inward principle, which 
 knows all the circumflances of the action. 
 There are two things, therefore, required to the volunlar'incfs 
 of an action: the firltj that it proceed from an inward prin- 
 ciple ; thus, walking for pleafure-fake is a voluntary action ; 
 as arifing from the will commanding, and the moving faculty" 
 obeying^ which are both internal. — >On the contrary, the 
 motion of a man dragged to prifon is not voluntary. 
 The fecond, that the action be performed with a perfect intel- 
 ligence of the end, and circumflances thereof : in which fenle, 
 the actions of brutes, children, fleeping people, 13c. are not 
 properly voluntary. 
 
 Anatomifts diftinguifh between the voluntary, and natural, or 
 Involuntary motions in the body. — Of the latter kind are thofe 
 of the heart, lungs, pulfe, E3V. 
 
 Voluntary /^w. t r Agent. 
 
 Voluntary Efcape \ ^ thfi ^ 1 Escape 
 
 Voluntary Homicide. I IHomicitje. 
 
 Voluntary Novation. J LNovAtion. 
 
 VOLUTE*, Voluta, in architecture, a kind of fpiral 
 fcroll, ufed in the Ionic, and Compofite capitals; whereof it 
 makt's the principal cbaratteriflic, and ornament. — See Tab. 
 Arch'tt. fig. 4.1. fig. 26. lit. D. fig. 32. Utt. a. 
 * Some call it the ram's-born, from its figure, which bears a 
 near refembknee thereto. 
 Moft architects fuppofe, that the antients intended the volute 
 to reprefent the bark or rind of a tree, laid under the abacus, 
 and twifted thus at each extreme, where it is at liberty : 
 others will have it a fort of pillow, or bolfter, laid between 
 the abacus and echinus, to prevent the latter being broke 
 by the weight of the former, and the entablature over it ; 
 and accordingly they call it pulvlnus. — Others, after Vitru- 
 vius, will have it to reprefent the curls, or treffes of a wo- 
 man's hair. 
 
 The number of volutes in the Ionic order is four; in the 
 Compofite, eight. 
 
 There are alfo eight angular volutes in the Corinthian capital, 
 accompanied with eight other fmaller ones, called helices. 
 
 There 
 
V O M 
 
 There are feveral diverfities pradifed in the Vihtt. — In 
 fame, the -lift or edge, throughout all the circumvolutions, is 
 in the fame line, or plane: f.ich are the antique Ionic volutes, 
 and thofe of Vignola.-In others, the fpircs of circumvolu- 
 tions fall hack; in others, they projea, or (land cut - 
 Again in fume the circumvolutions are oval ; in others, tne 
 canal of one circumvolution is detached from the lilt of an- 
 other, by a vacuity or aperture.— In others, the rind is par- 
 allel to the abacus, and (brings out from behind the Hower 
 thereof.— In others, it feems to fpring out of the vafe, from 
 behind the ovum, and riles to the abacus, as in molt ot tne 
 fine Compofite capitals. 
 
 The viktt is a patt of great importance to the beauty of the 
 column. — Hence, architetts have invented divers ways ot 
 delineating it.-The ptincipal are that of Vitruvms, wh.cl, 
 was long loll, and at laft refto.ed by Goldman ; and that of 
 Palladio. — Daviler prefers the former as the ealier. — 1 he 
 manner thereof is as follows. 
 
 Divide the altitude A B (Tat. Arclntellttrt ■ fg. .*.) into 
 eight equal parts, and alTuming the fifth CLP, for a dia- 
 meter, Ironi the centre G, with half flit tfameter G P, 
 defcnbe a circle of the eye of the W ; t t .-B,fle£t the radi, 
 GP and GO in ■ and 4. and Tub-divide the hall pa ts 
 G 1 and G 4, each into three equal parts: then, upon the 
 right line 1 4, conilruft a fquare 1, a, 3, 4 I one °> «»° re 
 fides z, !, continue on to D ; another, 3, 4, W tl 
 and the thitd, .,2, to C. From G draw right lines 
 G - and G 3 1 which divide into three equal parts. — 
 The'ii, through 6 and 10, draw 61 and 10 N, parallel 
 to 2 D. And through 1 1 and 7 draw 1 1 O and 7 K, 
 parallel to 3 E 1 and through 5 and 9, draw 5 H, and 9 M, 
 parallel to 1 C. — Laftly, from 12 .1, 1°, 9, 8, «C. 
 ftrikc the quadrants PO, ON, NM, ML, LK, He. 
 which will form the volute. 
 
 Confoles, modiilions, and other forts of ornaments, have 
 likewife their volutes, or fcrolls. 
 
 C«/./*VolurE. ? 3ce theartic l e 
 
 Eye of the Volute. 5 IL J E - . 
 
 VOLVULUS, in medicine, a name which lome authors 
 give to the iliac paffion, by others called chordapfus, and by 
 others, mifcrere mei. _ 
 
 VOMER, in anatomy, a Latin name, fignifying, Iitletally, 
 a plmghfmn; ufed by authors to denote the eleventh, or, 
 according to the numeration of others, the thirteenth bone of 
 the upper jaw : by reafon of the refemblance it bears to that 
 
 The vomer, or vomer aratri, is a thin bone, placed in the 
 middle of the nofe, over the palate, and ferving to part the 
 two noflrils from each other. 
 
 It is fmall, but hard, and is joined to the fphenoides and eth- 
 moides, and thefe have each of them little eminences thai are 
 received into the cavities of the vomer ; by which means it is 
 fattened hi its place. 
 VOMICA, in medicine, a colle&ion of pus in any part of 
 
 the body. t . , „\,y-: . . ,, , 
 
 When this mats, or collection, is in the lungs, it is called 
 vomica pulmonum. —When in the kidneys, vomica renum, 
 &c. 
 
 The vomica of the lungs differs from an empyema, which is 
 a colleaion of pus in the cavity of the thorax. See Em- 
 pyema. 
 
 Nil* Vomica, VomicNut, is a little flat, round, woody fruit, 
 or feed; hard as horn, of a pale moufe-colour without, but 
 of various colours within: fometimes yellow, fometimes 
 white, and fometimes brown. 
 It is a poifon for dogs, and divers quadrupeds, which it kills 
 prefently, through exceflive vomiting. 
 
 VOMITING, Vomitus, a violent calling up, or eva- 
 cuating by the mouth, what is contained in the flomach. See 
 Evacuation. 
 
 This action has been generally allowed to be owing, princi 
 pally, to the contraction of the fibres of the ftomach, when 
 irritated by the acrimonious quality, or oppiefled with the 
 quantity of its contents. 
 
 But M. Chirac, and after him M. du Verney, and others, 
 fet afide the fibtes of the ftomach ; and advance, that vomit- 
 ing is produced wholly by the extraordinary motions of th< 
 diaphragm, and mufcles of the lower venter. — So that the 
 ftomach is here fuppofed deftitute of all action, and calls back 
 its contents only by its being compreffed and flatted, from 
 fome foreign and accidental caufes. 
 
 However, Boerhaave, and moft of our lateft writers, allow 
 the ftomach, the diaphragm, and the mufcles of the abdo- 
 men, alt to have their fhare in the action of vomiting : ac- 
 cordingly, that diligent author makes vomiting to confift in a 
 convulfive and retrograde motion of the mufcular fibres of the 
 gullet, ftomach, and inteftines ; as well as thofe of the abdo 
 men, and the fepium tranfverfum; which, when in a lefs 
 degree, produce a naufea ; and in a greater, a vomiting, 
 
 V O R 
 
 By the contraction of fo many parts, the flomach comes to 
 be fqueezed, as in a prefs; whence it is obliged to give up 
 what is contained in its cavity, and the neighbouring parts; 
 jutt as water is forced out from a bladder, or fponge, when 
 fqueezed between the hands. 
 
 The evacuation, too, mull be upwards, rather than down- 
 wards ; by reafon the paffage is more open and eafy that way, 
 and that the inteftines ate prefled by the diaphragm, and the 
 mufcles of the lower venter. 
 
 The primary caufe of vomiting, ufes to be the too great quan- 
 tity, or too much acrimony of the contents, arifing from 
 poifons, contufions, compreffions, inflammations, and wounds 
 in the brain ; inflammations of the diaphragm, ftomach, in- 
 teftines, fplten, liver, kidneys, pancreas, and mefentery; un- 
 ufual agitations in coaches, at fea, He. foulnefs of the fto- 
 mach, and vomitive, or emetic medicines. 
 VOMITIVES, or Vomitive Medicines. See Eme- 
 tics. 
 
 V O P I S C U S, a Latin term, ufed in refpeft of twins in the 
 womb, for that which comes to the perfect birth ; the othet 
 being befote excluded abortive. 
 
 VORTEX, IVbirlwind, in meteorology, a fudden, rapid, 
 violent motion of the air, in gyres, or circles. 
 
 Vortex, Vorago, is alfo ufed for an eddy, or whirlpool; 
 or a body of water, in certain feas and rivers, which runs 
 rapidly around, forming a fort of cavity in the middle. 
 The ordinary courfe of thefe vortices, is a gulph, or outlet, 
 wherebv the water of the fea, lie. is abforbed, or precipi- 
 tates itfelf into fome other receptacle ; fometimes to forhe 
 other communicant lea ; and fometimes, perhaps, into the 
 vafl abyfs of central water. 
 
 An artificial Vortex, cxpreffive of the phenomena of the 
 natural ones, may be made with a cylindric veflel, placed, 
 immoveable, on a horizontal plane, and filled to a certain 
 height with water— In this water a Hick being plunged, and 
 turned round as briskly as may be, the water is neceffarily 
 put into a pretty rapid circular motion, and rifes to the very 
 edge of the vclTtl; and when there arived, ceafes to be fur- 
 ther agitated. 
 
 The water thus railed, forms a cavity in the middle, whore 
 figure is that of a truncated cone; its bale is the fame with 
 the upper cavity of the veffel; and its vertex in the axis of 
 the cylinder. 
 
 Wha't raifes the water at the fide of the veffel, which occa- 
 fions the cavity in the middle, is its centrifugal force. — For 
 the motion of the water being circular, it refpefls a centre 
 taken in the axis of the veffel ; or, which is the fame, in the 
 axis of the vortex formed by the water ; the fame velocity 
 then, being imprtffed on all the water, the circumference of 
 a fmaller circle of water, or a circle left remote from the 
 axis, has a greater centrifugal force than another that is 
 oteater, or more remote from the axis. — The Imaller circle, 
 Therefore, drives the greater towards the fide of the veflel ; 
 and from this preffion, or impulfron, which all the circles re. 
 ceive from the fmaller ones that precede them, and convey 
 to the greater which follow them, arifes that elevation of the 
 water along the edge of the veflel to the very top, where we 
 fuppofe the motion to ceafe. 
 
 With a vortex thus formed, M. Saulmon, of the royal aca- 
 demy of fciences, made divers experiments, by putting feve- 
 ral folid bodies therein, to acquire the fame circular morion ; 
 with intent to difcover which of them, in making their re- 
 volutions round the axis of the vortex, approach toward, or 
 recede from ir, and with what velocity. — The refult was, 
 that the heavier the body, Ilill the gteater was its recefs from 
 the axis. 
 
 M Saulmon's view in this attempt, was, to (hew how the 
 laws of mechanics produce the cceleftial motions ; and that it 
 is probablv to thofe motions that the gravity or weight of 
 bodies is owing— But, unhappily, the experiments lhew juft 
 the contrary of what they fliould do, to confirm the Cartefian 
 doctrine of gravity. 
 Vortex, in the Cartefian philofophy, is a fyftem or collection 
 of particles of matter moving the fame way, and round the 
 fame axis. - - 
 
 Such vortices are the grand machines whereby thele phi- 
 lofophers folve moft ot the motions, and other phx-no- 
 mena of the heavenly bodies.— Accordingly, the doflnne 
 of thefe vortices makes a great part of the Cartefian phi- 
 lofophy. 
 
 The inatter of the world, they hold to have been divided at 
 the beginning into innumerable little equal particles, each en- 
 dowed with an equal degree of motion, both about its own 
 centre and fepararely, fo as to conftitute a fluid. 
 Several fyftems, or colleaions of this matter, they further 
 hold to have been endowed with a common motion about 
 certain points, as common centres, placed at equal defiances ; 
 and that the matters moving round thefe, compofed fo many 
 
 v ° r,ic "- Then, 
 
V O R 
 
 V O T 
 
 Then, the primitive particles of the matter they fuppofe, by 
 thefe inteftine motions, to become, as it were, ground into 
 fpherical figures, and fo to compofe globules of divers magni- 
 tudes ; which they call the matter of the fecond element ; and 
 the particles rubbed, or ground oft them, to bring them to 
 that form, they call the matter of the firjl element. 
 And fince there would be more of this firft element than 
 would fufKce to fill all the vacuities between the globules ol 
 the fecond, they fuppofe the remaining part to be driven to- 
 wards the centre of the vortex, by the circular motion of the 
 globules i and that being there amafied into a fphere, it would 
 produce a body like the fun. 
 
 This fun being thus formed, and moving about its own axis 
 with the common matter of the vortex, would neceffarily 
 throw out fome parts of its matter, through the vacuities 
 of the globules of the fecond element conftituting the vor- 
 tex ; and this efpecially at fuch places as are fartheft from 
 its poles; receiving, at the fame time in, by thefe poles, as 
 much as it lofes in its equatorial parts. And, by this means, 
 it would be able to carry round with it thofe globules that 
 are nearcft, with the greater velocity ; and the remoter, with 
 lefs. — >And, by this means, thofe globules which are neareft 
 the centre of the fun, muff, be final 1 eft ; becaufe, were they 
 greater, or equal, they would, by reafon of their velocity, 
 have a greater centrifugal force, and recede from the centre. 
 If it fhould happen that any of thefe fun-like bodies, .in the 
 centres of the feveral vortices, mould be fo incruftated, and 
 weakened, as to be carried about in the vortex of the true 
 fun: if it were of lefs folidity, or had lefs motion than 
 the globules towards the extremity of the folar vortex, it 
 would defcend towards the fun, till it met with globules of 
 the fame folidity, and fufceptible of the fame degree of motion 
 with itfelf j and thus, being fixed there, it would be for ever 
 after carried about by the motion of the vortex, without either 
 approaching ..ny nearer to, or receding from the fun ; and 
 fo would become a pl.,nct. 
 
 Suppofing then all this, we are next to imagine, that our 
 fyftem was at firft divided into feveral vortiecs, in the cen- 
 tre of each of which was a lucid fpherical body ; and that 
 fome of thefe bung gradually incruftated, were iwallowed up 
 by others which were larger, and more powerful, till at hit 
 they were all deftroyed, and fwallowed up by the biggeft folar 
 vortex ; except fome few which were thrown off in right 
 lines from one vortex to another, and fo become comets. 
 But this doctrine of vortices, Is, at belt, merely hypothetical. 
 — It does not pretend to fhew by what laws and means the 
 cceleftial motions are really effected, fo much as by what 
 means they pofhbly might, in cafe it fhould have fo pleafed 
 the Creator. — But we have another principle which accounts 
 for the fame phenomena as well, nay, better than that of 
 vortices : and which we plainly find has an actual exiftence in 
 the nature of things: artd this is gravity, or the weight of 
 ■bodies. 
 
 The vortices, then, fhould be caft out of philofophy, were it 
 only that two different adequate caufes of the fame pheno- 
 mena are inconliftent. 
 
 But we have other objections againft them. — For, i°. If the 
 bodies of the planets and comets be carried round the fun in 
 vortices, the bodies of the parts of the vortex immediately in- 
 verting them, muft move with the fame velocity, and in the 
 fame direction ; and befides, they muft have the fame denfity, 
 or the fame vis inertia;. — But it is evident, that the planets 
 and comets move in the very fame parts of the heavens 
 with different velocity, and in different directions. — It fol- 
 lows, therefore, that thofe parts of the vortex muft revolve at 
 the fametime, in differentdirections, and with different veloci- 
 ties ; fince one velocity, and direction, will be required for the 
 paffage of the planets, and another for that of the comets. 
 2°. If it were granted, that feveral vortices are contained in 
 the fame fpace, and do penetrate each other, and revolve 
 with divers motions; fince thofe motions muft be conforma- 
 ble to thofe of the bodies, which are perfectly regular, and 
 performed in conic fectibns; it may be afked, How they 
 fhould have been preferved intire fo many ages, and not dis- 
 turbed, and confounded by the adverfe actions and Ihocks 
 of fuch rhuch matter as they muft meet withal? 
 3°. The number of comets is very great, and their motions 
 are perfectly regular, obferving the fame laws with the pla- 
 nets, and moving in conical orbits, that art exceedingly ex- 
 centric. Accordingly, they move every way, and to all parts 
 of the heavens, freely pervading the planetary regions, and 
 going frequently contrary to the order of the figns, which 
 would be impoifible, unlefs thefe vortices were away. 
 4°. If the planets move round the fun in vortices, thofe 
 parts of the vortices next the planets, we have already ob- 
 ferved, would be equally denfe with the planets themfelves: 
 confequently the vortical matter, contisuous to the perimeter 
 of the earth's orbit, would be as denfe as the earth itfelf : 
 and that between the orbits of the Earth and Saturn, muft 
 be as denfe, or denfer. — For a vortex cannot maintain it- 
 VOL. II. 
 
 fell, unlefs the more denfe parts be in the centre, and the 
 lefs denfe towards the circumference : and fince the perio- 
 dical times of the planets are in a fefquialterate ratio of 
 their diftances from the fun, the parts of the vortex muft 
 be in the fame ratio. — Whence it follows, that the centri- 
 fugal iorces of the parts will be reciprocally as the fquaies 
 of the diftances. — Such, therefore, as are at a greater dis- 
 tance from the centre, will endeavour to recede therefrom 
 with the lefs force. Accordingly, if they be lefs denfe, they 
 muft give way to the greater force, whereby the parts nearer 
 the centre endeavour to rife. — Thus, the more denfe will 
 rife, and the lefs denfe defcend ; and thus there will be a 
 change of places, till the whole fluid matter of the vortex be 
 fo adjufted, as it may reft in asquilibrio. 
 Thus will the greateft part of the vortex without the earth's 
 orbit, have a degree of deniity and inactivity, not lefs than 
 that of the earth itfelf. — Whence the comets muft meet 
 with a very great refiftance, which is contrary to all ap- 
 pearances. Cotef. prof, ad Newt. Princip. 
 The doctrine of vortices, Sir mac Newton obferves, labours 
 under many difficulties : for a planet to defcribe areas pro- 
 portional to the times, the periodical times of the vortex, 
 lhould be in a duplicate ratio of their diftances from the fun; 
 and for the periodical time of the plane, to be a fefqui- 
 plicate proportion of their diftances from the fun, the peri- 
 odical times of the parts of the vortex fhould be in the fame 
 proportion of their diftances: and, laftly, for the leffer vor- 
 tices about Jupiter, Saturn, and the other planets, to be pre- 
 ferved, and fwim fecurely in the fun's vortex, the periodical 
 times of the parts of the fun's vortex fhould be equal. — 
 None of which proportions are found to obtain in the revo- 
 lutions of the fun, and planets around their axis. Phil. Wat. 
 princ math Opud fcbol. gen. in cake. 
 
 Befides, the planets, according to this hvpothefis, being car- 
 ried about the fun in ellipfes, and having the fun in the um- 
 bilicus of each figure, by lines drawn from themfelves to the 
 fun, do always defcribe areas proportionable to the times of 
 their revolutions ; which that author fhews the parts of no 
 vortex can do. Scol. prop, ult lib. 2. princip. 
 Again, Dr Keil proves, in his Examination of Burnet's The- 
 ory, that if the earth were carried in a vortex, it would move 
 fatter in the proportion of three to two, when it is in Vir- 
 go, than when it is in Pifces; which all experience proves to 
 be falfe. 
 
 VOTE, or Voice. See Suffrage, and Voice. 
 
 In the houfe of peers, they give their votes, or fuftraecs, 
 beginning at the puifne, or loweft barun, and fo to the reft, 
 feriatim, every one arifwering, apart, content, or not content : 
 and if the affirmatives and negatives ar,e equal, fc rr.per prafj li- 
 mit ur pro negante; the fpeaker having no cafting vote, unlefs 
 he be a peer. 
 
 In the houfe of common?, they vote by yea's and no's, pro- 
 mifcuoufly. See Parliament. 
 VOTIVE Ifo/fl/j, are thofe whereon the vows of the peo- 
 ple, for the emperors, or empreffes, are exprcflbd. 
 The public vows, made every five, ten, or twenty years, 
 are more often found round the edges of medals, than on 
 the faces thereof, at leaft under the weftern empire ; for in the 
 eattern the cafe is different : witnefs the medal of M. Aurelius 
 the younger, where thereverfe reprefents the vows made at the 
 time of his marriage, VOTAPUBLICA. And on Grc L k 
 medals, AHMOT ETXAI, which they fomctimes exprefs by 
 the two initial letters, A. E. according to F. Hardouin's con- 
 jecture, which may be admitted in certain medals, where the 
 A H M. EH. that is, A H M APXI KHZ E 2 O T I I A I, dpes 
 not well agree. Witnefs alfo the medal of Antonine, VOTA 
 SUSCEPTA DECENN ALIA. 
 
 The origin of vows, and votive medals, is given by M. Du 
 Cange, thus: — Auguftus feigning himfelf willing to quit the 
 empire, and having twice, at the prayers of the fenate, con- 
 defcended to hold it for ten years longer, it grew into a cuf- 
 tbm, to make frefh public prayers, Sacrifices, and games, for 
 his continuing it, at the ten years end ; andthefc they called 
 deeennalia, or vota decennalia. 
 
 Under the eafterh emperors, thefe vows were repeated every 
 five years: hence it is, that, after Dioclefian's time, we find 
 on medals VOTIS V, XV, lie. which practice continued 
 till the time of Theodofius, when Chriftiaihty being well cfta- 
 bhfhed, a ceremony that had fome remains of heathenifm in 
 it, was fet afide. So that the VOTIS MULTIS, on a 
 medal of Majorianus, muft be a very different thing; and 
 nb other, doubtlefs, than a kind of acclamation, like that 
 PLURA NATALIA FAELICITER. 
 
 Votive Mafs. Sec the article Mass. 
 
 VOTUM, Vow See the article Vow. 
 
 Votum, in our antient law-hooks, is ufed for nuptia?, or mar- 
 riage : fo, dies votorum, is the wedding-day, Fleta,Mb. 4. cap. 
 2. par. 16. Si donatarius ad alia vota convoluverit, &c. See 
 Marriage. 
 
 M P VOUCH. 
 
vow 
 
 U R A 
 
 or vouchee, into 
 
 VOUCH.— Aperfon is (aid to vouch for another, when he 
 undertakes to maintain, or warrant him in any thing, or 
 palfcs his word in his behalf. 
 IB law, to vouch, is to call fuch pcrfc 
 court, to make good his warrant. 
 VOUCHEE, a perfon who is to warranty, or vouch for 
 another, who in refpea hereof, is called voucher, bee 
 Voucher, and Warranty. 
 VOUCHER *, in law, the tenant in a writ of right, who 
 calls another perfon into court, bound to warranty him, and 
 either to defend his right againft the demandant, or to yield 
 him other lands, 6fc, to the value. 
 
 * This feems in W meafure to agree to the contraa in the civil 
 law, whereby the vendee binds the vendor, fometimes in the 
 fimple value of the things bought, fometimes in the double ; 
 to warrant the Secure enjoying of the thing bought.— Yet there 
 is this difference between the civil and common law, m this 
 point, that the civil law binds every man to warrant the iecu- 
 rity of that which he fclleth ; which the common law doth 
 not, unlefs it be facially covenanted. 
 The procefs whereby the vouchee is called, is a fummoneas 
 ad warrantifandum } and if the fheriff return upon that 
 writ, that the party hath nothing whereby he may be fum- 
 moned, then goes out another writ, called, fequatur fub fus 
 fericulo. 
 
 A recovery with a fingle voucher, is when there is but one 
 •voucher ; and with a double voucher, is when the vouchee 
 voucheth over j and fo a treble voucher. 
 There is alfo a foreign voucher, when the tenant impleaded 
 in a particular jurifditlion, voucheth one to warranty in fome 
 other county, out of the jurifdiciion of that court ; and prays 
 he may be Summoned, feV. — This were more pertinently 
 called a voucher of a foreigner. 
 Voucher, alfo fignifics a leigcr-book, or book of accompts, 
 wherein arc entered the warrants for the accomptant's dis- 
 charge. 
 
 VOUSSOIR, Vault-Jlone, or Key-fione, in architecture, a 
 ftone proper to form the fweep of an arch, being cut Some- 
 what in the manner of a truncated cone, whole fides, were 
 they prolonged, would terminate in a centre, to which all 
 the Hones of the vault are directed. 
 
 VOW, Votum, a folemn promile, or offering of a man's 
 Self, or other thing to God. 
 
 A perfon is conftituted a religious, by taking three vows, that 
 of poverty, that of chaftity, and that of obedience. 
 Authors are divided as to the antiquity of thefe vows. — 
 It is agreed, the ancient anchorets, and hermits of the The- 
 haidc, made none ; they did not confecrate themfclves to God 
 by any indiifoluble obligation, but were at liberty to quit 
 their retirement, and return into the world, whenever the 
 fervor that drove them out of it, came to abate. 
 Vows were not introduced till long after ; and that to fix 
 the too frequent inconftancy of fuch as, after retiring from 
 the world, repented thcmfelves too foon, or too flightly ■ and 
 fay that means fcandalizcd the church, and dillurbed the quiet 
 of families by their return. 
 
 Erafmus will have it, that folemn vows were not introduced 
 till the thirteenth century, under the pontificate of Boniface 
 VIII. — Others hold them to be as antient as the council of 
 Calcedon: but the truth is, before Boniface VIII. there were 
 none but fimple vows, and fuch as might be difpenfed with- 
 al.— Their voivs, till that time, were not deemed eternal 
 chains ; they were not inditfolublc. It is true, they were ob- 
 ligatory promifes, as to confeience, and the inconftancy of 
 iuch as violated them, was held an odious defcrtion : but, as 
 to law, the pcrfons were not held to be civilly dead, fo as, 
 upon their return, to render them incapable of all acts of 
 civil focicty, 
 
 Thfi moft common vow was that of poverty, but this only 
 regarded the convent; on account of which, every perfon 
 diverted himfclf of all property : but the making of vows did 
 not at all exclude them from the rights of blood, or render 
 them incapable of inheriting. 
 
 No religious, it is true, acquired the property of the effects 
 that fell to him ; they all belonged to the monaftery, in fa- 
 vour of which he had diverted himfelf of every thing ; and 
 the monartcry only left him the ufufruit and direction of 
 them. — The popes have frequently confirmed this privilege 
 to divers orders, and permitted the monks to inherit, as much 
 as if they were Seculars, and had made no voivs. 
 At prefent, the civil death of a religious is dated from the 
 day he makes the vews ; and from that time he is utterly in- 
 capable of inheriting, — A religious may reclaim, or proteft 
 againft his vows within five years ; but, after that, it is no 
 longer admitted.— The failures in the profeffion, are cfteem- 
 cd to be purged, by his filence and perfeverance for five years. 
 —Indeed, to be relieved from his vows, it is not enough the 
 
 party reclaim within the five years ; hut he rnuft likcwiJt 
 prove that he was forced to take the habit. 
 Vows, Vota, among the Romans, Signify Sacrifices, offer- 
 in©) prcfents, and prayers, made for the emperors and ca- 
 fars, particularly for their proiperity, and the lartingnefs of 
 their empire. 
 
 Thefe were, at firft, made every five years, then every fif- 
 teen, and then every twenty, called quinqiiennalia, decmna- 
 l:a, and vicennalta. 
 
 In divers antique medals and inferiptions, we read, Vot. X. 
 Vot. XX. Vot. mult. Signifying wf/j decennalibus,vicennaHbus, 
 
 thsltis, &c. 
 
 VOWEL, Vocalis, in grammar, a letter which affords a 
 complete found of itfclf; or aletter fo Simple, as only to need 
 a bare opening of the mouth to make it heard, and to form 
 a diftinct voice. 
 
 Such are a, e, r, o, u ; which are called vocales, vowels, in 
 contradiSiincf ion tocertain other letters, which depending on a 
 particular application of fome part of the mouth, as the teeth, 
 lips, or palate, can make no perfect found without an open- 
 ing of the mouth, that is, without the addition of a vowel; 
 and are therefore called confonants. 
 
 Though we ordinarily only reckon five vowels, yet, befides 
 that each of thefe may be either long or Short, which occa- 
 sions a confiderable variety in the found : to conSider only 
 their differences refulting from the different apertures of the 
 mouth, one might add four or five more vowels to the num- 
 ber. — For the e open, and the e clofe, are different enough 
 to make two vowels, as in fea, and depth; foalfo the o open, 
 and a clofe, in hojl, and organ. — Add, that the u pro- 
 nounced ou, as the Latins did, and as the Italians and Spaniards 
 Still do, has a very different found from the «, as pronounced 
 by the Greeks, and, as at this day, by the Englifh and 
 French.. — .Again, eo, in people, make but one Simple found, 
 though we write it with two vowels. 
 
 Laftly, the e mute is, originally, no more than a furd joined 
 to a confonant, when that is to be pronounced without a vowel, 
 as when it is immediately followed by other confonants, as 
 in the word fcamnum. — This is what the Hebrews call 
 fcheva, cfpecially when it begins the Syllable : and this fcheva 
 is found in all languages, though overlooked in many of them, 
 particularly in the Englifh, Latin, &c. by reafon it has no 
 proper character to denote it; though, in fome of the vulgar 
 tongues, particularly French and High-Dutch, it isexprelicd 
 by the vowel e adding its found to the reft. 
 1'hus, without regarding the differences of the Same Sound 
 or vowel, as to length or ShortneSs, one may diftinguifh ten 
 Several vowels, expretfed by the following characters, «, c, 
 - e, i, o, 5, eu, ou, a, e mute, 
 
 VOX, in law — Vocem nan habere, is a phrafe ufed by 
 Bracton and Fleta, for an infamous perfon ; one who is not 
 admitted to be a witneSs. 
 
 UP-LAND, denotes high ground, or, as Some call it, terra 
 finna ; by which it Hands oppofed to fuch as is moorifh, 
 marfhy, or low. — Or, it is pair, ure -land, which lies So hi^h, 
 as not to be overflowed with rivers, or land-floods. 
 
 UPPER He?nijphere. -v ✓-Hemisphere. 
 
 Upper Ocean. ( Q , . \Ocean. 
 
 Upper polar Dial. £ See the article <Dia l. 
 
 Upper Region. J CRegio^. 
 
 UPRIGHT, in architecture, a representation or draught of 
 the front of a building ; called alfo, an elevation, ox orthogra- 
 phy. 
 
 Upright, in heraldry, is ufed in refpect of fhell-Sifhes, as 
 crevices, &c. when Handing erecf in a coat. — Inafmuch as 
 they want fins, they cannot, according to Guillim, be pro- 
 perly faid to be haur'tant; that being a term appropriated to 
 fcaly fifties. 
 
 URACHUS, OYPAXOS, in anatomy, a membranous canal 
 in a fcetus, proceeding from the bottom of the urinary blad- 
 der, through the navel, to the placenta, along with the um- 
 bilical vcflels, whereof it is efteemed one. — See Tab. Anat. 
 (Splaneh.) fig. i, lit.f.f. fig. 3, lit. e. d. fig. 8. lit. n. fig. 
 16. lit. n. 
 
 The termination of the urachus in the placenta, forms a lit- 
 tle oval vefica, or bladder, which ferves to receive the urine 
 fecreted in the kidneys of the fcetus, and that could not make 
 its way through the urethra, by reafon of the reSiftance of 
 the Sphincter of the bladder, which is not to be overcome, 
 but by inspiration. 
 
 The humour found in the vefica of the urachus, Is ftill in 
 
 the greater quantity, the higher coloured, and the more like 
 
 urine, as the fcetus is nearer the time of the birth. 
 
 The urachus is moft plainly found in brutes j but there is 
 
 no difpute but that it exifts in a human fcetus. 
 
 M. Drelincourt, a celebrated profeffor of anatomy at Leiden, 
 
 and fome others after him, deny the urachus to be hullov/ : 
 
URE 
 
 U R I 
 
 on which fuppofkion it would not be eafy to affign it? ule, 
 unlefs to keep the bladder fufpended to the navel. But the 
 former opinion feems the belt warranted. See Urine. 
 URAN. Seethe article Ot/RAN. 
 
 URANIBOURGH, a term often heard among aftrono- 
 mers, being the name of a celebrated obfervatory, in a caf- 
 tle in the little ifland Vcena, or Huena, in the Sound ; built 
 by that noble Dane, Tycho Brahe, and furnifhed with in- 
 ftruments for obferving the courfc and motions of the hea- 
 venly bodies. 
 
 This forned obfervatory, finifhed about the year 1580, did 
 not fubiift above feventeen years ; when Tycho, who little 
 thought to have creeled an edifice of fo fhort a duration, 
 and who had even publifhed the figure and pofition of the 
 heavens, which he had chofe for the moment to lay the firft 
 ftone in, was obliged to abandon his country. 
 Soon after this, thofe to whom the property of the ifland 
 Huena was given, made it their bufinefs to demoiifh Urani- 
 bmrgh : part of the ruins were difperfed into divers places, 
 the reft ferved to build Tycho a handfom feat upon his an- 
 tient eftate, which, to this day, bears the name of Uranl- 
 bourgh. — For as to the antient Ura?iibourgh, there is now no 
 footlteps of it remaining. — It was here Tycho compofed his 
 catalogue of the ftars. 
 
 M. Picart, making a voyage to XJranibourgh, found Tycho's 
 meridian line drawn thereon, to deviate from the meridian 
 of the world ; which confirms the conjecture of fome, that 
 the pofition of the meridian line may vary. 
 
 URBICARY Provinces. See the article Suburbicary. 
 
 URDE', or Urde'e, in heraldry. — -A crofs urde, feems to 
 be the fame with what we otherwife call clechee. SeeC-LE- 
 che'e. 
 
 UREDO, the blafting or blighting of trees, or herbs. See 
 Blight. 
 
 Uredo, is fometimes ufed by phyficians, for an itching, or 
 
 burning in the fkin. 
 URTNTlA, are fometimes ufed for medicines of a hot or 
 
 burning quality. See Caustic, 
 URETERS *, OYPHTHPES, in anatomy, two long and 
 
 ilender canals, which come from the pelvis or bafon of the 
 
 kidneys, one on each iidc, and terminate in the bladder; 
 
 ferving to convey the urine, fecreted in the glands of the 
 
 kidneys, into the bladder.— See Tab. Anat. (Splanch.) fig. 1. 
 
 tit. g g. fig. 4. lit. f. fig. 8. lit. m. m. fig. 9. lit. II. ° 
 * The word is formed from the Greek meiere, to make 
 water. 
 
 The ureters lie between the doubling of the peritonaeum ; 
 and defcending in the form of an S, they pierce the bladder 
 near its neck, where they run, firft, fome fpace betwixt its 
 coats, and then open into its cavity. 
 
 They are compofed of three coats, — The firft is from the 
 peritonaeum ; the fecond is made of fmall oblique mufcular 
 fibres; and the third, which is very fenfible, has feveral 
 fmall glands, which feparate a flimy liquor, to defend it a- 
 gainft the acrimony of the urine. 
 
 The neighbouring parts furnifti them with blood-veffels j 
 and they have nerves from the intercoftal, and the vertebras 
 of the loins. — Their cavity is fometimes contracted in three 
 or four places, efpecially towards the bladder. 
 Such as are fubjedt to the gravel, and given to exceftive 
 drinking, have them fometimes fo much dilated, that one 
 may put the end of ones little finger into them. Their ob- 
 ftrudtion caufes a fuppreflion of the urine. 
 URETHRA, OTPHGPA, in anatomy, a tube or canal a- 
 rifing from the neck of the bladder, and continued to the 
 pudendum ; ferving to difcharge, 01 carry off the urine out 
 of the bladder. See Tab. Anat. (Splancb.) fig. 8. u. u. 
 fig. 15. lit. d.f. m.m. 
 
 Some will have it to be only a production of the neck of the 
 bladder itfelf. — Its length is very different in the two fexes. 
 ■ — In man it terminates in the extremity of the glans, and is 
 ordinarily about a foot long. — In women, where it is ufually 
 called meatus ur'marius, it is but two fingers breadth along, 
 and terminates in the vulva j but it is much wider, and 
 more eafily dilated here, than in the other fex. 
 Mr Cowpcr gives us an inftance of a woman, wherein the 
 hymen was fo firm and impervious, that her hufband finding 
 no pafTage through it, had opened himfelf another through 
 the orifice of the ure&ra. 
 
 The urethra is compofed of two membranes, and a little 
 fpongy fubfiance, like that of the corpora cavernofa ; except 
 at the end which joins the neck of the bladder ; where the 
 diftance between the membranes is fmall, and filled up with 
 a thin and red glandulous fubftance, whofc excretory ducts, 
 piercing the inner membrane, pour into the pipe a mucila- 
 ginous liquor, which lines and lubricates its cavity, and pre- 
 vents the falls of the urine from galling it ; and having a far- 
 ther office in the male fex, wz. the emiflion of the Iced. 
 
 URIGO, a burning with a cauflic, or cautery. 
 
 V R I M and Thumtnim, Q'Ori q. d light and psrfia- 
 
 tfoftj the name of a kind of ornament belonging to the ha- 
 bit of the Jewifh high-prieft ; in virtue whereof he gave ora- 
 cular anfwers to the people. 
 
 The high-priefts of the Jews, we are told, confultcd God in 
 the molt important affairs of their commonwealth, and re- 
 ceived anfwers by the urim and thummim. — \V hat thele were, 
 is difputed among the critics: fome take them to be the 12 
 precious ftones in the breaft-plate of the high-prieft, which 
 ihone like a flame of fire. 
 
 Others will have them, the theraphim, or little human fi- 
 gures carried by the high-prieft, hid in the fold of his robe 
 or gown, and by which he anfwered the queftions of the 
 Jews. 
 
 Diodorus Siculus relates, that there was alfo a ceremony in 
 ufe among the Egyptians, whofe principal miniftcr of juitice 
 wore a collar of precious ftones about Ins neck, which was 
 called aAuflda, or truth. 
 
 URINAL, in medicine, a vefiel fit to receive and hold 
 urine ; and ufed accordingly, for the convcnicncy of fick 
 perfons. See Urine, and Urocritf.ri um. 
 It is ufually of glafs, and crooked ; and fometimes it is filled 
 with milk, to afTuage the pain of the gravel. 
 
 Ur 1 n a l, in chymiftry, is an oblong glafs velfel, ufed for mak- 
 ing folutions, and fo called from its refemblancc to the 
 glaifes in which urine is fet to fettle, for the infpection of 
 the phyfician. 
 
 URINARIA Fifiula, is the fame as urethra ; fo called 
 
 from its office, to convey the urine. See Urethra. 
 Vefica Urinaria. See the article Bladder. 
 Meatus Urinarius. See the article Me atus. 
 
 URINARY Bladder. 1 R . ( Bladder. 
 
 IT r, > oec the article -f TT 
 
 Urinary Pajage. J (Urethra. 
 URINE*, Urina, a liquid excrement, or humour, fepa- 
 rated from the blood in the kidneys, conveyed thence into 
 the bladder, and difcharged by the urethra. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Greek, nfor, which fignifics the 
 fame. 
 
 The urine k fecreted from the arterial blood, in the glands 
 of the kidneys, from which arife numerous little pellucid 
 pipes, and veins ; which, receiving the fecreted urine, at 
 length join into twelve papilla: ; out of which the urine007.es 
 into a cavity called the pelvis, from whence it runs into 
 the ureters of either fide, and through them into the bladder; 
 and from that, at length, through the urethra, out of the 
 body. 
 
 The fecretion of the urine, then, is not performed by any 
 attraction, as fome will have it ; or by any fermentation, as 
 others ; or any precipitation, as others : but by the force of 
 the heart, and arteries, whereby the blood is driven through 
 innumerable turnings and windings of the veifels ; attenuat- 
 ed by refiftances, oppofite motions, violent concuffions, and 
 various mixtures, till the more liquid and ferous part there- 
 of is forced through canals fmaller than the blood- veifels, and 
 fo collected and difcharged. 
 
 It is more than probable, that the blood of the emulgent ar- 
 tery, conveyed through all the little branches that fpread 
 through the exterior membranes of the veficulai: whereof the 
 kidneys are compofed, being by this means exceedingly di- 
 vided, and, as it were, attenuated, enters the veficula? them- 
 felves, and gives them their red colour ; that it is there fil- 
 trated, and the ferous or urinous part fecreted ; that this 
 filtration is promoted by the alternate contraction and dila- 
 tation of the fleftiy fibres that inclofe the little vefides ; and 
 that after filtration, the parts that remain blood are re- 
 fumed by the capillary branches of the veins ; the reft en- 
 tering the excretory duels of the veficula;, which are the 
 firft receptacle of the urine. Hijl. Acad, des Sciences, an. 
 l 7°S- 
 
 M. Marin, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, marks 
 out a new rout, or courfe of the urine. — The ordinary 
 one, which is the paflage of any liquor we drink througli 
 the ftomach into the inteftincs, thence into the lacteals, 
 thence into the receptacle of the chyle, thence into the fub- 
 clavian vein, thence into the cava, thence Into the right 
 ventricle of the heart, thence into the lungs, and thence 
 into the left ventricle of the heart ; thence into the aorta, 
 thence into the emulgent artery, thence into the kidneys, 
 thence into the ureters, and at laft into the bladder, feems to 
 him too long and circuitous ; confidcring how readily mineral 
 waters pafs, and what a fpeedy effect afparagus is found 
 to have on our urine.— Betides, that on this principle, the 
 liquors we drink mixing with fo many other liquors in 
 their way, fhoukl be greatly altered thereby ; whereas we 
 frequently find a tincture of caffia, rendered by urine al- 
 moft as black as when firft taken: and the like is obferved 
 of divers other liquors. 
 
 M. Morin, therefore, maintains, that a good part of the 
 liquor we drink, oozes through the membranes of the fto- 
 mach, and falls into the abdomen ; where it enters the blad- 
 der through the pores thereof, without getting into the in- 
 teftincs, 
 
U R I 
 
 teftincs, which are lined with too thick and vifcid a humour 
 
 — e that both the 
 bladder, even of a dead animal, are found eafily permea 
 
 Dr Morgan aft res us, that if 
 the abdomen betaken out of an animal body, alter it mjm 
 opened, and the ftomach be filled with warm water while 
 the parts are yet leaking, the liquor will pafs m o the blad 
 der. which will vifibly°receive it, and be filled m propor- 
 tion as the ftomach empties. , 
 The fame author adds, that if a ligature be made upon the 
 meters, while the animal is yet living, and the blood 1 con- 
 tinues to circulate; though this mult cut off al 
 cation from the kidneys to the bladder-, yet any hquor, with 
 which the ftomach is filled, will pafs into the "adder 
 From the whole, he fays, though feme of our bed »««M*** 
 hold that a circulation of the whole mafs of Mood is effete! 
 in five minutes, and others in two, which might account for 
 the quick pad'age of the urm, it is hard to conceive but 
 that part of it muft go immediately from the ftomach mto 
 the bladder. , . ■ 
 
 The "-cncral defign of nature m this new urinary drain, is 
 fuppoled to be to prevent any fudden plethora, or immode- 
 rate difteniion of the vefl'els upon drinking. 
 As a ncceffary confluence of this fyftcm, the author cita- 
 blilhes two kinds of u, in, ; the c ne filtrated immediately out 
 of the ftomach into the bladder, the other palling the long 
 courfc of circulation. 
 
 In the PWdofofhieal Trmfoaum, we have an inftance given 
 us, by Mr Young, of a boy fix years old, that pilled off al- 
 moft all his urine by his navel 
 
 ]n the fame TrmUaahnu Dr Richardfon gives an account 
 of a ho- at North Bicrly in Yorkfliire, who lived to feven- 
 teen years of age without ever making water; yet was in 
 perfect health.— He had conftamly a diarrhoea on him, but 
 without much uneafinefs. The obftruflion, that author ob- 
 serves, muit hive ' W in his kidneys; for he had never any 
 inciir.aL:on to make water. , . , . 
 
 Urines are of various kinds and properties.— After drimcmg 
 plentifully of any aqueous fluid, the urine is crude, infipid, 
 
 void of fmell, and eafily retained That yielded by chyle 
 
 . well concofled, is fharper, more faline, lefs copious, Some- 
 what fetid, and more Stimulating. — That from chyle al- 
 ready converted into ferum, is redder, fharper, falter, and 
 more fetid and ftimulating. — And that fecerned after long 
 abftinence, from humours well concofled, and worn off the 
 Ibhd parts, is the lcaft copious, fharpeft, faltcft, redded, moft 
 fetid, almoft putrificd, and of all others the hardeftto retain. 
 Thc'nrmr, therefore, contains the watery part of the blood, 
 its fharpeft, fubtilcft, and moft volatile fait, and that neareft 
 to the alkaline kind ; its fharpeft, fmallcft, and moft, vola- 
 tile oil, and that neareft to putrefaction ; and its finalleft 
 moft volatile earth. . i >> il 
 
 The phofphorus, in ufe among us, is made from human 
 urme , — Saltpetre is likewile prepared from the urine, and 
 other excrements of animals. 
 
 The Indians fcaice ufe any orher medicine but cows urine.— 
 The Spaniards make great ufe of urine to clean their teeth 
 withal : and fo did the Celtibcrians of old. 
 Urine is alfo ufed in dying, to ferment and warm the woad, 
 — Old urine tinges Silver wirh a fine gold colour. 
 The diforders in the urine are various. See Strangury, 
 Retention, Diabetes, Stone, Nubecula, i3e. 
 Urine, in medicine. — The urine affords one of the princi- 
 pal criterion;, or figns, whereby physicians judge of the 
 State of the patient, and the courfe of the difeafe. 
 In calling, or examining urine, the things to be confidered 
 are its quantity, colour, fmell, tafie, fluidity, and the matters 
 fwimming therein. 
 
 An abundance of urine, indicates a loofenefs of the renal 
 pipes, a diminution of perfpiration, fweat, faliva, an im- 
 perfect mixture of the blood, whereby the watry parts Sepa- 
 rate eafily from the reft ; a nervous indifpofition, a copious 
 drinking of Some aqueous liquid, or Some diuretic taken. — 
 Such urine prefages a thicknefs of what is left behind ; and 
 its acrimony denotes thirft, anxiety, obftructions, and their 
 effects, a dry and hot conftitution. 
 
 A contrary Slate of the urine, indicates the contraries; and 
 prefages future repletions, heavinefs, droufinefs, convulfive 
 tremors, c^r. 
 
 A thin, limpid, infipid, colourlefs, taflelefs urine, denotes a 
 great conftriction. of the renal veflels, and, at the fame time, 
 a brifk agitation of the humours ; a llrong cohefion of the 
 oil, fait, and earth in the blood itfelf, and an imperfect mix- 
 ture of the aqueous parts therewith ; fome grievous indifpo- 
 fition of the mind, a hyfteric or hypochondriac fit; a debi- 
 lity of the vifcera ; crudity, pituita, obftructions of the vef- 
 fels ; and, in acute difeafes, a want of a coction and crifis. 
 
 URN 
 
 — Such urine portends much the fame as a too copious, 
 urine; and, in acute inflammatory difeafes, a bad condition 
 of the vifcera, deliria, phrenfies, convulfions and death. 
 Ruddy urine, without any fediment, in acute difeafes, in- 
 dicates a violent motion and attrition among the parts that 
 conftitute the humours, and between the veflels and the 
 humours ; a clofe intimate mixture of the oil, fait, earth, 
 and water in the humours : and hence a great crudity ot 
 the difeafe, and its long duration, and great danger. — 
 Such urtne prcliiges gangrenous obftrudtions of the fineft 
 veflels, chielly thofe of the brain and cerebellum, and thence 
 dcath : a difficult codtion ; a (low, doubtful crifis : and al! 
 thefe the worfe, as the urine is redder, and freer of fedi- 
 ment. — It there be a heavy, copious fediment, it fhews a 
 flrong antecedent attrition, loofe veflels, fharp, faline, col- 
 liquated blood, unfit for nutrition, intermitting fevers, and 
 fcurvy. 
 
 The prefages arc, the durablcnefs of the difeafe, wearing 
 of the vefl'els, weaknefs, colliquative fweats, faliva, atrophy, 
 and clropfy. — If the fediment in fuch urine be branny, fcaly, 
 filmy, &e. it prefages the like, only worfe. 
 A yellow urine, with a fediment as before, denotes a jaun- 
 dice, and the f/mptoms thereof in the cutis, flools, &c. 
 A green urine, with a tbick fediment, denotes an atrabilary 
 temperature, and that the matter thereof is refolved, and 
 now excreted : confequently anxieties about the prxcordia, 
 perturbations of flool, and iliac and colic pains. 
 Black urine, denotes the fame with green, only in a greater 
 and worfe degree. 
 
 Blood, pus, caruncles, filaments, hairs, anguilke, grumje, 
 fandy parts of ftone, and a mucus at the bottom of the urine, 
 denote fome diforder in the kidneys, meters, bladder, and 
 urethra. 
 
 Fatty urine, generally breeds fmall fands, adhering to fome 
 vifcid matter, and thus produces a fort of oily membrane, or 
 pellicle, which denotes an abundance of earth, and a heavy 
 fait in the blood, and prefages the fcurvy, ftone, iSc. 
 A fetid urine, denotes the falts and oils to be attenuated, 
 diffolved, and almoft putrified ; whence very great danger, 
 both in chronic and acute difeafes. 
 
 Urine which, when fhook, retains its froth long, denotes a 
 tenacity of the mixture, and thence a difficulty of crifis ; 
 and pulmonic difeafes, or catarrhs in the head. 
 But the urine is chiefly. confulted in acute fevers, where it is 
 a very fure fign : For, i°. Urine with a white, light, equa- 
 ble, turbinated, inodorous fediment, through the whole 
 courfe of the difeafe to the crifis, is a very good prefage. 
 
 — 2°. Copious, white, flrangurious urine, with much white 
 fediment, emitted at the time of the crifis, cures and takes 
 away ablceftl-s. 3 0 . A thin, ruddy Urine, that docs nOt 
 fublidc ; a white, thin, watery urine ; a thin, equable, yel- 
 low urine; and a turbid urine, that docs not fubfidc, de- 
 notes, in very acute difeafes, a great crudity, a difficult 
 crifis, and a durable dangerous difeale. 
 
 Ur 1 ne, in agriculture, is of excellent ufe as a manure. 
 The knowing in agriculture and gardening, prefer urine for 
 land, trees, ts'c. before dung; as penetrating better to the 
 roots; and removing divers infirmities of plants. 
 The decay of the antient Kentilh pippins, is a thing much 
 complained of ; and Mr Mortimer obferves, they will be 
 quite loft, unlefs fome perfons fet themfelves to the anticnt 
 way of culture ; which, as all antient graziers and gardeners 
 know, was by warning the moffy, worm-eaten, cankered, 
 and unfound trees, two or three times in the month of 
 March, with the urine of oxen, Is'c, gathered in earthen 
 veflels, placed under the planks of the ftalls wherein they 
 were fatted.. 
 
 In Holland, and in divers other parts, they prcferve the 
 urine of their beafts, &c. with as much care as their dung. 
 
 — Mr Hartlib, Sir Hugh Plat, Mr Mortimer, &c. make a 
 common complaint, that fo great an improver of land, and 
 fo remarkable a ftrengthner of manure, mould be fo much 
 difregarded among us. 
 
 URINOUS Saks, are the fame with what we otherwife call 
 alkali falts, or alkalies. 
 
 There are two kinds of urinous falts, the one fixt, the o 
 ther volatile.— The fixt prevail in plants, and the volatile 
 in animals. 
 
 They are called urinous, in refpeft of their tafte, and fmell, 
 which bear fome refemblance to thofe of urine. 
 URN, Urna, a kind of vafe, of a rotmdifii form, but big- 
 geft in the middle, like the common pitchers ; now feldom 
 ufed, but in the way of ornament over chimney-pieces, in 
 buffets, csV. or, by way of acroters, zt the tops of build- 
 ings, funeral monuments, &c. 
 
 The great ufe of urns, among the antients, was to prefeive 
 the afhes of the dead, after they were burnt : for which rea- 
 fon they were called cineraria, and urna cineraria; and 
 were placed fomctimes under the tomb-ftone, whereon the 
 
 epitaph 
 
URS 
 
 U R S 
 
 epitaph was cut; anti fometimes preferred in vaults in their 
 own houfes. 
 
 Urns were aifo ufed at their facrifkes, to put liquid things in. 
 They were alfo of ufe in the fortes prasnejlinas, or calling of 
 
 lots. 
 
 At Rome, alfo, the cuftom was to abfolve or condemn the 
 accufed, by the fufTrages, or calculi, which the judges call 
 into the judicatory urn. 
 
 Virgil reprcfents Minos, the judge of hell, fhaking the urn, 
 to decide the lots of mankind. — Queefltor Minos urnam 
 mavet. 
 
 The urn is ftill the attribute of rivers, which are painted 
 leaning on urns, reprefenting their fources by the waters flow- 
 ing therefrom. — We find them represented in the fame man- 
 ner on antique medals, and relievo's. 
 Urn, Urna, was alfo a Roman meafure, for liquid things; 
 containing about three gallons and a half of Englim wine 
 meafure. 
 
 The urn was half the amphora, and four times the congius. 
 UROCRITERIUM* or Urocrisia, a cajting of 
 water ; or giving judgment on difeafes by the fight of the 
 urine. See Urine. 
 
 * The word is compounded of apar, urine, and xpn-jjpio,, crite- 
 rion, mark, fign. — Hence alfo, iiroinnuey, urisjctspy. Sec 
 
 URSA, in aftronomy, the Bear, a name common to two 
 confleltations of the northern hemifphere, near the pole ; 
 diftinguifhed by major, and minor. 
 
 Ursa major, or the great Bear, according to Ptolemy's cata- 
 logue, conhfts of 35 itars ; according to Tycbo's, of 56; 
 but, in the Britannic catalogue, we have 215. — The longi- 
 tudes, latitudes, magnitudes, cs'e. whereof, are as follow. 
 
 Names and Situations of the Stars. 
 
 tween Perfeus and the 
 [head of the great Bear 3 
 
 A ftar of Urfa minor in Tycho 
 5 
 
 Of Urfa minor 
 Of Urfa minor 
 
 Inform, between the pole and Auriga 
 Preced. the great Bear 
 
 £?. Longitudi 
 
 11 57 29 
 11 5 z 1; 
 
 ■3 5+ 3 2 
 16 18 " 
 
 14 49 453a 
 14 S 8 1430 
 
 16 59 5 
 
 17 la 5 
 16 20 4 
 
 37 th of Cafliopeia in Tycho 
 
 Perhaps, 
 
 3 ad of Cafliopeia in Tycho 
 30 
 
 3J 
 
 40 
 
 35th of Cafliopeia 
 36th 
 33d 
 34th 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 17 10 
 
 19 12 
 
 ■9 47 39 
 2 ' '3 55 
 22 28 51 
 
 22 47 Si 
 
 23 20 c 
 
 22 54 4 
 
 23 27 4, 
 
 2 3 33 43 
 
 24 29 3.. 
 24 56 
 
 z 5 39 
 or 27 31 5 < 
 
 31 27 .7 
 
 27 26 
 
 28 10 
 
 28 9 
 
 28 26 3! 
 
 28 40 sf 
 
 2 9 3 43 
 29 1 1 
 29 44 35 
 29 5. c 
 29 59 55 
 
 5 o 30 30 
 1 27 
 
 1 33 53 
 
 1 51 1 
 
 2 57 3 
 
 Latitude § 
 North 
 
 34 4 
 56 545 6 
 33 5° 
 1 38 
 
 2 3 -74 5 
 
 2 3 '7 6 
 
 5° 59 5 
 
 23 19 
 53 15 
 
 33 3° 
 
 3 5 4 Z 
 52 27 
 '5 39 
 52 o 
 
 44 2 3 
 
 ;8 30 
 
 8 33 
 39 5° 
 2 7 4° i 7 
 
 29 38 
 2 4 31 
 5 1 
 '5 
 
 28 
 
 z 3 1 
 z 39 
 
 3 28 
 
 4 2 
 4 5° 22 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 6 23 32 
 
 7 34 35 
 
 8 7 S o 
 
 44 
 3 45 
 34 
 if. 1 
 
 5 
 
 4 2 3S 
 
 ; 2 s- 
 
 33 "8 
 4 3° 
 
 34 Si 
 
 20 59 
 57 43 
 3 
 
 ■3 
 
 2 3c 
 
 50 3 
 13 15 
 12 it 
 34 54 
 '5 
 
 2 3 
 
 43 33 
 
 9 
 
 54 4 f 
 57 49 
 S» 
 '7 
 
 Names and Situations ef the Stars- 
 
 Inform, foil. Auriga, betw. the head of 
 55 [Urfa maj. and Gemini 
 
 ..Longitude Latitude SI 
 North. 
 
 J 3 30 23 
 
 9 58 5 8 
 
 9 3" 2 9 
 
 11 18 5 
 
 11 19 26 
 
 12 3 53 
 iz 1 5 
 
 11 24 1 
 14 46 52 
 16 42 59 
 
 16 42 4 
 
 14 27 40 
 
 16 z 49 
 
 12 54 
 
 .6 37 18 
 
 37 2 ° "5 
 
 26 58 23 
 
 3 2 47 55 
 6 53 54 
 
 37 2 5 55 
 
 35 - 55 
 
 36 41 
 40 48 30 
 
 ;+ s 6 4s 
 
 5 58 1 
 
 26 9 39 
 
 8 40 o 
 
 33 5 6 3' 
 36 58 zS 
 
 17 
 16 
 
 39 
 
 a 
 
 13 4 8 
 
 33 
 
 6 54 
 
 Inform, betw. Gemini and the fore foot 
 70 [of the Bear 
 
 In the tip of the nofe 
 Preced. of two againll the eyes 
 
 Subfeq. of the fame 
 75 
 
 Againil the jaw 
 
 Preced. of two in the forehead 
 North, in the preced. anterior foot 
 80 
 
 North of inform, under the znteriorfoot fl_ o 58 20 
 
 South, of the preced. foot 
 
 Potterior in the forehead 
 
 Precei. in the triangle of the neck 
 
 Second of the informcs 
 That under the preced. knee 
 South, in the triangle of the reck 
 
 39 
 
 ■9 : 
 
 29 
 
 1 41 3 
 
 : 37 48 
 1 39 
 
 8 40 1 2 47 4 3 
 
 S\ 3 
 
 S23 
 
 That over the preced. knee 03 28 
 
 Nor. ot the brighter among 5 inform. q 6 
 South, of the fame 7 
 
 53 
 37 
 • 58 4' 
 '5 
 
 12 10 
 
 47 53 
 57 
 39 
 
 57 59 
 
 58 12 
 '3 
 3> 
 34 
 
 4 
 
 In extrem. of the ear 
 Pofier. in the triangle of the neck 
 
 38 38 21 
 
 41 30 16 
 
 3S 58 19; 6 
 
 39 5° '3 
 
 33 
 44 3> 
 
 43 59 
 7 6 
 
 47 54 43 
 29 34 29 
 
 23 41 53 4,5 
 
 3 
 
 28 57 
 
 47 48 
 33 
 
 20 51 27 5 
 33 2 5 55|4 > 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 5 S 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 6 
 
 7 
 
 584 5 
 
 4 Z 47 
 " 35 45 
 'S 49 2 ° 
 
 2938 
 
 5 
 
 Li 
 
 S3 3 6 
 
 6 4 34 S 
 o 4 zz 4 
 
 7 55 58' 4 
 ' 30 zi 6 7 
 
 53 16 39 7 
 
 In the fecond anterior kne! 
 
 26 
 Si o 
 4 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 ST 20 
 
 Lalt of 5 inform, under the anter. feet Q g 
 
 10 
 
 t*?* '•*»'• " : " •' 8 
 105 
 
 S 28 
 .51 9 
 S 28 
 Si 2 
 
 o 38 
 
 2 9 5 45 
 26 16 " 
 5, 16 
 o 30 
 
 3 z4 5 
 7 '9,4 3 
 
 38 26 2;! 6 
 
 ' 6 
 
 6 1 
 
 S+ 4 5 
 27 5' 
 
 1 3: 
 
 4 8 39 
 
 34- 56 303 4 
 
 635 20 \6\ S 
 16 6 
 
 20 42 3 *4 t S 
 o 17 29 *> 
 4 40 o o 
 
 North, of two in the bread 
 r 10 
 
 South, of the time 
 
 Preced.of inform, under the poller, feet 
 
 North, in the preced. po lienor. foot 
 
 South, and po(kr. in the fame foot 
 120 
 
 2d of the informes under the poll, feet 
 3d and noith. of the lame 
 
 Prec- in the bafe of .in oxygonous A of 
 [inform, under the Bear's lett 
 
 8 57 
 44 58 
 
 38 
 
 2| 49 
 
 5<5 
 
 46 : 
 24 Z4 
 
 46 9 3 Si 5 
 39 1 8, 6 
 
 2 39 ..4 3 
 
 18 14 
 4 2 35 
 
 '3 
 
 S3 10 
 54 
 
 34 45 
 5 
 
 13 16 
 16 
 
 '3 49 
 
 33 
 
 5 57 
 31 3 
 
 3" 5 
 21 58 
 
 14 10 4 
 
 t • ■ aa . 
 z6 43 16:5 ° 
 18 32 335 6 
 
 4 '44 5 
 
 49 2 7 46 
 29 52 27 4 3 
 
 50 11 42 
 " 57 46+ 3 
 
 6 
 
 : 4 
 4 J 
 
 I 
 
 13 20 
 
 3 44 
 
 *3 +5 3 
 
 -8 5' 47 ; 
 
 ;> 2 j 4; ; s 
 " 36 55U 3 
 44 28 ■■ 
 
 34 49 '4 
 
 5 si +4 n : 
 
 49 4 : (4 49 
 
 '3 Q- 
 
U R S 
 
 USE 
 
 Karnes anj Situations of the Stars. 
 Subfeq in thebafc of the ojtvson 
 
 In the apex of Che oxygonous triangle 
 In the preced. of the poilerior leg 
 
 140 
 
 South, in fquare of preced.or in the fide 
 North, of preced. in the back 
 
 t , 1 + 5 
 
 In the preced. potter, knee 
 
 South, in the fuhfeq. poiler. knee 1 
 North, in the fame knee 
 
 ilz6 3; 38 
 
 u 5 14 
 
 13 11 3; 
 
 ic 1 41 
 
 26 31 49 
 2210 5 
 
 26 59 la 
 
 27 23 3c 
 
 24 46 
 15 4 12 
 
 25 39 "5 
 10 49 58 
 
 26 S3 23 
 
 3 23 
 +6 48 33 
 44 2 9 4 
 
 29 32 
 o 3 
 
 Latitude 
 North. era 
 
 42 57 585 6 
 24 56 4! 4 
 
 33 3 SS 4 
 24 54 27, 6 
 
 4 2 9 3S| 6 
 
 3 ' I 
 
 4! o 
 
 30 4 
 
 49 4° 
 
 16; 6 
 16 1 2 
 51:6 s 
 5| 
 
 29 31 3°| 6 
 3' 4 6 ,4 3 
 
 il2 9 52 
 27 38 3c 
 
 fl.29 21 4 
 ■S 44 5 
 
 nt o 36 3 z 
 
 South. 
 
 'ss 
 
 the thigh 
 160 
 
 0I.28 33 4040 4 3 
 
 20 1 48 
 tt£ 6 30 15 
 olio 43 46 
 
 7 54 5 
 
 41^9 21 1 
 
 Bright liar in the thigh ; the fouth. 0 
 [the following in fquan 
 
 23 14 
 
 .6; 
 
 )!f 1 51 41 
 
 S 44 25 
 
 olz; 3; 54 
 
 nr o s 374S 46 41 
 
 In the rootof the tail ; nor. of fquare offing ^ 0 ^ D 
 
 In the fouth. hip 
 
 North in the hip 
 
 — — --, oe fi o t-^ 4 U j 1 39 30 
 
 [thefollowingm>, 0 c2 2+3 g J+ }6 
 
 4 5' 53 45 37 345 6 
 
 5 2 4' 3 e 6 7 
 40 35 50 6 
 " 6 48 ; 4 
 
 That prec. the i 
 1S0 
 
 iform. under the tail 
 
 0X26 34 28 
 
 Itfio 28 30 
 
 3 2 9 
 
 0128 27 25 
 
 »Kt3 "3 35 
 
 0129 59 48 
 
 2 7 3° 45 
 
 1H> 4 40 3 
 
 35 
 
 24 46 5! 
 693 
 30 46 34 
 35 4 6 45 
 
 2 4 
 
 32 41 
 6 iz 
 1 14 49 
 37 '7 9 
 
 49 2 7 
 
 29 15 46 
 
 ;6 .. 5 
 
 27 6l6 
 
 48 
 
 « 5 
 
 26 6 3 5 47 7 26 
 23 43 54 49 3+ 37 
 
 IO 22 
 
 5' 35 
 "6 44 
 
 6 7 
 « 7 
 5 
 
 :'7 
 7 
 
 39 3"3 2 
 
 52 I3 S o 
 37 4<> 
 
 5 1 38 3 2 ' 
 « 53 
 
 40 2 2 
 
 Ursa miner, .the Huh Bear, called alfo Charles's wain ; and 
 by the Greeks, cynofura ; by its neighbourhood to the north 
 pole, gives die denomination bear, thereto. 
 
 Ptolemy and Tycho make it to confift of eight- ftars; but 
 Mr Flam freed of fourteen: the longitudes, latitudes, mag- 
 nitudes, iSc. whereof, as laid down in the Britannic cata- 
 logue, follow. 
 
 3 26 2640 33 
 
 14 45 13 
 
 40 37 42 
 
 Flrft of the tail 
 '85 
 
 Bright ftar under the tail, informis 
 
 That following the full of the tail 
 
 fl.23 S3 3 
 
 'Wi7 12 
 
 iii8 30 
 
 IJtrg 27 
 
 4 3" 
 
 S7 57 4t 
 4 39 5" 39 
 3 4' 
 
 861 
 
 20 14 
 ilzr 43 
 1f 2 5 45 
 5 16 
 
 24 1 
 
 Inform, prec. Bootes between the tail of 
 [the Bear, and Coma Berenices 
 
 Firft of the two preced. the laff of the 
 [tail 
 
 Middle of three bright ones in the tail 
 That reiling, as ic were, on the former 
 That preced. the lalt of the tail 
 
 Preced. in triangle over lalt of the tail 
 
 20 j 
 
 North, in the fame triangle 
 
 21 42 
 
 22 54 
 
 22 48 
 
 23 28 
 
 ■5 54 
 
 2 4 23 
 
 3 S ; 
 54 20 10 
 
 7 53 
 5 2 5> 
 33 57 
 -5 14 '9 
 3 s 54 37 
 
 4 1 39 5 C 
 51 IF 
 
 4' 40 
 43 4° 
 
 43 27 2t 
 
 H H 
 
 44 « 
 
 is 59 
 
 11 29 it 
 
 5 22 
 
 20 055 
 
 12 48 r 
 16 53 28 
 
 ;6 33 2f 
 
 OO 22 2C 
 
 5* '! 
 7 4' 
 6 26 2 
 
 210 
 
 Lalt of the tail 
 
 Informes towards Bootes's belt' 
 
 Lad of the triangle ever the tail ■ 
 
 H 
 1 
 
 Hti6 
 
 55 4? 
 3 R 
 
 5 2 5 4 1 
 
 _ 5 43 
 ItfiS 51 
 
 7 5' 
 
 45 "7 2 3 
 
 47 34 45 2 3 4° 
 
 39 6 
 
 58 14 
 
 54 2 4 
 42 31 
 42 25 12 
 12 18 
 
 ;8 25 
 
 Karnes and Situations of the Stars. 
 
 J?. Longitude Latitude 1 g 
 North. trc 
 
 A fmall one contiguous to the polar H 23 26 4066 
 That over the polar 17 6 32 
 
 The lalt of the tail; the pole-Mar 24 J+ 41 
 
 Preced. of two before the Ihoulder 25 28 26 51 
 Subfcq. and more fouth. 4 0 9 
 
 Bright one in moulder, prec. of fquare 8 
 
 In the breail, molt fouth.of the fquare 17 
 
 Preced. of two in the loins 25 
 
 Subfcq.of the fa me, north. of the fquare 23 
 
 Preced. of two in the fide 26 
 
 54 4°7 2 
 ,1 56 
 
 45 45 
 
 Brighter in the fide, fubfeq. of fquare 25 
 In the root of the tail 4 
 Lalt but one of the tail 26 
 Another follows this, nearer the pole je 26 
 '4 
 
 56 25 
 45 5 
 
 77 
 73 
 
 50 3969 
 45 °°9 
 
 16 o 
 
 4 ii 
 
 18 17 
 
 2 5 4 
 
 58 10 
 13 1; 
 41 52 
 
 5 45 
 24 10 
 
 49 28 
 
 53 3 6 
 
 54 37 
 31 27 
 
 . 5 
 ! 6 
 
 4 5 
 
 URSULINES, an order of nuns, who obferve the rule of 
 S. Auguftin ; and are chiefly noted for taking on them the 
 education, and inftrucrion of young maids. 
 They take their name from their inftiturrcfs S. Urfula ; and 
 arecloathed in white, or black. — The Urfulines have fpread 
 
 exceedingly in France, isc. within thefe tew years. Few 
 
 maids but are put out to fchool to them. 
 
 USAGE, inlaw. ) ^ ( Prescription, and Custom. 
 
 Usage, in language, J ( Language. 
 
 USANCE, Uso, in commerce, is a determinate time fixed for 
 the payment of bills of exchange, reckoned either from the 
 day of the bills being accepted, or from the day of their date ; 
 and thus called, becaufe regulated by the ufage and cflunm of 
 the places whereon they are drawn. See Bill of Ex- 
 change. 
 
 Bills of exchange, are drawn at one or more ufances, either 
 from light, or from date.— The Italians fay, ufe doppio, fur 
 double ufance, or two ufanccs. 
 
 This term is longer or fhortcr, according to the different 
 countries. — In France iifance is fixed at thirty days. — At 
 London, ufance h i calendar month ; and double ufance, two 
 months. — -In Spain, ufance is two months, or fixty Days. — 
 At Venice, Genoa, and Leghorn, three months. 
 At Hamburgh, ufance of bilTs drawn from England, France, 
 and Venice, is two months after date. — From Antwerp, and 
 Nuremberg, fifteen days after fight. 
 
 At Venice, ufance of bills drawn at Ferrara, Bologna, Flo- 
 rence, Lucca, and Leghorn, is five days after fight. — From 
 Naples, Aui-bourg, Genoa, and Vienna, fifteen days after 
 fight. — From Mantua, Modena, and Milan, twenty days 
 afterdate. — From Amflerdam, Antwerp, and Hamburgh, 
 two months after date; and from London, three months 
 after date. 
 
 At Milan, ufance of bills drawn from Genoa, is ei^ht days 
 after fight. — From Rome, ten days after fight.— And from 
 Venice, twenty days afterdate. 
 
 At Florence, ufance of bills drawn from Bologna, is three 
 days after fight. — From Rome, ten-days after fight. — Trom 
 Venice and Naples, twenty days after date. 
 At Rome, ufance of bills of Exchange drawn in Italy, was, 
 originally, ten days after fight; but" by an abufe, this term 
 has been extended to fifteen. 
 
 At Leghorn, ufance- of bills drawn from Genoa, is eight days 
 after fight: from Rome, it is ten days; from Naples, three 
 weeks; from Venice, twenty days afterdate ; from London, 
 three weeks; and from Amflerdam, forty days. 
 At Amflerdam, ufance of bills drawn from England and 
 France, is a month afterdate: from Venice, and Madrid, 
 Cadiz, and Sevil, two months. 
 
 At Genoa, ufance of bills from Milan, Florence, Leghorn, 
 and Lucca, is eight days after fight: from Venice, Rome, 
 and Bologna, fifteen days: from Naples, twenty two .days: 
 from Sicily, a month after fight, or two months after date : 
 from Sardinia, a month after fight : from Antwerp, Amfier- 
 dam, and other places in the Low Countries, three months 
 after date. 
 
 USE, Usus, in law, denotes the benefit or profit of land?, 
 and tenements. 
 
 Ufe imports a truft and confidence repofed in a man for the 
 holding of lands; that he to whofe ufe or benefit the trult is 
 intended, fhall reap the benefits thereof. 
 
 A deed confifts of two principal pans: the premifes, which 
 include all that comes before the habendum, or limitation of 
 the eftatc; and the cenfeauent, which is the habendum itfelf ; 
 
 where..*: 
 
U S Q. 
 
 wherein are two limitations: the one of the eflatt, or pro- 
 perty the party {hall receive by the deed. — .The other of the 
 ufe, expreffing to, or for what ufe and benefit he fhall have 
 the fame. 
 
 Ufes, fome fay, were invented upon the flat, of Weflminfter, 
 quia emptor a terrarum: before which time, no fuch ufes 
 were known. — And becaufe, in courfe of time, many de- 
 ceits got footing, by fettling the poffeffion in one man, and 
 the ufe in another; it was enacted, anno 27 Hen. VIII. 
 That the ufe and poffeffion of lands mould Hand united, or 
 that the poffeffion mould be given to him who had the ufe. 
 
 Use and Cuftom, inantient law-books, denotes the ordinary 
 method of a£ting or proceeding in any cafe, which, by length 
 of time, has obtained the force of a law. 
 
 Ceftui quiUsE. } Q . ■ , J Cestui. 
 
 ChthienlW.S Seetbe artlcIe " i Contingent. 
 
 USER de Aclion in law, is the purfuing, or bringing an ac- 
 tion, in the proper county, &c. See Action. 
 
 USES and Cuftoms of the Sea, are certain maxims, rules, or 
 ufages, which make the bafe or ground-work of the mari- 
 time jurifprudence; by which the policy of navigation, and 
 commerce of the fea, are regulated. 
 
 Thefe ufes and cuftoms confift in three kinds of regulations. 
 — The firft, called laws, or judgments of Oleron, were made 
 by order of queen Eleanor, dutchefs of Guienne, at her re- 
 turn from the holy war; and that chiefly from memoirs 
 which fhe had gathered in the Levant, where commerce was 
 at that time in a very flourishing condition. 
 She called them rolls of Oleron, by reafon fiie then refided in 
 an ifland of that name, in the bay of Aquitaine. — -Thefe 
 were much augmented about the year 1266, by her fon Ri- 
 chard, king of England, on his return from the Holy Land. 
 The fecond regulations were made by the merchants of Wif- 
 buy, a city in the ifland of Gothland, in the Baltic, anti- 
 ently much famed for commerce, moft of the nations of Eu- 
 rope having their particular quarters, magazines, and fliops 
 therein. 
 
 Thefe were compiled in the Teutonic language, and are ftill 
 the rule in the northern countries. Their date does not ap- 
 pear; but it is probable, they were made fince the year 1 288, 
 when the city of Wisbuy was deftroyed the firft time, and 
 afterwards reftored by Magnus, king of Sweden. 
 The third fet of regulations were made at Lubsc, about the 
 year 1597, by the deputies of the Hanfe towns. See 
 
 H ANSE. 
 
 USHER, Huffier, fignifies an officer, or fervant, who has 
 the care and direction of the door of a court, hall, chamber, 
 or the like. 
 
 In the king's houfhold there are two gentlemen-ujhers of the 
 privy-chamber, appointed to attend the door, to give entrance, 
 Etfc. to perfons that have admittance thither. — ■ Four gentle- 
 men-ujhers, waiters; and an affiftant gentleman-ujlier. — Eight 
 gentlemen-ujhers, quarter-waiters in ordinary. 
 In the French court there are two ujhers of the anti-chamber, 
 or hall where the king dines in public. — They wait fword 
 by fide, all the year, and open the door to fuch as are to 
 come in. — There are above fixteen ujhers of the chamber, 
 two of the cabinet, and one of the order of the Holy Ghoft. 
 The ujhers of the in qui fit ion in Spain and Portugal, are per- 
 fons of the firft quality, who think themfelves highly ho- 
 noured, by only looking to the doors of that facred tribunal. 
 
 Usher, is alfo ufed for an officer in the Exchequer ; of which 
 fort, three or four attend the chief officers and barons, at the 
 court at Weflminfter, as alfo, juries, fheriffs, and other ac- 
 comptants; at the pleafure of the court. See Exchequer. 
 
 Usher of the black-rod. See the article BhhCVL-Rod. 
 
 In a chapter held at Whitehall, 13 Car. II. it was ordained, 
 that this office fhould be fixed to one of the gentlemen-ujhers, 
 daily waiters at court; the eldeft of which, always holds the 
 place, and is called gcntlcman-ujher, and black-rod. 
 In relation to the order of the garter, he is appointed to car- 
 ry the rod at the feaft of S. George, and other folemnities, 
 which he alfo makes ufe of as an authority to attach delin- 
 quents, who have offended againfi the ftatutes of the order, 
 which he frequently doth by touching them therewith. — He 
 wears a gold badge, embellifhed with the enfigns of the order. 
 — He has an Houfe in Windfor-caftle, and other privileges. 
 
 USNEA, in natural hiftory, mufcus arbor ens ; a fort of plant 
 oi the parafite or mofs kind, growing like a great beard on 
 the oak, cedar, and divers other trees. See Supplement, ar- 
 ticle UsNE A. 
 
 Usne a Humana, is a fmall greenifh mofs, growing on human 
 ikulis, that have lain a long time expofed to the air. 
 It is fuppofed to be very aftringent, and held proper to flop 
 haemorrhages. — It is alfo an ingredient in the weapon-falve 
 of Paracelfus, and Crolims. — It has not a whit the more vir- 
 tue for the place of its growth, nor is there indeed any pe- 
 culiar mofs of this name, but whatever fpecies chances to 
 gro* on the fkul), is taken for ufe. 
 
 USQUEBAUGH, a ftrong, rich, compound liquor, chiefly 
 
 U S U 
 
 taken by way of dram; its bafis being brandy, or a more or- 
 dinary fpirit. 
 
 The manner of making it is fomewhat various, and the in- 
 gredients numerous.. — We fhall give a receipt much commend- 
 ed formerly, as a fpecimen. 
 
 To two gallons of brandy, or fpirits, put a pound of fpanifh 
 liquorice, half a pound of raifins of the fun, four ounces of 
 currants; three of dates fliced ; tops of thyme, baum, favory, 
 and mint, and tops or flowers of rofemary, of each two 
 ounces; cinnamon and mace bruifed, nutmegs, anis feeds, 
 and coriander feeds, bruifed like wife, of each four ounces; 
 citron, or lemon and orange peel, fcraped, of each an ounce. 
 All thefe are to be left to infufe 48 hours in a warm place, 
 often fhaking them together ; then fet them in a cool place, 
 for a week; after which, the clear liquor is to be decanted off, 
 and to it is to be put an equal quantity of neat white port- 
 wine, and a gallon of canary. — The whole is finally to be 
 fweetned with a proper quantity of double refined fugar. 
 USTION *, Ustio, in pharmacy, the preparing of certain 
 fubftanccs, by burning them. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin urere, to burn. 
 The antients made ufe of burnt horns, nails, feathers, and 
 other partsof animals, for divers remedies: and the moderns 
 ftill ufe tes uftum, which is burnt copper, or copper that has 
 undergone the uftlon, with fulphur. 
 
 The ujlion of minerals, is a more imperfect kind of calcina- 
 tion.- — It is a degree beyond torre fact ion. 
 
 Ustum Ms. See the article JEs uftum. 
 
 USUCAPTION, Usucaptio, in the civil law, an 
 acquifition of the property of a thing, by a poffcifion and 
 enjoyment thereof for a certain term of years prefcnti-. 
 law. 
 
 Some make a difference between prescription and ufueaption, 
 maintaining, that the latter is only ufed with regard to move- 
 ables, and the former with regard to immoveables. — But 
 there is no effential difference between them; and according- 
 ly, prefcription and ufueaption are generally held fynoni- 
 ma's. 
 
 USUFRUIT, Usus-fructus, in the civil law, the ufe 
 or enjoyment of any lands or tenements; or the right of - re- 
 ceiving the fruits and profits of an inheritance, or other thing, 
 without a power of alienating, or changing the property 
 thereof. 
 
 When the ufufrucluary dies, the uffruit returns to the pro- 
 prietor. — 'The dower or the jointure of a widow, is only an 
 ufufrucluary due, that is, ftie only enjoys the ufufruit there- 
 of, and cannot difpofe of the principal. 
 
 All mutual prefents between man and wife, only import the 
 ufufruit oi the goods of the firft that dies, to the profit of 
 the furvivor. — - The incumbents of benefices are only ufu- 
 frucluary.- — 'An ufufrucluary has full right over the coppice; 
 but he cannot fell timber-trees. 
 U S U RER, a perfon charged with a habit or a& of ufury. 
 The laws of our antient Saxon and Norman kings, are very 
 fevere upon ufurers, or letters-out of money upon intereft. — 
 Ufurarios quoque defendit rex Edvardus (confeffbr,) nerema* 
 neret aliquis in toto regno fuo ; tsf ft quis inde conviclus effet, 
 quod fcenus exigerat, omni fubjlantia propria carerei, & poftea 
 pro cxlege habeatur : quoniam ufura radix omnium ma lor urn. 
 Leg. Edv. ConfefT. cap. 37. 
 
 They were indeed, allowed to difpofe of their goods before 
 conviction, and whilft they were living; but after their 
 death, they were confifcate, if It could be proved they lent 
 money to ufe within a year before their death. Malt. 
 
 Paris. 
 
 If a clergyman were an ufurer, his goods were not to he 
 confifcated ; hut to be diftributed to pious ufes, — In thofe 
 days ufury was thus defined : 
 
 Eft ufura Juos quifquis tradit mihi nummos 
 
 Spe lucri, fcenus duplex ufura vacatur. 
 USURIOUS Contrail, is any bareain or contract, whereby 
 a man is obliged to pay more intereft for money than the fta- 
 tute allows. 
 
 USURPATION, in law, an injurious ufing, or enjoy- 
 ment of a thing for continuance of time, that belongs of 
 right to another. 
 
 USURY, Usura, in the general, denotes a gain or profit, 
 which a perfon makes of his money, by lending the fame; 
 or it is an increafe of the principal, exacted for the loan 
 thereof; or the price a borrower gives for the ufe of a fum 
 credited to him by the lender: called alfo intereft, and in 
 fome antient ftatutes, dry exchange. 
 
 The word ufury is ufually taken in an evil fenfe, viz. for 
 an unlawful profit which a perfon makes of his money ; in 
 which fenfe it is, that ufury is forbidden by the civil and ec- 
 clefiaflical law, and even by the law of nature: in this fenfe 
 it alfo if, that it is held ufury to lend money on pawns, to 
 exact intereft for money, without furreudering the principal, 
 and to flipulate intereft for money which is not employed in 
 trade, nor brings any profit to the peifon who receives it: 
 1 j but 
 
U T E 
 
 but as the Latin word ufura, at lead the plural thereof, ufu- 
 ra may be nndcrftoud of a lawful intereft, we do not fee 
 why ufury may not be ufed in Englifh, in the fame harmlels 
 
 fenfe. . j 
 
 Bv the antient Roman law, people were allowed to lend out 
 their money at one per cent, per month i which was i 2 per 
 cent, per annum. — If they received more, they incurred the 
 note of infamy, and were condemned as ufurers. 
 This rate of ufury was allowed of, as low as the time of Ju- 
 ftinian, who moderated it a little by the 26th law in the code, 
 de ufuris. And not long after, the canon law forbid all fore 
 Of ufury whatever.— In compliance with this prohibition, the 
 cuftomary laws do not allow any intereft to be exacted, for 
 money lent on a fimple promife or obligation; but only by 
 contraa, and upon alienating the principal, which the debtor 
 is to reimburfe at pieafure : which is a kind of buying an an- 
 nuity, or annual revenue. 
 
 So that in propriety, unlawful ufury confifts, in extorting an 
 excefiive rate for one's money, beyond what is prefcribed by 
 
 Du Moulin, indeed, makes ufury, taken in the ill fenfe, to be 
 a profit exacted for a loan made to a perfon in want; inti- 
 mating, that it is unlawful to extort gain, from the afhftance 
 given to the unhappy, or to convert an office of humanity 
 into a mercenary one. — The reafon is, that money is a bar- 
 ren and fruitlcfs thing, in the hands of a perfon whom necef- 
 fity obliges to borrow ; and that being lent him to be fpent, 
 he can make no advantage of it : whereas the principal pre- 
 text for requiring lawful intereft is, that the perfon who 
 lends, may {hare in the profits thereof, with the perfon to 
 whom it is lent. 
 
 Notwithstanding, moll of the antient canon ills in lilt on a 
 rigorouB obfbrvation of that precept in Deuteronomy, Non 
 ftzncraluris fratri iuo, *« Thou fhalt not lend money to thy 
 brother on ufury:" and plead, that nothing is to be required 
 further than the principal. 
 
 However, in life, we call nothing ufury, but what exceeds 
 the bounds prefcribed by the laws: fo that when a perfon 
 does not alienate his principal, or takes intereft beyond what 
 is limited by ftatute, thefe alone are ufury. 
 By tiie flat. 1 2 Car. I. no man is allowed to take above fix 
 pounds, for the forbearance of one hundred pounds for a year, 
 under certain penalties therein enjoined. — And by a later flat. 
 12 Annx, no man may take above five pounds for the like 
 occafion; and fo in proportion for any other fum. 
 U T, a Latin term, fignifying, literally, as ; much ufed in the 
 ftating of ratios and proportions. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton afligns its life thus : if indeterminate quan- 
 tities of divers kinds be compared together, and one of them 
 be faid to be ut, as, any other directly, or inverfely; the 
 meaning is, that the firft is increafed or diminifhed, in the 
 fame ratio as the latter. — And if one of them be faid to be, 
 ut, as, two or more others directly, or inverfely; the mean- 
 ing is, that the firft is increafed or diminiflied, in a ratio, 
 compounded of the ratios in which the others are increafed or 
 diminiflied. 
 
 Thus, if A be faid to be as B directly, and as C directly, and 
 as D inverfely; the meaning is, it is increafed or diminiflied, 
 in the fame ratio with B X C X ^ that is, A and ~, are 
 to each other in a given ratio. Phil. Nat. Pr'inc. Math. 
 Ut, in mufic, the firft of the mufical notes. See Note. 
 17/ , re, mi, fa ; the clef of G, rc, fol, ut ; of C, fol, 
 ut, ccc. 
 
 This note, with the reft, were taken out of the hymn of St 
 John Baptift. Ut qucant laxis, hz. See Music. 
 TJtfancthef*, an antient royalty or privilege, granted to 
 the lord of a manor by the king] giving him a power to pu- 
 nifli a thief dwelling, and committing theft out of his liberty; 
 if he be taken within the lord's fee. 
 
 * Utfangthef dicilur extraneus Intro vettitns aliunde de terra alie- 
 M, & qui caputs fait in terra ipfiui qui tales habet libertates. 
 Bracton. 
 
 UTENSIL, UTENSILE, a little domeftic moveable, par- 
 ticularly fuch as belong to the kitchen. — Such as pots, pans, 
 plates, &i. 
 
 Utensils, is more particularly ufed in war, for the move- 
 ables which the hoft is obliged to furnifh the foldiers quar- 
 tered with him ; which are, a bed with bed-cloths, a pot 
 and a fpoon. — They are tikcrwife to have a place at their 
 holt's fire, and candle.- — ■ TJtenfihi&t fometimes furnifhed in 
 money, and fometimes in kind. 
 
 UTERINE, Uterjnus, fomething belonging to the ute- 
 rus, or womb of women. 
 
 Uterine brothers or fitters, as thofc born of the fame mother, 
 but bv different fathers. 
 Furor Uteri su', in medicine, denotes a kind of madnefs, 
 attended with lafcivious fpeeches and geftures a and an invin- 
 cible inclination to venery. 
 
 ■ See the article \ Fundus. 
 
 ( Procidentia. 
 
 V U L 
 
 The furor uterinus, is a complication of hyfterical fymptoms 
 arifing from a turgefcency, or inflation of the uterine veflels. 
 Men are fubject to the like difeafe, as well as women ; fo that 
 it might with more propriety be called, the furor vencrcus, 
 or venereal fury. — It had its name furor uterinus, from an 
 opinion, that it proceeded from vapours, riling from the womb 
 to the brain. 
 
 It has been frequently found, that maids fuppofed to be pof- 
 fefled, were only feized with the uterine fury. 
 The furor uterinus, is ufually fuppofed to confift in an irre- 
 gular motion of the fpirits, occafioned by a hot, luftful tem- 
 perament, the converfation of debauched perfons, or the read- 
 ing of wanton books, hot foods, the abundance and acrimony 
 of the ferous matter which moiftens the pudendum, fupprel- 
 fion of the menfes, large dofes of cantharides, (sfc. 
 Before the paroxyfm, the patient often appears filent and for- 
 rowful, with a flufhing in the face, and a refpiration and 
 pulfe frequently intermitting, and fuddenly varying. — During 
 the paroxyfm they burft fometimes into laughter, and then 
 into a fit of tears, &c. 
 
 Bleeding, fetid fuffiments, and other hyfterical medicines, 
 are proper during the fit. t 
 
 UTERINUM Jecur. See the article Jecur. 
 
 UTERUS, in anatomy, the matrix* or womb', that organ of 
 generation in women, wherein the bufmefs of conception is 
 performed, and wherein the embryo or fcetus is lodged, fed, 
 and grows, during the time of geftation, or- till its deli- 
 very. 
 
 Its defcription fee under the article Matrix. — Its office, 
 tifc under Generation, Conception, Gestation, 
 and Foetus. 
 
 Fundus Uteri. ? , 
 
 Procidentia Uteri. J ' 
 
 Vagina, or CfraV Uteri. See Vagina, and Cervix. 
 
 UTILE, a Latin term, fignifying profitable, or ufeful ; fome- 
 times ufed by Englifh authors in the fame fenfe. 
 The utile and the duke, profit and delight, are both to be 
 aimed at in poetry ; but it is dil'puted which of them is to be 
 aimed at in the firft place. — Corneille fays exprefly, Dans la 
 tragedie r utile n'entre que fous la forme du delegable. 
 In the language of the philufophers, there is nothing utile, but 
 what is juft and huneft : nihil bonum mft honejlum : nihil ma- 
 lum, nifi turpe. Cic. de Fin. lib. 2. 
 
 Utile Dominium. See the article Dominium. 
 
 UTLAGARI/E Perdonatio. See Per donatio; 
 
 U T L AG ATI O, in law terms, an outlawry. See Out- 
 lawry. 
 
 UTLAGATO Capiendo, qxiando utlagatur in uno comitatu 
 & pojlea fugit in aiium, a writ for the apprehending a man 
 who is outlawed in one country, and flies into another. See 
 Outlawry. 
 
 UTLAGATUM Capias. See the article Capias. 
 
 U T LAG H, Uthlachus. See the article Outlaw. 
 
 U T L AN D, (Jutland. See the article Island. 
 
 UTLARY, or Utlawry, Utlagaria. See Out- 
 la wry. 
 
 UTRUM. Sec the article Assise, &c. 
 UTTER Barrijiir. See the article Barrister. 
 UVEA. See the article Tunica. 
 
 UVEA*, in anatomy, aciniformis tunica, the third tunic, or 
 membrane of the eye. 
 
 * It is called — * uvea, on account of its refembling the figure 
 and colour of a grape, called, by the Latins, uva. For which 
 reafon alio fonie have given it the name of — aciniform'u, 
 from acinus. 
 
 The hind part of this coat, or that next the orbit of the 
 eye on each fide, is called the cboro'tdes; and is derived from 
 the pia mater. 
 
 The anterior, or fore part is, like the former, tranfparent, but 
 thinner ; and is, by authors, reckoned as a different tunic, 
 and called uvea. 
 
 Of the duplicature of this part, is formed that ftriped, varie- 
 gated circle, called the iris of the eye. 
 
 And in its middle is a perforation, through which appears a 
 little black fpeck, which is the fight, or pupil of the eye ; and 
 about which the iris forms a ring. 
 
 From the infide of this membrane, fpring certain fibres, which 
 fpread themfelves round the cryftalline humour; feiving to 
 contract or dilate the fight at pleafure. 
 
 VULCANO, among naturalifts. See Volcano. 
 
 VULGAR Air. ~n /"Air. 
 
 Vulgar Algebra. S \ Algebra. 
 
 Vulgar Arithmetic^ ^ ± . k J ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Vulgar Fraftions. ( ^Fractions. 
 
 Vulgar Purgation. \ /Purgation. 
 
 Vulgar Stone. ~* ^ Stone. 
 
 V U L G AT E, a very antient Latin tranflarion of the Bible ; 
 and the only one the church of Rome acknowledges au- 
 thentic. 
 
 The 
 
V U L 
 
 U Z I 
 
 The antient vulgate of the Old Teftament, was tranflatcd 
 almoft word for word, from the Greek of the Septuagint — 
 The author of the verfion is not known, nor fo much as 
 gueffed at. 
 
 It was a long time known by the name of the Italic, or old 
 verfion ; as being of very great antiquity in the Latin church. 
 • — ■ It was the common, or vulgar verfion, before S. Jerom 
 made a new one; whence it has its name vulgate. 
 Nobilius, in 158s, and F. Morin, in 1628, gave new edi- 
 tions of it; pretending to have reftored, and re-collated it, 
 from the antients who had cited it. — The vulgate was held 
 by S. Auguftine, to be preferable to all the other Latin verfions 
 then extant ; as rendering the words and fenfe of the facred 
 text, more clofely and juftly than any of the reft. It has 
 iince been retouched from the corrections of S. Jerom ; and 
 It is this mixture of the antient Italic verfion, and fome cor- 
 rections of S. Jerom, that is now called the vulgate, and 
 which the council of Trent has declared to be authentic. 
 It is this vulgate alone that is ufed in the Romifh church, 
 excepting for fome paffages of the antient vulgate left in the 
 miflal, and the pfalms ; which are ftill fung, according to 
 the old Italic verfion. 
 Vulgate of the New Teftament. — This the Romanifts ge- 
 nerally hold preferable to the common Greek text ; in regard 
 it is this alone, and not the Greek text, that the council oi 
 Trent has declared authentic: accordingly, that church has, 
 as it were, adopted this edition: and the priefls read no othe 
 at the altar, the preachers quote no other in the pulpit, noi 
 the divines in the fchools. 
 
 Yet fome -of their belt authors, F. Bouhours, for inftance, 
 Own, that among the differences that are found between the 
 common Greek, and the vulgate, there are fome wherein the 
 Greek reading appears more- clear and natural, than that 
 of the Latin ; jfo that the fecond might be corrected from the 
 firft, if the holy fee fhould think fit. — But thofe differences, 
 for the generality, only confift in a few fyllables, or words 
 they rarely touch the fenfe. Befides, in fome of the moil 
 confiderable, the vulgate is authorized by feveral antient ma- 
 rtufcripts. 
 
 Bouhours fpent the laft years of his life, in giving a French 
 tranflation of the New Teftament, according to the vulgate 
 In 1675, a new edition of the Greek Teftament was pub- 
 lifhed by the univerfity of Oxford ; and great care taken 
 therein, to compare the common Greek text, with all the 
 moft antient maoufcripts in England, France, Spain, and 
 Italy; and to note the differences obferved therein. 
 In the preface of this work, the editors fpeaking of the di- 
 vers verfions of the Bible in the vulgar tongues, obferve of 
 the vulgate, that there is no verfion in any language to be 
 compared with it. — And this they juftify, by comparing 
 paffages that occur in the moft celebrated Greek manufcripts, 
 with the fame paffages in the vulgate, where there is any dif- 
 ference between that, and the common printed Greek copy. 
 In effect, it is probable, that at the time the antient Italic, 
 or vulgate verfion of the New Teftament was made, and at 
 the time it was afterwards compared with the Greek manu- 
 fcripts, by S, Jerom i as they were then nearer the times 
 
 of the Apoftles, they had jufter Greek copies, and thofe bet- 
 "terkept, than any of thofe ufed when printing was firft fet 
 on foot, two centuries ago. 
 
 M. Simon calls the Greek verfion of the Septuagint, before 
 it was revifed and reformed by Origen, The antient vulgate 
 Greek. — Origin's correction got the upper hand of the an- 
 tient Greek, and joftled it out of ufe; fo that we have now 
 fcarce any copies thereof. See Septuagint. 
 VULNERARY*, in medicine, an epithet given to reme- 
 dies, proper for the cure of wounds, and ulcers 
 
 * The word is formed from the Latin vufaus, wound- 
 There are divers vulnerary herbs , as ariftolochia or birth- 
 wort ; fanicle, or felf-heal ; plantain, moufe-ear, veronica, 
 or fluellin, agrimony, vervein, or the holy herb. csV 
 There are alio vulnerary potions, compofed of various fim- 
 ples. — Vulnerary balfams, unguents, plaifters v £sfc. See Bal- 
 sam, tifc. 
 
 Vulnerary Water. See the article Water. 
 VULTUS de Luca, the fame with veronica. See Vero- 
 nica. 
 
 VULVA*, a name which fome phyficians give to the vagina, 
 and others to the uterus, or womb. 
 
 * The word is Latin, vulva, qtiafi valv.?, doors. 
 Vulva is fometimes alfo, ufed for the cunnus, or whole 
 
 pudendum muliebre 
 UVULA, in anatomy, a round, foft fpongeous body, like 
 the end of a child's finger ; fufpended from the palate, 
 near the foramina of the noftrils, perpendicularly over the 
 glottis. 
 
 Its ufe is to break the force of the cold air, and prevent its 
 entring too precipitately into the lungs 
 It is formed of aduplicature ofthemembraneof the palate; and 
 is called by fome authors, columella, and, by others, gurgulia. 
 It is moved by two pair of mufcles, and fufpended by 
 as many ligaments. — The mufcles are, the external, called 
 the fpbeiwjhipbylinus, which draws the uvula upwards, 
 and backwards ; and hinders the mafticated aliment from paf- 
 fing into the foramina of the noftrils in deglutition. See 
 Sphenostaphyl I nus. 
 
 And the internal called the pterygoftaphylinus ; which draws 
 the uvula upwards and forwards. See Pterygostaphy- 
 
 L I NUS. 
 
 Both thefe mufcles move the uvula upwards, to give room 
 for fwallowing; and ferve to raife it, when relaxed and 
 fallen down. — In which cafe, it is ufual to promote its rif- 
 ing, by applying a little beaten pepper on the end of a fpoon, 
 or fome other warm aromatic powder to it. 
 Bartholin fays, that fuch as have no uvula are fubject to the 
 phthific, and ufually die thereof; by reafon the cold air. en- 
 tering the lungs too haftily, foon injures them. See Phthi- 
 sis. 
 
 UvuLffi Procidentia. See the article Procidentia. 
 UXORIUM, in antiquity, a fine, or forfeit paid by the 
 
 Romans for not marrying. 
 UZIFIR, Uzufar, or Uzifur, in chymiftry, a name 
 which fome authors give to cinnabar. 
 
 Vol. 11. 
 
 R 
 
w. 
 
 W A I 
 
 WA letter peculiar to the northern languages, 
 and people; as the Englifh, Dutch, Polifh, and 
 _ others of Teutonic and Sclavonic original. 
 5 The w is alfo fometimes admitted into the 
 French, Italian, bV. in proper names, and other terms bor- 
 rowed from the languages in which it is originally ufed. 
 In Englifh, the w is ufually a confonant; and as fuch, may 
 go before all the vowels, except u ; as in want, weapon, win- 
 ter, world, &c. J 
 It is fometimes alfo a vowel; and as fuch, follows any of 
 the vowels a, e, o, and unites with them into a kind of dou- 
 ble vowel, or diphthong ; as in law, ewe, fow, &c. 
 The Englifh w is founded as in Latin, u, in quantum, fuadeo, 
 Ungua. — Its found is alfo commonly like the grofs, or full 
 u rapidly pronounced — In French, the found of the w does 
 not differ from that of the fingle v. See U. 
 WADD, or Wadding, in gunnery, a ftopple of paper, 
 hay, ftraw, old clouts, or the like, forced into a gun upon 
 the powder, to keep it clofe in the chamber ; or put up clofe 
 to the fhot, to keep it from rolling out. 
 WAFE. Sec the article Wa i f. 
 
 WAFT. — To waft a Jbip, is to convoy her fafe, as men of 
 
 war do by merchants mips. 
 To make a Waft, is to hang out fome coat, fea-gown, or the 
 
 like, in the main fhrouds of" the fhip ; as fign for the men to 
 
 come on board, C3°c. 
 
 Such waft is frequently intended to fhew that a fhip is in 
 diltrefs, by a leak, csV. and therefore wants help from the 
 fliore, or from other fhips. 
 
 WAFTERS, Waftores, condudters of vefll-ls at fea. 
 Xing Edward IV. conftituted a triumvirate of officers with 
 naval power, whom the patent ftyles cuflodes, conduflores, 
 and vjaftores; their bufinefs chiefly was to guard our fifher- 
 men on the coafts of Norfolk, and SufFulk. 
 
 WAGA, or Vaga. See the article Weigh. 
 
 WAGAR, Waging, in law, vadari, fignifies, the giving 
 fecurity for the performance of any thing. 
 Thus, to wage law, is to put in fecurity that you will make 
 law at the day affigned. 
 
 WAGGON, a kind of vehicle, or carriage, in common ufe. 
 'J here are divers forms of waggons, accommodated to the 
 divers ufes they are intended for. ■ — The common waggon 
 confifts of the Jhafts, or rads, which are the two pieces the 
 bind horfe bears up; the welds ; the fates, which are the 
 crofs pieces that hold the flmfts together; the bolfler, being 
 that part on which the fore wheels and axletree turn, in 
 wheeling the waggon acrofs the road ; the chejl, or body of 
 the waggon, having the ftaves or rails fixed thereon; the 
 bales, or hoops, which compofe the top ; the tilt, the place 
 covered with cloth at the end of the waggon : befides the 
 wheels, axletree, &c. 
 
 The larger the wheels of the waggon, and their circumfe- 
 rence, the eafier the motion ; and the lefs, the heavier, and 
 more uneafy and joggling they go. — But ftill, the higher a 
 waggon, &c. is fet, the apter it is to overturn. — The only 
 reafon why the fore wheels of waggons, Sic. are made lefs 
 than the hind wheels, is for the conveniency of turning. 
 The more upright or fquare the fpokes of the wheels are 
 from the box, or centre, the weaker they are when they 
 come to bear on either fide : on which account, as alfo to fc- 
 cure a wheel from breaking in a fall, they are made con- 
 cave, or difhing. 
 
 WAGGONER, in aftronomy, a kind of conftellation, 
 called alfo Charles's wain. See Charles's Wain. 
 
 Waggoner is alfo ufed for a routier, or book of charts, 
 defcribing the feas, their coafts, &c. 
 
 WAIF, or Wafe, a term primarily applied to ftolen goods, 
 which a thief, being either purfued, or over-burthened, flies, 
 and leaves behind him, or drops in the way. 
 The king's officer, or the bailifF of the lord within whofe 
 jurifdicfion fuch waifs or waif goods were left (having by 
 grant, or prefcription, the franchife o(waif) may feize the 
 goods to his lord's ufe; except the owner come with frcfh 
 fuit after the felon, and fue an appeal of robbery within a 
 year and a day, or give in evidence againft him, and he be 
 attainted, — In which cafes, the owner fhall have his goods 
 again.- 
 
 Waifs, things loft, and eftrays, arc faid to be pecus vagrans, 
 and are nuUtus in bonis ub't non apparet dominus. And there- 
 fore they belong to the lord of the franchife where they are 
 found ; who muft caufe them to be cried, and publifhed in 
 the markets, and churches near about: elfe the year and 
 
 W A L 
 
 day docs not run to the prejudice of him that loft them. — 
 Though waif be properly fpoken of tilings ftolen, yet it may 
 alfo be underftood of goods not ftolen. — As, if a man be 
 purfued with hue and cry, as a felon, and he flies, and leaves 
 his own goods; thefe fhall be forfeited as goods ftolen : and 
 they are properly called fugitive goods. 
 WAIN. See the article Charles'* Wain. 
 WAINSCOT, in building, the timber-work ferving to 
 line the walls of a room j being ufually made in pannels, and 
 painted, to fei ve in lieu of hangings. 
 
 Even in halls, it is common to have ivainfcot breaft high ; 
 by reafon of the natural humidity of walls. 
 Some joiners put charcoal behind the pannels of the wainfcot, 
 to prevent the fweat of ftone and brick-walls from un- 
 gluing the joints of the pannels. — Others ufe wool for the 
 fame purpofe. — But neither the one nor the other is fuffici- 
 ent in fome houfes : the only fure way, is, by priming over 
 the back-fides of the joints with white lead, or Spanifh 
 brown, and linfeed oil. 
 
 According to Neve, wainfeotting with Norway oak, the 
 workman finding Huff", is valued at fix or feven millings per 
 yard fquare. — Plain fquare wainfeotting, the workman find- 
 ing deal, is valued at three fhillings, or three fhillings fix- 
 pence per yard. — Large bifTection wainfeotting, with Dant- 
 zick fluff, is valued at fix or feven fhillings per yard ; and 
 ordinary biifccrion work, at three fhillings fix-pence per yard. 
 In taking dimenfions, they ufe a firing, which they prefs in- 
 to all the mouldings; it being a rule that they are to be paid 
 for all where the plane goes. 
 WAIVE, in law, a woman that is put out of the protection 
 of the law. 
 
 She is called waive, as being forfaken of the law : and not 
 outlaw, as a man is ; by reafon women cannot be of the de- 
 cenna, and are not fworn in leets to the king, nor to the 
 law, as men are ; who therefore are within the law : where- 
 as women are not ; and fo cannot be outlawed, fince they 
 never were within it. 
 
 In this fenfe we meet with waviaria muli'eris, as of the 
 fame import with tttlegatio viri, 
 WAKE of a Jhip, is the fmooth water a-ftern, when fhe is 
 under fail. 
 
 By this, a guefs may be made of the fpeed file makes. 
 They alfo judge from this, whether the fhip goes as fhe 
 looks; that is, whether flic makes her way right a-head, as 
 fhe lies; as fhe doth when her wake is right a-ftern: but if 
 this wake be a point or two to leeward, they judge that fhe 
 falls to the leeward of her courfe. 
 
 When, in a (hip's flaying fhe is fo quick, that fhe does not 
 fall to leeward upon a tack, but that when tacked, her wake 
 is to the leeward, they fay, She Jlays to the weather of her 
 wake; which is a fign fhe feels her helm well, and is nimble 
 of fteerage. 
 
 Alfo, when one fhip, giving chafe to another, is got as far 
 into the wind as fhe, and fails directly after her, they fay, 
 She is got into her wake. 
 WAKEFULNESS, or Watching, infomma. See 
 Watching. 
 
 WAKES *, Vigils, or Country-WAK es, are certain antt- 
 ent anniverfary feafts, in feveral parifhes ; wherein the peo- 
 ple, were to be awake at the feveral vigils, or hours to go to 
 prayer. 
 
 * The Word is formed from the Saxon, W&ece, vigilia, exat- 
 liit\ watch. 
 
 They are ufually obferved, in the country, on the Sunday 
 next before the faint's day to whom the parifh-church is de- 
 dicated. 
 
 Cowel defines them by vigils^ in the dedications of churches, 
 
 where men fat drinking in the choir all night. 
 WALDENSES. See the article Vaudois. 
 WALKERS, a fort of foreft officers, appointed by the king 
 
 to walk about a certain fpace of ground, committed to their 
 
 care, and inflection. 
 
 Walkers, are the fame with what we otherwife call foreffers. 
 Sec Forester. 
 W"ALKS, in gardening. See the article Alleys. 
 
 1 o keep the weeds from growing upon ivalks, Mr Switzer 
 directs, that the bottoms thereof be filled with lime-rubbifh, 
 or coarfe gravel, flint ftones, or other rocky fluff, eight or 
 ten inches deep ; over which may be laid a like depth of 
 gravel, not too fine. 
 
 To keep them the drier, they are to be made rounding, or con- 
 vex The ufual proportion is, that a walk zq feet wide, 
 
 be 
 
W A L 
 
 be four inches higher in the middle, than at the "fides; a 
 walk 25 feet wide, 5 inches, &£. 
 
 After laying 2 walk, it is to be rolled, both lengthwife and 
 crofs-wife ; and to lay it the firmer, it muff have three or 
 four water-rollings ; that is, it mull be fo often rolled when 
 it rains fo very fart, that the walk fwims with water : which, 
 When«dry weather comes, will make the gravel bind as hard 
 as terrace. 
 
 To make the gravel bind the better, fome mix a little lime 
 with it ; but this being apt to flick to the heels of the fhoes 
 in wet weather, others grind or pound fea-ftiells, and lay a 
 thin coat thereof on the gravel ; which being rolled, incor- 
 porates with the gravel, and hinders its hanging to the fhoes. 
 — Others beat fmiths cinders to duft, and others bricks ; 
 ilrewing the duft on the walks, which dries up the moifture, 
 and gives th p m a good colour. 
 
 Gravel-WA I. K. ~) f Gr A VE L. 
 
 Ring-W alk, among hunters. > See } Ri NG-Walk. 
 
 Terraee-W alk, J L Terrace. 
 
 WALKING- Fire . See the article Ignis Fatuus. 
 
 WALL, in architecture, &c. a work of ftone, brick, or the 
 like j making the principal part of a building ; as ferving 
 both to indole it, and to fupport the roof, floors, b'c See 
 Building, House, &c. 
 
 Walls, though built very thick and ftrong, and their foun- 
 dations laid deep, yet, if carried on ftreight in a line, are in- 
 clined to lean, or fall; and fuchas are built crooked, though 
 thin and weak, are much more lafting. — A wall raifed over 
 a river, on arches of pillars, ftands as firm as others, whofe 
 foundation is entire. 
 
 Hence it appears, that a wall built much thinner than Lrfual 
 by only having at every zo feet's diftance an angle fet out 
 about two feet, or more, in proportion to the hc-ighth of the 
 wall; or by having at the like diftance, a column, or pi- 
 lafter erected along with it, fix or eight inches on each fide, 
 over and above the thicknefs of the reft of the wall : fuch 
 wall will be much ftronger, than if five times the quantity 
 of materials were ufed in a ftreight wall. 
 Walls are diftinguifhed into divers kinds, from the matter 
 whereof they confift ; as plaijiered, or mud-walls, brick-walls, 
 
 jhne-walls, flint or boulder-walls ; and boarder-zualls. In all" 
 
 which thefe general rules are to be regarded. 
 i°. That they be built exactly perpendicular to the ground- 
 work. 
 
 2 3 . That the maflieft and heavieft materials be the loweft ; 
 as being fitter to bear, than be born. 
 
 3 0 . That the walls, as they rife, diminifh proportionally in 
 thicknefs, for eafe both of weight and expence. 
 4 0 . That certain courfes, or ledges, of more ftrength than 
 the reft, be interlaid, like bones, to itrengthen the whole 
 
 fabric. 
 
 Mud and Plai/?ercd-W alls, are chiefly ufed in ordinary tim- 
 ber-buildings. — .Thefe walls, being quartered and lathed be- 
 tween the timber, or fometimes lathed over all, are phiiftcr- 
 ed over again with white mortar. 
 
 Brick^VJ "alls, are the moil ufual among us. — In thefe, par- 
 ticular care is to be taken about the laying of the bricks 
 viz. That in fummer they be laid as wet, and in winter as 
 dry as poffible ; to make them bind the better with the mor- 
 tar : that in fummer, as fafl as they are laid, they be cover- 
 ed up, to prevent the mortar, tse. from dryino t 0 o faft : 
 and that in winter they be covered well, to protect them 
 from rain, fnow, and froft, which are all enemies to the 
 mortar: that they be laid joint on joint in the middle of 
 walls, as feldom as may be ; but, good bond made there 
 as well as on the out-fides. — Care is likewife to be taken 
 that the angles be firmly bound : in order to which, in 
 ■working up the walls of a building, it is not advifable to 
 raife any wall above three feet high, before the next ad- 
 joining wall be wrought up to it ; that good bond may be 
 made in the progrefs of the work. 
 
 Laftly, in building a houfe in the city of London, the walls 
 are to be of fuch thicknefles, as are en^aincd by the act of 
 parliament for rebuilding that city. 
 Flint, or Boulder-~W alls, are frequently ufed in divers parts 
 for fence-walls, a-round courts gardens. tsV. and even for 
 walls of out-houfes — lir Henry \Votton obferves, that the 
 building of walls of flint, was a thing utterly unknown to 
 the antients ; who oblerving in that material a kind of me- 
 tallic nature, at leaft a fufibiliiy, referved it for nobler ufes 
 Thefe walls are ufually raifed by a right and left-handed 
 man, who have a hod of mortar poured down on the work, 
 whicii they part betwixt them ; each fpreadin°- it towards 
 himfelf, and fo they lay in the flints. — The monar for this 
 work is to be very ftiff. 
 
 Angle of a Wall. ~\ PAnglt. 
 
 Coping of a Wall, f \Coping. 
 
 Plinth of a Wall. >See the article^ Plinth. 
 
 Seen ograpby of W A r. L s . L ^.S ce KOCH A PHY, 
 
 Painting on Walls. J lPaintinG. 
 
 WAP 
 
 ? (Partition. 
 bee the article-} Piers. 
 
 Party-Vf alls. 
 Pi 3s Wall. 
 
 Wall, ,„ fortification, See the article Rampart 
 of wall "Tf^ ^-The pofition, matter, and form 
 H f ' '" r f™'"'^, are found to have a great influence 
 The r V 7 1 aUt ' ,0rS dife as <° *<= Preference 
 The reverend Mr Lawrence directs, that th -.walk of a gar- 
 
 b trath rl r r a ' y !° ' aCe ,hc four ™^ P°"'i 
 but rather between hen,, mz fouth-eaft, fouth-weft, north! 
 
 cl^f I" Whkh the '-"former will be good 
 
 M chi "tl r '°7 ° therS ; V r0 *° k g^en W/i to con- 
 front Z TT" ' eachab °«< "xor eight yards in 
 front and including two trees ; and between everv two 
 ftm.c.rcles, a fpace of two feet of plain Zi _B y fuc Ta 
 provifion every part of a wall will enjov an equal fhare of the 
 fun, one time with another; befide 'that thl war t h w fl 
 
 trces wi,hm wili bc fcrcencd * om 
 
 As to the materials of walls for fruit-trees brick accord 
 
 S? Et " is,hc t ft; as bcin = 
 
 vent^ftfnl™" 5 °' ^ » ~- 
 
 Mr Laurence however affirms, on his own experience, 
 
 b 5£ff S C °' Ca r h and ftraW '^peredLgethe 
 wills Z l, " r ,' 1,em " S rU,t ' lhan cith « buck or ftone 
 
 K ol great advantage to the fruits, in (heifer ng them from 
 p .pend.cular bhghts, rains, tfr. This a„f„ er s°all Z p Z 
 pofes of the late invention of placing tiles horizontally to 
 hang over from the tops of the walls ' 
 M.f.at,o, in a particular treatife on the fubiefl, inftead of 
 the common perpendiculars//,, propofes to have"h walls 
 btnlt fl.pmg or reclining from the fun; thatXtisXf 
 ed agamft them may lie more expofed to his perl dSa 
 
 ^s^^:^^ 10 thc "Pining oS; 
 
 The angle of reclination, is to be that of the latitude of the 
 place; that, when the fun is in the meridian a the lui 
 noxes, his rays may ftrike juft perpendicularly 9 
 Vet fome others prefer perpendicular walls, and even inclin 
 ng o„c uch as )lan , f w w en ncl „ 
 
 ce.ve the fun's rays perpendicularly when he i low - as in 
 fpnng and autumn, or ,„ the evening and morninT-'whi h 
 hey imagine of mote fervice, than ff,e greatell S&fZ 
 lun at midfummer, upon reclining wall? 
 Add. that in autumn the fun is mod wanted to ripen winter 
 pears; in older to which, they fhould be ten, ; ! I 
 againft Hoping walk camiLt be'; the dew t£i2g 
 ougc, thereon, than on thofe that are per'pendicuhr 6 
 Une grea, advantage, however, ofM.Fatio's fl„pi,, g walk 
 
 , much forward their ripening * tn WiJJ 
 
 | Sea-W alls. i • ft <■- 
 
 !« A , lL "w' v - f ■ F«*«^ie5?S; 
 
 ! PlaM,r,g Wall fruit-trees \ I V, 
 
 \ W t ^ OON ' -Valloow, a kind of old Fre cn" ' be!,;, 
 the language fpoke by the Walloons, or the inhabitants o f 
 co„„der..ble part ot the French and Auftriai, Low 2ou„- 
 tnes, viz. thofe of Artois, Hainault, Namur 1 „Ii 
 and part ofFlandets and Brabant ' 
 
 or Celts!'""" he ' d 10 be la " gUa S e ° f the «^ Gauls, 
 
 Jln^T™ haVi " S fl,Muel1 feVeral P r °>™ees in Grul 
 cft bhlhcd prxtors.or proconfuls, faV to adminilter S 
 m the Latin t„ n gue. On this occafion, the natives' w re 
 brought ,„ apply themfelves to learn the language o S 
 conquerors; and thus they introduced abundance^ the Ro- 
 man words and pbrafes into their own tongue 
 Ot tins mixture of Gaulifli and Latin, was formed a new 
 language, ca led Roataas \ in comradiftinclion to the antiem 
 unadultcTated Gauhfh, which was called fatin, or l^a Z 
 This diflmchon is kept up to this day , for di'e inhabitants 
 o feveral ol the low-country provinces fay, that in France 
 they fpeak Romans; whereas they fpeak the U-alUsa which 
 
 »nBl«bb. bee the article Windass 
 
 w iSr JERING Stan - &e thc arti * Planet 
 WANLASi, ,n hunting.— Driving Atwaalafs, is the driv- 
 ing °r deer to a ftand, that the lord may have iC 
 which ,s one ot the cuftomatv fetvices of fiefs ' 
 
 tl PEN ,h' AKE ' " W "»"*« • of cer- 
 
 tain northern counties, particulatly thofe beyond the- Trent 
 
 iSS'" 8 '° °' h " thQ " is called a z 
 
 Authors differ as to the origin of the word, -Brompton 
 
 brings 
 
WAR 
 
 Others Ki»e a different account ot its rue, TO; ' hat wnei 
 firft ^kingdom was divided into aerate ; he who w s 
 .hi chief of the divif.on, and whom we now call hth-t »- 
 Jw£2 foon as he entered upon his office appeare n the 
 field on a certain day, on horfe-back, with a p ke m n 
 hand - and all the chief men of the hundred me him with 
 5* lances , who alighting touched his odre the. lan- 
 ces, asa fignalthey were niml^ed W-A^M 
 the touching their weapons.— Whence rne 
 wapentake from the Saxon waepen, and tec, touching. 
 
 ftates or large bodies of people; which not being dete. mi 
 nable'by th= S ordi„arymeafuresof jufticeand equity, is re- 
 ferred to the decifion of the fword. 
 
 Hobbes's great principle is, that the natural ftate of man, s 
 f ftate of warfare j but moft other politicians hold z™r to be 
 a preternatural, and extraordinary ftate. 
 CSmI or W*» War, is that between fubjeas of the fame 
 realm , or between parties in the fame ftate. 
 In this fenfe, we fay, the civil wars of the Romans deftroy- 
 ed the republic : the civil wars of Granada ruined the power 
 of the Moors in Spain:, the civil wars in England begun in 
 164.1, and ended in the king's death, 164S 
 
 KinA War, Bellum regis.— At the time when particular 
 lords were allowed to make war with one another, to re- 
 venue injuries, inftead of profecnting them in the ordinary 
 courts of juftice; the appellation Wl war 'Was given to 
 fuch war as the king declared agamft any other prince or 
 ftate ■ on which occafion, the lords were not allowed to 
 make private war againft each other; as being obliged to 
 ferve the king, with all their vaftals. 
 
 Relieious War, is a war maintained in a ftate, on account 
 of religion; one of the parties refuting to tolerate the 
 
 K/fwAR, is that antiently maintained by leagues and croi- 
 fades, for the recovery of the holy land. 
 
 Art of Wa r. See the article Military Art. 
 
 Council of Wa r, is an aflcmbly of great officers, called by a 
 general or commander, to deliberate with him on enter- 
 prizes, and attempts to be made. , a j c 
 On fome occafions, council of war is alfo underftood of an 
 affembly of officers, fitting in judgment on delinquent fol- 
 diers, deferters, coward-officers, tic. 
 
 att.»(,./WAR.l , (Habiliment. 
 
 Man of War. \ See the article < Ship, Rate, tic. 
 
 Office s of War. > 1 Officers. 
 
 Place of ' War, is a place fortified, on purpofe to cover and 
 defend a country, and flop the incurfion of an enemy's ar- 
 my or it is a place wherein are difpofed the provrfions of 
 Jar, for an army incamped in the neighbourhood ; or whi- 
 ther an army retires into winter quarters. 
 
 WARBLING of the wings, in falconry, is when a hawk, 
 after having mantled herfelf, croftes her wings over her 
 back. . „ 
 
 WARD, Warda, cujledy or keeping. beeLrUARD. 
 
 Ward is a word ufed in our law-books, in divers bonifica- 
 tions —Thus, a ward, in London is a part of the city, 
 committed to the fpecial charge of one of the aldermen of 
 ' the city. There are 26 wards in London, which arc as 
 hundreds, and the parifhes thereof as towns. 
 A forcft is alfo divided into wards; fo alfo are moft of our 
 hofpitals. 
 
 A prifon is fometimes alfo called a ward. 
 The heir of the king's tenant, who held by knigbts-fervice, 
 or in capite, was alfo called a ward, during his non-age. — 
 But this fort of wardfhip is taken away by the ftatute, 1 2 
 Car. II. cap. 24. See Wards. 
 
 CiftWAU. See the article Castle. 
 
 Ward, Warda, or Wardagium, is alfo ufed in our an- 
 tient writers, for the cuftody of a town or caftle, which 
 the tenants and inhabitants were bound to keep at their 
 own charge. 
 
 Warda Ecclefwrum, denotes the guardianfbip of churches ; 
 which is in the king during vacancies, by reafon of the re- 
 galia, or temporalities. 
 
 WARDAGE, Wardagium, is fometimes ufed in our 
 antient law-writers, in the fame fenfe with wardpenny. See 
 Wardpenny. 
 
 Sometimes it alfo feems to denote a being free from wardfhip. 
 WARDECORNE, among our antient writers, a duty 
 Incumbent on the tenants, to guard the caftle, by found- 
 ing a horn upon the approach of an eneniy ; called alio 
 (arnage. 
 
 WAR 
 
 WARDEN, Guardian, one who has the charge, or keep- 
 ing of any perfon, or thing, by office. 
 Such is the warden of the fleet, who is the keeper of the fleet 
 prifon ; and has the charge of the prifoncrs there ■ efpe- 
 cially fuch as are committed from the court of chancery lor 
 contempt. 
 
 Such alfo are, the warden of the fellowfhips, warden ot the 
 marines, wardens of peace, warden of the weft marches, 
 warden of the foreft, warden of the alnagc, warden of the 
 king's wardrobe, tic. 
 Warden, in an univerfity, is the head of a college ; anfwer- 
 
 ing to what in other colleges we call the majler thereof. 
 Warden, or Lord Warden of the cinque-ports, is the gc- 
 vernour of thofe noted havens ; who has the authority of an 
 admiral, and fends outwrits inhis own name. See Ci sojit- 
 Ports. 
 
 Warden of the mint, is an officer, whofe bufinefs to re- 
 ceive the gold and filver bullion brought in by the mer- 
 chants ; to pay them for it, and overfee the other officers. 
 
 He is alfo called keeper of the exchange, and mint. 
 
 Church Wardens, , See ^ ^ c Church. 
 iJfiito'-WARDEN. J I Renter. 
 
 WARDER. — Yeomen warders of the Tower, are officers, 
 forty in number, who are accounted the king's domeftic 
 fervants, and are fwom by the lord chamberlain : their 
 duty is, to attend pril'oners of ftate, and to wait at the gates. 
 Ten of them are ufually upon the day's wait, to take an 
 account of all perfons who come into the tower ; to enter 
 their names, and the names of the perfons they go to, 111 a 
 book, to be perufed by the conftable or lieutenant. 
 WARDEEOH, or Wardfegh, the value of a ward, or 
 heir under age ; or the money paid to the lord of the fee, 
 for his redemption. 
 WARD-HOOK, in gunnery, a rod, or ftaff, with an iron 
 end, turned ferpent-wife, or like a fcrew, to draw the wads 
 or ockam out of a gun, when it is to be unloaded. 
 WARDMOTE, in London, is a court fo called, which is 
 kept in every ward of the city; anfwering to the curiata 
 comitia, in antient Rome. 
 
 comma, 111 aiuicm ivumv.. 
 WARD-PENNY, Warpeni, was formerly a cuftomary 
 due, paid to the fheriff, or other officer, for maintaining 
 watch and ward. . 
 It was payable at the feaft of S. Martin ; and is ftill paid 
 within the manor of Sutton Colfield in Warwickfhire ; and 
 that with fome veiy lingular ceremonies. 
 WARDROBE, a clofet, or little room adjoining to a bed- 
 chamber ; ferving to difpofe and keep a perfon's apparel in ; 
 or for a fervant to lodge in, to be at hand to wait, tic . 
 Wardrobe, in a prince's court, is an apartment wherein 
 his robes, wearing apparel, and other neceffines, are pre- 
 ferved ; under the care and direaion of proper officers. 
 His majefty has z great wardrobe, a removing wardrobe, and 
 divers /landing wardrobes, belonging to his bed-chamber, 
 in each of his palaces, viz. at Whitehall, Kenfington, Wind- 
 for, Hampton-Court, and the Tower; each under its re- 
 fpective keeper. . , 
 
 The removing wardrobe always attends on the kings per- 
 fon ; as alfo on embaft'adors, at chriftenings, mafques, plays, 
 tsc.—lt is under the command of the lord chamberlain : 
 the under-officers are, a yeoman, two grooms, and three 
 pages. . . . . 
 
 The great wardrobe is of great antiquity. —Antiently it 
 was kept near puddle-wharf, in a houle purchafed for that 
 purpofe, by king Edward III. but after the fire of London, 
 it was kept in York-buildings. 
 
 The mailer or keeper thereof, is an officer of great dignity: 
 hicrfi privileges were conferred on him by Hen. VI. and king 
 James I. enlarged the fame, and eredted the office into a cor- 
 poration. . . 
 The officers are, the mafier or keeper, his deputy, and his 
 clerk ; befides feveral under-officers ; and above lixty tradei- 
 men, all fwom feivants to the king. 
 
 This office is tonrovide for coronations, marriages, and fu- 
 nerals of the royal family ; to furnifh the court with beds, 
 hangings, carpets, fit. to furnifh houfes for embaffadors 
 at then firft arrival here; prefents for foreign princes and 
 embaffadors ; furniture for the lord lieutenant o, Ireland, 
 and our embaffadors abroad ; robes for the knights and offi- 
 cers of the garter, heralds, perfuivants, minifters of ftate, li- 
 veries for the officers of the bed-chamber, and other fervants ; 
 liveries for the lord chief juftices, and barons of the Exche- 
 quer ■ and other officers in thofe courts:' as alfo yeomen, 
 warders, trumpets, kettle-drums, meffengers, coachmen, 
 Brooms, fie. with coaches, harneffes, laddies, fit. 1 he 
 watermen, game-keepers ; linen and lace for the king s per- 
 fon ; tilts, tic. for his barges, tic. 
 WARDS, a court firft ere£tcd by king Henry Vlll. and 
 after augmented by him with the office of liveries : but now 
 abfolutely taken away and abolifhed, by a ftatute made 12 
 Car. II. cap. 24. Ward- 
 
WAR 
 
 WAS 
 
 Ward-staff, the conftable or watchman's fraff*. 
 
 The manor of Lambourn in Efiex, is held by fervice of the 
 tvard-jlajf, viz. by the carrying a load of itraw in a cart 
 with fix horfes, two ropes, and two men in harnefs, to 
 watch the faid ward-jlajf, when it is brought to the town 
 of Aebridge, 6SV. Camd. tit. EJfex. 
 
 Ward-wite*, is defined by Fleta, as fignifying a being 
 exempted from the duty of watching. — Others rather take- 
 it for a duty paid towards the charge thereof. 
 * The word is compounded of the Saxon ward, vtgilia, watch ; 
 and wtte, mulct. 
 
 WARECTUM, in ant ten t writings, figmfies land that has 
 kin long neglected, and unfilled. 
 
 In antient records, we meet with temp us waretl'i, for the 
 time wherein land lies fallow, or elfe the feafon of fallowing. 
 
 WAR EN. See the article Warren. 
 
 WARMTH. See the article Heat. 
 
 WARN, in law, to fummon a perfon to appear in a court of 
 juftice. 
 
 WARNING*/, in a clock, is the third or fourth, ac- 
 cording to its diftance from the firft wheel. See Clock. 
 
 WARP, in the manufactures, is the threads, whether of fdk, 
 wool, linen, hemp, cotton, or the like, that are extended, 
 lengthwife on the weaver's loom ; and acrofs which the 
 workman, by means of his (hurtle, pafTes the threads of the 
 woof, to form a cloth, ribband, fuftian, or other matter. 
 For a wooilen fluff, iSc. to have the neceffary qualities, it is 
 required that the threads of the warp be of the fame kind 
 of wool, and of the fame hneneis throughout ; that they be 
 fized with Flanders or parchment fize, well prepared ; and 
 that they be in fufficient number, with regard to the breadth 
 of the {tuft to be wrought. See Woof, Cloth, csV. 
 
 To Warp a Jhip, is to hale her to a place, when the wind is 
 wanting, by means of a hawfer, a cable, and an anchor fix- 
 ed thereto. . 
 
 WARPENI. See the article Wardpfnny. 
 
 WARRANT, an act, inftrument, or obligation, whereby a 
 perfon authorizes another to do fomething, which he had not 
 otherwise a right to do. 
 
 Warrant of Attorney, is that whereby a man appoints ano- 
 ther to do fomething in his name, and warrants his action. 
 It feems to differ from a letter of attorney, which paffes under 
 hand and feal of him that makes it, before credible wit- 
 neifes ; whereas warrant of attorney, in perfonal, mixed, and 
 fome real actions, is put in of courfc by the attornies for the 
 plaintiffs, or defendants. 
 
 Though a wan-ant of attorney, to fuffer a common reco- 
 very by the tenant, or vouchee, is to be acknowledged be- 
 fore fuch perfons as the commiflion for the doing thereof di- 
 rects. 
 
 In the court of common picas, there is a clerk of the war- 
 ranis^ who enters all warrants of attorney for plaintiff, and 
 defendant. 
 
 WARRANTIZANDUM. See the article Summons 
 ad Warrantizandum. 
 
 WARRANTO. See the article Quo Warranto. 
 
 WARRANTY, Warrantia, a promife, or covenant, 
 by deed, made by the bargainer for himfelf and his heirs, to 
 warrant and fecure the bargainee and his heirs, againft all 
 men, for enjoying the thing agreed on between them. 
 Such warranty palfes from the feller to the buyer; from the 
 feoffer to the feoffee ; from him that releafes, to him that 
 is releafed from an action real. — The form of it is thus: 
 Et ego vera presfatus A. CJf baredes mei pradiflas quinque 
 acras terra cum pcrtinentiis juts pra:fato B. keeredibus & 
 ajfgnatis fu'ts contra omnes gentes warrantizabimus in perpe- 
 tuum, per prafentes. 
 
 Note, under bttredes, heirs, are comprized all fuch as the 
 firft warranter's lands come to, whether by defcent, pur- 
 chafe, or the like. 
 
 Warranty is either real, or perfonal. — Real, when it is an- 
 nexed to lands and tenements granted for life, &c, which, 
 again is either in deed, or in law. 
 
 Perfonal, either refpedts the property of the thing fold, or 
 the quality of it. 
 
 Real warranty, again, in refpedt of the eftate, is cither li- 
 neal, collateral, or commencing by diffeifin. 
 
 Warrantia Charts, a writ that lies for a perfon who is 
 infeoffed in lands and tenements, with claufe of warranty ; 
 and is impleaded in an aflizc, or writ of entry, wherein he 
 cannot vouch, or call to warranty. See Voucher. 
 
 Warrantia Diet, a writ which lies in cafe where a man 
 having a day affigned perfonally to appear in court to an 
 action wherein he is fued, is, in the mean time, by com- 
 mandment, employed in the king's fervice ; fo that he can- 
 not come at the day affigned. — it is directed to the juftices, 
 urdering them not to find or record him in default. 
 
 WARREN, Warf.n.va, a franchife, or place privileged, 
 cither by prefciiption, or grant from the king, to keep beafts 
 Vol. II. 
 
 and fowl of -.Lairen in; as rabbits, hares, partridges, phea- 
 fants, ts'c. 
 
 By a ftatute 21 Edw. III. a warren may lie openj and there 
 is no need of doling it in ; as there is of a park. 
 If any perfon be found an offender in any fuch free warren, 
 he is punifhable for the fame at common law. 
 
 Bea/ls of W a r r e n. See the article Beasts. 
 
 WART, Verruca, a little round, hard exerefcence, arifing on 
 the flefh, like a pea. 
 
 Warts are more frequent on the hands than any other part. — 
 There are divers forts : the molt ufual are called porraccez ; 
 as having heads like leeks, and confifting of little threads, 
 refembling the roots thereof. 
 
 Another fort is called myrmecia, this is a little round, cal- 
 lous eminence on the hands of young children ; rifing fud- 
 denly, and difappearing again. 
 
 A third fort is the acrochordon. See Acrochordon. 
 Some phyficians alfo rank the corns growing on the toes un- 
 der the clals of warts : thefe the Latins call clam ; becaufe 
 occafioning mooting pains, as if one were pricked with the 
 point of a nail. 
 
 Warts, if only rooted in the cutis, are eafily taken away; 
 but if they arife from the tendons underneath, there is fcarce 
 any extirpating them without great danger. — The juices of 
 chelidon. majus, or efula, ordens leonis, or tithymal, frequent- 
 ly applied, are faid to take off warts. 
 
 Borelli commends water wherein fal armoniac has been dif- 
 lolvcd : which Dr Maplctoft, late profeffor of phyfic at 
 Grefham-Colk-ge, makes no fcruple to fay, is the only fure 
 remedy he knows of in all medicine. 
 WASHING. See the articles Ablution, Lotion, csV. 
 Wajhing the feet, was a common piece of civility among the 
 Jews, practifed in regard to ftrangers, vifitors, tsV. at their 
 arrival. 
 
 Wajhing the feet of twelve poor people, is an anniverfary ce- 
 remony, to be performed both by the kings of England and 
 France ; in commemoration of our Saviour's wajhing the feet 
 of his apoftlcs. 
 
 Arnobius, adv. Gentes, Lib. VII. mentions a feaft in ufe 
 among the antients, called lavatio matris denm, the wajhing 
 of the mother of the gods, held on the 30th of March. 
 
 Washing one's bands. See the article Hand. 
 
 Washing of a Jhip, in the fea language, is when all the guns 
 are brought to one fide; and the men, getting upon the 
 yards, wajh her other fide, and fcrape her as far as they can 
 reach. 
 
 Washing, in painting, is when a defign drawn with a pen, 
 or crayon, has form; one colour laid over it with a pencil ; 
 as Indian ink, biftre, or the like ; to make it appear the more 
 natural, by adding the fhadows of prominences, apertures, 
 dsV. and by imitating the particular matters, whereof the 
 thing is fuppofed to confift. 
 
 Thus, they wajb with a pale red, to imitate brick and tile; 
 with a pale Indian blue, to imitate water and Hate ; with 
 green, for trees and meadows ; with faffron or French ber- 
 ries, for gold and brafs ; and with feveral colours, for 
 marbles. 
 
 Thefe waJJjes are ufuslly given in equal teints, or degrees, 
 throughout; which are afterwards brought down, and foft- 
 ened over the lights with fair water, and ftrcngthencd with 
 deeper colours for the fhadows. 
 Washings, or Washes, among goldfmiths, coiners, (s'c. 
 are the lotions whereby they recover the part:cles of gold and 
 filycr out of the fweep, r. e . afb.es, earths, fweepings, &c r 
 This is either performed by fimply tvajhing them again, and 
 again, or by putting them in the wajhing mill. 
 To make one of thefe wafljes, they not only gather together 
 the afhes of the furnaces, and fweepings of the work- 
 houfesj but they alfo break and pound the old earthen cru- 
 cibles, and the very bricks whereof the furnaces are built; 
 little particles of gold, iSc. being found to flick to them, 
 by the flying off natural to thofe metals, when in their lift 
 degree of heat. 
 
 Thefe matters being well ground, and mixed together, 
 are put in large wooden bafons, where they are wajhed fe- 
 veral times, and in feveral waters, which run off, by inclina- 
 tion, into troughs underneath ; carrying with them the earth, 
 and the infenlible particles of the metals, and only leaving 
 behind them the larger and more confiderablc ones, which 
 are vifible to the eye, and are finally taken out with the hand 
 without more trouble. 
 
 To get out the finer parts, gone off with the earth, they ufe 
 quickfilver, and a wajhing mill. — This mill confifts of a 
 large wooden trough, at bottom of which arc two metalline 
 parts, ferving as niill-ftones ; the lower being convex, and 
 the upper, which is in form of a crofs, concave. 
 At the top is a winch, placed horizontally, which turns the 
 upper piece round; and at bottom is a bung, to let out the 
 water and earth, when fufficiently ground, 
 i 13 S To 
 
WAT 
 
 WAT 
 
 To have a wajh, then, the trough is filled with common 
 water ; into which they caft thirty or forty pounds ot quick - 
 filvcr and two or three gallons of the matter remaining 
 from the firft lotion. —Then turning the winch, they give 
 motion to the upper mill-ftone ; winch grinding the matter 
 and the quickfilver violently together, the particles of gold 
 and filver become the more cafily amalgamated therewith . 
 This work they continue for two hours ; when opening the 
 bung, the water and earths run out, and a frefti quantity is 
 
 ThVcarths are ufually parted thus through the mill three 
 times ; and the fame quantity of mercury ufually ferves a 
 the three times. —When there is nothing left in the mill 
 but the mercury, united with the gold and lilver which it has 
 amalgamated, they take it out, and wajhing it m divers 
 waters, they put it in a ticken bag, and lay it m a prels, to 
 fqueeze out the water, and the loofe quickfilver : the re- 
 maining quickfilver they evaporate by fire, in a retort, or an 
 alembick. And the metal which remains, they refine with 
 lead, or part it with aqua fortis. 
 
 WASSAILE, or Wassel, a feftival fong, fung heretofore 
 from door to door, about the time of Epiphany, bee 
 Wasse l-BbivL 
 
 W ASSEL-Bowl, or Westel-Saw/, was a large cup or 
 bowl of filver or wood, wherein the Saxons, at their pub- 
 lic entertainments, drank a health to one another, in the 
 phrafe was- heal; that is, health be to you. 
 This wajel-bowl, feems plainly to be meant by the word va- 
 fiellum. in the lives of the abbots of S. Albans, by Matt. Pans; 
 where he faith, abbas filus frandebat jhprcmus in refeclono 
 habeas vaflcllum : " He had fet by him the wajfel-bcwl to 
 M drink an health to the fraternity ; or the poculum chari- 
 ** tatis." . 
 And hence the cuftom .of going a wajfehng, Ml ufed in 
 Sufi'ex, and fome other places, feems to have taken its name. 
 
 WAST, or Waste, Vaflum, inlaw, has divers bonifications. 
 
 i°, It is ufed for a fpoil, made either in houfes, woods, 
 
 lands, ts'c. by the tenants for life, or for years, to the pre- 
 judice of the heir, or of him in reverfion, or remainder. — 
 Upon this, the writ of wajle is brought for recovery of the 
 thing wafted^ and treble damages. 
 
 Waste of the forejl, is, properly, where a man cuts down his 
 own woods within the foreft, without licenfe of the king, or 
 lord-chief-juftice in eyre. 
 
 Waste, is alio taken for thofe lands which are not in any 
 man's occupation ; but lie common. 
 
 They feem to be fo called, becaufe the lord cannot make fuch 
 profit of them as of his other lands ; by reafon of the life 
 others have thereof, for palling to and fro. — Upon this 
 none may build, cut down trees, dig, fcfe. without the lord's 
 licenfe. 
 
 Tear Day and Waste. See Year Day and JVafle. 
 - Waste of a fi>if> is that part of her between the main-mail, 
 
 and the fore-malt. 
 Waste-boards, are boards fomctimes fet upon the fide of a 
 
 boat, or other vefiel, to keep the fea from breaking into her. 
 WATCH, Guet, a perfon pofted as a fpy in any place, to 
 
 have an eye thereto, and to give notice of what panes. 
 Watch, is alfo ufed for a corps de garde pofted at any paf- 
 
 fage i or for a company of guards who go on the patrol. — 
 
 Some officers are exempted from zuatcb, and guard. 
 
 In the fame fenfe they fay, night-watch, guet de nuit : 
 
 watch-word, mot de guet : royal-iuatch, and city-watch. 
 
 Chevalier de guet, is a name given by the French, to the 
 
 officer who commands the royal-watch, Sec. 
 Watch, at fea, fignifies a meafurc, or fpace of four hours ; 
 
 becaufe half the fhip's crew watch, and do duty in their turns 
 
 fo long at a time. 
 
 The fliip's company is divided into two parts, the larboard- 
 watcbf and the Jiar board-watch. — The mafter of the fliip 
 commands the latter, and the chief mate the former. 
 Sometimes, when a fhip is in harbour, they watch but a 
 quarter-watch, as they call it; that is, but a quarter of the 
 company watch at a time. 
 
 The watch-glafs, being four hours, is ufed at fea to fhift or 
 change their watches. — There are alfo half-watch hour- 
 glailes ; minute and half-minute glafles ; by which laft they 
 count the knots when they heave the log, in order to find 
 the fhip's way. 
 
 -Dtnf/j-WATCH. See the article Death. 
 
 Watch, is alfo ufed for a fmall portable movement, or ma- 
 chine, for the meafuring of time; having its motion regu- 
 lated by a fpira! fpring. 
 
 Watches, flrictly taken, are all fuch movements as fhew the 
 parts of time; as clocks arc fuch as publifh it, by ftrikingon 
 a bell, 13c. But, commonly, the name watch is appropri- 
 ated to fuch as are carried in the pocket ; and clock to the 
 large movements, whether they ftrike the hour, or not. 
 Spring, or Pendulum Watches, ftand pretty much on the 
 fame principle witl) pendulum clocks j whence their denomi- 
 
 nation. — If a pendulum, defcribing little arches of a circle^ 
 make vibrations of unequal lengths, in equal times ; it is by 
 reafon it defcribes the greater with a greater velocity. For 
 the fame reafon, a fpring put in motion, and making greater 
 or lefs vibrations, as it is more or lefs ftiff, and as it has a 
 greater or lefs degree of motion given it, performs them 
 nearly in equal times. — Hence, as the vibrations of the 
 pendulum had been applied to large clocks, to rectify the in- 
 equality of their motions ; fo, to correct the unequal motions 
 of the balance of watchts, a fpring is added ; by the ifochro- 
 nifm of whofe vibrations, the correction is to be effected. 
 The fpring is ufually wound into a fpiral ; that, in the 
 little compafs allotted it, it may be as long as poffible ; and 
 may have llrength enough, not to be mattered and dragged 
 about, by the inequalities of the balance it is to regulate. 
 The vibrations of the two parts, viz. the fpring and balance, 
 fhould be of the fame length; only fo adjulted, as that the 
 fpring, being the more regular in the length of its vibrations 
 than the balance, may, on occafion, communicate its regu- 
 larity thereto. 
 
 The invention of fpring, Or pocket-watches, is owing to the 
 prefent age. — It is true, we find mention made of a watch 
 prefettted to Charles V. in the hiftory of that prince : but 
 this, in all probability, was no more than a kind of clock to 
 be fet on a table ; fome refemblance whereof, we have ilill 
 remaining in the antient pieces made before the year 1670. 
 In effect, it is between Dr Hooke, and M. Huygens, that 
 the glory of this excellent invention lies : but to which of 
 them ic properly belongs, is greatly difputed ; the Englifh 
 afcribing it to the former; and the French, Dutch, &c, to 
 the latter. 
 
 Mr Derham, in his Artificial Clockmaker, fays roundly, 
 that Dr Hooke was the inventor $ and adds, that he contriv- 
 ed various ways ol regulation. — One way was with a 
 loadllone. — Another with a tender {height fpring, one end 
 whereof played backwards and forwards with the balance ; Co 
 that the balance was to the Ipring, as a bob to a pendulum ; 
 and the Ipring as the rod thereof. — A third method was 
 with two balances, of which there were divers forts ; fome 
 having a fpiral fpring to the balance for a regulattr, and 
 others without. 
 
 But the way that prevailed, and which continues in mode, 
 was with one balance, and one fpring running round the up- 
 per part of the verge thereof. Though this has a difadvan- 
 tage, which thofe with two fprings, i5c. were free from; in 
 that a fudden jerk, or corifufed fhake, will alter its vibrations, 
 and put it in an unufual hurry. 
 
 The time of thefe inventions was about the year 1658 ; as 
 appears, among other evidences, from an infeription on one 
 of the double balance watches, prelented to king Charles II. 
 viz. Rob. Hooke Inven 1658. T. Tompion fecit, 1675. 
 The invention prefently got into reputation, both at home 
 and abroad ; and two of them were fent for by the dauphin 
 of France. 
 
 Soon after this, M. Huygens's watch with a fpiral fpring 
 got abroad, and made a great noife in England, as if the lon- 
 gitude could be found by it. — It is certain, however, that 
 his invention was later than the year 1673, when his book 
 de Moral. Ofcillat. was publilhed ; wherein he has not one 
 word of this, though he has of feveral other contrivances in 
 the fame way. 
 
 One of thefe the lord Brouncker fent for out of France, where 
 M, Huygens had got a patent for them. — This watch 
 agreed with Dr Hooke's, in the application of the fpring to 
 the balance; only M. Huygens's had a longer fpiral fpring, 
 and the pulfes and beats were much flower. '1 he balance 
 inftead of turning regularly round, as Dr Hooke's, turns fe- 
 veral rounds every vibration. 
 
 Mr Derham fuggefts, that he has reafon to doubt M. Huy- 
 gens's fancy firit was fet to work, by fome intelligence he 
 might have of Dr Hooke's invention, from Mr Olden- 
 burg, or fome other of his correfpondents in England: tho* 
 Mr Oldenburg vindicates himfclf againft that charge, in Phi- 
 lofophical Tranfacrions, N J 1 1 8, and 129. 
 Huygens invented divers other kinds of watches, fome of 
 them without any firing or chain at all; which he called, 
 particularly, pendulum watches. 
 
 As it was in England that watches had their fir ft rife ; fo it 
 is there, too, they have arrived at their greateft perfection. 
 — Witnefs that exceeding value put on an Englifh watch 
 in all foreign countries, and that vail demand made for 
 them. 
 
 M. Savary, in his Diclion. de commerce, pretends to match 
 the French watchmakers againft the Englifh - — He aliens, 
 " That if the Englifh be in any condition to difpute it with 
 * ( them, they owe it entrely to the great number of French 
 " workmen, who took fhelter here upon the revocation of 
 « the edict of Nants." He adds, " That three fourths of 
 " the watches made in England, are the work of French- 
 " men." — From what authorities he fays this, we know 
 
 not: 
 
WAT 
 
 WAT 
 
 not : but it need not be told Englifhmen that it is falfe j 
 there not being one French name, that we know of, among 
 all our famed watchmakers .- nor, in the body of watch- 
 makers, is there one eighth part French. 
 It is certain the French peop^u prefer our watches vaftly to 
 their own ; infomuch, that to have them with the more cafe, 
 a number of Englilh workmen were invited over in 1719, 
 and eftablifhed with great countenance at Verfailles, under 
 the direction of the famous Mr Law. — But the eftablifh- 
 ment, though every thing promifed well for it, and the 
 French watch and clockmakers feemed undone by it, fell to 
 the ground in left than a year's time. — M. Savary imputes 
 its fall, intirely, to that ftrong prejudice of the French people, 
 in behalf of the Englilh workmen, and to the knowing that 
 the watches did not come from England. But the truth is, 
 the workmen fent over being molt of them men of loofe 
 characters, grew dillblute, quarrelled with the priefts, in- 
 fulted the magistrates, and were difmiffed, ofneceffity. 
 Striking-W atches, are fuch, as befidcs the proper watch- 
 pan, for measuring of time, have a clock-part, for Itriking 
 the hours, Ejfj. 
 
 Thefe are real clocks ; only moved by a fpring inftead of a 
 weight. — Properly fpeaking, they are called pocket-clocks. 
 Repeating Watches, are fuch as by pulling a firing, &c. 
 repeat the hour, quarter, or minute, at any time of the day 
 or night. 
 
 This repetition was the invention of Mr Barlow, and was firft 
 put in practice by him in larger movements, or clocks, about 
 the year 167&. — The contrivance ftreight fet the other ar- 
 tifts to work, who foon contrived divers ways of effecting 
 the fame. — But its application to pocket-watches, was not 
 known before king James the fecond's reign; when the in- 
 genious inventor abovementioned, having directed Mr 
 Thompfon to make a repeating watch, was foliciting a pa- 
 tent for the fame. 
 
 The talk of a patent engaged Mr Quare to refume the 
 thoughts of a like contrivance, which he had had in view 
 fome years before : he now effected it ; and being preffed to 
 endeavour to prevent Mr Barlow's patent, a watch of each 
 kind was produced before the king and council ; upon trial 
 of which, the preference was given to Mr Quare's. 
 The difference between them was, that Barlow's was made 
 to repeat, by pufh'mg in two pieces on each fide the watch- 
 box; one of which repeated the hour, and the other the 
 quarter: whereas Quare's was made to repeat by a pin that 
 ftuck out neat the pendant ; which being tbruft in, (as now 
 it is done by thrufting in the pendant itfelf) repeated both the 
 hour and quarter with the fame thruft. 
 WATCHING, Wakefulness, infomnia, among phy- 
 ficians, denotes a diforder whereby a perfon is difabled from 
 going to flccp. 
 
 it is occafioned by a continual and exceffive motion of the 
 animal fpirits in the organs of the body, whereby thofe or- 
 gans are prepared to receive, readily, any impreffions from 
 external objects, which they propagate to the brain j and 
 furnifh the foul with divers occafions of thinking. 
 This extraordinary flux of fpirits may have two caufes : for, 
 i°. The fcnfible objects may ftrike the organ with too much 
 force. In which cafe, the animal fpirits being violently 
 agitated, and thofe agitations continued by the nerves to the 
 brain, they give a like motion to the brain itfelf j the necef- 
 fary confequence of which, is, that the animal muft wake. 
 Thus, a loud fhrick, pains, head-ach, gripes, coughing, is'c 
 caufe waking. — Add, that the mind's being oppreffed with 
 cares, or deeply engaged in thinking, contributes to the 
 fame : iince, as it acts by the minifiry of the fpirits, any 
 cares or meditations that keep thofe in motion, muft pro- 
 duce zuatchfulnefs. — Of this kind are thofe inveterate wak- 
 ings of melancholic perfons ; fome of whom have been 
 known to pafs three or four weeks without a wink of fleep. 
 2 0 . The other caufe is in the fpirits themfelves ; which have 
 fome extraordinary difpohtion to receive motion, or to per- 
 fift in it : as, from their too great heat, or that of the brain 
 in fevers, &c. — Hence it is, that the diforder is moft fre- 
 quent in fummer, in the heat of youth, &e. 
 Long falling has the fame effect ; the want of food fubtiliz- 
 ing the fpirits, and drying the brain. — The fame is likewifc 
 an ordinary fymptom in old age, by reafon the pores of the 
 brain, and the nerves, having been much widened by the 
 continual paifage of fpirits. for a great number of yeais, the 
 fpirits now pafs and repafs through them with too much 
 eafe ; and need not any extraordinary motion to keep the 
 mind awake. 
 
 There arc inffances of peoples waking for forty-five nights 
 fucceffively : and we even read of a melancholy perfon, who 
 never flept once in fourteen months, — Such watchings 
 ufually degenerate into madnefs, 
 W A TCH-W ORK, is that part of the movement of a clock 
 or watch, which is deligned to meafure, and exhibit the time 
 on a dial-plate ; in contradiftinction to that part which con- 
 tributes to the Itriking of the hour,c^V. which is called clock- 
 work. 
 
 The feveral members of the watch-pssi, are, i°. The ba- 
 lance, confifting of the rim, which is its circular part; and 
 the verge, which is its fpindle j to which belong the two 
 pallets or leves, that play in the teeth of the crown-wheel. 
 2 0 . The potence, or pottance, which is the ftrong ftud in 
 pocket-watches, whereon the lower pivot of the verge plays, 
 and in the middle of which, one pivot of" the balance-wheel 
 plays ; the bottom of the pottance is called the foot, the mid- 
 dle part the nofe, and the upper part the Jhoulder, 
 3°. 1 he cock, which is the piece covering the balance. 
 4°. The regulator, or pendulum fpring, which is the fmall 
 Ipring in the new pocket-watches, underneath the balance. 
 See Regulator. 
 
 5 °. The pendulum ; whofc parts are, the verge, pallets, cocks y 
 and the bob. 
 
 6°. The wheels, which are the crown-vjheel, in pocket- 
 pieces, and Jwing-zvheel in pendulums ; ferving to drive the 
 balance or pendulum. 
 
 7". The contrate wheel, which is that next the crown- 
 wheel, is'c. and whofe teeth and hoop lie contrary to thofe 
 of other wheels ; whence the name. 
 
 8". The great, or firji wheel; which is that the fufee, &c. 
 immediately drives; after which are the jecond wheel, third 
 luheel, &Lc. 
 
 Ljftly, between the frame and dial-pbte, are the pinion of 
 report, which is that fixed on the arbor of the great wheel ; 
 and ferves to drive the dial-wheel, as that ferves to carry the 
 
 hand. 
 
 Theory, and Calculation Watch-work. — Preliminaries 
 neceflaiy to the calculating of the watch-part of a move- 
 ment, are laid down under the articles Beats, Move- 
 ment, and Clockwork ; fee alfo Turn. 
 Preliminary rules, common to the calculation of all move- 
 ments, the clock as well as the ivflff^-parts ; fee under the 
 article Movement. — Particular rules for the Jlrikingpart ; 
 fee under the article Clockwork. — Thofe for the watch- 
 pait we have from the Rev. Mr Derham, as follow. 
 i°. The fame motion, it is evident, may be performed ei- 
 ther by one wheel, and one pinion, or many wheels, and 
 many pinions ; provided the number of turns of all the wheels 
 bear the proportion to all the pinions, which that one wheel 
 bears to its pinion : or, which is the fame thing, if the 
 number, produced by multiplying all the wheels together, 
 be to the number produced by multiplying all the pinions to- 
 gether, as that one wheel, to that one pinion. — Thus fup- 
 pofe you had occafion for a wheel of 1 440 teeth, with a pi- 
 nion of 28 leaves^ you may make it into three wheels of 36, 
 8, and 5, and three pinions of 4, 7, and 1. For the three 
 wheels, 36, 8 , and 5, multiplied together, give i4<s.ofor 
 the wheels ■ and the three pinions 4, 7, and 1, multiplied 
 together, give 28 for the pinions. — Add, that it matteis not 
 in wnat order the wheels and pinions are fet, or which pi- 
 nion runs in which wheel ; only for convenience-fake, the 
 biggett numbers are commonly put to drive the reft. 
 2 . Two wheels, and pinions of different numbers, may 
 peiform the fame motion. — Thus, a wheel of 36, drives a 
 pinion of 4, the fame as a wheel of 45, a pinion of 5 ; or a 
 wheel of go, a pinion of 10. — The turns of each being 9. 
 3 0 . If in breaking the train into parcels, any of the qu tients 
 ihould not be liked ; or if any othei two numbers to be mul- 
 tiplied together, are dehred to be varied ; it may be done by 
 th is rule, — Divide the two numbers, by any other two 
 numbeis which will meafure them ; multiply the quotients 
 by the alternate dtvifors; the product of thefe two laft num- 
 bers found, will be equal to the product of the two numbers 
 firft given — Thus, if you would vary 36 times S, divide 
 thefe by any two numbers which will evenly meafure them : 
 fo, 36 by 4, gives 9 j and 8 by 1, gives 8 : now, by the 
 ruk, 9 times 1 is a, and 8 times 4, 32 ; fo that for 36 x 8, 
 you have 32 x 9 ; each equal to 288.' If you divide 36 by 6, 
 and 8 by a, and multiply as before, you have 24 x 1 z = 
 56x8= 288. 
 
 4°. If a wheel and pinion fall out with crofs numbers, too 
 big to be cut in wheels, and yet not to be altered by thefe 
 rules ; in feeking for the pinion of report, find two numbers 
 of the fame, or a near proportion, by this rule : as either of 
 the two given numbers, is to the other, fo is 360, to a fourth. 
 Divide that fourth number, as alfo 36.0, by 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 
 10, 12, 15, (each of which numbers exactly meafures 360) 
 or by any of thofe numbers that bring a quotient neareft an 
 integer. — As fuppofe you had 147 for the wheel, and 170 
 for the pinion ; which are too great to be cut into fmall 
 wheels, and yet cannot be reduced into lefs, as having no 
 other common meafure but unity : fay, as 170: i47::j6o: 
 311. Or, as 147 : 170:: 360 :416, Divide the fourth 
 number, and 360 by one of the foregoing numbers ; as 311, 
 and 360 by 6, it gives 52 and 60 ; divide them by 8, you 
 have 39, and 45 : and, if you divide 360 and 416, by 8, 
 you have 45 and 5 2 exactly. Wherefore, inftead of the two 
 numbers 147, and i;o, you may take 52, and 603 or 39 
 and 45, or 45 and 52, fcfe. 
 
 5". To 
 
WAT 
 
 WAT 
 
 s * To come to praaice in calculating a piece "of vjatch- 
 zvork, firft pitch on the train or beats ot" the balance in an 
 hour; as, whether a fwift one, of about zoooo beats, (the 
 ufual' train of a common 30 hour pocket-watch) or a flower, 
 of about 16000, (thje train of the new pendulum pockct- 
 watches) or any other train.— Next, refolve on the number 
 of turns the fufy is intended to have, and the number of 
 hours the piece is to go : fuppofe, e. gr. 12 turns, and to 
 a 0 30 hours, or 192 hours, {i.e. 8 days) fcff. Proceed now 
 to find the beats of the balance or pendulum in one turn ot 
 the fufy, by the direction given under the word Beats. — 
 Thus in numbers; iz : 16 :: 20000 : 26666. Where- 
 fore, 26666 are the beats in one turn of the fufy, or great 
 wheel, and are equal to the quotients of all the wheels into 
 the balance multiplied together.— Now this number is to be 
 broken into a convenient parcel of quotients ; which is to be 
 done thus : firft, halve the number of beats, viz. 26666, 
 and you have 13333; then P itch on ^ number of the 
 crown-wheel, fuppofe 17 : divide 13333 by 17, and you 
 have 7 8 4 for the quotient (or turns) of the reft of the wheels 
 and pinions ; which being too big for one or two quotients, 
 may be beft broken into three.— Chufe therefore three num- 
 bers ; which, when multiplied all together continually, will 
 come neareft 784 : as fuppofe 10, 9, and 9, multiplied con- 
 tinually, gives 8 1 o, which is fomewhat too much ; there- 
 fore try again other numbers, 11,9, and 8: thefe drawn 
 one into another continually, produce 792 ; which is as near 
 as can be, and is a convenient quotient. — Having thus con- 
 trived the piece from the great wheel to the balance ; but 
 the numbers not falling out exactly, as you firft propoled, 
 correct the work thus : firft, (by the direction given under 
 the word Beats) multiply 792, the product of all thequo- 
 tients pitched upon, by 17) (the notches of the crown-wheel) 
 the product is 13+64, which is half the number of beats in 
 one turn of the fufy; then (by a rule given under the word 
 Beats) find the true number of beats in an hour. — Thus, 
 j6 : 12 : : 13464 : 10098 ; which is half the beats in an 
 hom-, — Then find what quotient is to be laid upon the pini- 
 on of report, (by the rule given under that word ) — Thus, 
 16: 12 :: 12 : 9, the quotient of the pinion of report. — 
 Having thus found your quotients, it is eafy to determine 
 what numbers the pinions fhall have ; for, chufmg what 
 numbers the wheels fhall have, and multiplying the pinions 
 by their quotients, the produce is the number for the wheels. 
 
 — Thus, the number of the pinion of report 
 is 4, and its quotient is 9; therefore the num- 
 ber for the dial-wheal muft be 4 x 9, or 36 : 
 fo the next pinion being 5, its quotieut 11, 
 therefore the great wheel mult be 5 x 1 1 = 5 5 3 
 and fo of the reft. 
 
 Such is the method of calculating the numbers 
 of a 16 hour ivatcb. — Which watch may be made to go 
 longer, by leflening the train, and altering the pinion of 
 report. — Suppoie you would conveniently flacken the train 
 to 1600a; then, by the rule given under the word Beats, 
 fay, As i- 16000, or 8000 : 13464 :: 12 : 20, So that 
 this watch will go 20 hours. — Then for the pinion of re- 
 port, fay, (by the rule given under that word J As 20 : 12 
 : : 12 : 7. So that 7 is the quotient of the pi- 
 nion of report. And as to the numbers, the 
 operation is the fame as before ; only the dial- 
 wheel is but 28, for its quotient is altered to 7. 
 
 — If you would give numbers to a watch of 
 about 10000 beats in an hour, to have i 2 turns 
 of the fufy, to go 170 hours, and 17 notches 
 
 in the crown-wheel : the work is the fame, in a manner, as 
 in the laft example; and confequently thus : As 12 : 170 
 : : 10000 : 141666, which fourth number is the beats in 
 one turn of the fufy ; its half, 70S33, being divided by 17, 
 gives 41 67 for the quotients : and becaufe this number is too 
 big for three quotients, therefore chufe four, as 10, 8, 8, 
 6 -| ; whole product into 17 makes 71808, nearly equal to 
 half the true beats in one turn of the fufy. — Then fay, As 
 170 : iz ;: 71808 : 5069, which is halfthe true train of 
 jsQia watch. — And again, 170 : 12 :: 12 : which 
 expreiTcs the pinion of report, and the number of the dial- 
 wheel. — But thefe numbers being to big to be cut in 
 fmall wheels, they muft be varied by the fourth rule, above, 
 thus : 
 
 As 144 : 170 : : 360 ; 425 ; 
 Or 170 : 144 :: 360 : 305. 
 Then dividing 360, and either of thefe two 
 fourtli proportionals, (as directed by the rule ;) 
 6) 48 ( 8 fuppofe by 1 ;, you will have |f , or \\ ; then 
 5) 40 ( 8 tnt: numbers of the whole movement will 
 S) 33 ( ( -'F ^ ant * as m tne margin. 
 
 ~ Such is the calculation of ordinary watches, to 
 
 7 Ihew the hour of the day : in fuch as (hew mi- 
 nutes, and fecpnds, the procefs is thus. 
 1 °. Having refolved on the beats in an hour ; by dividing 
 the defigned train by 60, find the beats in a minute ; and 
 
 c 
 
 •8) 6 4 ( k 
 8) 60 ( 7 i 
 S) 40 ( 5 
 
 accordingly, find proper numbers for the crown-wheel, and 
 quotients, fo as that the minute-whee! mall go round once 
 in an hour, and the fecond wheel once in a minute. 
 Suppofe, e. gr. you (hall chufe a pendulum of fix inches to 
 go eight days, with 16 turns of the fufy ; a pendulum ot 
 6 inches vibrates 9368 in an hour ; and conlequently, di- 
 viding it by 60, gives 156, the beats in a minute. Half 
 thefe fums are 4684, and 78. Now, the firft work is to 
 break this 78 into a good proportion, wliich will tall into 
 one quotient, and the crown-wheel. Let the crown-wheel 
 have 1 5 notches, then 78, divided by 1 5, gives 
 5 ; fo a crown-wheel of 15, and a wheel and 
 pinion, whole quotient is S,^il! g° round in a 
 minute to carry a hand to fnew feconds. — For 
 a hand to go round in an hour to fbew minutes 
 becaufe there are 60 minutes in an hour, it is 
 but breaking 60 into good quotients, (fuppofe 
 10 and 6, or 8 and - t \ ts'c,) and it is done. — 
 Thus, 4684 is broken, as near as can be, into 
 proper numbers — But lince it does not fall out exactly into 
 the above-mentioned numbeis, you muft correct, (as be lore 
 directed) and rind the true number of beats in an hour, by 
 multiplying 15 by 5, which makes 75 ; and 75 by 6o, 
 makes 4500, which is half the true train. — Then find the 
 beats in one turn of the fufy ; thus, 16 : ioz : : 4500 : 
 54000 ; which laft is half the beats in one turn of the fufy. 
 — This 54000 being divided by 4500, (the true 
 numbeis already pitched on) the quotient will 
 be 1 2 3 which not being too big for a fmgle 
 quotient, needs not be divided into more; and 
 the work will Itand as in the margin. — As to 
 the hour-hand, the great wheel, which performs 
 only one revolution in 12 turns ot" the minute- 
 wheel, will fhevv the hour ; or it may be done by the mi- 
 nute-wheel, 
 
 WATER, Aqua, in phyfics, a fimple, fluid, and liquid body ; 
 reputed the third ot the four vulgar. elements. 
 Sir Ifaac Newton defines water to be a fluid fait, volatile, 
 and void of tafte : but this definition Boerhaavc fets afide ; 
 inafmuch us water is a menftruum, or diffolvent of falts and 
 faline bodies, which does not agree with the notion of its 
 being a fait itfelf ; for we do not know of any fait that 
 difiblves another. 
 
 Whether water be originally fluid ? • — Though water be de- 
 fined 2. fluid, it is a point controverted among philoibphers, 
 whether fluidity be its natural fiate, or the effect of violence : 
 we fometimes find it appear in a fluid, and fometimes in a 
 folid form ; and as the tormer in our warmer climate is the 
 more ufual, we conclude it the proper one, and afcribe the 
 other to the extraneous action ot cold. — Bocihaave, how- 
 ever, aflerts the contrary, and maintains water to be natu- 
 rally of the cryftalline kind ; fmce, wherever a certain de- 
 gree ot fire is wanting to keep it in fufion, it readily grov\s 
 into a hard glebe, under the denomination ot ice, 
 Mr Boyle is much of the fame opinion. — • Ice, he ob- 
 ferves, is cbmmonly reputed to he water brought into a pre- 
 ternatural ftate by cold: hut, with regard to the nature of 
 things, and letting afide our arbitrary ideas^ it might as juft- 
 ly be faid, Thatwater is ice preternaturally thawed by heat. 
 — If it be urged that ice, left to itfelf, will, upon the re- 
 moval of the freezing agents, return to water ; it may be 
 anfwered, that, not to mention the fnow and ice which lie 
 all fummer long on the Alps, and other high mountains, even 
 in the torrid zone, we have been allured, that, in fome parts 
 of Siberia, the furface of the ground continues more months 
 of the year frozen by the natural temperature of the climate, 
 than thawed by the heat of the fun ; and a little below the 
 furface of the ground, the water which chances to be lodged 
 in the cavities there, continues in a ftate of" ice all the year 
 round : fo that when, in the heat of fummer, the fields arc- 
 covered with corn, if you dig a foot of two deep,, you fhall 
 find ice, and a frozen foil. 
 
 No pure water in all nature. — Water, if it could be had a- 
 lone, and pure, Boerhaave argues, would have all the re- 
 quifites of an element, and be as limple as fire ; but there is 
 no expedient hitherto dilcovered for procuring it fo pure,. — - 
 Rain-water, wliich feems the pureft of all thole we know 
 of, is replete with infinite exhalations of all kinds, which it 
 imbibes from the air : fo that if filtered and diltilled a thou- 
 fand times, there ftill remain fieces — Further, l\uirain-wa- 
 ter gathered from the roofs of houfes, is a lixivium of the 
 fait of tyles, flate, or the like ; impregnated with the dungs 
 and fieces of the animals, birds, ciV. depofited thereon j and 
 the exhalations of numerous other things. — Add, that all 
 the rain-water gathered in cities, mult at leaft be faturated 
 with the fmoke of a thoufand chimneys, and the variods ei- 
 fluvia of numbers of perfonv, &c. — Befide this, there is fire 
 contained in all water ; as appears from its fluidity, which is 
 owing to fire alone. See Fire. 
 
 As what is in the air neeeUariiv mixes itfelf with tuater, it 
 
 yh * ' '• j^u U v' .. -Jib ' * - henee 
 
WAT 
 
 hence appears impoflible to have fuch a thing as pure water. 
 — If you percolate it through fand, or fqueeze it through 
 pumice, or pafs it through any other body of the like kind, 
 you will always have fait remaining. — Nor can diftillation 
 render it pure ; fince it leaves air therein, which neceffariiy 
 abounds in corpufcles of all forts. 
 
 The pureft of all waters we can any way arrive at, is that 
 diftilled from fnow, gathered in a clear, ftill, pinching night, 
 in fome very high place ; taking none but juft the outer or 
 fuperricial part thereof. — By a number of repeated diftilla- 
 tions, the greateft part of the earth, and other faeces, may 
 be feparated from this : and this is what we mult be content- 
 ed to call pure water. 
 
 Mr Boyle, indeed, relates, that a friend of his, by diddl- 
 ing a quantity of water an hundred times, found, at length, 
 that he had got fix tenths of the firft quantity in earth : 
 Whence he concludes, that the whole water, by further 
 profecuting the operation, might be converted into earth. See 
 Earth. 
 
 But it fhould be confidered, that water cannot be removed 
 or poured into a velTel, without mixing fome dud there- 
 with ; neither can the luting of the vehel be fo clofe, that it 
 can be diflilled, without lofing fomething every time — 
 Boerhaave, therefore, rather concludes, that the water thus 
 often diftilled, might acquire ftill new earth from the duft 
 floating in the air, and the inftruments employed in the ope- 
 ration ; and lofe, in proportion, by getting out at the junc- 
 tures of the veffels. 
 
 That author allures us, that after diftilling fome very pure 
 water, by a genrle fire, the fpace of four months, it appear- 
 ed perfectly pure ; and yet, leaving it to reft in veflels ex- 
 actly clofed, it would conceive a flender kind of weedy mat- 
 ter, fomewhat like the ftamina of plants, or the little tufts 
 of a mucilage : yet Schottus faw water, in Kircher's mu- 
 faeum, that had been kept in a veffel, hermetically fealed, 
 tipwards of fifty years; yet ftill remained clear and pure, 
 and flood to the fame heighth in the veffel as at firft, with- 
 out the lead fign of fediment. 
 
 Boerhaave adds, that he is convinced no body ever faw a 
 drop of pure water ; that the utmoft of its purity known, 
 only amounts to its being free from this or that fort of mat- 
 ter: and that it can never, for inftance, be quite deprived of 
 fait; fince air will always accompany it, and air always con- 
 tains falts. 
 
 Water in all places and ladies. — Water Teems to be diffufed 
 every where, and to be prefent in all fpace where there is 
 matter.. — Not a body in all nature but will yield water : 
 
 it is even affined, that fire itfelf is not without water. A 
 
 iinglc grain of the mod fiery fair; which in a moment's 
 time will penetrate through a man's hand, readily imbibes 
 half its weight of water, and melts, even in the dried air 
 imaginable. — Thus, fait of tartar, placed near the hotted 
 tire, will attract or imbibe water; and, by that means, in- 
 crcafe confiderably its weight, in a fmall time : fo, in the 
 dried fummer's day, a pewter veffel with ice in it, brought 
 up from fome cold fubterraneous place, into the hotted 
 room, will immediately be covered over with little drops of 
 water, gathered from the contiguous air, and condenfed by 
 the eoldnefs of the ice. 
 
 It is furprizing to confider the plenteous dock of water 
 
 which even dry bodies afford Oil of vitriol, being ex- 
 
 pofed a long time to a violent fire, to feparate all the water, 
 as much as poflible, from the fame; will, afterwards, by 
 only danding a few minutes in the air, contract frefh water I 
 
 fo fad, as foon to afford it as plenteoufly as at .fird. 
 
 Hartfhorn, kept forty years, and turned as hard and dry as 
 any metal ; fo that if ftruck againft a flint, it will yield 
 fparks of fire; yet, being put into a glafs veffel, and diftill- 
 ed, will afford one eighth part of its quantity of water. 
 
 Bones dead and dried twenty-five years, and thus become 
 almoft as hard as iron ; yet, by diftillation, have afforded 
 half their weight of water. — And the hardeft ftones, ground 
 and diddled, do always difcover a portion thereof. 
 Kels, by diftillation, yielded Mr Boyle fome oil, fpirit, and 
 volatile fait, befides the caput mortuum ; yet all thefe were 
 fo difproportionate to the water, that they feemed to have 
 been nothing but that coagulated : the fame ftrangely abounds 
 in vipers, though they are efteemed very hot in operation ; 
 and will, in a convenient air, furvive, for fome days, the lofs 
 of their heads and hearts. — Human blood itfelf, as fpirituous 
 and elaborate a liquor as it is reputed, fo abounds in water, 
 that out of feven ounces and an half, the fame author, by 
 diftillation, drew near fix ounces of phlegm ; before ever any 
 of the other principles began to rife. 
 
 Whetktr water be the ammm matter «/ all bodies ? — From 
 confidcrations fomewhat of this kind, Thales, and fome other 
 philofophcrs, have been led to hold , that all things were made 
 of water : which opinion, probably, bad its rife from the 
 writings of Mofes, where he fpeaks of the fpirit of God mov- 
 ing upon the face of the waters. — But Mr Boyle does not 
 conceive the water here mentioned by Mofes as' the univer- 
 fal matter, to be our elementary water: we need only fup- 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 WAT 
 
 pofe it an agitated congeries of a great variety of femina' 
 principles, and of other corpufcles fit to be fubdued and fa- 
 lfiioned by them ; and it may yet be a body fluid like water, 
 in cafe the corpufcles it was made up of were, by their crea- 
 tor, made fmall enough, and put into fuch an aBual motion, 
 as might make tbem roll, and glide eafily over one another. 
 —However, Bail, Valentine, Paracelfus, Van Helmont, 
 oendivogius, and others, have maintained the fame principle, 
 TOZ. that water is the elemental matter, or ftamen of all 
 things, and fuffices alone for the production of all the vifible 
 creation.— Thus Sir lfaac Newton, " All birds, beafts, and 
 hfhes, infefts, trees, and vegetables, with their feveral 
 parts, do glow out of water, and watery tinctures, and 
 ' falts; and, by putrcfaflion, they all return again to wa- 
 tery fubftances." 
 Helmont endeavours to prove this dodrine from an experi- 
 ment; wherein, burning a quantity of earth, till all the oil 
 was confirmed, and then mixing it up with water, to draw 
 out all the fait; and putting this earth, thus prepared, into 
 an earthen pot, which nothing but rain-water could enter ; 
 a wil low, planted therein, grew up to a confiderable heighth 
 and bulk, without any fenfible diminution of the earth : 
 whence he concluded, that the water was the only nutri- 
 ment., of the vegetable kind, as vegetables are of the animal. 
 —The fame thing is inferred by Mr Boyle, from a parallel 
 experiment : and the whole is countenanced by Sir Ifaac 
 Newton, who obferves, that water, danding a few days in 
 the open air, yields a tincture ; which, like that of malt, by 
 danding longer, yields a fediment, and a fpirit ; but before 
 putrefaction, is fit nourifhment for animals and vegetables. 
 But Dr Woodward endeavours to fliew the whole a lniltakc: 
 water containing extraneous corpufcles, fome of thefe, he 
 fhews, are the proper matter of nutrition ; the water bein- 
 dill found to afford fo much the lefs nourifhment, the more 
 « is purified by diftillation. — Thus, a plant in diftilled wa- 
 ter will not grow fo fad as in water not diftilled ; and if the 
 water be diftilled three or four times over, the plant will 
 fcarce grow at all, or receive any nourifhment from it. So 
 that water, as fuch, does not fecm the proper nutriment of 
 vegetables; but only the vehicle thereof, which contains the 
 nutritious particles, and carries them along with it, through 
 all the parts of the plant. 0 
 Hence, ^water-plant, e. gr. the common water crefs, brought 
 tip m a veffel of water, will be found to contain the more 
 fait and oil, the muddier the water is : in eft'eft, water nou- 
 rishes tt,e lefs, the more it is purged of its faponaceous falts ; 
 in its pure date, it may fuffice to extend or fwell the parts, 
 but it thus affords no new vegetable matter. 
 Helmont, however, carries his fyftem ftill further, and ima- 
 gines, that all bodies may be re-converted into water. — His 
 alkaheft, he affirms, adequately refolvcs plants, animals, and 
 minerals, into one liquor, or more, according to their feve- 
 ral internal differences of parts ; and the alkaheft, being ab- 
 draBed from thefe liquors, in the fame weight, and with 
 the fame virtues as when it diffolved them, the liquors may, 
 by frequent coliobations from chalk, or fome other proper 
 matter, be totally deprived of their fcminal endowments, and 
 return at lad to their firft matter, which is infipid water. 
 "1 bus much is confeffed, that mixed bodies do all refolve by 
 fire, into phlegm or water, oil, fpirit, fait, and earth ; each 
 of which principles is found, at lead, to contain water. 
 Spirits, for indance, cannot be better reprefented, than by 
 fpirit of wine ; which, of all others, feems freed from wa- 
 ter : yet, Helmont affirms, it may be fo united with wa- 
 ter, as to become water itfelf. — He adds, that it is materi- 
 ally water; only under a fulphurous difguife. — According 
 to him, in making Paracelfus's balfamum-famech, which is 
 nothing but fal tartari dulcified, by diftilling fpirit of wine 
 from it, till the fait be fufiiciently faturatcd with its fulphur, 
 and till it differs the liquor to be drawn off, as ffrong as it 
 was poured on ; when the fait of tartar, from which it is 
 diftilled, hath retained, or deprived it of the fulphurous parts 
 of the fpirit of wine, the red, which is incomparably the 
 greateft part of the liquor, will turn to phlegm. In effect, 
 corrofive fpirits, according to Mr Boyle's observation , abound 
 in water; which may be obferved, by entangling and fo 
 fixing their faline parts, as to make them corrode fome pro- 
 per body ; or elfe by mortifying them with fome contrary 
 fait: which will turn them into phlegm. 
 And as to falts ; fait of tartar well calcined, being laid to 
 liquify in the air, wil] depofite an earth ; and if it be then 
 committed to diftillation, will yield a confiderable quantity of 
 infipid water; infomucb, that if it be urged with a vehement 
 fire, the fait will almod all vanifh, and nothing faline re- 
 main, either in the water, or the earth. — Whence Hel- 
 mont concludes, that all falts might be converted into wa- 
 ter. Add, that fea-falt, recovered from its own acid fpirit, 
 and oil of tartar, refolvcs into water, as much as oil of tar- 
 tar. 
 
 Ladly, oils run, in great mcafure, into water ; and it is pro- 
 bable, might be converted wholly into the fame. See Or l, 
 Sulphur, CSV. 
 
 ■3 T M 
 
WAT 
 
 WAT 
 
 No jlandard for the weight and purity of water. — Water fcarce 
 tvcr continues two moments exactly of the fame weight, by 
 reafon of the air and fire contained therein. Thus, a piece 
 of pure limped ice, laid in a nice balance, never continues in 
 equilibrio. — In effect, the expanfion of water in boiling, 
 ftiews what effect the different degree of fire has, on the gra- 
 vity of water. — This makes it difficult to fix the fpecific 
 gravity of water, in order to fettle its degree of purity ; but 
 this we may fay in the general, that the pureft water we 
 can procure, is that which is 880 times as heavy as air. — ■ 
 However, neither have we any tolerable ftandard In air ; for 
 water being fo much heavier than air, the more water is con- 
 tained in the air, the heavier of courfe muft, the air be: as, 
 in effe£t, the principal part of the weight of the atmofpherc 
 feems to arife from the water in it. 
 
 Properties and effetls of water. — 1°. Water is found themoft 
 penetrative of all bodies, after fire, and the moil difficult to 
 confine ; fo that a vefTcl through which water cannot pafs, 
 may retain any thing. Nor is it any objection, that fyrups 
 and oils will fomctimes pafs through bodies which will hold 
 water ; this not being owing to the greater fubtiity and pene- 
 tration cif their particles, but to the refin, wherewith the 
 wood of fuch veflels abounds, to which oils and fyrups are as 
 menftruums; fo that difTolving the refin, they make their 
 way through the fpaces left thereby : whereas water, not act- 
 ing on reiins, is retained in them. 
 
 And yet, water gradually makes its way, even through all 
 •woods, and is only retainable in glafs and metals ; nay, it 
 was found by experiment at Florence, that when fhut up in 
 a fpherical veffel of gold, and then preffed with a great 
 force, it made its way through the pores even of the gold : 
 lb that the moil folic! body in nature, is permeable to water 
 under certain c ire um fiances. 
 
 Water is even found more fluid than air; a body being re- 
 puted more fluid than another, when its parts will find way 
 through fmaller pores ; now air, it is known, will not pafs 
 through leather, as is evident in the cafe of an exhaufted re- 
 ceiver covered therewith ; whereas water pafTes with eafe. — 
 Again, air may be retained in a bladder, but water oozes 
 through. In effect, it is found, that water will pafs through 
 pores ten times fmaller than air will. 
 
 It muft not be omitted, however, that M. Homberg accounts 
 for this paflage of water through the narrow pores of ani- 
 mal fubftances which will not admit the air, on another 
 principle, viz. its moiflening and diffolving the glutinous 
 matter of the fine fibres of the membranes, and rendering 
 them more pliable and diftractile ; which are things that the 
 air, for want of a wetting property, cannot do. — As a proof 
 of this doctrine, he filled a bladder, and comprefTed it with a 
 ilone, and found no air to come out ; but placing the bladder 
 tlius comprefied in water, the air eafily efcaped. Hiji. de 
 V Acad. An. 1700. p. 4$. 
 
 %°. Water, then, may even hence, viz. from its penetra- 
 tive power, be argued to enter the compofition of all bodies, 
 both vegetable, animal, and foffil ; with this peculiar circum- 
 ftance, that it is eafily, and with a gentle heat, feparable 
 again from bodies it had united with: which cannot be faid of 
 any other body, — Fire, indeed, will penetrate more than 
 water ; but it is difficult to procure it again from the bodies, 
 it is once fixed in, as is evident in red lead, is'c. 
 This property of water, joined with its fmoothnefs and lu- 
 bricity, fits it to ferve as a vehicle for the commodious and 
 eafy conveyance of the nutritious matter of all bodies : being 
 fo fluid, and paffing and repaffing fo readily, it never flops 
 up the pores, and leaves room for the following vjater, to 
 bring on a new fupply of nutritious matter. 
 3 0 . And yet the fame water, as little cohefive as it is, and 
 as eafily feparatcd from mofl bodies, will cohere firmly with 
 ibme others, and bind them together into the mofl folid 
 maffes : though it appears wonderful, that water, which will 
 be fhewn an almoft univerfal diflblvent, fhould withal be a 
 great coagulator. 
 
 Water, we fee, mixed up with earth or afhes, gives them 
 the utmoft firmnefs and fixity. — The afhes, e. gr. of an 
 animal, incorporated with pure water into a parte, and bak- 
 ed with a vehement fire, grow into a coppel ; which is a body 
 remarkable for this, that it will bear the utmoft effort of a 
 refiner's furnace. — It is, in effect, upon the glutinous na- 
 ture of water alone that our houfes ftand : for take but this 
 out of wood, and it becomes allies j or out of tiles, and 
 they become duft. 
 
 Thus, a little clay dried in the fun, becomes a powder, 
 which, mixed with water, flicks together again, and maybe 
 fafhioned at pleafure ; and this dried again by a gentle fire, or 
 in the fun, and then baked in a potter's oven by an intenie 
 are, becomes little other than a flone.— So the Chinefe 
 earth, whereof our porcelain veflels are made, which hold all 
 liquors, and even melted lead itfelf, is diluted and wrought 
 up with water. 0 
 To fay no more, all the liability and firmnefs feen in the 
 umvcrfc, is owing to water alone. — Thus, ftorle would be 
 
 aji incoherent fand, did not water bind it together ; and 
 thus, again, of a fat gravelly earth, wrought up with wa- 
 ter, and baked or burnt, we make bricks, tiles, and earthen 
 velfels, of fuch exceeding hardnefs and clofenefs, that water 
 itfelf cannot pafs through them. And thefe bodies, though to 
 appearance perfectly dry, and deftitute of water, yet, being 
 pulverized and put in a retort, and diftilled, yield an incre- 
 dible quantity of water. 
 
 The fame holds of metals ; for the parings or filings of lead, 
 tin, antimony, &c. by diflillation, yield water plentifully ; 
 and the hardeft ftones, fea-falt, nitre, vitriol, fuiphur, &c. 
 are fourid to confiif chiefly of water, into which they refolve 
 by force of fire. 
 
 The lapis caicarius, or lime-ftone, being expofed to the fire, 
 affords a prodigious quantity of pure water; and the more of 
 this water is extracted, the more friable docs it become, till 
 at length it commences a dry calx or lime, wherein, in lieu 
 of the water fo expelled, the fire,' in the courfe of calcina- 
 tion, enters; and this is expelled again, in its turn, by pour- 
 ing on cold water. Yet, the fame water and calx, temper- 
 ed together, produce a mafs, fcarce inferior, in point of fo- 
 lidity, to the primitive lime-ftone. 
 
 4 0 . That water is not elaftic, is evident hertce, that it is 
 incomprcffible, or incapable, by any force, of being reduced 
 into lefs compafs: this eafily follows from that famous expe- 
 riment abovementioned, made by order of the great duke of 
 Tufcany — The water, being incapable of condenfation, 
 rather than yield, tranfuded through the pores of the metal, 
 fo that the ball was found wet all over the outfide ; till at 
 length, making a cleft in the gold, it fpun out with great 
 vehemence. — From this lafl circumftance, indeed, fome 
 have weakly concluded it was elaftic. For the impetus 
 wherewith the tvater darted forth, was more probably ow- 
 ing to the elafticity of the gold, which communicated ihat 
 impreflion to the water. 
 
 And hence we fee the reafon why blocks of marble fome- 
 times burft in cold weather ; and why a vefiel filled with 
 water, and afterwards, by any means, reduced to a lefs com- 
 
 pafs, the water burils the veffel, though ever fo ftrcng, 
 
 This is obi^rvable in a piece of brafs cannon,- which being 
 filled with water, and the mouth exactly Hopped, fo as to 
 prevent ail egrefs of water ; if a cold night happens, fuffici- 
 ent 10 contract and conflipate bodies ; the metallic matter 
 undergoing the common fiue, and the water refilling; to give; 
 way, the cannon is burft afunder with incredible violence. 
 Some bring an argument for the elafticity of water hence, 
 that hot water takes up more room than cold; but no legi- 
 timate conclufion can be formed from hence : for in the hot 
 water, there is a good quantity of fire contained, which in- 
 terpofing between the particles of the water, makes it extend 
 to a greater fpace, without any expanfion of parts from its 
 own elafticity. This is evident hence, that if water be 
 once heated, there is no reducing it to its former dimenfions, 
 but by letting it cool again: which plainly ftiews, that the 
 expanfion depends not on the elafticity of parts, but on the 
 prefence of fire. — Water, then, though incapable of com- 
 prcflion or condenfation, may yet be rarefied by heat, and 
 contracted by cold. 
 
 It may be added, that a further degree of cold, that is, fuch 
 a one as congeals water, or turns it into ice, docs expand it. 
 — There are many ways to manifeft this expanfion of water, 
 by freezing — Mr Boyle having poured a proper quantity of 
 water into a ftrong cylindrical earthen vefiel, expofed it, un- 
 covered, both to the open air in frofty nights, and the ope- 
 ration of fnow and fait; and found, that the ice produced 
 in both cafes, reached higher than the water did before it 
 was froze. Add, that it has been found, that the rain foak- 
 ing into marble, and violent frofts coming on, have burft 
 the ftones : and even implements made of bell-metal, care- 
 lefly expofed to the wet, have been broken and fpoiled by 
 the water ; which entering at little cavities of the metal, was 
 there afterwards froze, and expanded into ice. 
 From the whole we may be enabled to fettle fomething, 
 as to the nature of the component particles of water; and, 
 i". That they are, as to our fenfes, infinitely fmall ; whence 
 their penetrative power : z°. Exceedingly fmooth and flippery, 
 void of any fenfible afperitiesj witnefs their fluidity, and 
 their being fo eafily feparable from other bodies which they 
 adhere to; 3 °. Extremely folid : 4°, Perfectly tranfparent, 
 and as fuch invifible ; which we gather hence, that pure 
 water, inclofed in a veffel hermetically fealed, projects no 
 lhadow ; fo that the eye fhall not be able to difcover whe- 
 ther the veffel have water in it or not ; and in that the crv- 
 ftals of falts, when the water is feparatcd from them, lofe 
 their tranfparency. — 5 0 . Hard, rigid, and inflexible ; as 
 appears from their not being comprcffible. — If it be afked, 
 how a body fo light, fluid, and volatile, raid which fo eafy a 
 fire fuffices to rarefy, fhould be fo ftubborn and incompr-i- 
 fible ? We fee no other caufe to affign, but the homoge- 
 neity of its parts, — If water be confidered as confifting of' 
 fphencal, or cubical particles, hollow withinfide, and of :i 
 
 firm 
 
WAT 
 
 WAT 
 
 firm texture ; here will be enough to account for the whole : 
 Its firmnefs and fimilarity will make it refift fufKciently ; 
 and its vacuity renders it light enough, &c. — And the little 
 contact between fpbcrules, will account for the weaknefs of 
 its cohefion, is'c. 
 
 Salt melted in water, does not fill the vefTel in proportion to 
 ks bulk : whence it follows, that there are little (paces be- 
 tween the particles of water, to admit thofe of the fait. — ■ 
 And hence, again, we gather, that the watry particles are 
 extremely folid and inflexible ; imce, though they have in- 
 termediate fpaces, no force or weight can comprefs, or 
 crowd them nearer. 
 
 5°. Water is the moft infipid of all bodies ; the tafte we 
 fometimes obferve therein, arifing not from the mezewater j 
 but from fait, vitriol, or other bodies mixed therewith : and 
 accordingly, all the fapid waters, recommended for medici- 
 nal ufes, are found to dcpofite a quantity ot fomc of thoje 
 toffils. 
 
 6°. Water is perfectly inodorous, or void of the leaft fmell. 
 — Water y then, neither affects light, tafte, nor fmell, pro- 
 vided it be pure ; and confequcntly it might remain forever 
 imperceptible to us, but for the fenfc of feeling. 
 Whether water be convertible into a'tr ? — It has been difputed, 
 whether or no water be convertible into air ; there being nu- 
 merous inftances of, at leaft, an apparent tranfmutation. — 
 In the vapours daily raifed, we find water rarefied to fuch a 
 degree, as to take place in the atmofphere, and help to com- 
 pofe a confiderable part of what we call air ; and even to 
 contribute to many of the effects afcribed to the air. — But 
 iiich a vapour-air has not the characters of true permanent 
 air, being eafily reducible into water again. So, in digef- 
 tions and diftillations, though water may be rarefied into 
 vapours, yet it is not really changed into air, but only di- 
 vided by heat, and diftufed into very minute parts; which} 
 meeting together, prefently return to fuch water as they 
 Constituted before. 
 
 Yet, water rarefied into vapour in an seolipile, will, for a 
 while t have an elaftic power, the great and laft characterif- 
 tic of true air, and will ftrcam out perfectly like a blalfc of 
 air: The elaftic power of this ftream, is manifeftly owing 
 to nothing elfe but the heat, that expands and agitates the 
 aqueous particles thereof ; and when the heat is gone, the 
 elafticity, and other aerial properties difappear likewife. 
 Rapid winds thus made, feem to be no more than mete wa- 
 ter, broke into little parts, and put into motion ; fmce, by 
 holding a folid, fmooth, and cold body againil it, the vapours 
 condenfmg thereon, will prefently cover the body with 
 •water. — Indeed, though no heat intervenes, motion alone, 
 it vehement, may perhaps fuffice to break water into minute 
 parts, and make them afcend upwards in form of air. — 
 Mr Boyle obferves, that between Lyons and Geneva, where 
 the Rhone is fuddenly ftraitened by two rocks very near each 
 other, that rapid ftream, daftiing with great impetuoiity a- 
 gainft them, breaks part of its water into minute corpufcles, 
 and gives it fuch a motion, that a mift may be obferved at a 
 confiderable diftance, arifmg from the place, and afcending 
 high into the air. 
 Water, in geography and hydrography, is a common, or 
 general name applied to all liquid tranfparent bodies, gliding 
 or flowing on the earth. 
 
 In this fenfe, water and earth are faid to conftitute our ter- 
 raqueous globe. See Earth. 
 
 Some authors have rafhly and injurioufiy taxed the diftribu- 
 tion of water and earth in our globe as unartful, and not well 
 proportioned : fuppofing that the water takes up too much 
 room. 
 
 An inundation, or overflowing of the waters, makes a de- 
 luge. 
 
 Catarafl of Water. See the article Cataract. 
 
 Water is diftinguifhed, with regard to the places where it is 
 found, into marina, fea-water ; pluvialis, rain-water ; flu- 
 viatilis, river-water ; fontana, fpring-water ; putealis, well- 
 water; cifternina, that of cijlerns ; and paluftris, that of lakes, 
 morajfes, &c. — which are each more impure, and hetero- 
 geneous than other. 
 
 ^a-Water, is an afTemblage of bodies, wherein water can 
 fcarce be faid to have the principal part : it is an univerfal 
 colluvies of all the bodies in nature, fuftained and kept 
 fwimming in water, as a vehicle. 
 
 Dr Lifter confiders it as the fund or fource, out of which all 
 bodies arife. He gives, in fome meafure, into the opinion 
 of Tbales, and Van Helmont ; and imagines the fea-water 
 to have been the only element created at the beginning, be- 
 fore any animal, or vegetable ; or even before the fun him- 
 felf. — Frejb-water, he fuppofes to have rofe accidentally af- 
 ter the creation of thefe, and to owe its origin to the vapours 
 of plants, the breath of animals, and the exhalations railed 
 from the fun. De Font. Med. Ang. 
 
 Dr Halley is of another opinion. — He takes it for granted, 
 that th« faltnefs of the fea, arifes from the faline matter dif- 
 
 fered and imbibed by the rivers in their progrefs, arid dis- 
 charged with their waters, into the ocean ; and confequent- 
 ly, that the degree of faltnefs is continually and gradually 
 increafing. — On this hypothefis, he even propofesa method 
 for determining the age of the world : for two experiments of 
 the degree of faltnefs, made at a large interval of time, will, 
 by the rule of proportion, give the time wherein it has been 
 acquiring its prefent degree. Phihf. Tranfacl. N°. 344. 
 The water of the lea is liable to feveral periodical changes. 
 See Tides. 
 %/j-Water, -j 
 
 Low-Water. CSee the articles Flux, Ebb, taV. 
 £W-Water. J 
 
 &'»-Water, is the water of the fea, purified by a fort of 
 diftillation : or rather, it is the watery vehicle, feparated 
 from the faline, and other matters refiding therein, by eva- 
 poration. 
 
 The water, which defcends in rain and fnow, is of all o- 
 thers, the pureft, in a cold feafon, and a ftill fky; and this 
 we muft be contented to take for elementary water. 
 The rain-water, in fummer, or when the atmofphere is in 
 commotion, it is certain, muft contain infinite kinds of hete- 
 rogeneous matter : Thus, gathering the water that falls after 
 a thunder-clap, in a fultry i'ummer's day, and letting it fettle, 
 a real fait is found flicking at the bottom. But in winter, 
 efpecially when it freezes, the exhalations are but few, fo 
 that the rain falls without much adulteration: and hence, 
 what is thus gathered in the morning-time, is found of good 
 ufc tor taking away fpots in the face ; and that gathered 
 from fnow, againft inflammation of the eyes. 
 Yet this rain-water, with all its purity, may be filtered and 
 diftilled a thoufand times, and it will ftill leave fome feces 
 behind it. 
 
 Spring-W ater is the next, in point of purity. — This, ac- 
 cording to Dr Halley, is collected from the air itfelf ; which 
 being iaturated with water, sind coming to be condenfed by the 
 evening's cold, is driven againft the cold tops of the moun- 
 tains; where, being further condenfed and collected, it gleets 
 down, or diftils, much as in an alembic. 
 This water, which before floated in the atmofphere, in form 
 of a vapour, being thus brought together, at firft forms lit- 
 tle ftreams ; feveral of which meeting together, form rivu- 
 lets ; and thefe, at length, rivers. 
 JJiW-Water, on fome occafions, is to be efteemed purer 
 than that of fprings. — Indeed if the ftream, in defcending 
 from its fpring, chance to flow over ftrata, or beds, where- 
 in there is fait, fulphur, vitriol, iron, or the like, it difiolves 
 and imbibes part thereof. — Otherwife, fpring-wtf/er becomes 
 purer and better as it runs ; for while the river drives on its 
 waters in an uninterrupted ftream, all its falts, with the ve- 
 getable and animal matters drained into it, either from ex- 
 halations, or from the ground it wafhes, gradually either fink 
 to the bottom, or are driven to the ftiore : and hence, the 
 antient poets and painters reprefent the deities of fprings and 
 rivers, as combing and carding their waters. 
 With regard to the qualities of water, it is further diftin- 
 guiihed into falina, falt-water ; dulcis, frejh-water, &c. 
 Salt-W at er, or Sea-WATER. SeeSALT, and SEA-Water, 
 Frejh-W at er. — It is generally granted, that thofe waters, 
 caeteris paribus, are the beft, as well for wholefomnefs, as 
 various other ceconomical ufes, c?r. that are freeft from falt- 
 nefs ; which is an adventitious, and, in moft cafes, a hurtful 
 quality of waters. — Mr Boyle, therefore, contrived a very 
 extraordinary method of examining the freflinefs and faltnefs 
 of waters, by a precipitant, which was a folution of filver, 
 which could difcover one part of fait in 1000, nay, 2 or 
 3000 parts of water. 
 
 The thawed ice of {cz-water is often ufed in Amfterdam for 
 brewing ; and Bartboline, in his book De Nivis U/u, con- 
 firms the relation : '* It is certain, fays he, that if the ice of 
 " the kn-waterbe thawed, it lofes its faltnefs; as has been 
 " lately tried by a profeflor in our univerfity." 
 Ufes of Water. —The ufes of water are infinite; in food, 
 in medicine, in agriculture, in navigation, in divers of the 
 arts, &c. 
 
 As a food, it is one of the moft univerfal drinks in the 
 world ; and, if we may credit many of our lateft and moft 
 judicious phyficians, one of the beft too. — For this ufe, that 
 which is pureft, lighteft, moft tranfparent, iimple, colour- 
 lefs, void of tafte and fmell, and which warms and cools 
 fafteft, and wherein herbs and pulfe boil and yield their vir- 
 tues fooneft, is beft. 
 
 Hippocrates, in his treatife De Aere, Aquis cs* Locis, fpeaks 
 much in behalf of light water. — Herodotus relates, that, 
 among the antients, fome nations drank a water fo very 
 light, that all woods readily funk therein. — And Mr Boyle 
 mentions fome water brought out of Africa into England, 
 which was fpecifically lighter than ours, by four ounces in 
 a pint, j. e. by one third. 
 
 It is efteemed a good quality in water, to bear foap, and 
 
 make 
 
W A T 
 
 make a lather therewith.— This oar river waters -readily do, 
 but the pump and {pnng-waters are found too hard tor it ; 
 yet may this be remedied in them, by barely letting them 
 ftand for four or five days. z -j J ? ;;.',_'jl 
 
 Sarfw, it is found, internally, a powerful febrifuge, 
 .and excellent againft colds, coughs, the ftone, fcurvy, fcrV. 
 —Externally, its effects are no lefs confiderable. 
 In agriculture, and gardening, wafw is allowed abfolutely 
 neceffary to vegetation ; whence Varro places it in the num- 
 ber of the divinities he invokes in his firft book de re Raft tea ; 
 Etiam, %s he, precor lympha, quoniam fine aqua omntsmjt- 
 ra eft agricultura. 
 
 The changes water is liable to, and the different forms it ap- 
 pears under, are very numerous.— Sometimes as ice, then as 
 : a vapour, then as a cloud, fhower, mow, had, fog, &c 
 -Many naturalifts have even maintained water to be the ve- 
 getable matter, or the only proper food of plants ; but Dr 
 Woodward has overturned that opinion, and fliewn, that 
 ■ the office of water in vegetation, is only to be a vehicle to a 
 terreftrial matter, whereof vegetables arc formed ; and that 
 it does not itfelfmake any addition to them. — All water, 
 he allows, contains more or lefs of this terreftrial matter ; 
 fpring and rain-uwfer near an equal quantity, and nver-uw- 
 ter more than either of them. 
 
 Water is of the utmoft ufe in chymiftry ; being one of the 
 great inftruments by means whereof its operations are all 
 performed. 
 
 It acts in various manners and capacities ; as a menftruum, 
 a ferment, a putrefacient, a vehicle, a medium, fcrV- 
 
 As a menjlruum, it diffolves all kinds of falts. — Air 
 alfo feems to diffolve falts j but it is only in virtue of the 
 water it contains. —Nor has any other body the power of 
 . diiiblving falts, further than as it {hares in this fluid. 
 The panicles of falts, we have obferved, infinuate them- 
 felves into the interfticcs between the particles of water ; but 
 when thofe interftices are once filled, the fame water will not 
 any longer diffolve the fame fait ; but it will then ftill diffolve 
 afalt of another kind, by reafon of the different figure of the 
 particles, which enter and occupy the vacancies left by the 
 former : and thus it will diffolve a third, or fourth fait, tiff. 
 — So, when water has imbibed its fill of common fait, it 
 ■will ftill diffolve nitre; and when faturated with nitre, it 
 ■will ftill diffolve fal ammoniac, and fo on. 
 Water diffolves all faline bodies, it being the conftituent 
 character of this clafs of bodies, that they are uninflammable, 
 and diffoluble in water. — Hence, water may diffolve all 
 bodies, even the heavieft and moft compact, as metals; in- 
 afmuch as thofe are capable of being reduced into a faline 
 form : in which ftate they may be fo intimately diffolved by 
 water, as to be fuftained therein. 
 
 Water diffolves all faponaceous bodies, i.e. all alkalious falts 
 - and oils blended together: though oil itfelf be not diffoluble 
 in water, the admixture of fait herewith, rendering it faline, 
 brings it under the power of water. 
 
 Now, all the humours in the human body are apparently 
 faline, though none of them are fait itfelf ; and the fame 
 may be faid of the juices of all vegetables, excepting their 
 oils ; and accordingly, they all diffolve in water. 
 Water diffolves glafs itfelf. — This being melted with fait of 
 tartar, becomes foluble in water. 
 
 It diffolves all gums, and gummous bodies; it being a cha- 
 ratSteriftic of a gum, that it diffolves in water; in contradi- 
 ftinction from a refin: 
 
 Further, water mixed with alkali falts, diffolves oil and oily 
 bodies.— Thus, though mere water poured on greafy wool, 
 be repelled thereby; yet a ftrong lixivium, or alkali fait be- 
 ing mixed with the water, it readily diffolves and abforbs ail 
 that was greafy and oleaginous : and thus it is that woollen 
 cloths are ufually fcoured. 
 
 But, water does not diffolve refins ; as we conceive a refin 
 to be no other than an infpiffated, or concentrated oil. 
 Oils and fulphurs water leaves untouched ; and what is more 
 extraordinary, it repels them ; and by repelling, it drives the 
 oily particles into eddies.' — -Add, that it feems to repel all 
 : oleaginous, fulphurous, fatty, and adipofe bodies, wherein 
 oil predominates; and hence alfo it is, that the fatty parts in 
 our Bodies cfcape being diffolved by water. — And it is, in 
 all probability, by this means that fat is collected in the adi- 
 pofe cells of all animals. 
 
 Nor docs it diffolve terrene or earthy bodies, but rather 
 unites and confolidates them ; as we fee in tyles,' &c. 
 After diffolving a body, the water unites and hardens toge- 
 ther with it; and, if the body be of the faline kind, forms 
 cryftals, and retains the falts in that form. 
 Salts, while thus joined with water, affume various figures ; 
 the cryftals of fea-falt, e. gr. are pyramidal ; thofe of ni- 
 tre, prifmatical ; thofe of fal gemmae, cubical, But. 
 that wain- is the caufe of thefe falts being in cryftals, is 
 evident hence, that upon feparating the water, the cryf- 
 tals are no more; their form is loft, and-their tranfparency 
 -ceafetf-* 91 x'.iW-a f:' ■■■■ b.„j u 1? v. . ■ .. 
 
 WAT 
 
 2°. Without water, there can no fermentation be raifed. — 
 Thus, if you grind a plant into a duff, or farina, it will 
 never ferment ; even though you add yeaft, or fpirit of wine 
 thereto : but water being poured on it, the fermentation 
 readily arifes. 
 
 3°. All putrefactions, both of animal and vegetable bo- 
 dies, are likewife performed by means of water alone ; 
 and without it, there could be no fuch effect in all na- 
 ture. 
 
 4°. Water is intlifpenfibly required to effervefcence ; which 
 is an inteftine motion arifing between contrary falts ; 
 for no fuch motion can arife from a mixture of contrary 
 falts, unlefs there be water to diffolve and keep them in 
 folution. 
 
 5°. A farther ufe is in the making feparations of oily from 
 faline parts, which is a thing ot the laft fervice; thus, 
 any oleaginous fubftahcei incorporated with fait, being 
 fliook fometimes in a proper quantity of water, the falts 
 diffolving, will be extracted from the oil, and imbibed by 
 the water : and thus is the body dulcified. — So butter, by a 
 continued lotion in fair watery becomes infipid ; and aro- 
 matic oils, agitated a long time in warm water, lay afide 
 their faline fpirituous parts, and become inert, and inodo- 
 rous. 
 
 Spirit of wine, rnixed with oil, makes one bod \ therewith; 
 but if you pour water thereon* it will repel the o,l, and 
 draw all the fpirit to itfelf : nay, frequently, what the fpirit 
 had dillblved in other bodies, waterwAi feparate from them, 
 by diluting the fpirit, and letting the other matters precipi- 
 tate. 
 
 6\ Water is of great fervice in directing and determining 
 the degree of fire, or heat. — This was firft difcovered by 
 M. Amontons, from an obfervation, that water over the 
 fire grows gradually more and more hot, till it comes to 
 boil ; but then ceafes to increafe, and only maintains its 
 prefent degree of heat, even though the fire were ever fo 
 much enlarged, or were continued ever fo long. — This* 
 therefore, affords a ftandard, or fixed degree of heat all 
 over the world ; boiling water, provided it be equally pure, 
 being of the fame heat in Greenland, as under the equa- 
 tor. 
 
 By means hereof, they make baths of divers degrees of 
 heat, accommodated to the various occaiions. 
 Water is of the utmoft ufe in divers of the mechanical 
 arts, and occafions of life ; as, in the motion of mills, 
 and other machines. . — ■ And the laws, properties, feV. of 
 this fluid with refpect thereto ; as its motion, gravitation, 
 preflion, elevation, action, ffc* And the construction of 
 divers engines fubfervient thereto, or founded thereon ; 
 as fiphons, pumps, tsfi, make the fubject of hydraulics, 
 and hydrojlatics. 
 
 The quantity of water on this fide our globe, Dr Chcyne 
 fufpects to be daily decreafing ; tl fome part thereof being 
 K continually turned into animal, vegetable, metalline, or 
 *' mineral fubftances ; which are not eafily diflblved again 
 " into their component parts.— Thus, if you feparate a few 
 particles of any fluid, and faften them to a folid body, 
 41 keep them afunder one from another, they are no fluid ; 
 " to produce fluidity, a confiderable number of fuch par- 
 ** tides together is required." 
 
 " Molt of the fluids or liquids we know of, are formed 
 " by the cohefion of particles of different figures, mag- 
 " nitudes, gravities, and attractive powers, fwimming in 
 " pure water, or an aqueous fluid ; which feems to be 
 » the common balls of all. — -Wine is only water impreg- 
 *« nated with particles of grapes ; and beer with particles 
 ** of barley : all fpirits feem to be nothing but water, fe- 
 " turated with faline or fulphurous particles : and all li- 
 « quids are more or lefs fluid, according to the greater or 
 " fmaller cohefion of the particles, which fwim in the a- 
 « queous -fluid. — And there is hardly any fluid without 
 " this cohefion of particles: not even pure "water itfelf; 
 " as is apparent from the bubbles which fometimes will 
 " ftand on its furlace, as well as on that of fpirits, and o- 
 » ther liquors." Philof&ph. Prinrip. of Relig. 
 Aficent of W ate Ri See Ascent, and Capu- 
 
 Watb R- Bearer. "] Aqu arius. 
 
 Water-Cc/«;m, Column. 
 
 Water-CW. Clepsydra. 
 
 Water-W. Level. 
 
 W ATZR-Macbinc. i See the articled Machine. 
 
 Water -Micro/cope. Microscope. 
 
 Watxr-MM. Mill. 
 
 W ATE R-Organ. Org A N. 
 
 Wa T E R-SpOUt. J [&POVT. 
 
 Water, in natural hiftory, fiffc is diftinguiflied into 
 pure, called alfo elemental ; mineral ; and artificial, or 
 faElitiout. ' ' . 
 
 As to the pure , we have already obferved, that there Is, per- 
 
W A T 
 
 WAT 
 
 haps, none abfblutely fo ; all water being found to contain 
 more or lefs particles, fuch as thofe iij terreftrial bodies ; no: 
 earthy particles, we mean, but oils, Talis, &c, 
 Mineral Waters, are thofe which contain fuch, and fo many 
 panicles of different natures from water, as thence to derive 
 fume notable property beyond what common water has: or, 
 mineral waters are thofe which have contracted feme virtue 
 extraordinary, by pafling through beds of minerals, as allum, 
 vitriol, fuiphur, fjsrV. or by receiving the fumes thereof. 
 The kinds of mineral waters are various, as are the kinds of 
 campofitions of the minerals they are impregnated withal. 
 See Fossil. 
 
 Some are fimple, as only containing mineral particles of one 
 fort; others mixed, of two, three, four, or more forts. 
 Hence, we have, i°. Metallic waters, indifferent parts; 
 as golden, filver, cepper, tin, leaden, and iron waters. 
 2°. Saline waters, viz. nitrous, aluminous, vitr'tolate, and 
 tliofe of common fait. 
 
 3°. Bituminous, fulphurous, antimonial, carbonaceous, and 
 amber waters. 
 
 4°. Earthy and Jlony waters, viz. lime, chalk, oker, cinna- 
 bar, marble s and alabajler waters. 
 To which fome add mercurial wafers. 
 
 This divilion of mineral waters, is taken from their efTcnces ; 
 that is, from the mineral particles they contain : but the 
 inoft ufual and celebrated divifton, is borrowed from the man- 
 ner wherein they afti.-£t cur fenfts; with regard to which 
 there are ten kinds; viz. acid, bitter, hot, cold, oily and 
 fat, poifonous, coloured, boilings petrifying, incrufiating, and 
 fa line. 
 
 Aid Waters, called alfo aciduU, arife from the admixture 
 of vitriol, nitre, allum, and fait in ihtm. — Thefe are cold, 
 and are very frequent, there being not reckoned lefs than 
 iooo in Geimany alone: fome of wkich are faid to be four 
 as vinegar, and to be u fed inffcad thereof; others vinous, 
 and lerving for wine; others aftringent, CSV. 
 
 Hot Waters, called therma-, anfe from the admixture of ful- 
 phurous particles and fumes. — Of thefe, the hottcit is that 
 in Japan, which, it is faid, no fire can bring water to equal ; 
 and which keeji^ hot thrice as long as common water boiled. 
 
 Oily and Fat W at ers, owe their virtues to a bituminous and 
 fulphurous matter; as ambers, petroleum, pitch, naphtha, 
 (Sc. 
 
 Bitter Waters, are produced from an impure fuiphur, bitu- 
 men,- nitre, and fumetimes copper. — Such are the iacus af- 
 phaltites. 
 
 Very cold Waters, have their rife frr m a mixture of nitre 
 and allum ; or of mercury, iron, &c. The depth of the 
 fource or fpring too may have fome eftccT 
 
 Waters which change the nature of bodies. — Of thefe there 
 is great variety, 
 
 i°7 Near Armagh in Ireland, is a lake, wherein a ftaff be- 
 ing fixed fome months, it is affirmed, that the part which 
 fi,jck in the mud will be turned into iron; and that part m- 
 compafled with the water into hone ftone ; the relt remain- 
 ing as before. — Thus Gyraldus and M agin us ; but Brietius 
 very rightly denies it. 
 
 2°. In the northern part of Ulfter is faid to be a fpring, 
 which, in the fpace of feven years, petrifies wood, or con- 
 verts it into fione The like waters are alfo faid to be 
 
 found in divers other parts, as in Hungary, Burgundy, ISc. 
 And Vitruvius mentions a lake in Cappadocia, which con- 
 verts wood into ftone in one day : but thefe accounts are not 
 fufriciemly attetted. See Petrifaction. 
 3°. Theie are alfo waters fuppoled to tranfmute, or turn 
 iron into copper. Set: Supplement, article Ziment, 
 4°. Others are faid to change the colour of the hair. — Gy- 
 raldus mentions a fpring in Ireland, wherein if a perfon were 
 wafhed, he inftantly became grey ; but this is incredible. 
 Poifonous Waters, are occafioned by their creeping through 
 arfenical, antimonial, and mercurial earths; or being im- 
 pregnated by their fumes. — Such are the lacu 3 afphaltites, and 
 divers waters about the Alps, tsV. which immediately kill 
 thofe who drink of them: but thefe are moft of them filled 
 up with ftones; which is one reafon why fo few are 
 known. 
 
 Sa line Waters, are generated two ways ; either they are de- 
 rived from the fea, by fome fubterraneous pallage; or they 
 are generated from mineral lalts, which they meet withal in 
 their paffage, ere* they arrive at their fprings. 
 
 Boiling, or Bubbling Waters, are produced either by a cur- 
 rent of air, or elle by a fulphurous, or a nitrous fpii it, mixed 
 ■with the water in the earth: if it be fulphurous, the water is 
 hot; if nitrous, cold. For all the waters that boil as if hot, 
 are not fo, but fome few are cold ; we read bjth of therms 
 and acidu'x that boil. 
 
 There are divers other waters which have very fingular pro- 
 perties not reducible to any of thefe claffes: fuch — i Q . is 
 thai fpring in Portugal, which abforbs all bodies caft into it, 
 though the !i<rhteft: and not far from it, there is faid to have 
 .Vol. II. 
 
 been antiently another, in which no bodies, not the heavier!, 
 could link. — 2°. In Andalulia, wc arc aiiured by Eufeb. 
 Nierembergeniis, there is a lake which, furetels approaching 
 ftorms, by making a terrible roaring, that may be heaid 18 
 or 10 miles diftance. — 3 0 . In Granada is faid to be a well, 
 whofe water diilblves ftones. — 4 0 . We read of a fpring in Ar- 
 cadia, which rendered thofe who drank of it abltcmiou^. — 5 0 . 
 In the ifland of Chio is faid to be a fpring, whichconvcrtsthofe 
 who drink of it into fools. — 6". There are fprings in divers 
 parts uf England, Wales Spain, (sc. which ebb and flow daily 
 with the flux and reflux of the fea-;- and fome are even f.iid to 
 ebb and flow againft the tide. — Add, j° . Jlalaflical waters, 
 which torm ftony icicles from the tops of ca\erns. See 
 Supplement, articles Spar, and Petrifaction. 
 
 Bath-W ater. ~i C Bath. 
 
 %w-Wat£r. > See the article -s Spaw. 
 
 Petrifying Water. J ' Petrifying. 
 
 Intcrdiclion of Fire and Water. See Int E r d ict i on. 
 
 Water, in chymiftry, by the chymifts called more ufually 
 phlegm; is the fourth of the five chymical principles, and 
 one of the paffive ones. 
 
 It is never drawn pure, and unmixed ; which, Dr Qjincy 
 obferves, makes it ufually a little more deterfive than com- 
 mon water. 
 
 This principle, probably, contributes much to the growth of 
 bodies, in that it both renders and keeps the acYrve principles 
 fluid; fo that they are capable of being conveyed by circula- 
 tion into the pores of the mixed: and alfo becaufe it tempers 
 their exorbitant motion, and keeps them together; fo that 
 they are not fo eafily or fo foon diffipated. 
 In all fuch bodies whofe active fubfiances are joined and 
 united pretty clofely together ; as in common fait, tartar, all 
 plants that are not odoriferous, and in many anim.il bodies, 
 this principle is the firft that comes over in diflillaiion : but 
 when water is mixed with volatile falts, or with fpirir of 
 wine, or is in anv odoriferous mixture; then the volatile 
 particles will rife and come away firft. 
 WATERS, in medicine, pharmacy, chymiftry, &c. called 
 alfo artificial, and medicated suaters ; are a kind of liquors, 
 procured or prepared by art from diucra bodies, principally of 
 the vegetable tiibe; having various properties, and ferving 
 various purpofes. 
 
 Thefe waters are either fimple, or compound. 
 Simple Waters, are thofe procured from fome one vegetable 
 body. 
 
 A fimple water is not fuppofed to be the meer water, or 
 phlegm of the body it is drawn from, as is evident from the 
 talte and fmel! thereof. • — Tire intention of making fuch 
 water, is to draw out the virtues of the herb, feed, flower, 
 root, or the like, fo as it may be more conveniently given 
 in that form, than any other. But the phlegm, or watery 
 part of any medicinal fimple, is no better than common 
 water undiftilled : fo that all thofe ingredients, which in di- 
 ftillation raife nothing but phlesim, as may be difcovered 
 from the fcent and tafte of what comes over, are not fit for 
 the ftill. — On this principle, a great part of the waters re- 
 tained in the difpenfatorics, will appear good for nothing, at 
 leaft not worth diftilling. 
 
 The means whereby this feparation is effected, are either 
 evaporation, infufion, decoflion, or dijlillation. — . The firft 
 is performed by expofing the vegetable in a cold ftill, to a 
 gentle heat, like that of a fummcr'a fun; and catching the 
 effluvia which exhale from it. 
 
 The effect of this operation, is a water, or fluid matter, 
 which is the moil volatile, fragrant, and aromatic part of the 
 plant; and that wherein its fpecific virtue refides. ■ — And 
 thus is it, that the fineft aromatic or odoriferous waters of 
 vegetables are to be procured. 
 
 The fecond mean?, viz. infufion, is performed by putting 
 the vegetable in hot raiiwt'fl/tr, below the degree of boiling ; 
 keeping it to this degree by an equable heat, for the fpace of 
 half an hour; and then drawing it off. — The only waters 
 procured this way, in much ufe in the modern practice, 
 are thofe of froa-fpawn, and oak-buds. 
 The third means, viz. deccclion, only differs from the fecond 
 in this, that the water is kept to the degree of boiling. 
 The fourth mean?, viz. dijlillation, is performed by infnfing 
 the fubjedt in an alembic, with a gentle warmth, for fome 
 time; and, then increafing the heat, fo as to make it boil ; 
 and iaftly, catching and condeniing the ftcam, or vapour ari- 
 fing therefrom. 
 
 This procefs furnlfhes what we call the difiilhd waters, of 
 fo much ufe in medicine, ts'c. ■ — The vegetable fubjec-f J befr. 
 fitted for it, are the fapid and odorous, or" thofe ol the aro- 
 matic tribe ; asangeltca, annifeed, baum, carraway/torian- 
 dcr, cumin, dittany, fennel, hyflop, marjoram, nyiit, rules, 
 rofeniary, faffron, fage, fcurvy-giak, thyme, fcinnamon, 
 citron, juniper, lime, myrtle, orange, peach, Eir\ 
 The medicinal virtues of waters prepaiei after this manner, 
 13 U are 
 
WAT 
 
 WAT 
 
 are the fame as thofe of the revive plants, fefV. _ they are 
 drawn from. — Thus, the diftilled water of mint is (toma- 
 chic- that of wormwood, vermifugous, &c. 
 The' materia medica, it may be obferved, affords no reme- 
 dies in this way, but for the intentions either of cordials, 
 emmenacogues, diuretics, or diaphoretics. — Were it prac- 
 ticable to raife a balfamic, cathartic, or opiate in this ™ nner > 
 yet would thofe properties be much more conveniently brought 
 forth by other proceiles; fo that nothing is to be looked for 
 in a diftilled water, but fuch fubtile and light parts of a me- 
 dicinal f.mple, as may fall in with the fbrementjoned inten- 
 tions : indeed, very httle comes over under that divilion, 
 Weighty enough to affect even the urinary fecretions. 
 The fimple waters, of chief virtue, are the following ones, 
 viz, Dill-water, aqua anethi ; angelica-water, aqua ange- 
 lica , mint-water, aqua menthze ; rofemary -water, aqua 
 anthos ; orange-finuer-water, aqua naphte h black- cherry-wa- 
 ter, aqua ceralor. nig. parjlywater, aqua petrofehni; ca- 
 momile, chamom. pennyroyal, pulegii ; fennel- wat er, aqua 
 foeniculi; damask-rofewater, aqua rofarum dam hyjjop- 
 water, aqua hyffopi ; rue water, aqua rutae ; jumper water, 
 aqua jumped bacc. elder water, aqua fambuci flor. lovage- 
 water, aqua leviftici ; carminative-water, aqua carmmativa, 
 
 It may be here proper to note, that whatever properties any 
 fimple has from the groflhefs or fohdity of its parts, which 
 make it aft as an emetic, cathartic, or aftringent; the re- 
 fidue left after Jiftillanon, will remain in full poffeffion there- 
 of.— .Thus the purging fyrup of rofes, is as well made after 
 the damask-rofe-HJfl/fr is drawn of, as if the flowers were 
 put into infufion ; becaufe nothing ot a cathartic quality nfes 
 with the water. 
 
 Sometimes, the fabjeSt is fermented, by the addition of yeaft, 
 honey, or the like ferment, to the hot water, before the 
 diftUlation begin : in which cafe, if the ferment added were 
 in fufficient quantity tn effect a thorough fermentation, the li- 
 quid afterwards exhaled and drawn off, would be thin and 
 inflammable ; which makes what we call a fpirit; other- 
 wife, thick, white, fapid, CsY. and called a water. 
 The waters procured in this manner, contain the oil of the 
 plant in great perfection; which makes them of confiderable I 
 ufe in medicine, further than thofe raifed without fermenta- j 
 tion ; bcfide that they keep better and longer; the fpirit in 
 them preventing their corrupting or growing mothery. 
 Compound Waters, or thofe wherein feveral ingredients are 
 ufed, are very numerous, and make a large article in com- 
 merce; fome prepared by the apothecaries, according to the 
 difpenfatory prefcripts, for medicinal ufes; others by the di- 
 ftillers, to be drank by way of dram, ESV, and others by the 
 perfumers, (sfc. 
 
 They are dlftinguiftied by different epithets, taken from the 
 Latin, Greek, Arabic, Englifh, htt. in refpeft either of the 
 Specific virtues of the waters; or the parts of the body, for 
 the cure whereof they are intended ; or the difeafes they are 
 good againft ; or the ingredients they are compounded of; 
 or their different ufes, tiff. 
 
 The mo ft confiderable among the cTafi of compound-waters, 
 we mall here enumerate. — The manner of making them, 
 it is true, is not always the fame ; efpecially thofe intended 
 for drinking ; for which every one gives his own method as 
 the beft. — Thofe we here deliver, are taken from fuch as 
 have the greateft reputation in preparing thefe things; or 
 from thofe who have wrote beft of them. 
 We have only three general remarks to add, with regard to 
 thofe intended for drinking: i°. That fuch wherein any- 
 thing is infufed, as bruifed fruits, pounded herbs, or ground 
 fpices, muft be always paffed through a filter, to make 
 them finer and purer. — z a . That thofe made with brandy, 
 or fpirit of wine, are ufually diftilled after mixing their ingre- 
 dients; which renders thofe liquors exceedingly ftrong and 
 dangerous, and confirms the proverb; Plures occidit gula 
 quam gladius. In effect, fome of them are fo penetrating, 
 that they burn the tongue when taken. — 3 0 . That the waters 
 which take their name from any particular thing, as cinna- 
 mon, &c. have often fome other ingredients joined with 
 them, according to the tafte or fmell required. 
 Alexipharmic, or Alex'iterial Waters, are waters that re- 
 fift poifons and the plague. — Such are thofe of angelica, 
 fcorzonera, citron, orange, fcordium, rue, tsV. Such alfo 
 are treacle-water, plague-water, milk-water, poppy-ivater, 
 &c. 
 
 Jllum-W ater, is a vulnerary water, thus called, by rcafon 
 
 the bafis, or principal ingredient thereof, is allum. 
 Angclha-W ater, is ufually prepared of brandy, angelica 
 roots and feeds, carduus, baum, fennel-feed, &c. the whole 
 beat together in a mortar; infufed for a night in French 
 brandy, and then diftilled. — It is reputed a good carmina- 
 tive, and cordial, as alfo a cephalic, CSV . 
 
 gallon, and if you require it fugared, add half a pound of 
 clarified fugar ■ but many prefer it without: and (train the 
 whole. 
 
 Jpricot-W at ER. — To a quart of water, put fix or eight 
 apricots Iliced, and the kernels bruifed; boil the whole, to 
 extract the tafte ; and when cold, 2dd four or five ounces of 
 fugar. — When that is diffolved (train it. 
 Aromatic-Vf at ers, we have already (poke of among the 
 fimple waters. 
 
 Artbritie-W at ers, are waters good againft the gout, palfjr, 
 tremors, pains in the joints, C5V. — Such are thofe of piony, 
 chamaspitys, betony, rofemary, &c. 
 Bryany-'W ater, is one of the compound waters prefcribed in 
 the college difpenfatory; prepared from bryony-roots, ruei 
 mugwort, favin, feverfew, dittany, fcft. — It is a good hy- 
 fteric, opens menftrual obft ructiuns, &c. 
 Carduus-Vi ater, is made from carduus benedictus pounded in 
 a mortar, and put in an alembic. ■ — Then, a fufficient quan- 
 tity of the juice of the lame plant, drawn by expreflion, 
 is poured into the alembic, that the herbs fwimming in 
 the juice, may be in no danger of (ticking to the bottom of 
 the cucurbit in diftiharion. Laftly, fitting on the head, and 
 luting the joints, dilti! half as much as you put in. — 
 This Witter is faid to be fudorificj and good againft the 
 plague, malignant fevers, &c. 
 Water of feparation, or depart, is only aqua forth; thus 
 called, becaufe ferving to feparate gold from iilver. See 
 Depart. It is alfo called, 
 Caujlic-W ater, and is prepared of a mixture of fpirit of nitre 
 and vitriol, drawn by force of fire ; to which are fometimes 
 added allum, effc. 
 
 It difiblves all metals, gold only excepted. — The invention 
 of aqua fortis is ufually referred to the thirteenth century: 
 though fome hold it to have been known in the time of Mo- 
 fes. 
 
 Cephalic- Waters, are waters proper to ftrengthen and com- 
 fort the brain. — Such are thofe of rofemary, marjoram, (age, 
 pyony, bettony, baum, £sV. 
 Cbalybeat Water, is a water wherein red-hot fteal has been 
 quenched.— It is aftringent, and good, like ferruginous, or 
 iron waters, for diarrhoeas, bfc. 
 Cherry-W ater. — In a quart of water crufh half a pound of 
 cherries, with four or five ounces of fugar. Strain the whole 
 through a cloth, till it be very clear. 
 Cinnamon-W at er. — In a gallon of fpirit, diftil a pound of 
 cinnamon: add four ounces of fugar. — Or thus: take a 
 pound of cinnamon, three pounds of rofe-water, and as 
 much white-wine : bruife the cinnamon, infufe it fourteen 
 days, then diftil it. — The firft quart that rifes is the beft; 
 then the fecond; then the third. 
 C/ary-WATFii, is compofed of brandy, fugar, clary- flowers, 
 and cinnamon, with a little ambergreafe diffolved in it. — It 
 helps digeftion, and is cardiac. < — This water is rendered 
 eitlier purgative or emetic, by adding refin of jallap and 
 fcammony, or crocus metallorum. — Some make clary-water 
 of brandy, juice of cherries, flrawbcrries, and goofeberries, 
 furzar, cloves, white pepper, and coriander-feeds; infufed, 
 fugared, and drained. 
 Clove-W ater, is prepared of brandy, and cloves bruifed 
 
 therein and diftilled. See Clove. 
 Cordial, or Cardiac Waters, are waters proper to flrengthen 
 and comfort the heart. — Such are thofe of endive, chicory, 
 buglofs, burrage, marigolds, csV. 
 Cefmetic-W at ER$, ate waters proper to clcanfe, fmoothen, 
 
 and beautify the (kin. 
 FemteW? AVBR. — Diftil a pound of dried fennel, with a gal- 
 lon of luater, 
 
 Gentian-W ater, — Take four pounds of gentian roots, either 
 green or dried; mince them fmall, infufe them in white- 
 wine, or only fprinkle them therewith; then diftil them, 
 with the addition of a little centaury the lefler. 
 This is frequently ufed as aftomachic, and isalfo commended^ 
 for a deterger ; ferving in dropfies, jaundice, obftructions of 
 thevifcera, Wr. but it is really of very little virtue. 
 Gum-W at er, is that made by letting gum-arabic, inclofed in 
 a linnen rag, infufe in common if ater.— The ladies alfo 
 make a thick water for their hair, of quince-kernels fleeped 
 in water. 
 
 Hepatic-W at ers, are thofe ufed to clean fe, flrengthen, and 
 refrdli the liver. —Such arc thofe of chicory, the capillaries, 
 purflain, agrimony, fumitory, cfc. 
 Honey-W ater, is a water prepared of honey and ambergreafe, 
 diftilled with fpirit of wine. --The poor people alfo have a 
 drink, which they call by this name : they procure it in places 
 where much honey is made, by warning out the honey- 
 combs, andtheveflels they have been in, in common water. 
 — This gives it a honey-tafte, and it afterwards becomes very 
 dear, and the people ufe it as their common drink. 
 
 4nifeed-'W ater. ■ — To fix ounces of bruifed annifeeds, add a Horfe-raddiJh-W ater, aquarapbani, is prepared of the juices 
 gallon of moloffes fpirit, and two quarts of water; diflil a of fcurvygrafs, brook-lime, water-creffes, white-wine, lemon- 
 
 1 juice, 
 
WAT 
 
 WAT 
 
 juice, briony-root, horfe-raddifh, winter's- bark, and nut- 
 meg, digefted in fpirits, and diftilled. — It is a good diuretic; 
 cleanfing, and removing obftrudtions of the vifcera, promot- 
 ing perfpiration, fsfr. 
 
 Hungary -W at er, is a liquor diftilled in balneo marise, from 
 rofemary-flowers, and fpirit of wine well rectified. —It has 
 its name from the wonderful effects it is faid to have bad on 
 a queen of Hungary, at the age of 72 years. — It is good 
 againft faintings, palfies, lethargies, apoplexies, and hyfte- 
 rical diforders. — There are divers other ways of preparing it, 
 but none is better than this. 
 
 H$fteric-"W aters, are thofe proper to ftrengthcn the matrix, 
 or womb, and remedy the diforders that be fa I it. — Such are 
 thofe of briony, matricary or motherwort, byfFop, fennel, 
 baum, mugworr, fmallage, &c. 
 
 Iced, or Frozen Waters, are certain agreeable and wholefome 
 waters, as orange-waters, or the like, artificially froze in 
 fummer-time, particularly in hot countries, to be ufed in col- 
 lations, £cc. as coolers. — The way of making them is thus: 
 the vellels containing the liquors defigned to be froze, are firfi 
 fet in a pail, in fuch manner, as not to touch each other ; 
 then they are covered up, and the void fpace in the pail filled 
 with common ice, beaten, and mixed with fait. — Every half 
 hour they clear out what water the thawing ice fends to the 
 bottom of the pail, by means ofa hole at bottom; and at the 
 fame time flir up the liquors with a fpoon, that they may 
 freeze into fnow: for were they to fhoot in form of ice, or 
 icicles, they would have no tafte.- — Then, covering the vef- 
 fels again, they fill up the pail with more beaten ice, and 
 fait, in lieu of that difTolvcd and evacuated. The more ex- 
 peditious the freezing is required to be, the more fait is to be 
 mixed wiih the ice. 
 
 Imperial- WATER, Aqua imperialism is a water diftilled from 
 cinnamon, nutmeg, citron-peel, cloves, calamus aromati- 
 cus, fantal, and divers other fimples, inlufed in white-wine 
 and baum-water. — It is a pleafant cordial dram, and is good 
 againft difeafes of the brain, ftomach, and womb. 
 
 yuniper-W at er, is a compound water, made of brandy, and 
 juniper berries beaten therein, and diflilled. This is com- 
 monly called geneva, 
 
 £/W-Watee, is common water, wherein quick lime lias 
 been flaked ; afterwards filtered. 
 
 HHH-Water, Aqua latlis, is prepared of mint, wormwood, 
 carduus benedi<5tus, goat's-rue, and meadow-fweer, bruifed, 
 infufed in milk, and drawn off by diftillation. — It is held 
 alexipharmic, and cephalic. 
 
 Aqua Mir abilis, or the wonderful Water, Is prepared of 
 cloves, galangals, cubebs, mace, cardomnms, nutmeg, 
 ginger, and fpirit of wine, digefted twenty-four hours, then 
 diftilled. — It is a good and agreeable cordial, carmina- 
 tive, &c. 
 
 Nepbritic-W aters, are fuch as ftrengthcn the reins, and help 
 them todifcharge, by urine, any impurities therein. — ; Such 
 are thofe of the honeyfuckle, pellitory, raddifh, beans, mal- 
 lows, faY. See Nephritic. 
 
 The nephritic-water of Dr RadclifF, popularly called Dr 
 Radcliff's water, Was taken into one of the editions of the 
 college difpenfatory. — ■ It is prepared from the kernels of 
 black cherries, peaches, and bitter almonds, beaten in a mor- 
 tar into a pafle, with rhenifh wine; and feeds of fmallage, 
 treacle, muftard, gromwel, and par (ley, beaten likewife, and 
 added thereto: to the mixture are put juniper-berries, garlic, 
 onions, leeks, pimpernel, horfe-raddifh, calamus aromaticus, 
 cinnamon, wall- rue, mace, and nutmegs : the whole mace- 
 rated in rhenifh, fpirit of black cherries, &c. and thus di- 
 ftilled. — It is faid to be one of the molt powerful detergers 
 and cleanfers known; and good in the dropfy, jaundice, afth- 
 ma, pleurify, iffc. 
 
 Ophthalmic, or £y*- Waters, are fuch as are good in difor- 
 ders of the eyes. — Such are thofe of eye-bright, fennel, ver- 
 vain, plantain, celandine, cyanus, l$c. 
 
 Orange-jlower-~W at er, is made of common water and orange- 
 flowers infufed, and then diftilled. — ■ After the like manner, 
 one may make waters of divers other flowers ; as violets, 
 jonquils, jeflamies, tuberofe, &c. 
 
 Peach-W ater, is made after the fame manner as apricot-wa- 
 ter ; only with peaches. 
 
 Pbaged&nic-'W ater, is lime water, to every pound whereof 
 is added twenty or thirty grains of corrofive fublimate, in 
 powder. — It ferves to cleanfe old ulcers, to eat off fungous 
 flefti, £ff. 
 
 Plague-W AT er, Aqua epidemica, is prepared from the roots 
 of malterwort, angelica, pyony, and butter-bur ; viper-grafs, 
 Virgin ia-fnakeroot, rue, rofemarv, baum, carduus, water- 
 germander, marigold, dragon, goat's-rue, and mint; the 
 whole infufed in fpirit of wine, and diftilled. — It is of fre- 
 quent ufe, as an alexipharmic: it revives the fpirits, and pro- 
 motes a diaphorefis. It is the bafis of many juleps pre- 
 fcribed, efpeciaMy in (eveiifh cafes. 
 
 Poppy-W ater, is prepared from the flowen) of wild poppies, 
 
 infufed in white-wine, or brandy, and drawn off in a cold 
 ftijl. — It is a cordial, and is good againft the colic, and by 
 fome called red plague-water. 
 Pyony- W a t e r , is made of pyony and lime- flowers, and liliy 
 of the valley fteeped in canary, and diftilled: to thefe 
 ingredients are added the root of male pyony, white dit- 
 tany, birthwort, mifletoe, rue, caftor, cubebs, cinnamon, 
 betony, £sf c — It is a good cordial, and is much ufed in ner- 
 vous cafes. 
 
 Roje - Wa ter, is made of damask rofes diftilled with com- 
 mon ivater. 
 
 Scordiu/n-W ater, is prepared from the juices of goats-rue, 
 forrel, fcordium, citrons, and Venice treacle, digefted and 
 diftilled. — It is an alexipharmic. 
 
 Second-W ater. See the article Secunda Aqua. 
 
 SpeciJic-'W at ers, are fuch as have fome peculiar virtue, ap- 
 propriate to certain difeafes. — Thus purjlain-water, wherein 
 mercury has been infufed, is faid to be a fpecific againft 
 worms in young children. 
 
 Splenetic- Waters, are thofe proper againft: difeafes of the 
 fplcen. — Such are thofe of the tamarisk, cufcuta, harts- 
 tongue, hops^ 6V. See SPLEEN. 
 
 Stepbcns's-W at er, Aqua Stephani, is made from cinnamon, 
 ginger, galangals, cloves, nutmegs, paradife-grains, auis- 
 feeds, fweet- fennel, carraway, thyme, mint, fage, penny- 
 royal, pellitory, rofemary, red rofes, camomile, origany, and 
 lavender, fteeped in French brandy, or fpirit of wine, and 
 diftilled.- — It is a good cephalic and cardiac, and is alfo reput- 
 ed an hy ft eric. 
 
 Stomachic WatERSi are fuch as have the virtue to cleanfe, 
 ftrengthen, and confirm the ftomach. — As red rofc-water, 
 mint water, anifeed-water, &c. 
 
 Sfygian-W ater. See the article Aqua Rcgalis. 
 
 Styptic WATER, is a diflblution of calcined vitriol, or the col- 
 cuthar remaining in the retort, after the fpirit has been ex- 
 traded ; with burnt allum and fugar- candy. — With thirty 
 grains of each of thefe three drugs, fome mix half an ounce 
 of urine of a young man, as much rcfe-water, and two 
 ounces of plantain- water. — Its ufe is to ftop bleeding. See 
 Stypti c. 
 
 Surfcit-W ater. See the article Surfeit. 
 
 Treacle-W ater, Aqua tbcriacalis, is ufually made of green 
 walnuts, rue, carduus, marigold, baum, butter- bur-roots, 
 buidock, angelica, mafterwort, water-germander, Ve- 
 nice-treacle, miihridate, canary- vinegar, and lemon- juice, 
 fteeped and diftilled. — It is the molt ufed of any in the 
 fhops ; though Dr Quincy decries it as one of the worft 
 concerted of all. '• — ■ its intention is to be an alexipharmic, 
 and fudorific. 
 
 Other difpenfatories give a more fimple treacle-water, made 
 from Venice-treacle, with an equal quantity of brandy, 
 and vinegar. — It is alfo good for ulcers, and erofions of 
 the mouth; efpecially if a little Armenian bole be mixed 
 therein. 
 
 Vulnerary- Wate r, is a water proper for the healing of 
 wounds, prepared from the juice of vulnerary plants ; as fa- 
 nicle, and the like. 
 
 Water, in anaiomy, fcrY. is applied to divers liquors, or 
 humours in the human body. 
 
 Such is the aqua phlegmatica, phlegmatic-water; which is a 
 foft ferous humour contained in the pericardium, and wherein 
 the heart fwims. 
 
 Anatomifts are divided about it: fome will not have it natu- 
 ral, but fuppofe it feparated forcibly during the pangs of 
 death: their reafon is, the difficulty they meet withal in 
 tracing its paffage, or how it is carried off. — The latcft 
 anatomifts, however, feem to agree to its being a natural and 
 neceftary humour: and one reafon is, that is found even in 
 the pericardiums of foetus's. 
 
 It has likewife been difputcd whence it ftiould be feparated. 
 • — The moft probable opinion is, that it is fecreted by fome 
 glands about the bafis cf the heart ; and that it diftils thence, 
 drop by drop, into the cavity of the pericardium, in fuch quan- 
 tity, as juft to fupply what is expended daily by the motion 
 and warmth of the heart ; and fo needs no evacuation. — Its 
 ufe is to moiften, lubricate, and cool the heart, and prevent 
 any inflammation that might arife from the dry friction of the 
 heart and pericardium.- — So that it does the fame olfice to the 
 heart, that the water does wherein the fcetus fwims; which, 
 without it, would not have liberty to move at all. 
 
 Water is alfo ufed in divers ceremonies, both civil and reli- 
 gious—Such is the baptifmal water, holy water, &c. 
 
 Holy Water, is a water prepared every Sunday in the Ro- 
 mifh church, with divers prayers, exorcifms, &c. ufed by 
 the people to crofs themfelves withal at their entrance, and 
 going out of church ; and pretended to have the virtue of 
 walhing away venial fins, driving away devils, preferving 
 from thunder, diftblving charms, ftcuring from, or curing 
 difeafes, &c. 
 
 The ufe of holy water appears to be of a pretty antient ftar.d- 
 
 ing 
 
W A T 
 
 WAV 
 
 ing in the church: witnefs S. Jerom, in his life of S. Hila- 
 rion, and Gretfer, de Benedict, cap. x, tiff. ■ — M. Godeau 
 attributes it originally to Alexander, a martyr under the 
 emperor Adrian. 
 
 Many of the reformed take the ufe of holy water to have 
 been borrowed from the lujlral water of the antient Ro- 
 mans. See Lustra l.— Though it might as well be taken 
 from the fprinkling in ufe among the Jews. See Numbers 
 
 xix, 17. 
 
 Urban Godfrey Siber, a German, has a differtatlon printed 
 at Leiphc, to fhew, by proofs brought from church- hiftory, 
 that one may give holy water to drink to brutes. 
 
 Bitter Waters of Jeatoufy. — In the- Levitical law, we find 
 mention made of a water, which ferved to prove whether or 
 no a woman were an adukrefs. — The formula was this: 
 the prieft, offering her the holy water, denounced, — " If 
 41 thou haft gone afide to another, inftead of thy husband, 
 e< and if thou be defiled, tiff, the Lord make thee a curfe 
 " and an oath among thy people, by making thy thigh 
 *' to rot, and thy belly to fwell : and this water {hall go 
 *' into thy bowels, to make thy belly to fwell, and thy 
 " thigh to rot." And the woman mall fay, Amen. — 
 " Thefe curfes the prieft fhall write in a book, and 
 "blot them out with the bitter water." — "When he 
 " hath made her drink the bitter water, it fhall come 
 ** to pafs, that, if fhe be defiled, the water fhall enter 
 ** into her, and becumc bitter, and her belly fhall fwell, 
 " &c." — " If fhe be not defiled, fhe fhall be free, and 
 *' conceive feed/' Numbers, ch. v. 
 
 Water Ordeal, or Trial, was of two kinds; by hot, and 
 by cold water. 
 
 Trial or Purgation by boiling, or hot Water. — Among our 
 anceftors, there was a way of proving crimes, by immerging 
 the body, or the arm, in hat water, with divers religious ce- 
 remonies. 
 
 In the judgment by boiling water, the accufed, or he who 
 perfonaied the accufed, was obliged to put his naked arm in- 
 to a cauldron full of boil'mg water ; and to draw out a flonc 
 thence, placed at a greater or lefs depth, according to the 
 quality of the crime, — [ his done, the arm was wrapped up, 
 and the judge fet his fc-al on the cloth ; and at the end of 
 three days they returned to view it; when, if it were found 
 with n 1 any fcald, the acculed was declared innocent. 
 The nobles and great perfons purged themfelves thus by hot 
 water ; and the populace by cold watert 
 F. Mabillon will have this ceremony to have been intro- 
 duced by pope Eugenius II. in lieu of making oath with 
 the hand laid on the relicks of fome faint ; which, havino- 
 been abufed, was prohibited by Innocent III. at. the coun- 
 cil of Lateran. 
 
 (t Theotberge, wife of Lothaire of France, having been ac- 
 ** cufed of inceft, committed before marriage with her bro- 
 «' thcr duke Hubert ; as file could not be convicted by any 
 14 witneffes, certain of the bifhops were confuked as to the 
 " manner wherein the judges fhould proceed, in an affair 
 " where the crime, though very dubious, did difhonour to 
 " the king. — The bifhops were of opinion, they fhould 
 " have recourfe to the proof by boiling water; which con- 
 *' fifted in this: that the accufed, to prove her innocence, 
 F* fhould plunge her hand into a bafon of boiling water, and 
 " take out a ring put therein. — Sometimes, indeed, they 
 " fubfiituted another perfon to make the trial, in the room 
 *' of the accufed : accordingly, the rank and quality of Tbeot- 
 " berge excufing her from making the proof herfelf, fhe 
 *« chofe a man to do it for her ; who, either out of zeal for 
 " the life and honour of the princefs, or for money, flood 
 " the teft, and drew out his hand with the ring, without 
 " harm." F. Daniel's Rift, of France. Probably the wa- 
 ter was heated in a favourable manner. 
 Trial or Purgation by cold W at er . — After certain prayers, 
 and other ceremonies, the accufed was fwaddled, or tied up 
 all in a pelotoon, or lump ; and thus caff into a river, lake, 
 or veffel of cold water ; where, if he funk, he was held cri- 
 minal ; if he floated, innocent. 
 Water, among jewelers, is properly the colour or luftre of 
 diamonds, and pearls ; thus called, by reafon thefe were an- 
 tiently fuppofed to be formed, or concreted of water. 
 Thus, they fay, fuch a pearl is of a fine water. 
 The water of fuch a diamond is muddy. 
 The.teim is fometimes alfo ufed, though lefs properly, for 
 the colour or hue of other precious ftone?. 
 W at ER-Bailif, is an officer antiently eftablifhed in all port- 
 towns, for the fearching of ihips ; as appears from 28 Hen. 
 VI. cap. v. 
 
 There is fuch an officer fill] on foot in the city of London 
 who fuperv:fes and fearches all fifh brought thither ; and ga- 
 ther* the toll arifing from the river of Thames. — He at- 
 tends alfo on the lord mayor in his expeditions by wattr, 
 and hath the principal cate of marfhalling the guefts at the 
 table. — He alfo arrefts men for debt, or other perfonal or 
 
 criminal matters on the river of Thames, by warrant of his 
 fuperiors, tiff. ■ 
 Wate R' Borne, in the fea language. — . A fhip is faid to be wa- 
 ter-borne, when fhe is where there is no more water than will 
 barely bear her from ground; or when lying even with the 
 ground, fhe firft begins to float, or fwim. 
 Wat ER-Camblets. See the article Camblet. 
 W at ER-Colours, in painting, are fuch colours as are only di- 
 luted and mixed up with gum-water. — -Thus called, in con- 
 tradiflinction to oil colours. 
 
 The ufe of water-colours, makes what we call limninc ; as 
 that of oil-colours does painting, properly fo called. 
 CV-Water. See the article Cvr-Water. 
 Dead-W at ER, in the fea language, is the eddy water that 
 follows the flern of the fhip, not paffing away fo fail as that 
 which flides by her fides. 
 Water- Farcin. See the article Farcin. 
 Water-Go^, an infirument to meafure the depth, or quan- 
 tity of any water. See Gage. 
 Water-Gu?^, a channel cut to drain a place, by carrying off 
 
 a fiream of water. 
 W at ER-Gilding. See the article Gi lding. 
 Water- Line, of a fhip, is a line which difHnguifhes that 
 part of her under water, from that above, when fhe is duly 
 laden. 1 
 
 W at ER'Meafure. — Salt, fea- coal, &e. while aboard veffels 
 in the pool, or river, are meafured with the corn-bufhel heap- 
 ed up ; or elfc five firiked pecks are allowed to the bufhel. — ■ 
 This is called water meafure; and this exceeds Winchefter- 
 meafure bv about three gallons in ihe^ufhel. 
 Wat ER-Poife. See the article Hydrometer. 
 
 Dr Hooke has contrived a water-poife, which may be of 
 good fervice in examining the purity, tifc. of water. — It 
 cunfiih oi a round glafs ball, like a bolt-head, about three 
 inches in diatntter, with a narrow Item or neck, * of an 
 inch in diameter ; which being polled with red lead, fo as to 
 make it but little heavier than pure fwcet water, and thus 
 fitted to one end of a fine balance, with a counterpoife at 
 the other ; upon the leaft addition, of ^roth part of fait to 
 2 quantity oi water, halt an inch of the neck will emerge 
 above the water, more than did before. Pbilof. Traufatl. 
 N° 197. 
 
 W at ER-Rocket. See the article Rocket. 
 W AT ER-Scape, of the Saxon waterfchap, denotes an aqueduct, 
 
 drain, or pallage for water. See Aqjjjeduct. 
 W ATER-Sboot, a young fprig, which fprings out of the root or 
 flock of a tree. 
 
 Wate r- Shot, in the fea language, a fort of riding at anchor, 
 when a fhip is moored neither crofs the tide, nor right up 
 and down ; but quartering betwixt both. 
 W ATER-Table, in architecture, is a fort of Iedsre, left in ftone 
 or brick wails, about 1 8 or 20 inches from the ground [ from 
 which place, the thicknefs of the wall begins to abate. See 
 Wall. 
 
 W.ATER-IFay, in a fhip, is a fmall ledge of timber, lying fore 
 and aft on the deck, clofe by her fides; to keep the water 
 from running down there. 
 Wat£R#W, an engine for raifing water in great quantity 
 
 out of a deep well. See Persian Wheel. 
 WAT E R I N G, in gardening, bY. the application of water 
 to the foil of plants, tiff, when not fufficicntly rtioiftehed 
 with rain, dew, &c. 
 
 After fowing feed of any kind, though the ground be ever fo 
 dry, they fhould never be watered till they have been forty- 
 eight hours in the ground, and the ground is a little fetrled 
 about th«n ; otherwife, a too great glut of nourifhment at 
 firft will be apt to burft them. 
 
 Care is to be taken, that the leaves of young and tender 
 plants be not watered at all while the weather is cold ; only 
 the ground to be wet about them. — For hardy plants and 
 feeds, if the nights be cold, water in the forenoon ; other- 
 wife, in the evening. 
 
 Water that comes out of pits, or deep wells, fhould ft and a 
 day in an open veffel, before it be applied to tender plants in the 
 fpring. — Dung ot fheep, pigeons, or hens, or afiies, lime, &c. 
 in f ufed in the water, will forward the growth of plants. 
 Watering, in the manufactures. — To W at e r a Sttffi Is 
 to give it a luftre, by wetting it lightly, and then pafiing it 
 through the prefs, or the calender, whether hot or cold. 
 Watery Humour. See the articles Aqjjeous, and Hu- 
 mour. 
 
 WATTLES, among husbandmen, grates or hurdles, for 
 folds for fheep. 
 
 The word is. alfo ufed for the gills of a cock — and for the 
 naked red flefh that hanss under a turkey's neck. 
 WAVE, Undo, in phyfics, a cavity in the furface of water, 
 or other fluid, with an elevation afide thereof. See Fluid, 
 and Water. 
 
 The origin of waves may be thus conceived. — The furface 
 of a ftanding water being naturally plain, and paialM to the 
 j horizon j 
 
WAV 
 
 WAX 
 
 horizon ; if by any means it be rendered hollow, as at A, 
 (Tab. Hydrojlatlcs, jig. 30 J its cavity will be furrounded 
 with an elevation BB; this raifed water will defcend by its 
 gravity, and with the celerity acquired in defcending, will form 
 a new cavity j by which motions, the water will attend at 
 the fides of this cavity, and fill the cavity A, while there is 
 a new elevation towards C ; and when this laft is deprefled, 
 the water rifes a-new towards the fame part.— -Thus arifes a 
 fucceifive motion in the furface of the water ; and a cavity, 
 which carries an elevation before it, is moved along from A, 
 towards C. — This cavity, with the elevation next it, is cal- 
 led a wave; and the (pace taken up by the wave on the fur- 
 face of the water, and meafurcd according to the direction 
 of the wave's motion, is called the breadth of the wave. 
 TJ.>e Motion of Waves makes an article in the new philofo- 
 phy ; and the laws thereof being now pretty well determined, 
 we fhall give the reader the fubftancc of what is taught 
 thereon. 
 
 1 °. Then, the cavity, as A, is incompaiTed every way with 
 an elevation ; and the motion above-mentioned expands it- 
 felf every way : therefore the waves are moved circularly. 
 2 0 . Suppofe, now, AB, (fig. 31.) an obftacle, againft which 
 the wave, whofc beginning is at C, ftrikes; and we are to 
 examine what change the wave fuft'ers in any point, as E, 
 when it is come to the obftacle in that point. — In all places 
 through which the wave pafles in its whole breadth, the wave 
 is raifed ; then a cavity is formed, which is again filled up ; 
 which change while the furface of the water undergoes, its 
 particles go and return through a fmall' fpace : the direction 
 of this motion is along CE, and the celerity may be re- 
 prefented by that line — Let this motion be conlrived to be 
 lefolved into two other motions, along GE and DE, whofe 
 celerities are refpcctively rcprefented by thofe lines. —By 
 the motion along D E, the particles do not act againft the 
 obftacle; but after the itroke, continue their motion in that 
 direction with the fame celerity; and tins motion is here re- 
 prefented by EF, fuppofing E F and ED to be equal to one 
 another: but by the motion along G E, the particles ftrike 
 directly againft the obftacle, and this motion is deftroyed ; 
 for though the particles are elaftic, yet, as in the motion of 
 the waves they run through but a fmall fpace, going back- 
 ward and forward, they proceed fo ftowlv, that the figure of 
 the particles cannot be changed by the blow ; and fo are fub- 
 ject to the laws of percuflion of bodies perfectly hard. See 
 Percussion. 
 
 But there is a reflection of the particles from another caufe : 
 the water which cannot go forward- beyond the obftacle, and 
 is puflied on by that which follows it, gives way where there 
 is the leaft refiftance ; that is, it afcends : and this elevation, 
 which is greater in fome than other places, is caufed by the 
 motion along GE; becaufe it is by that motion alone that 
 the particles impinge againft the obftacle. — The water, by its 
 defcent, acquires the fame velocity with which it was rai"'ed ; 
 and the particles of water are repelled from the obftacle, with 
 the fame force in the direction EG, as that with which they 
 ftruck againft the obftacle. — From this motion, and the 
 motion above-mentioned along EF, arifes a motion above 
 EH, whofe celerity is exprefied by the line EH, which is 
 equal to the line CE: and by the reflection* the celerity of 
 the wave is not changed; but it returns along EH, in the 
 fame manner, as if, taking away the obftacle, it had moved 
 along E/j. 
 
 It from the point C, CD be drawn perpendicular to the 
 obftacle, and then produced, fo that D c fhall be equal to 
 CD, the line HE continued will go through c • and as this 
 demonftration holds good in all points of the obftacle, it fol- 
 lows, that the reflected wave has the fame figure on that fide 
 ot the obftacle, as it would -have had beyond the line A B, 
 if it had not ftruck againft the obftacle. — If the obftacle be 
 inclined to the horizon, the water rifes and defcends upon it, 
 and fufters a friction, whereby the reflection of the wave 
 is difturbed, and often wholly deftroyed : and this is the 
 reafon why very often the banks of rivers do not reflect the 
 waves. 
 
 If there be a hole, as I, in the obftacle BL, the part of the 
 wave which goes through the hole continues its motion di- 
 rectly, and expands itfetf towards Q_Q_; and there is a new 
 wave formed, which moves in a femicircle, whofe centre is 
 the hole. For the raifed part of the wave, which firft goes 
 through the hole, immediately flows down a little at the 
 fides } and by defcending, makes a cavity, which is furround- 
 ed with an elevation on every part beyond the hole, which 
 moves every way in the fame manner as was laid down in 
 the generation of the firft wave. 
 
 In the fame manner, a wave to which an obftacle, as AO, 
 is oppofed, continues to move between O and N; but expands 
 itfetf towards R, in a part of a circle, whofe centre is not 
 very far from O. — Hence, we may eafily deduce what mull 
 be the motion of a wave behind an obftacle, as MN. 
 Vol. IL 
 
 IVaves arc often produced by the motion of a tremulous bo- 
 dy, which alfo expand themfelves circularly, though the body 
 goes and returns in a right line ; for the water which is 
 raifed by the agitation, defcending. forms a cavity, which is 
 every where furrounded with a riling. 
 
 Different waves do not difturb one another, when they move 
 according to different directions — The reafon is, that what- 
 ever figure the furface of the water has acquired by the mo- 
 . tion of the waves, there may in that be an elevation and 
 depreffion; as alfo fuch a motion as is required in the motion 
 of a wave. 
 
 1o determine the celerity of the waves, another motion, 
 analogous to theirs, muft be examined. — Suppofe a fluid 
 in the bent cylindric tube EH; (fig 32. J and let the fluid 
 in the leg EF, be higher than in the other leg by the di- 
 ftance ^E ; which difference is to be divided into two equal 
 parts at /'. — The fluid, by its gravity, defcends. in the 
 leg EF, while it afcends equally in the leg EH: fo that 
 when the furface of the fluid is arrived at z, it is at the fame 
 heighth in both legs ; which is the only pofition wherein the 
 liquid can be at reft: but by the celerity acquired in defcend- 
 ing, it continues its motion, and afcends higher in the tube 
 GH; and in EF is deprefled quite to /, except fo much as 
 it is hindered by the friction againft the fides of the tube. — 
 The fluid in the tube GH, which is higher, alfo defcends 
 by its gravity, and lb the fluid in the tube rifes and falls, 
 till it has loft all its motion by the friction. 
 The quantity of matter to be moved, is the whole fluid in 
 the tube ; the moving force, is the weight of the column 
 /E, whofe heighth is always double the diftancc Ei ; which 
 diftance, therefore, increafes and diminifhes in the fame ra- 
 tio with the moving force. — But the diftance E (' , is the 
 fpace to be run through by the fluid, in order to its moving 
 from the pofition EH, to the pofition of reft; which fpace, 
 therefore, is always as the force continually acting upon 
 the fluid : but it is demonftrated, that it is on this account 
 that all the vibrations of a pendulum, ofcillating in a cycloid, 
 are ifochronal ; and therefore, here alfo, whatever be the 
 inequality of the agitations, the fluid always goes and returns 
 in the fame time. — The time in which a fluid thus agi- 
 tated afcends, or defcends, is the time in which a pendulum 
 vibrates, whofe length is equal to half the length of the fluid 
 in the tube, or to half the fum of the lines EF, FG, GH. 
 This length is to be meafured in the axis of the tube. See 
 Pendulum. 
 
 From thefe principles, to determine the celerity of the 
 waves, we muft coniider feveral equal waves following one 
 another immediately j as A, B, C, D, E, F, (fig. 33 .) which 
 move from A towards F: the wave A has run its breadth, 
 when the cavity A is come to C; which cannot be, unlefs, 
 the water at C afcends to the heighth of the top of the wave, 
 and again defcends to the depth C } in which motion, the 
 water is not agitated fenfibiy below the line hi: therefore, 
 this motion agrees with the motion in the tube abovemen- 
 tioned ; and the water afcends and defcends, that is, the 
 wave goes through its breadth, while a pendulum of the 
 length of half BC performs two ofcillations, or while a pen- 
 dulum of the length BCD, that is, four times as long as 
 the firft, performs one vibration. Therefore, the celerity of 
 the wave depends upon the length of the line BCD ; which 
 is greater, as the breadth of the wave is greater, and as the 
 water defcends deeper in the motion of the waves. — In the 
 broadeft waves, which do not rife high, fuch a line as B C D, 
 does not much differ from the breadth of the wave ; and in 
 that cafe, a wave moves its breadth, while a pendulum, equal 
 to that wave, ofcillates once. See Oscillation. 
 In every equable motion, the fpace gone through increafes 
 with the time and the celerity ; wherefore, multiplying the 
 time by the celerity, you have the fpace gone through; 
 whence it follows, that the celerities of the waves, are as the 
 fquare roots of their breadths: for as the times in which 
 they go through their breadths are in that ratio, the fame 
 ratio is required in their celerities, that the products of the 
 times, by their celerities, may be as the breadths of the waves, 
 which are the fpaces gone through. 
 
 Wave Cambtets. See the article Camblet. 
 
 WAVED, or Wavy, a term in heraldry, when a bordurc, 
 or any ordinary or charge in a coat of arms, has its out- 
 lines indented, in manner of the riling and falling of waves. 
 — I his is j Kb called unify, unde, or onde. 
 
 To Wave, is ufed in the fea language, for the making fiens, 
 for a vefiel to come near, or keep off. 
 
 WAVESON, in the admiralty law, a term ufed for fuch 
 goods, as, after fhipwieck, appear fwimming on the waves. 
 
 WAVY. See the article Waved. 
 
 W'AX, Cera, a foft yellowifli matter, whereof the bees form 
 cells to receive their honey. 
 
 Wax is not the excrement of this laborious infect, asthean- 
 tients, and after thcin many of the moderns, have imagined. 
 
 13 X —It 
 
WAX 
 
 -It is properly a juice, exuding out of the (lamina and apices | 
 ■rf i " fr'onJ which it U toped °* b J "fu ° 
 build their combs withal. -It is chiefly afforded b fuch 
 plants as have flowers containing P«MW^ fi ?"S 
 and the bee often ufes no other art to procure it out ot tne 
 flow than rubbing herfelf among the (lamina, by means 
 ! which it is fl&B off and falls on her body, an dftom 
 hence (he wipes it with her legs, and, m fine, collects it 
 inTumps, and P carries it to her cells. See Supplement, article 
 
 ThThoney is formed of a liquid matter, fucked into the 
 body of the little animal: whereas the wax, being a hard 
 fubilance, is gathered only with the fore legs, chaps, W . 
 conveyed thence to the middle legs, and thence ,0 the : m, dl 
 joint of the hind legs, where there »»'£^,*^aM 
 the bowl of a fpoon, to receive it ; and where it is coined 
 into heaps, of a fhape and die of lentils. 
 The bee arrived at the hive " 
 
 WAY 
 
 vith its load of wax, finds fome 
 
 difficulty in unburdening himfelf o fo tenacious am Uter— 
 Frequently, being unable to lay it down himfelf he ca Is 
 for affiihnce, by a particulat motion of the legs and wings , 
 upon which, a number of his companions (freight run a his 
 fuccour, and each with his jaws takes off a final quantity of 
 the wax ; others fucceedingi till their laden fellow be quite 
 difburdened. . , 
 
 Wax makes a very conMerable article in commerce ; the 
 co.lfiimption thereof, throughout the feveral parts of hurope, 
 beins; incredible. — There are two kinds, whit,, and yellow ; 
 the yellow is the native wax, iuft as it comes out of the 
 hive, after expreffing the honey, lie. the white is the fame 
 wax, only purified, walhed, and expofed to the air. 1 he 
 preparation of each follows. 
 Wow-Wax —To procure the wax from the combs for 
 ufe- after feparating the honey from them, in the manner, 
 defcribed under the article Honey ; they put all the matter 
 ' remaining in a large kettle, with a fufficicnt quantity of 
 water ; where, with a moderate fire, they melt it, and then 
 ftrain it through a linen cloth, by a prefs: before cold, they 
 fcum it with a tile, or a piece of wet wood, and cart it, I 
 ■while yet warm, in wooden, earthen, or metalline moulds; 
 having firft anointed them with honey, oil, or water, to pre- 
 vent t°he max from (ticking. — Some, to purify it, make ufe 
 of Roman vitriol, or copperas ; but the true fecret is to melt, 
 fcum it, are. properly, without any ingredients at all. 
 The belt is that of a high colour, an agreeable fine!!, brit- 
 tle, and that does not (tick to the teeth when chewed, it 
 is often fophifticated with rofin, or pitch, coloured with ro- , 
 cou, or turmeric. a 
 By chymiliry, wax yields a white thick oil, refembling but- 
 ter; whence the chymifls call it butter ./tiBj.-Froni this 
 oil is drawn a fecond, as clear as water; both the one and 
 the other are excellent for chilblains.— The fsces remaining 
 in the bag, after expreffing the wax, is ufed both by fur- j 
 j-eons and" farriers, with fuccefs, againft flrams. 
 
 White-W ax. The whitening or blanching of wax, is per- j 
 
 formed by reducing the yellow fort, firft, into little bits or 
 grains, by melting it, and throwing it, while hot, into cold 
 water, or elfe by fpreading it into vety thin leaves, ot cakes. 
 This wax, thus granulated, or flatted, is expofed to the air on 
 linen cloths; whete it remains night and day, having equally 
 need of fun and dew. — Then they melt and granulate it 
 over again feveral times ; (fill laying it out to the air, in the 
 intervals, between the meltings. 
 
 When the fun and dew have at length perfeflly blanched it, 
 they melt it, for the laft time, in a large kettle; out of 
 which they caft it, with a ladle, upon a table, covered over 
 with little round dents or cavities, of the form of the cakes 
 of white wax, as fold by the apothecaries, lie. having firft 
 wetted thofe moulds with cold water, that the wax may be 
 the eafier got out. — Laftly, they layout thefe cakes to the 
 air for two days and two nights, to render it more tranf- 
 parent and drier. 
 This wax is ufed in the making of torches, _ tapers, 
 flambeaux, figures, and other rtm'-works. See Taper, 
 Flambeau, He. 
 
 It is alfo an ingredient in plaiftets, cerats, and divers 
 pomatums, and unguents, for the complexion. See Ce- 
 rate, He, 
 
 Yellow wax is made foft with turpentine, yet retains its na- 
 tural colour. — Red wax, is only the white melted with 
 turpentine, and reddened with Vermillion or alkanett. — 
 Verdegreafe makes it green; and burnt paper, or lampblack, 
 black. — Some travellers tell us of a natural black wax ; af- 
 furing us there are bees, both in the Eaft and Weft-Indies, 
 that make an excellent honey, included in black cells. — Of 
 this wax, they fay, it is, that the Indians make thofe little 
 vafes, wherein they gather their balfam of Tolu. 
 
 Chafe Wax. See the article Ch a f e. 
 
 Virgin Wax, Propolis, is a fort of reddifh wax, ufed by the 
 bees to flop up the clefts, or holes of the hive. — It isappiiet' 
 juft as taken out of the hive, without any art, or prepara- 
 
 tion of boiling, csv. — It is the mod tenacious of any, and 
 is held good for the nerves. ' I'. c 
 
 Scaling Wax, or Spanijh Wax, is a compofition of gum- 
 lacca, melted and prepared with refins, and coloured red 
 with ground cinnabar. See Lacca. 
 W Ax-Candlis. See the article Candle. 
 Wax-work. — Here we muft not forget that pretty inven- 
 tion of M. Benoift, a man famous at Paris for his figures 
 of wax. — Being, by profeffion, a painter, he found the fe- 
 cret of forming moulds on the faces of living perfons, even the 
 faireft and moft delicate, wilhout any danger, either to 
 their health, or complexion : in which moulds he caft mafks 
 at wax ; to which, by his colours, and glafs eyes mutated from 
 natute, he gave a fort of life : infonauch, as when clothed 
 in proper habits, thev bore fuch a relemblance, that is was 
 difficult diftinguifhing'between the copy and the original. 
 Grafting Wax, is a compofition ferving to bind or hx the 
 bud, or graft in the cleft of the flock. ' 
 Inftead of grafting wax, the country gardeners, fee. only 
 ufe clay, over which they lay a piece ot linen cloth, and fo 
 keep it moid; and to prevent its cracking with the heat of 
 the fun, they tie mofs over it.— But the wax otdinanly ufed, 
 is a compoil of one pound and a halt of pitch, a quarter ot 
 a pound of wax, and an ounce of oil of almonds, melted and 
 mixed together; with the addition, in fpnng or autumn, or 
 a moderate quantity of turpentine. 
 
 For cleft-graftinu, whip-grafting, and grafting by approach, 
 Mr Mortimer recommends tempered clay, or foft wax ; but 
 for rind-grafting, clay and horfe-dung. 
 WAXING, Ceratio, in chymiftry, the preparation of any 
 matter to render it fit and difpofed to liquify, or melt, which 
 of itfelf it wa, not. 
 
 This is frequently done, to enable things to penetrate into 
 metals, or other folid bodies. 
 WAX-SCOT, or Wax-shot, Ceragium, in our antient 
 cufloms, money paid twice a year towards the charge oi 
 maintaining lights, or candles in the church. 
 WAY, Via. See Road, and Via ; fee alio Weigh. 
 Roman ways are divided into eonfular, precterian, military, 
 and publie. 1 
 We have four notable ones of thefe in England ; antiently 
 called chimini quatuor, and entitled to the privileges of pax 
 regis. The firft is Watling-Jircet, or Wathcling-Jirctt, lead- 
 ing from Dover to London, Dunftable, Touceltcr, Atter- 
 fton, and the Severn, near the Wrekin in Shropfhirc, ex- 
 tending as far as Anglefea in Wales. — The fecond, called 
 Hikemld, or Ikenild-JIreet, reaches from Southampton, over 
 the river Ifis at Newbridge, thence by Camden and Litch- 
 field, then pafies the Derwent near Derby, fo to Boilover- 
 Caftle, and end, at Tinmouth.— The third, called Pijt-Pfby, 
 becaufc in fome places it was never pcrfcacd, but lies as a 
 large ditch ; leads ' from Cornwall through Devonfhire, by 
 Tetbury near Stow in the Wolds ; and befide Coventry to 
 Lcicefter, Newark, fo to Lincoln.— The foutth, called Erm- 
 I ing, or Erminage-peet, (Iretchcs from S. David's in WSft- 
 i Wale 1 , to Southampton. 
 Milky Way. See the article Galaxy. 
 Way of a fhip, is fometimcs ufed for the fame with the rake, 
 or run of her, forward and afterward on. • 
 But the term is more commonly underftood, in refpefl of 
 her failing — When fhe goes apace, they fay, Jhe hat a 
 good way; and they call the account how fad fhe fails by the 
 log, keeping an account of her way. 
 
 And becaufe mod (hips are apt to fail a little to the lee-ward 
 of their true courfe ; they always in calling up the log- 
 board, allow fomething for her leeward way : which is one 
 point, or more, according to her way of failing. 
 Way of the rounds, themin des rondes, in fortification, is a 
 fpace left for the paffage of the rounds, between the rampart, 
 and the wall of a fottified town. 
 
 This is not now much in ufe ; becaufe the parapet not be- 
 ing above a foot thick, it is foon overthrown by the ene- 
 
 my's camion 
 Covcrt-W ay. 
 Foffe-W AY. 
 Gang-W ay. 
 Hatch-W AY . 
 Sjir-WAV. 
 Water Way. 
 
 ? /-Covert. 
 V Fosse- J/'fly. 
 . . )CjANG-Way. 
 J See the a"iclc< HATCH _ W '„ v . 
 
 V f SFVK-lVay. 
 
 J LWa™-% 
 WAY-WISER, anindrumentfor meafunng the road, ordil- 
 tance gone ; called allfo perambulator, and pedometer, or pe- 
 dometer. See Perambulator, and Pedometer. 
 W A Y W O D E, is properly a tide given the governors of the 
 chief place, in the dominions of the czar of Mulcovy. 
 The palatine-, or governors of province, m Poland, alfo 
 bear the quality of waywodes, or wamiedes. bee fALA- 
 
 The'poles likewife call tbe>inces of Walachia and Mol- 
 davia, wavwdes ; as efteeming them no other, than on the 
 foot of governors; pretending that Walachia and Moldavia 
 
W E A 
 
 W E A 
 
 arc provinces of Poland, which have withdrawn ihemfelves 
 from the obedience of the republic. — Every where elfe thefe 
 are called bofpodars. 
 
 Du Cange fays, that the name wayvjodt is ufed in Dalmatia, 
 Croatia, and Hungary, for a general of an army: andLeun- 
 clavius, in his Pandeds of Turkey, tells us, it ufually figni- 
 fies captain, or commander. 
 WEAK Pulfe, See the article Pulse. 
 
 WEALD, or Weld, the woody part of a country ; as the I 
 JVeald of Kent — It is mif-printed in fome books and maps, : 
 The Wilds of Kent, Suffex, and Surry. 
 
 WEANEL, a country word for a young beaft newly wean- 
 ed, or taken from fucking its dam. 
 
 WEANING, Ablaftat'wn. See Ablactation. 
 
 WEAPONS. See the articles Arm's, and Armour. 
 
 We APON-Salve, a kind of unguent, fuppofed to cure wounds j 
 fympathetically, by being applied, not to the wound, but to 
 the weapon that made it. See Sympathetic Powder, 
 and Transplantation. 
 
 WEAR, or Wee r, a great flank, or dam in a river ; fitted i 
 for the taking of fifb, or for conveying the ftream to the 
 mill. See Fishing. 
 
 WEATHER, the fiate or difpofition of the atmofphere, 
 with regard to the moifturc or drought, heat or cold, wind 
 or calm, rain, hail, froft, fnow, tog, &c. See Atmo- 
 sphere, Rain, Heat, Wind, Hail, Frost, c?V. 
 As it is in the atmofphere that all plants and animals live 
 and breathe, and as that appears to be the great principle of 
 moft animal and vegetable productions, alterations, &zc. — 
 There does not feem any thing in all pliilofophy, of more 
 immediate concernment to us, than the fhite of the weather. 
 —In effect, all living things are only afTemblages, or bun- 
 dles of veflels, whofe juices are kept moving by the preffure 
 of the atmofphere ; and which by that motion maintain 
 life. So that any alterations in the rarity or denfity, the 
 heat, purity, &c. of that, muft neceftarily be attended with 
 proportionable ones in thefe. 
 
 What vaft, yet regular alterations, a little turn of weather 
 makes, in a tube filled with mercury, or lpirit of wine, or 
 in a piece of fixing, zs'c. every body knows, in the common 
 inftance of barometers, thermometers, hygrometers, &c. 
 and it is owing partly to our inattention, and partly to our 
 unequal, intemperate courfe of living, that we do not feel 
 as great and as regular ones in the tubes, chords, and fibres, 
 of our own bodies. 
 
 It is certain, a great part of the brute creation have a fenfi- 
 bility, and fagacity this way, beyond mankind, and yet, 
 without any means or difpofition thereto, more than we ; | 
 except that their veiTels, fibres, &c. being, in other refpecls, j 
 in one equable habitude ; the fame, or a proportionable 
 caufe from without, has always a like, or proportionable ef- 
 fect on them : that is, their veffels arc regular barometers, izfe. I 
 affected only from one external principle, viz, the difpofi- : 
 tion of the atmofphere ; whereas ours are acted on by divers ' 
 from within, as well as without; fome of which check, im- j 
 pede, and prevent the action of others. 
 
 We know of nothing more wanting than a juft theory of the ■ 
 ■weather, on mechanical principles. — But, in order to that, 
 a compleat hiftory of the weather will be required. 
 Were regifters carefully kept in divers parts of the globe, 
 for a good feries of years, we mould be enabled to deter- 
 mine the directions, breadth, and bounds of the winds, and 
 of the weather they bring with them ; the correfpondence 
 between the weather of divers places, and the dependance 
 between one fort and another at the fame place. — In time, 
 no doubt, we might learn to forctel divers great emergen- 
 cies j as, extraordinary heats, rains, frofts, droughts, dearths, 
 plagues, and other epidemical difeafes, &c. 
 The members of our Royal focicty, the French academy of 
 fciences, and divers other authors of note, have made fome 
 effays this way ; but the drinefs and quaintnefs of the fub- 
 ject, has induced them all to drop it. 
 
 Eraf. Bartholin, for inftance, has obfervations of the wea- 
 ther for every day throughout the year 1671 : Mr W. 
 Merle made the like at Oxford, for feven years, with a 
 very remarkable care and accuracy. Dr Plot did the 
 fame at the fame place, for the year 16^4: Mr Hillier, 
 at Cape Corfe, for the years 16S6, 16S7 : Mr Hunt, 
 CifV. at Grcfham. College, for the years 1695, 1696; 
 Mr Derham, at Upminfter in Eilex, for the years 1691, 
 1692, 1697, 1698, 1699, 1703, i~°4i I 7°S J Mr 
 Townley, in Lancafliire, in 1697, 169S ; Mr Cunningham, 
 at Emin in China, for the years 1698, 1699, 1700, 1701; 
 Mr Locke, at Oats in Effex, 1692; Dr Scheuchzer, at 
 Zurich, in 1708; and Dr Tilly, at Pifa, the fame year. 
 See the Philofopb. Tranfacl. 
 
 The form of Mr Derham's obfervations, we give as a fpc- 
 cimenof a journal of this kind j ubferving that he notes the 
 . ftrcngth of the winds, by o, 1, 3, isc. and the quan- 
 tity of rain, as it fell through a tunnel, in pounds and cen- 
 teiltnals. 
 
 Phenomena of the Weather, October 1C97. 
 
 Ujy. Hour. 
 
 Weather 
 
 Mind 
 
 Barometer. 
 
 Kaiu 
 
 27 7 
 
 Fair 
 
 S. W. 1 
 
 29 37 
 
 
 IZ 
 
 Rain 
 
 o.W. by W s 
 
 *9 34- 
 
 
 9 
 
 otormy 
 
 0 
 
 zo ss 
 
 •0 10 
 
 As a fpecimen of the ufe of fuch hiftories, we fhall add fome 
 general remarks, drawn from them by Mr Derham ; and, 
 — r°. That foggy weather makes the mercury rife in the 
 barometer, as well as the north wind — T he caufe, he 
 fuggefts, probably enough, to be the acceffion of the load of 
 vapour, to the former weight of the atmofphere. 
 Miflhig weather, he likewife obferves to have the like ef- 
 fect. ' 
 
 2 0 . The colds and heats in England and Switzerland, begin 
 and end nearly about the fame time: nay, and any remark- 
 able weather, efpecially if it continue any while, affects one 
 place as well as the other. 
 
 3". That the remarkably cold days in June, anno 170S, 
 were found, in Switzerland, to precede ours, commonly by 
 above five da^s, or more ; and that the remarkable heats in 
 the following months, began to abate in both places about 
 the fame time ; only fomewhat fooner here than there. 
 4°. That though the winds in both places frequently agree, 
 yet they oitener differ. 
 
 5 0 . That the barometer is always lower at Zurich than at 
 Upminfter, by fometimes one, and fometimes above two 
 Englifh inches; but t;ie common difference is about half an 
 inch. Which may be folved, either by fuppofmg Zurich fitu- 
 ate one fourth of a mile higher above the level of the fea 
 than Upminfter; or elfe, by fuppofmg that part of the ter- 
 raqueous globe, as lying nearer the line, to be higher, and 
 more diftant trom the centre than ours is, which lies nearer 
 the pole. 
 
 6". That the barometers generally rife and fall together at 
 far diftant places: though this agreement of the barometer is 
 not fo conltant between Zurich and Upminfter, as in places 
 nearer home, viz. at London and Paris ; where, again the 
 agreement is not fo great as between Upminfter and Lan- 
 cafhire. 
 
 7 0 . That the variations of the barometer are greateft, as 
 the places are neareft the pole. — Thus, e. gr. the mercury 
 at London has a greater range by two or three lines than at 
 Paris; and at Pans, a greater than at Zurich. — In fome 
 places near the equinoctial, there is fcarce any variation at 
 all. See Barometer. 
 
 8°. That the rain in Switzerland and Italy is much greater 
 in quantity, throughout the year, than that in Effex; yet 
 the rains are more frequenr, i, e. there are more rainy days 
 in Efiex, than at either of thole places. — The proportion 
 of the annual rains that fall in feveral places we have any 
 good obfervations of, ffand thus: At Zurich, the depth of 
 the annual rain, at a medium, is about 3 2 i Englifh inches ; 
 at Pifa, 43 J ■ at Paris, 23; at Lifle in i landers, 23! in- 
 ches; at Townley in Lancafnire, 42 f ; at Upminfter, 19 X, 
 See Rain. 
 
 9 0 . That cold contributes greatly to rain ; and that, appa- 
 rently, by condenfing the fufpended vapours, and making 
 them defcend. — Thus, very cold months, or feafons, are 
 generally followed immediately by very rainy ones $ and cold 
 Summers are always wet ones. 
 
 io°. That high ridges of mountains, as the Alps, and the 
 fnows they are covered withal, not only affect the neigh- 
 bouring places by the colds, rains, vapours, &c. they pro- 
 duce, but even diftant countries, as England, often partake 
 or' their effects. — Thus, the extraordinary colds, December 
 1 70S, and the relaxations thereof, were felt in Italy ^nd 
 Switzerland, feveral days before they reached us: an indi- 
 cation, Mr Derham thinks, that they were derived from 
 them to us. 
 
 Prognojlics uA the Weather. — We do not here mean to 
 obtrude the idle, arbitrary obfervations of fanciful people 
 upon our reader. — That cloud of popular predictions from 
 the brute world, which partly the iag.icity, and partly the 
 credulity of our countrymen have efUblifned, we fet afide ; 
 as not flowing from any natural, neccflary relations, that we 
 know of, in the things themfelves. — Such is the foretelling 
 of rain and wind, from water-fowls flocking to land, or 
 land-fowls to the water ; from birds pruning their feathers, 
 geefe cackling, crows cawing loud, and flying in companies, 
 f wallows chattering, and flying low, peacocks crying much, 
 afles braying, deer fighting, foxes and wolves howling, 
 fifties playing, ants and bees keeping within doors, moles 
 caffing up earth, earthworms creeping out, err. — We fhall 
 offer nothing on this head, but what has fome vifible foun- 
 dation in the nature of things ; and which lets fome light 
 into the caufe and reafon ot the weather icfelf, or difcoveis 
 fome notable effects thereof. 
 
 1*. Then, 
 
W E A 
 
 lo Then, a thick, dark sky, lofting for fome time, without 
 tlther tun or rain, always becomes fir jl fair, thenfo,d,i. e. it 
 changes to a fair clear Iky, before it turns to rain.— 1 his, uc 
 Rev Mr CUrkc obferved, who kept a rcgifter of the weather 
 for ioyeare, fince put into Mr Derham's hands by his grand- 
 fon the learned Dr Samuel Clarke ; he fays, he fcarcc ever 
 knew it to fail; at leaft, when the wind was in any of the 
 eafterly points ; but Mr Derham has obferved the rule to 
 hold good be the wind where it will. And the caufe isob- 
 vious.— The atmofphere is replete with vapours, which, 
 though fufficient to refledt and intercept the fun's rays from 
 us, yet want deniity to defcend ; and while the vapours con- 
 tirue in the fame Hate, the weather will do fo too. — Ac- 
 cordingly, fnch weather is generally attended with moderate 
 warmth, and with little or no wind to difturb the vapours, 
 and an heavy atmofphere to fuftain them f the barometer be- 
 ing commonly high. — But when the cold approaches, and, 
 by condenfing, drives the vapours into clouds or drops, then, 
 ■way is made for the fun-beams j till the fame vapours, being 
 by further condenfation formed into rain, fall down in drops. 
 2°. A change In the warmth of the weather, is generally fol- 
 lowed by a change in the wind —Thus, the northerly and 
 foutherly winds, commonly efteemcd the caufes of cold and 
 warm weather, are really the effects of the cold or warmth 
 of the atmofphere-. of which Mr Derham allures us he has 
 had fo many confirmations, that he makes no doubt of it. — 
 Thus, it is common to fee a warm foutherly wind fuddenly 
 changed to the north, by the fall of fnow or hail ; or to fee 
 the wind, in a cold frofty morning, north, when the fun has 
 well warmed the earth and air, wheel towards the fouth ; and 
 again turn northerly or eaderly in the cold evening. ^ 
 3'. Msjl vegetables expand their flowers and down in fun- 
 Jhiny weather ; and towards the evening, and againjl rain, 
 cioje them again ; efpeclally at the beginning of their flower- 
 ing, when their feeds are tender and fenfible. — This is vifi- 
 ble enough in the down of dandelion, and other downs : 
 and eminently in the flowers of pimpernel ; the opening and 
 {hutting of which, Gerard obferves, arc the countryman's 
 weatherwlfer, whereby he forctels the wither of the follow- 
 ing day. — The rule is, if the flowers be clofe fhut up, it 
 betokens rain and foul weather : if they be fpread abroad, 
 fair weather. Grer. Herb. Lib. II. 
 
 Eft 13 alia [arbor in Tylis] fimllis, folioftor (amen, rofelque 
 forts ; quern noftu comprimens, aperire Inclplt foils exortu, 
 meridie expandlt. Incol/s dormire eum dicunt. Plin. Nat. 
 Hid. Lib. XII. cap. II. 
 
 The dalk of trefoil, my lord Bacon obferves, fwells againft 
 rain, and grows more upright : and the like may be obferved, 
 though not fo fenlibly, in the ftalks of moft other plants. — 
 He adds, that in theltubble fields there is found a fmall red 
 flower, called, by the country-people, pimpernel; which 
 opening in a morning, is a fure indication or a fine day. 
 That vegetables mould be affected by the fame caufes that 
 affect the weather, is very conceivable ; if we confidcr them 
 as fo many hygrometers, and thermometers, confiding of 
 an infinite number of tracheae, or ah'-vcdels ; by which they 
 have an immediate communication with the air, and par- 
 take of its moidure, heat, csV . — Thefe trachea; are very 
 vifible in the leaf of the fcabiofe, vine, ISc. See Plant, 
 Vegetable, Esff. 
 
 Hence it is, that all wood, even the hardeft and moft folid, 
 fwells in moift weather ; the vapours eahly infinuating into 
 the pores thereof ; efpccially of that which is lightelt and 
 drieft. — And hence we derive a very extraordinary life of 
 wood, viz. for breaking rocks for mill-ftones. 
 The method at the quarries is this. — Having cut a rock 
 into a cylinder, they divide that into feveral letter cylinders, 
 by making hole* at proper diftances round the great one : 
 thefe holes they fill with fo many pieces of fallow wood, 
 dried in an oven; which, in moift weather, becoming im- 
 pregnated with the humid corpufcles of the air, {well; and, 
 like wedges, break or cleave the rock into feveral ftones. 
 Prediclions of the Weather from the barometer. See Baro- 
 meter. 
 
 "WEATHER-COCK, or Weather-vane, a move- 
 able vane, in form of a cock, or of other fhape, placed on 
 high, to be turned rourftf according to the direction of the 
 wind, and point out what quarter the wind blows from. 
 
 WEATHER-GLASSES, are inftruments contrived to 
 indicate the ftate, or difpofition of the atmofphere, as to 
 heat, cold, 1 gravity', moifture, &c. to meafure the changes 
 befalling in thofe refpecis j and, by thofe means, to predict 
 the alteration of weather, as rains, winds, fnow, isc. 
 Under the clafs of weather-glajfa, arc comprehended baro- 
 meters, thermometers, hygrometers, manometers, and anemo- 
 meters, of each whereof there are divers kinds : fee their 
 theories, conft ructions, ufes, kinds, ts'c. under the refpuc 
 live articles, Barometer, Thermometer, Hvgro 
 meter, &c. 
 
 WEATHER-BOARD, in the fea language, that fide of 
 a fliip which is to the windward. 
 
 WED 
 
 anus. Dtt uii-k. 
 
 1 f Cloth. 
 Stc. f See s Tapestry, &c„ 
 j L Stockings. 
 
 WEATHER-GAGE at Tea. — A fhip is (aid to have the 
 weather-ga?e of another, when fhe is to windward of her. 
 
 WEATHERING, a doubling, or failing by a point, or 
 place. 
 
 To weather a ftnp, is to get to- 'the windward of her. 
 
 The Weathering of a hawk, among falconers, is the fct- 
 ting her abroad to take the air. 
 
 WEAVING, the art or act of working a web of cloth, 
 filk, linen, or other duff", on a loom, with a fliuttle. 
 It is difficult to fay, with any aflurance, who it is we owe 
 this admirable invention to, unlefs we chufe to afcribe it to 
 the fpider, that poiibnous, but ingenious little infect, which 
 draws certain infinitely fine threads from its own fubftanco 
 through papilla; near its anus, bee Silk. 
 
 Weaving of Cloth. 
 
 We a v i n g of faPtftry, 
 
 Stocking Weaving. 
 
 WEB, a fort of plexus, or texture, formed of threads inter- 
 woven with each other; fome whereof are extended in 
 length, and called the warp ; and others drawn acrofi. them, 
 called the woof. 
 
 Spider's Web, or Cob-VS eb, is a very delicate and wonder- 
 ful plexus, which that infect fpins out of its own bowels ; 
 fetving it as a fort of toil, or net to catch flies, ts'c. withal. 
 Eor the manner wherein the fpider fpins his web, the ad- 
 mirable mechanifm of the parts fubfervieiu thereto, and die 
 ufes thereof, fee Silk. 
 
 Dr Lifter tells us, that attending nearly to a fpider weaving 
 a net, he obferved it fuddenly to dehft in the mid- work ; 
 and turning its tail to the wind, it darted out a thiead, with 
 the violence and rtream we fee water fpout out of a jet : 
 ttiis thread, taken up by the wind, was immediately carried 
 to fome fathoms long ; (till iftuing out of the belly of the 
 animal. — By and by the fpider leaped into the air, ami die 
 thread mounted her up fwiftly. — After this difcovery, be 
 made the like obfervation in near thirty different forrs.'of 
 fpiders ; and found the air filled with young and old, failing 
 on their threads, and doubtlefs feizing gnats and other in- 
 fects in their pafTage : there being often manifeft figns of 
 daughter, legs and wings of flics, is'c. on thefe threads, as 
 well as in their webs below. 
 
 Dr Hulfe difcovered the fame thing about the fame time — ■ 
 In a letter of Dr Lifter to Mr Ray, he thinks there is a 
 fair hint of the darting of fpiders in Ariftotle, HijL An. 
 Lib. IX. cap. 39. and in Pliny, Lib. X. cap. 74. But lor 
 their failing, the antients are filent, and bethinks it was firlt 
 fecn by him. — In another letter to Mr Ray, dated January 
 1670, fpeaking of the heighth fpiders are able to fly to, 
 he fays, '* Lalt October, esc. 1 took notice that the air 
 ** was very full of webs 3 I forthwith mounted to the top 
 " of the higheft fteeple on the Minder, [in York] and 
 " could there difcern them yet exceeding high above 
 * c me." 
 
 Pin and Wer. See Pannus. 
 
 WEDGE, Cuueus, in mechanics, the lad of the five powers, 
 or fimple machines. 
 
 The wedge is a triangular prifm, whofe bafes arc equilateral 
 acute-angled triangles. 
 
 Authors are divided about the principle whence the wedge de- 
 rives its power. ■ — Aridolle confiders it as two levers of the 
 fir ft kind, inclined toward each other, and acting oppofue 
 ways. — Guido Ubaldus, Merfennus, &c. will have them 
 levers of the fecond kind. — But Fr. de Lan'is fhews, that the 
 wedge cannot be reduced to any lever at all. 
 Others refer the wedge to the inclined plane. — Others, a- 
 gain, with De Stair, deny the wedge to have fcarce any force 
 at all ; and afcribe much the greateft part to the mallet .that 
 drives it. — But the lateft authors agree to refer the e deft of 
 the wedge, to the cochlea, or fcrew. 
 
 Its doctrine is contained in this propofition. — ■** If a power 
 *« be applied to a wedge, in fuch manner, as that the line of 
 « directionCD, {Tab. Mechanics, fig. 5 3.) perpendicular to 
 " A B, is to the refiftance to be overcome, as A B to C D ; 
 " the power will be equal to the refiftance." 
 Or thus : " If the power directly applied to the head of the 
 " wedge, be to the refiftance to be overcome by the wedge, 
 " as the thicknefs of the wedge is to its heighth ; then the 
 " power will be equivalent to its refiftance ; and, if increaf- 
 " ed, wi-il overcome it." 
 
 For the firmnefs whereby the parts of the obftack*, fuppofe 
 wood, adhere to one another, is the refiftance to be over- 
 come by the wedge See Fi rmn ess, and Resistance. 1 
 Now it is evident, that while the wedge is drove into* the 
 wood, the way 01 length it has gone is B H, (fig. 54. ) and 
 D C is the way or length gone in the lame tune, by the 
 impeiiimcnt; that is, the parts C and D o! the wood, arc 
 fo far divided afundcr : and according as the wedge is drove 
 down farther and farther along hs heighth ; to the parts C 
 and D of the wood, are divided more and more, along the 
 thicknefs of the wedge. 
 
 llcnce, 
 
WEE 
 
 W E I 
 
 Hence, if the thicknefs of the wedge, (that is, die way of the 
 impediment, and confequently its velocity) be to the hcighth 
 of the wedge (that is, the way, and confequently the velo- 
 city of the power) as the power to the impediment, or re- 
 hftance; then the momentum of the power, and the impe- 
 diment, will be equal the one to the other ; and consequently 
 the power, being increafed, will overcome the refiftance. 
 Hence, i°. the power equivalent to half the refinance, is to it 
 as AC to DC, Jig. 53. that is, as the whole fine to the co- 
 tangent of half the angle of the wedge ADC. — And, 2'. as 
 the tangent ot a lefs angle is lets than that of a greater, the 
 power muft have a greater proportion to half the refinance, 
 if the angle be greater, than if lefs. — Confequently, the 
 acuter the wedge is, the more does it increafe the power. 
 To the wedge may be referred all edge-tools, and inltruments 
 which have a tharp point, in order to cut, cleave, flit, chop, 
 pierce, bore, or the like; as knives, hatchets, {words, bod- 
 kins, &c. 
 
 WEDLOCK. See Marriage, Wife, Husband, &c. 
 WEDNESDAY. See the article Month, Day, tec. 
 //-Wednesday. Sec the article km-Wednefday . 
 W EED, a common name of all rank and wild herbs, that 
 
 grow of themfelvcs, to the detiiment of other ufeiul herbs 
 
 they grow among. See Plant, Herb, tec 
 Dyer's Weed, wcodzvax, or genijla tintlorla. See Dying. 
 Fuller's Weed. See the articles Thistle, and Teazle. 
 Weed, in the miners language, denotes the degeneracy of a 
 
 load or vein of fine metal, into an ufelefs marcafite. 
 Weeds, alfo denote a peculiar habit, worn by the relicts oi 
 
 perfons deceafed, by way of mourning See Mo whninu 
 WEEK, Stptimana, tiebdamada, in chronology, a divilion ol 
 
 time, comprifing (even days. 
 
 The origin of this divifion of weeks, or of computing time 
 by fevenths, is greatly controverted. — Some wiil have it to 
 take its rife from the four quarters or intervals of the tnoon, 
 between her changes of phafes, which being about Seven 
 days diftant, gave occafion to the divifion. 
 Be this as it will, the divifion is certainly very anticnt. — 
 The Syrians, Egyptians, and moil of the oriental nations, 
 appear to have ufed it from all antiquity: though it did not 
 get footing in the weft, till Chriltianity brought it in : the 
 .Romans reckoned their days not by fevenths, but by ninths ; 
 and the antient Greeks by decads, or tenths. 
 Indeed, the Jews divided their time by weeks, but it was 
 upon a different principle from the other eaftern nations. — 
 God himfelf having appointed them to work fix days, and 
 to reft the feventh, in order to keep up the fenfe and re- 
 membrance of the creation; which being effected in fix days, 
 he refted the feventh. 
 
 Some authors will even have the ufe weeks , among the 
 other eailern nations, to have proceeded from the jews; 
 but with little appearance of probability. — It is with better 
 reafon that others fuppofe the ufe of weeks among the hea- 
 thens of the eaft, to be a remain of the tradition oi the 
 creation, which they had ftill retained with diver- others. 
 This is the opinion of Grotius, De Veritat. Rellg. Chriji. 
 Lib. I. who likewife proves, that not only throughout the 
 caft, but even among the Greeks, Italian., Celta:, Sclavi, 
 and even the Romans themfelvc>, the days were divided in- 
 to weeks ; and that the feventh day was in extraordinary ve- 
 neration. — This appears from jofeph. adv. Appion. II. 
 Philo De Creatione, Clem. Alexand. Strom. Lib. V. — 
 Though Hclmoldus, Lib. I. cap. S4. Philoftratus, Lib. III. 
 cap. 13. Dion. Lib. XXXVIII. Tibullus, Lucian, Homer, 
 Callimachus, Suetonious, Herodotus, tec. who mention the 
 feptenary divifion of days as very antient, fuppofe it to have 
 been derived from the Egyptian.. 
 
 The Days cj the week were denominated by the Jews, from 
 the order of their fucceifion from the fabbath. — Thus, the 
 day next after the fabbath, they called the firjl of the fab- 
 bath, the next] the jecond of the fabbath, and (o of the reft; 
 except the fixth, which they call parajceve, or preparation 
 of the fabbath. 
 
 The like method is frill kept up by thcChriflian Arab-, Per- 
 fians, Ethiopian?, tec — The antient heathens denominated 
 the days of the week horn the feven planets ; which names are 
 'ftill generally retained among the Chriftians of the weft! — 
 Thus, the firft day* was called fun-day, dies folis ; the fecond 
 moon-day, dies lurtas, tec. a practice the more natural on 
 Dion's principle, who fays, the Egyptians took the divifion 
 ot the week itfelf from the feven planets. 
 In effect, the true reafon of thefc denominations fecms to be 
 founded in aftrology — For thealtrologers. diiiributjngt'be go- 
 vernment and direction of all the hours in iheweek among the 
 feven plants, ^ ^ q J 2 9 , fo as that the government 
 of the firft hour of the hut day fell to Saturn, that of. the 
 feconaday to Jupiter, tec they gave each day the name of the 
 planet which, according to their doctrrne, prelided over the 
 firft hour thereof: and that, according to : the order (pacified 
 above ; and which is included in the following technical verfe : 
 Vol.. II. 
 
 Poji SIM SUM fcquitnr, pallida twa.fuUjl 
 Wherein, the capital letters SIM SUM and 'L, arc ttie 
 initial letters of the planets, — So- that, the order of the 
 planets in the week, bears little relation to that in which 
 they follow in the heavens : the former being founded on an 
 imaginary power each planet has, in its turn, on the firft hour 
 of each day. 
 
 Dion. Caftius gives another reafon of the denomination, 
 fetched from the celeftial harmony. — For it being obferved 
 that the harmony of the diateffaron, which confifts in the ra- 
 tio of 4. to 3, is of great force and effect in mufic; it was 
 judged meet to proceed directly from Saturn to the Sun ; be- 
 caute, according to the old fyltem, there are three planets 
 between Saturn and the Sun, and four from the Sun to the 
 Moon 
 
 To find the accomplishment of Daniel's prophecy of the Mef- 
 
 fiab, the definition, rebuilding, tec. of the temple, chap ix. 
 
 ver. 24, tec the Critics generally agree to underftand weeks 
 
 of years, inftead of weeks of days. 
 Emoer Weeks. See the article Ember. 
 Pajjion Week, or the holy Week, is the Inft week in Lentj 
 
 wherein the chuich celebrates the myilery of our Saviour's 
 
 death and paliion. 
 
 This is alfo fomctimes called the great week — Its infti- 
 tution is generally referred, both by Proteftants and Papifts, 
 to the times 6i the apoftles. — All the days of that week were 
 held as fa Its : no wo.k was done on them ; no juitice diitri- 
 buted ; hut the prifoncrs were ordinarily fet at liberty, tec. 
 even pleaiures otherwifi allowed , were at this time prohibited. 
 T he ofculum chariiatis was now forborn ; and divers morti- 
 fications practifed by all forts of people, and even the empe- 
 rors themfelves. 
 
 Rogation VV.£^k. Sec the article Rogation. 
 
 Week, or Wieck. of a candle^ &c the cotton match in a 
 candle or lamp. See Candle, Lamp, tec, 
 
 WEEPING See the article T EARS. 
 
 WEER. See the article Wear. 
 
 vV EFT, a kind of web, or thing woven : as, a weft or trefs 
 
 of hair. See Web, H a i R, Ti ssue, tec. 
 WEIR See the article Waif. 
 
 WEIGH*, Way, or Why, maga % a weight of checfe, 
 wool, tec. containing zj6 pounds averdupois — Of corn, the 
 weigh contains 40 bulhels ; of barley of malt, 6 quarters. 
 — -In fome places, as Efi'ex, the weigh of checfe is 300 
 pounds. See Measure. 
 * — E t dec imam cafei fui de Hating, prater imam feifant qua 
 pertinet ad ectlrjiam dc A. Mon. Angl. where peija feeras to 
 be ufed for'a wetgp. — Coke alfo freaks of weighs of bay fait. 
 WEIGHER, an officer in diveis ciries, appointed to 
 weigh the commodities bought or ibid, in a public balance, 
 tec, 
 
 Thefe weighers arc generally obliged by oath, to do juftice 
 to both parties; and to keep a regilter of the things they 
 weigh.— In Amfterdam there are twelve weighers, eftablifti- 
 ed into a kind of office. 
 
 As it was formerly allowed them to touch the firings of the 
 balance in weighing, it was ealy for them to favour either 
 ,thc buyer or feller, according as the one gave them more 
 money than the other, — To prevent which abufe, it was 
 charged on them, by an ordinance of the Lnirgomafters, in 
 I 17191 not to touch the balance in any manner whatever. 
 WEIGHING, the act of examining a body in the balance, 
 to find its weight. 
 1 The dirtillers in London weigh their veiiels when full; and 
 for half a hogfnead, which is 3 1 gallons and an half, allow 
 zoo one quarter and 1 1 pounds for the calk and liquor. — 
 For a puncheon, they aiiow 600 one cjuarter and z pounds; 
 for a canary pipe 800 a half and 17 pounds. 
 W£iCHiNG-G>jf7(V, a machine contrived by San£torius, to de- 
 termine the quantity of matter carried off from the body, 
 and that of food taken at a meal ; and to warn the feeder 
 when he had cat his quantum. 
 
 That ingenious author having obferved, with many others, 
 that a great part of our difordtrs a rife from tiie excefs in the 
 quantity of our foods, more than in the quality therecf ; as 
 alfo how much a fixed portion, once well adjuitcd v.-ouldy 
 if kept to regularly, contiibute to health ; bethought himfelf of 
 an expedient to that purpofe — The refult w^s the weighing- 
 chair : which was a chair fixed at one arm of a fort 0[ ba- 
 lance, wherein a perlbii being ieatcd at mca*, as loan .as he 
 had eat his allowance, the increafe of weight made his feat 
 preponderate: fo that, defcending to. the O iour.d, he kit his 
 table, victuals, and all out of reach 
 
 Weighing of the air. See the article Weight of air. 
 
 Weighing Anchor, in the fea language, is the drawing up 
 the anchor out of the ground it h«4 been ca!l into; jn order 
 to fet fail, or quit -a port, road, or the like* See An- 
 chor, f 
 
 ; The anchor is ordinarily weighed or recovered by means of 
 the capftan ; fomctimes by a wiudlafs. 
 
 13 V WEIGHT, 
 
WEI 
 
 WEIGHT, Gravity, Pondus, in phyfics, a quality in natu- 
 ral bodies, whereby they tend downwards, toward the cen- 
 tre of the earth. . , , t. 
 Or, weight may be denned, in a lefs limited manner, to be 
 a power" inherent in all bodies, whereby they tend to feme 
 common point, called the centre of gravity; and that with a 
 greater or lefs velocity, as they are more or lefs denfe, Or as 
 the medium they pah. through is more or lefs rare. 
 In the common ufe of language, weight and gravity arc con- 
 fidered as one and the fame thing. —Some authors, _ how- 
 ever, make a difference between them j and hold gravity on- 
 ly to exprefs a mjks 9 or endeavour to defcend; but weight 
 an actual defcent. 
 
 But there is room for a better diftinSion. —In effect, one 
 may conceive gravity to be the quality, as inherent m the 
 body i and weight, the fame quality, exerting itfelf, either 
 againft an obftacle, or otherwife. 
 
 Hence, weight may be diftinguiflied, like gravity, into abfo- 
 lute, and fpecific. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton demonftrates, that the weights of all bodies, 
 at equal diftances from the centre of the earth, are proporti- 
 onable to the quantities of matter each contains. — Whence it 
 follows, that the weights of bodies have not any dependance 
 on their forms, or textures ; and that all fpaces are not equal- 
 ly full of matter. 
 
 Hence alfo it follows, that the weight of the fame body is 
 different, on the furface of different parts of the earth j by 
 reafon its figure is not a fphere, but a fpheroid. 
 The law of this difference, the fame author gives in the fol- 
 lowing theorem. — " The increafeof zveight as you proceed 
 *' from the equator to the poles, is, nearly, as the verfed 
 *jj fine of double the latitude ; or, which amounts to the 
 * c fame, as the fquare of the right fine of the latitude." 
 Therefore, fince the latitude of Paris is 48 0 50', that of a 
 place under the equator 00' 00' ; and that of a place under 
 the pole 90 0 oo y ; and the verfed fines of the double latitudes 
 are 1 '33 4,00000 and 20000, the radius being 10000 ; and 
 the weight at the pole, is to the weight at the equator, as 230 
 to 229 i and the excefs of weight at the pole, to thr.t at the 
 equator, as 1 to 229 : the excefs of gravity in the latitude of 
 Paris, to that under the equator, will be as t x ih%l£- to 
 229, or as 5667, to 2290000; and therefore, the whole 
 weights in thofe places, will be to each other as 2295667, to 
 3200000, 
 
 Hence, alfo, as the lengths of pendulums that perform their 
 vibrations in equal times, are as their weights ; and the 
 length of a pendulum, which in the latitude of Paris vibrates 
 ..feconds, is three Paris feet, and eight lines £: the length of 
 a pendulum, that vibrates feconds under the equator, will be 
 fhort of a fynchronous pendulum at Paris, by one line, and 
 an 87000th part of a line. Phil. Nat. Pr inc. Math, Lib. 
 
 in. P . 382, &t. 
 
 A body immerged in a fluid fpccifically lighter than itfelf, 
 lofes fo much of its weight, as is equal to the weight of a 
 quantity of the fluid of the fame bulk with itfelf. 
 Hence, a body lofes more of its zveight in a heavier than in a 
 lighter fluid ; and therefore weighs more in a lighter, than a 
 heavier fluid. 
 
 To find the weight of any quantity of a fluid, e. gr. of the 
 wine contained in a hogfhead. — Find the bulk or quantity 
 of the liquor by the rules of gauging. See Gauging. 
 Sufpend a cubic inch of lead therein by a horfe-hair ; and by 
 a balance note the weight loft. — This will be the zveight of 
 a cubic inch of the fluid. 
 
 "Wherefore, fince in a homogeneous fluid, the we ight is pro- 
 portionable to the bulk; the weight of the fluid will be found 
 by the rule of three. — Thus, if the capacity of the hogfhead 
 be 88 cubic feet, and the cubic foot of wine be 6S pounds ; 
 the whole weight of the wine will be 5984. , 
 The weight of a cubic foot of water, has been determined 
 by feveral ; but as in different fprings, is'c. the weight of the 
 water is different, and there is even a difference in the fame 
 ■water at different times ; it is no wonder the obfervations of 
 the feveral authors lliould be found very different. — Dr 
 Wiberd, by repeated experiments, found a cubic foot of 
 water to weigh 76 pounds troy. 
 Weight, Pondus, in mechanics, is any thing to be raifed, 
 fuftained, or moved by a machine; or any thing that in any 
 manner refifts the motion to be produced. See Mot 1 on, fere. 
 In all machines, there is a natural ratio between the weight 
 and the moving power. — If the weight be increafed, the 
 power muft be fo too; that is, the wheels, f?Y. are to be 
 multiplied, and fo the time increafed, or the velocity dimi- 
 niftied. 
 
 « The centre of gravity F, (Tab. Mechanics, fig. 55.) 0 f a 
 *' body I H, together with the weight of the body, being given ; 
 ** to determine the point M, in which, lying on an horizon- 
 « tal plane, a given weight G, hung in L, cannot remove 
 " the body IH out of its horizontal tituation," 
 
 W E I 
 
 Conceive a weight hung in the centre of gravity F, equal 
 to the weight of the whole body IH, and find the com- 
 mon centre of gravity M, of that and the given weight 
 G. — If the point M be laid on the horizontal plane; the 
 'weight G will not be able to move the body HI out of its 
 place. 
 
 Suppofe, e. gr. F the centre of gravity of the ftafF, which is 
 diftant from its extremity, by the fpace IF 20 inches; the 
 bucket of water to weigh 24 pounds, and the zveight of the 
 ftaffto be 2 LF — 1 8 ounces: we fhall find LM=^LF.F. 
 (G-j-F)T= 18. 2 : 22 : : 18 : r 1 = 16-A.; fo that it is noi 
 wonder the bucket hung on the ftafF Itri, laid on the table, 
 does not fall. 
 
 " Thfe centre of gravity C, (fig. $6Q of a body AB, to- 
 " gether with its weight G, being given; to determine 
 " the points L and M, wherein props N and O are to be 
 * c placed, that each may beat any given proportion of the 
 
 " weight." >}U ' * , *T 
 
 In the horizontal line A B, paffing through the centre of gra- 
 vity C, afluifie the right fines MC and CL in the given 
 ratio. — Props, then, N, O, placed in tllefe points, will be 
 prefled in the given ratio. 
 
 Hence, if in the points M, L, in lieu of props, you place 
 the fhouldera, or arms of porters, Sfc. they will be able to 
 bear the burden alike ; if their fhares be proportioned to their 
 ftrengths. — Thus we have a way or d iff. ribu ting a burden 
 in any given ratio. 
 
 Weight of the atmofphert. Sec Atmosphere. 
 
 Weight, in commerce, denotes a body of a known weight, 
 appointed to be put in the balance againfl other bodies, whofe 
 weight is required, 
 
 Thefe weights are ufually of lead, iron, or brafs; though in 
 divers parts of the Eaft-Indies they are common flints, and 
 in fome places, a fort of little beans. 
 
 The fecurity of commerce depending, in good meafure, on 
 the juftnefs of thefe weights ; there is fcarce any nation, but 
 has taken proper meafures to prevent the falfification thereof, 
 — The fureft means are the Itamping, or marking them by 
 proper officers, from fome original or ftandard, depofited 
 where rtcoui fe may be had to them. 
 
 This expedient is very anticnt ; and many authors are of opi- 
 nion, that what among the Jews was called JliekA of the 
 jsncluary, was not any particular kind of weight, different 
 from the common one; but a ftandard or original weight, 
 pruferved by the priefts in the fantStuary. See Shekel, 
 and Sanct v a ay. 
 
 Thus, alfo, in England, the ftandard of weights is kept in 
 the Exchequer, by a particular officer, called the clerk, or 
 comptroller of the market. — In France, the ftandard zveight 
 is kept under feveral keys, in the cabinet of the cour des 
 Monnoyes-. See Standard. 
 
 Mult nations, wherein there is anything of commerce flou- 
 rUbing, have their particular weights; and even fometimes 
 different weights in the different provinces, and for the dif- 
 ferent kinds of commodities. 
 
 This diverfity of weights, makes one of the molt perplexing 
 articles in commerce; but it is irremediable. — The reducing 
 the weights of different nations to one, is not only impracti- 
 cable ; but even the reduction of thofe of the fame nation : 
 witnefs thofe vain attempts made for reducing the weights 
 in France, by fo many of their kings, Charlemaign, Philip 
 the long, Louis XI. Francis I. Henry II. Charles IX 
 Henry III. Louis XIV. 
 
 Weights may be diftinguifhed into antient, and modern, fo- 
 reign, and dome/lie. 
 Modern Weights, ufed in the feveral parts of Europe, and 
 the Levant. 
 
 Englijh Weights.— By the twenty feventh chapter of Mag- 
 na Charta, the weights are to be the fame all over England ; 
 but for different commodities there are two different forts, 
 viz, troy weight, and averdupois weight. 
 The origin from which they are both raifed, is the grain of 
 wheat, gathered in the middle of the ear. 
 
 In Troy Weight, 24 of thefe grains make a penny weight 
 ftcrling; 20 penny weight make an ounce; and 12 ounces a 
 pound. 
 
 By this zveight we weigh gold, filver, jewels, feeds, and 
 liquors. — The apothecaries alfo ufe the troy pound, ounce, 
 and grain; but they differ from the reft, in the intermediate 
 divifions. — They divide the ounce into 8 drachms ; the 
 drachm into 3 fcruples; and the fcruple into 20 grains. 
 In Averdupois Weight, the pound contains 16 ounces; but 
 the ounce is lefs by near T V tnan the troy ounce; this 
 latter containing 490 grains, and the former only 44?. — 
 The ounce contains 16 drachms — 80 ounces averdupois, are 
 only equal to 73 ounces troy; and 17 pounds troy, equal to 
 14 pounds averdupois. 
 
 By averdupois zveight, are weighed mercury and grocery 
 wares, bafe metals, wool, tallow, hemp, drugs, bread , &c. 
 
 \*&m srii ovk* vorl? c mm tec te»A>q «n** ,:on ' Table 
 
W E I 
 
 Table of Troy weight, as ufed by the 
 Goldfmiths, Gfr. Apothecaries. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Penny- weight. 
 
 24 
 
 480 
 
 Ounce. 
 12 [Pound. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Scruple. 
 
 Drachm. 
 
 s-60 
 
 ,6 
 
 Ounce. 
 12 ( Pound. 
 
 Table of Averdupois weight. 
 
 Scruples. 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Drachm. 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Ounce. 
 
 
 
 384 
 
 128 
 
 16 
 
 Pound. 
 
 
 43008 
 
 '+336 
 
 '7.9* 
 
 1 12 
 
 Quintal, or Hundred. 
 
 86o;6t 
 
 186720 
 
 3,-840 
 
 2240 
 
 20 j Tun. 
 
 The moneyers, jewellers, &c. have a particular clals of 
 •ivcights, for gold and precious ftones, viz. carat, and grain; 
 and for filver, the penny-weight, and grain. 
 The moneyers have alfo a peculiar fubdivifion of the grain 
 troy : Thus; 
 
 " Grain -\ > 20 Mites. 
 
 Tlx 
 
 j~Gr,7/«-j - 20 Mites, 
 
 \f% tinto3 2 +-?™"- 
 I £>r<»f f ^ zo /'fj-zj'j. 
 
 t-Ari* J C 24 
 
 + 
 
 The dealers in wool have likewife a particular fet of 
 weights, viz. the fad; weigh, tod, jlone, and clove. See 
 Weigh, &c. — The proportion of which, fee under the 
 article Wool. 
 
 French Weights. — The common or Paris pound, is 16 
 ounces - which they divide two ways : the firft divifion is 
 into two marcs, the marc into 8 ounces ; the ounce into 8 
 gros j the gros into 3 penny-weights ; the penny-weight into 
 24 grains ; the grain equivalent to a grain of wheat. — The 
 fecond divifion of the pound, is into 2 half-pounds ; the half- 
 pound into 2 quarters ; the quarter into 2 half-quarters ; 
 the half-quarter into z ounces ; arid the ounce into two half- 
 eunces. 
 
 The weights of the firft divifion are ufed to weigh gold, fil- 
 ver, and the richer commodities : and the weights of the fe- 
 Cond divifion, for commodities of Iefs value. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Penny -weight. 
 3 Gros. 
 24 j 8 j Ounce. 
 
 192 j 64 j 
 
 384 I 128 j 16 
 
 Marc. 
 
 Pound. 
 
 Ounce. 
 
 Half-quarter pound. 
 Quarter pound. 
 2 Half pound 
 4 2 J Pound. 
 400 J 200 I ,00 I Quintal. 
 
 800 
 
 But the pound is not the fame throughout France. —At 
 Lyons, e. gr. the city pound is only 14 ounces : fo that 100 
 Lyons pounds, make only 83 Paris pounds. — But befide 
 the city pound, they have another at Lyons for filk, con- 
 taining 16 ounces. — At Tholoufe, and throughout the 
 Upper Languedoc, the pound is 13 ounces and \ of Paris 
 •weight. — At Marfeilles, and throughout Provence, the 
 pound is 13 ounces of Paris weight. — At Rouen, befide 
 ihe common Paris pound and marc, they have the weight 
 
 W E I 
 
 of the vicomtg; which is 16 ounces and ± and * of the 
 
 Paris weight. 
 
 The weights enumerated under the two articles of En*lifh 
 and French weights, are the fame that are ufed throughout 
 the greateft part of Europe; only under fomewhat different 
 names, divifions, and proportions. 
 
 Particular nations, have alfo certain weights peculiar to them- 
 felves: I bus, Spain has its arrobas, containing 25 Spanilh 
 pounds, or $ of the common quintal : its quintal macho, con- 
 taining 150 pounds, or i| common quintal, or 6 arrohas • 
 its adarme, containing T \ of its ounce. — And for gold, it 
 has its cajlillan, or T5 £ or a pound, — Its tomin, containing 
 12 grains, or £ of a caftillah. The fame are in ufc alfo in 
 the bpamfh Weft-Indies. 
 
 Portugal has its arroba, containing 32 Lifbon arratels, or 
 pounds : Savary alfo mentions its faratelk, containing two 
 Lifhon pounds : and its rottoli, containing about 1 2 pounds. 
 — And for gold, its chego, containing four carats, — The 
 fame are ufed in the Portugueze £an>Indies. 
 Italy, and particularly Venice, have their migliaro, contain- 
 ing four mirrs; the mirre containing 30 Venice pounds : 
 the Jaggio, containing a fixth part ot an ounce. — Genoa 
 has five kinds of iveights, viz. large weights, whereby all 
 merchandizes are weighed at the cuitom-houfe : cafo-weights, 
 for piaifers, and other fpecies : the cantara, or quintal, for 
 the coarfeft commodities: the large balance, for raw filks ; 
 and the fmall balance for the finer commodities. — Sicily 
 has its rottolo, 32 and a half pounds of Meflina, Savar. 
 Germany, Flanders, Holland, the Hanfc towns, Sweden, 
 Denmark, Poland, & c , have their fchippondt, which at Ant- 
 werp and Hamburgh is 300 pounds; at Lu beck, 320 ; and 
 at Coningfberg, 400 pounds. — In Sweden, the jchippondt 
 for copper is 320 pounds ; and the fchippondt for provifions 
 400 pounds. —At Riga, and Revel, the fchippondt is 400 
 pounds; and at Dantzic, 340 pounds- in Norway, 300 
 pounds; at Amfterdam, 300 ; containing 20 lyfpondts, each 
 weighing 15 pounds. Id. 
 
 InMufcovy, they weigh their large commodities by the be r- 
 
 cheroil, or berkewits, containing 400 of their, pounds. 
 
 They have alfo the poet, or poede, containing 40 pounds, or 
 15 of the bercherod. Id. 
 
 In Turky, at Smirni, fsV. they ufe, what they call the 
 batman, or battemant, containing fix occos ; the occo weigh- 
 ing 5 pound;, f Engliih.— They have another batman much 
 leis, confifting, as the former, of fix occos : but the occo 
 only containing 15 ounces Englifh:: 44 occos of the firft 
 kind, make the Turkiih quintal. — At Cairo, Alexandretta, 
 Aleppo, and Alexandria, they ufe the rotto, rotten, or rotoii. 
 'Ihe rotoii at Cairo, and other parts of Egypt, is 144 
 drachms; being fomewhat over an Englifh pound. — At 
 Aleppo thefe are three forts of rottos 3 the firft 7 20 drachms, 
 making about feven pound Englifh, and ferving to weigh 
 cottons, galls, and other large commodities : the fecond is 
 624 drachms, ufed for all lilks but white ones, which are 
 weighed by the third rotto of 700 drachms, — At Seyda the 
 rotto is 606 drachms. 
 
 The other ports of the Levant, though not named here, 
 ufe fome of thefe weights ; particularly the occo, or ocquaj 
 the rottoli, and rotto'. 
 
 To fhew the proportion of thefe feveral weights to one ano- 
 ther, we ftiall. add a reduction of the divers pounds ufed 
 throughout Europe, by which the other weights are efti- 
 mated, to one liandard pound, viz. the pound of Amfter- 
 dam, Paris, and Bourdeaux ; as calculated with great 
 accuracy by M. Ricard, and publifhed in the new edition 
 of his excellent Ti aite de Commerce, in 1722. 
 
 Proportion of the Weights of the chief cities in Europe, 
 to tfiofe of A-niJlcrdam. 
 
 An hundred pounds of 
 
 108 Pounds of Alicant. 
 105 lb. of Antwerp. 
 1 zo lb. of Archangel, or three 
 
 poedes. 
 105 lb. of Arfchot. 
 izo ib. of Avignon, 
 98 lb. of Bafil in Switzer- 
 land. 
 
 toolb. ofBayonneinprance. 
 1 66 lb. of Bergamo. 
 
 97 lb, of Berg ap zom. 
 
 95 lb. i of Bergen in Nor- 
 way, 
 in lb. of Bern. 
 100 lb. of Befancon. 
 100 lb. of Biiboa. 
 105 lb. of Bois le due. 
 
 Amfterdam, are equal to 
 
 I 151 lb. of Bologna, 
 j ioo lb. of Bourdeaux. 
 
 104 lb. of Bourg en Breffe. 
 103 lb. of Bremen. 
 125 lb. of Breflaw. 
 
 105 lb. of Bruges. 
 I o S lb. of Bruftels. 
 105 lb. of Cadiz. 
 105 lb. of Cologne 
 125 lb. of Coningsberg. 
 107 lb. and \ of Copenhagen. 
 
 87 RottosofConftantinopie, 
 i 1 3 lb. and £ of Dantzic. 
 ioo lb. of Dort. 
 97 lb. of Dublin. 
 97^. of Edinburgh. 
 I43 lb. of Florence. 
 
 An 
 
WE I 
 
 An hundred pounds of Amftcrdam, are equal to 
 
 W EI 
 
 98/. of Francfbrt on the 
 Maine. 
 
 105 /. of Gaunt. 
 89 of Geneva. 
 
 163/. of Geno^cajh-weight. 
 iQz I. of Hamburg. 
 
 106 /. of Leiden. 
 105 /. of Leipfic. 
 
 105 /. and of Liege. 
 114/. of Lifie. 
 143 /. of Leghorn. 
 106/. and I of Lifbon. 
 109/. of London, Averdit~ 
 
 pais weight. 
 105 I. of Lovaine. 
 
 105 /. of Lubec. 
 
 141 /. and 1 of Lucca, light- 
 weight. 
 
 116/. of Lyons, city- weight. 
 
 114 /. of Madrid. 
 
 105 /. of Malines. 
 
 133/. and I of Marfeillcs. 
 
 154/. of Mefiina, light- 
 weight. 
 
 168/. of Milan. 
 
 1 30 /. of Montpellier. 
 
 125 Bcrcherotis of Mufcovy.: 
 100 /. of Nantes, 
 106/. of Nancy. 1 
 1 69 /. of Naples. 
 98 /. of Nuremberg. 
 100 /, of Paris. 
 112/. and I of Revel. 
 109 /. of Riga. 
 100/. of Rochel. 
 146/. of Rome. 
 100/. of Rotterdam. 
 96 /. of Rouen, Vicounty-, 
 
 weight. 
 100/. ofS. Malo. 
 100/. of S. Sebuftian. 
 158/. audi of Saiagofa. 
 106 /. of Seville. 
 1 1 4 /. of Smirna. 
 110/. of Stetin. 
 
 81/. of Stockholm. 
 1 1 3 /. of Thoioufe, and Up- 
 per Languedoc. 
 151/. of Turin. 
 158 /. and I of Valencia. 
 l8z /. of Venice, /mall 
 weight. , . 
 
 Weights ufed in the fever al parts of the Eafl- Indies , China, 
 Perfia, &c. — The Chinefe weights are— The pice, for large 
 commodities j this is divided into iaocatis, of cattis, thougn 
 fome fay into 125: the cati into 1 S tails, or talcs -, each tael 
 equivalent to i-J of an ounce Englifh, or the weight of one 
 rial and-rr. and containing 10 mas, or majfis ; and each mas 
 10 condrins. So that the Chinefe pice amounts toi3/ pounds 
 Englifh Averdupois, and the cati to 1 pound 8 ounces. — ■ 
 The picol, for iilk, containing 66 eatis and \ : the bahar, 
 bakaire, or barr, containing 500 catis. 
 
 Tonquin has all the f.ime vjeights, meafurcs, EsV. as China. 
 Japan has only one weight, viz. the catti \ which, however, 
 is different from that of China, as containing 20 tads. — 
 At Surat Agra, and throughout the ftatcs of the great mo- 
 gul, they ufe the man, or ?naund, whereof they have two 
 kinds ; the king's man, or king's weight ; and the man, fim- 
 ply fo called ; the nrlf. ufed for the weighing of common 
 provihons, containing .\o feers, or ferrcs; and each near a 
 julf Paris pound. 
 
 Though Tavernier will have the feer near a feventh lefs 
 than the Paris pound. — The common man, ufed in the 
 weighing of merchandize, Conhfts likewife of 40 feers, but 
 each feer is only etiimated at iz Paris ounces, or ^ of the 
 other fcer. 
 
 The man may be looked on as the common weight of the 
 Eait-Indies, though under fome difference of name, or ra- 
 ther of pronunciation j it being called mao at Cambaya, and 
 in other places mein, and maun. — The feer is properly the 
 
 Indian pound, and is of univerfal ufe : the, like may be faid 
 of the bahar, tael, and catti abovementioiud. 
 The weights of Siam are the pice, containing two fchans^ or 
 cattis ; but the Siamefe catti is only half the japoncfc, ,the 
 latter containing :o taels, and the former only jo ; though 
 fome make the Chinefe catti only 1 6 taels, and the Siamefe 3. 
 The tael contains 4 boats, or ticals ; each about a Paris 
 ounce : the boat 4 felings, or mayons : the mayon z fouanrs ; 
 the fiuang 4 payes : the pays 2 clams ; the fompaye, half a 
 fouang. Savar. 
 
 It is, to be obferved, that thefe are the names of their coins, 
 as well as weights ; filver and gold being, there, commodities 
 fold, as other things, by their weights. See Coin, &:c. 
 In the ifle of Java, and particularly at Bantam, they ufe the 
 gantan, which amounts to near three Dutch pounds. — In 
 Golconda, at Vifapour and Goa, they have the furatclL\ 
 containing i pound 14 ounces Englifh : as alfo the manga- 
 lis, or mangelin, for weighing diamonds and precious lionet ; 
 weighing at Goa 5 grains, at Golconda, &c. 5 i grains. — 
 They have alfo the rotolo, containing 14 .J. ounces English : 
 the metrical, containing the fixth part of an jounce : the 
 vail, for piaflres and ducats ; containing the 73d part of a 
 rial. 
 
 In Perfia. they ufe two kinds of la'.mans, or mans ; the one, 
 called cahi, or cheray, whkhis the king's weight ; and the 
 other batman ofTaur'u, irom the name of one of the chief 
 cities of Perfia. — The firft weighs, according to Tavernier, 
 
 13 pounds 10 ounces Engliih ; the fecond, 6 pound* X Ac- 
 cording to Sir J. Chardin, the kirg's batman is 1 3 pounds 
 
 14 ounces, and the batman of Tauris 6 pounds|, — Its di- 
 vifions are the ratel, or a 1.6th; the derhem, or drachm, 
 which is the 50th; the mefcal, which is half the deihem ; 
 the- dung, which is the otji part of the mefchal ; being equi- 
 valent to 6 carat-grains ; and laftly, the grain, which is the 
 4th part of the dung. — They have alio the vaiie, which ex- 
 ceeds, a little, our ounce : the fah-cheray, equal to the 1 170th 
 part of the derhem : and the toman, ufed ,to weigh out large 
 payments or money, without telling : its weight is that of 50 
 abajfis. Savar. See Toman, 
 
 African and American YVk ichts. — We have little to fay as 
 to the weights of America : the feveral European colonies 
 there, making ufe or the weights of the ftates or kingdoms 
 of Europe which they belong to. For as to the aro^e of 
 Peru, which weighs 27 pounds, it is evidently no other than 
 the Spanilh arroua, with a little difference in the name. 
 As to the weights of Africa, there are few places h-eve anv, 
 except Egypt and the coafts of Africa, whofq weights are; 
 enumerated among thofe of the ports of the Levanr, oV, 
 As to the eoaits beyond Cape Verde, viz. Guinea, Congo, 
 to SolTola, Mozambica, &c. they have no weights ; only the 
 Englifh, French, Dutch, Portugueze, and Danes have in- 
 troduced their own zueights in their refpeclive fettlements. 
 The idle of Madagafcar, indeed, has its particular weights ; 
 but it has none that exceed the drachm, nor are they ufed 
 for any thing but gold and filver. — Other commodities they 
 never weigh. 
 
 Antient WEIGHTS. 
 Jewifh Weights reduced to Engliih Trey Weight. 
 
 
 Shekel. 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 Maneh. 
 
 
 3000 
 
 (o | Talent. — 
 
 /. cz. pwt. grS 
 00 : 00 : 09 : oz ^ 
 
 02 : 03 : 06 : 10* 
 
 113 : 10 : 01 : 10* 
 
 Note, in reckoning money, 50 fhekels made a maneh, but in weight, 160 foehls. 
 
 Grecian and Roman Weights reduced to Englifh Troy Weight. 
 
 Lentcs. 
 
 4 I Siliqua; 
 
 9'> 
 
 S76 
 
 Obolus 
 
 57<< 
 
 Scriptulum 
 
 Drachma 
 
 96 
 
 if 
 
 Sicilicus 
 Duella 
 
 Uncia 
 
 Libra 
 
 /. 0%. pwt: gr. 
 o : 00 : oq ; 00 7 Vj 
 
 o : 00 ; co ; 0.3 Jfa 
 
 o : 00 : co : 09 -jy 
 
 o : 00 : 00 : 1 8 fi 
 
 o : 00 : 02 : 06 Jt 
 
 o : 00 : 03 : oof 
 
 o, : qo : 04 : 137 
 
 o : 00 : 06 : 01^ 
 
 o : 00 : 18 : 05; 
 
 o : 10 : 18 : 13 1 
 
 The fubdi^lfions of the 
 Raman as» libra, or 
 po^ind. 
 
 Uncise, or 
 , ounces. 
 
 1 As, libra, £sV. con- 
 tained 1 2 
 
 Y r Deunx — — 1 ( 
 % Ivextans. — --.10 
 - Dodrans . — q 
 $ Bes - 8 
 
 it Septunx — — 7 
 ■j Semis — — 6 
 
 tV Quincunx — 5 
 -J- Triens -- 4 
 5 Quadrans — 3 
 ■j Sex^ns -- — 2 
 
 xx Uncia — — 1 
 
 Tb. 
 
W E L 
 
 W E R 
 
 The Roman ounce is the Englifh averdupotfe ounce, which 
 they divided into feven denarii, as well as eight drachms ; 
 and fince they reckoned their denarius equal to the Attic 
 drachm, this will make the Attic weights one eighth heavier 
 than the correfpondent Roman weights. Arbuth. 
 Note, The Grecians divided their obolus into chalci and 
 Tujrl*. Some, as Diodorus, and Suidas, divided the obolus 
 into fix chalcl, and every chaltus into (even hf*?a>. Others 
 divided the obolus into eight chalci, and eifcry chalcus into 
 eight Knc\a, or minuta. 
 Weight of the Air, is equal to the elafticity thereof. 
 
 To find the weight of a cubic hub of An: — Weigh a round 
 glafs veilel full of common air, very accurately : then cxhauft 
 the air out of it: weigh the exhaufted vent], and fubftracl 
 the latter weight from the former ; the remainder is the 
 weight of the air exhaufted. 
 
 Find, then, the content of the vefTel by the laws of meafur- 
 ing. — And the ratio of the remaining air to the primitive air. 
 This done, the bulk of the remaining air is found by the 
 rule of three ; which being fubtracted from the capacity of 
 the ventl, the remainder will be the bulk of air extracted. — ■ 
 Or, if the air-pump be very tight, and the exhauftion con- 
 tinued as long as any air is got our, the remaining air will be 
 fo fmall, that it may be very fafely neglected, and the con- 
 tent of the vefTel tak.cn for the bulk of the exhaufted air. 
 Having, therefore, the weight and bulk of the whole exhauft- 
 ed air, the vjeight of one cubic inch is eafiiy had by the rule 
 of three. 
 
 This method was Erffi ufed by Otto Gucric, and afterwards 
 by Burcher de Voider ; who gives us the following parti- 
 culars in his experiment. — i °. That the weight of the glafs 
 fpherical vefTel he made ufe of, full of common air, was 7 
 pounds, 1 ounce, 2 drams, 48 grains; when exhaufted of 
 air, 7/. 1 ox, idr. 31 gr. and when full of water, 16/. 
 is ox. "dr. i^gr. The weight of the air, therefore, was 
 1 dr. izgr. or 77 gr. the weight of the water 9/. 11 oz. 
 5 dr. 43 gr. or 74743 _gr. Confequently, the r-itio of the 
 fpecific gravity between water and air is 74743 : 77 : : 
 970 fj : i.' — Now, do Voider having found a cubic foot of 
 water to weigh 64 pounds, by interring, as 970 is to 1, fo 
 is 64 pounds to a fourth proportional; which, found by the 
 rule of three, is the weight of a cubic foot of air, viz. one 
 ounce, 27.gr- or 507 grains nearly. See Air. 
 The weight of Tea-water is different in different climates. — 
 Mr Boyle having furnifhed a learned phyftcian, going on a 
 voyage to America, with a hydroftatical balance, and recom- 
 mended him to obferve, from time to time, the difference of 
 weight he might meet withal, this account was returned h;m : 
 That the fea-water increafed in weight the nearer he came to 
 the line, till he arrived at a certain degree oi latitude, as :ie 
 remembers, about the 30th ; beyond which, it retained the 
 fame fpecific weighty till he came to Barbadoes. PhUcfph. 
 Tranfatl. N" 18. 
 
 Grafs Weigh 
 Neat We ight. 
 Penny We i GHT. 
 AJfay of W^ eight, 
 Auncel Weights. 
 WELD, or Wold, 
 
 . rr Gross. 
 
 ' N Neat. 
 
 , See the article < Penny. 
 
 J Assay. 
 J L. Auncel Weight. 
 
 I plant ufed by the dyers to give a yel- 
 
 low colour ; and for this reafon called in Latin lutcsla, of 
 luieus, yellow. 
 
 This plant grows wild on dry grounds: but it b alfo fown 
 for ufe in a light ground, in the months of March or Sep- 
 tember; and is ripe in June, or July. — In hot countries it 
 is frequently dry enough when gathered ; but in colder, care 
 muft be taken to dry it. — Great circumfpection is to be ufed, 
 that it be not gathered before thorough ripe ; as alfo to pre- 
 vent its getting wet when gathered. 
 
 Weld is much cultivated in Kent, for the ufe of the London 
 dyers. — With the help of pot-afhes, it yields a deep lemon 
 colour ; but either by the largenefs of the proportion put into 
 the liquor, or by taking from it a ftrongcr, or flighter tinc- 
 ture, it ferves to dye all colours between white and a deep 
 
 yel] QW . Its dye wiU hold well, except againft urine and 
 
 tartarous liquors. 
 
 Weld, or We ALD,in a chorographical fenfe. See Weald. 
 
 WELDING Heat, a degree of heat which fmiths give 
 their iron in the fort^e, when there is occafion to double up 
 the iron, and to weld a work in the doublings ; fo that the 
 iron fhould grow into a tump thick ennugh lor the purpofe. 
 It is alfo ufed when two bars of iron are to be joined tcge- 
 ther at the ends to make a length. 
 
 WELL, a hole dug under ground, below the level or furface 
 of the water collected in the ftrata. 
 
 It is ufually of a cylindrical figure, and commonly walled 
 with ftone, and lined with mortar. 
 
 M. Blondel informs the royal academy of fciences of a de- 
 vice they ufe in the lower Auftria, which is incompaffed with 
 the mountains of Stiria, to fill their wells with water, viz. 
 That they dig in the earth to the depth of 10 or 25 feet, 
 Vol. II. 
 
 till they come to a clammy earth, which they bore into, con- 
 tinuing the operation till the water breaks forcibly out : which 
 water, ill all probability, comes from the neighbouring moun- 
 tains, in fubrerraneous channels. — Caffini obferves, that in 
 many places of Modena, and Bologna, they make themfelves 
 wells by the lame artifice. — Mr Derfttrri adds, that the like 
 has been fometimes found in England, particularly in Effex. 
 In the Philofophical Tranfaclisns, we are informed by Mr 
 Norwood, that in Bermudas, tvells of frefh water are dug 
 within twenty yards of the fea, and even lefs, which rife 
 and fall with the tides as the fea itfelf does. — 'He adds, 
 that in digging wells in that ifland, they dig till they come 
 almoft to a level with the furface of the fea; and then they 
 certainly find either frefh water or fait: if it prove frcfti, 
 yet by digging two or three feet deeper, they always come 
 at falt-water. If it be fandy ground, they ufually find frefh 
 water ; but if hard lime-flone rock, the water is com- 
 monly fait or brackifh. 
 
 In the diocefe of Padcrborn in Weftphalia, is a well which 
 lofes itfelf twice in 24 hours; returning always, after fix 
 hours abfence, with great noife, and that fo forcibly, as to 
 drive three mills not far oft". — The inhabitants call it' the 
 boldcrbourn, q. d. the boifterous fpring. — Lay-well, near 
 Torbay, ebbs and flows very often every hour ; though fome- 
 what oftener in winter than in fummer. Dr Oliver ob- 
 ferves, its flux and reflux fometimes returns every minute, 
 though at other times not above 26, or 2S times in an hour. 
 Philofoph. Tranfatl. N° 104. 
 
 Well- Water. See the article Water. 
 
 Well, in the military art, denotes a depth which the miner 
 finks into the ground, from which he runs out branches or 
 galleries, either to prepare a mine, or find out, and difappoint 
 the enemy's mine. 
 
 Well-hole, in building, is the hole left in a floor, for the 
 flairs to come up through. See Stairs. 
 
 WEN, a tumor, or cxcrefcence, growing on divers parts of 
 the body ; confifting of a cyftis, or bag, filled with fome pe- 
 culiar matter. 
 
 Of this, phyficians ufually reckon three kinds, according to 
 the matter it is formed of, i. e. the humor contained there- 
 in. — If foft, refembling a pulp, the wen is called atheroma; 
 if like honey, nuliceris ; and if like fuel, Jleatoma. 
 M Littre, in Mem. de V Acad, des Sciences, adds a fourth 
 kind, which he calls lipoma ; by reafon, the wen is formed 
 of foft fat. 
 
 Wens are all, ufually, of the like colour with the reft of 
 the body j they begin from very little, and grow gradually. 
 'I hey are not dangerous, but frequently lait a long while. 
 Sometimes they degenerate into abfeeffes. — The (jure is, 
 to cut off the cyftis by the root, which is always narrow. 
 In the Philofophical Tranfacllons, we have an account of a 
 very extraordinary wen, on the lower jaw of one Alexander 
 Paimar, or Keith in Scotland. — It was 27 years in growing : 
 at length its enormous bulk, and the pain it gave him, toge- 
 ther with its emaciating him exceedingly, determined him to 
 have it cut off. — Dr Bowers allures us, its bafis was five 
 inches over, which fliould feem too large for the whole face, 
 and that, with blood and all, it weighed one or two and 
 twenty pounds. — Its form was fpheroidal ; and when mea- 
 fured, it was 34 inches about, one way, and 28 another. — 
 It feemed to be an atheroma, being a glandulous fubftance, 
 with feveral large blood-veflels in it, and hair growing on it. 
 It was as fenlible as any other part. —The hxmorrhage, 
 after cutting it off, was flopped by the vitriolic powder, and 
 the ordinary dreffing being ufed, a cure was compleated in 
 fix weeks time. 
 
 Wins of pearl. See the article Pearl. 
 
 WERE, Wera, in our old law books, fignifies as much as 
 tejUmatio capitis, or pretiuni hominls ; that is, fo much as was 
 antiendy paid for killing a man. 
 
 When fuch crimes were punifhed with pecuniary mulcts, not 
 death ; the price was fet on every man's head, according to 
 his condition and quality. — //-^v futim, id eft, pretium, 
 fua redemptions, his ranfom. See Ransom. 
 WERELADA, among our Saxon anceftors, the denying a 
 homicide on oath, in order to be quit of the fine, or forfei- 
 ture called were. 
 
 Where a man was flam, the price at which he was valued 
 was to be paid to the king, and his relations. For in the time 
 of the Saxons, the killing a man was not punifhed by death, 
 but by a pecuniary mulct, called wera. 
 If the party denied the fact, he was to purge himfelf by the 
 oaths of feveral pcrfons, according to his degree and quality. 
 — If the guilt amounted to four pounds, he was to have 
 18 jurors on his father's fide, and four on his mother's: if 
 to 24 pounds, he was to have fixty jurors. And this was 
 called werelada. — Homicidium wera folvatur out wereladi 
 negetur. 
 
 WERGILD, Wereceld, in our antient cuftoms, the 
 price of a man's head : pretium feu vabr hominis occlji, homl- 
 1 3 Z cidii 
 
WHE 
 
 cidi! preUttm; which was paid partly to the king for the iofs 
 of his fubjea, partly to the lord whole vaflal he wasi and 
 partly to the next of kin. 
 
 The wergild of an archbifhop, and of an earl, was 15 000 
 thrimfa's. Selden's Titla of Honour. —That of a bifhop, or 
 alderman, Sooo ; that of a general, or governor, +000 ; 
 that of a prieft, or thane, 1000 ; that of a king, 30000 ; hah 
 was to be paid to his kindred, and the other half to the nation. 
 
 WEST, Occidins, Oceafis, in cofmography, one of the car- 
 dinal points of the horizon ; diametrically oppohte to the 
 eaft. ' -SJV, > <i :o , 
 
 Weft is ftriaiy defined, the interfeaion of the prime-vertical 
 with the horizon, on that fide the fun fets in See Settin 
 To draw a true -wett-li/ie. See Meridian. 
 
 West, in aftronomy, is chiefly ufed for the place in, or to- 
 wards which the fun or liars link under the horizon. — 
 Thus, we fay, the Sun, Mars, tsfc. are in the weft. 
 The point the fun fets in, when in the equator, is particu 
 larly called the equinoelial Weft, or point of true weft. 
 
 West, and Western, in geography, are applied to certain 
 countries, . fituate towards the point of fun-fctung with 
 jefpca to certain others. 
 
 Thus, the empire of Rome, antiently, and of Germany, at 
 prefent, is called the empire of the weft, or weftem empire ; 
 in oppofition to that of Conftantinople, which is called the 
 empire of the eaft. 
 
 The Latin or Roman church, is called the weftern ehurch ; 
 in oppofition to the Greek church. 
 
 The French, Spaniards, Italians, f£i. are called weftern na- 
 tions, in refpea to the Afiatics ; and America, the H'eft- 
 Indies, in refpea of the Eaft-Indies. 
 West-wind, is alfo called zeplyrui, and favonhts. 
 Wind. 
 
 West-saxonlage, or the law of the Weft-Saxons. 
 
 Law. 
 
 p Company. 
 
 Dial. 
 I Mooring. 
 . See the article ^ Amplitude. 
 
 I- Church. 
 Horizon. 
 (_ Ocean. 
 See the article Ham. 
 of the fkins of fheep, lambs 
 
 WHE 
 
 See 
 
 Sec 
 
 WzsT-ZW/tf Companies.") 
 West Dial. i 
 Mooring for West. 
 Western Amplitude. 
 Western Church. I 
 Western Horizon. 
 Western Ocean. J 
 WESTPHALIA-iW 
 WET-Glover, a drefier 
 
 goats, (sfc. which are flender, thin, and gentle. 
 Wet Dock. See the article Dock. 
 W E Y. Sec the article Weigh. 
 
 WHALE, in aftronomy, one of the conizations. See 
 
 Cetus. * 
 
 Whale-So?;,?, a commodity procured from the whale, ufed as 
 a fliffening in flays, fans, bulks, fkreens, &c. 
 There are many kinds of whales ; but two principal ; 
 one retaining that name, the other called cachalot. — The 
 difference cunfifts in this, that the cachalot has teeth, and 
 the whale, properly fo called, inftead of teeth, has a kind of 
 whifkers in his throat, about a ipan broad, and i 5 feet long, 
 ending in a fort of fringe, much like fwine's briftles. 
 They are fet in the palate, and do in fome mcafure, the of- 
 fice of teeth — Thcfe whifkers, fplit and fafhioned, are what 
 we call •whalebone. — The pizzle, or genital member of the 
 animal, fenxs alfo for the fame fort of ufes. 
 
 Whale-Fj'u;, a name improperly given to whalebone, 
 
 W hale- Fijhcry. See the article Fishery. 
 
 WHARF, a fpace on the banks of a haven, creek, or hithej 
 provided for the convenient loading and unloading of veffels 
 upon. 
 
 The fee paid for the landing of goods on a wharf, or for 
 fhipping them off, is called wharfage. — And the perfon who 
 has the overfight and direction of the wharf receives whar- 
 fage, cVc, is called the wharfinger. 
 
 WHORLES of fiowers, among herbalifts, are rows of lelTer 
 flowers, fet at certain diftances about the main ftalk or fpike, 
 as in penny-royal, &c. 
 
 WHEAT, Triticum. See the article Corn. 
 
 WHEEL, Rota, in mechanics, a fimple machine, confifting 
 of a round piece of wood, metal, or other matter ; which 
 revolves on an axis. 
 
 The wheel is one of the principal mechanic powers — It has 
 place in moft engines ; in effect, it is of an affemblage of 
 wheels, that molt of our chief engines are compofed.. — Wit- 
 nefs clocks, mills, i&c. 
 
 Its form is various, according to the motion it is to have ; 
 and the ufe it is to anfwer. — By this it is diftinguifhed into 
 fimple, and dented. 
 Simple Wheels, are thofe whofe circumference and axis is 
 uniform, and which are ufed fingly, and not combined. — > 
 Such are the wheels of carriages ; which are to have a double 
 motion : the one circular about their axis ; the other rectili- 
 near; by which they advance along the road, frV. which two 
 motions they appear to have ; though, in effect, they have 
 
 but one : it* being impoffible the fame thing fliould move, or 
 be agitated two different ways' at "the fame time. 
 This one is a fpiral motion ; as is eafiiy feeii, by fixing a 
 piece of chalk on the face of a wheel, fo as it may draw a 
 line on a wall, as the wheel moves, — The line it here traces 
 is a juft fpiral, and fHU the more curve, as the chalk: is fixed 
 nearer the axis. — For a very nice phenomenon, in the 
 motion of thefe wheels, lee Rota ArijhteUca. 
 We fliall add, that in wheels of this kind, the heighth flinuld 
 always be proportioned to the ltature of the animal that 
 draws or moves them. — The rule is, that the load, and the 
 axis of the wheels be of the fame heighth with the power th^t 
 moves them : otherwife, the axis being higher than the beaft T 
 part of the load will lie upon him 5 or, if it be lower, lit: pull;.: 
 to difadvantage, and muff exert a greater force. Though 
 Stevinus, Dr Wjtllis, &c, fhew, that to draw a vehicle, 
 &c. over wafle, uneven places, it were heft to fix the traces 
 to the wheels fomewliat lower than the horfe's breaft. 
 The power of thefe wheels refults from the difference of the 
 radii of the axis, and circumference. —The canon is this: 
 " As the radius of the axis is to that of the circumference, fo 
 " is any power, to the weight it can fuffain hereby." 
 This is alfo the rule in the axis in peritrochio ; and, in ef- 
 fect, the wheel, and the axis in peritrochio ; are the fame 
 tihingi only, in theory, it is ufuaily called by the latter name, 
 and in practice, by the former. 
 Dented Wheels, are thofe either whofe circumference, or 
 axis, is cut into teeth, by which they are capable of mov- 
 ing and acting on one another, and of being combined to- 
 gether. 
 
 The ufe of thefe is very confpicuous in clocks, jacks, 63V. 
 The power of the dented wheel depends on the fame prin- 
 ciple, as that of the fimple one.— It is only that to the 
 fimple axis in pcriuochio, which a compound lever is to a 
 fimple lever. 
 
 Its doctrine is comprifed in the following canon, viz, — 
 " The ratio of the power to the weight," in order for that 
 to be equivalent to this, ct mult be compounded of the ratios 
 " of the diameter of the axis of the laft wheel to the diame- 
 " ter of the firft; and of the ratio of the number of revolu- 
 ** tions of the 1 alt wheel, to thofe of the firfl, in the fame 
 " time."— -But this doctrine will deferve a more particular 
 explication. 
 
 i°. Then, if the weight be multiplied into the product of 
 the radii of the axis, and that product be divided by the pro- 
 duct of the radii of the wheels, the power required to fuftain: 
 the weight will be found. — Suppofe, e. gr. the weight A, 
 (Tab. Mechanics, Jig. 63.) = 6000 pounds, BC = 6 inch- 
 es, CD=34 inches, EF=cS inches, EG = 35 
 HI=4 inches, HK— 27 inches. Then will BC,EF, HI 
 = izo; and CD, EG, IK=32i3o.— Hence the pow- 
 er, required to fuftain the weight, will be 6000. 1 20. : 321 30 
 = 22 -J very nearly; a fmall addition to which will raifc 
 it. 
 
 2 0 . If the power be multiplied into the product of the radii 
 of the wheels, and the faiturn^be divided by the product of the 
 radii of the axis ; the quotient will be the weight which the 
 power is able to fuftain, —-Thus, if the power be 2z-j of a. 
 pound, the weight will be 6coo pounds. 
 3 0 . "A power and a weight being given, to find the num- 
 *■ ber of wheels, and in each whttt, the ratio of the radius 
 " of the axis, to the radius of the wheel: fo 3 as that the 
 " power bcingapplied perpendicularly to the periphery of the 
 " lalt wheel, may fuftain the given weight." 
 Divide the weight by the power: refolve the quotient into 
 the factors which produce it. — Then will the number of 
 factors, be the number of wheels ; and the radii of the axes 
 will be to the radii of the wheels, as unity to the fcvcral 
 wheels. — Suppofe, e. gr. a weight of 3000 pounds, and a 
 power of 60, is 500, which refolves into theie factors, 4. 5.5.5. 
 Four wheels are to be made, in one of which, the radius of 
 the axis is to the radius of the wheel, as 1 to 4 : in the reft, 
 as 1 to 5. 
 
 4 0 . If a power move a weight by means of two wheels* 
 the revolutions of the flower zvbeel, are to thofe of the fwift- 
 er, as the periphery of the fwifter axis, is to the periphery of 
 the wheel that catches on it. 
 
 Hence, 1 °. the revolutions are as the radius of the axis F E» 
 to the radius of the wheel DC. — z°. Since the number of 
 teeth in the axis F D, is to the number of teeth in the cir- 
 cumference of the wheel M, as the circumference of that 
 to the circumference of this : the revolutions of the flower 
 wheel M, are to the revolutions of the fwifter N. as the 
 number of teeth in the axis, to the number of teeth in the 
 wheel M it catches into, 
 
 5=. If the factum of the radii of the w heels G D, DC, be 
 multiplied into the number of revolutionsof the floweft whed 
 Mi and the produtt be divided by the factum of the radii 
 of the axes which catch into them, G H, D E, &x. the 
 quotient will be the numbei of revolution; of the fwifieft 
 
 whed 
 
W H E 
 
 VV H I 
 
 wheel O. E. gr. If GE = 8, DC= iz, G H<==^, DE 
 
 ^= 3, and the revolution of the whe'etm. bepne; the num- 
 ber of revolutions of the wheel O will be S. 
 6". If a power move a weight by means of divers wheels, 
 the fpace pafled over by the weight, is to the fpace of the 
 power, as the power to the weight. — Hence, the greater 
 the power, the fafter is the weight moved ; and vice verfa. 
 7 °. The fpaces patted over be the weight and the power, are 
 in a ratio compounded of the revolutions of the floweft 
 wkfiii to the revolutions of the fwifteft ; and of the peri- 
 phery of the axis of that, to the periphery of this. — Hence, 
 iince the fpace of the weight and the power are reciprocally 
 as the fuftaining power is to the weight ; the power that fuf- 
 tams a weight, will be to the weight, in a ratio compound- 
 ed of the revolutions of the floweft wheel, to thofe of the 
 fwifteft, and of the periphery of the axis of that, to the pe- 
 riphery of this. 
 
 8°. « The' periphery of the axis of the floweft wheel, with 
 ** the periphery of the fwifted tvheel, given ■ as alfo, the 
 " ratio of the revolutions of the one, to thofe of the other: 
 " to find the fpace whicli the power is to pafs over, while 
 " the weight goes any given length." 
 
 Multiply the periphery of the axis of the floweft wheel, into 
 the antecedent term of the ratio, and the periphery of the 
 fwifteft wheel, into the confequent term; and to thefe two 
 produces, and the given fpace of the weight, find a fourth 
 proportional : this will be the fpace of the power. — Suppofe, 
 e. gr. the ratio of the revolutions of the flowefl wheel, to 
 thofe of the fwifteft, to be as z to 7 ; and the fpace of the 
 weight 30 feet: and let the periphery of the axis of the 
 floweft wheel, be to that of the fwifteft, as 3 to 8. The 
 fpace of the power will be found 280. 
 
 9 0 . " The ratio of the peripheries of the fwifteft wheels* and 
 " of the axis of the floweft ; together with the ratio of their 
 ** revolutions, and the weight, being given : to find the 
 *' power able to fuftain it." 
 
 Multiply both the antecedents, and the confequents of the 
 given ratios into each other : and to the product of the ante- 
 cedents, the product of the confequents, and the o-iven 
 ■weight, find a fourth proportional. That will be the power 
 required. — Suppofe, e. gr. the ratio of the peripheries & : 3, 
 that of the revolutions 7:2; and the weight 2000 : the 
 power will be found 214.*, — After the fame manner may 
 the weight be found ; the power and the ratio of the peri- 
 pheries, fcfe. being given. 
 
 io°. " The revolutions the fwifteft wheel is to perform, 
 " while the floweft makes one revolution, being given ; 
 <c together with the fpace the weight is to be raifed, and the 
 " periphery of the floweft wheel; to find the time that will 
 *' be fpent in raifing it." 
 ' Say, as the periphery of the axis of the floweft wheel is to 
 the fpace of the weight given ; fo is the given number of 
 revolutions of the fwifteft wheel, to a fourth proportional ; 
 which will be the number of revolutions, performed while 
 the weight reaches the given heighth. — Then, by experi- 
 ment, determine the number of revolutions the fwifteft 
 wheel performs in an hour; and, by this, divide the fourth 
 proportional found before — ■ The quotient will be the time 
 fpent in raifing the weight. 
 Wheels of a clock, &c. are the crown wheel, contrat wheel, 
 great zvheel, fecond wheel, third zvheel, ftriking wheel, de- 
 tent wheel, &C 
 
 Wheels of coaches, waggons, &c. — In the Philofphical 
 Tranfatlions, we have fume experiments, fliewing the ad- 
 vantages of high wheels in carriages of all kinds : the rcfults 
 of the experiments amount to this : 
 
 i°. That, four wheels of 5 -J inches high, viz, one half of 
 the ordinary heighth of the wheels of a waggon, draw a 
 weight of 50^/. averdupoife up an inclined plane, withfefs 
 power by fix ounces, than two of them matched with two 
 Smaller ones of 44 inches heighth. 
 
 2°. That any vehicle might be much more eafily drawn 
 rough ways, if the fore wheels were as high as the hind 
 wheels, and the thills fixed under the axis. 
 3°. That fuch a vehicle would likewife be drawn more 
 eafily where the wheels cut in clay, fand, iSc. 
 4 0 . That high wheels would not cut fo deep as low wheels, 
 5 °. That low wheels are indeed belt for turning in a narrow 
 com pafs. 
 
 Potter s Wheel. See the article Pottery. 
 jfrijlotle's Wheel, t r Rot a Ariflotellca, 
 
 Meajuring Wheel. L , .. J Perambulatoi 
 Per/tan Wheel. f See che artlcIe j Persian. 
 (Vater Wheel. J (.Water. 
 Wh eel is alfo the name of a kind of punifhment, which great 
 criminals are put to in divers countries. 
 In France, their afiaflins, parricides, and robbers on the high- 
 way, are condemned to the wheel, i, e. to have their bones 
 firft broke with an iron bar on a fcaftold, and then to be ex- 
 pofed, and left to expire on the circumference of a wheel.— 
 in Germany, they break their bones on the wheel itfelf. 
 
 Thii cruel punifhment was unknown to the anticnts ; as is 
 bbferved by Cujas, — It is not certain who was the inventor. 
 ■ — 'Its firft introduction was in Germany. It was indeed 
 but rarely praclifed any wh«e elfe, till the time of Francis I. 
 of France; who, by an edict of the year 1534, appointed 
 it to be inflicted on robbers on the highway. Richelet dates 
 the edict in the year 153;?, and quotes BrodEeus, Mijcell. 
 L. II. c. 10. 
 
 Wheel, in the military art, is the word of command, when 
 a battah'onor fquadron is to alter its front, either oneway, 
 or the other. 
 
 To wheel to the right, the man in the right angle is to turn 
 very flowly, and every one to wheel from the left to the 
 right, regarding him as their centre : and vice verfa, when 
 they are to wheel to the left. 
 
 When a divifion of men are on the march, if the word be 
 wheel to the right, or to the left, then the right or Icit-hanJ 
 man keeps his ground, turning only on his heel, and the 
 reft of the rank move about quick, till they make an even 
 line with the faid right or left-hand man. 
 Squadrons of horfe wheel much after the fame manner. 
 
 ~W heel- Barometer. See the article Barometer. 
 
 Wheel-//!?, among chymifts, a fire ufed for calcining me- 
 tallick fubftances; properly called ignis rota;. 
 It is a fire which only incompafles the crucible, coppel, or 
 melting-pot, around the fides, without touching it in any part. 
 
 WHERLICOTES, a fort of open chariots, of the ant;cnt 
 Britons invention, ufed by pcrfons of quality, before the in- 
 vention of coaches. 
 
 WHERRY. See the articles Vessel, Boat, &c. 
 
 WHETSTONE, Cos, a fort of ftone of a lax compofi- 
 tion, and coarfe grain • ferving for the whetting orfharpen- 
 ing knives, and other tools upon. 
 
 WHEY, the ferum or watery part of milk. 
 
 WHIFFLE R, of a company in London, a young freeman, 
 who goes before, and waits on the company, on occalions 
 of public folemnity. 
 
 WHIGS, a party or faction in England, opnofite to the tories. 
 The origin of the names of thefe two mighty factions is' 
 very obi'cure. — If f 0 me little trivial circumitance, or adven- 
 ture which efcapes the knowledge of mankind, give the 
 name to a party, which afterwards becomes famous, poste- 
 rity labours in vain to find the original of fuch a name : it 
 fearches thefources, forms conjectures, invents reafons, and 
 fometimes indeed meets the truth, but always without know- 
 ing it afluredly. 
 
 Thus, in France, the Calvinifts are called Huguenots; yet 
 no body was ever able certainly to affign the caufe of that 
 appellation. 
 
 Whig is a Scottifh, and fome fay, too, an Irifh word, late- 
 rally fignifying whey — Tory is 'another Irifh word, fignify- 
 ing a robber, or highwayman. 
 
 Under the reign of king Charles the fecond, while his bro- 
 ther, then duke of York, was obliged to retire into Scotland, 
 there were two parties formed in that country. ■ — That of 
 the duke, was ftrongeft, perfecuted the other, and frequent- 
 ly reduced them to fly into the mountains and woods, 
 where thofe unhappy fugitives had often no other fubfiftence 
 for a long time, but cows milk. — Hence, they called thefe 
 their adverfaries, tories, q. d. robbers; and the tories up- 
 braiding them with their unhappinefs, from the milk where- 
 of they lived, called them whigs. — From Scotland the two 
 names came over with the duke into England. 
 Others give the origin and etymology oi the two words thus : 
 — During the unhappy war which brought king Charles I. 
 to the fcaftold, the partizans of that prince were at firft call- 
 ed cavaliers ; and thofe of the parliament, round- heads. — 
 Now, tory was a name for a kind of banditti in Iiehiad, 
 who lhehered themfelves in the mountains, and the iflands 
 formed by the bogs ; as, then, the king's enemies charged 
 him with favouring the rebellion in Ireland, which broke 
 out at that time, they changed the name cavalier into that 
 of tory. — And thefe laft, to be even with their enemies, 
 who were ftrictly leagued with the Scots, changed round- 
 heads for whigs, the name of a fort of enthufiafts in Scot- 
 land, who living in the open fields and woods, fed much on 
 milk. —-Dijfert, de M. Map in Tboyras fur les wighs £3' les 
 torys. Haye An. 171 7. 
 WHINE, a hunting term, ufed in refpect of the cry of an 
 otter. 
 
 WHIP, or Whip-Staff, in a fhip, a piece of ti.nber in 
 form of a ftrong ftafF, fattened into the helm, for the fteers- 
 man 7 in final! fhips, to hold in his hand ; thereby 10 move the 
 rudder, and direct the fliip. — See Tab, Ship. fig. z. n, 103. 
 
 K'f*' \ See the article \ ^ G \ AFTJKG * 
 
 WHIPPER. See the article Fishing. 
 WHIPPING, a term ufed by anglers, when they faften a 
 fine to the hook, or rod. 
 
 The word is alfo taken for the cafting in of the hook, and 
 drawing it gently on ihe water. 
 
 WHIPT 
 
W H I 
 
 W Hi 
 
 WHIPT Syllabub. Sec the article St L laeub. 
 wSlRL-POOL, an eddy, vortex, or gulph where the 
 water is continually turning round. See Gulph, 1 
 
 W^TrL-WIND, a wind that rifes fuddenly, and We*. 
 
 Je*din#y rapid, and impetuous when rifen, but is foon fpent. 
 There are divers forts aiuihirl-wir J - 
 
 ,inds, diftinguifhed by theii 
 peculiar" names ; as the prejler, t,pbo, turb,, etbydria, and 
 
 T&*£> is a violent wind, breaking forth with flafhes 
 of lia.htnin-._- 1'his is rarely obferved , icarce ever without 
 - Seneca fays, it is a typhi, or turbo, kindled 
 
 the ecnephias. 
 
 or ignited in the air. . , . . 
 
 The" ecntpSas is a fudden and impetuous wind, breakm D 
 out of feme cloud ; frequent in the ^thiopic lea, part.cu- 
 ferly about the Cape of Good Hope. - The feamen call 
 them travddos. , . . 
 
 The W Wm is a wind burning oat of a cloud, with a great 
 quantity of water.-This only fecms to differ in i degree from 
 the tckMhs, which is f.cquently attended with fhowers. 
 A typho or vortex, moft properly called a wbirl-wtnd, or 
 hurricane, is an impetuous wind, turning rapidly every way, 
 and fweeping all round the place. — It frequently defcends 
 from on high. — The Indians call it orancan, the lurte, 
 &c. olipbant. — It is frequent in the eaftern ocean, Chiefly 
 about Siam, China, &c. and renders the navigation of thole 
 parts exceeding dangerous. 
 
 WHISPERING. See Hearing, Attention, «c. 
 
 Whisper.ng-P.Wj depend on this principle, that the voice 
 bung applied to one end of an arch, eafily rolls to the o- 
 
 Accordingly, all the contrivance in a whifpering-place\$, that 
 rear the perfon who whifpers there be a imooth wall, arch- 
 ed cither cylindiically, or elliptically. — A circular arch will 
 do, but not fo well. ■ 
 Places famed for the conveyance of wbifpers, are the pnlon 
 of Diondius at Syracufc, which increaied a foft whijper to 
 a loud noifc, the clap of one's hand to the found of a can-] 
 non, Vc— The aquxdutfs of Claudius, which earned a 
 voice fixtecn miles; and divers others, enumerated by lur- 
 cher in his Phonurgia. 
 
 The moft confiderable in England, arc, the dome of St Paul s, 
 London, where the ticking of a watch may be heard from 
 fide to fide ; and a very eafy whijper be fent all round the 
 dome. — This Mr Derham found to bold not only tn the 
 gallery below, but above upon the fcaffold, where a wbi/A 
 per would be carried over one's head round the top of the 
 arch, though there be a large opening in the middle of it in- 
 to the upper part of the dome. 
 
 And the famous wbifptring-place in Glouccftcr cathedral, 
 which is no other than a gallery above the eaft end of the 
 choir, leading from one fide thereof to the other. — It con- 
 fins of five angles, and fix fides, the middlcrnoft of which 
 is a naked window ; yet two whifperers there hear each other 
 at the dillance of twenty five yards. 
 \V H ITE, one of the colours of natural bodies. 
 
 White is not fo properly faid to be any one colour, as a com- 
 pofition of all the colours ; it being demonftrated by Sirlfaac 
 Newton, that thofe bodies only appear white, which reflect 
 all the kinds of coloured rays alike. 
 
 Hevelius affirms it as a thing moft certain, that in the nor- 
 thern countries, animals, as hares, foxes, bears, &c. become 
 white in the winter-time ; and in Cummer refume their na- 
 tural colours. 
 
 Black bodies are found to take heat fooner than white ones ; 
 by reafon the former abforb or imbibe rays of all kinds and 
 colours, and the latter reflect all. 
 
 Thus, black paper is fooner put into flame by a burnihg- 
 glafs, than white ; and hence black clothes hung up by the 
 dyers in the fun, dry fooner than white ones. 
 
 White Arfenic. J f Arsenic. 
 
 White Ajhes. 
 
 White Cinnamon, 
 
 White Copperas. b> See the article 
 
 White Cordage. 1 
 
 White Diachylon, I 
 
 White Eagle. 
 
 White of the Eye, denotes the full tunic or coat of the eye, 
 
 called albuginea, and conjuntliva, becaufe Cory tag to bind 
 
 together, or inclofe the reft. 
 
 White Fla?. ) . . . , ( Flag. 
 ■w v ,1 i bee the article -j 
 
 White brojl. J li rost. 
 
 WfW T t- friars , a name common to levcral orders of monks, 
 
 from their being clothed at a white habit. See Monk, 
 
 Habit, &c. 
 
 Such are the regular canons of S. Auguftin, the Premon- 
 ftratenfes, and Bernardins. , 
 White Glafs. See the article Glass. 
 
 White-W/ Silver, cand'idi ccrvi Argentmn, a tribute or mulct 
 paid into the exchequer, out of certain lands in or near the 
 
 -fore ft of mite-hart in Dor.fetfiire ; -which was continued 
 from Henry the third's "time, who firit impofed it upon 
 Thomas dc la Linde, and others, for k'iiling a. beautiful 
 White hart, which that king had purpofely tpared in hunting. 
 
 White Hellebore. Sec the article Hellebore. 
 
 White Lead, is a fort of ruftof lead; or lead diifolved with 
 vinegar ; much ufed by the painters. 
 
 It U : prepared two ways : — cither by reducing the lead into 
 thin laminae, deeping them in tlrong vinegar, and every ten 
 days fcrapingoft the ruft formed on the Curface : and repeat- 
 ing this till the lead be quite con fumed. 
 
 Or, by rolling the lamina; into cylinders like meets of pa- 
 per, only fo as that there be a little fpace left between the 
 fcveral folds or turns. — Thcfe lamina; they fufpcud in the 
 middle of earthen pots, at the bottom of which is vinegar. 
 
 The pots being well clofed, are buried in a dunginl for 
 
 thirty days ; after which, being opened, the lead is found, 
 as it. were, calcined,. and reduced into what they call cerujje, 
 or white lead, this is to be broke into pieces, and diku in 
 the fun. . ■ * 
 
 It is ufed both in painting in oil and in water-colours, and 
 makes a good colour in each. — But it is fomewhat mifch_v- 
 ous.both m the grinding and ufing it, as being a dangerous 
 
 poifon. 7 i - y \x ie or*.:*"*»;» '*' - bt-t^ 3" *? > 
 Of this white lead it is that the paint ufed by the ladies, call- 
 ed cerujs, is made. 
 Wh i t E Line, among printers, a void fpace greater than ufual, 
 
 left between two lines. See Printing. 
 White Line, in anatomy. See the article Linea Alba.. 
 White Linen, is cloth of hemp, or flax ? bleached by divers 
 
 lyes, and waterings on the ground. 
 White Meats, include milk,, butter, checfe, white-pots 
 cuftards, and other foods coming of milk, or eggs. Some 
 add alfo fifh, veal and chickens. 
 White Money, Libra alba. See the article Money. 
 White Mortar. J ^ th ^ S Mortar. H * 
 White Order. 5 /Order. 
 White Paper, is that intended for writing, printing, l$c. in 
 con trad iftinil ion to brown paper, marbled paper, blotting 
 paper, tkc. 
 
 White Pepper. See the article Pepper. 
 WHITE-Psf, denotes milk or cream baked with the yolks of 
 eggs, fine bread, fugar, and (pice, in an earthen pot. 
 The cooks furnifh us with a variety of difhes under this 
 form and denomination, fuch are Norfolk white-pat,- IP'eji- 
 minflcr white-pot, rice white-pot, &c. 
 White PrecipitaU. See the article Mercury. 
 White Rent, a rent or duty of S d, payable yearly, by every 
 
 tinner in the county of Devon, to the duke of Cornwall. 
 White Salt, is common, or (ea-falt, dried and calcined by 
 the fire, fo as not to leave any rnoifture therein. — .The 
 chymifts call it decrepitated fait. 
 
 'Inere are fome falts naturally white $ and others that need 
 to be whitened, either by diflblving and purifying them -in 
 fair water, which is afterwards evaporated ; or by means 
 of fire ; or by the fun. 
 White Sauce, a fort of fauce made of blanched almonds, 
 and the breaft of a capon, pounded together with cloves, 
 cinnamon, QV . — We alfo hear of white broth, which is a 1'ort 
 of broth enriched with Cack, and fpices, having blanched al- 
 monds fcraped into it, and the whole thickened with the 
 yolks of eggs, &c. 
 White Soap. See the article Soap. 
 
 SpaniJ!) White, is a kind of fucus ufed by the ladies to whiten 
 the complexion, and hide the defects thereof. — It is made 
 of tin-glafs dilTolved in fpiiit of nitre, and precipitated into 
 a very fine powder, by means of l'ak-water. See Bis- 
 muth, &c. 
 
 Ashes. 
 
 Cinnamon. 
 
 Copperas. 
 
 Cordage. 
 
 Diachylon. 
 
 Eagle. 
 
 Sec the article 
 
 White Spurs. 
 W h ite Star. 
 White Sugar. 
 White Tartar. 
 White Varnijh. 
 White Vitriol. 
 White Wax, is yellow wax blanched, and purified by the 
 
 fun and dew. See Wax. 
 White Wine, is that of a clear, btighr, transparent colour, 
 bordering on white. — It is thus called, to diftinguiih it fiom 
 the red wines, or clarets. 
 
 The generality of white-wines are made from white grapes ; 
 though there are fome from black ones, only the fkins are 
 carefully kepr from tinging them. 
 WHITENESS, Albedo, the quality which denominates a 
 body white. See White, andCoLouR. 
 Sir Ifaac Newton Chews, that white nefs confifts in a mixture 
 of all the colours; and that the light of the fun \$ only white, 
 becaufe coniifting of all colours. 
 
 From the multitude of rings of colours, which appear upon 
 compelling two piifms, or objeitTglailbs of teleicopes toge- 
 ther, it is mamfeft, that thefe do fo interfere and mingle 
 with one another at laft, as, after eight or nine icflexions, to 
 
 dilute 
 
W I c 
 
 W 1 L 
 
 dilute one another wholly, and conftitute an even and Bni- 
 { form wbitertefs : whence, as well as from other experiments, 
 it appears, that wbitenefs is certainly a mixture of all colours ; 
 and that the light which conveys it to the eye, is a mixture 
 of rays indued with all thofe colours. 
 
 The fame author mews, that wbitenefs, if it be molt ftrong 
 and luminous, is to be reckoned of the firft order of colours ; 
 but if lefs, as a mixture of the colours of feveral orders: 
 of the former fort he reckons white metals ; and of the 
 Jatter, the whitenefi of froth, paper, linen, and moft 
 other white fubftances. ■ — And as the white of the firft or- 
 der is the ftrongeft that can be made by plates of tranfparent 
 fubftances, fo it ought to be ftronger in the denfer fub- 
 ftances of metals, than in the rarer ones of air, water, and 
 
 glafe. L^L- ' 
 
 Gold or copper mixed either by fufion, or amalgamation 
 "with a very little mercury, with filver, tin, or regulus of 
 antimony, become white; which {hews, both that the par- 
 ticles of white metals have much more furface, and therefore 
 are fmalier than thofe of gold or copper ; and a!fo, that they 
 are fo opake, as not to fuffer the particles of gold or copper 
 to fhine through them. — And as that author doubts not, but 
 that the colours of gold and copper are of the fecond or third 
 order, therefore the particles of white metals cannot be much 
 bigger than is requiftte to make them reflect the white of the 
 firft order. 
 
 WHITENING, t tBleaching. 
 Whitening of Hair, t See the article < Hair. 
 Whitening of Wax. 3 (Wax, 
 WH I TE S, in medicine. See the article Fluor Alius. 
 WHITLOW, orWHtTLOE, the popular name for what 
 
 the phyficians commonly call panaris. Which fee. 
 WHITSUN Farthings. See the article Penteco- 
 
 WH IT SUNT IDE, the fiftieth day arter Eafter. See 
 Easter, Feast, &c. 
 
 The feafon properly called Pentecojl, is popularly called Whit- 
 funtide; fome fay, becaufe in the primitive church, thofe who 
 were newly baptized came to church between Eafter and 
 Pentecoft in white garments. 
 
 Whitfunday always falls between the 9th of May, and the 
 14th of June, exclufive. 
 
 WHOLE, Toium, in arithmetic, &c. See Part, Divi- 
 sion, Partition, &c. 
 
 Whole Meafure. ~\ r Measure. 
 
 Whole Number. CSee the article-? Number. 
 
 Whole Sine. J £Sine. 
 
 WHO O DINGS, or Hoodings, a fea term, ufed for 
 planks joined and faftencd along the {hip's fides into the 
 ftem. 
 
 WHORE. See Courtesan, Harlot, Concu- 
 bine, &c. 
 
 WHORLBAT, or Hurlbat, a kind of gauntlet, or 
 leathern ftrap loaden with plummets ; ufed by the antient 
 Romans id their folemn games, and exercifes ; and by them 
 called CtS/ttts. See Cjestus. 
 
 WHUR, in falconry, denotes the fluttering of partridges, 
 or pheafants, as they rife. 
 
 WI C, denotes a place on the fea-fhore, or on the bank of a 
 river — though, in the original Saxon, it more properly figni- 
 fies z. Jlreet, village, or dwelling place ; as alfo a cajlle. See 
 Wyke. 
 
 We often meet with wic in the Saxon writers, as a termi- 
 nation of the name of a town, which had a compleat name 
 without it: — -as, Lunden-wic ; that is, London town; 
 which fignifies no more than London. — In the Saxon Annals, 
 it is mentioned, that king TEthelbert made Melitus bifhop of 
 Lunden-wic. — So, Ipfwich is written in fome old charters, 
 villa cle Gippo, and fometimes villa de Gippo wico ; which is 
 no variance, but the fame thing; for Gipps is the compleat 
 name, and Gipp-wic is Gipps town. 
 
 WICKER, a twig of the olier ftirub, fingle or wrought. 
 
 WICKET, of the French guichet, a little door within a 
 gate ; or a hole in a door, through which to view what pafTes 
 without. 
 
 WICKLIFFISTS, or Wickliffites, a religious 
 feet, who had their rife in England, and their name from 
 their leader John Wickl'sff, a profeflbr of divinity in the uni- 
 verfity of Oxford. 
 
 To that immortal author it is we owe the firft hint of the 
 great reformation, effected 200 years after him. 
 IVickliff maintained, that the fubftance of the facramental 
 bread and wine ftili remained fuch after confecration. — He 
 alfo oppofed the doctrine of purgatorv, indulgences, the invo- 
 cation of faints, and the worftiip of images. 
 He made an Englifh verlion of the Bible ; and compofed 
 two large volumes, called Aletheia ; that is, truth ; which 
 was the fource whence John Hufs firft learned moft of his 
 doctrines. 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 The crchbifhop of Canterbury called a council againft 
 Wickliff, and he was condemned therein ; but the good 
 reformer fet the condemnation at nought. — After this, 
 king Richard banifhed him out of England; but he was 
 afterwards recalled, and died in his own country in the 
 year 138+. 
 
 Forty years afterwards, his doctrines, and the adherers there- 
 to, were condemned by the council of Conftance ; in confe- 
 quence of which, his bones were dug up, and the council 
 condemned him for forty errors. 
 
 WI DOW, Vidua, a woman that has loft her husband. 
 Some alfo ufe the term Widower, for a man who ha? loft 
 his wife. — Marriage with a widow, is a kind of bigamy in 
 the eye of the canon law. See Bigamy. 
 
 Widow of the King, was fhe, who, after her husband's death, 
 being the king's tenant in capite, was driven to recover her 
 dower by the writ de Dote Aftgnanda ; and could not marry 
 again without the king's confent. 
 
 Widow Bench, in the county of SufTex, is that (hare which 
 a widow is allowed of her husband's eflate, befides her 
 jointure. 
 
 W I E C K. See the article Week. 
 
 WIFE, Uxor, a married woman ; or one joined with, and 
 under the protection of a husband. 
 
 A wife, in our Englifti law, is termed feme covert ; and, in 
 the judgment of the law, is reputed to have no will, as being 
 fuppofed entirely under, and fubject to that of her husband : 
 uxor fulget radiis marit't. 
 
 If any goods or chattels be given her, they al! immediately 
 become her husband's. — She cannot let, fell, give away, 
 or alienate any thing, without her husband's confent. — Her 
 very neceffary apparel is not her's in property. — All her 
 perfunal chattels which fhe held at her marriage, are fo much 
 her husband's, that after his death they {hall not return to 
 her, but go to the executor, or adminiftrator of her huf- 
 band ; except only her paraphernalia, or praster-dotaiia, being 
 her neceftary apparel ; which, with the confent of her 
 husband, fhe may demife by will. See Parapher- 
 nalia. 
 
 The wife can make no contract without her husband's 
 confent; and in all law matters, fine vtro refpondere nan 
 potefi. 
 
 The law fuppofes in the husband, the full power over his 
 wife, as over his child or fervant ; and therefore he muft 
 anfwer for all her faults, and trefpaffes. 
 If a wife bring forth a child during her husband's abfence, 
 though of many years ; yet if he lived all the time inter qua-* 
 tuormaria, within the ifland, he muft father the chiki ; and 
 the child, if firft born, fhall inherit. 
 
 If a wife bring forth a child begot by a former husband, or 
 any other perfon, before marriage, but born after marriage 
 with another man ; this latter muft own the child ; and that 
 child {hall be his heir at law. 
 
 The w ife, after her husband's death, having no jointure fet- 
 tled before marriage, may challenge the third part of his 
 yearly rents of land, during her life; and, within the city 
 of London, a third part of all her husband's moveables for 
 ever. 
 
 The wife partakes of the honour, and condition of her huf- 
 band ; but none of the wife's dignities come, by marriage, 
 to her husband, 
 
 Yet, the husband, for getting his wife with child, which 
 muft appear by its being born alive, {hall have all his wife's 
 lands for life. 
 
 The Englifh laws are generally efteemed by foreigners, as 
 very hard, in refpect of the women; and yet Chamber- 
 layne is of a very different opinion, afierting, that the 
 condition of wives in England, is better than in any other 
 country. 
 
 Tertullian has two books, on the ornaments and attire of 
 wives. — In the fecond, he labours to prove, that a Chriftian 
 wife cannot, in confidence, endeavour to pleafe by her 
 beauty, which fhe knows to be naturally liable to raife 
 loofe defires ; and that {he ought not only to avoid alt 
 affected beauty, but even to conceal and cover her natural 
 beauty. 
 
 MidWiFE, Obfletrix. See Delivery. 
 WILDERNESS. See Labyrinth, &c. 
 W I L D - F I R E, Ignis Gregalis, or Gracus. See Fire. 
 Wild-fire Arrows, fuch as were trimmed with wild-fre, and 
 fhot burning, to {tick in the fails or rigging of {hips in a 
 
 fight. :V " \- , 4 ,*V , 
 
 WiLD-F/Vr, alfo denotes a difeafe in cattle; which is infectious, 
 
 deadly, and even reputed incurable. 
 Wild- Honey. See the article Honey. 
 
 WI LL, Voluntas, is ufually defined a faculty of the mind, 
 whereby it embraces or rejects any thing reprefenxed to it, 
 as good or evil, bv the judgment. 
 
 Others will have it to be the mind itfelf, confidered as 
 13 Ai embracing; 
 
W I N 
 
 W I N 
 
 embracing or refilling ; adding, that as the underftand- 
 ing is nothing elfe but the foul, confidered as perceiv- 
 ing; fo the will is nothing elfe but the foul confidered 
 as willing, &c. . , 
 
 Mr Locke more intelligibly defines the zvill, a faculty which 
 the foul has of beginning, or forbearing, continuing or ^end- 
 ing feveral actions of the mind, and motions of the body, 
 barely by a thought or preference of the mind, ordering, or 
 as it were, commanding the doing, or not doing, fuch and 
 fuch a particular aftion. — This power the mind has, to or- 
 der the confutation of any idea, or the forbearing to conli- 
 der it ; or to prefer the motion of any partof the body to its 
 reft, and vice verfa, is what we call the will. 
 The adtual exercife of that power, is what wc call volition, 
 or willing; and the doing or forbearing any aaion coniequent 
 on fuch order of the mind, is called voluntary. 
 Father Malebranche lays it down, that the will is that to the 
 foul, which motion is to the body ; and argues, that as the 
 author of nature is the univerfal caufe of all the morons in 
 matter, fo he is of all the inclinations in the mind : and that 
 as all motions are direct, unlefs their courfe be diverted and 
 changed by fome foreign caufe: fo all inclinations are right, 
 and could have no other end, but the enjoyment of truth and 
 goodnefs, were there not fome foreign caufe, to determine 
 the natural imprefiion to evil ends. 
 
 Accordingly, he defines will to be the impreffion or natural 
 motion, which carries us towards good indeterminately, and 
 in the general ; and the power the mind has, to direct this 
 general impreffion towards any particular object that pleafes 
 it, is what he calls liberty. 
 
 Ariftorle diftinguifhes two kinds of acts of the will; viz. 
 $u*r,<rn, willing, volition ; and urgoaipstns, eleSlion. — The fir ft, 
 that employed about the ultimate end ; the latter, about the 
 
 means. u*i*a; J 
 
 The fchoolmen alfo diftinguifh the actions of the will, into 
 elicit and commanded. — Elicit acts, acliones elidtcs, are thofe 
 immediately produced by the tvill, and really inherent there- 
 in; fuch are willing, and nilling. — .Commanded acts, aclio- 
 nes imperata, are effects produced by other powers; v. gr. 
 the fenfitive, intellective, or locomotive powers, at the 
 command or mitigation of the will. — As, to follow, Jay, 
 fight, fy, &c. 
 
 But others will have the former kind properly to belong to 
 the underflanding; and only the latter to the will. 
 The word will is taken in three fenfes ; i°. For the power, 
 or faculty of willing ; in which fenfe it is, we have confi- 
 dered itabove. — 2°. For the act, or exercife of this power ; 
 as, when we fay, No man wills his own deftruction. — 
 3°. For a habit, or a conftant difpofition and inclination to 
 do any thing. — In which fcnfe, juftice is defined a conftant 
 will, to give every one what belongs to him : jujlitia ejl 
 eonftans iff" perpetua voluntas jus juum unicmque tribuendi. 
 In/lit. Juftin. 
 
 Antecedent Will. See the article Antecedent. 
 
 Free Will. See Liberty, and Freedom. 
 
 Will, LaJ Will, or Tejament, in law, a folemn act, 
 or inftrument, whereby a perfon declares his mind and in 
 tention as to the difpofal of his goods, effects, &c, after hi: 
 death. 
 
 Wills are of two kinds: A will in writing- — And a will 
 by word of mouth only, called a nuncupative will ; which 
 being proved by three or more witneffes, may be of as good 
 force as that in writing; except for lands, which are only 
 devifable by teftament in writing, during the life of the te- 
 ftator. 
 
 Probate of a JVttl. See the article Probate. 
 Will with a wifp, a meteor known among the people under 
 
 this name; but more ufually among authors, under that of 
 
 ignis fatuus. See Ignis Fatuus. 
 WIMPLE, of the Dutch wlmpel, a muffler, or plaited linen 
 
 cloth, which nuns wear to cover their necks and breaft. 
 
 The word is alfo fometimes ufed for a ftreamer, or flag, 
 WIN, in the beginning or end of the names of places, figni- 
 
 fies that fome great battle was fought, or a victory gained 
 
 there. — The word is formed from the Saxon winnan, to 
 
 win or overcome. 
 WIND, Ventus, a fenfible agitation of the air, whereby a 
 
 large quantity thereof flows out of one place, or region, into 
 
 another. 
 
 The winds are divided into perennial, jlated, and variable. — 
 They are alfo divided into general, and particular. 
 
 Perennial, or conftant Wi nds, are fuch as always blow the 
 fame way. — Of thefe we have a very notable one between 
 the two tropics, blowing conftantly from eaft to weft ; called 
 the general trade-wind. 
 
 Stated, or periodical Winds, are fuch as conftantly return at 
 certain times. — Such are the fea and land breezes, blowing 
 from fea to land in the evening ; and from land to fea in the 
 morning. 
 
 Such alfo are the Jbifting, or particular trade-winds, which, 
 for certain months of the year, blow one way, and the reft 
 of the year, the contrary way. 
 Variable, or erratic Wi nds, are fuch as blow now this, now 
 that way ; and are now up, now hufhed, without any rule 
 or regularity, either as to time or place. 
 Such are all the winds obferved in the inland parts of Eng- 
 land, &c. Though feveral of thefe claim their certain times 
 of the day. — Thus, the wejl-wind is moil frequent about 
 "noon ; the foutb-wind in the night; the north in the morn- 
 ing, Wc. 
 
 General Wind, h fuch a one, as at the fame time blows the 
 fame way, over a very large tract. of ground, almoft all the 
 year. — Such only is the general trade-wind. 
 But even this has its interruptions: for, i °, At land it is 
 fcarce fenfible at all, as being broke by the interpofition of 
 mountains, valleys, cifr. 2 0 . At fea, near the fhore, it is 
 difturbed by vapours, exhalations, and particular winds, blow- 
 ing from landward ; fo that it is chiefly confidered as general^ 
 only at mid-fea : Where, 3 0 . It is liable to be ditturbed, 
 by clouds driving from other quarters. 
 Particular Winds, iuclude all others^ excepting the general 
 trade-winds. 
 
 Thofe peculiar to one little canton, or part, are called topi- 
 cal or provincial wind's. — < Such is the naith-wind, on the 
 weftern fide of the Alp?, which does not blow above one or 
 two leagues lengthwife, and much lels in breadth : fuch alfo 
 is 1 he pontias in France, tiff, 
 Phyfcal caufe of Wi nds.— Some philofophers, as Des Cartes, 
 Koliault, &c. account for the general wind, from the diur- 
 nal rotation of the earth ; and from this general wind derive 
 all the particular ones.-J— The atmofphere, fay they, invert- 
 ing the earth, and moving round it; that part will perform 
 its circuit fooneft, which has the fmalleft circle to defcribe: 
 The air theiefore, near the equator, will require a fome- 
 what longer time to perform its courfe in, from weft: to eaft^ 
 than that nearer the poles. — Thus, as the earth turns eaft- 
 ward, the particles of the air near the equinoctial, being 
 exceeding light, are left behind; fo that, in refpect of the 
 earth's furface, they move eaftwards, and become a conftant 
 eafterly wind. 
 
 This opinion feems confirmed by this, that thefe winds are 
 found only between the tropics, in thofe parallels of latitude, 
 where the diurnal motion is fwifteft. — Bur theconflan; calms 
 in the Atlantic fea, near the equator, the wefterly winds 
 near the coaft of Guinea, and the periodical wefterly mon- 
 foons, under the equator in the Indian feas, declare the infuf- 
 ficiency of this hypothefis. 
 
 Befides, the air being kept clofe to the earth by the principle 
 of gravity, would, in time, acquire the fame degree of velo- 
 city, that the earth's furface moves with, as weil in retpfct 
 of the diurnal rotation, as of the annual about the fun, which 
 is about thirty times fwifter. 
 
 Dr Haliey, therefore, fubftitutes another caufe, capable of 
 producing a like conftant effect, not liable to the fame ob- 
 jections, but agreeable to the known properties of the ele- 
 ments of water and air, and the laws of the motion of fluid 
 bodies. — Such a one is the action of" the fun's beams upon the 
 air and water, as he pafles every day over the ocean, confi- 
 dered together with the quality of the foil, and the fituation 
 of the adjoining continents. 
 
 According to the laws of ftatics, the air, which is lefs rare- 
 fied or expanded by heat, and confequently is more ponderous, 
 muft have a motion towards thofe parts thereof, which are 
 more rarefied, and lefs ponderous, to bring it to an equili- 
 brium; alfo the prefence of the fun, continually fhifting to 
 the weftward, that part towards which the air tends, by rea- 
 fon of the refraction made by his greateft meridian heat, is, 
 with him, carried weftward ; and, confequently, the ten- 
 dency of the whole body of the lower air is that way. 
 Thus a general eafterly wind is formed, which being imprcf- 
 fed upon the air of a vaft ocean, the parts impel one the 
 other, and fo keep moving till the next return of the fun, 
 whereby fo much of the motion, as was Joft, is again re- 
 ftored ; afid thus the eafterly wind is made perpetual. 
 From the fame principle it follows, that this eafterly wind 
 mould, on the north fide of the equator, be to the north- 
 wards of the eaft, and in fouth latitudes, to the fouthwards 
 thereof ; for near the line, the air is much more rarefied, 
 than at a greater diftance from it ; becaufe the fun is twice 
 in a year vertical there; and at no time diftant above 23-i 
 degrees: at which diftance, the heat being as the fine of the 
 angle of incidence, is but little fhort of that of the perpendi- 
 cular ray; whereas under the tropics, though the fun ftay 
 longer vertical, yet he is a long time 47 degrees oft; which is 
 a kind of winter, wherein the air fo cools, as that the fum- 
 mer heat cannot warm it to the fame degree with that under 
 the equator. Wherefore, the air towards the northward 
 and fouthward, being lefs rarefied than that in the middle, 
 - run-ofSri) ftoins .T3t»ll *dJ Jo wl'n aw* it 
 
W I N 
 
 it follows, that from both fides, it ought to tend towards the 
 equator. 
 
 This motion, compounded with the former eafterly wind, 
 accounts for all the phenomena of the general trade-winds ; 
 which, if the whole furface of the globe was fea, would un- 
 doubtedly blow quite round the world, as they are found to 
 do in the Atlantic, and the Ethiopic oceans. — But feeing 
 fo great continents do interpofe, and break the continuity of 
 the oceans, regard muft be had to the nature of the foil, and 
 the pofition of the high mountains, which are the two prin- 
 cipal caufes of the vibration of the wind, from the former 
 general rule: for if a country lying near the fun prove to be 
 flat, fandy, and lowland; fuch as the defarts of Libya are ufu- 
 ally reported to be ; the heat occafioned by the reflections of 
 the fun's beams, and the retention thereof in the fand, is in- 
 credible to thofe who have not felt it; whereby the air being 
 exceedingly rarefied, it is neceflary, that the cooler, and more 
 denfe air, mould run thitherwards to reftore the equilibrium. 
 This is fuppofed to be the caufe, why, near the coaftof Gui- 
 nea, the wind always fets in upon the land, blowing weflerly 
 inftead of eafterly; there being fufficient reafon to believe, 
 that the inland parts of Africa are prodigioufly hot, fince the 
 northern borders thereof were fo very intemperate, as to give 
 the antients caufe to conclude that all beyond the tropics was 
 uninhabitable by excefs of heat. 
 
 irom the fame caufe it happens, that there are fo conftant 
 calms in that fame part of the ocean, called the rams ; for this 
 tract being placed in the middle, between the wefterly winds 
 blowing on the coaft of Guinea, and the eafterly trade-winds^ 
 blowing to the weftwards thereof; the tendency of the air 
 here, is indifferent to either, and fo ftands in equilibrio be- 
 tween both: and the weight of the incumbent acmofphere 
 being diminifhed by the continual contrary winds blow- 
 ing from hence, is the reafon that the air here holds not 
 the copious vapour it receives, but lets it fall in fo frequent 
 rains. 
 
 But, as the cold and denfe air, by reafon of its greater gravity, 
 preiies upon the hot and rarefied, it is demonftrable, that 
 this latter muft afcend inacontinued ftream, as faft as it ra- 
 refies; and that being afcended, it muff, difperfe itfelf, to 
 preferve th« equilibrium; that is, by a contrary current, the 
 upper air muft move from thofe parts where the greateft heat 
 is: fo, by a kind of circulation, the north-eaft tvads-wind 
 below, will be attended with a fouth- wefterly wind above; 
 and the fouth-eaft, with a north- weft wind above. 
 That this is more than a bare conjecture, the almoff inftan- 
 taneous change of the wind to the oppofite point, which is 
 frequently found in pafiing the limits of the trade- winds, feems 
 ftrongly to aflure us; but that which above all confirms this 
 hypothefis, is the phenomenon of the monfoons, by this 
 means mofteafily folved, and without it hardly explicable. 
 Suppofing therefore, fuch a circulation as above ; it is to be 
 ■confidered, that to the northward of the Indian ocean, there 
 is every where land, within the ufuai limits of the latitude 
 of30%w'z. Arabia, Perfia^ India, &c. which, for the fame 
 reafon as the mediterranean parts of Africa, are fubject to in- 
 Tufferable heatSj when the fun is to the north, paffing nearly 
 vertical } but yet are temperate enough, when the fun is re- 
 moved towards the other tropi^ becaufe of a ridge of moun- 
 tains at fume diftance within the land, faid to be frequently, 
 in winter, covered with fnow, over which the airj as it paf- 
 fes, muft needs be much chilled. — Hence it happens, that 
 the air coming, according to the general rule, out of the 
 north-eaft, to the Indian fea, is fometimes hotter, fometitnes 
 colder, than that which, by this circulation, is returned out 
 of the fouth- weft; and, by confequence, fometimes the un- 
 der-current, orxwW, is from the north-eaft, fometimes from 
 the forth- weft. 
 
 That this has no other caufe, is clear from the times wherein 
 thefe winds fet, viz, in April: when the fun begins to 
 warm thefe countries to the north, the fouth-weft monfoons 
 begin, and blow, during the heats, till October, when the 
 fun being retired, and all things growing cooler northward, 
 and the heat increafing to the fouth, the north-eaft winds 
 enter and blow all the winter, till April again. And it is, 
 undoubtedly, from the fame principle, that to the fouthward 
 of the equator, in part of the Indian ocean, the north-weft 
 winds fucceed the fouth-eaft, when the fun draws near the 
 tropic of Capricorn. 
 
 But, the induftry of fome late writers, having brought the 
 theory of the production and motion of winds, to fomewhat 
 of a mathematical demon ftration ; we mail here give it the 
 reader in that form. 
 laws of the produifion of WinBs.— If the fpring of the air be 
 weakened in any place, more than in the adjoining places ; a 
 windviiW blow through the place where the diminution is. 
 For, fince the air endeavours, by its elaftic force, to expand 
 itfelf every way ; if that force be lefs in one place than ano- 
 ther; thenifus of the more, againff the lefs elaftic, will be 
 greater than the nifus of the latter, againft the former.— 
 
 W I N 
 
 The lefs elaftic air, therefore, will refill with lefs force than 
 is urged by the more elaflic : confequently, the lefs ela- 
 flic will be driven out of its place, and the more elaftic will 
 fucceed. 
 
 If, now, the excefs of the fpring of the more elaflic above 
 that of the lefs elaftic air, be fuch as to occafibn a little al- 
 teration in the barofcope ; the motion both of the air expelled 
 and that which fucceeds it, will become fenfible, i. e. there 
 will be a zuind. 
 
 z°. Hence, fince the fpring of the air increafes, as the com- 
 preffing weight increafes; am) compreffed air is denfer than 
 air lefs compreffed : all winds blow into rarer air, out of a 
 place filled with a denfer. 
 
 5°. Wherefore, fince a denfer air is fpecifically heavier than 
 a rarer; an extraordinary lightnefs of the air in any place 
 muft be attended with extraordinary winds, or florins. ' 
 Now, an extraordinary fall of the mercury in tbe barome- 
 ter, fhewing an extraordinary lightnefs of the atmofphere; it 
 is no wonder if that foretels florms. 
 
 4°. If the air be fuddenly condenfed in any place, its fpring 
 will be fuddenly diminifhed: hence, if this diminution be 
 great enough to affea the barorrieter, there will a wind blow 
 through the condenfed air. 
 
 5". But fince the air cannot be fuddenly condenfed, unlefs it 
 have before been much rarefied j there will a wind blow thro' 
 the air, as it cools, after having been violently heated. 
 6°. In like manner, if air be fuddenly rarefied, its fprino- 
 is fuddenly increafed ; wherefore, it will flow through the 
 
 contiguous air; not acted on by the rarefying force. 
 
 A wind, therefore, will blow out of a place, in which the 
 air is fuddenly rarefied : and on tins principle, in all proba- 
 bility, it is, that, 
 
 7°. Since the fun's power in rarefying the air is notorious it 
 muft neceffarily have a great influence on the generation of 
 winds. , . , . . , . ,. 
 
 8°. Moll caves are found to ejnit wind, either more or lefs. 
 The rifing and changing of the wind, is determined experi- 
 mentally, by means of weather-cocks, placed a-topof houfes, 
 CSV. — But tbefe only indicate what palfes about theirown 
 heigbth, or near the furface of the earth : Wolfius allures us, 
 from obfervations of feveral vcars, that the higher winds, 
 which drive the clouds, are different fiom the lower ones, 
 which move the weather-cocks.— And Mr Derham obferves 
 fonietbing not unlike this. Pbyf Tbcal. L. I. c. 2. 
 The^author laft mentioned relates, upon comparing feveral 
 fenes's of obfervations made of the winds in divers countries, 
 viz. England, Ireland, Switzerland, Italy, France, New- 
 England, tSc. that the winds in thofe feveral places feldom 
 agree; but when they do, it is commonly when they are 
 ftrong, and of long continuance in the fame quarter ; and 
 more, he thinks, in the northerly and eafterly, than in other 
 points. — Alfo, that a ftrong wind in one place, is often- 
 times a weak one in another; or moderate, according as the 
 places are nearer, or more remote. Phihfofh. Trmfatlims, 
 N" 207, and 32 j. 
 Laws of lb, fare, and velocity of Winn, — Wind being only 
 air in motion, and air being a fluid, fubjeei to the iaws of 
 other fluids, its force may be regularly brought to a precife 
 computation : thus — " The ratio of the fpecific gravity of 
 " any other fluid to that of air, together with thefpace that 
 " fluid, impelled by the prefiure of the air, moves in any 
 " given time, being given ; we can determine the fpacc 
 " thro' which the air itfelf, acted on by the fame force, will 
 <c move in the fame time:" By this rule: 
 I As the fpecific gravity of air, is to that of any other 
 fluid ; fo, reciprocally, is the fquare of the fpace, which that 
 fluid, impelled by any force, moves in any given time, to 
 the fquare of the fpace which the air, by the fame imnulfe, 
 will move in the fame time. 
 
 Suppofing, therefore, the ratio of the fpecific gravity of that 
 other fluid to that of air, to be = 4: c; the fpace defcribed 
 by the fluid to be called f; and that which the air will de- 
 fenbe by the fame impulfe, x. The rule gives us x = k/ 
 
 Hence, if we fuppofe water impelled by the given force to 
 move two feet in a fecond of time; then will /==2; and 
 fince the fpecific gravity of water to the air, is as 970 to 1 ; 
 we fliall have b-= 970, andf==i; confequently, x~=-/ 
 970.4=/ 3880=623 feet. The velocity of the ivind, 
 therefore, to that of water, moved by the fame power, will 
 be as 623 to 2 ; t. e. if water move two feet in a fecond, 
 the wind will fly 623 feet. 
 
 2 0 . Add, that/=/ {cx*:b); and therefore the fpace 
 any fluid, impelled by any impreffion, moves in any time, 
 is determined, by finding a fourth proportional to the two 
 numbers that exprefs the ratio of the fpecific gravity, and 
 the fquare of the fpace the wind moves in, in the given time. 
 — The fquare root of that fourth proportional is the fpace 
 required. 
 
 M. Mariotte, e. gr. found, by various experiments, that a 
 
 pretty 
 
W I N 
 
 W I N 
 
 pretty ftrong tbind moves 24 feet in a fecond of time; where- 
 fore, if the fpire which the water, acted 011 by the fame 
 force as the air, will defcribe in the fame time, be required ; 
 then will c=s i, x = 74, £=970; and we fhall find 
 
 /=/ (576: 97 o) = |f- 
 
 3°. " The velocity of wind being given, to determine the 
 " prelTure required to produce that velocity;" we have this 
 rule:' — The fpace the wind moves in one fecond of time, 
 is to the heighth a fluid is to lie raifed in an empty tube, in 
 order to have a prefiure capable of producing that velocity ; 
 in a ratio compounded of the fpecific gravity of the fluid to 
 that of the air, and of quadruple the altitude a body de- 
 scends in the firft fecond of time, to the aforefaid fpace of 
 the air. 
 
 Suppofe, e. gr. the fpace the air moves in a fecond, 0 = 24 
 feet, or 268 inches; call the altitude of the third #, and the 
 ratio of mercury to air b: c = 13580 : 1, d= 181 inches ; 
 x will be lefs than that number by one line, or ,4 of an 
 inch, — And hence we fee, why a fmall, but fudden change 
 in the barometer, is followed with violent winds. 
 The force of the wind is determined experimentally by a 
 peculiar machine, called an anemometer, or a wiW-meafurer ; 
 which being moved by means of fails, like thofe of a wind- 
 mill, raifes a weight, that, frill the higher it is raifed, re- 
 ceding further from the centre of motion, by Aiding along 
 an hollow arm fitted on to the axis of the fails, becomes 
 heavier and heavier, and prefTcs more on the arm, till being a 
 counter-poife to the force of the wind on the fails, it flops 
 the motion thereof. — An index then, fitted upon the fame 
 axis, at right angles with the arm, by its riling or falling, 
 points out the ftrength of the wind> on a plane divided like 
 a dial-plate into degrees, 
 Qualities and Effects of Wind.— 1 °. tc A wind blowing from 
 " the fea, is always moift: in fummer, it is cold; and in 
 '* winter, warm; unlefs the fea be frozen up."— This 
 is demonftrated thus: There is vapour continually iifing 
 out of all water {as appears even hence, that a quantity of 
 water being left a little while in an open vefTel, is found fen- 
 fibly diminifhed) but efpecially if it be expofed to the fun's 
 rays; in which cafe, the evaporation is beyond all expecta- 
 tion. By this means, the air incumbent on the fea be- 
 comes impregnated with a deal of vapour. But the winds 
 blowing from off the fea, fweep thefe vapours along with 
 them; and confequently they are always moift. 
 Again, water in fummer, &c. conceives lefs heat than ter- 
 reftiial bodies, expofed to the fame rays of the fun, do ; but in 
 winter, fea-water is warmer than the earth covered with froft 
 and fnow, kfe. Wherefore, as the air contiguous to any body, 
 is found to partake of its heat and cold, the air contiguous 
 to fea-water will be warmer in winter, and colder En fum- 
 mer, than that contiguous to the earth. — Or thus: Vapours 
 raifed from water by the fun's warmth in winter, are warm- 
 er than the air they rife in (as appears from the vapours 
 condenfing, and becoming vilibie, almoft as foon as they are 
 got out into air.) Frefh quantities of vapour, therefore, 
 continually warming the atmofphere over the fea, will raife 
 its heat beyond that of air over the land.' — -Again, the 
 fun's rays reflected from the earth into the air, in fummer, 
 are much more than thofe from the water into air: the air, 
 therefore, over the earth, warmed by the reflection of more 
 rays than that over water, is warmer. — Hence, fea-windi 
 make thick, cloudy, hazy weather. 
 
 z°. " Winds blowing irom the continent, are always dry; 
 *< in fummer, warm; and cold in winter." — For there is 
 much lefs vapour arifing from the earth, than from water; 
 and therefore the air over the continent will be impregnated 
 with much fewer vapours.— Add, that the vapours, or ex- 
 halations, raifed by a great degree of heat out of the earth, 
 are much finer, and lefs fenfible, than thofe from water. — 
 The ui hid therefore, blowing over the continent, carries but 
 little vapour with it ; and is therefore dry, 
 Further, the earth in fummer is warmer than water expofed 
 to the fame rays of the fun, — Hence, as the air partakes 
 of the heat of contiguous bodies, that over the earth in fum- 
 mer will be warmer than that over the water: therefore the 
 wind, &c. 
 
 After the like manner it is ihewn, that the land-winds are 
 cold in winter. — -Hence, we fee why land-winds make clear, 
 cold weather. 
 
 Our northerly and foutherlv winds, however, which are com- 
 monly efteemed the caufes of cold and warm weather, Mr 
 Derham obferves, are really rather the eftta of the cold or 
 warmth of the atmofphere.— Hence it is, that we frequently 
 fee a warm foutherlv wind, on a fudden, changed to the 
 north, by the fall of fnow or hail ; and that in a cold, frofty 
 morning, we lee the wind north, which afterwards wheels 
 about towards the foutherlv quarter, when the fun has well 
 warmed the air; and again, In the cold evening, turns 
 northerly, or eafterly. 
 
 For the manner wherein north eafierly winds contribute So 
 
 blights, fee Blight. — For the effect of winds on the ba- 
 rometer, and thermometer. See Barometer, ifc. 
 WlN'D, in navigation, is the fame agitation of the air, con- 
 fidered as ferving for the motion of veffels on the water. 
 The winds are divided, with refpect to the points of the ho- 
 rizon from which they blow, into cardinal and collateral. 
 Cardinal Winds, are thofe blowing from the four cardinal 
 
 points; eaft, weft, north, and fouth. 
 Collateral Winds, are the intermediate winds between any 
 two cardinal winds. ~~ The number of thefe is infinite, as the 
 points from which they blow are , but only a few of them 
 are confidered in practice: :. e. only a few of them have 
 their diftinguifliing names. 
 
 The antient Greeks, at firft, only ufed the four cardrnal 
 ones; at length they took in four more. — Vitruvius gives us 
 a table of twenty, befides the cardinals, which were in life 
 among the Romans. 
 
 The moderns, as their navigation is much more perfect th?.n 
 the antients, have given names to twenty eight collateral winds ; 
 which they range into primary and jecondary — and the fe» 
 condary, they fubdivide into thofe of the .firft and fecond 
 
 order. 
 
 The Englifh names of the primary collateral winds and 
 points, are compounded of the names of the cardinal ones, 
 north and fouth being flill prefixed. 
 
 The names of the fecondary collateral winds of the firft or- 
 der, are compounded of the names of the cardinals, and the 
 adjacent primary one. — Thofe of the fecond order, are com- 
 pounded of the names of the cardinal, or the next adjacent 
 primary ; and the next cardinal, with the addition of the 
 word (by). — The Latins have diftinet names for each ; all 
 which are expreiTed in the following table. 
 
 Names of the winds, and points of the 
 co in pa fs. 
 
 Diifances of 
 the points, 
 tSc. from 
 the, north. 
 
 Englifh 
 
 Latin and Greek. 
 
 t. North. 
 2. North b 
 
 r eaft. 
 
 Septentrio, or Boreas. 
 Hyperboreas. 
 Hvpaquilb. f - 
 
 11 *5 
 
 3.. North- 
 eaft. 
 
 north- 
 
 Gallicus. 
 Aquilo. 
 
 zz 30 
 
 4. North- 
 north. 
 
 5. Nortb- 
 
 6. North 
 
 eaft by 
 eaft. 
 -eaft by 
 
 Mefoboreas, 
 
 Mefaquilo. 
 
 Supernas. 
 ArSfapeUotes, 
 
 Borapeliotes. 
 
 Greecus. 
 Hypoc^fias. 
 
 33 45 
 45 
 
 56 15 
 
 7. Eaft-north-eaft. 
 
 8, Eaft by north. 
 
 Cxflas, hellefpontlus. 
 
 Mefocasfias. 
 Carbas. 
 
 67 30 
 73 45 
 
 9. Baft. 
 
 10. Eaft by fouth. 
 
 1 1 . Eaft-fouth-eaft. 
 iz. South-eaft by 
 
 eaft. 
 
 13. South-eaft. 
 
 14. South-eaft by 
 fouth. 
 
 15. South-fouth- 
 caft. 
 
 16. South by eaft. 
 
 Solanus, jiibfolanus, 
 
 apeliotes. 
 Hypeurus, or hyper- 
 
 eurus. 
 Eurus, or volturnus. 
 Mefeurus. 
 
 Notapeliotes, eurajler. 
 Hypophcenix. 
 
 Phoenix, pbcenicias., 
 leuco-notus, gan- 
 geticus. 
 
 Mefophcenix. 
 
 From the eaft. 
 o° 0' 
 n 15 
 
 35 45 
 45 
 
 56 15 
 6 7 30 
 
 73 4? 
 
 j Fromtbelbuth. 
 
 17. South. 
 
 18. South by weft. 
 
 19. South-fouth- 
 weft. 
 
 20. South-weft by 
 fouth. 
 
 21. &ouiJ>-weJf, 
 
 22. South- weft by 
 weft. 
 
 23. Weft-fouth-w. 
 
 24. Weft by fouth. 
 
 Aitfter^ notus, meridies, 
 Hypolibonotos, al- 
 fanus. 
 
 Libonotus, notoliby- 
 
 cus, auftro-africus. 
 Me foil bo not us. 
 
 Noto-zepbyrus. 
 
 Noto-libycus, 
 
 Africus. 
 Hypolib. 
 
 Hypafricns. 
 
 Subvefperus. 
 Libs. 
 Mefolibs. 
 
 Mefozephyrus. 
 
 3° 
 
W I N 
 
 W I N 
 
 Names of the winds, and points of the Diftances of 
 compafs. the points, 
 
 1 &c. from 
 
 Englifh, Latin, and Greek. the weft. 
 
 o' 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 Note, The antient names are here, after Ricciolus, adapted 
 to the modern ones ; not that the winds formerly denoted by 
 thofe, were precifely the fame with thefe, (for the antient 
 number and divifion being different from the modern, the 
 points they refer to will neceifarily be fomewhat different) 
 hut as thefe are what come the neareft. — Thus, Vitruvius 
 only reckoning twenty four winds, difpofes the points they 
 lefer to in a different order ; as in the following table. 
 
 Names of the 
 winds. 
 
 Diftance 
 from north. 
 
 Names of the 
 winds. 
 
 Diftance 
 from eaft. 
 
 I Septentrio 
 z Gallicus. 
 
 3 Supernas. 
 
 4 Aquilo. 
 
 5 Boreas. 
 
 6 Carbas. 
 
 
 o° 0' 
 '5 
 
 3° 
 45 
 
 .60 
 
 7S 
 
 7 Salanus. 
 
 8 Ornithias. 
 
 9 Cfecias. 
 10 Eurus. 
 
 o° o' 
 
 '5 
 
 30 
 
 
 1 1 Volturnus. 
 
 12 Euronocus. 
 
 45 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 Names of th 
 winds. 
 
 
 Diftance 
 from fouth. 
 
 Names of the 
 winds. 
 
 Diance 
 from weft. 
 
 14 Alfanus. 
 1 5 Libonotus 
 
 16 Africus. 
 
 17 Subvefpcr. 
 1 8 Argeftes. 
 
 
 o° 0' 
 '5 
 
 3° 
 45 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 1 9 Favonius. 
 
 20 E tafias. 
 
 21 Circius. 
 
 22 Caurus. 
 
 23 Corus. 
 
 24 Thrafcias. 
 
 o° o' 
 *S 
 
 45 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 For the ufe of the winds in navigation, c5V. fee Sailing. 
 Quarter Wind. See the article Quarter. 
 /A&iW-Wind. See the article Whirl-^. 
 Wind-Colic. J Seetheartide 5CoL,c. 
 Wind-Dropsy. J t I ympanites. 
 
 Wind-Egg, an addle egg, or an egg that has taken wind. See 
 
 Egc. 
 
 Wind-Fall, denotes fruit blown off the tree by the wind. 
 Wind-Furnace. See the article Furnace. 
 Wind-Gall, in horfes, a foft, flatulent tumor, or bladder, 
 
 arifing on the fetlock joint, and caufing great pain, efpecially 
 
 in hot weather, and hard ways. 
 
 It is ufually owing to a violent ftrain, extream labour, and 
 heat, a horfc's ftanding on a doping floor, a blow from an- 
 other, or the like.* 
 WIND- GUN, a machine, ferving to explode bullets, and 
 other fhot, with great violence, by the force of the air. 
 This fort of arm, charged with air, has an effe£t fcarce infe- 
 rior to that of a common fire-arm charged with gun-powder ; 
 but it difcharges itfelf with a much lefs report : and it is this 
 which, in ail probability, gave occafion to the fable of white 
 gun-powder. 
 
 There are wind-guns of divers contrivances; the moft eafy 
 and portable one, and the moft in ufe, is reprefented, Tab. 
 Pneumatics, fig. 14. It confifts of a round metalline tube, 
 3> 3i open at the end c c, and exactly flopped at the other 
 end 0, like the barrel of other guns ; 1, 1, 1, 1, is another 
 larger metal tube, wherein the former is difpofed, fo as to 
 leave a fpace between them 4, 4, wherein air may be in 
 clofed. — The two tubes are joined together at the common 
 aperture c c, by a circular plate exactly foldered to both, fo a* 
 to prevent the air from efcaping out of the fpacc 4, 4, CsV. — 
 At 8 is a fpring valve, which opening inwardly, lets the air 
 pafs through from z into the fpace r, but prevents its return 
 from 1 to 2. — Near the clofe end of the inner tube are two 
 Vol. II. 
 
 holes, 6 and 5; by the firft, the fpace 1 and the inner tube 
 communicate, lb that the air would pafs out of that into thb T 
 but that the palfage is flopped by a valve opening outwardly i 
 by the latter, there is a communication between the open 
 air, the fpace 4, and the inner barrel : only the air pent up 
 in the fpace cannot efcape at this hole, by reafon of a little 
 tube exactly foldered to both barrels, which ftops the com- 
 munication : nor can air efcape out of the inner barrel through 
 this little tube, by reafon of a little moveable pin, which ex- 
 actly fills the cavity of the tube. 
 
 Laftly, the part 2, z, z, 2, rcprefents the body of a fyringe, 
 or fucking pump ; by which, as much air as poffihle, is to 
 be intruded into the fpace 4, 4, c5V. — After which a bullet 
 being put into a cavity of the inner barrel as high as the little 
 tube 5, the gun is charged. See Syringe. 
 Now, to difcharge it, the little valve 6 is puftied up by 
 means of the pin that plays m the little tube 5. Upon this, 
 the compreffed air in the cavity of the outer barrel 4, rulhing 
 through the hole 6 into the cavity, of the inner barrel, ex- 
 pels the bullet with a vaft force, fufficient to penetrate a thick 
 board. 
 
 Note, to give the machine a greater refemblance of a fire- 
 arm, the part z, z, 2, 2, is ufually fafhioned like the butt- 
 end of a mufquet; and on the part 2, 8, z, 8, is fitted a 
 lock; by turning the trigger of which, the pin ; is made to 
 pufh back the valve, and fo difcharge the piece. — -By the lock 
 too, it is contrived, that either the whole charge of air may 
 be fpent at one explofion, or only part of it, and the reft re- 
 ferved for frefh bullets. — Bv this piece of mechanifm, we 
 can have half a dozen good, effective fhoots, with one charge 
 of air. 
 
 WIND-INSTRUMENTS, in mufic, are inftruments 
 played by wind, chiefly by the breath ; in contradiftinction to 
 
 firing- inftruments, and inftruments of the pulfat'de kind. 
 The wind-injlruments known to the ancients, were the tibia, 
 
 fflula, or fyringa of Pan, coniifting of feven reeds joined fide- 
 wife ; alfo organs, tubes, cornua, and the lituus. 
 Thofe of the moderns, are the flute, bagpipe, hautboy, trum- 
 pet, &C. 
 
 WIN D-M ILL, a kind of mill which receives its motion 
 from the impulfe of the wind. 
 
 The wind- mill, though a machine common enough, has yet 
 fomewhat in it more ingenious than is ufually imagined. — . 
 Add, that it is commonly allowed to have a degree of per- 
 fection, which few of the popular engines have attained to, 
 and which the makers are but little aware of. — Though the 
 new geometry, &c. has furnifhed ample matter for its im- 
 provement. 
 
 Struclure of the Wi an- Mill. — The internal ftructure of the 
 wind-mill, is much the fame with that of water-mills. — The 
 difference between them lies chiefly in an external apparatus, 
 for the application of the power. 
 
 This apparatus confifts of an axis E F (Tab. Pneumatics, 
 fig. 15.) through which pafs two arms, or yards, A B, and 
 C E, interfering each other at right angles in E, whofe length 
 is ufually about 32 feet : on thefe yards are formed a kind of 
 fails, vanes, or flights, in the figure of trapeziums, with 
 parallel bafes, the greater whereof, H I, is about fix feet 
 and the lefs, F G, determined by radii drawn from the cen- 
 tre E, to I and H. 
 
 Thefe fails are to be capable of being always turned to the 
 wind, that they may receive its impreflion : in order to which, 
 there are two different contrivances, which conftitute the two 
 different kinds of wind-mills in ufe. 
 
 In the one, the whole machine is fuftained upon a moveable 
 arbor or axis, perpendicular to the horizon, on a ftand, or 
 foot; and turned occafionally this way, or that, by means 
 of a lever. 
 
 In the other, only the cover, or roof of the machine, with 
 the axis and fails, turn round. — In order to which, 
 The cover is built turret-wife, and the turret encompaffed 
 with a wooden ring, wherein is a groove, at the bottom 
 whereof are placed, at certain diftances, a number of brafs 
 truckles, and within the groove is another ring, upon which 
 the whole turret ftands. — To the moveable ring are con- 
 nected beams a b and f c ; and to the beam a b, in b is fatten- 
 ed a rope, which at the other extreme thereof, is fitted to a 
 wiudlafs, or axis in pcritrochio : this rope being drawn through 
 the iron hook G, and the windlafs turned, the fails will be 
 moved round, and put in the direction required. 
 Theory of the motion cf a Wi nd- Mill, with the pofitian of the 
 fails, or vanes thereof. — The angle the fails are to make with 
 their common axis, fo as the wind may have the greattft 
 effect, is a matter of nice enquiry, and has much employed 
 the thoughts of the mathematicians. 
 
 To conceive why a w':nd-mill moves at all, the theory of 
 compound motions mull be fuppofed. — A body moving per* 
 pendicularly againft any furface, {hikes it with all its force. 
 If it move parallel to the fuiface, it dats not iinke it at all: 
 And if it move obliquely, its motion being compounded of 
 13 Bk th. 
 
 25. Weft. 
 
 26. Weft by north, 
 
 27. Weft -north- 
 weft. 
 
 28. North-weft by 
 weft. 
 
 29. North-weft. 
 
 30. North- weft by 
 north. 
 
 j*. North- north - 
 weft. 
 
 32. North by weft. 
 
 Zephyrus, favonius, 
 
 occidens. 
 Hypargeftes. 
 
 Hypocorus. 
 Argeftes. 
 
 Caurus, corus, 
 
 japyx. 
 Mefargeftes. 
 
 Mefocorus, 
 Zephyro-boreas, bo- 
 
 rolibycus, olimpias. 
 Hypocircius. 
 
 Hypo thrafcias. 
 
 Scirem. 
 Circius, thrafcias. 
 
 Mefocircius. 
 
W I N. 
 
 WIN 
 
 e t h= crp^ndichr daemon, be faftened . fome*he 
 b„dv, foaTttot it cannot purfue t»«^^ r J^^ 
 but mutt change it for Tome other ; in that cafe, the perpen 
 „ cub "Lit become, the diagonal of a new parallelogram, on 
 of whofe fides is the direaion the furface may follow, and 
 the other, that which it cannot. r„ ..jr.1 being 
 
 Thus, a rudder fafiened obliquely to M'W^ 
 ftruck bv the current of water parallel to tiie keel, auu, 
 X-ce, obliquely with regard to itfe K, "*f^ 
 by drawing the hne of perpendicular impulle, '^v^and 
 tear the rudder from the keel, and to carry , a* ay a, d 
 .hat this direaion perpendicular to the rudder, ■ oblique to 
 ^^. -Tte ruddVr, then, would be earned off in an 
 
 with it can move without being torn from the keel . and 
 leave the other, which would tear it off, as ufelefs 
 Now, the direaion in which it can move without p rung 
 from 'the keel, is that which carr.es 
 
 extremity as about a centre. So .hat the effect of the ob 
 lique impulfe of the water on the rudder, is red ced firft to 
 a perpendicular impreffion, which is again reduced to the mere 
 turning the rudder round ; or, if the rudder be immoveable, 
 to the turning of the vefiel. . , 
 
 Now, in an oblique and compound motion, where onK^ one 
 of the directions isoffeivice; the greater ratio the other b- 
 thereto the left efea will the motion have; and vice verfa. 
 -In examining the compound motions of the rudder we 
 find that the more oblique it is to the keel, the ratio of the 
 ection that ferves to turn it to the other is the grea e . 
 Bur, on the other hand, the more oblique it is to the keel, 
 and of conference, to the courfe of the water which ,s 
 fuppofed parallel thereto, the more weakly it lirifces. 1 ne 
 obliquity of the rudder, therefore, has at the fame time 
 both an advantage and a difadvantage ; but as thofe are not 
 equal, and as each of them is dill varying with every differ, 
 em pofition of the rudder, they become complicated var,- 
 oufly, fo that fometin.es the one prevails, and fomctimcs the 
 
 if has been a point of enquiry to find the pofition of the rud- 
 der, wherein the advantage fhould be the greateft. - M. 
 Rcnau, in his famous theory of the working of (hips, has 
 found, that the beft fituation of the rudder is, when it makes 
 an angle of 5 5 desrees with the keel. 
 
 If now, z wind-mill, cxpofed direaly to the wind, fcould 
 have its four tails perpendicular to the common axis wherein 
 they arc fitted, they would receive the wind perpendicular- 
 ly ; and it is vifible that impulfe would only tend to over- 
 turn them. -There is a neceflity, therefore, to have them 
 oblique to the common axis, that they may teceive the wind 
 
 ForThe greater eafe | let us only conlider one vertical fail.— 
 The oblique impulfe of the W*i on this fail, is reduc.b.e to 
 a perpendicular impulfe: and that direaion, as the fail can- 
 not absolutely keep to it, is compounded of two i one where- 
 of tends to make it tutn on its axis, and the other to fall 
 backwards. — But it is only the firft of thefe directions can 
 be obeved. — Of confequence, the whole impulfe of the 
 wind on the fail has no other effea, but to make it turn from 
 Ti-ht to left, or from left to right, as its acute angle turns 
 this wav or lhat. And the flruaure of the machine is o 
 happy, 'that the three other fails are determined, from the 
 fame reafons, to move the fame way. 
 
 The obliquity of the fails, with regard to their axis, has pre- 
 cifely the fame advantage, and difadvantage, with the obli- 
 quity of the rudder to the keel. — And M. Parent, faking 
 by the new analyfis, the moll advantageous fituation of the 
 fails on the axis, finds it piecifely the fame angle of 5 5 de- 
 grees Yet, inpraaice, this rule is very little obferved ; as, 
 indeed, being little known.— The fails are ufually fixed at an 
 angle of about 6o degrees, which is very much out of the way. 
 Elliptical Vfiti-D- Mill. — W. Patent confidcrs further, what 
 figure the fails of a wind- mill fliould have, to receive the great- 
 eft immilfe from the wind ; and he determines it to be a fee- 
 tor of an ellipfis, whofe centre is that of the axis or arbor of 
 the mill; and the little feini-axis, the heighth of thirty-two 
 feet: As for the greater, it follows ncceil'arily Irom the 
 rule that direBs the fail to be inclined to the axis in an angle 
 of 55 degrees. 
 
 On this foot he afTumes four fuch fails, each whereof is one 
 fourih of an ellipfis; which, he fhews, will receive all the 
 windy and lofe none, as the common ones do. — Thefe 
 four furfaces multiplied by the lever, with which the wind 
 . - acts on one of them, sxpreft the whole power the wind had 
 
 to move the machine, or the whole power the machine has 
 when in motion. . 
 The fame manner of reafoning, applied to a common wmd- 
 mill, whofe fails are reaangular, and their length about 
 five times their breath; fhews that the illiptii wind-mill 
 has above feven times the power of the common one. A 
 prodigious advantage! and worthy, fure, to have the com- 
 mon praaice fet afide for, could fo common a praBice be 
 
 A«w2oy witb "* ell 'P tic fails > he (hEWS ' would fti " 
 have more power than one with only tour. — It would only 
 have the fame furface with the four ; fince the four contain 
 the whole fpace of the ellipfis, as 'well as the fix. But the 
 force of the fix, would be greater than that of the four, in 
 the ratio of 245 to a 3 r.— If it were denied to have only 
 two fails, each being a femi-ellipfis, the futface would be 
 ftill the fame, but the power would be dimmifhed, by near 
 one third of that with fix fails; by reafon the greatnefs of 
 the feBors would much fhorten the lever with which the 
 wind aas. 
 
 Br II form end proportion of retlanguler W i M o- Mills. — But, 
 as elliptical fails would be fomething fo new, that there is 
 little room to expea they will come into common ufe ; the 
 fame author has conhdered which -form, among the rectan- 
 gular ones, will be the moft advantageous, i. t. which, the 
 produa of whofe furface by the lever of the wind, will be 
 the greateft.— And by the method de mamma O minimis, 
 he finds it very different from the common ones. 
 The refult of his enquiry is, that the width of the rcaan- 
 gular fail mould be nearly double its length; whereas 
 The length is ufually made almoft five times the width. — 
 Add, that as we call heighth or length, the dmienfion which 
 is taken from the centre of the axis ; the greateft dimenfion 
 of the new rectangular fail, will be turned towards the axis, 
 and the fmalleft from it : quite contrary to the pofition of the 
 common fails. 
 
 The power of a wind-mill, with four of thefe new reaangular 
 fails M, Patent fhews, will be to the power of 4 elliptic 
 fails, neaily as 1 3 to z 3 ; which leaves a confiscable advan- 
 tage on the fide of the elliptic ones : yet will the force of the 
 new reaangular fails, be considerably greater than that of 
 the common ones. 
 
 M. Parent likewife confidcrs what number of the new fails, 
 will be moft advantageous, and finds that the fewet the fails, 
 the more furface there will be, but the left power —The 
 ratio of the power of a wind-mill with 6 fails, will be to 
 another with a, nearly as 1 4 to r 3 ■ And the power of ano- 
 ther with 4, will be to that with z, nearly as rj to 9. 
 As to the common wind-mill, its power ftill dimini hes as 
 the breadth of the fails is fmaller, in proportion to the length. 
 The ufual proportion, therefore, of 5 to 1, is exceedingly 
 difadvantageous, . 
 The ufes of this new theory of zviml-mills are very obvious. 
 — The more power a wind-mill has, the fwifter it turns, 
 the more it difpatches, and the left wind it needs.— Add, 
 that on this theory, one may have a wind-mill, who.e fails 
 fhall be a deal fhorter, and yet the power greater, than 111 
 the common one. 
 Wind Tumors, &c. See the article Tumor. 
 WINDASS*, Wandass, or an lass, an antient term 
 in hunting. — Thus, to drive the wlnddfi, figoifies the 
 chafing a deer to a Hand, where one is ready with a bow or 
 gun to fhoot. 
 
 » Omna illi qui ttnairunt in iondagii mum filtlant hurt 
 
 ajtmmil 01 quotufomqu iominu, ad vamim vcmrit, 
 illi ai/lmertl filtlant fugare windiffum, ai fialulum, a vi- 
 natjo /varum b,ftiarum ji.unJom ,u >^"^"' 
 MS. de Confuetnd. Maneru de Sutton Colfield, An. 3- 
 Ed. II. 
 
 WINDERS of wool. SeethearticleWool.-7/W,n. 
 WINDING Sleirs. See the article Stair. 
 WINDLASS, or W indlage, a machine ufed to fade 
 hu-e weights withal, as guns, ftones, anchors, f/t. 
 It is very fimple, confining only of an axis, or roller, fup- 
 ported horizontally at the two ends by two pieces of wood ; 
 and a pully. - The two pieces of wood meet at top ; being 
 placed diagonally, fo as to prop each other. - The axis or 
 roller goes'through the two pieces, and turns in them.— I he 
 pully is faftened at top, where the pieces join. 
 Laftly, there are two ftaves, or hand-fpikes which go thio 
 the roller, whereby it is turned ; and the rope, which comes 
 over the pully, is wound off and on the fame. 
 W.ndla s in a MP, ^ an inftrument in a fmall veffel, placed 
 upon the deck, ataft the fore-mall: it confifts of a piece of 
 timber, having fix or eight fquares. It is turned by hand- 
 fpikes, put into holes made for that purpole. . 
 "Phis windlafs will purchafe more than any capftan W the 
 weighing of an anchor or the like, and that without any dan- 
 ger .0 thofe that heave. -Since if any of the hand-fpikes 
 fliould break, the windlafs would pall of itlelt. 
 WINDOW, q.d. IVind-dm, an aperture, or open P»" 
 
W I N 
 
 W I N 
 
 the fide of an houfe, to let in the air and light. — See Tab. 
 At -chit. fig. 49. fee alfo the articles Building, Aper- 
 tion, and Light. 
 
 We have various kinds and forms of windows ; as glafs win- 
 dow, wire windows, horn windows, &c. — - Arched win- 
 dows, circular windows, elliptical windows, fquare and flat 
 'windows ; round windows, oval windows, gothic windows, 
 regular windozvt, ruftic windows, to which add fky-iights. 
 The chief rules, with regard to windows, are — 1 °. That 
 they be as few in number, and as moderate in dimenfions 
 as may confift with other refpedb ; inafmuch as all openings 
 are weakenings. 
 
 2°. That they be placed at a convenient diftance from the 
 angles, or corners of the building; becaufe thofe parts ought 
 not to be opened and iufceblcd, whofe office is to fupport and 
 faften all the reft of the building. 
 
 3 0 . That care be taken the windows Le all equal one with 
 another, in their rank and order; fo that thofe on the right 
 hand may anfwer to thofe on the left, and thofe above, be 
 light over thofe below: for this fituation of windows will 
 not only be handfome and uniform, but alfo the void being 
 upon the void, and the full upon the full, it will be a 
 ftrengthening to the whole fabric. 
 
 As to their dimenfions, care is to be ufed, neither to give 
 them more, or lefs light than is needful; therefore regard is 
 10 be had to the bignefs of the rooms which are to receive the 
 light. — It is evident, that a great room needs more light, 
 and confequently, a greater window than a little room; and 
 e contra. 
 
 The apertures of windoius, in middle-fized houfes, may be 
 four and a half, or five feet between the jambs; and in the 
 greater buildings, fix and a half, or feven feet; and their 
 heighth maybe double their length at the leaft. — But in 
 high rooms or larger buildings, their heighth may be a third, 
 a fourth, or half their breadth, more than double the 
 length. 
 
 Such are the proportions for windows of the fir ft ftory ; and 
 according to thefe muft thofe in the upper ftories be for 
 breadth: but, as to heighth, they muft diminifh; the fecond 
 ftory may be one third part lower than the firft, and the 
 third ftory one fourth part lower than the fecond. 
 
 Architrave Windows. See the article Archi trate. 
 
 Dormer Windows, or Lutberns. See Luthern, caV. 
 
 f/^fflWiKDOws. See the article Transom. 
 
 Scenography of Windows. See the article ScenograPHY. 
 
 Window, in anatomy, £3*,:. See Fenestra. 
 
 WI N D-T A C K L ^-Blocks, in a (hip, are the main double 
 blocks or pulleys; which, being made faft to the end of a 
 fmall cable, ferve for the hoiftingof goods into the fhip, 
 
 To wind, or wend a JJup, iignifics to bring her head about. 
 
 Mow winds, or wends the Jhip ? is a queftion asked by mari- 
 ners, concerning a fhip under fail, Ggniiying as much as, 
 upon what point of the compafs does flie lie with her head? 
 
 WIND-TAUGHT, a fea term, implying as much as, 
 Jliff in the wind. 
 
 Too much rigging, high mafts, or any thing catching or 
 holding wind aloft, is faid to hold a fhip wind-taught ; by 
 which they mean, that fhe flops too much in her failing, 
 in a ftiff gale of wind. 
 
 Again, when a fhip rides in a main ftrefs of wind and wea- 
 ther, they ftrike down her top-niafts, and bring her yards 
 down, which elfe would hold too much wind, or be too 
 much diltended, and wind-taught. 
 
 WINDWARD Tide, in the fea language, a tide which runs 
 againft the wind. 
 
 WINDY Tumors. See the article Tumor. 
 
 W I N E, Vinum, a brisk, agreeable, fpiritous, and cordial li- 
 quor, drawn from vegetable bodies, and fermented. 
 The character of a wine, according to Boerhaave, is, that 
 the firft thing it affords by diftillation, be a thin, oily, in- 
 flammable fluid; called a fpirit. 
 
 This diftinguifhes wines from another clafs of fermented 
 vegetable juices, viz. vinegars ; which, inftcad of fuch fpirit, 
 yield, for the firft thing, an acid, un-infhmmable matter. 
 All forts of vegetables, fruits, feeds, roots, &c. may be 
 made to afford wine; as grapes, currants, mulberries, elder, 
 cherries, apples, pulfe, beans, peafe, turnips, radifhes, and 
 even grafs itfelf. 
 
 Hence, under the clafs of wines, or vinous liquors, come not 
 vi\\ywincs, abfolutely fo called, butalfoale, cider, fifr. 
 Wine Is, in a more particular manner, appropriated to that 
 which is drawn from the fruit of the vine, by damping its 
 grapes in a vat, or crufhing and exprefling the juice out of 
 them in a prefs, and then fermenting, iSc. 
 The goodnefs of wine confifts in its being neat, dry, fine, 
 bright, and brisk, without any tatte of the foil, of a clean 
 fleady colour j having a ftrength, without being heady; 
 
 a body, without being four; and keeping, without growing 
 hard or eager. 
 
 Wine being a liquor mofily of foreign produce ; the divers 
 names, forms, kinds, diftin&ions, (3\\ thereof, are borrowed 
 from the countries where it is produced ; the principal where- 
 of, at this day, is France : to wines of which country, a 
 good part of what we have to fay of this noble liquor, will 
 more immediately belong. 
 
 Wine, in France, is diftinguifhed, from the feveral degrees 
 and fteps of its preparation, into 
 Merc-goutte, mother-drop; which is the virgin wine, or that 
 which runs of itfelf out of a tap of the vat wherein the grapes 
 are laid, before the vintager enters to tread, or ftanip the 
 grapes. 
 
 Muft, furmujl, or ftum ; which is the wine or liquor in the vat, 
 after the grapes have been trod, or ftamped. 
 
 Prejfed Wine, v'm de prejfurage, which is that fqueezed with 
 a prefs out of the grapes, when half bruifed by the treading. 
 The husks left of the grapes, are called rape, murk, or mark ; 
 by throwing water upon which, and preifing ilicm afrefh, 
 they make a liquor for fervants ufe, anfwerable to our cida- 
 kin, and called boijfon ; which is alfo of fome ufe in medicine, 
 in the cure of diforders occafioned by vifcid humours. 
 
 Sweet Wine, vin doux, is that which has not yet worked, or 
 fermented. 
 
 Bourn, that which has been prevented working, by cafling in 
 cold water. 
 
 Cuvc, or worked wine, that which has been Iet.work in the vat. 
 Cuit, or boiled wine; that which has had a boiling before it 
 
 worked; and which, by that means, ftill retains its native 
 
 fwcetnefs. ' 
 
 PaJJ'e, or Jlra'ined wine, a fort of raifin wine, made by fleeping 
 dry grapes in water, and letting it ferment of itfelf. 
 Wines arealfo diftinguifhed, with regard to their colour, into 
 white wine, red wine, claret wine, pale wine, roft, or black 
 wine. — And with regard to their country, or the foil that 
 produces them, into French wines, Spavifo wines, Rhenijh 
 wines } Hungarian wines, Greek wines, Canary wines, Bcc— 
 And more particularly into Port wine, Madeira wine, Bur- 
 gundy wine. Champaign wine, Falernian wine, Tokay wine, 
 Schiras wine, &c. 
 
 IVines, again, are diftinguifhed, with regard to their quality, 
 into fweet wines, rough or dry wines, and rich or lufcious 
 wines, vins de liqueur ; of which Jaft, fome are exceedingly 
 fweer, others fweet and poignant; and all chiefly ufed by 
 way of dram after meals, tsV. 
 
 Such are French Frontigniac, Madeira, the Canary, the 
 Hungary, Tokay, the Italian Montefiafconc, the Perfian Schi- 
 ras, the malmfcy wines of Candia, Cliio, Lesbos, Tenedos, 
 and other iflands of the Archipelago, which antiently belong- 
 ed to the Greeks, but now to the Turks. — Thefe are fome- 
 times called Greek wines, and fometimes Turkey wines. 
 Wine is alfo varioufly denominated, according to its ftate, 
 circumftances, qualities, £sV. 
 
 Natural Wine, is fuch as comes from the grape, without 
 further mixture, or fophiftication. 
 
 Brewed, or adulterated Wine, is that wherein fome drug Ii 
 added to give it a ftrength, finenefs, flavour, brisknefs, fweet- 
 nefs, or fome other quality which is wanted. 
 
 Pricked, or eager Wine, fs that turned fuurifli. 
 
 Flat Wine, is that fallen weak and vappid, for want of being 
 drank in time. 
 
 Sulphured W 1 n e, Is that put in casks wherein fulphur has 
 been burnt; in order to fit it for keeping, or for carriage by 
 fea. 
 
 Colour Wine, is a thick wine, of a very deep colour, ferving 
 to dye the wines that are too pale, &c. as the black wine s 
 in ufe among our vintners. 
 
 Chip Wine, is that poured on chips of beech wood, to fine, 
 or foften it. 
 
 Rape Wine, is that put in a cask half full of frefh grapes 
 picked for the purpofe, to recover the ftrength, brisknefs, 
 &e. which it had loft by keeping, &c 
 
 Burnt Wine, is that boiled up with fugar ; and fometimes 
 with a little fpice. 
 
 There is alfo a fort of Malmfey wine, made by boiling of 
 mufcadlne. 
 
 Method of making and fining Wine,. — In the fouthern parts of 
 France, their way is, for red wines, to tread, orfqueezethe 
 grapes between the hands, and to let the whole ftand, juice 
 and husks, till the tincture be to their l.king : after which 
 they prefs it. -— But foe white wines, they prefs the grapes 
 immediately. 
 
 When preffed, they tun the muft, and flop up the vcffel ; 
 only leaving the depth of half a foot or more empty, to give 
 room for it to work. — At ten days end, they fill this ipace 
 with fome other proper wine, that will not provoke it W 
 work again. — This they repeat from time to time ; new 
 wine always fpending itfelf a little ere it come to perfection. 
 About Paris, and the northern parts of Fiance, they let the 
 
 oiuik 
 
W I N 
 
 W I N 
 
 murk and mull fland two clays and nights for wbiu-wines, 
 and at leaft a week for claret wines, before they tun It. — 
 While it continues working, it is kept as warm as poflible. 
 Some, upon flopping it up for good and all, roll the cask 
 about the cellar, to mix the liquor with the lees; and, after 
 fettling a few days, rack it off with great improvement. 
 To fine it down, they put fhavings of green beech into the 
 vefTel; having firft taken off all the rind, and boiled them 
 an hour in water, to extract their ranknefs ; and afterwards 
 dried them in the fun, or in an oven : a bufhel of thefe ferve 
 for a tun of wine. Thefe put the liquor in a gentle working, 
 and purify it in twenty four hours. They alfo give it an 
 agreeable flavour. — The fame chips being warned, ferve 
 asain and again, tili almoft quite confumed. 
 Some fweeten their wines with raifins of the fun, trod in the 
 vat with the grapes, having been firft plumped by bailing : 
 others, by boiling half the muff, fcumming it, and tunning 
 St up hot with the other. 
 
 For Englifli wine, the method recommended by Mr Morti- 
 mer, is, firft, to gather the grapes when very dry, to pick 
 them from the ftalks, then to prefs them, and let the juice 
 fland twenty four hours in the vat covered. Afterwards to 
 draw it off from the grofs lees, and then put it up in a cask, 
 and to add a pint or quart of ftrong red or white port to 
 every gallon of juice; and let the whole work, bunging it 
 up clofe, and letting it ftand till January ; and then bottle it 
 in dry weather. 
 
 By this method, he affures us, he has made Englifli wine 
 as good as any the beft and pureft French wine, drank either 
 in Paris or Champaign. 
 
 Mr Bradley chufes to have the liquor, when prefled, (land 
 with the husks, ftalks and all, in the vat. to ferment for 
 fifteen days. 
 
 He adds, that according as the vines have been managed, 
 the wine will be ftronger or weaker.— Thole, e. gr. which 
 run at liberty up high trees, and are never pruned, make the 
 fmalleft wines: thofe kept tied to flakes about four feet high, 
 and which have their branches duly pruned, yield ftronger 
 wines: And thofe neareft the ground, the ftrongeft. 
 The force of the fermenting wing is very great; being able, 
 if clofe flopped up, to burft through the ftrongeft cask. — 
 The readieft and only way to flop or abate the fermentation, 
 is by the fume of burning fulphur. 
 
 Add, that when wine already made is upon the fret, or, by 
 any alteration in the air, begins to ferment again ; the way 
 ufed by the vintners and wine-coopers to fave it, is by the 
 flame of common fulphur, or a lighted match dipped in it; 
 this, held under a cask juft ready to burft its hoops, 
 calms its fury, and makes it immediately fubfide. See Sul- 
 phur. 
 
 Piece of Wine. ~> CPiece. 
 
 PrifegeofWjti-E. P \PrisaGE. 
 
 Racking of Wine. > See the article <Rack. 
 
 Spirit of Wi n e . k ^Spirit. 
 
 Stooming of Wine, j C Stooming. 
 
 The ufes f/"WiNE are very great j not only as a drink, but as 
 a medicine. — Several phyficians recommend it as an excellent 
 cordial, and particularly ferviceable in fevers, the lues venerea, 
 
 • fefr; 
 
 Pliny mentions Staphylus, as the firft who mixed ivine with 
 water ; but Athcnaeus gives the credit thereof to Amphitry- 
 on, king of Athens. — On this occafion a fable was invented, 
 that Bacchus having been ftruck with a thunderbolt, and be- 
 ing all inflamed, was prefently cafl into the nymph's bath, 
 to be extinguifhed. 
 Tl?e age s/Wine is properly reckoned by leaves. — Thus, they 
 fay, wine of two, four, fix leaves, to fignify a wine of fix, 
 four, or two years old; taking each new leaf put forth by 
 the vine, fince the wine was made, for a year. 
 Among the Romans, the age of wines was, as it were, the 
 criterion of their goodnefs. — Horace, in his Odes, which 
 one may call Bacchic Jongs, boafts of his drinking Falernian 
 wine, born, as it were, with him, or which reckoned its 
 age from the fame confuls. 
 
 Pliny mentions wines kept above an hundred year?, and yet 
 potable. — Others he fpeaks of, kept two hundred years, 
 ■which, by that time, were reduced to the confidence of honey. 
 But the moderns keep no wines to any fuch a^e. — Where 
 they are kept the longeft, as in Italy and Germany, there 
 are fcarce any to be found of above fifteen leaves. — In France, 
 the wines that keep beft, as thofe of Dijon, Nantz, and 
 Orleans are reckoned fuperannuated at five or fix years old. 
 Lees »/Wine, are the impurities thereof, or the thick fedi- 
 ment, remaining at the bottom of the casks, when the wine 
 is drawn out. 
 
 Wine is alfo a denomination, applied in medicine and phar- 
 macy, to divers mixtures or compofitions, wherein the juice 
 of the grape is a principal ingredient. See Vikum. 
 Thefe medicated wines mnke a confiderable article in our dif- 
 penfatories, in quality of diet-drinks; fome being denomi- 
 
 nated from the ingredients ufed in them ; fome from the 
 intentions wherewith they are prefcribed; and fome from 
 their qualities, &c. 
 Bitter Wine, vinum amarum, is an infufion of certain bitter 
 ftomachic herbs, as gentian root, juniper berries, tops of cen- 
 taury, orange and lemon peel, in white port, or fome other 
 white wine; taken by way of whet in a morning, to reftorc 
 the palled flomach after a debauch, and bring the fibres to 
 their due tenfion. 
 Chalybeate, or Steel Wine, is prepared of fteel -filings, and 
 faffron infufed in wine, and filtered. Tt is good for remov- 
 ing obftruiftions in the vifcera, as in the chlorofis, &c. 
 Vinum benediflum, the blejfed Wi ne, is made of crocus me' L al- 
 lorum, and mace, infufed in wine. — It was formerly a ce- 
 lebrated emetic, but now is almoft out of ufe for its rough- 
 nefs. 
 
 Elecampane Wine, vinum enulatum, is an infufion of the root 
 of that plant, with fugar and currants, in white port. — -It 
 cleanfes the vifcera, prevents diforders and obft ructions uf the 
 lungs, and is good in afthmatic cafes, cachexies, Eyr, 
 Hog-lice Wine, vinum millepedum > is prepared of hog-licc put 
 alive in white port; and after fome infufion, prefled anil 
 flrained out : to the liquor is added faffron, fait of fteel, Gfr. 
 — It is recommended againft the jaundice, dropfy, cachectic 
 habits, &c. 
 
 Perioral W ine, vinum pedlorale, is prepared of liquorice, faf- 
 fron, coriander-feeds, carraway, anife, fait of tartar, penny- 
 royal, and hyflbp leaves, digefted with canary wine, and 
 flrained. — It is a good expectorant, helping to deterge and 
 cleanfe the lungs, iSc. 
 Emetic Wine, vinum emet'tcum. See the article Emetic. 
 Hippocrates' s Wine, vinum Hippocrattcum, or Hippocras. See 
 Hi ppocras. 
 
 Viper Wine, vinum viperinttm, is a preparation of female vi- 
 pers, infufed fix months in canary wine. — It is a great re- 
 florative, and provokes to venery; and is alfo good againft 
 cutaneous eruptions, tjfe. 
 Vhium Scilliticum^ Wine of Squills, is an infufion of thofe 
 roots in white wine for forty days; after which the fquills 
 are taken out, and the liquor preserved for ufc. — It is a gentle 
 emetic, and is good againft defluxions of rheum, iffc. 
 WiKE-Meafure. See the article Measure. 
 WING. See the articles Feather, and Flying. 
 Warbling oftheWiucs. See the article Warbling, 
 Wings, in heraldry, are born fometimes fingle, fometimes in 
 pairs, in which cafe they are called conjoined; when the 
 points are downward, they are faid to be inverted when up, 
 elevated. 
 
 Wing, Ala, or Axilla, in botany, the angle which the leaves 
 of a plant, or the pedicles of the leaves, form with the ffem, 
 or a branch of the plant. 
 
 This angle is commonly acute, and always turned upward. — 
 It has its name from its refembling the angle which the 
 wings of a bird form with the body; or rather, from the 
 angle which a man's arms make with his trunk, which is 
 alfo called ala, wing. 
 Wings, in gardening, csV. denote fuch branches of trees, or 
 other plants, as grow up afide of each other. 
 La Quintiny fays, the term is particularly applied to arti- 
 choaks, whofe wings, or ala, are the letter heads or fruits 
 that grow up with the principal one, on the fame flalk. 
 Wings, alee, in the military art, are the two flanks or ex- 
 tremes of an army, ranged in form of battle ; being the right 
 and left fides thereof, and including the main body. 
 The cavalry are always pofted in the ivings; i.e. on the 
 flanks, on the right and left fides of each line; to cover the 
 foot in the middle. 
 
 Pan, one of Bacchus's captains, is faid to have been the firft 
 inventor of this method of ranging an army; whence, fay 
 they, it is, that theantients painted him with horns on his 
 head ; what we cill ivings, being by them called cornua, horns. 
 This, at leaft, is certain, that the method of arranging in 
 wings is very antient. — The Romans, we know, ufed the 
 term ala, or wings, for two bodies of men in their army ; 
 one on the right, the other on the left, confifiing each of 
 400 horfe, and 4200 foot ufually, and wholly made up of 
 confederate troops, — 1 Thefe were defigned to cover the Ro- 
 man army, as the wings of a bird cover its body. 
 The troops in thefe wings, they called alares, and alares a- 
 pies\ and we, at this day, diftinguifti our armies into the 
 main-body, the right and left ivi?;gs. 
 Wings are alfo ufed for two files that terminate each batal- 
 lion, or fquadron, on the right and ieft.-^-The pikes ufed to 
 be ranged in the middle, and the mufquetecrs in the wings. 
 Wi ngs, in fortification, denote the longer fides of horn-works, 
 crown-works, tenailles, and the like out-works; including 
 the ramparts and parapets, with which they are bounded on 
 the right and left, from the gorge to their front. 
 Thefe wings, or fides, are capable of being flanked, either 
 with the body of the place, if they ftand not too far diflanr-. 
 
W I R 
 
 W.I f 
 
 or with certain redoubts ; or with a traverfe made in their 
 ditch, 
 
 S. Michael's Wi ng, is the name of a military order in Portugal, 
 inftituted, according to the jefuit Mendo, in 1 165; or ac- 
 cording to di Michieli, in his Teforo Mditar. de Cavalleria, 
 in 1 1 7 1 • Its infti tutor was, Alphonfus Henry I. king of Por- 
 tugal ; and the occalion was a victory gained by him over the 
 king of Sevil, and his Saracens; for which he thought him- 
 lelf beholden to S. Michael, whom he had chofe for his pa- 
 tron in the war againft the infidels. 
 
 The banner they bore was a vjing refembling that of the 
 arch-angel, of a purple colour, encompaffed with rays of 
 gold, — Their rule was that of S. Benedict ; the vow they 
 made was to defend the Chriftian religion, and the borders 
 of the kingdom, and to protect orphans. — Their motto, 
 •jtftis ut Deus. 
 
 WINGED, in botany, a term applied to fuch ftems of 
 plants as are furnilhed, all their length, with a fort of mem- 
 branous appendage. 
 
 Several kinds of thirties have winged ftalks, and branches. 
 Winged Leaves, are fuch as confift of divers little leaves, 
 
 ranged in the fame direction, on each fide of a rib or ftalk, 
 
 fo as to appear no more than one and the fame leaf. — Such 
 
 are the leaves of agrimony, acacia, alh, fcff. 
 Winged Ssedi, are fuch as have down or hairs on them; 
 ■ whereby the wind taking hold, blows them to a diftance. 
 Winged Stalk. See the article Stalk. 
 Winged, in heraldry, is applied to a bird, when its wings 
 
 are of a different colour, or metal, from the body. 
 
 Winged is alfo applied to any thing reprefentcd with wings, 
 
 though contrary to its nature ; as a winged, or flying hart, 
 
 Sic, 
 
 WINNOW, fignifj.es to fan, or feparate corn from the chaff 
 by wind. 
 
 WINTER, one of the four fcafons, or quarters of the 
 year, ' .:■ t 1 ' *Jj« *W\ 
 
 if/inter properly commences on the day when the fun's dif- 
 tance from the zenith of the place is the grcateft, and ends 
 on the day when its diftance is at a mean between the great- 
 eit and leaft, 
 
 Notwithstanding the coldnefs of this feafon, it is proved, in 
 aftronomy, that the fun is really nearer to the earth in win- 
 ter than in fummer. — The reafon of the decay of heat, 6v. 
 fee under the articles Heat, and Light, 
 Under the equator, the winter, as well as the other feafons, 
 return twice every year; but all other places have only one 
 winter in the year ; which, in the northern hemifphere, be- 
 gins when the fun is in the tropic of Capricorn ; and in the 
 ibuthern hemifphere, when in the tropic of Cancer : fo that 
 all places in the fame hemifphere have their winter at the 
 fame time. 
 
 Winter, among printers, thatpartof the priming-prefs, ferv- 
 ing to fuftain the carriage, &c. See Print i n G-Pr'efc. 
 
 Winter's Bart, C.rtex Winteri, or Winteranus. 
 See Cortex. 
 
 W 1 R itt* - Quarters, See the article Quarters. 
 
 WiNTER-ri/g-- among hufbandmcn, fignifies to fallow, or till 
 the land in winter. See Fallow, ta'c. 
 
 Wi tiTER-SoI/lice. See the article Solstice. 
 
 WINTONI^E Rotuhs. See the article Rotulus. 
 
 WIRE, Wiar, VVier, or Wyre, a piece of metal, drawn 
 through the hole of an iron, into a thread, of a wieners an- 
 fwerablc to the hole it is palled through. 
 Ti^ires are frequently drawn fo fine, as to be wrought along 
 with other threads of filk, wool, or hemp : and thus they 
 become a confiderable article in the manufactures, 
 The metals mod commonly drawn into wire are gold, fil- 
 ver, copper, and iron. — And hence wc have gold wire, 
 filver wire, iron wire, Sic. as in the following articles. 
 
 Gold and filver Wire. — -What we call gold wire, is made 
 of cylindric ingots of filver, covered over with a fkin of 
 gold; and thus drawn fucceffively through a vaft number of 
 holes, each fmaller and (mailer, till at laft it is brought to a 
 finenefs exceeding that of a hair. 
 
 That prodigious ductility which makes one of the diftin- 
 guifhing characters of gold, is no where more confpicuous 
 than in this gilt wire. — A cylinder of +8 ounces of filver, 
 covered with a coat of gold, only weighing one ounce, Dr 
 Haliy informs us, is commonly drawn into a wire, two 
 yards of which only weigh one grain : whence 98 yards of 
 the wire only weigh 49 grains ; and one fingle grain of 
 gold covers the faid 9S yards. — So that the ten thou fend th 
 part of a grain is above half an inch long. 
 The fame author, computing the thicknefs of the fkin of 
 gold, found it to be only rr+Vaw part of an inch — yet fo 
 perfectly does it cover the filver, that even a microfcope does 
 not difcover any appearance of the filver underneath. 
 M. Rohault obferves, that a like cylinder of filver covered 
 with gold, z feet 8 inches Ion*?, and z inches q lines in, cir- 
 
 cumference, is drawn into a wire 307200 feet long; that 
 is, into 1 1 5200 times its former length. 
 Mr Boyle relates, that S grains of gold covering a cylinder 
 of filver, is commonly drawn into wire thirteen thoufand 
 feet long. — The method of drawing it, fee further illuftrat- 
 ed under the article Ductility. 
 
 Silver Wire is the fame with gold wire, except that the latter 
 is gilt, or covered with gold, and the other is not. 
 There are alfo counterfeit gold and filver wires : the firft 
 made of a cylinder of copper, filvered over, then covered 
 with gold ; and the fecund of a like cylinder of copper filver- 
 ed over, and drawn through the iron, after the fame man- 
 ner as gold and filver wire. 
 
 Brafs Wire is drawn after the fame manner as the former. 
 
 — Of this, there are divers fizes, fuited to the divers kinds 
 of works. The fineft is ufed for the firings of mulical in- 
 ftruments, as fpinets, harpfichords, manichords, is'c. 
 
 The pinmakers likewife ufe vaft quantities of wire of feveral 
 fizes, to make their pins of. See Pin. 
 Iron Wire, is called, by the French, fil Cardial; the 
 reafon of which, their authors are not agreed about. — That 
 celebrated etymologift, M. Menage, derives it from Jilttm & 
 aurichalcurn; but others, more convcrfant in the commerce 
 thereof, deduce it from one Richard Archal, the firft inven- 
 tor thereof. 
 
 There are various fizes of this wire, from £ an inch, to 
 to of an inch diameter. The fmalleft fizes are ufed to ftrin:- 
 mulical inltruments wiihal, particularly harpfichords, pfake- 
 ries, i$c. — Valt quantities of iron wire am brought yearly 
 hither from the Baltic ; and are partly fptnt at home, and 
 partly exported to France, 6fift 
 WiKE-Drawing. — For the feveral manners of drawing gold 
 and filver, fee Ductility. 
 
 The firll iron that runs from the ftone, when melting, bcinrf 
 the fofteft, and toughelt, is ulually preferved to make wire of. 
 WISDOM, Sapience, ulually denotes a higher and more re- 
 fined knowledge of things, immediately prefimted 10 the 
 mind, as it were by intuition, without the afliftance of ra- 
 tiocination. 
 
 In this fenfe, wifdom may be faid to be a faculty of the mind 
 or at leail a modification and habit thereof. 
 Sometimes the word is more immediately ufed in a moral 
 fenfe, for what we call prudence or difcretion ; which con- 
 fids in the found.lefs of the judgment, and a conduct ari- 
 fwerable thereto. 
 
 The fchool-divines, fome*imes reftrain wifdom to the know- 
 ledge of the more fublime and remote objects, as that of God, 
 t5V. In which fenfe, theology is properly faid to be wifdom. 
 The Latin word for wifdom, is fapientia, which literally ex- 
 preflesthe fenfe of tafting; to which wifdom is fuppofed to'have 
 lume conformity. — The fight, and other fenfes, only re- 
 prefent to us the furface of things: tafte goes deeper, pene- 
 trates into the fubftances ; fo that what, e. gr. to the feel- 
 ing feemed cold, to the tafte will be found hot: fo wifdom, 
 ariling from a deep attention to our ideas, goes further, 
 and frequently judges otherwife than the common apprc- 
 henlions of men would reach to. 
 WIST, Wista, a quantity, or meafure of land among our 
 Saxon anceftors ; of different difnenfions, in different places. 
 
 — In the Monajlicon, it is faid to be half a hide, or iixty 
 acres: in an old chronicle of the monaftery of Battle, it is 
 faid to be forty eight acres. 
 
 WIT, a faculty of the mind, confifting, according to Mr 
 Locke, in the afiembling, and putting together of thofe 
 ideas with quicknefs and variety, wherein can be found any 
 refemblance or congruity; whereby to make up pleafant 
 pictures, and agreeable vilions to the phantafy. 
 This faculty, the fame great author obferves, is juft die con- 
 trary of judgment, which conflfts in the feparating carefully 
 from one another, fuch ideas wherein can be found the lealt 
 difference, thereby to avoid being milled by fimilitude, and, 
 by affinity, to take one thing for another. 
 It is the metaphor, and allufion, wherein, for the moft part, 
 lies the entertainment and plealantry of zvit ■> which firikes 
 fo livelily on the fancy, and is therefore fo acceptable to all 
 people, becaufe its beauty appears at firft fight, .and there it 
 required no labour of thought, to examine what truth or 
 reafon there is in it. — The mind, without looking any fur- 
 ther, refts fatisfied with the agrecablenefs of the picture, and 
 the gaiety of the imagination ; and it is a kind of affront to 
 go about to examine it by the fevere rules of truth, or rea- 
 fon. — Whence it fhould feeni, that wit confifts in fome- 
 thing that is not perfectly comformable to them, Ejjay on 
 Hum. Vndcrjl. Lib. I- cap. II. 
 
 Wit is alio an appellation, given to perfons poffeffed of the 
 faculty called wit, efprit, 
 
 A French author, who, in 169;, publifhed a treatife if wit, 
 du bel efprit, lays down four cbaracteriftics thereof.— 
 
 ) anwi ij Cc i°, A 
 
W I T 
 
 V. A man, who, with an open air, and eafy motions, af- 
 fects thole he converfes withal agreeably ; and on any fub- 
 ject that prefents itfelf, advances new thoughts, and adorns 
 them witb a fpritcly turn ; is, all the world over, a wit. 
 z°. Another, who, lefs folicitous about the choice arid deli- 
 cacy of his fentiments, knows how' to make hknfelf valued 
 by I know not what elevation of difcourfc ; who draws a 
 deal of attention, and fhews a deal of vivacity in his fpeak- 
 Ing, and rcadinefs in his anfwers \ is like wife acknowledged 
 
 a wit. ■* 1 1 ," , , ,. I'-Wi'*^ 1 
 
 j*i A third, who takes lefs care about thinking, than about 
 (peaking well ; who afFcfts fine words, though perhaps low 
 and poor in matter ; who pleafes by an eafjt pronunciation, 
 and a certain tone of voice, is placed in the fame rank. 
 4°. Another, whofe chief aim is not to make bimfelt efteem- 
 ed, fo much as to raifc mirth and laughter: who jokes per- 
 tinently, rallies pleafantly, and finds forrieihing to amufc 
 himfelf withal in every petty fubje£t ; is likewife allowed a 
 
 Yet, it may be obferved, that in all tbefe cafes, there is no- 
 thing of real wit, as above defined ; but the whole is ima- 
 gination, or memory at moft: nay the whole is no more than 
 what temperament may give. 
 
 A true wit muft have a juft faculty of dlfcernment ; mult 
 have, at the fame time, both a deal of energy, and of deli- 
 cacy in his fentiments; his imagination muft be noble, and 
 withal happy and agreeable ; his expreffions polite and well 
 turned ; without any thing of parade or vanity in his dif- 
 courfe, or his carriage.— It is not at all effential to a wit, 
 to be ever hunting after the brilliant ; ftill ftudying fine 
 thoughts, and affecting to fay nothing but what may ftrike 
 and furprizc. 
 
 This is a fault very frequent in drairtatic perfons : the duke 
 of Buckingham rallies it very juftly. — 
 
 " What is that thing which we jheer wit do call ? ~i 
 
 « 'Tis when the wit of fome great writer fhall > 
 
 f* So overflow, that is, be none at all, J 
 
 " That ev'n his fools fpeak fenfc 
 
 Humour, fay our critics, is the genuine wit of comedy. 
 
 CbilJ-VJ i t . Sec the article Ch I l n-lVite. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT, the crime of forcery, especially \\\ wo- 
 men, I 
 Many think there may be fome foundation for what we call 
 fafcinathn, and witchcraft. — We have infinite inftanccs, 
 and hiftories to this purpofe ; which it would not be fair to 
 fet afide, merely becaufc they are not reconcileable to our 
 philofophy : but, as it happens, there feems to be fomctbing 
 in philofophy to countenance fome of them. What the wri- 
 ters in favour of the opinion advance, as their reaions, is 
 .as follows. 
 
 All living things, they fay, emit effluvia, both by the 
 breath, and the pores of the fkin. — All bodies, thereturc, 
 within the fphere of their perfpiratory, or expiratory effluvia, 
 will be affected by them; and that, in this or another man- 
 ner, according to the quality of the effluvia; and in this or 
 that degree, according to the difpofition of the emittent, and 
 recipient parts. 
 
 Thus far is inconteftable ; nor need we produce inftances of 
 animals exhaling fweet, or flunking fmells ; or of infectious 
 difcafes conveyed by effluvia, C5V. in confirmation thereof. 
 Now, of all parts of an animal body, the eye, we know, is 
 the quickeft. — It moves with the greatell celerity, and in 
 all the variety of directions. — Again, its coat and humours 
 are permeable as any other part of the body, (witnefs the rays 
 of light it fo copioufly receives). —The eye, therefore, no 
 doubt, emits its effluvia like the other parts. — The fine 
 humours of the eye muft be continually exhaling. — The 
 heat of the pervading rays will rarefy and attenuate them : 
 and that, with the fubtile juice, or fpirit of the neighbouring 
 optic nerve, fupplied, in great abundance, by the vicinity of 
 the brain, mult make a fund of volatile matter to be difpenf- 
 ed, and, as it were, determined by the eye. 
 Here, then, we have both the dart, and the hand to fling it. 
 — The one furnifhed with all the force and vehemence, and 
 the other with all the fharpnefs and activity, one would 
 require. No wonder if their effects be great! 
 Do but conceive the eye as a fling, capable of the fwifteft 
 and intenfeft motions and vibrations : and, again, as commu- 
 nicating with a fource of fuch matter, as the nervous juice 
 elaborated in the brain ; a matter fo fubtile and penetrating, 
 that it is fuppofed to fly inftantancoufly through the folid capil- 
 lamcnts ol the nerves; and fo active and forcible, that it di- 
 itends and cotfvutfes the mufcles, and diltorts the limbs, and 
 alters the whole habitude of the body, giving motion and 
 action to a maf> of inert, inactive matter. — A projectile of 
 fuch a nature, flung by fuch an engine as the eye, muft have 
 an effect: wherever it ftrikes : and the effect will be limited 
 and modified by the circumftances of diftance, the impetus 
 of the eye, the quality, fubtility, acrimony, 6V, of the 
 
 W O A 
 
 juices, and the delicacy, coarfenefs, C3Y. of the object it 
 falls on. 
 
 This theory, it is fuppofed by many, may account for fome 
 of the phenomena of witchcraft, particularly of that branch 
 called fafcination. — It is certain the eye has always been 
 efteemed the chief feat, or rather organ of witchcraft ; tho', 
 by molt, without knowing why, or wherefore : The effect 
 was apparently owing to the eye ; but, how was not dreamed 
 of. — 'Thus, the phraie, to have an evil eye, imports as much 
 as to be a witch. — And hence Virgil — Nejcio quis teneros 
 oculus mihi fafcinat agues. — Again, old, bilious perfons, 
 are thole moft frequently fuppofed to have the faculty; the 
 : nervous juice in them being depraved, and irritated by a vi- 
 cious habitude of body ; and fo rendered more penetrating, 
 and malignant. — And young perfons, chiefly children and 
 girls, are moft affected by it ; by reafon their pores are pa- 
 tent, their juices incoherent, and their fibres delicate, and 
 fufceptibte. " Accordingly, the witchcraft mentioned by Vir- 
 gil, only reaches to the tender lambs. — Laftly, the faculty 
 is only exercifed when the perfon is difpleafed, provoked, 
 irritated, &c. It requiring fome extraordinary ilrefs, and 
 emotion of mind, to dart a proper quantity o* the effluvia, 
 with a fufficient impetus, to .produce the effect at a diftance. 
 That the eye has fome very confidcrable powers, is paft dil- 
 pute. — The antient naturalifts allure us, that die baiiliik, 
 and opoblepa, kill other animals merely by flaring at them. 
 If this fail of credit, a late author allures us to have feen a 
 moufe running round a large fnake, which flood looking ear- 
 neftly at it, with its mouth open : ftill the moufe made lefs 
 and lefs circles about it; crying all the while, as if compiled 
 thereto; and, at laft, with a deal of feeming reluctance, 
 ran into the gaping mouth, and was freight fwallowed. 
 Who has not obferved a fetting-dog , and the effects of its 
 eye on the partridge ? The poor bird, when once its eyes 
 meet thofc of the dog, ftands a. if confounded, regardlefs of 
 itfelf, and eafily lets the net be drawn over it. — We re- 
 member to have read of fquirrels alfo ftupified, and over- 
 come by a dog's flaring hard at them, and thus made to 
 drop out of their trees into his mouth. 
 That man is not fecure from the like affections, is matter of 
 eafy obfervation. Few people but have, again and again, felt 
 the effects ot an angry, a fierce, a commanding, a difdainful, 
 alafcivious, an intreating eye, &c. — Thefe effects of the 
 eye, at leaft, make a kind of witchcraft. 
 WITENA-i'fe, or Witena-Gwjs/, among our Saxon 
 anceftors, a term literally fignifying council, or aflembiy of 
 fages, or mtc men; applied to the great council of the land, 
 of latter days called parliament. 
 WITHERNAM*, in law, a rcprifal, or taking of other 
 goods or cattle, in lieu of thofc unjuftly taken and efloined, 
 or otherwifc with-holden. 
 * The word is compounded of the Saxon wither, contra, againfl, 
 and nam, captia, taking. See Nam. 
 Where goods are taken by colour of diftrefs, and driven t& 
 an hold, or out of the county ; fo that the fheriff cannot, 
 upon replevin, make deliverance thereof to the party diltrain- 
 ed: in this cafe the writ of zuithcrnam, or de vetito namio, is 
 iflued, directed to the flu-rift, for the taking as many of the 
 party's hearts, as he did thus unlawfully reltrain ; or as much 
 goods of his, till he had made deliverance of the firft diftrefs. 
 Homiue capto in W ithernamium- See Homine. 
 WITHERS of an horfe, the juncture of the fhoulder-boncs 
 at the bottom of the neck and mam, towards the upper part 
 of the fhoulder. 
 
 WITNESS, Tejiis, a perfon who certifies, or afterts the 
 truth of any fact. 
 
 Among the Romans, it was a cuftom to pull or pinch the cars 
 of zuitnejfes prefent at any tranfaction ; that they might re- 
 member it when they were called to give in their teftimony. 
 Two zyc-witnejfes, or de vifu, not fufpected, arc to be deem- 
 ed a conclufivc proof. 
 
 Falfe witnejfes, fuborners of witnejfes, &c. in England, are 
 punifhed with the pillory ; in feveral other countries, with 
 death. See Perjury, Subornation, E3V. 
 In a fynod at Rome, under Conftantine, in the year 320, 
 it was decreed, that there fhould be 72 witnejfes heard, to 
 condemn a bilhop ; which was called libra tejlium, a pound of 
 witnejfes. Accordingly there were ; tz witnejfes heard againft 
 Pope Marccllinus; who, fays the hiftorian, erant eleSti libra 
 occidua. 
 
 Anticntly there wfire fynodal witnejfes, teftes fynodaks, in 
 each parifh, chofe by the bifhop, to enquire into the ffere- 
 fies, and other crimes of the parifhioners ; and to make oath 
 thereof on the relics of the faints. 
 
 Attic Witness. See the article Attic. 
 
 WO AD, Guadum, or Glafum, a drug ufed by the dyers, to 
 give a blue colour. 
 
 It arifes from feed, fown annually in the fpring ; which 
 puts' forth a plant called glajium fativum, whofe leaves re- 
 I femble thofe of ribwort-plantain.— They have ufually three, 
 
 four, 
 
W O M 
 
 WOO 
 
 four, or five crops of leaves every year ; but only the two 
 or three firft are of any value ; whereof the fait is beft, and 
 the reft in their order. 
 
 When the leaves are ripe, they crop or gather them ; aftei 
 which they carry them to a woad-mill to grind them fmall 
 after this, they are laid eight or ten days in piles or heaps ; 
 and at laft made into a kind of balls, which are kid in the 
 fhade, on hurdles, to dry. 
 
 This done, they break or grind them to powder ; and when 
 ground, fpread it on a floor, and water it, which they call 
 couching it. 
 
 Here they let it fmokc and heat, till, by torrifying it 
 every day, it becomes quite dry, which they call jHvering 
 A week after which, it is in a condition to be u fed in dying 
 The antfent Britons ufed to dye their bodies herewith - 7 anu 
 fome hold, that it was from this plant, glafs took its deno- 
 mination ; though others derive both glafs, and glajlum. 
 from the Britifh glafs, which, to this day, denotes a blue 
 colour. 
 
 A woad blue, is a very deep blue, almoft black j and is the 
 bafe of fo many forts of colour?, that the dyers have a fcale, 
 whereby they compofe the divers cafts or degrees of woad. 
 from the brightefl to the deepeft. Sec Supplement, article 
 Woad. 
 
 WOLD*, fignifies a plain down, or open champain -ground, 
 hilly, and void of wood. 
 
 * Hence the names, Stow in the Wold, and Cotfioold in 
 Glouceflerlhirc ; whence alfo that part of Leiceuerfln'rc, 
 which lies northward beyond the Wrekm, is called lYvefVo/d 
 of Leicefterjbire. 
 
 Wold, or Weld, among dyers. See the article Weld 
 WOLFESHEAD*, or Wulveshead, Caput lupinum, 
 denoted the condition of thofe out-lawcd for criminal mat- 
 ters in the Saxon time, and not yielding themfelvcs to jultice. 
 — For if they could have been taken alive, they muft have 
 been brought to the king ^ and if they, for fear of being 
 apprehended, did defend themfeives, they might be flaln, and 
 their heads brought to the king; for their head was no more 
 to be accounted of than a wolf's-head. LL. Edw. in 
 Lamb. fol. 127. and Bract. Lib. III. Tract. 2, cap. 11, 
 See Utlawr y. 
 
 * The word is originally Saxon, walfcr-heafod, compounded 
 of toulf, wolf, and heafod, head. 
 
 WOLVES Teeth, of an horfe, are over-grown grinders, the 
 points of which being higher than the reft, prick the crea- 
 tures tongue and gums in feeding, fo as to hinder the chew- 
 ing of the meat. 
 
 They are feldom met with but in young horfes ; but if they 
 be not daily worn by chewing, they will grow up even to 
 pierce the roof of the mouth. 
 
 Rout of Wolves, Sec the article Rout. 
 
 WOMAN, Foemina, Mu'uer, the female of man. 
 
 S. Auguftin calls women the devout fe x '.- at leaft this is the 
 common opinion ; though others rather think, that in the 
 prayer uftially attributed to that father, and rtill rehearfed 
 in. the Romifti church to the holy virgin, the \vo\ds inter- 
 cede pro devoto fcemineo fexu, are to be underltood of women 
 devoted, or confecrated 10 God in religious houfes; which 
 had been fulKcicntly exprefled by the words, era pro populo, 
 interveni pro clero. 
 
 It is a popular tradition among the Mahometans, which ob- 
 tains to this day, that women lhall not enter paradife. 
 Ait anonymous author, about the clofe of the lixteenth cen- 
 tury, publifhed a little Latin diifertation, to prove that wo- 
 men are not men; that is, are not rcafonable creatures : Dif- 
 fertatio perjucunda qua anonymus probat e nititur mulicres ho- 
 mines non effe — He alfo endeavours to prove, what natu- 
 rally follows from this principle, viz. that women fliall not 
 be faved ; that there is no future life, or happinefs for them. 
 His proofs are all taken from fcripturc, or founded on fcrip- 
 ture. — Though, after all, his aim is not fo much to degrade 
 women to the condition of brutes; as to ridicule the prin 
 ciple or method of many Proteftants, who, in points of 
 controverfy, admit of no proofs or confiderations, but what 
 are taken from fcripture alone. — This appears from the con- 
 clufion of the work. — Probavi, opinor, invi£lilfimis SS. li- 
 terarum Ufli?uoniis, muherem non effe hom'tnem, ncc earn fal- 
 vari : quod ft nan effeci, oftendi tamen univerfo mundo quo 
 mado hujus temporis hecreud, tjf prafcrtim Jnabaptifa, fa- 
 cram foleunt expl'uare fcripturam, & quo utantur methadoad 
 Jlabilienda fua execranda dogmata. 
 
 Yet, Simon Gediccus, a Lutheran divine, wrote a ferious 
 coniutation of this piece in 1,95 ; wherein the women are 
 reftored to the expectation of heaven, on their good be- 
 haviour. 
 
 The antient Marcionites allowed their women to baptize ; 
 as we are allured by S. Epiphanius, Har. 4:. c. 4. — The 
 Montanifts admitted women to the pnefthood, and even the 
 epifcopate. Epiph. Har. 49. c. z. — The modern Quakers 
 alfo permit their wormn to preach and prophcl'v, on an equal 
 footing with the men. 
 
 It is a point much controverted, how far learning and ftudy 
 become the lex? — Erafmus handles the queftion at large in 
 one of his letters to Budzeus.— Lud. Vives, in his Injtitutio 
 Fcemina Chrijliana, has a chapter exprefs on the fame fub- 
 jca. — Madam Schurman, a German lady, has gone beyond 
 them both, in a treatife on this problem ; Num Famine 
 Chrifiianis conveniat Jludiutn Ihcrarum ? 
 Several of the women remarkable for learning, have been alfo 
 diftmguifhed for their want of conduct. — The reafon, no 
 doubt, lay in this ; that their firft ftudies lying in books of 
 gallantry and intrigue, the imagination was early turned that 
 way, and the memory filled with a fort of ideas, which a 
 favourable difpolition, and age, adopted too eafily, and im- 
 proved too fait —It isnot that ftudy in itfelf has any natural 
 tendency to produce fuch effects; rather the contrary : The 
 clofe abltracted ri;fearches of metaphyfics, logics, mathema- 
 tics, phyfics, criticifm, no doubt, would be the fureft 
 means to fxure and eftablifh the virtue of continency in a 
 woman. 
 
 A woman, in England, as foon as fhe is married, with all 
 her moveables, is wholly in poteflate viri, or at the will and 
 difpofal of her hufband. 
 
 There are divers confidcrable things relating to women in the 
 laws of England ; which fee under the article Wife. 
 
 WOMB. See the article Matrix. 
 
 Svffocation of the Womb. See the article Suffocation. 
 
 WONDER. Seethe article Miracle. 
 
 Thcfeveu wonders of the world> as they arc popularly called, 
 weie, the Egyptian pyramids ; the inaufoleum, erected by 
 Artemifia ; the temple of Diana at Ephefus , the walls and 
 hading gardens of the city of Babylon ; the coloffus, or bra- 
 zen image of the fun at Rhodes i the Jlatue of Jupiter Olym- 
 pius; and the prljaros, or watch-tower, of Ptolemy Philadel- 
 phus. Sec Pyramid. 
 
 WONDERFUL Water. See the article Water. 
 
 WOOD, lignum, a folid fubftancc, whereof the trunks and 
 branches of trees confift ; deriving its growth from certain 
 juices in the earth. 
 
 The wood is all that part in a tree, included between the 
 bark and the pith. 
 
 Dr Grew, in his Jnatomy of Plants, has difcovercd, by means 
 of the microfcope, that what we call wood in a vegetable, 
 notwithstanding all its folidity, is only an aflembkgeof in- 
 finite minute canals, or hollow fibres; fome of which rile 
 from the root upwards, and are difpofed in form of a circle ; 
 and the others, which he calls hfertiens, tend horizontally 
 from the fui face to the centre ; fo that they crofs each other, 
 and are interwove like the threads of a weaver's web. 
 Woods are diliinguifhed into divers kinds, with regard to 
 their natures, properties, virtues, and ufes. — Of wood, con- 
 fident according to its qualities, whether ufefu], curious, 
 medicinal, dsY. the principal is that called timber, ufed in 
 building houfes, laying floors, roofs, machines, &c. See 
 Timber. 
 
 Woods valued on account of their curiofity, arc cedar, ebony, 
 box, Colombo, &c. which, by reafon of their extraordinary 
 hardnefs, agreeable fmell, or beautiful polifh, are made into 
 tables, combs, beads, isc. 
 
 The medicinal woods are, guaiac, which the Spaniards call 
 ligno Janclo ; aloes, or agallochum ; faffafrus, nephrilicum, 
 fantal, logwood, afpalathum, eagle Wiod or pao d'aquila-, 
 &c. 
 
 Woods ufed in dying, are the Indian -wood, Brazil, Cum- 
 peche, Sic. 
 
 Cord Wood, denotes woad for the fire, generally made of the 
 branches or loppings of tree:., piled up in order. 
 This is limited to be, below, leventeen inches, and above, 
 fix inches thick ; and, at leaft, three feet and a half long. 
 See Cord. 
 
 Foffl, jubterrancous Wood. — There are divers places where 
 wood is found under ground ; but all this has been overturned, 
 and' buried there from the time of the deluge, or fome lat^r 
 period; not formed and produced there, as jet is. 
 Not long ago, there wtrc tound in England, at above a hun- 
 dred feet depth, fevcral huge oaks, with all their branches 
 on ; and which, by their fubterraneous fituation, had on- 
 j tracked a black colour, nothing inferior to jet, joined with 
 I a hardnefs, which far furpaills that of any living oak. — It is 
 ! hard to conceive how fuch trees as thefe fhould have come 
 at this depth, unlefs by a general fubverfion of the whole 
 terreftrial globe at the flood. 
 
 Mr Boyle mentions a huge oak dug out of a falt-mine in 
 1 ranlilvania, lb hard as not eafily to be wrought on by iron 
 tools ; which yet being expofed to the air, out of the mine, 
 became fo rotten, that in tour days it crumbled between the 
 fingers. Differt de Admir. Hung, — And Mr Derham ob- 
 ferves the fame of the trees turned up by the breaches at 
 Dagcnhnm, Lfc. Philsf. TtanfS 0 33;. See Supplement, 
 article Bocwood. 
 
 Cutting 
 
woo 
 
 woo 
 
 Cutting in Wood. 
 Meafurt of Wood. 
 Painting on Wood. 
 Stitipturt in Wood. 
 Stack of Wood. 
 
 • See the article 
 
 extended 
 
 Antiq. of 
 
 Wood, Sylua, in geography, a multitude of trees, 
 
 over a Luge continued tracl of land, and propagated by na- 
 ture, or without culture. 
 
 Many ^reat woods only confift of trees of one kind. — m 
 Cape Vtrd in Africa, are woods of orange and lemon trees ; 
 in Ceylon, are woods of cinnamon tree* i in the Molucca 
 iilands, woods of clove trees ; in the iflands of Nero, Lon- 
 tour Lofgain, fife, woods of nutmeg trees ; in brazil, woods 
 of brazil trees, %f. in Numidia, woods of date trees j in 
 Madagascar, woods of tamarind trees, &c. 
 Wood and weed, in the fea language, is when two pieces pt 
 timber are fo let into each other, that the weed ot the one 
 joins clofe to the other. 
 WOOD-CORN, is a certain quantity of oats, or other 
 grain, anciently given by cuftomary tenants to their lord, for 
 the liberty to pick up dead or broken wood. 
 WOOD-GELD, Woodgeldum, in our antient cui- 
 toins, tiie gathering, or cutting of wood within the foreft.—- 
 Or it may denote the money paid for the fame, to the forest- 
 ers. Sometimes it alio feems to fignify an immunity from 
 this payment, by the king's grant,— Crompton fays exprefly, 
 it iWnirk-s to be free from the payment of money for taking 
 of wood in a foreft. See Geld. 
 WOOD-HAY, an antient cuftom at Exeter; whereby a 
 log out of every feam of weed brought over Ex br J ~ 
 is taken towards the reparation of that bndp - 
 
 WOOD-MOTE, the antient name of that forcit-court, 
 
 now called the court of attachment. 
 WOODPLEA-to, is a court held twice a year in the 
 foreft of Clun in Shropfhire, for determining all matters re- 
 lating to woody and the feeding of cattle there. — Perhaps jt 
 was originally the fame with wood-mote-court. 
 WOODWARD*, an officer of the foreft, whofe func- 
 tion is to look after the woods, and obferve any offences ei- 
 ther in vert, or venifon, committed within his charge ; and 
 to prefent the fame ; and in cafe any deer are found killed, 
 or hurt, to inform the verderer thereof, and prelent the 
 delinquents at the next court of the ioreft. 
 * Woodwards may not walk with bows, and /hafts, but with 
 forelt-bills. — Aram fcf calamos gejlare inforejla mn licet, fed 
 (tit refer iptt sttar verbo) baebetum tatitummsdo. Term. Hill. 
 An. 13 Ed. III. 
 
 WOO F, among manufacturers, the threads which the weavers 
 Ihoot acrofs, with an inftrument called the Jbuttle, between 
 the threads of the warp, to form the web. 
 The woof is. of different matter, according to the piece to 
 be wrought. — In taffety, both woof and warp arc iilk. 
 In mohairs, the woof is ufually wool, and the warp filk. — 
 In fattins, the warp is frequently flax, and the woof hlk. 
 
 WOOL, lana, the hair, or covering of fheep ; which, warn- 
 ed, fiiorn, drefjed, combed, fpun, wove, &c, makes divers 
 kinds of fluffs, cloths, &c. for apparel, furniture, £5V. 
 Wliile the zveol remains in the flate it was firft fhorn oft the 
 fheep's hack, and not forted into its different kinds, it is 
 called fleece. .. - . ... ■ ■" 
 
 Each fleece confifts of wool of divers qualities, and degrees 
 oi fmcneis, which the dealers therein take care to feparate. 
 The French and Englifh ufually feparate each fleece into 
 tiiree forts ; viz. 1 3 . Mother-wool, which is that of the back 
 and neck. z° . The wool of the tails and legs. 3 0 . That 
 of the breaft, and under the belly. 
 
 The Spaniards make the like divifion into three forts, 
 which they ci\\ prime, fecond, and third ; and, for the greater 
 eafe, denote each bale or pack with a capital letter, denoting 
 
 the fort. If the triage, or feparation be well made, in 
 
 fifteen bales there will be twelve marked Rj that is, refine, 
 or prime ; two marked F, for fine, or fecond j and one S, 
 for thirds. 
 
 The wools moft cftcemed are the Englifh, chiefly thofe a- 
 bout Leominfter, Cotfwold, and the Ifle of Wight ; the 
 Spanifh, principally thofe about Segovia ; and the French, a- 
 bout Berry : which laft are faid to have this peculiar pro- 
 perty, that they will knot or bind with any other fort - y 
 whereas the reft will only knot with their own kind. 
 Among the antients, the wools of Attica, Megara, Laodicea, 
 Apulia, and efpecially thofe of Tarentum, Parma, andAI- 
 tino, were the moft valued. — Columella fcts the two laft 
 even above that of Tarentum, Lib. VIII. c. 2. — And Varro 
 aflures us, the people there ufed to clothe their fheep with 
 fkins, to feeure the wool from being damaged. De Re Rujl, 
 Lib. IL c. 2. 
 
 Tavernier affirms, that the wools in Afia are incompara- 
 bly finer than thofe of Europe ; and that there is no 
 doubt, but that wool was the golden fleece fought for at 
 
 Colchis. 
 
 The art of preparing and working wool, is attributed, bv 
 the antients, to Minerva ; who, accordingly, is made the 
 genius and protectrefs thereof. 
 Englifh Wool. — The wools of England have always been in 
 the higheft repute ; and that always more abroad than at 
 home. — Some wc have, which manufactured by our own 
 clothiers, Chamberlayne obferves, does, both for foftnels 
 and finenefs, vie with the choiceft filks. — Spanifh wools, we 
 know, bear a great price among us ; but it is certain, much 
 the greatefl part of that, which when manufactured, our 
 clothiers, CsrV. call Spanifh cloth, grows in England. — Add, 
 that the French can make no good cloth of their own wool, 
 without, at leaf!, one third of Englifh wool mixed with it. 
 
 It is allowed, the goodnefs of the Spanifh wool is owing 
 
 to a few Englifh fheep fent over into Spain, as a prefent, 
 by Henry II. of England ; or, as others will have it, though 
 we think miftakenly, by Edward IV. in 1465. 
 The finenefs and plenty of our wools is owing, in great 
 meafure, to the fweet, fhorif grafs in many of our p.iltures 
 and downs ; though the advantage of our fliecps feeding on 
 this grafs all the year, without being obliged to be ihut up 
 in folds during the winter, or to fecure them (top. wolves 
 at other times, contributes nut a little thereto. 
 The Scotifh and Irifh wools, are commonly fold abroad for 
 Englifh ; and upon the fame footing. — But foreigners, /kill- 
 ed in thofe matters, find they come far fhort of it in fine- 
 nefs; though, in fume markets, the Irilh is even faid to be 
 preferred to t.ie Englifh, 
 
 The yearly produce oi wool in England is calculated by 
 Dr Davcnanr, and Mr King, at two millions lterling. See 
 Woollen Manufactory. 
 
 Amiently, the principal commerce of the nation confined 
 in wool unmanufactured ; which foreigners, tipeciad) (fee 
 French, Dutch, and Flemilh bought of us. lnfomuch, 
 that the cuftoms of Englifh wool exported in Edward the 
 third's reign, amounted, at 50 s. a pack, to 250000 /. 
 per annum. An immenfe fum in thofe days! See Com- 
 merce. 
 
 This exceffive cuftom on the export of unmanufactured 
 wool, fet our people to the making it into cloth themftives. 
 In which they fucceeded fo well, that towards the clofe of 
 the iixteenth century, under the reign of queen Elizabeth, 
 the exportation of any wool at all was abfolutely prohibited ; 
 and this, upon pain of having the right hand itruck off. . 
 From that time, England has been exceedingly jealous of its 
 wool. — To prompt their vigilance, the judges, king's coun- 
 cil at law, and maiiers in chancery, in parliament, are feat- 
 cd on wool packs. — Accordingly, fcarce a parliament but 
 has renewed, and reinforced the prohibition j particularly, 
 about the middle of the feventcentli century, the exporting 
 of wool was made a capital crime. 
 
 But all thefe precautions are ineffectual ; the Englifh them- 
 felvesi particularly thofe about the couth of Suilex, making 
 ufe of the long winter nights to waft over their wools to 
 France : being fure of carrying them to a good market, they 
 defpife the penalty, with an intiepidity, that the reft of Eu- 
 rope are amazed at. 
 
 M. Colbert, a pcrfon the French manufactures and com- 
 merce are infinitely indebted to, had entertained a defign 
 of procuring fome of our Englifh Iheep, and propagating 
 them in France ; hoping, that by chuhng them, in the pro- 
 vinces of that kingdom, fuch paftures, and fuch a fky as 
 they had in their own ifland, they might there be perpe- 
 tuated ; and France be no longer obliged precarioufly to de- 
 pend on the clandeftine fupphes of wool from the Englifh 
 owlers. — But the count de Cominges, then ambaffador of 
 France at the Englifh courr, laid the impoffibility of having 
 fuch an export of fheep, and the almoft equal impoffibility 
 of keeping and making them multiply there, fo ftrongly be- 
 fore him, that he abandoned the delign. 
 JVool is reckoned by the jack, containing two weighs ; the 
 weigh, fix tod and a half ; the tod, two ftones ; the jione, 
 two cloves; and the clove, feven pounds. — Twelve lacks 
 make a lajl, or 4368 pounds. 
 
 A feci of wool, or 364 pounds, is fufficient for four ftandard 
 cloths, to render them true breadth, i. t. fix quarters and' a 
 half ; true weight, f. e. fixty pound ; and the true length, 
 i. e. twenty four yards. 
 
 For the divers preparations of wool, fee C a RDI n c , 
 Combing, Spinning, Weaving, Fulling, and 
 Cloth. 
 
 Pocht ./Wool. V g h ;d (Pocket. 
 Sarplar of Wool, \ Xe } bARPLAR. 
 
 WOO L-D RIVERS, are thofe who buy wool of the fheep- 
 owners in the country, and carry it on horfeback to the clo- 
 thiers, or market-towns, to fell it again. 
 WOOLLEN Mamifaflory, includes the feveral forts of 
 commodities into which wool is wrought ; as broad cloths, 
 long and fhort lurfiji, bays, ferges, flannel, perpetuanas, fays, 
 Jiujfs, fritu, pimujlons, Jlockings, caps, rugs, &c. — Each 
 2 whereof, 
 
W O R 
 
 W O R 
 
 whereof, fee under its refpective article, Cloth, £sV. 
 The woollen manufactory, which now makes the principal 
 article both in our foreign and domeftic trade, being that 
 which furnifhes the cargoes of our veflcls, that employs our 
 people, (s'c. may be faid to have had its rife in the fifteenth 
 century. 
 
 Till that time, our wool was all fold in the fleece, to fuch of 
 our neighbours as came to fetch it. — Among our cuftomers, 
 however, the principal were the Flemings, and Brabanters; 
 and particularly the merchants of Gant and Louvain, who 
 took off vaft quantities to fupply two manufactories that had 
 flourifhed in thofe two cities from the tenth century ; and 
 had furnifhed the greater} part of Europe, and even England 
 itfelf, with all forts of woollen cloths, &c. — But the richnefs 
 of the manufactories of Gant, and the incredible number of 
 hands employed therein, having fpirited up the inhabitants to 
 revolt, divers times, againft their fovereigns, on account of 
 certain taxes which they refufed to pay ; the feditious were 
 at length punifhed, and difperfed, and part of them took re- 
 fuge in Holland, and the reft in Louvain. 
 Thefe laft, together with their art of manufacturing cloths, 
 carried with them their fpirit of fedition. — And it was not 
 long before feveral of them, to avoid the punifhment they had 
 deferved for killing fome of the magiftrates, removed into 
 England ; where they inftrudted our people how to work their 
 own wools. 
 
 Thiseftablifhment: is referred to the year 142c ; from which 
 time no endeavours have been fpared to keep our wools to 
 ourfelves. 
 
 The prefident Thuanus makes this epocha an hundred years 
 later ; and attributes the cftabiifhment of the woollen manu- 
 failures in England to queen Elizabeth, and the troubles a- 
 bout religion, which the feverky of the duke of Alva and 
 the Spanifh inquifition had occasioned, and kept up fo long 
 in the Low Countries. — But what that noble author fays, 
 is rather to be underftood of their perfection, than their firlt 
 eftablifhmcnt ; and of the feveral great manufactures then 
 fet up at Norwich, Colchefter, Sandwich, Hampton, ts'c. 
 — For in the Englifh and Flemifh hiftorians, we find men- 
 tion made of the manufactures of London, long before anv 
 part of the feventeen provinces had attempted to throw off 
 the Spanifh yoke. 
 
 As this manufacture now ftands, DrDavenant and Mr King 
 compute the produce thereof to be eight millions per annum : 
 three fourths whereof are confumed at home, and the reft 
 exported. 
 
 So jealous are we now become of our woollens, that, befides 
 the precautions taken to ufe all our own wools ourfelves, we 
 have added that of felling them ourfelves, and of carrying 
 them to the places where they are required ; not admitting 
 ftrangers to come and buy any in England. 
 And hence the cfrablifbmcnt of thofe famous magazines in 
 Holland, the Levant, and the North, where our woo/lens are 
 repofited, to be vended by factors, or commiflioners,- — 
 The magazine in Holland has changed place divers times; 
 and it has been fucceffively at Middleburgh, Dclf, Rotterdam, 
 and Dort, where it now remains; and where all the Ger- 
 mans come to furnifh thcmfelves. — That for the Levant, is 
 at Smyrna; and for the North, at Archangel. 
 A pack, or 240 pounds weight of fhort wool, it is computed, 
 employs fixty three perfons a week, to manufacture it into 
 cloth ; viz. three men to fort, dry, mix, and make it ready 
 for the ftock-carder ; five to fcribble, or ftock-card it ; thirty 
 five women and girls, to card and fpin it ; eight men to 
 weave it; four men and boys to fpoole it, and reed quills ; 
 eight men and boys to fcour, burl, mill, or full it; row, 
 fhear, pack, and prefs it. 
 
 A pack of large, long, combing wool, made into fluffs, fer- 
 ges, fagathies, &c. for the Spanifh trade, will employ, for 
 one week, 202 perfons, whofe wages amount to 43 /. ioj. 
 ■ — Thus, 7 combers, 3/. iof. dyers, 5/. 150 fpinners, 
 18/. 20 throwers, and doublers, 5/. 2 5 weavers, and at- 
 tendants, 1 2 /. 
 
 A pack of wool made into ftockings, will employ, for one 
 week, 184 perfons, who will earn 56 /. — Thus, 10 com- 
 bers, ; /. 5 r. the dyer, 1/. 6s. 102 fpinners, 15/. 12s. 
 doublers and throwers, 4/. 101. 60 flocking- weavers, 30/. 
 
 Bleaching of Woo llen's. See the article Bleaching. 
 
 WOOL-STAPLE, denotes a city or town where wool ufed 
 to be fold. See Staple. 
 
 WOOLSTED. See the article Worsted. 
 
 WOOL-WINDERS, are perfons employed in winding 
 up fleeces of wool into bundles, to be packed, and fold by 
 weight. — Thefe are fworn to do it truly between the owner 
 and the merchant. 
 
 WORD, in language, is an articulate found, defigned to re- 
 prefent fome idea. 
 
 Word, in writing, is an affemblagc of fever?.] letters, forming 
 one or more fyDables, and iignifying fome thing. 
 
 The Port-Royalifts define words to be diftmel articulate 
 founds, agreed on by mankind, to convey their thoughts 
 and fentiments by. 
 
 Grammarians divide zvords into eight claffcs, called parts of 
 fpeecb ; which are the noun, pronoun, verb, participle, ad- 
 verb, conjunction, prepofition, and interjection ; to one or 
 other of which, all the words and terms in all languages, 
 which have, or may be invented to exprefs our ideas, are 
 reducible. See each under its proper article. 
 IVords, again, are divided into primitives and derivatives* 
 Jimple and compound, fynonimous and equivocal. 
 With regard to their fyllablcs, words are further divided into 
 monofyllctbles, and polyjyllabks. 
 
 The grammatical figures of words, which occafion changes 
 in the form, iffc. thereof, are fyncope, apocope, (ipojhopbe, 
 di&rejis, apharefis, projihefis, epenthefis, parogoge, metatbe- 
 fts, &c. See each in its proper place, Syncope, Apoco- 
 pe, 13 c. 
 
 The ufe of words, we have obferved, is to ferve as fenfible 
 figns of our ideas; and the ideas they ftand for in the mind 
 of the perfon that fpeaks, are their proper figniheations. ; 
 Simple and primitive zvords have no natural connection with 
 the things they fignity ; whence there is no rationale to be 
 given of them: it is by a mere arbitrary inrtitution and agree- 
 ment of men, that they come to fignifv any thing. — Cer- 
 tain ivords have no natural propriety or aptitude, to exprefs 
 certain thoughts, more than others ; were that the cafe there 
 could have been but one language. 
 
 But, Eh derivative and compound words, the cafe is fome- 
 what different. — In the forming of thefe, we fee, a regard 
 is to be had to agreement, relation, and analogy : thus, muff. 
 wards that have the fame ending, have one common and ge- 
 neral way of denoting or iignifying things; and thofe com- 
 pounded with the fame prepofitions, have a fimilar manner 
 of expreffing and fignirying fimilar ideas in all the learned 
 languages where they occur. 
 
 for the perfection of language, it is not enough, Mr Locke 
 obferves, that founds can be made fignsof ideas ; unlefs thefe 
 can be made ufe of, fo as to comprehend feveral particular 
 things ; for the multiplication of zvords would have perplexed 
 their ufe, had every particular tiling needed a diflinct name 
 to be lignihed by. 
 
 To remedy this inconvenience, language had a farther im- 
 provement in the ufe of general terms, whereby one word 
 was made to mark a multitude of particular exiftences; 
 which advantageous ufe of founds was obtained only by the 
 difference- of the ideas they were made figns of; thofe names 
 becoming general, which are made to fland for general ideas; 
 and thofe remaining particular, where the ideas they are ufed 
 for are particular. 
 
 It is oblervable, that the words which ftand for actions, and 
 notions quite removed from fenfe, are borrowed from fen- 
 lible ideas ; as, to imagine, apprehend, comprehend, under- 
 itand, adhere, conceive, inftil, difguft, difturbance, tran- 
 quility, £sV!! which are all taken from the operations of 
 things fenfible, and applied to modes of thinking. — Spirit* 
 in its primary fignifi cation, is no more than breath ; angel, 
 a meilenger, By which we may guefs what kind of notions 
 thefe were, and whence derived, which filled the minds of 
 the firft beginners of languages ; and how nature, even in 
 the naming of things, unawares, fuggefled to men the ori- 
 ginals of all their knowledge: whilft, to give names that 
 might make known to others any operations they felt in 
 themfelves, or any other ideas that came not under their 
 fenfes, they were forced to borrow words from the ordinary 
 and known ideas of fcnfation. 
 
 The ends of language in our difcourfe with others, are chiefly 
 three: firft, to make our thoughts or ideas known one to 
 another. — This we fail in, 1 °. When we ufe names with- 
 out clear and diflinct ideas in our mind. i°. When we 
 apply received names to ideas, to which the common ufe of 
 that language doth not apply them. 3 s . When we apply 
 them unfteadily, making them ftand now for one, and anon 
 for another idea. 
 
 Secondly, to make known our thoughts, with as much eafe 
 and quicknefs as is poffible. — This men fail in, when they 
 have complex ideas, without having diflinct names for them ; 
 which may happen either through the defect of a language, 
 which has none; or the fault of the man, who has not vet 
 learned them. 
 
 Thirdly, to convey the knowledge of things. — This can- 
 not be done, but when our ideas agree to the reality of 
 things. — He that has names without ideas, wants mean- 
 ing in his words, and fpeaks only empty founds. — He that 
 has complex ideas without names for them, wants difpatch 
 in his expreflion. — He that ufes his words loofely and un- 
 fteadily, will either not be minded, or not underftood. — He 
 that applies names to his ideas, different from the common 
 ufe, wants propriety in his language, and fpeaks gibberifh 
 
WOR 
 
 and he that has ideas of fubftances, difagreeing with the real 
 exiftence of things, fo far wants the materials of true know- 
 ledge. 
 
 AW/»./-Wor DS . I See the arti-le J D' VISI0N - 
 G.t&it WtSkrSs. 5 bC 1 General. 
 
 Won, /fstti-WoRD, in an army, or garnfon, is tome 
 peculiar word, orfentence, by which the foldiersare tokn ° w ' 
 and diflinguifh one another in the night, &c. and by which 
 fpies, and defining perfons are difcovered. 
 It is ufed alfo to prevent furprizcs. — The word is given out 
 in an army every night by the general, to the lieutenant, or 
 major-general of the day, who gives it to the majors of the 
 brigades, and they to the adjutants ; who give it hrft to the 
 field-officers, and afterwards to a ferjeant of each company, 
 who carry it to the fubalterns. 
 
 In garrifons it is given, after the gate is (but, to the town- 
 major, who gives it to the adjutants, and they to the ier- 
 
 jeants. 
 
 Word, in heraldry, BV. See the article Motto. 
 
 WORK-HOUSt, a place where indigent, vagrant, and 
 idle people are fet to work, and maintained with cloathing, 
 diet, c?r. '"'*'/, -i 
 
 Such are the Bridewells, and feveral other places about the 
 city, or fuburbs ; fuch alio was the foundation of that in 
 Bifhopfgatc-Street, for employing the poor children of the 
 city and liberties, who have no fettlemcnt ; and that for the 
 parifh of S. Margaret's Weffminfter, called the griy-ioat 
 hsfphal. 
 
 At Ainfterdam they have a famous worh-houfe, or houfe of 
 correBion, called the Rafplmyfe, which, by a privilege granted 
 in i6oj, has alone the right of (having, and cutting the 
 dyers woods, as brazil, fantal, campeche, faffafras, &r. 
 Each perfon, tolerably flrong, kept in the houfe, is obliged 
 to furnifh 250 pounds of rafped wood per day ; and the 
 weaker, a certain proportionable quantity of chips. 
 WORKS, Opera, in fortification, the feveral lines, trenches, 
 ditches, (Jc. made round a place, an army, or the like, to 
 fortify, and defend it. — See Tab. ArMt. jig. zi. fee alio 
 the articles Line, and Trench. 
 
 The principal works, in a fortrefs, or fortified place, fee under 
 the articles Fortified Place, Fortification, 
 
 1 
 
 /■Carpenter 
 Clock. 
 Crown -JVori, 
 Field-/^W. 
 F 1 r e s and Ar t if i c i a l. 
 
 t See < 
 
 Fret 
 Grotesque. 
 Horn-//"W. 
 Mosaic. 
 Out -Work. 
 Regimen. 
 Rustic. 
 Scratch. 
 Stream. 
 Vermicular. 
 Wax. 
 Furnace. 
 Gl ass. 
 
 Carpenters Work. 
 Cloci-W ok k. 
 
 Ooiwz-WORK. 
 Field-W ork. 
 
 aFlVf-WoRK. 
 
 Fret-WoRK.. 
 Grotefque-WoR K. 
 
 Mofa ic -Work. 
 
 Olit-\V ORK. 
 Regimen of the Work 
 
 Scratcb-WoRK. 
 Stream-WoRK. 
 fermicular-'W ORK. 
 
 Worki KC-Furnace. 
 Working of G/afs. 
 WORLD, Mundus, the afTemblage of parts which compofe 
 the univerfe. 
 
 The duration of the world, is a thing which has been greatly 
 difputed, — Plato, after Ocellus Lucanus, held it to be eter- 
 nal ; and to have flowed from God, as rays flow from the 
 fun. Ariftotle was much of the fame mind: he aflerts, that 
 the world was not generated, fo as to begin to be a world, 
 ■which before was none: and, in effect, his whole eighth 
 book of Phyf. and hrft book de Cazlo, are fpent in proving 
 the eternity of the world. 
 
 He lays down a pre-exifting and eternal matter, as a prin- 
 ciple ; and thence argues the world eternal. — ■ His argument 
 amounts to this, that it is impoflible an eternal agent, hav- 
 ing an eternal paflive fubjett, ftiould continue long without 
 action. 
 
 His opinion was long generally followed ; as feemed to be 
 the fitteft to end the difpute among fo many fecis about the 
 firft caufe. 
 
 Epicurus, however, though he makes matter eternal, yet 
 ihews the world to be but a new thing, and fays it was form- 
 ed out of a fortuitous concourfe of atoms. See Lucretius, 
 Lib. V. 
 
 Some of the modern philofophers refute the imaginary eter- 
 nity of the world, by this argument : that, if it be ab eterno, 
 there muft have been a generation of individuals, in a conti- 
 nual fucceffion from all eternity; fince no caufe can be af- 
 figned why they mould not be generated, viz. one from an- 
 other. — .Therefore, to confider the origin of things, and 
 the ferics of caufes, we muft go back in infinitum, i; e. there 
 muft have been an infinite number of men, and other indi- 
 viduals already generated i which fubverts the very notion of 
 
 WOR 
 
 number. — And if the caufe which now generates have been 
 produced by an infinite feries of caufes ; how fhall an infinite 
 leries be finite, to give room for new generations ? 
 Dr Halley fuggefts a new method of finding the age of the 
 world, from the degree of faltnefs of the ocean. 
 It is another popular topic of controverfy, whether the world 
 be finite, or infinite? bee the arguments on both fides, un- 
 der the article Universe. 
 
 It is likewife difputed, whether the plurality .of worlds be 
 pomble? See Plurality. ' • 
 
 tome hold the affirmative, from an opinion of the infinite 
 power of the Deity; it being a fetting bounds to omnipo- 
 tency, to fay, that he created fo many bodies at firft, and 
 that he could not create more. 
 
 The Cartefians maintain the negative, upon thefe principles : 
 that it is a contradiction to fay, there are feveral worlds exift- 
 ing at the fame time, fince this implies feveral univerfes of 
 created beings, the world being the to That if there 
 
 were feveral worlds^ they muft either be at a difbnee from 
 one another, or contiguous; but neither can be faid: for 
 were they contiguous, they would only conftitute one; and 
 were they diftant, there muft be fomething between. But 
 what can be between ? If it be extended, it is corporeal - T 
 and initead of feparating the feveral worlds, it will connect 
 them all into one. 
 
 The Exijlcnce of an eternal IVorld has been much contro- 
 verted of late. The arguments on either fide, fee under the 
 article Body, Existence, and Eternal. 
 The world is fometimes divided into upper, and lower. 
 Lower, or fubluuary Wurld, is the globe of our earth. See 
 Earth. 
 
 Upper World, includes the heavens, and heavenly bodies. 
 
 Axis of the World, t r Axis. 
 
 Map of the World. [, 1 , t Map. 
 
 p i i- i Tir ? bee tie article < . ,■ 
 
 Soul of the World. f J An i m a Mundi. 
 
 Syjlcjn of the World. 3 (.System. 
 
 WORMS, Lumbrici, or Vermes, in medicine, a difcafe arif- 
 ing from fume of thofe reptiles being generated, and growing 
 in the body : whence, frequently, terrible fymptoms proceed. 
 The ordinary place of the zvorms, is the inteftines : though 
 there is fcarce any part of the body but is fometimes infected 
 with them : for befides the vermes inteflinales, there are den- 
 talcs, gingivales, pulmonarii, cardiaci, fanguinarii, cutaneous^ 
 umbilical, hepatic, falival, &c. 
 
 They are all ufually fuppofed to beingendered from the eggs of 
 fome infect, depofited in fomething that is taken into the body 
 by way of food ; or fome other way : an hypothefis, however, 
 which will hardly account for certain fpecies of thefe infects 
 not to be found but in the bodies of animals. — A folution of 
 this difficulty, will, perhaps, be hard to find, without having 
 recourfc to the firft ftamina of animals, and the principles of 
 generation. 
 
 There are three fpecies of worms, molt frequent in the hu- 
 man body: the teretes, or round and thick., moitly tound in 
 the duodenum ; the latus, or flat, called alfo taenia ; and the 
 round and fmall, found in the rectum, called ajcarides. — - 
 Sometimes, indeed, there are anomalous zuorms expelled j as 
 horned, hairy, four-footed, &c. worms. 
 
 The fymptoms of this difcafe are, vomiting, head-ach, heart- 
 burn, fighing, fwooning, feeble pulfe, heavy fleep, and fome- 
 times deliria, fquinancy, pleurify, canine hunger, and innu- 
 merable others- occalioned by the animals fucking, mov- 
 ing, vellicating, gnawing, confuming the chyle, irritating 
 the nerves, wounding the foJids, 6ff, 
 
 As to the vermis latus, befide the other common fymptoms, 
 thofe affected with this, have one peculiar to them; which 
 is, that with their ftools they frequently difcharge feveral 
 little bodies, like gourd-feeds. 
 
 Dr Tyfon, in the Philofophical TranfaHions, N° 146, gives 
 a curious account of the fat tuorm, or lumbricus latus ; call- 
 ed by Hippocrates, Tama,, and in Englifh, ordinarily, the 
 tape-worm, or joint-worm. — rThis is always Tingle : it lies 
 varioufly convoluted ; being fometimes as long as all the guts ; 
 and fometimes, it even vaftly exceeds that length. 
 Olaus Borrichius afTures us, a patient of his, in a year's time, 
 voided 800 foot in meafure of this worm, though he had not 
 yet met with the head; in voiding, the patient always ob- 
 ferved it to break off". 
 
 Dr Tyfon parallels this cafe with that of a patient of his, 
 who voided vaft quantities of this worm, for feveral years to- 
 gether; but in various pieces: fome two, three, four, fix, 
 or more yards long : but all put together, he fays, would much 
 exceed the length of that of Borrichius. 
 The joints in this worm are very numerous : in one of 24 
 feet long, Dr Tyfon numbered 507 joints. — Above the 
 middle of the edges of each joint, he obferved a protuberant 
 orifice. — Thofe orifices he takes for fo many mouths ; the 
 beft microfcopes difcovering no mouth in what ufually pafles 
 for the head. 
 
 The worm is frequent enough in moft kinds of animals ; as 
 
 z i*t^* dogs. 
 
W O R 
 
 W O U 
 
 tt b ULt Uiljl^lCfllCIU, ill LIUIC VVUKIV15. 
 
 Cochineal Worm, -j [-Cochineal. 
 
 Silk Worm. ( . I Silk. 
 
 o ■(.;- > bee the article < c 
 
 ifl/i/dfji Worm. f (Solitary. 
 
 Spermatic Worm. ) (.Spermatic. 
 
 dogs, oxen, crabs, herrings, pikes, EsrV, — Some authors 
 aflert, that it is not one, but many worms linked together, 
 and included in a fpolium of the inteftincs; and that this 
 fpolium is not animated, but receives its fenfe and motion 
 from a fort of vermiculi cucurbkini inclofed in it. — This, 
 Gabucinus, de Lumb, Com. fays, he has plainly difcovercd : 
 but Dr Tyfon abundantly evinces the contrary. 
 In Perfia, &c. there are alfo very long (lender worms, fix or 
 leven yards long, bred in the legs, and other parts of men's 
 bodies : when arrived at a certain pitch, they put out their 
 heads, necks, &c, and withdraw them (if difpleafed or hurt) 
 again, caufing intolerable pains, fevers, &c'. See Supplement, 
 article Dracunculi. 
 
 Arittotle obferves, that mofl deer have worms under their 
 tongues. — Sheeps nofes often abound with them. 
 In the Philofoph. Tranfaft. N<\ 113. we have accounts of 
 divers remarkable operations whereby tVorins were taken out 
 of divers unfufpected parts of the body ; the operators being 
 chiefly women. — Mrs Mary Haitings is there recorded, as 
 famous for the difcovering of worms hid in the face, gums, 
 tongue, CSV. which ihe managed with fuch addrefs, that fhe 
 took them out of any part arretted, with a goofe-quill. — 
 Mr Dent relates, that he himfelf was cured of certain odd 
 tumors on his tongue, by one of thole worm-doctrefles, 
 Mrs French, who, piercing the parts affected with a lancet, 
 drew out five or fix worms at a time. — In lefs than eight 
 days, he allures us, fhe took out of his tongue above a hun- 
 dred worms, and thirty out of his gums. 
 Sir Theodore May erne affiires us, in the Philofoph. Tranfad. 
 N*. 211. that the famous fugar, or remedy given by Pon- 
 t^us, (a celebrated chymical empiric.) tor the worms in chil- 
 dren, is fifteen grains of mercurius dulcis, with five grains 
 of fcammony, and two or three times as much fugar, made 
 up in lozenges — He adds, that this dofe of trie fcammony, 
 which inFrance purges grown perfons, is ineffectual in Eng- 
 land, to peifons of above fifteen years old, and ought to be 
 augmented See Supplement, article Worms 
 Cochineal Worm. -\ fCoCHIN 
 
 Si 
 Si 
 Sp, 
 
 Worm, in chymiftry, denotes a long, winding pewter-pipe, 
 which diftillers and apothecaries place in a tub of water, to 
 cool and condenfe the vapours in the diftillalion of fpjiits. 
 This the chymifts alfo call a ferpentine. — Formerly, this 
 worm, or fomething like it, was placed above the head of 
 the ftill, with a refrigeratory at the upper end of it, which 
 is tnetifl enough in the diftilling of fpirit of wine. 
 To Worm a cable, or bawfer, in the fea-phrafe, fignifics to 
 firengthen it, by winding a fmall line, or rope, all along 
 between the ftrands. 
 WORM-SEED, Si-men contra, femen fandum, or femen 
 fmtonicum, is a hot, bitter, drying kind of feed, proper to 
 dcllroy worms generated in a human body, and particularly 
 in children. 
 
 This feed is fmall, of a brownifh colour, an oblong figure, 
 a bitter tafte, and a llrong fmell. — It mull be chofen new, 
 greenifh, of a lharp, bitter, aromatic taile, not a little dif- 
 agreeablc. * 
 
 The place where it is produced, is Perfia, about the fron- 
 tiers of Mufcovy. It is brought to us from Aleppo, Wc. — 
 Naturalifts have not been agreed about the plant that pro- 
 duces it. 
 
 J. Bauhine has a large differtation on the fubject. — Some 
 will have it the fpecies of abfynthium, or wormwood, call- 
 ed fantanicum, or marinum abfynthium ; others will have it 
 the tanacetum, others the abrotan urn ; but it is really the feed 
 of a genuine fpecies of wormwood. 
 
 M. Tournefort gives us the following account ot this nota- 
 ble drug, in the fecond volume of his travels. The femen- 
 tine, or worm-powder, is not gathered like our feeds. — The 
 plant grows in the meadows, and muft be let ripen ; and 
 the mifchief is, that as it grows near to maturity, the wind 
 fcatters a good part of it among the grafs, where it is loft ; 
 and this it is that makes it fo dear. 
 
 As they dare not touch it with the hand, for fear of making 
 it fpoil the fooncr j when they would gather what is left in 
 the ear, they have recourfe to this expedient. — They take 
 two hand-bafkets and, walking along the meadows, fweep 
 the bafkets, the one from right to left, the other from left 
 to right, as if they were mowing ; by this means the feed 
 is ftiook out into the bafkets. 
 
 WORMWOOD, a medicinal herb, among phyficians, isV. 
 called abfynthium. See Absynthium. 
 
 Wormwoud-/^, Vinum abfynthites. See Vinum. 
 
 W OR S FIIP of God, Cultus Dei, amounts to the fame with 
 what we otherwife call religion. See Religion. 
 This worjhip confifts in paying a due refpect, veneration, 
 and homage to the Deity, under a certain expectation of 
 reward. 
 
 And this internal refpect, &c. is to be fhewn and teftified 
 by external acts ; as prayers, facrifices, thankfgivings, &c. 
 The Quictifts, and fome other myftic divines, fet aiide not 
 only all ufe of external worjhip ; but even the confideration 
 of rewards and punifhments. 
 
 Yet, even the heathens had a notion, that God did not re- 
 quire us to ferve him for nought : — Dii quamobrem colendi 
 funt, fays Cicero, nan intclUgo, nulla nec accepto ab illis nec 
 fperato bono. 
 
 The fchool-divines divide worjhip into divers kinds, viz. la- 
 tria, that rendered to God ; and idolatria, that rendered to 
 idols, or images, — To which the Romanifts add, dulia, that 
 rendered to faints ; and byperdulia, that to the virgin. 
 WORSTED, or Woolsted, in matters of commerce 
 and manufacture, is a kind of woollen-thread. 
 Worjled is, properly, a thread ipurl of wool that has been 
 combed ; and which, in the fpinning, is twifted harder than 
 ordinary. 
 
 It is chiefly ufed either to be knit, or wove into {lock- 
 ings, caps, gloves, or the like. 
 
 The name worfled, is fuppofed to be borrowed from a town 
 thus called, in Norfolk, noted for fine fpinning. — They 
 who write it wool/led, do it on fuppofition of the word's 
 being formed from wool, the matter of this thread. 
 
 WOVEN Stockings. See the article Stocking. 
 
 WOULD, or Weld, among dyers. See Weld. 
 
 WOULD1NG, a fea-term, for the winding of ropes faffc 
 round about a yard, or maft of a fhip, after it has been 
 ftrengthened by fome piece of timber nailed thereto. 
 
 WOUND, Vulnus, in medicine and chirurgcry, a recent 
 feparation, made in the foftor flefhy parts of the body, from 
 an external caufe \ and particularly from the action of fome 
 hard and ftvirp inftrument. 
 
 Or, it is a Iblution of the continuity of a flefhy part, made 
 by fome penetrating body; while it yet remains freih, 
 bloody, and without putrefaction : by which ci'rcumftances 
 a wound is diftinguifhed from an ulcer. 
 A like feparation happening in a bony part, is called a frac- 
 ture. 
 
 All wounds proceed either from puncture, incifion, or con- 
 tufion, according to the nature and make of the inftru- 
 ment they were caufed by. 
 
 Wounds arc ufually divided, with refpect to their caufe, cir- 
 cumftances, cure, drV. into fimple, and compound. — Simple 
 wounds are t'hofe rmide by puncture, incifion, or contufion, 
 feparately; thofe of the outer fkin, without any configurable 
 lofs of fubftance, or hurling any remarkable veflel ; and 
 thofe not complicated with any dangerous fymptoms. 
 Compound wounds, are thofe made both by puncture and in- 
 cifion at the fame time, to which is fometimes alfo added 
 contufion; thofe attended with great lofs of flefh, or the hut t 
 of fome confidcrable veflel ; add, thofe made by envenom- 
 ed inffruments, or attended with violent fymptoms. 
 The hiftory 'of a wound is thus delivered by Boerhaave.— 
 Immediately upon the folution, the wounded parts recede 
 further arid further from each other. — The blood gufh.es 
 out, at firff, with fome violence ; but flops of iflelf : then 
 a bloody fcab is formed in the cavity of the wound, and a 
 thin ruddy humour oozes out ; the lips of the wound begin 
 to redden, ake, fwell, and turn black ; and in (great wounds) 
 a fever and thirftinefs fucceed. — On the third or fourth day, 
 there is found a white, vifcid pus; upon which, the heat, 
 rednefs, tumor, ye. abate, and the cavity gradually fills up 
 from the bottom upwards, and from the circumference to 
 the centre with growing flefh. — Laftly, the zvound dries, 
 and cicatrifes. But note, thefe fymptoms vary according to 
 the nature and caufe of the wound. — Thus, if it be by in- 
 cifion, and a large blood-veflel be cut, the haemorrhage is 
 more violent ; efpecially if it be an artery ; in which cafe 
 florid blood flies out impetuoufly, and by Harts: if only a 
 vein be cut, the flux is more moderate and equable, and the 
 blood is of a darker colour. — If the wound be attended witb 
 contufion, the haemorrhage is fmall. 
 
 In wounds, where any large artery is quite cut in two, the 
 flux ufually proves mortal. — A leffer artery, cut tranfverfely, 
 flies back amongft the folid parts, and will have its mouth Hop- 
 ped : if an artery be not quite cut off, there arifes a perpetual 
 flux; or, if that be flopped, an aneuryfma. — A nerve being 
 cut off, flies back, produces a pain, and obftruction about 
 the wound ; and below it, a numbnefs, and walling with im- 
 mobility : the cafe is much the fame in wounded tendons, 
 and membranes.- — (founds of the temporal mufcle are rarely 
 cured ; but generally bring on horrible convulfions. 
 The following wounds are commonly reputed mortal ; viz. 
 thofe of the cerebellum, and of the cerebrum, if they be 
 deep enough to hurt the medulla oblongata ; deep ivounds in 
 the fpinal marrow, efpecially the upper part thereof ; thofe 
 of the heart, lung*, liver, fpleen, kidneys, pancreas, mefen- 
 tery, ftomach. midlines, tsV. thofe of the cava, aorta, ca- 
 
 rotides, 
 
v itineraries 
 river lob- 
 
 W R E 
 
 rotides, pulmonary, and other large veins and arteries ; thofe 
 of the bronchia, thorax, and diaphragm ; large wounds oi 
 the oefophagus, trachea, and the bladder ; and all mvenomed 
 
 In vounz children, and aged perfons, wounds frequently prove 
 mortal, which feemed but flight. —Thofe wound: generally 
 D rove troublefome which happen in an ill ftate of body, and 
 cfpecially with a low, or fpare diet. -All wounds are reputed 
 more dangerous and difficult of cure in winter, than rum- 
 mer i in autumn, than in bring. 
 
 The cure of wounds confifts in uniting the divided parts; 
 which is the work of nature alone, and which the chirur- 
 geon can only contribute to by removing external impedi- 
 ments, and applying medicines familiar to the part, called 
 vulneraries, and balfamics. . 
 The firft ftep, then, to be taken in a fimplc wound, is to 
 cleanfe it, and extraft any heterogeneous body that may 
 chance to be lodged therein.— Next, the cavity to be gently 
 wiped with doffils dipt in warm red wine. — I he lips are 
 now, to be brought together by bandages or futures J and the 
 wound to be covered with a pledget dipt m balfam of Feru, 
 or oil of fweet almonds.— The pain thus eafed, and the 
 fymptoms removed, the wound is to be fuppurated, deterg- 
 ed, incarnated, and cicatrized, after the manner of tumors, 
 and ulcers. , , 
 
 If the wound be dangerous, the fymptoms violent, and the 
 body cacochymic, more powerful means are had recourfeto; 
 as, firft, phlebotomy, then gentle cathartics, or clyfters; 
 then vulnerary drinks, apozems, and ptifans ; with cardiacs 
 and paregorics interpofed. —In internal wounds, 
 and alkalies do well, particularly album graxum 
 iters, mercurials, eft. 
 
 Frefh wounds are cured, ordinarily, in three or four days, 
 without any other means, than applying a few drops ot ba - 
 fam of Peru.— Sometimes, however, digeibves are required. 
 Gun-mot wounds are ufually the worft of all, by reafon of 
 the violent contufion and feparation of the parts ; which 
 prevent their coming to digeftion for the fpace of three or 
 four days. 
 
 In the cure of large wounds-, bandages and futures are re- 
 quired, to fit and difpofe them for healing. See Suture. 
 WRACK. See the article Wreck. 
 
 W REATH, in heraldry, a roll of fine linnen, or filk, (like 
 that of a Turkifh turbant) confifting of the colours born in 
 the efcutcheon ; placed, in an achievement, between the 
 helmet and the creffc, and immediately fupporting the creft. 
 
 WRECK, Wrack, or S^-Wreck, in natural hiftory, a 
 kind of herb growing in the fea, upon rocks and ftones, 
 and which the waves tearing off, caft upon more. 
 In fome places it is ufed to manure the ground. — In Nor- 
 mandy, and other parts, they burn it ; and of the aihes 
 make a kind of foda, or pot-am, which they ufe in the ' ^J."^' 
 making of common green glafs, to promote the fitfion or 1 
 vitrification of the other materials. 
 
 Wreck, Wreccum, called alfo S&[£-Wreck, or Sbip- 
 Wrack, in law, &c is when a fhip perifhes in the fea, 
 and no man efcapes alive out of it. 
 
 The civilians term it naufragium. — The goods in the fhip, 
 which are brought to land by the waves, belong to the 
 king, or him to whom he affigns the right thereof*. 
 * Thus, in the Stat. Prang. Reg. c. 1 1 . — Rex hahebit wrec- 
 kum maris per totutn regnim, bal<enas c5* fturgiones captas in 
 mart, vel alibi intra regnum, except:: quibujlibet privilegiatis 
 he is, 13 c. 
 
 If a man, a dog, or even a cat efcape alive, the party to 
 whom the goods belong coming within a year and a day, 
 and proving the goods to be his, fhall have them again. 
 In divers charters, and old writings, it appears, that wreck, 
 antlently, not only comprehended goods which came from 
 a perifhing fhip, but whatever elfe the fea caft upon land ; 
 whether it were precious ftones, fifhes *, fea-weed, or the 
 like. 
 
 * This wreck, in the Grand Cuflomary of Normandy, c. 17. is 
 called varech, and latined verifcum ; and in fome of our an- 
 tient charters, tvrecbe, werec, zcereeb, and feupwerpi q. d. 
 fea-uptoerp, of fea, and up-werpen, to call up. 
 
 WRESTLING, a kind of combat, or engagement between 
 two perfons unarmed, body to body, to prove their ftrength 
 and dexterity ; and try which can throw his opponent to the 
 ground. 
 
 Wrejlling, palajlra, is an exercife of very great antiquity 
 and fame. — -It was in ufe in the heroic age ; wknefs Her- 
 cules, who wrejlled with Antzeus. 
 
 It continued a long time in the higlieft repute; and had 
 very confiderable rewards and honours aligned it at the 
 Olympic games. — It was the cuftom of the athletfe, or 
 wreftlers, to anoint their bodies with oil, to give the lefa 
 hold to their antagonift. 
 
 Ablancourt obferves, that Lycurgus ordained the Spartan 
 maids to wrejile in public s quite naked, to break them of* 
 
 W R I 
 
 their too much delicacy and nicenefs ; to make them appear 
 more robuft, and to familiarize the people, &t. to fuch nu- 
 dities. 
 
 WRIST. See the article Carpus. 
 
 WRIT*, Breve, inlaw, a precept of the king in writing, 
 under feal, whereby any thing is commanded to be done, 
 touching a furt, action, or procefs for juftice. — As, the 
 fummoning a defendant, taking a diftrefs, redreffing a dif- 
 feifin, or the like. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Saxon, writan, to write. 
 Writs are varioufly divided, and in various refpeas. —Some 
 with regard to their order, or manner of granting, are term- 
 ed original, and others judicial. 
 Original Writs, are thofe fent out of the high court of chan- 
 cery, to fummonthe defendant in a perfonal, or tenant in 
 a real adion ; either before the fuit begins, or to begin the 
 fuit thereby. 
 
 Judicial Writs are thofe fent by order of the court where 
 the caufe depends, upon emergent occafions, after the iuit 
 
 begins. 
 
 Judicial Writs are diftinguifhed from original, in that their 
 tefte bears the name of the chief juftice of that court whence 
 they come; whereas the original fay, teftt me-ipfo, in the 
 name, or relating to the king. 
 
 Writs are alfo diftinguifhed, according to the nature of the 
 action, into real and perfonal — Real, are either touching the 
 poffeflion, called writs of entry; or the property, called 
 writs of right. 
 
 Perfonal writs, are thofe relating to goods, chattels, or per- 
 fonal injuries. 
 
 To which may be added, mixt writs, for the recovery both 
 of the thing and damages. 
 
 Some writs, again, are at the fuit of the party ; fome, of 
 office ; fome, ordinary ; fome, of privilege. — A writ of pri- 
 vilege, is that which a privileged perfon brings to the court 
 for his exemption, by reafon of fome privilege which he en- 
 joys. 
 
 Writ of Neifty. See the article Neif. 
 Writ of Rebellion. See the article Commission of Re- 
 
 hellion. 
 
 Writs Vicountiel, are fuch as are triable in the fheriff's, or 
 
 county court. See Vicountiel. 
 Writ of AJfiflance, that iftuing out of the exchequer, to au- 
 thorize fome perfon to take a conftable, or other public 
 officer, to feize goods or merchandize prohibited, and un- 
 cuftomed, csr'r. Stat. 14. 2 Car. II, c. 1. 
 There is alfo a writ of this name iffuing out of chancery, 
 to give pofleffion of lands. 
 Aclion of a Writ. r Action. 
 
 Appeal by 
 Attachment 
 Continuance of c, 
 
 ITER of the Tallies, an officer of the exchequer, being 
 clerk to the auditor of the receipt; who writes upon the 
 tallies the whole letters of the tellers bills. See Tally, 
 and Exchequer. 
 WRITING, Scriptura, the art or aft of fignifying and con- 
 veying our ideas to others, by letters, or characters vilible 
 to the eye. 
 
 Writing is now chiefly practifed among us by means of pen, 
 ink, and paper. — The anti'ents had other methods. Sec 
 Book, Eark, and Style. 
 
 The invention of the art of writing is referred to Cadmus. 
 See Letter, and Greek. 
 
 Inlaw, we fay, deeds, conveyances, t?V. are to be in writ- 
 ing. — A will may either be in writing, or by word of 
 mouth. 
 
 We alfo fay, written law, lex fcripta, in oppofition to com- 
 mon law, which is called lex non fcripta, — We have alfo 
 written and unwritten traditions, EsV. 
 Authentic writings of any contract, fealed, and delivered, 
 make the evidences thereof. 
 
 J. Ravenau has a treatife entitled Des Infcriptions en Faux, 
 wherein he fhews how to revive, and reftore old writings 
 almoft effaced, by means of galls ground in white wine, and 
 ^diftilled ; and thus rubbed over the writing. 
 La Vayer has a curious differtation on the proof of fa&s 
 by comparifon of hand writings, wherein he endeavours 
 to fhew this method of proof to be very fufpicious and 
 fallacious. 
 
 It is a point controverted among the fchool-philofophers, 
 what it is that writing properly iignifies, orreprefents ? whe- 
 ther ideas, or things, or words ? /'. e. whether it expreffes 
 things themfelves, or our ideas of things, or the articulate 
 founds by which, on other occafions, we exprefs thofe 
 ideas ? ■ * ' ' ' '' " ', KL 
 
 The common opinion is, that writing only reprefents words, 
 that its proper object is the voice, and that it only fignifies 
 ideas mediately, or fecondarily ; and by means of thofe 
 things themfelves. 
 
 Others, 
 
 r a Writ. *) ("Action. 
 y Writ. ( n \ Appeal. 
 
 nt by Writ. [ cc j Attachmen 
 nee of a Writ. J LContinuanc 
 
WRO 
 
 WYT 
 
 Others, on the contrary, will have ideas, fpcech, and writing, 
 
 all equally, and immediately rcprefentatives of things. 
 
 But the controverfy is impertinent enough! — No doubt, 
 
 our ideas of things, are the things themfelves ; there being 
 
 no foundation for any diftin£Uon between them. 
 
 And as to writing, fome may be faid to be real, or Jignifica- 
 
 the of things and ideas. — As, the Egyptian hieroglyphics; 
 
 the characters of chymifts, aftronomers, &c. which are a 
 
 kind of images, or bear fome natural or pretended refem- 
 
 blance of analogy with the things they are intended to ex- 
 
 prefs. 
 
 But the common writing only reprcfents founds, which is 
 the firft and moll natural language ; and accordingly, our or- 
 thography is apparently formed on, or adapted to the pro- 
 nunciation. 
 
 Hence, the end of writing is to excite, as it were, certain 
 founds which have been made the arbitrary figns of certain 
 ideas. — I his it does by virtue or a combination, or ailbcia- 
 tion between fuch and fuch figures made with the pen, and 
 filch and fuch inflexions of the voice. 
 
 In effect, we have a great many written words which have 
 no ideas belonging to them; as, jcindapfus, bladri, &c. which 
 tend no further than to produce founds. — Add, that people, 
 when they begin to learn to read writing, take it from founds 
 which they hear produced by the perfon who teaches them : 
 an abundant argument, that writing does not immediately 
 fignify ideas and things ; but firft founds, and then things. 
 
 Gothic Writing. See the article Gothic. 
 
 Secret Writing. See Cr y ptugr aphy, St ec anogr a- 
 ph y, Scyt a l a, Cipher, Deciphering, &c. 
 
 Short Writing. See the article Brachygraphy. 
 
 Written Tradition. See the article Tradition. 
 
 WRONG, in a logical fenfe. See Error, Falshqqd, 
 and Truth. 
 
 Wrong, in a legal fenfe, injury, tori. SeelxjURY. 
 WULVESHEVED, or Wulweshead. See Wolfes- 
 
 H E AD. 
 
 WYCHA/;, a houfe in which fait is boiled. See Salt. 
 WYDRAUGHT, a water-courfe, or water-paffage, to 
 
 carry off the filth and fuillage of a houfe ; properly a fink, 
 
 or common-more. 
 W YKE, antiently denoted a farm, hamlet, or little village. 
 WYTE* Wyta, or With, Wita, in our antient 
 
 cuftoms, a pecuniary penalty, or mulct. 
 
 * — Jurat fecuvium witam quod r.tc fucrat furti confe'm vet 
 coadjutor in eo. Leg. Ins. 
 
 The Saxons had two kinds of punifhments, were, and wyte; 
 the firft for the more grievous offences. See Were. 
 The wyte was for the lefs heinous ones.— It was not fixed 
 to any certain fum; but left at liberty, to be varied accord- 
 ing to the cafe. 
 
 Hence, alfo, wyte, or wittree, one of the terms of privilege, 
 granted our portfmen ; fignifying a freedom or immunity from 
 fines, or amerciaments : or, as it is vulgarly conceived, from 
 being liable to be begged for fools, for lack of wit. 
 Wyta, or Wita Plena, fignificd a forfeiture of an hundred 
 and twenty millings.— Si pundhn che fiat in curia regis plena 
 wita Jit ; alibi quinque marcte. 
 
 To fwear according to the wyte, fecundum witam jura re, was 
 to purge one's felf by the oaths of fo many witnefTes, as 
 the nature of the crime, and the punifhment, or wyte, did 
 require. 
 
 Hence, alfo, bhodtvite, bgertvite, ferdwite, childwite, ward- 
 whe, &c. See Ferd wi te, Lecep. with, Ch ild- 
 wite, ts'c. 
 
 WYTHE, in law, the fame as 'waif. Sc; "Waif. 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 i % E e 
 
X. 
 
 x i p 
 
 XA double confonant, and the twenty fecond letter 
 9 compounded of c s, and » , ; whence to this day 
 <6eJL» in the Englifh and French, has Aef-ta 
 with r, or k s. - Thus we pronounce Alexander, exactly 
 as if wrote Alexander, or Alekfander. 
 The Italians have no * at all in their language ; but both 
 fpeak and write ALffandr,.-Tte Spaniards pronounc .the 
 I like our c before a ; viz. Alexandre, as it were Alecan 
 J rll —The Portugucze pronounce it like ye. 
 ^foreign words, ufed in Eng.ift, wefome.imes foftenthe 
 v into a double s ; as Bruffeh, for &c 
 The k ter is not known in the Hebrew, or other orienta 
 WM,X but, in lieu of it, they write the two fimpk 
 t"L whereof It is compounded.- And the like do the 
 
 xT^a"- letter, and fignifies ten; as reprefenting 
 two V's placed one at top of the other, bee V . 
 
 X Supra iMV numcn tibi dm relinindis. 
 When laid flat, thus >< it fignifies a thoufand ; and when a 
 dam is added over it, X, it fignifies ten thoufand. 
 
 XKNIA, in feme antient cuftoms, were gifts, or preien s 
 made to the governors of provinces, by the inhabitants 
 
 Theword occurs pretty frequently in charters of privileges; 
 where, quieM if i xeniis, denotes an exemption from 
 making fuch prefents to kings and queens, upon their tra- 
 velling through fuch preciniKs. 
 
 XENODOCHUS, an ecclefiaftical officer of the Greek 
 church; the fame with the hofphaler ; or a pcrfon who takes 
 care of the reception and entertainment of ftrangers. bee 
 Hospitaler. , v j i u j 
 
 S Ifidore, a prieft and folitary, furnamed Xtmdichus, lived 
 in the fourth century. —He was thus called, becaufe en- 
 trufled with that office in the church of Alexandria. 
 
 XEROPHAGI A *, Xerophagy, in church-hiltory, the 
 feeding on dried foods. 
 » The word is formed from £»©-, fmm, dry, and j>« 7 «, I 
 eat. i « v iiatji-il 
 
 In the fitft ages, Come, not contented with fimple fafiing, 
 added the xenphagj thereto ; abflaming not only from flelh 
 and wine, but alfo from all freffi, fucculcnt, and vinous 
 fruits. — And feme even brought themfclvcs to bare bread 
 and water. rt , . . 
 
 Tertullian, in his book de Abjlment.a, c. 9. fpeaks of the 
 xmpbagia, as a thing commendable in time of perlecution. 
 
 XEROPHTHALMIA *, shpoosaamia, a kind of 
 ophthalmia, wherein the eyes itch, and are red, but without 
 iwelling, or watering. See Ophthalm i a. 
 
 » The word is compounded of {»{©- dry, and .jSaX/i®., eye. 
 
 XESTA, EESTHE, an Attic meafure of capacity; an- 
 fwering to the Roman ftxtary. SccSextary. 
 
 XIPHIAS, ei*iae, the name of the Sword-Fish. It 
 is aJfo ufed to expiefs a fiery meteor, in form of a fword. 
 See Meteor. 
 
 X Y S 
 
 This differs from the acontias, in that this latter is longer, 
 and more like a dart j and the former ftiorter, and broader 
 in the middle. 
 
 XIPHOIDES, 2i*OEiAHX, in anatomy, a cartilage 
 placed at the bottom of the llernum, called alio enjiformis. 
 It is about an inch long, and fhaped like the point of 2 
 fword. — Whence its appellation, from fword, and 
 
 figure. 
 
 X V.VIR, ghLtndecimvir, See the article Qu 1 ndec \ mvir. 
 Authors, and efpecially antiquaries, make ufe of fuch ab- 
 breviations, which they borrow from medals, and other 
 monuments of antiquity, where thofe names are fo ex- 
 prefled. 1 , „ , 
 
 XjYLO-ALOE*, in medicine, the lignum aloes : called 
 alfo agallocbum. 
 
 * The word is compounded of %vUr, lignum* wood, and 
 aAoft, aloes. 
 
 XYLO- BALSA MUM *, sYaobaaeamon, a name 
 which naturalifts, i$c. give to the wood of the tree, which 
 yields that precious gum, known to the Latins by the name 
 of opo-balfatnum, and among us, by the name of balm of 
 GHead, q 
 
 * The word is compounded of %u\at, wood, and gaXo-ctpor, 
 balfam, balm. 
 
 We have branches of this tree brought us from Cairo. They 
 are very ftreight, brittle, unequal, and full of knots ; their 
 bark is reddilh without, and greenim within.— The wood is 
 whitifh, and full of pith; and, when broke, yields an agree- 
 able fmell, refembling that of the balfam. 
 The xylo-balfamum is reputed good to ftrengthen the brain, 
 and ftomach, and to expel poifon. \ 
 XYNOECIA*, a feaft among the antient Athenians, infti- 
 tuted on occafion of Thefeus's uniting all the petty com- 
 munities of Attica into one commonwealth; the aflcmblies 
 whereof were to be held at Athens, in the Prytaneum. 
 
 * The word is formed of ths Greek, |u* f or <?m, with, and 
 c»xs«, I inhabit. 
 
 XYSTARCHA, in antiquity, the mailer or direclor of the 
 xyftus. 
 
 In the Greek gymn,afium, the xyftarcha was die fecond 
 officer; the firft was the gymnafiarch. — The xyjlarcha was 
 his lieutenant, and prelided over the two xyfti, and all ex- 
 creifes of the athleta: therein. 
 XYSTUS*, in the antient architecture — A xyftus, among 
 the Greeks, was a long fpacious portico, either open, or 
 covered over ; wherein the athlctie, and others, prailifcd 
 Wreftling, and running. 
 
 * The word is Greek, |ur®*» formed of £tn><, to polilh, Ihave, 
 rub. 
 
 The xyftus made a neceffary part of a gymnafium. — 
 The athlete, who praSifed therein, were thence called 
 xyfiici. '■'.>' • . 1 
 
 Xystus, among the Romans, was an alley, or double row 
 of trees, meeting arbor-wife at top, and forming a fhade to 
 walk under. 
 
y a r 
 
 YAW 
 
 YThe twenty third letter in the Englilh alphabet, 
 borrowed, originally, from the Greek v. 
 It is occafionally both vowel, and confonant. 
 5 — As a vowel, fome authors have judged it un- 
 necefiary in our language, in regard its found is precifely 
 the fame with that of the i. — Accordingly, it is but little 
 ufed, except in words borrowed from the Greek, to denote 
 their origin, by reprefenthig the Greek vfyfav. 
 The vowel y, however, has a place even in fome words 
 purely Englilh ; and that both in the middle thereof, as in 
 dying, frying, &c. and at the end, as in lay, &c. 
 Some afcribe the ufe of the y, in pure Englilh and French 
 words, and thofe that have no y in Latin or Greek, to 
 this, that antiently each of thofe words were written 
 with a double ii; which having fomething aukward in it, the 
 y was fubftituted in lieu thereof. / 
 
 Others fay, that thofe words being antiently wrote, as well 
 as pronounced with a double ii, which they ftill are in the 
 Walloon, as paiing, paiifan, &c, to avoid their being mi- 
 ftaken for an u with two dots over it, they made the fecond 
 i longer than the firft, and fo formed the y without defin- 
 ing it. — Some give a particular reafon, why words ending 
 in i, came to be wrote with y ; viz. that the copilrs found 
 the tail of the y very commodious, to adorn the margins, 
 and bottoms of pages withal. 
 
 When the y follows a confonant, it is a vowel ; and when 
 it precedes a vowel, it is a confonant, and fhould be called 
 ye, and not wy. 
 
 The Romans ufed the y for the vowel u, which they had 
 no character for, diftindt from the v conlonant: their way 
 being to pronounce the common u, as we do the diphthong 
 eu; and the Greek v^ihot, as the Englilh and French u. 
 In our own, and fome other modern tongues, authors begin 
 to difpenfe more and more, with the precife orthography, 
 ■which requires all words that have an upfilon, in the Greek, 
 to be wrote with a y. And with reafon $ fince our Greek 
 y has loft the found it had, in the language whence we bor- 
 row it. — But it is certainly ridiculous to ufe it, as many 
 do, in words which indeed have a Greek origin, but have 
 no u in the Greek; as in eclipfe : yet fome affect to do this. 
 Y is aifo a numeral letter, fignifying 150, or, according to 
 Baronius, 159; as in the verfe. 
 
 Y dat centenos IS quinquaginta novenos. 
 
 When a dafh was added at top, Y, it fignified 150 thoufand- 
 — Pythagoras ufed the Y as a fymbol of human life; the toot 
 reprelenting infancy, and the forked top the two paths of 
 "vice and virtue, one or the other of which, people are to en- 
 ter upon, after attaining to the age of difcretion. 
 YACHT, or Yatch, a kind of veffel ufed by the Englifh, 
 furnifhed with malts, and fails ; fit to go to fea; and com- 
 modioully contrived and adorned, withiniide and without, to 
 flat it for Itate-paffengers, &c. 
 
 * The word feems derived from the Dutch iacht, hunting, 
 by reafon of the lightnefs of thele veftels. 
 
 Yachts are vefTels with one deck, carrying from 4 to 1 2 
 guns, with from 20 to 40 men; being of burden from 30 
 to -60 tan. — They draw little water, and are ufed for 
 running, and making Ihort trips, l3c. — Their make and 
 form is various. 
 
 The Dutch have alfo yachts, but theirs are not fo well pre- 
 pared to live at fea. — They are feklom ufed, but to fail on 
 rivers and canals. 
 YARD, Virga, a longmeafure, ufed in England, and Spain; 
 chiefly to meafure cloth, fluffs, &c. 
 
 The Englifh yard contains three feet. — It was firft fettled 
 by Henry I. from the length of his own arm. 
 The Englifh yard is jult feven ninths of the Paris ell ; fo 
 that nine yards make feven ells. — To reduce ells, there- 
 fore, into yards, fay, if feven ells give nine yards, how many 
 yards will the given number of ells give f 
 Yards are converted into ells Flemifh, by adding a third 
 part; into ells Englifh, by fubftrading a fifth part; or mul- 
 tiplying by &, and cafting off the right-hand figure. — 
 Ells Englilh are converted into yards, by adding a fourth. — 
 To turn ells Flemifh into yards, fubftract: one quarter. 
 The Spanifh vara, or yard, chiefly ufed at Sevil, is, in fome 
 places, called barra. — It contains y$ of the Paris ell ; fo 
 that 17 ells make 24 Spanifh yards. 
 
 Yard, in anatomy, the penis, or virile member; fen iug for 
 
 the evacuating of the urine, and feed. See Penis. ° 
 Yard-Land *, Virgata terra, or virga terra;, is a certain 
 
 quantity of land, but that various according to the place. ■ 
 
 At Wimbleton in Surrey, it is only 15 acres; but in moft 
 other counties it contains zo, in fome 24, in fome 30, and 
 in others 40, or 45 acres. 
 
 * Virgata terra cantinet 24 acras ; fcf 4 virgata conftituunt 
 unam bidam, 1$ qu'tnque bida conflituunt feodum militare. 
 MS. Abbat. Malmef. See Hide, Kkight's Fee, and Plow- 
 LanJ. 
 
 Yards, or SajV-Yards, of a fliip, are long pieces of timber, 
 tapering at each end, fitted acrois the feveral mafts, to car- 
 ry the fails. 
 
 The fails are faftened to the yards at the heads; fo as to 
 be hoifted up, and let down together with them, by ropes 
 called halliards. 
 
 The main yard, is that of the main-maft. — The mizzen 
 yard, the bolt-fprit yard, &c. are thofe of the mizz,en, tffc. — 1 
 See Tab. Ship, fig. 1. n. 2. zo. 37. 44. 67. 86. 93. 109. 
 iz6. 138. 
 
 They have feveral phrafes, and words of command, relating 
 to the management of the yards ; as — Brace the yard, 
 which fignifies to traverfe aft the yard-arm, whofe brace is 
 haled ; fo that to traverfe the yard, is the fame as to fay, 
 brace it aft. — Square the yard, is as much as to fay, fee that 
 it hang right a-crofs the fliip, and one yard-zxm not travel led 
 more than the other.— Top the yards, that is, make ihem 
 hang even. 
 
 YARD-yf™, is that half of the yard which is on either fide 
 the maft, when it lies athwart the fhip. 
 
 Yards alfo denote places belonging to the navy, where the 
 fhips of war, t$c. are laid up in harbour. ,f n ,,,,i 
 The king's yards, are Chatham, Deptford, Woolwich, 
 Portfmouth, Shcrtnefs, Plimouth, and Harwich ; each of 
 which is provided with feveral docks, wharfs, launches, and 
 graving places for the building, repairing, and cleaning Ins 
 majtfty'j, fhips. 
 
 In tliefe yards are alfo lodged great quantities of timber 
 mafts, planks, anchors, b'c. There are alfo flore-houfes 
 belonging to each yard, wherein are referved vaft quantities 
 of cables, rigging, lails, blocks, (3"c. 
 
 In the feveral yards there are alfo great rope-yards, wherein 
 
 cables, and all forts of cordage are made. 
 YARE, among failors, implies as much as, nimble, ready, 
 
 quick, expeditious, —Hence, 10 be yare at the helm, as fome 
 
 fay, fignifies to fet a frefh man at the helm. 
 YARN, denotes fpun wool. See Wool. 
 Rope-Y arn. See the article Rope. 
 
 YARRINGLES, or Yarrincle Blades, a kind of 
 reel, or infrrument, with which hanks of yarn are wound on 
 to clues, or balls. 
 
 YATCH ES, See the article Yacht. 
 
 YAWS, or Yawes, the name of an Indian difeafe, called alfo 
 the pox in the fea language. — A fliip is faid to make yawes, 
 when, through the fault of him at the helm, fhe is not kept 
 fteady in her courfe ; but makes angles in and out. 
 To prevent this, the Conner cries to him at the helm, /leadv 
 Jleady. J J ' 
 
 YAWNING, Ofciiatio, an involuntary opening of the 
 mouth, occafioned by a vapour, or ventofity, endeavouring 
 toefcape; and generally witnefling a troublefome wearinefs, 
 or an inclination to lleep. 
 
 The remedy Hippocrates prefcribes againft continual yauuA- 
 ings, is to make long breathings, or refpirutions. — The 
 fame he alfo recommends againll the hiccough. 
 The nervous membrane of the oefophagus, has been held the 
 feat of yawning, which, according to the ufual fyftem, is pro- 
 duced, whenever any irritation determines the Ypirits to flow 
 thither in too great abundance. —The caufe of the irritation 
 is fuppofed to be fome troublefome humour, wetting the 
 inner membrane of the oefophagus; which humour may 
 proceed either from the glands fpread throughout the mem- 
 brane, or from acid vapours arifing from the ftorriach, and 
 condenfing on the fides of the oefophagus. — By fuch means ' 
 the nervous fibres of the membrane of the gullet being irri- 
 tated, dilate the gullet; and the mouth is confrrained to fol- 
 low the fame motion, as being lined with the fame mem- 
 brane. — But this fyftem of ofcitation has, of late, given 
 way to a better, and more mechanical one. 
 
 Yawning 
 
YEA 
 
 YEA 
 
 Yawnfcg is, in reality, performed by expanding almoft all 
 the mUfcies of voluntary motion at the fame time; but moll 
 "con fide rably thofe of the lungs : by fpringing a great quantity 
 of air, very flowly, and after t retaining it fome time, and 
 rarefying it, by expelling it again, flowly, and reftoring the 
 mufeles to their natural ftate. 
 
 .Hence, its effects are to move, accelerate, and diftribute all 
 the humours of the body, equably through all the vefi'els ; 
 thereby difpofing the organs of" fenfation, and all the muf- 
 cles of the body, for the performance of their refpe&ive ( 
 funaions. Fid. Bocrh. hj, Med. § 638. 
 YCONOMUS. See the article Oeconomus. - 
 YDRARGYR'0'3, Hydrargyros-, or ^uickftlvir. See 
 Mercury. 
 
 YEAR, Annus, in the 'full extent of the word, is a fyftcm, 
 or cycle of feveral months; ufually twelve. 
 Others define year, in the general, a period, 'rr (pace of 
 time, meafured by the revolution of fome celeftial body in 
 its orbit. 
 
 Thus, the time wherein the fixed ftars make a revolution, is 
 called the great year. And the times wherein Jupiter, Sa- 
 turn, the Sun, Moon, &c. finifh their revolutions, and re- 
 turn to the fame point of the zodiac, are refpettivcly called 
 the years of Jupiter, and Saturn; and the Solar, and the i«- 
 ttar years. 
 
 Tear, properly, and by way of eminence fo called, is the fo- 
 hr year; or the fpace of time wherein the fun moves 
 through the twelve figns of the ecliptic. 
 
 .This, by -the obfl-rvations of Calfini, Bianchini, and de la 
 "Hire, contains 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes; which 
 
 is the quantity of the year affirmed by the authors of the 
 
 Gregorian calendar. 
 
 But, in the civil, or popular account, this year only contains 
 365 days; except every fourth, which contains 366. 
 The viciffitude of feafohs feem to have given occafion to 
 the firft inftitulion of the yfa;\-— Man, naturally curious 
 to know the caufe of that divcrfity, foon found it was the 
 proximity and diftnnce of the fun; and upon this, gave the 
 name jur to the fpace of time wherein that luminary, per- 
 forming his whole coirrfe, returned to die fame point of his 
 orbit. Mui&i 
 
 And hence as it was on account of the feafon% in a great 
 mcafure, that the year was inftiuited, their chief regard and 
 attention was, that the fame part 1 ; of the year fhould always 
 correfpond to the fame feafons ; i. e. that the beginning of 
 the year fhould always be when the fun was in the fame 
 point of his orbit ; and that they fhould keep pace, come 
 round, and end together. 
 
 This, different nations aimed to attain by different ways ; 
 making the year to commence from different points of the 
 •zodiac ; and even making the time of his progrefs different. 
 So that forfce of their years were much more perfect than 
 others, but none of them quite juft ; i. e. none of them 
 but whofe parts Shifted, with regard to the parts of the fun's 
 courfe. 
 
 It was the Egyptians, if we may credit Herodotus, that firft 
 formed the year, making it to contain 360 days; which they 
 fuhdivided into 12 months. 
 
 Mercury Trifmegiftus added five days more to the account. 
 — And, on this footing, Thales is faid to have infiituted 
 "the ';ear among the Greeks. Though that form of the year 
 did not hold throughout all Greece.' — Add, that the Jewifh, 
 Syrian, Roman, Perfian, Elhiopic, Arabic, &el years, were 
 all different. 
 
 In effect:, confidering the poor ftate of aftronomy in thofe 
 ages, it Is no wonder different people fhould difagree in the 
 calculus of the fun's *ourfe. — We are even affured by Diod. 
 Siculus, Lib. I. Plutarch, in Numa, and Pliny, Lib. VII. 
 c. 48. that- the Egyptian year itfelf was at firft very diffe- 
 rent from that now reprefented, 
 Solar Year, is the interval of time wherein the fun finifb.es 
 f his courfe through the zodiac ; or wherein he returns to 
 the fame point thereof from whence he had departed. 
 This, according to our account, is 365 days, 5 hours, 49 
 minutes; though fome aftronomers make it a few fecond?, 
 and fome a whole minute lefs ; as Kepler, for inftance, who 
 makes it 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 57 feconds, 39 
 thirds. — Ricciolus, 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes j and 
 Tycho Brahc, 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes. 
 .The folar year is either ajironomical, or civil. 
 Salar ajlrcnomical Year, is that determined prccifely by the 
 obfervations of aftronomy ; and is of two kinds, tropical, 
 and fiderial or ajiral. 
 Tropical, or Natural Year, is the time which the fun em- 
 ploys m pacing through the zodiac; which, as before ob- 
 served, is 365 djys, 5 hours, 49 minutes. 
 Sidenal, or a/W-Year, is the fpace of time wherein the 
 
 fun, .going from any fixed ftar, returns to the fame. 
 
 This confifts of 365 days, 6 hours, 10 minutes. 
 Civil Year, is that form of year which each nation has con- 
 2 
 
 tiived to compute time by : or the civil is the tropical year, 
 confidered as only confifting of a certain number of whole 
 days; the odd hours and minutes being fet afide, to render 
 the computation of time, in the common occafions of life, 
 more eafy. 
 
 Hence, as the tropical year is 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, 
 the civil year is 365 days. — And hence, alfo, as it is-necef- 
 fary to keep pace with the heavens, it is required that every 
 fourth year confifts of 366 days. 
 
 Hence, laftly, the civil year is either common, or b'tjfextile. 
 The common civil Year, is that confifting of 365 days. — 
 This, therefore, has feven months of 30 days each, and five 
 of ,3 1 days. 
 
 BiJJcxtile, or Leap Year, is that confifting of 366 days; or 
 has one day extraordinary ; which day is called the interca- 
 lary, or bijfextile day. 
 
 This intercalary, or additional day to every fourth year, was 
 firft appointed by Julius CaHar ; who, to make the civil 
 year keep pace *vith the tropical ones, contrived that the 
 fix hours which the former came fhort of the latter, fhould, 
 in four years, make a whole day, and be added after the 
 twenty- fourth of February, which was their fixth of the 
 calends of March. 
 
 Hence, as, in that year, they reckon this day twice over, 
 or had bis ftxto calaidas, the year itfelf came to be called bis 
 fextus, and hiJJ'extHe. 
 
 The intercalary day, however, among us, is not got in by 
 telling the twenty fourth of February twice over ; but by 
 adding a day after the twenty eighth of February ; which 
 month, in that year, comes to contain twenty nine days. 
 A further reformation, in this year, was made by pope Gre- 
 gory. See Gregorian Year. 
 Lunar Year, is a fyftem of twelve lunar months. See 
 Lunar. 
 
 Hence, from the two kinds of fynodical lunar months, there 
 arife two kinds of lunar years ; the one ajironomical, the 
 other civil. 
 
 Lunar ajironomical Year, confifts of twelve lunar fynodical 
 months; and therefore contains 354 davs, 8 hours, 48 mi- 
 nutes, 3S feconds, iz thirds. 
 Lunar civil Year, is either common, or embolifmic. 
 The common Lunar Year, confifts of twelve lunar civil 
 
 months ; and therefore contains 354 days. 
 The enibolijmic, or intercalary Year, confifts of thirteen lu- 
 nar civil months; and therefore contains 384 days. See 
 Embolism 1 c> 
 
 Note, as the difference between the common lunar civil yrear 
 
 and the tropical year is 1 1 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes ; 
 to have the former keep pace with the latter, there arc 34 
 months of 3 o days, and 4 months of 3 1 davs each, to be in- 
 ferted in every 100 lunar years ; which Itill leave behind 
 them an appendix of 4 hours, 21 minutes, which in fix cen- 
 turies make nearly a day more. 
 
 Thus far we have confidered years and months, with a view- 
 to the principles of aftronomy, whereon thedivifion is found- 
 ed. — By this, the various forms of civil years that have an- 
 tiently obtained, or ft ill do obtain, in divers nations, are to 
 be examined. 
 
 Antient Roman Year, was the lunar year, which, as firft 
 fettled by Romulus, only confifted of ten months ; viz. 
 1°. March, containing 31 days. 2 0 . April, 30. 3". May 
 31. 4 0 . June, 30. 5°. Quintilis, 31. 6°. Sextilis, 30. 
 7°. September, 30. S°. October, 31. 9 0 . November, 
 30. io°. December, 30; in all 304 days; which came 
 fhort of the true lunar year by 50 days ; and of the folar, 
 by 61 days. 
 
 Hence, the beginning of Romulus's year was vague, and un- 
 fixed to any precife feafon ; to remove which inconvenience, 
 that, prince ordered fo many days to be added yearly as would 
 make the ftate of the heavens correfpond to the firft month, 
 without incorporating thefe additional days, or calling them 
 by the name of any month. 
 
 Numa Pompihus corrected this irregular conftitution of the 
 year, and compofed two new months, January and Februa- 
 ry, of the days that were ufed to be added to the former 
 year. — Thus, Numa's year confifted of twelve months ; 
 ■viz, 1°. January, containing 29 days. z°. February, 28. 
 3 0 . March, 31. 4 0 . April, 29. 5". May, 31. 6°. June, 
 29. 7 0 . Quintilis, 31. 8°. Sextilis, 29. 9 0 . September, 
 29. tp". October, 31. 1 1°. November, 29. 12°. De- 
 cember, 29^ in all 355 days; which exceeds the quantity 
 of a lunar civil year by one day ; and that of a lunar aftro- 
 nomical year, by 15 hours, 1 i minutes, 24 feconds ; but 
 comes fhort of the common fotar year by ten days ; fo that 
 its beginning alfo wus vague, and unfixed. 
 "Numa, however, defiring to have it fixed to the winter- 
 : folftice, ordered 22 days to be intercalated in February every 
 fecond year, 23 every fourth, 22 every fixth, and 23 every 
 eighth year. 
 
YEA 
 
 But this rule failing to keep matters even, recourfe was had 
 to anew way of intercalating; and inftead of twenty three 
 days every eighth year, only fifteen were added; and the 
 care of the whole was committed to the ponlifex maximus; 
 who neglecting the trufi, let things run to the utmoft con- 
 fuhon. — And thus the Roman year flood till Julius Ctefar 
 made a Reformation. 
 
 For the manner of reckoning the days of the Roman months, 
 fee Calends, Nones, and Ides. 
 JulianYEAR, is a folar year, containing, commonly, 36; 
 days; though every fourth year, ulkdii/fextile, it contains 
 366. See Bissextile. 
 
 The months, fft. of the Julian year ftand thus: i». Janu- 
 ary, 3 1 days. 2°. February, 28. 3°. March, 31. 4. 0 . A- 
 pril, 30. 5°. May, 31. 6°. June, 50. 7°. July, 31. 
 8°. Auguft, 31. 9^. September, 30. 10°. October, 31. 
 11°. November, 30. lz°. December, 31. — But, every 
 hiffextile year, a day is added after the zSth of February ; 
 which month, then, contains 29 days. 
 
 The agronomical quantity, therefore, of the Julian year 
 is 365 days, fix hours, which exceeds the true folar year by 
 eleven minutes; which excefs, in I 3 I year;, amounts to a 
 whole day. — And thus the Roman year flood, till the refor- 
 mation made therein by pope Gregory. 
 For this form of the year, we are indebted to Julius Crefar ; 
 who, in the contrivance thereof, was aflifted by Soiigenes, a 
 famous mathematician, called over from Egypt for this very 
 purpofe ; who, to fupply the defca of fixty ieven days, which 
 had been loft through the fault of the pontifices, and to fix 
 the beginning of the year to the winter foltice, made that 
 year to confift of fifteen months, or 44; days; which, lor 
 that teafon, is ufed to be called, annus cmfufimil, the year 
 of cenfufton. 
 
 This form of the year was ufed In all Chriftian nations, 
 till the middle of the fixteenth century ; and ftill continues to 
 be fo, not only by feveral nations (and among the reft, by 
 the Englifh, Sweeds, Danes, &c.) but alfo by the modern 
 aftronomers, and chronologcrs. — For, fince the error is 
 known, there is no danger from it. 
 Gregorian Year, is the Julian year corded by this rule ; 
 that, whereas on the common footing, every fecular or hun- 
 dredth year, is biffextile; on the new footing, three of them 
 are common years, and only the fourth is biffextile. 
 The error of eleven minutes in the Julian year, little as it 
 was, yet, by being repeated over and over, at length became 
 confiderable ; and from the time when Ctefar made his cor- 
 reaion, was grown into thirteen days, by which means 
 the eqiuoxes were greatly difturbed.— To remedy this irregu- 
 larity, which was frill encreafing, pope Gregory XIII. called 
 together the chief aftronomers of his time, and concerted 
 this correction ; and, to reftore the equinoxes to their place, 
 threw out the ten days that had been got from the time of 
 the council of Nice, and which had fluked the fifth of Oflo- 
 ber to the fifteenth. 
 
 In the year 1700, the error of ten days was grown to eleven ; 
 upon which the Proteflant flares of Germany, to prevent 
 further confufion, accepted the Gregorian correction. 
 Yet is even the Gregorian year far from being perfefl ; for we 
 have fhewn, that in four centuries, the Julian year gains 
 three days, one hour, twenty minutes: but it is only the 
 three days that arc kept out in the Gregorian year; fo that 
 here is ftill an excefs of one hour, twenty minutes, in four 
 centuries; which, in feventy two centuries, amounts to a 
 whole day. 
 
 Egyptian Year, called alfo the year of hahonajjer, is the 
 tolar year of 365 days, divided into twehe months, of 
 thirty days each, befides five intercalary days, added at the 
 end* 1 . . . ■ 
 
 The names, &c. of the months are as follow: t». Thot. 
 2°. Paophi. 3 0 . Athyr. 4°. Chojac. 5°. Tybi. 6». Me- 
 cheir. 7°. Phamcnoth. 8°. Pharmuthi. 9'. Pachon. 
 io°. Panni. 11 0 . Epiphi. 12°. Mefori; befide the 
 
 Hence, as the Egyptian year, in every four years, lofes a 
 whole day of the Julian year, its beginning, in the fpacc of 
 460 years, runs through every part of the Julian year; 
 which fpace elapfed, they meet again. 
 This year is ufed by Ptolemy in his Almagcjl ; lo that the 
 knowledge thereof is of great ufe in aflronomy, for compar- 
 ing the antient obfervacions with the modern. 
 The antient Egyptians, we are told by Diodorus Siculus, 
 Lib. I. Plutarch, in the life of Numa, and Pliny, Lib. VII. 
 c. 48. meafured their years by the court of the moon. — 
 Atfirft, they were only one month; then three ; then four, 
 like that of the Arcadians; 3nd then fix, like that of the 
 people of Acarnania. — Thofe authors add, that it is on 
 this account, thev reckon fuch a vaft number of years from 
 the beginning of the world; and that in the hiffory of 
 their kfngs, we meet with fome who lived iooo, or 1200 
 years. 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 YEA 
 
 But Herodotus is filent on this point: he only fays, that the 
 Egyptian year confifted of i z months, as we have above 
 reprefented it. — Befide:., we learn from fcripture, that 
 from the times of the flood, the year was compofed of 12 
 months: Cham, confequently, and his fan Mifraim, the 
 founder of the Egyptian monarchy, muft have had that 
 cuftom; and ft is no way probable, his defendants fhould 
 alter it. — Add, that Plutarch fpeaks of it with a deal of un- 
 certainty j and as no more than a report: and Diod. Si- 
 culus, as only a conjecture of I know not what authors, 
 whom he does not name; and who, in all probability, might 
 have framed this hypothefo, to reconcile the Egyptian chro- 
 nology with that of fome other nations. 
 F. Kircher, however, maintains, that befides the folar year t 
 there were fome of the nomes, or cantons of Egypt, who 
 ufed a lunar one ; and that, in the remotert ages, there were 
 fome who took a revolution of the moon, that is, a month, 
 for a year; and others, who finding the year too fhort, 
 made it two months, others three, and others four, tffr. 
 Oedip. Egypt. Tom. II. p. 252. 
 
 A late author obferves, that Varro has affirmed of all na- 
 tions, what we have here quoted of the Egyptians; and 
 adds, that Lactantius takes him to task on that fubject.— 
 We do not know in what places of Varro, or Lactannus 
 he has feen this: all wecanfav, is, that La£tantius, Divin. 
 Inji. Lib. II. c. 13. where he gives Varro's opinion, only 
 reprefents him as fpeaking of the Egyptians. — However, 
 S. Auguftin, it Civil. Dei^\. 1 c. 14. fh-Ws, that theyears 
 of the patriarchs mentioned in fcripture, are like ours, and 
 not one of ours equal to ten of theirs, a?, it appears, had ken 
 the opinion of fome people. 
 
 Upon the Egvptians being fubdued by the Romans, they re- 
 ceived the Julian year, though with fome alteration; for 
 they fiill retained their antient months, with the five )»f* e F a ' 
 sTncyoftE/ai, and, every fourth year, intercalated another nay 
 between the 28th and 29th ot Auguft. — Add, that the be- 
 ginning of their year anfv/ered to the 29th of Auguft of the 
 'Julian year. 
 
 This;v. - , thus reformed, was called the annus Acliacus, as 
 being infiituted foon after the battle of Actium. 
 Antient Greek Year, was lunar; confifting of 12 months, 
 which at firft had 30 days a piece, then alternately 30, 
 and 29 days, computed from the firft appearance of the new 
 moon; with rhe addition of an embolifmic month of 30 
 days, every 3d, 5th, Sth, eleventh, 14th, 1 6th, and 19th 
 years of a cycle of 19 years ; in order to keep the new and 
 full moons, to the fame terms or feafons of the year. 
 Their year commenced at the full moon next after the fum- 
 merfolftice. — The order, cjc. of their months was thus : 
 1 °. 'Ew1v/*Caiw», containing zq days. 2°. MiT«yn1vu>m, 30. 
 3°. BonrJjJOfCBjy, 29. 4. 0 . Mcufxa^wfiio^ 30. 5 3 . nva'n-biw, 29. 
 6°. rWt.tW, 30. 7 0 . r«piW, 29. 8°. Adir-nfM, 3°- 9°- 
 E*atpn£o?"wv, 30. 10°. Many;^*, 30. 11°. @afyn>\i°>, 2g. 
 12°. Exipjjwpofuwi', 30. 
 
 The Macedonians had other names for their months: fo had 
 the Syro-Macedonians, Smyrnseanf, Tyrians; fo alfo the 
 Cypriots, Paphians; and fo the Bitbynians, &c. 
 Antient Macedonian Year, is a lunar year, only differing from 
 the Attic, in the names and order of the months; the firft 
 Macedonian month, agreeing with the Attic mie master ion. — 
 The months fraud thus: i°. *ii»-, 30 days. z°. At****.©-, 
 29. 3°. AvSvta.i®', 30. 4 0 . ritfiTl^., 29. 5 1 . Aurf^i 3°- 
 6\ Sa.S.X©-, 29. 7 0 . Afl^tcr.®-, 30. 8°. A»«r,®., 29. 9». 
 n«v £f i©., 30. I0 U . An©-, 29. H°. I'c^jr.ai©', 30. I2 : . 
 'TfTTtpSsgtTtXl®', 29. 
 
 Modern Macedonian Year, is a folar year, whofe begin- 
 ning is fixed to the firft of January of the Julian year, with 
 which it perfectly agrees. 
 
 This^fffr was particularly called the Attic year; and the in- 
 tercalary month, after pofideon, was called vrotri.hu> £, or 
 latter pofideon. 
 
 Antient Jewijh Year, is a lunar year, confifting com- 
 monly, of eleven months, which alternately contain 30 and 
 2 - 9" days'. '' , 
 
 It was made to agree with the folar year, either by the add- 
 ing of 11, and fometimes 12 days, at the end of the year, 
 or by an embolifmic month. 
 
 The names and quantities of the months ftand thu: : 
 i°. Nifan, or Abib, 30 days. 2 0 . Jiar, or Zius, 29. 3 0 . 
 Siban, or Siwan, 30. 4 0 . Thamuz, or Tamuz, 29. 5 °. 
 Ab, 30. 6°. Elul, 29, 7*. Tifr i, or Ethanim, 30- 8 '- 
 Marchefvam, or Bui, 29. 9 0 . Cifku, 30. 10'. Te- 
 beth, 20. ii°. Sabat, or febebeth, 30. 12 0 . Adar, in 
 the embolifmic year, 30. Adar, in the common year, 
 was but 29. j 
 Note, in the defective year, Cifleu was only Z9 days; and 
 in the redundant year, Marchefvam was 30. 
 Modern Jewijh Year, is likewife lunar, confifting, in com- 
 mon years, of 1 2 monrhs, but of 13 in embohimic yean; 
 which, in acvcleof 19 J*«. are the 3d, 6th, Sth, nth, 
 13 F f »+ th » 
 
YEA 
 
 "14CI), 17th, and 19th, ■ — Its beginning is fixed to the ridvi^ 
 moon next after the autumnal equinox. 
 The names, &c. of the months are, i". Tifri, containing 
 30 days. 2 0 . Marcbefvan, 29. 3 0 . Cifleu, 30. 4^. Te- 
 beth, zg. s°* Schebeth, 30. 6°. Adar, 29. 7°. Veadar, 
 in the embolifmic year^ 30. S<\ Nifan, 30. 9 0 . Ijar, 29. 
 io". Sivan, 30. irfli Thamuz, 29. iz". Ab, 30. 1 3 0 . 
 
 EM 29. 
 
 Year, is a folar yiW, having its beginning fixed to the 
 beginning of O&ober in the Julian year; from which it only 
 ^ differs in the names of the months, the quantities being the 
 lame ; as follows : 
 
 1°. Tifhrin, anfwering to our October, and containing 31 
 days. 2 0 . Latter Tiihrin, containing, like our November, 
 30. 3 0 . Canun, 31. 4°. Latter Canun, 31. 5 0 . Sha- 
 bat, z8. 0°. Adar, 31. j". Nifan, 30. 8*. Aiyar^i. 
 9 0 . .Haziram, 30. 1 0°. Tamil z, 31. 1 1°. Ab 5 3 1 , 
 iz 0 . Elul, 30, 
 
 Per fan Year, is a folar year, of 365 days, confining of iz 
 months of 30 days each, with 5 intercalary days added at 
 the end. 
 
 The months are as follow: i°. Afiudia meh. z n . Ardi- 
 hafcht meh. 3 0 . Cardi meh. 4 0 . Thir meh. 5 0 . Mer- 
 ded meh. 6 3 . Schabarir meh. 7 0 . Mehar meh. 8°. Aben 
 meh. 9 0 . Adar meh, 10 9 . Di meh. n°. Behen meh. 
 12*. Affirer meh. 
 
 This year is called the yezdegerdic year, to diftinguifh it 
 from the fixed folar year, called the gelalcan year, which 
 the Perfians began to ufe in the year 1079 ; and which was 
 formed by an intercalation made fix or feven times in four 
 years, and then once every fifth year. 
 
 The yezdegerdic year, it may be obferved, is the fame 
 with Nabonaffar's year. — As to the gelalean year, it is ab- 
 folutely the beft and jufteft of all the civil years yet invented, 
 as being found, by calculation, to keep the folftices and equi- 
 noxes precifely to the fame days, and anfwering very accu- 
 rately to the folar motions; which no other civil year does, 
 not even the Gregorian, for want of fo commodious an in- 
 tercalation. 
 
 Arabic, and Turkijh Year, is a lunar year, confining of 12 
 months, which contain, alternately, 30, and 29 days. 
 Though, fometimes it contains 13 months ; the names, fcff. 
 whereof are as follow : 1°. Muharram, containing 30 days. 
 2 0 . Saphar, 7.9. 3 0 . Rabia, 30. 4 0 . Latter Rabia, 29. 
 5 0 . Jornada, 50. 6°. Latter Jornada, 2.9. 7 0 . Rajab, 30. 
 8°. Shaaban, 29. 9 0 . Samadan, 30. in 5 . Shawal, 29. 
 ii d . Dulkaadah, ic. 12°. Dulheggia, 29. and in the 
 embolifmic year, 30. — An intercalary day' is added every 
 2d, sih, 7th, iotii, 13th, ijth, 1 8th, zift, 24th, z6ih, 
 29th, in a cycle of 29 years. 
 
 Etbiopic Year, is a folar year perfectly agreeing with the Ac- 
 tiac, except in this, that the names of the months are dif- 
 ferent. — It commences with the Egyptian year, on the 29th 
 of Auguft of the Julian year. 
 
 Its months are, 1 °. Maicaram. 2 Q . Tykympt. 3 0 . Hy- 
 
 dar. 4 0 . Tyihas. 5 0 . Tyr. 6 J . Jacatit. 7 0 . Magabit. 
 
 8*. Mijazia. 9 0 . Ginbar. io°. Syne. 1 1 °. Hamel. iz 0 . 
 
 Hahafe. Intercalary days 5. 
 Metonic Yeah. ~* r-METON i c. 
 
 Anion Year. r Sactias. 
 Attic Year. S See the article ^Macedonian Year. 
 Yezdegerdic Year V jPerfan Year. 
 
 Gelalean Year. -J *-Perftan Year. 
 
 Nabonaffar's Year. See Egyptian Tear, and Nabo- 
 
 nassaR. 
 
 Sabbatic Year, Annus fabbaticus, among the antients, was 
 every feventh year; during which, the Jews let their lands 
 lie at reft. 
 
 Every feventh fabbatic year, 1. e. every 49th year, was called 
 the year of jubilee ; and held with folemnity extraordinary. 
 
 AnomalijUcal Year. ~\ f Anomalistical. 
 
 Climacteric Year. I | Climacteric. 
 
 Emergent Year. (Emergent. 
 
 Enneatical Year. j»See the article^ Enne atical. 
 
 Holy Year. j Holy. 
 
 Platonic, or greatY ear. \ | Platonic. 
 
 Years/ the Hegira. J (, H e g i r a. 
 
 New Year's day, or the day wherein the year commences, 
 has always been very different - , in different nations, and yet 
 in all has been held in great veneration. 
 
 Among the Romany the firft and Iaft day of the year were 
 confecrated to Janus ; on which account it was, that they 
 reprefented him with two faces. 
 
 To them we owe the ceremony of wifhing a happy new year; 
 which appears to be very antient. — Before the firfi day was 
 fpent, they not only vifited and complimented each other, 
 but alfo prefented firente, and offered vows to the gods "for 
 the prefervation of each other. — Lucian reprefents it as a 
 practice of a very antient flanding, even in his time; and re- 
 fers it to Numa. 
 
 YEL 
 
 Ovid intimates the fame ceremony, in the beginning of his 
 ; Fajli. 
 
 Pojlera lux oritur, Unguifque animijque fa r dete : 
 Nunc dicenda bono, funt bona verba die. 
 And Pliny, more exprefly, Lib. XXVIII. cap. 1. Primum 
 anni inciplent'is diem latis precationibus invicem fauflum omi- 
 
 n BfiKwr. ' l-i,^!, a nnd luorbiw lie 31b 01 wmi gncl* . . 
 
 The civil, or legal 'Ye ar, in England, commences on the day 
 of the annunciation, e. on the 25th day of March ; though 
 the hiftorical year begins on the day of the circumcifion i e. 
 the firft of January, on which day the German and Kalian 
 year alfo begins.-— Stow obferves, that William the conqueror, 
 having been crowned on the firft of January, that thenceforth 
 became the firft of the year for hiftorians, &c. Though, in 
 all civil affairs, they retained the antient manner of account- 
 ing, which began with the 25th of March. 
 The part of thenar between thofe two terms is Ufually ex- 
 preffed both ways, as I74 8 '9> or *74#- — Since the con- 
 queror, the king's patents, charters, proclamations, &c. are 
 ufually dated by the year of the king's reign. 
 The church, as to her folemn fervice, begins the year on the 
 firft Sunday in advent, which is always that next S. Andrew's 
 day, or the 30th of November. 
 
 The Jews, as moft other nations of the eaft, had a c\vi\year t 
 which commenced with the new moon in September; and 
 ah ecclefiafiical year» which commenced from the new moon 
 in March. 
 
 The French year, during the reigns of the Merovingian race, 
 began on the day wherein the troops were reviewed; which 
 Was the firfi day of March. — Under the Carlovingians it be- 
 gan on Chriffmas-day ; and, under the Capetians, on Eaftcr- 
 day; which, therefore, varied between the zzd of March, 
 and the 25th of April. 
 
 And this isftill the beginning of the French ecclefiaftical year. 
 — But for the civil, Charles IX. appointed in 1564, that 
 for the future it fhould commence on the firft of January. 
 The Mahometans begin their year the minute the fun enters 
 
 Aries.— The Perfians, in the month anfwering to our June.' 
 
 The Chinefe, and moft of the Indians, begin it with the fiiit 
 moon in March. — The Bracbmans begin it with the new 
 moon in April ; on which day they hold a feaft called fain- 
 
 wat faradi pauduga, q. d. fcaft of New-year's day. The 
 
 Mexicans, according to d'Acofta, begin the year on our 23d 
 of February, when the leaves begin to grow green.— Their 
 year confifts of 1 8 months, having zo days each : which mak- 
 ing 360 days, the remaining five days are fpent in mirth, and 
 no bufinefs is fuffered to be done, nor even any fervice at the 
 temples. — Alvarez relates much the fame of the Abyffinians ; 
 who begin their year on the z6th of Auguft, and have five 
 idle days at the end, which they call pagamen. — At Rome 
 there are two ways of computing the year; the one begin- 
 ning at the nativity of our Lord: this the notaries ufe, dating 
 a nativitate. The other in March, on occafion of the incar- 
 natiun; and it is by this the bulls are dated, anno incarna- 
 tionis.— The Greeks begin their year of the world from the 
 firft of September. 
 
 Years are alfo diftinguifhed with regard to the epocha's whence 
 they are numbered : thus, years of our Lord, are thofe reck- 
 oned from the birth of Jefus Chrift, which are now 1 749. 
 
 Years of the zuorld, are thofe elapfed fince the creation, which 
 Scaiiger makes to be 569S. —Years of Rome, of the Hegira, 
 of Nab&najfar, Szt. See the difference between thefe years, 
 under the article Epocha. 
 Year and Day, in law, &c. is a time that determines a right 
 in many cafes, and is in fome an ufucaption, and in others a 
 prefcription. 
 
 Thus, in the cafe of an eftray, if the owner, proclamation be- 
 ing made, challenge it not within a year and day, it is forfeit. 
 In like manner is the year and day given in cafes of appeal, 
 of defcent, of entry or claim, of non-claim upon a fine, or 
 writ of right, of the death of a man fore bruifed, or wounded; 
 of protections, eflbins in refpecl of the king's fervice; of a 
 wreck, and on many other occafions. 
 Year Day and Wajle, annus dies & vajlum, is a part of the 
 king's prerogative, whereby he challenges the profits of the 
 lands and tenements of perfons attainted for petit-treafon, or 
 felony, for the fpace of a year and a day ; whomever is lord 
 of the manor to which they belong. 
 
 Not only this, but at the end thereof he may wafte the tene- 
 ments, deftroy the houfes, root up the woods, gardens, pafture, 
 and plow up the meadows, unlefs the lord of the fee agree 
 with him for the redemption of fuch wafte. — After the year 
 day and vjafle, they are to be reftored to the lord of the fee. 
 
 YEARN, in hunting, figuifies to bark, as beagles properly 
 do, at their prey. 
 
 YELK. See the article Yolk. 
 
 YELLOW*, a bright colour, rcfleaing the moft light of 
 any after white. 
 
 • The 
 
Y E O 
 
 See Warders of the Tower. 
 Yeomen of the Guard, properly called yeomen of the Guard of 
 the king's body, were anticntly 350 men, of the beft rank 
 under gentry, and of larger flature than ordinary ; every 
 one being required to be fix feet high. 
 
 At prefent there are but one hundred yeomenin conftant du- 
 ty ; and feventy more not in duty; and as any of the hun- 
 dred die, his place is fuppJied out of the feventy. 
 They go clad after the manner of King Henry the eighth's 
 times. — They formerly had diet as well as wages, when in 
 waiting, but this was taken off in the reign of quuen Anne. 
 Their attendance is on the fovereign's perfon, both at home, 
 and abroad ; and they have a room allotted for them only, 
 called the guard-chambtr. 
 
 * The word is formed from the Italian gid/U, or the 6ei 
 man gse l, which figniries the fame ; or from the Latin ?d- 
 banus, bright, gay. 
 
 There are divers yellow fubfrances that become white 
 upon wetting and drying them again fevera! times at the fun : 
 wax, Imnen-cloth, C3V. See Bleaching. 
 And the fame bodies, if they be already white, and continue 
 a long time in the air without being wetted, turn yelloiu. 
 Paper and ivory, applied near truTfire, become fucceffively 
 yellow, red, and black.— Silk, when turned yellow, is 
 whitened again with the fumes of fulphur. 
 Yellow, in dying, is one of the five fimple and mother co- 
 lours. 
 
 For the fined yellows, they firft boil the cloth, or fluff, in 
 allum and pot-ames; and then give the colour with the weld, 
 or wold. 
 
 Turmeric likewife gives a good yellow, though not the beft. 
 There is ajfo an Indian wood that gives a yellow colour bor- 
 dering on gold. 
 
 Greens are ufually made of yellow and blue mixed. — With 
 yellow, madder red, and goat's-hair prepared wiih madder, 
 are made the golden yellow, aurora, panfy, nacaratc, ifabella, 
 and chamois-colour; which are all caffs, or fhades of yellow, 
 Painters and enamellers make their yellow of maiTicot, or a* 
 fome write it mafticot, which is cerufs raifed to a yellow co- 
 lour by the fire; or with yellozv oker. — Limners and illu- 
 miners make it with faftron, and French berries, orcanette 
 &e. 
 
 Brantom obferves, it was antiently the cuffnm to paint a 
 
 Bian's door yellow, and ftrew his houfe with faltj to declare 
 
 him a traytor to his king. 
 Yellow, or French berries. See the article Avignon. 
 Yellow Jaundice. See the article Jaundice. 
 YELLOWS, a difeafe in a horfe, much the fame with 
 
 that called jaundice in man. 
 
 There are two kinds of it, the yellow, and the black. 
 The yellows is a very frequent diforder, fay the farriers, 
 artfing from obftrudions in the gall-pipe, or the little dud' 
 opening into the fame, occafioned by vifcid or gritty mat- 
 ters lodged therein, or a fullnefs and compremon of the 
 neighbouring biood-veffels; by means whereof, the matter 
 that mould be turned into gall, is taken up by the vein, and 
 earned into the ma fs of blood; which it tinclures yellow: 
 fo that the eyes, infide of the lips, and other parts of the 
 mouth capable of ibewing the colour, appear yellow. 
 The effect whereof is, that a horfe will be dull, heavy, and 
 low-fpirited ; eafily jaded by the leaft labour or oiercife, &c. 
 YEOMAN", the firll or higheft degree among the plebeians 
 of England; next in order to the gentry. 
 The ytomen are properly the freeholders, who have land of 
 their own; fo called from the Saxon gemane, or geman, 
 common. — The word yongtnan, is ufed for yeoman in the 
 flatute 39 Hen. VIII. and in old deeds; it is fometimes alfo 
 written jeman, which, in the German, fignifies any body. 
 According to Sir Thomas Smith, a yeoman is a free-born 
 Englifhman, who can lay out of his own free-land in yearly 
 revenue, to the fum of forty millings fterling. 
 The yeomanry of England are capable of holding lands of 
 their own to a good value; are adjudged capable of certain 
 offices, as conftables, church- wardens, jury-men, and are 
 alfo to vote in elections to parliament, and to fcrve in the 
 army. 
 
 The yeomen were famous, in antient times, for military va- 
 lour, being particularly expert at the management of the bow; 
 whence the infantry was compofed chiefly of them. 
 In many cafes, the law conceives a better opinion of the 
 yeomanry, that occupy lands, than of tradefmen, artificers, tsV. 
 By a ftatute, 2 Henry IV. it is ena&ed, That no yeoman 
 ihall take or wear a livery of any lord, upon pain of impri- 
 fonment, and a fine at the king's pleafure. 
 Yeoman, is alfo a title of office in the king's houfhold, of a 
 middle place, or rank between an uiher and a groom. 
 Such are the — Teaman of the pantry ; yeoman of the fcullery ; 
 yeoman of the ftirrop, c5V. SeeHousHOLD. 
 Yeomen Warders 
 
 V O I 
 
 bTt'^cT- fT*** atthedifpofal of the captain, 
 Y ,S " thc "PP"'"" 1 ™ °f 'he king. 
 
 t l 1 , ' thc manage, is when a horfe ftrites with 
 bis hind legs, or flings and kicks back with the whole bind 
 quarters; itretcbmg out the two legs nearly together and 
 even to their full extent. 1 W< ' 
 
 YES T, or Barm, a head or fcum arifing upon beer or ale- 
 while working or fermenting in the vat. 
 It is ufed for a leven or ferment in the makino of bread - 
 as ferying to fwell or puff it up very conuderably in a little" 
 time, and to make it much lighter, fetter, and more drf- 
 
 bi'tter ' S t0 ° mUCh ° f * renders ttlc bK3i 
 
 The ufe of yeft in bread, is but of late (landing amonp us ■ 
 it is not above eighty years fince the avarice of the bakers firft 
 introduced ,t ; and then it was only done by Health _ 
 Gauls Wi,ndl,;s to ta ve b ™ "fed by the anticne 
 
 The faculty of medicine of Paris, by a decree of the 24th 
 of march, 168S, folemnly maintained it noxious to the 
 health of the people; yet even that cenfure could not prevent 
 its progrefs. TT 
 YEZDEGERDIC Year. See Perfian Ypar 
 
 . J N G and -paying, a law pbrale, formed by corrup- 
 
 tion from the Saxon geldan, or gildan, to pay. _ Hence 
 in Uomefday, gddare is frequently ufed tor fihert, reddere' 
 the ftxon g being eafily converted into a y. Set Geld' 
 
 and Gild. 
 YNC A, Yncan', or Inca 
 
 . an appellation antiently given 
 to the kings of Peru, and the Pnnces of their blood the 
 word Bgnifejng literally, lord, kit. 
 
 mperor, and royal 
 
 Tie 
 
 fil 
 
 king himfelf was particularly called capac ynca i e 
 great lord. - His wife, pallai, and the princes Antely 
 yncas. Thefe y>,un, before the a/rival of the Spaniard' 
 were exceeding powerful. _ Their people revered them to 
 excefs, as believing them to be fons of the fun, and never to 
 have committed any fault. _ If any perfon offended the royal 
 niajifly in the fmallcft matter, the city he belonged to was 
 totally demolifhed. 
 
 When they travelled, whatever chamber they lay in on the 
 road, was walled up as foon as they departed, that no body 
 might ever enter in after them. — The like was done to the 
 ■00m wherein the king died ; in which, likewife, all the gold 
 r, and precious furniture, were always immured, and a 
 new apartment was built for his fucceffor. 
 His beloved wives, domeflics, tic. likewife facriflced them- 
 felves, and were buried alive in the fame tomb along with 
 him. See the Hijlory of lb, Yncas, by GarcilalTo de la 
 Vena. . p ti ■- . r • jiasY 'm 
 
 Y O A K, or Yoke, in agriculture, a frame of wood fitted 
 over the necks of oxen ; whereby they are coupled together 
 and harnafled to the plough, tic. See Plough. ' 
 It confifts of fevcral parts, as thc yoke, properly fo called 
 which is a thick piece of wood, lying over the neck • the 
 bow, which compaffes the neck about ; the fthehinr] and 
 wreathngs, which hold the bow fail in the yoke; and the 
 yoke-ring and ox-chain. 
 
 The Romans made the enemies they fubdued pafs under 
 theyrfr, which they called fub jugum mitltre; that is they 
 made them pafs under a fort of furcce pahbularei or oal 
 lows, confiding of a pike, or other weapon, laid acrofs two 
 others planted uprighr in the ground. — This done they 
 treated them with humanity enough, and fent them home 
 again. 
 
 The fame meafure was fometimes dealt them by their ene- 
 mies upon the fame occafion. — Thus Caefar, Lib If ob 
 ferves, that the conful L. Caffius had been killed' by the 
 Swifs, and his army defeated, and made to pafs under the 
 yoke. 
 
 Y o A K of Land, jugata terra:, in our antient cuftoms was 
 the fpace which a yoke of oxen, that is, two oxen may 
 plough in one day. See Hide, Yard-ZoW, &c. ' 
 
 oVs-Yoak. See the article Sea. 
 
 YOIDES*, orHvoiDES, in anatomy, a bone fituate at 
 the root of the tongue, and compofed of divers little bones 
 united by cartilages which fometimes oflify. 
 
 iiJik. and fometimes vi^Xoiifa, ypjiloidts, 
 g a Greek v, or upfilon — Some alii call it 
 lambda inverted. 
 
 * It has its nar 
 from its refe 
 lumbdoidei, ; 
 It is not 
 
 ibli _ 
 i refembl 
 
 contiguous to the extremity of any other bones, nor 
 has any articulation with them : on which account, it is not 
 fhewn in the lkeletons. 
 
 Its ufe is to fortify the bafe or root of the tongue, and facili- 
 tate the paflage of the air into the trachea, and the food into 
 the gullet. — It has five pair of mufcles, which move it to- 
 gether with the tongue. 
 
 YOLK, 
 
 J 
 
 iS 
 
YOU 
 
 Y Q^U 
 
 YOLK, or Yelk, in natural hiftory, the yellow pat, in the 
 
 middle: of an egg- f and nour ifl,ed by the white 
 
 322 .'.lUt be n wn ffo« bulk ; after which, the 
 
 a one, till it k b luwl . i;i™™;foifees m part, 
 
 r^*ta33 Q 3S5 r^^Tth^ reins 
 
 wife called firimajt-mtn, wnoie 
 
 top-fails, furl the fails, fling the yards, Vt. 
 
 YOUTH, A,hkf""«- Sre AoE ' and ADO " SC ,ir t h,;d 
 VP. IT O DES, niAOEHH!, m anatomy, the third 
 P ^„uL future of' the cranium , thus called from rts refem- 
 bline a Greek >■, or upfilon. Lambdoi- 
 Some alfo call it UfM* W** be = 1.AMBD01 
 
 j Theie is alfo a bone at the root of the tongue, called ypfi- 
 vSuET^n^W, a plan, growing in Bra- 
 ^ m lL ufed » a medicine in that country ; and lately drf. 
 covered to the Europeans by a French furgeon. 
 TthTbeW f.nce found in France; where, bOogcutavtel 
 ''j*"., bv M. Marchant, it appears to be no other 
 ™2Si2 water betony, or fcrophuUria aquat.ca 
 I, has th "nra.kable property, that it takes away from 
 „„ al ■ tafte and fmell • which property of cone^ng 
 
 ST^^^^ftS*. day, 
 Z'£&t£ al'erTa^rexpofed to * fun, til, *. 
 dry. 
 
ZEN 
 
 Z I N 
 
 ZThe laft letter in the alphabet, and one of the 
 double confonants, both among the Latins and 
 _ Greeks. 
 J Its pronunciation is much more foft and obtufe 
 than that of the x, which makes Quintilian call it jucun- 
 dijfima, and dulcijftma. — Neverthelefs, the found was not 
 always the fame as it is now ; which is but, as it were, 
 half that of an S. 
 
 It had fomething originally in it of the d ; but only what 
 founded very fmoothly : Thus, Mezentius was pronounced, 
 as if it had been Medfentius, &c. 
 
 The Z had alfo an affinity with the g : Thus Capella ; z a 
 Gratis venit, licet etiam ipfi prima g Graca utebantur. 
 Z was alfo a numeral letter, fignifying 2000 j according to 
 the verfe : 
 
 Ultima Z tenens, finem bis mille tenebit. 
 When a dam was added at the top Z, it fignined two thou- 
 fand times two thoufand. 
 ZAIM, a portion of land, alloted for the fubfiftence of a 
 horde-man in the Turkifh militia; called alfo tirnar. See 
 
 Tl MA RIOT. 
 
 ZAIRAGIA, or Zairagiah, a kind of divination in ufe 
 among the Arabs ; performed by means of divers wheels or 
 circles, placed concentric to one another, and noted with 
 feveral letters which are brought to anfwer to each other, by 
 moving the circles according to certain rules. 
 This is alfo called zaraiah, by reafon the circles of this 
 machine, which are called mutazariat, laflak, &c. are in- 
 tended to coircfpund to the orbs of the planets, and the at- 
 mofpheres of the feveral elements. 
 
 ZAPATA *, or Sapata, a kind of feaft, or ceremony held 
 In Italy, in the courts of certain princes, on S. Nicholas's 
 day, wherein people hide prefents in the fhoes or flippers of 
 thofe they would do honour to, in fuch manner, as they 
 forprize them on the morrow when they come to drefs. 
 * The word is originally Spanifh, capato, and fignifies a flioe, 
 or flipper. 
 
 It is done in imitation of the practice of S. Nicholas, who 
 ufed, in the night time, to throw purfes of money in at the 
 windows, to marry poor maids withal. 
 F. Meneftrier has defcribed thefe zapatas, their origin, and 
 different ufages, in his treat ife des ballets anciens t & mo- 
 derns. . 
 ZEAL, Zelus, the exercife of a warm animated 
 
 affection, or paflion for any thing. 
 
 Some will have jealous zeal to be properly a mixt, or com- 
 pound fenfation, where one affection is raifed or inflamed 
 by another. — On thefe principles, jealouly may be defined 
 an affection arifing from love and indignation, which can- 
 not bear a thing to be given to another, that a perfon defires 
 for himfelf, or one whom he loves and favours. ■ — Others 
 make it confift in an eager ftudy, or defire to keep any tiling 
 inviolate ; or a fervour of mind, arifing from an indignation 
 againft thofe who abufe or do evil to a perfon beloved. 
 The Greek philofopbers make three fpecies of zeal. — The 
 firft, of envy : the fecond, of emulation, or imitation : the 
 (bird of piety, or devotion; which laft makes what the di- 
 vines call religious zeal. 
 
 jofephus fpeaks much of a party or fact ion, called the 2m- 
 lous, or Zealots, which arole among the Jews during the 
 war with Vefpafian and Titus. Lib. XIV. c. 6, Antiq. 
 and Lib. IV. c. 12. de Bella Judaico. 
 
 ZECIIIN, or Zecchino. See the article Sequin. 
 
 ZEDOARY, Zedoaria, a medicinal root, belonging to 
 a plant growing in the Eait-Indics, whofe leaves are like 
 thofe of ginger, only longer and broader. See Root. 
 Zedsary root is of an afh-colour, it has an aromatic, bitterifh 
 tafte j and is ranked in the clafs of cephalics; but it is alfo 
 reckoned, by many, amongit the alexipharmics, where- 
 upon it comes to have a place in the capitals ; and is even 
 faid to prevent infection, by holding it only in the mouth. 
 On account of its agreeable bitter, it is alfo prescribed 2- 
 mong ftomachics j and for its fpicy warmth, is commended 
 in colics, and hyfterical affections, for promoting the men 
 fes, fcfe. 
 
 ZENITH, in afironomy, the vertical point; or a point ii 
 the heavens diredtly over our head. 
 
 Or, the zenith is a point, as Z {Tab. Aflronomy, fg. $z.) 
 in the furface of the fphere, from which a right line drawn 
 through the fpectator's head, pafTes through the centre of 
 e2rth. 
 
 Hence, there are as many zenith: as there aie different pla- 
 Vol. II. 
 
 ces on the earth, where the heavens may be feen ; and up- 
 on the changing our place, we alfo necefTarily change our 
 zenith. 
 
 The zenith is alfo called the pole of the horizon, becaufe 90 
 degrees diftant from each point thereof. 
 It is alfo the pole of all the almucantars, or parallels of the 
 horizon, whereby the altitude of the ftars is eftimated. 
 Through the zenith pafs the vertical-circles, or azimuths. 
 The point diametrically oppofite to the zenith, is called the 
 nadir ; which is the point direftly under our feet. 
 The nadir is the zenith to our antipodes ; as our zenith is 
 the nadir to them. 
 Ze nit h- Dijlance, is the complement of the fun's, or a ftar s 
 meridional altitude ; or, it is, what the meridian altitude 
 wants of 90 degrees. 
 ZENS US, in arithmetic, a name which fome authors give 
 to a fquare number ; or the fecond power. 
 The higher powers they call zenjizenfus, zenficubus> zenfi- 
 zenzenjus, zenfurdefalidus, &c. See Power. 
 ZEPHYRUS *, or Zephyr, the weft-wmd; a wind 
 blowing from that cardinal point of the horizon oppofite to 
 the eaft. 
 
 * The word is Greek, ^ipv^. —The poets perfonifyit. 
 It is alfo called favanius, and occidens ; and by many has 
 been confounded with the africus. 
 
 ZEST, the woody, thick fkin, quartering the kernel of a 
 walnut, — Some phyficians prefcribe this zejl, dried and taken 
 with white-wine, as a remedy againft the gravel. 
 The word is alfo ufed for a chip of orange or lemon-peel ; 
 fuch as is ufuaily fqueezed into ale, wine, 13 'c. to give it a 
 flavour, or for the fine thin oil that fpurts out of that peel 
 on fqueezing it. 
 
 Hence, to zejl an orange or lemon, among confectioners, 
 is to cut the peel from top to bottom into fmall flips, as 
 thin as poflible ; or, to zejl, is to fquceze the peel over the 
 furface of any thing. 
 ZETA*, or Zetecula, a little clofet, or withdrawing- 
 chamber, with pipes running along the walls, to receive, 
 from below, either the cool air, or the fteam of warm 
 water. • ' 
 
 * The word is formed either from to be warm ; or of 
 -vivere, to live, on account of the ufe made hereof for 
 
 love and enjoyment. 
 ZETETICE*, ZETETic-.Me^0f/, in mathematics, the 
 method made ufe of to inveftigate, or find the folution of a 
 problem. 
 
 * The word is Greek £„tbt.*:», formed from frrw, I feek. 
 The antient Pyrrhonians were fometimes called zetetici, q, d. 
 feekers. 
 
 ZEUGMA *, a figure in grammar, whereby an adjective, 
 or verb, which agrees with a nearer word, is alfo, by way 
 of fupplement, reTcrred to another more remote. 
 
 * The word is Greek, (tvypx, which literally denotes a join- 
 ing together : from givyvvio, I join. 
 
 Thus Terence, Utinam aut hie furdus, aut hac muta fatfa 
 Jit. So Virgil, Hie illius arma hie currus fuit. — In which 
 cafes, the words fa£ia fit, agreeing piimaiily with hac muta, 
 are alfo made to agree or extend to hie furdus : and the verb 
 fuit, is not only referred to bit currus, which it properly re- 
 fpects, but further, to hie illius arma. 
 
 The Latins, it may be here obferved, take a liberty in con- 
 ftructions, which fome of the nicer critics among the mo- 
 derns, particularly the French, will not allow in the modern 
 tongues. 
 
 ZIBETHU M, or Zieetta, in natural hiftory, civet ; a 
 perfume, contained in a kernelly bladder, in the groin of a 
 civet cat. See Ci vet. 
 ZICZAC. See the article Alley in Ziczac. 
 ZINDIKITES, a fed among the Mahometans, fo deno- 
 minated from their leader Zindik, whom Grotius makes to 
 be one of the magi, and a follower of Zoroafter. 
 The ZindiLites believe no providence nor refurrection. — 
 They allow no other God but the four elements; and in 
 this fenfe they affert, that man, being a mixture of thofe 
 fimple bodies, returns to God when he dies. 
 ZINK. a kind of mendline fubitance, vciy hard, white, and 
 fparklin"; and which, though not ductile enough to deno- 
 minate it a metal, yet ilretchcs a little unJer the hammer. 
 Zink is the fame with what is otherwife called jpelfcr, It 13 
 of late produced in great quantities from the lapis calaminans. 
 Founders, toy-men, &c. ufe it to tingecooper, &c. it gives 
 a fine sold colour to that metal, and thus makes what is 
 called priam metal, from piince JUpertthe m venter of it. 
 e j . q tJ M. Homberg 
 
ZON 
 
 ZOP 
 
 Hcmberg has a conjecture, that zink is no other than a 
 natural mixture of two real metals, viz, tin, and iron. — j 
 What led him to the opinion was, that zink yields preafe- 
 ly the fame fumes by the burniug-ghfs, as fuch a mixture 
 
 does. Accordingly, he afTures us, he often fubftituted in 
 
 thele trials, the one for the other ; and this always with 
 the very fame effect : but this is not proof enough. 
 
 ZINZIBER, or Zingiber. See the article Ginger. 
 
 ZIZYPHA, or Zizyphus, a name fometimes given to a 
 kind of fruit, more ufually called jujube. See Jujube. 
 
 ZOCCO, Zoccolo, Zocle, or Socle, in architeaure, 
 a kind of fland or pedeftal ; being a low, fquare piece, or 
 member, ferving to fupport a buffo, ftatue, pedeftal, or the 
 like thing, that needs to be raifed.— See Tab. Archit, fig. 24. 
 
 -i-TOrTM .doil ail? to araal 1 '■ 'jW'Sbdji - ; 
 ZODIAC*, Zodiacus, inaftronomy, a fafcia, or broad 
 circle, whofe middle is the ecliptic, and its extremes two 
 circles parallel thereto, at fuch diftance from it as to bound, 
 or comprehend the excurfions of the fun and planets. 
 * The word U formed from the Greek (utr, animal; by rea- 
 fon of the conftcilations therein, which have the forms of ani- 
 mals given them : others derive it from ( m , life ; _ from an 
 opinion, that the planets have a great influence on animal life. 
 
 The fun never deviates from the middle of the zodiac; i.e. 
 from the ecliptic ; the planets all do, more or left. 
 Their greateft deviations, called latitudes^ are the meafure 
 of the breadth of the zodiac ; which is broader, or narrower, 
 as the greateft latitude of the planets is made mure or lefs. 
 — ■ Accordingly, fome make it 16, fome 18, and fome :o 
 degrees broad. 
 
 The zodiac cutting the equator obliquely, makes an angle 
 therewith of 23 degrees and an halt; or more precifely of 
 23 0 29/, which is what we call the obliquity of the zodiac, 
 and is the fun's greateft declination. 
 
 The zodiac is divided into twelve portions, called figns; 
 and thofe divifions or figns are denominated from the con- 
 ftellations which antiently poflefted each part. — But the zodiac 
 being immoveable, and the ftars having a motion from weft 
 to eaft, thofe conftcilations now no longer corttlpond to 
 their proper figns ; whence aiifes what we call the precef- 
 Jion of the equinoxes. 
 
 When a ftar, therefore, is faid to be in fuch a ftgn of the 
 zodiac, it is not to be underftood of that fign, or conftella- 
 tion of the firmament ; but only of that twelfth part of the 
 zodiac^ or dodecatemory thereof. 
 
 Caifini has alfo obierved a tizSt in the heavens, within whofe 
 bounds moft: of the comets, though not allot them, are ob- 
 served to keep ; which, for this reafon, he calls the zodiac 
 of the comets. 
 
 This he makes as broad as the other zodiac, and marks it 
 
 with ligns or conftcilations like"that ; as Antinous, Pegafus, 
 
 Andromeda, Taurus, Orion, the lefter Dog, Hydra, the 
 
 Centaur, Scorpion, and Sagittary. 
 ZONE*, Zona, in geography and aftronomy, a divifion of 
 
 the terraqueous globe, with refpect to the different degree of 
 
 heat found in the different parts thereof. 
 " The word is Greek ^»!, q. d. belt, girdle. 
 
 A zone is the fifth part of the furface of the earth, contained 
 
 between two parallels. See Parallel. 
 
 The zones are denominated torrid, frigid, and temperate. 
 Tsrrid Zone, is a fafcia, or band furrounding the terraqueous 
 
 globe, and terminated by the two tropics. 
 
 Its breadth, therefore, is 46 0 5 8'. The equator running 
 
 through the middle of it, divides it into two equal parts, each 
 
 containing 23° 29'. 
 
 The antients imagined the torrid zone uninhabitable. 
 
 Temperate Zones, are two fafcia:, or bands environing the 
 globe, and contained between the tropics, and the polar cir- 
 cle, — The breadth of each is 43 0 2 1 . 
 
 Frigid Zones, are fegments of the furface of the earth termi- 
 nated, the one by the antardic, and the other by the ardic 
 circle. — The breadth of each is 46 0 58''. 
 The difference of zones is attended with a great diverfity of 
 phenomena. — 1°. In the torrid zone, the fun pafl'es through 
 the zenith twice a year; and his recefs from the equator to- 
 wards the pole which is above the horizon, is twice a year 
 equal to the heighth of the pole. 
 
 2 0 . In the temperate and frigid zones, the leaft heighth of 
 the pole exceeds the greateft diftance of the fun, from the 
 equator ; and therefore, to the inhabitants thereof, the fun 
 never pafl'es through the zenith; yet if on the fame day 
 the fun rifes at the fame time to a greater heighth, the 
 heighth of the pole is the lefs, in regard the inclination of 
 the circles of diurnal revolution to the horizon is lefs. 
 3°. In the temperate and torrid zones, the fun rifes and fets 
 every natural day, by reafon the diftance of the fun from 
 the pole always exceeds the heighth of the pole ; yet every 
 where but under the equator, the artificial davs are un- 
 
 equal, and the inequality is the greater as the place is Jefs 
 diftant from the frigid zone. 
 
 4 0 . Where the temperate zones terminate on the frigid, the 
 heighth of the pole is equal to the fun's diftance from the 
 pole, when in the neighbouring tropic ; and, confequentlv, 
 once a year, the fun, in its diurnal motion, performs an 
 entire revolution, without going down under the horizon. 
 5 0 . Every where in a frigid zone, the heighth or the pole ia 
 greater than the leaft diftance of the fun from the pole j and 
 therefore during fame revolutions of the earth, the fun is at 
 a diftance from the pole lefs than the pole's heighth; and 
 during all that time, does not fet, nor fo much as touch the 
 horizon, — Where the diftance from the pole, as the fun re- 
 cedes from it, exceeds the heighth of the pole, or latitude of 
 the pb.ee, the fun rites or fets every natural day. 
 ZONNAR* a kind of belt, or girdle of" black leather, 
 which the Chriftians and Jews of the Levant,, particularly 
 thofe in Aha, and the territories of the grand feignior, are 
 obliged to wear ; to diftinguifh themfelves from the Maho- 
 metans. 
 
 * The word is corrupted from the vulgar Greek, a contraction 
 of faufioi, of §mnM girdle. 
 
 It was Motavakkel X. kaliph, of the family of the Abaftides, 
 that firft enjoined the Chriftians, (sc. to wear the zon- 
 nar. 
 
 The ordinance to this effect was publiftied in the year of 
 the Hegira 235. 
 
 Hence, as moft of the Chriftians of Syria, Mefopotamia, 
 IrA are either Neftorians, or Jacobites ; thofe fedaries are 
 often called Chrijiians of the girdle. 
 ZOOLOGIA * Zo o log y, a difcourfe, or treatife upon 
 animals, or living creatures. 
 
 Zoology makes a confiderable article in natural hiftory ; 
 comprehending what relates to the form, ftrudture, method 
 of living, feeding, propagating, esc. of the divers fpecics of 
 brute creatures, and the defcriptions of every kind. 
 
 * The word is Greek fyafoyiz., compounded of gw*f, life, and 
 XcyO-, Ipeech, difcourfe. 
 
 ZOOPHORIC Column, is a ftatuary column j oracolumn 
 that bears or fupports the figure of an animal. 
 
 ZOOPHORUS, or Zophorus, in the antient archi- 
 tecture, the fame thing witii the frieze in the modern. 
 It was thus called in Greek, becaufe antiently adorned 
 with the figures of animals 5 from £«w> animal, and 
 I bear. 
 
 The Greeks fometimes alfo call the zodiac, zoophorus, be- 
 caufe of the figns and conftellations therein. 
 ZOOPHYTON*, Zoophyte, in natural hiftory, a 
 kind of intermediate body, fuppofed to partake both of the 
 nature of an animal and a vegetable. 
 
 * The word is Greek £wopuTo*, compounded of ^woc, animal, - 
 and <p btw, plant, q. d. plant-animal. 
 
 Such is the planta pudica, or fenfitive plant, commonly 
 fuppofed to be; though with little foundation. — The an- 
 tients alfo reputed fponges to be zoophytes. 
 The fcetus, while in the womb, appears to many to be a 
 real zoophyte $ growing to the mother by the funiculus um- 
 bilicalis, as plants do to the earth by their ftem. 
 Olearius mentions a very extraordinary fort of zoophyte^ 
 called agnus Scythi'cus, or horametz, growing near Samara 
 on the Volga. — He tells us, that it is a kind of melon 
 fhaped like a lamb, all the parts whereof it has, and that 
 it grows to the earth by a ftem, which ferves it for a navel- 
 ftring. — As it grows, he fays, it changes place as much as 
 its ftem will allow of ; and it confumes and dries up all the 
 grafs where it grows. — When ripe, the ftem withers, and 
 the body, or fruit, becomes covered with a downy fkin, 
 which may be drefled, and ufed as fur. 
 Olearius was fhewn fome of this fkin, taken off the cover- 
 ing of a bed ; which the people fwore came from the fruit ; 
 but he could hardly believe them : it was covered with a 
 foft curled wool, like that of a young lamb. — Scaliger adds, 
 that this fruit lives, and grows, till fuch time as it wants 
 grafs.— But what credit a to be given to moft of the mar- 
 vellous in thefe accounts, may be feen in PhUofoph. Tranf. 
 n. 247. p. 461, and n. 290. p. 353, The ikin fhewn to 
 Olearius was, in all probability, that of a real lamb. See 
 Supple?nent, article Borametz. 
 ZOOTOMY* ZftOTOMH, the art or aa of diffeaing 
 animals, or living creatures. 
 
 * The word is compounded of fyor, animal, and ti^w, fees, I 
 cut. 
 
 Zootomy amounts to the fame with anatomy, or rather com- 
 parative anatomy. 
 
 ZOPHORIC. See the article Zoophor ic. 
 
 ZOPHORUS. See the article Zoophorus. 
 
 ZOPISSA, 
 
Z U I 
 
 Z Y T 
 
 ZOPISSA*, znniSSA, Naval-pitch; a kind of mixture 
 of pitch and tar, fcraped off from Ihips that have been a 
 long time at fea. 
 * The word feems formed from ^ew, buttio, I boil, and 
 pitch ; q. i. concocted pitch. 
 This matter, by being gradually penetrated by the fait of the 
 fea, becomes impregnated with its qualities; and being ap- 
 plied to the body, externally, is found refolutive and defic- 
 cative. 
 
 ZUINGLI ANS, a branch of antient Reformers or Protef- 
 tants ; denominated from their author Uldric, or Huldric 
 Zuinglius. 
 
 This eminent divine was born at Wildehaufen, in the coun- 
 ty of Toggenbourg in Switzerland, in 1+87. — After having 
 finifhed his ftudies in theology, and received the dor-tor's cap 
 at Bafil, in 1505, he applied himfelf to preaching; and 
 that with good fuccefs. 
 
 Soon after Luther had taken up arms againft Rome, Zuing- 
 lius, being then minifter of the chief church in Zurich, fell 
 in with him ; he preached openly againft indulgences, then 
 againft the interceffion of the faints, then againft the mafs, 
 the hierarchy, the vows and celibate of the clergy, abfti- 
 nence from nefh, Isc. 
 
 As to the eucharift, interpreting hoc ejl corpus mcum by hoc 
 fignificat corpus meum t he maintained, that the bread and 
 wine were only bare fignifications, or reprefentations of the 
 body and blood of Jefus Chrift ; but in this he differed from 
 Luther, who held a confubftantiation. 
 In a conference held with the deputies of the bifhop ofCon- 
 ftance, in 1523, he procured moffc of the external ceremo- 
 nies of religion to be abolifhed, — As to matters of grace, 
 Zuinglius feemed inclined to Pelagianifm ; giving all to 
 
 free-will, confidered as afting by the mecr ftrength of na- 
 ture ; in which he differed from Calvin. 
 ZYGOMA*, ZYrriMA, in anatomy, a bone of the head, 
 otherwife called os jugale. See Bon£, 
 
 * The word is formed from (<.vy*vfiizt, I join i fo that zygoma, 
 properly fpeaking, is the junfture of two bones. 
 
 The zygoma is no Angle bone, but an union or anemblage of 
 two procefles, or eminences of bones ; the one from the os 
 temporis, the other from the os make. — See Tab. Anst. 
 
 (Oficol.) fig. z. lit. a 
 
 Thefe two eminences, or apophyfes, are joined together by 
 a future, thence called zygojnaticus, 
 
 ZYGOMATICUS, a mufcle of the head, which has its 
 origin in the proceflus jugalis, or zygoma; and paffmg ob- 
 liquely, is inferted near the angle of the lips. — It helps to 
 draw the lips obliquely upwards.- — See Tab. Anat. (Myol.) 
 fig. I. n. 9. fig. 6. n. ±,fig. 7. n. 2. 
 
 Zygomaticus, is alfo an epithet given to the future that 
 binds the two proceffes of the -zygoma together. 
 
 ZYMO SI METER*, an inftrument propofed by Swam- 
 merdam, in his book de Rcfpiratione, wherewith to meafure 
 the degree of fermentation occafioned by the mixture of 
 different matters ; and the degree of heat which thofe mat- 
 ters acquire in fermenting; as alfo the heat or temperament, 
 of the blood of animals. 
 
 * The word is formed from gvpuo-ts, fermentation, and /xtrfw, 
 meafure. 
 
 Z YTHUM, or Zythos, a fort of malt liquor, in ufe a- 
 mong the antient Germans. 
 
 Matthiolus reprefents the antient zythum, and curmi-, as the 
 fame with our beer and ale. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
An INDEX of Words and Articles which are explained under other s^ 
 and not mentioned in their c': :~ktical places. 
 
 A D V 
 
 CAN 
 
 A Fortiori. 
 APriori. 1 
 A Posteriori. $ 
 Abandoned Succef- 
 Abbat. [fan. 
 Abb at is Diarrhodon. 
 
 Abb AYANCE. 
 
 Abbettor. 
 Abbey, Royal. 
 Abby. 
 Abducent. 
 Abducto Haredc. 
 Abe arxng, goad. 
 acei ance. 
 
 Ability, 
 
 Abintestate Inheritance. 
 Ablative, abfolute. 
 Ab-officio. 
 Absinthium. 
 Absolute Accident. 
 Absolute Gravity. 
 Absolute Necejfity. 
 AgsoiUTE Time. 
 Absolute Velocity . 
 Absolutely proper Aloti on. ) 
 Absolutely trite Motion. S 
 Absynthites, Vinum. 
 Academy, Curator of. 
 Accent, long. 
 Accent, Jhort. 
 Acceptances, Book of. 
 Acc epteb Mafons. 
 Accessary. 
 Accession, Union of. 
 Accidental Forms. 
 Accompt. 
 
 Accompts, Chamber of, 
 Accompts, current. 
 Accomptant. 
 Aceph alus Clerk. 
 Ach. 
 
 AcH ARNER. 
 AcQUIET AND! S plegilS. 
 ACQ,U [ST. 
 
 Act, overt. 
 Acts, Clerk of. 
 
 Act cfthe Ancejlor. I 
 Act of God. 3 
 Act of Grace. 
 Acting, Rule of. 
 Act ion, faint. 
 Action, vital. 
 Act ion, Chofe in. 
 Act ion, Unity of. 
 Active Art. 
 Act i ve Power. 
 Active Qualities. 
 Active Vaffalage. 
 Actual Ajfent. 
 Actual Calcination. 
 Actual Cauteries. 
 Actual Fire. 
 Actual Heat. 
 Acute, Penultimate of. 
 Additional Duty. 
 Adfected Quadratics. 
 Adjacent Angle. 
 Adiposi Sacculi. 
 Adjutor. 
 
 Admiral, Lord high. 
 Admiralty Court. 
 Admiration, Point of . 
 Admisit. 
 
 Admittenda Clamea. 
 Admittendo Clerico. 
 AdmIttendo Cuflode. ^ 
 Adnullanda Recognition . 
 Adoption, Brothers by. 
 Adoptive Father. 
 Ad ventitious Fcjfdt. 
 Adventitious Glands. 
 Adventurine. 
 Advices, Book of. 
 Vol. IL 
 
 MULTO. 
 
 Demonstration. 
 
 Succession. 
 
 Abbot. 
 
 Diarrhodon. 
 
 ; yance. 
 Abettor. 
 Royal. 
 Abbey. 
 Abductor. 
 Hjerede. 
 Good abearing. 
 Abeyance. 
 ( Cap ac i t y, Disab i- 
 ( lity, and Nonabi- 
 Succession. [lity 
 Absolute. 
 Deprivation. 
 Aesynthium. 
 Acc i dent. 
 Gravity. 
 Necessity. 
 Time. 
 Velocity. 
 
 Motion. 
 
 Vi num. 
 
 Curator. 
 
 Long. 
 
 Short. 
 
 Book. 
 
 Mason. 
 
 Accessory. 
 
 Un ion of Accejfion, 
 
 Form. 
 
 Account. 
 
 Chamber. 
 
 Book. 
 
 Accou ntant. 
 Clerk. 
 
 Ache, and Heah-AcJ). 
 
 Acherner. 
 
 Plegi is. 
 
 Acquest. 
 
 Overt Aft. 
 
 Clerk. 
 
 D 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Rule of Afling. 
 
 Faint. 
 
 Vital. 
 
 Chose. 
 
 Unity. 
 
 Art. 
 
 Power. 
 
 Quality. 
 
 Vassalage. 
 
 Assent. 
 
 Calcination. 
 
 Cautery. 
 
 Fire. 
 
 Heat. 
 
 Penultimate. 
 Duty. 
 
 Quadratics. 
 
 Angle. 
 
 Sacculi. 
 
 Coadjutor. 
 
 Lord. 
 
 Court. 
 
 Point. 
 
 Quare non adm'ifit. 
 
 Clamea. 
 
 Clerico. 
 
 CUSTODE. 
 
 Recognitions. 
 
 Brothers. 
 
 Father. 
 
 Fossil. 
 
 Gland. 
 
 Venturine. 
 
 Book. 
 
 ISAB1LITY. 
 
 Advisare vAt atria. 
 Adulterated Wine. 
 Advocations. 
 
 JF. QU ANT. 
 
 Equiangular. 
 /Eqjjicrural. 
 TEqjjidifferent. 
 /e qjj 1distant. 
 Eqjjilateral. 
 JEra of Martyrs. 
 JEra of Nabonaffar. 
 Aerial Tele/cope. 
 ./Etherial Region. 
 /EthioPic Bibles, 
 Affected. 
 
 Affirmative Demon ftration. 
 
 Afforested. 
 
 Att. 
 
 Age of Wine. 
 Aggrava tion. 
 Agri Uncia. 
 Aid, rcafonable. 
 AlEL. 
 
 Air, in the manage. 
 
 Air, Balance of. 
 
 AiR-Level. 
 
 A I R, Preffure of. 
 
 Alm Caruncidie cuticulares. 
 
 Alve VefpertiUonum. 
 
 Alje Nafi dilatateres. 
 
 Alx N a fe elevator. 
 
 Alba Linta. 
 
 Alba Off a. 
 
 Album Argentum. 
 
 Alcahest. 
 
 Alcalizatum Acctum. 
 
 Alcaly. 
 
 Ald. 
 
 A-le e the Helm. 
 Alerion, 
 Aleppo Galls. 
 Alexandrina Aurea. 
 Alias, ficut. 
 Alienaele. 
 Alienation, Fines. 
 Alimentarius /Edilis. 
 Alkali. 
 
 Allegorical Statue. 
 Alleu, frank. 
 Alleud. 
 
 Almonds, Seron of. 
 Alms, plow. 
 Alms, pure. 
 
 Cabal line Aloes. 
 Cable, pointing. 
 Cable, Roufmg. 
 CaelE, Worming. 
 Cabled Column. 
 Cade re AJfifa. 
 Cjesarius Partus. 
 Calculation of Fridion. 
 
 Calculus, differential. 
 
 Calculus, integral. 
 Calendar, Gregorian. 
 Calendar es fajli. 
 Calf, golden^ 
 
 Cali PER. 
 Calking. 
 Callosum Corpus. 
 Caloyers. 
 CALYES-Head Roll. 
 Calx of Tin. 
 Camayeu. » 
 Cambering. 
 Camomile, Oil of. 
 Camp, Aid de. 
 Camp, fying. 
 Canada Company, 
 Canalis Arteriofus. 
 Cancellariam mitiendam. 
 Caue, gretta del. 
 
 13 Hh 
 
 Curia. 
 Wine. 
 
 ?ecto de Advocation?, 
 Eqjj ant. 
 
 Equ; ANGULAR. 
 
 Equicrural. 
 Eqjjidifferent. 
 Eqjjidistant. 
 Equilateral. 
 Martyr, 
 Nabonassax, 
 Te l e scope- 
 Region, 
 Bible. 
 Adfected. 
 Demonstr at ion. 
 Re afforested. 
 Abaft. 
 Wi NE. 
 
 Reacgravatiqn. 
 Unci a. 
 Reasonable. 
 
 Al LE. 
 
 DEMi-i;V, 
 Ball ance. 
 Level. 
 Pressure. 
 Cut icul ares. 
 Vespertilionum. 
 Di lata tores. 
 Elevator. 
 Linea. 
 Offa. 
 Argentum. 
 Alkahest. 
 
 ACETUM. 
 
 Alkaly. 
 Al. 
 
 Helm. 
 Alle rion. 
 
 Ga LLS. 
 AUR E A. 
 
 See ( Sicut alias. 
 
 Inalienable. 
 
 Fl NES. 
 JEo I LIS. 
 
 Alkaly. 
 Statue. 
 Frank Alleu. 
 Allodium. 
 Seron. 
 Plow. 
 Pure. 
 
 Aloes. 
 Po I N t 1 n g . 
 Rouse. 
 Worm. 
 Column. 
 
 Ass ISA. 
 Partus. 
 Fr iction. 
 
 f Differential, and 
 < Differentio dijft- 
 C rential. 
 Integral. 
 Gregorian. 
 Fasti. 
 Golden. 
 Cal 1 ber. 
 Calqjjing. 
 Corpus. 
 Calogeri. 
 Roll. 
 Tin. 
 
 Camaiev. 
 Cambri ng. 
 Oil. 
 Aid. 
 Fly 1 no. 
 Company. 
 Arteriosus. 
 Transcriptio. 
 Grotta. 
 
 Canina 
 
CAT 
 
 C H A 
 
 Carina fames. 
 Caninus rifus. 
 Cannon, demt. 
 Cannon, Carriage of. 
 Cannon, Elevation of. 
 Cannon, mounting of. 
 Cannon, nailing of. 
 Canon. 
 
 Canon regular of Lateran, 
 Canonical, po/l. 
 Canonical Purgation. 
 Canonicate. 
 Cantic ghtoins. 
 Canting Arms. 
 Cantoned Columns. 
 Canvas, Painting on. 
 Canul a. 
 Caps, fulling of. 
 Cap ac i ty. 
 Cape, doubling of. 
 Cape Verd Company. 
 Capiendo Apojlata. 
 Capiendo Excommunicato-. 
 Capillaceous. 
 Capital Aid. 
 Capital Duumviri. 
 Capital Triumviri. 
 Capital Lint. 
 Capital, Axis of. 
 Ca PITALj Flower of. 
 C a p i t e , Tenant in. 
 Capitis aflimatio. 
 Capitis, Flexor. 
 Capitis, Obliquus. 
 Capitis, Reclus lateralis. 
 Capons Flight. 
 Cap it in us Sanguis, 
 Capsella. 
 Capstan, heave at. 
 Captain Galley. 
 Captain, feconi, 
 Capto Homine, 
 Capto Cltrico. 
 Carat. 
 
 Cardan's La?np* 
 Cardiac Waters. 
 Cardinal Canons. 
 Carduus Water. 
 Cargo. 
 
 Carmen Ambarvalt. 
 Carmen Seculare. 
 Carnation. 
 Car naval. 
 Carneje Columna. 
 Caroli, Cor. 
 Carolitic Column. 
 Carpenters Level. 
 Carpi Extenfor. 
 Carpi Flexor. 
 
 CARTEL0I3. 
 
 Cartilaginous Fijh. 
 Carucarum Eleemofyna. 
 Caruncul^e Myrtiformes. 
 Caryatic Order. 
 Case, Anion upon. 
 Cases, oblique. 
 Cash-Boo&. 
 Casing. 
 Cask, Ullage of. 
 Cast Medals. 
 Cast, repairing of. 
 Casting Glafs. 
 Casting the hoof. 
 Castkensis Corona. 
 Castus, Agnus. 
 Casual Homicide. 
 Casual Offices. 
 Cat's Eye. 
 
 CaTADIOPTric Telefcope, 
 
 Cat alectic. 
 
 Cat ALL is rahabendls. 
 Catallis tmtis. 
 Categorical Syllogifm. 
 
 Catharsis. 
 
 Cathartic. 
 Catharticum Linum. 
 Cathedral, Chancellor of. 
 Cathedral?, Vergers of. . 
 
 I See ( 
 
 Fames. 
 
 C a t h E t us of Obliquation. 
 
 > 
 
 Risus. 
 
 Catoptric Telefcope. 
 
 
 De M IC AN NOJtf, 
 
 Causa, Corpus cum. 
 
 
 Carri age. 
 
 Causal Conjunctions, 
 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Cause of Gravity. 
 
 
 Mo U N T 1 N G . 
 
 Cause of Winds. 
 
 
 Nai LING- 
 
 Cause of Continuation of Motion. 
 
 NoMOC ANON. 
 
 Cause de Vicinage. 
 
 
 Lateran. 
 
 Cause, Challenge upon. 
 
 
 DeUTE ROCAKQNICAL. 
 
 Cause, Continent. 
 
 
 Pur g ation. 
 
 Cause, Procatarclic. 
 
 
 C A N O N R Y . 
 
 Caust ic OH of Arfenic. 
 
 
 QjJOI N. 
 
 Caustic Water. 
 
 
 Arms. 
 
 Cautelam, abfolutio ad, 
 Caxton Plough. 
 
 
 Column. 
 
 
 Painting. 
 
 
 
 Cannula. 
 
 
 
 Fulling. 
 
 
 
 Incapacity. 
 
 
 
 DoU B LIN G. 
 
 Cele. 
 
 
 Com pa ny. 
 
 
 
 APOST ATA. 
 
 
 
 Excommunicato, 
 
 
 
 Capillary. 
 
 
 
 Aid. 
 
 Celestial Obfervations. 
 
 
 Duumviri. 
 
 
 Tr i umviri. 
 
 Celestial Harmony. 
 
 
 Line. 
 
 Celestial Magic. 
 
 
 Axis, 
 
 Celestial Mufic. 
 
 
 Flower. 
 
 Cemetery. 
 
 
 Tenant. 
 
 Centaur. 
 
 
 /Est i matio. 
 
 
 
 Flexor. 
 
 Center, Angle at. 
 
 i 
 
 Obliquus. 
 Rectus. 
 
 Center, Angle without. J 
 
 Center, Equation of. 
 
 
 Flight. 
 
 Centers, Dials without. 
 
 
 Sanguis. 
 
 Cent i nel. 
 
 
 Ca psu la. 
 
 Central Line. 
 
 
 He ave. 
 
 Centre. 
 
 
 Gal ley. 
 
 Centri c. 
 
 
 Second, 
 
 
 Homine. 
 
 
 
 Cler i co. 
 
 Centuriata Comitia. 
 
 
 Car a c t. 
 
 Cephalic Waters. 
 
 
 AMP. 
 
 Cereales JEdiles. 
 
 
 ( W ATE R. 
 
 Cerebelli Medulla. 
 
 
 Canon. 
 
 Cerebri Medulla. 
 
 } 
 
 W A T E R . 
 
 Cerebri Nates. 
 
 
 Supercargo. 
 
 Cere cloth. 
 
 
 Amb arvale. 
 
 Ceremonies, Maflir of. 
 
 
 Seculare. 
 
 Cerevisi-s: y Panis ajfij 
 
 "a. 
 
 Incarnation. 
 
 Cerevisije fcf Panis emendatio. 
 
 Carnival. 
 
 Certainty moral. 
 
 
 CoLUMNiE, 
 
 Ceruss of Anthnony. 
 
 
 Cor. 
 
 Cession. 
 
 
 Column. 
 
 
 
 Le VE L. 
 
 Ceti, Sperms. 
 
 
 ExTE N50R, 
 
 ChACE, frank. 
 
 
 Flexor. 
 
 Chacing Back. 
 
 
 t Metacarpus, and 
 
 Chaldee Bibles. 
 
 
 I Pericarp us. 
 
 Chalybeat Water. 
 
 
 Quatelois. 
 
 Chalyeeat Wine. 
 
 
 Fish. 
 
 Chalybeated Tartar. 
 
 
 Eleemosyna. 
 
 Chamber of Accounts. 
 
 
 My R T I FOR M ES. 
 
 Chamber, imperial. 
 
 
 Order. 
 
 Chamber, Star. 
 
 
 Act ion. 
 
 Chambers, String of 
 
 
 Ob l i qjje. 
 
 Chamberlain, Arch. 
 
 
 Book. 
 
 Chamberlain, Vice, 
 
 
 Uncasing, 
 
 Cham let. 
 
 
 Ullage. 
 
 Chancellor, Arch. 
 
 
 Med a l. 
 
 Chancellor, Vice. 
 
 
 Repair. 
 
 Chancery, Attachment 
 
 "f 
 
 Glass. 
 
 Chancery, Inns of. 
 
 Hoof. 
 
 Change. 
 
 
 L-ROW. 
 
 Changer, Mamy, 
 
 
 Agnus Liajtus. 
 
 Chanter, Arch. 
 
 
 Ho M I C I D E . 
 
 Chanter, Sub. 
 
 
 Office. 
 
 Chapel, free-. 
 
 
 
 
 1 ELESCOPE. 
 
 Charge. 
 
 
 5 Acatalectic, and 
 
 
 
 ( Hypercat alectic. 
 
 Charge a Mortar. 
 
 
 Terr is. 
 
 Charge, Rent, 
 Charged, counter. 
 
 
 Syllogism. 
 
 Charged Arms. 
 
 
 f Hypercatharsif, 
 
 Charged Cylinder. 
 
 
 I Hypocatharsis. 
 
 Charity, Roman. 
 
 
 Anacathartic. 
 
 Charm, Counter. 
 
 
 Li N u M . 
 
 Chart, Mercator J s. 
 
 
 Chancellor. 
 
 Chart, Plain. 
 
 
 Verger. 
 
 Chartje Warrantia. 
 
 
 Sce< 
 
 Obliquation. 
 Te lescope. 
 Corpus. 
 Conjunction. 
 Gr av it y. 
 Wind. " 
 Projectile. 
 Com m on. 
 Challenge, ' 
 Continent. 
 Procatarctic, 
 Arsen i c 
 Water. 
 Absolut io. 
 Plough. 
 
 Bronchocele, 
 
 Bubonocele, 
 
 CiRSOCELEj 
 
 Enterocele, 
 
 HyDROCE LE, 
 
 Omphalocele, 
 Oscheocele, 
 
 Pn'EUM ATOCE LE, 
 
 Spermatocele, and- 
 
 Steatocele. 
 Coel estial. 
 Harmony. 
 Magic. 
 Music. 
 
 Coemeterium. 
 c Bu centaur, .and 
 I Hippocentaur. 
 
 Angle. 
 
 Equat ion. 
 Dial, 
 Sent i nel. 
 Line. 
 Center. 
 C Concentric, 
 \ Homocentric, and 
 CExcentric. 
 Com i ti a. 
 Water. 
 /Edi les. 
 
 Medulla. 
 Nates. 
 
 Se A R C LOTH, 
 
 Master. 
 Assisa. 
 
 Emendatio. : 
 Mor a l. 
 Ant i mony. 
 ( Concession, and 
 ( Retrocession. 
 Sperm a Ceti. 
 Frank. 
 Rechacino. 
 
 Bi BLE. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Crystals. 
 
 accou nts. 
 
 Imperial. 
 
 St AR-Chamb*r. 
 
 Fugue. 
 
 Ar en-Chamberlain. 
 
 V i c e -Chamberlain, 
 Camblet. 
 Audi-Chancellor. 
 
 V iCE-Chancellor, 
 Attachment. 
 Inn. 
 
 Rechange. 
 Money Cha?iger. 
 AncH-Chanler. | 
 Sun-Chanter. 
 Free. 
 
 ( Countercharge, 
 -i Recharge, and 
 t Surcharge. 
 Mortar. 
 Rent. 
 
 Cou N T E Tt-chargtd. 
 Arms. 
 
 Cyl I NDER. 
 
 Roman. 
 
 Coukte K-Charm. 
 Mercator'j Chart. 
 Plain. 
 Warranty. 
 
 Charter 
 
DAY 
 
 D E T 
 
 Ch a R T E R , Tenant by. 
 Chase, Beafls of. 
 Cheap, Land. 
 Cheat, Soul's. 
 Chemical Pharmacy. 
 Chemical Phyfuians. 
 Chemical Pyrotechny. 
 Chemical Qualities. 
 Chemistry. 
 Chequer. 
 
 Chest, Bomb. 
 Chest, Powder. 
 Chevalry. 
 Chevel, Aid. 
 Chevin Fijhing. 
 Chevroned, counter. 
 Chicken Pox. 
 Chief Arch, 
 Ch i EF, dexter. 
 Chief, Tenant in. 
 Ch ieves. ' 
 Chi mney, Funnel of. 
 Chimney, Gorge of, 
 Ch i n a Silks. 
 Chjna Varnijh. 
 Ch i n ese Coins. 
 Chinese Ink. 
 Ch i N ese Money. 
 Chinese Printing. 
 Ch i nese Weights. 
 CniP-Wine. 
 
 Ch J ROGRAPH ARY Debt. 
 Chirurgeons Needles, 
 Chivalry, Court of. 
 Choleric Complexion, 
 Choraico Stylo, 
 
 Chord. 
 
 Chorda Achillis. 
 Chori, Domejlicus. 
 Christ, Year of. 
 Christ'-j Hofpttal. 
 Christian Oeconomy. 
 Christian Calendar. 
 Chroma. 
 Chromatic Diefis. 
 Chronological Column. 
 Chub Fijhing. 
 Church, Chop. 
 Church, collegiate. 
 Church, Roman. 
 CnuRCHj'titular. 
 Church, Dofior of 
 Church, Honours of. 
 Church, No'me hi la tor. 
 Church, Peace of, 
 CuuRcn-Rceve. 
 Church, Vergers of. 
 Chyli, Receptaculum. 
 
 CHYM A. 
 
 Chymicum Ovum. 
 Chymistry, Characters in, 
 
 Cl NERATION. 
 CiNQUE-Ports, Barons of . 
 C I N QU E -Por Tf , Guardians of 
 
 DACE Fijhing. 
 Dactylic Alcaics. 
 JJALLER. 
 
 Dame, not re. 
 Damnum, ad quod. 
 Dance, Moresk. 
 Danish Companies. 
 Danish Monies. 
 Dapi FER, Arch. 
 Dare, Arma. 
 Dare FiJInng. 
 Dative Tutorage. 
 Datus, Dies. 
 Day, Anniverfary. 
 Days, Court. 
 Days, enneatical. 
 Days, ferial. 
 Days, Halcyon. 
 Days, Holy-rood. 
 Days, Houj'mld. 
 Day, h.mcents. 
 Day, Lammas. 
 
 =>See 
 
 /'Tenant. 
 
 Beasts. 
 
 hAHD-cbeap. 
 
 Sou l's Cheat. 
 
 Pharmacy. 
 
 Physician. 
 
 Pyrotechny. 
 
 Quality. 
 
 Chymistry. 
 
 Exchequer. 
 
 Water. 
 
 ioMB Cheft. 
 Powder. 
 Chivalry, 
 Aid. 
 Fish i ng. 
 
 Cou n TER-chevronsd. 
 
 Pox. 
 
 Arch. 
 
 Dexter. 
 
 Tenant. 
 
 Chives. 
 
 Funnel. 
 
 Gorge. 
 
 Silk. 
 
 Varnish. 
 
 Co I N. 
 
 'nk. 
 
 Money. 
 
 Pr I NTING. 
 
 Weight. 
 Wine. 
 Debt. 
 Needle. 
 Court. 
 Complexion. 
 Style. 
 'Heptachord, 
 iHexachord, 
 Monochord,- 
 'Pentachord, and 
 ^Tetra chord. 
 Achilles. 
 Domesticus. 
 Epoch a. 
 Hospi tal. 
 Oeconomy. 
 Calendar. 
 
 MoNOCHROMA. 
 
 Diesis. 
 
 Column. 
 
 Fishing. 
 
 Chop Church, 
 
 Collegiate. 
 
 Roman. 
 
 Title. 
 
 Doctor. 
 
 Honour. 
 
 Nomenclator. 
 
 Peace. ; 
 
 Reeve. 
 
 Verger. 
 
 Receptaculum. 
 
 Hypochyma. 
 
 Ovum. 
 
 Character 
 
 Incineration. 
 
 Baron. 
 Fishing, 
 
 ALC Al C. 
 
 Dollar. 
 t$OTRE-Dame. 
 Ad quod. 
 Moresk. 
 Com pan y. 
 Money. 
 
 Archidapifer.- 
 
 Arma. 
 
 Fishing. 
 
 Tutorage. 
 
 Dies. 
 
 Anniversary. 
 Court. 
 Enneatical. 
 Feri al. 
 Ha lc yon. 
 Holy-rood. 
 Houshol d. 
 Innocent. 
 
 UAMMA5. 
 
 Day, Lujlrat. 
 Day, Midjummer. 
 Da ys, Quarter. 
 Day 'j Journey , Sabbath. 
 Day, Twelfth. 
 Day, Year and. 
 Days of Grace. 
 Day, Signals by. 
 Day, Telefcope. 
 Deacon, fub. 
 Dead Water. 
 Dead, Mafs of. 
 Dean, fub. 
 Death, civil. 
 Death, Article of. 
 Death of Enemies. 
 Debility, accidental, 
 Debt-Boo&. 
 Debt, Tallies of. 
 Decadal Arithmetic. 
 Decenn A. 
 Decim^e. 
 
 Decimarum Advocatione, 
 
 Decimandi modus. 
 
 Deck-NoUs. 
 
 Deck, quarter. 
 
 Declination of the Needle. 
 
 Declination, Parallels of. 
 
 Declining Recliner. 
 
 Decree, antecedent, 
 
 Decressant. 
 
 Decried Species. 
 
 Decdry. 
 
 Dec ypheri ng. 
 
 Deed, counter. 
 
 Deed, AJfignee by. 
 
 Deed, Condition in a. 
 
 Deeds, falfe, forger. 
 
 Deed, Surrender in. 
 
 Deer, hunting of. 
 
 Defective Numbers. 
 
 Defeisible. 
 
 Defence-Z.iV?, Complement. 
 
 DeFENDE NDO_/?. 
 Defendendo fe, perdonatio. 
 Definite Propofition, 
 Definitive Torture. 
 Degree, Addition of. 
 Degree, comparative. 
 Degrees, conjoint. 
 Degrees, parodical* 
 Degree, pofitive. 
 De g r e e , Juper lathe. 
 Dei, Agnus. 
 Dei, Argentum. 
 Dei, Denarius. 
 Dei, Judicium. 
 Deliac Problem. 
 Deli ber ANBoExcommunicato. 
 De l i b e r a n do Harede. 
 Deli ble. 
 
 Del iveries, Clerk of 
 
 Delivery, Goal, Jujlices of. 
 
 Demarcation, Line of 
 
 Demeanour. 
 
 Demesne. 
 
 Demi-Paw/*. 
 
 Demi-ZWzVuo. 
 
 Demonstration, apagogical, 
 Demonstration, ojtenfive. 
 Demy. 
 
 Dentes Oculares. 
 DeNTES Sapiential. 
 Depart, Water of. 
 Deponere, Arma. 
 Derivative Affetlions. 
 Derivative Words. 
 Descendens obliquus. 
 Descen dentes Cervicales. 
 DescensioK, oblique. 
 Descensum, per. 
 Descent, D'ijlillation by. 
 Descent, Riens par. 
 Description of the Globes. 
 
 Description, organical. 
 
 Design, Reduction of. 
 Des i RE, antecedent, 
 Desi re', comme eft. 
 Deta ining, forcible. t 
 Determinate Number. 
 
 =>Scc= 
 
 ^LUJTRAI.. 
 
 Midsummer. 
 
 Qjj ARTE R, 
 
 Sabbath. 
 T'we LFTH. 
 Year. 
 Grace. 
 .Si gnal. 
 Te l escope. 
 Subdeacon. 
 Wat er. 
 Messe. 
 Sub de a n. 
 Civil. 
 Article. 
 Mass. 
 
 Accidental. 
 Book. 
 Ta l l y. 
 Ari thmet I c. 
 Tithing. 
 Non^ & decimct 
 Advocat i ONE. 
 Modus. 
 Nail. 
 Quarter. 
 Needie. 
 Paral lel. 
 Recl I ner. 
 Antecedent. 
 Decrement. 
 Species. 
 Tithing. 
 Deciphering. 
 Counterdeed. 
 Assignee. 
 Condition. 
 Forger. 
 Surrender.. 
 Hunt i ng. 
 Number. 
 Indefeisible. 
 Complement, 
 Se defendendo. 
 Ch ARTA. 
 PrOPOSI TION. 
 
 Torture. 
 Addition. 
 Comparative. 
 Con jo int. 
 Parodical. 
 
 PoSI T I VE. 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 Agnus Dei. 
 
 Argentum. 
 
 Denarius. 
 
 Judic l UM. 
 
 Problem. 
 
 Excommunicato, 
 
 HiEREDE. 
 
 Indelible. 
 Clerk. 
 Justice. 
 Line. 
 
 Misdemeanour. 
 
 Demain. 
 
 Pause. 
 
 Relievo. 
 
 Volt. 
 
 Apagogical. 
 
 OsTENSI VE. 
 
 Demi. 
 
 Oculares. 
 
 Sapient iiE. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Arma. 
 
 Affection". 
 
 Word. 
 
 Obli quus. 
 
 Cervicales, 
 
 Oblique. 
 
 Per Dejcenjum. 
 
 Distillation. 
 
 Rl ENS. 
 
 Globe. 
 
 ( Curve, and 
 
 ( Organical. 
 Reduct ion. 
 Antecedent. 
 
 so it fait. 
 
 Forcible. 
 
 Ni'.-.JSSR. 
 
 Deum, 
 
D I S 
 
 FAS 
 
 bsW, r* • 
 
 Devotion', Homage of. 
 Dew, mi/i 
 Dew, i/amy. 
 Dexter, Bend. 
 Dexter, Bend, parly per. 
 Di aboli morfus. 
 Diabolicum Parllainenium. 
 Di ACoN ATE. 
 Diaex, Didpttfon. 
 Diagonal Barometer. 
 Dial, azimuth. 
 
 Dial, catoptrical. 
 Dial, declining. 
 
 Dial, deinclining. 
 
 Dial, elliptical. 
 
 Dial, horizontal. 
 
 Dials, polar. 
 
 Dials, ref rafted. 
 
 Dial, universal. 
 
 Dial, Cock of. 
 
 Dial, Plane of. 
 
 Diameter, apparent. 
 
 Diameter, Figure of. 
 
 Diamond, falfe. 
 
 Diapason. 
 
 Di A PE NT E. 
 
 Diaphoretic of Tin. 
 Diaphragmatic Nerves. 
 
 Di atessaro'n", Diapafon. 
 
 DiAZEUCTTC Syllogifm. 
 
 DlAZEUCMENON Nete. 
 
 Dictator, Pro. 
 Diction, obfeurhy of. 
 Die, fine. 
 Diem, poji. 
 Di en, hb. 
 
 DiEs,/e/?/. 
 
 Diet, imperial. 
 Difference, defccnfional. 
 Difference, numerical. 
 Di fferent, equi. 
 Differential Calculus. 
 D i F for M Temperament. 
 Digesting Fire. 
 Dignities, accidental. 
 Di i Manes. 
 Dn novemftles. 
 Diminished Angle. 
 Diminution, Diameter of. 
 Di nost R ates's S^uadratrix. 
 Diocesan Synod. 
 Diocese, Chancellor of. 
 Diocese, Exarch of. 
 Dipt Candles. 
 Di PT Medals. 
 Diptere, pfeudo. 
 Dire Voir. 
 Direct Confirmation. 
 Direct Method of Fluxions, 
 Direct Mood. 
 Direct Percuffion. 
 Direct Propofition. 
 Direct Line, fncceffion in. 
 Direction, arch of . 
 Direction, converfe. 
 Directum Dominium. 
 Disclaimer, redo fur. 
 
 DlSCOIDAL. 
 
 Discous. 
 Disease, endemic. 
 Disease, exotic. 
 Disease, organkal. 
 Disease, periodic. 
 Disease, popular. 
 Disease, proleptic. 
 Disease, Jimtlar. 
 Disease, fpurious. 
 Disease, venereal. 
 Disgust. 
 Disjunct Affetliox. 
 Disjunctive Syllogifm. 
 Dispersion, Point of. 
 Dissolving Appropriation. 
 
 Vs. Dcum. 
 Homage. 
 Mildew. 
 Honey. 
 Bend. 
 Party-. 
 Morsus. 
 
 Parli amentum. 
 Deaconry. 
 Diapason Diaex. 
 Barometer. 
 Azimuth. 
 Catoptrical. 
 Decl i ning. 
 Deinclining. 
 Elliptical. 
 Horizontal. 
 Polar. 
 Rf.fr acted. 
 Universal. 
 Cock.. 
 
 LAKE. 
 
 Apparent. 
 Figure. 
 Fa lse. 
 
 r- Di s-diapason, 
 j Semi-di apason, and 
 1 Tetra-diapason. 
 
 r Se M I-DI APENTF. , 
 \ Di APASON - DIAPEN- 
 
 i te, and 
 
 LDiSDIAPASON - DIA- 
 TlN. [PENTE. 
 
 Nerve. [saron, 
 ("Diapason -diates- 
 
 J DlSDIAPASON - D r A 
 
 J tessa ron, and 
 LSemi-diatessaron. 
 Syllogism. 
 Nete. 
 
 Pro-dictator. 
 Obscurity. 
 Sine Die. 
 Post Diem. 
 Ich Dien. 
 Sec '• Festi. 
 
 Imperial. 
 Descensional, 
 Numerical. 
 Equi different. 
 Calculus. 
 Temperament. 
 Fire. 
 
 Accidental. 
 Manes. 
 
 NoVEMSILES. 
 
 Angle. 
 Di ameter. 
 Quadratrix. 
 Synod. 
 Chancellor. 
 Exarch. 
 Candle. 
 Medal. 
 
 Pseudo-diptere. 
 Voi R. 
 
 Confirmation. 
 Fluxions. 
 Mood. 
 Percussion. 
 Proposition. 
 Succession. 
 Arch. 
 Converse. 
 Dominium. 
 Recto. 
 
 Flowers. 
 
 Endemic. 
 Exot i c. 
 Organical, 
 Periodic. 
 Popular. 
 Proleptic, 
 Similar. 
 Spurious. 
 Venereal. 
 Distaste. 
 Affecti on. 
 Syllogism, 
 Point. 
 
 Appropriation, 
 
 XCICCATION. 
 
 Distance, accefiible. ~~\ 
 Distance, inacceffibk. 
 Dsstance, meridional. 
 Distance, Suns. 
 Distance, zenith. 
 Distances and Rhu?nbs. 
 Distant, equi. 
 Distillation of Brandy. 
 DlSTI LLATUM Acetum. 
 Distinct Small-pox. 
 Ditch, Tenaille of. 
 
 Ditone. 
 
 Divina virgula. 
 
 Divinatorius Baculus. 
 
 Divine Faith. 
 Divine Fate. 
 Divine Law. 
 Divine Prebend. 
 Divinity, fcholajlic. 
 Di V ise. 
 
 Divisor, common. 
 Divortium, Cut ante. 
 Diurnal Arch. 
 Doctrine of Sphere. 
 
 Dog -Nails. 
 
 Dogs, laiving of. 
 Dogs, worming of. 
 Doge, vice. 
 Dog -legged Stairs. 
 Dollar, Six. 
 
 E 
 
 Fable, Moral of . 
 Fa cere Regalia. 
 HAciA* 
 Facias, fieri. 
 Facias, habere feifinam. 
 Facias, levari. 
 Facias, rccordari. 
 Faci A*,fcire. 
 Facias, venire, 
 Facienda Allocations. 
 Facienda Contribution . 
 Facienda Converfione. 
 Facienda Executione. 
 Facienda Perambulation. 
 Facienda Reparation. 
 Fac i endo nttumato. 
 Fact, Covenant in. 
 Fact, Releafe in. 
 Factitious Allum. 
 Factitious Diamonds. 
 Factitious Salt-pctre. 
 Factitious Vermillion, 
 Facti ve Art. 
 Facto, de. 
 Factum, non eft. 
 Faculty of Advocates. 
 Faculties, Mafler of. 
 
 FiECU LENT. 
 
 Failin G. 
 
 F ait , fait comme il eft defire. 
 
 Fa i T, riens pajfe par. 
 
 Faith, Article. 
 
 Fa i th, Confeffton of. 
 
 Fall, land. 
 
 Fall, wind. 
 
 Fallen, Creft. 
 
 Falli b le. 
 
 Fallowing, twi. 
 
 Fallows, ploughing of. 
 
 False Judgment. 
 
 False Medals. 
 
 False Propofition. 
 
 False Root. 
 
 False Species. 
 
 False Sutur-e. 
 
 False Deeds, Forger of. 
 
 Falsity. 
 
 Famous. 
 
 Fan, mounting of. 
 
 Fancy. 
 
 Farm, Fee. 
 
 Farthing, fmoak. 
 
 Fascia. 
 
 Fash ions. 
 
 Fast, held, 
 
 Sec ( 
 
 Accessible. 
 Inaccessible. 
 Meridional. 
 Sun. 
 
 Zenith. 
 
 Chart. 
 
 Equidistant. 
 
 Brandy. 
 
 Acetum. 
 
 Pox. 
 
 Tenai lle. 
 
 r Di apason-ditone, 
 
 ^ DlSDI APASON-D1TO- 
 t NE, SESQU i-DI TONE. 
 VlRGULA. 
 
 5 Baculus, and 
 
 t VlRGULA. 
 
 Faith. 
 
 Fate. 
 
 Law. 
 
 Prebend. 
 
 Scholastic. 
 
 Devise. 
 
 Common. 
 
 Cui ante. 
 
 Arch. 
 
 Spheri cs. 
 
 Nail. 
 
 Lawing. 
 
 Worm. 
 
 V ICR-Doge. 
 
 Stairs. 
 
 Rl XDOLL AR. 
 
 Exsiccation. 
 Moral. 
 
 Rr G ALIA. 
 
 Face. 
 Fieri. 
 
 SE1SI NAM. 
 Levari. 
 Recordari. 
 Sc ire. 
 Venire. 
 Allocatione. 
 Co ntributiqne. 
 Conversions. 
 Executione. 
 ?er ambulations 
 Reparations. 
 Atturnato; 
 Covenant. 
 Re lease. 
 Al lum. 
 Di amond. 
 Saltpetre. 
 Vermillion. 
 Art. 
 
 Possession. 
 Non eft faftum. 
 advocate. 
 Master. 
 Feculent. 
 Fai lure, 
 ooit. 
 Ri ENS. 
 
 Article. 
 Confession. 
 Land-fall. 
 Wind-fall. 
 Crest-fallen. 
 Infallible. 
 Twi fallowing. 
 Ploughing. 
 Judgment. 
 Medal. 
 Proposition. 
 Root. 
 Spec i es. 
 Suture. 
 Forger. 
 Falshood. 
 Infamous. 
 Mounting. 
 Phantasy. 
 F EE-farm. 
 Smoak. 
 Face. 
 Farcin. 
 Hold-fast. 
 
 Fat. 
 
F I N 
 
 FLO 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Fat Waters, 
 
 Fa t hemites. 
 
 Fathers of S. Lazarus. 
 
 Fat u us, Ignis* 
 
 Faucon. 
 
 Fauconrv. 
 
 Favour, Rffignation in. 
 
 Fear, panic. 
 
 Feast of Purification. 
 
 Feastf, moveable. 
 
 Feather, Cut. 
 
 Fee, alienating in. 
 
 Fee, arriere. 
 
 Fee, bar. 
 
 Fee, baft. 
 
 Fee, frank. 
 
 Fee, guaranty. 
 
 Fee, Aw* </< 
 
 Fee, Knights. 
 
 Fee, retaining. 
 Feeding Fijh. 
 F'eet, Crows. 
 Feet, foundering in. 
 Fe icked Rec/r-very. 
 Felony, Mifprifton of. 
 Feme, Baron and. 
 Fe moris §>uadratus. 
 Femoris Reel us. 
 Fence, Frampole. 
 Fennel -Seed. 
 Fe n n e h"ff r aifA 
 Feodal. 
 Feod atar V. 
 Feoffamenti forma. 
 FxftlJI jementina. 
 TERM, frank. 
 FERREA a/«fl. , 
 Fesse, party per. 
 F'eUD, deadly. 
 Feud ary. 
 Feud atary. 
 Fe udu m. 
 Feud i apertura. 
 Fever, continent. 
 Fever, continued. 
 Fever, miliary. 
 Fever, military. 
 Fever, peflilentiat. 
 Fever, purple. 
 Fever, putrid. 
 Fever, fecondary. 
 Fial, or Fiol. 
 
 F I C H A N T Flank. 
 Fi chant Line of defence. 
 Fiducial Line. 
 Field Officers. 
 Fifth Pair of Nerves. 
 Fifth Rate. 
 Fi ghts, clofe. 
 Fight, Signals for. 
 FlGURATE Drjcant. 
 FiGURATE Hijhry. 
 Figure, Academy. 
 Figures, Arabic. 
 Figures, curvilinear. 
 Figures, equal. 
 Figure, generating. 
 Figures, byfkrhblifbrm. 
 Figures, ijopcrimetrical. 
 Ficures, like. 
 Figure, m'rxt. 
 Figure, plain. 
 Figure, prime. 
 Figures, reciprocal. 
 Figure, refulual. 
 Figure, Ambit of. 
 Figure, Mcafurt of. 
 Figure, Reduction of. 
 File, half, Rear. 
 Filius, Terra. 
 Filling, Beam. ■ 
 Fillings up of Vault. 
 Filtre. 
 Final Execution. 
 Fi NT, fuper. 
 Fine, common. 
 Fine, pojl. 
 
 Fines, Chirographer of. 
 Fines and Recoveries , Clerk t 
 Fine, Note of. 
 Fines, Tabling of. 
 Vol. IL 
 
 >See 
 
 Vat. .... , wv - 
 
 Water. 
 
 Fathimites. 
 
 Lazarus. 
 
 Ignis. 
 
 Falcon. 
 
 Falconry. 
 
 Resignation, 
 
 Panic Fear, 
 
 Purification. 
 
 Moveable. 
 
 Cut. 
 
 Alienate. 
 
 ARR I ERE. 
 
 Bar Fee. 
 
 Base Fee. 
 
 Frank. 
 
 Guaranty. 
 
 Hors. 
 
 Knight. 
 
 Retaining. 
 
 Fish. 
 
 Crows Feet. 
 
 Foundering. 
 
 Recovery. 
 
 Misprision. 
 
 Baron. 
 
 Quadr atus. 
 
 Rectus. 
 
 Frampole Fence. 
 Seed. 
 Water. 
 Feudal. 
 Feudat ary. 
 Contra formani. 
 
 SEMENTINiE. 
 
 Frank Ferm. 
 Ulna, 
 
 Party per feffi. 
 Deadly Feud. 
 
 FeodarY. 
 
 Fee. 
 
 Apertura. 
 
 Cont inent. 
 
 cont inued. 
 
 Mr li ary. 
 
 Military. 
 
 Pest i lential. 
 
 Purple. 
 
 Putrid. 
 
 Secondary. 
 
 Phial. 
 
 Flank. 
 
 Line. 
 
 Officer. 
 
 Nerve. 
 
 Rate. 
 
 Close Fights. 
 
 Signal. 
 
 Descant. 
 
 History. 
 
 Academy. 
 
 Arabic. 
 
 Curvilinear. 
 
 Eqo a l . 
 
 Generating. 
 
 Hyperboliform. 
 
 IsOPERI METRICAL. 
 
 Like. 
 
 Mixt. 
 
 Plain. 
 
 Prime. 
 
 Reciprocal. 
 
 Residual. 
 
 Ambit., 
 
 Measure. 
 
 Reduction. 
 
 Rear half File. 
 
 Terr* Filius. 
 
 Beam filling. 
 
 Vault. 
 
 Fi lter. 
 
 Execut I ON. 
 
 SupER-fine. 
 
 Common. 
 
 :-fin, 
 
 Chirographer. 
 Clerk. 
 Note. 
 Tabu if o-. 
 
 Fine 1 , Capias pro. 
 
 Fin.ite Dijlrefs. 
 
 Finite Propofilion. 
 
 Firdw i Tt, 
 
 Fire-^Wj, artificial. 
 
 Fire chemife. 
 
 Fire, culinary. 
 
 Fire, naked. 
 
 Fire, Olympic. 
 
 Fire, port. 
 
 Fire, Wheel. 
 
 FiRE, gilding by. 
 
 Fire, Into 'din ion of. 
 
 Firing, Meafure of. 
 
 Fir ma alba, 
 
 Firma Terra. 
 
 Fir m je Ejeflione. 
 
 First efficient Caufe. 
 
 First formal Notion. 
 
 First objective Notion. '. 
 
 First Rate. 
 
 First Tithe. 
 
 First Tear, Tree., pruning. 
 
 First Fruits, Remembrancer. 
 
 Fun-Glue. 
 
 Fishes, erujlaceous. 
 
 Fish, flock. 
 
 Fishery, coral. 
 
 Fishing Line, Float of . 
 
 Fissure, contra. 
 
 Fistula Lachrymalis. 
 
 Fistulous Ulcers. 
 
 Fitch ant Flank, 
 
 Fitch e', double. 
 
 Five, Ombre by. 
 
 Five, Rule of. 
 
 Fixedness. 
 
 Fixt Alkaly. 
 
 Flagon, Shot. 
 
 Flajolet. 
 
 Fl anc. 
 
 Flanders Blue. 
 
 Flanders Meafure. 
 
 Flank, Angle, forming. 
 
 Flank, open. 
 
 Flank, Attack in. 
 
 Flanked Column. 
 
 Flanking A gle. 
 
 Flannel. 
 
 Flat Bajlian. 
 
 Flat bottomed Moat, 
 
 Flat Roof. ■ 
 
 Flat Wine. 
 
 Flatulency. 
 
 Flax, Hurds of. 
 
 Flemish Coins. 
 
 Flemish Meafures. 
 
 Flemish Monies. 
 
 Flemish Tyles. 
 
 Flexion of Knee. 
 
 Flexure, contrary, Point of. 
 
 Flightwite. 
 
 Fl i nt- Walls. 
 
 Floatsam. 
 
 Flora, Field of. 
 
 Florence. 
 
 Florence, Barrel of . 
 
 Florentine Thermometer. 
 
 Florette'e, 
 
 flori ani. 
 
 Florid Attire. 
 
 Fi.or i d Defiant. 
 
 Florum omnium, aqua. 
 
 Flotta. 
 
 Flourished Freezes. 
 Flower of Antimony. 
 Flower of Tin. 
 Flowers, Trufs of. 
 Flowers, Wharls of. 
 Klowers, compound. 
 Flowers, cneullate. 
 Flower, difcous. 
 Flowers, ereil. 
 Flower, falfe. 
 Flowers, fijlular. 
 Flowers, imperfecl. 
 Flowers, ingeminated. 
 Flowers, paled. 
 Flowers, perfctl. 
 Flowers, radicated. 
 Flowers, jiaminetw. 
 Flowers, uniform. 
 
 15 I i 
 
 'Capias. 
 Distress. 
 Proposition 1 . 
 Ferdwite. 
 Artificial. 
 Chemise, 
 culi n art. 
 Naked. 
 Olympic. 
 Port. 
 Whee l. 
 
 Gl LD INC. 
 
 Interdiction. 
 Measure. 
 Alba. 
 Ferr a. 
 Ejections. 
 Eff 1 cient. 
 
 Notion. 
 
 Rate. 
 Ti theI' 
 Pruni no. 
 Remembrancer. 
 Glue. 
 
 Crustaceous. 
 Stock. 
 Coral Fiftery. 
 Float. 
 
 CoNTRA-FISSURE. 
 
 Lachrymalis. 
 Ulcer. 
 Flank. 
 Double Fitehi. 
 Ombre. 
 Rule. 
 Fixity. 
 Alkaly. 
 Shot -fiagon. 
 Flageolet^ 
 Flank. 
 Blue. 
 Measure. 
 
 J Angle. 
 Open. 
 ee-i Attack. » 
 
 CoLUM N. 
 
 Angle. 
 Flanel. 
 Bast ion. 
 Moat. 
 Roof. , 
 Wine. 
 Flatus. 
 
 HuRDSi 
 
 Co 1 n. 
 Measure. 
 Money. 
 
 TvtEt 
 
 Genuflexion. 
 Point. 
 Fled w ite. 
 Wall. 
 Flotson. 
 Field. 
 
 FLOR I N*. 
 
 Barrel. 
 Thermometer. 
 Flory. 
 Floriniani. 
 Att ire. 
 Descant. 
 Aqua. 
 Flota. 
 Freeze. 
 Antimony. 
 Tin. 
 Truss. 
 Wharls. 
 Compound. 
 Cucullate. 
 Discous. 
 Erect. 
 False. 
 Fistular, 
 Imperfect. 
 Ingeminated, 
 Paled, 
 Pe rfect. 
 Radicated. 
 Stamineous. 
 Uniform. 
 
 Flow 
 
 \2 
 
H E A 
 
 H O R 
 
 Flowered Crowns. 
 Flowing, over. 
 Flowry. 
 
 Fluids EJafiicity of. 
 Fluted Column. 
 Flutes, cabled.. 
 Fluting s, Platbands of. 
 Flux Small-pox. , 
 Fly of a Compefs. 
 Fly, fijhing. 
 
 FoEC I ALES. 
 
 Foec u ndans farina. 
 toe, Signals in. 
 Foi l, counter. 
 Fold, frank. 
 Fol i a pennata. 
 Fol i A pinnata. 
 Foliated Tartar. 
 Following Sections. 
 Font. 
 
 Habendo returno. 
 Habhdalah. 
 
 Habitual Affent. 
 
 Hjeredis roptu. 
 
 Hjeredis & Terra: cujlodia. 
 
 Hag a, Emir, 
 
 Hagbut, 
 
 Ha i R-Compaffes. 
 
 Hair, Tour sf. 
 
 Ha l f Duration. 
 
 Half Files. Rear. 
 
 H A I, F -penny Berd. 
 
 Half -fugared Confecls. 
 
 Ha lser. 
 
 Halt, String. 
 
 Ha L YARDS. 
 
 Ham ac. 
 
 Hamech Confeclion. 
 Hamper. 
 
 Hamper, Clerk of the. 
 Hamstrin g inc. 
 Ham us. 
 Hanch. 
 Hand-» 
 Hand -faw. 
 Han d-t nee. 
 Hand, bloody. 
 Hand, ambling in. 
 Hands, Impofition of. 
 Hand, jufl Appui of. 
 Hang out tlfe white. Flag. 
 Hangings, Arras. 
 Har borough Company. 
 Hard Pulfe. 
 Hard Roe. 
 Hard Soap. 
 Hardening, Cafe. 
 Hare'j Eye. 
 Hare, Trace of 
 Harmonica Trias. 
 
 Harmonic al. 
 
 HarmonicaL Hand. 
 Harmon ical Trumpet. 
 Harmony, natural. 
 Harpocrates. 
 Harponeer. 
 Harpoon . 
 Hatters Form. 
 Hatters Furnace. 
 Having, Modes of. 
 Haubergeon. 
 Ha utcout. 
 Ha ward. 
 Hawk, ragged. 
 Hawk, ramuge. 
 Hawk, weathering cf. 
 Hawser, roufing of. 
 Hay, Trtifs of 
 Hay, mod. 
 Haye. 
 
 llEAn-borcugh. 
 Head, Beak. 
 Head, Bolt. 
 Heads, Bulk. 
 Heads, forked. 
 Head, Hogs. 
 Head, Moors. 
 Healsfang. 
 Hearing ^Trumpet, 
 
 >Sec- 
 
 Crown. 
 
 Overflowing. 
 
 Flory. 
 
 Elasticity. 
 
 Column. 
 
 Cabled Flutes. 
 
 Platbands of Fluting:. 
 
 Pox. 
 
 Flie. 
 
 FlSHI NG. 
 
 FeCIsALES. 
 
 Fari na. 
 Signals. 
 Counterfoil. 
 
 FRANK-fotd. 
 
 Pennata. 
 Pi nn at a. 
 Tartar. 
 Section. 
 Fount. 
 
 Returno. 
 
 Habdala. 
 
 Assent. 
 
 Raptu. 
 
 Recto: 
 
 Em i r haga. 
 
 Harqjjeouss. 
 
 Compasses. 
 
 Tour. 
 
 Scruple. 
 
 Rear half Files. 
 
 Bord half-penny. 
 
 Confects. 
 
 Hawser. 
 
 String-halt. 
 
 Halliards. 
 
 Ham mock. 
 
 Confection. 
 
 Han aper. 
 
 Clerk. 
 
 Hameling. 
 
 Ungul a. 
 
 Haunch. 
 
 Mill. 
 
 Saw. 
 
 Vice. 
 
 BloodY. 
 
 Amble. 
 
 Im posi tion. 
 
 Appui. 
 
 Flag. 
 
 Arras Hangings. 
 
 Company. 
 
 Pulse. 
 
 Roe. 
 
 Soap. 
 
 Casz- hardening. 
 Eye. 
 Trace. 
 Tr i a s. 
 
 f CoNTR AH AR MONI- 
 
 < C A L, and 
 
 t Enharmonic a L. 
 
 Hand. 
 
 Trumpet. 
 
 Natural. 
 
 HeRMHarpocrates. 
 
 Harpineer. 
 
 Harping-/t5«, 
 
 Form. 
 
 Furnace. 
 
 Modes. 
 
 Habergion. 
 
 HdGOE. 
 
 Hay ward. 
 
 Ragged Hawk. 
 
 Ram age. 
 
 Weathering. 
 
 Rouse. 
 
 Tr uss of 'hay. 
 
 Woon-hay. 
 
 Hay. 
 
 Borough. 
 
 Beak. 
 
 Bolt. 
 
 Bulk. 
 
 For ked. 
 
 Hogshead. 
 
 Moor. 
 
 Healfang. 
 
 ^Trumpet. 
 
 Heat, aclual. 
 Heat, Sand. 
 Heat, welding. 
 Heaven. 
 Hedgebote. 
 Hedge Jlalking. 
 He icetjE. 
 Heighth, acceffiblc. 
 Heighth, inaccejfble . 
 Heighth of Atmofphers. 
 Heir, Co. 
 Helping Verbs. 
 Hemp, Hards of . 
 Henricus, Pigcr. 
 Hepatic Waters. 
 Hepatis, Anima. 
 Herbs, cauliferous. 
 Herbs, gramineous. 
 Herbs, pdyfpermous. 
 Heretic, negative. 
 Hermetic Column. 
 Her metis trutina. 
 Herophili torcular. 
 Heterogene AL. 
 Heterogeneal Number. 
 Heterogeneous Air. 
 Heterogeneous Continuity. 
 
 Hh ABAKKUK. 
 HlCETiE. 
 
 Hide, green. 
 High Admiral. 
 High Airs. 
 High Apparatus. 
 High Mafs. 
 High Treafon. 
 Higher Geometry. 
 Higher Kinds, Circles cf. 
 Higher Kinds, Cones of. 
 H igher Kinds, Parabola s of. 
 Hipparchus'x Period. 
 Hi ppocrat icum Vinum. 
 Hi rci nus Sanguis. 
 Historical Freezes, 
 Historical Types. 
 History, natural. 
 
 HlTH. 
 
 HOBOY. 
 
 Hog-lice Wine. 
 Hold Land in Peerage. 
 Hold, Copy. 
 Hold, free. 
 Holder, Copy. 
 Holding, forcible. 
 Holes, Loop. 
 Holes, Port. 
 Hole, Scoper. 
 Hole, Well. 
 Holland Meafurt. 
 Holland, Slcafy. 
 Holland, States of. 
 Hollow Bajiions. 
 Hollow Column. 
 HohY-Day Mafs. 
 Holy War. 
 Holy Water. 
 Holy Week. 
 
 Holy Virgin, Charity cf. 
 Holy Ghojl, Mafs of. 
 Homage, Receipt of. 
 Homage, Refpite of. 
 Hom i nes hindeni. 
 Homines quatuor prepofiti. 
 HoMMEs prodes. 
 Homo legalis. 
 Homo ccce. 
 
 Homogeneal Continuity. 
 Homologous Angle. 
 Honourary Canons. 
 Honourary Games. 
 Honor em, appropriari ad. 
 Hood, Rufter. 
 Hoodi ngs. 
 Hook, Ward. 
 Horary, Circles. 
 Horary Line. 
 Horizon, apparent. 
 Horizontal Barometer. 
 Horizontal Line. 
 Horizontal Needle. 
 Horned Angle. 
 HoRSE-Guards. 
 Horse -radijh- Water, 
 
 r AcTUAL Heat. 
 Sand. 
 We l ding. 
 m.idhea vf.n. 
 Ha y bote. 
 
 St A L K I KG. 
 ElCETJE. 
 
 Access i b l e . 
 Inaccessible. 
 Atmosphere. 
 Cohe I R. 
 Verb. 
 Hards. 
 Piger. 
 Water. 
 An i m a . 
 
 Cauliferous Herbs. 
 Gramineous. 
 Polyspermous. 
 Negative Heretic. 
 Column. 
 Trutina. 
 Torcu lar. 
 Heterogeneous. 
 Number. 
 Air. 
 
 Continuity. 
 Habakkuk. 
 
 ElCETiE. 
 
 Green Hide. 
 Adm i ral. 
 
 Airs. 
 
 Apparatus. 
 Mass. 
 Treason. 
 Geometry. 
 Ci rcle. 
 Cone. 
 
 Par abol a. 
 Period. 
 Vinum. 
 Sang uis. 
 Freeze. 
 Type. 
 Natural. 
 •Sec^ Hyth. 
 
 Hauboy. 
 Wine. 
 
 Pe ER AGE. 
 
 Cop y-hold. 
 Free. 
 Cop y -holder. 
 Forcible Holding. 
 ■Loop Holes. 
 Port. 
 Scoper. 
 Well. 
 Measure. 
 Sleasy. 
 States. 
 Bastion. 
 Column. 
 Mass. 
 War. 
 Water- 
 Week. 
 Char i t y. 
 Mass. 
 
 Re c e i t of Homage. 
 Res PiTE> 
 Hindeni. 
 Prepositi. 
 Prodes. 
 Legalis. 
 Ecce. 
 
 Continuity. 
 Angle. 
 Canon. 
 Game. 
 
 Appropri are. 
 
 RuXTER-hcod. 
 
 Whoodings. 
 Ward-hook. 
 Circle. 
 Line. 
 
 Apparent Horizon. 
 Barometer. 
 Line. 
 Needle. 
 An cle. 
 Guards. 
 Wat br. 
 
 Horse's 
 
MAG 
 
 M A R 
 
 Horse'j Tail. 
 Horse, light. 
 Horse, punch. 
 Horse, Jlalking. 
 Horse, jumpier. 
 Horse, Heel of. 
 Horse, Maj',r of. 
 Horse, Mcafure for. 
 Horse, rounding of. 
 Horse, rowelling of. 
 Horse, Withers of. 
 Horse, Wolves Teeth of. 
 Horse m an, Heel of. 
 Hot Baths. 
 Hot Diamargar'tton. 
 Hot Diatragacanth. 
 Hot Waters. 
 Hotel. 
 Hour -Climate. 
 Hours, medicinal. 
 Hours, forty, Prayers of. 
 House of Health. 
 House, Jims. 
 House, Compting. 
 House, Ci-Jtom. 
 House, Glafs, fire. 
 House, G la fs, furnace. 
 House, green. 
 House, muniment. 
 House, Pejl. 
 House, Printing. 
 H >use, round. 
 House, Trinity. 
 Hhuse, Wych. 
 Hou se, framing of. 
 House, Honours of. 
 - Houses, bfurance. Policy of. 
 House of Commons. 
 Houses, Table of. 
 Houshold Officers. 
 Human Laws. 
 Human Mafic. 
 Human Ufnea. 
 Hungary Green. 
 Hun t, common. 
 Hurt, Hoof. 
 Hu ycenj'i Level. 
 Hydra cor. 
 Hydraulic Column. 
 Hydraulic Machine. 
 Hydraulic Organ. 
 Hydraulic Statue. 
 Hydrostatic al Baltance. 
 Hyemal Solflhe. 
 Hyoides. 
 
 Hyperbola, ambigenal. 
 Hyperbola, diverging. 
 Hyperbola';, equal. 
 Hyperbola, equilateral. 
 Hyperbola, nodatcd. 
 Hyperbola, punclated. 
 Hyperbola, redundant. 
 Hyperboleom, nete. 
 Hyperchem at i co Stylo. 
 Hypothecary Debt. 
 Hypothetical Syllogifm. 
 Hysteric Waters. 
 
 J ace NT SucceJJicn. 
 Iambic, Galli. 
 J a m b u s, Chimney. 
 Jam b us, Galli. 
 Japan Coins. 
 Japan Silks. 
 Japan Monies. 
 Jcanatorum DomefUcus. 
 Iced Waters. 
 Icy Ocean. 
 
 Idioms, Communication of. 
 Jewish Tear. 
 Imperial Water. 
 Impressa vis. 
 Inartificial Argument. 
 
 Inundation. 
 
 "]\ Tactdoviak' Year. 
 IVx MackaiA jijhhg. 
 
 Mai- I, E. 
 
 Madrigalesco Stylo. 
 Magdeburg Centuries. 
 Magistery of Antbr.jr.y. J 
 
 
 LA I L. 
 
 ! Macistery of Sulphur. 
 i Magistrate, curuU. 
 
 
 'SjLPII'.'R. 
 
 
 Light -Horfe. 
 
 
 Curuli, Magijlrste. 
 
 
 Punch. 
 
 | Magna Foffa. 
 
 
 Fo^'S A . 
 
 
 Stalking. 
 
 \ Magnatum, Scandalum. 
 
 
 Scandalum. 
 
 
 SuMPTER. 
 
 Magnet, arfenical. 
 
 
 Arsenical Magnet. 
 
 
 Heel. 
 
 Magnet, Axis of. 
 
 
 Ax is. 
 
 
 Major. 
 
 Magneticai. Azimuth. 
 
 
 Azimuth. 
 
 
 Measure. 
 
 Magnetical Direction, 
 
 
 Direction-. 
 
 
 Round. 
 
 M AGNETICAL Alcridian, 
 
 
 Meridian. 
 
 
 Rowel ling. 
 
 Magnetical Needle. 
 
 
 Needle. 
 
 
 Withers. 
 
 Magnitude of the Earth. 
 
 
 Earth. 
 
 
 Wo r. ves. 
 
 Magnitude of the Stars. 
 
 
 Star. 
 
 
 Heel, 
 
 Magnitude, apparent. 
 
 
 Apparent. 
 
 
 Hath. 
 
 Magnum Cape. 
 
 
 Cape. 
 
 
 DiAMARGARlTON. 
 
 Magnus Pfaas. 
 
 
 Psoas. 
 
 
 Diatragacanth. 
 
 Magni Rotuli Ingrojfator. 
 
 
 Ingrossator. 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 Mahometan Lpocha. 
 
 
 Epoch a. 
 
 
 Hostel. 
 
 Maid, marine. 
 
 
 Mermaid. 
 
 
 Climate. 
 
 Maids of Honour, 
 
 
 Honour. 
 
 
 Medicinal. 
 
 Ma i hem. 
 
 
 Mahim. 
 
 
 Prayer. 
 
 Ma 1 1 Campus. 
 
 
 Campus. 
 
 
 Health. 
 
 Main Guard. 
 
 
 Guard. 
 
 
 Alms. 
 
 Main, oufier le. 
 
 
 Ouster. 
 
 
 Compting. 
 
 Ma i or. 
 
 
 Mayor. 
 
 
 Custom. 
 
 Major, Canis. 
 
 
 Canis. 
 
 
 Fire. 
 
 Major, Gajhicus. 
 
 
 Gastr ICUS. 
 
 
 Furnace. 
 
 Major, Gluteus. 
 
 
 Glu tjeus. 
 
 
 Green-house. 
 
 Major, obliquus capitis. } 
 
 
 Obl-i 
 
 I QJJUS. 
 
 
 Muniment. 
 
 Major, obliquus ocuU. 3 
 
 
 
 Pest. 
 
 Major Orders. 
 
 
 Order. 
 
 
 Pr INT IKG, 
 
 Round. 
 
 Ma jor, rectus internus capitis. ) 
 Major, reel us externum capitis. J 
 
 
 Rectus 
 
 
 Trinity. 
 
 Major, ferratus anticus. 
 
 
 Serr AT US. 
 
 
 Wyck-^. 
 
 Major, Teres. 
 
 
 Teres, 
 
 
 FRAM I NG. 
 
 Major, Urfa. 
 
 
 Ursa. 
 
 
 Honour. 
 
 Majores, Barones.' 
 
 
 Baron. 
 
 
 Pol i c y. 
 
 Major es, JEdiles. 
 
 
 JEdiles. 
 
 
 Speaker. 
 
 Makers, Parcel. 
 
 
 Parcel Makers. 
 
 
 Table. 
 
 Male Plants. 
 
 
 Plant. 
 
 
 Officers, 
 
 Ma ltese Monies. 
 
 
 Money. 
 
 
 Law. 
 
 Mammillaris Areola. 
 
 
 Areola. 
 
 
 Music. 
 
 Mammillares Caruncula. 
 
 
 Car uncu lje. 
 
 
 UsN E A. 
 
 
 
 /"Alderman. 
 
 
 Green. 
 
 
 
 Chairman. 
 
 Common. 
 
 
 \ See 
 
 Ealderm ■■ . 
 
 Sec ' 
 
 Hoof Hurt. 
 
 
 FkiENDLE^-MAN, 
 
 Level. 
 
 
 
 Gavel man. 
 
 
 Cor. 
 
 Maw. 
 
 
 J Gentleman. 
 
 
 Column. 
 
 
 1 HEBBtRHAN. 
 
 
 Machine. 
 
 
 
 HoD_MA.tr, 
 
 
 Organ. 
 
 
 
 Juurne yman, 
 
 
 Statue. 
 
 
 
 La yman. 
 
 
 Ba llance. 
 
 
 
 Mussulman, a_nd 
 
 
 Solst ice. 
 
 
 
 . Yeoman. 
 
 
 Yoides. 
 
 Man, Generation of. 
 
 
 Generation. 
 
 
 Ambigenal Hyperbola. 
 
 Manerio, flatus de. 
 
 
 Stat us de manerio. 
 
 
 Diverging. 
 
 Manifest Acids. 
 
 
 Acid. 
 
 
 Equal. 
 
 Manifest Qualities. 
 
 
 Quality. 
 
 
 Eqjjilateral. 
 
 Manifold Propofition. 
 
 
 Proposition. 
 
 
 Nod ate d. 
 
 Man nor. 
 
 
 Manor. 
 
 
 Punctate d. 
 
 Manoscope. 
 
 
 Manometer. 
 
 
 Redundant. 
 
 Manouk. 
 
 
 Ma i nour. 
 
 
 Nete. 
 
 Mansard Roof. 
 
 
 Roof. 
 
 
 Style. 
 
 Manual, Sign. 
 
 
 Sign. 
 
 
 Debt. 
 
 Manubiary Column. 
 
 
 Column. 
 
 
 Syllogism. 
 
 Manufactory, woollen. 
 Manufacture of Cloth. 
 Manufacture of Needles. 
 
 
 Woollen. 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 
 -loth, 
 Needle. 
 
 
 Succession. 
 
 Manufacture of Paper. 
 
 
 J A PER. 
 
 
 Galli ameic. 
 
 Manufacture of Parchment. 
 
 
 3 A RCHMENT, 
 
 
 Chimney. 
 
 Manufacture of Porcelain. 
 
 
 J oRCELA IN. 
 
 
 Galli ambus. 
 
 Man us, dorfum. 
 
 
 Dorsum. 
 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Ma n us, intcroffei. 
 
 
 NTEROSSEI. 
 
 
 Silk. 
 
 Manus, perforans. 
 
 
 'erforans. 
 
 
 Money. 
 
 Manus, perforatus. 
 
 
 'ERFOR ATU5. 
 
 
 Domesticus. 
 
 Marble, Mofaic work of. 
 Marble, Sculpture in. 
 
 
 VlosAIC. 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 
 Ocean. 
 
 Marc. 
 
 
 VIark 
 
 
 Communication. 
 
 March, counter. 
 
 
 2a unte K-Marcb; 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 March, Order of. 
 
 
 Drder. 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 Mare, night. 
 
 
 V ICHT-Mare. 
 
 
 v>. 
 
 M a R i a» Ave. 
 
 
 \ V E-M A R I A. 
 
 
 Argument. 
 
 Marije Balneum. 
 
 
 Jalneum, 
 
 
 j Ri ver, and OvER- 
 
 Mar i n a Aqua. 
 
 
 \QUA. 
 
 
 ( flowing. 
 
 Mar i ne. 
 
 
 [ Transmarine, and 
 Ultramarint. 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Marine Barometer. 
 
 I 
 
 Iarometer. 
 
 
 KlSHI NO. 
 
 Marine Fountain. 
 
 1 
 
 "oUNTAIN. 
 
 
 VIascle. 
 
 Marine Freezes. 
 
 ] 
 
 *REE7.E. 
 
 
 Style. 
 
 M ART NE Rainbow. 
 
 I 
 
 1.AI NEoW. 
 
 
 Jentury. 
 
 Marine Trumpet. 
 
 
 Trumpet. 
 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Marine PravojL, 
 
 1 
 
 'roVCST. 
 
 M arinu m 
 
N E G 
 
 Q.U A 
 
 •Marikum Vimim., 
 
 Marinus Pulmo. 
 
 Maritagii Valore. 
 
 * Mark. 
 
 Market, Clerk of. 
 Marriage, frank. 
 Marriage, fohmn. 
 Marriage, Bans of . 
 Marriage, Forfeiture of , 
 Marriage, frank, tenant i 
 
 Nabonassar, Epocha of 
 Njenia. 
 
 IN A I DS. 
 
 Nails, clamp. 
 Nails, port, 
 Na i per'j Bones. 
 Naked Stalk, 
 Napier'j Bones. 
 Narium, fnztor. 
 Nasi, Columna. 
 Nasi, Conftr'tflores. 
 Nasi, Dilatatorcs. 
 Nasi, Dorfium. 
 Nasi, Elevator. 
 Nasi, Globulus. 
 Nata. 
 Nat a nt. 
 Nati, Pop. 
 Nations quatfe. 
 Native Allum. 
 Nat ivf. Arfenic. 
 Native Cinnabar. 
 Native Foffils. 
 Native Sulphur. 
 Naturae Cur'tofi. 
 Nature, Minima. 
 Natural Agents. 
 Natural Arbors. 
 Natural Ajlrology. 
 Natural Canon, 
 Natural Colcothar. 
 Natural Confumption. 
 Natural Delivery. 
 Natural Divination. 
 Natural Evil. 
 Natural Father. 
 Natural Flying. . 
 Natural Forms. 
 Natural Foundation. 
 Natural Fruits. 
 Natural Glands. 
 Natural Good. 
 Natural Grace. 
 Natural Hunger. 
 Natural Lacca. 
 Natural Litharge. 
 Natural Month. 
 Natural Obligations. 
 Natural Perfection. 
 Natural Phofpkori. 
 Natural Ports. 
 Natural Pojhires. 
 Natural S^tantity. 
 Natural Religion. 
 Natural tload. 
 Natural Salt-petre. 
 Natural Theology. 
 Natural Vermilion. 
 Natural I Vine. 
 
 Naturalia Prima. 
 
 Naturals, non. 
 " Nat ure of Air. 
 
 Nature of Comets. 
 
 Naval Architecture. 
 
 Naval Army. 
 
 Naval Fountain. 
 
 Naval Pitch. 
 
 Naviculars Foffa, 
 
 Navy, Surveyor of 
 
 Navy, Trcafurer of. 
 
 N a u t i c a Pyxis. 
 
 Nazareans. 
 
 Nealino of Porcelain. 
 
 Neces'sary Novation. 
 
 Nece.'-sit as Trinoda. 
 
 Negation is Medium. 
 
 Negative Demonjlration. 
 
 Necative Propofition. 
 
 Negative Theorem. 
 
 See 
 
 ( Vl NUM. 
 Pu LMO. 
 
 Valore. 
 
 I CouxTER-Mark, and 
 I R\LF-Mark. 
 Clerk. 
 
 Frank Marriage. 
 
 Solemn. -V. ,- 
 
 Banns. 
 
 For f e i TURE. 
 
 Tenant. 
 
 Epocha of NahnafJ'ar. 
 
 Nenia. 
 
 Naiad?. 
 
 Clamp. 
 
 Port. 
 
 Nepers. 
 
 Stalk. 
 
 Nepers.* 
 
 Foetor. 
 
 Columna. 
 
 Constrictores. 
 
 Dilatatores. 
 
 Dorsum. 
 
 Elevator. 
 
 Glorulus, 
 
 NaTT A. 
 
 Nai ANT. 
 
 Pos T-N AT I. 
 
 Quatre Nations. 
 
 Allum. 
 
 Arsen I c. 
 
 Cinnabar. 
 
 Fossil. 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Academy. 
 
 Minima. 
 
 Agent. 
 
 Arbor. 
 
 Astrology. 
 
 Canon. 
 
 Colcoth ar. 
 
 Consumption. 
 
 Delivery. 
 
 Divination. 
 
 Evil. 
 
 F A T H E R. 
 Flying. 
 Form. 
 
 Foundation. 
 
 Fr u i t. 
 
 Gland. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Hunger. 
 
 Lacca. 
 
 Litharge. 
 
 Month. 
 
 Obli g at ion. 
 
 Perfection. 
 
 Phosfhori. 
 
 Port. 
 
 Posture. 
 
 Quant i t y. 
 
 Religion. 
 
 Road. 
 
 Salt-petr e. 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Vermilion. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Prima. 
 
 Non-naturals. 
 
 Air. 
 
 Comet. 
 
 Architecture. 
 Army. 
 Fount ai n. 
 Pitch. 
 Fossa. 
 
 Surveyor of the Navy 
 
 Treasurer. 
 
 Pyxis. 
 
 Nasar i tf.s. 
 
 PoRCE L A 1 N. 
 
 Novation. 
 
 Trinoda. 
 
 Me d i u m. 
 
 Demonstration. 
 
 Proposition. 
 
 Theorem. 
 
 ^Negligent Efiaps, 
 Nephritic Waters. 
 
 Pace, in. 
 Pa cis Ofculttm. 
 Pacis fecuritate. 
 ?AD-Sa/ldle. 
 Pagan'' Fortification, 
 Pa g note, Mount, 
 Paillier. 
 Pa i Ns, after. 
 Pains, notlumal. 
 Painters Glafi Furnace. 
 Painting of Porcelain. 
 Pal, F endue cn. 
 Palatii facri qu<sjhr. 
 Pa l eing. 
 Paled, counter. 
 Pall. 
 
 Palm, Oil of. 
 
 PAN-77/ff. 
 
 Plant, annual. 
 Plant, capillary. 
 Plant, capfulate. 
 Plant, comiculate. 
 Plant, corytnbij'erous. 
 Plant, cucurbitaceous. 
 Plant, dorfiferous. 
 Plant, exotic. 
 Pl ant, frumentaceous. 
 Plant, imperfecl. 
 Plant, pentapetalous. 
 Plant, fenfitive. 
 Plant, tergifectous. 
 Plant, umbelliferous. 
 Plants, Difeafes of. 
 Plants, Parenchyma of. 
 Plants capitate;. 
 Plants capreolata. 
 Pl a NTiE fundus. 
 
 Plantation. 
 
 Plant i nc. 
 Plate-G/^. 
 Pl atfond. 
 Plat i c Afpctls. 
 Plea, counter. 
 VhEA-lVood, Court. 
 Pleas, Clerk of 
 Pleas, common, Prothonotary of 
 Plea, double. 
 Plead. 
 
 Plead in Arrefi. 
 Plebeii /Ediles. 
 Pledge, fafe. 
 Plegger Y. 
 Pl e g i i s acquieiandis. 
 Plev i n, non. 
 Plexus mefentericus. 
 Plinths, Courfe of. 
 Plot, counter. 
 Plottoon. 
 Plough, Peace of 
 Plough, trenching. 
 Plumbers Furnace. 
 Plumb Level. 
 
 Plumb-line. i 
 Plumb-rule. J 
 Plume Allum. 
 Plura, ^tete. 
 
 Pneumatical, Hydrauh. 
 
 Poem, Anion of. 
 Poena, Sub. 
 Poena talionis. 
 
 PoEON. 
 
 Poetical Elegancies. 
 Poetical Licence. 
 Poetical Ninnbers. 
 Poetical Pleiades. 
 Poetry, dithyrambic. 
 
 QUADR ABI LIS Tejludo. 
 Quadrant, Gunter's. 
 i^Ju A D R A NT, finical. 
 Qu A D R A N T , triangular. 
 (Quadrat a, Caro Mujatkja. 
 
 Qjl A D R A T E , fiej'qtii. 
 Quadratic Parabola. 
 Qu ausatur E of Curve. 
 
 I See* 
 
 Escape. 
 Water. 
 
 In Pace. 
 OsCULUM. 
 
 Securitatc. 
 Saddle. 
 Fortification. 
 Mont Pagnete. 
 Pall i er. 
 
 AFTER-ffl(';iJ. 
 
 Nocturnal. 
 
 Furnace. 
 
 Porcelain. 
 
 Fendue en Pal. 
 
 Qujestor. 
 
 Paling. 
 
 Count En-paled. 
 
 Pallium. 
 
 Oil of Palm. 
 
 Tyle. 
 
 Annual Plant. 
 Capillary. 
 Capsulate. 
 Cor n i culate. 
 Cor ymbiferous. 
 Cucurbitaceous. 
 Dorsiferous. 
 Exotic. 
 
 Frumentaceous. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Pentapetalous. 
 
 Sensitive. 
 
 Tergifoetous. 
 
 Umbelliferous. 
 
 Disease. 
 
 Parenchyma. 
 
 Cap i tatje. 
 
 Capreolatje. 
 
 Fundus. 
 
 $ Implantati on, and 
 I Transplantation. 
 Replanting. 
 Glass. 
 Plafond. 
 Aspect. 
 Co untf. r-plea. 
 Woori'Plea Conn. 
 Clerk. 
 
 Prot honotary. 
 Double. 
 Imp lead. 
 Arrest. 
 Ediles. 
 Say e-P ledge. 
 Pledgery. 
 Acqjj ietandis. 
 
 NoN-PLEV I N. 
 
 Mesenteric. 
 
 Course of Plinths. 
 
 Counter-plat. 
 
 Plattoon. 
 
 Peace. 
 
 Trenching. 
 
 Furnace. 
 
 Level. 
 
 Plummet. 
 
 Allum. 
 
 Qu a plura. 
 
 I Hydraulo-pneu- 
 
 ( matical. 
 Act ion. 
 
 Su BPOENA. 
 Talio. 
 
 P^AN. 
 
 Elegancy. 
 Licence. 
 Number. 
 Ple i ades. 
 Dithyrambic. 
 
 Test u do. 
 
 G u n t e r ' j Quadrant. 
 
 Si nic al. 
 
 Triangular. 
 
 Caro. 
 
 Sesoj; i quadrate. 
 
 Parabola. 
 
 Curve. 
 
 *• Qu ADR AT V I 
 
S A I 
 
 SAN 
 
 Qy. ■ f US fromtar ladii. 
 Qij, jPLE winding tain. 
 Qu/£5JR, Pro. 
 
 Static Tear. 
 ACCHARiNE AUw. 
 b ACR DOT A B CrOW/1. 
 Sairdotal Title. 
 Sa'.amentalis Lt, 
 SaiED Buildings. 
 SaiED Critkifm. 
 SaiED Diptychs. 
 Saied Games. 
 S\aed Hijlory. 
 S('R i Palatii querjlr. 
 hiR if I c es, King Oj 
 \croRUM, Duumvi. 
 'JCRUM Os, Nerve ssf. 
 ev i s abfolutio a. 
 i J L -yards. 
 ML, Bunt of. 
 J ilL, C«f. 
 HI, drift. 
 U \. % fore. 
 
 prejl. 
 \ \ LSjJhsrt. 
 
 hiling, middle Ltitude. 
 AILING, oblique. 
 A 1 L ing, parallel. 
 AILING, plain, 
 AILING, right. 
 A I L L A NT. 
 i A I NT5j jjfij£ °f 
 
 Pronator. 
 St a ir. 
 
 ProQJJ.#STOR. 
 
 Year- 
 Allum. 
 Crown. 
 Title. 
 
 Lex. 
 
 Bui ldinc 
 Cri t I c I SM.' 
 
 Dvptychs. 
 
 Game. 
 History. 
 Quaestor- 
 
 J K I NG. 
 S ecC lDuuMVlRt. 
 
 Nerves, 
 Absolution. 
 Yard. 
 Bunt. 
 Cut. 
 Drift. 
 Fa r e . 
 Prest. 
 Short. 
 
 Middle Latitude. 
 Oblique. 
 Parallel, 
 Plain. 
 Right.. 
 Sal i avt, 
 VMass. 
 
 aintp, Suffrages of. 
 Saiqj: e , 
 Sak. 
 
 Sal Enixum. 
 S A L A d e . 
 
 Sale by Inch of Ciaale. 
 Sale, BUI of. 
 Sale, Port. 
 Sa liens, punclum. 
 Salient, counter. 
 Saline IFaters. 
 Sal i que. 
 Sall AD. 
 Sallet. 
 Salmon Fijhery. 
 Sal Pd \ o je u s , Palato. 
 Salt Fijh. 
 Salt of Lead. 
 ! Salt of Tartar. 
 
 Salt of Tin. 
 ISa-ltpetre. 
 [Salt, Spirit of. 
 '■ Salt, Attic. 
 
 Salts, efurir.e. 
 
 Salts, neutral. 
 
 Salt, white. 
 [Saltans, Capra. 
 
 Salted Hide. 
 
 Salvage, 
 
 Salve, Weapon. 
 
 Sambucinum, Aettton, 
 
 Sanctifying Grace. 
 
 Sand, cajling in. 
 
 f"StlFF2 A6-, 
 
 Saick. 
 
 Sac. i 
 
 Enixum. 
 
 Salet. 
 
 Candle. 
 
 Bill. 
 
 Portsale. 
 
 PuNCTI'M. 
 
 Counters a he nt. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Salic. 
 
 Salet. 
 
 J Fishery. 
 Palatosalping.ei 
 Fish. 
 Lead. 
 Tartar. 
 Tin. 
 
 ReFIN I N G, 
 SPI RIT. 
 
 Attic. 
 Esurine. 
 Neutral. 
 White. 
 Capra. 
 Hide. 
 Savage. 
 We a pon -fahe. 
 Acetum. 
 Grace. 
 MJast i ng. 
 
 THE END.